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Pravaig Dynamics

2023-10-06T10:12:51Z

Ishivammadaan: Pravaig: Changed company name to the correct one

#REDIRECT [[Pravaig]]

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Padampur, Mainpuri

2023-09-13T23:22:36Z

Ishivammadaan: Finished writing a new contribution.

{{Short description|Village in Uttar Pradesh, India}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Use Indian English}}
{{other uses|Padampur}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Padampur
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = Village
| image_skyline =
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| pushpin_map = India Uttar Pradesh
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Uttar Pradesh, India
| coordinates = {{coord|27.21157|N|79.21579|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = [[India]]
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Mainpuri district|Mainpuri]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[Tehsil]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[Bhongaon]]
| established_title = 
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| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes = <ref name="Census 2011 A"/>
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 3.359
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 2130
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes = <ref name="Census 2011 A"/>
| demographics_type1 =
| demographics1_title1 =
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| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code =
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| footnotes =
}}
'''Padampur''' ([[Devanagari]]: पदमपुर {{IAST|Padampur}}) is a village in [[Sultanganj, Mainpuri|Sultanganj]] block of [[Mainpuri district]], [[Uttar Pradesh]]. As of 2011, it has a population of 2,130, in 371 households.

== Demographics ==
As of 2011, Padampur had a population of 2,130, in 371 households.<ref name="Census 2011 A"/>{{rp|174}} This population was 51.5% male (1,096) and 48.5% female (1,034). The 0-6 age group numbered 318 (175 male and 143 female), or 14.9% of the total population. 345 residents were members of Scheduled Castes, or 16.2% of the total.<ref name="Census 2011 B">{{cite web |title=Census of India 2011: Uttar Pradesh District Census Handbook - Mainpuri, Part B (Village and Town Wise Primary Census Abstract) |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/1259/download/4050/DH_2011_0917_PART_B_DCHB_MAINPURI.pdf |website=Census of India |access-date=19 June 2023}}</ref>{{rp|130-1}}

The [[1981 Census of India|1981 census]] recorded Padampur as having a population of 1,460 people, in 239 households.<ref name="Census 1981">{{cite book |title=Census 1981 Uttar Pradesh: District Census Handbook Part XIII-A: Village & Town Directory, District Mainpuri |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/29484/download/32665/28516_1981_MAI.pdf |access-date=25 July 2023}}</ref>{{rp|172-3}}

The [[1961 Census of India|1961 census]] recorded Padampur as comprising 2 hamlets, with a total population of 1,066 people (553 male and 513 female), in 183 households and 122 physical houses. The area of the village was given as 662 acres.<ref name="Census 1961">{{cite book |title=Census 1961: District Census Handbook, Uttar Pradesh (24 - Mainpuri District) |location=Lucknow |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/28772/download/31954/22833_1961_MAI.pdf |access-date=25 December 2021}}</ref>{{rp|xcvi}}

== Infrastructure ==
As of 2011, Padampur had 2 primary schools; it did not have any healthcare facilities. Drinking water was provided by tap, hand pump, and tube well/borehole; there were no public toilets. The village had a post office but no public library; there was at least some access to electricity for all purposes. Streets were made of both ''[[Indian vernacular architecture#kachcha|kachcha]]'' and ''[[Indian vernacular architecture#pucca|pakka]]'' materials.<ref name="Census 2011 A">{{cite web |title=Census of India 2011: Uttar Pradesh District Census Handbook - Mainpuri, Part A (Village and Town Directory) |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/1258/download/4046/DH_2011_0917_PART_A_DCHB_MAINPURI.pdf |website=Census of India |access-date=19 June 2023}}</ref>{{rp|174-9}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Mainpuri district}}

[[Category:Villages in Mainpuri district]]

Collegiate university

2023-09-12T20:18:07Z

Ishivammadaan: Form of university organisation

{{Short description|Form of university organisation}}

A '''collegiate university''' is a [[university]] in which functions are divided between a central administration and a number of constituent [[college]]s. Historically, the first collegiate university was the [[University of Paris]] and its first college was the [[Collège des Dix-Huit]]. The two principal forms are [[residential college]] universities, where the central university is responsible for teaching and colleges may deliver some teaching but are primarily residential communities, and federal universities where the central university has an administrative (and sometimes examining) role and the colleges may be residential but are primarily teaching institutions. The larger colleges or campuses of federal universities, such as [[University College London]] and [[University of California, Berkeley]], may be effectively universities in their own right and often have their own [[Students' union|student union]]s.

For universities with [[residential college]]s, the principal difference between these and non-collegiate halls of residence (or dormitories) is that "colleges are societies (Latin ''collegia''), not buildings".<ref name=howto>{{cite web|url=http://collegiateway.org/howto/|title=How to Build a Residential College|work=The Collegiate Way|author=Robert J. O'Hara|access-date=31 August 2017}}</ref> This is expressed in different ways in different universities; commonly students are members of a college, not residents of a college, and remain members whether they are living in the college or not,<ref>{{cite web|quote=every Durham University student belongs to a college, whether you live in college or elsewhere.|url=https://www.dur.ac.uk/colleges/|title=Colleges and accommodation|publisher=Durham University|access-date=31 August 2017}}</ref> but this is not universal and the distinction may be drawn in other ways (see, e.g., the [[University of Otago]] below). Residential colleges also commonly have members drawn from the university's academic staff in order to form a whole academic community.<ref name=howto/> Students in residential colleges are often organised into a [[common room (university)|junior common room]], with postgraduate students in a [[common room (university)|middle common room]], and academic staff forming a [[common room (university)|senior common room]].

==History==
The development of the collegiate university in western Europe followed shortly after the development of the [[medieval university]] itself. The first college to be established was the [[Collège des Dix-Huit]] at the [[University of Paris]], founded in 1180 by John of London shortly after he had returned from Jerusalem. This has led to the suggestion that the college was inspired by [[madrasa]]s he saw on his travels, although this has been disputed, particularly as, unlike madrasas, the early Paris colleges did not teach.<ref name=Geelhaar>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=14jlAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA76|page=76| author=Tim Geelhaar|title=Did the West Receive a "Complete Model"?|work=Cultural Transfers in Dispute: Representations in Asia, Europe and the Arab World since the Middle Ages|editor1=Jörg Feuchter|editor2=Friedhelm Hoffmann|editor3=Bee Yun|publisher=Campus Verlag|date=8 August 2011|isbn=9783593394046}}</ref> Other colleges appeared in Paris shortly after this, including the College of St Thomas du Louvre (1186) and the College of the Good Children of St Honore (1208–1209) – although these may both have had more of the character of grammar schools than colleges of the university<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E4-eLaN99PEC&pg=PA483|pages=483–485|title=The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages|volume=1, Salerno, Bologna, Paris|author=Hastings Rashdall|author-link=Hastings Rashdall|date=1895|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781108018104}}</ref> – various monastic colleges starting with the [[Dominican Order|Dominicans]] in 1217,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E4-eLaN99PEC&pg=PA487|page=487|title=The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages|volume=1, Salerno, Bologna, Paris|author=Hastings Rashdall|author-link=Hastings Rashdall|date=1895|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781108018104}}</ref> and the [[College of Sorbonne]] for non-monastic theology students in 1257.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5Z1VBEbF0HAC&pg=PA116|page=116|work=A History of the University in Europe|volume=1, Universities in the Middle Ages|title=Management and resources|author=Aleksander Gieysztor|editor=Hilde de Ridder-Symoens|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|date=16 October 2003|isbn=9780521541138}}</ref> From Paris, the idea spread to Oxford, where [[William of Durham]], who had been a Regent Master of Theology at Paris, left a legacy to found [[University College, Oxford]] in 1249. Although this is taken as the foundation date of University College, it was not until after 1280 that the college actually began operating. At around the same time [[Balliol College]] was founded by [[John de Balliol]] via a grant of land in 1263 as a penance imposed by the Bishop of Durham, and [[Merton College]] was founded with an endowment by [[Walter de Merton]] in 1264.<ref name=UCO>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XeXwCgAAQBAJ&pg=PR13|title=Early Records of University College, Oxford|pages=xiii-xiv|editor=R. H. Darwall-Smith|publisher=Boydell & Brewer|date=2015|isbn=9780904107272}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.balliol.ox.ac.uk/about-balliol/history|title=History|publisher=Balliol College|access-date=15 August 2017}}</ref>

These original Oxford colleges were "merely endowed boardinghouses for impoverished scholars",<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/University-of-Oxford|title=University of Oxford|publisher=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]|access-date=15 August 2017}}</ref> and were limited to those who had already received their [[Bachelor of Arts]] degree and were reading for higher degrees (usually theology).<ref name=UCO/> It was not until 1305 that teaching started in the [[College of Navarre]] in Paris,<ref name=Geelhaar/> an innovation that reached Oxford in 1379 with the foundation of [[New College, Oxford|New College]] – also the first college there to take undergraduate students.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.new.ox.ac.uk/college-history|title=The History of New College|publisher=New College, Oxford|access-date=15 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180413043446/http://www.new.ox.ac.uk/college-history|archive-date=2018-04-13|url-status=dead}}</ref> In [[University of Bologna|Bologna]] and other Italian universities, the colleges, as [[Hastings Rashdall|Rashdall]] put it, "remained to the last (what all Colleges were originally intended to be) eleemosynary institutions for the help of poor students, boarding-houses and not places of education" and never acquired the same importance as the colleges of Oxford or Paris.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E4-eLaN99PEC&pg=PA199|title=The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages|volume=1, Salerno, Bologna, Paris|author=Hastings Rashdall|author-link=Hastings Rashdall|date=1895|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=9781108018104|publication-date=2 November 2010}}</ref>

Colleges evolved in different directions in different places, but many European universities lost their colleges in the early 18th century. At the [[University of Coimbra]], for example, many colleges were established in the 16th century, although these were limited to the study of theology with the other faculties remaining non-collegiate. These colleges, joined by others in the 17th and 18th centuries, persisted until 1834, when they (along with the religious orders that ran then) were suppressed following the Portuguese civil war.<ref name=coimbra>{{cite web|url=http://collegiateway.org/news/2008-coimbra-university-colleges|title=The Lost College of the University of Coimbra|work=Collegiate Way|author=Robert J. O'Hara|access-date=17 August 2017}}</ref> The colleges of Paris were closed along with the university itself and the rest of the French universities after the French Revolution, as were the colleges of the [[University of Salamanca]].<ref name="Cathenc Paris">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11495a.htm|title=University of Paris|encyclopedia=Catholic Encyclopedia|access-date=17 August 2017}}</ref><ref name=salamanca>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13392a.htm|title=University of Salamanca|encyclopedia=Catholic Encyclopedia|access-date=17 August 2017}}</ref>

While the continental universities retained control over their colleges, in England it was the colleges that came to dominate the universities.<ref name=Hamilton>{{cite book|work=DISCUSSIONS ON PHILOSOPHY AND LITERATURE, EDUCATION AND UNIVERSITY REFORM|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UPkH1jlyR1kC&pg=PA383|pages=383–429|author=William Hamilton|title=On the State of the English Universities, With More Especial Reference to Oxford|date=June 1831}}</ref> The [[Hebdomadal Council|Hebdomadal Board]] was established by [[William Laud]] at Oxford in 1631 with the intent of diluting the influence of Congregation (the assembly of regent masters) and Convocation (the assembly of all graduates).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.admin.ox.ac.uk/statutes/375-092.shtml#_Toc30485128|title=The Laudian Code|work=Statutes and Regulations|publisher=University of Oxford|access-date=15 August 2017}}</ref> This led to criticism in the 19th century, with [[Sir William Hamilton, 9th Baronet|William Hamilton]] alleging that the colleges had unlawfully usurped the functions of the universities as the tutors had taken over the teaching from the professors.<ref name=Hamilton/> Royal Commissions in the 1850s led to Acts of Parliament in 1854 (for Oxford) and 1856 (for Cambridge) that, among other measures, limited the power of the colleges.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.admin.ox.ac.uk/statutes/375-092.shtml#_Toc30485129|title=University Commissioners 1850-81|work=Statutes and Regulations|publisher=University of Oxford|access-date=15 August 2017}}</ref>

Prior to these reforms, however, the first two new universities in England for over 600 years were established, both offering new versions of the collegiate university. The [[University of Durham]] was founded in 1832, taking Oxford for its model, and [[University College, Durham]] was created at the same time. This college, unlike those of Oxford and Cambridge, was not legally distinct from the university and nor was it responsible for teaching, which was carried out by university professors rather than college tutors. This restored the teaching role of the central university that had been lost at Oxford and Cambridge and the original role of the college as a residential rather than educational institution (c.f. [[Hastings Rashdall|Rashdall]]'s comments on the Bologna colleges, above).<ref>{{cite web|quote=Durham did not, for example, follow the professorial model of the older English universities, which was itself the subject of calls for reform. The professorial model at Durham followed the Scottish pattern. Thorp always intended that the Professors would work: they would 'have the charge of the studies in their respective departments and work as at Glasgow and the foreign Universities, and as they did at Oxford in old times'.|url=https://universityhistories.com/2016/08/12/durham-university-last-of-the-ancient-universities-and-first-of-the-new-1831-1871/#_ftnref6|title=Durham University: Last of the Ancient Universities and First of the New (1831-1871)|work=University Histories|author= Dr Matthew Andrews|publisher=University History Research Group, University of Manchester|date=12 August 2016|access-date=20 August 2017}}</ref> It also pioneered the concept of residential colleges being owned by the university rather than being established as independent corporations, which provided a useful model for modern institutions looking to establish colleges.<ref name="O'Hara Durham">{{cite web|url=http://collegiateway.org/news/2004-durham-colleges|title=The Collegiate System at the University of Durham|author=R. J. O’Hara|work=Collegiate Way|date=20 December 2004|access-date=4 September 2017|quote= As creatures of the central university, the Durham colleges are a far better model for people at other institutions to look to, than are the independent colleges of Oxford and Cambridge. I strongly urge university faculty and administrators interested in residential colleges to take a close look at Durham and see what structures there might be adapted for their own use.}}</ref> Unlike the earlier foundation of [[Trinity College Dublin]], which had been established as "the mother of a university" but to which no other colleges had ever been added, the Durham system allowed for the university itself to found further colleges, which it did with the establishment of [[Hatfield College]] in 1846.

The [[University of London]], founded in 1836, was very different. It was, in its original form, an examining body for [[Affiliated school|affiliated colleges]]. The first two of these - [[University College London]] (UCL; founded 1826) and [[King's College London]] (founded 1829) were already in existence and resembled non-collegiate 'unitary' universities, as found in Scotland and continental Europe, except in their lack of degree-awarding powers. There had been much dispute over UCL's attempt to gain recognition as a university, and the University of London was designed as a political solution to put an end to this dispute and to enable the students at both UCL and King's to receive degrees. It was modelled to a certain extent on Cambridge, where (at that time) the senate of the university was responsible for examinations and the colleges for the teaching, and also took on some features of the [[University of France]],<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LmqvAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA76|page=76|author=Negley Harte|title=University of London: An Illustrated History: 1836-1986|date=December 2000|publisher=A&C Black |isbn=9780567564498}}</ref> an institution established under [[Napoleon]] in 1808 that had absorbed the formerly independent French universities as "academies" within a single university structure. Unlike Oxford and Cambridge, the affiliated colleges of London (which were spread across the country, not confined to London) were not constituent parts of the university and had no say in its running. Another major difference was that both UCL and King's were non-residential, providing teaching but not accommodation. This would provide the model for the civic colleges that were established in the major English cities, which later became the [[redbrick universities]]. After 1858 the requirement for colleges to be affiliated was dropped and London degrees were available to anyone who could pass the examinations. It was not until 1900 that London, after a period of sustained pressure from the teaching institutions in London, became a federal university. The London pattern spread the idea of the examining university with affiliated colleges around the [[British Empire]], in particular to Canada where the [[University of Toronto]] was refounded as an examining university, its teaching arm becoming [[University College, Toronto]], which federated other colleges in the region,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eIi2ciQE2PwC&pg=PA37|pages=37–38|title=The University of Toronto: A History|author= Martin L. Friedland|publisher=University of Toronto Press|date= 2013|isbn=9781442615366}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|work=A History of the University in Europe: Volume 3, Universities in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries (1800–1945)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=entlN4EEPUYC&pg=PA176|author1=Edward Shils|author2=John Roberts|title=The diffusion of European models|editor=Walter Rüegg|publisher= Cambridge University Press|date =16 September 2004|isbn = 9781139453028}}</ref> and to India, where the universities of [[University of Calcutta|Calcutta]], [[University of Madras|Madras]] and [[University of Mumbai|Mumbai]] were founded in 1857, and New Zealand, where the federal [[University of New Zealand]] was established in 1874.

A modification of the [[University of London]] plan was used for the [[Queen's University of Ireland]], established in 1850. This took in three newly established colleges: the Queen's Colleges of [[Queen's College, Belfast|Belfast]], [[Queen's College, Cork|Cork]] and [[Queen's College, Galway|Galway]]. This was more federal than London, but proved inflexible and was replaced in 1880 by the [[Royal University of Ireland]], which was an examining university based more directly on London. Also in 1880 another federal university, the [[Victoria University (UK)|Victoria University]], was established in the north of England to solve the problem of Owen's College, Manchester, seeking university status. This originally just took in Owen's College, but grew to take in university colleges in Leeds and Liverpool. However, it unravelled in 1903-4 after Birmingham successfully became England's first unitary university, with the three colleges all becoming universities in their own right.

The federal [[University of Wales]] was created in 1893 as a national university for Wales, taking in pre-existing colleges in Aberystwyth, Cardiff and Bangor that had been preparing students for London degrees. It lasted as a federal university until 2007, when it became a confederal non-membership degree-awarding body. The University of Durham became a very curious federal institution in 1908 – its Durham division was itself collegiate, while its Newcastle division had two independent colleges (Armstrong College, the civic university college affiliated to Durham since its creation in 1871, and the Medical College, which had been affiliated since the 1850s). The two colleges of the Newcastle division were merged in 1937, and [[Newcastle University|Newcastle]] finally became an independent university in 1963. Similarly, the university college in [[University of Dundee|Dundee]], founded 1881, became a college of the [[University of St Andrews]] in 1897 before becoming an independent university in 1967.

The idea of the [[residential college]] spread to America in the early 20th century, with [[Harvard University|Harvard]] and [[Yale University|Yale]] both establishing colleges (called "houses" at Harvard) in the 1930s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://collegiateway.org/colleges/|title=Residential Colleges Worldwide|work=Collegiate Way|author=Robert J. O'Hara|access-date=17 August 2017}}</ref> Like the Durham colleges, these were colleges established and owned by the universities with only limited involvement in teaching.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://admissions.yale.edu/residential-colleges|title=Residential Colleges|publisher=Yale University|access-date=17 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://osl.fas.harvard.edu/houses|title=The House System|publisher=Harvard University|access-date=17 August 2017}}</ref> The American [[state university system]]s also developed federal-style universities with autonomous campuses (although normally not legally independent). As these systems often developed from a single original campus, this often became identified as the 'flagship' campus of the state system.

==Types of collegiate university==

An early typology of British university institutions by the Principal of the [[University of Edinburgh]] in 1870 divided them into three types: collegiate (Oxford, Cambridge and Durham), professorial (the Scottish universities – St Andrews, Glasgow, Aberdeen and Edinburgh – and the new colleges in Manchester and London) and non-teaching examination boards (London). However, even at that time drawing hard lines was difficult: Oxford had, until a few years prior to this, been an examination board for its colleges, and Trinity College Dublin combined elements of the collegiate and professorial styles.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Upc9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA14|page=14|work=Present and Future in Higher Education|publisher=Cambridge University Press|title=The growth of the modern university|author=R. E. Bell|year=1973}}</ref> More recently, the collegiate and federal traditions have been seen as separate in Britain, although both inspired by different aspects of the colleges at Oxford and Cambridge, e.g. "With the partial exception of Durham (and in the twentieth century York, Kent and Lancaster) there has been no serious attempt to create in Britain a collegial tradition in the mode of Oxbridge, but the federal principle has been widely emulated."<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JrPjAyfdfBMC&pg=PA46|title=Oxford, the Collegiate University: Conflict, Consensus and Continuity|publisher=Springer|author1=Ted Tapper|author2=David Palfreyman|date=3 November 2010|isbn=9789400700475}}</ref> Similarly a conference on ''The Collegiate Way'' in 2014 concentrated entirely on universities with [[residential college]]s (e.g. Oxford, Cambridge, Durham, etc.), making no mention of federal universities.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9qllDQAAQBAJ|title=The Collegiate Way: University Education in a Collegiate Context|editor1=H. M. Evans|editor2= T. P. Burt|date=26 October 2016|publisher=Springer|isbn=9789463006811}}</ref> This was in keeping with the idea that "The collegiate way is the notion that a curriculum, a library, a faculty, and students are not enough to make a college. It is an adherence to the residential scheme of things."<ref>{{cite book|author=Frederick Rudolph|work=The American College and University: A History|title=The Collegiate Way|page=87|publisher=University of Georgia Press|date=1962|edition=1990}}</ref>

Yet the federal principle has also been called the "Cambridge principle",<ref name=PT2013>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FTwsBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA30|pages=30–31|title=Oxford and the Decline of the Collegiate Tradition|publisher=Routledge|author2=Ted Tapper|author1=David Palfreyman|date=7 March 2013|isbn=9781136225147}}</ref> and is sometimes seen as essential to a collegiate university.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U7H_m5ji-IwC&pg=PA67|page=67|title=The Collegial Tradition in the Age of Mass Higher Education |publisher=Springer|author1=Ted Tapper|author2=David Palfreyman|date=20 July 2010|isbn=9789048191543}}</ref> There is also dispute as to what is meant by a federal university: some writers have argued that the distinct feature of a federal system is the separation of teaching and examination, but others see the distinction as being one of governance and distribution of authority.<ref name=PT2013/> A distinction is sometimes made between ''federal universities'', ''collegiate universities'' (where the college is the primary academic unit, i.e. Oxford and Cambridge) and universities that have residential colleges but where these do not participate in teaching.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gahEBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA44|title=The Meanings of Mass Higher Education|author= Peter Scott|page=44|publisher=McGraw-Hill Education (UK)|date = 1 October 1995|isbn=9780335232741}}</ref> One definition of a collegiate university states that "it’s the sense of community within a big environment that’s the common feature".<ref>{{cite news|work=Independent School Parent|publisher=Chelsea Magazine Company|author=Natalie Milner|date=26 April 2016|title=What is a Collegiate University?|access-date=16 September 2017|url=http://www.independentschoolparent.com/school/senior/what-is-a-collegiate-university/#}}</ref>

===Collegiate universities with centralised teaching===
[[File:St johns rear buildings.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Buildings of [[St John's College, Cambridge]]]]

In many collegiate universities, the teaching is centrally organised through departments and faculties on a university-wide basis. The level of participation in teaching of colleges in such universities varies: they may provide no formal teaching (e.g. Durham), may provide some teaching to their own students (the Oxbridge model), may provide some teaching that is available university or faculty-wide (e.g. Toronto), or may be responsible for delivering centrally organised, university-wide teaching (e.g. Roehampton). Whatever their role in teaching, almost all are residential communities and they will often have their own halls for meals, libraries, sports teams and societies; such colleges are thus sometimes termed [[residential college]]s. [[Monash University]] in Australia has, however, developed a non-residential college model, and [[New York University]] has similar "learning communities" to support non-residential students.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://collegiateway2014.wordpress.com/2014/07/22/should-a-college-be-residential-or-non-residential/|work=Collegiate Way 2014|publisher=Durham University|title=Should a College be Residential or Non-residential?|date=22 July 2014|author=Gay Perez}}</ref> The specifics of how the collegiate system is organised – whether college membership is necessary for students, whether colleges are legally independent, the role colleges play in admissions, etc. – vary widely between different universities.

