Bharatpedia - User contributions [en]

Zulfikar Ali Khan of Rampur

2026-05-06T16:21:10Z

Juliaauhm: Starting a bio

{{Short description|Indian politician (1934-1992)}}
{{about|the Indian army officer and politician|the Pakistan Air Force general|Zulfiqar Ali Khan}}
{{Distinguish|Zulfikar Ali Khan of Kamadhia}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2021}}
{{refimprove|date=July 2012}}
[[Major (rank)|Major]] '''[[Nawab]] [[Sayyid]] Zulfikar Ali Khan Bahadur''', {{small|[[Nishan-e-Hamidiya|NH]]}} (11 March 1934 – 5 April 1992) was an Indian politician and an Indian army officer who ruled as [[Titular ruler|Titular]] [[:Category:Nawabs of Rampur|Nawab of Rampur]] from 1982 to 1992, succeeding his elder brother [[Murtaza Ali Khan Bahadur]].

==Early life==
Sayyid Zulfikar Ali Khan Bahadur was born at Rampur on 11 March 1934, the second son of Nawab Sir Sayyid [[Raza Ali Khan Bahadur]]. He was commissioned into the [[Indian Army]]. He retired from the army as a [[Major (rank)|Major]], then worked as a tea planter in Assam for several years. In 1963, Zulfikar Ali entered the Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly and served there for three years before becoming an MP in the [[Lok Sabha]] in 1967. In 1971, he was the Indian delegate to the 26th [[UN General Assembly]].

==Politics==
After retiring from the [[Indian Army]] as a major, Nawab Zulfikar Ali entered the Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly and served there for three years before becoming an MP ([[Rampur, Uttar Pradesh|Rampur]]) in the Lok Sabha in 1967. He represented the Swatantra Party in the fourth general elections (4/3/1967 – 27/12/1970).<ref>http://parliamentofindia.nic.in/ls/lok04/state/04lsup.htm, p.1.</ref> He served as a [[Member of Parliament]] for four years before switching parties in the next general elections.

He won the next general election (15/3/1971 – 18/1/1977) as a member of the [[Indian National Congress]], becoming a member of the [[Fifth Lok Sabha]].<ref>http://parliamentofindia.nic.in/ls/lok05/state/05lsup.htm, p.2.</ref>

In a major turn of events, the Congress lost control of India for the first time in independent India in the Indian general election, (23/3/1977 – 22/8/1979). The election came after the end of [[The Emergency (India)|The Emergency]] that Prime Minister Gandhi had imposed in 1975; it effectively ended democracy, suppressed the opposition, and took control of the media with authoritarian measures. The opposition called for a restoration of democracy and Indians saw the election results as a repudiation of the Emergency.<ref>M.R. Masani, "India's Second Revolution," Asian Affairs (1977) 5#1 pp 19–38. p.3.</ref> The sixth general elections, which were conducted for 542 seats from 542 constituencies, represented 27 Indian states and union territories.<ref>"General Election of India 1977, 6th Lok Sabha". Election Commission of India. p. 6. Retrieved 2010-01-13. p.4.</ref> The state of Emergency declared by the Congress government was the core issue in the 1977 elections. Civil liberties were suspended during the national emergency from 25 June 1975 to 21 March 1977 and Prime Minister Indira Gandhi assumed vast powers. Gandhi had become extremely unpopular for her decision and paid for it during the elections. Gandhi, on 23 January, called fresh elections for March and released all political prisoners. Four Opposition parties, the Organisation Congress, the Jan Sangh, the Bharatiya Lok Dal and the Socialist Party, decided to fight the elections as a single party, called the Janata Party. The Janata Party reminded voters of excesses and human rights violations during the Emergency, like compulsory sterilisation and imprisonment of political leaders. The Janata campaign said the elections would decide whether India would have "democracy or dictatorship." The Congress tried to woo voters by speaking about the need for a strong government but the tide was against it. The [[Indian National Congress]] lost all its seats in Uttar Pradesh and the Nawab too had to leave his seat. However, the Nawab came back strongly from his past defeat and won the seventh general elections (10/1/1980 – 31/12/1984)
as a member of the [[Indian National Congress]] becoming a member of the [[Seventh Lok Sabha]].<ref>http://parliamentofindia.nic.in/ls/lok07/state/07lsup.htm, p.5.</ref>

[[Nawab]] Zulfikar Ali Khan served as a [[Member of Parliament]] for four years before he contested the eighth general elections (31/12/1984 – 27/11/1989). Once again, he won the election by a large number of votes and became a member of the [[Eighth Lok Sabha]] representing the [[Indian National Congress]].<ref>http://parliamentofindia.nic.in/ls/lok08/state/08lsup.htm, p.6.</ref>

The next general elections were held in 1989. The ninth general elections (2/12/1989 – 13/3/1991) and proved to be an uphill task for the [[Indian National Congress]]. The result was a loss for the Indian National Congress and Rajiv Gandhi, because all the opposition parties formed together a minority government under V. P. Singh and the National Front. The National Front was able to secure the first minority government, since 1947 Independence, with the help of the Left Parties and [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]. Even though Rajiv Gandhi had won the last election by a landslide, this election saw him trying to fight off scandals that had marred his administration. The Congress only managed to win fifteen out of the eighty five seats in [[Uttar Pradesh]] out of which one seat belonged to [[Nawab]] Zulfikar Ali Khan. He went on to become a member of the [[Ninth Lok Sabha]].<ref>http://parliamentofindia.nic.in/ls/lok09/state/09lsup.htm, p.7.</ref>

He contested a total of seven general elections, winning five and losing two.

==Titular Nawab==
Following his brother's death on 8 February 1982, Zulfikar Ali succeeded him as titular [[Nawab of Rampur]].

==Personal life==
In 1956, Sayyid Zulfikar Ali Khan Bahadur married Her Highness Nawab Mehtab Dulhan uz-Zamani Roshan Ara [[Noor Bano (politician)|Noor Bano]] Begum Sahiba (11 November 1939–), the daughter of [[Amin ud-din Ahmad Khan]], the [[Governor of Himachal Pradesh]] and [[Nawab of Loharu]]. The couple had one son, [[Muhammad Kazim Ali Khan Bahadur]] (16 October 1960–), and two daughters.

==Death==
The Nawab was killed in a motor crash, on 5 April 1992, and was succeeded by his surviving son, [[Muhammad Kazim Ali Khan Bahadur]].

==Titles==
*1934-1950s: [[Nawabzada]] [[Sayyid]] Zulfikar Ali Khan, Wali Ahad Bahadur
*1950s–1970s: Nawabzada Sayyid Zulfikar Ali Khan
*1970s–1982: Nawabzada Sayyid Zulfikar Ali Khan, Wali Ahad Bahadur
*1982–1992: [[His Highness]] 'Ali Jah, [[Farzand-i-Dilpazir-i-Daulat-i-Inglishia]], Mukhlis ud-Daula, Nasir ul-Mulk, Amir ul-Umara, [[Nawab]] Sayyid Zulfikar Ali Khan Bahadur, Mustaid Jang, [[Nawab of Rampur]]

==Awards and honours==
*Order of Hamid (''[[Nishan-e-Hamidiya|Nishan-i-Hamidiya]]'') of Rampur, 2nd Class (to 1982)

==References==

<references />

{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|[[Rohilla|Rohilla Dynasty]]||11 March 1934||5 April 1992}}
{{s-pre|}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Murtaza Ali Khan Bahadur]]}}
{{s-tul|title=[[Rampur (Uttar Pradesh)|Nawab of Rampur]]|years=1982–1992|reason=[[Republic of India|Monarchy abolished in 1949]]}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Muhammad Kazim Ali Khan Bahadur]]}}
{{end}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ali Khan, Zulfikar}}
[[Category:Nawabs of Rampur]]
[[Category:Indian Shia Muslims]]
[[Category:Nawabs of India]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian Muslims]]
[[Category:1934 births]]
[[Category:1992 deaths]]
[[Category:Uttar Pradesh MLAs 1962–1967]]
[[Category:India MPs 1967–1970]]
[[Category:India MPs 1971–1977]]
[[Category:India MPs 1980–1984]]
[[Category:India MPs 1984–1989]]
[[Category:India MPs 1989–1991]]
[[Category:Lok Sabha members from Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Uttar Pradesh]]

Baramati Lok Sabha constituency

2026-05-05T10:11:26Z

Juliaauhm: Done

{{short description|Lok Sabha constituency in Maharashtra}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2015}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| type = LS
| constituency_no = 35
| map_image = {{Maplink|frame=yes|plain=y|frame-width=300|frame-height=300|frame-align=center|type=shape|from=Lok Sabha constituencies/2019/Maharashtra/Baramati.map}}
| map_caption = Baramati Lok Sabha Constituency map
| established = 1952
| party = {{Party index link|Nationalist Congress Party - Sharadchandra Pawar}}
| alliance = {{Party index link|Indian National Developmental Inclusive Alliance}}
| mp = [[Supriya Sule]]
| preceded_by = [[Sharad Pawar]]
| latest_election_year = 2024
| state = [[Maharashtra]]
| district = [[Pune district|Pune]]
| assembly_cons = [[Daund Assembly constituency|Daund]] [[Indapur Assembly constituency|Indapur]] [[Baramati Assembly constituency|Baramati]] [[Purandar Assembly constituency|Purandar]] [[Bhor Assembly constituency|Bhor]] [[Khadakwasala Assembly constituency|Khadakwasala]]
| name = Baramati
| electors = 21,14,716
| reservation = None
| incumbent_image =Supriya Sule.png
}}

The '''Baramati Lok Sabha constituency''' is one of the 48 parliamentary constituencies in the state of Maharashtra, India. Located in the Pune district, it comprises six Vidhan Sabha (legislative assembly) segments: [[Daund Assembly constituency|Daund]], [[Indapur Assembly constituency|Indapur]], [[Baramati Assembly constituency|Baramati]], [[Purandar Assembly constituency|Purandar]], [[Bhor Assembly constituency|Bhor]], and [[Khadakwasala Assembly constituency|Khadakwasala]].<ref name="hindu1">{{cite web |title=Baramati 2024 General elections: Constituency profile |url=https://www.thehindu.com/election/maharashtra-baramati-loksabha-constituency/ |website=The Hindu |date=2023-07-10 |access-date=2024-07-03}}</ref> The constituency has been a stronghold of the [[Nationalist Congress Party|Nationalist Congress Party (NCP)]] and the Pawar family since the 1960s. [[Sharad Pawar]], the founder of the NCP, represented the seat from 1996 to 2004. Since 2009, his daughter [[Supriya Sule]] has held the seat, winning consecutive elections in 2009, 2014, 2019, and 2024.<ref name="indiatv1">{{cite web |title=Baramati Lok Sabha Election Result 2024: Constituency profile, past winners |url=https://www.indiatvnews.com/news/india/baramati-lok-sabha-election-2024-constituency-profile-past-winners-sharad-pawar-supriya-sule-margin-party-wise-candidates-list-2024-03-05-920007 |website=India TV News |date=2024-05-29 |access-date=2024-07-03}}</ref>

In the 2024 elections, [[Supriya Sule]], representing the [[Nationalist Congress Party – Sharadchandra Pawar|NCP-SP]], faced a direct contest against her sister-in-law [[Sunetra Pawar]] from the [[Nationalist Congress Party|NCP]]. Supriya Sule won the election with a significant margin.<ref name="hindustantimes1">{{cite web |title=Supriya Sule wins the Baramati seat against NCP's Sunetra Pawar |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/maharashtra-elections-supriya-sule-baramati-nationalist-congress-party-ajit-pawar-sunetra-pawar-101717495081084.html |website=Hindustan Times |date=2024-06-05 |access-date=2024-07-03}}</ref>

==Vidhan Sabha segments==
Presently, Baramati Lok Sabha constituency comprises six [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Vidhan Sabha]] (legislative assembly) segments. These segments are:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ceo.maharashtra.gov.in/acs.php|title=District wise List of Assembly and Parliamentary Constituencies|publisher=Chief Electoral Officer, Maharashtra website|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225084439/http://ceo.maharashtra.gov.in/acs.php|archive-date=25 February 2009|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
! #
! Name
! District
! Member
! colspan="2" | Party
!colspan=2 |Leading {{small|(in 2024)}}
|-
|199
|[[Daund Assembly constituency|Daund]]
| rowspan="6" |[[Pune District|Pune]]
|[[Rahul Kul]]
|{{party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|{{party name with color|Nationalist Congress Party (Sharadchandra Pawar)|rowspan=5}}
|-
|200
|[[Indapur Assembly constituency|Indapur]]
|[[Dattatray Vithoba Bharne|Dattatray Bharne]]
|{{party name with color|Nationalist Congress Party|rowspan=2}}
|-
|201
|[[Baramati Assembly constituency|Baramati]]
|[[Sunetra Pawar]]
|-
|202
|[[Purandar Assembly constituency|Purandar]]
|[[Vijay Shivtare]]
|{{party name with color|Shiv Sena (2022–present)}}
|-
|203
|[[Bhor Assembly constituency|Bhor]]
|[[Shankar Mandekar]]
|{{party name with color|Nationalist Congress Party}}
|-
|211
|[[Khadakwasala Assembly constituency|Khadakwasala]]
|[[Bhimrao Tapkir]]
|{{party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|{{party name with color|Nationalist Congress Party}}
|-
|}

== Members of Parliament ==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Name
!colspan="2"|Party
|-
| [[1957 Indian general election|1957]]
| [[Keshavrao Jedhe]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=5}}
|-
| 1960^
| rowspan="2" | [[Gulabrao Jedhe]]
|-
| [[1962 Indian general election|1962]]
|-
| [[1967 Indian general election|1967]]
| [[Tulsidas Jadhav]]
|-
| [[1971 Indian general election|1971]]
| [[R.K.Khadilkar]]
|-
| [[1977 Indian general election|1977]]
| [[Sambhajirao Kakade]]
|{{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|-
| [[1980 Indian general election|1980]]
| [[Shankarrao Bajirao Patil]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress (I)|dab=yes}}
|-
| [[1984 Indian general election|1984]]
| [[Sharad Pawar]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian Congress (Socialist)|dab=yes}}
|-
| 1985^
| [[Sambhajirao Kakade]]
|{{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|-
| [[1989 Indian general election|1989]]
| [[Shankarrao Bajirao Patil]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=6}}
|-
| [[1991 Indian general election|1991]]
| [[Ajit Pawar]]
|-
| 1991^
| [[Sharad Pawar]]
|-
| 1994^
| Bapusaheb Thite
|-
| [[1996 Indian general election|1996]]
| rowspan="4" | [[Sharad Pawar]]
|-
| [[1998 Indian general election|1998]]
|-
| [[1999 Indian general election|1999]]
| {{Full party name with color|Nationalist Congress Party |rowspan=5}}
|-
| [[2004 Indian general election|2004]]
|-
| [[2009 Indian general election|2009]]
| rowspan="4" | [[Supriya Sule]]
|-
| [[2014 Indian general election|2014]]
|-
| [[2019 Indian general election|2019]]
|-
| [[2024 Indian general election|2024]]
|style="background-color: {{party color|Nationalist Congress Party - Sharadchandra Pawar}}" |
|[[Nationalist Congress Party – Sharadchandra Pawar]]
|-
|}

==Election results==
===General elections 2024===
{{Election box begin |title=[[2024 Indian general elections]]: [[Baramati]]}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link||party=Nationalist Congress Party - Sharadchandra Pawar|candidate=[[Supriya Sule]]|votes={{formatnum:732312}}|percentage=51.85|change={{increase}}''New''}}

{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Nationalist Congress Party|candidate=[[Sunetra Pawar]]|votes={{formatnum:573979}}|percentage=40.64|change={{decrease}}11.99}}

{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Independent|candidate=Mahesh Sitaram Bhagwat|votes=15,663|percentage=1.11|change=''N/A''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Independent|candidate=Shaikh Soyalshaha Yunusshaha|votes=14,917|percentage=1.06|change=''N/A''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Bahujan Samaj Party|candidate=Priyadarshani Nandkumar Kokare|votes=10,030|percentage=0.71|change=''N/A''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=None of the above|candidate=[[None of the above]]|votes=9,151|percentage=0.65|change={{increase}}0.05}}
{{Election box majority||votes={{formatnum:158333}}|percentage=11.21|change={{decrease}}0.71}}
{{Election box turnout||votes={{formatnum:1414034}}|percentage=59.54|change={{decrease}}2.28}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Nationalist Congress Party - Sharadchandra Pawar
|loser = Nationalist Congress Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General elections 2019===
{{Election box begin |title=[[2019 Indian general elections]]: [[Baramati]]}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Nationalist Congress Party
|candidate = [[Supriya Sule]]
|votes = 6,86,714
|percentage = 52.63
|change = +3.72
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Kanchan Rahul Kul
|votes = 5,30,940
|percentage = 40.69
|change = +40.69
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Vanchit Bahujan Aghadi
|candidate = Navnath Padalkar
|votes = 44,134
|percentage = 3.38
|change = +3.38
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above]]
|votes =7,868
|percentage = 0.60
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 1,55,774
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 13,07,318
|percentage = 61.82
|change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Nationalist Congress Party
|swing = +3.72
}}
{{Election box end}}<ref name=":0" />

===General elections 2014===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2014 Indian general elections]]: [[Baramati]]}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Nationalist Congress Party
|candidate = [[Supriya Sule|Supriya Sadanand Sule]]
|votes = 5,21,562
|percentage = 48.88
|change = -17.58
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Rashtriya Samaj Paksha
|candidate = [[Mahadev Jankar|Mahadev Jagannath Jankar]]
|votes = 4,51,843
|percentage = 42.35
|change = +40.32
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Aam Aadmi Party
|candidate = [[Suresh Khopade|Suresh Abaji Khopade]]
|votes = 26,396
|percentage = 2.47
|change = ''N/A''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Kaluram Vinayak Chaudhari
|votes = 24,908
|percentage = 2.33
|change = -1.74
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Janata Dal (Secular)
|candidate = Tatyasaheb Sitaram Tele
|votes = 8,811
|percentage = 0.83
|change = ''N/A''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the Above]]
|votes = 14,216
|percentage = 1.33
|change = ''N/A''
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 69,719
|percentage = 6.53
|change = -39.36
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 10,66,556
|percentage = 58.81
|change = +12.74
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Nationalist Congress Party
| swing = -17.58
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General elections 2009===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2009 Indian general elections|General Election, 2009]]: [[Baramati]]}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Nationalist Congress Party
|candidate = [[Supriya Sule]]
|votes = 4,87,827
|percentage = 66.46
|change = +4.62
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = [[Kanta Nalawade]]
|votes = 1,50,996
|percentage = 20.57
|change = -4.87
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Vivek Kudale-Patil
|votes = 29,864
|percentage = 4.07
|change = +2.17
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Rashtriya Samaj Paksha
|candidate = Sampat Takale
|votes = 14,912
|percentage = 2.03
|change = -1.35
}}
{{Election box candidate|
|party = [[Independent politician|IND.]]
|candidate = Suresh Veer
|votes = 7,600
|percentage = 1.04
|change = ''N/A''
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 3,36,831
|percentage = 45.88
|change = -1.5
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 7,34,048
|percentage = 46.07
|change = ''N/A''
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Nationalist Congress Party
|swing = +4.62
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General elections 2004===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2004 Indian general elections]]: [[Baramati]]}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Nationalist Congress Party
|candidate = [[Sharad Pawar]]
|votes = 6,34,555
|percentage = 63.08
|change = +13.24
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Prithviraj Sahebrao Jachak
|votes = 2,11,580
|percentage = 23.7
|change = -0.3
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Rashtriya Samaj Paksha
|candidate = Balasaheb Kolekar
|votes = 30,230
|percentage = 3.38
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Prahlad Vishwakarma
|votes = 16,966
|percentage = 1.9
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 4,22,975
|percentage = 47.38
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 8,92,726
|percentage = 48.34
|change = -14.74
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Nationalist Congress Party
|swing = +13.24
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General elections 1999===
{{Election box begin | title=[[1999 Indian general elections]]: [[Baramati]]}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Nationalist Congress Party
|candidate = [[Sharad Pawar]]
|votes = 5,10,928
|percentage = 57.79
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Dr. Pratibha Lokhande
|votes = 2,12,025
|percentage = 23.98
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Prof. Ramkrishna More
|votes = 1,46,641
|percentage = 16.59
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Akhil Bharatiya Sena
|candidate = Hira Mohan Palande
|votes = 14,514
|percentage = 1.64
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 2,98,903
|percentage = 33.81
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 9,23,036
|percentage = 63.12
|change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Nationalist Congress Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General elections 1980===
* Shankarrao Bajirao Patil (Cong - I) : 209,300 votes <ref name=":0">{{cite web |url=https://resultuniversity.com/election/baramati-lok-sabha |title = Baramati Lok Sabha Election Result - Parliamentary Constituency}}</ref>
* Sambhajirao Kakade (Janta Party) : 123,432
* Mohan Dharia (Congress - Urs) : 94692

==See also==
* [[Pune district]]
* [[List of constituencies of the Lok Sabha]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://indiaelection.github.io/indiaelections2014info/parliament/2019/states/maharashtra/baramati/lok_sabha_parliamentary_election_2019_results.html Baramati lok sabha constituency election 2019 results details]

{{s-start}}
{{s-par|in-lwr}}
{{s-bef|before= [[Lucknow Lok Sabha constituency|Lucknow]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Constituency represented by the [[Leader of the Opposition in Lok Sabha|leader of the opposition]]|years=1997 – 1999}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Amethi Lok Sabha constituency|Amethi]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Lok Sabha constituencies of Maharashtra}}
{{coord|18|9|22.65|N|74|34|49.04|E|region:IN|display=title}}

[[Category:Lok Sabha constituencies in Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Politics of Pune district]]
[[Category:Baramati]]

Jamdani

2026-04-23T15:55:35Z

Juliaauhm: Creating first data added tags - done

{{short description|Traditional weaving art of Bangladesh }}
{{Infobox textile
| name = Jamdani
| image = জামদানী শাড়ী.jpg
| caption = Jamdani Saris in historic [[Sonargaon]] city
| type = Fabric
| material = [[Cotton]]
| method = [[Weaving]]
| process = [[Craft production]]
| location = [[Narayanganj]], Bangladesh
| introduced =
}}
{{Infobox intangible heritage
| ICH = Traditional art of Jamdani weaving
| State Party = Bangladesh
| ID = 00879
| Region = APA
| Year = 2013
| Session= 8th
| List = Representative
}}
{{Culture of Bangladesh}}

'''Jamdani''' ({{langx|bn|জামদানি}}) is a fine [[muslin]] textile (figured with different patterns) produced for centuries in South Rupshi of [[Narayanganj]] district in [[Bangladesh]] on the bank of [[Shitalakshya River]].

The historic production of jamdani was patronized by imperial warrants of the [[Mughal emperors]]. During the period of [[British Raj|British rule in India]], Bengal's jamdani and muslin industries rapidly declined due to being unable to compete with imported textiles manufactured in [[Great Britain]]. In more recent years, the production of jamdani has witnessed a revival in Bangladesh. Jamdani involved skilful use of white, black, golden, silver and other similar coloured threads to weave geometric and floral patterns into the fabric.

In 2013, the traditional art of weaving jamdani was declared a [[Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity|UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity]].<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/299805/jamdani|title=jamdani|publisher=Britannica |access-date=2013-12-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thedailystar.net/beta2/news/jamdani-recognised-as-intangible-cultural-heritage-by-unesco/ |date=December 5, 2013 |title=Jamdani recognised as intangible cultural heritage by Unesco|work=The Daily Star|access-date=2013-12-04 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131206185959/http://www.thedailystar.net/beta2/news/jamdani-recognised-as-intangible-cultural-heritage-by-unesco/ |archive-date= Dec 6, 2013 }}</ref><ref name="Jamdani">{{cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/index.php?lg=en&pg=00011&RL=00879|title=Traditional art of Jamdani weaving|publisher=UNESCO Culture Sector|access-date=2013-12-04 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131216084219/http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/index.php?lg=en&pg=00011&RL=00879 |archive-date= Dec 16, 2013 }}</ref>

In 2016, Bangladesh received [[geographical indication]] (GI) status for Jamdani Sari.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/country/jamdani-sari-gets-gi-registration-certificate-1316203|title=Jamdani Sari gets GI registration certificate|work=The Daily Star |date=Nov 17, 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230617155500/https://www.thedailystar.net/country/jamdani-sari-gets-gi-registration-certificate-1316203 |archive-date= Jun 17, 2023 }}</ref>

==Etymology==
Jamdani was originally known as ''[[Dhakai]]'' (Daccai) named after the city of [[Dhaka]] (Dacca), one of many ancient textile weaving centers in [[Bengal]] region.<ref>{{cite periodical |url=http://archive.thedailystar.net/lifestyle/2009/04/04/centre.htm |title=Dhakais in danger |periodical =The Daily Star |volume =5 |issue =65 |date=April 28, 2009 |first1=Raffat Binte |last1=Rashid |access-date=2012-06-28 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210608090248/http://archive.thedailystar.net/lifestyle/2009/04/04/centre.htm |archive-date= Jun 8, 2021 }}</ref> Under the [[Mughal Empire]] the Persian term ''Jamdani'' came to be in popular use, since it was the court language of the Mughals. Jamdanis are popularly known as Dhakai Jamdani or simply Dhakai. The earliest mention of jamdani and its development as an industry is found into Dhaka, [[Bangladesh]].

==Origin==
An early reference to Indian origins of muslin is found in the book of [[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]] and in the accounts of Arab, Chinese and Italian travelers and traders.

Jamdani is a hand loom woven fabric made of cotton, which was historically referred to as muslin. The Jamdani weaving tradition is of Bengali origin. It is one of the most time and labor-intensive forms of hand loom weaving, and is considered one of the finest varieties of muslin,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Mahapatra|first=N. N.|title=Sarees of India|publisher=Woodhead Publishing India PVT. Limited|year=2016|isbn=9789385059698|pages=72}}</ref> and the most artistic textile of [[Bangladeshi]] weavers. Traditionally woven around [[Dhaka]] and created on the loom brocade, jamdani is rich in motifs. In the late 19th
century, T. N. Mukharji referred to this fabric as jamdani muslin.

==Weave==
[[File:Making of Jamdani-9.jpg|thumb|220px|Traditional way of weaving jamdani]]
Whether figured or flowered, jamdani is a woven fabric in cotton. This is a supplementary weft technique of weaving, where the artistic motifs are produced by a non-structural weft, in addition to the standard weft that holds the warp threads together. The standard weft creates a fine, sheer fabric while the supplementary weft with thicker threads adds the intricate patterns to it. Each supplementary weft motif is added separately by hand by interlacing the weft threads into the warp with fine bamboo sticks using individual spools of thread. The result is a complex mix of different patterns that appear to float on a shimmering surface. The pattern is not sketched or outlined on the fabric, but is drawn on a graph paper and placed underneath the warp. Jamdani is a fine muslin cloth on which decorative motifs are woven on the loom, typically in grey and white. Often a mixture of cotton and gold thread was used.

==Varieties of jamdani work==
Though mostly used for [[sari]]s, Jamdani is also used for [[scarf|scarves]] and [[handkerchief]]s. Jamdani is believed to be a fusion of the ancient cloth-making techniques of Bengal (possibly 2,000 years old). Jamdani is the most expensive product of Dhaka looms since it requires the most lengthy and dedicated work.

Jamdani patterns are mostly of geometric, plant, and floral designs and are said to have originated thousands of years ago. Due to the exquisite painstaking methodology required, only aristocrats and royal families were able to afford such luxuries.

==Changes with time==
We do not know exactly when jamdani came to be adorned with floral patterns of the loom. It is, however, certain that in the [[Mughal era|Mughal]] period, most likely during the reign of either [[Emperor Akbar]] (1556–1605) or [[Emperor Jahangir]] (1605–1627), the figured or flowered muslin came to be known as the jamdani. [[John Forbes Watson]] in his work titled ''Textile Manufactures and Costumes of the people of India'' holds that the figured muslin because of their complicated designs, were always considered the most expensive productions of the Dhaka looms.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Glassie |first1=Henry |last2=Mahmud |first2=Firoz |year=2007 |title=Living Traditions |series=Cultural Survey of Bangladesh Series-II |location=Dhaka |publisher=Asiatic Society of Bangladesh |page=351 |oclc=930683574}}</ref>
The price for a piece was recorded as ''56 [[Livre tournois|Livre]] in 1776.'' <ref>{{Cite book|last=Watson|first=John Forbes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KAxCAQAAMAAJ&q=Textile+Manufactures+and+Costumes+of+the+people+of+India|title=The Textile Manufactures and the Costumes of the People of India|date=1866|publisher=India Office|pages=79|language=en}}</ref>

==Decline and fall==
From the middle of the 19th century, there was a gradual decline in the jamdani industry. A number of factors contributed to this decline. The subsequent import of lower quality, but cheaper yarn from Europe, started the decline. Most importantly, the decline of Mughal power in India, deprived the producers of jamdani of their most influential patrons. Villages like Madhurapur and Jangalbari, (both in the Kishoreganj district), once famous for the jamdani industry went into gradual oblivion.

==Current problems==
[[File:Jamdani Saree Sale Sonargaon.jpg|right|thumb|Jamdani Sari for sale in Sonargaon, Bangladesh]]
According to a national daily, a senior taanti or "[[Ustad|ostad]]" earns about Tk 2,500 to Tk 3,000 per month. Junior weavers get much less, around Tk 1,600. As a result, many weavers do not want their children to come to the profession, preferring the more lucrative garments industry.

The government and other organizations are trying to revive the old glory of Dhakai Jamdani. In a bid to avoid the middlemen, they are trying to establish direct contact with the weavers. A Jamdani Palli has been established near Dhaka. Jamdani, one of the oldest forms of cottage industry in Bangladesh, was once a dying trade. Organizations like Radiant Institute of Design, Shanto Mariam University of creative technology, National Institute of Design, and others are helping designers create new Jamdani designs.

Jamdani is a symbol of aristocracy. The demand for quality Jamdani Sarees has increased greatly over the years.

== Geographical indication ==
In 2016, Bangladesh received [[geographical indication]] (GI) status for Jamdani Sari.<ref name=":0" /> It was the first GI status given to any Bangladeshi product.

== Recent attempts at revival ==

Whilst the art of jamdani is on the decline due to current problems such as competition with cheaper and more lucrative clothing as well as lack of suitable remuneration for weavers. However, there have been a few encouraging signs in recent times.

For instance, the Indian government awarded master weaver of Jamdani saris, Biren Kumar Basak from West Bengal with the Padma Shri award, which is the fourth highest civilian award in the country. Biren Kumar Basak also hailed the award and recognition of his work by Prime Minister Modi as a good sign for the future of the Jamdani community in Bengal.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ache Din for Jamdani community: Weaver Biren Kumar Basak gets Modi sari gift with Padma Shri |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/lifestyle/art-and-culture/ache-din-jamdani-community-weaver-biren-kumar-basak-modi-sari-gift-padma-shri-7621080/ |work=[[The Indian Express]] |date=2021-11-08 |access-date=2023-08-28}}</ref>

Exhibitions such as the Jamdani Festival of Wearable Art curated by Chandra Shekhar Shaha was held in July 2023 in Bangladesh in collaboration with the National Crafts Council of Bangladesh to illustrate sustainably produced and hand-woven jamdani saris.<ref>{{cite news |title=Jamdani Exposition in the City |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/news/bangladesh/news/jamdani-exposition-the-city-3376891 |work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]] |date=2023-07-20 |access-date=2023-08-28}}</ref>

Moreover, brands such as TARINA by designer Tarina Sen are attempting to preserve the traditional crafts of jamdani by creating contemporary clothes. Labels such as TARINA are striving to help jamdani weavers in West Bengal and Odisha by reaching new markets, consisting of the younger generation, by creating attractive clothes that presents a harmony of modern and traditional designs.<ref>{{cite news |title=Tarina to hold jamdani exhibition at Artix fair in Delhi |url=https://in.fashionnetwork.com/news/Tarina-to-hold-jamdani-exhibition-at-artix-fair-in-delhi,1545483.html |work=[[Fashion Network]] |date=2023-08-22 |access-date=2023-08-22}}</ref>

==Images==

<gallery>
File:Emperor Akbar, Los Angeles County Museum of Art.jpg| Mughal emperor [[Akbar]] wearing an imperial jamdani [[Sash]]
File:Jahangir.gif| The young emperor [[Jahangir]] wearing an imperial jamdani [[Sash]]
File:Mike Pompeo with Sheikh Hasina in New York - 2018 (44057292035).jpg| Former Prime Minister of Bangladesh [[Sheikh Hasina]] in an Ivory gold jamdani sari
File:Manmohan Singh and the Chairperson, National Advisory Council, Smt. Sonia Gandhi at the Foundation Stone laying ceremony of Ghani Khan Choudhury Institute of Engineering & Technology (GKCIET), in Malda, West Bengal.jpg|Indian National Congress Chairperson [[Sonia Gandhi]] in a green Dhakai jamdani sari
File:The Vice President, Shri M. Hamid Ansari giving away the Lokmat Parliamentary Award 2017 to the Member of Parliament (RS), Smt. Jaya Bachchan, in New Delhi (1).jpg|Bollywood actress and politician [[Jaya Bachchan]] in an off white color jamdani
File:Bangladeshi bride in Jamdani sari.jpg|Bangladeshi bride in jamdani sari
File:Nusrat Faria003.jpg| Bangladeshi actress [[Nusraat Faria]] in a red jamdani
File:Bangladesh visits (53002771495).jpg|[[Saida Muna Tasneem]] high commissioner of Bangladesh to the United Kingdom.
File:Jamdani shop at BSCIC Jamdani palli, Narayanganj 5.jpg|Seller showing Jamdani saree.
</gallery>

==See also==
*[[Tangail Saree]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
*[http://www.thedailystar.net/magazine/2005/10/04/cover.htm Jamdani's Struggle to Survive]
*[http://www.bhb.gov.bd/ Bangladesh Handloom Board Official Website]

{{Sari}}
{{fabric}}
{{Bengali clothing}}
{{Geographical indications in Bangladesh}}
[[Category:Geographical indications in Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Bangladeshi clothing]]
[[Category:Woven fabrics]]
[[Category:Saris]]
[[Category:Bangladeshi handicrafts]]
[[Category:Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity]]
[[Category:Textile arts of Bangladesh]]

Dande Vittal

2026-04-19T04:06:40Z

Juliaauhm: entry - done

{{Short description|Indian politician from Telangana}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Dande Vittal
| birth_name =
| caption = Dande Vittal in 2021
| image = Dande Vittal mlc.jpg
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1970|12|22|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Kagaznagar, Telengana|Kagaznagar]], [[Komaram Bheem Asifabad district]], [[Telangana]], [[India]]
| death_date =
| death_place =
| office = Member of [[Telangana Legislative Council]]
| term_start = 05 January 2022
| predecessor = Puranam Satish Kumar
| successor =
| constituency = Local Authorities Adilabad
| party = [[Indian National Congress]] ({{small|since 2024}})
| other_party = [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi]] ({{small|until 2024}})
| spouse = Madhavi Tathineni
| children = 2
| parents =
| footnotes =
| father =
| date =
| year =
| source =
}}

'''Dande Vittal''' is an Indian politician from [[Telangana]]. He was elected as member of the [[Telangana Legislative Council]] elected from the local body constituency of Adilabad in 2021.<ref name="TRS wins six local body MLC seats">{{cite news |last1=The Hans India |first1= |title=TRS wins six local body MLC seats |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/telangana/telangana-trs-wins-six-local-body-mlc-seats-719642 |access-date=5 July 2024 |work= |date=14 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240705051729/https://www.thehansindia.com/telangana/telangana-trs-wins-six-local-body-mlc-seats-719642 |archive-date=5 July 2024 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Six BRS MLCs shock the BRS and join Congress">{{cite news |last1=The Hindu |first1= |title=Six BRS MLCs shock the BRS and join Congress |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/six-brs-mlcs-shock-the-brs-and-join-congress/article68369591.ece |accessdate=5 July 2024 |date=5 July 2024 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20240705051009/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/six-brs-mlcs-shock-the-brs-and-join-congress/article68369591.ece |archivedate=5 July 2024 |language=en-IN}}</ref><ref name="BRS MLCs Join Congress">{{cite news |last1=Deccan Chronicle |first1= |title=BRS MLCs Join Congress |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/southern-states/brs-mlcs-join-congress-1309638 |accessdate=5 July 2024 |work= |date=5 July 2024 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20240705051316/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/southern-states/brs-mlcs-join-congress-1309638 |archivedate=5 July 2024 |language=en}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:1970 births]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Telangana]]
[[Category:1966 births]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian politicians]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Members of the Telangana Legislative Council]]

Kingdom of Kashmir (1754–1762)

2026-04-19T02:18:23Z

Juliaauhm: Creating first post added tags

{{Short description|Short-lived Kashmiri state}}
{{Use Pakistani English|date=September 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2024}}

{{distinguish|Kashmir Sultanate}}
{{Other uses|Kashmir (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox former country
| native_name = {{nq|مَملِکَتِ کٔشیٖر}} ([[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]]) {{nq|مملکت کشمیر}} ([[Persian language|Persian]]) ਕਸ਼ਮੀਰ ਮਮਲਕਤ ([[Punjabi language|Punjabi]])
| conventional_long_name = Kingdom of Kashmir
| common_name = Kashmir|
| status = [[Secession|Break-away]] [[List of historical unrecognized states and dependencies#10th through 19th centuries|''de facto'' state]]
| empire = [[Mughal Empire]]
| national_motto = ''در جنون عشق او، آن انسان به دست خواهد آورد که تنها کالایش دیوانگی است و چیزی فراتر از آن'' {{small|(Persian)}} (lit. In the frenzy of His love, that man shall gain; whose only commodity is frenzy and nothing beyond)
| era = [[Indian campaign of Ahmad Shah Durrani|Durrani Invasions]]
| government_type = {{plainlist|
*1754–1758: [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Authoritarianism|authoritarian]] [[absolute monarchy]]<hr>
*1758–1762: Unitary [[Radical politics|radical]] [[Oligarchy|oligarchical]] monarchy
}}
| year_start = 1754
| year_end = 1762
| life_span = 1754 – 1762
| event1 = [[Third Battle of Panipat]]
| date_event1 = 14 January 1761
| event_start = [[Raja Sukh Jiwan Mal#History|Secession]]
| date_start = early–June
| event_end = Formal abdication
| date_end = mid–October
| p1 = Durrani Empire
| flag_p1 = Durrani Emirate Flag.png
| s1 = Durrani Empire
| flag_s1 = Durrani Emirate Flag.png
| flag_s2 = Kattar Dhal Talwar.jpg
| s2 = Sikh Confederacy
| flag =
| flag_type =
| image_coat =
| symbol =
| symbol_type =
| image_map = Map of Kashmir in 1770.jpg
| image_map_caption = Kashmir in the map of northern India drawn by [[Rigobert Bonne]] in 1770 for issue as plate no. A 26 in Jean Lattre's 1776 issue of the Atlas Moderne.
| image_map_alt = 1740 Seutter Map of India, Pakistan, Tibet and Afghanistan - Geographicus - IndiaMogolis-seutter-1740.jpg
| image_map_size = 190px
| capital = [[Srinagar]]
| largest_city = [[Srinagar]]
| national_anthem =
| common_languages = [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]] and [[Persian language|Persian]] (official) [[Dardic languages|Dardic]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Sanskrit]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Dogri language|Dogri]], [[Pahari-Pothwari|Pahari]]
| religion = ~85% [[Islam in Kashmir|Islam]] ~15% [[Kashmiri Hindus|Hinduism]] 
| currency = [[Rupee]], [[History of the taka|Taka]]
| iso3166code = IN-JK
| leader1 = [[Raja Sukh Jiwan Mal|Sukh Jiwan Mal]]
| year_leader1 = 1754 – 1762
| title_leader = [[List of monarchs of Kashmir|Raja]]|
| deputy1 = [[Abu'l Hasan Bandey]]
| year_deputy1 = 1754 – 1757, 1758
| deputy2 = [[Mir Muqim Kanth]]
| year_deputy2 = 1757 – 1758
| deputy3 = [[Pandit Mahanand Dhar]]
| year_deputy3 = 1758 – 1762
| title_deputy = [[Prime Minister]]|
| legislature = [[Durbar (court)|Durbar]]|
| stat_year1 = 1760
| stat_pop1 = 1,400,000 {{small|(estimate)}}
| stat_area1 = 222236
| ref_pop1 =
| footnotes =
| today = [[India]] '''∟''' [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]] [[Pakistan]] '''∟''' [[Azad Jammu and Kashmir]]
| demonym = [[Kashmiris|Kashmiri]]
}}
[[File:Sher Garhi Palace - Map shawl of Srinagar 1870s - Victoria and Albert Museum.jpg|thumb|200px|Map [[Kashmir shawl|shawl]] of [[Srinagar]] made for Queen [[Queen Victoria|Victoria]], {{circa|1870}}, [[Victoria and Albert Museum]]]]
The '''Kingdom of Kashmir''' made a brief and ultimately unsuccessful attempt to regain its independence. Since 1586, Kashmir had been a part of the [[Mughal Empire]] and was run by a viceroy appointed by the monarch. Due to the social unrest after the capture of Kashmir by the [[Durrani Empire|Durranis]] in the [[Mughal–Afghan Wars|Mughal–Afghan War]], [[Raja Sukh Jiwan Mal|Sukh Jiwan Mal]], the Durrani governor, was unanimously elected as the king in 1754.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}}

Many Kashmiris, motivated by a growing sense of identity and shared cultural heritage ([[Kashmiriyat]]), harboured resentment towards the Durranis, who had repeatedly plundered the region and left it in a state of devastation. The rebels under [[Abu'l Hasan Bandey]], a [[Kashmiri Muslims|Kashmiri Muslim]] noble and a revenue officer, declared his and the populace's distrust of the Durranis and demanded Sukh Jiwan to refuse the payment of revenue and tribute. Sukh Jiwan ousted Khwaja Kijak, the deputy governor, and announced the secession of Kashmir from the Durrani Empire.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}}

Despite the rivalry between the [[Maratha Empire]] and the [[Durrani Empire]], Sukh Jiwan's newly formed state recognized the suzerainty of the weakened [[Mughal Empire]]. In acknowledgement of his authority, Emperor [[Alamgir II]] bestowed upon him the title of ''[[Raja]]'' (King). The Durranis, on the orders of [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]], waged war against the Kashmiris, and despite numerous setbacks and failures, were able to emerge victorious in the Battle of Chera Har. Kashmir, as a result, was incorporated into the Afghan Empire while Sukh Jiwan was executed.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}}

==Geography==
[[File:Titled Kashmir, the map of City of Srinagar, India (Date unknown, probably 17th-18th century).jpg|thumb|200px|Map shawl of the city of Srinagar, Kashmir (Date unknown probably 17th–18th century)]]
To the north of the kingdom was the [[Skardu#Maqpon period|Maqpon Kingdom of Baltistan]], to the west was the [[List of rulers of Pothohar plateau|Gakhar Kingdom of Pothohar]], to the east was the [[Namgyal dynasty of Ladakh|Namgyal Kingdom of Ladakh]], and to the south was the [[Jammu#History#Modern history|Dogra Kingdom of Jammu]] and the [[Lahore Subah]].

== Prior to 1754 – Afghan intrusion ==
{{Main|Naderian Wars|Indian Campaign of Ahmad Shah Durrani}}

[[File:Nadir Shah at the sack of Delhi - Battle scene with Nader Shah on horseback, possibly by Muhammad Ali ibn Abd al-Bayg ibn Ali Quli Jabbadar, mid-18th century, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.jpg|thumb|right|175px|Nader Shah Afshar at the sack of [[Delhi]]]]
[[File:Portrait of Ahmad-Shah Durrani. Mughal miniature. ca. 1757, Bibliothèque nationale de France.jpg|thumb|right|175px|Ahmad Shah Durrani conquered the [[Kashmir valley]] twice. First in 1752 and then again in 1762]]
After the [[Nader Shah's invasion of India|invasion of India]] by [[Nader Shah]] in 1739, many of the frontier provinces of the [[Mughal Empire]], including [[Mughal Kashmir|Kashmir]], exerted autonomy. In the [[Battle of Lahore (1748)|Battles of Lahore in 1748]] and [[Battle of Lahore (1752)|1752]], [[Lahore]] was captured by the Durrani forces of [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]], which further weakened the position of the Mughals.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hari Ram Gupta |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.282887 |title=Studies In Later Mughal History Of The Punjab 1707 To 1793 |date=1944}}</ref> In 1748, Ahmad Shah sent an army of Afghans under his general Asmatullah Khan to conquer Kashmir. Asmatullah succeeded in reaching Srinagar but was killed by the ''[[Subahdar]]'' of Kashmir, Afrasiyab Khan and his army was scattered and annihilated.<ref>{{Cite web |last=CENTRAL |first=KASHMIR |date=2021-09-11 |title=When Afghans Invaded Kashmir: A Saga of Brutality and Destruction |url=https://kashmircentral.in/when-afghans/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=Kashmir Central |language=en-US}}</ref> The last S''ubahdar'' of Kashmir Abu'l Qasim Khan was notorious for his malicious activities against the locals. In 1751, a group of [[Kashmiris|Kashmiri]] nobles including former deputy governor, [[Mir Muqim Kanth]] and Khwaja Zahir went to Ahmad Shah in Lahore requesting him for assistance to overcome Abu'l Qasim Khan. Ahmad Shah, at once, despatched [[Abdullah Khan Ishaq Aqasi]], [[Abdullah Khan Kabuli]], and a [[Khatri]] officer and advisor, [[Raja Sukh Jiwan Mal|Sukh Jiwan Mal]]. Aqasi was successful in defeating Abu'l Qasim Khan in the [[Battle of Shopian (1752)|Battle of Shopian]], and Kashmir was annexed into the [[Durrani Empire]] either in October 1751 or May 1752.<ref>{{Cite book |last=eGangotri |url=http://archive.org/details/AHistoryOfMuslimRuleInKashmir13201819R.K.Parmu |title=A History Of Muslim Rule In Kashmir 1320 1819 R. K. Parmu |pages=348–349}}</ref>

Utmost horror was experienced in Kashmir as the Durranis under Aqasi plundered it for the next six months. Finally, in October 1752, Aqasi left Kashmir with the loot and appointed Kabuli and Mal as the governor and deputy governor, respectively.<ref>{{Cite book |last=eGangotri |url=http://archive.org/details/a-short-history-of-kashmir-1932-gwasha-lal-kaul |title=A Short History Of Kashmir 1932 Gwasha Lal Kaul |pages=72}}</ref> The Kashmiri masses were highly annoyed by the Afghans and rose into rebellion under the leadership of [[Abu'l Hasan Bandey|Khwaja Abu'l Hasan Khan Bandey]], who requested Sukh Jiwan Mal to usurp the governor through a coup. In the summer of 1753, Sukh Jiwan, with the help of the rebels, assassinated Kabuli, while the Afghan army was expelled from Srinagar. Sukh Jiwan immediately appointed Bandey as his chief minister, advisor and finance minister.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=University Of Panjab |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.53651 |title=Kashir A History Of Kashmir |pages=309}}</ref>

These turn of events didn't sit well with Ahmad Shah, but he decided to let Sukh Jiwan rule on his behalf due to his busy schedule and restrained relations with the [[Zand dynasty|Zands]], [[Mughal dynasty|Mughals]] and other contemporary kingdoms.<ref>{{Cite thesis |title=The Pearl of Pearls: The Abdālī-Durrānī Confederacy and Its Transformation under Aḥmad Shāh, Durr-i Durrān |url=https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/handle/1807/80750 |date=November 2017 |degree=Thesis |language=en |first=Sajjad |last=Nejatie}}</ref> The only step Ahmad Shah took was to take Sukh Jiwan in his confidence as a governor and appoint [[Khwaja Kijak|Khwaja Kijak Khan]] as his deputy.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=P N K Bamzai |url=http://archive.org/details/culture-and-political-history-of-kashmir-mediaval-kashmir-vol-2-gulshan-publication-p-n-k-bamzai |title=Culture And Political History Of Kashmir Vol 2 Medieval Kashmir P N K Bamzai Gulshan Books |pages=143}}</ref>

== Rebellion, local demands and the assertion of independence ==
At the onset of the year 1754, Ahmad Shah demanded a tribute of several crore rupees. This sum was to be collected from the Kashmiris by any measure fair or foul. Sukh Jiwan was about to issue the orders when the Kashmiris stood up in revolt once again.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Prem Nath Bazaz |url=http://archive.org/details/historyofstruggl00prem |title=The History Of Struggle For Freedom In Kashmir |date=1954 |publisher=Kashmir Publishing Company |others=Public Resource |pages=112}}</ref> The local demands put up by Bandey on behalf of the Kashmiris were;

* Not a single [[rupee]] should go to the treasury of Ahmad Shah, thus rebuking his orders.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=eGangotri |url=http://archive.org/details/AHistoryOfMuslimRuleInKashmir13201819R.K.Parmu |title=A History Of Muslim Rule In Kashmir 1320 1819 R. K. Parmu |pages=354–355}}</ref>
* Khwaja Kijak and his aides: Malik Hassan Khan Irani, Azam Khan, and Mira Khan should be ousted from their respective posts.<ref name=":2" />
* Kashmir should formally secede from the Durrani Empire.<ref name=":2" />

Sukh Jiwan, who was naturally on the side of the Kashmiris, acceded to the demands and asserted independence in the first half of June 1754. Khwaja Kijak, along with a force of 2,000, met the Kashmiri army in [[Baramulla]]. Sheer enthusiasm and passion for independence led the Kashmiris defeat Kijak and his forces.<ref name=":0" /> According to historian R. K. Parmu, Kijak's three aides were killed in this battle while Kijak himself fled the battlefield. Asking for recognition and allegiance, Sukh Jiwan sent a delegation to [[Delhi]] to Emperor [[Alamgir II]] and was received by [[Ghazi ud-Din Khan Feroze Jung III|Imad-ul-Mulk]]. Both the parties came to terms, and Sukh Jiwan was granted the title of ''[[Raja]]'' (King) while having the [[Khutbah]] read and coins struck in the name of the Emperor. On the other hand, Bandey was appointed as the [[prime minister]] of Kashmir.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Tikku |first=Girdhari L. |url=http://archive.org/details/trent_0116301634485 |title=Persian poetry in Kashmir, 1339-1846; an introduction |date=1971 |publisher=Berkeley, University of California Press |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-520-09312-6 |pages=160}}</ref>

Ahmad Shah, enraged by the latest changes, deputed Abdullah Khan Ishaq Aqasi once again to capture Kashmir. Aqasi was accompanied by a force of 30,000, the majority of which were trained elites from [[Kabul]] and entered Kashmir in the mid-winter of 1754.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=eGangotri |url=http://archive.org/details/AHistoryOfMuslimRuleInKashmir13201819R.K.Parmu |title=A History Of Muslim Rule In Kashmir 1320 1819 R. K. Parmu |pages=356}}</ref> Harsh climate and hatred among the Kashmiris for the Afghans proved disastrous for Ahmad Shah as Afghans faced another defeat in the [[Battle of Poonch]]. The defence forces of Sukh Jiwan, though outnumbered and not well equipped, expelled the Afghan army.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=University Of Panjab |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.53651 |title=Kashir A History Of Kashmir |pages=310}}</ref> The majority of the army was annihilated, and the ones who surrendered were taken prisoners and sent to Srinagar whilst seated on donkeys.<ref name=":3" /> According to Hasan and [[Muhammad Din Fauq|Fauq]], the prisoners were presented in the city in humiliating costumes, covered by paper caps to be jeered upon by the triumphant Kashmiris.

After dismissing the incursions, both Sukh Jiwan and Bandey worked for the prosperity of the state, adopting certain measures for the betterment of security and safety.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book |last=S.R. Bakshi |url=http://archive.org/details/bub_gb_U1LEY1yWmagC |title=Kashmir History and People |date=1997-01-01 |publisher=Sarup & Sons |others=unknown library |pages=142 |language=English}}</ref> Disloyal ''[[Malik|Maliks]]'' (Lords) and ''[[Naik (military rank)|Naiks]]'' (Guards) were removed from their posts, and their ''[[Jagir|Jagirs]]'' were confiscated. These posts were filled with different elites and nobles who stayed loyal to the state.<ref name=":1" /> Traitorous soldiers from the [[Khakha]], [[Bomba (tribe)|Bomba]], and [[Gurjar|Gujjar tribes]] were disbanded and replaced with servicemen from the [[Sikhs|Sikh]] and [[Sansi people]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fayaz (Supervisor) |first1=Farooq |last2=Mir |first2=Rouf Ahmad (Scholar) |title=Afghan Rule in Kashmir (A Critical Review of Source Material) |url=https://core.ac.uk/works/44639319/ |journal=CORE}}</ref><ref name=":3" />

== Famine ==
By next year, an untimely snowfall destroyed much of the crops. This was followed by a storm of [[locust|locusts]] that restricted the annual harvest. The bread scarcity and shortage of yield totally paralysed Kashmir.<ref name=":1" /> Bandey was alarmed by the current situation and took immediate steps to relieve the people.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=P N K Bamzai |url=http://archive.org/details/culture-and-political-history-of-kashmir-mediaval-kashmir-vol-2-gulshan-publication-p-n-k-bamzai |title=Culture And Political History Of Kashmir Vol 2 Medieval Kashmir P N K Bamzai Gulshan Books |pages=144}}</ref> Two lakh ''[[Indian units of measurement|Kharwars]]'' (16,120,000 kgs) of grain were distributed among the people as ''taccawi'' (farmer) loans. He took a house-to-house census of the city population, and rations according to the needs were supplied to each family for the next six months.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":3" /> These loans were never recovered either by Sukh Jiwan or Bandey but were finally written off by [[Mihan Singh|Col. Mihan Singh Kumedan]] in 1834.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Great Sikh Governor who rehabilitated Kashmir – Kashmir Rechords |url=https://kashmir-rechords.com/a-great-sikh-governor-who-rehabilitated-kashmir/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |language=en-US |archive-date=18 February 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250218035453/https://kashmir-rechords.com/a-great-sikh-governor-who-rehabilitated-kashmir/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== ''Mushairas'' and literature ==
{{Main|Kashmiri language}}

[[File:QUR'AN 2981a.jpg|thumb|220px|[[Quran|Quranic]] manuscript in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] on polished paper, Kashmir, 18th century]]
[[File:Page of Text, Folio from a Bhagavata Purana (Ancient Stories of the Lord) LACMA M.82.62.2 (1 of 2).jpg|thumb|160px|Page of Text, Folio from a [[Bhagavata Purana]] (Ancient Stories of the Lord), Kashmir, late 18th century]]
''[[Mushaira|Mushairas]]'' at the residence of the King were held on a regular basis. These used to include the scholars, and poets of different backgrounds.<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Prem Nath Bazaz |url=http://archive.org/details/historyofstruggl00prem |title=The History Of Struggle For Freedom In Kashmir |date=1954 |publisher=Kashmir Publishing Company |others=Public Resource |pages=286}}</ref> Live dialogues were held between Sukh Jiwan and the ''[[Ulama|ulemas]]'' on the topics of religion and philosophy.<ref name=":4" />

The greatest achievement of Sukh Jiwan in the genre of literature was the creation of the ''Shahnama-e-Kashmir'', a book which had the history of Kashmir from the earliest times till his reign and was influenced by the [[Shahnameh]] of [[Ferdowsi]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=eGangotri |url=http://archive.org/details/AHistoryOfMuslimRuleInKashmir13201819R.K.Parmu |title=A History Of Muslim Rule In Kashmir 1320 1819 R. K. Parmu |pages=358}}</ref> It was headed by seven of the most famous poets of that time. The poets were Mohammad Ali Khan Mateen, Abdul Wahab Shaiq, Mohammad Jani Beg Sami, Mulla Muhammad Taufiq, Rehmatullah, Navid and Hassan with Mulla Taufiq as the lead poet. Each of these poets was assisted by ten other poets. The book had a total of 60,000 couplets, and Sukh Jiwan awarded one rupee for each couplet. Thus, Mulla Taufiq wrote 2,000, Shaiq 6,000, and Sami 1,000 couplets.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tikku |first=Girdhari L. |url=http://archive.org/details/trent_0116301634485 |title=Persian poetry in Kashmir, 1339-1846; an introduction |date=1971 |publisher=Berkeley, University of California Press |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-520-09312-6 |pages=189}}</ref>

Mulla Hamidullah had also written a Kashmiri short drama based on the dialogues between Sukh Jiwan and his wife. The author of the book Khizana-e-Amira, [[Azad Bilgrami|Ghulam Ali Azad Bilgrami]], writes about Sukh Jiwan;

<blockquote>
''He was a handsome youth, possessed of good qualities and inclined towards [[Islam]]. After finishing court businesses, he fed two hundred Muslims with a variety of food everyday. On the 11th and 12th of every month, he got sacramental food cooked and distributed among the people. He bestowed favours on every visitor to the court whether he was poor or not. Once in every week he held a poetical conversazione. It was attended by all the well-known poets. At the end of it he gave a dinner. He engaged five (seven?) of the best scholars to complete a history of Kashmir from the earliest habitation to his own time. Each writer was provided with ten assistants. The head of these historians was Muhammad Taufiq with Taufiq as his [[Pen name|nom de plume]], and was known as Lalaju in Kashmiri. He is a poet unrivalled in Kashmir today.''<ref name=":4" />
</blockquote>

Before his death, Sukh Jiwan used to sing this [[ghazal]] to himself:

<blockquote style="font-style:italic;">
It is better to close one's eyes to the conditions of life;

It is better utterly to ignore the state of the world.

For everyone who, like me, has held place on the crown of the rose

For better in the end roles in blood and dust.

For a few days I myself saw that, in this garden

The prophetic blooms were better left unplucked.

Should you feed milk to the world, it stings you with poison;

It is better to live in fear of this black snake.

Should they return to me my world-perceiving eye,

I would rather be a begger from door to door.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Tikku |first=Girdhari L. |url=http://archive.org/details/trent_0116301634485 |title=Persian poetry in Kashmir, 1339-1846; an introduction |date=1971 |publisher=Berkeley, University of California Press |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-520-09312-6 |pages=161}}</ref>
</blockquote>

And this [[ruba'i]]:

<blockquote style="font-style:italic;">
Much did I admonish this mean self

not to induldge in this prohibited act.

But my rebellious self refused to listen,

and ultimately saw the unbearable vision.<ref name=":5" />
</blockquote>

== International reaction and recognition ==
[[File:Emperor Alamgir II.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Emperor Alamgir II gave Sukh Jiwan Mal the title of ''[[Raja]]'' (King)]]
In the 1750s, the Durranis were in a violent confrontation with their neighbours in the east, i.e., Sikhs, Marathas, and the Mughals and in west against the Zands. These rivalries proved fruitful for the Kashmiris as the Mughal recognition of Kashmir paved the way for further concessions.<ref name=":1" />

The Marathas nonetheless never established formal ties with the kingdom of Kashmir nor did the Sikh misls in [[Punjab]], but both of them expressed support for the rebels to compel Durrani to leave [[Hindustan]].<ref name=":1" /> The [[Dogra dynasty|Dogra]] [[Jammu|kingdom of Jammu]] under [[Ranjit Dev]] and the [[Gakhars|Gakhar]] [[List of rulers of Pothohar plateau|kingdom of Pothohar]] under [[Muqarrab Khan Gakhar|Muqarrab Khan]] due to their extensive support to the Afghans didn't recognize the independence of Kashmir.<ref name=":11">{{Cite book |last=Ajay Verma For Commonwealth Publishers |first=New Delhi |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.449223 |title=Kashmir History And Politics |pages=16}}</ref>

In 1757, Ahmad Shah granted [[Doaba]], Jammu and Kashmir to [[Mughlani Begum]] as a fief. She sent Khwaja Ibrahim Khan to Kashmir but was taken aback due to the local resistance.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.33392/page/n63/mode/2up?q=Ibrahim |title=Journal of the Punjab University Historical Society vol.6 |date=1940 |pages=52}}</ref> An annual deal for tribute was struck between the two parties but the courtiers conspired against Sukh Jiwan.<ref>{{Cite book |last=University Of Panjab |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.53651/page/n465/mode/1up?q=Sukh+Jiwan |title=Kashir A History Of Kashmir |pages=312–313}}</ref> The army of the Khwaja was defeated by Sukh Jiwan and was forced to flee back to Lahore.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.33392/page/n63/mode/2up?q=Ibrahim |title=Journal of the Punjab University Historical Society vol.6 |date=1940 |pages=55}}</ref>

The [[List of monarchs of Punjab|Nawab of Punjab]], [[Adina Beg]], in 1758, affirmed his support for Sukh Jiwan. This would have been a major breakthrough for the trade between Srinagar and Lahore but was halted due to the untimely death of Adina.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Khan |first=Sarang |date=2020-10-09 |title=Adina Beg: Soldier, Statesman, Diplomat, Hero |url=https://punjabiwaseb.com/2020/10/08/adina-beg-soldier-statesman-diplomat-hero/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=Punjabi Waseb |language=en}}</ref> After Adina Beg's death, some courtiers from Kashmir fled to Jammu due to Mahanand Dhar's persecution and were promised assistance by Mughlani Begum, who had by then taken asylum with Ranjit Dev.<ref name=":14">{{Cite book |last=Chhabra |first=G. S. |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.29082/page/409/mode/1up |title=Advanced study in History of the Punjab vol.1 |date=1960 |language=English}}</ref> The Begum's plot was brought to light and was deemed unsuccessful.<ref name=":14" /> The [[List of monarchs of Sindh|Nawab of Sindh]], [[Mian Ghulam Shah Kalhoro|Ghulam Shah Kalhoro]], and the [[Khanate of Kalat|Khan of Kalat]], [[Mir Nasir Khan I|Nasir Khan Ahmadzai]], due to their dependency on the Durrani Empire stayed silent while the [[Amb (princely state)|Nawab of Amb]], [[Suba Khan Tanoli|Zabardust Khan Tanoli]], openly expressed his opposition to the Kashmiris and was given the title of ''Suba-e-Kashmir'' (Suba of Kashmir) by Ahmad Shah.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dr. Sher Bahadur Khan Panni |url=http://archive.org/details/TarikhEHazaraByDr.SherBahadurKhanPunni |title=Tarikh e Hazara ( Original) By Dr. Sher Bahadur Khan Punni |date=1969-08-01|edition=Complete First }}</ref>

== Domestic conflict ==
[[File:Srinagar in 1860s.jpg|thumb|right|200px|City of [[Srinagar]] in the 1860s]]
The royal army of Kashmir was organized into different units and was trained at barracks situated throughout the valley. The economy escalated, and state affairs were re-established in Srinagar and [[Anantnag]]. The rice and [[saffron]] fields were well-regulated, and the textile and [[Kashmir shawl|shawl]] industry boosted its production.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fayaz (Supervisor) |first1=Farooq |last2=Mir |first2=Rouf Ahmad (Scholar) |title=Afghan Rule in Kashmir (A Critical Review of Source Material) |url=https://core.ac.uk/works/44639319/ |journal=CORE |pages=49}}</ref> All this was due to the advantageous outcomes of the Kashmiri independence. Ahmad Shah resented these outcomes, and to overcome the passionate Kashmiris, he freed his old enemy Mir Muqim Kanth from prison and sent him to Srinagar as an agent.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":8">{{Cite book |last=eGangotri |url=http://archive.org/details/AHistoryOfMuslimRuleInKashmir13201819R.K.Parmu |title=A History Of Muslim Rule In Kashmir 1320 1819 R. K. Parmu |pages=357}}</ref>

Mir Muqim Kanth was an educated individual and was given a job in Srinagar by Sukh Jiwan despite him knowing Kanth's background.<ref name=":6" /> Kanth tried to create a rift between Sukh Jiwan and Bandey and was successful in doing so after Bandey was blamed for an assassination attempt against Sukh Jiwan and was also accused for charges of arson after a big fire broke out in Srinagar which took thousands of lives and devastated state arms, ammunition dump and residential houses in 1757.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":6" /> Bandey was imprisoned while his property was forfeited. Kanth succeeded Bandey as the prime minister.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last=Prem Nath Bazaz |url=http://archive.org/details/historyofstruggl00prem |title=The History Of Struggle For Freedom In Kashmir |publisher=Kashmir Publishing Company |others=Public Resource |year=1954 |isbn=978-8183394666 |pages=113}}</ref>

It was only after a year that the hidden activities of Kanth were brought to light. Kanth was imprisoned, and Bandey was reinstated, and his assets were given back to him, but he lost the respect and trust he had put on Sukh Jiwan and vowed to take revenge.

With the internal conflicts "solved," Sukh Jiwan in mid-1758 decided to expand his dominion. On 21 March 1758, the combined forces of Maratha and Sikh under [[Raghunath Rao]] and [[Jassa Singh Ahluwalia]] took [[Sirhind]] from the Afghans.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shahab |first=Syed Yusuf |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ucc2EAAAQBAJ |title=Sirhind: A Monumental Example Of Oblivion |date=2021-07-06 |publisher=OrangeBooks Publication |language=en}}</ref> The vulnerable city of [[Sialkot]] was left in the hands of Afghan governor Yar Khan. Sukh Jiwan redeemed this opportunity by attacking the cities of [[Akhnoor]], [[Bhimber]], and Sialkot. He left Srinagar with an army of 10,000 and took the [[Akhnoor Fort|fort of Akhnoor]] from the Jammuites easily. In Bhimber, the [[Chibhal|Chibs]] led by Sulaiman Khan gave a tough fight but were defeated.<ref>{{Cite book |last=P N K Bamzai |url=http://archive.org/details/culture-and-political-history-of-kashmir-mediaval-kashmir-vol-2-gulshan-publication-p-n-k-bamzai |title=Culture And Political History Of Kashmir Vol 2 Medieval Kashmir P N K Bamzai Gulshan Books |pages=145}}</ref> It was in the [[Battle of Sialkot (1758)|Battle of Sialkot]] that Sukh Jiwan faced his first defeat after coming to power as Yar Khan, with the help from Ranjit Dev, defeated and forced him to retreat.<ref name=":7" />

On the other hand, the Bombas of [[Jhelum]] revolted and attacked the northern areas of Kashmir. Bandey at once restricted their movement and successfully crushed their leaders. In the absence of Sukh Jiwan, Bandey found the prime time to raise the banner of revolt himself while establishing his army on the right bank of the [[Jhelum River]].<ref name=":10">{{Cite book |last=Mohammad Amin Pandit |url=http://archive.org/details/TareekhEKashmirByAminPandit |title=Tareekh E Kashmir By Amin Pandit ۔۔ تاریخِ کشمیر |date=1962 |pages=166}}</ref> Sukh Jiwan went straight for the rebels and defeated them with Bandey fleeing to [[History of Poonch District|Poonch]]. He committed suicide by either [[Self-immolation|self-immolating]] or [[Poisoning|self-poisoning]] himself in the same year after he was surrounded by Sukh Jiwan's men.<ref name=":7" />

Bandey was replaced by a [[Kashmiri Pandits|Kashmiri Pandit]] and an intellectual [[Pandit Mahanand Dhar]] from the [[Dhar (surname)#History and origins#Kashmiri surname|Dhar family]] of Srinagar, which has risen to glory in the Kanth–Bandey tussle.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":10" />

== Religious persecution ==
According to R. K. Parmu, Dhar was a [[right-wing politics|rightist]] [[conservatism|conservative]] and held extremist views. He changed the secular mindset of Sukh Jiwan and asked him to take [[Islamophobia|anti-Islamic]] initiatives. The Islamic call to prayer ''[[Adhan]]'' was banned along with the [[Dhabihah|slaughter of cow]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Raja Sukh Jiwan's Brief Defiance in Kashmir |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/analysis/column-raja-sukh-jiwan-s-brief-defiance-in-kashmir-2786486 |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=www.dnaindia.com |language=en}}</ref> These laws were issued in every city and town of Kashmir, and strict actions were taken against the one who breached the laws.<ref name=":8" /> Sukh Jiwan also called [[Brahmin|Brahmins]] from Punjab to settle in Kashmir to solidify his position against the agile Muslims.<ref name=":9" /> Jia Lal Kilam, the author of ''A History of Kashmiri Pandits'' denies the accusations on Dhar's extremist policies but says nothing on the change of laws.

R. K. Parmu, in his book ''A History of Muslim Rule in Kashmir 1320-1819'' writes about Dhar:

<blockquote>
''The leading Pandit Mahanand Dhar was raised to the rank of the principal noble and prime minister. Under his influence, the raja committed his second blunder. He changed his secular policy, and acting like a bigoted Hindu, banned the azan and the cow-slaughter and thereby offered a direct affront to Muslim sentiments. The Muslim soldiery, in particular, objected and rebelled. But the raja's Sikh and Sansi troops were able to put them down.''
</blockquote>

After the Muslim uprising, Sukh Jiwan was subjected to another assassination attempt when a prince from [[Balkh]] with the help of a Muslim commander, Agha Hussain, and his group entered his house and attacked him with a dagger. Sukh Jiwan was minorly injured while the group, along with both the masterminds, were executed.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |last=Life |first=Kashmir |date=2021-11-14 |title=Raja Sukh Jiwan Mal |url=https://kashmirlife.net/raja-sukh-jiwan-mal-vol-13-issue-32-278835/ |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=Kashmir Life |language=en-GB}}</ref>

== Cessation and aftermath ==
{{Main|Battle of Chera Har}}

After the [[Third Battle of Panipat|Battle of Panipat]] on 14 January 1761, Ahmad Shah had enough time to divert his attention towards the kingdom of Kashmir. He consulted his close aides and deputed [[Nur-ud-Din Bamzai|Nur-ud-Din Khan Bamzai]], a renowned general and a kinsman of his [[List of Durrani Wazirs|Wazir]], Shah Wali Khan, with a force of 30,000 in June 1762.<ref name=":12" /> They were initially repelled as all the passes leading to Kashmir were heavily guarded. The Afghan army returned in October of the same year and this time was further assisted by [[Ranjit Dev]] who had sent his son [[Raja Braj Dev|Braj Dev]] on the insistence of Haji Nawab Khan and Sher Muhammad Khan, the sons of Shah Wali Khan. The combined Afghan-Dogra army then camped at the lower plateau of [[Tosa Maidan]].<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":7" /><ref name=":11" />

Sukh Jiwan and Dhar called all their troops from the frontier districts and gathered them in Srinagar. The amassed troops constituted a total of 50,000 to 60,000.<ref name=":7" />

Both the armies met at Chera Har where a fierce battle broke out between both rival factions.<ref>{{Cite book |last=P N K Bamzai |url=http://archive.org/details/culture-and-political-history-of-kashmir-mediaval-kashmir-vol-2-gulshan-publication-p-n-k-bamzai |title=Culture And Political History Of Kashmir Vol 2 Medieval Kashmir P N K Bamzai Gulshan Books |pages=145}}</ref> At the outset of the battle, a large part of Sukh Jiwan's army, the majority of which were Muslims deserted under the command of his commander-in-chief, Bakht Mal and joined the enemy.<ref name=":7" /> This left a sharp blow on Sukh Jiwan's position as the battle ended shortly in the favour of the Afghans.<ref name=":8" />

Sukh Jiwan and Mahanand Dhar were taken prisoners.<ref name=":13" /> While Mahanand Dhar was pardoned, Sukh Jiwan was blinded and sent to [[Lahore]], where he was trampled to death by an elephant, the capital punishment for [[treason]].<ref name=":12" /> Bamzai later entered Srinagar and replaced Sukh Jiwan as the governor of Kashmir.<ref name=":9" /> Sukh Jiwan ruled for a total of 8 years, 4 months and 8 days.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fayaz (Supervisor) |first1=Farooq |last2=Mir |first2=Rouf Ahmad (Scholar) |title=Afghan Rule in Kashmir (A Critical Review of Source Material) |url=https://core.ac.uk/works/44639319/ |journal=CORE |pages=11}}</ref> In January 1763, Nur-ud-Din departed from the valley, entrusting its governance to Buland Khan Bamzai.
== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
<references />

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |last1=Parmu |first1=R. K. |title=A History Of Muslim Rule In Kashmir 1320 1819 |url=https://archive.org/details/AHistoryOfMuslimRuleInKashmir13201819R.K.Parmu/mode/1up}}
* {{cite book |first=P. N. K. |last=Bamzai |title=Culture And Political History Of Kashmir Vol 2 |publisher=Gulshan Publication |url=https://archive.org/details/culture-and-political-history-of-kashmir-mediaval-kashmir-vol-2-gulshan-publication-p-n-k-bamzai/mode/1up }}
[[Category:Mughal Empire]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1762]]

Lunglei North Assembly constituency

2026-04-18T23:39:34Z

Juliaauhm: Post

{{Short description|Constituency of the Mizoram legislative assembly in India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}}
{{Expand list|date=June 2025}} {{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Lunglei North
| type = SLA
| map_image = Legislative Assembly constituencies of Mizoram (Lunglei North highlighted).png
| state = [[Mizoram]]
| constituency_no = 30
| district = [[Lunglei district|Lunglei]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Mizoram Lok Sabha constituency|Mizoram]]
| established = 1987
| reservation = ST
| mla = [[V. Malsawmtluanga]]
| party = [[Zoram People's Movement]]
| latest_election_year = [[2023 Mizoram Legislative Assembly election|2023]]
| electors = {{formatnum:14737}}
}}
'''Lunglei North''' is one of the 40 [[Mizoram Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]] constituencies of [[Mizoram]] state in [[India]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Assembly Elections December 2013 Results |work=ECI |publisher=Election Commission of India |url=http://eciresults.ap.nic.in |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131215221429/http://eciresults.ap.nic.in/ |archivedate=2013-12-15 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=elections.in>{{cite web|url=https://www.elections.in/mizoram/assembly-constituencies|title=Mizoram Assembly Constituency List|publisher=www.elections.in}}</ref>

It is part of [[Lunglei district]] and is reserved for candidates belonging to the [[Scheduled Tribes]].

