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Vignesh Kannan

2026-05-07T09:30:40Z

Indianeagle1: new

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2026}}
{{about|Indian politician|the Indian cricketer|Kannan Vignesh}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Vignesh Kannan
| office = Member of the [[Puducherry Legislative Assembly]]
| constituency = [[Raj Bhavan Assembly constituency|Raj Bhavan]]
| predecessor = K. Lakshminarayanan
| term_start = 2026
| party = [[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam]]
| profession = Politician
}}
'''Vignesh Kannan''' is an Indian politician from [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]]. He is a member of the [[Puducherry Legislative Assembly]] from [[Raj Bhavan Assembly constituency|Raj Bhavan]] representing the [[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vignesh Kannan(DMK):Constituency- RAJ BHAVAN(PUDUCHERRY) - Affidavit Information of Candidate: |url=https://www.myneta.info/Puducherry2026/candidate.php?candidate_id=307 |access-date=2026-05-07 |website=www.myneta.info}}</ref>

== Political career ==
Kannan won the [[Raj Bhavan Assembly constituency|Raj Bhavan]] seat in the [[2026 Puducherry Legislative Assembly election]] as a candidate of the [[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam]]. He received 7,304 votes and defeated V. P. Ramalingame of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] by a margin of 287 votes.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2026-05-04 |title=Raj Bhavan election results 2026: DMK's Vignesh Kannan defeats BJP's V P Ramalingame by 287 votes |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/raj-bhavan-election-results-2026/articleshow/130577708.cms |access-date=2026-05-07 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-05-04 |title=Raj Bhavan (Puducherry) Assembly Election Result 2026: Vignesh Kannan of DMK Wins |url=https://indianexpress.com/elections/raj-bhavan-election-result-live-updates-puducherry-assembly-election-results-winner-10668762/ |access-date=2026-05-07 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kannan, Vignesh}}

[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam politicians]]
[[Category:Members of the Puducherry Legislative Assembly]]
[[Category:Pondicherry MLAs 2026–2031]]

{{India-politician-stub}}

Samarth-class patrol vessel

2026-05-06T14:43:22Z

Indianeagle1:

{{short description|Class of Indian Coast Guard patrol vessels}}
{{italic title|string=Samarth}}{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2019}}
{{Infobox ship
| sclass =
|section1={{Infobox ship/image
| image = ICGS Sujeete (19), Samarth (11), Sachet (18), Saksham (22) and Vikram (33) sailing in unison during coast guard exercise.jpg
| image_caption = ''Sujeete ''(19), ''Samarth ''(11), ''Sachet ''(18), ''Saksham ''(22) and ''Vikram ''(33) sailing in unison during coast guard exercise
}}

|section2={{Infobox ship/class overview
| name = ''Samarth'' class
| builders = [[Goa Shipyard]]
| operators = [[Indian Coast Guard]]
| class_before = {{sclass|Vishwast|offshore patrol vessel|4}}
| class_after = {{sclass|Vikram|offshore patrol vessel|4||2017}}
| subclasses =
| cost =
| built_range = 2012–2019
| in_service_range =
| in_commission_range = 2015–Present
| total_ships_building =
| total_ships_planned = 11<ref name="janes63503">{{cite web |url=http://www.janes.com/article/63503/goa-shipyard-set-to-build-five-new-opvs-for-indian-coast-guard |title=Goa Shipyard set to build five new OPVs for Indian Coast Guard |first=Mrityunjoy |last=Mazumdar |website=IHS Jane's Navy International |date=7 September 2016 |access-date=9 September 2016 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908165615/http://www.janes.com/article/63503/goa-shipyard-set-to-build-five-new-opvs-for-indian-coast-guard |archivedate=8 September 2016 }}</ref>
| total_ships_completed = 11<ref name="suj_deliver"/>
| total_ships_canceled =
| total_ships_active = 11
| total_ships_laid_up =
| total_ships_lost =
| total_ships_retired =
| total_ships_scrapped =
| total_ships_preserved =
}}

|section3={{Infobox ship/characteristics
| hide_header =
| header_caption =
| type = [[Patrol boat]]
| tonnage =
| displacement = {{Convert|2450|t|lk=on|abbr=on}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.indiancoastguard.gov.in/content/294_3_Ships.aspx# |title=Surface Units |website=Indian Coast Guard |accessdate=29 July 2017 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170729175758/http://www.indiancoastguard.gov.in/content/294_3_Ships.aspx |archivedate=29 July 2017 }}</ref>
| length = {{Convert|105|m|ftin|abbr=on}}
| beam = {{Convert|13.6|m|ftin|abbr=on}}
| height =
| draught = {{Convert|6.2|m|ftin|abbr=on}}
| draft =
| depth =
| hold_depth =
| decks =
| power = 2 × [[MTU Friedrichshafen|MTU]] 20V 8000 M71L engines rated at {{convert|9,100|kW|abbr=on}}<ref name="janes63503"/>
| propulsion = 2 x [[controllable pitch propellers]]
| speed = {{Convert|23|kn}}
| range = {{Convert|6000|nmi|abbr=on}} at {{Convert|12|kn|abbr=on}}
| endurance = 20 days
| boats = 4 boats<ref>{{cite web|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/indian-coast-guard-patrol-vessel-2-interceptor-boats-commissioned/articleshow/75752488.cms|title=Indian Coast Guard patrol vessel, 2 interceptor boats commissioned|publisher=Economic Times|accessdate=15 May 2020}}</ref>
| troops =
| complement = 18 officers & 108 sailors
| time_to_activate =
| sensors =
| EW =
| armament = *1 × 30 mm [[CRN 91 Naval Gun]]
*2 × 12.7 mm HMG
| armour =
| aircraft = 2 × [[HAL Dhruv]]
| aircraft_facilities =
| notes =
}}
}}
The '''''Samarth''-class offshore patrol vessel''' are a series of eleven [[offshore patrol vessel]]s being built by [[Goa Shipyard Limited]] for the [[Indian Coast Guard]]. The construction of ''Samarth'' class was motivated by a desire to triple the Coast Guard assets in the aftermath of [[2008 Mumbai attacks]]. They are an improvement over the earlier {{sclass|Sankalp|offshore patrol vessel|4}}, with a larger beam and more powerful engines.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mazumdar|first1=Mrityunjoy|title=India's 20/20 vision: Coastguard joins the premier league|journal=IHS Jane's Navy International|date=1 May 2012|volume=117|issue=4|publisher=[[Jane's Information Group]]|location=Coulsdon|issn=2048-3457}}</ref><ref name="jfs-1617">{{cite book|editor1-last=Saunders|editor1-first=Stephen|editor1-mask=Commodore Stephen Saunders|title=Jane's Fighting Ships 2016–2017|date=2016|publisher=[[Jane's Information Group]]|location=Coulsdon|isbn=978-0710631855|page=364|edition=119th|chapter=India}}</ref> The ships are being constructed in two batches—a batch of six ordered in May 2012 that was completed in December 2017 and a follow-on batch of five ordered in August 2016.

==History==
Following the 2008 Mumbai attacks, the [[Government of India|Indian Government]] initiated a program to triple the Indian Coast Guard force, assets and infrastructure.<ref name="DefNow">{{cite web |url=http://www.defencenow.com/news/678/goa-shipyard-signs-contract-to-build-six-vessels-for-indian-coast-guard.html |title=Goa Shipyard Signs Contract to Build Six Vessels for Indian Coast Guard |website=Defence Now |year=2012 |accessdate=19 May 2014 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604195236/http://www.defencenow.com/news/678/goa-shipyard-signs-contract-to-build-six-vessels-for-indian-coast-guard.html |archivedate=4 June 2016}}</ref> Thereafter in accordance with it a 'request for information' for acquisition of six offshore patrol vessels was issued by the [[Ministry of Defence (India)|Ministry of Defence]] on 1 April 2010.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://2.imimg.com/data2/QX/TC/HTT-240/240_2010-04-01_213181.pdf |title=Request for information |website=Indian Ministry of Defence |date=1 April 2010 |accessdate=19 May 2014}}</ref> After technical evaluation and commercial bids a contract worth $400 million or Rs. 1800 crore was signed with GSL on 9 May 2012 to build six vessels.<ref name="DefNow"/>

On 14 May 2012 GSL did the first steel cutting in its shipyard,<ref name="Cutting">{{cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/Goa-Shipyard-Ltd-cuts-steel-for-advanced-offshore-patrol-vessels/articleshow/13142832.cms |title=Goa Shipyard Ltd cuts steel for advanced offshore patrol vessels |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |date=15 May 2012 |accessdate=19 May 2014 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120515113223/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/Goa-Shipyard-Ltd-cuts-steel-for-advanced-offshore-patrol-vessels/articleshow/13142832.cms |archivedate=15 May 2012 }}</ref> and the keel-laying ceremony of the first of the new class of offshore patrol vessels was held at [[Vasco da Gama, Goa|Vasco da Gama]] on 28 September 2012.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/Keel-laying-ceremony-of-offshore-patrol-vessels-at-Goa-Shipyard-Ltd/articleshow/16607472.cms |title=Keel-laying ceremony of offshore patrol vessels at Goa Shipyard Ltd |newspaper=The Times of India |date=30 September 2012 |accessdate=19 May 2014 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170203161134/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/Keel-laying-ceremony-of-offshore-patrol-vessels-at-Goa-Shipyard-Ltd/articleshow/16607472.cms |archivedate=3 February 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://worldmaritimenews.com/archives/113913/india-goa-shipyard-lays-keel-for-coast-guards-first-opv/ |title=India: Goa Shipyard Lays Keel for Coast Guard's First OPV |website=World Maritime News |date=1 October 2012 |accessdate=19 May 2014 |url-status=usurped |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140519130839/http://worldmaritimenews.com/archives/113913/india-goa-shipyard-lays-keel-for-coast-guards-first-opv/ |archivedate=19 May 2014 }}</ref> The second and third vessels were laid down 28 January and 11 October 2013, and the fourth on 9 January 2014.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/Keel-laid-at-Goa-Shipyard-Ltd-for-Coast-Guards-4th-offshore-patrol-vessels/articleshow/28609660.cms |title=Keel laid at Goa Shipyard Ltd for Coast Guard's 4th offshore patrol |newspaper=The Times of India |date=10 January 2014 |accessdate=19 May 2014 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161231184514/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/Keel-laid-at-Goa-Shipyard-Ltd-for-Coast-Guards-4th-offshore-patrol-vessels/articleshow/28609660.cms |archivedate=31 December 2016 }}</ref> The first vessel was commissioned on 10 November 2015 and all six will be commissioned by the end of 2017.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/Coast-Guards-IG-reviews-projects-at-Goa-Shipyard/articleshow/32452016.cms |title=Coast Guard's IG reviews projects at Goa Shipyard |newspaper=The Times of India |date=22 March 2014 |accessdate=19 May 2014 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140325075128/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/Coast-Guards-IG-reviews-projects-at-Goa-Shipyard/articleshow/32452016.cms |archivedate=25 March 2014 }}</ref>

In August 2016, a follow-on consisting of five patrol vessels was placed for INR 20 billion.<ref name="janes63503"/> The follow-on vessels will have a greater indigenous content of 70% compared to the 62% of the previous batch.<ref name="jni-22dec17">{{cite news|last1=Mazumdar|first1=Mrityunjoy|title=Indian Coast Guard commissions last of six Samarth-class OPVs|url=http://www.janes.com/article/76617/indian-coast-guard-commissions-last-of-six-samarth-class-opvs|work=Jane's Navy International|date=21 December 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171222104823/http://www.janes.com/article/76617/indian-coast-guard-commissions-last-of-six-samarth-class-opvs|archivedate=22 December 2017}}</ref>

''Sachet'' the first OPV was launched on 21 February 2019<ref name="icgsachet"/> and commissioned on 15 May 2020 by Defence Minister [[Rajnath Singh]] by video conferencing.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/indian-coast-guard-patrol-vessel-2-interceptor-boats-commissioned/articleshow/75752488.cms|title=Indian Coast Guard patrol vessel, 2 interceptor boats commissioned|publisher=Economic Times|accessdate=15 May 2020}}</ref>

''Sujeet'' the second OPV from the second batch was handed to [[Indian Coast Guard]] on 12 November 2020 and later commissioned on 15 December 2020.<ref name="suj_deliver">{{cite web|url=http://www.uniindia.com/gsl-makes-another-ahead-of-schedule-delivery-of-new-class-opv/west/news/2232925.html|title=GSL makes another ahead of schedule delivery of new class OPV|publisher=UNI India|date=12 November 2020}}</ref>

''Sajag'' the third OPV was delivered ahead of time on 16 March 2021. The ship was commissioned by [[National Security Advisor (India)|NSA]] [[Ajit Doval]] on May 29, 2021.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.psuconnect.in/news/gsl-makes-another-ahead-of-scheduled-delivery-of-new-class-opv/27002|title=GSL makes another ahead of scheduled delivery of new class OPV PSU NEWS|publisher=PSUConnect|date=16 March 2021}}</ref><ref name="sajag-comm">{{cite web|url=https://www.aninews.in/news/national/general-news/nsa-doval-to-commission-indian-coast-guards-ship-sajag-today20210529091157/|title=NSA Doval to commission Indian Coast Guard's ship Sajag today|publisher=ANI|date=2021-05-29}}</ref>

''Sarthak'' was delivered ahead of schedule and was commissioned in the [[Indian Coast Guard]] on 28 October, 2021.<ref name="sarthak-comm"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/gsl-delivers-patrol-vessel-to-coast-guard-ahead-of-schedule/articleshow/86717709.cms|title=GSL delivers patrol vessel to Coast Guard ahead of schedule|publisher=Times Of India|date=2021-10-03}}</ref>

''Saksham'' the last ship of the project was delivered ahead of schedule on 8 February, 2022. All 5 ships of the Fleet 2 were delivered ahead of schedule.<ref name="saksham_delivered">{{cite web|url=https://www.psuconnect.in/news/gsl-delivers-5th-and-last-vessel-of-5-cgopv-project/31231|title=GSL delivers 5th and last vessel of 5 CGOPV Project|publisher=PSU Connect|date=2022-02-08}}</ref>
==Description==
The class is {{convert|105|m|ftin}} long with a [[Displacement (ship)|displacement]] of 2,350 tonnes. Features include Integrated Bridge System, Integrated Machinery Control System, Power Management System and High Power External Fire Fighting System. They are designed to carry one twin engine Light Helicopter and five high speed boats including two [[Palfinger Marine|Palfinger]]<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://english.mathrubhumi.com/news/india/shoor-adds-teeth-to-coast-guard%25E2%2580%2599s-policing-patrolling-ops-english-news-1.987348 |title=Shoor adds teeth to Coast Guard’s policing, patrolling ops |newspaper=[[Mathrubhumi]] |date=11 April 2016 |access-date=11 April 2016 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160415141721/http://english.mathrubhumi.com/news/india/shoor-adds-teeth-to-coast-guard%E2%80%99s-policing-patrolling-ops-english-news-1.987348 |archivedate=15 April 2016 }}</ref> QRIBs for fast boarding operations, search and rescue, law enforcement and maritime patrol. The class is also capable of carrying pollution response equipment to combat oil spill contamination at sea.<ref name="ToI51782844">{{Cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Indian-Coast-Guard-offshore-patrol-vessel-Shoor-commissioned/articleshow/51782844.cms |title=Indian Coast Guard offshore patrol vessel Shoor commissioned |first=Narayan |last=Namboodiri |date=11 April 2016 |newspaper=The Times of India |access-date=11 April 2016 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412201754/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Indian-Coast-Guard-offshore-patrol-vessel-Shoor-commissioned/articleshow/51782844.cms |archivedate=12 April 2016 }}</ref>

== Service history ==
On 17 July 2024, the Indian Coast Guard carried out a rescue operation of the Indian fishing boat ''Aashni''. The boat, with 11 crew and around {{convert|80|nmi}} from [[Kochi]], [[Kerala]], faced heavy rain and challenging weather conditions. Due to loss of propulsion and flooding from a hull rupture close to the [[keel]], the vessel was in a serious situation. A [[Dornier 228]] surveillance aircraft of the ICG located the vessel on the night of 16 July 2024. ICGS ''Saksham'' was immediately diverted towards its location after receiving an order from the ICG District Headquarters No 4 (Kerala & Mahe). Eventually, ICGS ''Abhinav'', an {{sclass|Aadesh|patrol vessel|1}}, was also deployed along with a [[HAL Dhruv]] helicopter. The technical team from the ICG assisted in the de-flooding operations and rescued the crew members and recovered the distressed the vessel. After the culmination of the operation, the boat was handed over to the Fisheries Department.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-17 |title=ICG rescues stranded Indian Fishing Boat, with 11 people onboard, off Kerala Coast |url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleseDetailm.aspx?PRID=2033895 |access-date=2024-07-19 |website=Press Information Bureau}}</ref>

On 19 July 2024, Maritime Rescue Coordination Center (MRCC) [[Mumbai]] of ICG received distress call from container carrier {{MV|Maersk Frankfurt}} about {{cvt|50|nmi}} off Karwar about a major fire onboard. Immediately, {{ship|ICGS|Sachet||2}}, ''Sujeet'' and {{ICGS|Samrat||2}} along with a Dornier 228 aircraft and a HAL Dhruv helicopter were deployed by Coast Guard District HQ No 11 (Goa) for aerial surveillance operations. [[Samudra-class pollution control vessel|ICGS ''Samudra Prahari'']] also provided support. As of 20 July, after 12 hours of effort, the fire in the front section of the ship was suppressed but the fire in the midship section was ablaze. The ICG was preparing for the provision of dry chemical powder (DCP) bags and balls to support firefighting operations.<ref>{{Cite news |title=12 hours on, Indian Coast Guard ships battle fire onboard Maersk Frankfurt vessel in Arabian Sea |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/12-hours-on-indian-coast-guard-ships-battle-fire-onboard-maersk-frankfurt-vessel-in-arabian-sea/articleshow/111885070.cms |access-date=2024-07-20 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-20 |title=ICG ships fight fire on cargo vessel for over 12 hours near Karwar |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/business/defence-icg-ships-fight-fire-on-cargo-vessel-for-over-12-hours-near-karwar-3559402/ |access-date=2024-07-20 |website=Financialexpress |language=en}}</ref> As of 21 July, after 24 hours of distress call, the ship was {{cvt|17|nmi}} off Karwar and the ICG was battling smoke and small fires onboard the container ship. The ICG decided to use DCP to douse the fire. One crew member died in the incident. The cause of the fire was expected to be a short circuit after which the fire spread to the cargo classified as International Maritime Dangerous Goods (IMDG) that was on board, according to a report. The ship was en route from [[Mundra Port]], India to the [[Port of Colombo]], Sri Lanka.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-07-21 |title=Container vessel Maersk Frankfurt still on fire: 1 crew member dead |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/container-vessel-maersk-frankfurt-still-on-fire-1-crew-member-dead/articleshow/111892009.cms |access-date=2024-07-21 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> On 22 July, ICG's Deputy Inspector General Bhatia confirmed that the fire was under control after using {{cvt|150|kg}} of DCP bags deployed from helicopters. There were no fire in the dangerous goods section of the ship. Small fires were still burning, but four vessels of ICG were near the ship and helicopters were taking routine visits. The ship was out of danger. No oil pollution was reported but adequate preparation was taken and the ICG asked Karnataka, Goa and Kerala to activate the pollution response mechanism.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fire On Merchant Navy Ship Off Goa Coast Under Control, Crew Member Dead |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/fire-on-merchant-navy-ship-off-goa-coast-under-control-crew-member-dead-6153307 |access-date=2024-07-22 |website=NDTV.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Day 3: Fire continues aboard container Maersk Frankfurt |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/day-3-fire-continues-aboard-container-maersk-frankfurt/articleshow/111908837.cms |access-date=2024-07-22 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> By 30 July, Operation Sahayata was complete and a total of five ships, one Dornier aircraft and two Dhruv helicopters were deployed for the job. More than {{cvt|1200|kg}} of DCP was used. [[Thermography|Infrared images]] confirmed that hotspots has reduced and smoldering was reduced to one small part of the ship. There were no more pollution risks and the ship was stable and operational.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-07-28 |title=MV Maersk Frankfurt that caught fire structurally stable after 10 days of fire fighting efforts |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/mv-maersk-frankfurt-that-caught-fire-structurally-stable-after-10-days-of-fire-fighting-efforts/article68457659.ece |access-date=2024-07-30 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

On 21 August 2024, ICGS ''Sujay'' made a port call with an integral helicopter in [[Jakarta]], Indonesia for a two-day visit.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-08-21 |title=ICGS Sujay makes port call in Indonesia for a two-day visit as part of overseas deployment to East Asia |url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2047352 |access-date=2024-08-23 |website=Press Information Bureau}}</ref> On 4 September 2024, ''Sujay'' made another port call at [[Incheon]], South Korea. The ICG officials conducted professional interactions with the [[Korea Coast Guard]] (KCG) for topics like [[marine pollution]] response, maritime search and rescue and [[maritime law enforcement]]. The visit was a part of Indian Coast Guard's East Asia deployment and a [[memorandum of understanding]] (MoU) was signed between the ICG and KCG in 2006 for enhanced maritime cooperation.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-09-04 |title=ICGS Sujay makes port call in South Korea as part of its ongoing overseas deployment to East Asia |url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=2051711 |access-date=2024-09-06 |website=Press Information Bureau}}</ref> On 18 September 204, ''Sujay'' reached [[Bali]], Indonesia, for a three-day visit. Formal discussions with the [[Indonesian Maritime Security Agency]] (IMSA) during the visit focused on operational turn around, marine pollution response, maritime search and rescue and maritime law enforcement. The visit was a result of an MoU signed between the ICG and BAKAMLA (IMSA) on 6 July 2020 to enhance maritime cooperation and institutionalised its cooperative engagements. The crew in this deployment included 10 [[National Cadet Corps (India)|National Cadet Corps]] (NCC).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-09-19 |title=Coast Guard ship Sujay reaches Bali, to take part in various maritime activities |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/indian-coast-guard-ship-sujay-reaches-bali-indonesia-host-of-maritime-activities-2602424-2024-09-19 |access-date=2024-09-19 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref>

On 9 December 2025, ICGS ''Sarthak'' reached [[Shuwaikh Port]], [[Kuwait]] for a four day visit as part of her Overseas Deployment to the [[Persian Gulf|Gulf]] region.<ref>{{Cite press release |title=ICG Ship Sarthak Reaches Suwaikh Port in Kuwait |date=2025-12-09 |publisher=[[Press Information Bureau]] |url=https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2201078&reg=3&lang=1 |access-date=2025-12-12}}</ref>

ICGS ''Sarathi'' forms a part of the [[1st Training Squadron]] (1TS) of the [[Indian Navy]] and was part of the [[1st Training Squadron#2025|2025]] and [[1st Training Squadron#2026|2026]] Long Range Training Deployment (LRTD) flotilla to the South West Indian Ocean Region and [[South East Asia]]. The ship also took part in the [[International Fleet Review 2026]] held near [[Visakhapatnam]] on 18 February 2026.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |title=IFR & MILAN 2026 |url=https://www.ifrmilan26.com/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260219124733/https://www.ifrmilan26.com/ |archive-date=2026-02-19 |access-date=2026-02-18 |website=IFR & MILAN 2026 |language=en}}</ref>

==Ships of the class==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Yard Number
! Name
! Pennant number
! Keel laid
! Launched
! Commissioned
! Home Port
|-
! colspan="7" | {{Coast guard|India}}
|-
! colspan="7" |Flight I
|-
| 1218
| {{ICGS|Samarth||2}}
| 11
| 28 September 2012<ref name=":0">{{cite press release |url=http://www.goashipyard.co.in/NewsEventsDetails.aspx?id={0055-0114-0148-0128-0161-0192-0225-0256} |title=GSL News |date= |website=Goa Shipyard}}</ref>
| 26 November 2014
| 10 November 2015<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/icgs-samarth-commissioned-to-boost-kochi-coastal-security-115111001472_1.html |title=ICGS Samarth commissioned; to boost Goa coastal security |newspaper=[[Business Standard]] |date=10 November 2015 |accessdate=11 November 2015 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208224553/http://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/icgs-samarth-commissioned-to-boost-goa-coastal-security-115111001472_1.html |archivedate=8 December 2015 }}</ref>||[[Goa]]
|-
| 1219
| ''Shoor''
| 12
| 28 January 2013<ref name=":0" /> || 21 March 2015<ref>{{cite web |title=Goa Shipyard readies first improved OPV for delivery to Indian Coast Guard |url=http://www.janes.com/article/54675/goa-shipyard-readies-first-improved-opv-for-delivery-to-indian-coast-guard |website=IHS Jane's Defence Weekly |first=Ridzwan |last=Rahmat |date=20 September 2015 |accessdate=27 December 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160106142202/http://www.janes.com/article/54675/goa-shipyard-readies-first-improved-opv-for-delivery-to-indian-coast-guard |archivedate=6 January 2016}}</ref> || 11 April 2016<ref name="ToI51782844"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.janes.com/article/59198/goa-shipyard-delivers-second-improved-sankalp-class-opv-to-indian-coast-guard |title=Goa Shipyard delivers second improved Sankalp-class OPV to Indian Coast Guard |first=Ridzwan |last=Rahmat |date=1 April 2016 |website=IHS Jane's Defence Weekly |accessdate=1 April 2016 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170213133948/http://www.janes.com/article/59198/goa-shipyard-delivers-second-improved-sankalp-class-opv-to-indian-coast-guard |archivedate=13 February 2017}}</ref>||[[Mangalore|Manglore]]
|-
| 1220
| ''Sarathi''
|14
| 11 October 2013<ref name=":0" />
| 24 April 2015
| 9 September 2016<ref>{{cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/Union-Home-minister-launches-ICGS-Saarthi-at-Goa/articleshow/54220273.cms |title=Union Home minister launches ICGS Saarthi at Goa |date=9 September 2016 |newspaper=The Times of India |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170518012657/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/Union-Home-minister-launches-ICGS-Saarthi-at-Goa/articleshow/54220273.cms |archivedate=18 May 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.firstpost.com/india/rajnath-singh-commissions-coast-guard-ship-sarathi-terms-maritime-terrorism-a-major-threat-rajnath-2997870.html |title=Rajnath Singh commissions Coast Guard Ship Sarathi, terms maritime terrorism a major threat: Rajnath |website=[[Firstpost]] |date=9 September 2016 |accessdate=9 September 2016 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160914161850/http://www.firstpost.com/india/rajnath-singh-commissions-coast-guard-ship-sarathi-terms-maritime-terrorism-a-major-threat-rajnath-2997870.html |archivedate=14 September 2016 }}</ref>
| [[Kochi]]<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/logistics/rajnath-singh-commissions-offshore-patrolling-vessel-sarathi/article9090991.ece |title=Rajnath Singh commissions offshore patrolling vessel Sarathi |newspaper=[[Business Line]] |date=9 September 2016 |accessdate=9 September 2016 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171009035052/http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/logistics/rajnath-singh-commissions-offshore-patrolling-vessel-sarathi/article9090991.ece |archivedate=9 October 2017 }}</ref>
|-
| 1221
| ''Shaunak''<ref>{{cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/state-of-the-art-patrol-vessel-added-to-coast-guard-fleet/articleshow/57027765.cms |title=State-of-the-art patrol vessel added to Coast Guard fleet |date=8 February 2017 |newspaper=The Times of India |accessdate=11 February 2017 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170212121341/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/state-of-the-art-patrol-vessel-added-to-coast-guard-fleet/articleshow/57027765.cms |archivedate=12 February 2017 }}</ref>
| 15
| 9 January 2014<ref name=":0" />
| 28 November 2015<ref>{{cite web |title=Fourth new generation OPV built by GSL for coast guard launched |url=http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=370327 |date=29 November 2015 |website=[[Daijiworld]] |accessdate=4 January 2016 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151212215749/http://daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=370327 |archivedate=12 December 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=GSL delivers fourth patrol vessel for Indian Coast Guard |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/GSL-delivers-fourth-patrol-vessel-for-Indian-Coast-Guard/articleshow/49954596.cms |date=28 November 2015 |website=The Times of India |accessdate=4 January 2016 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161230195149/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/GSL-delivers-fourth-patrol-vessel-for-Indian-Coast-Guard/articleshow/49954596.cms |archivedate=30 December 2016 }}</ref>
| 21 February 2017<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.financialexpress.com/india-news/indian-coast-guard-ship-shaunak-commissioned-at-vasco-by-railway-minister-suresh-prabhu/561058/ |title=Indian Coast Guard ship 'Shaunak' commissioned at Vasco by Railway Minister Suresh Prabhu |date=21 February 2017 |newspaper=[[The Financial Express (India)|The Financial Express]] |accessdate=22 February 2017 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222113510/http://www.financialexpress.com/india-news/indian-coast-guard-ship-shaunak-commissioned-at-vasco-by-railway-minister-suresh-prabhu/561058/ |archivedate=22 February 2017 }}</ref>
| [[Vizag]]
|-
| 1222 || ''Shaurya''
| 16
| 22 July 2014<ref name=":0" />
| 5 May 2016<ref>{{cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/Indian-Coast-Guard-ship-Shaurya-kisses-water-for-the-first-time-at-Goa-Shipyard/articleshow/52129944.cms |title=Indian Coast Guard ship 'Shaurya' kisses water for the first time at Goa Shipyard |first=Newton |last=Sequeira |date=5 May 2016 |newspaper=The Times of India |accessdate=9 May 2016 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160728000656/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/Indian-Coast-Guard-ship-Shaurya-kisses-water-for-the-first-time-at-Goa-Shipyard/articleshow/52129944.cms |archivedate=28 July 2016 }}</ref>
| 12 August 2017<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/newsscroll/icgs-shaurya-commissioned-dharmendra-pradhan-calls-it-joyous-moment-for-india/1122406|title=ICGS 'Shaurya' commissioned, Dharmendra Pradhan calls it 'joyous moment' for India|work=www.outlookindia.com/|access-date=2017-08-12|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170813005826/https://www.outlookindia.com/newsscroll/icgs-shaurya-commissioned-dharmendra-pradhan-calls-it-joyous-moment-for-india/1122406|archivedate=2017-08-13}}</ref>
|rowspan='2'| [[Chennai]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.abplive.in/india-news/icgs-shaurya-commissioned-dharmendra-pradhan-calls-it-joyous-moment-for-india-565070?ani|title=ICGS 'Shaurya' commissioned, Dharmendra Pradhan calls it 'joyous moment' for India|access-date=2017-08-13|language=en|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170813105430/http://www.abplive.in/india-news/icgs-shaurya-commissioned-dharmendra-pradhan-calls-it-joyous-moment-for-india-565070?ani|archivedate=2017-08-13}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=June 8, 2020|first=V. |last=Ayyappan |title=Indian Coast Guard vessel ICGS Sujay to be based out of Chennai |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/indian-coast-guard-vessel-icgs-sujay-to-be-based-out-of-chennai/articleshow/76264276.cms|access-date=2020-06-14|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>
|-
| 1223
| ''Sujay''
| 17
| 8 June 2015<ref>{{cite press release |url=http://www.goashipyard.co.in/NewsEventsDetails.aspx?id=%7B0049-0102-0151-0128-0161-0192-0225-0256%7D |title=News & Events Details |website=Goa Shipyard |accessdate=1 April 2016 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150630041622/http://www.goashipyard.co.in/NewsEventsDetails.aspx?id=%7B0049-0102-0151-0128-0161-0192-0225-0256%7D |archivedate=30 June 2015}}</ref>
| 30 November 2016<ref>{{cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/Coast-Guard-gets-6th-OPV-from-GSL/articleshow/55714954.cms |title=Coast Guard gets 6th OPV from GSL |date=1 December 2016 |newspaper=The Times of India |accessdate=5 December 2016 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170130232034/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/coast-guard-gets-6th-opv-from-gsl/articleshow/55714954.cms |archivedate=30 January 2017}}</ref>
| 21 December 2017<ref name="jni-22dec17"/>
|-
! colspan="7" |Flight II
|-
| 1233
| {{ICGS|Sachet||2}}<ref name="icgsachet">{{cite web|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/sitharaman-launches-vessel-asks-defence-psus-to-expand-market/articleshow/68093108.cms?utm|title=Sitharaman launches vessel, asks defence PSUs to expand market| publisher=EconomicTimes|accessdate=21 February 2019}}</ref>
| 18
| 20 March 2017<ref>{{cite press release|url=http://goashipyard.co.in/keel-for-first-ship-of-the-5-cgopv-project-laid-in-gsl|title=Keel For First Ship of the 5 CGOPV Project Laid In GSL|publisher=Goa Shipyard|date=20 March 2017|accessdate=23 March 2017}}</ref>
| 21 February 2019<ref name="icgsachet"/>
| 15 May 2020<ref>{{cite web|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/indian-coast-guard-patrol-vessel-2-interceptor-boats-commissioned/articleshow/75752488.cms|title=Indian Coast Guard patrol vessel, 2 interceptor boats commissioned|publisher=Economic Times|accessdate=15 May 2020}}</ref>
|
|-
| 1234
| ''Sujeet''
| 19
| 29 September 2017<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/quantum-of-indigenisation-up-in-gsls-new-vessels/articleshow/60930963.cms|title=‘Quantum of indigenisation up in GSL’s new vessels’|work=The Times of India|access-date=2017-10-09|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171009035052/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/quantum-of-indigenisation-up-in-gsls-new-vessels/articleshow/60930963.cms|archivedate=2017-10-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://goashipyard.co.in/goa-shipyard-lays-keel-for-2nd-vessel-of-new-class-opvs/|title=Goa Shipyard Lays Keel For 2nd Vessel Of New Class OPVS|website=goashipyard.co.in|language=en-US|access-date=2017-10-09|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171009035053/https://goashipyard.co.in/goa-shipyard-lays-keel-for-2nd-vessel-of-new-class-opvs/|archivedate=2017-10-09}}</ref>
| 25 May 2019<ref>{{cite news |last1=Rahmat |first1=Ridzwan |title=Goa Shipyard launches 10th improved Sankalp-class OPV for Indian Coast Guard |url=https://www.janes.com/article/88843/goa-shipyard-launches-10th-improved-sankalp-class-opv-for-indian-coast-guard |work=Jane's Navy International |date=29 May 2019 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190529103325/https://www.janes.com/article/88843/goa-shipyard-launches-10th-improved-sankalp-class-opv-for-indian-coast-guard |archivedate=29 May 2019}}</ref>
| 15 December 2020<ref>{{cite tweet|number=1338679140795338752|user=IndiaCoastGuard|title=IndiaCoastGuard ship ‘Sujeet’, second in the series of 05 OPV indigenously designed & built by M/s Goa shipyard Limited, in line with PM’s vision of makeinindia will be commissioned today at GSL Goa by Shri Raj Kumar, IAS, Secretary (Defence Production).|date=15 December 2020}}</ref>
|
|-
| 1235
| ''Sajag''
| 20
| 1 August 2018<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uniindia.com/goa-shipyard-lays-keel-for-3rd-vessel-of-new-class-opvs/states/news/1307257.html|title=Goa Shipyard lays keel for 3rd vessel of new class OPVs|date=2 August 2018|work=United News of India}}</ref>
| 14 November 2019<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/gsl-launches-coast-guard-offshore-patrol-vessel-sajag/articleshow/72055204.cms |title=GSL launches coast guard offshore patrol vessel ‘Sajag’ |first=Newton |last=Sequeira |date=14 November 2019 |newspaper=The Times of India |accessdate=14 November 2019 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20191114121953/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/gsl-launches-coast-guard-offshore-patrol-vessel-sajag/articleshow/72055204.cms |archivedate=14 November 2019}}</ref>
| 29 May 2021<ref name="sajag-comm"/>
| rowspan='2'| [[Porbandar]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/coast-guard-commissions-patrol-vessel-icgs-sajag/articleshow/83074192.cms|title=Goa: Coast Guard commissions patrol vessel ICGS Sajag|publisher=Times Of India|date=2021-06-12}}</ref>
|-
| 1236
| ''Sarthak''
| 21
| 10 November 2018
| 13 August 2020<ref name="sarthak">{{cite web|url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleseDetail.aspx?PRID=1645562|title= Indian Coast Guard Offshore Patrol Vessel ‘Sarthak’ launched |publisher=PIB|accessdate=13 August 2020}}</ref>
| 28 October 2021<ref name="sarthak-comm">{{cite web|url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1767193|title= Indian Coast Guard Ship ‘Sarthak’ dedicated to the Nation |publisher=PIB|accessdate=2021-10-28}}</ref>
|-
|1237<ref>{{cite tweet |user= shripadynaik |number=1138018447520985089 |date= 10 June 2019 |title=Laid keel for offshore patrol vessel at 5th CG OPV yard 1237 }}</ref>
| ''Saksham''
| 22
| 10 June 2019<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.heraldgoa.in/Goa/Shripad-extends-support-to-Goa-Shipyard-/147349.html |title=Shripad extends support to Goa Shipyard |newspaper=oHeraldo |date=11 June 2019}}</ref>
| 14 December 2020<ref>{{cite tweet|user=IndiaCoastGuard|number=1338330868633329666|title=OPV Saksham (Yard ‘1237’) last in the series of 05 OPVs indigenously designed & built by M/s Goa shipyard Limited, in line with PM’s vision of Make in India will be launched today at Goa |date=14 December 2020}}</ref>
|16 March 2022 <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/indian-coast-guard-fifth-offshore-patrol-vessel-saksham-commissioned-in-goa-1926587-2022-03-17|title=Indian Coast Guard’s fifth offshore patrol vessel Saksham commissioned in Goa|publisher=India Today|date=2022-03-17}}</ref>
| [[Goa]]
|}

==See also==
*[[L&T Interceptor class fast attack craft]]
*[[Solas Marine Fast Interceptor Boat]]
*[[Couach fast interceptor boats]]
*[[Cochin Fast Patrol Vessels]]
*[[ABG fast interceptor craft]]
*{{sclass|Makar|survey catamaran|1}}
*{{sclass|Rani Abbakka|patrol vessel|1}}
*{{sclass|Manoram|ferry|1}}
==Gallery==
{{Gallery

|width=160 | height=170
|ICGS-Samarath.jpg
|''Samarth ''(11) at sea.
|File:ICGS Shaurya and ICGS Sujay during fire dousing operation.jpg
|ICGS ''Shaurya'' and ICGS ''Sujay'' during fire dousing operation.
|File:ICGS Sujay during MT New Diamond fire supression mission.jpg
|ICGS ''Sujay'' during MT ''New Diamond'' fire suppression mission.
|File:ICGS Sajag (20) with Dhruv Mk.3 helicopters.jpg
|ICGS ''Sajag'' with [[HAL Dhruv|Dhruv Mk.3]] helicopters.
|File:ICGS Sajag at Porbandar, Gujarat.jpg
|ICGS ''Sajag'' at [[Porbandar]], [[Gujarat]]
| File:ICGS Sarthak (21) arriving at the port of Porbandar, Gujarat.jpg
|ICGS ''Sarthak'' (21) and ICGS ''Shoor'' (12) at the port of Porbandar, Gujarat.
| File:ICGS Sarthak (21) at the port of Porbandar.jpg
|ICGS ''Sarthak'' at the port of Porbandar
|File:ICGS Sujeete (19), Samarth (11), Sachet (18), Saksham (22) and Vikram (33) sailing in unison.jpg
|''Sujeete ''(19), ''Samarth ''(11), ''Sachet ''(18), ''Saksham ''(22) and ''Vikram ''(33) sailing in unison.
}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

{{Ship classes of the Indian Coast Guard}}

[[Category:Patrol ship classes]]
[[Category:Ships of the Indian Coast Guard]]

Municipal corporation

2026-05-05T12:17:46Z

Indianeagle1: minor adjust formatting per standard format and updated info

{{short description|Legal term for a local governing body}}
'''Municipal corporation''' is the legal term for a [[local government|local governing body]], including (but not necessarily limited to) [[city|cities]], [[county|counties]], [[town]]s, [[township]]s, [[charter township]]s, [[village]]s, and [[borough]]s.<ref name="Voornetal" />[[municipally owned corporation|wned corporation]]s.<ref name=Voornetal>{{cite journal|last1 = Voorn| first1 = Bart|first2= Marieke L.|last2=Van Genugten|first3=Sandra| last3 = van Thiel|year=2017|title=The efficiency and effectiveness of municipally owned corporations: A systematic review|journal=Local Government Studies|volume=43|issue=5|pages=820–841|doi=10.1080/03003930.2017.1319360|hdl=2066/176125|url=https://repository.ubn.ru.nl/bitstream/2066/176125/1/176125.pdf|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=TavaresCamoes>{{cite journal|last1=Tavares|first1=Antonio F.|first2=Pedro J.|last2=Camoes|title=Local service delivery choices in Portugal: A political transaction costs network|journal=Local Government Studies|volume=33|issue=4|pages=535–553|doi=10.1080/03003930701417544|year=2007|s2cid=154709321}}</ref><ref name=GrossiReichard>{{cite journal|last1=Grossi|first1=G.|last2=Reichard|first2=C.|title=Municipal corporatization in Germany and Italy|journal=Public Management Review|volume=10|issue=5|pages=597–617|doi=10.1080/14719030802264275|year=2008|s2cid=153354582}}</ref>

==Municipal corporation as local self-government==

Municipal incorporation occurs when such [[municipality|municipalities]] become self-governing entities under the laws of the state or province in which they are located. Often, this event is marked by the award or declaration of a [[municipal charter]]. A '''city charter''' or '''town charter''' or '''municipal charter''' is a [[legal document]] establishing a municipality, such as a [[city]] or [[town]].{{citation needed|date=May 2017}}

===Bangladesh===
{{main article|List of city corporations in Bangladesh}}
{{main article|List of municipal corporations in Bangladesh}}
There are 12 city corporations in [[Bangladesh]]. Two of them are located in the capital [[Dhaka]] and the remaining 10 are located in the most populous [[cities]] of the eight divisions.{{Clarify|date=January 2025}} They carry out major works in the cities and perform socio-economic and civic functions. In addition, there are 330 municipalities in the eight [[Administrative division|divisions]] of [[Bangladesh]]. A city corporation is a much stronger and larger [[Local governing body]] than a municipal corporation. This is because a city corporation consists of a [[Metropolitan municipality|metropolitan city]] of a [[district]] and a municipal corporation consists of a [[municipal]] area in a [[Upazila|sub-district]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://thefinancialexpress.com.bd/views/columns/making-city-corporation-effective-1649869161#google_vignette | title=Making City Corporation effective }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://en.prothomalo.com/bangladesh/603y478vyh | title=Facilities of city corporations' councilors being increased by manifold | date=12 February 2023 }}</ref>

===Canada===

{{main article|Municipal government in Canada}}
In Canada, charters are granted by [[provinces and territories of Canada|provincial authorities]].

===India===

{{Main|Municipal corporation (India)}}
[[File:Ripon Building panorama.jpg|thumb|[[Chennai Corporation]] headquarters]]

Municipal corporations are the local bodies responsible for governing large urban areas in India. Their establishment is mandated by the [[Seventy-fourth Amendment of the Constitution of India|74th amendment]],<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://mohua.gov.in/upload/uploadfiles/files/ConsAct74.pdf |title=THE CONSTITUTION (SEVENTY-FOURTH AMENDMENT) ACT, 1992 |publisher=[[Government of India]] |year=1992}}</ref> and each municipal corporation is established through and governed by municipal acts passed by [[State legislative assemblies of India|state legislatures]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-04 |title=Nagrika - What is a Municipal Act? |url=https://www.nagrika.org/nagrikalarticles/municipalacts |access-date=2025-04-19 |website=Nagrika |language=en-US}}</ref> The [[Greater Chennai Corporation]] is the oldest municipal corporation in India, and the oldest in [[Commonwealth of Nations|the Commonwealth]] outside Britain.<ref name="oldestcorp">{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mp/2003/04/02/stories/2003040200100300.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040128034716/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mp/2003/04/02/stories/2003040200100300.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=2004-01-28|title=The first corporation |date=2003-04-02|access-date=14 April 2012|work=[[The Hindu]]|location=Chennai}}</ref>

===Ireland===

The title "corporation" was used in [[borough]]s from soon after the [[Norman conquest of Ireland|Norman conquest]] until the [[Local Government Act 2001]]. Under the 2001 act, [[county borough]]s were renamed "cities" and their corporations became "city councils"; other borough corporations were renamed "borough councils".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/2001/en/act/pub/0037/|title=Local Government Act, 2001|work=[[Irish Statute Book]]|access-date=13 May 2014|page=§11(3), §11(4), Schedule 2|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140204040438/http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/2001/en/act/pub/0037/|archive-date=4 February 2014}}</ref>

After the [[Partition of Ireland]], the corporations in the [[Irish Free State]] were Dublin, [[Cork (city)|Cork]], [[Limerick]] and [[Waterford]] (county boroughs) and [[Drogheda]], [[Kilkenny]], [[Sligo]], [[Clonmel]], and Wexford (non-county boroughs). [[Dún Laoghaire]] gained borough status in 1930 as "The Corporation of Dun Laoghaire".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/1930/en/act/pub/0027/sec0003.html#sec3|title=Local Government (Dublin) Act, 1930, Section 3|work=[[Irish Statute Book]]|access-date=13 May 2014}}</ref> [[Galway]]'s borough status, lost in 1840, was restored in 1937; it was formally styled "the Mayor, Aldermen and Burgesses of the Borough of Galway",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/1937/en/act/prv/0003/sec0003.html |title=Local Government (Galway) Act, 1937, Section 3 |work=[[Irish Statute Book]]|access-date=13 May 2014}}</ref> but referred to as "the Corporation".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/1937/en/act/prv/0003/sec0002.html |title=Local Government (Galway) Act, 1937, Section 2 |work=[[Irish Statute Book]]|access-date=13 May 2014}}</ref>

===New Zealand===

The [[New Zealand Constitution Act 1852]] allowed municipal corporations to be established within the new [[provinces of New Zealand]]. The term fell out of favour following the abolition of the provinces in 1876.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-GovCons-t1-body-d1-d1.html|publisher=[[Victoria University of Wellington]] - New Zealand Electronic Text Collection|title=New Zealand Constitution Act 1852|access-date=2 April 2019|date=30 June 1852|ref={{sfnref|Constitution Act|1852}}}}</ref>

===Pakistan===

{{main article|Municipal Corporation (Pakistan)}}
Municipal corporations are local government bodies responsible for running the city system of [[Pakistan]]. They have been established under their respective [[Local government in Pakistan|Local Government Acts]] of the provinces.
Article 140-A of the [[Constitution of Pakistan]], introduced by the
18th Amendment in 2010, mandates that each province must establish a local government system by law and devolve political, administrative, and financial power to elected local representatives.

===United Kingdom===

{{main|Borough status in the United Kingdom}}
The [[ancient borough]]s of [[England and Wales]] were typically incorporated by a [[royal charter]], though some were boroughs by [[Customary law|prescription]]. The [[Municipal Corporations Act 1835]] and [[Municipal Corporations Act 1882]] abolished the corporations of [[rotten borough]]s and other small rural areas. The [[Local Government Act 1888]] aligned the powers of the remaining borough corporations with those of the new [[Urban district (England and Wales)|urban district council]]s. All borough corporations were replaced under the [[Local Government Act 1972]] with councils not designated as "corporations", with the exception of the [[City of London Corporation]].

The corporations of the [[burgh]]s of Scotland were similar in origin and were reformed or replaced in the nineteenth century before being abolished by the [[Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973]]. The Irish borough corporations within what is now [[Northern Ireland]] were reformed by the [[Municipal Corporations (Ireland) Act 1840]] and [[Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898]] and replaced by the [[Local Government Act (Northern Ireland) 1972]].

===United States===

{{main|Local government in the United States}}

Most [[U.S. state]]s and territories have at least two tiers of local government: [[County (United States)|counties]] and [[Municipality|municipalities]]. [[Louisiana]] uses the term [[List of parishes in Louisiana|parish]], [[Alaska]] uses the term [[List of boroughs and census areas in Alaska|borough]], and [[Connecticut]] uses the term [[Councils of governments in Connecticut|planning region]] for what the [[United States Census Bureau|U.S. Census Bureau]] terms [[county equivalent]]s in those states. [[Civil township]]s or towns are used as subdivisions of a county in 20 states, mostly in the Northeast and Midwest.

Population centers may be organized into incorporated municipalities of several types, including the [[city]], [[town]], [[Borough (United States)|borough]], and [[Village (United States)|village]]. The types and nature of these municipal entities vary from state to state. In addition to these general-purpose local governments, states may also create [[Special district (United States)|special-purpose]] local governments. Depending on the state, local governments may operate under their own charters or under general law, or a state may have a mix of chartered and general-law local governments. Generally, in a state having both chartered and general-law local governments, the chartered local governments have more local autonomy and home rule. Municipalities are typically subordinate to a county government, with some exceptions. Certain cities, for example, have consolidated with their county government as [[Consolidated city-county|consolidated city-counties]]. In [[Virginia]], cities are completely [[Independent city (United States)|independent]] from the county in which they would otherwise be a part. In some states, particularly in New England, [[New England town|towns]] form the primary unit of local government below the state level, in some cases eliminating the need for county government entirely. Many rural areas and even some suburban areas of many states have no municipal government below the county level.

In addition to counties and municipalities, states often create special purpose authorities, such as [[school district]]s and districts for fire protection, [[sanitary sewer]] service, [[public transport]]ation, [[Public library|public libraries]], public parks or forests, water resource management, and [[conservation district]]s. Such special purpose districts may encompass areas in multiple municipalities or counties. According to the US Census Bureau's data collected in 2012, there were 89,004 local government units in the United States. This data shows a decline from 89,476 units since the last census of local governments performed in 2007.{{update inline|date=July 2025}}

Each of the five permanently inhabited [[Territories of the United States|U.S. territories]] is also subdivided into smaller entities. Puerto Rico has [[Municipalities of Puerto Rico|78 municipalities]], and the [[Northern Mariana Islands]] has four municipalities. [[Guam]] has [[List of populated places in Guam#List of villages|villages]], the [[United States Virgin Islands|U.S. Virgin Islands]] has [[Districts and sub-districts of the United States Virgin Islands|districts]], and [[American Samoa]] has [[Administrative divisions of American Samoa|districts and unorganized atolls]].

Each [[Indian Reservation]] is subdivided in various ways. For example, the [[Navajo Nation]] is subdivided into agencies and [[Chapter house (Navajo Nation)|chapter houses]], while the [[Blackfeet Indian Reservation|Blackfeet Nation]] is subdivided into [[Blackfeet Indian Reservation|communities]].

==Municipal corporations as enterprises==

According to one definition of the term, municipal corporations are "organisations with independent corporate status, managed by an executive board appointed primarily by local government officials, and with majority public ownership".<ref name=Voornetal /> Some such corporations rely on revenue from user fees, distinguishing them from agencies and special districts funded through taxation,<ref name=TavaresCamoes /> although this is not always the case.<ref name=Voornetal /> Such municipal corporations result from a process of "externalization", and require different skills and orientations from the respective local governments, and follow common changes{{clarify|date=February 2022}} in the institutional landscape of public services.<ref name=GrossiReichard /> They are argued to be more efficient than government bureaucracies, having been observed as generally more successful in providing most public goods and services, despite seeming to have higher failure rates initially, hypothetically because of their legal and managerial status.<ref name=Voornetal />

==See also==
* [[German town law]]
* [[Unincorporated area]]
* [[Municipality]]
* '''''{{portal-inline|Cities}}'''''

==References==

{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==

===Municipal incorporation===

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20141020110606/https://www.census.gov/geo/reference/pdfs/GARM/Ch9GARM.pdf "Characteristics and State Requirements for Incorporated Places"] - United States Census

===Municipal disincorporation/dissolution===

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20181117014943/http://www.californiacityfinance.com/DisincorporationKnox2010.pdf "Municipal Disincorporation in California"] - California City Finance

{{Cities}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Government corporations]]
[[Category:Municipalities]]
[[Category:Types of business entity]]
[[Category:Urban planning]]

Alangulam Assembly constituency

2026-05-05T12:11:12Z

Indianeagle1: started basic stub w/ sources.

{{Short description|One of the 234 State Legislative Assembly Constituencies in Tamil Nadu, in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Alangulam
| state = [[Tamil Nadu]]
| type = SLA
| constituency_no = 223
| map_image = Constitution-Alangulam.svg
| mla = [[P. H. Manoj Pandian]]
| party = {{Party index link|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
| alliance = {{Party index link|Secular Progressive Alliance}}
| latest_election_year = [[2026 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|2026]]
| loksabha_cons =[[Tirunelveli Lok Sabha constituency|Tirunelveli]]
| established = 1951
| electors = 255,457
}}
'''Alangulam''' is a [[Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly|state legislative assembly constituency]] in [[Tenkasi district]] in the [[India]]n state of [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.assembly.tn.gov.in/Const_map/map.htm |title=Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly Constituency Map |website=Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly |access-date=25 January 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614070155/http://www.assembly.tn.gov.in/const_map/map.htm |archive-date=14 June 2012 }}</ref> It includes the city of [[Alangulam, Tirunelveli|Alangulam]]. It is a part of [[Tirunelveli Lok Sabha constituency]].
Most successful candidates: DMK & ADMK (5 times). It is one of the 234 State Legislative Assembly Constituencies in Tamil Nadu, in India.