While the ancient universities of Oxford and Cambridge consist of independent colleges that supplement the university's teaching with their own tutorials, some universities have built colleges that do not provide teaching but still perform much of the housing and social duties. Such colleges are planned, built and funded entirely by the central administration and are thus dependent on it, however they still retain their own administrative structures and have a degree of independence. This system was pioneered at [[Durham University]] in the United Kingdom in the 1830s, and has been described as "a far better model for people at other institutions to look to, than are the independent colleges of Oxford and Cambridge".<ref name="O'Hara Durham"/> This has been widely followed in the US, where the colleges at universities such as Harvard, Yale and Princeton are entirely owned by the central university. Some universities, such as the [[University of Otago]] in New Zealand, [[Durham University]] in the UK and the [[University of Pavia]] in Italy have a mix of independent and university-owned (or, in the case of Pavia, state-owned) colleges.

In many collegiate universities, following the pattern of Oxford and Cambridge, membership of a college is obligatory for students, but in others it is either not necessary or only necessary for students in particular faculties, e.g. at the University of Toronto, where the colleges are all associated with the Faculty of Arts and Sciences.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.utoronto.ca/academics/academic-units|title=Academic Units|publisher=University of Toronto|access-date=20 August 2017}}</ref>

===Non-centralised teaching collegiate universities===
{{Gallery
|title=The two founding colleges of the federal [[University of London]]
|align=right
|File:Strand102.jpg
|[[King's College London]]
|File:UCL Portico Building.jpg
|[[University College London]]
}}

Sometimes, as noted above, referred to as ''federal universities'', these are universities where the teaching function is entirely carried out by constituent colleges, which will often have their own faculties and departments. This is represented by examples such as Oxford and Cambridge up to the mid 19th century, the University of Wales from 1893 to 2007, and the University of London from 1900. The level of legal separation – e.g. whether the colleges are separate corporate bodies – varies between universities. As the colleges are primarily teaching institutions, they may not always be residential communities and many are effectively universities in their own right.

Some colleges are part of loose federations that allow them to exercise nearly complete self-governance, and even (as in the case of colleges of the [[University of London]]) award their own degrees. Other colleges are not legally separate from their parent university, e.g. the [[University of the Arts, London]] (UAL) in the UK and many [[state university system]]s in the US. In some US state systems, a "[[Flagship#University|flagship campus]]" may be identified – often the original campus of the system – which is considered (either officially or informally) to stand above the other campuses in the system (e.g. [[University of Wisconsin–Madison]], [[University of Colorado Boulder]]).

Some universities may have centralised teaching but also have colleges that do not access that centralised teaching. Historically, this was the case at [[Durham University]] for the medical school and Armstrong College in the late 19th and early 20th century (prior to the formation of a true federal university in 1908) and for University College Stockton from 1994 to 2001. The two colleges of [[Queen's University Belfast]], which is for the main part a unitary university, currently operate in this manner. This should not be confused with the situation where courses at an independent college are validated by a university but the college does not become part of that university, e.g. the relationship between the [[New College of the Humanities]] and [[Southampton Solent University]] from 2015 to 2020.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/southampton-solent-validate-%C2%A318k-new-college-humanities-degrees |title=Southampton Solent to validate £18K New College of the Humanities degrees: A. C. Grayling's 'Oxbridge-style' private college strikes agreement with post-92 institution|work=[[Times Higher Education]]|date= 30 July 2015}}</ref>

Over time, the level of federation may evolve, particularly as independent colleges grow and seek to establish themselves as universities in their own right. [[University College London]] and [[King's College London]] were for much of the 20th century dependent colleges of the central university, without separate legal identities, and all London colleges received funds through the University of London rather than directly. The trend since the latter half of the 20th century has been for increased decentralisation; taken to its ultimate, this has led some colleges to formally end their relations with the parent university to become degree-awarding universities. Examples include [[Cardiff University]] (formerly the [[University of Wales, Cardiff]]) and [[Imperial College London]] (formerly a college of the University of London). Similarly [[Newcastle University]] was part of the federal [[University of Durham]] until 1963 and the [[University of Dundee]] was a college of the [[University of St Andrews]] until 1967. A number of autonomous universities in [[South Africa]] were formerly colleges of the [[University of South Africa]]. Many of the US state systems started as single campuses but have evolved to become federal systems, and the [[University of the Philippines]] similarly started as one campus but is now a system of "constituent universities".

==Collegiate universities around the world==
There are around 80 universities around the world with residential college systems.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dur.ac.uk/news/newsitem/?itemno=22814|title=Durham launches the UK's first collegiate universities conference|date=13 November 2014|publisher=Durham University}}</ref>

===Argentina===

In Argentina, the first educational institution to host this administrative format was IUNA Instituto Universitario Nacional de las Artes, since 2014 renamed UNA National University of the Arts, in Spanish: UNA - [[Universidad Nacional de las Artes]], established in 1993 as a Collegiate University, incorporation of various national institutions dedicated to the teaching of fine arts.<ref>UNA History, National University of the Artes, Argentina. https://movimiento.una.edu.ar/contenidos/historia_12492</ref>
The origins of the current UNA University lay in the 1875 founding of the National Society of the Stimulus of the Arts by painters Eduardo Schiaffino, Eduardo Sívori, and others. Their guild was rechartered as the National Academy of Fine Arts in 1905 and, then in 1923, on the initiative of painter and academic Ernesto de la Cárcova, created as a department of arts extension education in the [[University of Buenos Aires]], known as the Superior Art School of the Nation in Spanish ''"Escuela Nacional Superior de las Artes"''.<ref>Escuela Superior de Bellas Artes, Ernesto de la Cárcova, Argentina. https://sites.google.com/site/escueladelacarcova</ref>

===Australia===

In Australia, many universities have [[residential college]] systems, often combining independent (frequently denominational) and university-owned colleges. Some universities also have non-collegiate residences. Collegiate universities include the [[University of Queensland]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://liveuq.edu.au/the-colleges/|title=The Colleges|publisher=University of Queensland|access-date=30 August 2017}}</ref> the [[University of Tasmania]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.utas.edu.au/future-students/accommodation|title=Accommodation|publisher=University of Tasmania|access-date=30 August 2017}}</ref> the [[University of Western Australia]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ipoint.uwa.edu.au/app/answers/detail/a_id/419/~/applying-for-residential-college-%28on-campus%29-accommodation|title=Applying for residential college (on campus) accommodation|publisher=University of Western Australia|access-date=30 August 2017}}</ref> the [[University of Sydney]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sydney.edu.au/campus-life/accommodation/live-on-campus/camperdown-darlington/residential-colleges.html|title=Residential colleges|publisher=University of Sydney|access-date=30 August 2017}}</ref> the [[University of Melbourne]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.colleges.unimelb.edu.au/about/residential-colleges.html|title=Residential colleges|publisher=University of Melbourne|access-date=30 August 2017}}</ref> and the [[University of New South Wales]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.accommodation.unsw.edu.au/colleges|title=UNSW Colleges|publisher=University of New South Wales|access-date=30 August 2017}}</ref> [[Monash University]] runs an unusual "non-residential college" system for students living off-campus.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.monash.edu/non-residential-colleges|title=Non-residential colleges|publisher=Monash University|access-date=30 August 2017}}</ref>

===Canada===

In [[Canada]] the [[University of Toronto]] has a [[University of Toronto#Governance and colleges|collegiate system]] for students in the faculty of Arts and Sciences on its St George campus that took form from the mid 19th century, originally modelled after that of Oxford. Toronto has a mix of independent and dependent colleges, all of which offer academic programmes that are available faculty-wide rather that just to members of that college. While all students of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences on the St George campus are members of one of the colleges, students in other undergraduate faculties (Applied Science and Engineering, Architecture, Landscape and Design, Kinesiology and Physical Education, and Music) are only members of colleges if they live in a college residence, and the [[University of Toronto Mississauga]] and [[University of Toronto Scarborough]] are non-collegiate.<ref>{{cite book |title=The University of Toronto and Its Colleges, 1827–1906 |last=Alexander |first=William John |year=1906 |publisher=H. H. Langton, The University Library |location=Toronto}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.artsci.utoronto.ca/prospective/colleges|title=The College System|publisher=University of Toronto Faculty of Arts and Sciences|access-date=3 September 2017}}</ref>

[[Trent University]] in [[Peterborough, Ontario]] also has a collegiate model, with five colleges on the Peterborough campus. All students are affiliated to a college.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.trentu.ca/colleges/college-experience|title=The College Experience|publisher=Trent University|access-date=20 February 2019}}</ref>

===China===

Notable collegiate universities in China include [[Fudan University]], [[Xi'an Jiaotong University]], and [[East China Normal University]].

===France===
The number of collegiate universities in France has increased over the past years. These include:

* [[PSL Research University|PSL University]] (Paris Sciences & Lettres), with its constituent colleges or « [[Grandes Écoles]] » including, the [[École normale supérieure|École normale supérieure - PSL]], [[Collège de France]], [[Chimie ParisTech|Chimie ParisTech - PSL]], [[Mines ParisTech|Mines ParisTech - PSL]], [[Université Paris-Dauphine]], [[Observatoire de Paris]] and the [[École pratique des hautes études]];
* [[Paris-Saclay University]], with its [[College|dependent colleges]] including, the [[Paris-Saclay Faculty of Sciences]] and [[Paris-Saclay Medical School]]; and constituent colleges or « [[Grandes Écoles]] » including, the [[École normale supérieure Paris-Saclay]], [[CentraleSupélec]], [[AgroParisTech]] and the [[École supérieure d'optique|Institut d'optique Graduate School]];
* [[Polytechnic Institute of Paris]], with its constituent colleges or « [[Grandes Écoles]] » including, the [[École Polytechnique|École polytechnique]], [[ENSTA Paris]], [[ENSAE ParisTech|ENSAE Paris]], [[Télécom Paris]] and [[Télécom SudParis]];
*[[Université catholique de Lille]], with 5 [[College|dependent colleges]] and 25 constituent colleges.

===Hong Kong===
The [[University of Hong Kong]] (HKU) has an affiliated Anglican college, St John's College, which was founded in 1912 and has its own charter. The university also established Robert Black College in 1967 as a university guesthouse.{{clarify|date=September 2019}} Over the past decade{{when|date=September 2019}} some of the new residential halls were named colleges, including the Lap-Chee College, the Shun Hing College and the Chi Sun College. Centennial College, a provider of post-secondary education, is affiliated with the university.

The [[Chinese University of Hong Kong]] has [[Colleges of the Chinese University of Hong Kong|9 colleges]] which provide pastoral support and non-formal learning opportunities to supplement the formal teaching from the central administration of the university. Any full-time undergraduate at the university may apply for affiliation to a college.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/english/college/system.html|title=A Unique College System|publisher=Chinese University of Hong Kong|access-date=30 August 2017}}</ref> The three original colleges were founded as separate institutions which federated to found the university in 1963, and over the first two and a half decades teaching departments were merged as the university became more centralised.

The [[City University of Hong Kong]] has a Community College, similar to HKU's Centennial College, which been in a partnership arrangement with the [[University of Wollongong]] since 2014.

===India===

[[File:Mumbai 03-2016 37 University.jpg|250px|thumb|A building of the [[University of Mumbai]]]]

[[File:Madrasuni.jpg|250px|thumb|The [[University of Madras]], established 1857, is one of the three oldest modern [[state universities]] in [[India]]]]

[[File:University of Calcutta cropped.JPG|250px|thumb|[[University of Calcutta]], established on 1857, was the first multidisciplinary and secular Western-style institution in Asia.]]

Most of the public universities in [[India]] follow the collegiate system. The University of Mumbai, is a collegiate public state university located in the city of [[Mumbai]], [[Maharashtra]], [[India]]. The [[University of Mumbai]] is one of the largest universities in the world. As of 2013, the university had 711 affiliated colleges. As of 22 November 2021, the [[University Grants Commission (India)|UGC]] lists 441 state universities. The oldest establishment date listed by the [[University Grants Commission (India)|UGC]] is 1857, shared by the [[University of Calcutta]], the [[University of Madras]] and the [[University of Mumbai]]. Most State Universities are collegiate universities administering many affiliated colleges (often located in small towns) that typically offer a range of undergraduate courses, but may also offer post-graduate courses. More established colleges may even offer PhD programs in some departments with the approval of the affiliating university.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://aishe.gov.in/MHRDDashboard/home |title=MHRD Dashboard |access-date=3 June 2020 |archive-date=24 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201024163951/http://aishe.gov.in/MHRDDashboard/home |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Ireland===

[[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]'s only [[ancient university]] is the [[University of Dublin]]. Created during the reign of [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]], it is modelled on the collegiate universities of Cambridge and Oxford. However, only one constituent college was ever founded, hence the curious position of [[Trinity College, Dublin]] today. All of the teaching is provided by the college, with degrees being awarded by the university. The four constituent universities of the federal [[National University of Ireland]] are, for all essential purposes, independent universities.

===Italy===

In [[Italy]], the only collegiate university is the [[University of Pavia]] with four independent colleges (including two established in the 16th century: [[Collegio Borromeo]], founded in 1561, and [[Collegio Ghislieri]], founded in 1567) and 12 public colleges. Students do not have to be members of colleges.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unipv.eu/site/en/home/international-students/living-in-pavia/university-colleges.html|title=University Colleges|publisher=University of Pavia|access-date=31 August 2017}}</ref>

===Macau===

The [[University of Macau]] has moved to a residential college system since 2010, when two pilot colleges were established. Further colleges have been founded since, and the university became collegiate in 2014, with 10 colleges in operation.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://rc.umac.mo/the-residential-college-system-%e6%9b%b8%e9%99%a2%e7%b3%bb%e7%b5%b1/|title=The Residential College System 書院系統|publisher=University of Macau|access-date=20 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://collegiateway.org/news/2009-university-of-macau|title=Residential Colleges for the University of Macau?|date=21 April 2009|access-date=20 August 2017|publisher=Collegiate Way}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://rc.umac.mo/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/Residential-College-System-Booklet-%E6%9B%B8%E9%99%A2%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1%E5%B0%8F%E5%86%8A%E5%AD%902016-17.pdf|title=The University of Macau Residential Colleges 2016/17|publisher=University of Macau|access-date=20 August 2017}}{{Dead link|date=September 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

===New Zealand===

[[File:University of Otago.jpg|250px|thumb|The [[University of Otago Registry Building]]]]

In New Zealand the [[University of Otago]] has [[Colleges of the University of Otago|15 residential colleges]], of which one (Abbey College) is postgraduate-only, nine are undergraduate-only and five take both postgraduate and undergraduate students.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.otago.ac.nz/accommodation/residential-colleges/index.html|title=Residential Colleges|publisher=University of Otaga|access-date=31 August 2017}}</ref> Most of the colleges are owned and managed by the university, but there are five independent "affiliated colleges" ([[Colleges of the University of Otago#City College|City College]], [[Knox College, Otago|Knox College]], [[St Margaret's College, Christchurch|St Margaret's College]], [[Salmond College]] and [[Selwyn College, Otago|Selwyn College]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.otago.ac.nz/study/otago628507.pdf|title=Administrative and Student Services and Facilities|work=The University of Otago Calendar|date=2017|page=142|publisher=University of Otaga|access-date=31 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170831131307/http://www.otago.ac.nz/study/otago628507.pdf|archive-date=31 August 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> Membership of a college is not obligatory for students, and only students in residence count as college members. The colleges manage admission to the college (but not the university) and provide academic tutorials to students.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://collegiateway2014.wordpress.com/2014/09/09/martyn-evans-on-the-collegiate-way/|title=Martyn Evans on The Collegiate Way|work=Collegiate Way 2014|publisher=Durham University|date=9 September 2014|author=Martyn Evans}}</ref>

===Singapore===

The [[University of the Arts Singapore|University of the Arts Singapore (UAS)]] is a publicly-funded private collegiate university in Singapore. It is a federation of two local arts colleges —[[Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts]], and [[LASALLE College of the Arts]]. It was announced as a planned-university in 2021, and took its present name in 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About us |url=https://uas.edu.sg/about-us |access-date=2023-08-01 |website=uas |language=en}}</ref>

UAS will be the seventh local university of Singapore, and also will be the only publicly-funded private university other than the defunct and restructured [[UniSIM]] in Singapore. UAS will have its own degree-conferring power in Singapore.<ref>{{Cite web |title=New Private University of the Arts Singapore – Formed by Alliance Between NAFA and LASALLE – to Open in 2024 |url=http://www.moe.gov.sg/news/press-releases/20220830-new-private-university-of-the-arts-singapore-formed-by-alliance-between-nafa-and-lasalle-to-open-in-2024 |access-date=2023-08-01 |website=www.moe.gov.sg |language=en}}</ref>

===United Kingdom===
{{Main|Colleges within universities in the United Kingdom}}

There are a number of British universities with colleges of different types. Some are ''listed bodies'' under the [[Education Reform Act 1988]] legally recognised as "Institutions of a University", while others are not;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2013/2993/schedule/part/2/made|title=The Education (Listed Bodies) (England) Order 2013|at=Part 2: Institutions of a University|work=legislation.gov.uk|access-date=30 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/wsi/2016/395/schedule/part/2/made|title=The Education (Listed Bodies) (Wales) Order 2016|at=Part 2: Institutions of a University|work=legislation.gov.uk|access-date=22 September 2018}}</ref>{{efn|The University of London's School of Advanced Studies, University Marine Biological Station, and University of London Institute Paris, Durham University's Wesley Study Centre, and the University of Manchester's Manchester Business School are also ''listed bodies'' as "Institutions of a University" but are not considered colleges by their parent universities}} colleges of the University of London are ''recognised bodies'' under the 1988 act that have the right to award degrees of the University of London and (in many cases) their own degrees.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2013/2992/schedule/paragraph/1/made|title=The Education (Recognised Bodies) (England) Order 2013|at=Schools, Colleges and Institutes of the University of London permitted by the University to award University of London degrees|work=legislation.gov.uk|access-date=22 September 2018}}</ref> Some colleges are legally independent of their parent university, while others are not.

Collegiate universities with centralised teaching and undergraduate teaching in colleges:
* [[University of Oxford]] (mostly independent colleges; listed bodies)
* [[University of Cambridge]] (independent colleges; listed bodies)

Collegiate universities with centralised teaching and residential-only colleges:
* [[Durham University]] (mostly dependent colleges; listed bodies) (with the exception of in-college teaching for ordinands at [[Cranmer Hall, Durham|Cranmer Hall]] theological college within [[St John's College, Durham|St John's]])
* [[University of York]] (dependent colleges; not listed bodies)
* [[University of Lancaster]] (dependent colleges; not listed bodies)
* [[University of Kent]] (dependent colleges; not listed bodies)

Collegiate universities with centralised teaching carried out by the colleges:
* [[Roehampton University]] (dependent colleges; not listed bodies)

Collegiate universities where all teaching is carried out in the colleges:
* [[University of London]] (independent colleges; recognised bodies)
* [[University of the Arts London]] (dependent colleges; not listed bodies)
* [[University of the Highlands and Islands]] (independent colleges; listed bodies)

Unitary universities with centralised teaching and associated colleges that carry out their own teaching:
* [[Queen's University Belfast]] (two independent colleges; listed bodies)
* [[University of South Wales]] (two dependent colleges including one further education college delivering some higher education courses; listed bodies)
* [[University of Wales Trinity Saint David]] (two dependent further education colleges delivering some higher education courses; listed bodies)

===United States===
{{See also|State university system}}
[[File:Branford Court spring 2.JPG|thumb|[[Branford College]] at [[Yale University]]]]
The US has a wide variety of systems. There are a number of universities with [[residential college]]s, most of which are owned by the central university, which may be referred to as residential colleges or as houses. These do not normally participate in formal teaching, although there are exceptions to this. Most collegiate universities in the US were previously non-collegiate but have established residential colleges in the 20th or 21st century. There were around 30 universities with residential colleges in the US in 2010,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.houstonpress.com/news/rice-university-residential-college-guarantee-not-all-students-get-what-they-pay-for-6714167|title=Rice University Residential College Guarantee: Not All Students Get What They Pay For|date= 22 July 2010|author=Chasen Marshall|work=Houston Press|access-date=4 September 2017}}</ref> examples include:
* [[Harvard University]] – Established in the 1930s, [[Harvard College#House system|Harvard's house system]] has 12 residential houses for "upperclass" (second year and above) students, with a 13th non-residential house for students living off campus and postgraduate students. Students are assigned to colleges at the end of their first year.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://college.harvard.edu/student-residential-life/residential-life/upperclass|title=Upperclassmen|publisher=Harvard University|access-date=3 September 2017}}</ref>
* [[Yale University]] – Also established in the 1930s, [[Residential colleges of Yale University|Yale's residential college system]] has 14 colleges which follow the traditional British system of students joining a college when they join the university and remaining a member of that college.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://yalecollege.yale.edu/campus-life/residential-colleges|title=Residential Colleges|publisher=Yale University|access-date=10 April 2018}}</ref>
* [[Rice University]] – Established in 1957 with four colleges, [[Residential colleges of Rice University|Rice's residential college system]] now has 11 colleges. Students join a college when they enter the university and retain their membership throughout their time as an undergraduate, with around 75% living in college.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://students.rice.edu/students/Colleges.asp|title=Colleges|publisher=Rice University|access-date=3 September 2017}}</ref>
* [[University of California, Santa Cruz]] – Beginning in 1965 with the founding of [[Cowell College]], the [[University of California, Santa Cruz#Residential colleges|UC Santa Cruz residential college system]] has the most established collegiate system on the West Coast. All undergraduate students, whether they live on campus or not, are affiliated with one of 10 residential colleges.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Undergraduate Colleges |url=https://www.ucsc.edu/campus/colleges.html |access-date=2022-08-01 |website=www.ucsc.edu}}</ref>
* [[University of Notre Dame]] – Established in the 1960s, the [[University of Notre Dame residence halls|Notre Dame residential college system]] features 32 halls in which all students are placed freshman year and remain for a minimum of 6 semesters. Students rarely switch halls, each of has its own spirit, coat of arms and colors, traditions, mascot, sport teams, events, dances and reputation.<ref>{{cite book |last=Glanzer |first=Perry L. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/969439621 |title=Restoring the soul of the university : unifying Christian higher education in a fragmented age |date=2017 |others=Nathan F. Alleman, Todd C. Ream |isbn=978-0-8308-9163-4 |location=Downers Grove, Illinois |pages=159 |oclc=969439621}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=How Being Part of a 'House' Within a School Helps Students Gain A Sense of Belonging |url=https://www.kqed.org/mindshift/50960/how-being-part-of-a-house-within-a-school-helps-students-gain-a-sense-of-belonging |access-date=2021-08-31 |website=KQED |language=en-us}}</ref><ref name=":14">{{Cite web |date=2018-04-26 |title=How housing alienates Columbia students from each other {{!}} Columbia Spectator |url=http://features.columbiaspectator.com/eye/2015/02/18/a-house-is-not-a-home/ |access-date=2022-10-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180426232726/http://features.columbiaspectator.com/eye/2015/02/18/a-house-is-not-a-home/ |archive-date=2018-04-26 }}</ref>
* [[Princeton University]] – Established in the 1980s, [[Princeton University#Residential colleges|Princeton's residential college system]] has six colleges, three of which house students from all years and the other three only first and second year students. Most students in the third year and above do not live in college accommodation, but retain their links to a college.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.princeton.edu/one-community/housing-dining|title=Housing & Dining|publisher=Princeton University|access-date=3 September 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://odoc.princeton.edu/about/residential-colleges|title=Residential Colleges| publisher=Princeton University|access-date=3 September 2017}}</ref>
* [[Dartmouth College]] – Established in 2016, Dartmouth's house system has six houses that undergraduates are members of throughout their time at the university.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.dartmouth.edu/news/2015/11/college-unveils-six-house-communities-open-next-fall|title=College Unveils Six House Communities to Open Next Fall|date=November 2015|publisher=Dartmouth College|access-date=3 September 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://students.dartmouth.edu/residential-life/house-communities/about-house-system|title=About the House System|publisher=Dartmouth College|access-date=3 September 2017}}</ref>

Many [[State University systems of the USA|state university systems]] consist of campuses that are legally part of a single corporation (e.g., the [[Regents of the University of California]] is the corporation that owns and operates the entire University of California system), but are operationally independent. Examples of such institutions include the [[University of California]], the [[State University of New York]], the [[University of Michigan]], the [[University of Texas System]]. Like [[University of California, Santa Cruz|UC Santa Cruz]], [[University of California, San Diego|UC San Diego]], also has a residential college system inspired by the British model.<ref name="ClarkKerr_Page_273">{{cite book|last1=Kerr|first1=Clark|title=The Gold and the Blue: A Personal Memoir of the University of California, 1949–1967, Volume 1|date=2001|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|isbn=9780520223677|pages=273–280|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jMEZ_47vXkAC&pg=PA273}}</ref> At both campuses, the academic resources are provided primarily by the university, but each residential college follows its own educational philosophy and sets out its own degree requirements.<ref>https://catalog.ucsd.edu/undergraduate/colleges/index.html#:~:text=Each%20faculty%20member%20on%20the,%2C%20and%20Seventh%E2%80%94were%20established.</ref>

[[File:Smith Clock Tower view.jpg|thumb|The [[Claremont Colleges]]]]
The [[Claremont Colleges]] in California operate a hybrid federal-constituent system. All 7 colleges are independently governed: [[Pomona College]], [[Scripps College]], [[Claremont McKenna College]], [[Harvey Mudd College]], [[Pitzer College]] as undergraduate colleges as well as [[Claremont Graduate University]] and [[Keck Graduate Institute of Applied Life Sciences]] as graduate universities. Their founding model was based on that of the University of Oxford and they are linked through the [[Claremont University Consortium]], though, unlike other constituent college systems, degrees are conferred separately by the seven constituent institutions and they exist as [[universities]] and [[liberal arts colleges]] in their own right. The colleges are spread over a square mile site and share certain departmental, library and research facilities. In addition, the five undergraduate colleges operate [[Claremont Colleges#Athletics|two intercollegiate athletic programs]], with Claremont, Harvey Mudd, and Scripps forming one program and Pomona and Pitzer the other.

===Former collegiate universities===
[[File:Sorbonne 17thc.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The [[University of Paris]] depicted in a 17th-century engraving]]

Some universities that once featured collegiate systems have lost them to mergers or suppression, due to financial, political or other reasons, or (in the case of federal universities) the individual colleges becoming independent universities. Examples include the following:

====Former residential college systems====
*At the [[University of St Andrews]], the surviving colleges play a purely ceremonial role and are neither teaching nor residential bodies. The three colleges are [[St Mary's College, St Andrews|St Mary's College]] for the Faculty of Divinity and [[United College, St Andrews|United College]] for the other faculties, and [[St Leonard's College (University of St Andrews)|St Leonard's College]] for postgraduates.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/divinity/about/|title=About St Mary's College|publisher=University of St Andrews|date=3 September 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/library/specialcollections/collections/archives/themunimentcollection/collegiaterecords/unitedcollege/|title=United College|publisher=University of St Andrews|date=3 September 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/pgstudents/stleonards/about/|title=St Leonard's College|publisher=University of St Andrews|date=3 September 2017}}</ref> University College, Dundee was incorporated into St Andrews in 1898 and was merged with the medical school, the dental school and the Dundee School of Economics in 1954 to form Queen's College. This became the independent [[University of Dundee]] in 1967.<ref>{{cite web|url=|title=Records of University College, Dundee and Queen's College, Dundee, being the University of St Andrews in Dundee| publisher=University of St Andrews|date=27 October 2021}}</ref>
* At the [[University of Coimbra]], independent colleges much like the Oxbridge ones were created throughout the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. They were abolished with the extinction of religious orders in 1836.<ref name=coimbra/>
*The colleges of the former [[University of Paris]] were suppressed after the [[French Revolution]].<ref name="Cathenc Paris"/>
*The [[University of Salamanca]] had a large number of colleges (four ''colegios mayores'', or large colleges, and many ''colegios menores'', or small colleges), which were abolished in 1807 when [[Napoleon]] invaded [[Spain]].<ref name=salamanca/>
*[[Leipzig University]] as an example of a medieval German university (currently the second oldest in the country) was structured into colleges in a similar way. Often they were set up by a particular monastic order to serve its members. Colleges served as places of living and collegiate teaching. They had jurisdiction over their members (i.e. municipal courts of the city of [[Leipzig]] would refuse to hear actions brought against them). In addition there were private residential halls (Bursen). Parallel to the college system there were four nations ([[university nations]]) similar to the model of the universities of Prague (Leipzig's 'mother' institution, see [[Decree of Kutná Hora]]) and Paris after which they were modelled. During the age of enlightenment this structure was abandoned. Still today, the names of the former colleges live on as names of buildings used by the university.

====Former federal universities====
* The [[Victoria University (UK)|Victoria University]], which split into the [[Victoria University of Manchester]], the [[University of Liverpool]] and the [[University of Leeds]].
* The [[University of Wales]] was a federal university from its formation in 1893 until 2007, when its colleges became independent and it was transformed into a non-membership accreditation body.
* The [[History of Durham University#The federal university 1910–63|University of Durham]] was a federal university with two divisions in Durham and Newcastle between 1909 and 1963, when the Newcastle division became [[Newcastle University]].
* The [[Federal University of Surrey]] was, from 2000 to 2004, a federation of the [[University of Surrey]] and the University of Surrey Roehampton (now [[Roehampton University]]). It was dissolved when Roehampton became an independent university.
* The [[University of France]] was established by Napoleon in 1808 and acted as a central university for the ''académies'' (the former universities) until 1896, when these were restored to full university status.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lnmDJ1tnooMC&pg=PA306|pages=306–307|title=The Evolution of Educational Thought|volume=2|author=Émile Durkheim|publisher=Taylor & Francis|date= 2005|isbn=9780415386081}}</ref>
* The [[University of South Africa]] was formerly a federal university with constituent colleges in the various provinces of [[South Africa]]. After the [[Second World War]], most of these colleges became autonomous universities, and the University of South Africa became primarily a [[distance education]] institution.

==See also==
* [[Affiliated school]]
* [[List of residential colleges]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Types of university or college]]

Yamalokadalli Veerappan

2023-09-12T02:39:04Z

Ishivammadaan: Fresh article content.

{{Infobox film
| name = Yamalokadalli Veerappan
| image =
| alt =
| caption =
| native_name = 
| director = H C Prakash
| writer =
| screenplay =
| story =
| based_on = 
| producer = [[K. Manju]]
| starring = {{plainlist|* [[Dheerendra Gopal]]
*[[Sarigama Viji]]
* [[Satya Prakash (actor)|Satya Prakash]]
* Akhila
}}
| narrator =
| cinematography = Manohar C
| editing = Basavaraj Urs
| music = [[Sadhu Kokila]]
| studio = Bindushree Films
| distributor = 
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|1998|12|3}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Kannada
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Yamalokadalli Veerappan''''' is a 1998 Indian Kannada-language mythological action drama film directed by H C Prakash. The film's story is partly inspired by [[Veerappan]]'s life and stars [[Dheerendra Gopal]], [[Sarigama Viji]], [[Satya Prakash (actor)|Satya Prakash]] and Akhila.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://chiloka.com/movie/yamalokadalli-veerappan-1998|title=Yamalokadalli Veerappan|work=Chiloka.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ibtimes.co.in/kannada-actor-michael-madhu-dies-age-51-fans-condole-his-death-819869|title=Kannada actor Michael Madhu dies at the age of 51, fans condole his death|first=David|last=Johnson|website=[[International Business Times]]}}</ref>

== Cast ==
* [[Dheerendra Gopal]] as [[Yama]]
*[[Sarigama Viji]] as [[Chitragupta]]
* [[Satya Prakash (actor)|Satya Prakash]] as [[Veerappan]]
* Akhila as an [[apsara]]
*[[Sadhu Kokila]]
*[[Michael Madhu]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/michael-madhu-popular-kannada-actor-and-comedian-passes-away-aged-51-8368971.html|title=Michael Madhu, popular Kannada actor and comedian, passes away aged 51-Entertainment News , Firstpost|website=Firstpost}}</ref>
*[[Vaijanath Biradar]]
*[[Mandeep Roy]]
*[[Bank Janardhan]]
*G R Bheema Rao
*[[Sathyajith (actor)|Sathyajith]]
*[[K. Manju]]
*MS Narasimhamurthy<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/theatre/an-evening-of-laughter-with-actor-writer-ms-narasimhamurthy/articleshow/77678490.cms|title=An evening of laughter with actor-writer MS Narasimhamurthy|work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
{{Infobox album
| name = Yamalokadalli Veerappan
| type = Soundtrack
| artist = [[Sadhu Kokila]]
| cover =
| alt =
| released = {{start date|2000|10|22|df=yes}}
| recorded = 
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Film soundtrack|Feature film soundtrack]]
| length = 19:50
| label = Mars FIlms
| producer =
| prev_title =
| prev_year =
| next_title =
| next_year =
}}

[[Sadhu Kokila]] composed the film's background score and the soundtrack. The soundtrack album consists of four tracks.<ref>{{cite web |title=Yamalokadalli Veerappan (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) - EP by Sadhu Kokila |url=https://music.apple.com/tr/album/yamalokadalli-veerappan-original-motion-picture-soundtrack/1547999356 |website=iTunes |access-date=12 September 2023}}</ref>

{{track listing
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| total_length = 19:50
| title1 = Love Me Or Hate Me
| lyrics1 =
| extra1 = [[Sadhu Kokila]], Mangala
| length1 = 5:15
| title2 = Touch Maado
| lyrics2 =
| extra2 = Sadhu Kokila, Mangala
| length2 = 4:30
| title3 = Baa Rasugulla
| lyrics3 =
| extra3 = Sadhu Kokila, Sowmya, Mangala
| length3 = 5:09
| title4 = Bittaaku Ee Kaadu Chinte
| lyrics4 =
| extra4 = [[Rajesh Krishnan]], Mangala
| length4 = 4:56
}}

== Reception ==
Srikanth Srinivasa of ''[[Deccan Herald]]'' wrote that "This film would definitely put critics in a spot, and leave them wondering whether to laugh or cry over the quality of such Kannada films churned out by Gandhinagar. After the success of ''Hallo Yama'', our film-makers seem to have reached Yamaloka, going by the quality of films they are churning out".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cscsarchive.org/MediaArchive/art.nsf/%28docid%29/B1B03240AE8F5FF6652569400062A3E6?OpenDocumentn|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20080312215349/http://www.cscsarchive.org/MediaArchive/art.nsf/(docid)/B1B03240AE8F5FF6652569400062A3E6?OpenDocument|title=Reviews - Deccan Herald|archive-date=March 12, 2008|last=Srinivasa|first=Srikanth|website=[[Deccan Herald]]}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb title|14826110}}

[[Category:Hindu mythological films]]
[[Category:Indian action drama films]]

Thak Thak gang

2023-07-19T17:51:16Z

Ishivammadaan: Started a fresh page.

{{Short description|Indian criminal group}}
The '''Thak Thak gang''' ('''Knock Knock gang''')<ref>{{Cite web |title=City sleepless as gangs go on robbing spree |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/mail-today/story/city-sleepless-as-gangs-go-on-robbing-spree-1606788-2019-10-06 |access-date=2023-07-08 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref> is a notorious criminal group primarily active in North India, especially in the [[National Capital Region (India)]]. This group specializes in targeting parked vehicles and may also employ deceptive tactics to distract victims before stealing their cash and valuable belongings.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite news |title=5 members of 'thak thak' gang held, used to target parked cars |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/gurgaon/5-members-of-thak-thak-gang-held-used-to-target-parked-cars/articleshow/63992377.cms |access-date=2023-07-07 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite news |title='Thak thak' gang: 3 UP men arrested for stealing phones |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/dehradun/thak-thak-gang-3-up-men-arrested-for-stealing-phones/articleshow/100579984.cms |access-date=2023-07-07 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> The group frequently changes its location to evade arrest.<ref>{{Cite web |title=4 members of 'Thak Thak' gang arrested |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/chandigarh/thak-thak-gang-chandigarh-police-arrest-8376486/ |access-date=2023-07-07 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

== Name ==
The name "{{Lang|hi|Thak-Thak}}" (ठक्-ठक्) is derived from the sound of knocking on a vehicle's window or door as a means to divert the attention of the passengers or driver, while the gang members swiftly execute their looting operation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Here Is How The 'Thak Thak' Gang Which Robbed Bollywood Actress Farheen Prabhakar Operates |url=https://www.indiatimes.com/news/india/here-is-how-the-thak-thak-gang-which-assaulted-robbed-bollywood-actress-farheen-prabhakar-operates-360754.html |access-date=2023-07-07 |website=IndiaTimes |language=en-IN}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Puncturing tyres, spilling oil on bonnet: Police reveal tactics of Thak Thak gang |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/gurgaon/puncturing-tyres-spilling-oil-on-bonnet-police-reveal-tactics-of-thak-thak-gang/story-XNPtSWm6ypJ59x7amc34jK.html |access-date=2023-07-07 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref>

== Modus operandi ==
The Thak Thak group operates using a [[Deception|deceptive]] [[modus operandi]] to target their victims.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Thak thak, Namaste, Special 26... Gangs of Delhi and their modus operandi |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Delhi/thak-thak-whos-there/article17535110.ece |access-date=2023-07-19 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> They engage in activities such as observing the contents of vehicles to determine if there are any valuable items inside. Subsequently, they divert the driver's attention, ensnaring them in their scheme, and ultimately deceive and escape with the stolen goods.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Service |first=Statesman News |title=Thak Thak gang back in South Delhi, rob Saudi prof, family |url=https://www.thestatesman.com/india/thak-thak-gang-back-1503102907.html |access-date=2023-07-09 |website=The Statesman |language=en-US}}</ref> The Thak Thak gang operates using various techniques. The following are examples:

They first stop the vehicle by puncturing the tires or spilling oil on the bonnet, getting the attention of the driver, so the driver must stop to see what has happened to the vehicle.<ref name=":0" /> The members of the 'Thak Thak' gang stay around and steal [[laptop]] bags, [[Mobile phone|mobile phones]], and other valuables that are left unattended during this orchestrated drama.<ref name=":0" /> <ref>{{Cite web |title=Thak Thak gang: How six people robbed a car {{!}} City - Times of India Videos |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/videos/city/delhi/thak-thak-gang-how-six-people-robbed-a-car/videoshow/77177312.cms |access-date=2023-07-07 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Delhi: Thak-thak gang steals diamonds worth Rs 1 crore, but cops prove smarter {{!}} City - Times of India Videos |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/videos/city/delhi/delhi-thak-thak-gang-steals-diamonds-worth-rs-1-crore-but-cops-prove-smarter/videoshow/77428633.cms |access-date=2023-07-07 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref>

An Additional Sessions Judge in the Okhla area of [[South East Delhi district|South East Delhi]] fell victim to the 'Thak Thak gang' on September 24, 2019. The gang members employed a distraction technique, subsequently breaking the car window and stealing a small black purse.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Delhi: 'Thak Thak gang' steals bag from Additional Sessions Judge's car |url=https://sg.news.yahoo.com/delhi-thak-thak-gang-steals-bag-additional-sessions-082411057.html |access-date=2023-07-08 |website=Yahoo News |language=en-SG}}</ref>

=== Tyre puncture ===
The "Thak Thak" gang tricks drivers and passengers into believing that their vehicle has a puncture, urging them to investigate the situation. In a specific incident, gang members riding a two-wheeler pursued a German woman who was en route to attend the Surajkund Mela in Faridabad. They subtly indicated to her driver that there was a puncture in their car's tire. Upon the driver's inspection, it was discovered that the tire was in satisfactory condition. Meanwhile, an individual approached the car, opened the rear seat door, seized her bag containing Rs. 60,000 in cash, and swiftly departed from the scene.<ref>{{Cite web |title='Thak-Thak' gang members arrested for stealing Rs 60,000 from German national |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/delhi/thak-thak-gang-members-arrested-stealing-german-national-8435857/ |access-date=2023-07-07 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

=== Spilling oil and oil leakage ===
The "Thak Thak" gang deceives drivers and passengers by spilling oil and creating oil leakage to compel them to come out and check. In an incident, the Thak Thak gang targeted a car where two individuals on a motorcycle approached the occupants of the vehicle, informing them about an alleged oil leak. Consequently, both the driver and the passenger exited the car to inspect it. Meanwhile, two other individuals on another motorcycle swiftly approached from behind and absconded with the bags stored in the car's rear compartment. This incident took place in [[Seelampur]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Man arrested for robbing Rs 25 lakh from businessman in 'thak-thak' gang style; accomplices apprehended |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/delhi/man-arrested-robbing-rs-25-lakh-thak-thak-gang-accomplices-8686486/ |access-date=2023-07-07 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

The gang members looted a woman while she was on her way to Rohini in Delhi. They distracted her by falsely alerting her to a petrol leak in the vehicle. When she stepped out to investigate, they quickly seized her bag, which contained valuable items, including expensive sunglasses, an identity card, and an ATM card.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Delhi: 'Thak Thak gang' steals bag from Additional Sessions Judge's car |url=https://sg.news.yahoo.com/delhi-thak-thak-gang-steals-bag-additional-sessions-082411057.html |access-date=2023-07-08 |website=Yahoo News |language=en-SG}}</ref>

=== Breaking windowpanes ===
The group utilizes catapults to shatter the windowpanes of parked cars and make off with the valuables stored within, as reported by the [[Noida]] police,<ref>{{Cite news |title=Spy cam, diary with interrogation notes: Thief who is a meticulous record-keeper |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/noida/spy-cam-diary-with-interrogation-notes-thief-who-is-a-meticulous-record-keeper/articleshow/101007216.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2023-07-07 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=40 thefts in 45 days: Four of 'thak thak' gang held in Noida |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/noida/40-thefts-in-45-days-four-of-thak-thak-gang-held/articleshow/98645598.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2023-07-07 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> and [[Delhi Police]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Delhi Police busts 'Thak-Thak' gang, arrests 4 for stealing laptops, other items from vehicles |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/cities/delhi/story/delhi-news-thak-thak-gang-busted-accused-arrested-for-stealing-laptops-other-items-2286321-2022-10-17 |access-date=2023-07-07 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref>

=== Greed quotient ===
The members of the Thak Thak group manipulate individuals' greed factor by placing [[Banknote|currency notes]] near the tire and informing the driver that they have dropped a banknote. This tactic is employed to divert the driver's attention and entice them to exit the vehicle in order to collect the notes.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |title=Knock knock, you're robbed |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/knock-knock-youre-robbed/articleshow/5541378.cms |access-date=2023-07-08 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

=== Chemical spray ===
The gang employs chemical spray to stop vehicles and force occupants to exit. According to the woman, the culprits sprayed a chemical substance on the car's bonnet, causing white fumes to enter through the air conditioning vents. This resulted in breathing difficulties and burning sensations on the skin, compelling her to leave the vehicle and struggle for breath on the roadside.<ref>{{Cite web |title='Thak thak' gang bikers spray with chemical, rob US woman near Delhi AIIMS |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/delhi-news/thak-thak-gang-bikers-spray-with-chemical-rob-us-woman-near-delhi-aiims/story-vZIUR5dlLxGHJUagvr46OJ.html |access-date=2023-07-08 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref>

=== Smashing cars ===
Actress [[Farheen]] was targeted by a member of the Thak Thak group who vandalized her car and stole her wallet. Upon Farheen halting her car at a traffic signal, all four assailants attempted to vandalize her vehicle. Subsequently, when she parked her car and attempted to engage in a dialogue, the robbers subjected her to verbal abuse, accusing her of inadequate driving skills.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Thak Thak gang robs, assaults actress Farheen Prabhakar in Delhi |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/crime/story/thak-thak-gang-robs-assaults-actress-farheen-prabhakar-in-delhi-1435380-2019-01-21 |access-date=2023-07-09 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref>

== Similar gangs ==
The police have encountered two other infamous gangs in recent years. One of them is known as the [[Chaddi Baniyan gang]], notorious for applying oil to their bodies to facilitate quick getaways. They also wear masks during their robberies. The second gang specializes in chain snatching.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Thak-thak and more! Most notorious gangs of thieves arrested by police |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/india/article/thak-thak-and-more-most-notorious-gangs-of-thieves-arrested-by-police/669232 |access-date=2023-07-07 |website=www.timesnownews.com |language=en}}</ref>

== See also ==

* [[Kala Kachcha gang]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Organised crime in India}}

[[Category:Looting]]
[[Category:Crime in India by type]]
[[Category:Gangs in India]]
[[Category:Indian slang]]
[[Category:Organised crime in India]]

Indian philosophy

2023-04-04T23:27:32Z

Ishivammadaan: Just finished drafting a fresh page.

{{short description|Philosophical traditions of the Indian subcontinent}}
{{Use Indian English}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Infobox
| title = Indian philosophical traditions
| image =
{{image array|perrow=2|width=180|height=150
| image1 = Yajnavalkya and Janaka.jpg|caption1=[[Yajnavalkya]] (c. 8th century BCE), an important [[Vedic period|Vedic]] sage associated with the thought of the early [[Upanishads]].<ref name=benami9>Ben-Ami Scharfstein (1998), ''A comparative history of world philosophy: from the Upanishads to Kant'', Albany: State University of New York Press, pp. 9-11</ref>
| image2 = Jain statues, Gwalior.jpg|caption2=[[Jain philosophy]] was propagated by [[Tirthankara]]s, notably [[Parshvanatha]] (c. 872 – c. 772 BCE) and [[Mahavira]] (c. 549–477 BCE).
| image3 = Rock-cut Lord --Buddha-- Statue at Bojjanakonda near Anakapalle of Visakhapatnam dist in AP.jpg|caption3=[[Buddhist philosophy]] was founded by [[Gautama Buddha]] (c. 563–483 BCE).
| image4 = GuruGobindSinghJiGurdwaraBhaiThanSingh.jpg|caption4=[[Sikh philosophy]] was developed by [[Guru Gobind Singh]] (c. 1666–1708 CE).
}}
}}
{{Asian philosophy sidebar}}
{{Philosophy sidebar}}
'''Indian philosophy''' refers to philosophical traditions of the [[Indian subcontinent]]. A traditional Hindu classification divides [[āstika and nāstika]] schools of philosophy, depending on one of three alternate criteria: whether it believes the [[Vedas]] as a valid source of knowledge; whether the school believes in the premises of [[Brahman]] and [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]]; and whether the school believes in afterlife and [[Deva (Hinduism)|Devas]].<ref>John Bowker, ''Oxford Dictionary of World Religions'', p. 259</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Wendy Doniger |title=On Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c8vRAgAAQBAJ |year=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-936008-6|page=46}}</ref><ref name="andrew"/>

There are six major (āstika) schools of [[Hindu philosophy|Vedic philosophy]]—[[Nyaya]], [[Vaisheshika]], [[Samkhya]], [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]], [[Mīmāṃsā]] and [[Vedanta]]—and five major heterodox (nāstika or sramanic) schools—[[Jainism|Jain]], [[Buddhism|Buddhist]], [[Ajivika]], [[Ajñana]], and [[Charvaka]]. The āstika group embraces the [[Vedas]] as an essential source of its foundations, while the nāstika group does not. However, there are other methods of classification; [[Vidyaranya]] for instance identifies sixteen schools of Indian philosophy by including those that belong to the [[Shaivism|Śaiva]] and [[Raseśvara]] traditions.<ref name="cowell">Cowell and Gough, p. xii.</ref><ref name="nicholson">Nicholson, pp. 158-162.</ref>

The main schools of Indian philosophy were formalised and recognised chiefly between 500 BCE and the late centuries of the [[Common Era]].{{citation needed}} Competition and integration between the various schools was intense, despite later claims of Hindu unity. Some schools like [[Jainism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Yoga]], Śaiva and [[Vedanta]] survived, but others, like [[Ajñana]], [[Charvaka]] and [[Ājīvika]] did not.

Ancient and medieval era texts of Indian philosophies include extensive discussions on [[ontology]] ([[metaphysics]], [[Brahman]]-[[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]], [[Sunyata]]-[[Anatta]]), reliable means of knowledge ([[epistemology]], [[Pramana]]s), value system ([[axiology]]) and other topics.<ref>{{cite book|author=Roy W. Perrett|title=Indian Philosophy: Metaphysics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=okkLgRTQ8mIC|year=2001|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-8153-3608-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Stephen H Phillips|title=Epistemology in Classical India: The Knowledge Sources of the Nyaya School|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ij4yOAP_6fcC |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-51898-0 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Arvind Sharma|title=The Puruṣārthas: a study in Hindu axiology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=USBtAAAAMAAJ |year=1982|publisher=Asian Studies Center, Michigan State University |isbn=9789993624318 }}; {{cite book|author1=Purusottama Bilimoria|author2=Joseph Prabhu|author3=Renuka M. Sharma|title=Indian Ethics: Classical traditions and contemporary challenges|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g78Cw4xQmsMC |year=2007|publisher=Ashgate |isbn=978-0-7546-3301-3 }}</ref>

==Common themes==
Indian philosophies share many concepts such as [[dharma]], [[karma]], [[samsara]], [[dukkha]], [[renunciation]], [[meditation]], with almost all of them focusing on the ultimate goal of liberation of the individual from [[dukkha]] and [[samsara]] through diverse range of spiritual practices ([[moksha]], [[nirvana]]).<ref>{{cite book|author=Kathleen Kuiper |title=The Culture of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c8PJFLeURhsC |year=2010|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |isbn=978-1-61530-149-2 |pages=174–178 }}</ref> They differ in their assumptions about the nature of existence as well as the specifics of the path to the ultimate liberation, resulting in numerous schools that disagreed with each other. Their ancient doctrines span the diverse range of philosophies found in other ancient cultures.<ref>{{cite book|author=Sue Hamilton |title=Indian Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YWu4ygkh_O8C |year=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-157942-4 |pages=1–17, 136–140 }}</ref>

==Orthodox schools==
{{Main|Hindu philosophy|Hinduism|Vedas|Upanishads}}
[[File:Raja Ravi Varma - Sankaracharya.jpg|thumb|Hindu philosophy has a diversity of traditions and numerous saints and scholars, such as Adi Shankara of Advaita Vedanta school.]]

Some of the earliest surviving Indian philosophical texts are the [[Upanishads]] of the [[Vedic period#Later Vedic period (c. 1000 – c. 600 BCE)|later Vedic period]] (1000–500 BCE), which are considered to preserve the ideas of [[Historical Vedic religion|Brahmanism]]. Indian philosophical traditions are commonly grouped according to their relationship to the Vedas and the ideas contained in them. [[Jainism]] and [[Buddhism]] originated at the end of the [[Vedic period]], while the various traditions grouped under [[Hinduism]] mostly emerged after the Vedic period as independent traditions. Hindus generally classify Indian philosophical traditions as either orthodox ([[Āstika and nāstika|''āstika'']]) or heterodox (''nāstika'') depending on whether they accept the authority of the [[Vedas]] and the theories of ''[[brahman]]'' and [[Ātman (Hinduism)|''ātman'']] found therein.<ref>{{cite book|first=John |last=Bowker|title=The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=5fSQQgAACAAJ}}|year=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press, Incorporated|isbn=978-0-19-866242-6|page=259}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Doniger, Wendy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c8vRAgAAQBAJ|title=On Hinduism|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2014|isbn=978-0-19-936008-6|page=46|author-link=Wendy Doniger|access-date=25 December 2016|archive-date=30 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170130223555/https://books.google.com/books?id=c8vRAgAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>

The schools which align themselves with the thought of the Upanishads, the so-called "orthodox" or "[[Hinduism|Hindu]]" traditions, are often classified into six ''[[Hindu philosophy|darśanas]]'' or philosophies:[[Samkhya|Sānkhya]], [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]], [[Nyaya|Nyāya]], [[Vaisheshika]], [[Mīmāṃsā|Mimāmsā]] and [[Vedanta|Vedānta]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Kesarcodi-Watson|first=Ian|year=1978|title=Hindu Metaphysics and Its Philosophies: Śruti and Darsána|journal=International Philosophical Quarterly|volume=18|issue=4|pages=413–432|doi=10.5840/ipq197818440}}</ref>

The doctrines of the Vedas and Upanishads were interpreted differently by these six schools of [[Hindu philosophy]], with varying degrees of overlap. They represent a "collection of philosophical views that share a textual connection", according to Chadha (2015).<ref>{{cite book|last=Chadha|first=M.|year=2015|title=The Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Philosophy of Religion|editor-last=Oppy|editor-first=G.|editor-link=Graham Oppy|location=London|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1844658312|pages=127–28}}</ref> They also reflect a tolerance for a diversity of philosophical interpretations within Hinduism while sharing the same foundation.<ref name="Sharma1990p1">{{cite book|author=Sharma|first=Arvind|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jKewCwAAQBAJ|title=A Hindu Perspective on the Philosophy of Religion|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=1990|isbn=978-1-349-20797-8|access-date=11 November 2018|archive-date=12 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200112222617/https://books.google.com/books?id=jKewCwAAQBAJ|url-status=live|quote=The attitude towards the existence of God varies within the Hindu religious tradition. This may not be entirely unexpected given the tolerance for doctrinal diversity for which the tradition is known. Thus of the six orthodox systems of Hindu philosophy, only three address the question in some detail. These are the schools of thought known as Nyaya, Yoga and the theistic forms of Vedanta.|pages=1–2}}</ref>

Hindu philosophers of the six orthodox schools developed systems of epistemology (''[[pramana]]'') and investigated topics such as metaphysics, ethics, psychology (''[[guṇa]]''), [[hermeneutics]], and [[soteriology]] within the framework of the Vedic knowledge, while presenting a diverse collection of interpretations.<ref name="frazierintrop2">{{cite book|last1=Frazier|first1=Jessica|author-link=Jessica Frazier|url=https://archive.org/details/continuumcompani00fraz|title=The Continuum companion to Hindu studies|publisher=Continuum|isbn=978-0-8264-9966-0|location=London|pages=[https://archive.org/details/continuumcompani00fraz/page/n15 1]–15|url-access=limited}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Olson|first=Carl|year=2007|title=The Many Colors of Hinduism: A Thematic-historical Introduction|publisher=[[Rutgers University Press]]|isbn=978-0813540689|pages=101–19}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Deutsch|first=Eliot S.|author-link=Eliot Deutsch|year=2000|chapter=Karma as a 'Convenient Fiction' in the Advaita Vedānta|pages=245–48|title=Philosophy of Religion: Indian Philosophy|volume=4|editor-last=Perrett|editor-first=R.|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0815336112}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Grimes|first=John A.|title=A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English|location=Albany|publisher=[[State University of New York Press]]|isbn=978-0791430675|page=238}}</ref> The commonly named six orthodox schools were the competing philosophical traditions of what has been called the "Hindu synthesis" of [[History of Hinduism|classical Hinduism]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Hiltebeitel|first=Alf|author-link=Alf Hiltebeitel|year=2007|chapter=Hinduism|title=The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture|editor-last=Kitagawa|editor-first=J.|editor-link=Joseph Kitagawa|location=London|publisher=Routledge}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Minor|first=Robert|year=1986|title=Modern Indian Interpreters of the Bhagavad Gita|location=Albany|publisher=[[State University of New York Press]]|isbn=0-88706-297-0|pages=74–75, 81}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite web|last=Doniger|first=Wendy|year=2018|orig-year=1998|title=Bhagavad Gita|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Bhagavadgita|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|access-date=10 November 2018|archive-date=21 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180821140609/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Bhagavadgita|url-status=live}}</ref>

These "Six Philosophies" (''ṣaḍ-darśana'') are:

* '''[[Samkhya|''Sāṃkhya'']],''' a philosophical tradition which regards the universe as consisting of two independent realities: ''[[Purusha|puruṣa]]'' (the perceiving [[consciousness]]) and ''[[prakṛti]]'' (perceived reality, including mind, perception, ''[[kleshas (Hinduism)|kleshas]]'', and [[matter]]) and which describes a soteriology based on this duality, in which ''purush'' is discerned and disentangled from the impurities of ''prakriti''. It has included atheistic authors as well as some theistic thinkers, and forms the basis of much of subsequent Indian philosophy.
* [[Yoga (philosophy)|'''''Yoga''''']], a school similar to ''Sāṃkhya'' (or perhaps even a branch of it) which accepts a personal god and focuses on yogic practice.
* [[Nyaya|'''''Nyāya''''']], a philosophy which focuses on logic and epistemology. It accepts six kinds of [[pramana]]s (epistemic warrants): (1) perception, (2) inference, (3) comparison and analogy, (4) postulation, derivation from circumstances, (5) non-perception, negative/cognitive proof and (6) word, testimony of past or present reliable experts. ''Nyāya'' defends a form of direct [[Philosophical realism|realism]] and a theory of [[Substance theory|substances]] (''dravya'').
* [[Vaisheshika|'''''Vaiśeṣika''''']], closely related to the ''Nyāya'' school, this tradition focused on the metaphysics of substance, and on defending a theory of atoms. Unlike ''Nyāya'', they only accept two pramanas: perception and inference.
* '''''[[Mīmāṃsā|Pūrva-Mīmāṃsā]]''''', a school which focuses on exegesis of the Vedas, [[philology]] and the interpretation of Vedic ritual.
* '''''[[Vedanta|Vedānta]]''''' (also called ''Uttara Mīmāṃsā''), focuses on interpreting the philosophy of the [[Upanishad]]s, particularly the soteriological and metaphysical ideas relating to Atman and Brahman.

Sometimes these groups are often coupled into three groups for both historical and conceptual reasons: ''Nyāya''-''Vaiśeṣika'', ''Sāṃkhya''-''Yoga'', and ''Mīmāṃsā''-''Vedānta''.

Each tradition included different currents and sub-schools, for example, Vedānta was divided among the sub-schools of [[Advaita Vedanta|Advaita]] ([[Nondualism|non-dualism]]), [[Visishtadvaita]] (qualified non-dualism), [[Dvaita]] ([[Dualistic cosmology#In Hinduism|dualism]]), [[Dvaitadvaita]] (dualistic non-dualism), [[Suddhadvaita]], and [[Achintya Bheda Abheda]] (inconceivable oneness and difference).

Besides these schools Mādhava Vidyāraṇya also includes the following of the aforementioned theistic philosophies based on the Agamas and Tantras:<ref name="cowell"/>

* [[Pasupata]], school of Shaivism by Nakulisa
* [[Shaiva Siddhanta|Saiva]], the theistic Sankhya school
* [[Pratyabhijna|Pratyabhijña]], the recognitive school
* [[Raseśvara]], the mercurial school
* [[Pāṇini]] Darśana, the grammarian school (which clarifies the theory of [[Sphoṭa]])

The systems mentioned here are not the only orthodox systems, they are the chief ones, and there are other orthodox schools. These systems, accept the authority of [[Vedas]] and are regarded as orthodox ([[astika]]) schools of Hindu philosophy; besides these, schools that do not accept the authority of the Vedas are heterodox (nastika) systems such as Buddhism, Jainism, Ajivika and Charvaka.<ref>Roy Perrett (2000), Indian Philosophy, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0815336112}}, page 88</ref><ref>Sushil Mittal & Gene Thursby (2004), The Hindu World, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415772273}}, pages 729-730</ref>{{Sfn|Flood|1996|pp=82, 224–49}} This orthodox-heterodox terminology is a construct of Western languages, and lacks scholarly roots in Sanskrit. According to Andrew Nicholson, there have been various [[Heresiology|heresiological]] translations of Āstika and Nāstika in 20th century literature on Indian philosophies, but quite many are unsophisticated and flawed.<ref name="andrew">Andrew J. Nicholson (2013), [[Unifying Hinduism|Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History]], Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0231149877}}, Chapter 9</ref>
* [[Charvaka]] is a [[materialism|materialistic]] and [[atheistic]] school of thought and, is noteworthy as evidence of a [[atheism in Hinduism|materialistic movement]] within [[Hinduism]].<ref>Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Charles A. Moore. ''A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy''249. {{ISBN|0-691-01958-4}}.</ref>

==Heterodox (Śramaṇic schools)==
{{Main|Śramaṇa}}
Several [[Śramaṇa|Śramaṇic movements]] have existed before the 6th century BCE, and these influenced both the [[āstika and nāstika]] traditions of Indian philosophy.<ref name=reginaldray247>Reginald Ray (1999), Buddhist Saints in India, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195134834}}, pages 237-240, 247-249</ref> The [[Śramaṇa|Śramaṇa movement]] gave rise to diverse range of heterodox beliefs, ranging from accepting or denying the concept of soul, [[atomism]], antinomian ethics, materialism, atheism, agnosticism, fatalism to free will, idealization of extreme asceticism to that of family life, strict [[ahimsa]] (non-violence) and vegetarianism to permissibility of violence and meat-eating.<ref>Padmanabh S Jaini (2001), Collected papers on Buddhist Studies, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120817760}}, pages 57-77</ref> Notable philosophies that arose from [[Śramaṇa|Śramaṇic]] movement were [[Jainism]], [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism|early Buddhism]], [[Charvaka]], [[Ajñana]] and [[Ājīvika]].<ref>AL Basham (1951), History and Doctrines of the Ajivikas – a Vanished Indian Religion, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120812048}}, pages 94-103</ref>

===Ajñana philosophy===
{{Main|Ajñana}}
Ajñana was one of the nāstika or "heterodox" schools of ancient Indian philosophy, and the ancient school of radical Indian skepticism. It was a Śramaṇa movement and a major rival of early Buddhism and Jainism. They have been recorded in Buddhist and Jain texts. They held that it was impossible to obtain knowledge of metaphysical nature or ascertain the truth value of philosophical propositions; and even if knowledge was possible, it was useless and disadvantageous for final salvation. They were sophists who specialised in refutation without propagating any positive doctrine of their own.

===Jain philosophy===
{{Main|Jain philosophy|Jainism}}
[[File:1st Tirthankara Rishbha Rsabhanatha Adinath Jainism.jpg|thumb|left|[[Rishabhanatha]], believed to have lived over a million years ago, is considered the founder of Jain religion in the present time cycle.]]

