Bharatpedia - User contributions [en]

List of Indian Bengali films of 1982

2026-05-08T10:11:39Z

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#REDIRECT [[List of Indian Bengali films of the 1980s]]{{Redirect category shell|{{R from merge}}{{R from history}}}}

OmDayal Group of Institutions

2026-05-06T07:50:43Z

JOVFinlay2: new basic post nd citations...

{{short description|Engineering college in West Bengal, India}}
{{more citations needed|date=February 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2024}}
{{Infobox university
| name = OmDayal Group of Institutions
| native_name = ওম দয়াল গ্রুপ অফ্ ইনস্টিটিউশন।
 (N.B.:Sub Autonomous Central Government & Private Group Supported Architectecture,Engineering With Management College.) 
| native_name_lang = bn
| motto = Imagine, Innovate, Invent and Inspire
| other_name = O.M.D. (ও.এম.ডি.)
| image = [[File:OmDayal Group of Institutions.png]]
| image_size = 50px
| image_name =
| established = {{start date and age|2010}}
| type = [[Private school|Private]]
| founders = {{Unbulleted list|
*Delhi Public School Ruby Park, Kolkata
*Ruby Park Public School
*Delhi Public School, Durgapur
*Vidyamandir Classes
}}
| address = Plot No.38(P), 38(A), 39(P) & 39(A) Uluberia Industrial Growth Centre, (Near Birshibpur Railway Station)
| city = [[Uluberia]], [[Howrah]]
| state = [[West Bengal]]
| country = [[India]]
| postcode = 711316
| coordinates = {{coord|22|28|35.91|N|88|02|33.74|E|display=title, inline}}
| pushpin_map = India West Bengal#India
| campus = [[Rural]]
|affiliations = [[MAKAUT]]
|free_label = Approvals
|free = {{Unbulleted list|
*[[Institution of Engineers (India)|IEI]]
*[[National Assessment and Accreditation Council|NAAC]]
*[[University Grants Commission (India)|UGC]]
*[[AICTE]]
*[[National Board of Accreditation|NBA]]
*[[Council of Architecture|COA]]
}}
| officer_in_charge =
| chairman = Shyam Sundar Agarwal
| principal = Yogesh Kumar Sinha
| director = Prof. Kalyan Kumar Mukherje
| website = [https://omdayalgroup.com/om-dayal-college www.omdayalgroup.com]
| logo =
| Campus area =
| Acronym =
}}

'''OmDayal Group of Institutions''' is a private engineering and architecture college in [[Uluberia]], [[Howrah]], [[West Bengal]], [[India]], which offers [[Undergraduate degree|undergraduate]] (B.Tech & B.Arch) four-year engineering degree as well as five-year architecture degree.<ref>{{cite news |author= |date=October 21, 2022 |title=OmDayal Group of Institutions to invest ₹200 crore to raise the educational infrastructure in Bengal |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/education/omdayal-group-of-institutions-to-invest-200-crore-to-raise-the-educational-infrastructure-in-bengal/article66039838.ece |work=[[Business Line]] |access-date=February 20, 2025}}</ref> In engineering, it offers courses in four disciplines. The college is accredited by NAAC and is approved by AICTE and COA, as well as affiliated to [[Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology]] (MAKAUT).

==Departments==
It was established in 2010 and offers admission to five branches of B.Tech Engineering:
* [[Computer science and engineering]]
* [[AI]]&[[Machine learning|ML]]
* [[Mechanical engineering]]
* [[Electrical engineering]]
* [[Civil engineering]]
A department of Architecture was established in 2012 and offers admission to branches of architecture (B.Arch & M.Arch).

==See also==
*[[List of institutions of higher education in West Bengal]]
*[[Education in India]]
*[[Education in West Bengal]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*[[West Bengal University of Technology|MAKAUT]][http://www.makautwb.ac.in]

[[Category:Engineering colleges in West Bengal]]
[[Category:Universities and colleges in Howrah district]]
[[Category:Colleges affiliated to West Bengal University of Technology]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in 2001]]
[[Category:2001 establishments in West Bengal]]

{{Kolkata-university-stub}}

Muhammad Shah III

2026-05-03T13:59:54Z

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{{Short description|Sultan of Delhi from 1390 to 1394}}
{{For|the Bahmani sultan|Muhammad Shah III Lashkari}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2018}}
{{more citations needed|date=August 2016}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Muhammad Shah III
| title =
| image = 5-6 Billon Tanka of Muhammad bin Firoz.jpg
| caption = 5/6 Billon Tanka of Muhammad bin Firoz, dated AH 794.
| succession = 22nd [[Sultan of Delhi]]
| reign = 31 August 1390 – {{Nowrap|20 January 1394}}
| coronation =
| full name =
| predecessor = [[Abu Bakr Shah]]
| successor = [[Ala ud-din Sikandar Shah]]
| spouse =
| issue = {{unbulleted list
|[[Ala ud-din Sikandar Shah]]
|[[Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq]]
}}
| royal house =
| dynasty = [[Tughlaq dynasty|Tughlaq]]
| father = [[Firuz Shah Tughluq]]
| mother =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1352|06|17|df=yes}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jackson |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Jackson (historian) |url=https://archive.org/details/TheDelhiSultanateAPoliticalAndMilitaryHistoryCambridgeStudiesInIslamicCivilization/page/n353/mode/1up |title=the Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History |date=April 1999 |publisher=Cambridge University Press | page=332}}</ref>
| birth_place =
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1394|01|20|1352|06|17|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[Delhi]]
| date of burial =
| place of burial =
| religion = [[Islam]]
}}

'''Nasir-ud-din Muhammad Shah III''' ({{langx|fa|{{nq|محمد شاه}}}}; 17 June 1352 – 20 January 1394) was [[Sultan of Delhi]] from 1390 until 1394.<ref name="sen2">{{Cite book |last=Sen |first=Sailendra |title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History |publisher=Primus Books |year=2013 |isbn=978-9-38060-734-4 |pages=100}}</ref> He was a member of the [[Tughlaq dynasty]].

== Life and reign ==
Born in 1352, the year after his father ascended the throne, prince Muhammad was the youngest son of [[Firuz Shah Tughlaq]]. During his father's late reign he became inimical with his father's vizier. Despite the vizier's concern Firuz gave him royal power and retired. However, soon after assuming royal titles, Muhammad became decadent, leading to widespread dissent and his deposition. Afterwards, his seventy-eight year old father was brought out of his harem in a palanquin and declared sultan again, and this time the old sultan declared his great-grandson, Tughluq Khan, a grandson of Muhammad's oldest brother Firuz Khan, heir apparent and Prince Muhammad fled from Delhi to Samana. However, Firuz died soon after, and Tughluq Khan became [[Tughluq Khan|Ghiyasuddin Tughluq II]], but this led to another civil war and his cousin and a grandson of Firuz, prince [[Abu Bakr Shah|Abu Bakr]] taking the throne.

However, Muhammad Shah as his uncle was opposed to him, and struggled against Abu Bakr over the control of the throne. In August 1390, he launched an attack on [[Delhi]] and battled [[Abu Bakr Shah|Abu Bakr Khan]] for the throne of Delhi. Eventually Abu Bakr was defeated, and Muhammad Shah succeeded him as king, reigning from 1390 to 1394. After Abu Bakr's defeat, Muhammad Shah imprisoned him in the fort of [[Meerut]] where he died soon after.

Muhammad Shah had to face constant rebellions. Uddharan and Sumer, two of his Hindu chiefs rebelled in Etawa. In response, the sultan took the field in 1391 and razed the city to the ground. He also built a fortress near Jalesar, naming it Muhammadabad. His oldest son and crown prince Humayun Khan helped him in putting down rebellions. While preparing for a punitive expedition, Muhammad Shah died in 1394.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jackson |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Jackson (historian) |url=https://archive.org/details/TheDelhiSultanateAPoliticalAndMilitaryHistoryCambridgeStudiesInIslamicCivilization/page/n309/mode/1up |title=the Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History |date=April 1999 |page=309|publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{s-start}}

{{succession box |
before=[[Sultan Abu Bakr Shah Tughluq]] |
title=[[Delhi Sultanate|Sultan of Delhi]] |
years=1390 – 1394 |
after=[[Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq]]
}}
{{s-end}}

[[Category:Tughluq sultans]]
[[Category:14th-century Indian Muslims]]
[[Category:14th-century Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:Turkic peoples]]
[[Category:1352 births]]
[[Category:1394 deaths]]

Drugmulla

2026-04-30T17:37:18Z

JOVFinlay2: made a article first draft.

{{Short description|Village in Jammu and Kashmir, India}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{COI|date=January 2021}}
{{Unreliable sources|date=January 2021}}
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2021}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2021}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Drugmulla
| other_name = Drugmul
| nickname =
| settlement_type = Village
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Jammu and Kashmir#India
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Jammu and Kashmir
| coordinates = {{coord|34.506|N|74.253|E|display=inline,title}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.google.co.in/maps/place/Drugmulla+193222/@34.4864667,74.2815041,16z/data=!3m1!4b1!4m5!3m4!1s0x38e11ee7dd8e7263:0x3234187e0c6bc342!8m2!3d34.4871985!4d74.2868868?hl=en&authuser=0|title=Drugmulla (Google Maps)|work=Google Maps|accessdate=12 July 2021}}</ref>
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and union territories of India|Union Territory]]
| subdivision_name1 = {{flagicon image|Government of Jammu and Kashmir.svg}} [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of Jammu and Kashmir|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Kupwara district|Kupwara]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[List of tehsils in India|Tehsil]]
| subdivision_name3 = Drugmulla<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kupwara.nic.in/tehsils/|title=Villages in Kupwara district|work=Kupwara district website|accessdate=12 July 2021}}</ref>
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 12930<ref name="Drugmulla Town population">{{cite web|url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/01/0101_PART_A_DCHB_KUPWARA.pdf|title=Drugmulla Town Population|work=Census India|accessdate=12 July 2021}}</ref>
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]], [[Urdu]], [[Dogri language|Dogri]], [[Hindi]], [[English language|English]]
| demographics1_title2 = Spoken
| demographics1_info2 = [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]], [[Urdu]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 193222
| registration_plate = JK-09
| website = {{URL|kupwara.nic.in}}
| footnotes =
}}

'''Drugmulla''' is a village and tehsil headquarter in [[Kupwara district]] of the [[India]]n union territory of [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]]. It is located 5 kilometres from the district headquarters [[Kupwara]].

'''Notable figures:'''

Yasir Bashir Wani

==Demographics==
According to the [[2011 census of India]], Drugmulla had 736 households.<ref name="Drugmulla Town population"/> The literacy rate of Drugmulla town is 71.51%. The male literacy stands at 82.73% while the female literacy rate was 54.73%.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Demographics (2011 Census)
! !! Total !! Male !! Female
|-
| Population || 12930 || 7665 || 5265
|-
| Children aged below 6 years || 2394 || 1353 || 1041
|-
| [[Scheduled caste]] || 8 || 8 || 0
|-
| [[Scheduled tribe]] || 724 || 368 || 356
|-
| Literacy || 71.51% || 82.73% || 54.73%
|-
| Workers (all) || 4025 || 3729 || 296
|-
| Main workers (all) || 2841 || 2691 || 150
|-
| Marginal workers (total) || 1184 || 1038 || 146
|}

===Education===
Some of the institutions of Drugmulla Village which provide quality education to the students of Drugmulla and other areas of the district:
#UPS Bandpora Drugmulla
#Iqbal Memorial Dugmulla
#Imperial Drugmulla
#Alfayaz Public School
#IDPS Drugmula, Kupwara.

==Transportation==
===Air===
The nearest airport is [[Sheikh ul-Alam International Airport|Srinagar International Airport]], 88 kilometres or a two and a half an hour drive away.{{citation needed|date=January 2021}}
<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.aai.aero/en/airports/srinagar |title=Aai Airport'S | Airports Authority Of India |publisher=Aai.aero |date= |accessdate=2022-08-11}}{{Failed verification|date=August 2022}}</ref>

===Rail===
The nearest railway stations are [[Baramulla railway station]] and [[Sopore railway station]], located 42 and 50 kilometres from Drugmulla respectively. There are plans to connect Drugmulla by rail by extending the [[Jammu–Baramulla line]] to Kupwara which will pass through Drugmulla.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nbmcw.com/news/j-k-gets-3-848-cr-baramulla-kupwara-railroad-project.html|title=J&K gets ₹3,848-cr Baramulla-Kupwara railroad project|work=NBMCW|accessdate=12 July 2021}}</ref>

===Road===
Drugmulla is well-connected by road to other towns and villages in Jammu and Kashmir and the rest of India by the Sopore-Kupwara Road and Drugmulla-Kupwara Road. The [[National Highway 701 (India)|NH 701]] passes through Drugmulla.

==See also==
*[[Kupwara]]
*[[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]]
*[[Handwara]]
*[[Karnah]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{cite web|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/topic/Drugmulla|title=Drugmulla: Latest News & Videos, Photos about Drugmulla | The Economic Times - Page 1|website=The Economic Times}}
*{{cite web|url=https://www.indiatvnews.com/pincode/jammu-and-kashmir/kupwara/drugmulla|title=Drugmulla Pin Code | Postal Code (Zip Code) of Drugmulla, Kupwara, Jammu & Kashmir, India|website=www.indiatvnews.com}}
*{{cite web|url=https://kupwara.nic.in/document/drugmulla/|title=Drugmulla | District Kupwara, Government of Jammu & Kashmir | India}}

{{Jammu and Kashmir topics}}
{{Kupwara district}}

[[Category:Villages in Kupwara district]]
[[Category:Tehsils of Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)]]

Uluberia Dakshin Assembly constituency

2026-04-29T05:33:15Z

JOVFinlay2: New Details

{{Use Indian English|date=January 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Uluberia Dakshin
| type= SLA
| map_image = {{Maplink|frame=yes|plain=y|frame-width=300|frame-height=300|frame-align=center|type=shape|from=Vidhan Sabha constituencies/West Bengal/Uluberia Dakshin.map}}
| map_caption = Interactive Map Outlining Uluberia Dakshin Assembly Constituency
| map_alt =
| mla = [[Pulak Roy]]
| party = [[All India Trinamool Congress]]
| alliance =
| latest_election_year = [[2021 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2021]]
| state = [[West Bengal]]
| district = [[Howrah district|Howrah]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Uluberia (Lok Sabha constituency)|Uluberia]]
| constituency_no = 178
| established = 1951
| electors = 174,463
| reservation = None
| abolished =
}}

'''Uluberia Dakshin Assembly constituency''' is an [[Vidhan Sabha|assembly]] constituency in [[Howrah district]] in the [[India]]n [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[West Bengal]].

==Overview==
As per orders of the Delimitation Commission, No. 178 Uluberia Dakshin Assembly constituency is composed of the following: [[Uluberia I (community development block)|Uluberia I]] [[Community Development Block in India|community development block]], and Belari, Dhandali, Balichaturi and Nabagram [[gram panchayat]]s of [[Shyampur I (community development block)|Shyampur I]] community development block.<ref name=delimitation>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/delim/Final_Publications/WestBengal/FINAL%20ORDER%20NOTIFICATION_English.pdf | title = Delimitation Commission Order No. 18 dated 15 February 2006 | access-date= 25 July 2015 |work = West Bengal| publisher= Election Commission of India}}</ref>

Uluberia Dakshin Assembly constituency is part of No. 26 [[Uluberia (Lok Sabha constituency)]].<ref name=delimitation/>

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Year
!Name
!colspan=2|Party
|-
!colspan="4"|Uluberia
|-
|[[1951 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1951]]
|Bijoy Mondal
|{{Full party name with color|All India Forward Bloc (Ruikar)|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[1951 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1951]]
|Bibhuti Bhusan Ghosh
|-
|[[1957 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1957]]
|Abani Kumar Basu
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1957 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1957]]
|Bijoy Bhusan Mondal
|{{Full party name with color|All India Forward Bloc}}
|-
!colspan="4"|Uluberia South
|-
|[[1962 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1962]]
|Abani Kumar Basu
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1967 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
|rowspan="2"|Biswanath Das Ghosh
|{{Full party name with color|All India Forward Bloc|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[1969 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1969]]
|-
|[[1971 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1971]]
|Bata Krishna Das
|{{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)|dab=yes}}
|-
|[[1972 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1972]]
|Rabindra Ghosh
|{{Full party name with color|Independent}}
|-
|[[1977 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1977]]
|Aurobindo Ghosal
|{{Full party name with color|All India Forward Bloc|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[1982 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1982]]
|Rabindra Ghosh
|-
|[[1987 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1987]]
|Amar Banerjee
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1991 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1991]]
|rowspan="4"|Rabindra Ghosh
|{{Full party name with color|All India Forward Bloc|rowspan=4}}
|-
|[[1996 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1996]]
|-
|[[2001 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2001]]
|-
|[[2006 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2006]]
|-
!colspan="4"|Uluberia Dakshin
|-
|[[2011 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2011]]
|Pulak Roy
|{{Full party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|-
|}

==Election results==

===2026===
{{Election box begin|title=[[2026 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]]: Uluberia Dakshin}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = [[Pulak Roy]]
|party = Trinamool Congress
|votes = {{formatnum:}}
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Mangalananda Puri Maharaj
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = {{formatnum:}}
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Amirul Islam Khan
|party = All India Forward Bloc
|votes = {{formatnum:}}
|percentage =
|change =
}}

{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Intaz Ali Shah
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = {{formatnum:}}
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|party = None of the above (India)
|votes = {{formatnum:}}
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = {{formatnum:}}
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = {{formatnum:}}
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner =
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2021===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2021 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]]: Uluberia Dakshin constituency}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|party = All India Trinamool Congress
|candidate = [[Pulak Roy]]
|votes = 101,880
|percentage = 50.37
|change = -3.74
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = [[Papiya Adhikari|Papia Dey (Adhikary)]]
|votes = 73,442
|percentage = 36.31
|change = +24.28
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = All India Forward Bloc
|candidate = Sk. Kutub Uddin Ahmed
|votes = 21,110
|percentage = 10.44
|change = -23.73
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above]]
|votes = 1,474
|percentage = 0.73
|change = -0.52
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent (politician)
|candidate = Amal Kumar Barman
|votes = 1,314
|percentage = 0.65
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Socialist Unity Centre of India (Communist)
|candidate = Jayanta Khatua
|votes = 1,165
|percentage = 0.58
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate
|party = Indian Unity Centre
|candidate = Ram Prosad Ghorai
|votes = 1,024
|percentage = 0.51
|change = -0.48
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent (politician)
|candidate = Sujit Mondal
|votes = 857
|percentage = 0.42
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = 202,266
|percentage = 85.12
|change = -0.21
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|winner = All India Trinamool Congress
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2016===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2016 West Bengal state assembly election|West Bengal assembly elections, 2016]]: Uluberia Dakshin constituency}}

{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = All India Trinamool Congress
|candidate = [[Pulak Roy]]
|votes = 95,902
|percentage = 54.11
|change = +4.63
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = All India Forward Bloc
|candidate = Md. Nasiruddin
|votes = 61,902
|percentage = 34.17
|change = -7.37
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Somnath Sadhukhan
|votes = 14,239
|percentage = 8.03
|change = +4.15
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent (politician)
|candidate = Monirul Islam (Mim)
|votes = 2,575
|percentage = 1.45
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above]]
|votes = 2,208
|percentage = 1.25
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate
|party = Indian Unity Centre
|candidate = Gobardhan Manna
|votes = 1,757
|percentage = 0.99
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = 177,239
|percentage = 85.33
|change = -0.09
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|winner = All India Trinamool Congress
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2011===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2011 West Bengal state assembly election|West Bengal assembly elections, 2011]]: Uluberia Dakshin constituency<ref name=vidhansabha2011>{{cite web| url =http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/AE2011/stat_WB_May2011.pdf|title = General Elections, India, 2011, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data, AC No |publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 9 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.empoweringindia.org/new/constituency.aspx?eid=736&cid=178| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120519163607/http://www.empoweringindia.org/new/constituency.aspx?eid=736&cid=178| url-status = usurped| archive-date = 19 May 2012|title = West Bengal Assembly Election 2011 |work = Uluberia Dakshin| publisher = Empowering India |access-date = 1 May 2011}}</ref>}}

{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = All India Trinamool Congress
|candidate = [[Pulak Roy]]
|votes = 73,734
|percentage = 49.48
|change = +8.25#
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = All India Forward Bloc
|candidate = Sk. Kutubuddin Ahmad
|votes = 61,902
|percentage = 41.54
|change = -1.17
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Goutam Mukherjee
|votes = 5,775
|percentage = 3.88
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Shrinath Yadav
|votes = 2,149
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate
|party = Indian Unity Centre
|candidate = Sakila Begum
|votes = 1,734
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate
|party = People’s Democratic Conference of India
|candidate = Aah Soban Khan
|votes = 1,448
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate
|party = Independent
|candidate = Dipak Kumar Mondal
|votes = 1,429
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate
|party = Independent
|candidate = Sk. Aorangjeb
|votes = 858
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = 149,029
|percentage = 85.42
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
|winner = All India Trinamool Congress
|loser = All India Forward Bloc
|swing = 9.42#
}}
{{Election box end}}
.# Swing calculated on Congress+Trinamool Congress vote percentages taken together in 2006.

===1977-2006===
In the [[2006 West Bengal state assembly election|2006]], 2001, 1996 and 1991 state assembly elections, Rabindra Ghosh of [[All India Forward Bloc|Forward Bloc]] won the Uluberia South assembly seat, defeating his nearest rivals [[Pulak Roy]] of [[All India Trinamool Congress|Trinamool Congress]] in 2006,<ref name=vidhansabha2006>{{cite web| url =http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2006/StatReport_WB_2006.pdf |title = General Elections, India, 2006, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data, AC No |publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 9 July 2015}}</ref> Bani Kumar Singha of Trinamool Congress in 2001,<ref name=vidhansabha2001>{{cite web| url =http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2001/StatRept_WB_2001.pdf |title = General Elections, India, 2001, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data, AC No |publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 9 July 2015}}</ref> [[Pulak Roy]] of [[Indian National Congress|Congress]] in 1996,<ref name=vidhansabha1996>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1996/StatisticalReport-WB96.pdf |title = General Elections, India, 1996, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data, AC No |publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 6 February 2015}}</ref> and Amar Banerjee of Congress in 1991.<ref name=vidhansabha1991>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1991/StatisticalReport-West%20Bengal91.pdf|title = General Elections, India, 1991, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data, AC No | publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 9 July 2015}}</ref> Contests in most years were multi cornered but only winners and runners are being mentioned. Amar Banerjee of Congress defeated Rabindra Ghosh of Forward Bloc in 1987.<ref name=vidhansabha1987>{{cite web| url =http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1987/StatisticalReportWestBengal87.pdf |title = General Elections, India, 1987, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data, AC No |publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 9 July 2015}}</ref> Rabindra Ghosh of Forward Bloc defeated Minati Adhikari of Congress in 1982.<ref name=vidhansabha1982>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1982/StatisticalReportWestBengal82.pdf |title = General Elections, India, 1982, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data, AC No |publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 9 July 2015}}</ref> Aurobindo Ghosal of Forward Bloc defeated Abani Basu, Independent in 1977.<ref name=vidhansabha1977>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1977/StatisticalReportWestBengal77.pdf |title = General Elections, India, 1977, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data, AC No |publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 9 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/archive/ElectionAnalysis/AE/S25/Partycomp171.htm |title = 171 - Uluberia South Assembly Constituency |work = Partywise Comparison Since 1977 | publisher = Election Commission of India|access-date = 25 November 2010}}</ref>

===1951-1972===
Rabindra Ghosh, Independent, won in 1972.<ref name=vidhansabha1972>{{cite web| url =http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1972/StatReport_WB_72.pdf |title =General Elections, India, 1972, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data, AC No |publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 9 July 2015}}</ref> Bata Krishna Das of CPI(M) won in 1971.<ref name=vidhansabha1971>{{cite web| url =http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1971/StatReport_WB_71.pdf |title = General Elections, India, 1971, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data, AC No ?|publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 9 July 2015}}</ref> Biswanath Das Ghosh of Forward Bloc won in 1969<ref name=vidhansabha1969>{{cite web| url =http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1969/StatReport_WB_69.pdf|title = General Elections, India, 1969, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data, AC No |publisher= Election Commission |access-date = 9 July 2015}}</ref> and 1967.<ref name=vidhansabha1967>{{cite web| url =http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1967/Statistical%20report%20WB1967.pdf |title = General Elections, India, 1967, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data, AC No |publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 9 July 2015}}</ref> Abani Kumar Basu won the Uluberia South seat in 1962.<ref name=vidhansabha1962>{{cite web| url =http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1962/StatRep_WB_1962.pdf |title = General Elections, India, 1962, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data, AC No |publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 9 July 2015}}</ref> In 1957 and 1951 Uluberia had a double seat. In [[1957 West Bengal state assembly election|1957]]<ref name=vidhansabha1957>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1957/StatRep_WB_1957.pdf |title = General Elections, India, 1957, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data, AC No |publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 9 July 2015}}</ref> Abani Kumar Basu of Congress and Bijoy Bhusan Mondal of Forward Bloc won. Bijoy Mondal and Bibhuti Bhusan Ghosh, both of [[All India Forward Bloc (Ruikar)]] won in [[1952 West Bengal state assembly election|1951]].<ref name=vidhansabha1952>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/STATISTICALREPORTS_51_WestBengal.pdf |title = General Elections, India, 1951, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data, Assembly Constituency No. |publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 9 July 2015}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Howrah topics}}
{{Vidhan Sabha constituencies of West Bengal}}

{{West Bengal elections}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of West Bengal]]
[[Category:Politics of Howrah district]]
[[Category:1951 establishments in West Bengal]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1951]]

Kerala Fire and Rescue Services

2026-04-28T19:28:49Z

JOVFinlay2: created post

{{Short description|Fire department in Kerala, India}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{More citations needed|date=December 2018}}
{{Primary sources|date=December 2018}}}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2014}}
{{Infobox fire department
| name = Kerala Fire and Rescue Services
| native_name = കേരള ഫയര്‍ ആന്‍ഡ് റെസ്‌ക്യൂ സര്‍വീസ്
| native_name_lang = ml
| logo =[[File:Kerala Fire and Rescue Services logo.png|200px]]
| logo_caption = Emblem of Kerala Fire and Rescue Services
| image_size = 100px
| motto = "We serve to Save"
| country = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = State
| subdivision_name1 = {{flagicon image|Government of Kerala Logo.svg}} [[Kerala]]
| address = Fire and Rescue Services HQ, Fire Force Junction, Pulimood P.O. Thiruvananthapuram-695001
| established = {{Start date and age|1963}}
| annual calls = -
| employees = * 4900 (Executive) <ref>{{Cite web | title=Growth in Staff Strength – KERALA FIRE AND RESCUE SERVICES | url=https://fire.kerala.gov.in/en/growth-in-staff-strength/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630113343/https://fire.kerala.gov.in/en/growth-in-staff-strength/ | access-date=2025-11-21 | archive-date=2023-06-30}}</ref>
* 200 (Ministerial staffs)
|staffing=Career members and volunteers| commissioner =
| chief =
| chief1_description = Director General
| chief1_name = [[Nitin Agarwal (civil servant)|Nitin Agarwal]] [[Indian Police Service|IPS]]<ref>{{Cite web | title=Administrative Officers – KERALA FIRE AND RESCUE SERVICES | url=https://fire.kerala.gov.in/en/administrative-officers/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230628232711/https://fire.kerala.gov.in/en/administrative-officers/ | access-date=2025-11-21 | archive-date=2023-06-28}}</ref>
| chief2_description = Director (Technical)
| chief2_name = Noushad.M
| chief3_description = Director (Administration)
| chief3_name = Arun Alphonse
|divisions={{Collapsible list
| title = Regional offices (6)
| 1 = Thiruvananthapuram
| 2 = Kottayam
| 3 = Ernakulam
| 4 = Palakkad
| 5 = Kozhikode
| 6 = Kannur
}}| unit1_description = District Fire Offices
| unit1_no = 14
| unit2_description = Academy
| unit2_no = * [[Kerala Fire and Rescue Services Academy]], [[Viyyur|Thrissur]]
* Institute for Advanced Training in Water Rescue, [[Fort Kochi]]
| stations = 129
| engines = 500
| ambulances = -
| app1_description = Volunteer units
| app1_no = * Kerala [[Home Guard (India)|Homeguards]]
* Kerala [[Civil Defence]]
|app2_description=Parent department|app2_no=[[Department of Home (Kerala)|Home Department]], [[Government of Kerala]]| website = {{Official website|https://fire.kerala.gov.in/en/}}}}

The '''Kerala Fire and Rescue Services''', formerly known as '''''Kerala Fire Force''''', is the service department of the [[Government of Kerala]] whose function is to fight fires and provide relief measures in times of calamities and disasters in [[Kerala]]. The Headquarters of the department is situated at [[Thiruvananthapuram]]. "WE SERVE TO SAVE" is the motto of the department. The current [[Director general (police)|Director General]] of Fire and Rescue Services ([[Fire chief|''Fire Chief'']]) of Kerala is [[Nitin Agarwal (civil servant)|Nitin Agarwal]], IPS.<ref>{{Cite web |title=In a major reshuffle of top IPS officials, Kerala govt appoints MR Ajith Kumar as new Excise Commissioner |url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/news/kerala/in-a-major-reshuffle-of-top-ips-officials-kerala-govt-appoints-mr-ajith-kumar-as-new-excise-commissioner-siyy90f4 |access-date=2025-07-01 |website=@mathrubhumi |language=en}}</ref>

It is responsible for the provision of fire protection as well as responding to building collapses, drownings, gas leakage, oil spillage, road and rail accidents, bird and animal rescues, fallen trees and taking appropriate action during [[natural disasters]]. The department has now 129 Fire and Rescue stations, a [[Kerala Fire and Rescue Services Academy|Training Academy]] and an Institute of Advanced Water Rescue Training Centre consisting of nearly 4800 executive personnel and nearly 200 ministerial staff.

==History==
There were separate Fire services in [[Travancore]], [[Cochin]] and [[Malabar region|Malabar]] States before the formation of Kerala State. There were three fire stations in Travancore and Kochi and five fire stations in Malabar. These stations were under the control of Police Department. In 1949, the Fire Station of Travancore and Cochin states were joined together. In 1956, Malabar state was also included and thus the Kerala Fire Service came into being. From then onwards, the Inspector General of Police was the head of the Fire Service up to 1963. Fire services worked as part of the Police Department. As per the notification of The Kerala Government in 1962, Kerala Fire Force Act came into existence.

The Kerala Fire Force department started working as a separate department since 1963. Director of Civil Defence held the position of the Head of the Department till 1967. From 1967 to August 1970 an Inspector General of Police held the charge of the Director for Fire Force. In 1970 the Fire Force Department was brought under a separate Director. In 1982 the name of the Director of Fire Force was renamed as Commandant General, Home Guards, Civil Defence and Fire Force. Considering the rescue works under taken by this Department and significance in that area, this department had been renamed as '''Kerala Fire & Rescue Services''' in 2002. Now the Department is rendering its remarkable and commendable service through 129 Fire & Rescue Stations. In 2015 the name of the Commandant General was renamed as '''Director General''', Fire and Rescue, Home Guards and Civil Defence. There are 14 District Offices and 6 Regional Offices in [[Thiruvananthapuram]], [[Kottayam]], [[Ernakulam]], [[Palakkad]] [[Kozhikode]] and Kannur and one regional Fire Officer in the post of Director and three district Fire Officers in the post of Assistant Director in the [[Kerala Fire and Rescue Services Academy]]. The Motor Transport wing was established in Headquarters, Academy and six Regional offices. The Department is in a stage of modernisation and development so as to provide better service to the public in all emergency situations.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Know the Department – KERALA FIRE AND RESCUE SERVICES |url=https://fire.kerala.gov.in/en/know-the-department/ |access-date=2024-07-21 |website=fire.kerala.gov.in}}</ref>

==Organisation structure==
The Kerala Fire and Rescue Services functions under the administrative control of the [[Department of Home (Kerala)|Home Department]], [[Government of Kerala]].

The head of the department is the '''Director General (D.G.)''', an [[Indian Police Service|IPS]] cadre officer with the rank of [[Director General of Police]]. Under the Director General, there are the Director (Technical) and the Director (Administration) at the headquarters. There are six Regional Offices consisting of two or three districts, located in [[Thiruvananthapuram]], [[Kottayam]], [[Ernakulam]], [[Palakkad]], [[Kozhikode]] and [[Kannur]] where Regional Officers are in charge. Each district has a District Fire Office and under each District Fire Officer there are Fire & Rescue Stations where a Station Officer as the station in charge.

At each station, in addition to Station Officer there are Assistant Station Officers, Senior Fire and Rescue Officer, Senior Fire and Rescue Officer (Mechanic), Fire and Rescue Officer (Driver), Fire and Rescue Officer. In addition to this, there is a full-fledged ministerial staff at Headquarters, Regional offices, Viyyur Academy and District Offices.
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ '''Regional Fire Offices, Districts, and Fire Stations'''<ref>{{Cite web |last=RESCUE |first=FIRE AND |date=2021-02-24 |title=Organisation Structure |url=https://fire.kerala.gov.in/en/organisation-structure/ |access-date=2025-07-31 |website=Kerala Fire and Rescue Services |language=en-GB}}</ref>
! Regional Office !! District !! Fire & Rescue Stations
|-
| rowspan="2" | Thiruvananthapuram
{{Resize|(HQ: [[Thiruvananthapuram]])}}
| [[Thiruvananthapuram district|Thiruvananthapuram]]|| Thiruvananthapuram, Chacka, Vizhinjam, Parassala, Neyyattinkara, Kattakada, Nedumangad, Attingal, Varkala, Poovar, Vithura, Venjaramoodu, Kallambalam, Kazhakoottam
|-
| [[Kollam district|Kollam]]|| Kadappakada, Chamakada, Paravoor, Kundara, Punaloor, Kadakkal, Sasthamkotta, Karunagappally, Kottarakkara, Pathanapuram, Chavara.
|-
| rowspan="3" | Kottayam
{{Resize|(HQ: [[Kottayam]])}}
| [[Kottayam district|Kottayam]]||Kottayam, Kanjirapallly, Pala, Kaduthuruthy, Pampady, Changanaserry, Erattupetta, Vaikkom
|-
| [[Pathanamthitta district|Pathanamthitta]]|| Pathanamthitta, Thiruvalla, Adoor, Ranni, Seethathode, Konni.
|-
| [[Alappuzha district|Alappuzha]]|| Alappuzha, Kayamkulam, Mavelikkara, Haripad, Chengannur, Cherthala, Thakazhi, Aroor.
|-
| rowspan="2" | Ernakulam
{{Resize|(HQ: [[Eranakulam]])}}
| [[Ernakulam district|Ernakulam]]|| Club Road, Mattancherry, Thrikkakara, Thrippunithura, Piravam, Angamali, North Paravoor, Aluva, Koothattukulam, Muvattupuzha, Kalloorkad, Perumbavoor, Pattimattom, Eloor, Kothamangalam, Mulanthuruthy, and Vypin.
|-
| [[Idukki district|Idukki]]|| Idukki, Kattapana, Munnar, Thodupuzha, Peerumede, Moolamattom, Adimali, Nedumkandam.
|-
| rowspan="3" |Palakkad
{{Resize|(HQ: [[Palakkad]])}}
|[[Thrissur district|Thrissur]]
|Thrissur, Chalakkudy, Irinjalakkuda, Mala, Kodungalloor, Kunnamkulam, Wadakkanchery, Puthukkad, Nattika, Guruvayoor
|-
| [[Palakkad district|Palakkad]]|| Palakkad, Kanjikode, Mannarkkad, Chittur, Alathur, Shornur, Kollamkode, Kongad, Pattambi, Vadakkancheri
|-
| [[Malappuram district|Malappuram]]|| Malappuram, Perinthalmanna, Manjeri, Nilambur, Tirur, Ponnani, Kondotty, Thiruvali
|-
| rowspan="2" | Kozhikode
{{Resize|(HQ: [[Kozhikode]])}}
| [[Kozhikode district|Kozhikode]]|| Meenchanda, Kozhikode Beach, Vellimadukunnu, Perambra, Nadapuram, Vadakara, Mukkom, Narikuni (Koduvalli), and Koilandy.
|-
| [[Wayanad district|Wayanad]]|| Kalpetta, Sultan Bathery, Mananthavady
|-
| rowspan="2" | Kannur
{{Resize|(HQ: [[Kannur]])}}
| [[Kannur district|Kannur]]|| Iritty, Mattannur, Koothuparambu, Thalasserry, Thaliparambu, Peravoor, Payyannur, Peringom, and Panoor.
|-
| [[Kasaragod district|Kasaragod]] || Kasaragod, Kanhangad, Uppala, Nileshwaram, Kuttikol
|}
{{clear}}

===Hierarchy===

==== Officers ====
* Director General, Fire and Rescue Services and Civil Defence (IPS Cadre)
* Director (Technical)/ Director (Administration)
* Regional Fire Officer (RFO)
* District Fire Officer (DFO)

==== Subordinates ====
* Station Officer (STO)
* Assistant Station Officer (ASTO)
* Senior Fire and Rescue Officer (SFRO)
* Senior Fire and Rescue Officer (Mechanic) [SFRO(M)]
* Fire and Rescue Officer (Driver) [FRO(D)]
* Fire and Rescue Officer (FRO)
* Fire Woman(FW)

==Rank structure==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ '''Kerala Fire and Rescue Services – Rank Structure'''
! Title / Designation
!Insignia!! Explanation
|-
| '''Director General, Fire and Rescue Services, [[Civil defense|Civil Defence]] and [[Home Guard (India)|Homeguards]]'''
| {{Center|'''[[File:Director General of Police.png|60px]]'''}}|| An [[Indian Police Service|IPS]] officer of the rank [[Director general of police|DGP]]; Head of the department, overall command and policy decisions
|-
| '''Director (Technical) / Director (Administration)'''
| [[File:Director of Fire rank insignia (Kerala).png|center|frameless|112x112px]]|| Highest ranking uniformed officers assisting the DG in technical and administrative matters
|-
| '''Regional Fire Officer (RFO)'''
| [[File:Regional Fire Officer rank insignia (Kerala).png|center|frameless|112x112px]]|| Supervises fire services across multiple districts; reports to headquarters. Heads fire and rescue services academy.
|-
| '''District Fire Officer (DFO)'''
| [[File:District Fire Officer rank insignia (Kerala).png|center|frameless|112x112px]]|| In charge of fire and rescue operations in a district; manages fire stations within the district
|-
| '''Station Officer (STO)'''
| [[File:Station Officer Insignia (Kerala Fire and Rescue Services).png|center|frameless|90x90px]]|| Officer-in-charge of a [[fire station]]; leads fire and rescue operations locally. Also heads .
|-
| '''Assistant Station Officer (ASTO)'''
| [[File:Assistant Station Officer rank insignia (Kerala Fire Force).png|center|frameless|90x90px]]|| Assists the Station Officer in day-to-day operations and leadership
|-
| '''Senior Fire and Rescue Officer (SFRO)'''
| [[File:Deputy Prison Officer rank insignia of Kerala Jail Service.png|center|frameless|60x60px]]{{Center|(Sleeve insignia)}}|| Experienced firefighter; may act as team leader in operations
|-
| '''Senior Fire and Rescue Officer (Mechanic)'''
|[[File:Deputy Prison Officer rank insignia of Kerala Jail Service.png|center|frameless|60x60px]]{{Center|(Sleeve insignia)}} || Specialised role for maintenance of fire vehicles and mechanical equipment
|-
| '''Fire and Rescue Officer (Driver)'''
| '''''No insignia''''' || Drives and operates [[fire engine]]s and emergency vehicles
|-
| '''Fire and Rescue Officer (FRO)'''
| '''''No Insignia''''' || Entry-level personnel; frontline responder in fire and rescue missions
|}

==Services==
* Rescue services
* Pumping services
* Ambulance services
* Awareness programs
* Security Checkup
* Training programs
* Mock drills
* Stand-by duties
* Recovery vehicles

==Selection and training==
[[File:SCUBA team.jpg|thumb|[[Scuba diving|SCUBA]] training]]
Recruitment of personnel is based on statewide. The [[Kerala Public Service Commission]] is undertaking the recruitment procedure. Recruitment procedure includes written examination, physical test and medical test. Those who has selected has to undergo a training as specified.
For imparting training to the employees and newly recruited [[Fire and Rescue Officer]], Fireman and Rescue Officer( Driver) and Senior Fire and Rescue Officer (Mechanic), Fire And Rescue Services Academy was started at Viyyur, Thrissur in 2007. The supervision of this Academy is held by the Director in the rank of Regional Fire Officer. Three District Fire Officers and Station Officer who have the charge of the training are also working in this Academy.

==See also==
* [[Kerala Fire and Rescue Services Academy]]
* [[National Disaster Response Force]] (NDRF)

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Kerala Fire and Rescue Services Ashok Leyland fire engine standby during a festival.jpg|Kerala Fire and Rescue Services Ashok Leyland [[fire engine]] standby during a festival.
File:Fireman in Kerala.jpg|Fireman in uniform.
File:Kerala Fire and Rescue Services Leyland water tender.jpg|Water tender used by the KFRS.
File:Fire and rescue Kerala Fire Service.jpg|An old Tata engine of the Kerala Fire Force.
File:Kerala fire force logo.jpg|emblem
File:Fire & rescue station - ernakulam - club road.JPG|Fire and Rescue Station, Ernakulam.
File:Kerala fire force.jpg|Firemen in duty.
File:Kerala Fire & Recue Service Vehicle (1).jpg|water tender
File:Kerala Fire and Rescue Services-Rescue Diver dress 04.jpg
</gallery>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{commons category|Kerala Fire And Rescue Services}}

{{State agencies of Kerala}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Organisations based in Thiruvananthapuram]]
[[Category:1963 establishments in Kerala]]
[[Category:Fire departments of India]]
[[Category:State agencies of Kerala]]
[[Category:Government agencies established in 1963]]

Sivapriya Govind

2026-04-28T08:34:37Z

JOVFinlay2: New A Stub

{{Short description|Indian volleyball player}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2026}}
'''Sivapriya Govind''' (born 29 October 1998) is an Indian volleyball player from [[Kerala]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Govind Sivapriya - AVC Women’s Nations Cup 2025 - Players |url=https://en.volleyballworld.com/volleyball/competitions/avc-women-nations-cup/players/222941 |access-date=2026-03-02 |website=volleyballworld.com |language=en}}</ref> She plays for [[India women's national volleyball team]] as a libero, and for Kerala in the domestic tournament.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hub |first=India Sports |date=2025-06-05 |title=India Gears Up For Women’s Volleyball AVC Nations Cup 2025 In Vietnam. All You Need To Know {{!}} IndiaSportsHub |url=https://indiasportshub.com/india-gears-up-for-womens-volleyball-avc-nations-cup-2025-in-vietnam-all-you-need-to-know/ |access-date=2026-03-02 |language=en-GB}}</ref>

She is from [[Kannur]], Kerala. In December 2018, she represented Kannur U21 team before she was selected for the India team.<ref>https://www.multisports.in/vb/players/2732</ref>

In June 2025, she was part of the senior India volleyball team that took part in the inaugural AVC Nations Cup formerly known as AVC Women’s Challenge Cup. India beath [[Mongolia]] in the play-off match to finish 9th at Hanoi, Vietnam.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-06-14|title=Volleyball: India women finish ninth at AVC Nations Cup|url=https://thebridge.in/volleyball/volleyball-india-women-finish-ninth-avc-nations-league-53522|access-date=2025-07-22|website=thebridge.in|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-06-05 |title=Indian Women's Volleyball Squad 2025 Unveiled |url=https://jeetwinsports.in/other-sports/volley-ball/anusree-leads-the-indian-womens-volleyball-team-for-avc-2025-national-cup-indian-squad-and-fixture-revealed/ |access-date=2 March 2026 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-02-19 |title=Madras High Court dismisses Volleyball Federation of India’s plea in dispute with Baseline Ventures |url=https://thebridge.in/volleyball/madras-high-court-dismisses-vfis-plea-55975 |access-date=2026-03-02 |website=thebridge.in |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-06-03 |title=Rajasthan’s Ayushi Bhandari named vice-captain of Indian women’s volleyball team for National Cup in Vietnam |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/jaipur/rajasthans-ayushi-bhandari-named-vice-captain-of-indian-womens-volleyball-team-for-national-cup-in-vietnam/articleshow/121601810.cms |access-date=2026-03-02 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Govind, Sivapriya}}
[[Category:1998 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian women's volleyball players]]
[[Category:Volleyball players from Kerala]]
[[Category:Sportswomen from Kerala]]
[[Category:Liberos]]

Dancing Uncle

2026-04-19T07:18:51Z

JOVFinlay2: made a info more to come.

{{Short description|Indian minor internet celebrity}}
{{Orphan|date=December 2018}}{{Infobox person
| birth_place = [[Bhopal]]
| known_for = A viral video
}}

'''Sanjeev Shrivastva''', better known as '''Dancing Uncle''', is an Indian professor and casual dancer who works at [[Bhabha University]], [[Bhopal]]. In 2018, a video went viral in which he is seen dancing on a local song.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-06-05 |title=Dancing Uncle Sanjeev Shrivastava: I am amazed at how social media makes a hero out of people like us |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/dancing-uncle-sanjeev-shrivastava-video-5204937/ |access-date=2023-11-27 |website=[[The Indian Express]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2018-06-08 |title=Viral sensation Sanjeev Shrivastava aka 'Dancing Uncle' bags a chance to shoot with Salman Khan for '10 Ka Dum' |work=[[The Times of India]] |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/viral-sensation-sanjeev-shrivastava-aka-dancing-uncle-bags-a-chance-to-shoot-with-salman-khan-for-10-ka-dum/articleshow/64513377.cms |access-date=2023-11-27 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2018-06-04 |title=India's 'dancing uncle' who shot to viral fame |language=en-GB |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-44353069 |access-date=2023-11-27}}</ref>
==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian Internet celebrities]]
[[Category:2010s viral videos]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

{{India-academic-bio-stub}}

Goriakothi Assembly constituency

2026-04-15T23:40:27Z

JOVFinlay2: made initial post w/ infobox.

{{Infobox Indian constituency
|name = Goriakothi
|type= SLA
| map_image = 111-Goriakothi constituency.svg
| map_caption =
| map_alt =
|mla = [[Devesh Kant Singh]] 
|party = {{Party index link|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|alliance = [[National Democratic Alliance|NDA]]
| latest_election_year = [[2025 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2025]]
|region =
|state = [[Bihar]]
|district = [[Siwan district|Siwan]]
|division =
| loksabha_cons =
|constituency_no = [[List of constituencies of the Bihar Legislative Assembly|-]]
|established = 1967
| electors = 331,190
|abolished = 
}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}}
'''Goreyakothi ''' is a [[Vidhan Sabha|Bihar Legislative Assembly]] [[Constituency]] in [[Siwan district]] in the [[India]]n [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[Bihar]]. This constituency was formed in 2010 after two blocks of Basantpur constituency were merged with Goreyakothi block and a new constituency was formed. Bhumendra Narayan Singh was the first MLA of this newly formed Goriakothi assembly seat in 2010. [[Satyadeo Prasad Singh]] was MLA from this constituency from 2015 to 2020 and Deveshkant Singh became MLA in 2020.

==Overview==
As per Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly constituencies Order, 2008, No. 111 Goriakothi Assembly constituency is composed of the following: Goriakothi, Lakri Nabiganj and Basantpur. [[Community Development Block in India|community development blocks]].<ref name=commission>{{cite web|url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf |title = Schedule – XIII of Constituencies Order, 2008 of Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly constituencies Order, 2008 of the Election Commission of India|work= Schedule VI Bihar, Part A – Assembly constituencies, Part B – Parliamentary constituencies |access-date = 2011-01-10 }}</ref>

Goriakothi Assembly constituency is part of No. 19 [[Maharajganj (Bihar) (Lok Sabha constituency)|Maharajganj (Lok Sabha constituency)]].<ref name=commission/>

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Year
!Name<ref name="election2020">{{Cite web |title=Goriyakothi Election and Results 2020, Candidate list, Winner, Runner-up, Current MLA and Previous MLAs |url=https://www.elections.in/bihar/assembly-constituencies/goriyakothi.html |access-date= |website=Elections in India}}</ref>
! colspan="2" |Party
|-
|[[1967 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
| rowspan="2" |Krishna Kant Singh
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1969 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1969]]
|style="background-color: {{party color|Akhil Bharatiya Loktantrik Congress}}" |
|Lok Tantrik Congress
|-
|[[1972 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1972]]
|Mahamaya Prasad
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[1977 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1977]]
|Krishna Kant Singh
|-
|[[1980 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1980]]
|Ajit Kumar Singh
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress (I)}}
|-
|[[1985 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
|Indra Deo Prasad
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
|[[1990 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1990]]
|Ajit Kumar Singh
| {{Full party name with color|Janata Dal|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[1995 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1995]]
| rowspan="2" |Indra Deo Prasad
|-
|[[2000 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2000]]
|{{Full party name with color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}
|-
|[[February 2005 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2005]]
|Bhumendra Narayan Singh
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
|[[October 2005 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2005]]
|Indra Deo Prasad
|{{Full party name with color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}
|-
|[[2010 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2010]]
|Bhumendra Narayan Singh
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
|[[2015 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2015]]
|[[Satyadeo Prasad Singh]]
|{{Full party name with color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}
|-
| [[2020 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2020]]
| rowspan="2" | [[Devesh Kant Singh]]
| rowspan="2" style="background:#FF9900;" |
| rowspan="2" | [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|-
| [[2025 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2025]]
|}

==Election results==
=== 2025 ===
{{Election box begin
|title = [[2025 Bihar Legislative Assembly election]]: Goriakothi<ref name="election2025">{{Cite web |date=2025-12-15 |title=Bihar General Legislative Election 2020 |url=https://www.eci.gov.in/statistical-report/ae/2025/16 |website=[[Election Commission of India]]}}</ref>

}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Devesh Kant Singh
|votes = {{formatnum:105909}}
|percentage = 49.64
|change = +3.98
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Rashtriya Janata Dal
|candidate = Anwarul Haque
|votes = {{formatnum:93524}}
|percentage = 43.84
|change = +4.39
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Jan Suraaj Party
|candidate = Ejaz Ahmad Siddique
|votes = {{formatnum:3281}}
|percentage = 1.54
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Ashok Kumar Varma
|votes = {{formatnum:2797}}
|percentage = 1.31
|change = -0.83
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:3655}}
|percentage = 1.71
|change = +1.12
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:12385}}
|percentage = 5.8
|change = -0.41
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:213345}}
|percentage = 64.42
|change = +6.62
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2020 ===
{{Election box begin |title=[[2020 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|Bihar Assembly election, 2020]]: Goriakothi<ref name="election2020"/>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Devesh Kant Singh
|votes = {{formatnum:87368}}
|percentage = 45.66
|change = {{increase}}7.52
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Nutan devi
|party = Rashtriya Janata Dal
|votes = {{formatnum:75477}}
|percentage = 39.45
|change = {{decrease}}3.3
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Aravind Kumar Singh
|votes = {{formatnum:5223}}
|percentage = 2.73
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Ashok Kumar Varma
|votes = {{formatnum:4104}}
|percentage = 2.14
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Kaunain Ahamad
|votes = {{formatnum:3136}}
|percentage = 1.64
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Anup Kumar Tewari
|votes = {{formatnum:2377}}
|percentage = 1.24
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Jan Adhikar Party (Loktantrik)
|candidate = Premchand Singh
|votes = {{formatnum:1767}}
|percentage = 0.92
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:1121}}
|percentage = 0.59
|change = {{decrease}}0.79
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:11891}}
|percentage = 6.21
|change = {{increase}}1.6
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:191341}}
|percentage = 57.8
|change = {{increase}}2.45
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser = Rashtriya Janata Dal
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2015 ===
{{Election box begin
|title = [[2015 Bihar Legislative Assembly election]]: Goriakothi<ref name="election2015">{{cite web |date=2018-08-20 |title=Bihar General Legislative Election 2015 |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3904-bihar-2015/ |website=[[Election Commission of India]]}}</ref>
}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|party = Rashtriya Janata Dal
|candidate = Satyadeo Prasad Singh
|votes = {{formatnum:70965}}
|percentage = 42.75
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Devesh Kant Singh
|votes = {{formatnum:63314}}
|percentage = 38.14
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Tribhuwan Ram
|votes = {{formatnum:5230}}
|percentage = 3.15
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Renu Yadav
|votes = {{formatnum:4016}}
|percentage = 2.42
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Ashok Kumar Singh
|votes = {{formatnum:3060}}
|percentage = 1.84
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Communist Party of India
|candidate = Tarkeshwar Yadav
|votes = {{formatnum:2921}}
|percentage = 1.76
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Lal Babu Sharma
|votes = {{formatnum:2890}}
|percentage = 1.74
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Raj Kapur Prasad Yadav
|votes = {{formatnum:2010}}
|percentage = 1.21
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Chandrama Sah
|votes = {{formatnum:1581}}
|percentage = 0.95
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Ramayan Singh
|votes = {{formatnum:1575}}
|percentage = 0.95
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bhartiya New Sanskar Krantikari Party
|candidate = Uma Shankar Tiwari
|votes = {{formatnum:1530}}
|percentage = 0.92
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:2296}}
|percentage = 1.38
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:7651}}
|percentage = 4.61
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:166010}}
|percentage = 55.35
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bhartiya New Sanskar Krantikari Party
|candidate = Uma Shankar Tiwari
|votes = {{formatnum:1530}}
|percentage = 0.92
|change =
}}
{{Election box end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cite web |title=Results of all Bihar Assembly elections |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/68-bihar/ |website=eci.gov.in |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=15 March 2022}}

{{Vidhan Sabha constituencies of Bihar}}
{{Saran Division topics}}
{{coord|26|15|12|N|84|36|27|E|region:IN-BR|display=title}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Bihar]]
[[Category:Politics of Siwan district]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1967]]
[[Category:1967 establishments in Bihar]]

Yogesh Choudhary

2026-04-14T01:45:24Z

JOVFinlay2: New New Pg.

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Yogesh Chaudhary
| office = [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Council|Member of the Uttar Pradesh Legislative Council]]
| term_start = {{birth date|df=yes|2024|05|06}}
| term_end =
| constituency = elected by Legislative Assembly members
| party = [[Rashtriya Lok Dal]]
| profession = Politician
| image =
| predecessor = [[Mohsin Raza]]
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1973|01|11}}
| birth_place = [[Mathura]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[India]]
}}
'''Yogesh Nauhwar''' is an Indian politician who is serving as a [[Uttar Pradesh legislative council|Member of Uttar Pradesh Legislative Council]].

== Political career ==
Yogesh Chaudhary joined [[Rashtriya Lok Dal|RLD]] in 2007. He contested in a by-election in the seat of [[Mant Assembly constituency|Mant]] in 2012 after it was vacated by [[Jayant Chaudhary]] but lost. In 2017, he contested in the same constituency on a RLD Ticket but lost by a margin of 432 votes.<ref>{{Cite news |date=11 March 2024 |title=BJP, Allies File Nominations for UP Legislative Council Elections |url=https://www.etvbharat.com/en/!state/bjp-allies-file-nominations-for-up-legislative-council-elections-enn24031103143 |access-date=6 July 2024 |website=ETV Bharat News |language=en}}</ref> In 2022, his ticket was withdrawn at the last stage after filing nomination. In 2024, RLD made him a candidate for the MLC election and he was elected unopposed along with 9 [[National Democratic Alliance|NDA]] candidates.<ref>{{Cite web |title=RLD Announced Candidate For MLC Elections In Uttar Pradesh |url=https://www.amarujala.com/uttar-pradesh/mathura/yogesh-choudhary-declared-as-mlc-candidate-from-novhwar-mathura-news-c-369-1-mt11005-109723-2024-03-05 |website=Hindi Amarujala}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Yogesh Chaudhary Files Nomination as RLD Candidate For MLC election|url= https://www.jagran.com/uttar-pradesh/lucknow-city-up-mlc-election-2024-nda-candidate-rld-leader-yogesh-chaudhary-property-23672744.html|website=Jagran}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=All 13 MLC candidates elected unopposed in Uttar Pradesh |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/lucknow-news/all-13-mlc-candidates-elected-unopposed-in-uttar-pradesh-101710437931765.html |newspaper=Hindustan Times | date=15 March 2024 | accessdate=22 September 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Yogesh Chaudhary announced candidate for mant assembly by-election|accessdate=6 July 2024|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/rld-feilds-yogesh-nauhwar-for-mant-assembly-by-election/articleshow/13009745.cms|website=Times of India|date=5 May 2012 }}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Choudhary, Yogesh}}
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Rashtriya Lok Dal politicians]]
[[Category:Members of the Uttar Pradesh Legislative Council]]

Thalakonam

2026-04-06T01:55:22Z

JOVFinlay2: New Stub.

{{short description|Indian Tamil-language romantic action drama film}}
{{Distinguish|Talakona}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2026}}
{{Infobox film
| image =
| alt =
| caption =
| native_name = 
| director = K. Padmaraj
| writer = K. Padmaraj
| screenplay =
| story =
| based_on = 
| producer = Thirumalaisivam
| starring = Jithesh Riya Nakshatra
| narrator =
| cinematography = V. A. Ramalingam
| editing = R. V. Saravanan K. Shankar
| music = Subash Jawahar
| studio = SJS International
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2014|9|26}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Tamil
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Thalakonam''''' ({{Translation|[[Talakona]]/Plane angle}}) is a 2014 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language [[romance film|romantic]] [[action drama film]] directed by K. Padmaraj and starring Jithesh and Riya Nakshatra with [[Kota Srinivasa Rao]], [[Firose Khan]], and C. M. Bala in supporting roles.

==Cast==
{{Cast listing|
*Jithesh
*Riya Nakshatra as Divya
*[[Kota Srinivasa Rao]] as Minister Sethupathy
*''Vaagai Sooda Vaa'' Nambiraj
*[[Ganja Karuppu]]
*[[Siva Narayana Murthy]]
*Kadhal Arun Kumar
*Telephone Raj
*Rekkha Sri
*[[Shanmugasundaram|''Karakattakkaran'' Shanmugasundaram]] as Sethupathy's close aide
*G. R. Vijaysukumaran
*[[Firose Khan]] as ACP
*Super Sridhar
*G. K. Shankar
*Dindigul Meyyappan
*Tambaram Viji
*[[P. Pandu|Pandu]] as the tour guide
*C. M. Bala as Zinda
*Babu
*[[Abhinayashree]] (special appearance in the song "Nirambi Vazhiyum")
*Nagina (special appearance in the song "Soun Soun Pappara Muttai")
*Alisha Khan (special appearance in the song "Soun Soun Pappara Muttai")
*Mippusamy in an uncredited role
}}

== Production ==
''Chikki Mukki'' (2013)-fame Jithesh plays one of the lead roles. The film was shot for around 45 days in the [[Talakona]] (called Thalakonam in Tamil) forest with the cast and crew staying in a guest house. Monkeys had disrupted the film shoot while the crew was on a lunch break and whenever snakes were present at the shooting spot, it had to be abandoned.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2014/Oct/01/jitheshs-45-day-wild-shoot-in-thalakonam-667107.html|title=Jithesh's 45-day 'Wild' Shoot in Thalakonam|work=[[The New Indian Express]]|date=1 October 2014|first=Rinku|last=Gupta|access-date=28 February 2026}}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
The music was composed by the duo Subash and Jawahar.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLjity7Lwv-zoYxM640aKUCEPJvtGk2VmO|title=Thalakonam Tamil Video Songs HD 1080P Bluray | Tamil Official Playlist|website=[[Raj TV]]|via=[[YouTube]]|date=1 January 2016|access-date=28 February 2026}}</ref>
*"Maayava Maayava"
*"Kadhale Unnaku"
*"Otha Panaiya"
*"Nirambi Vazhiyum"
*"Soun Soun Pappara Muttai"

== Release and reception ==
The film was scheduled to release in 2012, but was delayed to 26 September 2014 alongside ''[[Jeeva (2014 film)|Jeeva]]'' and ''[[Madras (film)|Madras]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5znNJuc9g5E|title=Kollywood Actor Feroz Khan | Chennai Pattinam|date=19 December 2013|language=ta|via=YouTube|work=[[Peppers TV]]|time=12:38|access-date=12 February 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sify.com/movies/friday-fury-sep-26-news-tamil-oj0jLxffffcff.html|title=Friday Fury – September 26|website=[[Sify]] |access-date=28 February 2026|archive-date=28 September 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140928004659/http://www.sify.com/movies/friday-fury-sep-26-news-tamil-oj0jLxffffcff.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Malini Mannath of ''[[The New Indian Express]]'' wrote, "''Thalakonam'' is a debutant maker’s work gone awry".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/review/2014/Oct/04/a-debutants-work-lacking-seriousness-667920.html|title=A Debutant's Work Lacking Seriousness|work=[[The New Indian Express]]|date=4 October 2014|first=Malini|last=Mannath|access-date=28 February 2026}}</ref> A critic from ''[[Dinamalar]]'' called the film fully crooked.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://m.dinamalar.com/vimar-detail.php?id=733|title=தலக்கோணம்|work=[[Dinamalar]]|language=ta|date=8 October 2014|trans-title=Thalakonam|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922093630/https://m.dinamalar.com/vimar-detail.php?id=733|archive-date=22 September 2022|access-date=28 February 2026}}</ref> A critic from ''[[Dina Thanthi|iFlicks]]'' wrote, "Though the storyline is good, director K. Padmaraj has spoiled it with too many twists and turns".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.iflicks.in/Review/2014/09/29192945/Thalakonam.vpf|title=Thalakonam|date=29 September 2014|work=[[Dina Thanthi|iFlicks]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141101111453/http://www.iflicks.in/Review/2014/09/29192945/Thalakonam.vpf|archive-date=1 November 2014|access-date=28 February 2026}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb title|13087144}}

[[Category:2014 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:Indian romantic drama films]]
[[Category:Indian action drama films]]
[[Category:Films shot in Andhra Pradesh]]

Tipaimukh subdivision

2026-03-31T20:44:35Z

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{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2018}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{more citations needed|date=July 2012}}
{{Original research|date= November 2020}}
}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Tipaimukh Sub-Division
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| other_name = Ruonglevaisuo
| nickname =
| settlement_type = Sub-Division
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Manipur
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Manipur, India
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Manipur]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Pherzawl district|Pherzawl]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body = Village Authority
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 789.48
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total =
| population_as_of =
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Hmar language|Hmar]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type =[[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 795143
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| area_code = 03874
| registration_plate = MN
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Human sex ratio|Sex ratio]]
| blank1_info_sec1 = 12,220 / 11,878 [[male|♂]]/[[female|♀]]
| website = {{URL|manipur.gov.in}}
| footnotes =
}}

'''Tipaimukh Sub-Division''' is located in south-western hilly region of [[Manipur]] bordering the Indian state of [[Mizoram]]. It is one of the six tribal development blocks of [[Churachandpur district]] in Manipur state. [[Parbung]] is the sub-divisional block headquarters. The total geographic area of the sub-division block is 789.48 km², having 55 [[villages]] with the total population of 23,995 approx. The total number of voters is 18,848. The total distance from the Parbung to the district headquarters town of Churachandpur is 247 km through the [[Tipaimukh Road]], also known as [[Tipaimukh Road|NH 150]].

== Meaning of name ==
The indigenous name of Tipaimukh is Ruonglevaisuo. "Tipaimukh" is a combination of "Tipai", a corrupted version of the name of the [[Tuivai River]], and ''mukh'', which means "mouth" in [[Bengali language|Bengali]]. "Ruonglevaisuo" (ruong-le-vai-suo) is a combination of "Ruong" (from "Ruongnau", ''le'', meaning "and"; ''Vai'', taken from the name of the Tuivai River; and ''suo'', meaning "[[mouth]]". Hence, both "Tipaimukh" and "Ruonglevaisuo" refer to the Mouth of the Tuivai and Ruongnau rivers at this location.

== People ==
The majority of the people inhabiting Tipaimukh are the indigenous [[Hmars|Hmar]] people who are spread in large numbers in neighbouring Indian states of Mizoram, [[Assam]], [[Tripura]] and [[Meghalaya]]. The Hmars are one of the recognised [[Scheduled Tribes]] of India since the 1950s. The Hmars were the first to settle in this region since the 18th century. Other tribals inhabiting this region, but who are found in small numbers, are the kindred tribes viz., [[Zou people|Zou]], [[Gangte]], [[Paite people|Paite]], [[Vaiphei people|Vaiphei]], etc.

== Situation ==
Tipaimukh was one of the most neglected regions in the state of Manipur due to its remote location. A few years back due to insurgency problems there was near complete absence of [[state government]] establishment, no proper educational facilities, no hospitals, doctors or public [[health centre]]s (PHC), no proper [[Public Distribution System]] (PDS), no electrification and no proper communication system such as [[roadways]], [[mobile phone|mobile]] or [[telephone]] connectivity. The people's only reliable means of communication with those outside their region was through [[radio]]. The region had been deprived of any development works for more than a decade or so. However, with the improvement in the law and order situation, a gradual increase in development has been initiated by the state government such as employment generation via MGNREGs, and infrastructural development through various other schemes such as MsDP, BRGF, IAY, IWMP etc., implemented and monitored by the Sub-Divisional Officer and Block Development Officer but these is less effective mainly due to the ever skyrocking corruption. The Sub-Division, has a motorable road connectivity on par with most roads within the district however the fare or charge for passenger is one of the highest in the world. Nevertheless, there are still much to be done, especially in the energy sector viz. Electricity which has yet to reach 90% of the population.

==Politics==
Tipaimukh A/C is part of [[Outer Manipur (Lok Sabha constituency)]].<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://archive.eci.gov.in/se2002/background/S14/Dist_PC_AC.pdf
|title = Assembly Constituencies - Corresponding Districts and Parliamentary Constituencies
|accessdate = 2008-10-07
|work = Manipur
|publisher = Election Commission of India
}}{{Dead link|date=July 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=no }}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050629012210/http://www.sinlung.com/ Sinlung ]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020625163211/http://www.hmar.net/ The indigenous Hmar people]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090821162226/http://www.sinlung.com/tag/tipaimukh-dam The Tipaimukh Dam]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090821161853/http://www.sinlung.com/tag/barak Barak River]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090125223153/http://www.sinlung.com/tag/manipur Manipur River]

[[Category:Pherzawl district]]

Hamari Betiyoon Ka Vivaah

2026-03-28T18:08:31Z

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{{More citations needed|date=March 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2015}}
{{Infobox television
| image = Hamari Betiyoon Ka Vivaah (TV series) logo.jpg
| caption = Promotional logo
| runtime = approx. 23 minutes
| creator = [[Cinevistaas Limited]]
| writer = Anshuman Sinha, [[Akashaditya Lama]] (Dialogues)
| director = Krishan Sethi, Manish om singhania
| producer = [[Prem Kishen]] & Sunil Mehta
| starring = [[Hamari Betiyoon Ka Vivaah#Cast|see below]]
| opentheme = "Vivaah" by [[Pamela Jain]]; Saveri & Ujjaini
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| network = [[Zee TV]]
| first_aired = {{start date|2008|4|21|df=y}}
| last_aired = {{end date|2009|2|20|df=y}}
| num_episodes = Total 205
}}

'''''Hamari Betiyoon Ka Vivaah''''' (English: [[Zee World|Our Daughters' Wedding]]) is a Hindi television drama series that aired on [[Zee TV]] channel starting 21 April 2008 until 20 February 2009.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2008-04-18 |title='Theatre is my first love' |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/tv/theatre-is-my-first-love/story-iWKjMKEQ1U10bIRKAmP0WI.html |access-date=2026-03-28 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> The series has a Punjabi backdrop, and the story is about a mother's inherent anxiety about finding a suitable match for her daughters.

== Cast ==
* [[Raju Kher]] as Kulbhushan Kohli<ref>{{Cite web |last=IANS |date=2025-09-11 |title=Anupam Kher wishes Raju Kher: You are the bestest brother in the entire world |url=https://ianslive.in/anupam-kher-wishes-raju-kher-you-are-the-bestest-brother-in-the-entire-world--20250911091632 |access-date=2026-03-28 |website=IANS News |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Himani Shivpuri]] as Kulraj Kulbhushan Kohli
* Sonali Suryavanshi as Sujata Kohli / Sujata Raghav Trivedi
* [[Pariva Pranati]] as Trishna Kohli / Trishna Rajdeep Malhotra
* [[Shalini Chandran]] as Tanya Kohli / Tanya Yuvraj Malhotra
* [[Roopal Tyagi]] as Manshaa Kohli
* [[Gautam Sharma]] as Raghav Trivedi
* [[Vikas Sethi]] / [[Sanjeet Bedi]] as Rajdeep Malhotra
* Omar Vani as Yuvraj / Raj Malhotra
* Jitendra Trehan as Mr. Trivedi
* [[Anju Mahendru]] as Nupur Malhotra
* Priya Ahuja as Sanjana Malhotra
* [[Hrishikesh Pandey]] as Shakti
* Kavita Rathod as Dimple
* Puneet Vashisht as Kanhaiya
* Nisha Sareen as Aarti Kapoor

==References==
<references />

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080506081736/http://zeetv.com/Zee_Serial.aspx?zsid=95 Official Website]

[[Category:Indian television soap operas]]
[[Category:Zee TV original programming]]
[[Category:2008 Indian television series debuts]]
[[Category:2009 Indian television series endings]]

Veer Savarkar (film)

2026-03-27T09:40:44Z

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{{About|the 2001 film|For 2024 film|Swatantrya Veer Savarkar (film)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Veer Savarkar
| image =
| director = [[Ved Rahi]]
| producer = [[Sudhir Phadke]]
| writer = [[Ved Rahi]]
| cinematography = [[Sameer Athalye]]
| music = [[Sudhir Phadke]]
| starring = {{plainlist|
*[[Shailendra Gaur]]
*[[Pankaj Berry]]
*Tom Alter
*[[Hemant Birje]]
*[[Rohitash Gaud]]
}}
| language = [[Hindi]]
| country = India
| runtime = 165 minutes
| studio = Savarkar Darshan Prathisthan
| released = {{Film date|df=y|2001|11|16}}
}}

'''''Veer Savarkar''''' is a 2001 Indian [[Hindi]]-language [[Biographical film|biopic]] film based on the life of [[Vinayak Damodar Savarkar]]. This version was released on DVD format. This film was produced by Savarkar Darshan Prathisthan, with the help of [[Sudhir Phadke]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Narendra Modi dedicates Gujarati version of Veer Savarkar film |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-narendra-modi-dedicates-gujarati-version-of-veer-savarkar-film-1695019 |access-date=2023-01-29 |website=DNA India |language=en}}</ref><ref name="IE-19980930"/> It was premiered on 16 November 2001, in [[Mumbai]], New Delhi, [[Nagpur]] and six other Indian cities.<ref name="TOI-20011023">{{cite web|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2001-10-23/mumbai/27240505_1_savarkar-phadke-shailendra-gaur|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023030333/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2001-10-23/mumbai/27240505_1_savarkar-phadke-shailendra-gaur|url-status=dead|archive-date=2012-10-23|title=After delays, Veer Savarkar to premier on Nov 16|last=Chaware|first=Dilip|date=23 October 2001|accessdate=29 May 2012|work=[[The Times of India]]|location=Mumbai}}</ref> On 28 May 2012 its [[Gujarati language]] version was released by then [[Chief Minister of Gujarat]], [[Narendra Modi]].<ref name="DNA-20120528">{{cite web |date=28 May 2012 |title=Narendra Modi dedicates Gujarati version of Veer Savarkar film |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report_narendra-modi-dedicates-gujarati-version-of-veer-savarkar-film_1695019 |accessdate=29 May 2012 |work=DNA (Online) |publisher=Diligent Media Corporation Ltd. |location=Mumbai}}</ref>

The film was screened retrospective on 13 August 2016, at the Independence Day Film Festival jointly presented by the Indian [[Directorate of Film Festivals]] and [[Ministry of Defense (India)|Ministry of Defense]], commemorating 70th [[Independence Day (India)|Indian Independence Day]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=9 August 2016|title=Pune: A film festival that celebrates freedom|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/pune/pune-a-film-festival-that-celebrates-freedom-2962539/|access-date=2021-06-30|website=The Indian Express|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=70th Independence Day|url=http://dff.nic.in/70thIndependance_Day/70_Saal_Independance_Day.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160909045347/http://dff.nic.in/70thIndependance_Day/70_Saal_Independance_Day.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=9 September 2016|website=dff.nic.in}}</ref> Produced by [[Sudhir Phadke]] who also composed music for this, it has been directed by Ved Rahi. Prabhakar Mone has been its chief production controller. The film reported a collection of 8.1 million at box-office against a budget of 4 million.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://boxofficeindia.com/movie.php?movieid=2010 | title=Veer Savarkar – Movie – Box Office India }}</ref>

==Cast==
*[[Shailendra Gaur]] as [[Vinayak Damodar Savarkar]]
*Surendra Rajan as [[Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi]]
*[[Navni Parihar]] as Mai Savarkar
*Sushmeena Parihar as Savarkar's son
*[[Mrinal Kulkarni]]
*[[Pankaj Berry]] as [[Madan Lal Dhingra]]
*Ram Awana
*[[Rohitash Gaud]] as [[Ganesh Damodar Savarkar]]
*Arun Shekhar
*[[Tom Alter]]
*[[Bob Christo]]
*Sunil Shende
*Arun Bakshi
*Supriya Karni
*Madhusudan Tamhane<ref name="TOI-20011023"/>

==Production==
This film was produced by Savarkar Darshan Prathisthan<ref name="DNA-20120528" /> with help from [[Sudhir Phadke]].<ref name="IE-19980930" />
A Times of India story dated 18 September 2001 quotes Prabhakar Mone; "more than 10000 people contributed from Rs. Five to Rs. Fifty lakh. Four years back, our present prime minister [[Atal Bihari Vajpayee]] himself helped in raising Rs. 3 million for the movie by giving a lecture in the US... Prominent singers like [[Asha Bhosle]], Pt. [[Bhimsen Joshi]] and [[Anup Jalota]] also aided in fund-raising."<ref name="TOI-20010918">{{cite web|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2001-09-18/news-interviews/27251740_1_savarkar-birth-place-bhagur-andaman|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130104051653/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2001-09-18/news-interviews/27251740_1_savarkar-birth-place-bhagur-andaman|url-status=dead|archive-date=2013-01-04|title=First ever film on Veer Savarkar to be released|date=18 September 2001|accessdate=9 June 2012|work=[[The Times of India]]|location=Mumbai}}</ref>

The [[muhurat shot]] of the film was taken in 1990, changes to the team resulted in a delayed completion, by 15 September 1998, a fresh muhurat shot taken under director Ram Gabale who was the eighth's person chosen for the job, and script-writer [[D. M. Mirasdar]] who was the tenth script writer engaged. The other directors involved were Rajdatta, [[Basu Bhattacharya]], [[Hrishikesh Mukherjee]], Dr. [[Chandraprakash Dwivedi]], Ved Rahi, Pradeep Dikshit and Prabhakar Pendharkar. Script-writers earlier working on the project were G. R. Kamat, Ved Rahi, Dr. Chandraprakash Dwivedi, Vasant Deo and Shrinivas Joshi.<ref name="IE-19980930">{{cite web|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/Storyold/53983/|title=Historic delay hits Savarkar film|date=30 September 1998|work=The Indian Express (Online)|publisher=The Indian Express Limited|access-date=29 May 2012|location=New Delhi}}</ref>

==Release==
It premiered on 16 November 2001, in Mumbai, New Delhi, Nagpur and six other Indian cities.<ref name="TOI-20011023" /> On 28 May 2012 its Gujarati language version was released by the chief minister of Gujarat, Narendra Modi. This version was released on DVD format.<ref name="DNA-20120528" />

==Reception==
Anjum N reviewing the film for [[Rediff.com]] notes that though the film took a long time to produce this time lag is not evident. He also mentions the film publicity brochures that declare the film as "financed 'by the people'".<ref name="Rediff-20011130">{{cite web|url=http://www.rediff.com/entertai/2001/nov/30veer.htm|title=A portrait of a patriot|last=N|first=Anjum|date=30 November 2001|work=rediff MOVIES|publisher=Rediff.com|accessdate=9 June 2012|location=Mumbai}}</ref>

The film had a silver jubilee run at [[Plaza cinema, Mumbai]] and Pune's Prabhat cinema.<ref name="TOI_20020527">{{cite web|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2002-05-27/pune/27135240_1_hindi-film-vinayak-damodar-savarkar-bhagat-singh|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131214110121/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2002-05-27/pune/27135240_1_hindi-film-vinayak-damodar-savarkar-bhagat-singh|url-status=dead|archive-date=2013-12-14|title=War cries echo at film bash|last=Chaware|first=Dilip|date=27 May 2002|accessdate=9 June 2012|work=[[The Times of India]]|location=Mumbai}}</ref>

The Government of [[Goa]], gave the film a "tax-free status"<ref name="TOI-20020830">{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/Veer-Savarkar-film-given-tax-free-status/articleshow/20692353.cms|title=Veer Savarkar film given tax free status|last=Kumar|first=Vidyut|date=30 August 2002|work=The Times of India (online)|publisher=Bennett, Coleman & Co. Ltd.|accessdate=29 May 2012|location=Mumbai}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[List of Asian historical drama films]]
* [[List of artistic depictions of Mahatma Gandhi]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==

* {{IMDb title}}

[[Category:Indian biographical films]]
[[Category:Films set in the Indian independence movement]]
[[Category:Vinayak Damodar Savarkar]]
[[Category:Cultural depictions of Mahatma Gandhi]]

Indo-Aryan migrations

2026-03-24T10:07:55Z

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{{short description|Migrations of Indo-Aryans into the Indian subcontinent}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2025}}
{{Indo-European topics}}

The '''Indo-Aryan migrations'''{{refn|group=note|The term "invasion", while it was once commonly used in regard to Indo-Aryan migration, is now usually used only by opponents of the Indo-Aryan migration theory.{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=348}} The term "invasion" does not any longer reflect the scholarly understanding of the Indo-Aryan migrations,{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=348}} and is now generally regarded as polemical, distracting and unscholarly.}} were the migrations into the [[Indian subcontinent]] of [[Indo-Aryan peoples]], an [[ethnolinguistic group]] that spoke [[Indo-Aryan languages]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=South Asia, 2000–1000 B.C. {{!}} Chronology {{!}} Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History {{!}} The Metropolitan Museum of Art |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/03/ssa.html |access-date=20 December 2024 |website=The Met's Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History |language=en}}</ref> These are the predominant languages of today's [[Bangladesh]], [[Maldives]], [[Nepal]], [[North India]], [[Pakistan]], and [[Sri Lanka]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sahim |first=Sarmad |date=31 May 2022 |title=Evolution of Languages in South Asia - Scientia Magazine |url=https://scientiamag.org/evolution-of-languages-in-south-asia/ |access-date=20 December 2024 |language=en-US}}</ref>

Indo-Aryan migration into the region, from [[Central Asia]], is considered to have started after 2000 BCE as a slow diffusion during the [[Indus Valley Civilisation#Late Harappan|Late Harappan]] period and led to a [[language shift]] in the northern Indian subcontinent.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Citation |last=Sridhar |first=S. N. |chapter=Language contact and convergence in South Asia |date=2008 |title=Language in South Asia |pages=235–252 |editor-last=Kachru |editor-first=Braj B. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/language-in-south-asia/language-contact-and-convergence-in-south-asia/77225F175BF1D30E7E7A1C4B3064C6CA |access-date=20 December 2024 |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-78141-1 |editor2-last=Sridhar |editor2-first=S. N. |editor3-last=Kachru |editor3-first=Yamuna}}</ref> Several hundred years later, the [[Iranian languages]] were brought into the [[Iranian plateau]] by the [[Iranian peoples|Iranians]], who were closely related to the Indo-Aryans.