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Election
!Name
!colspan=2|Party
|-
|[[2003 Mizoram Legislative Assembly election|2003]]
| R Lalthangliana<ref name=election2003>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3664-mizoram-2003/ |title=Mizoram General Legislative Election 2003 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=6 January 2022 |url-access=limited}}</ref>
|{{Full party name with color|Mizo National Front}}
|-
|[[2008 Mizoram Legislative Assembly election|2008]]<ref name=election2008>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3666-mizoram-2008/ |title=Mizoram General Legislative Election 2008 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=6 January 2022}}</ref>
|rowspan=2| P C Lalthanliana
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[2013 Mizoram Legislative Assembly election|2013]]<ref name=election2013>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3667-mizoram-2013/ |title=Mizoram General Legislative Election 2013 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=6 January 2022}}</ref>
|-
|[[2018 Mizoram Legislative Assembly election|2018]]
| Vanlaltanpuia
|{{Full party name with color|Mizo National Front}}
|-
|[[2023 Mizoram Legislative Assembly election|2023]]
|[[V. Malsawmtluanga]]
|{{Full party name with color|Zoram People's Movement}}
|-
|}

==Election results==
===2023===
{{Election box begin | title= [[2023 Mizoram Legislative Assembly election]]: Lunglei North}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=[[V. Malsawmtluanga]]|party=Zoram People's Movement|votes=7,369|percentage=48.02|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Dr. Vanlaltanpuia|party=Mizo National Front|votes=5,394|percentage=35.15|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Eric R. Zomuanpuia|party=Indian National Congress|votes=|percentage=|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=[[None of the Above]]|party=None of the above|votes=|percentage=|change=}}
{{Election box majority|votes=|percentage=|change=}}
{{Election box turnout|votes=|percentage=|change=}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|winner =
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2018===
{{Election box begin | title= [[2018 Mizoram Legislative Assembly election]]: Lunglei North<ref>{{cite web|title=Mizoram Legislative Election 2018- Statistical Report|url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/9687-mizoram-legislative-election-2018-statistical-report/|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|access-date=8 October 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|candidate = Vanlaltanpuia
|party = Mizo National Front
|votes = {{formatnum:}}
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = [[None of the Above]]
|party = None of the above
|votes = {{formatnum:}}
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes =
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes =
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
|winner =
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Mizoram}}

{{coord|22.977|92.820|display=title}}

[[Category:Lunglei district]]
[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Mizoram]]
[[Category:Lunglei]]
[[Category:Politics of Mizoram]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1987]]
[[Category:1987 establishments in Mizoram]]

Muradnagar Assembly constituency

2026-04-18T07:21:45Z

Juliaauhm: New...

{{Short description|Constituency of the Uttar Pradesh legislative assembly in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2016}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Muradnagar
| constituency_no = 54
| map_image = 54-Muradnagar.svg
| mla = [[Ajit Pal Tyagi]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| established = 1967
| state = [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| district = [[Ghaziabad district, India|Ghaziabad]]
| reservation = None
| electors = 346,610 (2012)
| type= SLA
}}

'''Muradnagar Assembly constituency''' is one of the 403 constituencies of the [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]], [[India]]. It is a part of the [[Ghaziabad district, India|Ghaziabad]] district and one of the five assembly constituencies in the [[Ghaziabad Lok Sabha constituency]]. First election in this assembly constituency was held in 1967 after the "Delimitation order" was passed and the constituency was constituted in 1967.<ref name="DPACO (1967)">{{cite news|title=DPACO (1967)|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] official website|access-date=16 Oct 2015|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/eci_publications/books/deli/Delimitation%20Orders-67.pdf}}</ref> The constituency was assigned identification number 54 after the "Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008" was passed. Muradnagar assembly constituency have having a low dynamics with 91.50% Hindus and 5.16% are Muslims.<ref name="election2008">{{cite news |title=Uttar Pradesh Delimitation Old & New, 2008 |url=http://ceouttarpradesh.nic.in/Instructions/delimitation_Old_New.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113181505/http://ceouttarpradesh.nic.in/Instructions/delimitation_Old_New.pdf |archive-date=13 November 2011 |access-date=16 Oct 2015 |publisher=[[Chief Electoral Officer, Uttar Pradesh]]}} Muradnagar assembly seat have having a low dynamics with 91.50% Hindus and 5.16% are Muslims. [[Jats]] are the largest community in Muradnagar assembly constituency, [[Brahmins]] including ([[Tyagi]]) are the second largest community in Muradnagar assembly constituency, [[SC/ST]] is the third largest community in Muradnagar assembly constituency, [[Yadav]]s is fourth, [[Rajput]]s, [[Bania (caste)|Baniya]]s, [[Gujjar]]s, [[Muslim]]s, [[Prajapati]] etc. Community population around 138,939 [[Jats]], 49,050 [[Brahmin]]s including 34,050 [[Tyagi]]s, 41,000 [[SC/ST]]s, 37,950 [[Yadav]]s, 21,085 [[Muslim]]s, 20,432 [[Rajput]]s, 16,754 [[Bania (caste)|Baniya]]s, 13,893 [[Gurjar|Gujar]]s, 13,076 ([[Prajapati]], [[Saini]], [[Bhumihar]]) and etc. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes made up 10.68% and 0.12% of the population respectively.</ref><ref name="Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008">{{cite news|title= Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] official website|access-date=16 Oct 2015|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf}}</ref><ref name="All MLAs from Assembly constituency">{{cite news|title=All MLAs from Assembly constituency|publisher=Elections.in|access-date=16 Oct 2015|url=http://www.elections.in/uttar-pradesh/assembly-constituencies/muradnagar.html}}</ref>

==Wards / Areas==
Extent of Muradnagar Assembly constituency is KC Muradnagar and Muradnagar MB of Modinagar Tehsil; PCs Duhai, Ataur, Shamsher, Sadarpur, Bahadurpur of Ghaziabad KC, Ward Nos. 7, 12, 24, 27, 31, 32, 34, 39, 40, 43, 45, 47, 49, 51, 54, 56 & 58 in Ghaziabad (M Corp.) of Ghaziabad Tehsil.<ref name=" Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008 "/>

==Members of the Legislative Assembly==
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Member<ref name="election2018">{{Cite web |title=Muradnagar Election and Results 2018, Candidate list, Winner, Runner-up, Current MLA and Previous MLAs |url=https://www.elections.in/uttar-pradesh/assembly-constituencies/muradnagar.html |access-date= |website=Elections in India}}</ref>
! colspan="2" |Party
|-
|[[1967 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
|G. S. Chaudhri
| style="background-color: {{party color|Independent}}" |
|[[Independent politician|Independent]]
|-
|[[1969 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1969]]
|Ishwar Dayal Tyagi
| style="background-color: {{party color|Bharatiya Kranti Dal}}" |
|[[Bharatiya Kranti Dal]]
|-
|[[1974 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1974]]
|Rajpal Tyagi
| style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|-
|[[1977 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1977]]
|Anwar Ahmad Chaudhari
| style="background-color: {{party color|Janata Party}}" |
|[[Janata Party]]
|-
|[[1980 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1980]]
|Ishwar Dayal Tyagi
| style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress (I)}}" |
|[[Indian National Congress (I)]]
|-
|[[1985 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
|Sakhawat Hussain
| style="background-color: {{party color|Lokdal}}" |
|[[Lokdal]]
|-
|[[1989 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1989]]
| rowspan="2" |Rajpal Tyagi
| style="background-color: {{party color|Independent}}" |
|[[Independent politician|Independent]]
|-
|[[1991 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1991]]
| style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|-
|[[1993 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1993]]
|Prem Singh
| style="background-color: {{party color|Janata Dal}}" |
|[[Janata Dal]]
|-
|[[1996 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1996]]
| rowspan="3" |Rajpal Tyagi
| style="background-color: {{party color|Samajwadi Party}}" |
|[[Samajwadi Party]]
|-
|[[2002 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2002]]
| style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|-
|[[2007 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2007]]
| style="background-color: {{party color|Independent}}" |
|[[Independent politician|Independent]]
|-
|[[2012 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2012]]
|[[Wahab Chaudhary]]
| style="background-color: {{party color|Bahujan Samaj Party}}" |
|[[Bahujan Samaj Party]]
|-
|[[2017 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2017]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Ajit Pal Tyagi]]
| rowspan="2" style="background-color: {{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}" |
| rowspan="2" |[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|-
|[[2022 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2022]]
|}

==Election results==

=== 2022 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2022 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Muradnagar<ref name="results2022">{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/14185-uttar-pradesh-general-legislative-election-2022/ |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |title=State Election, 2022 to the Legislative Assembly Of Uttar Pradesh |website=eci.gov.in |accessdate=4 March 2023}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|candidate = Ajit Pal Tyagi
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = {{formatnum:169290}}
|percentage = 61.63
|change = +6.11
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Surendra Kumar Munni
|party = Rashtriya Lok Dal
|votes = {{formatnum:72195}}
|percentage = 26.28
|change = +23.66
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Ayyuv Khan
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|votes = {{formatnum:20589}}
|percentage = 7.5
|change = -12.67
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Vijendra Yadav
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = {{formatnum:7055}}
|percentage = 2.57
|change = -17.15
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:1364}}
|percentage = 0.5
|change = +0.08
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:97095}}
|percentage = 35.35
|change = +0.0
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:274689}}
|percentage = 60.01
|change = -0.46
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
|
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser = Bahujan Samaj Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2017 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2017 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|U. P. Legislative Assembly Election, 2017]]: [[Muradnagar]]<ref name="election2017">{{cite web |date=2018-08-16 |title=Uttar Pradesh General Legislative Election 2017|url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3471-uttar-pradesh-general-legislative-election-2017/ |website=[[Election Commission of India]]}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|candidate = Ajit Pal Tyagi
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = {{formatnum:140759}}
|percentage = 55.52
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Sudhan Kumar
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|votes = {{formatnum:51147}}
|percentage = 20.17
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = [[Surendra Prakash Goel]]
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = {{formatnum:49989}}
|percentage = 19.72
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Ajay Pal Singh
|party = Rashtriya Lok Dal
|votes = {{formatnum:6648}}
|percentage = 2.62
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:1053}}
|percentage = 0.42
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:89612}}
|percentage = 35.35
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:253532}}
|percentage = 60.47
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
|
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser = Bahujan Samaj Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2012===
{{Election box begin | title=2012 General Elections: Muradnagar<ref name="2012 Election Results">{{cite news |title=2012 Election Results |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/AE2012/Stats_Report_UP2012.pdf |access-date=16 Oct 2015 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] website}}</ref>}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = [[Wahab Chaudhary]]
|votes = 57,103
|percentage = 26.43
|change = -
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Samajwadi Party
|candidate = Rajpal Tyagi
|votes = 53,481
|percentage = 24.75
|change = -
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Birjpal Teotia
|votes = 52,563
|percentage = 24.33
|change = -
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Surendra Kumar Munni
|votes = 49,364
|percentage = 22.85
|change = -
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party =
|candidate = Remainder 9 candidates
|votes = 3,550
|percentage = 1.65
|change = -
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = 3,622
|percentage = 1.68
|change = -
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = 216,061
|percentage = 62.34
|change = -
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
|
|loser = Independent politician
| Independent
|winner = Bahujan Samaj Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
*[[Ghaziabad district, India]]
*[[Ghaziabad Lok Sabha constituency]]
*[[Sixteenth Legislative Assembly of Uttar Pradesh]]
*[[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]

{{Portal bar|India|Politics}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|colwidth=40em}}

==External links==
* {{cite web |title=Results of Uttar Pradesh Assembly Elections |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/92-uttar-pradesh/ |website=eci.gov.in |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=15 March 2022}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Uttar Pradesh|state=collapsed}}
{{Uttar Pradesh elections|state=collapsed}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Ghaziabad district]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1967]]
[[Category:1967 establishments in Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Politics of Uttar Pradesh]]

Marathi language

2026-03-29T16:11:42Z

Juliaauhm:

{{Short description|Indo-Aryan language of India}}
{{Redirect|Maharashtrian language|the Prakrit|Maharashtri Prakrit|other uses|Languages of Maharashtra}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2024}}
{{Infobox language
| name = Marathi
| nativename = {{lang|mr|मराठी}}, {{lang|mr|𑘦𑘨𑘰𑘙𑘲}}, {{lang|mr|مراٹھی}} ({{translit|mr|Marāṭhī}})
| altname =
| image = Marathi language.svg
| imagecaption = The word {{translit|mr|Marāṭhī}} in [[Devanagari]]
| imageheader =
| pronunciation = {{IPA|mr|məˈɾaːʈʰiː|lang|MarathiLanguage_pronunciation.ogg}} {{IPAc-en|lang|m|ə|ˈ|r|ɑː|t|i}}
| ethnicity = [[Marathi people|Marathi]]
| state = [[Languages of India|India]]
| region = [[South India|South]], South Central and [[Western India]]
* [[Maharashtra]]
* [[Goa]] (minority)
* [[Karnataka]] (minority in the districts of [[Belagavi district|Belagavi]], and [[Bidar district|Bidar]])
* [[Gujarat]] (a small population in [[Vadodara]] and [[Surat]])
* [[Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu]]<ref name="dadra">[http://dnh.nic.in/deptdoc/vguide.pdf] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107091953/http://dnh.nic.in/deptdoc/vguide.pdf|date=7 November 2012}}</ref><ref name="C-16 Population By Mother Tongue">{{cite web |title=C-16 Population By Mother Tongue |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-16.html |website=censusindia.gov.in |access-date=3 April 2021}}</ref><ref name="Indian Linguistics">{{cite book |title=Indian Linguistics |date=2008 |publisher=Linguistic Society of India. |page=161 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fCmz4B8I62QC |language=en}}</ref> (minority)
* [[Tamil Nadu]] (by some people in [[Thanjavur]])
| stand1 = Standard Marathi<ref name=kas>{{cite journal|title=Marathi|journal=London Oriental and African Language Library|volume=13 |first1=Rameśa|last1= Dhoṅgaḍe|first2=Kashi|last2=Wali|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company|year=2009|isbn=978-90-272-3813-9|pages=101, 139}}</ref>
| dialects = * [[Varhadi dialect|Varhadi]] (major)<ref name=kas/>
* Zadi Boli<ref name="misalpav.com">{{cite web|url=https://www.misalpav.com/node/30533|title=झाडी बोली (मराठी भाषेतील सौंदर्यस्थळे) {{!}} मिसळपाव|website=www.misalpav.com|access-date=15 March 2020}}</ref>
* Southern Indian Marathi<ref name="salc.uchicago.edu">{{cite web|url=https://salc.uchicago.edu/language-study/marathi|title=Marathi {{!}} South Asian Languages and Civilizations|website=salc.uchicago.edu|access-date=15 March 2020}}</ref> ([[Thanjavur Marathi dialect|Thanjavur Marathi]], Kerala Marathi{{Sfn|Ghatage|1970}})
* [[East Indian language|East Indian Marathi]]
* [[Judeo-Marathi]]
| speakers = [[first language|L1]]: {{sigfig|83.247270|2}} million
| date = 2011
| ref = e27
| speakers2 = [[second language|L2]]: {{sigfig|16.015600|2}} million (2011)<ref name=e27/>
| speakers_label = Speakers
| familycolor = Indo-European
| fam2 = [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
| fam3 = [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]]
| fam4 = [[Southern Indo-Aryan languages|Southern]]
| fam5 = [[Marathi-Konkani languages|Marathi–Konkani]]
| dia1 = [[Varhadi dialect|Varhadi Marathi]]
| dia2 = [[Thanjavur Marathi dialect|Thanjavur Marathi]]
| dia3 = [[East Indian language|East Indian Marathi]]
| dia4 = [[Judeo-Marathi]]
| ancestor = [[Maharashtri Prakrit]]
| script = *[[Devanagari]] (official) ([[Marathi phonology|Marathi alphabet]])
*[[Modi script|Modi]] (historical)<ref>{{cite web | url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/pune/pune-know-your-city-modi-script-7758105/ | title=Know Your City: The Modi script, using which Maratha empire would conduct business | date=5 February 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/other-modi-wave-how-700-year-marathi-script-is-making-a-comeback/articleshow/70111334.cms | title='Other' Modi wave: How 700-year Marathi script is making a comeback | website=[[The Times of India]] | date=7 July 2019 }}</ref>
*[[Arabic script]] (sometimes by [[Marathi Muslims]])
*[[Goykanadi]] (historical, sometimes)<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.omniglot.com/writing/goykanadi.htm | title=Goykanadi script}}</ref>
*[[Kadamba script|Kadamba]] (historical)<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.omniglot.com/writing/marathi.htm | title=Marathi language, alphabet and pronunciation}}</ref>
*[[Nāgarī script|Nagari]] (historical)
| sign = [[Indian Signing System]]
| nation = [[Official languages of India|India]]
* [[Maharashtra]]
* [[Goa]]<ref name="ic">{{cite web |title=The Goa, Daman and Diu Official Language Act, 1987 |url=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/6809/1/official_language_act.pdf |access-date=12 November 2022 |website=indiacode.nic.in }}</ref><ref name="goa"/> (additional)
| agency = [[Ministry of Marathi Language]] and various [[#Marathi organisations|other institutions]]
| iso1 = mr
| iso2 = mar
| lc1 = mar
| ld1 = Modern Marathi
| lc2 = omr
| ld2 = Old Marathi
| linglist = omr
| lingname = Old Marathi
| glotto = mara1378
| glottoname = Modern Marathi
| glottorefname = Marathi
| glotto2 = oldm1244
| glottoname2 = Old Marathi
| lingua = 59-AAF-o
| notice = Indic
| notice2 = IPA
| map = Marathi speaker map.svg
| mapscale = 1.0
| mapcaption = {{Legend|#2a7fff|regions where Marathi is the language of the majority or plurality}} {{Legend|#80b3ff|regions where Marathi is the language of a significant minority}}
| map2 = File:Geographic distribution of Marathi language.png|
| mapcaption2 = Map of Marathi language in India (district-wise). Darker shades imply a greater percentage of native speakers of Marathi in each district.
}}

'''Marathi''' ({{IPAc-en|m|ə|ˈ|r|ɑː|t|i}} {{respell|mə|RAH|tee}};<ref>Laurie Bauer, 2007, ''The Linguistics Student's Handbook'', Edinburgh</ref> {{lang|mr|मराठी}}, {{lang|mr|𑘦𑘨𑘰𑘙𑘲}}, {{Lang|mr|مراٹھی}}, {{Transliteration|mr|Marāṭhī}}, {{IPA|mr|məˈɾaːʈʰiː|pron|MarathiLanguage_pronunciation.ogg}}) is a [[Classical languages of India|classical]] [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan language]] predominantly spoken by the [[Marathi people]] in the Indian state of [[Maharashtra]] and is also spoken in [[Goa]], and parts of [[Gujarat]], [[Karnataka]] and the territory of [[Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu]].<ref name="dadra">[http://dnh.nic.in/deptdoc/vguide.pdf] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107091953/http://dnh.nic.in/deptdoc/vguide.pdf|date=7 November 2012}}</ref><ref name="C-16 Population By Mother Tongue">{{cite web |title=C-16 Population By Mother Tongue |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-16.html |website=censusindia.gov.in |access-date=3 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a1hg-aCdw_4C&dq=marathi+silvassa&pg=RA2-PA4 | title=N. E. R. Exam. | isbn=978-81-7482-464-6 | last1=Lal | first1=M. B. | date=2008 | publisher=Upkar Prakashan }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xabOEAAAQBAJ&dq=marathi+silvassa&pg=PA153 | title=India Today: An Encyclopedia of Life in the Republic [2 volumes] | isbn=978-0-313-37463-0 | last1=Kaminsky | first1=Arnold P. | last2=Roger | first2=D. Long PH D. | date=23 September 2011 | publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA}}</ref>
It is the official language of Maharashtra, and an additional official language in the state of [[Goa]], where it is used for replies when requests are received in Marathi.

It is one of the 22 [[scheduled languages of India]], with 83 million speakers as of 2011. Marathi ranks 15th in the [[List of languages by number of native speakers|list of languages with the most native speakers in the world]]. Marathi has the [[List of languages by number of native speakers in India|third largest number]] of native speakers in India, after [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] and [[Bengali language|Bengali]].<ref name="auto1">{{cite web|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/C-16_25062018_NEW.pdf|title=Abstract of Language Strength in India: 2011 Census |publisher=Censusindia.gov.in}}</ref> Marathi has some of the oldest [[literature]] of all modern Indian languages.<ref>"arts, South Asian". ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Encyclopædia Britannica 2007 Ultimate Reference Suite.</ref> The major dialects of Marathi are Standard Marathi and the [[Varhadi dialect|Varhadi Marathi]].<ref name=kas>{{cite journal|title=Marathi|journal=London Oriental and African Language Library|volume=13 |first1=Rameśa|last1= Dhoṅgaḍe|first2=Kashi|last2=Wali|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company|year=2009|isbn=978-90-272-3813-9|pages=101, 139}}</ref> Marathi was designated as a [[classical languages of India|classical language]] by the [[Government of India]] in October 2024.<ref name="IT_Oct2024"/>

Marathi distinguishes [[Clusivity|inclusive and exclusive]] forms of 'we' and possesses three [[Grammatical gender|genders]]: masculine, feminine, and neuter. Its [[phonology]] contrasts [[apico-alveolar]] with [[alveopalatal]] [[affricates]] and [[alveolar lateral|alveolar]] with [[Retroflex lateral|retroflex]] laterals ({{IPA|[l]}} and {{IPA|[ɭ]}} (Marathi letters {{lang|mr|ल}} and {{lang|mr|ळ}} respectively).{{Sfn|Dhongde|Wali|2009|pp=11–15}}

== History ==
{{see also|Marathi literature}}
[[File:Foot bahubali2.jpg|right|thumb|981 CE, Maharashtri Prakrit inscription at the foot of [[Bahubali]] statue at [[Shravanabelagola]] [[Jain]] temple, [[Karnataka]]]]
Modern Indo-Aryan languages, including Marathi, that belong to the [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan language family]] are derived from [[Prakrit]]s via [[Apabhraṃśa]]. Marathi is one of several languages that further descend from [[Maharashtri Prakrit]]. Further changes led to the formation of [[Apabhraṃśa]], followed by Old Marathi.<ref>{{cite book |last=Pandharipande |first=Rajeshwari |date=1997 |title=Marathi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FeNBEAAAQBAJ&q=jain&pg=PT24 |location= |publisher=Routledge |page=xxxvii |isbn=0-415-00319-9}}</ref>
However, this is challenged by Bloch (1970), who states that [[Apabhraṃśa]] was formed after Marathi had already separated from the Middle Indo-Aryan dialect.{{sfn|Bloch|1970|p=32}} Marathi, a derivative of
[[Maharashtri]], is probably first attested in a 739 CE [[Indian copper plate inscriptions|copper-plate inscription]] found in [[Satara district|Satara]]. Several inscriptions dated to the second half of the 11th century feature Marathi, which is usually appended to [[Sanskrit]] or [[Kannada language|Kannada]] in these inscriptions.{{sfn|Christian Lee Novetzke|2016|p=53}} The earliest Marathi-only inscriptions are the ones issued during the [[Shilahara]] rule, including a {{circa|1012 CE}} stone inscription from Akshi taluka of [[Raigad district]] and a 1060 or 1086 CE copper-plate inscription from Dive that records a land grant (''[[agrahara]]'') to a Brahmin.{{sfn|Christian Lee Novetzke|2016|pp=53-54}} A 2-line 1118 CE Prakrit inscription at [[Shravanabelagola]] records a grant by the [[Hoysala]]s. These inscriptions suggest that Prakrit was a standard written language by the 12th century. However, after the Gaha Sattasai, there is no record of any literature produced in Marathi until the late 13th century.{{sfn|Christian Lee Novetzke|2016|p=54}}

=== Yadava period ===
{{More citations needed|date=January 2024}}
After 1187 CE, the use of Marathi grew substantially in the inscriptions of the [[Seuna (Yadava) dynasty|Yadava]] kings, who earlier used Kannada and Sanskrit in their inscriptions.{{sfn|Christian Lee Novetzke|2016|pp=53-54}} Marathi became the dominant language of epigraphy during the last half century of the dynasty's rule (14th century), and may have been a result of the Yadavas' attempts to connect with their Marathi-speaking subjects and to distinguish themselves from the Kannada-speaking [[Hoysala]]s.{{sfn|Christian Lee Novetzke|2016|p=53}}<ref name="Talbot2001">{{cite book|author=Cynthia Talbot|title=Precolonial India in Practice: Society, Region, and Identity in Medieval Andhra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pfAKljlCJq0C&pg=PR9|date=20 September 2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-803123-9|pages=211–213}}</ref>

Further growth and usage of the language occurred due to two religious sects – the [[Mahanubhava]] and [[Varkari]] ''[[panthan]]''s – who adopted Marathi as the medium for preaching their doctrines of devotion. Marathi was used in court life by the time of the [[Seuna (Yadava) dynasty|Yadava]] kings. During the reign of the last three Yadava kings, a great deal of literature in verse and prose, on astrology, [[medicine]], [[Puranas]], [[Vedanta]], kings and courtiers was created. ''Nalopakhyana'', ''Rukminiswayamvara'' and Shripati's ''Jyotisharatnamala'' (1039) are a few examples.

The oldest book in prose form in Marathi, ''Vivēkasindhu'' ({{lang|mr|विवेकसिंधु}}), was written by [[Mukundaraj]]a, a [[Nath]] yogi and arch-poet of Marathi. Mukundaraja bases his exposition of the basic tenets of the [[Hindu philosophy]] and the yoga marga on the utterances or teachings of [[Shankaracharya]]. Mukundaraja's other work, ''Paramamrta,'' is considered the first systematic attempt to explain the Vedanta in the Marathi language.

Notable examples of Marathi prose are "{{IAST|Līḷācarītra}}" ({{lang|mr|लीळाचरित्र}}), events and anecdotes from the miracle-filled life of [[Chakradhar Swami]] of the Mahanubhava sect compiled by his close disciple, Mahimbhatta, in 1238. The ''[[Leela Charitra|Līḷācarītra]]'' is considered to be the first [[biography]] written in the Marathi language. Mahimbhatta's second important literary work is the ''Shri Govindaprabhucharitra'' or ''Ruddhipurcharitra'', a biography of Shri Chakradhar Swami's guru, Shri Govind Prabhu. This was probably written in 1288. The Mahanubhava [[sect]] made Marathi a vehicle for the propagation of religion and culture. [[Mahanubhava]] literature generally comprises works that describe the [[incarnations]] of gods, the history of the sect, commentaries on the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', poetical works narrating the stories of the life of [[Krishna]] and grammatical and [[etymology|etymological]] works that are deemed useful to explain the philosophy of the sect.

===Medieval and Deccan Sultanate period===
The 13th century Varkari saint [[Dnyaneshwar]] (1275–1296) wrote a treatise in Marathi on Bhagawat Gita popularly called ''[[Dnyaneshwari]]'' and ''[[Amrutanubhav]]a''.{{sfn|Mokashi|1987|p=39}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Doderet |first1=W. |title=The Passive Voice of the Jnanesvari |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, University of London |date=1926 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=59–64 |jstor=607401 |issn=1356-1898}}</ref>

Mukund Raj was a poet who lived in the 13th century and is said to be the first poet who composed in Marathi.{{sfn|Kher|1895|pp=446–454}} He is known for the ''Viveka-Siddhi'' and ''Parammruta'' which are metaphysical, pantheistic works connected with orthodox [[Advaita Vedanta|Vedantism]].

The 16th century saint-poet [[Eknath]] (1528–1599) is well known for composing the Eknāthī Bhāgavat, a commentary on Bhagavat Purana and the devotional songs called Bharud.<ref>{{cite thesis|last1=Keune|first1=Jon Milton|title=Eknāth Remembered and Reformed: Bhakti, Brahmans, and Untouchables in Marathi Historiography|date=2011|publisher=Columbia University press|location=New York, New York, US|page=32|doi=10.7916/D8CN79VK |hdl=10022/AC:P:11409 |url=http://hdl.handle.net/10022/AC:P:11409|access-date=9 March 2016}}</ref> Mukteshwar translated the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' into Marathi; [[Tukaram]] (1608–1649) transformed Marathi into a rich literary language. His poetry contained his inspirations. Tukaram wrote over 3000 [[abhang]]s or devotional songs.<ref name="Greenwood Press">{{cite book|editor-last1=Natarajan|editor-first1=Nalini|title=Handbook of twentieth century literatures of India|date=1996|publisher=Greenwood Press|location=Westport, Conn. [u.a.]|isbn=978-0-313-28778-7|page=209|edition=1. publ.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1lTnv6o-d_oC&q=dnyaneshwari+geeta+bhavarth+deepika&pg=PA207}}</ref> [[Manmath Swami|Manmathswamy]](1561–1631) wrote a large volume of poetry and literature in Marathi. The Shivparv Ambhag composed by him is still read with interest by [[Veerashaiva]] people of Marathwada. Apart from this, the Pararamrhasya, a spiritual book composed by him on Shatsthalsiddhanta, is also recited.<ref>{{Cite book |last=eGangotri |url=https://archive.org/details/param-rahasya-by-shri-manmath-swami-shaiva-bharati-varanasi |title=Param Rahasya By Shri Manmath Swami Shaiva Bharati Varanasi}}</ref>

Marathi was widely used during the Sultanate period. Although the rulers were Muslims, the local feudal landlords and the revenue collectors were Hindus and so was the majority of the population. To simplify administration and revenue collection, the sultans promoted use of Marathi in official documents. However, the Marathi language from the era is heavily [[Persian language in South Asia|Persian]]ised in its vocabulary.<ref>{{cite journal|date=1992|title=Deccan (Maharashtra) Under the Muslim Rulers From Khaljis to Shivaji: a Study in Interaction, Professor S.M Katre Felicitation|jstor=42930434|journal=Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute|volume=51/52|pages=501–510|last1=Kulkarni|first1=G.T.}}</ref> The Persian influence continues to this day with many Persian derived words used in everyday speech such as bāg (Garden), kārkhānā (factory), shahar (city), bāzār (market), dukān (shop), hushār (clever), kāḡaḏ (paper), khurchi (chair), jamin (land), jāhirāt (advertisement), and hazār (thousand)<ref name="iranicaonline.org">{{cite web|last1=Qasemi|first1=S. H.|title=Marathi Language, Persian Elements In|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/marathi-language|website=Encyclopedia Iranica|access-date=17 September 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Pathan |first1=Y. M. |title=Farsi-Marathi Anubandh (फारसी मराठी अनुबंध) |date=2006 |publisher=महाराष्ट्र राज्य साहित्य आणि संस्कृती मंडळ |location=Mumbai |url=https://sahitya.marathi.gov.in/scans/Farsi-Marathi%20Anubandh.pdf |access-date=13 February 2022}}</ref> Marathi also became language of administration during the [[Ahmadnagar Sultanate]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gordon|first1=Stewart|title=Cambridge History of India: The Marathas 1600-1818|date=1993|publisher=Cambridge University press|location=Cambridge, UK|isbn=978-0-521-26883-7|page=16|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iHK-BhVXOU4C&q=marathi++nizamshahi+stewart+gordon&pg=PR9}}</ref> Adilshahi of Bijapur also used Marathi for administration and record keeping.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Kamat|first1=Jyotsna|title=The Adil Shahi Kingdom (1510 CE to 1686 CE)|url=http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/bijapur/adilshahis.htm|website=Kamat's Potpourri|access-date=4 December 2014}}</ref>

===Maratha Empire===
Marathi gained prominence with the rise of the [[Maratha Kingdom]] beginning with the reign of [[Shivaji]]. In his court, Shivaji replaced Persian, the common courtly language in the region, with Marathi. The Marathi language used in administrative documents also became less [[Persianised]]. Whereas in 1630, 80% of the vocabulary was Persian, it dropped to 37% by 1677.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Eaton|first1=Richard M. |title=The new Cambridge history of India|date=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=0-521-25484-1|page=154|edition=1. publ.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cGd2huLXEVYC&q=Afanasy+Nikitin+bahamani&pg=PR12|access-date=25 March 2016}}</ref> His reign stimulated the deployment of Marathi as a tool of systematic description and understanding.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pollock|first=Sheldon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=740AqMUW8WQC&pg=PA50|title=Forms of Knowledge in Early Modern Asia: Explorations in the Intellectual History of India and Tibet, 1500–1800|date=14 March 2011|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=978-0-8223-4904-4|page=50|language=en}}</ref> Shivaji Maharaj commissioned one of his officials, [[Khando Ballal|Balaji Avaji Chitnis]], to make a comprehensive lexicon to replace Persian and [[Arabic]] terms with their Sanskrit equivalents. This led to production of '[[Rajya Vyavahara Kosha|Rājavyavahārakośa]]', the thesaurus of state usage in 1677.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pollock|first=Sheldon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=740AqMUW8WQC&pg=PA50|title=Forms of Knowledge in Early Modern Asia: Explorations in the Intellectual History of India and Tibet, 1500–1800|date=14 March 2011|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=978-0-8223-4904-4|pages=50, 60|language=en}}</ref>

Subsequent Maratha rulers extended the confederacy. These excursions by the Marathas helped to spread Marathi over broader geographical regions. This period also saw the use of Marathi in transactions involving land and other business. Documents from this period, therefore, give a better picture of the life of common people. There are a number of [[Bakhar]]s (journals or narratives of historical events) written in Marathi and Modi script from this period.
[[File:Ancient scriptures on the walls in Big Temple, Thanjavur - 2.JPG|right|thumb|Marathi inscription inside [[Brihadisvara temple]] complex, Thanjavur]]
In the 18th century during Peshwa rule, some well-known works such as Yatharthadeepika by [[Vaman Pandit]], Naladamayanti Swayamvara by [[Raghunath Pandit]], Pandava Pratap, Harivijay, Ramvijay by Shridhar Pandit and Mahabharata by [[Moropant]] were produced. Krishnadayarnava and Sridhar were poets during the [[Peshwa]] period. New literary forms were successfully experimented with during the period and classical styles were revived, especially the Mahakavya and Prabandha forms. The most important hagiographies of Varkari Bhakti saints were written by [[Mahipati]] in the 18th century.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Callewaert|first1=Winand M.|last2=Snell|first2=Rupert|last3=Tulpule|first3=S G|title=According to Tradition: Hagiographical Writing in India|date=1994|publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag|location=Wiesbaden, Germany|isbn=3-447-03524-2|page=166|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GrMwdEqHLzEC&q=mahipati+&pg=PA159|access-date=9 April 2015}}</ref><ref name="Greenwood Press"/>
Other well known literary scholars of the 17th century were [[Mukteshwar]] and [[Shridhar]].<ref name="auto">{{cite book|editor-last1=Kosambi|editor-first1=Meera|last=Ranade|first=Ashok D.|title=Intersections: socio-cultural trends in Maharashtra|date=2000|publisher=Sangam|location=London|isbn=978-0-86311-824-1|pages=194–210|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XU8dmAiaZSgC&q=anant+phandi&pg=PA194}}</ref> Mukteshwar was the grandson of [[Eknath]] and is the most distinguished poet in the ''Ovi'' meter. He is most known for translating the [[Mahabharata]] and the [[Ramayana]] in Marathi but only a part of the Mahabharata translation is available and the entire Ramayana translation is lost. Shridhar Kulkarni came from the [[Pandharpur]] area and his works are said to have superseded the Sanskrit epics to a certain extent. This period also saw the development of Powada (ballads sung in honour of warriors), and [[Lavani]] (romantic songs presented with dance and instruments like tabla). Major poet composers of [[Powada]] and [[Lavani]] songs of the 17th and the 18th century were Anant Phandi, Ram Joshi and [[Honaji Bala]].<ref name="auto"/>

===British colonial period===
The [[British Raj|British colonial period]] starting in early 1800s saw standardisation of Marathi grammar through the efforts of the Christian missionary [[William Carey (missionary)|William Carey]]. Carey's dictionary had fewer entries and Marathi words were in [[Devanagari]]. Translations of the [[Bible]] were the first books to be printed in Marathi. These translations by William Carey, the [[Marathi Christians|American Marathi mission]] and the Scottish missionaries led to the development of a peculiar pidginised Marathi called "Missionary Marathi" in the early 1800s.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last1=Ray|editor-first1=Mohit K.|last=Sawant|first=Sunil|title=Studies in translation|date=2008|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Distributors|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-269-0922-3|pages=134–135|edition=2nd rev. and enl.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Puy3WGwVWXoC&pg=PA133}}</ref> The most comprehensive Marathi-English dictionary was compiled by Captain [[James Thomas Molesworth]] and Major [[Thomas Candy]] in 1831. The book is still in print nearly two centuries after its publication.<ref>{{cite book|first1=James|last1=Molesworth|first2=Thomas|last2=Candy|others=Narayan G Kalelkar (preface)|title=Molesworth's, Marathi-English dictionary|year=1857 |edition=2nd |publisher=J.C. Furla, Shubhada Saraswat Prakashan|location=Pune|isbn=81-86411-57-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=owHmI3qi_BIC&q=william+carey+printing++marathi+sharma+modi&pg=PP7}}</ref>
The colonial authorities also worked on standardising Marathi under the leadership of Molesworth and Candy. They consulted Brahmins of [[Pune]] for this task and adopted the Sanskrit dominated dialect spoken by the elite in the city as the standard dialect for Marathi.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Chavan|first1=Dilip|title=Language politics under colonialism: caste, class and language pedagogy in western India|date=2013|publisher=Cambridge Scholars|location=Newcastle upon Tyne|isbn=978-1-4438-4250-1|page=174|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zuIxBwAAQBAJ&pg=PR7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Chavan|first1=Dilip|title=Language politics under colonialism: caste, class and language pedagogy in western India|date=2013|publisher=Cambridge Scholars|location=Newcastle upon Tyne|isbn=978-1-4438-4250-1|pages=136–184|edition=first|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zuIxBwAAQBAJ&q=pune+standard+dialect&pg=PA148|access-date=13 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor-last1=Natarajan|editor-first1=Nalini |last=Deo|first=Shripad D.|title=Handbook of twentieth century literatures of India|date=1996|publisher=Greenwood Press|location=Westport, Conn. [u.a.]|isbn=978-0-313-28778-7|page=212|edition=1. publ.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1lTnv6o-d_oC&q=pune+culture+theatre+movies&pg=PA207}}</ref><ref name="Rao1994">{{cite book|editor=Goparaju Sambasiva Rao|author=Rajyashree|title=Language Change: Lexical Diffusion and Literacy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8Ben0lE61msC&pg=PA9|year=1994|publisher=Academic Foundation|isbn=978-81-7188-057-7|pages=45–58}}</ref>

The first Marathi translation of the [[New Testament]] was published in 1811 by the [[Serampore Mission Press|Serampore press]] of William Carey.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Smith|first1=George|title=Life of William Carey: Shoemaker and Missionary|date=2016|publisher=CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform|isbn=978-1-5369-7612-0|page=258|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZLa787pY5gMC&pg=PR1}}</ref> The first Marathi newspaper called Durpan was started by [[Balshastri Jambhekar]] in 1832.<ref>Tucker, R., 1976. Hindu Traditionalism and Nationalist Ideologies in Nineteenth-Century Maharashtra. Modern Asian Studies, 10(3), pp.321-348.</ref> Newspapers provided a platform for sharing literary views, and many books on social reforms were written. The First Marathi periodical ''Dirghadarshan'' was started in 1840.
The Marathi language flourished, as Marathi drama gained popularity. Musicals known as ''[[Sangeet Natak]]'' also evolved.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Govind|first=Ranjani|url=https://www.thehindu.com/society/history-and-culture/musical-drama-brings-epic-to-life/article27287694.ece|title=Musical drama brings epic to life|date=29 May 2019|work=The Hindu|access-date=15 March 2020|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> [[Keshavasut]], the father of modern Marathi poetry published his first poem in 1885.
The late-19th century in Maharashtra saw the rise of [[essayist]] [[Vishnushastri Chiplunkar]] with his periodical, Nibandhmala that had essays that criticised social reformers like [[Jyotirao Phule|Phule]] and [[Gopal Hari Deshmukh]]. He also founded the popular Marathi periodical of that era called [[Kesari (Marathi newspaper)|Kesari]] in 1881.<ref name="O'Hanlon2002">{{cite book|author=[[Polly O'Hanlon|Rosalind O'Hanlon]]|title=Caste, Conflict and Ideology: Mahatma Jotirao Phule and Low Caste Protest in Nineteenth-Century Western India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5kMrsTj1NeYC|date=22 August 2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-52308-0|page=288}}</ref> Later under the editorship of [[Lokmanya Tilak]], the newspaper was instrumental in spreading Tilak's nationalist and social views.<ref name="rao2008">{{cite journal | last1 = Rao | first1 = P.V. | s2cid = 143961063 | year = 2008 | title = Women's Education and the Nationalist Response in Western India: Part II–Higher Education | journal = Indian Journal of Gender Studies | volume = 15 | issue = 1| pages = 141–148 | doi=10.1177/097152150701500108}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Rao | first1 = P.V. | s2cid = 197651677 | year = 2007 | title = Women's Education and the Nationalist Response in Western India: Part I-Basic Education | journal = Indian Journal of Gender Studies | volume = 14 | issue = 2| page = 307 | doi=10.1177/097152150701400206}}</ref><ref name="jstor.org">{{cite journal|author=Gail Omvedt|title=Non-Brahmans and Nationalists in Poona|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|date=1974|volume=9|issue=6/8|pages=201–219|jstor=4363419}}</ref> Phule and Deshmukh also started their periodicals, ''[[Deenbandhu]]'' and ''Prabhakar'', that criticised the prevailing Hindu culture of the day.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last1=Natarajan|editor-first1=Nalini |last=Deo|first=Shripad D.|title=Handbook of twentieth century literatures of India|date=1996|publisher=Greenwood Press|location=Westport, Conn. [u.a.]|isbn=978-0-313-28778-7|pages=213–214|edition=1. publ.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1lTnv6o-d_oC&q=pune+culture+theatre+movies&pg=PA207}}</ref> The 19th century and early 20th century saw several books published on Marathi grammar. Notable grammarians of this period were [[Dadoba Pandurang|Tarkhadkar]], A.K.Kher, Moro Keshav Damle, and R.Joshi<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pardeshi |first1=Prashant |title=The Passive and Related Constructions in Marathi |series=Kobe papers in linguistics |issue=2 |date=2000 |location=Kobe, Japan |publisher=Kobe University |pages=123–146 |url=http://www.lib.kobe-u.ac.jp/repository/81001549.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180315070603/http://www.lib.kobe-u.ac.jp/repository/81001549.pdf |archive-date=15 March 2018}}</ref>

The first half of the 20th century was marked by new enthusiasm in literary pursuits, and socio-political activism helped achieve major milestones in [[Marathi literature]], drama, music and film. Modern Marathi prose flourished: for example, [[Narasimha Chintaman Kelkar|N.C. Kelkar]]'s biographical writings, novels of [[Hari Narayan Apte]], [[Narayan Sitaram Phadke]] and [[V. S. Khandekar]], [[Vinayak Damodar Savarkar]]'s nationalist literature and plays of Mama Varerkar and Kirloskar. In folk arts, [[Patthe Bapurao]] wrote many lavani songs during the late colonial period.

===Marathi since Indian independence in 1947===
[[File:marathinewspapers.jpg|thumb| The popular [[List of Marathi-language newspapers|Marathi language newspapers]] at a newsstand in Mumbai, 2006]]
After [[Partition of India|Indian independence]], Marathi was accorded the status of a [[Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India|scheduled language]] on the national level. In 1956, the then Bombay state was reorganised, which brought most Marathi and Gujarati speaking areas under one state. Further re-organization of the [[Bombay Presidency|Bombay]] state on 1 May 1960, created the Marathi speaking Maharashtra and Gujarati speaking Gujarat state respectively. With state and cultural protection, Marathi made great strides by the 1990s. A literary event called ''[[Akhil Bharatiya Marathi Sahitya Sammelan]]'' (All-India Marathi Literature Meet) is held every year. In addition, the ''Akhil Bharatiya Marathi Natya Sammelan'' (All-India Marathi Theatre Convention) is also held annually. Both events are very popular among Marathi speakers.

Notable works in Marathi in the latter half of the 20th century include Khandekar's [[Yayati]], which won him the [[Jnanpith Award]]. Also [[Vijay Tendulkar]]'s plays in Marathi have earned him a reputation beyond [[Maharashtra]]. [[P.L.Deshpande|P.L. Deshpande]] (popularly known as ''PuLa''), [[Vishnu Vaman Shirwadkar]], [[P.K.Atre|P.K. Atre]], [[Prabodhankar Thackeray]] and Vishwas Patil are known for their writings in Marathi in the fields of drama, comedy and social commentary. [[Bashir Momin Kavathekar]] wrote Lavani's and folk songs for [[Tamasha]] artists.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Deshpande|first1=G. P.|title=Marathi Literature since Independence: Some Pleasures and Displeasures|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|date=1997|volume=32|issue=44/45|pages=2885–2892|jstor=4406042}}</ref><ref>"अवलिया लोकसाहित्यीक", "Sakal, a leading Marathi Daily", Pune, 21 November 2021.</ref>

In 1958 the term "[[Dalit literature#Dalit literature in Maharashtra|Dalit literature]]" was used for the first time, when the first conference of ''Maharashtra Dalit Sahitya Sangha'' (Maharashtra Dalit Literature Society) was held at [[Mumbai]], a movement inspired by 19th century social reformer, [[Jyotiba Phule]] and eminent dalit leader, Dr. [[Bhimrao Ambedkar]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Handbook of twentieth-century literatures of India |last=Natarajan |first=Nalini |author2=Emmanuel Sampath Nelson|chapter= Chap 13: Dalit Literature in Marathi by Veena Deo|year=1996 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=0-313-28778-3|page=363 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1lTnv6o-d_oC&q=Dalit+literature&pg=PA363 }}</ref> [[Baburao Bagul]] (1930–2008) was a pioneer of [[Dalit]] writings in Marathi.<ref name=han>{{cite book |last1=Natarajan |first1=Nalini |last2=Nelson |first2=Emmanuel Sampath |title=Handbook of Twentieth-Century Literatures of India |date=9 September 1996 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-0-313-28778-7 |page=368 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1lTnv6o-d_oC&dq=Baburao+Bagul&pg=PA368}}</ref> His first collection of stories, ''Jevha Mi Jat Chorali'' ({{lang|mr|जेव्हा मी जात चोरली}}, "''When I Stole My Caste''"), published in 1963, created a stir in [[Marathi literature]] with its passionate depiction of a cruel society and thus brought in new momentum to Dalit literature in Marathi.<ref name=sa>{{cite book |last1=Rāmakr̥ṣṇan |first1=I. Vi |title=Indian Short Stories,1900-2000 |date=2005 |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |isbn=978-81-260-1091-2 |page=409 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kLn11KD4ea0C&pg=PA409 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Datta |first1=Amaresh |title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: Devraj to Jyoti |date=1988 |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |isbn=978-81-260-1194-0 |page=1823 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zB4n3MVozbUC&dq=Baburao+Bagul&pg=PA1823 |language=en}}</ref> Gradually with other writers like [[Namdeo Dhasal]] (who founded [[Dalit Panther]]), these Dalit writings paved way for the strengthening of Dalit movement.<ref>{{cite news |title=Of art, identity, and politics |url= http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mp/2003/01/23/stories/2003012300470200.htm|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20030702073745/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mp/2003/01/23/stories/2003012300470200.htm|archive-date= 2 July 2003|newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |date=23 January 2003 }}</ref> Notable Dalit authors writing in Marathi include [[Arun Kamble]], [[Shantabai Kamble]], [[Raja Dhale]], [[Namdev Dhasal]], [[Daya Pawar]], [[Annabhau Sathe]], [[Laxman Mane]], [[Laxman Gaikwad]], [[Sharankumar Limbale]], [[Bhau Panchbhai]], [[Kishor Shantabai Kale]], [[Narendra Jadhav]], [[Keshav Meshram]], [[Urmila Pawar]], Vinay Dharwadkar, Gangadhar Pantawane, [[Kumud Pawde]] and Jyoti Lanjewar.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Mathur |first1=Barkha |title=City hails Pantawane as 'father of Dalit literature' |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/nagpur/city-hails-pantawane-as-father-of-dalit-literature-mourn-his-passing-away/articleshow/63494065.cms |access-date=22 February 2019 |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=28 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Deo |first1=Veena |title=Dalit Literaturetwenty-Five Years of Protest? Of Progress? |last2=Zelliot |first2=Eleanor |journal=Journal of South Asian Literature |date=1994 |volume= 29 |issue=2 |pages=41–67 |jstor=25797513}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Feldhaus |first1=Anne |title=Images of Women in Maharashtrian Literature and Religion |date=1996 |publisher=SUNY Press |page=78 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ooV3Rz9zQvQC&q=Jyoti+Lanjewar+news&pg=PA78 |access-date=22 February 2019|isbn=978-0-7914-2837-5 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/gender/how-three-generations-of-dalit-women-writers-saw-their-identities-and-struggle-4984202/ |title=How three generations of Dalit women writers saw their identities and struggle? |website=[[The Indian Express]] |author=Maya Pandit |date=27 December 2017 |access-date=22 February 2019}}</ref>

In recent decades there has been a trend among Marathi speaking parents of all social classes in major urban areas of sending their children to [[English-medium education|English medium schools]]. There is some concern that this may lead to the marginalisation of the language.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Assayag|first1=Jackie|last2=Fuller|first2=Christopher John|title=Globalizing India: Perspectives from Below|date=2005|publisher=Anthem Press|location=London, UK|isbn=1-84331-194-1|page=80|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aLd5yo3JIgkC&q=marathi+maharashtra+school+english+medium&pg=PA141}}</ref>

== Geographic distribution ==
Marathi is primarily spoken in [[Maharashtra]]<ref name="eth" /> and parts of neighbouring states of [[Gujarat]] (majorly in [[Vadodara]], and among a small number of population in [[Surat]]), [[Madhya Pradesh]] (in the districts of [[Burhanpur district|Burhanpur]], [[Betul district|Betul]], [[Chhindwara district|Chhindwara]] and [[Balaghat district|Balaghat]]), [[Goa]], [[Chhattisgarh]], [[Tamil Nadu]] (in [[Thanjavur]]) and [[Karnataka]] (in the districts of [[Belagavi district|Belagavi]], [[Uttara Kannada|Karwar]], [[Bagalkote district|Bagalkote]], [[Vijayapura district|Vijayapura]], [[Kalaburagi district|Kalaburagi]] and [[Bidar district|Bidar]]), [[Telangana]], union-territories of [[Daman and Diu]] and [[Dadra and Nagar Haveli]].<ref name="dadra"/><ref name="C-16 Population By Mother Tongue"/> The former Maratha ruled cities of [[Baroda]], [[Indore]], [[Gwalior]], [[Jabalpur]], and [[Thanjavur|Tanjore]] have had sizeable Marathi-speaking populations for centuries.{{citation needed|date=September 2020}} Marathi is also spoken by [[Marathi people|Maharashtrian]] migrants to other parts of India and overseas.<ref name="eth">{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=mar|title=Marathi|website=ethnologue.com}}</ref> For instance, the people from western India who emigrated to Mauritius in the early 19th century also speak Marathi.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mmcct.mu/userfiles/file/pdf/MARATHI%20REPORT%20AS%20AT%20090112final.pdf|title=Marathi Culture, History and Heritage in Mauritius|access-date=22 January 2020}}</ref>

There were 83 million native Marathi speakers in India, according to the 2011 census, making it the third most spoken native language after Hindi and Bengali. Native Marathi speakers form 6.86% of India's population. Native speakers of Marathi formed 70.34% of the population in Maharashtra, 10.89% in Goa, 7.01% in Dadra and Nagar Haveli, 4.53% in Daman and Diu, 3.38% in Karnataka, 1.7% in Madhya Pradesh, and 1.52% in Gujarat.<ref name="auto1"/>

=== International ===
The following table is a list of the geographic distribution of Marathi speakers as it appears in the 2019 edition of [[SIL Ethnologue|''Ethnologue'']], a language reference published by [[SIL International]], which is based in the [[United States]].<ref name=":02">{{cite web|title=Summary by language size|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/statistics/size|access-date=12 March 2019|website=Ethnologue|date=3 October 2018|language=en}} For items below #26, see individual ''Ethnologue'' entry for each language.</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+International geographic distribution
as per [[SIL Ethnologue|''Ethnologue.'']]<ref>{{cite web|title=Marathi|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mar|access-date=14 June 2021|website=Ethnologue|language=en}}</ref>
!Country
!Speaker population
!Notes
|-
|{{AUS}}
|22,300
|2021 census
|-
|{{CAN}}
|19,600
|2021 census
|-
|{{OMN}}
|14,000
|2020
|-
|{{ISR}}
|11,000
|Leclerc 2018a
|-
|{{flag|Mauritius}}
|17,000
|Leclerc 2018c
|-
|{{NZ}}
|4,770
|2018 census
|-
|{{flag|UK}}
|11,600
|2021 census
|-
|{{flag|USA}}
|147,000
|2021 census
|}

== Status ==
Marathi is the [[official language]] of [[Maharashtra]] and additional official language in the state of [[Goa]].<ref name="ic"/> In [[Goa]], [[Konkani language|Konkani]] is the sole official language; however, Marathi may also be used for any or all official purposes in case any request is received in Marathi.<ref name="goa">The Goa, Daman, and Diu Official Language Act, 1987 makes Konkani the official language but provides that Marathi may also be used "for all or any of the official purposes". The Government also has a policy of replying in Marathi to correspondence received in Marathi. Commissioner Linguistic Minorities, [http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/35.htm], pp. para 11.3 {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090919055657/http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/35.htm|date=19 September 2009}}</ref> Marathi is included among the languages that are part of the Eighth Schedule of the [[Constitution of India]], thus granting it the status of a "scheduled language".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.constitution.org/cons/india/shed08.htm|title=Schedule |website=constitution.org}}</ref> The [[Government of Maharashtra]] has applied to the Ministry of Culture to grant [[Languages of India|classical language]] status to Marathi language, which was approved by the [[Government of India]] on 3 October 2024.<ref>{{cite news|title=Marathi may become the sixth classical language|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/marathi-may-become-the-sixth-classical-language/1137485/0|access-date=25 June 2017|newspaper=Indian Express}}</ref><ref name="IT_Oct2024">{{cite magazine |last1=Kumar |first1=Vivek |last2=Roy |first2=Suryagni |date=3 October 2024 |title=Marathi, Pali, Prakrit, Assamese, Bengali now among classical languages |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/marathi-pali-prakrit-assamese-bengali-classical-languages-2610800-2024-10-03 |magazine=India Today |access-date=3 October 2024}}</ref>

The contemporary grammatical rules described by [[Maharashtra Sahitya Parishad]] and endorsed by the [[Government of Maharashtra]] are supposed to take precedence in standard written Marathi.{{Citation needed|date=November 2022}} Traditions of Marathi Linguistics and the above-mentioned rules give special status to [[tatsama]]s, words adapted from [[Sanskrit]]. This special status expects the rules for tatsamas to be followed as in Sanskrit. This practice provides Marathi with a large corpus of Sanskrit words to cope with the demands of new technical words whenever needed. Currently there are many different dialects spoken across India for example, Konkani,Mumbaikar etc.

In addition to all universities in Maharashtra, [[Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda]] in [[Vadodara]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.msubaroda.ac.in/departmentinfo.php?ffac_code=1&fdept_code=11 |title=Dept. of Marathi, M.S. University of Baroda |publisher=Msubaroda.ac.in |access-date=9 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104231031/http://www.msubaroda.ac.in/departmentinfo.php?ffac_code=1&fdept_code=11 |archive-date=4 November 2012 }}</ref> [[Osmania University]] in [[Hyderabad]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.osmania.ac.in/ArtsCollege/marathi.htm|title=University College of Arts and Social Sciences|work=osmania.ac.in}}</ref> [[Karnataka University]] in [[Dharwad]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kudacademics.org/departments|title=Departments and Faculty|author=kudadmin|work=kudacademics.org|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140627153519/http://kudacademics.org/departments|archive-date=27 June 2014}}</ref> [[Gulbarga University]] in [[Kalaburagi]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gulbargauniversity.kar.nic.in/FacArt/Marathi.html|title=Department of P.G. Studies and Research in Marathi|work=kar.nic.in|access-date=2 June 2014|archive-date=11 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011123518/http://www.gulbargauniversity.kar.nic.in/FacArt/Marathi.html}}</ref> [[Devi Ahilya University]] in [[Indore]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dauniv.ac.in/|title=Devi Ahilya Vishwavidyalaya, Indore|website=www.dauniv.ac.in|access-date=7 December 2019}}</ref> and [[Goa University]] in [[Goa]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unigoa.ac.in/department.php?adepid=8 |title=Dept.of Marathi, Goa University |publisher=Unigoa.ac.in |date=27 April 2012 |access-date=9 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130517213912/http://www.unigoa.ac.in/department.php?adepid=8 |archive-date=17 May 2013 }}</ref> have special departments for higher studies in Marathi linguistics. [[Jawaharlal Nehru University, Delhi|Jawaharlal Nehru University]] (New Delhi) has announced plans to establish a special department for Marathi.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unitedstatesofindia.com/index.php/inspiration/today-in-history/item/888-01-may-1960|title=01 May 1960...|website=www.unitedstatesofindia.com|access-date=2 May 2015|archive-date=11 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011123521/http://www.unitedstatesofindia.com/index.php/inspiration/today-in-history/item/888-01-may-1960}}</ref>

Marathi Day is celebrated on 27 February, the birthday of the poet [[Kusumagraj]] (Vishnu Vaman Shirwadkar).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.marathimati.com/marathi-bhasha-diwas|title=मराठी भाषा दिवस - २७ फेब्रुवारी|website=www.marathimati.com|access-date=27 February 2017|archive-date=25 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180525023926/http://www.marathimati.com/marathi-bhasha-diwas/}}</ref>

== Dialects ==
{{see also|Marathi-Konkani languages}}
Standard Marathi is based on dialects used by academics and the print media.

Indic scholars distinguish 42 dialects of spoken Marathi. Dialects bordering other major language areas have many properties in common with those languages, further differentiating them from standard spoken Marathi. The bulk of the variation within these dialects is primarily [[Lexical analysis|lexical]] and [[phonological]] (e.g. accent placement and pronunciation). Although the number of dialects is considerable, the degree of intelligibility within these dialects is relatively high.<ref name="UCLA">Khodade, 2004</ref>

=== Varhadi ===
{{main|Varhadi dialect}}

''Varhadi'' (Varhādi) (वऱ्हाडि) or ''Vaidarbhi'' (वैदर्भि) is spoken in the Western Vidarbha region of Maharashtra.
In Marathi, the [[retroflex lateral approximant]] ''ḷ'' {{IPAblink|ɭ}} is common, while sometimes in the Varhadii dialect, it corresponds to the [[palatal]] [[approximant]] ''y'' (IPA: [j]), making this dialect quite distinct. Such [[phonetic]] shifts are common in spoken Marathi and, as such, the spoken dialects vary from one region of Maharashtra to another.

=== Zadi Boli ===
Zaadi Boli or Zhaadiboli<ref name="misalpav.com">{{cite web|url=https://www.misalpav.com/node/30533|title=झाडी बोली (मराठी भाषेतील सौंदर्यस्थळे) {{!}} मिसळपाव|website=www.misalpav.com|access-date=15 March 2020}}</ref> ({{Lang|mr|झाडिबोलि}}) is spoken in Zaadipranta (a forest rich region) of far eastern Maharashtra or eastern Vidarbha or western-central Gondwana comprising [[Gondia district|Gondia]], [[Bhandara district|Bhandara]], [[Chandrapur district|Chandrapur]], [[Gadchiroli district|Gadchiroli]] and some parts of [[Nagpur district|Nagpur]] of Maharashtra.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Klein|first1=Jared|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QgA3DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT695|title=Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics|last2=Joseph|first2=Brian|last3=Fritz|first3=Matthias|date=25 September 2017|publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG|isbn=978-3-11-039324-8|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=देसाई|first=बापूराव|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LXELAQAAMAAJ|title=महाराष्ट्रातील समग्र बोलींचे: लोकसाहित्यशास्त्रीय अध्ययन: महाराष्ट्रातूनच नव्हे तर भारतातून प्रथमतः एकाच ग्रंथात सर्व बोलींचे लोकसाहित्यशास्त्र संस्कृतीदर्शन|date=2006|publisher=अनघा प्रकाशन|page=79|language=mr}}</ref>

Zaadi Boli Sahitya Mandal and many literary figures are working for the conservation of this dialect of Marathi.

=== Southern Indian Marathi ===
[[Thanjavur Marathi dialect|Thanjavur Marathi]] तञ्जावूर् मराठि, Namadeva Shimpi Marathi, Arey Marathi (Telangana), Kasaragod (north Kerala) and Bhavsar Marathi are some of the dialects of Marathi spoken by many descendants of Maharashtrians who migrated to [[Southern India]]. These dialects retain the 17th-century basic form of Marathi and have been considerably influenced by the Dravidian languages<ref name="salc.uchicago.edu">{{cite web|url=https://salc.uchicago.edu/language-study/marathi|title=Marathi {{!}} South Asian Languages and Civilizations|website=salc.uchicago.edu|access-date=15 March 2020}}</ref> after the migration. These dialects have speakers in various parts of [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Andhra Pradesh]] and [[Karnataka]].<ref name="Indian Linguistics">{{cite book |title=Indian Linguistics |date=2008 |publisher=Linguistic Society of India. |page=161 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fCmz4B8I62QC |language=en}}</ref>

=== Other ===
* [[Thanjavur Marathi dialect|Thanjavur Marathi]], spoken in [[Tanjore]], [[Tamil Nadu]]
* [[Judeo-Marathi|Judæo-Marathi]], spoken by the [[Bene Israel]] Jews
*[[East Indian language|East Indian Marathi]], spoken by the Indian Christian [[Bombay East Indians|East Indian]] ethno-religious group

Other [[Marathi–Konkani languages]] and dialects spoken in Maharashtra include [[Maharashtrian Konkani]], [[Malvani language|Malvani]], Sangameshwari, [[Agri dialect|Agri]], [[Andh language|Andh]], [[Varli language|Warli]], [[Phudagi|Vadvali]] and [[Kadodi language|Samavedi]].

== Phonology ==
{{Main|Marathi phonology}}

== Writing systems ==
[[File:Dnyaneshwari_Verse_In_Modi_Script.png|thumb|[[Modi script]] was used to write Marathi.]]
{{Main|Devanagari|Balbodh|Modi script}}

[[File:Marathi Modi script stamp.png|thumb|An effort to conserve the "Modi Script" under [[India Posts|India Post]]'s My Stamp scheme. Here, the word 'Marathi' is printed in the "[[Modi alphabet|Modi Script]]".]]

The [[Kadamba alphabet|Kadamba script]] and its variants have been historically used to write Marathi in the form of inscriptions on stones and copper plates.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sohoni|first1=Pushkar|title=Marathi of a single type: the demise of the Modi script|journal=Modern Asian Studies|date=May 2017|volume=51|issue=3|pages=662–685|doi=10.1017/S0026749X15000542|s2cid=148081127}}</ref> The Marathi version of [[Devanagari]], called ''Balbodh'', is similar to the Hindi Devanagari alphabet except for its use for certain words. Some words in Marathi preserve the [[schwa]], which has been omitted in other languages which use Devanagari. For example, the word 'रंग' (colour) is pronounced as 'ranga' in Marathi & 'rang' in other languages using Devanagari, and 'खरं' (true), despite the [[anuswara]], is pronounced as 'khara'. The anuswara in this case is used to avoid [[Schwa deletion in Indo-Aryan languages|schwa deletion]] in pronunciation; most other languages using Devanagari show schwa deletion in pronunciation despite the presence of schwa in the written spelling. From the 13th century until the beginning of British rule in the 19th century, Marathi was written in the [[Modi script]] for administrative purposes but in Devanagari for literature. Since 1950 it has been written in the Balbodh style of Devanagari. Except for Father Thomas Stephens' [[Krista Purana]] in the [[Latin script]] in the 1600s, Marathi has mainly been printed in Devanagari because [[William Carey (missionary)|William Carey]], the pioneer of printing in Indian languages, was only able to print in Devanagari. He later tried printing in Modi but by that time, Balbodh Devanagari had been accepted for printing.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Rao|first1=Goparaju Sambasiva|title=Language Change: Lexical Diffusion and Literacy|date=1994|publisher=Academic Foundation|location=Delhi|isbn=81-7188-057-6|page=49|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8Ben0lE61msC&q=marathi+print+carey+script&pg=PA27}}</ref>

=== Brahmic script (Devanagari) ===
Marathi is usually written in the ''[[Balbodh]]''<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Indian Languages|last = Masica|first = Colin P.|publisher = Cambridge University Press|year = 1993|isbn = 978-0-521-29944-2|page = 437|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Itp2twGR6tsC|author-link = Colin Masica|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141207082658/https://books.google.com/books?id=Itp2twGR6tsC|archive-date = 7 December 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title = Language Change: Lexical Diffusion and Literacy|last = Rao|first = Goparaju Sambasiva|publisher = Academic Foundation|year = 1994|isbn = 978-81-7188-057-7|pages = 48 and 49|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141207082805/https://books.google.com/books?id=8Ben0lE61msC|archive-date = 7 December 2014|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=8Ben0lE61msC}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url = http://research.ijcaonline.org/ncipet/number10/ncipet1078.pdf|title = A Comparative Study of Handwritten Marathi Character Recognition|last1 = Ajmire|first1 = P.E.|date = 22 March 2013|journal = International Journal of Computer Applications|first2 = RV|last2 = Dharaskar|first3 = V M|last3 = Thakare|at = Introduction|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141207081847/http://research.ijcaonline.org/ncipet/number10/ncipet1078.pdf|archive-date = 7 December 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.typoday.in/2014/spk_papers14/rajendrathakre-typo14.pdf|title = Reviving the Modi Script|date = 28 February 2014|website = Typoday|last = Bhimraoji|first = Rajendra|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141207082007/http://www.typoday.in/2014/spk_papers14/rajendrathakre-typo14.pdf|archive-date = 7 December 2014}}</ref> version of [[Devanagari]] script, an [[abugida]] consisting of 36 [[consonant]] letters and 16 initial-[[vowel]] letters. It is written from left to right. The Devanagari alphabet used to write Marathi is slightly different from the Devanagari alphabets of Hindi and other languages: there are additional letters in the Marathi alphabet and Western punctuation is used.

William Carey in 1807 Observed that as with other parts of India, a traditional [[Digraphia|duality]] existed in script usage between Devanagari for religious texts, and [[Modi script|Modi]] for commerce and administration. {{blockquote|Although in the ''Mahratta'' country the ''Devanagari'' character is well known to men of education, yet a character is current among the men of business which is much smaller, and varies considerably in form from the ''Nagari'', though the number and power of the letters nearly correspond.<ref>Carey, William. "Memoir Relative to the Translations" 1807: Serampore Mission Press.</ref>}}

====Vowels====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! Devanagari !! Transliterated !! IPA !! Pronunciation
|-
| अ || a || {{IPA|/ə/}} || {{Multi-listen item small|filename=MRv01-a.ogg|title=a|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
|-
| आ || ā || {{IPA|/a(ː)/}} || {{Multi-listen item small|filename=MRv02-aa.ogg|title=aa|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
|-
| इ || i || {{IPA|/i/}} || {{Multi-listen item small|filename=MRv03-i.ogg|title=i|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
|-
| ई || ī || {{IPA|/i(ː)/}} || {{Multi-listen item small|filename=MRv04-ee.ogg|title=ee|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
|-
| उ || u || {{IPA|/u/}} || {{Multi-listen item small|filename=MRv05-u.ogg|title=u|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
|-
| ऊ || ū || {{IPA|/u(ː)/}} || {{Multi-listen item small|filename=MRv06-oo.ogg|title=oo|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
|-
| ऋ || ṛ || {{IPA|/ru/}} || {{Multi-listen item small|filename=MRv13-ru.ogg|title=ru|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
|-
| ए || e || {{IPA|/e/}} || {{Multi-listen item small|filename=MRv07-e.ogg|title=a|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
|-
| ऐ || ai || {{IPA|/əi/}} || {{Multi-listen item small|filename=MRv08-aii.ogg|title=aii|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
|-
| ओ || o || {{IPA|/o/}} || {{Multi-listen item small|filename=MRv09-o.ogg|title=o|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
|-
| औ || au || {{IPA|/əu/}} || {{Multi-listen item small|filename=MRv10-ouu.ogg|title=ouu|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
|-
| अं || aṃ || {{IPA|/əm/}} || {{Multi-listen item small|filename=MRv11-um.ogg|title=um|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
|-
| अः || aḥ || {{IPA|/əɦə/}} || {{Multi-listen item small|filename=MRv12-aha.ogg|title=aha|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
|}

====Consonants====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! | {{lang|mr|क}} || {{lang|mr|ख}} || {{lang|mr|ग}} || {{lang|mr|घ}} || {{lang|mr|ङ}}
|-
| {{IAST|ka}} {{IPA|/kə/}}{{Multi-listen item small|filename=MR01-ka.ogg|title=ka|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
| {{IAST|kha}} {{IPA|/kʰə/}}{{Multi-listen item small|filename=MR02-kha.ogg|title=kha|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
| {{IAST|ga}} {{IPA|/ɡə/}}{{Multi-listen item small|filename=MR03-ga.ogg|title=ga|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
| {{IAST|gha}} {{IPA|/ɡʱə/}}{{Multi-listen item small|filename=MR04-gha.ogg|title=gha|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
| {{IAST|ṅa}} ({{IPA|/ŋə/}}){{Multi-listen item small|filename=MR05-nga.ogg|title=nga|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
|-
! | {{lang|mr|च}} || {{lang|mr|छ}} || {{lang|mr|ज}} || {{lang|mr|झ}} || {{lang|mr|ञ}}
|-
| {{IAST|ca}}, {{Transliteration|mr|ċa}} {{IPA|/t͡ɕə/}} or {{IPA|/t͡sə/}} {{Multi-listen item small|filename=MR06-cha.ogg|title=cha|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
| {{IAST|cha}} {{IPA|/t͡ɕʰə/}} {{Multi-listen item small|filename=MR07-chha.ogg|title=chha|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
| {{IAST|ja}}, {{Transliteration|mr|j̈a}} {{IPA|/d͡ʑə/}} or {{IPA|/d͡zə/}} {{Multi-listen item small|filename=MR08-ja.ogg|title=ja|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
| {{IAST|jha}}, {{Transliteration|mr|j̈ha}} {{IPA|/d͡ʑʱə/}} or {{IPA|/d͡zʱə/}} {{Multi-listen item small|filename=MR09-jha.ogg|title=jha|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
| {{IAST|ña}} ({{IPA|/ɲə/}}){{Multi-listen item small|filename=MR10-nya.ogg|title=nya|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
|-
! | {{lang|mr|ट}} || {{lang|mr|ठ}} || {{lang|mr|ड}} || {{lang|mr|ढ}} || {{lang|mr|ण}}
|-
| {{IAST|ṭa}} {{IPA|/ʈə/}} {{Multi-listen item small|filename=MR11-Ta.ogg|title=Ta|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
| {{IAST|ṭha}} {{IPA|/ʈʰə/}} {{Multi-listen item small|filename=MR12-Tha.ogg|title=Tha|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
| {{IAST|ḍa}} {{IPA|/ɖə/}} {{Multi-listen item small|filename=MR13-Da.ogg|title=Da|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
| {{IAST|ḍha}} {{IPA|/ɖʱə/}} {{Multi-listen item small|filename=MR14-Dha.ogg|title=Dha|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
| {{IAST|ṇa}} {{IPA|/ɳə/}}{{Multi-listen item small|filename=MR15-Na.ogg|title=Na|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
|-
! | {{lang|mr|त}} || {{lang|mr|थ}} || {{lang|mr|द}} || {{lang|mr|ध}} || {{lang|mr|न}}
|-
| {{IAST|ta}} {{IPA|/tə/}} {{Multi-listen item small|filename=MR16-ta.ogg|title=ta|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
| {{IAST|tha}} {{IPA|/tʰə/}} {{Multi-listen item small|filename=MR17-tha.ogg|title=tha|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
| {{IAST|da}} {{IPA|/də/}} {{Multi-listen item small|filename=MR18-da.ogg|title=da|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
| {{IAST|dha}} {{IPA|/dʱə/}} {{Multi-listen item small|filename=MR19-dha.ogg|title=dha|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
| {{IAST|na}} {{IPA|/nə/}}{{Multi-listen item small|filename=MR20-na.ogg|title=na|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
|-
! | {{lang|mr|प}} || {{lang|mr|फ}} || {{lang|mr|ब}} || {{lang|mr|भ}} || {{lang|mr|म}}
|-
| {{IAST|pa}} {{IPA|/pə/}} {{Multi-listen item small|filename=MR21-pa.ogg|title=pa|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
| {{IAST|pha}} {{IPA|/pʰə/}} or {{IPA|/fə/}} {{Multi-listen item small|filename=MR22-pha.ogg|title=pha|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
| {{IAST|ba}} {{IPA|/bə/}} {{Multi-listen item small|filename=MR23-ba.ogg|title=ba|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
| {{IAST|bha}} {{IPA|/bʱə/}} {{Multi-listen item small|filename=MR24-bha.ogg|title=bha|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
| {{IAST|ma}} {{IPA|/mə/}}{{Multi-listen item small|filename=MR25-ma.ogg|title=ma|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
|-
! | {{lang|mr|य}} || {{lang|mr|र}} || {{lang|mr|ल}} || {{lang|mr|व}} ||
|-
| {{IAST|ya}} {{IPA|/jə/}} {{Multi-listen item small|filename=MR26-ya.ogg|title=ya|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
| {{IAST|ra}} {{IPA|/rə/}}{{Multi-listen item small|filename=MR27-ra.ogg|title=ra|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
| {{IAST|la}} {{IPA|/lə/}} {{Multi-listen item small|filename=MR28-la.ogg|title=la|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
| {{IAST|va}} {{IPA|/ʋə/}}{{Multi-listen item small|filename=MR29-wa.ogg|title=wa|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
|
|-
! | {{lang|mr|श}} || {{lang|mr|ष}} || {{lang|mr|स}} || {{lang|mr|ह}} ||
|-
| {{IAST|śa}} {{IPA|/ɕə/}} {{Multi-listen item small|filename=MR30-sha.ogg|title=sha|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
| {{IAST|ṣa}} {{IPA|/ʂə/}}{{Multi-listen item small|filename=MR31-sha2.ogg|title=sha|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
| {{IAST|sa}} {{IPA|/sə/}} {{Multi-listen item small|filename=MR32-sa.ogg|title=sa|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
| {{IAST|ha}} {{IPA|/ɦə/}} {{Multi-listen item small|filename=MR33-ha.ogg|title=ha|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
|
|-
! | {{lang|mr|ळ}} || {{lang|mr|क्ष}} || {{lang|mr|ज्ञ}} || ||
|-
| {{IAST|ḷa}} {{IPA|/𝼈ə/}} {{Multi-listen item small|filename=MR34-La.ogg|title=La|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
| {{IAST|kṣa}} {{IPA|/kʂə/}}{{Multi-listen item small|filename=MR35-ksha.ogg|title=ksha|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
| {{IAST|jña}} {{IPA|/dɲə/}}{{Multi-listen item small|filename=MR36-dnya.ogg|title=dnya|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
|
|
|}

It is written from left to right. Devanagari used to write Marathi is slightly different from that of Hindi or other languages. It uses additional vowels and consonants that are not found in other languages that also use Devanagari.