[[Jain]] philosophy is the oldest Indian philosophy that separates body ([[matter]]) from the [[soul]] (consciousness) completely.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/dravya|title=dravya – Jainism|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> [[Jainism]] was revived and re-established after [[Mahavira]], the last and the 24th ''[[Tirthankara]]'', synthesised and revived the philosophies and promulgations of the ancient Śramaṇic traditions laid down by the first Jain tirthankara [[Rishabhanatha]] millions of years ago.<ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SXgEfiNY46sC&pg=PA271 |title = Thoughts from the Cosmic Field in the Life of a Thinking Insect [A Latter-Day Saint]|isbn = 9781606938461|last1 = Patel|first1 = Haresh|date = March 2009}}</ref> According to Dundas, outside of the Jain tradition, historians date the Mahavira as about contemporaneous with the [[Buddha]] in the 5th-century BCE, and accordingly the historical [[Parshvanatha]], based on the c. 250-year gap, is placed in 8th or 7th century BCE.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=30–31}}

Jainism is a Śramaṇic religion and rejected the authority of the Vedas. However, like all [[Indian religions]], it shares the core concepts such as karma, ethical living, rebirth, samsara and moksha. Jainism places strong emphasis on [[asceticism]], [[ahimsa]] (non-violence) and [[anekantavada]] (relativity of viewpoints) as a means of spiritual liberation, ideas that influenced other Indian traditions.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Jay L. Garfield |author2=William Edelglass |title=The Oxford Handbook of World Philosophy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I0iMBtaSlHYC |year=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-532899-8 |pages=168 }}</ref>
Jainism strongly upholds the individualistic nature of soul and personal responsibility for one's decisions; and that self-reliance and individual efforts alone are responsible for one's liberation. According to the Jain philosophy, the world (''[[Saṃsāra (Jainism)|Saṃsāra]]'') is full of ''hiṃsā'' (violence). Therefore, one should direct all his efforts in attainment of [[Ratnatraya]], that are Samyak Darshan (right perception), Samyak Gnana (right knowledge) and Samyak Chàritra (right conduct) which are the key requisites to attain liberation.<ref>{{cite book|last=Das|first=Ravish Kumar|title=Jainism and Jain Architecture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4K9GDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA4|year=2018|publisher=Lulu.com|isbn=978-1-387-50342-1|page=4}}{{self-published source}}</ref>

===Buddhist philosophy===
{{Main|Buddhist philosophy|Early Buddhist schools}}
[[File:Gandhara Buddha (tnm).jpeg|thumb|upright=0.85|The Buddhist philosophy is based on the teachings of the [[Buddha]].]]
Buddhist philosophy is a system of thought which started with the teachings of [[Gautama Buddha|Siddhartha Gautama]], [[Buddhahood|the Buddha]], or "awakened one". Buddhism is founded on elements of the [[Śramaṇa|Śramaṇa movement]], which flowered in the first half of the 1st millennium BCE, but its foundations contain novel ideas not found or accepted by other Sramana movements. Buddhism and Hinduism mutually influenced each other and shared many concepts, states Paul Williams, however it is now difficult to identify and describe these influences.<ref name=williams84>{{cite book|author=Paul Williams |title=Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z3FuzkBnOxAC |year=2008|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-25057-8 |pages=84–85 }}</ref> Buddhism rejected the Vedic concepts of [[Brahman]] (ultimate reality) and [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (soul, self) at the foundation of Hindu philosophies.<ref>{{cite book|author=Robert Neville |editor=Jeremiah Hackett|others=Jerald Wallulis|title= Philosophy of Religion for a New Century: Essays in Honor of Eugene Thomas Long|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kEER8fGxCfMC |year=2004|publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4020-2073-5 |pages=257 }}, Quote: "[Buddhism's ontological hypotheses] that nothing in reality has its own-being and that all phenomena reduce to the relativities of pratitya samutpada. The Buddhist ontological hypothesese deny that there is any ontologically ultimate object such a God, Brahman, the Dao, or any transcendent creative source or principle."</ref><ref name=britannicaanatta>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/anatta Anatta Buddhism], Encyclopædia Britannica (2013)</ref><ref>[a] {{cite book|author=Christmas Humphreys|title=Exploring Buddhism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V3rYtmCZEIEC |year=2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-22877-3 |pages=42–43 }} [b] Gombrich (2006), page 47, '''Quote:''' "(...) Buddha's teaching that beings have no soul, no abiding essence. This 'no-soul doctrine' (anatta-vada) he expounded in his second sermon."</ref>

Buddhism shares many philosophical views with other Indian systems, such as belief in ''[[Karma in Buddhism|karma]]'' – a cause-and-effect relationship, [[samsara]] – ideas about cyclic afterlife and rebirth, [[dharma]] – ideas about ethics, duties and values, [[impermanence]] of all material things and of body, and possibility of spiritual liberation ([[nirvana]] or [[moksha]]).<ref>{{cite book|author=Brian K. Smith |title=Reflections on Resemblance, Ritual, and Religion |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nkruE6UCz54C |year=1998|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1532-2 |pages=14 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Peter J. Claus |author2=Sarah Diamond |author3=Margaret Ann Mills |title=South Asian Folklore: An Encyclopedia : Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ienxrTPHzzwC |year=2003|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-93919-5 |pages=322–323 }}</ref> A major departure from Hindu and Jain philosophy is the Buddhist rejection of an eternal soul (''[[Ātman (Hinduism)|atman]]'') in favour of ''[[anatta]]'' (non-Self).<ref name=5sourcesanatta>'''[a]''' [https://www.britannica.com/topic/anatta Anatta], Encyclopædia Britannica (2013), Quote: "Anatta in Buddhism, the doctrine that there is in humans no permanent, underlying soul. The concept of anatta, or anatman, is a departure from the Hindu belief in atman ("the self")."; '''[b]''' Steven Collins (1994), Religion and Practical Reason (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David Tracy), State Univ of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791422175}}, page 64; "Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not-self (Pali: anattā, Sanskrit: anātman, the opposed doctrine of ātman is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the [Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence."; '''[c]''' John C. Plott et al. (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120801585}}, page 63, Quote: "The Buddhist schools reject any Ātman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism"; '''[d]''' Katie Javanaud (2013), [https://philosophynow.org/issues/97/Is_The_Buddhist_No-Self_Doctrine_Compatible_With_Pursuing_Nirvana Is The Buddhist 'No-Self' Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana?], Philosophy Now; '''[e]''' David Loy (1982), Enlightenment in Buddhism and Advaita Vedanta: Are Nirvana and Moksha the Same?, International Philosophical Quarterly, Volume 23, Issue 1, pages 65-74</ref>
After the death of the Buddha, several competing philosophical systems termed ''[[Abhidharma]]'' began to emerge as ways to systematize Buddhist philosophy.<ref name=":17">[[Jan Westerhoff|Westerhoff, Jan]]. 2018. ''The Golden Age of Indian Buddhist Philosophy''. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]].</ref> The [[Mahayana]] movement also arose ({{Circa|1st century BCE}} onwards) and included new ideas and scriptures.

The main traditions of Buddhist philosophy in India (from 300 BCE to 1000 CE) were:<ref name=":17" />{{Rp|xxiv}}
[[File:Eight Patriarchs of the Shingon Sect of Buddhism Nagarjuna Cropped.jpg|thumb|upright=0.85|A Japanese depiction of [[Nagarjuna]], one of the greatest Buddhist philosophers and founder of Madhyamaka]]
* The [[Mahāsāṃghika]] ("Great Community") tradition (which included numerous sub-schools, all are now extinct)
* The schools of the [[Sthavira nikāya|Sthavira]] ("Elders") tradition:
** [[Vaibhāṣika]] ("Commentators") also known as the Sarvāstivāda-Vaibhāśika, was an Abhidharma tradition that composed the "Great Commentary" (''[[Mahavibhasa|Mahāvibhāṣa]]).'' They were known for their defense of the doctrine of "''sarvāstitva''" (all exists), which is a form of [[Eternalism (philosophy of time)|eternalism regarding the philosophy of time.]] They also supported direct realism and a theory of substances (''[[Svabhava|svabhāva]]'').
** [[Sautrāntika]] ("Those who uphold the sutras"), a tradition which did not see the Abhidharma as authoritative, and instead focused on the Buddhist sutras. They disagreed with the Vaibhāṣika on several key points, including their eternalistic theory of time.
** [[Pudgalavada|Pudgalavāda]] ("Personalists"), which were known for their controversial theory of the "person" (''pudgala''), now extinct.
**[[Vibhajyavāda]] ("The Analysts"), a widespread tradition which reached Kashmir, South India and Sri Lanka. A part of this school has survived into the modern era as the [[Theravada]] tradition. Their orthodox positions can be found in the ''[[Kathavatthu]].'' They rejected the views of the [[Pudgalavada|Pudgalavāda]] and of the [[Vaibhāṣika]] among others.
* The schools of the [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]] ("Great Vehicle") tradition (which continue to influence Tibetan and East Asian Buddhism)
** [[Madhyamaka]] ("Middle way" or "Centrism") founded by [[Nagarjuna]]. Also known as ''Śūnyavāda'' (the [[Śūnyatā|emptiness]] doctrine) and ''Niḥsvabhāvavāda'' (the no [[Svabhava|''svabhāva'']] doctrine), this tradition focuses on the idea that all phenomena are empty of any essence or substance (''svabhāva'').
** [[Yogachara|Yogācāra]] ("Yoga praxis"), an idealistic school which held that only consciousness exists, and thus was also known as ''Vijñānavāda'' (the doctrine of consciousness).
**Some scholars see the ''[[Tathāgatagarbha]]'' (or "Buddha womb/source") texts as constituting a third "school" of Indian Mahāyāna.<ref>Kiyota, M. (1985). ''Tathāgatagarbha Thought: A Basis of Buddhist Devotionalism in East Asia''. Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 207–231.</ref>
**[[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] (also known as Mantrayāna, Tantrayāna, Secret Mantra, and Tantric Buddhism) is often placed in a separate category due to its unique [[Tantra|tantric]] elements.
* The [[Buddhist logico-epistemology|Dignāga-Dharmakīrti tradition]] is an influential school of thought which focused on [[epistemology]], or ''[[Pramana|pramāṇa]]'' ('means of knowledge').

Many of these philosophies were brought to other regions, like Central Asia and China. After the disappearance of Buddhism from India, some of these philosophical traditions continued to develop in the [[Tibetan Buddhist]], [[East Asian Buddhist]] and [[Theravada Buddhist]] traditions.<ref>Dreyfus, Georges B. J. ''Recognizing Reality: Dharmakirti's Philosophy and Its Tibetan Interpretations (Suny Series in Buddhist Studies)'', 1997, p. 22.</ref><ref>JeeLoo Liu, ''Tian-tai Metaphysics vs. Hua-yan Metaphysics A Comparative Study''</ref>

[[File:Sudama and Lomas Rishi Caves at Barabar, Bihar, 1870.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Monastic life has been a part of all Indian philosophy traditions. Mendicant caves of extinct Ājīvikas in Bihar.<ref>{{cite book|author=Pia Brancaccio |year=2014|title= Cave Architecture of India, in Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures|publisher= Springer|isbn= 978-94-007-3934-5| pages= 1–9| doi=10.1007/978-94-007-3934-5_9848-1}}</ref>]]

===Ājīvika philosophy===
{{Main|Ājīvika}}
The philosophy of Ājīvika was founded by [[Makkhali Gosala]], it was a [[Śramaṇa|Śramaṇa movement]] and a major rival of [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism|early Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]].<ref>Jeffrey D Long (2009), Jainism: An Introduction, Macmillan, {{ISBN|978-1845116255}}, page 199</ref> Ājīvikas were organised renunciates who formed discrete monastic communities prone to an ascetic and simple lifestyle.{{sfn|Basham|1951|pp=145-146}}

Original scriptures of the Ājīvika school of philosophy may once have existed, but these are currently unavailable and probably lost. Their theories are extracted from mentions of Ajivikas in the secondary sources of ancient Indian literature, particularly those of Jainism and Buddhism which polemically criticized the Ajivikas.{{sfn|Basham|1951|loc=Chapter 1}} The Ājīvika school is known for its ''Niyati'' doctrine of absolute determinism (fate), the premise that there is no free will, that everything that has happened, is happening and will happen is entirely preordained and a function of cosmic principles.{{sfn|Basham|1951|loc=Chapter 1}}<ref name="james22"/> Ājīvika considered the [[karma]] doctrine as a fallacy.<ref name="philtarajiv"/> Ājīvikas were atheists<ref>Johannes Quack (2014), The Oxford Handbook of Atheism (Editors: Stephen Bullivant, Michael Ruse), Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0199644650}}, page 654</ref> and rejected the authority of the [[Vedas]], but they believed that in every living being is an ''[[Ātman (Hinduism)|ātman]]'' – a central premise of Hinduism and Jainism.<ref>Analayo (2004), Satipaṭṭhāna: The Direct Path to Realization, {{ISBN|978-1899579549}}, pages 207-208</ref>{{sfn|Basham|1951|pp=240-261, 270-273}}

===Charvaka philosophy===
{{Main|Charvaka}}
'''Charvaka''' ({{lang-sa|चार्वाक}}; [[IAST]]: '''''Cārvāka'''''), also known as '''''Lokāyata''''', is an ancient school of Indian [[materialism]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Seema Chishti|title=Indian rationalism, Charvaka to Narendra Dabholkar|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/govind-pansare-mm-kalburgi-gauri-lankesh-murder-5316465/|website=The Indian Express}}</ref> Charvaka holds [[direct perception]], [[empiricism]], and conditional [[inference]] as proper sources of knowledge, embraces [[philosophical skepticism]] and rejects ritualism and [[supernaturalism]].{{sfn|Tiwari|1998|p=67}}{{sfn|Perrett|1984|pp=161-174}}{{sfn|Bhattacharya|2011|pp=21–32}}{{sfn|Radhakrishnan|Moore|1957|pp=187, 227–234}}{{sfn|Flint|1899|p=463}} It was a popular belief system in [[ancient India]].{{refn|group=note|"Aside from nontheistic schools like the [[Samkhya]], there have also been explicitly atheistic schools in the Hindu tradition. One virulently anti-supernatural system is/was the so-called Charvaka school."{{sfn|Raman|2012|pp=549–574}}}}

The etymology of [[Charvaka]] (Sanskrit: चार्वाक) is uncertain. Bhattacharya quotes the grammarian Hemacandra, to the effect that the word [[Carvaka|cārvāka]] is derived from the root carv, 'to chew' : "A Cārvāka chews the self (carvatyātmānaṃ cārvākaḥ). Hemacandra refers to his own grammatical work, Uṇādisūtra 37, which runs as follows: mavāka-śyāmāka-vārtāka-jyontāka-gūvāka-bhadrākādayaḥ. Each of these words ends with the āka suffix and is formed irregularly". This may also allude to the philosophy's hedonistic precepts of "eat, drink, and be merry".

[[Bṛhaspati|Brihaspati]] is traditionally referred to as the founder of Charvaka or Lokāyata philosophy, although some scholars dispute this.{{sfn|Bhattacharya|2002}}<ref name=":1">{{cite book|author=Jeaneane Fowler|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8BotCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA114|title=The Wiley Blackwell Handbook of Humanism|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2015|isbn=978-1-119-97717-9|editor=A. C. Grayling|pages=114 with footnote 17}}</ref> During the Hindu reformation period in the first millennium BCE, when [[Buddhism]] was established by [[Gautama Buddha]] and [[Jainism]] was re-organized by [[Parshvanatha]], the Charvaka philosophy was well documented and opposed by both religions.{{sfn|Quack|2011|p=50|ps=:See footnote 3}} Much of the primary literature of Charvaka, the [[Barhaspatya sutras]], were lost either due to waning popularity or other unknown reasons.{{sfn|Radhakrishnan|Moore|1957|pp=227–249}} Its teachings have been compiled from historic secondary literature such as those found in the [[shastra]]s, [[sutra]]s, and the [[Indian epic poetry]] as well as in the dialogues of Gautama Buddha and from [[Jain literature]].{{sfn|Radhakrishnan|Moore|1957|pp=227–249}}{{sfn|Bhattacharya|2011|pp=21–44, 65–74}} However, there is text that may belong to the Charvaka tradition, written by the skeptic philosopher [[Jayarāśi Bhaṭṭa]], known as the Tattvôpaplava-siṁha, that provides information about this school, albeit unorthodox.<ref>{{Citation|last=Balcerowicz|first=Piotr|title=Jayarāśi|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/jayaraasi/|encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|edition=Spring 2016|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|access-date=2020-07-08}}</ref>{{sfn|Kamal|1998|pp=13-16}}

One of the widely studied principles of Charvaka philosophy was its rejection of [[inference]] as a means to establish valid, universal knowledge, and [[Metaphysics|metaphysical]] truths.{{sfn|Acharya|1894|p=5}}{{sfn|Bhattacharya|2011|p=58}} In other words, the Charvaka epistemology states that whenever one infers a truth from a set of observations or truths, one must acknowledge doubt; inferred knowledge is conditional.<ref name="page42">Cowell and Gough, p. 42</ref><ref name="page4">Cowell and Gough, p. 4</ref>

==Comparison of Indian philosophies==
The Indian traditions subscribed to diverse philosophies, significantly disagreeing with each other as well as orthodox Indian philosophy and its six schools of [[Hindu philosophy]]. The differences ranged from a belief that every individual has a soul (self, atman) to asserting that there is no soul,<ref name=5sources/> from axiological merit in a frugal ascetic life to that of a hedonistic life, from a belief in rebirth to asserting that there is no rebirth.<ref name=collins>{{cite book|author1=Randall Collins|title=The sociology of philosophies: a global theory of intellectual change|year=2000|publisher=Harvard University Press|pages=199–200|isbn=9780674001879|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2HS1DOZ35EgC&pg=PA199}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+Comparison of ancient Indian philosophies
|-
! !! Ājīvika !! Early Buddhism !! Charvaka !! Jainism !! Orthodox schools of Indian philosophy (Non-Śramaṇic)
|-
|[[Karma]] || Denies<ref name=philtarajiv>[http://www.philtar.ac.uk/encyclopedia/hindu/ascetic/ajiv.html Ajivikas] World Religions Project, [[University of Cumbria]], United Kingdom</ref><ref>Gananath Obeyesekere (2005), Karma and Rebirth: A Cross Cultural Study, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120826090}}, page 106</ref> || Affirms<ref name=collins/> || Denies<ref name=collins/> || Affirms<ref name=collins/> || Affirms
|-
|[[Samsara]], Rebirth || Affirms || Affirms<ref>Damien Keown (2013), Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction, 2nd Edition, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0199663835}}, pages 32-46</ref> || Denies<ref>Haribhadrasūri (Translator: M Jain, 1989), Saddarsanasamuccaya, Asiatic Society, {{oclc|255495691}}</ref> || Affirms<ref name=collins/> || Some school affirm, some not<ref>Halbfass, Wilhelm (2000), Karma und Wiedergeburt im indischen Denken, Diederichs, München, {{ISBN|978-3896313850}}</ref>
|-
|[[Asceticism|Ascetic]] life || Affirms || Affirms || Denies<ref name=collins/> || Affirms || Affirms as [[Sannyasa]]<ref name=patrickolivelle278>Patrick Olivelle (2005), ''The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism'' (Editor: Flood, Gavin), Wiley-Blackwell, {{ISBN|978-1405132510}}, pages 277-278</ref>
|-
|Rituals, [[Bhakti]] || Affirms || Affirms, optional<ref>Karel Werner (1995), Love Divine: Studies in Bhakti and Devotional Mysticism, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0700702350}}, pages 45-46</ref> (Pali: ''Bhatti'') || Denies || Affirms, optional<ref>John Cort, Jains in the World : Religious Values and Ideology in India, Oxford University Press, ISBN, pages 64-68, 86-90, 100-112</ref> || Theistic school: Affirms, optional<ref>Christian Novetzke (2007), Bhakti and Its Public, International Journal of Hindu Studies, Vol. 11, No. 3, page 255-272</ref> Others: Deny<ref>'''[a]''' Knut Jacobsen (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga : 'Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120832329}}, pages 15-16, 76-78; '''[b]''' Lloyd Pflueger, Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120832329}}, pages 38-39</ref><ref>'''[a]''' Karl Potter (2008), Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies Vol. III, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120803107}}, pages 16-18, 220; '''[b]''' Basant Pradhan (2014), Yoga and Mindfulness Based Cognitive Therapy, Springer Academic, {{ISBN|978-3319091044}}, page 13 see A.4</ref>
|-
|[[Ahimsa]] and Vegetarianism || Affirms || Affirms, Unclear on meat as food<ref>U Tahtinen (1976), Ahimsa: Non-Violence in Indian Tradition, London, {{ISBN|978-0091233402}}, pages 75-78, 94-106</ref> || || Strongest proponent of non-violence; Vegetarianism to avoid violence against animals<ref>U Tahtinen (1976), Ahimsa: Non-Violence in Indian Tradition, London, {{ISBN|978-0091233402}}, pages 57-62, 109-111</ref> || Affirms as highest virtue, but [[Just war theory|Just War]] affirmed Vegetarianism encouraged, but choice left to the Hindu<ref>U Tahtinen (1976), Ahimsa: Non-Violence in Indian Tradition, London, {{ISBN|978-0091233402}}, pages 34-43, 89-97, 109-110</ref><ref>Christopher Chapple (1993), Nonviolence to Animals, Earth, and Self in Asian Traditions, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|0-7914-1498-1}}, pages 16-17</ref>
|-
|[[Free will]] || Denies<ref name=james22>James Lochtefeld, "Ajivika", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN|978-0823931798}}, page 22</ref> || Affirms<ref>Karin Meyers (2013), Free Will, Agency, and Selfhood in Indian Philosophy (Editors: Matthew R. Dasti, Edwin F. Bryant), Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0199922758}}, pages 41-61</ref> || Affirms || Affirms || Affirms<ref>Howard Coward (2008), The Perfectibility of Human Nature in Eastern and Western Thought, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791473368}}, pages 103-114; Harold Coward (2003), Encyclopedia of Science and Religion, Macmillan Reference, see Karma, {{ISBN|978-0028657042}}</ref>
|-
|[[Maya (illusion)|Maya]] || Affirms<ref>AL Basham (1951), History and Doctrines of the Ajivikas – a Vanished Indian Religion, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120812048}}, pages 237</ref> || Affirms (''prapañca'')<ref>Damien Keown (2004), A Dictionary of Buddhism, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0198605607}}, Entry for ''Prapañca'', Quote: "Term meaning 'proliferation', in the sense of the multiplication of erroneous concepts, ideas, and ideologies which obscure the true nature of reality".</ref> || Denies || Affirms || Affirms<ref>Lynn Foulston and Stuart Abbott (2009), Hindu Goddesses: Beliefs and Practices, Sussex Academic Press, {{ISBN|978-1902210438}}, pages 14-16</ref><ref>Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1986), Dreams, Illusion, and Other Realities, University of Chicago Press, {{ISBN|978-0226618555}}, page 119</ref>
|-
|[[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (Soul, Self) || Affirms || Denies<ref name=5sources>'''[a]''' Steven Collins (1994), Religion and Practical Reason (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David Tracy), State Univ of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791422175}}, page 64; "Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not-self (Pali: anattā, Sanskrit: anātman, the opposed doctrine of ātman is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the [Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence."; '''[b]'''KN Jayatilleke (2010), Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, {{ISBN|978-8120806191}}, pages 246-249, from note 385 onwards; '''[c]'''John C. Plott et al. (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120801585}}, page 63, Quote: "The Buddhist schools reject any Ātman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism"; '''[d]'''Katie Javanaud (2013), [https://philosophynow.org/issues/97/Is_The_Buddhist_No-Self_Doctrine_Compatible_With_Pursuing_Nirvana Is The Buddhist ‘No-Self’ Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana?], Philosophy Now; '''[e]'''[https://www.britannica.com/topic/anatta Anatta] Encyclopædia Britannica, Quote:"In Buddhism, the doctrine that there is in humans no permanent, underlying substance that can be called the soul. (...) The concept of anatta, or anatman, is a departure from the Hindu belief in atman (self)."</ref> || Denies<ref>Ramkrishna Bhattacharya (2011), Studies on the Carvaka/Lokayata, Anthem, {{ISBN|978-0857284334}}, page 216</ref> || Affirms<ref name=jaini>{{cite book|author1=Padmanabh S. Jaini|title=Collected papers on Buddhist studies|year=2001|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publications|isbn=9788120817760}}</ref>{{rp|119}} || Affirms<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/anatta Anatta] Encyclopædia Britannica, Quote:"In Buddhism, the doctrine that there is in humans no permanent, underlying substance that can be called the soul. (...) The concept of anatta, or anatman, is a departure from the Hindu belief in atman (self)."</ref>
|-
|Creator god || Denies || Affirms || Denies || Denies || Theistic schools: Affirm<ref>Oliver Leaman (2000), Eastern Philosophy: Key Readings, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415173582}}, page 251</ref> Others: Deny<ref>[[Mikel Burley]] (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga – An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415648875}}, page 39</ref><ref>Paul Hacker (1978), Eigentumlichkeiten dr Lehre und Terminologie Sankara: Avidya, Namarupa, Maya, Isvara, in Kleine Schriften (Editor: L. Schmithausen), Franz Steiner Verlag, Weisbaden, pages 101-109 (in German), also pages 69-99</ref>
|-
|[[Epistemology]] ([[Pramana]]) || Pratyakṣa, Anumāṇa, Śabda || Pratyakṣa, Anumāṇa<ref name=johngrimes238/><ref>D Sharma (1966), Epistemological negative dialectics of Indian logic – Abhāva versus Anupalabdhi, Indo-Iranian Journal, 9(4): 291-300</ref> || Pratyakṣa<ref>MM Kamal (1998), The Epistemology of the Carvaka Philosophy, Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies, 46(2), pages 13-16</ref> || Pratyakṣa, Anumāṇa, Śabda<ref name=johngrimes238/> || Various, Vaisheshika (two) to Vedanta (six):<ref name=johngrimes238>John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791430675}}, page 238</ref><ref>Eliott Deutsche (2000), in Philosophy of Religion : Indian Philosophy Vol 4 (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0815336112}}, pages 245-248</ref> Pratyakṣa (perception), Anumāṇa (inference), Upamāṇa (comparison and analogy), Arthāpatti (postulation, derivation), Anupalabdi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof), Śabda (Reliable testimony)
|-
|Epistemic authority||Denies: Vedas ||Affirms: Buddha [[Āgama (Buddhism)|text]]<ref name=bartley46>Christopher Bartley (2011), An Introduction to Indian Philosophy, Bloomsbury Academic, {{ISBN|978-1847064493}}, pages 46, 120</ref> Denies: Vedas||Denies: Vedas ||Affirms: [[Jain Agamas]] Denies: Vedas||Affirm: [[Vedas]] and [[Upanishad]]s,{{refn|group=note|Elisa Freschi (2012): The Vedas are not deontic authorities and may be disobeyed, but still recognized as an epistemic authority by a Hindu.<ref>Elisa Freschi (2012), ''Duty, Language and Exegesis in Prabhakara Mimamsa'', BRILL, {{ISBN|978-9004222601}}, page 62</ref> Such a differentiation between epistemic and deontic authority is true for all Indian religions.}} Affirm: other texts<ref name=bartley46/><ref>Catherine Cornille (2009), Criteria of Discernment in Interreligious Dialogue, Wipf & Stock, {{ISBN|978-1606087848}}, pages 185-186</ref>
|-
|Salvation ([[Soteriology]])|| Samsdrasuddhi<ref>AL Basham (1951), History and Doctrines of the Ajivikas – a Vanished Indian Religion, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120812048}}, pages 227</ref> || [[Nirvana]] (realize [[Śūnyatā]])<ref>Jerald Gort (1992), On Sharing Religious Experience: Possibilities of Interfaith Mutuality, Rodopi, {{ISBN|978-0802805058}}, pages 209-210</ref> || || [[Siddha#Siddha in Jainism|Siddha]],<ref>John Cort (2010), Framing the Jina: Narratives of Icons and Idols in Jain History, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195385021}}, pages 80, 188</ref>
[[Nirvana#Jainism|Nirvana]]
| Moksha, Nirvana, Kaivalya Advaita, Yoga, others: [[Moksha#Mokṣha in this life|Jivanmukti]]<ref>Andrew Fort (1998), Jivanmukti in Transformation, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791439043}}</ref> Dvaita, theistic: [[Moksha|Videhamukti]]
|-
|[[Metaphysics]] (Ultimate Reality)|| || Śūnyatā<ref>Masao Abe and Steven Heine (1995), Buddhism and Interfaith Dialogue, University of Hawaii Press, {{ISBN|978-0824817527}}, pages 105-106</ref><ref>Chad Meister (2009), Introducing Philosophy of Religion, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415403276}}, page 60; Quote: "In this chapter, we looked at religious metaphysics and saw two different ways of understanding Ultimate Reality. On the one hand, it can be understood as an absolute state of being. Within Hindu absolutism, for example, it is Brahman, the undifferentiated Absolute. Within Buddhist metaphysics, fundamental reality is Sunyata, or the Void."</ref> || ||[[Anekantavada|Anekāntavāda]]<ref>Christopher Key Chapple (2004), Jainism and Ecology: Nonviolence in the Web of Life, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120820456}}, page 20</ref> ||[[Brahman]]<ref>PT Raju (2006), Idealistic Thought of India, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-1406732627}}, page 426 and Conclusion chapter part XII</ref><ref>Roy W Perrett (Editor, 2000), Indian Philosophy: Metaphysics, Volume 3, Taylor & Francis, {{ISBN|978-0815336082}}, page xvii; AC Das (1952), Brahman and Māyā in Advaita Metaphysics, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 2, No. 2, pages 144-154</ref>
|}

==Political philosophy==
The [[Arthashastra]], attributed to the [[Mauryan]] minister [[Chanakya]], is one of the early Indian texts devoted to [[political philosophy]]. It is dated to 4th century BCE and discusses ideas of statecraft and economic policy.

The political philosophy most closely associated with modern India is the one of [[ahimsa]] (non-violence) and [[Satyagraha]], popularised by [[Mahatma Gandhi]] during the [[Indian independence movement|Indian struggle for independence]]. In turn it influenced the later independence and [[Civil Rights movement]]s, especially those led by [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] and [[Nelson Mandela]]. [[Prabhat Ranjan Sarkar]]'s [[Progressive Utilization Theory]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sarkar, Prabhatranjan – Banglapedia|url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Sarkar,_Prabhatranjan|access-date=2020-10-13|website=en.banglapedia.org}}</ref> is also a major socio-economic and political philosophy.<ref>{{cite book|last=Weber|first=Thomas|title=Gandhi as Disciple and Mentor|url=https://archive.org/details/gandhiasdisciple0000webe|url-access=registration|year=2004|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-45657-9|page=[https://archive.org/details/gandhiasdisciple0000webe/page/136 136]}}</ref>

[[Integral humanism (India)|Integral humanism]] was a set of concepts drafted by Upadhyaya as political program and adopted in 1965 as the official doctrine of the Jan Sangh.

Upadhyaya considered that it was of utmost importance for India to develop an indigenous economic model with a human being at center stage. This approach made this concept different from [[Socialism]] and [[Capitalism]]. Integral Humanism was adopted as Jan Sangh's political doctrine and its new openness to other opposition forces made it possible for the Hindu nationalist movement to have an alliance in the early 1970s with the prominent Gandhian [[Sarvodaya#Sarvodaya movement|Sarvodaya movement]] going on under the leadership of [[J. P. Narayan]]. This was considered to be the first major public breakthrough for the Hindu nationalist movement.

==Influence==
In appreciation of complexity of the Indian philosophy, [[T. S. Eliot]] wrote that the great philosophers of India "make most of the great European philosophers look like schoolboys".<ref>{{cite journal |url= http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-PHIL/ew33375.htm |title= The Hidden Advantage of Tradition: On the Significance of T. S. Eliot's Indic Studies |author= Jeffry M. Perl and Andrew P. Tuck |volume = 35 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |journal=Philosophy East & West |year = 1985 |access-date= 2012-08-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title= After Strange Gods: A Primer of Modern Heresy |last= Eliot |first= Thomas Stearns |author-link= T. S. Eliot |year= 1933 |publisher= (London: Faber) |page=40}}</ref> [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] used Indian philosophy to improve upon [[Kantian]] thought. In the preface to his book ''[[The World As Will And Representation]]'', Schopenhauer writes that one who "has also received and assimilated the sacred primitive Indian wisdom, then he is the best of all prepared to hear what I have to say to him."<ref>{{cite book |last=Barua|first=Arati|title=Schopenhauer and Indian Philosophy: A Dialogue Between India and Germany|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iX8PLajNrAIC|year=2008|publisher=Northern Book Centre|isbn=978-81-7211-243-1|page=3}}</ref> The 19th-century American philosophical movement [[Transcendentalism]] was also influenced by Indian thought.<ref>"Transcendentalism". ''The Oxford Companion to American Literature''. James D. Hart ed.Oxford University Press, 1995. ''Oxford Reference Online''. Web. 24 Oct.2011</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Werner|first=Karel|title=Yoga And Indian Philosophy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c6b3lH0-OekC&pg=PA170|year=1998|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1609-1|page=170}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|India|Philosophy|Religion}}
* [[Affectionism]]
* [[Ancient Indian philosophy]]
* [[Hindu philosophy]]
* [[M. Hiriyanna]]
* [[Indian art]]
* [[Indian logic]]
* [[Indian psychology]]
* [[Svayam bhagavan]]
* [[Trikaranasuddhi]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
===Citations===
{{Reflist}}

===Sources===
{{refbegin}}
* {{citation |last=Dundas |first=Paul |author-link=Paul Dundas |title=The Jains |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ |edition=Second |orig-year=1992 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=0-415-26605-X }}
* {{Citation | last =Nicholson | first =Andrew J. | year =2010 | title =Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History | publisher =Columbia University Press| title-link =Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History }}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book |last=Apte |first=Vaman Shivram |title=The Practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary |url=https://archive.org/details/practicalsanskri00apteuoft|year=1965 |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |location=Delhi |isbn=81-208-0567-4| edition=4th Rev. and Enlarged}}
* {{cite book |last=Basham |first=A.L. |title=History and Doctrines of the Ājīvikas | year=1951 |edition=2nd |publisher=Moltilal Banarsidass (Reprint: 2002) |location=Delhi, India | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=BiGQzc5lRGYC |isbn= 81-208-1204-2}} originally published by Luzac & Company Ltd., London, 1951.
* {{cite book |last=Balcerowicz |first=Piotr |title=Early Asceticism in India: Ājīvikism and Jainism | year=2015 |edition=1st |publisher=Routledge | pages=368 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ |isbn= 9781317538530}}
* {{cite book |editor-surname=Chattopadhyaya |editor-given=D. P. |editor-link=D. P. Chattopadhyaya |title=[[Project of History of Indian Science, Philosophy and Culture|History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization]] |volume=15-volum + parts Set |place=Delhi |publisher=[[Centre for Studies in Civilizations]]}}
* {{cite book |last1=Cowell |first1=E. B. |last2=Gough |first2=A. E. |title=The Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha or Review of the Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy |series=Trubner's Oriental Series |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xkrCRbOq-HUC |year=2001 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-415-24517-3}}
* {{cite book |surname=Dasgupta |given=Surendranath |year=1922–1955  |title=A History of Indian Philosophy |volume=1–5 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |place=London |url=https://www.indianculture.gov.in/reports-proceedings/history-indian-philosophy-vol-i}} [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.96713 Vol. 1] | [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.57593 Vol. 2] | [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.57392 Vol. 3] | [https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.231099 Vol. 4] | [https://archive.org/details/AHistoryOfIndianPhilosophyVol5/page/n1/mode/2up Vol. 5.]
*{{citation |last=Flood |first=Gavin |title=An Introduction to Hinduism |year=1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=0-521-43878-0 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo }}
*{{cite book |last=Gandhi |first=M.K.|author-link=Mahatma Gandhi |title=Non-Violent Resistance (Satyagraha)|url=https://archive.org/details/nonviolentresist00gand |url-access=registration |year=1961 |publisher= Schocken Books |location=New York }}
*{{cite book |last=Jain |first=Dulichand |title=Thus Spake Lord Mahavir |year=1998 |publisher=Sri Ramakrishna Math |location=Chennai |isbn= 81-7120-825-8}}
*{{cite book |last=Michaels |first=Axel|title=Hinduism: Past and Present|year=2004 |publisher= Princeton University Press |location=New York |isbn= 0-691-08953-1}}
*{{cite encyclopedia |editor-surname=Potter |editor-given=Karl H. |editor-link=Karl Harrington Potter |title=Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophers |url=http://faculty.washington.edu/kpotter/xencyclo.html |place=Delhi |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1970–2019 |volume=1–25- |postscript=. Ongoing [[monographic series]] project. |access-date=24 October 2019 |archive-date=1 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220201160007/https://faculty.washington.edu/kpotter/xencyclo.html |url-status=dead }}
*{{cite book |last=Radhakrishnan |first=S |author-link=Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan |title=Indian Philosophy, Volume 1 | url =https://archive.org/details/Sarvepalli.Radhakrishnan.Indian.Philosophy.Volume.1-2 |edition=2nd |series=Muirhead library of philosophy |year=1929 |publisher= George Allen and Unwin |location=London}}
*{{cite book |last=Radhakrishnan |first=S. |author-link=Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan |author2=Moore, CA |title=A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy |year=1967 |publisher=Princeton |isbn=0-691-01958-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/sourcebookinindi00radh}}
*{{cite book |last=Stevenson |first=Leslie |title=Ten theories of human nature |year=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press }} 4th edition.
*{{cite book |last=Hiriyanna | first=M. | title=Essentials of Indian Philosophy | publisher=Motilal Banarsidas | isbn=978-81-208-1304-5 |author-link =M Hiriyanna|year=1995}}

==External links==
*[[Surendranath Dasgupta]]. [https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/a-history-of-indian-philosophy-volume-1/index.html A History of Indian Philosophy | HTML (vol. 1)] | [https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/a-history-of-indian-philosophy-volume-2/index.html (vol. 2)] | [https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/a-history-of-indian-philosophy-volume-3/index.html (vol. 3)] | [https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/a-history-of-indian-philosophy-volume-4/index.html (vol. 4)] | [https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/a-history-of-indian-philosophy-volume-5/index.html (vol. 5)], ebook at Wisdomlib.org
*Surendranath Dasgupta. [https://archive.org/details/Indian.Idealism.by.Surendranath.Dasgupta Indian Idealism] at [[archive.org]]
* A recommended reading guide from the philosophy department of [[University College, London]]: [http://www.ucl.ac.uk/philosophy/LPSG/Indian.pdf London Philosophy Study Guide – Indian Philosophy]
* Articles at the [https://www.iep.utm.edu/category/traditions/indian/ Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
*[http://ipi.org.in Indian Psychology Institute] The application of Indian Philosophy to contemporary issues in Psychology
*[https://archive.org/details/Mysore.Hiriyanna-The.Essentials.of.Indian.Philosophy The Essentials of Indian Philosophy by Mysore Hiriyanna] at [[archive.org]]
*[https://archive.org/details/Mysore.Hiriyanna-Outlines.of.Indian.Philosophy Outlines of Indian Philosophy by Mysore Hiriyanna] at [[archive.org]]
*[https://archive.org/details/Sarvepalli.Radhakrishnan.Indian.Philosophy.Volume.1-2 Indian Philosophy by Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (2 Volumes)] at [[archive.org]]
*[https://archive.org/details/Radhakrishnan-History.of.Philosophy-Eastern.and.Western-Volume.1-2 History of Philosophy – Eastern and Western Edited by Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (2 Volumes)] at [[archive.org]]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20180228042935/https://www.jiva.org/indian-schools-of-philosophy-and-theology/ Indian Schools of Philosophy and Theology] (Jiva Institute)

{{Indian philosophy}}

[[Category:Indian philosophy| ]]
[[Category:Indian culture]]
[[Category:History of India]]
[[Category:Indian literature]]

Adil Shahi dynasty

2022-11-22T03:29:24Z

Ishivammadaan: Added a new release to the platform.

{{Short description|Muslim dynasty that ruled southwest India as the Sultanate of Bijapur from 1490 to 1686}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Use Indian English}}
{{Infobox country
|native_name =
|conventional_long_name = Bijapur Sultanate
|common_name = Adil Shahi dynasty
|image_coat =
|image_map = Deccan sultanates 1490 - 1687 ad.png
|map_caption= Territory of the Adil Shahis (Bijapur Sultanate) and their neighbours.<ref>For a map of their territory see: {{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=147, map XIV.4 (k)|isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=186}}</ref>
|era = Late Medieval
|year_start = 1490
|year_end = 1686
|p1 = Vijayanagara Empire
|flag_p1 =
|p2 = Bahmani Sultanate
|s1 = Kingdom of Mysore
|flag_s1 =
|s2 = Maratha Empire
|flag_s2 =
|s3 = Mughal Empire
|flag_s3 =
|capital = [[Bijapur]]
|common_languages =[[Persian language|Persian]] (official)<ref>{{cite web|last1=Baqir|first1=Muhammad|title=BĪJĀPŪR – Encyclopaedia Iranica|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bijapur-capital-city-and-domain-of-the-adelsahi-dynasty|website=iranicaonline.org|publisher=Encyclopedia Iranica|access-date=8 February 2017|language=en|quote=The official language of the court at Bījāpūr during the ʿĀdelšāhī period and until the end of Mughal rule in 1274/1858 was Persian. Indeed, Yūsof ʿĀdelšāh (895–916/1489–1510) and his son Esmāʿīl themselves wrote poetry in Persian, Esmāʿīl under the pen name Wafāʾī. The ʿĀdelšāhīs established Shiʿism in Bījāpūr and actively encouraged the immigration of Persian writers and religious figures.}}</ref> [[Deccani Urdu]],<ref>Satish Chandra, ''Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals'', Part II, (Har-Anand, 2009), 210.</ref> [[Kannada]] (since 1535)<ref>{{cite journal
| last = Alam
| first = Muzaffar
| date = 1998
| title = The pursuit of Persian: Language in Mughal Politics
| journal = Modern Asian Studies
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| volume = 32
| issue = 2
| pages = 317–349
| doi=10.1017/s0026749x98002947
| s2cid = 146630389
}}</ref> [[Marathi language|Marathi]] (written only, for local government)<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sheikh |first1=Samira |title=Persian in the Villages, or, the Language of Jamiat Rai's Account Books |journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient |volume=64 |issue=5–6 |page=704 |doi=10.1163/15685209-12341551|quote=The Adil Shahi rulers of Bijapur used written Marathi for local government, including revenue collection and judicial matters, as did the Nizam Shahis.|doi-access=free }}</ref>
|religion = {{ubl
|[[Shia Islam]] (Until 1534 and during 1558–1579<ref name="ReferenceE">Footnote in Page 2 of Translator's preface in the book ''Tohfut-ul-mujahideen: An Historical Work in the Arabic Language'' written by ''Zayn al-Dīn b. ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz al- Malībārī'' (Translated into English by ''Lt. M.J. Rowlandson'')</ref>)
|[[Sunni Islam]] (During 1534–1558 and after 1580 till its fall,<ref name="ReferenceF">Muhammad Qasim [[Firishta]]'s Tarikh-e-Firishta.</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">Busateenus-Salateen a Persian Manuscript of Mirza Ibrahim Zubairi.</ref><ref name="ReferenceC">Mirza Ibrahim Zubairi, Rouzatul Auliya-e-Bijapur.</ref>)
}}
|government_type = Monarchy
|leader1 = [[Yusuf Adil Shah]]
|year_leader1 = 1490–1510
|leader2 = [[Ismail Adil Shah]]
|year_leader2 = 1510–1534
|leader3 = [[Mallu Adil Shah]]
|year_leader3 = 1534
|leader4 = [[Ibrahim Adil Shah I]]
|year_leader4 = 1534–1558
|leader5 = [[Ali Adil Shah I]]
|year_leader5 = 1558–1579<ref name="ReferenceE">Footnote in Page 2 of Translator's preface in the book ''Tohfut-ul-mujahideen: An Historical Work in the Arabic Language'' written by ''Zayn al-Dīn b. ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz al- Malībārī'' (Translated into English by ''Lt. M.J. Rowlandson'')</ref>
|leader6 = [[Ibrahim Adil Shah II]]
|year_leader6 = 1580–1627
|leader7 = [[Mohammed Adil Shah, Sultan of Bijapur|Mohammed Adil Shah]]
|year_leader7 = 1627–1656
|leader8 = [[Ali Adil Shah II]]
|year_leader8 = 1656–1672
|leader9 = [[Sikandar Adil Shah]]
|year_leader9 = 1672–1686
|title_leader = [[Shah]]
| today = [[India]]
}}
The '''Adil Shahi''' or '''Adilshahi''', was a [[Shia Islam|Shia]],<ref name="Farooqui">Salma Ahmed Farooqui, ''A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: From Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century'', (Dorling Kindersley Pvt Ltd., 2011), 174.</ref> and later [[Sunni Muslim]],<ref name="ReferenceF">Muhammad Qasim [[Firishta]]'s Tarikh-e-Firishta.</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">Busateenus-Salateen a Persian Manuscript of Mirza Ibrahim Zubairi.</ref><ref name="ReferenceC">Mirza Ibrahim Zubairi, Rouzatul Auliya-e-Bijapur.</ref> dynasty founded by [[Yusuf Adil Shah]], that ruled the '''Sultanate of Bijapur''', centred on present-day [[Bijapur district, Karnataka]] in [[India]], in the Western area of the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] region of Southern [[India]] from 1489 to 1686.<ref name="sen2">{{Cite book |last=Sen |first=Sailendra |title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History |publisher=Primus Books |year=2013 |isbn=978-9-38060-734-4 |pages=119}}</ref> Bijapur had been a province of the [[Bahmani Sultanate]] (1347–1518), before its political decline in the last quarter of the 15th century and eventual break-up in 1518. The Bijapur Sultanate was absorbed into the [[Mughal Empire]] on 12 September 1686, after its conquest by the Emperor [[Aurangzeb]].<ref>The Peacock Throne by Waldemar Hansen. {{ISBN|978-81-208-0225-4}}. p. 468.</ref>

The founder of the dynasty, [[Yusuf Adil Shah]] (1490–1510), was appointed governor of the province by its Bahmani rulers, before creating a de facto independent Bijapur state. Yusuf and his son, Ismail, generally used the title ''Adil Khan''. 'Khan', meaning 'Chief' in various Central Asian cultures and adopted in Persian, conferred a lower status than 'Shah', indicating royal rank. Only with the rule of Yusuf's grandson, [[Ibrahim Adil Shah I]] (1534–1558), did the title of ''Adil Shah'' come into common use. Even then, Bijapur rulers recognized [[Safavid Iran|Safavid Persian]] suzerainty over their realm.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Anwar |first=M. Siraj |title=The Safavids and Mughal Relations with the Deccan States |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44142611 |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=52 |pages=255–262 |jstor=44142611 |issn=2249-1937}}</ref>

The Bijapur Sultanate's borders changed considerably throughout its history. Its northern boundary remained relatively stable, straddling contemporary Southern [[Maharashtra]] and Northern [[Karnataka]]. The Sultanate expanded southward, first with the conquest of the [[Raichur Doab]] following the defeat of the [[Vijayanagara Empire|Vijayanagara]] empire at the [[Battle of Talikota]] in 1565. Later campaigns, notably during the reign of [[Mohammed Adil Shah, Sultan of Bijapur|Mohammed Adil Shah]] (1627–1657), extended Bijapur's formal borders and nominal authority as far south as [[Bangalore]]. Bijapur was bounded on the West by the Portuguese state of [[Goa]] and on the East by the Sultanate of [[Golconda]], ruled by the [[Qutb Shahi]] dynasty.

The former Bahmani provincial capital of Bijapur remained the capital of the Sultanate throughout its existence. After modest earlier developments, [[Ibrahim Adil Shah I]] (1534–1558) and [[Ali Adil Shah I]] (1558–1579) remodelled Bijapur, providing the citadel and city walls, [[congregational mosque]], core royal palaces and major water supply infrastructure. Their successors, [[Ibrahim Adil Shah II]] (1580–1627), [[Mohammed Adil Shah, Sultan of Bijapur|Mohammed Adil Shah]] (1627–1657) and [[Ali Adil Shah II]] (1657–1672), further adorned Bijapur with palaces, mosques, mausoleum and other structures, considered to be some of the finest examples of Deccan Sultanate and Indo-Islamic Architecture.

Bijapur was caught up in the instability and conflict resulting from the collapse of the Bahmani Empire. Constant warring, both with the [[Vijayanagara Empire|Vijayanagara]] Empire and the other Deccan Sultanates, curtailed the development of state before the Deccan Sultanates allied to achieve victory over Vijayanagara at Talikota in 1565. Bijapur eventually conquered the neighbouring Sultanate of [[Bidar]] in 1619. The Portuguese Empire exerted pressure on the major Adil Shahi port of Goa, until it was conquered during the reign of Ibrahim II. The Sultanate was thereafter relatively stable, although it was damaged by the revolt of [[Shivaji]], whose father was [[Maratha]] commander in the service of [[Adil Shah]]. Shivaji founded an independent [[Maratha]] Kingdom which went on to become the [[Maratha Empire]], one of the largest empires in India, just before the British conquered India. The greatest threat to Bijapur's security was, from the late 16th century, the expansion of the Mughal Empire into the Deccan. Although it may be the case that the Mughals destroyed the Adilshahi, it was Shivaji's revolt which weakened the Adilshahi control. Various agreements and treaties imposed Mughal suzerainty on the Adil Shahs, by stages, until Bijapur's formal recognition of Mughal authority in 1636. The demands of their Mughal overlords sapped the Adil Shahs of their wealth until the Mughal conquest of Bijapur in 1686.

==Historical overview==
[[File:Shajra e Yusufi.png|left|thumb|Genealogy of Yusuf Adil Shah]]
[[File:Ibrahim Adil Shah II Sultan of Bijapur.jpg|thumb|right|Ibrahim Adil Shah II]]
[[File:Sultan Ali Adil II Shah of Bijapur, hunting tiger, India, Deccan, Bijapur, ca 1660.jpg|thumb|Sultan [[Ali Adil Shah II]] hunting a tiger, c 1660]]
[[File:The House of Bijapur.jpg|thumb|A painting of "The House of Bijapur" was completed in the year 1680, during the reign of [[Sikandar Adil Shah]] the last ruler of the Adil Shahi dynasty.]]

The founder of the dynasty, Yusuf Adil Shah, may have been a Georgian slave<ref name="Chaurasia 2002 101">{{cite book |last=Chaurasia |first=Lucasraven12y Shyam |title=History of Medieval India: From 1000 A.D. to 1707 A.D. |year=2002 |page=101}}</ref><ref name="Subrahmanyam 2012 101">{{cite book |last=Subrahmanyam |first=Sanjay |title=Courtly Encounters: Translating Courtliness and Violence in Early Modern Eurasia |year=2012 |page=101}}</ref> who was purchased by [[Mahmud Gawan]] from Iran. According to the historian Mir Rafi-uddin Ibrahim-i Shirazi, or ''Rafi''', Yusuf's full name was Sultan Yusuf 'Adil Shah Savah or Sawah'i (from the ancient town of [[Saveh]], southwest of modern [[Tehran]]), the son of Mahmud Beg of Sawa in Iran, (Rafi' 36–38, vide Devare 67, fn 2). Rafi's history of the 'Adil Shahi dynasty was written at the request of [[Ibrahim Adil Shah II]], and was completed and presented to the patron in AH 1017. The Indian scholar T.N. Devare mentioned that while Rafi's account of the Bahmani dynasty is filled with [[anachronisms]], his account of the Adilshahi is "fairly accurate, exhaustive, and possesses such rich and valuable information about Ali I and Ibrahim II" (312). Rafi-uddin later became the governor of Bijapur for about 15 years (Devare 316).{{citation needed}}

Yusuf's bravery and personality raised him rapidly in Sultan's favour, resulting in his appointment as the Governor of Bijapur. He built the [[Citadel]] or [[Arkilla]] and the [[Faroukh Mahal]]. Yusuf was a man of culture. He invited poets and artisans from Persia, Turkey, and Rome to his court. He's well known as a ruler who took advantage of the decline of the Bahmani power to establish himself as an independent sultan at Bijapur in 1498. He did this with a military support which has been given to him by a Bijapuri general [[Kalidas Madhu Sadhwani]] – brilliant commander and good diplomat, who made quick career by supporting [[Yusuf Adil Shah]] and then his son – [[Ismail Adil Shah]]. He married Punji, the sister of a Maratha Raja of Indapur.<ref>Studies in Indology and Medieval History
Prof. G. H. Khare Felicitation Volume, page 178</ref> When Yusuf died in 1510, his son Ismail was still a boy. Punji in male attire valiantly defended him from a coup to grab the throne. [[Ismail Adil Shah]] thus became the ruler of Bijapur and succeeded his father's ambition.

[[File:Chandbibi1800.jpg|right|thumb|[[Chand Bibi]], the regent of Bijapur (1580–90)]]
[[Ibrahim Adil Shah I]] who succeeded his father Ismail, fortified the city and built the old [[Jama Masjid, Bijapur|Jamia Masjid]]{{Clarify|The page for [[Jama Masjid, Bijapur]] says it was built in 1578 by [[Ali Adil Shah I]].}}. [[Ali Adil Shah I]] who next ascended the throne, aligned his forces with other Muslim kings of [[Golconda]], [[Ahmednagar]] and [[Bidar]], and together, they brought down the [[Vijayanagar empire|Vijayanagara empire]]. With the loot gained, he launched ambitious projects. He built the [[Gagan Mahal]], the Ali Rauza (his own tomb), Chand Bawdi (a large well) and the [[Jami Masjid]]. Ali I had no son, so his nephew Ibrahim II was set on the throne. Ali I's queen [[Chand Bibi]] had to aid him until he came of age. Ibrahim II was noted for his valor, intelligence and leanings towards the Hindu music and philosophy. Under his patronage the Bijapur school of painting reached its zenith. [[Mohammed Adil Shah, Sultan of Bijapur|Muhammad Adil Shah]] succeeded his father Ibrahim II. He is renowned for Bijapur's grandest structure, the [[Gol Gumbaz]], which has the biggest dome in the world with whispering gallery round about slightest sound is reproduced seven times. He also set up the historical [[Malik-e-Maidan]], the massive gun.{{citation needed}}

[[Ali Adil Shah II]] inherited a troubled kingdom. He had to face the onslaught of the [[Maratha]] leader [[Shivaji]] on one side and [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] emperor [[Aurangzeb]] on another. His mausoleum, [[Bara Kaman]], planned to dwarf all others, was left unfinished due to his death. [[Sikandar Adil Shah]], the last Adil Shahi sultan, ruled next for fourteen stormy years. Finally on 12 September 1686, the Mughal armies under [[Aurangzeb]] overpowered the city of [[Bijapur, Karnataka|Bijapur]].

==Sufis of Bijapur==
Arrival of [[Sufis]] in [[Bijapur district, Karnataka|Bijapur]] region was started during the reign of [[Qutbuddin Aibak]]. During this period [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] region was under the control of native [[Hindu]] rulers and Palegars. Shaikh Haji Roomi was the first to arrive in Bijapur with his companions. Although his other comrades like Shaikh Salahuddin, Shaikh Saiful Mulk and Syed Haji Makki were settled in [[Pune]], Haidra and Tikota respectively.

According to Tazkiraye Auliyae Dakkan i.e., Biographies of the saints of the Deccan, compiled by Abdul Jabbar Mulkapuri in 1912–1913,
{{cquote|Sufi Sarmast was one of the earliest sufi of this region. He came to the Deccan from [[Arab]]ia in the 13th century at a time when the Deccan was a land of unbelievers with no sign of Islam or correct faith anywhere. His companions, pupils (fakir), disciples (murid), and soldiers (ghazi), numbered over seven hundred. He settled in Sagar in Sholapur district. There, a zealous and anti-Muslim raja named Kumaram (Kumara Rama) wished to expel Sufi Sarmast, and his companions having also prepared to a struggle, a bitter fight ensued. Heroes on both sides were slain. Finally the raja was killed by the hand of his daughter. Countless Hindus were killed, and at this time Lakhi Khan Afghan and Nimat Khan came from [[Delhi]] to assist him. Hindus were defeated and the Muslims were victorious. The rest of the Hindus, having accepted tributary status, made peace. Since by nature he was fundamentally not combative, Sufi Sarmast spread the religion of [[Muhammad|Mohammed]] and befriended the hearts of Hindus. Having seen his fine virtues and uncommon justice, many Hindus of that time accepted Islam, finally he died in the year A.H.680 i.e., 1281 A.D.<ref>Richard Maxwell Eaton, Sufis of Bijapur (1300–1700), Page:22 Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey 1978,</ref>}}

After this period arrival of Sufis in Bijapur and suburbs was started. Ainuddin Gahjul Ilm Dehelvi narrates that Ibrahim Sangane was one of the early Sufis of Bijapur parish. Sufis of Bijapur can be divided into three categories according to period of their arrival viz., Sufis before [[Bahmani]] and/or Adil Shahi Dynasty, Sufis during Adil Shahi Dynasty and Sufis after the fall of Adil Shahi Dynasty. And further, it can be classified as Sufis as warriors, Sufis as social reformers, Sufis as scholars, poets and writers.

Ibrahim Zubairi writes in his book Rouzatul Auliyae Beejapore (compiled during 1895) which describes that more than 30 tombs or Dargahs are there in Bijapur with more than 300 ''Khankahs '' i.e., Islamic Missionary Schools with notable number of disciples of different lineage like ''Hasani Sadat, Husaini Sadat, Razavi Sadat, Kazmi Sadat, Shaikh Siddiquis, Farooquis, Usmanis, Alvis, Abbasees '' and other and spiritual chains like ''Quadari, Chishti, Suharwardi, Naqshbandi, Shuttari, Haidari '' etc.

==Bijapur: The Great Metropolis of the Medieval Deccan Region==
[[File:GolGumbaz2.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Gol Gumbaz]]]]
In the second half of the 16th century, and the 17th century under the aegis of Adil Shahis, the capital city of Bijapur occupied a prominent place among the celebrated cities of [[India]]. It was a great centre of culture, trade and commerce, education and learning, etc. It was known for its own culture called, Bijapur Culture. {{citation needed}} During Bijapur's heyday of glory there was a conflux of different communities and the people. Sometimes in many respects it surpassed the great cities of [[New Delhi|Delhi]] and [[Agra]] of [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] [[India]].
Before [[Yusuf Adil Shah]], the founder of the Adil Shahis could make Bijapur as capital of his newly carved kingdom; the town occupied a considerable importance. The [[Khalji dynasty|Khaljis]] made Bijapur their governor's seat, and after some time Khwajah Mahmud Gawan, the [[Bahmani]] premier constituted Bijapur region into a separate province. He owned property in Bijapur called "Kala Bagh". He constructed a mausoleum of Ain-ud-Din Ganj-ul-'ullum. The architecture of the mausoleums of Zia-ud-Din Ghaznavi, Hafiz Husseini and Hamzah Husseini etc. suggests that these edifices belong to the [[Bahmani]] period.<ref>John Cornforth, Mausoleums and Minarets, Bijapur, [[India]]-II, Country Life, March-11, 1982.</ref>
Thus Bijapur was fairly large town under the early Sultans of Adil Shahi dynasty. The capital progressed slowly, however, its star was in ascendancy since the accession of Sultan [[Ali Adil Shah I]] in 1558. His victory in the Battle of [[Talikota]] in 1565 and further campaigns in the Krishna-Tunghabhadra regions brought enormous wealth.{{efn|With help of [[Maratha (caste)|Maratha]] general [[Ghorpade]]<ref>{{cite book |title=The Origins of Religious Violence: An Asian Perspective |first=Nicholas F. |last=Gier |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2014 |page=13}}</ref>}} Hence he began to spend lavishly on its decoration. Under him every year saw some new building, a palace, a mosque, a bastion, or a minaret. His successor [[Ibrahim Adil Shah II]] added, so to say, a pearl necklace, Ibrahim Rouza to enhance the beauty of Bijapur, and Mohammed Adil Shah crowned it with a priceless gem called [[Gol Gumbaz]]. Thus the Adil Shahi monarchs poured their heart and soul in the capital city. The period between accessions of [[Ali Adil Shah I]] 1558 to the death of Mohammed Adil Shah 1656, can be called the golden age of the Adil Shahis as the kingdom flourished in all walks of life.{{citation needed}}

==Population and Suburbs==
{{South Asia in 1525 CE|right|Bijapur Sultanate and main contemporary South Asian polities circa 1525 CE, on the eve of the establishment of the [[Mughal Empire]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=39, 147|isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=076}}</ref>|{{Annotation|92|153|[[File:Rectangle (plain).svg|45px]]}}}}
During the reign of [[Ibrahim Adil Shah II]] the population of Bijapur is stated to have reached 984,000 and had an incredible total of 1,600 mosques.{{citation needed}} Under Mohammed Adil Shah the population further increased. Historian J. D. B. Gribble writes
{{cquote|in and around the suburbs of Shahpur only a million people lived. Within fort walls when shelter became difficult the Sultans founded the suburbs of Fatehpur, Aliabad, Shahpur or Khudanpur, Chandpur, Inayatpur, Ameenpur, Nawabpur, Latifpur, Fakirpur, Rasoolpur, Afzalpur, Padshahpur, Rambhapur, Aghapur (wrongly called Ogapur),<ref>Gribble, J.D.B. History of the Deccan, London 1896.</ref> Zohrapur, Khadijahpur, Habibpur, Salabatpur, Yarbipur, Tahwarpur, Sharzahpur, Yakubpur, [[Nauraspur]], Dayanatpur, Sikandarpur, Quadirpur, Burhanpur, Khwaspur, Imampur, Ayinpur Bahamanhall, etc,<ref>Bijapur Map, Astrological Museum, Bijapur.</ref> these suburbs spread in circumference of fifteen miles of Bijapur. From all sides, the gates of Bijapur fort were thoroughly connected with roads, and the people had good amenities.}}

== Water system ==

The Adil Shahi Sultans made an elaborate arrangement of pure and wholesome water for the people of Bijapur and its suburbs. At Torvi a masonry dam was constructed. We find another dam in its far eastern side. These two dams fed the reservoirs of Torvi and Afzalpur. Through these works, water was supplied to the suburbs of Shahpur, and the capital. Historian C. Schweitzer is of the opinion that the Torvi aqueduct is in itself a very credible engineering achievement of Adil Shahis.<ref>Schweitzer C, Muslim Water Work, 1939.</ref> To augment the existing water supply in the city Mohammed Adil Shah constructed Jahan Begum Lake (Begum Talab) in the south of Bijapur. This Lake fed the southern and eastern sides of the city. Thus water reached every comer of the capital. In addition, to supplement the water needs of the people in and around, the Sultans and nobles constructed big and small wells. Captain Sykes who visited Bijapur in 1819 reports, there were 700 wells (Boudis) with steps and 300 wells (Kuans or small wells) without steps within the walls of Bijapur. Moreover, we find the remains of tanks and lakes named Rangrez Talab, Quasim Talab, Fatehpur Talab and Allahpur Talab in the vicinity of Bijapur.<ref>Sykes, W.B., Notes Respecting the Principal Remains in the City of Bijapur. 1819.</ref>

Begum Talab, which is {{convert|234.22|acre|km2|adj=on}} tank was constructed in 1651 by Mohammad Adil Shah in memory of Jahan Begum.
This tank was used for ensuring drinking water supply to the city. To the right side of lake there is an underground room from where water was supplied to city in earthen pipes. The pipes laid to depth of {{convert|15|ft|m}} to {{convert|50|ft|m}} were joined and cased in masonry. Many towers of height {{convert|25|ft|m}} to {{convert|40|ft|m}} called as "gunj" were built to release pressure of water and prevent pipes from bursting all along. These towers allowed dirt in pipes to remain at the bottom and clear water to flow.

==Bazaars and Petes==
Bijapur being the capital and big business centre attracted merchants and travellers in large number from the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] and many parts of [[India]] and foreign lands. Abdal, a court poet in his Ibrahim Namah writes,
{{cquote| (at the markets of Bijapur) the wealthy merchants of different countries sat in every direction (with their costly items).. In Bijapur the merchants could stay in the Sarais (inns) attached to the mosques or other public buildings. Such Sarais are found at Taj Boudi, Sandal Masjid, Bukhari Masjid, Ballad Khan Masjid etc. Nawab Mustafa Khan, a celebrated noble of Mohammed Adil Shah built a big Sarai in the west of Bijapur, which is now used as the District Jail.}}<ref>Dr.Nazim, M., Bijapur Inscription, 1936.</ref>
The following market places were established respectively by the Adil Shahi Sultans in and around Bijapur.
[[Yusuf Adil Shah]]: Markovi Bazar, Thana Bazar, Naghthana Bazar, Daulat Bazar, Dahan Khan Bazar, Markur Bazar, Murad Khan Bazar, Palah Bazar, Mubarak Bazar and. Shahpeth (old) Bazar.
[[Ismail Adil Shah]]: Kamal Khan Bazar, NakaBazar and Bare-Khudavand Bazar.
Ibrahim Adil Shah I: Jagate Bazar, Roa Bazar, Sher Karkhana Bazar, Rangeen Masjid Bazar, Fateh Zaman Bazar, Karanzah Bazar, Sara Bazar, and ShikarKhan Bazar
[[Ali Adil Shah I]]: Jumma Masjid Bazar, SikandarBazar, FarhadKhan Bazar, Dilir Khan Bazar and Haidar Bazar.
Mohammed Adil Shah: Padshahpur Bazar.
[[Ali Adil Shah II]]: Shahpeth (new) Bazar.
Others: Ikhlas Khan Bazar, Yusuf Rumi Khan Bazar, Shah Abu Turab Bazar, Abdur Razzaq Bazar, Langar Bazar, Mahmood Shah Bazar, etc.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
We found suburban markets called the Peths in the vicinity of Bijapur. They are as follows: Habibpur Peth, Salabatpur Beth, Tahwarpur Peth, Zohrapur Peth, Afzalpur Peth (Takiyah), Shahpur or Khudanpur or Khudawandpur Peth, Danatpur Peth, Sikandarpur Peth, Quadhpur Peth, Khwaspur Peth, Imampur Peth, Kumutagi Peth, etc.

==Foreign accounts==
From different parts of world many envoys, merchants, travellers, etc. visited Bijapur in its heyday of magnanimity and grandeur, and they left behind their valuable accounts of past grandiosities of Bijapur.
In 1013 corresponding to (1604–1605) the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] [[Akbar the Great|Emperor Akbar]], commissioner Mirza Asad Baig, one of grandees of his court to Bijapur for diplomatic dealings. He was a person who saw [[Agra]] and [[New Delhi|Delhi]] in their glorious days. He wrote his account called, "Haalat-e-Asad Baig or Wakiat-e-Asad Baig".<ref name="Mirza Asad Baig 1959">Mirza Asad Baig, Wakiyat-e-Asad Baig or Halaat-e-Asad Baig, Asad Baig’s Mission to Bijapur, 1959.</ref> From his account we shall be able to form some idea of the position which Bijapur occupied among the wonder cities of [[India]] in the [[Middle Ages|Medieval Ages]]. He cites in his impression of the city the grandeurs of the Adil Shahi court and its customs:
{{cquote|On 17th of Shaaban I marched forward with attendants that were with me to meet Adil Khan ([[Ibrahim Adil Shah II]]), and was introduced to him in a building upon that lake Gagan Mahal at Bijapur appointed for such ceremonies. It was a very pleasant spot appropriately furnished. In two or three houses the rooms were in a perfect tip-top condition, and after prayer on that day Adil Khan came, wish all pomp and circumstances, followed by a retinue of elephants... that palace, which they called ‘'Hajjah'’ (?) All around the gate of my residence were lofty buildings with houses and porticoes; the situation was very healthy and airy. It lies in open space in the city. Its northern portico is to the east of a ‘'Bazaar'’ of a great extent, as much as thirty yards wide and about two Kos long. Before each shop was a beautiful green tree, and the whole ‘'Bazaar'’ was extremely clean and pure. It was filled with rare goods, such as are not seen or heard of in any other town. There were shops of cloths sellers, jewellers, armourers, vintners, fish-mongers, and cooks... in the jeweller's shops were jewels of all sorts, wrought into variety. of articles, such as daggers, knives, mirrors, necklaces, and ‘'laso'’ into the form of birds, such as parrots, doves and peacocks, etc. all studded with valuable jewels, and arranged upon shelves, rising one above the other. By the side of this shop will be a baker's with rare viands, placed in the same manner, upon tiers of shelves in like manner. Then a clothier's, then a spirit merchant's with various sorts of China vessels, valuable crystal bottles, costly cups, filled with choice and rare essence, arrayed on shelves, while in the front of the shop were jars of double-distilled spirits. Besides that shop will be a fruiter's, filled with all kinds of fruits and sweetmeats, such as pistachios nuts, and relishes, and sugar-candy and almonds.
On another side may be a wine merchant's shop, and an establishment of singers, dancers and beautiful women adorned with various kinds of jewels, and fair-faced choristers, all ready to perform whatever may be desired of them. In short, the whole ‘'Bazaar'’ was filled with wine and beauty, dances, perfumes, jewels, of all sorts, plates, and viands. In one street were a thousand bands of people drinking, and dancers, lovers, and pleasure-seekers assembled; none quarrelled or disputed with one another and this state of things was perpetual. Perhaps no place in the wide world could present a more wonderful spectacle to the eye of the traveller... (for [[Akbar the Great|Emperor Akbar]]) I purchased for Rs. 25900 emeralds, ‘'pokhraj'’, ‘'Nilam'’ and birds made of jewels. I purchased the diamond and ‘'Dugdugi'’ for Rs. 55000 and agreed to pay the price after Mir Jamaluddin approves.}}<ref name="Mirza Asad Baig 1959"/>
Mirza Asad Baig left Bijapur on 24 January 1604. His graphic account of Bijapur tells us how this city was prosperous, rich and flourishing.<ref name="Mirza Asad Baig 1959"/>
Another traveller Manctelslo, who visited the Deccan area in 1638 writes,
{{cquote|Bijapur was one of the greatest cities in the whole of Asia, more than five ‘'leagues'’ (i.e., fifteen miles) the city had five great suburbs where most of the traders lived and in Scyanpur (Shahpur) were most of the jewelers dealing in costly pearls.}}
Similarly, Jean Baptiste Tavernier, who visited [[India]] between 1631 and 1667, was a jeweller, probably he had been to Bijapur for selling some of his jewels. He has left for us an account, in which he describes Bijapur was a great city ... in its large suburbs many goldsmiths and jewellers dwelt ... the king's palace (Arkillah or [[citadel]]) was vast, but ill-built and the access to it was very dangerous as the ditch with which it was girt was full of crocodiles,. in the same way, the Dutch traveller, Baldeous, the English geographer, Ogilby and others praise the greatness of Bijapur.

==Gardens and Water Pavilions==
The Adil Shahi Sultans were fond of gardens, water pavilions and resorts; hence they beautified Bijapur by presence of such amusing spots. Rafiuddin Shirazi writes in his ‘’"Tazkiratul-Mulk"’’ that during the rule of [[Ibrahim Adil Shah I]] a garden 60 yards long and 60 yards broad, was laid within the outer ‘'Hissar'’ (i.e., Arbah) and another 20 yards long and 20 yards broad, within the inner one (i.e., Arkilla Wall or [[citadel]]) was constructed. In the reign of [[Ali Adil Shah I]], many trees of fruits viz. odoriferous orange, date, grapes, pomegranate, figs, apple. ‘'Naar'’ (quince-like fruit), etc. brought from the countries of hot and cold climates were set in gardens.<ref name="ReferenceB">Rafiuddin Shirazi, Tazkiratul Mulk.</ref> From different historical sources we get references of gardens like Kishwar Khan Bagh, Ali Bagh, Dou-az-Deh (twelve) Imam Bagh, Alavi Bagh, Arkillah Bagh, Nauroz Bagh, Ibrahim Bagh, Murari Bagh, Naginah Bagh, etc. in Bijapur.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>
In southern side in the capital, a renowned Adil Shahi noble, Mubarak Khan constructed water pavilions and resort. Likewise, at Kumatagi village, about 12 miles in the east of Bijapur, the Sultans laid the water pavilions and resort for royal members.

==Education and Learning==

Before the Muslims could establish their rule in Bijapur, it was a great centre of learning in South [[India]]. It is evident from the bilingual [[Marathi language|Marathi]]–[[Sanskrit]] inscription, which is inscribed just under the [[Persian language|Persian]] epigraph in the Karimuddin mosque 16 that the city of Bijapur is given the title of ‘’"[[Banaras]] of the South"’’. Since ancient time [[Banaras]] in northern [[India]] was a celebrated centre of learning. The [[Khaiji]] governor of Bijapur, Malik Karimuddin, probably found at this place the great activities of learning; hence he entitled Bijapur as the [[Banaras]] of the South. The [[Khalji dynasty|Khaljis]] conquered whole south [[India]] and they were well acquainted with its famous cities like [[Daulatabad, Maharashtra|Daulatabad]] of [[Yadava Dynasty|Yadavas]], [[Warangal]] of [[Kakatiya dynasty|Kakatiyas]], Dwarasamudra of [[Hoysala Empire|Hoysalas]] and [[Madurai]] of [[Pandya]]s. However, they did not entitle any of these cities as the [[Banaras]] of the South, except Bijapur, though these cities were the capitals of ruling dynasties.<ref name="ReferenceC">Mirza Ibrahim Zubairi, Rouzatul Auliya-e-Bijapur.</ref>
During the rule of [[Bahmani]]s Bijapur retained its academic excellence. The renowned learned [[Sufi]] of [[India]], Ainuddin Ganjuloom Junnaidi, who authored 125 works of [[Qur’an]]ic commentaries, Quirat (art of Quranic recitation), [[Hadith]] (prophetic Traditions), Scholasticism, Principles of Law, Fique (Islamic Law), Suluk (behavior). Syntax, Lexicography, Ansaab (genealogy). History, Tibb (medicine), Hilmat, Sanf (grammaIj), Quasidah, etc. lived in from 1371, until his death in 1390. His disciple and other [[Sufi]]s like Ibrahim Sangani and his sons, Abdullah AI-Ghazani, Ziauddin Ghazanavi and Shah Hamzah Hussaini kept their noble litterateur's traditions alive in Bijapur.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
Under the aegis of Adil Shahis of Bijapur advanced very much in the field of learning. It was considered as the 'Second [[Baghdad]]' in scholastic activities in the Islamic world. Owing to its popularity in this sphere [[Ibrahim Adil Shah II]] named it ‘’”Vidhyapur"'' All Sultans of Bijapur were men of letters. [[Ali Adil Shah I]] was well versed in religion, logic, sciences, syntax, etymology and grammar. He was fond of reading to the extent that he kept with him big boxes of books, while on tour. All Sultans patronised the teachers and scholars. It was routine in the capital that the scholars met at different places, and among them learned discussions were held.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
At the capital the Royal Library existed in which nearly sixty men, calligraphers, gilders of books, book binders and illuminators were busy doing their work whole day in the library.<ref>Zahuri Bin Zahur, Mohammad Namah,</ref> Sesh Waman Pandit was the Royal Librarian. Ibrahim-II's court poet Baqir Khurd-e-Kasm worked as transcriber in the Royal Library.<ref>Dr.Davare, T.N., A short History of Persian Literature.</ref>
The noted scholars in the capital were Shah Nawaz Khan, Abdul Rasheed-al-Bastagi, Shah Sibagatullah Hussaini, Shaikh Alimullah Muhaddis (a teacher of Sayings or Traditions of Muhummad, and Theology in Jumma mosque), Mullan Hassan Faraghi, MullanHabibullah, Shah Mohummad Mulki and Shah Habibullah Hussaini.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> Shah Zayn Muqbil, a great lover of learning and books, had eight hundred manuscripts in his library, out of these over three hundred were written by him. Miran Mohummad Mudarris Hussaini was also a great teacher.<ref>Askari Hasan, Medicine and Hospitals in the Muslim [[India]], 1958.</ref>
At the Asar Mahal there were two Madrasas (religious schools), one for teaching [[Hadith]] (Tradition) and another for Fiqah and Imaan (Theology and Belief). Free education with delicious food, and stipend of one Hun to each student was provided. The Mosques had the Maktabs (elementary schools) where [[Arabic]] and [[Persian language|Persian]] studies were taught. The state supplied books free of costs. The students who performed excellently in the annual examination, received prizes in Huns, and later appointed in high and honourable position. Besides these, most of the Sufis maintained their own Khankhas (convents for disciples) and Kutub Khanas (libraries). Even to this day some of the descendants of [[Sufi]]s in perpetuity continued this tradition.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
In consequence of state patronage, a bulk of literature in [[Arabic]], Persian and [[Deccan Plateau|Dakhani]] [[Urdu]] had come up. In addition, the languages like [[Sanskrit]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]] and [[Kannada]] flourished. Pandit Narhari, a court poet of [[Ibrahim Adil Shah II]], composed the poetic excellence on his master, called, Nauras Manzarf. Shri Laxmipathi, a disciple of Pandit Rukmangada composed a number of Marathi and [[Hindi]] devotional songs set in musical Ragas. Swamy Yadvendra was also a prominent contributor in Marathi literature. In the south of kingdom, the official transaction was carried out in [[Kannada]].

==Medical Aids and Darush-Shafa (Hospitals)==
[[File:The Bahmani Kingdom, Kandesh, and the Five Sultanates.jpg|thumb|The Bahmani Kingdom, Kandesh, and the Five Sultanates]]
Dr. Zaman Khodaey says, in the kingdom of Bijapur the medical aids and Darush-Shafa existed. In the hospitals the different Departments dealt and treated different fevers, eye and ear problems, skin and other diseases.
We have references that in the kingdom the physicians practised the [[Unani]], [[Ayurvedic]], [[Irani (India)|Irani]] and European systems of medicine. Hakim Gilani and Farnalope Firangi, a European physician and surgeon worked under [[Ibrahim Adil Shah II]]. Farnalope treated his ailing patron wrongly, which caused Sultan's death. Khawas Khan caught him, and as a punishment his nose and lips were cut off. Nothing daunted, Fanalope returned to his home and cut off the nose and lips of one of his slaves, and so fastened the same to his own that he was soon cured even of scars. He lived long in Bijapur and resumed his practice with great success. Aithippa, an [[Ayurvedic]] physician, who was attached to a dispensary at Bijapur compiled for his son Champa, Tibb-e-Bahri-o-Barri, a treatise on medicine. It contains a short vocabulary of some parts of the human body and some drugs with their equivalent in [[Arabic]] and [[Urdu]]. It further contains hints as to the examination of patients and symptoms and treatment of diseases. He had spent a long time attending upon and getting instruction from Hakim Mohummad Hussain Unani and Hakim Mohammad Masum Isfahani.<ref>Siddiqui M.A., The Unani Tibb (Greek Medicine) in [[India]].</ref> The great historian [[Firishta]] was an expert [[Ayurvedic]] physician. He studied this system under Hakim-e-Misri and other [[Hindu]] physicians. After attaining proficiency, he started his own dispensary and prepared patent drugs and popular medicines. He possessed a great knowledge of [[Sanskrit]], hence studied thoroughly works of [[Ayurveda]] like the Samhitas of Wagbhat, Charak and Sushrut, and wrote Dastur-e- Attibba or Iktiyarat-e-Qasmi. In this book, he mentioned the names of famous [[Ayurvedic]] physicians like Jagdeva, Sagarbhat and Sawa Pandit. He cites in the names of various diseases, herbs and drugs and also discusses simple and compound medicines and formulae of their preparation. The book is fairly comprehensive as its scope extends to [[anatomy]], [[physiology]] and therapy. It seems [[Firishta]] was an expert in [[Botany]] as well. He gave details of minutes regarding characteristics of medicinal herbs, plants and fruits of India.<ref>Muhammad Qasim [[Firishta]], Dastur-e-Atibba.</ref> Another physician Hakim Rukna-e-Maish skilled in medicine stayed in the court of [[Ibrahim Adil Shah II]] for some time before he joined the [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]].<ref name="ReferenceD">Nooruddin Mohammad Jahangir, Tuzuk-e-Jahangiri.</ref> At the instance of the same Sultan; Yunus Beg completed Kitab-e-TIbb, a work on medicine. The court poet of Mohammed Adil Shah, Hakim Aatishi possessed a unique skill in medicine and served as the Royal Physician. He was a personal physician of the Sultan, without his permission he could not attend other patients. With permission once he cured Khan-e-Khanan Ikhlas Khan. Aatishi took this onerous duty only when other physicians altogether failed. By his miraculous treatment patients recovered within three weeks.
Thus the Adil Shahi Sultans and the nobles never overlooked the medical services and always encouraged the physicians giving them handsome rewards. It because of such encouragement some of the physicians produced literature on medicine.

==Abode of Music==
The Adil Shahi monarchs were great lovers of music; some of them attained high order.{{clarify}} [[Yusuf Adil Shah]] played ‘'Tambur'’(Tambourine) and ‘'Ud'’ (lute). [[Ismail Adil Shah]] had high admiration for [[Central Asian]] music. Music received greater encouragement under [[Ibrahim Adil Shah II]]. He was the greatest musician of his age. He was poet and singer and maintained an inordinately a large number of musicians and minstrels (three or four thousand) at his court. The band of musicians was known as Lashkar-e-Nauras (army of Nauras) they were paid by the government regularly. At Nauraspur he constructed Sangeet Mahal and residential mansions for songsters, minstrels and dancing girls. With great pomp the festival of Nauras (musical concert) was celebrated during his time. In a number of paintings [[Ibrahim Adil Shah II]] was depicted playing musical instruments like ‘'Tambur'’, ‘'Sitar'’, ‘'Veena'’ and ‘'Guitar'’. [[Jahangir|Emperor Jahangir]], and Mirza Asad Baig the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] envoy considerably praised [[Ibrahim Adil Shah II]]'s love for music.<ref name="ReferenceD"/>
Mirza Asad Baig writes in his ‘'Wakiyat'’ that he was invited to the royal palace to bid farewell to [[Ibrahim Adil Shah II]]

{{cquote|A grand show of music had been arranged for this occasion. He found the Sultan so wrapped up in listening to the music that he could hardly reply to Asad Baig's questions. The conversation between them for some time mainly concerned music and musicians. The Sultan wanted to know whether [[Akbar the Great|Emperor Akbar]] was fond of music and Asad Baig informed him that the Emperor did sometime listen to music. The Sultan then wanted to know whether [[Tansen]] stood or sat while singing before the Emperor and was told that in the Darbar or during day time [[Tansen]] had to stand while singing, but at night and on the occasion of Nauroz and Jashan festival [[Tansen]] and other musicians were permitted to sit while singing. The Sultan told Asad Baig, "Music is such that it should be heard at all times and always, and musicians should be kept happy.
}}

==Art and architecture==
The Adil Shahi Sultans had concentrated their energies almost exclusively on architecture and the allied arts, each Sultan endeavouring to excel his predecessor in the number, size, or splendor of his building projects.
The architecture of Bijapur is a combination of [[Persian architecture|Persian]], [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] Turkish and [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]]i styles. It is amazing to note mat in Ibrahim Rouzah, Dilkusha Mahal (Mahatar Mahal), Malikah-e-Jahan Mosque, Jal Mahal, etc. the Bijapur sculptors have carved beautiful designs in stones, as the carpenters do in wood. The [[stucco plaster]] designing in some monuments is superb.<ref>Shaikh Muhammad Aslam Razvi.</ref>

===Adil Shahi arts and heritage===
{{unreferenced section}}
[[File:Indischer Maler um 1595 001.jpg|thumb|A manuscript depicting the ruler of Bijapur in the year 1591, [[Ibrahim Adil Shah II]].]]

The contribution of the Adil Shahi kings to the architecture, painting, language, literature and music of Karnataka is unique. Bijapur ([[Kannada]] form of the [[Sanskrit]] ''Vidyapur'' or ''Vidyanagari'') became a cosmopolitan city, and it attracted many scholars, artists, musicians, and [[Sufi]] saints from [[Turkey]], [[Safavid dynasty|Persia]] ([[Iran]]) [[Iraq]], Turkey, [[Turkestan]], etc.

The unfinished [[Jama Mosque, Bijapur|Jami Masjid]], started in 1565, has an arcaded prayer hall with fine aisles supported on massive piers has an impressive dome. The [[Ibrahim Rouza]] which contains the tomb of [[Ibrahim Adil Shah II]], is a fine structure with delicate carvings. Persian artists of Adil Shahi court have left a rare treasure of miniature paintings, some of which are well-preserved in Europe's great museums.

The [[Dakhani]] language, an amalgam of [[Persian language|Persian]]-[[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Urdu language|Urdu]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], and [[Kannada]], developed into an independent spoken and literary language. Under the Adil Shahis many literary works were published in Dakhani. [[Ibrahim Adil Shah II]]'s book of poems and music, [[Kitab-e-Navras]] is in Dakhani. The ''Mushaira'' (poetic symposium) was born in the Bijapur court and later travelled north. The Dakhani language, which was growing under the [[Bahamani]] kings, later came to be known as Dakhan Urdu to distinguish it from the [[North India]]n [[Urdu]]. Adil Shah II played the [[sitar]] and ud{{clarify}} and Ismail was a composer.

==Adil Shahis of Bijapur==
{{Main|List of Adil Shahi emperors}}
[[File:Sultan Ibrahim Adil Shah II.jpg|thumb|150px|Sultan Ibrahim Adil Shah II]]
*[[Yusuf Adil Shah]] (1490–1510)
*[[Ismail Adil Shah]] (1510–1534)
*[[Mallu Adil Shah]] (1534)
*[[Ibrahim Adil Shah I]] (1534–1558)
*[[Ali Adil Shah I]] (1558–1579)
*[[Ibrahim Adil Shah II]] (1580–1627)
*[[Mohammed Adil Shah, Sultan of Bijapur|Mohammed Adil Shah]] (1627 – 4 November 1656); his mausoleum is the [[Gol Gumbaz]], Bijapur
*[[Ali Adil Shah II]] (1656 – 24 November 1672; his mother [[Khadija Sultana]] acted as regent until 1661)
*[[Sikandar Adil Shah]] (1672 – 26 September 1686)

==Family tree==
{{Chart top|width=100%|collapsed=yes|Adil Shahi Dynasty}}
{{Tree chart/start|align=center|style=font-size:90%}}
{{Tree chart| | | A01 | | |A01='''[[Yusuf Adil Shah]]''' (1) R.1490-1510 |boxstyle_ A01=border-color:#FFD700}}
{{Tree chart| | | |!| | | }}
{{Tree chart| | | A01 | | |A01='''[[Ismail Adil Shah]]''' (2) R.1510-1534 |boxstyle_ A01=border-color:#FFD700}}
{{Tree chart| |,|-|^|-|.| }}
{{Tree chart| A01 | | A02 |A01='''[[Mallu Adil Shah]]''' (3) R.1534 |A02='''[[Ibrahim Adil Shah I]]''' (4) R.1534-1558 |boxstyle_ A01=border-color:#FFD700 |boxstyle_ A02=border-color:#FFD700}}
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{{Tree chart| A01 | | A02 |A01='''[[Ali Adil Shah I]]''' (5) R.1558-1579 |A02=Tahmasp |boxstyle_ A01=border-color:#FFD700}}
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{{Tree chart| | | | | A01 |A01='''[[Ibrahim Adil Shah II]]''' (6) R.1580-1627 |boxstyle_ A01=border-color:#FFD700}}
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{{Tree chart| | | | | A01 |A01='''[[Mohammed Adil Shah, Sultan of Bijapur|Mohammed Adil Shah]]''' (7) R.1627-1656 |boxstyle_ A01=border-color:#FFD700}}
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{{Tree chart| | | | | A01 |A01='''[[Ali Adil Shah II]]''' (8) R.1656-1672 |boxstyle_ A01=border-color:#FFD700}}
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{{Tree chart| | | | | A01 |A01='''[[Sikandar Adil Shah]]''' (9) R.1672-1686 |boxstyle_ A01=border-color:#FFD700}}
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==Asar Mahal==
[[File:The Asar Mahal, Bijapur.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Asar Mahal]]]]

Muhammad Qasim [[Firishta]] wrote that in the year AH 1008, Mir Mohammed Swaleh Hamadani came to Bijapur. He had with him hair of the Muhammad ("Mooy-e-Mubarrak"). Sultan Ibrahim Adil shah heard of this and rejoiced. Met Mir Swaleh Hamdani, the King saw the hair and gave priceless gifts to Mir Sahab. Mir Sahab gave two strands of the hair to Sultan Ibrahim Adil Shah. At first, they were kept in [[Gagan Maha]]l, but during the reign of Adil Shah a huge fire burned down Gagan Mahal. Everything there burnt up, except the two boxes in which two strands of hair were kept. In the midst of the conflagration, a Sufi Saint named Syed Saheb Mohiuddin braved the flames, entered and carried the boxes out on his head; the Sultan then kept these boxes in [[Asar Mahal]]. The custody of "Mooy-e-Mubarrak" has been given to the saint Noor Muhammad Mushraff issued by AdliShahi Diwan. Till today, the Original Sanad is with Mushrif family. Annual function is celebrated every year on 12th Rabi-ul-awwal (Sandal & Urs Asar Mahal). This function is held regularly since from more than 350 years.

It is said that in the year AH 1142 Adil Shah used to frequently view these strands of hair. On one occasion he asked all the Sufis of that time to come and see them. So Hashim Husaini and Sayyad Shah Murtuza Quadri came there and asked to open the boxes; they were opened in front of the noble persons. But as they were opened a bright ray was everywhere. Nobody could bear the brightness of the ray and they all became unconscious. Everywhere there was a perfume and then everybody saw the hair. After that period it is said that the boxes were neither opened nor had a privilege.<ref name="ReferenceF">Muhammad Qasim [[Firishta]]'s Tarikh-e-Firishta.</ref>

==See also==
{{Karnataka History}}
{{Sufism |expanded=no}}
* [[Chand Bibi]]
*[[List of Sunni dynasties]]
*[[Bijapur Fort]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}
'''Sources'''
{{Refbegin}}
* Devare, T. N. ''A short history of Persian literature; at the Bahmani, the Adilshahi, and the Qutbshahi courts.'' Poona: S. Devare, 1961.
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin}}
*Chapter on "Persian Literature in Bijapur Sultanate" in The Rise, Growth And Decline of Indo-Persian Literature by R.M. Chopra, Iran Culture House, New Delhi, 2012.
{{Refend}}

==External links==
*[http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/bijapur/adilshahis.htm The Adil Shahi Kingdom (1510 CE to 1686 CE)] by Dr. (Mrs) Jyotsna Kamat

{{DEFAULTSORT:Adil Shahi Dynasty}}
[[Category:States and territories established in 1490]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1686]]
[[Category:Adil Shahi dynasty| ]]
[[Category:Shia dynasties]]
[[Category:Sultans of Bijapur]]
[[Category:Sunni dynasties]]
[[Category:History of Maharashtra]]

[[de:Adil Shahi]]

Jain

2022-08-29T12:08:53Z

Ishivammadaan: Just completed a fresh creation.

#REDIRECT [[Jainism]]