The [[Indo-Iranians|Proto-Indo-Iranian]] culture, which gave rise to the [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Indo-Aryans]] and Iranians, developed on the [[Eurasian Steppe#Kazakh Steppe (Central Steppe)|Central Asian steppes]] north of the [[Caspian Sea]] as the [[Sintashta culture]] (c. 2200–1900 BCE),<ref name="Tkachev">{{cite journal |last=Tkachev |first=Vitaly V. |date=2020 |url=https://ras.jes.su/ra/s086960630009071-7-1-en |title=Radiocarbon Chronology of the Sintashta Culture Sites in the Steppe Cis-Urals |journal=Russian Archaeology |volume=2 |pages=31–44 |quote=The author presents the results of radiocarbon dating of burials from the Sintashta cemetery near Mount Berezovaya (Bulanovo) and Tanabergen II in the steppe Cis-Urals. The series consists of 10 calibrated radiocarbon dates, three of which were obtained using AMS accelerated technology. As a result of the implementation of statistical procedures, a chronological interval for the functioning of necropolises was established within the {{Circa|2200}}–1770 BCE}}</ref> in present-day Russia and Kazakhstan, and developed further as the [[Andronovo culture]] (2000–1450 BCE).<ref name="Grigoriev">Grigoriev, Stanislav, (2021). [https://www.academia.edu/45686126/Andronovo%20Problem%20Studies%20of%20Cultural%20Genesis%20in%20the%20Eurasian%20Bronze%20Age "Andronovo Problem: Studies of Cultural Genesis in the Eurasian Bronze Age"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209201910/https://www.academia.edu/45686126/Andronovo%20Problem%20Studies%20of%20Cultural%20Genesis%20in%20the%20Eurasian%20Bronze%20Age |date=9 December 2021 }}, in Open Archaeology 2021 (7), '''p.3:''' "...By Andronovo cultures we may understand only Fyodorovka and Alakul cultures..."</ref><ref name="Parpola">Parpola, Asko, (2020). [https://journal.fi/store/article/view/98032 "Royal 'Chariot' Burials of Sanauli near Delhi and Archaeological Correlates of Prehistoric Indo-Iranian Languages"], in Studia Orientalia Electronica, Vol. 8, No. 1, 23 October 2020, '''p.188''': "...the Alakul' culture (c.2000–1700 BCE) in the west and the Fëdorovo culture(c.1850–1450 BCE) in the east..."</ref>

The Indo-Aryans split off sometime between 2000 BCE and 1600 BCE from the Indo-Iranians,<ref name="Lubotsky">Lubotsky, Alexander (2020). [https://www.academia.edu/44087441/What_language_was_spoken_by_the_people_of_the_Bactria_Margiana_Archaeological_Complex "What language was spoken by the people of the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex?"], in Paul W. Kroll and Jonathan A. Silk (eds.), ''{{'}}At the Shores of the Sky': Asian Studies for Albert Hoffstädt'', Brill, Leiden/Boston, p. 6: "The breakdown of the Indo-Iranian branch into Indian and Iranian occurred somewhere between 2000 and 1600 bce, when future Indians left their tribesmen and crossed the Hindu Kush on their way to India..."</ref> and migrated southwards to the [[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex|Bactria–Margiana culture]] (BMAC), from which they borrowed some of their distinctive religious beliefs and practices, but there is little evidence of genetic mingling.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=32}}{{sfn|Narasimhan|Patterson|Moorjani|Rohland|2019}} From the BMAC, the Indo-Aryans migrated into northern Syria and, possibly in multiple waves, into the [[Punjab]] (northern Pakistan and India), while the Iranians could have reached western Iran before 1300 BCE,<ref>Gopnik, Hilary, (2017). [https://www.academia.edu/34285360/The%20Median%20Confederacy "The Median Confederacy"], in Touraj Daryaee (ed.), ''King of the Seven Climes: A History of the Ancient Iranian World (3000 BCE - 651 CE)'', Ancient Iran Series, Vol. IV, UCI-Jordan Center for Persian Studies, '''p. 40:''' "...We can say for certain that the neighboring Assyrians recognized a group of people that they identified as coming from the 'land of the Medes' (māt madayya) as early as the reign of Shalmaneser III (858–824 BCE), and it is almost certain that Indo-Iranian-speaking peoples had settled in Western Iran at least some 500 years —if not 1,000 years—earlier than this..."</ref> both bringing with them the [[Indo-Iranian languages]].

Migration by an [[Indo-European migrations|Indo-European-speaking people]] was first hypothesized in the mid 17th century, by Dutch scholar [[Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn]], in his Scythian language and people hypothesis, to explain the linguistic similarities of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language family]], that had been identified a century earlier; he proposed a [[Proto-Indo-European language|single source or origin]], which was diffused by migrations from some original homeland.<ref>{{cite book |last=Beekes |first=Robert S. P. |date=2011 |title=Comparative Indo-European Linguistics: An introduction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W-HXnIG75PYC&pg=PA12 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing |page=12 |isbn=978-90-272-8500-3}}</ref> The language-family and migration theory were further developed, in the 18th century, by Jesuit missionary [[Gaston-Laurent Coeurdoux]], and later East India Company employee [[William Jones (philologist)|William Jones]], in 1786,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Poser |first1=William J. |last2=Campbell |first2=Lyle |date=1992 |chapter=Indo-European Practice and Historical Methodology |title=Proceedings of the Eighteenth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society: General Session and Parasession on The Place of Morphology in a Grammar |volume=18 |issue=1 |publisher=Berkeley Linguistics Society |pages=227–8 |doi=10.3765/bls.v18i1.1574 |access-date=20 December 2024 |url=http://journals.linguisticsociety.org/proceedings/index.php/BLS/article/view/1574 }}</ref> through analysing similarities between [[Languages of Europe|European]], [[Languages of the Middle East|West Asian]], and [[Languages of South Asia|South Asian languages]].

This linguistic argument of this theory is supported by archaeological, anthropological, genetic, literary and ecological research. Literary research reveals similarities between various, geographically distinct, Indo-Aryan historical cultures. Ecological studies reveal that in the second millennium BCE widespread aridization led to water shortages and ecological changes in both the Eurasian steppes and the [[Indian subcontinent]],<ref group=web name="Kochhar2017"/> causing the collapse of sedentary urban cultures in south central Asia, Afghanistan, Iran, and India, and triggering large-scale migrations, resulting in the merger of migrating peoples with the post-urban cultures.<ref group=web name="Kochhar2017"/> Comparisons of ancient DNA samples with modern South Asians populations reveal a significant infusion of male Steppe ancestry, in the second millennia BCE, with a disproportionately high contribution today present in many [[Brahmin]] and [[Bhumihar]] groups; elite populations that traditionally use an Indo-European language.{{sfn|Narasimhan|Patterson|Moorjani|Rohland|2019}}

The Indo-Aryan migrations started sometime in the period from approximately 2000 to 1600 BCE,<ref name="Lubotsky" /> after the invention of the [[Chariot|war chariot]], and also brought Indo-Aryan languages into the [[Levant]] and possibly [[Inner Asia]]. It was part of the diffusion of [[Indo-European languages]] from the [[proto-Indo-European homeland]] at the [[Pontic–Caspian steppe]], a large area of [[grassland]]s in far [[Eastern Europe]], which started in the 5th to 4th millennia BCE, and the [[Indo-European migrations]] out of the [[Eurasian Steppe]]s, which started approximately in 2000 BCE.{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=348}}{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=33}}

These Indo-Aryan speaking people were united by shared cultural norms and language, referred to as ''ārya'', "noble". Diffusion of this culture and language took place by patron-client systems, which allowed for the absorption and acculturation of other groups into this culture, and explains the strong influence on other cultures with which it interacted.
{{TOC limit|3}}

==Fundamentals==
[[File:Indo-European_migrations.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35| Scheme of Indo-European language dispersals from c. 4000 to 1000 BCE according to the widely held [[Kurgan hypothesis]]. – Center: Steppe cultures 1 (black): Anatolian languages (archaic PIE) 2 (black): Afanasievo culture (early PIE) 3 (black) Yamnaya culture expansion (Pontic-Caspian steppe, Danube Valley) (late PIE) 4A (black): Western Corded Ware 4B-C (blue & dark blue): Bell Beaker; adopted by Indo-European speakers 5A-B (red): Eastern Corded ware 5C (red): Sintashta (proto-Indo-Iranian) 6 (magenta): Andronovo 7A (purple): Indo-Aryans (Mittani) 7B (purple): Indo-Aryans (India) [NN] (dark yellow): proto-Balto-Slavic 8 (grey): Greek 9 (yellow):Iranians – [not drawn]: Armenian, expanding from western steppe]]

The Indo-Aryan migration theory is part of a larger theoretical framework. This framework explains the similarities between a wide range of contemporary and ancient languages. It combines linguistic, archaeological and anthropological research.{{sfn|Witzel|2005}}{{sfn|Anthony|2007}} This provides an overview of the development of Indo-European languages, and the spread of these Indo-European languages by migration and acculturation.{{sfn|Anthony|2007}}

===Linguistics: relationships between languages===
The linguistic part traces the connections between the various [[Indo-European languages]], and reconstructs the [[proto-Indo-European language]]. This is possible because the processes that change languages are not random, but follow strict patterns. Sound shifts, the changing of vowels and consonants, are especially important, although grammar (especially morphology) and the lexicon (vocabulary) may also be significant. Historical-comparative linguistics thus makes it possible to see great similarities between related languages which at first sight might seem very different.{{sfn|Anthony|2007}}{{sfn|Anthony|Ringe|2015}} Various characteristics of the Indo-European languages argue against an Indian origin of these languages, and point to a steppe origin.{{sfn|Anthony|Ringe|2015}}

===Archaeology: migrations from the steppe Urheimat===
The archaeological part posits an "[[Proto-Indo-European homeland|Urheimat]]" on the Pontic steppes, which developed after the introduction of cattle on the steppes around 5,200 BCE.{{sfn|Anthony|2007}} This introduction marked the change from foragist to pastoralist cultures, and the development of a hierarchical social system with chieftains, patron-client systems, and the exchange of goods and gifts.{{sfn|Anthony|2007}} The oldest nucleus may have been the [[Samara culture]] (late 6th and early 5th millennium BCE), at a bend in the Volga.

A wider "horizon" developed, called the [[Kurgan hypothesis|Kurgan culture]] by [[Marija Gimbutas]] in the 1950s. She included several cultures in this "Kurgan Culture", including the Samara culture and the Yamna culture, although the [[Yamna culture]] (36th–23rd centuries BCE), also called "Pit Grave Culture", may more aptly be called the "nucleus" of the proto-Indo-European language.{{sfn|Anthony|2007}} From this area, which already included various subcultures, Indo-European languages spread west, south and east starting around 4,000 BCE.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=29}} These languages may have been carried by small groups of males, with patron-client systems which allowed for the inclusion of other groups into their cultural system.{{sfn|Anthony|2007}}

Eastward emerged the [[Sintashta culture]] (2200–1900 BCE), where common [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]] was spoken.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=408}} Out of the Sintashta culture developed the [[Andronovo culture]] (2000–1450 BCE), which interacted with the [[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex|Bactria-Margiana culture]] (2250–1700 BCE). This interaction further shaped the Indo-Iranians, which split at sometime between 2000 and 1600 BCE into the Indo-Aryans and the Iranians.<ref name="Lubotsky" /> The Indo-Aryans migrated to the Levant and [[South Asia]].{{sfn|Beckwith|2009}} According to Witzel, the spread of Indo-European languages and culture into Northern India could have been driven by small groups.{{sfn|Witzel|2005|pp=342–343}}{{refn|group=note|Michael Witzel: "Just one 'Afghan' IA tribe that did not return to the highlands but stayed in their Panjab winter quarters in spring was needed to set off a wave of acculturation in the plains, by transmitting its 'status kit' (Ehret) to its neighbors."{{sfn|Witzel|2005|pp=342–343}}Compare Max Muller: "why should not one shepherd, with his servants and flocks, have transferred his peculiar dialect from one part of Asia or Europe to another? This may seem a very humble and modest view of what was formerly represented as the irresistible stream of mighty waves rolling forth from the Aryan centre and gradually overflowing the mountains and valleys of Asia and Europe, but it is, at all events, a possible view; nay, I should say a view far more in keeping with what we know of recent colonisation."{{sfn|Muller|1988|p=91}}}} Their culture and language spread by the same mechanisms of acculturalisation, and the absorption of other groups into their patron-client system.{{sfn|Anthony|2007}}

===Anthropology: elite recruitment and language shift===
{{See also|Language shift}}

Indo-European languages probably spread through language shifts.{{sfn|Parpola|2015|p=67}}{{sfn|Mallory|2002}}{{sfn|Salmons|2015|pp=114–119}} Small groups can change a larger cultural area,{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=347}}{{sfn|Anthony|2007}} and elite male dominance by small groups may have led to a language shift in northern India.{{sfn|Basu et al.|2003|p=2287}}{{sfn|Anthony|2007|pp=117–118}}{{sfn|Pereltsvaig|Lewis|2015|pp=208–215}}

David Anthony, in his "revised Steppe hypothesis"{{sfn|Pereltsvaig|Lewis|2015|p=205}} notes that the spread of the Indo-European languages probably did not happen through "chain-type folk migrations", but by the introduction of these languages by ritual and political elites, which were emulated by large groups of people,{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=117}}{{refn|group=note|name="Anthony_Language_shift"}} a process which he calls "elite recruitment".{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=118}}

According to Parpola, local elites joined "small but powerful groups" of Indo-European speaking migrants.{{sfn|Parpola|2015|p=67}} These migrants had an attractive social system and good weapons, and luxury goods which marked their status and power. Joining these groups was attractive for local leaders, since it strengthened their position, and gave them additional advantages.{{sfn|Parpola|2015|pp=67–68}} These new members were further incorporated by [[Marriage|matrimonial]] alliances.{{sfn|Parpola|2015|p=68}}{{sfn|Mallory|2002}}

According to Joseph Salmons, language shift is facilitated by "dislocation" of language communities, in which the elite is taken over.{{sfn|Salmons|2015|p=118}} According to Salmons, this change is facilitated by "systematic changes in community structure", in which a local community becomes incorporated in a larger social structure.{{sfn|Salmons|2015|p=118}}{{refn|group=note|name="dislocation"|Note the dislocation of the [[Indus Valley civilisation]] prior to the start of the Indo-Aryan migrations into northern India, and the onset of [[Sanskritisation]] with the rise of the [[Kuru kingdom]], as described by Michael Witzel.{{sfn|Witzel|1995}} The "Ancestral North Indians" and "Ancestral South Indians"{{sfn|Metspalu et al.|2011}}{{sfn|Reich et al.|2009}} mixed between 4,200 to 1,900 years ago (2200 BCE–100 CE), whereafter a shift to endogamy took place.{{sfn|Moorjani et al.|2013}}}}

===Genetics: ancient ancestry and multiple gene flows===
{{See also|Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia|Peopling of India}}

Genetic studies have revealed that at the start of the second millennia [[B.C.E.]], the [[Indian subcontinent|South Asian]] population was significantly comprised from a mix of Ancient Ancestral South Indians (AASI), and Iranian Farmer (IR) ancestry, with a cline, running from North West to South, correlating with the admixture of Iranian Farmer ancestry.{{sfn|Narasimhan|Patterson|Moorjani|Rohland|2019}} The Indus Periphery Cline, associated with the population of the Indus Valley Civilisation, had a majority of Iranian Farmer heritage, a minority of AASI, and had no detectable Steppe ancestry.{{sfn|Narasimhan|Patterson|Moorjani|Rohland|2019}} Post the decline of the Indus Valley Civilisation, in the second millennia BCE, a significant amount of male Steppe ancestry appeared in to the North West of the region, to create identifiable ''Ancient North Indian'' (ANI), and ''Ancient South Indian'' (ASI) clines, the ANI cline differentiated by included Steppe heritage.{{sfn|Narasimhan|Patterson|Moorjani|Rohland|2019}}{{sfn|Reich et al.|2009}}{{sfn|Metspalu et al.|2011}}{{sfn|Moorjani et al.|2013}} {{refn|group=note|Basu et al. (2016) discern four major ancestries in mainland India, namely ANI, ASI, Ancestral Austro-Asiatic tribals (AAA) and Ancestral Tibeto-Burman (ATB).{{sfn|Basu et al.|2016|p=1594}}}} These two groups mixed in India between 4,200 and 1,900 years ago (2200 BCE – 100 CE), after which a shift to [[endogamy]] took place,{{sfn|Moorjani et al.|2013}} possibly by the enforcement of "social values and norms" during the [[Gupta Empire]] (240-550 CE).{{sfn|Basu et al.|2016|p=1598}} Studies indicate north and south Indians share a common maternal ancestry.{{sfn|Kivisild et al.|1999}}{{sfn|Kivisild et al.|2003}}{{sfn|Sharma|Saha|Rai|Bhat|2005}}{{sfn|Sahoo et al.|2006}} While studies of living South Asian populations show a disproportionate presence of ANI / Steppe ancestry within the elite Brahmin castes, historic users and keepers of Indo-Aryan texts.{{sfn|Narasimhan|Patterson|Moorjani|Rohland|2019}}

Moorjani et al. (2013) describe three scenarios regarding the bringing together of the two groups: [[Recent African origin of modern humans|migrations before the development of agriculture]] before 8,000–9,000 years before present (BP); migration of [[Ancient Near East|western Asian]]{{refn|group=note|See also [[Fertile Crescent]], [[Western Asia]] and [[Near East]].}} [[Dravidian people|people]] together with the [[Neolithic Revolution|spread of agriculture]], maybe up to 4,600 years BP; migrations of [[Kurgan hypothesis|western Eurasians]] from 3,000 to 4,000 years BP.{{sfn|Moorjani et al.|2013|pp=422–423}}

[[File:Lactose tolerance in the Old World.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Percentage of adults that can digest lactose<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Itan |first1=Yuval |last2=Jones |first2=Bryony L. |last3=Ingram |first3=Catherine JE |last4=Swallow |first4=Dallas M. |last5=Thomas |first5=Mark G. |date=9 February 2010 |title=A worldwide correlation of lactase persistence phenotype and genotypes |journal=[[BMC Evolutionary Biology]] |volume=10 |issue=1 |page=36 |doi=10.1186/1471-2148-10-36 |issn=1471-2148 |pmc=2834688 |pmid=20144208 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2010BMCEE..10...36I }}</ref>]]
While [[David Reich (geneticist)|Reich]] notes that the onset of admixture coincides with the arrival of Indo-European language,<ref group=web name="Reich-interview" /> according to Moorjani et al. (2013) these groups were present "unmixed" in India before the Indo-Aryan migrations.{{sfn|Moorjani et al.|2013}} Gallego Romero et al. (2011) propose that the ANI component came from Iran and the Middle East,{{sfn|Gallego Romero|2011|p=9}} less than 10,000 years ago,<ref group=web name="ScienceLife2011" />{{refn|group=note|name="Dravidian"}} while according to Lazaridis et al. (2016) ANI is a mix of "early farmers of western Iran" and "people of the Bronze Age Eurasian steppe".{{sfn|Lazaridis et al.|2016}} Several studies also show traces of later influxes of maternal genetic material{{sfn|Kivisild et al.|1999}}<ref group=web name="Kivisild2000" /> and of paternal genetic material related to ANI and possibly the Indo-Europeans.{{sfn|Reich et al.|2009}}{{sfn|Jones|2016}}{{sfn|Basu et al.|2016}}

Others have analysed the hereditary distribution of [[lactose intolerance]], and specifically the presence of the -13910T [[lactase persistence]] mutation, found in Europe and Central Asia, across South Asia.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Tandon |first1=R. K. |last2=Joshi |first2=Y. K. |last3=Singh |first3=D. S. |last4=Narendranathan |first4=M. |last5=Balakrishnan |first5=V. |last6=Lal |first6=K. |date=1 May 1981 |title=Lactose intolerance in North and South Indians |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=943–946 |doi=10.1093/ajcn/34.5.943 |issn=0002-9165 |pmid=7234720 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Mapping the Consumption of Milk and Meat in India |url=https://thewire.in/uncategorised/mapping-the-consumption-of-milk-and-meat-in-india |access-date=11 September 2022 |website=[[The Wire (India)|The Wire]]}}</ref><ref name=":0" />

In parallel the dating, and genetic lineage, of the [[Domestication of the horse#Genetic evidence|domestic horse]] within South Asia is a [[History of the horse in the Indian subcontinent|field of research]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=de Barros Damgaard |first1=Peter |last2=Martiniano |first2=Rui |last3=Kamm |first3=Jack |last4=Moreno-Mayar |first4=J. Víctor |last5=Kroonen |first5=Guus |last6=Peyrot |first6=Michaël |last7=Barjamovic |first7=Gojko |last8=Rasmussen |first8=Simon |last9=Zacho |first9=Claus |last10=Baimukhanov |first10=Nurbol |last11=Zaibert |first11=Victor |last12=Merz |first12=Victor |last13=Biddanda |first13=Arjun |last14=Merz |first14=Ilja |last15=Loman |first15=Valeriy |date=29 June 2018 |title=The first horse herders and the impact of early Bronze Age steppe expansions into Asia |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=360 |issue=6396 |article-number=eaar7711 |doi=10.1126/science.aar7711 |pmc=6748862 |pmid=29743352 |bibcode=2018Sci...360r7711D }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Admin |first=Devdutt |date=19 December 2021 |title=When Horses First Came to India |url=https://devdutt.com/when-horses-first-came-to-india/ |access-date=17 April 2025 |website=Devdutt Pattanaik |language=en-US}}</ref>

===Literary research: similarities, geography, and references to migration===
The oldest known inscribed [[Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni|Indo-Iranian]] words, and particularly invocations of the Indo-Aryan deities, date to mid second millennia BCE, as loan words in [[Hurrians|Hurrian]] treaties of the [[Mitanni]] kingdom, of present-day northern Syria.{{sfn|Mallory|Mair|2000}}{{sfn|Mallory|1989}}

The religious practices depicted in the ''Rigveda'' and those depicted in the ''[[Avesta]]'', the central religious text of [[Zoroastrianism]], show similarities.{{sfn|Mallory|1989}} Some of the references to the Sarasvati in the Rigveda refer to the [[Ghaggar-Hakra River]],<ref name="Ancient Indian Geography p.590">"Encyclopaedia of Ancient Indian Geography, Volume 2", by Subodh Kapoor, p.590</ref> while the [[Arghandab River|Haraxvaiti River]] in Afghanistan, or the [[Helmand River]] it feeds is sometimes quoted as the locus of the early Rigvedic river Sarasvati.<ref name="Vedas p. 7">"Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights", p. 7, by Frits Staal</ref>{{Context inline|date=August 2020}} The Rigveda does not explicitly refer to an external homeland{{sfn|Majumdar|Pusalker|1951|p=220}} or to a migration,{{sfn|Cardona|2002|pp=33–35}} but later Vedic and Puranic texts do show the movement into the Gangetic plains. A number of Indologists and historians offering the [[Baudhayana Shrauta Sutra#BSS 18:44 translation controversy|Baudhayana Shrauta Sutra, verse 18.44:397.9]], as explicit recorded evidence of a migration:<ref name="Witzel 1995">{{Cite journal |last=Witzel |first=Michael |date=11 October 2016 |title=Early Sanskritization. Origins and Development of the Kuru State |url=https://hasp.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/journals/ejvs/article/view/823 |journal=Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies |volume=1 |issue=4 |language=en |pages=1–26 Seiten |doi=10.11588/EJVS.1995.4.823}}</ref><ref name="Agarwal">{{cite journal |last=Agarwal |first=Vishal |url=http://www.omilosmeleton.gr/english/documents/VedicEvidenceforAMT.pdf |title=Is there Vedic evidence for the Indo-Aryan Immigration to India |access-date=28 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080528001253/http://www.omilosmeleton.gr/english/documents/VedicEvidenceforAMT.pdf |archive-date=28 May 2008 |journal=Dialogue (Journal of Astha Bharati) |volume=8 |issue=1 |date=July–September 2006 |pages=122–145}}</ref><ref>H. Krick, Das Ritual der Feuergründung (Agnyādheya). Wien 1982</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sharma |first=Ram Sharan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VSAwAQAAIAAJ&q=Baudh%C4%81yana+%C5%9Arauta+S%C5%ABtra |title=Advent of the Aryans in India |date=1999 |publisher=Manohar Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-81-7304-263-8 |language=en}}</ref>
{{blockquote|Then, there is the following direct statement contained in (the admittedly much later) BSS [Baudhāyana Śrauta Sūtra] 18.44:397.9 sqq which has once again been overlooked, not having been translated yet: "Ayu went eastwards. His (people) are the Kuru Panchala and the Kasi-Videha. This is the Ayava (migration). (His other people) stayed at home. His people are the [[Gandhara|Gandhari]], Parsu and Aratta. This is the Amavasava (group)" (Witzel 1989: 235).<ref>Witzel, M. Early Indian history: Linguistic and textual parameters In: The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia. G. Erdosy (ed.), (Indian Philology and South Asian Studies, A. Wezler and M. Witzel, eds), vol. 1, Berlin/New York: de Gruyter 1995, 85-125</ref>}}

===Ecological studies: widespread drought, urban collapse, and pastoral migrations===
Climate change and drought may have triggered both the initial dispersal of Indo-European speakers, and the migration of Indo-Europeans from the steppes in south central Asia and India.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=133, 300, 336}}{{sfn|Demkina|2017}}

Around 4200–4100 BCE [[5.9 kiloyear event|a climate change occurred]], manifesting in colder winters in Europe.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=227}} Steppe herders, archaic Proto-Indo-European speakers, spread into the lower Danube valley about 4200–4000 BCE, either causing or taking advantage of the collapse of [[Old Europe (archaeology)|Old Europe]].{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=133}}

The Yamna horizon was an adaptation to a climate change which occurred between 3500 and 3000 BCE, in which the steppes became drier and cooler. Herds needed to be moved frequently to feed them sufficiently, and the use of wagons and horse-back riding made this possible, leading to "a new, more mobile form of pastoralism".{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=300, 336}}

In the third millennium BCE widespread aridification led to water shortages and ecological changes in both the Eurasian steppes and the [[Indian subcontinent]].<ref group=web name="Kochhar2017">Rajesh Kochhar (2017), [http://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/aryans-dna-genetics-archaeology-4765740/ "The Aryan chromosome"], ''The Indian Express''</ref>{{sfn|Demkina|2017}} On the steppes, humidification led to a change of vegetation, triggering "higher mobility and transition to nomadic cattle breeding".{{sfn|Demkina|2017}}{{refn|group=note|Demkina et al. (2017): "In the second millennium BC, humidification of the climate led to the divergence of the soil cover with secondary formation of the complexes of chestnut soils and solonetzes. This paleoecological crisis had a significant effect on the economy of the tribes in the Late Catacomb and Post-Catacomb time stipulating their higher mobility and transition to the nomadic cattle breeding."{{sfn|Demkina|2017}}}}{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=300, 336}}{{refn|group=note|See also Eurogenes Blogspot, [http://eurogenes.blogspot.nl/2017/07/the-crisis.html ''The crisis''].}} Water shortage also had a strong impact in the [[Indian subcontinent]], "causing the collapse of sedentary urban cultures in south central Asia, Afghanistan, Iran, and India, and triggering large-scale migrations".<ref group=web name="Kochhar2017"/>

==Development of the theory==

===Similarities between Sanskrit, Persian, Greek===
In the 16th century, European visitors to India became aware of similarities between Indian and European languages<ref name="auroux">{{cite book |first=Sylvain |last=Auroux |title=History of the Language Sciences |page=1156 |isbn=3-11-016735-2 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |location=Berlin, New York |year=2000 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yasNy365EywC&q=3110167352&pg=PA1156}}</ref> and as early as 1653 [[Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn|Van Boxhorn]] had published a proposal for a [[proto-language]] ("Scythian") for [[Germanic languages|Germanic]], [[Romance languages|Romance]], [[Hellenic languages|Greek]], [[Baltic languages|Baltic]], [[Slavic languages|Slavic]], [[Celtic languages|Celtic]], [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranic]], and (incorrectly) [[Turkic languages|Turkish]].<ref name=Blench>Roger Blench [http://www.ulb.ac.be/socio/anthropo/CH4-BLENCH.pdf Archaeology and Language: methods and issues]. In: ''A Companion To Archaeology''. J. Bintliff ed. 52–74. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 2004.</ref>

In a memoir sent to the French Academy of Sciences in 1767 [[Gaston-Laurent Coeurdoux]], a French Jesuit who spent all his life in India, had specifically demonstrated the existing analogy between [[Sanskrit]] and European languages.<ref>{{cite web|first=Kip|last=Wheeler|title=The Sanskrit Connection: Keeping Up With the Joneses|url=http://web.cn.edu/kwheeler/IE_Main4_Sanskrit.html|publisher=Dr.Wheeler's Website|access-date=16 April 2013}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|See:
* {{citation|last=Duperron|first=Anquetil|title=Histoire et mémoires de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, de 1701 à 1793|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=It67j8ZjoZwC&pg=PA647|year=1808|publisher=imprimerie royale}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Godfrey | first1 = John J. | year = 1967 | title = Sir William Jones and Père Coeurdoux: A philological footnote | journal = Journal of the American Oriental Society | volume = 87 | issue = 1| pages = 57–59 | doi = 10.2307/596596 | jstor = 596596 }}}}

In 1786 [[William Jones (philologist)|William Jones]], a judge in the [[Supreme Court of Judicature at Fort William]], Calcutta, linguist, and classics scholar, on studying [[Sanskrit]], postulated, in his ''Third Anniversary Discourse '' to the [[The Asiatic Society|Asiatic Society]], a proto-language uniting [[Sanskrit]], [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Latin]], [[Gothic language|Gothic]] and [[Celtic languages]], but in many ways his work was less accurate than his predecessors', as he erroneously included [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]] and [[Chinese language|Chinese]] in the [[Indo-European languages]], while omitting [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]]<ref name=Blench/> and [[Slavic languages|Slavic]]:{{sfn|Campbell|Poser|2008|p=37}}<ref name=Patil>{{cite book|title=The Variegated Plumage: Encounters with Indian Philosophy: a Commemoration Volume in Honour of Pandit Jankinath Kaul "Kamal" |year=2003 |page=249 |author=Patil, Narendranath B. |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] Publications |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3C1GWkeyXnQC&pg=PA249|isbn=978-81-208-1953-5 }}</ref>

{{blockquote|The Sanskrit language, whatever be its antiquity, is of a wonderful structure; more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined than either, yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in the roots of verbs and in the forms of grammar, than could possibly have been produced by accident; so strong indeed, that no philologer could examine them all three, without believing them to have sprung from some common source, which, perhaps, no longer exists: there is a similar reason, though not quite so forcible, for supposing that both the Gothic and the Celtic, though blended with a very different idiom, had the same origin with the Sanskrit; and the old Persian might be added to the same family, if this were the place for discussing any question concerning the antiquities of Persia.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=7}}<ref group=web>[http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/general/histling.html Jonathan Slocum, ''What is Historical Linguistics? What are 'Indo-European' Languages?'', The University of Texas at Austin] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071030105123/http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/general/histling.html |date=30 October 2007 }}</ref>}}

Jones concluded that all these languages originated from the same source.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=7}}

===Homeland===
{{Main|Proto-Indo-European homeland}}

Scholars assume a homeland either in central Asia or in Western Asia, and [[Sanskrit]] must in this case have reached India by a language transfer from west to east.<ref name="JH" /> In 19th century [[Indo-European studies]], the language of the [[Rigveda]] was then the most archaic Indo-European language known to scholars, indeed the only records of Indo-European that could reasonably claim to date to the [[Bronze Age]]. This primacy of Sanskrit inspired scholars such as [[Friedrich Schlegel]], to assume that the locus of the [[proto-Indo-European homeland]] had been in India, with the other dialects spread to the west by historical migration.<ref name="JH" />

With the 20th-century discovery of Bronze-Age attestations of Indo-European ([[Anatolian languages|Anatolian]], [[Mycenaean Greek]]), [[Vedic Sanskrit]] lost its special status as the most archaic Indo-European language known.<ref name="JH">"Tense and Aspect in Indo-European Languages", by John Hewson, Page 229</ref>

===Aryan "race"===
{{Main|Aryan race|Scientific racism}}
[[File:Aryans entering India.jpg|thumb|A 1910 depiction of Aryans entering India, from Hutchinson's ''History of the Nations'']]

In the 1850s [[Max Müller]] introduced the notion of two Aryan races, a western and an eastern one, who migrated from the Caucasus into Europe and India respectively. Müller dichotomized the two groups, ascribing greater prominence and value to the western branch. Nevertheless, this "eastern branch of the Aryan race was more powerful than the indigenous eastern natives, who were easy to conquer".{{sfn|McGetchin|2015|p=116}}

[[Herbert Hope Risley#Ethnographic Survey of Bengal: 1885–1891|Herbert Hope Risley]] expanded on Müller's two-race Indo-European speaking Aryan invasion theory, concluding that the caste system was a remnant of the Indo-Aryans domination of the native Dravidians, with observable variations in phenotypes between hereditary race-based castes.<ref name="Trautmann2006p203">{{harvnb|Trautmann|2006|p=203}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=The Study of Ethnology in India |first=Herbert Hope |last=Risley |journal=The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland |volume=20 |year=1891 |publisher=Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland |jstor=2842267 |page=253 |doi=10.2307/2842267 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/2197610 }}</ref> [[Thomas Trautmann]] explains that Risley "found a direct relation between the proportion of Aryan blood and the nasal index, along a gradient from the highest castes to the lowest. This assimilation of caste to race proved very influential."{{sfn|Trautmann|2006|page=183}}

Müller's work contributed to the developing interest in [[Aryan]] culture, which often set Indo-European ('Aryan') traditions in opposition to [[Abrahamic religions|Semitic]] religions. He was "deeply saddened by the fact that these classifications later came to be expressed in [[racism|racist]] terms", as this was far from his intention.{{sfn|Esleben|Kraenzle|Kulkarni|2008}}{{refn|group=note|Esleben: "In later years, especially before his death, he was deeply saddened by the fact that these classifications later came to be expressed in racist terms."{{sfn|Esleben|Kraenzle|Kulkarni|2008}}}} For Müller the discovery of common Indian and European ancestry was a powerful argument against racism, arguing that "an ethnologist who speaks of Aryan race, Aryan blood, Aryan eyes and hair, is as great a sinner as a linguist who speaks of a dolichocephalic dictionary or a brachycephalic grammar" and that "the blackest Hindus represent an earlier stage of Aryan speech and thought than the fairest Scandinavians".<ref>F. Max Müller, ''Biographies of Words and the Home of the Aryas'' (1888), Kessinger Publishing reprint, 2004, p.120; Dorothy Matilda Figueira, ''Aryans, Jews, Brahmins: Theorizing Authority Through Myths of Identity'', SUNY Press, 2002, p.45</ref> In his later work, Max Müller took great care to limit the use of the term "Aryan" to a strictly linguistic one.{{sfn|McGetchin|2015|p=117}}

==="Aryan invasion"===
The excavation of the [[Harappa]], [[Mohenjo-daro]] and [[Lothal]] sites of the [[Indus Valley Civilisation]] (IVC) in the 1920,{{sfn|Bryant|Patton|2005}} showed that northern India already had an advanced culture when the Indo-Aryans migrated into the area. The theory changed from a migration of advanced Aryans towards a primitive aboriginal population, to a migration of nomadic people into an advanced urban civilization, comparable to the Germanic migrations during the [[Fall of the Western Roman Empire]], or the [[Kassites|Kassite]] invasion of [[Babylonia]].<ref name="GLP" />

This possibility was for a short time seen as a hostile invasion into northern India. The [[Indus Valley Civilisation#Late Harappan|decline]] of the Indus Valley Civilisation at precisely the period in history in which the Indo-Aryan migrations probably took place, seemed to provide independent support of such an invasion. This argument was proposed by the mid-20th century archaeologist [[Mortimer Wheeler]], who interpreted the presence of many unburied corpses found in the top levels of Mohenjo-daro as the victims of conquest wars, and who famously stated that the god "[[Indra]] stands accused" of the destruction of the Civilisation.<ref name="GLP" />

This position was discarded after finding no evidence of wars. The skeletons were found to be hasty interments, not massacred victims.<ref name="GLP">{{citation |title=The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective |first = Gregory L. |last = Possehl |publisher=Rowman Altamira |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-7591-0172-2| page = 238}}</ref> Wheeler himself also nuanced this interpretation in later publications, stating "This is a possibility, but it can't be proven, and it may not be correct."{{sfn|Wheeler|1967|p=76}} Wheeler further notes that the unburied corpses may indicate an event in the final phase of human occupation of Mohenjo-Daro, and that thereafter the place was uninhabited, but that the decay of Mohenjo-Daro has to be ascribed to structural causes such as salinisation.{{sfn|Wheeler|1967|pp=82–83}}

Nevertheless, although 'invasion' was discredited, critics of the Indo-Aryan Migration theory continue to present the theory as an "Aryan Invasion Theory",{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=348}}{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=306}}{{refn|group=note|According to Bryant, keeping up-to-date is problematic for many Indian scholars, since most Indian universities don't have enough funds to keep up with current scholarship, and most Indian scholars are not able to gain access to recent western publications.{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=306}} Bryant further notes that "while one would be lucky to find a book by Max Muller even in the antique book markets of London, one can find a plethora of recent-edition publications of his and other nineteenth-century scholars' works in just about any bookstore in India (some of these on their tenth or twelfth edition). Practically speaking, it is small Delhi publishers that are keeping the most crude versions of the Aryan invasion theory alive by their nineteenth-century reprints! These are some of the main sources available to most Indian readers."{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=306}}{{unbalanced opinion|date=August 2020}}}} presenting it as a racist and colonialist discourse:
{{blockquote|The theory of an immigration of IA speaking Arya ("Aryan invasion") is simply seen as a means of British policy to justify their own intrusion into India and their subsequent colonial rule: in both cases, a "white race" was seen as subduing the local darker colored population.{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=348}}}}

===Aryan migration===
[[File:Aryans settling in India.jpg|thumb|An early 20th century depiction of Aryans settling in agricultural villages in India]]
In the later 20th century, ideas were refined along with data accrual, and migration and [[acculturation]] were seen as the methods whereby Indo-Aryans and their language and culture spread into northwest India around 1500 BCE. The term "invasion" is only being used nowadays by opponents{{Who|date=August 2020}} of the Indo-Aryan Migration theory.{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=348}}{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=306}} Michael Witzel:
{{blockquote|...it has been supplanted by much more sophisticated models over the past few decades [...] philologists first, and archaeologists somewhat later, noticed certain inconsistencies in the older theory and tried to find new explanations, a new version of the immigration theories.{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=348}}{{refn|group=note|Michael Witzel: "In these views, though often for quite different reasons, any immigration or trickling in – nearly always called "invasion" – of the (Indo-)Aryans into the subcontinent is suspect or simply denied. The [[Arya]] of the Rigveda are supposed to be just another tribe or group of tribes that have always been resident in India, next to Dravidians, Mundas, etc. The theory of an immigration of IA speaking Arya ("Aryan invasion") is simply seen as a means of British policy to justify their own intrusion into India and their subsequent colonial rule: in both cases, a "white race" was seen as subduing the local darker colored population. However, present (European, American, Japanese, etc.) Indologists do not maintain anything like this now [...] While the "invasion model" was still prominent in the work of archaeologists such as Wheeler (1966: "Indra stands accused"), it has been supplanted by much more sophisticated models over the past few decades (see Kuiper 1955 sqq.; Thapar 1968; Witzel 1995). This development has not occurred because Indologists were reacting, as is now frequently alleged, to current Indian criticism of the older theory. Rather, philologists first, and archaeologists somewhat later, noticed certain inconsistencies in the older theory and tried to find new explanations, a new version of the immigration theories.{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=348}}}}}}

The changed approach was in line with newly developed thinking about language transfer in general, such as the migration of the [[Greeks]] into Greece (between 2100 and 1600 BCE) and their adoption of a syllabic script, [[Linear B]], from the pre-existing [[Linear A]], with the purpose of writing [[Mycenaean Greek]], or the Indo-Europeanization of Western Europe (in stages between 2200 and 1300 BCE).

===Future directions===
{{update section|date=May 2017}}
Mallory notes that with the development and the growing sophistication of the knowledge on the Indo-European migrations and their purported homeland, new questions arise, and that "it is evident that we still have a very long way to go."{{sfn|Mallory|2012|p=152}} One of those questions is the origin of the shared agricultural vocabulary, and the earliest dates for agriculturalism in areas settled by the Indo-Europeans. Those dates seem to be too late to account for the shared vocabulary, and raise the question what their origin is.{{sfn|Mallory|2012|pp=149–152}}

==Linguistics: relationships between languages==
[[File:South Asian Language Families.png|thumb|Map of language families in [[South Asia]].]]
Linguistic research traces the connections between the various Indo-European languages, and reconstructs proto-Indo-European. Accumulated linguistic evidence points to the Indo-Aryan languages as intrusive into the [[Indian subcontinent]], some time in the [[2nd millennium BC|2nd millennium BCE]].{{sfn|Erdosy|1995|page=16}}<ref>{{cite book|title=An Atlas and Survey of South Asian History|first=Karl|last=Schmidt|page=14|publisher=Routledge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BqdzCQAAQBAJ|year=2015|isbn=978-1-317-47681-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title= Central Asia in World History |quote= coming through Afghanistan, entered South Asia around 1500 BCE |first=Peter |last=Golden |page=21 |publisher= Oxford University Press |isbn= 978-0-19-972203-7 |year=2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title= The Origins of Yoga and Tantra: Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century |quote= entered South Asia in the course of the second millennium BCE |publisher= Cambridge University Press |isbn= 978-1-139-47021-6 |page=99 |first=Geoffrey |last=Samuel |year=2008}}</ref> The language of the [[Rigveda]], the earliest stratum of [[Vedic Sanskrit]], is assigned to about 1500–1200 BCE.{{sfn|Mallory|Mair|2000}}

===Comparative method===
{{Main|Comparative method}}

Connections between languages can be traced because the processes that change languages are not random, but follow strict patterns. Especially sound shifts, the changing of vowels and consonants, are important, although grammar (especially morphology) and the lexicon (vocabulary) may also be significant. Historical-comparative linguistics thus makes it possible to see great similarities between languages which at first sight might seem very different.{{sfn|Anthony|2007}}

Linguistics use the comparative method to study the development of languages by performing a feature-by-feature comparison of two or more languages with common descent from a shared ancestor, as opposed to the method of [[internal reconstruction]], which analyses the internal development of a single language over time.<ref>{{harvnb|Lehmann|1993|pp=31 ff}}.</ref> Ordinarily both methods are used together to reconstruct prehistoric phases of languages, to fill in gaps in the historical record of a language, to discover the development of phonological, morphological, and other linguistic systems, and to confirm or refute hypothesized relationships between languages.{{Citation needed|date=April 2023}}

The comparative method aims to prove that two or more historically [[attested language]]s are descended from a single [[proto-language]] by comparing lists of [[cognate]] terms. From them, regular sound correspondences between the languages are established, and a sequence of regular [[sound change]]s can then be postulated, which allows the proto-language to be [[Linguistic reconstruction|reconstructed]]. Relation is deemed certain only if at least a partial reconstruction of the common ancestor is feasible, and if regular sound correspondences can be established with chance similarities ruled out.{{Citation needed|date=April 2023}}

The comparative method was developed over the 19th century. Key contributions were made by the Danish scholars [[Rasmus Rask]] and [[Karl Verner]] and the German scholar [[Jacob Grimm]]. The first linguist to offer reconstructed forms from a [[proto-language]] was [[August Schleicher]], in his ''Compendium der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen'', originally published in 1861.<ref>{{harvnb|Lehmann|1993|p=26}}.</ref>

===Proto-Indo-European===
[[Proto-Indo-European]] (PIE) is the [[linguistic reconstruction]] of the common ancestor of the [[Indo-European languages]]. [[August Schleicher|August Schleicher's]] 1861 reconstruction of PIE was the first proposed [[proto-language]] to be accepted by modern linguists.{{sfn|Lehmann|1993|p=26}} More work has gone into reconstructing it than any other proto-language, and it is by far the best understood among all proto-languages of its age. During the 19th century, the vast majority of linguistic work was devoted to reconstruction of Proto-Indo-European or its daughter proto-languages such as [[Proto-Germanic]], and most of the current techniques of [[linguistic reconstruction]] in [[historical linguistics]] (e.g., the [[Comparative method (linguistics)|comparative method]] and the method of [[internal reconstruction]]) were developed as a result.<ref name="Fox">{{cite book |last1=Fox |first1=Anthony |title=Linguistic Reconstruction: An introduction to theory and method |date=1995 |publisher=OUP |location=Oxford |pages=17–19}}</ref>

PIE must have been spoken as a single language or a group of related dialects (before divergence began), though estimates of when this was by different authorities can vary massively, from the 7th millennium BCE to the second.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mallory |first1=James |editor1-last=Blench |editor1-first=Roger |editor2-last=Spriggs |editor2-first=Matthew |title=Archaeology and Language I: Theoretical and Methodological Orientations |date=1997 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |pages=98–99 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H9qJAgAAQBAJ&dq=dating+proto+indo+european&pg=PA93 |access-date=26 December 2021 |chapter=The Homelands of the Indo-Europeans|isbn=978-1-134-82877-7 }}</ref> A [[Proto-Indo-European homeland|number of hypotheses]] have been proposed for the origin and spread of the language, the most popular among linguists being the [[Kurgan hypothesis]], which postulates an origin in the [[Pontic–Caspian steppe]] of Eastern Europe in the 5th or 4th millennia BCE.<ref name="parpola">{{cite book |last1=Parpola|editor1-last=Blench |editor1-first=Roger |editor2-last=Spriggs |editor2-first=Matthew |title=Archaeology and Language, Vol. III: Artefacts, languages and texts |publisher=Routledge |location=London |page=181}}</ref> Features of the culture of the speakers of PIE, known as [[Proto-Indo-Europeans]], have also been reconstructed based on the shared vocabulary of the early [[attested language|attested]] Indo-European languages.<ref name="parpola" />

As mentioned above, the existence of PIE was first postulated in the 18th century by Sir William Jones, who observed the similarities between [[Sanskrit]], [[Ancient Greek]], and [[Latin]]. By the early 20th century, well-defined descriptions of PIE had been developed that are still accepted today (with some refinements).{{sfn|Lehmann|1993|p=26}} The largest developments of the 20th century were the discovery of the [[Anatolian languages|Anatolian]] and [[Tocharian languages]] and the acceptance of the [[laryngeal theory]]. The Anatolian languages have also spurred a major re-evaluation of theories concerning the development of various shared Indo-European language features and the extent to which these features were present in PIE itself.{{Citation needed|date=August 2020}} Relationships to other language families, including the [[Uralic languages]], have been proposed but remain controversial.{{Citation needed|date=August 2020}}

PIE is thought to have had a complex system of [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] that included [[inflection|inflectional suffixes]] as well as [[Indo-European ablaut|ablaut]] (vowel alterations, as preserved in English ''sing, sang, sung''). Nouns and verbs had complex systems of [[declension]] and [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugation]] respectively.{{Citation needed|date=April 2023}}

===Arguments against an Indian origin of proto-Indo-European===

====Diversity====
According to the linguistic center of gravity principle, the most likely point of origin of a language family is in the area of its greatest diversity.{{sfn|Sapir|1949|p=455}}{{refn|group=note|[[Robert Gordon Latham|Latham]], as cited in {{harvnb|Mallory|1989|p=152}}}} By this criterion, Northern India, home to only a single branch of the Indo-European language family (i.e., [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]]), is an exceedingly unlikely candidate for the Indo-European homeland, compared to Central-Eastern Europe, for example, which is home to the [[Italic languages|Italic]], [[Venetic language|Venetic]], [[Illyrian languages|Illyrian]], [[Albanian language|Albanian]], [[Germanic languages|Germanic]], [[Baltic languages|Baltic]], [[Slavic languages|Slavic]], [[Thracian language|Thracian]] and [[Greek language|Greek]] branches of Indo-European.{{sfn|Mallory|1989|pp=152–153}}

Both mainstream [[Urheimat]] solutions locate the Proto-Indo-European homeland in the vicinity of the [[Black Sea]].{{sfn|Mallory|1989|pp=177–185}}

====Dialectal variation====
{{Technical|section|date=August 2020}}
It has been recognized since the mid-19th century, beginning with [[Johannes Schmidt (linguist)|Schmidt]] and [[Hugo Schuchardt|Schuchardt]], that a binary [[tree model]] cannot capture all linguistic alignments; certain [[areal feature]]s cut across language groups and are better explained through a model treating linguistic change like [[Wave model|waves]] rippling out through a pond. This is true of the [[Indo-European languages]] as well. Various features originated and spread while [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] was still a [[dialect continuum]].<ref>{{harvnb|Hock|1991|p=454}}</ref> These features sometimes cut across sub-families: for instance, the [[Instrumental case|instrumental]], [[Dative case|dative]] and [[Ablative case|ablative]] plurals in [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] and [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]] feature endings beginning with -m-, rather than the usual -*bh-, e.g. [[Gothic language|Gothic]] dative plural ''[[wikt:𐍃𐌿𐌽𐌿𐍃#Gothic|sunum]]'' 'to the sons' and [[Old Church Slavonic]] instrumental plural ''[[wikt:съінъ#Old Church Slavonic|synъ-mi]]'' 'with sons',<ref>{{harvnb|Fortson|2004|p=106}}</ref> despite the fact that the Germanic languages are [[Centum and satem languages|centum]], while Balto-Slavic languages are [[Centum and satem languages|satem]].

The strong correspondence between the [[dialect|dialectal relationships]] of the Indo-European languages and their actual geographical arrangement in their earliest attested forms makes an [[Indian subcontinent|Indian]] origin, as suggested by the [[Indigenous Aryans|Out of India Theory]], unlikely.<ref name=hock1999>Hock (1996), "Out of India? The linguistic evidence", in {{harvnb|Bronkhorst|Deshpande|1999}}.</ref>

====Substrate influence====
{{Main|Substratum in Vedic Sanskrit}}

Already in the 1870s the Neogrammarians{{Who|date=August 2020}} realised that the Greek/Latin vocalism couldn't be explained on the basis of the Sanskrit one, and therefore must be more original.{{citation needed|date=July 2017}} The Indo-Iranian and Uralic languages influenced each other, with the Finno-Ugric languages containing Indo-European loan words. A telling example is the Finnish word ''vasara'', "hammer", which is related to ''[[vajra]]'', the weapon of [[Indra]]. Since the Finno-Ugric homeland was located in the northern forest zone in northern Europe, the contacts must have taken place – in line with the placement of the proto-Indo-European homeland at the Pontic-Caspian steppes – between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea.<ref group=web name="Kochhar2017"/>

Dravidian and other South Asian languages share with Indo-Aryan a number of [[syntactical]] and [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] features that are alien to other Indo-European languages, including even its closest relative, [[Iranian languages#Old Iranian|Old Iranian]]. [[Phonology|Phonologically]], there is the introduction of [[Retroflex consonant|retroflexes]], which alternate with [[Dental consonant|dentals]] in Indo-Aryan; morphologically there are the [[gerund]]s; and syntactically there is the use of a [[quotative]] [[Marker (linguistics)|marker]] (''iti'').{{refn|group=note|Krishnamurti states: "Besides, the {{IAST|Ṛg}} [[Vedas]] has used the gerund, not found in [[Avestan]], with the same grammatical function as in [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]], as a non-finite verb for 'incomplete' action. {{IAST|Ṛg}} Vedic language also attests the use of it as a quotation clause complementary. All these features are not a consequence of simple borrowing but they indicate substratum influence (Kuiper 1991: ch 2)".}} These are taken as evidence of [[Stratum (linguistics)#Substratum|substratum]] influence.

It has been argued {{By whom|date=July 2012}} that Dravidian influenced Indic through "shift", whereby native Dravidian speakers learned and adopted Indic languages.{{Citation needed|date=July 2012}} The presence of Dravidian structural features in Old Indo-Aryan is thus plausibly explained, that the majority of early Old Indo-Aryan speakers had a Dravidian mother tongue which they gradually abandoned.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Erdosy|1995|p=18}}</ref> Even though the innovative traits in Indic could be explained by multiple internal explanations, early Dravidian influence is the only explanation that can account for all of the innovations at once – it becomes a question of [[Occam's razor|explanatory parsimony]]; moreover, early Dravidian influence accounts for several of the innovative traits in Indic better than any internal explanation that has been proposed.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Thomason|Kaufman|1988|pp=141–144}}</ref>

A pre-Indo-European linguistic [[Stratum (linguistics)#Substratum|substratum]] in the [[Indian subcontinent]] would be a good reason to exclude India as a potential Indo-European homeland.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Bryant|2001|p=76}}</ref> However, several linguists{{Who|date=August 2020}}, all of whom accept the external origin of the Aryan languages on other grounds, are still open to considering the evidence as internal developments rather than the result of substrate influences,<ref>Hamp 1996 and Jamison 1989, as cited in {{harvnb|Bryant|2001|pp=81–82}}</ref> or as [[Stratum (linguistics)#Adstratum|adstratum]] effects.<ref>Hock 1975/1984/1996 and Tikkanen 1987, as cited in {{Harvcoltxt|Bryant|2001|pp=78–82}}</ref>

{{anchor|Archaeological evidence}}

==Archaeology: migrations from the steppe Urheimat==
{{See also|Indo-European migrations}}
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right;"
|-
|
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="margin:0 auto;"
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! Indo-European migration
|-
|
[[File:Yamna-en.svg|thumb|400px|center|The [[Yamna culture]] 3500–2000 BCE.]]
[[File:IE expansion.png|400px|thumb|center|Scheme of Indo-European migrations from c. 4000 to 1000 BCE according to the [[Kurgan hypothesis]]. The magenta area corresponds to the assumed ''[[Proto-Indo-European Urheimat hypotheses|Urheimat]]'' ([[Samara culture]], [[Sredny Stog culture]]). The red area corresponds to the area which may have been settled by Indo-European-speaking peoples up to c. 2500 BCE; the orange area to 1000 BCE. (Christopher I. Beckwith (2009), ''Empires of the Silk Road'', Oxford University Press, p.30)]]
[[File:From Corded Ware to Sintashta.jpg|thumb|center|400px|According to Allentoft (2015), the Sintashta culture probably derived from the Corded Ware Culture.]]
[[File:Chariot spread.png|thumb|center|400px|Historical spread of the chariot. Dates given in image are approximate BCE years.]]
|-
|}
|-
|
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="margin:0 auto;"
|-
! Spread of IE-languages
|-
|
[[File:IE5500BP.png|thumb|center|400px|Indo-European languages c. 3500 BC]]
[[File:IE4500BP.png|thumb|center|400px|Indo-European languages c. 2500 BC]]
[[File:IE3500BP.png|thumb|center|400px|Indo-European languages c. 1500 BC]]
[[File:IE2500BP.png|thumb|center|400px|Indo-European languages c. 500 BC]]
[[File:IE1500BP.png|thumb|center|400px|Indo-European languages c. 500 AD]]
|-
|}
|-
|}

The Sintashta, Andronovo, [[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex|Bactria-Margiana]] and Yaz cultures have been associated with Indo-Iranian migrations in Central Asia.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=49}} The [[Gandhara grave culture|Gandhara Grave]], [[Cemetery H culture|Cemetery H]], [[Ochre Coloured Pottery culture|Copper Hoard]] and [[Painted Grey Ware culture|Painted Grey Ware]] cultures are candidates for subsequent cultures within South Asia associated with Indo-Aryan movements.{{Context inline|date=August 2020}} The decline of the Indus Valley Civilisation predates the Indo-Aryan migrations, but archeological data show a cultural continuity in the archeological record. Together with the presence of Dravidian loanwords in the Rigveda, this{{Clarify|reason=|date=August 2020}} argues in favor of an interaction between post-Harappan and Indo-Aryan cultures.{{sfn|Parpola|2015}}

===Stages of migrations===
About 6,000 years ago the Indo-Europeans started to spread out from their [[proto-Indo-European homeland]] in Central Eurasia, between the southern Ural Mountains, the North Caucasus, and the Black Sea.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=29}} About 4,000 years ago Indo-European speaking peoples started to migrate out of the Eurasian steppes.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=30, 31}}{{refn|group=note|Steppe herders, archaic Proto-Indo-European speakers, spread into the lower Danube valley as early as 4200–4000 BCE, either causing or taking advantage of the collapse of [[Old Europe (archaeology)|Old Europe]].{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=133}}}}

====Diffusion from the "Urheimat"====
{{Main|Proto-Indo-European homeland|Kurgan hypothesis|Yamnaya culture}}

Scholars regard the middle Volga, which was the location of the [[Samara culture]] (late 6th and early 5th millennium BCE), and the [[Yamna culture]], to be the "Urheimat" of the Indo-Europeans, as described by the [[Kurgan hypothesis]]. From this "Urheimat", Indo-European languages spread throughout the Eurasian steppes between c. 4,500 and 2,500 BCE, forming the [[Yamna culture]].

====Sequence of migrations====
David Anthony gives an elaborate overview of the sequence of migrations.

The oldest attested Indo-European language is Hittite, which belongs to the oldest written Indo-European languages, the Anatolian branch.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=43}} Although the Hittites are placed in the 2nd millennium BCE,{{sfn|Anthony|2007|pp=43–46}} the Anatolian branch seems to predate Proto-Indo-European, and may have developed from an older Pre-Proto-Indo-European ancestor.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|pp=47–48}} If it separated from Proto-Indo-European, it is likely to have done so between 4500 and 3500 BCE.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=48}}

A migration of archaic Proto-Indo-European speaking steppe herders into the [[Cucuteni-Trypillian culture|lower Danube valley]] took place about 4200–4000 BCE, either causing or taking advantage of the collapse of [[Old Europe (archaeology)|Old Europe]].{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=133}}

According to Mallory and Adams, migrations southward founded the Maykop culture (c. 3500–2500 BCE),{{sfn|Mallory|Adams|1997|p=372}} and eastward the Afanasevo culture (c. 3500–2500 BCE),{{sfn|Mallory|Adams|1997|p=4}} which developed into the Tocharians (c. 3700–3300 BCE).{{sfn|Anthony|2007|pp=101, 264–265}}

According to Anthony, between 3100 and 2800/2600 BCE, a real folk migration of Proto-Indo-European speakers from the Yamna-culture took place toward the west, into the Danube Valley.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|pp=345, 361–367}} These migrations probably split off Pre-Italic, Pre-Celtic and Pre-Germanic from Proto-Indo-European.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=344}} According to Anthony, this was followed by a movement north, which split away Baltic-Slavic c. 2800 BCE.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=101}} Pre-Armenian split off at the same time.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=100}} According to Parpola, this migration is related to the appearance of Indo-European speakers from Europe in Anatolia, and the appearance of Hittite.{{sfn|Parpola|2015|pp=37–38}}

The [[Corded Ware culture]] in Middle Europe ( 2900–2450/2350 cal. BCE),<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.comp-archaeology.org/CordedWare.htm | last = Baldia | first = Maximilian O | title = The Corded Ware/Single Grave Culture | year = 2006 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20020131212107/http://www.comp-archaeology.org/CordedWare.htm | archive-date = 31 January 2002 }}</ref> has been associated with some of the languages in the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] family. According to Haak et al. (2015) a massive migration took place from the Eurasian steppes to Central Europe. [[File:Yamna-en.svg|thumb|right|Yamna culture]] This migration is closely associated with the Corded Ware culture.{{sfn|Haak|Lazaridis|Patterson|Rohland|2015}}<ref group="web" name="MPG-massive migration">[http://www.mpg.de/9005184/humans-migration-indo-european-languages Mac-Planck Gesellschaft, ''A massive migration from the steppe brought Indo-European languages to Europe'']</ref><ref group="web" name="Nature-EC">[http://www.nature.com/news/european-languages-linked-to-migration-from-the-east-1.16919 Ewen Callaway (12 February 2015), ''European languages linked to migration from the east. Large ancient-DNA study uncovers population that moved westwards 4,500 years ago.'', Nature]</ref>

The Indo-Iranian language and culture emerged in the [[Sintashta culture]] (c. 2050–1900 BCE),<ref name="cambridge.org">Lindner, Stephan, (2020). [https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/C4FDF8C5E7D1D20A28BEB7F6C50A9AF4/S0003598X2000037Xa.pdf/chariots_in_the_eurasian_steppe_a_bayesian_approach_to_the_emergence_of_horsedrawn_transport_in_the_early_second_millennium_bc.pdf "Chariots in the Eurasian Steppe: a Bayesian approach to the emergence of horse-drawn transport in the early second millennium BC"], in Antiquity, Vol 94, Issue 374, April 2020, p. 367: "...The 12 calibrated radiocarbon dates belonging to the Sintashta horizon range between 2050 and 1760 cal BC (at 95.4% confidence; Epimakhov & Krause 2013: 137). These dates correlate well with the seven AMS-sampled Sintashta graves in the associated KA-5cemetery, which date to 2040–1730 cal BC (95.4% confidence...)".</ref> where the chariot was invented.{{sfn|Anthony|2007}} Allentoft et al. (2015) found close [[Autosome|autosomal]] genetic relationship between peoples of [[Corded Ware culture]] and Sintashta culture, which "suggests similar genetic sources of the two", and may imply that "the Sintashta derives directly from an eastward migration of Corded Ware peoples".{{sfn|Allentoft|Sikora|Sjögren|Rasmussen|2015}}

The Indo-Iranian language and culture was further developed in the Andronovo culture (c. 2000–1450 BCE), and influenced by the Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex (c. 2250–1700 BCE). The Indo-Aryans split off sometime around 2000–1600 BCE from the Iranians,<ref name="Lubotsky" /> after which Indo-Aryan groups are thought to have moved to the Levant ([[Mitanni]]), the northern Indian subcontinent ([[Vedic people]], c. 1500 BCE), and China ([[Wusun]]).{{sfn|Beckwith|2009}} Thereafter the Iranians migrated into Iran.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009}}

===Central Asia: formation of Indo-Iranians===
Indo-Iranian peoples are a grouping of [[ethnic group]]s consisting of the [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Indo-Aryan]], [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] and [[Nuristanis|Nuristani peoples]]; that is, speakers of [[Indo-Iranian languages]].

The Proto-Indo-Iranians are commonly identified with the [[Andronovo culture]],{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=49}} that flourished c. 2000–1450 BCE in an area of the [[Eurasian Steppe]] that borders the [[Ural River]] on the west, the [[Tian Shan]] on the east. The older [[Sintashta culture]] (2200–1900), formerly included within the Andronovo culture, is now considered separately, but regarded as its predecessor, and accepted as part of the wider Andronovo horizon.

The Indo-Aryan migration was part of the Indo-Iranian migrations from the [[Andronovo culture]] into Anatolia, Iran and South Asia.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=32}}

====Sintashta-Petrovka culture====
{{Main|Sintashta culture}}
[[File:From Corded Ware to Sintashta.jpg|thumb|right|300px|According to Allentoft (2015), the Sintashta culture probably derived from the Corded Ware Culture.]]
[[File:Andronovo culture.png|thumb|300px|Map of the approximate maximal extent of the Andronovo culture. The formative Sintashta-Petrovka culture is shown in darker red. The location of the earliest [[spoke]]-wheeled [[chariot]] finds is indicated in purple. Adjacent and overlapping cultures ([[Afanasevo culture|Afanasevo]], [[Srubna culture|Srubna]] and [[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex|Bactria-Margiana]] cultures) are shown in green.]]

The Sintashta culture, also known as the Sintashta-Petrovka culture<ref name="Koryakova 1998b">{{Harvnb|Koryakova|1998b}}.</ref> or Sintashta-Arkaim culture,<ref name="Koryakova 1998a">{{Harvnb|Koryakova|1998a}}.</ref> is a [[Bronze Age]] [[archaeological culture]] of the northern [[Eurasian Steppe]] on the borders of [[Eastern Europe]] and [[Central Asia]], dated to the period 2200–1900 [[Common Era|BCE]].<ref name="cambridge.org"/> The Sintashta culture is probably the archaeological manifestation of the Indo-Iranian language group.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|pp=390 (fig. 15.9), 405–411}}

The Sintashta culture emerged from the interaction of two antecedent cultures. Its immediate predecessor in the Ural-Tobol steppe was the [[Poltavka culture]], an offshoot of the cattle-herding [[Yamna culture|Yamnaya horizon]] that moved east into the region between 2800 and 2600 BCE.<ref name="Anthony 2007 pp. 385-388">{{Harvnb|Anthony|2007|pp=386–388}}</ref> Several Sintashta towns were built over older Poltovka settlements or close to Poltovka cemeteries, and Poltovka motifs are common on Sintashta pottery. Sintashta [[material culture]] also shows the influence of the late [[Abashevo culture]], a collection of [[Corded Ware culture|Corded Ware]] settlements in the [[forest steppe]] zone north of the Sintashta region that were also predominantly [[pastoralism|pastoralist]].{{sfn|Anthony|2007|pp=385–388}} Allentoft et al. (2015) also found close [[Autosome|autosomal]] genetic relationship between peoples of [[Corded Ware culture]] and Sintashta culture.{{sfn|Allentoft|Sikora|Sjögren|Rasmussen|2015}}

The earliest known [[chariot]]s have been found in Sintashta burials, and the culture is considered a strong candidate for the origin of the technology, which spread throughout the [[Old World]] and played an important role in [[ancient warfare]].<ref name="Kuznetsov 2006">{{Harvnb|Kuznetsov|2006}}.</ref> Sintashta settlements are also remarkable for the intensity of [[copper]] mining and [[bronze]] [[metallurgy]] carried out there, which is unusual for a steppe culture.<ref name="Hanks & Linduff 2009">{{Harvnb|Hanks|Linduff|2009}}.</ref>

Because of the difficulty of identifying the remains of Sintashta sites beneath those of later settlements, the culture was only recently distinguished from the [[Andronovo culture]].<ref name="Koryakova 1998a" /> It is now recognised as a separate entity forming part of the 'Andronovo horizon'.<ref name="Koryakova 1998b" />

====Andronovo culture====
{{Main|Andronovo culture}}
[[File:Indo-Iranian origins.png|thumb|right|300px|Archaeological cultures associated with [[Indo-Iranians|Indo-Iranian]] [[Indo-Iranian migration|migrations]] and [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Indo-Aryan]] migrations (after [[Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture|EIEC]]). The [[Andronovo culture|Andronovo]], [[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex|BMAC]] and [[Yaz culture]]s have often been associated with [[Indo-Iranians|Indo-Iranian]] migrations. The [[Gandhara grave culture|GGC]], [[Cemetery H culture|Cemetery H]], [[Copper Hoard Culture|Copper Hoard]] and [[Painted Grey Ware culture|PGW]] cultures are candidates for cultures associated with [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Indo-Aryan]] migrations.]]

The Andronovo culture is a collection of similar local [[Bronze Age]] [[Indo-Iranians|Indo-Iranian]] cultures that flourished {{circa}} 2000–1450 BC in western [[Siberia]] and the central [[Eurasian Steppe]].<ref name="Grigoriev"/><ref>Parpola, Asko, (2020). [https://journal.fi/store/article/view/98032 "Royal 'Chariot' Burials of Sanauli near Delhi and Archaeological Correlates of Prehistoric Indo-Iranian Languages"], in Studia Orientalia Electronica, Vol. 8, No. 1, 23 October 2020, '''p.188''': "...the Alakul' culture (c.2000–1700 BCE) in the west and the Fëdorovo culture
(c.1850–1450 BCE) in the east..."</ref> It is probably better termed an archaeological complex or [[Horizon (archaeology)|archaeological horizon]]. The name derives from the village of Andronovo ({{coord|55|53|N|55|42|E}}), where in 1914, several graves were discovered, with skeletons in crouched positions, buried with richly decorated pottery.
The older [[Sintashta culture]] (2050–1900 BCE), formerly included within the Andronovo culture, is now considered{{By whom|date=August 2020}} separately, but regarded as its predecessor, and accepted as part of the wider Andronovo horizon.

Currently only two sub-cultures are considered as part of Andronovo culture:
*'''Alakul''' (2000–1700 BC)<ref name="Parpola" /> between [[Oxus]] (today [[Amu Darya]]), and [[Jaxartes]], [[Kyzylkum desert]]
*'''Fëdorovo''' (2000–1450 BC)<ref>Grigoriev, Stanislav, (2021). [https://www.academia.edu/45686126/Andronovo%20Problem%20Studies%20of%20Cultural%20Genesis%20in%20the%20Eurasian%20Bronze%20Age "Andronovo Problem: Studies of Cultural Genesis in the Eurasian Bronze Age"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209201910/https://www.academia.edu/45686126/Andronovo%20Problem%20Studies%20of%20Cultural%20Genesis%20in%20the%20Eurasian%20Bronze%20Age |date=9 December 2021 }}, in Open Archaeology 2021 (7), '''p.28:''' ".... The Fyodorovka dates in the north of the forest-
steppe Tobol region are close to the dates in the Southern Transurals and lie in the interval of the 20th–16th centuries
BC...Fyodorovka culture, in general, is synchronous with Alakul..."</ref><ref name="Parpola" /> in southern Siberia (earliest evidence of [[cremation]] and [[fire worship|fire cult]]<ref>{{harvnb|Diakonoff|Kuz'mina|Ivantchik|1995|p=473}}</ref>)

Other authors identified previously the following sub-cultures also as part of Andronovo:
*'''Eastern Fedorovo''' (1750–1500 BC)<ref>Jia, Peter W., Alison Betts, Dexin Cong, Xiaobing Jia, & Paula Doumani Dupuy, (2017). "Adunqiaolu: new evidence for the Andronovo in Xinjiang, China", in _Antiquity 91 (357)_, pp. 632, 634, 637.</ref> in [[Tian Shan]] mountains (Northwestern [[Xinjiang]], China), southeastern [[Kazakhstan]], eastern [[Kyrgyzstan]]
*'''Alekseyevka''' (1200–1000 BC)<ref>Mallory, J.P., (1997). "Andronovo Culture", in J.P. Mallory and Douglas Q. Adams (eds.),_Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture_, Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data, London and Chicago, p. 20.</ref> "final Bronze Age phase" in eastern Kazakhstan, contacts with [[Namazga]] VI in Turkmenia

The geographical extent of the culture is vast and difficult to delineate exactly. On its western fringes, it overlaps with the approximately contemporaneous, but distinct, [[Srubna culture]] in the [[Volga River|Volga]]–[[Ural River|Ural]] interfluvial. To the east, it reaches into the [[Minusinsk]] depression, with some sites as far west as the southern [[Ural Mountains]],<ref name=camhist>{{citation|chapter=Inner Asia at the dawn of history|last=Okladnikov|first=A. P.|title=The Cambridge history of early Inner Asia|year=1994|publisher=Cambridge Univ. Press|location=Cambridge [u.a.]|isbn=978-0-521-24304-9|page=83}}</ref> overlapping with the area of the earlier [[Afanasevo culture]].<ref>{{harvnb|Mallory|1989|p=62}}</ref> Additional sites are scattered as far south as the [[Kopet Dag]] ([[Turkmenistan]]), the [[Pamir Mountains|Pamir]] ([[Tajikistan]]) and the [[Tian Shan]] ([[Kyrgyzstan]]). The northern boundary vaguely corresponds to the beginning of the [[Taiga]].<ref name="camhist" /> In the Volga basin, interaction with the Srubna culture was the most intense and prolonged, and Federovo style pottery is found as far west as [[Volgograd]].

Towards the middle of the 2nd millennium, the Andronovo cultures begin to move intensively eastwards. They mined deposits of [[copper]] ore in the [[Altai Mountains]] and lived in villages of as many as ten sunken log cabin houses measuring up to 30m by 60m in size. Burials were made in stone [[cist]]s or stone enclosures with buried timber chambers.

In other respects, the economy was pastoral, based on [[cattle]], [[horse]]s, [[sheep]], and [[goat]]s.<ref name="camhist" /> While agricultural use has been posited,{{By whom|date=August 2020}} no clear evidence has been presented.