==== Example of consonant–vowel combination ====
Combination of the vowels with K:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! Script || Pronunciation (IPA)
|-
| क || {{IPA|/kə/}}
|-
| का || {{IPA|/kaː/}}
|-
| कि || {{IPA|/ki/}}
|-
| की || {{IPA|/kiː/}}
|-
| कु || {{IPA|/ku/}}
|-
| कू || {{IPA|/kuː/}}
|-
| कृ || {{IPA|/kru/}}
|-
| के || {{IPA|/ke/}}
|-
| कै || {{IPA|/kəi̯/}}
|-
| को || {{IPA|/ko/}}
|-
| कौ || {{IPA|/kəu̯/}}
|-
| कं || {{IPA|/kəm/}}
|-
| कः || {{IPA|/kəɦ(ə)/}}
|}

=== The Modi script ===
{{See also|Modi script}}

From the thirteenth century until 1950, Marathi, especially for business use, was written in the [[Modi alphabet|Modi script]], a cursive script designed for minimising the lifting of pen from paper while writing.<ref>[http://marathimodi.tripod.com/home.html] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516210222/http://marathimodi.tripod.com/home.html|date=16 May 2008}}</ref>

=== Consonant clusters in Devanagari ===
In Devanagari, consonant letters by default come with an inherent [[schwa]]. Therefore, {{lang|mr|तयाचे}} will be <nowiki>'təyāche'</nowiki>, not <nowiki>'tyāche'</nowiki>. To form <nowiki>'tyāche'</nowiki>, you will have to write it as {{lang|mr|त्}} + {{lang|mr|याचे}}, giving {{lang|mr|त्याचे}}.

When two or more consecutive consonants are followed by a vowel then a ''[[:mr:जोडाक्षरे|jodakshar]]'' (consonant cluster) is formed. Some examples of consonant clusters are shown below:

* {{lang|mr|'''त्या'''चे}} – ''tyāche'' – "his"
* {{lang|mr|'''प्रस्ता'''व}} – ''prastāva'' – "proposal"
* {{lang|mr|वि'''द्या'''}} – ''vidyā'' – "knowledge"
* {{lang|mr|'''म्या'''न}} – ''myān'' – "Sheath/scabbard"
* {{lang|mr|'''त्व'''रा}} – ''tvarā'' – "immediate/Quick"
* {{lang|mr|मह'''त्त्व'''}} – ''mahattva'' – "importance"
* {{lang|mr|फ'''क्त'''}} – ''phakta'' – "only"
* {{lang|mr|बाहु'''ल्या'''}} – ''bāhulyā'' – "dolls"
* क'''ण्हे'''री – ''kaṇherī'' – "[[Nerium|oleander]]" (known for its flowers)
* '''न्हा'''णे – ''nhāṇe'' – "bathing"
* '''म्ह'''णून – ''mhaṇūna'' – "therefore"
* त'''ऱ्हा''' – ''taṟhā'' – "different way of behaving"
* को'''ल्हा''' – ''kolhā'' – "fox"
* के'''व्हा''' – ''kevhā'' – "when"
In writing, Marathi has a few [[Digraph (orthography)|digraphs]] that are rarely seen in the world's languages, including those denoting the so-called "nasal aspirates" (ṇh (ण्ह), nh (न्ह) and mh (म्ह)) and liquid aspirates (rh, ṟh, lh ({{Lang|mr|ल्ह}}), and vh व्ह). Some examples are given above.

=== Eyelash reph/raphar ===
{{See also|Zero-width joiner|Virama}}The eyelash reph/raphar (रेफ/ रफार) (र्‍) exists in Marathi as well as Nepali. The eyelash reph/raphar (र्‍) is produced in Unicode by the sequence <big>[</big><big>ra</big> र <big>] </big>+ <big>[</big><big>virāma ्</big>] + <big>[ZWJ]</big> and <big>[</big><big>rra</big> ऱ <big>]</big>+ <big>[</big><big>virāma ्</big>] + <big>[ZWJ]</big>.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://unicode.org/~emuller/iwg/p8/utcdoc.html|title = Devanagari Eyelash Ra|date = 7 November 2004|website = The Unicode Consortium|last = Indic Working Group|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140527105648/http://unicode.org/~emuller/iwg/p8/utcdoc.html|archive-date = 27 May 2014}}</ref> In Marathi, when 'र' is the first consonant of a [[consonant cluster]] and occurs at the beginning of a syllable, it is written as an eyelash reph/raphar.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Learning Marathi|last1 = Kalyan|first1 = Kale|publisher = Shri Vishakha Prakashan|year = 1986|location = Pune|page = 26|last2 = Soman|first2 = Anjali}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Examples
|-
|तर्‍हा
|-
|वाऱ्याचा
|-
|ऱ्हास
|-
|ऱ्हस्व
|-
|सुऱ्या
|-
|दोऱ्या
|}

==== Minimal pairs ====
Source:<ref>{{Cite book|title = Typography of Devanagari-1|last = Naik|first = B.S.|publisher = Directorate of Languages|year = 1971|location = Bombay}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Using the (Simple) Reph/Raphar
!Using the Eyelash Reph/Raphar
|-
|आचार्यास (to the teacher)
|आचार्‍यास (to the cook)
|-
|दर्या (ocean)
|दर्‍या (valleys)
|}

=== Braille ===
In February 2008, [[Swagat Thorat]] published India's first Braille newspaper, the Marathi ''Sparshdnyan'', a news, politics and current affairs fort nightly magazine.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Menon |first1=Sudha |title=Marathi magazine to be launched in Feb is first Braille fortnightly |url=https://www.livemint.com/Politics/4vVRvrvpIu68VzrnvfDvwL/Marathi-magazine-to-be-launched-in-Feb-is-first-Braille-fort.html |access-date=18 November 2020 |work=mint |date=15 January 2008 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Arabic Script (Nastaliq) ===
The [[Arabic script]] is used to write Marathi by the [[Marathi Muslims]], particularly in northern parts of [[Maharashtra]]. However, the majority of the Marathi Muslims uses the official [[Brahmic scripts|Brahmic script]] in [[Devanagari]] to write the language and only some people uses the [[Nastaliq]] style, along with [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] ([[Urdu]]).

== Grammar ==
{{Main|Marathi grammar}}

Marathi grammar shares similarities with other modern [[Indo-Aryan languages]]. [[Jainism|Jain]] Acharya [[Hemachandra]] is the grammarian of [[Maharashtri Prakrit]]. The first modern book exclusively concerning Marathi grammar was printed in 1805 by [[William Carey (missionary)|William Carey]].

Marathi employs [[agglutinative]], [[inflectional]] and [[Analytic (linguistics)|analytical]] forms.<ref name="Bhosale et al"/> Unlike most other Indo-Aryan languages, Marathi has kept three [[grammatical gender]]s: masculine, feminine and neuter. The primary word order of Marathi is [[subject–object–verb]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wals.info/languoid/lect/wals_code_mhi |title=Wals.info |publisher=Wals.info |access-date=9 May 2013}}</ref> Marathi follows a [[split-ergative]] pattern of verb [[Agreement (grammar)|agreement]] and [[case marking]]: it is ergative in constructions with either [[perfective]] transitive verbs or with the obligative ("should", "have to") and it is nominative elsewhere.{{sfn|Dhongde|Wali|2009|pp=179–80}} An unusual feature of Marathi, as compared to other [[Indo-European languages]], is that it displays [[clusivity|inclusive and exclusive we]], common to the [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] and [[Dravidian languages]]. Other similarities to Dravidian include the extensive use of [[participial construction]]s<ref name="Bhosale et al">{{Citation
| last1 = Bhosale
| first1 = G.
| last2 = Kembhavi
| first2 = S.
| last3 = Amberkar
| first3 = A.
| last4 = Mhatre
| first4 = M.
| last5 = Popale
| first5 = L.
| last6 = Bhattacharyya
| first6 = P.
| contribution = Processing of Kridanta (Participle) in Marathi
| year = 2011
| title = Proceedings of ICON-2011: 9th International Conference on Natural Language Processing
| publisher = Macmillan Publishers, India
| contribution-url = http://www.cse.iitb.ac.in/~pb/papers/icon11-marathi-kridant.pdf
}}</ref> and also to a certain extent the use of the two [[anaphoric pronoun]]s {{transliteration|mr|swətah}} and {{transliteration|mr|apəṇ}}.{{sfn|Dhongde|Wali|2009|p=263}} Numerous scholars have noted the existence of [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] linguistic patterns in the Marathi language.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Polomé|first1=Edgar C.|title=Reconstructing Languages and Cultures|publisher=Walter De Gruyter|page=521|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DIj-nZWsX_0C&q=dravidian+marathi&pg=PA521|isbn=978-3-11-086792-3|date=1 January 1992}}</ref>

== Sharing of linguistic resources with other languages ==

[[File:Marathi sign board.JPG|thumb|Marathi neon signboard at [[Maharashtra Police]] headquarters in Mumbai]]

Marathi is primarily influenced by [[Prakrit]], [[Maharashtri]], and [[Apabhraṃśa]]. Formal Marathi draws literary and technical vocabulary from [[Sanskrit]].<ref name="Bloch1970">{{cite book|author=J. Bloch|title=Formation of the Marathi Language|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1noaklDiSOEC&pg=PP17|year=1970|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-2322-8|pages=33,180}}</ref>
Marathi has also shared directions, vocabulary, and grammar with languages such as Indian [[Dravidian languages]].<ref name="Bloch1970"/> Over a period of many centuries, the Marathi language and people have also come into contact with foreign languages such as [[Persian language|Persian]],<ref name="iranicaonline.org"/> [[Arabic]], [[English language|English]], and European romance languages such as [[French language|French]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] and other European languages.<ref name="Bloch1970"/>

=== Dravidian Influence ===
Spoken in the historically active region of the [[Deccan Plateau]], the language has been subject to contact and mostly one-way influence with the surrounding Dravidian languages. Up to 5% of Marathi's basic vocabulary is of a Dravidian origin.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Southworth |first=Franklin |date=2005 |title=Prehistoric Implications of the Dravidian element in the NIA lexicon, with special attention to Marathi. |url=https://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~fsouth/DravidianElement.pdf |journal=IJDL. International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics}}</ref> According to various scholars like Bloch (1970) and Southworth (1971), Marathi's very origins can be traced to a ''[[pidgin]]'' or a [[Substratum (linguistics)|substratum]] origin with surrounding Dravidian language.<ref>Southworth, F. C. (1971). Detecting prior creolization: an analysis of the historical origins of Marathi Franklin C. Southworth; In: ''Hymes, Dell, Pidginization and creolization of languages : proceedings of a conference held at the University of the West Indies, Mona, Jamaica, April 1968.''</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The formation of the Marathi language, by Jules Bloch. Translated by Dev Raj Chanana - Catalogue {{!}} National Library of Australia |url=https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/catalog/2673661 |access-date=10 June 2024 |website=catalogue.nla.gov.au |language=en}}</ref>

=== Morphology and etymology ===
{{Unreferenced section|date=April 2016}}
Spoken Marathi contains a high number of Sanskrit-derived (''[[tatsama]]'') words. {{citation needed|date=May 2016}} Such words are for example ''nantar'' (from ''nantara'' or after), ''{{IAST|pūrṇa}}'' (''{{IAST|pūrṇa}}'' or complete, full, or full measure of something), ''ola'' (''ola'' or damp), ''{{IAST|kāraṇ}}'' (''{{IAST|kāraṇa}}'' or cause), ''puṣkaḷ'' (''puṣkala'' or much, many), ''satat'' (''satata'' or always), ''vichitra'' (''vichitra'' or strange), ''svatah'' (''svatah'' or himself/herself), ''prayatna'' (''prayatna'' or effort, attempt), ''bhītī'' (from ''bhīti'', or fear) and ''bhāṇḍe'' (''bhāṇḍa'' or vessel for cooking or storing food). Other words ("[[tadbhava]]s") have undergone [[phonological change]]s from their Sanskrit roots, for example ''dār'' (''dwāra'' or door), ''ghar'' (''gṛha'' or house), ''vāgh'' (''vyāghra'' or tiger), ''paḷaṇe'' (''palāyate'' or to run away), ''kiti'' (''kati'' or how many) have undergone more modification.
Examples of words borrowed from other Indian and foreign languages include:
* ''Hawā'': "air" directly borrowed from [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''hawa''
* ''Jamin'': "land" borrowed from [[Persian language|Persian]] ''zamin''
* ''Kaydā'': "law" borrowed from [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''qaeda''
* "Mahiti" : "information" borrowed from [[Arabic language|Arabic]] "Mahiyya"
* ''Jāhirāt'': "advertisement" is derived from Arabic ''zaahiraat''
* ''Marjī'': "wish" is derived from Persian ''marzi''
* ''Shiphāras'': "recommendation" is derived from Persian ''sefaresh''
* ''Hajērī'': "attendance" from Urdu ''haziri''
* ''Aṇṇā'': "father", "grandfather" or "elder brother" borrowed from [[Dravidian languages]]
* ''Undir'': "rat" borrowed from [[Austroasiatic languages|Munda languages]]

A lot of English words are commonly used in conversation and are considered to be assimilated into the Marathi vocabulary. These include words like "pen" (पेन, ''pen'') and "shirt" (शर्ट, ''sharṭa'') whose native Marathi counterparts are ''lekhaṇī'' (लेखणी) and ''sadarā'' (सदरा) respectively.

===Compounds===
Marathi uses many [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] processes to join words together, forming [[Compound (linguistics)|compounds]]. For example, ''ati'' + ''uttam'' gives the word ''atyuttam'', Ganesh + Utsav = Ganeshotsav, ''miith-bhaakar'' ("salt-bread"), ''udyog-patii'' ("businessman"), ''ashṭa-bhujaa'' ("eight-hands", name of a Hindu goddess).

=== Counting ===
Like many other languages, Marathi uses distinct names for the numbers 1 to 20 and each multiple of 10, and composite ones for those greater than 20.

As with other Indic languages, there are distinct names for the fractions {{frac|1|4}}, {{frac|1|2}}, and {{frac|3|4}}. They are ''pāva'', ''ardhā'', and ''pāuṇa'', respectively. For most fractions greater than 1, the prefixes ''savvā-'', ''sāḍē-'', ''pāvaṇe-'' are used. There are special names for {{frac|3|2}} (''dīḍ''), {{frac|5|2}} (''aḍīch''), and {{frac|7|2}} (''aut'').

Powers of ten are denoted by separate specific words as depicted in the table below.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Number power to 10 !! Marathi Number name<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oocities.org/bhagvatjee/vraamaayan/notesa/41numbering.htm |title=Indian Numbering System |publisher=Oocities.org |access-date=18 September 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Sushma Gupta |url=http://sushmajee.com/v-raamaayan/notes/notes-general/41-numbering.htm |title=Indian Numbering System |publisher=Sushmajee.com |access-date=18 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120430051359/http://www.sushmajee.com/v-raamaayan/notes/notes-general/41-numbering.htm |archive-date=30 April 2012 }}</ref>!!In [[Devanagari]]
|-
| 100 || Eka, Ekaka || एक/एकक
|-
| 101 || Daha, Dashaka || दहा/दशक
|-
| 102 || Shambhara, Shataka || शंभर/शतक
|-
| 103 || Hajara, Sahasra, || हजार/सहस्र
|-
| 104 || Dasha Hajara, Dasha Sahasra || दशहजार/दशसहस्र
|-
| 105 || Lakha, Laksha || लाख/लक्ष
|-
| 106 || Daha Lakha, Dasha Laksha || दहा लाख (दशलक्ष)
|-
| 107 || Koti || कोटी
|-
| 108 || Dasha Koti || दशकोटी
|-
| 109 || Abja, Arbuda || अब्ज/अर्बुद
|-
| 1010 || Dasha-Abja || दशाब्ज
|-
| 1011 || Vrunda || वृंद
|-
| 1012 || Kharva (Kharab) || खर्व
|-
| 1013 || Nikharva || निखर्व
|-
| 1014 || Sashastra || सशस्त्र
|-
| 1015 || Mahapadma, Padma || महापद्म/पद्म
|-
| 1016 || Kamala || कमळ
|-
| 1017 || Shanku, Shankha || शंकू/शंक
|-
| 1017 || Skanda || स्कंद
|-
| 1018 || Suvachya || सुवाच्य
|-
| 1019 || Jaladhi, Samudra || जलधी/समुद्र
|-
| 1020 || Krutya || कृत्य
|-
| 1021 || Antya || अंत्य
|-
| 1022 || Ajanma || आजन्म
|-
| 1023 || Madhya || मध्य
|-
| 1024 || Lakshmi || लक्ष्मी
|-
| 1025 || Parardha || परार्ध
|}

A positive integer is read by breaking it up from the tens digit leftwards, into parts each containing two digits, the only exception being the hundreds place containing only one digit instead of two. For example, 1,234,567 is written as 12,34,567 and read as ''12 lakh 34 Hazara 5 she 67'' (१२ लाख ३४ हजार ५ शे ६७).

Every two-digit number after 18 (11 to 18 are predefined) is read backward. For example, 21 is read एक-वीस (1-twenty). Also, a two digit number that ends with a 9 is considered to be the next tens place minus one. For example, 29 is एकोणतीस (एक-उणे-तीस) (thirty minus one). Two digit numbers used before ''Hazara'' are written in the same way.

==Marathi on computers and the Internet==
Shrilipee, Shivaji, kothare 2,4,6, [[Kiran fonts]] KF-Kiran<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kiranfont.com/ |title=Welcome to www.kiranfont.com |publisher=Kiranfont.com |access-date=18 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141031154146/http://www.kiranfont.com/ |archive-date=31 October 2014 }}</ref> and many more (about 48) are [[clip font]]s that were used prior to the introduction of [[Unicode]] standard for [[Devanagari script]]. Clip fonts are in vogue on PCs even today since most computers use English keyboards. Even today a large number of printed publications such as books, newspapers and magazines are prepared using these ASCII based fonts. However, clip fonts cannot be used on [[internet]] since those did not have [[Unicode]] compatibility.

Earlier Marathi suffered from weak support by computer operating systems and [[Internet]] services, as have other Indian languages. But recently, with the introduction of language localisation projects and new technologies, various software and Internet applications have been introduced. Marathi typing software is widely used and display interface packages are now available on [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], [[Linux]] and [[macOS]]. Many Marathi websites, including Marathi newspapers, have become popular especially with Maharashtrians outside India. Online projects such as the [[Marathi Bharatpedia|Marathi language Bharatpedia]], with 76,000+ articles, the Marathi blogroll, and Marathi blogs have gained immense popularity.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.expresscomputeronline.com/20070219/technology01.shtml |title=Inside the Indian Blogosphere |access-date=10 October 2008 |last=Askari |first=Faiz |publisher=Express Computer |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081004182304/http://www.expresscomputeronline.com/20070219/technology01.shtml |archive-date=4 October 2008 }}</ref>

==Natural language processing for Marathi==

More recent attention has focused on developing [[natural language processing]] tools for Marathi. Some studies proposed a couple of [[text corpora]] for Marathi. L3CubeMahaSent<ref>{{cite conference |first1=Atharva |last1=Kulkarni |first2=Meet|last2=Mandhane|first3=Manali|last3=Likhitkar|first4=Gayatri|last4=Kshirsagar|first5=Raviraj|last5=Joshi|title=L3CubeMahaSent: A Marathi Tweet-based Sentiment Analysis Dataset |conference=Proceedings of the Eleventh Workshop on Computational Approaches to Subjectivity, Sentiment and Social Media Analysis |pages=213–220 |date=2021 |location=Online |url=https://aclanthology.org/2021.wassa-1.23.pdf}}</ref> is the first major publicly available Marathi dataset for [[sentiment analysis]]. It contains about 16,000 distinct tweets classified into three broad classes, such as positive, negative, and neutral. L3Cube-MahaNER
<ref>{{cite arXiv | last1 =Patil | first1 =Parth | last2 =Ranade | first2 =Aparna | last3 =Sabane | first3 =Maithili | last4 =Litake | first4 =Onkar| last5 =Joshi | first5 =Raviraj | eprint =2204.06029 | title =L3Cube-MahaNER: A Marathi Named Entity Recognition Dataset and BERT models | class =cs.CL | date =12 April 2022 }}</ref> is a dataset for [[named-entity recognition]] consisting of 25,000 manually tagged sentences categorised according to the eight entity classes. There are at least two public available datasets for [[hate speech]] detection in Marathi: L3Cube-MahaHate
<ref>{{cite arXiv | last1 =Velankar | first1 =Abhishek | last2 =Patil | first2 =Hrushikes | last3 =Gore | first3 =Amol | last4 =Salunke | first4 =Shubham| last5 =Joshi | first5 =Raviraj | eprint =2203.13778 | title =L3Cube-MahaHate: A Tweet-based Marathi Hate Speech Detection Dataset and BERT models | class =cs.CL | date =22 May 2022 }}</ref> and HASOC2021.<ref>{{cite conference |first1=Sandip |last1=Modha |first2=Thomas|last2=Mandl|first3=Gautam Kishore|last3=Shahi|first4=Hiren|last4=Madhu|first5=Shrey|last5=Satapara|first6=Tharindu |last6=Ranasinghe|first7=Marcos|last7=Zampieri|title=Overview of the HASOC subtrack at FIRE 2021: Hate speech and offensive content identification in English and Indo-Aryan languages and conversational hate speech |conference=Forum for Information Retrieval Evaluation |pages=1–3 |date=2021 |location=Online |doi=10.1145/3503162.3503176 |url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.1145/3503162.3503176|hdl=2436/624705|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

The HASOC2021 dataset was proposed for conducting a [[machine learning]] competition on hate, offensive, and profane content identification in Marathi collocated with Forum for Information Retrieval Evaluation (FIRE 2021). The participants of the competition presented 25 solutions based on [[supervised learning]]. The winning teams<ref>{{cite conference |first1=Mayuresh |last1=Nene|first2=Kai|last2=North|first3=Tharindu|last3=Ranasinghe|first4=Marcos|last4=Zampieri| title=Transformer Models for Offensive Language Identification in Marathi |conference=Forum for Information Retrieval Evaluation (Working Notes) (FIRE) |pages=272–281 |date=2021 |location=Online}}</ref><ref>{{cite conference |first1=Anna |last1=Glazkova |first2=Michael|last2=Kadantsev|first3=Maksim|last3=Glazkov| title=Fine-tuning of Pre-trained Transformers for Hate, Offensive, and Profane Content Detection in English and Marathi |conference=Forum for Information Retrieval Evaluation (Working Notes) (FIRE) |pages=52–62 |date=2021 |location=Online |arxiv=2110.12687 }}</ref> used pre-trained [[language models]] (XLM-RoBERTa, Language Agnostic [[BERT (language model)|BERT]] Sentence Embeddings (LaBSE)) fine-tuned on the HASOC2021 dataset proposed by the organisers. The participants also experimented with the joint use of multilingual data for fine-tuning.

==Corpus development==

[[Corpus linguistics]] shows how texts, sentences, or words from written or spoken language have changed over time or how they have been used in an organised way. The [https://archive.org/details/LSIV0-V11/LSI-V7/ Volume VII: 'Indo-Aryan Languages (Southern Group)] of the '[[Linguistic Survey of India]]' by [[George Abraham Grierson]] describes first systematic and structured attempt to create documentation of Marathi language data.

'''Corpora of Marathi'''

Attempts have been made to create a [[Text corpus|corpus]] of Marathi. One of the first efforts to make a corpus with Indian text was the Kolhapur Corpus of Indian English<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shastri |first=S.V. |date=1986 |title=The Kolhapur Corpus of Indian English |url=http://korpus.uib.no/icame/manuals/KOLHAPUR/INDEX.HTM#materia.}}</ref> (Shastri, 1986). The corpus was developed at the university in [[Maharashtra|Maharastra]], but Indian English was studied. The [[IIT Bombay]] WordNet<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bhattacharyya |first=Pushpak |title=IndoWordNet. (in Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation LREC'10) |publisher=European Language Resources Association (ELRA). |year=2010 |isbn=978-2-9517408-6-0 |location=Valletta, Malta |pages=3785–3792 |language=English}}</ref> (IndoWordNet; Bhattacharya, 2010) project in Indian languages includes Marathi. WordNet do not give word counts for further useful data analysis. The raw text based corpus in Marathi<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Gold Standard Marathi Raw Text Corpus |url=https://data.ldcil.org/a-gold-standard-marathi-raw-text-corpus |access-date=9 September 2023 |website=data.ldcil.org}}</ref> (Ramamoorthy et al., 2019a) is based on sampled pages from different select books. This work is carried out at [[Central Institute of Indian Languages]], [[Mysore]]. A corpus-based linguistic study at the University of Mumbai explores the language contact between English and Marathi by compiling and analysing an overarching corpus of English loan-words in Marathi existing between the years 2001 and 2020. The study also investigates the attitudes of Marathi speakers towards English loan-words in contemporary Marathi, attempting to understand their motivations for borrowing English words (Doibale, 2022).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Doibale |first=Kranti |date=2022 |title=A Corpus-Based Linguistic Study of English Loan-Words in Contemporary Marathi |journal=University |url=http://hdl.handle.net/10603/487393 |access-date=9 September 2023 |hdl=10603/487393}}</ref>

The work at [[University of Mumbai]] by Belhekar and Bhargava (2023)<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Belhekar |first1=Vivek |last2=Bhargava |first2=Radhika |date=December 2023 |title=Development of word count data corpus for Hindi and Marathi literature |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666799123000308 |journal=Applied Corpus Linguistics |language=en |volume=3 |issue=3 |article-number=100070 |doi=10.1016/j.acorp.2023.100070|s2cid=261150616 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> provided the first Marathi word count collection (Marathi WordCorp). The [[Bag-of-words model|bag-of-words]] (BoW) model was used to make 1-gram (single-word) Marathi WordCorp. They used more than 700 complete works of literature.

The Google Books [[Ngram Viewer]] (Michel et al., 2011)<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Michel |first1=Jean-Baptiste |last2=Shen |first2=Yuan Kui |last3=Aiden |first3=Aviva Presser |last4=Veres |first4=Adrian |last5=Gray |first5=Matthew K. |last6=((The Google Books Team)) |last7=Pickett |first7=Joseph P. |last8=Hoiberg |first8=Dale |last9=Clancy |first9=Dan |last10=Norvig |first10=Peter |last11=Orwant |first11=Jon |last12=Pinker |first12=Steven |last13=Nowak |first13=Martin A. |last14=Aiden |first14=Erez Lieberman |date=14 January 2011 |title=Quantitative Analysis of Culture Using Millions of Digitized Books |journal=Science |language=en |volume=331 |issue=6014 |pages=176–182 |doi=10.1126/science.1199644 |pmid=21163965 |pmc=3279742 |bibcode=2011Sci...331..176M |issn=0036-8075}}</ref> is a relatively new and advanced method that shows how the frequency of n-grams has changed over a specific period. There is no database of Indian languages in the Google Books Ngram viewer. The Indian Languages Word Corpus<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://indianlangwordcorp.shinyapps.io/ILWC/ |title=Indian Languages Word Corpus |access-date=28 September 2023 |website=indianlangwordcorp.shinyapps.io}}</ref> (ILWC) WebApp, which was made by Belhekar and Bhargava,<ref name=":0" /> shows how often words are used by decade from before 1920 to 2020. The limitation with the method is that it only gives researchers the raw OCR data to "combine and collapse frequencies of correctly and incorrectly recognised words" (p. 2).<ref name=":0" />

'''Statistical models for Marathi corpora'''

Attempts to evaluate statistical models for Marathi language Corpuses and text-collections have been carried out. For the Marathi corpus (Marathi WordCorp), the y-intercept of Zipf's law is reported as 12.49, and the coefficient is 0.89 and these numbers show that Zipf's law is applicable for Marathi language.<ref name=":0" /> The coefficients show that the number of words and texts used in the corpus metadata is enough. Heaps' law intercept for the Marathi word corpora is 2.48, and the coefficient is 0.73.<ref name=":0" /> The coefficient values show that there are more unique words in Marathi writings than would be expected. The higher number of unique words could be due to the number of alphabets (36 consonant letters and 16 initial-vowel letters, with each consonant taking 14 forms with vowel pairs), the orthographic features of the Devanagari script (for example, the same word can be written in different ways), the use of consonant clusters (jodakshar), the number of suffixes a word can have, etc.

==Marathi Language Day==

Marathi Language Day (मराठी दिन/मराठी दिवस {{translation|Marathi Dina/Marathi Diwasa}}) is celebrated on 27 February every year across the Indian states of [[Maharashtra]] and [[Goa]]. This day is regulated by the [[Ministry of Marathi Language]]. It is celebrated on the Birthday of eminent Marathi Poet [[Kusumagraj|V.V. Shirwadkar]], popularly known as Kusumagraj.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.marathimati.com/p/marathi-bhasha-diwas.html |title=मराठी भाषा दिवस - २७ फेब्रुवारी |work=MarathiMati.com |access-date=27 February 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://divyamarathi.bhaskar.com/news/BOL-jagatik-marathi-bhasha-din-celebration-2914740.html |title=jagatik Marathi bhasha din celebration - divyamarathi.bhaskar.com |work=divyabhaskar |access-date=27 February 2016 |date=27 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160301045736/http://divyamarathi.bhaskar.com/news/BOL-jagatik-marathi-bhasha-din-celebration-2914740.html |archive-date=1 March 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Essay competitions and seminars are arranged in schools and colleges, and government officials are asked to conduct various events.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.loksatta.com/viva-news/celebration-of-marathi-bhasha-din-on-27-february-and-use-of-marathi-language-66025/ |title=आम्ही मराठीचे शिलेदार! |date=22 February 2013 |work= Loksatta |access-date= 27 February 2016}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|India}}
* [[Konkani language]]
* [[Navi Peth]]

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

===Bibliography===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book|last=Bloch|first=J|title=Formation of the Marathi Language|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1noaklDiSOEC&pg=PP17|year=1970|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-2322-8}}
* {{cite book
|first=A.M
|last=Ghatage
|year=1970
|title=Marathi Of Kasargod
|location=Mumbai
|url=https://archive.org/details/MarathiOfKasargod/page/n10/mode/1up}}
*{{cite book|last2=Wali|first2=Kashi|last1=Dhongde|first1=Ramesh Vaman|title=Marathi|year=2009|publisher=John Benjamins Pub. Co.|location=Amsterdam|isbn=978-90-272-38139|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zVVOvi5C8uIC}}
* A Survey of Marathi Dialects. VIII. Gāwḍi, A. M. Ghatage & P. P. Karapurkar. The State Board for Literature and Culture, Bombay. 1972.
* Marathi: The Language and its Linguistic Traditions - Prabhakar Machwe, Indian and Foreign Review, 15 March 1985.
* 'Atyavashyak Marathi Vyakaran' (''Essential Marathi Grammar'') - Dr. V. L. Vardhe
* 'Marathi Vyakaran' (''Marathi Grammar'') - Moreshvar Sakharam More.
* 'Marathi Vishwakosh, Khand 12 (''Marathi World Encyclopedia, Volume 12''), Maharashtra Rajya Vishwakosh Nirmiti Mandal, Mumbai
* 'Marathyancha Itihaas' by Dr. Kolarkar, Shrimangesh Publishers, Nagpur
* 'History of Medieval Hindu India from 600 CE to 1200 CE, by C. V. Vaidya
* Marathi Sahitya (Review of the Marathi Literature up to I960) by Kusumavati Deshpande, Maharashtra Information Centre, New Delhi
* {{cite book |author=Christian Lee Novetzke |author-link=Christian Lee Novetzke |title=The Quotidian Revolution: Vernacularization, Religion, and the Premodern Public Sphere in India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z9kbDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA53|year=2016 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-54241-8 }}
* {{Citation |first=Appaji Kashinath |last=Kher |year=1895 |title=A higher Anglo-Marathi grammar |pages=446–454 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xO0EHQAACAAJ}}
{{refend}}
* {{citation|last=Mokashi|first=Digambar Balkrishna|title=Palkhi: An Indian Pilgrimage|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vgLZGFH1ZTIC&pg=PA38|year=1987|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-88706-461-6}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|Marathi|auto=1|voy=Marathi phrasebook|iw=mr}}
{{InterWiki|code=mr}}
; Dictionaries
* Molesworth, J. T. (James Thomas; 1857). [https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/molesworth/ ''A Dictionary, Marathi, and English'']. 2d ed., rev. and all. Bombay: Printed for government at the Bombay Education Society's Press.
* Vaze, Shridhar Ganesh (1911). [https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/vaze/ ''The Aryabhusan School Dictionary, Marathi-English'']. Poona: Arya-Bhushan Press.
* Tulpule, Shankar Gopal and Anne Feldhaus (1999). [https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/tulpule/ ''A Dictionary of Old Marathi'']. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan.

{{Marathi language topics}}
{{Maharashtra}}
{{Languages of India}}
{{Indo-Aryan languages}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Marathi Language}}
[[Category:Marathi language| ]]
[[Category:Classical Language in India]]
[[Category:Indo-Aryan languages]]
[[Category:Languages attested from the 7th century]]
[[Category:Languages of Gujarat]]
[[Category:Languages of Karnataka]]
[[Category:Languages of Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Languages of Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Languages written in Brahmic scripts]]
[[Category:Languages written in Devanagari]]
[[Category:Official languages of India]]
[[Category:Southern Indo-Aryan languages]]
[[Category:Subject–object–verb languages]]

Sardar Ibrahim Khan

2026-03-27T17:31:36Z

Juliaauhm:

{{short description|Former president of Azad Kashmir (1915–2003)}}
{{Other people|Muhammad Ibrahim Khan}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2019}}
{{Infobox president
| name = Ibrahim Khan
| honorific-prefix = [[Sardar]]
| honorific_suffix = ''Ghazi-e-Millat''
| image = Sardar M. Ibrahim Khan.jpg
| caption = Khan in his office in 1948
| imagesize = 200px
| office = [[President of Azad Kashmir]]
| term_start1 = 25 August 1996
| term_end1 = 25 August 2001
| predecessor1 = [[Abdul Rashid Abbasi]] (interim)
| successor1 = [[Muhammad Anwar Khan (Azad Kashmiri politician)|Sardar Anwar Khan]]
| term_start2 = 5 June 1975
| term_end2 = 30 October 1978
| predecessor2 = [[Sardar Mohammad Abdul Qayyum Khan|Sardar Abdul Qayyum]]
| successor2 = [[Muhammad Hayat Khan (Azad Kashmiri politician)|Muhammad Hayat Khan]]
| term_start3 = 13 April 1957
| term_end3 = 30 April 1959
| predecessor3 = [[Sardar Mohammad Abdul Qayyum Khan|Sardar Abdul Qayyum]]
| successor3 = [[Khurshid Hasan Khurshid]]
| term_start4 = 24 October 1947
| term_end4 = 12 May 1950
| predecessor4 = ''Office established''
| successor4 = [[Syed Ali Ahmed Shah|Ali Ahmed Shah]]
| party = [[All Jammu and Kashmir Muslim Conference|Muslim Conference]] [[Jammu Kashmir Peoples Party]]
| alma_mater = [[Government Islamia College, Civil Lines, Lahore|Government Islamia College]] [[University of London]] [[Lincoln's Inn]]
| profession = [[Lawyer]] • [[Politician]]
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=yes|1915|04|10}}
| birth_place = Kot Mattay Khan, [[Poonch District, Pakistan|Poonch district]], [[Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)|Jammu and Kashmir]], [[British Raj|British India]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|2003|07|31|1915|04|10}}<ref name="Dawn">[https://www.dawn.com/news/133043 Obituary and profile of Muhammad Ibrahim Khan] Dawn (newspaper), Published 1 August 2003, Retrieved 25 January 2021</ref>
| death_place = [[Islamabad]], [[Pakistan]]
| resting_place = Mausoleum of Sardar Ibrahim Khan, Kot Mattay Khan, [[Poonch District, Pakistan|Poonch District]], [[Azad Kashmir]], Pakistan
| spouse = Zaib-un-Nisa Khan
| relations = {{Plainlist|
* Sardar Jawaid Ibrahim Khan (Son)
* [[Sardar Khalid Ibrahim Khan]] (Son) (MLA)
* Uft-e-Huma (Daughter)
* Sardar Farooq Ibrahim Khan (Son)
* Noreen Farooq Khan (Daughter-In-Law) (MNA)
* [[Masood Khan]] (grand nephew)
}}
| title =
| native_name_lang = ur
| native_name = {{nobold|{{nq|ابراہیم خان}}}}
}}

'''Sardar Ibrahim Khan'''{{efn|{{langx|ur|{{Nastaliq| سردار ابراہیم خان}}}}, {{small|pronounced}} [[Help:IPA/Hindi and Urdu|[sər'da:r ɪbra:'ɦi:m xa:n]]]}} (22 April 1915 – 31 July 2003) was a revolutionary leader and politician from the western region of [[Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)|Jammu and Kashmir]] (present-day [[Azad Kashmir]]), who led the [[1947 Poonch rebellion|1947 Poonch Rebellion]] against the [[Maharaja]] in the [[Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)|state of Jammu and Kashmir]] and played a key role in the [[First Kashmir War]], supporting [[Pakistan]]. He served as the [[President of Azad Kashmir]] for 13 years across four non-consecutive terms and still remains the longest-serving president of the state, since its establishment.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Kashmir: The Unwritten History|last=Snedden|first=Christopher|publisher=Harper Collins Publishers|year=2013|isbn=978-9350298978|location=India}}</ref>

He is revered as ''Ghazi-e-Millat'' (Warrior of the Nation) in [[Azad Kashmir]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jahangir |first1=Amar |last2=Jamshad |first2=Unsa |last3=Khawaja |first3=Anbrin |date=2021-12-31 |title=Political and Social Struggle of Ghazi-e-Millat Sardar Muhammad Ibrahim Khan |url=https://jhss-uok.com/index.php/JHSS/article/view/179 |journal=Journal of History and Social Sciences |language=en |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=85–95 |doi=10.46422/jhss.v12i2.179 |issn=2221-6804|doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Early life and education==
Sardar Ibrahim Khan was born on 22 April 1915 in Kot Mattay Khan, a village in the [[Historical Poonch District|Poonch]] District of Kashmir to an elite [[Sudhan|Sudozai]] family.<ref>{{cite book|last=Schofield|first=Victoria|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iaT3AgAAQBAJ&dq=sardar+ibahim+khan+suddhan&pg=PT109|title=Kashmir in Conflict: India, Pakistan and the Unending War|publisher=I.B.Tauris|year=2003|isbn=9780857730787}}</ref>{{Qn|date=March 2026}} He received his primary education in his village. He attended college and received a Bachelors of Arts degree in 1937 at [[Government Islamia College, Civil Lines, Lahore|Islamia College (Lahore)]] and sought higher education abroad in 1938. He went to the [[UK]] in 1939 and obtained his LLB degree from the [[University of London]] in 1941. Khan then obtained a law degree from [[Lincoln's Inn]], and later started practicing law at [[Srinagar]], Kashmir.<ref name=StoryOfPakistan>[https://storyofpakistan.com/sardar-muhammad-ibrahim-khan/ Sardar Muhammad Ibrahim Khan - profile on Story Of Pakistan website] Published 4 January 2008, Retrieved 26 January 2021</ref>

==Career==
=== 1947 Poonch rebellion ===
[[File:Sardar Ibrahim with Azad Kashmiri Flag.jpg|right|thumb|Sardar Ibrahim Khan holding the [[Flag of Azad Kashmir]]]]
{{Further|1947 Poonch Rebellion}}Ibrahim Khan played a pivotal role in the initiative of the [[1947 Poonch rebellion]] and the [[First Kashmir War]]. In [[British Raj|British India]] of 1946, he won the Jammu and Kashmir State Assembly election as a member of the [[All Jammu and Kashmir Muslim Conference|Muslim Conference]] party and became a member of the Praja Sabha under Maharajah Hari Singh, Jammu and Kashmir ruler. This ruler signed a 'stand-still agreement' with the newly created state of [[Dominion of Pakistan|Pakistan]] as a result of the [[Indian Independence Act 1947]] which resulted in the [[Partition of India]] into [[Dominion of India|India]] and [[Dominion of Pakistan|Pakistan]] following the end of [[British rule]] in the [[Indian subcontinent]]. In 1947, Ibrahim Khan instigated and organised the [[1947 Poonch Rebellion|Poonch rebellion]], and with support from the [[All-India Muslim League|Muslim League]], planned and helped in the invasion and liberation of [[Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)|Jammu and Kashmir]]. He organised the rebellion through the use of former [[British Indian Army]] soldiers of the Muslim population who had kept their weapons after the [[World War II|war]] and were heavily armed. Muslim Kashmiri leaders saw it as a liberation of Muslim-majority Kashmir from the Hindu ruler.<ref name="sardars" />

On 19 July 1947, Khan held a general assembly meeting at his residence where a resolution was unanimously passed for the State of Kashmir to join Pakistan. The Maharaja, [[Hari Singh]], disapproved of his actions, and Khan left the state and went to [[Murree]], Pakistan. In Murree, he gathered ammunition from private individuals and organizations. With several fellow Kashmiris, he launched a ‘[[Jihad]]’ against the Maharaja. On 24 October 1947, he defeated the forces of the Maharaja in the [[1947 Poonch Rebellion|Poonch rebellion]] and founded the state of [[Azad Kashmir]], which became a self-governing division of Pakistan.<ref name="sardars" /><ref name="StoryOfPakistan" />

After fighting the Indian Army for 15 months, the Azad Kashmir militia accepted a United Nations-mediated [[United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan|ceasefire]]. Khan and his army were able to capture substantial portions of the three western districts of Kashmir, which were renamed [[Azad Kashmir]] (Free Kashmir).

Khan was appointed the first [[President (government title)|President]] of [[Azad Kashmir]] in 1948 by Pakistan. He represented Kashmir in different capacities at the United Nations from 1948 to 1971.<ref name="sardars">[http://sardarsofkashmir.webs.com/ Profile of Muhammad Ibrahim Khan on sardarsofkashmir.webs.com website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820232110/https://sardarsofkashmir.webs.com/ |date=20 August 2019 }} Retrieved 25 January 2021</ref>

Sardar Muhammad Ibrahim Khan also wrote a book named ''The Kashmir Saga'' on government and politics of Azad Kashmir and included the history and philosophy of freedom struggle in the book.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books/about/The_Kashmir_Saga.html?id=Kzw-AAAAMAAJ The Kashmir Saga, a book by Muhammad Ibrahim Khan on Google Books website] Retrieved 28 January 2021</ref>

=== 1955 Poonch uprising ===
[[File:Sardar Ibrahim Khan in 1953.jpg|right|thumb|Sardar Ibrahim Khan with British officers in 1953]]
{{Further|1955 Poonch Uprising}}

Khan's dismissal is widely regarded as the trigger to the 1955 uprising in [[Poonch Division]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Kashmir - The Untold Story |first=Christopher |last=Snedden |date=December 2013 |publisher=HarperCollins India |isbn=9789350298985 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0cPjAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1937 |pages=120, 121, 122}}</ref>

===Professional and political career===
Under the Maharajah's rule in 1943, Khan was appointed as a public prosecutor in [[Mirpur, Azad Kashmir|Mirpur]].<ref name="sardars"/> He later worked at the State Advocate General office of Jammu and Kashmir. Then he left the government job to participate in the [[Kashmir Freedom Movement]] and won the 1946 Jammu and Kashmir State Assembly elections. He went on to serve three more terms in office until August 2001. He retired at the age of 86. He also established the Azad Muslim Conference.<ref name=StoryOfPakistan/>

===President of Azad Kashmir===

[[File:Founder of AJK Sardar Ibrahim With Pakistani nuclear scientist Dr. Abdul Qadir Kha.jpg|thumb|Founder of AJK Sardar Ibrahim With Pakistani nuclear scientist, Dr. Abdul Qadir Khan]]

As the first self-proclaimed President of Azad Kashmir, he was invited by the United Nations to brief the [[General assembly]] on the situation in Kashmir. Under the leadership of Khan, the annual session of the [[All Jammu and Kashmir Muslim Conference]] was held at [[Kotli]] in 1954, and a resolution was passed for the establishment of a proper Legislative Assembly in Azad Kashmir. While he and his lieutenants continued to push for a legislative assembly, it was not until the presidency of General [[Yahya Khan]] in 1969 that the Azad Kashmir Legislative Assembly was formed. Khan was elected as president of Azad Kashmir for the second time on 13 April 1957 and for the third time on 5 June 1975. Sardar Ibrahim was very close to [[Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto]] and had formed the Azad Kashmir chapter of the [[Pakistan Peoples Party]]. In 1977, General [[Zia ul-Haq]] dissolved Bhutto's government, and offered to allow Khan to continue as president as long as he stopped supporting Bhutto. Khan refused to betray Bhutto, resulting in the termination of his presidency through a proclamation issued by [[General Zia Ul-Haq]], the Chairman of Azad Jammu and Kashmir Council, on 30 October 1978. Khan, however, was elected again as the President of Azad Kashmir in August 1996. He remained in office until August 2001 and was the Azad Kashmir president four times in his lifetime.<ref name="Dawn"/><ref name="sardars"/><ref name=StoryOfPakistan/>

==Death and legacy==
Sardar Muhammad Ibrahim Khan died at his [[Islamabad]] home on 31 July 2003 after a long period of illness at the age of 88.<ref name="Dawn"/> President [[Pervez Musharraf]] and Prime Minister [[Zafarullah Khan Jamali]] paid tribute to him in their condolence messages.<ref name="Dawn"/>

Due to his services to Kashmir freedom struggle, he is known among the people of Kashmir as:
* '''Bani-e-Kashmir''' ("Founding president of AJK")<ref name="sardars"/><ref name=Dawn2/>
* '''Ghazi-e-Millat''' ("Hero of the Nation") <ref name=Dawn2>{{cite news|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1132413/foundation-stone-of-memorial-for-first-ajk-president-laid |title=Foundation stone of memorial for first AJK president laid|newspaper=Dawn (newspaper)|date= 17 September 2014|access-date=25 January 2021}}</ref><ref name="sardars"/><ref>{{cite news|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1823883/ajk-president-pays-tribute-sardar-ibrahim-khan |title=AJK president pays tribute to Sardar Ibrahim Khan|author=Mamir |newspaper=The Express Tribune (newspaper)|date=12 October 2018|access-date=26 January 2021}}</ref>

{{s-start}}
{{s-off}}
{{s-bef|before= Post Created}}
{{s-ttl|title= President of [[Azad Jammu and Kashmir]]|years= 1948–1950}}
{{s-aft|after= Captain Syed Ali Ahmed Shah }}

{{s-bef|before=[[Dost Muhammad Khosa]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=2nd term|years=1957–1959}}
{{s-aft|after= Khurshid Hassan Khurshid}}

{{s-bef|before=[[Sardar Mohammad Abdul Qayyum Khan]] }}
{{s-ttl|title=3rd term|years=1975–1978}}
{{s-aft|after=Muhammad Hayat Khan }}

{{s-bef|before= [[Sardar Sikandar Hayat Khan]] }}
{{s-ttl|title=4th term|years=1996–2001}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Muhammad Anwar Khan (Azad Kashmiri politician)|Sardar Muhammad Anwar Khan]] }}
{{s-end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==Further reading==
* {{citation |first=Christopher |last=Snedden |author-link=Christopher Snedden |title=Kashmir: The Unwritten History |publisher=HarperCollins India |year=2013 |isbn=978-9350298985 |orig-year=first published as ''The Untold Story of the People of Azad Kashmir'', 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0cPjAAAAQBAJ}}
* {{citation |first=Victoria |last=Schoefield |author-link=Victoria Schofield |title=Kashmir in Conflict |publisher=I. B. Taurus & Co |location=London and New York |year=2003 |orig-year=First published in 2000 |isbn=1860648983 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/00book584554548 }}

{{Pakistan Movement}}
{{Presidents of Azad Kashmir}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Khan, Sardar M. Ibrahim}}
[[Category:1915 births]]
[[Category:2003 deaths]]
[[Category:Kashmiri people]]
[[Category:People of the 1947 Kashmir conflict]]
[[Category:Alumni of the University of London]]
[[Category:Members of Lincoln's Inn]]
[[Category:Pakistan Movement activists from Kashmir]]
[[Category:People from Poonch District, Pakistan]]
[[Category:Presidents of Azad Kashmir]]
[[Category:People of the India–Pakistan war of 1947–1948]]
[[Category:Government Islamia College alumni]]
[[Category:20th-century lawyers]]
[[Category:Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)]]
[[Category:Writers about the Kashmir conflict]]

Duar War

2026-03-25T16:50:19Z

Juliaauhm:

{{Short description|War fought between British India and Bhutan in 1864–1865}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2023}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Duar war
| partof =
| image = India; (1909) (14566720270).jpg
| image_upright = 1.0
| caption = [[Ashley Eden]] forced by the Bhutanese to sign a Treaty, 1864. Illustration by A.D. Macromick (1909)
| date = 1864–1865
| place = The [[Koch Hajo]] and [[Cooch Behar State|Koch Behar]] [[Dooars|Duars]]
| territory = [[Bhutan]] ceded parts of the [[Assam]] Duars, Koch Behar Duars and [[Dewangiri]] to British India
| result = [[British Raj|British India]]n victory
| status =
| combatant1 = {{flagcountry|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}}
* {{flagcountry|British Raj}}
| combatant2 = [[Bhutan]]
| combatant3 =
| commander1 = {{flagicon|British Raj}} [[John Lawrence, 1st Baron Lawrence|Sir John Lawrence]]
| commander2 = Kagyud Wangchuk (1864) Tshewang Sithub (1865)
| commander3 =
| strength1 =3,600 to 3,800 troops
| strength2 =2,000 to 3,000(Dzong guards)
| strength3 =
| casualties1 =40 killed in action and 100 to 150 wounded
| casualties2 =100 to 200
| casualties3 =
| notes =
}}

The '''Duar War''' (or '''Anglo-Bhutanese War''') was a war fought between [[British Raj|British India]] and [[Bhutan]] in 1864 to 1865. It was the only military conflict between the two states since 1774 and resulted in Bhutan losing a fifth of its territory.

As a result of the war, [[Bhutan]] lost its independent [[foreign policy]] capabilities for several decades.

==Background==
[[File:Southern border of Bhutan1985.jpg|thumb|280px|Southern Boundary of Bhutan in '''blue''' before the Duar War of 1865]]
In 1862, the Bhutanese raided British occupied [[Kingdom of Sikkim|Sikkim]] (which had only been controlled since the year prior) and [[Cooch Behar State|Cooch Behar]] (Koch Bihar).<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |url=https://www.loc.gov/resource/gdcmassbookdig.nepalbhutancount00sava/ |title=Nepal and Bhutan: Country Studies |date=1993 |publisher=Federal Research Division, Library of Congress |isbn=978-0-8444-0777-7 |editor-last=Savada |editor-first=Andrea Matles |edition=3rd |series=Area handbook series |location=Washington, D.C. |editor-last2=Harris |editor-first2=George Lawrence}} (For sale by the Supt. of Docs., U.S. Govt. Print. Office)</ref> It was not the first time the Bhutanese has raided; in 1838, they did similar things in [[Assam]].<ref name=":1" /> After the raids in Assam, the British requested compensation by extraditing the Bhutanese officials responsible for the raids along with settlements of Bhutanese debt to the British. Bhutan declined to protect their independence. In 1841, the British proceeded to annex the Assam Duars from the Bhutanese, but paying 10,000 Rupees to Bhutan annually as compensation. Later, they also ceded the Bengal Duars as they were giving them a hard time. After the raids in 1862, the British withheld said compensation payments and demanded that all captives from British India held hostage by the raiders be set free and stolen properties to be returned. The [[Druk Desi]] once more denied, claiming that he was unaware of the raids.<ref name=":1" />

Across the nineteenth century, British India commissioned multiple missions to Bhutan.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Kaul |first=Nitasha |date=May 2021 |title="Where Is Bhutan?" The Production of Bhutan's Asymmetrical Inbetweenness in Geopolitics |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-asian-studies/article/abs/where-is-bhutan-the-production-of-bhutans-asymmetrical-inbetweenness-in-geopolitics/33F61ECF7846EC1886702ED8A941C210 |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |language=en |volume=80 |issue=2 |pages=317–336 |doi=10.1017/S0021911820003691 |issn=0021-9118 |s2cid=233908715}}</ref> Official documents always cited cross-border raids by Bhutan or sheltering of dissidents as the immediate cause; however, modern historians note Britain's imperialist ambitions in the region to be the actual pretext.<ref name=":0" /> Not only was Bhutan a vital cog in the Indo-Tibetan trade but also the commercial viability of [[Dooars|Duars]] region for supporting tea plantations was well known among [[East India Company|Company]] officials.<ref name=":0" /> In 1863, British Indian government sent a mission under [[Ashley Eden]] to
[[Punakha]], the capital of Bhutan at the time. His job was to get all captives released and arrange peaceful economical policy and intercourse with Bhutan. In January, he left [[Darjeeling]], West Bengal, crossed the [[Teesta River]] to arrive in Punakha. However, as soon as he arrived in the suburbs, he was met with evasion and constant delay from authorities. It only got worse from there, as his arrival to Punakha kicked off with threats from the government and tense compulsion to sign an 'obnoxious' treaty. On his way back to India in April, he was disavowed and repudiated by the Bhutanese.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Rennie |first=David Field |url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bhotan_and_the_story_of_the_Dooar_War_-_including_sketches_of_a_three_months%27_residence_in_the_Himalayas,_and_narrative_of_a_visit_to_Bhotan_in_May_1865_(IA_b29352150).pdf |title=Bhotan and the story of the Dooar war |publisher=John Murray |year=1866 |location=London |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3" />

The [[dzongpon]] of [[Punakha]] – who had emerged victorious in the civil war – had broken with the central government and set up a rival [[Druk Desi]] while the legitimate druk desi sought the protection of the [[penlop]] of [[Paro District|Paro]] and was later deposed. The British mission dealt alternately with the rival penlop of [[Paro District|Paro]] and the [[penlop of Trongsa]] (the latter acted on behalf of the druk desi).

== War ==
As Bhutan did not comply, the British organized 4 columns of British, Indian, and [[3rd Gorkha Rifles|3rd]] and [[8th Gorkha Rifles|8th rifle]]s ([[Gurkha]]), in what was known as the [[Duar Field Forces]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=gurkha_museum |date=2021-11-19 |title=Gurkha Soldiers and the Anglo-Bhutan War of 1864-65 |url=https://thegurkhamuseum.co.uk/blog/gurkha-soldiers-and-the-anglo-bhutan-war-of-1864-65/ |access-date=2025-07-16 |website=The Gurkha Museum - Winchester |language=en-US}}</ref> In the same year, these forces marched up into the Bhutanese foothills, met by heavy rains and [[swamp]]s. The column in the east went up to the fort [[Dewangiri]], called Deothang under the Bhutanese, and captured it before suffering a humiliating defeat to the Bhutanese armed with [[sword]]s, [[Bow and arrow|bows]], and [[matchlock]]s, who, after taking the fort, seized two [[Howitzer]]s.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> Then, after cutting off the water supply in the fort and the occupied east post, left. They did not beat the column, but rather the fortress was abandoned by them at the sight of Bhutanese militias.<ref name=":2" />

The defeat was avenged after the late [[Major general|Major-general]] or commander [[Henry Tombs]] arrived and recaptured the fort with support from the [[55th (Westmorland) Regiment of Foot|55th Regiment of Foot]] ([[Colonel Robert Humes]]).<ref name=":2" /> The center column advanced into the hills before capturing [[Buxa Fort]]. The 3rd column had also assaulted and captured [[Dalim Fort|Dalimkote fort]], which was a treacherous journey involving dense jungles to heights possibly reaching 5,000 feet.<ref name=":2" /> In its foothills was the secluded village of [[Ambeok|Ambiokh]], where a barrel of gunpowder exploded as several men and a battery of heavy artillery crossed, tragically taking the life of [[Captain F.C Griffin]], his lieutenants E. Walker and E.A. Anderson, and 6 gunners. Griffin was in command of the battery and as he was along with others carrying it, many were also wounded.<ref name=":2" /> Luckily, these small advancements by themselves put many constraints on Bhutanese commerce. Bhutan had no regular army, and what forces existed were composed of [[Dzong architecture|dzong]] guards armed with [[matchlock]]s, bows and arrows, swords, knives, and catapults. Some of these dzong guards, carrying shields and wearing chainmail armor, engaged the well-equipped British forces. Soon, many attacks made by the British from expeditionary divisions sent from [[Kolkata|Calcutta]] (now Kolkata) were successful, with varying fortune. From the [[44th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry|44th (Sylhet) Regiment Bengal Native Infantry]], soldiers had help solidify the fort at Deothang to stop the constant Bhutanese attacks. Then, all operations were suspended for the summer. Later, Viceroy [[John Lawrence, 1st Baron Lawrence|Lord Lawrence]] decided to negotiate a resolution for the war to put an end to the break. So, on June 2, 1865, he wrote to the [[Deb Raja|Deb]] and [[Je Khenpo|Dharma Rajas]], proposing peace based on the British proclamations in 1864. The Bhutanese declined the offer, so the British marched into Bhutan to give the Deb Raja full notice directly, led by Colonel Herbert Bruce, dated September 28, 1865. The Deb Raja later sent a letter on October 4, 1865, consenting to the negotiation of terms. It was quite late as per extensive war preparations. In the end, a treaty was devised on 11 November 1865, known as the Treaty of Sinchula.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sen |first=Suparna |url=https://ir.nbu.ac.in/items/9e9d97b5-7252-4807-9305-fffa47b9d44c |title=Indo-Bhutan trade relations 1774-1907 |date=2025-03-10 |publisher=University of North Bengal |pages=Chapter 6 |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Dewangiri siege.jpg|thumb|right|Storming of [[Dewangiri]] fort.]]The Duar War lasted only five months and, despite some battlefield victories by Bhutanese forces which included the capture of two howitzer guns, resulted in the loss of 20% of Bhutan's territory, and forced cession of formerly occupied territories.<ref name=":3">{{harvp|Phuntsho, The History of Bhutan|2013}}{{page needed|date=January 2021}}</ref> Under the terms of the Treaty of Sinchula, signed 11 November 1865, Bhutan ceded territories in the [[Assam]] [[Dooars|Duars]] and [[West Bengal|Bengal]] [[Dooars|Duars]], as well as the 83 km2 of territory of Dewangiri in southeastern Bhutan, in return for an annual subsidy of 50,000 [[rupee]]s. The Treaty of Sinchula stood until 1910, when Bhutan and British India signed the [[Treaty of Punakha]], effective until 1947.<ref name=":2" />

==Treaty of Sinchula==
{{Infobox treaty
| name = Treaty of Sinchula
| long_name =
| date_drafted =
| date_signed = {{Start date and age|df=yes|1865|11|11}}
| location_signed = Sinchula
| date_sealed =
| date_effective = 11 November 1865
| condition_effective = Bhutanese cessation of withdrawal of claims to suzerainty of [[Cooch Behar State|Cooch Behar]] and the [[Dooars|Duars]]
| date_expiration = 1910
| signatories = [[Kingdom of Sikkim|Sikkim]] [[List of political officers in the Kingdom of Sikkim|Political Officer]] Herbert Bruce; The [[Druk Desi]] and his ministers
| parties = [[British Raj|British India]]; [[Bhutan]]
| ratifiers = [[Governor-General of India|Viceroy and Governor-General]] [[John Lawrence, 1st Baron Lawrence|Sir John Lawrence]] (British India)
| depositor =
| language = English
| wikisource =
}}
Below appears the text of the '''Treaty of Sinchula'''.<ref>{{cite book|title=Bhutan: a Kingdom in the Himalayas : a study of the land, its people, and their government |first1=Nagendra |last1=Singh |edition=2 |chapter=Appendix VII – The Treaty of Sinchula |page=243 |publisher=Thomson Press Publication Division |year=1978 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TSRuAAAAMAAJ |access-date=2011-08-25}}</ref>
{{blockquote|On the 11th day of November, 1865

Treaty between His Excellency the Right Honourable Sir John Lawrence, G.C.B., K.C.S.I., Viceroy and Governor-General of Her Britannic Majesty's possessions in the East Indies, and the one part by Lieutenant Colonel Herbert Bruce, CB, by virtue of full powers to that effect vested in him by the Viceroy and Governor – General, and on the other part by Samdojey Deb Jimpey and Themseyrensey Donai according to full powers conferred on them by the Dhum and [[Druk Desi|Deb Rajahs]], 1865.

ARTICLE I There shall henceforth be perpetual peace and friendship between the British Government and the Government of Bhutan.

ARTICLE II Whereas in consequence of repeated aggressions of the Bhutan Government and of the refusal of that Government to afford satisfaction for those aggressions, and for their insulting treatment of the officers sent by His Excellency the Governor-General in Council for the purpose of procuring an amicable adjustment of differences existing between the two states, the British Government has been compelled to seize by an armed force the whole of the Doars and certain Hill Posts protecting the passes into Bhutan, and whereas the Bhutan Government has now expressed its regret for past misconduct and a desire for the establishment of friendly relations with the British Government, it is hereby agreed that the whole of the tract known as the Eighteen Doars, bordering on the districts of Rungpoor, Cooch Behar, and Assam, together with the Taloo of Ambaree Fallcottah and the Hill territory on the left bank of the Teesta up to such points as may be laid down by the British Commissioner appointed for the purpose is ceded by the Bhutan Government to the British Government forever.

ARTICLE III The Bhutan Government hereby agree to surrender all British subjects, as well as subjects of the Chief of Sikkim and Cooch Behar who are now detained in Bhutan against their will, and to place no impediment in the way of the return of all or any of such persons into British territory.

ARTICLE IV In consideration of the cession by the Bhutan Government of the territories specified in Article II of this Treaty, and of the said Government having expressed its regret for past misconduct, and having hereby engaged for the future to restrain all evil disposed persons from committing crimes within British territory or the territories of the Rajahs of Sikkim and Cooch Behar and to give prompt and full redress for all such crimes which may be committed in defiance of their commands, the British Government agree to make an annual allowance to the Government of Bhutan of a sum not exceeding fifty thousand rupees (Rupees 50,000) to be paid to officers not below the rank of Jungpen, who shall be deputed by the Government of Bhutan to receive the same. And it is further hereby agreed that the payments shall be made as specified below:

On the fulfillment by the Bhutan Government of the conditions of this Treaty Twenty Five Thousand Rupees (Rupees 25,000).

On the 10th January following the 1st payment, thirty five thousand rupees (Rupees 35,000)

On the 10th January following, forty-five thousand rupees (Rupees 45,000)

On every succeeding 10th January, fifty thousand rupees (Rupees 50,000)}}

==See also==
* [[Foreign relations of Bhutan]]
* [[History of Bhutan]]
* [[Treaty of Punakha]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* {{citation |last=Phuntsho |first=Karma |title=The History of Bhutan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aUDAAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT405 |year=2013 |publisher=Random House India |isbn=978-81-8400-411-3 |pages=405– |ref={{sfnref|Phuntsho, The History of Bhutan|2013}}}}
* {{citation |last=Rennie |first=Surgeon |title=Bhotan and the Dooar War |publisher=John Murray |year=1866 |url=https://archive.org/details/b29352150 |via=archive.org |ref={{sfnref|Rennie, Bhotan and the Dooar War|1866}}}}

{{Bhutan topics}}
{{British colonial campaigns}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Conflicts in 1864]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1865]]
[[Category:Wars involving Bhutan]]
[[Category:Wars involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Wars involving British India]]
[[Category:History of the Bengal Engineer Group]]
[[Category:1864 in Bhutan]]
[[Category:1865 in Bhutan]]
[[Category:19th-century military history of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Military history of Bhutan]]
[[Category:Bhutan–India relations]]
[[Category:Bhutan–United Kingdom military relations]]
[[Category:1864 in British India]]
[[Category:1865 in British India]]

Southern red muntjac

2026-03-24T22:19:56Z

Juliaauhm: added references for consistency and corrected details

{{Short description|Species of deer}}
{{More citations needed|date=November 2025|}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = Southern red muntjac
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=iucn>{{cite iucn |title=''Muntiacus muntjak'' |author=Timmins, R.J. |author2=Duckworth, J.W. |author3=Hedges, S. |date=2016 |article-number=e.T42190A56005589|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T42190A56005589.en |access-date=10 February 2023}}</ref>
| image = Muntiacus muntjak 50960281, crop.jpg
| image_caption = A doe and fawn in [[Peninsular Malaysia]]
| taxon = Muntiacus muntjak
| authority = ([[Eberhard August Wilhelm von Zimmermann|Zimmermann]], 1780)
| range_map = Muntjac distribution map.gif
| range_map_caption = {{leftlegend|#52ad52| Combined ranges of the northern red muntjac (''M. vaginalis'') and southern red muntjac (''M. muntjak'')}}
| synonyms = *''Cervus muntjac''
}}

The '''southern red muntjac''' ('''''Muntiacus muntjak''''') is a [[deer]] species native to [[Southeast Asia]]. It was formerly known as the '''Indian muntjac''' or the '''common muntjac''' before the species was taxonomically revised to represent only populations of [[Thailand]], [[Sundaland|Sunda]] and perhaps [[Malaysia]]. The other populations being attributed to this species are now attributed to ''Muntiacus vaginalis'' ([[Northern red muntjac]]). Muntjacs are also referred to as '''barking deer'''. It is listed as [[Least Concern]] on the [[IUCN Red List]].<ref name=iucn/>

This muntjac has soft, short, brownish or grayish hair, sometimes with creamy markings. It is among the smallest deer species. It is an [[omnivore]] and eats grass, fruit, [[Shoot (botany)|shoot]]s, seeds, bird eggs, and small animals, and occasionally [[Scavenger|scavenges]] on [[carrion]]. Its calls sound like [[Bark (utterance)|barking]], often when frightened by a [[Predation|predator]], hence the common name "barking deer". Males have [[Canine tooth|canine]]s, short [[antler]]s that usually branch just once near the base, and a large postorbital [[scent gland]] used to mark territories.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Muntiacus_muntjak/|title=''Muntiacus muntjak''|website=Animal Diversity Web|language=en|access-date=2017-12-02}}</ref>

==Characteristics==
[[File:Muntiacus muntjak 05 MWNH 152.jpg|thumb|Skull of a mature buck showing slanted pedicles, [[antler]]s and [[canine tooth|canine teeth]]]]
The southern red muntjac has a short but very soft, thick, dense coat that is more dense in cooler regions. Its face is darker and the limbs are dark to reddish brown and the coat color seasonally varies from darker brown to yellowish and grayish brown and is white ventrally. Its ears have much less hair, but otherwise are the same color as the rest of the head. Male muntjacs have short antlers, about {{cvt|10|cm}} long, that protrude from long body hair-covered pedicels above the eyes. Females have tufts of fur and small bony knobs instead of antlers. Males also have elongated {{cvt|2|-|4|cm}} long, slightly curved upper canines, which can be used in male-male conflicts and inflict serious injury. The body length of muntjacs varies from {{cvt|89|to|135|cm}} with a {{cvt|13|to|23|cm}} long tail, and shoulder height ranging from {{cvt|40|to|65|cm}}. Adults weigh between {{cvt|13|and|35|kg}},<ref>{{URL|https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Muntiacus_muntjak/}}</ref><ref name="eol">{{URL|https://eol.org/pages/308397/data}}</ref> with males being larger than females. Muntjacs are unique among the deer, having large, obvious facial (preorbital, in front of the eyes) scent glands used to mark territories or to attract females. Males have larger glands than females.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Barrette |first=C. |date=1976 |title=Musculature of facial scent glands in the muntjac &blobtype=pdf |journal=[[Journal of Anatomy]] |volume=122 |issue=Pt 1 |pages=61–66 |pmid=977477 |pmc=1231931}}</ref>
[[File:Muntiacus muntjak 129067669.jpg|thumb|Southern red muntjac in Indonesia]]

==Distribution and habitat==
The southern red muntjac (previously known as the common muntjac) is found in the [[Malay Peninsula]], [[Sumatra]], [[Java]], [[Bali]] and [[Borneo]]. It is also assumed to be present in peninsular [[Thailand]] and southwestern [[Myanmar]]. It is locally extinct in [[Singapore]].<ref name=iucn/>

This species is mostly associated with low-density forest habitats, but can also be found in heavily degraded forest and in areas of forest near plantations of coffee, cassava, rubber, sugarcane, coconut and [[teak]]. It is adaptable to areas altered by logging and appears to benefit from agricultural conversion of forest edges. In young acacia plantations (under 4 years old) in the [[Bintulu Division]] of [[Sarawak]], [[East Malaysia]], southern red muntjacs (along with other muntjac species) are some of the most commonly [[Camera trap|camera-trapped]] species. Footprints are commonly found in newly-planted areas and nearby remnant patches of forest and muntjacs have been seen browsing on young acacia shoots. In [[Danum Valley Conservation Area|Danum Valley]], Borneo, an area with minimal hunting, it has been observed to increase in population density following deforestation.<ref name="iucn" />

==Taxonomy==
The southern red muntjac was formerly classified as ''{{lang|la|[[Cervus]] muntjac}}''.<ref>{{citation |date=1876 |contribution=[[:s:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Burmah|Burmah]] |title=Encyclopædia Britannica, ''9th ed.'' |volume=[[:s:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Volume IV|Vol. IV]] |page=[[:s:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Burmah|552]] }}</ref>
There were formerly 15 subspecies, included under the species in the third edition of [[MSW3|''Mammal Species of the World'']]:<ref name=msw3>{{MSW3 Artiodactyla |id=14200405 |page=667 |heading=''Muntiacus muntjak''}}</ref>
*''M. m. annamensis'', [[Indochina]]
*''M. m. aureus'', peninsular [[India]]
*''M. m. bancanus'', [[Belitung]] and [[Bangka Island]]s
*''M. m. curvostylis'', [[Thailand]]
*''M. m. grandicornis'', Burmese muntjac, [[Burma]]
*''M. m. malabaricus'', South India and [[Sri Lanka]]
*''M. m. montanus'', Sumatran or mountain muntjac, [[Sumatra]]
*''M. m. muntjak'', Javan muntjac, [[Java]] and south Sumatra
*''M. m. nainggolani'', [[Bali]] and [[Lombok]] Islands
*''M. m. nigripes'', black-footed or black-legged muntjac, [[Vietnam]] and [[Hainan]] Island
*''M. m. peninsulae'', [[Malaysia]]
*''M. m. pleicharicus'', South [[Borneo]]
*''M. m. robinsoni'', [[Bintan Island]] and [[Lingga Islands]]
*''M. m. rubidus'', north Borneo
*''M. m. vaginalis'', Burma to southwest [[China]]

Currently, two of these subspecies have since been elevated to species status: ''[[Malabar red muntjak|M. malabaricus]]'' as the Malabar red muntjak and ''[[Muntiacus vaginalis|M. vaginalis]]'' as the northern red muntjac.<ref name=TSSKAISB2016>{{cite iucn |last1=Timmins |first1=R.J. |last2=Steinmetz |first2=R. |last3=Samba Kumar |first3=N.|last4=Anwarul Islam|first4=Md.|last5=Sagar Baral|first5=H.|year=2016 |title=''Muntiacus vaginalis''|article-number=e.T136551A22165292|doi= 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T136551A22165292.en}}</ref><ref>{{BioRef|asm|genus=Muntiacus|species=vaginalis|id=1006338|access-date=10 February 2023}}</ref><ref>{{BioRef|asm|genus=Muntiacus|species=malabaricus|id=1006331|access-date=10 February 2023}}</ref>

The subspecies ''bancanus'', ''montanus'', ''muntjak'', ''nainggolani'', ''peninsulae'', ''pleiharicus'', ''robinsoni'' and ''rubidus'' remain subspecies of the southern red muntjac, while ''annamensis'', ''aureus'', ''curvostylis'', ''grandicornis'' and ''nigripes'' have been reassigned as subspecies of the northern red muntjac.<ref>{{BioRef|asm|genus=Muntiacus|species=muntjak|id=1006332|access-date=14 February 2023}}</ref>

==Ecology and behavior==
[[File:Barking deer.ogg|thumb|Alarm calls]]
The Southern red muntjac is also called "barking deer" due to the bark-like sound that it makes as an alarm when danger is present. Other than during the [[Rut (mammalian reproduction)|rut]] (mating season) and for the first six months after giving birth, the adult muntjac is a solitary animal. Adult males in particular are well spaced and marking grass and bushes with secretions from their [[preorbital gland]]s appears to be involved in the acquisition and maintenance of territory.<ref name=Eisenberg1974>{{cite book |last1=Eisenberg |first1=J. F. |last2=McKay |first2=G. M. |editor1-last=Geist |editor1-first=V. |editor2-last=Walther |editor2-first=F. |title=The behaviour of ungulates and its relation to management |chapter=Comparison of ungulate adaptations in the new world and the old world tropical forests with special reference to Ceylon and the rainforests of Central America |publisher=[[International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources]] |location=[[Morges]], Switzerland |year=1974 |pages=584–602 |chapter-url=http://data.iucn.org/dbtw-wpd/edocs/NS-024-2.pdf}}</ref> Males acquire territories that they [[scent marking|mark with scent markers]] by rubbing their preorbital glands (located on their face, just below the eyes) on the ground and on trees, scraping their hooves against the ground, and scraping the bark of trees with their lower incisors. These scent markers allow other muntjacs to know whether a territory is occupied or not. Males often fight with each other over these territories, sufficient vegetation, and for primary preference over females when mating using their short antlers and an even more dangerous weapon, their canines. If a male is not strong enough to acquire his own territory, it will most likely fall victim to a predator. During the time of the rut, territorial lines are temporarily disregarded and overlap, while males roam constantly in search of a receptive female.

Predators of these deer include [[tiger]]s, [[leopard]]s, [[sloth bear]]s, [[striped hyena]]s, [[dhole]]s, [[golden jackal]]s, and [[jungle cat]]s.<ref name="eol" /> They are highly alert creatures. When put into a stressful situation or if a predator is sensed, muntjacs begin making a bark-like sound. Barking was originally thought of as a means of communication between the deer during mating season, as well as an alert.

===Reproduction===
The Southern red muntjacs are suspected [[Animal sexual behaviour#Polygamy|polygamous]] animals<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wegge |first=P. |last2=Mosand |first2=H.M. |date=2015-04-03 |title=Can the mating system of the size-monomorphic Indian muntjac (Muntiacus muntjak) be inferred from its social structure, spacing behaviour and habitat? A case study from lowland Nepal |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/03949370.2014.921794 |journal=Ethology Ecology & Evolution |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=220–232 |doi=10.1080/03949370.2014.921794 |issn=0394-9370|url-access=subscription }}</ref>. Females become sexually mature during their first to second year of life. These females are [[Estrous cycle#Frequency|polyestrous]], with each cycle lasting about 14 to 21 days and an estrus lasting for 2 days. The gestation period is 6–7 months and they usually bear one offspring at a time, but sometimes produce twins. Females usually give birth in dense growth so that they are hidden from the rest of the herd and predators. The young leaves its mother after about 6 months to establish its own territory. Males often fight between one another for possession of a harem of females. Muntjacs are distinguished from other even-toed ungulates in showing no evidence of a specific breeding season within the species. Adults exhibit relatively large home range overlap both intersexually and intrasexually, meaning that strict territorialism did not occur but some form of site-specific dominance exists.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Odden |first1=M. |last2=Wegge |first2=P. |date=2007 |title=Predicting spacing behavior and mating systems of solitary cervids: A study of hog deer and Indian muntjac |journal=[[Journal of Zoology]] |volume=110 |issue=4 |pages=261–270 |doi=10.1016/j.zool.2007.03.003 |pmid=17614268|bibcode=2007Zool..110..261O }}</ref>

==Evolution and genetics==
{{More citations needed section|date=November 2025}}
[[File:Metaphase spread of the Indian muntjac (Muntiacus muntjak vaginalis).jpg|thumb|Female ''M. m. vaginalis'' metaphase spread chromosomes]]
[[Palaeontology |Paleontological]] evidence proves that Southern red muntjacs have been around since the late [[Pleistocene]] [[Epoch (geology)|epoch]] at least 12,000 years ago. They are the oldest known extant members of the deer family, [[Deer|Cervidae]]. The earliest known deer-like creatures had horns instead of antlers, but the muntjac is the earliest known species to have antlers. The ancestor to muntjacs is the ''[[Dicrocerus elegans]]'', which is the oldest known deer to have shed its antlers. Other fossils found that deer species experienced a split of the Cervinae from the Muntiacinae, the latter of which remained of similar morphology. Muntjacs of this time during the [[Miocene]] were smaller than their modern counterparts. Molecular data have suggested that Southern red muntjacs and Fea's muntjacs share a common ancestor, while giant muntjacs are more closely related to Reeve's muntjac. Although the muntjac deer has a long lineage, little has been studied in terms of their fossil record.<ref name="Wurster-1970" />

Between species, muntjacs have a wide variation in number of [[Chromosome|chromosomes]]; in fact, the southern red muntjac has the lowest recorded number of chromosomes of any mammal. Even though Females have a [[Ploidy#Diploid|diploid number]] of 6, and males have a diploid number of seven [[Chromosome|chromosomes]] posessing much higher cognitive abilities than other muntjacs.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kinnear |first=J. F. |title=Chromosomes: How Many? |publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|John Wiley & Sons]] Australia Ltd. |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-7314-0236-6 |edition=3 |location=[[Milton, Queensland]] |chapter=Nature of Biology |issue=2}}</ref> In comparison, the similar [[Reeves's muntjac]] (''M. reevesi'') has a diploid number of 46 chromosomes.<ref name="Wurster-1970">{{cite journal |author1=Wurster, D. H. |author2=Benirschke, K. |date=1970 |title=Indian Momtjac, ''Muntiacus muntiak'': A Deer with a Low Diploid Chromosome Number |journal=Science |volume=168 |issue=3937 |pages=1364–1366 |doi=10.1126/science.168.3937.1364 |pmid=5444269 |bibcode=1970Sci...168.1364W|s2cid=45371297 }}</ref>

==Threats==
[[File:Another food source.jpg|thumb|Two southern red muntjacs and a [[wild boar]] hunted by the [[Poumai Naga people]]]]
Southern red muntjacs are hunted for sport and for their [[meat]] and [[skin]] around the outskirts of agricultural areas <ref>{{Cite book |last=van der Geer |first=Alexandra |url=https://brill.com/view/title/15305 |title=Animals in Stone: Indian Mammals Sculptured Through Time |date=2008-10-16 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-474-4356-8 |doi=10.1163/9789047443568_032}}</ref>, as they are considered a nuisance for damaging crops and ripping bark from trees.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Thai national parks, indian-muntjac |url=https://www.thainationalparks.com/species/indian-muntjac |access-date=9 December 2025 |website=Thai national parks}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{Commons category|Muntiacus muntjak}}

*{{cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Hutchins |editor-first=M. |year=2004 |title=Muntjacs |encyclopedia=[[Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia]] |edition=2 |volume=15 |location=[[Detroit]] |publisher=[[The Gale Group]] Inc.}}
*{{cite encyclopedia |last=Kurt |first=F. |year=1990 |title=Muntjac Deer |encyclopedia=Grzimek's Encyclopedia of Mammals |edition=1 |volume=5 |location=St. Louis |publisher=[[McGraw-Hill Education|McGraw-Hill]]}}
*{{cite book |last=Nowak |first=R.M. |year=1999 |chapter=Muntjacs, or Barking Deer |title=Walker's Mammals of the World |edition=6 |volume=2 |location=[[Baltimore]] |publisher=The [[Johns Hopkins University Press]]}}

{{Artiodactyla|R.1}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q533451}}

[[Category:Muntjacs]]
[[Category:Mammals of South Asia]]
[[Category:Mammals of Southeast Asia]]
[[Category:Mammals described in 1780|Southern red muntjac]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Eberhard August Wilhelm von Zimmermann]]

Synod of Diamper

2026-03-23T03:26:08Z

Juliaauhm: adjusted structure further and improved wording to improve readability

{{short description|Colonial pseudo-diocesan synod in 1599}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2024}}
{{Nasrani people}}
{{Christianity in India sidebar}}


The '''Synod of Diamper''' ({{langx|ml|ഉദയംപേരൂർ സൂനഹദോസ്| Udayampērūṟ Sūnahadōs}}) was a [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] diocesan [[synod]] held at [[Udayamperoor]] (Diamper in non-vernacular sources) in June 1599 that created rules and regulations for the ancient [[Saint Thomas Christians]] (also known as ''Mar Thoma Nasranis'') of the [[Malabar Coast]], a part of modern-day [[Kerala]], [[India]]. The synod formally subjugated them to [[Latin Church|Latin Catholic]] authorities, downgrading the [[India (East Syriac ecclesiastical province)|Metropolitanate of India]] to the [[Archdiocese of Cranganore|Archdiocese of Angamalé]], a [[Suffragan diocese|suffragan see]] to the [[Archdiocese of Goa]], which was administered by Portuguese ''[[Padroado]]'' missionaries.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Melton|first=J. Gordon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bI9_AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1152|title=Faiths Across Time: 5,000 Years of Religious History [4 Volumes]: 5,000 Years of Religious History|year=2014|isbn=9781610690263|pages=1152|publisher=Abc-Clio }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|editor-last=Nedungatt|editor-first=George|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hgguAAAAYAAJ|title=The Synod of Diamper Revisited|publisher=Pontificio Istituto Orientale|year=2001|isbn=9788872103319|pages=155}}</ref> The synod also forced [[Latinisation of liturgy|liturgical latinisation]] and the eschewal of local practices and beliefs, leading to a significant protest known as the [[Coonan Cross Oath]] and a subsequent schism in the mid-17th century.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Synod-of-Diamper|title=Synod of Diamper|work=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=10 January 2021|quote=The forced Latinization and disregard for local tradition were accompanied by violence and led to schism among Thomas Christians by the mid-17th century.}}</ref>

[[File:The ancient roof structure of synod church,Udayamperror - panoramio.jpg|thumb|Interior of the [[Synodal church, Udayamperoor|Udayamperūr Syro-Malabar Church]] which had hosted the Synod of Diamper]]

==Background==


===Early history of Saint Thomas Christians===
The [[Saint Thomas Christians]], who trace their origins to the evangelistic activity of Thomas the Apostle in the 1st century, were in communion with the [[Church of the East]] of Persia and the [[Patriarch of the Church of the East|Patriarch of the Seleucia-Ctesiphon]], and relied on their bishops.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |first=Sebastian P. |last=Brock|author-link=Sebastian Brock |title=Chaldean Syrian Church |encyclopedia=Gorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage: Electronic Edition |editor-first1=Sebastian P. |editor-last1=Brock |editor-first2=Aaron M. |editor-last2=Butts |editor-first3=George A. |editor-last3=Kiraz |editor-first4=Lucas |editor-last4=Van Rompay |url=https://gedsh.bethmardutho.org/Chaldean-Syrian-Church |publisher=Gorgias Press|year=2011c|access-date=22 September 2016}}</ref>
Thus, while the bishops from the Middle East were the spiritual heads of the Church, the general administration of the Church of Kerala was governed by an indigenous priest known as ''Arkkadiyakkon'' or ''Archdeacon''.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://gedsh.bethmardutho.org/Thomas-Christians |title=Thomas Christians|publisher= e-GEDSH:Gorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage|quote=Although India was supplied with bishops from the Middle East, the effective control lay in the hands of the indigenous Archdeacon.|last1=Brock |first1=Sebastian P. }}</ref> He was the community leader of [[Saint Thomas Christians]]. Even in times when there were multiple foreign bishops, there was only one archdeacon for entire Saint Thomas Community.<ref name="Clara">{{cite book |last= Joseph|first= Clara. A.B|title=Christianity in India: The Anti-Colonial Turn |date=2019|publisher=Taylor & Francis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xEmMDwAAQBAJ|language=en |isbn=9781351123846|quote=Documents address him as the Jathikku Karthavyan [the head of the caste], that is, the head of the Thomas Christians.....even when there were more than one foreign bishop, there was only one Archdeacon for entire St.Thomas Community"}}</ref>

===Portuguese missionaries and Saint Thomas Christians===
The Portuguese fleet led by [[Pedro Alvarez Cabral]], arrived in Malabar in 1500 with a missionary team of 19 members. More than half of them were [[Franciscans]].<ref name="Frykenberg_fleet">{{cite book |last= Frykenberg|first= Robert Erick |title=Christianity in India From Beginnings to the Present |date=2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press|page=122 |isbn= 978-0-19-154419-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sOrglHSX6rsC |language=en}}</ref> Later, most of the groups that came from Portugal included missionaries. Initially, the Portuguese missionaries were on good terms with the Saint Thomas Christians, but between 1520 and 1530, relations between them began to fall apart. This is because the Portuguese began to impose their church traditions on the Malabar Christians.<ref name=Perczel>{{cite book|last= Perczel|first=István|author-link=István Perczel|title=Syriac Christianity in India|series=The Syriac World|editor=Daniel King|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e-GEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA653|isbn=9781317482116|publisher=Routledge|pages=678–685|year=2018}}</ref>

The [[Church of the East]] collapsed by 1552, through the [[schism of 1552]], and a faction (the modern day [[Chaldean Catholic Church]]) under the leadership of [[Yohannan Sulaqa]] joined in communion with the Church of Rome. It is difficult to say exactly how this split affected the Church of Saint Thomas Christians in Malabar. Following the split, both factions – the ''Nestorian'' and ''Chaldean Catholic'' – began sending their bishops to Kerala. Abraham, later known as [[Abraham of Angamaly]] was one of the last bishops from the Church of the East. Mar Abraham first arrived in India before 1556 as a Nestorian bishop from the traditional Nestorian Patriarchate. The Portuguese managed to arrest him and sent him off to Lisbon, but on the way he escaped at [[Mozambique]] and left to Mesopotamia and presented himself to Abdiso, the Chaldean patriarch who had declared allegiance to the Pope of Rome. The patriarch re-consecrated the Abraham, sent him with letters to Pope Pius IV.<ref name="neil_onAbraham">{{cite book |last= Neil|first= Stephen|title=A History of Christianity in India: The Beginnings to AD 1707 |date=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=204 |isbn= 9780521548854|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RH4VPgB__GQC |language=en}}</ref> Abraham received his episcopal ordination again, third time,<ref name="neil_onAbraham"/> in Rome in 1565 and returned in India in 1568. In spite of the express approbation by Pope, he was not welcomed by the Portuguese authorities in Goa and was arrested second time. However, Abraham escaped in 1570 and reached Malabar, there he directed his faithful in defiance of the Portuguese until his death in 1597.<ref>For details of the last days of Mar Abraham cf. Michael Geddes, "History of the Malabar Church &c.", London, 1694, repr. George Menachery, Ed.Indian Church History Classics, Vol.I, Ollur 1998 pp. 51–112</ref>

===Preparations for the Synod===
After the death of Abraham, [[Aleixo de Menezes]] the Archbishop of Goa began efforts to bring Archdiocese of Angamaly under Goa. Menezes nominated [[Francis Ros]] as Administrator of Angamaly.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Ninan|first=M.M|url=http://www.talentshare.org/~mm9n/articles/Indian%20Christianity/CHAPTER%20FIVE.htm|title=History of Christianity in India|chapter=5}}</ref> But by this time the [[Archdeacon George of the Cross|Archdeacon, George (of the Cross)]], according to the custom and by appointment of Abraham, took up the administration of the Archdiocese of Angamaly. Therefore, Menezes had to withdraw the administrator.<ref name="Neill_Menezes">{{cite book |last= Neil|first= Stephen|title=A History of Christianity in India: The Beginnings to AD 1707 |date=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=208}}</ref> But Menesis decided that Saint Thomas Christians should be unconditionally placed under the spiritual authority of the Pope. For this, he sought the help of viceroy of Goa, the Portuguese Captain of Kochi and the King of Kochi.<ref name="Neill_Menezes"/> Also, the Portuguese were very careful at the ports to prevent any Eastern Bishops from entering Kerala.
[[File:D. Frei Aleixo de Menezes - Galeria dos Arcebispos de Braga.png|alt=Archbishop Alexis de Menezes of Goa|thumb|341x341px|Archbishop Alexis de Menezes of Goa, who was the chief architect and driving force behind the Synod of Udayamperoor]]
Archbishop Menezes visited Malabar in February 1599. Menezes threatened to depose Archdeacon George and appoint in his place Thomas Kurian, another nephew of George whose claims had been ignored in 1593. In order to prevent a division, George gave in to the demands of Menezes.<ref name=":0" /> After carrying out a visitation in various parishes of Saint Thomas Christians, gaining the support of the local rulers and some of the local clergy, also by ordaining a large number of new priests, and forcing Archdeacon, to submit to him, Menezes called for a synod to be convened in June 1599.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://gedsh.bethmardutho.org/Diamper-Synod-of|title=Thomas Christians|publisher= e-GEDSH:Gorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage|access-date=10 January 2022|last1=Takahashi |first1=Hidemi }}</ref> Instead of Angamaly, the headquarters of the diocese, a small place called Diamper (Udayamperur) near Kochi, the Portuguese stronghold, was chosen as the venue for the Synod.

==The Synod==
The synod solemnly began on the third Sunday after Pentecost, 20 June 1599, in the church of Diamper (Udayamperoor) and continued until 26 June 1599.<ref name="syondchurch">[http://www.synodofdiamper.com/synod.php Synod of Diamper Church], Garvasis and Protasis church and All Saints church.</ref> The synod, attended by 153 local priests and 660 lay representatives.<ref name="Diamp1">{{cite journal |url=https://gedsh.bethmardutho.org/Diamper-Synod-of |title=Diamper, Synod of |website=gedsh.bethmardutho.org|publisher=Gorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage|access-date=11 January 2022|quote=The synod, attended by 153 local priests and 660 lay representatives, lasted from the 20th to the 27th of June, and passed more than 200 decrees in rapid succession and evidently without any serious debate. |last1=Takahashi |first1=Hidemi }}</ref> Menezes presided over the synod. The [[Patriarch of Babylon]],<ref name="neil_PatriarchOfBabylon">{{cite book |last= Neil|first= Stephen|title=A History of Christianity in India: The Beginnings to AD 1707 |date=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=213 |isbn= 9780521548854|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RH4VPgB__GQC |language=en|quote=The second day was entirely taken up with receiving from the participants the profession and declaration of the faith. ...and to repudiate all Nestorian error and in particular all allegiance to the patriarch of Babylon, 'whom I condemn, reject and anathematize as being a Nestorian heretic and schismatic,...' }}</ref> was condemned as a heretic and schismatic, and they were made to swear that they would not accept any bishop except the one nominated by Rome.<ref name="ReferenceA">Dr. Thekkedath, History of Christianity in India"</ref> The controversial Synod of Diamper canonized the [[Liturgical Latinization|Latinization]] of the Church of Saint Thomas Christians.<ref name="J Thaliath, The Synod of Diamper">J Thaliath, The Synod of Diamper</ref> Academicians have raised doubts on the validity of the synod and whether it violated canon law on the facts that the synod was convened on threat of excommunication by an archbishop of nearby archdiocese who was permitted by pope to appoint an apostolic administrator with limited powers, not the ordinary diocesan archbishop.<ref>{{cite book |first=Paul |last=Pallath |date=1 January 2001 |title=The Synod of Diamper Revisited |editor-last=Nedungatt |editor-first=George |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hgguAAAAYAAJ |publisher=Pontificio Istituto Orientale| pages=199–227| chapter=Chapter 8: The synod of Diamper valid or Invalid |isbn=9788872103319}}</ref>

===Decrees of the Synod===

The synod issued 200 decrees distributed in nine actions (sessions).<ref name="ReferenceA"/> It has been suggest that the differences between the decrees of the synod, are due to translation. It has been suggested that these decrees were first formulated in the [[Portuguese language]] by Don Menezes and then translated to [[Malayalam]]. It has been suggested that the participants signed the Malayalam document, which lacks 35 of the Canons given in the Portuguese text.<ref name="J Thaliath, The Synod of Diamper"/>
[[File:Mar Sabor and Mar Proth East Syriac Persian Saints of the Malabar Church.jpg|thumb|Mar Sabor and Mar Proth]]

===Changes in liturgy===

The text on which the synod worked was a composite East Syriac text of [[Liturgy of Addai and Mari|Anaphora of Addai and Mari.]]<ref>D. Webb, " Versions of the Malabar Liturgy"</ref> The Anaphorae of [[Hallowing of Nestorius|Nestorius]], [[Hallowing of Theodore of Mopsuestia|Theodore]], and Diodore (the latter now lost) were abolished and their manuscripts were asked to brought to Menesis to be destroyed.<ref name=":1" /> The synod declared certain passages of the [[Holy Qurbana of Addai and Mari]] as 'impious, sacrilegious and resulting from Nestorian heresy'. The changes made by the synod consist of six in litanies, seven in hymns or anthems, four in formulae of the deacon, one in the response of the people, one in the text of the gospel lesson, and one affecting the whole creed. In the prayer of the priest, there are five changes in the pre-anaphora part of the Qurbana of Addai and Mari. There are four changes within the anaphora and eleven in the four variable ''hutame'' (Sealing prayers).<ref>Connolly, " Work of Menezes", Codrington, " The Malabar Liturgy and the Synod of Diamper"</ref>

=== Decisions impacted social life ===
[[File:Synod of Diamper Church October 2023.jpg|thumb|Udayamperūr Syro-Malabar Church]]
The Synod of Diamper condemned a multitude of [[Hindus]] beliefs, especially those related to transmigration, fate, and astrology. Hindu ceremonies and customs related to matrimony, death, birth, and purification on touching [[Lower Caste|lower castes]], which were prevalent among the Christians of Saint Thomas, were abandoned altogether. They were even banned from frequenting to Hindu festivities including [[Onam]]. The synod also condemned the belief that every man might be saved by his laws, all of which are good and lead to heaven, irrespective of his religion. The synod banned Christian teachers from installing or using any Hindu idols in their schools. [[Polygamy]] and [[concubinage]] were forbidden, and clergymen were banned from marital relations, military services to Hindu princes, and other secular indulgences. Previously, Hindu musicians had been used to conduct programs in Christian churches, but the synod banned the practice outright.<ref name=":1">The history of the church of Malabar: Together with the Synod of Diamper 1599 – Michael Geddes – the Bavarian State Library</ref>

===Prohibition of books===
The synod prohibited the use of many books deemed heretical. These books are listed below.<ref name="JamesHough">[https://books.google.com/books/download/The_history_of_Christianity_in_India.pdf?id=B3cOAAAAQAAJ&output=pdf&sig=ACfU3U3WePbgX3hFEwLoyk5H2M5EVAAHxw], The history of Christianity in India: Volume 2 By James Hough</ref><ref>Acts and Decrees of the Synod are exhaustively given by Michael Geddes, "A Short History of the Church of Malabar Together with the Synod of Diamper &c." London, 1694;Repr. in George Menachery, Ed., Indian Church History Classics, Vol.1, Ollur 1998, pp. 33–112. Also in James Hugh Vol.2. Cf.Relevant articles in The St. Thomas Christian Encyclopaedia of India, Ed. George Menachery, 1973, 1982, 2009</ref><ref name="Ferroli">Ferroli, "Jesuits in Malabar" Vol.1</ref><ref name="syonddata14">[http://nasrani.net/2007/11/10/save-syriac/ Save Syriac], NSC Network.</ref>

*''The Infancy of our Saviour'' (The History of our Lady) (language: Syriac)
*''Book of John Barialdan'' (language: Syriac)
*''The Procession of the Holy Spirit'' (language: Persian)
*Margarita Fidei (The Jewel)
*Fathers (language: Unknown)
*''Life of Abed Isho'' (language: Arabic)
*Book of Synods (language: Syriac)
*Book of 'Timothy the Patriarch' (language: Persian)
*Domingo or Letter of the Lord's-day (language: Malayalam)
*Maclamatas (language: Syriac)
*Uguarda or Rose (language: Greek)
*Camiz (language: Syriac)
*Menra (language: Hebrew)
*Book of Orders (language: Tamil)
*Book of Homilies (language: Arabic)
*''An Exposition of the Gospels'' (language: Syriac)
*Book of Hormisda Raban (language: Greek)
*''Book of Lots'' (language: Aramaic).
*A book of unknown title which is a Nestorian version of ''Flos Sanctorum'' (language: Syriac)
*Parisman or [[Ancient Iranian medicine|Persian Medicine]] (language: Persian)

=== Destruction of books ===
The decree XVI ordered that all the Syriac manuscripts should be handed over to the Archbishop or his deputy on a visit to the Churches. Due to the lack of printed books, the Qurbana manuscripts were excluded from this.<ref name="Ferroli" /><ref name="syonddata14" />

There are only very few Syriac manuscripts that withstood the destruction. [[István Perczel|Dr. Istvan Perczel]], a Hungarian scholar researching Syrian Christians in India, found that certain texts survived the destruction of Syriac religious writings by the Portuguese missionaries.<ref>Nagarajan, Saraswathy (19 June 2009) [https://web.archive.org/web/20090623140400/http://www.hindu.com/fr/2009/06/19/stories/2009061951270300.htm Journey of discovery] The Hindu hindu.com</ref>

== Reception of the synod ==
The Church authorities noted the result of the synod was not as helpful as they expected. As the [[Catholic Encyclopedia]] (1913) says, "The only case in which an ancient Eastern rite has been wilfully romanized is that of the ''Uniat'' Malabar Christians, where it was not Roman authority but the misguided zeal of Alexius de Menezes, Archbishop of Goa, and his Portuguese advisers at the Synod of Diamper (1599) which spoiled the old Malabar Rite."

After the Synod of Diamper, on 25 November 1599, a letter was sent to Pope by the Archdeacon, giving information about the synod and its work. The letter praises the work of Menezes and requests the appointment of Menezes or Francis Ros as their bishop.<ref>Giuseppe Beltrami, La Chiesa Caldea pp. 253–6, Full text reproduced</ref> The letter does not fully represent the genuine sentiments of Archdeacon, as by that time he was completely at the mercy of the Portuguese and the only thing left for him to do was to follow their directives.<ref name="ReferenceA" />

In this way, the Synod of Diamper achieved one of the aims of the Portuguese policy in [[Kerala]], to separate the Syrian Christians of [[Malabar region|Malabar]] from the [[List of Chaldean Catholic Patriarchs of Babylon|Chaldean Patriarch]] and to extend the influence of [[Padroado|Portuguese Padroado]] in India. As a result, the King of Portugal got the right of nomination to the ancient See of Saint Thomas in Malabar. The Archbishopric of Angamale was degraded to a Portuguese ''Padroado'' diocese under [[Goa]] on 4 August 1600, AD.<ref name="ReferenceA" />

==Aftermath==

After the Synod of Diamper, Menezes stayed in Kerala until November 1599, visited the churches, examined the traditional books preserved there and those deemed heretical were burned.<ref name="Diamp2">{{cite journal |url=https://gedsh.bethmardutho.org/Diamper-Synod-of |title=Diamper, Synod of |website=gedsh.bethmardutho.org|publisher=Gorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage|access-date=11 January 2022|quote=After the synod, Menezes remained in Kerala until Nov. 1599 and made a tour of the diocese, during which books preserved in the local churches were submitted to his entourage for examination and those deemed heretical were consigned to the flame.|last1=Takahashi |first1=Hidemi }}</ref>

===Change in Administration===
[[File:Tomb inside Kottakkavu Mar Thoma Syro-Malabar Pilgrim Church.jpg|thumb|Tomb of Francis Roz, first Jesuit Metropolitan of Kodungalloor Archeparchy, inside [[Kottakkavu Mar Thoma Syro-Malabar Pilgrim Church, North Paravur]].]]
The Archbishopric of [[Angamaly]] was downgraded to a [[bishopric]] under Goa in 1600. [[Portuguese Padroado]] rule was thus imposed and the bishops for Saint Thomas Christians were appointed by Portuguese Padroado.<ref name="syonddata12">[http://nasrani.net/2007/01/14/saint-thomas-christians-history-of-divisions-churches/ Divisions and Rite of the Churches- Syro Malabar Church, Malankara Syriac Orthodox Church, Malankara Orthodox Syriac Church, Thozhiyur Church, Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church, Syro Malankara Church, Chaldean Syrian Church- Synod of Diamper], NSC Network.</ref>
Under [[Padroado|Portuguese Padroado]], Latin Bishops were appointed to govern the Saint Thomas Christians. [[Francis Ros]] was nominated as successor to Abraham on 5 November 1599. Bishop Ros, centralized in himself all the authority reducing almost to nothing the powers of Archdeacon. Roz died on 16 February 1624 and was succeeded by Bishop Stephen Britto. George of the Cross died c. 1634 and was succeeded by Archdeacon Thomas. Britto died in 1641 and Bishop Garcia Francis succeeded him. A regular fight ensued between the Francis and Thomas.<ref name="Frykenberg_on_ThomasAnd_Garcia">{{cite book |last= Frykenberg|first= Robert Erick |title=Christianity in India From Beginnings to the Present |date=2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=367 |isbn= 978-0-19-154419-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sOrglHSX6rsC |language=en |quote= Refusal of those loyal to the Church of the East to submit to dictates from the Church of the West entered a new phase with the rise of two new figures. The new Archdeacon, named Thomas, challenged the new Padroado Archbishop of Kodungallur (Cranganore), named Francis Garcia(SJ). Each claimed that the other could do nothing without his consent.}}</ref>

=== Great Oath of Bent Cross (Coonan Cross Oath) ===
{{main|Coonan Cross Oath}}
The oppressive rule of the Portuguese Padroado provoked a violent reaction by the Saint Thomas Christian community. The first solemn protest occurred in 1653. Under the leadership of Archdeacon Thoma, [[Nasrani (India)|Nasrani]]s gathered at [[Mattancherry]] church on Friday, 24 January 1653 (M.E. 828 Makaram 3), and made an oath that is known as the [[Coonan Cross Oath|Great Oath of Bent Cross]]. Those who were not able to touch the cross-tied ropes on the cross held the rope in their hands and made the oath. Because of the weight, it is said that the cross bent a little and so it is known as ''[[Coonan Cross Oath|Oath of the bent cross (Coonen Kurisu Sathyam)]]''.<ref name="EtmgyRef1">{{cite book |title=Eastern Churches Journal : A Journal of Eastern Christendom-Volume 10 |date=2003 |publisher=Society of Saint John Chrysostom|page=55 |isbn= 9780521548854|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RH4VPgB__GQC |language=en |quote=The crowd outside shared in the oath by holding on to a rope tied to a cross in the Churchyard It is said that the cross bent as a result. Hence the oath is known as Coonan ( bent ) Cross Oath.}}</ref><ref name="EtmgyRef2">{{cite book |last=Oommen|first=M. A. |title=Rethinking Development – Kerala's Development Experience · Volume 1 |date=1999|publisher=Institute of Social Sciences and Concept Publishing Company|page=81 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RH4VPgB__GQC |language=en|isbn=9788170227649|quote=The oath is known in history as the Kunan Kurisu Satyam, an oath taken by holding a rope tied to a cross that consequently developed a bend.}}</ref>
The exact wording of the oath is a matter of dispute. There are various versions about the wording of oath, one version being that the oath was directed against the Portuguese, another that it was directed against Jesuits, yet another version that it was directed against the authority of Church of Rome.<ref name=Gazette>{{cite book |title=Census of India (1961: Kerala|date=1965 |publisher=Office of the Registrar General|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0JCaAAAAIAAJ|language=en|page=111|quote=There are various versions about the wording of swearing, one version being that it was directed against the Portuguese, another that it was directed against Jesuits, yet another that it was directed against the authority of church of Rome }}</ref>

===Schism in Saint Thomas Christian Community===
Four months after the Coonan Cross Oath, twelve priests of the church laid their hands on Archdeacon Thomas and ordained him as [[Thoma I]]. The Portuguese missionaries attempted to reconcile with Saint Thomas Christians but were not successful.

Francis Ros realised that there was resistance on the part of the Christians of St. Thomas, regarding the suppression of their ancient Metropolitan title. He decided to convoke a new Synod to substitute the Synod of Diampere.<ref>{{cite encyclopaedia |year=2011 |title="Diamper, Synod of," |encyclopaedia=Gorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage: Electronic Edition |publisher=Gorgias Press |url=https://gedsh.bethmardutho.org/Diamper-Synod-of. |last=Takahashi |first=Hidemi |editor1-last=Brock |editor1-first=Sebastian P. |editor1-link=Sebastian Brock |editor2-first=Aaron M. |editor2-last=Butts |editor3-first=George A. |editor3-last=Kiraz |editor3-link=George Kiraz |editor4-first=Lucas Van |editor4-last=Rompay }}</ref> The [[Second Synod of Angamaly]] met in 1603 and Angamaly became a separate Archdiocese again in 1608.<ref>[https://angamaly.org/angamaly/index.php/home/culture-heritage Angamaly Town official website]</ref>

Later, [[Pope Alexander VII]] sent a Carmelite delegation under Joseph Sebastiani who succeeded in convincing the majority of Saint Thomas Christians, including [[Parambil Mar Chandy|Palliveettil Chandy]] Kathanar and [[Kadavil Chandy]] Kathanar that the consecration of the archdeacon as metropolitan was not legitimate.As the validity of Thoma I's consecration was questioned, he began to lose followers. In the meantime, Sebastiani returned to Rome and was ordained as bishop by Pope on 15 December 1659.<ref name="OnSebastiani">{{cite book |last= Neil|first= Stephen|title=A History of Christianity in India: The Beginnings to AD 1707 |date=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=324 |isbn= 9780521548854|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RH4VPgB__GQC |language=en |quote=To bring one of the cattanars to Rome for consecration would have resulted in endless delays...So at the age of thirty-six Joseph Sebastiani, in religion Fr Joseph of Saint Mary OCD, was consecrated secretly on 15 December 1659, and given the title bishop of Hierapolis.....He is appointed as apostolic commissary for the whole of the Serra}}</ref> Joseph Sebastiani returned to Kerala in 1661 and within a short time period he restored most of the churches that had been with Thoma I to Rome. Thus, by 1663, 84 of the 116 churches in existence were in favor of Sebastiani, leaving only 32 churches in favor of Thoma I. However, in 1663, with the conquest of Cochin by the [[Netherlands|Dutch]], the control of the Portuguese on the Malabar coast was lost. The Dutch declared that all other the Europeans had to leave Malabar. Before leaving Kerala, on 1 February 1663 Sebastiani consecrated [[Palliveettil Chandy]] as the Metran of the Thomas Christians who adhered to the Church of Rome.<ref name="neil_consecration">{{cite book |last= Neil|first= Stephen|title=A History of Christianity in India: The Beginnings to AD 1707 |date=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=325 |isbn= 9780521548854|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RH4VPgB__GQC |language=en|quote=The consecration took place on 1 February 1663....But Chandy was not consecrated as archbishop of Cranganore, but as bishop of Megara i.p.i., and with the title of vicar apostolic.}}</ref><ref name="frykenberg_consecration">{{cite book |last= Frykenberg|first= Robert Erick |title=Christianity in India From Beginnings to the Present |date=2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press|page=361 |isbn= 978-0-19-154419-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sOrglHSX6rsC |language=en}}</ref>

Thoma I, meanwhile sent requests to various Oriental Churches to receive canonical consecration as bishop. In 1665, [[Gregorios Abdal Jaleel]], a bishop from [[Syriac Orthodox Church]], arrived in India and the faction under the leadership of [[Thoma I]] welcomed him. The bishop was sent in correspondence to the letter sent by Thoma to the [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syriac Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch]]. Bishop Abdul Jaleel regularized the Episcopal succession of Thoma I.<ref name="Geddes2">[[George Menachery|Menachery G]]; 1973, 1982, 1998; [[Placid J. Podipara|Podipara, Placid J.]] 1970; Leslie Brown, 1956; [[Eugene Tisserant|Tisserant, E.]] 1957</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1-last=Mundadan|author1-first=Anthony Mathias|author2-first=Joseph|author2-last=Thekkedath|author1-link=Mathias Mundadan|year=1982|title=History of Christianity in India|volume=2|location=Bangalore|publisher=Church History Association of India}}</ref> Thereafter the faction affiliated with the Catholic Church under [[Palliveettil Chandy]] was referred themselves as the ''[[Syrian Catholics of Malabar|Paḻayakūṟ]]'' or ''Pazhayakūttukar'' ("Old Party"), while the branch affiliated with [[Thoma I]] was called the ''Puthankūttukar'' ("Puthenkoor faction" or "New Party").<ref name="Vadakkekara86">Vadakkekara, p. 84; 86.</ref><ref name="Frykenberg, p. 361">Frykenberg, p. 361.</ref><ref>Fernando, p. 79.</ref><ref>Chaput, pp. 7–8.</ref> These appellations have been somewhat controversial, as both groups considered themselves the true heirs to the Saint Thomas tradition and saw each other as heretical.<ref>Vadakkekara, p. 84 and note.</ref><ref>[[Sebastian P. Brock]], "Thomas Christians," in Thomas Christians, edited by [[Sebastian P. Brock]], Aaron M. Butts, [[George A. Kiraz]] and Lucas Van Rompay, https://gedsh.bethmardutho.org/Thomas-Christians.</ref>

This visit of [[Gregorios Abdal Jaleel]] gradually introduced the [[West Syriac Rite|West Syriac]] liturgy, customs and script in the Puthenkoor faction. The visits of prelates from the [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch]] continued since then and this led to gradual replacement of the East Syriac Rite liturgy with the [[West Syriac Rite]] and the faction affiliated to the [[Miaphysitism|Miaphysite Christology]] of the [[Oriental Orthodox Churches|Oriental Orthodox Communion]].<ref name=Gregorios285>Gregorios & Roberson, p. 285.</ref><ref name=Vadakkekara91>Vadakkekara, p. 91.</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Jornada of Dom Alexis de Menezes: A Portuguese Account of the Sixteenth Century Malabar|last=Gouvea|first=Antonio de|year=2003|orig-date=1606|location=Coimbra|isbn=9788188979004|author-link=Antonio de Gouvea|editor-first=Pius|editor-last=Malekandathil|editor-link=Pius Malekandathil|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cUKybwAACAAJ|edition=2003}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Vadakkekara|first=Benedict|title=Origin of Christianity in India: A Historiographical Critique|year=2007|location=Delhi|publisher=Media House|isbn=9788174952585|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7f3YAAAAMAAJ |page=88}}</ref> The Pazhayakoor faction continued with the [[East Syriac Rite|East Syriac]] traditions and [[Diophysite]] faith and stayed within the Catholic Church. By this process, Saint Thomas Christians were divided into [[East Syriac Rite|East Syriac]] and [[West Syriac Rite|West Syriac]] branches.

Successive divisions have taken place and as a result, Saint Thomas Christians currently belong to several different churches. The Pazhayakoor faction divided into [[Syro-Malabar Church]] and [[Chaldean Syrian Church]], while the Puthenkoor faction divided into the Syriac Orthodox Church in India ([[Jacobite Syrian Christian Church]]), [[Indian Orthodox Church]], [[Saint Thomas Anglicans]] of the [[Church of South India]], [[Mar Thoma Syrian Church]], [[St. Thomas Evangelical Church of India]], [[Syro-Malankara Catholic Church]] and [[Malabar Independent Syrian Church]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Thomas Christians: History & Tradition-Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Thomas-Christians |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |date=14 July 2023 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Fahlbusch |first1=Erwin |last2=Lochman |first2=Jan Milič |last3=Bromiley |first3=Geoffrey William |last4=Mbiti |first4=John S. |last5=Pelikan |first5=Jaroslav |last6=Barrett |first6=David B. |last7=Vischer |first7=Lukas |title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity |date=1999 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |isbn=978-90-04-11695-5 |pages=686–687 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yaecVMhMWaEC |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Frykenberg |first1=Robert Eric |title=Christianity in India: From Beginnings to the Present |date=27 June 2008 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-154419-4 |page=249 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VhRREAAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== Books (Studies on Synod of Diamper) ==
*Paul Pallath, "The Synod of Diamper: valid or invalid?"
*[[George Nedungatt]] S.J., "The Synod of Diamper Revisited", Pontifical Instituto Orientale, Rome, 2001.
*Joseph Kuzhinjalil, "The disciplinary Legislation of Synod of Diamper" (1975)
*Jonas Thaliath, "The Synod of Diamper" (1958)
*Connolly, "The Work of Meneses"
*Codrington, "The Chaldean Liturgy"
*Codrington, "The Malabar Liturgy and Synod of Diamper"
* Neill, Stephen – (1977) A history of Christian missions Neill, Stephen – The story of the Christian church in India and Pakistan
* Eric Frykenberg, Robert – Christianity in India
* Hough, James – 1845 – The history of Christianity in India: Volume 4
* Sir William Kaye, John – Christianity in India
* Bruce Firth, Cyril – An introduction to Indian church history
* Hunter, W.W. – (1886) The Indian Empire; Its People History and Products pp 240
* Logan, William – (1887) Malabar Manual pp 119
* Nangam Aiya, V. – (1906) The Travancore State Manual Volume 2 pp 243
* Barton, John M. – (1872) The Syrian Christians: Narrative of a Tour in the Travancore Mission of the Church Missionary Society Mission Life, Vol. III * * Geddes, Michael – (1694) A short History of the Church of Malabar
* Henry, J. & Parker, J – The Christians of St. Thomas and their liturgies
* Milne Rae, George – Syrian Church in India Whitehouse, Thomas – (1873) Lingerings of light in a dark land: researches into the Syrian church of Malabar * * Brown, Leslie- The Indian Christians of St Thomas
* David Macbride, John – (1856) – The Syrian church in India

==External links==
{{Commons category|Synod of Diamper}}
* [http://www.synodofdiamper.com/synod.php Udayamperoor Synod Church]
* [https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/chrstuni/documents/rc_pc_chrstuni_doc_20011025_chiesa-caldea-assira_en.html Pontifical Council For Promoting Christian Unity]
* [http://www.synodofdiamper.com/mal/ History of Udayamperoor Synodal Church in Malayalam]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050901072010/http://thesyromalabarchurch.org/history.htm History of the Syro-Malabar Church]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14678a.htm#XIII Catholic Encyclopedia: St. Thomas Christians (Archbishop Menezes and the Synod of Diamper)]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13064b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Rites]
* https://thomaschristians.blogspot.com/2011/06/synod-of-diamper.html

{{Christianity footer}}
{{Christianity in Kerala}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Diamper, Synod of}}
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[[Category:Christianity in Kerala]]
[[Category:Saint Thomas Christians|Saint Thomas Christians]]
[[Category:Church of the East in India]]
[[Category:Oriental Orthodoxy in India]]
[[Category:History of Eastern Catholicism]]
[[Category:1599 in Christianity]]
[[Category:1599 in India]]
[[Category:16th-century church councils]]
[[Category:Portuguese in Kerala]]
[[Category:Archdiocese of Ernakulam-Angamaly]]
[[Category:Kingdom of Cochin]]
[[Category:16th century in Portuguese India]]

International School of Information Management

2026-03-06T16:57:39Z

Juliaauhm: improved details as per guidelines

{{multiple issues|
{{promotional|date=April 2012}}
{{COI|date=April 2012}}
{{primary sources|date=January 2018}}
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2013}}
{{Infobox university|
| name = International School of Information Management (ISiM)|
| image_name = ISIM-LOGO.png|
| image_size = 135px|
| caption = Management School of IT. Technology School for IM.  |
| established = 15 September 2005<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.isim.ac.in/newsclippings/DH-15-09-05.pdf |title=Information Boom |work=Deccan Herald|date=2005-09-15 |accessdate=2010-08-29 |archive-date=21 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721150641/http://www.isim.ac.in/newsclippings/DH-15-09-05.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| type = [[Public–private partnership|Public Private Partnership (PPP)]]<ref name="knowISiM" />
| head_label = Executive Director
| head = [[Shalini Urs|Prof. Shalini R. Urs]]
| city = [[Mysore]]
| state = [[Karnataka]]
| country = India
| campus = Manasagangotri, Mysore
| website = [http://www.isim.ac.in/ www.isim.ac.in]
}}

The '''International School of Information Management (ISiM)''' is the first Indian [[List of I-Schools|i-School]] and is an autonomous constituent institute of the [[University of Mysore]], located in [[Mysore]] in [[Karnataka]], [[South India|Southern India]]. ISiM was conceptualised and established in 2005, in collaboration with the leading information schools in the U.S. – namely the School of Information at the [[University of Michigan]], the School of Information Sciences at the [[University of Pittsburgh]], and the School of Information Studies at [[Syracuse University]], [[International Institute of Information Technology, Bangalore|International Institute of Information Technology (IIIT) Bangalore]], and [[Dalhousie University]] of Canada. ISiM was established with grants from the [[Ford Foundation]] and Bangalore based Informatics India Pvt. Ltd.

==Introduction==
[[File:ISiM building.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|ISiM campus at Manasagangothri, University of Mysore]]
ISiM was conceptualized and established in 2005, by the [[University of Mysore]], with seed grants from the [[Ford Foundation]] and Bangalore-based Informatics India Pvt. Ltd., and in partnership with some of the leading information schools in the U.S., namely the School of Information at the University of Michigan, the School of Information Sciences at the University of Pittsburgh, and the [[List of information schools|School of Information Studies]] at [[Syracuse University]]. ISiM was sown during a discussion in academia; dozens of sessions later, during the annual Knowledge Summit in September 2005, Dr. Som Mittal, the then director of [[Hewlett-Packard|HP]] and the current president of [[NASSCOM]], officially launched ISiM. ISiM signed a [[memorandum of understanding]] with the School of Information Studies at Syracuse University, the [[University of Michigan]] and [[Dalhousie University]] of Canada in 2006.<ref name="ISiMpartners">{{cite web |url=http://www.isim.ac.in/html/partners.htm |title=Partners |publisher=International School of Information Management (ISiM), University of Mysore |accessdate=2010-08-29 |archive-date=26 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100926060934/http://www.isim.ac.in/html/partners.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>
[[File:SomMittal1.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Dr. [[Som Mittal]], the then director of HP and the current president of [[NASSCOM]], launching ISiM at InfoVision 2005]][[File:SRU at InfoVision2005.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Dr. [[Shalini Urs|Shalini R. Urs]], the executive director of ISiM, speaking at the launch of ISiM at InfoVision 2005]]
ISiM defines a new educational model – the inverse of distance learning<ref name="knowISiM">{{cite web |url=http://www.isim.ac.in/html/know%20ISiM.htm |title=Know ISiM |publisher=International School of Information Management (ISiM), University of Mysore |accessdate=2010-08-29 |archive-date=9 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100809033528/http://www.isim.ac.in/html/know%20ISiM.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> – in which the students and the school are in Mysore, but the faculty and mentors are drawn from ISiM's partners and other institutions.

ISiM is directed by an independent governing board, chaired by the vice-chancellor of the University of Mysore, with eminent academics and industry stalwarts as members. ISiM has people like [[N. R. Narayana Murthy]] (chairman and mentor [[Infosys]] Technologies), Prof. M. Anandakrishnan (Chairman-IIT, Kanpur), Dr.N. Seshagiri (Former director general, [[National Informatics Centre]], New Delhi), among others, on its [[Board of directors|governing board]].<ref name="ISiMmanagement">{{cite web |url=http://www.isim.ac.in/html/management.htm |title=Management |publisher=International School of Information Management (ISiM), University of Mysore |accessdate=2010-08-29 |archive-date=26 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100926060924/http://www.isim.ac.in/html/management.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Academics==

The first batch of M.Tech. students began in August 2007. Currently, three batches of M.Tech. students have graduated from ISiM. The second year of the fourth batch will commence in September 2011. Being a multidisciplinary course. Foreign students have grown from 0% in the first batch of M.Tech. to 23% in the third batch. In its fourth batch (2012), 27% of the total students are foreign students. ISiM offers the following programmes:
# M.Tech. in information systems & management
# Post-graduate diploma in information management
# Doctoral degree programme (Ph.D.) in information systems & management
# Executive education programmes
# Corporate training programmes

===Faculty===
ISiM has 37 adjunct faculty.

===Research===
Research areas of ISiM include:
# Content Development & Management-Tools and Technologies
# Business Intelligence & Information
# Data Mining and Information Retrieval
# Natural Language Processing and Indian Languages
# Human Information Interactions and Usability
# Knowledge Management, Information Use and Reuse
# Cultural Informatics

===Projects===
ISiM has been involved in various community projects, which include:
* In March 2007, ISiM received [[Indian rupee|₹]]1 crore funding and collaboration from [[Rediff.com|Rediff]] to research Indian language content ([[Indo-Aryan languages]] and [[Dravidian languages]]) management and [[optical character recognition]].
* Education Development Center India Digital Library of Audio Visual Educational Materials
* Sasyasiri: Web enabled [[multimedia database]] of plants of Karnataka, [[Government of Karnataka]]

==Governing board==

<ref name="ISiMmanagement" />

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Member !! Affiliation
|-
| Dr. V. G. Talawar (Chairperson) || Vice-chancellor, [[University of Mysore]]
|-
| Prof. M. Anandakrishnan || Chairman [[Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur|IIT Kanpur]]
|-
| Dr. N. Seshagiri || Former director General, [[National Informatics Centre]]
|-
| Mr. [[N. R. Narayana Murthy]] || Chairman & chief mentor, [[Infosys]] Technologies
|-
| Dr. Prakash G. Apte || Former director, [[Indian Institute of Management Bangalore]]
|-
| Dr. S. Sadagopan || Founder Director, [[International Institute of Information Technology – Bangalore|International Institute of Information Technology, Bangalore]]
|-
| Dr. P. Anandan || Managing director, [[Microsoft]] Research Labs India Pvt. Ltd. Bangalore
|-
| Mr. N. V. Sathyanarayana || Chairman & managing director, [http://www.informindia.co.in/ Informatics India Limited Bangalore]
|-
| Prof. P. S. Naik || Registrar, [[University of Mysore]], Mysore
|-
| Mr. M. N VidyaShankar (IAS) || Principal Secretary, Department of e-Governance, [[Government of Karnataka]]
|-
| Dr. Prasad Ram || Director & centre head, Google India
|-
| Dr. [[Shalini Urs|Shalini R. Urs]] (Member Secretary) || Executive director, ISiM, University of Mysore
|}

==Board of studies==

<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.isim.ac.in/html/programs.htm |title=Programmes |publisher=International School of Information Management (ISiM), University of Mysore |accessdate=2010-08-29 |archive-date=3 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141003121837/http://www.isim.ac.in/html/programs.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Member !! Affiliation
|-
| Dr. [[Shalini Urs|Shalini R. Urs]] (Chairperson) || Executive director, ISiM, University of Mysore
|-
| Dr. Chidananda Gowda || Former Vice Chancellor and Visiting Professor, ISiM, University of Mysore
|-
| Dr. D. S. Guru || Reader, Department of Studies in Computer Science, University of Mysore
|-
| Prof. T. N. Nagabhushan || Special Officer, E-Learning Centre, Visvesvaraya Technological University, SJCE Campus, Mysore
|-
| Dr. J. K. Suresh || Assistant Vice President, Infosys Technologies Ltd. Education and Research, Bangalore
|-
| Dr. N. Yathindra || Director, Institute of Bioinformatics and Applied Biotechnology, Bangalore
|-
| Prof. Krithi Ramathirtham || Dean, Department of Computer Studies and Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Bombay
|-
| Prof. Chandrashekar Ramanathan || International Institute of Information Technology (IIIT) Bangalore
|-
| Dr. [[A. G. Ramakrishnan]] || Professor and chairman, Dept of Electrical Engineering, [[Medical intelligence and language engineering lab]], [[Indian Institute of Science]] Bangalore
|}

==Campus==
{{Unreferenced section|date=July 2023}}
[[File:NRN withStudents.JPG|thumb|upright=1.2|[[N. R. Narayana Murthy]], chairman and chief mentor of [[Infosys]], with staff and students of ISiM]]ISiM's campus is located on the Manasagangothri campus of the University of Mysore at [[Mysore|Mysore, India]]. ISiM started by using the classrooms of the Department of Library and Information Science in the University of Mysore. Its new campus was inaugurated on 20 August 2008 by Mr. N. R. Narayana Murthy, chairman and chief mentor of Infosys, who is also a member of ISiM's governing body.

==ISiM activities==
[[File:N. R. Narayana Murthy inaugurating ISiM building.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[N. R. Narayana Murthy]], chairman and chief mentor of [[Infosys]], inaugurating ISiM building]]

===InfoVision summit series===
In an attempt to promote Academia – industry interaction for improvisation, ISiM organizes InfoVision, an annual conference series organized with this theme. InfoVision 2006 was organized with [[Confederation of Indian Industry]] (CII), Bangalore as joint organizers, InfoVision 2007 with Rediff and [[Internet and Mobile Association of India|Internet And Mobile Association of India]] (IAMAI), InfoVision 2009 with Microsoft Research and Bangalore Chamber of Industries and Commerce (BCIC) and 2011 with TDWI Chapter India, CSI, [[DAMA International]], IEEE Computer society, ACM and Compegence.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.infovision.org.in/ |title=InfoVision |publisher= International School of Information Management (ISiM), University of Mysore |accessdate=2010-08-29}}</ref>

ISiM also organized InfoQuiz 2007, prior to the commencement of its M.Tech. programme.

===Special lecture series===
ISiM collaborates with other universities and organizations to organize special events, and one such venture is lecture series called "Special Lecture Series", with speakers from both the academia and the industry. Listed below are such lectures, their themes/topics and speakers:<ref name="ISiMevents">{{cite web |url=http://www.isim.ac.in/html/news%20And%20Events.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070331191828/http://www.isim.ac.in/html/news%20And%20Events.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=31 March 2007 |title=News and Events |publisher=International School of Information Management (ISiM), University of Mysore |accessdate=2010-08-29 }}</ref>
* Special Lecture (1): "''Wireless Security: Threats and Solutions''", by Dr. Srinivas Sampalli, professor and 3M Teaching Fellow, Faculty of Computer Science, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, and Prof. K. Chidananda Gowda, former vice chancellor, Kuvempu University. (2006)
* Special Lecture (2): "''Web Content Mining for Automatic Integration of Web Search Source''", by Dr. Vijay V. Raghavan Distinguished Professor of Computer Science. The Center for Advanced Computer Studies, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Lafayette, LA, USA. (2007)
* Special Lecture (3): "''More Search Vs. Search More – a computing perspective''", by Prof. S. Sadagopan, International Institute of Information Technology, Bangalore. (October 2008)
* Special Lecture (4): "''Decision Making and Information Systems''" by Prof. H. Raghav Rao, Professor, University at Buffalo, State University of New York. (December 2008)
* Special Lecture (5): "''Next Generation Information Access''", by Dr. Mark T. Maybury, executive director, Mitre Corporation, USA. (January 2009)
* Special Lecture (6): “''Making a better Web snippet''”, by Dr. Ed Cutrell, researcher, Microsoft Research, Redmond, USA. (May 2009)
* Special Lecture (7): “''Strategy and Innovation Management''”, by Mr. Jatin H. Desai, CEO The DeSai Group, USA (June 2009)
* Special Lecture (8): “''Data Mining and Risk Management''”, by Dr. S. Chandrasekhar Officiating Director & Chair Professor, IT FORE School of Management, New Delhi. (June 2009)
* Special Lecture (9): “''Changing Paradigms of Digital Marketing & Multichannel Commerce''” by Mr. Ajay Malgoankar, group project manager, Infosys Technologies Ltd. (September 2009)
* Special Lecture (10): “''Information Control and Terrorism: Tracking the Mumbai Terrorist Attack through Twitter''”, by Prof. H. Raghav Rao, professor, University at Buffalo, State University of New York. (January 2010)
* Special Lecture (11): "Computing for Socio-Economic Development at Microsoft Research India" by Dr.Edward Cutrell, researcher – manager, Microsoft Research India, Bangalore (September 2010)
* Special lecture (12): "Leadership, Ethics & Persuasive Communication" by Dr. Matthew Frank Barney, Infosys Mysore (November 2010)
* Special lecture (13): "Talk on Copyrights", by Jared Margolis (BA, LLB, BCL), solicitor of the Supreme Court of Hong Kong (December 2010)
* Special Lecture (14): "''The Open Video Project: Research and Practice''", by Prof. [[Gary Marchionini]], dean and Cary C. Boshamer, distinguished professor, School of Information and Library Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, USA (February 2011)
* Special Lecture (15) : Relevance of Information Management in Industry by Ms.Jagadamba Krovvidi, principal technology architect, Infosys Technologies Ltd.(May 2011)
* Special Lecture (16) : User Experience Design for Enterprise Software by Dr.Todd Barlow, director of Usability and User Interface Design, USA (June 2011)
* Special Lecture (17) : Individual Differences in Phishing Susceptibility: An Integrated Information Processing Model by Dr.Arun Vishwanath, director of Graduate Studies, associate professor, Department of Communication, Adjunct Associate Professor, Management Science & Systems, State University of New York at Buffalo, USA.(November 2011)
* Special Lecture (18) : Industrial Internet by Dr.Abhinanda Sarkar, principal scientist, Software & Analytics, GE John F Welch Technology Centre, Bangalore. (December 2011)
* Special Lecture (19) : Second level gatekeeping and Content Concentration in Twitter: An Analysis of the 2009 Gaza Conflict by Prof. H. Raghav Rao, SUNY Distinguished Service Professor, Management Science and Systems Department, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, USA. (January 2012)
* Special Lecture (20) : From Print to AR – Smart Media of the Future by Dr. Arved Carl Hübler, chair of the professorship, Institute for Print and Media Technology, Chemnitz University of Technology for German Government agency DFG. (March 2012)

===CXO lecture series===
ISiM also launched a CXO lecture series in October 2009, and the inaugural lecture was delivered by Mr. M. N. Vidyashankar, principal secretary, Department of E-Governance, Government of Karnataka. He delivered a talk on ''e-Governance in India: Challenges and Opportunities''.<ref name="ISiMevents" />

===Workshops===
ISiM organizes workshops and seminars on a regular basis to address various issues pertaining to the information age, which are open for students of the institute, as well as the general public. Details of such events organized in the past are provided below.<ref name="ISiMevents" />
* ''ISiM Executive Training Programme (July/August 2006)'': Training workshop on Digital Libraries for NIFT Library Information Science Professionals.
* ''Information and Knowledge Audit – A Practical Introduction (January 2007)'': One day management workshop. Faculty: Ms. Waltraut Ritter (Hong Kong), Mr. Ritendra Banerjee (Hyderabad), Dr. Shalini R. Urs (ISiM, Mysore).
* ''Brainstorming workshop on OCR for Indian languages (March 2007)'': Also featured the setting up of Rediff Center for Indian Language Content Management (RCILCM).
* ''Workshop on "Text Mining and Business Intelligence" (March 2007)''
* ''Cyber Security Workshop (October 2007)'': Focusing on teaching the basic principles of cyber security from the perspective of providing security awareness and its best practices for the real world. Faculty: Dr. Srinivas Sampalli (Dalhousie University, Canada).
* ''Workshop on Machine Learning (April 2008)'': Focusing on introducing the basic techniques of Machine Learning, its major areas of application and providing hands on experience to the participants. Faculty: Prof. Sargur N Srihari (SUNY Buffalo, New York).
* ''Workshop on Data Warehousing and Data Mining (October 2008)'': Faculty: Mr. Surya Patchala (Accenture, Hyderabad), Dr. P. Radha Krishna (Infosys, Hyderabad), Mr. Anoop Nambiar (Infosys, Bangalore).
* ''Workshop on Entrepreneurship and Management (October 2008)'': Focusing on answering queries on entrepreneurship and management. Faculty: Prof. Nandini Vaidyanathan (Management Consultant).
* ''Workshop on Capability and Maturity Model (CMM) (October 2008)'': Focusing on introducing the CMM standard and its assessment. Faculty: Mr. Srinivas Thummalapalli (Bangalore).
* ''Workshop on Spatial Data Infrastructure for Urban Governance Decision Making (March 2009)'': Organized by University of Amsterdam, International Institute for Geo-Information Science and Decision Making (ITC), The Netherlands, and School of Planning and Architecture, and hosted by ISiM.
* ''Workshop on IPR and Cyber Laws (June 2009)'': Focusing on providing students and professionals an understanding of Intellectual Property Rights and Cyber Laws. Faculty: Dr. Prabuddha Ganguli (Vision-IPR, Mumbai).
* ''Workshop on Business Process Management (August 2009)'': Organized by ISiM in association with UDream, Bangalore. Faculty: Mr. Raghu Santanam (Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA).
* ''Workshop on Social Network Analysis (April 2010)'': Focusing on introducing the concept of Social Network Analysis (SNA) and to provide hands on expertise on an open source tool for SNA. Faculty: Prof. Kevin Crowston (Syracuse University, USA).
* ''Pacific Asia Workshop on Intelligence and Security Informatics (PAISI 2010) (June 2010)'': Organized by ISiM as a part of Pacific Asia Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (PAKDD 2010), in association with International Institute of Information Technology (IIIT), Hyderabad, India.
* ''Workshop on Intelligence and Security Informatics (June 2010)'': Focusing on introducing the domain of Intelligence and Security Informatics. Faculty: Dr. R. N. Prasad (Infosys, Mysore), Dr. Bhavani Thuraisingham (University of Texas, Dallas, USA), Dr. Michael Chau (University of Hong Kong).
* ''Workshop on Cloud Computing (Nov 2010)'': Focusing on virtualization. A team from VMware conducted a one-day workshop in which students of ISiM got hands on experience with VMware's product called vSphere.
* ''The Challenge – Think, Explore and Evolve [T2E](April 2011)'': One day workshop organized in association with IBM and CSI. An overview about cutting-edge technologies such as plug-in development, WEB 2.0, And DB Management was presented to the participants.
* ''Java Workshop (April 2011)'':Infosys – Education and Research Division, Mysore organized four days hands on workshop covering fundamentals of Java programming.
* ''Interactive Session on Information Excellence (June 2011)'' by Mr.Nagaraj Kulkarni, Founder, COMPEGENCE.The session introduced the "Process + Data + Domain approach" that is essential to achieve successful business outcome.
* ''Information Economics Workshop (March 2012)'': by Dr.Abhinanda Sarkar, principal scientist, software & analytics, GE John F Welch Technology Centre, Bangalore. Information Economics, the study of situations in which different economic agents have access to different information. Topics discussed: Asymmetric Information; Game theoretic Approaches; and Auctions.

===Conferences===
ISiM collaborates with universities to organize conferences. Such conferences organized in the past include:<ref name="ISiMevents" />
* ''15th International Conference on Management of Data (COMAD)'', organized with Computer Society of India (CSI) as the organizing partner and Infosys as the facilities partner. The event was sponsored by Google and Wipro as platinum sponsors and SAP as the bronze sponsor.
* ''International Conference on Digital Libraries (ICDL) 2010'', at New Delhi, in collaboration with The Energy and Research Institute (TERI).

===Programmes===

ISiM offers the following programmes:

* M.Tech. in information systems & management
* Post Graduate Diploma in information management
* Doctoral Degree Programme (Ph.D.) in information systems & management
* Executive Education Programmes
* Corporate Training

==Student life==
{{Unreferenced section|date=July 2023}}
The M.Tech. class of 2011 has approximately 92% being graduates from various [[List of engineering branches|engineering disciplines]], and the remaining 8% being graduates from other science and management disciplines. The class of 2011 has 23% of its class being from foreign countries. The class of 2012 has 27% of foreign students. The class of 2013 has 64% of foreign students,

===ISiM Student Association (ISSA)===
The ISiM Student Association was founded in 2007 with the first batch of ISiM. Members of ISSA executive committee include students from both first and second year of M.Tech., with the secretary being elected from the second year students.

==See also==
* [[University of Mysore]]
* [[Mysore University Library]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{coord|12.314325|N|76.621552|E|source:wikimapia|display=title}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:International School of Information Management}}
[[Category:Information schools]]
[[Category:Syracuse University]]
[[Category:University of Mysore]]
[[Category:2005 establishments in Karnataka]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in 2005]]

Aas Paas

2026-03-03T23:48:17Z

Juliaauhm: correct section as per guidelines for clarity

{{Short description|1981 Indian film by J. Om Prakash}}
{{About|1981 Indian film|2025 Pakistani television series|Aas Paas (TV series){{!}}Aas Paas}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Aas Paas
| image = Aas Paas.jpg
| caption = Promotional poster
| director = [[J. Om Prakash]]
| producer = Jagdish Kumar
| writer =
| starring = [[Dharmendra]] [[Hema Malini]]
| music = [[Laxmikant–Pyarelal]]
| cinematography =
| editing =
| distributor = [[Shemaroo Video Pvt. Ltd]]
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|1981|1|16}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Aas Paas''''' ({{translation|''Close to each other''}}) is a 1981 Indian [[Hindi]]-language [[romance film]] directed by [[J. Om Prakash]] and starring [[Dharmendra]], [[Hema Malini]] and [[Prem Chopra]]. The music was by [[Laxmikant–Pyarelal]]. The film begins with a dedication to the late singer [[Mohammed Rafi]], announcing that his last recorded song was for this film.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20031024100804/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mp/2003/08/04/stories/2003080402080300.htm The Hindu : Remembering Rafi]</ref>

Director-producer J. Om Prakash included in ''Aas Paas'' (1981) another brief "Lucky Mascot"<ref>Up Close & Personal with PZ interview with Preity Zinta on UTVStars, 2011, available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FqmIV6ixrto, see 09:45 of 50:40</ref> screen appearance of his grandson — future Hindi film superstar actor [[Hrithik Roshan]], then age 7 — as the boy dancing in the song "Shehar Main Charcha Hai" who winks at Hema Malini and passes her a love note from Dharmendra.

==Plot==
Arun meets Seema by accident and they are attracted to each other. But Seema has a questionable background, which creates doubts in the minds of Arun and his mother.

Arun is involved in an accident, and everyone believes that he is dead. Seema is devastated and takes to alcohol, singing and dancing in a bar, and is raped. Arun returns. Seema is overjoyed to see him but hesitant to tell him about what had occurred.

Arun takes Seema to his home and introduces her to his family, namely his mom, his sister, Priti, and his brother-in-law, Prem. Seema is stunned and shocked when she sees Prem — she recognizes him as the man who raped her. Seema must decide to keep this terrible secret to herself and marry Arun or simply disappear from his life altogether

In the end, when Seema commits suicide, but Arun lies to his family that she is still alive. In the hospital, Prem attempts strangling Seema's corpse and Arun realizes his brother-in-law's evil nature and kills him. Seema is cremated as a bride like she desired to be and Arun is arrested living on Seema's memories.

==Cast==
*[[Dharmendra]] as Arun Choudhury
*[[Hema Malini]] as Seema
*[[Prem Chopra]] as Prem
*[[Nadira (Indian actress)|Nadira]] as Rani
*[[Om Prakash]] as Seema's father
*[[Nirupa Roy]] as Arun's mother
*[[Aruna Irani]] as Rama
*[[G. Asrani]] as Jaikishen
*[[Rajendra Nath]] as Seth Ramiklal
*[[Indrani Mukherjee]] as Priti
*[[Raza Murad]] as Master, Bandit
*[[Bhagwan Dada]] as Bandit, Associate
*[[Hrithik Roshan]] as (uncredited) boy dancing in the song "Shehar Main Charcha Hai"

==Soundtrack==
{| class="wikitable"
! # !! Title !! Singer(s)
|-
| 1
| "Tum Jo Chale Gaye"
| [[Kishore Kumar]], [[Lata Mangeshkar]]
|-
| 2
| "Shaher Mein Charcha Hai (Tere Long Da Piya Lashkara)"
| [[Mohammed Rafi]], Lata Mangeshkar
|-
| 3
| "Bhare Bazaar Mein"
| Lata Mangeshkar
|-
| 4
| "Main Phool Bechti Hoon"
| Lata Mangeshkar
|-
| 5
| "Tu Kahin Aas Paas Hai Dost"
| Mohammed Rafi (Last Song of his life)
|-
| 6
| "Ham Ko Bhi Gham Ne Mara"
| Lata Mangeshkar
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|id=0178203|title=Aas Paas }}

[[Category:1981 films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Laxmikant–Pyarelal]]
[[Category:1981 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:1981 Indian films]]
[[Category:Films directed by J. Om Prakash]]

{{1980s-Hindi-film-stub}}

Kumkuma (film)

2026-03-03T18:07:23Z

Juliaauhm: Creating new details more to come - done

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2022}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Kumkuma
| image = Kumkuma (film).jpg
| alt =
| caption = DVD cover
| native_name = 
| director = Jyothindranath Vemuri
| writer =
| screenplay =
| story =
| based_on = 
| producer = Beeram Madhusudhan Reddy
| starring = Seema [[Siva Balaji]] Jayant
| narrator =
| cinematography = Mohanchand
| editing =
| music = Ghantadi Krishna
| studio = Yaswanthi Art Movies
| distributor = 
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2005|5|13}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Telugu
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Kumkuma''''' is a 2005 Indian Telugu-language family drama film directed by Jyothindranath Vemuri and starring Seema (lead debut), [[Siva Balaji]] and newcomer Jayant.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.idlebrain.com/news/functions/muhurat-kunkuma.html|title=Muhurat: Kunkuma|date=31 January 2005|work=[[Idlebrain.com]]}}</ref>

== Cast ==
* Seema as Madhuri
*[[Siva Balaji]] as Karthik
*Jayant as Vamsi
*[[Ranganath (actor)|Ranganath]] as Jayant's father

== Soundtrack ==
The music is composed by Ghantadi Krishna.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.idlebrain.com/news/functions/audio-kunkuma.html|title=Audio release - Kunkuma|date=1 April 2005|work=[[Idlebrain.com]]}}</ref>

== Reception ==
B. Anuradha of ''[[Rediff.com]]'' said that "However, he [Vemuri] deserves some credit -- for attempting a female-centric film in the male-dominated Telegu film industry".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/2005/may/16kumkuma.htm|title=Kumkuma: less said the better!|author=B. Anuradha|work=[[Rediff.com]]|date=16 May 2005}}</ref> Jeevi of ''[[Idlebrain.com]]'' opined that "On a whole, ''Kunkuma'' is a boring and sluggish flick".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mr-kunkuma.html|title=Movie review - Kunkuma|date=13 May 2005|work=[[Idlebrain.com]]|author=Jeevi}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:2005 Telugu-language films]]
[[Category:2005 drama films]]
[[Category:2005 films]]
[[Category:Indian drama films]]

Captain Magal

2026-03-03T04:53:05Z

Juliaauhm: adjusted structure based on references and added references to improve readability

{{Short description|1993 film by Bharathiraja}}
{{More plot|date=January 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2021}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2021}}
{{Infobox film
| image = Captain Magal.jpg
| caption = DVD cover
| director = [[Bharathiraja]]
| screenplay = Bharathiraja
| story = [[R. Selvaraj (screenwriter)|R. Selvaraj]]
| starring = {{unbulleted list|[[Raja (Tamil actor)|Raja]]|[[Khushbu Sundar|Khushbu]]}}
| producer = Bharathiraja
| music = [[Hamsalekha]]
| editing = S. Bojaraj
| cinematography = Balu Devan [[Ilavarasu]]
| studio = Manoj Creations
| released = {{film date|1993|1|14|df=y}}
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}

'''''Captain Magal''''' ({{translation|The Captain's Daughter}}) is a 1993 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language [[action thriller film]] co-written, produced and directed by [[Bharathiraja]], starring [[Raja (Tamil actor)|Raja]] and [[Khushbu Sundar|Khushbu]]. It was released on 14 January 1993.

== Plot ==
An attempt to assassinate the [[Prime Minister of India|Prime Minister]] is made during his visit to [[Chennai]] at a music fest. However, the Prime Minister escapes the gunshot, which instead hits the performing musician, Kalyan Kumar. The doctor advises Kalyan Kumar to rest in a hill station for a faster recovery. So, he heads to Black Valley Estate, which belongs to his wife, Kavitha, the daughter of a retired Captain, Sukumar, along with his sister, Rekha, and her husband, police officer Dilip. The police arrest one of the terrorists, Stephen, involved in the attack, but he refuses to reveal any information about the plan despite being subjected to custodial torture. At Black Valley, Rekha senses something ominous, especially when she encounters the mute estate househelp man with a disfigured face.

Kavitha runs into her former worker, horse trainer Rayappa, who had developed feelings for her. However, she didn't reciprocate his love, seeing him only as an employee. Rekha coincidentally takes a photo of Rayappa, who demands she return the [[Photographic film|film]]. Kavitha intervenes, and Rayappa calms down, leaving. After a few days, Rekha and Dilip head back home. However, when Kavitha calls to check if they've arrived, she learns they haven't. Sensing something is wrong, Kavitha sets out to find them, following a trail of eagles. She discovers that Rekha and Dilip were brutally murdered. Meanwhile, Kalyan is found fainted near a stream and is rescued by two botany research students, Kumar and Elisa. Kumar offers to help Kavitha, who wants to keep the deaths of Rekha and Dilip a secret from Kalyan due to his heart condition.

However, when they reach the accident spot, they find no evidence of the murder Kavitha had described. Kumar suggests that Kavitha might have [[Hallucination|hallucinated]] the whole thing. Kavitha allows Kumar and Elisa to stay at her house, unaware of their true identities as terrorists responsible for the assassination attempt on the Prime Minister. Meanwhile, the househelp finds a pair of Rekha's anklets, which Kavitha had given her, near a lake, thereby confirming that Rekha and Dilip were indeed killed. Upon discovering the truths about Kumar and Elisa, Kavitha and Kalyan try to escape from their estate, but are caught by Livi, another terrorist, who holds them at gunpoint. The police, meanwhile, had been tracking the terrorists and had intentionally released Stephen with a GPS tracking device to catch the entire gang.

As the police track Stephen, Rayappa "Robert" revealed to be the mastermind behind the assassination attempt, kills Stephen. The police shoot Robert, but he escapes and reaches Black Valley, demanding that Kavitha bring a doctor to treat his gunshot wound. Kavitha cleverly calls her relative, [[Inspector]] Paulraj, for help, addressing him as Dr. Paulraj. However, it's Paulraj's daughter Anjali who answers, and she's unable to grasp the danger Kavitha is trying to convey. Anjali visits Kavitha and Kalyan, but they're forced to send her away under the terrorists' instructions. Kalyan uses a music piece to convey their situation to Anjali secretly. Understanding the gravity, Paulraj visits Kavitha disguised as a doctor. Kavitha orders a fridge, and Paulraj promises to send it with alms. However, when Kalyan and Kavitha open the fridge, they find Paulraj's corpse inside, revealing that Robert had decoded his hidden message.

Livi and Kumar beat Kavitha and Kalyan, but Kalyan overpowers and holds Elisa hostage to escape. But the terrorists capture Kalyan and mutilate his leg. Anjali, who comes searching for her father, is killed by the terrorists, traumatizing Elisa. Elisa has a change of heart and decides to help Kalyan and Kavitha escape. However, Robert discovers her betrayal and kills her. Months pass, and the Prime Minister is scheduled to visit Black Valley by private flight. The terrorists plan to launch a [[missile]] attack from the windmill in Black Valley, and Kavitha and Kalyan overhear their plan. As the police arrive for a check, Kavitha's househelp tries to signal them, but the terrorists kill him. Unbearable, Kavitha decides to take matters into her own hands to stop the assassination plan.

Kavitha and Kalyan cut the electric supply to the windmill and house, and Kavitha makes a break for the vent above the hearth. She escapes into the forest, with Robert hot on her heels. However, she outsmarts him by setting a foothold trap, which catches and Kavitha then sets his body ablaze. Meanwhile, Kalyan manages to kill Kumar but faints in the process. Kavitha lures Livi into the lake where Dilip and Rekha were killed and kills him underwater. With the missile already set to target the Prime Minister's flight, Kavitha rushes back to the windmill. Just as she's about to stop the launch, a half-burned Robert appears, and a fierce fight ensues. Kavitha eventually overpowers and kills him.

Finally, Kavitha and Kalyan manage to manually deactivate the automated missile system, ensuring the Prime Minister's function proceeds successfully.

== Cast ==
{{Cast listing|
*[[Raja (Tamil actor)|Raja]] as Kalyan Kumar (voice dubbed by [[Nizhalgal Ravi]])
*[[Khushbu Sundar|Khushbu]] as Kavitha
*[[Janagaraj]] as [[Inspector]] Paulraj
*[[Napoleon (actor)|Napoleon]] as Rayappa "Robert"
*[[G. M. Kumar]] as Kumar "GM"
*Horse Babu as Dilip
*J. Lalitha as Elisa
*Shanthini as Rekha
*[[Sangita Madhavan Nair|Sangita]] as Anjali
*[[Ponvannan]] as a police officer
*[[J. Livingston|Livingston]] as Livi
}}

== Production ==
According to Selvaraj, who wrote the film's story, the title was named after ''[[The Captain's Daughter]]'', a novel by the Russian novelist [[Alexander Pushkin]].<ref name="captain">{{Cite web |date=24 June 2017 |title=கடல் தொடாத நதி - 23 - குஷ்பு கேட்ட டைட்டில்! |url=https://www.vikatan.com/literature/arts/132245-cinema-history-of-annakili-rselvaraj |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230310044732/https://www.vikatan.com/literature/arts/132245-cinema-history-of-annakili-rselvaraj |archive-date=10 March 2023 |access-date=24 June 2024 |website=[[Junior Vikatan]] |language=ta}}</ref> The film was partly shot at [[Ooty]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 July 2020 |title=Remembering K Balachander: Khushbu reminisces about the gutsy visionary |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/stories/columns/2020/jul/12/remembering-k-balachander-khushbu-reminisces-about-the-gutsy-visionary-19316.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210731080144/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/stories/columns/2020/jul/12/remembering-k-balachander-khushbu-reminisces-about-the-gutsy-visionary-19316.html |archive-date=31 July 2021 |access-date=31 July 2021 |website=[[Cinema Express]]}}</ref> The sets of windmill and farmhouse were built there.<ref name="captain" /> Although [[B. Kannan]] shot the film, his assistant [[Ilavarasu]] and Balu Devan were credited as the film's cinematographers.<ref>{{Cite news |date=22 January 2011 |title=Grill Mill: Ilavarasu |url=http://www.thehindu.com/arts/cinema/article1111529.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306041209/https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/Grill-Mill-Ilavarasu/article15529078.ece |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=6 October 2025 |website=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
The music was composed by [[Hamsalekha]] and lyrics were written by [[Vairamuthu]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Captain Magal (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) – EP |url=https://music.apple.com/us/album/captain-magal-original-motion-picture-soundtrack-ep/1161467778 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210731080143/https://music.apple.com/us/album/captain-magal-original-motion-picture-soundtrack-ep/1161467778 |archive-date=31 July 2021 |access-date=31 July 2021 |website=[[Apple Music]]}}</ref> The song "Endha Pennilum Illadha" attained popularity.<ref>{{cite web |date=29 September 2017 |title=குஷ்பு என்னும் துணிச்சல் நாயகி! #HBDKhushbu |url=https://cinema.vikatan.com/kollywood/103666-actress-khushbu-birthday-special-article |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240625021643/https://cinema.vikatan.com/kollywood/103666-actress-khushbu-birthday-special-article |archive-date=25 June 2024 |access-date=24 June 2024 |work=[[Cinema Vikatan]] |language=ta}}</ref> The song "Yarumillai" is based on "Prema Baraha" from ''[[Prathap (1990 film)|Prathap]]'' (1990), which was also composed by Hamsalekha.

{{Track listing
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Endha Pennilum
| extra1 = [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]]
| length1 = 5:09
| title2 = Nandhavanam Pookkal
| extra2 = S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, [[K. S. Chithra]]
| length2 = 5:08
| title3 = Kadhal Raja
| extra3 = [[Sujatha Mohan]]
| length3 = 5:08
| title4 = Yarumillai
| extra4 = [[Minmini]]
| length4 = 5:09
| title5 = Vaanambadi
| extra5 = [[Unni Menon]], Sujatha
| length5 = 5:05
| total_length = 25:39 
}}

== Release and reception ==
''Captain Magal'' was released on 14 January 1993, [[Pongal (festival)|Pongal]] day.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sundaram |first=Nandhu |date=27 June 2018 |title=From 'Gentleman' to 'Amaravathi' : Revisiting popular films which released 25 years ago |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/gentleman-amaravathi-revisiting-popular-films-which-released-25-years-ago-83756 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201228073451/https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/gentleman-amaravathi-revisiting-popular-films-which-released-25-years-ago-83756 |archive-date=28 December 2020 |access-date=31 July 2021 |website=[[The News Minute]]}}</ref> Malini Mannath of ''[[The Indian Express]]'' likened it to "a C-grade English thriller, a pathetic attempt at making an action film. It has disjointed scenes, jerky narration and a loosely etched screenplay that seems more of a hotch-potch of various English films".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mannath |first=Malini |date=17 January 1993 |title=Pathetic |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=-4llAAAAIBAJ&sjid=nJ4NAAAAIBAJ&pg=1218%2C1464080 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240417051335/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=-4llAAAAIBAJ&sjid=nJ4NAAAAIBAJ&pg=1218%2C1464080 |archive-date=17 April 2024 |access-date=17 April 2024 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |pages=7 |via=[[Google News Archive]]}}</ref> ''[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]]'' wrote that frame by frame throughout the film, one could see the director using his own techniques; when the story unfolds the techniques that is supposed to derail the story becomes like the mammoth elephant hiding in the tree.<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=31 January 1993 |title=கேப்டன் மகள் |url=https://archive.org/details/kalki1993-01-31/page/n33/mode/2up |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230227041740/https://archive.org/details/kalki1993-01-31/page/n33/mode/2up |archive-date=27 February 2023 |access-date=23 December 2022 |magazine=[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]] |page=32 |language=Ta |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title}}
* {{Rotten Tomatoes}}
{{Bharathiraja}}

[[Category:1993 Indian films]]
[[Category:1993 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:1993 action thriller films]]
[[Category:1993 films]]
[[Category:Films about home invasion]]
[[Category:Films about terrorism in India]]
[[Category:Films directed by Bharathiraja]]
[[Category:Films scored by Hamsalekha]]
[[Category:Films set in forests]]
[[Category:Films shot in Ooty]]
[[Category:Films with screenplays by Bharathiraja]]
[[Category:Indian action thriller films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language action thriller films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]

Ponnu Veetukkaran

2026-03-03T04:44:31Z

Juliaauhm: Added article...

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| image = Ponnu Veetukkaran.jpg
| caption = Title card
| director = [[P. Vasu]]
| producer = N. Vishnu Ram
| writer = P. Vasu
| starring = {{ubl|[[Sathyaraj]]|[[Preetha Vijayakumar]]}}
| music = [[Ilaiyaraaja]]
| cinematography = Ashok Rajan
| editing = P. Mohan Raj
| studio = Ganga Gowri Productions
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|1999|1|15|ref1=}}
| runtime = 141 minutes
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}

'''''Ponnu Veetukkaran''''' is a 1999 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language [[comedy drama]] film written and directed by [[P. Vasu]]. The film stars [[Sathyaraj]] and [[Preetha Vijayakumar]], while [[Vijay Adhiraj]], [[Goundamani]], [[Vijayakumar (Tamil actor)|Vijayakumar]] and [[Radharavi]] play supporting roles. It was released on 15 January 1999.<ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=ponnu veetu kaaran ( 1999 ) |url=http://cinesouth.com/cgi-bin/filmography/newfilmdb.cgi?name=ponnu%20veetu%20kaaran |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061029131313/http://cinesouth.com/cgi-bin/filmography/newfilmdb.cgi?name=ponnu%20veetu%20kaaran |archive-date=2006-10-29 |access-date=2023-07-05 |website=Cinesouth}}</ref>

==Plot==
Jeeva is the perfect handyman and the protector of a big rich family of the [[Tamilakam|Tamil Country]], constituted by Gangadaran, Muralidaran, and Giridaran. These three brothers are spouses and fathers, each of several children. Traders of sarees precious, they hold one of the most beautiful and furthermore with the aim of the stores of the capital, so making their colossal fortune.

But what makes their happiness and their pride overcoat everything is Indu, the youngest child of this big welded family. Intelligent, beautiful and roguish as one pleases, she cheers up, illuminates with her presence their everyday life, as well as their cousin, the useless Yégambharam, but nevertheless very nice, always in conflict with his father Védatchalam, the dean moved by the family.

Jeeva comes from a family which was always in the service of three brothers and it since its father who was him with theirs, as driver. Far from maintaining employeur-d'employee's standard relation, the brothers' father got used to fraternizing with Jeeva's father to the point that they became as brother. Jeeva frequented one time, the same schools as three brothers.

Nevertheless, a misfortune struck the family. Their respective parents were victims of a car accident. His wives were killed instantly. Whereas the fathers, in the agony, made promise to their children to part never and on no account, of Jeeva and mutually. The good mood and the know-how and the practical sense of Jeeva put everybody all right. He shares a beautiful complicity with Indu, who is sometimes badly understood outside the family circle and gives rise to gossips maintained by the fact that Jeeva remains incorrigible bachelor. In the truth, he dreads that his future wife (if he finds one) tears away him from his family of adoption and house thus only, to avoid this problem, but regrettably, this happiness is going to be again broken. Indeed, Indu loses her husband, just before their honeymoon, a few days after their marriage celebrated in formal dinners, with all the splendor. Everybody is bewildered and appalled.

Jeeva, who had just left the marriage, knows only after his return about the death of the son-in-law. Annihilated as everybody, at the beginning, Jeeva quickly gets over it, by giving for mission to find a new pretender for Indu. Nevertheless, he finds the one person in a million, in the person of Muthu, an old acquaintance of Indu. Assisted by Yégambharam, Jeeva helps as best he can Muthu to conquer Indu, in spite of the secular obstacles against the widows considered as one bet in India.

==Cast==
{{cast listing|
*[[Sathyaraj]] as Jeeva
*[[Preetha Vijayakumar]] as Indu (5th among siblings)
*[[Goundamani]] as Ekambharam also Charles
*[[Vijayakumar (Tamil actor)|Vijayakumar]] as Indu's father-in-law
*[[Radharavi]] as Gangadaran (1st brother)
*Ilavarasan as Muralidaran (2nd brother)
*[[Kazan Khan]] as Giridaran (3rd brother)
*[[Meera (Malayalam actress)|Meera]] as Indu's sister (4th among siblings)
*[[Fathima Babu]] as Gangadaran's wife
*[[Vijay Adhiraj]] as Muthu
*[[K. S. Ravikumar]] as Manogar, Muthu's father
*[[Gandhimathi]] as Old Widow
*[[Nizhalgal Ravi]] as Groom
*[[Rajeev (Tamil actor)|Rajiv]] as the brothers' father
*[[Ravikumar (actor)|Ravikumar]] as Jeeva's father
*[[Vichithra]] as Diana, Yégambharam's girlfriend
*[[Khushbu Sundar|Khushbu]] (Guest Appearance) as Jeeva's wife
}}

==Soundtrack==
The music was composed by [[Ilaiyaraaja]].<ref>{{Cite web |last= |title=Ponnu Veetukaaran (1998) |url=https://www.raaga.com/tamil/movie/ponnu-veetukaaran-songs-T0000906 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230705130808/https://www.raaga.com/tamil/album/Ponnu-Veetukaaran-songs-T0000906 |archive-date=2023-07-05 |access-date=2023-07-05 |website=[[Raaga.com]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=PONNU VEETUKAARAN / ELLAME EN PONDATITHAN / UYIRAE - Ilayaraja & A.R. Rahman Audio Cd |url=https://www.audiocdworld.com/product/ponnu-veetukaaran-ellame-en-pondatithan-uyirae-ilayaraja-a-r-rahman-audio-cd/ |access-date=14 October 2024 |website=Audio CDs World |language=en-US}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
! Song !! Singers !! Lyrics !! Length
|-
| "Annan Ivan" || [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]] || [[Gangai Amaran]] || 04:37
|-
| "Nandhavana Kuyile I" || [[Hariharan (singer)|Hariharan]] || rowspan=2|[[Palani Bharathi]]|| 05:01
|-
| "Nandhavana Kuyile II" || Ilaiyaraaja || 04:56
|-
| "Ponnu Veettu" || S. P. Balasubrahmanyam || Gangai Amaran || 04:56
|-
| "Ilaya Nilave" || [[Srinivas (singer)|Srinivas]], [[Bhavatharini]] || rowspan=2|Palani Bharathi || 05:05
|-
| "Kettukamma" || [[Mano (singer)|Mano]] || 05:05
|}

== Release and reception ==
The film was initially scheduled to release on 19 October 1998 during [[Diwali]], but was delayed by three months.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rajitha |date=October 17, 1998 |title=Southern bonanza |url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/1998/oct/17diw.htm |access-date=2023-07-05 |website=[[Rediff.com]] |archive-date=1 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230601075955/https://www.rediff.com/movies/1998/oct/17diw.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |last=ஜி |date=25 October 1998 |title=பொண்ணு வீட்டுக்காரன் |url=https://archive.org/details/kalki1998-10-25/page/n1/mode/2up |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230213083528/https://archive.org/details/kalki1998-10-25/page/n1/mode/2up |archive-date=13 February 2023 |access-date=2023-07-05 |magazine=[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]] |page=1 |language=ta |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref> D. S. Ramanujam of ''[[The Hindu]]'' wrote, "More than a dozen leading artistes have participated making it enjoyable. It is a different role for Satyaraj [...] The role fits him like a glove". He added, "It is not an easy task to provide dialogues for the many artistes but the director manages this fairly well".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ramanujam |first=D. S. |date=January 29, 1999 |title=Film Reviews: PoonuVeettukaran/Urban Legend/Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain/Aa Ab Laut Chalen |url=http://www.webpage.com/hindu/daily/990129/09/09290225.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010407074747/http://www.webpage.com/hindu/daily/990129/09/09290225.htm |archive-date=7 April 2001 |access-date=13 March 2024 |work=[[The Hindu]] |pages=27}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb title}}
*{{Rotten Tomatoes}}

{{P. Vasu}}

[[Category:1999 Indian films]]
[[Category:1999 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:1999 comedy-drama films]]
[[Category:1999 films]]
[[Category:Films directed by P. Vasu]]
[[Category:Films scored by Ilaiyaraaja]]
[[Category:Indian comedy-drama films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]

Dream Team Shahara

2026-02-27T15:35:49Z

Juliaauhm: entry - done

{{Short description|Bus operator in Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2018}}
{{Infobox Bus transit
| name = DTS Odisha
| logo =
| logo_size =
| image =
| image_size =
| image_caption =
| parent = Dream Team Shahara
| founded = 16 April, 2010<ref name="about-dts" />
| commenced = 10 October, 2010
| defunct = 6 November, 2018
| headquarters = N-5/538, 2nd & 3rd Floor, SBI Building, IRC Village, Nayapalli, [[Bhubaneswar]], [[Odisha]]
| locale = [[Bhubaneswar]], [[Cuttack]], [[Khordha]], [[Puri]]
| service_area = [[Odisha]]
| service_type = [[Public transport bus service]]
| alliance = Bhubaneswar-Puri Transport Service Limited (BPTSL)
| routes = 19
| destinations =
| stops =
| hubs =
| stations =
| lounge =
| fleet = 150<ref name="route" />
| ridership = 60,000<ref name="toi-news" />
| ceo = Sudhanshu Jena
| website = {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181006194356/http://www.dtsodisha.in/ |title= Official website}}
}}

[[Public transport bus service]] in [[Bhubaneswar]], [[Odisha]] was previously run in [[public–private partnership]] between Bhubaneswar-Puri Transport Service Limited (BPTSL) and '''Dream Team Shahara (DTS)''' under [[Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission]]. A fleet of 150 buses covered all major destinations across the city and also provided connectivity to [[Cuttack]], [[Puri]] and [[Khordha]]. The service was launched on 10 October, 2010.<ref name="about-dts">{{cite web |url=http://dtsodisha.in/about-dts.php |title=About DTS |publisher=DTS Odisha |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181006193921/http://dtsodisha.in/about-dts.php |archive-date=6 October 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="route">{{cite web |url=http://dtsodisha.in/route-details.php |title=Route Details |publisher=DTS Odisha |access-date=8 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180901190826/http://dtsodisha.in/route-details.php |archive-date=1 September 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="toi-news">{{cite news |last=Mohapatra |first=Debabrata |title=Bus operator launches e-info system |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bhubaneswar/Bus-operator-launches-e-info-system/articleshow/16885574.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130617002324/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-10-20/bhubaneswar/34606108_1_bus-routes-dts-chairman-nishikant-mishra-city-bus-service |url-status=live |archive-date=17 June 2013 |access-date=14 December 2012 |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |date=20 October 2012}}</ref><ref name="bhubaneswar-city-bus">{{cite web |last=Garg |first=Saurabh |title=Bhubaneswar City Bus |url=http://www.cseindia.org/userfiles/saurabh_garg.pdf |accessdate=24 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120907222949/http://www.cseindia.org/userfiles/saurabh_garg.pdf |archive-date=7 September 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2018, Bhubaneswar-Puri Transport Service Limited (BPTSL) became [[Capital Region Urban Transport]] (CRUT). CRUT launched [[Ama Bus]] on 6 November, 2018.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://capitalregiontransport.in/about/company-profile |title=Company Profile |publisher=CRUT |access-date=12 February 2026}}</ref>

==Depots==
*Central Depot - Master Canteen
*Baramunda Bus Depot

==Routes==
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size: 95%;" |
|-
!Route (Name)
!Terminal A
!Terminal B
!Fleet
!Fleet Strength
|-
|171
|Master Canteen
|[[Puri]]
|[[Tata Motors]]
|5
|-
|171 AC
|Master Canteen
|[[Puri]]
|[[Tata Motors]]
|4
|-
|207
|[[Nandankanan Zoological Park]]
|Raj Mahal
|[[Tata Motors]]
|10
|-
|225
|Prasanti Vihar
|Sai Temple
|[[Swaraj Mazda]]
|9
|-
|234
|Master Canteen
|[[Khordha]]
|[[Tata Marcopolo]]
|5
|-
|306
|[[KIIT University]]
|Kalpana Square
|[[Tata Motors]]
|10
|-
|315
|Hi-Tech Medical College & Hospital, Bhubaneswar
|Mayfair Bhubaneswar
|[[Tata Motors]]
|6
|-
|324
|Biju Patnaik Park ([[Cuttack]])
|Master Canteen
|[[Swaraj Mazda]]
|10
|-
|333
|[[Lingaraj Temple]]
|Ghatikia
|[[Swaraj Mazda]]
|11
|-
|405
|Dumduma
|VSS Nagar
|[[Swaraj Mazda]] [[Tata Marcopolo]]
|11
|-
|414
|Biju Patnaik Park ([[Cuttack]])
|Master Canteen
|[[Tata Motors]]
|10
|-
|423
|Dumduma
|Chakeisiani
|[[Swaraj Mazda]] [[Tata Marcopolo]]
|3
|-
|504
|Biju Patnaik Park ([[Cuttack]])
|Baramunda
|[[Tata Motors]]
|10
|-
|522
|[[Institute of Medical Sciences and Sum Hospital]]
|Master Canteen
|[[Swaraj Mazda]] [[Tata Marcopolo]]
|7
|-
|531
|[[All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Bhubaneswar]]
|Master Canteen
|[[Swaraj Mazda]] [[Tata Marcopolo]]
|7
|-
|603
|Sai Temple
|Kalinga Vihar
|[[Tata Motors]]
|10
|-
|711 AC
|Master Canteen
|[[Puri]]
|[[Tata Motors]]
|4
|-
|801
|[[Khordha]]
|Master Canteen
|[[Swaraj Mazda]] [[Tata Marcopolo]]
|12
|-
|810
|[[Khordha]]
|Master Canteen
|[[Tata Marcopolo]]
|6
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{State owned road transport companies in India}}

[[Category:Metropolitan transport agencies of India]]
[[Category:Transport in Bhubaneswar]]
[[Category:Companies based in Bhubaneswar]]
[[Category:Transport companies established in 2010]]
[[Category:2010 establishments in Orissa]]
[[Category:Indian companies established in 2010]]

Khuman Kwakpa Litonpanba

2026-02-27T06:45:20Z

Juliaauhm: Creating a pg added tags - done

{{Contains special characters|Meitei}}

[[File:Replica of the head of Khuman Kwakpa being installed in the stern of the Meitei imperial dragon race boat (Hiyang Hiren) - kept in the Kangla Fort, Imphal, Kangleipak 02.jpg|thumb|Replica of the [[beheaded]] head of Khuman Kwakpa Litonpanba being installed in the stern of the Meitei imperial dragon race boat ([[Hiyang Hiren]]), kept in the [[Kangla Fort]], [[Imphal]]]]
[[File:ꯍꯤꯌꯥꯡ ꯍꯤꯔꯦꯟ ꯲.jpg|thumb|Replica of the [[beheaded]] head of Khuman Kwakpa Litonpanba being installed in the stern of the Meitei imperial dragon race boat ([[Hiyang Hiren]])<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.466342|title=Hiyang Hiren Kanglasa Amasung Kangla|last=Samerendra|first=Chongtham|date=2007|language=mni}}</ref>]]

'''Khuman Kwakpa Litonpanba''' ({{Script|Mtei|ꯈꯨꯃꯟ ꯀ꯭ꯋꯥꯛꯄ ꯂꯤꯇꯣꯟꯄꯥꯟꯕ}}), shortly known as '''Kwakpa Litonpanba''' ({{Script|Mtei|ꯀ꯭ꯋꯥꯛꯄꯥ ꯂꯤꯇꯣꯟꯄꯥꯟꯕꯥ}}), or '''Khuman Kwakpa''' ({{Script|Mtei|ꯈꯨꯃꯟ ꯀ꯭ꯋꯥꯛꯄꯥ}}), was an ancient [[Khuman]] warrior mentioned in the [[classical Meitei language]] literary-historical narrative Thawanthābā Hiran. Known for his exceptional bravery and daring spirit, he is remembered as one of the most courageous warriors in the conflict between the [[Khuman kingdom]] and [[Kangla|Meitei (Ningthouja) kingdom]] during the 13th century CE. His valiant but fatal attempt to capture the Meitei king during a river escape remains one of the most dramatic moments in [[Meitei folklore]] and [[Meitei literature|literature]].<ref name=":Old Manipuri Literature_Khelchandra Ningthoukhongjam">{{Cite book|url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.466183|title=History Of Old Manipuri Literature|last=Singh|first=Khelchandra Ningthoukhongjam|language=mni}}</ref><ref name=":Manihar. A History of Manipuri Literature">Singh, Ch. Manihar. A History of Manipuri Literature. India: [[Sahitya Akademi]], 1996.</ref>

== Role in the conflict ==

The most well documented event involving Khuman Kwakpa Litonpanba occurs during a critical moment in the war between the Meiteis and the Khumans, following the execution of Meitei Queen Khayoiron Tangja Samphabi (a Khuman princess) by the Meitei [[Ningthouja]] king [[Thawanthaba]], and the subsequent retaliatory killing of Khuman Queen Chingkhei Thanbi (a Ningthouja princess) by the Khuman king.<ref name=":Old Manipuri Literature_Khelchandra Ningthoukhongjam" /><ref name=":Manihar. A History of Manipuri Literature" />

During the escalating conflict, Thawanthābā was trapped in the Khuman kingdom, and he attempted to flee from Khuman territory by boat across a river, making a hasty escape after learning of an imminent ambush by the Khumans. In an act of extraordinary bravery, Khuman Kwakpa Litonpanba leapt into the river and tried to seize the king’s speeding boat, attempting to stop his escape by force.<ref name=":Old Manipuri Literature_Khelchandra Ningthoukhongjam" /><ref name=":Manihar. A History of Manipuri Literature" />

Despite the strength and skill he demonstrated in the attempt, Litonpānba was ultimately overpowered by the Meitei oarsmen, who struck him down during the encounter.<ref name=":Old Manipuri Literature_Khelchandra Ningthoukhongjam" /><ref name=":Manihar. A History of Manipuri Literature" />

Kwakpa's plot was detected by Taoriya Elangba, a warrior of the Meitei ([[Ningthouja]]) side. Acting swiftly, Taoriya Elangba seized Khuman Kwakpa and beheaded him, bringing a decisive end to the scheme. His death was recorded as a major loss for the Khuman side and is portrayed with tragic heroism in the historical and folk narratives.
The [[Ningthouja]] Meitei warriors then carried Khuman Kwakpa’s severed head and placed it on the stern of their boat as a powerful symbol of victory over the [[Khuman kingdom]]. In later times, replicas of Khuman Kwakpa’s head were installed on traditional boats known as [[Hiyang Hiren]], preserving this event as a lasting emblem of Ningthouja triumph and historical memory.<ref name=":Old Manipuri Literature_Khelchandra Ningthoukhongjam" /><ref name=":Manihar. A History of Manipuri Literature" />

== Character and symbolism ==

Kwākpā Litonpānba is remembered as fearless and fiercely loyal to his kingdom. His bold, lone assault on the fleeing Meitei king’s boat, with no guarantee of survival, shows his personal courage and devotion to duty. In [[Manipur]]i cultural memory, he represents the ideal warrior, unafraid of death, unwavering in resolve, and driven by honor.<ref name=":Old Manipuri Literature_Khelchandra Ningthoukhongjam" /><ref name=":Manihar. A History of Manipuri Literature" />

His actions contrast with the strategic caution of other characters in the Thawanthābā Hiran, showing individual heroism against the backdrop of political betrayal and warfare.<ref name=":Old Manipuri Literature_Khelchandra Ningthoukhongjam" /><ref name=":Manihar. A History of Manipuri Literature" />

== Legacy ==

Though his life ended in battle, Kwākpā Litonpānba’s name lives on as a symbol of [[Khuman]] military valor. His dramatic final act is frequently recounted in traditional storytelling, theater performances, and scholarly discussions of [[ancient Meitei literature]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.465438|title=Meidingu Thawanthaba|last=Tejkumar|first=Chongtham|date=1984|language=mni}}</ref>
Replicas of the severed head of Khuman Kwakpa Litonpanba are traditionally installed on the sterns of many [[Hiyang Hiren]] boats.<ref name=":Old Manipuri Literature_Khelchandra Ningthoukhongjam" /><ref name=":Manihar. A History of Manipuri Literature" />

[[File:Replica of the head of Khuman Kwakpa being installed in the stern of the Meitei imperial dragon race boat (Hiyang Hiren) - kept in the Kangla Fort, Imphal, Kangleipak 05.jpg|thumb|Replica of the [[beheaded]] head of Khuman Kwakpa Litonpanba being installed in the stern of the Meitei imperial dragon race boat ([[Hiyang Hiren]]), kept in the [[Kangla Fort]], [[Imphal]]]]

== Gallery ==
<gallery>
ꯈꯨꯃꯟ ꯅꯤꯡꯊꯧꯒꯤ ꯍꯤꯌꯥꯡ ꯍꯤꯔꯦꯟ.jpg
ꯍꯤꯌꯥꯡ ꯍꯤꯔꯦꯟ.jpg
The tableau of Manipur passes through the Raj path during the 61st Republic Day Parade-2010, in New Delhi on January 26, 2010.jpg
Hiyang Tannaba — Classical Dragon Boat Racing (in the imperial moat of the Kangla Fort of Imphal) — Cultural heritage of Meitei civilization — Living tradition of Ancient Kangleipak (early Manipur) — 1891 British artwork.jpg
</gallery>
== See also ==
* [[Khuman dynasty]]
* [[Khuman Kangleirol]]
* [[Khumanlol]]
* [[Khuman (linguistics)|Khuman language]]
* [[Lai Haraoba]]
* [[Hiyang Tannaba]]
* [[Khuman Maithingkongaba]]
* [[Thongbu Wainucha]]
* [[Chakha Moiremba]]
* [[Haoba Athouba]]
* [[Haokhong Sinaikhu]]
* [[Kangchin (Khuman warrior)|Kangchin]]

== Bibliography ==
* {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.466994/page/%E0%A7%A8%E0%A7%AD/mode/thumb|title=Khuman Kangleirol|last=Khelchandra Singh|first=Ningthoukhongjam|date=1980|publisher=Digital Library of India; Internet Archive|year=1980|location=India|language=mni}}
* {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.466468/page/10/mode/thumb|title=Khuman Ningthouron Lambuba|last=Kullachandra Sharma|first=B|date=1998|publisher=Digital Library of India; Internet Archive|year=1998|location=India|language=mni}}
* {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.465221/page/n9/mode/thumb|title=Khuman Kangleiron Amasung Laikhuram Shageigee Meihouron|last=Ibobi|first=Laikhuram|date=1998|publisher=Digital Library of India; Internet Archive|year=1998|location=India|language=mni}}
* {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.465404/page/n9/mode/thumb|title=Khumal Ningthourol Lambuba|last=Kullachandra|first=B.|date=1989-03-15|publisher=Digital Library of India; Internet Archive|year=1989|location=India|language=mni}}

== References ==
{{Notelist}}
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Meitei literature]]
[[Category:People from the Khuman kingdom]]
[[Category:13th-century executions]]
[[Category:13th-century deaths]]
[[Category:13th-century Asian people]]
[[Category:Assassinated people]]

Representative democracy

2026-02-17T18:57:18Z

Juliaauhm: minor edit

{{Short description|Type of democracy principled on elected representation}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2015}}
{{Redirect|Electoral democracy|the type of representative democracy where voters are able to vote officials into office, but have no say in the government|Electocracy}}
{{Democracy}}
{{Basic forms of government}}
'''Representative democracy''', also known as '''indirect democracy''' or '''electoral democracy''', is a [[types of democracy|type of democracy]] where elected delegates [[Representation (politics)|represent]] a group of people, in contrast to [[direct democracy]].<ref>{{cite web|date= 28 July 2005|access-date= 14 December 2007|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071213045132/http://www.parliament.vic.gov.au/SARC/E-Democracy/Final_Report/Glossary.htm|archive-date= 13 December 2007|url= http://www.parliament.vic.gov.au/SARC/E-Democracy/Final_Report/Glossary.htm|title= Victorian Electronic Democracy, Final Report – Glossary}}</ref> Nearly all modern [[Liberal democracy|Western-style democracies]] function as some type of representative democracy: for example, the [[United Kingdom]] (a [[unitary state|unitary]] [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[constitutional monarchy]]), [[Germany]] (a [[federal parliamentary republic]]), [[France]] (a unitary [[semi-presidential system|semi-presidential]] [[republic]]), and the [[United States]] (a federal [[Presidential system|presidential]] republic).<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last= Loeper|first=Antoine|year=2016|title= Cross-border externalities and cooperation among representative democracies|journal=European Economic Review|doi= 10.1016/j.euroecorev.2016.10.003|volume= 91|pages=180–208|hdl=10016/25180|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Unlike liberal democracy, a representative democracy may have ''de facto'' multiparty, free and fair elections, but may not have a fully developed [[rule of law]] and additional individual and minority rights beyond the electoral sphere.<ref name="Lührmann 2018">{{Cite journal |last1=Lührmann |first1=Anna |last2=Tannenberg |first2=Marcus |last3=Lindberg |first3=Staffan I. |date=19 March 2018 |title=Regimes of the World (RoW): Opening New Avenues for the Comparative Study of Political Regimes |url=https://www.cogitatiopress.com/politicsandgovernance/article/view/1214/714 |journal=Politics and Governance |volume=6 |issue=1 |access-date=May 16, 2025 |pages=60–77 |issn=2183-2463 |doi=10.17645/pag.v6i1.1214 |doi-access=free |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250321135605/https://www.cogitatiopress.com/politicsandgovernance/article/view/1214/714 |archive-date=March 21, 2025 }}</ref>

Representative democracy places power in the hands of elected representatives. [[Political parties]] often become central to this form of democracy if [[electoral systems]] require or encourage voters to vote for political parties or for candidates associated with political parties (as opposed to voting for individual representatives).<ref>De Vos et al (2014). ''South African Constitutional Law in Context''. Oxford University Press.</ref> Some [[Political theories|political theorists]] (including [[Robert Dahl]], [[Gregory Houston]], and [[Ian Liebenberg]]) have described representative democracy as [[polyarchy]].<ref>Houston, G F (2001). ''Public Participation in Democratic Governance in South Africa''. Pretoria: Human Sciences Research Council HSRC Press.</ref><ref>Dahl, R A (2005). "Is international democracy possible? A critical view". in Sergio Fabbrini (editor): ''Democracy and Federalism in the European Union and the United States: Exploring post-national governance''. pp. 195–204 (Chapter 13). Abingdon on the Thames: Routledge.</ref>

Representative democracy can be organized in different ways including both [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary]] and [[presidential system]]s of [[form of government|government]]. Elected representatives typically form a [[legislature]] (such as a parliament or congress), which may be composed of a [[unicameralism|single chamber]] (unicameral), [[bicameralism|two chambers]] (bicameral), or [[Multicameralism|more than two chambers]] (multicameral). Where two or more chambers exist, their members are often elected in [[electoral system|different ways]].

==Powers of representatives==
In representative democracies, members are elected to legislative chambers by voters, as in elections of national legislatures.<ref name=":0" /> In addition to being legislators themselves, elected representatives may have the power to select a president, other legislators or other officers of the government or of the legislature, as the [[prime minister]] under the parliamentary system.

The power of representatives is usually curtailed by a [[constitution]] (as in [[constitutional democracy| constitutional democracies]] or [[constitutional monarchy|constitutional monarchies]]) or other measures.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.civiced.org/resources/publications/resource-materials/390-constitutional-democracy|title=CONSTITUTIONAL DEMOCRACY|website=www.civiced.org|access-date=2019-11-18}}</ref>

*An [[independent judiciary]] may have the power to declare legislative acts unconstitutional (e.g. [[constitutional court]], [[supreme court]]).
*The constitution may also provide for some [[deliberative democracy]] (e.g., [[Royal Commission]]s) or direct popular measures (e.g., [[Popular initiative|initiative]], [[referendum]], [[recall election]]s). However, these are not always binding and usually require some legislative action—legal power usually remains firmly with representatives. {{Where|date=July 2011}}
*An "[[upper house]]" in a [[Bicameralism|bicameral structure]] may or may not be elected by voters. The [[Senate of Canada]] and the [[British House of Lords]] are not elected.

[[Edmund Burke#Representative Democracy|Edmund Burke]] stated that the duty of a representative is not necessarily to simply follow the wishes of the electorate but also to use their own judgment in the exercise of their powers, even if their views are not reflective of the voters.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Works of the Right Honourable Edmund Burke. Volume I|location=London|publisher=Henry G. Bohn| year=1854|pages=446–448|quote=Certainly, Gentlemen, it ought to be the happiness and glory of a Representative, to live in the strictest union, the closest correspondence, and the most unreserved communication with his constituents. Their wishes ought to have great weight with him; their opinion, high respect; their business, unremitted attention. It is his duty to sacrifice his repose, his pleasures, his satisfactions, to theirs; and above all, ever, and in all cases, to prefer their interest to his own. But his unbiassed opinion, his mature judgment, his enlightened conscience, he ought not to sacrifice to you, to any man, or to any set of men living. These he does not derive from your pleasure; no, nor from the Law and the Constitution. They are a trust from Providence, for the abuse of which he is deeply answerable. Your representative owes you, not his industry only, but his judgment; and he betrays, instead of serving you, if he sacrifices it to your opinion.}}</ref> An elected member who chooses to execute the wishes of their constituents acts as a delegate. If the member uses their best judgment and knowledge in making decisions, even when constituents do not agree with the decision, the member instead acts as a trustee.

A representative may be elected as a representative of a geographic district, in which voters hold a variety of beliefs, and may then be in the situation where no matter how he votes, he will not be upholding the opinion of a group of voters that it is his job to represent. Under [[proportional representation]] systems, a member is elected by a group of votes who form an unanimous constituency, in which voters and the elected representative hold shared sentiment.<ref>Lakeman and Lambert, Voting in Democracies (1959), p. 102, 112, 118</ref>

Representatives can be [[direct election|elected directly]] by voters or elected by other representatives through [[indirect election]]s. Indirectly elected representatives can have reduced political [[accountability]].<ref name="b817">{{cite journal | last=Rogers | first=Steven | title=The Responsiveness of Direct and Indirect Elections | journal=Legislative Studies Quarterly | volume=37 | issue=4 | date=2012 | issn=0362-9805 | doi=10.1111/j.1939-9162.2012.00060.x | pages=509–532}}</ref>

==History==
{{See also|Democratization}}
The [[Roman Republic]] was the first known state in the [[Western world]] to have a representative government, despite taking the form of a direct government in the [[Roman assemblies]]. The Roman model of governance would inspire many political thinkers over the centuries,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Livy |author1-link=Livy |last2=De Sélincourt |first2=A. |last3=Ogilvie |first3=R. M. |last4=Oakley |first4=S. P. |title = The early history of Rome: books I-V of The history of Rome from its foundations |publisher = Penguin Classics |year = 2002 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ZHh7heON3sQC |isbn = 0-14-044809-8 |page = 34 }}</ref> and today's modern representative democracies imitate more the Roman than the Greek model, because it was a state in which supreme power was held by the people and their elected representatives, and which had an elected or nominated leader.<ref>Watson, 2005, p. 271</ref> Representative democracy is a form of democracy in which people vote for representatives who then vote on policy initiatives; as opposed to direct democracy, a form of democracy in which people vote on policy initiatives directly.<ref>{{cite book|author=Budge, Ian|chapter=Direct democracy|editor1=Clarke, Paul A.B. |editor2=Foweraker, Joe|title=Encyclopedia of Political Thought|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=2001|isbn=978-0-415-19396-2|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=srzDCqnZkfUC&pg=PA224}}</ref> A [[Europe]]an [[medieval]] tradition of selecting representatives from the various [[estates of the realm|estates]] ([[social class|classes]], but not as we know them today) to advise/control [[monarch]]s led to relatively wide familiarity with representative systems inspired by Roman systems.

In Britain, representative government grew in the late thirteenth century. The [[Oxford Parliament (1258)|Oxford Parliament of 1258]] stripped the [[British king|king]] of unlimited authority, and [[Simon de Montfort's Parliament]] of 1265 included both noblemen and citizens from each town.<ref name=dnb>{{cite DNB |last=Norgate |first=Kate |author-link=Kate Norgate |wstitle=Montfort, Simon of (1208?-1265)|volume=38 }}</ref><ref>Jobson, Adrian (2012). The First English Revolution: Simon de Montfort, Henry III and the Barons' War. Bloomsbury. pp. 173–4. ISBN 978-1-84725-226-5.</ref><ref> "Simon de Montfort: The turning point for democracy that gets overlooked". BBC. 19 January 2015. Retrieved 19 January 2015; "The January Parliament and how it defined Britain". The Telegraph. 20 January 2015. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022. Retrieved 28 January 2015</ref> Later, in the 17th century, the [[Parliament of England]] implemented some of the ideas and systems of [[Liberal democracy#Origins|liberal democracy]], culminating in the [[Glorious Revolution]] and passage of the [[Bill of Rights 1689]].<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Kopstein|editor1-first=Jeffrey|editor2-last=Lichbach|editor2-first=Mark|editor3-last=Hanson|editor3-first=Stephen E.|title=Comparative Politics: Interests, Identities, and Institutions in a Changing Global Order|date=2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1139991384|pages=37–9|edition=4, revised|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L2jwAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA38|quote=Britain pioneered the system of liberal democracy that has now spread in one form or another to most of the world's countries}}</ref><ref name=refIIP>{{cite web|title=Constitutionalism: America & Beyond|url=http://www.ait.org.tw/infousa/zhtw/DOCS/Demopaper/dmpaper2.html|publisher=Bureau of International Information Programs (IIP), U.S. Department of State|access-date=30 October 2014|quote=The earliest, and perhaps greatest, victory for liberalism was achieved in England. The rising commercial class that had supported the Tudor monarchy in the 16th century led the revolutionary battle in the 17th and succeeded in establishing the supremacy of Parliament and, eventually, of the House of Commons. What emerged as the distinctive feature of modern constitutionalism was not the insistence on the idea that the king is subject to the law (although this concept is an essential attribute of all constitutionalism). This notion was already well established in the Middle Ages. What was distinctive was the establishment of effective means of political control whereby the rule of law might be enforced. Modern constitutionalism was born with the political requirement that representative government depended upon the consent of citizen subjects... However, as can be seen through provisions in the 1689 Bill of Rights, the English Revolution was fought not just to protect the rights of property (in the narrow sense) but to establish those liberties which liberals believed essential to human dignity and moral worth. The "rights of man" enumerated in the English Bill of Rights gradually were proclaimed beyond the boundaries of England, notably in the American Declaration of Independence of 1776 and in the French Declaration of the Rights of Man in 1789.|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141024130317/http://www.ait.org.tw/infousa/zhtw/DOCS/Demopaper/dmpaper2.html|archive-date=24 October 2014|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Widening of the voting franchise took place through a series of [[Reform Acts]] in the 19th and 20th centuries.

The [[American Revolution]] led to the creation of a new [[Constitution of the United States]] in 1787, with a national legislature based partly on direct elections of representatives every two years, and thus responsible to the electorate for continuance in office. [[United States Senate|Senators]] were not directly elected by the people until the adoption of the [[Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Seventeenth Amendment]] in 1913. Women, men who owned no property, and Black people, and others not originally given voting rights, in most states eventually [[Voting rights in the United States#Background|gained the vote through changes in state and federal law]] in the course of the 19th and 20th centuries. Until it was repealed by the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendment]] following the [[American Civil War|Civil War]], the [[Three-Fifths Compromise]] gave a disproportionate representation of [[Slave states and free states|slave states]] in the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] relative to the voters in free states.<ref>"We Hold These Truths to be Self-evident;" An Interdisciplinary Analysis of the Roots of Racism & slavery in America Kenneth N. Addison; Introduction P. xxii</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Expansion of Rights and Liberties|date=30 October 2015|publisher=National Archives|url=https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/charters_of_freedom_13.html|access-date=December 27, 2015}}</ref>

In 1789, [[Revolutionary France]] adopted the [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]] and, although short-lived, the [[National Convention]] was elected by all males in 1792.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mars.wnec.edu/~grempel/courses/wc2/lectures/rev892.html |title=The French Revolution II |publisher=Mars.wnec.edu |access-date=2010-08-22 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080827213104/http://mars.wnec.edu/~grempel/courses/wc2/lectures/rev892.html |archive-date=27 August 2008 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> [[Universal male suffrage]] was re-established in France in the wake of the [[French Revolution of 1848]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/histoire/suffrage_universel/suffrage-1848.asp|title=1848 " Désormais le bulletin de vote doit remplacer le fusil "|author=French National Assembly|access-date=2009-09-26|language=fr}}</ref>

Representative democracy came into general favour particularly in post-[[industrial revolution]] [[nation state]]s where large numbers of [[citizenship|citizens]] evinced interest in [[politics]], but where technology and population figures remained unsuited to direct democracy.{{Citation needed|date=August 2013}} Many historians credit the [[Reform Act 1832]] with launching modern representative democracy in the United Kingdom.<ref>{{cite book|author1=A. Ricardo López|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y-wPB0I-5yEC&pg=PA58|title=The Making of the Middle Class: Toward a Transnational History|author2=Barbara Weinstein|publisher=Duke UP|year=2012|isbn=978-0822351290|page=58}}</ref><ref>Eric J. Evans, ''The Forging of the Modern State: Early Industrial Britain, 1783–1870'' (2nd ed. 1996) p. 229</ref>
[[File:Congreso de los Diputados estructura 2023-2027 por CCAA.svg|thumb|Spain's [[Congress of Deputies]], one example of representative democracy]]
Globally, a majority of governments in the world are representative democracies, including constitutional monarchies and republics with strong representative branches.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Roser|first=Max|date=2013-03-15|title=Democracy|url=https://ourworldindata.org/democracy|journal=Our World in Data}}</ref>

==Research on representation ''per se''==
{{Further|Representation (politics)}}
Separate but related, and very large, bodies of research in [[political philosophy]] and [[social science]] investigate how and how well elected representatives, such as legislators, represent the interests or preferences of one or another constituency. The [[empirical research]] shows that representative systems tend to be biased towards the representation of more affluent classes to the detriment of the population at large.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jacobs |first1=Lawrence R. |last2=Page |first2=Benjamin I. |title=Who Influences U.S. Foreign Policy? |journal=American Political Science Review |date=February 2005 |volume=99 |issue=1 |pages=107–123 |doi=10.1017/S000305540505152X |s2cid=154481971 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bernauer |first1=Julian |last2=Giger |first2=Nathalie |last3=Rosset |first3=Jan |title=Mind the gap: Do proportional electoral systems foster a more equal representation of women and men, poor and rich? |journal=International Political Science Review |date=January 2015 |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=78–98 |doi=10.1177/0192512113498830 |s2cid=145633250 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gilens |first1=Martin |last2=Page |first2=Benjamin I. |title=Testing Theories of American Politics: Elites, Interest Groups, and Average Citizens |journal=Perspectives on Politics |date=September 2014 |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=564–581 |doi=10.1017/S1537592714001595 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Carnes |first1=Nicholas |title=White-Collar Government: The Hidden Role of Class in Economic Policy Making |date=2013 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-08728-3 }}{{page needed|date=March 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Carnes |first1=Nicholas |last2=Lupu |first2=Noam |title=Rethinking the Comparative Perspective on Class and Representation: Evidence from Latin America |journal=American Journal of Political Science |date=January 2015 |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=1–18 |doi=10.1111/ajps.12112 |url=https://figshare.com/articles/online_resource/Rethinking_the_Comparative_Perspective_on_Class_and_Representation_Evidence_from_Latin_America/26125930 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Giger |first1=Nathalie |last2=Rosset |first2=Jan |last3=Bernauer |first3=Julian |title=The Poor Political Representation of the Poor in a Comparative Perspective |journal=Representation |date=April 2012 |volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=47–61 |doi=10.1080/00344893.2012.653238 |s2cid=154081733 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Peters |first1=Yvette |last2=Ensink |first2=Sander J. |title=Differential Responsiveness in Europe: The Effects of Preference Difference and Electoral Participation |journal=West European Politics |date=4 May 2015 |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=577–600 |doi=10.1080/01402382.2014.973260 |s2cid=153452076 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schakel |first1=Wouter |last2=Burgoon |first2=Brian |last3=Hakhverdian |first3=Armen |title=Real but Unequal Representation in Welfare State Reform |journal=Politics & Society |date=March 2020 |volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=131–163 |doi=10.1177/0032329219897984 |s2cid=214235967 |doi-access=free |hdl=1887/138869 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>{{Excessive citations inline|date=October 2025}}

==Criticisms==
In his book ''[[Political Parties (book)|Political Parties]]'', written in 1911, [[Robert Michels]] argues that most representative systems deteriorate towards an [[oligarchy]] or [[particracy]]. This is known as the [[iron law of oligarchy]].<ref>Zur Soziologie des Parteiwesens in der modernen Demokratie. Untersuchungen über die oligarchischen Tendenzen des Gruppenlebens (1911, 1925; 1970). Translated as ''Sociologia del partito politico nella democrazia moderna : studi sulle tendenze oligarchiche degli aggregati politici'', from the German original by Dr. Alfredo Polledro, revised and expanded (1912). Translated, from the Italian, by Eden and Cedar Paul as ''Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy'' (Hearst's International Library Co., 1915; Free Press, 1949; Dover Publications, 1959); republished with an introduction by Seymour Martin Lipset (Crowell-Collier, 1962; Transaction Publishers, 1999, {{ISBN|0-7658-0469-7}}); translated in French by S. Jankélévitch, ''Les partis politiques. Essai sur les tendances oligarchiques des démocraties'', Brussels, Editions de l'Université de Bruxelles, 2009 ({{ISBN|978-2-8004-1443-0}}).</ref>
Representative democracies which are stable have been analysed by [[Adolf Gasser]] and compared to the unstable representative democracies in his book ''Gemeindefreiheit als Rettung Europas'' which was published in 1943 and a second edition in 1947.<ref>Gemeindefreiheit als Rettung Europas. Grundlinien einer ethischen Geschichtsauffassung. Verlag Bücherfreunde, Basel 1947. In 1983 republished under: "Gemeindefreiheit – kommunale Selbstverwaltung" (Adolf Gasser/Franz-Ludwig Knemeyer), in de reeks "Studien zur Soziologie", Nymphenburger, München, 1983.</ref> Adolf Gasser stated the following requirements for a representative democracy in order to remain stable, unaffected by the iron law of oligarchy:
* Society has to be built up from bottom to top. As a consequence, society is built up by people, who are free and have the power to defend themselves with weapons.
* These free people join or form local communities. These local communities are independent, which includes [[financial independence]], and they are free to determine their own rules.
* Local communities join into a higher unit, e.g. a canton.
* There is no hierarchical [[bureaucracy]].
* There is competition between these local communities, e.g. on services delivered or on taxes.

A drawback to this type of government is that elected officials are not required to fulfill promises made before their election and are able to promote their own self-interests once elected, providing an incohesive system of governance.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sørensen |first1=Eva |title=Enhancing policy innovation by redesigning representative democracy |journal=Policy & Politics |date=25 April 2016 |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=155–170 |id={{ProQuest|1948833814}} |doi=10.1332/030557315X14399997475941 |s2cid=156556922 |url=https://forskning.ruc.dk/da/publications/45ace289-675a-4d49-a03c-fea638fc36cb }}</ref> Legislators are also under scrutiny as the system of majority-won legislators voting for issues for the large group of people fosters inequality among the [[marginalized]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Thaa |first1=Winfried |title=Issues and images – new sources of inequality in current representative democracy |journal=Critical Review of International Social and Political Philosophy |date=3 May 2016 |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=357–375 |doi=10.1080/13698230.2016.1144859 |s2cid=147669709 }}</ref>

Proponents of [[direct democracy]] criticize representative democracy due to its inherent structure. As the fundamental basis of representative democracy is non inclusive system, in which representatives turn into an [[elite class]] that works behind closed doors, as well as the criticizing the elector system as being driven by a [[Capitalism|capitalistic]] and [[Authoritarianism|authoritarian]] system.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Razsa |first1=Maple |last2=Kurnik |first2=Andrej |title=The Occupy Movement in Žižek's hometown: Direct democracy and a politics of becoming: The Occupy Movement in Žižek's hometown |journal=American Ethnologist |date=May 2012 |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=238–258 |doi=10.1111/j.1548-1425.2012.01361.x }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Heckert |first1=Jamie |title=Anarchist roots & routes |journal=European Journal of Ecopsychology |volume=1 |year=2010 |pages=19–36 |url=http://ecopsychology-journal.eu/v1/EJE%20v1_Heckert.pdf }}</ref>

The [[V-Dem Institute]] classifies electoral democracies as the bare minimum of democracies, describing them as being governments that are "de-facto accountable to citizens through periodic elections", but are not [[liberal democracies]] and lack further entrenched individual and minority rights beyond the electoral sphere. Basic representative democracies may not possess a fully developed [[rule of law]], legislative and judicial oversight of the executive branch, protections against the "[[tyranny of the majority]]", and only minimal fulfillment of [[Robert Dahl]]'s institutional prerequisites for democracy.<ref name="Lührmann 2018"/>

===Proposed solutions===
The system of [[sortition]] or stochocracy has been proposed as an improved system compared to the system of representative democracy, where representatives are elected. Stochocracy aims to at least reduce this degradation by having all representatives appointed by [[lottery]] instead of by voting. Therefore, this system is also called lottocracy. The system was proposed by the writer Roger de Sizif in 1998 in his book ''La Stochocratie''. Choosing officeholders by lot was also the standard practice in ancient [[Athenian democracy]]<ref>{{cite book| others = Josiah Ober, Robert Wallace, Paul Cartledge, Cynthia Farrar| title = Origins of Democracy in Ancient Greece| edition = 1st| date = 15 October 2008| isbn = 978-0520258099| pages = 17,105| chapter = 1,5}}</ref> and in [[History of India|ancient India]]. The rationale behind this practice was to avoid [[lobbying]] and [[electioneering]] by economic oligarchs.

The system of [[deliberative democracy]] is a mix between a majority-ruled system and a consensus-based system. It allows for representative democracies or direct democracies to coexist with its system of governance, providing an initial advantage.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bohman|first=James|year=1997|title=Deliberative Democracy|url=http://www.sze.hu/~smuk/Nyilvanossag_torvenyek_CEE/Szakirodalom/Deliberat%C3%ADv%20demokr%C3%A1cia/deliberative%20democracy%20book.pdf#page=72|publisher=MIT Press|archive-date=1 July 2015|access-date=28 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150701204247/http://www.sze.hu/~smuk/Nyilvanossag_torvenyek_CEE/Szakirodalom/Deliberat%C3%ADv%20demokr%C3%A1cia/deliberative%20democracy%20book.pdf#page=72|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Politics}}
* [[Democracy]]
* [[Political representation]]
* [[Proportional representation]]
* ''[[Voir dire]]''

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

{{Subject bar|commons=yes|commons-search=Category:Democracy|wikt=yes|q=yes|q-search=Representation|s=yes|s-search=Portal:Democracy}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Elections]]
[[Category:Types of democracy]]

Jag Bani

2026-02-16T21:22:39Z

Juliaauhm: fixed section for accuracy

{{Short description|Punjabi language newspaper}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{More citations needed|date=February 2020}}
{{One source|date=June 2021}}
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2018}}
{{Infobox newspaper
| name = Jag Bani
| image = Jag Bani, Jalandhar (Oct. 03, 2013).jpg
| type = Daily [[newspaper]]
| format = [[Broadsheet]]
| founded = {{start date|1978}}
| owners = [[Vijay Kumar Chopra]]
| chief_editor = [[VK Chopra]]
| director =
| language = [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]
| political_position = [[Liberalism|Liberal]]
| headquarters = [[Jalandhar]]
| sister_newspapers = [[Punjab Kesari]], [[Navodaya Times]] and [[Hind Samachar]]
| website = {{URL|https://epaper.jagbani.com/}}
}}
'''Jagbani''' is a [[Punjabi language]] newspaper that is circulated in the state of [[Punjab, India]].<ref>{{Official website|https://epaper.jagbani.com/ }}</ref> It was started by the [[Punjab Kesari]] Group back in 1978 along with [[Punjab Kesari]] and [[Hind Samachar]]. This newspaper is printed in [[Jalandhar]] and [[Ludhiana]] and has an average of 328 thousand circulated copies during weekdays.<ref>{{cite news |title=Taxi Haarlem |url=https://eentaxihaarlem.nl/ |access-date=23 September 2021}}</ref>

== Prominent columnists ==
{|
|-
| [[Khushwant Singh]] || [[Shekhar Gurera]] ''(Cartoonist)'' <ref>Daily Cartoon : "ਗੱਲਾਂ ਗੱਲਾਂ ਚ" [https://epaper.jagbani.com/punjab/2021-07-05/jalandhar-main#pages/2 JagBani 05/07/2021]</ref>
|-
| [[Kuldip Nayar]] || Poonam I Kaushik
|-
| [[Shanta Kumar]] || [[Vineet Narain]]<ref>Monday ਹਫਤਾਵਾਰੀ ਸੰਪਾਦਕੀ : ਵਿਨੀਤ ਨਾਰਾਇਣ [https://epaper.jagbani.com/punjab/2021-07-05/jalandhar-main#pages/6 JagBani 05/07/2021]</ref>
|-
| Virendra Kapur || B G Vergheoose
|-
| [[Balbir Punj]] || [[Mahmood Shaam]]
|-
| [[Karan Thapar]] || Kalyani Shankar
|-
| Manmohan Sharma || Neera Chopra
|-
| [[Menaka Gandhi]] || Chandermohan
|-
| Chander Trikha || Nerja Chaudhry
|-
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Newspapers in India}}

[[Category:Punjabi-language newspapers published in India]]
[[Category:Mass media in Punjab, India]]
[[Category:Jalandhar]]
[[Category:Ludhiana]]
[[Category:Newspapers established in 1978]]
[[Category:1978 establishments in Punjab, India]]

India–Sri Lanka relations

2026-02-10T20:47:36Z

Juliaauhm: expand intro for clarity and added references

{{Infobox bilateral relations|India–Sri Lanka|India|Sri Lanka|filetype=svg|mission1=High Commission of India, [[Colombo]]|mission2=High Commission of Sri Lanka, [[New Delhi]]|envoytitle1=Indian High Commissioner to Sri Lanka|envoy1=[[Santosh Jha]]|envoytitle2=[[Sri Lankan High Commissioner to India]]|envoy2=[[Mahishini Colonne]]}}
[[File:The Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi at the Indian origin Tamil Community function, at Norwood Grounds, Dickoya, in Sri Lanka (1).jpg|thumb|260x260px|[[Maithripala Sirisena]], [[Narendra Modi]], and [[Ranil Wickremesinghe]] in Sri Lanka in 2017]]
'''India–Sri Lanka relations''', '''Indian-Sri Lankan relations''', or '''Indo-Sri Lanka relations''', are the [[Bilateralism|bilateral relations]] between [[India]] and [[Sri Lanka]]. India has emerged as a frontrunning partner for Sri Lanka in the endeavor to revitalize its economy, reform its bureaucracy, and enhance decision-making processes for future economic collaborations.<ref>{{Cite web |title=India's Modi visits Sri Lanka to shore up defence and energy ties |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/4/5/indias-modi-visits-sri-lanka-to-shore-up-defence-and-energy-ties |access-date=2025-04-08 |website=Al Jazeera |language=en}}</ref> India and Sri Lanka share a maritime border. India is the only neighbour of Sri Lanka, separated by the [[Palk Strait]]; both states occupy a strategic position in [[South Asia]] and have sought to build a common security umbrella in the [[Indian Ocean]].<ref name="SRI">{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/735963.stm|title=BBC News - SOUTH ASIA - India's Sri Lankan scars|website=news.bbc.co.uk}}</ref> Both India and Sri Lanka are republics that are members of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]].

The two countries are also close on economic terms with India being the island's largest trading partner<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://atlas.media.mit.edu/en/profile/country/lka/|title=OEC - Sri Lanka (LKA) Exports, Imports, and Trade Partners|website=atlas.media.mit.edu|language=en|access-date=2019-03-06}}</ref> and an [[Economic and Technology Cooperation Agreement|agreement to establish a proto single market]] also under discussion at an advanced stage.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.colombotelegraph.com/index.php/sri-lanka-faces-crucial-tests-ahead-with-growing-opposition-to-etca/|title=Sri Lanka Faces Crucial Tests Ahead With Growing Opposition To ETCA|date=2016-02-15|website=Colombo Telegraph|language=en-US|access-date=2019-03-06}}</ref> India was the initial nation to submit its formal endorsement for the financial assistance and debt restructure proposal of Sri Lanka to the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Livemint |date=2023-07-09 |title=India plays 'constructive role' in supporting Sri Lanka: Report |url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/india-plays-constructive-role-in-supporting-sri-lanka-recovery-from-economic-crisis-11688885262274.html |access-date=2023-08-22 |website=mint |language=en}}</ref>

There are deep ethnic and cultural links between the two countries. In a bid to foster and safeguard the [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] connections between India and Sri Lanka, Prime Minister [[Shri Narendra Modi|Narendra Modi]] unveiled a grant assistance of USD 15 million during the Virtual Bilateral Summit in September 2020. This financial support is intended for various purposes, including the restoration or establishment of Buddhist monasteries, the education of young monks, the enhancement of interaction among Buddhist scholars and clergy, the establishment of museums dedicated to Buddhist heritage, the facilitation of cultural exchanges, collaborative efforts in archaeology, and the mutual showcasing of The Buddha's relics.<ref>{{Cite web |last=bugsbunny |date=2023-04-12 |title=India's historical connection to Buddhism |url=https://colombogazette.com/2023/04/12/indias-historical-connection-to-buddhism/ |access-date=2023-08-24 |website=Colombo Gazette |language=en-US}}</ref>
[[File:Prime Minister of Bharat Shri Narendra Damodardas Modi & President of Bharat Smt. Droupadi Murmu with President of Sri Lanka Mr. Anura Kumara Dissanayake.jpg|thumb|left|Sri Lankan President [[Anura Kumara Dissanayake]] with [[President of India]] [[Droupadi Murmu]] and [[Prime Minister of India]] [[Narendra Modi]]]]
Relations have been tested by the [[Sri Lankan civil war|Sri Lankan Civil War]] and by the controversy of [[Indian Peace Keeping Force|Indian intervention]] during the war. In recent years [[China–Sri Lanka relations|Sri Lanka has moved closer to China]], especially in terms of naval agreements. India signed a nuclear energy pact with Sri Lanka in 2015.<ref name="news.yahoo.com">Krista Mahr and Sanjeev Miglani, [https://news.yahoo.com/india-seals-nuclear-energy-pact-sri-lanka-hopes-113600113.html "India seals nuclear energy pact with Sri Lanka, hopes to push back Chinese influence," ''Reuters'' Feb. 16, 2015]</ref> In 2023, India's foreign minister [[S. Jaishankar]] declared India would persist in providing support to Sri Lanka across all conceivable domains.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Today |first=Telangana |date=2023-08-23 |title=India will continue assistance to Sri Lanka in every possible area: Jaishankar |url=https://telanganatoday.com/india-will-continue-assistance-to-sri-lanka-in-every-possible-area-jaishankar |access-date=2023-09-22 |website=Telangana Today |language=en-US}}</ref> In the same year, the two countries have reached an agreement to strengthen their economic and energy ties, signaling a new phase of cooperation and mutual benefits.<ref>{{Cite web |title=India, Sri Lanka to consider building a land bridge between them |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/7/21/india-sri-lanka-agree-to-boost-economic-and-energy-ties |access-date=2023-07-31 |website=www.aljazeera.com |language=en}}</ref>

== History ==
Sri Lanka was established as an independent state after colonialism, prior to which the island was governed by a single indigenous kingdom or multiple indigenous kingdoms, with the exception of a 70 year period in which the South Indian [[Chola Empire]] extended its rule to Sri Lanka. The island has been reflected in Indian arts since ancient times; the first texts of Buddhism used the term "Lanka-dipa" for the island, a term which was commonly in use in South Asia at the time, but the island was known in the western world as "Taprobana" - derived from the [[Thamirabarani River]] of Tamil Nadu that feeds into the gulf north of Sri Lanka.

=== Early history ===

[[File:British Museum Asia 45 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|left|Gilded bronze statue of the Bodhisattva [[Tara (Buddhism)|Tara]], from the [[Anuradhapura]] period (8th century CE)]]

[[File:Mahatma Gandhi's ashes being taken to Ceylon.jpg|thumb|V.S. Swami Nathan of the External Affairs Ministry, photographed at the Safdarjung Airport, taking Mahatma Gandhi's ashes to Ceylon]]

According to traditional Sri Lankan chronicles (such as the [[Dipavamsa]]) [[Buddhism]] was introduced into Sri Lanka in the 4th century BCE by [[Mahinda (buddhist monk)|Mahinda]], the son of Indian Emperor [[Ashoka]], during the reign of Sri Lanka's King [[Devanampiyatissa|Devanampiya Tissa]]. During this time, a sapling of the [[Bodhi Tree]] was brought to Sri Lanka and the first monasteries and Buddhist monuments were established. Among these, the Isurumuni-vihaara and the Vessagiri-vihaara remain important centers of worship. He is also credited with the construction of the Pathamaka-cetiya, the Jambukola-vihaara and the Hatthaalhaka-vihaara, and the refectory. The [[Pali Canon]], having previously been preserved as an oral tradition, was first committed to writing in Sri Lanka around 30 BCE.

Sri Lanka has the longest continuous history of Buddhism of any Buddhist nation, with the [[Sangha (Buddhism)|Sangha]] having existed in a largely unbroken lineage since its introduction in the 4th century. During periods of decline, the Sri Lankan monastic lineage was revived through contact with [[Myanmar]] and [[Thailand]]. Periods of [[Mahayana]] influence, as well as official neglect under colonial rule, created great challenges for Theravada Buddhist institutions in Sri Lanka, but repeated revivals and resurgences – most recently in the 19th century CE – have kept the Theravada tradition alive for over 2,600 years.

Tamils in Sri Lanka, had established [[Hinduism in Sri Lanka|Hinduism]] and [[Tamil language]] links with South India. [[Nainativu Nagapooshani Amman Temple]] considered as one [[Shakta pithas|Shakta pitha]]. [[Thirukoneswaram|Koneswaram]] and [[Ketheeswaram temple|Ketheeswaram]] are considered as only [[Paadal Petra Sthalam|Paadal Petra Sthalangal]] in Sri Lanka.

=== Indian intervention in the Sri Lankan civil war ===

{{Main|Indian intervention in the Sri Lankan Civil War|Indian Peace Keeping Force|Indo-Sri Lanka Accord|Operation Poomalai}}

In the 1970s–1980s, private entities and elements in the [[Research and Analysis Wing]] and the state government of [[Tamil Nadu]] were believed to be encouraging the funding and training for the [[Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam]], a [[Sri Lankan Tamil nationalism|separatist]] insurgent force.<ref name="VG">{{cite web|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+in0174)|title=India – Sri Lanka}}</ref><ref>[http://www.cfr.org/publication/17707/raw.html#p4 RAW: India's External Intelligence Agency] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100721020826/http://www.cfr.org/publication/17707/raw.html#p4 |date=2010-07-21 }} [[Council on Foreign Relations]] – November 7, 2008</ref> In 1987, faced with growing anger amongst its own Tamils, and a flood of refugees,<ref name='cs-tmg'>{{cite journal|title=Tamil Militant Groups|journal=Sri Lanka: A Country Study|year=1988|author=Russell R. Ross and Andrea Matles Savada|url=http://countrystudies.us/sri-lanka/72.htm|access-date=2007-05-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=David Brewster|url= https://www.academia.edu/7992855 |title=India's Ocean: the Story of India's Bid for Regional Leadership. Retrieved 13 August 2014}}</ref> India intervened directly in the conflict for the first time after the Sri Lankan government attempted to regain control of the northern [[Jaffna]] region by means of an economic [[blockade]] and military assaults, India supplied food and medicine by air and sea. After subsequent negotiations, India and Sri Lanka entered into an [[Indo-Sri Lanka Accord|agreement/13th amendment]]. The peace accord assigned a certain degree of regional autonomy in the Tamil areas with Eelam People's Revolutionary Liberation Front (EPRLF) controlling the regional council and called for the Tamil militant groups to lay down their arms. Further India was to send a [[Peacekeeping|peacekeeping force]], named the [[IPKF]] to Sri Lanka to enforce the disarmament and to watch over the regional council.<ref name="VG" /><ref>The Peace Accord and the Tamils in Sri Lanka. Hennayake S.K. Asian Survey, Vol. 29, No. 4. (April 1989), pp. 401-415.</ref><ref name=Stokke2000a>{{cite journal
|author=Stokke, K.
|author2=Ryntveit, A.K.
|year=2000
|title=The Struggle for Tamil Eelam in Sri Lanka
|journal=Growth and Change: A Journal of Urban and Regional Policy
|volume=31
|issue=2
|pages=285–304
|doi=10.1111/0017-4815.00129
|bibcode=2000GroCh..31..285S
}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?sec=health&res=9B0DE0D8173FF936A35755C0A961948260&n=Top%2fNews%2fWorld%2fCountries%20and%20Territories%2fIndia|title=INDIA AIRLIFTS AID TO TAMIL REBELS|work=STEVEN R. WEISMAN|publisher=[[New York Times]]|date=5 June 1987 | first=Steven R. | last=Weisman | access-date=2010-05-05}}</ref>

According to [[Rejaul Karim Laskar]], a scholar of [[Indian foreign policy]], Indian intervention in Sri Lankan civil war became inevitable as that civil war threatened India's “unity, national interest and territorial integrity.”<ref name="auto">{{cite journal|last1=Laskar|first1=Rejaul|title=Rajiv Gandhi's Diplomacy: Historic Significance and Contemporary Relevance|journal=Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary Diplomatist|date=September 2014|volume=2|issue=9|page=47|url=http://www.diplomatist.com/dipom09y2014/article015.html|access-date=8 March 2018|archive-date=21 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180221161446/http://www.diplomatist.com/dipom09y2014/article015.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> According to [[Rejaul Karim Laskar|Laskar]], this threat came in two ways: On the one hand external powers could take advantage of the situation to establish their base in [[Sri Lanka]] thus posing a threat to [[India]], on the other the [[Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam|LTTE]]'s dream of a sovereign [[Tamil Eelam]] comprising all the [[Tamil People|Tamil]] inhibited areas (of Sri Lanka and India) posed a threat to [[India]]'s territorial integrity.<ref name="auto"/>

Even though the accord was signed between the governments of Sri Lanka and India, with the [[Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam|Tamil Tigers]] and other Tamil militant groups not having a role in the signing of the accord,<ref name=Hellmann-rajanayagam1994>{{cite book
|author=Hellmann-rajanayagam, D.
|year=1994
|title=The Tamil Tigers: Armed Struggle for Identity
|publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag
}}</ref> most Tamil militant groups accepted this agreement,<ref>''O'Ballance'', 91</ref> the LTTE rejected the accord because they opposed the candidate, who belonged to another militant group named Eelam Peoples Revolutionary Liberation Front (EPRLF), for chief administrative officer of the merged Northern and Eastern provinces.<ref name=Stokke2000a /> Instead, the LTTE named three other candidates for the position. The candidates proposed by the LTTE were rejected by India.<ref>''O'Ballance'', p.94</ref> The LTTE subsequently refused to hand over their weapons to the IPKF.<ref name=Hellmann-rajanayagam1994 />

The result was that the LTTE now found itself engaged in military conflict with the [[Indian Army]], and launched their first attack on an Indian army rations truck on October 8, killing five Indian para-commandos who were on board by strapping [[burning tires]] around their necks.<ref name="O'Ballance, p.100">''O'Ballance'', p.100</ref> The government of India then decided that the IPKF should disarm the LTTE by force,<ref name="O'Ballance, p.100" /> and the Indian Army launched a number of assaults on the LTTE, including a month-long campaign dubbed ''[[Operation Pawan]]'' to wrest control of the Jaffna peninsula from the LTTE. When the IPKF engaged the LTTE, the then president of Sri Lanka, [[Ranasinghe Premadasa]], began supporting LTTE and funded LTTE with arms.<ref name=Stokke2000a /> During the warfare with the LTTE, IPKF was also alleged to have made human rights violation against the [[Sri Lankan Tamil|civilians]]. Notably, IPKF was alleged to have perpetrated the [[Jaffna teaching hospital massacre]] which was the killing of over 70 civilians including patients, doctors and nurses.<ref name=Somasundaram1997>{{cite journal
|author=Somasundaram, D.
|year=1997
|title=Abandoning Jaffna hospital: Ethical and moral dilemmas
|journal=Medicine, Conflict and Survival
|volume=13
|issue=4
|pages=333–347
|doi=10.1080/13623699708409357
}}</ref> The ruthlessness of this campaign, and the Indian army's subsequent anti-LTTE operations made it extremely unpopular amongst many Tamils in Sri Lanka.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tamilnet.com/img/publish/2006/01/civilians_affected_ne.pdf |title=Statistics on civilians affected by war from 1974–2004 |access-date=2007-01-30 |work=NESOHR |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111213225909/http://tamilnet.com/img/publish/2006/01/civilians_affected_ne.pdf |archive-date=December 13, 2011 }}</ref><ref name=UTHRJ>{{cite web|url=http://www.uthr.org/history.htm|work=University Teachers for Human Rights|title=History of the Organisation|access-date=2008-05-28|archive-date=2009-07-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090713034813/http://www.uthr.org/history.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> The conflict between the LTTE and the Indian Army left over 1,115 Indian soldiers dead.<ref>{{Cite web|date=17 December 1994|title=THE INDIAN PEACE-KEEPING FORCE IN SRI LANKA, 1987-90: A CASE STUDY IN OPERATIONS OTHER THAN WAR|url=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA294004.pdf#page45|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124140143/https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA294004.pdf#page45|url-status=live|archive-date=January 24, 2021|website=Defense Technical Information Center}}</ref>

The Indo-Sri Lankan Accord, which had been unpopular amongst Sri Lankans for giving India a major influence, now became a source of nationalist anger and resentment as the IPKF was drawn fully into the conflict. Sri Lankans protested the presence of the IPKF, and the newly elected Sri Lankan president [[Ranasinghe Premadasa]] demanded its withdrawal, which was completed by March 1990.<ref name="VG" /> on May 21, 1991, [[Rajiv Gandhi]] was assassinated and the LTTE was alleged to be the perpetrator. As a result, India declared the LTTE to be a terrorist outfit in 1992. Bilateral relations improved in the 1990s and India supported the [[Sri Lankan civil war#2002 peace process (2002–2006)|peace process]] but has resisted calls to get involved again.<ref name="BVD">{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/734357.stm|title=BBC News - SOUTH ASIA - India rules out Sri Lanka help|website=news.bbc.co.uk}}</ref> India has also been wary of and criticised the extensive military involvement of [[Pakistan]] in the conflict, accusing the latter of supplying lethal weaponry and encouraging Sri Lanka to pursue military action rather than peaceful negotiations to end the civil war.<ref name="ATO">{{cite web|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/HI22Df01.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061019075144/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/HI22Df01.html|url-status=unfit|archive-date=2006-10-19|title=Asia Times Online :: South Asia news - The Pakistani muscle behind Colombo|first=Asia Time|last=Online|website=www.atimes.com}}</ref>

===Support during COVID-19 and Sri Lankan economic crisis===
In the face of the acute [[2019–present Sri Lankan economic crisis|financial and economic crisis of Sri Lanka]], India has extended help worth USD 3.8 billion to help Sri Lanka. In line with India's '[[South Asian foreign policy of the Narendra Modi government|neighbourhood first]]' policy, this includes an agreement to supply 700 million USD worth of petroleum through a [[Line of credit]]. India's EXIM Bank and [[State Bank of India]] extended export credit facilities of 1.5 billion USD for the import of essential commodities. India also signed a 400 million USD agreement to help present Sri Lanka's [[Foreign exchange reserves]]. India also supplied 500 buses to the Sri Lankan Transport Department.<ref name="ANI">{{cite news |last= |first= |date=4 January 2023|title=India extends aid worth USD 3.9 billion to help Sri Lanka face of economic crisis|url=https://www.aninews.in/news/world/asia/india-extends-aid-worth-usd-39-billion-to-help-sri-lanka-face-of-economic-crisis20230114204912/|newspaper=ANI|access-date= 21 March 2023}}</ref>

During the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], India sent 500,000 vaccines to Sri Lanka under grant assistance.<ref name="TH1">{{cite news |last= |first= |date=31 January 2021|title=Sri Lanka thanks India for sending coronavirus vaccine|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/sri-lanka-thanks-india-for-sending-coronavirus-vaccine/article61734731.ece|newspaper=The Hindu|access-date= 21 March 2023}}</ref> India also sent 150 tonnes of oxygen to Sri Lanka to help combat the third wave of the pandemic.<ref name="TH2">{{cite news |last= |first= |date=4 September 2021|title=India sends 150 tonnes of oxygen to Sri Lanka to help it tackle coronavirus surge|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/india-sends-150-tonnes-of-oxygen-to-sri-lanka-to-help-it-tackle-coronavirus-surge/article36286318.ece|newspaper=The Hindu|access-date= 21 March 2023}}</ref>

In July 2023, Sri Lankan President Ranil Wickremesinghe met with Prime Minister Narendra Modi in India where they outlined vision for an economic partnership to strengthen the [[Maritime transport|maritime]], air, energy, and interpersonal networks between them as well as to accelerate mutual cooperation in the tourism, power, trade, higher education, and skill development sectors. They said they would also work to connect their electricity grids and to examine the feasibility of building a [[petroleum]] pipeline and a land bridge. In addition, they said they would restart negotiations on a more expansive trade deal known as the Economic and Technological Trade Agreement.<ref>{{Cite web |title=India, Sri Lanka to consider building a land bridge between them |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/7/21/india-sri-lanka-agree-to-boost-economic-and-energy-ties |access-date=2023-08-14 |website=www.aljazeera.com |language=en}}</ref> India has conveyed a resolute endorsement of Sri Lanka's [[debt restructuring]] proposal to the international lending institution, as Sri Lanka's debt to its immediate neighbor amounts to approximately $1 billion.<ref>{{Cite web |title=India to 'encourage greater investments' in crisis-hit Sri Lanka |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/1/20/india-to-encourage-greater-investments-in-crisis-hit-sri-lanka |access-date=2023-08-23 |website=www.aljazeera.com |language=en}}</ref>

In September 2023, Sri Lanka's foreign minister, [[Ali Sabry (Sri Lankan politician)|Ali Sabry]], backed India in its [[Canada–India relations#2023 diplomatic row|diplomatic feud]] with [[Canada]], accusing Canada of being a "safe haven for terrorists" and suggesting Prime Minister [[Justin Trudeau]] was prone to making "outrageous and substantiated [sic] allegations".<ref name="sabryndtv">{{Cite web |title="Terrorists Found Safe Haven In Canada": Lankan Minister Shreds Trudeau |url=https://www.ndtv.com/world-news/terrorists-found-safe-haven-in-canada-sri-lankan-minister-ali-sabry-shreds-justin-trudeau-4423661 |access-date=2023-09-26 |website=NDTV.com |archive-date=27 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927145148/https://www.ndtv.com/world-news/terrorists-found-safe-haven-in-canada-sri-lankan-minister-ali-sabry-shreds-justin-trudeau-4423661 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-09-26 |title='Some terrorists found safe haven in Canada': Why Sri Lanka has backed India |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-global/terrorists-haven-canada-sri-lanka-india-8957310/ |access-date=2023-09-26 |website=The Indian Express |language=en |archive-date=27 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927145147/https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-global/terrorists-haven-canada-sri-lanka-india-8957310/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Sri Lankan Foreign Minister Wades Into India-Canada Controversy |url=https://thediplomat.com/2023/10/sri-lankan-foreign-minister-wades-into-india-canada-controversy/ |access-date=2023-11-09 |website=The Diplomat |language=en-US |quote=Sabry’s comment, seen as an attempt to align Sri Lanka with India, has drawn both support and criticism domestically.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-10-01 |title=Diplomatic Controversy Unfolds As Sri Lanka's Foreign Minister Faces Backlash Over Comments On Canada |url=https://www.colombotelegraph.com/index.php/diplomatic-controversy-unfolds-as-sri-lankas-foreign-minister-faces-backlash-over-comments-on-canada/ |access-date=2023-11-09 |website=Colombo Telegraph |language=en-US |quote=Sabry’s criticism of Trudeau was forceful, accusing the Canadian leader of making audacious claims without offering substantial evidence.}}</ref> He also advised Trudeau to not interfere in the internal affairs of a sovereign country.<ref name="sabryndtv"/>

== Culture ==
{{Unreferenced section|date=July 2023}}
The two countries share near-identical racial and cultural ties.
Sinhalese people who make up 75% of the total population descend in part from Northern Indian Indo-Aryan settlers who migrated the Island from 543 BCE to 243 BCE. Tamil people (included Indian Tamils and Sri Lankan Moors) who make up 26% of the total population belonging to the Dravidian group that migrated to the island from 300BC.

== Economy ==

=== Commercial ties ===

India and Sri Lanka are member nations of several regional and multilateral organizations such as the [[South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation]] (SAARC), [[South Asia Co-operative Environment Programme]], [[South Asian Economic Union]] and [[BIMSTEC]], working to enhance cultural and commercial ties. Since a bilateral [[free trade agreement]] was signed and came into effect in 2000, Indo-Sri Lankan trade rose 128% by 2004 and quadrupled by 2006, reaching US$2.6 billion.<ref name="BI">{{cite web|url=http://www.bilaterals.org/article.php3?id_article=770|title=FTA Pushes Up India, Lanka Trade By 128%}}</ref><ref name="B">{{cite web|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601091&sid=aNJrUZR8ElJw&refer=india|title=Terms of Service Violation|website=www.bloomberg.com}}</ref> Between 2000 and 2004, India's exports to Sri Lanka in the last four years increased by 113%, from US$618 million to $1,319 million while Sri Lankan exports to India increased by 342%, from $44 million to $194 million.<ref name="BI" /> Indian exports account for 14% of Sri Lanka's global imports. India is also the fifth largest export destination for Sri Lankan goods, accounting for 3.6% of its exports.<ref name="BI" /> Both nations are also signatories of the [[South Asia Free Trade Agreement]] (SAFTA). Negotiations are also underway to expand the free trade agreement to forge stronger commercial relations and increase corporate investment and ventures in various industries.<ref name="B" /> The year 2010 is predicted to be the best year for bilateral trade on record, with Sri Lanka's [[export]]s to India increasing by 45% over the first seven months of the year<ref>[http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2010/09/19/oostory.asp?sid=20100923_02&imid=india2.jpg&dt=[September%2023%202010] Sri Lanka's exports to India increase by 45% - Indian High Commissioner]{{dead link|date=April 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}} Sunday Observer – September 23, 2010</ref>

[[NTPC Limited|India's National Thermal Power Corp]] (NTPC) is also scheduled to build a 500 MW thermal power plant in Sampoor (Sampur). The NTPC claims that this plan will take the Indo-Sri Lankan relationship to a new level.<ref name=IANS>[http://in.news.yahoo.com/indiaabroad/20080510/r_t_ians_bs_india/tbs-india-s-sri-lanka-power-project-runs-46e8b08.html India's Sri Lanka power project runs into Tamil storm] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516100859/http://in.news.yahoo.com/indiaabroad/20080510/r_t_ians_bs_india/tbs-india-s-sri-lanka-power-project-runs-46e8b08.html |date=May 16, 2008 }}</ref> India stood as Sri Lanka's primary trading partner, and Sri Lanka's exports to India have notably expanded. The adoption of Rupees for trade settlement is additionally bolstering Sri Lanka's economy. These represent tangible measures aimed at fostering Sri Lanka's economic recuperation and advancement.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Livemint |date=2023-07-09 |title=India plays 'constructive role' in supporting Sri Lanka: Report |url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/india-plays-constructive-role-in-supporting-sri-lanka-recovery-from-economic-crisis-11688885262274.html |access-date=2023-09-22 |website=mint |language=en}}</ref>

==== Fishing disputes ====

There have been several alleged incidents of [[Sri Lankan Navy]] personnel firing on Indian fishermen fishing in the [[Palk Strait]], where India and Sri Lanka are separated by only {{convert|12|nmi|km|abbr=off}}. The issue started because of Indian fishermen having used [[Fishing trawler|mechanised trawlers]], which deprived the Sri Lankan fishermen of their catch and damaged their fishing boats. The Sri Lankan government wants India to ban use of mechanized trawlers in the Palk Strait region, and negotiations on this subject are undergoing. So far, no concrete agreement has been reached since India favours regulating these trawlers instead of banning them altogether. Another cause of anger amongst the Sri Lankan side is the use of mechanized trawlers, which they view as ecologically damaging.<ref>Rumley et al. 2009:166</ref> Presently there is no [[Good faith|bona fide]] Indian fisherman in Sri Lankan custody. A Joint Working Group (JWG) has been constituted to deal with the issues related to Indian fishermen straying in Sri Lankan territorial waters, work out modalities for prevention of the use of force against them, the early release of confiscated boats and explore possibilities of working towards bilateral arrangements for licensed fishing. The JWG last met in January 2006.{{Citation needed|date=July 2019}}

India officially protested against the [[Sri Lankan Navy]] for its alleged involvement in attacks on Indian fishermen on January 12, 2011.<ref name="India News">{{cite web |url=http://news.indiavoice.info/politics/indian-fisherman-killed-in-lankan-firing-2011011318368/ |title=Indian fisherman killed in Lankan firing |publisher=IndiaVoice |date=2011-01-13 |access-date=2011-01-13 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721210437/http://news.indiavoice.info/politics/indian-fisherman-killed-in-lankan-firing-2011011318368/ |archive-date=2011-07-21 }}</ref> After the official protest, another fisherman was killed on 22 January 2011.<ref name="2nd Fisherman killed">{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Second-TN-fisherman-killed-by-Lankan-Navy/articleshow/7350366.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104130326/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-01-24/india/28376055_1_sri-lankan-navy-naval-personnel-state-fisheries-department-officials |url-status=live |archive-date=2012-11-04 |title= Second TN fisherman killed by Lankan Navy |date=2011-01-22 |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=2011-01-24}}</ref> Over 730 fishermen have been killed in the last 30 years. The apathetic attitude of the Indian government and the national media towards the alleged killing of Tamil Nadu fishermen by the Sri Lankan Navy has been strongly condemned.<ref name="Truth Dive">{{cite web|url=http://truthdive.com/2011/01/24/fishermen-killings-may-17-seeks-pranab-sm-krishna-resignation.html/ |title=Fishermen killings: May 17 seeks Pranab, SM Krishna resignation |publisher=TruthDive |date=2011-01-24 |access-date=2011-01-24|first=Raj|last=Palaniswamy|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110809123559/http://truthdive.com/2011/01/24/fishermen-killings-may-17-seeks-pranab-sm-krishna-resignation.html/|archive-date=2011-08-09|url-status=usurped}}</ref> Several Tamil Nadu politicians like Vaiko and Jayalalitha have condemned the federal government for not doing enough to stop the killing of Indian Tamil fishermen, and for offering training, equipment, and strategic cooperation for the Sri Lankan Navy.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Jaya-slams-Centre-for-defence-cooperation-with-Lanka/articleshow/26716739.cms |title=Jaya slams Centre for defence cooperation with Lanka |date=2 December 2013 |website=indiatimes.com |publisher=TNN |access-date=2 December 2013}}</ref> In 2010, [[Naam Thamizhar Katchi]] Chief coordinator [[Seeman]] got arrested under National security act for his reported statement that he would attack the Sri Lankan students if the killing of Tamil fishermen continued by the Sri Lankan navy. Later he got acquitted of the charges and set free by the Madras high court.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/Seeman-detained-under-NSA/article16200309.ece | title= Seeman arrested| newspaper= The Hindu| date= 17 July 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Madras-high-court-sets-free-tamil-film-director-seeman-who-is-detained-under-national-security-act-He-was-arrested-in-august-this-year-for-his-reported-statement-that-if-tamil-fishermaen-are-attacked-by-lankan-navy-he-would-target-sinhalese-studying-in-tamil-nadu-/articleshow/7070565.cms|website=[[The Times of India]]|title=Madras high court sets free tamil film director seeman, who is detained under national security act. He was arrested in August this year for his reported statement that if tamil fishermaen are attacked by lankan navy, he would target sinhalese studying in tamil nadu. - Times of India|date=9 December 2010 }}</ref> In November 2014, Sri Lanka ordered capital punishment to Indian fishermen who were allegedly involved in drug supply or other kind of smuggling. Activists from India approached to Sri Lankan government through an appeal, where they stated the need to strengthen south Asian regional cooperation for all such issues. It was appealed that though crime of any kind must get punishment, but capital punishment must be revoked in this case and in general from all over south Asia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.srilankaguardian.org/2014/11/revoke-capital-punishment-to-indian.html|title=Revoke Capital Punishment To Indian Fishermen In Sri Lanka}}</ref> Sri Lanka Prime Minister Ranil Winckramsinghe told during an interview to a television channel in March 2015 that 'if Indian fishermen will cross the sea boundary, Sri Lankan navy can shoot them.' This remark sparked controversy over Sri Lanka–India relations. External affairs minister of India raised the issue with meeting her counterpart in Sri Lanka, but the statement of PM of Sri Lanka was condemned by civil rights activists, and open letters were written to PMs of Sri Lanka and India to resolve the dispute and to apologize for statements.{{Citation needed|date=July 2019}}

In October 2021, Sri Lankan fishermen from the North and Tamil parties launched a protest on the sea complaining about the inability of Sri Lankan authorities to deal with Indian poachers.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sri Lankan fishermen launch flotilla protesting Indian poaching |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/10/17/sri-lankan-flotilla-protests-against-indian-poaching |website=www.aljazeera.com |language=en}}</ref>

=== Development co-operation ===

{{See also|Economic and Technology Co-operation Agreement}}

[[File:Vice Admiral Jayantha Perera received by Chief of the Naval Staff Admiral RK Dhowan at South Block, New Delhi.JPG|thumb|left|Vice Admiral [[Jayantha Perera]], [[Commander of the Navy (Sri Lanka)|Commander of the Sri Lanka Navy]], received by [[Chief of the Naval Staff (India)|Chief of the Naval Staff]] Admiral [[Robin K. Dhowan]] at South Block, New Delhi]]
[[File:INS Talwar and SLNS Sagara during SLINEX 2013 (2).jpg|thumb|[[INS Talwar (F40)|INS Talwar]] and [[SLNS Sagara]] during SLINEX 2013]]
India is active in a number of areas of development activity in Sri Lanka. About one-sixth of the total development credit granted by India is made available to Sri Lanka.

In the recent past, three lines of credit were extended to Sri Lanka: US$100 million for capital goods, consumer durables, consultancy services and food items, US$31 million for the supply of 300,000 MT of wheat and US$150 million for purchase of petroleum products. All of the lines of credit have been fully used. Another line of credit of US$100 million is now being made available for rehabilitation of the Colombo-Matara railway.

A number of development projects are implemented under Aid to Sri Lanka funds. In 2006–07, the budget for Aid to Sri Lanka was Rs 28.2 Crs.

A memorandum of understanding on Cooperation in Small Development Projects has been signed. Projects for providing fishing equipment to the fishermen in the East of Sri Lanka and solar energy aided computer education in 25 rural schools in Eastern Sri Lanka are under consideration.

India has supplied medical equipment to hospitals at Hambantota and Point Pedro, supplied 4 state-of-the-art ambulances to the Central Province, implemented a cataract eye surgery programme for 1500 people in the Central Province and implemented a project of renovation of OT at Dickoya hospital and supplying equipment to it.

The projects under consideration are the construction of a 150-bed hospital at Dickoya, upgrading of the hospital at Trincomalee and a US$7.5 million grant for setting up a cancer hospital in Colombo. India also contributes to the Ceylon Workers Education Trust that gives scholarships to the children of estate workers.

A training programme for 465 Sri Lankan Police officers has been commenced in Dec 2005. Another 400 Sri Lankan Police personnel are being trained for the course of Maintenance of Public Order.

Indian governments have also showed interest in collaborating with their Sri Lankan counterparts on building tourism between the two countries based on shared religious heritage.<ref>[http://www.newstrackindia.com/newsdetails/59799 Sri Lanka woos Indian tourists] News Track India – January 13, 2009</ref> [[Madhya Pradesh]] CM [[Shivraj Chauhan]] in June 2013 stated he was working with Sri Lankan authorities to build a temple dedicated to the Hindu deity [[Sita]] in [[Nuwara Eliya]].<ref>[http://english.newmannar.com/2013/06/india-to-build-sita-temple-in-sri-lanka.html New Mannar] – June 1, 2013</ref> In November 2019, Prime Minister Narendra Modi stated that India will invest $400 million in infrastructure projects in Sri Lanka amid improving ties after talks with Sri Lanka's new President Gotabaya Rajapaksa.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-india-sri-lanka-idUSKBN1Y3138|title=India announces $400 million loan for Sri Lanka, in support of new president|date=2019-11-29|work=Reuters|access-date=2019-12-01|language=en}}</ref> stated that it will lend Sri Lanka $400 million for infrastructure projects, India-Sri Lanka border crossings

{{main| Borders_of_India#Designated_crossings_with_ICP_&_LCS | label 1 = Designated border crossings of India | Borders of India}}

Only land border India and Sri Lanka have is in [[Talaimannar#India-Sri Lanka land border|Talaimannar]] on a [[Ram Sethu]] sand dune.

=== Shared Tourism ===

In the past, ferry services for tourists have been introduced and suspended repeatedly because of their low usage.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldtravelguide.net/guides/asia/sri-lanka/travel-by/|title = Travelling to Sri Lanka}}</ref> The low usage of the old ferry services could be due to the high cost of the former services.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://srilanka.travel-culture.com/india_srilanka_ferry.shtml|title = Sri Lanka India Ferry Service Schedule and online booking for passenger ship from colombo to tuticorin, Book your ferry from Colombo Tuticorin - an excellent entertaining way to travel from Sri Lanka to India or India to Sri lanka}}</ref> As of now, the only way for tourists to access India from Sri Lanka is by air.
In 2019 negotiations about ferry services between [[Colombo]] and [[Thoothukudi|Tuticorin]] and between [[Talaimannar]] and [[Rameswaram|Rameshwaram]] began. There is also a proposal to operate a cruise/ferry service between Colombo and Kochi in Kerala. The Indian and Sri Lankan governments are working close together to connect the two neighboring countries better.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://hcicolombo.gov.in/speech?id=eyJpdiI6Ik5kWU92YkJJZjhzRlM4TjBweTRtclE9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiNGlDUVVld1pjc0l0QktSSHowU1djdz09IiwibWFjIjoiNTkxYjgzNWFlOTY2YTYyNGJhZjk5ZDYyZjNjYTIxZWJkZjQzNjllZTFiODE4ZjZmN2FmNTZmMmU3YWRlNDUxOCJ9|title = Welcome to High Commission of India, Colombo, Sri Lanka}}</ref>
The Sri Lankan minister of Tourism Development John Amaratunga indicates that a ferry service will help tourists from both sides to travel at a very low cost.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/sri-lanka-pushes-for-resuming-ferry-service-with-india/article29094374.ece|title = Sri Lanka pushes for resuming ferry service with India| date=14 August 2019 }}</ref> India intends to promote increased investments within the economy of Sri Lanka, with a particular focus on pivotal sectors such as energy, tourism, and infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=India to 'encourage greater investments' in crisis-hit Sri Lanka |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/1/20/india-to-encourage-greater-investments-in-crisis-hit-sri-lanka |access-date=2023-08-25 |website=www.aljazeera.com |language=en}}</ref>

== Military relations ==

India and Sri Lanka signed an agreement allowing for the transfer of criminals serving prison sentences in the other country to be repatriated to serve the balance of their sentences in their home country.<ref>{{cite news|title = 11 Welikada prisoners made to wait as India dithers on formalities|date = March 3, 2013|url = http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/11-welikada-prisoners-made-to-wait-as-india-dithers-on-formalities/article4469788.ece|newspaper = The Hindu|access-date = 15 August 2013}}</ref> Sentenced persons from Kerala and Tamil Nadu have been transferred under the agreement from Sri Lanka to India.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.asiantribune.com/node/61799|title = Two Indian Nationals Serving Prison Terms In Sri Lanka Transferred to Kerala|date = 28 February 2013|access-date = 15 August 2013|website = Asian Tribune}}</ref> There are areas of cooperation where people to people contacts are focused. Sri Lanka and India has friendly relations through people's support also. It was seen that [[A. T. Ariyaratne]] in Sri Lanka helped in spreading non-violence and community service activities on Gandhian philosophy. India has reaffirmed its dedication to aiding Sri Lanka in its efforts to recover from its economic turmoil.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Livemint |date=2023-07-09 |title=India plays 'constructive role' in supporting Sri Lanka: Report |url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/india-plays-constructive-role-in-supporting-sri-lanka-recovery-from-economic-crisis-11688885262274.html |access-date=2023-09-21 |website=mint |language=en}}</ref>

=== Alleged RAW interference ===
In 2015, the [[Government of Sri Lanka|Sri Lankan Government]] expelled an Indian [[Research and Analysis Wing|RAW]] intelligence agent for the role played in uniting the opposition for the [[2015 Sri Lankan presidential election|2015 presidential election]].<ref name=Chalmers-Miglani>{{cite news|last1=Chalmers|first1=John|last2=Miglani|first2=Sanjeev|title=Indian spy's role alleged in Sri Lankan president's election defeat|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-sri-lanka-election-india-insight-idUSKBN0KR03020150118|access-date=2 February 2015|work=Reuters|issue=US|date=17 January 2015}}</ref><ref name=Neha-IBT>{{cite news|last1=Singh|first1=Neha|title=Sri Lanka Elections: Was India's RAW Behind Rajapaksa's Defeat?|url=http://www.ibtimes.co.in/sri-lanka-elections-was-indias-raw-behind-rajapaksas-defeat-620739|access-date=2 February 2015|work=International Business Times|date=18 January 2015}}</ref> In October 2018, President Sirisena alleged that the Indian RAW was plotting his assassination. He made this comment in the cabinet meeting, after [[Criminal Investigation Department (Sri Lanka)|CID of Sri Lanka Police]] arrested an Indian national in September for the alleged attempted assassination of Sirisena and former Defence Secretary [[Gotabaya Rajapaksa]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/sri-lankan-president-sirisena-alleges-that-raw-is-plotting-his-assassination/article25241800.ece|title=Sri Lankan President Sirisena alleges that RAW is plotting his assassination|access-date=2018-10-17|language=en}}</ref> After President Sirisena's comment on this, the media reported that the Indian High Commissioner met with the president, and Indian Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi]] had a telephone conversation with the president.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.dailymirror.lk/article/President-phones-PM-Modi-157014.html|title=President phones PM Modi|access-date=2018-10-17|language=en}}</ref>

=== China ===
{{See also|China–India relations|China–Sri Lanka relations}}
In recent years, Sri Lanka has moved closer to China, especially in terms of naval agreements.<ref>K. T. Ganeshalingam and P. Moorthy. "Chinese influence in Sri Lanka on the Ascend: Impact on Indian geo-strategic interest." ''ACADEMICIA: An International Multidisciplinary Research Journal'' (2014) 4#1 pp: 201-210.</ref><ref>[[Saman Kelegama]], "China–Sri Lanka Economic Relations An Overview." ''China Report'' (2014) 50#2 pp: 131-149.</ref> India and Sri Lanka in February 2015 signed a nuclear energy deal to improve relationships. In 2015, recently elected Indian Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi]] in a meeting with recently elected Sri Lankan ex-president [[Maithripala Sirisena]] stated that: "India is Sri Lanka's closest neighbour and friend. Our destinies are interlinked."<ref name="news.yahoo.com" />

Following [[Anura Kumara Dissanayake|Sri Lankan President Anura Kumara Dissanayake’s]] December 2024 visit to India, the two countries began working on a framework agreement on defence cooperation, which will be signed during [[Narendra Modi|Prime Minister Narendra Modi's]] visit in April 2025. This marks the first major defence agreement since India’s 1987-1990 intervention in Sri Lanka, which strained relations. The new agreement includes joint exercises, naval interactions, and enhanced maritime surveillance to counter China’s military presence, particularly at [[Hambantota International Port|Hambantota port]]. Additionally, India has committed to providing defence platforms to strengthen Sri Lanka’s military capabilities.<ref>{{Cite web |title=India, Sri Lanka to sign defence agreement during Modi's visit. What it means |date=29 March 2025 |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/india-lanka-to-ink-key-defencedeal-during-pm-s-visit-next-week-101743186044510.html}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Sri Lankans in India]]
* [[Indians in Sri Lanka]]
* [[List of Indians in Sri Lanka]]
* [[Indian Tamils of Sri Lanka]]
* [[Deputy High Commission of Sri Lanka, Chennai]]
* [[Foreign relations of Sri Lanka]]
* [[Foreign relations of India]]
* [[India–Sri Lanka maritime boundary agreements]]
* [[South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation]] (SAARC)

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Malone, David M., C. Raja Mohan, and Srinath Raghavan, eds. ''The Oxford handbook of Indian foreign policy'' (2015) [https://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Handbook-Indian-Foreign-Policy/dp/0198799063/ excerpt] pp 412–423.
* {{cite book |last=O'Ballance |first=Edgar |title=The cyanide war: Tamil insurrection in Sri Lanka, 1973–88 |year=1989 |publisher=Brassey's |location=[[Dulles, Virginia]] |isbn=978-0-08-036695-1 }}
* {{cite book |last=Rumley |first=Dennis |title=Fisheries Exploitation in the Indian Ocean: Threats and Opportunities |year=2009 |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |location=[[Singapore]] |page=166}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Relations of India and Sri Lanka}}
* [http://overseasindian.in/2007/aug/news/20072208-165357.shtml Common gods, shared values thread India, Sri Lanka together]
* [http://sinhaladic.com/ Sinhala Hindi English Dictionary and Sinhala To Hindi Language Translator]
* [http://www.teluguaspirant.com/india-srilanka-relations-international-relations/308/ India-Sri lanka 2015] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150118085724/http://www.teluguaspirant.com/india-srilanka-relations-international-relations/308/ |date=2015-01-18 }}

{{Foreign relations of India}}
{{Foreign relations of the Sri Lanka}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:India-Sri Lanka relations}}
[[Category:India–Sri Lanka relations| ]]
[[Category:Bilateral relations of India|Sri Lanka]]
[[Category:Bilateral relations of Sri Lanka]]
[[Category:India and the Commonwealth of Nations]]
[[Category:Sri Lanka and the Commonwealth of Nations]]

DigiKavach

2026-02-06T08:48:59Z

Juliaauhm:

{{Short description|Online fraud identification program}}
{{Infobox software
| name = DigiKavach
| screenshot =
| logo =
| caption =
| author = [[Google]]
| developer =
| released = 
| discontinued =
| latest release version =
| latest release date = 
| latest preview version =
| latest preview date = 
| programming language =
| operating system =
| platform =
| size =
| language =
| genre = [[cybersecurity]]
| license =
| website = [https://blog.google/intl/en-in/partnering-indias-success-in-a-new-digital-paradigm/ Google FAQ]
}}
'''DigiKavach''' is an online fraud identification program, designed to prevent online financial fraud in India.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2023-10-19 |title=Google unveils DigiKavach: Here's how Google is shielding your finances against emerging threats |url=https://www.businesstoday.in/technology/news/story/google-unveils-digikavach-heres-how-google-is-shielding-your-finances-against-emerging-threats-402577-2023-10-19 |access-date=2023-10-23 |website=Business Today |language=en}}</ref>

== Background ==
It was launched by [[Google]] in 2023 to protect Indian users from online fraud and to study how scammers operate in India.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-10-19 |title=Google for India 2023: Partnering India's success in a new digital paradigm |url=https://blog.google/intl/en-in/partnering-indias-success-in-a-new-digital-paradigm/ |access-date=2023-10-23 |website=Google |language=en-in}}</ref> Based on this information, Google collaborated to create and put into action measures to counter newly-emerging scams.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-10-19 |title=Google for India: DigiKavach launched to keep internet users safe online |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/gadgets-news/google-for-india-digikavach-launched-to-keep-internet-users-safe-online/articleshow/104551642.cms |access-date=2023-10-23 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

The program involves collaboration with [[Fintech Association for Consumer Empowerment]] (FACE) to protect from unscrupulous fintech and predatory loan-app companies.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-10-19 |title=Google plans new security steps to tackle online scams |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/business/google-plans-new-security-steps-to-tackle-online-scams-101697730887720.html |access-date=2023-10-23 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> Earlier under DigiKavach, Google granted $4 million to [[Cyberpeace Foundation]] to build awareness about digital literacy and online safety in India.<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.ETTelecom.com |title=Google to debut credit in India, announces a slew of AI-powered launches - ET Telecom |url=https://telecom.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/internet/google-to-debut-credit-in-india-announces-a-slew-of-ai-powered-launches/104547623 |access-date=2023-10-23 |website=ETTelecom.com |language=en}}</ref> It works with [[Ministry of Home Affairs (India)|Ministry of Home Affairs]].<ref name=":0" />

=== Implementation ===
The [[Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre]], [[Cyber Crime Helpline]] (1930) and DigiKavach will work together to provide information and support to victims of financial fraud, for a swift response to threats.<ref name=":0" /> Building on its anti-fraud program, DigiKavach, Google intends to introduce its Safety Engineering System by 2025.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-10-03 |title=GPay UPI circle, more languages in Gemini: key takeaways from 'Google for India' |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/tech/technology/gpay-upi-circle-more-languages-in-gemini-key-takeaways-from-google-for-india/articleshow/113908549.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2024-10-03 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Google]]
[[Category:Google India]]
[[Category:Computer security in India]]
[[Category:Cybercrime in India]]
[[Category:2023 establishments in India]]
[[Category:Internet in India]]

{{Google-stub}}

Swastik Sanket

2026-02-05T18:16:08Z

Juliaauhm: Starting new article

{{Short description|2022 Indian Bengali adventure thriller film}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2021}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2021}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Swastik Sanket
| image = Swastik Sanket poster.jpg
| alt =
| caption =
| director = [[Sayantan Ghosal]]
| producer = [[Ashok Dhanuka]]
| writer =
| screenplay = Sougata Basu
| story =
| based_on = ''Narak Sanket'' by Debarati Mukhopadhyay
| starring = [[Nusrat Jahan]] [[Gaurav Chakrabarty]] [[Rudranil Ghosh]] [[Saswata Chatterjee]]
| music = [[Raja Narayan Deb]]
| cinematography = Tuban
| editing = Subhajit Singha
| studio = [[Eskay Movies]]
| distributor = Eskay Movies
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2022|01|21}}
| runtime = 138 minutes
| country = India
| language = Bengali
| budget =
}}
'''''Swastik Sanket''''' is a [[Bengali language|Bengali]]-language [[Adventure film|adventure]] [[thriller film]] directed by [[Sayantan Ghosal]] based on ''Narak Sanket'', novel of Debarati Mukhopadhyay. The film was produced by Talkies Productions and released on 21 January 2022<ref>{{Cite web|title=In pics: Special screening of Swastik Sanket raises the spirit of patriotism {{!}} Indulgexpress|url=https://www.indulgexpress.com/galleries/celebrity/2022/jan/28/in-pics-special-screening-of-swastik-sanket-raises-the-spirit-of-patriotism-1470.html|access-date=2022-02-09|website=indulgexpress.com}}</ref> under the banner of [[Eskay Movies]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Chameli|date=2020-09-02|title=টলিউডের নতুন জুটি গৌরব-নুসরত|url=https://newsfront.co/new-movie-swastik-sanket-coming-soon/|access-date=2022-02-09|website=News Front|language=bn}}</ref>

==Plot==
Rudrani is invited to [[London]] by her publisher to inaugurate the international edition of her book on cryptography. She meets an elusive man Shumaker, who requests her to decrypt puzzles left behind by her grandfather-clues that can lead to a cure for [[Cancer]]. While Rudrani, along with her engineer husband Priyam takes on the challenge, what she doesn't realise is that she getting sucked into a pool of dangerous international conspiracy.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Nusrat Jahan's 'Swastik Sanket' has a release date|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/my-kolkata/lifestyle/nusrat-jahans-swastik-sanket-has-a-release-date/cid/1844157|access-date=2022-02-09|website=www.telegraphindia.com|language=en}}</ref>

In a race against time Rudrani & Priyam must uncover the clues to the antidote of dreaded virus that challenges the very existence of mankind.<ref>{{Cite web|title=First look of an upcoming historical thriller Swastik Sanket|url=https://www.anandabazar.com/entertainment/first-look-of-an-upcoming-historical-thriller-swastik-sanket/cid/1319601|access-date=2022-02-09|website=www.anandabazar.com|language=bn}}</ref>

==Cast==
* [[Nusrat Jahan]] as Rudrani
* [[Gaurav Chakrabarty]] as Priyam<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-09-02|title=সায়ন্তন ঘোষালের 'স্বস্তিক সংকেত'-এ জুটি বাঁধছেন নুসরত-গৌরব|url=https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/nusrat-jahan-to-pair-opposite-gaurav-chakrabarty-in-sayantan-ghoshal-s-next-swastik-sanket-31599029652426.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201001125554/https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/nusrat-jahan-to-pair-opposite-gaurav-chakrabarty-in-sayantan-ghoshal-s-next-swastik-sanket-31599029652426.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 October 2020|access-date=2022-02-09|website=Hindustantimes Bangla|language=bn}}</ref>
* [[Saswata Chatterjee]] as [[Subhas Chandra Bose]]<ref>{{Cite web|last=আনন্দ|first=ওয়েব ডেস্ক, এবিপি|title=নেতাজির লুকে অদেখা ছবি শেয়ার করে 'স্বস্তিক সংকেত' প্রেক্ষাগৃহে দেখার অনুরোধ শাশ্বতর|url=https://bengali.abplive.com/entertainment/swastik-sanket-actor-saswata-chatterjee-shares-an-unseen-photo-from-new-film-swastik-sanket-861320|access-date=2022-02-09|website=ABP Bengali|date=20 January 2022 |language=bn}}</ref>
* [[Shataf Figar]] as Dr. Shumaker
* [[Rudranil Ghosh]] as Subhas Chatterjee
* Selina Youngerman as [[Eva Braun|Eva Brown]]
* Jamie Langlands as Felix
* Michael Lipman as [[Joachim von Ribbentrop|Joachim Von Ribbentrop]]
* Mick Liversidge as Professor Rudolph
* Raj Sengupta as Jimmy
* Birendra Roy as Robironjon Sen
* Jamie Humphrey as Richard
* Daniel Taylor as [[Adolf Hitler]]

==Soundtrack==
{{track listing
| headline = Track listing
| total_length = 3:55
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Ki Khobor
| length1 = 3:55
| extra1 = Dev Arijit & Somlata Acharyya Chowdhury
}}

==References==
{{Portal|Film|India}}
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|13684082}}

[[Category:2022 thriller films]]
[[Category:Bengali-language Indian films]]
[[Category:Indian adventure thriller films]]
[[Category:Films about terrorism in Europe]]
[[Category:Films based on Indian novels]]
[[Category:Films based on thriller novels]]
[[Category:Films directed by Sayantan Ghosal]]
[[Category:2022 films]]
[[Category:Films about Nazis]]
[[Category:Films about Subhas Chandra Bose]]
[[Category:Eskay Movies films]]

Kabui Salang Maiba (Khamba Thoibi)

2026-02-04T13:49:48Z

Juliaauhm: Creating the post more to come - done

{{Contains special characters|Meitei}}
{{About|a character from the [[Khamba Thoibi]] classical epic|other uses|Kabui Salang Maiba (disambiguation){{!}}Kabui Salang Maiba}}

'''Kabui Salang Maiba''' ({{Script|Mtei|ꯀꯕꯨꯏ ꯁꯂꯥꯡ ꯃꯥꯏꯕ}}) was a chief and [[maiba]] medicine man of the [[Kabui]] tribals living in the [[Salangthel]] hills, a region under the influence of the [[Moirang kingdom]] in [[Manipur (princely state)|ancient Manipur]]. He is remembered for his leadership of the Salangthel people, his skills in medicine and healing, and his close association with the [[Khuman]]-[[Moirang]] warrior [[Puremba]] and his family.<ref name=":Gouramani_classical_literature">{{Cite book|title=Khamba Thoibi Ahanba Saruk|url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.467162|date=1963-02-25|first=Kabrambam|last=Gouramani|publisher=Digital Library of India; Internet Archive|year=1963|location=India|language=mni|others=Manipur University Library, Imphal; North Eastern States Libraries}}</ref><ref name=":Loitongbam_classical_literature">{{Cite book|title=Khamba Thoibi|url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.464230|date=1963|first=Loitongbam Kalachand|last=Singh|publisher=Digital Library of India; Internet Archive|year=1963|location=India|language=hi, mni|others=Manipur University Library, Imphal}}</ref><ref name=":Pramodini_classical_literature">{{Cite book|title=Khuman Khamba|url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.466825|date=1992|last=Pramodini|publisher=Digital Library of India; Internet Archive|year=1992|location=India|language=mni|others=Manipur University Library, Imphal; North Eastern States Libraries}}</ref><ref name=":Sarangthem_classical_literature">{{Cite book|title=Moirang Shaion|url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.465120|date=2003|first=Sarangthem|last=Bormani|publisher=Digital Library of India; Internet Archive|year=2003|location=India|language=mni|others=Manipur University Library, Imphal; North Eastern States Libraries}}</ref>

== Leadership and authority ==

Kabui Salang Maiba served as the tribal chief of the Salangthel hills. During his leadership, the Moirang kingdom required the Kabui tribals to pay annual tribute. On several occasions, he attempted to assert independence by resisting tribute collection, often assembling a small army of his men. Despite these efforts, his forces were usually defeated by the larger and better-trained Moirang army. On one occasion, however, he succeeded in withholding the tribute for a year, prompting the Moirang king Chingkhu Telheiba to send his most formidable warrior, Puremba, to enforce compliance.<ref name=":Gouramani_classical_literature" /><ref name=":Loitongbam_classical_literature" /><ref name=":Pramodini_classical_literature" /><ref name=":Sarangthem_classical_literature" />

== Interaction with Puremba ==

Kabui Salang Maiba developed a close personal relationship with Puremba after the warrior demonstrated his extraordinary strength and skill. Puremba lifted a massive rock in the Salangthel region, which the tribesmen could not move collectively, causing them to submit without battle. He also captured a wild bull that had been damaging the crops of the Salangthel hills and brought it back to Moirang. These acts impressed Kabui Salang Maiba and led to a strong friendship between the chief and the warrior.<ref name=":Gouramani_classical_literature" /><ref name=":Loitongbam_classical_literature" /><ref name=":Pramodini_classical_literature" /><ref name=":Sarangthem_classical_literature" />

Kabui Salang Maiba later benefited personally from Puremba’s assistance. When he wished to marry a woman whose father demanded a test of combat for suitors, Puremba defeated the father in a duel and presented the woman to Kabui Salang Maiba, enabling the marriage. This created a lasting bond of trust and loyalty between the chief and Puremba.<ref name=":Gouramani_classical_literature" /><ref name=":Loitongbam_classical_literature" /><ref name=":Pramodini_classical_literature" /><ref name=":Sarangthem_classical_literature" />

== Role in raising Khamnu and Khamba ==

After the death of Puremba and the return of [[Ngangkha Leima]] to heaven, Kabui Salang Maiba, along with his wife Kabui Salang Maibi, took in Puremba’s orphaned children, [[Khamnu]] and [[Khamba]], and raised them until they reached adulthood. Salang Maiba had a personal connection to the children because of his past friendship with Puremba and the help Puremba had provided in his own marriage. Salang Maibi, having no biological children, also cared deeply for the siblings.<ref name=":Gouramani_classical_literature" /><ref name=":Loitongbam_classical_literature" /><ref name=":Pramodini_classical_literature" /><ref name=":Sarangthem_classical_literature" />

Kabui Salang Maiba guided Khamba in training, testing his strength by having him lift the rock that Puremba had thrown in the past, thereby confirming that Khamba had inherited his father’s remarkable abilities. He also provided assistance when the children later returned to Moirang, ensuring their safety and supporting them in their endeavors, such as obtaining gifts and resources for the young Khamba’s interactions with Princess [[Thoibi]].<ref name=":Gouramani_classical_literature" /><ref name=":Loitongbam_classical_literature" /><ref name=":Pramodini_classical_literature" /><ref name=":Sarangthem_classical_literature" />

== Skills and reputation ==

Kabui Salang Maiba was not only a political and tribal leader but also recognized as a medicine man ([[Maiba]]), skilled in healing and spiritual practices. His wisdom and abilities in both leadership and medicine were significant for the welfare of the Salangthel people and for maintaining ties with the Moirang kingdom.<ref name=":Gouramani_classical_literature" /><ref name=":Loitongbam_classical_literature" /><ref name=":Pramodini_classical_literature" /><ref name=":Sarangthem_classical_literature" />

== Legacy ==

Kabui Salang Maiba is remembered as a loyal friend to [[Puremba]] and a protector of his family. Through his care of [[Khamnu]] and [[Khamba]], he played a key role in preserving the [[Khuman dynasty|Khuman lineage]] in [[Moirang]] and contributed to the upbringing of Khamba, who became the hero of the Meitei classical epic [[Khamba Thoibi]]. Alongside his wife, Kabui Salang Maibi, he is celebrated for his dedication to the children of his friend and for his combined role as tribal chief and healer.<ref name=":Gouramani_classical_literature" /><ref name=":Loitongbam_classical_literature" /><ref name=":Pramodini_classical_literature" /><ref name=":Sarangthem_classical_literature" />

== See also ==
* [[Traditional medicine]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Notelist}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Meitei mythology]]
[[Category:Meitei folklore]]

Pondicherry Airport

2026-01-31T16:42:01Z

Juliaauhm: expand intro after review and improved wording after review

{{Short description|Airport in Puducherry, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2025}}
{{Infobox airport
| name = Pondicherry Airport
| image = PNY airside.jpg
| image-width = 250
| caption =
| IATA = PNY
| ICAO = VOPC
| pushpin_map = India Puducherry#India
| pushpin_label = '''PNY'''
| type = Public
| owner = [[Airports Authority of India]]
| operator = Airports Authority of India
| city-served = [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]]
| location = [[Lawspet]], Puducherry, [[India]]
| opened = {{start date and age|1989|||df=y|p=n|br=n}}
| elevation-f = 134
| elevation-m = 41
| coordinates = {{Coord|11|58|00|N|79|48|52|E|type:airport}}
| website = [https://www.aai.aero/en/airports/puducherry Puducherry Airport]
| metric-elev = y
| metric-rwy = y
| r1-number = 07/25
| r1-length-f = 4,500
| r1-length-m = 1,500
| r1-surface = [[Asphalt concrete|Asphalt]]
| stat-year = April 2024 - March 2025
| stat1-header = Passengers
| stat1-data = 34,190 ({{decrease}} 24.8%)
| stat2-header = Aircraft movements
| stat2-data = 1,216 ({{increase}} 49.2%)
| stat3-header = Cargo tonnage
| stat3-data = —
| footnotes = Source: [[Airports Authority of India|AAI]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Annexure III – Passenger Data|url=https://www.aai.aero/sites/default/files/traffic-news/Mar2k25Annex3.pdf|website=aai.aero|access-date=1 May 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Annexure II – Aircraft Movement Data|url=https://www.aai.aero/sites/default/files/traffic-news/Mar2k25Annex2.pdf|website=aai.aero|access-date=1 May 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Annexure IV – Freight Movement Data|url=https://www.aai.aero/sites/default/files/traffic-news/Mar2k25Annex4.pdf|website=aai.aero|access-date=1 May 2025}}</ref>
}}

'''Pondicherry Airport''' {{Airport codes|PNY|VOPC}} is a [[domestic airport]] serving the [[union territory]] of [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]], [[India]]. It is located at [[Lawspet]], situated {{cvt|8.1|km}} from the international community of [[Auroville]]. The airport has scheduled flights and operations of the local flying training school. In 2007, the [[Government of Puducherry]] decided to expand the airport to accommodate larger aircraft and commissioned a new terminal building.<ref name= IBN>{{cite news|title=Flight operations await new terminal |url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/flight-operations-await-new-terminal/256422-60-118.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120513121042/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/flight-operations-await-new-terminal/256422-60-118.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=13 May 2012|publisher=[[IBN Live]] |date= 10 May 2012 |access-date=3 July 2012}}</ref> The new terminal was inaugurated on 18 January 2013, with the arrival of a [[SpiceJet]] flight from [[Kempegowda International Airport|Bangalore]].<ref>{{cite news|title=First flight to Pondicherry from Bangalore on January 17 |website=[[The Hindu]] |date=5 January 2013 |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/states/tamil-nadu/first-flight-to-puducherry-from-bangalore-on-january-17/article4277106.ece |access-date=6 January 2013}}</ref> After a gap of three years, the airport was operationalised again under the [[UDAN]] scheme in August 2017, with daily flights to [[Rajiv Gandhi International Airport|Hyderabad]] and Bangalore.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/puducherry/spicejet-to-operate-daily-flights-between-hyderabad-and-puducherry-starting-august-16/articleshow/59632657.cms|title=SpiceJet to operate daily flights between Hyderabad and Puducherry starting August 16|work=The Times of India|access-date=2017-10-31}}</ref>

On 18 August 2024, [[Minister of Defence (India)|Defence Minister]] [[Rajnath Singh]] inaugurated a [[Indian Coast Guard#Organisation|Coast Guard Air Enclave]] (CGAE) at the airport. A [[HAL Dhruv]] and [[Aérospatiale Alouette III|HAL Chetak]] squadron will be based at the CGAE.<ref>{{Cite news |last= |first= |date=2024-08-18 |title=Rajnath Singh inaugurates new maritime rescue coordination centre in Chennai |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/rajnath-singh-inaugurates-new-maritime-rescue-coordination-centre-in-chennai/article68540170.ece |access-date=2024-08-19 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

== History ==
The airport was constructed in 1989. Between that year and 1991, regional airline [[Vayudoot]] flew to [[Madras]], [[Neyveli]], and [[Bangalore]], however the flights were not successful and all were ended. The airport remained in disuse for the following two decades.<ref name=pondy3jan>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140116064542/http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil_nadu/article1405082.ece SpiceJet announces Pondy flight schedule]. The New Indian Express. 3 January 2013. Retrieved 7 December 2015.</ref>

In June 2007, a [[memorandum of understanding]] (MoU) was signed between the local government and the [[Airports Authority of India]] (AAI) for expansion of the airport. For the first phase, 19.92 hectares of land were acquired at {{Indian Rupee}} 18.95 crore. Then the new terminal was constructed and the runway extended by 260 m (853 ft), allowing for the landing of [[ATR (aircraft manufacturer)|ATR]] aircraft. This phase was completed in late 2012. The second phase of expansion involves acquiring 200 more acres of land to extend the runway by an additional 1,100 m (3,609 ft), allowing larger [[jet aircraft]] to land at the airport.<ref>{{cite news|title=Pondicherry airport to go on stream in October|url=http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2011-09-03/news/30110146_1_pondicherry-airport-runway-lawspet|work=[[The Economic Times]] |date= 3 September 2011 |access-date=3 January 2012}}{{dead link|date=October 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>
The new terminal was inaugurated with the arrival of a [[SpiceJet]] Bombardier Dash 8 Q400 aircraft on 17 January 2013 from [[Bangalore]]. However, this daily service lasted for only a little over one year as the airline withdrew the flight citing low number of passengers.<ref name=pondy3jan /><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/with-last-flight-pondicherry-airport-runs-out-of-steam/article5640023.ece|title=With last flight, Pondicherry airport runs out of steam|author=Jaisankar, C.|date=31 January 2014|work=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=7 December 2015}}</ref> The following year, the airport once again was brought back into operation when [[Air India Regional|Alliance Air]] commenced flights from Bangalore on 14 April 2015, subsidised by the Pondicherry Government. These flights were suspended six months later due to "payment issues".<ref name=alliancesuspension>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/puducherry/puducherrys-flight-services-suspended-temporarily/article7778903.ece |title= Puducherry's flight services suspended temporarily|newspaper= The Hindu|date= 19 October 2015|last1= Philip|first1= Annie}}</ref>

In October 2016, the Pondicherry government signed a Tripartite MoU with the Ministry of Civil Aviation (MoCA) and AAI in New Delhi to operationalise the airport under the Regional Connectivity Scheme.<ref>{{cite news|title=Puducherry Airport To Be Operational From January 2017|url=https://www.ndtv.com/south/puducherry-airport-to-be-operational-from-january-2017-1468727|publisher=[[NDTV]] |date=1 October 2016|access-date=4 September 2018}}</ref> Subsequently, SpiceJet was awarded the Hyderabad-Pondicherry route under the scheme in March 2017<ref>{{cite news|title=SpiceJet awarded six routes under regional connectivity scheme|url=https://ultra.news/t-t/30139/spicejet-awarded-six-routes-regional-connectivity-scheme|publisher=Ultra News |date=30 March 2017|access-date=4 September 2018}}</ref> and the airline commenced operations from 16 August 2017.<ref>{{cite news|title=Puducherry back on aviation map; services to Hyderabad launched|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/puducherry-back-on-aviation-map-services-to-hyderabad-launched-4799226/|work=[[The Indian Express]] |date=16 August 2017|access-date=4 September 2018}}</ref> SpiceJet later resumed its flight to Bangalore from Pondicherry in February 2018.<ref>{{cite news|title=Bangalore-UT flight service resumes|url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-tamilnadu/flight-service-to-bangalore-resumes/article22767470.ece|work=[[The Hindu]] |date=16 February 2018|access-date=4 September 2018}}</ref>

==Structure==

Puducherry Airport has one asphalt runway, oriented 07/25, 1500 m long and 30 m wide. It has a 100 m by 150 m [[Airport ramp|apron]] and its new terminal building can handle 300 passengers during peak hours. Navigational aids at Puducherry include an [[aerodrome beacon]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Airport website |url=http://www.aai.aero/allAirports/pondicherry_technicalinfo.jsp |access-date=3 January 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120102155608/http://www.aai.aero/allAirports/pondicherry_technicalinfo.jsp |archive-date=2 January 2012 }}</ref> Currently land is being acquired to extend the runway and accommodate larger aircraft to increase flight services and open the airport for international flights.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/efforts-on-to-expand-puducherry-airport-runway-cm-narayanasamy/|title=Efforts on to expand Puducherry airport runway: CM Narayanasamy|date=2017-08-03|work=The Indian Express|access-date=2017-10-31|language=en-US}}</ref>

==Airlines and destinations==

{{Airport-dest-list|3rdcoltitle={{Abbr|Refs.|References}}|3rdcolunsortable=yes

|[[IndiGo]] | [[Kempegowda International Airport|Bengaluru]], [[Rajiv Gandhi International Airport|Hyderabad]], [[Rajahmundry Airport|Rajahmundry]] |,<ref>{{cite news|url= https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/puducherry/indigo-to-commence-flight-operations-from-puducherry-on-december-20/article68845674.ece|access-date=9 November 2024 |title=Indigo to commence flight operations from Puducherry on December 20 |newspaper=The Hindu }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Krify|first=Reddy|title=Daily Pondy-Rajahmundry flights commence|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil-nadu/2025/Oct/27/daily-pondy-rajahmundry-flights-commenced-on-sunday-via-hyderabad|work=Times of India|date=27 October 2025|access-date=27 October 2025|language=en}}</ref>
}}

==Demands==
There are also demands to operate direct flight services between Puducherry to [[Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj International Airport|Mumbai]], [[Indira Gandhi International Airport|Delhi]] and [[Manohar International Airport|Goa]].

== Statistics ==
{{Airport-Statistics|iata=PNY}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{commons category-inline|Puducherry Airport}}

* {{GCM|PNY}}
* {{ASN|PNY}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080225073409/http://www.aai.aero/allAirports/pondicherry_generalinfo.jsp Pondicherry Airport] at the [[Airports Authority of India]]

{{Puducherry}}
{{Airports in India}}

{{coord|11|58|00|N|79|48|52|E|type:airport_region:IN|display=title}}

[[Category:Airports in Puducherry]]
[[Category:Transport in Puducherry]]
[[Category:1989 establishments in Pondicherry]]
[[Category:Airports established in 1989]]
[[Category:20th-century architecture in India]]
[[Category:Airports Authority of India]]

Paonta Sahib

2026-01-30T10:31:10Z

Juliaauhm:

{{EngvarB|date=October 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2024}}
{{More citations needed|date=April 2019|section}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Paonta Sahib
| other_name =
| settlement_type = City
| image_skyline = Paonta Sahib City.jpg
| imagesize = 400px
| image_alt =
| image_caption = View of Paonta Sahib from uphill with [[Yamuna]] seen flowing
| nickname =
| image_map =
| map_alt =
| map_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Himachal Pradesh#India
| pushpin_label_position = top
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Himachal Pradesh
| coordinates = {{coord|30.438|N|77.624|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = India
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_type3 = Municipality
| subdivision_name1 = [[Himachal Pradesh]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Sirmaur district|Sirmaur]]
| subdivision_name3 = Sirmaur
| elevation_m = 389
| population_total = 25183<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/PopulationFinder/Population_Finder.aspx |title=Census of India: Population Finder - 2001 |access-date=17 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161113151822/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/PopulationFinder/Population_Finder.aspx |archive-date=13 November 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_footnotes =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_rank = [[List of cities in Himachal Pradesh by population|8 in HP]]
| population_demonym =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Hindi language|Hindi]]
| demographics1_title2 = Native
| demographics1_info2 = [[Sirmauri language|Sirmauri]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Sirmauri language |url=https://www.omniglot.com/writing/sirmauri.htm}}</ref>
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = 
| postal_code = 173025
| registration_plate = HP17
| website =
| footnotes =
}}

'''Paonta Sahib''' is an [[industrial city]] of [[Himachal Pradesh]] in [[India]]. It is located in the south of [[Sirmaur District|Sirmaur district]], on [[National Highway 7 (India)|National Highway 72 (New NH 7)]] in [[Kyarda Doon]] valley. Paonta Sahib is an important place of worship for [[Sikh]]s, hosting a large [[Gurdwara]] named [[Gurudwara Paonta Sahib]], on the banks of the river [[Yamuna]]. The river is the boundary between the states of [[Himachal Pradesh]] and [[Uttarakhand]].

==History==
The town was founded by Sikh Guru [[Guru Gobind Singh Ji|Shri Guru Gobind Singh]] in 1685.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://religions.iloveindia.com/sikh-shrines/gurudwara-paonta-sahib.html|title=Gurudwara Paonta Sahib - History Of Gurudwara Paonta Sahib - How To Reach Gurudwara Paonta Sahib|website=Religions.iloveindia.com|access-date=22 April 2019|archive-date=10 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510065515/http://religions.iloveindia.com/sikh-shrines/gurudwara-paonta-sahib.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Mann |first=Gurinder Singh |title=The Making of Sikh Scripture |date=May 3, 2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780198029878 |pages=9 |chapter=Table 1. Towns Associated with the Sikh Gurus}}</ref> The [[Gurudwara Paonta Sahib]] has linkages to the tenth Sikh Guru, Shri Guru Gobind Singh Ji and the Sikh leader [[Banda Singh Bahadur]]. Its original name was Paontika. In [[Hindi]] language, ''Paon'' means "feet" and ''tika'' means "became stable". It is believed that Shri Guru Gobind Singh Ji and his horse stopped at this place, and he decided to stay here. He lived here for four and a half years, having never stayed so long at any other place in his entire life. He wrote many Sikh religious books during the stay and moved to [[Anandpur Sahib]] to establish the [[Khalsa Panth]]. The Gurudwara houses a museum containing antiques and weapons used by Shri Guru Gobind Singh Ji. Paonta Sahib is the birthplace of [[Ajit Singh (Sikhism)|Sahibzada Ajit Singh Ji]], the eldest son of Shri Guru Gobind Singh Ji. [[File:PaontaSahib.JPG|thumb|Paonta Sahib as seen from Baba Bhure Shah's Dargah on the Uttarakhand Himachal border]]

==Geography==
Paonta Sahib is located at {{Coord|30.438|N|77.624|E|}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fallingrain.com/world/IN/11/Paonta_Sahib.html|title=Maps, Weather, and Airports for Paonta Sahib, India|website=Fallingrain.com|access-date=22 April 2019}}</ref> It has an average elevation of 389 metres (1,276 feet). It is on the bank of the river Yamuna, the river being the boundary between the states of Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand. It is situated near the towns of [[Nahan]] in Himachal Pradesh, and at the border of [[Yamunanagar]] in Haryana, [[Saharanpur]] in [[Western Uttar Pradesh]] and [[Dehradun]] in Uttarakhand. It is on the western extreme of the [[Doon Valley]], which is at a distance of about 44  km from Dehradun. [[Kalesar National Park]] is 12 km from Paonta Sahib. Colonel Sher Jung National Park is around 7 km from the main town. Some luxury hotels to stay in Paonta Sahib are Hotel Guru Surbhi, Hotel Yamuna, and Hotel Paonta Valley.

==Climate==
Paonta Sahib has a [[sub-tropical]] [[continental climate|continental]] [[monsoon]] climate characterised by a seasonal rhythm, hot summers, slightly cold winters, unreliable rainfall and great variation in temperature (1 °C to 40 °C). In winter, frost sometimes occurs during December and January. It also receives occasional winter rains from the western disturbance.

Average temperatures:
* Summer: Temperatures may rise to a maximum of 44 °C. The temperature generally remains 35 °C to 40 °C.
* Autumn: The temperature may go to a maximum of 36 °C. The temperature usually remains between 16 °C and 27 °C in autumn. The lowest temperature may go to 13 °C.
* Winter: Temperatures are cool and sometimes chilly. Average temperature in winters (November to February) remains at (max.) 2 °C to 7 °C and (min.) 0 °C to 5 °C.
* Spring: The climate remains quite pleasant. The temperature remains (max.) 16 °C to 25 °C and (min.) 9 °C to 18 °C.
Paonta Sahib has been ranked 40th best “National Clean Air City” under (Category 3 population under 3 lakhs cities) in India.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 September 2024 |title=Swachh Vayu Sarvekshan 2024 |url=https://prana.cpcb.gov.in/ncapServices/robust/fetchFilesFromDrive/Swachh_Vayu_Survekshan_2024_Result.pdf |website=Swachh Vayu Sarvekshan 2024}}</ref>

==Demographics==
As of the [[2011 Census of India]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2-vol2/data_files/himachal%20pradesh/statement%20%20wise2.6.pdf|title= Distribution of sub-districts by range of rural-urban decadal growth rate of population : Himachal Pradesh, 2001-2011|website=Censusindia.gov.in|access-date=22 April 2019}}</ref> Paonta Sahib had a population of 25,183. Males constitute 53% of the population and females 47%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2-vol2/data_files/himachal%20pradesh/statement%20%20wise5.7.pdf|title=Distribution of sub-districts by range of sex ratio by residence : Himachal Pradesh, 2001 & 2011|website=Censusindia.gov.in|access-date=22 April 2019}}</ref> Paonta Sahib has an average literacy rate of 76%, higher than National average of 74.04% (2011 figure).: male literacy is 79%, and female literacy is 72%. In Paonta Sahib, 13% of the population is under 6 years of age.

Paonta Sahib is a [[municipal council]] which has 13 wards. This council looks after the development of the city, maintenance of roads, streets, cleanliness etc. The election takes place every five years to elect ward members and a chairman.

The Paonta Sahib tehsil comprises 141 villages, among which [[Bain Kuan]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Villages & Towns in Paonta Sahib Tehsil of Sirmaur, Himachal Pradesh |url=https://www.census2011.co.in/data/subdistrict/173-paonta-sahib-sirmaur-himachal-pradesh.html |access-date=2024-07-08 |website=www.census2011.co.in}}</ref>

{{bar box
|width = 300px
|barwidth = 250px
|cellpadding="0"
|title=Religion in Paonta Sahib
|left1=Religion
|right1=Percent
|float=right
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[Hinduism]]|#FF6600|78.63}}
{{bar percent|[[Sikhism]]|#FFFF00|15.01}}
{{bar percent|[[Islam]]|#009000|5.04}}
{{bar percent|[[Christianity]]|#9955BB|0.29}}
{{bar percent|Others|#9955BB|1.01}}
}}

==Industries==
Major industries are cement ([[Cement Corporation of India]] in [[Rajban]]), power generation - renewable energy ([[Power Group]]), aviation ([[Air Himalayas]]), pharmaceutical ([[Sun Pharmaceutical]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Manufacturing - Sun Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd.|url=http://www.sunpharma.com/operations/manufacturing|access-date=22 April 2019|website=Sunpharma.com|archive-date=2 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160302154246/http://www.sunpharma.com/operations/manufacturing|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Mankind Pharma Limited]]), textiles, and chemicals. Apart from these, Asia's biggest limestone market<ref>[http://forestsclearance.nic.in/writereaddata/FormA/Justification/81111281217R8USLJustificationForLocatingTheProject.pdf Justification for Locating the Project | NIC]</ref> is located at Sataun.
Apart, Pharma Industry includes Tirupati Medicare Limited, Tirupati Life Sciences Pvt. Ltd., Tirupati Wellness Pvt. Ltd. and Pontika Aerotech Limited, all 4 are part of 'The Tirupati Group' in Paonta Sahib on Nahan Road.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{cite web|url=http://www.himachalpr.gov.in/pressreleaseEng.asp?id=3078|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721160001/http://www.himachalpr.gov.in/pressreleaseEng.asp?id=3078|url-status=dead|archive-date=21 July 2011|title=Department of Information & Public Relations, Himachal Pradesh|date=21 July 2011|access-date=22 April 2019}}
*{{cite web|url=https://hpsirmaur.nic.in/|title=District Sirmaur, Government of Himachal Pradesh - Dev Bhoomi|website=Hpsirmaur.nic.in|access-date=22 April 2019}}

[[Category:Cities and towns in Sirmaur district]]
[[Category:Sikh places]]

Free-ranging dog issue of Kerala

2026-01-28T12:53:10Z

Juliaauhm:

{{Short description|Controversy around population control of stray dogs}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2019}}
[[Free-ranging dogs]] have become a [[public health]] issue in the state of [[Kerala]] in [[India]]. Two people died from [[dog attacks]] in 2016, and many have been injured. Efforts to control the population have created conflicts between Indian advocates of public safety and opponents of [[animal cruelty]], and caused international backlash including calls for a boycott of [[tourism]] to Kerala.

==Incidents==
A large number of women and children have been attacked by stray dogs in the coastal belts of Kerala.{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}} According to a report submitted in the [[Supreme Court of India]], more than hundred thousand people were attacked by stray dogs in the year of 2015-16{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}. The stray dog population of Kerala is estimated to be about two hundred and fifty thousand{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}. The growth in the number of free-ranging dogs is because of chicken waste dumped from restaurants all over the state without cleanliness{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}. 5,948 people were bitten by street dogs in [[Thiruvananthapuram]] district last year and 4,916 people were affected in [[Palakkad]] district. The statistics are similar in the other 12 districts of Kerala.<ref name="PTI 2016">{{cite web | title=Kerala: More than 100 stray dogs attack and kill 65-year-old woman | website=Firstpost | date=20 August 2016 | url=http://www.firstpost.com/india/kerala-more-than-100-stray-dogs-attack-and-kill-65-year-old-woman-2967274.html | access-date=19 September 2016}}</ref>

===Arrest of social worker===
In 2016, a worker from [[Cochin]] called Jose Maveli was arrested for killing street dogs in large number.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Kochi/Subsidised-air-guns-case-against-Jose-Maveli/article15477434.ece|title=Subsidised air guns: case against Jose Maveli|date=9 October 2016|access-date=12 February 2019|website=Thehindu.com}}</ref> It was reported that Maveli killed about 25 stray dogs in Chengamanad panchayath of [[Ernakulam]] district.<ref name="Mathrubhumi 2016">{{cite web | title=Culling of stray dogs: Jose Maveli arrested | website=Mathrubhumi | date=19 September 2016 | url=http://english.mathrubhumi.com/news/kerala/culling-of-stray-dogs-jose-maveli-arrested-english-news-1.1365429 | access-date=19 September 2016}}</ref> In December 2016, Jose Maveli was asked by the Supreme Court of India to appear before it.

===Death in [[Varkala]]===
In October, 2016, a 90-year-old man was killed in Varkala by the attack from a pack of street dogs. The old man was sleeping on the veranda of his house when a group of dogs attacked him.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mathrubhumi.com/news/kerala/stray-dog-attack-malayalam-news-1.1455556|title=തെരുവുനായ ആക്രമണം: ചികിത്സയിലായിരുന്ന വൃദ്ധന്‍ മരിച്ചു|website=Mathrubhumi|access-date=12 February 2019}}</ref> The angry people killed more than 90 dogs in the locality on the following day of the old man's death.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mathrubhumi.com/news/kerala/street-dogs-killed-varkkala-malayalam-news-1.1458117|title=വര്‍ക്കലയില്‍ തെരുവ് നായ്ക്കളെ കൂട്ടത്തോടെ കൊന്നു|website=Mathrubhumi|access-date=12 February 2019}}</ref>

==Stray Dog Free movement==
[[Kochouseph Chittilappilly]] is the chairman of the Stray Dog Free movement, which advocates action against the risks allegedly posed by stray dogs in Kerala, including the amendment of legislation forbidding the killing of these dogs.<ref name="NDTV.com">{{cite web | title=Kerala's Leading Businessman Goes on Hunger Strike Against Street Dogs | website=NDTV.com | date=2015-10-26 | url=http://www.ndtv.com/kerala-news/keralas-leading-businessman-goes-on-hunger-strike-against-street-dogs-1236253 | access-date=2016-03-05}}</ref> The movement has pointed to the danger of [[rabies]] and referred to stray dogs as a "menace".<ref name="Express"/> Chittilappilly has staged hunger strikes to protest this legislation, and what he claims is governmental failure to address this issue.<ref name="The Hindu">{{cite web | title=A day's strike to tackle stray menace | website=The Hindu | date=2015-10-20 | url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Kochi/a-days-strike-to-tackle-stray-menace/article7782645.ece | access-date=2016-03-05}}</ref><ref name="Times">{{cite web | title=Chittilappilly to stage hunger strike in T'puram | website=The Times of India | date=2016-02-07 | url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/thiruvananthapuram/Chittilappilly-to-stage-hunger-strike-in-Tpuram/articleshow/50886686.cms | access-date=2016-03-05}}</ref> He has stated that the government's actions amount to valuing stray dogs over human lives and property.<ref name="Basheer">{{cite web | last=Basheer | first=KPM | title=A dogged drive against stray dogs | website=The Hindu Business Line | date=2015-10-20 | url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/national/a-dogged-drive-against-stray-dogs/article7784837.ece | access-date=2016-03-05}}</ref> He has encouraged citizens to pressure the government to amend these laws, and to kill stray dogs themselves despite the accompanying 50-[[rupee]] fine.<ref name="Express">{{cite web| title=Chittilappilly Stages Fast Against Stray Dog Menace | website=The New Indian Express | date=2016-03-05 | url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/Chittilappilly-Stages-Fast-Against-Stray-Dog-Menace/2016/02/21/article3288358.ece | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160222095214/http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/Chittilappilly-Stages-Fast-Against-Stray-Dog-Menace/2016/02/21/article3288358.ece | url-status=dead | archive-date=22 February 2016 | access-date=2016-03-05}}</ref><ref name="Mathrubhumi">{{cite web | title=Chittilappilly launches hunger strike over stray dog menace | website=Mathrubhumi | date=2016-02-21 | url=http://english.mathrubhumi.com/news/kerala/chittilappilly-launches-hunger-strike-over-stray-dog-menace-english-news-1.879873 | access-date=2016-03-05}}</ref> Chittilappilly has been arrested under statutes preventing cruelty to animals after tying four stray dogs in front of a police station.<ref name="Times Booked">{{cite web | title=Chittilappilly booked for cruelty against strays | website=The Times of India | date=2015-10-20 | url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/Chittilappilly-booked-for-cruelty-against-strays/articleshow/49462105.cms | access-date=2016-03-05}}</ref>

==Boycott Kerala Tourism campaign==
Governmental plans to cull stray dogs have prompted an international campaign to "Boycott Kerala Tourism" in protest.<ref name="NDTV.com"/><ref name="Mohan 2015">{{cite web | last=Mohan | first=Neethu | title=Stray dogs culling: Boycott Kerala campaign gains momentum | website=www.oneindia.com | date=2015-07-14 | url=http://www.oneindia.com/india/stray-dogs-culling-boycott-kerala-campaign-gains-momentum-1806273.html | access-date=2016-03-05}}</ref><ref name="BBC 2015">{{cite web| title=How far will India's dog-lovers go to save strays? | website=BBC News | date=2015-08-10 | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-trending-33822511 | access-date=2016-03-05}}</ref> Opponents of the Stray Dog Free movement have argued that [[Rabies vaccine#Other animals|vaccination]] and [[spay/neuter]] campaigns are a more effective and humane method of controlling the stray dog population. Members of the Stray Dog Free movement have alleged that opposition is being funded by [[rabies vaccine]] manufacturers.<ref name="Ajeesh">{{cite news |work=Prokerala | last=Ajeesh | first=A. | title=NGOs opposing culling of stray dogs financed by anti-rabies vaccine lobby: Collector Biju Prabhakar |date=2016-02-20}}</ref>

==Union government position==
Union minister [[Menaka Gandhi]] has criticized the state government of Kerala for trying to kill stray dogs illegally.<ref name="Karindalam 2016">{{cite web | last=Karindalam | first=Anirudha | title='What has Kerala achieved by killing strays?' | website=theweek.in | date=21 August 2016 | url=http://www.theweek.in/news/india/what-has-kerala-achieved-by-killing-stray-dogs-asks-maneka-gandhi.html | access-date=19 September 2016}}</ref>

==State government position==
Kerala's minister [[K.T. Jaleel]] stated that the government will cull all the stray dogs before 2019 with the help of the local bodies. The chief minister of Kerala, however, did not support such a mass level of culling.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/It-is-a-question-that-dogs-beleaguered-Kerala-to-kill-or-not-to-kill/article14594665.ece|title=It is a question that dogs beleaguered Kerala: to kill or not to kill|first=K. S.|last=Sudhi|date=28 August 2016|access-date=12 February 2019|website=Thehindu.com}}</ref><ref name="India 2016">{{cite news| title=Kerala to cull violent stray dogs | newspaper=[[The Indian Express]] | date=23 August 2016 | url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/kerala-to-cull-violent-stray-dogs-2992701/ | access-date=20 September 2016}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Feral dogs]]
[[Category:Health in Kerala]]

Kingdom of Maryul

2026-01-09T15:02:54Z

Juliaauhm: Creating a details v1

{{short description|Medieval kingdom in Ladakh}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{Infobox former country
| image_map = {{Location map+
|South Asia
|float = center
|width = 290
|caption =
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|mini = 1
|border=none
|relief=yes
|places =
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| map_caption = {{center|Location of Maryul and neighbouring polities in the early 1000s.}}
| conventional_long_name = Maryul མར་ཡུལ།
| common_name = མར་ཡུལ།
| government_type = Monarchy
| capital = [[Shey]]
| year_start = {{circa|930}}
| year_end = 1842
| religion = Tibetan Buddhism
| p1 = Era of Fragmentation
| s1 = Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)
| leader1 = [[Lhachen Palgyigon]] ''(first)''
| year_leader1 = {{circa|930}}–{{circa|960}}
| today = [[China]] [[India]] [[Pakistan]]
}}

'''Maryul''' ({{Langx|bft|མར་ཡུལ།|label=[[Ladakhi language|Ladakhi]]}}), also called ''mar-yul'' of ''mnga'-ris'',<ref>{{harvp|Fisher, Rose & Huttenback, Himalayan Battleground|1963|p=19}}: "''Mar-yul'' (literally "lower land") is the common Tibetan name for the Leh district in Ladakh. ''Mngah-ris'' (''Mnga-ris''), although now restricted to West Tibet, then referred to the entire territory between the Zoji and Mayum passes."</ref>{{sfnp|Petech, The Kingdom of Ladakh|1977|}} was the western-most [[Tibetan people|Tibetan]] kingdom based in modern-day [[Ladakh]] and some parts of [[Tibet Autonomous Region|Tibet]]. The kingdom had its capital at [[Shey]].{{sfnp|Fisher, Rose & Huttenback, Himalayan Battleground|1963|pp=18–19}}<ref>{{harvp|Dorjay, Embedded in Stone|2014|p=53}}: "Shey, about 15 km southeast of Leh, was an ancient capital of Ladakh. In the tenth century CE the first king of Ladakh, ''lHa chen dPal gyi mgon'', apparently constructed the hilltop fortress whose ruins can be seen above the present Shey Palace. Shey possesses a number of early Buddhist rock sculptures, many of which are about a metre in height."</ref><ref>{{harvp|Howard & Howard, Historic Ruins in the Gya Valley|2014|p=88}}: From the diary of [[Mirza Haidar Dughlat]]: "The ''Chui'' [''Jo'' plural, i.e. rulers] of Maryul, named Tashikun and Lata Jughdan, ...... gave us the castle of ''Sheya'' [Shey] which is the capital of Maryul [to live in during the winter]"</ref>

The kingdom was founded by [[Lhachen Palgyigon]], during the rule of his father [[Kyide Nyimagon]], in {{circa|930}}.<ref name="Petech-17">{{harvp|Petech, The Kingdom of Ladakh|1977|p=17}}: "it seems that his father bequeathed him a theoretical right of sovereignty, but the actual conquest was effected by dPal-gyi-mgon himself."</ref> It stretched from the [[Zoji La]] at the border of [[Kashmir]] to [[Demchok (historical village)|Demchok]] in the southeast, and included [[Rutog County|Rudok]] and other areas presently in Tibet.<ref>{{harvp|Fisher, Rose & Huttenback, Himalayan Battleground|1963|p=19}}: "The Ladakhi chronicles state that the eldest son, Pal-gyi-gön (''Dpal-gyi-mgon''), received Ladakh and the Rudok area;..."</ref>{{sfnp|Francke, Antiquities of Indian Tibet|1992|p=94}} The kingdom came under the control of the [[Namgyal dynasty of Ladakh|Namgyal dynasty]] in 1460, eventually acquiring the name "Ladakh", and lasted until 1842. In that year, the [[Dogra State|Dogra]] general [[Zorawar Singh Kahluria|Zorawar Singh]], having conquered it, made it part of the would-be princely state of [[Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)|Jammu and Kashmir]].

== Etymology ==
''Mar-yul'' has been interpreted in [[Classical Tibetan|Tibetan]] sources as lowland (of Ngari),.<ref>{{citation |last=Strachey |first=Capt. H. |chapter=Physical Geography of Western Tibet |publisher=Royal Geographical Society (Great Britain) |title=The Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, Volume 23 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ASo7AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA13 |year=1853 |page=13}}: "''Maryul'' signifies in Tibetan the Low Country, a term appropriate to the character of its inhabited valleys as contrasted with ''Nari-Khorsum''"</ref> Scholars suspect that it was a proper name that was in use earlier, even before Ladakh was Tibetanised. For instance, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim [[Xuanzang]] referred to it as ''Mo-lo-so'', which would lead to a reconstructed name such as ''*Malasa'', ''*Marāsa'', or ''*Mrāsa''.{{sfnp|Petech, The Kingdom of Ladakh|1977|pp=7–8}}{{sfnp|Howard & Howard, Historic Ruins in the Gya Valley|2014|p=86}} The ''Annals'' of Tun‐Huang state that the Tibetan government carried out a census of [[Zan-zun]] and ''Mar(d)'' in 719 CE.{{sfnp|Petech, The Kingdom of Ladakh|1977|p=8}} The Persian text ''[[Hudud al-Alam]]'' ({{circa|982}}) refers to a "wealthy country of Tibet", with a tribe named ''Mayul''.{{sfnp|Howard & Howard, Historic Ruins in the Gya Valley|2014|pp=86–87}} These facts suggest that ''Mar-yul'' ("land of ''Mar''") might have been a proper name of the country.

The name was in use at least until the 16th century. [[Mirza Haidar Dughlat]] referred to it as Maryul and named a region called "Ladaks" that was apparently distinct from Maryul.{{sfnp|Howard & Howard, Historic Ruins in the Gya Valley|2014|p=88}} It was also used by the Portuguese [[Jesuit missionary]] Francisco de Azevedo when he visited Ladakh in 1631, but his usage of the name has been described by [[Luciano Petech]] as referring to neither the Kingdom of Ladakh nor Rudok.{{sfnp|Petech, The Kingdom of Ladakh|1977|pp=54}}

The newer name ''La-dwags'' {{Bo-textonly|ལ་དྭགས}} (historically transliterated as ''La-dvags'') means "land of high passes". ''Ladak'' is its pronunciation in several Tibetan districts, and ''Ladakh'' is a transliteration of the [[Persian language|Persian]] spelling.<ref>"Ladakh, the Persian transliteration of the Tibetan La-dvags, is warranted by the pronunciation of the word in several Tibetan districts." Francke(1926) Vol. I, p. 93, notes.</ref>

== Background ==
[[File:Era of Fragmentation in Tibet.png|thumb|right|300px|Maryul in the fragmented Tibetan Empire {{circa|900}}]]
Upon the assassination of emperor [[Langdarma]] in {{circa|842}}, the Tibetan empire became fragmented over a succession dispute that would linger for centuries. By the late ninth century, one of his grandsons, Depal Khortsen, was controlling most of Central Tibet. Upon his assassination, one of his sons, [[Kyide Nyimagon]] ({{bo|w=sKyid-lde Nyi-ma-mgon}}), made it to West Tibet — the causes are disputed.{{original research inline|date=July 2022}}

Nyimagon entered into a marital alliance with a high-nobility of [[Burang County|Purang]] and established his kingdom, stretching from the [[Mayum La]] in the east to the [[Zoji La]] in the west. Upon his death {{circa|930}}, his vast kingdom was divided among his three sons: the eldest son, Lhachen Palgyigon, receiving Maryul, the second son, Trashigon, receiving [[Guge–Purang Kingdom|Guge and Purang]], and the third son, Detsukgon, receiving [[Zanskar]] (mountainous area between Ladakh and Kashmir).{{efn|The Tibetan names of the three sons in [[Wylie transliteration]] are: Lhachen Palgyigon (''lHa-chen dPal-gyi-mgon''), Trashigon (''bKra-shis-mgon'') and Detsukgon (''lDe-gtsug-mgon''). The three sons together were referred to as three ''sTodmgon''.{{sfnp|Powers & Templeman, Historical Dictionary of Tibet|2012|p=27}}{{sfnp|Petech, The Kingdom of Ladakh|1977|p=17}}}}{{sfnp|Fisher, Rose & Huttenback, Himalayan Battleground|1963|pp=18–19}}

Thus, the Kingdom of Maryul was founded by [[Lhachen Palgyigon]] (''dPal-gyi-mgon'') when he was still a prince.<ref name="Petech-17" />

== Description ==
[[File:Empire of King Nyimagon with three divisions about 975 .- 1000 CE.png|thumb|300px|Nyimagon's kingdom ({{circa|975}}) depicted by [[August Hermann Francke (Tibetologist)|A. H. Francke]], with Maryul and [[Guge]] shown together, and [[Zanskar]] separate.]]
The kingdom of Maryul is described in the ''Ladakh Chronicles'' ([[August Hermann Francke|Francke]]'s translation) to consist of:{{sfnp|Fisher, Rose & Huttenback, Himalayan Battleground|1963|loc=[https://archive.org/details/himalayanbattleg0000unse/page/19/mode/1up p.19]}}{{sfnp|Howard & Howard, Historic Ruins in the Gya Valley|2014|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=CJCfAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA83 p. 83]}}{{efn|In 1968, Zahiruddin Ahmad gave a revised translation, by which he suggested that all the places mentioned in the text were on the frontier of Maryul.<ref name=Ahmad/> His revisions have not been generally accepted by modern scholars.{{sfnp|Howard & Howard, Historic Ruins in the Gya Valley|2014|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=CJCfAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA84 p. 84]}}}}
* ''Mar-yul'' of ''mNah-ris'' (Leh district), the inhabitants using the black bows; ''Ru-thogs'' ([[Rutog County|Rudok]]) of the east and the gold mine of ''hGog'' (possibly [[Thok Jalung]]); nearer this way ''lDe-mchog-dkar-po'' ([[Demchok Karpo]]);{{efn|"Demchok Karpo" is identified by most scholars as the village of Demchok at the southern border between Ladakh and Tibet. The literal meanings are as follows: ''Karpo'' means white in Tibetan. It also has figurative meanings such as pure, wholesome, positive, good etc.<ref>[http://dictionary.thlib.org/internal_definitions/public_term/24269 dkar po] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191021192257/http://dictionary.thlib.org/internal_definitions/public_term/24269 |date=21 October 2019 }}, Tibetan & Himalayan Library, retrieved 21 October 2019.</ref> ''Demchok'' is the Tibetan name of the [[Vajrayana]] Buddhist deity [[Chakrasamvara]], who is believed to reside at Mount [[Kailas]] along with his consort Vajravarahi. The association with the Mount Kailas may be later than the 10th century. The tradition states that Demchok defeated ''[[Shiva|Mahesvara]]'' and took his place on top of ''[[Sumeru]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last=McKay |first=Alex |title=Kailas Histories: Renunciate Traditions and the Construction of Himalayan Sacred Geography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l3HsCgAAQBAJ |year=2015 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-30618-9 |pages=5, 304–305, 316}}</ref>}}
* at the frontier:
** ''Ra-ba-dmar-po'' (possibly near Rabma, which lies halfway between [[Spanggur Lake|Spanggur]] and [[Rudok]]);{{sfnp|Ahmad, The Ancient Frontier of Ladakh|1960|p=315}}{{efn|Rabma was marked by [[Henry Strachey (explorer)|Henry Strachey]] at approximately {{coord|33.3740|N|79.2935|E|name=Rabma}} on a stream, which came down from the Kailash Range and joined the Tangre Chu river before draining into [[Spanggur Tso]]. A map compiled in 2009 by an amateur cartographer notes the source of this stream (unnamed) to be below a pass called 'Rabmar La' ({{coord|33.1936|N|79.3009|E|name=Rabmar La}}), which laid on the erstwhile boundary between [[Rutog County]] and [[Sengge Zangbo County]].<ref>[http://www.tibetmap.com/3379o150.jpg Map 3379], [http://www.tibetmap.com/brtext.html Maps of Tibet], Claude Andre of The Tibet Map Institute, July 2009.</ref> (The boundary has now been changed under the Chinese administration.)}}
** ''Wam-le'' ([[Hanle (village)|Hanle]]), to the top of the pass of the ''Yi-mig'' rock (Imis Pass);
** to the west to the foot of the Kashmir pass ([[Zoji La]]), from the cavernous stone upward hither,
** to the north to the gold mine of ''hGog'';
** all the places belonging to ''rGya'' ([[Gya, Leh|Gya]], on the way from Leh to [[Rupshu]]).
The description makes clear that [[Purig]] (the [[Suru River (Indus)|Suru River]] basin near present-day [[Kargil]]) was included in Maryul, but [[Zanskar]] to the west was not. The latter went to the third son [[Detsukgon]] along with [[Lahul and Spiti]]. The Rupshu highland was regarded as the frontier between Maryul and Zanskar.{{sfnp|Fisher, Rose & Huttenback, Himalayan Battleground|1963|p=19}} [[Baltistan]] to the north was also not included in Maryul.{{sfnp|Howard & Howard, Historic Ruins in the Gya Valley|2014|p=86}}

The southern border of Maryul towards [[Guge]] is much harder to discern. [[August Hermann Francke (Tibetologist)|A. H. Francke]] believed that the second heir [[Tashigon]] received "a long and narrow strip of country along the northern slope of the Himalayas, of which Purang and Guge are the best-known provinces". Maryul encompassed all the areas to the north of this narrow strip.{{sfnp|Francke, A History of Western Tibet|1907|p=63}}{{efn|Francke's map, reproduced at the top of this page, shows this kind of a border, running slightly to the north of [[Gartok]].{{sfnp|Francke, A History of Western Tibet|1907|pp=60–61}}}} This view is not favoured by other scholars. [[Luciano Petech]] opined that Palgyigon received the territories that he himself conquered, whereas the paternal territory was divided among the other two sons.{{sfnp|Petech, The Kingdom of Ladakh|1977|p=17}} He also favoured Zahidurddin Ahmad's revised translation of the text from Ladakh Chronicles, which states that all the places mentioned in the description lie on the frontier of Maryul, including Demchok Karpo and Raba Marpo.<ref name=Ahmad>{{citation |last=Ahmad |first=Zahiruddin |title=New Light on the Tibet-Ladakh-Mughal War of 1679-84 |journal=East and West |volume=18 |number=3/4 |date=September–December 1968 |pages=340–341 |publisher=Istituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente (IsIAO) |jstor=29755343}}</ref>

==First dynasty (930–1460)==
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=500|caption_align=center
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| image1 = Thiksey Monastery, Ladakh (14663800961).jpg
| caption1 = [[Shey Monastery|Shey Palace]], residence of the rulers of the Kingdom of Maryul.
| image2 = Royal drinking scene in the Dukhang at Alchi Monastery, circa 1200 CE.jpg
| caption2 = Royal drinking scene at [[Alchi Monastery]], dated c. 1200 CE.
| footer=
}}
Scholar Luciano Petech says that even though Palgyigon's father theoretically bequeathed Maryul to him, the actual conquest of the territories was carried out by Palgyigon himself, whom Petech identifies as "the founder and organiser of the Ladakhi kingdom".{{sfnp|Petech, The Kingdom of Ladakh|1977|p=17}}

It appears that the second son Trashigon, who inherited Guge, died without issue. His kingdom was acquired by Detsukgon of Zanskar. The latter's son, [[Yeshe-Ö]] became a prominent ruler that reestablished Buddhism in West Tibet and Tibet in general. Maryul, belonging to the senior branch, is believed to have extended some form of suzerainty over the other branches.{{sfnp|Francke, A History of Western Tibet|1907|p=63}}<ref>{{harvp|Fisher, Rose & Huttenback, Himalayan Battleground|1963}}: p. 20: "Francke asserts that the eldest son (i.e., the ruler of Ladakh) was suzerain over his brothers, and that Ladakh thus exercised some form of authority over West Tibet, Zanskar, Spiti, and Lahul." p. 21: "On several occasions expansionist rulers of Ladakh laid claim to West Tibet on the basis of past association, but there are no recorded instances in which the reverse occurred."</ref>

By 1100 AD, the kingdom of Guge was sufficiently weakened that the king [[Lhachen Utpala]] of Maryul brought it under his control. From this time onward, Guge was generally subsidiary to Maryul.{{sfnp|Handa, Buddhist Western Himalaya|2001|pp=130, 224–225}}{{efn|Further conquests were made by Tashi Namgyal ({{reign|c. 1555|c. 1575}}),{{sfnp|Howard & Howard, Historic Ruins in the Gya Valley|2014|pp=89–90}} Tsewang Namgyal I ({{reign|c. 1575|c. 1595}}),{{sfnp|Francke, A History of Western Tibet|1907|p=86}} and [[Sengge Namgyal]] ({{reign|1624|1642}}).{{sfnp|Howard & Howard, Historic Ruins in the Gya Valley|2014|p=90}}}}

After a period of Kashmiri invasions in the mid-15th century, the last king of the west Tibetan dynasty, ''Blo-gros-mc-og-Idan'', reigned from {{circa|1435}} to {{circa|1460}}.{{sfnp|Petech, The Kingdom of Ladakh|1977|p=23}} During his reign, ''Blo-gros-mc-og-Idan'' sent presents to the [[1st Dalai Lama]], patronized the [[Gelug]] scholar ''gSan-p'u-ba Lha dban-blo-gros'', and raided the Kingdom of Guge.{{sfnp|Petech, The Kingdom of Ladakh|1977|p=23–24}} The final years of his reign were disastrous, and he was eventually deposed in 1460, ending his dynasty.{{sfnp|Petech, The Kingdom of Ladakh|1977|p=24}}

== Second dynasty (1460–1842) ==
{{Main|Namgyal dynasty of Ladakh}}
[[File:Leh Palace 2011.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Leh Palace]], built circa 1600 by [[Sengge Namgyal]].]]
In 1460, the [[Namgyal dynasty of Ladakh|Namgyal dynasty]] was established.{{sfnp|Petech, The Kingdom of Ladakh|1977|p=171}} According to the ''Ladakh Chronicles'', the warlike [[Lhachen Bhagan]] formed an alliance with the people of [[Leh]] and dethroned the Maryul king Blo-gros-mc-og-ldan and his brothers drun-pa A-li and Slab-bstan-dar-rgyas.{{sfnp|Petech, The Kingdom of Ladakh|1977|p=25}}

[[Sengge Namgyal]] (r. 1616–1642), the "Lion" King, made efforts to restore Ladakh to its old glory by an ambitious and energetic building program including the [[Leh Palace]] and the rebuilding of several [[gompas]], the most famous of which are [[Hemis]] and [[Hanle Monastery|Hanle]].<ref>{{harvnb|Rizvi, Ladakh|1996|p=69}}</ref>

=== Treaty of Tingmosgang ===
{{Further|Ladakh Chronicles#Treaty of Tingmosgang}}
Guge was annexed by Ladakh in the second quarter of the 17th century. This invited retaliation from Lhasa, whose forces drove out the Ladakhis and laid siege to Ladakh itself.{{sfnp|McKay, History of Tibet, Vol. 2|2003|p=3}} Ladakh was forced to seek help from the [[Mughal Empire]] in Kashmir, leading to the [[Tibet–Ladakh–Mughal War]]. At the end of the conflict, in 1684, the [[Treaty of Tingmosgang]] was agreed, affirming that:
{{Cquote|The boundaries fixed, in the beginning, when king Skyed-lda-ngeema-gon [Nyimagon] gave a kingdom to each of his three sons shall still be maintained.{{sfnp|McKay, History of Tibet, Vol. 2|2003|p=785}}}}
Despite the apparent invocation of the "boundaries fixed in the beginning", the extensive dominions granted in the original inheritance were not retained by Maryul. The treaty itself makes clear that Rudok was no more a part of Maryul and various restrictions were placed on trade with Rudok. Scholar Gerhard Emmer states that Ladakh was reduced to approximately its current extent. It was henceforth treated as being outside Ngari Khorsum, as a buffer state against Mughal India. The territories of Guge, Purang and Rudok were annexed to Tibet and the frontier with Tibet was fixed at the [[Lhari stream|Lha-ri stream]] near Demchok.{{sfnp|Emmer, the Tibet-Ladakh-Mughal War|2007|pp=99–100}}<ref>{{citation |first=Nawang Tsering |last=Shakspo |chapter=The Foremost Teachers of the Kings of Ladakh |editor1=Martijn van Beek |editor2=Kristoffer Brix Bertelsen |editor3=Poul Pedersen |title=Recent Research on Ladakh 8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HjBuAAAAMAAJ |year=1999 |publisher=Aarhus University Press |isbn=978-87-7288-791-3 |page=288}}</ref> The reason for this exclusion was apparently Ladakh's syncretism and its willingness to ally with Mughal India. Ladakh was instructed in the treaty:{{sfnp|Emmer, the Tibet-Ladakh-Mughal War|2007|pp=92, 100}}
{{Cquote|to keep watch at the frontier of Buddhist and non-Buddhist peoples, and out of regard for the doctrine of Buddha ... not allow any army from India to proceed to an attack [upon Tibet].{{sfnp|Francke, Antiquities of Indian Tibet|1992|p=116}}}}

===Dogra–Tibetan War===
{{Main|Dogra–Tibetan War}}
The Namgyal dynasty ended in 1842 after an invasion of Ladakh from the [[Dogra dynasty]] of [[Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)|Jammu and Kashmir]].{{sfnp|Petech, The Kingdom of Ladakh|1977|pp=1, 138–170}}

A historical claim was again made in the 19th century, after the [[Dogras|Dogra]] general [[Zorawar Singh Kahluria|Zorawar Singh]] conquered Ladakh. Singh claimed all of western Tibet up to the Mayum Pass as Ladakhi territory and occupied it.<ref>{{harvp|Fisher, Rose & Huttenback, Himalayan Battleground|1963|p=50}}: "Zorawar Singh then announced his intention to conquer in the name of the Jammu Raja all of Tibet west of the Mayum Pass, on the ground that this territory had rightfully belonged, since ancient times, to the ruler of Ladakh."</ref> Once again, Lhasa dispatched troops that defeated Zorawar Singh and laid siege to Leh. After the Dogras received reinforcements, a stalemate was obtained and the [[Treaty of Chushul]] reconfirmed the "old, established frontiers".{{sfnp|Fisher, Rose & Huttenback, Himalayan Battleground|1963|pp=55–56}}

== See also ==
*[[History of Ladakh]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
* {{citation |last=Ahmad |first=Zahiruddin |title=The Ancient Frontier of Ladakh |journal=The World Today |date=July 1960 |volume=16 |number=7 |pages=313–318 |jstor=40393242 |ref={{sfnref|Ahmad, The Ancient Frontier of Ladakh|1960}}}}
* {{citation |first=Gerhard |last=Emmer |chapter=Dga' Ldan Tshe Dbang Dpal Bzang Po and the Tibet-Ladakh-Mugha1 War of 1679-84 |title=Proceedings of the Tenth Seminar of the IATS, 2003. Volume 9: The Mongolia-Tibet Interface: Opening New Research Terrains in Inner Asia |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GPKvCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA95 |date= 2007 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-474-2171-9 |pages=81–108 |ref={{sfnref|Emmer, the Tibet-Ladakh-Mughal War|2007}}}}
* {{citation |last1=Fisher |first1=Margaret W. |last2=Rose |first2=Leo E. |last3=Huttenback |first3=Robert A. |title=Himalayan Battleground: Sino-Indian Rivalry in Ladakh |date=1963 |publisher=Praeger |url=https://archive.org/details/himalayanbattleg0000unse/mode/2up |via=archive.org |url-access=registration |ref={{sfnref|Fisher, Rose & Huttenback, Himalayan Battleground|1963}}}}
* {{citation |last=Francke |first=August Hermann |author-link=August Hermann Francke (Tibetologist) |title=A History of Western Tibet |publisher=S. W. Partridge & Co |date=1907 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofwestern00ahfr/page/n6 |via=archive.org |ref={{sfnref|Francke, A History of Western Tibet|1907}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Francke |first=August Hermann |title=Antiquities of Indian Tibet |work=Volume 38; Volume 50 of New imperial series |publisher=[[Asian Educational Services]] |page=94 |year=1992 |orig-year=first published 1926 |isbn=81-206-0769-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WG4J4IKd014C |ref={{sfnref|Francke, Antiquities of Indian Tibet|1992}}}}
* {{citation |last1=Handa |first1=O. C. |title=Buddhist Western Himalaya: A politico-religious history |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R4VuovXa5YUC&pg=PA130 |year=2001 |publisher=Indus Publishing |isbn=978-81-7387-124-5 |ref={{sfnref|Handa, Buddhist Western Himalaya|2001}}}}
* {{citation |editor1-first=Erberto |editor1-last=Lo Bue |editor2-first=John |editor2-last=Bray |chapter=Introduction |title=Art and Architecture in Ladakh: Cross-cultural Transmissions in the Himalayas and Karakoram |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CJCfAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 |year=2014 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-27180-7 |ref={{sfnref|Lo Bue & Bray, Art and Architecture in Ladakh|2014}}}}
** {{citation |first=Phuntsog |last=Dorjay |chapter=Embedded in Stone—Early Buddhist Rock Art of Ladakh |title=Ibid |year=2014 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CJCfAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA35 |pages=35–67 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789004271807 |ref={{sfnref|Dorjay, Embedded in Stone|2014}}}}
** {{citation |last1=Howard |first1=Neil |last2=Howard |first2=Kath |chapter=Historic Ruins in the Gya Valley, Eastern Ladakh, and a Consideration of Their Relationship to the History of Ladakh and Maryul |title=Ibid |year=2014 |pages=68–99 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789004271807 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CJCfAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA68 |ref={{sfnref|Howard & Howard, Historic Ruins in the Gya Valley|2014}}}}
* {{citation |last=McKay |first=Alex |title=History of Tibet, Volume 2: The Medieval Period: c.850-1895 |year=2003 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0-415-30843-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/thehistoryoftibetvol2alexmckay_151_d |via=archive.org |ref={{sfnref|McKay, History of Tibet, Vol. 2|2003}}}}
* {{citation |last=Petech |first=Luciano |author-link=Luciano Petech |title=The Kingdom of Ladakh, c. 950–1842 A.D. |publisher=Instituto Italiano Per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente |year=1977 |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.pahar.3498 |via=archive.org |ref={{sfnref|Petech, The Kingdom of Ladakh|1977}}}}
* {{citation |last1=Powers |first1=John |last2=Templeman |first2=David |title=Historical Dictionary of Tibet |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LVlyX6iSDEQC&pg=PA749 |year=2012 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-7984-3 |ref={{sfnref|Powers & Templeman, Historical Dictionary of Tibet|2012}}}}
* {{citation |last=Rizvi |first=Janet |title=Ladakh: Crossroads of High Asia |edition=Second |year=1996 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Delhi |isbn=0-19-564546-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xoluAAAAMAAJ |ref={{sfnref|Rizvi, Ladakh|1996}}}}

[[Category:History of Ladakh]]
[[Category:History of Gilgit-Baltistan]]
[[Category:Former kingdoms in Tibet]]
[[Category:930 establishments]]
[[Category:1842 disestablishments in Asia]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1842]]

Jai Srinivas

2026-01-08T00:35:17Z

Juliaauhm: Creating a post basic info

{{Short description|Indian playback singer (died 2021)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2025}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Jai Srinivas
| image = Jai Srinivas.jpg
| caption =
| other_names =
| birth_name = Neredikomma Srinivas
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [[Mandamarri, Manchiryal, Telangana]], India
| death_date = {{death-date|21 May 2021}}
| death_place = Hyderabad
| death_cause =
| occupation =
| employer =
| known = Playback singer
| height =
| title =
| term =
| predecessor =
| party =
| boards =
| relatives = [[Spoorthi Yadagiri]] (nephew)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.eenadu.net/telugu-news/women/general/6204/121242790|title=బహుముఖ స్ఫూర్తి|work=[[ETV (Telugu)|ETV]]|date=28 November 2021|language=te}}</ref>
| spouse = Swathi
| partner =
| children = 2 daughters
| mother =
| father =
| website =
| footnotes =
}}

'''Neredukomma Srinivas''', also known as '''Jai Srinivas''', was a playback singer from the [[Telugu cinema|Telugu film industry]]. He has sung Telugu devotional songs.<ref name="Tollywood singer Jai Srinivas dies of Covid-193">{{cite news|last1=The New Indian Express|title=Tollywood singer Jai Srinivas dies of Covid-19|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/hyderabad/2021/may/22/tollywood-singer-jai-srinivas-dies-of-covid-19-2305846.html|access-date=22 May 2021|work=The New Indian Express|date=22 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210522055211/https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/hyderabad/2021/may/22/tollywood-singer-jai-srinivas-dies-of-covid-19-2305846.html|archive-date=22 May 2021|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Telugu playback singer Jai Srinivas succumbs to COVID-19 - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/telugu-playback-singer-jai-srinivas-succumbs-to-covid-19/articleshow/82859172.cms|access-date=2021-07-23|website=The Times of India|date=22 May 2021 |language=en}}</ref>

== Early life ==
Neredukomma Srinivas was born in Mandamarri village Manchiryal district of Telangana. He did his early schooling from Singareni high school at Mandamarri in 1993.<ref name="ప్రముఖ సింగర్‌ మృతి.. సీఎం కేసీఆర్‌ సంతాపం2">{{cite news|last1=Sakshi|title=ప్రముఖ సింగర్‌ మృతి.. సీఎం కేసీఆర్‌ సంతాపం|url=https://www.sakshi.com/telugu-news/movies/playback-singer-jai-srinivas-passes-away-1365515|access-date=22 May 2021|work=Sakshi|date=22 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210522052823/https://www.sakshi.com/telugu-news/movies/playback-singer-jai-srinivas-passes-away-1365515|archive-date=22 May 2021|language=te|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="జై శ్రీనివాస్‌ కన్నుమూత2">{{cite news|last1=EENADU|title=జై శ్రీనివాస్‌ కన్నుమూత|url=https://www.eenadu.net/statenews/mainnews/general/2702/121103601|access-date=22 May 2021|work=EENADU|date=22 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210522054057/https://www.eenadu.net/statenews/mainnews/general/2702/121103601|archive-date=22 May 2021|language=te|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="గాయకుడు ‘జై’ శ్రీనివాస్‌ కన్నుమూత2">{{cite news|last1=Andhrajyothy|title=గాయకుడు 'జై' శ్రీనివాస్‌ కన్నుమూత|url=https://www.andhrajyothy.com/telugunews/singer-jai-srinivas-eyelid-1921052202319|access-date=22 May 2021|work=www.andhrajyothy.com|date=22 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210522054802/https://www.andhrajyothy.com/telugunews/singer-jai-srinivas-eyelid-1921052202319|archive-date=22 May 2021|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Tollywood singer Jai Srinivas dies of Covid-193"/>

== Discography ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Year
!Movie name
!Name of the song
!Music director
|-
|2002
|''Mee Kosam''
|"O Lali O Lali"
|Mahati
|-
|2004
|''[[Jai (2004 Telugu film)|Jai]]''
|"Desam Manade Tejam Manade"
|[[Anup Rubens]]
|-
|2005
|''Alajadi''
|"Cepa Kalla Papa"
| Chandragirimaharaja
|-
|2006
|''[[Veedhi]]''
|"Na Citti Talli"
|Anup Rubens
|-
| rowspan="3" |2008
|''[[Gunde Jhallumandi]]''
|"Pavada Kasta"
|[[M. M. Keeravani]]
|-
|''Kurkure''
| "Varevva Varevva"
| Rajeswari
|-
|''Yekkadunnavamma Oo Premika''
| "Na Gumde Mida", "Ekkadunnavamma"
| Rajkiran
|-
|rowspan="2"|2009
|''[[Sasirekha Parinayam (film)|Sasirekha Parinayam]]'' || "Gundello Golisoda" || [[Mani Sharma]]
|-
|''Naa Style Veru''<ref>{{Cite web|title=Jai Srinivas Songs: Listen Jai Srinivas Hit Songs on Gaana.com|url=https://gaana.com/artist/jai-srinivas|access-date=2021-07-23|website=Gaana.com}}</ref>
|"Kottu Kottu"
|Anup Rubens
|-
| rowspan="4" |2010
|''Comedy Express''
| "Ka Ka Ka Kamedi", "Nuvvumte Nitya", "Amma Nanna"
| Sam Dicasto
|-
|''[[Pidichirukku|Premistava]]''
|"Pomge Godarivo"
|[[Manu Ramesan]]
|-
|''[[Andari Bandhuvaya]]''<ref>{{Cite web|title=Jai Srinivas|url=https://open.spotify.com/artist/7yfSzO0uXek2SqAgLPmflT|access-date=2021-07-23|website=Spotify|language=en}}</ref>
|"Suryudu Evarayya"
|Anup Rubens
|-
|''Cheta Venna Mudda''
|"Nija July Telisi", "Eti Odduna", "Aṃdalapudota"
| Raviswaroopan
|-
| 2013 || ''[[Ongole Gittha]]''
| "Mama Maraju" || [[G. V. Prakash Kumar]]
|-
| 2014 || ''[[Raja Rani (2013 film)|Raja Rani]]'' '''(D)''' || "Hey Baby" || [[G. V. Prakash Kumar]]
|-
| rowspan="2"|2015 || ''[[Janda Pai Kapiraju]]'' || "Don't Worry Be Happy" || G. V. Prakash Kumar
|-
| ''[[Trisha Illana Nayanthara|Trisha Leda Nayanthara]]'' '''(D)''' || "Kanthiri Pilla" || G. V. Prakash Kumar
|-
| 2016 || ''[[Theri (film)|Police]]'' '''(D)''' || "Jithula Jilladi" || G. V. Prakash Kumar
|-
| 2020 || ''[[Puriyatha Puthir|Pizza 2]]'' '''(D)''' || "Taguve Taguve" || [[Sam C. S.]]
|-
| 2022 || ''Oo Abhimani Katha'' || "Naa Bujji Bangaram"
| Jaya Surya Bompem
|}

== Death ==
Srinivas died on 21 May 2021, from COVID-19 complications at a private hospital in Secunderabad.<ref name="ప్రముఖ సింగర్‌ మృతి.. సీఎం కేసీఆర్‌ సంతాపం2"/><ref name="జై శ్రీనివాస్‌ కన్నుమూత2"/><ref name="గాయకుడు ‘జై’ శ్రీనివాస్‌ కన్నుమూత2"/><ref name="Tollywood singer Jai Srinivas dies of Covid-193"/>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Srinivas, Jai}}
[[Category:2021 deaths]]
[[Category:Telugu-language playback singers]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male singers]]
[[Category:Singers from Telangana]]
[[Category:Deaths from the COVID-19 pandemic in India]]

Seu (artist)

2025-12-15T20:16:15Z

Juliaauhm: Starting entry

{{Short description|Pahari artist (c. 1680–1740)}}
{{Infobox artist
| name = Seu
| image = Portrait of Pandit Seu, by Nainsukh, ca.1735–40.jpg
| style = [[Pahari painting|Pahari]] (specifically [[Guler State#Guler paintings|Guler]])
| children =
| honorific_prefix = [[Pandit]]
| honorific_suffix =
| caption = Portrait of Seu, by his son [[Nainsukh]], {{circa|1735–40}}.
| birth_date =
| death_date =
| signature = Signature of the artist Seu of Guler State, from the back of a painting of Raja Dalip Singh of Guler State performing puja, ca.1740.png
| patrons = Raja Dalip Singh of Guler State
}}

'''Seu''' ({{circa|1680–1740}}),<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Pandit Seu |url=https://www.archnet.org/authorities/8571 |access-date=20 October 2024 |website=Archnet}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Guy |first=John |title=Wonder of the Age: Master Painters of India, 1100-1900 |last2=Britschgi |first2=Jorrit |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |year=2011 |isbn=9781588394309 |pages=10, 146 |chapter=}}</ref> also known as '''Pandit Seu''', was a [[Pahari painting|Pahari artist]] who specialized in ''musawir''.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">Goswamy, B. N. "On Two Portraits of Pahari Artists." ''Artibus Asiae'', vol. 34, no. 2/3, 1972, pp. 225–31. ''JSTOR'', <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2307/3249649</nowiki>. Accessed 20 Oct. 2024.</ref> He was attached to the court of Raja Dilip Singh of [[Guler State]] (reigned ca.1695–1741).<ref name=":0" /> He was a member of the [[Seu-Manaku-Nainsukh family]].

== Biography ==
[[File:Painting of Raja Dalip Singh of Guler State performing puja, attributed to Seu, ca.1740.png|thumb|Painting of Raja Dalip Singh of Guler State performing puja, attributed to Seu, ca.1740. Seu was patronized by Raja Dalip Singh of Guler.]]
Seu was the son of Hasnu, grandson of Bharathu, and great-grandson of Data.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /> Seu was a native of Guler.<ref name=":2" /> Seu must have left the hills and travelled to the plains, where he came into contact with Mughal artists of the late-Mughal style.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=30 September 2018 |title=Manaku and Nainsukh: Family Ties |url=https://asianartnewspaper.com/manaku-and-nainsukh-family-ties/ |access-date=20 October 2024 |website=Asian Art Newspaper}}</ref> Seu was alive when [[Aurangzeb]] was disassembling the Mughal ateliers, which led to these artists to leave Delhi for other states, such as Guler.<ref name=":3" /> Seu would establish an atelier (workshop) in Guler, which for 150 years produced talented artists.<ref name=":1" />

=== Familial atelier ===
He was the patriarch of the Seu-Manaku-Nainsukh family, which would produced famous artists such as [[Manaku of Guler|Manaku]], [[Nainsukh]], Fattu, Khushala, Kama, Ranjha, Gursahai, Sukhdayal, Deviditta, Gaudhu, Nikka, Saudagar, Attra, and Ramdayal.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Goswamy |first=B. N. |title=Pahari Masters: Court Painters of Northern India |last2=Fischer |first2=Eberhard |publisher=Artibus Asiae Publishers Supplementum |year=1992 |isbn=9783907070376 |pages=307–319 |asin=B0018NI8PC}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Archer |first=William G. |title=Indian Paintings from the Punjab Hills: A Survey and History of Pahari Miniature Painting |publisher=Sotheby Parke Bernet (London and New York) / Oxford University Press (Delhi) |year=1973 |volume=1: Text |pages=409–412 |chapter=Painting in Siba}}</ref> His two sons, Manaku and Nainsukh, became successful artists in their own right.<ref name=":0" /> Seu served as the mentor to his elder son, Manaku, with both his sons being educated at his workshop.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" /> His son, Manaku, would later finish a ''[[Ramayana]]'' series that Seu had left unfinished.<ref name=":3" />

== Style ==
Seu belonged to the phase of Pahari painting that began in 1730 onwards that was characterized by a move toward a naturalistic style and innovations, perhaps due to [[Mughal painting|Mughal influence]].<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" /> This Mughal influence may be attributed to the weakening of Mughal state power in the early 18th century, which led the artists previously working under the Mughals to seek patronage elsewhere, such as in the [[Hill States of India|Hill States]].<ref name=":3" /> When compared to the works of his son Nainsukh, Seu more hesitantly incorporated elements from the late-Mughal-style.<ref name=":1" /> Seu's work is characterized by distinct outlines and an affinity for strong background colors, which is characteristic of earlier styles.<ref name=":1" />

== Gallery ==
<gallery>
File:'Fight of Drunken Monkeys and Bears', by Seu, ca.1720.jpg|'Fight of Drunken Monkeys and Bears', by Seu, ca.1720
File:'Dancing Villagers', attributed to Seu of Guler, ca.1730.jpg|'Dancing Villagers', attributed to Seu of Guler, ca.1730
File:Rama and Sita Enthroned (6124522461).jpg|[[Rama]] and [[Sita]] Enthroned, ca.1730
File:Hanuman springt über den Ozean c1720.jpg|[[Hanuman]] crosses the ocean and kills Sursa, ca.1720
File:Hanuman, sugriva and jambvan.jpg|<bdi>Hanuman, Angada, and Jambavan climb Mount Mahendra, ca.1720</bdi>
File:Painting of Mian Gopal Singh playing chess with Pandit Dinamani Raina. Ascribed to Pandit Seu of Guler. Dated ca.1720–1725.jpg|Painting of Mian Gopal Singh playing chess with Pandit Dinamani Raina. Ascribed to Pandit Seu of Guler. Dated ca.1720–1725
</gallery>

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|group=note}}

== References ==
<references />

[[Category:1740 deaths]]
[[Category:Indian painters]]
[[Category:People from Kangra district]]

2019 Uttarakhand local elections

2025-12-14T09:53:27Z

Juliaauhm:

{{Short description|Indian state elections}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}

{{Infobox election
| election_name = 2019 Uttarakhand panchayat general elections
| country = India
| type = parliamentary
| previous_election = 2018 Uttarakhand local elections
| previous_year = 2018
| election_date = 5, 11 and 16 October 2019
| next_election = 2025 Uttarakhand local elections
| next_year = 2025
| turnout = '''69.59%'''
| party1 = Independent politician
| image1 =
| leader1 = ''none''
| leader_since1 =
| last_election1 = 11100
| seats1 = '''10825'''
| seat_change1 = {{decrease}} 275
| ongoing = no
}}

{{Infobox election
| election_name = 2019 Uttarakhand municipal elections
| country = India
| type = parliamentary
| previous_election = 2018 Uttarakhand local elections
| previous_year = 2018
| election_date = 8 July and 22 November 2019
| next_election = 2025 Uttarakhand local elections
| next_year = 2025
| turnout =
| party1 = Bharatiya Janata Party
| image1 = [[File:BJP election symbol.png|60px]]
| leader1 = [[Ajay Bhatt (politician)|Ajay Bhatt]]
| leader_since1 = 2016
| last_election1 = 10
| seats1 = '''24'''
| seat_change1 = {{increase}} 14
| party2 = Indian National Congress
| image2 = [[File:Hand INC.svg|75px]]
| leader2 = [[Pritam Singh (Uttarakhand politician)|Pritam Singh]]
| leader_since2 = 2017
| last_election2 = 15
| seats2 = '''8'''
| seat_change2 = {{decrease}} 7
| image3 = [[File:Indian Election Symbol Elephant.png|75px]]
| party3 = Bahujan Samaj Party
| leader3 =
| leader_since3 =
| last_election3 = 0
| seats3 = '''1'''
| seat_change3 = {{increase}} 1
| image4 =
| leader4 = ''none''
| party4 = Independent politician
| leader_since4 =
| last_election4 = 18
| seats4 = '''36'''
| seat_change4 = {{increase}} 18
| ongoing = no
}}

The '''2019 Uttarakhand Panchayat general elections''' were held in the Indian state of [[Uttarakhand]] on in three phases on 5, 11, and 16 October 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/dehradun/counting-held-peacefully-for-panchayat-polls/story-Vo88JbCwaWlAY3YuNnC65L.html|title=Uttarakhand panchayat poll counting held peacefully, over 5,500 results out|work=[[Hindustan Times]]|date=22 October 2019|access-date=10 February 2021}}</ref>

Previously, in the same year on 14 June 2019, the [[Uttarakhand State Election Commission]] also announced the poll dates for the [[Municipal council (India)|municipal councils]] of [[Srinagar, Uttarakhand|Srinagar]] and [[Bajpur]] on 8 July 2019 and the results were declared on 10 July 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jagran.com/uttarakhand/dehradun-city-local-bodies-19312470.html|title=नगर पालिका श्रीनगर और बाजपुर में आठ जुलाई को होंगे चुनाव, पढ़िए पूरी खबर|website=Dainik Jagran}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://sec.uk.gov.in/pages/display/107-nomination-local-bodies-election-bajpur-and-srinagar|title=Nomination Local Bodies Election Bajpur and Srinagar: State Election Commission, Government Of Uttarakhand, India|website=sec.uk.gov.in}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.amarujala.com/dehradun/uttarakhand-nikay-chunav-2019-srinagar-and-bajpur-will-held-on-8th-july|title=उत्तराखंड: श्रीनगर-बाजपुर में आठ जुलाई को होंगे निकाय चुनाव, 10 को होगी मतगणना|website=Amar Ujala|language=hi}}</ref>

Additionally, the [[Uttarakhand State Election Commission]] announced the poll date for [[Roorkee Municipal Corporation]] on 22 November 2019 and results were declared on 24 November 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.amarujala.com/dehradun/roorkee-nikay-chunav-notification-issued-election-on-22nd-november?src=top-lead|title=रुड़की नगर निगम चुनाव का कार्यक्रम तय, 22 नवंबर को मतदान व 24 को होगी मतगणना}}</ref>

==Timeline==
{| class="wikitable"
!Event
!Date
!Day
|-
| Date for Nominations || 18 June 2019 || Tuesday
|-
| Last Date for filing Nominations || 19 June 2019 || Wednesday
|-
| Date for scrutiny of nominations || 20 June 2019 || Thursday
|-
| Last date for withdrawal of candidatures || 21 June 2019 || Friday
|-
| Allotment of Symbols || 22 June 2019 || Saturday
|-
| Date of poll || '''8 July 2019''' || Monday
|-
| Date of counting || 10 July 2019 || Wednesday
|}

==Results==
=== Municipal Corporation Mayoral result===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Municipal Corporation Mayoral result
|- style="text-align:center; height:45px;"
! scope="col" | S. No.
! Municipal Corporation
! District
! Winner
! colspan=2| Party
! Runner-up
! colspan=2| Party
! Margin
|- style="text-align:center; height:30px;"
| 1
| [[Roorkee Municipal Corporation]]
| [[Haridwar district|Haridwar]]
| Gaurav Goyal
| [[Independent politician|Independent]]
| width="4px" style="background-color: {{party color|Independent politician}}" |
| Rishu Singh Rana
| [[Indian National Congress]]
| width="4px" style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| 3,451
|- style="text-align:center; height:30px;"
|}

===Municipal Council Chairpersons results===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Municipal Council Chairpersons results<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.news18.com/news/politics/independents-dominate-uttarakhand-local-body-poll-results-mixed-bag-for-bjp-cong-1946079.html|title=Independents Dominate Uttarakhand Local Body Poll Results, Mixed Bag for BJP, Cong|date=21 November 2018|website=News18|first=Anupam|last=Trivedi|accessdate=17 June 2020}}</ref>
|- style="text-align:center; height:45px;"
! scope="col" | S. No.
! Municipal Council
! District
! Winner
! colspan=2| Party
! Runner-up
! colspan=2| Party
! Margin
|- style="text-align:center; height:30px;"
| 1
| [[Bajpur]]
| [[Udham Singh Nagar district|Udham Singh Nagar]]
| Gurjit Singh Gitte
| [[Indian National Congress]]
| width="4px" style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| Raj Kumar
| [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| width="4px" style="background-color: {{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}" |
| 2,990
|- style="text-align:center; height:30px;"
| 2
| [[Srinagar, Uttarakhand|Srinagar]]
| [[Pauri Garhwal district|Pauri Garhwal]]
| Punam Tiwari
| [[Indian National Congress]]
| width="4px" style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| Sarojini Rawat
| [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| width="4px" style="background-color: {{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}" |
| 638
|- style="text-align:center; height:30px;"
|}

===Municipal election results===
{| width="40%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" border="1" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: 2px black; font-size: x-big; font-family: arial" class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Municipal election results
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2| Party
! colspan=2| Mayors/Chairpersons
! colspan=2| Corporators/Ward Members
! colspan=2| Total
|-
! Seats
! +/-
! Seats
! +/-
! Seats
! +/-
|-
| [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| width="4px" style="background-color: {{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}" |
| 0
| {{nochange}}
| 24
| {{increase}} 14
| '''24'''
| {{increase}} '''14'''
|-
| [[Indian National Congress]]
| width="4px" style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
| 2
| {{increase}} 1
| 6
| {{decrease}} 8
| '''8'''
| {{decrease}} '''7'''
|-
| [[Bahujan Samaj Party]]
| width="4px" style="background-color: {{party color|Bahujan Samaj Party}}"|
| 0
| {{nochange}}
| 1
| {{increase}} 1
| '''1'''
| {{increase}} '''1'''
|-
| [[Independent politician|Independents]]
| width="4px" style="background-color: {{party color|Independent}}"|
| 1
| {{decrease}} 1
| 35
| {{increase}} 19
| '''36'''
| {{increase}} '''18'''
|-
| colspan=2| '''Total'''
| '''3'''
| {{nochange}}
| '''66'''
| {{increase}} '''26'''
| '''69'''
| {{increase}} '''26'''
|}

===Panchayat general election results===
{| width="40%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" border="1" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: 2px black; font-size: x-big; font-family: arial" class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Panchayat general election results <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://secresult.uk.gov.in/panch_result/panchresult.aspx|title = Untitled Page}}</ref>
|-
! rowspan=2| District
! colspan=2| Members of District Councils
! colspan=2| Members of Block Councils
! colspan=2| Presidents of Village Councils
|-
! Seats
! +/-
! Seats
! +/-
! Seats
! +/-
|-
| [[Almora district|Almora]]
| 45
| {{decrease}} 3
| 391
| {{decrease}} 6
| 1160
| {{decrease}} 8
|-
| [[Bageshwar district|Bageshwar]]
| 19
| {{decrease}} 1
| 120
| {{nochange}}
| 407
| {{decrease}} 9
|-
| [[Chamoli district|Chamoli]]
| 26
| {{decrease}} 1
| 246
| {{decrease}} 8
| 610
| {{decrease}} 5
|-
| [[Champawat district|Champawat]]
| 15
| {{nochange}}
| 134
| {{nochange}}
| 313
| {{nochange}}
|-
| [[Dehradun district|Dehradun]]
| 30
| {{decrease}} 13
| 220
| {{decrease}} 20
| 401
| {{decrease}} 59
|-
| style="background-color:Silver"| [[Haridwar district|Haridwar]]
| style="background-color:Silver"; colspan=6| {{center|''No elections were held in Haridwar district''}}
|-
| [[Nainital district|Nainital]]
| 27
| {{decrease}} 4
| 266
| {{decrease}} 5
| 479
| {{decrease}} 32
|-
| [[Pauri Garhwal district|Pauri Garhwal]]
| 38
| {{decrease}} 4
| 372
| {{decrease}} 26
| 1174
| {{decrease}} 38
|-
| [[Pithoragarh district|Pithoragarh]]
| 33
| {{nochange}}
| 290
| {{decrease}} 1
| 686
| {{decrease}} 4
|-
| [[Rudraprayag district|Rudraprayag]]
| 18
| {{nochange}}
| 117
| {{decrease}} 1
| 336
| {{decrease}} 3
|-
| [[Tehri Garhwal district|Tehri Garhwal]]
| 45
| {{nochange}}
| 351
| {{increase}} 6
| 1035
| {{decrease}} 3
|-
| [[Udham Singh Nagar district|Udham Singh Nagar]]
| 35
| {{decrease}} 7
| 273
| {{decrease}} 7
| 376
| {{decrease}} 15
|-
| [[Uttarkashi district|Uttarkashi]]
| 25
| {{nochange}}
| 204
| {{decrease}} 2
| 508
| {{increase}} 4
|-
| '''Total'''
| '''356'''
| {{decrease}} 33
| '''2984'''
| {{decrease}} 70
| '''7485'''
| {{decrease}} 172
|}

==See also==
* [[2019 Roorkee Municipal Corporation election]]
* [[2019 elections in India]]
* [[2025 Uttarakhand local elections]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{cite web | url=https://sec.uk.gov.in/files/1107_notification.pdf | title=1107 Notification | publisher=sec.uk.gov.in | accessdate=17 June 2020 }}

==External links==
*[http://sec.uk.gov.in State Election Commission]

{{Uttarakhand elections}}

[[Category:Local elections in Uttarakhand]]
[[Category:2019 elections in India]]

Patsho Nokking

2025-11-28T01:52:58Z

Juliaauhm: Added new entry...

{{Short description|Village in Nagaland, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2025}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Patsho Nokking
| native_name =
| native_name_lang = kix
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = village
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Nagaland
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Nagaland, India
| coordinates = {{coord|26.109751|94.932123|region:IN|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Nagaland]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Noklak district|Noklak]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| leader_title =
| leader_name =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 2,880
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Patsho Khiamniungan]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = 
| postal_code = 798612
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| area_code =
| registration_plate = NL
| website = 
| footnotes =
}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Patsho Nokking Village
| population = 2,880 (2011),
| image =
| image_caption =
| languages =[[Patsho Khiamniungan]]
| religions = Christianity
| related = [[Patsho|Patsho people]]
| footnotes =
}}
'''Patsho Nokking''' (Officially recognized as [[Pathso Nokeng]]) village is located in [[Patsho|Panso]] circle of [[Noklak district]] in Nagaland, India. It is situated 1 km away from sub-district headquarter Panso (tehsildar office) and 37 km away from district headquarter [[Noklak]].<ref name="express">{{cite web|url=https://morungexpress.com/tuensang-students-lead-missions-to-clean-up-pathso-nokeng-village/Tuensang/|title=Students lead missions to clean up Pathso Nokeng village-The Morung Express|date=15 March 2024|website=morungexpress.com}} {{deadlink|date=August 2025}}</ref><ref name="naga">{{cite web|url=https://ipr.nagaland.gov.in/index.php/world-environment-day-celebration-pathso-nokeng-village/|title=WORLD ENVIRONMENT DAY CELEBRATION IN PATHSO NOKENG VILLAGE-Nagaland Government site|date=15 March 2024|website=ipr.nagaland.gov.in}}</ref> The language most widely spoken is [[Patsho Khiamniungan]], that of the [[Patsho|Patsho people]] there.<ref name="glocalsoasacuk">{{cite web|url=https://glocal.soas.ac.uk/cala2019-353/|title=From oral tradition to written language-The Patsho Khiamniungan and Mongsen Ao dictionary projects|date=17 Dec 2023|website=glocal.soas.ac.uk}}</ref>

== Population ==
In 2024 the population is estimated to be 3,629, According to 2011 census, 2880 People are living in this Village, out of these 1497 are males and 1383 are females.<ref name="indiagrowing">{{cite web|url=https://www.indiagrowing.com/Nagaland/Tuensang/Panso/Pathso_Nokeng/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140306082858/http://www.indiagrowing.com/Nagaland/Tuensang/Panso/Pathso_Nokeng|url-status=usurped|archive-date=6 March 2014|title=Pathso Nokeng Population 2024-India Growing|date=15 March 2024|website=www.indiagrowing.com}}</ref>

== Literacy ==
Literate people are 1607 out of 885 are male and 722 are female.<ref name="indiagrowing"/>

== Agriculture ==
People living in Pathso Nokeng depend on multiple skills, producing varieties of crafts and handlooms. Cultivators are depended on agriculture farming out of 687 are cultivated by men and 656 are women.<ref name="indiagrowing"/>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Villages in Noklak district]]

Durgada, Kakinada district

2025-11-23T02:25:01Z

Juliaauhm: new - done

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2019}}
{{cleanup rewrite|date=June 2018}}
{{more citations needed|date=July 2013}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Durgada
| native_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = Village
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Andhra Pradesh#India
| pushpin_label_position = left
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Andhra Pradesh, India
| coordinates = {{coord|17|12|54|N|82|20|36|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Andhra Pradesh]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Kakinada district|Kakinada]]
| established_title =

| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| parts_type = [[Mandal]]
| parts = [[Gollaprolu]]
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 14.4
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 10717
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 533449
| registration_plate =
| website =
| footnotes =
| mapframe = yes
| mapframe-zoom = 14
}}

'''Durgada''', formerly '''Durga Ooda''' or '''Durga Vaahini''', is a rural village in [[Gollaprolu Mandal]],<ref name="nomeclature">{{cite web |title=Statement showing the Nomenclature and Number of Sub-Districts in States/UTs |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Tables_Published/Admin_Units/Admin_links/subdistrict_nomeclature.html |website=Census of India|access-date=28 June 2018}}</ref> [[Kakinada district]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[India]].<ref name="census">{{cite web |title=Census of India - Search Results |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/pca/SearchDetails.aspx?Id=664149 |website=Census of India|access-date=28 June 2018}}</ref> It is located northeast of [[Pithapuram]] and Gollaprolu. The village is located 1.8 kilometers away from NH 214 and 3 kilometers away from NH 5. The nearest city (35 km) is [[Kakinada]].

The village has rail access through a halt, and the nearest railway stations are [[Ravikampadu East Godavari]] (2.6 km) and [[Gollaprolu]] (9.2 km). The nearest railway junction is [[Samalkot]]. The nearest airstrip is Madhurapudi, [[Rajahmundry]] (75 km) and the nearest airport is [[Vishakapatnam]] (125 km). The nearest seaport is [[Kakinada Port]].

==Transport==
'''Roadways'''

There was once an [[APSRTC]] bus facility, but it was removed. The people depend on Autorikshas as their primary form of transportation.

'''Railways'''

There is a railway gate halt in the village. There are 2 passenger trains available every day. Of these two, one heads towards [[Vishakapatnam]] while the other heads towards [[Samalkot Junction]].

==History==
It is unknown when the village was built, but [[Pullakavi]], a famous author, lived in Durgada in the 15th century. There are some monuments and buildings that show the signs of [[British colonial]] rule. it was under the rule of [[Rao Venkata Kumara Mahipati Surya Rau]] Maharaja of [[Pithapuram]] for a period of time.

==Demographics==
As of the census<ref name="census" /> of 2011, there are 10,717 people residing in the village. The population density was {{convert|740|/km2|/mi2|disp=preunit|people |people|sp=us}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=District Census Hand Book - Maharashtra |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_Village_Release_2800.xlsx |website=Census of India |access-date=28 June 2018 |format=XLS}}</ref> There were 3075 households within the village. Males constitute 50.1% of the population and females 49.9%. Durgada has an average literacy rate of 53%, substantially lower than the national average of 74%.<ref>{{cite web |title=State of Literacy |url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/data_files/india/Final_PPT_2011_chapter6.pdf |website=Provisional Population Totals India |access-date=28 June 2018 |page=98 }}</ref> Male literacy is at 28.1%, while female literacy is 24.9%. In Durgada, 11.1% of the population is age 6 or under.

==Economy==
Most of the villagers are small and marginal farmers having less than 5 acres of agricultural land. Fewer people are engaged in other works such as [[mango pickle]] manufacturing and gold selling. Others work in railways, banking, software, and education.

==Caste profile==
Most castes are found here. About half of the people are [[Kapu (caste)|Kapu]], and Schedule castes constitute 12% of the population.

==Crops==
As there is no irrigation by rivers or canals, people depend on groundwater irrigation. The people in the village cultivate less water-consuming crops. Some crops farmed include onion, mango, papaya, ground nuts, and various vegetables. Most of the people will cultivate two crops per year such onions during [[kharif crop]] and [[sesame]] or [[water melon|watermelon]] during [[Rabi crop|Rabi]] or some other vegetable crops.
== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Villages in Gollaprolu mandal]]

Department of Sports, Government of Bihar

2025-11-21T15:56:43Z

Juliaauhm: put up some details added tags.

{{Short description|State government department for sports development in Bihar}}
{{Infobox government agency
| name = Department of Sports
| type = Department
| formed = {{start date|2024|01|09}}
| preceding1 = Art, Culture & Youth Department
| jurisdiction = [[Government of Bihar]]
| headquarters = Patna, Bihar, India
| minister1_name = [[Shreyasi Singh]]
| minister1_pfo = Minister of Sports, Bihar
| chief1_name = 
| chief1_position = Principal Secretary / Director
| parent_department = [[Government of Bihar]]
| budget = ₹568 crore (2025–26)<ref name="ht">{{cite news |title=Bihar NDA connects to youths via sports route |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/patna-news/bihar-nda-connects-to-youths-via-sports-route-101746705913811.html |work=Hindustan Times |date=8 June 2025 |access-date=17 September 2025}}</ref>
| website = [https://state.bihar.gov.in/sport Department of Sports, Bihar]
}}

The '''Department of Sports, Government of Bihar''' is a state [[government department]] responsible for the promotion of sports, physical fitness, and athlete development in the [[Indian state]] of [[Bihar]]. It was established on '''9 January 2024''', following its separation from the [[Department of Art, Culture and Youth]]<ref name="dept">{{cite web |title=About Us |url=https://state.bihar.gov.in/sport/ |publisher=Department of Sports, Government of Bihar |access-date=17 September 2025}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-10 |title=बिहार में बन गया खेल विभाग, काम का हुआ बंटवारा, पहले प्रधान सचिव बने बी राजेंदर |url=https://www.livehindustan.com/bihar/story-sports-department-formed-in-bihar-work-divided-b-rajender-becomes-first-principal-secretary-9181398.amp.html |access-date=2025-09-25 |website=www.livehindustan.com |language=hi}}</ref>

== Budget ==
In the 2025–26 budget, the department was allocated '''₹568 crore'''. Of this, about '''₹373 crore''' was earmarked for stadiums and sports infrastructure, while '''₹195 crore''' was directed towards sports development and activities.<ref name="ht" />

== Statistics ==
{| class="wikitable"
! Metric !! Value !! Notes
|-
| Athletes at [[2025 Khelo India Youth Games]] || ~8,500 || From 36 states/UTs, hosted in Bihar
|-
| Bihar medal tally at KIYG 2025 || 36 medals (7 gold) || Bihar ranked 14th<ref>{{cite news |title=Bihar emerges as model sports state with record medal haul at Khelo India Games |url=https://jabalpurtoday.com/india/bihar/bihar-emerges-khelo-india-youth-games-2025/ |work=Jabalpur Today |date=28 February 2025 |access-date=17 September 2025}}</ref>
|-
| Sports clubs in Bihar || ~991 || Registered across the state
|-
| State sports associations || ~78 || Covering various disciplines
|-
| Awards and honours distributed || 644 (2024–25) || Including 615 athletes, 21 coaches, 4 associations, 4 officials. Prize money ~₹7.5 crore.<ref>{{cite news |title=Bihar government boosts sports with increased awards, honours over 600 athletes and coaches |url=https://patnapress.com/bihar-government-boosts-sports-with-increased-awards-honors-over-600-athletes-and-coaches/ |publisher=Patna Press |date=10 January 2025 |access-date=17 September 2025}}</ref>
|}

== Initiatives ==
* Construction of block-level stadiums (252 announced).<ref name="ht" />
* Development of sports complexes in Jamui and Kaimur districts.<ref name="dept" />
* '''Khel Pratibha Khoj Pratiyogita''' – a school-level talent hunt programme.<ref name="ht" />
* Safety and facility upgrades in district sports buildings worth ₹10.26 crore.<ref>{{cite news |title=Bihar's ₹10.26 crore boost for sports buildings in 38 districts |url=https://biharsay.com/2025/07/18/bihars-%E2%82%B910-26-crore-boost-for-sports-buildings-in-38-districts/ |publisher=Bihar Say |date=18 July 2025 |access-date=17 September 2025}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Government of Bihar]]
* [[Bihar State Sports Authority]]
* [[Sports in Bihar]]
* [[Khelo India Youth Games]]

== References ==

{{reflist}}

[[Category:Government of Bihar]]

Sampat Singh

2025-11-05T15:33:15Z

Juliaauhm:

{{short description|Indian politician}}
{{BLP sources|date=August 2008}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2018}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Sampat Singh
| image =
| image size =
| caption =
| | residence =112, Sec 15 Hisar
| death_date =
| death_place =
| office1 = [[Member of Legislative Assembly]]
| constituency1 = [[Nalwa]], [[Fatehabad district|Fatehabad]], [[Bhattu Kalan]]
| successor1 =
| party =[[Indian National Lokdal]]
| religion =
| spouse = Krishna Singh
| children = 2
| website = {{URL|www.sampatsingh.in}}
| footnotes =
| date = 15 July |
| year = 2021 |
}}

'''Sampat Singh Budania''' (born 20 April 1949) is a former [[Finance Minister]] of [[Haryana]], India. As a [[Janata Party]] candidate, he was elected to the Haryana [[Vidhan Sabha|Legislative Assembly]] from the [[Bhattu Kalan (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Bhattu Kalan constituency]] in 1982 and has been re-elected on five occasions. He was leader of the opposition from 1991 to 1996. His six election successes made him the most senior [[Indian National Congress]] legislator in 12th Haryana assembly. He has held many important portfolios in state government as minister.

==Personal life==
Sampat Singh was born in the village of [[Bhattu Kalan]], [[Fatehabad District]], [[Haryana]], on 20 April 1949. His father was Ram Chander.Educated in the village and at [[Hisar (city)|Hisar]], he holds MA and B.Ed. degrees. He is married to Krishna Singh and has two children.<ref name="bio">{{cite web |url=http://haryanaassembly.gov.in/MLADetails.aspx?MLAID=773 |title=Haryana Vidhan Sabha MLA |publisher=Haryana Assembly |access-date=2018-03-26}}</ref>

Singh was a lecturer in [[political science]] at Dayanand College, Hisar for five years from 1972. He has been jailed several times, including in 1972–73 and 1983, while campaigning for various causes.<ref name="bio"/>

==Career==
===State politics===
Singh has been elected to the Haryana Legislative Assembly in [[1982 Haryana Legislative Assembly election|1982]], [[1987 Haryana Legislative Assembly election|1987]], [[1991 Haryana Legislative Assembly election|1991]], 1998, [[2000 Haryana Legislative Assembly election|2000]] and [[2009 Haryana Legislative Assembly election|2009]].<ref name="bio"/>

Singh was appointed at political secretary to [[Devi Lal (politician)|Devi Lal]] in 1977 and held the post for two years.<ref name="bio"/> At this point, Devi Lal headed the [[Janata Party]]. Singh stood unsuccessfully in the Bhattu Kalan constituency by-election of 1980, claiming afterwards that he lost "because of widespread use of unfair means". He won the seat in the 1982 state assembly elections.<ref name="toi">{{cite news |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Know-your-politician-Sampat-keeps-it-simple/articleshow/983168263.cms |title=Know your politician: Sampat keeps it simple |first=Amit |last=Agnihotri |date=17 January 2002 |access-date=2018-03-27}}</ref>

Between 1991 and 1996, Singh was Leader of the Opposition in the state assembly.<ref name="toi"/>

Heeding views of his close supporters, Singh quit the [[Indian National Lok Dal]] (INLD)<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/2009/20090715/haryana.htm#1 |title=Sampat Singh quits INLD |work=The Tribune |access-date=2013-11-24}}</ref> on 14 July 2009 and held a meeting with his supporters and workers on 18 July 2009 in Hisar.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.merinews.com/article/sampat-singh-quits-inld/15776069.shtml |title=Sampat Singh quits INLD |work=Merinews.com |date=17 July 2009 |access-date=2013-11-24}}</ref> He described the INLD as being in "complete disarray", no longer aligned with the principles of Devi Lal and subject to the nepotism of its then leader, [[Om Prakash Chautala]].<ref name="outlook">{{cite news |work=Outlook |title=Sampat Singh Quits INLD |date=14 July 2009 |access-date=2018-03-26 |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/newswire/story/sampat-singh-quits-inld/662703}}</ref> After ending his 32-year association with it, he joined the Indian National Congress (INC) on 27 July 2009.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-otherstates/Sampat-Singh-inducted-into-Congress/article16564428.ece |work=The Hindu |date=28 July 2009 |title= Sampat Singh inducted into Congress |access-date=2018-03-26}}</ref>

The INC selected Singh as their candidate for the Nalwa constituency in Hisar. He then won the seat in the 2009 elections by defeating the sitting member, Jasma Devi of the HJC.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://ibnlive.in.com/assembly_elections_2009/candidate/Haryana/result.html |title=Haryana: Result |work=IBN Live |access-date=2013-11-24 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091025040040/http://ibnlive.in.com/assembly_elections_2009/candidate/Haryana/result.html |archive-date=25 October 2009 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

===National politics===
As an INLD politician, Singh contested the [[2009 Indian general election]] from [[Hisar (Lok Sabha constituency)|Hisar Lok Sabha constituency]] on a [[National Democratic Alliance (India)|National Democratic Alliance]] ticket. He lost narrowly to former chief minister [[Bhajan Lal Bishnoi|Bhajan Lal]].<ref name="outlook"/><ref>{{cite news |work=DNA India |title=INLD, BJP attacks UPA on price rise, terrorism |date=20 January 2009 |agency=PTI |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-inld-bjp-attacks-upa-on-price-rise-terrorism-1223287 |access-date=2018-03-26}}</ref>

Singh stood as an INC candidate for a seat in the national parliament in the [[2014 Indian general election]]. He finished in third place in the Hisar Lok Sabha constituency.<ref>{{cite news |work=Economic Times |title=Congress's experiment to field MLAs for LS fails in Haryana |agency=PTI |date=16 May 2014 |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/elections-2014-congresss-experiment-to-field-mlas-for-ls-fails-in-haryana/articleshow/35219660.cms |access-date=2018-03-26}}</ref>

==Political career==
* 1977–1979: Political Secretary to Devi Lal, Chief Minister of Haryana
* 1980: election conveyor for Devi Lal during [[7th Lok Sabha]] elections
* 1980: contested by-election from Bhattu Kalan
* 1981: State Youth Party President until 1984, when he resigned at the age of 35 to make way for other youth members
* 1982: elected to 6th Vidhan Sabha from Bhattu Kalan constituency. Member of the Scheduled Caste and Welfare Society of Haryana Vidhan Sabha
* 1984: District Party President, Hisar until 1987
* 1987: elected to 7th Vidhan Sabha, Bhattu Kalan constituency, Minister of Industry, Excise & Taxation, Town & Country Planning, Home, Local Bodies, Jails, Public Relations, Irrigation & Power, Finance, Parliamentary Affairs & Planning<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://haryanaassembly.gov.in/MLADetails.aspx?MLAID=773|title=MLA Details|website=haryanaassembly.gov.in|access-date=2019-07-10}}</ref>
* 1991: elected to 8th Vidhan Sabha, Bhattu Kalan constituency, Leader of Opposition, Haryana
* 1996: contested election from Bhattu Kalan
* 1998: elected to 9th Vidhan Sabha, Fatehabad constituency, Chairman, Assurance Committee, Haryana Vidhan Sabha
* 1999: Cabinet Minister for Finance, Parliamentary Affairs & Planning
* 2000: elected to 10th Vidhan Sabha, Bhattu Kalan constituency, Cabinet Minister for Finance, Parliamentary Affairs & Planning<ref name=":0" />
* 2005: contested election from Bhattu Kalan
* 2008: by-election contested in Adampur

==Positions held==
*President, District Lok Dal, Hisar
*Member State Lok Dal Executive
*Member, Haryana Sangharsh Samiti
*President, Haryana State Yuva Lok Dal
*National General Secretary, Samajwadi Janata Party

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Singh, Sampat}}
[[Category:1949 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Janata Party politicians]]
[[Category:Indian National Lok Dal politicians]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Haryana]]
[[Category:People from Hisar district]]
[[Category:People from Fatehabad district]]
[[Category:State cabinet ministers of Haryana]]
[[Category:Leaders of the opposition in Haryana]]
[[Category:Lok Dal politicians]]
[[Category:Finance ministers of Haryana]]
[[Category:Haryana MLAs 2009–2014]]
[[Category:Haryana MLAs 1982–1987]]
[[Category:Haryana MLAs 1987–1991]]
[[Category:Haryana MLAs 1991–1996]]
[[Category:Haryana MLAs 2000–2005]]

Sholinganallur

2025-11-03T15:28:14Z

Juliaauhm:

{{other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2019}}
{{multiple issues|
{{advert|date=November 2017}}
{{essay-like|date=November 2017}}
{{fanpov|date=November 2017}}
}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Sholinganallur
| settlement_type = Neighbourhood
| image_skyline = Sholinganallur Skyline Buckingham Canal TN Jan22 R16 05539.jpg
| image_alt = [[Rajiv Gandhi Salai]] also known as [[Rajiv Gandhi Salai|IT Corridor]] passing through Sholinganallur is a fast growing tech hub
| image_caption = Solinganalloor Skyline
| nickname =
| image_map =
| map_alt =
| map_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Chennai
| pushpin_label_position = left
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption =
| coordinates = {{coord|12.90015|N|80.22791|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = India
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Tamil Nadu]]
| subdivision_type3 = Metro
| subdivision_name3 = [[Chennai]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body = [[Greater Chennai Corporation]]
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 15519
| population_as_of = 2001
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 600119
| registration_plate = '''TN-14'''
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Member of parliament|MP]]
| blank1_info_sec1 = [[Thamizhachi Thangapandian]], [[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam|DMK]]
| blank2_name_sec1 = [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]]
| blank2_info_sec1 = [[S. Aravind Ramesh]], [[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam|DMK]]
| blank3_name_sec2 = [[Vidhan Sabha|Assembly]] constituency
| blank3_info_sec2 = [[Sholinganallur (state assembly constituency)|Sholinganallur]]
| blank4_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha|Parliamentary]] constituency
| blank4_info_sec1 = [[Chennai South (Lok Sabha constituency)|Chennai South]]
| blank5_name_sec2 = [[Urban planning|Planning]] agency
| blank5_info_sec2 = [[Chennai Metropolitan Development Authority|CMDA]]
| website =
| footnotes =
| official_name = Sholinganallur
}}

'''Sholinganallur''', also spelled '''Solinganalloor''' or '''Sozhinganalloor''', is a southern suburb of [[Chennai]], [[India]].

==Demographics==
As of the 2011 Indian [[census]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040616075334/http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archive-date=2004-06-16|title= Census of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional)|access-date=2008-11-01|publisher= Census Commission of India}}</ref> the population of Sholinganallur reached about 7.5 [[Lakh|lakhs]].

==Economy==
Sholinganallur is home to a number of BPO and IT/ITES companies. Many major IT companies including Wipro,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wipro.com |title=Wipro IT Business | IT Services, Consulting, System Integration, Outsourcing |publisher=Wipro.com |date=2011-12-31 |access-date=2012-02-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090226044503/http://www.wipro.com/ |archive-date=26 February 2009 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Infosys]],<ref>{{cite web |author=Infosys Limited |url=http://www.infosys.com/contact/pages/country.aspx?source=home&country=india |title=Contact |publisher=Infosys |access-date=2012-02-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091223091124/http://www.infosys.com/contact/Pages/country.aspx?source=home&country=India |archive-date=23 December 2009 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Tata Consultancy Services]], and more.

==Etymology==
The etymology given by Tamil scholars is "Chola" + "Angam" + "Nallur", which indicates that Sholinganallur was once part of a [[Chola]] settlement, most likely during the 8th century before which this used to be a [[marshland]] with a mangrove forest.

== Government and politics ==
[[Sholinganallur (state assembly constituency)]] is one of the biggest assembly constituency in Tamil Nadu in terms of voters.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hindu.com/2011/03/04/stories/2011030455440600.htm |title=Tamil Nadu News : Solinganalloor biggest constituency in terms of voters |date=2011-03-04 |access-date=2012-02-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629053250/http://www.hindu.com/2011/03/04/stories/2011030455440600.htm |archive-date=29 June 2011 |work=[[The Hindu]] |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Civic administration ===
Sholinganallur was annexed in to [[Chennai Corporation]] in 2011, and it is the last (200th) ward of [[Chennai]] city, administered as a part of [[Chennai Corporation]].

=== Housing ===
[[File:VGP2 South Uthandi Beach Chennai Aug21 D72 20716.jpg|thumb|Uthandi beach, view south from VGP Layout, Aug '21]]The [[TNHB|Tamil Nadu Housing Board (TNHB)]] has created a satellite township at Shollinganallur with IT Parks, arterial roads, schools, parks, play grounds and bus terminus.

Residential areas of Sholinganallur include Akkarai, Panaiyur, Rajiv Gandhi Nagar, MGR Nagar, Ganesh Nagar and Uthandi (ECR Toll Plaza), which are located on the [[East Coast Road]]. Uthandi has a public beach that has been declared as a "turtle nesting site" where the endangered Olive Ridley turtles come to nest and lay their eggs.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Krishna Chaitanya|first=SV|date=6 Jan 2021|title=Setback to ECR storm water drain project in Chennai as German government freezes funding|work=[[The New Indian Express]]|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/2021/jan/06/setback-to-ecr-storm-water-drain-project-in-chennai-as-german-government-freezes-funding-2246344.html|access-date=17 May 2021}}</ref>

==Places==
{{more citations needed section|date=January 2018}}

===Colleges===
Some of the colleges include [[Sathyabama University]], Jeppiaar Engineering College, St. Mary's School of Management Studies, [[St. Joseph's College of Engineering]] and more.

The [[Indian Maritime University]], Chennai campus is located in Uthandi, Sholinganallur.

== Transport ==
=== By air ===
[[Chennai International Airport]] at [[Meenambakkam]] is the nearest airport.

=== By rail ===
The Government is constructing [[Chennai Metro|Metro]] Train-Phase 2 along this route from [[Madhavaram, Chennai|Madhavaram]] till [[Siruseri]] IT park (deadline to be operational for this [[Line 3 (Chennai Metro)|Corridor-3]] and [[Line 5 (Chennai Metro)|Corridor-5]] by 2024/26.

=== By road ===
Sholinganallur is located at the junction connecting [[East Coast Road]] to [[Tambaram]], [[Mudichur]] and [[Adyar, Chennai|Adyar]] to [[Mahabalipuram]], along [[Old Mahabalipuram Road]].<ref name="paypalcleanup">{{cite news|title=PayPal employees' initiative to support Chennai Corporation|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/paypal-employees-initiative-to-support-chennai-corporation/article4133554.ece|date=25 November 2012|agency=[[The Hindu]]|location=Chennai|access-date=2012-11-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121129095407/http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/paypal-employees-initiative-to-support-chennai-corporation/article4133554.ece|archive-date=29 November 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> It is at a distance of 14.3 km from Tambaram, 2 km away from East Coast Road (ECR), 34.8 km away from Mamallapuram and 13.5 km away from Adyar.

==References==
{{Portal|India}}
{{Reflist}}
{{Neighborhoods of Chennai}}
{{Chennai Topics}}

[[Category:Neighbourhoods in Chennai]]

Dundiralapadu

2025-11-01T23:30:09Z

Juliaauhm: new - done

{{short description|Village in Andhra Pradesh, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2025}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name =
| native_name =
| native_name_lang = te
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = [[Village]]
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Andhra Pradesh#India
| pushpin_label_position = Right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Andhra Pradesh, India
| coordinates = {{coord|17.0043|80.4076}}
| mapframe = yes
| mapframe-zoom = 13
| mapframe-wikidata = yes
| map_caption = Interactive map
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Andhra Pradesh]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[NTR district|NTR]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[List of mandals in Andhra Pradesh|Mandal]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[Gampalagudem mandal|Gampalagudem]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type = [[Gram Panchayat]]
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes = <ref>{{Cite web |title=District Census Handbook, Krishna - Page 260 |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/124/download/146/DH_2011_2816_PART_A_DCHB_KRISHNA.pdf}}</ref>
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 8.13
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 3134
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes = <ref name=population>{{cite web|title=Census 2011 |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/pca/SearchDetails.aspx?Id=627290 |publisher=The Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India |accessdate=14 July 2015 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924131005/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/pca/SearchDetails.aspx?Id=627290 |archivedate=24 September 2015 }}</ref>
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = 
| postal_code =
| registration_plate =
| website =
| footnotes =
| leader_title = [[Sarpanch]]
| leader_name = Banka Baburao<ref>{{Cite web |title= Panchayat Development Plan Campaign|url=https://gpdp.nic.in/sarpanchWithDetailsReport.html?OWASP_CSRFTOKEN=TC4A-AQKL-1UJO-6PGR-6EIK-KTOP-7RDM-5J81 |access-date=2023-12-17 |website=gpdp.nic.in}}</ref>
}}

'''Dundiralapadu''' is a village located in the [[Gampalagudem mandal]], [[NTR district]] of the [[India|Indian]] state of [[Andhra Pradesh]]. It is under the administration of [[Tiruvuru revenue division]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mandal wise Villages {{!}} NTR District {{!}} India |url=https://ntr.ap.gov.in/mandal-wise-villages/ |access-date=2023-12-20 |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Demographics ==
According to [[2011 census of India]], in Dundiralapadu village, there are 858 households with a total population of 3,134 individuals (1,567 males and 1,567 females). The village has 1,376 individuals belonging to Scheduled Castes and 47 individuals from Scheduled Tribes. Out of the total population, 1,620 people are literate and there are 1,874 workers in the village.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Andhra Pradesh, Krishna District, Gampalagudem Sub-District, Rural Area|url=https://censusindia.gov.in/census.website/data/data-visualizations/PopulationSearch_PCA_Indicators}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{AndhraPradesh-geo-stub}}
{{NTR district}}
[[Category:Villages in NTR district]]

Shershabadia

2025-10-14T06:58:05Z

Juliaauhm: Starting a post

{{Short description|Bengali Muslim community}}
{{Redirect|Bedia (tribe)|Bengali community of nomads|Bedia (caste)}}
{{More citations needed|date=September 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}{{Use Indian English|date=January 2020}}
{{infobox ethnic group
| group = Shershabadia
| native_name = {{lang|bn|শেরশাবাদিয়া}}
| image =
| image_caption =
| population =
| popplace = {{flagicon image|Emblem of West Bengal (Banglarmukh) before 2018.png}} [[West Bengal]] ([[Malda district|Malda]], [[Murshidabad district|Murshidabad]], [[Uttar Dinajpur district|Uttar Dinajpur]]) {{flagicon image|Bihar Government Banner.png}} [[Bihar]] ([[Katihar district|Katihar]], [[Purnia district|Purnia]], [[Araria]])
 {{flagicon image|Jharkhand Flag(INDIA).png}} [[Jharkhand]] ([[Sahebganj district|Sahebganj]], [[Pakur district|Pakur]]) {{flag|Bangladesh}} ([[Chapai Nawabganj]])
| region1 = [[Bihar]]
| pop1 = 1,302,644 (2023)
| ref1 = <ref>{{Cite web |title=Bihar Caste Wise Population Share Full List: बिहार में किस जाति की कितनी संख्या, आबादी में कितना प्रतिशत हिस्सेदारी |url=https://www.livehindustan.com/bihar/story-bihar-caste-survey-counting-census-full-list-population-share-percent-obc-ebc-upper-caste-muslim-hindu-sc-st-8792660.html |access-date=2024-02-01 |website=Hindustan |language=hi}}</ref>
| langs = [[Bengali language|Bengali]] ([[Varendri dialect]]) ([[First language|L1]]) [[Hindustani language|Hindi-Urdu]] ([[Second language|L2]])
| religions = [[Sunni Islam]] ([[Ahl-i Hadith]])
| related_groups =
}}
{{Islam in Bangladesh}}{{Islam in India}}
'''Shershabadia''', also known as '''Badia''', are a [[Bengali Muslims|Bengali Muslim]] community found in the states of [[West Bengal]], [[Bihar]] and [[Jharkhand]] in [[India]].<ref name=":1"/><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hossain |first=Md S. |last2=Hossain |first2=Md Siddique |date=2024-10-29 |title=LINGUISTIC AND CULTURAL IDENTITY OF THE SHERSHABADIA COMMUNITY IN BENGAL, BIHAR, AND JHARKHAND |url=https://data.mendeley.com/datasets/m7rrprmyjz/2 |journal= |language=en |volume=2 |doi=10.17632/m7rrprmyjz.2 |trans-quote=CC by 4.0}}</ref> They belong to [[Sheikhs of Bengal|Bengali Shaikh]] community and also form a significant part of the Shaikhs of West Bengal and Bihar. Common surnames used by the community include Shekh, Sekh, Haque, Islam, and Mondal.<ref name="S Gopal pages 876">People of India Bihar Volume XVI Part Two edited by S Gopal & Hetukar Jha pages 876 to 877 Seagull Books</ref> Most of them are [[Sunni Muslims]] who associate with the [[Ahl-i Hadith]] movement.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Haque |first=Md Ekramul |date=July 2015 |title=Sher Shah Abadi Community: A Study from Historical Perspective |url=https://oaji.net/pdf.html?n=2015/1115-1438581726.pdf |journal=International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies |volume=II, Issue-I, July 2015 |pages=Page No. 278–287}}</ref>

These people mostly live in chars and dubas (lower land) along Gangetic river lines from [[Katihar district]] of Bihar on the north bank and [[Sahebganj district|Sahibganj District]] of Jharkhand on the south bank to [[Murshidabad district]] of West Bengal on the South bank and [[Malda district]] of West Bengal on the north bank.{{Citation needed|date=September 2025}}

== Terminology ==
The word Shershabadia (from Persian: شرشابادیا) literally means the inhabitants of the land known as Sarsabad/Shershabad, a [[pargana]] of historical [[Bengal Subah]]. The term is derived from the community's place of origin known as Jawar-e-Sarsabad or Circle/Division of Sarsabad in [[Mughal Bengal]] province, which was reduced to a mere [[Pargana]] known as Sarsabad/Sersabad later on corrupted into Shershabad/Shershahabad. Located in the [[Bengal]] region, Shershabad comprised the parts of southern [[Malda district|Malda]] and northern [[Murshidabad district|Murshidabad]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=West Bengal Commission for Backward Classes Report on Shershabadia Muslim|url=http://www.wbcbc.gov.in/advice/63-Shershabadia.pdf|website=www.wbcdc.gov.in|access-date=30 May 2020}}</ref>

==History and origin==
The Shershabadia [[Bengali Muslims|Bengali Muslim]] community originated from the erstwhile Jawar-e-Sarsabad or division of Sarsabad in [[Mughal Bengal]] province which comprised Northern parts of [[Murshidabad]], most parts of [[Malda district|Malda]] of West bengal and the north-eastern parts of [[Sahebganj]] district of Jharkhand.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" />

Towards the beginning of the 20th century, a large number of Shershabadias of Murshidabad (chiefly from Farakka, Samserganj and Suti police stations) gradually migrated to Malda along the upward river-stream of the Ganges to settle in the ''chars'' and ''diyaras'' due to the erosion of the west bank of the Ganges.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mitra |first=A. |title=West Bengal District Handbook: Malda |publisher=The Government of India Press |year=1954 |location=Calcutta |pages=19 |quote="There was also a great growth in Kaliachak, Manikchak, and Ratua on account of immigration of Shershabadias from Farakka, Samserganj and Suti police stations of Murshidabad." ..........."The decline of the lac industry in Ratua and Manikchak caused a decline in the growth of population which was concealed by the Ganges moving over to Santal Parganas and throwing up chars on the MaIda side which attracted immigrants from Murshidabad."}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Lambourne |first=GE |title=Bengal District Gazetteers Malda |publisher=The Bengal Secretariat Book Depot |year=1918 |location=Calcutta |pages=26, 28 |language=English}}</ref>

From Malda and Murshidabad they migrated upwards along the river-stream and scattered into the various regions of Eastern Bihar and Northern Bengal. The cause of migration is thought to be due to the oppression of British Government for their engagement in the anti-British activities and the erosion of the Ganges along the left and right banks.<ref name=":0" />

They participated in the anti-British activities under the banner of [[Wahabi movement]] in the mid nineteenth century. They established several anti-British outposts across the district of Malda and adjoining regions. Freedom fighters, funds, ammunitions etc. were collected from wide areas by boat through river ways and were gathered at first in Narayanpur centre and then forwarded to Patna centre by board and ultimately supplied systematically to Sittana, the battlefield of the North-West Frontiers. They developed systematic collections of [[Zakat]], Osor, [[Zakat al-Fitr|Fitra]], and other voluntary subscriptions from these areas.<ref name=":0" /> They also invented a new system of collecting fund, i.e. "Mutthi". This system was invented by the Patna Kalif for the cause of developing fund to launch anti-British Movement.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hunter |first=W W |title=The Indian Musalmans |publisher=Trubner and Company |year=1876 |edition=3rd |location=London |pages=82 |language=English}}</ref>

They were engaged in anti-British activities under leaders such as Maulana Rafi Mondal, Moulavi Amiruddin and Ibrahim Mondal.<ref name=":0" /> The leaders of the movement were prosecuted in 1869 for waging war against the [[British Raj|British Government]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mitra |first=A. |title=West Bengal District Handbook: Malda |publisher=The Government of India Press |year=1954 |location=Calcutta |pages=19 |quote="The prevailing ioctrine amongst the Shersabadiyas is that known as Farazi, though different groups are known by such names as Lamazhabis, Wahabis, Hadayat. The common feature of these schisms is that they profess to base themselves on the text of the Koran and do not adhere to any of the regular schools of doctrine into which the Muhammadan religious world is divided. In practice the adherents of these doctrines object to taking service and to allowing any marriageable woman to remain unmarried, in addition to acknowledging the ordinary prohibitions amongst Muhammadans in respect of drinking, smoking and usury."............"In 1869 several prosecutions for waging war against the Queen were instituted against Wahabis."}}</ref> Moulavi Amiruddin and Ibrahim Mondal were sentenced to the exile in the [[Andaman Islands]] in the conspiracy of Malda, 1870 and conspiracy of Rajmahal, 1870 respectively.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dey |first=Amalendu |title=Bangalee Buddhijibi O Bicchinnotabad |year=1987 |location=Calcutta |pages=118, 119 |language=Bengali}}</ref>

During the British period, the Shershabadia people were considered by the British authorities, to have criminal tendency for the involvement of some members in the anti-British movement known as Wahabi Movement, but later on the British authority changed their attitude to this community.<ref name="Sajjad2014">{{cite book |author=Mohammad Sajjad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qiRHBAAAQBAJ |title=Muslim Politics in Bihar: Changing Contours |date=13 August 2014 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-317-55981-8 |page=288}}</ref>

==Geographic Distribution==
The Shershabadias traditionally resides along the left and right banks of the Ganges from [[Rajmahal subdivision]] of Jharkhand up to the [[Chapai Nawabganj District|Chapai Nawabganj]] district of [[Bangladesh]]'s [[Rajshahi Division]]. At present, they live mainly in the surrounding districts of [[West Bengal]] and [[Bihar]] namely [[Malda district|Malda]], [[Murshidabad]], [[Uttar Dinajpur district|Uttar Dinajpur]], [[Purnia]], [[Katihar]], [[Kishanganj]] etc. Presently, after the divide of Bihar into Jharkhand, the north-eastern parts of [[Sahebganj district|Sahebganj]] and [[Pakur district]] are where they are found.<ref name="S Gopal pages 876"/> They also live in Darjeeling and Uttar Dinajpur districts of West Bengal where they migrated from Malda and Murshidabad.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Debbarman |first=Prasenjit |title=Socio-economic Life of Muslim Badias in West Bengal |pages=29, 30 |language=Bengali}}</ref>

==Present circumstances==
The Shershabadia people reportedly speak ''[[North Central Bengali dialect|Maldaiya Bengali]]'', a [[subdialect]] of the [[North Central Bengali dialect]] of [[Bengali language|Bengali]].<ref name=":1" /> Those who reside in Bihar and Jharkhand have knowledge of [[Hindi]] and [[Urdu]].

They are a community of settled agriculturist, but as their population has grown, the land ownership has been sub-divided. This has led to many becoming landless, and a growth of those in the community who are agricultural labour, day labour, teaching, business etc. This drift is aggravated also due to the [[River bank erosion along the Ganges in Malda and Murshidabad districts|river bank erosion]] along the Ganges which flows through the parts of the southern Malda and Northern Murshidabad.

The community entirely belongs to [[Sunni]] [[Muslim]]. The majority do not belong to any of the four recognized theological schools of Islam viz. Hanafi, Shafi'i, Maliki and Hanbali. Rather they follow all the correct call from all the four Imams and they are known as [[Ahl-i Hadith]] (strict followers of the [[Quran]] and [[Hadith]]).<ref name=":0" /> Preaching of any Pir/ Darbesh (Muslim Saint) is not accepted of them normally. Except the prayer in funeral ground they do not perform Jiyarat (a type of prayer kindling light). As a whole they are not involved in popular [[Muharram]] but some of them are remain on fasting throughout the day. Charham and Chalisha (observance on fourth and fortieth day after death) are not performed in most of the Shershabadia Community.<ref name="S Gopal pages 876" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mitra |first=A. |title=West Bengal District Handbook: Malda |publisher=The Government of India Press |year=1954 |location=Calcutta |pages=19 |quote="The prevailing doctrine amongst the Shersabadiyas is that known as Farazi, though different groups are known by such names as Lamazhabis, Wahabis, Hadayat. The common feature of these schisms is that they profess to base themselves on the text of the Koran and do not adhere to any of the regular schools of doctrine into which the Muhammadan religious world is divided. In practice the adherents of these doctrines object to taking service and to allowing any marriageable woman to remain unmarried, in addition to acknowledging the ordinary prohibitions amongst Muhammadans in respect of drinking, smoking and usury."............."The Farazi sects are distinguished in this respect from other Muhammadans in that they repudlate as idolatrous such gatherings in honour of departed saints, stigmatising those who assist at them as Bedatis."}}</ref>

==Social Traditions==
They live in the organised settlements of their own in a para or village. Few households from the same area forms a Jamat or Dōsh. This Jamat is responsible for managing ceremonies related to birth, marriage and death. It also settles the familial and land disputes locally. The role of [[Sardar|Sōrdar]] of the Jamat (Chief of the Community) is very important in this society.

Their females follow the system of Parda (Veil) as far as practiced. Shershabadia women are experts in stitching Kantha/Kheta (clothes) and singing Shershabadia Geed (songs).

Marriage is solemnised mostly at daytime. During marriages they perform the rituals like ''Haldi Makha, Bayna Kora, Geed Gaha, Thubra Khawa'' etc.<ref name=":1" />

Their traditional food items include Kalayer uti/ruti, ''Ayaikhar Khir, Bhakka, Patasapta, Pantabhat, Jalbhat, Andhasa/Adarsa, Chityai/Chitua Pitha'' etc.<ref name=":1" />

==See also==
* [[Bengali Muslim]]
* [[Khotta Muslim]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Indian Muslim}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Bengali Shaikh Of Bihar}}
[[Category:Social groups of Bihar]]
[[Category:Muslim communities of West Bengal]]
[[Category:Muslim communities of Bihar]]
[[Category:Bengali Muslims]]
[[Category:Shaikh clans]]
[[Category:Bengali people]]

Nua Dunia

2025-10-03T13:25:37Z

Juliaauhm: improved references as per guidelines and cleaned formatting

{{Short description|Indian weekly newspaper}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2022}}
{{Infobox newspaper
| name = Nuadunia
| caption =
| logo =
| logo_size =
| image =
| image_size =
| type = Weekly [[Newspaper]]
| format = Print
| founded = 1942
| ceased_publication =
| price =
| owners = Communist Party of India Odisha State Council
| publisher = Prasant Patjoshi
| editor = Ramesh Chandra Padhi
| associate_editor =
| staff_writers =
| language = [[Odia language|Odia]]
| political_position = [[Left-wing]]
| circulation =
| headquarters = [[Bhubaneswar]]
| publishing_city =
| oclc =
| ISSN =
| website = {{URL|http://www.nuadunia.com/}}
| free =
}}
The '''''Nua Dunia''''' is a Odia weekly newspaper published in [[Odisha]], India.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1FHdTUjFxXwC&q=+Nua+Duniya&pg=PA82 |publisher=United States Information Agency. Office of Research |title = Reports |date = October 1964}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Lest We Forget |url=https://www.mainstreamweekly.net/article1443.html |quote=He edited several publications including Nua Dunia, the weekly organ of the Orissa CPI. |date=22 June 2009 |publisher=Mainstream}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26906190|jstor = 26906190|title = The Communist Movement of Odisha|last1 = Pradhan|first1 = Prasant Kumar|journal = Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|year = 2017|volume = 78|pages = 1119–1128}}</ref> It is the official organ of the Odisha State Council of the [[Communist Party of India]]. Ramesh Chandra Padhi is the editor of ''Nuadunia''.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://drive.google.com/file/d/1XES1U8bhoAGf5MdVe7LZwm3Bvw9ZEx60/view?usp=sharing|title=ND-15- 21 Color.pdf}}</ref>

Nuadunia was established in 1942, and was initially published from [[Cuttack]] as the organ of the Utkal State Council of CPI.<ref name=ndp>{{cite book|title=Press in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RGgeAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA653|year=1971|publisher=Office of the Registrar of Newspapers.|page=653}}</ref><ref name="Sehanavis1975">{{cite book|author=Chinmohan Sehanavis|title=Fifty Years of Communist Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dN4ZAAAAMAAJ|year=1975|publisher=Communist Party of India|page=12}}</ref> Initial editors were Mohan Das, [[Prananath Patnaik]], Ramakrushna Pati, Sarat Patnaik.<ref name="Sehanavis1975"/> As of the early 1970s {{ill|Gurucharan Patnaik|or|ଗୁରୁଚରଣ ପଟ୍ଟନାୟକ}} was the editor of the weekly.<ref name=ndp/><ref name="Sehanavis1975"/>

As of the early 2000s, ''Nuadunia'' had a circulation of 20,483.<ref name="India2006">{{cite book|author=India. Office of the Registrar of Newspapers for India|title=Press in India: Annual Report of the Registrar of Newspapers for India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tGZL5SZrjsgC|year=2006|publisher=Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India}}</ref>

Initially the newspaper was named ''Janajudha'' ('People's War').<ref name="Mohanty1979">{{cite book|author=Balaram Mohanty|title=Introducing Orissa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DZgdAAAAMAAJ|year=1979|publisher=Konarka Prakasani|page=147}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Odia-language newspapers]]
[[Category:Newspapers published in Odisha]]
[[Category:Communist Party of India]]
[[Category:Communist periodicals published in India]]

Aakashavaani

2025-09-05T05:55:13Z

Juliaauhm: Done

{{short description|2021 film by Ashwin Gangaraju}}
{{other uses|Akashvani (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2021}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2021}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Aakashavaani
| image = Aakashavaani poster.jpeg
| caption = Official release poster
| director = Ashwin Gangaraju
| screenplay = Ashwin Gangaraju [[Sandeep Raj]] Sai Kumar Reddy
| story = Ashwin Gangaraju
{{Infobox | decat = yes | child = yes
| label1= Dialogue by
| data1 = [[Sai Madhav Burra]]
}}
| producer = Padmanabha Reddy
| starring = [[Samuthirakani]] [[Vinay Varma]] Teja Kakumanu Prashant
| cinematography = Suresh Ragutu
| editing = [[A. Sreekar Prasad]]
| music = [[Kaala Bhairava]]
| studio = AU&I Studios
| distributor = [[SonyLIV]]
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2021|9|24}}
| runtime = 132 minutes
| country = India
| language = Telugu
| budget =
| gross =
}}

'''''Aakashavaani''''' ({{translation|Radio}}) is a 2021 Indian [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language [[slice-of-life]] [[Drama (film and television)|drama film]] directed by debutant Ashwin Gangaraju and produced by Padmanabha Reddy. It features [[Samuthirakani]], [[Vinay Varma]], Teja Kakumanu and Prashanth in prominent roles. The film tells the story of tribal people in a remote location of [[Andhra Pradesh]] who treat a radio as a talking God. The music is composed by [[Kaala Bhairava]] with editing by [[A. Sreekar Prasad]]. Initially scheduled for a theatrical release, the film was released on the [[streaming platform]] [[SonyLIV]] on 24 September 2021 owing to the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].

==Plot==
A tribe in the forests hills of [[Andhra Pradesh]] lives under the tight grip of ''Dora'' ([[Lord]] in Telugu) who forbids anyone from entering or leaving the village without his permission. Violators are severely punished and at times killed by Dora's henchman Sambadu. The tribe, however, believes that Dora is a do-gooder who is equal to God. Rangadu's son Giddadu is responsible for herding the sheep. One day, he comes across a [[radio]] with a [[cotton candy]] distributor and exchanges it for a lamb. Sambadu is furious that the lamb was traded without his knowledge and brutally thrashes Giddadu. The tribe's priest is unable to heal Giddadu and asks everyone to pray the God for his life. They listen to the murmuring sound of the radio and follow its instructions to save Giddadu. The tribe, who have no knowledge of what a radio is, believe it's an incarnation of God speaking to them.

Meanwhile, Dora's only child is in critical condition due to [[jaundice]]. The tribe meets Dora and asks his permission to build a temple for their newfound God. Upon hearing that God saved Giddadu, Dora accepts their proposal with an intention to [[human sacrifice|sacrifice]] Giddadu to save his child's life. He sets up a painted electrical pole as [[Dhwaja Stambha]]m and inaugurates the temple. Dora and his assistant Lingayya realize that the tribe was praying to the radio but laugh it off. During their celebration, Giddadu is kidnapped and sent for sacrifice. The tribe watches a light climb up the hill and believes God was taking Giddadu away. Ranga helplessly begs God to save Giddadu, and the radio replies to stop the light before it reaches the hilltop. Ranga runs to save Giddadu but the light reaches the hilltop before him. While returning, he comes across Chandram and Srinu who met with an accident. Rangadu takes them to their village for treatment. The tribe is wary of outsiders but the radio asks them to treat their relatives nicely. Upon realizing that Dora was using the villagers as his salves for his illegal [[Cannabis]] cultivation, Chandram exposes him when Dora kicks the priest for non-compliance. The tribe still refuses to believe that Dora is evil, and sends Chadram and Srinu away upon his orders. Later, they are kidnapped by Dora who orders his men to kill them. While they are being taken to the hilltop on a tractor, Chandram wakes up and fights off the driver. The tribe for the first time watches the light (which is revealed to be the tractor's headlight) come down the hill and believe that Chandram is sent back by God.

Chandram makes the tribe listen to [[Hiranyakashipu]] and [[Prahlada]]'s story on the radio, and compares Dora to the evil Hiranyakashipu and the tribe to the benevolent Prahlada. He convinces them that he had met the God who asked him to rid the village of Dora. On the other hand, Dora's child is dead and Sambadu complains to him that they lost their hold on the tribe due to the radio. Dora and his men attack the tribe who fights back. Sambadu goes on to destroy the radio but Rangadu kills him in retaliation. Dora hacks Rangadu from behind and dares God to kill him if he exists. Lightning strikes the electric pole and kills Dora who was standing beneath it.

== Cast ==
* [[Samuthirakani]] as Chandram Master
* [[Vinay Varma]] as Dora
* Teja Kakumanu as Sambadu
* Prashant as Giddadu
* [[Mime Madhu]] as Rangadu
* Shaking Seshu as Lingayya
* [[Getup Srinu]] as Srinu

== Production ==
In November 2018, filmmaker [[S. S. Rajamouli]]'s son S. S. Karthikeya announced his maiden production ''Aakashavaani.''<ref>{{Cite web|date=21 November 2018|title=SS Karthikeya turns Akashavaani producer. SS Rajamouli is a proud father|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/ss-karthikeya-turns-akashavaani-producer-ss-rajamouli-is-a-proud-father-1393342-2018-11-21|url-status=live|access-date=2021-09-24|website=India Today|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181122111524/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/ss-karthikeya-turns-akashavaani-producer-ss-rajamouli-is-a-proud-father-1393342-2018-11-21 |archive-date=22 November 2018 }}</ref> The film marks the directorial debut of Ashwin Gangaraju, an alumnus of [[Suresh Productions|Ramanaidu Film School]]. The film was shot for around 55 days in [[Paderu]] of [[Visakhapatnam district]], [[Andhra Pradesh]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Chowdhary|first=Y. Sunita|date=2019-04-27|title=Ashwin Gangaraju: The time is now ripe for Aakashavaani|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/ashwin-gangaraju-the-time-is-now-ripe-for-aakashavaani/article26966328.ece}}</ref> Nearly 90% of the shoot was completed by April 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-04-19|title=Aakashavani completed 90% of its shooting - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/aakashavani-completed-90-of-its-shooting/articleshow/68955815.cms|url-status=live|access-date=|website=The Times of India|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210924081021/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/aakashavani-completed-90-of-its-shooting/articleshow/68955815.cms |archive-date=24 September 2021 }}</ref>

In May 2020, Karthikeya opted out of the project citing creative differences and the production was handed over to A. Padmanabha Reddy of AU&I Studios.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Kumar|first=Karthik|date=2020-05-09|title=SS Rajamouli's son Karthikeya opts out of maiden production Aakasavani|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/regional-movies/ss-rajamouli-s-son-karthikeya-opts-out-of-maiden-production-aakasavani/story-FAP5egr3QrKRy3bd8EALfN.html|url-status=live|website=Hindustan Times|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200509155535/https://www.hindustantimes.com/regional-movies/ss-rajamouli-s-son-karthikeya-opts-out-of-maiden-production-aakasavani/story-FAP5egr3QrKRy3bd8EALfN.html |archive-date=9 May 2020 }}</ref>

== Release ==
The film was initially scheduled to release theatrically on 4 June 2021 but was deferred due to [[COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=K.|first=Janani|date=4 June 2021|title=Samuthirakani's Aakashavaani release postponed due to Covid-19 lockdown|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/samuthirakani-s-aakashavaani-release-postponed-due-to-covid-19-lockdown-1810782-2021-06-04|url-status=live|website=India Today|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210604072917/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/samuthirakani-s-aakashavaani-release-postponed-due-to-covid-19-lockdown-1810782-2021-06-04 |archive-date=4 June 2021 }}</ref> Later, the makes opted for a [[direct-to-streaming]] release on [[SonyLIV]] on 24 September 2021.<ref>{{Cite web|last=K.|first=Janani|date=21 September 2021|title=Prabhas shares Aakashavaani trailer, film to premiere on SonyLIV on September 24|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/prabhas-shares-aakashavaani-trailer-film-to-premiere-on-sonyliv-on-september-24-1855295-2021-09-21|url-status=live|website=India Today|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210922022326/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/prabhas-shares-aakashavaani-trailer-film-to-premiere-on-sonyliv-on-september-24-1855295-2021-09-21 |archive-date=22 September 2021 }}</ref>

== Reception ==
Y. Sunitha Chowdhary of ''[[The Hindu]]'' called it an "original gem" and appreciated Gangaraju's screenplay and Raghutu's cinematography. She praised the performances of Mime Madhu, Samuthirakani, Varma and other cast.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Chowdhary|first=Y. Sunita|date=2021-09-23|title='Aakashavaani' movie review: Definitely an original gem|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/reviews/aakashavaani-movie-review-director-ashwin-gangaraju-comes-up-with-an-endearing-original-tale/article36629927.ece|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> [[The New Indian Express|''Cinema Express'']] critic Ram Venkat Srikar rated the film 3 stars of 5 and said, "[The film] might be overlong but its unadulterated intentions coupled with an equally coherent story-telling make it a worthwhile watch." He opined that not having a clear protagonist was one of the film's drawbacks.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-09-24|title=Aakashavaani Movie Review: An engaging take on oppression and superstition|url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/telugu/review/2021/sep/24/aakashavaani-movie-review-samuthirakani-sonyliv-26854.html|url-status=live|access-date=|website=[[Cinema Express]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210924081021/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/telugu/review/2021/sep/24/aakashavaani-movie-review-samuthirakani-sonyliv-26854.html |archive-date=24 September 2021 }}</ref> Writing for ''[[The Times of India]]'', Sravan Vanaparthy also felt the same and wrote: "''Aakashavaani'' might have its flaws but it has a novel storyline backing it up and engages in parts."<ref>{{cite web |title=AAKASHAVAANI REVIEW : MODERATELY ENGAGING BUT BLAND |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/web-series/reviews/telugu/aakashavaani/ottmoviereview/86512786.cms |website=The Times of India |date=26 September 2021}}</ref>

Surya Prakash in his review for ''[[Asianet News]]'' compared the story with the South African film ''[[The Gods Must Be Crazy]]'' (1980) but felt that the director faltered while making the film in a [[Telugu people|Telugu]] setting with a much serious tone.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Surya|first=Prakash|date=2021-09-24|title='ఆకాశవాణి' రివ్యూ|url=https://telugu.asianetnews.com/movie-reviews/aakashavaani-telugu-movie-review-qzx5fg|url-status=live|access-date=|website=Asianet News Network Pvt Ltd|language=te|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210924081023/https://telugu.asianetnews.com/movie-reviews/aakashavaani-telugu-movie-review-qzx5fg |archive-date=24 September 2021 }}</ref> A reviewer from [[NTV (Indian TV channel)|''NTV'']] appreciated the performances and production values but criticized the slow-paced narration.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-09-23|title=రివ్యూ: ఆకాశవాణి|url=https://ntvtelugu.com/ashwin-gangaraju-aakashavaani-movie-review/|url-status=live|website=NTV|language=te|archive-url=https://archive.today/20210924075959/https://ntvtelugu.com/ashwin-gangaraju-aakashavaani-movie-review/|archive-date=24 September 2021|access-date=24 September 2021}}</ref> ''[[Eenadu]]'' also gave a mediocre review for the film.<ref>{{cite web |title=ఆకాశవాణి రివ్యూ |url=https://www.eenadu.net/cinema/latestnews/akashvani-telugu-movie-Review/0201/121196681 |website=Eenadu |access-date=24 September 2021 |language=te}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==

* {{IMDb title|tt9322884}}
* [https://www.sonyliv.com/movies/aakashavaani-1000136746 Aakashavaani] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210924010653/https://www.sonyliv.com/movies/aakashavaani-1000136746 |date=24 September 2021 }} on [[SonyLIV]]

[[Category:Films set in Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Films shot in Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:2021 direct-to-video films]]
[[Category:2021 directorial debut films]]
[[Category:2021 drama films]]
[[Category:2021 films]]
[[Category:Indian drama films]]
[[Category:Direct-to-video drama films]]
[[Category:SonyLIV original films]]
[[Category:Films about radio]]
[[Category:Films postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic]]
[[Category:Films not released in theaters due to the COVID-19 pandemic]]
[[Category:Films scored by Kaala Bhairava]]

Kattaka Kayal

2025-09-04T23:23:37Z

Juliaauhm: Article updated with improved flow

{{Short description|Lake in Kollam, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2018}}
{{Infobox body of water
| name = Kottakkal Kayal
| other_name = Kattakayal
| image =
| alt =
| caption =
| pushpin_map = India Kollam#Kerala
| pushpin_map_alt = Location of Kattaka Kayal within Kollam
| pushpin_label_position = bottom
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Kollam city
| image_bathymetry =
| alt_bathymetry =
| caption_bathymetry =
| location = [[Sakthikulangara]] in [[Kollam]], [[India]]
| coords = {{coord|8|55|23.0268|N|76|32|39.2136|E|type:waterbody_region:IN|display =inline,title}}
| type = [[Stream]]
| part_of = [[Ashtamudi Lake]]
| inflow = Vattakayal in [[Maruthadi]]
| rivers =
| outflow =
| catchment = {{convert|14.5|ha|sqmi|abbr=on}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/2004/09/20/stories/2004092005720300.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140901102439/http://www.thehindu.com/2004/09/20/stories/2004092005720300.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=1 September 2014 |title=A stream fading into history |date=20 September 2004 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=2 November 2016}}</ref>
| basin_countries = India
| agency = Kollam Municipal Corporation
| designation = Sagara Samskarika Sangham
| length = {{convert|2|km|mi|abbr=on}}
| width = {{convert|30|m|km|abbr=on}}
| area = {{convert|36|acre|abbr=on}}
| depth =
| max-depth =
| volume =
| residence_time =
| salinity =
| shore =
| elevation =
| temperature_high =
| temperature_low =
| frozen =
| islands = ''none''
| sections =
| islands_category =
| trenches =
| benches =
| cities = [[Kollam]]
| website =
| reference =
}}
'''Kattaka Kayal''' ([[Malayalam]]: കട്ടക കായല്‍) or '''Kattakayal''' is a freshwater lake in [[Kollam]] city in the [[Kerala]] state of [[India]]. The lake connects Vattakayal, a {{convert|36|acre|adj=on}} freshwater lake in [[Maruthadi]], with [[Ashtamudi Lake]] in the city.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/2004/09/20/stories/2004092005720300.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140901102439/http://www.thehindu.com/2004/09/20/stories/2004092005720300.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=1 September 2014 |title=A stream fading into historyg |date=20 September 2004 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=2 November 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.maruthadi.elisting.in/ |title=Maruthadi - Maruthadi.Elisting.in |access-date=2 November 2016 |archive-date=3 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161103234102/http://www.maruthadi.elisting.in/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.docs.kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_docman&task=cat_view&gid=467&Itemid=2707&limitstart=100 |title=Water Resources - Government of Kerala |date=7 March 2015 |access-date=2 November 2016 |archive-date=3 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161103235948/http://www.docs.kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_docman&task=cat_view&gid=467&Itemid=2707&limitstart=100 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==History==
Kattak Kayal is a part of [[Ashtamudi Lake]] and Vattakayal in Kollam. The {{convert|2|km|abbr=on|spell=in}} long stream was once the lifeline for most of the commercial activities at [[Sakthikulangara]]. Its width was {{convert|90|to|120|m|sp=us}} before 50 years. Three boat jetties were there along the course of Kattaka Kayal then and huge cargo vessels berthing for loading and unloading seafood items were a common view of [[Quilon]] city those days. It was home for more than 20 species of edible fish including [[Green chromide|Karimeen]] and [[Milkfish|Poomeen]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/2004/09/20/stories/2004092005720300.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140901102439/http://www.thehindu.com/2004/09/20/stories/2004092005720300.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=1 September 2014 |title=A stream fading into historyg |date=20 September 2004 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=2 November 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.docs.kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_details&gid=36220&Itemid=2702 |title=Tender Details for 7916_15 - Government of Kerala |date=7 March 2015 |access-date=2 November 2016 |archive-date=4 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104000055/http://www.docs.kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_details&gid=36220&Itemid=2702 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Revival Program==
A revival program for Vattakayal and Kattaka Kayal has been launched at [[Kollam]] on 1 November 2016 by [[V. Rajendrababu]], Mayor of [[Kollam Municipal Corporation]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/lake-revival-programme-launched/article9293436.ece |title=Lake revival programme launched - The Hindu |date=2 November 2016 |access-date=2 November 2016}}</ref> ''Kattakayal Punarjeevana Padhadi'' is an initiative of the Shakthikulangara-based cultural organisation Sagara Samskarika Sangham.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://kerala.indiaeveryday.in/news-lake-revival-programme-launched-1181-2828851.htm |title=Lake Revival Programme Launched - Indiaeveryday.in |date=2 November 2016 |access-date=2 November 2016 |archive-date=3 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161103235941/http://kerala.indiaeveryday.in/news-lake-revival-programme-launched-1181-2828851.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> The main aim of this program is to revive both the lakes through various phases that includes cleaning of the lake and awareness campaigns.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/lake-revival-programme-launched/article9293435.ece |title=Lake revival programme launched - The Hindu |date=2 November 2016 |access-date=2 November 2016}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Kollam]]
* [[Sakthikulangara]]
* [[Ashtamudi Lake]]
* [[Maruthadi]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Kollam |state=expanded}}
{{Waters of Kerala}}

[[Category:Tourist attractions in Kollam]]
[[Category:Lakes of Kollam]]
[[Category:Wetlands in Kollam district]]

Dus Bahane

2025-08-20T09:55:00Z

Juliaauhm:

{{short description|Song performed by KK and Shaan}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2024}}

{{Infobox song
| name = Dus Bahane
| cover = Dus Bahane.webp
| caption = Dus Bahane song cover
| alt = Dus Bahane song cover
| type = song
| artist = [[KK (singer)|KK]] and [[Shaan (singer)|Shaan]]
| album = [[Dus#Soundtrack|Dus]]
| language = [[Hindi language|Hindi]]
| released = {{Start date|df=yes|2005||}}
| format =
| recorded = 2004
| studio =
| venue =
| genre =
| length = 03:26
| label = [[T-Series (company)|T-Series]]
| composer = [[Vishal–Shekhar]]
| lyricist = Panchhi Jalonvi
| producer =
| misc = {{External music video|{{YouTube|qE3DfF66DNA|"Dus Bahane"}}|type=song}}
}}

"'''Dus Bahane'''" ({{Translation|Ten excuses}}) is a song from the 2005 Hindi film ''[[Dus]]'', sung by [[KK (singer)|KK]] and [[Shaan (singer)|Shaan]]. The lyrics for the song were written by Panchhi Jalonvi and the music is composed by [[Vishal–Shekhar]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://music.apple.com/in/song/dus-bahane/1138205144|title=Dus Bahane – Song by Shaan & KK|publisher=[[Apple Music]]|date=|accessdate=24 June 2024}}</ref>

"Dus Bahane" received positive reception from audiences and critics and became a chartbuster.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/music/we-are-the-agents-of-change-music-composer-duo-vishal-shekhar/story-e2XyTjZfwppo5txWuyUHOJ.html|title=We are the agents of change: Music composer duo Vishal-Shekhar|newspaper=[[Hindustan Times]]|date=18 July 2015|accessdate=5 August 2024}}</ref>

== Music video ==
The video shows Shashank Dheer ([[Abhishek Bachchan]]) and Aditya Singh ([[Zayed Khan]]) dancing to the song.<ref name="Zayed Khan reveals how they almost didn't shoot the song 'Dus Bahane': 'I was coming off a 12-hour shift and…'">{{cite news|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/zayed-khan-reveals-how-hit-number-dus-bahane-was-shot-in-10-hours-abhishek-bachchan-8553733/|title=Zayed Khan reveals how they almost didn't shoot the song 'Dus Bahane': 'I was coming off a 12-hour shift and…'|newspaper=[[The Indian Express]]|date=13 April 2023|accessdate=24 June 2024}}</ref>

=== Filming ===
Zayed Khan revealed to [[Bollywood Hungama]] that the song wasn't supposed to be shot, but the director [[Anubhav Sinha]] insisted Bachchan and Khan. Khan said, "if we manage to shoot it, fine, if not, we will release the movie as is". The song was shot in 10 hours.<ref name="Zayed Khan reveals how they almost didn't shoot the song 'Dus Bahane': 'I was coming off a 12-hour shift and…'"/>

== Critical reception ==
The song was well-received by the public and critics. According to [[Rediff.com]], "what people loved more than the script was the song of it. Viewers complained about the song coming on too early in the film."<ref>{{cite news|url=https://m.rediff.com/movies/2006/feb/01sd2.htm|title=Getting jiggy with Abhishek!|work=[[Rediff.com]]|date=|accessdate=24 June 2024}}</ref> Joginder Tuteja of [[Bollywood Hungama]] described the song as a "marvelous number" and said "if there has been a song this year that has caught the nation's attention on day one of the promos, it's the title song "Dus Bahane"".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/dus-2/songs/music-critic-review/|title=Dus Music Review|website=[[Bollywood Hungama]]|date=30 May 2005|accessdate=24 June 2024}}</ref> Sukanya Verma of [[Rediff.com]] also liked the song and described the song as "punchy and high-voltage."<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/review/dus/20050531.htm|title=Dus' music is good for a drive|work=Rediff.com|date=31 May 2005|accessdate=24 June 2024}}</ref>

==Accolades==
"Dus Bahane" won the award at the [[MTV Immies#2005|3rd ceremony]] of India's [[MTV Immies]]—Best Performance in a film song (Male) for Bachchan and Khan.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://m.rediff.com/movies/2005/dec/12sld8.htm|title=The MTV Immies Awards|work=Rediff.com|date=2005|accessdate=24 June 2024}}</ref> The song received nomination at the [[51st Filmfare Awards|51st ceremony]] of India's [[Filmfare Awards]]—[[Filmfare Award for Best Male Playback Singer|Best Male Playback Singer]] for Shaan and KK. It was also nominated at the [[7th IIFA Awards|7th ceremony]] of India's [[International Indian Film Academy Awards|IIFA Awards]]—[[IIFA Award for Best Male Playback Singer|Best Male Playback Singer]] for Shaan and KK.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/celebrities/story/khuda-jane-to-tadap-tadap-songs-that-earned-kk-awards-and-nominations-1956772-2022-06-01|title=Khuda Jane to Tadap Tadap, songs that earned KK awards and nominations|newspaper=[[India Today]]|date=1 June 2022|accessdate=24 June 2024}}</ref>

== Remix ==
A recreation music video [[Dus Bahane 2.0]] from the 2020 film [[Baaghi 3]] featuring [[Tiger Shroff]] and [[Shraddha Kapoor]] was released on 12 February 2020.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/baaghi-3-song-dus-bahane-2-0-sees-tiger-shroff-shraddha-kapoor-match-steps-in-vishal-shekhars-rehashed-number-8033431.html|title=Baaghi 3 song Dus Bahane 2.0 sees Tiger Shroff, Shraddha Kapoor match steps in Vishal-Shekhar's rehashed number|newspaper=[[Firstpost]]|date=12 February 2020|accessdate=24 June 2024}}</ref> Reacting to the remix, Vishal–Shekhar were not very happy about their song being remixed without their knowledge and said that "they were doing whatever they can do to save their song". They further added that "they were trying to fix so that the song isn't reduced to merely another shoddy remix."<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/vishal-dadlani-and-shekhar-ravjiani-talk-about-the-dus-bahane-remix/articleshow/73896606.cms|title=Vishal Dadlani and Shekhar Ravjiani talk about the 'Dus Bahane' remix|newspaper=The Times of India|date=3 February 2020|accessdate=24 June 2024}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Vishal–Shekhar}}
[[Category:2005 songs]]
[[Category:Songs written for Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:Shaan (singer) songs]]
[[Category:Songs with music by Vishal–Shekhar]]

List of Anglo-Indians

2025-04-05T06:16:26Z

Juliaauhm: Made redirect

#REDIRECT [[Anglo-Indian people#Notable people of Anglo-Indian descent]]

{{R from merge}}
{{R to section}}

[[Category:Anglo-Indian people|*]]
[[Category:Lists of Indian people|Anglo]]
[[Category:Lists of British people by descent|Indian]]

Pierre André Prévost de La Prévostière

2025-03-26T21:08:57Z

Juliaauhm: rework intro further and fixed typos based on references

{{Expand French|topic=bio|Pierre André Le Prévost|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
{{Original research|date=December 2019}}
'''Pierre André Prévost de La Prévostière''' was the Governor General of [[Puducherry (city)|Pondicherry]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gaudart de Soulages|first=Michel|title=Les dernières années de l'Inde française|publisher=Dualpha|year=2005|isbn=978-2915461145|language=fr}}</ref> During his time in office, France's main interests were more commercial than political. No significant events occurred during his tenure. Significant development started when his successor, [[Pierre Christoph Le Noir]] came into office.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{S-start}}
{{S-gov}}
{{Succession box | before= [[Pierre Dulivier]] | title=[[Governor-General]] of [[French India]] | after=[[Pierre Christoph Le Noir]] (Acting) | years=August 1718 – 11 October 1721}}
{{S-end}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Prevost}}

[[Category:Governors of French India]]
[[Category:Year of death unknown]]
[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]

{{Puducherry-politician-stub}}

Dupatta (1970 film)

2025-02-25T22:16:00Z

Juliaauhm: page

{{Short description|1970 film}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Dupatta
| image =
| alt =
| caption =
| director = Mohinder Wahi
| producer =
| writer =
| screenplay =
| story = [[Aziz Kashmiri]]
| based_on = 
| starring = [[Ravinder Kapoor]] [[Indira Billi]] [[Joy Mukherjee]] Gopal Saigal [[Sunder (actor)|Sunder]] [[Sonia Sahni]] [[Kamal Kapoor]] [[Saroj Khan]] [[Manorama (Hindi actress)|Manorama]] [[Mumtaz Begum (actress)|Mumtaz Begum]]
| music = Sapan Jagmohan
| cinematography =
| editing =
| studio =
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|1970|||}}
| runtime = 120 minutes
| country = India
| language = [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]
}}

'''''Dupatta''''' is a 1970 Indian Punjabi-language film<ref name=Cinemaazi>{{cite web|url=https://www.cinemaazi.com/film/dupatta|url-status=dead|archive-date=16 October 2021|website=Indian Cinema Heritage Foundation (Cinemaazi.com) website|title=Dupatta (1970 film) - film review|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211016020048/https://www.cinemaazi.com/film/dupatta|access-date=25 February 2025}}</ref> produced and directed by Mohinder Wahi,<ref name=Upperstall>{{cite web|url=https://www.upperstall.com/films/dupatta| title=Dupatta (1970 film)|website=Upperstall.com website|access-date=19 February 2025|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101223200743/https://upperstall.com/films/dupatta}}</ref> starring [[Ravinder Kapoor]], [[Indira Billi]], [[Joy Mukherjee]], Sunder, and [[Sonia Sahni]].<ref name=Upperstall/><ref name=Cinemaazi/>

== Music ==
Sapan Jagmohan composed the music<ref name=Upperstall/> for playback singers [[Mohammad Rafi]], [[Mahendra Kapoor]] and [[Asha Bhosle]]. [[Verma Malik]] wrote the film song lyrics.<ref name=Upperstall/><ref name=Cinemaazi/>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{IMDb title|0454444}} (1970 film)

[[Category:1970 films]]
[[Category:Indian black-and-white films]]
[[Category:Films set in Punjab, India]]
[[Category:Punjabi-language Indian films]]
[[Category:1970s Punjabi-language films]]

{{Punjabi-film-stub}}

Ram Singh Patel

2024-09-24T00:30:31Z

Juliaauhm: Added bio...

{{short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}

{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Ram Singh Patel
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=y|1 January 1983}}
| office = [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|Member]] (MLA) of [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
| term_start = 10 March 2022
| term_end =
| predecessor = [[Rajendra Pratap Singh]]
| successor =
| term_start1 = 2012
| term_end1 = 2017
| predecessor1 = [[Rajendra Pratap Singh]]
| successor1 = [[Rajendra Pratap Singh]]
| constituency1 = [[Patti, Uttar Pradesh Assembly constituency|Patti]], Uttar Pradesh
| party = [[Samajwadi Party]]
| alma_mater = [[Feroze Gandhi College]], [[Kanpur University]] 
Narvadeshwar Law College, [[Lucknow University]]
| father = [[Bal Kumar Patel]]
| mother =
| children =
| relations = [[Dadua]] (uncle) [[Veer Singh Patel]] (cousin)
}}

'''Ram Singh Patel''' (born 1 January 1983) is an Indian politician from [[Uttar Pradesh]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Patti Election Result: दस्यु ददुआ के भतीजे राम सिंह पटेल ने भाजपा के मंत्री को दी करारी शिकस्त - Patti Election Result SP Candidate Ram Singh nephew of dacoit Dadua defeats BJP minister Moti |url=https://www.jagran.com/uttar-pradesh/allahabad-city-patti-election-result-sp-candidate-ram-singh-nephew-of-dacoit-dadua-defeats-bjp-minister-moti-22532761.html |access-date=2024-04-07 |website=Jagran |language=hi}}</ref> He is a MLA from [[Patti, Uttar Pradesh Assembly constituency|Patti]] and has served the same constituency from 2012 to 2017.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://myneta.info/up2012/candidate.php?candidate_id=1309|title=Ram Singh(Samajwadi Party(SP)):Constituency- PATTI (PRATAPGARH) - Affidavit Information of Candidate:|website=myneta.info}}</ref> He lost the 2017 election by a margin of 1,476 votes and has fought all elections as a [[Samajwadi Party]] member.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.elections.in/uttar-pradesh/assembly-constituencies/patti.html|title=Patti Election and Results 2018, Candidate list, Winner, Runner-up, Current MLA and Previous MLAs|website=www.elections.in}}</ref> In the 2022 Uttar Pradesh Assembly elections, he defeated Bharatiya Janata Party candidate [[Rajendra Pratap Singh]] by a margin of 22,051 votes.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-03-10 |title=Patti Election Result UPDATE: पट्टी में सपा के राम सिंह ने दर्ज की जीत, 22 हजार वोटों से भाजपा को दी मात |url=https://hindi.news18.com/news/uttar-pradesh/patti-assembly-seat-result-live-update-win-lose-rajendra-pratap-singh-ram-singh-patel-phool-chandra-mishra-sunita-singh-patel-rrmb-4040301.html |access-date=2024-04-07 |website=News18 हिंदी |language=hi}}</ref>

==Personal life and education==
Ram Singh Patel is the son of [[Bal Kumar Patel]], former Lok Sabha MP from [[Mirzapur Lok Sabha constituency|Mirzapur]]. Ram Patel is the nephew of [[Shiv Kumar Patel]] (Dadua) who died on 22 July 2007 in a police encounter.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20121024204710/http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/UttarPradesh/Profile-of-the-dreaded-dacoit-Dadua/Article1-238069.aspx Hindustan Times]</ref>

He attended [[Feroze Gandhi College]] where he obtained a [[Master of Arts]] degree. He also studied at Narvadeshwar Law College, Lucknow and received a [[Bachelor of Laws]] degree.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://myneta.info/uttarpradesh2017/candidate.php?candidate_id=3367|title=Ram Singh(Samajwadi Party(SP)):Constituency- PATTI(PRATAPGARH) - Affidavit Information of Candidate:|website=myneta.info}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Singh, Ram}}
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Uttar Pradesh MLAs 2012–2017]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Chhatrapati Shahu Ji Maharaj University alumni]]
[[Category:Uttar Pradesh MLAs 2022–2027]]
[[Category:1983 births]]

{{UttarPradesh-INC-politician-stub}}

MTV Splitsvilla season 8

2024-09-07T19:27:23Z

Juliaauhm: Redirect article

#REDIRECT [[MTV Splitsvilla#Season_8]]
{{Redirect category shell|
{{R to section}}
}}

Virgo Shaka

2024-08-13T14:48:31Z

Juliaauhm: Redirect page

#REDIRECT [[List of Saint Seiya characters#Virgo Shaka]]

{{Redirect category shell|1=
{{R to list entry}}
{{R from fictional character|Saint Seiya}}
}}

Project Vartak

2024-07-19T09:00:14Z

Juliaauhm: Added new details

{{distinguish|Vartak}}
{{Short description|Indian army road engineering project}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2021}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2021}}
{{Infobox military unit
| unit_name = Vartak
| image =
| country = {{IND}}
| type = [[Army]], [[Engineering]]
| role = Construction and maintenance of infrastructure in Arunachal Pradesh and adjoining Districts of Assam
| garrison = [[Tezpur]], [[Assam]], [[India]]
| garrison_label = Headquarters
| motto = Patience – Perseverance – Performance<ref>{{Cite web|date=2010-09-21|title=Border Roads Organisation|url=http://www.bro.nic.in/index2.asp?sublinkid=289|access-date=2021-10-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100921085952/http://www.bro.nic.in/index2.asp?sublinkid=289|archive-date=21 September 2010}}</ref>
| anniversaries = BRO Day: 7 May ; Raising Day: 7 May<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-05-08|title=61st Raising Day of Border Roads celebration by Project Vartak - Sentinelassam|url=https://www.sentinelassam.com/north-east-india-news/assam-news/61st-raising-day-of-border-roads-celebration-by-project-vartak-537445|access-date=2021-10-19|website=www.sentinelassam.com|language=en|archive-date=19 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019185816/https://www.sentinelassam.com/north-east-india-news/assam-news/61st-raising-day-of-border-roads-celebration-by-project-vartak-537445|url-status=live}}</ref>
| website = [https://bro.gov.in https://bro.gov.in]
| commander1 = Lt. Gen.
Raghu Srinivasan<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lt General Raghu Srinivasan assumes charge as Border Roads Organisation chief |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/lt-general-raghu-srinivasan-assumes-charge-as-border-roads-organisation-chief-2442853-2023-10-01 |access-date=2023-10-02 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref>
| commander1_label = [[Director general|Director General]]
| commander2 = [[Brigadier]] Harish Kumar<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-08-18|title=Border Road Organization organized Azadi ka Amrit Mahotsav in Tezpur - Sentinelassam|url=https://www.sentinelassam.com/north-east-india-news/assam-news/border-road-organization-organized-azadi-ka-amrit-mahotsav-in-tezpur-550947|access-date=2021-10-21|website=www.sentinelassam.com|language=en|archive-date=21 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021173124/https://www.sentinelassam.com/north-east-india-news/assam-news/border-road-organization-organized-azadi-ka-amrit-mahotsav-in-tezpur-550947|url-status=live}}</ref>
| commander2_label = Chief Engineer
| start_date = {{Start date and age|df=yes|1960|05|07}}
}}
'''Vartak''', also known as '''Project VARTAK''' is a project of the [[Border Roads Organisation]] under the [[Ministry of Defence (India)|Ministry of Defence]] of India.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Elite Force of Border Roads Organisation|url=https://www.team-bhp.com/news/elite-force-border-roads-organisation|access-date=2021-10-21|website=Team-BHP.com|language=en|archive-date=21 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021184442/https://www.team-bhp.com/news/elite-force-border-roads-organisation|url-status=live}}</ref> It was formed on 7 May 1960 as a provision of the 2nd Border Roads Development Board Meeting with the then [[Prime Minister of India]] [[Jawaharlal Nehru|Jawahar Lal Nehru]] as Project Tusker, which was later renamed Project Vartak in 1963.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-10-14|title=Border Roads Organisation - JournalsOfIndia|url=https://journalsofindia.com/border-roads-organisation/|access-date=2021-10-19|language=en-US|archive-date=28 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028120405/https://journalsofindia.com/border-roads-organisation/|url-status=dead}}</ref> The initial task of this project was to construct and maintain roads between [[Bhalukpong]] and [[Tenga, Arunachal Pradesh|Tenga]]. It was the first established project of Border Roads Organisation. Its task was later expanded to construct and maintain roads in Arunachal Pradesh and adjoining [[districts of Assam]]. Major General O.M Mani was the first Chief Engineer of the project.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-03-06|title=History of Project Vartak|url=http://bro.gov.in/WriteReadData/linkimages/8903043223-project%20history.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019185644/http://bro.gov.in/WriteReadData/linkimages/8903043223-project%20history.pdf|archive-date=2021-10-19|access-date=2021-10-20|website=Border Roads Organisation}}</ref>

Vartak successfully completed its initial task in October 1962, connecting Bhalukpong to [[Bomdila]] via Tenga and thus bringing motorable connectivity to these far-flung regions for the first time.<ref>{{Cite web|title=CM raises concern over delay in Bhalukpong-Bomdila road – Arunachal Pradesh|url=http://www.arunachalpradesh.gov.in/cm-raises-concern-over-delay-in-bhalukpong-bomdila-road/|access-date=2021-10-19|website=www.arunachalpradesh.gov.in|archive-date=19 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019191320/http://www.arunachalpradesh.gov.in/cm-raises-concern-over-delay-in-bhalukpong-bomdila-road/|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Works and involvement ==

Over the years, Vartak has become a major candidate for infrastructure development in western Arunachal Pradesh.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-06-28|title=Bolstering defences|url=https://www.thestatesman.com/supplements/north/bolstering-defences-1502977072.html|access-date=2021-10-21|website=The Statesman|language=en-US|archive-date=21 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021184437/https://www.thestatesman.com/supplements/north/bolstering-defences-1502977072.html|url-status=live}}</ref> It has successfully completed massive projects, improving connectivity all around Arunachal Pradesh.<ref>{{Cite web|agency=TNN|date=May 24, 2020|title=Arunachal Pradesh CM inaugurates two bridges near India-China border|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/itanagar/arunachal-pradesh-cm-inaugurates-two-bridges-near-india-china-border/articleshow/75939138.cms|access-date=2021-10-21|website=The Times of India|language=en|archive-date=21 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021191314/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/itanagar/arunachal-pradesh-cm-inaugurates-two-bridges-near-india-china-border/articleshow/75939138.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> It has constructed major bridges and roads connecting the far-flung border areas of Arunachal Pradesh. Some major bridges include Yasong and Sarti bridges, Karteso Kong and Kangdang Sila bridges, Tanchen Panga bridge, Ungu bridge, Siang bridge, Sigit bridge, Sisseri Bridge.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Gurung|first=Shaurya Karanbir|title=Border Roads Organisation constructs strategic bridge in Arunachal Pradesh|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/border-roads-organisation-constructs-strategic-bridge-in-arunachal-pradesh/articleshow/75255064.cms|access-date=2021-10-21|archive-date=21 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021190552/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/border-roads-organisation-constructs-strategic-bridge-in-arunachal-pradesh/articleshow/75255064.cms|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-10-26|title=From key bridges to strategically crucial tunnels, a look at BRO's infra push in North East|url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/from-key-bridges-to-strategically-crucial-tunnels-a-look-at-border-roads-organisations-infra-push-in-north-east-8953541.html|access-date=2021-10-21|website=Firstpost|language=en|archive-date=21 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021184441/https://www.firstpost.com/india/from-key-bridges-to-strategically-crucial-tunnels-a-look-at-border-roads-organisations-infra-push-in-north-east-8953541.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Major roads like the [[Balipara-Charduar-Tawang Axis]] and the [[Guwahati-Tawang Axis]] are important networks for improving connectivity in border areas. Vartak is also constructing numerous [[tunnels]] to facilitate all-weather travel in regions where fog is common to shorten travelling time between isolated places in Western Arunachal Pradesh.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sela Tunnel in final stage, promises all-weather connectivity to Tawang in Arunachal Pradesh|url=https://www.aninews.in/news/national/general-news/sela-tunnel-in-final-stage-promises-all-weather-connectivity-to-tawang-in-arunachal-pradesh20211022065452/|access-date=2021-10-24|website=ANI News|language=en|archive-date=20 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220024023/https://www.aninews.in/news/national/general-news/sela-tunnel-in-final-stage-promises-all-weather-connectivity-to-tawang-in-arunachal-pradesh20211022065452/|url-status=live}}</ref> Major tunnels include the [[Nechiphu Tunnel]] and the Sela Tunnel.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Last blast of escape tube of under-construction Sela Tunnel conducted|url=https://www.devdiscourse.com/article/headlines/1662073-last-blast-of-escape-tube-of-under-construction-sela-tunnel-conducted|access-date=2021-10-21|website=Devdiscourse|language=en|archive-date=21 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021184443/https://www.devdiscourse.com/article/headlines/1662073-last-blast-of-escape-tube-of-under-construction-sela-tunnel-conducted|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=BRO's all-weather Nechiphu tunnel aims to cut short time for convoy movement towards China border|url=https://www.aninews.in/news/national/general-news/bros-all-weather-nechiphu-tunnel-aims-to-cut-short-time-for-convoy-movement-towards-china-border20211018190704/|access-date=2021-10-21|website=ANI News|language=en|archive-date=21 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021184436/https://www.aninews.in/news/national/general-news/bros-all-weather-nechiphu-tunnel-aims-to-cut-short-time-for-convoy-movement-towards-china-border20211018190704/|url-status=live}}</ref> Many roads connecting Bhalukpong to adjoining districts of Assam are also built.<ref>{{Cite news|title=BRO to construct tunnels to cut down distance to China border|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/bro-to-construct-tunnels-to-cut-down-distance-to-china-border/articleshow/59736787.cms|access-date=2021-10-21|archive-date=21 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021184436/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/bro-to-construct-tunnels-to-cut-down-distance-to-china-border/articleshow/59736787.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> Vartak had earlier constructed infrastructure for universities. Construction of residential accommodation, development of internal roads in [[Tezpur University]], construction of the Degree & Diploma Academic blocks, and residential accommodation for the [[North Eastern Regional Institute of Science and Technology]](NERIST), Itanagar and the construction of residential school with boy's and girl's hostel for [[Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya]] at [[Gorponding]] in [[Tawang]], as part of the Rural Education Development Programme are the major works. Deposit works<ref>{{Cite web|title=CHAPTER XVIII|url=http://indianrailways.gov.in/railwayboard/uploads/codesmanual/EngCode/chapter-xviii.htm#:~:text=Definition.,funds%20from%20non-railway%20sources.|access-date=2021-10-24|website=indianrailways.gov.in|archive-date=27 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230627183144/https://indianrailways.gov.in/railwayboard/uploads/codesmanual/EngCode/chapter-xviii.htm#:~:text=Definition.,funds%20from%20non-railway%20sources.|url-status=live}}</ref> from various agencies like North East Council (NEC),<ref>{{Cite web|title=NER Vision 2020|url=http://necouncil.gov.in/about-us/nec-vision-2020-0|access-date=2021-10-21|website=necouncil.gov.in|archive-date=21 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021191422/http://necouncil.gov.in/about-us/nec-vision-2020-0|url-status=live}}</ref> [[North Eastern Electric Power Corporation Limited|North Eastern Electrical Power Corporation (NEEPCO)]] and [[Oil India]] were undertaken by this Project<ref>{{Cite web|title=Vartak with NERIST|url=https://easternmirrornagaland.com/india-priest-of-world-peace-but-capable-of-replying-to-aggression-rajnath/|access-date=2021-10-21|website=easternmirrornagaland.com|archive-date=21 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021173126/https://easternmirrornagaland.com/india-priest-of-world-peace-but-capable-of-replying-to-aggression-rajnath/|url-status=live}}</ref> The headquarters of Vartak in Tezpur also hosts a primary school within it offering primary education for the children of the personnels as well as civilians.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-12-20|title=Tezpur Vartak Model School celebrates 23rd annual day - Sentinelassam|url=https://www.sentinelassam.com/north-east-india-news/assam-news/tezpur-vartak-model-school-celebrates-23rd-annual-day/|access-date=2021-10-21|website=www.sentinelassam.com|language=en|archive-date=21 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021185118/https://www.sentinelassam.com/north-east-india-news/assam-news/tezpur-vartak-model-school-celebrates-23rd-annual-day/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Vartak specializes in constructing motorable roads and bridges in mountainous regions bringing connectivity to many isolated towns in Western Arunachal Pradesh.<ref>{{Cite web|title=BRO pushes for early completion of road projects in Arunachal Pradesh|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2020/jul/17/bro-pushes-for-early-completion-of-road-projects-in-arunachal-pradesh-2170789.html|access-date=2021-10-21|website=The New Indian Express|archive-date=21 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021184436/https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2020/jul/17/bro-pushes-for-early-completion-of-road-projects-in-arunachal-pradesh-2170789.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Twelve roads built by BRO in Northern & Eastern border areas dedicated to nation|url=https://www.projectstoday.com/News/Twelve-roads-built-by-BRO-in-Northern--Eastern-border-areas-dedicated-to-nation|access-date=2021-10-21|website=www.projectstoday.com|archive-date=21 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021184912/https://www.projectstoday.com/News/Twelve-roads-built-by-BRO-in-Northern--Eastern-border-areas-dedicated-to-nation|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Command structure ==

Vartak initially started with four Task Forces. These Task Forces were spread across various regions, each specializing in different works.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-03-15|title=Additional DGBR visits Project Vartak in West Kamang and Tawang district|url=https://www.sentinelassam.com/north-east-india-news/assam-news/additional-dgbr-visits-project-vartak-in-west-kamang-and-tawang-district/|access-date=2021-10-21|website=www.sentinelassam.com|language=en|archive-date=21 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021190249/https://www.sentinelassam.com/north-east-india-news/assam-news/additional-dgbr-visits-project-vartak-in-west-kamang-and-tawang-district/|url-status=live}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Initial Task Forces
! Task Force
! Location
|-
| 1 BRTF
| [[Likabali]]
|-
| 7 BRTF
| [[Basar, Arunachal Pradesh]]
|-
| 3 BRTF
| Moridhal – Sassi – Burgaon region
|-
| 14 BRTF
| Bhalukpong – Tenga – Tawang Axis
|}

Between 1967 and 1971, there was a major reorganization of Task Forces.<ref>{{Cite web|title=CA NO. 44 BRTF - Border Roads Organisation|url=https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/view/6861134/ca-no-44-brtf-border-roads-organisation|access-date=2021-10-21|website=yumpu.com|language=en|archive-date=21 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021235727/https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/view/6861134/ca-no-44-brtf-border-roads-organisation|url-status=live}}</ref> 7 Border Roads Task Force was disbanded in April 1967. 4 Border Roads Task Force was re-organised as 39 Maintenance Task Force and in January 1971 moved to Dimwe in [[Lohit district|Lohit District]] and subsequently renamed as 48 Border Roads Task Force. 3 Border Roads Task Force was renamed as 44 Maintenance Task Force in September 1970 and re-organised as 44 Border Roads Task Force in May 1972 . 1310 Fractional Task Force was raised in April 1984, re-organised in December 1986 as 756 Border Roads Task Force and was located at [[Ziro]]. 756 Task Force Headquarters subsequently to moved [[Naharlagun]] in February 1998.<ref>{{Cite web|title=CBI nets BRTF officer|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/north-east/cbi-nets-brtf-officer/cid/326499|access-date=2021-10-21|website=www.telegraphindia.com|archive-date=21 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021172008/https://www.telegraphindia.com/north-east/cbi-nets-brtf-officer/cid/326499|url-status=live}}</ref> To cope up with the increased work load two new Task Forces were introduced, 763 Border Roads Task Force and 42 Border Roads Task Force. 48 Border Roads Task Force was later merged with Project Udayak.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-10-21|title=Arunachal : Carpeting of Brahmakund - Chowkham road completes|url=https://arunachal24.in/arunachal-carpeting-of-brahmakund-chowkham-road-completes/|access-date=2021-10-21|language=en-US|archive-date=21 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021174137/https://arunachal24.in/arunachal-carpeting-of-brahmakund-chowkham-road-completes/|url-status=live}}</ref> Subsequently, 756 Border Roads Task Force and 44 Border Roads Task Force were merged with Project Arunak to ease the workload.<ref>{{Cite web|author=|date=2007-05-11|title=756 BRTF adjudged best task force|url=https://www.oneindia.com/2007/05/11/756-brtf-adjudged-best-task-force-1178876274.html|access-date=2021-10-21|language=en|archive-date=21 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021174131/https://www.oneindia.com/2007/05/11/756-brtf-adjudged-best-task-force-1178876274.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-02-13|title=763 BRTF ( Project Vartak ) Organised Tawang Marathon 2017|url=https://arunachal24.in/763-brtf-project-vartak-organised-tawang-marathon-2017/|access-date=2021-10-23|language=en-US|archive-date=3 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203080813/https://arunachal24.in/763-brtf-project-vartak-organised-tawang-marathon-2017/|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Bridge construction ==

In 1986, Border Roads Organisation decided to go in for construction of permanent bridges departmentally.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Gurung|first=Shaurya Karanbir|title=Border Roads Organisation constructs strategic bridge in Arunachal Pradesh|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/border-roads-organisation-constructs-strategic-bridge-in-arunachal-pradesh/articleshow/75255064.cms?from=mdr|access-date=2021-10-21|archive-date=21 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021175321/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/border-roads-organisation-constructs-strategic-bridge-in-arunachal-pradesh/articleshow/75255064.cms?from=mdr|url-status=live}}</ref> This resulted in the creation of a Bridge Construction Company, 1441 BCC, which was allotted to Vartak. The first bridge constructed by 1441 BCC was a [[Prestressed concrete|pre-stressed concrete bridge]] Kamla II on the Balipara – Charduar – Tawang road.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-03-06|title=History of Project Vartak|url=http://bro.gov.in/WriteReadData/linkimages/8903043223-project%20history.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019185644/http://bro.gov.in/WriteReadData/linkimages/8903043223-project%20history.pdf|archive-date=2021-10-19|access-date=2021-10-20|website=Border Roads Organisation}}</ref> Subsequently, six more permanent bridges were completed by 1993. 1441 BCC continues to construct high-quality permanent bridges, even at altitudes of over 10,000 feet and across swift mountain rivers in Arunachal Pradesh and Assam.<ref>{{Cite web|title=eProcurement System Government of India|url=https://eprocure.gov.in/eprocure/app?component=$DirectLink&page=FrontEndViewTender&service=direct&sp=SIAJGBboF2a1i9ApURC/Y2A==|access-date=2021-10-21|website=eprocure.gov.in|archive-date=21 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021175025/https://eprocure.gov.in/eprocure/app?component=$DirectLink&page=FrontEndViewTender&service=direct&sp=SIAJGBboF2a1i9ApURC/Y2A==|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=2021-03-02|title=Sub Soil Investigation Design, Drawing And Construction Of 135 Mtr Span Major Permanent Pinjoli Bridge Over Pinjoli Nallah Including Approach Roads At Km 49pt750 On Road Bct Under 1441 Bcc 14 Brtf Pro.|url=https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=AONE&sw=w&issn=22190112&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA653581924&sid=googleScholar&linkaccess=abs|journal=Mena Report|language=English|pages=NA}}</ref>

== Major works ==

{| class="wikitable"
|+
! Works
! Notes
|-
| Tawang Axis
| [[Guwahati]] to Tawang route boosting border connectivity.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-10-19|title=LAC Dispatch: New Guwahati-Tawang Axis to Come Up in 2 Years; Surveillance Tech in Focus|url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/lac-dispatch-new-guwahati-tawang-axis-to-come-up-in-2-years-surveillance-tech-in-focus-4338239.html|access-date=2021-10-21|website=News18|language=en|archive-date=21 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021184436/https://www.news18.com/news/india/lac-dispatch-new-guwahati-tawang-axis-to-come-up-in-2-years-surveillance-tech-in-focus-4338239.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| Balipara - Charduar - Tawang Axis
| Increasing connectivity to the [[Line of Actual Control|Indo-Chinese Border]] in Tawang.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-08-29|title=Balipara-Charduar-Tawang Road to be completed by 2021 - Sentinelassam|url=https://www.sentinelassam.com/north-east-india-news/arunachal-news/balipara-charduar-tawang-road-to-be-completed-by-2021/|access-date=2021-10-21|website=www.sentinelassam.com|language=en|archive-date=21 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021184441/https://www.sentinelassam.com/north-east-india-news/arunachal-news/balipara-charduar-tawang-road-to-be-completed-by-2021/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|agency=Press Trust of India|date=2019-02-11|title=Four lane work of BCT Road affected due to compensation issue|work=Business Standard India|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/four-lane-work-of-bct-road-affected-due-to-compensation-issue-119021101013_1.html|access-date=2021-10-22|archive-date=25 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211025203952/https://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/four-lane-work-of-bct-road-affected-due-to-compensation-issue-119021101013_1.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| Trans Arunachal Highway (NH-13)
| Part of Balipara - Charduar - Tawang Road developed to NHDL specifications.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Two-laning of Highways through Public Private Partnership|url=https://niti.gov.in/planningcommission.gov.in/docs/sectors/ppp_report/reports_guidelines/Manuals%20of%20Standards%20and%20Specifications/Manual%20of%20Specifications%20%26%20Standards%20for%20Two-laning%20of%20Highways.pdf|url-status=live|access-date=2021-10-21|website=NITI Aayog|archive-date=2 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210702111229/https://niti.gov.in/planningcommission.gov.in/docs/sectors/ppp_report/reports_guidelines/Manuals%20of%20Standards%20and%20Specifications/Manual%20of%20Specifications%20%26%20Standards%20for%20Two-laning%20of%20Highways.pdf}}</ref>
|-
| SARDP-NE
| Development of Roads and Highways in [[Northeast India|North-Eastern India]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=SARDP including Arunachal Pradesh Package|publisher=Ministry of Road Transport & Highways, Government of India|url=https://morth.nic.in/sardp-including-arunachal-pradesh-package|access-date=2021-10-21|website=morth.nic.in|archive-date=21 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021185947/https://morth.nic.in/sardp-including-arunachal-pradesh-package|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Our Projects – Ttcinfraindia|url=https://ttcinfraindia.com/projects/|access-date=2021-10-21|language=en-US|archive-date=22 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211022001839/https://ttcinfraindia.com/projects/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
| [[Sela Tunnel]]
| An All-weather connectivity between Guwahati and Tawang in the Indian state of [[Arunachal Pradesh]].<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Pandit|first1=Rajat|date=October 21, 2021|title=Strategic Sela Tunnel for Tawang to be completed by mid-2022|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/strategic-sela-tunnel-for-tawang-to-be-completed-by-mid-2022/articleshow/87190700.cms|access-date=2021-10-21|website=The Times of India|language=en|archive-date=21 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021184441/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/strategic-sela-tunnel-for-tawang-to-be-completed-by-mid-2022/articleshow/87190700.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> The tunnel is being excavated below the 4,200 metres [[Sela Pass]]. To be completed in mid-2022.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Arunachal's Sela Tunnel To Ensure Better Troops, Weapon Movement: Army|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/sela-tunnel-in-arunachal-to-ensure-better-movement-of-troops-and-weaponry-officials-2583554|access-date=2021-10-21|website=NDTV.com|archive-date=21 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021184436/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/sela-tunnel-in-arunachal-to-ensure-better-movement-of-troops-and-weaponry-officials-2583554|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| Nechiphu Tunnel
| Constructed along the Balipara - Charduar - Tawang Axis. To be completed in early-2022.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-10-12|title=Foundation stone of Nechiphu Tunnel on road to China border in Arunachal laid by Rajnath Singh|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/foundation-stone-of-nechiphu-tunnel-on-road-to-china-border-in-arunachal-laid-by-rajnath-singh/story-NWlSkilcvJaJch7eiXPk7H.html|access-date=2021-10-21|website=Hindustan Times|language=en|archive-date=21 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021184910/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/foundation-stone-of-nechiphu-tunnel-on-road-to-china-border-in-arunachal-laid-by-rajnath-singh/story-NWlSkilcvJaJch7eiXPk7H.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
|}

== References ==
<references />

[[Category:Infrastructure]]
[[Category:Border Roads Organisation]]