Bharatpedia - User contributions [en]

Premalo

2026-05-07T22:37:48Z

Joseph Patricio: Made A Entry Needs Work

{{Short description|2024 Indian Telugu-language film by Chandu Koduri}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2025}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Premalo
|image = Premalo 2024.jpg
| caption =
| director = Chandu Koduri
| writer = I Ravi (dialogues)
| story = Chandu Koduri
| producer = Koduri Rajesh
| starring = {{plainlist|
*Chandu Koduri
*Charishma Shreekar
*[[Sivaji Raja]]
*[[Madhusudhan Rao (actor)|Madhusudhan Rao]]
}}
| cinematography = Rampy Nandigam
| editing = Kodati Pavan Kalyan
| music = Sandeep Kanugula
| studio = Dream Zone Pictures
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|2024|01|26|df=y}}
| runtime = 128 minutes<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cbfcindia.gov.in/cbfcAdmin/search-result.php?recid=Q0EwNzAyMTIyMDIzMDAwMjY= |title=CBFC Premalo Film |website=cbfcindia.gov.in}}</ref>
| country = India
| language = Telugu
}}
'''''Premalo''''' is a 2024 Indian [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language [[romance film|romantic]] [[tragedy]] film directed by Chandu Koduri and produced by Koduri Rajesh under Dream Zone Pictures. The film stars Chandu Koduri, Charishma Shreekar, [[Sivaji Raja]], [[Madhusudhan Rao (actor)|Madhusudhan Rao]] in important roles.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/cinema/tollywood/premalo-trailer-promises-a-rustic-sensible-love-story-853092 |title='Premalo' trailer promises a rustic-sensible love story |first=Suhas |last=Sistu |date=22 January 2024 |website=thehansindia.com}}</ref>

''Premalo'' was released theatrically on 26 January 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/tollywood/premalo-arriving-in-theatres-on-jan-26-879417 |title=Premalo Trailer Out |date=22 January 2024 |website=Deccan Chronicle}}</ref> and started streaming on [[Amazon Prime Video]] from 12 July 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://tv9telugu.com/entertainment/ott/chandu-koduri-starrer-premalo-movie-now-streaming-on-amazon-prime-video-ott-1302099.html |title=Premalo OTT: ఓటీటీలోకి వచ్చేసిన తెలుగు స‌స్పెన్స్ థ్రిల్ల‌ర్.. ఊహకు అందని ట్విస్టులు.. ఎక్కడ చూడొచ్చంటే? |first=TV9 |last=Telugu |date=13 July 2024 |website=TV9 Telugu}}</ref>

== Plot ==
In [[Rajahmundry]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], chemist-shop employee Ravi (Chandu Koduri) falls in love with Prasanthi (Charishma Shreekar), a young mute woman. After some hesitation, Prasanthi reciprocates his feelings, but their relationship faces strong opposition from her father.

Ravi's life is turned upside down when he is suddenly accused of assaulting Prasanthi. The film follows his struggle to prove his innocence, uncover the truth behind the false accusation, and identify those responsible.

== Cast ==
*Chandu Koduri as Ravi
*Charishma Shreekar as Prasanti
*[[Sivaji Raja]] as Satyanarayana
*[[Madhusudhan Rao (actor)|Madhusudhan Rao]] as Koorma Rao
*Srinivas Bhogireddy as Maheshwara Rao
*Mahaboob Basha as Shyam Sundar
*Bus Stop Koteswara Rao as Subbarao
*Prabhavati Varma as Rajeswari

== Production ==
The trailer of the film was launched by [[Sivaji (Telugu actor)|Sivaji]] in [[Hyderabad]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.news18.com/movies/actor-shivaji-raja-launches-trailer-of-telugu-film-premalo-8751657.html |title=Actor Shivaji Raja Launches Trailer Of Telugu Film Premalo |website=News18}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.eenadu.net/telugu-news/movies/general/0201/124014199 |title=భావోద్వేగాల ప్రేమలో |website=EENADU}}</ref>

== Music ==
The music is composed by Sandeep Kanugula.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/videos/entertainment/music/telugu/premalo-song-neeve-neeve-lyrical/videoshow/107142656.cms |title=Premalo | Song - Neeve Neeve (Lyrical) |website=The Times of India}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-jY2_OEPWnU |title=Premalo Telugu Movie Audio Jukebox; Mango Music |date=26 January 2024 |via=YouTube}}</ref>

{{track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| total_length = 8:59
| title1 = Neeve Neeva
| lyrics1 = Purna Chary
| extra1 = Satya Yamini, Krishna Tejasvi
| length1 = 5:18
| title2 = Poddunne Lechindi Modalu
| lyrics2 = Satya RVV
| extra2 = Mama Sing
| length2 = 3:41
}}

== Release ==
=== Theatrical ===
''Premalo'' was released theatrically on 26 January 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://telanganatoday.com/premalo-trailer-unveiled-ahead-of-films-january-26-release |title='Premalo' trailer unveiled ahead of film's January 26 release |first=Telangana |last=Today |date=22 January 2024 |website=Telangana Today}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://zeenews.india.com/telugu/entertainment/premalo-trailer-released-ahead-of-films-january-26th-release-in-theatres-a-raw-rustic-sensible-love-story-120980 |title=Premalo:ఆకట్టుకుంటోన్న 'ప్రేమలో' ట్రైలర్.. జనవరి 26న విడుదల.. |date=23 January 2024 |website=Zee News Telugu}}</ref>

=== Home media ===
The digital streaming rights of the film were acquired by [[Amazon Prime Video]] and started streaming from 12 July 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://tv9telugu.com/entertainment/ott/chandu-koduri-starrer-premalo-movie-now-streaming-on-amazon-prime-video-ott-1302099.html |title=Premalo OTT: ఓటీటీలోకి వచ్చేసిన తెలుగు స‌స్పెన్స్ థ్రిల్ల‌ర్.. ఊహకు అందని ట్విస్టులు.. ఎక్కడ చూడొచ్చంటే? |first=TV9 |last=Telugu |date=13 July 2024 |website=TV9 Telugu}}</ref>

== Reception ==
Avad Mohammad of ''[[OTT Play]]'' rated the film 2.5/5 stars and stated "Premalo delivers a realistic love story with a strong message but suffers from slow pacing and a lengthy runtime".<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ottplay.com/review/premalo-review-the-chandu-koduri-charishma-sekhar-starrer-is-lengthy-and-slow-but-is-an-honest-attempt/c1081f29f4975 |title=Premalo Review - A slow-paced romantic drama that clicks only in bits and pieces |website=OTTPlay}}</ref>

Suhas Sistu of ''[[The Hans India]]'' rated 3/5 stars and wrote "Premalo presents a compelling narrative with strong direction and music, despite minor flaws".<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/cinema/premalo-review-offers-a-compelling-narration-854090 |title='Premalo' review: Offers a compelling narration |first=Suhas |last=Sistu |date=26 January 2024 |website=thehansindia.com}}</ref>

Bhargav Chaganti from ''[[NTV (Telugu)|NTV telugu]]'' rated 2.5/5 stars and said "An honest portrayal of a realistic love story".<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://ntvtelugu.com/reviews/chandu-koduri-charishma-srikar-premalo-movie-review-and-rating-527429.html |title=Premalo Review: ప్రేమలో రివ్యూ |first=Bhargav |last=chaganti |date=26 January 2024 |website=NTV Telugu}}</ref> and ''[[Times Now]]'' rated it 3/5 stars and "A worthwhile watch for those seeking a thought-provoking thriller".<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment-news/reviews/telugu/premalo-movie-review-chandu-koduris-tale-of-love-betrayal-redemption-review-107118478 |title=Premalo Movie Review: Chandu Koduri's Tale of Love, Betrayal, Redemption |date=26 January 2024 |website=Times Now}}</ref> ''[[Deccan Chronicle]]'' said "Premalo is a gripping tale of love and betrayal with a strong cast and solid technical work".<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/movie-review/premalo-movie-review-879918 |title=Premalo a suspenseful plot soaked in layers of emotions |date=26 January 2024 |website=Deccan Chronicle}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|30454549}}
*[https://www.primevideo.com/detail/0GM1XDY46QSZ6AUXPYZXTYWQHO/ref=atv_dp_share_cu_r ''Premalo''] on [[Amazon Prime]]

{{Portal bar|India|Tollywood|Film}}

[[Category:2024 Indian films]]
[[Category:2024 Telugu-language films]]
[[Category:2024 films]]
[[Category:2024 drama films]]
[[Category:2024 romance films]]
[[Category:Indian romantic drama films]]
[[Category:Telugu-language romantic drama films]]
[[Category:2024 romantic drama films]]

Murtizapur Assembly constituency

2026-05-06T22:00:02Z

Joseph Patricio: put up new stub initial version.

{{Short description|Constituency of the Maharashtra legislative assembly in India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
|name = Murtizapur
|map_image = 32-Murtizapur.svg
|type = SLA
| constituency_no = 32
|state = [[Maharashtra]]
|district = [[Akola district|Akola]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Akola Lok Sabha constituency|Akola]]
| established = 1951
|reservation = SC
|mla = [[Harish Marotiappa Pimple]]
| latest_election_year = [[2024 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|2024]]
| party = {{Party index link|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
| alliance = {{Party index link|National Democratic Alliance}}
|electors = 311,175
}}
'''Murtizapur Assembly constituency''' is one of the 288 constituencies of Maharashtra Vidhan Sabha and one of the five which are located in [[Akola district]]. It is reserved for a Scheduled Caste candidate.

It is a part of [[Akola Lok Sabha constituency]] along with five other assembly constituencies, viz [[Akot Assembly constituency|Akot]], [[Balapur Assembly constituency|Balapur]], [[Akola West Assembly constituency|Akola West]], and [[Akola East Assembly constituency|Akola East]] and [[Risod Assembly constituency|Risod]] from the [[Washim district]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://ceo.maharashtra.gov.in/acs.php | title=District wise List of Assembly and Parliamentary Constituencies | publisher=Chief Electoral Officer, Maharashtra website | access-date=14 January 2010 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100318055304/http://ceo.maharashtra.gov.in/acs.php | archive-date=18 March 2010 }}</ref>

As per orders of Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly constituencies Order, 2008, No. 32 Murtizapur Assembly constituency is composed of the following:
1. Murtizapur Tehsil, 2. Barshitakli Tehsil, and 3. Akola Tehsil (Part), Revenue Circle - Kurankhed. of the [[district]].<ref name=commission>{{cite web|url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf |title = Schedule – XVII of Constituencies Order, 2008 of Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly constituencies Order, 2008 of the Election Commission of but due to poloetical parties conflict the election were postponed by 2 day India|work= Schedule XVII Maharashtra, Part A – Assembly constituencies, Part B – Parliamentary constituencies |publisher = |access-date = 2015-03-11 }}</ref>

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Member
! colspan="2" |Party
|-
| [[1952 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1952]] || Shamrao Deorao Dhotre || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=6}}
|-
| rowspan=2| [[1957 Bombay State Legislative Assembly election|1957]] || Dagadu Zangoji Palaspagar(Sc)
|-
| Kusumtai Wamanrao Korpe
|-
| [[1962 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1962]] || Kusumtai Wamanrao Korpe
|-
| [[1967 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1967]] || rowspan=2 | Pratibhadevi Tidke
|-
| [[1972 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1972]]
|-
| [[1978 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1978]] || Dhyandeorao Mukundrao Thakare || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress (I)|rowspan=2|dab=yes}}
|-
| [[1980 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1980]] || Suresh Walji Kanot
|-
| [[1985 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1985]] || Suhas Bhagwantrao Tidke || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[1990 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1990]] || Makhram Banduji Pawar || {{Full party name with color|Independent politician}}
|-
| [[1995 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1995]] || [[Motiram Lahane]] || {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[1999 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1999]] || [[Sanjay Dhotre]]
|-
| [[2004 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|2004]] || [[Tukaram Bidkar]]|| {{Full party name with color|Nationalist Congress Party}}
|-
| [[2009 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|2009]] || rowspan=4 | [[Harish Marotiappa Pimple|Harish Pimple]] || {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=4}}
|-
| [[2014 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|2014]]
|-
| [[2019 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|2019]]
|-
| [[2024 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|2024]]
|}

==Election results==
=== Assembly Election 2024 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[2024 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Murtizapur <ref name="Maharastra Assembly Election Results 2024 - Murtizapur">{{cite news |title=Maharastra Assembly Election Results 2024 - Murtizapur |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenNov2024/candidateswise-S1332.htm |access-date=30 November 2024 |publisher=Election Commission of India |date=23 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130185326/https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenNov2024/candidateswise-S1332.htm |archive-date=30 November 2024}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[Harish Marotiappa Pimple|Harish Pimple]] |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 91,820 |percentage = 44.17% |change = {{increase}}10.01 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Samrat Dongardive |party = Nationalist Congress Party – Sharadchandra Pawar |votes = 55,956 |percentage = 26.92% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Sugat Gyaneshwar Waghmare |party = Vanchit Bahujan Aaghadi |votes = 49,608 |percentage = 23.87% |change = {{decrease}}9.20 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Surwade Samrat Manikrao |party = All India Majlis-E-Ittehadul Muslimeen |votes = 3,201 |percentage = 1.54% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Ravi Rameshchandra Rathi |party = Independent politician |votes = 2,764 |percentage = 1.33% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = None of the above |party = None of the above |votes = 886 |percentage = 0.43% |change = {{decrease}}0.27 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 35,864 |percentage = 17.25% |change = {{increase}}16.15 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 208,754 |percentage = 67.09% |change = {{increase}}12.45 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 207,868}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 311,175 |ref = |change = {{decrease}}3.31 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Bharatiya Janata Party |swing = {{increase}}10.01 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 2019 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[2019 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Murtizapur <ref name="election2019">{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/11699-maharashtra-legislative-assembly-election-2019/ |title=Maharashtra Legislative Assembly Election, 2019 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 2 February 2022 |url-access=limited}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[Harish Marotiappa Pimple|Harish Pimple]] |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 59,527 |percentage = 34.16% |change = {{decrease}}0.61 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Awachar Pratibha Prabhakar |party = Vanchit Bahujan Aaghadi |votes = 57,617 |percentage = 33.07% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Ravikumar Rameshchandra Rathi |party = Nationalist Congress Party |votes = 41,155 |percentage = 23.62% |change = {{increase}}18.80 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Rajkumar Narayanrao Nachane |party = Prahar Janshakti Party |votes = 8,764 |percentage = 5.03% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Ashish Shankarappa Bare |party = Independent politician |votes = 2,445 |percentage = 1.40% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = None of the above |party = None of the above |votes = 1,225 |percentage = 0.70% |change = {{increase}}0.30 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 1,910 |percentage = 1.10% |change = {{decrease}}7.16 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 175,830 |percentage = 54.64% |change = {{increase}}1.18 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 174,244}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 321,817 |ref = |change = {{increase}}9.83 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Bharatiya Janata Party |swing = {{decrease}}0.61 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 2014 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[2014 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Murtizapur <ref name="election2014">{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/11699-maharashtra-legislative-assembly-election-2014/ |title=Maharashtra Legislative Assembly Election, 2014 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 2 February 2022 |url-access=limited}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[Harish Marotiappa Pimple|Harish Pimple]] |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 54,226 |percentage = 34.77% |change = {{decrease}}4.36 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Rahul Shesharao Dongare |party = Bharipa Bahujan Mahasangh |votes = 41,338 |percentage = 26.51% |change = {{decrease}}0.68 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Mahadev Bapurao Gawale |party = Shiv Sena |votes = 24,486 |percentage = 15.70% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Ingle Shravan Shekoji |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 18,044 |percentage = 11.57% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Dr. Sudhir Sahebrao Vilhekar |party = Nationalist Congress Party |votes = 7,520 |percentage = 4.82% |change = {{decrease}}22.10 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Sandip Daulatrao Sarnaik |party = Independent politician |votes = 3,158 |percentage = 2.03% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Rama Supadaji Umbarkar |party = Maharashtra Navnirman Sena |votes = 973 |percentage = 0.62% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Arun Anandrao Bangare |party = Bahujan Samaj Party |votes = 951 |percentage = 0.61% |change = {{decrease}}0.82 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = None of the above |party = None of the above |votes = 622 |percentage = 0.40% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 12,888 |percentage = 8.26% |change = {{decrease}}3.68 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 156,626 |percentage = 53.46% |change = {{increase}}3.46 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 155,940}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 293,003 |ref = |change = {{increase}}13.88 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Bharatiya Janata Party |swing = {{decrease}}4.36 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 2009 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[2009 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Murtizapur <ref>{{cite web|publisher= Chief Eletoral Officer, [[Maharashtra]]|title=General Elections to State Legislative Assembly 2009 |url=https://ceoelection.maharashtra.gov.in/pdff/vidhanresult.pdf|archive-url= http://web.archive.org/web/20240708005931/https://ceoelection.maharashtra.gov.in/pdff/vidhanresult.pdf|archive-date=8 July 2024|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[Harish Marotiappa Pimple|Harish Pimple]] |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 50,333 |percentage = 39.13% |change = {{increase}}9.11 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Palaspagar Baldev Sukhaev |party = Bharipa Bahujan Mahasangh |votes = 34,975 |percentage = 27.19% |change = {{increase}}5.22 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Awachar Pratibha Prabhakar |party = Nationalist Congress Party |votes = 34,631 |percentage = 26.92% |change = {{decrease}}13.17 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Prof. Mukund Vithalrao Khaire |party = Independent politician |votes = 4,016 |percentage = 3.12% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Dhurdev Wasudev Narayanrao |party = Bahujan Samaj Party |votes = 1,834 |percentage = 1.43% |change = {{increase}}0.21 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 15,358 |percentage = 11.94% |change = {{increase}}1.87 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 128,651 |percentage = 50.00% |change = {{decrease}}13.89 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 128,644}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 257,296 |ref = |change = {{increase}}38.51 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Bharatiya Janata Party |loser = Nationalist Congress Party |swing = {{decrease}}0.96 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 2004 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[2004 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Murtizapur }}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Birkad Tukaram Haribhau |party = Nationalist Congress Party |votes = 47,580 |percentage = 40.09% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Kambe Raosaheb Dattuji |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 35,633 |percentage = 30.02% |change = {{decrease}}17.23 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Ingle Shravan Shekoji |party = Bharipa Bahujan Mahasangh |votes = 26,070 |percentage = 21.97% |change = {{decrease}}20.01 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Principal Madhukar Pawar |party = Samajwadi Party |votes = 5,387 |percentage = 4.54% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Sontakke Arun Vitthal |party = Independent politician |votes = 1,468 |percentage = 1.24% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Ganesh Omkarmal Heda |party = Bahujan Samaj Party |votes = 1,451 |percentage = 1.22% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 11,947 |percentage = 10.07% |change = {{increase}}4.80 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 118,689 |percentage = 63.89% |change = {{increase}}8.76 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 118,685}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 185,758 |ref = |change = {{increase}}9.66 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Nationalist Congress Party |loser = Bharatiya Janata Party |swing = {{decrease}}7.16 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1999 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1999 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Murtizapur <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1999 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1999/StatisticalReport-MH99.pdf|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120117044316/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1999/StatisticalReport-MH99.pdf|archive-date=17 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[Sanjay Dhotre]] |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 42,173 |percentage = 47.25% |change = {{increase}}18.09 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Rathod Hirasing Ramu |party = Bharipa Bahujan Mahasangh |votes = 37,473 |percentage = 41.98% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Shirsat. B. R |party = Independent politician |votes = 5,816 |percentage = 6.52% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Laxman Sakharam Sarkate |party = Independent politician |votes = 2,610 |percentage = 2.92% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Gawande Krishnarao Kashirao |party = Independent politician |votes = 805 |percentage = 0.90% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 4,700 |percentage = 5.27% |change = {{increase}}4.25 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 93,389 |percentage = 55.13% |change = {{decrease}}18.58 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 89,260}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 169,395 |ref = |change = {{increase}}6.31 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Bharatiya Janata Party |swing = {{increase}}18.09 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1995 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1995 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Murtizapur <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1995 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1995/StatisticalReport-MH95.pdf|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120117121534/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1995/StatisticalReport-MH95.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[Motiram Lahane]] |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 33,577 |percentage = 29.16% |change = {{increase}}0.14 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Pawar Makhram Banduji |party = Bharipa Bahujan Mahasangh |votes = 32,397 |percentage = 28.13% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Babanrao Mahadeorao Daberao |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 16,051 |percentage = 13.94% |change = {{increase}}1.75 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Avvalwar Prakash Kondiram |party = Janata Dal |votes = 8,843 |percentage = 7.68% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Kambe Raosaheb Dattuji |party = Independent politician |votes = 6,419 |percentage = 5.57% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Vasantrao Kambe Wakil Saheb |party = Independent politician |votes = 5,455 |percentage = 4.74% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Mir Ajhar Ali Hyder Ali |party = Independent politician |votes = 4,977 |percentage = 4.32% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Patil Vithalrao Narayanrao |party = Independent politician |votes = 907 |percentage = 0.79% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 1,180 |percentage = 1.02% |change = {{decrease}}4.59 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 117,461 |percentage = 73.71% |change = {{increase}}10.04 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 115,159}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 159,348 |ref = |change = {{increase}}11.60 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Bharatiya Janata Party |loser = Independent politician |swing = {{decrease}}5.47 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1990 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1990 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Murtizapur <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1990 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1990/StatRep_MT_90.pdf |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120117080722/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1990/StatRep_MT_90.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Pawar Makhram Banduji |party = Independent politician |votes = 31,069 |percentage = 34.63% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Motiramji Udaybhanji Lahane |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 26,033 |percentage = 29.02% |change = {{increase}}2.57 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Vasantrao Janardan Kambe (Vakil Saheb) |party = Independent politician |votes = 12,149 |percentage = 13.54% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Suhas Bhagvantrao Tidke |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 10,933 |percentage = 12.19% |change = {{decrease}}34.82 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Gawande Vijay Bhaskarrao |party = Peasants and Workers Party of India |votes = 4,023 |percentage = 4.48% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Thakare Dnyaneshwar Mukund |party = Independent politician |votes = 1,581 |percentage = 1.76% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 5,036 |percentage = 5.61% |change = {{decrease}}14.95 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 90,904 |percentage = 63.67% |change = {{increase}}1.62 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 89,718}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 142,784 |ref = |change = {{increase}}23.97 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Independent politician |loser = Indian National Congress |swing = {{decrease}}12.38 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1985 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1985 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Murtizapur <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1985 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1985/Statistical%20Report%20Maharashtra%201985.pdf |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120117075119/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1985/Statistical%20Report%20Maharashtra%201985.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Suhas Bhagwantrao Tidke |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 33,071 |percentage = 47.01% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Dhotre Sahebrao Deorao |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 18,606 |percentage = 26.45% |change = {{increase}}9.06 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = B. R. Sirsat |party = Independent politician |votes = 16,663 |percentage = 23.69% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Khandare Rambhau Bhauji |party = Republican Party of India |votes = 469 |percentage = 0.67% |change = {{decrease}}17.54 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Ingle Ganesh Bhikaji |party = Independent politician |votes = 446 |percentage = 0.63% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Parasnath R. Mishra |party = Independent politician |votes = 429 |percentage = 0.61% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 14,465 |percentage = 20.56% |change = {{increase}}5.85 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 71,470 |percentage = 62.05% |change = {{increase}}6.89 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 70,342}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 115,180 |ref = |change = {{increase}}8.43 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Indian National Congress |loser = Indian National Congress (I) |swing = {{increase}}13.42 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1980 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1980 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Murtizapur <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1980 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1980/Statistical%20Report%201980%20Maharashtra.pdf |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120117083555/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1980/Statistical%20Report%201980%20Maharashtra.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Kanot Suresh Walji |party = Indian National Congress (I) |votes = 19,152 |percentage = 33.59% |change = {{decrease}}7.13 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Kambe Vasantao Janardan |party = Independent politician |votes = 10,763 |percentage = 18.88% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Tayade Vijaykumar Babanji |party = Republican Party of India |votes = 10,382 |percentage = 18.21% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Lajane Ulhasrao Govindrao |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 9,916 |percentage = 17.39% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Arvind Kamlakar Deshmukh |party = All India Forward Bloc |votes = 5,598 |percentage = 9.82% |change = {{increase}}8.81 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Onkar Purnaji Nachane |party = Independent politician |votes = 617 |percentage = 1.08% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Pimple Basweshwarappa Kisanappa |party = Independent politician |votes = 583 |percentage = 1.02% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 8,389 |percentage = 14.71% |change = {{increase}}11.32 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 58,594 |percentage = 55.16% |change = {{decrease}}21.45 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 57,011}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 106,229 |ref = |change = {{increase}}6.82 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Indian National Congress (I) |swing = {{decrease}}7.13 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1978 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1978 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Murtizapur <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1978 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1978/Statistical%20Report%201978%20Maharashtra.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629182050/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1978/Statistical%20Report%201978%20Maharashtra.pdf|archive-date=29 June 2017|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Thakare Dhyandeorao Mukundrao |party = Indian National Congress (I) |votes = 30,127 |percentage = 40.72% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Lahane Motiramji Udebhanji |party = Janata Party |votes = 27,621 |percentage = 37.33% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Dhabekar Kesharao Narayanrao |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 15,154 |percentage = 20.48% |change = {{decrease}}33.04 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Mankar Rameshwar Jagdeorao |party = All India Forward Bloc |votes = 747 |percentage = 1.01% |change = {{decrease}}16.93 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 2,506 |percentage = 3.39% |change = {{decrease}}32.11 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 76,185 |percentage = 76.61% |change = {{increase}}13.64 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 73,988}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 99,451 |ref = |change = {{increase}}3.75 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Indian National Congress (I) |loser = Indian National Congress |swing = {{decrease}}12.80 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1972 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1972 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Murtizapur <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1967 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1972/StatReport_MT_72.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170519183024/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1972/StatReport_MT_72.pdf|archive-date=19 May 2017|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Pratibhadevi Tidke |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 28,373 |percentage = 53.52% |change = {{increase}}1.08 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Bapurao Babanji Tayade |party = Republican Party of India |votes = 9,553 |percentage = 18.02% |change = {{decrease}}2.54 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Motiram Shriram Kambe |party = All India Forward Bloc |votes = 9,509 |percentage = 17.94% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Ajij Mohammed Ajim |party = Samyukta Socialist Party |votes = 5,576 |percentage = 10.52% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 18,820 |percentage = 35.50% |change = {{increase}}9.24 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 60,361 |percentage = 62.97% |change = {{decrease}}5.54 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 53,011}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 95,858 |ref = |change = {{increase}}13.96 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = {{increase}}1.08 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1967 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1967 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Murtizapur <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1967 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=https://www.eci.nic.in/eci_main/statisticalreports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report%20Maharashtra%201967.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180926233227/https://www.eci.nic.in/eci_main/statisticalreports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report%20Maharashtra%201967.pdf|archive-date=26 September 2018|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Pratibhadevi Tidke |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 27,593 |percentage = 52.44% |change = {{decrease}}7.89 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = S. P. Pachade |party = Independent politician |votes = 13,774 |percentage = 26.18% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = S. I. Meshram |party = Republican Party of India |votes = 10,819 |percentage = 20.56% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = B. K. Ingle |party = Independent politician |votes = 429 |percentage = 0.82% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 13,819 |percentage = 26.26% |change = {{decrease}}14.26 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 57,627 |percentage = 68.51% |change = {{increase}}0.08 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 52,615}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 84,112 |ref = |change = {{increase}}6.77 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = {{decrease}}7.89 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1962 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1962 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Murtizapur <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1962 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1962/StatRep_Maharastra_1962.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117085627/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1962/StatRep_Maharastra_1962.pdf|archive-date=17 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Kusumtai Wamanrao Korpe |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 30,177 |percentage = 60.33% |change = {{decrease}}0.63 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Pandurang Goturam Athawale |party = Republican Party of India |votes = 9,908 |percentage = 19.81% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Hariram Daryaji |party = Independent politician |votes = 9,006 |percentage = 18.01% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Namya Raghunath |party = Independent politician |votes = 928 |percentage = 1.86% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 20,269 |percentage = 40.52% |change = {{increase}}23.03 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 53,906 |percentage = 68.43% |change = {{decrease}}42.26 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 50,019}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 78,781 |ref = |change = {{decrease}}41.48 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = {{increase}}28.65 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1957 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1957 Bombay State Legislative Assembly election]] : Murtizapur <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1957 to the Legislative Assembly of Bombay |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1957/StatRep_Bombay_1957.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114093455/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1957/StatRep_Bombay_1957.pdf|archive-date=14 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Palaspagar Dagadu Zangoji |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 47,204 |percentage = 31.68% |change = {{decrease}}23.34 }}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Korpe Kusum W/o Wamanrao |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 43,640 |percentage = 29.29% |change = {{decrease}}25.73 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Raut Wasudeo Khushal |party = Independent politician |votes = 21,142 |percentage = 14.19% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Sardar Motiram Kisan |party = Scheduled Castes Federation |votes = 19,728 |percentage = 13.24% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Polkat Shriram Narayan |party = Praja Socialist Party |votes = 6,317 |percentage = 4.24% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = More Pandurang Annaji |party = Independent politician |votes = 3,720 |percentage = 2.50% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Shankarrao Sambhuji |party = Independent politician |votes = 3,717 |percentage = 2.49% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Wankhade Onkar Narsaji |party = Independent politician |votes = 3,550 |percentage = 2.38% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 26,062 |percentage = 17.49% |change = {{decrease}}15.37 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 149,018 |percentage = 110.69% |change = {{increase}}41.86 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 149,018}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 134,624 |ref = |change = {{increase}}177.82 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = {{decrease}}23.34 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1952 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1952 Hyderabad State Legislative Assembly election]] : Murtizapur <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1951 to the Legislative Assembly of Hyderabad |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/StatRep_51_HBD.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160606161433/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/StatRep_51_HBD.pdf|archive-date=6 June 2016|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Shamrao Deorao Dhotre |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 18,353 |percentage = 55.02% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Vithalrao Narayan Jamadar |party = Independent politician |votes = 7,393 |percentage = 22.17% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Bhagwan Hirasa Mawale |party = Socialist Party (India, 1948) |votes = 6,200 |percentage = 18.59% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = P. R. Lewe |party = Sarvodaya Karnataka Paksha |votes = 1,090 |percentage = 3.27% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Bapuraoji Narayanji Vairale |party = Independent politician |votes = 318 |percentage = 0.95% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 10,960 |percentage = 32.86% |change = }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 33,354 |percentage = 68.83% |change = }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 33,354}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 48,458 |ref = |change = }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = }}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
*[[Murtajapur]]
*[[Barshitakli]]
*[[Kurankhed]]
*[[UJALESHWAR]]
*[[CCIT (education)|CCIT]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Maharashtra}}
{{coord|20.73|77.36|display=title}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Akola district]]
[[Category:Politics of Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1951]]
[[Category:1951 establishments in Bombay State]]

Dashmi

2026-05-02T08:43:05Z

Joseph Patricio: Added New Post

{{Short description|2024 film directed by Shantanu Anant Tambe}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2024}}
{{Infobox film
| image = Dashmi Poster 2024.jpg
| caption = Theatrical Release Poster
| director = [[Shantanu Anant Tambe]]
| writer = [[Shantanu Anant Tambe]]
| producer = {{plainlist|
*Sarika Vinod Tambe
*Bharani Rang
*Sanjana Vinod Tambe
}}
| starring = {{plainlist|
*[[Vardhan Puri]]
*[[Rajesh Jais]]
*[[Monica Chaudhary]]
}}
| cinematography = M. Ravichandran Thevar
| editing = Mukesh Thakur
| music = {{plainlist|
*[[Shabbir_Ahmed_(lyricist)|Shabbir Ahmed]]
*Prasad Sashte
}}
| studio = 3S Movies
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2024|02|16|India|}}
| runtime = 136 Minutes
| country = India
| language = Hindi
}}

'''''Dashmi''''' is 2024 Indian [[Hindi]]-language [[Drama (film and television)|drama]] [[Thriller film|thriller]] film written and directed by [[Shantanu Anant Tambe]] and produced by Sarika Vinod Tambe, Bharani Rang, Sanjana Vinod Tambe. The film features [[Vardhan Puri]], [[Rajesh Jais]], [[Monica Chaudhary]], and [[Dalljiet Kaur|Daljeet Kaur]] as lead characters.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Desk |first=DH Web |title='Dashmi' trailer reveals the unseen realm of rapes in our society |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/entertainment/dashmi-trailer-reveals-the-unseen-realm-of-rapes-in-our-society-2841212 |access-date=2024-03-25 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref>

== Cast ==
{{Cast listing|
*[[Aadil Khan]] as ACP Krishna Kant
* [[Vardhan Puri]] as Sohail
* Gaurav Sareen as Sachin
* [[Monica Chaudhary]] as Shrishti
* [[Rajesh Jais]] as Commissioner
* [[Daljeet Kaur]] as Patel
* [[Sanjay Pandey]] as M.P. Tripathi
* [[Manoj Tiger]] as Pandey
* Aisshwarya Anishka as Monu
* Shabaaz Abdullah Badi as Shivam
* Tirth Bhanushali as Tejas
* Ram Naresh Diwakar as Kanaujia
* [[Khushi Hajare]] as Dashmi
* Midhat Khan as Chief Minister
* Vinod Nair
* Kailash Pal as Maulana Rizvi
* Vidhaan Sharma as Devensh
* Rekha Singh
* Tanuj Vyas as Baba Cheteshwar
}}

== Release ==
''Dashmi'' was theatrically released on 16 February 2024.<ref name=":0" />

== Reception ==
Archika Khurana from ''[[The Times of India]]'' rated the film three out of five stars and said "Overall, ''Dashmi'' transcends the confines of conventional cinema, emerging as a poignant statement on the imperative need for moral introspection and societal change. It prompts viewers to reflect on the pressing issues it addresses and inspires a call to action in the face of injustice".<ref>{{Cite news |title=Dashmi Movie Review : A provocative and thought-provoking drama |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/movie-reviews/dashmi/movie-review/107661775.cms |access-date=2024-03-25 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

A critic from ''[[Times Now]]'' rated the film three out of five stars and said "In conclusion, ''Dashmi'' is more than a movie; it's a statement on the need for moral awakening in contemporary society. It encourages viewers to reflect on the prevalent issues it addresses and ignites a call to action".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-02-13 |title=Dashmi Movie Review: A Bold Take On Urgent Social Issues |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment-news/reviews/bollywood/dashmi-movie-review-a-bold-take-on-urgent-social-issues-review-106966875 |access-date=2024-03-25 |website=TimesNow |language=en}}</ref> A critic from [[Outlook (Indian magazine)|Outlook India]] rated the film four out of five stars and said "A thought-provoking film, 'Dashmi' should not be ignored. It propagates the idea of a justice- and morality-driven society that needs to be experienced on the big screen. Don't miss this one!"<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-02-15 |title=Dashmi Movie Review: Vardhan Puri's Vigilante Drama Reflects Society's Ugly Truths, Urging Transformation |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/art-entertainment/dashmi-movie-review-vardhan-puris-vigilante-drama-is-a-mirror-to-the-society-showing-up-its-ugliest-face-and-calling-for-change |access-date=2024-03-25 |website=Outlook India |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
{{IMDb title|id=tt29298252}}
[[Category:2024 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:Hindi-language thriller films]]
[[Category:Indian thriller films]]
[[Category:2024 Indian films]]
[[Category:2024 thriller films]]

Jute production in India

2026-05-02T06:31:23Z

Joseph Patricio: Started initial post initial version

{{Short description|Jute cultivation and production in India}}[[File:Jute Extraction From Retted Jute Stem - River Jalangi - Nadia 2017-08-15 1826.JPG|thumb|Jute Extraction From Retted Jute Stem in Nadia, West Bengal]]

'''Jute production in India''' is integral to the country’s agricultural and industrial economy. [[India]] is the world’s largest producer of [[jute]], accounting for about 75% of estimated world production.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Jute Industry in India: Production, Export Trends & Government Support |url=https://www.ibef.org/exports/jute-industry-india}}</ref> Jute is a natural fiber obtained from plants of the genus [[Corchorus]], and is widely used for making sacks, mats, ropes, and eco-friendly packaging materials.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Jute Industry in India, Production, Cultivation, Distribution |url=https://vajiramandravi.com/current-affairs/jute-industry-in-india/ |access-date=2026-03-09 |language=en-IN}}</ref>

Jute production is a labour-intensive industry. It employs about two lakh workers in [[West Bengal]] and 4 lakh workers across the country.<ref name=":5" />

== History ==
Jute has been used for making [[Textile|textiles]] in the [[Indus Valley civilisation|Indus valley civilization]] since the 3rd millennium BC.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=New evidence for jute (Corchorus capsularis L.) in the Indus civilization |url=https://www.harappa.com/sites/default/files/pdf/Jute.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190108050308/https://www.harappa.com/sites/default/files/pdf/Jute.pdf |archive-date=2019-01-08 |access-date=2019-01-07 |website=Harappa.com}}</ref> A preserved structure of jute on a ceramic artifact from the site of Harappa that is dated to 2200–1900 BC was found.<ref name=":1" />

For centuries, jute has been a part of the culture of some parts of [[West Bengal]] and [[Assam]]. The British started [[Jute trade|trading in jute]] during the seventeenth century. During the reign of the [[British Raj]], jute was also used in the [[British Armed Forces|army]]. The first jute mill started production in Bengal in 1856.<ref>{{Cite web |title=History of Jute Industry |url=http://www.worldjute.com/about_jute/juthist.html |access-date=2026-03-25 |website=www.worldjute.com}}</ref> British jute barons grew rich by processing jute and started selling manufactured products made from it. Dundee Jute Barons and the [[British East India Company]] set up many jute mills in Bengal, and by 1895 jute industries in Bengal overtook the Scottish jute trade. Many Scots emigrated to Bengal to set up jute factories.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Office of Jute Commissioner |url=https://jutecomm.gov.in/about-jute/history |access-date=2026-03-25 |website=jutecomm.gov.in}}</ref>

After the [[Partition of India]], many jute-growing areas became part of Bangladesh ([[East Pakistan]]), while most processing mills remained in India. This led to initial shortages of raw jute.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Topic: Jute in India |url=https://www.statista.com/topics/5785/jute-in-india/ |access-date=2026-03-25 |website=Statista |language=en}}</ref> To solve this crisis, the Indian government launched the '''"'''Grow More Jute'''"''' campaign in September 1949, encouraging farmers to grow jute instead of paddy. Later, the Jute Packaging Act of 1987 boosted the industry by mandating the use of jute sacks for packaging essential goods, which guaranteed a steady market for Indian jute farmers.<ref name=":4" />

As of 2020, India has produced 1,807,264 [[Tonne|tonnes]] of jute.<ref>{{cite web |date=2017-02-13 |title=FAOSTAT – Crops |url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231016103427/https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC |archive-date=2023-10-16 |access-date=2022-05-17 |publisher=Food And Agricultural Organization of United Nations: Economic And Social Department: The Statistical Division |format=Query page requires interactive entry in four sections: "Countries"–Select All; "Elements"–Production Quantity; "Items"–Jute; "Years"–2020}}</ref> Currently, there are 70 jute mills in India, of which about 60 are in [[West Bengal]] along the banks of [[Hooghly River]].<ref name=":5">{{Cite news |last= |first= |date= |title=Watch {{!}} India's 150-year-old jute industry |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/indias-150-year-old-jute-industry/article33334372.ece |access-date= |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>
[[File:Jute_plant.gif|thumb|Jute plants (''Corchorus olitorius'' and ''Corchorus capsularis'')]]

== Cultivation and production ==
Jute is grown as a [[Kharif crop]], and is sown during the monsoon season and is harvested between the months of July and October. India produces over one million metric tonnes of jute annually and cultivates it on hundreds of thousands of hectares of land.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Indian Jute Industry {{!}} Jute Industry at A Glance in 2019-2020 |url=https://www.indianmirror.com/indian-industries/2020/jute-2020.html |access-date=2026-03-25 |website=www.indianmirror.com}}</ref> The sector is largely dependent on [[government procurement]], which involves the purchase of jute products worth [[Indian rupee|₹]]5,500 crore every year.<ref name=":0" /> Most of the jute is consumed domestically due to its strong domestic demand, with an average domestic consumption of 90% of total production.<ref name=":0" />

The principal jute-growing belt lies in the [[Ganges Delta|Ganges–Brahmaputra delta]], which provides ideal conditions for cultivation of jute. Jute is mainly cultivated in the states of [[West Bengal]], [[Bihar]] and [[Assam]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=Satellite-Based Mapping of Change in Jute Area in India |url=https://www.ncfc.gov.in/change-jute-area.html |website=ncfc.gov.in}}</ref> West Bengal alone accounts for about 50% of India's raw jute production.<ref name=":0" /> Jute is also cultivated in the states of [[Odisha]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Tripura]] and [[Meghalaya]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Jute Craft of Andhra Pradesh – Asia InCH – Encyclopedia of Intangible Cultural Heritage |url=https://asiainch.org/craft/jute-craft-of-andhra-pradesh-telangana/ |access-date=2026-03-25 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last= |first= |date= |title=Watch India's 150-year-old jute industry |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/indias-150-year-old-jute-industry/article33334372.ece |access-date= |work=thehindu.com |language=en-IN |issn=}}</ref>

As per the Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers' Welfare's Third Advance Estimates for the 2024-25 agricultural year, India's raw jute production is estimated at 83.08 lakh bales (each weighing 180 kg), marking a decline from 92.52 lakh bales in the previous year.<ref name=":3" />

== Varieties ==
Jute in India is obtained from two species of the genus [[Corchorus]]. They are ''[[Corchorus olitorius]]'' (tossa jute) and ''[[Corchorus capsularis]]'' (white jute).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tossa jute {{!}} Mallow, Edible, Fiber, Names, & Facts |url=https://www.britannica.com/plant/tossa-jute |website=britannica.com}}</ref>

== Exports ==
India is one of the world’s leading exporters of jute and jute products, including raw fibre, yarn, and diversified goods such as bags, mats, etc. The country exports jute products to many countries, including the [[United States]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[Germany]], [[Turkey]], and countries in the [[Middle East]] and [[Africa]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=भारतीय व्यापार पोर्टल |url=https://indiantradeportal.in/vs.jsp?lang=1&id=0,31,24100,29379 |access-date=2026-03-25 |website=indiantradeportal.in}}</ref>

During 2021-22, the United States was the highest importer of Indian jute, with a value of [[United States dollar|US$]]118.3 million, a 26% increase from the previous year.<ref name=":2" />

== Government organizations ==
The National Jute Board is a statutory body under the [[Ministry of Textiles]], [[Government of India]]. It is responsible for the development of the jute sector. It undertakes activities related to market development, export promotion, and support for jute cultivation and manufacturing.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-01-12 |title=National Jute Board – Weaving India’s Sustainable Growth and Rural Prosperity |url=https://www.outlookbusiness.com/planet/initiatives/national-jute-board-weaving-indias-sustainable-growth-and-rural-prosperity |access-date=2026-03-25 |website=Outlook Business |language=en}}</ref>

The [[Jute Corporation of India|Jute Corporation of India Limited (JCI)]] is [[Public sector undertakings in India|central public sector undertaking]] under the [[ownership]] of [[Ministry of Textiles (India)|Ministry of Textiles]], [[Government of India]]. It was incorporated in 1971. Its primary role is to procure raw jute at [[Minimum support price (India)|Minimum Support Price]] (MSP) and to promote improved cultivation technology.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Chatterjee |first=Shrabana |date=2025-05-13 |title=Jute Corporation of India increases MSP to stop distress sales |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/west-bengal/jute-corporation-of-india-increases-msp-to-stop-distress-sales/article69571847.ece |access-date=2026-03-25 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Jute Corporation of India (JCI), Ministry, Primary Mandate, Latest News |url=https://vajiramandravi.com/current-affairs/jute-corporation-of-india-jci/ |access-date=2026-03-25 |language=en-IN}}</ref>

== Diseases ==
Jute crops are affected by diseases such as [[stem rot]], [[Canker|anthracnose]], and wilt, caused mainly by [[Fungus|fungi]]. These diseases reduce plant growth, fibre quality, and yield.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Manage diseases of jute with cheap and easy input |url=https://epubs.icar.org.in/ejournal/index.php/IndFarm/article/view/87750 |website=epubs.icar.org}}</ref>

== See also ==

* [[Jute]]
* [[Jute cultivation]]
* [[Jute industry in Bangladesh]]

== References ==

{{reflist}}

{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Jute industry]]
[[Category:Commodity markets in India]]
[[Category:Economy of West Bengal]]
[[Category:Trade by commodity]]
[[Category:History of Dundee]]
[[Category:Jute industry in India]]

Jagannath Mandir, Dharakot

2026-04-25T09:42:25Z

Joseph Patricio: Started the article w/ refs - done

{{Use Indian English|date=December 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{Infobox Mandir
|name = Dharakot Jagannath Mandir
|image = Dharakote jagannathemple.jpg
|caption =
|other_names =

|sanskrit_translit =

|script_name = 
|script = 
|country = [[India]]
|state = [[Odisha]]
|district = [[Ganjam district|Ganjam]]
|locale = [[Dharakot]]
|elevation_m =
|elevation_footnotes =
|deity = [[Jagannath]] [[Balabhadra]] [[Subhadra]]
|festivals = [[Rath Yatra]]
|temple_quantity =
|monument_quantity =
|inscriptions =
|year_completed =
|creator =
|temple_board =
|website =
}}

'''Dharakot Jagannath Mandir''' ({{Langx|or|ଧରାକୋଟ ଜଗନ୍ନାଥ ମନ୍ଦିର}}) is a [[Hinduism|Hindu]] [[Jagannath]] Mandir located in [[Dharakot]] of [[Ganjam district]] in the [[India]]n state of [[Odisha]].

The mandir is built in contemporary [[Kalinga architecture]], similar to the [[Jagannath Temple, Puri]]. It is known among locals for its ''Ekadasi Cart festival''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.radha.name/news/india/murals-at-dharakote-jagannath-temple|title=Murals at Dharakote Jagannath Temple|accessdate=3 December 2022|work=Radha.name}}</ref>

The foundation was laid by Raja Jai Singh in 1732 and was completed by Raja Madan Mohan Singh Deo of Dharakot Zamindari.{{fact|date=December 2022}}

==Geography==
[[Dharakot]] is located 23 km from [[Surada]], 12 km from [[Asika]] and 55 km from [[Brahmapur, Odisha|Brahmapur]] in [[National Highway 59 (India)|NH-59]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Odisha Ecotourism|url=http://www.odishaecotourism.com/dharakote%20jagannath%20temple.html}}</ref>

[[File:Dharakote jagannathemple6.jpg|thumb|Main entrance]]

==List of Dharakot Rajas==
* Raja Hadu Singh 1476–1540
* Raja Rai Singh 1540–1602
* Raja Narayan Singh 1602–1647
* Raja Purushottam Singh 1647–1699
* Raja Ram Chandra Singh 1699–1731
* Raja Jai Singh 1731–1748
* Raja Rajendra Singh 1748–1780
* Raja Damodar Singh 1780
* Raja Krushna Singh 1780–1788
* Raja Jaganath Singh 1788–1830
* Raja Raghunath Singh 1830–1863
* Raja Braja Sundar Singh 1863–1880
* Raja Madan Mohan Singh Deo 1880–1937
* Raja Brajkishore Singh Deo 1937–1938
* Raja Padmanabh Singh Deo 1946–1949
* Raja Anant Narayan Singh Deo 1974–2003
* Raja Kishore Chandra Singh Deo 2003–2010
* Rani Sulakshana Geetanjali Devi (2010–current titular ruler)

==See also==
* [[List of Jagannath Temples outside Puri]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Jagannath|state=expanded}}

{{Hindu temples in Orissa}}

{{coord|19.644114|84.575258|display=title}}

[[Category:Hindu temples in Ganjam district]]
[[Category:Jagannath temples]]

{{Odisha-hindu-temple-stub}}

Niren Sengupta

2026-04-22T08:21:38Z

Joseph Patricio:

{{short description|Indian contemporary artist}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2025}}
{{Infobox artist
| image = Niren Sengupta.jpg
| caption = Sengupta in 2008
| birth_date = January 1940
| birth_place = [[Bengal Presidency]], [[British Raj|British India]]
| education = [[Government College of Art & Craft]], [[Kolkata]]
| known_for = Painting
| style = [[Cubism]]
| website = https://nirensen.com/
}}

'''Niren Sengupta''' ([[Bengali language|Bengali]]: নীরেন সেনগুপ্ত; born 1940) is an Indian [[contemporary art]]ist and academic. His works are primarily [[Cubism|cubist]] in style, form and nature. His art often displays a spiritual inclination, influenced by Buddhist legends. His works also draw inspiration from the [[Ramakrishna Mission]], a [[Hinduism|Hindu]] religious and philanthropic organisation headquartered in [[Belur Math]], [[West Bengal]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Singh |first=Ayesha |date=2014-09-21 |title=Decades of Artistic Self-Discovery |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/thesundaystandard/2014/Sep/21/decades-of-artistic-self-discovery-663307.html |access-date=2025-01-03 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Niren Sen Gupta - Biography |url=https://artandbeyond.gallery/artists/42-niren-sen-gupta/biography/ |access-date=2025-01-03 |website=Art & Beyond® {{!}} Contemporary Art Gallery |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Tribute to a doyen of Indian contemporary art |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/content/429958/tribute-doyen-indian-contemporary-art.html |access-date=2025-01-02 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Datta |first=Antara |title=Refugees and Borders in South Asia: The Great Exodus of 1971 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2013 |isbn=9780415524728 |pages=57 |language=en}}</ref>

== Early life ==
Niren Sengupta was born in January 1940. He studied at the [[University of Calcutta]] and [[Government College of Art & Craft|Government College of Art & Craft, Kolkata]]. He later served as Principal of the [[College of Art, Delhi]] from 1992 to 1998.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Names of Principals |url=https://colart.delhi.gov.in/colart/names-principals |access-date=2025-01-02 |website=College of Art, Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Niren Sengupta |url=https://formsofdevotion.org/artist/niren-sengupta/ |access-date=2025-01-02 |website=Forms of Devotion |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=A cubist conundrum |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/features/a-cubist-conundrum-781201.html |access-date=2025-01-02 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-10-01 |title=Vantage Point |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/delhi/vantage-point/ |access-date=2025-01-03 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

== Achievements ==
For his contributions, Sengupta has been conferred with the [[AIFACS]] Award, Mahakoshal Award and NBT Award.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Niren Sengupta – Bengal Foundation |url=https://bengalfoundation.org/featured_artist/niren-sengupta/ |access-date=2025-01-02 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Niren Sengupta - Artworks — Dhoomimal Gallery |url=https://www.dhoomimalgallery.art/artists/niren-sengupta |access-date=2025-01-03 |website=www.dhoomimalgallery.art}}</ref> Sengupta is a member of Calcutta Painters, an artists' collective.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Roy |first=Ishita |date=2024-03-13 |title=Calcutta Painters: Going with the flow |url=https://www.indulgexpress.com/culture/art/2024/Mar/13/calcutta-painters-going-with-the-flow |access-date=2025-01-03 |website=Indulgexpress |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Correspondent |first=B. O. |date=2024-03-07 |title=Celebrating Six Decades of Artistic Excellence: 'Calcutta Painters' Marks a Milestone in Indian Art History |url=https://boldoutline.in/celebrating-six-decades-of-artistic-excellence-calcutta-painters-marks-a-milestone-in-indian-art-history.html |access-date=2025-01-03 |website=Bold Outline : India's leading Online Lifestyle, Fashion & Travel Magazine. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Das |first=Soumitra |date=2012-11-17 |title=OLD VISION |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/opinion/old-vision/cid/366479 |access-date=2025-01-03 |work=[[The Telegraph (India)]]}}</ref> Sengupta's works are included in the collection of the [[National Gallery of Modern Art|National Gallery of Modern Art, New Delhi]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=National Gallery of Modern Art, New Delhi |url=https://ngmaindia.gov.in/collections-artist.asp?strLetter=S |access-date=2025-01-03 |website=ngmaindia.gov.in}}</ref> His paintings have been displayed at multiple solo and group exhibitions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Honorary Reporters |url=https://honoraryreporters.korea.net/board/detail.do?articlecate=1&board_no=21717&tpln=1 |access-date=2025-01-03 |website=honoraryreporters.korea.net}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Jain |first=Rupam |date=2024-12-13 |title=18 artists join forces in online exhibition to preserve Kashmir's Pashmina legacy |url=https://www.indulgexpress.com/culture/2024/Dec/13/18-artists-join-forces-in-online-exhibition-to-preserve-kashmirs-pashmina-legacy |access-date=2025-01-03 |website=Indulgexpress |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2016-08-09 |title=See the colours of India through the eyes of abstract artists |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/art-and-culture/see-the-colours-of-india-through-the-eyes-of-abstract-artists/story-ZQBf2zxQTjNjGGMTNBsdBO.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160814202427/http://www.hindustantimes.com/art-and-culture/see-the-colours-of-india-through-the-eyes-of-abstract-artists/story-ZQBf2zxQTjNjGGMTNBsdBO.html |archive-date=2016-08-14 |access-date=2025-01-03 |work=www.hindustantimes.com/ |language=en |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-05-09 |title=Artists showcase 'nothing is impossible' in an exhibition |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/lifestyle/art-and-culture/artists-showcase-nothing-is-impossible-exhibition-4648276/ |access-date=2025-01-03 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-04-22 |title=A celebration of India's culture in Gurgaon |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/events/gurgaon/a-celebration-of-indias-culture-in-gurgaon/articleshow/109497758.cms |access-date=2025-01-03 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Service |first=Statesman News |date=2023-12-24 |title=10 renowned artists breathe new life into endangered art of Kashmiri Pashmina |url=https://www.thestatesman.com/india/10-renowned-artists-breathe-new-life-into-endangered-art-of-kashmiri-pashmina-1503252736.html |access-date=2025-01-03 |website=The Statesman |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Excelsior |first=Daily |date=2018-10-27 |title=National Art Camp concludes |url=https://www.dailyexcelsior.com/national-art-camp-concludes/ |access-date=2025-01-03 |website=Daily Excelsior |language=en-US}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sengupta, Niren}}
[[Category:Indian male painters]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian painters]]
[[Category:1940 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian contemporary painters]]

N. D. Appachan

2026-04-20T05:22:26Z

Joseph Patricio: put up first stub with sources

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Indian patronymic|Appachan|Nellinilkkumthadathil Devassia}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = N. D. Appachan
| image =
| office1 = Member of Kerala Legislative Assembly (MLA)
| term_start1 = 2001
| term_end1 = 2005
| predecessor1 = [[P. V. Varghese Vaidyar]]
| successor1 = [[P. Krishna Prasad]]
| constituency1 = [[Sulthan Bathery]]
| party = [[Indian National Congress]]
| spouse = Thressia
| children = 3
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1949|5|2}}
| birth_place =
| death_date =
| death_place =
}}
'''Nellinilkkumthadathil Devassia''' '''Appachan''' is an [[Indian National Congress]] politician from [[Kerala]], India. He represented [[Sulthan Bathery Assembly constituency]] in 11th [[Kerala Legislative Assembly]].

==Biography==
N. D. Appachan was born on May 2, 1949, to N. J. Devassia of the Nellinilkkumthadathil house and Annamma.<ref name="niyamasabha">{{cite web |title=Members - Kerala Legislature |url=http://www.niyamasabha.org/codes/members/m045.htm |website=www.niyamasabha.org}}</ref> He lives in Kakkavayal, Wayanad district.<ref name="niyamasabha"/> He and his wife Tressia have 3 children.<ref name="niyamasabha"/>

==Political career==
Appachan, who was the first elected District Congress Committee (DCC) President of Wayanad District in 1991, served as the DCC President and Wayanad District [[United Democratic Front (Kerala)|UDF]] Chairman till 2004.<ref name="reporterlive">{{cite news |last1=നെറ്റ്‌വർക്ക് |first1=റിപ്പോർട്ടർ |title='വീണ്ടും ഡിസിസി പ്രസിഡന്റാകാന്‍ ആഗ്രഹിച്ചിരുന്നില്ല'; വ്യത്യസ്ഥനായി എന്‍ ഡി അപ്പച്ചന്‍ |url=https://www.reporterlive.com/politics/nd-appachan-wayanad-dcc-president-reaction-57714?infinitescroll=1 |work=www.reporterlive.com |date=29 August 2021 |language=ml |access-date=6 May 2022 |archive-date=22 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221122130525/https://www.reporterlive.com/politics/nd-appachan-wayanad-dcc-president-reaction-57714?infinitescroll=1 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2021 he was re-elected DCC President.<ref name="reporterlive"/>

He was elected to the 11th [[Kerala Legislative Assembly]] in 2001.<ref name="niyamasabha"/> He represented [[Sulthan Bathery Assembly constituency]] as an [[Indian National Congress]] candidate.<ref name="niyamasabha"/> He resigned from the post on July 5, 2005.<ref name="niyamasabha"/>

==Controversies==
In 2022, a complaint was filed against Appachan by a tribal woman who was [[Indian National Congress|Youth Congress]] Mananthavady Constituency secretary alleging that she was abused by him for her [[Caste system in India|caste]] and gender.<ref>{{cite news |title=n d appachan |url=https://www.kairalinewsonline.com/2022/01/10/477514.html |work=Kairali News {{!}} Kairali News Live |date=10 January 2022}}</ref> But the Adivasi Congress Mananthavady constituency committee said the allegations are baseless.<ref>{{cite news |last1=ഡെസ്ക് |first1=വെബ് |title='എൻ.ഡി. അപ്പച്ചനെ ഒറ്റപ്പെടുത്താൻ അനുവദിക്കില്ല' {{!}} Madhyamam |url=https://www.madhyamam.com/kerala/local-news/wayanad/--906155 |work=www.madhyamam.com |date=9 January 2022 |language=ml}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Appachan, N. D.}}
[[Category:1949 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Malayali politicians]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Kerala]]
[[Category:Kerala MLAs 2001–2006]]

Jamnagar Lok Sabha constituency

2026-04-19T08:48:03Z

Joseph Patricio: Started basic article from scratch - done

{{Short description|Lok Sabha Constituency in Gujarat}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| type = LS
| map_image = જામનગર – Jamnagar.svg
|map_caption =
|name = Jamnagar {{Small|GJ-10}}
|established = 1951
|reservation = None
|party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
|mp = [[Poonamben Hematbhai Maadam]]
|latest_election_year = [[2024 Indian general elections|2024]]
|state = [[Gujarat]]
|assembly_cons = [[Kalavad Assembly constituency|Kalavad]] [[Jamnagar Rural Assembly constituency|Jamnagar Rural]] [[Jamnagar North Assembly constituency|Jamnagar North]] [[Jamnagar South Assembly constituency|Jamnagar South]] [[Jamjodhpur Assembly constituency|Jamjodhpur]] [[Khambhaliya Assembly constituency|Khambhaliya]] [[Dwarka (Vidhan Sabha constituency of Gujarat)|Dwarka]]
}}
'''Jamnagar Lok Sabha constituency''' is one of the 26 [[Lok Sabha]] (parliamentary) constituencies in [[Gujarat]] state in western [[India]].

==Demographics==
* Total voters- 18,08,518
**Male - 9,27,593
**Female - 8,80,892
**Others - 33

==Assembly segments==
Presently, Jamnagar Lok Sabha constituency comprises seven [[Vidhan Sabha]] (legislative assembly) segments. These are:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ceogujarat.nic.in/site/download/FINAL_ROLL_2009.pdf |title=Parliament Constituency wise Electors Detail, Polling Stations & EPIC - Loksabha Election 2009 |publisher=Chief Electoral Officer, Gujarat website |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090416162919/http://ceogujarat.nic.in/site/download/FINAL_ROLL_2009.pdf |archive-date=2009-04-16 }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! width="50px" style="font-size:75%" |Constituency number
! width="200px" |Name
! width="120px" style="font-size:75%" |Reserved for ([[Dalit|SC]]/[[Adivasi|ST]]/None)
! width="150px" |District
! colspan="2"|Party
! colspan="2"|2024 Lead
|-
|76
|[[Kalavad Assembly constituency|Kalavad]]
|SC
| rowspan="5" |[[Jamnagar district|Jamnagar]]
| {{party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=4}}
| {{party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=7}}
|-
|77
|[[Jamnagar Rural Assembly constituency|Jamnagar Rural]]
|None
|-
|78
|[[Jamnagar North Assembly constituency|Jamnagar North]]
|None
|-
|79
|[[Jamnagar South Assembly constituency|Jamnagar South]]
|None
|-
|80
|[[Jamjodhpur Assembly constituency|Jamjodhpur]]
|None
| {{party name with color|Aam Aadmi Party}}
|-
|81
|[[Khambhaliya Assembly constituency|Khambhaliya]]
|None
| rowspan="2" |[[Devbhumi Dwarka district|Devbhoomi Dwarka]]
| {{party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=2}}
|-
|82
|[[Dwarka (Vidhan Sabha constituency of Gujarat)|Dwarka]]
|None
|}

== Members of Parliament ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Year
! Winner
! colspan=2|Party
|-
|[[1952 Indian general election|1952]]
|Jethalal Harikrishna Joshi
| {{Full party name with color|rowspan=3|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1957 Indian general election|1957]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Manubhai Shah]]
|-
|[[1962 Indian general election|1962]]
|-
|[[1967 Indian general election|1967]]
|N. Dandekar
|{{Full party name with color|Swatantra Party}}
|-
|[[1971 Indian general election|1971]]
|[[D. P. Jadeja|Daulatsinhji P. Jadeja]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1977 Indian general election|1977]]
|Vinodbhai Sheth
|{{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|-
|[[1980 Indian general election|1980]]
| rowspan="2" |[[D. P. Jadeja|Daulatsinhji P. Jadeja]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[1984 Indian general election|1984]]

|-
|[[1989 Indian general election|1989]]
| rowspan="5" |[[Chandresh Patel Kordia]]
| {{Full party name with color|rowspan=5|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
|[[1991 Indian general election|1991]]
|-
|[[1996 Indian general election|1996]]
|-
|[[1998 Indian general election|1998]]
|-
|[[1999 Indian general election|1999]]
|-
|[[2004 Indian general election|2004]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Ahir Vikrambhai Arjanbhai Madam]]
| {{Full party name with color|rowspan=2|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[2009 Indian general election|2009]]
|-
|[[2014 Indian general election|2014]]
| rowspan="3" |[[Poonamben Hematbhai Maadam]]
| {{Full party name with color|rowspan=3|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
|[[2019 Indian general election|2019]]
|-
|[[2024 Indian general election|2024]]
|}

== Election results ==
===2024===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2024 Indian general election]]: [[Jamnagar]]}}<ref name="2024 Loksabha Elections Results - Jamnagar">{{cite news |last1=Election Commission of India |title=2024 Loksabha Elections Results - Jamnagar |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/PcResultGenJune2024/candidateswise-S0612.htm |access-date=31 July 2024 |date=4 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240731143606/https://results.eci.gov.in/PcResultGenJune2024/candidateswise-S0612.htm |archive-date=31 July 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Jamnagar Constituency Lok Sabha Election Results 2024 |url=https://www.brutimes.com/news/politics/jamnagar-constituency-lok-sabha-election-results-2024 |website=Bru Times News |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Jamnagar election results 2024 live updates: BJP's Poonamben Hematbhai Maadam wins against Cong's J P Maraviya |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/jamnagar-election-results-2024-gujarat-jamnagar-lok-sabha-elections-poll-result-updates-poonamben-hematbhai-maadam-bjp-jp-maraviya-congress/articleshow/110657235.cms |website=The Times of India |date=4 June 2024}}</ref>
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|candidate= [[Poonamben Hematbhai Maadam]]
|party= Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes= 6,20,049
|percentage= 58.98
|change=
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate= J P Maraviya
|party= Indian National Congress
|votes= 3,82,041
|percentage= 36.34
|change=
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate= Jaysukh Nathubhai Pingalsur
|party= Bahujan Samaj Party
|votes= 11,462
|percentage= 1.09
|change=
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = None of the above
|votes = 11,084
|percentage = 1.05
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes =2,38,008
|percentage =22.62
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 10,52,099
|percentage =57.84
|change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2019===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2019 Indian general elections]]: [[Jamnagar]]}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link||party=Bharatiya Janata Party|candidate=[[Poonamben Hematbhai Maadam]]|votes=5,91,588|percentage=58.52|change=+1.71|Result=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Indian National Congress|candidate=Murubhai Kandoriya Ahir|votes=3,54,784|percentage=35.09|change=-1.16|Result=}}{{Election box candidate|party=[[Independent politician|IND]]|candidate=Dalvadi Nakum Rasik Lalji|votes=10,060|percentage=1.00|change=+1.00}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Bahujan Samaj Party|candidate=Sunil Jethalal Vaghela|votes=8,795|percentage=0.87|change=}}{{Election box candidate with party link||party=None of the above|candidate=None of the above|votes=7,799|percentage=0.77|change=N/A|Result=}}
{{Election box majority||votes=2,36,804|percentage=23.43|change=+2.87}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=10,11,449|percentage=61.03|change=+3.04}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party

|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2014===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2014 Indian general elections]]: [[Jamnagar]]<ref name="auto1">CEO Gujarat. ''[http://ceo.gujarat.gov.in/download/Contesting_Candidates_LS2014.PDF Contesting Candidates LS2014] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140514025434/http://ceo.gujarat.gov.in/download/Contesting_Candidates_LS2014.PDF |date=2014-05-14 }}''</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=http://eciresults.nic.in/ConstituencywiseS0620.htm?ac=20|title=Constituencywise-All Candidates|publisher=ECI|access-date=2014-05-17|archive-date=2014-05-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140517135238/http://eciresults.nic.in/ConstituencywiseS0620.htm?ac=20|url-status=dead}}</ref>}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Bharatiya Janata Party|candidate=[[Poonamben Hematbhai Maadam]]|votes=4,84,412|percentage=56.81|change=19.64|Result=Win}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Indian National Congress|candidate=[[Ahir Vikrambhai Arjanbhai Madam]]|votes=3,09,123|percentage=36.25|change=-14.58|Result=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Independent (politician)|candidate=Mamad Haji Bolim|votes=8,596|percentage=1.01|change=---|Result=}}{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Bahujan Samaj Party|candidate=Sama Yusuf|votes=8,234|percentage=0.97|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=None of the above|candidate=None of the Above|votes=6,588|percentage=0.77|change=---|Result=}}
{{Election box majority||votes=1,75,289|percentage=20.56|change=14.63}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=8,52,989|percentage=57.99|change=+10.33}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser = Indian National Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2009 ===
<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/archiveofge2009/Stats/VOLI/25_ConstituencyWiseDetailedResult.pdf |title=General Elections, 2009 - Constituency Wise Detailed Results |publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=2014-05-22 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140811090059/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/archiveofge2009/Stats/VOLI/25_ConstituencyWiseDetailedResult.pdf |archive-date=2014-08-11 }}</ref>
{{Election box begin | title=[[2009 Indian general elections]]: [[Jamnagar]]<ref name="auto1"/><ref name="auto"/>}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Indian National Congress|candidate=[[Ahir Vikrambhai Arjanbhai Madam]]|votes=2,81,403|percentage=47.33|change=|Result=Win}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Bharatiya Janata Party|candidate=Rameshbhai Mungra|votes=2,54,976|percentage=42.89|change=|Result=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Bahujan Samaj Party|candidate=Jaysukhbhai Chavda|votes=11,967|percentage=2.01|change=|Result=}}

{{Election box majority||votes=26,418|percentage=2.03|change=}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=5,94,598|percentage=45.79|change=}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser = Bharatiya Janata Party
|swing =
}}

{{Election box end}}

=== 2004 ===
<ref>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_2004/Vol_I_LS_2004.pdf |title = Statistical Report on General Elections, 2004 to the Fourteenth Lok Sabha|publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=2014-05-22 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140718190634/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_2004/Vol_I_LS_2004.pdf |archive-date=2014-07-18 }}</ref>
{{Election box begin | title=[[2004 Indian general elections]]: [[Jamnagar]]}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = [[Ahir Vikrambhai Arjanbhai Madam]]
|votes = 204, 468
|percentage = 47.17%
|change =
|Result = Win
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = [[Chandresh Patel Kordia]]
|votes = 198,875
|percentage = 45.88%
|change =
|Result =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 5,593
|percentage = 1.93%
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 4,33,448
|percentage = 40.43%
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser = Bharatiya Janata Party
|swing =
}}

{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[Jamnagar district]]
* [[List of constituencies of the Lok Sabha]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

{{Lok Sabha constituencies of Gujarat}}
{{Jamnagar district}}
{{coord|22.5|70.0|display=title}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Jamnagar Lok Sabha constituency}}
[[Category:Lok Sabha constituencies in Gujarat]]
[[Category:Jamnagar district]]

A. Sujanapal

2026-04-18T19:28:48Z

Joseph Patricio: Added some article basic info

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = A. Sujanapal
| image =
| office1 = Member of the [[Kerala Legislative Assembly]]
| term_start1 = 2001
| term_end1 = 2006
| predecessor1 = [[M. Dasan]]
| successor1 = A. Pradeep Kumar
| constituency1 = [[Kozhikode North Assembly constituency|Kozhikode North]]
| term_start2 = 1991
| term_end2 = 1996
| predecessor2 = M. Dasan
| successor2 = M. Dasan
| constituency2 = [[Kozhikode North Assembly constituency|Kozhikode North]]
| office3 = Minister of Forests and Environment, Government of Kerala
| term_start3 = 4 January 2006
| term_end3 = 12 May 2006
| predecessor3 = K. P. Viswanathan
| successor3 = [[Benoy Viswam]]
| party = [[Indian National Congress]]
| spouse = Jayasree
| children = 2
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1949|2|1}}
| birth_place = Kozhikode, [[Malabar district]], India
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|2011|6|23|1949|2|1}}
| death_place = [[Kozhikode]], Kerala
}}
'''A. Sujanapal''' (February 1, 1949 - June 23, 2011) was an advocate, social worker and [[Indian National Congress]] politician from [[Kerala]], India. He represented [[Kozhikode North Assembly constituency]] in 9th and 11th [[Kerala Legislative Assembly]]. He was the Minister of Forests and Environment in the Kerala Cabinet in first [[Oommen Chandy]] ministry. He wrote several books including travelogues.

== Biography ==
A. Sujanapal was born on February 1, 1949, at [[Kozhikode]], the son of freedom fighter A. Balagopalan and social activist Anandalakshmi.<ref name="niyamasabha">{{Cite web |title=Members - Kerala Legislature |url=http://www.niyamasabha.org/codes/members/m07.htm |access-date=2022-05-09 |website=www.niyamasabha.org}}</ref><ref name="hindu">{{Cite news |last=Nair |first=R. Madhavan |date=2011-06-23 |title=Former Kerala Minister Sujanapal passes away |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/former-kerala-minister-sujanapal-passes-away/article2128312.ece |access-date=2022-05-09 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> He was graduated from Zamorin's Guruvayoorappan College, Kozhikode and obtained his law degree from the Government Law College, Kozhikode.<ref name="ie">{{Cite web |title=Former minister Sujanapal passes away |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2011/jun/24/former-minister-sujanapal-passes-away-265864.html |access-date=2022-05-09 |website=The New Indian Express}}</ref>

===Personal life and death===
Sujanapal and his wife Jayasree have two children.<ref name="janmabhumi" /> He died on June 23, 2011, due to complications of cancer, at a private hospital in Kozhikode.<ref name="janmabhumi" />

== Political career ==
Sujanapal was active in politics from his school times. He entered politics through [[Kerala Students Union]] (KSU).<ref name="doolnews">{{Cite web |last=DoolNews |title=മുന്‍മന്ത്രി എ സുജനപാല്‍ അന്തരിച്ചു |url=https://www.doolnews.com/adv-a-sujanapal-passes-away-666.html |access-date=2022-05-09 |website=DoolNews}}</ref>

In addition to being the [[Kerala Pradesh Congress Committee|KPCC]] Treasurer and general secretary, Kozhikode District Congress Committee president and general secretary, president, of Kozhikode district Youth Congress Committee, he has also served as a syndicate member of [[University of Calicut]] and secretary of ''Friends of Soviet Union''.<ref name="niyamasabha" />

Sujanapal represented [[Kozhikode North Assembly constituency]] in 9th and 11th [[Kerala Legislative Assembly]] and was the Minister of Forests and Environment in the Kerala Cabinet in first [[Oommen Chandy]] ministry, from January 4, 2006.<ref name="janmabhumi">{{Cite web |title=മുന്‍ മന്ത്രി സുജനപാല്‍ അന്തരിച്ചു |url=https://www.janmabhumi.in/news/print%20edition/news1581 |access-date=2022-05-09 |website=Janmabhumi |language=en}}</ref> During the period 2001–2005, he also served as the chairman of ''Committee on Private Members' Bills and Resolutions''.<ref name="hindu" /> He also served as the chairman of Kerala Legislative Assembly Library Committee.<ref name="ie" /> He has also contested in the [[Lok Sabha]] elections twice.<ref name="janmabhumi" />

Sujanapal was also active in the cultural sphere of Kozhikode and was also the chief organizer of many such associations.<ref name="doolnews" />

== Books written ==
* {{Cite book |title=Karayaruthu Sahva Karayaruthu |publisher=Mathrubhumi books |year=2008 |isbn=9788182646872 |language=Malayalam}}
* {{Cite book |url=https://find.uoc.ac.in/Record/226983 |title=Maranam Kaathukidakkunna kandal kaadukal |publisher=Haritham books |year=2005 |location=Kozhikode}}
* {{Cite book |url=https://find.uoc.ac.in/Record/226911 |title=Karutha Britain |publisher=[[Sahithya Pravarthaka Co-operative Society]] |year=2001 |location=Kottayam}}
* {{Cite book |url=https://find.uoc.ac.in/Record/227305 |title=Gandhisam Erupathonnam noottandil |publisher=Paiyon books |year=2001 |location=Kozhikode}}
* {{Cite book |url=https://find.uoc.ac.in/Record/234901 |title=യുദ്ധസ്മരണകളിലൂടെ ഒരു യാത്ര Yuddhasmaranakaliloode oru yathra |publisher=Haritham books |year=2011 |edition=3 |location=Kozhikode|language=Malayalam}}
* {{Cite book |url=https://find.uoc.ac.in/Record/79294 |title=Poruthunna Palestine |year=1983 |language=Malayalam}}
* {{Cite book |title=Michelangelo: athmeeyathayude varna vasantham |publisher=Mathrubhumi books |year=2007 |isbn=8182643759 |language=Malayalam}}
* {{Cite book |url=https://find.uoc.ac.in/Record/234601 |title=സുജനപാലിന്റെ യാത്രകൾ (Sujanapalinte Yathrakal)|trans-title=Sujanapal's travels|language=Malayalam |publisher=Haritham books |year=2015 |edition=3 |location=Kozhikode}} Travelogue.
* ''Moonnam Lokam''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Suresh |first=Sreelakshmi |last2=stateofkerala.in |title=Kerala State - Everything about Kerala |url=http://www.stateofkerala.in/niyamasabha/sujanapal.php |access-date=2022-05-09 |website=www.stateofkerala.in |language=en |archive-date=26 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110626124007/http://www.stateofkerala.in/niyamasabha/SUJANAPAL.php |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Legacy==
In memory of him, the A. Sujanapal Memorial Educational and Cultural Center is giving ''Sujanapal Award'' since 2021. First award was given to [[Ramesh Chennithala]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Daily |first=Keralakaumudi |title=സുജനപാൽ പുരസ്കാരം രമേശ് ചെന്നിത്തലയ്ക്ക് |url=https://keralakaumudi.com/news/news.php?id=594333&u=chenni |access-date=2022-05-09 |website=Keralakaumudi Daily |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sujanapal, A.}}
[[Category:1949 births]]
[[Category:2011 deaths]]
[[Category:Malayali politicians]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Kerala]]
[[Category:Kerala MLAs 1991–1996]]
[[Category:Kerala MLAs 2001–2006]]
[[Category:Malayalam-language writers]]
[[Category:People from Kozhikode district]]

Tulsi Ram Silawat

2026-04-13T00:07:16Z

Joseph Patricio: started a entry needs work

{{short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2018}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Tulsiram Silawat
| image =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=y|1954|11|5}}<ref name="Madhya Pradesh vidhan Sabha Profile">{{cite news |url=http://mpvidhansabha.nic.in/13thvs/2014_210.pdf |title=Madhya Pradesh vidhan Sabha}}{{dead link|date=September 2019}}</ref>{{citation needed|date=September 2019}}
| office = Cabinet Minister of Water Resources [[Madhya Pradesh Government]]
| term_start = 21 April 2020
| term_end =
| 1blankname = [[Chief Minister of Madhya Pradesh|Chief Minister]]
| 1namedata = *[[Shivraj Singh Chouhan]]
*[[Mohan Yadav]]
| predecessor = [[Karada Hukum Singh]]
| office1 = Member of the [[Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
| term_start1 = December 2018
| term_end1 =
| predecessor1 = [[Rajesh Sonkar]]
| constituency1 = [[Sanwer (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Sanwer]]
| successor3 = [[Prakash Sonkar]]
| term_start3 = 1985
| term_end3 = 1990
| constituency2 = [[Sanwer (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Sanwer]]
| term_start2 = 2008
| term_end2 = 2013
| predecessor2 = [[Prakash Sonkar]]
| successor2 = [[Rajesh Sonkar]]
| office5 = Vice President of [[Madhya Pradesh Congress Committee]]
| term_start5 = 1998
| term_end5 = 2003
| education = [[Master of Arts|MA]] [[LLB]] Part 1 {{citation needed|date=September 2019}}
| alma_mater = [[Indore University]]
| profession = [[Agriculturist]], politician
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| spouse = Sunita Silawat<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://myneta.info/mp2013/candidate.php?candidate_id=138|title=Tulsiram Silawat(Indian National Congress(INC)):Constituency- SANWER(INDORE) - Affidavit Information of Candidate|access-date=18 April 2018|archive-date=9 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109101609/https://myneta.info/mp2013/candidate.php?candidate_id=138|url-status=live}}</ref>
| office4 = [[Minister of Health and Family Welfare]] 
[[Government of Madhya Pradesh|Madhya Pradesh Government]]
| preceded4 = [[Rustam Singh (politician)|Rustam Singh]]
| term_start4 = December 2018
| term_end4 = March 2020
| children = Nitish Silawat,Chinmayee Silawat
}}
'''Tulsi Ram Silawat''' is an Indian politician serving as a cabinet minister in the [[Government of Madhya Pradesh|Madhya Pradesh state government]] and a two-time representative of the [[Sanwer Assembly constituency|Sanwer constituency]] in the [[Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/interview-i-think-i-deserve-a-second-chance-tulsiram-silawat-1915064%26sa%3DU%26ved%3D0ahUKEwiGup_wjMTTAhWMu48KHQlIAi8QFggPMAc%26usg%3DAFQjCNEK4v_6KuvPXn_pSNL7gW6r-acVjw |title=I think I deserve a second chance: Tulsiram Silawat |website=Daily News and Analysis |date=7 November 2013 |accessdate=27 April 2017 |archive-date=29 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629215719/http://www.dnaindia.com/india/interview-i-think-i-deserve-a-second-chance-tulsiram-silawat-1915064%26sa%3DU%26ved%3D0ahUKEwiGup_wjMTTAhWMu48KHQlIAi8QFggPMAc%26usg%3DAFQjCNEK4v_6KuvPXn_pSNL7gW6r-acVjw |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Tulsiram Silawat(Indian National Congress(INC)):Constituency- SANWER(INDORE) - Affidavit Information of Candidate: |url=https://myneta.info/mp2013/candidate.php?candidate_id=138&sa=U&ved=0ahUKEwiGup_wjMTTAhWMu48KHQlIAi8QFggnMAA&usg=AFQjCNECdKNaa_8Im0uWkUrVtv1_zmaPgA |access-date=2023-11-09 |website=myneta.info}}</ref> He took the oath as a cabinet minister in the new Madhya Pradesh government on 25 December 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.livemint.com/Politics/zqyf1gIubsHBrWfz44IoLO/Madhya-Pradesh-CM-Kamal-Nath-expands-Cabinet-inducts-28-mi.html|title=Madhya Pradesh CM Kamal Nath expands Cabinet, inducts 28 ministers|last=PTI|date=2018-12-25|website=Mint|language=en|access-date=2018-12-27|archive-date=27 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181227125651/https://www.livemint.com/Politics/zqyf1gIubsHBrWfz44IoLO/Madhya-Pradesh-CM-Kamal-Nath-expands-Cabinet-inducts-28-mi.html|url-status=live}}</ref> He joined the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] on 21 March 2020, and took oath as the Water Resources Minister under [[Shivraj Singh Chouhan]]'s cabinet on 21 April 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |title=MP News: तुलसी सिलावट को फिर मिला जल संसाधन, गोविंद सिंह राजपूत भी पहले की तरह परिवहन मंत्रालय संभालेंगे |url=https://navbharattimes.indiatimes.com/state/madhya-pradesh/bhopal/mp-news-tulsi-silawat-given-water-resources-govind-singh-rajpoot-gets-transport-and-revenue-department-in-shivraj-singh-chouhan-cabinet/articleshow/80100890.cms |access-date=2023-11-09 |website=Navbharat Times |language=hi |archive-date=9 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109101520/https://navbharattimes.indiatimes.com/state/madhya-pradesh/bhopal/mp-news-tulsi-silawat-given-water-resources-govind-singh-rajpoot-gets-transport-and-revenue-department-in-shivraj-singh-chouhan-cabinet/articleshow/80100890.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> On 20 October 2020, he resigned from the post of Water Resources Minister. Because, as per Article 164 (4) of the Indian Constitution, a minister who is not a member of the House must be elected to an assembly within 6 months of being appointed minister.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2020-10-22 |title=Madhya Pradesh: Six months over, Tulsiram Silawat & Govind Singh Rajput resign from cabinet |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bhopal/madhya-pradesh-six-months-over-tulsiram-silawat-govind-singh-rajput-resign-from-cabinet/articleshow/78801891.cms |access-date=2023-11-09 |issn=0971-8257 |archive-date=8 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210908145536/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bhopal/madhya-pradesh-six-months-over-tulsiram-silawat-govind-singh-rajput-resign-from-cabinet/articleshow/78801891.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Career==

In December 2018, he was inducted into the [[Kamal Nath ministry|Kamal Nath cabinet]] as Minister of Public Health and Family Welfare of [[Madhya Pradesh]]. During [[2020 Madhya Pradesh political crisis]], he supported senior Congress leader [[Jyotiraditya Scindia]] and joined BJP with the 22 MLAs who resigned.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/jyotiraditya-scindia-resigns-from-congress/articleshow/74561583.cms|title=Jyotiraditya Scindia resigns from Congress, more than 20 party MLAs quit|date=2020-03-10|work=The Economic Times|access-date=2020-03-20|archive-date=18 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818200902/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/jyotiraditya-scindia-resigns-from-congress/articleshow/74561583.cms|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=22 rebel Cong MLAs, whose resignation led to fall of Kamal Nath govt, join BJP|url=https://www.livemint.com/politics/news/22-rebel-cong-mlas-whose-resignation-led-to-fall-of-kamal-nath-govt-join-bjp-11584797981690.html|publisher=Live Mint|access-date=23 March 2020|archive-date=21 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200321161645/https://www.livemint.com/politics/news/22-rebel-cong-mlas-whose-resignation-led-to-fall-of-kamal-nath-govt-join-bjp-11584797981690.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.theweek.in/news/india/2020/03/21/22-rebel-madhya-pradesh-congress-mlas-join-bjp.html |title=22 rebel Madhya Pradesh Congress MLAs join BJP |access-date=23 March 2020 |archive-date=22 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200322153437/https://www.theweek.in/news/india/2020/03/21/22-rebel-madhya-pradesh-congress-mlas-join-bjp.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
*[[2013 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]
*[[2008 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]
*[[1985 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Silawat, Tulsiram}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Madhya Pradesh MLAs 1985–1990]]
[[Category:Madhya Pradesh MLAs 2008–2013]]
[[Category:1954 births]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Madhya Pradesh MLAs 2018–2023]]
[[Category:Politicians from Indore]]
[[Category:Madhya Pradesh MLAs 2023–2028]]
[[Category:Devi Ahilya Vishwavidyalaya alumni]]

Tara Prasad Bahinipati

2026-04-12T14:45:48Z

Joseph Patricio: started some article v1

{{Short description|Politician from Odisha, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2023}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| image =
| name = Tara Prasad Bahinipati
| caption =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age |df=y|1956|12|30}}
| birth_place =
| death_date =
| office = Member of the [[Odisha Legislative Assembly]]
| constituency = [[Jeypore Assembly constituency|Jeypore]]
| salary =
| term_start = 2014
| predecessor = Rabi Narayan Nanda
| successor =
| constituency1 = [[Koraput Assembly constituency|Koraput]]
| term_start1 = 2000
| term_end1 = 2009
| predecessor1 = Gupta Prasad Das
| successor1 = Raghuram Padal
| party = [[Indian National Congress]]
| other_party =
| citizenship = {{IND}}
| occupation = Politician
| parents = Anantaram Bahinipati, Sarojini Bahinipati
| spouse = Minakhi Bahinipati
| children = 2
| relations =
| website =
| footnotes =
| date =
| year =
| source =
}}
'''Tara Prasad Bahinipati''' (born 30 December 1956) is an Indian politician from [[Odisha]]. He is currently serving as an [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]] in [[Odisha Legislative Assembly]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Andhra Pradesh may take over Kotia: Jeypore MLA Bahinipati |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/odisha/2023/jan/09/andhra-pradesh-maytake-over-kotia-jeypore-mla-bahinipati-2536060.html |publisher=[[The New Indian Express]] |date=9 January 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Mohapatra |first1=Debabrata |title=Senior Congress leader Tara Prasad Bahinipati threatens to quit the party |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bhubaneswar/odisha-senior-congress-leader-tara-prasad-bahinipati-threatens-to-quit-the-party/articleshow/85481429.cms?from=mdr |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=20 August 2021}}</ref> In 2000, 2004, 2014,2019 and 2024, he was elected to the 12th, 13th, 15th, 16th and 17th Odisha Legislative Assembly from [[Koraput Assembly constituency|Koraput]] and [[Jeypore Assembly constituency|Jeypore]] Assembly constituencies respectively.

Tara Prasad Bahinipati was born to Anantaram and Sarojini Bahinipati. He is married to Minakhi Bahipati and together they have two children. He is known for his unique electioneering campaigns during local and general election in Jeypore and is fondly known as "Bhalu Bhaina" across the political spectrum of the state<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dash |first=Mrunal Manmay |title=Odisha MLA's Valentine's Day tweet breaks internet |url=https://odishatv.in/news/odisha/odisha-mla-s-valentine-s-day-tweet-breaks-internet-196991 |access-date=2025-12-19 |website=odishatv.in |language=en}}</ref> He is the only [[Odisha Pradesh Congress Committee|Indian National Congress Odisha]] MLA to have an artist listing [[ITunes|Apple Itunes]] with rap, hip-hop, r&b music on social issues and the [[COVID-19 pandemic|Corona Pandemic]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Taraprasad Bahinipati on Apple Music |url=https://music.apple.com/in/artist/taraprasad-bahinipati/1525549211 |access-date=2025-12-19 |website=Apple Music - Web Player |language=en-GB}}</ref>

He is currently serving as [[Odisha Legislative Assembly|Member of the Odisha Legislative Assembly]] from the [[Jeypore Assembly constituency]] having won on an [[Indian National Congress]] ticket. He was the President of Odisha Police/OSAP, Havildar, Constable & Sepoy Confederation from 1985 to 1993. It is an officially recognized body that represents the interests of havildars, constables, and sepoys within the [[Odisha Police]] and Odisha Special Armed Police (OSAP).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Service |first=Express News |date=2024-12-17 |title=Revised pay for havildars, constables |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/bhubaneswar/2024/Dec/17/revised-pay-for-havildars-constables |access-date=2025-12-19 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bahinipati, Tara Prasad}}
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Odisha]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Jeypore]]
[[Category:Orissa MLAs 2000–2004]]
[[Category:Orissa MLAs 2004–2009]]
[[Category:Odisha MLAs 2014–2019]]
[[Category:Odisha MLAs 2019–2024]]
[[Category:Odisha MLAs 2024–2029]]
[[Category:1956 births]]

Rapido (company)

2026-04-06T11:26:09Z

Joseph Patricio: Made The Details V1

{{short description|Indian online bike taxi aggregator}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2019}}
{{Infobox company
| name = Rapido
| former_name = theKarrier
| logo = Rapido (company).svg
| type = [[Privately held company|Private]]
| industry = [[Transportation]]
| founded = {{start date and age|df=yes|2015}}
| founders = Aravind Sanka Pavan Guntupalli SR Rishikesh
| hq_location_city = [[Bengaluru]], [[Karnataka]]
| hq_location_country = India
| num_locations = 100+ cities
| num_locations_year = 2022
| services = [[Motorcycle taxi|Bike taxi]] [[Auto rickshaw]] [[Taxicab]] [[Third-party logistics]]
| revenue = {{up}} {{INRConvert|648|c}} (FY24)<ref name="fy24">{{cite news|title=Rapido’s operating revenue nears Rs 650 Cr in FY24; cuts losses by 45%|url=https://entrackr.com/fintrackr/rapidos-operating-revenue-nears-rs-650-cr-in-fy24-cuts-losses-by-45-7576868|work=EnTrackr|date=13 November 2024 |language=en}}</ref>
| area_served = India<ref>{{cite web |title=Bike-taxi service Rapido to double its presence to 150 cities in 6 months |date=15 March 2019 |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/logistics/bike-taxi-service-rapido-to-double-its-presence-to-50-cities-in-6-months/article26546085.ece |publisher=The Hindu Business Line |accessdate=3 November 2019}}</ref>
| homepage = {{URL|https://rapido.bike}}
}}

'''Roppen Transportation Services Private Limited''', [[doing business as]] '''Rapido''', is an Indian [[ride hailing|ride-hailing service]], which primarily operates as a [[Motorcycle taxi|bike taxi]] aggregator. Its offerings also include [[auto rickshaw]] and [[taxicab]] hailing, [[parcel delivery]], and [[third-party logistics]] services.<ref>{{cite news |title=Rapido shifts focus to logistics; sees 25% business recovery and aims for 1.5x growth next year over FY20 |url=https://www.businessinsider.in/advertising/brands/article/rapido-bike-rent-company-shifts-focus-to-logistics/articleshow/78203738.cms |access-date=4 December 2020 |work=Business Insider |archive-date=20 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201120144731/https://www.businessinsider.in/advertising/brands/article/rapido-bike-rent-company-shifts-focus-to-logistics/articleshow/78203738.cms |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Founded in 2015, the company is based in [[Bengaluru]] and operates in over 100 cities as of 2022. It has faced legal troubles in several locations where bike taxis are not legal.<ref>{{cite news |title=Rapido targets to more than double user base |url=https://www.thehindu.com/business/rapido-targets-to-more-than-double-user-base/article38176173.ece |access-date=29 April 2022 |work=The Hindu |date=7 January 2022 |language=en-IN}}</ref>

==History==
The company was founded in 2015 as theKarrier<ref name=bloom>{{cite web |title=Startup Street: Rapido Begins Its Delhi City Service Amid Odd-Even Curbs |date=3 November 2019 |url=https://www.bloombergquint.com/business/startup-street-rapido-begins-its-delhi-city-service-amid-odd-even-curbs |publisher=Bloomberg |accessdate=3 November 2019}}</ref> by two [[Indian Institutes of Technology|IIT]] alumni and a [[PES University|PESU]] alumnus – Aravind Sanka, Pavan Guntupalli, and SR Rishikesh respectively.<ref>{{cite web |title=Indian Motorbike-Taxi Service Rapido Aims To Reach 1 Million Rides Each Day In 2019 |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/anuraghunathan/2018/11/28/indian-motorbike-taxi-service-rapido-aims-to-reach-1-million-rides-each-day-in-2019/#6e5b29145840 |work=Forbes |accessdate=4 April 2019}}</ref> In September 2018, reports were that Rapido has over 15,000 registered riders, with an average rides of 30,000 per day.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bike taxi app Rapido to launch new features for visually-challenged commuter |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/info-tech/bike-taxi-app-rapido-to-launch-new-features-for-visually-challenged-commuters/article25057002.ece |work=The Hindu |date=27 September 2018 |accessdate=4 April 2019}}</ref> Subsequently, [[Hero MotoCorp]] chairman [[Pawan Munjal]] and former [[Google]] India head Rajan Anandan picked up stakes in the company.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pawan Munjal, Rajan Anandan invest in bike taxi operator Rapido |work=The Economic Times |date=20 April 2016 |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/small-biz/startups/pawan-munjal-rajan-anandan-invest-in-bike-taxi-operator-rapido/articleshow/51894620.cms |publisher=Economic Times |accessdate=4 April 2019}}</ref>

In 2019, Rapido co-founder Aravind Sanka claimed that the company has created more than 500,000 jobs in India.<ref>{{cite web |title=We took a bold step to focus on tier-2 cities |work=mint |date=23 October 2019 |url=https://www.livemint.com/companies/start-ups/-we-took-a-bold-step-to-focus-on-tier-2-cities-11571850727376.html |publisher=Livemint |accessdate=3 November 2019}}</ref> In November 2019, the company claimed to have 1 crore registered users.<ref name=bloom/>

After the breakout of the [[COVID-19 pandemic in India|COVID-19 pandemic]], Rapido expanded its operations in logistics, providing [[Last mile (transportation)|last-mile delivery]] of goods for local businesses and e-commerce companies.<ref>{{cite news |last1=SH |first1=Salman |title=Bike taxi startup Rapido launches logistics service for businesses |url=https://www.livemint.com/companies/start-ups/bike-taxi-startup-rapido-launches-logistics-service-for-businesses-11592829196528.html |access-date=4 December 2020 |work=mint |date=22 June 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Mukherjee |first1=Sharmistha |title=Rapido turns to hyperlocal delivery now |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/small-biz/startups/newsbuzz/rapido-turns-to-hyperlocal-delivery-now/articleshow/75525531.cms |access-date=4 December 2020 |work=The Economic Times}}</ref> In October 2020, Rapido launched on-demand [[auto rickshaw]] hailing services.<ref>{{cite news |last1=SH |first1=Salman |title=Bike taxi app Rapido forays into on-demand autorickshaw service |url=https://www.livemint.com/companies/start-ups/bike-taxi-app-rapido-forays-into-on-demand-autorickshaw-service-11602765464473.html |access-date=4 December 2020 |work=mint |date=15 October 2020 |language=en}}</ref>

In April 2022, the company received $180 million in a funding round led by [[Swiggy]], raising the company's valuation to $830 million. The Series D round of funding also saw participation of [[TVS Motor Company]], Westbridge, Shell Ventures, and Nexus Ventures.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rapido raises $180 mn in funding round led by Swiggy, TVS Motor |url=https://www.fortuneindia.com/enterprise/rapido-raises-180-mn-in-funding-round-led-by-swiggy-tvs-motor/107806 |access-date=2022-04-19 |website=www.fortuneindia.com |date=9 April 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Singh |first1=Manish |title=Swiggy backs bike taxi platform Rapido in $180 million funding |url=https://techcrunch.com/2022/04/15/swiggy-rapido/ |access-date=15 April 2022 |work=TechCrunch |date=15 April 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

In 2023, Rapido introduced [[taxicab]] hailing on its app.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Singh |first1=Jagmeet |title=India's bike taxi startup Rapido is getting into the cab business |url=https://techcrunch.com/2023/10/26/rapido-cabs-india/ |access-date=26 November 2023 |work=TechCrunch |date=27 October 2023}}</ref>

In September 2024, Rapido became a [[Unicorn (finance)|unicorn]] after raising $200 million in its Series E round at a $1.1 billion valuation.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Sharma |first=Samidha |date=2024-09-05 |title=Rapido raises $200 million in funding led by WestBridge; valuation hits $1.1 billion |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/tech/funding/rapido-rolls-into-unicorn-club-with-200-million-raise-at-1-1-billion-valuation/articleshow/113073029.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2024-09-11 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref>

In August 2025, Rapido launched its [[food delivery]] app called Ownly.<ref>{{cite news |title=Rapido steps into food delivery with 'Ownly' app in Bengaluru, a no-commission challenger to Swiggy, Zomato: Report |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/bengaluru-news/rapido-steps-into-food-delivery-with-ownly-app-in-bengaluru-a-no-commission-challenger-to-swiggy-zomato-report-101755153191712.html |access-date=20 December 2025 |work=Hindustan Times |date=14 August 2025 |language=en}}</ref>

==Business model==
The Rapido app allows the user to book a ride, after which a rider (called "Captain") arrives at the location. The fare includes a base fare of {{INR}}20 in addition to {{INR}}3 for every kilometer of the ride.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bike ride, a click away |url=https://www.thehindu.com/life-and-style/as-urban-spaces-struggle-with-traffic-rapido-bike-taxi-hopes-to-make-passenger-experience-quick-comfortable-and-affordable-in-the-city/article24173539.ece |work=The Hindu |date=15 June 2018 |accessdate=4 April 2019 |last1=Philip |first1=Susan Joe }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Rapido kick-starts its operations in Warangal |work=Telangana Today |url=https://telanganatoday.com/rapido-kick-starts-its-operations-in-warangal |accessdate= 4 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Rapido plans to launch "power pass" for regular commuters |work=The Economic Times |date=14 November 2018 |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/small-biz/startups/newsbuzz/rapido-plans-to-launch-power-pass-for-regular-commuters/articleshow/66618268.cms |publisher=Economic Times |accessdate=4 April 2019}}</ref> The "Captains" need to register through the Rapido-Captain app and get validated by submitting the required documents. They can use motorcycles, scooters, or e-bikes, but the vehicle cannot be older than 2010.

==Legal issues==
Rapido has run into legal troubles in various cities. In October 2018, several bikes were seized in [[Coimbatore]] as Rapido was operating without a permit from the transport department.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bike taxi service runs into dead end |work=The Times of India |date=12 October 2018 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/coimbatore/bike-taxi-service-runs-into-dead-end/articleshow/66171521.cms |publisher=Times of India |accessdate=4 April 2019}}</ref> In July 2019, [[Madras High Court]] banned Rapido's operations across [[Tamil Nadu]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Explainer: Why bike sharing app Rapido has been banned across Tamil Nadu |date=24 July 2019 |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/explainer-why-bike-sharing-app-rapido-has-been-banned-across-tamil-nadu-106020 |publisher=The News Minute |accessdate=3 November 2019}}</ref> while the Rapido [[iOS]] application was removed from the [[App Store (iOS/iPadOS)|App Store]] for violating local laws.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Upadhyay |first1=Harsh |title=Rapido app lifted from Apple app store following Madras HC ban order |url=https://entrackr.com/2019/07/rapido-app-ban-madras-hc/ |access-date=28 December 2020 |work=Entrackr |date=19 July 2019}}</ref> In August 2019, the court lifted the ban and allowed the company to resume services in the state until the state government framed new regulations for bike taxi services.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2019-08-02|title=Rapido can continue operations in T.N.: HC|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/rapido-can-continue-operations-in-tn-hc/article28788935.ece|access-date=2020-12-07|issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

In February 2019, more than 200 bike taxis belonging to Rapido and [[Ola Cabs]] were seized in [[Bangalore]] as the state transport department declared bike taxis to be illegal.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bike taxis are illegal says Karnataka transport dept, impounds 200 bikes |date=18 February 2019 |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/bike-taxis-are-illegal-says-karnataka-transport-dept-impounds-200-bikes-96904 |publisher=The News Minute |accessdate=4 April 2019}}</ref> In April 2019, more than 170 Rapido bikes were impounded and an investigation was launched against Rapido by the city cyber crime police.<ref>{{cite news |title=Bad news for Bengaluru commuters: RTO officials issue notice to Rapido for 'illegal bike taxi service' |url=https://newsable.asianetnews.com/news/bad-news-for-bengaluru-commuters-rto-officials-issue-notice-to-rapido-for-illegal-bike-taxi-service--ppj40d |access-date=28 December 2020 |work=Asianet}}</ref> Despite the ban, the company was reported to be illegally operating in Bangalore, with Rapido Captains disguised as food delivery executives.<ref>{{cite news |title=Bike taxis hide behind aggregators, operate illegally under the radar |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/bengaluru/2019/jul/30/bike-taxis-hide-behind-aggregators-operate-illegally-under-the-radar-2011377.html |accessdate=30 April 2020 |work=New Indian Express}}</ref>

In February 2020, Rapido was banned across [[Assam]], after the transport department found that the company was operating without commercial license or permit from the DTO.<ref>{{cite news |title=Assam Transport Department bans Rapido-Bike Taxi Service in Guwahati, Office sealed |url=https://www.sentinelassam.com/breaking-news/assam-transport-department-bans-rapido-bike-taxi-service-in-guwahati-office-sealed/ |accessdate=16 April 2020 |work=The Sentinel Assam}}</ref> In October 2020, shortly after it commenced operations in [[Mumbai]], the city's transport authorities asked the company to stop its services as it was operating without the government's permission.<ref>{{cite news |title=RTO asks Rapido to shut bike taxi service |url=https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/mumbai/other/rto-asks-rapido-to-shut-bike-taxi-service/articleshow/79031564.cms |access-date=28 December 2020 |work=Mumbai Mirror |language=en}}</ref>

In January 2022, [[Regional Transport Office|RTO]] officials in Bangalore seized over 120 Rapido bikes, after receiving complaints from the city's cab and auto rickshaw unions.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Mathew Philip |first1=Christin |title=120 bike-taxis seized in four hours in Bengaluru, Rapido cries foul |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/bengaluru-120-bike-taxis-seized-in-four-hours-rapido-cries-foul/articleshow/89255271.cms |access-date=29 April 2022 |work=The Times of India |date=1 February 2022 |language=en}}</ref> In February 2022, [[Pune]] RTO officials seized 65 motorbikes belonging to Rapido riders, declaring bike taxi operations to be illegal in the state of [[Maharashtra]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Pune RTO Seizes 65 Motorcycles Being Used For Bike Taxi By Rapido |url=https://www.punekarnews.in/pune-rto-seizes-65-motorcycles-being-used-for-bike-taxi-by-rapido/ |access-date=29 April 2022 |work=Punekar News |date=5 February 2022}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:2015 establishments in Karnataka]]
[[Category:Online companies of India]]
[[Category:Indian companies established in 2015]]
[[Category:Companies based in Bengaluru]]
[[Category:Ridesharing companies of India]]
[[Category:Companies of India]]

Adarsh Sukumaran

2026-04-01T23:23:05Z

Joseph Patricio: Added initial bio w/ sources

{{Short description|Malayalam actor and scriptwriter}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2026}}
'''Adarsh Sukumaran''' is an Indian scriptwriter and actor who worked in [[Malayalam cinema]]. He was best known for his work [[Kaathal – The Core]] for which he won the [[54th Kerala State Film Awards|state award]] for best story writing.<ref name="TH01">{{cite news |title=54th Kerala State Film Awards: 'Aadujeevitham' and 'Kaathal' win top honours; Prithviraj, Urvashi, Beena R. Chandran Best Actors |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/54th-kerala-state-film-awards-aadujeevitham-and-kaathal-win-top-honours-prithviraj-urvashi-beena-r-chandran-best-actors/article68531932.ece |access-date=16 January 2026 |publisher=The Hindu |date=16 August 2024}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Adarsh had graduated from Mar Athanasius College, Kothamangalam, and is a postgraduate in television journalism.<ref name="TH02">{{cite news |last1=M |first1=Athira |title=Adarsh Sukumaran and Paulson Skaria talk about scripting 'Kaathal - The Core' |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/adarsh-sukumaran-and-paulson-skaria-talk-about-writing-the-script-of-the-malayalam-movie-kaathal-the-core/article67641015.ece |access-date=16 January 2026 |publisher=The Hindu |date=18 December 2023}}</ref> MT Vasudevan Nair inspired him to be a screenwriter.<ref name="ToI01">{{cite news |last1=Mathews |first1=Anna |title='MT's scripts are like a textbook for writers'|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/mts-scripts-are-like-a-textbook-for-writers/articleshow/116687630.cms |access-date=17 January 2026 |publisher=TNN |date=26 December 2024}}</ref>

==Career==
He debuted as a film actor in the Amal Neerad movie [[Varathan]]. His first project to release as a writer was Neymar directed by Sudhi Maddison.<ref name="TH02"/>

==Filmography==

{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background:#B0C4DE; text-align:center;"
! rowspan="2" scope="col"| Year
! rowspan="2" scope="col" | Title
! scope="col" colspan="2"| Credited as
! rowspan="2" scope="col" | Role
! rowspan="2" class="unsortable" scope="col" | Notes
|-
! Writer !! Actor
|-
| 2018 || ''[[Varathan]]'' || {{no}} || {{yes}}<ref name="ToI02"/> || || Directed by [[Amal Neerad]]
|-
| 2022 || ''[[Hridayam (film)|Hridayam]]'' || {{no}} || {{yes}}<ref name="FB01">{{cite web |title=Adarsh Sukumaran Actor/Screenplay Writer/Dialogues Writer |url=https://www.filmibeat.com/celebs/adarsh-sukumaran/upcoming-movies.html#google_vignette |publisher=Filmy Beats |access-date=19 January 2026}}</ref> || || Directed by [[Vineeth Sreenivasan]]
|-
| 2023 || ''[[RDX (film)]]'' || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || Ganguly<ref name="ToI02">{{cite news |last1=Mathews |first1=Anna |title=RDX writer Adarsh Sukumaran: We've learnt that the audience shows gumption. |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/rdx-writer-adarsh-sukumaran-weve-learnt-that-the-audience-shows-gumption/articleshow/103566745.cms |access-date=17 January 2026 |agency=11 September 2023 |publisher=TNN}}</ref> || Directed by [[Nahas Hidhayath]]. Screenplay with Paulson Skaria
|-
| 2023 || ''[[Kaathal – The Core]]'' || {{yes}} || {{yes}}<ref name="FB01"/> || Comrade Pradeep ||Directed by [[Jeo Baby]]. Screenplay with Paulson Skaria
|-
| 2023 || ''[[Neymar (film)|Neymar]]'' || {{yes}} || {{yes}}<ref name="FB01"/> || || Directed by Sudhi Maddison. Screenplay with Paulson Skaria
|-
|}

He has acted in 12 films.<ref name="TH02"/>

==Awards==
*He won the [[54th Kerala State Film Awards|2023 State Film Award]] for best story for the film Kaathal – The Core.<ref name="CE01">{{cite news |title=54th Kerala State Film Awards: Here's the full list of winners |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2024/Aug/16/54th-kerala-state-film-awards-heres-the-full-list-of-winners |access-date=16 January 2026 |date=16 August 2024}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links ==
{{authority control}}
*{{IMDb name|11887503}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sukumaran, Adarsh}}
[[Category:Malayalam screenwriters]]
[[Category:Malayalam-language writers]]
[[Category:Writers from Kerala]]
[[Category:Indian male screenwriters]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian screenwriters]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male writers]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

{{India-film-actor-stub}}
{{screenwriter-stub}}

Malla (film)

2026-04-01T05:59:07Z

Joseph Patricio: put up basic details from scratch.

{{Short description|2004 Kannada film}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Malla
| image = Malla poster.jpg
| caption = Poster
| director = [[Ravichandran (Kannada actor)|Ravichandran]]
| producer = [[Ramu (Film Producer)|Ramu]]
| writer = Ravichandran [[Mohan Shankar]] (dialogue)
| narrator = [[Vishnuvardhan (actor)|Vishnuvardhan]]
| starring = [[Ravichandran (Kannada actor)|Ravichandran]] [[Priyanka Upendra]] Mohan Shankar [[Umashree]]
| music = Ravichandran
| cinematography = G. S. V. Seetharam
| editing = M. Sanjeeva Reddy
| studio = Ramu Enterprises
| released = {{Film date|2004|2|27|df=y}}
| runtime = 147 minutes
| country = India
| language = Kannada
}}

'''''Malla''''' is a 2004 Indian [[Kannada]]-language film written and directed by [[Ravichandran (Kannada actor)|Ravichandran]]. He also stars in the film, appearing in dual role, while also scoring music for the film. It also stars [[Priyanka Trivedi]] and [[Mohan Shankar]]. The film was produced by [[Ramu (Film Producer)|Ramu]] for his home banner Ramu Enterprises making his the first team up with Ravichandran.

''Malla'' found a widespread release across Karnataka state on 27 February 2004 and was declared a blockbuster at the box office. The film is also reportedly the first to introduce the famous [[Kerala]]-based traditional art [[Kalarippayattu]] in Kannada cinema.<ref>[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movies/Crazy-Stars-top-five-films-ever/photostory/30445236.cms Crazy Star's top five films ever] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418093127/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movies/Crazy-Stars-top-five-films-ever/photostory/30445236.cms |date=18 April 2014 }}. Timesofindia.indiatimes.com (2014-02-15). Retrieved on 2018-01-26.</ref> The stunt master K. D. Venkatesh was awarded in a special category at the [[2003–04 Karnataka State Film Awards]].

== Plot ==
The film is all about Malla - a florist, a Samaritan, soft-natured person beloved by people; contrast to this is his son Shiva who grows-up in goons' abode; a father who sacrifices his life for his son and at the end son taking revenge on the culprits.

==Cast==
* [[Ravichandran (Kannada actor)|Ravichandran]] as Mallikarjuna (Malla) / Shiva (dual role)
* [[Priyanka Upendra]] as Priya
* [[Mohan Shankar]] as Hanuma
* [[Umashree]]
* [[Pavitra Lokesh]]
* [[K. S. L. Swamy]]
* K. D. Venkatesh
* Fayaz Khan
* Ultimate Shivu
* [[Vijay Kashi]]
* Shankar Ashwath
* Lakshman Rao
*Venkatesh Prasad
*[[Tejashree]] as dancer in song "Masthu Nee Masthu"

== Production ==
[[Ravichandran (Kannada actor)|V. Ravichandran]] began working on ''Malla'' in March 2003, alongside ''[[Pandu Ranga Vittala]]'', another film he was acting in. ''Malla'' was produced by [[Ramu (film producer)|Ramu]], under his production house, while Ravichandran directed it. He stated: "The audience can expect to see the earlier Ravichandran in ''Malla''. The film will have all gimmicks and heroisms of a Ravichandran-starrer and I want the cine-goers to take something back home after seeing the film. The film will touch the hearts of all the cine-goers. It will entertain, make people laugh and cry." He added that he would star as the eponymous lead Mallikarjuna "Malla", who has a love for flowers. He further said the film would have six tracks, and that [[Priyanka Upendra]] would star opposite him, as a girl "who comes from abroad and becomes a village girl." Ravichandran wrote the film's story and lyrics for three tracks, and co-wrote the screenplay with [[J. K. Bharavi]], while actor [[Mohan Shankar]] wrote the dialogues.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Srinivasa |first1=Srikanth |title=The return of Thambi |url=http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/mar30/ent4.asp |publisher=Deccan Herald |accessdate=23 September 2020 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20030423094533/http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/mar30/ent4.asp |archivedate=23 April 2003 |date=30 March 2003}}</ref>

==Soundtrack==
The music of the film was composed and lyrics written by [[Ravichandran (Kannada actor)|Ravichandran]].

{{Infobox album
| name = Malla
| type = Soundtrack
| artist = [[Ravichandran (Kannada actor)|Ravichandran]]
| cover =
| alt =
| released = {{Start date|df=yes|2004|}}
| recorded =
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Film soundtrack|Feature film soundtrack]]
| length =
| label = Jhankar Music
| producer =
| prev_title =
| prev_year =
| next_title =
| next_year =
}}

{{Track listing
| total_length =
| all_lyrics = Ravichandran
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Yammo Yammo
| extra1 = [[Srinivas (singer)|Srinivas]], [[Anuradha Sriram]]
| length1 =
| title2 = Karunaade
| extra2 = [[L. N. Shastry]]
| length2 =
| title3 = Ee Preethiya Marethu
| extra3 = [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]], [[K. S. Chithra]]
| length3 =
| title4 = Masthu Nee Masthu
| extra4 = [[Hemanth (singer)|Hemanth]]
| length4 =
| title5 = Olagirodhu
| extra5 = [[Udit Narayan]], Suma Shastry
| length5 =
| title6 = Mangalyam
| extra6 = L. N. Shastry, Suma Shastry
| length6 =
| title7 = Bangadi
| extra7 = [[Mano (singer)|Mano]], [[K. S. Chithra]]
| length7 =
| title8 = Angada Angada
| extra8 = L. N. Shastry, Suma Shastry
| length8 =
}}
== Critical reception ==
''Chitraloka'' wrote "The dream merchant of Kannada cinema Ravichandran's highly expected cinema 'Malla' is a splendid package. The first half is 'romantic special' the second half is 'action special'. Instead of such a lengthy 'Kannadi fight' (also partly Kerala martial arts) it could have been brought out in a different brainy style. Had this modification done the expenditure, time and audience head ache could have been avoided to some extent. Ravichandran applies two tricky ideas in ending two of the four brothers. A little bit of exercise to give an intelligent touch to finish was needed. Other wise the film is a technical treat. The standard set by Ravichandran is in no way less when compared to Hindi films".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chitraloka.com/movie-reviews/2811-malla-review.html|website=Chitraloka|access-date=5 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407095429/https://www.chitraloka.com/movie-reviews/2811-malla-review.html|archive-date=7 April 2014|title=Malla Movie Review|date=27 February 2004}}</ref> ''Sify'' called it an "entertainer".<ref>{{cite web|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140422130243/http://www.sify.com/movies/boxoffice.php?id=13426360&cid=13287412|archive-date=22 April 2014|website=Sify Movies|title=Review: Malla|url=http://www.sify.com/movies/boxoffice.php?id=13426360&cid=13287412|date=11 March 2004}}</ref> ''Deccan Herald'' wrote "Cameraman Seetharam gives visual treat throughout the film which sometimes makes it a 'flowery treat' too. Ravichandran has composed music and action scenes have been picturised well".<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160408221556/http://archive.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/feb292004/mr2.asp Deccan Herald review]</ref> ''Viggy'' wrote "He [Ravichandran] is back to track now with his typical brand movie 'Malla' - an outright Crazy Star film. Malla has nothing new as a plot but Ravichandran shines as a technician by filling tasty, spicy and aromatic wine in old bottle with sparks of humor. He carries the film completely on his shoulder not just on the screen, even behind as a director with music, story, screenplay and dialogues without compromising in any of these departments!".<ref>[http://www.viggy.com/english/review_malla.asp Malla film review] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040305044402/http://www.viggy.com/english/review_malla.asp |date=5 March 2004 }}. Viggy.com (2011-03-13). Retrieved on 2018-01-26.</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|11930108}}

{{V. Ravichandran}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Malla}}
[[Category:2004 films]]
[[Category:2000s romantic action films]]
[[Category:Films scored by V. Ravichandran]]
[[Category:Films directed by Ravichandran (Kannada actor)]]
[[Category:Indian romantic action films]]
[[Category:Kalarippayattu films]]
[[Category:2004 Kannada-language films]]

V. Nagayya

2026-03-28T08:20:33Z

Joseph Patricio: started a stub initial version

{{Short description|Indian actor (1904–1973)}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2014}}
{{infobox person
| name = Chittoor Nagayya
| image = Chittor V. Nagaiah actor.jpg
| caption =
| birth_name = Vuppaladadiyam Nagayya Sarma
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=yes|1904|03|28}}
| birth_place = [[Repalle]], [[Madras Presidency]], [[British India]] (present-day [[Andhra Pradesh]], India)
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|1973|12|30|1904|03|28}}
| death_place =
| occupation = Actor, composer, director, producer, writer and playback singer
| awards = [[Padma Shri]] (1965)
| years_active = 1938–1973}}
'''Vuppaladadiyam Nagayya Sarma''' (28 March 1904 – 30 December 1973), popularly known as '''Chittoor Nagayya''', was an Indian actor, singer, music composer, and director known for his works in [[Telugu cinema]], [[Tamil cinema]], and [[Telugu theatre]]. Nagayya was one of the first multilingual filmmakers in India.<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 April 2005 |title=Nagaiah — noble, humble and kind-hearted |url=http://www.hindu.com/fr/2005/04/08/stories/2005040800220400.htm |access-date=19 April 2021 |archive-date=25 November 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051125162147/http://www.hindu.com/fr/2005/04/08/stories/2005040800220400.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Indian film journalist [[Baburao Patel]] described Nagayya as "The [[Paul Muni]] of India".<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |last=Muthiah |first=S. |date=2010-05-23 |title=Madras miscellany |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/Madras-miscellany/article16303661.ece |access-date=2022-08-07 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://bharatjanani.com/paul-muni-of-india-chittoor-v-nagayya/ |title=Paul Muni of India – Chittoor V.Nagayya |publisher=Bharatjanani.com |date=6 May 2011 |access-date=21 September 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120326135647/http://bharatjanani.com/paul-muni-of-india-chittoor-v-nagayya/ |archive-date=26 March 2012 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Nagayya was considered the best [[character actor]] in [[Cinema of South India|South Indian cinema]] during 1940s and 1950s.<ref name=":0" /> In 1965, he became the first [[South India|South Indian]] actor to receive the [[Padma Shri]] in Arts from the [[Government of India]] for his contributions to Indian cinema.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite web |title=Acting Mentor |url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/andhra_pradesh/article411771.ece |work=The New Indian Express |access-date=21 October 2014 |archive-date=27 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160327021933/http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/andhra_pradesh/article411771.ece |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Chittor V. Nagaiah 2004">Autobiography – Chittor V. Nagaiah, RK Books, Hyderabad, 2004.</ref>

Brought up in Chittoor, Nagayya was closely connected to Rama Vilasa Sabha, a [[Telugu theatre]] association in the city. He made his film debut in ''[[Gruhalakshmi (1938 film)|Gruhalakshmi]]'' (1938). He worked in several films of [[Vauhini Studios|Vauhini Pictures]] such as ''Vande Mataram'' (1939), ''[[Sumangali (1940 film)|Sumangali]]'' (1940), ''[[Devata (1941 film)|Devata]]'' (1941), ''[[Swarga Seema]]'' (1945), and ''Beedhalapatlu'' (1947).<ref>Amazon / Books / Indian actor Chittoor V. Nagaiah: A Monograph, by [[K. N. T. Sastry]] (Author)</ref> Nagayya was also the protagonist in ''[[Viswa Mohini]]'' (1940), the first film on the Indian [[motion picture]] world.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 August 2003 |title=A revolutionary filmmaker |url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/fr/2003/08/22/stories/2003082201400400.htm |access-date=2023-04-23 |website=[[The Hindu]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040117021114/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/fr/2003/08/22/stories/2003082201400400.htm |archive-date=17 January 2004 }}</ref>

Nagayya made significant contributions to [[Telugu cinema]], and starred in about two hundred Telugu films.<ref name="The Hindu">{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-andhrapradesh/chittoor-nagaiah-statue-to-be-installed-in-tirupati/article3106604.ece |title=Chittoor Nagaiah statue to be installed in Tirupati |work=The Hindu |date=18 July 2006}}</ref> He was a [[Method acting|method actor]], and his forte was usually playing intense characters, often immersing himself in the study of the real character's traits and mannerisms.<ref name="The Hindu" /> His other prominent film roles include the 14th-century poet ''[[Pothana]]'' in ''[[Bhakta Potana]]'' (1942), 17th-century saint ''[[Tyagaraja]]'' in ''[[Tyagayya (1946 film)|Thyagayya]]'' (1946), 12th-century saint ''[[Gora Kumbhar]]'' in ''Chakradhari'' (1948), and Sivaram in the social problem film ''[[Naa Illu]]'' (1953).

In 1964, Nagayya essayed the 17th-century saint ''Bhadrachala Ramadasu'' in the film [[Ramadasu (1964 Film)|Ramadasu]] which he had also co-written, directed and produced. The film won the [[National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Telugu]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/2006/07/18/stories/2006071807130200.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110805004446/http://www.hindu.com/2006/07/18/stories/2006071807130200.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=5 August 2011 |location=Chennai, India |work=[[The Hindu]] |title=Chittoor Nagaiah statue to be installed in Tirupati |date=18 July 2006}}</ref> Nagayya also starred in about one hundred and sixty films in [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Kannada]], [[Malayalam]], and [[Hindi]].<ref name="Chittor V. Nagaiah 2004" />
In his honour, the Chittoor Nagayya Kalakshetram of Arts was established in [[Chittoor]] of [[Andhra Pradesh]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Umashanker |first1=K. |date=9 September 2014 |title=Mahati Kalakshetram to retain Chittoor Nagaiah's name |work=The Hindu |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/mahati-kalakshetram-to-retain-chittoor-nagaiahs-name/article6394814.ece}}</ref>

== Early life ==
[[File:Chittor V. Nagaiah.jpg|thumb|200 px|upright|right|screenshot of Nagayya in a talking picture]]
Nagayya was born on 28 March 1904 in a [[Telugu people|Telugu]] family in a tiny hamlet near [[Repalle]], [[Guntur district]], Andhra Pradesh. His parents were Ramalinga Sarma and Venkata Lakshmamba. His maternal grandmother adopted him and took him to her native village, Gonugur, near [[Kuppam]] and later to [[Chittoor]]. He took up studies with a scholarship provided by the Tirupati Devasthanam and took his degree in Chittoor.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.publicationsdivision.nic.in/Eng-Pub/Au-Wise/EN19.HTM |title=Chittoor V. Nagaiah – A Monograph |access-date=20 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190101184058/http://publicationsdivision.nic.in/Eng-Pub/Au-Wise/EN19.HTM |archive-date=1 January 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

After working as a clerk in a government office, Nagayya became a journalist with ''Andhra Patrika''. [[Mahatma Gandhi]] and Nehru influenced him and he participated in the freedom struggle ([[Dandi, Gujarat|Dandi]] Satyagraha) in 1930, later going on to work for some gramophone companies including Hutchins as well as attending the Gowhati Congress conclave with S. Srinivasa Iyyengar.<ref name="hindu.com">{{cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/fr/2005/04/08/stories/2005040800220400.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051125162147/http://www.hindu.com/fr/2005/04/08/stories/2005040800220400.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=25 November 2005 |location=Chennai, India |work=[[The Hindu]] |title=Nagaiah – noble, humble and kind-hearted |date=8 April 2005}}</ref> He was married to Jaya Lakshmi, but she died giving birth to a daughter a year after. He then married Girija, and she too died due to miscarriage in the eighth month. His first daughter died of an undiagnosed illness. He then participated in long stays at [[Ramana Maharshi]] Ashram. He had family in [[Tirupati]] who are his brother's (Vuppaladadiyam Subrahmanya Sarma) son, Vuppaladadiyam S. Haragopal and daughters (Late Amruthavalli and Late Kusuma), Lakshmi Narasimha and their children, Vuppaladadiyam Shyam Sundar and Vuppaladadiyam Pavan Kumar.<ref>[http://www.exoticindia.co.in/book/details/chittoor-v-nagaiah-monograph-IDG495/ Chittoor V. Nagaiah: A Monograph]</ref>

== Accolades ==
;Civilian Awards
*[[Padmashri]], [[Government of India]] in 1965

;National honors
*Abinava Thyagaraju by the [[Maharaja of Travancore]]

;[[National Film Awards]]
*[[National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Telugu]] (director) – 1964 for ''[[Ramadasu (1964 film)|Ramadasu]]''

;State Awards
*Best Actor Award by the Andhra Film Journalists Association
*Felicitated by a life size statue in Panagal Park, Chennai at his demise.

==Selected filmography==
=== Actor ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Title
! Role
! Language
! Notes
|-
| 1938
| ''[[Gruhalakshmi (1938 film)|Gruhalakshmi]]''
| Gopinath
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1939
| ''[[Vande Mataram (1939 film)|Vande Mataram]]''
| Raghu
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1940
| ''[[Viswa Mohini]]''
| A Film Director
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1940
| ''[[Sumangali (1940 film)|Sumangali]]''
| Panthulu
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1941
| ''[[Devatha (1941 film)|Devatha]]''
| Venu
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1941
| ''[[Ashok Kumar (film)|Ashok Kumar]]''
| King Ashoka
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1943
| ''[[Bhakta Potana]]''
| [[Pothana]]
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1943
| ''[[Bhagyalakshmi (1943 film)|Bhagyalakshmi]]''
| Srinivasa Rao
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1944
|[[Chenchu Lakshmi (1943 film)|''Chenchu Lakshmi'']]
| Chenchu Lakshmi's Father
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1945
| ''[[Swargaseema]]''
| Murthy
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1945
| ''[[Meera (1945 film)|Meera]]''
| King of Mewar
| Hindi / Tamil
|
|-
| 1946
| ''[[Tyagayya (1946 film)|Tyagayya]]''
| [[Tyagayya]]
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1947
| ''[[Yogi Vemana]]''
| [[Vemana]]
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1948
| ''[[Chakradhari (Tamil Film)|Chakradhari]]''
| Korakumbar
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1948
| ''[[Bhaktha Jana]]''
| Namadeva
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1949
| ''[[Mana Desam]]''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1949
| ''[[Navajeevanam]]''
| Mahadevan
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1950
| ''[[Ezhai Padum Padu]]''
| Kandan
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1950
| ''[[Ezhai Padum Padu|Beedala Patlu]]''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1951
| ''[[Sarvadhikari (film)|Sarvadhikari]]''
|
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1952
| ''[[Thai Ullam]]''
|
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1953
| ''[[Ulagam]]''
|
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1953
| ''Prapancham''
|
|Telugu
|
|-
| 1953
| ''[[Penn (film)|Penn]]''
|
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1953
| ''Panakkari''
|
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1953
| ''[[Naa Illu]]''
| Sivaram
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1953
| ''[[Ladki]]''
| Kamini's father
| Hindi
|
|-
| 1953
| ''[[Gumastha (1953 film)|Gumastha]]''
| Ranganatham
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1953
| ''[[Gumastha (film)|Gumasta]]''
| Ranganatham
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1953
| ''[[En Veedu]]''
| Shivram
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1954
| ''[[Viduthalai (1954 film)|Viduthalai]]''
| Periaswamy
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1954
| ''[[Thuli Visham]]''
|
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1954
| ''Maa Gopi''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1954
| ''[[Edhir Paradhathu]]''
| Dayaparar
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1954
| ''Prapancham''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1954
| ''[[Sangham (1954 film)|Sangham]]''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1955
| ''[[Kanavaney Kankanda Deivam]]''
|
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1955
| ''[[Anarkali (1955 film)|Anarkali]]''
|Raja Mansingh
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1955
| ''[[Nam Kuzhandai]]''
|
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1956
| ''[[Tenali Ramakrishna (1956 film)|Tenali Ramakrishna]]''
| Mahamantri Thimmarusu
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1956
| ''[[Uma Sundari]]''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1956
| ''[[Pennin Perumai]]''
| Zamindar, father of Ragunathan / Nagendran
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1956
| ''[[Naga Panchami (1956 film)|Naga Panchami]]''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1956
| ''[[Muddu Bidda]]''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1956
| ''[[Marmaveeran]]''
|
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1956
| ''[[Aasai (1956 film)|Asai]]''
|
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1956
| ''[[Bhaktha Markandeya]]''
|
| Tamil, Kannada
|
|-
| 1956
| ''[[Amara Deepam (1956 film)|Amara Deepam]]''
|
|Tamil
|
|-
| 1956
| ''[[Tenali Raman]]''
| Appaji
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1957
| ''[[Yaar Paiyyan]]''
|
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1957
| ''[[Vanangamudi]]''
|
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1957
| ''[[Sati Savitri (1957 film)|Sati Savitri]]''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1957
| ''[[Panduranga Mahatyam (film)|Panduranga Mahatyam]]''
| Jahnavi
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1957
| ''[[Nala Damayanthi (1957 film)|Nala Damayanthi]]''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1957
| ''[[Ambikapathy (1957 film)|Ambikapathy]]''
| Raja Kulothunga Chola I, the father of Amaravathi
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1958
| ''Piya Milan''
|
|Hindi
|
|-
| 1958
| ''[[Sampoorna Ramayanam (1958 film)|Sampoorna Ramayanam]]''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1958
| ''[[Pathi Bakthi|Pathi Bhakti]]''
| Butha Bhikshu
| Tamil
| guest appearance
|-
| 1958
| ''Parvati Kalyanam''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1958
| ''Ettuku Pai Ettu''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1958
| ''[[Bommala Pelli]]''
| Perayya
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1958
| ''Bommai Kalyanam''
| Varadarajan
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1958
| ''[[Illarame Nallaram]]''
|
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1959
| ''[[Jayabheri]]''
| Viswambhara Sastri
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1959
| ''[[Sahodhari]]''
| Pazhani, father of Chandiran and Meena
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1959
| ''[[Nalla Theerpu]]''
|
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1959
| ''[[Mahishasura Mardini]]''
| Shukracharya
| Kannada
|
|-
| 1959
| ''Kalaivanan''
|
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1959
| ''[[Banda Ramudu]]''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1960
| ''[[Sri Venkateswara Mahatyam]]''
| Bhavaji
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1960
| ''[[Abhimanam]]''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1961
| ''[[Seetha Rama Kalyanam]]''
| Dasarathudu
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1961
| ''[[Intiki Deepam Illale]]''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1961
| ''[[Vagdanam]]''
| Vishwanatham (Vijaya's father)
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1961
| ''[[Sabash Raja]]''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1961
| ''[[Paava Mannippu]]''
|
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1961
| ''[[Nichaya Thamboolam]]''
| Ramanna, a teacher who is the father of Seetha (Jamuna)
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1961
| ''[[Nagarjuna (film)|Nagarjuna]]''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1961
| ''[[Kappalottiya Thamizhan]]''
| Ulaganatha Pillai
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1961
| ''[[Ellam Unakkaga]]''
|
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1961
| ''[[Thirudathe]]''
|
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1961
| ''[[Palum Pazhamum]]''
|
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1961
| ''[[Manapanthal]]''
|
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1962
| ''[[Gaali Medalu]]''
| Ranganatham the father of Krishna (NTR)
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1962
| ''[[Dakshayagnam (1962 film)|Dakshayagnam]]''
| [[Dadhichi]]
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1962
| ''[[Dakshayagnam (1962 film)|Dakshayagnam]]''
| [[Dadhichi]]
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1962
| ''Swarnamanjari''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1962
| ''[[Aalayamani]]''
|
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1962
| ''[[Valar Pirai]]''
|
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1962
| ''[[Thendral Veesum]]''
|
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1962
| ''Aasa Jeevulu''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1962
| ''[[Siri Sampadalu]]''
| Nayudu
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1962
| ''[[Santhi Nivasam (1960 film)|Shantinivasam]]''
| Ramadasu the father of four children
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1962
| ''[[Padandi Munduku]]''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1963
| ''[[Sri Krishnarjuna Yudham]]''
| Akroora
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1963
| ''[[Lava Kusa (1963 film)|Lava Kusa]]''
| [[Valmiki]] Maharshi
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1963
| ''Amarshilpi Jakanachari''
|
|
|
|-
| 1963
| ''[[Naan Vanangum Dheivam]]''
|
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1963
| ''[[Naanum Oru Penn]]''
|
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1963
| ''Mani Osai''
|
|
|
|-
| 1963
| ''[[Lava Kusa (1963 film)|Lava Kusa]]''
| Valmiki
| Hindu
|
|-
| 1963
| ''[[Karpagam]]''
| Subramanian
| Tamil
|
|-
|1963
|''[[Bandipotu (1963 film)|Bandipotu]]''
|Saluva Dharmanayaka
|Telugu
|
|-
| 1963
| ''Anuragam''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1963
| ''[[Lakshadhikari]]''
| Lakshadhikari Rangaiah
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1964
| ''[[Bobbili Yudham]]''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1964
| ''[[Ramadasu (1964 Film)|Ramadasu]]''
| [[Ramadasu (1964 Film)|Ramadasu]]
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1964
| ''[[Pachai Vilakku (1964 film)|Pachai Vilakku]]''
| Gopalayya
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1964
| ''[[Kai Koduttha Dheivam]]''
| Father of Latha
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1964
| ''[[Amara Silpi Jakkanna|Amarsilpi Jakanna]]''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1964
| ''[[Aggi Pidugu]]''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1964
| ''Aatma Balam''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1964
| ''[[Amarashilpi Jakanachari (film)|Amarashilpi Jakanachari]]''
|
| Kannada
|
|-
| 1964
| ''Chandavalliya Tota''
|
| Kannada
|
|-
| 1964
| ''[[Annapurna]]''
| Father of Annapurna
| Kannada
|
|-
| 1964
| ''[[Devatha (1964 film)|Devatha]]''
| Father of Prasad
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1964
| ''[[Gudi Gantalu]]''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1964
| ''[[Aandavan Kattalai (1964 film)|Aandavan Kattalai]]''
| Doctor
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1965
| ''[[Sumangali (1965 film)|Sumangali]]''
| Venkata Chalam
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1965
| ''[[Satya Harishchandra (Telugu film)|Satya Harishchandra]]''
| [[Vasistha]] Maharshi
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1965
| ''[[Devata (1965 film)|Devatha]]''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1965
| ''[[Santhi (1965 film)|Santhi]]''
| Kailasam Pillai
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1965
| ''[[Preminchi Choodu (1965 film)|Preminchi Choodu]]''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1965
| ''[[Enga Veetu Penn]]''
|
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1965
| ''[[Sri Simhachala Kshetra Mahima]]''
| Father of Pururava
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1965
| ''[[Veerabhimanyu]]''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1965
| ''[[Dorikithe Dongalu]]''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1966
| ''[[Sri Krishna Pandaveeyam|Sri Krishna Pandaviyam]]''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1966
| ''[[Selvam (1966 film)|Selvam]]''
|
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1966
| ''[[Shakuntala (1966 film)|Shakuntala]]''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1966
| ''[[Paramanandayya Sishyula Katha]]''
| Paramanandaiah
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1966
| ''[[Parakkum Paavai]]''
|
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1966
| ''[[Navarathri (1966 film)|Navarathri]]''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1966
| ''[[Motor Sundaram Pillai]]''
|
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1966
| ''[[Bhakta Potana]]''
| [[Vyasa]] Maharshi
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1966
| ''[[Adugu Jaadalu]]''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1966
| ''[[Aastiparulu]]''
| Diwan to Zamindar
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1966
| ''[[Sadhu Mirandal]]''
| Priest Micheal
| Tamil
| (Special Appearance)
|-
| 1966
| ''[[Saraswati Sabatham]]''
| Vidhyapathy father
| Tamil
|
|-
|1966
|''[[Srimathi 1966 film|Srimathi]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Srimathi (1966) |url=https://indiancine.ma/MFI |access-date=2023-12-21 |website=Indiancine.ma}}</ref>
|Himself
|Telugu
|
|-
| 1967
| ''[[Kanchu Kota|Kanchukota]]''
| Raja Rajendra Bhupathi
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1967
| ''[[Sri Krishnavataram]]''
| [[Dhritarashtra]]
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1967
| ''[[Punyavathi]]''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1967
| ''Veera Pooja''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1967
| ''[[Rahasyam (1967 film)|Rahasyam]]''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1967
| ''[[Poola Rangadu (1967 film)|Poola Rangadu]]''
| Veeraiya
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1967
| ''[[Pattukunte Padivelu]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pattukunte Padivelu (1967) |url=https://indiancine.ma/MPR |access-date=2023-12-14 |website=Indiancine.ma}}</ref>
|
|Telugu
|
|-
| 1967
| ''[[Iru Malargal]]''
| Sivasamy
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1967
| ''[[Bhama Vijayam]]''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1967
| ''Maa Vadina''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1967
| ''[[Private Master]]''
| Father of Private Master
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1967
| ''[[Marapurani Kadha]]''
| [[Madhava Rao]]
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1968
| ''[[Brahmachari (Telugu film)|Brahmachari]]''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1968
| ''[[Ramu (1966 film)|Ramu]]''
|
| Tamil / Telugu
|
|-
| 1968
| ''[[Deva kanya (1968 film)]]''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1968
| ''[[Thillana Mohanambal]]''
| Shanmugasundaram's Nadaswara Guru
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1968
| ''[[Nindu Samsaram]]''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1968
| ''[[Niluvu Dopidi]]''
| Swamiji the director of an orphanage
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1968
| ''[[Bandhavyalu]]''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
|1968
|''[[Veeranjaneya]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Veeranjaneya (1968) |url=https://indiancine.ma/NEJ |access-date=2024-01-25 |website=Indiancine.ma}}</ref>
|[[Valmiki]]
|Telugu
|
|-
| 1968
| ''[[Uyarndha Manithan]]''
| Manickam
| Tamil
|
|-
|1969
|''[[Sri Rama Katha]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sri Rama Katha (1969) |url=https://indiancine.ma/NQE |access-date=2024-02-18 |website=Indiancine.ma}}</ref>
|[[Dasharatha|Dasaratha]]
|Telugu
|
|-
| 1969
| ''[[Saptaswaralu]]''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1969
| ''[[Nam Naadu (1969 film)|Nam Naadu]]''
| The school master Kandhaya
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1969
| ''[[Mooga Nomu]]''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1969
| ''[[Deiva Magan]]''
|
| Tamil
|
|-
|1969
|''[[Jarigina Katha]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Jarigina Katha (1969) |url=https://indiancine.ma/NJU |access-date=2023-10-05 |website=Indiancine.ma}}</ref>
|Jagannatham
|Telugu
|
|-
|1969
|''[[Muhurtha Balam]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Muhurtha Balam Cast and Crew |url=https://www.cinemaazi.com/film/muhurtha-balam}}</ref>
|Dharmaiah
|Telugu
|
|-
| 1969
| ''[[Annaiyum Pithavum]]''
|
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1969
| ''[[Aadarsa Kutumbam]]''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1969
| ''[[Natakala Rayudu]]''
| Adiseshayya
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1970
| ''[[Akka Chellelu]]''
| Second judge
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1970
| ''Kaalam Vellum''
|
|Tamil
| (Guest Appearance)
|-
|1970
|''[[Amma Kosam]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Amma Kosam (1970) |url=https://indiancine.ma/NSW |access-date=2023-10-04 |website=Indiancine.ma}}</ref>
|Zamindar Dharma Rao
|Telugu
|
|-
|1970
|''[[Vidhi Vilasam]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vidhi Vilasam (1970) |url=https://indiancine.ma/OEQ |access-date=2024-01-11 |website=Indiancine.ma}}</ref>
|Retd. Engineer, Nirmala's father
|Telugu
|
|-
|1970
|''Thaali Bottu''
|
|Telugu
|
|-
| 1970
| ''[[Engirundho Vandhaal]]''
| Dharmalingam
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1970
| ''[[Talli Tandrulu|Thalli Thandrulu]]''
| Raobahadur Perumallu
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1970
| ''[[Thabalkaran Thangai]]''
|
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1970
| ''[[Raman Ethanai Ramanadi]]''
| Director Nagaiya
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1970
| ''Kanmalar''
|
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1970
| ''[[Sorgam]]''
| Judge
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1971
| ''[[Srimanthudu]]''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
|1971
|''[[Prema Nagar]]''
|Doctor
|Telugu
|
|-
| 1971
| ''Vichithra Dampathyam''
|
|Telugu
|
|-
|1971
|[[Pavitra Bandham (1971 film)|''Pavitra Bandham'']]
|
|Telugu
|
|-
|1971
|''[[Anuradha telugu film|Anuradha]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Anuradha Movie (1971) |url=https://www.etvwin.com/telugu-movies/anuradha-1?media=movie&layout=movies}}</ref>
|Judge
|Telugu
|
|-
|1971
|''[[Rowdilaku Rowdilu]]''<ref>{{Citation |title=Rowdeelaku Rowdeelu Telugu Full Movie {{!}} Ramakrishna {{!}} Vijayalalitha {{!}} Sridhar {{!}} TVNXT Telugu | date=20 May 2018 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tc8GnIhqfqA |access-date=2023-05-08 |language=en}}</ref>
|Kailasam
|Telugu
|
|-
|1971
|''[[Vintha Samsaram]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vintha Samsaram on Moviebuff.com |url=https://www.moviebuff.com/vintha-samsaram |access-date=2024-04-14 |website=Moviebuff.com}}</ref>
|Church Father and mentor to 'Prestige' Padmanabham
|Telugu
|
|-
| 1971
| ''[[Sri Krishna Satya]]''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1971
| ''[[Raitu Kutumbam]]''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1971
| ''[[Kula Gourava]]''
|
| Kannada
|
|-
| 1971
| ''[[Jeevitha Chakram]]''
| Father of Raja (NTR)
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1971
| ''[[Iru Thuruvam]]''
| Teacher
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1971
| ''C.I.D.Raju''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1971
| ''[[Thangaikkaaga]]''
|
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1971
| ''[[Ramalayam]]''
| Temple priest
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1971
| ''[[Pavitra Hrudayalu]]''
|Zamindar Bhujanga Rao
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1971
| ''[[Sampoorna Ramayanam (1971 film)|Sampoorna Ramayanam]]''
| Vasishta Mahamuni
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1972
| ''[[Papam Pasivadu]]''
| Doctor
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1972
| ''[[Shakthi Leelai|Shakti Leelai]]''
|
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1972
| ''Pedda Koduku''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
|1972
|''[[Muhammad bin Tughluq (1972 film)|Muhammad bin Tughluq]]''
|
|Telugu
|
|-
| 1972
| ''[[Neethi (1972 film)|Neethi]]''
| Judge
| Tamil
|
|-
|1972
|''[[Nijam Nirupistha]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nijam Nirupistha (1972) |url=https://indiancine.ma/PEX |access-date=2023-08-03 |website=Indiancine.ma}}</ref>
|Zamindar Jaggayya
|Telugu
|
|-
| 1972
| ''Iddaru Ammayilu''
| Laxman Rao
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1972
| ''Goodu Putani''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1972
| ''Beedala Patlu''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1972
| ''[[Bala Bharatam]]''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1972
| ''[[Raja (1972 film)|Raja]]''
| Haridass
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1972
| ''[[Shakthi Leelai]]''
| Guruji
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1972
| ''Ganga Gauri''
|
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1972
| ''Inti Kodalu''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1973
| ''Vishali''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
|1973
|''[[Desoddharakulu]]''
|
|Telugu
|
|-
| 1973
| ''[[Pattikaattu Ponnaiya]]''
|
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1973
| ''Panjaramlo Pasipapa''
|
|Telugu
|
|-
| 1973
| ''[[Puttinillu Mettinillu]]''
|
| Telugu
|
|-
| 1974
| ''Lav Kush''
| Valmiki
|Hindi
|
|-
|1974
|''[[Uttama Illalu]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Uttama Illalu (1974) |url=https://indiancine.ma/QPG |access-date=2024-01-27 |website=Indiancine.ma}}</ref>
|Narayana Rao
|Telugu
|
|-
| 1974
| ''[[Sivagamiyin Selvan]]''
| Church Father
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1974
| ''Inti Kodalu''
|
|Telugu
|
|-
|1975
|''[[Mallela Manasulu]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mallela Manasulu on Moviebuff.com |url=https://www.moviebuff.com/mallela-manasulu |access-date=2024-01-30 |website=Moviebuff.com}}</ref>
|Do-gooder who helps Annapurna and her children
|Telugu
|
|-
| 1976
| ''Tu Hi Ram Tu Hi Krishna''
|
|Hindi
|
|-
| 1976
| ''[[Kula Gowravam]]''
|
| Tamil
|
|-
| 1978
| ''[[Ennai Pol Oruvan]]''
| Sundaramoorthy's Father
| Tamil
| (final film role)
|}

;Composer and play back singer
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Title
! Song
|-
| 1938
| ''[[Gruhalakshmi (1938 film)|Gruhalakshmi]]''
| ''Lendu Bharata Veerulara''
|-
| 1953
| ''Gumasta''
| ''Oyi Parugekkadikoyi''
|-
| 1953
| ''Prapancham''
| ''Anta Kooleelam Manamanta Kooleelam, Premasudha Sarasilo Hamsalamai''
|-
| 1953
| ''[[Sangham (1954 film)|Sangham]]''
| ''Jati Bhedam Samasipoda''
|-
| 1954
| ''Maa Gopi''
| ''Sanubhoothiye Leda Jagatini, Amma Krishnamma Apacharamemitamma''
|-
| 1956
| ''Bhakta Markandeya''
| ''Om Namasivaya, Jaya Jaya Sankara Sambasadasiva''
|-
| 1956
| ''Naga Panchami''
| ''Sambho Mahadeva''
|-
| 1956
| ''Muddu Bidda''
| ''Itulela Chesavaya O Devadeva''
|-
| 1956
| ''[[Tenali Ramakrishna (1956 film)|Tenali Ramakrishna]]''
| ''Gandupilli Menu Marichi''
|-
| 1956
| ''[[Tenali Ramakrishna (1956 film)|Tenali Ramakrishna]]''
| "Putrile Pambirukkum...Kottaiyile Oru Kaalatthile"
|-
| 1957
| ''Nala Damayanti''
| ''Ghorambaina Daavagni Keelakerayai''
|-
| 1957
| ''[[Panduranga Mahatyam (film)|Panduranga Mahatyam]]''
| ''Jaya Jaya Gokula Bala'', ''Sannuti Seyave Manasa''
|-
| 1962
| ''Swarnamanjari''
| ''Madhuramaina Guru Deevena''
|-
| 1967
| ''Maa Vadina''
| ''Suthudilu Peeda Mandiramu'' (poem)
|-
| 1967
| ''[[Poola Rangadu (1967 film)|Poola Rangadu]]''
| ''Chillara Rallaku Mokkutu Unte Chedipoduvura''
|}

;Playback singer
*''Ramadasu'' (1964)
* ''Tenali Raman''
*''Gumasta'' (1953/II) (playback singer and composer)
*''[[Naa Illu]]'' (1953) (playback singer and composer)
*''[[Yogi Vemana]]'' (1947) (playback singer and composer)
*''Thyagayya'' (1946) (playback singer and composer)
*''[[Swargaseema]]'' (1945) (playback singer and composer)
*''[[Bhakta Potana]]'' (1942) (playback singer and composer)
*''[[Devatha]]'' (1941) (playback singer and composer)
*[[Sumangali (1940 film)|''Sumangali'']] (1940) (playback singer and composer)
*''[[Viswa Mohini]]'' (1940) (playback singer)
*''[[Vande Mataram]]'' (1939) (playback singer and composer)
*''[[Gruhalakshmi (1938 film)|Gruhalakshmi]]'' (1938) (playback singer)

;Director (partial filmography)
*''Ramadasu'' (Telugu, 1964)
*''[[En Veedu]]'' (Tamil, 1953)
*''[[Naa Illu]]'' (Telugu, 1953)
*[[Tyagayya (1946 film)|''Thyagayya'']] (Telugu, 1946)

;Producer (partial filmography)
*''[[Naa Illu]]'' (1953)

;Writer (partial filmography)
*[[Tyagayya (1946 film)|''Thyagayya'']] (1946)

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb name|id=0619101}}

{{Padma Shri Award Recipients in Art}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nagayya, V.}}
[[Category:1904 births]]
[[Category:1973 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian composers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male singers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian screenwriters]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian singers]]
[[Category:Film directors from Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Film musicians from Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Film producers from Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Indian arts administrators]]
[[Category:Indian male film actors]]
[[Category:Indian male stage actors]]
[[Category:Indian theatre directors]]
[[Category:Male actors in Hindi cinema]]
[[Category:Male actors in Kannada cinema]]
[[Category:Male actors in Tamil cinema]]
[[Category:Male actors in Telugu cinema]]
[[Category:Indian male film score composers]]
[[Category:People from Chittoor district]]
[[Category:Actors from Guntur district]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Shri in arts]]
[[Category:Screenwriters from Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Singers from Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Telugu film directors]]
[[Category:Telugu film producers]]
[[Category:Telugu film score composers]]
[[Category:Telugu male actors]]
[[Category:Telugu-language playback singers]]

Uttarakhand Gaurav Samman

2026-03-27T08:30:57Z

Joseph Patricio: Starting article

{{Infobox award
| name = Uttarakhand Gaurav Samman
| subheader = Highest civilian award of [[Uttarakhand]]
| image =
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption =
| awarded_for = Awarded for contributions in any field of human endeavour
| sponsor = [[Government of Uttarakhand]]
| date = 
| location = [[Uttarakhand]]
| country = [[India]]
| presenter = [[Governor of Uttarakhand]] / [[Chief Minister of Uttarakhand]]
| host =
| former name =
| preshow_host =
| acts =
| reward =
| year = 2021
| year2 = 2024
| holder_label =
| holder =
| most_awards =
| most_nominations =
| award1_type = Total awarded
| award1_winner = 19
| award2_type = First winner
| award2_winner = {{bulleted list|[[N. D. Tiwari|Narayan Datt Tiwari]] (Posthumous)|[[Anil Prakash Joshi]]|[[Ruskin Bond]]|[[Bachendri Pal]]|[[Narendra Singh Negi]]}}
| award3_type = Last winner
| award3_winner =
| award4_type =
| award4_winner =
| award5_type =
| award5_winner =
| website = 
| network =
| runtime =
| viewership =
| producer =
| director =
| image2 =
| image2size =
| alt2 =
| caption2 =
| precedence_label =
| individual =
| higher = [[File:Padma Shri Ribbon.svg|50px]] [[Padma Shri]]
| same = [[Uttarakhand Ratna]]
| lower = [[Uttarakhand Lifetime Achievement Award]]
| related =
| previous =
| main =
| next =
}}

The '''Uttarakhand Gaurav Samman''' is one of the two highest [[List of civil awards and decorations|civilian award]] of the State of [[Uttarakhand]], along with [[Uttarakhand Ratna]]. It is awarded to a person for their extraordinary contribution in any field of human endeavour. It was constituted in the year 2021 by the [[Government of Uttarakhand]]. There have been a total of 8 recipients of this award.<ref>{{cite web|author=Sunil Negi |url=https://www.jagran.com/uttarakhand/dehradun-city-government-announced-uttarakhand-gaurav-samman-on-the-eve-of-state-foundation-day-22189116.html |title=Government announced Uttarakhand Gaurav Samman on the eve of state foundation day |publisher=M.jagran.com |date= |access-date=2021-11-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.amarujala.com/dehradun/uttarakhand-foundation-day-2021-five-personalities-will-be-honored-to-uttarakhand-gaurav-award |title=Uttarakhand Foundation Day 2021: Five Personalities Will Be Honored To Uttarakhand Gaurav Award - राज्य स्थापना दिवस 2021: उत्तराखंड गौरव पुरस्कार की घोषणा, प्रदेश की पांच विभूतियों को मिलेगा सम्मान - Amar Ujala Hindi News Live |publisher=Amarujala.com |date=2021-10-31 |accessdate=2021-11-08}}</ref>

== Uttarakhand Gaurav Samman 2025 ==
On the occasion of [[Uttarakhand State Foundation Day]] Silver Jubilee celebrations on November 7, 2025, the [[Government of Uttarakhand]] conferred Uttarakhand Gaurav Samman<ref>{{Cite web |title=07-11-2025 : Governor Takes Salute at Ceremonial Parade During the State Foundation Day Silver Jubilee Celebrations. {{!}} LOK BHAVAN UTTARAKHAND {{!}} India |url=https://governoruk.gov.in/07-11-2025-governor-takes-salute-at-ceremonial-parade-during-the-state-foundation-day-silver-jubilee-celebrations/ |access-date=2025-12-21 |website=governoruk.gov.in |language=en-US}}</ref> upon several following renowned personalities for their contribution to the state's progress. Here is the complete list of the award recipients:

# Padma Shri and Olympic Medallion [[Jaspal Rana]] (Shooter)
# Entrepreneur, Chinese Actor & Social Worker [[Dev Raturi]]
# Late Actor & Writer [[Tom Alter]]
# Late Statehood Activist Sushila Baluni<ref>{{Cite web |last=Post |first=Garhwal |date=2023-05-11 |title=Leading statehood agitation leader Sushila Balooni passes away at 84 {{!}} Garhwal Post |url=https://garhwalpost.in/leading-statehood-agitation-leader-sushila-balooni-passes-away-at-84/ |access-date=2025-12-21 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=09-05-2023 : Governor has condoled the demise of senior Uttarakhand state activist and former chairperson of the Uttarakhand Women's Commission, Mrs. Sushila Baluni. {{!}} LOK BHAVAN UTTARAKHAND {{!}} India |url=https://governoruk.gov.in/09-05-2023-governor-has-condoled-the-demise-of-senior-uttarakhand-state-activist-and-former-chairperson-of-the-uttarakhand-womens-commission-mrs-sushila-baluni/ |access-date=2025-12-21 |website=governoruk.gov.in |language=en-US}}</ref>
# Late Chipko Movement Leader [[Gaura Devi]]
# Geologist [[Khadg Singh Valdiya]]
# Warrior [[Teelu Rauteli]]
# Writer [[Shailesh Matiyani]]

== History ==
The Uttarakhand Gaurav Samman award was constituted by the [[Chief Minister of Uttarakhand]] [[Pushkar Singh Dhami]] in 2021, on the occasion of 21st anniversary of [[Uttarakhand Day|Uttarakhand State Foundation Day]] which falls on 9 November each year.<ref>{{cite web | url-access=limited |archive-url = https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/facebook/1467061806922397/2627900114171888 |archive-date = 2022-04-30| url = https://www.facebook.com/1467061806922397/posts/2627900114171888/ |title = Uttarakhand DIPR on Facebook |website=[[Facebook]]}}{{cbignore}}{{User-generated source|certain=yes|date=March 2022}}</ref>

==List of Uttarakhand Gaurav Samman recipients==
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Key
|-
|{{legend|#CEE8F0| {{Hash}} Posthumous recipient|outline=blue|border=1px solid blue}}
|}

The recipients of Uttarakhand Gaurav Samman are as follows:

{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible"
|-
! Year
! Image
! Laureates
! Life span
! Field / Work
! Notes
|- align="center"
| rowspan="5" |2021
| [[File:Padma Bhushan Bachendri Pal (cropped).jpg|80px]]
| [[Bachendri Pal]]
| born 1954
| [[Mountaineering in India|Adventure sport]]
| Mountaineer, first Indian woman to ascent [[Mount Everest]], recipient of [[Padma Bhushan]], [[Padma Shri]], [[Tenzing Norgay National Adventure Award]], [[Arjuna Award]], and [[Yash Bharati]].
|- align="center"
| [[File:The President, Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam presenting Padma Shri to Dr. Anil Prakash Joshi, for his contribution in promoting indigenous technologies, at investiture ceremony in New Delhi on March 29, 2006.jpg|80px]]
| [[Anil Prakash Joshi]]
| born 1955
| [[Environment of India|Environmentalism]]
| z
|-align="center"
| [[File:Shri Narayan Dutt Tiwari.jpg|80px]]
|scope="row" style="background-color:#CEE8F0;" | [[N. D. Tiwari|Narayan Datt Tiwari]]{{sup|{{Hash}}}}
| 1925–2018
| [[Politics of India|Public affair]]
| Veteran politician and former [[Chief Minister of Uttarakhand]] (2002–2007), Tiwari also served as the [[Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh]] thrice in the undivided [[Uttar Pradesh]]. He held [[Union Council of Ministers|union cabinet portfolios]] of [[Ministry of Finance (India)|finance]], [[Ministry of Defence (India)|defence]] and [[Ministry of External Affairs (India)|external affairs]] in the [[Second Rajiv Gandhi ministry|Rajiv Gandhi ministry]].
|-align="center"
|
| [[Narendra Singh Negi]]
| born 1949
| [[Music of Uttarakhand|Music]]
| Uttarakhandi folk musician and singer, recipient of [[Sangeet Natak Akademi Award]].
|-align="center"
| [[File:Ruskin Bond in Bangalore, India (Jim Ankan Deka photography).jpg|80px]]
| [[Ruskin Bond]]
| born 1934
| [[Literature of India|Literature]]
| Writer, recipient of [[Padma Bhushan]], [[Padma Shri]], [[Sahitya Akademi Award]], and [[John Llewellyn Rhys Prize]].
|-align="center"
|rowspan="5" |2022
| [[File:Ajit Kumar Doval.jpg|80px]]
| [[Ajit Doval]] {{post-nominals|country=IND|KC|PPM|PM}}
| born 1945
| [[Indian Police Service|Intelligence and security]]
| [[National Security Advisor (India)|5th National Security Advisor]], [[Director of the Intelligence Bureau|18th Director of the Intelligence Bureau]], recipient of [[President's Police Medal]] and [[Police Medal (India)|Police Medal]].
|-align="center"
| [[File:General Bipin Rawat, India's 1st Chief of Defence Staff.jpg|80px]]
|scope="row" style="background-color:#CEE8F0;" | [[General (India)|General]] [[Bipin Rawat]]{{sup|{{Hash}}}} {{post-nominals|country=IND|PVSM|UYSM|AVSM|YSM|SM|VSM|ADC}}
| 1958–2021
| [[Indian Armed Forces|Defence]]
| [[Chief of Defence Staff (India)|1st Chief of Defence Staff]], [[Chairman Chiefs of Staff Committee|57th Chairman of Chiefs of Staff Committee]], [[Chief of the Army Staff (India)|27th Chief of the Army Staff]], recipient of [[Padma Vibhushan]].
|-align="center"
|
|scope="row" style="background-color:#CEE8F0;" | [[Girish Tiwari]]{{sup|{{Hash}}}}
| 1945–2010
| [[Music of Uttarakhand|Music]]
| Uttarakhandi folk musician and singer.
|-align="center"
| [[File:Prasoon Joshi (Cropped).png|80px]]
| [[Prasoon Joshi]]
| born 1971
| [[Cinema of India|Cinema]]
| Poet, writer, lyricist, [[Central Board of Film Certification|28th Chairman of Central Board of Film Certification]], recipient of [[Padma Shri]], [[National Film Awards]], and [[Filmfare Awards]]
|-align="center"
|
|scope="row" style="background-color:#CEE8F0;" | [[Viren Dangwal]]{{sup|{{Hash}}}}
| 1947–2015
| [[Literature of India|Literature]]
| Poet, recipient of [[Sahitya Akademi Award]]
|-align="center"
|rowspan="4" |2023
|
| [[Basanti Bisht]]
| born 1953
|rowspan="2" |[[Music of Uttarakhand|Music]]
| [[Jagar (ritual)|Jagar]] singer, recipient of [[Padma Shri]].
|-align="center"
| [[File:Madhuri Barthwal award (sq cropped).jpg|80px]]
| [[Madhuri Barthwal]]
| ?
| Uttarakhandi folk musician and singer, recipient of [[Padma Shri]].
|-align="center"
|
| [[Rajendra Singh Bisht]]
| ?
|rowspan="2" |[[Environment of India|Environmentalism]]
| Environmentalist.
|-align="center"
| [[File:Sachidanand Bharti.jpg|80px]]
| [[Sachidanand Bharti]]
| born 1955
| Environmentalist, recipient of [[Indira Gandhi Paryavaran Puraskar]]
|-align="center"
|rowspan="5" |2024
| [[File:Anil Chauhan Chief of Defence Staff (CDS).jpg|80px]]
| [[General (India)|General]] [[Anil Chauhan]] {{post-nominals|country=IND|PVSM|UYSM|AVSM|SM|VSM}}
| born 1961
| [[Indian Armed Forces|Defence]]
| [[Chief of Defence Staff (India)|2nd Chief of Defence Staff]], [[Chairman Chiefs of Staff Committee|58th Chairman of Chiefs of Staff Committee]].
|-align="center"
| [[File:Hemant Pandey.jpg|80px]]
| [[Hemant Pandey]]
| born 1970
| [[Cinema of India|Cinema]]
| Actor.
|-align="center"
|
| [[Doctor (title)|Dr.]] [[Mahesh Kuriyal]]
| ?
| [[Healthcare in India|Healthcare]]
| Neurosurgeon.
|-align="center"
|
| [[Mangala Devi]]
| born 1956
| [[Welfare in India|Social service]], [[Philanthropy]]
| Spiritual leader associated with the [[Divine Light Mission]]. Known for her social and philanthropic work in the fields of [[Healthcare in India|health]] and [[Education in India|education]].
|-align="center"
| [[File:PRITAM BHARTWAN.jpg|80px]]
| [[Pritam Bhartwan]]
| born 1970
| [[Music of Uttarakhand|Music]]
| [[Jagar (ritual)|Jagar]] singer, recipient of [[Padma Shri]].
|- align="center"
| rowspan="8" |2025
|
|[[Jaspal Rana]]
|born
1976
|Sports
|Gold Medalist, 25 m center fire pistol, Hiroshima Olympics 1994
|- align="center"
|
|[[Dev Raturi]]
|born
1976
|Entrepreneurship
|Entrrepreneur, actor, social activist, known for acting in Chinese films<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dev Raturi {{!}} Actor, Production Department, Location Management |url=https://www.imdb.com/name/nm10904193/ |access-date=2025-12-21 |website=IMDb |language=en-US}}</ref>, features in Chinese textbooks<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-07-26 |title=Dev Raturi: Uttarakhand man movie star in China, features in textbook |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/dehradun/uttarakhand-man-movie-star-in-china-features-in-textbook/articleshow/102118478.cms |access-date=2025-12-21 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
|- align="center"
|
|scope="row" style="background-color:#CEE8F0;" |
[[Tom Alter]]
|1950 – 2017
|Acting
|Recipient of [[Padma Shri]], notable Indian actor, writer, theater artist, known for acting in
|- align="center"
|
|scope="row" style="background-color:#CEE8F0;" |
[[Sushila Baluni]]
|1939-2023
|Social Work
|Senior Uttarakhand state activist <ref>{{Cite web |title=09-05-2023 : Governor has condoled the demise of senior Uttarakhand state activist and former chairperson of the Uttarakhand Women's Commission, Mrs. Sushila Baluni. {{!}} LOK BHAVAN UTTARAKHAND {{!}} India |url=https://governoruk.gov.in/09-05-2023-governor-has-condoled-the-demise-of-senior-uttarakhand-state-activist-and-former-chairperson-of-the-uttarakhand-womens-commission-mrs-sushila-baluni/ |access-date=2025-12-21 |language=en}}</ref> and former chairperson of the Uttarakhand Women’s Commission
|- align="center"
|
|scope="row" style="background-color:#CEE8F0;" |
[[Gaura Devi]]
|1925-1991
|Community Leadership
|One of the faces of the [[Chipko movement|Chipko Movement]], grassroot activist and a rural women community leader
|- align="center"
|
|scope="row" style="background-color:#CEE8F0;" |
[[Khadg Singh Valdiya]]
|1937-2020
|Geology
|Indian geologist <ref>{{Cite web |title=Khadg Singh Valdiya – Asian Scientist Magazine |url=https://www.asianscientist.com/scientist/as100-khadg-singh-valdiya/ |access-date=2025-12-21 |website=www.asianscientist.com}}</ref> and a former vice chancellor of [[Kumaun University|Kumaon University]]
|- align="center"
|
|scope="row" style="background-color:#CEE8F0;" |
[[Teelu Rauteli]]
|1661-1681
|Warrior
|A [[Garhwali people|Garhwali]] warrior and [[Folk hero|folk heroine]], credited with fighting seven wars between the ages of fifteen and twenty
|- align="center"
|
|scope="row" style="background-color:#CEE8F0;" |
[[Shailesh Matiyani]]
|1931-2001
|Literature
|A [[Hindi]] writer, poet, essayist from Uttarakhand, known for his short stories
|}

==See also==
*[[Bharat Ratna]], the highest civilian award of India
*[[Raj Ratna]], the highest civilian award given by the individual [[princely state]]s of [[British Raj|British India]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Uttarakhand}}

[[Category:Awards established in 2021]]
[[Category:Civil awards and decorations of Uttarakhand]]
[[Category:Culture of Uttarakhand]]

Tantra

2026-03-22T11:09:26Z

Joseph Patricio: started initial post more to come

{{short description|Esoteric traditions of Hinduism and Buddhism}}
{{other uses}}
{{EngvarB|date=March 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2021}}
{{multiple image
| perrow = 2
| total_width = 320
| image1 = A Yantra with Tamil Om symbol in center, at a Mariamman Temple.jpg
| alt1 =
| image2 = Mandala Depicting Kalachakra and Vishvamata, Tibet.jpg
| alt2 =
| image3 = Vajrayogini_from_Thangka.jpg
| alt3 =
| image4 = Chakras of the Subtle Body (detail), folio 2 from the Nath Charit. Attributed to Bulaki, 1823 (Samvat 1880); 46 x 122 cm. © Mehrangarh Museum Trust..jpg
| alt4 =
| footer = Tantric art. Clockwise from upper left: [[Shri Yantra|Sri Yantra]], [[Kalachakra]] [[Mandala]], [[Shaivism|Shaiva]] [[Nath]] [[chakra]], and [[Vajrayogini]].
}}
{{Hinduism}}
{{Buddhism}}

'''Tantra''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|t|ʌ|n|t|r|ə}}; {{langx|sa|तन्त्र|lit=expansion-device, salvation-spreader; loom, weave, warp}}) is an esoteric [[Yoga|yogic]] tradition that developed in the [[India|Indian]] subcontinent, beginning in the middle of the 1st millennium CE, initially within [[Shaivism]] and [[Shaktism]], and subsequently in [[Mahayana Buddhism]] and [[Vaishnavism]].{{sfnp|Gray|2016|pp=1–3}} Tantra presents complex cosmologies, viewing the body as divine and typically reflecting the union of [[Shiva]] and [[Shakti]]. Tantric goals include [[Siddhi]] (supernatural accomplishment), [[bhoga]], and [[Kundalini]] ascent; while also addressing states of possession (āveśa) and exorcism.

The term ''tantra'' in the [[Greater India|Indian]] traditions also means any systematic broadly applicable "text, theory, system, method, instrument, technique or practice".<ref name="Barrett" />{{sfnp|Flood|2006|pp=9–14}} The tantras focus on [[sādhanā]], encompassing [[Diksha|dīkṣā]], rituals, and yoga, within a framework that includes bodily purification, divine self-creation through [[mantra]], [[Dhyana in Hinduism|dhyana]], [[Puja (Hinduism)|pūjā]], [[Mudra|mudrā]], and the use of [[Yantra|yantras]] or [[Mandala|maṇḍalas]], despite variations in deities and mantras. A key feature of tantric traditions is the use of mantras, thus they are commonly referred to as '''Mantramārga''' ('Path of Mantra') in [[Hinduism]], [[Mantrayāna]] ('Mantra Vehicle') and [[Guhyamantra]] ('Secret Mantra') in [[Buddhism]].{{sfnp|Bisschop|2020|loc=Chapter 1}}{{sfnp|Kongtrul|2005|p=74}}

In Buddhism, the [[Vajrayana]] traditions are known for tantric ideas and practices, which are based on Indian [[Tantras (Buddhism)|Buddhist Tantras]].{{sfnp|Flood|2006|pp=9, 107}} They include [[Tibetan Buddhism|Indo-Tibetan Buddhism]], [[Chinese Esoteric Buddhism]], Japanese [[Shingon Buddhism]] and Nepalese [[Newar Buddhism]]. Although [[Southern Esoteric Buddhism]] does not directly reference the tantras, its practices and ideas parallel them. In Buddhism, tantra has influenced the art and iconography of Tibetan and East Asian Buddhism, as well as historic cave temples of India and the art of [[Southeast Asia]].{{sfnp|Beer|2003|pp=xi-xiv}}{{sfnp|Berkson|1986|pp=11-12}}{{sfnp|Fraser-Lu|Stadtner|2015|p=59}}

Tantric Hindu and Buddhist traditions have also influenced other [[Eastern religions|Eastern religious traditions]] such as [[Jainism]], the Tibetan [[Bön]] tradition, [[Daoism]], and the Japanese [[Shintō]] tradition.{{sfnp|Gray|2016|pp=1–2, 17–19}} Certain modes of worship, such as [[Puja (Hinduism)|Puja]], are considered tantric in their conception and rituals. [[Hindu temple]] building also generally conforms to the iconography of tantra.{{refn|name=puja|group=note|{{harvp|Padoux|2013|p=2}}: "The Hindu worship, the ''pūjā'', for instance, is Tantric in its conception and ritual process, the principles of Hindu temple building and iconography are Tantric, and so on."}}{{sfnp|Flood|2006|p=53,73-75,79,81-3,99,132-3,177}} Hindu texts describing these topics are called [[Hindu tantric literature|Tantras]], [[Āgama (Hinduism)|Āgamas]] or [[Samhita|Samhitās]].{{sfnp|Padoux|2013|p=1}}{{sfnp|Lorenzen|2002|p=25}} Though [[Western world|Western]] views often equate Tantra with sex, scholars emphasize that sexual practices in tantric traditions are rare, highly restricted to initiated [[Adept|adepts]], and serve as a means of spiritual transcendence rather than an end in themselves.
{{TOC limit|4}}

==Etymology==
Tantra ({{langx|sa|तन्त्र}}) literally means "loom, warp, weave".<ref name="Monier">{{harvp|Monier-Williams|Leumann|Cappeller|2002|p=436}}</ref><ref name="Barrett">{{harvp|Barrett|2008|p=12}}</ref><ref name="Flood"/> According to Padoux, the verbal root Tan means: "to extend", "to spread", "to spin out", "weave", "display", "put forth", and "compose". Therefore, by extension, it can also mean "system", "doctrine", or "work".{{sfnp|Padoux|2017|p=7}}

The connotation of the word ''tantra'' to mean an [[Eastern esotericism|esoteric]] practice or religious ritualism is a [[British Raj|colonial era]] European invention.{{sfnp|Padoux|2002|p=17}}{{sfnp|White|2005|p=8984}}{{sfnp|Gray|2016|pp=3-4}} This term is based on the metaphor of [[weaving]], states Ron Barrett, where the Sanskrit root ''tan'' means the [[Warp and weft|warp]]ing of threads on a loom.<ref name="Barrett"/> It implies "interweaving of traditions and teachings as threads" into a text, technique or practice.<ref name="Barrett"/><ref name="Flood">{{harvp|Flood|2006|p=9}}</ref>

The word appears in the hymns of the ''[[Rigveda]]'' such as in 10.71, with the meaning of "[[warp (weaving)]]".<ref name="Monier"/> It is found in many other [[Vedic era]] texts, such as in section 10.7.42 of the ''[[Atharvaveda]]'' and many [[Brahmana]]s.<ref name="Monier"/><ref name="Urban"/> In these and post-Vedic texts, the contextual meaning of ''Tantra'' is that which is "principal or essential part, main point, model, framework, feature".<ref name="Monier"/> In the [[Smriti]]s and [[Indian epic poetry|epics]] of Hinduism (and Jainism), the term means "doctrine, rule, theory, method, technique or chapter" and the word appears both as a separate word and as a common suffix, such as ''atma-tantra'' meaning "doctrine or theory of [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (Self)".<ref name="Monier"/><ref name="Urban">{{harvp|Urban|2008|pp=26–27}}</ref>

The term "Tantra" after about 500 BCE, in Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism is a bibliographic category, just like the word [[Sutra]] (which means "sewing together", mirroring the metaphor of "weaving together" in ''Tantra''). The same Buddhist texts are sometimes referred to as tantra or sutra; for example, ''Vairocabhisambodhi-tantra'' is also referred to as ''Vairocabhisambodhi-sutra''.<ref name="Felch">{{harvp|Felch|2016|pp=174–175}}</ref> The various contextual meanings of the word Tantra vary with the Indian text and are summarized in the appended table.
{| class="wikitable collapsible"
|+Appearance of the term "Tantra" in Indian texts
|-
! Period{{refn|group=note|The dates in the left column of the table are estimates and contested by scholars.}} !! Text or author !! Contextual meaning of tantra
|-
| style="background: silver;"| 1500–1100 BCE || ''Ṛigveda'' X, 71.9 || Loom (or weaving device){{sfnp|Banerjee|1988}}
|-
| style="background: silver;"| 1200–1000 BCE || [[Sāmaveda]], ''Tandya Brahmana'' || Essence (or "main part", perhaps denoting the quintessence of the ''Śāstras''){{sfnp|Banerjee|1988}}
|-
| style="background: silver;"|1200–900 BCE || ''[[Atharvaveda]]'' X, 7.42 || Loom (or weaving){{sfnp|Banerjee|1988}}
|-
| style="background: silver;"|1200–800 BCE || [[Yajurveda]], ''Taittiriya Brahmana'' 11.5.5.3 || Loom (or weaving){{sfnp|Banerjee|1988}}
|-
| style="background: silver;"|800-600 BCE || ''[[Shatapatha Brahmana|Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa]]'' || Essence (or main part; see above){{sfnp|Banerjee|1988}}
|-
| style="background: silver;"|600–500 BCE || [[Pāṇini]] in ''[[Aṣṭādhyāyī]]'' 1.4.54 and 5.2.70 || Warp (weaving), loom<ref name="Pontillo">{{harvp|Pontillo|Candotti|2014|pp=47–48 with footnotes}}</ref>
|-
| style="background: silver;"|350–283 BCE || [[Chanakya]] on ''[[Arthaśāstra]]'' || Science;{{sfnp|Kangle|1986|p=512 with footnote}} system or [[shastra]]<ref name="Joshi"/>
|-
| 300 CE || [[Isvarakrsna|Īśvarakṛṣṇa]] author of ''[[Samkhyakarika|Sānkhya Kārikā]]'' (''kārikā'' 70) || Doctrine (identifies ''[[Sankhya]]'' as a ''tantra''){{sfnp|Bagchi|1989|p=6}}
|-
| 320 CE || ''[[Vishnu Purana|Viṣṇu Purāṇa]]'' || Practices and rituals{{sfnp|Banerjee|1988|p=8}}
|-
| 320–400 CE || Poet [[Kālidāsa]] on ''[[Abhijñānaśākuntalam]]'' || Deep understanding or mastery of a topic{{refn|group=note|{{harvp|Banerjee|1988}}: "''Tantra'' is sometimes used to denote governance. ''Kālidāsa'' uses the expression ''prajah tantrayitva'' (having governed the subjects) in the ''Abhijñānaśākuntalam'' (V.5)."}}
|-
| 423 || Gangdhar stone inscription in [[Rajasthan]] || Worship techniques (''Tantrodbhuta''){{sfnp|Joshi|2012|pages=48–50}} Dubious link to Tantric practices.{{sfnp|Lorenzen|2002|pp=31-32}}
|-
| 500 <ref name=schomerus8>Hilko Wiardo Schomerus and Humphrey Palmer (2000), Śaiva Siddhānta: An Indian School of Mystical Thought, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-1569-8}}, pages 7–10</ref> || [[Agama (Hinduism)| Hindu Agamas]] || A set of esoteric doctrines and practices, featuring archaic prosody and linguistic evidence dating back to 500 BCE.<ref name=schomerus8>Hilko Wiardo Schomerus and Humphrey Palmer (2000), Śaiva Siddhānta: An Indian School of Mystical Thought, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-1569-8}}, pages 7–10</ref><ref name="RDeC">{{cite book|title=Haunting the Buddha: Indian Popular Religions and the Formation of Buddhism|last=DeCaroli|first=Robert|year=2004|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]], US| isbn=978-0-19-516838-9}}</ref> Tantra here implies "Extensive knowledge of principles of reality".{{sfnp|Wallis|2012|p=26}}
|-
| 550 || Sabarasvamin's commentary on Mimamsa Sutra 11.1.1, 11.4.1 etc. || Thread, text;{{sfnp|Scharfe|1977|p=87 with footnote 50}} beneficial action or thing<ref name="Joshi">{{harvp|Joshi|1977|p=409}}</ref>
|-
| 606–647 || Sanskrit scholar and poet [[Bāṇabhaṭṭa]] (in ''Harṣacarita''{{refn|group=note|{{harvp|Banerjee|2002|p=34}}: "Banabhatta, the Sanskrit author of the 7th century, refers, in the ''Harshacharita'' to the propitiation of Matrikas by a tantric ascetic."}} and in ''[[Kadambari|Kādambari]]''), in [[Bhāsa]]'s ''Cārudatta'' and in [[Sudraka|Śūdraka]]'s ''[[Mṛcchakatika]]'' || Set of sites and worship methods to goddesses or [[Matrika]]s.{{sfnp|Joshi|2012|pages=48–50}}{{sfnp|Banerjee|2002|p=34}}
|-
| 650 <ref>Hajime Nakamura, [https://books.google.com/books?id=w0A7y4TCeVQC&dq=Mahavairocana+Sutra+composed&pg=PA322 Indian Buddhism: A Survey with Bibliographical Notes], Motilal Banarsidass 1996, p.321</ref> || [[Vairocanābhisaṃbodhi Sūtra]] || The first evidence of Buddhist esoteric doctrines or practices, known as [[Vajrayāna]] and sometimes also as Tantrayāna.
|-
| post-650 || [[Buddhist tantric literature]] || Various Vajrayāna esoteric doctrines or practices.
|-
| 975–1025 || Philosopher [[Abhinavagupta]] in his ''[[Tantrāloka]]'' || Set of doctrines or practices, teachings, texts, system (synthesis of the 64 monistic āgamas and based on [[Kashmir Shaivism]]){{sfnp|Dyczkowski|1989|pp=4-5}}<ref name="Flood"/>
|-
| 1150–1200 || Jayaratha, [[Abhinavagupta]]'s commentator on ''[[Tantrāloka]]'' || Set of doctrines or practices, teachings
|-
| 1690–1785 || [[Bhaskararaya]] (philosopher)|| System of thought or set of doctrines or practices, a canon{{sfnp|Brooks|1990|pp=16-17}}
|}

=={{anchor|Scholastic definitions}}Definition==
===Ancient and medieval era===
The 5th-century BCE scholar [[Pāṇini]] in his Sutra 1.4.54–55 of Sanskrit grammar, cryptically explains tantra through the example of "Sva-tantra" (Sanskrit: स्वतन्त्र), which he states means "independent" or a person who is his own "warp, cloth, weaver, promoter, karta (actor)".<ref name="Pontillo"/> [[Patanjali]] in his ''[[Mahābhāṣya]]'' quotes and accepts Panini's definition, then discusses or mentions it at a greater length, in 18 instances, stating that its metaphorical definition of "warp (weaving), extended cloth" is relevant to many contexts.<ref name="Pontillo-2">{{harvp|Pontillo|Candotti|2014|pp=48–61 with footnotes}}</ref> The word ''tantra'', states Patanjali, means "principal, main".

He uses the same example of ''svatantra'' as a composite word of "sva" (self) and tantra, then stating "svatantra" means "one who is self-dependent, one who is his own master, the principal thing for whom is himself", thereby interpreting the definition of tantra.<ref name="Pontillo" /> Patanjali also offers a semantic definition of Tantra, stating that it is structural rules, standard procedures, centralized guide or knowledge in any field that applies to many elements.<ref name="Pontillo-2" />

Starting in the early centuries of the common era, newly revealed Tantras centering on [[Vishnu]], [[Shiva]] or [[Shakti]] emerged.{{sfnp|Flood|2006|p=7–8}} There are tantric lineages in all main forms of modern Hinduism, such as the [[Shaiva Siddhanta]] tradition, the [[Shaktism|Shakta]] sect of [[Shri Vidya]], the [[Kaula (Hinduism)|Kaula]], and [[Kashmir Shaivism]].

The ancient [[Mimamsa]] school of Hinduism uses the term tantra extensively, and its scholars offer various definitions. For example:

{{Blockquote|
When an action or a thing, once complete, becomes beneficial in several matters to one person, or to many people, that is known as ''Tantra''. For example, a lamp placed amidst many priests. In contrast, that which benefits by its repetition is called ''Āvāpa'', such as massaging with oil. (...)
|Sabara, 6th century|<ref name="Joshi"/><ref>{{harvp|Pontillo|Candotti|2014|pp=89–90 with footnotes}}</ref>
}}

Medieval texts present their own definitions of Tantra. ''{{IAST|Kāmikā-tantra}}'', for example, gives the following explanation of the term ''tantra'':
{{blockquote|Because it elaborates (''{{IAST|tan}}'') copious and profound matters, especially relating to the principles of reality (''{{IAST|tattva}}'') and sacred mantras, and because it provides liberation (''{{IAST|tra}}''), it is called a ''{{IAST|tantra}}''.{{sfnp|Wallis|2012|p=26}}}}

===Modern era===

The occultist and businessman [[Pierre Bernard (yogi)|Pierre Bernard]] (1875–1955) is widely credited with introducing the philosophy and practices of tantra to the American people, at the same time creating a somewhat misleading impression of its connection to sex.{{sfnp|Stirling|2006|p=7}} That popular sexualization is more accurately regarded as the western [[Neotantra|''Neo-Tantra'']] movement.

While hugely influential on Hindu practices and ritual, the Tantric traditions are poorly understood by contemporary Hindus.{{sfnp|Gray|2016|pp=1-2}} Likewise, western scholarship has often ignored this important aspect of Indian and Hindu-culture.{{sfnp|Gray|2016|pp=1-2}}

Many definitions of Tantra have been proposed since, and there is no universally accepted definition.{{sfnp|Brown|2002|pp=1-2}} André Padoux, in his review of Tantra definitions offers two, then rejects both. One definition, according to Padoux, is found among Tantra practitioners – it is any "system of observances" about the vision of man and the cosmos where correspondences between the inner world of the person and the macrocosmic reality play an essential role. Another definition, more common among observers and non-practitioners, is some "set of mechanistic rituals, omitting entirely the ideological side".{{sfnp|Brown|2002|pp=5-6}}

Tantric traditions have been studied mostly from textual and historical perspectives. [[Anthropological]] work on living Tantric tradition is scarce, and [[ethnography]] has rarely engaged with the study of Tantra. This is arguably a result of the modern construction of Tantrism as occult, esoteric and secret. Some scholars have tried to demystify the myth of secrecy in contemporary Tantric traditions, suggesting new methodological avenues to overcome the ethical and [[epistemological]] problems in the study of living Tantric traditions.{{sfnp|Lorea|2018}}

According to David N. Lorenzen, two different kinds of definitions of Tantra exist, narrow and broad.{{sfnp|Lorenzen|2002|p=25}} According to the narrow definition, Tantrism, or "Tantric religion", is the elite traditions directly based on the Sanskrit texts called the Tantras, Samhitas, and Agamas.{{sfnp|Lorenzen|2002|p=25}}{{sfnp|Brown|2002|p=6}} Lorenzen's "broad definition" extends this by including a broad range of "magical beliefs and practices" such as [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]] and [[Shaktism]].{{sfnp|Brown|2002|p=6}}{{sfnp|Lorenzen|2002|p=25-26}}

The term "yoga" is broadly attributed to many traditions and practices, including the western assumption that yoga is synonymous with physical stretching and little more. The ''[[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali]]'' define yoga as "the stilling of the disturbances of the mind".{{sfnp|Grassi|Riba|2014|p=112}} Richard Payne states that Tantra has been commonly but incorrectly associated with sex, given popular culture's prurient obsession with intimacy. Tantra has been labelled as the "yoga of ecstasy", driven by senseless ritualistic [[libertinism]].<ref name="Felch"/> This is far from the diverse and complex understanding of what Tantra means to those Buddhists, Hindu and Jains who practice it.<ref name="Felch"/>

David Gray disagrees with broad generalizations and states that defining Tantra is a difficult task because "Tantra traditions are manifold, spanning several religious traditions and cultural worlds. As a result they are also diverse, which makes it a significant challenge to come up with an adequate definition".{{sfnp|Gray|2016|p=3}} The challenge of defining Tantra is compounded by the fact that it has been a historically significant part of major Indian religions, including Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism, both in and outside South Asia and East Asia.{{sfnp|Gray|2016|pp=1-5}} To its practitioners, Tantra is defined as a combination of texts, techniques, rituals, monastic practices, meditation, yoga, and ideology.{{sfnp|Gray|2016|pp=1-8}}

According to [[Georg Feuerstein]],

{{blockquote|The scope of topics discussed in the Tantras is considerable. They deal with the creation and history of the world; the names and functions of a great variety of male and female deities and other higher beings; the types of ritual worship (especially of Goddesses); magic, sorcery, and divination; esoteric "physiology" (the mapping of the subtle or psychic body); the awakening of the mysterious serpent power (kundalinî-shakti); techniques of bodily and mental purification; the nature of enlightenment; and not least, sacred sexuality.{{sfnp|Feuerstein|2001|pp=parts 11501-11505}} }}

Hindu [[Puja (Hinduism)|puja]], [[Hindu temple|temples]] and iconography all show tantric influence.{{refn|name=puja|group=note}} These texts, states Gavin Flood, contain representation of "the body in philosophy, in ritual and in art", which are linked to "techniques of the body, methods or technologies developed within the tantric traditions intended to transform body and self".{{sfnp|Flood|2006|p=4, 21-22, 172-173}}

====Tantrism====
{{multiple image
| perrow = 2
| total_width = 260
| image1 = OM MANI PADME HUM.svg
| alt1 = Mantra
| image2 = Vishnu Mandala.jpg
| alt2 = Vishnu mandala
| image4 = Kali_Yantra.jpg
| alt4 = Kali Yantra
| image3 = Center_detail,_from-_Interior_of_a_Book_Cover-_Manjuvajra_Embracing_His_Consort,_with_Attendant_Lamas_MET_DP335604_(cropped).jpg
| alt3 = Sexual yoga
| image5 = Chakras_and_energy_channels_2_(3749594497).jpg
| alt5 = Subtle body
| image6 = Kapala_skull_cup.jpg
| alt6 = Kapala
| footer = Elements of Tantrism. Clockwise from upper left: Mantra (Buddhist), Mandala (Hindu), Yantra (of Kali), Skull cup (Kapala), Nadis and Chakras (Tibetan), Deities depicted in sexual union. These are neither compulsory nor universal in Tantrism.{{sfnp|Goudriaan|1981|pp=1-8}}
}}

The term ''tantrism'' is a 19th-century European invention not present in any Asian language;{{Sfnp|White|2005|p=8984}} compare "[[Sufism]]", of similar [[Orientalism|Orientalist]] origin. According to Padoux, ''Tantrism'' is a [[Western culture|Western]] term and notion, not a category that is used by Tantrikas themselves.{{sfnp|Padoux|2002|p=17}} The term was introduced by 19th-century Indologists, with limited knowledge of India and in whose view Tantrism was a particular, unusual and minority practice in contrast to Indian traditions they believed to be mainstream.{{sfnp|Padoux|2002|p=17}}

Robert Brown similarly notes that "tantrism" is a construct of [[Western world|Western]] [[Scholarly method|scholarship]], not a concept of the religious system itself.{{sfnp|Brown|2002|p=1}} He defines Tantrism as an apologetic label of Westerners for a system that they little understand that is "not coherent" and which is "an accumulated set of practices and ideas from various sources, that has varied between its practitioners within a group, varied across groups, across geography and over its history". It is a system, adds Brown, that gives each follower the freedom to mix Tantric elements with non-Tantric aspects, to challenge and transgress any and all norms, experiment with "the mundane to reach the supramundane".{{sfnp|Brown|2002|pp=1-2}}

Teun Goudriaan in his 1981 review of Hindu Tantrism, states that Tantrism usually means a "systematic quest for salvation or spiritual excellence" by realizing and fostering the divine within one's own body, one that is simultaneous union of the masculine-feminine and spirit-matter, and has the ultimate goal of realizing the "primal blissful state of non-duality".{{sfnp|Goudriaan|1981|pp=1-2, 39-40}} It is typically a methodically striven system, consisting of voluntarily chosen specific practices which may include Tantric items such as mantras (''bijas''), geometric patterns and symbols (''mandala''), gestures (''mudra''), mapping of the microcosm within one's body to the macrocosmic elements outside as the subtle body (''[[kundalini yoga]]''), assignments of icons and sounds (''nyasa''), meditation (''dhyana''), ritual worship (''puja''), initiation (''diksha'') and others.{{sfnp|Goudriaan|1981|pp=1-2, 198-200}} Tantrism, adds Goudriaan, is a living system that is decidedly [[monism|monistic]], but with wide variations, and it is impossible to be dogmatic about a simple or fixed definition.{{sfnp|Goudriaan|1981|pp=2, 7-8}}

Tantrism is an overarching term for "Tantric traditions", states David Gray in a 2016 review, that combine Vedic, yogic and meditative traditions from 5th-century Hinduism as well as rival Buddhist and Jain traditions.{{sfnp|Gray|2016|pp=1-2}} It is a [[neologism]] of western scholars and does not reflect the self-understanding of any particular tantric tradition. While Goudriaan's description is useful, adds Gray, there is no single defining universal characteristic common to all Tantra traditions, being an open evolving system.{{sfnp|Gray|2016|pp=3-4}} Tantrism, whether Buddhist or Hindu, can best be characterized as practices, a set of techniques, with a strong focus on rituals and meditation, by those who believe that it is a path to liberation that is characterized by both knowledge and freedom.{{sfnp|Gray|2016|pp=4-5}}

====Tantrika====

According to Padoux, the term "Tantrika" is based on a comment by Kulluka Bhatta on ''Manava [[Dharmasastra]] 2.1'', who contrasted ''[[vaidika]]'' and ''tantrika'' forms of [[Śruti]] (canonical texts). The Tantrika, to Bhatta, is that literature which forms a parallel part of the Hindu tradition, independent of the Vedic corpus. The Vedic and non-Vedic (Tantric) paths are seen as two different approaches to [[metaphysics|ultimate reality]], the Vedic approach based on [[Brahman]], and Tantrika being based on the non-Vedic [[Āgama (Hinduism)|Āgama]] texts.{{sfnp|Padoux|2002|pp=18-19}} Despite Bhatta attempt to clarify, states Padoux, in reality Hindus and Buddhists have historically felt free to borrow and blend ideas from all sources, Vedic, non-Vedic and in the case of Buddhism, its own canonical works.{{sfnp|Padoux|2002|pp=18-21}}

One of the key differences between the Tantric and non-Tantric traditions – whether it be orthodox Buddhism, Hinduism or Jainism – is their assumptions about the need for monastic or ascetic life.{{sfnp|Brown|2002|pp=3-4}} Non-Tantrika, or orthodox traditions in all three major ancient Indian religions, hold that the worldly life of a householder is one driven by desires and greeds which are a serious impediment to spiritual liberation (''[[moksha]]'', ''[[nirvana]]'', ''[[kaivalya]]''). These orthodox traditions teach renunciation of householder life, a mendicant's life of simplicity and leaving all attachments to become a monk or nun. In contrast, the Tantrika traditions hold, states Robert Brown, that "both enlightenment and worldly success" are achievable, and that "this world need not be shunned to achieve enlightenment".{{sfnp|Brown|2002|pp=3-4}}{{sfnp|Samuel|Johnston|2013|pp=35–38}} Yet, even this supposed categorical divergence is debatable, e.g. Bhagavad Gita v.2:48–53, including: "Yoga is skill in [the performance of] actions."{{sfnp|Feuerstein|2011|pp=108–09}}

==Features==

The Tantras emphasize spiritual practice or sādhana, including initiation (dīkṣā), rituals, and yoga. A standard ritual framework is present in the Tantras, despite variations in deities and mantras, involving body purification through symbolic dissolution, creation of a divine body or self via mantra, internal worship or dhyāna (visualization), and external worship or pūjā, utilizing hand gestures (mudrā), mantra chanting, and sacred diagrams (yantra, maṇḍala). The Tantras feature complex cosmological hierarchies that incorporate earlier traditions' cosmic structures, with the highest Śaiva Siddhānta realm surpassed by additional realms in Kashmir Śaiva traditions. The body is seen as divine, containing the cosmic order, reflecting the polarity of the male deity and his consort, the feminine energy, often Shiva and his Shakti as Goddess Kuṇḍalinī, with their union symbolizing liberation. The Tantras focus on attaining mystical powers (siddhi) and experiencing bliss in higher realms (bhoga) as part of the practitioner’s spiritual journey, also interpreted as the movement of Kuṇḍalinī through the body. The Tantras address possession (āveśa) and the practice of exorcism.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=160}} Tantric practitioners do not deny the use of sexual rituals to gain powers, but emphasize the disciplined relationship between guru and disciple.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Denton |first=Lynn Teskey |title=Female ascetics in Hinduism |last2=Collins |first2=Steven |date=2004 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-8462-3 |series=SUNY series inn Hindu studies |location=Albany |pages=98}}</ref>

==History==

===Proto-tantric elements in Indian religions===
While Tantra arose in the 5th century CE in Shaivite religions, practices and ideas can be found in Indian religion and history which may have been formative to Tantric practices and ideas.

====Proto-tantric elements in Vedic religion====
=====Rig Veda=====
The Keśin hymn of the ''[[Rig Veda]]'' (10.136) describes the "wild loner" who, states Karel Werner, "carrying within oneself fire and poison, heaven and earth, ranging from enthusiasm and creativity to depression and agony, from the heights of spiritual bliss to the heaviness of earth-bound labor".<ref name="Werner">{{harvp|Werner|1977|pp=289–302}}</ref> The Rigveda uses words of admiration for these loners,<ref name="Werner" /> and whether it is related to Tantra or not, has been variously interpreted. According to David Lorenzen, it describes ''munis'' (sages) experiencing Tantra-like "ecstatic, altered states of consciousness" and gaining the ability "to fly on the wind".{{sfnp|Lorenzen|2002|p=27}} In contrast, Werner suggests that these are early [[Yoga]] pioneers and accomplished yogis of the ancient pre-Buddhist Indian tradition, and that this Vedic hymn is speaking of those "lost in thoughts" whose "personalities are not bound to earth, for they follow the path of the mysterious wind".<ref name="Werner"/> However, Patrick Olivelle suggests that in the early Vedic-Brahmanical texts, some of which predate the 3rd-century BCE ruler Ashoka, Brahmana and Śramaṇa (ascetics) were neither distinct nor opposed. The later distinctions were semantic developments possibly influenced by the appropriation of the term Śramaṇa by Buddhism and Jainism.{{sfn|Olivelle|1993|p=12}}

=====Upanishads=====
The two oldest [[Upanishads|Upanishadic]] scriptures of Hinduism, the ''[[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]]'' in section 4.2 and ''[[Chandogya Upanishad]]'' in section 8.6, refer to [[nadis]] (''hati'') in presenting their theory on how the [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (Self) and the body are connected and interdependent through energy carrying arteries when one is awake or sleeping, but they do not mention anything related to Tantric practices.{{sfnp|Phillips|2009|p=295 with note 23}} The ''[[Shvetashvatara Upanishad]]'' describes [[pranayama|breath control]] that became a standard part of Yoga, but Tantric practices do not appear in it.{{sfnp|Lorenzen|2002|p=27}}{{sfnp|Deussen|1980|pp=301-304, 310-311}} Likewise, the ''[[Taittiriya Upanishad]]'' discusses a central channel running through the body and various Vedic texts mention the bodily [[prana]]s (vital breaths) that move around in the body and animate it. However, the idea of consciously moving the bodily pranas through yoga is not found in these sources.{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|pp=284-285}} According to Lorenzen, Vedic ideas related to the body later diversified into the [[Subtle body|"mystical anatomy"]] of ''[[nadis]]'' and ''[[chakras]]'' found in Tantra.{{sfnp|Lorenzen|2002|p=27-28}} The yogic component of Tantrism appears clearly in [[Bāṇabhaṭṭa]]'s ''[[Harshacharita]]'' and [[Daṇḍin]]'s ''[[Dashakumaracharita]]''.{{sfnp|Lorenzen|2002|p=28}} In contrast to this theory of Lorenzen, other scholars such as [[Mircea Eliade]] consider Yoga and the evolution of Yogic practices to be separate and distinct from the evolution of Tantra and Tantric practices.{{sfnp|White|2014|p=188}}

=====Tapas and spiritualized sexual energy=====
According to [[Geoffrey Samuel]], the inner development of a spiritual energy called [[Tapas (Indian religions)|tapas]] becomes a central element of Vedic religion in the [[Brahmana]]s and [[Śrauta|Srauta]] texts. In these texts, ascetic practices allow a holy man to build up tapas, a kind of magical inner heat, which allows them to perform all sorts of magical feats as well as granting visions and divine revelations.{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|pp=157-158}} Samuel also notes that in the ''[[Mahabharata]]'', one of the commonest use of the term "yoga" refers to "a dying warrior transferring himself at death to the sphere of the sun through yoga, a practice that links up with Upanisadic references to the channel to the crown of the head as the pathway by which one can travel through the solar orb to the World of Brahman." This practice of transferring one's consciousness at death is still an important practice in Tibetan Buddhism.{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|p=221}} Samuel also notes that sexual rituals and a spiritualized sexuality are mentioned in the late Upanishads. According to Samuel, "late Vedic texts treat sexual intercourse as symbolically equivalent to the [[Yajna|Vedic sacrifice]], and ejaculation of semen as the offering." This theme can be found in the ''[[Jaiminiya Brahmana]]'', the ''[[Chandogya Upanishad|Chandogya Upanisad]]'', and the ''[[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad|Brhadaranyaka Upanisad]]''. The ''Brhadaranyaka'' contains various sexual rituals and practices which are mostly aimed at obtaining a child which are concerned with the loss of male virility and power.{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|p=283}}

=====Yogini cults=====
[[David Gordon White]] views [[Yogini]] cults as foundational to early tantra but disagrees with scholars who maintain that the roots of such cults lie in an "autochthonous non-Vedic source" such as indigenous tribes or the [[Indus Valley civilization]].{{sfnp|White|2003|pp=28-29}} Instead, White suggests that Vedic [[Srauta]] texts mention offerings to goddesses Rākā, Sinīvālī, and Kuhū in a manner similar to a tantric ritual.{{sfnp|White|2003|pp=30, 280}}

=====Atharvaveda=====
Frederick Smith – a professor of Sanskrit and Classical Indian Religions – considers Tantra to be a religious movement parallel to the [[Bhakti]] movement of the 1st millennium CE.<ref name="Smith"/> Tantra along with [[Ayurveda]], states Smith, has traditionally been attributed to ''[[Atharvaveda]]'', but this attribution is one of respect not of historicity. Ayurveda has primarily been an empirical practice with Vedic roots, but Tantra has been an esoteric, folk movement without grounding that cannot be traced to anything in ''Atharvaveda'' or any other Vedic text.<ref name="Smith">{{harvp|Smith|2012|pp=363–364}}</ref>

====Proto-Tantric elements in Buddhism====
[[File:Sanskrit language, Siddham to Chinese transliteration, Buddhist Dharani literature.jpg|thumb|A Buddhist [[dhāraṇī]] (incantation), the ''Nilaṇṭhanāmahṛdaya dhāraṇī'', in [[Siddhaṃ script|Siddham Script]] with Chinese transliteration]]
[[File:Yakshi Mathura.jpg|thumb|[[Kushan Empire|Kushan]] sculpture of a [[Yakshini|yakṣiṇī]] (2nd century), [[Mathura]] region]]

Pre-tantric Buddhism contains elements which could be seen as proto-tantric, and which may have influenced the development of the Buddhist Tantric tradition. The use of magical chants or incantations can be found in the early Buddhist texts as well as in some Mahayana sutras.{{sfnp|Snellgrove|1987|p=122}} These magical spells or chants were used for various reasons, such as for [[Apotropaic magic|protection]], and for the generation of [[auspiciousness]].{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|p=131}} [[Mahayana]] incantations are called [[dhāraṇī]]s. Some Mahayana sutras incorporate the use of [[mantra]]s, a central feature of tantric practice.

According to Geoffrey Samuel, sramana groups like the Buddhists and Jains were associated with the dead. Samuel notes that they "frequently settled at sites associated with the dead and seem to have taken over a significant role in relation to the spirits of the dead." To step into this realm required entering a dangerous and impure supernatural realm from the Indian perspective. This association with death remains a feature of modern Buddhism, and in Buddhist countries today, Buddhist monks and other ritual specialists are in charge of the dead.{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|pp=128-129}} Thus, the association of tantric practitioners with [[charnel ground]]s and death imagery is preceded by early Buddhist contact with these sites of the dead.

Some scholars think that the development of tantra may have been influenced by the cults of nature spirit-deities like [[Yaksha|Yakṣas]] and [[Nāga|Nagas]].{{sfnp|Gray|2016}} Yakṣa cults were an important part of [[Early Buddhist schools|early Buddhism]]. Yakṣas are powerful nature spirits which were sometimes seen as guardians or protectors.{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|pp=142, 145-146}} Yakṣas like [[Kubera]] are also associated with magical incantations. Kubera is said to have provided the Buddhist sangha with protection spells in the ''[[Āṭānāṭiya Sutta]]''.{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|pp=144-145}} These spirit deities also included numerous female deities (yakṣiṇī) that can be found depicted in major Buddhist sites like [[Sanchi]] and [[Bharhut]]. In early Buddhist texts there is also mention of fierce demon-like deities called [[Rakshasa|rākṣasa]] and rākṣasī, like the children-eating [[Hariti|Hārītī]].{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|p=248}} They are also present in Mahayana texts, such as in Chapter 26 of the ''[[Lotus Sutra]]'', which includes a dialogue between the Buddha and a group of rākṣasīs, who swear to uphold and protect the sutra. These figures also teach magical [[dhāraṇī]]s to protect followers of the ''Lotus Sutra''.{{sfnp|Watson|1994|loc=Chapter 26 Dharani}}

A key element of Buddhist Tantric practice is the visualization of deities in meditation. This practice is actually found in pre-tantric Buddhist texts as well, and in Mahayana sutras like the ''[[Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra|Pratyutpanna Samādhi]]'' and the [[Pure Land Buddhism|three Amitabha Pure land sutras]].{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|pp=219-220}} There are other Mahāyāna [[sutras]] which contain what may be called "proto-tantric" material, such as the ''[[Gandavyuha]]'' and the [[Ten Stages Sutra|''Dasabhumika'']], which might have served as a source for the imagery found in later Tantric texts.{{sfnp|Osto|2009}} According to Samuel, the ''[[Golden Light Sutra]]'' (c. 5th century at the latest) contains what could be seen as a proto-mandala. In the second chapter, a bodhisattva has a vision of "a vast building made of beryl and with divine jewels and celestial perfumes. Four lotus-seats appear in the four directions, with four Buddhas seated upon them: [[Akshobhya|Aksobhya]] in the East, Ratnaketu in the South, [[Amitābha|Amitayus]] in the West and Dundubhīśvara in the North."{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|pp=226-227}}

A series of artwork discovered in [[Gandhara]], in modern-day [[Pakistan]], dating from about the 1st century CE, show Buddhist and Hindu monks holding skulls.{{sfnp|Brown|2002|pp=11-13}} The legend corresponding to these artworks is found in Buddhist texts, and describes monks "who tap skulls and forecast the future rebirths of the person to whom that skull belonged".{{sfnp|Brown|2002|pp=11-13}}{{sfnp|Taddei|1979}} According to Robert Brown, these Buddhist skull-tapping [[relief]]s suggest that tantric practices may have been in vogue by the 1st century CE.{{sfnp|Brown|2002|pp=11-13}}

====Proto-Tantric elements in Shaktism and Shaivism====
[[File:Aghoree, Hindoo mendicant, Benares.jpg|thumb|A modern [[aghori]] with a skull-cup ([[Kapala]]). Their predecessors, the medieval [[Kapalika]]s ("Skull-men") were influential figures in the development of transgressive or [[Vamachara|"left hand"]] Shaiva tantra.]]

The ''Mahabharata'', the ''Harivamsa'', and the ''Devi Mahatmya'' in the ''[[Markandeya Purana]]'' all mention the fierce, demon-killing manifestations of the Great Goddess, [[Mahishamardini]], identified with [[Durga]]-[[Parvati]].{{sfnp|Lorenzen|2002|pp=28-30}} These suggest that [[Shaktism]], reverence and worship for the Goddess in Indian culture, was an established tradition by the early centuries of the 1st millennium.{{sfnp|Lorenzen|2002|pp=28-29}} Padoux mentions an inscription from 423 to 424 CE which mentions the founding of a temple to terrifying deities called "the mothers".{{sfnp|Padoux|2017|p=21}} However, this does not mean Tantric rituals and practices were as yet a part of either Hindu or Buddhist traditions. "Apart from the somewhat dubious reference to Tantra in the Gangadhar inscription of 423 CE", states David Lorenzen, it is only 7th-century Banabhatta's ''[[Kadambari]]'' which provide convincing proof of Tantra and Tantric texts.{{sfnp|Lorenzen|2002|pp=31-32}}

Shaivite ascetics seem to have been involved in the initial development of Tantra, particularly the transgressive elements dealing with the charnel ground. According to Samuel, one group of Shaiva ascetics, the [[Pashupata Shaivism|Pasupatas]], practiced a form of spirituality that made use of shocking and disreputable behavior later found in a tantric context, such as dancing, singing, and smearing themselves with ashes.{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|p=242}}

Early Tantric practices are sometimes attributed to Shaiva ascetics associated with Bhairava, the [[Kapalikas]] ("skull men", also called ''Somasiddhatins'' or ''Mahavartins'').{{sfnp|Lorenzen|2002|p=30}}{{sfnp|Dyczkowski|1988|pp=26-27}}{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|p=243}} Besides the shocking fact that they frequented cremation grounds and carried human skulls, little is known about them, and there is a paucity of primary sources on the Kapalikas.<ref name="Lorenzen">{{harvp|Lorenzen|1972|pp=xii, 1–4}}</ref>{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|p=243}} Samuel also states that the sources depict them as using alcohol and sex freely, that they were associated with terrifying female spirit-deities called yoginis and [[dakini]]s, and that they were believed to possess magical powers, such as flight.{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|p=246}}

Kapalikas are depicted in fictional works and also widely disparaged in Buddhist, Hindu and Jain texts of the 1st millennium CE.<ref name="Lorenzen" />{{sfnp|Lorenzen|2002|pp=30-31}} In [[Hāla]]'s ''[[Gaha Sattasai|Gatha-saptasati]]'' (composed by the 5th century AD), for example, the story calls a female character Kapalika, whose lover dies, he is cremated, she takes his cremation ashes and smears her body with it.{{sfnp|Dyczkowski|1988|pp=26-27}} The 6th-century [[Varāhamihira]] mentions Kapalikas in his literary works.{{sfnp|Lorenzen|2002|pp=30-31}} Some of the Kāpālika practices mentioned in these texts are those found in Shaiva Hinduism and Vajrayana Buddhism, and scholars disagree on who influenced whom.{{sfnp|Davidson|2004|pp=202–218}}{{sfnp|Sanderson|2012–2013|pp=4–5, 11, 57}}

These early historical mentions are in passing and appear to be Tantra-like practices, they are not detailed nor comprehensive presentation of Tantric beliefs and practices. Epigraphic references to the ''Kaulas'' Tantric practices are rare. Reference is made in the early 9th century to ''vama'' (left-hand) Tantras of the Kaulas.{{sfnp|Lorenzen|2002|p=31}} Literary evidence suggests Tantric Buddhism was probably flourishing by the 7th century.{{sfnp|Lorenzen|2002|p=27}} Matrikas, or fierce mother goddesses that later are closely linked to Tantra practices, appear both in Buddhist and Hindu arts and literature between the 7th and 10th centuries.{{sfnp|Lorenzen|2002|pp=27-31}}

===Rise and development===
{{Main|Tantras (Hinduism)|Tantras (Buddhism)}}

[[File:Dancing Bhairava in the Indian Museum, Kolkata 01.jpg|thumb|Dancing [[Bhairava]] in the Indian Museum, Kolkata]]
[[File:Nepal, 11th-12th century - Vajravarahi- Dancing Tantric Buddhist Female Diety - 1966.144 - Cleveland Museum of Art.jpg|thumb|Dancing [[Vajravārāhī]], a Buddhist tantric deity, [[Nepal]], 11th–12th century]]
[[File:A_Nath_Yogi_LACMA_M.85.283.10_(1_of_3).jpg|thumb|Illustration of a yogi and their [[chakra]]s]]
[[File:Mahasiddhas_and_consorts_practicing_karmamudra.png|thumb|Buddhist Mahasiddhas practicing the sexual yoga of [[karmamudrā]] ("action seal")]]

According to Peter C. Bisschop, the expansion of the Pāśupata Śaivite movement (early CE) throughout North India gave rise to different forms of Śaivism, eventually leading to the emergence of various tantric traditions.<ref name=":0">{{Citation | last = Bisschop | first = Peter C. | year = 2011 | title = Shaivism | publisher = Oxford University Press | url = http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399318/obo-9780195399318-0051.xml | access-date = 10 March 2017 | archive-date = 2 January 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180102174639/http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399318/obo-9780195399318-0051.xml | url-status = live }}</ref>

According to David B. Gray, Vajrayana originated from pre-existing Tantric traditions, also known as 'Tantrism', which emerged within [[Hinduism]] during the first millennium CE. These early Hindu tantric practices had a profound influence on South Asian Mahāyāna Buddhism, leading to the emergence of distinct Buddhist tantric traditions in the 7th century CE. These traditions quickly spread across Southeast, East, and Central Asia, giving rise to unique forms in East Asia and Tibet.{{sfnm|1a1=Gray|1y=2016|1p=2|2a1=Gray|2y=2023|2p=7}}

According to [[Gavin Flood]], the earliest date for the Tantra texts related to Tantric practices is 600 CE, though most of them were probably composed after the 8th century onwards.{{sfnp|Flood|1996|p=158}} According to Flood, very little is known about who created the Tantras, nor much is known about the social status of these and medieval era Tantrikas.{{sfnp|Flood|1996|p=161}}

Flood states that the pioneers of Tantra may have been ascetics who lived at the cremation grounds, possibly from "above low-caste groups", and were probably non-Brahmanical and possibly part of an ancient tradition.{{sfnp|Flood|1996|pp=161-162}}{{sfnp|Olivelle|1992|pp=5–9, 17–18}}{{sfnp|Olivelle|2011|pp= }} By the early medieval times, their practices may have included the imitation of deities such as Kali and Bhairava, with offerings of non-vegetarian food, alcohol and sexual substances. According to this theory, these practitioners would have invited their deities to enter them, then reverted the role in order to control that deity and gain its power.{{sfnp|Flood|1996|p=161}} These ascetics would have been supported by low castes living at the cremation places.{{sfnp|Flood|1996|p=161}}

According to Samuel, a key element in the development of tantra was "the gradual transformation of local and regional deity cults through which fierce male and, particularly, female deities came to take a leading role in the place of the yaksa deities." Samuel states that this took place between the fifth to eighth centuries CE.{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|pp=247-249}} According to Samuel, there are two main scholarly opinions on these terrifying goddesses which became incorporated into Śaiva and Buddhist Tantra. The first view is that they originate out of a pan-Indian religious substrate that was not Vedic. Another opinion is to see these fierce goddesses as developing out of the Vedic religion.{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|p=255}}

[[Alexis Sanderson]] has argued that tantric practices originally developed in a Śaiva milieu and were later adopted by Buddhists. He cites numerous elements that are found in the Śaiva ''Vidyapitha'' literature, including whole passages and lists of pithas, that seem to have been directly borrowed by Vajrayana texts.{{sfnp|Sanderson|1995}} This has been criticized by Ronald M. Davidson, however, due to the uncertain date of the ''Vidyapitha'' texts.{{sfnp|Davidson|2004|p=204}} Davidson argues that the pithas seem to have been neither uniquely Buddhist nor Śaiva, but frequented by both groups. He also states that the Śaiva tradition was also involved in the appropriation of local deities and that tantra may have been influenced by [[Tribal religions in India|tribal Indian religions]] and their deities.{{sfnp|Davidson|2004|p=214, 228, 231}} Samuel writes that "the female divinities may well best be understood in terms of a distinct [[Sakthan Thampuran|Śākta]] milieu from which both Śaivas and Buddhists were borrowing",{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|p=265}} but that other elements, like the Kapalika style practices, are more clearly derived from a Śaiva tradition.{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|p=265}}

There is considerable evidence that the ''Hevajra'' and ''Cakrasamvara'' tantras borrow significant portions from [[Shaivism|Saiva sources]]. The text ''Cakrasamvara'' and its commentaries have revealed numerous attempts by the Buddhists to enlarge and modify it, both to remove references to Saiva deities and to add more Buddhist technical terminology.{{sfnp|Gray|Overbey|2016|p=294}}

====Vamachara and Dakshinachara====
=====Vamachara=====
[[Vamachara]] is used to describe a particular mode of tantric worship or sadhana (spiritual practice) that uses heterodox methods to sublimate for spiritual growth. These tantric practices also included secret initiation ceremonies in which individuals would enter the tantric family (kula) and receive the secret mantras of the tantric deities. These initiations included the consumption of the sexual substances (semen and female sexual secretions) produced through ritual sex between the guru and his consort. These substances were seen as spiritually powerful and were also used as offerings for tantric deities.{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|pp=252-254}} For both Śaivas and Buddhists, tantric practices often took place at important sacred sites (pithas) associated with fierce goddesses.{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|p=254}} Samuel writes that "we do not have a clear picture of how this network of pilgrimage sites arose." Whatever the case, it seems that it was in these ritual spaces visited by both Buddhists and Śaivas that the practice of Kaula and Anuttarayoga Tantra developed during the eighth and ninth centuries.{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|pp=257-258}} Besides the practices outlined above, these sites also saw the practice of [[animal sacrifice]] as blood offerings to Śākta goddesses like [[Kamakhya]]. This practice is mentioned in Śākta texts like the ''[[Kalika Purana|Kālikāpurāṇa]]'' and the ''[[Yogini Tantra|Yoginītantra]].'' In some of these sites, such as [[Kamakhya Temple|Kamakhya Pitha]], animal sacrifice is still widely practiced by Śāktas.{{sfnp|Borkataky-Varma|2019}} Samuel states that [[wikt:transgressive|transgressive]] and [[Antinomianism|antinomian]] tantric practices developed in both Buddhist and Brahmanical (mainly Śaiva ascetics like the Kapalikas) contexts and that "Śaivas and Buddhists borrowed extensively from each other, with varying degrees of acknowledgement." According to Samuel, these deliberately transgressive practices included, "night time orgies in charnel grounds, involving the eating of human flesh, the use of ornaments, bowls and musical instruments made from human bones, sexual relations while seated on corpses, and the like."{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|pp=232-233}} Samuel writes that the Saiva Tantra tradition appears to have originated as ritual sorcery carried out by hereditary caste groups (kulas) and associated with sex, death and fierce goddesses. The initiation rituals involved the consumption of the mixed sexual secretions (the clan essence) of a male guru and his consort. These practices were adopted by Kapalika styled ascetics and influenced the early Nath siddhas. Over time, the more extreme external elements were replaced by internalized yogas that make use of the subtle body. Sexual ritual became a way to reach the liberating wisdom taught in the tradition.{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|p=291}}

Another key and innovative feature of medieval tantric systems was the development of internal yogas based on elements of the [[subtle body]] (''sūkṣma śarīra''). This subtle anatomy held that there were channels in the body (''[[Nadi (yoga)|nadis]]'') through which certain substances or energies (such as [[vayu]], [[prana]], [[kundalini]], and [[shakti]]) flowed. These yogas involved moving these energies through the body to clear out certain knots or blockages (''granthi'') and to direct the energies to the central channel (''avadhuti, sushumna''). These yogic practices are also closely related to the practice of [[Tantric sex|sexual yoga]], since sexual intercourse was seen as being involved in the stimulation of the flow of these energies.{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|pp=255, 271}} Samuel thinks that these subtle body practices may have been influenced by Chinese [[Taoism|Daoist]] practices.{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|p=289}}

One of the earliest mentions of sexual yoga practice is in the Buddhist ''[[Mahayana-sutra-alamkara-karika|Mahāyānasūtrālamkāra]]'' of [[Asanga]] (c. 5th century), which states "Supreme self-control is achieved in the reversal of sexual intercourse in the blissful Buddha-poise and the untrammelled vision of one's spouse."{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|p=274}} According to [[David Snellgrove]], the text's mention of a 'reversal of sexual intercourse' might indicate the practice of withholding ejaculation. Snellgrove states that it is possible that sexual yoga was already being practiced in Buddhist circles at this time, and that Asanga saw it as a valid practice.{{sfnp|Snellgrove|1987|p=127}} Likewise, Samuel thinks that there is a possibility that sexual yoga existed in the fourth or fifth centuries (though not in the same transgressive tantric contexts where it was later practiced).{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|p=276}}

It is only in the seventh and eighth centuries however that we find substantial evidence for these sexual yogas. Unlike previous Upanishadic sexual rituals however, which seem to have been associated with Vedic sacrifice and mundane ends like childbirth, these sexual yogas were associated with the movement of subtle body energies (like Kundalini and [[Tummo|Chandali]], which were also seen as goddesses), and also with spiritual ends.{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|pp=283, 286}} These practices seemed to have developed at around the same time in both Saiva and Buddhist circles, and are associated with figures such as [[Tirumular|Tirumülar]], [[Gorakhnath]], [[Virupa]], [[Naropa]]. The tantric [[Gorakhnath|mahasiddhas]] developed yogic systems with subtle body and sexual elements which could lead to magical powers ([[siddhi]]s), [[immortality]], as well as spiritual liberation (moksha, nirvana). Sexual yoga was seen as one way of producing a blissful expansion of consciousness that could lead to liberation.{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|p=276}}

According to Jacob Dalton, ritualized sexual yoga (along with the sexual elements of the tantric initiation ritual, like the consumption of sexual fluids) first appears in Buddhist works called [[Mahayoga]] tantras (which include the ''[[Guhyagarbha tantra|Guhyagarbha]]'' and ''[[Guhyasamāja Tantra|Guhyasamaja]]'').{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|pp=287-289}}{{sfnp|Dalton|2004}} These texts "focused on the body's interior, on the anatomical details of the male and female sexual organs and the pleasure generated through sexual union." In these texts, sexual energy was also seen as a powerful force that could be harnessed for spiritual practice and according to Samuel "perhaps create the state of bliss and loss of personal identity which is homologised with liberating insight."{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|pp=287–289}} These sexual yogas continued to develop further into more complex systems which are found in texts dating from about the ninth or tenth century, including the Saiva ''Kaulajñānanirṇaya'' and ''[[Kubjika|Kubjikātantra]]'' as well as the Buddhist ''[[Hevajra]]'', and [[Cakrasaṃvara Tantra|''Cakrasamvara'']] tantras which make use of charnel ground symbolism and fierce goddesses.{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|pp=285–289}} Samuel writes that these later texts also combine the sexual yoga with a system of controlling the energies of the subtle body.{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|p=289}}

The Buddhists developed their own corpus of Tantras, which also drew on various Mahayana doctrines and practices, as well as on elements of the fierce goddess tradition and also on elements from the Śaiva traditions (such as deities like Bhairava, which were seen as having been subjugated and converted to Buddhism).{{sfnp|Flood|1996|p=158}}{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|pp=266-267}} Some Buddhist tantras (sometimes called "lower" or "outer" tantras) which are earlier works, do not make use of transgression, sex and fierce deities. These earlier Buddhist tantras mainly reflect a development of Mahayana theory and practice (like [[deity visualization]]) and a focus on ritual and purity.{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|pp=259-260, 287, 292}} Between the eighth and tenth centuries, new tantras emerged which included fierce deities, kula style sexual initiations, subtle body practices and sexual yoga. The later Buddhist tantras are known as the "inner" or "unsurpassed yoga" ([[Classes of Tantra in Tibetan Buddhism|''Anuttarayoga'']] or "Yogini") tantras. According to Samuel, it seems that these sexual practices were not initially practiced by Buddhist monastics and instead developed outside of the monastic establishments among traveling siddhas.{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|p=264, 291-292}}

=====Dakshinachara=====
[[Dakshinachara]] is used to describe tantric sects that do not engage in heterodox practices. The ''Brahma Yamala'', a tantric text, asserts that there are three currents of tradition (''dakshina'', ''vama'', and ''madhyama'') characterized respectively by the predominance of each of the three ''[[Guṇa|guna]]s'' (''sattva'', ''rajas'', and ''tamas''). According to this text, ''dakshina'' is characterized by ''[[sattva]]'', and is pure; ''madhyama'' (a balance of the two), characterized by ''[[rajas]]'', is mixed; and ''vama'', characterized by ''[[tamas (philosophy)|tamas]]'', is impure. The tantras of each class follow a particular line of spiritual practice.{{sfnp|Bagchi|2017|p={{pn|date=June 2025}}}} N. N. Bhattacharyya explains the Sanskrit technical term ''[[Ācāra|{{IAST|ācāra}}]]'' as follows:

<blockquote>
The means of spiritual attainment which varies from person to person according to competence.... ''Ācāras'' are generally of seven kinds – Veda, Vaiṣṇava, Śaiva, Dakṣiṇa, Vāma, Siddhāṇta, and Kaula, falling into two broad categories – Dakṣiṇa and Vāma. Interpretations vary regarding the nature and grouping of the ''ācāras''.{{sfnp|Bhattacharyya|1999|pp=368-69}}
</blockquote>

===Tantric age===
[[File:MET 39 DP310521R1 61D.jpg|thumb|Twelve-Armed [[Cakrasaṃvara Tantra|Chakrasamvara]] and His Consort Vajravarahi, c. 12th century, India (Bengal) or Bangladesh]]
[[File:Yogini, East India, 11th-12th century AD, basalt - Matsuoka Museum of Art - Tokyo, Japan - DSC07079.JPG|thumb|[[Yogini]], East India, 11th–12th century CE. Matsuoka Museum of Art, Tokyo, Japan]]
[[File:Golden Temple (Kwa Bahal) 01.jpg|thumb|A stone Kālacakra Mandala at the [[Hiranya Varna Mahavihar|Hiraṇyavarṇa Mahāvihāra]], a Buddhist temple in [[Patan, Nepal]], built in the 12th century]]

From the 8th to the 14th century, Tantric traditions rose to prominence and flourished throughout India and beyond.{{sfnp|Smith|2005|p=8989}}{{sfnp|Einoo|2009|p=45}}{{sfnp|White|2005|p=8984}}{{sfnp|Padoux|2017|p=22}} By the 10th century, the main elements of tantric practice had reached maturity and were being practiced in Saiva and Buddhist contexts. This period has been referred to as the 'Tantric Age' by some scholars due to prevalence of Tantra.{{sfnp|Wedemeyer|2013|pp=155, 252}} Also by the 10th century, numerous tantric texts (variously called [[Shaiva Agamas|Agamas]], Samhitas and Tantras) had been written, particularly in Kashmir, Nepal and Bengal.{{sfnp|Flood|1996|p=158 159}} By this time, Tantric texts had also been translated into regional languages such as Tamil, and Tantric practices had spread across South Asia.{{sfnp|Flood|1996|p=159}} Tantra also spread into Tibet, Indonesia and China. Gavin Flood describes the Tantric age as follows:{{blockquote|
Tantrism has been so pervasive that all of Hinduism after the eleventh century, perhaps with the exception of the vedic [[Shrauta|Srauta tradition]], is influenced by it. All forms of [[Shaivism|Saiva]], [[Vaishnavism|Vaisnava]] and [[Smarta Tradition|Smarta]] religion, even those forms which wanted to distance themselves from Tantrism, absorbed elements derived from the Tantras.{{Sfnp|Flood|1996|p=159}}
||title=|source=}}

Though the whole northern and Himalayan part of India was involved in the development of tantra, [[Kashmir]] was a particularly important center, both Saiva and Buddhist and numerous key tantric texts were written there according to Padoux.{{sfnp|Padoux|2017|pp=22-23}} According to Alexis Sanderson, the Śaiva Tantra traditions of medieval Kashmir were mainly divided between the dualistic Śaiva Siddhanta and the non-dualist theology found in Śakta lineages like the [[Kashmir Shaivism|Trika]], Krama and [[Kaula (Hinduism)|Kaula]]. The non-dualists generally accepted and made use of sexual and transgressive practices, while the dualists mostly rejected them.{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|p=253}} Saiva tantra was especially successful because it managed to forge strong ties with South Asian kings who valued the power (shakti) of fierce deities like the warrior goddess [[Durga]] as a way to increase their own royal power. These kings took part in royal rituals led by Saiva "royal gurus" in which they were symbolically married to tantric deities and thus became the earthly representative of male gods like Shiva. Saiva tantra could also employ a variety of protection and destruction rituals which could be used for the benefit of the kingdom and the king.{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|pp=293-299}} Tantric Shaivism was adopted by the kings of Kashmir, as well as by the [[Somavamshi dynasty|Somavamshis]] of [[Odisha]], the [[Kalachuris of Mahishmati|Kalachuris]], and the [[Chandelas of Jejakabhukti]] (in [[Bundelkhand]]).{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|p=299}} There is also evidence of state support from the [[Cambodia]]n [[Khmer Empire]].{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|p=304}} As noted by Samuel, in spite of the increased depiction of female goddesses, these tantric traditions all seemed to have been mostly "male-directed and male-controlled."{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|p=303}}

During the Tantric Age, Buddhist Tantra was embraced by the Mahayana Buddhist mainstream and was studied at the great universities such as [[Nalanda]] and [[Vikramashila]], from which it spread to Tibet and to the East Asian states of China, Korea, and Japan. This new Tantric Buddhism was supported by the [[Pala Empire|Pala Dynasty]] (8th–12th century) which supported these centers of learning and also built grand tantric temples and monasteries such as [[Somapura Mahavihara]] and [[Odantapuri]] while establishing good relations with the [[Tibetan Empire]] and [[Srivijaya|Srivijaya Empire]] where the Buddhist [[Mahasiddha|Mahasiddhas]] of the [[Vajrayana]] tradition spread their influence via [[songs of realization]] like those collected in the [[Charyapada]] which were orally transmitted in various lineages and translated into many different languages over time.{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|pp=293, 307, 309}}{{sfnp|Dahiya|2017|pp=411-414}} The later [[Monarchy of Cambodia|Khmer kings]] and the Indonesian [[Srivijaya|Srivijaya kingdom]] also supported tantric Buddhism. According to Samuel, while the sexual and transgressive practices were mostly undertaken in symbolic form (or through visualization) in later Tibetan Buddhist monastic contexts, it seems that in the eighth to tenth century Indian context, they were actually performed.{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|p=292}}

In the 10th and 11th centuries, both Shaiva and Buddhist tantra evolved into more tame, philosophical, and liberation-oriented religions. This transformation saw a move from external and transgressive rituals towards a more internalized yogic practice focused on attaining spiritual insight. This recasting also made tantric religions much less open to attack by other groups. In Shaivism, this development is often associated with the Kashmiri master [[Abhinavagupta]] (c. 950 – 1016 CE) and his followers, as well the movements which were influenced by their work, like the [[Shri Vidya|Sri Vidya]] tradition (which spread as far as [[South India]], and has been referred to as "high" tantra).{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|pp=324-328}}

In Buddhism, this taming of tantra is associated with the adoption of tantra by Buddhist monastics who sought to incorporate it within the Buddhist Mahayana scholastic framework. Buddhist tantras were written down and scholars like [[Abhayakaragupta]] wrote commentaries on them. Another important figure, the Bengali teacher [[Atiśa|Atisha]], wrote a treatise which placed tantra as the culmination of a graduated Mahayana path to awakening, the ''[[Bodhipathapradīpa]]''. In his view, one needed to first begin practicing non-tantric Mahayana, and then later one might be ready for tantra. This system became the model for tantric practice among some Tibetan Buddhist schools, like the [[Gelug]]. In Tibet, the transgressive and sexual practices of tantra became much less central and tantric practice was seen as suitable only for a small elite group.{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|pp=329-330}} New tantras continued to be composed during this later period as well, such as the [[Kalachakra]] (c. 11th century), which seems to be concerned with converting Buddhists and non-Buddhists alike, and uniting them together against Islam. The Kalachakra teaches sexual yoga, but also warns not to introduce the practice of ingesting impure substances to beginners, since this is only for advanced yogis. This tantra also seems to want to minimize the impact of the transgressive practices, since it advises tantrikas to outwardly follow the customs of their country.{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|pp=330-332}}

Another influential development during this period was the codification of tantric yogic techniques that would later become the separate movement known as [[Hatha yoga|Hatha Yoga]]. According to James Mallinson, the original "source text" for Hatha Yoga is the Vajrayana Buddhist ''[[Amṛtasiddhi]]'' (11th century CE) attributed to the mahasiddha Virupa. This text was later adopted by Saiva yogic traditions (such as the [[Nath]]s) and is quoted in their texts.{{sfnp|Mallinson|2016}}{{sfnp|Mallinson|2019|pp=1-33}}

Another tradition of Hindu Tantra developed among the [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnavas]], this was called the [[Pancharatra|Pāñcarātra]] Agama tradition. This tradition avoided the transgressive and sexual elements that were embraced by the Saivas and the Buddhists.{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|p=291}} There is also a smaller tantric tradition associated with [[Surya]], the sun god. [[Jainism]] also seems to have developed a substantial Tantra corpus based on the Saura tradition, with rituals based on yakshas and yakshinis. However, this Jain tantrism was mainly used for pragmatic purposes like protection, and was not used to attain liberation. Complete manuscripts of these Jain tantras have not survived.{{sfnp|Flood|1996|pp=158-159}}{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|pp=267-268}} The Jains also seem to have adopted some of the subtle body practices of tantra, but not sexual yoga.{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|p=289}} The [[Śvētāmbara|Svetambara]] thinker [[Hemachandra|Hemacandra]] (c. 1089–1172) discusses tantric practices extensively, such as internal meditations on chakras, which betray Kaula and Nath influences.{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|p=333}}

=== Reception and later developments ===
[[File:The Goddess Bhairavi Devi with Shiva MET DP257990.jpg|thumb|240px|right|Tantric goddess [[Bhairavi]] and her consort [[Shiva]] depicted as [[Kapalika|Kāpālika ascetics]], sitting in a [[charnel ground]]. Painting by Payāg from a 17th-century manuscript ({{circa|1630–1635}}), [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], [[New York City]].]]

There seems to have been some debate regarding the appropriateness of tantra. Among the Hindus, those belonging to the more orthodox Vedic traditions rejected the Tantras. Meanwhile, tantrikas incorporated Vedic ideas within their own systems, while considering the Tantras as the higher, more refined understanding.{{sfnp|Flood|1996|pp=158-159}} Meanwhile, some Tantrikas considered the Tantras to be superior to the Vedas, while others considered them complementary such as Umapati, who is quoted as stating: "The Veda is the cow, the true Agama its milk."{{sfnp|Smith|1996|p=116}}

According to Samuel, the great [[Advaita Vedanta|Advaita]] philosopher [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]] (9th century) "is portrayed in his biography, the ''Sankaravijaya'', as condemning the approaches of various kinds of Tantric practitioners and defeating them through argument or spiritual power." He also is said to have encouraged the replacement of fierce goddesses with benign female deities, and thus to have promoted the Sri Vidya tradition (which worships a peaceful and sweet goddess, [[Tripura Sundari]]). Though it is far from certain that Shankara actually campaigned against tantra, he is traditionally seen as someone who purified Hinduism from transgressive and antinomian tantric practices.{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|p=322}}

The 14th-century Indian scholar Mādhavācārya (in [[Sarva-Darsana-Sangraha]]) wrote copious commentaries on then existing major schools of Indian philosophies and practices, and cited the works of the 10th century [[Abhinavagupta]], who was considered a major and influential Tantra scholar.{{sfnp|Padoux|2002|pp=17-18}} However, Madhavacarya does not mention Tantra as a separate, distinct religious or ritual-driven practice. The early 20th-century Indian scholar [[Pandurang Vaman Kane]] conjectured that Madhavacharya ignored Tantra because it may have been considered scandalous. In contrast, Padoux suggests that Tantra may have been so pervasive by the 13th century that "it was not regarded as being a distinct system."{{sfnp|Padoux|2002|pp=17-18}}

Hindu tantra, while practiced by some of the general lay population, was eventually overshadowed by the more popular [[Bhakti movement]]s that swept throughout India from the 15th century onwards. According to Samuel, "these new devotional styles of religion, with their emphasis on emotional submission to a supreme saviour-deity, whether Saivite or Vaisnavite, were better adapted, perhaps, to the subaltern role of non-Muslim groups under Muslim rule."{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|p=335}} Saiva tantra did remain an important practice among most Saiva ascetics however.{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|p=336}} Tantric traditions also survived in certain regions, such as among the Naths of Rajasthan, in the Sri Vidya tradition of South India and in the Bengali [[Baul]]s.{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|p=335}}

In Buddhism, while tantra became accepted in the great Mahayana establishments of Nalanda and Vikramashila and spread to the Himalayan regions, it also experienced serious setbacks in other regions, particularly Southeast Asia. In Burma, for example, King [[Anawrahta|Anawratha]] (1044–1077) is said to have disbanded tantric "[[Ari Buddhism|Ari]]" monks. As Theravada Buddhism became dominant in South East Asian states, tantric religions became marginalised in those regions.{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|pp=322-323}} In Sri Lanka, tantric Buddhism also suffered debilitating setbacks. Initially the large [[Abhayagiri vihāra|Abhayagiri]] Monastery was a place where the practice of Vajrayana seems to have flourished during the 8th century. However, Abhayagiri was disbanded and forced to convert to the orthodox [[Anuradhapura Maha Viharaya|Mahāvihāra sect]] during the reign of [[Parakramabahu I|Parakramabahu I]] (1153–1186).{{sfnp|Hirakawa|Groner|2007|pp=125-126}}

Regarding the reception of tantra during the period of [[Modern Hinduism|Hindu modernism]] in the 19th and 20th centuries, Samuel writes that this period saw "a radical reframing of yogic practices away from the Tantric context." Samuel notes that while Hindu Hatha yoga had its origins in a Saiva tantric context,

<blockquote>Given the extremely negative views of Tantra and its sexual and magical practices which prevailed in middle-class India in the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries, and still largely prevail today, this was an embarrassing heritage. Much effort was given by people such as [[Swami Vivekananda]] into reconstructing yoga, generally in terms of a selective Vedantic reading of [[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali|Patañjali's Yogasutra]] (de Michelis 2004). The effort was largely successful, and many modern Western practitioners of yoga for health and relaxation have little or no knowledge of its original function as a preparation for the internal sexual practices of the Nath tradition.{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|p=336}}</blockquote>

Buddhist tantra has survived in modern Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, in various Japanese traditions such as Shingon, and in the Newar Buddhism of the Kathmandu Valley.{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|p=337}} There are also magical quasi-tantric traditions in Southeast Asia, sometimes termed [[Southern Esoteric Buddhism|Esoteric Southern Buddhism]], though they are not called "tantric" and have been marginalised by state supported modernist forms of Theravada Buddhism.{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|pp=337-338}}

==Tantric traditions==

=== Hindu tantra ===
Within Hinduism, the word tantra often refers to a text, which may or may not be "tantric." Conversely, various [[Tantras (Hinduism)|tantric texts]] are actually not always called tantras (instead they may be called ''āgama, jñāna'', ''saṃhitā, siddhānta, vidyā'').{{sfnp|Gray|2016}}{{sfnp|Padoux|2017|p=8}} There are also tantric [[Upanishads]], which are late Upanishads as well as tantric [[Puranas]] (and Puranas influenced by tantric ideas).{{sfnp|Padoux|2017|p=29}} Besides these types of texts, there are also various types of tantric "[[Shastra|śastras]]" (treatises) which may be "commentaries, digests, compilations, monographs, collections of hymns or of names of deities, and mantras and works on mantras." Though much of this vast body of tantric literature is in Sanskrit, others have also been written in Indian vernacular languages. As noted by Padoux, the largest portion of these tantric works are Shaiva texts.{{sfnp|Padoux|2017|pp=29-30}}

Tantric texts and practitioners ("tantrikas" and "tantrinis") are often contrasted with Vedic texts and those who practice Vedic religion ("Vaidikas"). This non-Vedic path was often termed Mantramarga ("The way of mantras") or Tantrasastra ("Tantra teaching"). One of the most well known comments on this dichotomy is Kulluka Bhatta's statement in his 15th-century commentary to the [[Manusmriti]] which states that revelation (sruti) is twofold – Vedic and Tantric.{{sfnp|Padoux|2017|p=8}} Hindu tantric teachings are generally seen as revelations from a divine being (such as Śiva, or the Goddess) which are considered by tantrikas to be superior to the Vedas in leading beings to liberation. They are also considered to be more effective during the Kali Yuga, a time of much passion (kama). However, tantric thinkers like [[Abhinavagupta]], while considering tantra as superior, do not totally reject Vedic teachings, and instead consider them valid on a lower level since they also derive from the same source, the supreme Godhead.{{sfnp|Gray|2016}}{{sfnp|Padoux|2017|pp=8, 10}}

There are various Hindu tantric traditions within Shaivism, Shaktism and Vaishnavism.{{sfnp|Sanderson|2012–2013|pp=4–5, 11, 35, 57}} There are numerous tantric texts for these different traditions with different philosophical points of view, ranging from [[theistic dualism]] to absolute [[monism]].{{refn|group=note|{{harvp|Davis|2014|p=13}}: "Some agamas argue a monist metaphysics, while others are decidedly dualist. Some claim ritual is the most efficacious means of religious attainment, while others assert that knowledge is more important."}}{{sfnp|Sharma|1990|pp=9–14}} According to David B. Gray, "one of the most important tropes in the history of the dissemination of tantric traditions is that of lineage, the transmission of teachings along an uninterrupted lineage, from master to disciple, the so-called ''guruparaṃparā''."{{sfnp|Gray|2016}} These various traditions also differ among themselves on how heterodox and transgressive they are (vis a vis the Vedic tradition). Since tantric rituals became so widespread, certain forms of tantra were eventually accepted by many orthodox Vedic thinkers such as [[Jayanta Bhatta]] and [[Yamunacharya|Yamunacarya]] as long as they did not contradict Vedic teaching and social rules.{{sfnp|Padoux|2017|p=9}} Tantric scriptures such as the Kali centered ''Jayadrathayamala'' also state that tantrikas can follow the Vedic social rules out of convenience and for the benefit of their clan and guru.{{sfnp|Padoux|2017|p=10}} However, not all Vedic thinkers accepted tantra. For example, [[Kumārila Bhaṭṭa|Kumarila Bhatta]] wrote that one should have no contact with tantrikas nor speak to them.{{sfnp|Padoux|2017|p=11}}

==== Śaiva and Śākta tantra ====
[[File:1010 CE Brihadishwara Temple, gopuram Hindu god Shiva, built by Rajaraja I, Thanjavur Tamil Nadu India.jpg|thumb|The [[Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur|Brihadishvara Temple]], a Śaiva Siddhānta temple in [[Tamil Nadu]]]]
[[File:Shree Dakshinkali Statue at Bhagwati Temple.jpg|thumb|Nepalese depiction of the goddess [[Kali]]]]
[[File:Lalita_sm.JPG|thumb|Śrī, also known as [[Tripura Sundari|Lalitā Tripurasundarī]] ("beautiful in three worlds"), [[Adi Parashakti]] (the highest supreme energy), Kāmeśvarī (goddess of desire) and other names]]
{{Saktism}}

Śaiva Tantra is called the [[Mantra marga|Mantramārga]], and is often seen as being a separate teaching than the ascetic "Atimārga" tradition (which includes the [[Pashupata Shaivism|Pāśupatas]] and [[Kapalika|Kāpālikas]]).{{sfnp|Gray|2016}}{{sfnp|Padoux|2017|p=31}} There are various doctrines, textual classes and schools of Shaiva Tantra, which often overlap with the Shakta tradition in different ways.

The [[Shaiva Siddhanta|Śaiva Siddhānta tradition]] is the earliest Śaiva Tantra school and was characterized by public rituals performed by priests. Some of their texts, like the ''Niśvāsatattvasaṃhitā'' have been dated to the fifth century.{{sfnp|Gray|2016}} Their scriptures (the Śaiva Agamas) and basic doctrines are also shared by the other traditions as a common Śaiva doctrine and many of their rites are also used in other schools of Shaiva Tantra.{{sfnp|Padoux|2017|p=31}} The prescriptions and rituals of the Śaiva Siddhānta Agamas are generally followed by Śaiva temples in South India and they are mostly compatible with orthodox Brahmanism, lacking terrifying deities and animal sacrifice.{{sfnp|Padoux|2017|p=32}}

The Mantrapīṭha tradition on the other hand, worships Svacchanda [[Bhairava]], a terrifying form of Shiva also known as "Aghora" ("not fearsome"). This tradition promotes the Skull observance (''Kapalavrata''), that is, carrying a skull, a skull staff (khatavanga) and worshipping in cremation grounds.{{sfnp|Padoux|2017|p=33}} One contemporary group of Kapalika ascetics are the [[Aghori]]s.

There are also various traditions who are classified as "Vidyāpīṭha". The texts of this tradition focus on worshipping goddesses known as Yoginīs or Ḍākinīs and include antinomian practices dealing with charnel grounds and sexuality.{{sfnp|Gray|2016}} These goddess centered traditions of the Śākta tantras are mostly of the "left" current ([[vamachara]]) and are thus considered more heterodox.{{sfnp|Padoux|2017|pp=33-34}}

There are various Vidyāpīṭha traditions, which focus on a bipolar, bisexual divinity that is equal parts male and female, Śaiva and Śākta.{{sfnp|Gray|2016}}{{sfnp|Padoux|2017|pp=33-34}} The ''Yamalatantras'' worship Bhairava along with Kapalini, the goddess of the skull. The Goddess centered traditions are known as the [[Kaula (Hinduism)|Kulamārga]] (Path of the Clans), referring to the clans of the goddesses and their ''[[Shakti]] tantras'', which may have been established around the 9th century. It includes sexual rituals, sanguinary practices, the ritual consumption of liquor and the importance of [[spirit possession]]. It includes various sub-traditions the developed in different regions of India, such as the Trika lineage (which worships a trio of deities: Parā, Parāparā, and Aparā), the tradition of the fierce goddess Guhyakālī, Krama tradition, focusing on the goddess [[Kali|Kālī]], the [[Kubjika|Kubjikā]] cult, and the southern tradition which worships the beautiful goddess Kāmeśvarī or Tripurasundarī.{{sfnp|Gray|2016}}{{sfnp|Padoux|2017|pp=33-34}}

During the 10th century, the syncretic nondual tradition of [[Kashmir Śaivism]] developed. According to Alexis Sanderson, this tradition arose out of the confrontation between the dualistic and more orthodox Śaiva Siddhānta and the nondual transgressive traditions of the Trika and Krama. According to David B. Gray, this school integrated elements from both of these traditions, "the end result was a nondualistic system in which the transgressive elements were internalized and hence rendered less offensive to the orthodox."{{sfnp|Gray|2016}}

The philosophers of Kashmir Śaivism, especially [[Abhinavagupta]] (''c''. 975–1025 ce) and his student Jayaratha, are some of the most influential philosophers who wrote on Hindu tantra.{{sfnp|Padoux|2017|p=36}} These thinkers synthesized the various goddess and Śaiva lineages and philosophies into a comprehensive and influential religious system. According to David White, Abhinavagupta "sublimates, cosmeticizes, and semanticizes many of its practices into a type of meditative asceticism whose aim is to realize a transcendent subjectivity".{{sfnp|Gray|2016}} Thus, his work domesticated the radically antinomian practices of Vidyāpīṭha lineages into meditative exercises.{{sfnp|Gray|2016}}

In Nepal, the Sarvamnaya tantra system evolved as a tantrik tradition which drew upon the āmnāya system. Amnaya is often translated as 'transmission'. This system serves as the guiding source for the tradition of worship of deities that emanate from the five different aspects of Lord Śiva. At its core, the concept of Āmnāya revolves around the idea that Śiva, with his five faces, (referred to as Sadashiva), imparts the secret Tantric teachings to the goddess through her corresponding five emanations. Scholarly work on Sarvamnaya can be found in the article, "The transmission of all powers: Sarvāmnāya Śākta Tantra and the semiotics of power in Nepāla-maṇḍala" by Jeffrey S. Lidke.{{sfnmp|1a1=Lidke|1y=2004|2a1=Lidke|2y=2021}}

The last major Śaiva tantric tradition is that of the [[Nath|Nāth or "Split-Ear" Kānphaṭa tradition]], which emerged in the 12th or 13th century. They produced various Haṭhayoga texts which draw on tantric yogas.{{sfnp|Gray|2016}}{{sfnp|Padoux|2017|p=39}}

While the Śākta traditions continued to develop in different ways, sometimes in a more popular and devotional direction, many of them retain various tantric elements today. The two most important and popular Śākta tantra traditions today are the Southern Kaula transmission, which focus on the beautiful goddess Śrī (''śrīkula'') or [[Tripura Sundari|Lalitā Tripurasundarī]] and the Northern and Eastern transmission, focusing on the ferocious goddess Kālī (''kālīkula'').{{sfnp|Gray|2016}} The southern transmission gave rise to the [[Shri Vidya|Śrī Vidyā]] tradition, an important tantric religion in South India. Though it takes much of its philosophical and doctrinal system from Kashmir Shaivism, it generally avoids the transgressive elements and is orthodox or "right handed". Bhaskararaya (18th century) is considered a key thinker of this tradition.{{sfnp|Gray|2016}}{{sfnp|Padoux|2017|p=36}} The Kālīkula tradition is particularly important in East and South India and Kālī remains a popular goddess in India, a focus of much devotion.{{sfnp|Gray|2016}}

==== Vaiṣṇava ====

The main Vaiṣṇava tradition that is associated with tantra is the [[Pancharatra|Pañcharatra]]. This tradition produced a number of tantric texts including [[Lakshmi Tantra|Lakshmi tantra]], but most of the other tantras are lost. However, this sect does not identify itself as "tantric".{{sfnp|Gray|2016}} The worship and ritual of most of the Vaiṣṇava temples in South India follow this tradition, which is ritually similar to the Shaiva Siddhanta. According to Padoux, "from the doctrinal point of view, they are nearer to brahmanical orthodoxy (proudly asserted by some of their affiliates) and their mantras are indeed often Vedic."{{sfnp|Padoux|2017|p=37}}

According to David B. Gray,

<blockquote>During the medieval period another tantric Vaiṣṇava tradition emerged in Bengal. Known as the [[Vaishnava-Sahajiya|Sahajiyā]] tradition, it flourished in Bengal around the 16th through 19th centuries. It taught that each individual is a divinity, embodying the divine couple [[Krishna|Kṛṣṇa]] and his consort [[Radha|Rādhā]]. This tradition integrated earlier Hindu and Buddhist tantric practices within a Vaiṣṇava theological framework.{{sfnp|Gray|2016}}</blockquote>

===Buddhist tantra===
{{Main|Vajrayana}}
{{Vajrayana}}

There are various Buddhist tantric traditions with the goal of attaining [[Enlightenment in Buddhism|Enlightenment]] which are called by different names such as [[Vajrayana|Vajrayana, Secret Mantra, Mantrayana]] and so on.{{sfnp|Gray|Overbey |2016|pp=5–7, 199–216}}{{refn|group=note|{{harvp|Lewis|deAngelis|2016|pp=73–77}}: "The Tantric Buddhist traditions have been given several labels, but there is no single label that is accepted by all of these traditions. [...] It is important to note the use of this term in a plural form. Tantric or esoteric Buddhist traditions are multiple and also originated as multiple, distinct traditions of both text and practice."}}{{sfnp|Payne|2006|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3Y0PUmrAxyMC&pg=PA1 1–3]}} The [[Tibetan Buddhism|Indo-Tibetan Buddhist]] tradition has been dominant in [[Tibet]] and the Himalayan regions.{{sfnp|Gray|Overbey |2016|pp=5–7, 199–216}} It first spread to Tibet in the 8th century and quickly rose to prominence.{{sfnp|Gray|2016}} The Tibetan Buddhist tantric teachings have recently been spread to the [[Western world]] by the [[Tibetan diaspora]]. Nepalese [[Newar Buddhism]] meanwhile is still practiced in the Kathmandu Valley by the [[Newar people]]. The tradition maintains a canon of Sanskrit texts, the only Buddhist tantric tradition to still do so.

Buddhist Tantric practices and texts which developed from the 5th to the 8th centuries were translated into Chinese and are preserved in the [[Chinese Buddhist canon]] as well as in the [[Dunhuang manuscripts]].{{sfnp|Gray|Overbey |2016|pp=5–7, 199–216}}{{sfnp|Gray|Overbey |2016|pp=7, 257–264}} Tantric materials involving the use of mantras and dharanis began to appear in China during the fifth century period, and Buddhist masters such as [[Zhiyi]] developed proto-tantric rituals based on esoteric texts.{{sfnp|Orzech|Sørensen|Payne|2011|p=263}} [[Chinese Esoteric Buddhism]] became especially influential in China in the [[Tang dynasty]] period with the arrival of esoteric masters such as [[Vajrabodhi]] and [[Amoghavajra]] to the capital city of [[Chang'an]].{{sfnp|Goble|2019|p=139}} The succeeding [[Song dynasty]] saw an influx of new esoteric texts being transmitted by monks from Central Asia.{{sfnp|Willemen|2004|p=28}} Chinese Esoteric Buddhist rituals were also noted to be particularly popular in the [[Liao dynasty]], which contended with the Song for control of northern China.{{sfnp|Solonin|2013}} Due to the highly eclectic nature of Chinese Buddhism where sectarian denominations were not strictly drawn between the various Buddhist schools (even during the Tang dynasty), and where most Buddhist masters mixed practices from the different traditions, Chinese Esoteric Buddhist practices were absorbed by lineages from the other Buddhist traditions such as [[Chan Buddhism|Chan]] and [[Tiantai]].{{sfnp|Orzech|1989}}{{sfnp|Lye|2003}} For example, the [[East Mountain Teaching#Northern and Southern School|Northern School of Chan]] even became known for its esoteric practices of [[dhāraṇī]]s and [[mantra]]s.{{sfnp|Sharf|2002|p=268}} During the [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan]] and [[Ming dynasty]] periods, certain esoteric elements from [[Tibetan Buddhism]] were also adapted and incorporated into general Chinese Buddhist practices and rituals. In modern Chinese Buddhism, the esoteric traditions continue to be passed on and practiced through numerous tantric rituals such as the [[Shuilu Fahui]] ceremony and the [[Yujia Yankou]] rite, which involve practices like [[deity yoga]] and [[mandala|mandala offerings]], as well as the recitation of tantric [[mantra]]s such as the [[Cundī Dhāraṇī]], the [[Vajrasattva#Hundred Syllable Mantra|Hundred Syllable Mantra of Vajrasattva]], the [[Wisdom King#The Eight Wisdom Kings|Mahācakravidyārāja Dhāraṇī]] and the [[Shurangama Mantra]].{{sfnp|Orzech|1989}}{{sfnp|Lye|2003}} Esoteric practices also spread to Korea and to Japan, where it exists as an independent tradition called [[Shingon Buddhism|Shingon]].{{sfnp|Gray|2016}}

===Other religions===
The Hindu and Buddhist Tantric traditions significantly influenced other religions such as Jainism, [[Sikhism]], the Tibetan [[Bon|Bön]] tradition, [[Taoism|Daoism]], [[Shinto|Shintō]], [[Sufism|Sufi]] Islam, and the Western [[New Age]] movement.{{sfnp|Gray|2016|pp=1, 7, 17-18}}{{sfnp|Keul|2012|pp=13, 373–374, 399–408}}{{sfnp|Orzech|Sørensen|Payne|2011|pp=307-314}}

In the Sikh literature, the ideas related to [[Shakti]] and goddess reverence attributed to [[Guru Gobind Singh]], particularly in the ''[[Dasam Granth]]'', are related to tantra ideas found in Buddhism and Hinduism.{{sfnp|Rinehart|2011|pp=13, 140–147, 166–170}}

The Jain worship methods, states Ellen Gough, were likely influenced by [[Shaktism]] ideas, and this is attested by the tantric diagrams of the ''Rishi-mandala'' where the [[Tirthankara]]s are portrayed.{{sfnp|Gough|2012}} The Tantric traditions within Jainism use verbal spells or [[mantra]], and rituals that are believed to accrue merit for rebirth realms.{{sfnp|Cort|2001|pp=417–419}}

== Practices==
One of the main elements of the Tantric literature is [[rituals]].{{sfnp|Feuerstein|1998|p=124}} Rather than one coherent system, Tantra is an accumulation of practices and ideas from different sources. As Samuel writes, the tantric traditions are "a confluence of a variety of different factors and components." These elements include: mandalas, mantras, internal sexual yogic practices, fierce male and female deities, cremation ground symbolism, as well as concepts from Indian Philosophy.{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|pp=289-290}}

André Padoux notes that there is no consensus among scholars as to which elements are characteristic for Tantra, nor is there any text that contains all those elements.{{sfnp|Padoux|2002|p=18}} Also, most of those elements can also be found in non-Tantric traditions.{{sfnp|Padoux|2002|p=18}} Because of the wide range of communities covered by the term, it is problematic to describe tantric practices definitively. However, there are sets of practices and elements which are shared by numerous tantric traditions, and thus a [[family resemblance]] relationship can be established among them.

Different scholars give different main features of tantra. For example, David N. Lorenzen writes that tantra shares various "shamanic and yogic" practices, worship of goddesses, association with specific schools like the Kaulas and Kapalikas, as well as tantric texts.{{sfnp|Lorenzen|2002|p=27}} Christopher Wallis meanwhile, basing himself on the definition given the tantric scholar Rāmakaṇṭha, gives four main features of tantra: "1) concern with ritual modes of manipulation (of the environment or one's own awareness), 2) requirement for esoteric initiation (to receive access to the scriptural teachings and practices), 3) a twofold goal of practice: the soteriological and supramundane one of liberation (variously conceived) and/or the mundane one of extraordinary power over other beings and one's environment, and 4) the claim that these three are explicated in scriptures that are the word of God (''āgama'') or the Buddha (''buddhavacana'')."{{sfnp|Wallis|2016}}

According to Anthony Tribe, a scholar of [[Buddhist Tantra]], Tantra has the following defining features:{{sfnp|Williams|Tribe|2000|p=197–202}}

# Centrality of ritual, especially the worship of deities
# Centrality of mantras
# Visualisation of and identification with a deity
# Need for initiation, esotericism and secrecy
# Importance of a teacher (guru, ''[[acharya]]'')
# Ritual use of [[mandala]]s (''maṇḍala'')
# Transgressive or [[Antinomianism|antinomian]] acts
# Revaluation of the body
# Revaluation of the status and role of women
# Analogical thinking (including microcosmic or macrocosmic correlation)
# Revaluation of negative mental states

There are a wide array of Tantric techniques or spiritual practices ([[sadhana]]) such as:{{sfnp|Feuerstein|1998|p=127-130}}
* [[Dakshina]]: Donation or gift to one's teacher
* [[Diksha]] or [[Empowerment (Tibetan Buddhism)|Abhiseka]]: Initiation ritual which may include [[shaktipat]]
* [[Ganachakra]]: A ritual feast during which a sacramental meal is offered
* [[Guru Yoga|Guru yoga]] and [[Guru]] devotion (bhakti)
* [[Mandala]]s and [[Yantra]]s, symbolic diagrams of forces at work in the universe
* [[Mantras]]: reciting syllables, words, and phrases
* [[Mudras]], or hand gestures
* [[Nyasa (ritual)|Nyasa]], installing mantras on the body
* [[Prāyaścitta]] - an expiation ritual performed if a puja has been performed wrongly
*[[Puja (Hinduism)|Puja]] (worship ritual) and other forms of [[bhakti]]
* Ritual music and dance
* [[Ritual purification]] (of idols, of one's body, etc.)
* Ritual sacrifice, including [[Animal sacrifice in Hinduism|animal sacrifice]]
* Singing of hymns of praise (''stava'')
* [[Tantric sex|Sexual yoga]]: ritual sexual union (with an actual physical consort or an imagined deity)
* The acquisition and use of [[siddhis]] or supernormal powers. Associated with ''[[vamachara]]'' ('left-hand path')
* Use of [[Panchamakara|taboo substances]] such as alcohol, [[cannabis]], meat and other [[entheogens]].
* Visualization of deities and Identification these deities in meditation (deity yoga)
* [[Vrata]] and [[Samaya]]: vows or pledges, sometimes to do ascetic practices like fasting
* [[Yatra]]: pilgrimage, processions
* [[Yoga]], including breathing techniques (''[[pranayama]]'') and postures (''[[asana]]''), is employed to balance the energies in the body/mind.

=== Worship and ritual ===
[[File:1010 CE Brihadishwara Shiva Temple, Ganesha with pujari, built by Rajaraja I, Thanjavur Tamil Nadu India.jpg|thumb|A Pujari in front of a [[Ganesha]] statue, [[Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur|Brihadishwara Shiva Temple]]]]
Worship or [[Puja (Hinduism)|puja]] in Hindu Tantra differs from Vedic forms somewhat. While in the Vedic practice of [[yajna]] there are no idols, shrines, and symbolic art, in tantra they are important means of worship.{{sfnp|Ghose|1996|p=141}}

Rituals are particularly important in the dualistic Śaiva Siddhānta which according to Padoux "is typically characterized by an overabundance of rituals, which are necessarily accompanied by mantras. These rituals are not so much a succession of actions as a play of mentally visualized and experienced images, a situation common to all Tantric traditions, where rites, meditation, and yoga are exercises in creative identifying imagination." The theory behind these rituals is the idea that all humans have a fundamental impurity (mala) that binds them to rebirth. This impurity can be removed by ritual action (along with proper knowledge). The initial step in this path is the ritual of initiation (diksa), which opens to door to future liberation at death.{{sfnp|Padoux|2017|p=52}}

In the non-dualistic and transgressive (or "left hand") traditions like the Kali cults and the Trika school, rituals and pujas can include certain left hand path elements that are not found in the more orthodox traditions. These transgressive elements include the use of skulls and other human bone implements (as part of the Kapalika vow), fierce deities like Bhairava, Kubjika and Kali which were used as part of meditative visualizations, ritual possession by the deities (avesa), sexual rites and offering the deity (as well as consuming) certain impure substances like meat, alcohol and sexual fluids.{{sfnp|Padoux|2017|pp=53-54 }} Padoux explains the transgressive practices as follows:<blockquote>On the ritual and mental plane, transgression was an essential trait by which the nondualistic Tantric traditions set themselves apart from other traditions – so much so that they used the term "nondualistic practice" (advaitacara) to refer to the Kaula transgressive practices as a rejection of the duality (dvaita) of pure and impure in brahmanical society. Let us also note that for the nondualistic Saiva systems, the Yoginis were not active merely in the world of spirits; they were also powers present in humans – mistresses of their senses, governing their affects, which acquired an intensity and super-natural dimension through this divinization. This led adepts to an identification of their individual consciousness with the infinite divine Consciousness, thus also helping them transcend the sexual plane.{{sfnp|Padoux|2017|p=55}}</blockquote>In both the Buddhist and Saiva contexts, the sexual practices are often seen as a way to expand one's consciousness through the use of bliss.{{sfnp|Padoux|2017|p=55}}

There is also a fundamental philosophical disagreement between Śaiva Siddhānta and the non-dualistic schools like the Trika regarding ritual. In Śaiva Siddhānta, only ritual can do away with "innate impurities" (''anavamala'') that bind individual Selfs, though the ritual must be performed with an understanding of their nature and purpose as well as with devotion. In the view of the Trika school (especially in the work of Abhinavagupta), only knowledge (''jñana'') which is a "recognition" ([[Pratyabhijna|''pratyabhijña'']]) of our true nature, leads to liberation. According to Padoux, "this is also, with nuances, the position of the Pñcaratra and of other Vaisnava Tantric traditions."{{sfnp|Padoux|2017|p=126}}

=== Yoga, mantra, meditation===
[[File:Anonymous_-_Shiva_enraged_by_Parvati's_interruption_of_his_meditation_-_2019.146_-_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art.jpg|thumb|A meditating Shiva is visited by Parvati]]
Tantric yoga is first and foremost an embodied practice, which is seen as having a divine esoteric structure. As noted by Padoux, tantric yoga makes use of a "mystic physiology" which includes various psychosomatic elements known as the [[subtle body]]. This imaginary inner structure includes [[chakras]] ("wheels"), [[Nadi (yoga)|nadi]]s ("channels"), and energies (like Kundalini, Chandali, different pranas and vital winds, etc.). The tantric body is also held to be a microcosmic reflection of the universe, and is thus seen as containing gods and goddesses.{{sfnp|Padoux|2017|pp=73-75}} According to Padoux, the "internalized image of the yogic body" is a fundamental element for nearly all meditative and tantric ritual practices.{{sfnp|Padoux|2017|p=75}}

The use of [[mantra]]s is one of the most common and widespread elements of tantric practice. They are used in rituals as well as during various meditative and yogic practices. Mantra recitation ([[japa]]) is often practiced along with [[Nyasa (ritual)|nyasa]] ("depositing" the mantra), [[mudra]]s ("seals", i.e. hand gestures) and complex visualizations involving divine symbols, mandalas and deities. Nyasa involves touching various parts of the body while reciting mantra, which is thought to connect the deity with the yogis body and transform the body into that of the deity.{{sfnp|Padoux|2017|pp=76-77, 80}}

Mantras are also often visualized as being located within the yogi's body as part of tantric meditations. For example, in the "Yogini Heart" tantra, a [[Shri Vidya|Śrī Vidyā]] text, the yogi is instructed to imagine the five syllables (HA SA KA LA HRIM) of the deity's mantra in the [[muladhara]] chakra. The next set of five syllables (HA SA KA HA LA HRIM) is visualized in the heart chakra and the third cluster (SA KA LA HRIM) in the cakra between the eyebrows. The yogi is further instructed to lengthen the enunciation of the M sound at the end of the HRIM syllable, a practice called nada (phonic vibration). This practice goes through various increasingly subtle stages until it dissolves into the silence of the Absolute.{{sfnp|Padoux|2017|p=78}}

Another common element found in tantric yoga is the use of visionary [[meditation]]s in which tantrikas focus on a vision or image of the deity (or deities), and in some cases imagine themselves as being the deity and their own body as the body of the deity.{{sfnp|Cavendish|1980|p= }} The practitioner may use [[Mental image|visualizations]], identifying with a deity to the degree that the aspirant becomes the ''[[Ishta-deva]]'' (or [[Yidam|meditational deity]]). In other meditations, the deities are visualized as being inside the tantrika's body. For example, in Abhinavagupta's ''[[Tantraloka]]'' (chapter 15), the Trika trinity of goddesses (Parā, Parāparā, and Aparā) are visualized on the ends of the three prongs of a trident (located above the head). The rest of the trident is imagined positioned along the central axis of the yogi's body, with the blazing corpse of Shiva visualized in the head.{{sfnp|Padoux|2017|pp=77-79}}

===Mandalas and yantras===
[[File:Madhubani Mahavidyas.jpg|thumb|right|[[Sri Yantra]] diagram with the Ten [[Mahavidyas]]. The triangles represent [[Shiva]] and [[Shakti]]; the snake represents [[Kashmir Shaivism#Anuttara.2C the Supreme|Spanda]] and [[Kundalini]].]]

[[Yantra]] are mystical diagrams which are used in tantric meditation and ritual. They are usually associated with specific Hindu deities such as Shiva, Shakti, or [[Kali]]. Similarly, a ''[[Puja (Hinduism)|puja]]'' may involve focusing on a ''[[yantra]]'' or ''[[mandala]]'' associated with a deity.<ref>Magee, Michael. [http://www.shivashakti.com/kaliyan.htm The Kali Yantra]</ref>

According to [[David Gordon White]], geometrical [[mandala]]s are a key element of Tantra.{{sfnp|White|2000|p=9}} They are used to represent numerous tantric ideas and concepts as well as used for meditative focus. Mandalas symbolically communicate the correspondences between the "transcendent-yet-immanent" macrocosm and the microcosm of mundane human experience.{{sfnp|White|2000|p=9}} The godhead (or principal Buddha) is often depicted at the center of the mandala, while all other beings, including the practitioner, are located at various distances from this center.{{sfnp|White|2000|p=9}} Mandalas also reflected the medieval [[feudal system]], with the king at its centre.{{sfnp|White|2000|p=25-28}}

Mandalas and Yantras may be depicted in various ways, on paintings, cloth, in three dimensional form, made out of colored sand or powders, etc. Tantric yoga also often involves the mental visualization of a mandala or yantra. This is usually combined with mantra recitation and other ritual actions as part of a tantric sadhana (practice).

=== Sex and eroticism ===
{{see also|Tantric sex}}While tantra involves a wide range of ideas and practices which are not always of a sexual nature, Flood and Padoux both note that in the West, Tantra is most often thought of as a kind of [[Ritual sex|ritualized sex]] or a spiritualized yogic sexuality.{{sfnp|Flood|1996|pp=159-160}}{{sfnp|Flood|2006|pp=i-ii}}{{sfnp|Padoux|2017|p=86}} According to Padoux, "this is a misunderstanding, for though the place of sex in Tantra is ideologically essential, it is not always so in action and ritual." Padoux further notes that while sexual practices do exist and were used by certain tantric groups, they "lost their prevalence when Tantra spread to other larger social groups."{{sfnp|Padoux|2017|p=86}}

In the tantric traditions which do use sex as part of spiritual practice (this refers mainly to the Kaulas, and also Tibetan Buddhism), sex and desire are often seen as a means of transcendence that is used to reach the Absolute. Thus, sex and desire are not seen as ends in themselves. Because these practices transgress orthodox Hindu ideas of ritual purity, they have often given tantra a bad image in India, where it is often condemned by the orthodox. According to Padoux, even among the traditions which accept these practices, they are far from prominent and practiced only by a "few initiated and fully qualified adepts".{{sfnp|Padoux|2017|pp=87-88}}

===Tantra Diksha traditions===
The main element of all Shaiva Tantra is the practice of [[diksha]], a ceremonial initiation in which divinely revealed [[mantras]] are given to the initiate by a [[Guru]].<ref name="Gavin Flood 2007">{{cite speech |title=An introduction to Hindu tantrism, Lecture 1 |author=Gavin Flood |date=2007 |location=Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies |url=http://www.ochs.org.uk/lectures/by-topic/271 |access-date=March 29, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170401144720/http://www.ochs.org.uk/lectures/by-topic/271 |archive-date=1 April 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>

A notable feature of some "left tantra" ascetics was their pursuit of [[siddhis]] (supernatural abilities) and ''bala'' (powers), such as averting danger (''santih'') and the ability to harm enemies (''abhicarah'').{{sfn|Sanderson|2009|pp=124–125}}{{sfn|Sanderson|1995|p=24}}{{sfn|Alexis Sanderson|2010|pp=260–262, 329–333}} [[Ganachakra]]s, ritual feasts, would sometimes be held in cemeteries and cremation grounds and featured possession by powerful female deities called [[Yogini]]s.<ref name="Gavin Flood 2007"/>{{sfn|Sanderson|1988|pp=671–673}} The cult of Yoginis aimed to gain special powers through esoteric worship of the Shakti or the feminine aspects of the divine. The groups included sisterhoods that participated in the rites.{{sfn|Sanderson|1988|pp=671–673}}

Some traditions defined special powers differently. For example, the Kashmiri tantrics explain the powers as ''anima'' (awareness than one is present in everything), ''laghima'' (lightness, be free from presumed diversity or differences), ''mahima'' (heaviness, realise one's limit is beyond one's own consciousness), ''prapti'' (attain, be restful and at peace with one's own nature), ''prakamya'' (forbearance, grasp and accept cosmic diversity), ''vasita'' (control, realise that one always has power to do whatever one wants), ''isitva'' (self lordship, a yogi is always free).{{sfn|Vasugupta|1992|pp=197–198 with note 117}} More broadly, the tantric sub-traditions sought nondual knowledge and enlightening liberation by abandoning all rituals, and with the help of reasoning (''yuktih''), scriptures (''sastras'') and the initiating Guru.{{sfn|Sanderson|1995|pp=45–47}}{{sfn|Alexis Sanderson|2010|pp=260–262, 329–333}}

==Western scholarly research==
[[File:meru1.jpg|thumb|alt=Three-dimensional triangular symbol|The ''[[Sri Yantra]]'' (shown here in the three-dimensional projection known as ''Sri Meru'' or ''Maha Meru'', used primarily by [[Shri Vidya|Srividya]] [[Shakta]] sects)]]

{{anchor|Sir John Woodroffe}}

===John Woodroffe===

The first Western scholar to seriously study Tantra was [[John Woodroffe]] (1865–1936), who wrote about Tantra under the [[pen name]] Arthur Avalon and is known as the "founding father of Tantric studies".{{sfnp|Urban|2003|p=22}} Unlike previous Western scholars Woodroffe advocated for Tantra, defending and presenting it as an ethical and philosophical system in accord with the [[Veda]]s and [[Vedanta]].{{sfnp|Urban|2003|p=135}} Woodroffe practised Tantra and, while trying to maintain scholastic objectivity, was a student of Hindu Tantra (the ''Shiva-Shakta'' tradition).{{sfnp|Avalon|1913|p=1ff}}{{sfnp|Avalon|1914|p=1ff}}{{sfnp|Avalon|1918|p=1ff}}

===Further development===

Following Woodroffe, a number of scholars began investigating Tantric teachings, including scholars of [[comparative religion]] and [[Indology]] such as [[Agehananda Bharati]], [[Mircea Eliade]], [[Julius Evola]], [[Carl Jung]], [[Alexandra David-Néel]], [[Giuseppe Tucci]] and [[Heinrich Zimmer]].{{sfnp|Urban|2003|pp=165–166}} According to Hugh Urban, Zimmer, Evola and Eliade viewed Tantra as "the culmination of all Indian thought: the most radical form of spirituality and the archaic heart of aboriginal India", regarding it as the ideal religion for the modern era. All three saw Tantra as "the most transgressive and violent path to the sacred".{{sfnp|Urban|2003|pp=166–167}}

==See also==
* [[Dzogchen]]
* [[Radha Tantra]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note|40em}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Sources==
{{anchor|Published sources}}
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite book |last=Avalon |first=Arthur |author-link=John Woodroffe |title=Tantra of the Great Liberation: Mahanirvana Tantra |publisher=Luzac & Co. |location=London |year=1913}}
* {{Cite book |last=Avalon |first=Arthur |title=Principles of Tantra: the Tantratattva of Shriyukta Shiva Chandra Vidyarnava Bhattacharyya Mahodaya|publisher=Luzac & Co. |location=London |year=1914}}
* {{Cite book |last=Avalon |first=Arthur |year=1918 |url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/tantra/sas/index.htm |title=Sakti and Sakta. Essays and Addresses on the Tantra Shastra |publisher=Luzac and Co |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |last=Bagchi |first=P. C. |year=1989 |title=Evolution of the Tantras, Studies on the Tantras |publisher=Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture |location=Kolkata |isbn=978-81-85843-36-0 |edition=2nd rev.}}
*{{cite book |last=Bagchi |first=P. C. |chapter=Evolution of the Tantras |title=Studies On the Tantras |place=India |publisher=Ramakrishna Math |year=2017 |isbn=978-8187332770}}
* {{Cite book |last=Banerjee |first=Sures Chandra |year=1988 |title=A Brief History of Tantra Literature |publisher=Naya Prokash |location=Kolkata}}
* {{Cite book |last=Banerjee |first=Sures Chandra |year=2002 |title=Companion to Tantra |publisher=Abhinav Publications |isbn=978-1-70174-022-8}}
* {{Cite book |last=Barrett |first=Ron |title=Aghor Medicin |year=2008 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-25218-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/aghormedicinepol0000barr |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/aghormedicinepol0000barr/page/12 12]}}
* {{Cite book |last=Beer |first=Robert |title=The Handbook of Tibetan Buddhist Symbols |year=2003 |publisher=Serindia Publications |isbn=978-1-932476-03-3}}
* {{Cite book |last=Berkson |first=Carmel |title=The caves at Aurangabad: early Buddhist Tantric art in India |year=1986 |publisher=Mapin|isbn=9780295964621 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Bhattacharyya |first=N. N. |year=1999 |title=History of the Tantric Religion |publisher=Manohar |location=New Delhi |isbn=978-81-7304-025-2 |edition=2nd rev.}}
* {{Cite book |last=Bisschop |first=Peter C. |chapter=1. From Mantramārga Back to Atimārga: Atimārga as a Self referential Term |editor=Goodall at al. |title=Śaivism and the Tantric Traditions: Essays in Honour of Alexis G.J.S. Sanderson |year=2020 |publisher=Gonda |series=Indological Studies, vol. 22 |isbn=978-9004432666}}
* {{cite journal |last=Borkataky-Varma |first=S. |date=January 2019 |title=Red: An Ethnographic Study of Cross-Pollination Between the Vedic and the Tantric |journal=International Journal of Hindu Studies |volume=23 |number=2 |pages=179–194 |jstor=48703461 |doi=10.1007/s11407-019-09258-z |s2cid=255161762}}
* {{Cite book |last=Brooks |first=Douglas Renfrew |title=The Secret of the Three Cities: An Introduction to Hindu Sakta Tantrism |year=1990 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-07569-3}}
* {{harvc |last=Brown |first=Robert |c=Introduction |in1=Harper |in2=Brown |year=2002 |pp=1–15}}

* {{Cite book |last=Cavendish |first=Richard |title=The Great Religions |publisher=Arco Publishing |year=1980}}
* {{Cite book |last=Cort |first=John E. |editor=David Gordon White |editor-link=David Gordon White |title=Tantra in Practice |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hayV4o50eUEC&pg=PA417 |year=2001 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1778-4}}

* {{Cite book |last=Dahiya |first=Poonam Dalal |year=2017 |title=Ancient and Medieval India |publisher=McGraw-Hill Education |isbn=978-93-5260-673-3}}
* {{cite journal |last=Dalton |first=J. |date=2004 |title=The Development of Perfection: The Interiorization of Buddhist Ritual in the Eight and Ninth Centuries |journal=Journal of Indian Philosophy |volume=32 |pages=1–30|doi=10.1023/B:INDI.0000014015.64305.30 |s2cid=170547474 }}
* {{Cite book | last=Davidson | first=Ronald M. | year=2004 | title=Indian Esoteric Buddhism: A Social History of the Tantric Movement | publisher=Columbia University Press | location=New York | isbn=978-81-208-1991-7}}
* {{cite book |first=Richard |last=Davis |year=2014 |title=Ritual in an Oscillating Universe: Worshipping Siva in Medieval India |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-60308-7}}
* {{Cite book |last=Deussen |first=Paul |author-link=Paul Deussen |title=Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1980 |isbn=978-8120814684}}
* {{Cite book |last=Dyczkowski |first=Mark S. G. |title=The Canon of the Saivagama and the Kubjika: Tantras of the Western Kaula Tradition |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-88706-494-4}}
* {{Cite book |last=Dyczkowski |first=Mark S. G. |title=The Doctrine of Vibration: An Analysis of the Doctrines and Practices of Kashmir Shaivism |year=1989 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0596-5}}

* {{Cite book |editor-last=Einoo |editor-first=Shingo |year=2009 |title=Genesis and Development of Tantrism |publisher=University of Tokyo}}

* {{Cite book |last=Felch |first=Susan M. |title=The Cambridge Companion to Literature and Religion |year=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-75726-0}}
* {{Cite book |last=Feuerstein |first=Georg |author-link=Georg Feuerstein |year=1998 |title=Tantra: The Path of Ecstasy |publisher=Shambhala Publications}}
* {{Cite book |last=Feuerstein |first=Georg |year=2001 |title=The Yoga Tradition: Its History, Literature, Philosophy and Practice |publisher=Hohm Press |isbn=978-1890772185}}
* {{Cite book |first=Georg |last=Feuerstein |title=The Bhagavad-Gita, A New Translation |publisher=Shambhala |year=2011| isbn=978-1-59030-893-6 |location=Boston & London}}
* {{Cite book |last=Flood |first=Gavin D. |author-link=Gavin D. Flood |year=1996 |title=An Introduction to Hinduism |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-43878-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Flood |first=Gavin |year=2006 |title=The Tantric Body, The Secret Tradition of Hindu Religion |publisher=I.B. Taurus |isbn=978-1-84511-011-6}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Fraser-Lu |first1=Sylvia |last2=Stadtner |first2=Donald M. |title=Buddhist Art of Myanmar |year=2015 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-20945-7}}

* {{Cite book |last=Ghose |first=Rajeshwari |year=1996 |title=The Tyāgarāja Cult in Tamilnāḍu: A Study in Conflict and Accommodation |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publications |isbn=81-208-1391-X}}
* {{Cite book |last=Goble |first=Geoffrey C. |title=Chinese Esoteric Buddhism: Amoghavajra, the Ruling Elite, and the Emergence of a Tradition |date=2019 |isbn=978-0-231-55064-2 |location=New York |oclc=1099543349}}
* {{Cite book |last=Goudriaan |first=Teun |editor1=Teun Goudriaan |editor2=Sanjukta Gupta |title=Hindu Tantric and Śākta Literature |year=1981 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3-447-02091-6}}
* {{cite journal |first=Ellen |last=Gough |date=2012 |title=Shades of Enlightenment: A Jain Tantric Diagram and the Colours of the Tirthankaras |journal=International Journal of Jaina Studies |volume=8 |number=1 |pages=1–47}}
* {{cite book |editor1-first=Luigi |editor1-last=Grassi |editor2-first=Michelle |editor2-last=Riba |title=Psychopharmacology in Oncology and Palliative Care: A Practical Manual |year=2014 |place=Germany |publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg |isbn=978-3642401343}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |author-last=Gray |author-first=David B. |date=5 April 2016 |title=Tantra and the Tantric Traditions of Hinduism and Buddhism |url=https://oxfordre.com/religion/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-59 |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion |location=[[Oxford]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.59 |isbn=9780199340378 |doi-access=free |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181208112052/https://oxfordre.com/religion/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-59 |archive-date=8 December 2018 |url-status=live |access-date=30 May 2021|url-access=subscription }}
* {{Cite book |last1=Gray |first1=David B. |last2=Overbey |first2=Ryan Richard |year=2016 |title=Tantric Traditions in Transmission and Translation |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-990952-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OJWCCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5}}
* {{cite book |last=Gray |first=David B. |title=The Buddhist Tantras: A Guide |date=2023 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-762383-1}}

* {{Cite book |editor1-last=Harper |editor1-first=Katherine Anne |editor2-last=Brown |editor2-first=Robert L. |year=2002 |title=The Roots of Tantra |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-5306-3}}
* {{Cite book |editor1-last=Harper |editor1-first=Katherine Anne |editor2-last=Brown |editor2-first=Robert L. |year=2012 |title=The Roots of Tantra |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-8890-4}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Hirakawa |first1=Akira |last2=Groner |first2=Paul |title=A History of Indian Buddhism: From Śākyamuni to Early Mahāyāna |year=2007 |pages=125–126}}

* {{Cite book |last=Joshi |first=Lal Mani |title=Studies in the Buddhistic Culture of India During the 7th and 8th Centuries A.D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-epU7NHNCOQC&pg=PA409 |year=1977 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0281-0}}
* {{harvc|last=Joshi |first=M. C. |c=Historical and Iconographic Aspects of Śākta Tantrism |in1=Harper |in2=Brown |year=2012 |pages=39–56}}

* {{Cite book |last=Kangle |first=R. P. |title=The Kautiliya Arthasastra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ag89KaFH8SsC&pg=PA512 |year=1986 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0042-7}}
* {{Cite book |last=Keul |first=István |title=Transformations and Transfer of Tantra in Asia and Beyond |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=38gxbEft3-4C&pg=PA13 |year=2012 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-025811-0}}
* {{Cite book |author-last=Kongtrul |author-first=Jamgon |author-link=Jamgon Kongtrul |translator1-last=Guarisco |translator1-first=Elio |translator2-last=McLeod |translator2-first=Ingrid |year=2005 |title=The Treasury of Knowledge, Book Six, Part Four Systems of Buddhist Tantra |page=74 |publisher=Snow Lion Publications}}

* {{cite book|first1=Todd |last1=Lewis |first2=Gary |last2=deAngelis |title=Teaching Buddhism: New Insights on Understanding and Presenting the Traditions |year=2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-937309-3}}
* {{cite journal |last=Lidke |first=Jeff |date=8 February 2004 |title=The transmission of all powers: Sarvāmnāya Śākta Tantra and the semiotics of power in Nepāla-maṇḍala |journal=The Pacific World |volume=6 |pages=257–291 |url=https://ixtheo.de/Record/1839697466}}
* {{cite web |last=Lidke |first=Jeffrey| url=https://www.embodiedphilosophy.com/the-journey-to-the-summit/ |title=The Journey to the Summit: Kuṇḍaliṇī's Ascent through Initiation into the Revelations of the Sarvāmnāya Tantra of Nepal |date=12 March 2021 |website=Embodied Philosophy |access-date=2024-02-08}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Lorea |first=Carola Erika |date=2018-05-25 |title='I Am Afraid of Telling You This, Lest You'd Be Scared Shitless!': The Myth of Secrecy and the Study of the Esoteric Traditions of Bengal |journal=Religions |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=172 |doi=10.3390/rel9060172 |doi-access=free}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lorenzen |first=David N. |title=The Kāpālikas and Kālāmukhas: Two Lost Śaivite Sects |publisher=University of California Press |year=1972 |isbn=978-0-520-01842-6}}
* {{harvc|last=Lorenzen |first=David N. |c=Early Evidence for Tantric Religion |in1=Harper |in2=Brown |year=2002}}
* {{Cite thesis |type=PhD dissertation |title=Feeding Ghosts: A Study of the Yuqie Yankou Rite |publisher=University of Virginia |doi=10.18130/v3s82z| first=Hun Yeow |last=Lye |year=2003 }}

* {{Cite journal |last=Mallinson |first=James |author-link=James Mallinson (author) |year=2016 |title=The Amrtasiddhi: Hathayoga's tantric Buddhist source text |journal=Śaivism and the Tantric Traditions |page=409 |url=https://www.academia.edu/26700528 |publisher=SOAS, University of London}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Mallinson |first=James |title=Kalavañcana in the Konkan: How a Vajrayana Hathayoga Tradition Cheated Buddhism's Death in India |year=2019 |journal=Religions |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=1–33 |doi=10.3390/rel10040273 |url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/30887/|doi-access=free }}
* {{Cite book |last1=Monier-Williams |first1=Sir Monier |first2=Ernst |last2=Leumann |first3=Carl |last3=Cappeller |title=A Sanskrit-English Dictionary: Etymologically and Philologically Arranged with Special Reference to Cognate Indo-European Languages |year=2002 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |edition=reprint of OUP |orig-date=1899 |isbn=978-81-208-3105-6 |page=436}}

* {{Cite book |last=Olivelle |first=Patrick |title=The Samnyasa Upanisads |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-19-507045-3}}
* {{Cite book|last=Olivelle|first=Patrick|year=1993|title=The Aśrama System: The History and Hermeneutics of a Religious Institution|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-534478-3|url-access=limited|url=https://archive.org/details/asramasystemhist00oliv|via=Archive.org}}
* {{Cite book |last=Olivelle |first=Patrick |title=Ascetics and Brahmins studies in ideologies and institutions |publisher=Anthem Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-85728-432-7 |location=London New York}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Orzech |first=Charles D. |date=1989 |title=Seeing Chen-Yen Buddhism: Traditional Scholarship and the Vajrayāna in China |journal=History of Religions |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=87–114 |doi=10.1086/463182 |jstor=1062679 |s2cid=162235701 |issn=0018-2710}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Orzech |first1=Charles |last2=Sørensen |first2=Henrik |last3=Payne |first3=Richard |title=Esoteric Buddhism and the Tantras in East Asia |year=2011 |publisher=Brill Academic |isbn=978-90-04-18491-6}}
* {{cite journal |last=Osto |first=Douglas |title='Proto–Tantric' Elements in the Gandavyuha Sutra |journal=Journal of Religious History |volume=33 |number=2 |date=June 2009|pages=165–177 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9809.2009.00792.x }}

* {{harvc |last=Padoux |first=André |c=What Do We Mean by Tantrism? |in1=Harper |in2=Brown |year=2002}}
* {{Cite book |last=Padoux |first=André |year=2013 |title=The Heart of the Yogini |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-1-2999-4016-1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Padoux |first=André |year=2017 |title=The Hindu Tantric World An Overview |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0226424095}}
* {{cite book |editor-first=Richard K. |editor-last=Payne |title=Tantric Buddhism in East Asia |year=2006 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-0-86171-487-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Phillips |first=Stephen |title=Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy |year=2009 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-14485-8}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Pontillo |first1=Tiziana |last2=Candotti |first2=Maria Piera |title=Signless Signification in Ancient India and Beyond |year=2014 |publisher=Anthem Press |isbn=978-1-78308-332-9}}

* {{Cite book |last=Rinehart |first=Robin |title=Debating the Dasam Granth |year=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-975506-6}}

* {{Cite book |last=Samuel |first=Geoffrey |author-link=Geoffrey Samuel |year=2010 |title=The Origins of Yoga and Tantra. Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Samuel |editor1-first=Geoffrey |editor2-last=Johnston |editor2-first=Jay |year=2013 |title=Religion and the Subtle Body in Asia and the West: Between Mind and Body |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-76640-4}}
* {{cite book|last= Sanderson|first= Alexis | year= 1988|chapter = Saivism and the Tantric Traditions| title= The World's Religions| editor= S Sutherland |display-editors=etal |publisher= Routledge}}
* {{cite conference |author-link=Alexis Sanderson |last=Sanderson |first=Alexis |title=Vajrayāna: Origin and Function |conference=Buddhism into the Year 2000. International Conference Proceedings |place=Bangkok and Los Angeles |publisher=Dhammakāya Foundation |year=1995 |pages=89–102}}
* {{cite book|last= Sanderson|first= Alexis|chapter = The Śaiva Age: The Rise and Dominance of Śaivism during the Early Medieval Period| title= Genesis and Development of Tantrism| editor= Shingo Einoo|publisher= Tokyo: Institute of Oriental Culture| year= 2009}}
* {{cite book|last =Sanderson | first =Alexis|year=2010|editor=Dominic Goodall & Andre Padoux|title=Mélanges tantriques à la mémoire d'Hélène Brunner: Tantric Studies in Memory of Hélène Brunner|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cHnhXwAACAAJ|publisher=Institut Français de Pondichéry|isbn=978-2855396668}}
* {{cite magazine |last=Sanderson |first=Alexis |date=2012–2013 |title=The Śaiva Literature |url=http://www.alexissanderson.com/uploads/6/2/7/6/6276908/sanderson_2014_the_saiva_literature_jist_kyoto_(1).pdf |magazine=Journal of Indological Studies (Kyoto) |issue=24 & 25 |pages=1–113 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151002161705/http://www.alexissanderson.com/uploads/6/2/7/6/6276908/sanderson_2014_the_saiva_literature_jist_kyoto_(1).pdf |archive-date=2015-10-02 |url-status=dead}}
* {{Cite book |last=Scharfe |first=Hartmut |title=Grammatical Literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2_VbnWkZ-SYC&pg=PA87 |year=1977 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz |isbn=978-3-447-01706-0}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sharf |first=Robert H. |title=Coming to Terms with Chinese Buddhism: A Reading of the Treasure Store Treatise |year=2002 |publisher=University of Hawai'i Press |isbn=0-8248-2443-1 |location=Honolulu |oclc=53119548}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sharma |first=D. S. |year=1990 |title=The Philosophy of Sadhana |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-0347-1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Brian K. |year=2005 |chapter=Tantrism: Hindu Tantrism |editor-last=Jones |editor-first=Lindsay |title=MacMillan Encyclopedia of Religion |publisher=MacMillan}}
* {{Cite book |last=Smith |first=David |year=1996 |title=The Dance of Siva: Religion, Art and Poetry in South India |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-48234-9}}
* {{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Frederick M. |title=The Self Possessed: Deity and Spirit Possession in South Asian Literature and Civilization |year=2012 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-51065-3}}
* {{Cite book |last=Snellgrove |first=David |year=1987 |title=Indo-Tibetan Buddhism: Indian Buddhists and their Tibetan successors |publisher=Orchid Press |isbn=978-9745240131}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Solonin |first=K. J. |date=2013 |title=Buddhist Connections between the Liao and Xixia: Preliminary Considerations |jstor=43855194 |journal=Journal of Song-Yuan Studies |volume=43 |pages=171–219 |issn=1059-3152}}
* {{Cite book |last=Stirling |first=Isabel |title=Zen Pioneer: The Life & Works of Ruth Fuller Sasaki |date=2006 |publisher=Counterpoint |isbn=978-1593761707}}

* {{cite journal |title=The story of the Buddha and the skull-tapper: A Note on Gandharan Iconography |last=Taddei |first=Maurizio |journal=Annali Sezione Orientale |volume=39 |number=3 |date=1979 |pages=395–420}}

* {{Cite book |last=Urban |first=Hugh B. |author-link=Hugh Urban |year=2003 |title=Tantra: Sex, Secrecy, Politics, and Power in the Study of Religions |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-23656-1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Urban |first=Hugh B. Urban |title=Tantra: Sex, Secrecy, Politics, and Power in the Study of Religion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wvtLClojU_4C&pg=PA26 |year=2008 |orig-date=2003 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-2932-9}}

* {{cite book|author1=Vasugupta|translator=Mark Dyczkowski |title=The Aphorisms of Siva: The Siva Sutra with Bhaskara's Commentary, the Varttika|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o6-n4ulAsdIC|year=1992|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-1264-0}}

* {{Cite book |last=Wallis |first=Christopher |year=2012 |title=Tantra Illuminated |publisher=Anusara Press |isbn=978-1937104016 }}
* {{cite magazine |last=Wallis |first=Christopher |date=February 2016 |url=http://www.sutrajournal.com/the-tantric-age-a-comparison-of-shaiva-and-buddhist-tantra-by-christopher-wallis |title=The Tantric Age: A comparison of Shaiva and Buddhist Tantra |magazine=Sutra Journal |access-date=2024-01-03}}
* {{cite book |last=Watson |first=Burton (trans) |year=1994 |title=Lotus Sutra |chapter=Chapter Twenty-six: Dharani |chapter-url=http://lotus.nichirenshu.org/lotus/sutra/english/watson/lsw_chap26.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20030325001524/http://lotus.nichirenshu.org/lotus/sutra/english/watson/lsw_chap26.htm |archive-date=25 March 2003 |url-status=dead |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0231081610}}
* {{Cite book |last=Wedemeyer |first=Christian K. |year=2013 |title=Making Sense of Tantric Buddhism: History, Semiology, and Transgression in the Indian Traditions |pages=155, 252 |publisher=Columbia University Press}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Werner |first=Karel |author-link=Karel Werner |date=1977 |title=Yoga and the Ṛg Veda: An Interpretation of the Keśin Hymn (RV 10, 136) |journal=Religious Studies |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=289–302 |doi=10.1017/S0034412500010076|s2cid=170592174 }}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=White |editor-first=David Gordon |year=2000 |title=Tantra in Practice |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-05779-8}}
* {{Cite book |last=White |first=David Gordon |title=Kiss of the Yogini: "Tantric Sex" in its South Asian Contexts |year=2003 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-02783-8}}
* {{Cite book |last=White |first=David Gordon |year=2005 |chapter=Tantrism: An Overview |editor-last=Jones |editor-first=Lindsay |title=MacMillan Encyclopedia of Religion |publisher=MacMillan}}
* {{Cite book |last=White |first=David Gordon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0ZGrAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA188 |title=The "Yoga Sutra of Patanjali": A Biography |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-4008-5005-1}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Williams |first1=Paul |last2=Tribe |first2=Anthony |year=2000 |title=Buddhist Thought |publisher=Routledge}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Chinese Hevajratantra: the scriptural text of the Ritual of the Great King of the Teaching, the Adamantine One with Great Compassion and Knowledge of the Void |date=2004 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |first=Charles |last=Willemen |isbn=81-208-1945-4 |location=Delhi |oclc=60383600}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* {{Cite book |ref=none |last=Campbell |first=June |title=Traveller in Space: Gender, Identity, and Tibetan Buddhism |publisher=A&C Black |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8264-5719-6}}
* {{Cite book |ref=none |last=Martin |first=Matthew |title=Tantra, Ritual Performance, and Politics in Nepal and Kerala: Embodying the Goddess-Clan |publisher=Brill |year=2020 |isbn=9789004439023}}
* {{Cite book |ref=none | last=McDaniel | first=June | year=2004 | title=Offering Flowers, Feeding Skulls: Popular Goddess Worship in West Bengal | location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-516790-0}}
* {{Cite book |ref=none | last=Mookerji | first=Ajit | year=1977 | title=The Tantric Way: Art, Science, Ritual | location=London | publisher=Thames & Hudson |isbn=978-0-500-01172-0}}
* {{Cite book |ref=none | last=White | first=David Gordon |author-link=David Gordon White | year=2012 | title=The Alchemical Body: Siddha Traditions in Medieval India | location=Chicago | publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-14934-9}}
* {{Cite book |ref=none |last=Yeshe |first=Lama Thubten |title=Introduction to Tantra:The Transformation of Desire |publisher=Wisdom Publications |location=Boston |orig-year=1987 |year=2001 |edition=rev. |isbn=0-86171-162-9}}

{{Refend}}

==External links==

* [https://www.britishmuseum.org/exhibitions/tantra-enlightenment-revolution "Tantra: enlightenment to revolution"], [[British Museum]], 2021
* [https://www.britishmuseum.org/exhibitions/tantra-enlightenment-revolution "Tantra: enlightenment to revolution"], [[British Museum]], 2021

* {{Commons category inline}}
* {{Wikiquote inline}}

{{Yoga}}
{{Meditation}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Tantra| ]]
[[Category:Hindu tantra| ]]
[[Category:Buddhist practices]]
[[Category:Esoteric schools of thought]]
[[Category:Hindu philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Nonduality]]
[[Category:Shaivism]]
[[Category:Shaktism]]
[[Category:Spiritual practice]]
[[Category:Vajrayana]]

Unicode

2026-03-13T22:27:07Z

Joseph Patricio: cleanup

{{pp-protect|small=yes}}
{{Short description|Character encoding standard}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=September 2022}}
{{CS1 config|mode=cs1}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023|cs1-dates=y}}
{{Infobox character encoding
| name = Unicode
| alias = {{hlist|[[Universal Coded Character Set]] (UCS)|ISO/IEC 10646}}
| image = New Unicode logo.svg
| caption = Logo of the [[Unicode Consortium]]
| standard = Unicode Standard
| lang = 168 scripts ''([[Script (Unicode)#List of scripts in Unicode|list]])''
| encodings = {{hlist|class=inline|[[UTF-8]]|[[UTF-16]]|[[GB 18030|GB18030]]}}{{hr}}{{hlist|class=inline||[[UTF-32]]|[[Binary Ordered Compression for Unicode|BOCU]]|[[Standard Compression Scheme for Unicode|SCSU]]|[[UTF-EBCDIC]]}} (uncommon){{hr}}{{hlist|class=inline|[[UTF-7]]|[[UTF-1]]}} (obsolete)
| prev = [[ISO/IEC 8859]], among others
| extra = {{hlist
| {{official website|1=https://home.unicode.org/|name=Official website}}
| {{official website|1=https://www.unicode.org/main.html|name=Technical website}}}}
}}
{{Contains special characters|special=uncommon Unicode characters}}
'''Unicode''' (also known as '''''The Unicode Standard''''' and '''TUS'''<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 March 2002 |title=Unicode Technical Report #28: Unicode 3.2 |url=https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr28/tr28-3.html#errata |access-date=23 June 2022 |website=Unicode Consortium}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Jenkins |first=John H. |date=26 August 2021 |title=Unicode Standard Annex #45: U-source Ideographs |url=https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr45/tr45-25.html |access-date=23 June 2022 |website=Unicode Consortium |at=§2.2 The Source Field}}</ref>) is a [[character encoding]] standard maintained by the [[Unicode Consortium]] designed to support the use of text in all of the world's [[writing system]]s that can be digitized. Version 17.0{{efn-ua|name=standard-latest|{{Cite Unicode}}}} defines 159,801 [[Character (computing)|characters]] and 172 [[script (Unicode)|scripts]]<ref>{{multiref |{{Cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/versions/stats/|title=Unicode Character Count V17.0 |date=10 September 2025 |publisher=The Unicode Consortium}} | {{Cite web|title=Unicode 17.0 Versioned Charts Index|url=https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/Unicode-17.0/ |publisher=The Unicode Consortium |date=10 September 2025}} | {{Cite web |title=Supported Scripts |url=https://www.unicode.org/standard/supported.html |access-date=10 September 2025 |date=10 September 2025 |publisher=The Unicode Consortium}} }}</ref> used in various ordinary, literary, academic and technical contexts.

Unicode has largely supplanted the previous environment of myriad incompatible [[character sets]] used within different locales and on different computer architectures. The entire repertoire of these sets, plus many additional characters, were merged into the single Unicode set. Unicode is used to encode the vast majority of text on the Internet, including most [[web pages]], and relevant Unicode support has become a common consideration in contemporary software development. Unicode is ultimately capable of encoding more than 1.1 million characters.

The Unicode [[character repertoire]] is synchronized with [[Universal Coded Character Set|ISO/IEC 10646]], each being code-for-code identical with one another. However, ''The Unicode Standard'' is more than just a repertoire within which characters are assigned. To aid developers and designers, the standard also provides charts and reference data, as well as annexes explaining concepts germane to various scripts, providing guidance for their implementation. Topics covered by these annexes include [[Unicode equivalence#Normalization|character normalization]], [[Combining character|character composition]] and decomposition, [[Unicode collation algorithm|collation]], and [[Bidirectional text#Unicode bidi support|directionality]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Unicode Standard: A Technical Introduction |url=https://www.unicode.org/standard/principles.html |date=22 August 2019 |access-date=11 September 2024}}</ref>

Unicode encodes 3,790 [[emoji]], with the continued development thereof conducted by the Consortium as a part of the standard.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Emoji Counts, v16.0 |url=https://www.unicode.org/emoji/charts-16.0/emoji-counts.html |access-date=10 September 2024 |publisher=The Unicode Consortium}}</ref> The widespread adoption of Unicode was in large part responsible for the initial popularization of emoji outside of Japan.{{citation needed|date=June 2025}}

Unicode text is processed and stored as binary data [[comparison of Unicode encodings|using one of several encodings]], which define how to translate the standard's abstracted codes for characters into sequences of bytes. ''The Unicode Standard'' itself defines three encodings: [[UTF-8]], [[UTF-16]],{{efn|A large amount of documentation for Windows incorrectly uses the term "Unicode" to mean ''only'' the UTF-16 encoding.}} and [[UTF-32]], though several others exist. UTF-8 is the most widely used by a large margin, in part due to its backwards-compatibility with [[ASCII]].

== Origin and development ==
Unicode was originally designed with the intent of transcending limitations present in all text encodings designed up to that point: each encoding was relied upon for use in its own context, but with no particular expectation of compatibility with any other. Indeed, any two encodings chosen were often totally unworkable when used together, with text encoded in one [[mojibake|interpreted as garbage characters]] by the other. Most encodings had only been designed to facilitate interoperation between a handful of scripts—often primarily between a given script and [[Latin character]]s—not between a large number of scripts, and not with all of the scripts supported being treated in a consistent manner.

The philosophy that underpins Unicode seeks to encode the underlying characters—[[grapheme]]s and grapheme-like units—rather than graphical distinctions considered mere variant [[glyph]]s thereof, that are instead best handled by the [[typeface]], through the use of [[markup (computing)|markup]], or by some other means. In particularly complex cases, such as [[Han unification|the treatment of orthographical variants in Han characters]], there is considerable disagreement regarding which differences justify their own encodings, and which are only graphical variants of other characters.

At the most abstract level, Unicode assigns a unique number called a {{em|[[code point]]}} to each character. Many issues of visual representation—including size, shape, and style—are intended to be up to the discretion of the software actually rendering the text, such as a [[web browser]] or [[word processor]]. However, partially with the intent of encouraging rapid adoption, the simplicity of this original model has become somewhat more elaborate over time, and various pragmatic concessions have been made over the course of the standard's development.

The first 256 code points mirror the [[ISO/IEC 8859-1]] standard, with the intent of trivializing the conversion of text already written in Western European scripts. To preserve the distinctions made by different legacy encodings, therefore allowing for conversion between them and Unicode without any loss of information, many [[duplicate characters in Unicode|characters nearly identical to others]], in both appearance and intended function, were given distinct code points. For example, the [[Halfwidth and Fullwidth Forms (Unicode block)|Halfwidth and Fullwidth Forms]] block encompasses a full semantic duplicate of the Latin alphabet, because legacy [[CJK characters|CJK encodings]] contained both "fullwidth" (matching the width of CJK characters) and "halfwidth" (matching ordinary Latin script) characters.

=== {{anchor|Unicode 88}}History ===
The origins of Unicode can be traced back to the 1980s, to a group of individuals with connections to [[Xerox]]'s [[Xerox Character Code Standard|Character Code Standard]] (XCCS).<ref name="unicode-88" /> In 1987, Xerox employee [[Joe Becker (Unicode)|Joe Becker]], along with [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] employees [[Lee Collins (Unicode)|Lee Collins]] and [[Mark Davis (Unicode)|Mark Davis]], started investigating the practicalities of creating a universal character set.<ref name="summary">{{Cite web |title=Summary Narrative |url=https://www.unicode.org/history/summary.html |website=Unicode |date=August 31, 2006 |access-date=15 March 2010}}</ref> With additional input from Peter Fenwick and [[Dave Opstad]],<ref name="unicode-88" /> Becker published a draft proposal for an "international/multilingual text character encoding system in August 1988, tentatively called Unicode". He explained that "the name 'Unicode' is intended to suggest a unique, unified, universal encoding".<ref name="unicode-88">{{Cite web |last=Becker |first=Joseph D. |author-link=Joseph D. Becker |date=10 September 1998 |title=Unicode 88 |url=https://unicode.org/history/unicode88.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161125224409/https://unicode.org/history/unicode88.pdf |archive-date=25 November 2016 |access-date=25 October 2016 |publisher=[[Unicode Consortium]] |quote=In 1978, the initial proposal for a set of "Universal Signs" was made by [[Bob Belleville]] at [[Xerox PARC]]. Many persons contributed ideas to the development of a new encoding design. Beginning in 1980, these efforts evolved into the [[Xerox Character Code Standard]] (XCCS) by the present author, a multilingual encoding that has been maintained by Xerox as an internal corporate standard since 1982, through the efforts of Ed Smura, Ron Pellar, and others. Unicode arose as the result of eight years of working experience with XCCS. Its fundamental differences from XCCS were proposed by Peter Fenwick and Dave Opstad (pure 16-bit codes) and by [[Lee Collins (Unicode)|Lee Collins]] (ideographic character unification). Unicode retains the many features of XCCS whose utility has been proved over the years in an international line of communication multilingual system products. |orig-year=1988-08-29}}</ref>

In this document, entitled ''Unicode 88'', Becker outlined a scheme using [[16-bit computing|16-bit]] characters:<ref name="unicode-88" />

<blockquote>
Unicode is intended to address the need for a workable, reliable world text encoding. Unicode could be roughly described as "wide-body [[ASCII]]" that has been stretched to 16 bits to encompass the characters of all the world's living languages. In a properly engineered design, 16 bits per character are more than sufficient for this purpose.
</blockquote>

This design decision was made based on the assumption that only scripts and characters in "modern" use would require encoding:<ref name="unicode-88" />

<blockquote>
Unicode gives higher priority to ensuring utility for the future than to preserving past antiquities. Unicode aims in the first instance at the characters published in the modern text (e.g. in the union of all newspapers and magazines printed in the world in 1988), whose number is undoubtedly far below 214 = 16,384. Beyond those modern-use characters, all others may be defined to be obsolete or rare; these are better candidates for private use registration than for congesting the public list of generally useful Unicode.
</blockquote>

In early 1989, the Unicode working group expanded to include Ken Whistler and Mike Kernaghan of Metaphor, Karen Smith-Yoshimura and Joan Aliprand of [[Research Libraries Group]], and Glenn Wright of [[Sun Microsystems]]. The Research Libraries Group had an existing solution for East Asian character sets, which became one of the inputs to the Unicode character set.<ref name="summary" /> In 1990, Michel Suignard and Asmus Freytag of [[Microsoft]] and [[NeXT]]'s Rick McGowan had also joined the group. By the end of 1990, most of the work of remapping existing standards had been completed, and a final review draft of Unicode was ready.

The [[Unicode Consortium]] was incorporated in California on 3 January 1991,<ref>{{Cite web |title=History of Unicode Release and Publication Dates |url=https://unicode.org/history/publicationdates.html |access-date=20 March 2023 |website=Unicode}}</ref> and the first volume of ''The Unicode Standard'' was published that October. The second volume, now adding Han ideographs, was published in June 1992.

In 1996, a surrogate character mechanism was implemented in Unicode 2.0, so that Unicode was no longer restricted to 16 bits. This increased the Unicode codespace to over a million code points, which allowed for the encoding of many historic scripts, such as [[Egyptian hieroglyphs]], and thousands of rarely used or obsolete characters that had not been anticipated for inclusion in the standard. Among these characters are various rarely used [[CJK characters]]—many mainly being used in proper names, making them far more necessary for a universal encoding than the original Unicode architecture envisioned.<ref name="unicoderevisited">{{Cite web |last=Searle |first=Stephen J |title=Unicode Revisited |url=http://tronweb.super-nova.co.jp/unicoderevisited.html |access-date=18 January 2013}}</ref>

=== Unicode Consortium ===
{{Main|Unicode Consortium}}

The Unicode Consortium is a non-profit organization that coordinates Unicode's development. Full members include most of the main computer software and hardware companies (and few others) with any interest in text-processing standards, including [[Adobe Inc.|Adobe]], [[Apple Inc.|Apple]], [[Google]], [[IBM]], [[Meta Platforms|Meta]] (previously as Facebook), [[Microsoft]], [[Netflix]], and [[SAP]].<ref name="members">{{Cite web |title=The Unicode Consortium Members |url=https://unicode.org/consortium/members.html |access-date=12 February 2024}}</ref>

Over the years several countries or government agencies have been members of the Unicode Consortium.<ref name="members" />

The Consortium has the ambitious goal of eventually replacing existing character encoding schemes with Unicode and its standard Unicode Transformation Format (UTF) schemes, as many of the existing schemes are limited in size and scope and are incompatible with [[multilingualism|multilingual]] environments.

The '''Unicode Bulldog Award''' is given to people deemed to be influential in Unicode's development, with recipients including [[Tatsuo Kobayashi]], Thomas Milo, Roozbeh Pournader, [[Ken Lunde]], and [[Michael Everson]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/acknowledgements/bulldog.html|title=Unicode Bulldog Award|website=Unicode |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231111130143/http://www.unicode.org/acknowledgements/bulldog.html |archive-date= Nov 11, 2023 }}</ref>

=== Scripts covered ===
{{Main|Script (Unicode)}}

[[File:Unicode sample.svg|class=skin-invert-image|thumb|right|200px|Many modern applications can render a substantial subset of the many [[scripts in Unicode]], as demonstrated by this screenshot from the [[OpenOffice.org]] application.]]

{{As of|September 2025}}, a total of 172<ref>{{Cite web |title=Supported Scripts |url=https://www.unicode.org/standard/supported.html |access-date=9 September 2025 |website=Unicode}}</ref> [[Script (Unicode)|scripts]] ([[alphabet]]s, [[abugida]]s and [[syllabary|syllabaries]]) are included in Unicode, covering most major [[writing system]]s in use today.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Otung |first=Ifiok |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4OMXEAAAQBAJ&q=unicode+covers+almost+all+characters |title=Communication Engineering Principles |date=2021-01-28 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-119-27407-0 |language=en|page=12}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Unicode FAQ |url=https://home.unicode.org/basic-info/faq/ |access-date=2 April 2020}}</ref> There are still scripts that are not yet encoded, particularly those mainly used in historical, liturgical, and academic contexts. Further additions of characters to the already encoded scripts, as well as [[Symbol|symbols]], in particular for mathematics and [[musical notation|music]] also occur.

=== Proposals for adding scripts ===

The Unicode Roadmap Committee ([[Michael Everson]], Rick McGowan, Ken Whistler, V.S. Umamaheswaran)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Roadmap to the BMP |url=https://www.unicode.org/roadmaps/bmp/ |access-date=30 July 2018 |publisher=[[Unicode Consortium]]}}</ref> maintain the list of scripts that are candidates or potential candidates for encoding and their tentative code block assignments on the Unicode Roadmap<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/roadmaps/|title=Roadmaps to Unicode|website=Unicode |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20231208091250/http://www.unicode.org/roadmaps/ |archive-date= Dec 8, 2023 }}</ref> page of the [[Unicode Consortium]] website. For some scripts on the Roadmap, such as [[Jurchen script|Jurchen]] and [[Khitan large script]], encoding proposals have been made and they are working their way through the approval process. For other scripts, such as [[Numidian language|Numidian]] and [[Rongorongo]], no proposal has yet been made, and they await agreement on character repertoire and other details from the user communities involved.

Some modern invented scripts which have not yet been included in Unicode (e.g., [[Tengwar]]) or which do not qualify for inclusion in Unicode due to lack of real-world use (e.g., [[Klingon scripts|Klingon]]) are listed in the [[ConScript Unicode Registry]], along with unofficial but widely used [[Unicode private use area|private use area]] code assignments.

There is also a [[Medieval Unicode Font Initiative]] focused on special Latin medieval characters. Part of these proposals has been already included in Unicode.

{{anchor|Script Encoding Initiative}}
The Script Encoding Initiative (SEI),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sei.berkeley.edu/ |title=Script Encoding Initiative |website=Script Encoding Initiative |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230325131114/https://linguistics.berkeley.edu/sei/ |archive-date= Mar 25, 2023 }}</ref> a project created by Deborah Anderson at the [[University of California, Berkeley]], was founded in 2002 with the goal of funding proposals for scripts not yet encoded in the standard. Now run by Anushah Hossain, SEI has become a major source of proposed additions to the standard in recent years.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About The Script Encoding Initiative |url=https://www.unicode.org/pending/about-sei.html |access-date=4 June 2012 |publisher=The Unicode Consortium}}</ref> Although SEI collaborates with the Unicode Consortium and the ISO/IEC 10646 standards process, it operates independently, supporting the technical, linguistic, and historical research needed to prepare formal proposals. SEI maintains a database of scripts that have yet to be encoded in the Unicode Standard on the project's website.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Scripts to Encode |url=https://sei.berkeley.edu/scripts-to-encode/ }}</ref>

=== Versions ===
The Unicode Consortium together with the ISO have developed a shared [[character encoding|repertoire]] following the initial publication of ''The Unicode Standard'': Unicode and the ISO's [[Universal Coded Character Set]] (UCS) use identical character names and code points. However, the Unicode versions do differ from their ISO equivalents in two significant ways.

While the UCS is a simple character map, Unicode specifies the rules, algorithms, and properties necessary to achieve interoperability between different platforms and languages. Thus, ''The Unicode Standard'' includes more information, covering in-depth topics such as bitwise encoding, [[Unicode collation algorithm|collation]], and rendering. It also provides a comprehensive catalog of character properties, including those needed for supporting [[bidirectional text]], as well as visual charts and reference data sets to aid implementers. Previously, ''The Unicode Standard'' was sold as a print volume containing the complete core specification, standard annexes,{{refn|group="note"|1="A Unicode Standard Annex (UAX) forms an integral part of ''The Unicode Standard'', but is published as a separate document."[https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr31/tr31-5.html]}} and code charts. However, version 5.0, published in 2006, was the last version printed this way. Starting with version 5.2, only the core specification, published as a print-on-demand paperback, may be purchased.<ref name="version6.1PoD">{{Cite web |title=Unicode 6.1 Paperback Available |url=https://www.unicode.org/mail-arch/unicode-ml/y2012-m05/0240.html |access-date=30 May 2012 |website=announcements_at_unicode.org}}</ref> The full text, on the other hand, is published as a free PDF on the Unicode website.

A practical reason for this publication method highlights the second significant difference between the UCS and Unicode—the frequency with which updated versions are released and new characters added. ''The Unicode Standard'' has regularly released annual expanded versions, occasionally with more than one version released in a calendar year and with rare cases where the scheduled release had to be postponed. For instance, in April 2020, a month after version 13.0 was published, the Unicode Consortium announced they had changed the intended release date for version 14.0, pushing it back six months to September 2021 due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].

Thus far, the following versions of ''The Unicode Standard'' have been published. Update versions, which do not include any changes to character repertoire, are signified by the third number (e.g., "version 4.0.1") and are omitted in the table below.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Enumerated Versions of The Unicode Standard |url=https://www.unicode.org/versions/enumeratedversions.html |access-date=12 September 2025}}</ref>

{{sticky header}}
{| class="wikitable sortable sticky-header-multi" style="font-size:95%; text-align:center; max-width:1600px"
|+ Unicode version history and notable changes to characters and scripts
|-
! scope="col" rowspan="2" | Version
! scope="col" rowspan="2" | Date
! scope="col" rowspan="2" class="unsortable" | Publication (book, text)
! scope="col" rowspan="2" | [[Universal Coded Character Set|UCS]] edition
! colspan="2" | Total
! scope="col" rowspan="2" class="unsortable" | Details
|-
! scope="col" | Scripts
! scope="col" | Characters{{efn|The total number of graphic and format characters, excluding [[Unicode private use area|private use characters]], [[Unicode control characters|control characters]], [[noncharacter]]s, and [[surrogate code points]]).|group=tablenote}}
|- id="1.0.0"
| {{Unicode version|version=1.0.0}}<ref name="v1.0.0">{{multiref|1={{Cite Unicode|1.0.0}}|2={{cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/Public/reconstructed/1.0.0/UnicodeData.txt|title=1.0.0/UnicodeData.txt (reconstructed) |date=2004|access-date=2010-03-16}}
}}</ref>
| {{dts|{{Unicode version/version-to-date|version=1.0.0|format=month}}}}
| {{ISBN|0-201-56788-1}} (vol. 1)
| rowspan="2" ! {{n/a}}
| 24
| {{val|7,129}}
| style="text-align:left" | Initial scripts covered: [[Arabic script|Arabic]], [[Armenian alphabet|Armenian]], [[Bengali alphabet|Bengali]], [[Bopomofo]], [[Cyrillic script|Cyrillic]], [[Devanagari]], [[Georgian alphabet|Georgian]], [[Greek alphabet|Greek and Coptic]], [[Gujarati script|Gujarati]], [[Gurmukhi script|Gurmukhi]], [[Hangul]], [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]], [[Hiragana]], [[Kannada script|Kannada]], [[Katakana]], [[Lao script|Lao]], [[Latin script|Latin]], [[Malayalam script|Malayalam]], [[Odia script|Odia]], [[Tamil script|Tamil]], [[Telugu script|Telugu]], [[Thai script|Thai]], and [[Tibetan script|Tibetan]]
|- id="1.0.1"
| {{Unicode version|version=1.0.1}}<ref name="v1.0.1">{{multiref|{{Cite Unicode|1.0.1}}|{{cite web|title=Unicode Data 1.0.1|url=https://www.unicode.org/Public/reconstructed/1.0.1/UnicodeData.txt|access-date=2010-03-16}} }}</ref>
| {{dts|{{Unicode version/version-to-date|version=1.0.1|format=month}}}}
| {{ISBN|link=no|0-201-60845-6}} (vol. 2)
| 25
| {{val|28,327}}{{su|p={{val|+21,204}}|b={{val|−6}}}}
| style="text-align:left" | The initial 20,902 [[CJK Unified Ideographs]]
|- id="1.1"
| {{Unicode version|version=1.1}}<ref name="v1.1">{{multiref|1={{Cite Unicode|1.1.5}}|2={{cite web|title=Unicode Data 1995|url=https://www.unicode.org/Public/1.1-Update/UnicodeData-1.1.5.txt|access-date=2010-03-16}}}}</ref>
| {{dts|{{Unicode version/version-to-date|version=1.1|format=month}}}}
| {{n/a}}
| rowspan="3" | [[Universal Coded Character Set|ISO/IEC 10646]]-1:1993
{{efn|{{cslist|semi=yes|2.0 added Amendments 5, 6, and 7|2.1 added two characters from Amendment 18.}}|group=tablenote}}
| 24
| {{val|34,168}}{{su|p={{val|+5,963}}|b={{val|−9}}}}
| style="text-align:left" | 33 reclassified as control characters. 4,306 [[Hangul]] syllables, [[Tibetan script|Tibetan]] removed
|- id="2.0"
| {{Unicode version|version=2.0}}<ref name="v2.0.0">{{multiref|1={{Cite Unicode|2.0}}|2={{cite web|title=Unicode Data-2.0.14|url=https://www.unicode.org/Public/2.0-Update/UnicodeData-2.0.14.txt|access-date=2010-03-16}}}}</ref>
| {{dts|{{Unicode version/version-to-date|version=2.0|format=month}}}}
| {{ISBN|link=no|0-201-48345-9}}
| rowspan="2" | 25
| {{val|38,885}}{{su|p={{val|+11,373}}|b={{val|−6,656}}}}
| style="text-align:left" | Original set of Hangul syllables removed, new set of 11,172 Hangul syllables added at new location, Tibetan added back in a new location and with a different character repertoire, Surrogate character mechanism defined, Plane 15 and Plane 16 [[Unicode private use area|private use area]] allocated
|- id="2.1"
| {{Unicode version|version=2.1}}<ref name="2.1.0">{{multiref|1={{Cite Unicode|2.1.2}}|2={{cite web|title=Unicode Data-2.1.2|url=https://www.unicode.org/Public/2.1-Update/UnicodeData-2.1.2.txt|access-date=2010-03-16}}}}</ref>
| {{dts|{{Unicode version/version-to-date|version=2.1|format=month}}}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{val|38,887}}{{su|p={{val|+2}}}}
| style="text-align:left" | {{unichar|20AC|nlink=Euro sign}}, {{unichar|FFFC|nlink=Specials (Unicode block)}}<ref name="2.1.0" />
|- id="3.0"
| {{Unicode version|version=3.0}}<ref name="3.0.0">{{multiref|1={{Cite Unicode|3.0}}|2={{cite web|title=Unicode Data-3.0.0|url=https://www.unicode.org/Public/3.0-Update/UnicodeData-3.0.0.txt|access-date=2023-10-02}}}}</ref>
| {{dts|{{Unicode version/version-to-date|version=3.0|format=month}}}}
| {{ISBN|link=no|0-201-61633-5}}
| ISO/IEC 10646-1:2000
| 38
| {{val|49,194}}{{su|p={{val|+10,307}}}}
| style="text-align:left" | [[Cherokee syllabary|Cherokee]], [[Geʽez script|Geʽez]], [[Khmer script|Khmer]], [[Mongolian script|Mongolian]], [[Burmese alphabet|Burmese]], [[Ogham]], [[runes]], [[Sinhala script|Sinhala]], [[Syriac alphabet|Syriac]], [[Thaana]], [[Canadian Aboriginal syllabics]], and [[Yi script|Yi Syllables]], [[Braille]] patterns
|- id="3.1"
| {{Unicode version|version=3.1}}<ref name="3.1.0">{{multiref|1={{Cite Unicode|3.1.0}}|2={{cite web|title=Unicode Data-3.1.0|url=https://www.unicode.org/Public/3.1-Update/UnicodeData-3.1.0.txt|access-date=2023-10-02}}}}</ref>
| {{dts|{{Unicode version/version-to-date|version=3.1|format=month}}}}
| rowspan="2" ! {{n/a}}
| rowspan="2" | ISO/IEC 10646-1:2000{{efn|3.2 added Amendment 1.|group=tablenote}}{{hr}}ISO/IEC 10646-2:2001
| 41
| {{val|94,140}}{{su|p={{val|+44,946}}}}
| style="text-align:left" | [[Deseret alphabet|Deseret]], [[Gothic alphabet|Gothic]] and [[Old Italic alphabet|Old Italic]], sets of symbols for Western and [[Byzantine music]], 42,711 additional CJK Unified Ideographs
|- id="3.2"
| {{Unicode version|version=3.2}}<ref name="3.2.0">{{multiref|1={{Cite Unicode|3.2.0}}|2={{cite web|title=Unicode Data-3.2.0|url=https://www.unicode.org/Public/3.2-Update/UnicodeData-3.2.0.txt|access-date=2023-10-02}}}}</ref>
| {{dts|{{Unicode version/version-to-date|version=3.2|format=month}}}}
| 45
| {{val|95,156}}{{su|p={{val|+1,016}}}}
| style="text-align:left" | [[Philippines|Philippine]] scripts ([[Buhid script|Buhid]], [[Hanunoo script|Hanunoo]], [[Baybayin|Tagalog]], and [[Tagbanwa script|Tagbanwa]]), mathematical symbols
|- id="4.0"
| {{Unicode version|version=4.0}}<ref name="4.0.0">{{multiref|1={{Cite Unicode|4.0.0}}|2={{cite web|title=Unicode Data-4.0.0|url=https://www.unicode.org/Public/4.0-Update/UnicodeData-4.0.0.txt|access-date=2023-10-02}}}}</ref>
| {{dts|{{Unicode version/version-to-date|version=4.0|format=month}}}}
| {{ISBN|link=no|0-321-18578-1}}
| rowspan="5" | ISO/IEC 10646:2003
{{efn|{{cslist|semi=yes|4.1 added Amendment 1|5.0 added Amendment 2 as well as four characters from Amendment 3|5.1 added Amendment 4|5.2 added Amendments 5 and 6}}|group=tablenote}}
| 52
| {{val|96,382}}{{su|p={{val|+1,226}}}}
| style="text-align:left" | [[Cypriot syllabary]], [[Limbu script|Limbu]], [[Linear B]], [[Osmanya script|Osmanya]], [[Shavian alphabet|Shavian]], [[Tai Nüa language#Writing system|Tai Le]], and [[Ugaritic alphabet|Ugaritic]], [[Hexagram (I Ching)|Hexagram symbols]]
|- id="4.1"
| {{Unicode version|version=4.1}}<ref>{{multiref|1={{Cite Unicode|4.1.0}}|2={{cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/Public/4.1.0/ucd/UnicodeData.txt|title=Unicode Data-4.1.0|access-date=2010-03-16}} }}</ref>
| {{dts|{{Unicode version/version-to-date|version=4.1|format=month}}}}
| {{n/a}}
| 59
| {{val|97,655}}{{su|p={{val|+1,273}}}}
| style="text-align:left" | [[Lontara script|Buginese]], [[Glagolitic script|Glagolitic]], [[Kharosthi]], [[New Tai Lue alphabet|New Tai Lue]], [[Old Persian cuneiform|Old Persian]], [[Sylheti Nagri]], and [[Tifinagh]], [[Coptic alphabet|Coptic]] disunified from Greek, ancient [[Unicode numerals#Ancient Greek numerals|Greek numbers]] and [[Musical notation#Ancient Greece|musical symbols]], first named character sequences were introduced.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/Public/4.1.0/ucd/NamedSequences.txt |date=2005 |website=Unicode |title=Named Sequences-4.1.0|access-date=2010-03-16}}</ref>
|- id="5.0"
| {{Unicode version|version=5.0}}<ref>{{Cite Unicode|5}}</ref>
| {{dts|{{Unicode version/version-to-date|version=5.0|format=month}}}}
| {{ISBN|link=no|0-321-48091-0}}
| 64
| {{val|99,024}}{{su|p={{val|+1,369}}}}
| style="text-align:left" | [[Balinese script|Balinese]], [[cuneiform]], [[N'Ko script|N'Ko]], [[ʼPhags-pa script|ʼPhags-pa]], [[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]]<ref>{{cite web
|title=Unicode Data 5.0.0
|url=https://www.unicode.org/Public/5.0.0/ucd/UnicodeData.txt
|access-date=2010-03-17}}</ref>
|- id="5.1"
| {{Unicode version|version=5.1}}<ref>{{multiref|{{Cite Unicode|5.1}}|{{cite web|title=Unicode Data 5.1.0|url=https://www.unicode.org/Public/5.1.0/ucd/UnicodeData.txt|access-date=2010-03-17}} }}</ref>
| {{dts|{{Unicode version/version-to-date|version=5.1|format=month}}}}
| {{n/a}}
| 75
| {{val|100,648}}{{su|p={{val|+1,624}}}}
| style="text-align:left" | [[Carian alphabets|Carian]], [[Cham script|Cham]], [[Kayah Li alphabet|Kayah Li]], [[Lepcha script|Lepcha]], [[Lycian script|Lycian]], [[Lydian script|Lydian]], [[Ol Chiki script|Ol Chiki]], [[Rejang alphabet|Rejang]], [[Saurashtra script|Saurashtra]], [[Sundanese script|Sundanese]], and [[Vai syllabary|Vai]], sets of symbols for the [[Phaistos Disc]], [[Mahjong]] tiles, [[Dominoes|Domino tiles]], additions to Burmese, [[Scribal abbreviation]]s, {{unichar|1E9E|nlink=capital ẞ}}
|- id="5.2"
| {{Unicode version|version=5.2}}<ref>{{multiref|{{Cite Unicode|5.2}}|{{cite web|title=Unicode Data 5.2.0|url=https://www.unicode.org/Public/5.2.0/ucd/UnicodeData.txt|access-date=2010-03-17}} }}</ref>
| {{dts|{{Unicode version/version-to-date|version=5.2|format=month}}}}
| {{ISBN|link=no|978-1-936213-00-9}}
| 90
| {{val|107,296}}{{su|p={{val|+6,648}}}}
| style="text-align:left" | [[Avestan alphabet|Avestan]], [[Bamum script|Bamum]], [[Gardiner's sign list]] of [[Egyptian hieroglyphs]], [[Imperial Aramaic]], [[Inscriptional Pahlavi]], [[Inscriptional Parthian]], [[Javanese script|Javanese]], [[Kaithi]], [[Fraser script|Lisu]], [[Meitei script|Meetei Mayek]], [[Ancient South Arabian script|Old South Arabian]], [[Old Turkic script|Old Turkic]], [[Samaritan script|Samaritan]], [[Tai Tham script|Tai Tham]] and [[Tai Viet script|Tai Viet]], additional CJK Unified Ideographs, Jamo for Old Hangul, [[Vedic Sanskrit]]
|- id="6.0"
| {{Unicode version|version=6.0}}<ref>{{multiref|{{Cite Unicode|6.1}}|{{cite web|title=Unicode Data 6.0.0|url=https://www.unicode.org/Public/6.0.0/ucd/UnicodeData.txt|access-date=2010-10-11}} }}</ref>
| {{dts|{{Unicode version/version-to-date|version=6.0|format=month}}}}
| {{ISBN|link=no|978-1-936213-01-6}}
| ISO/IEC 10646:2010
{{efn|Plus the [[Indian rupee sign]]|group=tablenote}}
| 93
| {{val|109,384}}{{su|p={{val|+2,088}}}}
| style="text-align:left" | [[Batak script|Batak]], [[Brahmi script|Brahmi]], [[Mandaic alphabet|Mandaic]], [[playing card]] symbols, transport and map symbols, [[alchemical symbol]]s, [[emoticons]] and emoji,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Unicode 6.0 Emoji List |url=https://emojipedia.org/unicode-6.0/|access-date=2022-09-21|website=emojipedia.org}}</ref> additional CJK Unified Ideographs
|- id="6.1"
| {{Unicode version|version=6.1}}<ref>{{multiref|{{Cite Unicode|6.1}}|{{cite web|title=Unicode Data 6.1.0|url=https://www.unicode.org/Public/6.1.0/ucd/UnicodeData.txt|access-date=2012-01-31}} }}</ref>
| {{dts|{{Unicode version/version-to-date|version=6.1|format=month}}}}
| {{ISBN|link=no|978-1-936213-02-3}}
| rowspan="4" | ISO/IEC 10646:2012
{{efn|{{cslist|semi=yes|6.2 added the [[Turkish lira sign]]|6.3 added five additional characters|7.0 added Amendments 1 and 2 as well as the [[ruble sign]]}}|group=tablenote}}
| rowspan="3" | 100
| {{val|110,116}}{{su|p={{val|+732}}}}
| style="text-align:left" | [[Chakma script|Chakma]], [[Meroitic script|Meroitic cursive]], [[Meroitic script|Meroitic hieroglyphs]], [[Pollard script|Miao]], [[Sharada script|Sharada]], [[Sorang Sompeng script|Sora Sompeng]], and [[Takri script|Takri]]
|- id="6.2"
| {{Unicode version|version=6.2}}<ref>{{multiref|{{Cite Unicode|6.2}}|{{cite web|title=Unicode Data 6.2.0|url=https://www.unicode.org/Public/6.2.0/ucd/UnicodeData.txt|access-date=2012-09-26}} }}</ref>
| {{dts|{{Unicode version/version-to-date|version=6.2|format=month}}}}
| {{ISBN|link=no|978-1-936213-07-8}}
| {{val|110,117}}{{su|p={{val|+1}}}}
| style="text-align:left" | {{unichar|20BA|nlink=Turkish lira sign}}
|- id="6.3"
| {{Unicode version|version=6.3}}<ref>{{multiref|{{Cite Unicode|6.3}}|{{cite web|title=Unicode Data 6.3.0|url=https://www.unicode.org/Public/6.3.0/ucd/UnicodeData.txt|access-date=2013-09-30}} }}</ref>
| {{dts|{{Unicode version/version-to-date|version=6.3|format=month}}}}
| {{ISBN|link=no|978-1-936213-08-5}}
| {{val|110,122}}{{su|p={{val|+5}}}}
| style="text-align:left" | 5 bidirectional formatting characters
|- id="7.0"
| {{Unicode version|version=7.0}}<ref>{{multiref|{{Cite Unicode|7}}|{{cite web|title=Unicode Data 7.0.0|url=https://www.unicode.org/Public/7.0.0/ucd/UnicodeData.txt|access-date=2014-06-15}} }}</ref>
| {{dts|{{Unicode version/version-to-date|version=7.0 |format=month}}}}
| {{ISBN|link=no|978-1-936213-09-2}}
| 123
| {{val|112,956}}{{su|p={{val|+2,834}}}}
| style="text-align:left" | [[Bassa Vah script|Bassa Vah]], [[Caucasian Albanian script|Caucasian Albanian]], [[Duployan shorthand|Duployan]], [[Elbasan script|Elbasan]], [[Grantha script|Grantha]], [[Khojki script|Khojki]], [[Khudabadi script|Khudawadi]], [[Linear A]], [[Mahajani]], [[Manichaean script|Manichaean]], [[Mende Kikakui script|Mende Kikakui]], [[Modi script|Modi]], [[Mro script|Mro]], [[Nabataean script|Nabataean]], [[Ancient North Arabian|Old North Arabian]], [[Old Permic script|Old Permic]], [[Pahawh Hmong]], [[Palmyrene alphabet|Palmyrene]], [[Pau Cin Hau script|Pau Cin Hau]], [[Psalter Pahlavi]], [[Siddhaṃ script|Siddham]], [[Tirhuta script|Tirhuta]], [[Warang Citi]], and [[dingbat]]s
|- id="8.0"
| {{Unicode version|version=8.0}}<ref>{{multiref|{{Cite Unicode|8}}|{{cite web|title=Unicode Data 8.0.0|url=https://www.unicode.org/Public/8.0.0/ucd/UnicodeData.txt|access-date=2015-06-17}} }}</ref>
| {{dts|{{Unicode version/version-to-date|version=8.0|format=month}}}}
| {{ISBN|link=no|978-1-936213-10-8}}
| rowspan="2" | ISO/IEC 10646:2014
{{efn|Plus Amendment 1, as well as the [[Georgian lari|Lari sign]], nine CJK unified ideographs, and 41 emoji;<ref>{{Cite Unicode|8}}</ref> 9.0 added Amendment 2, as well as Adlam, Newa, Japanese TV symbols, and 74 emoji and symbols.<ref>{{Cite Unicode|9}}</ref>}}
| 129
| {{val|120,672}}{{su|p={{val|+7,716}}}}
| style="text-align:left" | [[Ahom script|Ahom]], [[Anatolian hieroglyphs]], [[Hatran alphabet|Hatran]], [[Multani script|Multani]], [[Old Hungarian alphabet|Old Hungarian]], [[SignWriting]], additional CJK Unified Ideographs, lowercase letters for Cherokee, 5 emoji [[Fitzpatrick scale|skin tone modifiers]]
|- id="9.0"
| {{Unicode version|version=9.0}}<ref>{{multiref|{{Cite Unicode|9}}|{{cite web|title=Unicode Data 9.0.0|url=https://www.unicode.org/Public/9.0.0/ucd/UnicodeData.txt|access-date=2016-06-21}} }}</ref>
| {{dts|{{Unicode version/version-to-date|version=9.0|format=month}}}}
| {{ISBN |link=no|978-1-936213-13-9}}
| 135
| {{val|128,172}}{{su|p={{val|+7,500}}}}
| style="text-align:left" | [[Adlam script|Adlam]], [[Bhaiksuki script|Bhaiksuki]], [[Zhang-Zhung language#Scripts|Marchen]], [[Pracalit script|Newa]], [[Osage script|Osage]], [[Tangut script|Tangut]], 72 emoji<ref name=laobo>{{cite web|first=Martim|last=Lobao|url=https://www.androidpolice.com/2016/06/07/two-emoji-werent-approved-unicode-9-google-added-android-anyway/ |title=These Are The Two Emoji That Weren't Approved For Unicode 9 But Which Google Added To Android Anyway|website=Android Police|date= 7 June 2016|access-date=4 September 2016}}</ref>
|- id="10.0"
| {{Unicode version|version=10.0}}<ref name="v10">{{Cite Unicode|10}}</ref>
| {{dts|{{Unicode version/version-to-date|version=10.0|format=month}}}}
| {{ISBN |link=no|978-1-936213-16-0}}
| rowspan="4" | ISO/IEC 10646:2017
{{efn|{{cslist|semi=yes|Plus 56 emoji, 285 [[hentaigana]] characters, and 3 Zanabazar Square characters|11.0 added 46 Mtavruli Georgian capital letters, 5 CJK unified ideographs, and 66 emoji|12.0 added 62 additional characters.}}|group=tablenote}}
| 139
| {{val|136,690}}{{su|p={{val|+8,518}}}}
| style="text-align:left" | [[Zanabazar square script|Zanabazar Square]], [[Soyombo script|Soyombo]], [[Masaram Gondi script|Masaram Gondi]], [[Nüshu]], [[hentaigana]], 7,494 CJK Unified Ideographs, 56 emoji, {{unichar|20BF|nlink=Bitcoin}}
|- id="11.0"
| {{Unicode version|version=11.0}}<ref>{{Cite Unicode|11}}</ref>
| {{dts|{{Unicode version/version-to-date|version=11.0|format=month}}}}
| {{ISBN|link=no|978-1-936213-19-1}}
| 146
| {{val|137,374}}{{su|p={{val|+684}}}}
| style="text-align:left" | [[Dogri script|Dogra]], [[Georgian scripts#Mkhedruli|Georgian Mtavruli]] capital letters, [[Gunjala Gondi script|Gunjala Gondi]], [[Hanifi Rohingya script|Hanifi Rohingya]], [[Indic Siyaq Numbers]], [[Makassarese language|Makasar]], [[Medefaidrin]], [[Sogdian alphabet|Old Sogdian and Sogdian]], [[Maya numerals]], 5 CJK Unified Ideographs, symbols for [[xiangqi]] and [[Star (classification)|star ratings]], 145 emoji
|- id="12.0"
| {{Unicode version|version=12.0}}<ref>{{Cite Unicode|12}}</ref>
| {{dts|{{Unicode version/version-to-date|version=12.0|format=month}}}}
| {{ISBN|link=no|978-1-936213-22-1}}
| rowspan=2 | 150
| {{val|137,928}}{{su|p={{val|+554}}}}
| style="text-align:left" | [[Elymaic]], [[Nandinagari]], [[Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong]], [[Wancho script|Wancho]], [[Pollard script|Miao script]], hiragana and katakana small letters, Tamil historic fractions and symbols, Lao letters for [[Pali]], Latin letters for Egyptological and Ugaritic transliteration, hieroglyph format controls, 61 emoji
|- id="12.1"
| {{Unicode version|version=12.1}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://blog.unicode.org/2019/05/unicode-12-1-en.html|title=Unicode Version 12.1 released in support of the Reiwa Era|website=The Unicode Blog |access-date=2019-05-07}}</ref>
| {{dts|{{Unicode version/version-to-date|version=12.1|format=month}}}}
| {{ISBN |link=no|978-1-936213-25-2}}
| {{val|137,929}}{{su|p={{val|+1}}}}
| style="text-align:left" | {{unichar|32FF|nlink=Reiwa era}}
|- id="13.0"
| {{Unicode version|version=13.0}}<ref name="v13.0.0">{{multiref|1={{Cite Unicode|13}}|2={{Cite web|url=https://blog.unicode.org/2020/03/announcing-unicode-standard-version-130.html|title=Announcing The Unicode Standard, Version 13.0|website=The Unicode Blog|access-date=2020-03-11}}}}</ref>
| {{dts|{{Unicode version/version-to-date|version=13.0|format=month}}}}
| {{ISBN|link=no|978-1-936213-26-9}}
| rowspan="4" | ISO/IEC 10646:2020
<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Unicode Standard, Version 13.0– Core Specification Appendix C|url=https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode13.0.0/appC.pdf|publisher=Unicode Consortium|access-date=2020-03-11}}</ref>
| 154
| {{val|143,859}}{{su|p={{val|+5,930}}}}
| style="text-align:left" | [[Khwarezmian language#Writing system|Chorasmian]], [[Dhives Akuru]], [[Khitan small script]], [[Kurdish alphabets#Yezidi|Yezidi]], 4,969 CJK ideographs, Arabic script additions used to write [[Hausa language|Hausa]], [[Wolof language|Wolof]], and other African languages, additions used to write [[Hindko]] and [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] in Pakistan, Bopomofo additions used for Cantonese, Creative Commons license symbols, graphic characters for compatibility with teletext and home computer systems, 55 emoji
|- id="14.0"
| {{Unicode version|version=14.0}}<ref name="v14.0.0">{{multiref|1={{Cite Unicode|14}}|2={{cite web|url=https://blog.unicode.org/2021/09/announcing-unicode-standard-version-140.html|title=Announcing The Unicode Standard, Version 14.0}}}}</ref>
| {{dts|{{Unicode version/version-to-date|version=14.0|format=month}}}}
| {{ISBN|link=no|978-1-936213-29-0}}
| 159
| {{val|144,697}}{{su|p={{val|+838}}}}
| style="text-align:left" | [[Toto language|Toto]], [[Cypro-Minoan syllabary|Cypro-Minoan]], [[Vithkuqi script|Vithkuqi]], [[Old Uyghur alphabet|Old Uyghur]], [[Tangsa language|Tangsa]], extended IPA, Arabic script additions for use in languages across Africa and in Iran, Pakistan, Malaysia, Indonesia, Java, and Bosnia, additions for honorifics and Quranic use, additions to support languages in North America, the Philippines, India, and Mongolia, {{unichar|20C0|nlink=Kyrgyzstani som#Currency symbol}}, [[Znamenny chant|Znamenny]] musical notation, 37 emoji
|- id="15.0"
| {{Unicode version|version=15.0}}<ref name="v15.0.0">{{Cite Unicode|15.0}}</ref>
| {{dts|{{Unicode version/version-to-date|version=15.0|format=month}}}}
| {{ISBN|link=no|978-1-936213-32-0}}
| rowspan="2" | 161
| {{val|149,186}}{{su|p={{val|+4,489}}}}
| style="text-align:left" | [[Kawi script|Kawi]] and [[Mundari Bani|Mundari]], 20 emoji, 4,192 CJK ideographs, control characters for Egyptian hieroglyphs
|- id="15.1"
| {{Unicode version|version=15.1}}<ref name="v15.1.0">{{multiref|1={{Cite Unicode|15.1}}}}</ref>
| {{dts|{{Unicode version/version-to-date|version=15.1|format=month}}}}
| {{ISBN|link=no|978-1-936213-33-7}}
| {{val|149,813}}{{su|p={{val|+627}}}}
| style="text-align:left" | Additional CJK ideographs
|- id="16.0"
| {{Unicode version|version=16.0}}<ref name="v16.0.0">{{Cite Unicode|16.0}}</ref>
| {{dts|{{Unicode version/version-to-date|version=16.0|format=month}}}}
| {{ISBN|link=no|978-1-936213-34-4}}
|
| 168
| {{val|154,998}}{{su|p={{val|+5185}}}}
| style="text-align:left" | [[Garay alphabet|Garay]], [[Khema script|Gurung Khema]], [[Kirat Rai]], [[Ol Onal]], [[Sunuwar alphabet|Sunuwar]], [[Todhri alphabet|Todhri]], [[Tigalari script|Tulu-Tigalari]], 7 emoji, 3,995 Egyptian Hieroglyphs
|- id="17.0"
| {{Unicode version|version=17.0}}<ref name="v17.0.0">{{Cite Unicode|17.0}}</ref>
| {{dts|{{Unicode version/version-to-date|version=17.0|format=month}}}}
| {{ISBN|link=no|978-1-936213-35-1}}
|
| 172
| {{val|159,801}}{{su|p={{val|+4803}}}}
| style="text-align:left" | [[Beria Erfe]], [[Lai Tay script|Tai Yo]], [[Sidetic#Sidetic script|Sidetic]], [[Tolong Siki]], {{unichar|20C1|nlink=Saudi riyal#Currency symbol}}, 7 emoji, 4,316 CJK unified ideographs
|}

{{notelist|group=tablenote}}

== Architecture and terminology ==
{{See also|Universal Character Set characters}}

=== Codespace and code points ===
''The Unicode Standard'' defines a ''codespace'':<ref name="Glossary">{{Cite web |title=Glossary of Unicode Terms |url=https://unicode.org/glossary/ |access-date=16 March 2010}}</ref> a sequence of integers called ''[[code point]]s''<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |url=https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode16.0.0/core-spec/chapter-2/#G25564 |title=The Unicode Standard Version 16.0 – Core Specification |year=2024 |chapter=2.4 Code Points and Characters}}</ref> in the range from 0 to {{val|1114111}}, notated according to the standard as {{tt|U+0000}}–{{tt|U+10FFFF}}.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode16.0.0/core-spec/chapter-3/#G2212 |title=The Unicode Standard, Version 16.0 |year=2024 |chapter=3.4 Characters and Encoding}}</ref> The codespace is a systematic, architecture-independent representation of ''The Unicode Standard''; actual text is processed as binary data via one of several Unicode encodings, such as [[UTF-8]].

In this normative notation, the two-character prefix <code>U+</code> always precedes a written code point, and the code points themselves are written as [[hexadecimal]] numbers.{{Refn|The two-character prefix <code>U+</code> was chosen as an ASCII approximation of {{unichar|U+228E}}.<ref>{{Cite mailing list |url=https://unicode.org/mail-arch/unicode-ml/y2005-m11/0060.html |title=Re: Origin of the U+nnnn notation |date=8 November 2005 |mailing-list=Unicode Mail List Archive}}</ref>|group=note}} At least four hexadecimal digits are always written, with [[leading zero]]s prepended as needed. For example, the code point {{unichar|F7|Division sign}} is padded with two leading zeros, but {{unichar|13254|Egyptian hieroglyph O004}} ([[File:Hiero O4.png|class=skin-invert-image|text-bottom|15px]]) is not padded.<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 2024 |title=Appendix A: Notational Conventions |url=https://www.unicode.org/versions/latest/core-spec/appendix-a/ |website=The Unicode Standard |publisher=Unicode Consortium}}</ref>

There are a total of {{val|1112064}} valid code points within the codespace.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Unicode Standard |publisher=[[The Unicode Consortium]] |isbn=978-1-936213-01-6 |edition=6.0 |location=Mountain View, California, US |at=3.9 Unicode Encoding Forms |chapter=Conformance |quote=Each encoding form maps the Unicode code points U+0000..U+D7FF and U+E000..U+10FFFF |chapter-url=https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode16.0.0/core-spec/chapter-3/#G7404}}</ref> This number arises from the limitations of the [[UTF-16]] character encoding, which can encode the 216 code points in the range {{tt|U+0000}} through {{tt|U+FFFF}} except for the 211 code points in the range {{tt|U+D800}} through {{tt|U+DFFF}}, which are used as surrogate pairs to encode the 220 code points in the range {{tt|U+10000}} through {{tt|U+10FFFF}}.

=== Code planes and blocks ===
{{Main|Plane (Unicode)}}

The Unicode codespace is divided into 17 ''planes'', numbered 0 to 16. Plane 0 is the [[Basic Multilingual Plane]] (BMP), and contains the most commonly used characters. All code points in the BMP are accessed as a single code unit in UTF-16 encoding and can be encoded in one, two or three bytes in UTF-8. Code points in planes 1 through 16 (the ''supplementary planes'') are accessed as surrogate pairs in [[UTF-16]] and encoded in four bytes in [[UTF-8]].

Within each plane, characters are allocated within named ''[[Block (Unicode)|blocks]]'' of related characters. The size of a block is always a multiple of 16, and is often a multiple of 128, but is otherwise arbitrary. Characters required for a given script may be spread out over several different, potentially disjunct blocks within the codespace.

=== General Category property ===
Each code point is assigned a classification, listed as the code point's [[Character property (Unicode)#General Category|General Category]] property. Here, at the uppermost level code points are categorized as one of Letter, Mark, Number, Punctuation, Symbol, Separator, or Other. Under each category, each code point is then further subcategorized. In most cases, other properties must be used to adequately describe all the characteristics of any given code point.

{{General Category (Unicode)}}

The {{val|1024}} points in the range {{tt|U+D800}}–{{tt|U+DBFF}} are known as ''high-surrogate'' code points, and code points in the range {{tt|U+DC00}}–{{tt|U+DFFF}} ({{val|1024}} code points) are known as ''low-surrogate'' code points. A high-surrogate code point followed by a low-surrogate code point forms a ''surrogate pair'' in UTF-16 in order to represent code points greater than {{tt|U+FFFF}}. In principle, these code points cannot otherwise be used, though in practice this rule is often ignored, especially when not using UTF-16.

A small set of code points are guaranteed never to be assigned to characters, although third-parties may make independent use of them at their discretion. There are 66 of these ''noncharacters'': {{tt|U+FDD0}}–{{tt|U+FDEF}} and the last two code points in each of the 17 planes (e.g. {{tt|U+FFFE}}, {{tt|U+FFFF}}, {{tt|U+1FFFE}}, {{tt|U+1FFFF}}, ..., {{tt|U+10FFFE}}, {{Tt|U+10FFFF}}). The set of noncharacters is stable, and no new noncharacters will ever be defined.<ref name="stability-policy">{{Cite web |title=Unicode Character Encoding Stability Policy |url=https://unicode.org/policies/stability_policy.html |access-date=16 March 2010}}</ref> Like surrogates, the rule that these cannot be used is often ignored, although the operation of the [[byte order mark]] assumes that {{tt|U+FFFE}} will never be the first code point in a text. The exclusion of surrogates and noncharacters leaves {{val|1111998}} code points available for use.

''Private use'' code points are considered to be assigned, but they intentionally have no interpretation specified by ''The Unicode Standard''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Properties |url=https://www.unicode.org/versions/latest/core-spec/chapter-3/#G43463 |access-date=21 September 2025}}</ref> such that any interchange of such code points requires an independent agreement between the sender and receiver as to their interpretation. There are three private use areas in the Unicode codespace:

* Private Use Area: {{tt|U+E000}}–{{tt|U+F8FF}} ({{val|6400}} characters),
* Supplementary Private Use Area-A: {{tt|U+F0000}}–{{tt|U+FFFFD}} ({{val|65534}} characters),
* Supplementary Private Use Area-B: {{tt|U+100000}}–{{tt|U+10FFFD}} ({{val|65534}} characters).

''Graphic'' characters are those defined by ''The Unicode Standard'' to have particular semantics, either having a visible [[glyph]] shape or representing a visible space. As of Unicode 17.0, there are {{val|159629}} graphic characters.

''Format'' characters are characters that do not have a visible appearance but may have an effect on the appearance or behavior of neighboring characters. For example, {{unichar|200C|Zero width non-joiner|nlink=}} and {{unichar|200D|Zero width joiner|nlink=}} may be used to change the default shaping behavior of adjacent characters (e.g. to inhibit ligatures or request ligature formation). There are 172 format characters in Unicode 17.0.

65 code points, the ranges {{tt|U+0000}}–{{tt|U+001F}} and {{tt|U+007F}}–{{tt|U+009F}}, are reserved as ''control codes'', corresponding to the [[C0 and C1 control codes]] as defined in [[ISO/IEC 6429]]. {{tt|U+0009}} {{smallcaps|TAB}}, {{tt|U+000A}} {{smallcaps|LINE FEED}}, and {{tt|U+000D}} {{smallcaps|CARRIAGE RETURN}} are widely used in texts using Unicode. In a phenomenon known as [[mojibake]], the C1 code points are improperly decoded according to the [[Windows-1252]] codepage, previously widely used in Western European contexts.

Together, graphic, format, control code, and private use characters are collectively referred to as ''assigned characters''. ''Reserved'' code points are those code points that are valid and available for use, but have not yet been assigned. As of Unicode 17.0, there are {{val|814664}} reserved code points.

=== Abstract characters ===
{{Further|Universal Character Set characters#Characters, grapheme clusters and glyphs}}
The set of graphic and format characters defined by Unicode does not correspond directly to the repertoire of ''abstract characters'' representable under Unicode. Unicode encodes characters by associating an abstract character with a particular code point.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Unicode Character Encoding Model |url=https://unicode.org/reports/tr17/ |access-date=12 September 2023}}</ref> However, not all abstract characters are encoded as a single Unicode character, and some abstract characters may be represented in Unicode by a sequence of two or more characters. For example, a Latin small letter "i" with an [[ogonek]], a [[dot above]], and an [[acute accent]], which is required in [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]], is represented by the character sequence {{tt|U+012F}}; {{tt|U+0307}}; {{tt|U+0301}}. Unicode maintains a list of uniquely named character sequences for abstract characters that are not directly encoded in Unicode.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Unicode Named Sequences |url=https://www.unicode.org/Public/UCD/latest/ucd/NamedSequences.txt |access-date=21 September 2025}}</ref>

All assigned characters have a unique and immutable name by which they are identified. This immutability has been guaranteed since version 2.0 of ''The Unicode Standard'' by its Name Stability policy.<ref name="stability-policy" /> In cases where a name is seriously defective and misleading, or has a serious typographical error, a formal '''alias''' may be defined that applications are encouraged to use in place of the official character name. For example, {{unichar|A015|YI SYLLABLE WU}} has the formal alias {{sc2|YI SYLLABLE ITERATION MARK}}, and {{unichar|FE18|PRESENTATION FORM FOR VERTICAL RIGHT WHITE LENTICULAR BRA'''KC'''ET|note=[[sic]]}} has the formal alias {{sc2|PRESENTATION FORM FOR VERTICAL RIGHT WHITE LENTICULAR BRA'''CK'''ET}}.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Unicode Name Aliases |url=https://www.unicode.org/Public/UCD/latest/ucd/NameAliases.txt |access-date=21 September 2025}}</ref>

=== Ready-made versus composite characters ===
Unicode includes a mechanism for modifying characters that greatly extends the supported repertoire of glyphs. This covers the use of [[combining diacritical mark]]s that may be added after the base character by the user. Multiple combining diacritics may be simultaneously applied to the same character. Unicode also contains [[precomposed character|precomposed]] versions of most letter/diacritic combinations in normal use. These make the conversion to and from legacy encodings simpler, and allow applications to use Unicode as an internal text format without having to implement combining characters. For example, <code>é</code> can be represented in Unicode as {{unichar|65|LATIN SMALL LETTER E}} followed by {{unichar|301|COMBINING ACUTE ACCENT|cwith=◌}}, and equivalently as the precomposed character {{unichar|E9|LATIN SMALL LETTER E WITH ACUTE}}. Thus, users often have multiple equivalent ways of encoding the same character. The mechanism of [[canonical equivalence]] within ''The Unicode Standard'' ensures the practical interchangeability of these equivalent encodings.

An example of this arises with the Korean alphabet [[Hangul]]: Unicode provides a mechanism for composing Hangul syllables from their individual [[Hangul Jamo]] subcomponents. However, it also provides {{val|11172}} combinations of precomposed syllables made from the most common jamo.

[[CJK characters]] presently only have codes for uncomposable radicals and precomposed forms. Most Han characters have either been intentionally composed from, or reconstructed as compositions of, simpler orthographic elements called [[Radical (Chinese characters)|radicals]], so in principle Unicode could have enabled their composition as it did with Hangul. While this could have greatly reduced the number of required code points, as well as allowing the algorithmic synthesis of many arbitrary new characters, the complexities of character etymologies and the post-hoc nature of radical systems add immense complexity to the proposal. Indeed, attempts to design CJK encodings on the basis of composing radicals have been met with difficulties resulting from the reality that Chinese characters do not decompose as simply or as regularly as Hangul does.

The [[CJK Radicals Supplement]] block is assigned to the range {{tt|U+2E80}}–{{tt|U+2EFF}}, and the [[Kangxi radicals]] are assigned to {{tt|U+2F00}}–{{tt|U+2FDF}}. The [[Ideographic Description Sequences]] block covers the range {{tt|U+2FF0}}–{{tt|U+2FFB}}, but ''The Unicode Standard'' warns against using its characters as an alternate representation for characters encoded elsewhere:

{{blockquote|This process is different from a formal ''encoding'' of an ideograph. There is no canonical description of unencoded ideographs; there is no semantic assigned to described ideographs; there is no equivalence defined for described ideographs. Conceptually, ideographic descriptions are more akin to the English phrase "an 'e' with an acute accent on it" than to the character sequence <U+0065, U+0301>.}}

=== Ligatures ===
<div class='skin-invert-image'>{{Multiple image
|total_width = 300
|image1 = JanaSanskritSans ddhrya.svg
|caption1 = The [[Devanagari|Devanāgarī]] ''{{IAST|ddhrya}}''-ligature (द् + ध् + र् + य = द्ध्र्य) of JanaSanskritSans<ref>{{Cite web |title=JanaSanskritSans |url=http://tdil.mit.gov.in/download/janasanskrit.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716160603/http://tdil.mit.gov.in/download/janasanskrit.htm |archive-date=16 July 2011}}</ref>
|image2 = 23a-Lam-Alif.svg
|caption2 = The [[Arabic script in Unicode|Arabic]] {{lang|ar-Latn|[[lām]]-[[aleph#Arabic|alif]]}} ligature ({{lang|ar|ل}} &lrm;+&lrm; {{lang|ar|ا}} &lrm;=&lrm; {{lang|ar|لا}})
}}</div>
Many scripts, including [[Arabic script in Unicode|Arabic]] and [[Devanagari|Devanāgarī]], have special orthographic rules that require certain combinations of letterforms to be combined into special [[ligature (typography)|ligature forms]]. The rules governing ligature formation can be quite complex, requiring special script-shaping technologies such as ACE (Arabic Calligraphic Engine by DecoType in the 1980s and used to generate all the Arabic examples in the printed editions of ''The Unicode Standard''), which became the [[proof of concept]] for [[OpenType]] (by Adobe and Microsoft), [[Graphite (SIL)|Graphite]] (by [[SIL International]]), or [[Apple Advanced Typography|AAT]] (by Apple).

Instructions are also embedded in fonts to tell the operating system how to properly output different character sequences. A simple solution to the placement of combining marks or diacritics is assigning the marks a width of zero and placing the glyph itself to the left or right of the left sidebearing (depending on the direction of the script they are intended to be used with). A mark handled this way will appear over whatever character precedes it, but will not adjust its position relative to the width or height of the base glyph; it may be visually awkward and it may overlap some glyphs. Real stacking is impossible but can be approximated in limited cases (for example, Thai top-combining vowels and tone marks can just be at different heights to start with). Generally, this approach is only effective in monospaced fonts but may be used as a fallback rendering method when more complex methods fail.

=== Standardized subsets ===
Several subsets of Unicode are standardized: Microsoft Windows since [[Windows NT 4.0]] supports [[WGL-4]] with 657 characters, which is considered to support all contemporary European languages using the Latin, Greek, or Cyrillic script. Other standardized subsets of Unicode include the Multilingual European Subsets:<ref>[https://www.evertype.com/standards/iso10646/pdf/cwa13873.pdf CWA 13873:2000 – Multilingual European Subsets in ISO/IEC 10646-1] [[European Committee for Standardization|CEN]] Workshop Agreement 13873</ref> MES-1 (Latin scripts only; 335 characters), MES-2 (Latin, Greek, and Cyrillic; 1062 characters)<ref>{{Cite web |last = Kuhn |first = Markus |author-link = Markus Kuhn (computer scientist) |date = 1998 |title=Multilingual European Character Set 2 (MES-2) Rationale |url=https://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~mgk25/ucs/mes-2-rationale.html |access-date=20 March 2023 |publisher=University of Cambridge}}</ref> and MES-3A & MES-3B (two larger subsets, not shown here). MES-2 includes every character in MES-1 and WGL-4.

The standard [[DIN 91379]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=DIN 91379:2022-08: Characters and defined character sequences in Unicode for the electronic processing of names and data exchange in Europe, with CD-ROM |url=https://www.beuth.de/en/standard/din-91379/353496133 |access-date=21 August 2022 |publisher=Beuth Verlag}}</ref> specifies a subset of Unicode letters, special characters, and sequences of letters and diacritic signs to allow the correct representation of names and to simplify data exchange in Europe. This standard supports all of the official languages of all European Union countries, as well as the German minority languages and the official languages of Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, and Switzerland. To allow the transliteration of names in other writing systems to the Latin script according to the relevant ISO standards, all necessary combinations of base letters and diacritic signs are provided.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ {{nobold|'''WGL-4''', ''MES-1'' and MES-2}}
|-
! Row !! Cells !! Range(s)
|-
!rowspan="2"| 00
| '''''20–7E'''''
| [[Basic Latin (Unicode block)|Basic Latin]] (00–7F)
|-
| '''''A0–FF'''''
| [[Latin-1 Supplement (Unicode block)|Latin-1 Supplement]] (80–FF)
|-
!rowspan="2"| 01
| '''''00–13,'' 14–15, ''16–2B,'' 2C–2D, ''2E–4D,'' 4E–4F, ''50–7E,'' 7F'''
| [[Latin Extended-A]] (00–7F)
|-
| 8F, '''92,''' B7, DE-EF, '''FA–FF'''
| [[Latin Extended-B]] (80–FF ...)
|-
!rowspan="3"| 02
| 18–1B, 1E–1F
| Latin Extended-B (... 00–4F)
|-
| 59, 7C, 92
| [[IPA Extensions]] (50–AF)
|-
| BB–BD, '''C6, ''C7,'' C9,''' D6, '''''D8–DB,'' DC, ''DD,''''' DF, EE
| [[Spacing Modifier Letters]] (B0–FF)
|-
! 03
| 74–75, 7A, 7E, '''84–8A, 8C, 8E–A1, A3–CE,''' D7, DA–E1
| [[Greek and Coptic|Greek]] (70–FF)
|-
! 04
| '''00–5F, 90–91,''' 92–C4, C7–C8, CB–CC, D0–EB, EE–F5, F8–F9
| [[Cyrillic (Unicode block)|Cyrillic]] (00–FF)
|-
! 1E
| 02–03, 0A–0B, 1E–1F, 40–41, 56–57, 60–61, 6A–6B, '''80–85,''' 9B, '''F2–F3'''
| [[Latin Extended Additional]] (00–FF)
|-
! 1F
| 00–15, 18–1D, 20–45, 48–4D, 50–57, 59, 5B, 5D, 5F–7D, 80–B4, B6–C4, C6–D3, D6–DB, DD–EF, F2–F4, F6–FE
| [[Greek Extended]] (00–FF)
|-
!rowspan="3"| 20
| '''13–14, ''15,'' 17, ''18–19,'' 1A–1B, ''1C–1D,'' 1E, 20–22, 26, 30, 32–33, 39–3A, 3C, 3E, 44,''' 4A
| [[General Punctuation]] (00–6F)
|-
| '''7F''', 82
| [[Superscripts and Subscripts]] (70–9F)
|-
| '''A3–A4, A7, ''AC,''''' AF
| [[Currency Symbols (Unicode block)|Currency Symbols]] (A0–CF)
|-
!rowspan="3"| 21
| '''05, 13, 16, ''22, 26,'' 2E'''
| [[Letterlike Symbols]] (00–4F)
|-
| '''''5B–5E'''''
| [[Number Forms]] (50–8F)
|-
| '''''90–93,'' 94–95, A8'''
| [[Arrows (Unicode block)|Arrows]] (90–FF)
|-
! 22
| 00, '''02,''' 03, '''06,''' 08–09, '''0F, 11–12, 15, 19–1A, 1E–1F,''' 27–28, '''29,''' 2A, '''2B, 48,''' 59, '''60–61, 64–65,''' 82–83, 95, 97
| [[Mathematical Operators]] (00–FF)
|-
! 23
| '''02, 0A, 20–21,''' 29–2A
| [[Miscellaneous Technical]] (00–FF)
|-
!rowspan="3"| 25
| '''00, 02, 0C, 10, 14, 18, 1C, 24, 2C, 34, 3C, 50–6C'''
| [[Box Drawing]] (00–7F)
|-
| '''80, 84, 88, 8C, 90–93'''
| [[Block Elements]] (80–9F)
|-
| '''A0–A1, AA–AC, B2, BA, BC, C4, CA–CB, CF, D8–D9, E6'''
| [[Geometric Shapes (Unicode block)|Geometric Shapes]] (A0–FF)
|-
! 26
| '''3A–3C, 40, 42, 60, 63, 65–66, ''6A,'' 6B'''
| [[Miscellaneous Symbols]] (00–FF)
|-
! F0
| (01–02)
| [[Private Use Area (Unicode block)|Private Use Area]] (00–FF ...)
|-
! FB
| '''01–02'''
| [[Alphabetic Presentation Forms]] (00–4F)
|-
! FF
| FD
| [[Specials (Unicode block)|Specials]]
|}

Rendering software that cannot process a Unicode character appropriately often displays it as an open rectangle, or as {{tt|U+FFFD}} to indicate the position of the unrecognized character. Some systems have made attempts to provide more information about such characters. Apple's [[Last Resort font]] will display a substitute glyph indicating the Unicode range of the character, and the [[SIL International]]'s [[Unicode fallback font]] will display a box showing the hexadecimal scalar value of the character.

=== {{anchor|UTF|UCS}}Mapping and encodings ===
Several mechanisms have been specified for storing a series of code points as a series of bytes.


Unicode defines two mapping methods: the '''Unicode Transformation Format''' (UTF) encodings, and the '''[[Universal Coded Character Set]]''' (UCS) encodings. An encoding maps (possibly a subset of) the range of Unicode ''code points'' to sequences of values in some fixed-size range, termed ''code units''. All UTF encodings map code points to a unique sequence of bytes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=UTF-8, UTF-16, UTF-32 & BOM |url=https://unicode.org/faq/utf_bom.html |access-date=12 December 2016 |website=Unicode.org FAQ}}</ref> The numbers in the names of the encodings indicate the number of bits per code unit (for UTF encodings) or the number of bytes per code unit (for UCS encodings and [[UTF-1]]). UTF-8 and UTF-16 are the most commonly used encodings. [[Universal Coded Character Set|UCS-2]] is an obsolete subset of UTF-16; UCS-4 and UTF-32 are functionally equivalent.

UTF encodings include:

* [[UTF-8]], which uses one to four 8-bit units per [[code point]],<ref group=note>a [[code point]] is an abstract representation of an UCS character by an integer between 0 and 1,114,111 (1,114,112 = 220 + 216 or 17 × 216 = 0x110000 code points)</ref> and has maximal compatibility with [[ASCII]]
* [[UTF-16]], which uses one 16-bit unit per code point below {{tt|U+010000}}, and a [[Universal Character Set characters#Surrogates|surrogate pair]] of two 16-bit units per code point in the range {{tt|U+010000}} to {{tt|U+10FFFF}}
* [[UTF-32]], which uses one 32-bit unit per code point
* [[UTF-EBCDIC]], not specified as part of ''The Unicode Standard'', which uses one to five 8-bit units per code point, intended to maximize compatibility with [[EBCDIC]]

UTF-8 uses one to four 8-bit units (''bytes'') per code point and, being compact for Latin scripts and ASCII-compatible, provides the de facto standard encoding for the interchange of Unicode text. It is used by [[FreeBSD]] and most recent [[Linux distributions]] as a direct replacement for legacy encodings in general text handling.

The UCS-2 and UTF-16 encodings specify the Unicode [[byte order mark]] (BOM) for use at the beginnings of text files, which may be used for byte-order detection (or [[endianness|byte endianness]] detection). The BOM, encoded as {{unichar|FEFF|Byte order mark}}, has the important property of unambiguity on byte reorder, regardless of the Unicode encoding used; {{tt|U+FFFE}} (the result of byte-swapping {{tt|U+FEFF}}) does not equate to a legal character, and {{tt|U+FEFF}} in places other than the beginning of text conveys the zero-width non-break space.

The same character converted to UTF-8 becomes the byte sequence <code>EF BB BF</code>. ''The Unicode Standard'' allows the BOM "can serve as a signature for UTF-8 encoded text where the character set is unmarked".<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Unicode Standard, Version 6.2 |publisher=The Unicode Consortium |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-936213-08-5 |page=561}}</ref> Some software developers have adopted it for other encodings, including UTF-8, in an attempt to distinguish UTF-8 from local 8-bit [[code page]]s. However {{IETF RFC|3629}}, the UTF-8 standard, recommends that byte order marks be forbidden in protocols using UTF-8, but discusses the cases where this may not be possible. In addition, the large restriction on possible patterns in UTF-8 (for instance there cannot be any lone bytes with the high bit set) means that it should be possible to distinguish UTF-8 from other character encodings without relying on the BOM.

In UTF-32 and UCS-4, one [[32-bit computing|32-bit]] code unit serves as a fairly direct representation of any character's code point (although the endianness, which varies across different platforms, affects how the code unit manifests as a byte sequence). In the other encodings, each code point may be represented by a variable number of code units. UTF-32 is widely used as an internal representation of text in programs (as opposed to stored or transmitted text), since every Unix operating system that uses the [[GNU Compiler Collection|GCC]] compilers to generate software uses it as the standard "[[wide character]]" encoding. Recent versions of the [[Python (programming language)|Python]] programming language (beginning with 2.2) may also be configured to use UTF-32 as the representation for Unicode strings, effectively disseminating such encoding in [[high-level programming language|high-level]] coded software.

[[Punycode]], another encoding form, enables the encoding of Unicode strings into the limited character set supported by the [[ASCII]]-based [[Domain Name System]] (DNS). The encoding is used as part of [[IDNA]], which is a system enabling the use of [[Internationalized Domain Names]] in all scripts that are supported by Unicode. Earlier and now historical proposals include [[UTF-5]] and [[UTF-6]].

[[GB 18030|GB18030]] is another encoding form for Unicode, from the [[Standardization Administration of China]]. It is the official [[character set]] of the People's Republic of China (PRC). [[Binary Ordered Compression for Unicode|BOCU-1]] and [[Standard Compression Scheme for Unicode|SCSU]] are Unicode compression schemes. The [[April Fools' Day RFC]] of 2005 specified two parody UTF encodings, [[UTF-9]] and [[UTF-18]].

== Adoption ==
{{See also|UTF-8#Implementations and adoption}}
{{Wikibooks|Unicode/Versions}}

Unicode, in the form of [[UTF-8]], has been the most common encoding for the [[World Wide Web]] since 2008.<ref name="markdavis">{{Cite web
| last = Davis
| first = Mark
| author-link = Mark Davis (Unicode)
| title = Moving to Unicode 5.1
| url = https://googleblog.blogspot.com/2008/05/moving-to-unicode-51.html
| date = 2008-05-05
| website = Official Google Blog
| access-date = 2025-04-12
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20250401104941/https://googleblog.blogspot.com/2008/05/moving-to-unicode-51.html
| archive-date = 2025-04-01
| url-status = live
}}</ref> It has near-universal adoption, and much of the non-UTF-8 content is found in other Unicode encodings, e.g. [[UTF-16]]. {{As of|2024}}, UTF-8 accounts for on average 98.3% of all web pages (and 983 of the top 1,000 highest-ranked web pages).<ref name="W3TechsWebEncoding">{{Cite web
| title = Usage Survey of Character Encodings broken down by Ranking
| url = https://w3techs.com/technologies/cross/character_encoding/ranking
| date =
| website = W3Techs
| access-date = 2025-04-12
| language = en
}}</ref> Although many pages only use [[ASCII]] characters to display content, UTF-8 was designed with 8-bit ASCII as a subset and almost no websites now declare their encoding to only be ASCII instead of UTF-8.<ref>{{Cite web
| title = Usage statistics of US-ASCII for websites
| url = https://w3techs.com/technologies/details/en-usascii
| access-date = 1 November 2020
| website = W3Techs
}}</ref> Over a third of the languages tracked have 100% UTF-8 use.

All internet protocols maintained by [[IETF|Internet Engineering Task Force]], e.g. [[File Transfer Protocol|File Transfer Protocol (FTP)]],<ref>{{cite IETF
| rfc = 2640
| author = B. Curtin
| title = Internationalization of the File Transfer Protocol
| date = July 1999
| access-date = 2025-04-12
}}</ref> have required support for UTF-8 since the publication of {{IETF RFC|2277}} in 1998, which specified that all IETF protocols "MUST be able to use the UTF-8 charset".<ref>{{cite IETF
| rfc = 2277
| bcp = 18
| title = IETF Policy on Character Sets and Languages
| author = H. Alvestrand
| date = January 1998
| access-date = 2025-04-12
| archive-url = https://archive.org/details/rfc2277
| archive-date = 2023-01-23
| url-status = live
}}</ref>

=== Operating systems ===
Unicode has become the dominant scheme for the internal processing and storage of text. Although a great deal of text is still stored in legacy encodings, Unicode is used almost exclusively for building new information processing systems. Early adopters tended to use [[Universal Coded Character Set|UCS-2]] (the fixed-length two-byte obsolete precursor to UTF-16) and later moved to [[UTF-16]] (the variable-length current standard), as this was the least disruptive way to add support for non-BMP characters. The best known such system is [[Windows NT]] (and its descendants, [[Windows 2000|2000]], [[Windows XP|XP]], [[Windows Vista|Vista]], [[Windows 7|7]], [[Windows 8|8]], [[Windows 10|10]], and [[Windows 11|11]]), which uses UTF-16 as the sole internal character encoding. The [[Java virtual machine|Java]] and [[.NET Framework|.NET]] bytecode environments, [[macOS]], and [[KDE]] also use it for internal representation. Partial support for Unicode can be installed on [[Windows 9x]] through the Microsoft Layer for Unicode.

[[UTF-8]] (originally developed for [[Plan 9 from Bell Labs|Plan 9]])<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pike |first=Rob |author-link=Rob Pike |date=30 April 2003 |title=UTF-8 history |url=https://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~mgk25/ucs/utf-8-history.txt}}</ref> has become the main storage encoding on most [[Unix-like]] operating systems (though others are also used by some libraries) because it is a relatively easy replacement for traditional [[extended ASCII]] character sets. UTF-8 is also the most common Unicode encoding used in [[HTML]] documents on the [[World Wide Web]].

Multilingual text-rendering engines which use Unicode include [[Uniscribe]] and [[DirectWrite]] for Microsoft Windows, [[ATSUI]] and [[Core Text]] for macOS, and [[Pango]] for [[GTK+]] and the [[GNOME]] desktop.

=== Input methods ===
{{Main|Unicode input}}

Because keyboard layouts cannot have simple key combinations for all characters, several operating systems provide alternative input methods that allow access to the entire repertoire.

[[ISO/IEC 14755]],<ref>{{Cite web
| title = ISO/IEC JTC1/SC 18/WG 9 N
| url = https://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~mgk25/volatile/ISO-14755.pdf
| access-date = 2025-04-12
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20250122223453/https://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~mgk25/volatile/ISO-14755.pdf
| archive-date = 2025-01-22
| url-status = live
}}</ref> which standardises methods for entering Unicode characters from their code points, specifies several methods. There is the ''Basic method'', where a ''beginning sequence'' is followed by the hexadecimal representation of the code point and the ''ending sequence''. There is also a ''screen-selection entry method'' specified, where the characters are listed in a table on a screen, such as with a character map program.

Online tools for finding the code point for a known character include Unicode Lookup<ref>{{Cite web
| surname = Hedley
| given = Jonathan
| year = 2009
| title = Unicode Lookup
| url = https://unicodelookup.com/
| access-date = 2025-04-12
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20250330001809/https://unicodelookup.com/
| archive-date = 2025-03-30
| url-status = live
}}</ref> by Jonathan Hedley and Shapecatcher<ref>{{Cite web
| surname = Milde
| given = Benjamin
| title = Unicode Character Recognition
| url = https://shapecatcher.com/
| year = 2025
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20250402224851/https://shapecatcher.com/
| archive-date = 2025-04-02
| url-status = live
}}</ref> by Benjamin Milde. In Unicode Lookup, one enters a search key (e.g. "fractions"), and a list of corresponding characters with their code points is returned. In Shapecatcher, based on [[Shape context]], one draws the character in a box and a list of characters approximating the drawing, with their code points, is returned.

=== Email ===
{{Main|Unicode and email}}

[[MIME]] defines two different mechanisms for encoding non-ASCII characters in email, depending on whether the characters are in email headers (such as the "Subject:"), or in the text body of the message; in both cases, the original character set is identified as well as a transfer encoding. For email transmission of Unicode, the [[UTF-8]] character set and the [[Base64]] or the [[Quoted-printable]] transfer encoding are recommended, depending on whether much of the message consists of [[ASCII]] characters. The details of the two different mechanisms are specified in the MIME standards and generally are hidden from users of email software.

The IETF has defined<ref>{{cite IETF
| rfc = 4952
| title = Overview and Framework for Internationalized Email
| author1 = J. Klensin
| author2 = Y. Ko
| date = July 2007
| access-date = 17 August 2022
}}</ref><ref>{{cite IETF
| rfc = 6530
| title = Overview and Framework for Internationalized Email
| author1 = J. Klensin
| author2 = Y. Ko
| date = February 2012
| access-date = 17 August 2022
}}</ref> a framework for internationalized email using UTF-8, and has updated<ref>{{cite IETF
| rfc = 6531
| title = SMTP Extension for Internationalized Email
| author1 = J. Yao
| author2 = W. Mao
| date = February 2012
| access-date = 17 August 2022
}}</ref><ref>{{cite IETF
| rfc = 6532
| title = Internationalized Email Headers
| author1 = A. Yang
| author2 = S. Steele
| author3 = N. Freed
| date = February 2012
| access-date = 17 August 2022
}}</ref><ref>{{cite IETF
| rfc = 5255
| title = Internet Message Access Protocol Internationalization
| author1 = C. Newman
| author2 = A. Gulbrandsen
| author3 = A. Melnikov
| date = June 2008
| access-date = 17 August 2022
}}</ref><ref>{{cite IETF
| rfc = 5721
| title = POP3 Support for UTF-8
| author1 = R. Gellens
| author2 = C. Newman
| date = February 2010
| access-date = 17 August 2022
}}</ref> several protocols in accordance with that framework.

The adoption of Unicode in email has been very slow.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}} Some East Asian text is still encoded in encodings such as [[ISO-2022]], and some devices, such as mobile phones,{{citation needed|reason=is this outdated?|date=November 2022}} still cannot correctly handle Unicode data. Support has been improving, however. Many major free mail providers such as [[Yahoo! Mail]], [[Gmail]], and [[Outlook.com]] support it.

=== Web ===
{{Main|Unicode and HTML}}

All [[W3C]] recommendations have used Unicode as their ''document character set'' since HTML 4.0. [[Web browser]]s have supported Unicode, especially UTF-8, for many years. There used to be display problems resulting primarily from [[typeface|font]] related issues; e.g. v6 and older of Microsoft [[Internet Explorer]] did not render many code points unless explicitly told to use a font that contains them.<ref>{{Cite web
| last = Wood
| first = Alan
| title = Setting up Windows Internet Explorer 5, 5.5 and 6 for Multilingual and Unicode Support: ''Options for enabling Unicode in Internet Explorer 5, 5.5 and 6: Fonts (IE 5, 5.5 and 6)''
| url = https://www.alanwood.net/unicode/explorer.html#ie5
| publisher = Alan Wood
| date = 2005-09-13
| access-date = 2025-04-12
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20250120141644/https://www.alanwood.net/unicode/explorer.html#ie5
| archive-date = 2025-01-20
| url-status = live
}}</ref>

Although syntax rules may affect the order in which characters are allowed to appear, [[XML]] (including [[XHTML]]) documents, by definition,<ref>{{Cite web
| title = Extensible Markup Language (XML) 1.1 (Second Edition)
| url = https://www.w3.org/TR/xml11
| publisher = [[World Wide Web Consortium]]
| date = 2006-09-29
| access-date = 2025-04-12
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20250405204806/https://www.w3.org/TR/xml11/
| archive-date = 2025-04-05
| url-status = live
}}</ref> comprise characters from most of the Unicode code points, with the exception of:

* FFFE or FFFF.
* most of the [[C0 and C1 control codes|C0 control codes]],
* the permanently unassigned code points D800–DFFF,

HTML characters manifest either directly as [[byte]]s according to the document's encoding, if the encoding supports them, or users may write them as numeric character references based on the character's Unicode code point. For example, the references <code>&#916;</code>, <code>&#1049;</code>, <code>&#1511;</code>, <code>&#1605;</code>, <code>&#3671;</code>, <code>&#12354;</code>, <code>&#21494;</code>, <code>&#33865;</code>, and <code>&#47568;</code> (or the same numeric values expressed in hexadecimal, with <code>&#x</code> as the prefix) should display on all browsers as Δ, Й, ק ,م, ๗, あ, 叶, 葉, and 말.

When specifying [[Uniform Resource Identifier|URIs]], for example as [[URL]]s in [[HTTP]] requests, non-ASCII characters must be [[percent encoding|percent-encoded]].

=== Fonts ===
{{Main|Unicode font}}

Unicode is not in principle concerned with fonts ''per se'', seeing them as implementation choices.<ref>{{Cite journal
| last1 = Bigelow
| first1 = Charles
| last2 = Holmes
| first2 = Kris
| date = September 1993
| title = The design of a Unicode font
| url = http://cajun.cs.nott.ac.uk/wiley/journals/epobetan/pdf/volume6/issue3/bigelow.pdf
| journal = Electronic Publishing
| issn = 0894-3982
| volume = 6
| issue = 3
| page = 292
| access-date = 2025-04-12
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20250216000657/http://cajun.cs.nott.ac.uk/wiley/journals/epobetan/pdf/volume6/issue3/bigelow.pdf
| archive-date = 2025-02-16
| url-status = live
}}</ref> Any given character may have many [[allograph]]s, from the more common bold, italic and base letterforms to complex decorative styles. A font is "Unicode compliant" if the glyphs in the font can be accessed using code points defined in ''The Unicode Standard''.<ref>{{Cite web
| title = FAQs: Fonts and keyboards: ''Fonts and Unicode''
| url = https://www.unicode.org/faq/font_keyboard.html
| date =
| access-date = 2025-04-12
| publisher = [[Unicode Consortium]]
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20250306103512/https://www.unicode.org/faq/font_keyboard.html
| archive-date = 2025-03-06
| url-status = live
}}</ref> The standard does not specify a minimum number of characters that must be included in the font; some fonts have quite a small repertoire.

Free and retail [[font]]s based on Unicode are widely available, since [[TrueType]] and [[OpenType]] support Unicode (and [[Web Open Font Format]] (WOFF and [[WOFF2]]) is based on those). These font formats map Unicode code points to glyphs, but OpenType and TrueType font files are restricted to 65,535 glyphs. Collection files provide a "gap mode" mechanism for overcoming this limit in a single font file. (Each font within the collection still has the 65,535 limit, however.) A TrueType Collection file would typically have a file extension of ".ttc".

[[List of typefaces|Thousands of fonts]] exist on the market, but fewer than a dozen fonts—sometimes described as "pan-Unicode" fonts—attempt to support the majority of Unicode's character repertoire. Instead, Unicode-based [[List of Unicode fonts|fonts]] typically focus on supporting only basic ASCII and particular scripts or sets of characters or symbols. Several reasons justify this approach: applications and documents rarely need to render characters from more than one or two writing systems; fonts tend to demand resources in computing environments; and operating systems and applications show increasing intelligence in regard to obtaining glyph information from separate font files as needed, i.e., [[font substitution]]. Furthermore, designing a consistent set of rendering instructions for tens of thousands of glyphs constitutes a monumental task; such a venture passes the point of [[diminishing returns]] for most typefaces.

=== Newlines ===
Unicode partially addresses the [[newline]] problem that occurs when trying to read a text file on different platforms. Unicode defines a large number of [[Newline#Unicode|characters]] that conforming applications should recognize as line terminators.

In terms of the newline, Unicode introduced {{unichar|2028|LINE SEPARATOR}} and {{unichar|2029|PARAGRAPH SEPARATOR}}. This was an attempt to provide a Unicode solution to encoding paragraphs and lines semantically, potentially replacing all of the various platform solutions. In doing so, Unicode does provide a way around the historical platform-dependent solutions. Nonetheless, few if any Unicode solutions have adopted these Unicode line and paragraph separators as the sole canonical line ending characters. However, a common approach to solving this issue is through newline normalization. This is achieved with the [[Cocoa text system]] in [[Mac OS X|macOS]] and also with W3C XML and HTML recommendations. In this approach, every possible newline character is converted internally to a common newline (which one does not really matter since it is an internal operation just for rendering). In other words, the text system can correctly treat the character as a newline, regardless of the input's actual encoding.

== Issues ==
=== Character unification ===
==== Han unification ====
{{Main|Han unification}}

The [[Ideographic Research Group]] (IRG) is tasked with advising the Consortium and ISO regarding Han unification, or Unihan, especially the further addition of CJK unified and compatibility ideographs to the repertoire. The IRG is composed of experts from each region that has historically used [[Chinese characters]]. However, despite the deliberation within the committee, Han unification has consistently been one of the most contested aspects of ''The Unicode Standard'' since the genesis of the project.<ref>[http://tronweb.super-nova.co.jp/characcodehist.html A Brief History of Character Codes], Steven J. Searle, originally written [https://web.archive.org/web/20001216022100/http://tronweb.super-nova.co.jp/characcodehist.html 1999], last updated 2004</ref>

Existing character set standards such as the Japanese [[JIS X 0208]] (encoded by [[Shift JIS]]) defined unification criteria, meaning rules for determining when a [[variant Chinese character]] is to be considered a handwriting/font difference (and thus unified), versus a spelling difference (to be encoded separately). Unicode's character model for CJK characters was based on the unification criteria used by JIS X 0208, as well as those developed by the Association for a Common Chinese Code in China.<ref name="tus-appe">{{cite web |url=https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode16.0.0/core-spec/appendix-e/ |title=Appendix E: Han Unification History |work=The Unicode Standard Version 16.0 – Core Specification |publisher=[[Unicode Consortium]] |date=2024}}</ref>

Due to the standard's principle of encoding semantic instead of stylistic variants, Unicode has received criticism for not assigning code points to certain rare and archaic [[kanji]] variants, possibly complicating processing of ancient and uncommon Japanese names. Since it places particular emphasis on Chinese, Japanese and Korean sharing many characters in common, Han unification is also sometimes perceived as treating the three as the same thing.<ref name="dw2001">{{Cite web |last = Topping |first = Suzanne |date=2013-06-25 |title=The secret life of Unicode |website=[[IBM]] |url=https://www.ibm.com/developerworks/library/u-secret.html |access-date=20 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130625062705/http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/library/u-secret.html |archive-date=25 June 2013 }}</ref> Regional differences in the expected forms of characters, in terms of typographical conventions and curricula for handwriting, do not always fall along language boundaries: although [[Hong Kong]] and [[Taiwan]] both write [[Chinese languages]] using [[Traditional Chinese]] characters, the preferred forms of characters differ between Hong Kong and Taiwan in some cases.<ref name="irgn2074">{{cite web |url=https://www.unicode.org/irg/docs/n2074-HKCS.pdf |id=[[ISO/IEC JTC 1|ISO/IEC JTC1]]/[[ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 2|SC2]]/WG2/[[Ideographic Research Group|IRG]] N2074 |last=Lu |first=Qin |title=The Proposed Hong Kong Character Set |date=2015-06-08}}</ref>

Less-frequently-used alternative encodings exist, often predating Unicode, with character models differing from this paradigm, aimed at preserving the various stylistic differences between regional and/or nonstandard character forms. One example is the [[TRON (encoding)|TRON Code]] favored by some users for handling historical Japanese text, though not widely adopted among the Japanese public. Another is the [[CCCII]] encoding adopted by library systems in [[Hong Kong]], [[Taiwan]] and the [[United States]]. These have their own drawbacks in general use, leading to the [[Big5]] encoding (introduced in 1984, four years after CCCII) having become more common than CCCII outside of library systems.<ref name="hanazono">{{cite web |url=http://kura.hanazono.ac.jp/paper/codes.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041012135645/http://kura.hanazono.ac.jp/paper/codes.html |archive-date=2004-10-12 |url-status=dead |title=Chinese character codes: an update |first=Christian |last=Wittern |date=1995-05-01 |publisher=International Research Institute for Zen Buddhism / [[Hanazono University]]}}</ref> Although work at [[Apple Computer|Apple]] based on [[Research Libraries Group]]'s CJK Thesaurus, which was used to maintain the EACC variant of CCCII, was one of the direct predecessors of Unicode's [[Unihan]] set, Unicode adopted the JIS-style unification model.<ref name="tus-appe"/>

The earliest version of Unicode had a repertoire of fewer than 21,000 Han characters, largely limited to those in relatively common modern usage. As of version 17.0, the standard now encodes more than 101,000 Han characters, and work is continuing to add thousands more—largely historical and dialectal variant characters used throughout the [[Sinosphere]].

Modern typefaces provide a means to address some of the practical issues in depicting unified Han characters with various regional graphical representations. The 'locl' [[OpenType]] table allows a renderer to select a different glyph for each code point based on the text locale.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 February 2023 |title=Noto CJK fonts |url=https://github.com/notofonts/noto-cjk/blob/main/Serif/README.md |publisher=Noto Fonts |quote=Select this deployment format if your system supports variable fonts and you prefer to use only one language, but also want full character coverage or the ability to language-tag text to use glyphs that are appropriate for the other languages (this requires an app that supports language tagging and the OpenType 'locl' GSUB feature).}}</ref> The [[variation Selectors|Unicode variation sequences]] can also provide in-text annotations for a desired glyph selection; this requires registration of the specific variant in the [[Ideographic Variation Database]].

==== Italic or cursive characters in Cyrillic ====
[[File:Cyrillic cursive.svg|class=skin-invert-image|thumb|right|Various [[Cyrillic]] characters shown with upright, oblique, and italic alternate forms]]
If the appropriate glyphs for characters in the same script differ only in the italic, Unicode has generally unified them, as can be seen in the comparison among a set of seven characters' italic glyphs as typically appearing in Russian, traditional Bulgarian, Macedonian, and Serbian texts at right, meaning that the differences are displayed through smart font technology or manually changing fonts. The same OpenType 'locl' technique is used.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Preuss |first=Ingo |title=OpenType Feature: locl – Localized Forms |url=https://www.preusstype.com/techdata/otf_locl.php |website=preusstype.com |language=en}}</ref>

==== Localised case pairs ====
For use in the [[Turkish alphabet]] and [[Azeri alphabet]], Unicode includes a separate [[dotless I|dotless lowercase {{serif|I}}]] (ı) and a [[İ|dotted uppercase {{serif|I}}]] ({{serif|İ}}). However, the usual ASCII letters are used for the lowercase dotted i and the uppercase dotless {{serif|I}}, matching how they are handled in the earlier [[ISO 8859-9]]. As such, case-insensitive comparisons for those languages have to use different rules than case-insensitive comparisons for other languages using the Latin script.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.unicode.org/Public/UCD/latest/ucd/CaseFolding.txt |work=Unicode Character Database |title=Case Folding Properties |institution=[[Unicode Consortium]] |date=2025-07-30}}</ref><ref name="microsoft-case-insensitive-locale">{{cite web |url=https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/dotnet/standard/base-types/regular-expression-options#compare-using-the-invariant-culture |title=Regular expression options § Compare using the invariant culture |work=[[.NET]] fundamentals documentation |publisher=[[Microsoft]] |date=2023-05-12}}</ref> This can have security implications if, for example, [[Code injection#Preventing Code Injection|sanitization]] code or [[access control]] relies on case-insensitive comparison.<ref name="microsoft-case-insensitive-locale"/>

By contrast, the [[ð|Icelandic eth (ð)]], the [[đ|barred D (đ)]] and the [[ɖ|retroflex D (ɖ)]], which usually{{efn|Rarely, the uppercase Icelandic eth may instead be written in an [[insular script|insular]] style (Ꝺ) with the crossbar positioned on the stem, particularly if it needs to be distinguished from the uppercase retroflex D (see [[African Reference Alphabet]]).|group=note}} look the same in uppercase (Đ), are given the opposite treatment, and encoded separately in both letter-cases (in contrast to the earlier [[ISO 6937]], which unifies the uppercase forms). Although it allows for case-insensitive comparison without needing to know the language of the text, this approach also has issues, requiring security measures relating to [[homoglyph]] attacks.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://unicode.org/Public/security/latest/confusablesSummary.txt |title=confusablesSummary.txt |work=Unicode Security Mechanisms for UTS #39 |date=2023-08-11 |institution=[[Unicode Consortium]]}}</ref>

==== Diacritics on lowercase {{serif|I}} ====
[[File:I acute - soft dotted and Lithuanian dot.svg|class=skin-invert-image|thumb|right|Localised forms of the letter í ({{serif|I}} with [[acute accent]])]]
Whether the lowercase letter {{serif|I}} is expected to retain its [[tittle]] when a diacritic applies also depends on local conventions.

=== Security ===
Unicode has a large number of [[homoglyphs]], many of which look very similar or identical to ASCII letters. Substitution of these can make an identifier or URL that looks correct, but directs to a different location than expected.<ref>{{Cite web |title=UTR #36: Unicode Security Considerations |url=https://unicode.org/reports/tr36/ |website=Unicode}}</ref> Additionally, homoglyphs can also be used for manipulating the output of [[NLP (computer science)|natural language processing (NLP)]] systems.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Boucher |first1=Nicholas |last2=Shumailov |first2=Ilia |last3=Anderson |first3=Ross |last4=Papernot |first4=Nicolas |title=2022 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy (SP) |chapter=Bad Characters: Imperceptible NLP Attacks |year=2022 |location=San Francisco, CA, US |publisher=IEEE |pages=1987–2004 |arxiv=2106.09898 |doi=10.1109/SP46214.2022.9833641 |isbn=978-1-66541-316-9 |s2cid=235485405}}</ref> Mitigation requires disallowing these characters, displaying them differently, or requiring that they resolve to the same identifier;<ref>{{Cite web |last=Engineering |first=Spotify |date=2013-06-18 |title=Creative usernames and Spotify account hijacking |url=https://engineering.atspotify.com/2013/06/creative-usernames/ |access-date=2023-04-15 |website=Spotify Engineering |language=en-US}}</ref> all of this is complicated due to the huge and constantly changing set of characters.<ref>{{cite tech report | last=Wheeler | first=David A. | title=Initial Analysis of Underhanded Source Code | year=2020 | jstor=resrep25332.7 | url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep25332.7 | page=4–1–4–10}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=UTR #36: Unicode Security Considerations |url=https://unicode.org/reports/tr36/ |access-date=27 June 2022 |website=Unicode}}</ref>

A security advisory was released in 2021 by two researchers, one from the [[University of Cambridge]] and the other from the [[University of Edinburgh]], in which they assert that the [[Bidirectional Text#Bidirectional text#Explicit formatting|BiDi marks]] can be used to make large sections of code do something different from what they appear to do. The problem was named "[[Trojan Source]]".<ref>{{Cite web |first1=Nicholas |last1=Boucher |first2=Ross |last2=Anderson |title=Trojan Source: Invisible Vulnerabilities |url=https://www.trojansource.codes/trojan-source.pdf |access-date=2 November 2021}}</ref> In response, code editors started highlighting marks to indicate forced text-direction changes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Visual Studio Code October 2021 |url=https://code.visualstudio.com/updates/v1_62#_unicode-directional-formatting-characters |access-date=11 November 2021 |website=code.visualstudio.com |language=en}}</ref>

The [[UTF-8]] and [[UTF-16]] encodings do not accept all possible sequences of code units. Implementations vary in what they do when reading an invalid sequence, which has led to security bugs.<ref>{{Cite web |first1=Dominique|last1= Dittert |title=From Unicode to Exploit: The Security Risks of Overlong UTF-8 Encodings |date= 6 September 2024 |url=https://herolab.usd.de/en/the-security-risks-of-overlong-utf-8-encodings/ |access-date=26 December 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |first1=Kevin|last1= Boone |title= UTF-8 and the problem of over-long characters|url= https://kevinboone.me/overlong.html |access-date=26 December 2024}}</ref>

=== Mapping to legacy character sets ===
Unicode was designed to provide code-point-by-code-point [[round-trip format conversion]] to and from any preexisting character encodings, so that text files in older character sets can be converted to Unicode and then back and get back the same file, without employing context-dependent interpretation. That has meant that inconsistent legacy architectures, such as [[combining character|combining diacritics]] and [[precomposed character]]s, both exist in Unicode, giving more than one method of representing some text. This is most pronounced in the three different encoding forms for Korean [[Hangul]]. Since version 3.0, any precomposed characters that can be represented by a combined sequence of already existing characters can no longer be added to the standard to preserve interoperability between software using different versions of Unicode.

[[Injective]] mappings must be provided between characters in existing legacy character sets and characters in Unicode to facilitate conversion to Unicode and allow interoperability with legacy software. Lack of consistency in various mappings between earlier Japanese encodings such as [[Shift-JIS]] or [[EUC-JP]] and Unicode led to [[round-trip format conversion]] mismatches, particularly the mapping of the character JIS X 0208 '～' (1-33, WAVE DASH), heavily used in legacy database data, to either {{unichar|FF5E|FULLWIDTH TILDE}} (in [[Microsoft Windows]]) or {{unichar|301C|WAVE DASH}} (other vendors).<ref>[http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n2166.doc AFII contribution about WAVE DASH], {{Cite web |date=22 April 2011 |title=An Unicode vendor-specific character table for japanese |url=http://www.ingrid.org/java/i18n/unicode.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110422181018/http://www.ingrid.org/java/i18n/unicode.html |archive-date=22 April 2011 |access-date=2019-05-20 }}</ref>

Some Japanese computer programmers objected to Unicode because it requires them to separate the use of {{unichar|005C|REVERSE SOLIDUS|note=backslash}} and {{unichar|00A5|YEN SIGN}}, which was mapped to 0x5C in JIS X 0201, and a lot of legacy code exists with this usage.<ref>[https://www.debian.org/doc/manuals/intro-i18n/ch-codes.en.html#s-646problem ''ISO 646-* Problem''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190423113850/https://www.debian.org/doc/manuals/intro-i18n/ch-codes.en.html#s-646problem |date=2019-04-23 }}, Section 4.4.3.5 of ''Introduction to I18n'', Tomohiro Kubota, 2001</ref> (This encoding also replaces tilde '~' 0x7E with macron '¯', now 0xAF.) The separation of these characters exists in [[ISO 8859-1]], from long before Unicode.

=== Indic scripts ===
{{further|Tamil All Character Encoding}}
[[Indic script]]s such as [[Tamil script|Tamil]] and [[Devanagari]] are each allocated only 128 code points, matching the [[ISCII]] standard. The correct rendering of Unicode Indic text requires transforming the stored logical order characters into visual order and the forming of ligatures (also known as conjuncts) out of components. Some local scholars argued in favor of assignments of Unicode code points to these ligatures, going against the practice for other writing systems, though Unicode contains some Arabic and other ligatures for backward compatibility purposes only.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Arabic Presentation Forms-A |url=https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/UFB50.pdf |access-date=20 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Arabic Presentation Forms-B |url=https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/UFE70.pdf |access-date=20 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Alphabetic Presentation Forms |url=https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/UFB00.pdf |access-date=20 March 2010}}</ref> Encoding of any new ligatures in Unicode will not happen, in part, because the set of ligatures is font-dependent, and Unicode is an encoding independent of font variations. The same kind of issue arose for the [[Tibetan script]] in 2003 when the [[Standardization Administration of China]] proposed encoding 956 precomposed Tibetan syllables,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 December 2002 |title=Proposal on Tibetan BrdaRten Characters Encoding for ISO/IEC 10646 in BMP |url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2002/02455-n2558-tibetan.pdf}}</ref> but these were rejected for encoding by the relevant ISO committee ([[ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 2]]).<ref>{{Cite web |first1=V. S. |last1=Umamaheswaran |date=7 November 2003 |title=Resolutions of WG 2 meeting 44 |url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2003/03390r-n2654.pdf |at=Resolution M44.20}}</ref>

[[Thai alphabet]] support has been criticized for its ordering of Thai characters. The vowels เ, แ, โ, ใ, ไ that are written to the left of the preceding consonant are in visual order instead of phonetic order, unlike the Unicode representations of other Indic scripts. This complication is due to Unicode inheriting the [[TIS-620|Thai Industrial Standard 620]], which worked in the same way, and was the way in which Thai had always been written on keyboards. This ordering problem complicates the Unicode collation process slightly, requiring table lookups to reorder Thai characters for collation.<ref name="dw2001" /> Even if Unicode had adopted encoding according to spoken order, it would still be problematic to collate words in dictionary order. E.g., the word {{Wikt-lang|th|แสดง}} {{IPA|th|sa dɛːŋ|}} "perform" starts with a consonant cluster "สด" (with an inherent vowel for the consonant "ส"), the vowel แ-, in spoken order would come after the ด, but in a dictionary, the word is collated as it is written, with the vowel following the ส.

=== Combining characters ===
{{Main|Combining character}}
{{See also|Unicode normalization#Normalization}}

Characters with diacritical marks can generally be represented either as a single precomposed character or as a decomposed sequence of a base letter plus one or more non-spacing marks. For example, ḗ (precomposed e with macron and acute above) and ḗ (e followed by the combining macron above and combining acute above) should be rendered identically, both appearing as an [[e]] with a [[Macron (diacritic)|macron]] (◌̄) and [[acute accent]] (◌́), but in practice, their appearance may vary depending upon what rendering engine and fonts are being used to display the characters. Similarly, [[dot (diacritic)|underdots]], as needed in the [[romanization]] of [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indic languages]], will often be placed incorrectly.{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}} Unicode characters that map to precomposed glyphs can be used in many cases, thus avoiding the problem, but where no precomposed character has been encoded, the problem can often be solved by using a specialist Unicode font such as [[Charis SIL]] that uses [[Graphite (SIL)|Graphite]], [[OpenType]] ('gsub'), or [[Apple Advanced Typography|AAT]] technologies for advanced rendering features.

=== Anomalies ===
{{Main|Unicode alias names and abbreviations}}

''The Unicode Standard'' has imposed rules intended to guarantee stability.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/policies/stability_policy.html|title=Character Encoding Stability|website=Unicode |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240101053402/https://www.unicode.org/policies/stability_policy.html |archive-date= Jan 1, 2024 }}</ref> Depending on the strictness of a rule, a change can be prohibited or allowed. For example, a "name" given to a code point cannot and will not change. But a "script" property is more flexible, by Unicode's own rules. In version 2.0, Unicode changed many code point "names" from version 1. At the same moment, Unicode stated that, thenceforth, an assigned name to a code point would never change. This implies that when mistakes are published, these mistakes cannot be corrected, even if they are trivial (as happened in one instance with the spelling {{sc2|{{typo|BRAKCET}}}} for {{sc2|BRACKET}} in a character name). In 2006 a list of anomalies in character names was first published, and, as of June 2021, there were 104 characters with identified issues,<ref name="tn27">{{Cite web |date=14 June 2021 |title=Unicode Technical Note #27: Known Anomalies in Unicode Character Names |url=https://unicode.org/notes/tn27/ |website=Unicode}}</ref> for example:

* {{unichar|034F|COMBINING GRAPHEME JOINER|nlink=Combining grapheme joiner}}: Does not join graphemes.<ref name="tn27" />
* {{unichar|2118|script capital p|nlink=Weierstrass p}}: This is a small letter. The capital is {{unichar|1D4AB|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL P}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U2100.pdf|title=Unicode chart: "actually this has the form of a lowercase calligraphic p, despite its name"}}</ref>
* {{unichar|A015|YI SYLLABLE WU|nlink=Yi language}}: This is not a Yi syllable, but a Yi iteration mark.
* {{unichar|FE18|PRESENTATION FORM FOR VERTICAL RIGHT WHITE LENTICULAR {{typo|BRAKCET}}}}: ''bracket'' is spelled incorrectly.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/UFE10.pdf|title=Misspelling of BRACKET in character name is a known defect}}</ref> (Spelling errors are resolved by using [[Unicode alias names and abbreviations|Unicode alias names]].)

While Unicode defines the script designator (name) to be "{{tt|[[ʼPhags-pa script|Phags_Pa]]}}", in that script's character names, a hyphen is added: {{Unichar|A840|PHAGS-PA LETTER KA}}.<ref name=USA24>{{Cite web |year=2021 |title=Unicode Standard Annex #24: Unicode Script Property |url=https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr24/ |access-date=29 April 2022 |publisher=The Unicode Consortium |at=2.2 Relation to ISO 15924 Codes}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |year=2025 |title=Scripts.txt |url=https://www.unicode.org/Public/UCD/latest/ucd/Scripts.txt |access-date=21 September 2025 |publisher=The Unicode Consortium}}</ref> This, however, is not an anomaly, but the rule: hyphens are replaced by underscores in script designators.<ref name=USA24 />

== See also ==
* [[Comparison of Unicode encodings]]
* [[International Components for Unicode]] (ICU), now as ICU-<abbr title="technical committee">TC</abbr> a part of Unicode
* [[List of binary codes]]
* [[List of Unicode characters]]
* [[List of XML and HTML character entity references]]
* [[Lotus Multi-Byte Character Set]] (LMBCS), a parallel development with similar intentions
* [[Open-source Unicode typefaces]]
* [[Religious and political symbols in Unicode]]
* [[Standards related to Unicode]]
* [[Unicode symbol]]
* [[Universal Coded Character Set]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist|group=note}}

== References ==
{{notelist-ua|refs=standard-latest}}
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin}}
* Julie D. Allen. ''The Unicode Standard, Version 6.0'', The [[Unicode Consortium]], Mountain View, 2011, {{ISBN|9781936213016}}, ([https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode6.0.0/ Unicode 6.0.0]).
* ''The Complete Manual of Typography'', James Felici, Adobe Press; 1st edition, 2002. {{ISBN|0-321-12730-7}}
* ''The Unicode Standard, Version 3.0'', The Unicode Consortium, Addison-Wesley Longman, Inc., April 2000. {{ISBN|0-201-61633-5}}
* ''The Unicode Standard, Version 4.0'', The Unicode Consortium, Addison-Wesley Professional, 27 August 2003. {{ISBN|0-321-18578-1}}
* ''The Unicode Standard, Version 5.0, Fifth Edition'', The [[Unicode Consortium]], Addison-Wesley Professional, 27 October 2006. {{ISBN|0-321-48091-0}}
* ''Unicode Demystified: A Practical Programmer's Guide to the Encoding Standard'', Richard Gillam, Addison-Wesley Professional; 1st edition, 2002. {{ISBN|0-201-70052-2}}
* ''Unicode Explained'', Jukka K. Korpela, O'Reilly; 1st edition, 2006. {{ISBN|0-596-10121-X}}
* ''Unicode: A Primer'', Tony Graham, M&T books, 2000. {{ISBN|0-7645-4625-2}}.
{{refend}}
* {{Cite book |first1=Yannis |last1=Haralambous |url=https://doi.org/10.36824/2018-graf-hara1 |title=Proceedings of Graphemics in the 21st Century, Brest 2018 |last2=Martin Dürst |date=2019 |publisher=Fluxus Editions |isbn=978-2-9570549-1-6 |editor-last=Haralambous |editor-first=Yannis |location=Brest |pages=167–183 |chapter=Unicode from a Linguistic Point of View |doi=10.36824/2018-graf-hara1}}

== External links ==
{{sister project links|Unicode|auto=yes}}
* [https://home.unicode.org Unicode, Inc.]
** [https://unicode.org/main.html Unicode Technical Site]
*** [https://www.unicode.org/versions/latest The Unicode Standard]
**** [https://www.unicode.org/charts Unicode Character Code Charts]
**** [https://www.unicode.org/charts/charindex.html Unicode Character Name Index]
* [https://www.alanwood.net/unicode Alan Wood's Unicode Resources]{{snd}} contains lists of word processors with Unicode capability; fonts and characters are grouped by type; characters are presented in lists, not grids.
* [https://scripts.sil.org/cms/scripts/page.php?site_id=nrsi&id=UnicodeBMPFallbackFont Unicode BMP Fallback Font] – displays the Unicode 6.1 value of any character in a document, including in the Private Use Area, rather than the glyph itself.
* [https://www.worldswritingsystems.org The World's Writing Systems], all 293 known writing systems with their Unicode status (128 not yet encoded {{as of|2024|06|lc=on}})

{{Unicode navigation|state=uncollapsed}}
{{Character encoding}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Unicode| ]]
[[Category:Character encoding]]
[[Category:Digital typography]]
[[Category:Public-domain software with source code]]

Shrenu Parikh

2026-03-12T16:41:12Z

Joseph Patricio: minor cleanup

{{short description|Indian actress (born 1989)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2022}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Shrenu Parikh
| image = Shrenu Parikh at Golmaal-Again-ABP-bash-for-Saas-Bahu-Aur-Saazish-18 (cropped).jpg
| caption = Parikh in 2017
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1989|11|11}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Exclusive: Shrenu Parikh celebrates her birthday with Ishqbaaaz bestie Mansi Srivastava |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/videos/tv/hindi/exclusive-shrenu-parikh-celebrates-her-birthday-with-ishqbaaz-bestie-mansi-srivastava/videoshow/71994584.cms |website=The Times of India |language=en |access-date=11 November 2021}}</ref>
| birth_place = [[Vadodara]], [[Gujarat]], India
| occupation = Actress
| years_active = 2010–present
| known for = [[Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon? Ek Baar Phir]] and
[[Ishqbaaz]]
| spouse = Akshay Mhatre (m.2023)
}}

'''Shrenu Parikh Mhatre''' ({{IPA|hns|ˈʃɾeːnu ˈpaːɾɪkʰ|pron}}; born 11 November 1989) is an Indian actress. Parikh gained notable roles for her portrayal as Aastha Agnihotri in the [[StarPlus]] romantic drama series ''[[Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon? Ek Baar Phir]]'' (2013–2015) and Gauri Trivedi Singh Oberoi in the drama series ''[[Ishqbaaaz]]'' (2017–2018).

Parikh made her first film debut in 2017 and appeared in her second film in 2018. She continued starring in television series playing the deceptive and vengeful Jhanvi Mittal in ''[[Ek Bhram...Sarvagun Sampanna]]'' (2019), a faithful Genda Agrawal in ''Ghar Ek Mandir – Kripa Agrasen Maharaj Ki'' (2021–2022), and ''[[Maitree (TV series)|Maitree]]'' (2023).

==Early life and education==
Parikh was born on 11 November 1989<ref>{{Cite web |title=Here's how Ishqbaaz actress Shrenu Parikh celebrated her birthday; see video |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/television/video/heres-how-ishqbaaz-actress-shrenu-parikh-celebrated-her-birthday-lifetv-1084432-2017-11-11 |website=India Today |language=en |accessdate=11 November 2021}}</ref><ref name="unknown facts">{{Cite web |title=Happy Birthday Shrenu Parikh: Some lesser-known facts of the Ishqbaaz fame actress |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/happy-birthday-shrenu-parikh-here-are-some-lesser-known-facts-of-the-ishqbaaz-fame/articleshow/71993848.cms |website=The Times of India |language=en |access-date=11 November 2020}}</ref> in [[Vadodara]], [[Gujarat]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=I will celebrate Ganpati at home in Vadodara this year: Shrenu Parikh |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/i-will-celebrate-ganpati-at-home-in-vadodara-this-year-shrenu-parikh/articleshow/77686766.cms |website=The Times of India |language=en |accessdate=22 September 2021}}</ref> She has a younger brother, Shubham Parikh.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Sibling Revelry for Shrenu Parikh and Shubham Parikh |language=en |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/Sibling-Revelry-for-Shrenu-Parikh/articleshow/53743286.cms|accessdate=22 January 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Shrenu Parikh and her younger brother Shubham are celebrating Raksha Bandhan in Vadodara after almost 4 years! |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/videos/tv/hindi/shrenu-parikh-and-her-younger-brother-shubham-are-celebrating-raksha-bandhan-in-vadodara-after-4-years/videoshow/77331221.cms |website=The Times of India |language=en |access-date=21 August 2023}}</ref> Parikh attended Navarachana Vidyani Vidyalaya and graduated with a [[Pharmacy]] degree from the Babaria Institute of Pharmacy, Vadodara.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Celebs salute the teachers in their lives |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/celebs-salute-the-teachers-in-their-lives/articleshow/41704397.cms |website=The Times of India |accessdate=18 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Shrenu Parikh wants to focus only on work for the next five years |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Shrenu-Parikh-wants-to-focus-only-on-work-for-the-next-five-years/articleshow/13487766.cms |website=The Times of India |language=en |accessdate=30 September 2022}}</ref> In 2008, she won Miss Vadodara, before beginning her career in acting.<ref name="unknown facts" />

==Career==
===2010–2012: Early work===
Parikh began her career with a [[cameo appearance]] as Roopa in the StarPlus series ''Zindgi Ka Har Rang...Gulaal'' in 2010. Parikh secured her first television lead role in the [[Colors TV]] series ''Havan'' in 2011.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Shrenu-Parikhs-big-break-in-Havan/articleshow/10265004.cms|title=Shrenu Parikh's big break on television with DKP's Havan!|website=Times of India|date=7 October 2011 |access-date=29 August 2016}}</ref> In 2012, she played a role in the [[Sony TV]] drama series ''[[Byaah Hamari Bahoo Ka]]''. Speaking about her experience in this series, Parikh said, “I learned voice modulation and working on body language. I have grown as an actor".<ref name="TOI1">{{Cite web |title=Shrenu set for comeback after a break with Byaah Hamari Bahoo Ka |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/shrenu-set-for-comeback-after-a-break/articleshow/18272307.cms |website=The Times of India |access-date=23 November 2018}}</ref>

===2013–2019: Career breakthrough===
Parikh's first notable role was her portrayal as Aastha Agnihotri in the [[StarPlus]] [[Drama (film and television)|romantic drama]] series ''[[Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon? Ek Baar Phir]]'' where she starred alongside [[Avinash Sachdev]]. Aastha is an extremely resilient and progressive girl who holds [[gender equality]] beliefs but unknowingly marries a [[chauvinism|chauvinist]] as he keeps her in a false pretence until their marriage night. After a relentless pursuit of changing her husband's personality, she witnesses [[domestic violence]] and challenges Agnihotri's regressive traditions. She helps the women in her family battle against domestic violence by instilling courage and confidence. Aastha eventually manages to unite her family through her commitment to change. Parikh shared her experience in the show and stated it was her “turning point” in her career as she was offered future roles because of her recognition as Aastha.<ref name="NIE1">{{Cite web |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/2013/Aug/26/iss-pyaar...ek-bar-phir-a-love-hate-story-shrenu-parikh-510556.html |title='Iss Pyaar...Ek Bar Phir' a love-hate story: Shrenu Parikh |website=The New Indian Express|accessdate=29 January 2020}}</ref><ref name="IE1">{{Cite web |date=22 April 2019 |title=Ek Bhram – Sarvagun Sampanna actor Shrenu Parikh: Janhvi is a very complex and layered character |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/television/ek-bhram-sarvagun-sampanna-actor-shrenu-parikh-janhvi-5688295/ |website=The Indian Express |accessdate=28 August 2021}}</ref>

Parikh appeared in the first Indian television [[Spin-off (media)|spin-off series]] on StarPlus, ''[[Dil Boley Oberoi]]'' (2017), portraying Gauri Kumari Sharma opposite [[Kunal Jaisingh]].<ref name="TOI2">{{Cite news |title=The promo of India's first spin-off tv series 'Dil Bole Oberoi' is here and it looks very promising |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/the-first-promo-of-dil-bole-oberoi-is-here-and-it-looks-very-promising/articleshow/56806340.cms|website=Times of India |access-date=26 March 2021}}</ref> In the same year, the network merged the series with StarPlus's drama series ''[[Ishqbaaz]]'' (2017-2018), in which Parikh continued her portrayal as Gauri until 2018. Gauri Kumari Sharma is a strong, kind-hearted young woman from a small town who faces numerous challenges. Despite her encounters, Gauri maintains her sense of justice and empathy, standing up against wrongdoings and supporting those in need. Her relationship with Omkara Singh Oberoi evolves from conflict to mutual respect and love, highlighting her ability to bring positive change to those around her. Parikh quit the show in 2018 after the series took a generation leap.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pinkvilla.com/tv/news-gossip/ishqbaaz-and-dil-bole-oberoi-will-be-merging-both-shows-need-each-other-producer-gul|title=Ishqbaaz and Dil Bole Oberoi will be merging, both shows need each other: Producer Gul Khan|website=Pinkvilla|access-date=25 October 2018|archive-date=31 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331065546/https://www.pinkvilla.com/tv/news-gossip/ishqbaaz-and-dil-bole-oberoi-will-be-merging-both-shows-need-each-other-producer-gul|url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[File:Teaser-launch-of-Thodi-Thodi-Si-Manmaaniyan-4.jpg|thumb|Parikh in 2017 at her film's teaser launch]]

In 2017, Parikh made her film debut in the 2017 Hindi film ''[[Thodi Thodi Si Manmaaniyan]]''. She played the role of Neha Dutta, a spirited and independent young woman who is passionate about music. Siddharth and Neha navigate their personal and professional lives, facing various challenges and growing through their experiences.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Shrenu Parikh to debut in Bollywood |work=The Times of India |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/tv-actress-shrenu-parikh-to-debut-in-bollywood/articleshow/58080622.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170409052336/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/tv-actress-shrenu-parikh-to-debut-in-bollywood/articleshow/58080622.cms|url-status=dead|archive-date=9 April 2017|accessdate=24 November 2019}}</ref> In 2018, Parikh appeared in her second film, in the Gujarati [[Musical film|musical drama]] ''[[Lamboo Rastoo]]''. She portrayed Shruti Yagnik as a supportive and compassionate woman as she and her husband attempt to reconnect with his estranged daughter.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Shrenu Parikh announces the trailer of her Gujarati film 'Lamboo Rastoo' |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/gujarati/movies/news/lamboo-rastoo-shrenu-parikh-shares-official-poster-of-the-film/articleshow/65439312.cms|accessdate=12 September 2021}}</ref> [[The Times of India]] noted: "Shrenu is a delight to watch on the big screen and share a pretty good onscreen chemistry with Jay Soni. She leaves a mark in some major scenes of the film."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/gujarati/movie-reviews/lamboo-rastoo/movie-review/65724085.cms|title=Lamboo Rastoo Movie Review {3.5/5}: Critic Review of Lamboo Rastoo by India Times|website=Times of India|accessdate=22 September 2018}}</ref>

In 2019, Parikh played her first [[Antihero|anti-heroine role]] with StarPlus's [[Thriller (genre)|revenge thriller]] series ''[[Ek Bhram...Sarvagun Sampanna]]'' (2019) opposite [[Zain Imam]]. Parikh portrayed Jhanvi Mittal, a woman fueled by revenge to destroy the Mittal family. She appears as the highly desirable daughter-in-law who diligently fulfils her household duties. However, she secretly plots revenge against the family as she holds them accountable for her father's death. Jhanvi is seen as a ruthless woman against her in-laws as she was traumatised since childhood when she witnessed her father trapped in a burning house. She disguised herself as Jhanvi Mittal to hide her real identity, Pooja Sharma.<ref name="IE1" /> Critics praised her performance and found it to be "convincing".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/television/soaps/story/ek-bhram-sarvagun-sampanna-first-impression-shrenu-parikh-s-evil-bahu-avatar-will-keep-you-on-the-edge-of-your-seat-1508508-2019-04-23|title=Ek Bhram Sarvagun Sampanna first impression: Shrenu Parikh's evil bahu avatar will keep you on the edge of your seat|website=India Today|accessdate=22 February 2020}}</ref>

===2021–present: Web series and continued lead roles===
In 2021, Parikh made her [[web series]] debut in a Gujarati [[political thriller]], ''Kshadyantra'' (2021), playing Shalini Patel, a woman who is after materialistic greed, with an ambition to escalate her political power.<ref name="thehindutimes1">{{Cite web |url=https://thehindutimes.com/entertainment/story/kshadyantra-upcoming-gujarati-web-series-on-shemaroome-394813 |title='Kshadyantra': Upcoming Gujarati Web Series On Shemaroo Me |date=26 June 2021 |website=The Hindu Times |accessdate=10 November 2022}}</ref> Parikh appeared in the Hindi [[Psychological drama|psychological crime drama]] web series ''Damaged 3'' (2022). Shrenu Parikh plays the role of Shalini Roy, a complex and intriguing character navigating a world filled with crime and psychological intrigue. Shalini is depicted as a determined and intelligent woman who becomes deeply involved in a series of mysterious and dangerous events.<ref name="indiatoday1">{{Cite web |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/binge-watch/story/aamna-sharif-to-play-a-cop-in-her-debut-web-series-damaged-3-1821260-2021-06-30 |title=Damaged 3 starring Aamna Sharif and Shrenu Parikh, to release on Hungama Play |date=30 June 2021 |website=India Today |accessdate=13 December 2022}}</ref>

From 2021 to 2022, she played Genda Agrawal in ''Ghar Ek Mandir – Kripa Agrasen Maharaj Ki'', alongside Akshay Mhatre. The show was filmed in [[Jaipur]].<ref name="TOI3">{{Cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/exclusive-i-feel-really-excited-to-be-back-on-tv-after-a-long-break-says-shrenu-parikh/articleshow/84688346.cms |title=I feel really excited to be back on TV after a long break, says Ghar Ek Mandir actress Shrenu Parikh |accessdate=23 October 2021 |website=Times of India}}</ref>

In 2022, Parikh shot a trailer promo for a [[Pratilipi|Pratilipi FM]] [[Horror film|horror]] [[Thriller (genre)|thriller]] podcast, ''Chakia Ki Dayan'' with her former co-star, [[Avinash Sachdev]]. Shrenu Parikh plays the role of a courageous and curious woman who finds herself drawn into the mysteries of the village of Chakia, which is haunted by the legend of a dayan (witch). She is shown as a determined and fearless character, driven by a strong sense of justice and a desire to uncover the truth behind the supernatural events plaguing the village.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8xFw1ucfFhE|title=Chakia ki Dayan - Trailer Full Promo - Pratilipi FM: Avinash Sachdev & Shrenu Parikh|website=YouTube}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://pratilipifm.com/audio-series/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE-%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80-%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8-vxpgawlzjxg5?utm_source=android_share|title=Chakia Ki Dayan Audio Story|website=pratilipifm.com}}</ref>

In 2023, Parikh played a political family member in the film, ''Family: Politics of Blood''. In the same year, she played Maitree Mishra Tiwari opposite [[Zaan Khan]] and Samarth Jurel in ''[[Maitree (TV series)|Maitree]]''.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://news.abplive.com/entertainment/television/zee-tv-to-strengthen-its-early-pre-primetime-with-two-new-shows-lag-ja-gale-and-maitree-1579740 | title=Zee TV to strengthen its early pre-primetime with two new shows – Lag Ja Gale and Maitree | accessdate=13 February 2023 |website=ABP News}}</ref><ref name="TOI4">{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/shrenu-parikh-there-is-no-denying-that-every-actor-goes-through-the-pressure-of-ratings/articleshow/96524546.cms | title=Shrenu Parikh: There is no denying that every actor goes through the pressure of ratings | newspaper=The Times of India | last1=Maheshwri | first1=Neha |accessdate=12 August 2023}}</ref> Since October 2025, she played [[Goddess Parvati]] in [[Sony SAB]]'s ''[[Gatha Shiv Parivaar Ki — Ganesh Kartikey]]''<ref>{{Cite news|last=|first=|date=25 September 2025|title=Shrenu Parikh on playing goddess Parvati in Ganesh Kartikey: 'I stayed away from visual references'
|url=https://www.mid-day.com/entertainment/television-news/article/shrenu-parikh-gears-up-as-goddess-parvati-in-ganesh-kartikey-23595797|access-date=12 October 2024|work=[[Mid-Day]]|language=en}}</ref> and the series marks her television comeback after 2 years hiatus.<ref>{{Cite news|last=|first=|date=23 September 2025|title=Shrenu Parikh is finding the balance as she returns to TV after two years with Ganesh Kartikey
|url=https://www.mid-day.com/entertainment/television-news/article/ganesh-kartikey-shrenu-parikh-reflects-on-playing-goddess-paravati-23595302|access-date=12 October 2024|work=[[Mid-Day]]|language=en}}</ref>

==Personal life==
In December 2023, Parikh married her co-star from ''Ghar Ek Mandir – Kripa Agrasen Maharaj Ki'', Akshay Mhatre, in a traditional Hindu wedding ceremony in [[Vadodara]]. <ref>{{Cite web|title=We wanted to be sure about each other: Shrenu Parikh admits to being in a relationship with Akshay Mhatre|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/exclusive-we-took-time-to-make-it-official-because-we-wanted-to-be-sure-about-each-other-shrenu-parikh-admits-to-being-in-a-relationship-with-akshay-mhatre/articleshow/97979598.cms|access-date=18 February 2023|website=Times of India|language=en}}</ref>

==In the media==
[[File:Shrenu Parikh.jpg|thumb|upright|130px|Parikh at an event]]

Parikh was named the [[The Times of India|Ahmedabad Times' Most Desirable Women]] in 2017 and 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Shrenu Parikh is Ahmedabad Times Most Desirable Woman 2017 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/gujarati/movies/shrenu-parikh-is-ahmedabad-times-most-desirable-woman-2017/articleshow/63626644.cms |website=Times of India |access-date=16 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Shrenu Parikh is Ahmedabad Times Most Desirable Woman of 2018 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/gujarati/movies/news/shrenu-parikh-is-ahmedabad-times-most-desirable-woman-of-2018/articleshow/67719358.cms |website=Times of India |accessdate=20 September 2019}}</ref> In [[The Times of India|Times' Most Desirable Women on TV]], she was placed 17th in 2018 and 20th in 2019.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Meet The TV’s 20 Most Desirable Actresses of 2018 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/hina-khan-tops-the-times-20-most-desirable-women-on-tv-2018/articleshow/69281775.cms |website=Times of India |access-date=27 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Meet The Times 20 Most Desirable Women on Television|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/meet-the-times-20-most-desirable-women-on-television-2019/articleshow/77935861.cms |website=Times of India |access-date=14 September 2020}}</ref> The actress has endorsed [[Wipro|Santoor]] soap and also did an advertisement with [[Vidya Balan]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Shrenu Parikh shoots an ad with Vidya Balan, says her warmth stole my heart |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/television/celebrity/story/shrenu-parikh-shoots-an-ad-with-vidya-balan-says-her-warmth-stole-my-heart-1837258-2021-08-05 |website=India Today |accessdate=16 November 2021}}</ref> She is known to share a great bond with all her co-stars from [[Star Plus]] television show [[Ishqbaaaz]] like her on-screen husband [[Kunal Jaisingh]], his real-life wife [[Bharati Kumar|Bharati Kumar Jaisingh]], [[Mreenal Deshraj]], [[Leenesh Mattoo]], [[Nakuul Mehta]] and she also attended the wedding ceremonies of [[Surbhi Chandna]],[[Mansi Srivastava]], [[Nehalaxmi Iyer|Nehalaxmi Iyer Joshi]] and is often seen hanging out with them.

==Filmography==
===Television===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Title
! Role
! class="unsortable"| Notes
! class="unsortable"| Ref.
|-
| 2010
| ''Gulaal''
| Roopa
|
|
|-
| 2011
| ''[[Havan (TV series)|Havan]]''
| Aastha
|
|
|-
| 2012–2013
| ''[[Byaah Hamari Bahoo Ka]]''
| Rajnibala "Rajni" Vaishnav
|
|
|-
| 2013–2015
| ''[[Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon? Ek Baar Phir]]''
| Aastha Agnihotri
|
|
|-
| 2017
| ''[[Dil Boley Oberoi]]''
| rowspan="2"|Gauri Trivedi Singh Oberoi
|
|<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.mid-day.com/articles/indian-television-first-spin-off-show-dil-bole-oberoi-ishqbaaaz-television-news/18389162|title=Indian television's first spin-off show 'Dil Bole Oberoi' to go off air and merge with Ishqbaaz|work=Mid Day|access-date=15 September 2019|language=en}}</ref>
|-
| 2017–2018
| ''[[Ishqbaaaz]]''
|
|<ref name="TOI2" />
|-
| rowspan="3"|2019
| ''[[Ek Bhram...Sarvagun Sampanna|Ek Bhram Sarvagun Sampanna]]''
| Pooja "Jahnvi" Sharma Mittal
|
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/television/soaps/story/shrenu-parikh-pens-emotional-note-as-she-wraps-up-sarvagunn-sampanna-1596245-2019-09-06|title=Shrenu Parikh pens emotional note as she wraps up Sarvagunn Sampanna|website=India Today|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190907125912/https://www.indiatoday.in/television/soaps/story/shrenu-parikh-pens-emotional-note-as-she-wraps-up-sarvagunn-sampanna-1596245-2019-09-06 |archive-date=7 September 2019 |access-date=11 December 2020}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Nach Baliye#Season 9|Nach Baliye 9]]''
| Herself
| rowspan="2"|Special appearance
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Shrenu Parikh will be seen performing with Rahul Mahajan in the grand premiere episode of 'Nach Baliye 9' |url=https://news.abplive.com/entertainment/television/nach-baliye-9-premiere-ek-bhram-sarvagun-sampanna-actress-shrenu-parikh-slaps-rahul-mahajan-star-plus-reality-show-1033668 |website=ABP Live |accessdate=21 September 2019}}</ref>
|-
| ''Sitaaron Ki Vijayadeshami''
| Saudamini
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Shrenu Parikh and Meera Deosthale bond during 'Sitaaron Ki Vijaydashmi' |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/shrenu-parikh-and-meera-deosthale-bond-during-sitaaron-ki-vijaydashmi/articleshow/71541594.cms |website=The Times of India |accessdate=23 September 2020}}</ref>
|-
| 2021–2022
| ''Ghar Ek Mandir – Kripa Agrasen Maharaj Ki''
| Genda Agrawal
|
|
|-
| 2023
|''[[Maitree (TV series)|Maitree]]''
| Maitree Mishra Tiwari
|
|<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/bollywood/shrenu-parikh-play-titular-role-zee-tvs-upcoming-show-maitree/ | title=Shrenu Parikh to play the titular role in Zee TV's show Maitree | website=Bollywood Hungama |accessdate=23 December 2022 }}</ref>
|-
| 2025
| ''[[Jaadu Teri Nazar – Daayan Ka Mausam]]''
| Kaamini
| Cameo
|
|-
| 2025–2026
| ''[[Gatha Shiv Parivaar Ki — Ganesh Kartikey]]''
| [[Parvati]]
|
|
|}

===Films===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Title
! Role
! Language
! class="unsortable"| Ref.
|-
| 2017
| ''[[Thodi Thodi Si Manmaaniyan]]''
| Neha Dutta
| [[Hindi]]
|<ref>{{Cite news |title=Shrenu Parikh to make her Bollywood debut |work=Free Press Journal |url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/uncategorized/shrenu-parikh-to-make-bollywood-debut/1049391 |accessdate=26 February 2018}}</ref>
|-
| 2018
| ''[[Lamboo Rastoo]]''
| Shruti Yagnik
| [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]
|<ref>{{Cite news |title=My debut Gujarati film has an excellent story: Shrenu Parikh |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/gujarati/movies/news/my-debut-gujarati-film-has-an-excellent-story-shrenu-parikh/articleshow/63952232.cms |access-date=21 January 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Lamboo Rastoo: Shrenu Parikh shares official poster of the film |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/gujarati/movies/news/lamboo-rastoo-shrenu-parikh-shares-official-poster-of-the-film/articleshow/65439312.cms |access-date=24 December 2019}}</ref>
|-
| 2023
| ''Family: Politics of Blood''
|
| Hindi
|
|}

===Web series===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Title
! Role
! Language
! class="unsortable"| Notes
! class="unsortable"| Ref.
|-
| rowspan="2"|2021
| ''Kshadyantra''
| Shalini Patel
| Gujarati
|
|<ref name="thehindutimes1" />
|-
| ''[[Damaged (TV series)|Damaged]]''
| Shanaya Roy
| Hindi
| Season 3
|<ref name="indiatoday1" />
|}

===Music videos===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Title
! Singer
! class="unsortable"| Ref.
|-
| 2020
| ''Ek Dua''
| [[Rahul Jain (singer)|Rahul Jain]]
|<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/videos/entertainment/music/punjabi/watch-latest-punjabi-song-music-video-ek-dua-sung-by-rahul-jain/videoshow/79607323.cms |title=Latest Punjabi Song Music Video - 'Ek Dua', sung By Rahul Jain ft. Shrenu Parikh |website=The Times of India |accessdate=29 January 2022}}</ref>
|}

==Awards and nominations==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Award
! Category
! Work
! Result
! Ref.
|-
| 2019
| [[Indian Telly Awards]]
| [[Indian Telly Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role|Best Actress in a Supporting Role]]
| ''[[Ishqbaaz]]''
| {{nom}}
|<ref>{{cite news |last1=Farzeen |first1=Sana |title=Indian Telly Awards 2019: Complete list of winners |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/television/indian-telly-awards-2019-winners-list-divyanka-tripathi-hina-khan-nakuul-mehta-5636869/ |access-date=26 September 2022 |work=The Indian Express |date=21 March 2019 |language=en}}</ref>
|}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
*{{IMDb name|7627107}}
*{{Instagram|shrenuparikhofficial}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Parikh, Shrenu}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian television actresses]]
[[Category:Female models from Mumbai]]
[[Category:Actresses from Mumbai]]
[[Category:People from Vadodara]]
[[Category:Gujarati actresses]]
[[Category:1988 births]]

Rajab

2026-03-08T19:11:13Z

Joseph Patricio: Starting article!

{{Short description|Seventh month of the Islamic calendar}}
{{About|the seventh month of the Islamic calendar}}
{{Infobox month
| alt =
| caption = [[Isra and Mi'raj]]
| native_name = {{Native name|ar|رَجَب}}
| calendar = [[Islamic calendar]]
| num = 7
| days = 29-30 (depends on actual observation of the moon's crescent)
| season =
| gregorian =
| holidays = [[Isra and Mi'raj]]
| prev_month = [[Jumada al-Thani]]
| next_month = [[Sha'ban]]
}}
{{IslamicMonths sidebar}}

'''Rajab''' ({{langx|ar|رَجَب}}) is the seventh month of the [[Islamic calendar]]. The lexical definition of the [[classical Arabic]] verb ''rajaba'' is "to respect",<ref name=İÂ>{{cite book |last1=Günay |first1=H.Mehmet |title=RECEB- An article published in 34th volume of Turkish Encyclopedia of Islam |date=2007 |publisher=[[TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi]] |location=Istanbul |isbn=978-97-53-89456-2 |pages=506–507 |volume=34 (Osmanpazari - Resuldar) |url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/receb |access-date= 21 January 2022|language=tr}}</ref> which could also mean "be awe or be in fear", of which Rajab is a derivative.

This month is regarded as one of the four sacred months (including [[Muharram]], [[Dhu al-Qadah]] and [[Dhu al-Hijjah]]) in Islam in which battles are prohibited. The [[pre-Islamic Arabia|pre-Islamic Arabs]] also considered warfare to be blasphemous during these four months.<ref name="İÂ" />

Muslims believe Rajab is the month in which [[‘Alī ibn Abī Tālib]], the first Shia Imam and the fourth [[Rashidun caliph]], was born.

Rajab is also the month during which [[Isra and Mi'raj]] ([[Muhammad]]'s journey from Mecca to Jerusalem and then through the seven Heavens) took place.

Rajab and [[Sha'ban|Shaʿbān]] are a prelude to the holy month of [[Ramadan|Ramaḍān]].

==Name==
{{unsourced|section|date=January 2024}}
The word "Rajab" came from ''rajūb'' (<big>رجوب</big>), the sense of veneration or glorification, and Rajab was also formerly called ''Mudhar'' because the tribe of ''Mudhar'' did not change it but rather expected its time to be different than the rest of the Arabs, who changed and altered the months according to the state of war.

The name of Rajab literally means respected, regarded, and admired. It seems that the word is originally a [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] one. There are two important events during the month, namely the birthday of [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]] and [[Muhammad's first revelation]] in Shia tradition. There are other names for the month, such as Rajab Al-Morrajjab, Rajab Al-Asab, and Rajab Sharif.

==The 27th of Rajab==
The '''27th of Rajab''' is traditionally associated in parts of the Muslim world with the [[Isra' and Mi'raj|Israʾ and Miʿraj]], the night journey and ascension of the [[Muhammad|Prophet Muhammad]]. Classical Islamic sources, including [[List of hadith books|hadith collections]] and early historical works such as those of [[Al-Tabari|al-Ṭabarī]],<ref name="Tabari">{{cite book |last=al-Ṭabarī |title=Taʾrīkh al-rusul wa’l-mulūk [History of the Prophets and Kings] |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-7914-7249-1 |location=Albany |translator=Rosenthal, Franz}}</ref> record accounts of the event, though they differ regarding its exact date.<ref name=IbnKathir>{{cite book |last=Ibn Kathīr |title=al-Bidāya wa’l-nihāya [The Beginning and the End] |publisher=Dar al-Fikr |location=Beirut |year=1985}}</ref> Many Muslim communities observe the 27th of Rajab with [[Salah|prayers]], [[Khutbah|sermons]], or devotional gatherings, but scholars note that there is no consensus in early Islamic tradition that the event occurred specifically on this day.<ref name=Brown>{{cite book |last=Brown |first=Jonathan A.C. |title=Hadith: Muhammad’s Legacy in the Medieval and Modern World |publisher=Oneworld Publications |location=Oxford |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-85168-663-6}}</ref> While both [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] and [[Shia Islam|Shia]] scholars affirm the occurrence of the [[Isra' and Mi'raj|Israʾ and Miʿraj]], not all agree on its precise timing, with some considering the 27th of Rajab a later popular attribution rather than a firmly established date.<ref name=Rizvi>{{cite web |last=Rizvi |first=Sayyid Muhammad |title=The Mi'raj: Ascension of Prophet Muhammad |url=https://www.al-islam.org/mi-raj-ascension-prophet-muhammad-sayyid-muhammad-rizvi |website=Al-Islam.org |access-date=11 September 2025}}</ref><ref name="Ahsan">{{cite book |last=Ahsan |first=M.M. |title=Islamic Festivals: Their History and Meaning |publisher=Kazi Publications |year=1995 |isbn=9780865929791 |location=Lahore}}</ref>

==Timing==
The [[Islamic calendar]] is a purely [[lunar calendar]], and months begin when the first crescent of a [[new moon]] is sighted. Since the [[lunar year]] is 11 to 12 days shorter than the [[solar year]], Rajab migrates throughout the seasons. The estimated start and end dates for Rajab, based on the [[Islamic calendar#Saudi Arabia's Umm al-Qura calendar|Umm al-Qura]] of [[Saudi Arabia]], are:<ref>[https://webspace.science.uu.nl/~gent0113/islam/ummalqura.htm Umm al-Qura calendar of Saudi Arabia]</ref>

{|class=wikitable style="text-align:right"
|+Rajab dates between 2024 and 2028
|-
!scope="col"|[[Anno Hegirae|AH]]
!scope="col"|First day ([[Common Era|CE]]/[[Anno Domini|AD]])
!scope="col"|Last day ([[Common Era|CE]]/[[Anno Domini|AD]])
|-
!scope="row"|1445
|13 January 2024
|10 February 2024
|-
!scope="row"|1446
|{{0}}1 January 2025
|30 January 2025
|-
!scope="row"|1447
|21 December 2025
|19 January 2026
|-
!scope="row"|1448
|10 December 2026
|{{0}}8 January 2027
|-
!scope="row"|1449
|29 November 2027
|28 December 2027
|-
!scope="row"|1450
|18 November 2028
|16 December 2028
|}

==Events==
* The [[Battle of Tabouk]] took place in Rajab, 9 AH (October 630).
* The [[Second pledge at al-Aqabah]] took place in Rajab.
* 6 Rajab: Many [[Sufi]] followers of the [[Chishti]] tariqa (path) celebrate the anniversary of Khawaja [[Moinuddin Chishti]].
* 7 Rajab: [[Twelvers]] observe the Festival of Imam Musa al-Kazim in dedication of [[Musa al-Kadhim|Musā' al-Kādhim]]. This is so as to avoid missing celebrating the birth of the seventh imam, which took place in Safar.
* 22 Rajab, In India and Pakistan, Koonday (tablecloth dinner) is organized. It is an occasion for Muslims to discuss [[Allah]] and the [[Ahlul Bayt]] and to strengthen ties among the Sunni Sufi community with love and compassion.
* 27 Rajab, event of ''[[Isra and Mi'raj]]''.
* 27 Rajab 583 AH, [[Siege of Jerusalem (1187)|Conquest of Jerusalem]]<ref>''[[TDV Encyclopedia of Islam]]'': Vol.36 (2009), p.339</ref> by the [[Ayyubids]]

===Births===
* 1 Rajab: [[Muhammad al-Baqir]]
* 4 Rajab: [[Bande Nawaz|Khwaja Banda Nawaz]]
* 5 Rajab: ‘[[Ali al-Hadi|Alī al-Hadī]]
* 9 Rajab: [[Ali al-Asghar ibn Husayn|‘Alī al-Asghar]]
* 12 Rajab: [[Muhammad al-Taqi|Muhammad al-Taqī]]
* [[13 Rajab]]: [[Ali|‘Alī ibn Abī Tālib]]
* 14 Rajab: [[Mu'in al-Din Chishti]]
* 20 Rajab: [[Sakina bint Hussain]]

===Deaths===
* 3 Rajab: [[Ali al-Hadi|‘Alī al-Naqī]], Twelver Imam & [[Uwais al-Qarni]]
* 8 Rajab: [[Nazim Al-Haqqani]], a Turkish Cypriot Sufi Muslim sheikh and spiritual leader of the Naqshbandi tariqa.
* 14 Rajab: [[Akhundzada Saif-ur-Rahman Mubarak]], the founder of the Naqshbandi Mujaddidi Saifia Tariqa.
* 15 Rajab: [[Zainab bint Ali]]
* 22 Rajab: [[Mu'awiya]], first caliph of the Umayyad Caliphate
* 25 Rajab: [[Musa al-Kadhim|Musā' al-Kādhim]], seventh Twelver Imam
* 25 Rajab: [[Al-Nawawi]], [[Shafiʽi school|Shafi'ite]] jurist and hadith scholar
* 26 Rajab: [[Abu Talib ibn Abdul Muttalib]], uncle of [[Muhammad]] and father of [[Ali]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://webspace.science.uu.nl/~gent0113/islam/islam_tabcal.htm Islamic-Western Calendar Converter (Based on the Arithmetical or Tabular Calendar)]
* [https://timesprayersalah.com/islamic-events/shab-e-meraj/ 27 rajab (shab e meraj)]

{{IslamicMonths}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Months of the Islamic calendar|7]]
[[Category:Islamic terminology]]

Bittersweet (2020 film)

2026-03-04T09:36:33Z

Joseph Patricio: Added Post

{{Short description|2020 Indian film}}
{{No plot|date=June 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2024}}
{{Infobox film
| name =
| image = Bittersweet (2020 film).jpg
| alt =
| caption = Poster
| native_name = 
| director = [[Anant Mahadevan]]
| writer =
| screenplay =
| story =
| based_on = 
| producer = Suchhanda ChatterjeeM Shubha Shetty
| starring = Akshaya Gurav
| narrator =
| cinematography = Alphonse Roy
| editing = Anant Mahadevan
| music = Rohit Kulkarni
| studio = 
| distributor = 
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2020|11|20}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Marathi
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Bittersweet''''' is a 2020 Indian Marathi-language drama film directed by [[Anant Mahadevan]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/marathi/movies/news/anant-mahadevans-bittersweet-bags-a-nomination-at-a-film-festival-in-busan/articleshow/78105667.cms|title=Anant Mahadevan's Bittersweet bags a nomination at a film festival in Busan|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=14 September 2020|access-date=14 June 2023|archive-date=28 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210528103134/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/marathi/movies/news/anant-mahadevans-bittersweet-bags-a-nomination-at-a-film-festival-in-busan/articleshow/78105667.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> The film premiered at the [[Busan International Film Festival]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/no-period-leave-instead-young-women-forced-to-undergo-hysterectomy-ananth-mahadevan-on-real-life-story-behind-his-marathi-film-bittersweet/articleshow/78607440.cms|title=Young women forced to undergo hysterectomy: Ananth Mahadevan|first=Roshmila|last=Bhattacharya|work=[[Mumbai Mirror]]|date=12 October 2020|access-date=14 June 2023|archive-date=25 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220925025805/https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/no-period-leave-instead-young-women-forced-to-undergo-hysterectomy-ananth-mahadevan-on-real-life-story-behind-his-marathi-film-bittersweet/articleshow/78607440.cms|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scroll.in/reel/977875/interview-the-bittersweet-truth-about-sugarcane-cutters|title=Interview: The 'Bittersweet' truth about sugarcane cutters|work=[[Scroll.in]]|first=Deborah|last=Cornelious|date=12 November 2020|access-date=14 June 2023|archive-date=20 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220220133525/https://scroll.in/reel/977875/interview-the-bittersweet-truth-about-sugarcane-cutters|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Plot ==

Saguna, 22, arrives along with several sugarcane cutters to work in the sugarcane fields in Beed. She is determined to work hard and help her father repay his debt. When she misses work for three days due to menstruation, she is fined heavily. She is advised to undergo a hysterectomy so that her work doesn’t stop. She is shocked to learn that this is a commonly followed practice among sugarcane cutters. It’s a situation Suguna and her fellow women cutters can neither avoid nor escape.

== Cast ==
*Akshaya Gurav as Saguna
*Suresh Vishwakarma as Mr Nagarkar
*Smita Tambe
*Anil Nagarkar as Karande
* Guru Thakur
*Asit Redij

== Reception ==
A critic from ''[[Screen International|Screen Daily]]'' wrote that "But while Mr Nagarkar is able to make a difference in Saguna’s life, the film ultimately paints a bleak picture for the other powerless women who depend on this gruelling work for survival".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.screendaily.com/reviews/bittersweet-busan-review/5153934.article|title='Bittersweet': Busan Review|date=24 October 2020|last=Ide|first=Wendy|work=[[Screen International|Screen Daily]]|access-date=14 June 2023|archive-date=1 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220701221743/https://www.screendaily.com/reviews/bittersweet-busan-review/5153934.article|url-status=live}}</ref> A critic from ''[[The Times of India]]'' wrote that "So, if you are looking for a feel-good film to wash off the lockdown hangover, 'Bittersweet' may not be your best bet. But if meaningful cinema is on your agenda, Ananth Mahadevan’s film could be just what you needed".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/marathi/movie-reviews/bittersweet/movie-review/79337956.cms|title=Bittersweet Movie Review : Poignant and hard-hitting, but slow-paced|first=Mihir|last=Bhanage|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=20 November 2020|access-date=14 June 2023|archive-date=14 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220714152529/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/marathi/movie-reviews/bittersweet/movie-review/79337956.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:2020 films]]
[[Category:2020 Marathi-language films]]
[[Category:Marathi-language drama films]]
[[Category:2020 drama films]]
[[Category:2020 Indian films]]

{{Marathi-film-stub}}

Mythri (2012 film)

2026-03-03T17:49:52Z

Joseph Patricio: put up a entry more to come.

{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Mythri
| image = Mythri Poster.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = Surya Raju
| producer = Rajesh Kumar
| writer = Surya Raju
| starring = [[Navdeep]] [[Sadha]] [[Bramhanandam]] [[Uttej]] [[Chitram Srinu]]
| music = Vikas
| cinematography = Selva Kumar
| editing = Vinay
| studio = Hanu Cine Creations
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|2012|11|30|India|ref1=<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/telugu/article/88682.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121201081614/http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/telugu/article/88682.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 December 2012|title=Telugu Cinema News {{pipe}} Telugu Movie Reviews {{pipe}} Telugu Movie Trailers - IndiaGlitz Telugu}}</ref>}}
| runtime = 123 minutes
| country = India
| language = Telugu
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Mythri''''' is a 2012 Indian [[mystery film]] directed by Surya Raju starring [[Navdeep]] and [[Sadha]] in the lead roles. Rajesh Kumar produced the movie on Hanu Cine Creations Banner and Vikas provided the music.

The film released on 30 November 2012.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/telugu/article/88682.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121201081614/http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/telugu/article/88682.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 December 2012|title=Telugu Cinema News {{pipe}} Telugu Movie Reviews {{pipe}} Telugu Movie Trailers - IndiaGlitz Telugu}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movie-reviews/mythri/movie-review/17439577.cms | title=Mythri Movie Review {2/5}: Critic Review of Mythri by Times of India | website=[[The Times of India]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.123telugu.com/reviews/review-mythri-a-poor-excuse-of-a-thriller.html | title=Review : Mythri – A poor excuse of a thriller | date=30 November 2012 }}</ref> The film was later dubbed and released in Tamil as ''Mythili'' in August 2014.

==Synopsis==
Deepu is a young man whose dream is to make a music album and gain fame. He approaches a channel head Murthy who, impressed by his concept, offers to finance the filming and also suggests his obese secretary as the heroine. Disappointed first, Deepu takes up the offer as he has no choice and chooses an old bungalow for the shoot at a secluded spot. As work begins, Mythri, the owner of the property, arrives for a short stay and Deepu convinces her to be the heroine of the album and removes Murthy's secretary. Meanwhile, the death of a unit member and a series of strange incidents take place. The unit leaves after the work is wrapped up without any doubts. Deepu stays back with Mythri and unravels the mystery of the house. Towards the end of the story, the mystery behind the deaths and the strange incidents is revealed.

==Cast==
* [[Navdeep]] as Deepu
* [[Sadha]] as Mythri
* [[Bramhanandam]] as Murthy
* [[Uttej]]
* [[Chitram Srinu]]
* [[Suman Setty]]
* [[Kallu Chidambaram]]
* [[Satyam Rajesh]]
* Bhikshu

==Production==
The movie was launched at [[Annapurna Studios]] on 6 May 2012. [[Karumuri Venkata Nageswara Rao]], [[Nandini Reddy]], Satish Reddy, Rajesh Kumar, Surya Raju attended this event.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.supergoodmovies.com/44209/tollywood/mythri-movie-opening-events-details|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120509063611/http://www.supergoodmovies.com/44209/tollywood/mythri-movie-opening-events-details|url-status=usurped|archive-date=9 May 2012|title=Mythri Movie Opening|publisher=SuperGoodMovies.com|accessdate=6 May 2012}}</ref> Since then the movie was shot in a nonstop mode. This marks the return of Sadha to Telugu and Tamil Industry and in this film, she plays the titular role of Mythri, a docile and well mannered young woman during day time. But once the sun goes down, a peculiar change can be observed in Mythri. She turns hysterical, roams around all alone and behaves in mystical ways and the story is all about this change and the mystery behind it.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.123telugu.com/mnews/mythris-night-time-adventures.html|title=Mythri's night time adventures|date=12 November 2012|publisher=123telugu.com|accessdate=}}</ref> The movie was Scheduled for a release on 30 November 2012 which is exactly a week after the release of Nagarjuna's [[Dhamarukam]].It is available to watch online. Makers have released the original DVD rip.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://andhrawire.com/2012/11/22/sexy-heroine-challenging-nag/|title=Sexy Heroine Challenging Nag|publisher=andhrawire.com|accessdate=22 November 2012}}</ref>

==Soundtrack==
{{Infobox album
| name = Mythri
| type = Soundtrack
| artist = Vikas
| cover =
| alt =
| caption = Album cover
| released = {{Start date|df=yes|2012|9|24}}
| recorded = 2012
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Film soundtrack|Feature film soundtrack]]
| length = 18:18
| language = [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
| label = Hanu Music
| producer = Vikas
| prev_title =
| prev_year =
| next_title =
| next_year =
}}
The audio was Launched at Hyderabad on 24 September 2012. Vikas provided the music. The audio album has also been released into the market by the producer himself on his own audio label.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.123telugu.com/mnews/navdeep-sadas-mythri-audio-launched.html|title=Navdeep – Sada's Mythri audio launched|date=25 September 2012|publisher=123telugu.com|accessdate=}}</ref>
{{Track listing
| collapsed =
| headline = Tracklist
| extra_column = Artist(s)
| total_length = 18:18
| title1 = Made In India
| note1 =
| lyrics1 = Sahitya Sagar
| extra1 = [[Geetha Madhuri]], Vikas, Raghuram, Dhanunjay
| length1 = 3:47
| title2 = Jil Jil Jil
| note2 =
| lyrics2 = Sreshta
| extra2 = Tejaswini
| length2 = 4:05
| title3 = Aa Ra Ra Pedave
| note3 =
| lyrics3 = Sahitya Sagar
| extra3 = Deepu, [[Sravana Bhargavi]]
| length3 = 3:15
| title4 = Ningiloni Neeli Megham
| note4 =
| lyrics4 = [[Ramajogayya Sastry]]
| extra4 = Bhargavi Pillai, Rolls Ride Megawatt
| length4 = 3:43
| title5 = Dha Dha Dha Dance
| note5 =
| lyrics5 = Sreshta
| extra5 = Umaneha, Vikas, Raghuram, Dhanunjay
| length5 = 3:27
}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:2012 films]]
[[Category:2012 Telugu-language films]]
[[Category:2012 Indian films]]

Fight Club (2023 film)

2026-03-03T02:32:30Z

Joseph Patricio: Added Stub

{{Short description|2023 Indian film by Abbas A. Rahmath}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2024}}
{{Infobox film
| image = Fight Club (2023 film).jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = Abbas A. Rahmath
| screenplay = Abbas A. Rahmath
| story = Sasi Nandhagopal
{{Infobox
| decat = yes
| child = yes
| label1= Dialogues by
| data1 = [[Vijay Kumar (filmmaker)|Vijay Kumar]] Sasi Nandhagopal Abbas A. Rahmath Vishnu Edavan Nijanthan }}
| producer = Aditya [[Lokesh Kanagaraj]] '''(presenter)'''
| starring = {{Plainlist|
* Vijay Kumar
* [[Monisha Mohan Menon]]
}}
| cinematography = Leon Britto
| editing = P. Kripakaran
| music = [[Govind Vasantha]]
| studio = Reel Good Films [[G Squad]]
| distributor = Sakthi Film Factory
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2023|12|15|ref1=}}
| runtime = 135 minutes<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fight Club |url=https://www.bbfc.co.uk/release/fight-club-q29sbgvjdglvbjpwwc0xmde4mje5 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20260114200549/https://www.bbfc.co.uk/release/fight-club-q29sbgvjdglvbjpwwc0xmde4mje5 |archive-date=January 14, 2026 |access-date=2025-03-07 |website=[[British Board of Film Classification]] |language=en}}</ref>
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}

'''''Fight Club''''' is a 2023 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language [[action thriller film]] directed by Abbas A. Rahmath in his directorial debut and produced by Aditya and [[Lokesh Kanagaraj]] under Reel Good Films and [[G Squad]]. It stars [[Vijay Kumar (filmmaker)|Vijay Kumar]] and [[Monisha Mohan Menon]] in the lead roles, along with Kartheekeyan Santhanam and Shankar Thas in supporting roles.

The film was announced in November 2023. [[Principal photography]] commenced and had [[Wrap (filmmaking)|wrapped]] before the announcement. The film has music composed by [[Govind Vasantha]], with cinematography handled by Leon Britto and editing by P. Kripakaran.

''Fight Club'' was theatrically released on 15 December 2023 to mixed-to-positive reviews, with praise for its stunt choreography, cinematography and performances, but criticism for its predictability.

== Plot ==
In [[North Chennai]], Benjamin alias "Benji", a former talented boxer, gets sidelined by drugs and liquor. Despite his struggles, Benji aims to provide a chance to mentor young talented boys in their region to stay away from crime. Trouble arises for Benji as his brother Joseph joins Kiruba, a notorious gangster and drug peddler, in committing illegal activities. Benji learns about this and warns Joseph and Kiruba. Later, Kiruba and Joseph succeed in finishing Benji, but Kiruba betrays Joseph and sends him to prison.

Selva, a hot-headed football player who idolised Benji, gets disillusioned with life due to Benji's death and becomes an alcoholic. Joseph returns to his neighbourhood after completing his prison sentence, where he learns that Kiruba has become a politician. To exact vengeance against Kiruba, Joseph manipulates Selva, along with other youths; Robert, Mani and Murthy, to wage a war against Kiruba. Selva clashes with Karthi, Kiruba's brother-in-law, as Karthi was after a girl Selva liked.

Kiruba warns Karthi to not fight with Selva and his gang, but Karthi fights with Selva regarding a loudspeaker issue and Robert's brother Viji ends up in the hospital. Kiruba wanted to stay away from Selva as he could kill him for Benji's death, where he makes a deal with Selva that Karthi will not trouble him any more. However, the agreement did not hold for too long and the fights continued between Selva and Karthi. In the midst of the mayhem, Joseph gets Robert, Mani and Murthy to sell [[weed]] to Karthi’s men, knowing that Karthi would thrash them.

Joseph supplies weapons to kill Karthi, but the plan backfires and Kiruba kills Robert. Mani and Murthy tell Selva about Joseph using Robert’s anger to finish Kiruba. Selva realises that the mayhem had increased after Joseph's return and the boys would not live peacefully in the neighbourhood due to Joseph and Kiruba. Selva kills Kiruba and Joseph, where he becomes a football coach and also fulfill's Benji's goal of mentoring and training young talented boys.

== Cast ==
{{cast listing|
* [[Vijay Kumar (filmmaker)|Vijay Kumar]] as Selva
** [[Raaghavan|Raaghav]] as Young Selva
* Kartheekeyan Santhanam as Benjamin "Benji"
* [[Monisha Mohan Menon]] as Shailu
* Jeyaraj
* Shankar Thas as Kiruba
* Avinash Raghudevan as Joseph
* Saravana Vel as Karthi
* Daffe Naveen as Robert (credited as Naveen Vikram)
* Jeeva Rathinam as Benjamin aka Benji
* Aadhira Pandilakshmi as Malathy
* Thirunavukkarasu as Nagaraj
* [[A. Govindamoorthy|Moorthy]] as Selva's father
}}

== Production ==
In November 2023, Reel Good Films announced their maiden venture titled ''Fight Club'', which features [[Vijay Kumar (filmmaker)|Vijay Kumar]] in the lead role and Abbas A Rahmath in his directorial debut. The technical crew consists of music composer [[Govind Vasantha]], cinematographer Leon Britto and editor P. Kripakaran.<ref>{{Cite news |date=29 November 2023 |title=Vijay Kumar's next is 'Fight Club', presented by Lokesh Kanagaraj's G Squad banner |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/vijay-kumars-next-is-fight-club-presented-by-lokesh-kanagarajs-g-squad-banner/article67587260.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231202022747/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/vijay-kumars-next-is-fight-club-presented-by-lokesh-kanagarajs-g-squad-banner/article67587260.ece |archive-date=2 December 2023 |access-date=2 December 2023 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> Vijay Kumar wrote the first draft around 2014–15, with the focus being on football and how many juveniles turn to crime. The project did not enter production, and with the release of ''[[Bigil]]'', ''[[Vada Chennai]]'' and other similar-themed films over the next few years, Vijay had to rewrite the script substantially to avoid unintended similarities.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ramachandran |first=Avinash |date=18 December 2023 |title=Breaking the First Rule of Fight Club |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2023/Dec/18/breaking-thefirst-rule-of-fight-club-2642429.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231224073811/https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2023/dec/18/breaking-thefirst-rule-of-fight-club-2642429.html |archive-date=24 December 2023 |access-date=23 May 2024 |work=[[The New Indian Express]] |language=en}}</ref> The film was intentionally titled after the [[Fight Club|1999 American film]], but serves as a tribute rather than a remake.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 December 2023 |title=Vijay Kumar on his upcoming actioner Fight Club – 'Our film is not related to Brad Pitt's cult classic' |url=https://www.ottplay.com/news/vijay-kumar-on-his-upcoming-actioner-fight-club-our-film-is-not-related-to-brad-pitts-cult-classic/818d78ad1a739 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240511150919/https://www.ottplay.com/news/vijay-kumar-on-his-upcoming-actioner-fight-club-our-film-is-not-related-to-brad-pitts-cult-classic/818d78ad1a739 |archive-date=11 May 2024 |access-date=11 May 2024 |website=[[OTTPlay]] |language=en}}</ref>

== Music ==
The music and background score is composed by [[Govind Vasantha]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 November 2023 |title=Vijay Kumar's next titled 'Fight Club' |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2023/nov/30/vijay-kumars-next-titled-fight-club-2637303.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231202125447/https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2023/nov/30/vijay-kumars-next-titled-fight-club-2637303.html |archive-date=2 December 2023 |access-date=2 December 2023 |website=[[The New Indian Express]]}}</ref> The song "Thaalam" samples "En Jodi Manja Kuruvi" from ''[[Vikram (1986 Tamil film)|Vikram]]'' (1986).{{Citation needed|date=November 2024}}

{{track listing
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Yaarum Kaanadha
| length1 = 3:47
| lyrics1 = [[Karthik Netha]]
| extra1 = Kapil Kapila, Keerthana Vaidyanaathan
| title2 = Viyugam
| length2 = 2:38
| lyrics2 = Asal Kolaar
| extra2 = Asal Kolaar
| title3 = Raavanamavan
| length3 = 3:11
| lyrics3 = [[Arivu]]
| extra3 = Arivu
| title4 = Thaalam
| length4 = 3:11
| lyrics4 = GKB
| extra4 = Govind Vasantha, [[Anthony Daasan]]
| total_length = 12:37
}}

== Release ==
''Fight Club'' was released on 15 December 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 December 2023 |title=Everything Releasing This Week In Theatres (December 11th to 17th) |url=https://www.filmcompanion.in/fc-lists/everything-releasing-this-week-in-theatres-december-11th-to-17th-kannagi-keerthi-pandian-priscilla-lokesh-kanagaraj-fight-club |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212110932/https://www.filmcompanion.in/fc-lists/everything-releasing-this-week-in-theatres-december-11th-to-17th-kannagi-keerthi-pandian-priscilla-lokesh-kanagaraj-fight-club |archive-date=12 December 2023 |access-date=12 December 2023 |website=[[Film Companion]]}}</ref>

=== Home media ===
The streaming and satellite rights of the film were acquired by [[Disney+ Hotstar]] and [[Star Vijay]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 December 2023 |title=Vijay Kumar's Fight Club streaming rights acquired by this OTT platform |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2023/dec/14/vijay-kumars-fight-club-streaming-rights-acquired-by-this-ott-platform-50389.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231215152520/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2023/dec/14/vijay-kumars-fight-club-streaming-rights-acquired-by-this-ott-platform-50389.html |archive-date=15 December 2023 |access-date=15 December 2023 |website=[[Cinema Express]]}}</ref> The film began streaming there from 27 January 2024.<ref>{{Cite news |date=19 January 2024 |title=Vijayakumar's 'Fight Club': When and where to watch the film |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/watch-vijayakumars-fight-club-on-hotstar-ott-release-date-announced/articleshow/106984083.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240122071641/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/watch-vijayakumars-fight-club-on-hotstar-ott-release-date-announced/articleshow/106984083.cms |archive-date=22 January 2024 |access-date=12 November 2024 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref>

== Reception ==
M. Suganth of ''[[The Times of India]]'' gave 3.5/5 stars and described "Sasi's story is familiar, but the filmmaking makes the film engaging."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Suganth |first=M |date=15 December 2023 |title=Fight Club Movie Review : Filmmaking flair trumps familiarity to make Fight Club engaging |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movie-reviews/fight-club/movie-review/106031087.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231219091310/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movie-reviews/fight-club/movie-review/106031087.cms?from=mdr |archive-date=19 December 2023 |access-date=19 December 2023 |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> Kirubhakar Purushothaman of ''[[The Indian Express]]'' gave 3/5 stars and wrote "A lot of ''Fight Club'' can be brushed aside as redundant fight scenes, but each one of them increases the intensity of the problem that warrants its existence."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Purushothaman |first=Kirubhakar |date=15 December 2023 |title=Fight Club movie review: A bloody and slick Vada Chennai where style precedes essence |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/movie-review/fight-club-movie-review-a-bloody-and-slick-vada-chennai-where-style-precedes-essence-9069779/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231215152521/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/movie-review/fight-club-movie-review-a-bloody-and-slick-vada-chennai-where-style-precedes-essence-9069779/ |archive-date=15 December 2023 |access-date=15 December 2023 |website=[[The Indian Express]]}}</ref> Bharathy Singaravel of ''[[The News Minute]]'' gave 2.5/5 stars and wrote "''Fight Club'' quickly becomes too much of an ‘excellent thing’ and in the absence of a consistently-paced story, it is exhausting trying to remain emotionally invested amid all the sound and fury."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Singaravel |first=Bharathy |date=15 December 2023 |title=Fight Club review: This debut film is all style & swagger, but struggles to tell story |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/flix/fight-club-review-this-debut-film-is-all-style-swagger-but-struggles-to-tell-story |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231215152522/https://www.thenewsminute.com/flix/fight-club-review-this-debut-film-is-all-style-swagger-but-struggles-to-tell-story |archive-date=15 December 2023 |access-date=15 December 2023 |website=[[The News Minute]]}}</ref>

Hridayambika. A. Manu of ''[[OTTplay]]'' gave 2.5/5 stars and wrote "Although ''Fight Club'' has good performances and cinematography, the Abbas A. Rahmath directorial’s storyline makes it a confusing watch. If you're looking for a screenplay-based action drama, you can skip this one."<ref>{{Cite web |last=A |first=Hridyambika |date=27 January 2024 |title=Fight Club review – Vijay Kumar's intense North Chennai chronicle has a disappointing screenplay |url=https://www.ottplay.com/review/fight-club-review-vijay-kumars-intense-north-chennai-chronicle-has-a-disappointing-screenplay/b3a084361c398 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231215152521/https://www.ottplay.com/review/fight-club-review-vijay-kumars-intense-north-chennai-chronicle-has-a-disappointing-screenplay/b3a084361c398 |archive-date=15 December 2023 |access-date=27 January 2024 |website=[[OTTplay]]}}</ref> Janani. K of ''[[India Today]]'' gave 2/5 stars and wrote "''Fight Club'' could have been much more impactful had it given more importance to the screenplay as much as it had given the technical aspects."<ref>{{Cite web |last=K |first=Janani |date=15 December 2023 |title=Fight Club Review: Vijay Kumar's film stereotypes North Chennai in cliched story |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/reviews/story/fight-club-review-vijay-kumars-film-stereotypes-north-chennai-in-cliched-story-2476214-2023-12-15 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231215152521/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/reviews/story/fight-club-review-vijay-kumars-film-stereotypes-north-chennai-in-cliched-story-2476214-2023-12-15 |archive-date=15 December 2023 |access-date=15 December 2023 |website=[[India Today]]}}</ref>

Gopinath Rajendran of ''[[The Hindu]]'' wrote "Despite some impeccable action sequences, Vijay Kumar’s ‘Fight Club’ doesn’t live up to its true potential thanks to the wafer-thin plot and predictable writing."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rajendran |first=Gopinath |date=15 December 2023 |title='Fight Club' Tamil movie review: This Vijay Kumar-starrer is all style and very little substance |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/fight-club-tamil-movie-review-this-vijay-kumar-starrer-is-all-style-and-very-little-substance/article67640997.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231215152523/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/fight-club-tamil-movie-review-this-vijay-kumar-starrer-is-all-style-and-very-little-substance/article67640997.ece |archive-date=15 December 2023 |access-date=15 December 2023 |website=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> S. V. Harshini of ''[[Film Companion]]'' wrote "The film 'tells' more than it 'shows', which leaves you disappointed because its action-packed atmosphere is clever and engrossing."<ref>{{Cite web |last=S V |first=Harshini |date=15 December 2023 |title=Fight Club Review: Technical Finesse Saves This Action Film From Its Narrative Setbacks |url=https://www.filmcompanion.in/reviews/tamil-review/fight-club-review-technical-finesse-saves-this-action-film-from-its-narrative-setbacks-vijay-kumar-avinash-raghudevan |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231215152523/https://www.filmcompanion.in/reviews/tamil-review/fight-club-review-technical-finesse-saves-this-action-film-from-its-narrative-setbacks-vijay-kumar-avinash-raghudevan |archive-date=15 December 2023 |access-date=15 December 2023 |website=[[Film Companion]]}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title}}

[[Category:2023 Indian films]]
[[Category:2023 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:2023 action thriller films]]
[[Category:2023 films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Govind Vasantha]]
[[Category:Indian action thriller films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language action thriller films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]

U. Kothapalli

2026-02-26T08:38:15Z

Joseph Patricio: started basic data w/ infobox

{{other uses|Kothapalle (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2018}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = U. Kothapalli
| native_name_lang =
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = [[Village]]
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Andhra Pradesh#India
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Andhra Pradesh, India
| coordinates = {{coord|17.087419|N|82.317369|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Andhra Pradesh]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Kakinada district|Kakinada]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total =
| population_as_of =
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code =
| registration_plate_type = [[Vehicle registration plates of India|Vehicle Registration]]
| registration_plate = [[List of RTO districts in India|AP05 (Former)]] AP39 (from 30 January 2019)<ref>{{cite news |title=New ‘AP 39’ code to register vehicles in Andhra Pradesh launched |url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/vijayawada/2019/jan/31/new-ap-39-code-to-register-vehicles-in-state-launched-1932417.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190203234146/http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/vijayawada/2019/jan/31/new-ap-39-code-to-register-vehicles-in-state-launched-1932417.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 February 2019 |accessdate=9 June 2019 |work=The New Indian Express |date=31 January 2019 |location=Vijayawada}}</ref>
| website =
| footnotes =
| mapframe = yes
| mapframe-zoom = 14
}}
'''U. Kothapalli''' is a village and capital of [[Subdivisions of India|U. Kothapalli mandal]] in [[Kakinada district]] in the state of [[Andhra Pradesh]] in [[India]].<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/
|title=List of Sub-Districts
|publisher=Census of India
|accessdate=2007-05-18
|url-status=dead
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080514011646/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/
|archivedate=2008-05-14
}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Kakinada district}}

[[Category:Villages in Kakinada district]]

{{Kakinada-geo-stub}}

Lungba Ahanba

2026-02-26T07:24:27Z

Joseph Patricio: put up some info added tags.

{{Short description|Fourth ruler of the Khuman dynasty}}{{Infobox monarch
| name = Lungba Ahanba Nongdamlen Ahanba
| title = Khuman Ningthou
| image = Ancient and Modern Meitei names of Lungpa Ahanpa (Lungba Ahanba), the monarch of Khuman dynasty.png
| alt = Ancient and Modern Meitei names of Lungpa Ahanpa (Lungba Ahanba)
| reign = 300 CE – 350 CE
| reign-type = Monarch
| predecessor = [[Lungba]]
| successor = [[Moilangpok Punshiba]]
| birth_name =
| spouse = Leirum Langbi
| issue = [[Moilangpok Punshiba]]
| house = [[Khuman dynasty]]
| father = Lungba
| occupation = Monarch
| religion = [[Sanamahism]]
}}
{{Khuman Kingdom}}
{{Meitei people}}'''Lungba Ahanba''' ([[Old Manipuri]]: ꯂꯨꯡꯕ ꯑꯍꯟꯄ, ''romanised'': '''Lungpa Ahanpa'''), also known as '''Nongdamlen Ahanba''', was a king of the [[Khuman dynasty]] who ruled from approximately 300 CE to 350 CE.<ref name=":Khuman Kangleirol_Khelchandra">{{Cite book |last=Khelchandra Singh |first=Ningthoukhongjam |author-link=Ningthoukhongjam Khelchandra |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.466994/page/২৭/mode/thumb |title=Khuman Kangleirol |date=1980 |publisher=Digital Library of India; Internet Archive |location=India |language=mni}}</ref><ref name=":Khuman Kangleiron Amasung Laikhuram Shageigee Meihouron">{{Cite book |last=Ibobi |first=Laikhuram |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.465221/page/n9/mode/thumb |title=Khuman Kangleiron Amasung Laikhuram Shageigee Meihouron |date=1998 |publisher=Digital Library of India; Internet Archive |location=India |language=mni}}</ref>

He was a contemporary of [[Taothingmang]], a king of the [[Ningthouja dynasty]], who ruled from 264 CE to 364 CE.<ref name=":Khuman_Ningthouron_Lambuba_Kullachandra3">{{Cite book |last=Kullachandra Sharma |first=B. |author-link=Bachaspatimayum Jayantakumar Sharma |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.466468/page/10/mode/thumb |title=Khuman Ningthouron Lambuba |date=1998 |publisher=Digital Library of India; Internet Archive |location=India |language=mni}}</ref><ref name=":Khumal Ningthourol Lambuba3">{{Cite book |last=Kullachandra |first=B. |author-link=Bachaspatimayum Jayantakumar Sharma |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.465404/page/n9/mode/thumb |title=Khumal Ningthourol Lambuba |date=1989-03-15 |publisher=Digital Library of India; Internet Archive |location=India |language=mni}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:Khuman kings]]
[[Category:4th-century Indian monarchs]]

Ujjain division

2026-02-23T20:04:01Z

Joseph Patricio: rework information based on references per sources

{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2017}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Ujjain division
| settlement_type = [[Divisions of Madhya Pradesh|Division]] of [[Madhya Pradesh]]
| native_name =
| image_skyline =
| image_caption =
| image_map = Ujjain division Madhya Pradesh locator map.svg
| map_caption = Map of Madhya Pradesh with Ujjain division highlighted in blue
| coordinates = {{coord|23.17|75.79|display=title,inline}}
| coor_pinpoint = Ujjain
| pushpin_map = India Madhya Pradesh#India
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and union territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Madhya Pradesh]]
| seat_type = Headquarters
| seat = [[Ujjain]]
| parts_type = Districts
| parts_style = para
| p1 = 7 ([[Dewas District|Dewas]], [[Mandsaur District|Mandsaur]], [[Neemuch District|Neemuch]], [[Ratlam District|Ratlam]], [[Shajapur District|Shajapur]], [[Agar Malwa district|Agar]] and [[Ujjain District|Ujjain]])
| area_total_km2 =
| area_footnotes =
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_total =
| population_footnotes =
| population_urban =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +05:30
| website = {{URL|https://ujjaindivisionmp.nic.in}}
| official_name =
}}

'''Ujjain Division''' is an administrative geographical unit of [[Madhya Pradesh]] [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[India]]. [[Ujjain]] is the administrative headquarters of the division. {{as of|2005}}, the division consists of the [[Districts of Madhya Pradesh|districts]] of [[Dewas District|Dewas]], [[Mandsaur District|Mandsaur]], [[Neemuch District|Neemuch]], [[Ratlam District|Ratlam]], [[Shajapur District|Shajapur]], [[Agar Malwa district|Agar Malwa]] and [[Ujjain District|Ujjain]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ujjaindivisionmp.nic.in/en/districts-of-ujjain-division/ |title=Districts of Ujjain Division |access-date=4 March 2022 |archive-date=4 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220304054809/https://ujjaindivisionmp.nic.in/en/districts-of-ujjain-division/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Major City's of Division==
* [[Ujjain]]
* [[Dewas]]
* [[Ratlam]]
* [[Mandsaur]]
* [[Neemuch]]
* [[Nagda]]
* [[Jaora]]
* [[Shajapur]]
* [[Shujalpur]]
* [[Agar, Madhya Pradesh|Agar]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Ujjain Division|state=expanded}}
{{Districts of Madhya Pradesh}}

[[Category:Divisions of Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Government of Ujjain]]
[[Category:Year of establishment missing]]

{{MadhyaPradesh-geo-stub}}

List of colleges and institutes in Madurai district

2026-02-22T00:32:08Z

Joseph Patricio: clean up

{{Short description|None}}
{{primary sources|date=December 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2020}}
This is a '''list of the colleges and institutes in [[Madurai district]]'''.
[[File:Madhurai kamaraj university main gate.JPG|thumb|Entrance of [[Madurai Kamaraj University|Madurai Kamarajar University]]]]

Madurai has been an academic centre of learning of Tamil culture, literature, art, music and dance for centuries. All three assemblies of the [[Tamil language]], the Tamil Sangam (about the 3rd century BC to the 3rd century CE), were held at Madurai. [[The American College in Madurai]] is the oldest college in the city and second-oldest college in Tamil Nadu, established in 1881 by American Christian missionaries. The Lady Doak college, established in 1948, is the oldest women's college in Madurai. The Madura College (established in 1889), Fatima College (established in 1953) and [[M.S.S. Wakf Board College]] (established in 1964) are among the oldest educational institutions of the city. [[Vivekananda College, Madurai|Vivekananda College]], Tiruvedakam West, established in 1971, is the only residential college run in the gurukula pattern of education. Madurai Kamaraj University (originally called Madurai University), established in 1966, is the state run university that has 109 affiliated arts and science colleges in Madurai and neighbouring districts. There are 47 approved institutions of the university in and around the city consisting of autonomous colleges, aided colleges, self-financing colleges, constituent colleges, evening colleges and other approved institutions. There are seven polytechnics and five industrial training institutes in Madurai, with the Government Industrial Training Institute and the Government Polytechnic for Women being the most prominent. Fire and Safety Training Provided by Ideal industrial Training Institute Located in Krihsnapuram colony, The government institutes, namely, the Madurai Medical College and the Homoeopathic Medical College, along with the 11 paramedical institutes constitute the medical and paramedical paradigm of Madurai. There are seven engineering colleges in Madurai affiliated to Anna University, with the Thiagarajar College of Engineering being the oldest of all. The Madurai Law College, established in 1979, is one of the seven government law colleges in the state, administered by the Tamil Nadu Government Department of Legal Studies, and affiliated to the Tamil Nadu Dr. Ambedkar Law University. There are three teacher training institutes, two music colleges, three management institutes and 30 Arts & Science colleges in Madurai. The agricultural college and research institute in Madurai, started in 1965, by the state government provides agricultural education to aspirants in the southern districts of Tamil Nadu. There are a total of 369 primary, secondary and higher secondary schools in the city.

==Medical colleges==
*[[Madurai Medical College]]
* Homoeopathic Medical College, Madurai
* Meenakshi Mission Hospital & Research Centre
* CSI Jeyaraj Annapackiam College of Nursing, [[Pasumalai]]
* CSI College of Dental Sciences and Research, East Veli Street
* Vadamalayan Institute Of Medical And Allied Health Sciences, Chinna Chokikulam
* Velammal Medical College and Hospital
* Preethi Institute of Medical Sciences & Research (PIMS)
* Preethi Paramedical Institute
* Lakshmana Paramedical Institute

==Engineering colleges==
*[[Thiagarajar College of Engineering]]
* Central Institute of Plastics Engineering & Technology (CIPET), Madurai
*[[K. L. N. College of Engineering]]
*[[Solamalai College of Engineering]] / [[Raja College of Engineering and Technology]]
*[[Latha Mathavan Engineering College]]
*[[SACS MAVMM Engineering College]]
*[[Velammal College of Engineering and Technology]]
*[[ST.Michael College of Engineering and Technology]]
*[[PTR College of Engineering]]
*Vickram College of Engineering
*[[Vaigai College of Engineering]]
*[[Latha Mathavan Engineering College]]
*[[Ultra College of Engineering and Technology]]
*[[Fatima Michael College of Engineering and Technology]]
*[[Mangayarkarasi College of Engineering and Technology]]
*[[SRM Madurai College of Engineering and Technology]]

==Arts and Science Colleges==
*Auxilium Arts and Science College for Women, Chittampatti, Madurai
*[[Thiagarajar College]]
*[[Lady Doak College]]
*[[Arul Anandar College, Karumathur]]
*[[E.M.G. Yadava Women's College]]
*[[M.S.S.Wakf Board College]]
*Madurai School of Management
*[[Nadar Mahajana Sangam S. Vellaichamy Nadar College]], Nagamalai
*[[The American College in Madurai]]
*[[Madura College|The Madura College]]
*[[Ambiga College of Arts and Science for Women, Madurai]]
*[[Yadava College]], Thirupalai
*[[PKN Arts and Science College]], Thirumangalam
*[[Vivekananda College, Madurai]]
*Ultra Arts and Science College, Othakadai
*Nagarathinam Angalammal Arts and Science College, Perungudi
*[[Saraswathi Narayanan College|Saraswati Narayanan Arts and Science College]], Perungudi
*Senthamarai Arts and Science College, Vadapalnji
*Lathamathavan Arts and Science College, Kidaripatti
*KLN Arts and Science College, Pottapalayam
*[[Pasumpon Muthuramalinga Thevar College, Usilampatti]]
*Madurai Kamaraj University Evening College, Tallakulam
*[[Madurai Institute of Social Sciences]]
*[[Sourashtra College, Madurai|Sourashtra College]], Pasumalai
*

==Polytechnics and catering colleges==
*Government Polytechnic for Women
*[[Tamil Nadu Polytechnic College]]
*Government Polytechnic College, [[Chekkanurani]]
*Leela Institute of Hotel Management and catering
*Gesto Hotel management college
*Alffa Catering College
*

==ITI colleges==
*Tamil Nadu Government ITI, Pudhur
*Tamil Nadu Women ITI, Pudhur
*Tamil Nadu Government ITI, Chekkanoorni
*Loyola Private ITI, GnanaOlivuPuram
*[[Kazi Tajuddin ITI]], [[Kazimar Street]]
*Ideal ITI, Krishnapuram Colony
*CSI ITI, Pasumalai
*Uypa ITI, Thirunagar
*Venkateshwara ITI, Thanakkankulam
*Gms Gavmm Alagar Kovli 2019To2022←Set→ Nanga Tha Gethu Alagar Kovli Nanga Tha———

== Schools ==
*Ambika Matriculation School
*American College Higher Secondary School
*Arbindo Mira Intranational School
*C. S. Ramachary Memorial Matriculation Higher Secondary School
*Capron Hall Girls Higher Secondary School
*CEOA CBSE School
*CEOA Matriculation Higher Secondary School
*Crown Matriculation Higher Secondary School, Goripalayam
*Delhi World Public School
*Dolphin CBSE School
*Government Higher Secondary School, Thiruparankundram
*Holy Family Girls Higher Secondary School
*Indira Gandhi Memorial Matriculation Higher Secondary School
*[[Kendriya Vidyalaya]], Narimedu
*Kendriya Vidyalaya, Thirupparankundram
*KVT Matriculation Higher Secondary School, Madurai
*[[Lakshmi School]], Karuppayoorani
*Le Chatelier Matriculation Higher Secondary School
*M.N.U.Jayaraj Nadar Higher Secondary School, Nagamalai Pudhukottai
*Madura College Higher Secondary School
*Maharishi Vidhyaa Mandhir CBSE School, Thanakkankulam
*Maharishi Vidhyaa Mandir CBSE School, Kovilpapakudi
*[[Mahatma Montessori Matriculation Higher Secondary School]]
*Mangayarkarasi Higher Secondary School
*Muthuthevar Mukkalathor Higher Secondary School, Thirunagar
*Nadar Higher Secondary School
*Nirmala Girls Higher Secondary School
*Pasumalai CSI Boys Higher secondary school
*Queen Mira Intranational School
*Railway Mixed Higher Secondary School
*S.B.O.A. Matriculation Hr. Sec. School
*S.P.J Matriculation School
*Saracens Matriculation Higher secondary school
*Savithabhai Higher Secondary School
*Seethalaksmi Girls Higher Secondary School
*Sethupati Higher Secondary School
*Sethurajan Matriculaction Higher Secondary School, Madurai
*Sourashtra Boys Higher Secondary School
*Sourashtra Girls Higher Secondary School
*Sri Vidhyalayam Matriculation Higher Secondary School
*St. Britto Boys Higher Secondary School
*St. Joseph's Girls Higher Secondary School, Chinthamani
*St. Mary's Boys Higher Secondary School, Chinthamani
*[[TVS Matriculation Higher Secondary School]]
*Thiagaraja Model Higher Secondary School, Teppakulam
*Thiagarajar Higher Secondary School, Andalpuram
*Triveni School, Ponnagaram
*Union Christian Higher Secondary School
*V.H.N. Higher Secondary School, Chinthamani
*V.M.J ICSE School, Chinthamani
*Velammal Matriculation Higher Secondary School

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Education in Tamil Nadu}}
[[Category:Education in Madurai district]]
[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges in Tamil Nadu|Madurai]]

Dougla people

2026-02-19T20:10:53Z

Joseph Patricio: basic expand lead also and updated info

{{Short description|Caribbean people of mixed African and Indian descent}}
{{EngvarB|date=December 2019}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Dougla people
| image =
| image_caption =
| population =
| regions = [[Caribbean]] (notably in [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[Guyana]], [[Suriname]], [[Jamaica]], [[Saint Lucia]], [[Grenada]],[[Guadeloupe]], and [[Martinique]]) 
Diaspora in the [[United States]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[Canada]], and the [[Netherlands]]
| languages = [[Caribbean English]] (predominantly [[Trinidadian Creole]], [[Guyanese Creole]], [[Sranan Tongo]], [[Jamaican Patois]], [[Saint Lucian Creole]]), [[French language|French]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[Papiamento]], [[Caribbean Hindustani]]
| religions = {{hlist|[[Christianity]]|[[Hinduism]]|[[Islam]]|[[African diaspora religions|Afro-American religions]]|[[Irreligion]]}}
| related_groups = [[Afro-Caribbean people|Afro-Caribbeans]], [[Indo-Caribbean people|Indo-Caribbeans]]
| footnotes =
}}

'''Dougla''' ({{IPAc-en|lang|ˈ|d|oʊ|g|l|ə}} {{endash}} from [[Caribbean Hindustani]] {{lang|hns|dugalaa}} 'mixed') is a term used to describe people who are of mixed [[Afro-Caribbean people|African]] and [[Indo-Caribbean people|Indian]] descent.

==Definition==
The word ''Dougla'' originated from '''dogala''' ({{lang|hns|दोगला}}), which is a [[Caribbean Hindustani]] word that literally means "two-necks" and may mean "many", "much" or "a mix" (literally bastard, of two fathers).<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=__id65WNktsC&q=doogala+meaning&pg=PT134|title=Rice and Beans: A Unique Dish in a Hundred Places|last1=Wilk|first1=Richard|last2=Barbosa|first2=Livia|date=2013-05-09|publisher=Berg|isbn=9781847889058|language=en}}</ref> Its etymological roots are cognate with the Hindi "do" meaning "two" and "gala", which means "throat". Within the West Indies context, the word is used only for one type of [[multiracial people|mixed race]] people: Afro-Indians.<ref>{{cite book|title=Dictionary of the English/Creole of Trinidad & Tobago|first=Lise|last=Winer|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|location=Montreal|date=2009|isbn=978-0-7735-3406-3|page=311}}</ref>

The 2012 Guyana census identified 29.25% of the population as [[Afro-Guyanese people|Afro-Guyanese]], 39.83% as [[Indo-Guyanese]], and 19.88% as "mixed," recognized as mostly representing the offspring of the former two groups.<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://statisticsguyana.gov.gy/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Final_2012_Census_Compendium2.pdf |title=2012 Census Compendium 2: Computation Composition |last=Bureau of Statistics, Guyana |date=July 2016 |access-date=2022-12-04 |archive-date=2021-01-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210105002255/https://statisticsguyana.gov.gy/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Final_2012_Census_Compendium2.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In the [[French West Indies]] ([[Guadeloupe]], [[Martinique]]), Afro-Indian people used to be referred to as '''Batazendyen''' or '''Chapé-Kouli.'''

==History==
There are sporadic records of Indo-Euro interracial relationships, both consensual and nonconsensual, before any ethnic mixing of the African and Indian variety.<ref>{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=--j6DAAAQBAJ|title= The Trinidad Dougla: Identity, Ethnicity and Lexical Choice|isbn= 9781443898997|last1= Regis|first1= Ferne Louanne|date= 17 August 2016|publisher= Cambridge Scholars}}</ref>

Other Indo-based types of mixed heritage (Indo-Chinese ([[Chindians]]), [[Asian Latin Americans|Indo-Latino/Hispanic]] (Tegli), Indo-English ([[Anglo-Indian]]s), Indo-Portuguese ([[Luso-Indian]]s), Indo-Irish ([[Irish Indians]]), Indo-Scottish ([[Scottish-Indian]]s), Indo-[[Dutch people|Dutch]], Indo-[[Arabs]] and Indo-[[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Amerindian]]) tended to identify as one of the older, unmixed ethnic strains on the island: Afro, Indo, Amerindian or Euro or [[Passing (sociology)|passing as one of them]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.trinidadandtobagonews.com/forum/webbbs_config.pl?md=read;id=2849|title=Dougla dilemma|website=www.trinidadandtobagonews.com}}</ref>

==Notable Douglas==
{{Main|List of Dougla people}}

==See also==
{{Portal|India|Africa|Caribbean}}
* [[Indo-African (disambiguation)]]
* [[Indo-Trinidadian and Tobagonian]]
* [[Afro–Trinidadians and Tobagonians|Afro-Trinidadian and Tobagonian]]
* [[Indo-Caribbean people|Indo-Caribbean]]
* [[Afro-Caribbean people|Afro-Caribbean]]
* [[Marabou (ethnicity)]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Barratt, Sue A, and Aleah N. Ranjitsingh. ''Dougla in the Twenty-First Century: Adding to the Mix''. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2021. {{ISBN|9781496833709}}. See also CUNY Asian and Asian American Research Institute [https://aaari.info/21-11-12barratt-ranjitsingh/ author interview] on 19 November 2021.

{{Ethnic groups in Trinidad and Tobago}}
{{African diaspora}}
{{Indian diaspora}}
{{Overseas Asians}}{{Multiethnicity}}
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Trinidad and Tobago]]
[[Category:Multiracial affairs in the Caribbean]]
[[Category:Multiracial affairs in South America]]
[[Category:People of Dougla descent|*]]
[[Category:Indian diaspora in the Caribbean]]
[[Category:African diaspora in the Caribbean]]

Amaan Sandhu

2026-02-18T07:19:10Z

Joseph Patricio: Added a pg initial version

{{Short description|Indian basketball player}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2026}}

{{Infobox basketball biography
| name = Amaan Sandhu
| image =
| caption =
| position = Centre
| height_m =
| weight_kg =
| league =
| team = Punjab
| number =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|2002|12|8|df=yes}}
| birth_place = Punjab, India
| death_date =
| death_place =
| high_school =
| college = Monmouth University (2023)
| draft_year =
| draft_round =
| draft_pick =
| draft_team =
| career_start = 2021
| career_end =
| years1 = 2021–
| team1 = [[India men's national basketball team|India]]
| years2 =
| team2 = First Love Christian Academy (G League)
| highlights =
| medaltemplates = }}

'''Amaan Sandhu''' (born 8 December 2002) is an Indian basketball player from Punjab.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2026-02-15 |title=Amaan Sandhu (India) - Basketball Stats, Height, Age {{!}} FIBA Basketball |url=https://www.fiba.basketball/en/players/280994-amaan-sandhu |access-date=2026-02-15 |website=www.fiba.basketball |language=en}}</ref> He plays for the [[India men's national basketball team]] as a Centre.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Amaan Sandhu - Manhattan Jaspers Center - ESPN (IN) |url=https://www.espn.in/mens-college-basketball/player/_/id/5106704/amaan-sandhu |access-date=2026-02-15 |website=ESPN |language=en}}</ref> He plays for Punjab in the domestic tournaments.

== Career ==
In 2021, he first played for the Senior India team in the FIBA Asia Cup 2021 Qualifiers. In 2023, he was part of the India team that played in the FIBA Olympic Pre-Qualifying Tournament at Syria. In August 2025, he played FIBA Asia Cup.<ref name=":0" />

He played for the First Love Christian Academy in the G League, the development league of NBA.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2021-06-17 |title=Firstpost Explains: How stints with US colleges, high schools help Indians edge closer to professional basketball-Sports News, Firstpost |url=https://www.firstpost.com/sports/firstpost-explains-how-stints-with-us-colleges-high-schools-help-indians-edge-closer-to-professional-basketball-9727261.html |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20210617133137/https://www.firstpost.com/sports/firstpost-explains-how-stints-with-us-colleges-high-schools-help-indians-edge-closer-to-professional-basketball-9727261.html |archive-date=2021-06-17 |access-date=2026-02-15 |work=Firstpost |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Amaan Sandhu - Men's Basketball |url=https://monmouthhawks.com/sports/mens-basketball/roster/amaan-sandhu/19535 |access-date=2026-02-15 |website=Monmouth University Athletics |language=en}}</ref> In 2023, he also played for Monmouth University in Division 1 of the NCAA, the highest level of collegiate basketball in the USA.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Selvaraj |first=Jonathan |date=2022-12-15 |title=Who is Amaan Sandhu, 19-year-old Indian basketball player shooting for NBA via NCAA |url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/basketball/amaan-sandhu-basketball-player-ncaa-monmouth-hawks-nba-ambitions-first-indian-scholarship-division-1/article66264622.ece |access-date=2026-02-15 |website=Sportstar |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sandhu, Amaan}}
[[Category:2002 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian men's basketball players]]
[[Category:Basketball players from Punjab, India]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian sportsmen]]

India–Maldives relations

2026-02-14T04:43:07Z

Joseph Patricio: added references

{{Infobox bilateral relations|India-Maldives|India|Maldives|envoytitle1=[[High Commissioner]]|envoytitle2=[[High Commissioner]]|envoy1=Shri Munu Mahawar|envoy2=[[Aishath Azeema]]|mission1=[[High Commission of India, Malé]]|mission2=[[High Commission of the Maldives, New Delhi]]}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2014}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2016}}

[[India]] and [[Maldives]] are neighbours sharing a maritime border.<ref name="G">{{cite web |title=China – India relations |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+in0176) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090110125122/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+in0176) |archive-date=10 January 2009 |access-date=5 June 2008 |publisher=[[Library of Congress]] Country Studies}}</ref><ref name="CFR">{{Cite news |last=Aryasinha |first=Ravinatha |title=Maldives, Sri Lanka and the "India Factor" |url=http://www.himalmag.com/97mar/cov-mal.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080529195009/http://www.himalmag.com/97mar/cov-mal.htm |archive-date=29 May 2008 |access-date=5 June 2008 |work=Himal South Asia Magazine}}</ref> [[India]] continues to contribute to [[Indian Armed Forces|maintaining security]] as well as providing financial aid on the island nation.<ref name="CFR"/><ref name="VA3">{{cite book |author=Devin T. Hagerty |title=South Asia in World Politics |pages=102–103|publisher=Rowman and Littlefield |year=2005 |isbn=0-7425-2587-2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=India extends financial assistance of 100 million US dollars to Maldives |url=https://newsonair.gov.in/Main-News-Details.aspx?title=India-extends-financial-assistance-of-100-million-US-dollars-to-Maldives&id=451540 |access-date=2023-07-21 |work=All India Radio News}}</ref>

However, tensions have increased as [[President of the Maldives]] [[Mohamed Muizzu]] has imposed an "India-Out" campaign and the country is deepening ties with [[China]]. Along with this, recent incidents of ministers of the Maldives insulting the islands of [[Lakshadweep]] and the [[Prime Minister of India]], [[Narendra Modi]], have heightened tensions.

It represents India's second-largest ongoing plantation infrastructure endeavor, following the $500 million Greater Malé Project. The [[Greater Malé Connectivity Project|Greater Malé Project]] aims to link the capital with three adjacent highlands through a 6.74-kilometer-long sea bridge.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Nanda |first=Prakash |date=3 May 2023 |title=India 'Shadowboxes' China In The Maldives; Looks To Knock Out Chinese Challenge In The Indian Ocean Nation |url=https://www.eurasiantimes.com/india-shadowboxes-china-in-the-maldives-looks-to-knock/ |access-date=22 September 2023 |work=The EurAsian Times}}</ref>

Both India and the Maldives are [[republics in the Commonwealth of Nations]].

India has a High Commission in [[Malé]], and the Maldives has a High Commission in [[New Delhi]].

In July 2025, [[India]] and the [[Maldives]] revitalised ties with a USD 565 million line of credit from India to support Maldivian infrastructure projects. The two sides also agreed to reduce the [[Maldives]]’ annual debt repayment to India by 40% and signed six cooperation pacts in areas including fisheries, digital infrastructure, and health. Talks between [[Narendra Modi|Prime Minister Narendra Modi]] and President Mohamed [[Mohamed Muizzu|Muizzu]] marked a thaw in relations following earlier tensions, with both leaders committing to stronger economic and defence cooperation. Key developments included progress on a free trade agreement, promotion of digital payment systems like UPI, and the inauguration of [[India]]-assisted projects. The renewed [[partnership]] was positioned as crucial for regional peace and [[Indian Ocean]] stability.<ref>{{Cite web |title= |url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/india/india-announces-rs-4-850-cr-loc-for-maldives-modi-says-ties-between-two-neighbours-as-deep-as-ocean-13329110.html}}</ref>

== History ==

{{Main | History of Maldives | Buddhism in South Asia | Minicoy#History | l2 = Minicoy history | British Raj }}

Maldives is located south of India's [[Lakshadweep Islands]] in the Indian Ocean. Both nations established diplomatic relations after the independence of Maldives from [[British Empire|British rule]] in 1965.<ref name="G"/> [[India]] was one of the first nations to recognise [[Maldives]]' independence.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Malone|first1=David M|title=Does the Elephant Dance?: Contemporary Indian Foreign Policy|date=30 August 2012 |publisher=Oxford|isbn=9780199661275}}</ref> Since then, India and Maldives have developed close strategic, military, economic and cultural relations. India has supported Maldives' policy of keeping regional issues and struggles away from itself, and the latter has seen friendship with India as a source of aid as well as a counterbalance to [[Sri Lanka]], which is in proximity to the island nation and its largest trading partner.<ref name="CFR"/>

== Bilateral treaties and strategic partnership ==

=== 1976 Maritime treaty ===

{{anchor | Maritime | Maritime boundary | Treaty }}
{{See also | Exclusive economic zone of India | Borders of India }}

In December 1976, India and the Maldives signed a [[List of maritime boundary treaties|maritime boundary treaty]] to agree on maritime boundaries.<ref name=treat1>"India–Maldives: Agreement between India and the Maldives on Maritime Boundary in the Arabian Sea and Related Matters", in Jonathan I. Charney and Lewis M. Alexander (eds., 1998). ''International Maritime Boundaries'' (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, {{ISBN|978-90-411-0345-1}}) pp. 1389–1399.</ref> Treaty explicitly places [[Minicoy#Treaty|Minicoy]] on the Indian side of the boundary.<ref name=treat1/> India and Maldives officially and amicably decided their [[maritime boundary]] in 1976.<ref name="CFR"/> A minor diplomatic incident occurred in 1982 when [[Maumoon Abdul Gayoom|President Maumoon Abdul Gayoom]]'s brother, [[Abdulla Hameed]] gave a speech that India mistook as a claim that the neighboring [[Minicoy Island]] that belonged to India were a part of Maldives; Maldives rapidly officially denied that it was laying claim to the island and explained that President Maumoon's brother had in fact been talking about the cultural connections between Maldives and Minicoy.<ref name="CFR"/>

=== 1981 Comprehensive trade agreement ===

{{anchor | Maritime | Maritime boundary | Treaty }}
{{See also | South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation | Economy of India | Economy of Maldives }}

In 1981, India and Maldives signed a comprehensive trade agreement.<ref name="C">{{cite web |title=Action plan to strengthen bilateral ties with Maldives |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+in0176) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090110125122/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+in0176) |archive-date=10 January 2009 |access-date=5 June 2008 |work=[[Library of Congress]] Country Studies}}</ref> Both nations are founding members of the [[South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation]] (SAARC), the [[South Asian Economic Union]] and signatories to the [[South Asian Free Trade Area|South Asia Free Trade Agreement]]. Indian and Maldivian leaders have maintained high-level contacts and consultations on regional issues.<ref name="G"/>

=== Commercial relations ===

Since the success of [[1988 Maldives coup d'état attempt|Operation Cactus]], the relations between India and Maldives have expanded significantly.<ref name="CFR"/><ref name="VA3"/> India has provided extensive [[Aid|economic aid]] and has participated in bilateral programmes for the development of infrastructure, health, telecommunications and labour resources.<ref name="CFR"/><ref name="VA3"/> It established the [[Indira Gandhi Memorial Hospital]] in [[Malé]], the capital of Maldives, expanded telecommunications and air links and increased scholarships for Maldivian students.<ref name="CFR"/> While India's exports to Maldives during 2006 were worth ₹384 [[crore]], imports were worth less than ₹6 [[crore]].<ref name="C"/> The [[State Bank of India]] has contributed more than US$500 million to aid the economic expansion of Maldives.<ref name="C"/> India and Maldives have announced plans to jointly work to expand fisheries and [[tuna]] processing.<ref name="C"/>
{| class="wikitable"
|+'''India-Maldives Trade Figures (in million US$)'''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Trade Services:Trends in Bilateral Trade |url=https://hci.gov.in/male/?2600?000 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419174054/https://hci.gov.in/male/?2600?000 |archive-date=19 April 2021 |access-date=2021-08-03 |website=High Commission of india, Male}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=India-Maldives Trade Figures (in million US$) |url=https://hci.gov.in/male/?pdf2600?000 |access-date=13 January 2024 |work=High Commission of India, Male}}</ref>
|-
!'''Year'''
!'''India's Exports'''
!'''India's Imports'''
!'''Total Trade'''
!'''India's Balance of Trade'''
|-
|'''2015'''
|225.82
|3.00
|228.82
|222.81
|-
|'''2016'''
|274.55
|1.55
|276.10
|273.00
|-
|'''2017'''
|282.04
|4.12
|286.16
|277.93
|-
|'''2018'''
|286.13
|3.01
|289.14
|283.12
|-
|'''2019'''
|290.27
|3.42
|293.69
|286.85
|-
|'''2020'''
|242.82
|3.33
|246.15
|239.49
|-
|'''2021'''
|317.35
|5.94
|323.29
|311.41
|-
|'''2022 (Jan – April)'''
|131.33
|2.78
|134.11
|128.55
|}

=== Military relations ===

In April 2006, the [[Indian Navy]] gifted a [[Trinkat-class patrol vessel|Trinkat Class]] [[Fast attack craft|Fast Attack Craft]] of 46 m length to the [[MNDF|Maldives National Defence Force]]'s [[Maldivian Coast Guard|Coast Guard]].

India started the process to bring the island country into India's security grid. The move comes after the moderate Islamic nation approached [[New Delhi]] earlier in 2009, over fears that one of its island resorts could be taken over by terrorists given its lack of military assets and surveillance capabilities.<ref name="Indmal1">{{Cite news |last=Pubby |first=Manu |date=13 August 2009 |title=India bringing Maldives into its security net |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/news-archive/web/india-bringing-maldives-into-its-security-net/ |access-date=27 March 2016 |work=The Indian Express}}</ref> India has also signed an agreement which includes following:<ref name=Indmal1/>
* India will permanently base two helicopters in the country to enhance its surveillance capabilities and ability to respond swiftly to threats.
* Maldives has coastal radars on only two of its 26 atolls. India will help set up radars on all 26 for seamless coverage of approaching vessels and aircraft.
* The coastal radar chain in Maldives will be networked with the Indian coastal radar system. India has already undertaken a project to install radars along its entire coastline. The radar chains of the two countries will be interlinked and a central control room in India's Coastal Command will get a seamless radar picture.
* The Indian Coast Guard (ICG) will carry out regular Dornier sorties over the island nation to look out for suspicious movements or vessels. The Southern Naval Command will overlook the inclusion of Maldives into the Indian security grid.
* Military teams from Maldives will visit the tri-services Andaman Nicobar Command (ANC) to observe how India manages security and surveillance of the critical island chain.
* Ekuverin, an annual joint military exercise is held every year since 2009 between India and Maldives. The exercise aims to enhance the interoperability between the Indian Army and Maldives National Defence Force in order to effectively undertake counter-terrorism operations in urban or semi-urban environments.

==Operations and events ==

===1988 Maldives coup d'état attempt===

{{Main | 1988 Maldives coup d'état attempt}}

The 1988 Maldives coup d'état attempt was by a group of [[Maldivians]] led by businessman [[Abdullah Luthufi]] and assisted by armed mercenaries of a [[Sri Lankan Tamil|Tamil]] secessionist organisation from Sri Lanka, the [[People's Liberation Organisation of Tamil Eelam]], to overthrow the government in the island republic of Maldives. The mercenaries quickly gained control of the capital, including the major government buildings, airport, port, television and radio stations. The intervention by the [[Indian Armed Forces]], codenamed Operation Cactus, defeated the attempted coup.

The Indian paratroopers immediately secured the airfield, crossed over to Malé using commandeered boats and rescued President Gayoom. The paratroopers restored control of the capital to President Gayoom's government within hours. Some of the mercenaries fled toward Sri Lanka in a hijacked freighter. Those unable to reach the ship in time were quickly rounded up and handed over to the Maldives government. Nineteen people reportedly died in the fighting, most of them mercenaries. The dead included two hostages killed by the mercenaries. The [[Indian Navy]] frigates ''[[INS Godavari (F20)|Godavari]]'' and ''[[INS Betwa (F139)|Betwa]]'' intercepted the freighter off the Sri Lankan coast, and captured the mercenaries. The swift intervention by the Indian military and accurate intelligence successfully quelled the attempted coup d'état.<ref>{{cite web |title=Operation Cactus |url=http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/1988Cactus/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101011095022/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/1988Cactus/ |archive-date=11 October 2010 |website=Bharat Rakshak}}</ref>

=== 2014 Malé Water Shortage Crisis (MWSC) ===

In the wake of a drinking water crisis in Malé on 4 December 2014, following collapse of the island's only water treatment plant, Maldives urged India for immediate help. India came to rescue by initiating [[Operation Neer]] sending its heavy lift transporters like [[C-17 Globemaster III]], [[Il-76]] carrying bottled water. The [[Indian Navy]] also sent her ships like {{INS|Sukanya|P50|6}}, {{INS|Deepak|A50|6}} and others which can produce fresh water using their onboard desalination plants.<ref>{{Cite news |date=7 December 2014 |title=Maldives Water Crisis: India Transports 1,000 Tonnes of Fresh Water to Male |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/maldives-water-crisis-india-transports-1-000-tonnes-of-fresh-water-to-male-709771 |access-date=21 December 2014 |work=[[NDTV]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Panda |first=Ankit |date=5 December 2014 |title=Maldives Faces Drinking Water Crisis |url=https://thediplomat.com/2014/12/maldives-faces-drinking-water-crisis/ |access-date=21 December 2014 |magazine=[[The Diplomat (magazine)|The Diplomat]]}}</ref> The humanitarian relief efforts by the Indian side was widely appreciated in Malé across all sections of people, with the Vice-President of Maldives thanking the Indian ambassador for swift action.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ani/maldives-appreciative-of-india-s-help-during-its-water-crisis-shahare-114120600811_1.html|title=Maldives appreciative of India's help during its water crisis: Shahare|newspaper=[[Business Standard]]|date=6 December 2014|access-date=21 December 2014}}</ref>

=== 2011–2015 Maldives political crisis ===

{{Main | 2011–2012 Maldives political crisis | l1= Maldives political crisis}}

Maldives' first democratically elected president from 2008 to 2012, [[Mohammed Nasheed]], was arrested on 22 February 2015 on terror charges. [[India]] and US expressed concern over Nasheed's arrest and manhandling.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Botsy |first1=Daniel |last2=Aneez |first2=Shihar |date=2015-03-14 |title=U.S., India concerned over 13-year jail sentence for Maldives' ex-president Nasheed |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-maldives-politics-idUSKBN0M92D020150314 |access-date=2016-03-27 |newspaper=Reuters}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Sharma |first=Rajeev |date=7 March 2015 |title=PM Modi cancels trip to Maldives: Is it because of Yameen govt's rebuttal in Nasheed case? |url=https://www.firstpost.com/world/pm-modi-cancels-trip-to-maldives-is-it-because-of-yameen-govts-rebuttal-in-nasheed-casepm-modi-cancels-trip-to-maldives-is-it-because-yameen-govts-rebuttal-in-nasheed-case-2140761.html |access-date=27 March 2016 |work=Firstpost}}</ref> [[Narendra Modi|Indian PM Modi]] was to also visit Maldives in the second week of March as a part four nation [[Foreign policy of Narendra Modi#Indian Ocean outreach|visit to Indian Ocean neighbours]]. But, he later omitted Maldives from his tour.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Haidar |first=Suhasini |date=2015-03-06 |title=PM drops Maldives from Indian Ocean tour |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/pm-drops-maldives-from-indian-ocean-tour/article6966095.ece |access-date=2016-03-27 |newspaper=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Chaudhury |first=Dipanjan Roy |date=7 March 2015 |title=Prime Minister Narendra Modi cancels Maldives trip due to political unrest |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/prime-minister-narendra-modi-cancels-maldives-trip-due-to-political-unrest/articleshow/46481071.cms |access-date=27 March 2016 |work=Economic Times - India Times}}</ref>

=== 2020 COVID-19 crisis ===

During the [[COVID-19 pandemic|COVID-19 crisis]] of 2020, India extended help to Maldives in the form of financial, material and logistical support.

In April 2020, India provided $150 million currency swap support to help Maldives mitigate the financial impact of [[COVID-19 pandemic in Maldives|COVID-19]].<ref name="Avas">{{cite news |date=28 April 2020 |title=India extends US$ 150 mln currency swap support to Maldives |url=https://avas.mv/en/81994 |newspaper=Avas}}</ref> Also in April, at the request of the Maldivian government, the [[Indian Air Force]] airlifted 6.2 tonnes of essential medicines and hospital consumables to Maldives, as part of 'Operation Sanjeevani'. These supplies had been procured by Maldives's [[State Trading Organisation]] from suppliers in India, but could not be transported due to the COVID-19 lockdown.<ref name="Print">{{cite news |last=Philip |first=Snehesh Alex |date=2 April 2020 |title=IAF airlifts 6.2 tonnes of essential medicines, hospital consumables to Maldives |url=https://theprint.in/defence/iaf-airlifts-6-2-tonnes-of-essential-medicines-hospital-consumables-to-maldives/393909/ |newspaper=The Print}}</ref> India had also earlier despatched a medical team  with essential medicines to help Maldives fight the COVID outbreak as well as supplied essential food grains and edibles despite logistical challenges in wake of lockdown.<ref name="DD News">{{cite news |date=2 April 2020|title=Operation Sanjeevani: IAF airlifts medical and hospital consumables for the Maldives|url=http://ddnews.gov.in/national/operation-sanjeevani-iaf-airlifts-medical-and-hospital-consumables-maldives| newspaper=DD News}}</ref> This operation was called Operation [[Sanjeevani (plant)|Sanjeevani]].

=== Civil society perception of India ===

Maldivians generally regard Indians and India as a friends and trusted neighbour in the economic, social and political fields, although there has been a strong anti-India stance taken by some sections of the society, expressed under the 'India Out' campaign, which was alleged by the Indian High Commission to be "motivated, malicious, and increasingly personal".<ref>{{Cite news|last=Banka|first=Neha|date=20 July 2021|title=Explained: What is behind the 'India Out' campaign in the Maldives?|work=The Indian Express|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/the-maldives-india-out-campaign-explained-7396314/|access-date=26 November 2021}}</ref> Both nations share historical and cultural ties. Maldives holds a significant position among India's vital maritime neighbors. India has actively engaged in various efforts aimed at bolstering the defense and security infrastructure in Maldives through capacity development and capability enhancement. Working closely with the Maldivian authorities, the Indian Navy has conducted joint exercises, provided training to personnel, aided in infrastructure development, and facilitated the transfer of equipment. These collaborative initiatives emphasize India's crucial role as a security provider in the region. Furthermore, the Indian government has undertaken a reevaluation of its diplomatic approaches concerning key Indian Ocean island nations, taking into consideration their strategic access to the region.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ahmed |first=Shayesta Nishat |date=6 June 2023 |title=Enriching the Defence Contours of India-Maldives Relations |url=https://www.idsa.in/idsacomments/Enriching-the-Defence-Contours-of-India-Maldives-Relations-NSAhmed-060623 |access-date=21 July 2023 |work=Manohar Parrikar Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses}}</ref>

=== 2024 India–Maldives diplomatic row ===
{{main|2024 India–Maldives diplomatic row}}
Relations faced a strain in January 2024 due to derogatory remarks by Maldivian officials and concerns over racism, targeted towards Indian Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi]] as well as India.<ref>{{Cite web |title="Indians Rightfully Angry": Maldives MP Amid Row Over Ministers' Remarks |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/shameful-racist-maldives-mp-condemns-ministers-remark-on-india-pm-modi-4820311 |access-date=2024-01-08 |website=NDTV.com}}</ref> Maldivian President [[Mohamed Muizzu]] is widely seen to be pro-China, meaning souring relations with India.<ref>{{cite news |title=What the China-Maldives-India Triangle Tells Us About 21st Century Balancing |url=https://thediplomat.com/2024/01/what-the-china-maldives-india-triangle-tells-us-about-21st-century-balancing/ |work=thediplomat.com}}</ref>

This was seen very negatively in India, with citizens calling for a boycott of vacations in Maldives, with many renowned [[Bollywood]] actors and personalities criticising the Maldivian government. This also led to the death of a young Maldivian teenager,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Biswas |first1=Sayantani |title=Maldives teen dies waiting for air ambulance, minister blames President Muizzu's 'animosity' towards India |url=https://www.livemint.com/news/world/malives-india-row-teen-dies-waiting-for-indian-dornier-aircraft-minister-blames-mohamed-muizzus-animosity-11705813493152.html |agency=Mint}}</ref> who had to be taken to India via an [[air ambulance]], after the request at the last minute was denied by Maldivian authorities due to the ongoing tensions against the country.<ref>{{cite news |last1= Gupta |first1=Adarsh Kumar |title=Sick Maldivian teen dies after President Mohammed Muizzu refused India's plane services: Report |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/world-news/sick-maldivian-teen-dies-after-president-mohammed-muizzu-refused-indias-plane-services-report-101705810862369.html |agency=Hindustan Times}}</ref>

On May 9, Indian ministry of External Affairs (MEA) spokesperson Randhir Jaiswal the diplomatic meeting between S Jaishankar and his Maldivian counter part Zameer. Indian MEA spokesperson also confirmed the process of appointment of "competent Indian technical personnel" in place of Indian troops to keep running the Indian aviation platforms which are crucial for evaluation and other humanitarian assistance and disaster response (HADR) activities in Maldives.

=== Reset in relations ===

In August, 2024, both [[India]] and the [[Maldives]] agreed to sort out differences following Indian minister [[S. Jaishankar]]'s visit to the [[Maldives]], following a visit by the Maldivian PM to [[India]] to attend [[Modi]]'s swearing-in ceremony in June. Ties have improved significantly since then. India has announced new investments and cooperation to help build infrastructure in the [[Maldives]].

== Joint Projects in Maldives ==

=== Uthuru Thila Falhu Naval Base Harbour ===

India extended a $50 million line of credit to Maldives for defense projects, mainly for the development, support and maintenance of the harbour of the Uthuru Thila Falhu Naval Base.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Laskar |first=Rezaul H. |date=21 February 2021 |title=India, Maldives sign agreements for developing naval harbour, boosting defence |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/india-maldives-sign-agreements-for-developing-naval-harbour-boosting-defence-101613921874713.html |access-date=2022-03-28 |work=The Hindustan Times}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Bhaumik |first=Anirban |date=22 February 2021 |title=India pips China, inks deal to develop, support, maintain harbour at naval base in Maldives |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/india-pips-china-inks-deal-to-develop-support-maintain-harbour-at-naval-base-in-maldives-953675.html |access-date=28 March 2022 |work=Deccan Herald}}</ref>

=== Greater Malé Connectivity Project ===

{{Main|Greater Malé Connectivity Project|l1 = Greater Malé Connectivity Project}}

In 2021, the Maldivian Ministry of National Planning, Housing and Infrastructure signed a $500 million infrastructure project for a 6.7 km bridge & causeway link with the Indian engineering company [[Afcons Infrastructure|AFCONS]]. The 6.74-km bridge and causeway link will connect the capital of [[Malé]] with the islands of [[Villingili (Malé)|Villingili]], Gulhifalhu and [[Thilafushi]]. It is being funded through a grant of $100 million and a line of credit of $400 million from India, and will boost connectivity between the four islands that account for almost half of the Maldivian population.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Laskar |first=Rezaul H. |date=26 August 2021 |title=Maldives govt signs contract for India-funded $500 million connectivity project |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/world-news/maldives-govt-signs-contract-for-india-funded-500-million-connectivity-project-101629983482797.html |access-date=27 March 2022 |work=The Hindustan Times}}</ref> India's engagement in the Maldives encompasses various infrastructure initiatives, such as the Greater Malé Connectivity Project.<ref>{{Cite news |date=26 August 2021 |title=India, Maldives to sign pact on Greater Male Connectivity Project |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-maldives-greater-male-connectivity-project-7471603/ |access-date=12 July 2023 |work=The Indian Express}}</ref>

=== Water and sanitation projects ===
In 2024, [[President of the Maldives|President]] [[Mohamed Muizzu]] and [[Minister of External Affairs (India)|Indian Minister of External Affairs]] [[S. Jaishankar]] jointly inaugurated water and sanitation projects in 28 islands. This initiative aimed to provide access to safe drinking water, benefiting 32 islands, and to introduce sewerage systems in 17 islands.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seli |first=Yeshi |date=2024-08-11 |title='I thank Indian govt, PM Modi for supporting Maldives,' says Muizzu; Inaugurates water projects with EAM Jaishankar |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/thesundaystandard/2024/Aug/11/india-to-fund-28-water-projects-in-maldives |access-date=2024-08-12 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> The project impacted the lives of over 28,000 Maldivians. With a total funding of $100 million, it represented the largest climate adaptation effort implemented in the Maldives through international collaboration.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-08-10 |title=Jaishankar launches Maldives' largest India-funded sanitation project |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/world/story/maldives-largest-india-funded-sanitation-projects-inaugurated-by-s-jaishankar-2580335-2024-08-10 |access-date=2024-08-12 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=PTI |title=Jaishankar emphasises deeper India-Maldives ties for 'benefit of people' as he meets President Muizzu |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/jaishankar-emphasises-deeper-india-maldives-ties-for-benefit-of-people-as-he-meets-president-muizzu-3145614 |access-date=2024-08-12 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref>

==See also==

* [[Indians in the Maldives]]
* [[Maldivians in India]]
* [[South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation]] (SAARC)

== References ==

{{reflist}}

{{Foreign relations of India}}
{{Foreign relations of the Maldives}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:India-Maldives Relations}}
[[Category:India–Maldives relations| ]]
[[Category:Bilateral relations of India|Maldivdes]]
[[Category:Bilateral relations of the Maldives]]
[[Category:India and the Commonwealth of Nations]]
[[Category:Maldives and the Commonwealth of Nations]]

Rajgarh tehsil

2026-02-06T13:58:05Z

Joseph Patricio: Made A Entry W/ Sources

{{one source|date=July 2022}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = rajgarh tehsil
|native_name =
|native_name_lang =
|settlement_type = [[Tehsil]]
|image_skyline =
|imagesize =
|image_alt =
|image_caption =
| image =

|pushpin_map = India Madhya Pradesh#India
|pushpin_label_position = right
|pushpin_map_alt =
|pushpin_mapsize =
|pushpin_map_caption = Location in [[Madhya Pradesh]]
|coordinates = {{coord|23.999716|N|76.729711|E|display=inline,title}}
|coordinates_footnotes = 
|subdivision_type = Country
|subdivision_name = {{flagcountry|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = Madhya Pradesh
| subdivision_type2 = [[Districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Raisen district]]
|government_type = [[Panchayat Samiti (Block)|Janpad Panchayat]]
|governing_body = [[Council]]

|area_footnotes =
| area_total_km2 =
|area_rural_footnotes =
| area_rural_km2 =
|area_rank =
| area_blank1_title =
| area_blank1_km2 =
|area_note =
|width_mi =
|elevation_min_rank =

|population_as_of =
|population_footnotes =
|population_total =

| population_density_km2 =
|population_density_sq_mi=
|population_urban_footnotes =
|population_urban =
| population_density_urban_km2 =
|population_density_urban_sq_mi =
|population_rural_footnotes =
|population_rural =
| population_density_rural_km2 =
|population_density_rural_sq_mi =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Hindi language|Hindi]]

| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30

|postal_code_type = Postal code (PIN)
|postal_code = 465661
|area_code_type = 
|area_code =
| geocode =
|registration_plate =

| blank_name_sec1 =
| blank_info_sec1 =
| blank1_name_sec1 =
| blank1_info_sec1 =

| blank_name_sec2 =
| blank_info_sec2 =

| website = 
|iso_code = [[ISO 3166-2:IN|MP-IN]]
| footnotes =
}}

'''Rajgarh tehsil''' is a tehsil in Rajgarh district,<ref>[http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/PCA/A2_Data_Table.html Decadal Variation In Population Since 1901]</ref> [[Madhya Pradesh]], India. It is also a subdivision of the administrative and revenue division of [[bhopal district]] of [[Madhya Pradesh]].

==Demographics==

{{Empty section|date=November 2022}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Tehsils of Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Rajgarh district]]

{{Bhopal-geo-stub}}

SIS Limited

2026-01-29T08:01:15Z

Joseph Patricio:

{{short description|Indian security management company}}
{{Infobox company
| name = SIS Limited
| logo = SIS Security logo.png
| trading_name = SIS Limited
| traded_as = {{ubl|{{NSE|SIS}}|{{BSE|540673}}}}
| founded = {{Start date and age|1985}} in [[Patna, Bihar]], India
| founder = [[Ravindra Kishore Sinha]]
| key_people = Rituraj Kishore Sinha Group Managing Director<ref name="moneycontrol.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/company-facts/securityintelligenceservicesindia/management/SIS08|title=SIS Registered Address Contact Details, SIS Management|website=www.moneycontrol.com}}</ref>
| hq_location_city = [[New Delhi]]
| hq_location_country = India
| num_locations = 343 branches (2025)
| area_served = {{Unbulleted list|India|Australia|New Zealand}}
| num_employees = 3,36,647<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thewire.in/ptiprnews/sis-group-a-great-place-to-work-powered-by-purpose-and-people|title=SIS Group: A Great Place to Work, Powered by Purpose and People|website=The Wire}}</ref>
| website = {{URL|https://sisindia.com|SIS India}}
}}

'''SIS Group Enterprise'''<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://businessworld.in/article/COVID-Is-A-Watershed-Moment-For-Security-Facility-Management-Sector/30-04-2020-190751|title=COVID Is A Watershed Moment For Security, Facility Management Sector|first=Abhay|last=Shukla|website=BW Businessworld}}</ref> (formerly '''Security and Intelligence Services (India)''') is a private security firm in India, Australia and New Zealand. It was set up in 1985 by [[Ravindra Kishore Sinha]] who is an Indian billionaire businessman and journalist.<ref name="b">{{Cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/profile/ravindra-kishore-sinha/?sh=420d492b240a|title = SIS Founder - Ravindra Kishore Sinha| website=[[Forbes]] }}</ref> which is now led by his son Rituraj Sinha as Group Managing Director.<ref name="moneycontrol.com"/> SIS Group is one of the largest manpower security firms in the Indo-Pacific region with sales in excess of [[₹]]15,000 [[crore]] (FY2026).<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/business/overseas-business-helps-security-firm-sis-india/article32590181.ece|title = Overseas business helps security firm SIS India|newspaper = The Hindu|date = 12 September 2020|last1 = Mishra|first1 = Lalatendu}}</ref> The company offers Security, Cash Logistics, and Facility Management Services in India, Australia, and a few Asia-Pacific regions.<ref name="a">{{Cite web|url=https://www.business-standard.com/company/sis-37791/information/company-history|title = SIS LTD. (SIS) - COMPANY HISTORY}}</ref> Currently, [[Ravindra Kishore Sinha]] is the Chairman and Rituraj Kishore Sinha is the group managing director of the SIS Ltd.<ref name="w">{{Cite web|url=https://sisindia.com/our-company/leadership/board-of-directors/|title = SIS India - Board of Directors}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/profile/person/17895424|title = Rituraj Sinha - Managing Director SIS India| website=[[Bloomberg News]] }}</ref>

==History==

===Origins===
SIS Group Enterprise, formerly known as Security and Intelligence Services (SIS India), was set up in [[Patna]], [[Bihar]], in 1978 by RK Sinha.<ref name="b"/> The inception of the company by RK Sinha occurred after his career as a Trainee reporter ended in 1973. He set up the Security and Intelligence Services India Ltd. company in a small Garage in Patna with Rs 250 at 23 years old.<ref name="c">{{Cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/small-biz/entrepreneurship/from-rs-250-to-rs-2700-crore-r-k-sinhas-sis-is-the-first-indian-mnc-in-security-industry/articleshow/27718323.cms|title = From Rs 250 to Rs 2,700 crore, R K Sinha's SIS is the first Indian MNC in security industry| newspaper=The Economic Times | date=23 December 2013 | last1=Shanbaug | first1=Amit }}</ref>

===1985–1990===

In its foundation year, 1986, SIS India launched its Graduate Trainee Officer (GTO) program initiated to build a cadre of security officers and managers. The company also employed a workforce between 250-300 people with a turnover of ₹1 Lakh.<ref name="c"/>

In 1989, SIS India developed a DOS-based software program for payroll & its management on 486 computers.<ref name="d">{{Cite web|url=https://sisindia.com/our-company/sis-through-the-ages/|title = SIS Through The Ages}}</ref>

===1991–2006===

In 1991, SIS India completed the milestone of crossing its employee count beyond 1000.<ref name="d"/>

In 1998, SIS India obtained ISO Certification, becoming the first Indian Security company to acquire it.<ref name="d"/>

In 2002, Rituraj Kishore Sinha, an alumnus of [[University of Leeds|Leeds University]] Business School, joined his family business, SIS. As part of a larger professional management team, the initial focus was on business process reengineering and geographical expansion of SIS which was an INR 25 crore company at that point but a very well regarded brand in the industry.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.forbesindia.com/article/changing-lanes/how-rituraj-sinha-is-changing-the-security-company-his-father-founded/32674/1|title = How Rituraj Sinha Is Changing The Security Company His Father Founded}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/business/companies/indias-largest-security-firm-sis-unique-growth-plan-is-out-of-the-box-4726681.html|title = India's largest security firm SIS' unique growth plan is out-of-the-box}}</ref>

In 2004, SIS India developed and launched the first integrated end-to-end ERP platform<ref name="d"/>

===2006–2021===

In 2007, SIS India commenced its West India operations by the inauguration of its regional office in Mumbai. In the same year, The company also received approximately ₹50 crores investment from DE Shaw, Hedge Funds Firm.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.forbesindia.com/article/indias-family-businesses/how-siss-multipronged-expansion-approach-brought-it-international-success/46415/1|title = How SIS's multi-pronged expansion approach brought it international success}}</ref>

In 2008, SIS acquired Australia's largest security company, [[Chubb Security]], becoming the first Indian multinational in security services.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/sis-open-to-buys-in-security-biz/articleshow/46913065.cms|title = SIS open to buys in security biz}}</ref> The acquisition of the Australian guarding and mobile patrol business unit of US industrial conglomerate United Technologies was handled by Citigroup on their behalf.

In 2010, SIS India launched its Electronic Security arm under the name of TECH SIS.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/company/tech-sis-limited/U75300BR2010PLC015484|title = Tech SIS Limited}}</ref>

In 2011, SIS India formed a joint venture with Prosegur called SIS Prosegur for providing SIS Cash Services.<ref name="e"/>

On 24 August 2011, SIS announced that it is entering into a joint venture with [[Terminix]], to perform pest and termite control in India.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/companies/sis-terminix-forms-joint-venture-for-pest-control-services/article23058241.ece|title = SIS, Terminix forms joint venture for pest control services}}</ref> The venture incorporated Pest Control Segment into its Facilities Management Segment and is called TerminiXSIS.

In 2013, SIS India received ₹550 crores investment from CX Partners, a private equity firm, affirming history's largest PE investment in the Security Sector. In 2014, SIS India celebrated its 40th anniversary, with its consolidated revenue crossing Rs 2500 crore. The company also acquires the ISS cash business and rebrands it as SISCO.<ref name="e"/>

In 2016, SIS India made over Rs 4000 crore in revenue, besides acquiring Dusters, becoming India's 4th largest Facility Management Provider.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/info-tech/sis-india-buys-stake-in-dusters-total-solutions/article9008445.ece|title = SIS India buys stake in Dusters Total Solutions}}</ref>

In 2017, the SIS Group IPO was launched, making the company the first in the nation to become listed.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/markets/stocks/news/sis-ipo-to-hit-street-on-july-31-key-things-to-know/things-you-need-to-know-about-sis-ipo/slideshow/59788259.cms|title = SIS IPO to hit Street on July 31: Key things to know}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.livemint.com/Money/IyZVMJuT5muyk3ifDXYQNK/SIS-IPO-to-eb-launched-on-Monday-firm-seeks-to-raise-up-to.html|title = SIS IPO to be launched on Monday, firm seeks to raise up to Rs780 crore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/markets/stock-markets/sis-india-sets-ipo-band-at-rs-805-815/article64270293.ece|title = SIS India sets IPO band at Rs 805-815}}</ref>

In 2018, SIS India consolidated its leadership position in India Security & FM by acquiring stakes in SLV,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.punekarnews.in/sis-acquire-slv-security-services/|title = SIS acquire SLV Security Services}}</ref> Bengaluru-based Uniq Detective and Security Services & Rare Hospitality and Services Pvt. Ltd.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/sis-acquires-controlling-stake-in-bangalore-based-uniq-118121701072_1.html|title = SIS acquires controlling stake in Bangalore-based Uniq}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.indiainfoline.com/article/news-top-story/sis-india-acquires-80-stake-in-rare-hospitality-118101700360_1.html|title = SIS India acquires 80% stake in Rare Hospitality}}</ref>

In 2019, SIS India crossed a workforce of more than 200,000 with over $1 Billion in revenues. The company also consolidated APAC leadership in Security by acquiring Henderson& Platform 4 Group.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.dealstreetasia.com/stories/sis-india-singapore-henderson-119118/|title = SIS India eyes SEA foray, to quire 60% stake in Singapore's Henderson}}</ref>

In 2021, SIS Group’s Q3FY22 was a record quarter for the company with its highest ever revenue at Rs. 2,601 crore said Rituraj Sinha.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/security-and-intelligence-services-profit-rises-to-rs-101-crore-in-q3-122020301643_1.html/|title = Security and Intelligence Services profit rises to Rs 101 crore in Q3}}</ref> SIS India was felicitated as one of the Best Mega Employers in India. Also, It has been recognized as a “Great Place to work” by the GPTW Institute India. Mr. Rituraj Sinha credited his employees for the achievement and said they would strive to achieve further heights.<ref name="aw">{{Cite news|url=https://www.securitytoday.in/indian-news/sis-group-certified-as-great-place-to-work-by-gptw-institute|title = SIS Group certified as "Great Place to Work" by GPTW Institute}}</ref>

===Since 2022===

In 2022, SIS crossed Rs 10,000 crore annual revenue mark for the first time. SIS has reported consolidated revenue for FY22 at Rs 10,059 crore.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.financialexpress.com/industry/sis-crosses-rs-10000-crore-annual-revenue-mark-for-the-first-time/2513099/|title = SIS crosses Rs 10,000 crore annual revenue mark for the first time}}</ref>

In FY22, SIS entered into the Rs10,000-crore revenue club by clocking Rs10,059.1 crore, a growth of over 10.2 percent over the last fiscal. What is most interesting is that the security services, facility management and cash logistics major took just five years to double its revenue. Rituraj Sinha, however, uses a long-term lens to make sense of the data. “From Rs25 crore in 2002 to Rs10,000 crore in 2022. That’s our story,” he says. He quickly qualifies his statement. “It’s a profitable and sustainable story,” <ref name="forbesindia.com">{{Cite news|url=https://www.forbesindia.com/article/take-one-big-story-of-the-day/mcdonalds-down-under-and-bharat-army-how-sis-doubled-its-revenue-to-rs-10000-crore-in-five-years/76449/1|title = McDonald's, down under and Bharat army: How SIS doubled its revenue to Rs 10,000 crore in five years}}</ref>

Addressing to the press and the investors Group Managing Director of Group SIS Mr. Rituraj Sinha expressed confidence that the group would continue to grow to greater heights and become an industry leader in the fields of security services, facility management and cash logistics and suitably rewards its employees and investors alike. <ref name="businessworld.in">{{Cite news|url=https://bwpeople.businessworld.in/article/SIS-Ltd-Commits-To-Creating-10-000-Additional-Jobs/30-08-2022-444516/|title = SIS Ltd Commits To Creating 10,000 Additional Jobs}}</ref>

==Operations==

===Activities/Services===

The company offers security services to banks, hotels, institutions, IT & ITES, residential colonies, Retail and commercial establishments. It also offers electronic security systems, consulting, housekeeping and security services like Pre-employment Verification & Surveillance, Cash services which include the transfer of cash and valuables and ATM replenishment and recruitment and training services.<ref name="a"/>

===India & Overseas===

The company has over 22,000 customers which include major industry players such as Tata Steel, [[Tata Motors]], [[ICICI Bank]], Idea Cellular and [[Future Group]].
<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bhaskarenglish.in/originals/news/mega-empire-sis-security-company-started-operations-from-2-rooms-134280390.html|title=MEGA EMPIRE-SIS security company started operations}}</ref>

Over the last decade, company has diversified its domestic play and opted for an aggressive inorganic route to expand overseas.<ref name="forbesindia.com"/>

===Operating Structure===

SIS Group Enterprise Segments its business structure into three key areas:

* Security Services which includes services for security design, [[fire safety]], event security, VIP protection, aviation security, emergency response, investigation work, and integrated man-tech.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/companies/security-services-firm-sis-looks-to-recover-to-pre-covid-levels/article35850419.ece|title = Security services firm SIS looks to recover to pre-Covid levels}}</ref>
* Cash Logistics Services which are offered under SIS Prosegur, in partnership with Spain’s Prosegur - Security Company, to provide cash-in-transit, doorstep banking, ATM-related services, Precious Cargo, bullion management, and cash vaulting services.<ref name="e">{{Cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/banking/finance/sis-prosegur-acquires-cash-management-business-of-iss/articleshow/42067983.cms?from=mdr|title = SIS Prosegur acquires cash management business of ISS}}</ref>
* Facility Management Services which includes Soft Facility Management and Hard Facility Management Operations & Management.

===Covid Vaccinations===

SIS Group, has completed inoculating 102,008 employees of its 2,30,000 workforce. This was done through Humare Heroes Vaccination Drive (HHVD) launched on May 1, 2021, within a record timeframe of 30 days. “While we put a lot of effort in arranging the vaccines for our employees, the availability and feasibility helped our team to turn this into a reality,” said Rituraj Sinha, managing group director, SIS Ltd.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/sis-completes-100k-vaccinations-for-employees-across-india-in-record-time-121053101473_1.html|title = SIS completes 100k vaccinations for employees across India in record time}}</ref>

== Key People ==
SIS Group Enterprise had the following board of directors:<ref name="a"/><ref name="w"/>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Name !! Position !! Year Elected
|-

| Ravindra Kishore Sinha || || 1985
|-
| Rituraj Kishore Sinha || Board Member || 2002
|-
| Rituraj Kishore Sinha || Chairman, Group COO, Group MD || 2008
|-
| Uday Singh || Board Member/Management Committee Member || 2002
|}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Security companies of India]]
[[Category:Fire detection and alarm companies]]
[[Category:Companies listed on the National Stock Exchange of India]]
[[Category:Companies listed on the Bombay Stock Exchange]]

Pir Muhammad Chattha

2026-01-21T15:44:41Z

Joseph Patricio: Made New Info Basic Info

{{Short description|18th-century Punjabi Muslim chieftain}}
{{Infobox royalty
| embed =
| name = Pir Muhammad Chattha
| title = [[Chaudry]] [[Sardar]] [[Zamindar]]
| titletext =
| more =
| image =
| image_size =
| image_upright =
| alt =
| caption =
| succession = [[List of monarchs of Punjab|Sardar of Wazirabad and Hafizabad]]
| moretext =
| reign =
| reign-type =
| coronation =
| cor-type =
| investiture =
| predecessor = [[Nur Muhammad Chattha]]
| pre-type =
| successor = [[Ghulam Muhammad Chattha]]
| suc-type =
| regent =
| reg-type =
| succession1 =
| moretext1 =
| reign1 =
| reign-type1 =
| coronation1 =
| cor-type1 =
| predecessor1 =
| pre-type1 =
| successor1 =
| suc-type1 =
| regent1 =
| reg-type1 =
| succession2 =
| moretext2 =
| reign2 =
| reign-type2 =
| coronation2 =
| cor-type2 =
| predecessor2 =
| pre-type2 =
| successor2 =
| suc-type2 =
| regent2 =
| reg-type2 =
| succession3 = 
| moretext3 =
| reign3 =
| reign-type3 =
| coronation3 =
| cor-type3 =
| predecessor3 =
| pre-type3 =
| successor3 =
| suc-type3 =
| regent3 =
| reg-type3 =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = 
| birth_place =
| death_date = 1785
| death_place =
| burial_date =
| burial_place =
| queen =
| spouse = 
| spouse-type = 
| consort = 
| issue = 
| issue-link =
| issue-pipe =
| issue-type =
| full name =
| era name =
| era dates =
| regnal name =
| posthumous name =
| temple name =
| native_lang1 = 
| native_lang1_name1 = 
| house =
| house-type =
| royal house =
| dynasty = [[Chattha (clan)|Chattha]]
| father = [[Nur Muhammad Chattha]]
| mother =
| religion = [[Sunni Islam]]
| occupation =
| signature_type =
| signature =
| signature_alt =
| module =
}}

'''Pir Muhammad Chattha''' ([[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]:
پیر محمد چٹھہ) was a [[Punjabi Muslims|Punjabi Muslim]] general and chieftain of the [[Chattha (clan)|Chattha]] clan of [[Jats]]. He succeeded his father [[Nur Muhammad Chattha]].

==Reign==
He is known to be a bitter enemy of [[Sukerchakia Misl|Sukherchakia Misl]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=www.DiscoverSikhism.com |url=https://archive.org/details/TheSikhEmpireAndMaharajaRanjeetSingh/page/n15/mode/1up?q=Chatta |title=The Sikh Empire And Maharaja Ranjeet Singh |language=English}}</ref>‘Chatthian di Var’ existed in oral form which was first recorded by the late Prof. Qazi Fazl-i-Maq and published.

The poem makes no mention of the first Chattha chief, [[Nur Muhammad Chattha|Nur Mohammad]]. It starts with Pir Mohammad Chattha and [[Charat Singh]]. [[Charat Singh]], the rising Sikh leader, had developed some enmity with Pir Mohammad about whom the poet says:<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Shafqat Tanveer Mirza |url=https://archive.org/details/resistance-themes-in-punjabi-literature/page/53/mode/1up?q=Chattha |title=Resistance Themes In Punjabi Literature |date=1991}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|اک پیر محمد نام سی دھن جمدی مائی

تے خوشی قبیلہ اپنا سبھ بھیناں بھائی

رسول نگر دا اچودھری، بھو دشمن پائی

<ref name=":0" />تے اس دی وچ پنجاب دے سبھ پھرے دوهائي}}

Translation:

"Pir Muhammad was a great man

He was a leader of [[Rasool Nagar|Rasulnagar]]

His enemy feared him

His authority echoed throughout all of [[Punjab]]"<ref name=":0" />

According to the poet [[Charat Singh]] could afford a head-on collision with Pir Mohammad.

Charhat Singh asked Pir Mohammad to pay tribute to him and accept his suzerainty but according to ‘Chatthian di Var’ Pir Muhammad refused to do so:

"Pir Muhammad was asked by Charat Singh to pay tribute but the Singh could not get that until he died".<ref name=":0" />

In 1765 when Lahore was taken by the Sikhs, the Zamzama gun fell to the share of [[Charat Singh]] Sukarchakia who carried it to [[Gujranwala]]. In the Sardar's absence the gun was captured by Ahmad Khan Chatha, who placed it in his fort of Ahmadnagar. Pir Muhammad quarrelled with his brother for the possession of it and in the fight a son of Pir Muhammad and two sons of Ahmad Khan lost their lives.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gupta |first=Hari Ram |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.35179/page/n23/mode/1up?q=Nur+muhammad |title=History of the Sikhs vol.3 |date=1944}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=www.DiscoverSikhism.com |url=https://archive.org/details/HistoryOfTheSikhsVol.IvTheSikhCommonwealthOrRiseAndFallOfSikh/page/n317/mode/1up?q=Chatha |title=History Of The Sikhs Vol. IV The Sikh Commonwealth Or Rise And Fall Of Sikh Misls |language=English}}</ref>

Pir Muhammad Chattha built many forts after his name including Kot Mian Khan, Alipur, Naiwala, Kot Salim, Kot Ali Muhammad and Fatehpur.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Griffin Lepel H. |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.206739/page/n219/mode/1up |title=The Panjab Chiefs Vol-ii |date=1890}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Chattha (clan)]]
*[[Muslim Jats]]
*[[Punjabi Muslims]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:1785 deaths]]
[[Category:Jat rulers]]
[[Category:Sunni Muslims]]
[[Category:18th-century Indian Muslims]]

Sonal Chauhan

2026-01-12T12:10:08Z

Joseph Patricio: correct section for clarity and added references based on references

{{Short description|Indian actress (born c. 1985/1987)}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2024}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Sonal Chauhan
| image = Sonal Chauhan snapped at PVR in Juhu (cropped).jpg
| caption = Chauhan in 2023
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=y|1985|5|16}}<ref name="Jagaran">{{cite news |title='जन्नत' फेम सोनल चौहान अब 'पलटन' के लिए तैयार, इन तस्वीरों में देखें उनका स्टाइल |url=https://www.jagran.com/entertainment/bollywood-sonal-chauhan-birthday-special-and-interesting-facts-jannat-girls-in-news-for-paltan-17959990.html |access-date=6 March 2019 |work=[[Dainik Jagaran]] |date=17 May 2018 |language=hi |archive-date=7 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190307054031/https://www.jagran.com/entertainment/bollywood-sonal-chauhan-birthday-special-and-interesting-facts-jannat-girls-in-news-for-paltan-17959990.html |url-status=live }}</ref> or {{Birth date and age|df=y|1987|5|16}}<ref>{{cite news |title=रेस्टोरेंट में खुली थी सोनल चौहान की किस्मत, माल्या के बेटे से लेकर सलमान के भाई को कर चुकी हैं डेट |url=https://www.amarujala.com/photo-gallery/entertainment/bollywood/happy-birthday-sonal-chauhan-these-facts-about-that-you-definitely-did-not-know |access-date=6 March 2019 |work=[[Amar Ujala]] |date=16 May 2018 |language=hi |archive-date=6 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306235035/https://www.amarujala.com/photo-gallery/entertainment/bollywood/happy-birthday-sonal-chauhan-these-facts-about-that-you-definitely-did-not-know |url-status=live }}</ref>
| birth_place = [[Bulandshahr]] or [[Agra, Uttar Pradesh]],<ref name="Jagaran"/><ref>{{cite news |last1=Salim |first1=Lubna |title=Sonal Chauhan confesses her biggest fashion faux pas: plastic bra straps |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/brunch/sonal-chauhan-confesses-her-biggest-fashion-faux-pas-plastic-bra-straps/story-yaSwplscpSJcA9rnXUBipJ.html |access-date=6 March 2019 |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |date=25 August 2018 |archive-date=7 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190307173752/https://www.hindustantimes.com/brunch/sonal-chauhan-confesses-her-biggest-fashion-faux-pas-plastic-bra-straps/story-yaSwplscpSJcA9rnXUBipJ.html |url-status=live }}</ref> India
| alma_mater = [[Gargi College]]
| years active = 2005–present
| occupation = {{Hlist|Model|actress|singer}}
| title = [[Femina Miss India]] World Tourism 2005 ''Miss World Tourism 2005''
| website =
}}

'''Sonal Chauhan''' (born 16 May 1985/1987) is an Indian actress, singer, model and beauty pageant titleholder. She predominantly works in [[Telugu cinema|Telugu]] and [[Hindi cinema|Hindi]] films.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/Sonal-Chauhan-to-do-an-Urmila-in-Balayyas-next/articleshow/49982887.cms |title=Sonal Chauhan to do an Urmila in Balayya's next |website=The Times of India |access-date=20 December 2019 |archive-date=21 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190921092558/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/Sonal-Chauhan-to-do-an-Urmila-in-Balayyas-next/articleshow/49982887.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>
She won the title of [[Femina Miss India]] in 2005 and Miss World Tourism in 2005.

She made her acting debut with [[Hindi film]] ''[[Jannat (2008 film)|Jannat]]''<ref>{{cite news |last1=Jha |first1=Sumit |title=Doing intimate scenes with Emraan is easier: Sonal Chauhan |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/Doing-intimate-scenes-with-Emraan-is-easier-Sonal-Chauhan/articleshow/19879827.cms?intenttarget=no |access-date=1 November 2020 |work=The Times of India |language=en |archive-date=26 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126010527/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/Doing-intimate-scenes-with-Emraan-is-easier-Sonal-Chauhan/articleshow/19879827.cms?intenttarget=no |url-status=live }}</ref> and her [[Telugu film]] debut with ''[[Rainbow (2008 film)|Rainbow]]'', both in 2008. Chauhan made her [[Kannada film]] debut with ''[[Cheluveye Ninne Nodalu]]'' (2010) and [[Tamil cinema|Tamil]] debut with ''[[Inji Iduppazhagi]]'' (2015). She has been part of successful films including ''[[Legend (2014 film)|Legend]]'' (2014), ''[[Pandaga Chesko]]'' (2015), ''[[Size Zero (film)|Size Zero]]'' (2015) and ''[[Dictator (2016 Film)|Dictator]]'' (2016).

==Early life==
Chauhan was born in a [[Rajput]] family.<ref>{{Cite news |date=21 August 2014 |title=When Sonal Chauhan felt like Rajput princess |url=https://zeenews.india.com/entertainment/glamtalk/when-sonal-chauhan-felt-like-rajput-princess_160480.html |access-date=3 August 2020 |work=Zee News |archive-date=28 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181228180242/http://zeenews.india.com/entertainment/glamtalk/when-sonal-chauhan-felt-like-rajput-princess_160480.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> She attended [[Delhi Public School Society|Delhi Public School]] in [[Noida]].<ref name="telugucinema">{{cite news |title=Sonal Chauhan interview |publisher=Telugu Cinema |url=http://www.telugucinema.com/c/publish/stars/sonalchauhan_june0308.php |access-date=14 May 2011 |date=3 June 2008 |archive-date=24 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324235205/http://www.telugucinema.com/c/publish/stars/sonalchauhan_june0308.php |url-status=dead }}</ref> She then studied Philosophy honours at [[Gargi College]] in New Delhi.<ref name="toi">{{cite news |title=Sonal Chauhan interview |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/Sonal-Chauhans-not-so-quiet-Delhi-visit-/articleshow/5110083.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120606143815/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-10-11/news-interviews/28096029_1_sonal-chauhan-delhi-dps |url-status=live |archive-date=6 June 2012 |access-date=14 May 2011 |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=11 October 2009}}</ref>

==Career==

===Modelling career===
She was crowned Miss World Tourism 2005 at Miri, [[Sarawak]] state of [[Malaysia]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Dias |first=Raul |date=26 July 2005 |title=She's all that! |url=http://www1.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/1183228.cms |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=23 May 2008 |archive-date=31 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080531032612/http://www1.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/1183228.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> She is the first Indian to have claimed the Miss World Tourism title.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Dias |first=Raul |date=27 July 2005 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Indian-girl-is-Miss-World-Tourism/articleshow/1183971.cms |title=Indian girl is Miss World Tourism |work=The Times of India |access-date=21 June 2019 |archive-date=19 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119202952/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Indian-girl-is-Miss-World-Tourism/articleshow/1183971.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> She also appeared on the cover pages of [[FHM]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=16 May 2019 |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment/news/people/photo-gallery/brace-yourself-jannat-actress-sonal-chauhan-might-steal-your-heart-with-her-super-stylish-snaps/419965 |title=Sonal Chauhan birthday: Brace yourself, the Jannat actress might steal your heart with her super stylish snaps |work=Time Now |access-date=21 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220204172552/https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment/news/people/photo-gallery/brace-yourself-jannat-actress-sonal-chauhan-might-steal-your-heart-with-her-super-stylish-snaps/419965 |archive-date=4 February 2022}}</ref>

===Acting career===
[[File:Sonal Chauhan at 3G movie shoot (3).jpg|thumb|Chauhan during [[3G (film)|''3G'']] shoot]]
She first appeared on screen in [[Himesh Reshammiya]]'s ''[[Aap Kaa Surroor (album)|Aap Kaa Surroor]]''.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}} She appeared opposite [[Emraan Hashmi]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Jannat- Sonal Chauhan's ticket to Bollywood |publisher=indiaprwire.com |date=30 April 2008 |url=http://www.indiaprwire.com/pressrelease/entertainment/200804309173.htm |access-date=8 December 2010 |archive-date=10 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160310023129/http://www.indiaprwire.com/pressrelease/entertainment/200804309173.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> She has also signed a three-film deal with the Bhatts, of which two are pending.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bhatts are known for making films in which female characters play important roles |url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/2008/apr/07sld5.htm |publisher=Rediff |date=April 2008 |access-date=16 June 2013 |archive-date=26 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140226181831/http://www.rediff.com/movies/2008/apr/07sld5.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
She also sang a duet with [[KK (singer)|KK]] for the song "Kaise Bataoon" in the film 3G.<ref>[http://vcrave.com/kaise-bataaoon-3g/ Kaise Bataaoon song by Sonal Chauhan, K.K.] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20140202200051/http://vcrave.com/kaise-bataaoon-3g/ |date=2 February 2014 }}. vcrave.com</ref>

She acted in a Telugu film ''[[Legend (2014 film)|Legend]]'' costarring [[Nandamuri Balakrishna]] and marking her comeback to [[Telugu cinema|Tollywood]]. Her next project was ''[[Pandaga Chesko]]''. In early 2015, she signed two Telugu films: ''[[Size Zero (film)|Size Zero]]'' opposite [[Arya (actor)|Arya]] and ''[[Sher (film)|Sher]]'' opposite [[Nandamuri Kalyan Ram]].<ref>[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/Sonal-Chauhan-to-replace-Vanya-Mishra-in-Kalyanrams-Sher/articleshow/47001540.cms "Sonal Chauhan to replace Vanya Mishra in Kalyanram's Sher"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150428151934/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/Sonal-Chauhan-to-replace-Vanya-Mishra-in-Kalyanrams-Sher/articleshow/47001540.cms |date=28 April 2015 }}. ''The Times of India''. (21 April 2015). Retrieved 9 September 2015.</ref>

In early July 2015, she signed another Telugu film, ''[[Dictator (2016 Film)|Dictator]]''.{{Citation needed|date=November 2024}}

== Filmography ==
{{Pending films key}}
===Films===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role !! Language
! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2008 || ''[[Jannat (2008 film)|Jannat]]'' || Zoya Mathur || [[Hindi]] ||
|-
|''[[Rainbow (2008 film)|Rainbow]]'' || Swapna || [[Telugu Language|Telugu]] ||
|-
| 2010 || ''[[Cheluveye Ninne Nodalu]]'' || Prakruthi || [[Kannada]] ||
|-
| 2011 || ''[[Bbuddah... Hoga Terra Baap]]'' || Tanya || rowspan="3" | Hindi ||
|-
| 2012 || ''Pehla Sitara'' || ||
|-
| 2013 || ''[[3G (film)|3G]]'' || Sheena ||
|-
| 2014 || ''[[Legend (2014 film)|Legend]]'' || Sneha || rowspan="4" | Telugu ||
|-
| rowspan="4" | 2015 || ''[[Pandaga Chesko]]'' || Anushka (Sweety) ||
|-
| ''[[Sher (film)|Sher]]'' || Nandini ||
|-
|''[[Size Zero (film)|Size Zero]]''|| rowspan="2" | Simran || rowspan="2" | [[Multiple-language version|Bilingual film]]
|-
| ''[[Inji Iduppazhagi]]''
|[[Tamil language|Tamil]]
|-
| 2016 || ''[[Dictator (2016 Film)|Dictator]]'' || Indu || Telugu
|
|-
|rowspan="2"|2018 || ''[[Paltan (2018 film)|Paltan]]'' || Maj. Bishen Singh's wife ||Hindi ||
|-
|''[[Jack and Dil]]'' || Shilpa Walia ||Hindi||
|-
|2019
| ''[[Ruler (film)|Ruler]]'' || Harika || Telugu ||<ref>{{cite news |title=[Photos] NBK105 first look: Nandamuri Balakrishna and Sonal Chauhan set the screens on fire with these posters |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment/south-gossip/article/photos-nbk105-first-look-nandamuri-balakrishna-and-sonal-chauhan-set-the-screens-on-fire-with-these-posters/480541 |access-date=1 September 2019 |work=[[Times Now]] |date=1 September 2019 |archive-date=1 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190901153744/https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment/south-gossip/article/photos-nbk105-first-look-nandamuri-balakrishna-and-sonal-chauhan-set-the-screens-on-fire-with-these-posters/480541 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
|2021
|''[[The Power (2021 Indian film)|The Power]]'' || Chandini || Hindi ||
|-
|rowspan="2"|2022
|''[[F3: Fun and Frustration]]''|| American girl || rowspan="2" | Telugu || <ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/tollywood/231021/my-role-in-f3-will-spring-a-surprise-sonal-chauhan.html |title=My role in F3 will spring a surprise: Sonal Chauhan |access-date=24 October 2021 |work=Deccan Chronicle |author=Sashidhar Adivi |date=23 October 2021 |archive-date=23 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211023222036/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/tollywood/231021/my-role-in-f3-will-spring-a-surprise-sonal-chauhan.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
|''[[The Ghost (2022 film)|The Ghost]]'' || Priya ||
|-
|2023
|''[[Adipurush]]''
|[[Mandodari]]
|Hindi Telugu
|Bilingual film<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sonal Chauhan joins 'Adipurush' alongside Prabhas and Saif Ali Khan; will play a key character |url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/bollywood/sonal-chauhan-joins-adipurush-alongside-prabhas-saif-ali-khan-and-kriti-sanon |date=12 April 2022 |work=Free Press Journal |access-date=18 April 2022 |archive-date=18 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220418064316/https://www.freepressjournal.in/bollywood/sonal-chauhan-joins-adipurush-alongside-prabhas-saif-ali-khan-and-kriti-sanon |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
|2024
|''[[Dard (2024 film)|Dard]]''
|Fatima
|[[Bengali language|Bengali]] Hindi
|[[Cinema of Bangladesh|First Bangladeshi and Bengali film]]; [[Indo-Bangladesh joint production|India Bangladesh joint production film]]; Bilingual film<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 November 2024 |title=আজ একযোগে ২২ দেশে মুক্তি পাচ্ছে শাকিবের 'দরদ' |url=https://www.kalerkantho.com/online/entertainment/2024/11/15/1446849 |access-date=17 November 2024 |website=Kaler Kantho}}</ref>
|}

===Television===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role !! Ref.
|-
|2019|| ''[[Skyfire (TV series)|Skyfire]]'' || Meenakshi Pirzada
|<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/bollywood/report-prateik-babbar-and-sonal-chauhan-team-up-for-zee5-s-web-series-skyfire-2725407 |title=Prateik Babbar and Sonal Chauhan team up for ZEE5's web series 'Skyfire' |last=Rakshit |first=Nayandeep |date=2 March 2019 |website=DNA India |access-date=30 July 2019 |archive-date=30 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190730094513/https://www.dnaindia.com/bollywood/report-prateik-babbar-and-sonal-chauhan-team-up-for-zee5-s-web-series-skyfire-2725407 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://urbanasian.com/entertainment/2019/03/sonal-chauhan-is-all-set-to-make-her-debut-in-the-digital-world-with-zee5/ |title=Sonal Chauhan Is All Set To Make Her Debut in the Digital World With ZEE5 |date=4 March 2019 |website=Urban Asian |access-date=30 July 2019 |archive-date=30 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190730094515/https://urbanasian.com/entertainment/2019/03/sonal-chauhan-is-all-set-to-make-her-debut-in-the-digital-world-with-zee5/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/web-series/skyfire-actor-sonal-chauhan-jannat-girl-5741947/ |title=Skyfire actor Sonal Chauhan: It feels special to be still known as Jannat girl |date=22 May 2019 |website=The Indian Express |access-date=30 July 2019 |archive-date=30 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190730094513/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/web-series/skyfire-actor-sonal-chauhan-jannat-girl-5741947/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|}

===Music videos===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! Singer!! Ref.
|-
|2006
|''Samjho Na Kuch To Samjho Na''
|[[Himesh Reshammiya]]
|
|-
|rowspan='2'|2016
|''[[Fursat (song)|Fursat]]''
|[[Arjun Kanungo]]
|<ref>{{cite news |last=IANS |date=13 March 2016 |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/music/arjun-kanungo-launches-new-single-fursat/ |title=Fursat: Heartwarming song featuring Arjun Kanungo and Sonal Chauhan |work=The Indian Express |accessdate=6 April 2016 |archive-date=22 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322042712/http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/music/arjun-kanungo-launches-new-single-fursat/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
|''Badtameez''
|[[Ankit Tiwari]]
|<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Paul |first1=Ushnota |title=I'll fight for my innocence till my last breath - Ankit Tiwari |url=https://www.filmfare.com/features/notes-to-life-15121.html |access-date=28 April 2022 |magazine=Filmfare |date=17 August 2016 |language=en |archive-date=28 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220428104510/https://www.filmfare.com/features/notes-to-life-15121.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
|2018
|''Kuch Nahi''
|[[Jyotica Tangri]]
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kuch Nahi song starring Sonal Chauhan |date=6 September 2018 |via=[[YouTube]] |url=https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=JfS7edsUngs&ved=2ahUKEwid46iXhZ33AhVqSWwGHY2UAcAQwqsBegQIBRAF&usg=AOvVaw0EImZFP8qeIbIn5ImzT2Gu |access-date=27 April 2022}}</ref>
|-
|2019
|''Mere Aas Paas''
|[[Yasser Desai]], [[Jyotica Tangri]]
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mere Aas Paas, full song starring Sonal Chauhan |date=18 April 2019 |via=[[YouTube]] |url=https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=ENioiHmz_h8&ved=2ahUKEwip17uxhJ33AhXcTWwGHZQND48QtwJ6BAhCEAI&usg=AOvVaw2khBDIKylaz9bYkfsaOdz1 |access-date=27 April 2022}}</ref>
|-
|2020
|''[[Fursat (song)#Fursat Hai Aaj Bhi|Fursat Hai Aaj Bhi]]''
|[[Arjun Kanungo]]
|<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/music/arjun-kanungo-and-sonal-chauhan-team-up-for-new-music-video-fursat-hai-aaj-bhi/article31913435.ece | title=Arjun Kanungo and Sonal Chauhan team up for new music video, 'Fursat hai aaj bhi' | newspaper=The Hindu | date=25 June 2020 | access-date=1 November 2023 | archive-date=1 November 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231101112127/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/music/arjun-kanungo-and-sonal-chauhan-team-up-for-new-music-video-fursat-hai-aaj-bhi/article31913435.ece | url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
|2023
|''Mal Mal''
|[[B Praak]]
|<ref>{{Cite magazine |title=Sonal Chauhan's latest music album, 'Mal Mal', embarks on an emotional odyssey of love |url=https://www.femina.in/beauty-pageants/miss-india/sonal-chauhans-latest-music-album-mal-mal-embarks-on-an-emotional-odyssey-of-love/articleshow/104698644.cms |magazine=Femina |date=25 October 2023 |access-date=14 February 2024 |archive-date=14 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240214133024/https://www.femina.in/beauty-pageants/miss-india/sonal-chauhans-latest-music-album-mal-mal-embarks-on-an-emotional-odyssey-of-love/articleshow/104698644.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>
|}

==Discography==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Film !! Song!! Co-singer!! Ref.
|-
|2013
|''[[3G (film)|3G]]''
|"Kaise Bataaoon"
|[[Krishnakumar Kunnath|KK]]
|<ref>{{Cite news |title=Sonal Chauhan sings song in 3G |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/bollywood/sonal-chauhan-sings-song-in-3g/ |access-date=18 April 2022 |work=Bollywood Hungama |date=12 March 2016 |archive-date=18 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220418113855/https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/bollywood/sonal-chauhan-sings-song-in-3g/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|}

== Awards and nominations ==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Year
!Award
!Category
!Film
!Result
!Ref.
|-
| rowspan="2"|2009
| [[54th Filmfare Awards]]
| [[Filmfare Award for Best Female Debut|Best Female Debut]]
| rowspan="2"|''[[Jannat (2008 film)|Jannat]]''
|{{nom}}
| {{Citation needed|date=November 2024}}
|-
| rowspan="2"|[[Stardust Awards]]
|[[Stardust Award for Superstar of Tomorrow – Female|Superstar of Tomorrow – Female]]
| {{nom}}
|<ref>{{Citation |title=The Statement - Entrepreneurs Talk TV - Online Business Channel |website=entrepreneurstalk.online |url=http://www.entrepreneurstalk.online/events/1496/The-Statement |access-date=30 September 2020 |archive-date=2 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201202053007/http://www.entrepreneurstalk.online/events/1496/The-Statement |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| 2012
| [[Stardust Award for Breakthrough Performance – Female|Breakthrough Performance – Female]]
| ''[[Bbuddah... Hoga Terra Baap]]''
| {{nom}}
|<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/bollywood/story/bollywood-celebs-praise-delhi-belly-bbuddah-hoga-tera-baap-136688-2011-07-01|title=B-town praises Delhi Belly, Bbuddah Hoga Tera Baap|work=India Today|date=2 July 2011 |access-date=2 July 2011| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110712221145/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/site/story/bollywood-celebs-praise-delhi-belly-bbuddah-hoga-tera-baap/1/143460.html| archive-date= 12 July 2011 | url-status= live}}</ref>
|-
| 2016
| [[Zee Telugu|Zee Telugu Apsara Awards]]
| Rising Star of the Year
| ''[[Pandaga Chesko]]'' & ''[[Size Zero]]''
| {{nom}}
| {{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}
|-
| 2017
| [[TV9 Telugu|TSR–TV9 National Film Awards]]
| Most Promising Actress
| ''[[Dictator (2016 Film)|Dictator]]''
| {{won}}
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 February 2020 |title=Sonal Chauhan at the Red Carpet of Femina Beauty Awards |url=https://thesamikhsya.com/photo-news/sonal-chauhan-at-the-red-carpet-of-femina-beauty-awards |access-date=30 September 2020 |website=The Samikhsya |language=en-US}}</ref>
|}

==See also==
*[[List of Indian film actresses]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Wikiquote|Sonal Chauhan}}{{Commons category}}
* {{IMDb name|id=2978161|name=Sonal Chauhan}}
* {{Twitter}}
* {{Instagram|sonalchauhan|Sonal Chauhan}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chauhan, Sonal}}
[[Category:1980s births]]
[[Category:Indian film actresses]]
[[Category:Actresses in Hindi cinema]]
[[Category:Actresses in Kannada cinema]]
[[Category:Actresses in Tamil cinema]]
[[Category:Actresses in Telugu cinema]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Actresses from Delhi]]
[[Category:People from Noida]]
[[Category:Female models from Delhi]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian actresses]]
[[Category:Gargi College alumni]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

Govind

2026-01-10T22:43:25Z

Joseph Patricio: Added A Entry

{{Wikt|Govind}}{{pp-semi-indef}}
'''Govind''' may refer to:
*An alternate spelling of [[Govinda]], which is a name in Hinduism given to the god [[Krishna]]. It means "cowherd."
*The name '''Govind''' is commonly used in [[Sikhism]] to refer to God. It is derived from "Gobinda" which means '''Preserver of the World''' in [[Panjabi language|Panjābi]]. The name is used many times in the [[Guru Granth Sahib]]; for example: "Every day, hour and moment, I continually sing and speak of Govind, Govind, the Lord of the Universe."<ref>[http://www.srigranth.org/servlet/gurbani.gurbani?Action=Page&Param=404&english=t&id=18587#l18587 Guru Granth Sahib Page 404]</ref>
*'''Govind''', more often written '''Gobind''', is a name sometimes used for the Tenth [[Sikh]] Guru, [[Guru Gobind Singh]]. The [[Dasam Granth]], which is the second [[Sikh Scripture]] written by the Tenth Guru, mentions the name twice:
**On page 643, line 3: "O [[God in Sikhism|Lord]]! I have forsaken all other doors and have caught hold of only Thy door. O Lord! Thou has caught hold of my arm; I, Govind, am Thy [[dasa|slave]], kindly take (care of me and) protect my honour. 864."
**On page 728, line 4: "All the gods, taking permission of Krishna, bowed their heads and went back to their abodes; in their delight, they have named Krishna as 'Govind'."

== People ==

* [[Véronique Leu-Govind]], Mauritian politician

== See also ==
* [[Govinda (disambiguation)]]
* [[Govindam (disambiguation)]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
* ''[[Guru Granth Sahib]]''
* ''[[Dasam Granth]]''
* ''Dictionary of [[Guru Granth Sahib]]'' by S S Kohli

{{given name}}
[[Category:God in Sikhism]]
[[Category:Titles and names of Krishna]]

Cha (Indic)

2026-01-10T22:40:52Z

Joseph Patricio: enhanced layout as per guidelines and corrected details for consistency

{{short description|Letter "Cha" in Indic scripts}}
{{distinguish|Ca (Indic)}}
{{cleanup lang|date=April 2021}}
{{Infobox Indic letter |letname = Cha
|bengcp = 099B |bengimg = Bengali Letter Cha.svg
|tibtcp = 0F46 |tibtimg = Tibetan Cha.svg
|thaicp = 0E09
|mlymcp = 0D1B
|sinhcp = 0DA1
|brahcp = 11019 |ashokaimg = Brahmi ch.svg
|devacp = 091B |devaimg = Devanagari छ.svg
| hbchar = ק
| grchar = Ϙ (Ϟ), Φ
| lachar = Q
| cychar = Ҁ, Ф
|ipa = t͡ʃʰ |iast = cha |iscii = B9
|khmrcp=1786}}

'''Cha''' is the seventh consonant of Indic [[abugida]]s. In modern [[Brahmic scripts|Indic scripts]], cha is derived from the early "[[Ashoka]]" Brahmi letter [[Image:Brahmi ch.svg|13px|ng]], which is [[Brahmi script#Semitic model hypothesis|probably]] derived from the Aramaic letter [[File:Qoph.svg|10px]] ("Q") after having gone through the [[Gupta script|Gupta]] letter [[File:Gupta allahabad ch.svg|13px]].

==Āryabhaṭa numeration==
{{further|Āryabhaṭa numeration}}
[[Aryabhata]] used Devanagari letters for numbers, very similar to the [[Greek numerals]], even after the invention of [[Indian numerals]].
The values of the different forms of छ are:<ref name=Ifrah>{{cite book|last=Ifrah|first=Georges|title=The Universal History of Numbers. From Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer|url=https://archive.org/details/universalhistory00ifra_411|url-access=limited|year=2000|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|location=New York|isbn=0-471-39340-1|pages=[https://archive.org/details/universalhistory00ifra_411/page/n468 447]–450}}</ref>
*छ {{IPA|hi|t͡ʃʰə|}} = 7 (७)
*छि {{IPA|hi|t͡ʃʰɪ|}} = 700 (७००)
*छु {{IPA|hi|t͡ʃʰʊ|}} = 70,000 (७० ०००)
*छृ {{IPA|hi|t͡ʃʰri|}} = 7,000,000 (७० ०० ०००)
*छॢ {{IPA|hi|t͡ʃʰlə|}} = 7{{e|8}} (७०८)
*छे {{IPA|hi|t͡ʃʰe|}} = 7{{e|10}} (७०१०)
*छै {{IPA|hi|t͡ʃʰɛː|}} = 7{{e|12}} (७०१२)
*छो {{IPA|hi|t͡ʃʰoː|}} = 7{{e|14}} (७०१४)
*छौ {{IPA|hi|t͡ʃʰɔː|}} = 7{{e|16}} (७०१६)

==Historic Cha==
There are three different general early historic scripts - [[Brahmi script|Brahmi]] and its variants, [[Kharosthi|Kharoṣṭhī]], and [[Tocharian alphabet|Tocharian]], the so-called ''slanting Brahmi''. Cha as found in standard [[Brahmi]], [[Image:Brahmi ch.svg|13px|Cha]] was a simple geometric shape, with variations toward more flowing forms by the Gupta [[Image:Gupta allahabad ch.svg|13px|Cha]]. The Tocharian Cha [[Image:Tocharian letter cha.gif|18px|Cha]] did not have an alternate [[Tocharian alphabet#Script|Fremdzeichen]] form. The third form of cha, in Kharoshthi ([[file:Буква CHА (незалежний знак). Письмо кхароштхі. Kharoshthi letter CHA.svg|15px|Cha]]) was probably derived from Aramaic separately from the Brahmi letter.

===Brahmi Cha===
The Brahmi letter [[Image:Brahmi ch.svg|13px|Cha]], Cha, is [[Brahmi script#origin|probably derived]] from the altered Aramaic [[Tsade]] [[File:Sade 1.svg|13px]], and is thus related to the Greek [[San (letter)]]. Several identifiable styles of writing the Brahmi Cha can be found, most associated with a specific set of inscriptions from an artifact or diverse records from an historic period.<ref>[[:File:Brahmi script consonants according to James Prinsep March 1838.jpg|Evolutionary chart]], Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal Vol 7, 1838 [https://archive.org/stream/journalofasiatic775asia#page/n101]</ref> As the earliest and most geometric style of Brahmi, the letters found on the [[Edicts of Ashoka]] and other records from around that time are normally the reference form for Brahmi letters, with vowel marks not attested until later forms of Brahmi back-formed to match the geometric writing style.
{|class="wikitable"
|+Brahmi Cha historic forms
|-
!Ashoka ([[Brahmi script#Early Brahmi or "Ashokan Brahmi" (3rd–1st century BCE)|3rd-1st c. BCE]]) !! Girnar (~150 BCE) !! Kushana ([[Brahmi script#Middle Brahmi or "Kushana Brahmi" (1st–3rd centuries CE)|~150-250 CE]]) !! Gujarat (~250 CE) !! Gupta ([[Gupta script|~350 CE]])
|-
| [[File:Brahmi ch.svg|37px]] || [[Image:Gupta girnar ch.svg|37px]] || [[Image:Gupta ashoka ch.svg|37px]] || [[Image:Gupta gujarat ch.svg|37px]] || [[Image:Gupta allahabad ch.svg|37px]]
|}

===Tocharian Cha===
The Tocharian letter [[Image:Tocharian letter cha.gif|25px|Cha]] is derived from the Brahmi [[Image:Brahmi ch.svg|13px|Cha]], but does not have an alternate Fremdzeichen form.
{|class="wikitable"
|+Tocharian Cha with vowel marks
|-
! Cha !! Chā !! Chi !! Chī !! Chu !! Chū !! Chr !! Chr̄ !! Che !! Chai !! Cho !! Chau !! Chä
|-
| [[File:Tocharian letter cha.gif|37px]] || [[File:Tocharian letter chaa.gif|37px]] || [[File:Tocharian letter chi.gif|37px]] ||  || [[File:Tocharian letter chu.gif|37px]] || [[File:Tocharian letter chuu.gif|37px]] || [[File:Tocharian letter chr.gif|37px]] ||  ||  ||  || [[File:Tocharian letter cho.gif|37px]] ||  || [[File:Tocharian letter chä.gif|37px]]
|}

===Kharoṣṭhī Cha===
The Kharoṣṭhī letter [[file:Буква CHА (незалежний знак). Письмо кхароштхі. Kharoshthi letter CHA.svg|15px|Cha]] is generally accepted as being derived from the altered Aramaic [[Tsade]] [[File:Sade 1.svg|13px]], and is thus related to the Greek [[San (letter)]], in addition to the Brahmi Cha.

==Devanagari script==
{{Devanagari abugida sidebar}}
'''Cha''' ('''छ''') is the seventh consonant of the [[Devanagari]] [[abugida]]. It ultimately arose from the [[Brahmi]] letter [[Image:Brahmi ch.svg|13px|ka]], after having gone through the [[Gupta script|Gupta]] letter [[File:Gupta allahabad ch.svg|13px]]. Letters that derive from it are the [[Gujarati script|Gujarati]] letter છ and the [[Modi alphabet|Modi]] letter 𑘔.

===Devanagari-using Languages===
In most languages, छ is pronounced as {{IPA|hi|t͡ʃʰə|}} or {{IPAblink|t͡ʃʰ}} when appropriate, while in standard Nepali, it is pronounced as {{IPAblink|t͡sʰ}}. Like all Indic scripts, Devanagari uses vowel marks attached to the base consonant to override the inherent /ə/ vowel:
{|class="wikitable"
|+ Devanagari छ with vowel marks
|-
! Cha !! Chā !! Chi !! Chī !! Chu !! Chū !! Chr !! Chr̄ !! Chl !! Chl̄ !! Che !! Chai !! Cho !! Chau !! Ch
|-style="font-size: 150%;"
|छ
|छा
|छि
|छी
|छु
|छू
|छृ
|छॄ
|छॢ
|छॣ
|छे
|छै
|छो
|छौ
|छ्
|}


===Conjuncts with छ===
[[File:Devanagari Cha half form.svg|thumb|right|100px|Half form of Cha.]]
Devanagari exhibits conjunct ligatures, as is common in Indic scripts. In modern Devanagari texts, most conjuncts are formed by reducing the letter shape to fit tightly to the following letter, usually by dropping a character's vertical stem, sometimes referred to as a "half form". Some conjunct clusters are always represented by a true ligature, instead of a shape that can be broken into constituent independent letters. Vertically stacked conjuncts are ubiquitous in older texts, while only a few are still used routinely in modern Devanagari texts. The use of ligatures and vertical conjuncts may vary across languages using the Devanagari script, with [[Marathi language|Marathi]] in particular preferring the use of half forms where texts in other languages would show ligatures and vertical stacks.<ref name="KNAB">{{cite web |last1=Pall |first1=Peeter |title=Microsoft Word - kblhi2 |url=https://www.eki.ee/knab/lat/kblhi2.pdf |website=Eesti Keele Instituudi kohanimeandmed |publisher=Eesti Keele Instituudi kohanimeandmed |access-date=19 June 2020}}</ref>

====Ligature conjuncts of छ====
True ligatures are quite rare in Indic scripts. The most common ligated conjuncts in Devanagari are in the form of a slight mutation to fit in context or as a consistent variant form appended to the adjacent characters. Those variants include [[Na (Indic)#Devanagari Na|Na]] and the [[Ra (Indic)#Devanagari Repha|Repha]] and [[Ra (Indic)#Devanagari Rakar|Rakar]] forms of Ra. [[Nepali language|Nepali]] and [[Marathi language|Marathi]] texts use the "eyelash" Ra half form [[Image:Devanagari Eyelash Ra.svg|15px|Ra]] for an initial "R" instead of repha.
* Repha र্ (r) + छ (cʰa) gives the ligature rcʰa: {{ref|note|note}}
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct RCha.svg|100px]]
* Eyelash र্ (r) + छ (cʰa) gives the ligature rcʰa:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct Eyelash RCha.svg|125px]]
* छ্ (cʰ) + rakar र (ra) gives the ligature cʰra:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct ChRa.svg|100px]]

====Stacked conjuncts of छ====
Vertically stacked ligatures are the most common conjunct forms found in Devanagari text. Although the constituent characters may need to be stretched and moved slightly in order to stack neatly, stacked conjuncts can be broken down into recognizable base letters, or a letter and an otherwise standard ligature.
* ब্ (b) + छ (cʰa) gives the ligature bcʰa:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct BCha.svg|100px]]
* छ্ (cʰ) + ब (ba) gives the ligature cʰba:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct ChBa.svg|100px]]
* छ্ (cʰ) + भ (bʰa) gives the ligature cʰbʰa:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct ChBha.svg|100px]]
* छ্ (cʰ) + च (ca) gives the ligature cʰca:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct ChCa.svg|100px]]
* छ্ (cʰ) + छ (cʰa) gives the ligature cʰcʰa:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct ChCha.svg|100px]]
* छ্ (cʰ) + द (da) gives the ligature cʰda:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct ChDa.svg|100px]]
* छ্ (cʰ) + ड (ḍa) gives the ligature cʰḍa:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct ChDda.svg|100px]]
* छ্ (cʰ) + ढ (ḍʱa) gives the ligature cʰḍʱa:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct ChDdha.svg|100px]]
* छ্ (cʰ) + ध (dʱa) gives the ligature cʰdʱa:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct ChDha.svg|100px]]
* छ্ (cʰ) + ग (ga) gives the ligature cʰga:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct ChGa.svg|100px]]
* छ্ (cʰ) + घ (ɡʱa) gives the ligature cʰɡʱa:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct ChGha.svg|100px]]
* छ্ (cʰ) + ह (ha) gives the ligature cʰha:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct ChHa.svg|100px]]
* छ্ (cʰ) + ज (ja) gives the ligature cʰja:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct ChJa.svg|100px]]
* छ্ (cʰ) + झ (jʰa) gives the ligature cʰjʰa:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct ChJha.svg|100px]]
* छ্ (cʰ) + ज্ (j) + ञ (ña) gives the ligature cʰjña:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct ChJNya.svg|100px]]
* छ্ (cʰ) + क (ka) gives the ligature cʰka:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct ChKa.svg|100px]]
* छ্ (cʰ) + ख (kʰa) gives the ligature cʰkʰa:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct ChKha.svg|100px]]
* छ্ (cʰ) + क্ (k) + ष (ṣa) gives the ligature cʰkṣa:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct ChKSsa.svg|100px]]
* छ্ (cʰ) + ल (la) gives the ligature cʰla:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct ChLa.svg|100px]]
* छ্ (cʰ) + ळ (ḷa) gives the ligature cʰḷa:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct ChLla.svg|100px]]
* छ্ (cʰ) + म (ma) gives the ligature cʰma:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct ChMa.svg|100px]]
* छ্ (cʰ) + न (na) gives the ligature cʰna:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct ChNa.svg|100px]]
* छ্ (cʰ) + ङ (ŋa) gives the ligature cʰŋa:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct ChNga.svg|100px]]
* छ্ (cʰ) + ण (ṇa) gives the ligature cʰṇa:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct ChNna.svg|100px]]
* छ্ (cʰ) + ञ (ña) gives the ligature cʰña:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct ChNya.svg|100px]]
* छ্ (cʰ) + प (pa) gives the ligature cʰpa:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct ChPa.svg|100px]]
* छ্ (cʰ) + फ (pʰa) gives the ligature cʰpʰa:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct ChPha.svg|100px]]
* छ্ (cʰ) + स (sa) gives the ligature cʰsa:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct ChSa.svg|100px]]
* छ্ (cʰ) + श (ʃa) gives the ligature cʰʃa:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct ChSha.svg|100px]]
* छ্ (cʰ) + ष (ṣa) gives the ligature cʰṣa:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct ChSsa.svg|100px]]
* छ্ (cʰ) + त (ta) gives the ligature cʰta:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct ChTa.svg|100px]]
* छ্ (cʰ) + थ (tʰa) gives the ligature cʰtʰa:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct ChTha.svg|100px]]
* छ্ (cʰ) + ट (ṭa) gives the ligature cʰṭa:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct ChTta.svg|100px]]
* छ্ (cʰ) + ठ (ṭʰa) gives the ligature cʰṭʰa:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct ChTtha.svg|100px]]
* छ্ (cʰ) + व (va) gives the ligature cʰva:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct ChVa.svg|100px]]
* छ্ (cʰ) + य (ya) gives the ligature cʰya:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct ChYa.svg|100px]]
* द্ (d) + छ (cʰa) gives the ligature dcʰa:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct DCha.svg|100px]]
* ड্ (ḍ) + छ (cʰa) gives the ligature ḍcʰa:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct DdCha.svg|100px]]
* ढ্ (ḍʱ) + छ (cʰa) gives the ligature ḍʱcʰa:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct DdhCha.svg|100px]]
* ख্ (kʰ) + छ (cʰa) gives the ligature kʰcʰa:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct KhCha.svg|100px]]
* ङ্ (ŋ) + छ (cʰa) gives the ligature ŋcʰa:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct NgCha.svg|100px]]
* ट্ (ṭ) + छ (cʰa) gives the ligature ṭcʰa:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct TtCha.svg|100px]]
* ठ্ (ṭʰ) + छ (cʰa) gives the ligature ṭʰcʰa:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct TthCha.svg|100px]]
* व্ (v) + छ (cʰa) gives the ligature vcʰa:
[[File:Devanagari Conjunct VCha.svg|100px]]

==Bengali script==
The Bengali script ছ is derived from the [[Siddhaṃ]] [[Image:Siddham ch.svg|13px]], and is marked by a similar horizontal head line, but less geometric shape, than its Devanagari counterpart, छ. The inherent vowel of Bengali consonant letters is /ɔ/, so the bare letter ছ will sometimes be transliterated as "cho" instead of "cha". Adding okar, the "o" vowel mark, gives a reading of /cʰo/.
Like all Indic consonants, ছ can be modified by marks to indicate another (or no) vowel than its inherent "a".
{|class="wikitable"
|+ Bengali ছ with vowel marks
|-
! cha !! chā !! chi !! chī !! chu !! chū !! chr !! chr̄ !! che !! chai !! cho !! chau !! ch
|-style="font-size: 150%;"
|ছ
|ছা
|ছি
|ছী
|ছু
|ছূ
|ছৃ
|ছৄ
|ছে
|ছৈ
|ছো
|ছৌ
|ছ্
|}

===ছ in Bengali-using languages===
ছ is used as a basic consonant character in all of the major Bengali script orthographies, including [[Bengali alphabet|Bengali]] and [[Assamese alphabet|Assamese]]. 

===Conjuncts with ছ===
Bengali ছ exhibits conjunct ligatures, as is common in Indic scripts. Unlike most Bengali letters, conjuncts with ছ do not tend towards stacked ligatures.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Bengali Alphabet|url=http://tesseractindic.googlecode.com/files/wb069conjuncts.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928021705/http://tesseractindic.googlecode.com/files/wb069conjuncts.pdf|archive-date=2013-09-28}}</ref>
* চ্ (c) + ছ (cʰa) gives the ligature ccʰa:
[[File:Bengali Conjunct Ccha.svg |100px]]
* চ্ (c) + ছ্ (cʰ) + র (ra) gives the ligature ccʰra, with the [[ra phala]] suffix:
[[File:Bengali Conjunct Cchra.svg |100px]]
* চ্ (c) + ছ্ (cʰ) + ব (va) gives the ligature ccʰva, with the [[va phala]] suffix:
[[File:Bengali Conjunct Cchva.svg |100px]]
* ঞ (ñ) + ছ (cʰa) gives the ligature ñcʰa:
[[File:Bengali Conjunct NYcha.svg |100px]]
* র্ (r) + ছ (cʰa) gives the ligature rcʰa, with the [[Ra (Indic)#Bengali Repha|repha]] prefix:
[[File:Bengali Conjunct Rcha.svg |100px]]
* শ্ (ʃ) + ছ (cʰa) gives the ligature ʃcʰa:
[[File:Bengali Conjunct SHcha.svg |100px]]

==Gujarati Cha==
[[File:Gujarati letter Cha.svg|thumb|right|100px|Gujarati Cha.]]
'''Cha''' ('''છ''') is the seventh consonant of the [[Gujarati script|Gujarati]] [[abugida]]. It is derived from the 16th century Devanagari Cha [[Image:Devanagari छ.svg|13px|Cha]] with the top bar (shiro rekha) removed, and ultimately from the [[Brahmi]] letter [[Image:Brahmi ch.svg|13px|Cha]].

===Gujarati-using Languages===
The Gujarati script is used to write the [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]] and [[Kutchi language|Kutchi]] languages. In both languages, છ is pronounced as {{IPA|gu|cʰə|}} or {{IPAblink|cʰ}} when appropriate. Like all Indic scripts, Gujarati uses vowel marks attached to the base consonant to override the inherent /ə/ vowel:
{| class=wikitable style="width: 40em;"
|-
! style="width:6%;"| Cha !! style="width:7%;"| Chā !! style="width:6.5%;"| Chi !! style="width:7%;"| Chī !! style="width:4.5%;"| Chu !! style="width:5%;"| Chū !! style="width:4.5%;"| Chr !! style="width:5%;"| Chl !! style="width:5%;"| Chr̄ !! style="width:5%;"| Chl̄ !! style="width:4.5%;"| Chĕ !! style="width:4.5%;"| Che !! style="width:5%;"| Chai !! style="width:7%;"| Chŏ !! style="width:7%;"| Cho !! style="width:6%;"| Chau !! style="width:7%;"| Ch
|- align="center"
| colspan=17 |[[File:Gujarati Cha Matras.svg|750px]]
|-
| colspan=17 |Gujarati Cha syllables, with vowel marks in red.
|}

===Conjuncts with છ===
Gujarati છ exhibits conjunct ligatures, much like its parent Devanagari Script. While most Gujarati conjuncts can only be formed by reducing the letter shape to create a "half form" that fits tightly to following letter, Cha does not have a half form. A few conjunct clusters can be represented by a true ligature, instead of a shape that can be broken into constituent independent letters, and vertically stacked conjuncts can also be found in Gujarati, although much less commonly than in Devanagari. Lacking a half form, Cha will normally use an explicit virama when forming conjuncts without a true ligature.
True ligatures are quite rare in Indic scripts. The most common ligated conjuncts in Gujarati are in the form of a slight mutation to fit in context or as a consistent variant form appended to the adjacent characters. Those variants include [[Na (Indic)#Gujarati Na|Na]] and the [[Ra (Indic)#Gujarati Repha|Repha]] and [[Ra (Indic)#Gujarati Rakar|Rakar]] forms of Ra.
* ર્ (r) + છ (cʰa) gives the ligature RCha:
[[File:Gujarati conjunct RCha.svg|100px]]
* છ્ (cʰ) + ર (ra) gives the ligature ChRa:
[[File:Gujarati conjunct ChRa.svg|100px]]

== Gurmukhi script ==
'''Chhachhaa''' {{IPA|pa|t͡ʃʰət͡ʃʰːɑ|}} ('''ਛ''') is the twelfth letter of the Gurmukhi alphabet. Its name is [t͡ʃʰət͡ʃʰːɑ] and is pronounced as /t͡ʃʰ/ when used in words. It is derived from the [[Laṇḍā]] letter cha, and ultimately from the Brahmi cha. Gurmukhi chachaa does not have a special pairin or addha (reduced) form for making conjuncts, and in modern Punjabi texts do not take a half form or halant to indicate the bare consonant /t͡ʃʰ/, although Gurmukhi Sanskrit texts may use an explicit halant.

==Telugu Cha==
{{multiple image
| width = 100px
| image1 = Telugu letter Cha.svg
| alt1 = Telugu Cha
| image2 = Telugu subjoined Cha.svg
| alt2 = Telugu subjoined Cha
| footer = Telugu independent and subjoined Cha.
}}
'''Cha''' ('''ఛ''') is a consonant of the [[Telugu script|Telugu]] [[abugida]]. It ultimately arose from the [[Brahmi]] letter [[Image:Brahmi ch.svg|13px|Ch]]. It is closely related to the [[Kannada script|Kannada]] letter '''ಛ'''. Most Telugu consonants contain a v-shaped headstroke that is related to the horizontal headline found in other Indic scripts, although headstrokes do not connect adjacent letters in Telugu. The headstroke is normally lost when adding vowel matras.
Telugu conjuncts are created by reducing trailing letters to a subjoined form that appears below the initial consonant of the conjunct. Many subjoined forms are created by dropping their headline, with many extending the end of the stroke of the main letter body to form an extended tail reaching up to the right of the preceding consonant. This subjoining of trailing letters to create conjuncts is in contrast to the leading half forms of Devanagari and Bengali letters. Ligature conjuncts are not a feature in Telugu, with the only non-standard construction being an alternate subjoined form of [[Ṣa (Indic)#Telugu Ṣa|Ṣa]] (borrowed from [[Kannada script|Kannada]]) in the KṢa conjunct.

==Malayalam Cha==
[[File:Malayalam letter Cha.svg|thumb|100px|Malayalam letter Cha]]
'''Cha''' ('''ഛ''') is a consonant of the [[Malayalam script|Malayalam]] [[abugida]]. It ultimately arose from the [[Brahmi]] letter [[Image:Brahmi ch.svg|13px|Ch]], via the [[Grantha script|Grantha]] letter [[Image:Grantha letter Cha.svg|x15px|Cha]] ''Cha''. Like in other Indic scripts, Malayalam consonants have the inherent vowel "a", and take one of several modifying vowel signs to represent syllables with another vowel or no vowel at all.
[[File:Malayalam Cha matras.svg|thumb|center|550px|Malayalam Cha matras: Cha, Chā, Chi, Chī, Chu, Chū, Chr̥, Chr̥̄, Chl̥, Chl̥̄, Che, Chē, Chai, Cho, Chō, Chau, and Ch.]]

===Conjuncts of ഛ===
As is common in Indic scripts, Malayalam joins letters together to form conjunct consonant clusters. There are several ways in which conjuncts are formed in Malayalam texts: using a post-base form of a trailing consonant placed under the initial consonant of a conjunct, a combined ligature of two or more consonants joined together, a conjoining form that appears as a combining mark on the rest of the conjunct, the use of an explicit [[candrakkala]] mark to suppress the inherent "a" vowel, or a special consonant form called a "chillu" letter, representing a bare consonant without the inherent "a" vowel. Cha does not form ligatures or other combining forms, and Cha conjuncts can only be formed with post-base forms of other letter or an explicit candrakkala. Texts written with the modern reformed Malayalam orthography, ''put̪iya lipi'', may favor more regular conjunct forms than older texts in ''paḻaya lipi'', due to [[Malayalam script#Orthography reform|changes]] undertaken in the 1970s by the [[Government of Kerala]].

== Thai script ==
'''Cho ching''' ('''ฉ''') is the ninth letter of the [[Thai script]]. It falls under the high class of Thai consonants. In [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]], ''cho ching'' is pronounced as [tɕʰ] at the beginning of a syllable and may not be used to close a syllable. The eighth letter of the alphabet, ''cho chan'' (จ), is also named ''cho'' but represents a different initial consonant sound ([tɕ]) and falls under the middle class of Thai consonants. The tenth and twelfth letters of the alphabet, ''cho chang'' (ช) and ''cho choe'' (ฌ), are also named ''cho'', however, they all fall under the low class of Thai consonants. Unlike many Indic scripts, Thai consonants do not form conjunct ligatures, and use the [[Thai alphabet#Pinthu|pinthu]]''—''an explicit virama with a dot shape—to indicate bare consonants. In the acrophony of the Thai script, ''ching'' (ฉิ่ง) means ‘cymbals ([[ching (instrument)|ching]])’. ''Cho ching'' corresponds to the Sanskrit character ‘छ’.

==Odia Cha==
{{multiple image
| width = 100px
| image1 = Odia letter Cha.svg
| alt1 = Odia independent letter Cha
| image2 = Odia subjoined Cha.svg
| alt2 = Odia subjoined letter Cha
| footer = Odia independent and subjoined letter Cha.
}}

'''Cha''' ('''ଛ''') is a consonant of the [[Odia script|Odia]] [[abugida]]. It ultimately arose from the [[Brahmi]] letter [[Image:Brahmi ch.svg|13px|Ch]], via the [[Siddhaṃ script|Siddhaṃ]] letter [[Image:Siddham ch.svg|x15px|Cha]] ''Cha''. Like in other Indic scripts, Odia consonants have the inherent vowel "a", and take one of several modifying vowel signs to represent syllables with another vowel or no vowel at all.
{| class=wikitable
|+ Odia Cha with vowel matras
|-
! Cha !! Chā !! Chi !! Chī !! Chu !! Chū !! Chr̥ !! Chr̥̄ !! Chl̥ !! Chl̥̄ !! Che !! Chai !! Cho !! Chau !! Ch
|-
| {{big|ଛ}} || {{big|ଛା}} || {{big|ଛି}} || {{big|ଛୀ}} || {{big|ଛୁ}} || {{big|ଛୂ}} || {{big|ଛୃ}} || {{big|ଛୄ}} || {{big|ଛୢ}} || {{big|ଛୣ}} || {{big|ଛେ}} || {{big|ଛୈ}} || {{big|ଛୋ}} || {{big|ଛୌ}} || {{big|ଛ୍}}
|}

=== Conjuncts of ଛ ===
As is common in Indic scripts, Odia joins letters together to form conjunct consonant clusters. The most common conjunct formation is achieved by using a small subjoined form of trailing consonants. Most consonants' subjoined forms are identical to the full form, just reduced in size, although a few drop the curved headline or have a subjoined form not directly related to the full form of the consonant. The second type of conjunct formation is through pure ligatures, where the constituent consonants are written together in a single graphic form. This ligature may be recognizable as being a combination of two characters or it can have a conjunct ligature unrelated to its constituent characters. The "infinity" shaped subjoined form of Cha used in a few conjuncts is identical to the normal subjoined form of [[Tha (Indic)#Odia Tha|Tha]] and should not be confused with Tha.
* ଚ୍ (c) + ଛ (cʰa) gives the ligature ccʰa:
[[File:Odia conjunct CCha.svg]]
* ଞ୍ (ñ) + ଛ (cʰa) gives the ligature ñcʰa:
[[File:Odia conjunct NyCha.svg]]
* ଶ୍ (ʃ) + ଛ (cʰa) gives the ligature ʃcʰa:
[[File:Odia conjunct ShCha.svg]]

==Kaithi Cha==
{{multiple image
| width = 100px
| image1 = Kaithi Cha.svg
| alt1 = Kaithi consonant Cha
| footer = Kaithi consonant Cha.
}}

'''Cha''' ('''𑂓''') is a consonant of the [[Kaithi script|Kaithi]] [[abugida]]. It ultimately arose from the [[Brahmi]] letter [[Image:Brahmi ch.svg|13px|Ch]], via the [[Siddhaṃ script|Siddhaṃ]] letter [[Image:Siddham ch.svg|x15px|Cha]] ''Cha''. Like in other Indic scripts, Kaithi consonants have the inherent vowel "a", and take one of several modifying vowel signs to represent syllables with another vowel or no vowel at all.

{| class=wikitable
|+ Kaithi Cha with vowel matras
|-
! Cha !! Chā !! Chi !! Chī !! Chu !! Chū !! Che !! Chai !! Cho !! Chau !! Ch
|-
| {{big|𑂓}} || {{big|𑂓𑂰}} || {{big|𑂓𑂱}} || {{big|𑂓𑂲}} || {{big|𑂓𑂳}} || {{big|𑂓𑂴}} || {{big|𑂓𑂵}} || {{big|𑂓𑂶}} || {{big|𑂓𑂷}} || {{big|𑂓𑂸}} || {{big|
|}

=== Conjuncts of 𑂓 ===
As is common in Indic scripts, Kaithi joins letters together to form conjunct consonant clusters. The most common conjunct formation is achieved by using a [[half form]] of preceding consonants, although several consonants use an explicit [[virama]]. Most half forms are derived from the full form by removing the vertical stem. As is common in most Indic scripts, conjuncts of ''ra'' are indicated with a ''repha'' or ''rakar'' mark attached to the rest of the consonant cluster. In addition, there are a few vertical conjuncts that can be found in Kaithi writing, but true ligatures are not used in the modern Kaithi script.

* 𑂩୍ (r) + 𑂓 (cʰa) gives the ligature rcʰa:
[[File:Kaithi conjunct RCha.svg|100px]]

==Tirhuta Cha==
[[File:TIRHUTA LETTER CHA.svg|thumb|right|100px|Tirhuta consonant Cha]]

'''Cha''' ('''𑒕''') is a consonant of the [[Tirhuta script|Tirhuta]] [[abugida]]. It ultimately arose from the [[Brahmi]] letter [[Image:Brahmi ch.svg|13px|Ch]], via the [[Siddhaṃ script|Siddhaṃ]] letter [[Image:Siddham ch.svg|x15px|Cha]] ''Cha''. Like in other Indic scripts, Tirhuta consonants have the inherent vowel "a", and take one of several modifying vowel signs to represent sylables with another vowel or no vowel at all.

{| class=wikitable
|+ Tirhuta Cha with vowel matras
|-
! Cha !! Chā !! Chi !! Chī !! Chu !! Chū !! Chṛ !! Chṝ !! Chḷ !! Chḹ !! Chē !! Che !! Chai !! Chō !! Cho !! Chau !! Ch
|-
| {{big|𑒕}}
| {{big|𑒕𑒰}}
| {{big|𑒕𑒱}}
| {{big|𑒕𑒲}}
| {{big|𑒕𑒳}}
| {{big|𑒕𑒴}}
| {{big|𑒕𑒵}}
| {{big|𑒕𑒶}}
| {{big|𑒕𑒷}}
| {{big|𑒕𑒸}}
| {{big|𑒕𑒹}}
| {{big|𑒕𑒺}}
| {{big|𑒕𑒻}}
| {{big|𑒕𑒼}}
| {{big|𑒕𑒽}}
| {{big|𑒕𑒾}}
| {{big|𑒕𑓂}}
|}

=== Conjuncts of 𑒕 ===
As is common in Indic scripts, Tirhuta joins letters together to form conjunct consonant clusters. The most common conjunct formation is achieved by using an explicit [[virama]]. As is common in most Indic scripts, conjuncts of ''ra'' are indicated with a ''repha'' or ''rakar'' mark attached to the rest of the consonant cluster. In addition, other consonants take unique combining forms when in conjunct with other letters, and there are several vertical conjuncts and true ligatures that can be found in Tirhuta writing.

* 𑒔୍ (c) + 𑒕 (cʰa) gives the ligature ccʰa:
[[file:Tirhuta conjunct CCha.svg]]
* 𑒕୍ (cʰ) + 𑒩 (ra) gives the ligature cʰra:
[[file:Tirhuta conjunct ChRa.svg]]
* 𑒕୍ (cʰ) + 𑒫 (va) gives the ligature cʰva:
[[file:Tirhuta conjunct ChVa.svg]]
* 𑒘୍ (ñ) + 𑒕 (cʰa) gives the ligature ñcʰa:
[[file:Tirhuta conjunct NyCha.svg]]
* 𑒩୍ (r) + 𑒕 (cʰa) gives the ligature rcʰa:
[[file:Tirhuta conjunct RCha.svg]]
* 𑒬୍ (ʃ) + 𑒕 (cʰa) gives the ligature ʃcʰa:
[[file:Tirhuta conjunct ShCha.svg]]
* 𑒞୍ (t) + 𑒕 (cʰa) gives the ligature tcʰa:
[[file:Tirhuta conjunct TCha.svg]]


==Comparison of Cha==
The various Indic scripts are generally related to each other through adaptation and borrowing, and as such the glyphs for cognate letters, including Cha, are related as well.
{{Indic glyph |letname = Cha
|devacp = 091B |devaimg = Devanagari छ.svg
|bengcp = 099B |bengimg = Bengali Letter Cha.svg
|telucp = 0C1B
|oryacp = 0B1B
|kndacp = 0C9B
|mlymcp = 0D1B
|gujrcp = 0A9B
|gurucp = 0A1B

|brahcp = 11019 |ashokaimg = Brahmi ch.svg
|kushanaimg = Gupta ashoka ch.svg
|guptaimg = Gupta allahabad ch.svg
|kharcp = 10A16
|siddcp = 11594 |siddimg = Siddham ch.svg
|grancp = 1131B
|tibtcp = 0F46 |tibtimg = Tibetan Cha.svg
|phagcp = A845
|zanbcp = 11A11
|newacp = 11415
|bhkscp = 11C14
|shrdcp = 11197
|mymrcp = 1006
|lanacp = 1A28
|talucp = 1989
|khmrcp = 1786
|thaicp = 0E09
|laoocp = 0E89
|tavtcp = AA8C
|tavt2cp = AA8D
|sinhcp = 0DA1
|cakmcp = 1110D
|talecp = 1961
|ahomcp = 1170B
|diakcp = 11912
|saurcp = A898
|chamcp = AA0D
|modicp = 11614
|nandcp = 119B4
|soyocp = 11A62
|sylocp = A80D
|gongcp = 11D7C
|kthiimg = Kaithi Cha.svg | kthicp = 11093
|tirhcp = 11495
|lepccp = 1C07
|limbcp = 1907
|marccp = 11C77
|takrcp = 11690
|dogrcp = 11810
|khojcp = 1120F
|sindcp = 112C1
|mahjcp = 1115A
|multcp = 1128B
|balicp = 1B19
|javacp = A996
|gonmcp = 11D12
|tochimg = Tocharian letter cha.gif
|kawiimg = Aksara Kawi cha.svg
| armiimg = Qoph.svg
| plavaimg = Pallava Cha.svg
| ranjimg = Ranjana ch.svg
}}

==Character encodings of Cha==
Most Indic scripts are encoded in the [[Unicode Standard]], and as such the letter Cha in those scripts can be represented in plain text with unique codepoint. Cha from several modern-use scripts can also be found in legacy encodings, such as [[ISCII]].
{{Indic encoding |= Cha
|devacp = 091B |devaimg = Devanagari छ.svg
|bengcp = 099B |bengimg = Bengali Letter Cha.svg
|telucp = 0C1B
|oryacp = 0B1B
|kndacp = 0C9B
|mlymcp = 0D1B
|gujrcp = 0A9B
|gurucp = 0A1B
|iscii = B9

|brahcp = 11019 |ashokaimg = Brahmi ch.svg
|kushanaimg = Gupta ashoka ch.svg
|guptaimg = Gupta allahabad ch.svg
|kharcp = 10A16
|siddcp = 11594 |siddimg = Siddham ch.svg
|grancp = 1131B
|tibtcp = 0F46 |tibtimg = Tibetan Cha.svg
|tibtaltcp = 0F96
|phagcp = A845
|zanbcp = 11A11
|newacp = 11415
|bhkscp = 11C14
|shrdcp = 11197
|mymrcp = 1006
|lanacp = 1A28
|talucp = 1989
|khmrcp = 1786
|thaicp = 0E09
|laoocp = 0E89
|tavtcp = AA8C
|tavt2cp = AA8D
|sinhcp = 0DA1
|cakmcp = 1110D
|talecp = 1961
|ahomcp = 1170B
|diakcp = 11912
|saurcp = A898
|chamcp = AA0D
|modicp = 11614
|nandcp = 119B4
|soyocp = 11A62
|sylocp = A80D
|gongcp = 11D7C
|kthiimg = Kaithi Cha.svg | kthicp = 11093
|tirhcp = 11495
|lepccp = 1C07
|limbcp = 1907
|marccp = 11C77
|takrcp = 11690
|dogrcp = 11810
|khojcp = 1120F
|sindcp = 112C1
|mahjcp = 1115A
|multcp = 1128B
|balicp = 1B19
|javacp = A996
|gonmcp = 11D12
}}

==See also==
* [[Qoph]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
* Kurt Elfering: ''Die Mathematik des Aryabhata I. Text, Übersetzung aus dem Sanskrit und Kommentar''. Wilhelm Fink Verlag, München, 1975, {{ISBN|3-7705-1326-6}}
* Georges Ifrah: ''The Universal History of Numbers. From Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer''. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 2000, {{ISBN|0-471-39340-1}}.
* B. L. van der Waerden: ''Erwachende Wissenschaft. Ägyptische, babylonische und griechische Mathematik''. Birkhäuser-Verlag, Basel Stuttgart, 1966, {{ISBN|3-7643-0399-9}}
* {{Cite journal
| issn = 0035-869X
| pages = 109–126
| last = Fleet
| first = J. F.
| title = Aryabhata's System of Expressing Numbers
| journal = Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland
| date = January 1911
| volume = 43
| doi = 10.1017/S0035869X00040995
| jstor = 25189823
}}
* {{Cite journal | doi = 10.1017/S0035869X00040995| jstor = 25189823 | pages = 109–126 | volume = 43 | journal = The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland | title = Aryabhata's System of Expressing Numbers | publisher = Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland | year = 1911| last1 = Fleet | first1 = J. F.}}
::{{note|note|note}} Conjuncts are identified by [[IAST]] transliteration, except aspirated consonants are indicated with a superscript "h" to distinguish from an unaspirated cononant + [[Ha (Indic)|Ha]], and the use of the IPA "ŋ" and "ʃ" instead of the less dinstinctive "ṅ" and "ś".
{{Devanagari abugida}}

[[Category:Indic letters]]

Al-Raid

2025-12-28T20:24:11Z

Joseph Patricio: Added new stub v1

{{Short description|Indian Arabic magazine}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2025}}
{{Infobox magazine
| title = Al-Raid
| logo = Logo of Al-Raid.png
| image_file = Cover of Al-Raid 65-9.jpg
| image_caption = Cover of Volume 65, Issue 9
| editor =
| previous_editor = {{Unbulleted list|[[Saeed-ur-Rahman Azmi Nadvi]]|[[Wazeh Rashid Hasani Nadwi]]|[[Shafiqur Rahman Nadwi]]|[[Abdullah Hasani Nadwi]]|[[Jafar Masood Hasani Nadwi]]}}
| category = [[Theology]], [[Culture]], [[Dawah]], [[Literature]]
| frequency = Biweekly
| publisher = [[Darul Uloom Nadwatul Ulama]]
| founder = [[Rabey Hasani Nadwi]]
| founded = 1959
| firstdate =
| country = India
| language = Arabic
| website = {{URL|alraid.in}}
| issn = 2393-8277
| oclc = 10939736
}}
'''''Al-Raid''''' ({{langx|ar|الرائد}}) is a biweekly Arabic magazine published by [[Darul Uloom Nadwatul Ulama]], with a central focus on the [[Islam in India|Muslim community in India]] and their circumstances.<ref name=":Ahmed">{{Cite journal|last=Ahmed|first=Farid Uddin|date=2019|title=Arabic Journalism in India: its growth and development|url=https://www.thecho.in/files/34.-Dr.-Farid-Uddin-Ahmed-15-07-19.pdf|journal=The Echo|volume=8|issue=1|page=311|issn=2278-5264|access-date=29 November 2023|archive-date=27 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211227044358/https://www.thecho.in/files/34.-Dr.-Farid-Uddin-Ahmed-15-07-19.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Established in 1959 by [[Rabey Hasani Nadwi]] and further developed by [[Saeed-ur-Rahman Azmi Nadvi]], [[Wazeh Rashid Hasani Nadwi]], [[Abdullah Hasani Nadwi]], and others, the magazine aims to spotlight articles and research conducted by its own students.<ref name=":Ahmed" /> It was initially established under [[An-Nadi Al-Arabi]] but later transitioned to Darul Uloom Nadwatul Ulama, reflecting the principles of ''[[Al-Baas El-Islami]]'' and its distinctive viewpoints.<ref name=":Ahmed" />

== Origins and evolution ==
Established by the Press Committee of An-Nadi Al-Arabi in July 1959, with Rabey Hasani Nadwi as its founder, the publication initially consisted of four pages.<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Nadwi |first=Sarwar Alam |title=Development Of Arabic Journalism In India After Independence |url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in:8443/jspui/handle/10603/57825 |publisher=[[Aligarh Muslim University]] |degree=PhD |year=2000 |location=India |page=205 |language=ar |hdl=10603/57825 |access-date=29 November 2023 |archive-date=26 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231126024641/https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in:8443/jspui/handle/10603/57825 |url-status=live }}</ref> It expanded to six pages by July 1963 and further increased to eight by 1965.{{Sfn|Nadwi|2000|p=205}} The magazine, fully controlled by students from Darul Uloom Nadwatul Ulama, aimed to assert their literary and journalistic sovereignty.{{Sfn|Nadwi|2000|p=205}} The editorial team, including Muhammad Ziyaul Hasan, Masoudur Rahman, and Muhammad Iqbal, operated under the title "Al-Raid of An-Nadi Al-Arabi at Darul Uloom Nadwatul Ulama."{{Sfn|Nadwi|2000|p=205}}

In October 1960, with issue 8/7 in its second year, Editor-in-Chief [[Shafiqur Rahman Nadwi]]'s name appeared on the front page for the first time. The fifth-year issue in January 1964 revealed Saeed-ur-Rahman Azmi Nadvi's name under Supervisor. By July 1964, Rabey Hasani Nadwi was acknowledged as the General Supervisor. From the eighth year in 1966, he assumed the role of responsible supervisor, ensuring the newspaper's continuity.{{Sfn|Nadwi|2000|p=205}}

In February 1974, during its fifteenth year, the Arabic magazine, now under the presidency of Rabey Hasani Nadwi, Vice President Saeed-ur-Rahman Azmi Nadvi, and Editor-in-Chief Wazeh Rashid Hasani Nadwi, continued its distribution. From the sixteenth year, July 1974, it was published by Darul Uloom Nadwatul Ulama without the Press Committee of An-Nadi Al-Arabi. The magazine maintained its format, introducing Abdullah Hasani Nadwi as Editing Secretary from the twenty-first year in 1979.{{Sfn|Nadwi|2000|p=206}}

In 1984, [[Rabita al-Adab al-Islami]] emphasized the importance of Islamic literature, prompting ''Al-Raid'' to publish a supplement in 1989 under the supervision of Rabey Hasani Nadwi, the General Secretary of the association. Editing and preparation were undertaken by Abdul Noor Al-Azhari Al-Nadwi and Mahmoud Al-Azhari Al-Nadwi.{{Sfn|Nadwi|2000|p=209}}

== Approach and execution ==
The publication contains articles in literary Arabic tailored for novice learners of the language.<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Alangadan |first=Anees |title=Relocating Arabic Language And Literature With Reference To Arabic Journalism In India 1950 To 2000 |publisher=[[Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala]] |year=2014 |location=India |page=180 |language=ar |hdl=10603/30548 |degree=PhD |url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in:8443/jspui/handle/10603/30548 |access-date=29 November 2023 |archive-date=29 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129050821/https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in:8443/jspui/handle/10603/30548 |url-status=live }}</ref> It serves as an initial journalistic platform for students studying Arabic language and literature. The primary aim of the magazine is to encourage Islamic journalism.{{Sfn|Alangadan|2014|p=180}} A separate section is included for the [[Hadith studies|study of Hadith]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Khan |first=Mohsin Atiq |date=8 June 2018 |title=A look at the history of the emergence of Arabic magazines in India |url=https://www.aljazeera.net/blogs/2018/6/8/%d9%86%d8%b8%d8%b1%d8%a9-%d8%b9%d9%84%d9%89-%d8%aa%d8%a7%d8%b1%d9%8a%d8%ae-%d9%86%d8%b4%d8%a3%d8%a9-%d8%a7%d9%84%d9%85%d8%ac%d9%84%d8%a7%d8%aa-%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%b9%d8%b1%d8%a8%d9%8a%d8%a9-%d9%81%d9%8a |website=[[Al Jazeera Arabic]] |language=ar}}</ref> Submissions to the magazine come from students affiliated with Darul Uloom Nadwatul Ulama and various madrasas, covering news related to Muslims residing in India and beyond. An-Nadi Al-Arabi, representing Darul Uloom Nadwatul Ulama's students, operates under the umbrella of [[Nadwatul Ulama]].{{Sfn|Alangadan|2014|p=180}} It functions as a literary and cultural Arabic association where students refine their skills through diverse activities such as writing, oratory, and Arabic journalism. Additionally, the association has a specialized Arabic library for reading purposes.{{Sfn|Alangadan|2014|p=180}}

== Academic reception ==
The publication has been recognized by scholars from various academic disciplines. Abdul Samad, a researcher at the [[University of Madras]], considers it a notable source of Arabic journalism, citing its bi-monthly publication as an important feature.<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=K |first=Abdul Samad |url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in:8443/jspui/handle/10603/229374 |title=Al Ulamaa Al Baarizoona Min Daaril Uloom Li Nadwatil Ulamaa Alladheena Hasaloo Alaa Al Jaayizah At Taqdeeriyya Li Nashri Al Lugha Alarabiyya Wa Aadaabihaa |publisher=Department of Arabic, [[University of Madras]] |degree=Phd |page=57 |location=India |language=ar |access-date=29 November 2023 |archive-date=16 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230616025102/https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in:8443/jspui/handle/10603/229374 |url-status=live }}</ref> Farid Uddin Ahmed from [[Cotton University]] highlights its role in promoting Islamic teachings and addressing misconceptions in India.<ref name=":Ahmed" /> Habib Shahidul Islam, a scholar at [[Gauhati University]], notes the magazine's influence within the Islamic world, including its reach into [[Arab world|Arab countries]].<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Islam |first=Habib Shahidul |url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in:8443/jspui/handle/10603/114360 |title=The Role Of Darul Uloom Nadwatul Ulema In The Field Of Arabic Journalism In India A Study |publisher=Department of Arabic, [[Gauhati University]] |year=2014 |location=India |degree=PhD |language=en |hdl=10603/114360 |page=192 |access-date=29 November 2023 |archive-date=29 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129050739/https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in:8443/jspui/handle/10603/114360 |url-status=live }}</ref> Anees Alangadan from [[Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala]], praises it for its balanced approach, avoiding conflicts.{{Sfn|Alangadan|2014|p=186}} Sarwar Alam Nadwi, a scholar at [[Aligarh Muslim University]], points to its contribution to shaping interest in classical Arabic education.{{Sfn|Nadwi|2000|p=208}} Zikrullah Arabi of [[Maulana Azad National Urdu University]] observes its impact on fostering interest in Arabic among younger generations.<ref>{{Cite thesis|last=Arabi|first=Zikrullah|title=Contribution of Darul Uloom Deoband to Arabic Journalism With Special Reference of Al-Die (Monthly Magazine) and Comprehensive Catalogue Upto 2013|url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in:8443/jspui/handle/10603/337869|degree=PhD|publisher=[[Maulana Azad National Urdu University]]|page=33|year=2019|location=India|language=ar|hdl=10603/337869|access-date=29 November 2023|archive-date=26 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231126024643/https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in:8443/jspui/handle/10603/337869|url-status=live}}</ref> Jubailiya from the [[University of Calicut]] commends it for its unique journalistic approach and its role in the development of both Arabic and non-Arabic newspapers in India.<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=P |first=Jubailiya |url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in:8443/jspui/handle/10603/306944 |title=Darul Uloom Nadwathul Ulama its Contributions to the Development of Arabic Language and Literature: an analytical study |publisher=Department of Arabic, [[University of Calicut]] |year=2020 |location=India |page=193 |language=ar |degree=PhD |access-date=29 November 2023 |archive-date=26 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231126025358/https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in:8443/jspui/handle/10603/306944 |url-status=live }}</ref> Nayab Hasan Qasmi, author of ''Darul Uloom Deoband Ka Sahafati Manzarnama'', describes its language as clear and accessible.<ref name="Nayab">{{cite book |last=Qasmi |first=Nayab Hasan |url=https://archive.org/details/DarulUloomDeobandKaSahafatiManzarNamah |title=Darul Uloom Deoband Ka Sahafati Manzarnama |publisher=Idara Tahqueeq-e-islami Deoband |year=2013 |edition= |location=India |page=104 |language=ur |trans-title=Journalistic Scenario Of Darul Uloom Deoband}}</ref> Hafizur Rahman from Gauhati University affirms that the publication entered Arabic journalism with high standards and exemplary practices,<ref name=":HR">{{Cite thesis |last=Rahman |first=Hafizur |title=Arabic journalism in India with special reference to Sayed Muhammad Al Hasani : a study |access-date= |degree=PhD |publisher=[[Gauhati University]] |url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/342127 |language=en |pages=194 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231217145140/https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/342127 |archive-date=17 December 2023 |year=2020 |location=India |hdl=10603/342127 |url-status=live}}</ref> while Obaidur Rahman from the [[University of Calcutta]] notes its admiration among both Indian and Arab readers.<ref name=":OR">{{Cite thesis |last=Rahman |first=Obaidur |title=Musahamatu Darul Uloom Nadwatul Ulama Fi Nashril Lughatil Arabiati Wal Adabil Islami Wa Dauruha Fi Majalis Sahafati Wal Elam |access-date=11 November 2024 |degree=PhD |publisher=[[University of Calcutta]] |url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in:8443/jspui/handle/10603/314806 |language=ar |pages=440 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230616040516/https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in:8443/jspui/handle/10603/314806 |archive-date=16 June 2023 |year=2017 |location=India |hdl=10603/314806 |url-status=live}}</ref> Sheeba Rehman from Aligarh Muslim University recognizes its ideal role in Arabic journalism and literature both in India and internationally.<ref name=":SR">{{Cite thesis |last=Rehman |first=Sheeba |title=Contribution of Darul Uloom Nadwatul to the Development of Arabic Journalism in India |degree=PhD |publisher=[[Aligarh Muslim University]] |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181102105606if_/http://ir.amu.ac.in/6786/1/DS%203919.pdf |language=ar |page=70 |pages= |year=2008 |location=India}}</ref>

== Global perspective ==
Several scholars from the [[Arab world]] have commended it, including [[Ishaq Al-Farhan]] form Jordan,{{Sfn|Nadwi|2000|p=208}} Abdelhamid Hamouda, a member of the Youth Literature Association in Egypt,{{Sfn|Alangadan|2014|p=185}} and Afeef Muhammad bin Ali from Algeria.{{Sfn|Alangadan|2014|p=185}}

It has also received recognition from scholars outside the Arab world. Abdul Jalil Hussein, Director of the [[Muslim World League]] in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, noted the writings of the columnist [[Abul Hasan Ali Hasani Nadwi]] and appreciated its coverage of issues like Christian missionary work in Indonesia and political developments in Arab countries.{{Sfn|Alangadan|2014|p=186}} Dhiya al-Din Khalil, Chief of the [[Spiritual Administration of the Muslims of Central Asia and Kazakhstan]], also expressed approval of the publication.{{Sfn|Nadwi|2000|p=207}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Deobandi Arabic magazines]]
[[Category:Publications of Darul Uloom Nadwatul Ulama]]
[[Category:Arabic-language magazines]]
[[Category:Biweekly magazines]]
[[Category:Magazines established in 1959]]
[[Category:Literary magazines published in India]]
[[Category:Conservative magazines]]

Ichthyophis kodaguensis

2025-12-18T04:14:33Z

Joseph Patricio: enhance intro for clarity

{{Short description|Species of amphibian}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2020}}
{{Speciesbox
| image = Ichthyophis kodaguensis from Basarekattae, India.jpg
| image_caption = Specimen from Basarekattae, [[Chickmagalur district]]
| status = DD | status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 20 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=David Gower, Mark Wilkinson |date=2008 |title=''Ichthyophis kodaguensis'' |volume=2008 |article-number=e.T136094A4232490 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T136094A4232490.en |access-date=20 November 2021}}</ref>
| taxon = Ichthyophis kodaguensis
| authority = {{Interlanguage link multi|Mark Wilkinson (herpetologist)|fr|Mark Wilkinson (herpétologiste)|lt=Wilkinson}}, Gower, Govindappa, and Venkatachalaiah, 2007<ref name="Wilkinson et al. 2007"/>
| synonyms =
| synonyms_ref = <ref name=Frost/>
}}

'''''Ichthyophis kodaguensis''''', also known as the '''Kodagu striped Ichthyophis''', is a species of [[caecilian]] in the family [[Ichthyophiidae]].<ref name="iucn status 20 November 2021" /><ref name=Frost/><ref name=AmphibiaWeb/> It is [[endemic]] to the southern [[Western Ghats]], India.<ref name="iucn status 20 November 2021" /><ref name=Frost/> All confirmed records are from southern [[Karnataka]] state, although it is also reported from adjacent [[Kerala]].<ref name=Frost/>

==Distribution==
In addition to its [[Type locality (biology)|type locality]], Venkidds Valley Estate south of [[Madikeri]] in the eponymous [[Kodagu district]],<ref name="Wilkinson et al. 2007"/> ''Ichthyophis kodaguensis'' is known from another locality in the Kodagu district north of Madikeri, and from the [[Chickmagalur district]]; all these records are from southern Karnataka state. It has been implied to occur in adjacent Kerala.<ref name=Frost/>

==Description==
The [[type series]] consists of seven females that measure {{convert|158|to|272|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} in total length. Width at the midbody is {{convert|8|to|12|mm|in|1|abbr=on}}. There are 276 to 306 ventral annuli.<ref name="Wilkinson et al. 2007"/> A later discovered, unsexed specimen measured {{convert|31|cm|in|1|abbr=on}} in total length and had 343 ventral annuli.<ref name="Molur and Molur 2011"/> The body is subcylindrical and slightly dorso-ventrally compressed. The head is slightly wider than the body. The eyes are surrounded by narrow whitish ring and are visible through unpigmented skin as small, dark circles with lighter grey central lens; they are slightly elevated above adjacent skin. Living individuals have long and thin tentacles. The body is dorsally uniform dark chestnut brown, with a slightly lighter snout. A bright, cream-yellow lateral stripe runs all along the length of the body; it has irregular margins and is interrupted at the first collar. The ventrum, paler than the dorsum, is lilac-grey-brown, slightly darker posteriorly and immediately adjacent to the lateral stripe.<ref name="Wilkinson et al. 2007"/>

==Habitat and conservation==
The type series was collected from a mixed coffee and [[areca nut]] plantation at {{convert|1143|m|abbr=on}} [[above sea level]]. The holotype was collected by digging in soil by a small stream.<ref name="Wilkinson et al. 2007"/> Another specimen was found at night on a dry pathway on a hill slope, just outside a wet evergreen forest fragment and some 50 m away from the closest water body, a rivulet.<ref name="Molur and Molur 2011"/> Two specimens have been found on a coffee plantation at an altitude similar to the type locality.<ref name="Bhatta et al. 2011"/>

In 2008, before new distributional records were published,<ref name="Molur and Molur 2011"/><ref name="Bhatta et al. 2011"/> the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN) has classified ''Ichthyophis kodaguensis'' as "[[data deficient]]".<ref name="iucn status 20 November 2021" /> IUCN acknowledged the species as being able to live in agricultural habitat and thereby able to tolerate disturbed habitats, but considered available information too scarce to assess its conservation status.<ref name="iucn status 20 November 2021" />

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name=AmphibiaWeb>{{cite web |url=https://amphibiaweb.org/species/7042 |title=''Ichthyophis kodaguensis'' |year=2019 |work=AmphibiaWeb |publisher=University of California, Berkeley |access-date=30 November 2019}}</ref>

<ref name="Bhatta et al. 2011">{{cite journal |last1=Bhatta |first1=Gopalakrishna |last2=Dinesh |first2=K. P. |last3=Prashanth |first3=P. |last4=Srinivasa |first4=R. |name-list-style=amp |title=New site record of ''Ichthyophis kodaguensis'' Wilkinson et al., 2007 (Amphibia: Ichthyophiidae) in the Western Ghats, Indi |journal=Journal of Threatened Taxa |date=2011 |volume=3 |issue=9 |pages=2104–2107 |doi=10.11609/JoTT.o2729.2104-7|doi-access=free }}</ref>

<ref name=Frost>{{cite web |url=http://research.amnh.org/vz/herpetology/amphibia/index.php//Amphibia/Gymnophiona/Ichthyophiidae/Ichthyophis/Ichthyophis-kodaguensis |title=''Ichthyophis kodaguensis'' Wilkinson, Gower, Govindappa, and Venkatachalaiah, 2007 |author=Frost, Darrel R. |year=2019 |work=Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Version 6.0 |publisher=American Museum of Natural History |access-date=30 November 2019}}</ref>

<ref name="Molur and Molur 2011">{{cite journal |last1=Molur |first1=S. |last2=Molur |first2=P. |name-list-style=amp |year=2011 |title=A new record of ''Ichthyophis kodaguensis'' |journal=Frog Leg |volume=16 |pages=21–23 |url=https://zoosprint.zooreach.org/ZoosPrintNewsLetter/frog_leg_16_May2011.pdf }}</ref>

<ref name="Wilkinson et al. 2007">{{cite journal |last1=Wilkinson |first1=Mark |last2=Gower |first2=David J. |last3=Govindappa |first3=Venu |last4=Venkatachalaiah |first4=G. |name-list-style=amp |title=A new species of ''Ichthyophis'' (Amphibia: Gymnophiona: Ichthyophiidae) from Karnataka, India |journal=Herpetologica |date=2007 |volume=63 |issue=4 |pages=511–518 |doi= 10.1655/0018-0831(2007)63[511:ANSOIA]2.0.CO;2|jstor=25209087 |s2cid=55052552 }}</ref>
}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q3147690}}

[[Category:Ichthyophis|kodaguensis]]
[[Category:Endemic fauna of the Western Ghats]]
[[Category:Endemic amphibians of India]]
[[Category:Amphibians described in 2007]]

Raorchestes aureus

2025-12-18T04:12:36Z

Joseph Patricio: Made New Bio More To Come

{{Short description|Species of frog}}
{{Speciesbox
| image =
| status =CR
| status_ref =<ref name=IUCN />
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| taxon = Raorchestes aureus
| authority = Vijayakumar, Dinesh, Prabhu, and Shanker, 2014
| range_map =
| synonyms =
| synonyms_ref =
}}

'''''Raorchestes archeos''''' is a species of frog in the family [[Rhacophoridae]]. It is endemic to [[India]], where it has been observed in the [[Western Ghat]] mountains at about 1524 meters above sea level.<ref name="Vijayakumar et al. 2014">{{cite journal|author1= Vijayakumar SP|author2= Dinesh KP|author3= Prabhu MV|author4= Shanker K |year=2014 |title=Lineage delimitation and description of nine new species of bush frogs (Anura: ''Raochestes'', Rhacophoridae) from the Western Ghats escarpment| journal= Zootaxa |volume=3893 |issue= 4|pages= 451–488|doi= 10.11646/zootaxa.3893.4.1|pmid= 25544534}}</ref><ref name=AMNH>{{BioRef|ASW6
|title=''Raorchestes leucolatus'' Vijayakumar, Dinesh, Prabhu, and Shanker, 2014
|url=https://amphibiansoftheworld.amnh.org/Amphibia/Anura/Rhacophoridae/Rhacophorinae/Raorchestes/Raorchestes-aureus
|access-date=September 20, 2023}}</ref><ref name=Amph>{{BioRef|amphibiaweb
|title= ''Raorchestes aureus'' Vijayakumar, Dinesh, Prabhu, and Shanker, 2014
|author1=
|editor1=
|date=
|language=
|url=https://amphibiaweb.org/species/8265
|access-date=September 20, 2023}}</ref><ref name="IUCN">{{cite IUCN
|title= ''Raorchestes aureus''
|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/73786986/73787000
|article-number= e.T73786986A73787000
|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2023-1.RLTS.T73786986A73787000.en
|id=73786986
|year=2023
|author1=IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group
|accessdate=March 1, 2024}}</ref>

This frog has been observed in grasses near the edges of forests and in disturbed forest near disturbed grassland.<ref name=IUCN />

Scientists classify this frog as critically endangered because its range is only ten square kilometers and subject to continued degradation, especially deforestation in favor of coffee plantations.<ref name=IUCN />

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q18638768}}

[[Category:Frogs of Asia]]
[[Category:Endemic amphibians of India]]
[[Category:Raorchestes|aureus]]

{{Rhacophoridae-stub}}

Aadudam Andhra

2025-12-13T23:51:00Z

Joseph Patricio: Added some stub from scratch

{{Short description|Indian government sports initiative}}

'''Aadudam Andhra''' (transl. 'Andhra, let's play') was an initiative of the [[Andhra Pradesh government]] to promote sports. It will be held from December 26, 2023, to February 10, 2024.<ref>{{Cite news |title=AP Government's Aadudam Andhra Festival Registrations Starting Today |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/in-other-news/271123/ap-governments-aadudam-andhra-festival-registrations-starting-today.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-11-27 |title=Govt to launch mega sports event on Dec 15 |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/vijayawada/govt-launch-mega-sports-event-dec-15/articleshow/105523160.cms |access-date=2023-11-27 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
[[File:Man on a moving tractor (cropped).jpg|alt=Man wearing an Aadudam Andhra t-shirt which says "This is everyones game"|thumb|Man wearing an Aadudam Andhra t-shirt which says "This is everyones game"]]
[[Cricket]], [[basketball]],<ref>{{Cite news |title=Aadudam Andhra Sports and Games Event to Begin December 15 |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/in-other-news/281123/aadudam-andhra-sports-and-games-event-to-begin-december-15.html}}</ref> [[volleyball]], [[kabaddi]], [[kho-kho]] and [[Badminton|badminton doubles]] will be included along with other [[Traditional games of India|traditional Indian games]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=India |first=The Hans |date=2023-07-06 |title=Mega sports event ‘Aadudam Andhra’ to begin on Oct 2 |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/news/cities/tirupathi/mega-sports-event-aadudam-andhra-to-begin-on-oct-2-807457 |access-date=2023-11-27 |website=www.thehansindia.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=‘Adudam Andhra’ sports fest from October 2 |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/andhra-pradesh/2023/jun/18/adudam-andhra-sports-fest-from-october2-2586154.html |access-date=2023-11-27 |website=The New Indian Express}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=‘Adudam Andhra’ fest to promote sports in state in a big way |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/andhra-pradesh/2023/jun/16/adudam-andhra-fest-to-promote-sports-in-state-in-a-big-way-2585525.html |access-date=2023-11-27 |website=The New Indian Express}}</ref> with [[Competitive yoga|yoga]], [[tennikoit]], and a 3 km [[marathon]] also being played non-competitively.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Sravani |first=Nellore |date=2023-11-27 |title=Registrations for Aadudam Andhra to open from November 27 |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/registrations-for-aadudam-andhra-to-open-from-november-27/article67577517.ece |access-date=2023-11-27 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=AP to conduct Aaududam Andhra (Play Andhra) sports festival for 46 days |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/150623/ap-to-conduct-aaududam-andhra-play-andhra-sports-festival-for-46-day.html}}</ref> Competition will be held at the village/ward secretariat, mandal, constituency, district and state levels, and [[Visakhapatnam]] hosting the final stage of the event.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Sravani |first=Nellore |date=2023-11-27 |title=Registrations for Aadudam Andhra to open from November 27 |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/registrations-for-aadudam-andhra-to-open-from-november-27/article67577517.ece |access-date=2023-11-27 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

== Cash prizes ==
At the constituency level, winning teams will get {{INRConvert|35000}}, while second- and third-placed teams will respectively earn {{INRConvert|15000}} and {{INRConvert|5000}}.

At the district-level, the top-three teams will respectively earn {{INRConvert|60000}}, {{INRConvert|30000}} and {{INRConvert|10000}}, while at the state-level, they will earn {{INRConvert|5|l}}, {{INRConvert|3|l}} and {{INRConvert|2|l}} respectively.<ref>{{Cite news |last= |first= |date=2023-08-08 |title=Aadudam Andhra tournaments will be held for 38 days from Oct. 2, says official |language=en-IN |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/aadudam-andhra-tournaments-will-be-held-for-38-days-from-oct-2-says-official/article67172779.ece |access-date=2023-11-27 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

== See also ==

* [[Khelo India]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:Sport in Andhra Pradesh]]

== External links ==

* https://aadudamandhra.ap.gov.in, the official government website
{{India-sport-stub}}

Reenee Singh

2025-12-11T07:10:18Z

Joseph Patricio: Made Initial Bio Initial Version

{{Infobox person
| name = Reenee Singh
| image =
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{birth year and age|1967}}
| birth_place = India
| death_date =
| death_place =
| other_names =
| education = {{plainlist|
* [[Delhi University]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]], 1987; [[Master of Arts|MA]], 1990)
* [[Tavistock and Portman NHS Trust]]
}}
| occupation = Family and Couples Systemic Psychotherapist
| years_active =
| known_for =
| notable_works =
| spouse =
| children = 2
| website = {{URL|reeneesingh.com/}}
}}

'''Reenee Singh''' (born 1967) is a psychotherapist, author, and a former editor of the ''[[Journal of Family Therapy]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dr Reenee Singh – The Child and Family Practice |url=https://tcfp.org.uk/member/dr-reenee-singh/ |access-date=2025-12-11 |language=en-US}}</ref>

She was the first CEO of the Association of Family Therapy and Systemic Practice (AFT), which is the membership organisation for family and systemic psychotherapists in the [[United Kingdom|UK]].

== Education and career ==
Reenee Singh was born in [[India]] and earned her [[Bachelor of Arts]] ([[Honours degree|Honours]]) and [[Master of Arts]] in psychology from [[Delhi University]] in 1987 and 1990.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2023-04-03 |title=Professional Qualifications |url=http://www.reeneesingh.com/professional-qualifications |access-date=2024-10-21 |website=Reenee Singh |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=2022-04-09 |title=Spotlight On Systemic Practice Expert Dr. Reenee Singh |url=https://brightontherapypartnership.org.uk/spotlight-on-dr-reenee-singh/ |access-date=2024-10-21 |website=Brighton Therapy Partnership |language=en}}</ref>

She began her family therapy training at the Counselling and Care Centre in Singapore, in collaboration with the Institute of Family Therapy, [[London]], between 1993 and 1994. In 1999, she moved to the United Kingdom to continue her family therapy studies, obtaining a [[Master of Science]] in 2001 and a Doctorate in 2008 in Systemic Psychotherapy from [[Tavistock and Portman NHS Foundation Trust|The Tavistock and Portman NHS Foundation Trust]], in conjunction with the [[University of East London]].<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />

Singh worked at The Tavistock and Portman NHS Foundation Trust from 2002 until 2013.<ref>{{Citation |last=Sim |first=Timothy |title=Singh, Reenee |date=2018 |work=Encyclopedia of Couple and Family Therapy |pages=1–2 |editor-last=Lebow |editor-first=Jay |url=https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-3-319-15877-8_1131-1 |access-date=2024-10-22 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-15877-8_1131-1 |isbn=978-3-319-15877-8 |editor2-last=Chambers |editor2-first=Anthony |editor3-last=Breunlin |editor3-first=Douglas C.|url-access=subscription }}</ref> In 2013, she joined The Child and Family Practice, a multidisciplinary, independent clinic in London,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Welcome to The Child and Family Practice. An integrated service for children, their families and adults. |url=http://www.reeneesingh.com/professional-qualifications |access-date=2024-10-23 |website=TCFP |language=en}}</ref> and in 2016, she co-founded the London Intercultural Couple Centre at The Child and Family Practice. From 2020 to 2023, Singh served as a director of The Child and Family Practice in the UK.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |last=Neustatter |first=Angela |date=2016-05-14 |title=Now loving couples can rely on help to cross a troubled cultural divide |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2016/may/14/love-not-always-enough-for-mixed-race-couples |access-date=2024-10-21 |work=[[The Guardian]] |language=en |issn=0029-7712}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Windle |first=Chris |date=2019-09-19 |title=Digital Parents: How Connectivity Has Improved The Way We Bring Up Children |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/entry/digital-parents-how-connectivity-has-improved-the-way-we-bring-up-children_uk_5cc3060ee4b05f4d35ff4a7b |access-date=2024-10-21 |website=[[HuffPost]]}}</ref><ref name=":1" />

In 2019, she was appointed the first CEO of the Association of Family Therapy and Systemic Practice (AFT) in the UK, and held this post until 2020.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":4" />

Singh works as a Family and Couples Systemic Psychotherapist at The Child and Family Practice as well as, more specifically, with intercultural couples and their families.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last=Moss |first=Rachel |date=2020-01-18 |title=Does Britain Still Have An Issue With Interracial Relationships? Couples Speak Up |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/entry/life-in-mixed-race-relationships-britain_uk_5e173393c5b600960c612ddf |access-date=2024-10-21 |website=[[HuffPost]]}}</ref>

In 2022, Singh received an award at the first British Sikh Awards in the category ''Outstanding Achievement of the Year''.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2022-02-20 |title=City Sikhs is named the Social Inclusion Group of the Year at the inaugural British Sikh Awards {{!}} City Sikhs |url=https://www.citysikhs.com/2022/02/city-sikhs-is-named-the-social-inclusion-group-of-the-year-at-the-inaugural-british-sikh-awards/ |access-date=2024-10-22 |website=City Sikhs |language=en}}</ref>

== Editor ==
Singh became an associate editor for the ''[[Journal of Family Therapy]]'' in 2009. In 2014, Singh was appointed as editor and held that position until 2018. From 2018 to 2020, Singh was an associate editor of the ''Handbook of Systemic Family Therapy''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Editorial Board |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/page/journal/14676427/homepage/editorialboard.html |access-date=2024-10-21 |website=Wiley}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Reeneé Singh |url=https://europeanfamilytherapy.eu/reenee-singh-2/ |access-date=2024-10-21 |website=European Family Therapy Association |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-04-03 |title=Books, Publications and Peer-Reviewed Journals |url=http://www.reeneesingh.com/books-and-publication-journals |access-date=2024-10-21 |website=Reenee Singh |language=en}}</ref>

== Psychotherapeutic approach and theoretical positions ==
Singh follows the [[Family therapy|family]] and [[Systemic therapy|systemic psychotherapy]] approach. She works primarily with couples and families, especially with an intercultural background.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite news |last=Jennings-Edquist |first=Grace |date=2021-07-13 |title=Sofia's fiance is from a different culture. Her parents won't come to the wedding |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-07-13/falling-in-love-with-someone-outside-your-culture/100237034 |access-date=2024-10-21 |work=ABC News |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2" />

According to [[The Guardian]], Singh sees her work as helping intercultural, mixed race and migrant couples.<ref name=":0" /> These couples may encounter specific challenges, particularly during transitional phases such as marriage or having children. Couples from different cultural, ethnic, and religious backgrounds may face prejudice from their families and communities, difficulties with language and communication, and questions about the meaning of home.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Sutton |first=Megan |date=2021-06-10 |title=The challenges interracial couples face and advice from an expert |url=https://www.cosmopolitan.com/uk/love-sex/relationships/a36683343/interracial-dating/ |access-date=2024-10-21 |website=[[Cosmopolitan (magazine)|Cosmopolitan]] |language=en}}</ref>

Singh and Reibstein have developed the Intercultural Exeter Model (2021) for their clinical practice and teaching.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Intercultural Exeter Couples Model: Making connections for a divided world through systemic-behavioral therapy |url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2021-07399-000 }}</ref> Further, Singh draws on Valeria Ugazio's 2013 work on semantic polarities<ref>{{Cite book |title=Semantic polarities and psychopathologies in the family: Permitted and forbidden stories |url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2021-07399-000 }}</ref> and has found that the semantics of freedom and belonging are predominant amongst intercultural couples.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Dance of the Seven Veils: Recovering Hidden Meanings in Intercultural Couples Therapy |url=http://www.reeneesingh.com/conferences-psychotherapy |access-date=2024-10-23 |date=2024-03-22 |website=Reenee Singh |language=en}}</ref>

== Memberships ==
Singh served on the Board of the Association for Family Therapy and Systemic Practice (AFT) from 2017 to 2020. She is a member of the Advisory Council for the Journal of Marital and Family Therapy (JMFT),<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |date=2023-04-03 |title=Dr Reenee Singh |url=http://www.reeneesingh.com/ |access-date=2024-10-21 |website=Reenee Singh |language=en}}</ref> and is an associate of the educational organisation The Taos Institute.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Reenee Singh, D.Sys.Psych |url=https://www.taosinstitute.net/about-us/people/institute-associates/europe/uk/reenee-singh |access-date=2024-10-22 |website=The Taos Institute |language=en}}</ref>

== Selected publications ==
* Singh, Reenee. (2009). Constructing the family across culture. ''[[Journal of Family Therapy]]''. Vol. 31 (4), pp. 359–383.
* Singh, Reenee (2013). ''The Process of Family Talk Across Culture: A Qualitative Research Study. Saarbrücken: LAP Lambert Academic Publishing.'' ISBN 978-3-659-32887-9.
* Wallis, Jennifer; Singh, Reenee (2014). Constructions and enactments of whiteness: A discursive analysis. ''Journal of Family Therapy''. Vol. 36.
* Stratton, P.; Lask, J.; Bland, J.; Nowotny, E.; Evans, C.; Singh, Reenee; Janes, E.; Peppiatt, A. (2014). Detecting therapeutic improvement early in therapy: validation of the SCORE-15 index of family functioning and change. ''Journal of Family Therapy'' Vol. 36 (1), pp. 3–19.
* Gabb, Jacqui; Singh, Reenee (2014). Reflections on the challenges of understanding racial, cultural and sexual differences in couple relationship research. ''Journal of Family Therapy''. Vol. 37.
* Gabb, Jacqui; Singh, Reenee (2014). The Uses of Emotion Maps in Research and Clinical Practice with Families and Couples: Methodological Innovation and [[Critical Inquiry]]. ''Family Process''. Vol. 54.
* Singh, Reenee; Dutta, Sumita (2018). ''Race and Culture.'' Routledge. {{ISBN|978-0-429-91837-7}}.
* Reibstein, Janet; Singh, Reenee (2020). ''The Intercultural Exeter Model: Making connections for a divided world through systemic-behavioral therapy.'' Wiley-Blackwell. {{ISBN|978-1-119-58057-7}}.
* Singh, Reenee (2020). Home Is Where the Heart Is: Aporias of Love and Belonging in Intercultural Couples. Abela, Angela; Vella, Sue; Piscopo, Suzanne (eds.): ''Couple Relationships in a Global Context.'' Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 145–157, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:10.1007/978-3-030-37712-0_9. {{ISBN|978-3-030-37711-3}}.
* Wampler, Karen S.; Miller, Richard B.; Seedall, Ryan B.; McWey, Lenore M.; Blow, Adrian J.; Rastogi, Mudita; Singh, Reenee (2020). ''The Handbook of Systemic Family Therapy. Volume 4.'' NJ: Wiley-Blackwell. {{ISBN|978-1-119-43855-7}}.
* Ugazio, Valeria; Singh, Reenee; Guarnieri, Stella (2021). The 'Arab Spring' within an intercultural couple. Does the unmentioned 'racial difference' matter? ''Journal of Family Therapy'', Vol. 44, pp. 56–75.
* Singh, Reenee (2024). Therapy with intercultural and interfaith couples. Synder, Douglas K.; Lebow, Jay (eds.): ''What happens in Couple Therapy: A Casebook on Effective Practice.'' New York and London: The [[Guilford Press]], pp. 176–196. {{ISBN|978-1-462-55474-4}}.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.reeneesingh.com/ Official website]
*[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Reenee-Singh-3 Reenee Singh on Research Gate]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Singh, Reenee}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1967 births]]
[[Category:Psychotherapists]]
[[Category:Delhi University alumni]]

Louis Philippe (brand)

2025-11-21T14:20:54Z

Joseph Patricio: put up a entry initial version.

{{Short description|Indian men's clothing brand}}
{{More citations needed|date=March 2022}}{{Infobox brand
| name = Louis Philippe
| logo = Louis Philippe (brand).svg
| logo_upright =
| logo_alt =
| logo_caption =
| image =
| image_upright =
| alt =
| caption =
| producttype = Men's apparel
| currentowner = Madura Fashion & Lifestyle
| producedby = [[Aditya Birla Fashion and Retail]]
| country = India
| introduced = 1989
| discontinued =
| related =
| markets =Worldwide
| trademarkregistrations =
| ambassadors = Robert Pattinson
| tagline = The Upper Crest
| website = https://www.louisphilippe.com/| module = 
| module1 = 
}}

'''Louis Philippe''' is a premium brand of men's apparel originating from [[India]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Louis Philippe is the top selling brand at shopping chains |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/cons-products/garments-/-textiles/louis-philippe-is-the-top-selling-brand-at-shopping-chains/articleshow/20339058.cms |access-date=2022-03-04}}</ref> It is a subsidiary of [[ABFRL|Madura Fashion & Lifestyle]]. It is a division of the Indian [[Conglomerate (company)|conglomerate]] [[Aditya Birla Group]], and was founded in 1989.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Louis Philippe Sub Brands Marketing Essay |url=https://www.ukessays.com/essays/marketing/louis-philippe-sub-brands-marketing-essay.php |access-date=2022-03-04 |website=www.ukessays.com |language=en}}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=Source is an essay mill|date=November 2025}} Named after [[Louis Philippe]], King of France from 1830 to 1848, the brand is one of the largest apparel brands in India, as of 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bureau |first=Indiaretailing |date=2018-01-29 |title=Louis Philippe from Aditya Birla Fashion and Retail Ltd. enters Nepal |url=https://www.indiaretailing.com/2018/01/29/fashion/louis-philippe-aditya-birla-fashion-retail-ltd-enters-nepal/ |access-date=2022-03-04 |website=Indiaretailing.com |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=G |first1=Seetharaman |title=What's Aditya Birla Fashion without brands like Allen Solly and Louis Philippe? |url=https://the-ken.com/story/whats-aditya-birla-fashion-without-brands-like-allen-solly-and-louis-philippe/ |website=The Ken |date=10 April 2024}}</ref>

[[File:Navarathri decoration in shops in RR Nagar, Bangalore (2025) 02.jpg|thumb|right|A Louis Philippe shop decorated on the eve of [[Navaratri]], in [[Rajarajeshwari Nagar, Bengaluru|RR Nagar]], Bangalore (2025)]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{Official website|http://www.louisphilippe.com/}}
{{Aditya Birla Group}}

[[Category:Clothing brands]]
[[Category:Clothing brands of India]]
[[Category:Aditya Birla Group]]

Sunnal

2025-11-19T21:32:52Z

Joseph Patricio: small changes

{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2018}}
{{Short description|Village in Karnataka, India}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Sunnal
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = Village
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Karnataka
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Karnataka, India
| coordinates = {{coord|15.96|N|75.26|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Karnataka]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Belgaum district|Belgaum]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| parts_type = [[Taluka]]
| parts = [[Ramdurg]]
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 577
| population_total =
| population_as_of = 2001
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Kannada]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = 
| postal_code =
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| area_code = 08335
| registration_plate =
| blank1_name_sec1 = Nearest Town
| blank1_info_sec1 = [[Ramdurg]]
| blank2_name_sec1 =
| blank2_info_sec1 =
| blank1_name_sec2 = [[Climate of India|Climate]]
| blank1_info_sec2 = [[Climatic regions of India|hot]] ([[Köppen climate classification|Köppen]])
| website =
| footnotes =
}}

'''Sunnal''' is a village in [[Belgaum district]] of [[Karnataka]], India.

Sunnal is a small village located five kilometres from [[Ramdurg]] on Belgavi road. This village is famous for its Maruthi Temple which has an idol of lord [[Hanuman]] from ancient times. It is believed by thousands of devotees that by praying to lord Hanuman at Sunnal one will be blessed twice by the lord Hanuman as his idol is seeing the devotees by both the eyes i.e., idol of lord Hanuman is in front facing towards the devotees. The Lord Hanuman temple of this village is popularly known as "Sunnal Hanumappa." The stretch of forest along Sunnal and Halloli Villages is inhabited by bears. These are popularly known as "Sunnal Karadi" or "Sunnal Kaddi" in [[Kannada]].<ref>[http://censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Village_Directory/List_of_Villages/List_of_Villages_Alphabetical.aspx?cki=&ComboState_Code=29 Village Directory] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722033752/http://censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Village_Directory/List_of_Villages/List_of_Villages_Alphabetical.aspx?cki=&ComboState_Code=29 |date=22 July 2011 }}, 2001 Census of India</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Settlements in Belgaum district}}

[[Category:Villages in Belagavi district]]

{{Belgaum-geo-stub}}

Sai River (Uttar Pradesh)

2025-10-13T01:27:02Z

Joseph Patricio: quick reworked page and updated info

{{Short description|River in India}}
{{more citations needed|date=October 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2024}}
[[File:Bela Bhawani temple.jpg|thumb|Sai River in the backdrop of Shri Belha Ji Temple]]
The '''Sai River''' (Sai setu), also referred to as the '''Aadi Ganga''', is a tributary of the [[Gomti River]] in the Indian state of [[Uttar Pradesh]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Key Facts about Gomti River |url=https://vajiramandravi.com/current-affairs/key-facts-about-gomti-river/ |access-date=2025-08-15 |language=en-IN}}</ref>

== Geography ==
The river originates at a sprawling pond, named Bhijwan Jheel, on the hilltop at Parsoi, a village in the [[Hardoi district]]. It separates the region of [[Lucknow]] from [[Unnao]]. The river flows south by [[Raebareli]], comes into the region of [[Pratapgarh, Uttar Pradesh|Pratapgarh]] then turns east and touches the Ghuisarnath Dham, from there it touches another Chandika Dham and moves [[Jaunpur, Uttar Pradesh|Jaunpur]] through the west . Most of the districts of Uttar Pradesh are situated on the banks of the Sai River. Shani Dev Dham is located on banks of the Sai River at [[Parsadepur]].

== Culture ==
Devotees take a bath in the Sai River and worship Baba Ghuisarnath with its water in India. It is one of the most sacred rivers in [[Hinduism]]. It is referenced in [[Puranas]] and in [[Ramcharitmanas]] of [[Goswami Tulsidas]]. Along with its religious importance, the river is a lifeline for the millions of Indians who live on its banks and depend on it for their daily utilities.<ref>{{Cite web |title=District Pratapgarh, Government of Uttar Pradesh {{!}} The City of Aonla {{!}} India |url=https://pratapgarh.nic.in/ |access-date=2024-03-07}}</ref> It also flows past the Belha Devi Dhaam of Pratapgarh where the people worship the river and giving it a religious importance.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{coord|25.6520|82.8016|type:river_region:IN|format=dms|display=title}}

[[Category:Rivers of Uttar Pradesh]]

{{India-river-stub}}
{{UttarPradesh-geo-stub}}

Phi IV, Greater Noida

2025-07-09T22:51:06Z

Joseph Patricio: Made Basic Data Added Tags

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2025}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Phi IV
| unit_pref =
| native_name =
| registration_plate =
| area_code =
| postal_code = 201310
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| demographics1_info1 = [[Hindi]], [[English language|English]]
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| elevation_m =
| governing_body = Greater Noida Industrial Development Authority
| official_name =
| subdivision_name3 = Greater Noida
| subdivision_type3 = City
| subdivision_name2 = Uttar Pradesh
| subdivision_type2 = [[States of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[North India]]
| subdivision_type1 = [[Regions of India|Region]]
| subdivision_name = India
| subdivision_type = Country
| coordinates = {{Coord|28|26|25|N|77|31|37|E|type:city_region:IN|display=inline,title}}
| pushpin_map = India Uttar Pradesh
| image_skyline =
| settlement_type = [[Neighborhood]]
| native_name_lang = hi
| other_name =
}}
'''Phi IV''' or '''Phi 4''' is a residential locality in south-western [[Greater Noida]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], India.<ref>{{Cite web|agency=TNN|date=19 Jan 2022|title=gnida: Gnida Issues Tenders For 18 Infra Projects Worth 40 Crore {{!}} Noida News - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/noida/gnida-issues-tenders-for-18-infra-projects-worth-40-crore/articleshow/88983304.cms|access-date=2022-02-11|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|author=Meenakshi Sinha|date=6 Dec 2021|title=GNIDA divides Greater Noida into 5 zones for waste collection {{!}} Noida News - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/noida/gnida-divides-city-into-5-zones-for-waste-collection/articleshow/88111427.cms|access-date=2022-02-11|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Service|first=Tribune News|title=Why Greater Noida outshines its neighbours|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/features/why-greater-noida-outshines-its-neighbours-236300 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220211/https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/features/why-greater-noida-outshines-its-neighbours-236300 |archive-date=2022-02-11 |url-status=live|access-date=2022-02-11|website=Tribuneindia News Service|language=en}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Bordered by [[Phi III, Greater Noida|Phi III]] to the north and Chi III and Chi IV to the west, it is known to be one of the [[real estate]] hotspots of [[Greater Noida]], alongside [[Omega II, Greater Noida|Omega II]], [[Omega I, Greater Noida|Omega I]], [[Phi I, Greater Noida|Phi I]], [[Phi II, Greater Noida|Phi II]], [[Phi III, Greater Noida|Phi III]], Chi I, Chi II, Chi III, Chi IV and Chi V.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Realty hot spot series: A well-connected area in NCR with good infrastructure|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/wealth/real-estate/realty-hot-spot-series-a-well-connected-area-in-ncr-with-good-infrastructure/articleshow/82855865.cms |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220211/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/wealth/real-estate/realty-hot-spot-series-a-well-connected-area-in-ncr-with-good-infrastructure/articleshow/82855865.cms |archive-date=2022-02-11 |url-status=live|access-date=2022-02-11}}{{cbignore}}</ref> It is named after the [[Greek alphabet|Greek letter]] [[Phi]].{{fact|date=July 2025}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Neighbourhoods in Greater Noida]]

{{Meerut-geo-stub}}

Media Dreams

2025-03-21T10:26:47Z

Joseph Patricio: Created redirect page

#REDIRECT [[Pentamedia Graphics#Films produced under Media Dreams]]

{{Redirect category shell|
{{R to related topic}}
}}

Hajipir

2025-02-01T07:22:23Z

Joseph Patricio: Page updated with relevant improvements

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{refimprove|date=April 2016}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Hajipir
| official_name =
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = Village
| image_skyline = File:Haji Peer Dargah from far back - panoramio.jpg
| image_size = 250px
| image_caption = Hajipir dargah
| pushpin_map = India Gujarat#India
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Gujarat, India
| coordinates =
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Gujarat]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Kachchh District|Kachchh]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total =
| population_as_of =
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Kutchi language|Kutchi]], [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = 
| postal_code =
| registration_plate = GJ-12
| website = {{URL|gujaratindia.com}}
| footnotes =
}}

'''Hajipir''' is located in [[Kutch district]], [[Gujarat]], [[India]]. The Dargah located there is dedicated to a [[Muslims|Muslim]] saint Hajipir. It is believed that he came to the place as a soldier in the army of [[Shahabuddin Muhammad Ghauri]]. He settled at [[Nara, Kutch|Nara]] after he left the service. He died while saving cows from decoits. He had performed the [[Hajj]] so he was known as Haji Pir. He is also known as Zinda Pir or Vali Pir.<ref name="d2014">{{cite web | last=દુનિયા | first=વેબ | title=કચ્છ અને આસપાસના વિસ્તારોમાં શ્રદ્ધાધામ બનેલી હાજી પીરની દરગાહ | website=Webdunia Gujarati | date=2 December 2014 | url=http://gujarati.webdunia.com/article/gujarat-darshan/કચ્છ-અને-આસપાસના-વિસ્તારોમાં-શ્રદ્ધાધામ-બનેલી-હાજી-પીરની-દરગાહ-113051700008_1.html | language=gu | accessdate=13 April 2016}}</ref>

An annual fair is organized on the first Monday of [[Chaitra]] month (April). People from all over Gujarat visit the shrine and also visit Karol Pir Dargah nearby.<ref name="ak2016">{{cite web | title=ધોમધખતા તાપ, આંધી વચ્ચે પદયાત્રીઓનો પ્રવાહ હાજીપીર તરફ.| website=Internet Archive | date=13 April 2016 |url=http://www.akilanews.com/08042016/saurashtra-news/1460098861-46810| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413173823/http://www.akilanews.com/08042016/saurashtra-news/1460098861-46810 | language=gu | accessdate=13 April 2016|archive-date=13 April 2016}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{coord missing|Gujarat}}

[[Category:Kutch district]]

{{Kachchh-geo-stub}}

Asan Smaraka Kavitha Puraskaram

2024-11-28T03:39:38Z

Joseph Patricio: Added initial data initial version

{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2019}}
{{Infobox award
| name = Asan Smaraka Kavitha Puraskaram
| image =
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption =
| subheader = Award for individual contributions to [[Malayalam literature]]
| awarded_for = Literary award in [[India]]
| sponsor = ASAN Memorial Association, [[Chennai]]
| firstawarded = 1985
| lastawarded = 2022
| reward = {{INR}}50,000, citation, memento
| former name =
| holder_label = Most recent winner
| holder =
| award1_type = Total awarded
| award1_winner = 36
| award2_type = First winner
| award2_winner = C. Mani
| award3_type = Last winner
| award3_winner = [[V. M. Girija]]
| website = {{URL|http://asaneducation.com/asan_association}}
| previous =
| next =
}}

'''Asan Memorial Poetry Prize''' or '''Asan Smaraka Kavitha Puraskaram''' is a [[literary]] award instituted in 1985 by [[Chennai|Madras]]-based Asan Memorial Association in memory of [[Malayalam]] [[poet]] [[Kumaran Asan]].<ref>[http://asaneducation.com/asan_association/awards.html "ASAN MEMORIAL ASSOCIATION AWARDS"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413145952/http://asaneducation.com/asan_association/awards.html |date=13 April 2014 }}. Asan Memorial Association. Retrieved 13 April 2014.</ref> It is given annually to honour outstanding poets in Malayalam language. The award comprises a purse of Rs 50000, sculpture and certificate. The award was also conferred to [[Tamil language|Tamil]] writers in the initial years.

==Recipients==
* 1985: C. Mani
* 1986: [[N. N. Kakkad]]
* 1987: [[Sundara Ramaswamy]]
* 1988: [[Yusufali Kechery]]<ref>{{cite news|title=Yusufali Kecheri gets Asan poetry prize|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=BYZlAAAAIBAJ&sjid=mZ4NAAAAIBAJ&pg=1883%2C2526209|access-date=17 February 2018|work=The Indian Express|date=26 September 1988|page=3}}</ref>
* 1989: Soundara Kailasam
* 1990: [[Sugathakumari]]
* 1992: [[P. Bhaskaran]]
* 1993: [[O. N. V. Kurup]]
* 1994: [[Akkitham Achuthan Namboothiri]]
* 1995: [[Kadammanitta Ramakrishnan]]
* 1996: [[Vishnunarayanan Namboothiri]]
* 1997: [[Attoor Ravi Varma]]
* 1998: [[Olappamanna]]
* 1999: [[Ayyappa Paniker]]
* 2000: [[K. Satchidanandan]]<ref>{{cite news|url=https://malayalam.oneindia.com/news/2000/09/17/ker-sachi.html|title=സച്ചിദാനന്ദന് ആശാന്‍ പുരസ്കാരം |publisher=Oneindia.in|date=17 September 2000|access-date=8 December 2019|language=ml}}</ref>
* 2001: [[Pala Narayanan Nair]]
* 2002: [[M. P. Appan]]
* 2003: [[V. Madhusoodhanan Nair]]
* 2004: [[K. G. Sankara Pillai]]
* 2005: [[Kilimanoor Ramakanthan]]<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2005/10/23/stories/2005102315390500.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060114041313/http://www.hindu.com/2005/10/23/stories/2005102315390500.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=14 January 2006|title=Kilimanoor Remakantan gets Asan prize |date=23 October 2005|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=13 April 2014}}</ref>
* 2006: [[D. Vinayachandran]]<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2006/10/15/stories/2006101509980400.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071001002424/http://www.hindu.com/2006/10/15/stories/2006101509980400.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 October 2007|title=Vinayachandran receives Asan award |date=15 October 2006|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=13 April 2014}}</ref>
* 2007: [[Madhavan Ayyappath]]<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2007/10/25/stories/2007102560741200.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071026134951/http://www.hindu.com/2007/10/25/stories/2007102560741200.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=26 October 2007|title=Asan award for Madhavan Ayyappathu|date=25 October 2007|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=13 April 2014}}</ref>
* 2008: [[Puthussery Ramachandran]]<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2008/09/24/stories/2008092454610400.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080926173238/http://www.hindu.com/2008/09/24/stories/2008092454610400.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=26 September 2008|title=Award for Puthusseri Ramachandran |date=24 September 2008|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=13 April 2014}}</ref>
* 2009: [[M. N. Paloor]]<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2009/10/05/stories/2009100558950800.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091009110026/http://www.hindu.com/2009/10/05/stories/2009100558950800.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=9 October 2009|title=Award for Malayalam poet Paloor|date=5 October 2009|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=13 April 2014}}</ref>
* 2010: [[A. Ayyappan]]<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/states/tamil-nadu/article800911.ece|title=Asan Poetry Prize for A.Ayyappan|newspaper=The Hindu|date=28 September 2010|access-date=13 April 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101025084503/http://www.thehindu.com/news/states/tamil-nadu/article800911.ece|archive-date=25 October 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* 2011: [[S. Ramesan Nair]]
* 2012: [[Sreekumaran Thampi]]<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/chen-cinema/prolific-describes-him-best/article4122974.ece|title=Prolific describes him best|author=S. Shivpprasadh|newspaper=The Hindu|date=22 November 2012|access-date=13 April 2014}}</ref>
* 2013: [[N. K. Desam]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Asan's poetry honour to be awarded to M K Desam |date=9 October 2013 |newspaper=The New Indian Express |url=http://newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/Asans-poetry-honour-to-be-awarded-to-M-K-Desam/2013/10/09/article1825812.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131106090800/http://newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/Asans-poetry-honour-to-be-awarded-to-M-K-Desam/2013/10/09/article1825812.ece |url-status=dead |archive-date=6 November 2013 |access-date=13 April 2014}}</ref>
* 2014: [[Prabha Varma]]<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-tamilnadu/prabha-varma-wins-asan-award/article6579562.ece|title=Prabha Varma wins Asan award|newspaper=The Hindu|date=9 November 2014|access-date=30 September 2017}}</ref>
* 2015: [[Chemmanam Chacko]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nyoooz.com/news/chennai/518627/chemmanam-chacko-gets-asan-memorial-poetry-prize/|title=Chemmanam Chacko gets Asan Memorial Poetry Prize|publisher=Nyoooz.com|date=26 June 2016|access-date=30 September 2017}}</ref>
* 2016: [[Ezhachery Ramachandran]]
* 2018: [[Desamangalam Ramakrishnan]]<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.mathrubhumi.com/news/kerala/desamangalam-ramakrishnan-wins-asan-kavitha-award-1.3331855 |title=ആശാന്‍സ്മാരക കവിതാ പുരസ്‌കാരം ദേശമംഗലം രാമകൃഷ്ണന് |newspaper=[[Mathrubhumi]] |date=22 November 2018 |access-date=2 December 2019 |language=ml}}</ref>
* 2019: [[S. Rameshan]]<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.deshabhimani.com/news/kerala/s-ramesan-aashan-memorial-award/838015 |title='യമുന'യിൽ സന്തോഷത്തിന്റെ ഓളങ്ങൾ; ആശാൻ പുരസ്‌കാര നിറവിൽ കവി എസ്‌ രമേശൻ |newspaper=[[Deshabhimani]] |date=1 December 2019 |access-date=2 December 2019 |language=ml}}</ref>
* 2020: [[Puthussery Ramachandran]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://malayalam.webdunia.com/kerala-news-in-malayalam/%E0%B4%86%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E2%80%8D-%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82-%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B6%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF-%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D-108092300049_1.htm |title=ആശാന്‍ പുരസ്കാരം പുതുശ്ശേരി രാമചന്ദ്രന് |publisher=Webdunia Malayalam |date= |access-date=21 August 2022 |language=ml}}</ref>
* 2021: [[K. Jayakumar]]<ref>{{cite news|url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/news/kerala/k-jayakumar-wins-asan-prize-for-poetry-1.7878382|title=K Jayakumar wins Asan Prize for Poetry|newspaper=Mathrubhumi|date=16 September 2022|access-date=30 December 2022}}</ref>
* 2022: [[Kureepuzha Sreekumar]]<ref>{{cite news|url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/features/books/noted-poet-kureepuzha-sreekumar-wins-asan-memorial-poetry-prize-1.9171855|title=Kureepuzha Sreekumar wins Asan Memorial Poetry Prize|newspaper=Mathrubhumi|date=20 December 2023|access-date=2 February 2024}}</ref>
*2024: [[V. M. Girija]]<ref name="ആശാൻ സ്മാരക കവിതാ പുരസ്‌കാരം വി.എം. ഗിരിജയ്ക്ക്">{{Cite news |date=2024-11-27 |title=ആശാൻ സ്മാരക കവിതാ പുരസ്‌കാരം വി.എം. ഗിരിജയ്ക്ക് |url=https://www.mathrubhumi.com/literature/news/asan-memorial-poetry-award-to-vm-girija-1.10114604 |access-date=2024-11-28 |language=en}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[List of Malayalam literary awards]]

==References==
<references />

==External links==
* [http://asaneducation.com/asan_association/ Asan Memorial Association] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413145901/http://asaneducation.com/asan_association/ |date=13 April 2014 }}

{{Malayalam Literature |state=collapsed}}
[[Category:Indian literary awards]]
[[Category:Malayalam literary awards]]
[[Category:Awards established in 1985]]
[[Category:1985 establishments in West Bengal]]

Vrindavana Dasa Thakura

2024-07-02T17:58:06Z

Joseph Patricio: created redirect

#REDIRECT [[Chaitanya Bhagavata#Vrindavana Dasa Thakura]]

{{R from merge}}
{{R to section}}

[[Category:Gaudiya religious leaders]]
[[Category:1507 births]]
[[Category:1589 deaths]]
[[Category:16th-century Indian writers]]
[[Category:Bengali-language writers]]
[[Category:Bengali Hindus]]
[[Category:Writers from West Bengal]]
[[Category:Bengali writers]]

Tikaria Bhat

2024-04-25T10:51:39Z

Joseph Patricio: started some post v1

{{Use Indian English|date=January 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2023}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Tikaria Bhat
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = Village
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| image_map = Salon block map.png
| map_caption = Map showing Tikaria Bhat (#533) in Salon CD block
| pushpin_map = India Uttar Pradesh
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Uttar Pradesh, India
| coordinates = {{coord|25.968285|N|81.488155|E|display=inline,title}}<ref name="GeoNames">{{cite web |url=https://geonames.nga.mil/namesgaz/ |website=Do a radial search using these coordinates here|title=Geonames Search}}</ref>
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Raebareli district|Raebareli]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes = <ref name="Census 2011"/>
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 2.367
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 667
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes = <ref name="Census 2011"/>
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Hindi language|Hindi]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code =
| registration_plate = UP-35
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Tikaria Bhat''' is a village in [[Salon, India|Salon]] block of [[Rae Bareli district]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[India]].<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |title=Census of India 2011: Uttar Pradesh District Census Handbook - Rae Bareli, Part A (Village and Town Directory) |pages=427–51 |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/09/0927_PART_A_DCHB_RAE%20BARELI.pdf |website=Census 2011 India|access-date=8 October 2021}}</ref> It is located 40 km from [[Raebareli]], the district headquarters.<ref name="Census 1981"/> As of 2011, Tikaria Bhat has a population of 667 people, in 125 households.<ref name="Census 2011"/> It has two primary schools and no healthcare facilities, and it hosts a periodic [[haat]] but not a permanent market.<ref name="Census 2011"/>

The [[1961 Census of India|1961 census]] recorded Tikaria Bhat as comprising 3 hamlets, with a total population of 230 people (95 male and 135 female), in 42 households and 42 physical houses.<ref name="Census 1961">{{cite book |title=Census 1961: District Census Handbook, Uttar Pradesh (39 - Raebareli District) |date=1965 |location=Lucknow |pages=cvi-cvii of section "Salon Tahsil" |url=http://lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/1047/1/22852_1961_RAE.pdf |access-date=8 October 2021}}</ref> The area of the village was given as 277 [[acre]]s.<ref name="Census 1961"/>

The [[1981 Census of India|1981 census]] recorded Tikaria Bhat as having a population of 289 people, in 74 households, and having an area of 111.11 [[hectare]]s.<ref name="Census 1981">{{cite book |title=Census 1981 Uttar Pradesh: District Census Handbook Part XIII-A: Village & Town Directory, District Rae Bareli |date=1982 |pages=220–1 |url=http://lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/1298/1/50861_1981_RAE.pdf |access-date=8 October 2021}}</ref> The main staple foods were given as wheat and rice.<ref name="Census 1981"/>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Raebareli district}}

[[Category:Villages in Raebareli district]]

{{Raebareli-geo-stub}}