Studies associate the Andronovo horizon with early [[Indo-Iranian languages]], though it may have overlapped the early [[Uralic languages|Uralic]]-speaking area at its northern fringe, including the [[Proto-Turkic language|Turkic]]-speaking area at its northeastern fringe.<ref>[http://turkic-languages.scienceontheweb.net/Proto_Turkic_Urheimat.html The Proto-Turkic Urheimat & The Early Migrations of the Turkic Peoples] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224111409/http://turkic-languages.scienceontheweb.net/Proto_Turkic_Urheimat.html |date=24 December 2013}} (Proto-Bulgaro-Turkic from the archaeological perspective), 2009–2012.</ref><ref name="Johanson68">[[Róna-Tas, András]]. "The Reconstruction of Proto-Turkic and the Genetic Question." In: ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=U1009DRu_vMC The Turkic Languages]'', pp. 67–80. 1998.</ref>{{sfn|Parpola|2015|p=51-68}}

Based on its use by Indo-Aryans in Mitanni and Vedic India, its prior absence in the Near East and Harappan India, and its 19–20th century BCE attestation at the Andronovo site of [[Sintashta]], Kuz'mina (1994) argues that the chariot corroborates the identification of Andronovo as Indo-Iranian.{{sfn|Kuz'mina|1994}}{{refn|group=note|[[Leo Klejn|Klejn]] (1974), as cited in {{harvnb|Bryant|2001|p=206}}, acknowledges the Iranian identification of the Andronovo-culture, but finds the Andronovo culture too late for an Indo-Iranian identification, giving a later date for the start of the Andronovo-culture "in the 16th or 17th century BC, whereas the Aryans appeared in the Near East not later than the 15th to 16th century BCE.{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=206}} Klejn (1974, p.58) further argues that "these [latter] regions contain nothing reminiscent of Timber-Frame Andronovo materials."{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=206}} Brentjes (1981) also gives a later dating for the Andronovo-culture.{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=207}} Bryant further refers to Lyonnet (1993) and Francfort (1989), who point to the absence of archaeological remains of the Andronovians south of the Hindu Kush.{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=207}} Bosch-Gimpera (1973) and Hiebert (1998) argue that there also no Andronovo-remains in Iran,{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=207}} but Hiebert "agrees that the expansion of the BMAC people to the Iranian plateau and the Indus Valley borderlands at the beginning of the second millennium BCE is 'the best candidate for an archaeological correlate of the introduction of Indo-Iranian speakers to Iran and South Asia' (Hiebert 1995:192)".{{sfn|Parpola|2015|p=76}} Sarianidi states that the Andronovo-tribes "penetrated to a minimum extent".{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=207}}}} {{Harvcoltxt|Anthony|Vinogradov|1995}} dated a [[chariot burial]] at [[Krivoye Lake]] to about 2000 BCE and a [[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex|Bactria-Margiana]] burial that also contains a foal has recently been found, indicating further links with the steppes.<ref name ="Bryant chariot origin references">{{Harvcoltxt|Anthony|Vinogradov|1995}}; Kuzmina (1994), Klejn (1974), and Brentjes (1981), as cited in {{Harvcoltxt|Bryant|2001|p=206}}</ref>

Mallory acknowledges the difficulties of making a case for expansions from Andronovo to northern India, and that attempts to link the Indo-Aryans to such sites as the Beshkent and Vakhsh cultures "only gets the [[Indo-Iranians|Indo-Iranian]] to Central Asia, but not as far as the seats of the [[Medes]], Persians or Indo-Aryans". He has developed the "kulturkugel" model that has the Indo-Iranians taking over [[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex|Bactria-Margiana]] cultural traits but preserving their language and religion{{Contradictory inline|reason=Next section says - borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices"|date=August 2020}} while moving into Iran and India.{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=216}}{{sfn|Parpola|2015|p=76}} Fred Hiebert also agrees that an expansion of the BMAC into Iran and the margin of the Indus Valley is "the best candidate for an archaeological correlate of the introduction of Indo-Iranian speakers to Iran and South Asia."{{sfn|Parpola|2015|p=76}} According to Narasimhan et al. (2018), the expansion of the Andronovo culture towards the BMAC took place via the [[Inner Asia Mountain Corridor]].{{sfn|Narasimhan et al.|2018}}

====Bactria-Margiana culture====
{{Main|Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex}}
[[File:BMAC.png|thumb|300px|The extent of the Bactria-Margiana Culture (after [[Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture|EIEC]])]]

The Bactria-Margiana Culture, also called "Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex", was a non-Indo-European culture which influenced the Indo-Iranians.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=32}} It was centered in what is nowadays northwestern Afghanistan and southern Turkmenistan.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=32}} Proto-Indo-Iranian arose due to this influence.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=32}}

The Indo-Iranians also borrowed their distinctive religious beliefs{{Contradictory inline|reason="... the "kulturkugel" model that has the Indo-Iranians taking over Bactria-Margiana cultural traits but preserving their language and religion ..."|date=August 2020}} and practices from this culture.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=32}} According to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the contact zone between the [[Zeravshan River]] (present-day Uzbekistan) and (present-day) Iran.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=462}} It was "a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements",{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=462}} which borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices"{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=32}} from the [[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex|Bactria–Margiana culture]].{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=32}} At least 383 non-Indo-European words were borrowed from this culture, including the god [[Indra]] and the ritual drink [[Soma (drink)|Soma]].{{sfn|Anthony|2007|pp=454–455}}

The characteristically [[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex|Bactria-Margiana]] (southern [[Turkmenistan]]/northern [[Afghanistan]]) artifacts found at burials in [[Mehrgarh]] and [[Balochistan]] are explained by a movement of peoples from Central Asia to the south.<ref>{{harvnb|Allchin|1995|pp=47–48}} Hiebert & Lamberg-Karlovsky (1992), Kohl (1984), and Parpola (1994), as cited in {{Harvcoltxt|Bryant|2001|p=215}}</ref> The Indo-Aryan tribes may have been present in the area of the BMAC from 1700 BCE at the latest (incidentally corresponding with the decline of that culture).

From the BMAC, the Indo-Aryans moved into the [[Indian subcontinent]]. According to Bryant, the [[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex|Bactria-Margiana]] material inventory of the Mehrgarh and Baluchistan burials is "evidence of an archaeological intrusion into the subcontinent from Central Asia during the commonly accepted time frame for the arrival of the Indo-Aryans".{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=215}}{{refn|group=note|Nevertheless, archaeologists like B.B. Lal have seriously questioned the [[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex|Bactria-Margiana]] and Indo-Iranian "connections", and thoroughly disputed all the proclaimed relations.<ref group=web>{{cite web|url=http://www.archaeologyonline.net/artifacts/19th-century-paradigms.html|title=To Revert to the Theory of 'Aryan Invasion' (Part 1)|last=admin|date=29 April 2014|access-date=8 October 2011|archive-date=23 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210223203550/https://archaeologyonline.net/artifacts/19th-century-paradigms.html}}</ref>}}

====Multiple waves of migration into northern India====
{{see also|Inner–Outer hypothesis}}

[[File:Indus Valley Civilization, Late Phase (1900-1300 BCE).svg|thumb|Indus Valley Civilization, Late Phase (1900-1300 BCE). [[Cemetery H culture|Cemetery H]] and [[Copper Hoard culture|Copper Hoard]] are associated with early [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Indo-Aryan]] migrations.]]

According to [[Asko Parpola|Parpola]], Indo-Aryan clans migrated into South Asia in subsequent waves.{{sfn|Parpola|2015}} This explains the diversity of views found in the Rig Veda, and may also explain the existence of various Indo-Aryan cultural complexes in the later Vedic period, namely the Vedic culture centered on the [[Kuru kingdom]] in the heartland of [[Aryavarta]] in the western Ganges plain, and the cultural complex of [[Greater Magadha]] at the eastern Ganges plain, which gave rise to Jainism and Buddhism.{{sfn|Parpola|2015}}{{sfn|Bronkhorst|2007}}{{sfn|Samuel|2010}}

Writing in 1998, Parpola postulated a first wave of immigration from as early as 1900 BCE, corresponding to the [[Cemetery H culture]] and the [[Copper Hoard culture]], c.q. [[Ochre Coloured Pottery culture]], and an immigration to the Punjab . 1700–1400 BCE.{{sfn|Parpola|1998}}{{refn|group=note|However, this culture may also represent forerunners of the Indo-Iranians, similar to the [[Lullubi]] and Kassite invasion of Mesopotamia early in the second millennium BCE.{{citation needed|date=October 2013}}}} In 2020, Parpola proposed an even earlier wave of [[proto-Indo-Iranian]] speaking people from the [[Sintashta culture]]{{sfn|Parpola|2020|p=186}} into India at c. 1900 BCE, related to the Copper Hoard Culture, followed by a pre-Rig Vedic Indo-Aryan wave of migration:{{sfn|Parpola|2020|p=176, 191}}
{{blockquote|It seems, then, that the earliest Aryan-speaking immigrants to South Asia, the [[Copper Hoard Culture|Copper Hoard people]], came with bull-drawn carts (Sanauli and Daimabad) via the BMAC and had Proto-Indo-Iranian as their language. They were, however, soon followed (and probably at least partially absorbed) by early Indo-Aryans.{{sfn|Parpola|2020|p=191}}}}

This pre-Rig-Vedic wave of migration by early Indo-Aryans is associated by Parpola with "the early (Ghalegay IV–V) phase of the [[Gandhara Grave culture]]" and the [[Atharva Veda]] tradition, and related to the [[Petrovka culture]].{{sfn|Parpola|2020|p=191-192}} The Rig-Vedic wave followed several centuries later, "perhaps in the fourteenth century BCE", and is associated by Parpola with the [[Fedorovo culture]].{{sfn|Parpola|2020|p=192}}

According to Kochhar there were three waves of Indo-Aryan immigration that occurred after the mature Harappan phase:{{sfn|Kochhar|2000|pp=185–186}}
# the "Murghamu" ([[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex|Bactria-Margiana culture]]) related people who entered [[Balochistan]] at Pirak, Mehrgarh south cemetery, and other places, and later merged with the post-urban Harappans during the late Harappans Jhukar phase (2000–1800 BCE);
# the Swat IV that co-founded the Harappan Cemetery H phase in Punjab (2000–1800 BCE);
# and the Rigvedic Indo-Aryans of Swat V that later absorbed the Cemetery H people and gave rise to the [[Painted Grey Ware culture]] (PGW) (to 1400 BCE).

=====Gandhara grave culture and Ochre Coloured Pottery culture=====
{{Main|Gandhara grave culture|Ochre Coloured Pottery culture}}

The standard model{{By whom|date=August 2020}} for the entry of the Indo-European languages into India is that Indo-Aryan migrants went over the [[Hindu Kush]], forming the [[Gandhara grave culture]] or Swat culture, in present-day [[Swat District|Swat valley]], into the headwaters of either the [[Indus River|Indus]] or the [[Ganges]] (probably both). The [[Gandhara grave culture]], which emerged c. 1600 BCE and flourished from c. 1500 BCE to 500 BCE in Gandhara, modern-day Pakistan and Afghanistan, is thus the most likely locus of the earliest bearers of [[Rigveda|Rigvedic culture]]. About 1800 BCE, there is a major cultural change in the [[Swat District|Swat Valley]] with the emergence of the [[Gandhara grave culture]]. With its introduction of new ceramics, new burial rites, and the horse, the [[Gandhara]] grave culture is a major candidate for early Indo-Aryan presence. The two new burial rites—flexed inhumation in a pit and cremation burial in an urn—were, according to early Vedic literature, both practiced in early Indo-Aryan society. Horse-trappings indicate the importance of the horse to the economy of the Gandharan grave culture. Two horse burials indicate the importance of the horse in other respects. Horse burial is a custom that Gandharan grave culture has in common with Andronovo, though not within the distinctive timber-frame graves of the steppe.<ref name = M1989>{{Harvcoltxt|Mallory|1989}}</ref>

Parpola (2020) states:
{{blockquote|The dramatic new discovery of cart burials dated to c. 1900 at [[Sinauli excavation site|Sinauli]] have been reviewed in this paper, and they support my proposal of a pre-Ṛvedic wave (now set of waves) of Aryan speakers arriving in South Asia and their making contact with the Late Harappans.{{sfn|Parpola|2020|p=194}}}}

===Two waves of Indo-Iranian migration===
{{See also|Indo-Iranians}}
The Indo-Iranian migrations took place in two waves,{{sfn|Burrow|1973}}{{sfn|Parpola|1999}} belonging to the second and the third stage of Beckwith's description of the Indo-European migrations.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|pp=32–34}} The first wave consisted of the Indo-Aryan migration into the Levant, seemingly founding the [[Mitanni]] kingdom in northern Syria{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=454}} (c. 1600–1350 BCE),<ref name="academia.edu"/> and the migration south-eastward of the Vedic people, over the Hindu Kush into northern India.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=33 note 20}} [[Christopher I. Beckwith]] suggests that the [[Wusun]], an [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European]] [[Caucasian race|Europoid]] people of [[Inner Asia]] in [[Ancient history|antiquity]], were also of Indo-Aryan origin.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|pp=376–377}} The second wave is interpreted as the Iranian wave.{{sfn|Mallory|1989|pp=42–43}}

===First wave – Indo-Aryan migrations===

====Mittani====
{{Main|Mitanni}}
[[File:Near East 1400 BCE.png|thumb|Map of the Near East {{Circa|1400 BCE}} showing the Kingdom of Mitanni at its greatest extent]]
Mitanni ([[Hittite cuneiform]] {{transliteration|hit|[[KUR]][[Cities of the ancient Near East|URU]]Mi-ta-an-ni}}), also Mittani ({{transliteration|hit|Mi-it-ta-ni}}) or Hanigalbat ([[Assyria]]n Hanigalbat, Khanigalbat cuneiform {{transliteration|akk|Ḫa-ni-gal-bat}}) or Naharin in ancient Egyptian texts was a [[Hurrian language|Hurrian]]-speaking state in northern [[Syria]] and south-east [[Anatolia]] from {{Circa|1600 BCE}} – 1350 BCE.<ref name="academia.edu">Novák, Mirko, (2013). [https://www.academia.edu/7615265/Upper_Mesopotamia_in_the_Mittani_Period "Upper Mesopotamia in the Mittani Period"], in Archéologie et Histoire de la Syrie I, Harrassowitz Verlag, Wiesbaden, p. 349.</ref>

According to one hypothesis, founded by an [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Indo-Aryan]] ruling class governing a predominately [[Hurrians|Hurrian]] population, Mitanni came to be a regional power after the Hittite destruction of [[Amorites|Amorite]]<ref>{{citation |title = The Kingdom of the Hittites |first=Trevor |last=Bryce |publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2005 | page = 98}}</ref> [[First Babylonian dynasty|Babylon]] and a series of ineffectual [[Assyria]]n kings created a power vacuum in Mesopotamia. At the beginning of its history, Mitanni's major rival was Egypt under the [[Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt|Thutmosids]]. However, with the ascent of the [[Hittites|Hittite]] empire, Mitanni and Egypt made an alliance to protect their mutual interests from the threat of Hittite domination.{{Citation needed|date=April 2023}}

At the height of its power, during the 14th century BCE, Mitanni had outposts centered on its capital, [[Washukanni]], whose location has been determined by archaeologists to be on the headwaters of the [[Khabur (Euphrates)|Khabur River]]. Their sphere of influence is shown in Hurrian place names, personal names and the spread through Syria and the [[Levant]] of a distinct pottery type. Eventually, Mitanni succumbed to Hittite and later Assyrian attacks, and was reduced to the status of a province of the [[Middle Assyrian Empire]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2023}}

The earliest written evidence for an [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan language]] is found not in Northwestern India and Pakistan, but in northern Syria, the location of the Mitanni kingdom.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=49}} The Mitanni kings took Old Indic throne names, and Old Indic technical terms were used for horse-riding and chariot-driving.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=49}} The Old Indic term [[Ṛta|r'ta]], meaning "cosmic order and truth", the central concept of the Rigveda, was also employed in the Mitanni kingdom.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=49}} Old Indic gods, including [[Indra]], were also known in the Mitanni kingdom.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=50}}{{sfn|Flood|2008|p=68}}{{sfn|Melton|Baumann|2010|p=1412}}

====North-India – Vedic culture====
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="float:right;margin:0 auto;"
|-
! Spread of Vedic culture
|-
|
[[File:Indus Valley Civilization, Late Phase (1900-1300 BCE).png|thumb|center|400px|Late Harappan phase.]]
[[File:Early Vedic Culture (1700-1100 BCE).png|thumb|center|400px|Early Vedic Period.]]
[[File:Painted Grey Ware Culture (1200-600 BCE).png|thumb|center|400px|[[Painted Grey Ware culture]] (1200–600 BCE)]]
[[File:Late Vedic Culture (1100-500 BCE).png|thumb|center|400px|Kingdoms, tribes and [[shakha|theological schools]] of the Late Vedic Period.]]
|-
|}

=====Spread of Vedic-Brahmanic culture=====
{{Main|Vedic period}}

[[File:Rigvedic geography.jpg|thumb|320px|Geography of the Rigveda, with [[Rigvedic rivers|river names]]; the extent of the [[Swat culture|Swat]] and Cemetery H cultures are indicated.]]
During the Early Vedic Period (c. 1500–800 BCE<ref group=web name="EB-Early Vedic period" />) the Indo-Aryan culture was centered in the northern Punjab, or [[Rigvedic rivers|Sapta Sindhu]].<ref group=web name="EB-Early Vedic period">[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India/46842/Early-Vedic-period Frank Raymon Allchin, ''Early Vedic Period'', Encyclopædia Britannica]</ref> During the Later Vedic Period (c. 800–500 BCE<ref group=web name="EB-Later Vedic Period" />) the Indo-Aryan culture started to extend into the western Ganges Plain,<ref group=web name="EB-Later Vedic Period">[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India/46843/Later-Vedic-period-c-800-c-500-bce Joseph E. Scwartzberg, ''Later Vedic period (c. 800–c. 500 bce)'', Encyclopædia Britannica]</ref> centering on the Vedic [[Kuru Kingdom|Kuru]] and [[Panchala]] area,{{sfn|Samuel|2010}} and had some influence{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=61}} at the central Ganges Plain after 500 BCE.<ref group=web name="EB-Beginning historical period">[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India/46844/The-beginning-of-the-historical-period-c-500-150-bce R. Champakalakshmi, ''The beginning of the historical period, c. 500–150 bce'', Encyclopædia Britannica]</ref> Sixteen [[Mahajanapada]] developed at the Ganges Plain, of which the [[Kuru Kingdom|Kuru]] and [[Panchala]] became the most notable developed centers of Vedic culture, at the western Ganges Plain.<ref group=web name="EB-Later Vedic Period" />{{sfn|Samuel|2010}}

The Central Ganges Plain, where [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]] gained prominence, forming the base of the [[Maurya Empire]], was a distinct cultural area,{{sfn|Samuel|2010|pp=48–51}} with new states arising after 500 BCE<ref group=web name="EB-Beginning historical period" /> during the so-called "Second urbanisation".{{sfn|Samuel|2010|pp=42–48}}{{refn|group=note|The "First urbanisation" was the Indus Valley Civilisation.{{sfn|Samuel|2010}}}} It was influenced by the Vedic culture,{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=61}} but differed markedly from the Kuru-Panchala region.{{sfn|Samuel|2010|pp=48–51}} It "was the area of the earliest known cultivation of rice in the [[Indian subcontinent]] and by 1800 BCE was the location of an advanced neolithic population associated with the sites of Chirand and Chechar".{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=49}} In this region the [[Śramaṇa|Shramanic]] movements flourished, and [[Jainism]] and [[Buddhism]] originated.{{sfn|Samuel|2010}}

====Indus Valley Civilization====
The Indo-Aryan migration into the northern [[Punjab (region)|Punjab]] started shortly after the decline of the [[Indus Valley civilisation]] (IVC). According to the "Aryan Invasion Theory" this decline was caused by "invasions" of barbaric and violent Aryans who conquered the IVC. This "Aryan Invasion Theory" is not supported by the archeological and genetic data, and is not representative of the "Indo-Aryan migration theory".{{Citation needed|date=August 2020}}

=====Decline of Indus Valley Civilisation=====
The decline of the IVC from about 1900 BCE started before the onset of the Indo-Aryan migrations, caused by aridisation due to shifting monsoons.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Malik|first=Nishant|date=2020|title=Uncovering transitions in paleoclimate time series and the climate driven demise of an ancient civilization.|journal=Chaos|volume=30|issue=8|article-number=083108|doi=10.1063/5.0012059|pmid=32872795|bibcode=2020Chaos..30h3108M|s2cid=221468124}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=New mathematical method shows how climate change led to the fall of an ancient civilization|url=https://www.rit.edu/news/new-mathematical-method-shows-how-climate-change-led-fall-ancient-civilization}}</ref> A regional cultural discontinuity occurred during the second millennium BCE and many Indus Valley cities were abandoned during this period, while many new settlements began to appear in [[Gujarat]] and East Punjab and other settlements such as in the western [[Bahawalpur]] region increased in size.{{Citation needed|date=April 2023}}

[[Jim G. Shaffer]] and Lichtenstein contend that in the second millennium BCE considerable "location processes" took place. In the eastern Punjab 79.9% and in [[Gujarat]] 96% of sites changed settlement status. According to Shaffer & Lichtenstein,
{{blockquote|It is evident that a major geographic population shift accompanied this 2nd millennium BCE localisation process. This shift by Harappan and, perhaps, other Indus Valley cultural mosaic groups, is the only archaeologically documented west-to-east movement of human populations in the [[Indian subcontinent]] before the first half of the first millennium B.C.{{sfn|Erdosy|1995|p=139}}}}

=====Continuity of Indus Valley civilization=====
In 1995, and based on a set of [[Craniometry|cranial]] and [[Odontometrics|dental]] comparisons, Erdosy suggested the ancient Harappans were not markedly different from modern populations in Northwestern India and present-day Pakistan. [[Craniometric]] data showed similarity with prehistoric peoples of the Iranian plateau and Western Asia,{{refn|group=note|Comparing the [[Harappa]]n and [[Gandhara]] cultures, Kennedy states: "Our multivariate approach does not define the biological identity of an ancient Aryan population, but it does indicate that the Indus Valley and [[Gandhara]] peoples shared a number of craniometric, odontometric and discrete traits that point to a high degree of biological affinity." Kennedy in {{harvnb|Erdosy|1995|p=49}}}} although [[Mohenjo-daro]] was distinct from the other areas of the Indus Valley.{{refn|group=note|[[Kenneth A. R. Kennedy|Kennedy]]: "Have Aryans been identified in the prehistoric skeletal record from South Asia? Biological anthropology and concepts of ancient races", in {{harvnb|Erdosy|1995}} at p. 49.}}{{refn|group=note|Cephalic measures, however, may not be a good indicator as they do not necessarily indicate ethnicity and they might vary in different environments. On the use of which, however, see{{sfn|Holloway|2002}}}}

In 1995, Kennedy, had found no evidence of "demographic disruptions" immediately after the decline of the Harappa culture.{{sfn|Erdosy|1995|p=54}}{{refn|group=note|Kennedy: "there is no evidence of demographic disruptions in the north-western sector of the [[Subcontinent]] during and immediately after the decline of the [[Harappa]]n culture. If [[Vedic Aryans]] were a biological entity represented by the skeletons from Timargarha, then their biological features of cranial and dental anatomy were not distinct to a marked degree from what we encountered in the ancient Harappans." Kennedy in {{harvnb|Erdosy|1995|p=54}}}} Kenoyer notes that no biological evidence can be found for major new populations in post-Harappan communities.{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=231}}{{refn|group=note|Kenoyer: "there was an overlap between Late [[Harappa]]n and post-Harappan communities ... with no biological evidence for major new populations." Kenoyer as quoted in {{harvnb|Bryant|2001|p=231}}}} Hemphill notes that "patterns of phonetic affinity" between [[Bactria]] and the Indus Valley Civilisation are best explained by "a pattern of long-standing, but low-level bidirectional mutual exchange".{{refn|group=note|Hemphill: "the data provide no support for any model of massive migration and gene flow between the oases of [[Bactria]] and the Indus Valley. Rather, patterns of phonetic affinity best conform to a pattern of long-standing, but low-level bidirectional mutual exchange. {{cite journal | last1 = Hemphill | year = 1998 | title = Biological Affinities and Adaptations of Bronze Age Bactrians: III. An initial craniometric assessment | journal = [[American Journal of Physical Anthropology]] | volume = 106 | issue = 3| pages = 329–348 | doi = 10.1002/(sici)1096-8644(199807)106:3<329::aid-ajpa6>3.0.co;2-h | pmid = 9696149}}; {{cite journal | last1 = Hemphill | year = 1999 | title = Biological Affinities and Adaptations of Bronze Age Bactrians: III. A Craniometric Investigation of Bactrian Origins | journal = American Journal of Physical Anthropology | volume = 108 | issue = 2| pages = 173–192 | doi = 10.1002/(sici)1096-8644(199902)108:2<173::aid-ajpa4>3.0.co;2-3 | pmid = 9988380}} }}

According to Kennedy, the [[Cemetery H culture]] "shows clear biological affinities" with the earlier population of Harappa.<ref>{{harvnb|Kennedy|2000|p=312}}; {{harvnb|Mallory|Adams|1997|pp=103, 310}}</ref> The archaeologist Kenoyer noted that this culture "may only reflect a change in the focus of settlement organization from that which was the pattern of the earlier Harappan phase and not cultural discontinuity, urban decay, invading aliens, or site abandonment, all of which have been suggested in the past."<ref>{{harvnb|Kenoyer|1991b|p=56}}</ref> Recent excavations in 2008 at Alamgirpur, Meerut District, appeared to show an overlap between the Harappan and [[Painted Grey Ware culture]] (PGW) pottery<ref>Singh, R.N., Cameron Petrie et al., (2013). [https://www.academia.edu/8246061/Recent_Excavations_at_Alamgirpur_Meerut_District_A_Preliminary_Report "Recent Excavations at Alamgirpur, Meerut District: A Preliminary Report"], in Man and Environment 38(1), pp. 32-54.</ref> indicating cultural continuity.

=====Relation with Indo-Aryan migrations=====
According to Kenoyer, the decline of the Indus Valley Civilisation is not explained by Aryan migrations,{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=190}}{{refn|group=note|Kenoyer: "Although the overall socioeconomic organization changed, continuities in [[technology]], subsistence practices, settlement organization, and some regional [[symbols]] show that the indigenous population was not displaced by invading hordes of [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] speaking people. For many years, the 'invasions' or 'migrations' of these Indo-Aryan-speaking Vedic/Aryan tribes explained the decline of the Indus civilization and the sudden rise of urbanization in the [[Ganges]]-[[Yamuna]] valley. This was based on simplistic models of culture change and an uncritical reading of Vedic texts...",{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=190}}}} which took place after the decline of the Indus Valley Civilisation. Yet, according to Erdosy,
{{blockquote|Evidence in material culture for systems collapse, abandonment of old beliefs and large-scale, if localised, population shifts in response to ecological catastrophe in the 2nd millennium B.C. must all now be related to the spread of Indo-Aryan languages.{{sfn|Erdosy|1995|p=5}}}}

Erdosy, testing hypotheses derived from linguistic evidence against hypotheses derived from archaeological data,{{sfn|Erdosy|1995|p=24}} states that there is no evidence of "invasions by a barbaric race enjoying technological and military superiority",{{sfn|Erdosy|1995|p=23}} but "some support was found in the archaeological record for small-scale migrations from Central Asia to the [[Indian subcontinent]] in the late 3rd/early 2nd millennia BCE".{{sfn|Erdosy|1995}} According to Erdosy, the postulated movements within Central Asia can be placed within a processional framework, replacing simplistic concepts of "diffusion", "migrations" and "invasions".{{sfn|Erdosy|1995|pp=5–6}}

Scholars have argued that the historical [[Vedic period#Culture|Vedic culture]] is the result of an amalgamation of the immigrating Indo-Aryans with the remnants of the indigenous civilization, such as the [[Ochre Coloured Pottery culture]].

====Inner Asia – Wusun and Yuezhi====
{{Main|Wusun|Yuezhi}}
[[File:Tarimrivermap.png|thumb|right|The Tarim Basin, 2008]]
[[File:Wu-sun Lage.png|thumb|right|Wusun and their neighbours during the late 2nd century BCE. The Yancai did not change their name to [[Alans]] until the 1st century.]]
[[File:Yuezhi_migrations.jpg|thumb|right|The migrations of the Yuezhi through Central Asia, from around 176 BCE to 30 CE]]

According to [[Christopher I. Beckwith]], the [[Wusun]] people of [[Inner Asia]] in [[Ancient history|antiquity]], who he describes as being "markedly [[Caucasian race|Europoid]] in appearance", could've had Indo-Aryan origins.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|pp=376–377}} From the [[Chinese language|Chinese]] term Wusun, Beckwith reconstructs the [[Old Chinese]] *âswin, which he compares to the [[Indo-Aryan languages|Old Indic]] aśvin "the horsemen", the name of the [[Rigvedic deities|Rigvedic]] [[Ashvins|twin equestrian gods]].{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|pp=376–377}} Beckwith suggests that the Wusun were an eastern remnant of the Indo-Aryans, who had been suddenly pushed to the extremeties of the [[Eurasian Steppe]] by the [[Iranian peoples]] in the 2nd millennium BCE.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|pp=29–38}}

The Wusun are first mentioned{{When|date=August 2020}} by Chinese sources as vassals in the [[Tarim Basin]] of the [[Yuezhi]],{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|pp=84–85}} another Indo-European Caucasian people of possible [[Tocharians|Tocharian]] stock.{{sfn|Loewe|Shaughnessy|1999|p=83–88}}<ref name="Beckwith380">{{harvnb|Beckwith|2009|pp=380–383}}</ref> Around 175 BCE, the Yuezhi were utterly defeated by the [[Xiongnu]], also former vassals of the Yuezhi.<ref name="Beckwith380"/><ref name="ChineseHistory">{{cite web |url=http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Altera/wusun.html |title=Chinese History – Wusun 烏孫 |website=Chinaknowledge |access-date=1 January 2015}}</ref> The Yuezhi subsequently attacked the Wusun and killed their king (Kunmo {{lang-zh|昆莫}} or Kunmi {{lang-zh|昆彌}}) Nandoumi ({{lang-zh|難兜靡}}), capturing the [[Ili River|Ili Valley]] from the [[Saka]] ([[Scythians]]) shortly afterwards.<ref name="ChineseHistory"/> In return the Wusun settled in the former territories of the Yuezhi as vassals of the Xiongnu.<ref name="ChineseHistory"/><ref name="Beckwith6">{{harvnb|Beckwith|2009|pp=6–7}}</ref>

The son of Nandoumi was adopted by the Xiongnu king and made leader of the Wusun.<ref name="Beckwith6"/> Around 130 BCE he attacked and utterly defeated the Yuezhi, settling the Wusun in the Ili Valley.<ref name="Beckwith6"/> After the Yuezhi were defeated by the [[Xiongnu]], in the 2nd century BCE, a small group, known as the Little Yuezhi, fled to the south, while the majority migrated west to the Ili Valley, where they displaced the Sakas (Scythians). Driven from the Ili Valley shortly afterwards by the Wusun, the Yuezhi migrated to [[Sogdia]] and then [[Bactria]], where they are often identified with the ''Tókharoi'' (Τοχάριοι) and ''[[Asii]]'' of Classical sources. They then expanded into northern [[Indian subcontinent]], where one branch of the Yuezhi founded the [[Kushan Empire]]. The Kushan empire stretched from [[Turpan]] in the Tarim Basin to [[Pataliputra]] on the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]] at its greatest extent, and played an important role in the development of the [[Silk Road]] and the [[Silk Road transmission of Buddhism|transmission of Buddhism]] to [[China]].

Soon after 130 BCE the Wusun became independent of the Xiongnu, becoming trusted vassals of the [[Han dynasty]] and powerful force in the region for centuries.<ref name="Beckwith6"/> With the emerging steppe federations of the [[Rouran Khaganate|Rouran]], the Wusun migrated into the [[Pamir Mountains]] in the 5th century CE.<ref name="ChineseHistory"/> They are last mentioned in 938 when a Wusun chieftain paid tribute to the [[Liao dynasty]].<ref name="ChineseHistory"/>

===Second wave – Iranians===
{{Unreferenced section|date=August 2020}}
The first Iranians to reach the [[Black Sea]] may have been the [[Cimmerians]] in the 8th century BCE, although their linguistic affiliation is uncertain. They were followed by the [[Scythians]]{{When|date=August 2020}}, who would dominate the area, at their height, from the [[Carpathian Mountains]] in the west, to the easternmost fringes of [[Central Asia]] in the east. For most of their existence, the Scythians were based in what is modern-day Ukraine and southern European [[Russia]]. [[Sarmatians|Sarmatian]] tribes, of whom the best known are the [[Roxolani]] (Rhoxolani), [[Iazyges]] (Jazyges) and the [[Alans]], followed the Scythians westwards into Europe in the late centuries BCE and the 1st and 2nd centuries of the Common Era (The [[Migration Period]]). The populous Sarmatian tribe of the [[Massagetae]], dwelling near the Caspian Sea, were known to the early rulers of Persia in the Achaemenid Period. In the east, the Scythians occupied several areas in Xinjiang, from Khotan to Tumshuq.

The [[Medes]], [[Parthia]]ns and [[Persian people|Persians]] begin to appear on the western [[Iranian Plateau]] from c. 800 BCE, after which they remained under [[Assyria]]n rule for several centuries, as it was with the rest of the peoples in the [[Near East]]. The [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenids]] replaced Median rule from 559 BCE. Around the first millennium of the [[Common Era]] (AD), the [[Kambojas]], the [[Pashtuns]] and the [[Baloch people|Baloch]] began to settle on the eastern edge of the Iranian Plateau, on the mountainous frontier of northwestern and western [[Pakistan]], displacing the earlier [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Indo-Aryans]] from the area.

In Central Asia, the [[Turkic languages]] have marginalized [[Iranian languages]] as a result of the [[Turkic migration]] of the early centuries CE. In Eastern Europe, [[Slavs|Slavic]] and [[Germanic peoples]] assimilated and absorbed the native Iranian languages (Scythian and Sarmatian) of the region. Extant major Iranian languages are [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Pashto]], [[Kurdish languages|Kurdish]], and [[Balochi language|Balochi]], besides numerous smaller ones.

==Anthropology: elite recruitment and language shift==
{{See also|Language shift}}

===Elite dominance===
Small groups can change a larger cultural area,{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=347}}{{sfn|Anthony|2007}} and elite male dominance by small groups may have led to a language shift in northern India.{{sfn|Basu et al.|2003|p=2287}}{{sfn|Anthony|2007|pp=117–118}}{{sfn|Pereltsvaig|Lewis|2015|pp=208–215}}{{refn|group=note|Basu et al. (2003) refer to Renfrew (1992), ''Archaeology, genetics and linguistic diversity'', stating: "Renfrew (1992) has suggested that the elite dominance model, which envisages the intrusion of a relatively small but well-organized group that takes over an existing system by the use of force, may be appropriate to explain the distribution of the IE languages in north India and Pakistan."{{sfn|Basu et al.|2003|p=2287}} Anthony explains that small elite groups may effect significant social changes because their social organisation allows for the recruitment of new members via patronage-systems, which may be attractive for outsiders.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|pp=117–118}}{{sfn|Pereltsvaig|Lewis|2015|pp=208–215}}}} Thapar notes that Indo-Aryan chiefs may have provided protection to non-Aryan agriculturalists, offering a system of patronage placing the chiefs in a superior position. This would have involved bilingualism, resulting in the adoption of Indo-Aryan languages by local populations.{{sfn|Thapar|1996|p=23-24}} According to Parpola, local elites joined "small but powerful groups" of Indo-European speaking migrants.{{sfn|Parpola|2015|p=67}} These migrants had an attractive social system and good weapons, and luxury goods which marked their status and power. Joining these groups was attractive for local leaders, since it strengthened their position, and gave them additional advantages.{{sfn|Parpola|2015|pp=67–68}} These new members were further incorporated by [[Marriage|matrimonial]] alliances.{{sfn|Parpola|2015|p=68}}{{sfn|Mallory|2002}} Genetic studies, on modern South Asian populations, show a disproportionate presence of Steppe ancestry within the elite, Indo-Aryan scripture keeping, Brahmin castes, supporting the elite dominance hypothesis.{{sfn|Narasimhan|Patterson|Moorjani|Rohland|2019}}

===Renfrew: models of "linguistic replacement"===
Basu et al. refer to Renfrew, who described four models for "linguistic replacement":{{sfn|Basu et al.|2003|p=2287}}{{sfn|Renfrew|1992|pp=453–454}}
# The demographic-subsistence model, exemplified by the process of agricultural dispersal, in which the incoming group has exploitive technologies which makes them dominant. It may lead to significant gene flow, and significant genetic changes in the population. But it may also lead to acculturalisation, in which case the technologies are taken over, but there is less change in the genetic composition of the population;
# The existence of extended trading systems which led to the development of a lingua franca, in which case some gene flow is to be expected;
# The elite dominance model, in which "a relatively small but well-organized group [...] take[s] over the system".{{sfn|Renfrew|1992|p=454}} Given the small size of the elite, its genetic influence may also be small, though "preferential access to marriage partners" may result in a relatively strong influence on the gene pool. Sexual asymmetry may also be of influence: incoming elites often consist mostly of males, who have no influence on the mitochondrial DNA of the gene pool, but may influence the Y chromosomes of the gene pool;
# System collapse, in which territorial boundaries are changed, and elite dominance may appear for a while.

===David Anthony: elite recruitment===
David Anthony, in his "revised Steppe hypothesis"{{sfn|Pereltsvaig|Lewis|2015|p=205}} notes that the spread of the Indo-European languages probably did not happen through "chain-type folk migrations", but by the introduction of these languages by ritual and political elites, which are emulated by large groups of people.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=117}}{{refn|group=note|name="Anthony_Language_shift"|David Anthony (1995): "Language shift can be understood best as a social strategy through which individuals and groups compete for positions of prestige, power, and domestic security [...] What is important, then, is not just dominance, but vertical social mobility and a linkage between language and access to positions of prestige and power [...] A relatively small immigrant elite population can encourage widespread language shift among numerically dominant indigenes in a non-state or pre-state context if the elite employs a specific combination of encouragements and punishments. Ethnohistorical cases [...] demonstrate that small elite groups have successfully imposed their languages in non-state situations."{{sfn|Witzel|2001|p=27}}}}{{refn|group=note|Compare the process of [[Sanskritization]] in India.}} Anthony gives the example of the [[Southern Luo language|Southern Luo]]-speaking [[Acholi people|Acholi]] in northern Uganda in the 17th and 18th century, whose language spread rapidly in the 19th century.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|pp=117–118}} Anthony notes that "Indo-European languages probably spread in a similar way among the tribal societies of prehistoric Europe", carried forward by "Indo-European chiefs" and their "ideology of political clientage".{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=118}} Anthony notes that "elite recruitment" may be a suitable term for this system.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=118}}{{refn|group=note|Another example Anthony gives of how an open social system can encourage recruitment and language shift, are the Pathans in western Afghanistan. Traditionally status depended on agricultural surpluses and landownership. The neighbouring Baluch, outnumbered by the Pathans, were pastoral herders, and has hierarchical political system. Pathans who lost their land, could take refuge among the Baluch. As Anthony notes, "chronic tribal warfare might generally favor pastoralism over sedentary economics as herds can be defended by moving them, whereas agricultural fields are an immobile target."{{sfn|Anthony|2007|pp=118–119}}}}

===Michael Witzel: small groups and acculturation===
Michael Witzel refers to Ehret's model{{refn|group=note|Michael Witzel: Ehret, Ch., 1988. "Language Change and the Material Correlates of Language and Ethnic Shift," ''Antiquity'', 62: 564–74; derived from Africa, cf. Diakonoff 1985.{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=347}}}} "which stresses the [[osmosis]], or a 'billiard ball', or Mallory's ''Kulturkugel'', effect of cultural transmission".{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=347}} According to Ehret, ethnicity and language can shift with relative ease in small societies, due to the cultural, economic and military choices made by the local population in question. The group bringing new traits may initially be small, contributing features that can be fewer in number than those of the already local culture. The emerging combined group may then initiate a recurrent, expansionist process of ethnic and language shift.{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=347}}

Witzel notes that "arya/ārya does not mean a particular 'people' or even a particular 'racial' group but all those who had joined the tribes speaking Vedic Sanskrit and adhering to their cultural norms (such as ritual, poetry, etc.)."{{sfn|Witzel|2001|p=21}} According to Witzel, "there must have been a long period of acculturation between the local population and the 'original' immigrants speaking Indo-Aryan."{{sfn|Witzel|2001|p=21}} Witzel also notes that the speakers of Indo-Aryan and the local population must have been bilingual, speaking each other's languages and interacting with each other, before the Rg Veda was composed in the Punjab.{{sfn|Witzel|2001|p=22}}

===Salmons: systematic changes in community structure===
Joseph Salmons notes that Anthony presents scarce concrete evidence or arguments.{{sfn|Salmons|2015|p=116}} Salmons is critical about the notion of "prestige" as a central factor in the shift to Indo-European languages, referring to Milroy who notes that "prestige" is "a cover term for a variety of very distinct notions".{{sfn|Salmons|2015|p=116}} Instead, Milroy offers "arguments built around network structure", though Salmons also notes that Anthony includes several of those arguments, "including political and technological advantages".{{sfn|Salmons|2015|p=116}} According to Salmons, the best model is offered by Fishman,{{refn|group=note|Joshua Fisfman (1991), ''Reversing language shift''}} who
{{blockquote|... understands shift in terms of geographical, social, and cultural "dislocation" of language communities. Social dislocation, to give the most relevant example, involves "siphoning off the talented, the enterprising, the imaginative and the creative" ([Fishman] 1991: 61), and sounds strikingly like Anthony's 'recruitment' scenario.{{sfn|Salmons|2015|p=118}}}}

Salmons himself argues that
{{blockquote|... systematic changes in community structure are what drive language shift, incorporating Milroy's network structures as well. The heart of the view is the quintessential element of modernization, namely a shift from local community-internal organization to regional (state or national or international, in modern settings), extra-community organizations. Shift correlates with this move from pre-dominantly "horizontal" community structures to more "vertical" ones.{{sfn|Salmons|2015|p=118}}{{refn|group=note|name="dislocation"}}}}

==Genetics: ancient ancestry and multiple gene flows==
{{See also|Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia|Peopling of India}}

India has one of the most genetically diverse populations in the world, and the history of this genetic diversity is the topic of continued research and debate. The Indo-Aryan migrations form part of a complex genetical puzzle on the origin and spread of the various components of the Indian population, including various waves of admixture and language shift. The genetic impact of the Indo-Aryans may have been marginal, but this is not at odds with the cultural and linguistic influence, since language shift is possible without a change in genetics.<ref name="Chaubey2008">Gyaneshwer Chaubey et al. (2008), ''Language Shift by Indigenous Population: A Model Genetic Study in South Asia'', Int J Hum Genet, 8(1–2): 41–50 (2008) [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Gyaneshwer_Chaubey/publication/215523811_Language_shift_by_indigenous_population_a_model_genetic_study_in_South_Asia/links/09e41508a88bdd2dde000000.pdf pdf]</ref>

===Ancestral groups===

====Common maternal ancestry====
{{harvnb|Sahoo et al.|2006}} states that "there is general agreement that Indian caste and tribal populations share a common late [[Pleistocene]] maternal ancestry in India."

{{harvnb|Kivisild et al.|1999}} concluded that there is "an extensive deep late Pleistocene{{Technical inline|date=August 2020}} genetic link between contemporary Europeans and Indians" via the [[mitochondrial DNA]], that is, DNA which is inherited from the mother. According to them, the two groups split at the time of the peopling of Asia and Eurasia and before modern humans entered Europe.{{sfn|Kivisild et al.|1999}} Kivisild et al. (2000) note that "the sum of any recent (the last 15,000 years) western mtDNA gene flow to India comprises, in average, less than 10 percent of the contemporary Indian mtDNA lineages."<ref group=web name="Kivisild2000">[http://www.archaeologyonline.net/artifacts/Kivisild2000.pdf Kivisild et al. (2000), ''An Indian Ancestry'', p.271] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130604021826/http://www.archaeologyonline.net/artifacts/Kivisild2000.pdf |date=4 June 2013 }} (referring to Kivisild et al. (1999), "Deep common ancestry")</ref>

{{harvnb|Kivisild et al.|2003}} and {{harvnb|Sharma|Saha|Rai|Bhat|2005}} note that north and south Indians share a common maternal ancestry: Kivisild et al. (2003) further note that "these results show that Indian tribal and caste populations derive largely from the same genetic heritage of Pleistocene{{Technical inline|date=August 2020}} southern and western Asians and have received limited gene flow from external regions since the Holocene.{{Technical inline|date=August 2020}}{{sfn|Kivisild et al.|2003}}

===="Ancestral North Indians" and "Ancestral South Indians"====
{{harvnb|Reich et al.|2009}}, in a collaborative effort between the [[Harvard Medical School]] and the [[Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology]] (CCMB), examined the entire genomes worth 560,000 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), as compared to 420 SNPs in prior work. They also cross-compared them with the genomes of other regions available in the global genome database.<ref>{{cite news |last=Chakravarti |first=Aravinda |title=Tracing India's invisible lthreads |newspaper=Nature (News & Views) |date=24 September 2009 |url=http://genepath.med.harvard.edu/~reich/Press/2009_Nature_India_Chakravarti_News_and_Views.pdf |access-date=11 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903021818/http://genepath.med.harvard.edu/%7Ereich/Press/2009_Nature_India_Chakravarti_News_and_Views.pdf |archive-date=3 September 2015 }}</ref> Through this study, they were able to discern two genetic groups in the majority of populations in India, which they called "Ancestral North Indians" (ANI) and "Ancestral South Indians" (ASI).<ref group=note>{{harvnb|Reich et al.|2009}} excluded the [[Austro-Asiatic languages|Austro-Asiatic]] and [[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman]] speakers from their analysis in order to avoid interference.</ref> They found that the ANI genes are close to those of Middle Easterners, Central Asians and Europeans whereas the ASI genes are dissimilar to all other known populations outside India, though the indigenous [[Andamanese]] were determined to be the most closely related to the ASI population of any living group (albeit distinct from the ASI).{{refn|group=note|{{harvnb|Reich et al.|2009}}: "We analyze 25 diverse groups to provide strong evidence for two ancient populations, genetically divergent, that are ancestral to most Indians today. One, the "Ancestral North Indians" (ANI), is genetically close to Middle Easterners, Central Asians, and Europeans{{Contradictory inline|reason="southern and western Asians and have received limited gene flow from external regions since the Holocene."|date=September 2020}}, while the other, the "Ancestral South Indians" (ASI), is as distinct from ANI and East Asians as they are from each other."}}{{refn|group=note|{{harvnb|Moorjani et al.|2013}}: "Most Indian groups descend from a mixture of two genetically divergent populations: Ancestral North Indians (ANI) related to Central Asians, Middle Easterners, Caucasians, and Europeans; and Ancestral South Indians (ASI) not closely related to groups outside the subcontinent."}} These two distinct groups, which had split ca. 50,000 years ago, formed the basis for the present population of India.<ref group=web name="Dolgin">[http://www.nature.com/news/2009/090922/full/news.2009.935.html Elie Dolgin (2009), ''Indian ancestry revealed. The mixing of two distinct lineages led to most modern-day Indians'', Nature News]</ref>

The two groups mixed between 1,900 and 4,200 years ago (2200 BCE – 100 CE), where-after a shift to endogamy took place and admixture became rare.{{refn|group=note|{{harvnb|Moorjani et al.|2013}}: "We report genome-wide data from 73 groups from the Indian subcontinent and analyze linkage disequilibrium to estimate ANI-ASI mixture dates ranging from about 1,900 to 4,200 years ago. In a subset of groups, 100% of the mixture is consistent with having occurred during this period. These results show that India experienced a demographic transformation several thousand years ago, from a region in which major population mixture was common to one in which mixture even between closely related groups became rare because of a shift to endogamy."}} Speaking to Fountain Ink, David Reich stated, "Prior to 4,200 years ago, there were unmixed groups in India. Sometime between 1,900 to 4,200 years ago, profound, pervasive convulsive mixture occurred, affecting every Indo-European and Dravidian group in India without exception." Reich pointed out that their work does not show that a substantial migration occurred during this time.<ref group=web name=Perur/>

{{harvnb|Metspalu et al.|2011}}, representing a collaboration between the Estonian Biocenter and CCMB, confirmed that the Indian populations are characterized by two major ancestry components. One of them is spread at comparable frequency and haplotype diversity in populations of South and West Asia and the Caucasus. The second component is more restricted to South Asia and accounts for more than 50% of the ancestry in Indian populations. Haplotype diversity associated with these South Asian ancestry components is significantly higher than that of the components dominating the West Eurasian ancestry palette.{{sfn|Metspalu et al.|2011}}

Segurel et al. (2020)<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Segurel |first1=Laure |last2=Guarino-Vignon |first2=Perle |last3=Marchi |first3=Nina |last4=Lafosse |first4=Sophie |last5=Laurent |first5=Romain |last6=Bon |first6=Céline |last7=Fabre |first7=Alexandre |last8=Hegay |first8=Tatyana |last9=Heyer |first9=Evelyne |date=8 June 2020 |title=Why and when was lactase persistence selected for? Insights from Central Asian herders and ancient DNA |journal=PLOS Biology |volume=18 |issue=6 |article-number=e3000742 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000742 |issn=1544-9173 |pmc=7302802 |pmid=32511234 |doi-access=free }}</ref> notes the -13910*T [[Lactase persistence]] mutation, found in present-day South Asia, first appeared approximately 3,960 BCE, in Ukraine, and spread between 2,000 and 1,500 BCE throughout Eurasia. Earlier Tandon et al. (1981) had studied the distribution of lactase toleration in North and South Indians.<ref name=":1" /> Romero et al.(2011)<ref>{{Cite web |last=Romero |first=Irene G |title=Herders of Indian and European Cattle Share Their Predominant Allele for Lactase Persistence |url=https://academic.oup.com/mbe/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/molbev/msr190 |access-date=13 September 2022 |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |year=2012 |volume=29 |pages=249–260 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msr190|pmid=21836184 }}</ref> later plotting a decreasing North West to South East Indian cline for the mutations frequency.

====Additional components====
{{harvnb|Kumar et al.|2015}} discern three major ancestry components, which they call "Southwest Asian", "Southeast Asian" and "Northeast Asian". The Southwest Asian component seems to be a native Indian component, while the Southeast Asian component is related to East Asian populations.{{sfn|ArunKumar et al.|2015|p=496}} Brahmin{{Context inline|date=September 2020}} populations "contained 11.4 and 10.6% of Northern Eurasian and Mediterranean components, thereby suggesting a shared ancestry with the Europeans". They note that this fits with earlier studies which "suggested similar shared ancestries with Europeans and Mediterraneans".{{sfn|ArunKumar et al.|2015|p=496}} They further note that
{{blockquote|Studies based on uni-parental marker have shown diverse Y-chromosomal haplogroups making up the Indian gene pool. Many of these Y-chromosomal markers show a strong correlation to the linguistic affiliation of the population. The genome-wide variation of the Indian samples in the present study correlated with the linguistic affiliation of the sample.{{sfn|ArunKumar et al.|2015|p=497}}}}

They conclude that, while there may have been an ancient settlement in the subcontinent, "male-dominated genetic elements shap[ed] the Indian gene pool", and that these elements "have earlier been correlated to various languages", and further note "the fluidity of female gene pools when in a patriarchal and patrilocal society, such as that of India".{{sfn|ArunKumar et al.|2015|pp=497–498}}

{{harvnb|Basu et al.|2016}} extend the study of {{harvnb|Reich et al.|2009}} by postulating two other populations in addition to the ANI and ASI: "Ancestral Austro-Asiatic" (AAA) and "Ancestral Tibeto-Burman" (ATB), corresponding to the [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] and [[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman]] language speakers.{{sfn|Basu et al.|2016|p=1594}} According to them, ancestral populations seem to have occupied geographically separated habitats.{{sfn|Basu et al.|2016|p=1598}} The ASI and the AAA were early{{When|date=September 2020}} settlers, who possibly arrived via the southern wave out of Africa.{{sfn|Basu et al.|2016|p=1598}} The ANI are related to Central South Asians and entered India through the northwest, while the ATB are related to East Asians and entered India through northeast corridors.{{sfn|Basu et al.|2016|p=1598}} They further note that
{{blockquote|The asymmetry of admixture, with ANI populations providing genomic inputs to tribal populations (AA, Dravidian tribe, and TB) but not vice versa, is consistent with elite dominance and patriarchy. Males from dominant populations, possibly upper castes, with high ANI component, mated outside of their caste, but their offspring were not allowed to be inducted into the caste. This phenomenon has been previously observed as asymmetry in homogeneity of mtDNA and heterogeneity of Y-chromosomal haplotypes in tribal populations of India as well as the African Americans in United States.{{sfn|Basu et al.|2016|p=1598}}}}

====Male-mediated migration====
Reich et al. (2009), citing {{harvnb|Kivisild et al.|1999}}, indicate that there has been a low influx of female genetic material since 50,000 years ago, but a "male gene flow from groups with more ANI relatedness into ones with less".{{sfn|Reich et al.|2009}}{{refn|group=note|Reich et al.: "The stronger gradient in males, replicating previous reports, could reflect either male gene flow from groups with more ANI relatedness into ones with less, or female gene flow in the reverse direction. However, extensive female gene flow in India would be expected to homogenize ANI ancestry on the autosomes just as in mtDNA, which we do not observe. Supporting the view of little female ANI ancestry in India, Kivisild et al. reported that mtDNA 'haplogroup U' splits into two deep clades. 'U2i' accounts for 77% of copies in India but ~0% in Europe, and 'U2e' accounts for 0% of all copies in India but ~10% in Europe. The split is ~50,000 years old, indicating low female gene flow between Europe and India since that time."{{sfn|Reich et al.|2009}}}}

{{harvnb|Kumar et al.|2015}} "suggest that ancient male-mediated migratory events and settlement in various regional niches led to the present day scenario and peopling of India."{{sfn|ArunKumar et al.|2015|p=493}}

Mahl (2021), in a study of the Brahmin ethnic group, identified the ancient male protagonists of the sampled population could be traced to twelve geographic locations, eleven of which were outside South Asia. Of the Y-DNA haplogroups identified, four were carried by ~83% of those sampled, and of these four, two were of Central Asian origin and one of the [[Fertile Crescent]]. All sampled groups were admixed with populations of South Asian origin.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mahal |first=David G. |date=2021 |title=Y-DNA genetic evidence reveals several different ancient origins in the Brahmin population |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00438-020-01725-2 |journal=Molecular Genetics and Genomics |language=en |volume=296 |issue=1 |pages=67–78 |doi=10.1007/s00438-020-01725-2 |pmid=32978661 |s2cid=253981863 |issn=1617-4615}}</ref>

===North-south cline===
According to {{harvnb|Metspalu et al.|2011}} there is "a general principal component cline stretching from Europe to south India". This northwest component is shared with populations from the Middle East, Europe and Central Asia, and is thought to represent at least one ancient influx of people from the northwest.{{sfn|Basu et al.|2003}}{{clarify|reason=Why is a 2003 paper commenting on a 2011 paper?|date=March 2016}} According to Saraswathy et al. (2010), there is "a major genetic contribution from Eurasia to North Indian upper castes" and a "greater genetic inflow among North Indian caste populations than is observed among South Indian caste and tribal populations".<ref group=web name="onlinelibrary.wiley.com">{{cite journal|doi=10.1002/ajpa.21246 | pmid=20091846 | title=Brief communication: Allelic and haplotypic structure at the DRD2 locus among five North Indian caste populations | year=2010 | journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology | volume=141 | issue=4 | pages=651–657 | last1 = Saraswathy | first1 = Kallur N. | bibcode=2010AJPA..141..651S }}</ref> According to {{harvnb|Basu et al.|2003}}, the upper castes generally display stronger affinities to Central Asians, though those from northern India are closer than those from southern India.

===Scenarios===
While Reich notes that the onset of admixture coincides with the arrival of Indo-European language,<ref group=web name="Reich-interview">[https://www.edge.org/conversation/david_reich-the-genomic-ancient-dna-revolution Edge (2016), ''The Genomic Ancient DNA Revolution. A New Way to Investigate the Past. A Conversation With David Reich [2.1.16]'']</ref>{{refn|group=note|David reich: "This mystery of how Indo-Europeans spread over such a vast region and what the historical underpinnings of it would have been is ongoing and remains a mystery. The fact that these languages are in India has led to the hypothesis that they came in from somewhere else, from the north, from the west, and that perhaps maybe this would be a vector for the movement of these people. Another reason that people think that is that when you have languages coming in, not always but usually, they're brought by large movements of people. Hungarian is an exception. The Hungarians are mostly not descended from the people who brought Hungarian to Hungary. In general, languages typically tend to follow large movements of people. On the other hand, once agriculture is established, as it has been for 5000 to 8000 years in India, it's very hard for a group to make a dent on it. The British didn't make any demographic dent on India even though they politically ruled it for a couple of hundred years. It's a mystery how this occurred, and it remains a mystery. What we know is that the likely timing of this event is probably around 3000 to 4000 years ago. The timing of the arrival of Indo-European language corresponds to the timing of the mixture event.<ref group=web name="Reich-interview" />}} according to Metspalu (2011), the commonalities of the ANI with European genes cannot be explained by the influx of Indo-Aryans at ca. 3,500 [[Before Present|BP]] alone.{{sfn|Metspalu et al.|2011|p=741}} They state that the split of ASI and ANI predates the Indo-Aryan migration,{{sfn|Metspalu et al.|2011}} both of these ancestry components being older than 3,500 BP."{{sfn|Metspalu et al.|2011|p=731}}<ref group=web name="indiatoday">{{cite web | title =Indians are not descendants of Aryans, says new study | date=10 December 2011| url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/north/story/indians-are-not-descendants-of-aryans-study-148337-2011-12-09}}</ref> Moorjani (2013) states that "We have further shown that groups with unmixed ANI and ASI ancestry were plausibly living in India until this time."{{sfn|Moorjani et al.|2013|p=429}} Moorjani (2013) describes three scenarios regarding the bringing together of the two groups:{{sfn|Moorjani et al.|2013|pp=422–423}}
# "migrations that occurred prior to the development of agriculture [8,000–9,000 years before present (BP)]. Evidence for this comes from mitochondrial DNA studies, which have shown that the mitochondrial haplogroups (hg U2, U7, and W) that are most closely shared between Indians and West Eurasians diverged about 30,000–40,000 years BP."
# "Western Asian peoples migrated to India along with the spread of agriculture [...] Any such agriculture related migrations would probably have begun at least 8,000–9,000 years BP (based on the dates for Mehrgarh) and may have continued into the period of the Indus civilization that began around 4,600 years BP and depended upon West Asian crops."
# "migrations from Western or Central Asia from 3,000 to 4,000 years BP, a time during which it is likely that Indo-European languages began to be spoken in the subcontinent. A difficulty with this theory, however, is that by this time India was a densely populated region with widespread agriculture, so the number of migrants of West Eurasian ancestry must have been extraordinarily large to explain the fact that today about half the ancestry in India derives from the ANI."

====Pre-agricultural migrations====
{{See also|Peopling of India}}

Metspalu et al. (2011) detected a genetic component in India, k5, which "distributed across the Indus Valley, Central Asia, and the Caucasus".{{sfn|Metspalu et al.|2011|pp=734–735}} According to Metspalu et al. (2011), k5 "might represent the genetic vestige of the ANI", though they also note that the geographic cline of this component within India "is very weak, which is unexpected under the ASI-ANI model", explaining that the ASI-ANI model implies an ANI contribution which decreases toward southern India.{{sfn|Metspalu et al.|2011|p=739}} According to Metspalu et al. (2011), "regardless of where this component was from (the Caucasus, Near East, Indus Valley, or Central Asia), its spread to other regions must have occurred well before our detection limits at 12,500 years."{{sfn|Metspalu et al.|2011|p=740}} Speaking to Fountain Ink, Metspalu said, "the West Eurasian component in Indians appears to come from a population that diverged genetically from people actually living in Eurasia, and this separation happened at least 12,500 years ago."<ref group=web name=Perur />{{refn|group=note|Note that according to Jones et al. (2015), Caucasian Hunter Gatherers and "the ancestors of Neolithic farmers" split circa 25,000 years ago: "Caucasus hunter-gatherers (CHG) belong to a distinct ancient clade that split from western hunter-gatherers ~45 kya, shortly after the expansion of anatomically modern humans into Europe and from the ancestors of Neolithic farmers ~25 kya, around the Last Glacial Maximum. CHG genomes significantly contributed to the Yamnaya steppe herders who migrated into Europe B3,000 BC, supporting a formative Caucasus influence on this important Early Bronze age culture."{{sfn|Jones|2016}}}} Moorjani et al. (2013) refer to Metspalu (2011){{refn|group=note|The reference is to a "recent study", and gives Kivisild et al. (1999). Kivisild (1999) does not mention the number 12,500, nor does it explicitly make such a statement. What it does state is that western-Eurasian and Indian mtDNA lineages overlap in haplogroup U;{{sfn|Kivisild et al.|1999|p=1331}} that the split between the western-Eurasian and Indian U2 lineages appeared circa 53,000 ± 4,000 years before present;{{sfn|Kivisild et al.|1999|p=1331}} and that "despite their equally deep time depth, the Indian U2 has not penetrated western Eurasia, and the European U5 has almost not reached India."{{sfn|Kivisild et al.|1999|p=1332}} They further note that wester-Eurasian mtDNA lineages did spread in India at the time of the spread of agricultural crops from the fertile Crescent.{{sfn|Kivisild et al.|1999|pp=1332–1333}} Metspalu et al. (2011) ''do'' refer to 12,500 years ago.{{sfn|Metspalu et al.|2011|p=740}} Apparently, the reference to Kivisld (1999) is incorrect, and was not noticed by the authors.}} as "fail[ing] to find any evidence for shared ancestry between the ANI and groups in West Eurasia within the past 12,500 years".{{sfn|Moorjani et al.|2013|p=430}} CCMB researcher Thangaraj believes that "it was much longer ago", and that "the ANI came to India in a second wave of migration{{refn|group=note|After the initial settlement of India by the ASI.}} that happened perhaps 40,000 years ago."<ref group=web name=Perur>[https://genetics.med.harvard.edu/reich/Reich_Lab/Press_files/Fountain%20Ink%20-%20December%202013%20-%20Cover.pdf Srinath Perur (December 2013), ''The origins of Indians. What our genes are telling us.'', Fountain Ink] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304073824/http://genetics.med.harvard.edu/reich/Reich_Lab/Press_files/Fountain%20Ink%20-%20December%202013%20-%20Cover.pdf |date=4 March 2016 }}</ref>

{{harvnb|Narasimhan|Patterson|Moorjani|Rohland|2019}} conclude that ANI and ASI were formed in the 2nd millennium BCE.{{sfn|Narasimhan|Patterson|Moorjani|Rohland|2019}} They were preceded by IVC-people, a mixture of AASI (ancient ancestral south Indians, that is, hunter-gatherers related), and people related to but distinct from Iranian agri-culturalists, lacking the Anatolian farmer-related ancestry which was common in Iranian farmers after 6000 BCE.{{sfn|Narasimhan|Patterson|Moorjani|Rohland|2019|p=11}}{{refn|group=note|Narasimhan et al.: "[One possibility is that] Iranian farmer–related ancestry in this group was characteristic of the Indus Valley hunter-gatherers in the same way as it was characteristic of northern Caucasus and Iranian plateau hunter-gatherers. The presence of such ancestry in hunter-gatherers from Belt and Hotu Caves in northeastern Iran increases the plausibility that this ancestry could have existed in hunter-gatherers farther east."{{sfn|Narasimhan|Patterson|Moorjani|Rohland|2019|p=11}} Shinde et al. (2019) note that these Iranian people "had little if any genetic contribution from [...] western Iranian farmers or herders";{{sfn|Shinde|Narasimhan|Rohland|Mallick|2019|p=6}} they split from each other more than 12,000 years ago.{{sfn|Shinde|Narasimhan|Rohland|Mallick|2019|p=4}} See also Razib Kkan, [https://www.gnxp.com/WordPress/2019/09/05/the-day-of-the-dasa/ ''The Day of the Dasa'']: "...it may, in fact, be the case that ANI-like quasi-Iranians occupied northwest South Asia for a long time, and AHG populations hugged the southern and eastern fringes, during the height of the Pleistocene."}}{{refn|group=note|There was a rapid increase of the [[Caucasus Hunter-Gatherer]]-related south Caucasian population at the end of the Last Glacial Maximum, about 18,000 years ago,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Margaryan |first1=Ashot |last2=Derenko |first2=Miroslava |last3=Hovhannisyan |first3=Hrant |last4=Malyarchuk |first4=Boris |last5=Heller |first5=Rasmus |last6=Khachatryan |first6=Zaruhi |last7=Avetisyan |first7=Pavel |last8=Badalyan |first8=Ruben |last9=Bobokhyan |first9=Arsen |last10=Melikyan |first10=Varduhi |last11=Sargsyan |first11=Gagik |last12=Piliposyan |first12=Ashot |last13=Simonyan |first13=Hakob |last14=Mkrtchyan |first14=Ruzan |last15=Denisova |first15=Galina |last16=Yepiskoposyan |first16=Levon |last17=Willerslev |first17=Eske |last18=Allentoft |first18=Morten E. |title=Eight Millennia of Matrilineal Genetic Continuity in the South Caucasus |journal=[[Current Biology]] |date=July 2017 |volume=27 |issue=13 |pages=2023–2028.e7 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2017.05.087 |pmid=28669760 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2017CBio...27E2023M }}</ref> and [[Near East]] and [[Caucasus]] people probably also migrated to Europe during the [[Mesolithic]], around 14,000 years ago.{{sfn|Fu|Posth|Hajdinjak|Petr|2016}}}} Those Iranian farmers-related people may have arrived in India before the advent of farming in northern India,{{sfn|Narasimhan|Patterson|Moorjani|Rohland|2019|p=11}} and mixed with people related to Indian hunter-gatherers ca. 5400 to 3700 BCE, before the advent of the mature IVC.{{sfn|Narasimhan|Patterson|Moorjani|Rohland|2019|p=5}}{{refn|group=note|Mascarenhas et al. (2015) note that "new, possibly West Asian, body types are reported from the graves of Mehrgarh beginning in the Togau phase (3800 BCE)."{{sfn|Mascarenhas|Raina|Aston|Sanghera|2015|p=9}}}} This mixed IVC-population, which probably was native to the Indus Valley Civilisation, "contributed in large proportions to both the ANI and ASI", which took shape during the 2nd millennium BCE. ANI formed out of a mixture of "''Indus_Periphery''-related groups" and migrants from the steppe, while ASI was formed out of "''Indus_Periphery''-related groups" who moved south and mixed with hunter-gatherers.{{sfn|Narasimhan et al.|2018|p=15}}

====Agricultural migrations====

=====Near-Eastern migrations=====
[[File:Indus Valley Civilization, Late Phase (1900-1300 BCE).png|thumb|right|Late Harappan phase (1900–1300 BCE)]]
[[File:Early Vedic Culture (1700-1100 BCE).png|thumb|right|Early Vedic Culture (1700–1100 BCE)]]
{{See also|Neolithic Revolution|Fertile Crescent|Dravidian languages#Prehistory}}

{{harvnb|Kivisild et al.|1999}} note that "a small fraction of the 'Caucasoid-specific' mtDNA lineages found in Indian populations can be ascribed to a relatively recent admixture."{{sfn|Kivisild et al.|1999|p=1331}} at ca. 9,300 ± 3,000 years before present,{{sfn|Kivisild et al.|1999|p=1333}} which coincides with "the arrival to India of cereals domesticated in the [[fertile Crescent]]" and "lends credence to the suggested [[Elamo-Dravidian languages|linguistic connection]] between Elamite and Dravidic populations".{{sfn|Kivisild et al.|1999|p=1333}}{{refn|group=note|name="Dravidian"|Both Renfrew and Cavalli-Sforza propose that proto-Dravidian was brought to India by farmers from the Iranian part of the Fertile Crescent.{{sfn|Cavalli-Sforza|Menozzi|Piazza|1994|pp=221–222}} The Dravidian language was present in northern India at the time of the arrival of the Indo-Aryans, who borrowed a substantial number of words from the Dravidian language.}}

According to Gallego Romero et al. (2011), their research on lactose tolerance in India suggests that "the west Eurasian genetic contribution identified by Reich et al. (2009) principally reflects gene flow from Iran and the Middle East."{{sfn|Gallego Romero|2011|p=9}} Gallego Romero notes that Indians who are lactose-tolerant show a genetic pattern regarding this tolerance which is "characteristic of the common European mutation".<ref group=web name="ScienceLife2011">[http://sciencelife.uchospitals.edu/2011/09/14/lactose-tolerance-in-the-indian-dairyland/ Rob Mitchum (2011), ''Lactose Tolerance in the Indian Dairyland'', ScienceLife]</ref> According to Gallego Romero, this suggests that "the most common lactose tolerance mutation made a two-way migration out of the Middle East less than 10,000 years ago. While the mutation spread across Europe, another explorer must have brought the mutation eastward to India – likely traveling along the coast of the Persian Gulf where other pockets of the same mutation have been found."<ref group=web name="ScienceLife2011" /> In contrast, Allentoft et al. (2015) found that lactose-tolerance was absent in the Yamnaya culture, noting that while "the Yamnaya and these other Bronze Age cultures herded cattle, goats, and sheep, they couldn't digest raw milk as adults. Lactose tolerance was still rare among Europeans and Asians at the end of the Bronze Age, just 2000 years ago."<ref group=web>[https://www.science.org/content/article/nomadic-herders-left-strong-genetic-mark-europeans-and-asians Ann Gibbons (2015), ''Nomadic herders left a strong genetic mark on Europeans and Asians'', Science]</ref>{{sfn|Allentoft|Sikora|Sjögren|Rasmussen|2015}}

According to Lazaridis et al. (2016), "farmers related to those from Iran spread northward into the Eurasian steppe; and people related to both the early farmers of Iran and to the pastoralists of the Eurasian steppe spread eastward into South Asia."{{sfn|Lazaridis et al.|2016}} They further note that ANI "can be modelled as a mix of ancestry related to both early farmers of [[Zagros Mountains|western Iran]] and to people of the Bronze Age Eurasian steppe".{{sfn|Lazaridis et al.|2016}}{{refn|group=note|See also eurogenes.blogspot, [http://eurogenes.blogspot.nl/2016/06/the-genetic-structure-of-worlds-first.html ''The genetic structure of the world's first farmers (Lazaridis et al. preprint) ''].}}

=====Haplogroup R1a and related haplogroups=====
[[File:R1a origins (Underhill 2010) and R1a1a oldest expansion and highest frequency (2014).jpg|thumb|R1a origins (Underhill 2010);<ref>{{cite journal | pmc = 2987245 | pmid=19888303 | doi=10.1038/ejhg.2009.194 | volume=18 | issue=4 | title=Separating the post-Glacial coancestry of European and Asian Y chromosomes within haplogroup R1a | year=2010 | journal=European Journal of Human Genetics | pages=479–84 | last1 = Underhill | first1 = PA | last2 = Myres | first2 = NM | last3 = Rootsi | first3 = S | last4 = Metspalu | first4 = M | last5 = Zhivotovsky | first5 = LA | last6 = King | first6 = RJ | last7 = Lin | first7 = AA | last8 = Chow | first8 = CE | last9 = Semino | first9 = O | last10 = Battaglia | first10 = V | last11 = Kutuev | first11 = I | last12 = Järve | first12 = M | last13 = Chaubey | first13 = G | last14 = Ayub | first14 = Q | last15 = Mohyuddin | first15 = A | last16 = Mehdi | first16 = SQ | last17 = Sengupta | first17 = S | last18 = Rogaev | first18 = EI | last19 = Khusnutdinova | first19 = EK | last20 = Pshenichnov | first20 = A | last21 = Balanovsky | first21 = O | last22 = Balanovska | first22 = E | last23 = Jeran | first23 = N | last24 = Augustin | first24 = DH | last25 = Baldovic | first25 = M | last26 = Herrera | first26 = RJ | last27 = Thangaraj | first27 = K | last28 = Singh | first28 = V | last29 = Singh | first29 = L | last30 = Majumder | first30 = P | last31 = Rudan | first31 = P | last32 = Primorac | first32 = D | last33 = Villems | first33 = R | last34 = Kivisild | first34 = T}}</ref> R1a migration to Eastern Europe; R1a1a diversification (Pamjav 2012); and R1a1a oldest expansion and highest frequency (Underhill 2014)]]

{{Main|Haplogroup R1a}}

The distribution and proposed origin of haplogroup R1a, more specifically R1a1a1b, is often being used as an argument pro or contra the Indo-Aryan migrations. It is found in high frequencies in Eastern Europe (Z282) and south Asia (Z93), the areas of the Indo-European migrations. The place of origin of this haplogroup may give an indication of the "homeland" of the Indo-Europeans, and the direction of the first migrations.{{sfn|Underhill|2015}}

{{harvnb|Cordeaux et al.|2004}}, based on the spread of a cluster of haplogroups (J2, R1a, R2, and L) in India, with higher rates in northern India,{{sfn|Sahoo et al.|2006|p=843}} argue that agriculture in south India spread with migrating agriculturalists, which also influenced the genepool in south India.{{sfn|Cordeaux et al.|2004|p=1125}}{{sfn|Sahoo et al.|2006|p=843}}

{{harvnb|Sahoo et al.|2006}}, in response to Cordeaux et al. (2004), suggest that those haplogroups originated in India, based on the spread of these various haplogroups in India. According to Sahoo et al. (2006), this spread "argue[s] against any major influx, from regions north and west of India, of people associated either with the development of agriculture or the spread of the Indo-Aryan language family".{{sfn|Sahoo et al.|2006|p=843}} They further propose that "the high incidence of R1* and R1a throughout Central Asian and East European populations (without R2 and R* in most cases) is more parsimoniously explained by gene flow in the opposite direction",{{sfn|Sahoo et al.|2006|pp=845–846}} which according to Sahoo et al. (2006) explains the "sharing of some Y-chromosomal haplogroups between Indian and Central Asian populations".{{sfn|Sahoo et al.|2006|p=843}}

Sengupta et al. (2006) also comment on Cordeaux et al. (2004), stating that "the influence of Central Asia on the pre-existing gene pool was minor", and arguing for "a peninsular origin of Dravidian speakers than a source with proximity to the Indus and with significant genetic input resulting from demic diffusion associated with agriculture".{{sfn|Sengupta|2006}}

Sharma et al. (2009) found a high frequency of R1a1 in India. They therefore argue for an Indian origin of R1a1, and dispute "the origin of Indian higher most castes from Central Asian and Eurasian regions, supporting their origin within the Indian subcontinent".{{sfn|Sharma et al.|2009}}

Underhill et al. (2014/2015) conclude that R1a1a1, the most frequent subclade of R1a, split into Z282 (Europe) and Z93 (Asia) at circe 5,800 before present.{{sfn|Underhill|2015|p=124}} According to Underhill et al. (2014/2015), "[t]his suggests the possibility that R1a lineages accompanied [[Demic diffusion|demic expansions]] initiated during the Copper, Bronze, and Iron ages."{{sfn|Underhill|2014}} They further note that the diversification of Z93 and the "early urbanization within the Indus Valley also occurred at this time and the geographic distribution of R1a-M780 (Figure 3d) may reflect this".{{sfn|Underhill|2014}}

Palanichamy et al. (2015), while responding to Cordeaux et al. (2004), Sahoo et al. (2006) and Sengupta et al. (2006), elaborated on Kivisild et al.'s (1999) suggestion that West Eurasian haplogroups "may have been spread by the early Neolithic migrations of proto-Dravidian farmers spreading from the eastern horn of the Fertile Crescent into India".{{sfn|Palanichamy|2015|p=638}} They conclude that "the L1a lineage arrived from western Asia during the Neolithic period and perhaps was associated with the spread of the Dravidian language to India", indicating that "the Dravidian language originated outside India and may have been introduced by pastoralists coming from western Asia (Iran)."{{sfn|Palanichamy|2015|p=645}} They further conclude that two subhalogroups originated with the Dravidian speaking peoples, and may have come to South India when the Dravidian language spread.{{sfn|Palanichamy|2015}}

Poznik et al. (2016) note that "striking expansions" occurred within R1a-Z93 at ~4,500–4,000 years ago, which "predates by a few centuries the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilisation".{{sfn|Poznik|2016|p=7}} Mascarenhas et al. (2015) note that the expansion of Z93 from [[Transcaucasia]] into South Asia is compatible with "the archeological records of eastward expansion of West Asian populations in the 4th millennium BCE culminating in the so-called [[Kura–Araxes culture|Kura-Araxes]] migrations in the post-[[Uruk period|Uruk IV period]]".{{sfn|Mascarenhas|Raina|Aston|Sanghera|2015|p=9}}

====Indo-European migrations====

=====Genetic impact of Indo-Aryan migrations=====
{{harvnb|Bamshad et al.|2001}}, Wells et al. (2002) and {{harvnb|Basu et al.|2003}} argue for an influx of Indo-European migrants into the Indian subcontinent, but not necessarily an "invasion of any kind".<ref group="web" name="FOSA">{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20060418044020/http://www.friendsofsouthasia.org/textbook/Recent_Findings_Archaeogenetics.html FOSA, ''Recent findings in Archeogenetics and the Aryan Migration Theory'']}}</ref> {{harvnb|Bamshad et al.|2001}} notice that the correlation between caste-status and West Eurasian DNA may be explained by subsequent male immigration into the Indian subcontinent. {{harvnb|Basu et al.|2003}} argue that the Indian subcontinent was subjected to a series of Indo-European migrations about 1500 BCE.