== Members of Legislative Assembly ==
=== Madras State ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Year
!Winner
!colspan="2" | Party
|-
|-
| [[1952 Madras Legislative Assembly election|1952]]
| [[Chinnathambi Thevar]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[1957 Madras Legislative Assembly election|1957]]
| [[Veluchamy Thevar]]
| {{Full party name with color|Independent (politician)}}
|-
| [[1962 Madras Legislative Assembly election|1962]]

| [[S. Chellapandian|S. Chellapandian Thevar]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[1967 Madras Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
| [[Aladi Aruna|Aladi Aruna (alias) V Arunachalam]]
| {{Full party name with color|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
|-
|}

=== Tamil Nadu ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Year
!Winner
!colspan="2" | Party
|-
|-
| [[1971 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|1971]]
| [[Aladi Aruna]]
| {{Full party name with color|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
|-
| [[1977 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|1977]]
| [[V. Karuppasamy Pandian]]
| {{Full party name with color|All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
|-
| [[1980 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|1980]]
| [[R. Navaneetha Krishna Pandian|R. N. Krishna Thevar]]
| {{Full party name with color|Gandhi Kamaraj National Congress}}
|-
| [[1984 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|1984]]
| [[N. Shanmugaiah Pandian|N. Shanmugaiah Thevar]]
| {{Full party name with color|All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
|-
| [[1989 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|1989]]
|rowspan=2| [[S. S. Ramasubbu]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[1991 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|1991]]
|-
| [[1996 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|1996]]
| Aladi Aruna
| {{Full party name with color|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
|-
| [[2001 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|2001]]
| [[P. G. Rajendran|P. G. Rajendran Nadar]]
| {{Full party name with color|All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
|-
| [[2006 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|2006]]
| [[Poongothai Aladi Aruna|Dr. Poongothai Aladi Aruna]]
| {{Full party name with color|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
|-
| [[2011 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|2011]]
| P. G. Rajendran Nadar
| {{Full party name with color|All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
|-
| [[2016 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|2016]]
| Dr. Poongothai Aladi Aruna
| {{Full party name with color|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
|-
| [[2021 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|2021]]
| rowspan="2"|[[P. H. Manoj Pandian]]
| {{Full party name with color|All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
|-
| [[2026 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|2026]]
| {{Full party name with color| Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
|-
|}

==Election results==
{{bar box
|float=right
|title= Vote share of winning candidates
|titlebar=#ddd
|width=300px
|barwidth=275px
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[#2021|2021]]|{{party color|All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}|36.44}}
{{bar percent|[[#2016|2016]]|{{party color|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}|45.98}}
{{bar percent|[[#2011|2011]]|{{party color|All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}|47.29}}
{{bar percent|[[#2006|2006]]|{{party color|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}|46.05}}
{{bar percent|[[#2001|2001]]|{{party color|All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}|48.95}}
{{bar percent|[[#1996|1996]]|{{party color|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}|46.10}}
{{bar percent|[[#1991|1991]]|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}|62.69}}
{{bar percent|[[#1989|1989]]|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}|28.57}}
{{bar percent|[[#1984|1984]]|{{party color|All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}|54.49}}
{{bar percent|[[#1980|1980]]|teal|53.88}}
{{bar percent|[[#1977|1977]]|{{party color|All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}|28.43}}
{{bar percent|[[#1971|1971]]|{{party color|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}|51.29}}
{{bar percent|[[#1967|1967]]|{{party color|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}|51.26}}
{{bar percent|[[#1962|1962]]|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}|51.44}}
{{bar percent|[[#1957|1957]]|{{party color|Independent politician}}|51.64}}
{{bar percent|[[#1952|1952]]|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}|32.57}}

}}

=== 2026 ===

{{Election box begin|title= [[2026 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: Alangulam}}

{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate=Paul Manoj Pandian
|party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam
|votes=69170
|percentage=31.06
|change=}}

{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate=K. R. P. Prabakaran
|party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam
|votes=61372
|percentage=27.56
|change=}}

{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate=Vibin Chakkaravarthy
|party=Tamilaga Vettri Kazhagam
|votes=60684
|percentage=27.25
|change=New}}

{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate=R. Paulraj
|party=Naam Tamilar Katchi
|votes=23380
|percentage=10.50
|change=}}

{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate=NOTA
|party=None of the above
|votes=982
|percentage=0.44
|change=}}

{{Election box margin of victory
|votes=7798
|percentage=3.50
|change=}}

{{Election box turnout
|votes=222656
|percentage=80.45
|change=}}

{{Election box registered electors
|reg. electors=276776
|change=}}

{{Election box gain with party link
|winner=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam
|loser=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam
|swing=}}

{{Election box end}}

===2021===

{{Election box begin|title= [[2021 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: Alangulam<ref>{{cite web|title=Alangulam Election Result|url= https://www.news18.com/assembly-elections-2021/tamil-nadu/-s22a223|access-date= 3 Jul 2022}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=[[P. H. Manoj Pandian]] |party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=74,153 |percentage=36.44% |change=-7.08 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=[[Poongothai Aladi Aruna|Dr. Poongothai Aladi Aruna]] |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=70,614 |percentage=34.70% |change=-11.28 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=A. Hari Nadar |party=Independent politician |votes=37,727 |percentage=18.54% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=M. Sangeetha Esak |party=Naam Tamilar Katchi |votes=12,519 |percentage=7.15% |change=+4.86 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Rajendranathan |party=Desiya Murpokku Dravida Kazhagam |votes=2,816 |percentage=1.38% |change=-2.64 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=NOTA |party=None of the above |votes=1,786 |percentage=0.88% |change=-0.2 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=S. Selvakumar |party=Makkal Needhi Maiam |votes=1,454 |percentage=0.71% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=A. Udhayakumar |party=Puthiya Tamilagam |votes=1,105 |percentage=0.54% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=3,539 |percentage=1.74% |change= -0.72% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=203,478 |percentage=78.13% |change= -0.91% }}
{{Election box rejected|votes=6|percentage=0.00% }}{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 260,429 |change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |swing= -9.54% }}
{{Election box end}}

===2016===

{{Election box begin|title= [[2016 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: Alangulam<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.elections.tn.gov.in/TNLA2016/AC%20WISE%20CANDIDATE%20COUNT.pdf|access-date= 30 Apr 2022|archive-date= 30 Apr 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220430083638/https://www.elections.tn.gov.in/TNLA2016/AC%20WISE%20CANDIDATE%20COUNT.pdf|title=Assembly wise Candidate Valid Votes count 2016, Tamil Nadu|website=www.elections.tn.gov.in}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=[[Poongothai Aladi Aruna|Dr. Poongothai Aladi Aruna]] |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=88,891 |percentage=45.98% |change=-1.13 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Hepzi Karthikeyan |party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=84,137 |percentage=43.52% |change=-3.77 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Rajendranath |party=Desiya Murpokku Dravida Kazhagam |votes=7,784 |percentage=4.03% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=S. V. Anburaj |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=4,660 |percentage=2.41% |change=+0.8 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=R . Vasanthi Ramalingam |party=Naam Tamilar Katchi |votes=2,495 |percentage=1.29% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=NOTA |party=None of the above |votes=2,089 |percentage=1.08% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=4,754 |percentage=2.46% |change= 2.28% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=193,326 |percentage=79.04% |change= -1.98% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 244,588 |change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |swing= -1.31% }}
{{Election box end}}

===2011===

{{Election box begin|title= [[2011 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: Alangulam<ref>{{Cite report|url=http://www.elections.tn.gov.in/Web/Index_card_TNLA2011/10-DETAILEDRESULT_ver4.3.pdf|title=Detailes Result 2011, Aseembly Election Tamil Nadu|work=Election Commission of Tamil Nadu|access-date=9 May 2021| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20170215085458/http://www.elections.tn.gov.in/Web/Index_card_TNLA2011/10-DETAILEDRESULT_ver4.3.pdf| archive-date =15 February 2017}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=[[P. G. Rajendran]] |party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=78,098 |percentage=47.29% |change=+6.31 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=[[Poongothai Aladi Aruna|Dr. Poongothai Aladi Aruna]] |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=77,799 |percentage=47.11% |change=+1.07 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=S. Sudalaiyandi |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=2,664 |percentage=1.61% |change=+0.01 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=E. Murugesan |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=1,234 |percentage=0.75% |change=-4.15 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=N. Rajendran |party=Independent politician |votes=1,099 |percentage=0.67% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=S. Thanga Raja |party=Independent politician |votes=1,058 |percentage=0.64% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=R. Ramalingam |party=Independent politician |votes=924 |percentage=0.56% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=299 |percentage=0.18% |change= -4.88% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=165,134 |percentage=81.02% |change= 7.23% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 203,826 |change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |swing= 1.25% }}
{{Election box end}}

===2006===

{{Election box begin|title= [[2006 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: Alangulam<ref>{{cite web| last = Election Commission of India| title = 2006 Election Statistical Report| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2006/StatReport_TN_2006.pdf| access-date = 12 May 2006| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101007200819/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2006/StatReport_TN_2006.pdf| archive-date = 7 Oct 2010}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=[[Poongothai Aladi Aruna|Dr. Poongothai Aladi Aruna]] |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=62,299 |percentage=46.05% |change=+0.54 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=M. Pandiaraj |party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=55,454 |percentage=40.99% |change=-7.96 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=M. Sivakumar |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=6,620 |percentage=4.89% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=P. Samynathan |party=All India Forward Bloc |votes=4,664 |percentage=3.45% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Muthu Kumarasamy @ K. Durai |party=Desiya Murpokku Dravida Kazhagam |votes=2,751 |percentage=2.03% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=M. Arulselvan |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=2,170 |percentage=1.60% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=A. Meeran |party=Independent politician |votes=1,336 |percentage=0.99% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=6,845 |percentage=5.06% |change= 1.62% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=135,294 |percentage=73.79% |change= 8.42% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 183,349 |change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |swing= -2.90% }}
{{Election box end}}

===2001===

{{Election box begin|title= [[2001 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: Alangulam<ref>{{cite web| last = Election Commission of India|title = Statistical Report on General Election 2001|url= http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2001/Stat_Rep_TN_2001.pdf|date = 12 May 2001 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006173934/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2001/Stat_Rep_TN_2001.pdf|archive-date=6 October 2010}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=[[P. G. Rajendran]] |party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=58,498 |percentage=48.95% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=[[Aladi Aruna]] |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=54,387 |percentage=45.51% |change=-0.59 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=S. S. Krishnasamy |party=Marumalarchi Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=3,320 |percentage=2.78% |change=-9.58 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=S. Vaikuntam |party=Independent politician |votes=1,561 |percentage=1.31% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=P. Ravi Kumar |party=Independent politician |votes=821 |percentage=0.69% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=4,111 |percentage=3.44% |change= -17.58% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=119,509 |percentage=65.37% |change= -7.55% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 182,877 |change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |swing= 2.85% }}
{{Election box end}}

===1996===

{{Election box begin|title= [[1996 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: Alangulam<ref>{{cite web| last = Election Commission of India| title = 1996 Election Statistical Report| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1996/StatisticalReport-TN96.pdf| access-date = 19 April 2009| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101007221700/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1996/StatisticalReport-TN96.pdf| archive-date = 7 October 2010}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=[[Aladi Aruna]] |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=53,374 |percentage=46.10% |change=+12.72 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=M. S. Kamaraj |party=Indian National Congress |votes=29,038 |percentage=25.08% |change=-37.61 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=M. P. Murugiah |party=Marumalarchi Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=14,309 |percentage=12.36% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=S. S. Ramasubbu |party=All India Indira Congress (Tiwari) |votes=6,475 |percentage=5.59% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=S. V. Anburaj |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=3,236 |percentage=2.80% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=I. Poolpandian |party=Independent politician |votes=2,186 |percentage=1.89% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=S. Murugiah @ Murugiah Pandian |party=Independent politician |votes=1,500 |percentage=1.30% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=S. Shunmugaih Pandian |party=Independent politician |votes=864 |percentage=0.75% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=24,336 |percentage=21.02% |change= -8.29% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=115,771 |percentage=72.92% |change= 3.47% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 167,697 |change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= -16.59% }}
{{Election box end}}

===1991===

{{Election box begin|title= [[1991 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: Alangulam<ref>{{cite web| last = Election Commission of India| title = Statistical Report on General Election 1991| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1991/StatisticalReport-Tamil%20Nadu91.pdf| access-date = 19 April 2009| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101007161404/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1991/StatisticalReport-Tamil%20Nadu91.pdf| archive-date = 7 October 2010}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=[[S. S. Ramasubbu]] |party=Indian National Congress |votes=66,637 |percentage=62.69% |change=+34.12 }}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=S. Gurunathan |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=35,487 |percentage=33.39% |change=+5.26 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=C. Pavanasam |party=Pattali Makkal Katchi |votes=1,491 |percentage=1.40% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=M. Sankar Palani |party=Tharasu Makkal Mandram |votes=1,154 |percentage=1.09% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=31,150 |percentage=29.31% |change= 28.87% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=106,288 |percentage=69.45% |change= -9.97% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 157,887 |change = }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= 34.12% }}
{{Election box end}}

===1989===

{{Election box begin|title= [[1989 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: Alangulam<ref>{{cite web| last = Election Commission of India| title = Statistical Report on General Election 1989| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1989/StatisticalReportTamilNadu89.pdf| access-date = 19 April 2009| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101006153620/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1989/StatisticalReportTamilNadu89.pdf| archive-date = 6 October 2010}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=[[S. S. Ramasubbu]] |party=Indian National Congress |votes=31,314 |percentage=28.57% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=M. P. Murugiah |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=30,832 |percentage=28.13% |change=-2.53 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=[[V. Karuppasamy Pandian]] |party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=23,964 |percentage=21.87% |change=-32.62 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=[[Aladi Aruna]] |party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=20,867 |percentage=19.04% |change=-35.45 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=482 |percentage=0.44% |change= -23.38% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=109,598 |percentage=79.43% |change= 3.67% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 140,927 |change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |swing= -25.92% }}
{{Election box end}}

===1984===

{{Election box begin|title= [[1984 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: Alangulam<ref>{{cite web| last = Election Commission of India| title = Statistical Report on General Election 1984| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1984/StatisticalReportTamilNadu84.pdf| access-date = 19 April 2009| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20120117121208/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1984/StatisticalReportTamilNadu84.pdf| archive-date = 17 Jan 2012}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=[[N. Shanmugaiah Pandian]] |party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=48,109 |percentage=54.49% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=P. Thambi Thura |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=27,076 |percentage=30.67% |change=-14.48 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=T. Sekar |party=Independent politician |votes=5,922 |percentage=6.71% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=S. P. Emarajan |party=Independent politician |votes=3,866 |percentage=4.38% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=N. Thangaraj Pandian |party=Independent politician |votes=2,448 |percentage=2.77% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=M. Rayappan |party=Independent politician |votes=548 |percentage=0.62% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=21,033 |percentage=23.82% |change= 15.10% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=88,294 |percentage=75.76% |change= 8.46% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 124,914 |change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser=Gandhi Kamaraj National Congress |swing= 0.61% }}
{{Election box end}}

===1980===

{{Election box begin|title= [[1980 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: Alangulam<ref>{{cite web| last = Election Commission of India| title = Statistical Report on General Election 1980| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1980/StatisticalReportTamil%20Nadu%201980.pdf | access-date = 19 April 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101006231656/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1980/StatisticalReportTamil%20Nadu%201980.pdf| archive-date = 6 Oct 2010}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=[[R. Navaneetha Krishna Pandian]] |party=Gandhi Kamaraj National Congress |votes=41,271 |percentage=53.88% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=E. Dorai Singh |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=34,587 |percentage=45.15% |change=+28.82 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=M. Rayappan Nadar |party=Independent politician |votes=504 |percentage=0.66% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=6,684 |percentage=8.73% |change= 6.13% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=76,604 |percentage=67.29% |change= 4.40% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 115,519 |change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Gandhi Kamaraj National Congress |loser=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |swing= 25.44% }}
{{Election box end}}

===1977===

{{Election box begin|title= [[1977 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: Alangulam<ref>{{cite web| last = Election Commission of India| title = Statistical Report on General Election 1977| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1977/StatisticalReportTamil%20Nadu77.pdf| access-date = 19 April 2009| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101007141448/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1977/StatisticalReportTamil%20Nadu77.pdf | archive-date = 7 Oct 2010}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=[[V. Karuppasamy Pandian]] |party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=20,183 |percentage=28.43% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=[[R. Navaneetha Krishna Pandian]] |party=Janata Party |votes=18,342 |percentage=25.84% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=S. Ukkirama Pandian |party=Indian National Congress |votes=17,997 |percentage=25.35% |change=-23.36 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=P. Thambi Durai |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=11,592 |percentage=16.33% |change=-34.96 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=S. Arulappan Nadar |party=Independent politician |votes=1,024 |percentage=1.44% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=T. Thirumaran |party=All India Forward Bloc |votes=861 |percentage=1.21% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=S. Subbiah Thevar |party=Independent politician |votes=663 |percentage=0.93% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=1,841 |percentage=2.59% |change= 0.01% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=70,987 |percentage=62.89% |change= -15.40% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 114,602 |change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |swing= -22.86% }}
{{Election box end}}

===1971===

{{Election box begin|title= [[1971 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: Alangulam<ref>{{cite web| last = Election Commission of India| title = Statistical Report on General Election 1971| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1971/StatReport_TN_71.pdf | access-date = 19 April 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101006131227/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1971/StatReport_TN_71.pdf | archive-date = 6 Oct 2010}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=[[Aladi Aruna]] |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=36,526 |percentage=51.29% |change=+0.04 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=S. K. T. Ramachandran |party=Indian National Congress |votes=34,688 |percentage=48.71% |change=+1.39 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=1,838 |percentage=2.58% |change= -1.35% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=71,214 |percentage=78.29% |change= 1.26% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 93,471 |change = }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |swing= 0.04% }}
{{Election box end}}

===1967===

{{Election box begin|title= [[1967 Madras Legislative Assembly election]]: Alangulam<ref>{{Cite web| last = Election Commission of India|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report%20Madras%201967.pdf|title= Statistical Report on General Election 1967|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320175222/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report%20Madras%201967.pdf|archive-date=20 March 2012|access-date= 19 April 2009}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=[[Aladi Aruna]] |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=33,509 |percentage=51.26% |change=+38.04 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=A. B. Balagan |party=Indian National Congress |votes=30,938 |percentage=47.32% |change=-4.12 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=M. Royappan |party=Independent politician |votes=930 |percentage=1.42% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=2,571 |percentage=3.93% |change= -12.16% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=65,377 |percentage=77.03% |change= 8.00% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 87,529 |change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= -0.18% }}
{{Election box end}}

===1962===

{{Election box begin|title= [[1962 Madras Legislative Assembly election]]: Alangulam<ref>{{cite web| last = Election Commission of India|title=Statistical Report on General Election 1962|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1962/StatRep_Madras_1962.pdf|access-date= 19 April 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127201143/https://eci.gov.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1962/StatRep_Madras_1962.pdf|archive-date=27 Jan 2013}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=[[S. Chellapandian|S. Chellapandian Thevar]] |party=Indian National Congress |votes=32,650 |percentage=51.44% |change=+10.67 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=N. H. M. Pandian |party=Swatantra Party |votes=22,438 |percentage=35.35% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=V. Arunachalam Nadar |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=8,387 |percentage=13.21% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=10,212 |percentage=16.09% |change= 5.22% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=63,475 |percentage=69.02% |change= 29.33% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 95,066 |change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Independent politician |swing= -0.21% }}
{{Election box end}}

===1957===

{{Election box begin|title= [[1957 Madras Legislative Assembly election]]: Alangulam<ref>{{cite web| last = Election Commission of India| title=Statistical Report on General Election 1957 | url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1957/StatRep_Madras_1957.pdf| access-date=2015-07-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127200447/https://eci.gov.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1957/StatRep_Madras_1957.pdf|archive-date=27 Jan 2013}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=[[Veluchamy Thevar]] |party=Independent politician |votes=19,458 |percentage=51.64% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=[[S. Chellapandian|S. Chellapandian Thevar]] |party=Indian National Congress |votes=15,362 |percentage=40.77% |change=+8.2 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Ambalavana Pillai |party=Independent politician |votes=2,858 |percentage=7.59% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=4,096 |percentage=10.87% |change= 1.98% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=37,678 |percentage=39.70% |change= -14.07% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 94,908 |change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Independent politician |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= 19.07% }}
{{Election box end}}

===1952===

{{Election box begin|title= [[1952 Madras Legislative Assembly election]]: Alangulam<ref>{{cite web| last = Election Commission of India| title=Statistical Report on General Election 1951| url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/STATISTICALREPORTS_51_MADRAS.pdf| access-date=2014-10-14|archive-date=27 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127201450/https://eci.gov.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/STATISTICALREPORTS_51_MADRAS.pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=[[Chinnathambi Thevar]] |party=Indian National Congress |votes=13,433 |percentage=32.57% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Thangarathnasami Nadar |party=Independent politician |votes=9,765 |percentage=23.68% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Peter Arulmani |party=Independent politician |votes=7,440 |percentage=18.04% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Velikandanatha Pillai |party=Socialist Party (India) |votes=5,463 |percentage=13.25% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Maria Louis Pandian |party=Independent politician |votes=5,144 |percentage=12.47% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=3,668 |percentage=8.89% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=41,245 |percentage=53.77% |change= }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 76,713 |change = }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner=Indian National Congress |loser= |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}
* {{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/ElectionStatistics.asp |title=Statistical reports of assembly elections |access-date=8 July 2010 |publisher=Election Commission of India |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101005110118/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/ElectionStatistics.asp |archive-date=5 October 2010 }}

{{Assembly constituencies of Tamil Nadu}}

{{coord|8.8700|N|77.5000|E|source:wikidata|display=title}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Tenkasi district]]
[[Category:Politics of Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1951]]
[[Category:1951 establishments in Madras State]]

Mohan Charan Majhi ministry

2026-05-02T13:34:52Z

Indianeagle1: Made redirect

#REDIRECT [[Majhi ministry]]

{{Redirect category shell|
{{R with history}}
{{R from move}}
}}

Pradip Somasundaran

2026-05-02T11:11:51Z

Indianeagle1: starting basic pg more to come

{{EngvarB|date=August 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2014}}
{{Indian name|Pradip|Somasundaran}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Pradip Somasundaran
| image = Pradipsomasundaran1.jpg
| native_name = പ്രദീപ് സോമസുന്ദരൻ
| native_name_lang = ml
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1967|1|26|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Nelluvaya]], [[Thrissur]], [[India]]
| alma_mater= [[Bharathidasan University]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pradip Somasundaran - About |url=https://www.facebook.com/pradipsomasundaran.singer/about |access-date=2020-10-16 |website=[[Facebook]]}}</ref>
| occupation = {{hlist|Singer|composer|music producer|lecturer}}
| years_active = 1993–present
| spouse = Ranjini Pradip
| children = 2
| awards =
| website =
| module = {{Infobox musical artist|embed=yes
| background = solo_singer
| genre = {{flat list|
* [[Indian classical music]]
* [[playback singer|Playback singing]]
* [[Filmi]]
}}
| instrument = Vocals
| label = {{flat list|

* East Coast Audios
* [[Saregama|His Master's Voice]]}}}}
| |
}}
'''Pradip Somasundaran''' (born 26 January 1967) is an Indian playback singer, who sang around 100 songs in [[Malayalam]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]] and [[Hindi]] languages. He is also a [[Principal (academia)|college principal]] by profession.

==Early life==
Pradip Somasundaran was born on 26 January 1967 in [[Nelluvaya]], [[Thrissur district]] of [[Kerala]]. His parents are Somasundaran and Santha. He was initially trained in [[carnatic music]] under Geetha Rani and later under V. Gopalan of [[Thrissur]], and started giving stage performances at the age of sixteen.<ref name='swyaa'>{{cite web | url = http://www.swyaa-india.in/pradip-profile.doc | title = Profile of Pradip Somasundaram | accessdate = 4 February 2012 | publisher = Ship for World Youth Alumni Association | format = DOC | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131029191101/http://www.swyaa-india.in/pradip-profile.doc | archive-date = 29 October 2013 | url-status = dead }}</ref><ref name='music'>{{cite web | url = http://www.pradipsomasundaran.com/music.htm | title = Music | accessdate = 4 February 2012 | last = Pradip | first = Somasundaran}}</ref>

==Music career==
It was music director [[Raveendran]] who gave Pradip the first break in 1993, with the song ''"Samayam Manoharam"'' in the film ''Ezhuthachan''. He has also worked with the late [[Johnson (composer)|Johnson]], [[Mohan Sithara]] and [[Ilaiyaraaja]] in Malayalam. [[Sandeep Chowta]] introduced him in [[Telugu films]] with ''[[Bujjigadu]]'' directed by [[Puri Jagannadh]]. He also sang for ''[[Saleem (film)|Saleem]]'' another [[Sandeep Chowta]] musical, directed by [[YVS Chowdary]]. He has also sung the title song ''"Bhagavane"'' for the television series ''Gajarajan Guruvayur Keshavan'' which was composed by [[Vidyadharan]] for [[Surya TV]]. In addition to being a playback singer he sings [[carnatic music]], [[ghazals]] and [[devotional songs]].<ref name='music'/>

In 2007 he released ''"Koti Pranam"'' his first international album as a composer and singer for the [[Art of Living foundation]]. In 2011 he released ''"Mazhanritham"'' his first musical work in Malayalam as a composer collaborating with other playback singers like [[Gayatri Asokan]], Franco, Shahabaz Aman and actor [[Manoj K Jayan]].<ref>{{cite news | title = Actor sings in new musical album | date = 22 October 2010 | url = http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/article842237.ece | work = [[The Hindu]] | accessdate = 4 February 2012}}</ref>

==Achievements==
He won the "Lata Mangeshkar Trophy" for the best male singer along with [[Sunidhi Chauhan]] who won in the female category, in the national level music competition ''Meri Awaz Suno'' in 1996, which was telecast by [[Doordarshan]]. ''Meri Awaz Suno'' was conducted jointly by [[Doordarshan]], [[Lata Mangeshkar]], and [[Yash Chopra]]'s ''Metavision''.<ref name='Hindu2011'>{{cite news | first = S. | last = Anandan | title = For five minutes of fame | date = 22 January 2011 | work = [[The Hindu]] | url = https://www.thehindu.com/arts/magazine/article1108303.ece | accessdate = 4 February 2012}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Pradip holds a [[master's degree|master's]] in [[electronics]] from [[Andhra University]] and is currently working as the [[Principal (academia)|principal]] of [[College of Applied Science Vadakkencherry]].<ref name='Hindu2011'/><ref name='ihrd'>{{cite web | url = http://casvadakkencherry.ihrd.ac.in/faculty.html | title = COLLEGE OF APPLIED SCIENCE | accessdate = 4 February 2012 }}{{Dead link|date=May 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> He is a [[free software]] enthusiast and was involved in the activities of the [[Free Software Foundation India]] during [[Richard Stallman]]'s 2001 visit to [[Kochi]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.pradipsomasundaran.com/me.htm | title = About me | accessdate = 4 February 2012 | last = Pradip | first = Somasundaran}}</ref> He has been residing at Thrissur for a long time.

==Discography==
*''Note '''(D)''' indicates dubbing.''
===Film songs===

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Song
! Film
! Released by
! Music director
! Year of release
! Notes
|-
| Samayam Manoharam
| Ezhuthachan
| [[Saregama|His Master's Voice]] (RPG)
| [[Raveendran]]
| 1993
|
|-
| Perumathodi
| Mannadiyar Penninu Chenkotta Chekkan
| Ankith Audio
| [[Raveendran]]
| 1996
|
|-
| Punyam
| Kalyanappittennu
| Sargam
| [[Raveendran]]
| 1997
|
|-
| Muthe Ninne Thedi
| Manasam
| Ankith Audio
| [[Johnson (composer)|Johnson]]
| 1997
|
|-
| Vavaa Vo
| Manasam
| Ankith Audio
| [[Johnson (composer)|Johnson]]
| 1997
|
|-
| Moham Manassil
| Arjunan Pillayum Anju Makkalum
| Sargam
| Mohan Sitara
| 1997
|
|-
| Mohini Enikkayi
| Manjeeradhwani '''(D)'''
| Johny Sagariga
| [[Ilayaraaja]]
| 1998
| Dubbed from the Telugu film ''Priyuralu''
|-
| Sandhya Ragamai
| Kannadikkadavathu
| East Coast Audio
| Balabhaskar
| 2000
|
|-
| Manava Mochana
| Arunam
| –
| Ramesh Narayan
| 2006 (To be Released)
|
|-
| Chitti Aayi Re
| [[Bujjigadu]] Made in Chennai (Telugu)
| Aditya Audios
| [[Sandeep Chowta]]
| 2008
|
|-
| Poolu Gusa Gusa
| [[Saleem (film)|Saleem]] (Telugu)
| [[Sony Music]]
| [[Sandeep Chowta]]
| 2009
|
|-
| Virahardra, Muthola
| Dhanyam (Malayalam)
| Pooram Arts
| K.K Sebastian
| 2012
|
|-
| Chenkadalu Viriyunna
| D Company (Malayalam)
| Happy & Ruby
| Ratheesh Vegha
| 2013
|
|-
|Hey Ganga Maiya
|Maiya
|Iris Films
|Poly Varghese
|2018
|
|-
|Nimisham
|Kaliyuga (Telugu)
|[[Aditya Music]]
|D Kamal Kumar
|2019
|
|}

===Non-film albums===

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Album
! Language
! Released by
! Music director
! Year of release
|-
| Pratyasha Vol 1,2,3,4
| Hindi
| Dharmabharathi
| Fr. Paul Poovathigal
| 1994, 1997, 2000, 2006
|-
| Sangeetharchana
| Malayalam
| [[Saregama|His Master's Voice]] (RPG)
| Jaya Vijaya
| 1997
|-
| Ayyappamayam
| Malayalam
| Sargam
| Suresh & Suma Varma
| 1997
|-
| Pradakshinam
| Malayalam
| Audiotracs
| Kalyan Anand
| 1997
|-
| Kripa
| Malayalam
| Johny Sagariga
| Jerson Antony
| 1997
|-
| Sangeetha Sangamam
| Malayalam
| Johny Sagariga
| MACTA Live Program
| 1998
|-
| Ninakkayi
| Malayalam
| East Coast Audios
| Balabhaskar
| 1998
|-
| Ponnonam
| Malayalam
| Sargam Audios
| [[Raveendran]]
| 1998
|-
| The Golden Voice
| Hindi
| Maruthi Audios
| Cover Versions
| 1998
|-
| Aadyamayi
| Malayalam
| East Coast Audios
| Balabhaskar
| 2000
|-
| Onappeeli
| Malayalam
| East Coast Audios
| Balabhaskar
| 2000
|-
| Ayyappathrippadam
| Malayalam
| Pranathy Audios
| Ravindran Paingodu
| 2000
|-
| Angel
| Malayalam
| Angel Vision
| [[Johnson (composer)|Johnson]], Joy Cheruvathoor, Ouseppachan
| 2000
|-
| Ennennum
| Malayalam
| Satyam Audios
| Manoj George
| 2001
|-
| Jeevan
| Malayalam
| Grace Communications
| Joy Cheruvathoor
| 2002
|-
| Koti Pranaam
| Mixed
| The Art of Living Foundation International
| Himself
| 2007
|-
| Rithubhangi
| Malayalam
| Manorama Music
| Kallara Gopan
| 2009
|-
| Mazhanritham
| Malayalam
| Highness Video
| Himself
| 2011
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
* [http://www.pradipsomasundaran.com Official website] and [https://web.archive.org/web/20070511013952/http://pradipsomasundaran.com/musicblog Music blog]
* [https://www.facebook.com/pradipsomasundaran Official Facebook Page]
* [https://www.youtube.com/pradipsoman YouTube Link]
* {{IMDb name|2284208}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Somasundaran, Pradip}}
[[Category:1967 births]]
[[Category:Indian male playback singers]]
[[Category:Tamil-language playback singers]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Malayalam-language playback singers]]
[[Category:People from Thrissur district]]
[[Category:Telugu-language playback singers]]
[[Category:Singers from Thrissur]]
[[Category:Film musicians from Kerala]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male singers]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male singers]]

G. Girish

2026-05-02T05:52:04Z

Indianeagle1: new data

{{short description|Indian judge}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2025}}
{{Infobox judge
| name = Justice G. Girish
| image = 
| caption =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1967|5|17}}
| birth_place = Kerala
| occupation = Judge
| office = Judge, Kerala High Court
| appointment =
| predecessor =
| successor = President of India
| alma_mater = [[Government Law College, Thiruvananthapuram|Government Law College]], Thiruvananthapuram
| known_for = Being judge of Kerala High Court
| spouse =
| children =
| website =
}}

'''Justice G. Girish''' (b. 17 May 1967) is an Indian judge serving in the [[Kerala High Court]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Centre clears three judges to Kerala High Court from the list of five |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Kochi/centre-clears-three-judges-to-kerala-high-court-from-the-list-of-five/article67435038.ece |website=The Hindu |access-date=6 January 2025 |language=English |publisher=The Hindu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Justice G. Girish |url=https://www.barandbench.com/topic/justice-g-girish |website=Bar & Bench |access-date=6 January 2025 |language=English |publisher=Bar & Bench}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Girish was born on 17 May 1967 in Kerala, India. He completed his early education at [[NSS College of Engineering|N.S.S College]], [[Pandalam]], and went on to study law at the [[Government Law College, Thiruvananthapuram|Government Law College]] in [[Thiruvananthapuram]]. After completing his law degree, he enrolled as an advocate in December 1990 and began practicing law in Adoor. Girish was sworn in as an Additional Judge of the High Court of Kerala on 25 October, 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Judge Profile of Justice G. Girish |url=https://www.cdjlawjournal.com/judge-profile1.php?id=1797&cid=5#:~:text=Born%20on%2017.05.,Gopinathan%20Unnithan%20and%20Smt. |website=CDJ Law Journal |access-date=6 January 2025 |language=English |publisher=CDJ Law Journal}}</ref>

He was appointed as a permanent judge of that high court from 1 September 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Order of appointment of Shri Justice Johnson John and 02 other, Additional Judges of the Kerala High Court as Permanent Judges of that High Court (01.09.2025) {{!}} Department of Justice {{!}} India |url=https://doj.gov.in/document/order-of-appointment-of-shri-justice-johnson-john-and-02-other-additional-judges-of-the-kerala-high-court-as-permanent-judges-of-that-high-court-01-09-2025/ |access-date=2025-10-04 |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://highcourt.kerala.gov.in/judges.php Kerala Highcourt]

{{India-law-bio-stub}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Girish, G.}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Judges of the Kerala High Court]]
[[Category:1967 births]]
[[Category:People from Kerala]]
[[Category:Government Law College, Thiruvananthapuram, alumni]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian judges]]
[[Category:Indian law biography stubs]]

Indian National Congress

2026-05-01T11:29:21Z

Indianeagle1: quick refine formatting per standard format further

{{Short description|Indian political party}}
{{hatnote group|
{{for|similarly named parties}}
{{distinguish|text=the [[Parliament of India]]}}
}}
{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2025}}
{{Infobox Indian political party
| name = Indian National Congress
| abbreviation = INC
| logo = Indian National Congress hand logo.svg
| logo_size = 150px
| colourcode = {{party colour|Indian National Congress}}
| founder = [[Allan Octavian Hume]] [[Womesh Chunder Bonnerjee]] [[Surendranath Banerjee]] [[Monomohun Ghose]] [[William Wedderburn]] [[Dadabhai Naoroji]] [[Badruddin Tyabji]] [[Pherozeshah Mehta]] [[Dinshaw Edulji Wacha]] [[Mahadev Govind Ranade]]<ref>{{ multiref2
|{{cite web | url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/here-is-a-list-of-past-presidents-of-indian-national-congress-4967084/ | title=Indian National Congress: From 1885 till 2017, a brief history of past presidents | work=The Indian Express | author=Kanishka Singh | date=5 December 2017 | accessdate=28 July 2021}}
|{{cite web | url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/opinion/sagely-leader-dadabhai-naoroji/cid/1820580 | title=Sagely leader: Dadabhai Naoroji |work=The Telegraph|location=India | author=Praveen Davar | date=30 June 2021 | accessdate=28 July 2021}}
| {{cite web | url=https://theprint.in/theprint-profile/ao-hume-father-of-indian-national-congress-who-was-distrusted-by-the-british-indians/246141/ | title=AO Hume, 'Father' of Indian National Congress who was distrusted by the British & Indians | publisher=ThePrint | work=Deeksha Bhardwaj | date=6 June 2019 | accessdate=28 July 2021}}
|{{cite web | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/lucknow/cong-founder-was-district-collector-of-etawah/articleshow/50346572.cms | title=Cong founder was district collector of Etawah | work=[[The Times of India]] | last=Sinha |first=Arunav | date=28 December 2015 | accessdate=28 July 2021}}
| {{cite book|author=Sir William Wedderburn|title=Allan Octavian Hume: Father of the Indian National Congress, 1829–1912 : a Biography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dFqgAAAAMAAJ|year=2002|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-565287-1|page=42}}
| {{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24701107 | author=Kanta Kataria | title=A.o. Hume: His Life and Contribution to the Regeneration of India | journal=The Indian Journal of Political Science | year=2013 | volume=74 | issue=2 | pages=245–252| jstor=24701107 }} }}</ref>
| presidium = [[All India Congress Committee]]
| president = [[Mallikarjun Kharge]]<ref name="indiatimes1">{{cite web|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/mallikarjun-kharge-wins-congress-presidential-elections-set-to-become-first-non-gandhi-head-of-party-in-24-years/articleshow/94961760.cms |title=Mallikarjun Kharge wins Congress Presidential elections, set to become first non-Gandhi head of party in 24 years|work=The Economic Times|date=3 June 2021 |accessdate=21 October 2022}}</ref><ref name="thehindu1">{{cite news | url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/congress-president-poll-mallikarjun-kharge-set-to-be-partys-new-chief-polls-over-7000-votes/article66030419.ece | title=Mallikarjun Kharge wins Congress presidential election with over 7,800 votes | newspaper=The Hindu | date=19 October 2022 | last1=Phukan | first1=Sandeep }}</ref>
| ppchairman = [[Sonia Gandhi]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://inc.in/congress-sandesh/report/smt-sonia-gandhi-re-elected-as-chairperson-of-congress-parliamentary-party|title=Smt Sonia Gandhi re-elected as chairperson of Congress parliamentary party|website=inc.in|date=25 June 2024}}</ref>
| loksabha_leader = [[Rahul Gandhi]] ([[Leader of the Opposition in Lok Sabha|LoP in Lok Sabha]])
| rajyasabha_leader = [[Mallikarjun Kharge]] ([[Leader of the Opposition in Rajya Sabha|LoP in Rajya Sabha]])
| foundation = 28 December 1885 ({{age in years and days|1885|12|28}} ago)
| headquarters = Indira Bhawan, 9-A, Kotla Marg, New Delhi-110001<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.abplive.com/news/india/congress-new-office-9-kotla-road-24-akbar-road-named-as-indira-bhavan-2567047 |title=From 24 Akbar to 9 Kotla Road...how many Congress offices changed in 138 years? |work=ABP News |date=22 December 2023 |access-date=22 December 2023}}</ref>
| publication = ''Congress Sandesh'' ''[[National Herald]]''
| students = [[National Students' Union of India]]
| youth = [[Indian Youth Congress]]
| women = [[All India Mahila Congress]]
| labour = [[Indian National Trade Union Congress]]
| peasants = [[Kisan and Khet Mazdoor Congress]]<ref name="Kisan Wing">{{cite news |title=Kisan and Khet Mazdoor Congress sets 10-day deadline for Centre to concede demands |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/Kisan-and-Khet-Mazdoor-Congress-sets-10-day-deadline-for-Centre-to-concede-demands/article14427968.ece |access-date=10 March 2022 |work=The Hindu |date=16 June 2016}}</ref>
| think tank =
| membership = 26 million (2022)<ref>{{cite news |url=https://theprint.in/india/southern-states-ahead-in-congress-membership-drive-telangana-unit-leads/892158/ |title=Southern states ahead in Congress membership drive, Telangana unit leads |date=28 March 2022 |website=[[ThePrint]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://news.abplive.com/news/india/congress-digital-membership-drive-gains-focus-with-47-percent-men-42-percent-women-participation-significant-contribution-by-south-1521959 |title=Congress' Digital Membership Drive Gains Focus With Boost in Participation, South Contributes Significantly |date=27 March 2022 |website=[[ABP News]]}}</ref>
| ideology = {{ublist |item_style=white-space:nowrap;

| [[Liberalism]] ([[Liberalism in India|Indian]]){{refn |<ref>{{cite book |editor1=Emiliano Bosio |editor2=Yusef Waghid |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hb6ZEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA270 |title=Global Citizenship Education in the Global South: Educators' Perceptions and Practices |date=31 October 2022 |page=270 |publisher=Brill |isbn=9789004521742 }}</ref><ref name="Liberal1">{{cite book |last=DeSouza |first=Peter Ronald |date=2006 |title=India's Political Parties Readings in Indian Government and Politics series |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eeRhDwAAQBAJ&q=Indian+National+Congress+liberal+ideology |publisher= [[Sage Publishing]] |page=420 |isbn=978-9-352-80534-1 }}</ref><ref name="Liberal2">{{cite book |last1=Rosow |first1=Stephen J. |last2=George |first2=Jim |date=2014 |title=Globalization and Democracy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v3mVoAEACAAJ |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |pages=91–96 |isbn=978-1-442-21810-9 }}</ref>}}

|[[Social democracy]]{{refn |<ref name="Barrington2009"/><ref name="Agarwal1989">{{cite book|year=1989|editor1-last=Agrawal|editor1-first=S. P.|editor2-last=Aggarwal|editor2-first=J. C.|title=Nehru on Social Issues|location=New Delhi|publisher=Concept Publishing|isbn=978-817022207-1}}</ref> }}

| [[Secularism]] ([[Secularism in India|Indian]])<ref name="J.Soper">{{cite book |last1=Soper |first1=J. Christopher |last2=Fetzer |first2=Joel S. |date=2018 |title=Religion and Nationalism in Global Perspective |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y7BoDwAAQBAJ |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |pages=200–210 |isbn=978-1-107-18943-0 }}</ref>
| [[Civic nationalism]]<ref name="J.Soper" />
| [[Big tent]]{{refn |<ref name="Barrington2009">{{cite book|author=Lowell Barrington|title=Comparative Politics: Structures and Choices|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3uuAtazupnAC&pg=PA379|year=2009|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-0-618-49319-7|page=379}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Meyer|first1=Karl Ernest|last2=Brysac|first2=Shareen Blair|title=Pax Ethnica: Where and How Diversity Succeeds|url=https://archive.org/details/paxethnicawhereh0000meye|url-access=registration|access-date=7 April 2016|year=2012|publisher=PublicAffairs|isbn=978-1-61039-048-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/paxethnicawhereh0000meye/page/50 50]}}</ref>}}}}
|position = [[Centrism|Centre]]{{refn |<ref name="Barrington2009" /><ref name="centrist">{{cite book|editor=Jean-Pierre Cabestan, Jacques deLisle |title=Inside India Today (Routledge Revivals)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=heFSAQAAQBAJ&dq=Centrist+Indian+National+Congress&pg=PR10 |quote= ... were either guarded in their criticism of the ruling party – the centrist Indian National Congress – or attacked it almost invariably from a rightist position. This was so for political and commercial reasons. |date=2013 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-135-04823-5 }}</ref>}}
|international = [[Progressive Alliance]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://progressive-alliance.info/participants/|title=Progressive Alliance Participants|work=Progressive Alliance|access-date=20 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150302142054/http://progressive-alliance.info/participants/|archive-date=2 March 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Socialist International]]{{refn|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.socialistinternational.org/viewArticle.cfm?ArticlePageID=931|title=Full Member Parties of Socialist International|work=Socialist International}}</ref><ref name="Sheffer1993">{{cite book |author=Gabriel Sheffer|title=Innovative Leaders in International Politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=__efKLSD3M0C&pg=PA202|access-date=30 January 2013|year=1993|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-1520-7|page=202}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Meeting of the SI Council at the United Nations in Geneva|url=http://www.socialistinternational.org/viewArticle.cfm?ArticleID=2326|publisher=Socialist International}}</ref>}}
| eci = [[List of political parties in India|National Party]]<ref>{{cite web|title=List of Political Parties and Election Symbols main Notification Dated 18.01.2013|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/ElectoralLaws/OrdersNotifications/ElecSym19012013_eng.pdf|publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=9 May 2013|location=India|year=2013}}</ref>
| alliance = * '''National Alliance''' [[Indian National Developmental Inclusive Alliance|INDIA]] (since 2023)
* '''Regional Alliances'''
*[[United Democratic Front (Kerala)|UDF]] ([[Kerala]])
*[[Secular Progressive Alliance|SPA]] ([[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]])
*[[Manipur Progressive Secular Alliance|MPSA]] ([[Manipur]])
*[[Maha Vikas Aghadi|MVA]] ([[Maharashtra]])
*[[Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)|MGB]] ([[Jharkhand]])
*[[Mahagathbandhan (Bihar)|MGB]] ([[Bihar]]) 
*[[Secular Democratic Front|SDF]] ([[Tripura]]) 
*[[Asom Sonmilito Morcha|ASM]] ([[Assam]])
{{hidden|Former Alliances|
* [[United Progressive Alliance|UPA]] (2004–2023 ''(till dissolved)'') (National)
* [[DMK-led Alliance]] (1971–1974, 1980–1983, 2004–2006 ''(till dissolved)'') (Tamil Nadu)
* [[AIADMK-led Alliance]] (1977, 1984–1996, 1999–2001) (Tamil Nadu)
* [[Democratic Front (India)|Democratic Front]] (1999–2019 ''(till dissolved)'') (Maharashtra)
* [[Secular Progressive Front (2002–2012)|Secular Progressive Front]] (2002–2012 ''(till dissolved)'') (Manipur)
* [[Mizoram Secular Alliance]] (2004 ''(till dissolved)'') (Mizoram)}}
| loksabha_seats = {{Plainlist|
* {{Composition bar|100|543|hex={{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
* (540 MPs and 3 vacant){{efn| Tally includes 2 Independent MPs who are members of INC.}}<ref name="Lok sabha members">{{cite web |publisher=National Informatics Centre | title=List of Lok Sabha Members | website=Digital Sansad | date=19 April 2023 | url=https://sansad.in/ls/members | access-date=13 February 2025}}</ref>}}
| rajyasabha_seats = {{Plainlist|
* {{Composition bar|29|245|hex={{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
* (243 MPs and 2 vacant)<ref name=pp>{{cite web|url=http://164.100.47.5/newlob/party_position.pdf|title=Party Position in the Rajya Sabha|publisher=Rajya Sabha|access-date=14 July 2018}}</ref><ref name="m716">{{cite web |publisher=National Informatics Centre | title=List of Members| website=Digital Sansad | date=14 November 2022 | url=https://sansad.in/rs/members | access-date=13 February 2025}}</ref>}}
| state2_seats_name = [[State legislative assemblies of India|State Legislative Assemblies]]
| state2_seats = {{Plainlist|
* {{Composition bar|632|4126|hex={{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
* (4030 MLAs and 5 vacant)
* ([[#Legislative Assembly|see complete list]])}}
| state_seats_name = [[State Legislative Council (India)|State Legislative Councils]]
| state_seats = {{Plainlist|
* {{Composition bar|60|426|hex={{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
* (390 MLCs and 36 vacant)
* ([[#Legislative Council|see complete list]])}}
| no_states = {{Plainlist|
* {{Composition bar|6|31|hex={{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
* (28 States and 3 UTs)}}
| colours = {{color box|#F37022|border=darkgray}} {{color box|#FFFFFF|border=darkgray}} {{color box|#0F823F|border=darkgray}} Saffron, white, and green (official; [[Flag of India|Indian national colours]]) {{colour box|{{party colour|Indian National Congress}}|border=darkgray}} Sky blue (customary)
| symbol = [[File:Hand INC.svg|150px]] Raised Hand
| flag = Indian National Congress Flag.svg
| website = {{Official URL}}
| general_secretary= {{ubl|class=nowrap|
|[[Avinash Pandey]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=AICC Office bearers, General Secretaries |url=https://inc.in/aicc-office-bearers/general-secretaries |access-date=15 February 2025 |website=Indian National Congress}}</ref>
|[[Bhupesh Baghel]]
|[[Deepa Dasmunsi]]
|[[Ghulam Ahmad Mir]]
|[[Jairam Ramesh]]
|[[Jitendra Singh (Congress politician)|Jitendra Singh]]
|[[K. C. Venugopal]]
|[[Kumari Selja]]
|[[Mukul Wasnik]]
|[[Priyanka Gandhi]]
|[[Randeep Singh Surjewala]]
|[[Sachin Pilot]]
|[[Syed Naseer Hussain]]|split=}}
| treasurer=[[Ajay Maken]]}}

{{Indian National Congress sidebar}}
The '''Indian National Congress''' ('''INC'''), also known as the '''Congress Party''', or simply the '''Congress''', is a [[big tent]] [[political parties in India|political party in India]], one of the two major [[List of political parties in India|Indian political parties]] alongside the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]. It is the oldest existing political party in [[India]]. Founded on 28 December 1885, it was the first modern [[Nationalism|nationalist movement]] to emerge in the [[British Empire]] in Asia and Africa.{{efn|"The first modern nationalist movement to arise in the non-European empire, and one that became an inspiration for many others, was the Indian Congress."<ref name="Marshall2001" />}}<ref name="Marshall2001" /> From the late 19th century, and especially after 1920, under the leadership of [[Mahatma Gandhi]], the Congress became the principal leader of the [[Indian independence movement]].<ref name="research">{{cite web|title=Information about the Indian National Congress|url=http://www.open.ac.uk/researchprojects/makingbritain/content/indian-national-congress|website=open.ac.uk|publisher=Arts & Humanities Research council|access-date=29 July 2015|archive-date=22 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922061005/http://www.open.ac.uk/researchprojects/makingbritain/content/indian-national-congress|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Congress was one of the parties who led India to independence from the United Kingdom,{{efn|"South Asian parties include several of the oldest in the post-colonial world, foremost among them the 129-year-old Indian National Congress that led India to independence in 1947"<ref name="Chiriyankandath2016" /> }}<ref name="Chiriyankandath2016">{{citation|last=Chiriyankandath|first=James |title=Parties and Political Change in South Asia|url={{Google books|c4n7CwAAQBAJ|page=PA2|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|year=2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-58620-3|page=2}}</ref>{{efn|"The organization that led India to independence, the Indian National Congress, was established in 1885."<ref name="KopsteinLichbach2014" /> }}<ref name="KopsteinLichbach2014">{{citation|last1=Kopstein|first1=Jeffrey|last2=Lichbach|first2=Mark|last3=Hanson |first3=Stephen E.|title=Comparative Politics: Interests, Identities, and Institutions in a Changing Global Order|url={{Google books|L2jwAwAAQBAJ|page=PA344|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|year=2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-99138-4|page=344}}</ref> and significantly influenced other [[Decolonization|anti-colonial nationalist movements]] in the British Empire.{{efn|"... anti-colonial movements ... which, like many other nationalist movements elsewhere in the empire, were strongly influenced by the Indian National Congress."<ref name="Marshall2001" />}}<ref name="Marshall2001">{{citation|last=Marshall|first=P. J.|title=The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire|url={{Google books|S2EXN8JTwAEC|page=PA179|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|year=2001|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-00254-7|page=179}}</ref>

The INC is a "[[big tent]]" party that has been described as sitting on the [[Centrism|centre]] of the [[Indian politics|Indian political]] spectrum.<ref name="Barrington2009"/><ref name="centrist"/><ref name="British-Journal">{{cite journal|last1=Saez|first1=Lawrence|last2=Sinha|first2=Aseema|title=Political cycles, political institutions and public expenditure in India, 1980–2000|journal=British Journal of Political Science|volume=40|issue=1|year=2010|pages=91–113|doi=10.1017/s0007123409990226|s2cid=154767259 | issn = 0007-1234 }}</ref> The party held its first session in 1885 in [[Mumbai|Bombay]] where [[Womesh Chunder Bonnerjee|W.C. Bonnerjee]] presided over it.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Indian National Congress |url=https://inc.in/ |access-date=5 November 2023 |website=Indian National Congress}}</ref> After Indian independence in 1947, Congress emerged as a [[catch-all party|catch-all]], [[Indian nationalism|Indian nationalist]] and [[Secularism in India|secular]] party, dominating Indian politics for the next 50 years. The party's first prime minister, [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], led the Congress to support [[socialist]] policies by creating the [[Planning Commission (India)|Planning Commission]], introducing [[Five-Year Plans of India|Five-Year Plans]], implementing a mixed economy, and establishing a [[secular state]]. After Nehru's death and the short tenure of [[Lal Bahadur Shastri]], [[Indira Gandhi]] became the leader of the party. In the 17 general elections since independence, it has won an outright majority on seven occasions and has led the ruling coalition a further three times, heading the central government for more than 54 years. There have been six prime ministers from the Congress party, the first being [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] (1947–1964), and the most recent being [[Manmohan Singh]] (2004–2014). Since the 1990s, the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] has emerged as the main rival of the Congress in both national and regional politics.

In 1969, the party suffered a major split, with a faction led by Indira Gandhi leaving to form the [[Indian National Congress (R)|Congress (R)]], with the remainder becoming the [[Indian National Congress (Organisation)|Congress (O)]]. The Congress (R) became the dominant faction, winning the [[1971 Indian general election|1971 general election]] by a huge margin. From 1975 to 1977, Indira Gandhi declared a [[The Emergency (India)|state of emergency]] in India, resulting in widespread oppression and abuses of power. Another split in the party occurred in 1979, leading to the creation of the Congress (I), which was recognised as the Congress by the [[Election Commission of India|Election Commission]] in 1981. Under [[Rajiv Gandhi]]'s leadership, the party won a massive victory in the [[1984 Indian general election|1984 general elections]], nevertheless losing the election held in 1989 to the [[National Front (India)|National Front]]. The Congress then returned to power under [[P. V. Narasimha Rao]], who moved the party towards an [[Economic liberalisation in India|economically liberal agenda]], a sharp break from previous leaders. However, it lost the [[1996 Indian general election|1996 general election]] and was replaced in government by the National Front. After a record eight years out of office, the Congress-led coalition known as the [[United Progressive Alliance]] (UPA) under [[Manmohan Singh]] formed a government after the [[2004 Indian general election|2004 general elections]]. Subsequently, the UPA again formed the government after winning the [[2009 Indian general election|2009 general elections]], and Singh became the first prime minister since [[Indira Gandhi]] in 1971 to be re-elected after completing a full five-year term. However, under the leadership of [[Rahul Gandhi]] in the [[2014 Indian general election|2014 general election]], the Congress suffered a heavy defeat, winning only 44 seats of the 543-member [[Lok Sabha]] (the [[lower house]] of the [[Parliament of India]]). In the [[2019 Indian general election|2019 general election]], the party failed to make any substantial gains and won 52 seats, failing to form the official opposition yet again. In the [[2024 Indian general election|2024 general election]], the party performed better-than-expected, and won 99 seats, forming the official opposition with their highest seat count in a decade.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/elections/india/lok-sabha-elections-2024-with-support-of-3-independent-mps-india-now-has-237-seats-3062152|title=Lok Sabha Elections 2024: With support of 3 Independent MPs, I.N.D.I.A now has 237 seats|first=Shemin|last=Joy|website=Deccan Herald}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatvnews.com/uttar-pradesh/rahul-gandhi-rae-bareli-visit-thank-people-of-constituency-for-his-lok-sabha-election-victory-2024-latest-updates-2024-07-09-940897|title=Rahul Gandhi to visit Rae Bareli today to thank people of constituency for his Lok Sabha election victory|first1=Anurag|last1=Roushan|date=9 July 2024|publisher=India TV News}}</ref>

On social issues, it advocates secular policies that encourage [[equal opportunity]], [[right to health]], [[right to education]], [[civil liberty]], and support [[social market economy]], and a strong [[welfare state]]. Being a centrist party, its policies predominantly reflected balanced positions including [[secularism]], [[egalitarianism]], and [[social stratification]]. The INC supports contemporary economic reforms such as [[Economic liberalization|liberalisation]], [[Privatization in India|privatisation]] and [[Economic globalisation|globalisation]]. A total of 61 people have served as the president of the INC since its formation. [[Sonia Gandhi]] is the longest-serving president of the party, having held office for over twenty years from 1998 to 2017 and again from 2019 to 2022 (as interim). [[Mallikarjun Kharge]] is the current party [[President of the Indian National Congress|president]]. The district party is the smallest functional unit of Congress. There is also a [[Pradesh Congress Committee]] (PCC), present at the state level in every state. Together, the delegates from the districts and PCCs form the [[All India Congress Committee]] (AICC). The party is additionally structured into various committees and segments including the [[Congress Working Committee|Working Committee]] (CWC), [[Seva Dal]], [[Indian Youth Congress]] (IYC), [[Indian National Trade Union Congress]] (INTUC), and [[National Students' Union of India]] (NSUI). The party holds the annual plenary sessions, at which senior Congress figures promote party policy.

== History ==
{{Main|History of the Indian National Congress}}

=== Foundation ===
{{See also|Indian independence movement}}

[[File:1st INC1885.jpg|thumb|left|alt= Leaders of the Congress Party gathered in 1885| First session of Indian National Congress, Bombay, 28–31 December 1885]]

[[File:Gopal krishan gokhale.jpg|left|thumb|192x192px|[[Gopal Krishna Gokhale]], a constitutional social reformer, moderate nationalist, and the president of the Indian National Congress in 1905]]

During the latter part of the 1870s, there were concerted efforts among Indians to establish a [[Indian subcontinent|pan-Indian]] organisation for nationalist political influence.<ref name="Gehlot 1991 35">{{cite book | last=Gehlot | first=N.S. | title=The Congress Party in India: Policies, Culture, Performance | publisher=Deep & Deep Publications | year=1991 | isbn=978-81-7100-306-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=06HLD2_3Qj4C&pg=PA35 | page=35|quote=The activities of Mr. A.O. Hume were pro – Indian and full of patriotic spirit for the youths.}}</ref> In 1883, [[Allan Octavian Hume]], a retired British [[Indian Civil Service (British India)|Civil Servant]] also known for his pro-Indian activities, outlined his idea for a body representing Indian interests in an open letter to graduates of the [[University of Calcutta]].<ref name="Gehlot 1991 35"/> The aim was to obtain a greater share in government for educated Indians and to create a platform for civic and political dialogue between them and the British Raj. Hume initiated contact with prominent leaders in India and a notice convening the first meeting of the Indian National Union to be held in [[Poona]] the following December, was issued.<ref name=pattabhi>Sitaramayya, B. Pattabhi. 1935. The History of the Indian National Congress. Working Committee of the Congress. [https://archive.org/details/TheHistoryOfTheIndianNationalCongress Scanned version]</ref> However, due to a [[cholera]] outbreak in Poona it was moved to Bombay.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/stream/historyoftheindi035503mbp/historyoftheindi035503mbp_djvu.txt |title=Full text of 'The History of the Indian National Congress' |publisher=The Working Committee of the Congress Madras |access-date=16 August 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/TheHistoryOfTheIndianNationalCongress|title=The History of the Indian National Congress (1885–1935)|author=Pattabhi Sita Ramaiah|date=1 November 2018|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> Subsequently, the first session of the Indian National Congress held in Bombay from 28 to 31 December 1885 at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College.<ref name="First Session">{{cite book |title=The Nehrus: Motilal and Jawaharlal: With a New Preface |chapter=Chapter Four Indian National Congress |date=6 December 2007 |publisher=Oxford Academic |page=45 |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195693430.003.0004 |isbn=978-0-19-569343-0 |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/12151/chapter-abstract/161561532?redirectedFrom=fulltext |access-date=5 December 2023}}</ref> Hume organised the first meeting in Bombay with the approval of the [[Governor-General of India|Viceroy]] [[Frederick Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood, 1st Marquess of Dufferin and Ava|Lord Dufferin]]. He assumed office as the General Secretary, while [[Womesh Chunder Bonnerjee|Umesh Chandra Banerjee]] was appointed as the first president of Congress.<ref name="GS">{{cite web |last1=Argov |first1=Daniel |url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/33772/1/11010545.pdf |title=Indian National Movement with Special Reference to Surendranath Banerjea and Lajpat Rai |date=1964 |doi=10.25501/SOAS.00033772 |access-date=29 November 2024}}</ref> Hume believed that while the British helped bring peace to India, they still had not solved the country’s economic problems.<ref name="Hume1885">{{Cite book |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/12151/chapter-abstract/161561532?redirectedFrom=fulltext&login=true |title=Four Chapter Four Indian National Congress |date=6 December 2007 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-569343-0 |chapter=Chapter Four Indian National Congress |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195693430.003.0004 |access-date=29 November 2024}}</ref>

The first session was attended by 72 delegates, with the majority being lawyers, representing each province of India.<ref>{{cite news|last=Singh |first=Kanishka |url=https://www.indianexpress.com/article/india/here-is-a-list-of-past-presidents-of-indian-national-congress-4967084/lite/ |title=Indian National Congress: From 1885 till 2017, a brief history of past presidents |newspaper=The Indian Express |date=5 December 2017 |access-date=16 August 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://m.rediff.com/news/report/cong/20061228.htm |title=Sonia sings Vande Mataram at Congress function – Rediff.com India News |work=Rediff.com |date=28 December 2006 |access-date=16 August 2018}}</ref> Notable representatives included Scottish [[Imperial Civil Service|ICS]] officer [[William Wedderburn]], [[Dadabhai Naoroji]], [[Badruddin Tyabji]] and [[Pherozeshah Mehta]] of the Bombay Presidency Association, [[Ganesh Vasudeo Joshi]] of the [[Poona Sarvajanik Sabha]], social reformer and newspaper editor [[Gopal Ganesh Agarkar]], Justice [[Kashinath Trimbak Telang|K. T. Telang]], [[N. G. Chandavarkar]], [[Dinshaw Wacha]], [[Behramji Malabari]], journalist, and activist [[Gooty Kesava Pillai]], and [[P. Rangaiah Naidu]] of the [[Madras Mahajana Sabha]].<ref>{{cite book|pages=12–27 | title= The history of the Indian National Congress (1885–1935)|author=Sitaramayya, B. Pattabhi|publisher= Working Committee of the Congress|year=1935|url=https://archive.org/stream/historyoftheindi035503mbp#page/n41/mode/1up}}</ref><ref name="INC">{{cite book|first=Judith E.|last=Walsh|title=A Brief History of India|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-0825-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofin0000wals/page/154 154]|year=2006|url=https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofin0000wals/page/154}}</ref> Notably, there were no women present at this session.<ref name="GS" /> During the first session, the Indian delegates presented 9 resolutions to the British authorities including; India Council in London should be abolished, creation of legislative councils for the [[North-West Frontier Province]] (NWFP), [[Sindh]] and [[Awadh]], [[Indian Civil Service|Civil Services]] Reform, and Appointment of a commission to enquire into the working of the Indian Administration from 1858- till date.<ref name="Resolutions1885">{{cite journal | last=Moore | first=R. J. | title=Daniel Argov: Moderates and extremists in the Indian nationalist movement,1883–1920, with special reference to Surendranath Banerjea and Lajpat Raj. xix, 246 pp., 2 Plates. london: Asia Publishing House, [1968]. 45''s''. | journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies | publisher=Cambridge University Press (CUP) | volume=32 | issue=1 | year=1969 | issn=0041-977X | doi=10.1017/s0041977x00094507 | pages=230}}</ref> [[Dadabhai Naoroji]], a member of the sister [[Indian National Association]], was elected president of the Congress in 1886. He was the first Indian Member of Parliament in the [[British House of Commons]] (1892–1895) and spent a large part of his life and resources campaigning for India’s cause on the international stage. In 1889, a [[British Committee of the Indian National Congress|British branch]] of the Indian National Congress was set up in London.<ref name="INC Branch">{{cite journal |last=Shankar |first=Prabha Ravi |year=2004 |title=BRITISH COMMITTEE OF THE INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS — A CRITICAL APPRAISAL |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/44144789 |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |publisher=Indian History Congress |volume=65 |pages=761–767 |issn=2249-1937 |jstor=44144789 |access-date=25 November 2024}}</ref>

In its initial years, the Congress served as a platform for politically active individuals advocating reforms within the British Empire. However, two distinct factions emerged: one group sought complete independence from British rule, while the other aimed for reforms within the existing system, with a focus on ''[[Indianisation]]''. This division marked the early phase of Congress, as different leaders and members had varied visions for the future of India, ranging from moderate reforms to a push for full sovereignty.<ref name="Roots">{{cite web |title=Indian National Congress |url=https://www.open.ac.uk/researchprojects/makingbritain/content/indian-national-congress |access-date=30 March 2022 |publisher=[[The Open University]] |archive-date=3 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220603200351/https://www.open.ac.uk/researchprojects/makingbritain/content/indian-national-congress |url-status=dead }}</ref> They primarily advocated for the 'Indianisation' of administrative services, emphasising that India should be governed by Indians, in collaboration with the British. The majority of the founding members of Congress has been educated or lived in Britain. As a result, unrepresentative of the Indian masses at the time,<ref name="SissonWolpert1988">{{cite book |author1=Richard Sisson |url={{Google books|QfOSxFVQa8IC|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |title=Congress and Indian Nationalism: The Pre-independence Phase |author2=Stanley A. Wolpert |publisher=University of California Press |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-520-06041-8 |page=21 |quote=Those fewer than 100 English-educated gentlemen of means and property, mostly lawyers and journalists, could hardly claim to 'represent' some 250 million illiterate impoverished peasants}}</ref> it functioned more as a stage for elite Indian ambitions than a political party for the first two decade of its existence.<ref name="SissonWolpert1988 2">{{cite book |author1=Richard Sisson |url={{Google books|QfOSxFVQa8IC|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |title=Congress and Indian Nationalism: The Pre-independence Phase |author2=Stanley A. Wolpert |publisher=University of California Press |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-520-06041-8 |pages=22–23 |quote=Without any funds or any secretariat, however (other than Hume) Congress remained, during its first decade at least, more of a sounding board for elite Indian aspirations than a political party.}}</ref>

=== Early years ===
Since its establishment, the Congress was led by Moderate leaders, who were influenced by [[Western world|Western]] [[Political philosophy|political ideas]], particularly [[liberalism]]. They emphasised [[Humanism|individual dignity]], the [[right to freedom]], and [[Social equality|equality]] for all, regardless of caste, creed, or sex. This philosophy guided them in opposing British autocracy, demanding the rule of law, equality before the law, and advocating for [[secularism]].<ref name="Approach" /> However, by 1905, the party had divided into two groups, each with its own approach and ideology on how to attain [[Swaraj|self-governance]] for India. A division arose between the Moderates—led by [[Dadabhai Naoroji]], [[Romesh Chunder Dutt]], [[Gopal Krishna Gokhale]], [[Gopal Krishna Gokhale|and]] [[Dinshaw Edulji Wacha|Dinshaw Wacha]]—who believed in a peaceful and constitutional approach to achieving reforms and self-governance within the framework of the British Empire, and the Extremists, led by [[Lala Lajpat Rai]], [[Bipin Chandra Pal]] and [[Bal Gangadhar Tilak]]—who favored a more assertive and confrontational strategy.<ref name="Moderates">{{cite web |title=The Making of the National Movement: 1870s–1947 |url=https://ncert.nic.in/ncerts/l/hess205.pdf |publisher=[[National Council of Educational Research and Training]] |access-date=3 December 2023}}</ref>

The moderates preferred to avoid direct conflict with the British, aiming instead to reform their governance to better serve the country's interests. They aimed to collaborate with British authorities and use constitutional means, such as petitions, resolutions, and dialogue, to address the grievances of Indians.<ref name="Approach">{{cite web |title=MODERATES, EXTREMISTS AND REVOLUTIONARIES |url=https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/63797/1/Block-4.pdf |publisher=eGyanKosh, IGNOU |access-date=25 November 2024}}</ref> Over time, as they recognised the impact of British rule, many moderate leaders shifted their stance and started advocating for ''[[Swaraj]]'' or self-government for India within the British Empire. Thereafter, the moderates followed a two-fold approach to achieve their goals. First, they aimed to build strong public opinion to inspire a sense of national consciousness and unity, while educating the masses on shared political issues. Second, they sought to influence both the [[Government of the United Kingdom|British government]] and public opinion, advocating for reforms in India that aligned with the demands of the nationalists.<ref name="Approach" /> The Moderates were able to analyse the political and economic impacts of [[British rule]] in India. Dadabhai Naoroji, Romesh Chunder Dutt, and Dinshaw Wacha and others introduced the [[Dadabhai Naoroji#Drain theory and poverty|Drain Theory]] to highlight how Britain exploited India's resources.<ref name="Drain Theory">{{cite web | title=Uncivil liberalism: labour, capital and commercial society in Dadabhai Naoroji's political thought | website=search.worldcat.org | url=https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1343197973 | access-date=25 November 2024}}</ref> The Drain Theory, proposed by these leaders, challenged the notion that British rule was beneficial for India, shaping a nationwide public opinion that British colonialism was the primary reason for India’s poverty and economic exploitation.<ref name="Poverty">{{cite journal | last=VISANA | first=VIKRAM | title=Vernacular Liberalism, Capitalism, and Anti-Imperialism in the Political Thought of Dadabhai Naoroji | journal=The Historical Journal | publisher=Cambridge University Press (CUP) | volume=59 | issue=3 | date=12 January 2016 | issn=0018-246X | doi=10.1017/s0018246x15000230 | pages=775–797}}</ref> The moderate leaders had several demands, including proper representation of Indians on the [[Indian Councils Act 1892|Legislative Councils]] and an increase in the powers of these councils. They also advocated for administrative reforms and voiced their opinions on international issues. They opposed the [[Third Anglo-Burmese War|annexation of Burma]], the [[Second Anglo-Afghan War|military actions in Afghanistan]], and the treatment of tribal people in [[northwestern India]]. Additionally, they called for better conditions for Indian workers who had migrated to countries such as [[South Africa]], [[British Malaya|Malaya]], [[Mauritius]], the [[West Indies]], and [[British Guyana]] as [[Indentured servitude|indentured]] labourers.
[[File:Sri Aurobindo presiding over a meeting of the Nationalists after the Surat Congress, with Tilak speaking, 1907.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Early Nationalists|[[Bal Gangadhar Tilak]] speaking in 1907 as the Party split into moderates and extremists. Seated at the table is [[Aurobindo Ghosh]] and to his right (in the chair) is [[G. S. Khaparde]], both allies of Tilak.]]

The other faction, led by radical leaders such as [[Lala Lajpat Rai]], [[Bal Gangadhar Tilak]], and [[Bipin Chandra Pal]]—colloquially known as "Lal, Bal, Pal"—advocated a more militant approach. Known as the extremist group, or assertive nationalists, they emerged prominently after the [[Partition of Bengal (1905)|partition of Bengal]] in 1905. They believed in direct action and criticised the moderate approach, advocating for more aggressive means to achieve self-rule (''Swaraj''). Disillusioned by the limited achievements of the moderates, they were less willing to compromise with the British. Instead, they focused on building mass support by instilling a sense of self-respect, self-reliance, pride in their ancient heritage and national unity to attain their objectives.<ref name="Extremists">{{cite web |title=Moderates, Extremists and Revolutionaries |url=https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/63798/1/Unit-13.pdf |publisher=[[Indira Gandhi National Open University]] |access-date=3 December 2023}}</ref> The Extremist leaders did not support the use of violence against British rule and rejected methods such as political murder and assassination. They successfully engaged the urban middle and lower classes, while also mobilising peasants and workers. Although they used religious symbols to inspire the masses, they consciously avoided mixing religion with politics. Tilak sought to mobilise Hindu Indians by appealing to an explicitly Hindu political identity displayed in the annual public [[Sarvajanik Ganeshotsav]] and [[Shiv Jayanti]] festivals that he inaugurated in western India, particularly in the [[Bombay Presidency]].<ref>Stanley A. Wolpert, ''Tilak and Gokhale: Revolution and Reform in the Making of Modern India'' (1962) p 67</ref> Tilak, along with his associates [[Gopal Ganesh Agarkar]] and [[Vishnushastri Chiplunkar]], believed that educating the masses was the most effective way to serve the nation. In line with this belief, they co-founded the New English School in [[Pune]] in 1876 to provide modern, Indian-controlled education as an alternative to British institutions.<ref name="NES">{{cite web | last=Banerjee | first=Shoumojit | title=Pune school founded by Bal Gangadhar Tilak goes co-ed once more | website=The Hindu | date=30 May 2018 | url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/pune-school-founded-by-bal-gangadhar-tilak-goes-co-ed-once-more/article24039606.ece | access-date=15 September 2025}}</ref> Subsequently, these leaders established the [[Deccan Education Society]] (DES) to advance their pedagogical objectives, with a particular emphasis on cultivating national consciousness among Indian youth.<ref name="DES">{{cite web | title=Founders of DES | website=Welcome | url=https://fchl.org.in/index.php/founders-of-des/ | access-date=15 September 2025}}</ref> However, Tilak soon realised that education alone was not sufficient; he believed it was equally important to raise public awareness about the country's condition. To achieve this, he started two weekly publications in 1881: the ''[[Maratha]]'' in English and ''[[Kesari (Marathi newspaper)|Kesari]]'' in Marathi. By the end of 1905, Congress began transforming into a mass movement, largely due to the agitation against the partition of Bengal and the emergence of the [[Swadeshi movement]].<ref name="INC" /> The Moderates’ approach of gradual reforms through constitutional methods and the Extremists’ advocacy of direct action were fundamentally incompatible. These ideological disagreements between the Extremists and the Moderates caused a deep rift within the movement. At the Congress session held in Surat in December 1907, the party formally split into two factions, an event later referred to as the [[Surat Split]].<ref name="Surat Split">{{cite web |title=Surat Split, 1907 – History, Causes, Aftermath & Impact |url=https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/19929/1/Unit-10.pdf |publisher=eGyanKosh, IGNOU |access-date=3 December 2023}}</ref>

[[Annie Besant]], a British social reformer, moved to India in 1893 and became actively involved in the Congress.<ref name="Besant India">{{cite web | title=Annie Besant | website=BBC | date=30 October 2006 | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/besant_annie.shtml#:~:text=Besant%20first%20visited%20India%20in,of%20the%20Indian%20National%20Congress. | access-date=27 November 2024}}</ref> Recognising the importance of full cooperation from the moderates for the success of the movement, both Tilak and Besant realised that it was necessary to secure the full cooperation of the moderates. In 1915, during the annual session of the Congress held at [[Lucknow]] under the presidency of [[Ambica Charan Mazumdar]], it was decided that the extremists led by Tilak would be admitted to the Congress. Inspired by the [[Irish Home Rule movement]], which sought greater autonomy from Britain, Tilak and Besant were influenced by the concept of self-government (Home Rule) and began calling for similar rights for India.<ref name="IHR"/> However, Tilak and Besant were unable to convince the Indian National Congress to support their proposal to set up Home Rule leagues. As a result, they established separate leagues. Tilak launched the [[Indian Home Rule League]] in April 1916 at [[Belgaum]], with its headquarters in [[Poona]]. His league operated primarily in [[Maharashtra]] (excluding Bombay), [[Karnataka]], and the [[Central Provinces and Berar]].<ref name="IHR">{{cite web | title=Establishment of Tilak's Home Rule League | url=https://amritmahotsav.nic.in/error.htm | access-date=27 November 2024}}</ref> In contrast, Besant set up her All-India Home Rule League in September 1916 in [[Madras]], which grew to include over 200 branches across the country.<ref name="Besant India"/> Prominent leaders who joined or supported the Home Rule movement included [[Motilal Nehru]], [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]], [[Bhulabhai Desai]], [[Jawaharlal Nehru|Saifuddin Kitchlew, Jawaharlal Nehru]], [[Chittaranjan Das]], [[Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi]], [[Madan Mohan Malviya]], [[Tej Bahadur Sapru]], and [[Lala Lajpat Rai]].

=== Congress as a mass movement ===

[[File:Nehru Gandhi AP 18050506381948 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|right|Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru during a meeting of the All India Congress, in 1946]]
In 1915, [[Mahatma Gandhi]] returned from South Africa and joined Congress.<ref>{{cite book | last=Field | first=J.F. | title=Great Speeches in Minutes | publisher=[[Quercus]] | year=2019 | isbn=978-1-78747-722-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2jKKDwAAQBAJ | access-date=4 February 2023 | page=190}}</ref><ref name="Sailed 1915">{{cite web |title=Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi |url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/people/mohandas-karamchand-gandhi |publisher=South African History Online |access-date=25 May 2020}}</ref> His efforts in South Africa were well known not only among the educated but also among the masses. During 1917 and 1918, Mahatma Gandhi was involved in three struggles: known as [[Champaran Satyagraha]], Ahmedabad Mill Strike and [[Kheda Satyagraha of 1918|Kheda Satyagraha]].<ref name="experiments">{{cite book |last1=Gandhi |first1=Mohandas Karamchand |title=My experiments with truth |date=1 February 1931 |publisher=Sarvodaya |location=Ahmedabad }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PJeKBAAAQBAJ&q=Barharwa&pg=PA158|title=Modern India 1886–1947|last=Sarkar|first=Sumit|year=2014|publisher=Pearson Education India|isbn=9789332540859}}</ref><ref name="Mill">{{cite journal |last1=Patel |first1=Sujata |title=Class Conflict and Workers' Movement in Ahmedabad Textile Industry, 1918–23 |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |year=1984 |volume=19 |issue=20/21 |pages=853–864 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4373280 |jstor=4373280 |access-date=10 March 2022}}</ref> After [[World War I]], the party came to be associated with Gandhi, who remained its unofficial spiritual leader and icon.<ref name=M.Gandhi1>{{cite book|author1=Mahatma Gandhi|author-link1=Gandhi|title=The Gandhi Reader: A Sourcebook of His Life and Writings|publisher=Grove Press|isbn=978-0-8021-3161-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/gandhireadersou00gand/page/254 254]|year=1994|url=https://archive.org/details/gandhireadersou00gand/page/254}}</ref> He formed an alliance with the [[Khilafat Movement]] in 1920 as part of his opposition to British rule in India,<ref>{{cite book|title=The Many Colors of Hinduism: A Thematic-historical Introduction|page=29|author=Carl Olson|publisher=[[Rutgers University Press]]|year=2007|isbn=9780813540689 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RVWKClYq4TUC&pg=PA29}}</ref> and fought for the rights for Indians using civil disobedience or {{lang|hi|[[Satyagraha]]}} as the tool for agitation.<ref>Gail Minault, ''The Khilafat movement'' p 69</ref> In 1922, after the deaths of policemen at [[Chauri Chaura incident|Chauri Chaura]], Gandhi suspended the agitation.

With the help of the moderate group led by Gokhale, in 1924 Gandhi became president of Congress.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/who-is/who-was-gopal-krishna-gokhale-liberal-nationalist-mahatma-gandhi-6403225/ |title=Gopal Krishna Gokhale: The liberal nationalist regarded by Gandhi as his political guru |date=13 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/here-is-a-list-of-past-presidents-of-indian-national-congress-4967084/ |title=Indian National Congress: From 1885 till 2017, a brief history of past presidents |date=5 December 2017}}</ref> The rise of Gandhi's popularity and his ''satyagraha'' art of revolution led to support from [[Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel]], [[Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru]], [[Rajendra Prasad]], [[Khan Mohammad Abbas Khan]], [[Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan]], [[C. Rajagopalachari|Chakravarti Rajgopalachari]], [[Anugrah Narayan Sinha]], [[Jayaprakash Narayan]], [[Jivatram Kripalani]], and [[Maulana Abul Kalam Azad]]. As a result of prevailing nationalism, Gandhi's popularity, and the party's attempts at eradicating [[caste]] differences, [[untouchability]], poverty, and religious and ethnic divisions, Congress became a forceful and dominant group.<ref>{{Cite journal |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/3517065|title=The Congress and the Revolutionaries in the 1920s |author1=Mittal, S. K.|author2=Habib, Irfan |year=1982 |journal=Social Scientist |volume=10 |issue=6 |pages=20–37 |doi=10.2307/3517065 |jstor=3517065|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://scholar.valpo.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1192&context=jvbl |doi=10.22543/0733.102.1192 |title=The Courage to Lead of Gandhi |year=2017 |last1=Iodice |first1=Emilio |journal=The Journal of Values-Based Leadership |volume=10 |issue=2|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/kids/gandhiji-an-inspiration/article12542442.ece |title=Gandhiji – an inspiration |newspaper=The Hindu |date=1 October 2012}}</ref> Although its members were predominantly Hindu, it had members from other religions, economic classes, and ethnic and linguistic groups.<ref>{{cite book | last=Chandra | first=A.M. | title=India Condensed: 5,000 Years of History & Culture | publisher=Marshall Cavendish Corporation | year=2008 | isbn=978-981-261-975-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b7-IAAAAQBAJ | page=66}}</ref>

[[File:Flag of Indian National Congress.png|thumb|Flag adopted by INC, 1931]]
At the Congress 1929 Lahore session under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru, {{lang|hi|[[Purna Swaraj]]}} (complete independence) was declared as the party's goal, declaring 26 January 1930 as {{lang|hi|Purna Swaraj Diwas}} (Independence Day).<ref name="Remarks">{{cite web |title=Declaration of Purna Swaraj (Indian National Congress, 1930) Clipboard |url=https://www.constitutionofindia.net/historical_constitutions/declaration_of_purna_swaraj__indian_national_congress__1930__26th%20January%201930 |publisher=CAD India |access-date=25 May 2020}}</ref> The same year, Srinivas Iyenger was expelled from the party for demanding full independence, not just [[home rule]] as demanded by Gandhi.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mainbharathun.org/inc.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100721001422/http://www.mainbharathun.org/inc.html |url-status=usurped |archive-date=21 July 2010 |title=Main Bharat Hun |publisher=Main Bharat Hun |access-date=3 May 2014 }}</ref>

After the passage of the [[Government of India Act 1935]], [[1937 Indian provincial elections|provincial elections]] were held in India in the winter of 1936–37 in eleven provinces: [[Madras Presidency|Madras]], [[Central Provinces]], Bihar, Orissa, [[United Provinces of Agra and Oudh|United Provinces]], [[Bombay Presidency]], Assam, NWFP, Bengal, Punjab, and Sindh. The final results of the elections were declared in February 1937.<ref name="Manglik2020">{{cite book|author=Rohit Manglik|title=SSC Sub Inspector CPO (Tier I and II) 2020|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cx_kDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA639|date=21 May 2020|publisher=EduGorilla|page=639|id=GGKEY:AWW79B82A9H}}</ref> The Indian National Congress gained power in eight of them; the three exceptions being Bengal, [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], and Sindh.<ref name="Manglik2020" /> The [[All-India Muslim League]] failed to form a Government in any Province.<ref>{{cite book|title=Indian Muslims and Partition of India|publisher=Atlantic Publishers|isbn=9788171563746|page=240|author1=S. M. Ikram|year=1995|author1-link=S. M. Ikram}}</ref>

Congress [[Minister (government)|Ministers]] resigned in October and November 1939 in protest against Viceroy [[Victor Hope, 2nd Marquess of Linlithgow|Lord Linlithgow]]'s declaration that India was a belligerent in [[World War II]] without consulting the Indian people.<ref>{{cite book|author1=SN Sen|title=History Modern India|publisher=New Age International|isbn=9788122417746|page=202|year=2006}}</ref> In 1939, [[Subhas Chandra Bose]], the elected president of Congress in 1938 and 1939, resigned from Congress over the selection of the working committee.<ref>{{cite web |title=Subhas Chandra Bose |url=http://www.open.ac.uk/researchprojects/makingbritain/content/subhas-chandra-bose |access-date=3 May 2014 |publisher=Open.ac.uk |quote=Dates of time spent in Britain: 1919–21 |archive-date=5 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140405000953/http://www.open.ac.uk/researchprojects/makingbritain/content/subhas-chandra-bose |url-status=dead }}</ref> Congress was an umbrella organisation, sheltering radical socialists, traditionalists, and Hindu and [[Muslim conservatism|Muslim conservatives]]. [[Mahatma Gandhi]] expelled all the socialist groupings, including the [[Congress Socialist Party]], the [[Krishak Sramik Party|Krishak Praja Party]], and the [[Swaraj Party]], along with [[Subhas Chandra Bose]], in 1939.<ref name=M.Gandhi1 />

After the failure of the [[Cripps Mission]] launched by the British government to gain Indian support for the British war effort, Mahatma Gandhi made a call to "Do or Die", delivered in Bombay on 8 August 1942 at the [[Gowalia Tank|Gowalia Tank Maidan]]. Gandhi [[Quit India speech|endorsed]] the [[Quit India Movement]], opposing any help to the British cause in the [[World War II|Second World War]].<ref>{{cite book | last1=Green | first1=J. | last2=Della-Rovere | first2=C. | title=Gandhi and the Quit India Movement | publisher=Pearson Education Limited | series=Days of Decision | year=2014 | isbn=978-1-4062-6156-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H5ZqcY_E5Z0C&pg=PA33 | page=33}}</ref> The colonial government instituted mass arrests including of Gandhi and Congress leaders, and killed over 1,000 Indians who participated in this movement.<ref>{{cite book |last=Marques |first=J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vCrXDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT403 |title=The Routledge Companion to Inclusive Leadership |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-000-03965-8 |series=Routledge Companions in Business, Management and Marketing |pages=309–310}}</ref> Meanwhile, a spate of violent attacks were carried out by the nationalists against the colonial government and infrastructure.<ref name="Anderson"/> The movement played a role in weakening British control over the South Asian region and ultimately paved the way for Indian independence.<ref name=Anderson>{{cite book | last1=Anderson | first1=D. | last2=Killingray | first2=D. | title=Policing and Decolonisation: Politics, Nationalism, and the Police, 1917–65 | publisher=Manchester University Press | series=Studies in imperialism | year=1992 | isbn=978-0-7190-3033-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rni7AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA51 | quote=Britain's hold over India weakened and an early resumption of Congress rule appeared inevitable| page=51}}</ref><ref name=herman467>{{cite book|author=Arthur Herman|title=Gandhi & Churchill: The Epic Rivalry that Destroyed an Empire and Forged Our Age|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tquxD6dk914C|year=2008|publisher=[[Random House]]|isbn=978-0-553-90504-5|pages=467–70|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140913065817/http://books.google.com/books?id=tquxD6dk914C|archive-date=13 September 2014}}</ref>

In 1945, when the Second World War almost came to an end, the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party of the United Kingdom]] won elections with a promise to provide independence to India.<ref>{{cite book | last=Studlar | first=D.T. | title=Great Britain: Decline Or Renewal? | publisher=Taylor & Francis | year=2018 | isbn=978-0-429-96865-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qQDFDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA117 | page=117|quote=The Labour Party promised independence for India in its campaign in the general election of 1945.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=Ram | first=J. | title=V.K. Krishna Menon: A Personal Memoir | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1997 | isbn=978-0-19-564228-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PSFuAAAAMAAJ | page=76|quote= Labour Party had promised freedom for India if they came to power }}</ref> The jailed political prisoners of the Quit India movement were released in the same year.<ref>{{cite book|title=Right to Property in India|page=36|publisher=Deep & Deep Publications|year=1990|author=Naveen Sharma}}</ref>

[[File:Gandhi, Patel and Maulana Azad Sept 1940.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Moderate INC leaders during a meet|[[Abul Kalam Azad|Azad]], [[Sardar Patel|Patel]] and [[Mahatma Gandhi|Gandhi]] at an AICC meeting in Bombay, 1940]]
In 1946, the colonial government tried the soldiers of Japanese-sponsored [[Indian National Army]] in the [[INA trials]]. In response, Congress helped form the [[INA Defence Committee]], which assembled a legal team to defend the soldiers of the [[Azad Hind]] provisional government. The team included several famous lawyers, including [[Bhulabhai Desai]], [[Asaf Ali]], and Jawaharlal Nehru.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.barcouncilofindia.org/about/about-the-legal-profession/lawyers-in-the-indian-freedom-movement/ |title=Lawyers in the Indian Freedom Movement – The Bar Council of India |publisher=Barcouncilofindia.org |access-date=3 May 2014}}</ref> The colonial government eventually backtracked in the face of opposition by the Congress.<ref>{{cite book|last=Moreman|first=Tim|title=The Jungle, Japanese and the British Commonwealth Armies at War, 1941–45: Fighting Methods, Doctrine and Training for Jungle Warfare|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bsoy_-Ep_0EC|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-76456-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Marston|first=Daniel|title=The Indian Army and the End of the Raj|series=Cambridge Studies in Indian History and Society, 23|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|isbn=978-0-521-89975-8|author-link=Daniel Marston (historian)}}</ref>

=== Post-independence ===

[[File:A Congress procession including bullocks and a flag - a pair of bullocks was the election symbol of the Congress Party in 1952.jpg|thumb|A Congress procession including bullocks and a flag - a pair of bullocks was the election symbol of the Congress Party in 1952]]

[[File:A front view of Congress Party election procession featuring a pair of bullocks - the symbol of the Congress Party in 1952.jpg|thumb|A front view of Congress Party election procession featuring a pair of bullocks - the symbol of the Congress Party in 1952]]

After Indian independence in 1947, the Indian National Congress became the dominant political party in the country. The long period of early dominance in the politics of the republic led to its political system sometimes being referred to as the "Congress System".<ref>{{harvnb|Kothari|1964}}; {{harvnb|Kothari|1967}}; {{harvnb|Kothari|1974}}; {{harvnb|Sarangi|1979}}; {{harvnb|Hewitt|1989}}; {{harvnb|Choudhary|2017}}; {{harvnb|Kumar|2023}}</ref> In 1952, in the [[1951 Indian general election|first general election]] held after Independence, the party swept to power in the national parliament and most state legislatures. It held power nationally until 1977 when it was defeated by the Janata coalition. It returned to power in 1980 and ruled until 1989 when it was once again defeated. The party formed the government in 1991 at the head of a coalition, as well as in 2004 and 2009 when it led the United Progressive Alliance. During this period the Congress remained centre-left in its social policies while steadily shifting from a socialist to a [[neoliberal]] economic outlook.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blogs.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/captains-musings/new-year-aspirations-can-india-hope-for-a-centrist-progressive-liberal-party/ |title=New year aspirations – Can India hope for a centrist progressive liberal party? |date=28 December 2015 |work=The Times of India |access-date=16 August 2018}}</ref> The Party's rivals at state level have been national parties including the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP), the [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]] (CPIM), and various regional parties, such as the [[Telugu Desam Party]], [[All India Trinamool Congress|Trinamool Congress]] and [[Aam Aadmi Party]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Why India's opposition is nearly irrelevant |url=https://www.economist.com/asia/2017/04/28/why-indias-opposition-is-nearly-irrelevant |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |access-date=6 June 2018 |date=28 April 2017}}</ref>

A post-[[Partition of India|partition]] successor to the party survived as the [[Pakistan National Congress]], a party which represented the rights of religious minorities in the state. The party's support was strongest in the Bengali-speaking province of [[East Pakistan]]. After the Bangladeshi War of Independence, it became known as the [[Bangladeshi National Congress]], but was dissolved in 1975 by the government.<ref name="A">{{cite book|title=Major governments of Asia|author1=George McTurnan Kahin |author2=Harold C. Hinton|publisher=[[Cornell University]] Press|page=439|year=1958}}</ref><ref name="B">{{cite book|title=Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations: Asia and Australasia|author=Moshe Y. Sachs|publisher=Worldmark Press|year=1967}}</ref><ref name="C">{{cite book|title=War and Secession: Pakistan, India and the Creation of Bangladesh|author1=Richard Sisson |author2=Leo E. Rose|publisher=University of California Press|pages=1–15|year=1991|isbn=978-0-520-07665-5}}</ref>

==== Nehru era (1947–1966) ====
{{see also|Sino-Indian War|Tashkent Declaration}}

[[File:Nehrucon.jpg|thumb|alt=See caption |[[Jawaharlal Nehru]] signing the [[Indian Constitution]] c.1950]]

From 1951 until his death in 1964, [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] was the paramount leader of the party. Congress gained power in landslide victories in the general elections of 1951–52, 1957, and 1962.<ref name=career>{{cite web|title=Nehru Years in Indian Politics|url=http://www.sps.ed.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/38480/WP16_Suranjan_Das.pdf |author=Suranjan Das |year=2001 |publisher=School of Social and Political Science, Edinburgh|access-date=23 June 2014|archive-date=24 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924105051/http://www.sps.ed.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/38480/WP16_Suranjan_Das.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> During his tenure, Nehru implemented policies based on [[import substitution industrialisation]], and advocated a [[mixed economy]] where the government-controlled [[public sector]] co-existed with the [[private sector]].<ref name="economic policy">{{cite web|title=Economic Ideology of Jawaharlal Nehru|url=http://www.epw.in/system/files/pdf/1964_16/29-30-31/economic_ideology_of_jawaharlal_nehru.pdf |publisher=Economic and Political Weekly|access-date=23 June 2014}}</ref> He believed the establishment of basic and heavy industries was fundamental to the development and modernisation of the Indian economy.<ref name=career /> The Nehru government directed investment primarily into key public sector industries—steel, iron, coal, and power—promoting their development with subsidies and protectionist policies.<ref name="economic policy" /> Nehru embraced secularism, [[socialistic]] economic practices based on state-driven industrialisation, and a [[Non-Aligned Movement|non-aligned]] and non-confrontational foreign policy that became typical of the modern Congress Party.<ref name=root>{{cite news|title=History of Indian Economy Part II|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/analysis/column-why-jawaharlal-nehru-is-the-root-cause-of-indias-economic-troubles-1564479|access-date=23 June 2014|work=[[Daily News and Analysis]] |date=11 July 2011}}</ref> The policy of non-alignment during the [[Cold War]] meant Nehru received financial and technical support from both the [[Eastern Bloc|Eastern]] and [[Western Bloc]]s to build India's industrial base from nothing.<ref name=movement>{{cite news|title=Nehru: Founding member of The non-aligned movement|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/574242.stm|publisher=[[BBC News]]|access-date=23 June 2014}}</ref><ref name=Non-Aligned>{{cite web|title=History and Evolution of Non-Aligned Movement|url=http://mea.gov.in/in-focus-article.htm?20349/History+and+Evolution+of+NonAligned+Movement|website=mea.gov.in|publisher=Ministry of External Affairs, [[Government of India]]|access-date=23 June 2014}}</ref>

During his period in office, there were four known assassination attempts on Nehru.<ref name="Sahgal2010">{{cite book|author=Nayantara Sahgal|title=Jawaharlal Nehru: Civilizing a Savage World|url={{Google books|KycnN-MlfY4C|page=PA58|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|date=1 January 2010|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=978-0-670-08357-2|page=58}}</ref> The first attempt on his life was during partition in 1947 while he was visiting the [[North-West Frontier Province (1901–2010)|North-West Frontier Province]] in a car. The second was by a knife-wielding rickshaw-puller in Maharashtra in 1955.<ref name=autogenerated3>{{cite book|author=Nayantara Sahgal|title=Jawaharlal Nehru: Civilizing a Savage World|url={{Google books|KycnN-MlfY4C|page=PA58|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|date=1 January 2010|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=978-0-670-08357-2|page=60}}</ref> A third attempt happened in [[Bombay Presidency|Bombay]] in 1956.<ref name=autogenerated2>{{cite book|author=Nayantara Sahgal|title=Jawaharlal Nehru: Civilizing a Savage World|url={{Google books|KycnN-MlfY4C|page=PA58|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|date=1 January 2010|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=978-0-670-08357-2|page=61}}</ref> The fourth was a failed bombing attempt on railway tracks in Maharashtra in 1961.<ref name="Sahgal2010" /> Despite threats to his life, Nehru despised having excess security personnel around him and did not like his movements to disrupt traffic.<ref name="Sahgal2010" /> [[K. Kamaraj]] became the president of the [[All India Congress Committee]] in 1963 during the last year of Nehru's life.<ref name=life>{{cite web|title=K. Kamaraj – Life History|publisher=The Perun Thalaivar organization|url=http://www.perunthalaivar.org/english/life-history/|website=perunthalaivar.org|access-date=23 June 2014|archive-date=5 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140705202836/http://www.perunthalaivar.org/english/life-history/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Prior to that, he had been the chief minister of [[Tamil Nadu|Madras state]] for nine years.<ref name=Kingmakers>{{cite web|title=The Syndicate: Kingmakers of India |url=http://pib.nic.in/feature/feyr2003/fjul2003/f150720031.html|website=pib.nic.in|publisher=Press Information Bureau: [[Government of India]]|access-date=23 June 2014}}</ref> Kamaraj had also been a member of "the syndicate", a group of right wing leaders within Congress. In 1963 the Congress lost popularity following the defeat in the Indo-Chinese war of 1962. To revitalise the party, Kamaraj proposed the [[Kamaraj Plan]] to Nehru that encouraged six Congress chief ministers (including himself) and six senior cabinet ministers to resign to take up party work.{{sfn|Singh|1981|p=46}}<ref name="Jeyaraman2013">{{cite book|author=Bala Jeyaraman|title=Kamaraj: The Life and Times of K. Kamaraj|url={{Google books|BqWeAwAAQBAJ|page=PT55|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|date=2 September 2013 |publisher=Rupa Publications |isbn=978-81-291-3227-7|pages=55–56}}</ref><ref name="Gehlot1991">{{cite book|author=N. S. Gehlot|title=The Congress Party in India: Policies, Culture, Performance|url={{Google books|06HLD2_3Qj4C|page=PA177|plainurl=yes}} |year=1991|publisher=Deep & Deep Publications|isbn=978-81-7100-306-8|page=180}}</ref>

In 1964, Nehru [[Death and state funeral of Jawaharlal Nehru|died]] because of an [[aortic dissection]], raising questions about the party's future.<ref name=death>{{cite news|title=The death of Nehru|work=The Guardian archive|date=28 May 2013 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/2013/may/28/death-of-nehru-archive-1964|access-date=23 June 2014}}</ref><ref name="Nehru death">{{cite web|title=Jawaharlal Nehru (1889–1964) |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/nehru_jawaharlal.shtml|publisher=BBC|access-date=23 June 2014}}</ref><ref name="Nehru dies">{{cite news|title=1964: Light goes out in India as Nehru dies|publisher=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/27/newsid_3690000/3690019.stm |access-date=23 June 2014}}</ref> Following the death of Nehru, [[Gulzarilal Nanda]] was appointed as the interim prime minister on 27 May 1964, pending the election of a new parliamentary leader of the Congress party who would then become prime minister.<ref name="Interim PM">{{cite web |title=Shri Gulzari Lal Nanda |url=https://www.pmindia.gov.in/en/former_pm/shri-gulzari-lal-nanda-2/ |publisher=PMO India |access-date=24 July 2021}}</ref> During the leadership contest to succeed Nehru, the preference was between Morarji Desai and Lal Bahadur Shashtri. Eventually, Shashtri was selected as the next parliamentary leader thus the Prime Minister. Kamaraj was widely credited as the "kingmaker" in for ensuring the victory of [[Lal Bahadur Shastri]] over Morarji Desai.{{sfn|Singh|1981|p=42}}

[[File:Inauguration of MNREC Building Allahabad by Indian PM Shri Lal Bahadur Shashtri.JPG|thumb|Inauguration of MNREC Building Allahabad by [[Lal Bahadur Shastri]]]]

As prime minister, Shastri retained most of members of Nehru's [[Council of Ministers of the Republic of India|Council of Ministers]]; [[T. T. Krishnamachari]] was retained as [[Finance Minister of India]], as was Defence Minister [[Yashwantrao Chavan]].<ref name="PradhanGodbole1999">{{cite book|author1=R. D. Pradhan|author2=Madhav Godbole|title=Debacle to Revival: Y. B. Chavan as Defence Minister, 1962–65|url={{Google books|9vDvpB_sqB0C|page=PA15|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|date=1 January 1999|publisher=Orient Blackswan|isbn=978-81-250-1477-5|page=17}}</ref> Shastri appointed [[Swaran Singh]] to succeed him as [[External Affairs Minister]].<ref name="Affairs2008">{{cite book|author=Arvind Panagariya |title=India: The Emerging Giant: The Emerging Giant|url={{Google books|6eO1-yP7o4MC|page=PA27|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|date=1 February 2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-804299-0|page=27}}</ref> Shastri appointed [[Indira Gandhi]], Jawaharlal Nehru's daughter and former party president, [[Minister of Information and Broadcasting]].<ref name=ministry>{{cite web|title=History and Politics of India |url=https://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Independent/Indira.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19991112105947/http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Independent/Indira.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=12 November 1999|website=socialsciences.ucla.edu|publisher=UCLA Division of Social Sciences|access-date=23 June 2014}}</ref> Gulzarilal Nanda continued as the [[Ministry of Home Affairs (India)|Minister of Home Affairs]].<ref name="home affairs">{{cite web|title=Biography of Gulzarilal Nanda |url=http://pmindia.gov.in/pm_gulzari.html |website=pmindia.gov.in|publisher=Prime Minister's Office |access-date=23 June 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120828142039/http://pmindia.gov.in/pm_gulzari.html |archive-date=28 August 2012 }}</ref> As [[Prime Minister of India|Prime Minister]], Shastri continued Nehru's policy of [[Non-aligned Movement|non-alignment]],<ref name="NarayanShastri2006">{{cite book|author1=Narayan Agrawal Narayan|author2=Lal Bahadur Shastri|author3=Vivek Misra|author4=Subha Ravi|title=Lal Bahadur Shastri, Churn of Conscience|url={{Google books|Lwoae1jbcc0C|page=PA100|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|year=2006|publisher=Eternal Gandhi|isbn=978-81-231-0193-4|page=88}}</ref> but built closer relations with the [[Soviet Union]]. In the aftermath of the [[Sino-Indian War]] of 1962, and the formation of military ties between China and Pakistan, Shastri's government expanded the defence budget of India's armed forces. He also promoted the White Revolution—a national campaign to increase the production and supply of milk by creating the [[National Dairy Development Board]].<ref name=Revolution>{{cite web|title=The White Revolution: A beginning|url=http://www.unicef.org/india/media_2643.htm|website=unicef.org|publisher=[[UNICEF]]|access-date=23 June 2014|archive-date=19 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819085943/http://www.unicef.org/india/media_2643.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Madras anti-Hindi agitation of 1965 occurred during Shastri's tenure.<ref name="Dasgupta1970">{{cite book|author=Jyotirindra Dasgupta|title=Language Conflict and National Development: Group Politics and National Language Policy in India|url={{Google books|qGACL5YJRjEC|page=PA237|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|year=1970|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-01590-6|page=237}}</ref><ref name=conflict>{{cite journal|title=The Madras anti-Hindi agitation|journal=Pacific Affairs|volume=39|issue=1/2|pages=19–36|publisher=Digital library of academic journals|jstor=2755179|last1=Forrester|first1=Duncan B.|year=1966|doi=10.2307/2755179}}</ref>

Shastri became a national hero following victory in the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965]].<ref name=war>{{cite web|title=The Indo-Pakistan war of 1965|url=http://indiannavy.nic.in/book/1965-indo-pakistan-war|website=indiannavy.nic.in|publisher=[[Indian Navy]]|access-date=23 June 2014}}</ref> His slogan, "[[Jai Jawan Jai Kisan]]" ("Hail the soldier, Hail the farmer"), became very popular during the war.<ref name=slogan>{{cite news|title=Life of Lal Bahadur Shastri|url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/life-of-lal-bahadur-shastri-to-be-captured-on-celluloid-113032600267_1.html|access-date=23 June 2014|work=[[Business Standard]]|location=India|date=26 March 2013}}</ref> On 11 January 1966, a day after signing the [[Tashkent Declaration]], Shastri died in Tashkent, reportedly of a heart attack; but the circumstances of his death remain mysterious.<ref name=controversy>{{cite web|title=Controversial death of Shastri|url=http://www.wikileaks-forum.com/india/68/dead-silence-on-the-killers-and-contract-killers-of-lal-bahadur-shastri/8620/|website=wikileaks-forum.com|publisher=Wikileaks Forum|access-date=23 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140501224743/http://www.wikileaks-forum.com/india/68/dead-silence-on-the-killers-and-contract-killers-of-lal-bahadur-shastri/8620/|archive-date=1 May 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="diminutive leader">{{cite web |title=Lal Bahadur Shastri's death in Tashkent |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/legacy/thereporters/soutikbiswas/2009/08/was_mr_shastri_murdered.html |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140817235300/https://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/legacy/thereporters/soutikbiswas/2009/08/was_mr_shastri_murdered.html |archive-date=17 August 2014 |access-date=23 June 2014 |website=[[BBC]] |publisher=}}</ref><ref name=Shashtri>{{cite web|title=Lal Bahadur Shastri |url=https://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Independent/Shastri.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000422080114/http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Independent/Shastri.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=22 April 2000|website=socialsciences.ucla.edu/|publisher=UCLA Division of Social Science|access-date=23 June 2014}}</ref> After Shastri's death, Congress elected [[Indira Gandhi]] as leader over [[Morarji Desai]]. Once again, [[K. Kamaraj]] was instrumental in achieving this result. The differences among the top leadership of the Congress regarding the future of the party during resulted in the formation of several breakaway parties such as [[Orissa Jana Congress]], [[Bangla Congress]], [[Utkal Congress]], and, [[Bharatiya Kranti Dal]].

==== Indira Gandhi era (1966–1984) ====
{{Further information|The Emergency (India)|Assassination of Indira Gandhi|1984 anti-Sikh riots}}

[[File:Indira and Nixon.JPG|thumb|upright|left|[[Indira Gandhi]] with U.S. President [[Richard Nixon]], 1971]]

In 1967, following a poor performance in the [[1967 Indian general election]], [[Indira Gandhi]] started moving toward the political left. On 12 July 1969, Congress Parliamentary Board nominated [[Neelam Sanjiva Reddy]] as Congress's candidate for the post of [[President of India]] by a vote of four to two. [[K. Kamaraj]], [[Morarji Desai]] and [[S. K. Patil]] voted for Reddy. [[Indira Gandhi]] and [[Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed]] voted for [[V. V. Giri]] and Congress President [[S. Nijalingappa]], Home Minister [[Yashwantrao Chavan]] and Agriculture Minister [[Jagjivan Ram]] abstained from voting.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Austin |first=Granville |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r42bAAAAMAAJ |title=Working a Democratic Constitution: The Indian Experience |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1999 |isbn=0195648889 |pages=178}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Sharma |first=Unnati |date=10 August 2022 |title=V.V. Giri – how election of first 'independent president' changed Congress & India's politics |url=https://theprint.in/politics/v-v-giri-how-election-of-first-independent-president-changed-congress-indias-politics/1077753/ |access-date=12 March 2023 |website=ThePrint}}</ref>

In mid-1969, she was involved in a dispute with senior party leaders on several issues. Notably – Her support for the independent candidate, [[V. V. Giri]], rather than the official Congress party candidate, [[Neelam Sanjiva Reddy]], for the vacant post of the [[president of India]]{{sfn|Singh|1981|pp=65–80}}<ref>Hardgrave, R. L., 1970. "The Congress in India: Crisis and Split". ''Asian Survey'', 10(3), pp. 256–262.</ref> and Gandhi's abrupt nationalisation of the 14 biggest banks in India.

In November 1969, the Congress party president, [[S. Nijalingappa]], expelled Indira Gandhi from the party for indiscipline.<ref name=socialism>{{cite news |title=March to socialism under Prime Minister Indira Gandhi|work=[[The Economic Times]]|agency=Bennett, Coleman & Co. Ltd|date=24 August 2011}}</ref><ref name=expelled>{{cite news|title=1969: S. Nijalingappa expelled Indira Gandhi from the Party|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/cover-story/story/20070702-1969-congress-splits-748296-2007-07-01|access-date=25 June 2014|work=[[India Today]]|publisher=Aroon Purie|date=2 July 2007}}</ref> Subsequently, Gandhi launched her own faction of the INC which came to be known as Congress (R).{{efn|The "R" stood for Requisition or Ruling}} The original party then came to be known as [[Congress (O)|Indian National Congress (O)]].{{efn|The "O" stands for organisation/Old Congress.}} Its principal leaders were Kamraj, Morarji Desai, Nijalingappa and [[S. K. Patil]] who stood for a more right-wing agenda.<ref name="book">{{cite book|last=Sanghvi|first=Vijay |title=The Congress, Indira to Sonia Gandh|year=2006|publisher=Kalpaz Publications|location=New Delhi |isbn=978-81-7835-340-1|page=77|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=npdqD_TXucQC&q=%22indira+gandhi%22+cow++calf+symbol&pg=PA77}}</ref> The split occurred when a united opposition under the banner of [[Samyukt Vidhayak Dal]], won control over several states in the [[Hindi Belt]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=npdqD_TXucQC&q=%22indira+gandhi%22+cow++calf+symbol&pg=PA77|title=The Congress, Indira to Sonia Gandhi |first=Vijay|last=Sanghvi|date=21 March 2006|publisher=Gyan Publishing House|isbn=9788178353401}}</ref> Indira Gandhi, on the other side, wanted to use a populist agenda in order to mobilise popular support for the party.<ref name=book /> Her faction, called Congress (R), was supported by most of the Congress MPs while [[Indian National Congress (Organisation)|the original party]] had the support of only 65 MPs.<ref name="Rosser">{{Cite book|publisher = MIT Press| pages = 468–470| url={{Google books|y3Mr6TgalqMC|page=PA470|plainurl=yes}} |isbn=978-0-262-18234-8| last1=Rosser| first1=J. Barkley| last2=Rosser| first2=Marina V.| title=Comparative Economics in Transforming the World Economy| year=2004}}</ref> In the All India Congress Committee, 446 of its 705 members walked over to Indira's side. The "Old Congress" retained the party symbol of a pair of bullocks carrying a yoke while Indira's breakaway faction was given a new symbol of a cow with a suckling calf by the Election Commission as the party election symbol. The Congress (O) eventually merged with other opposition parties to form the [[Janata Party]].
{{quote box|bgcolor=#CCDDFF|width=25%|align=right|quote="India might be an ancient country but was a young democracy and as such should remain vigilant against the domination of few over the social, economic or political systems. Banks should be publicly owned so that they catered to not just large industries and big businesses but also agriculturists, small industries and entrepreneurs. Furthermore, the private banks had been functioning erratically with hundreds of them failing and causing loss to the depositors who were given no guarantee against such loss."|source=—Gandhi's remarks after the nationalisation of private banks.<ref name="Quote">{{cite news |last1=Menon |first1=Vandana |title='We simply don't have time': Read Indira Gandhi's letters defending bank nationalisation |url=https://theprint.in/politics/letters-indira-gandhi-defending-bank-nationalisation/17110/ |access-date=10 March 2022 |work=ThePrint |agency=Printline Media Pvt. Ltd |date=16 November 2017}}</ref>}}
In the mid-term [[1971 Indian general election]], the Gandhi-led Congress (R) won a landslide victory on a platform of progressive policies such as the elimination of poverty ({{lang|hi|[[Garibi Hatao]]}}).<ref name="1971 result">{{cite web|title=General Elections, India, 1971: Statistical report |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/statisticalreports/LS_1971/Vol_I_LS71.pdf |website=eci.nic.in |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=25 June 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140718175452/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1971/Vol_I_LS71.pdf |archive-date=18 July 2014 }}</ref> The policies of the Congress (R) under Gandhi before the 1971 elections included proposals to abolish the [[Privy Purse in India|Privy Purse]] to former rulers of the [[Princely states]], and the 1969 [[Nationalization|nationalisation]] of India's 14 largest banks.<ref name=nationalisation>{{cite news|title=Economic Milestone: Nationalisation of Banks (1969)|url=http://forbesindia.com/article/independence-day-special/economic-milestone-nationalisation-of-banks-(1969)/38415/1|access-date=17 September 2015|work=[[Forbes India]]|date=17 September 2015|archive-date=29 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151029061931/http://forbesindia.com/article/independence-day-special/economic-milestone-nationalisation-of-banks-(1969)/38415/1|url-status=dead}}</ref> The 1969 attempt by Indira Gandhi government to abolish privy purse and the official recognition of the titles did not meet with success. The constitutional Amendment bill to this effect was passed in Lok Sabha, but it failed to get the required two-thirds majority in the Rajya Sabha. However, in 1971, with the passage of the [[Twenty-sixth Amendment of the Constitution of India|Twenty-sixth Amendment]] to the Constitution of India, the privy purses were abolished.

Due to [[Sino-Indian War]] 1962, India faced a huge budgetary deficit resulting in its treasury being almost empty, high inflation, and dwindling forex reserves. The brief War of 1962 exposed weaknesses in the economy and shifted the focus towards the defence industry and the [[Indian Army]]. The government found itself short of resources to fund the Third Plan (1961–1966). [[Subhadra Joshi]] a senior party member, proposed a non-official resolution asking for the nationalisation of private banks stating that nationalisation would help in mobilising resources for development.<ref name="Bank Act">{{cite web |title=The Defining Event |url=https://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/content/PDFs/90069.pdf |publisher=[[Reserve Bank of India]] |access-date=10 March 2022}}</ref> In July 1969, Indira Gandhi through the ordinance nationalised fourteen major private banks.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ChrzDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA20 |title=Banking Awareness |date=2017 |publisher=Arihant Publications (India) Ltd. |page=20 |isbn=978-93-11124-66-7}}</ref> After being re-elected in 1971 on a campaign that endorsed nationalisation, Indira Gandhi went on to nationalise the coal, steel, copper, refining, cotton textiles and insurance industries. The main reason was to protect employment and the interest of the organised labour.<ref name="Bank Act" />

On 12 June 1975, the [[Allahabad High Court|High Court of Allahabad]] declared Indira Gandhi's election to the [[Lok Sabha]], the lower house of India's parliament, void on the grounds of electoral malpractice.<ref name=emergency>{{cite web|title=The Emergency, and Indian democracy|url=https://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Independent/Indira.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19991112105947/http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Independent/Indira.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=12 November 1999|website=sscnet.ucla.edu|publisher=UCLA Division of Social Science|access-date=25 June 2014}}</ref> However, Gandhi rejected calls to resign and announced plans to appeal to the [[Supreme Court of India|Supreme Court]]. In response to increasing disorder and lawlessness, Gandhi's ministry recommended that President [[Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed]] declare a [[State of Emergency in India|State of Emergency]], based on the provisions of [[Part Eleven of the Constitution of India|Article 352]] of the [[Constitution of India|Constitution]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Emergency papers found |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/sunday-times/deep-focus/Emergency-papers-found/articleshow/20839450.cms |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=6 June 2018 |date=30 June 2013}}</ref> During the [[The Emergency (India)|nineteen-month emergency]], widespread oppression and abuse of power by Gandhi's unelected younger son and political heir [[Sanjay Gandhi]] and his close associates occurred.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ghildiyal|first=Subodh |title=Cong blames Sanjay Gandhi for Emergency 'excesses'|date=29 December 2010|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Cong-blames-Sanjay-Gandhi-for-Emergency-excesses/articleshow/7181279.cms|access-date=30 January 2014 |url-status=live|archive-date=28 August 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110828145401/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-12-29/india/28661327_1_slum-clearance-sanjay-gandhi-sterilization|journal=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Emergency 'propagandist' who banned Kishore Kumar songs |url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/emergency-propagandist-who-banned-kishore-kumar-songs/1127804/ |access-date=17 January 2014|newspaper=The Indian Express|date=11 June 2013}}</ref><ref name="The Life of Indira Gandhi">{{cite journal |last=Dasgupta |first=Swapan |title=The Life of Indira Gandhi |date=July 1985 |volume=7 |issue=3 |journal=Third World Quarterly |department=Book Reviews |doi=10.1080/01436598508419863 |pages=731–778}}</ref> Implemented on 25 June 1975, the Emergency officially ended on 21 March 1977.<ref name=proved>{{cite news| author=Inder Malhotra|title=What Prime Minister Indira Gandhi's Emergency proved for India|date=23 June 2010 |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/column/inder-malhotra-on-35-years-after-the-emergency/20100623.htm |access-date=25 June 2014|work=[[Rediff.com]]}}</ref> All political prisoners were released and fresh elections for the Lok Sabha were called.<ref name=union>{{cite web|title=Indian general election, 1977|url=http://www.ipu.org/parline-e/reports/arc/INDIA_1977_E.PDF |website=ipu.org|publisher=Inter-Parliamentary Union|access-date=25 June 2014}}</ref> In [[1977 Indian general election|parliamentary elections]] held in March, the Janata alliance of anti-Indira opposition parties won a landslide victory over Congress, winning 295 seats in the Lok Sabha against Congress' 153. Gandhi lost her seat to her Janata opponent [[Raj Narain]].

On 2 January 1978, Indira and her followers seceded and formed a new opposition party, popularly called Congress (I)—the "I" signifying Indira.<ref name="Buffalo state">{{cite web | title= Indira Gandhi: India's Destined Leader| url=https://digitalcommons.buffalostate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1022&context=history_theses | access-date=13 February 2025}}</ref><ref name="IE">{{cite web | title=February 3, 1978, Forty Years Ago: Hand For Congress (I) | website=The Indian Express | date=3 February 2018 | url=https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/editorials/february-3-1978-forty-years-ago-hand-for-congress-i-5049516/ | access-date=13 February 2025}}</ref><ref>"On 1 and 2 January dissidents led by Indira Gandhi staged convention of what they claimed was "the real Congress." Mrs. Gandhi was elected President of the body, which promptly laid claim to the offices, funds and even the electoral symbol of the Indian National Congress. These claims were, unsurprisingly, resisted by Y.B. Chavan and his group, who had controlled Congress since the I977 election. Initial reports varied but it seemed that no more than a third of the State Congress Committees sided with the Indira Gandhi faction." {{cite journal |last=Mendelsohn |first=Oliver |title=The Collapse of the Indian National Congress |journal=Pacific Affairs |volume=58 |number=1 |year=1978 |page=65 |doi=10.2307/2757008 |jstor=2757008}}</ref> During the next year, her new party attracted enough members of the legislature to become the official opposition.<ref name="Basu2016">{{cite book|last1=Basu |first1=Manisha |title=The Rhetoric of Hindutva|year=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-14987-8 |pages=73– |url={{Google books|E7gtDQAAQBAJ |page=PA73|plainurl=yes}}}}</ref> In November 1978, Gandhi regained a parliamentary seat. In January 1980, following a [[1980 Indian general election|landslide victory]] for Congress (I), she was again elected prime minister.<ref name="1980 report">{{cite web |title=Statistical report general elections, 1980 |website=eci.nic.in |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/statisticalreports/LS_1980/Vol_I_LS_80.pdf |access-date=25 June 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140718175926/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1980/Vol_I_LS_80.pdf |archive-date=18 July 2014}}</ref> The national election commission declared Congress (I) to be the real Indian National Congress for the [[1984 Indian general election|1984 general election]].<ref name="IE 1984">{{cite web | last=Yadav | first=Shyamlal | title=1980 Lok Sabha elections: Triumph and tragedy of Indira Gandhi | website=The Indian Express | date=17 May 2024 | url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/a-history-of-lok-sabha-elections-indiras-triumph-tragedy-9314864/ | access-date=13 February 2025}}</ref> However, the designation I was dropped only in 1996.<ref name="Basu2016" /><ref name="1980 report" />

Gandhi's premiership witnessed increasing turmoil in [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], with demands for [[Khalistan|Sikh autonomy]] by [[Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale]] and his militant followers.<ref name=operation>{{cite news|title=Operation Blue Star 1984|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-7-things-you-need-to-know-about-operation-blue-star-1993952|access-date=25 June 2014|work=[[Daily News and Analysis]]|agency=[[Dainik Bhaskar]]|publisher=Deepak Rathi|date=6 June 2014}}</ref> In 1983, Bhindranwale with his armed followers headquartered themselves in the [[Harmandir Sahib|Golden Temple]] in [[Amritsar]] and started accumulating weapons.<ref name="telegraph report">{{cite news|title=1984: Operation Blue Star|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/10881115/Operation-Blue-Star-How-an-Indian-army-raid-on-the-Golden-Temple-ended-in-disaster.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/10881115/Operation-Blue-Star-How-an-Indian-army-raid-on-the-Golden-Temple-ended-in-disaster.html |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=25 June 2014|work=The Daily Telegraph|location=London|date=6 June 2014}}{{cbignore}}</ref> In June 1984, after several futile negotiations, Gandhi ordered the [[Indian Army]] to enter the Golden Temple to establish control over the complex and remove Bhindranwale and his armed followers. This event is known as [[Operation Blue Star]].<ref name="blue star">{{cite news|title=Operation Blue Star|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/operation-blue-star-the-untold-story/article4798102.ece|access-date=25 June 2014|work=The Hindu|date=10 June 2013}}</ref> On 31 October 1984, two of Gandhi's bodyguards, [[Satwant Singh]] and [[Beant Singh (assassin)|Beant Singh]], [[assassination of Indira Gandhi|shot her]] with their service weapons in the garden of the prime minister's residence in response to her authorisation of Operation Blue Star.<ref name="telegraph report" /> Gandhi was due to be interviewed by British actor [[Peter Ustinov]], who was filming a documentary for Irish television.<ref name=assassination>{{cite news|title=1984: Indian prime minister shot dead|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/october/31/newsid_2464000/2464423.stm|access-date=23 June 2014|publisher=[[BBC News]]|date=31 October 1984}}</ref> Her assassination prompted the [[1984 anti-Sikh riots]], during which 3,000–17,000 people were killed.<ref name=violence>{{cite news|title=Violence follows Gandhi killing|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/|publisher=[[BBC News]]|access-date=23 June 2014}}</ref><ref name="SAGE">{{cite book |last=Joseph |first=Paul |title=The Sage Encyclopedia of War: Social Science Perspectives |date=11 October 2016 |publisher=Sage |isbn=978-1483359885 |page=433 |quote=around 17,000 Sikhs were burned alive or killed}}</ref><ref name="telegraph">{{cite news |last1=Nelson |first1=Dean |date=30 January 2014 |title=Delhi to reopen inquiry in to massacre of Sikhs in 1984 riots |website=The Daily Telegraph|location=London |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/10607451/Delhi-to-reopen-inquiry-in-to-massacre-of-Sikhs-in-1984-riots.html |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |access-date=3 May 2016 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/10607451/Delhi-to-reopen-inquiry-in-to-massacre-of-Sikhs-in-1984-riots.html |archive-date=12 January 2022}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Jagdish Tytler's role in 1984 anti-Sikh riots to be re-investigated |url=http://www.ndtv.com/cheat-sheet/jagdish-tytlers-role-in-1984-anti-sikh-riots-to-be-re-investigated-518648 |access-date=3 May 2016 |publisher=NDTV}}</ref> Congress Party MP, [[Sajjan Kumar]], was convicted in two cases for instigating and leading a mob to attack and murder Sikh civilians during the Anti-Sikh riots in New Delhi.<ref name=toi-Sajjan-conviction>{{cite web | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/anti-sikh-riots-delhi-court-rejects-political-motivation-claims-finds-sajjan-kumar-guilty-of-murdering-father-son-duo/articleshow/118201773.cms | date=13 February 2025 | work = [[The Times of India]] | title=Anti-Sikh riots: Court finds Sajjan Kumar guilty of murdering father-son duo}}</ref>

==== Rajiv and Sonia Gandhi era (1984–2014) ====
{{See also|Indian intervention in the Sri Lankan Civil War|Economic liberalisation in India}}

[[File:The Prime Minister Shri Rajiv Gandhi addressing the Special Session of the United nations on Disarmament, in New York in June, 1988 (1).jpg|thumb|right|alt=refer caption|[[Rajiv Gandhi]], [[Prime Minister of India]] (1984–1989) addressing the Special Session of the United Nations on [[United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs|Disarmament]], in New York City in June 1988]]

In 1984, Indira Gandhi's son [[Rajiv Gandhi]] became nominal head of Congress, and went on to become prime minister upon her assassination.<ref name="pm rajiv">{{cite web|title=Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi, complete profile |url=http://pmindia.gov.in/pm_rajiv.html |website=pmindia.gov.in|publisher=Prime Minister's Office |access-date=23 June 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120901121841/http://pmindia.gov.in/pm_rajiv.html |archive-date=1 September 2012 }}</ref> In December, he led Congress to a landslide victory, where it secured 401 seats in the parliament.<ref name="1984 election result">{{cite web|title=India General or the 8th Lok Sabha Election Results – 1984|url=http://www.elections.in/parliamentary-constituencies/1984-election-results.html|access-date=23 June 2014}}</ref> His administration took measures to reform the government bureaucracy and liberalise the country's economy.<ref name=tenure>{{cite news|title=Resurgent India|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-hamid-ansari-launches-book-resurgent-india-glimpses-of-rajiv-gandhi-vision-of-india-1955270|access-date=23 June 2014|work=[[Daily News and Analysis]]|date=22 January 2014}}</ref> Rajiv Gandhi's attempts to discourage separatist movements in Punjab and Kashmir backfired. After his government became embroiled in several financial scandals, his leadership became increasingly ineffectual.<ref name=movements>{{cite web|title=Rajiv Gandhi and the story of Indian modernization|url=http://www.livemint.com/Opinion/NYPeyCrc6NyfwmlxqjtumJ/Rajiv-Gandhi-and-the-story-of-Indian-modernization.html|newspaper=Mint|date=19 May 2013 |access-date=23 June 2014}}</ref> Gandhi was regarded as a non-abrasive person who consulted other party members and refrained from hasty decisions.<ref name=consult>{{cite web|title=Rajiv Gandhi, History and Politics|url=https://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Independent/Rajiv.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000226203915/http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Independent/Rajiv.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=26 February 2000|website=UCLA, Division of Social Sciences|access-date=23 June 2014}}</ref> The [[Bofors scandal]] damaged his reputation as an honest politician, but he was posthumously cleared of bribery allegations in 2004.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/3458319.stm |title=Rajiv Gandhi cleared over bribery |publisher=BBC News |date=4 February 2004 |access-date=7 March 2010}}</ref> On 21 May 1991, Gandhi was killed by a bomb concealed in a basket of flowers carried by a woman associated with the [[Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam|Tamil Tigers]].<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite web|title=The assassination of Rajiv Gandhi|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CzdoMbYnb7w |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/CzdoMbYnb7w| archive-date=11 December 2021 |url-status=live|publisher=NDTV India| date=10 July 2013 |via = YouTube|access-date=21 June 2014|author-link = NDTV India}}{{cbignore}}</ref> He was campaigning in Tamil Nadu for upcoming [[1991 Indian general election in Tamil Nadu|parliamentary elections]]. In 1998, an Indian court convicted 26 people in the conspiracy to assassinate Gandhi.<ref name=kiled>{{cite news|title=Rajiv Gandhi assassination case|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Rajiv-Gandhi-assassination-case-SC-stays-release-of-4-convicts-issues-notice-to-Tamil-Nadu-govt/articleshow/31089717.cms|access-date=21 June 2014|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=27 February 2014}}</ref> The conspirators, who consisted of Tamil militants from Sri Lanka and their Indian allies, had sought revenge against Gandhi because the Indian troops he sent to Sri Lanka in 1987 to help enforce [[Indo-Sri Lanka Accord|a peace accord]] there had fought with Tamil Militant guerrillas.<ref name="RajuRaju2008">{{cite book|author1=D. R. Kaarthikenyan, Radhavinod Raju|author2=Radhavinod Raju|title=Rajiv Gandhi Assassination|url={{Google books|7MqfCkBGdQ8C|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|year=2008|publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd|isbn=978-81-207-3265-0|pages=89–91}}</ref><ref name=Murder>{{cite news|title=SC refers Rajiv Gandhi killers' release case to Constitution Bench|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/rajiv-gandhi-assassination-case-supreme-court/|access-date=21 June 2014|work=[[The Indian Express]]|date=25 April 2014}}</ref>
[[File:Visit of Narasimha Rao, Indian Minister for Foreign Affairs, to the CEC.jpg|thumb|left|alt=refer caption|Visit of erstwhile Minister for Foreign Affairs, [[P. V. Narasimha Rao]] to [[Gaston Thorn]], the then [[President of the European Commission]]]]
The mid-1990s marked a period of political flux in India, with frequent changes in government and coalition dynamics. Rajiv Gandhi was succeeded as party leader by [[P. V. Narasimha Rao]], who was elected prime minister in June 1991.<ref name=rao>{{cite web|title=PV Narasimha Rao Biography |url=http://pmindia.nic.in/pm_narasimha.html |website=Website of the Prime Minister of India |access-date=23 June 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121227115219/http://pmindia.nic.in/pm_narasimha.html |archive-date=27 December 2012 }}</ref>

His rise to the prime ministership was politically significant because he was the first person from South India to hold the office, marking a shift from the traditionally northern-dominated leadership in Indian politics. After the election, he formed a minority government. Rao himself did not contest elections in 1991, but after he was sworn in as prime minister, he won in a by-election from [[Nandyal (Lok Sabha constituency)|Nandyal]] in Andhra Pradesh.<ref name="Rao AP Won">{{cite news |last1=Lakshman |first1=Ganesh |title=Nandyal bypoll: It was P V Narasimha Rao's backyard when he .. |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/amaravati/it-was-p-v-narasimha-raos-backyard-when-he-was-the-pm/articleshow/60168304.cms |access-date=10 March 2022 |work=[[The Times of India]]|date=22 August 2017}}</ref> His administration oversaw major [[Economic liberalisation in India|economic change]] and experienced several domestic incidents that affected India's national security.<ref name="Reforming">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4120429.stm "Narasimha Rao – a Reforming PM"]. [[BBC News]] (23 December 2004). Retrieved 2 March 2007.</ref> Rao, who held the [[Ministry of Commerce and Industry (India)|Industries portfolio]], was personally responsible for the dismantling of the [[Licence Raj]], which came under the purview of the Ministry of Commerce and Industry.<ref name="DNAArticle">Arvind Kumar, Arun Narendhranath (3 October 2001). [http://www.dnaindia.com/analysis/column_india-must-embrace-unfettered-free-enterprise_1594401 "India must embrace unfettered free enterprise"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130312095826/http://www.dnaindia.com/analysis/column_india-must-embrace-unfettered-free-enterprise_1594401 |date=12 March 2013 }}. ''[[Daily News and Analysis]]''.</ref> Rao accelerated the dismantling of the Licence Raj, reversing the socialist policies of previous governments.<ref name=reinvention>{{cite web|title=PV Narasimha Rao reinvented India|url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/lifestyle/pv-narasimha-rao-reinvented-india-so-why-is-he-the-forgotten-man-1.455990/|website=[[The National (Abu Dhabi)|The National]]|date=19 May 2012 |location=Abu Dhabi|access-date=23 June 2014}}</ref><ref name="policies by rao">{{cite web|title=Foreign Policies of India's Prime Ministers|url=http://www.transnational-perspectives.org/transnational/articles/article495.pdf|website=Transnational Organization|access-date=23 June 2014|archive-date=14 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714230255/http://www.transnational-perspectives.org/transnational/articles/article495.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> He employed Manmohan Singh as his finance minister to begin historic economic changes. With Rao's mandate, Singh launched reforms for India's [[globalisation]] that involved implementing [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) policies to prevent India's impending [[1991 India economic crisis|economic collapse]].<ref name="DNAArticle" /> Future prime ministers [[Atal Bihari Vajpayee]] and Manmohan Singh continued the economic reform policies begun by Rao's government. He is often called the "Father of Indian economic reforms".<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20071106123253/http://www.voanews.com/tibetan/archive/2004-12/a-2004-12-23-2-1.cfm "PV Narasimha Rao Remembered as Father of Indian Economic Reforms"]. ''[[VOA News]]'' (23 December 2004).</ref><ref name="Narasimha Rao was father of economic reform: Pranab">{{cite news|title=Narasimha Rao led India at crucial juncture, was father of economic reform: Pranab|access-date=25 January 2013|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Narasimha-Rao-led-India-at-crucial-juncture-was-father-of-economic-reform-Pranab/articleshow/17831434.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130520071110/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-12-31/india/36078990_1_economic-reforms-president-pranab-mukherjee-finance-minister|url-status=live|archive-date=20 May 2013|work=[[The Times of India]]|date= 31 December 2012}}</ref> Rao was also referred to as ''[[Chanakya]]'' for his ability to push tough economic and political legislation through the parliament while heading a minority government.<ref name="frontline">{{cite journal |url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/thscrip/print.pl?file=20050114008013000.htm&date=fl2201/&prd=fline& |title=Obituary: A scholar and a politician|author=V. Venkatesan |journal=Frontline |volume=22 |issue=1 |date=1–14 January 2005 |access-date=30 March 2010}}{{dead link|date=March 2016}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>[http://www.tlca.com/adults/obit-pvn.html "PV Narasimha Rao Passes Away"]. Retrieved 7 October 2007. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071101063203/http://www.tlca.com/adults/obit-pvn.html |date=1 November 2007 }}</ref>

By 1996, party found itself in a complex political landscape. It faced internal challenges, including factionalism and leadership struggles, allegations of corruption, and a degree of anti-incumbency sentiment. The [[1996 general elections]] witnessed the emergence of a fractured mandate, leading to the absence of a clear majority for any single party. Congress was reduced to 140 seats in elections that year, its lowest number in the Lok Sabha yet. Rao later resigned as prime minister and, in September, as party president.<ref name=resign>{{cite web|author=ABP News|title=Atal Bihari Vajpayee's 13-day govt.|date=December 2013 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eQ4F8KNB3ao |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/eQ4F8KNB3ao| archive-date=11 December 2021 |url-status=live|via=YouTube|access-date=24 June 2014}}{{cbignore}}</ref> He was succeeded as president by [[Sitaram Kesri]], the party's first non-[[Brahmin]] leader.<ref name=Kesari>{{cite news|title=The Sitaram Kesri case|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/lifestyle/report-the-sitaram-kesri-case-how-dynasty-trumped-ethics-1564149|access-date=23 June 2014|work=[[Daily News and Analysis]]|date=10 July 2011}}</ref> During the tenure of both Rao and Kesri, the two leaders conducted internal elections to the Congress working committees and their own posts as party presidents.<ref name="MitraEnskat2004">{{cite book|author1=Subrata Kumar Mitra|author2=Mike Enskat|author3=Clemens Spiess|title=Political Parties in South Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dObxI9xahSYC&pg=PR7|year=2004|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-275-96832-8|pages=42–43}}</ref>

The [[1998 Indian general election|1998 general elections]] saw Congress win 141 seats in the Lok Sabha, its lowest tally until then.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://archive.ipu.org/parline-e/reports/arc/2145_98.htm|title=India Parliamentary Chamber: Lok Sabha|website=[[Inter-Parliamentary Union]]|access-date=4 March 2018}}</ref> To boost its popularity and improve its performance in the forthcoming election, Congress leaders urged [[Sonia Gandhi]], Rajiv Gandhi's widow, to assume leadership of the party.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1998/01/31/another-gandhi-comes-to-congress-partys-aid/6dd58f02-b8d2-4a1e-b6ee-32e6f26cefcf/|title=Another Gandhi Comes to Congress Party's Aid|last=Cooper|first=Kenneth J.|date=31 January 1998|newspaper=The Washington Post}}</ref> She had previously declined offers to become actively involved in party affairs and had stayed away from politics.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/cover-story/story/19950131-sonia-gandhi-emerges-as-cynosure-of-all-eyes-could-play-pivotal-role-in-party-politics-808336-1995-01-31|title=Sonia Gandhi emerges as cynosure of all eyes, could play pivotal role in party politics|first1=M. |last1=Rahman|date=31 January 1995|website=India Today}}</ref> After her election as party leader, a section of the party that objected to the choice because of her Italian ethnicity broke away and formed the [[Nationalist Congress Party]] (NCP), led by [[Sharad Pawar]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/05/21/world/congress-party-expels-3-who-opposed-gandhi.html|title=Congress Party Expels 3 Who Opposed Gandhi|first=Celia W.|last=Dugger|newspaper=The New York Times |date=21 May 1999}}</ref>

Sonia Gandhi struggled to revive the party in her early years as its president; she was under continuous scrutiny for her foreign birth and lack of political acumen. In the snap elections called by the [[National Democratic Alliance (India)|National Democratic Alliance]] (NDA) government in [[1999 Indian general election|1999]], Congress' tally further plummeted to just 114 seats.<ref name="negi" /> Although the leadership structure was unaltered as the party campaigned strongly in the assembly elections that followed, Gandhi began to make such strategic changes as abandoning the party's 1998 Pachmarhi resolution of ''ekla chalo'' (go it alone) policy, and formed alliances with other like-minded parties. In the intervening years, the party was successful at various legislative assembly elections; at one point, Congress ruled 15 states.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://hindustantimes.com/india-news/sonia-gandhi-s-19-years-as-congress-president-from-husband-rajiv-s-death-to-son-rahul-s-elevation/story-nmW3hNiG2zDo6abGYc38YO.html|title=Sonia Gandhi's 19 years as Congress president: From husband death to son Rahul's elevation|last=Naqshbandi|first=Aurangzeb|work=[[Hindustan Times]]|access-date=16 December 2017|date=4 March 2018}}</ref> For the [[2004 Indian general election|2004 general election]], Congress forged alliances with regional parties including the NCP and the [[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rediff.com/election/2004/may/14congress.htm|title=The mathematics of politics|work=[[Rediff.com]]|access-date=4 March 2018|date=16 May 2004}}</ref> The party's campaign emphasised social inclusion and the welfare of the common masses{{emdash}}an ideology that Gandhi herself endorsed for Congress during her presidency{{emdash}}with slogans such as {{lang|hi|Congress ka haath, aam aadmi ke saath}} ("Congress hand in hand with the common man"), contrasting with the NDA's "[[India Shining]]" campaign.<ref name="negi">{{cite web|url=https://www.news18.com/news/politics/sonia-gandhis-legacy-she-reinvented-herself-to-fight-off-challenges-but-also-had-her-share-of-failures-1606229.html|title=Sonia Gandhi's Legacy: She Reinvented Herself to Fight Off Challenges but also Had Her Share of Failures|last=Negi|first=Saroj|website=[[India Today]]|access-date=2 March 2018|date=16 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/sonia-gandhi-congress-president-rahul-gandhi-politics-4983911/|title=Sonia Gandhi retires as Congress president, to remain active in politics|work=[[The Indian Express]]|date=15 December 2017|access-date=15 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/as-sonia-gandhi-makes-way-4984673/ |title=As Sonia Gandhi makes way|last=Chowdhary|first=Neerja|work=[[The Indian Express]]|date=16 December 2017|access-date=19 December 2017}}</ref> The Congress-led United Progressive Alliance (UPA) won 222 seats in the new parliament, defeating the NDA by a substantial margin. With the subsequent support of the communist front, Congress won a majority and formed a new government.<ref name="Naqshbandi">{{cite news|url=http://m.hindustantimes.com/india-news/sonia-gandhi-s-19-years-as-congress-president-from-husband-rajiv-s-death-to-son-rahul-s-elevation/story-nmW3hNiG2zDo6abGYc38YO.html|title=Sonia Gandhi's 19 years as Congress president: From husband Rajiv's death to son Rahul's elevation|last=Naqshbandi|first=Aurangzeb|work=[[Hindustan Times]]|date=16 December 2017|access-date=20 December 2017|archive-date=16 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190916034748/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/sonia-gandhi-s-19-years-as-congress-president-from-husband-rajiv-s-death-to-son-rahul-s-elevation/story-nmW3hNiG2zDo6abGYc38YO.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
[[File:The President Dr. A.P.J Abdul Kalam authorizing the Prime Minister designate Dr. Manmohan Singh to form the next Government in New Delhi on May 19, 2004.jpg|thumb|250px|right|11th [[President of India]] [[A. P. J. Abdul Kalam]] authorising the Prime Minister designate [[Manmohan Singh]] to form the next Government in New Delhi on 19 May 2004]]
Despite massive support from within the party, Gandhi declined the post of prime minister, choosing to appoint [[Manmohan Singh]] instead.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-india-election-gandhi/sonia-gandhi-keeps-congress-hopes-alive-in-india-polls-idUSTRE53D1XH20090414 |title=Sonia Gandhi keeps Congress hopes alive in India polls|last=Chandra|first=Rina|work=Reuters|date=14 April 2009|access-date=19 December 2017}}</ref> She remained as party president and headed the [[National Advisory Council]] (NAC).<ref>{{cite news|title=Hands-on influence for Sonia Gandhi as NAC head|url=http://www.livemint.com/Home-Page/bwgztbqFBjfiC4WnGGye3H/Handson-influence-for-Sonia-Gandhi-as-NAC-head.html|access-date=17 August 2016|last=Mathew|first=Liz|work=Mint|date=30 March 2010}}</ref> During its first term in office, the UPA government passed several social reform bills. These included an [[Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act|employment guarantee]] bill, the [[Right to Information Act]], and a [[Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act|right to education]] act. The NAC, as well as [[Left Front (West Bengal)|the Left Front]] that supported the government from the outside, were widely seen as being the driving force behind such legislation. The Left Front withdrew its support of the government over disagreements about the [[U.S.–India Civil Nuclear Agreement]]. Despite the effective loss of 62 seats in parliament, the government survived the trust vote that followed.<ref>{{cite web|title=Manmohan survives trust vote|url=http://specials.indiatoday.com/trustvote/|work=India Today|access-date=6 January 2014}}</ref>

In the [[2009 Indian general election|Lok Sabha elections held soon after]], Congress won 207 seats, the highest tally of any party since 1991. The UPA won 262, enabling it to form a government for the second time. The social welfare policies of the first UPA government, and the perceived divisiveness of the BJP, are broadly credited with the victory.<ref>{{cite web|last=Bidwai|first=Praful|title=Reading the Verdict|url=http://www.frontline.in/navigation/?type=static&page=archiveSearch&aid=20090619261209100&ais=12&avol=26|work=Frontline|access-date=6 January 2014}}</ref>

==== Rahul Gandhi era (2014–present) ====

[[File:Bharat Jodo Yatra.webp|thumb|right|alt=Gandhi during Bharat Jodo Yatra|Former INC president [[Rahul Gandhi]] during [[Bharat Jodo Yatra]]]]

By the [[2014 Indian general election|2014 election]], the party had lost much of its popular support, mainly growing discontent over a series of corruption allegations involving government officials, including the [[2G spectrum case]] and the [[Indian coal allocation scam]], as well as the ineptness towards national security, particularly the insensitivity in the aftermath of the [[2011 Mumbai bombings]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Difficult to stop terror attacks all the time, says Rahul Gandhi |date=14 July 2011 |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/mumbai-blasts-2011/story/mumbai-serial-blasts-difficult-to-stop-terror-attacks-all-the-time-says-rahul-gandhi-137469-2011-07-13 |access-date=14 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714114727/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/site/story/mumbai-serial-blasts-difficult-to-stop-terror-attacks-all-the-time-says-rahul-gandhi/1/144774.html |archive-date=14 July 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=2G>{{cite news|title=2G spectrum scam|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/what-is-the-2g-scam-all-about-102224-2012-10-19|access-date=22 June 2014|work=India Today|date=19 October 2012}}</ref><ref name=coal>{{cite news|title=Coal Block Allocations Scam|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-what-is-the-indian-coal-allocation-scam-1828830|access-date=22 June 2014|work=[[Daily News and Analysis]]|date=30 April 2013}}</ref> The Congress won only 44 seats in the [[Lok Sabha]], compared to the 336 of the BJP and the NDA.<ref name=performance>{{cite news|title=List of Congress winners|url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/lok-sabha-election-results-list-of-congress-winners/472493-37-64.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140519170158/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/lok-sabha-election-results-list-of-congress-winners/472493-37-64.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=19 May 2014|access-date=22 June 2014|publisher=CNN-IBN|date=17 May 2014}}</ref> The UPA suffered a landslide defeat, which was the party's worst-ever national electoral performance with its vote share dipping below 20 per cent for the first time.<ref name=result>{{cite news|title=Congress Vote Share Dips Below 20 Per Cent for First Time|url=http://www.ndtv.com/elections/article/election-2014/election-results-2014-congress-vote-share-dips-below-20-per-cent-for-first-time-526000|access-date=22 June 2014|work=[[NDTV India]]|date=17 May 2014}}</ref> Sonia Gandhi retired as party president in December 2017, having served for a record nineteen years. She was succeeded by her son [[Rahul Gandhi]], who was elected unopposed in the 2017 INC presidential election.<ref name="Naqshbandi" />

Rahul Gandhi resigned from his post after the [[2019 Indian general election|2019 election]], due to the party's dismal electoral performance.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/rahul-gandhi-resignation-what-next-1561338-2019-07-03|title=Rahul Gandhi has resigned. For real. What next?|newspaper=India Today|access-date=14 July 2019|agency=Ist}}</ref> The party only won 52 seats, eight more than the previous election. Its vote percentage once again fell below 20 per cent. Following Gandhi's resignation, party leaders began deliberations for a suitable candidate to replace him. The Congress Working Committee met on 10 August to make a final decision on the matter and passed a resolution asking Sonia Gandhi to take over as interim president until a consensus candidate could be picked.<ref name="2019 president">{{cite news|url= https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/cwc-chooses-sonia-gandhi-as-interim-chief-of-congress/articleshow/70623767.cms|title=CWC chooses Sonia Gandhi as interim chief of Congress|work=[[The Economic Times]]|date=11 August 2019|access-date=14 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/rahul-had-said-no-gandhi-but-congress-goes-back-to-sonia-gandhi/articleshow/70625074.cms | title=Rahul had said 'no Gandhi', but Congress goes back to Sonia Gandhi | work=[[The Times of India]] | date=11 August 2019 | access-date=11 August 2019}}</ref> Following the election, [[Adhir Ranjan Chowdhury]] was chosen as the leader of the Congress in the Lok Sabha,<ref name="Pioneer">{{cite news |title=Chowdhury to stay as leader of Opposition in Lok Sabha |url=https://www.dailypioneer.com/2021/india/chowdhury-to-stay-as-leader-of-opposition-in-lok-sabha.html |access-date=18 January 2022 |work=The Pioneer |location=India |date=15 July 2021 |archive-date=11 February 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250211101256/https://www.dailypioneer.com/2021/india/chowdhury-to-stay-as-leader-of-opposition-in-lok-sabha.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Gaurav Gogoi]] was chosen as the deputy leader in Lok Sabha, and [[Ravneet Singh Bittu]] was chosen as the party whip.<ref>{{cite news |title=Congress appoints Gaurav Gogoi as deputy leader in Lok Sabha, Ravneet Bittu as whip |url=https://theprint.in/politics/congress-appoints-gaurav-gogoi-as-deputy-leader-in-lok-sabha-ravneet-bittu-as-whip/490567/ |access-date=18 January 2022 |work=ThePrint |date=27 August 2020}}</ref> Based on an analysis of the candidates' poll affidavits, a report by the National Election Watch (NEW) and the [[Association for Democratic Reforms]] (ADR) says that, the Congress has highest [[Defection|political defection]] rate since 2014. According to the report, a total of 222 electoral candidates had left the Congress to join other parties during elections held between 2014 and 2021, as 177 MPs and MLAs quit the party.<ref name="Analysis">{{cite news |last1=Joy |first1=Shemin |title=Congress has lost six governments to BJP since PM Narendra Modi assumed power in 2014 |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/national/national-politics/congress-has-lost-six-governments-to-bjp-since-pm-narendra-modi-assumed-power-in-2014-954411.html |access-date=10 March 2022 |work=Deccan Herald|agency=The Printers, Mysore |date=23 February 2021}}</ref> The defections resulted in a loss of the party's established governments in [[2015–2016 Arunachal Pradesh political crisis|Arunachal Pradesh]], [[2020 Madhya Pradesh political crisis|Madhya Pradesh]], [[Goa]], [[2019 Karnataka political crisis|Karnataka]], [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]], and [[Manipur]].

[[File:Mallikarjun Kharge.jpg|thumb|right|[[Mallikarjun Kharge]], INC's incumbent president and leader in [[Rajya Sabha]]]]

On 28 August 2022, the [[Congress Working Committee]] (CWC) held an [[2022 Indian National Congress presidential election|election]] for the next president of the INC, to succeed Rahul Gandhi. The election was held on 17 October 2022 and counting took place on 19 October 2022.<ref>{{cite web |date=28 August 2022 |title=Election for Congress president to be held on October 17, counting on October 19 |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/election-for-congress-president-to-be-held-on-october-17-101661682471947.html |access-date=28 August 2022 |website=Hindustan Times}}</ref> The candidates in the race were Kerala MP [[Shashi Tharoor]] and Karnataka MP [[Mallikarjun Kharge]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Congress president polls: It's Mallikarjun Kharge vs Shashi Tharoor as Tripathi's nomination is rejected |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/congress-president-polls-its-mallikarjun-kharge-vs-shashi-tharoor-as-tripathis-nomination-rejected/article65958509.ece |date=1 October 2022 |work=The Hindu |agency=Press Trust of India |issn=0971-751X|access-date=4 October 2022}}</ref> Mallikarjun Kharge won the election in a landslide,<ref name="indiatimes1"/> securing 7,897 out of the 9,385 votes cast. His rival, Shashi Tharoor, secured 1,072 votes.<ref name="thehindu1"/>

Kharge led the party into the [[2024 Indian general election]], where the party made significant gains in [[2024 Indian general election in Uttar Pradesh|Uttar Pradesh]] and several other states, ultimately securing 99 seats. This performance marked the party's best electoral result since 2014 and enabled Rahul Gandhi to assume the role of Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha. However, this was the party's third worst performance in terms of number of seats. The party also served as the principal opposition within the [[Indian National Developmental Inclusive Alliance]] (INDIA), a coalition formed in 2023.<ref>{{cite news |last=Aggarwal |first=Raghav |date=4 June 2024 |title=INDIA bloc's combined strength plays spoilsport for BJP in 2 biggest states |url=https://www.business-standard.com/elections/lok-sabha-election/india-bloc-s-combined-strength-plays-spoilsport-for-bjp-in-2-biggest-states-124060401570_1.html |access-date=5 June 2024 |work=Business Standard |archive-date=4 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240604151957/https://www.business-standard.com/elections/lok-sabha-election/india-bloc-s-combined-strength-plays-spoilsport-for-bjp-in-2-biggest-states-124060401570_1.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/india-election-results-narendra-modi-rcna154839 |title=India hands PM Modi a surprise setback, with his majority in doubt in the world's largest election|first1=Mithil |last1=Aggarwai |first2=Janis Mackey |last2=Frayer |publisher=NBC News |date=4 June 2024 |access-date=4 June 2024 |archive-date=4 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240604151033/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/india-election-results-narendra-modi-rcna154839|url-status=live}}</ref>

== General election results ==
{{See also|Electoral history of the Indian National Congress}}

In the [[1951–52 Indian general election|first parliamentary]] elections held in 1952, the INC won 364 seats, which was 76 per cent of the 479 contested seats.<ref name="India Today 2007">{{cite web | title=Congress led by Jawaharlal Nehru won the first general election in 1952 | website=India Today | date=2 July 2007 | url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/cover-story/story/20070702-1952-first-lok-sabha-elections-748237-2007-07-01 | access-date=20 March 2024}}</ref> The vote share of the INC was 45 per cent of all votes cast.<ref name="Ganguly 2022">{{cite web | last=Ganguly | first=Siddharth | title=The Parties That Contested India's First General Election | website=The Wire | date=2 February 2022 | url=https://thewire.in/history/the-parties-that-contested-indias-first-general-election | access-date=20 March 2024}}</ref> Till the [[1971 Indian general election|1971 general elections]], the party's voting percentage remain intact at 40 per cent. However, the [[1977 Indian general election|1977 general elections]] resulted in a heavy defeat for the INC. Many notable INC party leader lost their seats, winning only 154 seats in the Lok Sabha.<ref name="Analysisb">{{cite news |last1=Gupta |first1=Abhinav |title=Lok Sabha Poll Results: A vote-share and performance analysis of BJP vs Congress from 1996 to 2019 |url=https://english.newsnationtv.com/election/lok-sabha-election/lok-sabha-poll-results-a-vote-share-and-performance-analysis-of-bjp-vs-congress-from-1996-to-2019-225277.html |access-date=8 March 2022 |work=News Nation |agency=News Nation Network Pvt Ltd. |date=24 May 2019}}</ref> The INC again returned to power in the [[1980 Indian general election]] securing a 42.7 per cent vote share of all votes, winning 353 seats. INC's vote share kept increasing till 1980 and then to a record high of 48.1 per cent by 1984/85. [[Rajiv Gandhi]] on assuming the post of prime minister in October 1984 recommended [[1984 Indian general election|early elections]]. The general elections were to be held in January 1985; instead, they were held in December 1984. The Congress won an overwhelming majority, securing 415 seats out of 533, the largest ever majority in independent India's Lok Sabha elections history.<ref name="Hindustan Times 2003">{{cite web | title=Chronology of Lok Sabha elections (1952–1999) | website=The Hindustan Times| date=13 October 2003 | url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/chronology-of-lok-sabha-elections-1952-1999/story-592mMFUB4HLQKlLyUamnjN.html | access-date=20 March 2024}}</ref> This winning recorded a vote share of 49.1 per cent resulting in an overall increase to 48.1 per cent. The party got 32.14 per cent of voters in polls held in [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] and [[Assam]] in 1985.<ref name="Ganguly 2022"/>

In November 1989, general elections were held to elect the members of the 9th Lok Sabha.<ref name="Anon">{{cite web | title=Statistical Report on General Elections, 1989 to the Ninth Lok Sabha| url=https://ceomadhyapradesh.nic.in/Links/Books/89_Vol_II.pdf | access-date=20 March 2024}}</ref> The Congress did badly in the elections, though it still managed to be the largest single party in the Lok Sabha. Its vote share started decreasing to 39.5 per cent in the 1989 general elections. The 13th Lok Sabha term was to end in October 2004, but the [[National Democratic Alliance]] (NDA) government decided on early polls. The Lok Sabha was dissolved in February itself and the country went to the polls in April–May 2004. The INC, led by Sonia Gandhi unexpectedly emerged as the single largest party.<ref name="2004 Result">{{cite news |last1=Chakravarty |first1=Shubhodeep |title=INKredible India: The story of 2004 Lok Sabha election – All you need to know |url=https://zeenews.india.com/lok-sabha-general-elections-2019/inkredible-india-the-story-of-2004-lok-sabha-election-all-you-need-to-know-2204202.html |access-date=10 March 2022 |publisher=Zee News|agency=[[Essel Group]] |date=18 May 2019}}</ref> After the elections, Congress joined up with minor parties to form the [[United Progressive Alliance]] (UPA). The UPA with external support from the [[Bahujan Samaj Party]], [[Samajwadi Party]], Kerala Congress, and the Left Front managed a comfortable majority.<ref name="2004 Result"/> Congress has lost nearly 20% of its vote share in general elections held between 1996 and 2009.<ref name="Analysis"/>

[[File:Seats Won by INC in Indian General Elections over the years.png|thumb|650px|center|Seats Won by INC in Indian General Elections over the years]]

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! style="background:#00bfff; color:white;"| Year
! style="background:#00bfff; color:white;"| Legislature
! style="background:#00bfff; color:white;"| Party leader
! style="background:#00bfff; color:white;"| Seats won
! style="background:#00bfff; color:white;"| Change in seats
! style="background:#00bfff; color:white;"| Percentage of votes
! style="background:#00bfff; color:white;"| Vote swing
! style="background:#00bfff; color:white;"| Outcome
! style="background:#00bfff; color:white;" class="unsortable"| Ref
|-
|[[1934 Indian general election|1934]]
|[[Central Legislative Assembly|5th Central Legislative Assembly]]
|[[Bhulabhai Desai]]
|{{Composition bar|42|147|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{increase}} 42
|{{n/a}}
|{{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
|<ref name=T1>"Elections in India The New Delhi Assembly, Congress Party's Position", ''The Times'', 10 December 1934, p15, Issue 46933</ref>
|-
|[[1945 Indian general election|1945]]
|[[Central Legislative Assembly|6th Central Legislative Assembly]]
|[[Sarat Chandra Bose]]
|{{Composition bar|59|102|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{increase}} 17
|{{n/a}}
|{{n/a}}
| {{partial|[[Interim Government of India]] (1946–1947)}}
|<ref name="Interim Govt">{{cite web | title=British India (1902-1947) | website=UCA | date=24 March 1902 | url=https://uca.edu/politicalscience/home/research-projects/dadm-project/asiapacific-region/british-india-1902-1947/ | access-date=13 February 2025 }}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref>
|-
|[[1951 Indian general election|1951]]
|[[1st Lok Sabha]]
|rowspan=3|[[Jawaharlal Nehru]]
|{{Composition bar|364|489|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{increase}} 364
|44.99%
|{{n/a}}
|{{yes|Majority}}
|<ref>{{cite web |title=Statistical Report on Lok Sabha Elections 1951–52 |publisher=Election Commission of India |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1951/VOL_11_51_LS.PDF }}</ref>
|-
|[[1957 Indian general election|1957]]
|[[2nd Lok Sabha]]
|{{Composition bar|371|494|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{increase}} 7
|47.78%
|{{increase}} 2.79%
|{{yes|Majority}}
|<ref name="GE1957V1">{{cite web | url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1957/Vol_I_57_LS.pdf | title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1957 : To the Second Lok Sabha Volume-I | work=Election Commission of India | page=5 | access-date=11 July 2015}}</ref>
|-
|[[1962 Indian general election|1962]]
|[[3rd Lok Sabha]]
|{{Composition bar|361|494|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{decrease}} 10
|44.72%
|{{decrease}} 3.06%
|{{yes|Majority}}
|<ref>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1962/Vol_I_LS_62.pdf | title=Statistical Report On General Elections, 1962 To The Third Lok Sabha | publisher=Election Commission of India | access-date=30 April 2014 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140718185518/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1962/Vol_I_LS_62.pdf|archive-date= 18 July 2014}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2"|[[1967 Indian general election|1967]]
| rowspan="2"|[[4th Lok Sabha]]
|rowspan=5|[[Indira Gandhi]]
| rowspan="2"|{{Composition bar|283|520|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
| rowspan="2"|{{decrease}} 78
| rowspan="2"|40.78%
| rowspan="2"|{{decrease}} 2.94%
| {{yes|Majority (1967–69)}}
|<ref>{{Cite web|title=After wars, deaths, political turmoil, how the 1967 Lok Sabha elections saw the Indira Gandhi era begin|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-history/lok-sabha-elections-after-wars-deaths-political-turmoil-the-era-of-indira-gandhi-9287333/|website=The Indian Express|date=2024-05-17|access-date=2025-11-28|language=en}}</ref>
|-
| {{yes2|Minority (1969–71)}}
|<ref name="General Election of India 1967">{{cite web|title=General Election of India 1967, 4th Lok Sabha |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1967/Vol_I_LS_67.pdf |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=13 January 2010 |page=5 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140718185108/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1967/Vol_I_LS_67.pdf |archive-date=18 July 2014}}</ref>
|-
|[[1971 Indian general election|1971]]
|[[5th Lok Sabha]]
|{{Composition bar|352|518|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{increase}} 69
|43.68%
|{{increase}} 2.90%
|{{yes|Majority}}
|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1971/Vol_I_LS71.pdf |title=General Election of India 1971, 5th Lok Sabha |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=13 January 2010 |page=6 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140718175452/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1971/Vol_I_LS71.pdf |archive-date=18 July 2014}}</ref>
|-
|[[1977 Indian general election|1977]]
|[[6th Lok Sabha]]
|{{Composition bar|153|542|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{decrease}} 199
|34.52%
|{{decrease}} 9.16%
|{{no2|Official Opposition}}
|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1977/Vol_I_LS_77.pdf |title=General Election of India 1977, 6th Lok Sabha |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=13 January 2010 |page=6 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140718185438/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1977/Vol_I_LS_77.pdf |archive-date=18 July 2014}}</ref>
|-
|[[1980 Indian general election|1980]]
|[[7th Lok Sabha]]
|{{Composition bar|351|542|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{increase}} 198
|42.69%
|{{increase}} 8.17%
|{{yes|Majority}}
|<ref name="1980 report" />
|-
|[[1984 Indian general election|1984]]
|[[8th Lok Sabha]]
|rowspan=2|[[Rajiv Gandhi]]
|{{Composition bar|415|533|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{increase}} 64
|49.01%
|{{increase}} 6.32%
|{{yes|Majority}}
|<ref>{{cite web |title=Statistical Report on General Elections, 1984, to the Eighth Lok Sabha – Volume 1 (National and State Abstracts & Detailed Results) |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/4118-general-election-1984-vol-i-ii/?do=download&r=9755&confirm=1&t=1&csrfKey=6df04992cf2c2fe96a9487465b425663 |year=1985 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211031082328/https://eci.gov.in/files/file/4118-general-election-1984-vol-i-ii/?do=download&r=9755&confirm=1&t=1&csrfKey=6df04992cf2c2fe96a9487465b425663 |archive-date=31 October 2021 |url-status=live |website=Election Commission of India |access-date=14 October 2022}}</ref>
|-
|[[1989 Indian general election|1989]]
|[[9th Lok Sabha]]
|{{Composition bar|197|545|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{decrease}} 218
|39.53%
|{{decrease}} 9.48%
|{{no2|Official Opposition}}
|<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9dDH9q7nVQ8C&pg=PA124|title=Indian Parliamentary Democracy|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist|year=2003|isbn=978-81-269-0193-7|page=124}}</ref>
|-
|[[1991 Indian general election|1991]]
|[[10th Lok Sabha]]
|rowspan=3|[[P. V. Narasimha Rao]]
|{{Composition bar|244|545|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{increase}} 47
|35.66%
|{{decrease}} 3.87%
|{{yes2|Minority}}
|<ref name=IPU>{{cite web|title=1991 India General (10th Lok Sabha) Elections Results|url=https://www.elections.in/parliamentary-constituencies/1991-election-results.html|access-date=7 September 2020|website=elections.in}}</ref>
|-
|rowspan="2"|[[1996 Indian general election|1996]]
|rowspan="2"|[[11th Lok Sabha]]
|rowspan="2"|{{Composition bar|140|545|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|rowspan="2"|{{decrease}} 104
|rowspan="2"|28.80%
|rowspan="2"|{{decrease}} 7.46%
| {{no2|Official Opposition (1996)}}
|<ref>{{Cite news|title=Elections that shaped India {{!}} The United Front experiment (1996-98)|url=https://www.thehindu.com/elections/the-united-front-experiment-elections-that-shaped-india-1996-1998-elections/article67707166.ece|work=The Hindu|date=2024-04-07|access-date=2025-11-28|issn=0971-751X|language=en-IN|first=Suchitra|last=Karthikeyan}}</ref>
|-
| {{partial|[[Confidence and supply|Outside support]] for [[United Front (India, 1996)|UF]] (1996–97)}}
|<ref>{{cite book|last=Vohra|first=Ranbir|title=The Making of India|year=2001|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|location=Armonk|pages=282–284|isbn=978-0-7656-0712-6}}</ref>
|-
|[[1998 Indian general election|1998]]
|[[12th Lok Sabha]]
|[[Sitaram Kesri]]
|{{Composition bar|141|545|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{increase}} 1
|25.82%
|{{decrease}} 2.98%
|{{no2|Official Opposition}}
|<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.eci.nic.in/archive/ge98/index_ge.htm |title=WORTHLESS! |website=General Elections '98 – India |publisher=Election Commission of India |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410025915/https://www.eci.nic.in/archive/ge98/index_ge.htm |archive-date=10 April 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.elections.in/parliamentary-constituencies/1998-election-results.html|title=General (12th Lok Sabha) Election Results India|access-date=12 February 2023}}</ref>
|-
|[[1999 Indian general election|1999]]
|[[13th Lok Sabha]]
|rowspan="2" |[[Sonia Gandhi]]
|{{Composition bar|114|545|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{decrease}} 27
|28.30%
|{{increase}} 2.48%
|{{no2|Official Opposition}}
|<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.eci.nic.in/archive/ge1999/index_ge1.htm |title=WORTHLESS! |website=General Elections '99 – India |publisher=Election Commission of India |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410025423/https://www.eci.nic.in/archive/ge1999/index_ge1.htm |archive-date=10 April 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.elections.in/parliamentary-constituencies/1999-election-results.html|title=General (13th Lok Sabha) Election Results India|access-date=12 February 2023}}</ref>
|-
|[[2004 Indian general election|2004]]
|[[14th Lok Sabha]]
|{{Composition bar|145|543|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{increase}} 31
|26.7%
|{{decrease}} 1.6%
|{{yes2|Coalition}}
|<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.eci.nic.in/archive/GE2004/pollupd/pc/GE_NatSnapshot.htm |title=Party wise Summary|website=General Elections 2004|publisher=Election Commission of India|date=30 August 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180727220231/http://eci.nic.in/archive/GE2004/pollupd/pc/GE_NatSnapshot.htm |archive-date=27 July 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|-
|[[2009 Indian general election|2009]]
|[[15th Lok Sabha]]
|[[Manmohan Singh]]
|{{Composition bar|206|543|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{increase}} 61
|28.55%
|{{increase}} 2.02%
|{{yes2|Coalition}}
|<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/second-upa-wincrowning-glory-for-sonia%5Cs-ascendancy/61892/on|title=Second UPA win, a crowning glory for Sonia's ascendancy|date=16 May 2009|work=[[Business Standard]]|location=India|access-date=13 June 2009}}</ref>
|-
|[[2014 Indian general election|2014]]
|[[16th Lok Sabha]]
|rowspan="2" |[[Rahul Gandhi]]
|{{Composition bar|44|543|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{decrease}} 162
|19.3%
|{{decrease}} 9.25%
|{{no|Opposition}}
|<ref name=pibgoi>{{cite web|url=http://www.pib.gov.in/elections2014/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141027170410/http://www.pib.gov.in/elections2014/|url-status=dead|archive-date=27 October 2014|title=Final Results 2014 General Elections|publisher=Press Information Bureau, Government of India}}</ref><ref name=ecir14>{{cite web|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140519040751/http://www.eciresults.ap.nic.in/PartyWiseResult.htm|archive-date=19 May 2014|url=http://eciresults.ap.nic.in/PartyWiseResult.htm|title=General Election to Loksabha Trend and Result 2014|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|date=16 May 2014 |access-date=19 May 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
|[[2019 Indian general election|2019]]
|[[17th Lok Sabha]]
|{{Composition bar|52|543|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{increase}} 8
|19.5%
|{{increase}} 0.2%
|{{no|Opposition}}
|<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-48389130|title=Modi thanks India for 'historic mandate'|date=23 May 2019|access-date=29 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190528223438/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-48389130|archive-date=28 May 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|[[2024 Indian general election|2024]]
|[[18th Lok Sabha]]
|[[Mallikarjun Kharge]]
|{{Composition bar|99|543|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{increase}} 47
|21.19%
|{{increase}} 1.7%
|{{no2|Official Opposition}}
|<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/how-rahul-gandhi-turned-the-tide-in-favour-of-congress-india-bloc-alliance-101717561727873.html|title=How Rahul Gandhi turned the tide in favour of Congress, INDIA bloc alliance|date=5 June 2024 |access-date=5 June 2024}}</ref>
|}
{{Vertical bar chart|1951|364|1957|371|1962|361|1967|283|1971|352|1977|153|1980|351|1984|415|1989|197|1991|244|1996|140|1998|141|1999|114|2004|145|2009|206|2014|44|2019|52|2024|99|full_name=All time-INC Lok Sabha seat count|type=demographic|note=}}

== Political positions ==
{{Liberalism sidebar}}
{{Social democracy sidebar}}
=== Social affairs ===
The Congress party emphasises [[social equality]], [[Freedom (political)|freedom]], [[secularism]], and [[equal opportunity]].<ref name="NSGehlot1991">{{cite book|author=N. S. Gehlot|title=The Congress Party in India: Policies, Culture, Performance|url={{Google books|06HLD2_3Qj4C|page=PM177|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|year=1991|publisher=Deep & Deep Publications|isbn=978-81-7100-306-8|pages=150–200}}</ref> Its political position is generally considered to be in the centre.<ref name="British-Journal"/> Historically, the party has represented farmers, labourers, and [[National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, 2005|Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act]] (MGNREGA).<ref name="MGNREGA">{{cite web |title=National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, 2005 |url=https://rural.nic.in/sites/default/files/nrega/Library/Books/1_MGNREGA_Act.pdf |publisher=Ministry of Law and Justice |access-date=11 July 2021}}</ref> The MGNREGA was initiated with the objective of "enhancing livelihood security in rural areas by providing at least 100 days of guaranteed wage employment in a financial year, to every household whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled manual work." Another aim of MGNREGA is to create durable assets (such as roads, canals, ponds, and wells).<ref name="MGNREGA"/>

The Congress has positioned itself as both pro-Hindu and protector of the minorities. The party supports [[Mahatma Gandhi]]'s doctrine of {{lang|hi|[[Sarva Dharma Sama Bhava]]}}, collectively termed by its party members as secularism. Former Chief Minister of Punjab and senior Congress member [[Amarinder Singh]] said, "India belongs to all religions, which is its strength, and the Congress would not allow anyone to destroy its cherished secular values."<ref name="Captain CM">{{cite news |title=Congress will safeguard secularism |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/congress-will-safeguard-secularism/article27074338.ece |access-date=6 July 2021 |work=The Hindu |date=9 May 2019}}</ref> On 9 November 1989, Rajiv Gandhi had allowed {{lang|hi|Shilanyas}} (foundation stone-laying ceremony) adjacent to the then disputed [[Ram Janmabhoomi]] site.<ref name="Ram Temple Rajiv">{{cite news |last1=Kundu |first1=Chayan |title=Fact Check: False claims of Rajiv Gandhi at Ram temple 'bhoomi pujan' go viral |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/fact-check/story/fact-check-false-claims-of-rajiv-gandhi-at-ram-temple-bhoomi-pujan-go-viral-1704708-2020-07-26 |access-date=6 July 2021 |work=India Today |agency=Living Media Pvt. Ltd. |date=26 July 2020}}</ref> Subsequently, his government faced heavy criticism over the passing of [[The Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act 1986]], which nullified the Supreme Court's judgment in the [[Shah Bano case]]. The [[1984 anti-Sikh riots|1984 violence]] damaged the Congress's party moral argument over secularism. The BJP questioned the Congress party's moral authority in questioning it about the [[2002 Gujarat riots]].<ref name="ThePrint">{{cite news |last1=Vij |first1=Shivam |title=Reclaiming Indian pluralism will need annihilation of the Congress party |url=https://theprint.in/opinion/reclaiming-indian-pluralism-will-need-annihilation-of-congress/485212/ |access-date=6 July 2021 |work=ThePrint |publisher=Shekhar Gupta |date=19 August 2020}}</ref> The Congress has distanced itself from [[Hindutva]] ideology, though the party has softened its stance after defeat in the 2014 and 2019 general elections.<ref name="Hindutva">{{cite news |title='Rajiv Gandhi opened locks, called for Ram Rajya in 1985': Kamal Nath |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/india/article/rajiv-gandhi-opened-locks-called-for-ram-rajya-in-1985-kamal-nath/632586 |access-date=6 July 2021 |work=Times Now |date=6 August 2020}}</ref>

Under Narsimha Rao's premiership, the [[Panchayati raj in India|Panchayati Raj]] and [[Municipal corporation (India)|Municipal Government]] got constitutional status. With the enactment of the 73rd and 74th amendments to the constitution, a new chapter, Part- IX (Panchayats) and Part IX-A (Municipalities) added to the constitution.<ref name="73rd">{{cite web |title=Panchayati Raj System in Independent India |url=http://www.pbrdp.gov.in/documents/6205745/98348119/Panchayati%20Raj%20System%20in%20Independent%20India.pdf |publisher=Department of Rural Development and Panchayats, Punjab |access-date=10 March 2022 |archive-date=1 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220201062705/http://www.pbrdp.gov.in/documents/6205745/98348119/Panchayati%20Raj%20System%20in%20Independent%20India.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> States have been given the flexibility to take into consideration their geographical, politico-administrative, and other consideration while adopting the Panchayati-raj system. In both panchayats and municipal bodies, in an attempt to ensure that there is inclusiveness in [[Local government in India|local self-government]], reservations for SC/ST and women were implemented.<ref name="Self Governance">{{cite web |title=Governance and Development |url=https://niti.gov.in/planningcommission.gov.in/docs/plans/mta/midterm/english-pdf/chapter-17.pdf |publisher=[[NITI Aayog]] |access-date=10 March 2022}}</ref>

After independence, Congress advocated the idea of establishing [[Hindi]] as the sole [[national language]] of India. The [[Constitution of India]], in Part XVII and specifically Article 351, addresses the promotion and development of Hindi. This article instructs the [[Union Government|Union]] to promote the spread of Hindi so that it can serve as a medium to express India’s diverse culture and be enriched by incorporating elements from other languages without losing its essential character. Nehru led the faction of the Congress party which promoted Hindi as the ''[[lingua franca]]'' of the Indian nation.<ref name="Lingua">{{cite journal |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43950462 |jstor=43950462 |access-date=5 July 2021|title=Jawaharlal Nehru and the Language Problem |last1=Agrawala |first1=S. K. |journal=Journal of the Indian Law Institute |year=1977 |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=44–67 }}</ref> However, the non-Hindi-speaking Indian states, especially [[Tamil Nadu]], opposed it and wanted the continued use of the English language. Lal Bahadur Shastri's tenure witnessed several protests and riots including the Madras [[Anti-Hindi agitations of Tamil Nadu|anti-Hindi agitation of 1965]].<ref name="Tamil protest">{{cite news |last1=Nair |first1=Chitralekha |title=A brief history of anti-Hindi imposition agitations in India |url=https://www.theweek.in/news/india/2019/06/07/brief-history-anti-hindi-imposition-agitations-india.html |access-date=5 July 2021 |work=The Week (Indian magazine) |publisher=Jacob Mathew |date=7 June 2019}}</ref> Shashtri's appealed to agitators to withdraw the movement and assured them that the English would continue to be used as the official language as long as the non-Hindi speaking states wanted.<ref name="Assurance">{{cite news |last1=Madan |first1=Karuna |title=Anti-Hindi agitation: How it all began |url=https://gulfnews.com/world/asia/india/anti-hindi-agitation-how-it-all-began-1.2018146 |access-date=5 July 2021 |work=Gulf News |agency=Al Nisr Publishing |date=28 April 2017}}</ref> Indira Gandhi assuaged the sentiments of the non-Hindi speaking states by getting the Official Languages Act amended in 1967 to provide that the use of English could continue until a resolution to end the use of the language was passed by the legislature of every state that had not adopted use Hindi as its official language, and by each house of the Indian Parliament.<ref name="Language 1967">{{cite web |title=The Official Languages Act, 1963 |url=https://rajbhasha.gov.in/en/official-languages-act-1963 |publisher=Department of Official Language, Government of India |access-date=10 March 2022}}</ref> This was a guarantee of de facto use of both Hindi and English as official languages, thus establishing bilingualism in India.<ref name="Language Act">{{cite web |title=Complete Text of the Official Languages Act | work=Compendium of Language Management in Canada (CLMC) |url=https://www.uottawa.ca/clmc/india-official-languages-act#:~:text=Bill%2019%20(1963)%20as%20amended%201967&text=An%20Act%20to%20provide%20for,certain%20communication%20purposes%20in%20HighCourts.&text=1)%20This%20Act%20may%20be,the%20Official%20Languages%20Act%2C%201963. |publisher=The University of Ottawa |access-date=10 March 2022}}</ref> The step led to the end of the anti-Hindi protests and riots in states.

Following the [[Supreme Court of India|Supreme Court]]’s final 2018 decision to abolish [[Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code|Section 377]], the INC reiterated that personal freedom must be upheld for all citizens. Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code, which, among other things, criminalises homosexuality; former Congress president Rahul Gandhi said, "Sexuality is a matter of personal freedom and should be left to individuals". Leading party figure and former Finance Minister [[P. Chidambaram]] stated that the ''[[Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India]]'' judgment must be quickly reversed". On 18 December 2015, [[Shashi Tharoor]] leading member of the party introduced a [[private member's bill]] to replace Section 377 in the Indian Penal Code and decriminalise consensual same-sex relations. The bill was defeated in the first reading. In March 2016, Tharoor again reintroduce the private member's bill to decriminalise homosexuality but was voted down for the second time.<ref name="Tharoor377">{{cite web | last=Vishwanath | first=Apurva | title=In Parliament, Shashi Tharoor's valiant fight to change section 377 | website=The Print | date=8 January 2018 | url=https://theprint.in/politics/parliament-shashi-tharoor-valiant-fight-change-section-377/27435/ | access-date=26 May 2025}}</ref>

=== Economic policies ===
{{See also|Economic liberalisation in India}}
The economic policy of Congress-led governments can broadly be divided into two phases. The first phase, spanning from independence in 1947 to 1991, placed significant emphasis on the public sector as a driver of growth.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/a-short-history-of-indian-economy-1947-2019-tryst-with-destiny-other-stories-1565801528109.html|title=A short history of Indian economy 1947–2019: Tryst with destiny & other stories|date=14 August 2019|newspaper=Mint}}</ref> The second phase began with the [[economic liberalization|economic liberalisation]] reforms of 1991, marking a shift towards market-oriented policies. At present, the Congress Party supports a mixed economy model, wherein both the state and the private sector play active roles—combining elements of [[market economy|market]] and [[Planned economy|planned economies]]. The party advocates for import substitution industrialisation, encouraging domestic production as a replacement for imports, while also supporting continued liberalisation to accelerate economic development.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/nehrus-economic-philosophy/article18589548.ece|title=Nehru's economic philosophy|first=H.|last=Venkatasubbiah|newspaper=The Hindu|date=27 May 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/manmohan-singh-credits-jawarharlal-nehru-for-the-idea-of-mixed-economy/articleshow/45197661.cms|title=Manmohan Singh credits Jawarharlal Nehru for the 'idea of mixed economy'|newspaper=The Economic Times}}</ref> It promotes a [[progressive tax]] structure aimed at expanding public services and addressing economic inequality by ensuring that higher-income individuals contribute a fairer share in taxes.<ref name="Taxation">{{cite web | title=Sam Pitroda says Congress's 'redistribution of wealth in interest of people'; advocates inheritance tax in India | website=The Hindu | date=24 April 2024 | url=https://www.thehindu.com/elections/lok-sabha/sam-pitroda-says-congresss-redistribution-of-wealth-in-interest-of-people-advocates-inheritance-tax-in-india/article68101095.ece | access-date=13 September 2025}}</ref><ref name="Billionaire tax">{{cite web | last1=Shwenk | first1=Martin | last2=Murthy | first2=Narayana | last3=Poonawalla | first3=Adar | last4=Jain | first4=Manu | last5=Kamath | first5=Nitin | title=Congress pitches for 'billionaire tax' | website=The Economic Times | date=12 July 2024 | url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/congress-pitches-for-billionaire-tax/articleshow/111685111.cms?from=mdr | access-date=13 September 2025}}</ref>
[[File:Pranab Mukherjee - World Economic Forum Annual Meeting Davos 2009.jpg|thumb|left|alt=refer caption | Then-Finance Minister [[Pranab Mukherjee]] during the [[World Economic Forum|World Economic Summit]] 2009 in New Delhi]]

At the beginning of the first period, erstwhile prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru implemented policies based on [[import substitution industrialization|import substitution industrialisation]] and advocated a [[mixed economy]] where the government-controlled [[public sector]] would co-exist with the [[private sector]]. He believed that the development and modernisation of India’s economy required the establishment of basic and heavy industries. The government, therefore, directed investment primarily into key public-sector industries—steel, iron, coal, and power—promoting their development with subsidies and protectionist policies. This period was called the [[Licence Raj]], or Permit Raj,<ref>Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition, 1989: from [[Sanskrit|Skr.]] ''rāj'': to reign, rule; cognate with [[Latin|L.]] ''rēx'', ''rēg-is'', [[Old Irish|OIr.]] ''rī'', ''rīg'' king (see RICH).</ref> which was the elaborate system of [[Industrial licensing in India|licences]], regulations, and accompanying [[red tape]] that were required to set up and run businesses in India between 1947 and 1990.<ref>[http://www.swaminomics.org/articles/20011125_streethawking.htm Street Hawking Promise Jobs in Future] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080329023451/http://www.swaminomics.org/articles/20011125_streethawking.htm |date=29 March 2008 }}, ''[[The Times of India]]'', 25 November 2001</ref> The Licence Raj was a result of Nehru and his successors' desire to have a [[planned economy]] where all aspects of the economy were controlled by the state, and licences were given to a select few. Private companies were required to obtain numerous approvals from various government departments before they could begin production, and even after receiving licences, their operations were closely regulated by the state. The government also prevented firms from laying off workers or closing factories.<ref name="BBC UK">{{cite web | title=India: The economy | website=BBC NEWS | date=3 December 1998 | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/55427.stm | access-date=13 February 2025}}</ref> The Licence Raj system continued under Indira Gandhi, during whose tenure key sectors such as banking, steel, coal, and oil were nationalised.<ref name="Rosser" /><ref name="Kapila1">{{Cite book
| publisher=Academic Foundation| page=126|url={{Google books|de66PkzcfusC|page=PA126|plainurl=yes}} |isbn=978-8171881055| last1=Kapila| first1=Raj| last2=Kapila| first2=Uma| title=Understanding India's economic Reforms| year=2004}}</ref> Under the premiership of Rajiv Gandhi, the first steps toward economic liberalisation were initiated.<ref name="princeton.edu">{{cite journal |author1=Philippe Aghion|author2=Robin Burgess |author3=Stephen J. Redding|author4=Fabrizio Zilibotti |year=2008|url=http://www.princeton.edu/~reddings/pubpapers/ABRZ_AER_Sept2008.pdf|title=The Unequal Effects of Liberalization: Evidence from Dismantling the License Raj in India|journal=American Economic Review |volume=98|issue=4|pages=1397–1412|doi=10.1257/aer.98.4.1397|s2cid=966634 }}</ref> These included a reduction in import duties, the introduction of export incentives, and the implementation of initial tax reforms. Restrictions on company assets were also relaxed during his administration.<ref name="princeton.edu"/><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/cover-story/story/19910615-in-an-india-known-for-thinking-small-rajiv-gandhi-generated-high-stakes-optimism-814461-1991-06-15|title=In an India known for thinking small, Rajiv Gandhi generated high-stakes optimism|first=Sudeep |last=Chakravarti|date=15 June 1991|website=India Today}}</ref>

In 1991, the new Congress government, led by [[P. V. Narasimha Rao]], initiated reforms to avert the impending [[1991 India economic crisis|1991 economic crisis]].<ref name="Narasimha Rao was father of economic reform: Pranab" /><ref name="Ghosh">{{cite web|url=http://www.globaleconomicgovernance.org/wp-content/uploads/ghosh-pathways_india.pdf|archive-date=25 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131025042847/http://www.globaleconomicgovernance.org/wp-content/uploads/ghosh-pathways_india.pdf|title= India's Pathway through Financial Crisis|work=globaleconomicgovernance.org|first=Arunabha |last=Ghosh|publisher=Global Economic Governance Programme|access-date=2 March 2007}}</ref> The reforms known as [[New Economic Policy]] (NEP) or "1991 economic reforms" or "LPG reforms", progressed furthest in opening up areas to [[foreign direct investment|foreign investment]], reforming [[capital markets]], [[Deregulation|deregulating]] domestic business, and reforming the trade regime. The reforms were implemented during a time when India grappled with a balance of payments crisis, elevated inflation, underperforming public sector undertakings (PSUs), and a substantial fiscal deficit.<ref name="LPG Rao">{{cite news |last1=Tiwari |first1=Brajesh Kumar |title=Dr Manmohan Singh: The Architect of India's Economic Reform |url=https://news.abplive.com/blog/dr-manmohan-singh-the-architect-of-india-s-economic-reform-1632067 |access-date=3 December 2023 |work=ABP News |agency=ABP Group |date=26 September 2023}}</ref> It also aimed to transition the economy from a socialist model to a market economy.<ref name="Economy Reforms">{{cite news |last1=Chundawat |first1=Keshav Singh |title=Dr Manmohan Singh, the man who opened up Indian economy |url=https://www.cnbctv18.com/politics/pm-modi-extends-birthday-wishes-to-dr-manmohan-singh-the-man-who-opened-up-indian-economy-17886361.htm |access-date=3 December 2023 |work=CNBC TV18 |agency=Network18 Group |date=26 September 2023}}</ref> The goals of Rao's government were to reduce the [[fiscal deficit]], [[privatization|privatise]] the public sector, and increase investment in infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZbWF5hykvwYC&q=1991+economic+reforms+progressed+furthest+in+opening+up+areas+to+foreign+investment%2C+reforming+capital+markets%2C+deregulating+domestic+business%2C+and+reforming+the+trade+regime.&pg=PA65|title=Methodology And Perspectives of Business Studies|first=G.|last=Balachandran|date=28 July 2010|publisher=Ane Books India|isbn=9789380156682}}</ref> Trade reforms and changes in the regulation of [[foreign direct investment]] were introduced to open India to foreign trade while stabilising external loans.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/narasimha-rao-s-bold-economic-reforms-helped-in-india-s-development-naidu-11609062633183.html|title=Narasimha Rao's bold economic reforms helped in India's development: Naidu|date=27 December 2020|newspaper=Mint}}</ref> Rao chose [[Manmohan Singh]] for the job. Singh, an acclaimed economist and former [[List of governors of the Reserve Bank of India|governor]] of the [[Reserve Bank of India]], played a central role in implementing these reforms.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/this-day-the-half-lion-saved-india-when-rao-and-manmohan-brought-economy-back-from-the-brink/articleshow/59738979.cms|title=This day the half-lion saved India: When Rao and Manmohan brought economy back from the brink|newspaper=The Economic Times}}</ref>

In 2004, Singh became prime minister of the Congress-led UPA government. Singh remained prime minister after the UPA won the 2009 general elections. The UPA government introduced policies aimed at reforming the banking and financial sectors, as well as public sector companies.<ref name="ISAS">{{cite web | title=Indian Government's Bold Banking Reforms: Timely Implementation Key to Success – NUS Institute of South Asian Studies (ISAS) | website=NUS Institute of South Asian Studies (ISAS) | date=2 March 2021 | url=https://www.isas.nus.edu.sg/papers/indian-governments-bold-banking-reforms-timely-implementation-key-to-success/ | access-date=13 February 2025}}</ref> It also introduced policies aimed at relieving farmers of their debt.<ref>{{cite web|title=Farmer Waiver Scheme- PM statement|url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=39122|publisher=PIB|access-date=14 June 2013}}</ref> In 2005, [[First Manmohan Singh ministry|Singh government]] introduced the [[value added tax|value-added tax]], replacing the [[sales tax]]. India was able to resist the worst effects of the global [[economic crisis of 2008]].<ref>Mohan, R., 2008. Global financial crisis and key risks: impact on India and Asia. RBI Bulletin, pp.2003–2022.</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Global inflation climbs to historic levels|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/12/business/worldbusiness/12iht-inflate.1.9963291.html|newspaper=The New York Times|author=Kevin Plumberg|author2=Steven C. Johnson|access-date=17 June 2011|date=2 November 2008}}</ref> Singh's government continued the [[Golden Quadrilateral]], the Indian highway modernisation program that was initiated by [[Atal Bihari Vajpayee|Vajpayee]]'s government.<ref>{{cite web|title=Economic benefits of golden Quadilateral|date=4 May 2013 |url=http://businesstoday.intoday.in/story/economic-benefits-of-the-golden-quadrilateral-project/1/194321.html|publisher=Business today|access-date=14 June 2013}}</ref> Then Finance Minister of India [[Pranab Mukherjee]] implemented many tax reforms, notably scrapping the [[Fringe Benefits Tax (India)|Fringe Benefits Tax]] and the Commodities Transaction Tax.<ref>{{cite web|date=6 July 2009|title=Fringe benefit tax abolished|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/business/fringe-benefit-tax-abolished/story-w54pPgAH9TN3SE9ze9fdiI.html|access-date=31 August 2020|website=The Hindustan Times|archive-date=1 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200901040931/https://www.hindustantimes.com/business/fringe-benefit-tax-abolished/story-w54pPgAH9TN3SE9ze9fdiI.html|url-status=live}}</ref> He implemented the [[Goods and Services Tax (India)|Goods and Services Tax]] (GST) during his tenure.<ref>{{Cite news|date=13 April 2017|title=President Pranab Mukherjee gives nod to four supporting Bills on GST|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/president-pranab-mukherjee-gives-nod-to-four-supporting-legislations-on-gst/article17982848.ece|access-date=31 August 2020|issn=0971-751X|archive-date=10 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200610130246/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/president-pranab-mukherjee-gives-nod-to-four-supporting-legislations-on-gst/article17982848.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> His reforms were well received by major corporate executives and economists. The introduction of retrospective taxation, however, has been criticised by some economists.<ref>{{cite web|date=27 October 2017|title=Manmohan & Sonia opposed retrospective tax: Pranab Mukherjee |url=https://theprint.in/pageturner/excerpt/retrospective-tax-pranab-mukherjee/13673/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200901040859/https://theprint.in/pageturner/excerpt/retrospective-tax-pranab-mukherjee/13673/|archive-date=1 September 2020|url-status=live|access-date=31 August 2020|website=ThePrint}}</ref> Mukherjee expanded funding for several social sector schemes including the [[Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission]] (JNNURM). He also supported budget increases for improving [[literacy in India|literacy]] and health care. He expanded infrastructure programmes such as the [[National Highway Development Programme]].<ref>{{cite web|title=More Funds for Infrastructure Development, Farmers|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/newswire/story/more-funds-for-infrastructure-development-farmers/662289|access-date=1 September 2020|url-status=live|archive-date=1 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200901040912/https://www.outlookindia.com/newswire/story/more-funds-for-infrastructure-development-farmers/662289|magazine=Outlook|location=New Delhi}}</ref> Electricity coverage was also expanded during his tenure. Mukherjee also reaffirmed his commitment to the principle of fiscal prudence as some economists expressed concern about the rising fiscal deficits during his tenure, the highest since 1991. Mukherjee declared the expansion in government spending was only temporary.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Big spender|newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613|url=https://www.economist.com/news/2009/07/07/big-spender |access-date=1 September 2020|url-status=live|archive-date=1 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200901040901/https://www.economist.com/news/2009/07/07/big-spender}}</ref>

=== National defence and home affairs ===
[[File:The Prime Minister, Dr. Manmohan Singh and his wife, Smt. Gursharan Kaur during the Passing Out Parade at the Platinum Jubilee Course of Indian Military Academy, in Dehradun, on December 10, 2007.jpg|thumb|[[Manmohan Singh]] and his wife during the passing out parade at the Platinum Jubilee Course of IMA on 10 December 2007; with foreign gentleman cadets]]
Since its independence, India was in pursuing of nuclear capabilities, as Nehru felt that nuclear energy could take the country forward and help achieve its developmental goals.<ref name="Vision">{{cite web |title=Indian Nuclear Program |url=https://www.atomicheritage.org/history/indian-nuclear-program |publisher=National Museum of Nuclear Science & History |access-date=7 July 2021}}</ref> Consequently, Nehru began to seek assistance from the United Kingdom, Canada and the United States.<ref name="Skardon2010">{{cite book|author=C. Philip Skardon|title=A Lesson for Our Times: How America Kept the Peace in the Hungary-Suez Crisis of 1956|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aRUgkjbBvBAC&pg=PA695|date=19 March 2010|publisher=Author House|isbn=978-1-4520-3033-3|pages=695–696}}</ref><ref name="Assistance">{{cite web |title=The end of the British empire in India |url=https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/empire/g3/cs3/background.htm |publisher=The National Archives |access-date=7 July 2021}}</ref> In 1958 the government of India with the help of [[Homi J. Bhabha]] adopted a three-phase power production plan and the [[Bhabha Atomic Research Centre|Nuclear Research Institute]] was established in 1954.<ref name="Perkovich2001">{{cite book|author=George Perkovich|title=India's Nuclear Bomb: The Impact on Global Proliferation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UDA9dUryS8EC&pg=PA22|year=2001|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-23210-5|page=22}}</ref> Indira Gandhi witnessed continuous nuclear testing by [[China]] from 1964 onwards, which she considered an existential threat to India.<ref name="JSTOR">{{cite journal |last1=Couper |first1=Frank E. |title=Indian Party Conflict on the Issue of Atomic Weapons |journal=The Journal of Developing Areas |year=1969 |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=191–206 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4189559 |jstor=4189559 |access-date=7 July 2021}}</ref><ref name="LATimes1998">{{cite news |last1=Tempest |first1=Rone |title=India's Nuclear Tests Jolt Its Relations With China |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1998-jun-11-mn-58841-story.html |access-date=7 July 2021 |work=Los Angeles Times Communications LLC |date=11 June 1998}}</ref> India conducted its first nuclear test in the [[Pokhran]] desert in Rajasthan on 18 May 1974, under the name [[Operation Smiling Buddha]].<ref name="First Test">{{cite news |last1=Nair |first1=Arun |title=Smiling Buddha: All You Need To Know About India's First Nuclear Test at Pokhran |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/smiling-buddha-all-you-need-to-know-about-indias-first-nuclear-test-at-pokhran-2230645 |access-date=5 July 2021 |publisher=NDTV |date=18 May 2020}}</ref> India asserted that the test was for "[[peaceful nuclear explosion|peaceful purposes]]", However, the test was criticised by other countries and the United States and Canada suspended all nuclear support to India.<ref name="PNE">{{cite web |title=India's Nuclear Weapons Program Smiling Buddha: 1974 |url=https://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaSmiling.html |publisher=The Nuclear Weapon Archive |access-date=5 July 2021}}</ref> Despite intense international criticism, the nuclear test was domestically popular and caused an immediate revival of Indira Gandhi's popularity, which had flagged considerably from its heights after the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|1971 war]].<ref name="Buddha">{{cite news |last1=Chaturvedi |first1=Amit |title=Smiling Buddha: How India successfully conducted first nuclear test in Pokhran |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/smiling-buddha-how-india-successfully-conducted-first-nuclear-test-in-pokhran-101621301524390.html |access-date=4 July 2021 |work=The Hindustan Times|agency=HT Media Ltd |date=18 May 2021}}</ref><ref name="Popularity">{{cite news |last1=Malhotra |first1=Inder |title=When the Buddha first smiled |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/when-the-buddha-first-smiled/ |access-date=5 July 2021 |work=The Indian Express |date=15 May 2009}}</ref>

On internal security and home affairs, the Congress party promotes a federal approach to governance, emphasising cooperative federalism. The transition to statehood for parts of [[Northeast India]] was successfully overseen under Indira Gandhi's premiership.<ref name="Statehood NE">{{cite news |last1=Karmakar |first1=Rahul |title=Renewed push for Statehood in the Northeast |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/renewed-push-for-statehood-in-the-northeast/article25032429.ece |access-date=20 July 2021 |work=The Hindu |date=25 September 2018}}</ref> In 1972, her administration granted statehood to [[Meghalaya]], Manipur and [[Tripura]], while the [[North-East Frontier Agency]] was declared a union territory and renamed [[Arunachal Pradesh]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1972/01/23/archives/india-rearranges-northeast-region-3-states-and-2-territories.html|title=INDIA REARRANGES NORTHEAST REGION|newspaper=The New York Times|date=23 January 1972}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/arunachal-pradesh-309685-2016-02-20|title=Arunachal Pradesh became an Indian State today: Some interesting facts about the 'Land of the Dawn-Lit Mountains' |date=20 February 2017 |website=India Today}}</ref> This was followed by the [[1975 Sikkimese monarchy referendum|annexation of Sikkim]] in 1975.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/cover-story/story/19780430-did-india-have-a-right-to-annex-sikkim-in-1975-818651-2015-02-18|title=Did India have a right to annex Sikkim in 1975?|first1=Sunil |last1=Sethi|date=18 February 2015 |website=India Today}}</ref> In the late 1960s and 1970s, Gandhi ordered the Indian army to [[Naxalite#Violence in West Bengal|militant Communist uprisings]] in the state of West Bengal. The [[Naxalite–Maoist insurgency]] in India was entirely suppressed during the [[The Emergency (India)|state of emergency]].<ref name="Naxalite">{{cite web |title=A historical introduction to Naxalism in India |url=https://www.efsas.org/publications/study-papers/an-introduction-to-naxalism-in-india/ |publisher=European Foundation for South Asian Studies |access-date=3 December 2023}}</ref> Rajiv Gandhi played a pivotal role in facilitating the [[Mizoram Peace Accord]] of 1986 by personally supporting negotiations with [[Mizo National Front|MNF]] leader [[Laldenga]] and advocating a peaceful, political solution.<ref name="MNF Research">{{cite journal | last=Yadav| first=Dr. Sejal Ashok| title=Mizoram Peace Accord of 1986: A Political Analysis of Conflict Resolution and Peace Building | journal=International Journal for Multidisciplinary Research | volume=7 | issue=2 | date=20 April 2025 | issn=2582-2160 | doi=10.36948/ijfmr.2025.v07i02.42274 | article-number=42274| doi-access=free }}</ref> His premiership ensured key concessions, including full statehood for Mizoram and the integration of former insurgents into democratic politics, leading to one of India's most successful peace settlements.<ref name="Lessons">{{cite web | title= Lessons from Mizoram Insurgency and Peace Accord 1986| url=https://www.vifindia.org/sites/default/files/lessons-from-mizoram-insurgency-and-peace-accord-1986.pdf | access-date=10 September 2025}}</ref>

Manmohan Singh's administration initiated a massive reconstruction effort in Kashmir to stabilise the region and strengthened anti-terrorism laws with amendments to the [[Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act]] (UAPA).<ref name="UAPA">{{cite web|title=The Unlawful Activities (Prevention) |url=http://mha.nic.in/hindi/sites/upload_files/mhahindi/files/pdf/UAPA-1967.pdf|website=nic.in |publisher=National Informatics Centre|access-date=17 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161017053842/http://mha.nic.in/hindi/sites/upload_files/mhahindi/files/pdf/UAPA-1967.pdf|archive-date=17 October 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> After a period of initial success, insurgent infiltration and terrorism in Kashmir have escalated since 2009. However, the Singh administration was successful in reducing terrorism in Northeast India.<ref name=Buzz7>[http://buzz7.com/news/infiltration-has-not-reduced-in-kashmir-insurgency-down-in-north-east-chidambaram.html Infiltration has not reduced in Kashmir, insurgency down in North East: Chidambaram] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160107072045/http://buzz7.com/news/infiltration-has-not-reduced-in-kashmir-insurgency-down-in-north-east-chidambaram.html |date=7 January 2016 }}</ref> Under the background of the [[Punjab insurgency]], the [[Terrorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act]] (TADA) was passed. The aim of the law is mainly directed toward eliminating the infiltrators from Pakistan. The law gave wide powers to [[law enforcement agencies]] for dealing with national terrorist and socially disruptive activities. The police were not obliged to produce a detainee before a judicial magistrate within 24 hours. The law was widely criticised by human rights organisations. After the [[2008 Mumbai attacks|November 2008 Mumbai terror attacks]], the UPA government created the [[National Investigation Agency]] (NIA), in response to the need for a central agency to combat terrorism.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Finally-govt-clears-central-terror-agency-tougher-laws/articleshow/3842368.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022154006/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-12-16/india/27904311_1_special-anti-terror-law-nia-terror-related |url-status=live |archive-date=22 October 2012 |title=Finally, govt clears central terror agency, tougher laws |date=16 December 2008 |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=28 September 2013}}</ref> The Unique Identification Authority of India was established in February 2009 to implement the proposed [[Multipurpose National Identity Card]], to increase national security.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Watfa |first1=Mohamed K |title=E-Healthcare Systems and Wireless Communications: Current and Future Challenges: Current and Future Challenges |date=2011 |publisher=IGI Global |isbn=978-1-61350-124-5 |page=190 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kOaeBQAAQBAJ&q=The+Unique+Identification+Authority+of+India+was+established+in+February+2009+to+implement+the+proposed+Multipurpose+National+Identity+Card%2C+with+the+objective+of+increasing+national+security&pg=PA190 |access-date=6 June 2018}}</ref>

=== Education and healthcare ===
The Congress government under Nehru oversaw the establishment of many institutions of higher learning, including the [[All India Institute of Medical Sciences]], the [[Indian Institutes of Technology]], the [[Indian Institutes of Management]] and the [[National Institutes of Technology]]. The [[National Council of Educational Research and Training]] (NCERT) was established in 1961 as a literary, scientific, and charitable Society under the Societies Registration Act.<ref name="NCERT">{{cite web | title=About, NCERT | website=RIE | url=https://riebhopal.nic.in/about-ncert.html | access-date=13 February 2025}}</ref> Jawahar Lal Nehru outlined a commitment in his [[Five-Year Plans of India|five-year plans]] to guarantee free and compulsory primary education to all of India's children. Rajiv Gandhi's premiership pioneered public information infrastructure and innovation in India.<ref name="Rajiv Modern">{{cite news |last1=Shakti Shekhar |first1=Kumar |title=5 ways how Rajiv Gandhi changed India forever |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/5-ways-how-rajiv-gandhi-changed-india-forever-1318979-2018-08-20 |access-date=4 July 2021 |work=India Today |agency=Living Media Pvt. Ltd. |date=20 August 2018}}</ref> His government allowed the import of fully assembled [[motherboards]], which led to the price of computers being reduced.<ref name="computer">{{cite web |last1=Singal |first1=Aastha |title=Rajiv Gandhi –The Father of Information Technology & Telecom Revolution of India |url=https://www.entrepreneur.com/article/338415 |website=entrepreneur.com/ |date=20 August 2019 |publisher=Entrepreneur India |access-date=4 July 2021}}</ref> The concept of having [[Navodaya Vidyalaya]] in every district of India was born as a part of the [[National Policy on Education]] (NPE).<ref name="NPE TOI">{{cite news |last1=Sharma |first1=Sanjay |title=National Education Policy 2020: All You Need to Know |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/education/news/national-education-policy-2020-all-you-need-to-know/articleshow/77239854.cms |access-date=24 July 2021 |work=The Times of India |date=30 July 2020}}</ref>

In 2005, The Congress-led government started the National Rural Health Mission, which employed about 500,000 community health workers. It was praised by economist [[Jeffrey Sachs]].<ref name="timepoverty">{{cite news|title=The End of Poverty|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1034738,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050317031951/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1034738,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 March 2005|first=Jeffrey D.|last=Sachs|date=6 March 2005|magazine=Time}}</ref> In 2006, it implemented a proposal to reserve 27 per cent of seats in the All India Institute of Medical Studies (AIIMS), the [[Indian Institutes of Technology]] (IITs), the [[Indian Institutes of Management]] (IIMs), and other central higher education institutions, for [[Other Backward Classes]], which led to the [[2006 Indian anti-reservation protests]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Students-cry-out-No-reservation-please/articleshow/1513316.cms |title=Students cry out: No reservation please |work=The Times of India |date=3 May 2006 |access-date=16 August 2018}}</ref> The Singh government also continued the [[Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan]] program, which includes the introduction and improvement of mid-day school meals and the opening of new schools throughout India, especially in rural areas, to fight [[illiteracy]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Direct SSA funds for school panels|url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/338571/direct-ssa-funds-school-panels.html|access-date=14 June 2013|newspaper=Deccan Herald}}</ref> During Manmohan Singh's prime ministership, eight Institutes of Technology were opened in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Orissa, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Himachal Pradesh.<ref>{{cite news|title=LS passes bill to provide IIT for eight states.|url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/148456/ls-passes-bill-provide-iit.html|newspaper=Deccan Herald|access-date=14 June 2013}}</ref>

=== Foreign policies ===
[[File:NATO vs. Warsaw Pact (1949-1990).svg|thumb|The aligned countries on the northern hemisphere: [[NATO]] in blue and the [[Warsaw Pact]] in red]]
[[File:Stevan Kragujevic, Tito, Naser, Nehru, Dolazak na Brione.jpg|thumb|right|alt=refer caption|[[Gamal Abdel Nasser]], [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], and [[Josip Broz Tito]], pioneers of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]]]]

The Congress party played a foundational role in shaping India's non-aligned foreign policy during the [[Cold War]], particularly under the leadership of Prime Minister [[Jawaharlal Nehru]].<ref name="NAM">{{cite web | title=History and Evolution of Non-Aligned Movement | website=Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India | date=22 August 2012 | url=https://www.mea.gov.in/Speeches-Statements.htm?dtl/20349/History+and+Evolution+of+NonAligned+Movement | access-date=10 September 2025}}</ref><ref name="Russia MFA">{{cite web | title=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Belarus | website=Министерство иностранных дел Республики Беларусь | url=https://mfa.gov.by/en/mulateral/organization/list/bc1f7d8446a445ed.html | access-date=10 September 2025}}</ref> Nehru was one of the principal architects of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] (NAM), which sought to maintain strategic autonomy by avoiding alignment with either the [[Western Bloc|Western]] or [[Eastern Bloc|Soviet bloc]].<ref name="j492">{{cite web | title= Non-Alignment, the Brain-Child of Pandit Nehru| url=https://magazines.odisha.gov.in/Orissareview/jan2004/englishpdf/chapter6.pdf | access-date=10 September 2025}}</ref> Throughout much of the Cold War period, Congress supported a foreign policy of non-alignment that called for India to form ties with both the Western and Eastern Blocs, but to avoid formal alliances with either.<ref name="Academic">{{cite journal | last1= R.| first1= Nanda| title=Nehru and Non-Alignment | journal= Oup Academic| date= October 1998| url=https://academic.oup.com/book/1958/chapter-abstract/141772492 | access-date=10 September 2025}}</ref> However, in 1971, amid growing U.S. support for Pakistan—including military aid and diplomatic backing—the Congress-led Indian government signed [[Indo-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation]], marking a strategic shift toward the [[Soviet Union]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blogs.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/ChanakyaCode/the-indo-pak-war-1965-and-the-tashkent-agreement-role-of-external-powers/ |title=The Indo-Pak war 1965 and the Tashkent agreement: Role of external powers |date=24 October 2015 |work=The Times of India |access-date=16 August 2018}}</ref>

Continuing the foreign policy initiated by P. V. Narasimha Rao, the Congress government pursued the [[India–Pakistan relations|peace process with Pakistan]], including high-level bilateral visits.<ref name=peace>{{cite news|title=Position of negotiation.|url=http://www.firstpost.com/india/loc-violation-are-talks-enough-or-should-india-take-action-582121.html|access-date=18 August 2014|publisher=[[Firstpost]]|agency=[[Network 18]]|date=9 January 2013}}</ref> The UPA government has tried to end the border dispute with the People's Republic of China through negotiations.<ref name="Economist news">{{cite news|title=India's prime minister, Manmohan Singh, in Beijing to discuss matters of trade and border defence.|url=https://www.economist.com/news/world-week/21588422-politics-week
|access-date=18 August 2014|newspaper=[[The Economist]]|date=26 October 2013}}</ref><ref name=republic>{{cite news|title=Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh visits Beijing|url=http://www.china-briefing.com/news/2008/01/14/indian-prime-minister-manmohan-singh-visits-beijing.html|access-date=18 August 2014|work=China Briefing|agency=Dezan Shira & Associates|publisher=Business Intelligence|date=14 January 2008}}</ref> [[Afghanistan–India relations|Relations with Afghanistan]] have also been a concern for Congress.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cfr.org/publication/17474/indiaafghanistan_relations.html|title=India-Afghanistan Relations|access-date=11 December 2008|last=Bajoria|first=Jayshree|date=23 October 2008|publisher=[[Council on Foreign Relations]]|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081129231738/http://www.cfr.org/publication/17474/indiaafghanistan_relations.html|archive-date=29 November 2008}}</ref> During Afghan President [[Hamid Karzai]]'s visit to New Delhi in August 2008, Manmohan Singh increased the aid package to Afghanistan for the development of schools, health clinics, infrastructure, and defence.<ref name=BBC2>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7540204.stm|title=India announces more Afghan aid|date=4 August 2008|publisher=BBC News}}</ref> India is now one of the single largest aid donors to Afghanistan.<ref name=BBC2 /> To nourish political, security, cultural and economical connections with central Asian countries, it launched [[Connect Central Asia]] policy in 2012. This policy is aimed at strengthening and expanding India's relations with [[Kazakhstan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Turkmenistan]], and [[Uzbekistan]]. [[Look East policy (India)|Look East policy]] was initiated in 1992 by [[Narsimha Rao|Narasimha Rao]] to cultivate extensive economic and strategic relations with the nations of Southeast Asia to bolster its standing as a regional power and a counterweight to the strategic influence of the People's Republic of China. Subsequently, in 1992 Rao decided to bring into open India's relations with Israel, which had been kept covertly active for a few years during his tenure as a Foreign Minister, and permitted Israel to open an embassy in New Delhi.<ref name="IsraelRao">{{cite news |title=A timeline of India's ties with Israel |url=https://www.livemint.com/Politics/9zCAQDe5L5mKdtU21A6pkN/Narendra-Modi-in-Israel-A-timeline-of-Indias-ties-with-Isr.html |access-date=2 August 2021 |newspaper=Mint |agency=HT Media |date=4 July 2017}}</ref> Rao decided to maintain a distance from the [[Dalai Lama]] to avoid aggravating Beijing's suspicions and concerns, and made successful overtures to [[Tehran]].<ref name="Irish1996">{{cite news |last1=Bedi |first1=Rahul |title=Permission for Dalai Lama films denied |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/permission-for-dalai-lama-films-denied-1.41053 |access-date=2 August 2021 |newspaper=The Irish Times |date=19 April 1996}}</ref>

Even though the Congress foreign policy doctrine stands for maintaining friendly relations with all the countries of the world, it has always exhibited a special bias towards the Afro-Asian nations. It played active role in forming [[Group of 77]] (1964, [[Group of 15]] (1990), [[Indian Ocean Rim Association]], and [[SAARC]]. Indira Gandhi firmly tied Indian anti-imperialist interests in Africa to those of the Soviet Union. She openly and enthusiastically supported liberation struggles in Africa.<ref name="MEAIndira">{{cite web |title=India – Zambia Relations |url=https://mea.gov.in/Portal/ForeignRelation/Zambia_Jan_2016.pdf |publisher=Ministry of External Affairs (India) |access-date=7 July 2021}}</ref> In April 2006, New Delhi hosted an India–Africa summit attended by the leaders of 15 African states.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://africanpress.wordpress.com/2008/03/28/several-african-leaders-to-attend-africa-india-summit-au-says/|title=Several African leaders to attend Africa-India summit, AU says|access-date=11 December 2008|date=28 March 2008|publisher=African Press International}}</ref>

The party opposes arms race and advocates disarmament, both conventional and nuclear.<ref name="IndiaToday2000">{{cite news |last1=Mitra |first1=Sumit |title=Congress divided against itself on whether India should have more nuclear tests |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/nation/story/20000508-congress-divided-against-itself-on-whether-india-should-have-more-nuclear-tests-777525-2000-05-08 |access-date=7 July 2021 |work=India Today |agency=Living Media Pvt. Ltd. |date=8 May 2000}}</ref> When in power between 2004 and 2014, Congress worked on [[India–United States relations|India's relationship with the United States]]. Prime Minister Manmohan Singh visited the US in July 2005 to negotiate an [[India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement]]. US president [[George W. Bush]] visited India in March 2006; during this visit, a nuclear agreement that would give India access to nuclear fuel and technology in exchange for the [[International Atomic Energy Agency|IAEA]] inspection of its civil [[nuclear reactor]]s was proposed. Over two years of negotiations, followed by approval from the IAEA, the [[Nuclear Suppliers Group]] and the [[United States Congress]], the agreement was signed on 10 October 2008.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90777/90852/6513319.html| title=U.S., India ink historic civilian nuclear deal|access-date=11 December 2008|date=11 October 2008|work=People's Daily}}</ref> However, it has not signed [[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty]] (NPT) and [[Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty]] (CTBT) due to their discriminatory and hegemonistic nature.<ref name="NTI2019">{{cite web |title=Indian Nuclear Weapons Program |url=https://www.nti.org/learn/countries/india/nuclear/ |publisher=The Nuclear Threat Initiative|access-date=7 July 2021}}</ref><ref name="Sipri2010">{{cite report |last1=Gopalaswamy |first1=Bharat |title=India and the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty: To Sign or not to Sign? |date=January 2010 |url=https://www.sipri.org/publications/sipri-policy-briefs/india-and-comprehensive-nuclear-test-ban-treaty-sign-or-not-sign |publisher=SIPRI |access-date=7 July 2021}}</ref>

Congress' policy has been to cultivate friendly relations with Japan as well as [[European Union]] countries including the United Kingdom, France, and Germany.<ref name=conversation>{{cite web|last1=Haass|first1=Richard N.|title=A Conversation with Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh|url=http://www.cfr.org/india/conversation-prime-minister-dr-manmohan-singh/p20840|date=23 November 2009|website=cfr.org|publisher=[[Council on Foreign Relations]]|access-date=18 August 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819083228/http://www.cfr.org/india/conversation-prime-minister-dr-manmohan-singh/p20840|archive-date=19 August 2014}}</ref> Diplomatic relations with Iran have continued, and negotiations over the [[Iran-Pakistan-India gas pipeline]] have taken place.<ref name="Iran relations">{{cite web|title=The 'peace pipeline'|url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/uae/the-peace-pipeline-1.484985/|work=The National|location=Abu Dhabi|date=28 May 2009|access-date=18 August 2014}}</ref> Congress' policy has also been to improve relations with other developing countries, particularly Brazil and South Africa.<ref>{{cite web|title=India-South Africa relations|url=http://www.mea.gov.in/Portal/ForeignRelation/India-SouthAfrica_Relations.pdf|website=mea.gov.in|publisher=[[Ministry of External Affairs (India)|Ministry of External Affairs]], [[Government of India]]|access-date=18 September 2014}}</ref> While in opposition, the leadership of the Indian National Congress backed the Indian government's stance to abstain from UN resolutions regarding the [[Russo-Ukrainian War]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=3 March 2022 |title=Ukraine crisis: Congress backs decision to abstain from voting on UN resolutions |work=[[The Times of India]] |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/ukraine-crisis-congress-backs-decision-to-abstain-from-voting-on-un-resolutions/articleshow/89967628.cms |url-status=live |access-date=1 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901102900/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/ukraine-crisis-congress-backs-decision-to-abstain-from-voting-on-un-resolutions/articleshow/89967628.cms |archive-date=1 September 2022}}</ref> In 2025, the Congress criticised Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi]] for his stance on [[Israel]] and the [[Gaza war]].<ref>{{cite news |title=PM's silence on Israel's genocide in Gaza has diminished India's moral standing: Congress |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/pm-modis-silence-on-israels-genocide-in-gaza-has-diminished-indias-moral-political-standing-congress/article69731299.ece |work=The Hindu |date=24 June 2025}}</ref>

== Structure and composition ==
{{See also|List of national presidents of the Indian National Congress|All India Congress Committee|Congress Working Committee}}

[[File:Stamp of India - 1985 - Colnect 167209 - Indian National Congress.jpeg|thumb|right|200px|Stamps commemorating centenary of the Congress]]
At present, the [[List of presidents of the Indian National Congress|president]] and the [[All India Congress Committee]] (AICC) are elected by delegates from state and district parties at an annual national conference; in every Indian state and union territory—or ''pradesh''—there is a [[Pradesh Congress Committee]] (PCC),<ref name="Committee">{{cite web |title=President of Pradesh Congress Committee |url=https://www.inc.in/en/pcc-presidents |publisher=INC web portal |access-date=26 May 2020 |archive-date=16 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200416160136/https://www.inc.in/en/pcc-presidents |url-status=dead }}</ref> which is the state-level unit of the party responsible for directing political campaigns at local and state levels, and assisting the campaigns for parliamentary constituencies.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Past And Future of the Indian National Congress |url=http://ramachandraguha.in/archives/the-past-and-future-of-the-indian-national-congresscaravan.html |website=[[The Caravan]] |access-date=6 June 2018 |date=March 2010|via=[[Ramachandra Guha]]}}</ref> Each PCC has a working committee of twenty members, most of whom are appointed by the party president, the leader of the state party, who is chosen by the national president. Those elected as members of the states' legislative assemblies form the Congress Legislature Parties in the various state assemblies; their chairperson is usually the party's nominee for Chief Ministership. The party is also organised into various committees, and sections; it publishes a daily newspaper, the ''[[The National Herald (India)|National Herald]]''.<ref name="Kumar1990">{{cite book|author=Kedar Nath Kumar|title=Political Parties in India, Their Ideology and Organisation|url={{Google books|x3pJ8t4rxIsC|page=PA41|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|date=1 January 1990|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=978-81-7099-205-9|pages=41–43}}</ref> Despite being a party with a structure, Congress under Indira Gandhi did not hold any organisational elections after 1972.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sanghvi|first1=Vijay|title=The Congress Indira to Sonia Gandhi|date=2006|publisher=Kalpaz Publications|location=Delhi|isbn=978-8178353401|page=128|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=npdqD_TXucQC&q=%22internal+democracy%22&pg=PA7|access-date=4 November 2016}}</ref> Nonetheless, in 2004, when the Congress was voted back into power, [[Manmohan Singh]] became the first prime minister not to be the president of the party since establishment of the practice of the president holding both positions.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india-today-insight/story/rahul-gandhi-congress-president-gandhi-chief-1564307-2019-07-08|title=Goodbye, Rahul Gandhi?|website=India Today|agency=Living Media India Limited|date=8 July 2019|last=Deka|first=Kaushik|accessdate=22 May 2021}}</ref>

The AICC is composed of delegates sent from the PCCs.<ref name="Kumar1990" /> The delegates elect Congress committees, including the [[Congress Working Committee]], consisting of senior party leaders and office-bearers. The AICC takes all-important executive and political decisions. Since Indira Gandhi formed Congress (I) in 1978, the [[Congress President|President of the Indian National Congress]] has effectively been the party's national leader, head of the organisation, head of the Working Committee and all chief Congress committees, chief spokesman, and Congress' choice for [[Prime Minister of India]]. Constitutionally, the president is elected by the PCCs and members of the AICC; however, this procedure has often been bypassed by the Working Committee, which has elected its candidate.<ref name="Kumar1990" />
[[File:NSUI National Convention INQUILAB 1.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Congress student wing annual conference| [[National Students' Union of India]] (NSUI) National Convention Inquilab-1 in Jaipur]]
The Congress Parliamentary Party (CPP) consists of elected MPs in the Lok Sabha and [[Rajya Sabha]]. There is also a Congress Legislative Party (CLP) leader in each state. The CLP consists of all Congress [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|Members of the Legislative Assembly]] (MLAs) in each state. In cases of states where the Congress is single-handedly ruling the government, the CLP leader in the [[chief minister]]. Other directly affiliated groups include:
* [[National Students' Union of India]] (NSUI), the students' wing of the Congress.
* [[Indian Youth Congress]], the party's youth wing.
* [[Indian National Trade Union Congress]], the labour union.
* [[All India Mahila Congress]], its women's division.
* [[Kisan and Khet Mazdoor Congress]], its peasant's wing.
* [[All India Professionals Congress]], its working professionals wing.
* Congress [[Seva Dal]], its voluntary organisation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.politicalbaba.com/election-2014/all-india-2014-results-partywise/|title=All India 2014 Results|website=Political Baba|access-date=26 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150527000402/http://www.politicalbaba.com/election-2014/all-india-2014-results-partywise/|archive-date=27 May 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.firstpost.com/lok-sabha-election-2014/data|title=Lok Sabha Election 2014 Analysis, Infographics, Election 2014 Map, Election 2014 Charts|publisher=Firstpost|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924142920/http://www.firstpost.com/lok-sabha-election-2014/data|archive-date=24 September 2015}}</ref>
* All India Congress Minority Department, also referred to as Minority Congress is the minority wing of the Congress party. It is represented by the ''Pradesh Congress Minority Department'' in all the [[States and union territories of India|states of India]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/congress-minority-cell-opposes-quota-cut-36478|title=Congress minority cell opposes quota cut|website=Tribuneindia News Service|date=5 February 2020|access-date=6 February 2020}}</ref>

=== Election symbols ===
[[File:Cow and Calf INC.svg|thumb|150px|alt= Approved symbol of Indira Gandhi Congress| Election symbol of Congress (R) party during the period 1971–1977]]
{{as of|2021}}, the [[election symbol]] of Congress, as approved by the [[Election Commission of India]], is an image of a right hand with its palm facing front and its fingers pressed together;<ref name=hand>{{cite news|title=A Short History of the Congress Hand|url=https://blogs.wsj.com/indiarealtime/2012/03/28/a-short-history-of-the-congress-hand/|access-date=27 June 2014|work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]|agency=[[Dow Jones & Company]]|publisher=[[News Corp (2013–present)|News Corp]]|date=28 March 2012}}</ref> this is usually shown in the centre of a tricolor flag. The hand symbol was first used by Indira Gandhi when she split from the Congress (R) faction following the 1977 elections and created the New Congress (I).<ref name="hand symbol">{{cite news|title=How Indira's Congress got its hand symbol|url=http://www.ndtv.com/article/lifestyle/how-indira-s-congress-got-its-hand-symbol-74104|access-date=27 June 2014|publisher=[[NDTV]]|date=22 December 2010}}</ref> The hand is symbolic of strength, energy, and unity.

The party under the stewardship of Nehru had the symbol 'Pair of bullocks carrying a yoke' which struck a chord with masses who were predominantly farmers.<ref name=bullocks>{{cite news|title=Indian political party election symbols from 1951|url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/indian-political-party-election-symbols-from-1951-when-congress-had-bullocks-and-the-hand-was-forward-blocs/462504-81.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407090702/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/indian-political-party-election-symbols-from-1951-when-congress-had-bullocks-and-the-hand-was-forward-blocs/462504-81.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=7 April 2014|access-date=27 June 2014|publisher=CNN-IBN|date=4 April 2014}}</ref> In 1969, due to internal conflicts within the Congress party, Indira Gandhi decided to break out and form a party of her own, with the majority of the Congress party members in support of her in the new party which was named Congress(R). The symbol of Indira's [[Congress (R)]] or Congress (Requisitionists) during the 1971–1977 period was a cow with a suckling calf.<ref name="Electoral Symbol">{{cite news |title=A tale of changing election symbols of Congress, BJP |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/news/a-tale-of-congress-bjp-election-symbols/articleshow/68732103.cms |access-date=26 May 2020 |work=The Times of India |date=5 April 2019}}</ref><ref name="book"/> After losing the support of 76 out of the party's 153 members in the Lok Sabha, Indira's new political outfit the Congress (I) or Congress (Indira) evolved and she opted for the hand (open palm) symbol.

=== Dynasticism ===
Dynasticism is fairly common in many [[List of political parties in India|political parties]] in India, including the Congress party.<ref name="Denyer2014">{{cite book|author=Simon Denyer|title=Rogue Elephant: Harnessing the Power of India's Unruly Democracy|url=https://archive.org/details/rogueelephanthar0000deny|url-access=registration|date=24 June 2014|publisher=Bloomsbury USA|isbn=978-1-62040-608-3|pages=[https://archive.org/details/rogueelephanthar0000deny/page/115 115]–116}}</ref> Six members of the [[Nehru–Gandhi family]] have been presidents of the party.<ref name="Gandhi presidents">{{cite news |last1=Radhakrishnan |first1=Sruthi |title=Presidents of Congress past: A look at the party's presidency since 1947 |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/presidents-of-congress-past-a-look-at-the-partys-presidency-since-1947/article21639174.ece |access-date=26 May 2020 |work=The Hindu |date=14 December 2017}}</ref> The party started being controlled by Indira Gandhi's family during [[The Emergency (India)|the emergency]] with her younger son, [[Sanjay Gandhi]], taking on a prominent role.<ref name="Tarlo2003">{{cite book|author=Emma Tarlo|title=Unsettling Memories: Narratives of the Emergency in Delhi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3IO1WB2H8UUC&pg=PR5|date=24 July 2003|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-23122-1|pages=27–29}}</ref> This was characterised by servility and sycophancy towards the family which later led to a hereditary succession of Rajiv Gandhi as successor after Indira Gandhi's assassination, as well as the party's selection of Sonia Gandhi as Rajiv's successor after his assassination, which she turned down.<ref name="Bose2013">{{cite book|author=Sumantra Bose|title=Transforming India|url={{Google books|reiwAAAAQBAJ|page=PP8|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|date=16 September 2013|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72819-6|pages=28–29}}</ref> Since the formation of Congress (I) by Indira Gandhi in 1978 till 2022, the party president has been from her family except for the period between 1991 and 1998. In the last three elections to the Lok Sabha combined, 37 per cent of Congress party MPs had family members precede them in politics.<ref name="Chandra2016">{{cite book|editor1=Kanchan Chandra|editor-link1=Kanchan Chandra|author1=Adam Ziegfeld|title=Democratic Dynasties: State, Party and Family in Contemporary Indian Politics|url={{Google books|tesIDAAAQBAJ|page=PR10|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|date=28 April 2016|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-12344-1|page=105}}</ref> However, in recent times there have been calls from within the party to restructure the organisation. A group of senior leaders wrote a letter to the party president to reform the Congress allowing others to take charge. There was also visible discontent following the loss in the [[2019 Indian general election|2019 election]] after which a [[G-23 (political group)|group of 23 senior leaders]] wrote to the Congress President to restructure the party.<ref>{{cite web |title=Exclusive: Complete Text of Congress "Letter Bomb" And Its Big Points |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/exclusive-complete-text-of-congress-letter-bomb-and-its-big-points-2286397 |access-date=22 March 2022 |publisher=NDTV}}</ref>

== Presence in states and Union Territories ==
Indian National Congress is the only political party in India, which has experience of running the state government of every Indian states in post-independence Indian history. From the first general election in 1952 when Jawaharlal Nehru led it to a landslide victory, the Congress won in the majority of the following state elections and paved the way for a Nehruvian era of single-party dominance. The party during the post-independence era has governed most of the [[States and union territories of India]].<ref name="Dominance">{{cite web |title=Era of One Party Dominance |url=https://old.amu.ac.in/emp/studym/100017103.pdf |publisher=[[Aligarh Muslim University]] |access-date=12 March 2022 |archive-date=2 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220402171548/https://old.amu.ac.in/emp/studym/100017103.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> As of October 2024, the INC is in power in the states of [[Telangana]], [[Himachal Pradesh]], and [[Karnataka]]. In [[Jharkhand]], it shares power as a junior ally with [[Jharkhand Mukti Morcha]].<ref name="JH Alliance">{{cite news |last1=Joshi |first1=Poornima |title=Jharkhand polls: JMM-led alliance trounces the BJP in Jharkhand |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/national/jharkhand-polls-jmm-congress-alliance-set-to-trounce-bjp/article30381608.ece |access-date=12 March 2022 |work=Business Line|location=Chennai |date=23 December 2019}}</ref> In [[Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly|Tamil Nadu]] its a junior ally of the [[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam|DMK]], [[Communist Party of India|CPI]], [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]], [[Viduthalai Chiruthaigal Katchi|VCK]] under the coalition [[Secular Progressive Alliance]] or SPA and in [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]] is not a part of government but gives confidence and supply to [[Jammu & Kashmir National Conference|JKNC]]. The Congress has previously been the sole party in power in Delhi, Andhra Pradesh, [[Meghalaya]], Haryana, [[Uttarakhand]] and in the [[States and union territories of India|Union Territory]] of [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]]. Congress has enjoyed overwhelming electoral majority for over decades in [[Arunachal Pradesh]], Delhi, Kerala, [[Maharashtra]] and [[Punjab, India|Punjab]]. It has a regional political alliance in Bihar, which is named ''[[Mahagathbandhan (Bihar)|Mahagathbandhan]]'', in Tamil Nadu it is the ''[[Secular Progressive Alliance]]'', in Jharkhand, it is also the ''[[Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)|Mahagathbandhan]]'', in Maharashtra, it is the ''[[Maha Vikas Aghadi]],'' and in Kerala, it is the ''[[United Democratic Front (Kerala)|United Democratic Front]].''<ref name="TN Alliance">{{cite news |title=DMK-led Secular Progressive Alliance wins 21 Corporations in sweep of urban civic polls |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil-nadu/2022/feb/22/dmk-led-secular-progressive-alliance-wins-21-corporations-in-sweep-of-urban-civic-polls-2422590.html |access-date=12 March 2022 |work=[[The New Indian Express]] |agency=Express Publications (Madurai) Limited |date=23 February 2022}}</ref><ref name="KL Alliance">{{cite news |last1=Chandran |first1=Cynthia |title=MM Hassan takes charge as the UDF convener |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2020/oct/03/mm-hassan-takes-charge-as-the-udf-convener-2205259.html |access-date=12 March 2022 |work=The New Indian Express |agency=Express Publications (Madurai) Limited}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! rowspan="2" |State
! rowspan="2" |Govt Since
! colspan="7" |Chief Minister
! rowspan="2" |Seats
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Alliances
! rowspan="2" |Seats in Assembly
|-
! rowspan="1" |Name
! rowspan="1" |Photo
! colspan="2" rowspan="1" |Party
! rowspan="1" |Deputy
!Photo
!Ministry
|-
|-
! colspan="13" |INC Government
|-
|[[Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly|Himachal Pradesh]]
|[[2022 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|8 December 2022]]
|[[Sukhvinder Singh Sukhu]]
|[[File:Sukhvinder Singh Sukhu.jpg|frameless|88x88px]]
| style="background:{{Party color|Indian National Congress}};" |
|INC
|[[Mukesh Agnihotri]]
|[[File:Mukesh Agnihotri (cropped).jpg|frameless|88x88px]]
|[[Sukhvinder Singh Sukhu ministry|Sukhu I]]
|40<ref>{{cite web |title=Himachal Assembly bypoll results 2024: Congress wins 4 of 6 seats in Himachal Assembly bypolls, MLA strength reaches 38 |url=https://www.thehindu.com/elections/himachal-pradesh-assembly/himachal-assembly-bypoll-results-2024/article68250698.ece|work=The Hindu |date=4 June 2024 |access-date=6 June 2024}}</ref>
| colspan="2" |''-''
||{{Composition bar|40|68|hex=#00BBFF}}
|-
| rowspan="2" |[[Karnataka Legislative Assembly|Karnataka]]
| rowspan="2" |[[2023 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|14 May 2023]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Siddaramaiah]]
| rowspan="2" |[[File:Siddaramaiah at the function Akshaya Patra Foundation in Karnataka.jpg|frameless|98x98px]]
| rowspan="2" style="background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}};" |
| rowspan="2" |INC
| rowspan="2" |[[D. K. Shivakumar]]
| rowspan="2" |[[File:DK Shivkumar.png|frameless|88x88px]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Second Siddaramaiah ministry|Siddaramaiah II]]
| rowspan="2" |138
|{{Party color cell|Sarvodaya Karnataka Paksha}}
|[[Sarvodaya Karnataka Paksha|SKP]] (1)
| rowspan="2" |{{Composition bar|140|224|hex=#00BBFF}}
|-
|{{Party color cell|Independent}}
|[[Independent politician|IND]] (1)
|-
|[[Telangana Legislative Assembly|Telangana]]
|[[2023 Telangana Legislative Assembly election|7 December 2023]]
|[[Revanth Reddy]]
|[[File:Portrait of Telangana CM Revanth Reddy.png|frameless|107x107px]]
| style="background:{{Party color|Indian National Congress}};" |
|INC
|[[Mallu Bhatti Vikramarka]]
|[[File:Mallu Bhatti Vikramarka.jpg|frameless|107x107px]]
|[[Revanth Reddy ministry|Revanth Reddy I]]
|76
|{{party color cell|Communist Party of India}}
| [[Communist Party of India|CPI]] (1)
|{{Composition bar|77|119|hex=#00BBFF}}
|-
! colspan="13" |Alliance Government
|-
| rowspan="3" |[[Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly|Jammu and Kashmir]]
| rowspan="3" |[[2024 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election|16 October 2024]]
| rowspan="3" |[[Omar Abdullah]]
| rowspan="3" |[[File:Omar Abdullah (Cropped).jpg|frameless|85x85px]]
| rowspan="3" style="background:{{party color|Jammu & Kashmir National Conference}};" |
| rowspan="3" |[[Jammu & Kashmir National Conference|JKNC]]
| rowspan="3" |[[Surinder Kumar Choudhary|Surinder Choudhary]]
| rowspan="3" | [[File:Surinder Kumar Choudhary.jpg|frameless|85x85px]]
| rowspan="3" |[[Second Omar Abdullah ministry|Omar II]]
| rowspan="3" |42
| style="background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
|INC (6)
| rowspan="3" |{{Composition bar|52|95|hex=#00BBFF}}
|-
|{{party color cell|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]] (1)
|-
|{{party color cell|Independent}}
|[[Independent Politician|IND]] (3)
|-
| rowspan="3" |[[Jharkhand Legislative Assembly|Jharkhand]]
| rowspan="3" |[[2024 Jharkhand Legislative Assembly election|28 November 2024]]
| rowspan="3" |[[Hemant Soren]]
| rowspan="3" |[[File:Hemant Soren 2024.jpg|frameless|93x93px]]
| rowspan="3" style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}};" |
| rowspan="3" |[[Jharkhand Mukti Morcha|JMM]]
| colspan="2" rowspan="3" |''-''
| rowspan="3" |[[Fourth Hemant Soren ministry|Soren IV]]
| rowspan="3" |34
| style="background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
|INC (16)
| rowspan="3" |{{Composition bar|56|81|hex=#00BBFF}}
|-
| {{party color cell|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}
|[[Rashtriya Janata Dal|RJD]] (4)
|-
|{{party color cell|Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation}}
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation|CPI(ML)L]] (2)
|-
| rowspan="4" |[[Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly|Tamil Nadu]]
| rowspan="4" |[[2021 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|7 May 2021]]
| rowspan="4" | [[M. K. Stalin]]
| rowspan="4" | [[File:The Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu, Thiru MK Stalin.jpg|frameless|100x100px]]
| rowspan="4" style="background:{{party color|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}};" |
| rowspan="4" |[[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam|DMK]]
| rowspan="4" |[[Udhayanidhi Stalin|Udhayanidhi]]
| rowspan="4" | [[File:Udhaya.jpg|frameless|100x100px]]
| rowspan="4" |[[M. K. Stalin ministry|Stalin I]]
| rowspan="4" |134
| style="background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
|INC (17)
|rowspan="4" |{{Composition bar|159|234|hex=#00BBFF}}
|-
| {{party color cell|Viduthalai Chiruthaigal Katchi}}
| [[Viduthalai Chiruthaigal Katchi|VCK]] (4)
|-
| {{party color cell|Communist Party of India}}
| [[Communist Party of India|CPI]] (2)
|-
|{{party color cell|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
| [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]] (2)
|-
|}
=== Legislative Assembly ===

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center"
|+
|-
!State/UT Assembly
!Overall Tally
!Legislative Leader
!PCC President
!Status
|-
|[[Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
|colspan=2 Bgcolor=#CDCDCD|No Representation
|[[Y. S. Sharmila|Y.S. Sharmila]]
|{{no2|Others}}
|-
|[[Arunachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
|{{Composition bar|1|60|hex={{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|[[Kumar Waii]]
|[[Bosiram Siram]]
|{{no2|Others}}
|-
|[[Assam Legislative Assembly]]
|{{Composition bar|20|126|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|[[Debabrata Saikia]]
|[[Gaurav Gogoi]]
|{{no2|Opposition}}
|-
|[[Bihar Legislative Assembly]]
|{{Composition bar|6|243|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|[[Shakeel Ahmad Khan]]
|[[Rajesh Kumar (born 1969)|Rajesh Kumar]]
|{{no2|Opposition}}
|-
|[[Chhattisgarh Legislative Assembly]]
|{{Composition bar|35|90|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|[[Charan Das Mahant]]
|[[Deepak Baij]]
|{{no2|Opposition}}
|-
|[[Delhi Legislative Assembly]]
|colspan=2 Bgcolor=#CDCDCD|No Representation
|[[Devender Yadav]]
|{{no2|Others<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 November 2024 |title='No alliance in Delhi...': Congress to contest all 70 seats solo in upcoming Delhi assembly elections |url=https://www.businesstoday.in/india/story/no-alliance-in-delhi-congress-to-contest-all-70-seats-solo-in-upcoming-delhi-assembly-elections-455710-2024-11-30 |access-date=8 December 2024 |website=Business Today |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=1 December 2024 |title='There will be no alliance in Delhi': Arvind Kejriwal rules out tie-up with Congress |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/india-news/there-will-be-no-alliance-in-delhi-arvind-kejriwal-rules-out-tie-up-with-congress/3681259/ |access-date=8 December 2024 |website=Financialexpress |language=en}}</ref>}}
|-
|[[Goa Legislative Assembly]]
|{{Composition bar|3|40|{{party color|Indian National Developmental Inclusive Alliance}}}}
|[[Yuri Alemao]]
|Amit Patkar
|{{no2|Opposition}}
|-
|[[Gujarat Legislative Assembly]]
|{{Composition bar|12|182|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|[[Tushar Chaudhary]]
|[[Amit Chavda]]
|{{no2|Opposition}}
|-
|[[Haryana Legislative Assembly]]
|{{Composition bar|37|90|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|[[Bhupinder Singh Hooda]]
|[[Rao Narendra Singh]]
|{{no2|Opposition}}
|-
|[[Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
|{{Composition bar|40|68|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|[[Sukhvinder Singh Sukhu]]
|[[Vinay Kumar (politician)|Vinay Kumar]]
|{{yes2|Government}}
|-
|[[Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly]]
|{{Composition bar|6|90|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|[[Ghulam Ahmad Mir]]
|[[Tariq Hameed Karra]]
|{{yes2|Coalition}}
|-
|[[Jharkhand Legislative Assembly]]
|{{Composition bar|16|81|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|[[Pradeep Yadav (Indian politician)|Pradeep Yadav]]
|[[Keshav Mahto Kamlesh]]
|{{yes2|Coalition}}
|-
|[[Karnataka Legislative Assembly]]
|{{Composition bar|136|224|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|[[Siddaramaiah]]
|[[D. K. Shivakumar|D.K. Shivakumar]]
|{{yes2|Government}}
|-
|[[Kerala Legislative Assembly]]
|{{Composition bar|21|140|{{party color|Indian National Developmental Inclusive Alliance}}}}
|[[V. D. Satheesan|V. Damodaran Satheesan]]
|[[Sunny Joseph (politician)|Sunny Joseph]]
|{{no2|Opposition}}
|-
|[[Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
|{{Composition bar|63|230|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|[[Umang Singhar]]
|[[Jitu Patwari]]
|{{no2|Opposition}}
|-
|[[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly]]
|{{Composition bar|16|288|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|[[Vijay Namdevrao Wadettiwar|Vijay Wadettiwar]]
|[[Harshwardhan Vasantrao Sapkal|Harshwardhan Sapkal]]
|{{no2|Opposition}}
|-
|[[Manipur Legislative Assembly]]
|{{Composition bar|5|60|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|[[Okram Ibobi Singh]]
|[[Keisham Meghachandra Singh]]
|{{no2|Opposition}}
|-
|[[Meghalaya Legislative Assembly]]
|colspan=2 Bgcolor=#CDCDCD|No Representation
|[[Vincent Pala]]
|{{no2|Others}}
|-
|[[Mizoram Legislative Assembly]]
|{{Composition bar|1|40|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|[[C. Ngunlianchunga]]
|[[Lal Thanzara]]
|{{no2|Others}}
|-
|[[Nagaland Legislative Assembly]]
|colspan=2 Bgcolor=#CDCDCD|No Representation
|[[S. Supongmeren Jamir]]
|{{no2|Others}}
|-
|[[Odisha Legislative Assembly]]
|{{Composition bar|11|147|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|[[Rama Chandra Kadam]]
|[[Bhakta Charan Das]]
|{{no2|Others}}
|-
|[[Puducherry Legislative Assembly]]
|{{Composition bar|2|33|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|[[M. Vaithianathan]]
|[[V. Vaithilingam]]
|{{no2|Opposition}}
|-
|[[Punjab Legislative Assembly]]
|{{Composition bar|16|117|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|[[Partap Singh Bajwa]]
|[[Amrinder Singh Raja Warring]]
|{{no2|Opposition}}
|-
|[[Rajasthan Legislative Assembly]]
|{{Composition bar|67|200|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|[[Tika Ram Jully|Tika Ram]]
|[[Govind Singh Dotasra]]
|{{no2|Opposition}}
|-
|[[Sikkim Legislative Assembly]]
|colspan=2 Bgcolor=#CDCDCD|No Representation
|Gopal Chhettri
|{{no2|Others}}
|-
|[[Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly]]
|{{Composition bar|17|234|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|[[S. Rajeshkumar]]
|[[K. Selvaperunthagai]]
|{{yes2|Coalition}}
|-
|[[Telangana Legislative Assembly]]
|{{Composition bar|76|119|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|[[Revanth Reddy]]
|[[Bomma Mahesh Kumar Goud]]
|{{yes2|Government}}
|-
|[[Tripura Legislative Assembly]]
|{{Composition bar|3|60|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|[[Sudip Roy Barman]]
|[[Ashish Kumar Saha]]
|{{no2|Opposition}}
|-
|[[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
|{{Composition bar|2|403|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|[[Aradhana Misra]]
|[[Ajay Rai]]
|{{no2|Opposition}}
|-
|[[Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly]]
|{{Composition bar|20|70|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|[[Yashpal Arya]]
|[[Karan Mahara]]
|{{no2|Opposition}}
|-
|[[West Bengal Legislative Assembly]]
|colspan=2 Bgcolor=#CDCDCD|No Representation
|[[Subhankar Sarkar|Shubhankar Sarkar]]
|{{no2|Others<ref>{{Cite news |last=Chatterjee |first=Tanmay |date=23 October 2024 |title=CPI(M) blames Congress for no alliance in West Bengal assembly bypolls |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/kolkata-news/cpim-blames-congress-for-no-alliance-in-west-bengal-assembly-bypolls-101729684611850.html |access-date=8 December 2024 |work=Hindustan Times}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Som |first=Moyurie |date=23 October 2024 |title=No Left-Congress alliance for Assembly byelections in West Bengal |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/west-bengal/no-left-congress-alliance-for-assembly-byelections-in-west-bengal/article68787906.ece |access-date=8 December 2024 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>}}
|}

=== Legislative Council ===

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center"
!State/UT
!Overall Tally
!Legislative Leader
!Status
|-
|[[Andhra Pradesh Legislative Council]]
|colspan=2 Bgcolor=#CDCDCD|No Representation
|{{no2|Others}}
|-
|[[Bihar Legislative Council]]
|{{Composition bar|3|75|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|[[Madan Mohan Jha]]
|{{no2|Opposition}}
|-
|[[Karnataka Legislative Council]]
|{{Composition bar|37|75|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|[[N. S. Boseraju]]
|{{yes2|Government}}
|-
|[[Maharashtra Legislative Council]]
|{{Composition bar|7|51|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|[[Bhai Jagtap]]
|{{no2|Opposition}}
|-
| rowspan="1" |[[Telangana Legislative Council]]
| rowspan="1" |{{Composition bar|12|40|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|[[Bomma Mahesh Kumar Goud]]
|{{yes2|Government}}
|-
| rowspan="1" |[[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Council]]
|colspan=2 Bgcolor=#CDCDCD|No Representation
|{{no2|Others}}
|}

== List of presidents ==
{{further|President of India}}
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width:100%; text-align:center"
! rowspan="2" |Portrait
! rowspan="2" |Name
{{small|{{nowrap|(Birth–Death)}}}}
! rowspan="2" |Home state
! rowspan="2" |Former Office(s)
! colspan="3" |Term of office
! rowspan="2" |Oath administered by
(CJI)
! rowspan="2" |Election
! rowspan="2" |Election Map
! rowspan="2" |[[Vice President of India|Vice President]]
|-
!Assumed office
!Left office
!Time in office
|-
| rowspan="3" |[[File:Rajendra_Prasad_(Indian_President),_signed_image_for_Walter_Nash_(NZ_Prime_Minister),_1958_(16017609534).jpg|124x124px]]
| rowspan="3" |'''[[Rajendra Prasad]]'''
{{small|(1884–1963)}}
| rowspan="3" |[[Bihar]]
| rowspan="3" |[[Minister of Agriculture and Farmers' Welfare|Minister of Agriculture]]
|26 January 1950
|13 May 1952
| rowspan="3" |12 years, 107 days
|[[H. J. Kania]]
|[[1950 Indian presidential election|1950]]
|
|{{Endash}}
|-
|13 May 1952
|13 May 1957
|[[M. Patanjali Sastri]]
|[[1952 Indian presidential election|1952]]
|[[File:1952_Indian_Presidential_Election.svg|59x59px]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan]]
|-
|13 May 1957
|13 May 1962
|[[Sudhi Ranjan Das]]
|[[1957 Indian presidential election|1957]]
|[[File:1957_Indian_Presidential_Election.svg|59x59px]]
|-
|[[File:President_Fakhruddin_Ali_Ahmed.jpg|133x133px]]
|'''[[Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed]]'''
{{small|(1905–1977)}}
|[[National Capital Territory of Delhi]]
|[[Minister of Agriculture and Farmers' Welfare|Minister of Agriculture]]
|24 August 1974
|11 February 1977{{ref label|†|†|†}}
|2 years, 171 days
|[[A. N. Ray]]<ref name="British Pathé">{{cite web | title=INDIA: MR. FAKHRUDDIN ALI AHMED SWORN IN AS NEW PRESIDENT AFTER MASSIVE ELECTION WIN. | website=British Pathé | date=7 November 2022 | url=https://www.britishpathe.com/asset/121064/ | access-date=13 February 2025}}</ref>
|[[1974 Indian presidential election|1974]]
|[[File:1974_Indian_Presidential_Election.svg|59x59px]]
|[[Gopal Swarup Pathak]]
----[[B. D. Jatti]]
|-
| style="background:wheat;" |[[File:Basappa_Danappa_Jatti,_5th_Vice_President_of_India.jpg|125x125px]]
| style="background:wheat;" |'''[[B. D. Jatti]]'''
{{small|(1912–2002)}}
|[[Karnataka]]
| style="background:wheat;" |[[List of chief ministers of Karnataka|Chief Minister of Karnataka]]
| style="background:wheat;" |11 February 1977
| style="background:wheat;" |25 July 1977
| style="background:wheat;" |164 days
|
|{{Endash}}
|{{Endash}}
|-
|[[File:President_Giani_Zail_Singh_(cropped).jpg|134x134px]]
|'''[[Zail Singh]]'''
{{small|(1916–1994)}}
|[[Punjab, India|Punjab]]
|[[List of chief ministers of Punjab, India|Chief Minister of Punjab]]
|25 July 1982
|25 July 1987
|5 years
|[[Y. V. Chandrachud]]
|[[1982 Indian presidential election|1982]]
|[[File:1982_Indian_Presidential_Election.svg|50x50px]]
|[[Mohammad Hidayatullah]]
----[[Ramaswamy Venkataraman]]
|-
|[[File:Ramaswamy_Venkataraman_(2012_stamp_of_India)_(cropped).jpg|122x122px]]
|'''[[Ramaswamy Venkataraman]]'''
{{small|(1910–2009)}}
|[[Tamil Nadu]]
|[[List of vice presidents of India|Vice President of India]]
[[Minister of Defence (India)|Minister of Defence]]
|25 July 1987
|25 July 1992
|5 years
|[[Raghunandan Swarup Pathak]]
|[[1987 Indian presidential election|1987]]
|[[File:Indian_presidential_election,_1987.svg|50x50px]]
|[[Shankar Dayal Sharma]]
|-
|[[File:Shanker_Dayal_Sharma.jpg|127x127px]]
|'''[[Shankar Dayal Sharma]]'''
{{small|(1918–1999)}}
|[[Madhya Pradesh]]
|[[List of vice presidents of India|Vice President of India]]
[[List of governors of Maharashtra|Governor of Maharashtra]]
|25 July 1992
|25 July 1997
|5 years
|[[M. H. Kania]]
|[[1992 Indian presidential election|1992]]
|[[File:1992_Indian_Presidential_Election.svg|59x59px]]
|[[K. R. Narayanan]]
|-
|[[File:The official portrait of Shri Kocheril Raman Narayanan, 10th President of the Republic of India.png|125x125px]]
|'''[[K. R. Narayanan]]'''
{{small|(1920–2005)}}
|[[Kerala]]
|[[List of vice presidents of India|Vice President of India]]
|25 July 1997
|25 July 2002
|5 years
|[[J. S. Verma]]
|[[1997 Indian presidential election|1997]]
|[[File:Indian_presidential_election,_1997.svg|59x59px]]
|[[Krishan Kant]]
|-
|[[File:The_President_of_India,_Smt._Pratibha_Patil.jpg|140x140px]]
|'''[[Pratibha Patil]]'''
{{small|(born 1934)}}
|[[Maharashtra]]
|[[List of governors of Rajasthan|Governor of Rajasthan]]
|25 July 2007
|25 July 2012
|5 years
|[[K. G. Balakrishnan]]<ref>{{Cite news |date=25 July 2007 |title=Pratibha Patil sworn in as President |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/pratibha-patil-sworn-in-as-president/articleshow/2232871.cms |access-date=27 December 2024 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
|[[2007 Indian presidential election|2007]]
|[[File:2007_Indian_Presidential_Election.svg|59x59px]]
| rowspan="2" |[[M. Hamid Ansari]]
|-
|[[File:Pranab_Mukherjee_Portrait_(cropped).jpg|129x129px]]
|'''[[Pranab Mukherjee]]'''
{{small|(1935–2020)}}
|[[West Bengal]]
|[[Minister of Defence (India)|Minister of Defence]]
[[Minister of Finance (India)|Minister of Finance]]

[[Minister of External Affairs (India)|Minister of External Affairs]]
|25 July 2012
|25 July 2017
|5 years
|[[S. H. Kapadia]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 July 2012 |title=Pranab Mukherjee sworn in 13th President of India |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/north/story/pranab-mukherjee-13th-president-of-india-110991-2012-07-25 |access-date=27 December 2024 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref>
|[[2012 Indian presidential election|2012]]
|[[File:Indian_presidential_election_2012.svg|59x59px]]
|}

===List of vice presidents===
{{further|Vice President of India}}
{| class="wikitable" style="line-height:1.4em; text-align:center"
|+
!Portrait
!Name
{{small|(Lifespan)}}
! style="width:14em" |Home state
! colspan="2" style="width:7em" |Term of office
{{small|Duration in years and days}}
!Mandate
!Prior positions held
!President
{{small|(Tenure)}}
|-
| rowspan="3" |[[File:Basappa_Danappa_Jatti,_5th_Vice_President_of_India.jpg|125x125px]]
| rowspan="3" |'''[[B. D. Jatti]]'''
{{small|(1912{{ndash}}2002)}}
| rowspan="3" |[[Karnataka]]
|{{small|31 August}}
1974
|{{small|31 August}}
1979
| rowspan="2" |[[1974 Indian vice presidential election|1974]]
{{small|(78.7%)}}
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:left; background:#eaecf0; font-size:95%" |
* Chief Minister of [[Mysore State]] {{small|(1958{{ndash}}1962)}}
* [[List of lieutenant governors of Puducherry|Lieutenant Governor of Pondicherry]] {{small|(1968{{ndash}}1972)}}
* [[Governor of Orissa]] {{small|(1972{{ndash}}1974)}}
!'''[[Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed]]'''
{{small|(24 Aug 1974{{spaced ndash}} 11 Feb 1977)}}
|-
! colspan="2" style="font-size:90%; font-weight:normal" |{{age in years and days|1969|8|31|1974|8|31}}
! style="font-weight:normal" |'''''Self'''''
(acting)
{{small|(11 Feb 1977 {{spaced ndash}} 25 Jul 1977)}}
|-
| colspan="4" style="text-align:left; font-size:95%" |Former chief minister of Mysore and former governor. Elected as the fifth vice president in 1974 defeating his nearest rival [[Niral Enem Horo]]. Became Acting President on 11 February 1977 following the demise of president [[Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed]] and served in the acting capacity till the election of [[Neelam Sanjiva Reddy]] in July 1977. Retired as vice president upon completion of tenure in 1979.
! style="font-weight:normal" |'''[[Neelam Sanjiva Reddy]]'''
{{small|(25 Jul 1977{{spaced ndash}} 25 Jul 1982)}}
|-
| rowspan="3" |[[File:Ramaswamy_Venkataraman_(2012_stamp_of_India)_(cropped).jpg|122x122px]]
| rowspan="3" |'''[[Ramaswamy Venkataraman]]'''
{{small|(1910{{ndash}}2009)}}
| rowspan="3" |[[Tamil Nadu]]
|{{small|31 August}}
1984
|{{small|24 July}}
1987{{ref label|RES|RES|RES}}
| rowspan="2" |[[1984 Indian vice presidential election|1984]]
{{small|(71.05%)}}
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:left; background:#eaecf0; font-size:95%" |
* Member, [[Lok Sabha]] {{small|(1952{{ndash}}1957)}}
* Minister of Industries, Labour, Co-operation, etc., [[Madras State]] {{small|(1957{{ndash}}1967)}}
* [[Minister of Finance (India)|Union Minister of Finance]] {{small|(1980{{ndash}}1982)}}
* [[Minister of Home Affairs (India)|Union Minister of Home Affairs]] {{small|(1982)}}
* [[Minister of Defence (India)|Union Minister of Defence]] {{small|(1982{{ndash}}1984)}}
! rowspan="3" |'''[[Zail Singh|Giani Zail Singh]]'''
{{small|(25 Jul 1982{{spaced ndash}} 25 Jul 1987)}}
|-
! colspan="2" style="font-size:90%; font-weight:normal" |{{age in years and days|1984|8|31|1987|7|24}}
|-
| colspan="4" style="text-align:left; font-size:95%" |Former union minister. Elected as the seventh vice president in 1984 after defeating [[B. C. Kamble]] in the vice presidential election. As vice president, he played important role in being deputed for president on making diplomatic visits and acting as a mediator for then prime minister [[Rajiv Gandhi]] and president [[Zail Singh]]. Resigned from the vice presidency on the eve of assuming office as the President on 25 July 1987.
|-
| rowspan="3" |[[File:Shri_Shankar_Dayal_Sharma.jpg|140x140px]]
| rowspan="3" |'''[[Shankar Dayal Sharma]]'''
{{small|(1918{{ndash}}1999)}}
| rowspan="3" |[[Madhya Pradesh]]
|{{small|3 September}}
1987
|{{small|24 July}}
1992{{ref label|RES|RES|RES}}
| rowspan="2" |[[1987 Indian vice presidential election|1987]]
{{small|(Unopposed)}}
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:left; background:#eaecf0; font-size:95%" |
* Chief Minister of [[Bhopal State]] {{small|(1952{{ndash}}1956)}}
* [[President of the Indian National Congress|National President, Indian National Congress]] {{small|(1972{{ndash}}1974)}}
* [[Ministry of Communications (India)|Union Minister of Communications]] {{small|(1974{{ndash}}1977)}}
* [[Governor of Andhra Pradesh]] {{small|(1984{{ndash}}1985)}}, [[Governor of Punjab (India)|Punjab]] {{small|(1985)}}, and [[Governor of Maharashtra|Maharashtra]] {{small|(1985{{ndash}}1987)}}
! rowspan="3" style="font-weight:normal" |'''[[Ramaswamy Venkataraman]]'''
{{small|(25 Jul 1987{{spaced ndash}} 25 Jul 1992)}}
|-
! colspan="2" style="font-size:90%; font-weight:normal" |{{age in years and days|1987|9|3|1992|7|24}}
|-
| colspan="4" style="text-align:left; font-size:95%" |Former union minister. Elected unopposed as the eighth vice president in 1987 to fill the vacancy caused by the election of then vice president Ramasamy Venkataraman as the President. He resigned as the vice president in 1992 after being elected as the President.
|-
| rowspan="3" |[[File:The official portrait of Shri Kocheril Raman Narayanan, 10th President of the Republic of India.png|125x125px]]
| rowspan="3" |'''[[K. R. Narayanan]]'''
{{small|(1920{{ndash}}2005)}}
| rowspan="3" |[[Kerala]]
|{{small|21 August}}
1992
|{{small|24 July}}
1997{{ref label|RES|RES|RES}}
| rowspan="2" |[[1992 Indian vice presidential election|1992]]
{{small|(99.86%)}}
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:left; background:#eaecf0; font-size:95%" |
* Ambassador of [[Thailand]] {{small|(1967{{ndash}}1969)}} and [[Turkey]] {{small|(1973{{ndash}}1975)}}
* [[Ministry of External Affairs (India)|Secretary (East), Ministry of External Affairs]] {{small|(1975{{ndash}}1976)}}
* Ambassador to [[China–India relations|China]] {{small|(1976{{ndash}}1978)}} and [[List of ambassadors of India to the United States|the United States]] {{small|(1980{{ndash}}1984)}}
* Member, [[Lok Sabha]] {{small|(1984{{ndash}}1992)}}
* Union Minister of State, [[Ministry of Planning (India)|Planning]] {{small|(1985)}}, [[Ministry of External Affairs (India)|External Affairs]] {{small|(1985{{ndash}}1986)}}, [[Ministry of Science and Technology (India)|Science and Technology]] {{small|(1986{{ndash}}1989)}}
! rowspan="3" style="font-weight:normal" |'''[[Shankar Dayal Sharma]]'''
{{small|(25 Jul 1992{{spaced ndash}} 25 Jul 1997)}}
|-
! colspan="2" style="font-size:90%; font-weight:normal" |{{age in years and days|1992|8|21|1997|7|24}}
|-
| colspan="4" style="text-align:left; font-size:95%" |Former diplomat and former union minister. Elected as the ninth vice president in 1992 defeating his rival candidate [[Joginder Singh (politician)|Joginder Singh]]. First Dalit vice president of India. Resigned from the vice presidency in 1997 after being elected as the President.
|-
| rowspan="6" |[[File:The_Vice_President_Shri_M._Hamid_Ansari_in_July_2016.jpg|134x134px]]
| rowspan="6" |'''[[Mohammad Hamid Ansari]]'''
{{small|(born 1937)}}
| rowspan="6" |[[West Bengal]]
| rowspan="2" |{{small|11 August}}
2007
| rowspan="2" |{{small|11 August}}
2012
| rowspan="2" |[[2007 Indian vice presidential election|2007]]
{{small|(60.50%)}}
| rowspan="5" style="text-align:left; background:#eaecf0; font-size:95%" |
* [[List of ambassadors of India to the United Arab Emirates|Ambassador to the United Arab Emirates]] {{small|(1976{{ndash}}1980)}}
* High Commissioner to [[Australia]] {{small|(1985{{ndash}}1989)}}
* Ambassador to [[Afghanistan]] {{small|(1989{{ndash}}1990)}}, [[Iran]] {{small|(1990{{ndash}}1992)}}, [[Saudi Arabia]] {{small|(1995{{ndash}}1999)}}
* [[Permanent Representative of India to the United Nations|Permanent Representative to the United Nations]] {{small|(1993{{ndash}}1995)}}
* Vice-Chancellor, [[Aligarh Muslim University]] {{small|(2000{{ndash}}2002)}}
* Chairman, [[National Commission for Minorities]] {{small|(2006{{ndash}}2007)}}
! style="font-weight:normal" |'''[[Pratibha Patil]]'''
{{small|(25 Jul 2007{{spaced ndash}} 25 Jul 2012)}}
|-
! rowspan="2" style="font-weight:normal" |'''[[Pranab Mukherjee]]'''
{{small|(25 Jul 2012{{spaced ndash}} 25 Jul 2017)}}
|-
| rowspan="2" |{{small|11 August}}
2012
| rowspan="2" |{{small|11 August}}
2017
| rowspan="3" |[[2012 Indian vice presidential election|2012]]
{{small|(67.31%)}}
|-
! rowspan="3" style="font-weight:normal" |'''[[Ram Nath Kovind]]'''
{{small|(25 Jul 2017{{spaced ndash}} 25 Jul 2022)}}
|-
! colspan="2" style="font-size:90%; font-weight:normal" |{{age in years and days|2007|8|11|2017|8|11}}
|-
| colspan="4" style="text-align:left; font-size:95%" |Former diplomat. Elected as the twelfth vice president in 2007. Re-elected to office for a second term in 2012 by defeating his rival candidate [[Jaswant Singh]]. First and only vice president since [[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan]] to be re-elected to office and the longest-serving vice president. Retired from office upon completion of tenure on 11 August 2017, becoming the first vice president to serve under three presidents.
|-
|}

== Legislative leaders ==
The Congress party has played a pivotal role in shaping India's political landscape, with prominent leaders such as [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], [[Indira Gandhi]], and [[Manmohan Singh]] as serving the country's longest-serving [[Prime Minister of India|prime ministers]] and contributing significantly to the nation's development. [[Gulzarilal Nanda]] took office in 1966 following the death of [[Lal Bahadur Shastri]] for 13 days as the [[acting Prime Minister]] of India.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/profile/story/19960515-at-98-two-time-interim-pm-gulzarilal-nanda-is-the-epitome-of-gandhian-ideals-834853-1996-05-15|title=At 98, two-time interim PM Gulzarilal Nanda is the epitome of Gandhian ideals|last=Mahurkar|first=Uday|work=[[India Today]]|date=15 May 1996|access-date=4 February 2019}}</ref> His earlier 13-day stint as the second Prime Minister of India followed the death of Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru in 1964. Indira Gandhi, the first and so far the only woman Prime Minister of India, served the second-longest term as a prime minister.<ref name=indira>{{cite news|url=https://www.theweek.in/content/archival/news/india/1966-indira-gandhi.html|title=Today in 1966: Indira Gandhi becomes Prime Minister|last=Vijaykumar|first=Neeti|work=[[The Week (Indian magazine)|The Week]]|date=19 January 2017|access-date=4 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180216132208/http://www.theweek.in/content/archival/news/india/1966-indira-gandhi.html|archive-date=16 February 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Rajiv Gandhi]] served from 1984 to 1989, taking office on the day of the [[assassination of Indira Gandhi]] in 1984. At age 40, he was the youngest PM of India and was known for economic reforms during his tenure. [[PV Narasimha Rao]] served as the 10th Prime Minister of India and was the first PM from [[southern India]].<ref name="Rao">{{cite web |title=Shri P. V. Narasimha Rao |url=https://www.pmindia.gov.in/en/former_pm/shri-p-v-narasimha-rao-2/ |publisher=PMO India |access-date=25 July 2021}}</ref> [[Manmohan Singh]] served two complete terms as Prime Minister and headed the coalition governments twice.

=== List of prime ministers ===
{{Further|List of prime ministers of India}}

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! rowspan="2" style="background:#00bfff; color:white;"| Prime ministers
! rowspan="2" style="background:#00bfff; color:white;"| Portrait
! colspan="3" style="background:#00bfff; color:white;"| '''Term of office'''
'''Duration in years and days'''
! rowspan="2" style="background:#00bfff; color:white;"|Government
! rowspan="2" style="background:#00bfff; color:white;" | Lok Sabha
! rowspan="2" style="background:#00bfff; color:white;"| Constituency
! rowspan="2" style="background:#00bfff; color:white;"|Head of State
|-
! style="background:#00bfff; color:white;"| Start
! style="background:#00bfff; color:white;"| End
! style="background:#00bfff; color:white;"| Tenure
|-
| rowspan="4" |[[Jawaharlal Nehru]]
(1889–1964)
| rowspan="4" |[[File:Jawaharlal Nehru close-up (cropped).jpg|80px]]
|{{dts|15 August 1947}}
|{{dts|15 April 1952}}
| rowspan="4" |{{age in years and days|1947|08|15|1964|5|27}}
|[[First Nehru ministry|Nehru I]]
| colspan="3" | [[Constituent Assembly of India|Constituent Assembly]]
|-
|{{dts|15 April 1952}}
|{{dts|4 April 1957}}
|[[Second Nehru ministry|Nehru II]]
| [[1st Lok Sabha|1st]]
| rowspan="3" |[[Phulpur (Lok Sabha constituency)|Phulpur]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Rajendra Prasad]]
|-
|{{dts|17 April 1957}}
|{{dts|2 April 1962}}
|[[Third Nehru ministry|Nehru III]]
| [[2nd Lok Sabha|2nd]]
|-
|{{dts|2 April 1962}}
|{{dts|27 May 1964}}
|[[Fourth Nehru ministry|Nehru IV]]
| rowspan="5" | [[3rd Lok Sabha|3rd]]
| rowspan="5" |[[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan]]
|-
| rowspan="2" | [[Gulzarilal Nanda]]
(1898–1998)
| rowspan="2" |[[File:Gulzarilal Nanda 1999 stamp of India.jpg|80px]]
|{{dts|27 May 1964}}
|{{dts|9 June 1964}}
| rowspan="2" |26 days
| [[First Nanda ministry|Nanda I]]
| [[Sabarkantha (Lok Sabha constituency)|Sabarkantha]]
|-
| {{dts|11 January 1966}}
| {{dts|24 January 1966}}
|[[Nanda ministry (second)|Nanda II]]
|[[Sabarkantha (Lok Sabha constituency)|Sabarkantha]]
|-
|[[Lal Bahadur Shastri]]
(1904–1966)
|[[File:Lal Bahadur Shastri (cropped).jpg|80px]]
|{{dts|9 June 1964}}
|{{dts|11 January 1966}}
|{{age in years and days|1964|6|9|1966|1|11}}
|[[Shastri ministry|Shastri]]
|[[Allahabad (Lok Sabha constituency)|Allahabad]]
|-

| rowspan="4" |[[Indira Gandhi]]
(1917–1984)
| rowspan="4" |[[File:Indira Gandhi official portrait.png|80px]]
|{{dts|24 January 1966}}
|{{dts|13 March 1967}}
| rowspan="4" |15 years, 350 days
|[[First Indira Gandhi ministry|Indira I]]
|[[List of Rajya Sabha members from Uttar Pradesh|Rajya Sabha MP from Uttar Pradesh]]
|-
|{{dts|13 March 1967}}
|{{dts|18 March 1971}}
|[[Second Indira Gandhi ministry|Indira II]]
| [[4th Lok Sabha|4th]]
| rowspan ="2" |[[Rae Bareli (Lok Sabha constituency)|Rae Bareli]]
| rowspan="3" |[[Zakir Husain]] [[V. V. Giri]] ''[[Mohammad Hidayatullah]]'' [[Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed]] [[B. D. Jatti]] [[Neelam Sanjiva Reddy]] [[Zail Singh]]
|-
|{{dts|18 March 1971}}
|{{dts|24 March 1977}}
|[[Third Indira Gandhi ministry|Indira III]]
| [[5th Lok Sabha|5th]]
|-
| {{dts|14 January 1980}}
| {{dts|31 October 1984}}
|[[Fourth Indira Gandhi ministry|Indira IV]]
| rowspan="2" | [[7th Lok Sabha|7th]]
|[[Medak (Lok Sabha constituency)|Medak]]
|-
| rowspan ="2" |[[Rajiv Gandhi]]
(1944–1991)
| rowspan ="2" |[[File:RajivGandhi.jpg|frameless|100x100px]]
|{{dts|31 October 1984}}
|{{dts|31 December 1984}}
| rowspan ="2" |{{age in years and days|1984|10|31|1989|12|2}}
|[[First Rajiv Gandhi ministry|Rajiv I]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Amethi (Lok Sabha constituency)|Amethi]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Ramaswamy Venkataraman]]
|-
|{{dts|31 December 1984}}
|{{dts|2 December 1989}}
|[[Second Rajiv Gandhi ministry|Rajiv II]]
| [[8th Lok Sabha|8th]]
|-
|[[P. V. Narasimha Rao]]
(1921–2004)
|[[File:Visit of Narasimha Rao, Indian Minister for Foreign Affairs, to the CEC (cropped).jpg|80px]]
| {{dts|21 June 1991}}
| {{dts|16 May 1996}}
|{{age in years and days|1991|6|21|1996|5|16}}
|[[Rao ministry|Rao]]
| [[10th Lok Sabha|10th]]
|[[Nandyal (Lok Sabha constituency)|Nandyal]]
|[[Shankar Dayal Sharma]]
|-
| rowspan ="2" |[[Manmohan Singh]]
(1932–2024)
| rowspan ="2" |[[File:Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh in March 2014.jpg|80px]]
| {{dts|22 May 2004}}
| {{dts|26 May 2009}}
| rowspan="2" |{{age in years and days|2004|5|22|2014|5|26}}
|[[First Manmohan Singh ministry|Singh I]]
| [[14th Lok Sabha|14th]]
| rowspan ="2" |[[List of Rajya Sabha members from Assam|Rajya Sabha MP from Assam]]
| rowspan="2" |[[A. P. J. Abdul Kalam]] [[Pratibha Patil]] [[Pranab Mukherjee]]
|-
| {{dts|22 May 2009}}
| {{dts|26 May 2014}}
|[[Second Manmohan Singh ministry|Singh II]]
| [[15th Lok Sabha|15th]]
|}

=== List of deputy prime ministers ===
{{further|Deputy Prime Minister of India}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;"
!rowspan=2 style="background:#00bfff; color:white;"|Portrait
!rowspan=2 style="background:#00bfff; color:white;"|Name {{small|(Birth–Death)}}
!colspan=3 style="background:#00bfff; color:white;"|Term in office
!rowspan=2 style="background:#00bfff; color:white;"|[[Lok Sabha|{{black|Lok Sabha}}]] {{small|([[Elections in India|{{black|Election}}]])}}
!rowspan=2 style="background:#00bfff; color:white;"|Constituency {{small|(House)}}
!rowspan=2 style="background:#00bfff; color:white;"|[[Prime Minister of India|Prime Minister]]
! rowspan="2" style="background:#00bfff; color:white;"|Head of State
|-
!style="background:#00bfff; color:white;"|Assumed office
!style="background:#00bfff; color:white;"|Left office
!style="background:#00bfff; color:white;"|Time in office
|-
|[[File:Sardar patel (cropped).jpg|100px]]
|'''[[Vallabhbhai Patel]]''' (1875–1950)
|15 August 1947
|15 December 1950 ''(death)''
|3 years, 122 days
|[[Constituent Assembly of India|Constituent Assembly]]
|N/A
|[[Jawaharlal Nehru]]
|''none''
|-
|[[File:Morarji Desai During his visit to the United States of America .jpg|100px]]
|'''[[Morarji Desai]]''' (1896–1995)
|13 March 1967
|19 July 1969
|2 years, 128 days
|[[4th Lok Sabha|4th]] ([[1967 Indian general election|1967]])
|[[Surat Lok Sabha constituency|Surat]] ([[Lok Sabha]])
|[[Indira Gandhi]]
|[[Zakir Husain]]
|}

== See also ==
{{Portal bar|India|Politics|Liberalism|Socialism}}
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[All India Congress Committee]]
* [[Congress Working Committee]]
* [[Electoral history of the Indian National Congress]]
* [[High command culture]]
* [[Indian National Developmental Inclusive Alliance]]
* [[List of chief ministers from the Indian National Congress]]
* [[List of Indian National Congress breakaway parties]]
* [[List of political parties in India]]
* [[List of presidents of the Indian National Congress]]
* [[List of state presidents of the Indian National Congress]]
* [[Nehru–Gandhi family]]
* [[Politics of India]]
* [[Pradesh Congress Committee]]
* [[United Progressive Alliance]]
{{div col end}}

== References ==
=== Notes ===
{{Notelist|40em}}

=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Bibliography ===
* {{cite book |last=Choudhary |first=Sunil K. |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |date=2017-08-31 |chapter=Mapaivot vs Congress System |pages=59–84 |doi=10.1007/978-981-10-5175-3_5 |title=The Changing Face of Parties and Party Systems |isbn=978-981-10-5175-3 |location=[[Singapore]]}}
* {{cite journal |last=Hewitt |first=Vernon |date=1989 |title=The Congress System is Dead: Long Live the Party System and Democratic India? |pages=157–171 |doi=10.1080/14662048908447564 |journal=[[Commonwealth & Comparative Politics]] |issn=1466-2043 |volume=27 |issue=2}}
* {{cite journal |last=Kothari |first=Rajni |author-link=Rajni Kothari |date=December 1964 |title=The Congress 'System' in India |pages=1161–1173 |url=https://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~sj6/Kothari%20Congress%20System.pdf |doi=10.2307/2642550 |jstor=2642550 |journal=[[Asian Survey]] |issn=0004-4687 |volume=4 |issue=12}}
* {{cite journal |last=Kothari |first=Rajni |date=February 1967 |title=India: The Congress System on Trial |pages=83–96 |doi=10.2307/2642519 |jstor=2642519 |journal=Asian Survey |issn=0004-4687 |volume=7 |issue=2}}
* {{cite journal |last=Kothari |first=Rajni |date=December 1974 |title=The Congress System Revisited: A Decennial Review |pages=1035–1054 |doi=10.2307/2643198 |jstor=2643198 |journal=Asian Survey |issn=0004-4687 |volume=14 |issue=12}}
* {{cite book |last=Kumar |first=Rajesh |publisher=[[Routledge]] |date=2023-09-18 |chapter=The Congress Party and the Indian Party System |pages=237–258 |title=Indian Politics and Political Processes |isbn=9781003434443 |location=[[New Delhi]]}}
* {{cite journal |last=Sarangi |first=Prakash |date=September 1979 |title=Internal Challenge to the 'Congress System': The Case of the Utkal Congress |pages=433–425 |jstor=41854972 |journal=The Indian Journal of Political Science |issn=0019-5510 |volume=40 |issue=3}}
* {{cite book|last=Singh|first=Mahendra Prasad|year=1981|title=Split in a Predominant Party: The Indian National Congress in 1969 |url={{Google books|UOQRWuMXyRMC|page=PA42|plainurl=yes}}|publisher=Abhinav Publications |isbn=978-81-7017-140-9}}

== Further reading ==

{{refbegin|30em}}
* ''The Indian National Congress: An Historical Sketch'', by Frederick Marion De Mello. Published by H. Milford, Oxford University Press, 1934.
* ''The Indian National Congress'', by Hemendra Nath Das Gupta. Published by J. K. Das Gupta, 1946.
* ''Indian National Congress: A Descriptive Bibliography of India's Struggle for Freedom'', by Jagdish Saran Sharma. Published by S. Chand, 1959.
* ''Social Factors in the Birth and Growth of the Indian National Congress Movement'', by Ramparkash Dua. Published by S. Chand, 1967.
* ''Split in a Predominant Party: The Indian National Congress in 1969'', by Mahendra Prasad Singh. Abhinav Publications, 1981. {{ISBN|81-7017-140-7}}.
* ''Concise History of the Indian National Congress, 1885–1947'', by B. N. Pande, Nisith Ranjan Ray, Ravinder Kumar, Manmath Nath Das. Published by Vikas Pub. House, 1985. {{ISBN|0-7069-3020-7}}.
* ''The Indian National Congress: An Analytical Biography'', by Om P. Gautam. Published by B.R. Pub. Corp., 1985.
* ''A Century of Indian National Congress, 1885–1985'', by Pran Nath Chopra, Ram Gopal, Moti Lal Bhargava. Published by Agam Prakashan, 1986.
* ''The Congress Ideology and Programme, 1920–1985'', by Pitambar Datt Kaushik. Published by Gitanjali Pub. House, 1986. {{ISBN|81-85060-16-9}}.
* ''Struggling and Ruling: The Indian National Congress, 1885–1985'', by [[Jim Masselos]]. Published by Sterling Publishers, 1987.
* ''The Encyclopedia of Indian National Congress'', by A. Moin Zaidi, Shaheda Gufran Zaidi, Indian Institute of Applied Political Research. Published by S.Chand, 1987.
* ''Indian National Congress: A Reconstruction'', by Iqbal Singh, Nehru Memorial Museum and Library. Published by Riverdale Company, 1988. {{ISBN|0-913215-32-5}}.
* ''INC, the Glorious Tradition'', by A. Moin Zaidi, Indian National Congress. AICC. Published by Indian Institute of Applied Political Research, 1989.
* ''Indian National Congress: A Select Bibliography'', by Manikrao Hodlya Gavit, Attar Chand. Published by U.D.H. Pub. House, 1989. {{ISBN|81-85044-05-8}}.
* ''The Story of Congress PilgrFile: 1885–1985'', by A. Moin Zaidi, Indian National Congress. Published by Indian Institute of Applied Political Research, 1990. {{ISBN|81-85355-46-0}}. (7 vols)
* ''Indian National Congress in England'', by Harish P. Kaushik. Published by Friends Publications, 1991.
* ''Women in Indian National Congress, 1921–1931'', by Rajan Mahan. Published by Rawat Publications, 1999.
* ''History of Indian National Congress, 1885–2002'', by Deep Chand Bandhu. Published by Kalpaz Publications, 2003. {{ISBN|81-7835-090-4}}.
* [[Bipan Chandra]], Amales Tripathi, Barun De. ''Freedom Struggle''. India: National Book Struggle. {{ISBN|978-81-237-0249-0}}.
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons and category|Indian National Congress}}
* {{official website}}
* {{GovPubs|Indian%20National%20Congress|Congress Party}}
* {{Internet Archive author|sname=Indian National Congress}}
* {{Britannica|285841}}

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Assam

2026-04-30T11:47:07Z

Indianeagle1: reworked structure

{{Short description|State in Northeastern India}}
{{Other uses|Assam (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-pc}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}
{{Infobox Indian state or territory
| name = Assam
| official_name =
| type = State
| image_seal = Seal of Assam.svg
| image_skyline = {{multiple image
| border = infobox
| total_width = 300
| image_style =
| perrow = 1/2/2/2/1
| image1 = Beauty of Kaziranga National Park.jpg
| caption1 = [[Indian rhinoceros]] in [[Kaziranga National Park]]
| image2 = Gargaon'r Kareng Ghor.JPG
| caption2 = [[Kareng Ghar]] in [[Garhgaon]]
| image3 = Rangghar Assam.JPG
| caption3 = [[Rang Ghar]] in [[Sivasagar]]
| image4 = Kamakhya Temple - DEV 8829.jpg
| caption4 = [[Kamakhya Temple]]
| image5 = Majuli - The largest river island.jpg
| caption5 = [[Majuli|Majuli Island]]
| image6 = MAIDAM1.JPG
| caption6 = [[Moidam|Frang-Mai-Dam]] in [[Charaideo]]
| image7 = Gates to Greenery.jpg
| caption7 = [[Assam tea]] [[Tea garden|garden]]
}}
| etymology = From "Ahom" kingdom.
| nickname = "Land of red river and blue hills"{{force singular}}
| motto = [[Satyameva Jayate]] ([[Sanskrit]])<ref name="Symbol">{{cite web |url=https://assam.gov.in/about-us/389 |title=State Symbols |work=[[Government of Assam]] |date=1 December 2020 |access-date=24 August 2022 |archive-date=4 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220704080747/https://assam.gov.in/about-us/389 |url-status=live }}</ref> "Truth Alone Triumphs"{{force singular}}
| anthem = [[O Mur Apunar Desh]] ([[Assamese language|Assamese]])<ref name="ab">{{cite book |last=Baruah |first=Krishna Dulal |title=Xongitor byobohari xutro aru guitar |date=May 2004 |publisher=Ananta Hazarika, Banalata |edition=2nd |page=46 |chapter=O mor aponar dex}}</ref> "O My Dearest Country"
| image_map = IN-AS.svg
| coordinates = {{coord|26.14|91.77|region:IN-AS|display=inline,title}}
| region = Northeast India
| before_was = [[Assam (1947–1963)|
State of Assam]]
| formation_date2 = formation1
| formation_date3 = 21 January 1972
| formation_date4 = 26 January 1950<ref>{{cite book |last1=Steinberg |first1=S. |title=The Statesman's Year-Book 1964–65: The One-Volume Encyclopaedia of all nations |date=2016 |publisher=[[Springer Publishing]] |isbn=978-0-230-27093-0 |page=412 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O43LDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA412 |access-date=3 September 2018 |archive-date=1 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201230333/https://books.google.com/books?id=O43LDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA412 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| capital = Dispur
| largestcity = Guwahati
| districts = [[List of districts of Assam|35 (5 divisions)]]
| Governor = [[Lakshman Acharya]]<ref name="Governor_2024">{{cite news |title=President Droupadi Murmu appoints six new Governors, reshuffles three others |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/lakshman-acharya-appointed-assam-governor-gulab-chand-kataria-replaces-banwarilal-purohit-in-punjab/article68454949.ece |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=27 July 2024 |access-date=28 July 2024 }}</ref>
| Chief_Minister = [[Himanta Biswa Sarma]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| judiciary = [[Gauhati High Court]]
| legislature_type = Unicameral
| assembly = [[Assam Legislative Assembly]]
| assembly_seats = 126 seats
| rajya_sabha_seats = 7 seats
| lok_sabha_seats = 14 seats
| area_total_km2 = 78438
| area_rank = 16th
| length_km = 725
| width_km = 30
| elevation_m =
| elevation_max_m = 1,960
| elevation_max_point = ''Unnamed peak'' in [[Barail Range]], [[Dima Hasao district|Dima Hasao]]
| elevation_min_m = 45
| elevation_min_point = [[Brahmaputra River]]
| population_total = 31,205,576
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank = 15th
| population_urban = 15.8%
| population_rural = 84.2%
| population_density = 465.25
| population_demonym = [[Assamese people|Assamese]]
| 0fficial_Langs = [[Assamese language|Assamese]]<ref name=nclmanurep2010>{{cite web |archive-date = 28 December 2017|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171228171523/http://www.nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM52ndReport.pdf |url=http://www.nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM52ndReport.pdf |title=Report of the Commissioner for linguistic minorities: 52nd report (July 2014 to June 2015) |pages=58–59 |publisher=Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities, Ministry of Minority Affairs, [[Government of India]] |access-date = 16 February 2016 }}</ref> • [[Boro language (India)|Boro]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Assam Assembly Accords Associate Official Language Status To Bodo |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/assam-assembly-accords-associate-official-language-status-to-bodo-2345750 |access-date=21 February 2022 |work=[[NDTV]] |date=30 December 2020}}</ref> • [[Bengali language|Bengali]] {{small|([[Barak Valley]]<ref name="BnOff"/>)}} • [[Meitei language|Meitei]] {{small|([[Barak Valley]]{{efn|[[Barak Valley]] has three districts. In all the three districts, [[Meitei language]] (alias [[Manipuri language]]) serves as an official language, besides Bengali language.}} and [[Hojai district]]<ref>{{cite news |last=Purkayastha |first=Biswa Kalyan |date=24 February 2024|title=Assam recognises Manipuri as associate official language in four districts|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/assam-recognises-manipuri-as-associate-official-language-in-four-districts-101708770769105.html |work=[[The Hindustan Times]] |access-date=17 May 2024}}</ref>)}}
| official_script = [[Bengali–Assamese script]] {{small|(for [[Assamese language|Assamese]] & [[Bengali language|Bengali]])}} • [[Devanagari]] {{small|(for [[Bodo language|Bodo]])}} • [[Meitei script]] {{small|(for [[Meitei language|Meitei]])}}
| GDP_footnotes = <ref>{{Cite web |title=Assam Budget Analysis 2025-26 |url=https://prsindia.org/budgets/states/assam-budget-analysis-2025-26 |access-date=29 April 2026 |website=PRS Legislative Research |language=en-US}}</ref>
| GDP_total = {{Increase}} {{INRConvert|741626|c}}
| GDP_year = 2025-26
| GDP_rank = 17th
| GDP_per_capita = {{Increase}} {{INRConvert|158807|lk=r}}(nominal) (2023-24 FY)
| GDP_per_capita_rank = 18th
| HDI_year = 2023
| HDI = {{IncreaseNeutral}}0.655 {{color|orange|Medium}}<ref>{{cite web |title=India: Subnational HDI |url=https://globaldatalab.org/shdi/table/shdi/IND/ |website=Global Data Labs |access-date=8 June 2025}}</ref>
| HDI_rank = 31st
| literacy = 87.0%<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.mospi.gov.in/sites/default/files/publication_reports/AnnualReport_PLFS2023-24L2.pdf |title=Annual Report, Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) (July 2023 – June 2024) |date=23 September 2024 |publisher=National Sample Survey Office, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, [[Government of India]] |pages=A-10 |chapter=Appendix-A: Detailed tables, Table (7): Literacy rate (in per cent) of persons of different age groups for each State/UT (persons, age-group (years): 7 & above, rural+urban (column 6))}}</ref>
| literacy_year = 2024
| literacy_rank = 15th
| sex_ratio = 934
| sexratio_year = 2025
| sexratio_rank = 12th
| iso_code = IN-AS
| registration_plate = AS
| website = assam.gov.in
| footnotes = • First recognised as an administrative division on 1 April 1912, after the establishment of [[Assam Province]] by partitioning [[Eastern Bengal and Assam|Province of East Bengal and Assam]]. • Became Assam Province under Independent India on 15 August 1947, and was recognised as a state after India became a republic on 26 January 1950 • Assam has had a [[Assam Legislative Assembly|legislature]] since 1937.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.assamassembly.gov.in/history.html |title=Assam Legislative Assembly - History |access-date=14 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913195856/http://www.assamassembly.gov.in/history.html |archive-date=13 September 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>
| foundation_day = Asom Diwas
| mammal = [[Indian rhinoceros]]
| bird = [[White-winged duck]]
| flower = [[Foxtail orchid]]
| fruit = [[Kaji Nemu]]
| tree = [[Hollong]]
| image_highway = SH IN-AS.png
| SH_numbers = [[List of state highways in Assam|AS SH1 -AS SH48]]
}}

'''Assam'''{{efn|{{ipac-en|ə|ˈ|s|ɑː|m}} {{respell|ə|SAHM}}; {{langx|as|oxom}}, {{IPA|as|ɔˈxɔm|pron|As-অসম-2.oga}}}} is a state in [[northeastern India]], located south of the [[Eastern Himalayas]] along the [[Brahmaputra Valley|Brahmaputra]] and [[Barak River]] valleys. It covers an area of {{cvt|78438|km2}}, and is the second largest state in northeastern India by area. As per the [[2011 Census of India|2011 census]], the state had a population of 31.2 million, and is the largest by population in the region. It shares international borders with [[Bhutan]] to the north and with [[Bangladesh]] to the southwest. It borders the Indian states of [[Arunachal Pradesh]] to the north; [[Nagaland]] and [[Manipur]] to the east; [[Meghalaya]], [[Tripura]], and [[Mizoram]] to the south; and [[West Bengal]] to the west. It is connected to the rest of the India to the west via the [[Siliguri Corridor]], a {{cvt|22|km}} wide strip of land. [[Dispur]] is the capital of Assam while [[Dibrugarh]] is the second capital.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Lahkar |first=Digjyoti |date=31 January 2026 |title='Dibrugarh Steps Into History': Amit Shah Lays Foundation For Assam’s Second Capital, Unveils Major Governance, Sports & Conservation Projects |url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/india/dibrugarh-steps-into-history-amit-shah-lays-foundation-for-assams-second-capital-unveils-major-governance-sports-conservation-projects |work=Free Press Journal |access-date=31 January 2026}}</ref> [[Guwahati]] is the largest city and urban area in the state.

[[Archaeological evidence]] from the region indicate early settlements from the second to first century BCE. Though the region finds mention in the [[Hindu epic]] ''[[Mahabharata]]'', there is a lack of substantial archaeological evidence regarding its ancient history. The region is described as one of the frontiers of the [[Gupta Empire]] in fourth century [[Common Era|CE]]. It was ruled by [[Varman dynasty|Varmanas]] (c. 350–650 CE), [[Mlechchha dynasty|Mlechchhas]] (c.655–900 CE) and [[Pala dynasty (Kamarupa)|Kamarupa-Palas]] (c. 900–1100 CE) later. The [[Ahom kingdom]] was established in the 13th century CE, and ruled till the early 19th century CE. The period saw [[Ahom–Mughal conflicts|various conflicts]] with the [[Mughals]]. After the [[Moamoria rebellion]] and [[Burmese invasions of Assam|Burmese invasions]] weakened the Ahom kingdom, the [[British East India Company|British]] started establishing tea estates in the region in the 19th century CE. The region became part of the [[Bengal Presidency]], and the [[Assam Province]] was established in 1912. The [[Assam Legislative Assembly]] was formed in 1937. The province became part of Independent India on 15 August 1947, and was recognised as a state after India became a republic on 26 January 1950.

The state is organised into 35 [[List of districts of Assam|districts]] across five [[Administrative divisions of Assam|divisions]]. [[Assamese language|Assamese]] and [[Bodo language|Bodo]] are the official languages of the state with [[Meitei language|Meitei]] recognised as an additional official language in three districts of the Barak Valley and [[Hojai district]], and [[Bengali language|Bengali]] in the Barak Valley. The state is known for its namesake [[Assam silk]] and [[Assam tea]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Assam tea gets GI halo |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/assam-tea-gets-gi-halo/cid/1565859 |website=The Telegraph |publisher=The Telegraph |access-date=30 April 2026}}</ref> recognised as [[List of geographical indications in India|Geographical Indications]] in India. [[Crude Oil|Oil]] was discovered in the region in 1867, and [[Oil well|oil drilling]] started in 1889. [[Wildlife tourism]] is a major contributor to the [[Economy of Assam|economy]] of the state, aided by the presence of various [[Protected areas of India|protected areas]] including the [[Kaziranga National Park|Kaziranga]] and [[Manas National Park]]s, which are [[World Heritage Site]]s. More than half of the extant wild population of the one-horned [[Indian rhinoceros]] occurs in the state. The state is a rich [[biodiversity]] zone consisting of various ecosystems including [[tropical rainforests]], [[deciduous forests]], riverine [[grassland]]s, [[orchards]], and [[wetlands]]. It receives copious amount of rainfall, which feeds the [[Brahmaputra River]] system, whose [[Tributary|tributaries]] and [[oxbow lake]]s form a distinctive hydro-[[geomorphic]] environment.

== Etymology ==
{{main|Etymology of Assam}}

The first dated mention of the region comes from ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'' (1st century) and [[Ptolemy]]'s [[Geographia (Ptolemy)|Geographia]] (2nd century), which calls the region ''Kirrhadia'', apparently after the [[Kirata]] population.<ref>''Besatia'' in the Schoff translation and also sometimes used by Ptolemy, they are a people similar to Kirradai and they lived in the region between "Assam and Sichuan" {{harv|Casson|1989|pp=241–243}}</ref><ref>"The ''Periplus of the Erythraen Sea'' (last quarter of the first century A.D) and Ptolemy's ''Geography'' (middle of the second century A.D) appear to call the land including Assam Kirrhadia after its Kirata population." {{harvcol|Sircar|1990|pp=60–61}}</ref> In the classical period and up to the 12th century, the region east of the [[Karatoya River]], largely congruent to present-day Assam, was called [[Kamarupa]], and alternatively, [[Pragjyotisha]].<ref>"Prior to the thirteenth century the present region was called Kāmarūpa or, alternatively, Prāgjyotiṣapur", Lahiri, Nayanjot., ''Pre-Ahom Assam'' (Delhi 1991) p. 14</ref> Though a western portion of Assam as a region continued to be called [[Kamrup region|Kamrup]], the [[Ahom kingdom]] that emerged in the east, and which came to dominate the entire [[Brahmaputra Valley]], was called Assam (e.g. Mughals used ''Asham''); and the [[Colonial Assam|British province]] too was called Assam. Though the precise [[etymology of Assam]] is not clear, the name Assam is associated with the [[Ahom people]], originally called ''Shyam'' ([[Shan people|Shan]]).<ref>"Ahoms also gave Assam and its language their name (''Ahom'' and the modern ''ɒχɒm'' 'Assam' come from an attested earlier form ''asam'', ''acam'', probably from a Burmese corruption of the word ''Shan/Shyam'', cf. ''Siam'': Kakati 1962; 1-4)." {{harv|Masica|1993|p=50}}</ref>

== History ==
{{Main|History of Assam}}

=== Pre-history ===
{{further|People of Assam}}
Assam and adjoining regions have evidences of human settlement from the beginning of the [[Stone Age]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Protected Archaeological Sites and Monuments {{!}} Directorate of Archaeology {{!}} Government Of Assam, India |url=https://archaeology.assam.gov.in/information-services/detail/list-of-protected-archaeological-sites-and-monuments |access-date=29 March 2025 |website=archaeology.assam.gov.in |archive-date=29 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250329171152/https://archaeology.assam.gov.in/information-services/detail/list-of-protected-archaeological-sites-and-monuments |url-status=dead }}</ref> The hills at the height of 1,500 to 2,000 feet (460–615 m) were popular habitats probably due to availability of exposed dolerite basalt, useful for tool-making.<ref name="HKBarpujariCHOA">{{Citation |last=Sircar |first=D C |contribution=Pragjyotisha-Kamarupa |year=1990 |title=The Comprehensive History of Assam| editor-last = Barpujari| editor-first = H K |volume=I |pages=59–78 |place=Guwahati |publisher=Publication Board, Assam}}</ref>
[[Ambari]] site in Guwahati has revealed [[Shunga Empire|Shunga]]-[[Kushana]] era artefacts including flight of stairs and a water tank which may date from 1st century BCE and may be 2,000 years old. Experts speculate that another significant find at Ambari is [[Roman era]] [[Roman pottery|Roman roulette pottery]] from the 2nd century BCE. Gupta explains that while Guwahati, formerly known as Pragjyotishpur in ancient times, is mentioned in epics like the Mahabharata and the Puranas, there is a lack of substantial archaeological evidence regarding its ancient history, especially before the 7th century AD.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.assamtribune.com/scripts/detailsnew.asp?id=jan2316/at055 |title=The Assam Tribune Online |website=www.assamtribune.com|access-date=3 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127024137/http://www.assamtribune.com/scripts/detailsnew.asp?id=jan2316%2Fat055|archive-date=27 January 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/north-east/relics-hold-clue-to-missing-history-sunga-kushana-era-terracotta-artefacts-may-say-if-guwahati-existed-before-7th-century-ad/cid/345105 |title=Relics hold clue to missing history – Sunga-Kushana era terracotta artefacts may say if Guwahati existed before 7th century AD |website=www.telegraphindia.com|access-date=3 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190104021630/https://www.telegraphindia.com/states/north-east/relics-hold-clue-to-missing-history-sunga-kushana-era-terracotta-artefacts-may-say-if-guwahati-existed-before-7th-century-ad/cid/345105 |archive-date=4 January 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Legend ===
{{further|Danava dynasty|Bhauma dynasty|Asura kingdom}}
According to a late text, [[Kalika Purana]] (c. 9th–10th century [[Common Era|CE]]), the earliest ruler of Assam was Mahiranga Danava of the [[Danava dynasty]], which was removed by [[Narakasura]] of [[Mithila (region)|Mithila]] and established the [[Bhauma dynasty]]. The last of these rulers, also Narakasura, was slain by [[Krishna]]. Naraksura's son [[Bhagadatta]] became the king, who (it is mentioned in the Mahabharata) fought for the [[Kaurava]]s in the [[Kurukshetra War|battle of Kurukshetra]] with an army of [[kiratas]], [[chinas]] and dwellers of the eastern coast. At the same time towards the east in central Assam, [[Asura kingdom]] was ruled by another line of kings.<ref>India History Association. Session (2001), ''Proceedings of North East India History Association North East'' he came under the 'bad' influence of Banasura, ruler of Sonitapura (identified with Tezpur now under Sonitpur district in central Assam), and ended up sidelining Kamakhya in favour of Siva. Thereafter Naraka forsook the guidance</ref>

=== Ancient era ===
{{further|Kamarupa}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| image1 = Kamarupa map (cropped).png
| width1 = 185
| caption1 = [[Kamarupa]] kingdom at its height
| image2 = DEOPAHAR NUMALIGARH ASSAM INDIA .jpg
| width2 = 185
| caption2 = {{center|[[Deopahar]] ruins}}
}}

Evidence indicates presence of civilisation in Assam around 2nd century BCE, a rock cut stupa at [[Sri Surya Pahar]] has been dated to 200 BCE contemporary with rock cut [[Karla Caves|Karle]] and [[Bhaja Caves|Bhaja]] caves of Maharashtra. The site is located in a hilly terrain where several rock-cut [[shivalinga]]s, votive stupas and the deities of [[Hindus|Hindu]], [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] and [[Jain]] pantheon are scattered.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Barman |first=Bratatee |title=Archaeology of BCE 200 -CE 1200 Assam (Northeast India): Pre-literary to Historical and Early Medieval Periods |url=https://www.academia.edu/45688900 |journal=Archaeology in Northeast India Recent Trends and Future Prospects Essays Celebrating 150 Years of Research |date=January 2020 |language=en |access-date=14 August 2021 |archive-date=27 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427104437/https://www.academia.edu/45688900 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Samudragupta]]'s 4th-century-CE [[Prayaga prashasti|Allahabad pillar inscription]] mentions [[Kamarupa]]<ref>Tej Ram Sharma,1978, "Personal and geographical names in the Gupta inscriptions. (1.publ.)", Page 254, Kamarupa consisted of the Western districts of the Brahmaputra valley which being the most powerful state.</ref> and [[Davaka]] (Central Assam)<ref>Suresh Kant Sharma, Usha Sharma – 2005,"Discovery of North-East India: Geography, History, Culture, ... – Volume 3", Page 248, Davaka (Nowgong) and Kamarupa as separate and submissive friendly kingdoms.</ref> as frontier kingdoms of the [[Gupta Empire]]. Davaka was later absorbed by Kamarupa, which grew into a large kingdom that spanned from Karatoya River to near present [[Sadiya]] and covered the entire Brahmaputra Valley, [[North Bengal]], parts of [[Bangladesh]] and, at times [[Purnea]] and parts of [[West Bengal]].<ref>The eastern border of Kamarupa is given by the temple of the goddess Tamreshvari (Pūrvāte Kāmarūpasya devī Dikkaravasini in [[Kalika Purana]]) near present-day Sadiya. "...the temple of the goddess Tameshwari (Dikkaravasini) is now located at modern Sadiya about 100 miles to the northeast of Sibsagar" {{harv|Sircar|1990|pp=63–68}}.</ref> The kingdom was ruled by three dynasties who traced their lineage from a mleccha or Kirata Naraka; the [[Varman dynasty|Varmanas]] (c. 350–650 CE), the [[Mlechchha dynasty]] (c.655–900 CE) and the [[Pala dynasty (Kamarupa)|Kamarupa-Palas]] (c. 900–1100 CE), from their capitals in present-day [[Guwahati]] ([[Pragjyotishpura]]), Tezpur ([[Haruppeswara]]) and [[North Gauhati]] ([[Durjaya]]) respectively. All three dynasties claimed descent from [[Narakasura]]. In the reign of the Varman king, [[Bhaskaravarman]] (c. 600–650 CE), the Chinese traveller [[Xuanzang]] visited the [[Kamrup region|region]] and recorded his travels. Later, after weakening and disintegration (after the Kamarupa-Palas), the Kamarupa tradition was extended to c. 1255 CE by the Lunar I (c. 1120–1185 CE) and Lunar II (c. 1155–1255 CE) dynasties.<ref name="HKBarpujariCHOA" />

=== Medieval era ===
{{further|Kamata kingdom|Koch dynasty|Ahom kingdom|Chutia kingdom|Kachari kingdom|Baro-Bhuyan}}

The Medieval Assam history may have started with the advent of [[Ahom kingdom|Ahoms]] in the early part of the 13th century and covers their entire rule of 600 years till 1826. After the [[Bengal-Kamata War]], the [[Khen dynasty]] ended, and [[Alauddin Hussain Shah]] issued coins in his name to be "Conqueror of Kamarup and Kamata".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sircar|first=D. C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m1JYwP5tVQUC&pg=PA21|title=Studies in Indian Coins|date=2008|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers|isbn=978-81-208-2973-2|language=en|access-date=20 September 2021|archive-date=5 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210705035441/https://books.google.com/books?id=m1JYwP5tVQUC&pg=PA21|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=22 July 2025 |title=Husayn Shah Ala al-Din |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Husayn-Shah-Ala-al-Din |website=Encyclopædia Britannica }}</ref> The medieval history of Assam is especially known for its conflict with Muslim powers under [[Turko-Afghan]] and [[Mughals]], finally resulting in Assamese victory, however, this military glory was shattered in the early 19th century when it failed to resist the [[Burmese invasions of Assam|Burmese invasions]], which led to its annexation.<ref>{{harvcol|Baruah|1986|p=36}}</ref>

===Chutia kingdom===

[[Chutia kingdom|Chutia]], a [[Bodo-Kachari people|Bodo-Kachari]] group by origin, held the regions on both the banks of Brahmaputra with its domain in the area eastwards from [[Biswanath Chariali|Vishwanath]] (north bank) and [[Dihing River|Buridihing]] (south bank), in [[Upper Assam]] and in the state of [[Arunachal Pradesh]]. It was annexed by the Ahoms in the year 1524. The rivalry between the Chutias and Ahoms for the supremacy of eastern Assam led to a series of conflicts between them from the early 16th century.

===Kachari kingdom===
{{Main|Kachari kingdom}}

The Dimasa, a Bodo-Kachari dynasty that ruled from the 13th century until 1854, controlled territories stretching from the Dikhow River to central and southern Assam, with their capital at Dimapur. By the early 17th century, with the expansion of the Ahom kingdom, the Chutia regions were annexed, and by around 1536, the Kacharis were confined to the areas of Cachar and North Cachar. At this point, they became more of an ally to the Ahoms than a rival force.

=== Ahom kingdom ===

=== Early period ===
{{Main|Sukaphaa}}

The [[Ahom people|Ahoms]], a [[Tai peoples|Tai]] group, ruled [[Upper Assam]] for almost 600 years.<ref>Banikanta Kakati, ''Assamese:Its formation and development''</ref> In the year 1228 the Tai-Ahoms came to the [[Brahmaputra Valley]] under the leadership of [[Sukaphaa|Sukapha]] along with 9,000 men from [[Mong Mao]], a Tai state, situated in South-Western [[Yunnan]] of China, and established his kingdom in [[Upper Assam]]. In 1253, he founded the capital city in a hillock and named it [[Charaideo]]. At the time of his advent, the area was inhabited by [[Moran people|Moran]]s and Borahis, to the north, to the north-east was the [[Chutia kingdom]] and to the south was the [[Kachari kingdom]] and to the west on the plains were the [[Baro-Bhuyan#Baro-Bhuyans of Assam|Baro-Bhuyans]].

For more than two and a half centuries, Sukapha and his descendants, while primarily focused on administering the kingdom, upheld their dominance in the valley through their military prowess.<ref>{{Harvcol|Baruah|1986|pp=220–224}}</ref>

==== Expansion ====
{{Main|Suhungmung|Dimasa kingdom}}

[[File:Charaideo_Moidams_image_,Assam.jpg|thumb|Charaideo Maidams - UNESCO World Heritage Site, Assam]]
[[File:Sketch map illustrating the extent of the Assamese kingdom in their zenith.png|thumb|Assamese kingdoms in their greatest territorial heights. [[Kachari kingdom]] (1230) in red dotted lines, [[Koch dynasty]] (1560) in blue lines, [[Ahom kingdom]] (1700) in red lines.]]
The reign of [[Suhungmung]] marked the first massive expansion of [[Ahom kingdom]]. Besides sending a punitive expeditions against the Nagas, they fought numerous battles with the Bhuyans, Chutias, Kacharis, Turko-Afghans, and the Naras. In 1522–23 the [[Chutia kingdom]] was annexed and the captured tract was placed under the administration of Sadiya-Khowa-Gohain. After securing the eastern tract, Suhungmung than expanded his kingdom westwards through conquest and extended it till Marangi to the west of the [[Dhansiri]] River. When the Kacharis tried to regain the lost territory they were defeated and their capital [[Dimapur]] was sacked. Over the remaining part of the Kachari kingdom, a new king Detsung was placed as a tributary, but Detsung proved disloyal and revolted against the Ahoms. He was subsequently executed. A new dependent king was set up on the Kachari throne with the name of Nirbhaynarayan. Since then the Kachari kings were regarded as 'thapita sanchita' meaning - established and maintained by the Ahom rulers.

Suhungmung's reign also witnessed the first Muslim-invasions of the kingdom. After a series of battle, the invaders were roundly defeated and were chased up to [[Karatoya River]]. The Sultan of Bengal, terrified {{citation needed|date=October 2025}} by the approaching army of Suhungmung, made peace with the king.The rising Koch king [[Biswa Singha]] also offered his submission, and the Ahom general Ton-Kham granted him all the territories that were received as dowry from the Sultan of Bengal on the condition of annual tribute.<ref>{{Harvcol|Baruah|1986|pp=224–234}}</ref>

The successors of Suhungmung, [[Suklenmung]] and [[Sukhaamphaa]], sent many expeditions against the Bhuyans and Nagas. But were significant with the wars with the Koch. During the reign of [[Sukhaamphaa]], the Ahoms lost to a Koch army led by [[Chilarai]] and the Ahoms had to accept Koch supremacy and had to give up the tracts of north of Brahmaputra. However, the lost tract was soon recovered with further military expeditions.<ref>{{Harvcol|Gogoi|2017|pp=1–17}}</ref>

=== Later Period ===

==== War with Mughals ====
{{Main|Ahom kingdom|Bengal Subah|Koch dynasty|Ahom–Mughal conflicts}}

[[File:Battle of Mogul Mir Jumla with Assam in 1661.jpg|thumb|Battle of Mogul Mir Jumla with Assam, 1661.]]
[[File:Cannon of Gadadhar Singha 2.jpg|thumb|Cannon captured from the [[Mughals]] ]]
Soon after the death of [[Nara Narayan]], his kingdom was divided between the sons of Nara Narayan and [[Chilarai]] as [[Koch Hajo]] and [[Koch Bihar]]. In 1609, Laxmi Narayan king of [[Cooch Behar]] accepted the vassalage of [[Mughals]], and the [[Koch Hajo]] king Raghudev, and later his son Parikshit, sought assistance from the Ahoms. In 1612, the [[Mughals]] attacked [[Koch Hajo]], and his territory up to [[Barnadi River]] was annexed in the Mughal domain. This brought the Mughals into direct contact with the Ahoms. Meanwhile, Parikshit was trying to renew his friendship with the Ahoms, but was captured, and died on his way to his kingdom. Later, [[Balinarayan]], a brother of Parikshit who had taken refugee with the Ahoms, was made the king of Darrang in 1615 by the Ahom king [[Susenghphaa|Pratap Singha]]. From 1616 onwards, many battles were fought with the Mughal without any tangible result, starting with the [[Battle of Samdhara]]. After the last battle, the treaty was established in 1639, which fixed the Asurar ali on the south bank and the Barnadi on the north bank of the Brahmaputra as the boundary between the two.

Pratap Singha also enacted the [[Paik system]] and created a number of army and civil administration posts such as the [[Borbarua]] and [[Borphukan]].
[[Jayadhwaj Singha]] took advantage of a [[war of succession]] between the sons of [[Shah Jahan]], and occupied the imperial territories up to [[Dhaka]]. [[Aurangzeb]], after becoming the emperor, appointed [[Mir Jumla II]], to recover the lost territory. After failed negotiations in November 1661, Mir Jumla proceeded with a huge army and fleet to invade the Ahom kingdom. The Ahoms lost at several places, and then captured the Ahom capital [[Garhgaon]]. During the rainy season, Mir Jumla and his army suffered immeasurable hardship due to the climatic condition of the valley, in addition to the guerrilla fighting against the invaders. After no noticeable gain, negotiation started and in January 1663, the [[Treaty of Ghilajharighat]] was established. According to the treaty, the Ahoms acknowledged Mughal supremacy, ceding the territory west of the Bharali on the north bank and the Kalang on the south bank, along with a huge amount of war indemnity, and handing over the sons of the Gohains as hostages, and two Ahom princesses to the Mughal harem. Soon after the departure of [[Mir Jumla II|Mir Jumla]], [[Jayadhwaj Singha]] died and the new king [[Chakradhwaj Singha]] began preparations to overthrow Mughal supremacy and to recover the lost territory. After numerous battles, and finally the [[Battle of Saraighat]], the Mughals were forced to retreat.

[[File:Garh Garhchuck.jpg|thumb|[[Garchuk Lachit Garh]] a 17th-century mud fort ruins]]
The period after 1671 was very unstable due to the rivalry among the nobles, who wanted to establish their political power and influence by placing their own choice of prince in the throne. In 1679, [[Laluksola Borphukan]], in hopes of becoming king with the help of the Mughals, surrendered Guwahati without any battle. But after the accession of [[Gadadhar Singha]], at the final [[Battle of Itakhuli]], the Mughals were badly defeated. The border was then fixed at Manah on the north bank, and the Nagarbera hill on the south bank of the Brahmaputra till its annexation by the [[East India Company]] in 1826.<ref>"In the Battle of Itakhuli in September 1682, the Ahom forces chased the defeated Mughals nearly one hundred kilometers back to the Manas river. The Manas then became the Ahom-Mughal boundary until the British occupation." {{cite book |last=Richards |first=John F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC |title=The Mughal Empire |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1995 |isbn=0521566037 |location=Cambridge |page=247 |access-date=26 January 2013 |archive-date=1 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201230334/https://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Harvcol|Gogoi|2017|pp=17–20}}</ref>

=== 18th century ===
{{see also|Rudra Singha|Siva Singha|Moamoria rebellion}}
[[File:Assamese royal court scene from Dharma Purana.jpg|thumb|Royal court of [[Siva Singha]] and [[Ambika, Bar Raja|Ambika]] by Badha Ligira, {{Circa|1736}}.]]
[[File:Siva dol, Sivasagar, Assam (1).jpg|thumb|[[Sivadol|Siva dol]], Devi dol and Vishnu dol on the banks [[Sivasagar Tank (Borpukhuri)|Sivasagar tank]], the largest temple constructed during Ahom era]]
[[Rudra Singha]] succeeded [[Gadadhar Singha]], his reign is notable because of his military achievements and his socio-culture contributions. He had both subjugated the Kachari and Jaintia kingdoms, and had captured their kings and forced to accept Ahom suzerainty and agreed them to pay annual tribute. Other than that, several expeditions were sent against the Miris, the Daflas, the Naga Mishmis and the Nagas of Namsung, Dayang and the Rengma Nagas during late 17th century and early 18th century. Rudra Singha had made extensive preparations for his invasion of Bengal but remained unfulfilled due to his sudden death in 1714.

After [[Rudra Singha]], the Ahoms achieved no notable military achievement. During this period from, [[Siva Singha]] to [[Rajeswar Singha]], the kingdom witnessed peace and prosperity and was significant for constructive activities and other development. In the field of religion also, [[Ekasarana Dharma]] spread all over the kingdom and started to influence all aspects of people's life. The religious heads of Vaisnavite monastery exalted great influence with royal patronage and established numerous [[Satras]] and most of the people became their disciples. So got the Ahom court greatly came under the influence of Sakta Brahman priests and astrologers. The religious policies concluded by [[Phuleshwari]] and the persecutions of unfavored Satras, embroiled the situation more along with the pressure of [[Paik system]] in the 18th century.<ref>{{Harvcol|Gogoi|2017|pp=20–26}}</ref>

This finally resulted in the [[Moamoria rebellion]] (1769–1805), which greatly weakened the [[Ahom kingdom]] where the country was greatly depopulated and unorganised. The political rivalry between the nobles made a pathway for a devastating [[Burmese invasions of Assam|set of invasions]] by the Burmese, weakening it more and finally leading to its annexation.
[[File:Antique Assam Thuria Earrings.jpg|thumb|Antique Assamese 'Thuria' Earrings courtesy the Wovensouls Collection, Singapore]]

=== Colonial era ===
{{further|Colonial Assam|Assam Province}}
[[File:Bengal gazetteer 1907-9.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|{{center|Map of [[Eastern Bengal and Assam]] under British rule, 1907–1909.}}]]
[[File:British Indian Empire 1909 Imperial Gazetteer of India.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|<div class="center">A map of the [[British Raj|British Indian Empire]] in 1909 during the partition of Bengal (1905–1911), showing British India in two shades of pink ([[Coral pink|coral]] and pale) and the [[princely state]]s in yellow. The ''Assam Province'' (initially as the Province of Eastern Bengal and Assam) can be seen towards the north-eastern side of India.</div>]]
In the later part of the 18th century, religious tensions and atrocities by the nobles led to the [[Moamoria rebellion]] (1769–1805), resulting in tremendous casualties of lives and property. The rebellion was suppressed but the kingdom was severely weakened by the civil war. Political rivalry between Prime Minister Purnananda [[Burhagohain]] and Badan Chandra [[Borphukan]], the [[Ahom people|Ahom]] Viceroy of Western Assam, led to an invitation to the Burmese by the latter,<ref>Gait E.A. A History of Assam 1926 Calcutta and Shimla Thacker & Co page 225</ref><ref>Bhuyan Dr. S.K. Tunkhungia Buranji or A History of Assam (1681–1826) 1968 page 199</ref><ref>Barbaruah Hiteswar Ahomar-Din or A History of Assam under the Ahoms 1981 page 299</ref><ref>Barua Gunaviram Assam Buranji or A History of Assam 2008 page 108</ref> in turn leading to three successive [[Burmese invasions of Assam]]. The reigning monarch [[Sudingphaa|Chandrakanta Singha]] tried to check the Burmese invaders but he was defeated after fierce resistance, which led to the Burmese occupation of Assam.<ref>Gait E.A. A History of Assam 1926 Calcutta and Shimla Thacker & Co page 230</ref><ref>Bhuyan Dr. S.K. Tunkhungia Buranji or A History of Assam (1681–1826) 1968 page 206</ref><ref>Barbaruah Hiteswar Ahomar-Din or A History of Assam under the Ahoms 1981 page 320</ref>

A reign of terror was unleashed by the Burmese on the Assamese people,<ref>Gait E.A. A History of Assam 1926 Calcutta and Shimla Thacker & Co page 231</ref><ref>Bhuyan Dr. S.K. Tunkhungia Buranji or A History of Assam (1681–1826) 1968 page 207</ref><ref>Barbaruah Hiteswar Ahomar-Din or A History of Assam under the Ahoms 1981 page 318</ref><ref>Barua Gunaviram Assam Buranji or A History of Assam 2008 page 116-117</ref> who fled to neighbouring kingdoms and British-ruled [[Bengal]].<ref>Gait E.A. A History of Assam 1926 Calcutta and Shimla Thacker & Co page 232</ref><ref>Barua Gunaviram Assam Buranji or A History of Assam 2008 page117</ref> The Burmese reached the [[British East India Company|East India Company]]'s borders, and the [[First Anglo-Burmese War]] ensued in 1824. The war ended under the [[Treaty of Yandabo]]<ref>{{Citation|editor-first=C. U.|editor-last=Aitchison |title=The Treaty of Yandaboo, (A Collection of Treaties, Engagements and Sanads: Relating to India and Neighbouring Countries. Vol. XII.) |place=Calcutta |pages=230–233 |url=http://projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/Docs/history/primarydocs/Treaties/Burma/002.htm |publisher=Projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu |year=1931 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081202003039/http://projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/Docs/history/primarydocs/Treaties/Burma/002.htm |archive-date=2 December 2008}}</ref> in 1826, with the Company taking control of Western Assam and installing [[Purandar Singha]] as king of Upper Assam in 1833. The arrangement lasted until 1838 and thereafter the British gradually annexed the entire region. Thereafter the court language and medium of instruction in educational institutions of Assam was made [[Bengali language|Bengali]], instead of Assamese. Starting from 1836 until 1873, this imposition of a foreign tongue created greater unemployment among the [[People of Assam]] and Assamese literature naturally suffered in its growth.<ref>{{Cite book |title=North-East India, Problem Prospect and Politics |last=Barpujari |first=H.K. |publisher=Spectrum Publishers. |year=1998 |location=Guwahati |page=41}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Social History of Assam |last=Bose |first=M.L. |publisher=Ashok Kumar Mittal Concept Publishing Company |year=1989 |location=New Delhi |page=91}}</ref>
[[File:Kanaklata Udyan, Tezpur.jpg|thumb|Showing a historical incident at Kanaklata Udyan, [[Tezpur]]]]

The discovery of ''[[Camellia sinensis]]'' in 1834 in Assam was followed by testing in 1836–37 in London.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bruce Brothers and Assam Tea |url=https://indianculture.gov.in/snippets/bruce-brothers-and-assam-tea |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230302111848/https://indianculture.gov.in/snippets/bruce-brothers-and-assam-tea |archive-date=2 March 2023 |access-date=29 March 2025 |website=INDIAN CULTURE |language=en |url-status=live }}</ref> The British allowed companies to rent land from 1839 onwards. Thereafter tea plantations proliferated in Eastern Assam,<ref name=Roy>{{cite book |last=Roy |first=Tirthankar |title=India in the World Economy: From Antiquity to the Present |year=2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-00910-3 |page=202}}</ref> where the soil and the climate were most suitable. Problems with the imported Han Chinese labourers from China and hostility from native Assamese resulted in the migration of forced labourers from central and eastern parts of India. After initial trial and error with planting the Chinese and the Assamese-Chinese hybrid varieties, the planters later accepted the local ''[[Camellia assamica]]'' as the most suitable variety for Assam. By the 1850s, the industry started seeing some profits. The industry saw initial growth, when in 1861, investors were allowed to own land in Assam and it saw substantial progress with the invention of new technologies and machinery for preparing processed tea during the 1870s.

Despite the commercial success, tea labourers continued to be exploited, working and living under poor conditions. Fearful of greater government interference, the tea growers formed the [[Indian Tea Association]] in 1888 to lobby to retain the status quo. The organisation was successful in this, but even after India's independence, conditions of the labourers have improved very little.<ref>{{Citation |last1=MacFarlane |first1=Alan |last2=MacFarlane |first2=Iris |title=Green Gold, The Empire of Tea, Ch. 6–11 |publisher=Random House, London |year=2003}}</ref>

The ''Assam Postage Circle'' was established by 1873 under the headship of the Deputy Post Master General.<ref>{{cite web |author=Indian Philatelists Forum |url=http://modernindianphilately.blogspot.in/2011/06/indian-postal-circles.html |title=Glimpses of Modern Indian Philately: INDIAN POSTAL CIRCLES |publisher=Modernindianphilately.blogspot.in |date=4 June 2011 |access-date=11 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140508223652/http://modernindianphilately.blogspot.in/2011/06/indian-postal-circles.html |archive-date=8 May 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Initially, Assam was made a part of the [[Bengal Presidency]], then in 1906 it was made a part of [[Eastern Bengal and Assam]] province, and in 1912 it was reconstituted into a chief commissioners' province. In 1913, a legislative council and, in 1937, the Assam Legislative Assembly, were formed in Shillong, the erstwhile capital of the region. The British tea planters imported labour from central India adding to the demographic canvas.

The Assam territory was first separated from Bengal in 1874 as the 'North-East Frontier' [[non-regulation province]], also known as the Assam Chief-Commissionership. It was incorporated into the new province of [[Eastern Bengal and Assam]] in 1905 after the partition of Bengal (1905–1911) and re-established in 1912 as [[Assam Province]].<ref>[[William Cooke Taylor]], ''A Popular History of British India.'' p. 505</ref>

At the turn of the 20th century, British India consisted of eight provinces that were administered either by a governor or a lieutenant-governor. Assam Province was one among the major eight provinces of British India.

After a few initially unsuccessful attempts to gain independence for Assam during the 1850s, anti-colonial Assamese joined and actively supported the [[Indian National Congress]] against the British from the early 20th century, with [[Gopinath Bordoloi]] emerging as the preeminent nationalist leader in the Assam Congress.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}} Bordoloi's major political rival in this time was Sir Saidullah, who was representing the [[All-India Muslim League|Muslim League]], and had the backing of the influential Muslim cleric [[Maulana Bhasani]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/publication/faultlines/volume13/Article2.htm |title=The Secessionist Insurgency and the Freedom of Minds |last1=Nath |first1=Sunil |year=2001 |website=www.satp.org |publisher=Institute for Conflict Management|access-date= 24 January 2014|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180417020155/http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/publication/faultlines/volume13/Article2.htm|archive-date= 17 April 2018|url-status=live }}</ref>

With the partition of India in 1947, Assam became a constituent state of India. The [[Sylhet District]] of Assam (excluding the Karimganj subdivision) was given up to East Pakistan, which later became Bangladesh.

=== Modern history ===
{{See also|Undivided Assam|Assam separatist movements}}
[[File:Assam in 1950s.png|thumb|upright=1.25|{{center|Assam till the 1950s; The new states of Nagaland, Meghalaya and Mizoram formed in the 1960–1970s. The capital of Assam was shifted to Dispur, a suburb of Guwahati. After the Indo-China war in 1962, Arunachal Pradesh was also separated out.}}]]
[[Assam separatist movements|Separatist groups]] began forming along ethnic lines, and demands for autonomy and sovereignty grew, resulting in the fragmentation of Assam. In 1961, the government of Assam passed legislation making use of the [[Assamese language]] compulsory. It was withdrawn later [[Bengali Language Movement (Barak Valley)|under pressure from Bengali speaking people in Cachar]]. The government of India, which has the unilateral powers to change the borders of a state, divided Assam into several states within the borders of what was then Assam. In 1963, the Naga Hills district became the 16th state of India under the name of [[Nagaland]]. Part of Tuensang was added to Nagaland. In 1970, in response to the demands of the Khasi, Jaintia and Garo people of the [[Karbi-Meghalaya plateau|Meghalaya Plateau]], the districts containing the Khasi Hills, Jaintia Hills, and Garo Hills were formed into an autonomous state within Assam; in 1972 this became a separate state under the name of Meghalaya. In 1972, Arunachal Pradesh (the [[North East Frontier Agency]]) and Mizoram (from the Mizo Hills in the south) were separated from Assam as union territories; both became states in 1986.<ref name="Bhattacharyya1995">{{cite book |author=Bhubaneswar Bhattacharyya |title=The troubled border: some facts about boundary disputes between Assam-Nagaland, Assam-Arunachal Pradesh, Assam-Meghalaya, and Assam-Mizoram |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sktuAAAAMAAJ |year=1995 |publisher=Lawyer's Book Stall |isbn=9788173310997}}</ref> Since the restructuring of Assam after independence, communal tensions and violence remain.

In the 1980s the [[Brahmaputra Valley]] saw a six-year [[Assam Agitation]]<ref name="Hazarika">{{Citation |first=Sanjoy |last=Hazarika |title=Strangers of the Mist |publisher=Penguin Books Australia Ltd. |year=2003 |isbn=0-14-024052-7}}</ref> triggered by the discovery of a sudden rise in registered voters on electoral rolls. It tried to force the government to identify and deport foreigners illegally migrating from neighbouring [[Bangladesh]] and to provide constitutional, legislative, administrative and cultural safeguards for the indigenous Assamese majority, which they felt was under threat due to the increase of migration from Bangladesh. The agitation ended after an accord (Assam Accord 1985) between its leaders and the Union Government, which remained unimplemented, causing simmering discontent.<ref name="SinhaSKillmig">{{cite web |author=Governor of Assam |title=Report on Illegal Migration into Assam |date=8 November 1998 |url=http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/states/assam/documents/papers/illegal_migration_in_assam.htm| access-date =26 May 2007 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070609170339/http://satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/states/assam/documents/papers/illegal_migration_in_assam.htm| archive-date= 9 June 2007 | url-status=live}}</ref>

The post 1970s experienced the growth of armed separatist groups such as the [[United Liberation Front of Asom]] (ULFA)<ref name="Hazarika" /> and the [[National Democratic Front of Bodoland]] (NDFB). In November 1990, the [[Government of India]] deployed the [[Indian army]], after which low-intensity military conflicts and political homicides have been continuing for more than a decade. In recent times, ethnically based militant groups have grown. The [[Panchayati Raj]] Act has been applied in Assam, after agitation of the communities due to the sluggish rate of development and general apathy of successive state governments towards Indigenous Assamese communities.{{citation needed|date=November 2015}}

Deadly floods hit the state in [[2020 Assam floods|2020]] and [[2022 Assam floods|2022]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=24 May 2022 |title=Floods kill 25 in India's Assam, displace thousands |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/india/floods-kill-25-indias-assam-displace-thousands-2022-05-24/ |access-date=3 June 2022 |archive-date=3 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220603053816/https://www.reuters.com/world/india/floods-kill-25-indias-assam-displace-thousands-2022-05-24/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Geography ==
{{Main|Physical geography of Assam}}

{{See also|Tourism in North East India}}
[[File:Assam Valley.JPG|thumb|upright=1.35|{{center|Environs: Assam, dissected hills of the South Indian Plateau system and the Himalayas all around its north, north-east and east.}}]]

A significant geographical aspect of Assam is that it contains three of six physiographic divisions of India – The Northern Himalayas (Eastern Hills), The Northern Plains (Brahmaputra plain) and Deccan Plateau (Karbi Anglong). As the Brahmaputra flows in Assam the climate here is cold and there is rainfall most of the month. Geomorphic studies conclude that the Brahmaputra, the life-line of Assam, is an [[antecedent river]] older than the Himalayas, which has [[Entrenched river|entrenched itself]] since they started rising. The river with steep [[Canyon|gorges]] and rapids in Arunachal Pradesh entering Assam, becomes a [[braided river]] (at times 10 mi/16 km wide) and with tributaries, creates a flood plain (Brahmaputra Valley: 50–60 mi/80–100 km wide, 600 mi/1000 km long).<ref name="RLSinghIndia">{{Citation |first=R. L. |last=Singh |title=India, A Regional Geography |place=Varanasi, India |publisher=National Geographical Society of India |year=1993}}</ref> The hills of [[Karbi Anglong]], [[North Cachar]] and those in and close to Guwahati (also Khasi-Garo Hills) now eroded and dissected are originally parts of the South Indian Plateau system.<ref name="RLSinghIndia" /> In the south, the [[Barak River]] originating in the Barail Range (Assam-Nagaland border) flows through the [[Cachar district]] with a 25–30 miles (40–50 km) wide valley and enters Bangladesh with the name [[Surma River]].

Urban centres include [[Guwahati]], one of the 100 fastest growing cities in the world.<ref>{{cite news |title=Guwahati's landscape to change with satellite towns, BRT systems |url=http://www.assamtribune.com/scripts/detailsnew.asp?id=jun1610/at036|access-date=4 August 2013 |newspaper=The Assam Tribune|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103180934/http://www.assamtribune.com/scripts/detailsnew.asp?id=jun1610%2Fat036|archive-date=3 November 2013}}</ref> Guwahati is also referred to as the "Gateway to the North-East India". [[Silchar]], (in the Barak valley) is the second most populous city in Assam and an important centre of business. Other large cities include [[Dibrugarh]], an oil and natural gas industry centre,<ref>{{cite web |title=Dibrugarh – Roing – Mayudia – Anini Tourist Circuit |url=http://www.arunachaltourism.com/top5.php |publisher=Arunachal Tourism |access-date=4 August 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130406132625/http://www.arunachaltourism.com/top5.php |archive-date=6 April 2013}}</ref>

=== Climate ===
With the [[tropical monsoon climate]], Assam is temperate (summer max. at 95–100 °F or 35–38 °C and winter min. at 43–46 °F or 6–8 °C) and experiences heavy rainfall and high humidity.<ref name="RLSinghIndia" /><ref>{{cite web |last=Purdue University |title=The Köppen Classification of Climates |url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/tropical/lecture_04/lec_04.html |access-date = 25 May 2007|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070605020325/http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/tropical/lecture_04/lec_04.html |archive-date = 5 June 2007|url-status = dead }}</ref> The climate is characterised by heavy monsoon downpours reducing summer temperatures and affecting foggy nights and mornings in winters, frequent during the afternoons. Spring (March–April) and autumn (September–October) are usually pleasant with moderate rainfall and temperature. Assam's agriculture usually depends on the south-west monsoon rains.

==== Flooding ====
{{See also|Brahmaputra floods}}

Every year, rivers like the Brahmaputra and Barak overflow due to heavy rainfall, causing widespread flooding across Assam. The rising water levels submerge nearby areas, washing away houses, livestock, and damaging infrastructure such as bridges, railway tracks, and roads, leading to communication breakdowns in many regions. This natural disaster also results in numerous fatalities throughout the state.<ref name="Assam Flood Toll Rises to 13">{{cite web |url=http://m.ndtv.com/india-news/assam-flood-toll-rises-to-13-chief-minister-gogoi-undertakes-aerial-visit-1210178 |title=Assam Flood Toll Rises to 13 |publisher=NDTV |date=23 August 2015 |access-date=25 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150824155525/http://m.ndtv.com/india-news/assam-flood-toll-rises-to-13-chief-minister-gogoi-undertakes-aerial-visit-1210178 |archive-date=24 August 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Flood situation in Assam worsens">{{cite news |url=https://www.sentinelassam.com/top-headlines/assam-flood-situation-worsens/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121174112/https://www.sentinelassam.com/top-headlines/assam-flood-situation-worsens/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=21 January 2022 |title=Flood situation in Assam worsens |newspaper=Hindustan Times |date=23 August 2015 |access-date=25 August 2015}}</ref>

=== Fauna ===
{{See also|Biodiversity of Assam}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| image1 = Rhinoceros unicornis, Kaziranga (2006).jpg
| width1 = 185
| caption1 = An [[Indian rhinoceros|Indian rhino]] at [[Kaziranga National Park]]
| alt1 = Rhinoceros unicornis
| image2 = Golden Langur.jpg
| width2 = 185
| caption2 = An endangered [[golden langur]]
| alt2 = Golden langur
}}

Assam is one of the richest [[biodiversity]] zones in the world and consists of tropical [[rainforest]]s,<ref>{{Citation |last=Borthakur |first=Ahir Bhairab |title=Call of the wild |url=http://www.downtoearth.org.in/full6.asp?foldername=20020115&filename=gra&sec_id=11&sid=1 |journal=Down to Earth |date=15 January 2002 |volume=419 |issue=6905 |page=340 |doi=10.1038/419340a |bibcode=2002Natur.419..340H |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928003319/http://www.downtoearth.org.in/full6.asp?foldername=20020115&filename=gra&sec_id=11&sid=1 |archive-date=28 September 2007|url-access=subscription }}</ref> [[deciduous]] forests, riverine [[grasslands]],<ref>{{cite web |last1=Birdlife International, UK |url=http://www.birdlife.org/action/science/species/asia_strategy/pdf_downloads/grasslandsGO2.pdf |title=Indo-Gangetic Grasslands | access-date = 31 May 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070615001747/http://www.birdlife.org/action/science/species/asia_strategy/pdf_downloads/grasslandsGO2.pdf | archive-date = 15 June 2007 | url-status=live }}</ref> [[bamboo]]<ref>National Mission on Bamboo Applications 2004</ref> orchards and numerous [[wetland]]<ref>{{Citation |last=Sharma |first=Pradip |title=An Overview on Wetlands in Assam |url=http://www.envisassam.org/VOL2_2.pdf |journal=ENVIS Assam, Assam Science Technology and Environment Council |volume=2 |page=7 |date=April–June 2003 |postscript=. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060520204718/http://www.envisassam.org/VOL2_2.pdf |archive-date=20 May 2006}}</ref> ecosystems; Many are now protected as national parks and reserved forests.

Assam has wildlife sanctuaries, the most prominent of which are two UNESCO [[World Heritage Sites]]<ref>{{cite web |last=World Heritage Centre |first=UNESCO |title=World Heritage List |url=https://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31 | access-date = 30 May 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070606091740/https://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31 | archive-date = 6 June 2007 | url-status=live }}</ref>-the [[Kaziranga National Park]], on the bank of the [[Brahmaputra River]], and the [[Manas Wildlife Sanctuary]], near the border with Bhutan. The Kaziranga is a refuge for the fast-disappearing Indian one-horned rhinoceros. The state is the last refuge for numerous other endangered and threatened species including the [[white-winged wood duck]] or ''deohanh'', [[Bengal florican]], [[black-breasted parrotbill]], [[red-headed vulture]], [[white-rumped vulture]], [[greater adjutant]], [[Jerdon's babbler]], [[rufous-necked hornbill]], [[Bengal tiger]], [[Asian elephant]], [[pygmy hog]], [[gaur]], [[wild water buffalo]], [[Indian hog deer]], [[hoolock gibbon]], [[golden langur]], [[capped langur]], [[barasingha]], [[South Asian river dolphin|Ganges river dolphin]], [[Channa barca|Barca snakehead]], [[Ganges shark]], [[Burmese python]], [[Brahminy river turtle]], [[black pond turtle]], [[Asian forest tortoise]], and [[Assam roofed turtle]]. Threatened species that are extinct in Assam include the [[gharial]], a critically endangered fish-eating crocodilian, and the [[pink-headed duck]] (which may be extinct worldwide). For the state bird, the white-winged wood duck, Assam is a globally important area.<ref>Choudhury, A.U.(1996) Survey of the white-winged wood duck and the Bengal florican in Tinsukia district and adjacent areas of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. The Rhino Foundation for Nature in North East India, Guwahati, India. 82pp+</ref> In addition to the above, there are three other National Parks in Assam namely Dibru Saikhowa National Park, Nameri National Park and the Orang National Park.

Assam has conserved the one-horned [[Indian rhinoceros]] from near extinction, along with the [[pygmy hog]], tiger and numerous species of birds, and it provides one of the last wild habitats for the [[Asian elephant]]. [[Kaziranga]] and [[Manas National Park|Manas]] are both [[World Heritage Sites]]. The state contains [[Shorea robusta|Sal tree]] forests and forest products, much depleted from earlier times. A land of high rainfall, Assam displays greenery. The Brahmaputra River tributaries and [[oxbow lake]]s provide the region with hydro-[[geomorphic]] environment.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}}

The state has the largest population of the [[wild water buffalo]] in the world.<ref>Choudhury, A.U. (2010)The vanishing herds : the wild water buffalo. Gibbon Books, Rhino Foundation, CEPF & COA, Taiwan, Guwahati, India</ref>
The state has the highest diversity of birds in India with around 820 species.<ref>Choudhury, A.U. (2000)The birds of Assam. Gibbon Books & WWF-India, Guwahati, India</ref> With subspecies the number is as high as 946.<ref>Choudhury, A.U. (1990). Checklist of the birds of Assam. Sofia Press & Publishers Pvt. Ltd., Guwahati, India. 72 pp+</ref>
The mammal diversity in the state is around 190 species.<ref>Choudhury, A.U. (1997)The check list of the mammals of Assam. Gibbon Books & ASTEC, Guwahati, India</ref>

=== Flora ===
[[File:Kopou Orchid Assam India.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Blooming of [[Rhynchostylis retusa|Kopou Orchid]] marks the beginning of the festive season of ''[[Bihu]]'' in Assam.]]
Assam is remarkably rich in [[Orchidaceae|Orchid]] species and the [[Rhynchostylis retusa|Foxtail orchid]] is the state flower of Assam.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=ENVIS Assam |title=Endemic Orchids of Assam |url=http://www.envisassam.org/VOL2_2.pdf |journal=ENVIS Assam, Assam Science Technology and Environment Council |volume=2 |page=8 |date=April–June 2003|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060520204718/http://www.envisassam.org/VOL2_2.pdf|archive-date=20 May 2006}}</ref> The recently established Kaziranga National Orchid and Biodiversity Park boasts more than 500 of the estimated 1,314 orchid species found in India.

=== Geology ===
Assam has [[petroleum]], natural gas, coal, [[limestone]] and other minor minerals such as [[Quartzite|magnetic quartzite]], [[kaolin]], [[sillimanite]]s, [[clay]] and [[feldspar]].<ref name="NEDFiNICminerals">{{cite web |last=NEDFi & NIC-Assam |title=North East India Databank |url=http://nerdatabank.nic.in/as_minerals.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070418204719/http://www.nerdatabank.nic.in/as_minerals.htm |archive-date=18 April 2007}}</ref> A small quantity of iron ore is available in western districts.<ref name="NEDFiNICminerals" /> Discovered in 1867, a [[USGS]] estimate shows {{convert|399|Moilbbl|m3}} of oil, {{convert|1178|Gcuft|m3}} of gas and {{convert|67|Moilbbl|m3}} of [[natural gas liquids]] in the Assam Geologic Province.<ref name="Oil">{{cite web |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/opinion/here-is-indias-oil-story/1153719/ |title=Here is India's oil story |date=3 May 2018 |work=[[The Financial Express (India)|The Financial Express]] |access-date=21 July 2019 |archive-date=21 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190721050940/https://www.financialexpress.com/opinion/here-is-indias-oil-story/1153719/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Wandrey 2004, p. 17</ref>

The region is prone to natural disasters like annual floods and frequent mild earthquakes. Strong earthquakes were recorded in 1869, [[1897 Assam earthquake|1897]], and [[1950 Assam–Tibet earthquake|1950]].

== Demographics ==
{{Main|Demography of Assam|Assamese people|Assamese Manipuri people|People of Assam}}

=== Population ===
{{Historical population
| source = [[Census of India]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/PCA/A2_Data_Table.html |title=A - 2 DECADAL VARIATION IN POPULATION SINCE 1901 |publisher= Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India |access-date=12 January 2020 |archive-date=8 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190808131957/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/PCA/A2_Data_Table.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
| 1901 | 3289680
| 1911 | 3848617
| 1921 | 4636980
| 1931 | 5560371
| 1941 | 6694790
| 1951 | 8028856
| 1961 | 10837329
| 1971 | 14625152
| 1981 | 18041248
| 1991 | 22414322
| 2001 | 26655528
| 2011 | 31205576
}}
[[File:Ambubachi Mela at Kamakhya Temple by Vikramjit Kakati.jpg|thumb|People gathered at [[Kamakhya Temple]] for the [[Ambubachi Mela]]]]
The total population of Assam was 26.66 million with 4.91 million households in 2001.<ref name="GoAStats">{{cite web |title=Statistics of Assam 2002-03 |url=http://www.assamgov.org/generalinformation/assamstatistics.html |access-date = 3 June 2007|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070607170354/http://assamgov.org/generalinformation/assamstatistics.html |archive-date = 7 June 2007|url-status = usurped }}</ref> Higher population concentration was recorded in the districts of [[Kamrup district|Kamrup]], [[Nagaon district|Nagaon]], [[Sonitpur district|Sonitpur]], [[Barpeta district|Barpeta]], [[Dhubri district|Dhubri]], [[Darrang district|Darrang]], and [[Cachar district|Cachar]]. Assam's population was estimated at 28.67 million in 2006 and at 30.57 million in 2011
and is expected to reach 34.18  million by 2021 and 35.60 million by 2026.<ref>{{cite web |author=National Commission on Population, Census of India |title=Population Projections for India and States 2001–2026 |year=2006 |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in| access-date =15 May 2007 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070514045222/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/| archive-date= 14 May 2007 | url-status=live}}</ref>

As per the 2011 census, the total population of Assam was 31,169,272. The total population of the state has increased from 26,638,407 to 31,169,272 in the last ten years with a growth rate of 16.93%.<ref name="AsCensus">{{cite web |title=Government of Assam Census 2011 |website=onlineassam |url=http://online.assam.gov.in/web/population-census/| access-date = 6 June 2012| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120621011519/http://online.assam.gov.in/web/population-census| archive-date = 21 June 2012| url-status=dead }}</ref>

Of the 33 districts, [[Dhubri district|Dhubri]], [[Goalpara district|Goalpara]], [[Barpeta district|Barpeta]], [[Morigaon district|Morigaon]], [[Nagaon district|Nagaon]], and [[Hailakandi district|Hailakandi]], recorded growth rates ranging from 20 per cent to 24 per cent during the last decade, whereas [[Sivasagar district|Sivasagar]] and [[Jorhat district|Jorhat]], registered around 9 per cent population growth. These districts do not have any international border.<ref>{{cite web |last=cdpsindia |title=centre for development and peace studies |url=http://cdpsindia.org/point-of-view60.asp| access-date = 6 June 2012| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121021210551/http://cdpsindia.org/point-of-view60.asp| archive-date = 21 October 2012| url-status=usurped }}</ref>

[[File:Assam Demography 1.png|thumb|upright=1.6|{{center|District-wise Demographic Characteristics in 2001}}]]
In 2011, the [[literacy]] rate in the state was 73.18%. The male literacy rate was 78.81% and the female literacy rate was 67.27%.<ref name="AsCensus" /> In 2001, the census had recorded literacy in Assam at 63.3% with male literacy at 71.3% and female at 54.6%. The urbanisation rate was recorded at 12.9%.<ref>Director of Census Operations, Census of India 2001</ref>

The growth of population in Assam has increased since the middle decades of the 20th century. The population grew from 3.29 million in 1901 to 6.70 million in 1941. It increased to 14.63 million in 1971 and 22.41 million in 1991.<ref name="GoAStats" /> The growth in the [[Lower Assam division|Western districts]] and [[Barak Valley|Southern districts]] was high primarily due to the influx of large number of illegal immigrants from [[East Pakistan]], now Bangladesh.<ref name="SinhaSKillmig" />

The mistrust and clashes between indigenous Assamese people and [[Bengali Muslims]] started as early as 1952,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/guwahati/Muslim-Bodo-mistrust-exists-for-many-decades/articleshow/15115081.cms?referral=PM |title=Muslim-Bodo mistrust exists for many decades |work=The Times of India |date=24 July 2012 |access-date=11 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017031311/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/guwahati/Muslim-Bodo-mistrust-exists-for-many-decades/articleshow/15115081.cms?referral=PM |archive-date=17 October 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Assam-govt-mulls-arming-Muslims-in-Bodo-areas/articleshow/34650259.cms |title=Assam govt mulls arming Muslims in Bodo areas |work=The Times of India |date=5 May 2014 |access-date=11 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140505021416/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Assam-govt-mulls-arming-Muslims-in-Bodo-areas/articleshow/34650259.cms |archive-date=5 May 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> but is rooted in [[Anti-Bengali sentiment in India#Assam|anti Bengali sentiments]] of the 1940s.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Andre |first1=Aletta |last2=Kumar |first2=Abhimanyu |title=Protest poetry: Assam's Bengali Muslims take a stand |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2016/12/protest-poetry-assam-bengali-muslims-stand-161219094434005.html|access-date=26 January 2017 |agency=[[Al Jazeera English|Aljazeera]] |publisher=[[Al Jazeera English|Aljazeera]] |date=23 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202060836/http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2016/12/protest-poetry-assam-bengali-muslims-stand-161219094434005.html|archive-date=2 February 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> At least 77 people died<ref name=IBNLive>{{cite web |url=http://ibnlive.in.com/generalnewsfeed/news/assam-violence-four-more-bodies-found-toll-rises-to-77/1038364.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130126114936/http://ibnlive.in.com/generalnewsfeed/news/assam-violence-four-more-bodies-found-toll-rises-to-77/1038364.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=26 January 2013 |title=Assam violence: Four more bodies found, toll rises to 77 |date=8 August 2012 |work=IBN |access-date=2 November 2013}}</ref> and 400,000 people were displaced in the [[2012 Assam violence]] between indigenous [[Bodo people|Bodos]] and [[Bengali Muslims]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/29/world/asia/after-tensions-in-indias-east-turn-deadly-claims-officials-turned-a-blind-eye.html?_r=1 |title=As Tensions in India Turn Deadly, Some Say Officials Ignored Warning Signs |newspaper=The New York Times |date=28 July 2012 |first=Gardiner |last=Harris | access-date=26 February 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170301183316/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/29/world/asia/after-tensions-in-indias-east-turn-deadly-claims-officials-turned-a-blind-eye.html?_r=1 | archive-date=1 March 2017 | url-status=live }}</ref>

The People of India project has studied 115 of the ethnic groups in Assam. 79 (69%) identify themselves regionally, 22 (19%) locally, and 3 trans-nationally. The earliest settlers were [[Austroasiatic]], [[Dravidians|Dravidian]] followed by [[Tibeto-Burman]], [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]], and [[Tai–Kadai]] people.<ref>Taher, Mohammad (1993) ''The Peopling of Assam and contemporary social structure'' in Ahmad, Aijazuddin (ed) Social Structure and Regional Development, Rawat Publications, New Delhi</ref> Forty-five languages are spoken by different communities, including three major language families: Austroasiatic (5), [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] (24) and [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] (12). Three of the spoken languages do not fall in these families. There is a high degree of [[bilingualism]].{{citation needed|reason="high" is essentially a meaningless word. 90%? 15%?|date=November 2015}}

According to the World Air Quality Report 2024 by IQAir, [[Byrnihat]] located along the Assam-Meghalaya border is the most polluted city in India.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Delhi is most polluted city globally; 13 of world's 20 most polluted cities in India: report |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/13-of-worlds-20-most-polluted-cities-in-india-delhi-most-polluted-capital/article69316060.ece|work=The Hindu |agency=PTI |issn=0971-751X|date=11 March 2025 |access-date=16 March 2025 }}</ref>

=== Religions ===
{{See also|Hinduism in Assam|Islam in Assam|Christianity in Assam|Ahom religion}}
[[File:Kamakhya Guwahati.JPG|thumb|right|[[Kamakhya Temple]]]]
[[File:Rangamati Mosque.jpg|thumb|right|[[Panbari Mosque]], [[Dhubri]]]]

{{Pie chart
| thumb = right
| caption = Religions of Assam (2011)<ref name="census2011">{{cite web |title=Population by religion community – 2011 |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW00C-01%20MDDS.XLS |website=Census of India, 2012 |publisher=The Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150825155850/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW00C-01%20MDDS.XLS|archive-date=25 August 2015}}</ref>
| label1 = Hinduism|value1 = 61.47 |color1 =darkorange
| label2 = Islam|value2 = 34.22|color2 = green
| label3 = Christianity|value3 = 3.7|color3 = dodger blue
| label4 = Buddhism|value4 = 0.2|color4 = gold
| label5 = Jainism|value5 = 0.01|color5 = Pink
| label6 = Sikhism|value6 = 0.01|color6 = DarkKhaki
| label7 = Atheist|value7 = 0.4|color7 = red
}}

[[File:Basistha mandir.JPG|thumb|[[Basistha Temple]] in [[Guwahati]].]]
[[File:Hajarat Ajan Pir Dargaah,Horaguri Chapori,Sivasagar.jpg|thumb|''[[Azan Faqir]] [[dargah]]'' at Saraguri Chapari near [[Sibsagar]] town.]]
According to the [[2011 Census of India|2011 census]], 61.47% were [[Hinduism|Hindus]], 34.22% were [[Muslim]]s.<ref name="census2011" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/census-2011-religion-data-rekindles-demographic-invasion-fear-in-assam/article1-1384347.aspx |title=Census 2011 data rekindles 'demographic invasion' fear in Assam|access-date=26 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905104547/http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/census-2011-religion-data-rekindles-demographic-invasion-fear-in-assam/article1-1384347.aspx|archive-date=5 September 2015|url-status=dead |date=26 August 2015}}</ref> Christian minorities (3.7%) are found among the Scheduled Tribe and Castes population.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/religious-communities-census-2011-what-the-numbers-say/article7582284.ece |title=India's religions by numbers |date=26 August 2015|access-date=5 August 2016 |newspaper=The Hindu|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160110201326/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/religious-communities-census-2011-what-the-numbers-say/article7582284.ece|archive-date=10 January 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

The Scheduled Tribe population in Assam is around 13%, of which Bodos account for 40%.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/bodo-hopes-and-minority-rights/article5998693.ece |title=Bodos and their rights|access-date=29 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161201092705/http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/bodo-hopes-and-minority-rights/article5998693.ece|archive-date=1 December 2016|url-status=live |newspaper=The Hindu |date=12 May 2014 |last1=Deka |first1=Kaustubh}}</ref> Other religious groups in Assam include [[Jainism]] (0.1%), [[Buddhism]] (0.2%), [[Sikhism]] (0.1%) and [[Animism]] (among [[Khamti people|Khamti]], [[Tai Phake people|Phake]], [[Tai Aiton people|Aiton]] etc. communities).

The three popular sects of Hinduism, namely, [[Saivisim|Shaivisim]], [[Saktism|Shaktism]], and [[Vaishnavism]] are prevalent here. Many Assamese Hindus are also followers of the [[Ekasarana Dharma]] sect of [[Hinduism]].{{citation needed|date=August 2015}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ ''Assam's Religious diversity as of the 2011 census''<ref name="Census of India Website : Office of">{{cite web |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/ |title=Census of India Website : Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India |access-date=11 October 2020 |archive-date=3 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200603015649/https://censusindia.gov.in/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! Religion
! Population
|-
| [[Hindus]] ([[File:Om.svg|15px]])
| 19,180,759
|-
| [[Muslims]] ([[File:Star and Crescent.svg|18px]])
| 10,679,345
|-
| [[Christians]] ([[File:Christian cross.svg|12px]])
| 1,165,867
|-
| [[Buddhists]] ([[File:Dharma Wheel.svg|18px]])
| 54,993
|-
| [[Jains]] ([[File:Jainism.svg|18px]])
| 25,949
|-
| [[Sikhs]] ([[File:Khanda.svg|15px]])
| 20,672
|-
| Other religions
| 27,118
|-
| Not stated/available
| 50,873
|-
| Total
| 31,205,576
|}

Out of 32 districts of Assam, 9 are [[Muslims|Muslim]] majority according to the 2011 census of India: [[Dhubri district|Dhubri]], [[Goalpara district|Goalpara]], [[Barpeta district|Barpeta]], [[Morigaon district|Morigaon]], [[Nagaon district|Nagaon]], [[Karimganj district|Karimganj]], [[Hailakandi district|Hailakandi]], [[Darrang district|Darrang]] and [[Bongaigaon district|Bongaigaon]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Muslim-majority-districts-in-Assam-up/articleshow/48682463.cms |title=Muslim majority districts in Assam up |website=[[The Times of India]]|date=26 August 2015 |access-date=23 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160104231940/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Muslim-majority-districts-in-Assam-up/articleshow/48682463.cms|archive-date=4 January 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/assam-muslim-growth-is-higher-in-districts-away-from-border/ |title=Assam Muslim growth is higher in districts away from border|access-date=23 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223192413/http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/assam-muslim-growth-is-higher-in-districts-away-from-border/|archive-date=23 December 2015|url-status=live |date=31 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india/census-2011-data-rekindles-demographic-invasion-fear-in-assam/story-oZUhBaXPNupGBmGQirjV0I.html |title=Census 2011 data rekindles 'demographic invasion' fear in Assam|work=Hindustan Times |access-date=23 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160104231940/http://www.hindustantimes.com/india/census-2011-data-rekindles-demographic-invasion-fear-in-assam/story-oZUhBaXPNupGBmGQirjV0I.html|archive-date=4 January 2016|url-status=live |date=26 August 2015}}</ref>

=== Languages ===
{{See also|Assamese language|Assamese literature|Bengali language|Bodo language|Meitei language in Assam}}
[[File:Language Map of Assam (2011 Census).svg|thumb|Languages spoken by district 
'''Assamese'''
{{legend|#f2ffb3|30–40%}}
{{legend|#eaff80|40–50%}}
{{legend|#d9ff1a|50–60%}}
{{legend|#c8f000|60–70%}}
{{legend|#b0d100|70-80%}}
{{legend|#8fb200|80-90%}}
{{legend|#768f00|90–100%}}
'''Bengali'''
{{legend|#009e75|70–80%}}
{{legend|#006b4f|80–90%}}
'''Boro'''
{{legend|#96b2f3|20–30%}}
{{legend|#759af0|30–40%}}
'''Karbi'''
{{legend|#5e3dff|40–50%}}
'''Dimasa'''
{{legend|#c7eae8ff|30–40%}}
]]
[[File:Charyapada.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.5|7th–8th century specimen of Assamese (Kamarupi) literature]]

{{Pie chart
| thumb = right
| caption = Languages of Assam (2011)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/Language-2011/Part-A.pdf |title=Distribution of the 22 scheduled languages-India/States/Union Territories - 2011 census |access-date=23 August 2021 |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]] |archive-date=11 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211011091053/https://censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/Language-2011/Part-A.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
| label1 = [[Assamese language|Assamese]]
| value1 = 48.38
| color1 = purple
| label2 = [[Bengali language|Bengali]]
| value2 = 28.92
| color2 = orchid
| label3 = [[Boro language (India)|Bodo]]
| value3 = 4.51
| color3 = royalblue
| label4 = [[Hindi language|Hindi]]
| value4 = 3.21
| color4 = orange
| label5 = [[Nagpuri language|Sadri]]
| value5 = 2.29
| color5 = burlywood
| label6 = [[Mising language|Mishing]]
| value6 = 1.98
| color6 = lightskyblue
| label7 = [[Nepali language|Nepali]]
| value7 = 1.91
| color7 = lightcoral
| label8 = [[Karbi language|Karbi]]
| value8 = 1.64
| color8 = darkblue
| label9 = Others
| value9 = 7.16
| color9 = Grey
}}

[[Assamese language|Assamese]] and [[Boro language (India)|Bodo]] are the official languages of the state, [[Meitei language|Meitei]] ([[Manipuri language|Manipuri]]) is official in [[Hojai district]] and all the three districts of [[Barak Valley]], while [[Bengali language|Bengali]] is official in the three districts of [[Barak Valley]],<ref name="BodoOff">{{cite news |last1=PTI |title=Assam Assembly Accords Associate Official Language Status To Bodo |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/assam-assembly-accords-associate-official-language-status-to-bodo-2345750 |access-date=21 February 2022 |work=NDTV |date=30 December 2020 |archive-date=21 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220221093623/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/assam-assembly-accords-associate-official-language-status-to-bodo-2345750 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="BnOff">{{Cite news |url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/govt-withdraws-assamese-as-official-language-from-barak-valley-114090901180_1.html |title=Govt withdraws Assamese as official language from Barak valley |agency=Press Trust of India |date=9 September 2014 |work=Business Standard India |access-date=29 January 2018 |archive-date=29 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180129195116/http://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/govt-withdraws-assamese-as-official-language-from-barak-valley-114090901180_1.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Meitei">{{Cite news |last=Purkayastha |first=Biswa Kalyan |date=24 February 2024 |title=Assam recognises Manipuri as associate official language in four districts |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/assam-recognises-manipuri-as-associate-official-language-in-four-districts-101708770769105.html |work=Hindustan Times |access-date=26 February 2024 |archive-date=25 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240225153123/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/assam-recognises-manipuri-as-associate-official-language-in-four-districts-101708770769105.html |url-status=live }}</ref> where [[Sylheti language|Sylheti]] is most commonly spoken.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/syl |title=Sylheti |publisher=Ethnologue|access-date=12 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180313092352/https://www.ethnologue.com/language/syl|archive-date=13 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|+ '''Assam linguistic diversity as per (2011 census)'''<ref name="Census of India Website : Office of"/>
|-
! Language
! Population
|-
| [[Assamese language|Assamese]]
| 15,097,257
|-
| [[Bengali language|Bengali]]
| 9,024,652
|-
| [[Bodo language|Bodo]]
| 1,407,371
|-
| [[Hindi language|Hindi]]
| 1,001,698
|-
| [[Nagpuri language|Sadri]]
| 714,607
|-
| [[Mishing language|Mishing]]
| 617,870
|-
| [[Nepali language|Nepali]]
| 596,026
|-
| [[Karbi language|Karbi]]
| 511,771
|-
| Others
| 2,234,319
|-
| Total
| 31,205,576
|}
[[File:Assam manuscript painting.jpg|thumb|An early 18th century illustrated Assamese manuscript]]
According to the language census of 2011 in Assam, out of a total population of around 31 million, Assamese is spoken by more than 22 million total speakers, with more than 15 million people speaking it as their [[First language|mother tongue]] and around 7 million as [[L2 speakers]].<ref name="Government of India">{{cite web |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-17.html |title=C-17 POPULATION BY BILINGUALISM AND TRILINGUALISM |first=Ministry of Home Affairs |last=Government of India |access-date=23 August 2021 |archive-date=13 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191113211224/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-17.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Although the number of speakers is growing, the percentage of Assam's population who have it as a mother tongue has fallen slightly. Assamese serves as ''lingua franca'' of the region<ref>"Axomiya is the major language spoken in Assam, and serves almost as a lingua franca among the different speech communities in the whole area." {{harvcol|Goswami|2003|pp=394}}</ref> as it is spoken by over 71% of the population (including the one who have listed Assamese as their [[L2 speakers|2nd language]],<ref name="Government of India"/> while 48.38% of them speak it as their mother tongue.<ref name=2011census>{{cite web |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/Language-2011/Statement-1.pdf |title=Scheduled Languages in descending order of speaker's strength - 2011 |access-date=23 August 2021 |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]] |archive-date=14 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181114073426/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/Language-2011/Statement-1.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> According to the 24th Edition of [[Ethnologue: Languages of the World]], Assamese is spoken by 15,327,990 persons as mother tongue across the world as of 2021.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/asm |title=Assamese |access-date=22 August 2021 |archive-date=24 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224190334/https://www.ethnologue.com/language/asm |url-status=live }}</ref> However, [[2016 Assam Legislative Assembly election]] results, have found that 10 million people speaks Assamese as their mother tongue in Assam, which is significantly fewer than the census result of 2011.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.india.com/news/india/assam-assembly-elections-2016-assamese-are-minority-muslims-are-largest-electoral-group-in-this-poll-battle-1093774/ |title=Assam Assembly Elections 2016: Assamese are minority, Muslims are largest electoral group in this poll battle! |date=8 April 2016 |access-date=19 July 2021 |archive-date=27 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210627233152/https://www.india.com/news/india/assam-assembly-elections-2016-assamese-are-minority-muslims-are-largest-electoral-group-in-this-poll-battle-1093774/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The Assamese speakers constituted 48% of the State population according to the 2011 Census.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://assamtribune.com/assamese-speakers-in-assam-an-insecure-future/ |title=Assamese speakers in Assam: An insecure future? |date=10 April 2021 |access-date=20 July 2021 |archive-date=29 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210629010339/https://assamtribune.com/assamese-speakers-in-assam-an-insecure-future/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/guwahati/asam-sahitya-sabha-gives-government-two-month-ultimatum-on-use-of-assamese/articleshow/65115339.cms |title=Assamese language: Asam Sahitya Sabha gives government two-month ultimatum on use of Assamese | Guwahati News |website=[[The Times of India]] |date=24 July 2018 |access-date=20 July 2021 |archive-date=20 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210720160642/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/guwahati/asam-sahitya-sabha-gives-government-two-month-ultimatum-on-use-of-assamese/articleshow/65115339.cms |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/north-east/asam-sahitya-sabha-ajmal-foundation-prod-on-assamese/cid/1739350 |title=Sabha, Ajmal prod on Assamese |access-date=20 July 2021 |archive-date=20 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210720160642/https://www.telegraphindia.com/north-east/asam-sahitya-sabha-ajmal-foundation-prod-on-assamese/cid/1739350 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/guwahati/take-action-against-chalo-paltai-propagators-sabha-tells-government/articleshow/69672729.cms |title=Take action against 'Chalo Paltai' propagators, Sabha tells government | Guwahati News |website=[[The Times of India]] |date=6 June 2019 |access-date=20 July 2021 |archive-date=20 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210720160645/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/guwahati/take-action-against-chalo-paltai-propagators-sabha-tells-government/articleshow/69672729.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Tai Script of Ahom Kingdom.jpg|right|thumb|Tai-Ahom manuscript ([[Buranji]])]]

The various [[Bengali language|Bengali]] dialects and closely related languages are spoken by around 9 million people in Assam, and the portion of the population that speaks these languages has grown slightly as per the census. However, the number of Bengali speakers is estimated to be more than the expected census results, as 30% of the 35% Muslim population in Assam as per 2011 are thought to speak different dialects of Bengali as their native language but during census enumeration, they have reported their mother tongue as [[Assamese language|Assamese]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/indigenous-muslims-agreed-on-checking-population-assam-chief-minister-2479078 |title="Indigenous Muslims Agreed on Checking Population": Assam Chief Minister |access-date=19 July 2021 |archive-date=19 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210719141439/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/indigenous-muslims-agreed-on-checking-population-assam-chief-minister-2479078 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/guwahati/declare-assamese-our-mother-tongue/articleshow/7438577.cms |title=Declare Assamese our mother tongue | Guwahati News |website=[[The Times of India]] |date=6 February 2011 |access-date=19 July 2021 |archive-date=1 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201230329/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/guwahati/declare-assamese-our-mother-tongue/articleshow/7438577.cms |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Saikia |first=Arunabh |title=A new generation of 'Miya' Muslims in Assam may vote for Congress-AIUDF – but only out of compulsion |url=https://scroll.in/article/991174/a-new-generation-of-miya-muslims-in-assam-may-vote-for-congress-aiudf-but-only-out-of-compulsion |access-date=16 July 2021 |website=Scroll.in |date=2 April 2021 |language=en-US |archive-date=11 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210611061950/https://scroll.in/article/991174/a-new-generation-of-miya-muslims-in-assam-may-vote-for-congress-aiudf-but-only-out-of-compulsion |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=X |first=Samrat |title=National Register of Citizens: Identity issue haunts Assam, again |url=https://www.newslaundry.com/2018/01/08/national-register-of-citizens-identity-assam-immigrants |access-date=16 July 2021 |website=Newslaundry |date=8 January 2018 |archive-date=11 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210611061948/https://www.newslaundry.com/2018/01/08/national-register-of-citizens-identity-assam-immigrants |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.alterinter.org/?The-Economic-Basis-of-Assam-s-Linguistic-Politics-and-Anti-Immigrant-Movements |title=The Economic Basis of Assam's Linguistic Politics and Anti-Immigrant Movements |access-date=19 July 2021 |archive-date=22 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210622203258/https://www.alterinter.org/?The-Economic-Basis-of-Assam-s-Linguistic-Politics-and-Anti-Immigrant-Movements |url-status=live }}</ref> In the Brahmaputra Valley, the main Bengali dialect is that of [[Mymensingh Division|Mymensingh]] (now in Bangladesh),<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Choudhury |first=Sumedha |date=September 2022 |title=Denationalisation and discrimination in postcolonial India |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/13582291221113517 |journal=International Journal of Discrimination and the Law |language=en |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=326–342 |doi=10.1177/13582291221113517 |s2cid=250544870 |issn=1358-2291|url-access=subscription }}</ref> while in the Barak Valley and Hojai district, [[Sylheti language|Sylheti]] is the main language which is also considered to be a dialect of Bengali in census.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Chakrabarti |first=Angana |date=27 September 2022 |title=Sylhetis were separated by Partition. Now, Indo-Bangladesh festival aims to bring them together |url=https://theprint.in/india/sylhetis-were-separated-by-partition-now-indo-bangladesh-festival-aims-to-bring-them-together/1143683/ |work=ThePrint |access-date=5 January 2024}}</ref> [[Bodo language|Bodo]] is the third most-spoken language followed by [[Hindi]] which comes under fourth position.

{{See also|Brahmaputra valley}}
[[File:Brahmaputra Valley map.png|thumb| [[Brahmaputra valley]] region of Assam]]

{{Pie chart
| thumb = right
| caption = Languages spoken in Brahmaputra valley (2011)<ref name="censusindia.gov.in"/><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.indiatvnews.com/opinion/news-battleground-assam-a-tale-of-two-valleys-and-the-caa-quandary-assam-bengal-polls-2021-685761 |title=Battleground Assam a tale of two valleys and the CAA quandary Assam bengal polls 2021 | Opinion News – India TV |date=18 February 2021 |access-date=17 October 2021 |archive-date=17 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211017095308/https://www.indiatvnews.com/amp/opinion/news-battleground-assam-a-tale-of-two-valleys-and-the-caa-quandary-assam-bengal-polls-2021-685761 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| label1 = [[Assamese language|Assamese]] ([[Official]])
| value1 = 55.65
| color1 = yellow
| label2 = [[Bengali language|Bengali]]
| value2 = 22.1
| color2 = brown
| label3 = [[Hindi language|Hindi]]
| value3 = 7.6
| color3 = Orange
| label4 = [[Bodo language|Bodo]]
| value4 = 5.13
| color4 = pink
| label5 = Others
| value5 = 9.52
| color5 = red
}}
The population of the Brahmaputra Valley is 27,580,977 according to the 2011 census report by the Assam government. Assamese is the official language of the Brahmaputra Valley and is spoken by 15 million people comprising 55.65% of the valley population. Bengali is spoken by 6.09 million people representing 22.1% of the valley, Hindi is spoken by 2.1 million comprising 7.61% of the region, Bodo is spoken by 1.41 million comprising 5.13% of the valley's population and 2.98 million people speak various indigenous tribal languages of Assam, such as [[Karbi people|Karbi]], [[Tiwa (Lalung)]], [[Hmar people|Hmar]], [[Deori people|Deori]], [[Rabha people|Rabha]], [[Mising people|Mishing]], [[Koch people|Koch]], [[Rajbongshi people|Rajbangshi]], [[Garo people|Garo]], [[Dimasa people|Dimasa]], [[Indian Gorkha|Gorkha]], Halam, Ao and Motak.

Traditionally, Assamese was the language of the common folk in the ancient [[Kamarupa kingdom]] and in the medieval kingdoms of [[Kachari kingdom|Dimasa Kachari]], [[Chutiya kingdom|Chutiya Kachari]], Borahi Kachari, [[Ahom kingdom|Ahom]] and [[Kamata kingdom|Kamata]] kingdoms. Traces of the language are found in many poems by Luipa, Sarahapa, and others, in [[Charyapada]] (c. 7th–8th century CE). Modern dialects such as [[Kamrupi dialects|Kamrupi]] and [[Goalpariya dialects|Goalpariya]] are remnants of this language, which blend into the [[Rajbanshi language (Nepal)|Rajbanshi]] and [[Rangpuri language|Rangpuri]] lects spoken in North Bengal which have the same origin. Moreover, Assamese in its traditional form was used by the ethno-cultural groups in the region as lingua-franca, which spread during the stronger kingdoms and was required for economic integration. Localised forms of the language still exist in Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh.

Linguistically modern Assamese traces its roots to the version developed by the American Missionaries based on the local form used near [[Sivasagar]] (Xiwôxagôr) district. Assamese (''Ôxômiya'') is a rich language due to its hybrid nature and unique characteristics of pronunciation and softness. The presence of [[Voiceless velar fricative]] in Assamese makes it a unique among other similar [[Indo-Aryan languages]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Das |first1=Ankur |last2=Deka |first2=Tusmita |title=The Allophonic Variation of the Assamese voiceless velar fricative /x/ |journal=13th Annual Conference of South Asian Languages (ICOSAL13) |url=https://www.academia.edu/35777293 |access-date=21 July 2019 |archive-date=16 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220416085609/https://www.academia.edu/35777293 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.languagesgulper.com/eng/Assamese.html |title=Assamese |website=www.languagesgulper.com |access-date=21 July 2019 |archive-date=6 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191206071325/http://www.languagesgulper.com/eng/Assamese.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Boro language (India)|Bodo]] is spoken largely in [[Western Assam]]. It is official language of the [[Bodoland Territorial Region|Bodoland]] territorial region and co-official language of the state of Assam. It is also one of twenty-two languages listed in the Eighth Schedule of the [[Constitution of India]]. Spatial distribution patterns of the ethno-cultural groups, cultural traits and the phenomenon of naming all the major rivers in the [[North-East India|North East Region]] with Bodo-Kachari words (e.g. [[Dihing]], Dibru, [[Dihong]], D/[[Teesta River|Tista]], and Dikrai) reveal that it was more widely-spoken in ancient times. Other languages of Tibeto-Burman origin and related to Bodo-Kachari are [[Deori language|Deori]], [[Mising language|Mising]], [[Karbi language|Karbi]], [[Rabha language|Rabha]], and [[Tiwa (Lalung)|Tiwa]].{{citation needed|date=July 2015}}

There are approximately 590,000 [[Nepali language|Nepali]] speakers spread all over the state forming about 1.98% of Assam's total population according to 2011 census.

There are speakers of [[Tai languages]] in Assam. A total of six Tai languages were spoken in Assam. Two are now extinct.<ref name="Morey">Morey, Stephen. 2005. ''The Tai languages of Assam: a grammar and texts''. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.</ref>
* [[Phake language|Tai Phake]]
* [[Aiton language|Tai Aiton]]
* [[Khamti language|Khamti]]
* [[Khamyang language|Khamyang]] (critically endangered)
* [[Ahom language|Ahom]] (extinct)
* [[Turung language|Turung]] (extinct)

There are also speakers of Dravidian [[Kurukh language|Kurukh]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://meap.library.ucla.edu/about/news/a-brief-note-on-kurukh/|title=A Brief Note on Kurukh | Modern Endangered Archives Program|website=meap.library.ucla.edu}}</ref> and Austroasiatic [[Khasi language|Khasi]] speakers scattered across Assam.

== Government and politics ==
{{Main|Government of Assam|Politics of Assam}}

[[Dispur]], located in the [[Guwahati]] metropolitan region, is the capital of the state. [[Dibrugarh]] was announced as the second capital, and would start functioning in 2027.<ref>{{cite news |last=Lahkar |first=Digjyoti |date=31 January 2026 |title='Dibrugarh Steps Into History': Amit Shah Lays Foundation For Assam’s Second Capital, Unveils Major Governance, Sports & Conservation Projects |url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/india/dibrugarh-steps-into-history-amit-shah-lays-foundation-for-assams-second-capital-unveils-major-governance-sports-conservation-projects |work=Free Press Journal |access-date=31 January 2026}}</ref> Assam has a [[unicameral]] legislature consisting of 126 members. The government is ''de jure'' headed by the [[Governor of Assam|governor]] and ''de facto'' led by the [[List of Chief Ministers of Assam|Chief Minister of Assam]].

=== Administrative divisions ===
{{Main|List of districts of Assam}}

[[File:Assam Districts.png|thumb|upright=1.4| 1. [[Tinsukia district|Tinsukia]] 2. [[Dibrugarh district|Dibrugarh]] 3. [[Dhemaji district|Dhemaji]] 4. [[Charaideo district|Charaideo]] 5. [[Sivasagar district|Sivasagar]] 6.[[Lakhimpur district|Lakhimpur]] 7. [[Majuli district|Majuli]] 8. [[Jorhat district|Jorhat]] 9. [[Biswanath district|Biswanath]](merged with Sonitpur district) 10. [[Golaghat district|Golaghat]] 11. [[Karbi Anglong district|Karbi Anglong]] 12. [[Sonitpur district|Sonitpur]] 13. [[Nagaon district|Nagaon]] 14. [[Hojai district|Hojai]](merged with Nagaon district)15. [[West Karbi Anglong district|Karbi Anglong West]] 16. [[Dima Hasao district|Dima Hasao]] 17. [[Cachar district|Cachar]] 18. [[Hailakandi District|Hailakandi]] 19. [[Karimganj district|Karimganj]] 20. [[Morigaon district|Morigaon]] 21. [[Udalguri district|Udalguri]] 22. [[Darrang district|Darrang]] 23. [[Kamrup Metropolitan (Guwahati) district|Kamrup Metro]] 24. [[Baksa district|Baksa]] 25. [[Nalbari district|Nalbari]] 26. [[Kamrup district|Kamrup]] 27. [[Barpeta district|Barpeta]] 28. [[Chirang district|Chirang]] 29. [[Bongaigaon district|Bongaigaon]] 30. [[Goalpara district|Goalpara]] 31. [[Kokrajhar district|Kokrajhar]] 32. [[Dhubri district|Dhubri]] 33. [[South Salmara-Mankachar district|South Salmara Mankachar]] 34. [[Bajali district|Bajali]](merged with Barpeta district)]]

The state is divided into five regional [[divisions of Assam|divisions]], further divided into [[List of districts of Assam|35 administrative districts]], delineated based on geographic features.

On 15 August 2015, five new districts were formed:<ref name="new districts">{{cite news |title=Govt announces 5 new districts |url=http://www.assamtimes.org/node/14546|access-date=16 August 2015 |work=Assam Times |date=15 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150817202614/http://www.assamtimes.org/node/14546|archive-date=17 August 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="RDGoA">Revenue Department, Government of Assam</ref>
* Part of [[Sonitpur district|Sonitpur]] became the [[Biswanath district]] (9 in the nearby map)
* Part of [[Sivasagar district|Sivasagar]] became the [[Charaideo district]] (4)
* Part of [[Nagaon district|Nagaon]] became the [[Hojai district]] (14)
* Part of [[Dhubri district|Dhubri]] became the [[South Salmara-Mankachar district]] (33)
* The [[Karbi Anglong district]] was divided into East (11) and West (15) districts

On 27 June 2016, an island in the [[Brahmaputra River]] was bifurcated from the [[Jorhat district]] and declared the [[Majuli district]], India's first district that is a river island.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://hindustantimes.com/indianews/assam-majuli-to-become-india-s-first-river-island-district/story-hzFoxSUxh3IpRpSeIqrhtM.html |title=Assam: Majuli becomes 1st river island district of India |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |date=27 June 2016| access-date=28 June 2016 |location=Guwahati| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160829023254/http://www.hindustantimes.com/indianews/assam-majuli-to-become-india-s-first-river-island-district/story-hzFoxSUxh3IpRpSeIqrhtM.html| archive-date=29 August 2016| url-status=live }}</ref>

On 12 January 2021, [[Bajali district|Bajali]] was carved out from [[Barpeta district]] and formally declared as a district. With the announcement made by Governor [[Jagdish Mukhi]], it has become the 34th district of Assam.<ref>{{cite web |department=Sentinel Digital Desk |date=13 January 2021 |title='Bajali' Becomes the 34th Full-Fledged District of Assam |url=https://www.sentinelassam.com/north-east-india-news/assam-news/bajali-becomes-the-34th-full-fledged-district-of-assam-520780 |access-date=16 January 2021 |website=www.sentinelassam.com |language=en |archive-date=13 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210113121804/https://www.sentinelassam.com/north-east-india-news/assam-news/bajali-becomes-the-34th-full-fledged-district-of-assam-520780 |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 31 December 2022, existing four districts Bajali (with Barpeta), Tamulpur(with Udalguri), Biswanath (with Sonitpur) and Hojai(with Nagaon) and number of district came down to 31.

However, after the delimitation exercise was carried out in Assam, the [[Assam Cabinet]] reconstituted the 4 new districts (Bajali, Tamulpur, Biswanath and Hojai), taking the number of districts to 35 again.

=== Subdivisions ===
The administrative districts are further subdivided into 54 "Subdivisions" or ''[[Mahakuma]]''.<ref name="RDGoA" /> Every district is administered from a district headquarters with the office of the [[District Collector|Deputy Commissioner]], District Magistrate, Office of the District Panchayat and usually with a [[District Courts of India|district court]].

The [[Local Governance in India|local governance]] system is organised under the ''jila-parishad'' (District Panchayat) for a district, ''[[Panchayati Raj|panchayat]]'' for group of or individual rural areas and under the urban local bodies for the towns and cities. There are now 2489 village panchayats covering 26247 villages in Assam.<ref name="DIPRGoA">{{cite web |last=Directorate of Information and Public Relations |first=Government of Assam |title=Area of the National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries in Assam, 2002 |url=http://janasanyogassam.nic.in/assamataglance.htm |access-date=29 May 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071006161204/http://janasanyogassam.nic.in/assamataglance.htm |archive-date=6 October 2007}}</ref> The 'town-committee' or ''nagar-somiti'' for small towns, 'municipal board' or ''pouro-sobha'' for medium towns and [[municipal corporation]] or ''pouro-nigom'' for the cities consist of the urban local bodies.

For revenue purposes, the districts are divided into revenue circles and ''mouza''s; for the development projects, the districts are divided into 219 'development-blocks' and for law and order these are divided into 206 police stations or ''thana''.

[[Guwahati]] is the largest [[metropolitan area]] and [[urban conglomeration]] administered under the highest form of [[urban local body]] – [[Guwahati Municipal Corporation]] in Assam. The Corporation administers an area of {{cvt|216.79|km2}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gmcportal.in/gmc-web/ |title=GMC Portal|access-date=5 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160805090715/http://www.gmcportal.in/gmc-web/|archive-date=5 August 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Apart from [[Guwahati Municipal Corporation]] and [[Dibrugarh Municipal Corporation]] All other urban centres are managed under [[Nagar Palika|Municipal Boards]].

A list of 9 oldest, classified and prominent, and constantly inhabited, recognised urban centres based on the earliest years of formation of the civic bodies, before the [[Indian Independence Day|Indian independence]] of 1947 is tabulated below:

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center; font-size:86%;"
! colspan="9" style="background:#A0A0F0;" | Oldest recognised urban centres of Assam<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gZmusO1pWjUC |title=Quit India Movement in Assam |first=Anil Kumar |last=Sharma |date=1 January 2007 |publisher=Mittal Publications|access-date=5 August 2016 |via=Google Books|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170324090756/https://books.google.com/books?id=gZmusO1pWjUC|archive-date=24 March 2017|url-status=live |isbn=9788183242424}}</ref>
|-
! style="width: 150px;" | Urban Centres
! style="width: 250px;" | Civic Body
! style="width: 200px;" | Year
! style="width: 90px;" | Airport
! style="width: 90px;" | Railway Station
! style="width: 90px;" | Railway Junction
! style="width: 90px;" | Road Networks
! style="width: 90px;" | Category†
! style="width: 90px;" | Notes
|-
! rowspan="3" style="text-align:center;"|[[Guwahati]]
| Guwahati Town Committee || 1853 || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || style="background: Gold;" | Tier – III || {{hidden | headercss = text-align: left; | header = More | content = Guwahati, the first township of Assam.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mJroCwAAQBAJ |title=Economics of Informal Milk Producing Units in Assam |first=Dr Jugal |last=Saikia |date=8 April 2016 |publisher=Notion Press|access-date=5 August 2016 |via=Google Books|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170324235245/https://books.google.com/books?id=mJroCwAAQBAJ|archive-date=24 March 2017|url-status=live |isbn=9789352069385}}</ref>}}
|-
| Guwahati Municipal Board || 1873↑ || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} ||{{Yes}} || style="background: Orange;" | Tier – II ||
|-
| [[Guwahati Municipal Corporation]] || 1974↑ || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} ||{{Yes}} || style="background: Aqua;" | Tier – I || {{hidden | headercss = text-align: left; | header = More | content = Establishment of Guwahati Municipal Corporation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gmcportal.in/gmc-web/?page_id=12 |title=History – GMC Portal|access-date=5 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160629112827/http://www.gmcportal.in/gmc-web/?page_id=12|archive-date=29 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>}}
|-
! [[Dibrugarh]]
|[[Dibrugarh Municipal Board]] & [[Dibrugarh Municipal Corporation]] || 1873 & 2024 || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || style="background: Orange;" | Tier – II || {{hidden | headercss = text-align: left; | header = More | content = Dibrugarh, the second township of Assam.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dibrugarhmunicipality.org.in/ |title=Municipal Board|access-date=5 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611150105/http://dibrugarhmunicipality.org.in/|archive-date=11 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>}}
|-
! [[Goalpara]]
| Goalpara Municipal Board || 1875 || {{No}} {{ref|1|1}} || {{Yes}} || {{No}} {{ref|2|2}} || {{Yes}} || style="background: Orange;" |Tier – II || {{hidden | headercss = text-align: left; | header = More | content = Formation of Goalpara Municipality, 1875.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://goalparamb.org.in/Aboutus.html |title=Municipal Board-About Us|access-date=5 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160625135907/http://goalparamb.org.in/Aboutus.html|archive-date=25 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>}}
|-
! [[Dhubri]]
| Dhubri Municipal Board || 1883 || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || style="background: Orange;" |Tier – II || {{hidden | headercss = text-align: left; | header = More | content = Formation of Dhubri Municipality, 1883.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dhubrimb.org.in/ |title=Dhubri Municipal Board|access-date=14 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170407235031/http://www.dhubrimb.org.in/|archive-date=7 April 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>}}
|-
! [[Nagaon]]
| Nagaon Municipal Board || 1893 || {{No}} {{ref|3|3}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || style="background: Orange;" | Tier – II || {{hidden | headercss = text-align: left; | header = More | content =Formation of Nagaon Municipality, 1893.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://nagaon.gov.in/hist.html |title=Nagaon – History|access-date=24 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180418063334/http://nagaon.gov.in/hist.html|archive-date=18 April 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>}}
|-
! [[Tezpur]]
| Tezpur Municipal Board || 1894 || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || style="background: Orange;" | Tier – II || {{hidden | headercss = text-align: left; | header = More | content = Formation of Tezpur Municipality, 1894.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tezpurmb.co.in/AboutMunicipalBoard.aspx |title=Municipal Board History |access-date=24 May 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624164612/http://www.tezpurmb.co.in/AboutMunicipalBoard.aspx |archive-date=24 June 2016}}</ref>}}
|-
! [[Jorhat]]
| [[Jorhat Municipal Board]] || 1909 || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || style="background: Orange;" | Tier – II || {{hidden | headercss = text-align: left; | header = More | content = Formation of Jorhat Municipality, 1909.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jorhatmunicipalboard.org/jorhat_municipal_board.php |title=Jorhat Municipal Board(JBM), Jorhat, Assam|access-date=5 August 2016|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160327181336/http://jorhatmunicipalboard.org/jorhat_municipal_board.php|archive-date=27 March 2016}}</ref>}}
|-
! [[Golaghat]]
| [[Golaghat Municipal Board]] || 1920 || {{No}} {{ref|4|4}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || style="background: Orange;" | Tier – II || {{hidden | headercss = text-align: left; | header = More | content = Formation of Golaghat Municipality, 1920.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1150119/jsp/northeast/story_9079.jsp#.V0OXAZMrIcg |title=AGP lists civic poll candidates|access-date=5 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160630201713/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1150119/jsp/northeast/story_9079.jsp#.V0OXAZMrIcg|archive-date=30 June 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>}}
|-
! [[Silchar]]
|Silchar Municipal Board || 1922 || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || style="background: Orange;" | Tier – II || {{hidden | headercss = text-align: left; | header = More | content = Formation of Silchar Municipality, 1922.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://silchartoday.com/silchar/silchar-municipal-board-silchar-municipality-assam/ |title=Silchar Municipal Board (Silchar Municipality) Assam – Silchar Karimganj Hailakandi|access-date=5 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160728100952/http://silchartoday.com/silchar/silchar-municipal-board-silchar-municipality-assam/|archive-date=28 July 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>}}
|-
| colspan="9" |†''Tier – I: a big city with an [[urban conglomeration]] (in the true sense) administered by a [[Municipal corporation]]. Tier – II: a medium–sized city for an [[urban agglomeration]] administered by a [[Nagar Palika|Municipal Board]]. Tier – III: a small [[town]], larger than a [[township]] with a sizeable human settlement''. ↑''Upgraded to the next highest form of civic body''.
|-
|colspan="9" | {{legend|#F99 |outline=silver| ''Jointly shared with the other urban centre''. {{note|1|1}} and {{note|2|2}} Shared with Guwahati. {{note|3|3}} Shared with Tezpur. {{note|4|4}} Shared with Jorhat.}}
|}

=== Autonomous Council ===
The state has [[Autonomous administrative divisions of India#In Assam|three autonomous councils]] under the sixth schedule of the Indian Constitution.
*[[Bodoland Territorial Region|Bodoland Autonomous Territorial Council]]
*[[Karbi Anglong Autonomous Council]].
*[[Dima Hasao Autonomous Council]].

The state has further statutory autonomous councils constituted under State Act-

* [[Tiwa Autonomous Council]] for ethnic [[Tiwa (Lalung)|Tiwa people]] (Lalung)
* [[Rabha Hasong Autonomous Council]]
* [[Mising Autonomous Council]] for [[Mising people]]
* [[Deori Autonomous Council]]
* [[Sonowal Kachari Autonomous Council]] for [[Sonowal Kachari people]]
* [[Thengal Kachari Autonomous Council]]
* [[Moran Autonomous Council]] for Moran people
* Dudhnoi for ethnic [[Rabha people|Rabha Kachari]]
* [[Mising Autonomous Council]] for [[Mising people]]
* [[Matak Autonomous Council]] for Matak people
* [[Kamatapur Autonomous Council]] for [[Rajbongshi people]]
* [[Bodo Kachari Welfare Autonomous Council]] for [[Bodo-Kachari people]] living outside the [[Bodoland Territorial Region]]

In March 2024, the Assam cabinet had given green signal for 'Kiran Sheikh' development council for the 'Kiran Sheikh' community in [[Barak Valley]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Singh |first1=Bikash |date=11 March 2024 |title=Assam Cabinet greenlights 'Kiran Sheikh' development council |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/india/assam-cabinet-greenlights-kiran-sheikh-development-council/articleshow/108387064.cms |work=The Economic Times |access-date=20 March 2024 |archive-date=20 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240320113618/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/india/assam-cabinet-greenlights-kiran-sheikh-development-council/articleshow/108387064.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Politics ===
The state was ruled by [[Indian National Congress]] led governments since its inception in 1950 till 2016. On 19 May 2016, [[the Bharatiya Janata Party]] under the leadership of [[Sarbananda Sonowal]] won the assembly elections, thus forming the first BJP-led government in Assam.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/bjp-win-assam-sarbananda-sonowal-elections-2016-results-2812854/ |title=North by Northeast: What explains BJP's stunning win in Assam? |date=22 May 2016|access-date=5 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160808224823/http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/bjp-win-assam-sarbananda-sonowal-elections-2016-results-2812854/|archive-date=8 August 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> The BJP government was [[2021 Assam Legislative Assembly election|re-elected in 2021]] under the leadership of [[Himanta Biswa Sarma]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Karmakar |first1=Rahul |date=9 May 2021 |title=Himanta Biswa Sarma to take over as Assam CM today |url=https://www.thehindu.com/elections/assam-assembly/himanta-biswa-sarma-to-be-sworn-in-as-assams-15th-cm/article34519850.ece |work=The Hindu |access-date=14 November 2025}}</ref>

==Disputes and social issues==
===Inter-state dispute===
[[File:Northeast india.png|thumb]]

According to Assam Government, Assam has border dispute with four states namely Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh.<ref name="The Times of India">{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/total-seven-inter-state-border-disputes-in-country-assam-has-dispute-with-four-states-govt/articleshow/84865195.cms |title=Total seven inter-state border disputes in country; Assam has dispute with four states: Govt |website=[[The Times of India]] |date=29 July 2021 |access-date=14 August 2021 |archive-date=1 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201230334/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/total-seven-inter-state-border-disputes-in-country-assam-has-dispute-with-four-states-govt/articleshow/84865195.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Assam-Mizoram dispute====

[[Mizoram]] used to be a district of Assam as [[Lushai hills]] before being carved out as a separate union territory and later, becoming another state in 1987. Because of the history, the district's borders did not really matter for locals for a long time. Mizoram shares a border with the districts [[Cachar]], [[Hailakandi]] and [[Karimganj]] which comes under [[Barak valley]] region of Assam.
Over time, the two states started having different perceptions about where the demarcation should be. While Mizoram wants it to be along an [[Inner Line Permit]] notified in 1875 to protect tribals from outside influence, which Mizos feel is part of their historical homeland, Assam wants it to be demarcated according to district boundaries drawn up much later.<ref name="The Times of India"/><ref>{{cite news |last1=Deb |first1=Debraj |title=Explained: Why did a 150-year-old Assam-Mizoram dispute get violent now? |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/the-assam-mizoram-dispute-violence-policemen-dead-7425600/ |access-date=25 May 2022 |work=The Indian Express |date=5 August 2021 |language=en |archive-date=3 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220403085429/https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/the-assam-mizoram-dispute-violence-policemen-dead-7425600/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Assam-Meghalaya dispute====

[[Meghalaya]] has identified close to a dozen areas on which it has a dispute with Assam about the state's borders. The chief ministers of the two states, [[Himanta Biswa Sarma]] and Megahalya's [[Conrad Sangma]], recently held the first-ever meeting on inter-state border dispute. Both the states have agreed to individually assess the claims for all 12 areas flagged by Meghalaya in the past. A second round of discussion between the two state CMs will be held next month of August.
On the question of the role the Union Government is playing in redressing the inter-State border dispute in the country, minister of state for home affairs [[Nityanand Rai]] said, "The approach of the Central Government has consistently been that inter-state disputes can be resolved only with the cooperation of the State Governments concerned and that the Central Government acts only as a facilitator for amicable settlement of the dispute in the spirit of mutual understanding."<ref name="The Times of India"/>

====Assam-Nagaland dispute====

The border dispute between the two states has been going on since the formation of Nagaland in 1963. The two states lay claim to Merapani, a small village next to the plains of Assam's Golaghat district. There have been reports of violent clashes in the region since the 1960s.<ref name="The Times of India"/><ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/border-dispute-assam-signs-agreement-with-nagaland-to-diffuse-stand-off-on-eastern-front/articleshow/84925132.cms |title=Assam Nagaland border dispute: Assam signs agreement with Nagaland to diffuse stand-off on eastern front |website=[[The Times of India]] |date=August 2021 |access-date=14 August 2021 |archive-date=1 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201230330/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/border-dispute-assam-signs-agreement-with-nagaland-to-diffuse-stand-off-on-eastern-front/articleshow/84925132.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Assam-Arunachal Pradesh dispute====

Assam shares an 804.10 km inter-state boundary with [[Arunachal Pradesh]]. The state of Arunachal Pradesh, created in 1987, claims some land that traditionally belonged to its residents has been given to Assam. A tripartite committee had recommended that certain territories be transferred from Assam to Arunachal. The two states have since been battling it out in the [[Supreme court of India]] over the issue. Some incidents of local violence have been reported from the borders.<ref name="The Times of India"/><ref>{{cite news |title=Border dispute with Arunachal at 1,200 places: Himanta Biswa Sarma |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/border-dispute-with-arunachal-at-1200-places-himanta-biswa-sarma/article61430562.ece |access-date=25 May 2022 |work=The Hindu |date=13 August 2021 |language=en-IN |archive-date=25 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220525120742/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/border-dispute-with-arunachal-at-1200-places-himanta-biswa-sarma/article61430562.ece |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Separate statehood demand within Assam===
====Ahomland====
[[File:Proposed Ahomland Map.jpg|thumb|Proposed Ahomland Map]]

[[Upper Assam division|Upper Assam]]'s various [[Ahom people|Tai-Ahom]] organisations like "Ahom Tai Mangoliya Rajya Parishad" (ATMRP), has been demanding a separate Ahomland state since 1967, comprising erstwhile Un-divided Sivasagar and Lakhimpur districts (today's [[Upper Assam]] and [[North Assam]] divisions) respectively.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sharma |first1=Rittick |title=Assam: Ahomland movement revives over delimitation draft |url=https://www.eastmojo.com/assam/2023/07/20/assam-ahomland-movement-revives-over-delimitation-draft/ |access-date=23 September 2023 |work=EastMojo |date=20 July 2023 |archive-date=29 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230929061044/https://www.eastmojo.com/assam/2023/07/20/assam-ahomland-movement-revives-over-delimitation-draft/ |url-status=live }}</ref> On 2023, "Tai Ahom Yuba Parishad, Assam" (TAYPA) have organised a protest at Chachal and have demanded separate Ahomland state.<ref>{{cite news |title=TAYPA organized protest in Guwahati; demand ST status and an Ahom land - Sentinelassam |url=https://www.sentinelassam.com/guwahati-city/taypa-organized-protest-in-guwahati-demand-st-status-and-an-ahom-land-643890 |access-date=23 September 2023 |work=The Sentinel |date=4 April 2023 |archive-date=29 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230929061043/https://www.sentinelassam.com/guwahati-city/taypa-organized-protest-in-guwahati-demand-st-status-and-an-ahom-land-643890 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=TAYPA Demands Separate Ahom Land, ST Status For Community - The Hills Times |url=https://thehillstimes.in/assam/taypa-demands-separate-ahom-land-st-status-for-community |access-date=23 September 2023 |work=The Hills Time |date=20 July 2023 |archive-date=29 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230929082607/https://thehillstimes.in/assam/taypa-demands-separate-ahom-land-st-status-for-community |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Barak state====
{{Main|Barak state movement}}

[[File:Map of Barak Valley.jpg|thumb|Barak Valley]]

The [[Barak Valley]] of Assam comprising the present districts of [[Cachar]], [[Karimganj district|Karimganj]] and [[Hailakandi district|Hailakandi]] is contiguous to [[Sylhet Division|Sylhet]] (Bengal plains), where the Bengalis, according to historian J.B. Bhattacharjee, had settled well before the colonial period, influencing the culture of [[Dimasa people|Dimasa Kacaharis]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://karimganj.gov.in/ |title=Home {{!}} Karimganj District {{!}} Government Of Assam, India |access-date=14 August 2021 |archive-date=23 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210723165055/https://karimganj.gov.in/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Cachar">{{cite book |last1=Baruah |first1=Professor of Political Studies Sanjib |last2=Baruah |first2=Sanjib |title=India Against Itself: Assam and the Politics of Nationality |date=29 June 1999 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-3491-6 |page=103 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8k-irMMTnywC&dq=bengalis+in+cachar&pg=PA103 |language=en |access-date=14 August 2021 |archive-date=1 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201230333/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/India_Against_Itself/8k-irMMTnywC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=bengalis+in+cachar&pg=PA103&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> Bhattacharjee describes that the Dimasa kings spoke Bengali, the inscriptions and coins were written in Bengali script and the official language of the court was also [[Bengali language|Bengali]].<ref name="Cachar" /> Migrations to Cachar increased after the British annexation of the region.<ref name="Cachar" />
The native [[Bengali Hindus|Bengali people]] of Southern Assam demanded separate state for themselves within the Bengali majority areas of Assam particularly Bengali majority [[Barak valley]] comprising three districts: [[Cachar district|Cachar]], [[Hailakandi district|Hailakandi]], [[Karimganj district|Karimganj]] along with [[Dima Hasao district|Dima Hasao]] and parts of [[Hojai district|Hojai]] was also demanded to meet the criteria for creating a separate state for themselves by carving out from Assam's Assamese majority [[Brahmaputra Valley]] post [[National Register of Citizens for Assam|NRC]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Assam NRC LIVE: Not Hindus or Muslims, But Bengalis Being Targeted, Says Mamata |url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/assam-nrc-live-not-hindus-or-muslims-but-bengalis-being-targeted-says-mamata-1827521.html |access-date=25 May 2022 |work=News18 |date=30 July 2018 |language=en |archive-date=12 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220712175627/https://www.news18.com/news/india/assam-nrc-live-not-hindus-or-muslims-but-bengalis-being-targeted-says-mamata-1827521.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |agency=PTI |title=Exclusion of Hindu Bengalis from Assam NRC changing political |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/exclusion-of-hindu-bengalis-from-assam-nrc-changing-political-119092200259_1.html |access-date=25 May 2022 |work=Business Standard |date=22 September 2019 |archive-date=30 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220430005842/https://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/exclusion-of-hindu-bengalis-from-assam-nrc-changing-political-119092200259_1.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=What the NRC reveals about the challenges of being Bengali in Assam |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/what-the-nrc-reveals-about-the-challenges-of-being-bengali-in-assam/story-WWTy7KEf4YQpTCZwoT9fEI.html |access-date=25 May 2022 |work=Hindustan Times |date=7 September 2018 |language=en |archive-date=3 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220403221845/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/what-the-nrc-reveals-about-the-challenges-of-being-bengali-in-assam/story-WWTy7KEf4YQpTCZwoT9fEI.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Daniyal |first1=Shoaib |title='An expel Bengalis campaign': Opposing NRC in Assam, Mamata makes her strongest identity pitch yet |url=https://scroll.in/article/888680/an-expel-bengalis-campaign-opposing-assams-nrc-mamata-makes-her-strongest-identity-pitch-yet |access-date=25 May 2022 |work=Scroll.in |date=31 July 2018 |archive-date=7 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407101406/https://scroll.in/article/888680/an-expel-bengalis-campaign-opposing-assams-nrc-mamata-makes-her-strongest-identity-pitch-yet |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Silchar]] is the proposed capital of Barak state.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.east-himalaya.com/silchar.php |title=Silchar |access-date=14 August 2021 |archive-date=28 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928101652/http://www.east-himalaya.com/silchar.php |url-status=live }}</ref> Barak valley is the most neglected part of Assam in terms of its infrastructure development, tourism sector, educational institutions, hospitals, IT industries, G.D.P, H.D.I etc. which is still lagging behind in comparison to the Assam's mainland [[Brahmaputra Valley]] which have access to all of those facilities mentioned above.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Mazumder |first1=Prasanta |title=Statehood demand grows louder in Assam's Barak Valley |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2018/jul/12/statehood-demand-grows-louder-in-assams-barak-valley-1842315.html |access-date=25 May 2022 |work=New Indian Express |date=12 July 2018 |archive-date=4 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220404185447/https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2018/jul/12/statehood-demand-grows-louder-in-assams-barak-valley-1842315.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Barak organization demands creation of separate state - Sentinelassam |url=https://www.sentinelassam.com/news/barak-organization-demands-creation-of-separate-state/ |access-date=25 May 2022 |work=The Sentinel |date=27 December 2016 |language=en |archive-date=18 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220518053144/https://www.sentinelassam.com/news/barak-organization-demands-creation-of-separate-state/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Give up separate Barak state demand: Sonowal to Dutta Roy |url=https://nenow.in/north-east-news/assam/give-up-separate-barak-state-demand.html |access-date=25 May 2022 |work=Northeast Now |date=26 July 2018 |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331110016/https://nenow.in/north-east-news/assam/give-up-separate-barak-state-demand.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Saikia |first1=Arunabh |title=A tale of two valleys: What's behind the demand for a separate Union Territory in southern Assam? |url=https://scroll.in/article/863011/a-tale-of-two-valleys-whats-behind-the-demand-for-a-separate-union-territory-in-southern-assam |access-date=25 May 2022 |work=Scroll.in |date=29 December 2017 |archive-date=28 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220628051038/https://scroll.in/article/863011/a-tale-of-two-valleys-whats-behind-the-demand-for-a-separate-union-territory-in-southern-assam |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Statehood sought for Assam's Barak Valley |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/statehood-sought-for-assams-barak-valley/article25373875.ece |access-date=25 May 2022 |work=The Hindu |date=30 October 2018 |language=en-IN |archive-date=12 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412040549/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/statehood-sought-for-assams-barak-valley/article25373875.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> In fact, the Assam's Southern part have an overall indigenous Bengali majority population, particularly [[Hojai district|Hojai]] have overall (54%) Bengali-speaking population,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Saha |first1=Abhishek |last2=Agarwala |first2=Tora |title=Deadline approaching: What it is to be a name on NRC list — or off it |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/north-east-india/assam/assam-nrc-national-register-of-citizens-dhubri-hojai-5934188/ |access-date=25 May 2022 |work=The Indian Express |date=25 August 2019 |language=en |archive-date=1 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201230334/https://indianexpress.com/article/north-east-india/assam/assam-nrc-national-register-of-citizens-dhubri-hojai-5934188/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Barak Valley]] region have an overwhelming Bengali majority of about 80.3%, while [[Dima Hasao district|Dima Hasao]] have approximately 30.2% significant Bengali plurality on certain pockets specially in the urban areas of the district.<ref name="censusindia.gov.in"/>

====Bodoland====
{{Main|Bodoland}}

[[File:Bodoland Territorial Area Districts.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|Bodoland district map]]
The agitation for the creation of a separate [[Bodoland]] state resulted in an agreement between the Indian Government, the Assam state government and the [[Bodo Liberation Tigers Force]]. According to the agreement made on 10 February 2003, the [[Bodoland Territorial Council]], an entity subordinate to the government of Assam, was created to govern four districts covering 3082 [[Bodo people|Bodo Kachari]]-majority villages in Assam.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/2003/02/26/stories/2003022600041000.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120905180331/http://www.hinduonnet.com/2003/02/26/stories/2003022600041000.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=5 September 2012 |title=The Hindu : Assam: accord and discord |publisher=Hinduonnet.com |access-date=4 March 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/states/assam/documents/papers/memorandum_feb02.htm |title=Memorandum of Settlement on Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC) |publisher=Satp.org |date=10 February 2003 |access-date=4 March 2012 |archive-date=8 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141108080405/http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/states/assam/documents/papers/memorandum_feb02.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Elections to the council were held on 13 May 2003, and [[Hagrama Mohilary]] was sworn in as the chief of the 46-member council on 4 June.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/2005/06/04/stories/2005060401511300.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050615084032/http://www.hindu.com/2005/06/04/stories/2005060401511300.htm | url-status=dead | archive-date=15 June 2005 |location=Chennai, India |work=[[The Hindu]] |title=Mahillary sworn in Bodoland council chief |date=4 June 2005}}</ref> Demographic wise, the Indigenous Bodo tribe constitutes half of the region's population, along with the region have also significant large number of other ethnic minorities which includes: Assamese, Koch Rajbangshi, Garo, Rabha tribe, Adivasis, Nepalis, Tea tribes, Bengalis, Biharis, Marwaris and Muslims.<ref name="censusindia.gov.in">{{cite web |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-16/DDW-C16-STMT-MDDS-1800.XLSX |title=Reference at censusindia.gov.in |access-date=11 October 2020 |archive-date=20 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201020113828/https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-16/DDW-C16-STMT-MDDS-1800.XLSX |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Dimaraji====
{{Main|Dimaraji}}

[[File:Dimaraji map.jpeg|thumb|Map of Dimaraji state]]

The [[Dimasa people]] of northeast India have been demanding a separate state called [[Dimaraji]] or "Dimaland" for several decades. It would comprise the [[Dimasa people|Dimasa]]-[[Dimasa people|Kachari]] inhabited areas, namely [[Dima Hasao district]], [[Cachar district]], parts of [[Nagaon district|Barak Valley, Nagaon district]], [[Hojai district]] and [[Karbi Anglong district]] in Assam together with part of [[Dimapur district]] in [[Nagaland]].
{{clear}}

====Karbiland====
{{See also|Karbi Anglong}}
[[File:Dima_Hasao_und_Karbi_Anglong_Distrikte.svg|thumb|]]

[[Karbi Anglong]] is one of the 35 [[List of districts of Assam|districts]] of Assam. Karbi Anglong was previously known as Mikir Hills. It was part of the Excluded Areas and Partially Excluded Areas (the present North East India) in British India. The British Indian government had never included this area under their government's jurisdiction. Thereby, no government development work or activity were done, nor any tax levied from the hills including Karbi Anglong. The first memorandum for a [[Karbi people|Karbi]] homeland was presented to Governor Reid on 28 October 1940 by [[Semsonsing Ingti]] and Khorsing Terang at Mohongdijua.<ref>Dharamsing Teron, "Opium Curse – A Forgotten Chapter", unpublished.</ref> The Karbi leaders were then, a part of the All Party Hill Leaders' Conference (APHLC) which was formed on 6 July 1960.<ref>J. I. Kathar (IAS Retd), "1971 Aningkan Kilik Kehai Un:e....", ''Thekar ''(5 February 2013); available from {{cite web |url=http://thekararnivang.com/2013/02/05/1971-aningkan-kilik-kehai-un-e-karbi-asongja-atum-karbi-atum-aphan-autonomous-state-kapelong-aphurkimo-2/ |title=Reference at thekararnivang.com| access-date = 14 August 2021| archive-date = 16 May 2018| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180516104826/http://thekararnivang.com/2013/02/05/1971-aningkan-kilik-kehai-un-e-karbi-asongja-atum-karbi-atum-aphan-autonomous-state-kapelong-aphurkimo-2/| url-status = dead}}</ref> The movement again gained momentum when the Karbi Anglong District Council passed a resolution demanding a Separate State in 1981. Then again from 1986 through the leadership of Autonomous State Demand Committee (ASDC), demanded Autonomous statehood of Karbi Anglong and Dima Hasao under Article 244(A). In 2002, the Karbi Anglong Autonomous Council passed another resolution to press for the demand of statehood. Several other memoranda were submitted at different times by several organisations. The demand for a separate state turned violent on 31 July 2013 when student demonstrators set government buildings on fire. Following the incident, the elected leaders of Karbi Anglong jointly submitted a memorandum to the [[Prime Minister of India]] demanding a separate State. Demographic wise, more than half of the Karbi Anglong population is made up of Indigenous Karbi tribe with significant migrants from other parts of India.<ref name="censusindia.gov.in"/>

===Migration from Bangladesh===
Assam has been a major site of migration since the [[Partition of India|Partition]] of the subcontinent, with the first wave being composed largely of [[Bengali Hindu]] [[East Bengali refugees|refugees]] arriving during and shortly after the establishment of India and Pakistan (current day Bangladesh was originally part of Pakistan, known as [[East Pakistan]]) in 1947–1951. Between the period of first patches (1946–1951), around 274,455 Bengali Hindu refugees have arrived from what is now called Bangladesh (former [[East Pakistan]]) in various locations of Assam as permanent settlers and again in second patches between (1952–1958) of the same decade, around 212,545 Bengali Hindus from Bangladesh took shelter in various parts of the state permanently.<ref>India (1951). "Annual Arrival of Refugees in Assam in 1946–1951". Census of India. XII, Part I (I-A): 353 – via web.archive.org.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://iussp2005.princeton.edu/ |title=iussp2005 |access-date=12 July 2021 |archive-date=29 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210629180038/https://iussp2005.princeton.edu/ |url-status=live }} › ...PDF
The Brahmaputra valley of India can be compared only with the Indus ...</ref> After the [[1964 East Pakistan riots]] many Bengali Hindus have poured into Assam as refugees and the number of Hindu migrants in the state rose to 1,068,455 in 1968 (sharply after 4 years of the riot).<ref>{{cite web |title=iussp2005 |url=https://iussp2005.princeton.edu/ |access-date=22 April 2021 |website=iussp2005.princeton.edu |archive-date=22 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422052125/https://iussp2005.princeton.edu/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The fourth patches numbering around 347,555 have just arrived after [[Bangladesh liberation war]] of 1971 as refugees and most of them being Bengali speaking Hindus have decided to stay back in Assam permanently afterwards.<ref>{{cite web |title=Adelaide Research & Scholarship: Home |url=https://digital.library.adelaide.edu.au/ |access-date=22 April 2021 |website=digital.library.adelaide.edu.au |archive-date=19 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419004649/https://digital.library.adelaide.edu.au/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Though the governments of India and Bangladesh made agreements for the repatriation of certain groups of refugees after the second and third waves, a large presence of refugees and other migrants and their descendants remained in the state. Nevertheless, still people of Bangladesh have been immigrating to Assam on regular basis. As per reports, about 635 of Bangladeshi people mostly Hindus, use to immigrate to Assam daily.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pratidintime.com/bangladeshi-people-come-to-assam-regularly-national-hindu-mahasabha/amp/ |title=Bangladeshi people come to Assam regularly: National Hindu Mahasabha - Pratidin Time |access-date=25 May 2022 |archive-date=19 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210719121641/https://www.pratidintime.com/bangladeshi-people-come-to-assam-regularly-national-hindu-mahasabha/amp/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |agency=PTI |title=No Hindus will be left in Bangladesh after 30 years: professor |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/No-Hindus-will-be-left-in-Bangladesh-after-30-years-professor/article16675228.ece |access-date=25 May 2022 |work=The Hindu |date=22 November 2016 |language=en-IN |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331110048/https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/No-Hindus-will-be-left-in-Bangladesh-after-30-years-professor/article16675228.ece |url-status=live }}</ref>

Besides migration caused by displacement, there is also a large and continual unregulated movement between Assam and neighbouring regions of Bangladesh with an exceptionally porous border. The situation is called a risk to Assam's as well as India's security.<ref>{{cite magazine |date=4 June 2014 |title=Illegal immigration from Bangladesh a national problem |url=http://m.indiatoday.in/story/illegal-immigration-from-bangladesh-a-national-problem-kiran-ririju/1/365190.html |magazine=India Today |access-date=25 August 2015 |archive-date=25 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925135012/http://m.indiatoday.in/story/illegal-immigration-from-bangladesh-a-national-problem-kiran-ririju/1/365190.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The continual [[Illegal immigration|illegal entry]] of people into Assam, mostly from [[Bangladesh]], has caused economic upheaval and social and political unrest.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hindustantimes.com/india-news/soon-blueprint-to-detect-deport-illegal-bangladeshis-in-assam/article1-1294954.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141210114855/http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/soon-blueprint-to-detect-deport-illegal-bangladeshis-in-assam/article1-1294954.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-date=10 December 2014 |title=Soon blueprint to deport illegal Bangladeshis in Assam |work=Hindustan Times |date=10 December 2014 |access-date=25 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/states/assam/documents/papers/illegal_migration_in_assam.htm#MIGRATION%20INTO%20ASSAM |title=Illegal Migration into Assam |website=www.satp.org |access-date=9 September 2019 |archive-date=7 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207071852/http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/states/assam/documents/papers/illegal_migration_in_assam.htm#MIGRATION%20INTO%20ASSAM |url-status=live }}</ref> During the [[Assam Movement]] (1979–1985), the [[All Assam Students Union]] (AASU) and others demanded that government stop the influx of [[Immigration|immigrants]] and [[Deportation|deport]] those who had already settled.<ref name="Illegal Migration into Assam">{{cite web |url=https://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/states/assam/documents/papers/illegal_migration_in_assam.htm |title=Illegal Migration into Assam |website=www.satp.org |access-date=18 August 2019 |archive-date=7 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207071852/http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/states/assam/documents/papers/illegal_migration_in_assam.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> During this period, 855 people (the AASU says 860) died in various conflicts with migrants and police.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://assamaccord.assam.gov.in/information-services/martyrs-of-assam-agitation|title=Martyrs of Assam Agitation {{!}} Implementation of Assam Accord {{!}} Government of Assam, India|website=assamaccord.assam.gov.in|access-date=18 August 2019|archive-date=25 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125104516/https://assamaccord.assam.gov.in/information-services/martyrs-of-assam-agitation|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/north-east/assam-prafulla-mahanta-not-to-campaign-for-agp-to-protest-alliance-with-bjp/cid/1686834 |title=Assam: Prafulla Mahanta not to campaign for AGP to protest alliance with BJP |website=www.telegraphindia.com |access-date=18 August 2019 |archive-date=5 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190705144401/https://www.telegraphindia.com/states/north-east/assam-prafulla-mahanta-not-to-campaign-for-agp-to-protest-alliance-with-bjp/cid/1686834 |url-status=live }}</ref> The 1983 Illegal Migrants (Determination by Tribunal) Act, applied only to Assam, decreed that any person who entered the Assam after Bangladesh declared independence from Pakistan in 1971 and without authorisation or travel documents is to be considered a foreigner, with the decision on foreigner status to be carried out by designated tribunals. In 1985, the [[Government of India|Indian Government]] and leaders of the agitation signed the [[Assam accord]] to settle the conflict.<ref name="Illegal Migration into Assam" />

The 1991 census made the changing demographics of border districts more visible.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://voi.org/books/tfst/appii1.htm |title=1. Population Explosion in West Bengal: A Survey |date=20 March 2012|access-date=18 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320024437/http://voi.org/books/tfst/appii1.htm|archive-date=20 March 2012}}</ref><ref name="Illegal Migration into Assam" /> Since 2010, the Indian Government has undertaken the updating of the [[National Register of Citizens for Assam]], and in 2018 the 32.2 million residents of Assam were subject to a review of their citizenship.<ref>{{cite web |date=10 August 2020 |title=The National Register of Citizens and India's commitment deficit to international law |url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/humanrights/2020/08/10/the-national-register-of-citizens-and-indias-commitment-deficit-to-international-law/ |access-date=4 December 2020 |website=LSE Human Rights |archive-date=14 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210114005200/https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/humanrights/2020/08/10/the-national-register-of-citizens-and-indias-commitment-deficit-to-international-law/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In August 2019, India released the names of the 2 million residents of Assam that had been determined to be non-citizens and whose names had therefore been struck off the Register of Citizens, depriving them of rights and making them subject to action, and potentially leaving some of them stateless, and the government has begun deporting non-citizens, while detaining 1,000 others that same year.<ref>{{cite news |date=2 June 2014 |title=Leave in 15 days, BJP MPs tell illegal immigrants in Assam |work=Firstpost |url=http://m.firstpost.com/politics/leave-in-15-days-bjp-mps-tell-illegal-immigrants-in-assam-1553405.html |access-date=25 August 2015 |archive-date=25 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925103455/http://m.firstpost.com/politics/leave-in-15-days-bjp-mps-tell-illegal-immigrants-in-assam-1553405.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=31 August 2019 |title=Assam NRC: What next for 1.9 million 'stateless' