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Rakri, Uttar Pradesh

2023-09-07T09:23:26Z

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{{Short description|Village in Uttar Pradesh, India}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Use Indian English}}
{{other uses|Rakri (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Rakri
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = Village
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| image_map =
| map_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Uttar Pradesh
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Uttar Pradesh, India
| coordinates = {{coord|27.30724|N|79.2153|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = [[India]]
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Mainpuri district|Mainpuri]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[Tehsil]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[Bhongaon]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes = <ref name="Census 2011 A"/>
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 0.919
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 1717
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes = <ref name="Census 2011 A"/>
| demographics_type1 =
| demographics1_title1 =
| demographics1_info1 =
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 205262
| registration_plate =
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Rakri''' ([[Devanagari]]: रकरी {{IAST|Rakrī}}) is a village in [[Sultanganj, Mainpuri|Sultanganj]] block of [[Mainpuri district]], [[Uttar Pradesh]]. As of 2011, it has a population of 1,717, in 291 households.

== Demographics ==
As of 2011, Rakri had a population of 1,717, in 291 households.<ref name="Census 2011 A"/>{{rp|167}} This population was 51.3% male (880) and 48.7% female (837). The 0-6 age group numbered 308 (146 male and 162 female), or 17.9% of the total population. 706 residents were members of Scheduled Castes, or 41.1% of the total.<ref name="Census 2011 B">{{cite web |title=Census of India 2011: Uttar Pradesh District Census Handbook - Mainpuri, Part B (Village and Town Wise Primary Census Abstract) |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/1259/download/4050/DH_2011_0917_PART_B_DCHB_MAINPURI.pdf |website=Census of India |access-date=19 June 2023}}</ref>{{rp|130-1}}

The [[1981 Census of India|1981 census]] recorded Rakri as having a population of 1,128 people, in 210 households.<ref name="Census 1981">{{cite book |title=Census 1981 Uttar Pradesh: District Census Handbook Part XIII-A: Village & Town Directory, District Mainpuri |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/29484/download/32665/28516_1981_MAI.pdf |access-date=25 July 2023}}</ref>{{rp|168-9}}

The [[1961 Census of India|1961 census]] recorded Rakri as comprising 2 hamlets, with a total population of 957 people (494 male and 463 female), in 195 households and 167 physical houses. The area of the village was given as 225 acres.<ref name="Census 1961">{{cite book |title=Census 1961: District Census Handbook, Uttar Pradesh (24 - Mainpuri District) |location=Lucknow |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/28772/download/31954/22833_1961_MAI.pdf |access-date=25 December 2021}}</ref>{{rp|xcvi}}

== Infrastructure ==
As of 2011, Rakri had 1 primary school; it did not have any healthcare facilities. Drinking water was provided by hand pump and tube well/borehole; there were no public toilets. The village had a public library but no post office; there was at least some access to electricity for all purposes. Streets were made of both ''[[Indian vernacular architecture#kachcha|kachcha]]'' and ''[[Indian vernacular architecture#pucca|pakka]]'' materials.<ref name="Census 2011 A">{{cite web |title=Census of India 2011: Uttar Pradesh District Census Handbook - Mainpuri, Part A (Village and Town Directory) |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/1258/download/4046/DH_2011_0917_PART_A_DCHB_MAINPURI.pdf |website=Census of India |access-date=19 June 2023}}</ref>{{rp|167-72}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Mainpuri district}}

[[Category:Villages in Mainpuri district]]

Chaitanya Kanhai

2023-07-19T06:53:31Z

Insta Pedia: Wrote an informative manuscript.

{{Short description|Indian actor}}
{{More sources}}

{{Infobox person
| name = Chaitanya Kanhai
| image = Kanhai during Bhakti Bomb shoot.jpg|alt=Kanhai during Bhakti Bomb shoot
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1987|07|03}}
| birth_place = Vrindavan, Uttar Pradesh, India
| occupation = Actor
| years_active = 2014–present
}}

'''Chaitanya Kanhai''' is an Indian actor-singer known for his work in [[Bollywood]] films. He was born on July 3, 1987, in Vrindavan, Uttar Pradesh, India, to Govind Kanhai and Sujata Kanhai. Kanhai initially started his career as an assistant director for the movie ''Tell Me O Kkhuda'' in 2014. He made his acting debut in the film ''Hard Kaur''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hard Kaur actor Chaitannya Kanhai: Since childhood, I was inclined towards entertaining people around me |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/bollywood/hard-kaur-actor-chaitannya-kanhai-since-childhood-i-was-inclined-towards-entertaining-people-around-me/story-CCEQgqMcfqEaBsDq09tEgN.html |access-date=2023-07-12 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> in 2017. Kanhai has also appeared in other notable films including ''Race 3'' and ''Virgin Bhanupriya''.

== Career ==
Kanhai began his career in the film industry as an assistant director, working on the movie ''Tell Me O Kkhuda'' in 2014. In 2017, he made his acting debut with the film ''Hard Kaur''.<ref>{{Cite news |title=I had signed 'Hard Kaur' as a Hindi film, but later producers converted it into a Punjabi film, says Chaitanya Kanhaai |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/punjabi/movies/news/i-had-signed-hard-kaur-as-a-hindi-film-but-later-producers-converted-it-into-a-punjabi-film-says-chaitanya-kanhaai/articleshow/81608027.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2023-07-12 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> He gained recognition for his performance and went on to work in other notable films such as ''Race 3'' and ''Virgin Bhanupriya''. In 2023 he released a music video 'Bhakti Bomb'<ref>https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/music/singeractor-chaitanya-kanhai-on-a-mission-to-revolutionize-spiritual-music-with-upbeat-single-bhakti-bomb-101689429645639.html</ref>

==Filmography==
* ''All works are in Hindi unless otherwise noted.''
===Film===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Film !! Role !! Notes
|-
| 2014 || ''[[Tell Me O Kkhuda]]'' || Assistant Director ||
|-
| 2017 || ''Hard Kaur'' || Randeep Rana ||
|-
| 2018 || ''[[Race 3]]'' || Narendra Pathak ||
|-
| 2020 || ''[[Virgin Bhanupriya]]'' || Alex ||
|-
|}
===Music Videos===
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align: left;"
|-
! scope="col"| Year
! scope="col"| Title
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Singer(s)
!Ref.
|-
| 2023
! scope="row"| ''Bhakti Bomb''
| Himself
|<ref>{{Cite web | title=Bhakti Bomb |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q54e8ycZMWM}}</ref>
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Kanhai, Chaitanya}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb name|9154860}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kanhai, Chaitanya}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian actors]]
[[Category:Male actors in Hindi cinema]]
[[Category:1987 births]]

Sir Madam Sarpanch

2023-07-11T16:01:20Z

Insta Pedia:

{{Infobox film
| name = Hasmukh Saab ki Wasihat
| image =
| caption =
| director = Praveen Morchhale
| writer = Praveen Morchhale
| producer =
| starring = {{plainlist|
*[[Seema Biswas]]
*Ajay Chourey
*Jyoti Dubey
*Ariana Sajnani
*Bhagwan Tiwari
}}
| cinematography = Mohammad Reza Jahanpanah
| editing = Anthony Joseph
| music = Sahil Kulkarni
| studio =
| distributor =
| released =
| runtime =
| country = [[India]]
| language = Hindi
| budget =
| gross =
}}

'''Sir Madam Sarpanch''' is a 2023 [[Hindi|Hindi language]] film directed and written by a [[National Film Awards|National Film Award]], [[Praveen Morchhale]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Meet Odisha's Arati Devi Who Inspired Bollywood Movie 'Sir Madam Sarpanch' & Coined 'Beti Padhao' |url=https://odishabytes.com/meet-odishas-arati-devi-who-inspired-sir-madam-sarpanch-coined-beti-padhao/ |work=odishabytes }}</ref> The movie stars [[Seema Biswas]], Ajay Chourey, and Jyoti Dubey in the lead roles.<ref>{{cite news |title=Sir Madam Sarpanch - Official Teaser |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/videos/entertainment/hindi/sir-madam-sarpanch-official-teaser/videoshow/99485592.cms |work=The Times of India}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Sir Madam Sarpanch movie review: Seema Biswas film falters due to banal story-telling |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/movie-review/sir-madam-sarpanch-movie-review-seema-biswas-film-falters-due-to-banal-story-telling-8555668/ |work=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Sir Madam Sarpanch Movie Review : Loose screenplay hampers a potentially good narrative |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/movie-reviews/sir-madam-sarpanch/movie-review/99456511.cms?from=mdr |work=The Times of India}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1= |first1= |title=Sir Madam Sarpanch Movie: Review |language=en |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/sir-madam-sarpanch/}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Sir Madam Sarpanch |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/movie-details/sir-madam-sarpanch/movieshow/99237090.cms |work=The Times of India}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Sir Madam Sarpanch movie review: Seema Biswas film falters due to banal story-telling |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/movie-review/sir-madam-sarpanch-movie-review-seema-biswas-film-falters-due-to-banal-story-telling-8555668/ |work=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Sir Madam Sarpanch Movie Review : Loose screenplay hampers a potentially good narrative |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/movie-reviews/sir-madam-sarpanch/movie-review/99456511.cms |work=The Times of India}}</ref>

==Plot==
The movie revolves around the life of a woman named Parvati (played by Seema Biswas) who is elected as the [[sarpanch]] (head) of her village. Being a woman, she faces several challenges and prejudices from the male-dominated society. However, she stands up against all odds and fights for the betterment of her village.

==Cast==
* [[Seema Biswas]] as Parvati
* Ajay Chourey as Ram Singh
* Jyoti Dubey as Gauri
* Ariana Sajnani as Ana
* Bhagwan Tiwari as Bhaiiya ji

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.imdb.com/title/tt22033500/ Sir Madam Sarpanch] on [[IMDb]]

[[Category:2023 films]]
[[Category:2023 drama films]]

Sacred Heart Church, Harur

2023-07-06T09:52:00Z

Insta Pedia: Added a new contribution to the website.

{{Infobox church
| name = Sacred Heart Church
| other name = Iruthaya Andavar Church
| coordinates = {{coord|12.0628|78.4759|display=inline,title}}
| fullname =
| native_name = தூய இருதய ஆண்டவர் ஆலயம்
| native_name_lang = ta
| image = Sacred Heart Church, Harur.jpg
| caption = Front View of this church

| location = [[Harur]], [[Dharmapuri district|Dharmapuri Dt]], [[Tamil Nadu]]
| country = [[India]]

| denomination = [[Catholic Church|Catholic]]
| religious institute = [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]]
| cult = [[Catholic devotions]]
| founded date = 1955
| founder = Fr. Mario Rodeschini

| status = [[Parish church]]
| functional status = Active
| former name =
| dedication = [[Our Lady of Mount Carmel]]
| architectural type = [[Church (building)|Church]]
| style = Modern Architecture
| groundbreaking = 1991
| completed date = 1993

| parish = [[Harur]]
| deanery = [[Harur]]
| archdiocese = [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Pondicherry and Cuddalore|Pondicherry and Cuddalore]]
| diocese = [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Dharmapuri|Dharmapuri]]
| episcopalarea = [[Catholic Bishops' Conference of India|TNBC]]

| archbishop = [[Antony Anandarayar]]
| bishop = Lawrence Pius Dorairaj
| priest = Fr. S.J Arul
}}

'''Sacred Heart Church''', Harur is a Roman Catholic church located in Dharamapuri District, Tamil Nadu, India. This also head Parish church of Harur [[Deanery|Vicariate]] in [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Dharmapuri|Dharmapuri Diocese]].<ref>https://dharmapuridiocese.org/parishes/lists.html</ref>

==History==
During the 18th century, the Harur region was known as 'Puramalainadu'. There is no clear history of Catholic settlements in Harur. As per the record From 1932 to 1945, the Harur region was under the supervision of the [[Our Lady of Mount Carmel Church, B Pallipatti|B.Pallipatti Parish]] priest. Later, from 1949 to 1979, the Harur region came under the jurisdiction of the [[Our Lady of Mount Carmel Church, Thenkaraikottai|Thenkaraikottai Parish]].<ref>https://dharmapuridiocese.org/cms/public_view/deanary-of-dharmapuri.html</ref>

In 1955, during the tenure of Fr. Revel [[Paris Foreign Missions Society|MEP]], the Parish priest of Thenkaraikottai, brought 2.4 acres of land next to the Forest Department office in Harur. A chapel was constructed on this land. During that time, Harur emerged as the largest town in the region, surrounded by multiple Catholic villages and churches. Recognizing the potential growth and significance of Harur, former [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Salem|Salem Diocese]] Bishop [[Michael Bosco Duraisamy]] foresaw Harur future as a deanery church in the region. Consequently, on June 11, 1979, the Harur church was elevated to a Parish Church, with Fr. Mario Rodeschini MEP appointed as its first Parish priest.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://salemdiocese.org/necrology/ |title=Fr. Mario Rodeschini mentioned in necrology page |website=salemdiocese.org |publisher=Roman Catholic Diocese of Salem |access-date=6 July 2023 |quote=}}</ref> Initially, he resided in a rented house before purchasing 4.92 acres of land on August 7, 1979. A new parish house was built on this land and inaugurated on September 10, 1982.

In subsequent years, a new and present church was constructed and inaugurated on April 25, 1993.<ref>https://www.ucanews.com/directory/parishes-stations/india-dharmapuri/62/10</ref>

==Schools==

Fr. Mario displayed a strong commitment to education for the local community. In 1983, '''St. Ann's Primary School''' was established on the land acquired in 1955. Fr. Mario requested the Sisters of St. Ann's to oversee the management of this school.<ref>https://schools.org.in/dharmapuri/33050802204/st-anne-s-primary-aided.html</ref>

Later, in January 1989, Fr. Mario purchased 6.84 acres of land where '''St. Mary High School''' was built. The school is currently under the care of the Amala Annai Sisters Congregation. In 1998, the school was upgraded to a higher secondary school, and it is now managed by the Sisters of Gonzaga.<ref>https://schools.org.in/dharmapuri/33050802208/st-mary-s-hss-aided-harur.html</ref>

Fr. Mario prioritized the development of education in Harur and invested significant resources in sponsoring youths for teacher training colleges and nursing colleges. In 1993, he was transferred to Tiruchengode, leaving behind a legacy of educational advancement in Harur.<ref>https://dharmapuridiocese.org/cms/public_view/hostels_social_work_centres.html</ref>

==See also==
* [[Our Lady of Mount Carmel Church, Thenkaraikottai]]
* [[Our Lady of Mount Carmel Church, B Pallipatti]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Roman Catholic Diocese of Dharmapuri}}

[[Category:Roman Catholic churches in Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Churches in Dharmapuri district]]
[[Category:Archdiocese of Pondicherry and Cuddalore]]

Environmental issues in India

2023-03-07T00:08:45Z

Insta Pedia: Shared an engaging piece.

{{short description|Overview of the environmental issues in India}}
{{Use Indian English}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
[[File:Hazesmoke Gangeticbasin.jpg|thumb|A satellite picture, taken in 2004, shows thick haze and smog along the Ganges Basin in northern [[India]]. More sources of aerosols in this area are believed to be smoke from biomass burning in the northwest part of India, and air pollution from large cities in northern India since the 1980s. Dust from deserts in Pakistan and the Middle East may also contribute to the mix of aerosols.]]
{{Pollution sidebar}}

[[File:Slum and dirty river.jpg|thumb|Solid waste adds to [[water pollution in India]], 2005]]

There are multiple '''environmental issues in India'''. [[Air pollution]], [[water pollution]], garbage, domestically prohibited goods and pollution of the natural environment are all challenges for India. Nature is also causing some drastic effects on India. The situation was worse between 1947 through 1995. According to data collected and environmental assessments studied by [[World Bank]] experts, between 1995 through 2010, India has made some of the fastest progress in addressing its [[environmental issues]] and improving its environmental quality in the world.<ref>{{citation |title=The Little Green Data Book |publisher=The World Bank |year=2010 |url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTSDNET/0,,contentMDK:22666492~menuPK:64885113~pagePK:7278667~piPK:64911824~theSitePK:5929282,00.html }}</ref><ref>{{citation |title=Environment Assessment, Country Data: India |publisher=The World Bank |year=2011 |url=http://data.worldbank.org/country/india }}</ref> However, Pollution still remains a major challenge and opportunity for the country.

Environmental issues are one of the primary causes of disease, health issues and long term livelihood impact for India.

==Law and policies==
{{Main article|Environmental policy of India|Indian environmental law}}

British rule of India saw several laws related to the environment. Amongst the earliest ones were Shore Nuisance (Bombay and Kolkata) Act of 1853 and the Oriental Gas Company Act of 1857. The Indian Penal Code of 1860, imposed a fine on anyone who voluntarily fouls the water of any public spring or reservoir. In addition, the Code penalised negligent acts. British India also enacted laws aimed at controlling air pollution. Prominent amongst these were the Bengal Smoke Nuisance Act of 1905 and the Bombay Smoke Nuisance Act of 1912. Whilst these laws failed in having the intended effect, British-enacted legislations pioneered the growth of environmental regulations in India.

Upon independence from Britain, India adopted a constitution and numerous British-enacted laws, without any specific constitutional provision on protecting the environment. India amended its constitution in 1976. Article 48(A) of Part IV of the amended constitution, read: The State shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country. Article 51 A (g) imposed additional environmental mandates on the Indian state.

Other Indian laws from recent history include the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1974, the Forest (Conservation) Act of 1980, and the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1981. The Air Act was inspired by the decisions made at Stockholm Conference. The [[Bhopal gas tragedy]] triggered the Government of India to enact the Environment (Protection) Act of 1986. India has also enacted a set of Noise Pollution (Regulation & Control) Rules in 2000.

In 1985, the Indian government created the [[Ministry of Environment and Forests (India)|Ministry of Environment and Forests]]. This ministry is the central administrative organisation in India for regulating and ensuring environmental protection.

Despite the active passage of laws by the central government of India, the reality of environmental quality mostly worsened between 1947 and 1990. Rural poor had no choice, but to sustain life in whatever way possible. Air emissions increased, water pollution worsened, forest cover decreased.

Starting in the 1990s, reforms were introduced. Since then, for the first time in Indian history, major air pollutant concentrations have dropped in every 5-year period. Between 1992 and 2010, satellite data confirms India's forest coverage has increased for the first time by over 4 million hectares, a 7% increase.<ref name=faof2010>{{cite web|title=Global Forest Resources Assessment 2010|year=2011|publisher=FAO|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1757e/i1757e.pdf}}</ref> In August 2019, the Indian government imposed a nationwide ban on [[disposable product|single-use]] plastics that will take effect on 2 Oct.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-india-pollution-plastic-exclusive-idUSKCN1VI19F|title=Exclusive: India set to outlaw six single-use plastic products on...|work=Reuters|access-date=29 August 2019|language=en}}</ref>

== Possible causes ==
Some have cited [[economic development in India|economic development]] as the cause regarding the environmental issues. It is suggested that India's growing population is the primary cause of India's environmental degradation. [[Empirical evidence]] from countries such as Japan, England and Singapore, each with population density similar to or higher than that of India, yet each enjoying environmental quality vastly superior to India's, suggests population density may not be the only factor affecting India's issues.<ref>{{cite journal|title=People vs. Malthus: Population Pressure, Environmental Degradation, and Armed Conflict Revisited|author=Henrik Urdal|journal=Journal of Peace Research|volume=42|pages=417–434|doi=10.1177/0022343305054089|issue=4|s2cid=145266515|author-link=Henrik Urdal}}</ref>

==Major issues ==
[[File:Floods.jpg|thumb|250px|Floods are a significant environmental issue for India. It causes soil erosion, destruction of wetlands and wide migration of solid wastes.]]
[[File:CO2 emissions India.svg|thumb|Development of carbon dioxide emissions]]
Major environmental issues are forests and agricultural degradation of land, [[resource depletion]] (such as water, mineral, forest, sand, and rocks), [[environmental degradation]], public health, loss of [[biodiversity]], loss of [[Resilience (ecology)|resilience]] in ecosystems, livelihood security for the poor.<ref>Environmental Issues, Law and Technology – An Indian Perspective. Ramesha Chandrappa and Ravi.D.R, Research India Publication, Delhi, 2009, {{ISBN|978-81-904362-5-0}}</ref>

The major sources of pollution in India include the rapid burning of fuelwood and biomass such as dried waste from livestock as the primary source of energy, lack of organised garbage and waste removal services, lack of sewage treatment operations, lack of flood control and monsoon water drainage system, diversion of consumer waste into rivers, using large land area for burial purposes, cremation practices near major rivers, government mandated protection of highly polluting old public transport, and continued operation by Indian government of government-owned, high emission plants built between 1950 and 1980.<ref>{{cite journal|title=2000: India: THE CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF PARTICULATE AIR POLLUTION IN URBAN INDIA: A Synthesis of the Science|journal=[[Annual Review of Energy and the Environment]]|volume=25|pages=629–684|year=2000|author=Milind Kandlikar, Gurumurthy Ramachandran|doi=10.1146/annurev.energy.25.1.629|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=NYT1/><ref>{{cite journal|title=The role of water use patterns and sewage pollution in incidence of water-borne/enteric diseases along the Ganges river in Varanasi, India|journal=International Journal of Environmental Health Research|doi=10.1080/09603120500538226|author=Steve karthik kjournal=International Journal of Environmental Health Research|volume=16|issue=2|year=2006|pages=113–132|last2=Tripathi|first2=Anshuman|last3=Mishra|first3=Rajesh Kumar|last4=Bouskill|first4=Nik|last5=Broadaway|first5=Susan C.|last6=Pyle|first6=Barry H.|last7=Ford|first7=Timothy E.|pmid=16546805|s2cid=23264273|display-authors=etal}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Klement Tockner and Jack A. Stanford|year=2002|title=Riverine flood plains: present state and future trends|url=https://www.dora.lib4ri.ch/eawag/islandora/object/eawag%3A4392/datastream/PDF/download/Tockner-2002-Riverine_flood_plains-%28published_version%29.pdf|journal=Environmental Conservation|volume=29|issue=3|pages=308–330|doi=10.1017/S037689290200022X|s2cid=18937837 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Analysis of fly ash heavy metal content and disposal in three thermal power plants in India|author=Sushil and Batra|journal=Fuel|volume=85|issue=17–18|pages=2676–2679|doi=10.1016/j.fuel.2006.04.031|last2=Batra|first2=V}}</ref>

Air pollution, poor management of waste, growing [[water scarcity in India|water scarcity]], [[groundwater depletion|falling groundwater tables]], water pollution, preservation and quality of forests, [[biodiversity loss]], and land/[[soil retrogression and degradation|soil degradation]] are some of the major environmental issues India faces today.<ref>{{cite web|title=India: Country Strategy paper, 2007–2013|year=2007|publisher=European External Action Service, European Union|url=http://www.eeas.europa.eu/india/csp/07_13_en.pdf}}</ref>

India's population growth adds pressure to environmental issues and its resources. Rapid urbanization has caused a buildup of heavy metals in the soil of the city of [[Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh|Ghaziabad]], and these metals are being ingested through contaminated vegetables. Heavy metals are hazardous to people's health and are known carcinogens.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Chabukdhara|first1=Mayuri|last2=Munjal|first2=Amit|last3=Nema|first3=Arvind K.|last4=Gupta|first4=Sanjay K.|last5=Kaushal|first5=Rajendra Kumar|title=Heavy metal contamination in vegetables grown around peri-urban and urban-industrial clusters in Ghaziabad, India|journal=Human and Ecological Risk Assessment|volume=22|issue=3|pages=736–752|doi=10.1080/10807039.2015.1105723|s2cid=86942832|issn=1080-7039}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Chabukdhara|first1=Mayuri|last2=Nema|first2=Arvind K.|title=Heavy metals assessment in urban soil around industrial clusters in Ghaziabad, India: probabilistic health risk approach|journal=Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety|volume=87|pages=57–64|doi=10.1016/j.ecoenv.2012.08.032|issn=1090-2414|pmid=23116622}}</ref>

===Population growth and environmental quality===
[[File:Garbage dumping ground 1.jpg|thumb|250px|Public dumping of garbage alongside a road in [[Kolkata]].]]
There is a long history of study and debate about the interactions between population growth and the environment. According to a British thinker [[Thomas Robert Malthus|Malthus]], for example, a growing population exerts pressure on agricultural land, causing environmental degradation, and forcing the cultivation of land of higher as well as poorer quality. This environmental degradation ultimately reduces agricultural yields and food availability, famines and diseases and death, thereby reducing the rate of population growth.

Population growth, because it can place increased pressure on the assimilative capacity of the environment, is also seen as a major cause of air, water, and solid-waste pollution. The result, Malthus theorised, is an equilibrium population that enjoys low levels of both income and Environmental quality. Malthus suggested positive and preventative forced control of human population, along with abolition of [[English poor laws|poor laws]].

Malthus theory, published between 1798 and 1826, has been analysed and criticised ever since. The American thinker [[Henry George]], for example, observed with his characteristic piquancy in dismissing Malthus: "Both the jayhawk and the man eat chickens; but the more jayhawks, the fewer chickens, while the more men, the more chickens." Similarly, the American economist [[Julian Lincoln Simon]] criticised Malthus's theory.<ref>Simon J.L. 1981. ''The ultimate resource''; and [http://www.juliansimon.org/writings/Ultimate_Resource/ 1992 ''The ultimate resource II''].</ref> He noted that the facts of human history have proven the predictions of Malthus and of the Neo-[[Malthusians]] to be flawed. Massive [[geometric progression|geometric]] population growth in the 20th century did not result in a [[Malthusian catastrophe]]. The possible reasons include: increase in human knowledge, rapid increases in productivity, innovation and application of knowledge, general improvements in farming methods ([[industrial agriculture]]), mechanisation of work ([[tractors]]), the introduction of high-yield varieties of rice and wheat among other plants ([[Green Revolution]]), the use of [[pesticides]] to control crop pests.<ref>Antony Trewavas: [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v418/n6898/full/nature01013.html "Malthus foiled again and again"], in ''Nature'' 418, 668–670 (8 August 2002), retrieved 28 December 2008</ref>

More recent scholarly articles concede that whilst there is no question that population growth may contribute to environmental degradation, its effects can be modified by economic growth and modern technology.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Interaction of Population Growth and Environmental Quality |author=Maureen Cropper; Charles Griffiths |journal=The American Economic Review |volume=84 |pages=250–254 |url=http://econweb.umd.edu/~cropper/publications/jc26.pdf |issue=2 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120424200039/http://econweb.umd.edu/~cropper/publications/jc26.pdf |archive-date=24 April 2012 }}</ref> Research in [[environmental economics]] has uncovered a relationship between environmental quality, measured by ambient concentrations of air pollutants and per capita income. This so-called environmental [[Kuznets curve]] shows environmental quality worsening up until about $5,000 of per capita income on purchasing parity basis, and improving thereafter.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Environmental Quality and Development: Is There a Kuznets Curve for Air Pollution Emissions?|author=Selden Thomas M. and Song Daqing|journal=Journal of Environmental Economics and Management|volume=27|issue=2|year=1994|pages=147–162|url=http://paper.blog.bbiq.jp/Selden_and_Song_1994.pdf|doi=10.1006/jeem.1994.1031|hdl=10983/22670|hdl-access=free}}</ref> The key requirement, for this to be true, is continued adoption of technology and scientific management of resources, continued increases in productivity in every economic sector, entrepreneurial innovation and economic expansion.

Other data suggest that [[List of sovereign states and dependent territories by population density|population density]] has little correlation to environmental quality and human quality of life. India's population density, in 2011, was about 368 human beings per square kilometre. Many countries with population density similar or higher than India enjoy environmental quality as well as human quality of life far superior than India. For example: Singapore (7148 /km2), Hong Kong (6349 /km2), South Korea (487 /km2), Netherlands (403 /km2), Belgium (355 / km2), England (395 /km2) and Japan (337/ km2).

===Water pollution===
{{Main article|Water pollution in India}}
[[File:Taj Mahal-11.jpg|thumb|250px|The Taj Mahal next to the [[Yamuna river]]]]
India has major [[water pollution]] issues. Discharge of untreated sewage is an important cause for pollution of surface and ground water in India, since there is a large gap between the generation and treatment of domestic waste water. The problem is not only that India lacks sufficient treatment capacity but also that the sewage treatment plants that exist do not operate and are not maintained.<ref name="cpcb.nic.in">{{cite web|title=Evaluation Of Operation And Maintenance Of Sewage Treatment Plants In India-2007|publisher=CENTRAL POLLUTION CONTROL BOARD, Ministry of Environment & Forests|year=2008|url=http://www.cpcb.nic.in/upload/NewItems/NewItem_99_NewItem_99_5.pdf}}</ref> The majority of government-owned sewage treatment plants remain closed most of the time due to improper design, poor maintenance, or lack of reliable electricity supply, along with severe understaffing. The waste water generated in these areas normally percolates in the soil or evaporates. The uncollected waste accumulates in urban areas, causing unhygienic conditions and releasing pollutants that reach to surface and groundwater.<ref name="cpcb.nic.in"/>

According to a World Health Organization study,<ref>World Health Organization (1992), Our Planet, our Health: Report of the WHO Commission on Health and Environment, Geneva</ref> out of India's 3,119 towns and cities, just 209 had partial sewage treatment facilities, and only 8 have full wastewater treatment facilities (1992). Over 100 Indian cities dump untreated [[sewage]] directly into the [[Ganges River]].<ref>National Geographic Society. 1995. Water: A Story of Hope. Washington (DC): National Geographic Society</ref> Investment is needed to bridge the gap between 29,000 million litre per day of sewage India generates, and a treatment capacity of mere 6000 million litre per day.<ref name=cpcb1>{{cite web|title=Status of Sewage Treatment in India|year=2005|publisher=Central Pollution Control Board, Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt of India|url=http://www.cpcb.nic.in/newitems/12.pdf}}</ref>

Other sources of water pollution include agriculture runoff and small scale factories along the rivers and lakes of India. Fertilizers and pesticides used in agriculture in northwestern India have been found in rivers, lakes and ground water.<ref name=ex>{{cite news|url=http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/buddha-nullah-the-toxic-vein-of-malwa/312236/ |title=Buddha Nullah the toxic vein of Malwa |work=Indian Express |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121005151212/http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/buddha-nullah-the-toxic-vein-of-malwa/312236/ |archive-date=5 October 2012 }}</ref> Flooding during monsoons worsens India's water pollution problem, as it washes and moves all sorts of solid garbage and contaminated soils into its rivers and wetlands.

[[File:Vidhyadhari khal, Guma.jpg|thumb|Sewage and polluted solid waste mix up with [[Bidyadhari River]], [[Guma, India]] 2022]]

==== Water resources ====
According to NASA groundwater declines are highest on Earth between 2002 and 2008 in northern India. Agricultural productivity is dependent on irrigation. A collapse of agricultural output and severe shortages of potable water may influence 114 million residents in India. In July 2012, about 670 million people or 10% of the world’s population lost power blame on the severe drought restricting the power delivered by hydroelectric dams.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-network/2015/jun/12/decade-of-drought-a-global-tour-of-seven-recent-water-crises Decade of drought: a global tour of seven recent water crises] Guardian 12 June 2015</ref>

===Air pollution===
{{Main article|Air pollution in India}}
[[File:The rural stove,smoky,pollution,TamilNadu-230.jpeg|thumb|200px|A rural stove using biomass cakes, fuelwood and trash as cooking fuel. Surveys suggest over 100 million households in India use such stoves (chullahs) every day, 2–3 times a day. It is a major source of [[air pollution in India]], and produces smoke and numerous indoor air pollutants at concentrations 5 times higher than coal. Clean burning fuels and electricity are unavailable in rural parts and small towns of India because of limited and deteriorating infrastructure.]]

Air pollution in India is a serious issue, with the major sources being biomass burning, fuel adulteration, vehicle emission, and traffic congestion. Air pollution is also the main cause of the [[Asian brown cloud]], which has been causing the [[monsoon]] season to be delayed. India is the world's largest consumer of fuelwood, agricultural waste, and biomass for energy purposes. Traditional fuel (fuelwood, crop residue and dung cake) dominates domestic energy use in rural India and account for about 90% of the total. In urban areas, traditional fuel constitutes about 24% of the total. Fuel wood, agricultural waste and biomass cake burning release over 165 million tonnes of combustion products every year.<ref name=icmr1>{{cite web|title=Indoor Air Pollution in India – A Major Environmental and Public Health Concern|author=Ganguly|year=2001|publisher=Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi|url=http://icmr.nic.in/bumay01.pdf|display-authors=etal|access-date=25 December 2011|archive-date=23 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130123100726/http://www.icmr.nic.in/bumay01.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Biomass Pollution Basics|author=David Pennise and Kirk Smith|publisher=The World Health Organisation|url=https://www.who.int/indoorair/interventions/antiguamod21.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120709001603/http://www.who.int/indoorair/interventions/antiguamod21.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=9 July 2012}}</ref> These biomass-based household stoves in India are also a leading source of greenhouse emissions, which contribute to climate change.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1146/annurev.energy.25.1.741|doi-access=free|title=Greenhouse Implications of Household Stoves: An Analysis for India|year=2000|last1=Smith|first1=Kirk R.|last2=Uma|first2=R.|last3=Kishore|first3=V.V.N.|last4=Zhang|first4=Junfeng|last5=Joshi|first5=V.|last6=Khalil|first6=M.A.K.|journal=[[Annual Review of Energy and the Environment]]|volume=25|pages=741–763}}</ref>

The annual crop burning practice in northwest [[India]], north India and eastern [[Pakistan]], before and after monsoons, from April and May to October to November, are a major seasonal source of air pollution since the 1980s. Approximately 500 million tons of crop residue are burnt in the open, releasing NOx, SOx, PAHs and particulate matter into the air. This burning has been found to be a leading cause of smog and haze problems through the winter over Punjab, cities such as Delhi, and major population centers along the rivers through West Bengal.<ref>[http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/NaturalHazards/view.php?id=35765 Fires in Northwest India] NASA, US Government (2008)</ref><ref>Tina Adler, RESPIRATORY HEALTH: Measuring the Health Effects of Crop Burning, Environ Health Perspect. 2010 November; 118(11), A475</ref><ref>Streets et al. (2003), Biomass burning in Asia: Annual and seasonal estimates and atmospheric emissions, Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 17(4)</ref> In other states of India, rice and wheat crop residue straw burning in open is a major source of air pollution.<ref>Gadde et al., Air pollutant emissions from rice straw open field burning in India, Thailand and the Philippines, Environmental Pollution, Volume 157, Issue 5, May 2009, Pages 1554–1558</ref>

Vehicle emissions are another source of air pollution. Vehicle emissions are worsened by fuel adulteration and poor fuel combustion efficiencies from traffic congestion and low density of quality, high speed [[Roads in India|road network]] per 1000 people.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Asian Brown Cloud: Climate and Other Environmental Impacts |publisher=United Nations Environmental Programme |year=2002 |url=http://www.rrcap.unep.org/issues/air/impactstudy/Executive%20Summary.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120526093020/http://www.rrcap.unep.org/issues/air/impactstudy/Executive%20Summary.pdf |archive-date=26 May 2012 }}</ref><ref name=fuela>{{cite web|title=Urban Air Pollution, Catching gasoline ad diesel adulteration|year=2002|publisher=The World Bank|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2002/09/13/000094946_02083104140124/Rendered/PDF/multi0page.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Gridlocked Delhi: six years of career lost in traffic jams|publisher=India Today|url=http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/gridlocked-delhi-six-years-of-career-lost-in-jams/1/111506.html}}</ref> In order to reduce air pollution effects India is introducing hybrid and electric vehicles as per the Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Electric vehicles in India scheme. While challenges are slowing down the development cleaner combustion fuels are being use in motor vehicles. As of now [[Delhi Transport Corporation]] is the world's largest operator of CNG bus fleet. Many Indian cities are testing out with cleaner fossil fuels mostly CNG fuel and renewable biofuels such as biodiesel and E85 blended petroleum. In June 2020, the supreme court promised that in order to improve emissions from vehicles all BS4 vehicles will be upgraded to BS6 standards.

On per capita basis, India is a small emitter of carbon dioxide greenhouse. In 2009, IEA estimates that it emitted about 1.4 tons of gas per person, in comparison to the United States’ 17 tons per person, and a world average of 5.3 tons per person. However, India was the third largest emitter of total [[carbon dioxide]] in 2009 at 1.65 Gt per year, after China (6.9 Gt per year) and the United States (5.2 Gt per year). With 17 percent of world population, India contributed some 5 percent of human-sourced [[Greenhouse gas emissions|carbon dioxide emission]]; compared to China's 24 percent share.<ref name=iea1>{{cite web|title=CO2 EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION HIGHLIGHTS, 2011 Edition|year=2011|publisher=International Energy Agency, France|url=http://www.iea.org/co2highlights/co2highlights.pdf|access-date=19 January 2012|archive-date=2 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120202035728/http://www.iea.org/co2highlights/co2highlights.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Country Analysis Brief: India">{{cite web|title=Country Analysis Brief: India|year=2011|publisher=U.S. Energy Information Administration|url=http://www.eia.gov/countries/country-data.cfm?fips=IN}}</ref>

The [[Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act]] was passed in 1981 to regulate air pollution and there have been some measurable improvements.<ref name=who1>{{cite web |title=Emissions and Pollution in South Asia |year=2010 |publisher=The World Bank |url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/ENVIRONMENT/EXTDATASTA/0,,contentMDK:21079369~menuPK:2990394~pagePK:64168445~piPK:64168309~theSitePK:2875751,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110412141433/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/ENVIRONMENT/EXTDATASTA/0%2C%2CcontentMDK%3A21079369~menuPK%3A2990394~pagePK%3A64168445~piPK%3A64168309~theSitePK%3A2875751%2C00.html |archive-date=12 April 2011 }}</ref> However, the 2012 [[Environmental Performance Index]] ranked India at 177th position out of 180 countries in 2018,as having the poorest relative air quality out of 132countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://epi.yale.edu/dataexplorer/indicatorprofiles?ind=eh.air |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121212115235/http://epi.yale.edu/dataexplorer/indicatorprofiles?ind=eh.air |url-status=dead |archive-date=12 December 2012 |title=Data Explorer :: Indicator Profiles – Environmental Performance Index |year=2012 |publisher=Yale University |access-date=5 September 2012 }}</ref> Of the world's 30 most polluted cities, India is home to 21 as of 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/02/25/health/most-polluted-cities-india-pakistan-intl-hnk/index.html|title=21 of the world's 30 cities with the worst air pollution are in India|first=Helen |last=Regan|website=CNN|access-date=26 February 2020}}</ref>

===Solid waste pollution===
{{see also|Solid waste policy in India}}
[[File:Jaipur cows eating trash.JPG|thumb|250px|Trash and garbage disposal services, responsibility of local government workers in India, are ineffective. Solid waste is routinely seen along India's streets and shopping plazas. Image shows solid waste pollution along a Jaipur street, a 2011 image.]]

Trash and garbage are a common sight in urban and rural areas of India. It is a major source of pollution. Indian cities alone generate more than 100 million tons of solid waste a year. Street corners are piled with trash. Public places and sidewalks are despoiled with filth and litter, rivers and canals act as garbage dumps. In part, India's garbage crisis is from rising congestion. India's waste problem also points to a stunning failure of governance.<ref name=NYT1>{{cite news|title=Drowning in a Sea of Garbage|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/world/asia/23iht-letter.html}}</ref> The tourism regions in the country mainly hill stations are also facing this issue in the recent years.<ref>Kumar, S., Dhar, H, Nair, V. V., Bhattacharya, J. K., Vaidya, A. N. and Akolkar, A. B. (2016). Characterization of municipal solid waste in high altitude sub-tropical regions. Environmental Technology 37 (20), 2627 – 2637. doi: 10.1080/09593330.2016.1158322</ref>

In 2000, India's Supreme Court directed all Indian cities to implement a comprehensive waste-management programme that would include household collection of segregated waste, recycling and composting. These directions have simply been ignored. No major city runs a comprehensive programme of the kind envisioned by the Supreme Court.

Indeed, forget waste segregation and recycling directive of the India's Supreme Court, the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development estimates that up to 40 percent of municipal waste in India remains simply uncollected. Even [[medical waste]], theoretically controlled by stringent rules that require hospitals to operate incinerators, is routinely dumped with regular municipal garbage. A recent study found that about half of India's medical waste is improperly disposed of.

Municipalities in Indian cities and towns have waste collection employees. However, these are unionised government workers and their work performance is neither measured nor monitored.

Some of the few solid waste landfills India has, near its major cities, are overflowing and poorly managed. They have become significant sources of greenhouse emissions and breeding sites for disease vectors such as flies, mosquitoes, cockroaches, rats, and other pests.<ref>{{cite web|title=India: Urbanisation, sustainable development and poverty alleviation, INTL 442 |publisher=University of Oregon, USA |url=http://pages.uoregon.edu/aweiss/intl442_542/India%20Report%202.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508052355/http://pages.uoregon.edu/aweiss/intl442_542/India%20Report%202.pdf |archive-date=8 May 2013 }}</ref>

[[File:Waste collection truck.jpg|thumb|Waste collection truck in Ahmedabad, Gujarat]]
In 2011, several Indian cities embarked on [[waste-to-energy]] projects of the type in use in Germany, Switzerland and Japan.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is waste to energy? |year=2010 |publisher=Confederation of European Waste-to-Energy Plants |url=http://www.cewep.eu/whatiswastetoenergy/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120122110132/http://www.cewep.eu/whatiswastetoenergy/index.html |archive-date=22 January 2012 }}</ref> For example, New Delhi is implementing two incinerator projects aimed at turning the city’s trash problem into electricity resource. These plants are being welcomed for addressing the city’s chronic problems of excess untreated waste and a shortage of electric power. They are also being welcomed by those who seek to prevent water pollution, hygiene problems, and eliminate rotting trash that produces potent greenhouse gas methane. The projects are being opposed by waste collection workers & local unions who fear changing technology may deprive them of their livelihood and way of life.<ref>{{cite news|title=Indian waste workers fear loss of income from trash-to-electricity projects|newspaper=The Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/indian-waste-workers-fear-loss-of-income-from-trash-to-electricity-projects/2011/11/18/gIQACCB7fN_story.html}}</ref>

===Noise pollution===
{{Expand section}}

[[Noise pollution]] or noise disturbance is the most efficiently changing and disturbing or excessive noise that may harm the activity or balance of human or animal life. The source of most outdoor noise worldwide is mainly caused by machines and transportation systems, motor vehicles, aircraft, and trains.[1][2] In India the outdoor noise is also caused by loud music during festival seasons.Outdoor noise is summarized by the word environmental noise. Poor urban planning may give rise to noise pollution, since side-by-side industrial and residential buildings can result in noise pollution in the residential areas.

Indoor noise can be caused by machines, building activities, and music performances, especially in some workplaces. Noise-induced hearing loss can be caused by outside (e.g. trains) or inside (e.g. music) noise.

High noise levels can contribute to cardiovascular effects in humans and an increased incidence of coronary artery disease.<ref>{{Cite news | url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/freedom-from-noise-pollution-will-be-true-independence-comment-special-to-ians-116082900219_1.html | title=Freedom from noise pollution will be true independence (Comment: Special to IANS)| newspaper=Business Standard India| date=29 August 2016}}</ref> In animals, noise can increase the risk of death by altering predator or prey detection and avoidance, interfere with reproduction and navigation, and contribute to permanent hearing loss.

The [[Supreme Court of India]] which is in New Delhi gave a significant verdict on [[noise pollution]] in 2005.<ref>{{cite web|title=Noise Pollution Restricting use of loudspeakers, Court: Supreme Court of India, Justices: Lahoti and Bhan|publisher=ECOLEX|url=http://www.ecolex.org/ecolex/ledge/view/RecordDetails?id=COU-144337&index=courtdecisions}}</ref> Unnecessary [[wikt:honk|honk]]ing of vehicles makes for a high [[decibel]] level of noise in cities. The use of [[loudspeaker]]s for political purposes and for sermons by temples and mosques makes noise pollution in [[residential area]]s worse.

In January 2010, Government of India published norms of permissible noise levels in urban and rural areas.<ref>{{cite web|title=AMENDMENT To NOISE POLLUTION REGULATION AND CONTROL RULES, 2000 AND SETTING UP OF A NATIONAL NOISE MONITORING NETWORK|publisher=Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt of India|url=http://moef.nic.in/downloads/public-information/Noise%20Pollution_press%20note.pdf|access-date=10 March 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181222195452/http://www.moef.nic.in/downloads/public-information/Noise%20Pollution_press%20note.pdf|archive-date=22 December 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>[[File:Greater adjutant.jpg|thumb|A [[Greater adjutant]] perched on a pile of trash and solid waste in [[Assam]].]]

===Erosion of sands===

In March 2009, the issue of [[Punjab]] attracted press coverage. It was alleged to be caused by [[flying ash]] ponds of [[thermal power]] stations, which reportedly lead to severe birth defects in children in the [[Faridkot district|Faridkot]] and [[Bhatinda]] districts of [[Punjab, India|Punjab]]. The news reports claimed the uranium levels were more than 60 times the maximum safe limit.<ref name="fa">{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/Uranium-deforms-kids-in-Faridkot/articleshow/4347313.cms|title=Uranium deforms kids in Faridkot|work=The Times of India|first1=Priya|last1=Yadav}}</ref><ref name="bc">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7979022.stm|title=Punjab disability 'uranium link'|work=BBC News|first=Asit|last=Jolly}}</ref> In 2012, the Government of India confirmed<ref>[http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=85937 Uranium in Ground Water] Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation, Government of India (2012)</ref> that the ground water in Malwa belt of Punjab has uranium metal that is 50% above the trace limits set by the United Nations' World Health Organization. Scientific studies, based on over 1000 samples from various sampling points, could not trace the source to fly ash and any sources from thermal power plants or industry as originally alleged. The study also revealed that the uranium concentration in ground water of Malwa district is not 60 times the WHO limits, but only 50% above the WHO limit in 3 locations. This highest concentration found in samples was less than those found naturally in ground waters currently used for human purposes elsewhere, such as Finland.<ref>[http://dae.nic.in/writereaddata/lsus3346.pdf Atomic Energy Report - Malwa Punjab Uranium Q&A] Lok Sabha, Government of India (2012)</ref> Research is underway to identify natural or other sources for the uranium.

===Greenhouse gas emissions===
{{Main|Climate change in India}}
India was the [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions|third largest emitter of carbon dioxide]], a major [[greenhouse gas]], in 2009 at 1.65 Gt per year, after China and the United States . With 17 percent of world population, India contributed some 5 percent of human-sourced carbon dioxide emission; compared to China's 24 percent share. On per capita basis, India emitted about 1.4 tons of carbon dioxide per person, in comparison to the United States’ 17 tons per person, and a world average of 5.3 tons per person.

===Forests===
India had a 2018 [[Forest Landscape Integrity Index]] mean score of 7.09/10, ranking it 58th globally out of 172 countries.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. F.|last26=Lieberman|first26=S.|last27=Linkie|first27=M.|last28=Malhi|first28=Y.|last29=Maxwell|first29=S.|last30=Mendez|first30=M.|last31=Mittermeier|first31=R.|last32=Murray|first32=N. J.|last33=Possingham|first33=H.|last34=Radachowsky|first34=J.|last35=Saatchi|first35=S.|last36=Samper|first36=C.|last37=Silverman|first37=J.|last38=Shapiro|first38=A.|last39=Strassburg|first39=B.|last40=Stevens|first40=T.|last41=Stokes|first41=E.|last42=Taylor|first42=R.|last43=Tear|first43=T.|last44=Tizard|first44=R.|last45=Venter|first45=O.|last46=Visconti|first46=P.|last47=Wang|first47=S.|last48=Watson|first48=J. E. M.|title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity - Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|page=5978|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|pmid=33293507|pmc=7723057}}</ref>

==See also==
{{portal|Ecology|Environment|India}}
* [[Bhalswa landfill]]
* [[Deforestation in India]]
* [[Drought in India]]
* [[Environmental impact of irrigation]]
* [[Water scarcity in India]]
* [[Alkali soil]]s

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20141129123238/http://mospi.nic.in/mospi_new/upload/compendium_2013_13feb14.htm Compendium of Environment Statistics India 2013], Annual Report and Data, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, [[Central Statistical Organisation]], Government of India, New Delhi.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20141217094041/http://mospi.nic.in/Mospi_New/upload/compendium_2011_30dec11.htm Compendium of Environment Statistics India 2011], Annual Report and Data, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Central Statistical Organisation, Government of India, New Delhi.
* [http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2013/07/16/000442464_20130716091943/Rendered/PDF/700040v10ESW0P0box0374379B00PUBLIC0.pdf India, Diagnostic Assessment of Select Environmental Challenges] The World Bank, 2013
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170112125026/http://www.moef.nic.in/report/1011/AR-Eng%20Vol2.pdf 2010–2011 Annual Report of India's Ministry of Environment & Forests – Policies and Priorities], 2011
* [http://www.unicef.org/wash/files/SoapStories2010_1.pdf Unite for Children – UNICEF's Soap Stories and Toilet Tales Report], 2010
* [http://www.unicef.org/wash/files/CATS_Field_Note_-_Final_Mar_10_2010_print.pdf India: Total Sanitation Campaign; a UNICEF Case Study], 2010
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20111215205959/http://envfor.nic.in/nep/nep2006e.pdf National Environment Policy of India], 2006
* [https://www.who.int/ceh/publications/en/atlas.pdf Inheriting the World: The Atlas of Children’s Health and the Environment, 2004]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120526093020/http://www.rrcap.unep.org/issues/air/impactstudy/Executive%20Summary.pdf The Asian Brown Cloud: Climate and Other Environmental Impacts, 2002]
*{{cite book|author1=Mahesh Prasad Singh|author2=J.K. Singh|author3=Reena Mohanka|title=Forest Environment and Biodiversity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HTW6uvi8IQ0C&pg=PA18|publisher=Daya Publishing House|isbn=978-81-7035-421-5}}
* {{cite journal |pmc=3299104|year=2011 |last1=Kumar |first1=G. S. |last2=Kar |first2=S. S. |last3=Jain |first3=A. |title=Health and environmental sanitation in India: Issues for prioritizing control strategies |journal=Indian Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=93–96 |doi=10.4103/0019-5278.93196 |pmid=22412284 }}
==External links==
* [http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2014/03/06/green-growth-overcoming-india-environment-challenges-promote-development India: Green Growth - Overcoming Environment Challenges to Promote Development] The World Bank, 2014
* [http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/NaturalHazards/view.php?id=84680 Stubble Burning in Northern India - Air Pollution] NASA Satellite Images, 2014
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080328171423/http://www.who.int/features/factfiles/sanitation/facts/en/index.html Ten Facts about Sanitation: A World Health Organisation Slideshow, 2010]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150905162856/http://www.energy-physics.com/human-activities-that-affect-the-environment/ Human Activities that affect the Environment | Energy Physics]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150909152131/http://www.energy-physics.com/environmental-threats/ Environmental Threats That We are Going to Face | Energy Physics] Indian Journal Occupational Environ Med. 2011

{{Pollution}}
{{Asia in topic|Environmental issues in}}
{{India topics|state=collapsed}}
{{Social issues in India}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Environmental Issues In India}}
[[Category:Environmental issues in India| ]]

Tamil Nadu Legislative Council

2022-10-15T17:40:25Z

Insta Pedia: Added a new contribution to the website.

{{Short description|Defunct upper house in India}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Infobox legislature
| name = Tamil Nadu Legislative Council
| transcription_name = Tamiḻnāṭu saṭṭa Mēlavai
| coa_pic = TamilNadu Logo.svg
| house_type = [[Upper house]]
| term_limits = 6 years
| legislature = [[Tamil Nadu]]
| established = 1861
| disbanded = 1986
| members = '''78'''
| voting_system1 = [[Proportional representation]], [[First past the post]] and Nominations
| session_room = Fort St. George, Chennai 2.jpg
| meeting_place = [[Fort St. George]] {{coord|13.081539|80.285718|display=inline,title}}
}}

'''Tamil Nadu Legislative Council''' was the [[upper house]] of the former [[bicameral]] legislature of the [[India]]n state of [[Tamil Nadu]]. It began its existence as '''Madras Legislative Council''', the first provincial legislature for [[Madras Presidency]]. It was initially created as an advisory body in 1861, by the [[British Raj|British colonial government]]. It was established by the [[Indian Councils Act 1861]], enacted in the British parliament in the aftermath of the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]]. Its role and strength were later expanded by the second Council Act of 1892. Limited election was introduced in 1909. The Council became a [[unicameral]] legislative body in 1921 and eventually the upper chamber of a [[bicameral]] legislature in 1937. After India became [[Indian independence movement|independent]] in 1947, it continued to be the upper chamber of the legislature of [[Madras State]], one of the successor states to the Madras Presidency. It was renamed as the Tamil Nadu Legislative Council when the state was renamed as [[Tamil Nadu]] in 1969. The Council was abolished by the [[M. G. Ramachandran]] administration on 1 November 1986. In 2010 the DMK regime headed by [[M. Karunanidhi]] tried to revive the Council. The former AIADMK regime (2016-2021) expressed its intention not to revive the council and passed a resolution in the [[Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly]] in this regard.

==History and evolution==

===Origin===
{{see also|Indian Councils Act 1861|Madras Legislative Council (1861–91)}}
The first Indian Councils Act of 1861 set up the Madras Legislative Council as an advisory body through which the colonial administration obtained advice and assistance. The Act empowered the provincial Governor to nominate four non-English Indian members to the council for the first time. Under the Act, the nominated members were allowed to move their own bills and vote on bills introduced in the council. However, they were not allowed to question the executive, move resolutions or examine the budget. Also they could not interfere with the laws passed by the Central Legislature. The Governor was also the president of the Council and he had complete authority over when, where and how long to convene the Council and what to discuss. Two members of his Executive Council and the Advocate-General of Madras were also allowed to participate and vote in the Council. The Indians nominated under this Act were mostly [[zamindar]]s and ''[[ryotwari]]'' landowners, who often benefited from their association with the colonial government. Supportive members were often re-nominated for several terms. [[G. N. Ganapathy Rao]] was nominated eight times, [[Humayun Jah Bahadur]] was a member for 23 years, [[T. Rama Rao]] and [[P. Chentsal Rao]] were members for six years each. Other prominent members during the period included [[V. Bhashyam Aiyangar]], [[S. Subramania Iyer]] and [[C. Sankaran Nair]]. The Council met infrequently and in some years (1874 and 1892) was not convened even once. The maximum of number of times it met in a year was eighteen. The Governor preferred to convene the Council at his summer retreat [[Udagamandalam]], much to the displeasure of the Indian members. The few times when the Council met, it was for only a few hours with bills and resolutions being rushed through.<ref name="Krishnaswamy">{{cite book | title=The role of Madras Legislature in the freedom struggle, 1861-1947| author=S. Krishnaswamy| year=1989| pages=5–70, 72–83| publisher=People's Pub. House (New Delhi) }}</ref>

===Expansion===
{{See also|Madras Legislative Council, 1891-1909}}
{| class="wikitable" style="float:left; margin-right:1em"
|+ Council meetings during 1891-1909<ref name="Krishnaswamy"/>
!style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=center valign=top|Years
!style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=center|No of Days
|-
|align=left| 1906
|align=center| 2
|-
|align=left| 1897,1901
|align=center| 3
|-
|align=left| 1894,1907
|align=center| 4
|-
|align=left| 1896,1898,1909
|align=center| 5
|-
|align=left| 1899, 1902, 1903, 1904
|align=center| 6
|-
|align=left| 1900
|align=center| 7
|-
|align=left| 1895,1905
|align=center| 8
|-
|align=left| 1893
|align=center| 9
|}
In 1892, the role of the Council was expanded by the Indian Councils Act of 1892. The Act increased the number of additional members of the Council to a maximum of 20, of whom not more than nine had to be officials. The Act introduced the method of election for the Council, but did not mention word "election" explicitly. The elected members were officially called as "nominated" members and their method of election was described as "recommendation". Such "recommendations" were made by district boards, universities, municipalities and other associations. The term of the members was fixed at two years. The Council could also discuss the annual financial statement and ask questions subject to certain limitations.<ref name="tnassembly"/> Thirty eight Indian members were "nominated" in the eight elections during 1893-1909 when this Act was in effect. [[C. Jambulingam Mudaliar]], [[N. Subba Rao Pantulu]], [[P. Kesava Pillai]] and [[C. Vijayaraghavachariar]] representing southern group of district boards, [[Kruthiventi Perraju Pantulu]] of the northern group of municipalities, [[C. Sankaran Nair]] and [[P. Rangaiah Naidu]] from the Corporation of Madras and [[P. S. Sivaswami Iyer]], [[V. Krishnaswamy Iyer]] and [[M. Krishnan Nair (politician)|M. Krishnan Nair]] from the University of Madras were some of the active members.<ref name="Krishnaswamy"/> However, over a period of time, representation by Indian members dwindled, for example, the position of Bashyam Iyengar and Sankaran Nayar in 1902 was occupied by Acworth and Sir George Moore.<ref>{{cite book | title=Madras Legislative Council; Its constitution and working between 1861 and 1909| author=K. C. Markandan| year=1964| pages=76| publisher=S. Chand & CO}}</ref> The council did not meet more than 9 days in a year during the time the Act was in effect.<ref name="Krishnaswamy"/>

===Further expansion===
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em"
|+ Constituencies that elected members (1909–19)<ref name="Krishnaswamy"/>
!style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=center valign=top|Constituency
!style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=center|No of Members
|-
|align=left| District boards and Municipalities
|align=center| 10
|-
|align=left| University of Madras
|align=center| 1
|-
|align=left| South India Chamber of Commerce
|align=center| 1
|-
|align=left| Madras Traders Association
|align=center| 1
|-
|align=left| Zamindars
|align=center| 2
|-
|align=left| Large landholders
|align=center| 3
|-
|align=left| Muslims
|align=center| 2
|-
|align=left| Planters
|align=center| 1
|}
The [[Indian Councils Act 1909]] (popularly called as "Minto-Morley Reforms"), officially introduced the method of electing members to the Council. But it did not provide for direct election of the members. It abolished automatic official (executive) majorities in the Council and gave its members the power to move resolutions upon matters of general public interest and the budget and also to ask supplementary questions.<ref name="tnassembly"/> There were a total of 21 elected members and 21 nominated members. The Act allowed up to 16 nominated members to be official and the remaining five were required to be non-officials. The Governor was also authorised to nominate two experts whenever necessary. As before, the Governor, his two executive council members and the Advocate-General were also members of the Council. [[P. Kesava Pillai]], [[A. S. Krishna Rao]], [[N. Krishnaswami Iyengar]], [[B. N. Sarma]], [[B. V. Narasimha Iyer]], [[K. Perraju Pantulu]], [[T. V. Seshagiri Iyer]], [[P. Siva Rao]], [[V. S. Srinivasa Sastri]], [[Theagaroya Chetty|P. Theagaraya Chetty]] and [[Yakub Hasan Sait]] were among the active members.

===Diarchy (1920-37)===
{{see also|Government of India Act 1919|Diarchy in Madras Presidency}}
Based on the recommendations of the [[Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms|Montague-Chelmsford]] report, the [[Government of India Act 1919|Government of India Act of 1919]] was enacted. The Act enlarged the provincial legislative councils and increased the strength of elected members to be greater than that of nominated and official members. It introduced a system of [[dyarchy]] in the Provinces. Although this Act brought about representative Government in India, the Governor was empowered with overriding powers. It classified the subjects as belonging to either the Centre or the Provinces. The [[Governor-General of India|Governor General]] could override any law passed by the Provincial councils. It brought about the concept of "Partial Responsible Government" in the provinces. Provincial subjects were divided into two categories - reserved and transferred. Education, Sanitation, Local self-government, Agriculture and Industries were listed as the transferred subjects. Law, Finance, Revenue and Home affairs were the reserved subjects. The provincial council could decide the budget in so far it related to the transferred subjects. Executive machinery dealing with those subjects was placed under the direct control of provincial legislature. However, the provincial legislature and the ministers did not have any control over the reserved subjects, which came under the Governor and his Executive council.<ref name="Krishnaswamy" /><ref name="tnassembly">{{cite web |url= http://www.assembly.tn.gov.in/history/history.htm|title= The State Legislature - Origin and Evolution|access-date=17 December 2009|publisher= [[Tamil Nadu]] Government}}</ref><ref name="legislatures">{{cite web |url=http://legislativebodiesinindia.gov.in/States/tamilnadu/tamilnadu-w.htm|title= Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly |access-date=17 December 2009|publisher=Government of India}}</ref><ref name="rajaraman1">{{cite book | title=The Justice Party: a historical perspective, 1916-37| last=Rajaraman| first=P. | year=1988| pages=206| publisher=Poompozhil Publishers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GGMmAAAAMAAJ}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em"
|+ Councils under dyarchy
!style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=center valign=top|Council
!style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=center|Term
|-
|First
|17 December 1920 – 11 September 1923
|-
|Second
|26 November 1923 – 7 November 1926
|-
|Third
|November 1926 - October 1930
|-
|Fourth
|October 1930 - November 1934
|-
|Fifth
|November 1934 - January 1937
|}
The Council had a total of 127 members in addition to the [[Ex officio member|'' ex - officio'' members]] of the Governor's Executive Council. Out of the 127, 98 were elected from 61 constituencies of the presidency. The constituencies comprised three arbitrary divisions - 1)communal constituencies such as non-Muhammadan urban, non-Muhammadan rural, non-Brahman urban, [[Islam in India|Mohamaddan]] urban, Mohamaddan rural, Indian Christian, European and Anglo-Indian 2)special constituencies such as landholders, Universities, planters and trade associations (South India Chamber of Commerce & Nattukottai Nagarathar Association) and 3) territorial constituencies. 28 of the constituencies were reserved for non-[[Brahmin|Brahmans]]. 29 members were nominated, out of whom a maximum of 19 would be government officials, 5 would represent the [[Paraiyar]], [[Pallar]], [[Valluvar]], [[Mala (caste)|Mala]], [[Madiga]], [[Sakkiliar]], Thottiyar, Cheruman and [[Pulayar|Holeya]] communities and 1 would represent the "backward tracts". Including the Executive Council members, the total strength of the legislature was 134.<ref name="Krishnaswamy"/><ref name="tnassembly"/><ref name="legislatures"/><ref name="act1919">{{cite book | title=The Govt of India ACT 1919 Rules Thereunder and Govt Reports 1920| first=H.N.|last=Mithra| year=2009| pages=186–199| publisher=BiblioBazaar|isbn=978-1-113-74177-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aw5r4QyRijMC&pg=RA2-PA186}}</ref>

The [[1920 Madras Presidency legislative council election|first election]] for the Madras Legislative Council, under this Act was held in November 1920. The first sitting of the Council was inaugurated by the [[Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn|Duke of Connaught]] on 12 January 1921. In total, five such councils were constituted (in 1920, [[1923 Madras Presidency legislative council election|23]], [[1926 Madras Presidency legislative council election|26]], [[1930 Madras Presidency legislative council election|30]] and [[1934 Madras Presidency legislative council election|34]]). The term of the councils was three years (except for the fourth council which was extended for a year in expectation of abolition of dyarchy ). While the first, second and fourth Councils were controlled by [[Justice Party (India)|Justice Party]] majorities, the third Council was characterised by a fractured verdict and an [[P. Subbarayan#As Chief Minister of Madras Presidency|independent ministry]]. The fifth council also saw a fractured verdict and a minority Justice government.<ref name="tnassembly"/><ref name="rajaraman2"/>

===Provincial autonomy (1937-50)===


{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em"
|+ Breakdown of seats<ref name="tnassembly"/><ref name="Gov">{{cite web |url=http://legislativebodiesinindia.gov.in/States/tamilnadu/tamilnadu-w.htm |title=Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly |access-date=25 November 2009 |publisher=Indian Government}}</ref>
!style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=center valign=top|Group
!style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=center|Seats
|-
|General
|35
|-
|Mohammadans ([[Muslims]])
|7
|-
|Indian Christians
|3
|-
|Europeans
|1
|-
|Nominated by Governor
|8-10
|-
|'''Total'''
|'''54-56'''
|}
The [[Government of India Act 1935|Government of India Act of 1935]] abolished dyarchy and ensured provincial autonomy. It created a [[bicameralism|bicameral]] legislature in the Madras province. The Legislature consisted of the Governor and two Legislative bodies - a [[Tamil Nadu legislative assembly|Legislative Assembly]] and a Legislative Council. The Assembly consisted of 215 members, who were further classified into general members and reserved members representing special communities and interests.<ref name="tnassembly" /><ref name="Christopher Baker"/> The Council consisted of a minimum of 54 and a maximum of 56 members. It was a permanent body not subject to dissolution by the Governor and one-third of its members retired every three years. 46 of its members were elected directly by the electorate while the Governor could nominate 8 to 10 members. Similar to the council, the electable members were further classified into general and reserved members. Specific number of seats were reserved (allocated) to various religious and ethnic groups. The Act provided for a limited adult franchise based on property qualifications.<ref name="low">{{Cite book| last =Low| first =David Anthony| title =Eclipse of empire| publisher =Cambridge University Press| year = 1993| pages = 154| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=QBaYddlnKBEC&pg=PA154 |isbn=978-0-521-45754-5}}</ref> Seven million people, roughly 15% of the Madras people holding land or paying urban taxes were qualified to be the electorate.<ref name="Christopher Baker">{{Citation| last = Christopher Baker| title = The Congress at the 1937 Elections in Madras| journal = Modern Asian Studies| volume = 10| issue = 4| pages = 557–589| year = 1976| jstor = 311763| doi=10.1017/s0026749x00014967| s2cid = 144054002}}</ref> Under this Act, two councils were constituted - the first in [[1937 Madras Presidency legislative council election|1937]] and the second in [[1946 Madras Presidency legislative assembly election|1946]]. Both Councils were controlled by [[Indian National Congress|Congress]] majorities.

===In Republic of India (1950-86)===
{{see also|Vidhan Parishad}}
After India became [[Indian independence movement|independent]] in 1947 and the [[Constitution of India|Indian Constitution]] was adopted in 1950, the Legislative Council continued to be the upper chamber of the legislature of the [[Madras State]] - the successor to Madras Presidency. It continued to be called as the "Madras Legislative Council". The Council was a permanent body and was not subject to dissolution. The length of a member's term was six years and one-third of the members retired every two years. The strength of the Council was not less than 40 or more than one-third of the strength of the Assembly. The following table illustrates how the members of Council were selected:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Proportion
! Method of Selection
|-
| One-sixth (1/6th)
| Nominated by the Governor on the advice of the cabinet. They were supposed to have excelled in fields like arts, science, literature, cooperative movement or social service
|-
| One-third (1/3rd)
| Elected by the members of the Legislative Assembly by [[proportional representation]] using the [[Single Transferable Vote|Single Transferable Vote System]]
|-
| One-third (1/3rd)
| Elected by the members of local self governmental bodies like [[Municipal corporation|corporations]], [[Municipality|municipalities]] and district boards.
|-
| One-twelfth (1/12th)
| Elected by an electorate consisting of electors who have held Graduate degrees for a minimum of three years
|-
| One-twelfth (1/12th)
| Elected by an electorate consisting of teachers of secondary schools, colleges and universities with a minimum experience of three years
|}

The actual strength of the council varied from time to time. During 1952–53, it had a strength of 72. After the formation of [[Andhra State|Andhra]] state on 1 October 1953, its strength came down to 51. In 1956 it decreased to 50 and the next year increased again to 63 - where it remained till the council's abolition. Of those 63, local bodies and the assembly elected 21 each, the teachers and graduates elected 6 each and the remaining 9 were nominated.<ref name="revival"/> The Council could not pass legislation on its own - it had to approve or disapprove the laws passed by the Assembly. In case of conflict between the Council and the Assembly, the will of the later would prevail.<ref name="darpan">{{Citation| title =Public Administration Special| journal = [[Pratiyogita Darpan]] | volume =2| issue = 22| pages = 60| year = 2008| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=UugDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT60| last1 = Darpan | first1 = Pratiyogita }}</ref><ref name="sharma">{{Cite book| last =Sharma| first =B. K.| title =Introduction to the Constitution of India| publisher =PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd| year = 2007| pages = 207–218| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=srDytmFE3KMC&pg=PA207 |isbn=978-81-203-3246-1}}</ref> When Madras state was renamed as [[Tamil Nadu]] in 1968,<ref name="hindu4">{{cite news
| title = C. N. Annadurai: a timeline
| work = [[The Hindu]]
| publisher = [[The Hindu Group]]
| date = 15 September 2009
}}</ref> the name of the council also changed to "Tamil Nadu Legislative Council".

==Abolition==
The legislative council was abolished in 1986 by the [[All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam]] (AIADMK) government of [[M. G. Ramachandran]] (MGR) . MGR had nominated a [[Tamil Cinema|Tamil film]] actress, [[Vennira Aadai Nirmala|''Vennira Aadai'' Nirmala]] (aka A. B. Shanthi) to the Council. Her swearing in ceremony was scheduled for 23 April 1986. Nirmala had earlier declared insolvency and according to Article 102-(1)(c) of the Indian Constitution, an insolvent person can not serve as a member of parliament or state legislature. On 21 April, a lawyer named S. K. Sundaram, filed a public interest writ petition in the [[Madras High Court]] challenging Nirmala's nomination to the Council. MGR loaned Nirmala a sum of Rupees 4,65,000 from ADMK's party funds to pay off her creditors,<ref name="hindu2">{{cite web
| url = http://www.hinduonnet.com/2002/06/14/stories/2002061404130400.htm
| archive-url = https://archive.today/20130125130534/http://www.hinduonnet.com/2002/06/14/stories/2002061404130400.htm
| url-status = usurped
| archive-date = 25 January 2013
| title = Rs. 4.5 lakh-fine slapped on 'Vennira Aadai' Nirmala
| access-date = 23 December 2009
| work = [[The Hindu]]
| publisher = [[The Hindu Group]]
| date = 14 June 2002
}}</ref><ref name="hindu3">{{cite web
| url = http://www.hindu.com/2007/06/06/stories/2007060604680400.htm
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070608000850/http://www.hindu.com/2007/06/06/stories/2007060604680400.htm
| url-status = dead
| archive-date = 8 June 2007
| title = Court imposes Rs. 4.65-lakh fine on Vennira Adai Nirmala
| access-date = 23 December 2009
| work = [[The Hindu]]
| publisher = [[The Hindu Group]]
| date = 6 June 2007
}}</ref> so that her insolvency declaration could be annulled. The same day, Nirmala's lawyer Subramaniam Pichai, was able to persuade judge Ramalingam to set aside her insolvency. He used a provision in the Section 31 of The Presidency Towns Insolvency Act of 1909, which allowed a judge to annul an insolvency retrospectively if all debts had been paid in full. This annulment made Nirmala's nomination valid and the writ petition against it was dismissed. However, Nirmala withdrew her nomination to the council. The Governor of Tamil Nadu, [[Sundar Lal Khurana]] asked MGR to explain how Nirmala's nomination was proposed without proper vetting. This incident caused an embarrassment to MGR. Then a rumor arose that President of the main opposition party and former Chief minister [[M Karunanidhi]], who was not an MLA at that time, planned to enter the legislative council, and trouble the Chief minister from both Houses in the Legislature, as the Chief Minister was a member of the Lower House. Following such unwanted events and miffed with rumors, MGR decided to abolish the council once for all.<ref name="rediff">{{cite web
| url = http://www.rediff.com/news/2006/may/24ptn.htm
| title = TN to get back Upper House
| access-date = 23 December 2009
| work = [[Rediff.com]]
| date = 24 May 2006
}}</ref><ref name="yahoo">{{cite web
| url = http://in.movies.yahoo.com/news-detail.html?news_id=20793
| title = Jayaprada's status as MP in jeopardy
| access-date = 23 December 2009
| author = indiaabroad
| work = [[Yahoo!]]
| date = 4 March 2009
}}</ref><ref name="galatta1">{{cite web
| url = http://www.galattaremovethis.com/community/blog_entry.php?user=randorguy&blogentry_id=5724
| title = Crime Writer's Casebook-ANJALI DEVI CASE-2
| access-date = 23 December 2009
| author = Randor Guy
| author-link = Randor Guy
| work = Galatta
| date = 17 March 2009
}}</ref><ref name="galatta2">{{cite web
| url = http://galattaremovethis.com/community/blog_entry.php?user=randorguy&blogentry_id=5758
| title = Crime writer's casebook- Vennira Aadai Nirmala Case-2
| access-date = 23 December 2009
| author = Randor Guy
| author-link = Randor Guy
| work = Galatta
| date = 26 March 2009
}}</ref><ref name="indiatoday">{{cite book
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=u-YOAQAAIAAJ&q=nirmala
| title = Council Caper
| access-date = 23 December 2009
| author = India Today, Vol 11
| work = [[India Today]]
| publisher = [[Living Media]]
| year = 1986
}}</ref>

On 14 May, a resolution seeking to abolish the council was moved successfully in the legislative assembly. The Tamil Nadu Legislative Council (Abolition) Bill, 1986 was passed by both houses of the Parliament and received the assent of the president on 30 August 1986. The Act came into force on 1 November 1986 and the council was abolished.<ref name="tnassembly"/>

==Revival attempt==
{{see also|List of Council constituencies of Tamil Nadu}}
The [[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam]] (DMK) has so far made three unsuccessful attempts to revive the council. Revival of the Legislative Council was one of the promises included in the election manifesto of [[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam]] (DMK) in the [[2006 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|2006 Assembly elections]]. The DMK won the 2006 assembly election and [[M. Karunanidhi]] became Chief minister. In his inaugural address to the 13th Legislative Assembly delivered on 24 May 2006, Governor [[Surjit Singh Barnala]] said steps will be taken to move the necessary constitutional amendments for reviving the council.<ref name="rediff"/> On 12 April 2010, the Legislative Assembly passed a resolution seeking to revive the Council.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hindu.com/2010/04/13/stories/2010041359680100.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100414041839/http://www.hindu.com/2010/04/13/stories/2010041359680100.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=14 April 2010|title= Assembly votes for Legislative Council |work=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=13 April 2010}}</ref> The DMK's earlier attempts to revive the council, when it was in power during [[1989 Tamil Nadu legislative assembly election|1989–91]] and [[1996 Tamil Nadu legislative assembly election|1996-2001]] were not successful, as it did not possess both the two-thirds majority in the Legislative Assembly and a friendly [[Government of India|union government]] necessary for it to be done.<ref name="dna">{{cite web
| url = http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report_tamil-nadu-to-have-upper-house_1031152
| title = Tamil Nadu to have Upper House
| access-date = 23 December 2009
| author = Arun Ram
| work = [[DNA (newspaper)|Daily News and Analysis]]
| publisher = Diligent Media Corporation
| date = 26 May 2006
}}</ref> On both occasions, the ADMK governments that followed the DMK governments passed counter resolutions to rescind them (in October 1991 and July 2001 respectively).<ref name="revival">{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/article391271.ece|title=Legislative Council had chequered history |last=Ramakrishnan|first=T|work=The Hindu|access-date=8 April 2010}}</ref> The Tamil Nadu Legislative Council Bill, 2010 was approved by the Indian cabinet on 4 May 2010<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Chennai/article421898.ece| title=Cabinet clears State Legislative Council proposal| work=The Hindu| date=4 May 2010| access-date=5 May 2010}}</ref> and was passed by both the houses of the [[Indian Parliament]].<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/article423517.ece| title=Parliament nod for Council Bill| work=The Hindu| date=6 May 2010| access-date=7 May 2010}}</ref> Constituencies for the new house were identified in September 2010.<ref>[http://www.elections.tn.nic.in/tnmlc/dcctno.pdf Delimitation of Council Constituencies (Tamil Nadu), Order 2010] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721175055/http://www.elections.tn.nic.in/tnmlc/dcctno.pdf }}</ref> Work on preparation of electoral rolls for them began in October 2010 and was completed by January 2011.<ref>{{cite news|title= Announcement on electoral roll revision |url=http://www.hindu.com/2010/10/24/stories/2010102454710500.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101028224616/http://www.hindu.com/2010/10/24/stories/2010102454710500.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=28 October 2010|access-date=27 October 2010|newspaper= [[The Hindu]] }}</ref> However, in February 2011, the [[Supreme Court of India]] stayed the elections to the new council, till the petitions challenging its revival could be heard.<ref>{{cite news|title=SC stays TN council elections|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-02-22/chennai/28625017_1_legislative-council-council-elections-petitions|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104213623/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-02-22/chennai/28625017_1_legislative-council-council-elections-petitions|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 November 2012|access-date=23 February 2011|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> In the 2011 Assembly elections, the AIADMK came out with a sweeping majority. The AIADMK government headed by J.Jayalalitha expressed its intention not to revive the council. The government once again passed a counter resolution to withdraw the attempt to revive the council. Ahead of the [[2021 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]], the [[BJP]] has promised revival of the Council in its manifesto.<ref>https://www.bjp.org/u2/Tamil_Nadu_2021_Assembly_Election_BJP-Vision_Document_English.pdf {{Bare URL PDF}}</ref>

==Location==
{{main|Fort St. George (India)}}
[[File:Fort St. George, Chennai 2.jpg|thumb|right|[[Fort St. George (India)|Fort St. George]] where the Tamil Nadu Legislature functioned for 60 years]]
[[File:Senate House Madras.jpg|right|thumb|225px|Senate House, Madras University]]
[[Fort St. George (India)|Fort St. George]] has historically been the seat of the [[Government of Tamil Nadu]] since colonial times. During 1921–37, the Madras Legislative Council met at the council chambers within the fort. Between 14 July 1937 – 21 December 1938, the assembly met at the [[Senate House (University of Madras)|Senate House]] of the [[University of Madras]] and between 27 January 1938 - 26 October 1939 in the Banqueting Hall (later renamed as [[Rajaji Hall]]) in the Government Estate complex at [[Mount Road]]. During 1946–52, it moved back to the Fort St. George. In 1952, the strength of the assembly rose to 375, after the constitution of the first legislative assembly, and it was briefly moved into temporary premises at the government estate complex. This move was made in March 1952, as the existing assembly building only had a seating capacity of 260. Then on 3 May 1952, it moved into the newly constructed assembly building in the same complex. The legislature functioned from the new building (later renamed as [[Kalaivanar Arangam]] during 1952–56. However, with the reorganisation of states and formation of Andhra, the strength came down to 190 and the legislature moved back to Fort St. George in 1956. From December 1956 till January 2010, the Fort remained the home to the legislature .<ref>{{cite web|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-07-22/chennai/27930097_1_balar-arangam-police-station-building|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811081231/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-07-22/chennai/27930097_1_balar-arangam-police-station-building|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 August 2011|title=TN govt's new office complex faces flak|last=Karthikeyan|first=Ajitha |work=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=11 February 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title= From Assembly to theatre |last=S. Muthiah |author-link=S. Muthiah |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.assembly.tn.gov.in/archive/Resumes/review_01assly/ch02_05.pdf|title=A Review of the Madras Legislative Assembly (1952-1957) : Section I, Chapter 2|work=[[Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly]]|access-date=11 February 2010}}</ref> In 2004, during the 12th assembly, the ADMK Government under [[J. Jayalalitha]] made unsuccessful attempts to shift the assembly (the council had been abolished by then), first to the location of Queen Mary's College and later to the [[Anna University]] campus, [[Guindy]]. Both attempts were withdrawn after public opposition.<ref name="tribune1">{{cite web|url=http://www.asiantribune.com/news/2010/01/15/tamil-nadu-assembly-bids-goodbye-fort-st-george-move-new-complex|title=Tamil Nadu Assembly bids goodbye to Fort St George, to move into new complex|last=S|first=Murari|work=Asian Tribune|access-date=11 February 2010}}</ref> During the 13th Assembly, the DMK government led by [[M. Karunanidhi]] proposed a new plan to shift the assembly and the government secretariat to the a [[Tamil Nadu assembly complex|new building]] in the Omandurar Government Estate. In 2007, the German architectural firm GMP International won the design competition to design and construct the new assembly complex. Construction began in 2008 and was completed in 2010. The assembly functioned in the new assembly building during March 2010 - May 2011. In May 2011, the Tamil Nadu legislature was moved back to Fort St. George.<ref name="tribune1"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/article236965.ece|title=State-of-the-art Secretariat draws on Tamil Nadu's democratic traditions |last=Ramakrishnan|first=T|work=The Hindu|access-date=18 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hindu.com/2008/04/19/stories/2008041960610900.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080422173838/http://www.hindu.com/2008/04/19/stories/2008041960610900.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=22 April 2008|title= New Assembly complex to have high-rise building |last=Ramakrishnan |first=T. |work=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=11 February 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/article243990.ece|title=Another milestone in Tamil Nadu's legislative history|last=Ramakrishnan|first=T|work=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=18 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Ramakrishnan|first=T|title=After 16 months, Assembly back at Fort St. George|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/states/tamil-nadu/article2043444.ece|access-date=23 June 2011|newspaper=The Hindu}}</ref>

List of historical locations where the Tamil Nadu Legislative Council has been housed:

{| class="wikitable"
!Duration
!Location
|-
|1921–1937
|Council chambers, [[Fort St. George (India)|Fort St. George]]
|-
|14 July 1937 – 21 December 1938
|[[Senate House (University of Madras)|Senate House]], [[Madras University|Madras University Campus]], [[Chepauk]]
|-
|27 January 1938 – 26 October 1939
|Banqueting Hall ([[Rajaji Hall]]), Government Estate (Omandurar Estate), [[Mount Road]]
|-
|24 May 1946 – 27 March 1952
|Council chambers, Fort St. George
|-
|3 May 1952 – 27 December 1956
|Kalaivanar Arangam, Government Estate (Omandurar Estate)
|-
|29 April 1957 – 30 March 1959
|Assembly Hall, Fort St. George
|-
|20–30 April 1959
|Aranmore Palace, [[Udhagamandalam]] (Ooty)
|-
|31 August 1959 - 1 November 1986
|Assembly Hall, Fort St. George
|}

==Chief Ministers from the Council==
During its existence as the upper chamber of Tamil Nadu Legislature, the Council has been used three to appoint non-members of the legislatures as Chief Minister. The first time this happened was in when [[P. S. Kumaraswamy Raja]] was nominated by governor [[Krishna Kumarsinhji Bhavsinhji]] to the Council so that Kumaraswamy Raja could become chief minister. [[1952 Madras State legislative assembly election#Government formation|1952]], when [[C. Rajagopalachari]] (Rajaji) was nominated by Governor [[Sri Prakasa]] to the Council so that Rajaji could become chief minister.<ref name="hindu1">{{cite web
| url = http://www.hinduonnet.com/2001/05/31/stories/0231000q.htm
| archive-url = https://archive.today/20130103014812/http://www.hinduonnet.com/2001/05/31/stories/0231000q.htm
| url-status = usurped
| archive-date = 3 January 2013
| title = Of Governors and Chief Ministers
| access-date = 17 December 2009
| author = C. V. Gopalakrishnan
| work = [[The Hindu]]
| publisher = [[The Hindu Group]]
| date = 31 May 2001
}}</ref><ref name="T. V. R. Shenoy">{{cite news|title=From Rajaji to Jayalalithaa|author=T. V. R. Shenoy|url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2001/aug/22flip.htm|publisher=Rediff}}</ref> The three time was in [[1967 Madras State legislative assembly election#Government formation|1967]] when [[C. N. Annadurai]] became the chief minister first and then got himself elected to the Council.<ref>{{Citation| last = Pushpa Iyengar| first = Sugata Srinivasaraju| title = Where The Family Heirs Loom| newspaper = Outlook India| url = http://www.outlookindia.com/article.aspx?240629| access-date =16 November 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book| last = Gopal K. Bharghava| first = Shankarlal C. Bhatt | title = Land and people of Indian states and union territories. 25. Tamil Nadu| year = 2005 | publisher = Kalpaz Publications| location = Delhi| pages = 525| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=wyCoMKZmRBoC&q=1967+Tamil+Nadu+election&pg=PA525| isbn = 81-7835-356-3}}</ref>

==Presiding Officers==
{{Politics of Tamil Nadu}}
During 1861–1937, the presiding officer of the Madras Legislative Council was known as the "President of the Council". From its establishment in 1861 till dyarchy was introduced in 1921, the [[Governors of Madras|Governor of Madras]] was also the President of the Council. After dyarchy introduced, the first and second council presidents, [[Sir P. Rajagopalachari|Perungavalur Rajagopalachari]] and [[L. D. Swamikannu Pillai]], were appointed by the Governor himself. The presidents who came after them were chosen by the Council itself. During 1937–86, the presiding officer was called as the "Chairman of the Council".<ref>{{Cite book| last =Johari | first =J. C | title = THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA A Politico-Legal Study| year =2007 | publisher = Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd| pages = 226| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=JDWjAzP0mHEC&pg=PA226|isbn=978-81-207-2654-3}}</ref> The following table lists the presiding officers of the Council.<ref name="rajaraman2">{{cite book | title=The Justice Party: a historical perspective, 1916-37| last=Rajaraman| first=P. | year=1988| pages=212–220| publisher=Poompozhil Publishers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GGMmAAAAMAAJ}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/article391170.ece|title=Legislative Council to be revived: Karunanidhi|work=The Hindu|access-date=5 May 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Naidu|first=R. Janardhanam|author2=K. Ramalingam |author3=V. Subbiah |title=Bharani's Madras handbook|year=1974|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oG8dAAAAMAAJ&q=rama+rao}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldstatesmen.org/India_BrProvinces.htm#Madras|title=List of Governors of Madras, Provinces of British India |work=Worldstatesman|access-date=5 May 2010}}</ref>
{{Infobox official post
|post = Chairman
|title = Chairman of Tamil Nadu Legislative Council
|status = Abolished
|native_name =
|body = Tamil Nadu Legislative Council
|flag = Flag of India.svg
|flagcaption = [[Flag of India]]
|insignia = Seal of Tamil Nadu.jpg
|insigniacaption = [[Emblem of Tamil Nadu]]
|image = MP Sivagnanam 2006 stamp of India.jpg
|imagesize = 180px
|imagecaption = '''Last in office''' '''[[M. P. Sivagnanam]]''' 1976 – 1 November 1988
|style =
|residence =
|termlength = Six years
|formation = 18 February 1861
|abolished = 1 November 1988
|appointer = [[Governor of Tamil Nadu]]
|inaugural = [[William Denison]]
|last = [[M. P. Sivagnanam]]
|website = www.tn.gov.in
}}
{| class="wikitable"
! #
! Name
! Took office
! Left office
! Political party
|-
|colspan="5" align="center" |'''Governors of Madras (1861–1920)'''
|-
| 1
| [[William Denison|William Thomas Denison]]
| 18 February 1861
| 26 November 1863
|
|-
| 2
| Edward Maltby (acting)
| 26 November 1863
| 18 January 1864
|
|-
| 3
| [[William Denison|William Thomas Denison]]
| 18 January 1864
| 27 March 1866
|
|-
| 4
| [[Francis Napier, 10th Lord Napier|Lord Napier]]
| 27 March 1866
| 19 February 1872
|
|-
| 5
| [[Alexander John Arbuthnot]] (acting)
| 19 February 1872
| 15 May 1872
|
|-
| 6
| [[Vere Henry Hobart, Lord Hobart|Lord Hobart]]
| 15 May 1872
| 29 April 1875
|
|-
| 7
| William Rose Robinson (acting)
| 29 April 1875
| 23 November 1875
|
|-
| 8
| [[Richard Temple-Nugent-Brydges-Chandos-Grenville, 3rd Duke of Buckingham and Chandos|Duke of Buckingham and Chandos]]
| 23 November 1875
| 20 December 1880
|
|-
| 9
| William Huddleston (acting)
| 24 May 1881
| 5 November 1881
|
|-
| 10
| [[Mountstuart Elphinstone Grant Duff]]
| 5 November 1881
| 8 December 1886
|
|-
| 11
| [[Robert Bourke, 1st Baron Connemara|Robert Bourke, Baron Connemara]]
| 8 December 1886
| 1 December 1890
|
|-
| 12
| John Henry Garstin
| 1 December 1890
| 23 January 1891
|
|-
| 13
| [[Beilby Lawley, 3rd Baron Wenlock|Bentley Lawley, Baron Wenlock]]
| 23 January 1891
| 18 March 1896
|
|-
| 14
| [[Arthur Elibank Havelock]]
| 18 March 1896
| 28 December 1900
|
|-
| 15
| [[Arthur Russell, 2nd Baron Ampthill|Arthur Oliver Villiers-Russell, Baron Ampthill]]
| 28 December 1900
| 30 April 1904
|
|-
| 16
| James Thompson (acting)
| 30 April 1904
| 13 December 1904
|
|-
| 17
| [[Arthur Russell, 2nd Baron Ampthill|Arthur Oliver Villiers-Russell, Baron Ampthill]]
| 13 December 1904
| 15 February 1906
|
|-
| 18
| Gabriel Stoles (acting)
| 15 February 1906
| 28 March 1906
|
|-
| 19
| [[Arthur Lawley, 6th Baron Wenlock|Arthur Lawley, Baron Wenlock]]
| 28 March 1906
| 3 November 1911
|
|-
| 20
| [[Thomas Gibson-Carmichael, 1st Baron Carmichael|Thomas David Gibson-Carmichael, Baron Carmichael]]
| 3 November 1911
| 30 March 1912
|
|-
| 21
| Sir Murray Hammick (acting)
| 30 March 1912
| 30 October 1912
|
|-
| 22
| [[John Sinclair, 1st Baron Pentland|John Sinclair, Baron Pentland]]
| 30 October 1912
| 29 March 1919
|
|-
| 23
| [[Alexander Cardew|Sir Alexander Gordon Cardew]]
| 29 March 1919
| 10 April 1919
|
|-
| 24
| [[Freeman Freeman-Thomas, 1st Marquess of Willingdon|George Freeman Freeman-Thomas, Baron Willingdon]]
| 10 April 1919
| 12 April 1924
|
|-
|colspan="5" align="center" |'''During dyarchy (1920–1937)'''
|-
| 1
| [[Sir P. Rajagopalachari]]
| 1920
| 1923
|Non-Partisan
|-
| 2
| [[L. D. Swamikannu Pillai]]
| 1923
| September 1925
| [[Justice Party (India)|Justice Party]]
|-
| 3
| [[M. Ratnaswami]]
| September 1925
| 1926
|
|-
| 4
| [[C. V. S. Narasimha Raju]]
| 1926
| 1930
|[[Swaraj Party]]
|-
|5
| [[B. Ramachandra Reddi]]
| 1930
| 1937
|Justice Party
|-
|colspan="5" align="center" |'''During Provincial Autonomy (1937–1946)'''
|-
| 1
| [[U. Rama Rao]]
| 1937
| 1945
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|-
|colspan="5" align="center" |'''In Republic of India (1950–1986)'''
|-
| 1
| [[R. B. Ramakrishna Raju]]
| 1946
| 1952
| Indian National Congress
|-
| 2
| [[P. V. Cherian]]
| 1952
| 20 April 1964
|Indian National Congress
|-
| 3
| [[M. A. Manickavelu Naicker]]
| 1964
| 1970
|Indian National Congress
|-
| 4
| [[C. P. Chitrarasu]]
| 1970
| 1976
|[[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam]]
|-
| 5
| [[M. P. Sivagnanam]]
| 1976
| 1986
|[[Tamil Arasu Kazhagam]]
|}

==See also==
*[[Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly]]
*[[List of chief ministers of Tamil Nadu]]
*[[Governors of Madras]]
*[[List of speakers of the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.assembly.tn.gov.in/history/history.htm The State Legislature - Origin and Evolution]
* [http://www.elections.tn.nic.in/tnmlc.html TN Election Commission page for Council elections]

{{Legislatures of India}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tamil Nadu Legislative Council}}
[[Category:Tamil Nadu Legislative Council| ]]
[[Category:1861 establishments in British India]]
[[Category:Defunct upper houses in India]]

Muslim personal law in India

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List of abolished upper houses

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{{Short description|History of legislature simplification}}
This is a '''list of abolished [[upper house]]s''' of [[bicameral]] legislatures and parliaments at national and lower levels of government. The reasons for abolition include removal of unelected houses, under-representation of ethnic/religious minorities{{Citation needed}}, under-representation of women,{{Citation needed}} [[cost reduction|cost-cutting]] in government expenditure, longer and unlimited terms in office (leading to accusations of [[monarchism]]), and to speed up the process of legislation due to upper house scrutiny.

==Australia==
===Queensland===
The [[Legislative Council of Queensland]] was the upper house of the [[Parliament of Queensland]], and was entirely appointed by the [[Governor of Queensland]].

The appointed membership, along with the Council's opposition to many of the reform measures of the Ryan Labor Government which was elected in 1915, resulted in the government formulating a policy to abolish the Council, a proposal continually rejected by Council Members, and defeated in a 1917 referendum.

After the Labor Government of [[Ted Theodore]] had Acting Governor William Lennon appoint 14 Labor Members to the Council, giving the Government a majority in the Upper House, the Legislative Council sat for the last time on 27 October 1921, the day after it voted itself out of existence.

All other Australian states continue to have a bicameral system.

==Canada==
===Provincial-level===
Some [[Canada|Canadian provinces]] once possessed upper houses, but abolished them to adopt [[unicameral]] systems. [[Dominion of Newfoundland|Newfoundland]] had a [[Legislative Council]] prior to joining [[Canada]], as did Ontario when it was [[Upper Canada]]. Newfoundland has the power to re-establish its upper house, the Legislative Council, pursuant to Term 14 (2) of the Terms of Union.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.exec.gov.nl.ca/royalcomm/resources/nf_act.htm |title=Newfoundland Act - Royal Commission on Renewing and Strengthening Our Place in Canada}}</ref> Manitoba had an upper chamber until it was abolished in 1876, New Brunswick's upper chamber was abolished in 1892, Prince Edward Island's upper chamber was abolished in 1893, Nova Scotia's upper chamber was abolished in 1928 and Québec's [[Legislative Council of Quebec|upper chamber]] was abolished in 1968.<ref>[http://www.parl.gc.ca/procedure-book-livre/Document.aspx?Language=E&Mode=1&sbdid=73CC891E-0676-4773-850B-CCDCB472AD8C&sbpid=BE842475-5632-4969-835B-FC015CE50169#C177CB45-8B49-41E4-9D0E-6E66706BB58F ''House of Commons Procedure and Practice, Second Edition''], Audrey O’Brien and Marc Bosc, 2009</ref>

==Denmark==
The [[Landstinget]] was the upper house of the legislature of [[Denmark]] from 1849 until 1953. It was abolished in the [[1953 Danish constitutional and electoral age referendum|1953 referendum]] when the new constitution was approved.

==Estonia==
According to the [[Constitution of Estonia#Third Constitution (de facto 1938–1940, de jure 1938–1992)|1938 Constitution]], the [[Riigikogu]] had two chambers, which replaced the unicameral system. The lower chamber was called Riigivolikogu and the upper chamber was named Riiginõukogu. Both chambers were disbanded in 1940, following the [[occupation of the Baltic States|Soviet occupation]], and rigged<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070930031407/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,764407,00.html Justice in The Baltic] at Time magazine on Monday, August 19, 1940</ref> elections for only the lower chamber Riigivolikogu were held. According to the 1992 [[Constitution of Estonia]], the parliament is once again unicameral.<ref>[http://www.riigikogu.ee/index.php?id=34614 The legislative bodies of the Republic of Estonia] (in Estonian)</ref>

==India==
===State-level===
The [[State Legislative Council (India)|State Legislative Council]] or Vidhan Parishad is the upper house of the [[State Legislature (India)|state legislature]] in India. The states of [[Assam]], [[Bombay State|Bombay]], [[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|Jammu and Kashmir]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[West Bengal]] have abolished the Vidhan Parishad in their legislatures. The Vidhan Parishad of [[Andhra Pradesh]] was abolished in 1985 but revived again in 2007.<ref name="A">{{cite web |title=Andhra Pradesh Legislative Council History |url=https://legislativebodiesinindia.nic.in/States/Andhra%20pradesh/andhracouncil-w.htm |publisher=National Informatics Centre |access-date=2010-09-03}}</ref>

==Sweden==
The [[Första kammaren]] was the upper house of the legislature of [[Sweden]] from 1866 to 1970 until an amendment was made to the 1809 Instrument of Government in the 1970 general election.

==New Zealand==
The (appointed) [[New Zealand Legislative Council]] was abolished in 1951.

==United States==
===State-level===
[[Nebraska]] is the only state in the United States to have a [[Nebraska Legislature|unicameral legislature]], which it achieved when it abolished its lower house instead of the upper house in 1934. For this reason, state legislators in Nebraska are sometimes called "senators", as the [[Nebraska State Senate]] has been the sole house of the state legislature since the [[Nebraska State House of Representatives]] permanently dissolved in 1937. During the governorship of [[Jesse Ventura]] in [[Minnesota]], he called for the state to have a unicameral legislature, but these plans never materialized.

==Other countries==
{{See also|Senate#Defunct and unestablished senates}}

[[Costa Rica]] (1847-1871 and 1919), Four states of [[Brazil]]: [[Bahia]], [[Ceará]], [[Pernambuco]], [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]] (1930), [[Control Yuan|Republic of China (Taiwan)]] (1993), [[Chamber of Counties of Croatia|Croatia]] (2001), [[Greek Senate|Greece]] (1935), [[Hungary]], [[House of Councillors of Korea|South Korea]] (1960), [[Senate of the Republic of Peru|Peru]] (1992), [[Senate (Portugal)|Portugal]] (1926), [[Senate of the Republic (Turkey)|Turkey]] (1980), [[Venezuelan Senate|Venezuela]] (1999), and [[Mauritanian Senate|Mauritania]] (2017) once possessed upper houses but abolished them to adopt [[unicameral]] systems.

In October 2013, a [[Thirty-second Amendment of the Constitution Bill 2013|constitutional referendum]] in the [[Republic of Ireland]] proposed the establishment a unicameral system by abolishing [[Seanad Éireann]], the upper house of parliament.<ref name="it1417902">{{cite news |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/politics/government-publishes-seanad-abolition-referendum-details-1.1417902 |title=Government publishes Seanad abolition referendum details |last=Burke Kennedy |first=Eoin |work=[[The Irish Times]] |access-date=5 June 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.oireachtas.ie/en/bills/bill/2013/63/ |title=Thirty-second Amendment of the Constitution (Abolition of Seanad Éireann) Bill 2013 |work=Bills 1992–2013 |publisher=Oireachtas |access-date=9 July 2013}}</ref> The proposal was narrowly rejected by a margin of 51.7% against vs. 48.3% in favour.<ref>{{cite news |last1=McGee |first1=Harry |last2=Carroll |first2=Steven |title=Seanad to be retained after Government loses referendum |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/politics/seanad-to-be-retained-after-government-loses-referendum-1.1551657 |access-date=5 October 2013 |newspaper=Irish Times }}</ref>

==See also==
* [[List of abolished lower houses]]
* [[Unicameralism]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{National upper houses}}

[[Category:Defunct upper houses| ]]
[[Category:Legislatures-related lists]]
[[Category:Upper houses of country subdivisions]]

1968 Indian Rajya Sabha elections

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#REDIRECT [[1968 Rajya Sabha elections]]

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Burma Campaign

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#REDIRECT [[Burma campaign]]

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Bharatpedia:Requested articles/requests

2021-05-30T09:21:02Z

Insta Pedia:

Hi Bharatpedia i have you request to create Pratik thete thete page on your website
*[[Ariyan Mehedi]]
*[[Aditya Belnekar]]

==Import==
''Please list articles to be imported from Wikipedia''
===Simple Wikipedia===
*[[Zeus]]
*[[Hercules]]
*[[Meitei philosophy]]
*[[Apokpa Marup]]
*[[Classes of deities in Meitei religion]]
*[[Hera]]
*[[Umang Lai]]
*[[Apokpa]]
*[[Imung Lai]]
*[[Incarnations of Nongthang Leima]]
*[[List of rulers of Moirang kingdom]]
*[[Siren]]
*[[Nymph]]
*[[Shija Laioibi]]
*[[Cheitharol Kumbaba]]
*[[Rulers of Ancient Manipur before Nongta Lailen Pakhangpa]]
*[[Potloi (costume)]]
*[[Potloi]]
*[[Meitei wedding]]
*[[Manipuri Vaishnavism]]
*[[Dionysus]]
*[[Hephaestus]]
*[[Dances of Manipur]]
*[[Imphal 1944]]
*[[Japan Landa Imphal]]
*[[Classical Meitei]]
*[[Manipuri dance]]
*[[Names of the Sun God in Meitei religion]]
*[[Names of the Supreme God in Meitei religion]]
*[[Thangjing Hill]]
*[[Nongmaiching Hill]]
*[[Khamnung]]
*[[Lai Lamlen]]
*[[Mount Koubru]]
*[[Pakhangpa Laihui]]
*[[Achilles]]
*[[Meitei scriptures]]
*[[Nongshapa Laihui]]
*[[Sanamahi Laihui]]
*[[Eyek Leima]]
*[[Marjing]]
*[[Panthoibi]]
*[[Mangang Luwang Khuman]]
*[[Khuman Khamba]]
*[[Moirang Thoibi]]
*[[Khamba Thoibi]]
*[[Nongthang Leima]]
*[[Kuranganayani]]
*[[Vishnu]]
*[[Durga]]
* [[Athena]]
* [[Heracles]]
* [[Ngaleima]]
* [[Thumleima]]
* [[Phouoibi]]
* [[Akongjamba]]
* [[Khamnu]]
* [[Nongban]]
* [[Kadeng Thangjahanba]]
* [[Tonu Laijinglembi]]
* [[Khuyol Haoba]]
* [[Moirang Shayon]]
* [[Henjunaha]]
* [[Moirang Kangleirol]]
* [[Panthoibi Khongul]]
* [[Khongjomnubi Nongarol]]
* [[Konthoujam Nongarol]]
* [[Poireiton Khunthok]]
* [[Poireiton]]
* [[Prometheus]]
* [[Leithak Leikharol]]
* [[Korouhanba]]
* [[Kronus]]
* [[Taoroinai]]
* [[Hydra]]
* [[Yumjao Leima]]
* [[Laikhurembi]]
* [[Lainaotabi]]
* [[Nongban Pombi Luwaoba]]
* [[Tharon]]
* [[Ancient Moirang]]
* [[Ancient Greece]]
* [[Khwairakpa Erel]]
* [[Puya Mei Thaba]]
* [[Khamba Thoibi Jagoi]]
* [[Samadon Ayangba]]
* [[Leima Jagoi]]
* [[Maibi Jagoi]]
* [[Panthoibi Jagoi]]
* [[Thougal Jagoi]]
* [[Laiching Jagoi]]
* [[Leisem Jagoi]]
* [[Laihou Jagoi]]
* [[Chukpharon Jagoi]]
* [[Haoreima]]
* [[Harmonia]]
* [[Hiyang Tannaba]]
* [[Hiyang Hiren]]
* [[Oinam family]]
* [[Meitei people]]
* [[Khamlangba]]
* [[Loyalakpa]]
* [[Khuman Kangleirol]]
* [[Khumanlol]]
* [[Ningthourol Lambuba]]
* [[Helloi]]
* [[Helios]]
* [[Khuman Leipaak]]
* [[Khuman Pokpa]]
* [[Moirang Ningthourol Lambuba]]
* [[Khoriphaba]]
* [[Nongda Lairen Pakhangba]]
* [[Phouoibi Waron]]
* [[Chada Laihui]]
* [[Toreirol Lambuba]]
* [[Tutenglon]]
* [[Tutankhamen]]
* [[Hijan Hirao]]
* [[Konthoujam Tampha Lairembi]]
* [[Pureiromba]]
* [[Panam Ningthou]]
* [[Leishemlon]]
* [[Sanamahi Kachin]]
* [[Imoinu]]
* [[Incarnations of Leimarel Sidabi]]
* [[Mongba Hanba]]
* [[Lamabam Kamal]]
* [[Sandrembi Chaisra]]
* [[Uchek Langmeidong]]
* [[Thongalel]]
* [[Sanamahi]]
* [[Nongpok Ningthou]]
* [[Wangbren]]
* [[Thangjing]]
* [[Lainingthou Koubru]]
* [[Koiren Leima]]
* [[Kao Phaba]]
* [[Khoirentak tiger]]
* [[Puya (Meitei texts)]]
* [[Ancient Meitei language]]
* [[Meitei script]]
* [[Pisatao]]
* [[Khamba (disambiguation)]]
* [[Khuman]]
* [[Moirang]]
* [[Moirang (disambiguation)]]
* [[Meitei]]
* [[Meetei]]
* [[Manipuri]]
* [[Greek]]
* [[Lainingthou]]
* [[Lairembi]]
* [[Thongak Lairembi]]
* [[Hades]]
* [[Persephone]]
* [[Waikhomia hira]]
* [[Thangjam Asteroid]]
* [[Asteroid]]
* [[Umang Lai sacred groves]]
* [[Kounu]]
* [[Lai Haraoba]]
* [[Numit Kappa]]
* [[Lam Lai]]
* [[Hingchabi]]
* [[List of creatures in Meitei folklore]]
* [[List of figures in Greek mythology]]
* [[Greek mythology]]
* [[List of Meitei folktales]]
* [[New Folktales of Manipur]]
* [[James Oinam]]
* [[The Tales of Kanglei Throne]]
* [[The Coils of Pakhangba: A Cultural History of Meeteis]]
* [[Meitei temples]]
* [[Meitei architecture]]
* [[Nottingham Castle]]
* [[Prehistory of Manipur]]
* [[Maibam Lokpa Ching]]
* [[Khongjom War Memorial Complex]]
* [[Singju festival]]
* [[Chakhao]]
* [[Bora (Meitei dish)]]
* [[Kangshubi]]
* [[Kabok]]
* [[Battle of Imphal]]
* [[Manipur Horse Riding and Polo Association]]
* [[Manipur International Polo]]
* [[Khuman dynasty]]
* [[Wounded Land: Politics and Identity in Modern Manipur]]
* [[My Three Years in Manipur and Escape from the Recent Mutiny]]
* [[Stonehenge of Manipur]]
* [[Manipur of the Mahabharata]]
* [[Sanamahists]]
* [[Keibu Keioiba]]
* [[Stories from the Funga Wari (Naharol Khorjei Thaugallup Jaribon)]]
* [[Stories from Fungawari Singbul]]
* [[Chothe Thangwai Pakhangba]]
* [[Heinu Leima]]
* [[Phou-oibi, the rice goddess]]
* [[Symbols of Sanamahism]]
* [[Konthoujam Lairembi gi Khubam]]
* [[Emblem of Manipur]]
* [[Flag of Kangleipak]]
* [[Coat of arms of Manipur]]
* [[Flag of Manipur]]
* [[Karang Island]]
* [[Ancient Meitei Science and Technology]]
* [[Khamnung Kikoi Louonbi]]
* [[The Pleasing of the Gods: Meitei Lai Haraoba]]
* [[The Meitheis]]
* [[Origin of Polo]]
* [[Polo]]
* [[Ebudhou Thangjing Temple]]
* [[Sanamahi Temple]]
* [[Sanamahi Kiyong Temple]]
* [[Meitei literature]]
* [[The Coils of Pakhangba: A Culture History of Meeteis]]
===English Wikipedia===
* [[Meitei inscriptions]]
* [[History of Manipur]]
*[[Sunil Butolia]]