Zerjal et al. (2002) argue that "multiple recent events" may have reshaped India's genetic landscape.<ref name="Zerjal2002" group="web">{{cite journal|last1=Zerjal|display-authors=etal|date=Sep 2002|title=A Genetic Landscape Reshaped by Recent Events: Y-Chromosomal Insights into Central Asia|journal=Am J Hum Genet|volume=71|issue=3|pages=466–482|doi=10.1086/342096|pmc=419996|pmid=12145751}}</ref>

Metspalu et al. (2011) note that "any nonmarginal migration from Central Asia to South Asia should have also introduced readily apparent signals of East Asian ancestry into India" (although this presupposes the unproven assumption that East Asian ancestry was present – to a significant extent – in prehistorical Central Asia), which is not the case, and conclude that if there was a major migration of Eurasians into India, this happened before the rise of the Yamna culture.{{sfn|Metspalu et al.|2011|p=739}} Based on Metspalu (2011), Lalji Singh, a co-author of Metspalu, concludes that "[t]here is no genetic evidence that Indo-Aryans invaded or migrated to India".<ref group=web name="IT">[https://www.indiatoday.in/india/north/story/indians-are-not-descendants-of-aryans-study-148337-2011-12-09 India Today, ''Indians are not descendants of Aryans, says new study'']</ref><ref group=web>[http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-new-research-debunks-aryan-invasion-theory-1623744 dnaindia.com, ''New research debunks Aryan invasion theory'']</ref><ref group=web>[http://www.ibtl.in/news/exclusive/1625/aryan-invasion-theory-used-for-divide-and-convert-:-exposed-by-fresh-genetic-research/ ITBL, ''Aryan Invasion Theory used for Divide and Convert: Exposed by fresh Genetic research'']</ref>{{refn|group=note|Metspalu et al (2011): "However, any nonmarginal migration from Central Asia to the [[Indian subcontinent]] should have also introduced readily apparent signals of East Asian ancestry into India (see Figure 2B). Because this ancestry component is absent from the region, we have to conclude that if such a dispersal event nevertheless took place, it occurred before the East Asian ancestry component reached Central Asia. The demographic history of Central Asia is, however, complex, and although it has been shown that demic diffusion coupled with influx of Turkic speakers during historical times has shaped the genetic makeup of Uzbeks75 [...] it is not clear what was the extent of East Asian ancestry in Central Asian populations prior to these events.{{sfn|Metspalu et al.|2011|p=739}} See also Dinesh C. Sharma (2011), "[https://www.indiatoday.in/india/north/story/indians-are-not-descendants-of-aryans-study-148337-2011-12-09 Indians are not descendants of Aryans, says new study]", ''India Today''}}

Moorjani et al. (2013) notes that the period of 4,200–1,900 years BP was a time of dramatic changes in northern India, and coincides with the "likely first appearance of Indo-European languages and Vedic religion in the subcontinent".{{sfn|Moorjani et al.|2013|p=430}}{{refn|group=note|Moorjani: "The period of around 1,900–4,200 years BP was a time of profound change in India, characterized by the deurbanization of the Indus civilization, increasing population density in the central and downstream portions of the Gangetic system,40 shifts in burial practices, and the likely first appearance of Indo-European languages and Vedic religion in the subcontinent."{{sfn|Moorjani et al.|2013|p=430}} Note that according to Salmons, language shift is driven by "systematic changes in community structure [...] namely a shift from local community-internal organization to regional (state or national or international, in modern settings), extra-community organizations. Shift correlates with this move from pre-dominantly 'horizontal' community structures to more 'vertical' ones."{{sfn|Salmons|2015|p=118}}}} Moorjani further notes that there must have been multiple waves of admixture, which had more impact on higher-caste and northern Indians and took place more recently.{{sfn|Moorjani et al.|2013|p=429}}{{refn|group=note|Moorjani: "Further evidence for multiple waves of admixture in the history of many traditionally middle- and upper-caste groups (as well as Indo-European and northern groups) comes from the more recent admixture dates we observe in these groups (Table 1) and the fact that a sum of two exponential functions often produces a better fit to the decay of admixture LD than does a single exponential (as noted above for some northern groups; Appendix B). Evidence for multiple components of West Eurasian-related ancestry in northern Indian populations has also been reported by Metspalu et al. based on clustering analysis."{{sfn|Moorjani et al.|2013|p=429}}}} This may be explained by "additional gene flow", related to the spread of languages:{{sfn|Moorjani et al.|2013|pp=429–430}}
{{blockquote|...at least some of the history of population mixture in India is related to the spread of languages in the subcontinent. One possible explanation for the generally younger dates in northern Indians is that after an original mixture event of ANI and ASI that contributed to all present-day Indians, some northern groups received additional gene flow from groups with high proportions of West Eurasian ancestry, bringing down their average mixture date.{{sfn|Moorjani et al.|2013|pp=429–430}}{{refn|group=note|The "original mixture event of ANI and ASI" may have been the spread of Dravidian languages to the south, followed by the (still ongoing) [[Sanskritization]] of India.<ref>[[Razib Khan]] (2013), "[http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/gnxp/2013/08/indo-aryans-dravidians-and-waves-of-admixture-migration/ Indo-Aryans, Dravidians, and waves of admixture (migration?)]", Gene expression</ref> Note that [[Asko Parpola]] proposes that the Harappans spoke [[Proto-Dravidian language]],<ref group=web>[http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/underlying-language-of-indus-script-protodravidian-asko-parpola/article485447.ece The Hindu, ''Underlying language of Indus script, Proto-Dravidian: Asko Parpola'']</ref> and Mikhail Andronov proposes that the Proto-Dravidian language was introduced by migrations at the beginning of the third millennium BCE.{{sfn|Andronov|2003|p=299}} See Dieneke's blogspot, "[http://dienekes.blogspot.nl/2009/09/560k-snp-study-reveals-dual-rigin-of.html 560K SNP study reveals dual rigin of Indian populations (Reich et al. 2009)]" and [[Razib Khan]] (8 August 2013), "[http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/gnxp/2013/08/indo-aryans-dravidians-and-waves-of-admixture-migration/ Indo-Aryans, Dravidians, and waves of admixture (migration?)]" for various proposals and discussions, and [http://dienekes.blogspot.nl/2012/10/the-tangled-web-of-humanity.html this chart] for the complexities of the Indian (and European) genepool.}}}}

Palanichamy et al. (2015), elaborating on Kivisild et al. (1999) conclude that "A large proportion of the west Eurasian mtDNA haplogroups observed among the higher-ranked caste groups, their phylogenetic affinity and age estimate indicate recent Indo-Aryan migration to India from west Asia.{{sfn|Palanichamy|2015|p=645}} According to Palanichamy et al. (2015), "the west Eurasian admixture was restricted to caste rank. It is likely that Indo-Aryan migration has influenced the social stratification in the pre-existing populations and helped in building the Hindu caste system, but it should not be inferred that the contemporary Indian caste groups have directly descended from Indo-Aryan immigrants.{{sfn|Palanichamy|2015|p=645}}{{refn|group=note|According to George Hart, there existed an "Early South Indian Caste System", which differed from the well-known classic north Indian ''vanas''.{{sfn|Samuel|2008|p=86}}}}

Jones et al. (2015) state that [[Caucasus hunter-gatherer|Caucasus hunter gatherer]](CHG){{refn|group=note|Caucasus Hunter Gatherers, one of the contributors to the Indo-Aryan gene-pool. According to Jones et al. (2015), "Caucasus hunter-gatherers (CHG) belong to a distinct ancient clade that split from western hunter-gatherers ~45 kya, shortly after the expansion of anatomically modern humans into Europe and from the ancestors of Neolithic farmers ~25 kya, around the Last Glacial Maximum."{{sfn|Jones|2016|p=1}}}} was "a major contributor to the Ancestral North Indian component". According to Jones et al. (2015), it "may be linked with the spread of Indo-European languages", but they also note that "earlier movements associated with other developments such as that of cereal farming and herding are also plausible".{{sfn|Jones|2016|p=5}}

{{harvnb|Basu et al.|2016}} note that the ANI are inseparable from Central-South Asian populations in present-day Pakistan. They hypothesise that "the root of ANI is in Central Asia".{{sfn|Basu et al.|2016|p=1597}}

According to Lazaridis et al. (2016) ANI "can be modelled as a mix of ancestry related to both early farmers of western Iran and to people of the Bronze Age Eurasian steppe".{{sfn|Lazaridis et al.|2016}}

Silva et al. (2017) state that "the recently refined Y-chromosome tree strongly suggests that R1a is indeed a highly plausible marker for the long-contested Bronze Age spread of Indo-Aryan speakers into South Asia."{{sfn|Silva et al.|2017}}{{refn|group=note|See also Eurogenes Blog, [http://eurogenes.blogspot.nl/2017/03/heavily-sex-biased-population.html ''"Heavily sex-biased" population dispersals into the Indian Subcontinent''].}} Silva et al. (2017) further notes "they likely spread from a single [[Central Asia]]n source pool, there do seem to be at least three and probably more R1a founder clades within the Subcontinent, consistent with multiple waves of arrival."

{{harvnb|Narasimhan et al.|2018}} conclude that pastoralists spread southwards from the Eurasian steppe during the period 2300–1500 BCE. These pastoralists during the 2nd millennium BCE, who were likely associated with Indo-European languages, presumably mixed with the descendants of the Indus Valley Civilisation, who in turn were a mix of Iranian agriculturalists and South Asian hunter-gatherers forming "the single most important source of ancestry in South Asia."{{sfn|Narasimhan et al.|2018|p=15}}

====Origins of R1a-Z93====
Ornella Semino et al. (2000) proposed Ukrainian origins of R1a1, and a postglacial spread of the R1a1 gene during the [[Late Glacial]], subsequently magnified by the expansion of the Kurgan culture into Europe and eastward.<ref>Ornella Semino, Giuseppe Passarino, Peter J. Oefner, Alice A. Lin, Svetlana Arbuzova, Lars E. Beckman, Giovanna De Benedictis, Paolo Francalacci, Anastasia Kouvatsi, Svetlana Limborska, Mladen Marciki, Anna Mika, Barbara Mika, Dragan Primorac, A. Silvana Santachiara-Benerecetti, L. Luca Cavalli-Sforza, Peter A. Underhill, The Genetic Legacy of Paleolithic Homo sapiens sapiens in Extant Europeans: A Y Chromosome Perspective, ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'', vol. 290 (10 November 2000), pp. 1155–1159.</ref> Spencer Wells proposes central Asian origins, suggesting that the distribution and age of R1a1 points to an ancient migration corresponding to the spread by the [[Kurgan]] people in their expansion from the [[Eurasian Steppe]].{{sfn|Wells|2001}} According to Pamjav et al. (2012), "Inner and Central Asia is an overlap zone for the R1a1-Z280 and R1a1-Z93 lineages [which] implies that an early differentiation zone of R1a1-M198 conceivably occurred somewhere within the Eurasian Steppes or the Middle East and Caucasus region as they lie between South Asia and Eastern Europe."{{sfn|Pamjav|2012}}{{sfn|Silva et al.|2017}}

A 2014 study by Peter A. Underhill et al., using 16,244 individuals from over 126 populations from across Eurasia, concluded that there was compelling evidence that "the initial episodes of haplogroup R1a diversification likely occurred in the vicinity of present-day [[Iran]]."<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Underhill | first1 = Peter A | year = 2014 | title = The phylogenetic and geographic structure of Y-chromosome haplogroup R1a | journal = [[European Journal of Human Genetics]] | volume = 23 | issue = 1| pages = 124–131 | doi = 10.1038/ejhg.2014.50 | pmid = 24667786 | pmc = 4266736 }}</ref>

According to Martin P. Richards, co-author of {{harvnb|Silva et al.|2017}}, "[the prevalence of R1a in India was] very powerful evidence for a substantial Bronze Age migration from central Asia that most likely brought Indo-European speakers to India."<ref name="Joseph 2017">{{cite news |first=Tony |last=Joseph |date=16 June 2017 |url= https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/how-genetics-is-settling-the-aryan-migration-debate/article19090301.ece |title=How genetics is settling the Aryan migration debate |work=The Hindu}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|See also: {{cite web |website=Eurogenes Blog |date=28 March 2017 |url= http://eurogenes.blogspot.com/2017/03/heavily-sex-biased-population.html |title="Heavily sex-biased" population dispersals into the Indian Subcontinent (Silva et al. 2017)}}}}

==Literary research: similarities, geography, and references to migration==

===Similarities===

====Mitanni====
{{See also|Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni}}

The oldest inscriptions in Old Indic, the language of the Rig Veda, is found not in India, but in northern Syria in [[Hittites|Hittite]] records{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=49}} regarding one of their neighbors, the [[Hurrians|Hurrian]]-speaking Mitanni. In a treaty with the Hittites, the king of Mitanni, after swearing by a series of Hurrian gods, swears by the gods Mitrašil, Uruvanaššil, Indara, and Našatianna, who correspond to the Vedic gods [[Mitra]], [[Varuna]], [[Indra]], and Nāsatya (Aśvin). Contemporary{{When|date=September 2020}} equestrian terminology, as recorded in a horse-training manual whose author is identified as "[[Kikkuli]]", contains Indo-Aryan loanwords. The personal names and gods of the Mitanni aristocracy also bear significant traces of Indo-Aryan. Because of the association of Indo-Aryan with horsemanship and the [[Mitanni]] aristocracy, it is presumed that, after superimposing themselves as rulers on a native [[Hurrian language|Hurrian]]-speaking population about the 15th–16th centuries BCE, Indo-Aryan charioteers were absorbed into the local population and adopted the [[Hurrian language]].<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Mallory|Mair|2000}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}} {{Harvcoltxt|Mallory|1989}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}} [[Studien zu den Bogazkoy-Texten]] '''41''' (1995) Thieme, as cited in {{Harvcoltxt|Bryant|2001|p=136}}</ref>

Brentjes argues that there is not a single cultural element of central Asian, Eastern European, or Caucasian origin in the Mitannian area; he also associates with an Indo-Aryan presence the peacock motif found in the Middle East from before 1600 BCE and quite likely from before 2100 BCE.{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=137}}

Scholars reject the possibility that the Indo-Aryans of Mitanni came from the Indian subcontinent as well as the possibility that the Indo-Aryans of the Indian subcontinent came from the territory of Mitanni, leaving migration from the north the only likely scenario.{{refn|group=note|Mallory: "It is highly improbable that the Indo-Aryans of Western Asia migrated eastwards, for example with the collapse of the Mitanni, and wandered into India, since there is not a shred of evidence — for example, names of non-Indic deities, personal names, loan words — that the Indo-Aryans of India ever had any contacts with their west Asian neighbours. The reverse possibility, that a small group broke off and wandered from India into Western Asia is readily dismissed as an improbably long migration, again without the least bit of evidence."{{sfn|Mallory|1989}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}}} The presence of some [[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex|Bactria-Margiana]] loan words in Mitanni, Old Iranian and Vedic further strengthens this scenario.<ref>{{Harvnb|Witzel|2003}}</ref>

====Iranian Avesta====
The religious practices depicted in the ''Rigveda'' and those depicted in the ''[[Avesta]]'', the central religious text of [[Zoroastrianism]]—the ancient Iranian faith founded by the prophet [[Zoroaster]]—have in common the deity [[Mitra]], priests called ''hotṛ'' in the ''Rigveda'' and ''zaotar'' in the ''Avesta'', and the use of a ritual substance that the ''Rigveda'' calls ''[[soma (drink)|soma]]'' and the ''Avesta'' ''[[haoma]]''. However, the Indo-Aryan ''[[Deva (Hinduism)|deva]]'' 'god' is cognate with the Iranian ''[[daeva|daēva]]'' 'demon'. Similarly, the Indo-Aryan ''[[asura]]'' 'name of a particular group of gods' (later on, 'demon') is cognate with the Iranian ''[[ahura]]'' 'lord, god,' which 19th and early 20th century authors such as Burrow explained as a reflection of religious rivalry between Indo-Aryans and Iranians.<ref>[[Thomas Burrow|Burrow]] as cited in {{Harvcoltxt|Mallory|1989}}.</ref>

Linguists such as Burrow argue that the strong similarity between the [[Avestan]] of the ''Gāthās''—the oldest part of the ''Avesta''—and the [[Vedic Sanskrit]] of the ''Rigveda'' pushes the dating of Zarathustra or at least the ''Gathas'' closer to the conventional ''Rigveda'' dating of 1500–1200 BCE, i.e. 1100 BCE, possibly earlier. Boyce concurs with a lower date of 1100 BCE and tentatively proposes an upper date of 1500 BCE. Gnoli dates the ''Gathas'' to around 1000 BCE, as does {{harvnb|Mallory|1989}}, with the caveat of a 400-year leeway on either side, i.e. between 1400 and 600 BCE. Therefore, the date of the Avesta could also indicate the date of the Rigveda.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Bryant|2001|p=131}} {{Harvcoltxt|Mallory|1989}} {{Harvcoltxt|Mallory|Mair|2000}} [[Thomas Burrow|Burrow]], as cited in {{Harvcoltxt|Mallory|1989}} Boyce and Gnoli, as cited in {{Harvcoltxt|Bryant|2001|p=132}}</ref>

There is mention in the ''Avesta'' of ''Airyan Vaejah'', one of the '16 the lands of the Aryans'.<ref>{{citation|title=Iran Facing Others: Identity Boundaries in a Historical Perspective|page=189|first1=Abbas |last1=Amanat |first2=Farzin |last2=Vejdani |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IRzIAAAAQBAJ&q=16+nation+of+aryans+avesta&pg=PA189|isbn=978-1-137-01340-8|date=13 February 2012|publisher=Springer }}</ref> Gnoli's interpretation of geographic references in the ''Avesta'' situates the ''Airyanem Vaejah'' in the [[Hindu Kush]]. For similar reasons, Boyce excludes places north of the [[Syr Darya]] and western Iranian places. With some reservations, Skjaervo concurs that the evidence of the Avestan texts makes it impossible to avoid the conclusion that they were composed somewhere in northeastern Iran. Witzel points to the central Afghan highlands. Humbach derives Vaējah from [[cognate]]s of the Vedic root "vij", suggesting the region of fast-flowing rivers. Gnoli considers Choresmia (Xvairizem), the lower Oxus region, south of the [[Aral Sea]] to be an outlying area in the Avestan world. However, according to {{harvnb|Mallory|Mair|2000}}, the probable homeland of Avestan is, in fact, the area south of the Aral Sea.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Bryant|2001|p=133}} Gnoli, Boyce, Skjaervo, and Witzel, as cited in {{Harvcoltxt|Bryant|2001|p=133}} Humbach and Gnoli, as cited in {{Harvcoltxt|Bryant|2001|p=327}} {{Harvcoltxt|Mallory|Mair|2000}}</ref>

===Geographical location of Rigvedic rivers===
[[File:IVC rivers map.jpg|thumb|250px|Cluster of Indus Valley Civilization site along the course of the Indus River and in [[Pakistan]] and the [[Ghaggar-Hakra]] in India and Pakistan. See [https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Map-of-Greater-Indus-Valley-Civilization-adapted-from-Tokai-University-2000_fig2_329600632 Sameer et al. (2018)] for a more detailed map.]]
{{Main|Sarasvati River|Samudra}}

The geography of the Rigveda seems to be centered on the land of the [[Rigvedic rivers|seven rivers]]. While the geography of the [[Rigvedic rivers]] is unclear in some of the early books of the Rigveda, the [[Nadistuti sukta]] is an important source for the geography of late Rigvedic society.

The Sarasvati River is one of the chief [[Rigvedic rivers]]. The [[Nadistuti sukta]] in the [[Rigveda]] mentions the Sarasvati between the [[Yamuna]] in the east and the [[Sutlej]] in the west, and later texts like the [[Brahmana]]s and [[Mahabharata]] mention that the Sarasvati dried up in a desert.<ref>e.g. [[Mandala 2|RV 2]].12; [[Mandala 4|RV 4]].28; [[Mandala 8|RV 8]].24</ref>

Scholars agree that at least some of the references to the Sarasvati in the Rigveda refer to the [[Ghaggar-Hakra River]],<ref name="Ancient Indian Geography p.590"/> while the Afghan river Haraxvaiti/Harauvati [[Helmand River|Helmand]] is sometimes quoted as the locus of the early Rigvedic river.<ref name="Vedas p. 7"/> Whether such a transfer of the name has taken place from the Helmand to the Ghaggar-Hakra is a matter of dispute. Identification of the early Rigvedic Sarasvati with the Ghaggar-Hakra before its assumed drying up early in the second millennium would place the Rigveda BCE,<ref group=web>[http://www.gisdevelopment.net/application/archaeology/site/archs0001pf.htm The Saraswati:- Where lies the mystery]</ref> well outside the range commonly assumed by Indo-Aryan migration theory.

A non-Indo-Aryan [[Stratum (linguistics)#Substratum|substratum]] in the river-names and place-names of the Rigvedic homeland would support an external origin of the Indo-Aryans.{{Citation needed|date=July 2012}} However, most place-names in the Rigveda and the vast majority of the river-names in the north-west of the [[Indian subcontinent]] are Indo-Aryan.<ref name=B2001>{{Harvcoltxt|Bryant|2001}}</ref> Non-Indo-Aryan names are, however, frequent in the Ghaggar and Kabul River areas,<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Witzel|1999}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}</ref> the first being a post-Harappan stronghold of Indus populations.{{Citation needed|date=July 2012}}

===Textual references to migrations===

====Rigveda====
[[File:Late Vedic Culture (1100-500 BCE).png|thumb|Probable geographic expansion of late Vedic culture]]

Just as the Avesta does not mention an external homeland of the Zoroastrians, the Rigveda does not explicitly refer to an external homeland{{sfn|Majumdar|Pusalker|1951|p=220}} or to a migration.{{sfn|Cardona|2002|pp=33–35}}{{refn|group=note|According to Cardona, "there is no textual evidence in the early literary traditions unambiguously showing a trace" of an Indo-Aryan migration.{{sfn|Cardona|2002|pp=33–35}}}} Later Hindu texts, such as the [[Brahmana]]s, [[Mahabharata]], [[Ramayana]], and [[Puranas]], are centered in the [[Ganges]] region (rather than Haryana and Punjab) and mention regions still further to the south and east, suggesting a later movement or expansion of the Vedic religion and culture to the east. There is no clear indication of general movement in either direction in the Rigveda itself; searching for indirect references in the text, or by correlating geographic references with the proposed order of composition of its hymns, has not led to any consensus on the issue.{{Citation needed|date=September 2020}}

====Srauta Sutra of Baudhayana====
According to [[Romila Thapar]], the ''[[Baudhayana Shrauta Sutra|Srauta Sutra of Baudhayana]]'' "refers to the Parasus and the arattas who stayed behind and others who moved eastwards to the middle Ganges valley and the places equivalent such as the Kasi, the Videhas and the Kuru Pancalas, and so on. In fact, when one looks for them, there are evidence for migration."<ref group=web name="Agarwal">[http://www.eshiusa.org/Articles/VedicEvidenceforAMT-Puratattva.pdf Vishal Agarwal (2005), ''On Perceiving Aryan Migrations in Vedic Ritual Texts''. Purātattva, issue 36, p.155-165] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004212935/http://www.eshiusa.org/Articles/VedicEvidenceforAMT-Puratattva.pdf |date=4 October 2013 }}</ref>

====Later Vedic and Hindu texts====
Later Vedic texts show a shift{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}} of location from the Punjab to the East. According to the [[Yajurveda]], [[Yajnavalkya]] (a Vedic ritualist and philosopher) lived in the eastern region of [[Mithila (region)|Mithila]].{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=64}} [[Aitareya Brahmana]] 33.6.1. records that [[Vishvamitra]]'s sons migrated to the north, and in [[Shatapatha Brahmana]] 1:2:4:10 the [[Asura]]s were driven to the north.<ref>{{harvnb|Elst|1999}} with reference to L.N. Renou</ref> In much later texts, [[Manu (Hinduism)|Manu]] was said to be a king from [[South India|Dravida]].<ref>e.g. Bhagavata Purana (VIII.24.13)</ref> In the legend of the flood he stranded with his ship in Northwestern India or the Himalayas.<ref>e.g. Satapatha Brahmana, Atharva Veda</ref>
The Vedic lands (e.g. [[Aryavarta]], Brahmavarta) are located in Northern India or at the Sarasvati and [[Drishadvati river]].<ref>e.g. RV 3.23.4., Manu 2.22, etc. Kane, Pandurang Vaman: History of Dharmasastra: (ancient and mediaeval, religious and civil law) — Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 1962–1975</ref> However, in a post-Vedic text the [[Mahabharata]] Udyoga Parva (108), the East is described as the homeland of the Vedic culture, where "the divine Creator of the universe first sang the Vedas".<ref>Talageri 1993, The Aryan Invasion Theory, A Reappraisal</ref> The legends of [[Ikshvaku]], Sumati and other Hindu legends may have their origin in [[Southeast Asia]].<ref>Elst 1999, chapter 5, with reference to Bernard Sergent</ref>

The Puranas record that [[Yayati]] left [[Allahabad|Prayag]] (confluence of the Ganges & Yamuna) and conquered the region of Sapta Sindhu.<ref>Talageri, ''The Aryan invasion theory: a reappraisal'', 1993</ref><ref>''Update on the Aryan invasion debate'', Elst 1999</ref> His five sons [[Yadu]], [[Druhyus]], [[Puru (Vedic tribe)|Puru]], [[Anu]] and Turvashu correspond to the main tribes of the Rigveda.

The Puranas also record that the [[Druhyus]] were driven out of the land of the seven rivers by Mandhatr and that their next king Gandhara settled in a north-western region which became known as [[Gandhara]]. The sons of the later Druhyu king [[Prachetas]] are supposed by some to have 'migrated' to the region north of Afghanistan though the Puranic texts only speak of an "adjacent" settlement.<ref>[[Bhagavata Purana]] 9.23.15–16; [[Visnu Purana]] 4.17.5; [[Vayu Purana]] 99.11–12; [[Brahmanda Purana]] 3.74.11–12 and [[Matsya Purana]] 48.9.</ref>{{refn|see e.g. {{harvnb|Pargiter|1979}}, {{harvnb|Talageri|1993}}, {{harvnb|Talageri|2000}}, {{harvnb|Bryant|2001}}, {{harvnb|Elst|1999}}}}

==Ecology==
{{See also|Bond event|5.9 kiloyear event|4.2-kiloyear event}}

Climate change and drought may have triggered both the initial dispersal of Indo-European speakers, and the migration of Indo-Europeans from the steppes in south-central Asia and India.

Around 4200–4100 BCE a climate change occurred, manifesting in colder winters in Europe.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=227}} Between 4200 and 3900 BCE many tell settlements in the lower Danube Valley were burned and abandoned,{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=227}} while the Cucuteni-Tripolye culture showed an increase in fortifications,{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=230}} meanwhile moving eastwards towards the Dniepr.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=232}} Steppe herders, archaic Proto-Indo-European speakers, spread into the lower Danube valley about 4200–4000 BCE, either causing or taking advantage of the collapse of [[Old Europe (archaeology)|Old Europe]].{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=133}}

The Yamna horizon was an adaptation to a climate change which occurred between 3500 and 3000 BCE, in which the steppes became drier and cooler. Herds needed to be moved frequently to feed them sufficiently, and the use of wagons and horse-back riding made this possible, leading to "a new, more mobile form of pastoralism".{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=300, 336}} It was accompanied by new social rules and institutions, to regulate the local migrations in the steppes, creating a new social awareness of a distinct culture, and of "cultural Others" who did not participate in these new institutions.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=300}}

In the second millennium BCE widespread aridization led to water shortages and ecological changes in both the Eurasian steppes and south Asia.<ref group=web name="Kochhar2017"/>{{sfn|Demkina|2017}} At the steppes, humidization led to a change of vegetation, triggering "higher mobility and transition to the nomadic cattle breeding".{{sfn|Demkina|2017}}{{refn|group=note|Demkina et al. (2017): "In the second millennium BC, humidization of the climate led to the divergence of the soil cover with secondary formation of the complexes of chestnut soils and solonetzes. This paleoecological crisis had a significant effect on the economy of the tribes in the Late Catacomb and Post-Catacomb time stipulating their higher mobility and transition to the nomadic cattle breeding."{{sfn|Demkina|2017}}}}{{refn|group=note|See also Eurogenes Blogspot, [http://eurogenes.blogspot.nl/2017/07/the-crisis.html ''The crisis''].}} Water shortage also had a strong impact in south Asia:
{{blockquote|This time was one of great upheaval for ecological reasons. Prolonged failure of rains caused acute water shortage in a large area, causing the collapse of sedentary urban cultures in south-central Asia, Afghanistan, Iran, and India, and triggering large-scale migrations. Inevitably, the new arrivals came to merge with and dominate the post-urban cultures.<ref group=web name="Kochhar2017"/>}}

The [[Indus Valley civilisation]] was localised, that is, urban centers disappeared and were replaced by local cultures, due to a [[climate change (general concept)|climatic change]] that is also signalled for the neighbouring areas of the Middle East.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://phys.org/news/2014-02-decline-bronze-age-megacities-linked.html|title=Decline of Bronze Age 'megacities' linked to climate change}}</ref> {{As of| 2016}} many scholars believe that drought and a decline in trade with Egypt and Mesopotamia caused the collapse of the Indus Civilisation.<ref name="Science">{{cite journal|date=6 June 2008|title=Indus Collapse: The End or the Beginning of an Asian Culture?|journal=Science Magazine|volume=320|pages=1282–3}}</ref> The Ghaggar-Hakra system was rain-fed,<ref name="Giosan">{{cite journal|last=Giosan|first=L.|title=Fluvial landscapes of the Harappan Civilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA|year=2012|volume=109|issue=26|display-authors=etal|doi=10.1073/pnas.1112743109|pmid=22645375|pages=E1688–E1694|pmc=3387054|bibcode=2012PNAS..109E1688G|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=Clift>{{cite journal |last=Clift |first=P. D. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=U-Pb zircon dating evidence for a Pleistocene Sarasvati River and capture of the Yamuna River |journal=Geology |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=211–214 |doi=10.1130/G32840.1|bibcode=2012Geo....40..211C }}</ref><ref name="Tripathi_2004">{{cite journal|first= Jayant K.|last= Tripathi|author2= Tripathi, K.|author3=Bock, Barbara|author4=Rajamani, V.|author5=Eisenhauer, A.|title= Is River Ghaggar, Saraswati? Geochemical Constraints|journal= Current Science|volume= 87|issue= 8|date= 25 October 2004|url= http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/oct252004/1141.pdf}}</ref> and water-supply depended on the monsoons. The Indus valley climate grew significantly cooler and drier from about 1800 BCE, linked to a general weakening of the [[monsoon]] at that time.<ref name="Giosan"/> The Indian monsoon declined and aridity increased, with the [[Ghaggar-Hakra]] retracting its reach towards the foothills of the Himalaya,<ref name="Giosan"/><ref>{{cite web | url = http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/05/29/an-ancient-civilization-upended-by-climate-change/?_r=0 | title = An Ancient Civilization, Upended by Climate Change | first = Rachel | last = Nuwer | author-link = Rachel Nuwer | date = 28 May 2012 | access-date = 29 May 2012 | publisher = LiveScience }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.livescience.com/20614-collapse-mythical-river-civilization.html | title = Huge Ancient Civilization's Collapse Explained | first = Charles | last = Choi | date = 29 May 2012 | access-date = 18 May 2016 | work = [[The New York Times]] }}</ref> leading to erratic and less extensive floods that made inundation agriculture less sustainable. Aridification reduced the water supply enough to cause the civilisation's demise, and to scatter its population eastward.<ref name="madella-fuller">{{cite journal|last2=Fuller|first2=Dorian|date=2006|title=Palaeoecology and the Harappan Civilisation of South Asia: a reconsideration|journal=Quaternary Science Reviews|volume=25|issue=11–12|pages=1283–1301|last1=Madella|first1=Marco|doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2005.10.012|bibcode=2006QSRv...25.1283M}}</ref><ref name="macdonald">{{cite journal|last=MacDonald|first=Glen|year=2011|title=Potential influence of the Pacific Ocean on the Indian summer monsoon and Harappan decline|journal=Quaternary International|volume=229|issue=1–2|pages=140–148|doi=10.1016/j.quaint.2009.11.012|bibcode=2011QuInt.229..140M}}</ref><ref name=brooke-2015>{{citation|last=Brooke|first=John L.|title=Climate Change and the Course of Global History: A Rough Journey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O9TSAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA296|date= 2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-87164-8|page=296|bibcode=2014cccg.book.....B }}</ref>

==Indigenous Aryanism==
{{Main|Indigenous Aryanism}}
[[File:Late Vedic Culture (1100-500 BCE).png|thumb|right|The approximate extent of ''[[Āryāvarta]]'' during the late [[Vedic period]] (ca. 1100–500 BCE). ''Aryavarta'' was limited to northwest India and the western Ganges plain, while [[Greater Magadha]] in the east was habitated by non-Vedic Indo-Aryans, who gave rise to Jainism and Buddhism.{{sfn|Bronkhorst|2007}}{{sfn|Samuel|2010}}]]

[[Hindu nationalism|Hindutva opponents]] of the Indo-Aryan migration question it, and instead promote [[Indigenous Aryanism]], claiming that speakers of [[Indo-Iranian languages]] (sometimes called ''Aryan languages'') are "indigenous" to the Indian subcontinent.{{sfn|Fosse|2005}}{{sfn|Bryant|2001}}<ref>Witzel, Michael (2006), "Rama's realm: Indocentric rewritings of early South Asian History", in Fagan, Garrett, Archaeological Fantasies: How pseudoarchaeology misrepresents the past and misleads the public, Routledge, {{ISBN|0-415-30592-6}}</ref>{{sfn|Gupta|2007|pp=108–109}} However, Indigenous Aryanism has no support in contemporary mainstream scholarship, as it is contradicted by a broad range of research and evidence on [[Indo-European migrations]].{{sfn|Anthony|2007}}{{refn|group=note|name="no support"|No support in mainstream scholarship:
* Romila Thapar (2006): "there is no scholar at this time seriously arguing for the indigenous origin of Aryans".{{sfn|Thapar|2006}}
* Wendy Doniger (2017): "The opposing argument, that speakers of Indo-European languages were indigenous to the Indian subcontinent, is not supported by any reliable scholarship. It is now championed primarily by Hindu nationalists, whose religious sentiments have led them to regard the theory of Aryan migration with some asperity."<ref group=web name="Doniger_2017">Wendy Doniger (2017), [https://inference-review.com/article/another-great-story "Another Great Story"]", review of Asko Parpola's ''The Roots of Hinduism''; in: ''Inference, International Review of Science'', Volume 3, Issue 2</ref>
* Girish Shahane (14 September 2019), in response to Narasimhan et al. (2019): "Hindutva activists, however, have kept the Aryan Invasion Theory alive, because it offers them the perfect strawman, 'an intentionally misrepresented proposition that is set up because it is easier to defeat than an opponent's real argument' ... The Out of India hypothesis is a desperate attempt to reconcile linguistic, archaeological and genetic evidence with Hindutva sentiment and nationalistic pride, but it cannot reverse time's arrow ... The evidence keeps crushing Hindutva ideas of history."<ref group=web name="Shahane_2019">Girish Shahane (14 September 2019), [https://scroll.in/article/937043/why-hindutva-supporters-love-to-hate-the-discredited-aryan-invasion-theory ''Why Hindutva supporters love to hate the discredited Aryan Invasion Theory''], Scroll.in</ref>
* Koenraad Elst (10 May 2016): "Of course it is a fringe theory, at least internationally, where the Aryan Invasion Theory (AIT) is still the official paradigm. In India, though, it has the support of most archaeologists, who fail to find a trace of this Aryan influx and instead find cultural continuity."<ref name="Elst_2016">Koenraad Elst (10 May 2016), Koenraad Elst: "I am not aware of any governmental interest in correcting distorted history", ''Swarajya Magazine''</ref>
* {{harvnb|Witzel|2001|p=95}}: "The "revisionist project" certainly is not guided by the principles of critical theory but takes, time and again, recourse to pre-enlightenment beliefs in the authority of traditional religious texts such as the Purånas. In the end, it belongs, as has been pointed out earlier, to a different 'discourse' than that of historical and critical scholarship. In other words, it continues the writing of religious literature, under a contemporary, outwardly 'scientific' guise ... The revisionist and autochthonous project, then, should not be regarded as scholarly in the usual post-enlightenment sense of the word, but as an apologetic, ultimately religious undertaking aiming at proving the "truth" of traditional texts and beliefs. Worse, it is, in many cases, not even scholastic scholarship at all but a political undertaking aiming at "rewriting" history out of national pride or for the purpose of "nation building"."}}

==See also==
* [[Early Indians]]
* [[List of ancient Indo-Aryan peoples and tribes]]
* [[Indo-Aryan peoples]]
* [[Indo-Aryan languages]]
* [[Indo-European migrations]]
* [[Ariana]]
* [[Tamil nationalism]]
* [[Keezhadi excavation site]]
{{Clear}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note|35em}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Sources==


===Printed sources===
{{Refbegin|30em}}

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{{Refend}}

===Web-sources===
{{reflist|group=web}}

==Further reading==
;Overview
* {{Citation |last=Anthony |first=David W. |year=2007 |title=The Horse The Wheel And Language. How Bronze-Age Riders From the Eurasian Steppes Shaped The Modern World |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |ref=none}}
* {{Citation |last=Parpola |first=Asko |year=2015 |title=The Roots of Hinduism. The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last1=Joseph |first1=Tony |title=Early Indians: The Story of Our Ancestors and where We Came from |date=2018 |publisher=Juggernaut |isbn=978-93-86228-98-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OYQCwgEACAAJ |access-date=7 March 2021 |language=en |ref=none}}
;Linguistics
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Heggarty |first=Paul |year=2013 |chapter=Europe and western Asia: Indo-European linguistic history |editor1-first=Immanuel |editor1-last=Ness |editor2-first=Peter |editor2-last=Bellwood |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Global Human Migration |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GDm_vgEACAAJ |isbn=978-1-4443-3489-0 |ref=none}}
;Genetics
* {{cite journal |last1=Narasimhan |first1=Vagheesh M. |last2=Patterson |first2=N. J. |display-authors=etal |year=2019 |title=The Formation of Human Populations in South and Central Asia |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=365 |issue=6457 |article-number=eaat7487 |url=https://scholar.harvard.edu/vagheesh/centralsouthasia |doi=10.1126/science.aat7487 |pmid=31488661 |pmc=6822619 |bibcode=2019Sci...365t7487N |ref=none}}

==External links==
'''Overview'''
* Rajesh Kochhar (2017), [http://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/aryans-dna-genetics-archaeology-4765740/ ''The Aryan chromosome''], The Indian Express
* The History Files, [http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsFarEast/AsiaIndoIranians.htm ''Indo-Iranians / Indo-Aryans'']
* [http://members.tripod.com/ascjnu/aryan.html The Aryan question revisited (1999)] by Romila Thapar
* Akhilesh Pillalamarri, ''Where Did Indians Come from'', [https://thediplomat.com/2019/01/unraveled-where-indians-come-from-part-1/ part1], [https://thediplomat.com/2019/01/where-indians-come-from-part-2-dravidians-and-aryans/ part 2], [https://thediplomat.com/2019/01/where-did-indians-come-from-part-3-what-is-caste/ part 3]

'''Linguistics'''
* [http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/AryanHome.pdf The Home of the Aryans] by [[Michael Witzel]] (pdf)
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080528001253/http://www.omilosmeleton.gr/english/documents/VedicEvidenceforAMT.pdf Agarwal, Vishal: Is There Vedic Evidence for the Indo-Aryan Immigration to India?] (pdf)
* [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/02/150218123429.htm ScienceDaily, ''New Insights into Origins of World's Languages'']

;Archaeology
* [http://www.museum.upenn.edu/new/research/possehl/ahar-banas.shtml Cache of Seal Impressions Discovered in Western India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080512010632/http://www.museum.upenn.edu/new/research/possehl/ahar-banas.shtml |date=12 May 2008 }}
* [http://www.indianscience.org/essays/26-%20E--ARYANS%20FOR%20INFINITY.pdf Agrawal, D.P.: The Indus Civilization = Aryans equation: Is it really a Problem?] by D.P. Agrawal (pdf)

;Genetics
* Tony Joseph (16 June 2017), [http://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/how-genetics-is-settling-the-aryan-migration-debate/article19090301.ece ''How genetics is settling the Aryan migration debate''], The Hindu
* Tony Joseph (2018), [https://www.thequint.com/voices/opinion/genomic-study-vedic-aryan-migration-dravidian-languages-sanskrit ''How We, The Indians, Came to Be''] summary of Narasimhan (2018)
* Scroll.in, {{cite web|url=https://scroll.in/article/874102/aryan-migration-everything-you-need-to-know-about-the-new-study-on-indian-genetics|title=Aryan migration: Everything you need to know about the new study on Indian genetics|date=2 April 2018 }}, on Narasimhan (2018)
* The Economic Times (12 October 2019), [https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/science/steppe-migration-to-india-was-between-3500-4000-years-ago-david-reich/articleshow/71556277.cms Steppe migration to India was between 3500-4000 years ago: David Reich]

;Dravidianization and Sanskritization
* Razib Khan, [https://www.gnxp.com/WordPress/2018/01/18/t/ ''The Dravidianization of India''] and [https://www.gnxp.com/WordPress/2019/09/12/the-aryan-integration-theory-ait/ ''The Aryan Integration Theory (AIT)'']

;Animated map
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20181107004210/http://homeland.ku.dk/ ''Homeland time map''], University of Copenhagen

{{Navboxes|list=
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Indo-Aryan Migration}}
[[Category:Bronze Age]]
[[Category:Cultural history of India]]
[[Category:Cultural history of Pakistan]]
[[Category:History of South Asia]]
[[Category:Prehistoric migrations]]
[[Category:Indo-Aryan peoples|Migration]]
[[Category:Indo-European history|Migration]]
[[Category:Nomadic groups in Eurasia]]
[[Category:Indigenous Aryanism]]

Kutti Pisasu

2026-03-22T16:55:12Z

JOVFinlay2: improve intro per standard format

{{short description|2010 film by Rama Narayanan}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Kutti Pisasu
| image = Kutti Pisasu.jpg
| caption = Tamil version poster
| director = [[Rama Narayanan]]
| producer = Rama Narayanan
| writer = Rama Narayanan
| story =
| starring = {{ubl|Geethika|[[Ram G|Ramji]]|[[Rajiv Kanakala]]|[[Ravishankar Gowda]]|[[Sangeetha Krish|Sangeetha]]|[[Ramya Krishnan]]|[[Kaveri (actress)|Kaveri]]|Mithila Naik}}
| music = [[Deva (composer)|Deva]]
| cinematography = K. Selvaraj
| editing = Rajkeerthi
| studio = [[Sri Thenandal Films]]
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2010|5|7}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Tamil Kannada Telugu
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Kutti Pisasu''''' in Tamil, '''''Bombat Car''''' in Kannada and '''''Cara Majaka''''' in Telugu is a 2010 Indian multilingual [[fantasy film]] written and directed by [[Rama Narayanan]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2010/apr/14/kutty-pisasu-a-tri-lingual-film-145939.html|title=Kutty Pisasu, a tri-lingual film|date=14 April 2010|work=New Indian Express|access-date=21 January 2022|archive-date=21 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121082650/https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2010/apr/14/kutty-pisasu-a-tri-lingual-film-145939.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> who returns after an eight-year sabbatical.<ref name="Car">{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/i-never-run-after-stars-ramanarayanan/articleshow/5902801.cms|title=I never run after stars: Ramanarayanan|work=The Times of India|date=14 January 2017|access-date=22 January 2022|archive-date=22 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220122025052/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/i-never-run-after-stars-ramanarayanan/articleshow/5902801.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> The film stars Baby Geethika, [[Ram G|Ramji]], [[Rajiv Kanakala]], [[Ravishankar Gowda]], [[Sangeetha Krish|Sangeetha]], Mithila Naik, and [[Ramya Krishnan]], while [[Riyaz Khan]], [[Shafi (actor)|Shafi]], [[Ganja Karuppu]], and [[Nassar (actor)|Nassar]] play supporting roles.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.tamilstudios.com/content/2010/kutti-pisasu-movie-review/ |title=Kutti Pisasu Movie Review |access-date=9 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100516135017/http://www.tamilstudios.com/content/2010/kutti-pisasu-movie-review/ |archive-date=16 May 2010 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all |work=Tamil Studios }}</ref> Each version has a slightly different supporting cast.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/content/67892/friday-release.html|title=Friday release|date=6 May 2010|work=Deccan Herald|access-date=21 January 2022|archive-date=21 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121082649/https://www.deccanherald.com/content/67892/friday-release.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The Tamil version was dubbed in Hindi as ''Magic Robot'' and in Bengali as ''Robot - The Magic Car''.

==Plot==
The film opens with Kaali / Kalika ([[Ramya Krishnan]]) establishing her powers with a couple of sequences, including reducing a screen scorcher ([[Nassar (actor)|Nassar]]) to a pale shadow. Cut to the present, where Priya / Durga (Geethika) is the intelligent daughter of [[Ram G|Ramji]] / [[Ravishankar Gowda]] / [[Rajiv Kanakala]] and Gayathri ([[Sangeetha Krish|Sangeetha]]), who treat her like the apple of their eyes. Soon, she is possessed by the spirit of Savithri ([[Kaveri (actress)|Kaveri]] / Mithila Naik), who was ditched by her fiancé Nanjappan / Mahendra ([[Riyaz Khan]]). With the help of Kaali, it is the now the turn of Savithri and her brother ([[Ganja Karuppu]] / [[Sharan (actor)|Sharan]] / [[Ali (actor)|Ali]]) to take revenge. How they punish Nanjappan / Mahendra and his sorcerer friend ([[Shafi (actor)|Shafi]]) is the rest of the story.

== Cast ==
{| class="wikitable"
! Actor (Tamil version) !! Actor (Telugu) !! Actor (Kannada) !! Role (Tamil/Kannada) !! Role (Telugu)
|-
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center;"| Baby Geethika || style="text-align:center;"| Priya || style="text-align:center;"| Durga
|-
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center;"| [[Sangeetha Krish|Sangeetha]] || colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" colslpan="2" | Gayathri
|-
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center;"| [[Ramya Krishnan]] ||style="text-align:center;"| Goddess Kaali || style="text-align:center;"|Goddess Kalika
|-
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center;"| [[Riyaz Khan]] || style="text-align:center;"| Nanjappan || style="text-align:center;"| Mahendra
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Ganja Karuppu]] || style="text-align:center;"| [[Ali (actor)|Ali]] ||style="text-align:center;"| [[Sharan (actor)|Sharan]] || colspan="2" |
|-
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"| [[Kaveri (actress)|Kaveri]] || style="text-align:center;"|Mithila Naik || colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" colslpan="2" |Savithri
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Delhi Ganesh]] || style="text-align:center;"| [[L. B. Sriram]] || style="text-align:center;"|[[Doddanna]] || style="text-align:center;"|Priya's grandfather || style="text-align:center;"| Durga's grandfather
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Ram G|Ramji]] || style="text-align:center;"| [[Rajiv Kanakala]] || style="text-align:center;"|[[Ravishankar Gowda]] || style="text-align:center;"|Priya's father || style="text-align:center;"| Durga's father
|-
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center;"| [[Kadhal Dhandapani]]|| colspan="2" |
|-
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | [[Shafi (actor)|Shafi]] || colspan="2" |
|-
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | [[Amit Tiwari]] || style="text-align:center;"| Nanjappan's friend || style="text-align:center;"| Mahendra's friend
|-
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | [[Nassar (actor)|Nassar]] || colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | British man
|-
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | [[J. Livingston|Livingston]] || colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |Police officer
|-
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | [[Alex (actor)|Alex]] || colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |Horse rider
|-
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | [[K. Sivasankar]] || colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | Dance master
|-
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | Kotesh Manava || colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | Police officer
|-
| colspan="2" {{N/A}}
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Bank Janardhan]] || colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | Waiter
|-
|}
;Tamil version
* [[Ram G|Ramji]] as Pichumani
* [[Ganja Karuppu]] as Karuppu
* [[Dhandapani]] as Kudu Kuduppu Kullamuni
* [[Shafi (actor)|Shafi]] as Mandhira Moorthy
;Telugu version
*[[Rajeev Kanakala]]
*[[Ali (actor)|Ali]] as Rambabu
*[[L. B. Sriram]] as Shastry
;Kannada version
*[[Ravishankar Gowda]]
*[[Sharan (actor)|Sharan]]
*[[Doddanna]]

== Production ==
Geetika was cast in this film after winning season 5 of the Telugu-language dance show ''Aata Juniors''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://telugu.news18.com/news/movies/after-accident-what-happend-to-aata-fame-geethika-and-now-where-she-is-nr-905278.html|title=Aata Geethika: ఆట ఫేమ్ గీతిక ఎక్కడుంది.. యాక్సిడెంట్ తర్వాత ఆమె పరిస్థితి ఏంటి? [Aata Geethika: Where is the Aata fame Geethika.. What was her condition after the accident?]|date=8 June 2021|language=te|work=News18|access-date=21 January 2022|archive-date=21 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121084535/https://telugu.news18.com/news/movies/after-accident-what-happend-to-aata-fame-geethika-and-now-where-she-is-nr-905278.html|url-status=live}}</ref> She was credited in Kannada as Kruthika.<ref name="B"/> A [[Morris Minor]] car that turns into a giant named "Car Man" is the film's antagonist.<ref name="T"/><ref name="Car"/> The car that featured in the film was made specially for the movie.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/kannada/2009/dec/09/a-peek-into-bombat-car-111447.html|title=A peek into 'Bombat Car'|date=9 December 2009|work=New Indian Express|access-date=22 January 2022|archive-date=22 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220122025053/https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/kannada/2009/dec/09/a-peek-into-bombat-car-111447.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Actress [[Sangeetha Krish|Sangeetha]] was cast as one of the leads.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/arm-candy-no-way/articleshow/5284569.cms|title='Arm candy? No way!'|date=14 January 2017|work=The Times of India|access-date=22 January 2022|archive-date=22 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220122025053/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/arm-candy-no-way/articleshow/5284569.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
Soundtrack was composed by [[Deva (composer)|Deva]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://mio.to/album/Kutti+Pissasu+%282010%29 |title=Kutty Pisasu (2010) - Deva |website=MusicIndiaOnline |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180214193451/http://mio.to/album/Kutti+Pissasu+(2010) |archive-date=2018-02-14}}</ref>
; Tamil Tracklist
{| class="wikitable"
! No. !! Song !! Singers !! Lyrics !! Length (m:ss)
|-
| 1 || "Dole Dole" || Vaishali, Chorus || Jayanth || 04:51
|-
| 2 || "Chennai Pattanam" || Vaishali || R. Pawan || 04:23
|-
| 3 || "Thangachi" || Krishnaraj, [[K. S. Chithra]] || Rama Narayanan || 05:00
|-
| 4 || "Kutti Pisasu" || Divya, Vaishali || Erode Iraivan || 05:18
|-
|}

;Kannada Tracklist<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://kannadamoviesinfo.wordpress.com/2013/10/01/bombat-car-2010/|title = Bombat Car – ಬೊಂಬಾಟ್ ಕಾರ್ (2010/೨೦೧೦)|date = October 2013|access-date = 22 January 2022|archive-date = 22 January 2022|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220122025053/https://kannadamoviesinfo.wordpress.com/2013/10/01/bombat-car-2010/|url-status = live}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
! No. !! Song !! Lyrics
|-
| 1 || "Putta Putta" || rowspan="4"| Dwarki Raghav
|-
| 2 || "Gelliri Nammavaru"
|-
| 3 || "Nanna Mudhu Tangi"
|-
| 4 || "Damaku Damaku"
|}

; Telugu Tracklist<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M5OwpPlhE_4|title = Cara Majaka {{pipe}} Juke Box {{pipe}} Geethika, Sangeetha, Ramya Krishnan, Ramji, Kaveri {{pipe}} Shivaranjani Music|website = [[YouTube]]| date=11 July 2014 |access-date = 21 January 2022|archive-date = 21 January 2022|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220121214135/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M5OwpPlhE_4|url-status = live}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
! No. !! Song
|-
| 1 || "Dole Dole"
|-
| 2 || "Gelupu Naadi Gajala"
|-
| 3 || "Tallini Minchu"
|-
| 4 || "Konte Pisachi"
|-
|}

==Critical reception==
;Tamil version
''[[Sify]]'' wrote "The special effects and graphics are just ok; otherwise there is nothing in the film. Ramanarayanan has tried to mix witchcraft, sorcery, crass comedy with modern graphics borrowed from films like ?The Transformer? and ?The Car?. It is meant strictly for the consumption of interior Tamil Nadu audiences."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sify.com/movies/kutty-pisasu-review-tamil-pclx9bbfagdai.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160701134100/http://www.sify.com/movies/kutty-pisasu-review-tamil-pclx9bbfagdai.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 July 2016|title = Kutty Pisasu|work=Sify}}</ref> ''The Times of India'' wrote "This is strictly for the masses, and although may turn out to be cotton candy for mothers and kids, you can't help feeling that Rama Narayanan has been away from direction for too long. It shows."<ref name="T">{{Cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movie-reviews/Kutti-Pisasu/movie-review/5906471.cms|title = Kutti Pisasu Movie Review {2/5}: Critic Review of Kutti Pisasu by Times of India|work=The Times of India}}</ref> ''[[Rediff]]'' wrote "Story-wise, there's no great variation from predecessors like all the Amma movies but this one comes with an interesting ghost-twist. On the flip side, the production values are tacky, the acting juvenile and the screenplay downright silly."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/review/south-tamil-movie-review-kutty-pisasu/20100510.htm|title=Kutty Pisasu is strictly for kids|work=Rediff|access-date=28 May 2016|archive-date=4 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160804053729/http://www.rediff.com/movies/review/south-tamil-movie-review-kutty-pisasu/20100510.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> ''The Hindu'' wrote "There's little to say in terms of story or production value. Strange, considering director Rama. Narayanan is a veteran in children's and godly movies, even if they are terribly over-the-top!".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/No-spirited-encounter-this/article16298705.ece|title=No spirited encounter this!|newspaper=The Hindu|date=6 May 2010|last1=Rao|first1=Subha J.|access-date=30 August 2019|archive-date=29 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029004801/https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/No-spirited-encounter-this/article16298705.ece|url-status=live}}</ref>

;Kannada version
''[[Deccan Herald]]'' opined that "With most films boasting of superior, state-of-art technology, "Bombat Car" looks like a pathetic attempt to win back the traditional audience of such films - women and small children. However, with able support from the graphics and special effects guys, the effect is tolerable - the handsome robot dancing in tandem with the prancing kid, not at all conveying menace.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/content/68208/revenge-can-fun-too.html|title=Revenge can be fun too|date=7 May 2010|work=Deccan Herald|access-date=22 January 2022|archive-date=22 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220122042633/https://www.deccanherald.com/content/68208/revenge-can-fun-too.html|url-status=live}}</ref> ''Bangalore Mirror'' wrote that Rama Narayanan "manages to keep the film interesting. There is no logic to what transpires, but it is fun to watch. And it won't be just kids who will find it enjoyable.<ref name="B">{{Cite web|url=https://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/entertainment/reviews/bombat-car-for-the-kid-in-you/articleshow/21875672.cms|title=Bombat Car: Find the kid in you|date=7 May 2010|work=Bangalore Mirror|access-date=22 January 2022|archive-date=22 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220122025054/https://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/entertainment/reviews/bombat-car-for-the-kid-in-you/articleshow/21875672.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|1657293}}
* {{IMDb title|13729494|Bombat Car}}

{{Rama Narayanan}}

[[Category:2010 films]]
[[Category:2010 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:2010 Telugu-language films]]
[[Category:2010 Kannada-language films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Rama Narayanan]]
[[Category:Films scored by Deva (composer)]]
[[Category:Indian multilingual films]]
[[Category:Indian children's fantasy films]]
[[Category:Indian films about revenge]]
[[Category:2010s children's fantasy films]]
[[Category:2010 multilingual films]]
[[Category:Indian films with live action and animation]]
[[Category:2010 children's films]]

Dil (1990 film)

2026-03-21T10:14:45Z

JOVFinlay2:

{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2019}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Dil
| image = Dil (1990 film) poster.jpg
| caption = Movie Poster
| director = [[Indra Kumar]]
| producer = Indra Kumar Ashok Thakeria
| writer = [[Kamlesh Pandey]] (dialogues) Naushir Khatau
| screenplay = Rajeev Kaul Praful Parekh
| starring = [[Aamir Khan]] [[Madhuri Dixit]] [[Anupam Kher]] [[Saeed Jaffrey]]
| narrator = [[Madhuri Dixit]]
| music = [[Anand–Milind]]
| cinematography = [[Baba Azmi]]
| editing = Hussain A. Burmawala
| studio = Maruti International
| released = {{Film date|1990|06|22|df=yes}}
| runtime = 172 minutes
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| budget = {{INR|2 [[crore]]}}
| gross = {{estimation}} {{INR|20 crore ($11.42 million)}}<ref name="gross">{{cite web|url=http://www.boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat=196&catName=MTk5MA==|title=Box Office 1990|work=Box Office India|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017072637/http://www.boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat=196&catName=MTk5MA==|archive-date=17 October 2013|access-date=7 August 2016}}</ref>
}}
'''''Dil''''' ({{translation|Heart}}) is a 1990 Indian [[Hindi]]-language [[romance films|romantic action]] film, starring [[Aamir Khan]], [[Madhuri Dixit]], [[Anupam Kher]], and [[Saeed Jaffrey]]. It was directed by [[Indra Kumar]] in his directorial debut, written by Naushir Khatau and Kamlesh Pandey, with music composed by [[Anand–Milind]].

''Dil'' was released on 15 June 1990 and became the highest-grossing film of the year. It received positive reviews from critics upon release, with praise for its soundtrack and performances of the cast.

At the [[36th Filmfare Awards]], ''Dil'' received 8 nominations, including [[Filmfare Award for Best Film|Best Film]], [[Filmfare Award for Best Actor|Best Actor]] (Khan) and [[Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor|Best Supporting Actor]] (Kher), with Dixit winning her first [[Filmfare Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]] award for her performance in the film.

The film was remade in [[Telugu language|Telugu]] as ''[[Tholi Muddu]]'' (1993). The film was also remade in [[Kannada]] as ''Shivaranjani'' (1997). The film was the highest-grossing film of the year.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/when-madhuri-dixit-ran-after-aamir-khan-with-a-hockey-stick-7370147/|title=31 years of Dil: When Madhuri Dixit ran after Aamir Khan with a hockey stick|work=[[The Indian Express]]|date=22 June 2021 }}</ref>

==Plot==
Miserly and greedy Hazari Prasad wants a rich woman's marriage proposal for his son Raja, a college student and spendthrift interested in spending money on wild parties. Raja meets the beautiful and arrogant Madhu Mehra. Enraged by her, he misleads her into believing that he is blind. He mocks her when she finds out, and they quickly prank each other.

Hazari looks for a bride with a large dowry for Raja. He finds his involvement in the wastepaper business makes Raja a less-than-stellar marriage prospect. Accidentally, he runs into Madhu's rich father, Durgesh. Hazari gives beggars large amounts of money to masquerade as wealthy acquaintances. He befriends Durgesh, deciding on an alliance for Raja and Madhu, but when the two find the truth, they disagree with their fathers' plan.

On a weekend college retreat, Madhu falsely accuses Raja of trying to rape her. With his reputation ruined, he reprimands her for her dishonesty, saying many take revenge, but he is different. Madhu instantly falls for Raja, who now develops love for her too. Durgesh discovers Hazari's true circumstances; he insults him, who takes offense. Raja and Madhu are forbidden to see each other again. Nevertheless, Raja and Madhu secretly meet.

When Durgesh finds this, he pays thugs to beat Raja, who manages to sneak into the Mehra house and marry Madhu. Durgesh banishes her from the house. Hazari also disowns Raja, who moves into a small shack with Madhu and works as a constructionist. Despite their poverty, they live happily until Raja is hurt at a construction site. Madhu leaves to beg Hazari for money to pay for an emergency operation.

He agrees, but only if she divorces Raja. Hazari removes her wedding necklace. Madhu returns to Durgesh and is forgiven, but he orders her to never see Raja. When he recovers, Hazari lies that Madhu never visited him at the hospital. Believing Madhu deserted him, Raja returns to his home.

His mother, Savitri, reveals that Madhu was blackmailed by Hazari. Raja rushes to stop Madhu from taking a plane to London, but is late as it takes off. Luckily, she didn't take the plane and met him. They reunite, and everyone lives happily as Hazari and Durgesh repent for their deeds.

==Cast==
* [[Aamir Khan]] as Raja Prasad
* [[Madhuri Dixit]] as Madhu Mehra Prasad
* [[Anupam Kher]] as Hazari Prasad
* [[Saeed Jaffrey]] as Durgesh Mehra
* [[Padmarani]] as Savitri Prasad
* [[Shammi (actress)|Shammi]] as Malini Mehra
* [[Adi Irani]] as Shakti
* [[Deven Verma]] as Inspector Ghalib
* [[Satyen Kappu]] as Girdhari Laal
* [[Rajesh Puri]] as Pandit Ji
* [[Kishore Bhanushali]] as Dev
* [[Dinesh Hingoo]] as Pandu Prakashan
*[[Viju Khote]] as Police Constable
* [[Ajit Vachani]] as Potential in law of Hazari Prasad

==Soundtrack==

The lyrics of all songs were written by [[Sameer (lyricist)|Sameer]], and the music was composed by [[Anand–Milind|Anand-Milind]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.hindigeetmala.net/movie/dil_1990.htm | title=Dil : Lyrics and video of Songs from the Movie Dil (1990) }}</ref> The song "O Priyaa Priyaa" was originally composed by [[Ilaiyaraaja]], and originally sung by [[K.S.Chithra|Chithra]] and [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]] in the Telugu film [[Geethanjali (1989 film)|''Geethanjali'']].

Vocals for Khan and Dixit were performed by their then-frequent collaborators, [[Udit Narayan]] and [[Anuradha Paudwal]] in five and four songs, respectively. [[Sadhana Sargam]] lent her voice for the other two songs.

The song "Mujhe Neend Na Aaye" was also recorded by Alka Yagnik, which was likely scrapped and replaced with Anuradha Paudwal. However, it has surfaced online.

The soundtrack was very popular. According to the Indian trade website [[Box Office India]], with around 2,000,000 units sold, the soundtrack became the fourth highest-grossing album of the year.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2010-01-02 |title=BoxOffice India.com |url=http://boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat=284&catName=MTk5MC0xOTk5 |access-date=2024-10-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100102010439/http://boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat=284&catName=MTk5MC0xOTk5 |archive-date=2 January 2010 }}</ref>

The song "Hum Pyar Karne Wale" was remixed in the 2026 film ''[[Dhurandhar: The Revenge]]'', by [[Shashwat Sachdev]]. The remix version featured the original vocals by Narayan and Paudwal, with a rap performed by Qveen Herby.<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OVHkruv-dg8 |title=Hum Pyaar Karne Wale (Audio) {{!}} Dhurandhar The Revenge Shashwat,Anuradha P,Udit N,QveenA,Anand-Milind |date=2026-03-19 |last=T-Series |access-date=2026-03-21 |via=YouTube}}</ref>

{{Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Mujhe Neend Na Aaye
| extra1 = [[Udit Narayan]], [[Anuradha Paudwal]]
| length1 = 06:14|
| title2 = Hum Pyar Karne Wale
| extra2 = Udit Narayan, Anuradha Paudwal
| length2 = 06:57|
| title3 = Humne Ghar Chhoda Hai
| extra3 = Udit Narayan, [[Sadhana Sargam]]
| length3 = 06:18|
| title4 = Khambe Jaisi Khadi Hai
| extra4 = Udit Narayan
| length4 = 05:26|
| title5 = Dum Duma Dum
| extra5 = Udit Narayan, Anuradha Paudwal
| length5 = 06:40|
| title6 = O Priya Priya
| extra6 = [[Suresh Wadkar]], Anuradha Paudwal
| length6 = 06:03|
| title7 = Saansein Teri Chalti Rahe
| note7 = Sad
| extra7 = [[Uttara Kelkar]]
| length7 = 02:16|
| total_length = 39:54
}}

==Awards and nominations==
At the [[36th Filmfare Awards]], the film won one award out of eight nominations.

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! Award
! Category
! Recipients and nominees
! Results
|-
| rowspan="8" | [[36th Filmfare Awards]]
| [[Filmfare Award for Best Film|Best Film]]
| [[Indra Kumar]]
| {{nom}}
|-
| [[Filmfare Award for Best Actor|Best Actor]]
| [[Aamir Khan]]
| {{nom}}
|-
| [[Filmfare Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]]
| [[Madhuri Dixit]]
| {{won}}
|-
| [[Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor|Best Supporting Actor]]
| [[Anupam Kher]]
| {{nom}}
|-
| [[Filmfare Award for Best Music Director|Best Music Director]]
| [[Anand–Milind]]
| {{nom}}
|-
| [[Filmfare Award for Best Lyricist|Best Lyricist]]
| [[Sameer (lyricist)|Sameer]] for "Mujhe Neend Na Aaye"
| {{nom}}
|-
| [[Filmfare Award for Best Male Playback Singer|Best Male Playback Singer]]
| [[Suresh Wadkar]] for "O Priyaa Priyaa"
| {{nom}}
|-
| [[Filmfare Award for Best Female Playback Singer|Best Female Playback Singer]]
| [[Anuradha Paudwal]] for "Mujhe Neend Na Aaye"
| {{nom}}
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|0099429}}

{{Indra Kumar}}

[[Category:1990 films]]
[[Category:1990 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:1990 Indian films]]
[[Category:1990 romantic comedy-drama films]]
[[Category:Indian romantic comedy-drama films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Indra Kumar]]
[[Category:Films scored by Anand–Milind]]
[[Category:Hindi films remade in other languages]]
[[Category:1990 directorial debut films]]
[[Category:Films shot in Ooty]]
[[Category:Indian romantic musical films]]

Maraimalai Adigal

2026-03-19T16:19:22Z

JOVFinlay2: general updated intro as per guidelines also and updated info per sources

{{Short description|Tamil orator and writer (1876–1950)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2018}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Maraimalai Adigal
| image = Maraimalai Adigal 2007 stamp of India.jpg
| image_size =
| caption = Adigal on a 2007 stamp of India
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| birth_name = N. C. Vedhachalam Pillai
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1876|07|15}}
| birth_place = [[Nagapattinam]], [[Tanjore District (Madras Presidency)|Tanjore District]], [[Madras Presidency]], [[British India]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|1950|09|15|1876|07|15}}
| death_place = [[Madras]], [[Madras State]], [[India]]
}}
'''Maraimalai Adigal''' (15 July 1876 – 15 September 1950) was a [[Tamils|Tamil]] [[Saivite]] writer, orator and father of the [[Tanittamil Iyakkam]] movement. He authored more than 100 books, including works on original poems and dramas and notable research works on [[Tamil literature]] and Saivism. He founded a Saivite institution called ''Podhunilaik Kazhagam''. He was an exponent of the [[Tanittamil Iyakkam]] movement and is considered to be the father of Tamil [[linguistic purism]]. He advocated the use of Tamil devoid of [[Sanskrit]] words and changed his birth name ''Vedhachalam'' to ''Maraimalai''.

Politically, he was inclined towards non-[[Vedic Brahmanism|Brahminism]] and considered the [[Self-Respect Movement]] to be an offshoot of his political activism. Though he was a scholar of Tamil, he had good scholastic command over Sanskrit and English. The ideologies of [[Periyar E. V. Ramasamy]] were shunned by Maraimalai Adigal and caused years of differences between the two. Maraimalai Adigal spent most of his income buying books and after his death, his collection was made into a library according to his will.

==Early life==
Maraimalai Adigal was born on 15 July 1876{{cn|date=August 2017}} to Cokkanata Pillai and Cinnammai.<ref name=companion213>Zvelebil, p. 213</ref> His birth name was Vedhachalam. He did his early schooling at Wesley Mission High School in [[Nagappattinam]], but had to abandon his formal education with Fourth Form after his father's death.<ref name=EIL82>Encyclopaedia of Indian literature, p. 82</ref>

==Education in Tamil literature==
Maraimalai Adigal in spite of discontinuing his formal education after 9th grade, continued learning Tamil from the Tamil scholar Narayana Pillai, who was making his livelihood by selling Tamil palm-leaf manuscripts.<ref name=EIL82/> He learnt [[English language|English]] through his own effort.<ref name=companion213/> He later authored several articles in Tamil monthly called ''Neelalochani''. He later studied Saiva [[philosophy]] under Somasundara Naicker. With the help of Sundaram Pillai, author of ''Manonmaniam'', he learned Tamil poetic dramas and thus acquired employment as a Tamil teacher in a school in [[Trivandrum]].<ref name=EIL82/>

==Career==
At the age of seventeen, he married Soundaravalli and soon after his marriage, he moved to [[Madras]] to work as a sub-editor to a journal ''Siddantha Deepikai''. Later, in March 1898, he quit this job to work with [[Parithimar Kalaignar|V. G. Suryanarana Sastri]] as a teacher in [[Madras Christian College]]. In his time in Madras Christian College he toured throughout [[Tamil Nadu]] giving lectures on Saivam.<ref name=EIL82/> At about the same time he started a society for Saivam called ''Saiva Siddhanta Maha Samajam''.<ref name=TN>[http://www.tamilnation.co/hundredtamils/maraimalai.htm One Hundred Tamils of the 20th century] on TamilNation.com</ref> As a young teacher he was popular with his students who would visit his house to listen to his lectures.<ref name=companion213/>

In 1910 a decision was made by the Madras University to make the vernacular Tamil language optional for graduation in Arts subjects, leaving English as a medium of education. This decision caused many Tamil teachers to lose their jobs. Realising the vast knowledge and his great capacity as a teacher, Miller, the then Head of Christian College Madras, and other friends insisted that Adigal be given a job in the college. As the opportunity to teach Tamil was considerably reduced and few students opted to study it, the need for a full-time teacher was not a required. Adigal refused the offer and resigned to lead an ascetic life in a serene atmosphere outside the city and to study and do research in Tamil.{{citation needed|date=November 2014}}

==Works in Tamil literature==
Apart from being a good orator, Adigal composed several Tamil poems.<ref name=EIL82/> He authored more than 100 books. Other than essays and novels he wrote books dealing with literary criticism, philosophy and religion, history, psychology and politics.<ref name=companion214>Zvelebil, p. 214</ref> His collections of poems to the Hindu god [[Murugan|Sri Murugan]], which he composed during the times of illness were published as ''Thiruvotri Muruhar Mummanikkovai'' in 1900. He also wrote poems from recollections of his teacher Somasundara Naiker in 1901 as ''Somasundarak Kaanjiaakkam''. This has been considered as one of his best works. He also released his research work on Tamil literature ''Mullaip Pattu Aaraichi'' for students of Tamil literature.<ref name=EIL82/> He translated [[Kalidasa]]'s '[[Abhijñānaśākuntalam]]' into Tamil as ''Sakuntalai''.<ref name=TN/>

Some of his prominent works include:<ref name=companion214/>
*''Pattinapalaai Aaraaichi-yurai'' (1906)
*''Tamizhthaai'' (1933)
*''Sinthanaikatturaikal'' (1908)
*''Arivuraikkothu'' (1921)
*''Chiruvarkaana Senthamizh'' (1934)
*''Ilainarkaana Inramizh'' (1957 – posthumous publication)
*''Arivuraikkovai'' (1971 – posthumous publication)
*''Maraimalaiyatikal paamanaikkovai'' (1977 – posthumous publication)

In 1911, he published his first novel, ''Kumuthavalli allathu Naahanaattarasi'', an adaptation of English novel ''Leela'' by [[G. W. M. Reynolds]].<ref name=companion214/>

He also wrote books on the subjects of self-improvement, self-help and personality development. These included ''Maranathin pin Manithar Nilai'' (Human Life stage After Death), ''Mesmerism and Hypnotism'' and ''Tholaivil unarthal'' (Telepathy).

==As Swami Vedhachalam==

After quitting his teaching job on 10 April 1911, Adigal moved to Pallavaram, a suburb of Madras. There he began to dress as a ''[[Sanyasin]]'' from 27 August 1911 and became known as ''Swami Vedhachalam''. He became a devout follower of [[Saivism|Saivam]] and started an institution named ''Podhunilaik Kazhagam''. Once , at a rendezvous in Madras , he met [[V. O. Chidambaram Pillai|V.O Chidambaram Pillai]]. The motto of the institution was set at ''Ondre Kulam, Oruvanae Devan'' (Mankind is one, and God is one). The Kazhagam made efforts to make people of all castes, creeds and religions to worship Sri Siva together.
He started the Thiru Murugan Press (TM Press) in his residence at Pallavaram and published a number of books and magazines. He also started a monthly called ''Gnaana Saaharam'' (Ocean of Wisdom).<ref name=EIL82/>

==Pure Tamil movement Tanittamil Iyakkam==
{{main|Pure Tamil movement}}
In the year 1916 he became an expert of pure Tamil movement advocating the use of Tamil language devoid of loan words from Sanskrit. Thus he changed the name of ''Gnaana Saaharam'' to ''Arivukkadal'' and his title of Swami Vedhachalam to ''Maraimalai Adigal'' (where Adigal is Tamil for Swami).<ref name=EIL83>Encyclopaedia of Indian literature, p. 83</ref> Thus he is referred to as the "Father of Tamil Puritanism".<ref name=EIL83/><ref name=ENI92>{{cite book
| last = Mukherjee
| first = Meenakshi
| title = Early Novels in India
| publisher = Sahitya Akademi
| year = 2002
| page = 92
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=VPJ7jqVSl34C
| isbn = 978-81-260-1342-5}}</ref><ref name=Ravi>Vaitheespara, R [http://chass.utoronto.ca/~tamils/tsc2007/programme/rvaitheespara.html The Question of Colonialism and Imperialism in Tamil Nationalist Thought: The Case of Maraimalai Adigal (1876-1950)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090520020030/http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~tamils/tsc2007/programme/rvaitheespara.html |date=20 May 2009 }} ''Tamil Studies Conference''. Toronto, Canada.</ref>

==Maraimalai Adigal and Self-respect movement==
{{Dravidian politics-col}}

===Non-Brahmin movement===
Apart from being called as the father of pure Tamil movement, Maraimalai Adigal is also considered to be the father of Non-Brahmin Tamil movements.<ref name=Ravi/> Maraimalai Adigal himself claimed that the non-Brahmin stance of [[Self-respect movement]] was born out of his views and principles.<ref name=coffee117>Vēṅkaṭācalapati, p. 117</ref> Nevertheless, the [[atheist]] stance of [[Periyar E. V. Ramasamy]], who was heading the Self-respect movement, was observed by Maraimalai Adigal and his followers as counter productive.<ref name=coffee116/> On this issue, Ilavalaganar, a student of Maraimalai Adigal wrote: {{cquote|[[Saivism]] is not one iota different from the primary aim of the [[Self-respect movement]]. The Self-respect movement arose to dispel the illusion of [[Vedic Brahmanism|Brahmanism]] from the [[Tamil people]] and infuse self-respect into them. Saivism also does the same. The Self-respect Movement detests the Aryan [[Brahmins]]. Saivism too doesn't like the Aryan Brahmins one bit... The Self-respect movement wishes to uplift the depressed classes. That is also the basic idea of Saivism.... The Self-respect movement is against caste differences among the Tamil people. Saivism too emphasizes the same point... when there are so many commonalities, why should Saivism and Saivite apostles be deprecated and condemned [by the Self-respect movement].<ref name=coffee116>Vēṅkaṭācalapati, pp. 116–117</ref>}}

===Differences with Self-respect movement===
Although initially a supporter of the Self-respect movement, which he saw as a non-Brahmin movement, he vehemently opposed the atheistic views of its leadership. At one stage he asked Ulaganatha Mudaliar, brother of [[V. Kalyanasundaram|Thiru. Vi. Kaliyanasundara Mudaliar]] (Thiru Vi. Ka as he was popularly known) and an eminent Saivite scholar himself, to arrange for a statewide tour to counter the propaganda of the Self-respect movement.<ref name=coffee118>Vēṅkaṭācalapati, p. 118</ref> Maraimalai Adigal looked upon the Self-respect movement as a handiwork of the [[Telugu language|Telugu]] [[Vaishnavites]]. On this Maraimalai Adigal wrote {{cquote|The leader of the [[Self-respect movement]] is a Vaishnavite; his brother too, we come to understand, is a Vaishnavite who has converted many gullible Saivites to Vaishnavism. Their accomplices too are Vaishnavites. Some of the Justice Party leaders too are Vaishnavites. Moreover, not only are they Vaishnavites, they are also [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-speakers.<ref name=coffee118/>}}

Kalyanasundara Mudaliar, although a Saivite himself, disagreed with Maraimalai Adigal. Kalyanasundaram refused to publish Maraimalai Adigal's essay against Self-respect movement in his journal.<ref name=coffee118/> The antipathy between Maraimalai Adigal and the members of Self-respect movement was also explicit with ''Kudiarasu'', the political organ of Self-respect movement claiming that Maraimalai Adigal was calling for Periyar to be murdered.<ref name=coffee119>Vēṅkaṭācalapati, p. 119</ref>

===Reconciliation===
Eventually after years of disagreement, both Maraimalai Adigal and Periyar realised that the disagreement is harmful for their interest and worked towards a rapprochement.<ref name=coffee120>Vēṅkaṭācalapati, p. 120</ref> Periyar offered an unconditional apology to Maraimalai Adigal and in reply, Maraimalai Adigal wrote a series on the ''[[Ramayana]]'' in Periyar's [[English language]] weekly ''Revolt''.<ref name=coffee121>Vēṅkaṭācalapati, p. 121</ref> Although the apology and reconciliation were at a personal level between Periyar and Maraimalai Adigal, the difference in ideologies still made their followers to cross swords.<ref name=coffee121/>

==Maraimalai Adigal Library==
Maraimalai Adigal spent most of his income on buying books.<ref name=EIL83/> Research on the readership of his book collections show that between 20 April 1923 to 10 August 1930 a total of 1852 people had borrowed his books.<ref name=EIL83/> The readership included people from [[Madras Presidency]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Burma]] and [[Malaysia]].<ref name=EIL83/> Upon his death, on 15 September 1950,<ref name=TN/> according to his will, the books were left for the people of Tamil Nadu and thus a library named after him was started in 1958 by the then MD, Padmashri V.Subbiah Pillai of [[South India Saiva Siddhanta Works Publishing Society Ltd.]] at Linghi Street, [[Chennai]]. by adding more no of rare collection of Tamil books<ref name=EIL83/> The library was a repertoire of books and journals, some printed way back in 1779. In May 2008, the Tamil Nadu Government helped by allocating a space at [[Connemara Public Library]] but the library management is still with the present MD [[Rajagopal Muthukumaraswamy]] of South India Saiva Siddhanta Works Publishing Society.<ref>{{cite web
| last = Mohammed
| first = Peer
| title = Rare library turns 50
| publisher = Deccan Chronicle
| url = http://www.dc-epaper.com/dc/dcc/2008/08/25/ArticleHtmls/25_08_2008_004_007.shtml
| archive-url = https://archive.today/20111005153447/http://www.dc-epaper.com/dc/dcc/2008/08/25/ArticleHtmls/25_08_2008_004_007.shtml
| url-status = dead
| archive-date = 5 October 2011
| accessdate = 31 January 2009}} </ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist|25em}}

==References==
{{Commons category|Maraimalai Adigal}}
*{{cite book
| title = Encyclopaedia of Indian literature vol. 1
| publisher = Sahitya Akademi
| year = 1987
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ObFCT5_taSgC
| isbn = 978-81-260-1803-1}}

*{{cite book |last=Vēṅkaṭācalapati |first=Ā. Irā |title=In Those Days There was No Coffee |publisher=[[Yoda Press]] |year=2006 |pages=116–121 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tk-KZmcUEvAC |isbn=978-81-902272-7-8}}
*{{cite book
| last = Zvelebil
| first = Kamil
| title = Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature
| publisher = Brill
| year = 1992
| pages = 213–214
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=qAPtq49DZfoC
| isbn = 978-90-04-09365-2}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Adigal, Maraimalai}}
[[Category:1876 births]]
[[Category:1950 deaths]]
[[Category:Tamil language activists]]
[[Category:Dravidian movement]]
[[Category:Tamil-language writers]]
[[Category:Hindu poets]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian writers]]
[[Category:People from Nagapattinam district]]
[[Category:Indian Shaivites]]

M. Anto Peter

2026-03-18T02:52:38Z

JOVFinlay2: general expanded article additionally and corrected details

{{Refimprove|date=October 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2020}}
'''M. Anto Peter Ramesh''' (26 April 1967 – 12 July 2012) was a [[Tamil people|Tamil]] [[software]] vendor and technical writer.

Peter was born in 1967 in [[Arumuganeri]], [[Tuticorin district]], and later he moved on to [[Chennai]]. Primary schooling in St. Dominic Savio Primary School-Chennai Perambur, high school in Don Bosco Higher secondary school in perambur Chennai, radio officer course in Ramana Institute Adyar. He was in the first batch of students when [[computer science]] was introduced in polytechnic and obviously completed his diploma in computer science and further developed himself with a degree in [[mathematics]] and a master's degree in business administration specialising in [[marketing]]. He was one of the well-known computer professionals in India who started many missions to spread the computer education to Indian youths at his late 20s. He was the managing director of Softview Media College through which he educated the students in the field of multimedia, print media, graphics, animation and also develops [[Tamil language|Tamil]] fonts and Tamil typing software.

==Features==
Anto Peter was the first to start introducing [[multimedia]] training and has conducted more than 500 seminars on job opportunities in the field of multimedia and gives free consultancy for setting up a small-scale [[entrepreneurship]]. Peter was the managing director of the institution where students are given training in multimedia, print media, graphics, animation and development of Tamil fonts and Tamil typing software. He has conducted more than 500 seminars on job opportunities in the field of multimedia. People close to him said he used to give even free guidance to young entrepreneurs.<ref name=News>{{cite news|last=Anto Peter|title=Computing expert Anto Peter dies|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-07-13/chennai/32663243_1_tamil-fonts-print-media|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140102192118/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-07-13/chennai/32663243_1_tamil-fonts-print-media|url-status=dead|archive-date=2 January 2014|accessdate=18 July 2012|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|date=13 July 2012}}</ref>

Anto Peter was the member of Tamil Software Development Fund and Semmozch Conference, Semozchi Digital Library, Board of Studies in the [[University of Madras]] and 12 five-year plan committee which was represented by the [[Government of Tamil Nadu]]. In addition, he was the Governing Council Member of Tamil Valarchi Kazhagam for the year 2007-08.<ref name="Current affairs">{{cite web|last=Peter|first=Anto|title=Tamil Language Computing Champion Anto Peter passed away|url=http://www.jagranjosh.com/current-affairs/tamil-language-computing-champion-anto-peter-passed-away-1342182774-1|publisher=Jagaranjosh|accessdate=18 July 2012|date=2012-07-13}}</ref>

He died on 12 July 2012 at 3:00 am [Indian Standard Time], of a heart attack.
He has actively participated in all worldwide Tamil computing related Conferences and has submitted around 26 Research papers on Tamil computing development.

He was the first to start a Tamil E-zine named Tamilcinema.com,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tamilcinema.com |accessdate=21 August 2020 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303095413/http://www.tamilcinema.com/ |archivedate=3 March 2012 | title=காதலில் சொதப்புவது எப்படி (Movie Reviews) }}</ref> as early as 1997 which still today is very popular among the Tamil community around the globe.<ref>''Tamil Inaya Sitrithazhkal''; Theni.M.Subramani; pg.11</ref> This was the only E-zine which was advertised in all the media as it was the first of its kind when the other entertainment news providers were still publishing the news in paper format.<ref>''Tamil Inaya Ithazhkal''; Anna Kannan; pg.25</ref>

==Books==

===Written in English===
*''Macromedia Hand Book''
*''Multimedia Hand Book''
*''Keyboard Shortcuts''

=== Written in Tamil===
*''Computer Virus''
*''Adoble Premiere''
*''Desk Top Publishing''
*''Corel Draw''
*''Tamil 99 Brailee Hand Book''
*''What we can learn in Computer?''
*''Mobile Phone Terminology''
*''Learn Computer''
*''Learn Computer Tamil Typing''
*''Multimedia Q & A''
*''Computer Job Ready?''
*''Internet Guide''
*''Computer Q & A''
*''Information Technology Terminology''
*''Tamil & Computer''
*''Learn Internet within 24 Hours''
*''Computer related studies!''
*''Basics of Multimedia''
*''Graphics & Animation''
*''Computer related small business''

==Honours==
Anto Peter holds the many posts and EC membership for many associations and Membership in State and Central Government Associations that are as follows:

#Kani Tamizh Sangam – President<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kanithamizh.in/Kani_Tamil_Sangam_Executive_Council_Members.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120710031812/http://kanithamizh.in/Kani_Tamil_Sangam_Executive_Council_Members.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=10 July 2012 |accessdate=8 April 2012 |title=Office Bearers }}</ref>
#[[Tamil Heritage Foundation]] - Secretary <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tamilheritage.org/old/ec/ec.html |accessdate=3 March 2012 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120127222141/http://www.tamilheritage.org/old/ec/ec.html |archivedate=27 January 2012 |title=Tamil Heritage Foundation - Executive Council }}</ref>
#Tamil Software Development Fund - Member represented by Tamil Nadu Govt.{{citation needed|date=April 2012}}
#Semmozhi Conference - Member represented by Tamil Nadu Govt.{{citation needed|date=April 2012}}
#Semmozhi - Digital Library - Mysore - Member represented by India Govt.{{citation needed|date=April 2012}}
#12th Five Year plan committee - Member represented by Tamil Nadu Govt.{{Citation needed|date=March 2012}}
#Member of Board of studies - University of Madras - Tamil Nadu Govt.{{Citation needed|date=March 2012}}
#16 bit Unicode Standardisation - Member represented by Tamil Nadu Govt.{{citation needed|date=April 2012}}
#U.Ve.Sa. Library - Governing Council Member<ref>{{cite web|url=http://uvesalibrary.org/members.htm |accessdate=3 March 2012 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120718034307/http://uvesalibrary.org/members.htm |archivedate=18 July 2012 |title=UVeSa Library Members }}</ref>
#Tamil Valarchi Kazhagam - Governing Council Member (2007–2008)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tamilvk.com/Members.asp |accessdate=21 August 2020 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110215055929/http://www.tamilvk.com/Members.asp |archivedate=15 February 2011 | title=தமிழ் வளர்ச்சிக் கழகம் | publisher=tamilvk.com }}</ref>

==Awards==
He has won several Government Awards for his books in Information Technology which are as follows:

#Tamizhum Kaniporium (Tamil and Computer) Best book government award in 2004.{{citation needed|date=April 2012}}
#Best Author Award in 2007 at the Neyveli Book Fair subsidised by Central Government.{{citation needed|date=April 2012}}
#Bharathi Literarian award 2010 by Shiram group.{{citation needed|date=April 2012}}
#Periyar 2012 Award by Periyar Muthamizh mandram.{{citation needed|date=April 2012}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Peter, M. Anto}}
[[Category:1967 births]]
[[Category:2012 deaths]]
[[Category:Indian technology writers]]
[[Category:Tamil writers]]
[[Category:Tamil-language writers]]
[[Category:Don Bosco schools alumni]]

2022 Haryana local elections

2026-03-11T03:49:37Z

JOVFinlay2: Made post

{{Short description|Indian local body elections}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2022}}
{{Infobox election
| election_name = 2022 Haryana municipal elections
| party2 = Aam Aadmi Party
| ongoing = no
| election_date = 2022
| previous_election = 2017 Haryana municipal elections
| previous_year = 2017
| next_election = 2025 Haryana local elections
| next_year = 2025
| country = India
| leader1 =
| party1 = Bharatiya Janata Party
| type = Legislative
| leader2 =
| seats1 = '''25'''
| party3 = Indian National Lok Dal
| leader3 =
| last_election1 =
| last_election2 =
| last_election3 = 
| seats_for_election = All 46 seats
| majority_seats =
| title = majority councils
| before_party =
| before_election =
| leader_since1 = 2020
| leader_since2 = 2012
| seats2 = 1
| leader_since3 = 2020
| image1 =
| image2 =
| image3 =
| seats3 = 1
| posttitle =
| after_election = [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
| alliance1 = National Democratic Alliance
| alliance2 =
| alliance3 =
}}

'''Municipal elections''' in [[Haryana]] for the post of president were held in 2022 for 46 local bodies. The 46 local bodies included 18 municipal councils and 26 municipal committees.<ref name="Tribune 22 Jun">{{cite news |title=BJP-JJP combine gains control of 25 municipal bodies in Haryana |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/haryana/haryana-local-bodies-results-live-updates-counting-begins-across-the-state-405982 |access-date=22 June 2022 |work=Tribuneindia News Service |date=22 June 2022 |language=en}}</ref> The [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] won elections of 25 local bodies, while Independents won 19. INLD and AAP won 1 local body each while the congress was reduced to 0.

== Background ==

==Parties and alliances==

=== {{legend2|{{party color|National Democratic Alliance (India)}}|[[National Democratic Alliance (India)|National Democratic Alliance]]}} ===

{| class="wikitable" " width="50%"
|+
!No.
!Party
!Flag
!Symbol
!Leader
!Photo
!Seats Contested
|-
! style="text-align:center; background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}};color:white"|'''1.'''
| [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| [[File:BJP_flag.svg|center|75x75px]]
| [[File:BJP_election_symbol.png|center|50x50px]]
|
|
| 45
|-
! style="text-align:center; background:{{party color|Jannayak Janta Party}};color:white"|'''2.'''
| [[Jannayak Janta Party]]
|
|
|
|
| -
|}

=== {{legend2|{{party color|Aam Aadmi Party}}|[[Aam Aadmi Party]]}} ===

{| class="wikitable" " width="50%"
|+
!No.
!Party
!Flag
!Symbol
!Leader
!Photo
!Seats Contested
|-
|! style="text-align:center; background:{{party color|Aam Aadmi Party}};color:white"|'''1.'''
| [[Aam Aadmi Party]]
| [[File:Aam_Aadmi_Party_logo_(English).svg|center|75x75px]]
| [[File:AAP_Symbol.png|center|75x75px]]
| [[Arvind Kejriwal]]
| [[File:Arvind Kejriwal smiling (cropped).jpg|center|100x100px]]
|45
|-
|}

=== {{legend2|{{party color|United Progressive Alliance}}|[[United Progressive Alliance]]}} ===

{| class="wikitable" " width="50%"
|+
!No.
!Party
!Flag
!Symbol
!Leader
!Photo
!Seats Contested
|-
|! style="text-align:center; background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}};color:white"|'''1.'''
| [[Indian National Congress]]
| [[File:INC_Flag_Official.jpg|center|75x75px]]
| [[File:Hand_INC.svg|center|75x75px]]
|
|[[File:Circle-icons-profile.svg|50x50px]]
|45
|-
|}

===Others===

{| class="wikitable" " width="50%"
|+
!No.
!Party
!Flag
!Symbol
!Leader
!Photo
!Seats Contested
|-
|! style="text-align:center; background:{{party color|Indian National Lok Dal}};color:white"|'''1.'''
| [[Indian National Lok Dal]]
|
|
|
| [[File:Circle-icons-profile.svg|50x50px]]
|45
|}

==Election results==
The results of the election were counted and declared on 22 June 2022.

{|class="sortable wikitable"
|+ Haryana municipal elections
|-
! colspan="2" |Party!! Seats won !! '''Seats +/−'''
!Vote %
|-
| {{party color cell|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
| [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] || 25 || {{increase}}5
| 26.3
|-
| {{party color cell|Independent politician}} ||[[Independent politician]] || 19 ||
| 52.2
|-
| {{party color cell|Aam Aadmi Party}}
| [[Aam Aadmi Party]] || 1 ||
| 10.3
|-
| {{party color cell|Indian National Lok Dal}}
| [[Indian National Lok Dal]] || 1 ||
| 4.3
|-
| {{party color cell|Indian National Congress}}
| [[Indian National Congress]] || 0 ||
|
|-
| colspan="2" |'''Total'''|| '''46''' ||'''±0'''
|'''100'''
|-
|}

{|class="sortable wikitable"
|+ Haryana municipal council elections
|-
! colspan="2" |Party!! Seats won !! '''Seats +/−'''
!Vote %
|-
| {{party color cell|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
| [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] || 11 || 
|
|-
| {{party color cell|Independent politician}} ||[[Independent politician]] || 6 ||
|
|-
| {{party color cell|Aam Aadmi Party}}
| [[Aam Aadmi Party]] || 0 ||
|
|-
| {{party color cell|Indian National Lok Dal}}
| [[Indian National Lok Dal]] || 1 ||
|
|-
| {{party color cell|Indian National Congress}}
| [[Indian National Congress]] || 0 ||
|
|-
| colspan="2" |'''Total'''|| '''18''' ||'''±0'''
|'''100'''
|-
|}

{|class="sortable wikitable"
|+ Haryana municipal committees elections
|-
! colspan="2" |Party!! Seats won !! '''Seats +/−'''
!Vote %
|-
| {{party color cell|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
| [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] || 14 || 
|
|-
| {{party color cell|Independent politician}} ||[[Independent politician]] || 13 ||
|
|-
| {{party color cell|Aam Aadmi Party}}
| [[Aam Aadmi Party]] || 1 ||
|
|-
| {{party color cell|Indian National Lok Dal}}
| [[Indian National Lok Dal]] || 0 ||
|
|-
| {{party color cell|Indian National Congress}}
| [[Indian National Congress]] || 0 ||
|
|-
| colspan="2" |'''Total'''|| '''28''' ||'''±0'''
|'''100'''
|-
|}

== Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Haryana elections}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Local elections in Haryana]]
[[Category:2022 elections in India|H]]

Lok Bhavan, Thiruvananthapuram

2026-03-09T23:58:12Z

JOVFinlay2: new

{{short description|Official residence of the Governor of Kerala}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2018}}
{{Infobox building
| name = Lok Bhavan, Kerala
| logo =
| image =
| caption = Part of Kerala Raj Bhavan
| pushpin_map =
| map_caption =
| coordinates = {{coord|8.5156|76.9632|display=inline,title}}
| location = [[Thiruvananthapuram]], [[India]]
| architect = Travancore Royal Maramath
| floor_area = {{convert|22,000|sqft|abbr=on}}
| client = [[Governor of Kerala]]
| current_tenants =
| engineer =
| construction_start_date =
| completion_date =
| demolished_date =
| cost =
| structural_system =
| architectural_style = Traditional Kerala
| size =
}}

''' Lok Bhavan''' formerly '''Raj Bhavan''' ([[translation]]: ''King's House'') is the [[official residence]] of the [[Governors of Kerala|governor of Kerala]] [[Rajendra Arlekar]]. It is located in the [[capital city]] of [[Thiruvananthapuram]], [[Kerala]]. Built in 1829 as Palace Guest house of Travancore Government Guest, this heritage structure hosts the present governor of Kerala, Rajendra Arlekar.<ref>{{cite web|title=Governor: Shri Arif Muhammad Khan|publisher=The Official Web Portal of Government of Kerala|url=http://www.kerala.gov.in/government/goernor.htm|accessdate=2009-06-05|archive-date=15 June 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090615210331/http://www.kerala.gov.in/government/goernor.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>

== History ==

The Kerala Lok Bhavan was originally constructed by Royal Government of [[Travancore]] as a guest palace to accommodate state guests and heads of states while on their official visits to [[Thiruvananthapuram]]. For a brief period from 1914 to 1918, the palace was used as War Office of Travancore Army and state armed forces during [[World War I]]. During this period, the palace was also the official residence of General Chief of Staff of Travancore Army. For a brief period from 1919 to 1937, the palace was again converted as a guest palace after commissioning of [[Kowdiar Palace]], the royal residence of Travancore Maharajas. From 1937 onwards, the building became guest house of [[University of Kerala|University of Travancore]] used by various foreign faculties and guest professors.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rajbhavan.kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=46&Itemid=28 |title=Rajbhavan History |website=www.rajbhavan.kerala.gov.in |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090801124658/http://rajbhavan.kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=46&Itemid=28 |archive-date=2009-08-01}}</ref>

When Kerala was formed in 1957, there were three Raj Bhavan, the Bolgatty Palace of Ernakulam, Devikulam Palace of Munnar (Summer Palace of Travancore Maharajas) and Thiruvananthapuram Raj Bhavan. However, the [[Government of Kerala]] later decided to do away with former two Raj Bhavans by converting Bolgatty Palace into a heritage hotel and Devikulam Palace as Government Guest House.

==Complex and building==

Built in the Kerala traditional style, the main building of the Lok Bhavan has certain architectural features such as high ceiled, spacious rooms with large windows and doors, with a tinge of Victorian finish. Constructed atop a breezy hillock, it is surrounded by sprawling meadows, velvety lawns, green houses with many species of Anthurium, Orchid, etc. There is also an enchanting fountain at the centre of the main lawn facing the office room of the Governor.

There are 3 major structures, with the main building being the oldest and heritage complex. The '''main structure''' is of 22,000 sqft built up space has 3 large halls, a state banquet hall, conference hall, Governor's office, Governor's Secretariat, department offices, conference room and a large library. The '''East Wing''' houses Governor's private residence with 18 suites and rooms for personal staff, apart from private dining room and Kitchen. The '''West Wing''' houses residences of chief officers, guest rooms and a mini-museum. The '''Chitra Thirunal Hall''', located in West wing, is used for all state ceremonies. A ball room exists in west wing where the New Year celebrations and Onam, Pongal, etc. celebrations are conducted in Raj Bhavan.

===Lok Bhavan Library===

Kerala Lok Bhavan has one of the largest private collections of books among other Lok Bhavans of India. The Lok Bhavan has a good library of about six thousand books on a variety of interesting topics. The Public Relations Section is in charge of the Library. The books have been indexed and neatly displayed on shelves.

=== Exteriors ===

With an area of 3.24 hectares, Raj Bhavan Gardens is the centre of attraction to the visitors. The trimmed grass gives the lawn a look of a green carpet spread out, and the artificial water fall, and the three green houses add to the charm of the gardens. Dendrobium, Aranda, Catlia, Arachnis, Moecara, Vanda and Dove orchid grace it. A good collection of Rose and Bigonia are also there. The beautiful statues brought in from Mayiladi, near Sucheendram, Tamil Nadu and placed at appropriate points contribute to the charm of the Kerala Raj Bhavan Gardens. There are also two impressive Band Stands built in regal style, besides a Children's Park, Tennis Court and a Shuttle Court on the premise. The lawn hosts the annual ''At Home'' ceremonies during Independence and Republic days.

===Other structures===

Also situated in the campus are the 71 Quarters for the Officers and Staff of Kerala Raj Bhavan (the quarters of ADC are situated in the Raj Bhavan - Kowdiar road), Raj Bhavan Dispensary, Office of the Electrical Wing and the Raj Bhavan Employees Co-operative Society. There is a post office exclusively for Raj Bhavan named "The Kerala Governor’s Camp Post Office", where there are facilities for sending speed post, telegrams etc. A security office with 40 security officials and 20 special branch officials are posted.

==See also==
* [[British Residency]]
* [[Government Houses of the British Empire and Commonwealth#British Indian Empire|Government Houses of the British Indian Empire]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.rajbhavan.kerala.gov.in/ Official website]
{{Raj Bhavan}}
{{Government of Kerala}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Governors' houses in India]]
[[Category:Government buildings in Kerala]]
[[Category:Palaces in Thiruvananthapuram]]
[[Category:Kingdom of Travancore]]
[[Category:Libraries in Thiruvananthapuram]]
[[Category:Houses completed in 1829]]

Vishnu Vishal

2026-03-07T23:38:46Z

JOVFinlay2: fixes

{{short description|Indian actor and film producer (born 1984)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2016}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Vishnu Vishal
| birth_name = Vishal Kudawla
| image = Vishnu-vishal-fir-interview (cropped).jpg
| caption = Vishal at Velainu Vandhutta Vellaikaaran Meet
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1984|07|17}}
| birth_place = [[Vellore]], [[Tamil Nadu]], India
| yearsactive = 2009–present
| occupation = {{hlist|Actor|Film producer}}
| spouse = {{ubl|{{marriage|Rajini Natraj|2010|2018|end=div}}|{{marriage|[[Jwala Gutta]]|2021}}}}
| children = 2
}}

'''Vishal Kudawla''' (born 17 July 1984), known professionally as '''Vishnu Vishal,''' is an Indian actor and film producer in the [[Tamil film industry]]. After a brief career in [[cricket]], he started his acting career in the year 2009 playing the lead role in the sports film ''[[Vennila Kabadi Kuzhu]]'', winning acclaim for his portrayal. Vishnu won further acclaim for his role in ''[[Neerparavai]]'' (2012), portraying a fisherman. He rose to fame with the [[psychological thriller]] film, ''[[Ratsasan]]'' (2018).<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/back-on-familiar-terrain/article25121586.ece |title=What made Vishnu Vishal act in the thriller 'Ratchasan'? |last=Rao |first=Subha J. |date=4 October 2018 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=9 May 2019 |issn=0971-751X |archive-date=11 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201011230559/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/back-on-familiar-terrain/article25121586.ece |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Early life ==
Vishal Kudawla was born on 17 July 1984<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vishal Kudawla |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/cricketers/vishal-kudawla-30141 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240915062445/https://www.espncricinfo.com/cricketers/vishal-kudawla-30141 |archive-date=2024-09-15 |access-date=2024-09-15 |website=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |language=en}}</ref> to Ramesh Kudawla, [[Director general of police]] of Tamil Nadu.<ref name="hero">{{cite web|title=Vishnu – A new hero in Kollywood|url=http://www.sify.com/movies/vishnu-a-new-hero-in-kollywood-news-tamil-kkfsxecadcd.html|website=[[Sify]]|access-date=31 December 2016|date=5 February 2009|archive-date=4 October 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151004154839/http://www.sify.com/movies/vishnu-a-new-hero-in-kollywood-news-tamil-kkfsxecadcd.html}}</ref><ref name="three">{{cite news|last=Srinivasa|first=Ramanujam|title=Three cheers to cinema!|url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/actors-vishal-arya-and-vishnu-rib-each-other-about-girls-gymming-and-growing-up-together-in-kollywood/article6405060.ece|access-date=31 December 2016|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=12 September 2014|archive-date=5 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141205091026/http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/actors-vishal-arya-and-vishnu-rib-each-other-about-girls-gymming-and-growing-up-together-in-kollywood/article6405060.ece|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> He finished his schooling in Holy Cross Matriculation Higher Secondary School in [[Vellore]]. After completing his MBA in marketing from [[SRM Institute of Science and Technology]],<ref name="boy">{{cite news|last=Shilpa Kappur|first=Vasudevan|title=Introvert Turned Lover Boy in College|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/education/edex/2014/oct/06/introvert-turned-lover-boy-in-college-668341.html|access-date=31 December 2016|work=[[The New Indian Express]]|date=6 October 2014|location=[[Chennai]]|archive-date=31 December 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161231210817/http://www.newindianexpress.com/education/edex/2014/oct/06/Introvert-Turned-Lover-Boy-in-College-668341.html}}</ref> he went on to become a cricketer, playing in TNCA league games.<ref name = hero/> However, a leg injury ended his cricket career and the actor noted that during the time he was bedridden, he started watching films and became interested in an acting career. His uncle had been a bit actor in Hindi films like ''[[Phool Bane Angaray]]'' (1991) and ''[[Gardish]]'' (1993) and he shaped Vishnu's interest in the industry.<ref name = hero/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5e4dfhfBOuo|title=Vishnu Vishal & Rudra Interview With Baradwaj Rangan | Oho Enthan Baby | Conversation | Part 3|date=8 July 2025|via=YouTube}}</ref> He entered the film industry with the stage name Vishnu to which he later added his birth name.<ref name="tnie">{{cite news |last=Rinku |first=Gupta |date=30 April 2014 |title=Vishnu Says Mundasupatti brings out his Lighter Side |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2014/apr/30/vishnu-says-mundasupatti-brings-out-his-lighter-side-606604.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161231210220/http://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2014/apr/30/Vishnu-Says-Mundasupatti-brings-out-his-Lighter-Side-606604.html |archive-date=31 December 2016 |access-date=31 December 2016 |work=[[The New Indian Express]]}}</ref>

==Career==

===2009–2014===
After being offered a role by Anand Chakravarthy in [[Suseenthiran]]'s directorial debut ''[[Vennila Kabadi Kuzhu]]'', Vishnu spent months preparing for the role. He had to tan his body sitting for hours in the sun to get dark and look like a player and then for 3 months he trained for kabaddi matches under a coach, for five hours a day.<ref name = hero/> The film opened to very positive reviews, with Vishnu earning a nomination from the Vijay Awards for Best Debut Actor.<ref name="sure">{{cite news|last=Malathi|first=Rangarajan|title=The winning team – Vennila Kabbadi Kuzhu|url=http://hindu.com/cp/2009/02/06/stories/2009020650040200.htm|access-date=31 December 2016|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=6 February 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090209090952/http://hindu.com/cp/2009/02/06/stories/2009020650040200.htm|archive-date=9 February 2009}}</ref> He had two releases in 2010, portraying an action role in the comedy ''[[Bale Pandiya (2010 film)|Bale Pandiya]]'' and then played a rowdy from Royapuram in ''[[Drohi (2010 film)|Drohi]]''.<ref name="back">{{cite web|title=Vishnu is back in action|url=http://www.sify.com/movies/vishnu-is-back-in-action-news-tamil-kkguMqdjjgc.html|website=[[Sify]]|access-date=31 December 2016|date=21 August 2010|archive-date=4 October 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151004081507/http://www.sify.com/movies/vishnu-is-back-in-action-news-tamil-kkguMqdjjgc.html}}</ref> Featuring alongside [[Srikanth (actor, born 1979)|Srikanth]] in the latter, Vishnu had to put on {{cvt|15|kg}} to look mature for the role.<ref name="will">{{cite web|title=Drohi will be different: Vishnu|url=http://www.sify.com/movies/drohi-will-be-different-vishnu-news-tamil-kkguG7giajg.html|website=[[Sify]]|access-date=31 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140112091648/http://www.sify.com/movies/drohi-will-be-different-vishnu-news-tamil-kkguG7giajg.html|archive-date=12 January 2014|url-status=dead|date=7 September 2010}}</ref> He subsequently worked on the comedy, ''[[Kullanari Koottam]]'', After a year without any releases, he had two releases in 2014: the romantic comedy ''[[Mundasupatti]]'' under Thirukumaran Entertainment and the sports drama ''[[Jeeva (2014 film)|Jeeva]]'' for which he collaborated with [[Suseenthiran]] again. Both films won positive reviews and performed well at the box office.<ref name="shot">{{cite news|last=Subha|first=J Rao|title=What a shot!|url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/interview-with-vishnu-vishal/article6646465.ece|access-date=31 December 2016|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=29 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141205131847/http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/interview-with-vishnu-vishal/article6646465.ece|archive-date=5 December 2014}}</ref>

===2015–2018===

In 2015, he appeared in the science and fiction comedy ''[[Indru Netru Naalai]]'' directed by [[R. Ravikumar|R.Ravikumar]]. The movie was a super hit at the box office.<ref name="next">{{cite news|title=Vishnu's next is Indru Netru Naalai|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/Vishnus-next-is-Indru-Netru-Naalai/articleshow/44202194.cms|access-date=31 December 2016|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=3 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141004221641/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/Vishnus-next-is-Indru-Netru-Naalai/articleshow/44202194.cms|archive-date=4 October 2014}}</ref> Vishnu had two releases in 2016. His first release of the year was also his first production venture, the comedy film ''[[Velainu Vandhutta Vellaikaaran]]'' directed by [[Ezhil]], with [[Nikki Galrani]] in the female lead. The movie was one of the most profitable ventures at the box office. His final release of the year was ''[[Maveeran Kittu]]'', a period drama set in the 1980s. Despite receiving positive reviews, the movie did well at the box office. He finished shooting for [[Seenu Ramasamy]]'s ''[[Idam Porul Yaeval]]''.<ref name="join">{{cite news|title=Vishnu joins Vijay Sethupathi|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/Vishnu-joins-Vijay-Sethupathi/articleshow/24145695.cms?|access-date=31 December 2016|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=14 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161231204858/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/Vishnu-joins-Vijay-Sethupathi/articleshow/24145695.cms|archive-date=31 December 2016|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
His next films are ''[[Kathanayagan (2017 film)|Kathanayagan]]'' (2017), ''[[Raatchasan]]'' (2018) and ''[[Silukkuvarupatti Singam]]'' (2018) directed by a first time film maker, Chella.

===2021–present===
In 2021, the [[Prabhu Solomon]]'s ''[[Kaadan]]'' has received mixed reviews from the audience and critics alike.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/kaadan-first-reviews-out-netizens-call-rana-daggubati-film-well-intentioned-1783892-2021-03-26 | title=Kaadan first reviews out. Netizens call Rana Daggubati film well-intentioned | date=26 March 2021 | access-date=7 April 2022 | archive-date=7 April 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407144330/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/kaadan-first-reviews-out-netizens-call-rana-daggubati-film-well-intentioned-1783892-2021-03-26 | url-status=live }}</ref> He played a Muslim in the film ''[[FIR (2022 film)|FIR]]'' (2022), which touched upon the sensitive issue of branding Muslims as terrorists.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/fir-review-tamil-movie-22925 | title=FIR review. FIR Tamil movie review, story, rating | access-date=7 April 2022 | archive-date=7 April 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407144328/https://www.indiaglitz.com/fir-review-tamil-movie-22925 | url-status=live }}</ref> The film was banned in [[Malaysia]], [[Kuwait]] and [[Qatar]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-02-11 |title=FIR: Vishnu Vishal-Led Action Thriller Gets Banned In Malaysia, Kuwait & Qatar |url=https://www.koimoi.com/entertainment-news/fir-vishnu-vishal-led-action-thriller-gets-banned-in-malaysia-kuwait-qatar/ |access-date=2022-04-20 |website=Koimoi |language=en-US |archive-date=16 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220416191802/https://www.koimoi.com/entertainment-news/fir-vishnu-vishal-led-action-thriller-gets-banned-in-malaysia-kuwait-qatar/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In the same year, the actor played a wrestler in the family entertainer ''[[Gatta Kusthi]]'' co-starring [[Aishwarya Lekshmi]] and co-produced by [[Telugu people|Telugu]] actor [[Ravi Teja]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=S |first=Srivatsan |date=2022-11-29 |title=Vishnu Vishal on 'Gatta Kusthi': I want to expand my market in Malayalam and Telugu |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/vishnu-vishal-on-gatta-kusthi/article66199333.ece |access-date=2022-11-29 |issn=0971-751X |archive-date=29 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221129115445/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/vishnu-vishal-on-gatta-kusthi/article66199333.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> Then, Vishnu plays one of the two heroes in the film in ''[[Lal Salaam (2024 film)|Lal Salaam]]'' (2024), which featured [[Rajinikanth]] in a guest appearance. Vishnu Vishal produced and acted in [[Five Star Krishna|Krishnakumar Ramakumar]]'s romantic drama ''[[Oho Enthan Baby]]'' (2025), co-starring his cousin Rudra and [[Mithila Palkar]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2025/Jul/09/vishnu-vishal-lal-salaam-was-my-film-rajinikanth-sir-was-supposed-to-do-only-25-minutes|title = Vishnu Vishal: 'Lal Salaam was my film, Rajinikanth sir was supposed to do only 25 minutes'}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gulfnews.com/entertainment/vishnu-vishal-on-launching-his-brother-in-oho-enthan-baby-and-why-hes-done-chasing-fame-1.500193650|title=How Vishnu Vishal went from cricketer to Tamil cinema's 'accidental actor'|first=Manjusha|last=Radhakrishnan|date=10 July 2025|website=Gulf News: Latest UAE news, Dubai news, Business, travel news, Dubai Gold rate, prayer time, cinema}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Vishnu Vishal was married to Rajini Natraj, daughter of the actor [[K. Natraj]]. The two were college-mates and were in a relationship for four years before getting married.<ref name="boy"/> Their wedding took place on 2 December 2010 at Hotel Asiana in Chennai,<ref name="weds">{{Cite web |url=http://www.sify.com/movies/vishnu-weds-rajini-imagegallery-kollywood-kmdoDGchegisi.html |title=Vishnu weds Rajini |website=[[Sify]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151004031327/http://www.sify.com/movies/vishnu-weds-rajini-imagegallery-kollywood-kmdoDGchegisi.html |archive-date=4 October 2015 |access-date=31 December 2016}}</ref> and their son Aryan was born in 2017.<ref>{{Cite tweet |number=958671320362860546 |user=TheVishnuVishal |title=HAPPY 'FURST' BDAY TO MY SON 'ARYAN' :):) SPECIAL DAY :) thnx @maanavicky for d super cake:) |author=Vishnu Vishal |author-link=Vishnu Vishal |date=31 January 2018}}</ref> In November 2018, the couple divorced due to undisclosed reasons.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/vishnu-vishal-is-officially-divorced/articleshow/66604688.cms |title=Vishnu Vishal is officially divorced! |date=13 November 2018 |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=9 May 2019 |archive-date=11 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201011230530/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/vishnu-vishal-is-officially-divorced/articleshow/66604688.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>

Vishnu got engaged to badminton player [[Jwala Gutta]] in September 2020.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.kollyinsider.com/2020/09/vishnu-vishal-got-engaged-with.html |title=Vishnu Vishal got engaged with badminton player |date=7 September 2020 |website=KollyInsider.com |access-date=7 September 2020 |archive-date=29 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200929000634/https://www.kollyinsider.com/2020/09/vishnu-vishal-got-engaged-with.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Their wedding took place on 22 April 2021 in [[Hyderabad]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Jwala Gutta and Vishnu Vishal get hitched in an intimate ceremony|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/jwala-gutta-and-vishnu-vishal-get-hitched-in-an-intimate-ceremony/articleshow/82198518.cms|access-date=2021-04-22|website=The Times of India|date=22 April 2021 |archive-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422140403/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/jwala-gutta-and-vishnu-vishal-get-hitched-in-an-intimate-ceremony/articleshow/82198518.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> The couple has a daughter born in 2025.<ref>{{cite web |last1=K |first1=Janaai |date=22 April 2025 |title=Actor Vishnu Vishal, badminton player Jwala Gutta welcome baby girl |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/vishnu-vishal-jwala-gutta-baby-girl-2712578-2025-04-22 |access-date=14 May 2025 |website=India Today |language=en-In}}</ref> [[Aamir Khan]] named their child Mira.<ref name="Aamir Khan names Vishnu Vishal and Jwala Gutta’s newborn daughter Mira, couple expresses heartfelt gratitude: 'Couldn’t have asked for more'">{{cite news |date=7 July 2025 |title=Aamir Khan names Vishnu Vishal and Jwala Gutta’s newborn daughter Mira, couple expresses heartfelt gratitude: 'Couldn’t have asked for more' |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/aamir-khan-names-vishnu-vishal-and-jwala-guttas-newborn-daughter-mira-couple-expresses-heartfelt-gratitude-couldnt-have-asked-for-more/articleshow/122283851.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250707042851/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/aamir-khan-names-vishnu-vishal-and-jwala-guttas-newborn-daughter-mira-couple-expresses-heartfelt-gratitude-couldnt-have-asked-for-more/articleshow/122283851.cms |archive-date=7 July 2025 |access-date=7 July 2025 |publisher=The Times of India}}</ref>

==Filmography==
{{Pending films key}}
{| class="wikitable"
! Year !! Film !! Role !! Notes !! Ref(s)
|-
| 2009 || ''[[Vennila Kabadi Kuzhu]]'' || Marimuthu ||credited as Vishnu Won{{emdash}}[[Edison Awards (India)|Edison Award for Best Debut Actor]] Nominated, [[Vijay Award for Best Debut Actor]] ||<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.desimartini.com/news/tamil/vishnu-vishals-next-will-be-bankrolled-dhanushs-wunderlust-films-article90456.htm|title=Vishnu Vishal's Next Will Be Bankrolled By Dhanush's Wunderlust Films|date=19 July 2018|website=Desimartini|access-date=26 March 2021|archive-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422164917/https://www.desimartini.com/news/tamil/vishnu-vishals-next-will-be-bankrolled-dhanushs-wunderlust-films-article90456.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" |2010 || ''[[Bale Pandiya (2010 film)|Bale Pandiya]]'' || Pandiyan || rowspan="3" | credited as Vishnu ||<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/review/south-tamil-review-bale-pandiya/20100903.htm|title=Bale Pandiya could have been better|first=Pavithra|last=Srinivasan|website=Rediff|access-date=26 March 2021|archive-date=18 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418110230/https://www.rediff.com/movies/review/south-tamil-review-bale-pandiya/20100903.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|''[[Drohi (2010 film)|Drohi]]'' || Karunakaran ||<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movie-reviews/reviews-2/drohi-movie-review.html|title=DROHI MOVIE REVIEW - TAMIL MOVIE DROHI MOVIE REVIEW|website=www.behindwoods.com|access-date=26 March 2021|archive-date=28 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210728135234/http://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movie-reviews/reviews-2/drohi-movie-review.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| 2011 || ''[[Kullanari Koottam]]'' || Vetri ||<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/report/south-review-kullanari-koottam/20110328.htm|title=Review: Kullanari Koottam's a feel-good love story|first=Pavithra|last=Srinivasan|website=Rediff|access-date=26 March 2021|archive-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422164917/https://www.rediff.com/movies/report/south-review-kullanari-koottam/20110328.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| 2012 || ''[[Neerparavai]]'' || Arulappasamy || credited as Vishnu Nominated, [[SIIMA Award for Best Actor]] ||<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies/neerparavai/neerparavai-review.html|title=Neerparavai Movie Review neerparavai|website=www.behindwoods.com|access-date=26 March 2021|archive-date=24 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200224170705/http://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies/neerparavai/neerparavai-review.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" |2014 || ''[[Mundasupatti]]'' || Gopi || ||<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies/mundasupatti/mundasupatti-review.html|title=Mundasupatti (aka) Mundasupatti review|website=www.behindwoods.com|access-date=26 March 2021|archive-date=9 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309190520/http://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies/mundasupatti/mundasupatti-review.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|''[[Jeeva (2014 film)|Jeeva]]'' || Jeeva || ||<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies/jeeva/jeeva-review.html|title=Jeeva (aka) Jeeva review|website=www.behindwoods.com|access-date=26 March 2021|archive-date=21 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921111759/http://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies/jeeva/jeeva-review.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" |2015 || ''[[Idam Porul Yaeval]]'' || Aasaithambi || Unreleased ||<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.binged.com/news/the-unreleased-status-of-naragasooran-these-other-tamil-films-lingers-on-on/|title=The Unreleased Status Of Naragasooran & These Other Tamil Films Lingers On & On!|access-date=9 August 2025|archive-date=13 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210213152544/https://www.binged.com/news/the-unreleased-status-of-naragasooran-these-other-tamil-films-lingers-on-on/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Indru Netru Naalai]]'' || Elango || ||<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies/indru-netru-naalai/indru-netru-naalai-review.html|title=Indru Netru Naalai (aka) Indru Naetru Naalai review|date=26 June 2015|website=Behindwoods|access-date=26 March 2021|archive-date=14 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211114143410/http://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies/indru-netru-naalai/indru-netru-naalai-review.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" |2016 || ''[[Velainu Vandhutta Vellaikaaran]]'' || Murugan || Also producer ||<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies/velainu-vandhutta-vellaikaaran/velainu-vandhutta-vellaikaaran-review.html|title=Velainu Vandhutta Vellaikaaran (aka) Vishnu review|date=3 June 2016|website=Behindwoods|access-date=26 March 2021|archive-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422164917/http://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies/velainu-vandhutta-vellaikaaran/velainu-vandhutta-vellaikaaran-review.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|''[[Maaveeran Kittu]]'' || Krishnakumar (Kittu) || ||<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies/maaveeran-kittu/maaveeran-kittu-review.html|title=Maaveeran Kittu (aka) Maaveeran Kittu review|date=2 December 2016|website=Behindwoods|access-date=26 March 2021|archive-date=8 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200708012023/http://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies/maaveeran-kittu/maaveeran-kittu-review.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|2017 || ''[[Kathanayagan (2017 film)|Kathanayagan]]'' || Thambidurai || Also producer ||<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/tamil/kollywood-movie-review/kathanayagan-movie-review-vishnu-catherine-tresa-star-rating-4832886/|title=Kathanayagan review: This Vishnu Vishal film produces intermittent smiles rather than laughs|date=4 July 2020|access-date=26 March 2021|archive-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422164915/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/tamil/kollywood-movie-review/kathanayagan-movie-review-vishnu-catherine-tresa-star-rating-4832886/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" |2018||''[[Ratsasan]]''|| Arun Kumar || Nominated - [[Norway Tamil Film Festival Awards]]||<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/ratsasan-movie-review-vishnu-vishals-cop-act-is-superlative-but-this-thriller-couldve-done-with-some-trimming-5329491.html|title=Ratsasan movie review: Vishnu Vishal's cop act is superlative but this thriller could've done with some trimming|date=6 October 2018|website=Firstpost|access-date=26 March 2021|archive-date=24 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190824002933/https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/ratsasan-movie-review-vishnu-vishals-cop-act-is-superlative-but-this-thriller-couldve-done-with-some-trimming-5329491.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|''[[Silukkuvarupatti Singam]]''|| Sathyamoorthy (Sakthi) || Also producer ||<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies/silukkuvaarupatti-singam/silukkuvaarupatti-singam-review.html|title=Silukkuvaarupatti Singam (aka) Silukkuvaarpatti Singam review|date=22 December 2018|website=Behindwoods|access-date=26 March 2021|archive-date=20 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220720155854/https://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies/silukkuvaarupatti-singam/silukkuvaarupatti-singam-review.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" |2021|| ''[[Kaadan]]''
| Maaran
| rowspan="2" |Bilingual film (Tamil, [[Telugu language|Telugu]]) ||<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sify.com/movies/kaadan-review-watch-it-for-ranas-earnest-performance-review-tamil-vd0feSfcjecif.html|title=Kaadan review: Watch it for Rana's earnest performance}}</ref>
|-
|''[[Kaadan|Aranya]]'' || Singa || <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movie-reviews/aranya/movie-review/81697089.cms|title=Aranya Movie Review: An engaging ride|work=The Times of India |via=timesofindia.indiatimes.com|access-date=26 March 2021|archive-date=25 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210325211652/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movie-reviews/aranya/movie-review/81697089.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" |2022|| ''[[FIR (2022 film)|FIR]]''|| Irfan Ahmed / Faizal Ibrahim Rahim (FIR)|| rowspan="2" | Also producer ||<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hitc.com/en-gb/2022/03/11/fir-release-date-and-time-for-vishals-hit-movie-on-amazon-prime-video/|title=FIR: Release date and time for Vishal's hit movie on Amazon Prime Video|date=11 March 2022|access-date=16 March 2022|archive-date=12 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220312085545/https://www.hitc.com/en-gb/2022/03/11/fir-release-date-and-time-for-vishals-hit-movie-on-amazon-prime-video/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|''[[Gatta Kusthi]]''
|Veera
|<ref>{{cite web|title= Vishnu Vishal shares BTS pictures from 'Gatta Kusthi'|website= [[The Times of India]]|date= 29 July 2022|url= https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/vishnu-vishal-shares-bts-pictures-from-gatta-kusthi/articleshow/93206835.cms|access-date= 6 August 2022|archive-date= 6 August 2022|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220806125957/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/vishnu-vishal-shares-bts-pictures-from-gatta-kusthi/articleshow/93206835.cms|url-status= live}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="1" |2024
|''[[Lal Salaam (2024 film)|Lal Salaam]]''
| Thirunavukarasu (Thiru)
|
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vishnu Vishal confirms he plays a cricketer in Aishwarya Rajinikanth's Lal Salaam |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/vishnu-vishal-confirms-he-plays-a-cricketer-in-aishwarya-rajinikanths-lal-salaam/articleshow/95782905.cms |access-date=2022-11-29 |website=The Times of India |date=26 November 2022 |language=en |archive-date=29 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221129115500/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/vishnu-vishal-confirms-he-plays-a-cricketer-in-aishwarya-rajinikanths-lal-salaam/articleshow/95782905.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" |2025
| ''[[Oho Enthan Baby]]''
|Himself
| rowspan="2" |Also producer
|<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-02-12 |title=Vishnu Vishal's brother Rudra to make his acting debut with 'Oho Enthan Baby' |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/vishnu-vishals-brother-rudra-to-make-his-acting-debut-with-oho-enthan-baby/articleshow/107618170.cms |access-date=2025-06-17 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
|-
|''[[Aaryan (film)|Aaryan]]''
| [[Deputy commissioner|DCP]] Arivudai Nambi (Anumaar)
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vishnu Vishal's next, A.A.R.Y.A.N. |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2022/sep/03/vishnuvishals-next-aaryan-2494228.html |access-date=2022-11-29 |website=The New Indian Express |date=3 September 2022 |archive-date=29 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221129115448/https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2022/sep/03/vishnuvishals-next-aaryan-2494228.html |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| 2026 || ''[[Hot Spot 2 Much]]'' || {{N/a}} || As presenter||<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2026/Jan/28/vishnu-vishal-reveals-why-he-wanted-to-present-hot-spot-2-much|title=Vishnu Vishal reveals why he wanted to present Hot Spot 2 Much|date=28 January 2026|website=Cinema Express}}</ref>
|-
|{{TBA}}
|{{Pending film|Irandu Vaanam}}
|{{TBA}}
| rowspan="2" |Completed
|<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-03-16 |title=Vishnu Vishal's third film with director Ramkumar titled 'Irandu Vaanam' |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/vishnu-vishals-third-film-with-director-ramkumar-titled-irandu-vaanam/articleshow/119054346.cms |access-date=2025-03-16 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
|-
|{{TBA}}
| {{Pending film|Mohandas}} ||{{TBA}}
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 March 2022 |title=Vishnu Vishal's 'Mohandas' teaser is here and is highly intriguing - Tamil News |url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/mohandas-teaser-review-vishnu-vishal-aishwarya-rajesh-tamil-news-309675 |access-date=16 March 2022 |archive-date=16 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220316192237/https://www.indiaglitz.com/mohandas-teaser-review-vishnu-vishal-aishwarya-rajesh-tamil-news-309675 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
|{{TBA}}
|{{Pending film|Gatta Kusthi 2}}
|Veera
|Announced
|
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb name|id=3684167}}
* [https://www.instagram.com/thevishnuvishal/ Vishnu Vishal] at [[Instagram]]

{{authority control}}
* [https://celebrityinfoworld.com/vishnu-vishal/ Vishnu Vishal Biography, Physical Status, Age, Height, Education, Family, Girl Friend, Favourite Things, Movies, and More]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Vishal, Vishnu}}
[[Category:Tamil male actors]]
[[Category:Male actors from Chennai]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1984 births]]
[[Category:Actors in Tamil cinema]]
[[Category:Indian male film actors]]

Lashkar (film)

2026-03-03T23:48:07Z

JOVFinlay2: Content refined for better accuracy

{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Lashkar
| image = Lashkar poster.jpg
| caption = Poster
| director = Jagdish Kadar
| producer = Jai Sharma
| writer = Anwar Khan Jagdish Kadar
| narrator =
| starring = [[Dev Anand]] [[Aditya Pancholi]] [[Sonam (actress)|Sonam]] [[Javed Jaffrey]] [[Kiran Kumar]] [[Hemant Birje]] [[Sumeet Saigal]]
| music = [[Nadeem Shravan]]
| cinematography = Joe D'Souza
| editing = Hussain A. Burmawala
| studio = Tanushree Films
| distributor =
| released = {{film date|df=y|1989|9|1}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| budget = 
| gross = 
}}

'''''Lashkar ''''' (Army) is a 1989 [[Bollywood]] [[action film]] directed by Jagdish Kadar, starring [[Dev Anand]], [[Aditya Pancholi]], [[Sonam (actress)|Sonam]], [[Hemant Birje|Madhavi]], [[Hemant Birje]], [[Sumeet Saigal]], [[Jaaved Jaffrey]], [[Kiran Kumar]] and [[Sadashiv Amrapurkar]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lashkar – Rotten Tomatoes |url=https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/lashkar |access-date=2023-06-16 |publisher=Rotten Tomatoes }}</ref> The movie was a huge commission earner at the box office and is believed to be one of the last commercial successes of Dev Anand. This was the only film in the late 1980s that Dev Anand starred in that he did not produce or direct, but acted in the lead role and the film was a major box office success.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Chintamani |first=Gautam |date=2017-12-03 |title=How Dev Anand became an unlikely action star at the end of his career |url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/how-dev-anand-became-an-unlikely-action-star-at-the-end-of-his-career-4239977.html |access-date=2022-03-23 |website=Firstpost}}</ref>

==Cast==
* [[Dev Anand]] as Professor Anand
* [[Aditya Pancholi]] as Amamr
* [[Sonam (actress)|Sonam]] as Barkha
* [[Madhavi (actress)|Madhavi]] as Anand's wife
* [[Javed Jaffrey]] as Johnny
* [[Hemant Birje]] as Bhima
* [[Sumeet Saigal]] as Inspector More
* [[Kiran Kumar]] as Sanga/Snagram Singh

== Soundtrack ==
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%;"
! # !! Title !! Singer
|-
| 1
| "Ek Haath Mein Rumaal"
| Mohammed Aziz, [[Vinod Rathod]], Manhar Udhas
|-
| 2
| "Har Mehfil Mein"
| Vinod Rathod
|-
| 3
| "Piye Jaa, Pilaye Jaa"
| [[Alisha Chinai]]
|-
| 4
| "Swarg Se Pyara Hai"
| [[Kavita Krishnamurthy]], [[Mohammed Aziz]]
|-
| 5
| "Swarg Se Pyara Hai" (sad)
| [[Mohammed Aziz]]
|-
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|0275466}}

[[Category:1989 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:1989 Indian films]]
[[Category:1989 films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Nadeem–Shravan]]
[[Category:Indian action drama films]]

{{1980s-Hindi-film-stub}}

Shaktiman (1993 film)

2026-03-03T23:43:49Z

JOVFinlay2: small add references for accuracy additionally and cleaned formatting

{{short description|1993 film by K. C. Bokadia}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2015}}
{{Other uses|Shaktiman (disambiguation){{!}}Shaktiman}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Shaktiman
| image = Shaktiman (1993 film).jpg
| caption = Release poster
| director = [[K.C. Bokadia]]
| producer = Suresh Bokadia
| writer = K.C. Bokadia
| starring = [[Ajay Devgn]] [[Karisma Kapoor]] [[Mukesh Khanna]] [[Kulbhushan Kharbanda]]
| music = [[Channi Singh]]
| cinematography =
| editing =
| distributor = B.M.B Combines
| released = {{Film date|1993|07|09|df=y}}
| runtime = 155 minutes
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| budget =
}}

'''''Shaktiman''''' ({{Translation|The Powerful Man}}) is a 1993 Indian [[Hindi]]-language [[action film]] directed by [[K.C. Bokadia]] and starring [[Ajay Devgn]], [[Karisma Kapoor]], [[Mukesh Khanna]], [[Kulbhushan Kharbanda]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Shaktimaan 1993 Movie Box Office Collection, Budget and Unknown Facts – KS Box Office|date=20 July 2020 |url=https://ksboxoffice.com/shaktimaan-1993-movie-box-office-collection-budget-and-unknown-facts/movies-facts/|access-date=2022-02-19}}</ref> Other cast members include [[Gulshan Grover]], [[Ajit Khan]], [[Parikshat Sahni]] and [[Mahavir Shah]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Shaktiman (1993) - Review, Star Cast, News, Photos|url=https://www.cinestaan.com/movies/shaktiman-7648|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220527053107/https://www.cinestaan.com/movies/shaktiman-7648|url-status=dead|archive-date=27 May 2022|access-date=2022-02-19|website=Cinestaan}}</ref>

==Plot==
Businessman Rai Bahadur Laxminarayan lives a wealthy lifestyle in Bombay with his wife, Laxmi. Although they have been married for several years, they have no children. While on a trip to [[Shimla]], they adopt their servant, Diler's son, rename him Vicky, and bring him back home, much to the dismay of Diler's wife, Parvati. Sometime later, Laxmi gets pregnant and revisits Shimla where she meets with an accident and passes away, leaving behind a newborn son, Amar. Diler wants to kill Amar, but Parvati wants to return him to Laxminarayan and runs away to Bombay. Diler informs his employer that both his wife and son have died and have been cremated. Diler relocates to Bombay and follows her but is unable to locate Parvati. She does reach Bombay along with Amar but is unable to find Laxminarayan. Years later Amar has grown up, lives with Parvati in Versova, works as a Police Inspector at Sion Police Station, and is in love with Priya, the Superintendent of Police's daughter, while Diler is a taxi driver, and Vicky is an alcoholic and wants to marry Priya. Their lives will soon interline and become complicated with blackmail, deceit, and murder.

==Cast==
*[[Ajay Devgan]] as Amar Chauhan
*[[Karishma Kapoor]] as Priya Vashisht
*[[Kulbhushan Kharbanda]] as Rai Bahadur Laxminarayan
*[[Mukesh Khanna]] as Diler
*[[Parikshit Sahni]] as Police Superintendent
*[[Gulshan Grover]] as Vicky Bose
*[[Ajit Khan|Ajit]] as Shamsher Singh / Tiger
*[[Mahavir Shah]] as Chhote Arvind Singh
*[[Tiku Talsania]] as Dimagchand
*[[Anjana Mumtaz]] as Parvati
*[[Beena Banerjee]] as Laxmi

==Soundtrack==
Sameer wrote all songs.

{|class="wikitable"
! Song !! Singer
|-
| "Kaise Teri Main"
| Aparna Mayekar
|-
| "Mere Haath Ki Chudi"
| [[Asha Bhosle]], [[Udit Narayan]]
|-
| "Yeh Kaisa Mausam"
| [[Amit Kumar]]
|-
| "Haule Haule"
| Asha Bhosle
|-
| "Jee Na Lage"
| [[Udit Narayan]], [[Sadhana Sargam]]
|-
| "Sun Goriye"
| Asha Bhosle,Channi Singh
|-
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|0376182|Shaktiman}}

[[Category:1993 films]]
[[Category:1993 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:1993 Indian films]]
[[Category:Films directed by K. C. Bokadia]]
[[Category:Indian action drama films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Channi Singh]]

{{1990s-Hindi-film-stub}}
[[Category:Films set in Shimla]]

Virus (2019 film)

2026-03-03T20:30:56Z

JOVFinlay2: fix section as per guidelines and corrected details per standard format

{{short description|2019 film directed by Aashiq Abu}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2019}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Virus
| image = Virus 2019 poster.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| native_name = വൈറസ്
| director = [[Aashiq Abu]]
| producer = Aashiq Abu [[Rima Kallingal]]
| writer = [[Muhsin Parari]] [[Suhas-Sharfu]]
| starring = {{ubl|[[Kunchacko Boban]] [[Indrajith Sukumaran]] [[Tovino Thomas]] [[Parvathy Thiruvothu]] [[Poornima Indrajith]] [[Sreenath Bhasi]] [[Rahman (actor)|Rahman]] [[Asif Ali (actor)|Asif Ali]] [[Madonna Sebastian]]}}
| music = [[Sushin Shyam]]
| cinematography = [[Rajeev Ravi]] '''Additional Cinematography''': [[Shyju Khalid]]<ref>{{cite news|last=Shrijith|first=Sajin|title=Doing Virus felt like doing a medical crash course: Aashiq Abu|url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/stories/interviews/2019/jun/11/doing-virus-felt-like-doing-a-medical-crash-course-aashiq-abu-12216.html|access-date=23 November 2022|publisher=[[Cinema Express]]|date=11 June 2019}}</ref>
| editing = [[Saiju Sreedharan]]
| studio = OPM Cinemas
| distributor = OPM Cinemas
| released = {{Film date|2019|06|07|df=y}}
| runtime = 152 minutes
| country = India
| language = Malayalam
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Virus''''' is a 2019 Indian [[Malayalam]]-language [[Medical fiction#Subgenres|medical thriller film]] co-produced and directed by [[Aashiq Abu]] set against the backdrop of the [[2018 Nipah virus outbreak in Kerala]]. The film was written by [[Muhsin Parari]] and [[Suhas-Sharfu]]. It stars an [[ensemble cast]] consisting of [[Kunchacko Boban]], [[Indrajith Sukumaran]], [[Tovino Thomas]], [[Poornima Indrajith]], [[Parvathy Thiruvothu]], [[Revathi]], [[Rima Kallingal]], [[Sreenath Bhasi]], [[Rahman (actor)|Rahman]], [[Asif Ali (actor)|Asif Ali]] and [[Madonna Sebastian]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/malayalam/virus-first-look-aashiq-abu-5338629/|title=Virus first look: Is Aashiq Abu's next based on Nipah outbreak?|work=[[The Indian Express]]|date=4 September 2018|access-date=23 November 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/aashiq-abu-announces-virus-featuring-revathy-asif-ali-parvathy-film-to-tentatively-release-in-2019-5109181.html|title=Aashiq Abu announces Virus, featuring Revathy, Asif Ali, Parvathy; film to tentatively release in 2019|publisher=firstpost.com|date=4 September 2018|access-date=23 November 2022}}</ref>

Principal photography took place from January to February 2019 in a single schedule shot extensively in [[Government Medical College, Kozhikode]] and Government Homoeopathic Medical College, Kozhikode. The film was released worldwide on 7 June 2019, garnering critical acclaim and was a box office success. It was included in [[The Hindu]]'s top 25 Malayalam films of the decade.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/the-25-best-malayalam-films-of-the-decade-premam-maheshinte-prathikaram-kumbalangi-nights-and-more/article30349548.ece|title=The 25 best Malayalam films of the decade|work=The Hindu|date=19 December 2019|access-date=23 November 2022}}</ref>

==Plot==
{{More plot|date=September 2019}}
Zakariya Mohammed is infected and brought to the [[Government Medical College, Kozhikode]], where he suffers from the symptoms of an unknown virus and, after a few hours, dies. Geetha, who was taking Zakariya's [[CT scan]], gets infected by the virus. The doctors and nurses are worried and confused by her constantly fluctuating blood pressure. A [[Nursing|nurse]] Akhila who treated Zakariya gets infected too. Slowly more cases are identified in the surrounding areas. Dr. Salim (a neurologist) while checking on Zakariya's father, Razak, notices symptoms related to poisoning and Japanese encephalitis and other such infections. Dr. Salim also asked Dr. Suresh Rajan to conduct a sample test for Nipah virus. The samples were collected from Suhana, sister of Zakariya.

As the death toll begins to rise, Dr. Suresh Babu confirms the unknown virus to be Nipah. Nipah spreads across Kozhikode and the neighbouring districts. Sister Akhila (the nurse who treated Zakariya), dies after a long battle with the virus and before she died, she wrote a letter to her husband. The film progresses with real life experiences of people who we are aware of when it has happened and also creates a backstory for each affected patient and generates an interest in the narration.

In an emergency situation, a team of medical practitioners and healthcare professionals, led by the [[Health Minister]] of [[Kerala]] C. K. Prameela and District Collector Paul V. Abraham IAS, camp in Kozhikode to tackle the crisis. There is an attempt made to justify that this is not a bio-weapon used by any country or organisation. While the film is ending, the film pays tribute to scientists, medical professionals, hospital staff, [[Volunteering|volunteers]] and the people who came forward to support the team to solve the virus attack. Health minister, C. K. Prameela announces Kozhikode Nipah virus free. In the end, it is shown that Zakariya saw a [[Pteropus|flying fox]] (a breed of bats) that was on the ground. He went there and before coming in contact with the bat, he took a picture of the bat for his Instagram story.

==Cast==
{{Cast listing|* [[Kunchacko Boban]] as Dr. Suresh Rajan
* [[Indrajith Sukumaran]] as Dr. Baburaj
* [[Tovino Thomas]] as Paul V. Abraham [[Indian Administrative Service|IAS]] (Based on U.V. Jose)
* [[Parvathy Thiruvothu]] as Dr. Annu
* [[Revathi]] as C. K. Prameela, [[Minister of Health (India)|Minister of Health, Kerala]] (Based on [[K. K. Shailaja]])
* [[Poornima Indrajith]] as Dr. Smrithy Bhaskar, Director of Public Health
* [[Rahman (actor)|Rahman]] as Dr. Salim
* [[Sreenath Bhasi]] as Dr. Abid Rahman
* [[Asif Ali (actor)|Asif Ali]] as Vishnu Bhaskaran
* [[Madonna Sebastian]] as Dr. Sara Yakub, Abid's love interest
* [[Basil Joseph]] as Dr. Mithun
* [[Soubin Shahir]] as Unnikrishnan
* [[Joju George]] as Babu, an attender
* [[Remya Nambeesan]] as Raji, Babu's wife
* [[Darshana Rajendran]] as Anjali Vasudevan, Vishnu's wife
* [[Unnimaya Prasad]] as Dr. Nirmala
* [[Rima Kallingal]] as Akhila, a nurse (Based on Lini Puthussery)
* [[Sharafudheen]] as Sandeep, Akhila's husband
* [[Jinu Joseph]] as Dr. John Jacob, Annu's husband
* [[Lukman Avaran]] as Dr. Sajith
* Haris Saleem as Dr. Haris
* [[Indrans]] as Razak, Zakariya's father
* [[Zakariya Mohammed]] as Zakariya, the first patient
* [[Savithri Sreedharan]] as Jamleela, Zakariya's mother
* [[Dileesh Pothan]] as Prakashan
* [[Srikant Murali]] as Dr. Moopan
* [[Sudheesh]] as Health Inspector Radhakrishnan, Public Health Department
* [[Senthil Krishna]] as [[Ministry of Excise|Excise Minister]] CP Bhaskar (Based on [[T. P. Ramakrishnan]])
* [[Binu Pappu]] as Dr. Sudevan
* [[Sajitha Madathil]] as Dr. Sreedevi
* [[Sarasa Balussery]] as Khadeeja
* [[Ambika Rao]] as Head Nurse
* [[Divya Gopinath]] as Geetha
* [[Zeenath]] as Akhila's mother
* [[Leona Lishoy]] as Paul's wife
* [[Shebin Benson]] as Yahiya, Zakariya's brother
* [[Sreedevi Unni]] as Abid's mother
* Neeraja Rajendran as Unnikrishnan's mother
* [[Jolly Chirayath]] as Pradeep's mother
* [[Deepa Thomas]] as Junior Doctor
* Vaishakh Shankar as Vaishakh Nair
* Kottayam Ramesh as Medical College Superintendent
* [[Nilambur Ayisha]] as Application Agent at Medical College
* Kozhikode Jayaraj as Nasar, Zakariya's uncle
* [[Vettukili Prakash]] as Sadasivan
* [[Dileesh Nair]] as Shanthan Vaidyar
* Preethi Nambiar as Preethy Varma
* Ann Salim as Hafia
* Anjali as Suhana
* Noushad Ali as Vipin}}

==Production==
The film is based on the [[2018 Nipah virus outbreak in Kerala]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/virus-is-about-how-kerala-tackled-nipah-outbreak-unitedly/articleshow/65667550.cms|last=Sidhardhan|first=Sanjith|title=Virus is about how Kerala tackled Nipah outbreak unitedly|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=4 September 2018|access-date=23 November 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.manoramaonline.com/movies/movie-news/2018/09/04/aashiq-abu-makes-film-on-nipah-virus-multistar.html|script-title=si:നിപ്പ 'വൈറസ്' വെള്ളിത്തിരയിൽ; താരപ്പടയുമായി ആഷിഖ് അബു|title=Nippa 'Vaiṟas' Veḷḷittirayil; Tārappaṭayumāyi Āṣikh Abu|trans-title=Nippa 'virus' on silver screen; Aashiq Abu with Tarapada|publisher=manoramaonline.com|date=4 September 2018|access-date=23 November 2022}}</ref> Principal photography began in [[Kozhikode]] on 6 January 2019, [[Kalidas Jayaram]] was supposed to appear in the film in a supporting but pivotal role, but was replaced by [[Sreenath Bhasi]] after the former did not ultimately accept it.{{Citation needed|date=March 2023}} ''Virus'' was shot extensively in and around [[Government Medical College, Kozhikode]]. Filming wrapped on 26 February 2019 after 52 days shoot in a single schedule.

==Soundtrack==
{{Infobox album
|name = Virus
|type = Soundtrack
|artist = [[Sushin Shyam]]
|released = 12 June 2019
|recorded = 2019
|genre = [[Film soundtrack|Feature film soundtrack]]
|length = 56:12
|label = OPM Records
|producer = [[Sushin Shyam]]
|prev_title = [[Kumbalangi Nights]]
|prev_year = 2019
|next_title = [[Driving Licence (film)|Driving Licence]]
|next_year = 2019
|misc = {{external media
|audio1 = {{YouTube|96uju9zP3tU|Audio Jukebox}}
}}
}}
The original soundtrack is composed, programmed, and arranged by [[Sushin Shyam]]. The film features a promotional song titled "Spread Love" sung by Shelton Pinheiro, [[Madonna Sebastian]], [[Muhsin Parari]] and Sushin Shyam, which was not included in the film, but was listed in the original soundtrack album, which features 17 instrumental numbers, which released on 17 May 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://music.apple.com/us/album/virus-original-motion-picture-soundtrack/1468248312|title=Virus (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) by Sushin Shyam|website=Apple Music|access-date=23 November 2022}}</ref>
{{track listing
|headline = ''Virus'' (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://music.apple.com/us/album/virus-original-motion-picture-soundtrack/1468248312|title=Virus (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) by Sushin Shyam|website=Apple Music|access-date=23 November 2022}}</ref>
|extra_column = Artist(s)
|title1 = Spread Love
|length1 = 03:38
|extra1 = Shelton Pinheiro, [[Madonna Sebastian]], [[Muhsin Parari]], Sushin Shyam
|title2 = Heal
|length2 = 05:56
|extra2 =
|title3 = Orbit
|length3 = 02:02
|extra3 =
|title4 = Virus
|length4 = 02:48
|extra4 =
|title5 = Vision
|length5 = 01:29
|extra5 =
|title6 = Outbreak
|length6 = 02:12
|extra6 =
|title7 = Heroes
|length7 = 03:33
|extra7 =
|title8 = Dharmam
|length8 = 01:52
|extra8 =
|title9 = Humanity
|length9 = 02:34
|extra9 =
|title10 = Roots
|length10 = 05:09
|extra10 =
|title11 = Quest
|length11 = 04:16
|extra11 =
|title12 = Spreading Rapidly
|length12 = 04:37
|extra12 =
|title13 = Love for mother nature
|length13 = 02:05
|extra13 =
|title14 = A departure without amends
|length14 = 02:13
|extra14 =
|title15 = Consumed by fear
|length15 = 01:28
|extra15 =
|title16 = Festering within
|length16 = 01:14
|extra16 =
|title17 = The truth unfolding
|length17 = 02:36
|extra17 =
|title18 = Rise
|length18 = 06:21
|extra18 =
}}

==Release==
The film was released worldwide on 7 June 2019.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/virus-to-hit-the-screens-on-june-7/articleshow/69162509.cms|title='Virus' to hit the screens on June 7|work=The Times of India|date=3 May 2019|access-date=23 November 2022}}</ref> The film dubbed in Tamil and Telugu as Virus and Nipah Virus released on Zee5 and [[Aha (streaming service)|Aha]] respectively.<ref name=":0">{{cite web|last=Kulfibuzz|title=Nipah Virus Telugu movie cast|url=https://kulfibuzz.com/nipah-virus-telugu-movie-trailer-cast-release-date|access-date=6 December 2020|website=Kulfi Buzz|archivedate=15 April 2021|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415085235/https://kulfibuzz.com/nipah-virus-telugu-movie-trailer-cast-release-date}}</ref>

==Reception==
===Box office===
The film grossed ₹3.9 [[crore]] in the opening weekend (7 – 9 June) from [[Kerala]] box office.<ref>{{cite news|author=Surendhar M. K.|title=Kolaigaran pulls in Rs 6.8 cr from opening weekend in Tamil Nadu; Virus earns Rs 6 cr worldwide|url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/kolaigaran-pulls-in-rs-6-8-cr-from-opening-weekend-in-tamil-nadu-virus-earns-rs-6-cr-worldwide-6820291.html|access-date=23 November 2022|work=[[Firstpost]]|date=16 June 2019}}</ref> It collected a worldwide total of over ₹15 crore in 12 days, with ₹11.74 crore from Kerala alone. By collecting $65,000 in 10 days from the [[United States]], ''Virus'' became the fourth highest-grossing Malayalam film of 2019 in the US, behind ''[[Lucifer (2019 Indian film)|Lucifer]]'', ''[[Kumbalangi Nights]]'', and ''[[Uyare]]''. And as of 21 June, it is also the fourth highest-grossing Malayalam film of 2019 in the rest-of-India territories, behind ''Lucifer'', ''Kumbalangi Nights'', and ''Uyare''.<ref>{{cite news|author=Surendhar M. K.|title=Unda earns Rs 11.9 cr in Kerala in 6 days; Kolaigaran tops Tamil Nadu box office for second consecutive weekend|url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/unda-earns-rs-11-9-cr-in-kerala-in-6-days-kolaigaran-tops-tamil-nadu-box-office-for-second-consecutive-weekend-6859151.html|access-date=25 June 2019|work=[[Firstpost]]|date=21 June 2019}}</ref> It earned ₹2,60,058 in [[Chennai]] from 18 shows in the opening weekend,<ref>{{cite web|title=Virus box office collection|url=https://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies/virus/virus-box-office-jun-09.html|website=Behindwoods|access-date=23 November 2022|date=9 June 2019}}</ref> and ₹4,82,715 in two weeks.<ref>{{cite web|title=Virus box office collection|url=https://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies/virus/virus-box-office-jun-16.html|website=Behindwoods|access-date=23 November 2022|date=17 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Upadhyaya|first=Prakash|title=Box office collection: Kolaigaran overpowers Game Over in Chennai|url=https://www.ibtimes.co.in/box-office-collection-kolaigaran-overpowers-game-over-chennai-799827|access-date=23 November 2022|work=[[International Business Times]]|date=18 June 2019}}</ref>

In the opening weekend, the film grossed $342,527 from the [[United Arab Emirates]] (UAE) and $9,098 from [[Australia]]. It grossed €2,749 (₹2.16 lakh) in [[Germany]] in two weeks. The film was released a week later (on 14 June) in the United Kingdom and [[New Zealand]] where it collected £14,991 (₹13.2 lakh) and NZ$12,409 (₹5.65 lakh) in the opening weekend,<ref>{{cite web|title=Bharat slows down in second weekend; collects approx. 9.13 mil. USD [Rs. 63.82 cr.] in overseas|url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/box-office-overseas/bharat-slows-down-in-second-weekend-collects-approx-9-13-mil-usd-rs-63-82-cr-in-overseas/|website=[[Bollywood Hungama]]|access-date=23 November 2022|date=17 June 2019}}</ref> and £28,809 (₹25.56 lakh) and NZ$16,099 (₹7.4 lakh) in two weeks. In three weeks, it collected A$23,868 (₹11.56 lakh) in Australia and $587,960 in the UAE.<ref>{{cite web|title=Virus (2019)|url=https://www.boxofficemojo.com/releasegroup/gr816468485/|publisher=[[Box Office Mojo]]|access-date=23 November 2022}}</ref> In the US, it made $68,244 (47.13 lakh) in four weeks.<ref>{{cite web|title=Article 15 collects approx. 1 mil. USD [Rs. 6.89 cr] in overseas|url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/box-office-overseas/article-15-collects-approx-1-mil-usd-rs-6-89-cr-in-overseas/|website=[[Bollywood Hungama]]|access-date=23 November 2022|date=1 July 2019}}</ref>

===Critical reception===
Sowmya Rajendran of ''[[The News Minute]]'' called the movie, "A compassionate, gripping medical thriller" and rated it 4/5 stars.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/virus-review-compassionate-gripping-medical-thriller-103183|website=www.thenewsminute.com|title='Virus' review: A compassionate, gripping medical thriller|first=Sowmya|last=Rajendran|date=7 June 2019|access-date=23 November 2022}}</ref>

Meera Manu of [[News18]] rated the movie 4/5 stars and said, "For its 152-minute duration, Virus will take you through many emotional roller-coasters. This one is contagious enough to make you skip a heartbeat or evoking tears. It's more than just a film, it's humans joining hands to beat a deadly disease. No reason to not watch this one."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.news18.com/news/movies/virus-movie-review-this-film-about-nipah-outbreak-slowly-grows-on-you-2176345.html|last=Manu|first=Meera|title=Virus Movie Review: This Film About Nipah Outbreak Slowly Grows on You|website=News18|date=7 June 2019|access-date=23 November 2022}}</ref> Manu of the Filmibeat rated the movie 4/5 stars and reviewed, "Virus is a mind-blowing movie and as its tagline says it rightly conveys the fear, fight and the survival during the Nipah outbreak. A well-crafted movie, which could be ranked as one among the best movies of all-time. Kudos to the team."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.filmibeat.com/malayalam/reviews/2019/virus-movie-review-and-rating-a-brilliantly-crafted-film-that-is-mighty-impressive-on-all-terms-286589.html|title=Virus Movie Review: A Brilliantly Crafted Film That Is Mighty Impressive On All Counts!|author=Manu|date=7 June 2019|access-date=23 November 2022}}</ref>

Anjana George of ''[[The Times of India]]'' rated the movie 3.5/5 stars and reviewed, "On the whole, the film can be called as a well-crafted multi-starrer, fictional documentation of news reports on the Nipah virus attack that shocked Kerala and still looms over us."<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movie-reviews/virus/movie-review/69688873.cms|last=George|first=Anjana|title=Virus Movie Review {3.5/5}: A well-crafted multi-starrer, fictional documentation on the Nipah virus attack|work=The Times of India|access-date=23 November 2022}}</ref> Behindwoods rated the movie 3.25/5 stars and wrote, "With Virus, Aashiq Abu cements his top form as a filmmaker. Overall, Virus is a straightforward, detailed and uncompromising retelling of an unbelievable story of humanity."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.behindwoods.com/malayalam-movies/virus/virus-review.html|title=Virus (aka) Virues review|date=7 June 2019|website=Behindwoods|access-date=23 November 2022}}</ref>

==Accolades==
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
!Award
!Category
!Recipient
!Notes
|-
|rowspan=4|[[CPC Cine Awards]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.filmibeat.com/malayalam/news/2020/cpc-cine-awards-2019-virus-and-kumabalangi-nights-bag-the-top-honours-294457.html|title=CPC Cine Awards 2019: Virus And Kumabalangi Nights Bag Top Honours!|last=Menon|first=Akhila R.|date=31 January 2020|website=FilmiBeat|access-date=23 November 2022}}</ref>
|Best Director
|[[Aashiq Abu]]
|
|-
|Best Background Score
|[[Sushin Shyam]]
|
|-
|Best Editor
|Saiju Sreedharan
|
|-
|Best Production Designer
|Jothish Shankar
|
|-
|rowspan=4|[[Vanitha Film Awards]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.filmibeat.com/malayalam/news/2020/vanitha-film-awards-2020-mohanlal-prithviraj-sukumaran-parvathy-win-top-honours-294884.html|last=Menon|first=Akhila R.|title=Vanitha Film Awards 2020: Mohanlal, Prithviraj Sukumaran, Parvathy Thiruvothu Win Top Honours!|date=12 February 2020|website=FilmiBeat|access-date=23 November 2022}}</ref>
|Best Film on Social Issues
|
|
|-
|Best Supporting Actor
|[[Soubin Shahir]]
|
|-
|Social Responsible Actor
|[[Kunchacko Boban]]
|
|-
|Social Responsible Actress
|[[Rima Kallingal]]
|
|-
|[[Asianet Film Awards]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.filmibeat.com/malayalam/news/2020/asianet-film-awards-2020-here-is-the-complete-winners-list-294778.html|title=Asianet Film Awards 2020: Here Is The Complete Winners List!|last=Menon|first=Akhila R.|date=9 February 2020|website=FilmiBeat|access-date=23 November 2022}}</ref>
|Best Actress
|[[Parvathy Thiruvothu]]
|
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb title|8941440}}

[[Category:2019 thriller films]]
[[Category:2019 Malayalam-language films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Sushin Shyam]]
[[Category:Indian thriller films]]
[[Category:Films shot in Kozhikode]]
[[Category:Indian films based on actual events]]
[[Category:Medical-themed films]]
[[Category:Films about viral outbreaks]]
[[Category:Fiction about medicine and health]]
[[Category:Indian Council of Medical Research in fiction]]
[[Category:Films about scientists]]
[[Category:2019 drama films]]
[[Category:Biopunk films]]
[[Category:Hospitals in fiction]]
[[Category:Films about infectious diseases]]
[[Category:2019 films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Aashiq Abu]]

Aravind 2

2026-03-03T17:40:56Z

JOVFinlay2: improve information based on references for accuracy

{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2023}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Aravind 2
| image = Aravind 2 poster.jpg
| caption = Poster
| director = [[Sekhar Suri]]
| writer = Surendra Krishna
| producer = G. Phanindra G. Vijay Choudary
| starring = Mangam Srinivas [[Kamal Kamaraju]] [[Srinivas Avasarala]] Adonika [[Sri Reddy]] Pokiri Vijay Bala Prasad
| cinematography = K. Rajendra Babu
| editing = Bhimreddy Tirupathi Reddy
| music = Vijay Kuravkula
| studio = Sri Vijayabheri Productions
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2013|3|29}}
| runtime = 152 minutes
| language = Telugu
| country = India
}}
'''''Aravind 2''''' is a 2013 Indian [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language [[thriller film]] directed by Sekhar Suri starring Sri, [[Maadhavi Latha]], [[Kamal Kamaraju]], [[Srinivas Avasarala]] and Adonica. It is a sequel to the 2005 movie, ''[[A Film by Aravind]]''. G. Phanindra and G. Vijay Choudary produced the film for Sri Vijayabheri Productions while Vijay Kurakula provided the music. It was released on 29 March 2013.

== Plot ==
The story revolves around a struggling filmmaker named Aravind (played by Sri) who is looking for a breakthrough in the film industry. Frustrated with his unsuccessful attempts, Aravind decides to make a documentary on haunted places, hoping that it will bring him recognition and success. Aravind, along with his cameraman Rishi (played by Kamal Kamaraju) and production manager Harsha (played by Srinivas Avasarala), embarks on a journey to explore a supposedly haunted house located in a remote village. They set up their equipment and begin filming, determined to capture paranormal activities and prove the existence of ghosts.

As the crew starts their investigation, strange and unexplained events occur within the house. They experience eerie sounds, ghostly apparitions, and bizarre occurrences that shake them to the core. Gradually, the atmosphere in the house becomes increasingly terrifying, and the crew realizes that they have stumbled upon something much more sinister than they anticipated. Amidst the supernatural occurrences, Aravind also learns about the dark history of the haunted house. He discovers that a notorious serial killer, who was responsible for several brutal murders in the past, used to reside there. The spirit of the killer is believed to haunt the house, seeking revenge on anyone who enters.

As the crew members get entangled in the web of horror, they find themselves fighting for their lives. They try to unravel the mysteries surrounding the house and the malevolent spirit that lurks within. In their desperate attempts to survive, they encounter spine-chilling encounters, psychological torment, and disturbing revelations. Throughout the film, Aravind's sanity is tested, and he becomes increasingly obsessed with capturing evidence of the supernatural. The line between reality and illusion blurs, and the crew faces numerous challenges that push them to their limits.

Without revealing too much, the climax of the movie reveals shocking twists and turns that expose the true nature of the haunting and the identity of the vengeful spirit. Aravind and his crew must find a way to confront the evil force and escape from the clutches of the haunted house before it consumes them completely.

== Cast ==
*Mangam Srinivas as Aravind
*[[Maadhavi Latha]] as Priya
*[[Kamal Kamaraju]] as Rishi
*Adonica
*[[Sri Reddy]]
*[[Srinivas Avasarala]] as Film director
*[[Banerjee (actor)|Banerjee]]
*[[Surya (Telugu actor)|Surya]] as Sudarshan, Priya's father
* Pokiri Vijay
* Bala Prasad as Co-director

== Reception ==
Pasupulate of ''[[The Times of India]]'' rated the film two stars out of five, saying, "Being a sequel of the 2006 cult thriller, ''A Film by Aravind'', we can't help but compare it to the original – this one isn't a patch on the original. We're afraid it's all sound – background score, we mean – and no substance".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pasupulate |first=Karthik |date=29 March 2013 |title=Aravind 2 Movie Review |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movie-reviews/aravind-2/movie-review/19280031.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230206060640/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movie-reviews/aravind-2/movie-review/19280031.cms |archive-date=6 February 2023 |access-date=6 February 2023 |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> Vishnupriya Bhandaram of ''[[The Hindu]]'' wrote, "Aravind 2 gives you the promise of a [[Jason Voorhees]] (reckon ''[[Friday the 13th (franchise)|Friday the 13th]]'') but bails on you right in the beginning. It isn't because the storyline isn't strong enough but simply because the filmmakers deem it all right to include crass elements and characters, to give it unnecessary padding".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bhandaram |first=Vishnupriya |date=29 March 2013 |title=Aravind 2: Jeepers not creepers |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/cinema-reviews/aravind-2-jeepers-not-creepers/article4561927.ece |url-status=live |access-date=6 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220129083155/https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/cinema-reviews/aravind-2-jeepers-not-creepers/article4561927.ece |archive-date=29 January 2022}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|tt8616938}}
* {{Rotten Tomatoes|aravind_2}}

[[Category:2013 Telugu-language films]]
[[Category:2013 films]]
[[Category:2013 thriller films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Sekhar Suri]]
[[Category:Indian thriller films]]

Anandhapurathu Veedu

2026-03-03T02:57:01Z

JOVFinlay2: added formatting per standard format and updated info

{{more citations needed|date=April 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Anandhapurathu Veedu
| image =
| caption =
| director = [[Naga (director)|Naga]]
| producer = [[S. Shankar]]
| writer = [[Sharath A. Haridaasan]] [[Indra Soundar Rajan]] Naga
| story =
| starring = [[Nandha (actor)|Nandha]] [[Chaya Singh]] Aryan
| music = Ramesh Krishna
| cinematography = Arunmani Palani
| editing = [[Kishore Te]]
| studio = [[S Pictures]]
| released = {{Film date|df=y|2010|07|09}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Tamil
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Anandhapurathu Veedu''''' ({{translation|The Anandhapuram House/ The [[Utopia]]n House}}) is a 2010 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language [[Supernatural fiction|supernatural]] [[mystery film]] co written and directed by Tamil television director [[Naga (director)|Naga]], who has directed serials like ''[[Marmadesam]]'', ''Vidathu Karuppu'' and ''[[Chidambara Rahasiyam (TV series)|Chidambara Rahasiyam]]''. This film, Naga's feature film debut, stars [[Nandha (actor)|Nandha]] and [[Chaya Singh]] in lead roles along with child artist Aryan, making his debut. Written by Naga, Sharath Haridasan and [[Indra Soundar Rajan]] and produced by director [[S. Shankar]]'s [[S Pictures]], ''Anandhapurathu Veedu'' was released on 9 July 2010 to positive reviews.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movie-news-1/oct-09-05/shankar-nanda-ananthapurathu-veedu-30-10-09.html |title=Shankar's film shooting wrapped up - Tamil Movie News - Nanda | Eeram | Ananthapurathu Veedu | Shankar's S Picture |website=Behindwoods.com |date=2009-10-30 |access-date=2012-11-08}}</ref>

==Plot==
15 years after an accident in which Bala's parents died, Bala returns with his wife Revathi and son Anand to his hometown. They decide to stay a couple of nights in the massive house in which he grew up. As he spends a few days in the house and recalls his memories, Anand, who has a disability to speak, sees supernatural movements around the house but could not tell anyone what he witnesses. Soon, Revathi, who suffers from [[claustrophobia]], deduces [[poltergeist]] activity in the house, and so, she tells Bala that they have to go back to [[Chennai]]. Anand enjoys the presence of the ghosts and does not find any problem. Problems come up between the couple that they had never thought of when they got into their love marriage. Soon, Revathi discovers that they did not come on holiday, but in fact, came to escape some rowdies that Bala owes money to. This is when Bala's classmate and business partner Jeeva arrives to stay with them. His company had borrowed 40 lakhs from a rowdy, and over the months, it had increased to 50 lakhs, but he is unable to pay back any money as his agent, who was supposed to give him two crores, runs away and is nowhere to be found. With the help of ghosts, Bala and his family find a way to escape from being kept under [[house arrest]]. Then it knows that Bala's partner, who has been jealous of him, had the money the whole time to pay the rowdies without Bala's family knowing it. How will Bala's deceased parents saves him from the problem is the rest of the story.

==Cast==
{{cast listing|
* [[Nandha (actor)|Nandha]] as Bala Subramaniam
* [[Chaya Singh]] as Revathy Bala Subramaniam
* Aryan as Anand Subramaniam
* [[Krishna (TV actor)|Krishna]] as Jeeva
* [[Kalairani]] as Mayilamma
* [[Y. G. Mahendra]] as Bala's father's friend
* [[Lavanya (actress)|Lavanya]] as Radhika
* Megh Varn Pant as Sashikanth
* [[Ganesh Babu]] as Rathinam
* Samson T. Willson as Natwarlal
}}

==Production==
Meera Jasmine was originally chosen as lead actress but later got replaced by Chaya Singh.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cinesouth.com/masala/hotnews/new/30102008-4.shtml|access-date=2 September 2024|website=Cinesouth|title=Chaya Singh in place of Meera Jasmine|date=30 October 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081102053547/http://www.cinesouth.com/masala/hotnews/new/30102008-4.shtml|archive-date=2 November 2008}}</ref>

==Soundtrack==
The Soundtrack was composed by Ramesh Krishnan.
*Thaaye Enge
*Chithrai Vaanam

== See also ==
* ''[[Things Heard & Seen]]''

==Critical reception==
''Sify'' wrote "The trouble with popular television serial director Naga's debut film ''Ananthapurathu Veedu'' is that it just does not live up to the promise. It has been promoted as a supernatural thriller by its makers and ends up as a tame family run-of-the-mill movie."<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.sify.com/movies/ananthapurathu-veedu-review-tamil-pclxCvbjjjdfj.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151126025904/http://www.sify.com/movies/ananthapurathu-veedu-review-tamil-pclxCvbjjjdfj.html | url-status=dead | archive-date=26 November 2015 | website=Sify.com | title=Ananthapurathu Veedu |date=10 July 2010}}</ref> ''Behindwoods'' wrote, "Although ''AV'' has a couple of pluses to its credit, it lacks in pace and there is an uneven keel to it. The narration does not engage the audience which is much needed for a film like this. ''AV'' does not scare you at all and is right for people wanting a relaxed family fare."<ref>{{cite web | url=http://behindwoods.com/tamil-movie-reviews/reviews-2/ananthapurathu-veedu-movie-review.html | title=Tamil Movie Ananthapurathu Veedu Review | website=Behindwoods.com | last=Behindwoods review board | access-date=June 22, 2022 }}</ref> ''The New Indian Express'' wrote, "Labelled as a supernatural thriller with a comic touch, the film however neither generates fear nor laughter. In fact, it leaves you with no feelings at all. It has quite a few subplots with characters entering, leaves you with a narration that is bland and juvenile at places."<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/reviews/article181870.ece| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160807154107/http://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/reviews/article181870.ece| url-status = dead| archive-date = 7 August 2016| title = Ananthapurathu Veedu | publisher=The New Indian Express | date=12 July 2010}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|id=4317600}}

{{S. Shankar}}

[[Category:Indian mystery films]]
[[Category:2010 films]]
[[Category:2010 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:2010 Indian films]]
[[Category:2010 directorial debut films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]

Kundan Satti

2026-03-03T02:31:02Z

JOVFinlay2: created a data

{{Short description|2023 Tamil film}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Kundan Satti
| image = Kundan Satti.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = P. K. Aghasthi
| writer = Arangan Chinnathambi (dialogue)
| story = P. K. Aghasthi
| producer = S. A. Karthikeyan
| starring = {{plainlist|
*Sriram
*Vidyuth Srinivas
*Vishodhan
}}
| cinematography =
| editing = B. S. Vasu
| music = M. S. Amargeeth
| studio = Shellammal Movie Makers
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|df=y|2023|10|13}}
| runtime = 106 minutes
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}
'''''Kundan Satti''''' is a 2023 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language animated [[children's film]] directed by P. K. Aghasthi. It was released on 13 October 2023.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Kundan Satti |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movie-details/kundan-satti/movieshow/104340705.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231026060129/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movie-details/kundan-satti/movieshow/104340705.cms |archive-date=26 October 2023 |access-date=25 October 2023 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref>

== Plot ==
''Kundan Satti'' is set in the peaceful village of Koranattu Karuppur near Kumbakonam and follows the daily lives of a group of fifth-grade students. The story portrays their experiences at school and within the community, highlighting the challenges they face in balancing education, family expectations, and societal values. Throughout the film, the children learn important lessons about perseverance, the value of traditional foods, and the significance of maintaining personal and environmental hygiene. Respect for elders and the importance of cultural heritage are also emphasized as key themes. The narrative aims to inspire young audiences by promoting positive behavior, encouraging academic focus, and fostering an understanding of rural life in Tamil Nadu.{{No plot|date= October 2023}}

==Voice cast==
The title derives its name from the two lead characters Kundaeswaran and Sattiswaran.
*Sriram
*Vidyuth Srinivas
*Vishodhan

==Production==
Prior to release, the firm garnered attention for being directed by P. K. Aghasthi, a 12-year-old girl from Chennai.<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 April 2023 |title=குண்டான் சட்டி அனிமேஷன் படம் |url=https://www.dailythanthi.com/Cinema/CinemaThuligal/kundan-satti-movie-animation-movie-director-12-year-girl-942522 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230516004424/https://www.dailythanthi.com/Cinema/CinemaThuligal/kundan-satti-movie-animation-movie-director-12-year-girl-942522 |archive-date=16 May 2023 |access-date=25 October 2023 |website=[[Dina Thanthi]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=13 February 2023 |title=12 வயது மாணவி இயக்கிய 'குண்டான் சட்டி' படத்தின் ட்ரெய்லர் வெளியீடு |url=https://news7tamil.live/the-trailer-of-kundan-chatti-directed-by-a-12-year-old-school-girl-is-released.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230511202102/https://news7tamil.live/the-trailer-of-kundan-chatti-directed-by-a-12-year-old-school-girl-is-released.html |archive-date=11 May 2023 |access-date=25 October 2023 |website=News7 Tamil}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=9 October 2023 |title=இறுதிகட்டத்தில் குண்டான் சட்டி | kundan satti movie in the final stage |url=https://cinema.dinamalar.com/tamil-news/116780/cinema/Kollywood/kundan-satti-movie-in-the-final-stage.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231016193352/https://cinema.dinamalar.com/tamil-news/116780/cinema/Kollywood/kundan-satti-movie-in-the-final-stage.htm |archive-date=16 October 2023 |access-date=25 October 2023 |website=[[Dinamalar]]}}</ref> She initially wanted to write a book on a story based in [[Kumbakonam]] but after learning animation during the [[COVID-19 lockdown in India|COVID-19 lockdown]], she wanted to make a film.<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 October 2023 |title=சாதனைக்கு ஏது வயது..! Kundan Satti Movie Team Interview | PK Agasthi | S.A Karthikeyan |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=57uEndJsadA |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231026060200/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=57uEndJsadA |archive-date=26 October 2023 |access-date=26 October 2023 |via=[[YouTube]]}}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
The music was composed by M. S. Amargeeth and features three songs. The lyrics are written by Arangan. The songs are sung by Sriram, Vidyuth Srinivas and Vishodhan.
*"Chittu Kuruvi Pola"
*"Ooda Ooda" -
*"Theme Song"

== Reception ==
The film was released on 13 October 2023 across theatres in [[Tamil Nadu]]. A critic from ''[[Maalai Malar]]'' praised the film intentions, but questioned the quality of the animation.<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 October 2023 |title=Kundan Satti |url=https://www.maalaimalar.com/movie-review/kundan-satti-27491 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231026060133/https://www.maalaimalar.com/movie-review/kundan-satti-27491 |archive-date=26 October 2023 |access-date=25 October 2023 |website=[[Maalai Malar]]}}</ref> A reviewer from ''[[Thinaboomi]]'' gave the film a positive review.<ref>{{Cite web |title=குண்டான் சட்டி - விமர்சனம் |url=https://thinaboomi.com/2023/10/16/211718.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231017092347/http://www.thinaboomi.com/2023/10/16/211718.html |archive-date=17 October 2023 |access-date=26 October 2023 |website=Thina Boomi}}</ref>

== Awards and recognition ==
''Kundan Satti'' received the Generation Next – Grade Schooler: Student Animated Feature award at the [https://tamilnadufilmfestival.com/awards-tnff-2024/ Tamil Nadu Film Festival (TNFF) in 2024]. The film was also honored at the Norwegian Tamil Film Festival with the [https://afternoonnews.in/article/norway-film-festival-awards-8th-student-for-her-film Norway Tamil Film Award (NTFF)]. P. K. Aghasthi earned recognition as Best Young Director from a consortium of Tamil Nadu private schools and was praised by notable figures including the Governor of Telangana.

== References ==
{{reflist}}
== External links ==
* {{IMDb title}}
[[Category:2023 films]]
[[Category:2023 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:2023 animated films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]
[[Category:2023 Indian films]]
[[Category:Indian animated films]]
[[Category:Indian children's films]]
[[Category:2023 directorial debut films]]
[[Category:Indian animated fantasy films]]

Vijayasinhji Chhatrasinhji

2026-03-02T18:31:36Z

JOVFinlay2: New New Info.

{{short description|Indian maharaja, horse breeder and businessman}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2022}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Vijayasinhji
| image = Maharajah of Rajpipta LCCN2014714671.jpg
| caption = during his US tour of 1922. Bain News Service.
| succession = [[Rajpipla State|King of Rajpipla]]
| reign1 = 1915 - 1948
| reign-type1 =
| predecessor1 = Chhatrasinhji
| successor1 =
| regent1 =
| reg-type1 =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=y|1890|01|30}}
| birth_place = Chhatra Vilas Palace, [[Nandod]], [[Rajpipla State|State of Rajpipla]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=y|1951|04|29|1890|01|30}}
| death_place = The Manor, [[Old Windsor]], [[Berkshire]], England
| burial_date =
| burial_place =
| spouse = Princess Uday Kunverba of Amleta (m. 1911 - 1951; his death) Princess Padmini Kunverba of Panna (m. 1917 - 1951; his death) [[Ella Atherton]] (m. 1940 - 1951; his death)
| issue = {{Collapsible list|title=See|1={{plainlist|''With Uday Kunverba'': Crown Prince Rajendrasinhji Prince Raghunathsinhji Princess Kunverba Kusum, Crown Princess of Chhota-Udaipur Prince Pramodsinhji ''With Padmini Kunverba'': Mohini, Crown Princess of Morvi Prince Vijaysinhji Prince Indrajeetsinhji Princess Chandra Prabha Kumari ''With Ella Devi'': Prince Rajsingh Princess Premila Devi}}}}
| house = [[Gohil dynasty|Gohil-Rajpipla]]
| father = Chhatrasinhji I of Rajpipla
| mother = Princess Phool Kunverba of Wankaner
| religion = [[Hindusim]]
| signature =
}}

'''Vijaysinhji Chhatrasinhji''' (30 January 1890 - 29 April 1951) was the last [[Maharaja]] of the [[Rajpipla State]], who ruled from 1915 to 1948. He was also a successful race horse owner, a [[socialite]] and an accomplished [[Equestrianism|horseman]] and a [[Polo |polo player]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://npgimages.com/asset/34361/|title=Maharana Shri Sir Vijayasinhji Chhatrasinhji, Maharaja of Rajpipla at his UK country estate: The Manor, Old Windsor, Berkshire. Picture taken on October 10|year=1927|publisher=National Portrait Gallery|website=npgimages.com}}</ref> He played a key role in the negotiations leading to the integration of several [[Princely state]]’s into the [[Dominion of India|Indian Union]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/person/mp59610/maharana-shri-sir-vijayasinhji-chhatrasinhji-maharaja-of-rajpipla|title=Maharana Shri Sir Vijayasinhji Chhatrasinhji, Maharaja of Rajpipla|publisher=National Portrait Gallery|website=npg.org.uk}}</ref><ref name="pip">{{cite web|url=https://eehe.org.uk/?p=68675|title=Maharana Shri Sir Vijayasinhji Chhatrasinhji, Maharaja of Rajpipla|publisher=Epsom and Ewell Explorer|website=eehe.org.uk}}</ref> Some articles refer to him as Vijayasinhji instead of Vijaysinhji.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.ukwhoswho.com/view/10.1093/ww/9780199540891.001.0001/ww-9780199540884-e-242086|title=Rajpipla, Maharaja of Lieut-Col HH Maharana Shri Sir Vijayasinhji Chhatrasinhji|year=2007|publisher=Who’s Who and Who was Who 2022|doi=10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.U242086 |isbn=978-0-19-954089-1 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>

==Biography==
Born into an elite [[Gohil dynasty]], he was the son of the ruler of
Rajpipla State, Chhatrasinhji Gambhirsinhji (1862-1915),
via his first wife, Princess Wankanerwala Maharani Shri Phool Kunverba Sahiba.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://openlibrary.org/books/OL25167998M/A_Maharaja's_Turf|title=A Maharaja's Turf|via=openlibrary.org|year=2011 |publisher=Internet Archive|isbn=9788190166836 |ol=25167998M }}</ref>
He was born in Chhatra Vilas Palace, [[Rajpipla|Nandod]]. His father governed the {{convert|4000|km2|mi2}} kingdom from 1897 to 1915.<ref name="pip"/><ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.ukwhoswho.com/view/10.1093/ww/9780199540891.001.0001/ww-9780199540884-e-190162|title=Rajpipla, HH Sir Maharana Shri Chhatrasinhji, Raja of|publisher=Who’s who and Who was Who 2022|doi=10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.U190162 |isbn=978-0-19-954089-1 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> As [[Crown prince]], he was educated at [[Rajkumar College, Rajkot]], and subsequently became a member of the
[[Imperial Cadet Corps]] in [[Dehradun]].<ref>{{cite book |title=The Indian Year Book |date=1939 |publisher=Bennett, Coleman & Company |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NEIdAQAAMAAJ&q=imperial+cadet+corps |access-date=16 April 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>The Ruling Princes and Chiefs of India published by The Times of India, 1930</ref>

[[File:Rajkoomar Indian College, Kattywar.jpg|thumb|Rajkumar College, Rajkot, Kathiawar. 1871. Illustrated London News]]

A keen equestrian enthusiast from a very young age, he was an accomplished rider who won his first horse race at the age of eight. Years later he would become the owner of one of the most notable horse stables in both India and England .<ref name="age">{{cite web|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=fhFQAAAAIBAJ&sjid=f5UDAAAAIBAJ&pg=5645,3705321&dq=windsor-lad+derby&hl=en|title=The Race for the Derby|publisher=The Age, June 8|year=1934|access-date=2022-04-17}}</ref>

As his father's designated heir, he was expected to continue driving modernization within Rajpipla and maintain cordial relations with the [[Rewa Kantha Agency]], and retain the kingdoms First-Class status within the Rewakantha Princely states of [[Gujarat]]. In 1911 he was a key participant of the [[Delhi Durbar]], a lavish celebration to commemorate the reign of [[George V]], [[Emperor of India]].

[[File:Bombay Prov south 1909.jpg|thumb|Bombay Presidency map (1908): Rajpipla State in yellow in the upper section in vicinity of the Narmada River]]

During the [[World War I]], the State of Rajpipla supported the dispatch of numerous recruits to the [[British Raj]] in preparation for war service. In recognition of this services to the British Raj during the war period, he was awarded the honorary rank of [[Captain (armed forces)|captain]] in the [[British Army]]. This was reported in [[The London Gazette]] in October 1919.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Page 12884 {{!}} Supplement 31609, 17 October 1919 {{!}} London Gazette {{!}} The Gazette|url=https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/31609/supplement/12884|access-date=2022-04-17|website=www.thegazette.co.uk}}</ref>

He became the 36th and last ruler of Rajpipla with full ruling powers on 10 December 1915 following the death of his father three months prior, and his elaborate investiture in Old Rajpipla. His Princely state was ''nominally sovereign'', in that it was not directly governed by the British, but rather by him as a ruler under a form of [[indirect rule]],<ref>{{Citation | last = Ramusack | first = Barbara | year = 2004 | title = The Indian Princes and their States |series=[[The New Cambridge History of India]] | publisher = Cambridge and London: Cambridge University Press. Pp. 324 | isbn = 978-0-521-03989-5 |page=87}}</ref> subject to a [[subsidiary alliance]] and the [[suzerainty]] or [[paramountcy]] of the [[the Crown|British crown]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/4d8f0b66-aeb7-4bc2-bbb6-b71d83188866|title=File P 3998/1915 Rajpipla: recognition of the succession of Kumar Vijaysinhji, eldest son of the late Chief|year=1947|website=discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk}}</ref>

Throughout the next decade he enacted a series of administrative reforms, modernising his state, and invested heavily in various public health and infrastructure projects in India, such as a power plant, an aqueduct for drinking water and for irrigation throughout his territories, as well as the first roads and rail links.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/1aa4cb7d-1a01-4dc4-aec7-da05b0e9874c|title=Rajpipla Administration Report, 1909/10-1918/19 Reference: IOR/V/10/1828|website=discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk|year=1920}}</ref> Under his rule, free primary and affordable secondary education were introduced, as well as a
civil and criminal court and a pension system for public administrators.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/0e3692c8-ddbb-46b8-b5a3-6ebb82ec0380|title=Rajpipla Administration Report, 1920-1928 Reference: IOR/V/10/1829 |website=discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk|year=1928}}</ref>

Records of his trip to France in 1920 were kept by the [[India Office|India Office Records]] under “Proceedings and Consultations”, detailing his political associations. These papers are now held by the UK National Archives.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/4fa8d9bc-5f98-454c-afeb-0ab271d18801|title=File P 4351/1920 Visit of Maharaja of Rajpipla to Paris|website=discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk}}</ref>

He achieved success on the racecourse, winning the first [[Indian Derby]], then known as the Country Bred Derby with ''Tipster'' in 1919.

He was anointed the hereditary title of Maharaja, entitling him to a [[Salute#Heavy arms: gun salutes|permanent salute]] of 13-guns from 1 January 1921 onwards. Rajpipla was now a [[Salute state]].

In 1922 he embarked on a 15-day tour of the United States to study their financial system.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045774/1922-08-06/ed-1/seq-58/|title=Maharajah V Chhatrasinhji visiting America to learn about their financial system, August 6|year=1922}}</ref> He was accompanied by his uncle, prime minister and head of the army. He was notable for being the only Indian maharaja to meet President [[Warren G. Harding]] in Washington D.C.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1922/07/09/107065507.html?pageNumber=22|title=MAHARAJAH ON TOUR; Rajpipla's Ruler Will Devote Fifteen Days to the United States|url-access=subscription|publisher=The New York Times, July 9|year=1922|page=22}}</ref>

[[File:Maharaja Z. Rajpipla & Yruchen, 7-20-22 LOC npcc.06713.tif|thumb|Maharajah Vijaysinhji Chhatrasinhji during his visit to Washington D.C.]]

By 1922 he was a highly popular socialite on an international level, as well as a racehorse owner. He spent his summers in England and then returned to India for the winter.<ref name="age"/> He established the Rajpipla State [[Polo|polo field]] and a [[Gymkhana|gymkhana field]]. He was the owner, sponsor and Captain of the
Rajpipla [[Polo]] Team. These facilities formed part of the Rajpipla Club, inaugurated by the [[Governor-General of India|
Viceroy and Governor-General of India]], [[Freeman Freeman-Thomas, 1st Marquess of Willingdon|Lord Willingdon]]. He continued to invest heavily into the infrastructure and development of Rajpipla.<ref>Coronation Supplement to The Illustrated Weekly of India, 9 May 1937</ref>

[[File:Rajpipla Polo Team.jpg|thumb
| Rajpipla Polo Team 1943 (from left). His son Maharajkumar Indrajeet Singhji. His son, Yuvraj Rajendra Singhji, Maharaja Sir Vijaysinhji and his son, Maharajkumar Pramod Singhji]]

When not entertaining high society friends, such as the [[Aga Khan III]] and British aristocracy at his home in [[Old Windsor]], [[Berkshire]]; a 27-roomed Victorian mansion purchased in 1922 and located on Church Road, he was active within the UK [[Social season (United Kingdom)|social season]] from April to August each year.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://newspaperarchive.com/other-articles-clipping-may-27-1936-2758457/|title=Pip loses to the Aga Khan|publisher=La Crosse Tribune and Leader Press|date= May 27, 1936}}</ref> As a wealthy and influential [[Indian people|Indian]] [[Anglophile]], he had access to many of the British aristocracy, as well as the political elite. These records dating from 6 April 1922 to 9 October 1930 are held by the UK National Archives.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/ea6ba9e9-ecdb-4ef8-a135-8fab9441ace1|title=File P 1433/1922 Rajpipla: Maharaja's visits to Europe|website=discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk}}</ref>

He received a knighthood from King [[George V]] in the [[1925 New Year Honours]]; Knight Commander of the Order of the Star of India (KCSI), and thus became a member of the prestigious [[Order of the Star of India]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Page 4 {{!}} Supplement 14089, 2 January 1925 {{!}} The Edinburgh Gazette {{!}} The Gazette|url=https://www.thegazette.co.uk/Edinburgh/issue/14089/page/4|access-date=2022-04-17|website=www.thegazette.co.uk}}</ref><ref>{{London Gazette |issue=33007 |date=30 December 1924 |pages=1–10 |supp=y}}</ref><ref name="pip"/>

His horse ''Embargo'', won the [[Irish Derby]] in 1926;<ref>{{cite web|url= https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1926/06/24/98383803.html?pageNumber=14|title=Maharaja's horse wins Irish Derby; Embargo|url-access=subscription|publisher=The New York Times, June 24|year=1926}}</ref> the [[Grand Prix de Bruxelles]] in 1927 and the [[City and Suburban Handicap]] in Epsom, England.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1927/04/21/118642604.html?pageNumber=34|title=Maharaja of Rajpipla's Entry Wins 2,000 British Handicap|newspaper=The New York Times|date=Apr 21, 1927|url-access=subscription|page=34}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Racing. Epsom Spring Meeting., Embargo Wins|newspaper=The Times |id=Thursday, Apr 21, 1927; pg. 5; Issue 44561; col A}}</ref> Other horses, such as ''Melesigenes'', gained him further recognition in races on his home turf in [[Mumbai]], [[Pune]] and other races on the Indian Subcontinent.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.europeana.eu/en/item/2024904/https___www_topfoto_co_uk_asset_3024623|title=The Maharajah of Rajpipla at his English country home, Manor Cottage, Old Windsor, admiring one of his horses outside his stables on 9 May|year=1928}}</ref>

The London Gazette reported on 26 August 1932 his honorary rank as [[Major (rank)|major]] in the British Army.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Page 5497 {{!}} Supplement 333858, 26 August 1932 {{!}} London Gazette {{!}} The Gazette|url=https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/33858/page/5497|access-date=2022-04-17|website=www.thegazette.co.uk}}</ref>

His most notable horse, trained by [[Marcus Marsh]] was [[Windsor Lad]]; with [[Charlie Smirke]] as jockey, were the 1934 winners of the [[Epsom Derby]], in England.<ref>Randall, J. and Morris, T., ''A Century of Champions'', Portway Press, Halifax, 1999, p. 80 {{ISBN|1-901570-15-0}}</ref><ref name="google1679">{{cite web|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=hgdlAAAAIBAJ&sjid=IHkNAAAAIBAJ&pg=1679,3710402&dq=windsor+lad+derby&hl=en|title=Windsor Lad finishes first in English Derby|publisher=Saskatoon Star-Phoenix|access-date=2022-04-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.asian-voice.com/Opinion/Columnists/The-Rajpipla-State-even-defeated-Aurangzeb|title=The Rajpipla maharaja who bagged the Derby|publisher=Asian Voice, August 28|year=2018}}</ref> King George V and [[Mary of Teck|Queen Mary]], who watched the race along with other members of the Royal Family, invited him to the Royal Box and congratulated him on his victory.
<ref>{{cite web|url=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A146520026/STND?u=wikipedia&sid=bookmark-STND&xid=68c7f2da|title="Horse Racing: 'I didn't think I would win the Derby - I knew' Countdown to the Derby 1 day to go When Windsor Lad won the 1934 Derby, it was the greatest day in the racing life of his owner, the Maharajah of Rajpipla, left. Later, 'Mr Pip' penned his memoirs and, reproduced here, they offer a fascinating insight into the joys of owning an Epsom hero."|publisher=The Racing Post [London, England], June 2|year=2006|url-access=subscription|page=18}}</ref> Windsor Lad's, winning time of 2:34.0 equalled the race record set by [[Hyperion (horse)|Hyperion]] the previous year. He celebrated with a lavish party at the [[Savoy Hotel]] which featured a performing [[Indian elephant]] arrayed in his purple and cream racing colours.<ref name="age"/>

The British socialites referred to him as ‘Pip’, a name coined by his business associate, [[Martin H. Benson]] who acquired Windsor Lad during July 1934.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1934/07/26/archives/windsor-lad-is-sold-to-benson-for-250000.html|title = Windsor Lad is Sold to Benson for $250,000|newspaper = The New York Times|date = 26 July 1934|url-access=subscription}}</ref> To the racecourse crowds he was affectionately known as ‘Mr. Pip’.<ref name="pip"/>

In 1935, his heir-apparent attended the Royal Military Academy in Woolwich.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/a285e55c-b1a6-4a32-a8c8-f9ac4a530dbe|title=File 486-P(C)/1935 Report by the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich on Kumar Shri Rajendrasinhji, Heir-Apparent, Rajpipla|website=discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk}}</ref> The mid-1930s were a time when the British Authorities were increasingly required to keep meticulous records on persons of interest. Of note, was the politically damaging affairs of his first cousin, Kumar Shri Himatsimhji over a 4-year period.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/cf0aa5de-5947-45f5-9f6e-dfe8f4417cef|title=File 448-P(S)/1933 Affairs of Kumar Shri Himatsinhji, a cousin of His Highness the Maharaja of Rajpipla, in Europe|website=discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/e826d40f-0af0-4132-b9ae-bb2b53a24d28|title=File 408-P(S)/1935 Affairs of Kumar Shri Himatsimhji, a cousin of His Highness the Maharaja of Rajpipla, in England|website=discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk}}</ref> There was also his own visit to [[Continental Europe]] during 1939 that generated a high level of political interest.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/6b3879f4-1667-48c7-969f-6cd33b5fe735|title=File 45(3)-P(S)/1939 Visit of His Highness the Maharaja of Rajpipla to Europe|website=discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk}}</ref>

His domestic politics were increasingly fragile. The Praja Mandal, a part of the [[Indian independence movement]] had been growing stronger in his state since the 1920s. Their focus was to initially improve civil rights on the Indian subcontinent in areas subject to the rule of feudatory rulers, and sometimes also the British administration.
This led to the [[Round Table Conferences (India)|Round Table Conferences]]. He had proven himself to be a respected ruler, having gone far beyond the [[Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms]]. After the 1930s, the movement took on a strong socialist orientation. Even though he was politically and culturally allied to [[The Crown]] throughout his direct rule, he sensed the march of democracy, and endorsed some aspects of the nationalist movement in his own State in the 1940s. His days as a hereditary ruler were numbered following the
[[Government of India Act 1935]], since the nationalist movement had sought for future decolonization and Indian self-rule leading to the [[Instrument of Accession]]. As a feudatory ruler, he recognised the need to achieve a smooth and safe transition for his 200,000 subjects. He was also, as a ruler of a First-class state within the [[Western India States Agency]] highly influential, when communicating future sovereignty proposals within the region.

During [[World War II]], he donated three [[Supermarine Spitfire]]’s to the [[Royal Air Force]], the Rajpipla, the Windsor Lad and the Embargo, as well as a [[Hawker Hurricane]] called Rajpipla II to the United Kingdom's war effort for use against the Axis powers.<ref name="pip"/> His support for the war effort was commended by the British Establishment. He was awarded the [[List of Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire|Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire]] in the [[1945 New Year Honours]], and now held the honorary rank of [[lieutenant colonel]] in the British Army.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Page 29 {{!}} Supplement 36866, 29 December 1944 {{!}} London Gazette {{!}} The Gazette|url=https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/36866/supplement/29|access-date=2022-04-17|website=www.thegazette.co.uk}}</ref>

During the prelude to the [[Indian Independence Act 1947]], his health was declining, with unscheduled health visits to England from 1945. Records of British Officials concerns were kept by the India Office. These are now held by the UK National Archives.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/5843c380-5df9-42c2-9b4e-2c47831bb42d|title=File 12(3)-P(S)/1947 Rajpipla affairs. Illness of H.H. the Maharaja of Rajpipla|year=1947|website=discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk}}</ref>

He continued to support the democratisation of the Indian state and in 1948 provided 2,800,000 rupees to the new Indian government. He urged other Princely states to follow suit in the cause of a united nation at a meeting held at his Nepeansea Road residence in Mumbai. He signed the instrument of accession on 19 March 1948 and his kingdom joined the
[[Dominion of India|Union of India]] on 10 June 1948, putting an end to the 600-year history of the independent state of Rajpipla.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rajpiplapost.com/rajfiscal.htm|title=Rajpipla State History|publisher=rajpiplapost.com}}</ref> As a direct consequence, he ceased to be a ruler of an ancient [[Princely state]].<ref name="pip"/>

[[File:Indrajit-Padmini Mahal (front 2).jpg|thumb|Indrajit-Padmini Mahal, one of his homes in India.]]

His honorary noble titles were retained and he set about making his home in [[Old Windsor]], set in {{convert|3000|acre}}, his primary residence,<ref name="pip"/> where he
died on 29 April 1951.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/39453/supplement/691|title=Claim Notice by Solicitors|publisher=The London Gazette, supplement 39453, 1 February|year=1952|page=691}}</ref>
In accordance with Hindu tradition of his faith, his body was returned to his homeland and was subsequently cremated in Rampura, on the banks of the [[Narmada River]].<ref name="pip"/> Despite Indian independence, his vestiges as a Maharaja and [[List of honorary knighthoods in India|honorary knighthood]] entitled him to a 13 gun salute.

==Personal life==
He was a keen sportsman, with an avid interest in Cricket. He followed his father's footsteps with his passion for Motor vehicles. He had a stable of luxury vehicles consisting of twelve Rolls-Royces; from the [[Rolls-Royce Silver Ghost|1913 Silver Ghost]] to the [[Rolls-Royce Phantom III|1937 Phantom III]].<ref name="gods">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yPjoAQAACAAJ|title=Racing with the gods|author=Marsh, Marcus|year=1970|publisher=A. S. Barnes |isbn=0498074609}}</ref>

He was able to marry multiple times in accordance with his cultural heritage. His final wife was the Scottish actress, socialite and model, [[Ella Atherton]], who when they were introduced, was considered to be one of the most beautiful women in the British Isles.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/scottish-born-silent-film-actress-and-model-ella-atherton-news-photo/152811628|title=A 1930 photograph of Ella Atherton|website=gettyimages.com}}</ref><ref name="Atherton">{{cite web|url=https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/490420397/|title=The wedding of the week|publisher= New York Daily News, February 11|year=1982|page=12}}</ref>
His new companion retired from her profession, and by 1933 frequently accompanied him to society events.<ref>{{cite web|last=|first=|date=1935|title=Ella Atherton at Epsom Downs|url=https://www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/news-photo/maharajah-vijayasinhji-of-rajpipla-with-friends-at-epsom-news-photo/152959619|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211018161601/https://www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/news-photo/maharajah-vijayasinhji-of-rajpipla-with-friends-at-epsom-news-photo/152959619 |archive-date=2021-10-18 |access-date=2022-04-17|website=Getty Images}}</ref>

A charismatic and likable personality widely known in a Royal circles in England, and a desired guest, London aristocrats craved tales from far away lands and he met their expectations. His entourage on occasions included an elephant.
[[Buckingham Palace]] afforded him much respect. His win at Epsom in 1934 served to enhance his status, and he was invited to the [[Coronation of George VI and Elizabeth]] in 1937.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CS151203958/TTDA?u=wikipedia&sid=bookmark-TTDA&xid=a191d8af|title=India At The Coronation|newspaper=The Times |publisher= The Times of London, Mar 22|year=1937|page=9|url-access=subscription|issue=47639}}</ref>

By 1938, his new companion was now a successful horse breeder. Although they had yet to marry, she was already Ella A, of Rajpipla. She clearly welcomed his sponsorship and it cemented their relationship.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://go.gale.com/ps/retrieve.do?tabID=Newspapers&resultListType=RESULT_LIST&searchResultsType=SingleTab&hitCount=1&searchType=BasicSearchForm&currentPosition=1&docId=GALE%7CCS84357976&docType=Sports+news&sort=Pub+Date+Forward+Chron&contentSegment=ZTMA-MOD1&prodId=TTDA&pageNum=1&contentSet=GALE%7CCS84357976&searchId=R6&userGroupName=wikipedia&inPS=true|title=Newbury Results, Oct. 24|year=1938|page=5|url-access=subscription|publisher=The Times Newspapers Limited}}</ref> As his unofficial consort hosting visiting dignitaries, she accompanied him on events overseas, such as the [[1939 New York World's Fair]].<ref>{{cite web|last=|first=|date=1939|title=Dining with Bergdorf Goodman, and spouse in New York City|url=https://www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/news-photo/mr-and-mrs-bergdorf-goodman-dining-with-maharajah-news-photo/152812798|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211018160410/https://www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/news-photo/mr-and-mrs-bergdorf-goodman-dining-with-maharajah-news-photo/152812798 |archive-date=2021-10-18 |access-date=2022-04-17|website=Getty Images}}</ref>

During the 1930s his time spent in England increased. However, as a popular ruler, his annual visits to Rajpipla, extended over 5–6 months annually. A cherished pastime was to impress his visiting dignitaries with tales of his tiger hunting, in what is now the [[Satpura Tiger Reserve]].<ref>{{cite web|last=|first=|date=1939|title=Indian Tiger (solo picture) Hunt|url=http://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/scottish-born-silent-film-actress-and-model-ella-atherton-news-photo/152958436|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151113085239/http://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/scottish-born-silent-film-actress-and-model-ella-atherton-news-photo/152958436 |archive-date=2015-11-13 |access-date=2022-04-17|website=Getty Images}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=|first=|date=1939|title=Indian Tiger (group photo) Hunt|url=https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/scottish-born-silent-film-actress-and-model-ella-atherton-news-photo/152959789|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211018202335/https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/scottish-born-silent-film-actress-and-model-ella-atherton-news-photo/152959789 |archive-date=2021-10-18 |access-date=2022-04-17|website=Getty Images}}</ref>

He eventually married Atherton, his long time companion at a ceremony on Devchhatra (Devastra) Hill an ancient fort in [[Rajpipla]], on 5 January 1940.
This location was significant to him, since it was where his ancient Gohil Rajput dynasty began its 600-year in 1340. This area is now incorporated within the [[Shoolpaneshwar Wildlife Sanctuary]]. Atherton took the Hindu name of Maharini Ella Devi Sahiba. Eight months later, his son “Pippy”, Prince Rajsingh was born in 1940.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://newspaperarchive.com/other-articles-clipping-aug-04-1976-2757490/|title=Suzy says|publisher=Syracuse Herald Journal, August 4|year=1976}}</ref> A term of endearment had been inherited.

Prior to [[Indian Independence Act 1947|Indian independence]], it was necessary for him to prove his marital status to the British authorities. These records dating from 1945 to 1946 are held by the UK National Archives.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/3e34db9e-886f-4cf1-9424-ee48971dadc5|title=File 215-P(S)/1945 Alleged marriage of H.H. the Maharaja of Rajpipla with a woman known as Ellen Atherton|year=1945|access-date=16 April 2022|archive-date=19 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220419092939/https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/3e34db9e-886f-4cf1-9424-ee48971dadc5|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/da691fcc-6221-4bf9-8a89-27b628debee6|title=File 215-P(S)/1946 Alleged marriage of H.H. the Maharaja of Rajpipla with a woman known as Ellen Atherton|year=1946|access-date=16 April 2022|archive-date=19 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019220633/https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/da691fcc-6221-4bf9-8a89-27b628debee6|url-status=dead}}</ref>

After ceasing to be a ruler of a Princely state, he retained his titles at an honorary level from 1948, until his untimely death just three years later after a number of years of declining health.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1951/04/30/87044856.html?pageNumber=20|title=BOMBAY PRINCE, 61, IS DEAD IN ENGLAND; Maharajah of Rajpipla, Ruler of 206,000, Owned Windsor Lad, 1934 Derby Winner. Was Noted Polo Player Visited U.S. in 1926|publisher=The New York Times, April 30|year=1951|url-access=subscription|page=20}}</ref> His personal wealth allowed him to continue to engage within European [[High society (social class)|high society circles]], attending racing days at [[Ascot Racecourse|Ascot]] and [[Epsom Downs Racecourse|Epsom]], and seasonal social events, including the summer circuit of charity events and gala evenings in the South of France; his last wife was photographed by paparazzi attending a gala evening at a casino in [[Deauville]], France.<ref>{{cite web|last=|first=|date=1948|title=Maharani Ella Devi|url=https://www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/news-photo/maharani-ella-devi-of-rajpipla-arriving-for-a-gala-evening-news-photo/152812739|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211018140305/https://www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/news-photo/maharani-ella-devi-of-rajpipla-arriving-for-a-gala-evening-news-photo/152812739 |archive-date=2021-10-18 |access-date=2022-04-17|website=Getty Images}}</ref> He also travelled to the United States.

His daughter, Princess Premila of Rajpipla was born in 1949,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CS101402768/TTDA?u=wikipedia&sid=bookmark-TTDA&xid=a28e58b1|title=Birth of daughter of Maharana Ella Devi|newspaper=The Times |publisher=Court Circular. The London Times, 16 Apr|year=1949|url-access=subscription|page=6}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://go.gale.com/ps/retrieve.do?tabID=Newspapers&resultListType=RESULT_LIST&searchResultsType=SingleTab&hitCount=14&searchType=BasicSearchForm&currentPosition=7&docId=GALE%7CCS16992400&docType=Birth+announcement&sort=Pub+Date+Forward+Chron&contentSegment=ZTMA-MOD1&prodId=TTDA&pageNum=1&contentSet=GALE%7CCS16992400&searchId=R1&userGroupName=wikipedia&inPS=true|title=Birth of Princess Premila, the daughter of Maharana Ella Devi|url-access=subscription|publisher=The Times, 16 Apr|year=1949}}</ref> and was subsequently educated at Heathfield School, Ascot. In her mothers footsteps she became a British fashion model, a businesswoman and a socialite.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gettyimages.co.nz/detail/news-photo/model-princess-premila-of-rajpipla-poses-with-champagne-at-news-photo/613498970|title=Princess Premila|year=1969|website=gettyimages.co.nz}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tatler.com/gallery/lady-edens-party|title=Lady Eden's party: Society photograph of two guests: Princess Premila with Sir Hugh Ripley, 4th Baronet (1916–2003)|year=1997|publisher=Tatler, 3 November}}</ref>

==Legacy==
After his death in 1951, his widow, Ella Devi of Rajpipla continued his legacy as a quality breeder of racing horses.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://go.gale.com/ps/retrieve.do?tabID=Newspapers&resultListType=RESULT_LIST&searchResultsType=SingleTab&hitCount=14&searchType=BasicSearchForm&currentPosition=9&docId=GALE%7CCS168645446&docType=Sports+news&sort=Pub+Date+Forward+Chron&contentSegment=ZTMA-MOD1&prodId=TTDA&pageNum=1&contentSet=GALE%7CCS168645446&searchId=R1&userGroupName=wikipedia&inPS=true|title=Sandringham II (Owner: Ella Devi of Rajpipla)|url-access=subscription|publisher=The Times, Oct. 6|year=1954}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CS67331982/TTDA?u=wikipedia&sid=bookmark-TTDA&xid=c94ee602|title= Wood Cot (Owner: Ella Devi of Rajpipla)|newspaper= The Times|url-access=subscription |publisher= From Our Racing Correspondent. The London Times, Dec 14|year=1964|page= 4}}</ref>

A bronze statue on horseback in his honour has adorned the main square of [[Rajpipla]] since 1952. It was crafted by G. K. Mhatre (1879-1947), a pioneering sculptor of Pre-Independence India who attended [[Sir Jamsetjee Jeejebhoy School of Art]].<ref name="pip"/> Known as the Kala Ghoda (Black Horse) circle, it remains a prominent landmark of the city. The square was restored with new railings in 2017, giving the statue greater prominence.<ref>{{cite web|url=
https://narmada.nic.in/culture-heritage/|title=Equestrian statue of Maharaja Vijaysinhji (Kalaghoda)|publisher=Narmada District|website=narmada.nic.in/culture-heritage/}}</ref>

A silver statue about two feet long was crafted by [[Mappin & Webb]], of London.

His son, Prince Rajsingh “Pippy”, educated at Westminster School, pursued a career in journalism. Having been introduced to the turf by his father at a very young age, he inherited a passion for horse racing.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://newspaperarchive.com/other-articles-clipping-feb-16-1982-2758306/|title=Suzy says|publisher=Syracuse Herald Journal, February 16|year=1982}}</ref>

His 1934 [[Rolls-Royce Phantom II]] has survived and forms part of the [[Arvind Singh Mewar]]’s royal cars collection at [[Udaipur]], and was featured in [[Octopussy]], a 1983 British spy film and the thirteenth in the James Bond series. His prized vehicle has also featured in [[The Jewel in the Crown (TV series)|The Jewel in the Crown]], a 1984 British television serial about the final days of the British Raj during and after World War II, in the fourth episode, titled "Incidents at a Wedding".

His former residence in Mumbai, Palm Beach on Old Nepeansea Road is now a Consulate General of a foreign nation.

Success at Epsom and his pivotal moments as a horse breeder were published by his grandson Indra Vikram Singh in 2011.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/lifestyle/books/article374144.ece?service=print|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714232121/http://www.newindianexpress.com/lifestyle/books/article374144.ece?service=print|url-status=dead|archive-date=14 July 2014|title=Rider on the storm|year=2012|publisher=The New Indian Express, 7 April}}</ref>

==Newsreel==
* [https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=EO-Q51JsgFI British Pathe Newsreel "The 1934 Derby". Newsreel with the owner, The Maharaja of Rajpipla guiding Windsor Lad at Epsom(1934)]
* [https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=ku9fE3pqMGQ British Pathe Newsreel "Windsor Lad’s" owner, The Maharaja of Rajpipla at Northolt Pony Racing (1934)]

==Further reading==
* The Ruling Princes, Chiefs and Leading Personages in the Western India States Agency, 1st edition. Rajkot, 1928.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/2f470f55-b76e-4c64-807b-3a8675094ff9|title=The ruling princes, chiefs and leading personages in the Western India States Agency Rajkot|publisher=Western India States Agency Press|website=discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk|year=1928}}</ref>
* A maharaja's turf : platinum jubilee of the triumph of Maharaja Sir Vijaysinhji of Rajpipla in the Epsom Derby, 1934<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sw2UtwAACAAJ|
title=A Maharaja's Turf|author=Singh, Indra Vikram|publisher=Gurgaon: Sporting Links|year=2011|isbn=978-81-901668-3-6}}</ref>
* Racing with the gods. Marsh, Marcus. Published by A. S. Barnes, 1970<ref name="gods"/>

==See also==
{{EB1911 poster|Rajpipla}}
* [[List of princely states of British India (alphabetical)]]
* [[List of honorary knighthoods in India]]
* [[Rajpipla State]] (1340-1948)
* [[Rewa Kantha Agency]] (1811-1937)
* [[Western India States Agency]] (1924-1944)
* [[Baroda and Gujarat States Agency]] (1933–1944)
* [[Baroda, Western India and Gujarat States Agency]] (1944-1947)
* [[Political integration of India]]
* [[Narmada district]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* Imperial Gazetteer of India, v. 26, Atlas 1931 edition, "Bombay, p. 38-39 covering Rajpipla [http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gaz_atlas_1931/pager.html?object=45][http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gaz_atlas_1931/pager.html?object=46]
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Vijayasinhji Chhatrasinhji}}
[[Category:1890 births]]
[[Category:1951 deaths]]
[[Category:Gohils]]
[[Category:People from Old Windsor]]
[[Category:People from Narmada district]]
[[Category:Gujarati people]]
[[Category:Rajasthani people]]
[[Category:Knights Commander of the Order of the Star of India]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire]]
[[Category:Monarchs of Gujarat]]
[[Category:Indian racehorse owners and breeders]]
[[Category:British racehorse owners and breeders]]
[[Category:Indian polo players]]

Willibald Kirfel

2026-02-22T00:54:54Z

JOVFinlay2: expanded citations after review and corrected details

{{Short description|German Indologist}}
'''Willibald Kirfel''' (29 January 1885 – 16 October 1964) was a German [[Indology|Indologist]]. He is known for his scholarly work on Indian [[cosmography]], medicine and religion.<ref>{{cite web|title=Kirfel, Willibald Biography|url=https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/sfz41140.html|accessdate=8 August 2016}}</ref>

== Biography ==

Kirfel studied Indology in [[Bonn]] from 1904 – 1908 and worked as a librarian at the university library, before becoming a full professor, acceding to the chair of his teacher [[Hermann Jacobi]].

Even at an early stage he dedicated himself to his most important field of research, i.e. the cosmography of the [[Brahmins]], [[Jainas]] and [[Buddhists]]. In 1920 he published his postdoctoral thesis titled ''The Cosmography of the Indians'', which was published as a reprint in 1967.

Kirfel also studied intensively the [[Puranas]], especially focussing on those passages which appear in numerous texts in different variants. The result of his research was published in his title ''Das Purânapancalakshana. Versuch einer Textgeschichte'' (''The Puranapancalakshana. Attempt at a textual history.''). He wrote many more articles on Puranic subjects as well as books on the symbolism of [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]]. Together with H. Hilgenburg, he also translated the ''Ashtângahridayasamhitâ'', an important treatise on medicine.

== Literature ==
* Valentina Stache-Rosen: ''German Indologists. Biographies of scholars in Indian studies written in German.'' Max Mueller Bhavan, New Delhi 1981.

==Works==
* ''Die Kosmographie der Inder, nach den Quellen dargestellt'' (1920)<ref>{{cite book|title=Die Kosmographie Der Inder, Nach Den Quellen Dargestellt|url=http://www.goodreads.com/book/show/15614102-die-kosmographie-der-inder-nach-den-quellen-dargestellt|accessdate=8 August 2016}}</ref>
* ''Die Religion der Jaina's'' (1928)
* '' Bhâratavarsa (Indien)'' (1931)
* ''Der Hinduismus'' (1934)
* ''Kultur der orientalischen Völker'' (1936) with Erich Schmitt, Oskar Kressler and others
* ''Ashtanga Hridaya Samhita'' (1941), translator with Luise Hilgenberg
* ''Die dreikopfige Gottheit. Archaeologisch-ethnologischer Streifzug durch die Ikonographie der Religionen'' (1948)
* ''Der Rosenkranz'' (1949)
* ''Symbolik des Buddhismus'' (1959)
* ''Symbolik des Hinduismus und des Jinismus'' (1959)
* ''Zur Eschatologie von Welt und Leben. Ein puranischer Text nebst Übertragung in textgeschichtlicher Darstellung'' (1959)

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
* [http://www.indologie.uni-bonn.de/english/start.htm The Bonn School of German Indology]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kirfel, Willibald}}
[[Category:1885 births]]
[[Category:1964 deaths]]
[[Category:German Indologists]]
[[Category:German male non-fiction writers]]
[[Category:20th-century German male writers]]

Mohammad Abu Bakr Siddique

2026-02-15T04:40:30Z

JOVFinlay2: started

{{Short description|Bengali Islamic scholar and Pir from Furfura Sharif}}
{{distinguish|Md. Abu Bakr Siddique}}
{{Infobox religious biography
| honorific_prefix = Mujaddid-e-Zamān Amīr-e-Sharīʿat
| name = Mohammad Abu Bakr Siddique
| honorific_suffix = Pīr Ṣāḥeb Furfura
| image = Furfura Mazar.jpg
| alt = Shrine of Abu Bakr Siddique
| caption = Shrine of Abu Bakr Siddique
| order = [[Furfura Sharif]]
| office =
| term_start =
| term_end =
| predecessor =
| successor = Abdul Hai Siddique
| religion = [[Islam]]
| denomination = [[Sunni]]
| jurisprudence = [[Hanafi]]
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1845|04|15|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Furfura Sharif|Furfura]], [[Hooghly district]], [[Bengal Presidency]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|1939|03|17|1845|04|15}}
| death_place =
| resting_place = [[Furfura Sharif]]
| spouse =
| children = 5 sons
| father = Abdul Muqtadir Siddique
| mother = Muhabbatun Nisa Begum
| parents =
| teacher = Jamaluddin, Bilayet, Amin Ridwan
| students = [[Ahmed Ali Enayetpuri]]<ref>{{cite Banglapedia|article=Enayetpuri, Ahmed Ali|author=Afaz Uddin, Muhammad}}</ref>
| disciple_of = [[Fateh Ali Waisi]]
| disciples =[[Abdul Khaleque (scholar)|Abdul Khaleque]] [[Muhammad Shahidullah]] [[Nesaruddin Ahmad]]
| works = Ilm Ma'refat and Service of Shari'ah
| influences = [[Karamat Ali Jaunpuri]]
| profession =
| relatives = [[Abbas Siddiqui]] (great-grandson) [[Nawsad Siddique]] great-grandson)
| alma_mater = [[Hooghly Madrasah]]
}}
'''Moḥammad Abū Bakr Ṣiddīque al-Qurayshī''' (15 April 1845 – 17 March 1939) was a [[Bengalis|Bengali]] [[Islamic scholar]] and the inaugural [[Pir (Sufism)|Pir]] of [[Furfura Sharif]] in [[West Bengal]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://muslimmirror.com/eng/international-seminar-on-pir-abu-bakar-siddique-and-the-socio-religious-reform-movements-in-south-asia/|title=International Seminar on Pir Abu Bakar Siddique and the Socio-Religious Reform Movements in South Asia|date=14 January 2017|access-date=3 August 2022|website=Muslimmirror.com|archive-date=5 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220805235337/https://muslimmirror.com/eng/international-seminar-on-pir-abu-bakar-siddique-and-the-socio-religious-reform-movements-in-south-asia/|url-status=live}}</ref> He is regarded by his followers, who are scattered across eastern [[India]] and [[Bangladesh]],<ref name=":2">{{cite book|title=বাংলার মুসলমানদের ইতিহাস|trans-title=History of Muslims of Bengal|author=MA Rahim|year=1994|publisher=Ahmad Publishing House|location=Dhaka|page=74|isbn=|language=bn}}</ref>{{Sfn|Amlendu Dey|1991|p=46}} as a ''[[mujaddid]]'' (reviver) of Islam in the region, due to his significant contributions in religious propagation via the establishment of [[mosques]] and [[madrasas]], publication of newspapers and education development in neglected areas.<ref>{{cite news|newspaper=[[Janakantha]]|title=প্রসঙ্গ ইসলাম ॥ ফুরফুরা শরীফের যুব সংস্কারক|trans-title=The topic is Islam ॥ Furfura Sharif's youth reformer|language=bn|url=http://web.dailyjanakantha.com/details/article/409720/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%99%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%97-%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE-%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE-%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AC-%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%95/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203043007/http://web.dailyjanakantha.com/details/article/409720/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%99%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%97-%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE-%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE-%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AC-%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%95/|archive-date=3 December 2019|access-date=7 December 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> He was the founding president of the sociopolitical [[Anjuman-i-Wazin-i-Bangla]] organisation,<ref>{{cite news|newspaper=[[The Daily Ittefaq|Ittefaq]]|title=যুগসংস্কারক মওলানা আবু বকর সিদ্দিকী (রহ)|trans-title=Reverend Maulana Abu Bakr Siddiquie (RA)|language=bn|url=https://www.ittefaq.com.bd/print-edition/features/dhormochinta-/36847/%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%95--%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%93%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE-%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%81-%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B0--%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%80-(%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%B9)/print|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203043038/https://www.ittefaq.com.bd/print-edition/features/dhormochinta-/36847/%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%95--%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%93%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE-%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%81-%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B0--%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%80-(%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%B9)/print|archive-date=3 December 2019|access-date=7 December 2019}}</ref> which advocated for causes such as the [[Khilafat Movement]] and [[Pakistan Movement]].<ref name=inqilab>{{cite news|newspaper=[[Daily Inqilab|Inqilab]]|title=জাতীয় জাগরণে পীর আবু বকর সিদ্দিকী (রহ.)-এর অবদান|trans-title=Contribution of Pir Abu Bakr Siddique (R.H.) to National Awakening|url=https://m.dailyinqilab.com/article/21766/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC-%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%87-%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%81-%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%80-(%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%B9)-%E0%A6%8F%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8|access-date=7 December 2019|language=bn|archive-date=3 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203042328/https://m.dailyinqilab.com/article/21766/%25E0%25A6%259C%25E0%25A6%25BE%25E0%25A6%25A4%25E0%25A7%2580%25E0%25A6%25AF%25E0%25A6%25BC-%25E0%25A6%259C%25E0%25A6%25BE%25E0%25A6%2597%25E0%25A6%25B0%25E0%25A6%25A3%25E0%25A7%2587-%25E0%25A6%25AA%25E0%25A7%2580%25E0%25A6%25B0-%25E0%25A6%2586%25E0%25A6%25AC%25E0%25A7%2581-%25E0%25A6%25AC%25E0%25A6%2595%25E0%25A6%25B0-%25E0%25A6%25B8%25E0%25A6%25BF%25E0%25A6%25A6%25E0%25A7%258D%25E0%25A6%25A6%25E0%25A6%25BF%25E0%25A6%2595%25E0%25A7%2580-(%25E0%25A6%25B0%25E0%25A6%25B9)-%25E0%25A6%258F%25E0%25A6%25B0-%25E0%25A6%2585%25E0%25A6%25AC%25E0%25A6%25A6%25E0%25A6%25BE%25E0%25A6%25A8|url-status=live}}</ref>{{Sfn|Amin|2014|p=04}} Siddique died in 1943, and his shrine is greatly venerated as one of West Bengal's most prominent [[Sufi]] centres.<ref>{{cite book|title=হুগলি জেলার ইতিহাস ও বঙ্গসমাজ|trans-title=History and Bengali society of Hooghly district|language=bn|author=Shri Sudhir Kumar Mitra|year=1991|publisher=Mondal Book House|location=Kolkata|page=1301}}</ref>{{Sfn|Syed Md. Bahauddin|2017|p=02}}

== Early life and family ==
Mohammad Abu Bakr Siddique was born on 15 April 1845, to a [[Bengali Muslim]] family in the village of Furfura, located in [[Hooghly district]].<ref>{{cite book|title=বাংলার ইতিহাসে ফুরফুরা শরীফ|trans-title=Furfura Sharif in the history of Bengal|language=bn|author=Syed Bahauddin|year=2002|publisher=Hazrat Pir Abu Bakr Islamic Research Centre|location=Hooghly|pages=77, 80}}</ref> His father, Haji Abdul Muqtadir Siddiqui, was a ''[[mawlana]]''. The family was believed to have been descendants of [[Abu Bakr]], the first [[Caliph]] of Islam and a member of the [[Banu Taym]] clan, part of the [[Arab tribe]] of [[Quraysh]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://furfura.com/%e0%a6%86%e0%a6%b2-%e0%a6%9c%e0%a6%be%e0%a6%ae%e0%a7%87%e0%a7%9f%e0%a6%be%e0%a6%a4%e0%a7%81%e0%a6%b8-%e0%a6%b8%e0%a6%bf%e0%a6%a6%e0%a7%8d%e0%a6%a6%e0%a6%bf%e0%a6%95%e0%a7%80%e0%a7%9f%e0%a6%be/|title=আল-জামেয়াতুস সিদ্দিকীয়া দারুল উলুম মাদরাসা|trans-title=Al-Jamayats Siddiquiya Darul Uloom Madrasa|language=bn|website=Furfura.com|access-date=7 December 2019|archive-date=21 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121150406/https://furfura.com/%e0%a6%86%e0%a6%b2-%e0%a6%9c%e0%a6%be%e0%a6%ae%e0%a7%87%e0%a7%9f%e0%a6%be%e0%a6%a4%e0%a7%81%e0%a6%b8-%e0%a6%b8%e0%a6%bf%e0%a6%a6%e0%a7%8d%e0%a6%a6%e0%a6%bf%e0%a6%95%e0%a7%80%e0%a7%9f%e0%a6%be/|url-status=live}}</ref> Their ancestor, Mansur Baghdadi, left [[Baghdad]] in the [[Abbasid Caliphate]] in 741 [[Islamic calendar|AH]] (1340 CE) and settled in a village now known as Mollapara in [[Hooghly district]], in the erstwhile [[Sultanate of Bengal]]. Mansur's descendant, Haji Mustafa Madani, pledged [[bay'ah]] along with Emperor [[Aurangzeb]] to Masum Sirhindi, the third son of [[Ahmad Sirhindi]]. Some letters of correspondence between Madani and Sirhindi are preserved in the ''Maktubat-e-Masumia'' in [[Rauza Sharif]], [[Sirhind]], and were published by Abdul Halim Arambagi in his biography of Mohammad Abu Bakr Siddique. In 1667, Mughal Emperor [[Aurangzeb]] gifted Madani tax-free land and an estate which included a mosque, and the area was named after him as [[Midnapore|Madanipur]] (Midnapore).<ref name=shahid>{{cite book|title=ইসলাম প্রসঙ্গ|author=[[Muhammad Shahidullah|Shahidullah, Muhammad]]|location=[[Dacca]]|publisher=Mawla Brothers|date=February 1963|edition=1|chapter=হজরত মৌলানা শাহ সুফী মুহম্মদ আবূ বকর সিদীকী (রঃ)|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.457435/page/n103/mode/2up|language=bn}}</ref>

Siddique's father died when he was nine months old, and so he was raised by his mother, Mohabbat-un-Nesa Begum.<ref name=shahid />

== Education ==
His childhood education started at home around 1850. After learning basic Islamic knowledge, he enrolled in a local primary school and intended to begin teaching non-Islamic subjects including English. One night as a child, he dreamed that the Prophet of Islam, [[Muhammad]], was advising him to abandon this teaching.{{Sfn|Amin|2014|p=14-15}} He then left this education and joined Sitapur Madrassah, an ancient educational institution (established in 1772) near Furfura. After completing his primary education here, he took first place in the then highest Jamaat-e-Ula class from [[Hooghly Madrasah|Mohsinia Madrasa]] in Hooghly city.<ref name=song>{{cite book|title=বাংলাদেশের পীর আউলিয়া গান|trans-title=Pir Auliya songs of Bangladesh|language=bn|year=2008|publisher=Medina Publication|location=Dhaka|page=59}}</ref>{{Sfn|Amin|2014|p=15}}

[[File:Nakhoda Mosque Night.JPG|thumb|left|The [[Nakhoda Mosque]] of Kolkata, where Siddique studied.]]
Then went to Calcutta city and enrolled in Jamaluddin Education Center in the then Sinduria Patti Masjid (now Kalutla, Kolkata). There, Hafez studied Hadith, Tafsir and Fiqh under Jamaluddin Mungeri. Hafez Jamal Uddin was the caliph of [[Syed Ahmad Barelvi]].{{Sfn|Amin|2014|p=14-16}}<ref>{{cite book|title=ফুরফুরার পীর হযরত মাওলানা আবু বকর সিদ্দিকী|trans-title=Furfura Pir Hazrat Maulana Abu Bakr Siddique|language=bn|last=Abu Fatema|first=Muhammad Ishaq|year=1980|publisher=Ifa Publications|location=Dhaka|page=9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Muslim Digest|first=Muhammad|last=Makki|year=1972|publisher=International monthly of Muslim affairs|location=South Africa|page=72}}</ref> He then studied [[Hikmah]] and [[philosophy]] under Nazar Shah Belayati from [[Firangi Mahal]].<ref>{{cite book|title=ফুরফুরা বিজয়ী ও মোজাদ্দেদে জামান|trans-title=Furfura Winner and Mojadde Zaman|language=bn|author=Maulana Kutub Uddin|year=1995|publisher=Sufi Press|location=Kolkata|page=24}}</ref><ref name=song /> He stayed at the [[Nakhoda Mosque]] while studying with Belayati.{{Sfn|Syed Md. Bahauddin|2017|p=07}}

After completing his formal education, he researched various aspects of Islam for 18 years.{{Sfn|Syed Md. Bahauddin|2017|p=08}}<ref>{{cite book|title=আল-মাওজুআত, একটি বিশ্লেষণাত্মক পর্যালোচনা|author=Dr. Khandaker Abdullah Jahangir|trans-title=Al-Mawju'at, An Analytical Review|language=bn|editor=Abu Jafar Siddique|year=2009|publisher=Usama Khandaker, As-Sunnah Publications|location=Jhenidah|page=29}}</ref> During this time he established his own library, where there were many rare books.{{Sfn|Syed Md. Bahauddin|2017|p=08,09}} The library is currently attached to the [[Furfura Fatehia Senior Madrasah|Furfura title madrasa]] he founded.<ref>{{cite book|title=ফুরফুরার পীর হযরত মাওলানা আবু বকর সিদ্দিকী|trans-title=Furfura Pir Hazrat Maulana Abu Bakr Siddique|language=bn|last=Abu Fatema|first=Muhammad Ishaq|year=1980|publisher=Ifa Publications|location=Dhaka|page=10}}</ref> In 1892 he traveled to [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]]. During his stay in Medina, he obtained the certificate of 40 Hadith books from the Muhaddith Syed Mohammad Amin Ibn Ahmad.<ref>{{cite book|title=ইসলাম প্রসঙ্গ|trans-title=Islam context|language=bn|author=[[Muhammad Shahidullah]]|year=1963|publisher=Mawla Brothers|location=Dhaka|page=107}}</ref>{{Sfn|Syed Md. Bahauddin|2017|p=08,09}}{{Sfn|Amin|2014|p=16-17}}<ref>{{cite book|title=মোসলেম পতাকা "তারীখুল ইসলাম"|trans-title=Muslim flag "Tarikhul Islam"|language=bn|author=Dr Syed Abul Hossain|year=1924|publisher=Darbar Press|location=Kolkata|volume=2|page=803}}</ref>

== Contribution to education ==
He established 1100 madrassahs and 700 mosques.<ref name=inqilab /> The Madrassahs he established in his village became one of India's leading educational institutions, and even [[Haji Shariatullah]], the founder of the [[Faraizi movement]] in East Bengal, came to this village to learn Arabic and Persian.<ref name=":2" /> He was a member of the managing committee of [[Aliah University|Calcutta Alia Madrassah]] in 1928.

== Hadith studies ==
M. Obaidul (1903–1984), principal of Feni Alia Madrassah in Bangladesh, said about him,
{{blockquote|text=
{{lang|bn|"ইলমে জাহের ব্যতীত আল্লাহ তাকে ইলমে লাদুন্নিও (আল্লাহ প্রদত্ত বিশেষ জ্ঞান) প্রদান করেছিলেন। তিনি ফলে কুরআন, হাদিস ও ফিকহের, ও ইসলামের মারেফতি শিক্ষার গভীরে জ্ঞান অর্জন করেছিলেন। বিশেষ করে তিনি হাদিস শাস্ত্রে অভূতপূর্ব জ্ঞান অর্জন করেছিলেন, যার জ্ঞান সারা উপমহাদেশে ছড়িয়ে পরেছে।}}
In addition to ilme jahr, Allah also bestowed upon him ilme ladunni (special knowledge given by God). He consequently acquired profound knowledge of the Qur'an, hadith and jurisprudence, and the teachings of Islam. In particular, he acquired an unprecedented knowledge of hadith, the knowledge of which spread throughout the subcontinent.
|multiline=yes
|author=M. Obaidul
|source=From a biography of Abu Bakr Siddique<ref>{{cite book|title=মোহাম্মদ আবু বকর (জীবন চরিত)|trans-title=Muhammad Abu Bakr (Biography)|author=Abdus Sattar|year=1939|publisher=Abdullah Printers and Publishers|location=Dhaka|page=36}}</ref>}}

During his lifetime there was no teaching of Hadith in Alia Madrassah. He introduced this system, the practice of this system started in 1902 by teaching hadith in Kolkata Ghaspatti Mosque.<ref>{{cite book|title=জীবন চরিত|trans-title=Biography|language=bn|author=[[Muhammad Shahidullah]]|year=1986|publisher=Bangla Print|location=Kolkata|page=27}}</ref> Shamsul Ulama Shah Safiullah was appointed to this mosque to teach hadith on a salary of 20 rupees.<ref>{{cite book|title=মাদ্রাসা আলিয়ার ইতিহাস|trans-title=History of Madrasa Alia|language=bn|author=Maulana Mumtaz Uddin|year=2004|publisher=[[Islamic Foundation Bangladesh]]|location=Dhaka|page=58}}</ref> He himself used to teach hadith in this mosque.<ref>{{cite book|title=হযরত মাওলানা সাফিউল্লাহ|trans-title=Hazrat Maulana Safiullah|language=bn|author=Abdul Wahab MA|year=1979|publisher=Society for Pakistan Studies|location=Dhaka|page=407}}</ref>

He acquired special erudition on hadith scriptures, his nephew Abu Jafar Siddique obtained the certificate of 20 hadith books from him. Maulana Mansoor Hussain, one of his relatives of Furfura village, received from him the recitation and attestation of the hadith book ''[[Musnad Abu Hanifa]]''. Also many scholars learned hadith from him.{{Sfn|Syed Md. Bahauddin|2017|p=11}}

== Spiritual experience ==
Abu Bakr Siddique imbibed two methods of attaining nearness to Allah namely ''[[Majzoob (Sufism)|jizba]]'' and ''[[Salik|suluk]]''. Much is said about his spiritual state during his student days at the Hooghly Madrassah, a four-way connection with his heart most nights. When this connection was associated with the [[Tariqa]], he would eagerly chant that Tariqa. Also many times his apada-masat would be covered by a light and his self-forgetfulness would occur.<ref name=":0" />

He was a [[khalifah (Sufism)|khalifah]] of [[Fateh Ali Waisi]].<ref>{{cite news|title=বিস্মৃত মাওলানা কারামত আলী এবং উপেক্ষিত মাওলানা শাহ ইয়াছীন|work=[[Daily Inqilab]]|date=6 January 2017|author=Siddiqi, K. S.|url=https://www.dailyinqilab.com/article/57065/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%A4-%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%93%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE-%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A4-%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%80-%E0%A6%8F%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%82-%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4-%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%93%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE-%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B9-%E0%A6%87%E0%A7%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9B%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A8|language=bn}}</ref>

== Influence ==
At the end of the 19th century, when the intensity of the [[Faraizi movement|Faraizi]] and [[Tariqa-e-Muhammadiyah]] movements subsided, the Muslims were also somewhat weak.<ref name=":0">{{cite book|title=উনিশ শতকে বাঙালি মুসলমানের চিন্তা-চেতনার ধারা|trans-title=Thoughts of Bengali Muslims in the 19th century|language=bn|author=Wakil Ahmad|year=1983|publisher=[[Bangla Academy]]|location=Dhaka|pages=1–50}}</ref> There were many divisions among the Muslims, Abu Bakr was worried when the Muslims adopted different religions in different places.{{Sfn|Amlendu Dey|1991|p=119}} He was determined to work for the unity of the [[Ummah]], and tried to eliminate [[Shirk (Islam)|shirk]], [[Bid'ah]], superstition etc. from the two Bengals.{{Sfn|Syed Md. Bahauddin|2017|p=23}} Among the scholars who helped him in this work were Shamsul Ulama Ghulam Salmani (1854–1912), Allama Lutfur Rahman Burdwani (d. 1920), Allama Ishaq Burdwani (d. 1928), Belayat Hussain Birbhumi (1887), [[Abdul Wahid Bengali|Abdul Wahid Chatgami]] (d. 1910), Muhammad Mangalkoti Burdwani (d. 1907) is notable.<ref>{{cite book|title=হাদিসের তত্ব ও ইতিহাস|trans-title=Theory and History of Hadith|language=bn|author=Maulana Noor Mohammad Azami|year=1997|publisher=Bengal Islamic Academy|location=[[Delhi]]|pages=1–50}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=মুসলিম মনীষী (সংকলন)|trans-title=Muslim Sages (Collection)|language=bn|year=2001|publisher=[[Bangladesh Islamic Foundation]]|location=Dhaka|pages=315–341}}</ref>{{Sfn|Syed Md. Bahauddin|2017|p=24}} Abdul Awwal Jaunpuri and [[Karamat Ali Jaunpuri]] also helped in spreading various [[ahadith]]. Both of them were influential writers.{{Sfn|Syed Md. Bahauddin|2017|p=28}}<ref>{{cite book|title=মাওলানা আব্দুল আওয়াল জৌনপুরী|trans-title=Karamat Ali Jaunpuri|language=bn|author=Muhammad Abdullah|year=1995|publisher=[[Bangladesh Islamic Foundation]]|location=Dhaka|pages=7, 26}}</ref>

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{reflist|2}}

=== Bibliography ===
* {{cite book|title=বিস্তারিত জীবনী|trans-title=Detailed biography|language=bn|last=Amin|first=Maulana Ruhul|year=2014|publisher=Navnoor Computer & Press|location=Bashirhat}}
* {{cite book|title=বাঙালি বুদ্ধিজীবী ও বিচ্ছিন্নতাবাদ|trans-title=Bengali intellectuals and separatism|language=bn|author=Amlendu Dey|year=1991|publisher=West Bengal State Book Board|location=Kolkata}}
* {{cite book|title=যুগ প্রবর্তক শাহ আবু বকর সিদ্দিকী|trans-title=Shah Abu Bakr Siddique was the initiator of the era|language=bn|author=Syed Md. Bahauddin|year=2017|publisher=Syed Mohammad Hamzah|location=Hooghly}}

{{Hanafi scholars}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Siddique, Abu Bakr}}
[[Category:Islam in West Bengal]]
[[Category:1845 births]]
[[Category:1939 deaths]]
[[Category:19th-century Bengali people]]
[[Category:Bengali educators]]
[[Category:18th-century Indian educators]]
[[Category:Indian social workers]]
[[Category:18th-century Indian scholars]]
[[Category:People from Hooghly district]]
[[Category:People from British India]]
[[Category:19th-century Indian Muslims]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian Muslims]]
[[Category:Bengali Sufi saints]]
[[Category:20th-century Bengali people]]
[[Category:Bengali Muslim scholars of Islam]]
[[Category:Scholars from West Bengal]]
[[Category:Indian scholars of Islam]]

Kaushik Menon

2026-02-07T23:29:53Z

JOVFinlay2: created article

{{Short description|Indian singer}}
{{Multiple issues|{{COI|date=April 2015}}
{{notability|Music|date=April 2015}}}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2015}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Kaushik Menon
| image = Singer Kaushik Menon.jpg
| birth_name = Karthik
| birth_place = [[Palakkad]]
| citizenship = [[India]]
| known_for = [[Playback Singer]]
| mother = Sree Parvathi
| father = Govindan Kutty
| awards = 2009 Best Upcoming Playback Singer, [[Mirchi Music Awards]]
}}

'''Kaushik Menon''' (also known as ''Kaushik'') is a vocalist and an Indian [[playback singer]] working in the south Indian film industry for decades.. He started his professional playback singing career in the year in 2003, and since has been working as playback singer for many films in multiple languages - including Hindi, Malayalam, Tamil, Kannada, and Telugu. He has so far undertaken about 300 musical projects, in which he has sung over 200 film songs . He is known for his song, "Natkal Nagardu varudangal " – the song of friendship,<ref name="NatkalNagarndhu">{{cite news| url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movies/news/Koushik-values-friendship/articleshow/6626649.cms | title=Koushik values friendship | work=[[The Times of India]] | date=Sep 26, 2010}}</ref> an award winning solo song, from the movie ''[[Ninaithale Inikkum (2009 film)|Ninaithale Inikkum]]'' that gave him a major breakthrough as a playback singer.<ref name="NinaithaleInikkum">{{cite news| url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/Kaushik-gets-busy-this-year/articleshow/17909768.cms | title=Kaushik gets busy this year | work=[[The Times of India]] | date=Jan 6, 2013}}</ref> His other famous songs includes: Kanni Vyil along with Shreya Ghoshal, from "Vari kuzhiele kolapathakam" in Malayalam film, Mellena sirippalo solo song from "Theneer viduthi" in Tamil, Choodu Choodu solo song, from the movie "Raja Yogam, in Telugu, Chitranga from the movie " Teluggabhai" along with veteran singer inTelegu along with Min Mini, Ravi varmana from the Kannada film "Budhivandha" along with veteran singer Hariharan etc.

He also owns a leading recording studio by the name of "Tapas Studio" In Chennai, as patronised by leading personalities and singers like S P Balasubramaniam, M Jayachandran, Anu Radha Sriram, Director Prabhu Solman S. Janaki, K S Chitra etc. He has been awarded "Golden Visa (cultural) " by the UAE Government, acknowledging his acoustic special talents. He has performed in many stage shows in the UAE along with being the RJ of a reputed FM in UAE, shuttling between UAE and India busy with his musical career. His other activities include being a judge in many Indian Television reality shows like Top star singer, Sari g ama Pa in Tamil, Sun Singer TV shows in Tamil and performed in many TV shows and musical events. He appeared in many Television shows and interviews in Vijay TV, Sun TV, Pudiya Thalaimurai TV, Vasanth TV. Mega TV, Tamizan TV, Sun Music, Zee Tamil, Kairali TV, Media 1, etc. His passion includes identifying young talents and coaching them to become a stage singer and has a record of making many young stage singers of today. In UAE he has been practicing "Al yowla" Arabic songs to intertwine with Indian Music in the form of fusion music, which has attracted the attention of many Arabic followers, He has verified social media followers, through which, his songs has become viral. He is also a "Branding and Creative Head" for many commercial firms from India, UAE & Canada, on contract, for the promotion of their products along with being the designer for many of their stage events.

== Playback singing career ==

===Early career===
Kaushik Menon has the record of being a young talent artist and started his singing in school youth festivals & stage shows and later at his age of 18 he was personally identified as a young talent and encouraged by the veteran singer [[S. Janaki]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.manoramaonline.com/music/indepth/world-music-day-2018/2018/06/21/koushik-menon-interview-music-day-special.html|title=ജാനകിയമ്മ പറഞ്ഞു 'ഇതെന്റെ കുട്ടി': ആർക്കുമറിയാത്തൊരു ഗാനഗാഥ|website=ManoramaOnline|access-date=2019-01-18}}</ref> to go to Chennai from his home town in Pallakad and she supported him throughout his younger days, giving him loads of opportunities to sing along with her in fifty plus, stage shows.<ref name="TheHindu06012013">{{cite news| url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/note-the-point/article5866720.ece | title=Singer Kaushik Menon's got a hit on his hands with a song in Law Point | work=[[The Hindu]] | location=Thiruvananthapuram, India | date=April 3, 2014}}</ref> Later, he got an opportunity to sing in front of music director [[Ilaiyaraaja|Ilayaraja]] in the year 2003 and started his playback singing career. He was then recognised through his ''[[Ninaithale Inikkum (2009 film)|Ninaithale Inikkum]]'' movie song composed by [[Vijay Antony]] and he got the best upcoming playback singer award from [[Mirchi Music Awards|Mirchi music awards]].<ref name="NinaithaleInikkum"/>

In 2009, Kaushik won "Best Upcoming Male Singer award" in ''[[Mirchi Music Awards South|Mirchi Music Award South]]'' for his song "Natkal Nagarndhu", from the movie ''[[Ninaithale Inikkum (2009 film)|Ninaithale Inikkum]]''.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} In 2013, Kaushik attempted singing the male cover version of "Nenjukulle" from [[A. R. Rahman|A.R. Rahman]]’s movie ''[[Kadal (2013 film)|Kadal]]'', (originally sung by [[Shakthisree Gopalan]]).<ref name="NenjukkuleMaleCoverSong">{{cite news| url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KRDMdQfZ5yU | title=Nenjukulle Kadal Song male version | work=[[YouTube]] | date=Dec 18, 2012}}</ref><ref name="TimesofIndia06062104">{{cite news| url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/music/I-love-experimenting-with-music-Kaushik-Menon/articleshow/36143163.cms | title=I love experimenting with music: Kaushik Menon | work=[[The Times of India]] | date=June 6, 2014}}</ref>

In 2013, he made entry into the [[Malayalam cinema|Mollywood]] with a duet melody number ''Nin Mounavum'' from the movie ''[[Entry (film)|Entry]]''.<ref name="NinaithaleInikkum"/> His melody number, "Oru Mozhi Mindathe" from the Malayalam film ''[[Law Point]]'' gave him a major breakthrough in [[Malayalam cinema|Mollywood]], since then, he has worked with many music directors including [[A. R. Rahman|A.R. Rahman]], [[Harris Jayaraj]], [[Vijay Antony]], [[Joshua Sridhar]], and [[Mejo Joseph]].<ref name="TheHindu06012013"/>

== Filmography as a playback singer ==

=== Tamil songs ===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! Film !! Song !! Music director !! Co-singer(s)
|-
| 2008 || Aasai Paravai || Kannil Kalantha || R.K. Sundar || Solo
|-
| 2009 || [[Ninaithale Inikkum (2009 film)|Ninaithale Inikkum]] || Naatkal Nagarndhu || [[Vijay Antony]] || Solo
|-
| 2010 || Pesuvathu Kiliya || Boologam Ellaamae || [[A. R. Reihana]] || A.R. Reihana, Yemil
|-
| 2010 || Nellu || Kodiyodu Thamara Poo || [[S. S. Kumaran|S.S. Kumaran]] || [[Chinmayi Sripada|Chinmayee]]
|-
| 2011 || ''[[Theneer Viduthi]]'' || Mellanna Sripalo || [[S. S. Kumaran|S.S. Kumaran]] || Mirudula
|-
| 2012 || Oru Mazhai Naangu Saaral || Nanba Sernthu Vaada || A. D. Mohan || Solo
|-
| 2012 || Gokulam || Malli Malli Vaasam || Anuropan || Solo
|-
| 2012 || Thambi Oorukku Pudusu || Anru Unnai || Gurukiran || Kalyani
|-
| 2013 || Anandha Thollai || Sey Seyyaro (Remix) || Ali Mirsa || Padmalatha
|-
| 2013 || [[Chennaiyil Oru Naal]] || Kanavey (Male) || [[Mejo Joseph]] || Solo
|-
|2014
|Raavanan
|Kalvare (Backing Vocals)
|A.R.Rahman
|
|-
|2015
|Enthiran
|Arima Arima (Backing Vocals)
|A.R.Rahman
|
|-
| 2020 || Adi adi penne ||Omar lulu || Solo
|
|}

=== Malayalam songs ===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! Film !! Song !! Music director !! Co-singer(s)
|-
| 2012 || [[Entry (film)|Entry]] || Nin Mounavum || rowspan="2" | [[Mejo Joseph]] || Minmini
|-
| 2014 || [[Law Point|Law point]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/note-the-point/article5866720.ece|title=Note the point|last=Sathyendran|first=Nita|date=2014-04-03|work=The Hindu|access-date=2019-01-18|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref>|| Oru Mozhi Mindathe || Solo
|-
|2016
|Dhanayathra
|Mutharam
|Rajamani
|
|-
|2017
|[[C/O Saira Banu|C/O Sairabanu]]
|Aromale
| rowspan="2" |[[Mejo Joseph]]
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |2019
|Varikuzhiyile Kolapathakam
|Kanniveyil
|
|-
|Anugraheethan Antony<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/bow-bow-song-from-anugraheethan-antony-is-cute-in-many-ways/articleshow/73188149.cms|title=Bow Bow song from Anugraheethan Antony is cute in many ways - Times of India|website=The Times of India|date=10 January 2020 |language=en|access-date=2020-02-15}}</ref>
|Bow Bow
|[[Arun Muraleedharan]]
|Anannya Nair
|}

=== Telugu songs ===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! Film !! Song !! Music director !! Co-singer(s)
|-
| 2008 || Prema || Rendojamu || [[Joshua Sridhar]] || Rita
|-
| 2008 || Prema || Oh Priya || [[Joshua Sridhar]] || Sriya
|-
| 2008 || Swamy IPS || Ayyayyo Ayyayyo || [[Harris Jayaraj]] || Shravya
|-
| 2011 || Prema Sagaram || Premalo Regene || Kalai, Shabesh Murali || Solo
|-
| 2012 || Chelagatam || Boys Google || Sundar C. Babu || Hema
|-
| 2013 || Telugabbai || Chitranga Unde || [[Mejo Joseph]] || Minmini
|-
| 2013 || Telugabbai || Chitranga Unde Manasu || [[Mejo Joseph]] || Minmini
|-
| 2013 || Telugabbai || Na Camera || [[Mejo Joseph]] || Geetha Madhuri, Pavani
|}

=== Kannada Songs ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Year
!Film
!Song
!Music director
|-
|2008
|Budhivandha
|Ravivarmana
|Vijay Antony
|}

=== Television Title Songs ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Year
!Programme
!Language
!Music director
!TV Channel
|-
|rowspan="2" |2013
|[[Vani Rani (TV series)|Vani rani]]
|Tamil
|Satya
|[[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]]
|-
|[[Onnum Onnum Moonu]]
|Malayalam
|[[Arun Muraleedharan]]
|[[Mazhavil Manorama]]
|}

== Awards ==
'''[[Mirchi Music Awards South]]'''<ref name="Mirchi Music Award 2009">{{cite news| url=http://www.radiomirchi.com/mma2009/tamil/winners.html | title=Mirchi Music Awards South 2009 | work=[[Radio Mirchi]] | date=July 17, 2010}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! Category !! Song !! Film
|-
| 2009 || Best Upcoming Male Singer || Natkal Nagarndhu || [[Ninaithale Inikkum (2009 film)|Ninaithale Inikkum]]
|}

== See also ==
{{Reflist}}

== Others ==

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hCnzzK6To8g വിജയ് യേശുദാസിനോട് കൗശിക് മേനോന്‌ പറയാനുള്ളത്] | Kaushik Menon - Karma News, October 23, 2020.
* [https://thekarmanews.com/singer-kaushik-menon-fb-post/ 10 അവസരം ഒരാൾക്ക് കൊടുക്കുമ്പോൾ, കഷ്ടപ്പെടുന്ന കഴിവുള്ള ഒരു കലാകാരന് ഒരു അവസരം കൊടുത്തൂടെ] - Karma News, June 20, 2020
* [https://thekarmanews.com/kaushik-menon-facebook-post/ തെരുവു മൃഗങ്ങളെ വളർത്താൻ ലൈസൻസ് എടുക്കണമെന്ന നിയമം ഉപകാരപ്രദമാണോ എന്ന് ചിന്തിക്കേണ്ടതുണ്ട്, കൗശിക് മേനോൻ] - Karma News, July 19, 2021
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WLqCXjbvFug കെ എസ് ചിത്രയെ അപമാനിച്ചു, കണ്ണീരോടെ കൗശിക് മേനോൻ] - Karma News, Jan 22 2022

== External links ==
* [https://mio.to/artist/Kaushik+Menon Few of Kaushik Menon's songs on Music India Online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513163236/https://mio.to/artist/Kaushik+Menon |date=13 May 2021 }}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Menon, Kaushik}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian male playback singers]]
[[Category:Singers from Kerala]]
[[Category:Tamil-language playback singers]]
[[Category:Telugu-language playback singers]]
[[Category:Musicians from Palakkad]]
[[Category:Malayalam-language playback singers]]
[[Category:Film musicians from Kerala]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male singers]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

Kartar Singh Jhabbar

2026-02-07T23:27:21Z

JOVFinlay2: quick refined information and fixed typos as per guidelines

{{Short description|Sikh preacher (1874–1962)}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Kartar Singh
| honorific_suffix = Jhabbar
| image = Photograph of Kartar Singh Jhabbar.jpg
| caption =
| other_names = Kartar Singh Virk<ref name="SP_FL_2006"/>
| birth_date = 1874
| birth_place = Jhabbar village, [[Sheikhupura District]], [[Punjab (British India)]]
| death_date = 20 November {{death year and age|1962|1874}}
| death_place = Habri, [[Karnal district|Karnal]], [[Punjab (India)]]
| death_cause =
| known_for = key figure in the [[Akali movement]]
| alma_mater = Khalsa Updeshak Mahavidyalaya
| employer =
| occupation = Religious preacher
| years_active =
| term =
| predecessor =
| successor =
| boards =
| spouse =
| partner =
| children =
| parents = Teja Singh
| relations =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Kartar Singh Jhabbar''' (September 1874 – 20 November 1962) was a [[Sikh]] leader known for his role in the [[Gurdwara Reform Movement]] of the 1920s.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Agrawal |first=M. G. |title=Freedom Fighters of India (in Four Volumes) |publisher=Gyan Publishing House |year=2008 |pages=124–133 |chapter=19: Kartar Singh Jhabbar}}</ref> He is remembered for his campaign that successfully led to the establishment of the [[Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee]] in 1920.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news |last=Pandher |first=Sarabjit |date=12 January 2007 |title=Legendary Leaders |url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/other/advertorial/article30189841.ece |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805024331/https://frontline.thehindu.com/other/advertorial/article30189841.ece |archive-date=5 August 2020 |access-date=3 February 2025 |work=The Hindu}}</ref> ''Jhabbar'' was a toponym used as his alias.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" />

== Family background and early life ==
[[File:Photograph of Bhai Mool Singh Gurmula, a Sikh preacher.jpg|thumb|Photograph of Bhai Mool Singh Gurmula, a Sikh preacher that Kartar Singh came under the influence of in 1904]]
Kartar Singh was born in September 1874 to Teja Singh in a [[Virk]] family of Jhabbar village of [[Sheikhupura District]] in [[Punjab (British India)]].<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VpjXAAAAMAAJ |title=Kartar Singh Jhabbar |journal=Journal of Sikh Studies |volume=27 |issue=1 |publisher=Guru Nanak Dev University |year=2003 |page=104 }}</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /> He comes from the lineage of the Jhabbar chiefs of Sheikhupura.<ref name=":1" /> [[Maha Singh|Sardar Mahan Singh]] had attacked the Jhabbar chiefs but lost two battles to them.<ref name=":0" /> Later, Maharaja Ranjit Singh formed an alliance with the Jhabbar chiefs and Kartar Singh's grandfather Mangal Singh was in the service of Maharaja Ranjit Singh.<ref name="SS_Shashi1996">{{cite book|editor=S. S. Shashi | title=Encyclopaedia Indica: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh | year=1996 | publisher=Anmol Publications | isbn=978-81-7041-859-7 | page=241}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> Kartar Singh was born into a typical Punjabi peasant family but grew to a tall height, over six-feet, and had a masculine-appearance.<ref name=":0" />

In 1904, Kartar Singh underwent the ''[[Amrit Sanskar|Pahul]]'' baptismal ceremony due to the influence of a roaming Sikh preacher named Bhai Mool Singh Gurmula, who administered the ''[[Amrita|amrit]]'' to him.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |title=Abstracts of Sikh Studies, Volume 5 |publisher=Institute of Sikh Studies |year=2003 |location=Chandigarh |pages=81}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> Jhabbar had become impressed by the speeches given by Mool Singh Gurmula at Virn village, which motivated him to start working for propagating the Sikh religion.<ref name=":0" /> In 1906, he enrolled at the Gharjakh Vidyala seminary [Khalsa Updeshak Mahavidyalaya] in Gujranwala, a training institute for Sikh preachers, where he spent three years.<ref name=":2" /><ref name="Sher1982">{{cite book |author=Sher Singh Sher |title=Glimpses of Sikhism and Sikhs |publisher=Metropolitan |year=1982 |oclc=11550235}}</ref> He began working as a Sikh religious preacher in 1909 and became a ''sewadar'' (volunteer) of the ongoing [[Singh Sabha Movement|Singh Sabha movement]], where he defended and pushed for [[Sikhism and caste|lower-caste]] Hindus and Muslims to convert to Sikhism.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /> During an incident at Kotli Dasu Singh village, a mob of 40–50 Muslims attacked a baptismal ceremony of a Muslim who desired to convert to Sikhism, Jhabbar and his crew fended off the attackers with their staffs.<ref name=":0" /> Jhabbar travelled across the Punjab and converted persons to Khalsa Sikhism after giving lectures.<ref name=":0" /> After two months of preaching, he recruited 500 members for the Singh Sabha.<ref name=":0" /> While he was giving lectures at Gurdwara Baoli Sahib, around five to six-thousand Sikhs would gather to listen to him talk.<ref name=":0" /> Eventually, Jhabbar moved his base-of-operations to Lahore.<ref name=":0" /> In 1912, he established a Khalsa middle-school in Sacha Sauda village in the Sheikhupura district, in-which he appointed Sardar Arjun Singh as the school's first president.<ref name=":0" />

== Political career and activism ==
In 1919, he and other Sikh leaders was arrested for anti-Government protests following the [[Jallianwala Bagh massacre]].<ref name=":1" /> He was awarded a death-sentence in the [[Cellular Jail|Andaman jail]], but was later released after the announcement of the royal [[clemency]].<ref name="SS_Shashi1996" /><ref name=":1" />

In the 1920s, Kartar Singh led the [[Gurdwara Reform Movement]], which aimed at transferring the control of Sikh gurdwaras from traditional clergy ([[Udasi]] [[mahant]]s) and Government-appointed managers to the [[Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee]] (SGPC). In 1920, a [[jatha]] (volunteer group) led by him seized the control of the Babe di Ber gurdwara in [[Sialkot]].<ref name="Mohinder1988">{{cite book|author=Mohinder Singh|title=The Akali struggle: a retrospect (Volume 1) |year=1988|publisher=Atlantic | page = 20 | oclc = 59911558 }}</ref> He also played an important role in the SGPC's takeover of the [[Harmandir Sahib]] (Golden Temple), the holiest shrine of the Sikhs. He further helped the Akalis seize the control of [[Gurdwara Panja Sahib]] ([[Hasan Abdal]], November 1920), Gurdwara Sacha Sauda (Chuhar Kana, December 1920), [[Gurdwara Sri Tarn Taran Sahib]] (January 1921) and [[Gurdwara Guru ka Bagh]] (near Amritsar, January 1921).<ref name="SP_FL_2006">{{cite journal |url=http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2326/stories/20070112002712000.htm |title=Legendary Leaders |author=Sarabjit Pandher |volume=23 |issue=26 |journal=Frontline |publisher=Kasturi & Sons |year=2006 |page=392 }}</ref><ref name="MLP_1968"/>

In 1921, Kartar Singh was arrested for protesting against the [[Nankana massacre]], and again in 1924 for taking part in various [[Akali movement]] demonstrations. He was released in December 1928, because of poor health. He and his associates were involved in securing for SGPC the possession of properties attached to various gurdwaras, in accordance with the [[Sikh Gurdwaras Act, 1925]].<ref name="SP_FL_2006"/>

== Later life and death ==
After the [[partition of India]] in 1947, Kartar Singh migrated to Habri village of [[Karnal district]] (in present day [[Kaithal district]] of [[Haryana]]). He was engaged in resettlement of refugees,<ref name="SP_FL_2006"/> and died in Habri, in 1962.<ref name="MLP_1968">{{cite book|author=M. L. Peace|title=S. Kartar Singh Jhabbar, the spearhead of the Akali movement|year=1968 |publisher=Peace and Rattan Kaur | oclc = 1676116 |page=115 }}</ref>

==Film and Literature==
Kartar Singh Jhabbar was shown in a Punjabi movie [[Saka - The Martyrs of Nankana Sahib]] where [[Mukul Dev]] was shown doing his lead role and the entire movie was based on Saka Nankana Sahib and Gurdwara Reform Movement

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Singh, Fateh}}
[[Category:Indian Sikh religious leaders]]
[[Category:People from Sheikhupura District]]
[[Category:Sikh politics]]
[[Category:1874 births]]
[[Category:1962 deaths]]

Department of Health (Karnataka)

2026-01-26T02:11:44Z

JOVFinlay2: made some stub needs work.

{{Short description|Department of Health in the Indian state of Karnataka}}
{{Orphan|date=September 2025}}
{{Infobox government agency
| name = Department of Health
| native_name =
| logo =
| logo_width =
| logo_caption =
| seal =
| seal_width =
| seal_caption =
| formed = 1982
| jurisdiction = [[Government of Karnataka]]
| headquarters = [[Bengaluru]], Karnataka, India
| minister1_name = [[Dinesh Gundu Rao]]<ref name="BWHealthcareRao">{{cite web |title=K'taka health minister Dinesh Gundu Rao highlights role of technology in healthcare |url=https://www.bwhealthcareworld.com/article/k%E2%80%99taka-health-minister-dinesh-gundu-rao-highlights-role-of-technology-in-healthcare-537372 |website=BW Healthcareworld |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref>
| minister1_pfo = Minister of Health
| chief1_name =
| chief1_position =
| chief2_name =
| chief2_position =
| website = {{URL|https://karunadu.karnataka.gov.in/health/Pages/Home.aspx}}
}}

The '''Department of Health''', commonly referred to as the '''Health Department''', is a department of the [[Government of Karnataka]] with responsibility for public health, hospitals, health insurance schemes, disease control programs, and family welfare throughout the Indian state of [[Karnataka]]. Established in 1982,<ref name="AnnualReport2024">{{cite web |title=Annual Report January 2024-25 |url=https://hfwcom.karnataka.gov.in/storage/pdf-files/AnnualreportJanuaryendEng2024-25.pdf |website=Department of Health and Family Welfare, Government of Karnataka |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref> the department manages the state's healthcare infrastructure, including government hospitals, primary health centres, and coordinates the implementation of national health missions within Karnataka.<ref>{{cite web |title=Home |url=https://karunadu.karnataka.gov.in/health/Pages/Home.aspx |website=Department of Health and Family Welfare, Government of Karnataka |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref><ref name="SansadHealthMission">{{cite web |title=Lok Sabha Questions Document |url=https://sansad.in/getFile/loksabhaquestions/annex/179/AU1054.pdf?source=pqals |website=Sansad |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref>

==History==

The department has played a central role in managing Karnataka's public health system since its inception. During the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Karnataka|COVID-19 pandemic]], it took the lead in coordinating the state's response, beginning with early advisories on [[social distancing]] measures.<ref name="HinduCovidEarly">{{cite news |title=Coronavirus: Karnataka health department issues advisory on social distancing |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/coronavirus-karnataka-health-department-issues-advisory-on-social-distancing/article31117436.ece |work=The Hindu |date=16 March 2020 |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref> The department developed comprehensive protocols for managing larger outbreaks<ref name="TOICovidProtocol">{{cite news |title=Karnataka health department prepares protocol in case of larger COVID-19 outbreak |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/karnataka-health-department-prepares-protocol-in-case-of-larger-covid-19-outbreak-in-state/articleshow/74995321.cms |work=The Times of India |date=29 March 2020 |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref> and implemented emergency measures including training medical professionals on efficient oxygen utilization during critical shortages.<ref name="DHOxygen">{{cite news |title=Karnataka health department preps medicos for frugal oxygen use in hospitals |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/karnataka/bengaluru/karnataka-health-department-preps-medicos-for-frugal-oxygen-use-in-hospitals-1091018.html |work=Deccan Herald |date=26 April 2021 |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref> The department has confronted persistent structural challenges, including managing operations with approximately 30% of positions remaining unfilled.<ref name="TOIVacancies">{{cite news |title=Karnataka health department hit by 30% vacant posts |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/karnataka-health-department-hit-by-30-vacant-posts/articleshow/76273744.cms |work=The Times of India |date=13 July 2020 |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref>

==Organization==

The department operates under the leadership of a [[Cabinet of Karnataka|cabinet-level]] Minister of Health, currently [[Dinesh Gundu Rao]],<ref name="BWHealthcareRao">{{cite web |title=K'taka health minister Dinesh Gundu Rao highlights role of technology in healthcare |url=https://www.bwhealthcareworld.com/article/k%E2%80%99taka-health-minister-dinesh-gundu-rao-highlights-role-of-technology-in-healthcare-537372 |website=BW Healthcareworld |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref> who works alongside a Principal Secretary from the [[Indian Administrative Service]]. The department oversees an extensive network that includes primary health centres, community health centres, district hospitals, and medical colleges distributed throughout the state.<ref>{{cite web |title=Organization Structure |url=https://karunadu.karnataka.gov.in/health/Pages/Organization-Structure.aspx |website=Department of Health and Family Welfare, Government of Karnataka |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref>

===Administrative Reforms===

In 2022, the department expanded its administrative reach by assuming direct operational control over urban primary health centres located in Bengaluru.<ref name="IEPHCControl">{{cite news |title=Karnataka health department to control urban primary health centres in Bengaluru |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/bangalore/karnataka-health-department-control-urban-primary-health-centres-bengaluru-7905253/ |work=The Indian Express |date=25 May 2022 |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref> To address chronic shortages of specialist doctors, the department raised allowances in 2021<ref name="MintAllowance">{{cite news |title=Karnataka govt increases allowance of specialist doctors, dentists |url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/karnataka-govt-increases-allowance-of-specialist-doctors-dentists-11608631944176.html |work=Livemint |date=17 November 2021 |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref> and introduced a systematic approach to filling vacant positions through phased recruitment.<ref name="HinduFillVacancies">{{cite news |title=State govt to fill vacancies in health department in phases |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/state-govt-to-fill-vacancies-in-health-department-in-phases/article68992399.ece |work=The Hindu |date=28 March 2024 |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref>

Beginning in the mid-2020s, the department initiated comprehensive reforms targeting corruption reduction and operational efficiency in staff postings and transfers. These reforms started with implementing a mandatory centralized counselling system for all staff transfers to promote transparency.<ref name="HinduCounsellingPolicy">{{cite news |title=Health department staff transfers to be done only through counselling |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/health-department-staff-transfers-to-be-done-only-through-counselling/article68293857.ece |work=The Hindu |date=29 February 2024 |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref> This was followed by the development and publication of a formal draft transfer policy designed to institutionalize these procedures.<ref name="TNIEDraftPolicy">{{cite news |title=Karnataka government publishes draft policy for health staff transfer |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/bengaluru/2025/May/17/karnataka-government-publishes-draft-policy-for-health-staff-transfer |work=The New Indian Express |date=17 May 2025 |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref> The reform process reached its peak with a large-scale transfer of over 6,676 officers and staff members in a single coordinated action,<ref name="DHTransfer">{{cite news |title=Karnataka health department transfers 5676 officers in major step to reduce corruption |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/karnataka/bengaluru/karnataka-health-department-transfers-5676-officers-staffers-in-major-step-to-reduce-corruption-3669199 |work=Deccan Herald |date=9 November 2023 |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref> which the Health Minister later characterized as the first transparent transfer process in eight years.<ref name="TNIETransparent">{{cite news |title=Transparent transfers in department of health after eight years |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/2025/Aug/08/transparent-transfers-in-department-of-health-and-family-welfareafter-eight-years-karnataka-minister-dinesh |work=The New Indian Express |date=8 August 2025 |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref> Additional measures included establishing limits on deputation periods<ref name="TNIEDeputation">{{cite news |title=Karnataka government caps deputation period for health department officials |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/2025/Aug/24/karnataka-government-caps-deputation-period-for-health-department-officials |work=The New Indian Express |date=24 August 2025 |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref> and reorganizing senior administrative positions.<ref name="DHRejig">{{cite news |title=Health dept rejigs senior posts to curb corruption, boost transparency |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/karnataka/bengaluru/health-dept-rejigs-senior-posts-to-curb-corruption-boost-transparency-3704012 |work=Deccan Herald |date=2 May 2023 |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref>

===Human Resource Management===

Managing a substantial workforce that includes [[Accredited Social Health Activist|ASHA workers]] and contract staff has presented ongoing challenges for the department. In 2024, it made the decision to relieve 195 contract nurses from their positions as ASHA mentors,<ref name="DHASHAtermination">{{cite news |title=195 contract nurses relieved from their role as ASHA mentors |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/karnataka/bengaluru/195-contract-nurses-relieved-from-their-role-as-asha-mentors-3585423 |work=Deccan Herald |date=4 January 2024 |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref> though this action was subsequently stayed by the [[Karnataka High Court]].<ref name="LLCourtStay">{{cite news |title=Karnataka High Court stays ASHA mentors' termination |url=https://www.livelaw.in/high-court/karnataka-high-court/karnataka-high-court-stays-asha-mentors-termination-karnataka-health-department-295826 |work=Live Law |date=23 February 2024 |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref> When ASHA workers organized a strike in August 2024, the department took measures to maintain essential services by prohibiting leave for its staff.<ref name="PTILeaveBar">{{cite news |title=Karnataka health dept bars leave for staff amid ASHA workers' strike |url=https://www.ptinews.com/editor-detail/karnataka-health-dept-bars-leave-for-staff-amid-asha-workers%E2%80%99-strike-starting-aug-12/2812788 |work=PTI News |date=10 August 2024 |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref> A 2018 internal study revealed concerning health statistics among department staff themselves, documenting high rates of diabetes and hypertension within the workforce.<ref name="NIEStaffHealth">{{cite news |title=Health department staff under burden of diabetes, hypertension: study |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/2018/Apr/23/health-department-staff-under-burden-of-diabetes-hypertension-study-1805102.html |work=The New Indian Express |date=23 April 2018 |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref>

===Digital Initiatives and e-Governance===

The department has pursued digital modernization through various technological initiatives. An early project introduced an Aadhaar-enabled biometric attendance system for staff,<ref name="HinduBiometric">{{cite news |title=Aadhaar-enabled biometric attendance system for health department staff |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/aadhaar-enabled-biometric-attendance-system-for-health-department-staff/article29674861.ece |work=The Hindu |date=29 January 2019 |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref> which was later replaced by a more advanced app-based attendance system.<ref name="TNIEAttendance">{{cite news |title=Karnataka health department to switch to app-based attendance |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/bengaluru/2025/Jun/16/karnataka-health-department-to-switch-to-app-based-attendance |work=The New Indian Express |date=16 June 2025 |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref> The department has also mandated that government hospitals upload information about their medical equipment to a centralized platform to improve inventory management and oversight.<ref name="DHMedicalDevices">{{cite news |title=Govt hospitals told to upload info on medical devices |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/karnataka/govt-hospitals-told-to-upload-info-on-medical-devices-3601189 |work=Deccan Herald |date=15 January 2024 |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref>

==Regulatory functions==

The department exercises regulatory authority across various health-related sectors, often coordinating with other government bodies in its decision-making process. A notable example occurred in 2017 when it reversed a proposed ban on [[chewing tobacco]] following advice from the Advocate General.<ref name="NIETobaccoBan">{{cite news |title=No ban on chewing tobacco in Karnataka as health dept reverses order on AG's advice |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/2017/May/07/no-ban-on-chewing-tobacco-in-karnataka-as-health-dept-reverses-order-on-ags-advice-1602044.html |work=The New Indian Express |date=7 May 2017 |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref> The department has taken enforcement action against unqualified medical practitioners<ref name="DeccanHeraldFakeDoctors">{{cite news |title=Action on fake doctors: Health dept issues circular |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/karnataka/action-on-fake-doctors-health-dept-issues-circular-3698695 |work=Deccan Herald |date=18 April 2023 |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref> and pharmacies operating outside legal boundaries by selling prescription medications without proper authorization.<ref name="DHDrugs">{{cite news |title=Health dept cracks down on pharmacies selling drugs sans prescription |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/karnataka/bengaluru/health-dept-cracks-down-on-pharmacies-selling-drugs-sans-prescription-vendors-using-colour-in-food-3665108 |work=Deccan Herald |date=26 October 2023 |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref>

Regulatory oversight has expanded to include traditional medicine systems, with the department placing testing laboratories for Ayurvedic ([[Ministry of Ayush|Ayush]]) medicines under the jurisdiction of the Food and Safety Department.<ref name="HinduAyush">{{cite news |title=Karnataka health department brings Ayush medicines testing labs under FSDA purview |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/karnataka-health-department-brings-ayush-medicines-testing-labs-under-fsda-purview/article69893929.ece |work=The Hindu |date=17 July 2024 |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref> The department established a specialized inspection committee to monitor organ transplant activities<ref name="DHOrgan">{{cite news |title=Karnataka health dept forms new inspection committee for organ transplants |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/karnataka/karnataka-health-dept-forms-new-inspection-committee-for-organ-transplants-3696821 |work=Deccan Herald |date=11 April 2023 |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref> and proposed amendments to the Karnataka Private Medical Establishments (KPME) Act to bring private ambulance services under regulatory control.<ref name="TOIAmbulanceReg">{{cite news |title=Karnataka government set to regulate private ambulances by amending law |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/karnataka-government-set-to-regulate-private-ambulances-by-amending-law/articleshow/123126028.cms |work=The Times of India |date=18 May 2025 |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref> In a significant food safety action, the department prohibited the use of plastic sheets for steaming [[idli]]s after experts raised concerns about cancer risks from toxic chemical exposure.<ref name="IEIdliBan">{{cite news |title=Karnataka health dept bans plastic sheets for steaming idlis, flags toxic chemicals |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/lifestyle/food-wine/karnataka-health-department-bans-plastic-sheets-steaming-idlis-flags-toxic-chemicals-cancer-risk-expert-9865431/ |work=The Indian Express |date=21 August 2024 |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref>

==Ambulance and emergency services==

A major operational transition occurred in 2025 when the department assumed direct operational responsibility for the state's [[108 (emergency telephone number)|108 Arogya Kavacha]] ambulance service, taking control from its previous private operator.<ref name="TNIETakeover">{{cite news |title=Karnataka health department to take over 108 ambulance operations |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/2025/May/15/karnataka-health-department-to-take-over-108-ambulance-operations |work=The New Indian Express |date=15 May 2025 |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref><ref name="HinduAmbulance">{{cite news |title=108 Arogya Kavacha ambulances will now be run by health department |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/108-arogya-kavacha-ambulances-will-now-be-run-by-health-department/article69691870.ece |work=The Hindu |date=22 June 2024 |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref> This transition included bringing the ambulance service's command and control centre under direct departmental management.<ref name="DHControlCentre">{{cite news |title=108 ambulance command control centre to officially come under Karnataka health department |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/karnataka/108-ambulance-command-control-centre-to-officially-come-under-karnataka-health-department-3584991 |work=Deccan Herald |date=3 January 2024 |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref>

==Public health response==

The department coordinates its public health activities with other government departments, including collaborative work with the Urban Development Department (UDD) to implement disease control measures across urban areas.<ref name="DHDiseaseControl">{{cite news |title=Karnataka govt tells UDD, Health dept to implement disease control measures |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/karnataka/bengaluru/karnataka-govt-tells-udd-health-department-to-implement-disease-control-measures-1138418.html |work=Deccan Herald |date=16 May 2021 |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref> The department has a track record of organizing large-scale public health initiatives, including a comprehensive tuberculosis screening campaign that reached over 1.03 [[crore]] people in 2018.<ref name="NIETBScreening">{{cite news |title=Health dept begins TB screening of 1.03 crore people |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/bengaluru/2018/Jul/03/health-dept-begins-tb-screening-of-103-crore-people-1837369.html |work=The New Indian Express |date=3 July 2018 |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref>

The department regularly addresses various public health threats through advisory systems for seasonal diseases including dengue<ref name="HinduDengue">{{cite news |title=Karnataka health department calls for preventive measures to check spread of dengue |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/karnataka-health-department-calls-for-preventive-measures-to-check-spread-of-dengue/article65797507.ece |work=The Hindu |date=29 May 2022 |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref> and heat-related illnesses,<ref name="TOIHeat">{{cite news |title=Heat alert in Karnataka: Health advisory issued as temperatures soar |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/travel/news/heat-alert-in-karnataka-health-advisory-issued-as-temperatures-soar-above-normal/articleshow/118683258.cms |work=The Times of India |date=18 April 2024 |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref> as well as infectious diseases such as COVID-19<ref name="HinduCovidAdvisory1">{{cite news |title=Health department issues COVID advisory |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/health-department-issues-covid-advisory/article69611608.ece |work=The Hindu |date=14 June 2024 |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref><ref name="HinduCovidAdvisory2">{{cite news |title=As deaths in Karnataka touch four, health dept issues advisory on COVID-19 |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/health-department-issues-covid-advisory/article69611608.ece
|work=The Hindu |date=18 April 2024 |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref>

== References ==

{{reflist}}

[[Category:Government of Karnataka|Health]]
[[Category:Health in Karnataka]]
[[Category:Government agencies established in 1982]]
[[Category:1982 establishments in Karnataka]]

18th Cavalry (India)

2026-01-16T07:41:48Z

JOVFinlay2: Made a page

{{Short description|Indian Army regiment}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}}
{{Use British English|date=January 2013}}
{{Infobox military unit
|unit_name = 18th Cavalry
|native_name =
|abbreviation =
|image = 
|image_size =
|alt =
|caption =
|start_date = {{Start date and age|1842|df=y}} {{Start date and age|1921|df=y}} (as 18th Cavalry)
|end_date = present
|country = [[India]]
|allegiance = {{Flag|British India}} (1921-1947) {{Flag|Dominion of India}} (1947-1950) {{Flag|India}} (1950-)
|branch = {{Army|British India|23px}} (1921-1947) [[File:Flag of Indian Army.svg|24px|alt=]] [[Indian Army]] (1947-)
|type = [[Cavalry]]
|role =
|size = [[Regiment]]
|command_structure = [[Indian Army Armoured Corps]]
|garrison =
|garrison_label =
|nickname =
|patron =
|motto = साहस और सम्मान Saahas Aur Samman (Courage and honour)
|colours =
|colours_label =
|march =
|mascot =
|anniversaries =
|equipment = [[T-72]]
|equipment_label = Main battle tank
|battles = [[Gwalior campaign]] [[First Anglo-Sikh War]] [[Anglo-Burmese Wars|Third Ango-Burmese War]] [[1882 Anglo-Egyptian War]] [[World War I|First World War]] [[Second Mohmand Campaign]] [[World War II|Second World War]] [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965]] [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971]]
|battles_label =
|decorations =
|battle_honours = [[Punniar]] [[Moodkee]] [[Battle of Ferozeshah|Ferozeshah]] [[Sobraon]] [[Egypt]] 1882 [[Tel-El-Kebir]] Punjab Frontier
|battle_honours_label =
|website =

|current_commander =
|commander1_label =
|commander1 =
|ceremonial_chief =
|colonel_of_the_regiment= Lieutenant General Mohit Malhotra<ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/in.gazette.central.w.2025-12-27.268912/|title=Gazette of India, No 52|date=2025-12-27|access-date=2026-01-16}}</ref>
|notable_commanders =

|identification_symbol =
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|identification_symbol_2=
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}}
The '''18th Cavalry''' is an [[armoured regiment]] of the [[Indian Army Armoured Corps|armoured corps]] of the [[Indian Army]]. The [[regiment]] was created in 1921 through the [[Mergers and acquisitions|amalgamation]] of the [[7th Hariana Lancers]] and [[6th King Edward's Own Cavalry]].<ref name=Sainiksamachar>{{Cite web|last=Sharma|first=Parvesh|date=16 March 2016|title=The COAS Presents Standard to 18 Cavalry|url=http://www.sainiksamachar.nic.in/englisharchives/2016/mar16-16/h4.htm|website=Sainiksamachar.nic.in|access-date=12 January 2021|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403112459/http://www.sainiksamachar.nic.in/englisharchives/2016/mar16-16/h4.htm|archive-date=3 April 2019}}</ref>

==Formation==
The regiment was formed in [[1921 in India|1921]] by the amalgamation of the [[6th King Edward's Own Cavalry]] and the [[7th Hariana Lancers]] to form the 6th/7th Cavalry. This designation was quickly changed in 1922 to 18th King Edward's Own Cavalry.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://collection.nam.ac.uk/detail.php?acc=2013-10-20-19-45|title=Cap badge, officer, 18th King Edward's Own Cavalry, 1930-1947|website=NAM.ac.uk|publisher=[[National Army Museum]]|date=20 October 2013|access-date=5 June 2023}}</ref>

These two regiments themselves had undergone many changes:{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}
*'''6th King Edward's Own Cavalry''' : '''1842''' – raised at [[Fatehgarh]] as 8th Regiment of Bengal Irregular Cavalry, '''1861''' – 6th Regiment of Bengal Cavalry, '''1883''' – 6th (The [[Prince of Wales|Prince of Wales's]]) Regiment of Bengal Cavalry, '''1901''' – 6th (Prince of Wales's) Bengal Cavalry, '''1903''' – 6th Prince of Wales's Cavalry, '''1906''' – 6th [[Edward VII|King Edward's]] Own Cavalry.
* '''7th Hariana Lancers''' : '''1846''' – raised at [[Kanpur|Cawnpore]] and [[Meerut]] as 16th Regiment of Bengal Irregular Cavalry, '''1847''' – 17th Regiment Bengal Irregular Cavalry, '''1861''' – 7th Regiment of Bengal Cavalry, '''1900''' – 7th Regiment of Bengal Lancers, '''1901''' – 7th Bengal Lancers, '''1903''' – 7th Lancers, '''1904''' – 7th Hariana Lancers.

The composition of the regiment after the amalgamation in 1921 consisted of [[Qaimkhani|Kaimkhanis]], [[Rajputana]] [[Rajput]]s, and [[Jat people|Jats]].<ref>{{Cite book|last= |first= |title=The Indian Army List, July -1940|date=1940|publisher=Defence Department, Government of India|page=675|isbn= }}</ref> The present class composition is of Jats from [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Haryana]] and [[Rajasthan]]; Rajputs from Uttar Pradesh, [[Madhya Pradesh]], and Rajasthan and Hindustani Mussalmans from all over India, but mainly from Uttar Pradesh and [[West Bengal]].
[[File:7th Bengal Cavalry (24779467150).jpg|thumb|250px|7th Bengal Cavalry (from DeGolyer Library, Southern Methodist University)|alt=]]

In [[1936 in India|1936]], the unit was renamed 18th King Edward VII's Own Cavalry when [[Edward VIII]] was expected to ascended the throne to make clear it was named for [[King Edward VII]]. In 1940 it became the second to last cavalry regiment to be mechanised, leaving only the [[17th Horse (Poona Horse)|17th Queen Victoria's Own Poona Horse]] still [[Working animal#Riding animals or mounts|mounted on horses]] (though it too would be mechanised a month later).{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}

==Military operations between 1921 and 1939==
The regiment, while still mounted [[cavalry]], took part in the August to September 1933 [[Mohmand]] and [[Bajaur District|Bajaur]] operations and the July to October [[1935 in India|1935]] Loe-Agra and [[Mohmand campaign of 1935|Mohmand operations]]. The 1935 operations was to suppress the Mohmands, north of the [[Khyber Pass]], after their raiding on the plains and attacks on road construction parties. The campaign witnessed a night operation to capture the heights around the [[Nahakki Pass]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sandhu|first=Gurcharan Singh|date=1991|title=I serve (Ich dien): saga of the Eighteenth Cavalry|location= |publisher=Lancer International, (original from the University of California) digitised 4 Sep 2008|isbn=81-7062-104-6}}, {{ISBN|978-81-7062-104-1}}</ref>

===Second World War===
[[File:IWM-E-10355-ACV-IP-19420410.jpg|thumb|305px|An Indian Pattern Carrier Mk IIA named 'Dhar IV', North Africa, 10 April 1942 of the type used by 3rd Indian Motor Brigade.|alt=]]
In December [[1940 in India|1940]], during the [[World War II|Second World War]], the [[regiment]] was [[mechanised]]. It formed part of the [[3rd Indian Motor Brigade]], which was initially part of the [[31st Indian Armoured Division|1st Indian Armoured Division]].<ref name=mod.nic>{{Cite web|title=mod.nic|url=http://mod.nic.in/samachar/dec15-20/html/ch9.htm|access-date=6 July 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080404103304/http://mod.nic.in/samachar/dec15-20/html/ch9.htm|archive-date=4 April 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The [[brigade]] was detached from the [[Division (military)|division]], and dispatched to [[Egypt]] in late January 1941, along with its units including the 18th King Edward's Own Cavalry. The regiment then served in the [[Western Desert campaign]]. The regiment, and the brigade, were attached to a number of different formations that included the [[2nd Armoured Division (United Kingdom)|2nd Armoured Division]], the [[7th Armoured Division (United Kingdom)|7th Armoured Division]], and the [[9th Australian Division]] who they were with during the [[Siege of Tobruk]].<ref name=mod.nic/> The regiment also supplied men for the [[Indian Long Range Squadron]]. The brigade was later overrun by the Italians during the [[Battle of Gazala]], and took some days to reform. After the brigade re-formed, the regiment was equipped as follows: Cavalry Carrier - 2 x Reconnaissance Squadron, 1 x AT Squadron.<ref name="CM71">Mackenzie (1951), p. 71</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Axisforam|url=http://forum.axishistory.com/viewtopic.php?f=56&t=104408&start=0|website=forum.AxisHistory.com|access-date=6 July 2008}}{{Unreliable source?|sure=y|reason=Internet forums are never reliable sources|date=June 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Rothwell|url=http://www.rothwell.force9.co.uk/NA310341.htm|website=Rothwell.force9.co.uk|date= |access-date=6 July 2008}}</ref>

On 30 June, the brigade was ordered to hand over 50 per cent of its vehicles to the Eighth Army, and was dispersed; the regiment was allotted to the defence of the [[Nile Delta]] and guard duties. In August, the brigade re-formed and was allocated the regiment. It travelled overland to [[Sahneh]], in [[Persia]] via [[Baghdad]], and was placed under the command of the 31st Indian Armoured Division (formally the 1st Indian Armoured Division). In late November it then moved to [[Shaibah]], {{Convert|7|mi|abbr=off}} from [[Basra]]. From here the regiment returned to India in January 1943, and the brigade was reconstituted as the [[43rd Independent Gurkha Infantry Brigade|43rd Indian Infantry Brigade (Lorried)]] at Shaibah at the end of January 1943. In the middle of the year, the regiment moved to [[Rawalpindi]] and commenced conversion to a light cruiser regiment, which was successfully completed by the end of the year.<ref name=istampgallery.com>{{Cite web|url=https://www.istampgallery.com/18-cavalry/|title=18th Cavalry 150 years commemorative stamp|website=istampgallery.com|date= |access-date=12 January 2021}}</ref> The regiment was split up after that, and elements were serving in different parts of India when the Japanese surrender came in August 1945.

18th King Edward's Own Cavalry won the following gallantry awards during the Second World War:<ref>{{Cite book|last= |first= |title=The Tiger Strikes|date=1942|publisher=Director of Public Relations, India Command, Government of India|page=148}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last= |first= |title=The Tiger Kills|date=1944|publisher=Director of Public Relations, India Command, Government of India|pages=311–312}}</ref>
*[[Order of the British Empire]] — Major L.M. Murphy
*[[Distinguished Service Order]] — Major H.O.W. Fowler
*[[Military Cross]] — Captain J.M. Barlow, Captain J.W. Prentice, Second Lieutenant G Annesley Cooke
*[[Indian Order of Merit]] — Jemadar Jage Ram, Jemadar Aman Singh
*[[Indian Distinguished Service Medal]] — Risaldar Hasham Ali Khan, Squadron Daffadar Major Kanshi Ram, Lance Daffadar Bajid Khan, Sowar Jit Ram, Sowar Abhe Ram, Sowar Abdi Khan, Sowar Alim Khan
*[[Mentioned in despatches]] — 5

==Post Independence changes==
When India was partitioned in 1947 and the Indian Army split between the new created states of India and Pakistan, the 18th King Edward's Own Cavalry was allocated to India.

When India became a republic in 1950, the regiment's title was changed to that of 18th Cavalry.

==Operations in independent India==
[[File:1965 Indo-Pak War DestroyedShermanTank.jpg|thumb|The then Commandant, Lieutenant Colonel Hari Singh Deora with a destroyed Pakistani Sherman tank during the 1965 Indo-Pakistani War.|alt=]]
===Indo-Pakistani War of 1965===
During the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965]], the regiment fought a series of isolated armour battles as part of the [[1st Armoured Division (India)|1st Armoured Division]] in the approaches to [[Sialkot]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://openthemagazine.com/voices/1965-war-a-tale-of-war-and-three-brothers/|title=1965 War: A Tale of War and Three Brothers|website=OpenTheMagazine.com|date=25 August 2015|access-date=12 January 2021}}</ref> They left behind 29 destroyed enemy tanks, and Naib Risaldar [[Mohd. Ayub Khan]] was awarded the [[Vir Chakra]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gallantryawards.gov.in/awardee/3162|title=Nb Ris Mohammed Ayyub Khan VrC|website=GallantryAwards.gov.in|publisher= |date= |access-date=5 February 2022}}</ref> Seven were [[mentioned in despatches]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://egazette.gov.in/WriteReadData/1966/O-1665-1966-0045-75922.pdf|title=Gazette of India, No 45|website=eGazette.gov.in|publisher= |date=5 November 1966|access-date=12 January 2021}}</ref>

===Indo-Pakistani War of 1971===
During the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971]], the regiment saw action in the [[Fazilka]] sector. Naib Risaldar Noor Mohammed Khan was awarded the [[Vir Chakra]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gallantryawards.gov.in/awardee/1546|title= Nb Ris Noor Mohammad Khan, VrC|website=GallantryAwards.gov.in|publisher= |date= |access-date=5 February 2022}}</ref>

===Other operations===
The regiment has participated in [[Kargil War|Operation Vijay]], [[2001–2002 India–Pakistan standoff|Operation Parakram]], and undertaken [[counter-insurgency]] operations in [[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|Jammu and Kashmir]], where it was awarded the [[Northern Command (India)|GOC-in-C (Northern Command)]] Unit Citation.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}

==Battle honours==
{{More citations needed section|date=June 2023}}
[[File:Stamp of India - 1991 - Colnect 164212 - Mounted Sowar - Tanks.jpeg|thumb|305px|1991 postage stamp|alt=]]
The regiment was awarded the following [[battle honours]]:<ref name=Mills18KEOC>{{Cite web|last=Mills|first=T.F.|date= |url=http://regiments.org/regiments/southasia/cav/1921-18.htm|title=18th King Edward VII's Own Cavalry|website=Regiments.org|access-date=16 July 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070420083053/http://regiments.org/regiments/southasia/cav/1921-18.htm|archive-date=20 April 2007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last= |first= |title=The Indian Army List, July 1940|date=1940|publisher=Defence Department, Government of India|page=675|isbn= }}</ref>
;Awarded to 6th King Edward's Own Cavalry
[[Punniar]], [[Battle of Mudki|Moodkee]], [[Battle of Ferozeshah|Ferozeshah]], [[Battle of Sobraon|Sobraon]], [[Egypt 1882]], [[Battle of Tel el-Kebir|Tel-el-Kebir]], Punjab Frontier<ref name=Mills6KEOC>{{Cite web|last=Mills|first=T.F.|date= |url=http://regiments.org/regiments/southasia/cav/1903-06.htm|title=6th King Edward's Own Cavalry|website=Regiments.org|access-date=16 July 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070816203300/http://regiments.org/regiments/southasia/cav/1903-06.htm|archive-date=16 August 2007}}</ref>
;Awarded to 7th Hariana Lancers
[[Second Anglo-Sikh War|Punjaub]], [[Burma 1885–87]]<ref name=Mills7HL>{{Cite web|last=Mills|first=T.F.|date= |url=http://regiments.org/regiments/southasia/cav/1903-07.htm|title=7th Hariana Lancers|website=Regiments.org|access-date=16 July 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070418015726/http://regiments.org/regiments/southasia/cav/1903-07.htm|archive-date=18 April 2007}}</ref>
;First World War
''Awarded in 1926 for services of predecessor regiments'' 
[[Somme 1916]], [[Battle of Morval|Morval]], [[Cambrai 1917]], [[France and Flanders 1914–18]], [[Battle of Megiddo (1918)|Megiddo]], [[Battle of Sharon|Sharon]], [[Capture of Damascus (1918)|Damascus]], [[Palestine 1918]], [[Battle of Shaiba|Shaiba]], [[Battle of Es Sinn|Kut-al-Amara 1915]], [[Battle of Ctesiphon (1915)|Ctesiphon]], [[Tigris 1916]], [[Mesopotamia 1915–16]]
;Second World War
[[Mechili#World War II|El Mechili]], [[Siege of Tobruk|Defence of Tobruk]], [[First Battle of El Alamein#Retreat from Gazala|The Kennels]], [[North Africa 1940–43]]
;Independent India
[[Battle and theatre honours of the Indian Army#Indo-Pakistani War of 1965|Jammu and Kashmir 1965]], [[Battle and theatre honours of the Indian Army#Indo-Pakistani War of 1965|Tilkapur-Muhadipur]], [[Battle and theatre honours of the Indian Army#Indo-Pakistani War of 1965|Punjab 1965]].

==President’s Standards==
[[File:The Chief of Army Staff, General Dalbir Singh presenting the President’s ‘Standard’ to 18 Cavalry, in Amritsar on March 07, 2016.jpg|thumb|The Chief of Army Staff, General Dalbir Singh presenting the President's 'Standard' to 18 Cavalry, in Amritsar on 7 March 2016|alt=]]
The [[President of India]], [[Neelam Sanjiva Reddy]] presented a [[Guidon (Commonwealth)|guidon]] to the regiment at [[Amritsar]] on 26 March 1980.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}

On 7 March 2016, the regiment was presented the [[President's Colour Award|President's Standards]] at Amritsar by General [[Dalbir Singh Suhag|Dalbir Singh]], [[Chief of the Army Staff (India)|Chief of the Army Staff]], on behalf of the President of India, Mr [[Pranab Mukherjee]].<ref name=Sainiksamachar/><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/punjab/army-chief-presents-president-s-standard-to-18-cavalry-in-amritsar/story-VslwnoAaZvSdxQp9AihtzI.html|title=Army chief presents President's Standard to 18 Cavalry in Amritsar|website=HindustanTimes.com|publisher=[[Hindustan Times]]|date=8 March 2016|access-date=4 November 2020}}</ref>

==Equipment==
The regiment shed its horses and was converted to a motorised cavalry regiment equipped with anti-tank guns in 1940. This gave way to tanks in 1943 with the introduction of the [[M3 Stuart|Stuart tanks]]. They were succeeded by the [[M4 Sherman|Sherman tanks]] in 1946, the [[T-54/T-55|T-54]]s in 1966, and finally the [[T-72]]s in 1983.<ref name=istampgallery.com/>

==Regimental insignia==
The current regimental [[insignia]] consists of crossed [[lance]]s with [[pennon]]s. Each of the pennons have scrolls with the words सत्यमेव (''Satyameva'') and जयते (''Jayate''). ''Satyameva Jayate'' translates to 'Truth alone triumphs'. The crossed lances are overlaid with the numeral '18' mounted by the [[State Emblem of India|Ashoka Lion Capital]] and a scroll at the base with the words 'Cavalry'.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/ARMY/Galleries/Veterans/Hari/Deora+15.jpg.html|title=18 Cavalry regimental insignia|website=Bharat-Rakshak.com|publisher= |date= |access-date=12 January 2021}}</ref>

The [[motto]] of the regiment is साहस और सम्मान (''Saahas Aur Samman''), which translates to 'Courage and honour'.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}

==Notable personnel==
*Lieutenant General Gurdev Singh Kler<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://egazette.gov.in/WriteReadData/1966/O-1665-1966-0045-75922.pdf|title=Gazette of India, No 45|website=eGazette.gov.in|publisher= |date=5 November 1966|access-date=12 January 2021}}</ref>
*Major General Jagatbir Singh<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.financialexpress.com/defence/india-china-standoff-gearing-up-for-ladkahs-winter-indian-army-gets-ready-to-meet-challenges-of-nature/2076737/|title=India-China Standoff: Gearing up for Ladkah's winter, Indian army gets ready to meet challenges of nature|website=FinancialExpress.com|publisher= |date=7 September 2020|access-date=12 January 2021}}</ref>
*Major General Gurcharan Singh Sandhu, PVSM<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Maj-Gen-Gurcharan-Singh-Sandhu-PVSM-Retd/articleshow/8099549.cms|title=Maj. Gen. Gurcharan Singh Sandhu, PVSM (Retd)|website=TimesOfIndia.IndiaTimes.com|publisher=[[The Times of India]]|date=27 April 2011|access-date=12 January 2021}}</ref>
*Brigadier Hari Singh Deora, AVSM<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/ARMY/Galleries/Veterans/Hari/|title=The 1965 Indo-Pak War: Brigadier Hari Singh Deora, AVSM|website=Bharat-Rakshak.com|publisher= |date= |access-date=12 January 2021}}</ref>
*[[Mohd. Ayub Khan|Risaldar Major (Hon. Captain) Mohammed Ayub Khan VrC]] served the regiment and was a two time member of the [[Lok Sabha]] and the Union minister of State for agriculture in the Government of India headed by [[P. V. Narasimha Rao]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rediff.com/news/special/ayub-khan-the-war-hero-who-became-an-mp/20150928.htm|title=Ayub Khan, the war hero who became an MP|website=Rediff.com|publisher= |date=28 September 2015|access-date=13 January 2021}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*{{Cite book|last=Kempton|first=C|date=1996|title=A Register of Titles of the Units of the H.E.I.C. & Indian Armies 1666–1947|location=[[Bristol]]|publisher=British Empire & Commonwealth Museum|isbn=978-0-9530174-0-9}}
*{{Cite book|last=Gaylor|first=J|date=1992|title=Sons of John Company: The Indian and Pakistan Armies 1903–1991|location=[[Stroud]]|publisher=Spellmount Publishers Ltd|isbn=978-0-946771-98-1}}
*{{Cite book|last=Harris|first=R.G.|date= |title=Bengal Cavalry Regiments 1857–1914|location= |publisher=Christopher Warner|isbn=978-0-85045-308-9}}
*{{Cite book|last=Sandhu|first=Gurcharan Singh|date=1991|title=I serve (Ich dien): saga of the Eighteenth Cavalry|location= |publisher=Lancer International, (original from the University of California) digitised 4 Sep 2008|isbn=81-7062-104-6}}, {{ISBN|978-81-7062-104-1}}

==External links==
*[http://www.members.tripod.com/~Glosters/IAcavalry1.htm The uniforms of the late 19th Century]
*[https://hcvv.home.xs4all.nl/milweb/British-India/Cavalry/cav18.html Evolution of the 18th Cavalry]

{{British Indian Army Cavalry Regiments 1903 - 1946}}
{{Indian Army Armoured Corps}}
{{Portal bar|India|History}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:British Indian Army cavalry regiments]]
[[Category:Indian World War II regiments]]
[[Category:Military units and formations established in 1921]]
[[Category:Armoured and cavalry regiments of the Indian Army from 1947]]
[[Category:1921 establishments in India]]

Vanniyan Viduthy

2026-01-11T09:04:38Z

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{{moresources|date=August 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2018}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Vanniyan viduthy
| native_name =
| native_name_lang = ta
| other_name =
| settlement_type = Village
| image_skyline = Vanniyan viduthy Temple.jpg
| image_alt =
| image_caption = Temple of Vanniyan viduthy
| nickname =
| pushpin_map = India Tamil Nadu
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Tamil Nadu, India
| coordinates = {{coord|10.172636|N|79.03595|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Tamil Nadu]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Pudukkottai district|Pudukkottai]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[List of Taluks of India|Taluk]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[Alangudi Taluk|Alangudi]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type = Village Panchayat
| governing_body = Village Panchayat Board
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_total_km2 = 4.5
| area_rank =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 35
| population_footnotes =
| population_total = 2502
| population_as_of = 1856
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 614622
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| area_code = 04322
| registration_plate =
| website =
| footnotes =
}}

'''Vanniyan Viduthy''' is a village located in the [[Pudukkottai District]] of South [[Tamil Nadu]], India and Vanniyan Viduthy village is part of Arayappatti Panchayat (Village Panchayat) . The village is located 07–10 km from [[Alangudi, Pudukkottai|Alangudi]], [[Vadakadu]], [[Silattur]] and [[Avanathankottai]].

==Geography==

[[File:Agriculture land in Vanniyan viduthy.jpg|thumb|left|Agriculture is the main occupation of the people in Vanniyan viduthy village]]
The village Vanniyan viduthy lies in 10.172636 deg. at north in latitude and 79.03595 deg east in longitude and lies 79 M above Mean Sea Level. Maramadakki Village, Kothamangalam Village, Alangadu Village, Arayappatti, Paravakkottai Village are surrounding borders anti-clockwise respectively.

== Demographics ==

As per the 2002 census, Vanniyan viduthy had a total population of 2502 with 1455 males and 1047 females. Out of the total
population 1708 people were literate.

==Economy==

Agriculture is the main activity in the village. Major crops are sugar cane, bananas, green chilies, ground nut, vegetables and coconut.

==Transport==

Vanniyan viduthy is connected by road from Alangudi to Aranthangi. Nearby towns are Aranthangi (22 km), Alangudi (8 km), Pudukkottai (28 km) and Trichy (88 km). Public buses are the main transport facility for the public. The direct bus service is available from Aranthangi, Alangudi, Pudukkottai, and Trichy. Railway stations are nearby in Aranthangi and Pudukkottai. There is an International Airport in Trichirapalli (Trichy).

==Climate==

The minimum temperature of this town is 27.1 °C and the maximum temperature is 46.4 °C. The seasonal climate conditions are moderate and the weather is uniformly salubrious. The town gets major rainfall during the North east monsoon period. The Annual normal rainfall varies from 300 mm to 800 mm.

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* https://www.facebook.com/vanniyanviduthy.pudukkottai

[[Category:Villages in Pudukkottai district]]

Bharatpedia:WikiProject Uttarakhand

2026-01-11T03:42:16Z

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{{WikiProject status|inactive|parent=India|type=geo|sc1=WP:INUK}}
{{Wikipedia:WikiProject India/Navigation}}
Some [[Wikipedia:Wikipedians|Wikipedian]]s have formed a [[Wikipedia:WikiProject|project]] to improve organisation and standardised look and feel of articles related to the [[India|Indian]] state of [[Uttarakhand]].

If you would like to help, please inquire on the [[{{NAMESPACE}} talk:{{PAGENAME}}|talk page]] and see the [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Uttarakhand/to do|to-do list]] there.

'''[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Uttarakhand/New articles|New articles]]''' page contains articles that may be Uttarakhand-related. Please add this page your watchlist and monitor the articles.

==Scope==
The scope of this article fundamentally is loosely defined as all articles and sections relating to [[Uttarakhand]]. Almost all of these will be (eventually) categorised under [[:Category:Uttarakhand]] and [[:Category:India]]

==Goals==

# Creation of a generally standard look and feel for all Uttarakhand-related articles.
# To produce as many [[Wikipedia:Featured articles|Featured Articles]] as possible related to Uttarakhand.

==Participants==
===Active members===
To join WikiProject Uttarakhand, edit this section and add the [[Help:Wikitext|Wikitext]] <code><nowiki>#{{subst:me}}</nowiki></code> with your areas of interest to the bottom of the following list of members. Members should also place [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Uttarakhand#Member identification|member identification]] on their user page.
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Thank you for your help! Please move your username back to the active list when you can participate again.
#{{User|Buaidh}}  – WikiProject templates and categories.
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===Member identification===
Members of WikiProject Uttarakhand should place one of the following lines of [[Help:Wikitext|Wikitext]] on their [[Special:MyPage|user page]] to add it to '''{{nobreak|[[:Category:WikiProject Uttarakhand participants]]}}'''.
{{yytop}}
{{yycat|WikiProject Uttarakhand participants}}
{{yy|Template:User WP Uttarakhand}}
{{yy|Template:User WP Uttarakhand|invite}}
{{yyend}}
For other Uttarakhand user templates, see '''{{nobreak|[[:Category:Uttarakhand user templates]]}}'''.

==Parentage==
*[[Wikipedia:WikiProject India]]
**[[Wikipedia:WikiProject India/States|Indian states]]

==Descendant WikiProjects==
No descendant WikiProjects have been defined.

==Similar WikiProjects==
*[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Kerala]]

== Discussion ==
*[[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Uttarakhand]]

==Naming conventions==
*[[Wikipedia:Naming conventions (Indic)]]

==Structure==
Refer to
*[[Wikipedia:WikiProject_Indian_states#Sections]] for state articles
*[[Wikipedia:WikiProject_Indian_districts#Sections]] for district articles
*[[Wikipedia:WikiProject_Indian_cities#Sections]] for city articles

== Notice ==

Place this WikiProject notice {{tl|WP India}} at the top of an article's Talk page to direct editors to the WikiProject
Uttarakhand for guidelines.

To use it, place
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at the top of an article's talk page.
It produces:
{{WP India|uttarakhand=yes||uttarakhand-importance=top|category=no}}

==Stubs==
For stubs about the geography of Uttarakhand, use '''{{tl|uttarakhand-geo-stub}}'''. This will go into the [[:Category:Uttarakhand geography stubs]] category.

==Templates==

==Featured articles==
* none at the moment

===Featured lists===
* none at the moment

===Featured list candidates===
*[[List of The Doon School alumni]]

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* none at the moment

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{{User:WolterBot/Cleanup listing subscription|wgcat=WikiProject Uttarakhand articles}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Uttarakhand}}
[[Category:WikiProject Uttarakhand| ]]
[[Category:India-related WikiProjects]]
[[Category:WikiProjects participating in Wikipedia 1.0 assessments]]

Velivennu

2026-01-08T04:21:43Z

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{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2019}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Velivennu
| native_name =
| native_name_lang = te
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = [[Village]]
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Andhra Pradesh#India
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Andhra Pradesh, India
| coordinates = {{coord|16.50341|N|81.41162|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = [[India]]
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and union territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Andhra Pradesh]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts in India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[East Godavari district|East Godavari]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[East Godavari district|Mandal]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[Undrajavaram mandal]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =Gramapanchayath
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes = <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census2011.co.in/data/village/588513-velivennu-andhra-pradesh.html|title=Velivennu Village Population - Undrajavaram - West Godavari, Andhra Pradesh|publisher=}}</ref>
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 5.55
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 21
| population_total = 12,018
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +05:30
| postal_code_type = 
| postal_code = 534 355
| registration_plate =
| website =
| footnotes =
| mapframe = yes
| mapframe-zoom = 14
}}

'''Velivennu''' is a second largest village in [[Undrajavaram mandal]], [[East Godavari district]] of the [[India]]n state of [[Andhra Pradesh]]. It is located in between [[Tanuku]] and [[Nidadavole]] at a equidistant distance of 12 km and 82 km from [[Eluru]]. It is under of [[Kovvur revenue division]].

The present village sarpanch is Sri Mandavalli Subbarao.

Velivennu is well-known as the founding place of Sasi Educational Society which was founded by Shri Burugupalli Venu Gopala Krishna in 1980.

== Demographics ==

{{As of|2011}} [[Census of India]], Velivennu has population of 12,018 of which 6,599 are males while 5,419 are females. Average Sex Ratio of Velivennu village is 821. Population of children with age 0-6 is 764 which makes up 6.36% of total population of village. Literacy rate of Velivennu village was 84.05% with 9,459 literates.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{East Godavari district}}

[[Category:Villages in East Godavari district]]

Syed Moazzam Hossain

2026-01-02T20:29:37Z

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{{Short description|West Bengal politician}}
{{Other uses|Moazzem Hossain (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Syed Moazzam Hossain
| native_name =
| office = Member of [[West Bengal Legislative Assembly]]
| term_start = 1977
| term_end = 1987
| predecessor = [[Rabindra Nath Bera]]
| successor = [[Sheikh Jahangir Karim]]
| constituency = [[Debra Assembly constituency]]
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [[Midnapore district]], [[West Bengal]]
| death_place =
| death_date =
| party = [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]]
| alma_mater =
| relatives =
| children =
}}
'''Syed Moazzam Hossain''' is an Indian politician belonging to the [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]]. He was a member of the [[West Bengal Legislative Assembly]].

==Early life and family==
Hossain was born into a [[Bengalis|Bengali]] family of [[Muslim]] [[Syeds]] in [[Midnapore district]], [[West Bengal]].<ref name=la/>

==Career==
Hossain was a teacher. He contested in the [[1977 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]] where he ran as a [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]] candidate for [[Debra Assembly constituency]], defeating Congress politician [[Sukumar Das]].<ref name=la>{{cite web|url=https://www.latestly.com/elections/assembly-elections/west-bengal/1977/debra/|title=Debra, 1977|website=Latestly|access-date=9 May 2024}}</ref> He contested in the [[1982 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]] where he was re-elected to Debra, defeating Congress politician [[Rabindra Nath Bera]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.latestly.com/elections/assembly-elections/west-bengal/1982/debra/|title=Debra, 1982|website=Latestly|access-date=9 May 2024}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hossain, Syed Moazzam}}
[[Category:West Bengal MLAs 1982–1987]]
[[Category:West Bengal MLAs 1977–1982]]
[[Category:People from Paschim Medinipur district]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian Muslims]]
[[Category:20th-century Bengali people]]
[[Category:Bengali Muslims]]
[[Category:Indian Sunni Muslims]]
[[Category:Communist Party of India (Marxist) politician stubs]]
[[Category:Communist Party of India (Marxist) politicians from West Bengal]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

{{WestBengal-CPIndiaMarxist-politician-stub}}

Villivakkam railway station

2025-12-01T06:48:04Z

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{{Short description|Railway station in Tamil Nadu, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2016}}
{{Infobox station
| name = Villivakkam
| style = Indian Railways
| type = [[File:Indian_Railways_Suburban_Railway_Logo.svg|30px]] [[Indian Railways]] and [[Chennai Suburban Railway]] station
| image = [[File:VillivakkamStation View2.jpg|280px]]
| image_caption = Villivakkam railway station
| address = [[Villivakkam]], [[Chennai]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]]
| coordinates = {{coord|13|6|37|N|80|12|33|E|type:railwaystation_region:IN-TN|display=inline}}
| mapframe-marker = rail
| mapframe-marker-color = #FB3210
| mapframe-zoom = 14
| map_state = collapsed
| owned = [[Ministry of Railways (India)|Ministry of Railways]], [[Indian Railways]]
| line = [[West Line, Chennai Suburban|West]], [[West North Line, Chennai Suburban|West North]] and [[West South Line, Chennai Suburban|West South]] lines of [[Chennai Suburban Railway]]
| platform = 4
| tracks = 5
| connections = {{ric|Chennai Metro}} {{rcb|Chennai Metro|red|croute}} [[Villivakkam Chennai Metro|Villivakkam]]
| other =
| structure = Standard on-ground station
| depth =
| levels =
| parking = Available
| bicycle =
| code = VLK
| zone = [[Southern Railway (India)|Southern Railways]]
| opened =
| closed =
| rebuilt =
| electrified = 29 November 1979<ref name="IRFCA_HistoryOfElectrification"/>
| former = South Indian Railway
| mpassengers =
| passengers = 32,000/day<ref name="TOI_GoNorthwestBut"/>
| pass_system =
| pass_year = 2013
| pass_percent =
| services = {{adjacent stations|system1=Chennai Suburban|line1=West|left1=Korattur|to-left=Arakkonam Junction|right1=Perambur Loco Works|to-right1=Chennai Central MMC}}
| route_map = {{West Line, Chennai Suburban}}
| mapframe = yes
}}

'''Villivakkam railway station''' is a railway station on the Chennai Central–Arakkonam section of the [[Chennai Suburban Railway Network]] a city of [[Chennai]] in India. Located 9 km from [[Chennai Central|Chennai Central railway station]], the station serves the neighbourhood of [[Villivakkam]], [[Kolathur, Chennai|Kolathur]] and [[Padi, Chennai|Padi]]. It has an elevation of 10.25 m above [[Mean sea level|sea level]].

==History==
[[File:VillivakkamStation Chennai FOB.jpg|thumb|left|Footbridge at Villivakkam railway station]]
[[File:VillivakkamStation View1.jpg|thumb|left|A view of the station towards west]]
The first lines in the station were electrified on 29 November 1979, with the electrification of the Chennai Central–Tiruvallur section. Additional lines at the station were electrified on 2 October 1986, with the electrification of the Villivakkam–Avadi section.<ref name="IRFCA_HistoryOfElectrification">{{cite web
| title = IR Electrification Chronology up to 31.03.2004
| work = History of Electrification
| publisher = IRFCA.org
| url = http://irfca.org/docs/electrification-history.html
| access-date = 17 Nov 2012}}</ref>

During the [[2019 Chennai water crisis]], this station was used to transfer water from trains into the city's water system.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Schmall |first=Emily |date=2019-07-30 |title=Parched manufacturing city in India brings in water by rail |url=https://apnews.com/article/df5adab14738471281cce2f37d0e5b7a |access-date=2025-10-14 |website=AP News |language=en}}</ref>

==Facilities==
The station has a foot overbridge for pedestrian, a level crossing and a vehicular subway. The vehicular subway, whose construction was started on 4 December 2007 and which replaced the previous level crossing 2 (LC2),<ref>{{Cite news
| title = Villivakkam subway thrown open
| newspaper = The Hindu
| location = Chennai
| date = 20 May 2012
| url = http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-downtown/article3437788.ece
| access-date = 2 Sep 2012}}</ref> was opened to traffic on 19 June 2012 and is located on the western side of the station.<ref>{{Cite news
| title = Tamil Nadu infra gets better with new bridges, bypass, subway
| newspaper = The Asian Age
| location = Chennai
| publisher = Deccan Chronicle
| date = 20 June 2012
| url = http://www.asianage.com/chennai/tamil-nadu-infra-gets-better-new-bridges-bypass-subway-936
| access-date = 20 Jun 2012
| archive-date = 16 May 2021
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210516101452/https://www.asianage.com/chennai/tamil-nadu-infra-gets-better-new-bridges-bypass-subway-936
| url-status = dead
}}</ref> The 447.50-m-long subway linking north Villivakkam with south Villivakkam was built at a cost of {{INR}} 390 million, which also has a 2.5-m-wide bicycle lane. The level crossing 1 (LC1), located at the eastern side of the station (between Villivakkam and [[Perambur Loco Works]] stations), is being replaced with a 460-meter-long road overbridge being built at a cost of {{INR}} 590 million. The level crossing is located adjacent to the [[Integral Coach Factory]] (ICF) and connects several residential areas in both Villivakkam and Kolathur. The road overbridge will be 8.5 meters wide (with a carriageway of 7.5 meters) and will have 11 pillars. The bridge connects East Seeyalam Street with Villivakkam East Railway Crossing Road in Kumaran Nagar.<ref>{{Cite news
| last = Srikanth
| first = R.
| title = Villivakkam residents set to finally get their road overbridge
| newspaper = The Hindu
| location = Chennai
| pages = 2
| publisher = Kasturi & Sons
| date = 11 December 2019
| url = https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/villivakkam-residents-set-to-finally-get-their-road-overbridge/article30271266.ece
| access-date = 1 January 2020}}</ref>

About 900 tickets are issued every day at the station, of which 400 are from the northern side. In 2002, a ticket counter was opened on the northern side. However, it was closed down in 2005 owing to low patronage.<ref name="BetterFacilitiesSought">{{Cite news
| last = Lakshmi
| first = K.
| title = Better facilities sought at Villivakkam railway station
| location = Chennai
| date = 29 December 2007
| url = http://www.hindu.com/2007/12/29/stories/2007122959010400.htm
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080101235950/http://www.hindu.com/2007/12/29/stories/2007122959010400.htm
| url-status = dead
| archive-date = 1 January 2008
| newspaper = [[The Hindu]]
| access-date = 2 Sep 2012}}</ref>

==The station==

=== Platforms ===
There are a total of 4 platforms and 4 tracks. The platforms are connected by [[foot overbridge]]. These platforms are built to accumulate 24 coaches express train.

=== Station layout ===
{| cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" border="0"
| valign="top" width="50" style="border-top:solid 1px gray;border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" |'''G'''
| valign="top" width="100" style="border-top:solid 1px gray;border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" |North Entrance Street level
| valign="top" width="390" style="border-top:solid 1px gray;border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" |Exit/Entrance & ticket counter
|-
| rowspan="7" style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width="50" valign="center" |'''P'''
| colspan="2" style="border-right:solid 2px black;border-left:solid 2px black;border-bottom:solid 2px black;text-align:center;" |[[Foot overbridge|FOB]], [[Side platform]]<nowiki> | </nowiki>'''P4''' – '''''Express Lines'''''
|-
| width="100" style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" |'''Platform 4'''
| width="500" style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" |Towards → [[Chennai Central railway station|MGR Chennai Central]]
|-
| width="100" style="border-bottom:solid 1px white;" |'''Platform 3'''
| width="500" style="border-bottom:solid 1px white;" |Towards ← [[Arakkonam Junction railway station|Arakkonam Junction]] / [[Jolarpettai Junction railway station|Jolarpettai Junction]]
|-
| colspan="2" style="border-top:solid 2px black;border-right:solid 2px black;border-left:solid 2px black;border-bottom:solid 2px black;text-align:center;" |[[Foot overbridge|FOB]], [[Island platform]]<nowiki> | </nowiki>'''P2''' Doors will open on the left<nowiki> | </nowiki>'''P3''' – '''''Express Lines'''''
|-
| width="100" style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" |'''Platform 2'''
| style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width="500" |Towards → [[Moore Market Complex railway station|Chennai Central MMC]] next station is [[Perambur Loco Works railway station|Perambur Loco Works]]
|-
| width="100" style="border-bottom:solid 1px white;" |'''Platform 1'''
| style="border-bottom:solid 1px white;" width="500" |Towards ← [[Arakkonam Junction railway station|Arakkonam Junction]] next station is [[Korattur railway station|Korattur]]
|-
| colspan="2" width="100" style="border-top:solid 2px black;border-right:solid 2px black;border-left:solid 2px black;border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" align="center" |[[Foot overbridge|FOB]], [[Side platform]]<nowiki> | </nowiki>'''P1''' Doors will open on the left
|-
| style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width="50" valign="top" |'''G'''
| style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width="50" valign="top" |South Entrance Street level
| style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width="50" valign="top" |Exit/Entrance & ticket counter
|-
|}

==Demographics==
The nearby Kolathur area has around 500,000 people residing in 54 colonies, and about 25,000 people are daily using the service of Chennai suburban railway trains.<ref name="PlyMoreBusesToStation">{{cite news
| last = Mary
| first = Angel Grace
| title = Ply more buses to Villivakkam railway station
| newspaper = The New Indian Express
| location = Chennai
| publisher = The Indian Express Group
| date = 26 June 2012
| url = http://newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/article550721.ece
| archive-url = https://archive.today/20130129162027/http://newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/article550721.ece
| url-status = dead
| archive-date = 29 January 2013
| access-date = 2 Sep 2012}}</ref> As of 2013, the station handles about 32,000 passengers a day.<ref name="TOI_GoNorthwestBut">{{cite news
| title = Go northwest, but don't take a train
| newspaper = The Times of India
| location = Chennai
| publisher = The Times Group
| date = 27 April 2013
| url = http://epaper.timesofindia.com/Repository/getFiles.asp?Style=OliveXLib:LowLevelEntityToPrint_TOINEW&Type=text/html&Locale=english-skin-custom&Path=TOICH/2013/04/27&ID=Ar00600
| archive-url = https://archive.today/20130630104528/http://epaper.timesofindia.com/Repository/getFiles.asp?Style=OliveXLib:LowLevelEntityToPrint_TOINEW&Type=text/html&Locale=english-skin-custom&Path=TOICH/2013/04/27&ID=Ar00600
| url-status = dead
| archive-date = 30 June 2013
| access-date = 28 Apr 2013}}</ref>

==See also==
{{stack|{{Portal|India|Trains}}}}
* [[Chennai Suburban Railway]]
* [[Integral Coach Factory]]
* [[Regional Railway Museum (Chennai)|Regional Railway Museum]]
* [[Railway stations in Chennai]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
* [http://indiarailinfo.com/station/map/villivakkam-vlk/6613 Villivakkam station at Indiarailinfo.com]

{{Chennai - Suburban Railway, West|Villivakkam|Perambur Loco Works|Korattur|8|9.41}}
{{Chennai - Suburban Railway, West North|Villivakkam|Perambur Loco Works|Korattur|8|9.41}}
{{Chennai - Suburban Railway, West South|Villivakkam|Perambur Loco Works|Korattur|8|9.41}}
{{Chennai Topics}}

[[Category:Chennai Suburban Railway stations]]
[[Category:Railway stations in Chennai]]

Basilica of Our Lady of Lourdes, Poondi

2025-11-29T08:31:52Z

JOVFinlay2: Made stub

{{Short description|Catholic pilgrimage centre in Tamil Nadu, South India}}
{{Refimprove|date=December 2010}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox religious building
| building_name = Poondi Madha Basilica
| image =
| location = Alamelupuram-Poondi, [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]]
| religious_affiliation = [[Roman Catholic]]
| consecration_year = Eighteenth century beginning
| status = [[Basilica|Minor Basilica]]
| architecture_style = [[Gothic Revival architecture|Gothic]] and [[French architecture]]
| coordinates = {{coord|10|51|50.4|N|78|56|29.0|E}}
| website = https://poondimadhabasilica.org
}}

'''Basilica of Our Lady of Lourdes''', also known as '''Poondi Madha Basilica''', is a [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] pilgrimage centre located in [[Tamil Nadu]], [[South India]]. It is located in Alamelupuram-Poondi, a small village located adjacent to [[Thirukattupalli]] in [[Thiruvaiyaru]] taluk of [[Thanjavur]] district. The shrine was consecrated as a [[Minor basilica|Minor Basilica]] in 1999 by [[Pope John Paul II]].

==History==
[[Cardinal (Catholic Church)|Cardinal]] [[Duraisamy Simon Lourdusamy]] declared the Shrine of Our Lady of Poondi as a permanent pilgrimage centre of [[Immaculate Conception|Our Lady of Immaculate Conception]]. On 3 August 1999, the shrine was declared as [[Minor basilica|Minor Basilica]] by [[Pope John Paul II]].

==Shrine==
[[File:Poondi Church Side View.jpg|thumb|Poondi Church Side View]]
The present structure of the shrine has a mixture of [[Gothic Architecture|Gothic]] and [[French Architecture|French]] architectural styles. The facade above the portico has a row of statues of the [[Twelve Apostles]], St. [[Francis Xavier]] and [[Constanzo Beschi|Fr. Constantine Joseph Beschi]]. The church has a [[relic]] of the [[True Cross]], believed to be the one on which [[Christ]] was crucified.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Poondi Madha Basilica::Original Cross |url=http://www.poondimadhabasilica.org/OriginalCross.aspx |website=www.poondimadhabasilica.org |access-date=20 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127153501/http://poondimadhabasilica.org/OriginalCross.aspx |archive-date=27 January 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[File:Mother Mary Chapel.jpg|thumb]]
[[File:Mother Mary Statue.jpg|thumb]]
[[File:JesusStatue.jpg|thumb]]

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Poondi Basilica 2.jpg|Poondi Basilica View
File:Poondi Basilica 1.jpg|Poondi Basilica pleasant View
File:Poondi Church Beauty.jpg|Holy Land Gallery in Poondi
Poondi Madha temple 1.jpg
Poondi Madha Temple.jpg
Poondi Madha Church.jpg
Basilica of Our Lady of Lourdes (Poondi).jpg
Poondi Madha Kovil.jpg
</gallery>

==See also==
* {{anl|Basilica of Our Lady of Good Health}}
* {{anl|Elakurichi}}
* {{anl|Kamanayakkanpatti}}
* {{anl|Konankuppam}}
* {{anl|Our Lady of Snow Kallikulam}}
* {{anl|Our Lady of Snows Basilica}}
* {{anl|The Perianayagi Madha Shrine}}
* {{anl|Villianur|Villianoor}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Basilica_of_Our_Lady_of_Lourdes_(Poondi)&params=10_51_50.4_N_78_56_29.0_E_type:landmark GeoHack – Basilica of Our Lady of Lourdes (Poondi)]
* [https://poondimadhabasilica.org/ Official website]

{{Commons category}}

{{Thanjavur district}}
{{Basilicas in India}}

[[Category:Shrines to the Virgin Mary]]
[[Category:Catholic pilgrimage sites]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic church buildings in Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Basilica churches in Tamil Nadu|Our Lady of Graces]]
[[Category:Churches in Thanjavur district]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic shrines in India]]

Y. N. Sukthankar

2025-10-29T13:45:35Z

JOVFinlay2: slightly improved formatting for accuracy and cleaned formatting as per guidelines

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Infobox civil servant
| name = Y. N. Sukthankar
| image =Y N Sukhtankar.jpg
| birth_place =
| birth_date = 24 August 1897
| death_date = 16 June 1973
| order = 6th
| office = Governor of Odisha
|term_start = 31 July 1957
|term_end = 15 September 1962
|predecessor = [[Bhim Sen Sachar]]
|successor = [[Ajudhia Nath Khosla]]
| office1 = 2nd [[Indian Cabinet Secretary|Cabinet Secretary of India]]
|term_start1 = 1953
|term_end1 = 1957
|primeminister1 = [[Jawaharlal Nehru]]
|predecessor1 = [[N. R. Pillai]]
|successor1 = [[M. K. Vellodi]]
|birthname =
|nationality = [[India]]n
|alma_mater =
}}

''' Yashwant Narayan Sukthankar''', [[Order of the Indian Empire|CIE]] (24 August 1897– 16 June 1973)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Page 14935 {{!}} Issue 47058, 4 November 1976 {{!}} London Gazette {{!}} The Gazette |url=https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/47058/page/14935 |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=www.thegazette.co.uk}}</ref> was an Indian civil servant, the second [[Indian Cabinet Secretary|Cabinet Secretary of India]] and a former [[Governor of Orissa|Governor of Odisha]].

Sukthankar was a member of the [[Indian Civil Service]] having completed his education at University of Bombay & University of Cambridge. After completion of his barrister at law in Cambridge, he joined the service on 30 October 1922 - the first batch of native ICS officers.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The India Office List 1931 |publisher=Her Majesty's Stationery Office |year=1931 |pages=861}}</ref> He was a part of the Finance and Commerce Pool, comprising specialist civil servants, that was constituted at the level of the [[Government of India]] during the [[Second World War]]. Sukthankar was a specialist in [[international trade]]<ref>{{cite news|title=Finance and Commerce Pool — An old-is-gold idea|url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.in/2006/12/02/stories/2006120200090800.htm|access-date=17 March 2013|newspaper=Hindu Businessline|date=December 2, 2006}}</ref> and he went on to serve as [[Secretary to the Government of India]] in the [[Ministry of Commerce and Industry (India)|Ministry of Commerce and Industry]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Exchange of Letters regarding Trade|url=http://mea.gov.in/bilateral-documents.htm?dtl/7021/Exchange+of+Letters+regarding+Trade|publisher=Ministry of External Affairs|access-date=17 March 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rajbhavanorissa.gov.in/formergovernor.asp |title=Our Governors |publisher=Raj Bhavan, Government of Orisaa, Bhubaneshwar |access-date=2 February 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225081608/http://www.rajbhavanorissa.gov.in/formergovernor.asp |archive-date=February 25, 2012 }}</ref> and as Cabinet Secretary of India from May 14, 1953 to July 31, 1957.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://cabsec.nic.in/about_cabinet.php |title=Cabinet Secretaries Since 1950 | publisher = Cabinet Secretariat, Government of India, New Delhi |access-date = 2 February 2012}}</ref> He also served as secretary of the [[Planning Commission of India]] that formulated [[Five-Year plans of India#Second Plan (1956–1961)|India's Second Five Year Plan]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://planningcommission.nic.in/plans/planrel/fiveyr/2nd/2pconclu.html |title=2nd Five year Plan | publisher = Planning Commission, Yojna Bhavan, Government of India, New Delhi |access-date = 2 February 2012}}</ref>

Upon retirement as Cabinet Secretary, he was appointed [[Governor of Orissa]], a post he held from 31 July 1957 till 15 September 1962.<ref>{{cite news|title=dated June 12, 1957: New Governor of AP|url=http://www.hindu.com/2007/06/12/stories/2007061200420901.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130411021209/http://www.hindu.com/2007/06/12/stories/2007061200420901.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=April 11, 2013|access-date=17 March 2013|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|date=June 12, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://legislativebodiesinindia.nic.in/STATISTICAL/orissala.htm |title= Orissa Legislative Assembly | publisher = Lok Sabha Secretariat, Government of India, New Delhi |access-date = 2 February 2012 }}</ref>

==References==
<references/>

== External links ==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20100301095859/http://cabsec.nic.in/sec.htm Cabinet Secretariat in India]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sukthankar, Y N}}
[[Category:1897 births]]
[[Category:1973 deaths]]
[[Category:Indian civil servants]]
[[Category:Governors of Odisha]]
[[Category:Indian Civil Service (British India) officers]]
[[Category:Companions of the Order of the Indian Empire]]
[[Category:Cabinet secretaries of India]]
[[Category:Members of the Planning Commission of India]]

{{India-bio-stub}}
{{Gov-bio-stub}}

Philippos Matthai

2025-10-20T19:22:59Z

JOVFinlay2: new the data first draft...

{{Short description|Indian rally driver}}
{{Orphan|date=October 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2020}}
{{Infobox sportsperson
| name = Philippos Matthai
| image =
| caption =
| nationality = [[India]]n
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1983|9|22}}
| birth_place = [[Delhi]], [[India]]
| years_active = 2000s–present
| country = India
| sport = [[Motorsport]]
}}

'''Philippos Matthai''' (born 22 September 1983) a motorsports athlete from [[Delhi]]. He is a rally driver and a multiple national champion in various motorsports disciplines like autocross, sprint, gymkhana and rally.

He is a native of [[Kerala]] and resides in Delhi.

In April 2024, he won two national titles in the [[FMSCI|fmsci]] 2023 Indian National Autocross Championship in the INAC 1 Open and INAC 1 (1,651cc to 2,400cc) classes held at the Nanoli Stud Farm near Pune.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gidithuri |first=Unnatee |title=Philippos Matthai wins 2023 Indian National Autocross Championship |url=https://www.autocarindia.com/motor-sports-news/philippos-matthai-wins-2023-indian-national-autocross-championship-431358 |access-date=2025-10-07 |website=Autocar India |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-04-26 |title=Philippos Matthai and Ashad Pasha shines at the INAC Championship |url=https://thebridge.in/motorsport/philippos-matthai-ashad-pasha-shines-inac-championship-47041 |access-date=2025-10-07 |website=thebridge.in |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-04-24 |title=Philippos Matthai, Ashad Pasha shine at INAC Championship |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/racing/top-stories/philippos-matthai-ashad-pasha-shine-at-inac-championship/articleshow/109567973.cms |access-date=2025-10-07 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> In 2024, he won two Indian national titles in the fmsci National Rally Sprint championship in Rally Sprint 1 and 2 classes.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Naveen |date=2025-01-20 |title=Rally Champions: Matthai and Vikram Dominate National Sprint |url=https://www.newkerala.com/news/o/double-delight-philippos-matthai-arushi-vikram-national-rally-sprint-605 |access-date=2025-10-07 |website=NewKerala.com |language=en}}</ref>

In June 2025, he won four categories in the second round of Octane Pits [[FMSCI]] Indian National Autocross Championship 2025.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ragav |first=S. Dipak |date=2025-06-15 |title=Experienced Matthai sweeps top spot in four cattegories |url=https://www.thehindu.com/sport/other-sports/experienced-matthai-sweeps-top-spot-in-four-cattegories/article69698064.ece |access-date=2025-10-08 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

== References ==
<references />

{{DEFAULTSORT:Matthai, Philippos}}
[[Category:1983 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian rally drivers]]
[[Category:Sportspeople from Delhi]]

Battle of Tripoli (1943)

2025-10-01T06:30:48Z

JOVFinlay2: rework section also and improved wording

{{Short description|Allied victory in North Africa during WWII}}
{{about|a battle in the African campaign of WWII|the last stand of the [[History of Libya under Muammar Gaddafi|Socialist Jamahiriya]] of Muʿammar Qaddāfī against rebel forces|Battle of Tripoli (2011)}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Battle of Tripoli
| partof = the [[North African Campaign]]
| image = File:A Daimler armoured car opens fire in the gloom of early morning at the start of the battle for Tripoli, 18 January 1943. E21333.jpg
|image_size = 300px
| caption = A [[Daimler armoured car]] opens fire in the gloom of early morning at the start of the battle for Tripoli, 18 January 1943.
| date = 22–23 January 1943
| place = [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]], [[Tripolitania]], ([[Italian Libya]])
| coordinates =
| map_type =
| map_relief =
| latitude =
| longitude =
| map_size =
| map_marksize =
| map_caption =
| map_label =
| territory =
| result = Allied victory
| status =
| combatants_header =
| combatant1 = {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Italy}} {{flagcountry|Nazi Germany}}
| combatant2 = {{flag|United Kingdom}} {{flagcountry|Dominion of New Zealand}} {{flag|Australia}}
| commander1 = {{flagicon|Kingdom of Italy}} [[Ettore Bastico]] {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Erwin Rommel]]
| commander2 = {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis|Harold Alexander]] {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Bernard Montgomery]]
| units1 = ''[[Panzer Army Africa|Deutsch - Italienische Panzerarmee]]''
| units2 = [[British Eighth Army]]
| strength1 =
| strength2 =
| casualties1 =
| casualties2 =
| notes =
| campaignbox ={{Campaignbox Western Desert}}
}}

The '''Battle of Tripoli''' was an engagement on between the [[Afrika Korps|Deutsch-Italienische Panzerarmee]] commanded by [[Erwin Rommel]] of [[Nazi Germany]] and [[Ettore Bastico]] of [[Kingdom of Italy]], who held the town, and the [[Eighth Army (United Kingdom)|British 8th Army]], a [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] force commanded by Sir [[Bernard Montgomery]]. After a short siege, the Italian and German forces withdrew from Tripoli, and the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] entered the town to great worldwide fanfare.

==Prelude==
After the Italian and German defeat in the [[Second Battle of El Alamein]] in November 1942, German commander Erwin Rommel shed many of his slower Italian units, leaving 30,000-75,000 men to be taken as prisoners, and dashed for Tunisia. Over the next 80 days, he withdrew 1,400 miles across Libya, losing 130 tanks and 1,000 artillery guns.<ref name="DesertRats">{{citation |url=http://www.desertrats.org.uk/battles1942.htm |title=Desert Rats-"Battles 1942."}}</ref> At the same time as the Second Battle of El Alamein, [[Operation Torch]] deposited approximately 83,300 U.S. and 23,000 British soldiers in three task forces in an [[invasion]] of [[French North Africa]], in [[Morocco]] and [[Algeria]] on 8 November 1942. Rommel had to reach his supply ports in [[Tunisia]] before both armies could cut him off.

==Combat==
Rommel dug a defensive line at [[Buerat]] that collapsed on January 15, 1943. In a series of desperate rear guard actions, Rommel defended his flanks while driving his main body west. [[Misurata]] fell on January 18, Homs{{clarify|date=December 2024}} on the 20th, [[El Aziez]] on the 21st, [[Castelverde]] on the 22nd.<ref name="ForcesWarRecords">{{citation |url=https://www.forces-war-records.co.uk/blog/2018/01/11/75th-anniversary-on-this-day-1943-into-tripoli-montgomery-marched-in-triumph |title=Forces War Records-"75th Anniversary – On This day 1943: Into Tripoli Montgomery Marched in Triumph."|date=11 January 2018 }}</ref> Montgomery predicted to reporters that Tripoli would fall on January 22. Rommel did not stop to form a defensive line in Tripoli, abandoning the town that night. The 1st Gordons, 51st Highlanders, riding 40 Royal Tank Regiment vehicles, entered Tripoli unopposed the next morning.<ref name="51st Highland">{{citation |url=https://51hd.co.uk/history/tripoli |title=51st Highland Division-" Talking Tripoli January 1943 ."}}</ref>

==Aftermath==
Montgomery ordered a huge victory parade in Tripoli on 23 January 1943. On 3 February 1943, [[Prime Minister]] [[Winston Churchill]] addressed 8th Army in Tripoli. "Let me then assure you, soldiers and airmen, that your fellow-countrymen regard your joint work with admiration and gratitude, and that after the war when a man is asked what he did it will be quite sufficient for him to say, 'I marched and fought with the Desert Army.' And when history is written and all the facts are known, our feats will gleam and glow and will be a source of song and story long after we who are gathered here have passed away."<ref name="DesertRats1943">{{citation |url=http://www.desertrats.org.uk/battles1943.htm |title=Desert Rats-"Battles 1943."}}</ref>

Rommel successfully withdrew to Tunisia, where he was reinforced with [[Tiger I|Tiger tanks]] and more infantry. But it was too little, too late. 1st and 8th Armies merged into the [[18th Army Group]]; together with the [[II Corps (United States)|Americans]], they breached the [[Mareth Line]]. By May 1943, Some 50,000 Axis soldiers surrendered, ending the North African Campaign.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Conflicts in 1943]]
[[Category:January 1943 in Africa]]
[[Category:Libya in World War II]]
[[Category:Military history of Tripoli, Libya]]
[[Category:20th century in Tripoli, Libya]]

Indiana Department of Environmental Management

2025-08-26T07:46:48Z

JOVFinlay2: cleaned up structure based on references and corrected details

{{Short description|State government agency in Indiana}}
{{third-party|date=April 2016}}
{{Infobox government agency
| name = Indiana Department of Environmental Management
| formed = {{Start date|1986|07|01|df=yes}}
| jurisdiction = [[State of Indiana]]
| website = https://www.in.gov/idem/
}}
'''The Indiana Department of Environmental Management (IDEM)''' is the agency of the [[U.S. state]] of [[Indiana]] charged with protecting the environment and human health. There are many offices within IDEM and each has a specific role in environmental protection. According to the department's website, their mission is "to implement federal and state regulations to protect human health and the environment while allowing the environmentally sound operations of industrial, agricultural, commercial and government activities vital to a prosperous economy"<ref>[http://www.in.gov/idem/5215.htm Mission statement from department's official website]</ref>

== History ==

The Indiana Department of Environmental Management was created with an act passed by the [[Indiana General Assembly]] and signed into law by Governor [[Robert D. Orr]] in 1985.<ref>{{Cite news |date=July 20, 1985 |title=Hoosier environmental boss picked |url=https://www.proquest.com/historical-newspapers/july-20-1985-page-2-22/docview/2690173303/se-2 |work=Evansville Press |pages=2}}</ref> This act moved pollution control efforts (Indiana Air Pollution Control Board, Indiana Stream Pollution Control Board and the Indiana Environmental Management Board) from the Indiana State Department of Health to the new agency on July 1, 1986.{{Citation needed|date=April 2024}}

== Organization ==

At the top of the organization is the Commissioner (presently Clint Woods), who reports directly to the [[Governor of Indiana]]. In addition to overseeing the department, the director also serves on an autonomous board known as the Environmental Rules Board, consisting of both government officials and citizen members, which meets monthly to address issues pertaining to environmental rules development as prescribed by state statute.<ref>[https://iga.in.gov/legislative/laws/2015/ic/titles/013/articles/013/chapters/008/ Indiana Code 13-13-8]</ref>

Beneath the Commissioner, there are four Assistant Commissioners and Chief of Staff and General Counsel, each of whom is responsible for a team under which many of the department's offices are organized.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.in.gov/idem/5211.htm |title=Organizational overview page on department's official website |access-date=2016-03-21 |archive-date=2016-03-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160314152233/http://www.in.gov/idem/5211.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Climate change in Indiana]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

*
*
*
*

==External links==
* [http://www.in.gov/idem/ Official Website]

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Modified Scheme of Elementary Education 1953

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{{Rajaji}}
The '''Modified Scheme of Elementary Education''' or '''New Scheme of Elementary Education''' or '''Madras Scheme of Elementary Education''' dubbed by its critics as '''Kula Kalvi Thittam''' (Hereditary Education Policy), was an abortive attempt at education reform introduced by the [[Indian National Congress]] Government of the [[Madras State]], led by [[C. Rajagopalachari]] (Rajaji) in 1953. The scheme proposed the introduction of two shifts or sessions in elementary schools. In one session regular teaching would be done and during the second session, the students would be sent home to learn the occupations of their parents. It became controversial and was accused of being a casteist scheme to perpetuate the caste hierarchy as Hindu Professions were [[Varna (Hinduism)|caste based]].<ref name="Vaasanthi2008">{{cite book|author=Vaasanthi|title=Cut-outs, Caste and Cines Stars|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8ldacEfF58EC&pg=PA144|access-date=7 October 2015|year=2008|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=978-0-14-306312-4|pages=144–}}</ref> Public opposition and internal dissent within the congress led to the deferment of the scheme. The discontent it triggered among the Congress legislature members forced the resignation of Rajaji as Chief Minister. The scheme was dropped completely by Rajaji's successor [[K. Kamaraj|Kamaraj]] in 1954.

==Background==
According to the 1951 [[Census of India]], the literacy rate in the [[Madras State]] was 20.86%.<ref>Yazali, P.172</ref> During fiscal year 1950–51, the Madras State Government spent 6.87 [[crore]] Rupees (6,870,000) – about 11.5% of total revenues for the state – for Elementary education. The enrollment rate for children of school-going age was around 47.8%.<ref name=B>[http://www.education.nic.in/cd50years/g/12/28/12280V01.htm Appendix Q : Modified Scheme of Elementary Education, Madras] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927150034/http://www.education.nic.in/cd50years/g/12/28/12280V01.htm |date=27 September 2011 }}</ref> The [[Directive Principles in India|Directive Principles of the Indian Constitution]] require the Indian state to provide education to all citizens. In accordance to this directive, in 1950 the Madras State's Directorate of Public Instruction prepared a ten-year plan to provide education to all children of school-going age. This plan called for an allocation of one crore Rs (1,00,00,000) per year for enrolling 500,000 additional students for the next ten years. Against this, the actual allocation in 1950–51 was only Rs. 500,000. The cost of educating a student was estimated to be around Rs.22.80 per year, out of which the government's contribution was Rs.16.30.<ref name="B"/> Out of the 12,22,775 students who had enrolled in standard I in 1946–47, only 4,61,686 (37%) had reached the Standard V in 1950–51. It was against this background, the Congress party with [[Rajaji]] as chief minister took power on 10 April 1952.

The opposition to the scheme was largely based on social background. Hindu professions are based on [[Varna (Hinduism)|Varna or Caste]] with the [[Brahmins]] the highest in the order and studied while [[Kshatriya]] and [[Vaishya]] traders received some education. [[Shudra]] were denied education. [[Dalits]] were considered untouchables and did manual work and also denied education. When the [[Justice Party (India)|Justice Party]] came to power in 1920, Brahmins disproportionately occupied over 70% of the high level posts in government, judiciary and in education.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://archive.tehelka.com/story_main17.asp?filename=Ne042206superiority.asp | title=Superiority in Numbers | publisher=Tehelka | access-date=7 October 2015}}</ref> The [[Justice Party (India)|Justice Party]] introduced caste based reservation and this gradually reversed this trend and allowed non-Brahmins to rise in the government and education in [[Madras Presidency]]. The first generation of [[Dalits]], [[Scheduled Castes and Tribes]] and [[Backward Classes]] also started getting educated and their children had just begun to attend school after centuries of denial of educational opportunities under the rigid Hindu caste system. As per this policy schools were to work in the morning and students had to compulsorily learn the family vocation in the afternoon. This was seen as a ploy to ensure the domination and monopoly of Brahmins. The ulterior motive behind the scheme was understood to be that the children of non-Brahmins should undertake only the manual jobs of their ancestors such as washerman, barber, scavenger, cobbler etc. and they should not aspire for any higher education or for any white collar employment, which only Brahmins could claim as their exclusive privilege. They should follow their parents' professions and remain in their low status and lowly paid professions. Such a step would maintain caste hegemony.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Kumaradoss |first=Y. Vincent |title=Kamaraj Remembered |journal=[[Economic and Political Weekly]] |volume=39 |issue=17 |pages=1655–1657 |jstor=4414921
|date=April 2004 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.thanthaiperiyar.org/social-activities/education-policy/ | title=Education Policy | publisher=thanthaiperiyar.org | access-date=7 October 2015}}{{dead link|date=May 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>

Rajagopalachari argued,<blockquote>It is a mistake to imagine that the school is within the walls. The whole village is a school. The village polytechnic is there, every branch of it, the [[dhobi]], the [[wheelwright]], the [[Shoemaking|cobbler]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gandhi|first=Rajmohan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=45pYCwAAQBAJ|title=Rajaji: A Life|date=2010-10-14|publisher=Penguin UK|isbn=978-93-85890-33-8|pages=355|language=en}}</ref></blockquote>

==Earlier attempts at change==
In 1939, during [[Rajaji]]'s first term as Chief Minister of the [[Madras Presidency]], the girl students of standards III to V and those belonging to Scheduled Castes had been allowed to attend school for only three hours a day and spend the rest of the day helping their parents. In the academic year 1949–50, during the Chief ministership of [[P. S. Kumaraswamy Raja]], an experimental shift system had been introduced in ten [[Tehsil|taluks]] and later expanded to other areas as an optional measure. Schools which adapted this system functioned in two shifts or sessions. Teachers who worked during both sessions were paid an additional allowance of 10 Rupees per month. However this system was not widely adopted and by 1951 only 155 elementary schools (out of a total 38,687) in the state were functioning in shifts.<ref name=B/>

==Reasons stated for the reform attempt==
* The cost of educating all children in the 6–12 age group would be enormous. Besides enrollment, more than half of the elementary schools lacked proper infrastructure. The reform attempted to increase the number of school-going children within the financial limitations faced by the Government.<ref name=C>[http://www.education.nic.in/cd50years/g/12/28/12281301.htm Appendix T : Modified Scheme of Elementary Education, Madras] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927150114/http://www.education.nic.in/cd50years/g/12/28/12281301.htm |date=27 September 2011 }}</ref>
* There was an acute shortage of teachers. The state had an average of less than three teachers for five standards per school. There were 4,108 single-teacher schools and more than 60% of the schools with five standards had less than four teachers.<ref name="B"/><ref name="C"/>
* This poor student-teacher ratio was putting a strain on the teachers and led to students being made to stay in school for longer hours. This directly contributed to the high drop out ratio. This plural teaching had to be stopped without hiring new teachers.<ref name="B"/>
* Rajaji favoured [[Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi|Gandhi]]'s Basic Education Scheme over the existing elementary education system. He stated that he wanted to reduce the unemployment amongst educated people.<ref name=D>Bakshi, P.323</ref> The Basic education system called for learning through living and training in self-reliance.<ref name="B"/>
* The retention rate of 37% (between 1947 and 1951) had to be improved by making schools attractive to students of poorer sections.<ref name="B"/><ref name="C"/>

==Proposals in the new scheme==
The Modified Scheme of Elementary education proposed the following changes in the school system:<ref name="B"/><ref name="C"/>

* Reduction of School hours from five hours per day to three.
* Introduction of shifts -the students were to be divided into two batches and the school would function in two sessions. Each session will be of three hours duration, consisting of four periods of 40 minutes each, with not less than two intervals totaling 20 minutes. The sessions will be arranged to suit local conditions. One batch will attend only one session a day. There were to be six working days per week.
* No dilution of the previous syllabus and no reduction in duration for subjects like Language, Elementary Mathematics, Nature Study, Drawing, History, Geography, Hygiene, Civics, Moral Instruction and Singing.
* The second session in which the students would be out of school was to be utilised for obtaining the objectives of the basic education system – learning through living and training in self-reliance.
* During the out of school session, the girl students were to learn house keeping from their mothers in their home environment. The boys were supposed to learn farming or other crafts from their respective fathers.
* Boys whose parents did not belong to occupational groups, were to be sent to work in farms or with other craftsmen in their villages.
* In addition to the learning the students were to be utilised in service to the village like ''building sheds, laying bricks, attending to village sanitation, improving roads, etc.''.
* The out of school session would have no strict attendance or work requirements.

==Implementation==
The Rajaji Government introduced the new elementary education scheme in all schools in the non-municipal (rural) areas for the academic year 1953–54 (from 18 June 1953). It was planned that eventually the scheme would be extended to 35,000 of the total 38,687 schools in the state. However, due to public opposition, it was put on hold on 29 July 1953 and dropped altogether on 18 May 1954.<ref name=E>[http://www.assembly.tn.gov.in/archive/resumes/review_01assly/ch14.pdf Chapter XIV, A Review of Madras Legislative Assembly (1952–57)]</ref>

Rajaji had not even consulted his own cabinet or members of the legislative assembly before the scheme's implementation. <blockquote>Rajaji said: “Did [[Shankaracharya|Shankara]] or [[Ramanuja]] announce their philosophy after consulting others?".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kannan|first=R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=USfI9rPtpygC|title=Anna: The Life and Times of C.N. Annadurai|date=2017-06-13|publisher=Penguin UK|isbn=978-81-8475-313-4|pages=233|language=en}}</ref></blockquote>

==Opposition==

From the beginning, the scheme attracted heavy opposition from the Dravidian movement led by [[Periyar E. V. Ramasamy]]. The [[Dravidar Kazhagam]] organised a conference in [[Erode]] protesting the scheme's introduction.<ref name=I/> The teachers' unions also opposed their move as they were not consulted before implementation. They also resented the increase in working hours without any increase in pay.<ref name=Y/> The [[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam|DMK]] seized the opportunity and started a campaign against the scheme. They dubbed the scheme as the ''Kula kalvi thittam'' (Hereditary/Caste Education Scheme) and as the ''Acharyar Education Scheme''.<ref>Ryerson, P.89</ref><ref name=F/> The Dravidian movement viewed the scheme as an attempt to preserve and perpetuate caste based discrimination through official means. They used Rajaji's notions about caste and village craftsmen to depict the scheme as a "Brahminist conspiracy". Rajaji had earlier expressed his opinion about castes and crafts as:

{{cquote|The food is grown, the cloth is woven, the sheep are shorn, the shoes are stitched, the scavenging is done, the cartwheels and the ploughs are built and repaired because, thank God, the respective castes are still there and the homes are trade schools as well and the parents are masters as well, to whom the children are automatically apprenticed.<ref>Gandhi. p.245</ref>}}

After the scheme was announced, Rajaji gave a speech to the washermen at the [[Adyar River|Adyar]] riverbank. In it he referred to ''Kuladharma'', the social obligation of each clan or caste. The opposition used such incidents to lend credence to their "casteist motive" accusation.<ref>Gandhi. p.248</ref> Rajaji and his education minister [[Mandali Venkata Krishna Rao|MV Krishna Rao]] responded with a counter campaign in the scheme's defense. They gave speeches and made broadcasts in the [[All India Radio]] explaining their position.<ref>Indian Review Vol.54, P.332</ref> The month of June 1953 saw aggressive propaganda efforts by both the proponents and opponents of the scheme. On 13 July 1953, the DMK executive committee met and decided to conduct a ''marial'' (blockade) agitation outside the Chief Minister's residence. [[E. V. K. Sampath|EVK Sampath]] was nominated to lead the agitation.<ref name=F>[http://www.sangam.org/2009/09/Anna_Centennial_3.php?print=true Anna's Birth Centennial Anthology]</ref> This agitation was part of a three pronged attack on the Government's policies by the DMK. On 14 July 1953, a procession led by [[Satyavani Muthu]] was organised to protest the scheme. Its destination was Rajaji's official residence at Bazullah road, [[T. Nagar]]. It was stopped by the police as it was unlicensed.<ref name=F/> The next day (15 July 1953) the confrontation heated up with the Government introducing a motion in the Legislative Assembly for implementing the scheme from the academic year 1953–54. On the same day another DMK procession was stopped before it could reach T Nagar. In the next fifteen days as many as twenty such processions were attempted by the DMK.<ref name=F/>

==Deferment==
By the end of July, public opinion started to turn against the scheme and at least four public petitions were tabled in the Legislative Assembly about the scheme.<ref>[http://www.assembly.tn.gov.in/archive/Resumes/review_01assly/table17.pdf Table XVII, A Review of Madras Legislative Assembly (1952–57)]</ref> On 29 July 1953, M.V Krishna Rao, the minister for education moved a motion for considering the new scheme. After a discussion, [[Communist Party of India|Communist]] leader [[K. P Gopalan]] moved a motion to drop the scheme. The house was deadlocked with 138 ayes to 138 noes on dropping the scheme. The speaker of the assembly [[J. Shivashanmugam Pillai]] used his casting vote to defeat the motion. A second motion to defer the scheme and refer it to a committee of experts was moved by [[K. R. Viswanathan|K.R Viswanatham]]. This motion passed with 138 ayes against 137 noes.<ref name=E/><ref>[http://www.assembly.tn.gov.in/archive/Resumes/review_01assly/table16.pdf Table XVI, A Review of Madras Legislative Assembly (1952–57)]</ref> The Scheme was stayed<ref>The word "stay" in the motion was interpreted by Rajaji and C. Subramaniam as "keep the status quo" as on the day of the vote. In other words, the scheme would be kept in place in the schools where it was already introduced and it won't be extended to other schools. They disregarded the oppositions demands to cancel the scheme in all the schools. Gandhi. p. 247</ref> and the Parulekar Committee was commissioned to review the scheme.

==Parulekar committee==
On 20 August 1953, the Government passed an order (Education G.O # 1888) to constitute a committee of experts for reviewing the scheme.<ref name=H>[http://www.education.nic.in/cd50years/g/t/HJ/0THJ0509.htm Report, Director of Information and Publicity]</ref> The committee was composed of Prof. RV. Parulekar, Director of Indian Institute of Education Bombay, as the Chairman; Dr.B.B. Dey, Retired Director of Public Instruction, Madras; Prof. Mohammad Mujeeb, Vice-Chancellor of the [[Jamia Millia Islamia|Jamia Millia University]] as members and S. Govindarajulu Naidu, the former Director of Public Instruction, Madras, and the then Director of Public Instruction, [[Andhra Pradesh]], as the Member Secretary.<ref name=C/> The Parulekar committee submitted its report on 23 November 1953. It found the scheme to be sound and endorsed the Government's position. It made additional recommendations including extending the scheme to rural areas, opening as many as 4000 new schools, revising the existing curriculum, providing training and remuneration to the craftsmen involved.<ref name=H/>

==Cancellation==
The opposition campaign was successful in creating doubts about the scheme in the minds of the general public. There was dissent within the Congress party and [[K. Kamaraj|Kamaraj]] wanted Rajaji to withdraw the scheme as it was unpopular amongst the public and with the party members.<ref name=Z>Subramaniam, p.205</ref> On 20 October 1953, forty Congress Legislative Assembly members led by [[P. Varadarajulu Naidu]], sent a memorandum to Nehru objecting to Rajaji's unilateral conduct. Among the issues they raised was his refusal to budge on the education scheme issue.<ref>Nehru Vol24, p.288</ref> But Rajaji refused to drop the scheme. On 8 November 1953, Congress lost the by election for the [[Kangayam (State Assembly Constituency)|Kangayam constituency]] by a narrow margin.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/ByeElection/Bye-ele-results%2052-95.xls|title=By election results 1952–1995|work=Election Commission of India|access-date=10 February 2010}}</ref><ref>Gazette of India, p.88</ref> Pressure mounted from within the party to drop the scheme. On 9 March 1954, Congress leader and former Chief Minister [[O. P. Ramaswamy Reddiyar]] made an open appeal to Rajaji in the legislature:

{{Cquote|Please give up the scheme without any more ado. It is a new handle to the Blackshirts [Dravidar Kazhagam]. Persistence will sound only the death knell of the party.<ref name=gandhi251>Gandhi. pp.250–251</ref>}}

But Rajaji did not relent and his education minister [[Chidambaram Subramaniam|C Subramaniam]] upped the ante by announcing that the scheme would be extended to urban areas in June 1954. This spurred the Congress legislators into open revolt. They scheduled a meeting of the Congress Legislative Party on 21 March. Faced with certain defeat in the leadership election that was bound to happen in that meeting, Rajaji tried a last minute compromise – he would quit if C. Subramaniam was chosen as his successor and the scheme was kept. But Kamaraj, the leader of the anti-Rajaji camp, refused to accept the deal.<ref name=gandhi251/> The meeting was postponed by a week and when it happened on 31 March, C. Subramaniam was defeated by Kamaraj.<ref>Kandaswamy, p51-52</ref> Rajaji resigned and Kamaraj took over as chief minister on 13 April 1954. This effectively ended the prospects of the new education scheme. On 18 May 1954, C Subramaniam announced in the assembly that the scheme was being dropped. The reason stated for the dropping was ''that the necessary acceptance, support and cooperation of the people were not forthcoming for the scheme and the atmosphere was not propitious for the success of the scheme''.<ref name=A>[https://web.archive.org/web/20040628112144/http://www.hindu.com/2004/05/19/stories/2004051900240903.htm The Hindu report on 19 May 1954 : Scheme dropped]</ref>

Meanwhile, the composite Madras State had been reorganised along linguistic lines. The state of [[Andhra Pradesh|Andhra]] had split from Madras on 1 October 1953. The Andhra Government constituted an Elementary Education Committee with Dr. B. Kuppuswamy as chairman to review the elementary education situation. The Kuppuswamy committee report recommended the rejection of the Modified Elementary Education Scheme. In 1954 the Andhra state cancelled the scheme.<ref name=X>Indian Review Vol.55, p.284</ref>

==Criticism==

The main arguments made against the Modified Scheme of Elementary Education were :
*That the scheme was casteist by design. According to [[C. N. Annadurai]], it aimed to preserve and perpetuate the caste hierarchy by ensuring that children took up their parents' profession. It was designed to help Brahmins corner positions of authority .<ref name=I>Vasantha Kandaswamy p.262-6</ref><ref name=F/>
*That it intended to reduce the schooling imparted to children by not monitoring them during out of school sessions.<ref>Bakshi, p.325</ref>
*That it would increase the workload of teachers as it would increase their working hours and force them to handle more children without the appointment of new teachers and without an increase in their pay.<ref name=Y>Balratnam, P.91</ref>
*That it was undemocratic and dictatorial as Rajaji had not consulted his cabinet or the assembly in his decision to implement the scheme (In Rajaji's own words – ''This is an executive matter, no law is involved'' and'' Did [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]] and [[Ramanuja]] announce their philosophy after consulting others''?).<ref name=Y/><ref name=F/><ref>Kannan p.203</ref>
*That it was deliberately targeted at rural children alone to keep them from getting an education.<ref>Vashisht, p.52</ref>

Writing in ''Viduthalai'' on 17 November 1953, [[Periyar E. V. Ramasamy|Periyar]] denounced the scheme as a Brahiminical conspiracy:

{{Cquote|This educational policy is a casteist educational policy. This has to be opposed and abolished...Is this educational scheme not a reconstruction and protection of varnashrama?...who physically labours and slaves in the name of caste? Only we, who are called sudras...should we keep doing the caste occupation while brahmins alone get positions, employment, authority and go higher and higher?...is this justified?..we don't think physical labour is disgraceful, but why should we alone do that work?....

...How much of opposition to Rajaji’s minister post? Though the situation is such that his post can topple any day. If he can manage all that and still have a tight grip, what is it for? Only to save his race, only for the protection of the Brahmin society. As long as he is in power, he wants to fill up Brahmins in all the places. He wants to repress the Sudras, and with that motive alone he remains in power. Among us we do not have this mind, this feeling, this racial fanaticism! He fights for the welfare of the Brahmin race...<ref name="I"/>}}

In another ''Viduthalai'' article written on 26 February 1954, he vowed to destroy the scheme by any means:

{{Cquote|Rajaji says that people in the villages do not need education.He has said that the student in the village should cut hair, he should wash clothes, and he should make pots and pans. The village school is only for three hours duration, the rest of the time our children should graze donkeys, this is called the New Primary Education Scheme. We organized a conference in Erode only to oppose this educational scheme. Can we keep looking at law and democracy in such a situation? The work will be successful only through a great revolution. Though 100, 1000 of us will have to be sacrificed, we need to be prepared. That is why even I gave a three months notice; and said that if they want to shoot, let them shoot. I am going to start a struggle. This educational scheme has to be destroyed by all means.<ref name="I"/>}}

He kept up his harangue even after Rajaji resigned and C Subramaniam became the new Education minister. On 17 April 1954 he wrote:

{{Cquote|Rajaji did this only because of the fear that the position of his society will disappear. If the Vanaan washes clothes, if the Paraiyan beats the drums, if the Chakkili stitches shoes, if the Ambattan shaves, only then they will get the feeling that they are a low caste. If they also get educated and come ahead, the highness of the upper castes will disappear. So, Rajaji interfered in the basics by introducing a 3-hour occupational education...

...The servant of this Rajaji, C. Subramanian was the one who raised his hand to say that Sudras don’t need communal representation. Those who had gone on the merit of our votes were sitting there like the five Pandavas during Draupadi’s disrobing. All this takes place in this country. If it had been another country, four or five (death) anniversaries would have been observed for such people. When it is so, how can we fight legally?<ref name="I"/>}}

The Andhra Elementary Education Committee Report also rejected the Modified Scheme and recommended an approach similar to the one eventually adopted by the Kamaraj Government.<ref name=X/>

==Defense and endorsements==
During and after his tenure as Chief Minister, Rajaji defended his scheme vigorously. He derided the critics as people who did not want to do physical labour:

{{Cquote| The opposition to the scheme comes mainly from those who do not want to do any physical labour. There are others who ask whether there will be any examination in the crafts. That may come or may not come. But I would like you to ponder over one factor. Are not the children of parents with an educational tradition at an advantage now over children whose parents have no education at all? Should an examination in crafts be held, will not the children of illiterate artisans score over the other class of children? In that way will not the handicap of the poor man's children be removed? The new system gives a chance to the backward people to progress. I would, therefore, appeal to you all to support the scheme or at least desist from opposing it.<ref name="J">Rajagopalachari, P.115</ref>}}

About the casteist angle of the criticism, he reasoned that it was because of him being the author of the scheme:

{{Cquote| It is indeed regrettable that it should be said that there is a big conspiracy behind the new scheme. Probably because I am its author, some people suspect there is something behind it..If some other person would have done it, by God's grace, everyone might have accepted it and the scheme might have worked successfully...I made similar suggestions over 30 years ago.<ref name="D"/>}}

After the Kamaraj Government scrapped the scheme, he again defended it as :

{{Cquote| My plan was based on the conviction – which was confirmed by educational officers of highest rank and experience – that three hours attendance was quite adequate for the purpose and would leave nothing out of the present elementary school instruction.<ref name="K">Bakshi, P. 168</ref>}}

Replying to [[Papanasam (State Assembly Constituency)|Papanasam]] MLA Swayam Prakasam's concerns over the scheme, then Prime Minister, [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] offered his endorsement to the scheme:

{{Cquote| As for the education policy which Rajaji has sponsored, I cannot speak for conditions in Madras. But that policy is an aspect of Basic Education which is the proved policy of our Government. The Madras proposals, as you know, were referred to a special High-powered Committee of Educationists. They expressed their approval of them. ...At the Governors' Conference recently, the Madras proposals were not directly discussed, but the present system was discussed and thoroughly disapproved of and generally the basic system was approved.<ref>Nehru Vol25, p. 214</ref>}}

India's President [[Rajendra Prasad]] offered his support in a letter written to the Governor of Madras – [[Sri Prakasa]] – on 9 June 1953:

{{Cquote| I have read with great interest both the speech of Rajaji and the scheme of education in primary schools in rural areas. I have felt great dissatisfaction with the present scheme of things so far as education is concerned... with the large number of graduates and under graduates we are turning out from year to year are without any employment...most of them are unemployable...

This scheme fits them at any rate for their parents' work or for the work people have been doing in their own place. With education it may be hoped that they would be able to do that work better. I there look forward with great hope and enthusiasm to this experiment.<ref>Rajendra Prasad, P. 72</ref>}}

The Central Advisory Board of Education, passed a resolution endorsing the scheme during its 21st Meeting held in February 1954:

{{Cquote| "The Central Advisory Board of Education has given careful consideration to the Modified Scheme of Elementary Education formulated by the Madras Government. It is of the opinion that the Scheme represents a welcome attempt to bring education within the reach of a large majority of children and thus help in the achievement of the constitutional directive about the provision of universal Primary Education. The Board is also satisfied that the reduction of school hours from five to three will not necessarily affect the education of children adversely, provided the out-of-school activities which are an integral part of the education of children are implemented under controlled conditions. The Board also appreciates the attempt made in the Scheme for bringing education into closer contact with the life of the community and this gives it a practical bias which is at present lacking in ordinary Primary Schools.

The Board would, however, like to point out that the arrangements made for the out-of-school activities of the children need to be carefully supervised on the lines suggested by the Parulekar Committee and their success critically assessed from time to time. Further, the Board would like to place on record its definite opinion that this Scheme is valuable as an interim measure only, because, sufficient funds are not at present available for providing education to all the children and that the proper pattern of education for the country is Basic Education which would offer full-time co-related education to children in which teaching of craft as well as of other school subjects will be provided under proper educative conditions in the school itself, which will serve as a community centre where the school and the community are brought into an organic relationship.

The Board would also recommend that other States may conduct similar experiments under controlled conditions. (The Madras Government have since intimated their decision to discontinue their modified scheme of Elementary Education)<ref>[http://www.education.nic.in/cd50years/g/12/28/12280202.htm Central Advisory Board of Education – Proceedings of the 21st Meeting, Item IV]</ref>}}

==Legacy==
The Modified Scheme of Elementary Education even after being dropped had the unintended consequence of bringing primary education to hundreds of thousands of school children in [[Tamil Nadu]]. Rajaji's successor Kamaraj was ever mindful of the fact that it was the issue of primary education that caused his predecessor's downfall. Knowing the public opposition to Rajaji's scheme he took the diametrically opposite approach in providing education to Tamil Nadu's children – imparting free and compulsory education till the age of 14. He set up a commission<ref name="L">Kandaswamy, P. 65</ref> under R.M. Alagappa Chettiar to examine the means for providing compulsory primary education. Instead of sending children away from the school, the committee recommended active Government intervention to bring more children into the schooling system by building new schools and abolishing school fees.<ref name=H/> This approach was successful and by the end of Kamaraj's tenure as Chief Minister in 1963, enrollment in primary schools had been doubled.<ref name="L"/>

== See also ==
* [[Child labour in India]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
* {{Citation
| last = Madras State, Education Dept
| title = The modified scheme of elementary education: a guide book
| publisher = Director of Information and Publicity
| year = 1953
| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=F_SfNAAACAAJ
}}
* {{Citation
| last = Ryerson
| first = Charles A
| title = Regionalism and religion: the Tamil renaissance and popular Hinduism
| publisher = Christian Literature Society
| year = 1988
| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=m3duAAAAMAAJ
}}
* {{Citation
| last = Natesan
| first = GA
| title = The Indian review, Volume 54
| publisher = G.A. Natesan & Co
| year = 1953
| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=p3PjAAAAMAAJ
}}
* {{Citation
| last = Natesan
| first = GA
| title = The Indian review, Volume 55
| publisher = G.A. Natesan & Co
| year = 1954
| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=hnTjAAAAMAAJ
}}
* {{Citation
| last = Kandaswamy
| first = P.
| title = The political career of K Kamaraj
| publisher = Concept Publishing Company
| year = 2001
| place = New Delhi
| isbn = 978-81-7022-801-1
| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=bOjT3qffnMkC
}}
* {{Citation
| last = Bakshi
| first = SR
| title = C. Rajagopalachari: role in freedom movement
| publisher = Anmol Publications
| year = 1991
| place = New Delhi
| isbn = 81-7041-433-4
| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ISJZgYKdOQUC
}}
* {{Citation
| last = Rajagopalachari
| first = Chakravarti
| author-link =C. Rajagopalachari
| title = Rajaji's Speeches, Volume 2
| publisher = Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan
| year = 1978
| isbn = 9788170414339
| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ISJZgYKdOQUC
}}
* {{Citation
| last = Yazali
| first = Josephine
| title = International Conference and Gobalisation and Challenges for Education: focus on equity and equality
| publisher = National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration (India)
| year = 2003
| isbn = 81-7541-147-3
| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=UvmeAAAAMAAJ
}}
* {{Citation
| last = Subramaniam
| first = Chidambaram
| author-link =Chidambaram Subramaniam
| title = Hand of destiny: memoirs, Volume 1
| publisher = Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan
| year = 1993
| isbn = 9788172760496
| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=DOdHAAAAMAAJ
}}
* {{Citation
| last = Vashist
| first = Vijandra
| title = Modern Methods of Training of Elementary School Teachers
| publisher = Sarup & Sons
| year = 2002
| isbn = 81-7625-293-X
| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=_nHVCZ9qSHAC
}}
* {{Citation
| last = Bal Ratnam
| first = LK
| title = Anthropological research and tribal situation
| publisher = Centre for Training and Research in Anthropology and Management
| year = 1991
| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=30yAAAAAMAAJ
}}
* {{Citation
| last1 = Prasad
| first1 = Rajendra
| author-link =Rajendra Prasad
| last2 = Choudhary
| first2 = Valmiki
| title = Dr. Rajendra Prasad: Correspondence and Select Documents : Presidency Period January to December 1953
| publisher = Allied Publishers
| year = 1992
| place = New Delhi
| isbn = 81-7023-343-7
| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=lRKq0J6PiCEC
}}
* {{Citation
| last = Nehru
| first = Jawaharlal
| author-link = Jawaharlal Nehru
| title = Selected Works of Jawaharlal Nehru: 1 February 1954-31 May 1954, Volume 25
| publisher = Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Fund
| year = 1984
| isbn = 0-19-565275-4
| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=0f0KAQAAIAAJ
}}
* {{Citation
| last = Nehru
| first = Jawaharlal
| author-link = Jawaharlal Nehru
| title = Selected Works of Jawaharlal Nehru: Volume 24
| publisher = Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Fund
| year = 2001
| isbn = 0-19-565186-3
| id = {{ISBN|978-0-19-565186-7}}
| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=fgwLAQAAIAAJ
}}
* {{Citation
| title = Gazette of India, Part 2
| publisher = Controller of Publications
| year = 1956
| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=mxwPAQAAIAAJ&q=kangayam+election+1953
}}
* {{Citation
| last =Gandhi
| first =Rajmohan
| author-link = Rajmohan Gandhi
| title = The Rajaji Story; Volume 1
| publisher =Bharathan
| year = 1978
| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=p78CAAAAMAAJ
}}
*{{cite book | title=Anna: The life and times of C. N. Annadurai |last=Kannan|first=R.| year=2010|isbn=978-0-670-08328-2| publisher=[[Penguin Books]]}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
* Rajaji, a Life by RajMohan Gandhi ( Chapter: Downfall)
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hereditary Education Policy}}
[[Category:Education in Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Politics by issue]]
[[Category:Education policy in India]]
[[Category:Dravidian movement]]
[[Category:Tamil politics]]
[[Category:History of education in India]]
[[Category:1953 in India]]

List of rulers of Suket and Mandi

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{{Short description|Rulers of an indian state in 1527}}
{{More citations needed|date=June 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2017}}
[[Suket State|Suket]] was a state in India that preceded the princely state of [[Mandi State|Mandi]], which was founded in 1527.

Formerly part of the Kingdom of Suket in the Punjab Hills, the Rajput dynasty traditionally goes back to 765 AD. In about 1100, Vijaya Sen had two sons, Sahu Sen, who ruled over Suket, and Bahu Sen, who ruled over Kullu.

Bahu Sen's descendants emigrated to Kullu until the tenth descendant, Kabakha Sen, was killed by the Raja of Kullu, and his son had to flee to Suket, not very far from the present city of [[Mandi, Himachal Pradesh]], which was founded during Ajbar Sen's rule.

==Rajas of Suket==
*Raja [[Bahu Sen]], 1st Raja of Suket, younger son of Raja Vijai Sen of Suket.
*Raja [[Nim Sen]], 2nd Raja of Suket
*Raja [[Nirhabat Sen]], 3rd Raja of Suket
*Raja [[Kahabat Sen]], 4th Raja of Suket
*Raja [[Sammat Sen]], 5th Raja of Suket
*Raja [[Bir Sen]], 6th Raja of Suket
*Raja [[Samudra Sen]], 7th Raja of Suket
*Raja [[Kesab Sen]], 8th Raja of Suket
*Raja [[Malab Sen]], 9th Raja of Suket
*Raja [[Jai Sen]], 10th Raja of Suket
*Raja [[Kranchan Sen]], 11th Raja of Suket 1278/1301, he was the first Raja to overthrow the authority of the Raja of Kullu; married the daughter of the Raja of Suket and had issue. He was killed by the Raja of Kullu in 1301.
*Raja [[Ban Sen]], 12th Raja of Suket 1301/1346, born posthumously in 1301, he was adopted by his maternal grandfather, married and had issue.
*Raja [[Kalian Sen]], 13th Raja of Suket (1300–1332 or 1346–1387), married and had issue.
*Raja [[Hira Sen]], 14th Raja of Suket (1332–1360 or 1387–1405), married and had issue.
*Raja [[Dharitri Sen]], 15th Raja of Suket (1360– or 1405–1425)
*Raja [[Narindar Sen]], 16th Raja of Suket (1400– or 1425–1425)
*Raja [[Prajat Sen]], 17th Raja of Suket (1440– or 1425–1470)
*Raja [[Dilawar Sen]], 18th Raja of Suket (1470–1499), died 1499.
*Raja [[Ajbar Sen]], 19th Raja of Suket (1499–1527).<ref>{{Cite journal |first=Chetan |last=Singh |date=2013 |title=Constructing the State in the Western Himalaya |journal=Journal of Punjab Studies |volume=20 |number=1 & 2 |pages=3–22}}</ref>

1st Raja of Mandi 1527/1534, initially 19th Rana of Suket from 1499, he founded Mandi in 1527 and became the first Raja of Mandi, married and had issue. He died in 1534.

==Rajas of Mandi==
*Raja [[Chhatar Sen]], 2nd Raja of Mandi (1534–1554), married and had issue.
*Raja [[Sahib Sen]], 3rd Raja of Mandi (1554–1575 or 1534–1554), married Rani [[Prakash Devi]], daughter of the Raja of Bilaspur, and had issue.
*Raja [[Narain Sen]], 4th Raja of Mandi (1575–1595 or 1554–1574)
*Raja [[Keshab Sen (Mandi)|Keshab Sen]], 5th Raja of Mandi (1595–1616 or 1574–1604), married and had issue.
*Raja [[Hari Sen (Mandi)|Hari Sen]], 6th Raja of Mandi (1616–1637 or 1604–1637), married and had issue. He died 1637 or 1623.
*Raja [[Suraj Sen (Mandi)|Suraj Sen]], 7th Raja of Mandi (1637–1664 or 1623–1658), married (amongst others), a daughter of Raja Jagat Singh of Nurpur, and had issue. He died March 1664.
* Kumari (name unknown), married 1658
*Raja [[Shyam Sen]], 8th Raja of Mandi (1664–1679 or 1658–1673), married and had issue. He died in 1673 (or 1679), when five Ranis, two concubines and 37 slave girls committed sati.
*Raja [[Gaur Sen]], 9th Raja of Mandi (1679–1684 or 1673–1678), married (amongst others), a daughter of Raja Budhi Chand of Sirmur, and had issue, as well as illegitimate issue. He died 1684.
*Raja [[Sidhi Sen]], 10th Raja of Mandi (1684–1727 or 1678–1719), married and had issue. He died 1727.
* [[Tikka Shiv Jawala Sen]], married (amongst others), a daughter of the Rana of Hatli, and had issue. He died in 1703 or 1722.
*Raja [[Shamsher Sen]] (by a daughter of the Rana of Hatli)
* Raja [[Shamsher Sen]], 11th Raja of Mandi (1727–1781), born 1722, married (amongst others), the daughter of Raja Ugar Singh of Chamba, and had issue. He died 1781.
*Raja [[Surma Sen]], 12th Raja of Mandi (1781–1788), married and had issue, as well as illegitimate issue. He died 1788.
*Raja [[Ishwari Sen]], 13th Raja of Mandi (1788–1826), born 1784, married 1stly, a daughter of Mian Fateh Chand Katoch, married 2ndly, a daughter of Raja Uggar Singh of Bashahr. He died in 1826.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bhardwaj |first1=A. |last2=Sharma |first2=S. |date=2024 |title=Political Dynamics During the Reign of Ranjit Singh: A Case of Western Himachal Hill States |journal=[[Indian Historical Review]] |volume=51 |number=2 |pages=260–273 |doi=10.1177/03769836241287109}}</ref>
*Raja [[Zalim Sen]], 14th Raja of Mandi (1826–1839). He died in June 1839.
*Raja [[Balbir Sen]], 15th Raja of Mandi (1839–1851), born about 1817, married several wives, and had issue, as well as illegitimate issue. He died 26 January 1851.
*Raja [[Bijai Sen]], 16th Raja of Mandi (1851–1902), born 1846; married 1stly, 21 July 1859, a daughter of Raja Jagat Chand of Datarpur, married 2ndly, 25 July 1859, a daughter of Raja Jai Singh of Guler, married 3rdly, (name unknown), married 4thly, a sister of Mian Kishan Singh Guleria, married 5thly, a daughter of Mian Jagat Singh, married 6thly, a daughter of Mian Hira (or Udham) Chand of Datarpur, and had issue, as well as natural issue. He died 10 December 1902.
*Raja [[Bhawani Sen]], 17th Raja of Mandi (1902–1912), born 17 April 1883, educated at Aitchison Chiefs College, Lahore; married 1stly, a daughter of Kanwar Balbir Singh of Sirmur, married 2ndly, a daughter of Mian Surat Singh of Suket, married 3trdly, 1907, Rani Lalit Kumari, died 4 May 1938, daughter of Raja Prithvi Dhwaj Shah, Talukdar of Khairigarh-Singhai, and had issue. He died on 9 February 1912.

===Interregnum 1912–1913===
*Maj. HH Raja Sir [[Joginder Sen Bahadur]], 18th Raja of Mandi (1913–1986), son of Mian Kishan Singh Sahib, born 20 August 1904, educated at Queen Mary's College and Aitchison College, Lahore; Indian Ambassador to Brazil 1952–1956; Member of Lok Sabha 1957–1962; Honorary Lt.-Col. 3rd/17th Dogra Regiment and Bengal Sappers and Miners, married 1stly, about 1911, a daughter of Thakur Devi Singh of Delath, married 2ndly, 8 February 1923, HH Rani Amrit Kaur Ahluwalia, born 1904, died 1948, daughter of Col. HH Farzand i-Dilband Rasikhul-Itiqad Daulat-i-Inglishia Raja-i-Rajgan Maharaja Sir Jagatjit Singh Bahadur Ahluwalia of Kapurthala, and his wife, Rani Kanari, married 3rdly, 13 May 1930, Kumari Kusum Kumari [HH Rani Kusum Kumari of Mandi], born 27 August 1913, died June 1998, daughter of Kunwar Prithiraj Sinhji of Rajpipla, and had issue, two sons and two daughters. He died 16 June 1986.

===Present Raja of Mandi===
[[File:HH Raja Sri, and Rani Vina, son and guests. Mandi Palace grounds. 2010.jpg|thumb|HH Raja Sri, and Rani Vina, son and guests. [[Mandi, Himachal Pradesh|Mandi]] Palace grounds. 2010]]
*HH Raja [[Ashokpal Sen]], 19th (1986–2021)

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Lists of Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:Mandi, Himachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:History of Himachal Pradesh]]

Barrack Square (Square Field)

2025-08-09T20:16:53Z

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{{Short description|Ground in West Bengal}}
{{Orphan|date=February 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2022}}

'''Barrack Square or Square Field''' is a historical ground situated in the central of [[Berhampore]], [[India]] in [[Murshidabad district]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Gabaccia |first1=Donna R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dvYNwyhZZykC&dq=Square+Field+Berhampore&pg=PT391 |title=Gender History Across Epistemologies |last2=Maynes |first2=Mary Jo |date=2013-02-19 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-118-50822-0 |language=en}}</ref> Barrack Square was established as the new cantonment of Suba Bengal on 1767 covering an area of about 40 acres.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Barrack Square |url=https://wbhc.in/home/place_details/YjY2YTdiYmFkNWI0YzM3ZGUwMzc5NTQ2MmM0YzU0MTIzOGYyNmRhNWZjNDRiZTIzMjMwMmVkZDcyNDlmMTRhNTYxMDk2ZjdlOTFlZTY3ZjU0YzA3MmQyYzY4YTg3YjBjMzc4ZmVhMGQxN2MzNGMwOGFhMmRiOWE5YWZkZDVjNjRJZ1NqVTFRSmsxWDVWaWZISTJlUTU1VUJOSy9SYnZTSUdxUFhLWUdhWDFFPQ== |access-date=24 June 2022 |website=West Bengal Heritage Commission, Government of West Bengal |archive-date=25 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220625024000/https://wbhc.in/home/place_details/YjY2YTdiYmFkNWI0YzM3ZGUwMzc5NTQ2MmM0YzU0MTIzOGYyNmRhNWZjNDRiZTIzMjMwMmVkZDcyNDlmMTRhNTYxMDk2ZjdlOTFlZTY3ZjU0YzA3MmQyYzY4YTg3YjBjMzc4ZmVhMGQxN2MzNGMwOGFhMmRiOWE5YWZkZDVjNjRJZ1NqVTFRSmsxWDVWaWZISTJlUTU1VUJOSy9SYnZTSUdxUFhLWUdhWDFFPQ== |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=সিপাহি বিদ্রোহের সূত্রভূমি বহরমপুরের 'ব্যারাক স্কোয়ার ফিল্ড' এবার নতুন সাজে |work=[[Aajkaal]] |url=https://aajkaal.in/news/state/decoration-at-behrampur-barrack-square-field-gssu |access-date=24 June 2022 |archive-date=29 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029123027/https://aajkaal.in/news/state/decoration-at-behrampur-barrack-square-field-gssu |url-status=dead }}</ref> There are several old bungalows and barracks, presently used as Government offices.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mitra |first=Asok |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hc0MUqbodgIC&dq=Square+Field+Berhampore&pg=PA32 |title=The New India, 1948-1955: Memoirs of an Indian Civil Servant |date=1991 |publisher=Popular Prakashan |isbn=978-81-7154-691-6 |language=en}}</ref>

== Historical significance ==
The [[East India Company|British East India Company]] leased a total of 400 bighas land from the Nawab [[Mir Jafar]] in 1767 to establish a new cantonment. The cantonment was designed by [[Archibald Campbell (British Army officer, born 1739)|Archibald Campbell]] and overseen by the architect Captain John Brohier where from the first major war of [[Indian Rebellion of 1857|Indian Rebellion]] or Sepoy Mutiny of 1857 took place.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Abedin |first=Anal |date=26 January 2015 |title=অনাদরে ধুঁকছে ব্যারাক স্কোয়ার |work=[[Anandabazar Patrika]] |url=https://www.anandabazar.com/west-bengal/nadia-murshidabad/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%A8-%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%A7-%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%9B-%E0%A6%AC-%E0%A6%AF-%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%95-%E0%A6%B8-%E0%A6%95-%E0%A7%9F-%E0%A6%B0-1.108872 |access-date=24 June 2022}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Maidans in India]]
[[Category:Berhampore]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Murshidabad]]

Saathiya – Pyar Ka Naya Ehsaas

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#REDIRECT[[List_of_programmes_broadcast_by_Sahara_One#Drama_series]]

Avanti–Magadhan War

2025-07-06T16:52:20Z

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{{Short description|Series of wars in Ancient India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2023}}
{{Lead too short|date=March 2025}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Avanti-Magadhī War
| place = North India
| image =
| caption =
| date = 544–400 BCE
| territory = [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadhī]] annexation of [[Pradyota dynasty|Avanti]]
| result = Magadhī victory
| combatant1 = [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]]
*[[Haryanka Dynasty]] (544–413)
*[[Shishunaga dynasty]] (413–400)
| combatant2 = [[Pradyota dynasty|Avanti]]
| commander1 = {{plain list|
*[[Bimbisara]]
*[[Ajatashatru]]
*[[Udayin]]
*Anuruddha
*Munda
*[[Nagadasaka]]
*[[Shishunaga]]
}}
| commander2 = {{plain list|
* Palaka
* Visakhayupa
* Ajaka
* Varttivarddhana or Nandivardhana
}}
| strength1 = Unknown
| strength2 = Unknown
| casualties2 = Unknown
| campaignbox =
| casualties1 = Unknown
}}

The '''Avanti-Magadhan war''' was fought between [[Haryanka dynasty|Magadha]] and [[Avanti (Ancient India)|Avanti]] for domination over much of North India.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Chaurasia|first=Radhey Shyam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cWmsQQ2smXIC&pg=PA76|title=History of Ancient India: Earliest Times to 1000 A.D.|date=May 2002|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist|isbn=978-81-269-0027-5|language=en}}</ref>

The ancient Indian states were almost always in conflict with one another. During the reign of King [[Bimbisara]] of the [[Haryanka dynasty]] of [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]] pursued an expansionist policy. This caused him to come into conflict with the [[Pradyota dynasty]] of Avanti. Bimbisara had to fortify [[Rajgir]] due to the threat of an Avanti invasion.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Pochhammer|first=Wilhelm von|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=794gAAAAMAAJ|title=India's Road to Nationhood: A Political History of the Subcontinent|date=1981|publisher=Allied|language=en}}</ref><ref name="pp">{{Cite book|last=Raychaudhuri|first=Hemchandra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h1KObc_qaXYC&pg=PA166|title=Political History of Ancient India: From the Accession of Parikshit to the Extinction of the Gupta Dynasty|date=2006|publisher=Cosmo Publications|isbn=978-81-307-0291-9|language=en}}</ref> During the early years of the reign of [[Ajatashatru]], Avanti managed to establish its supremacy by invading certain parts of Magadhan territories.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sathe|first=Shriram|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BNgGAAAAYAAJ|title=Dates of the Buddha|date=1987|publisher=Bharatiya Itihasa Sankalana Samiti|language=en}}</ref>

== Shishunaga: Conquest of Avanti ==
After the death of Ajatashatru a period of uncertainty followed and a succession of weak rulers again gave rise to a threat of a Pradyota invasion. Enraged by this, the people of Magadha overthrew the last of the Haryanka rulers and one of the [[Amatya|ministers]], [[Shishunaga]], usurped the throne. Shishunaga defeated the Pradyota dynasty of Avanti, removing a major threat to the Magadhan Empire.<ref name="pp" />

== See also ==
*[[Magadha-Vajji war]]

== References ==
<references />

[[Category:Avanti (region)]]
[[Category:Rajgir]]
[[Category:5th century BC in India]]
[[Category:5th-century BC conflicts]]
[[Category:Wars involving Magadha]]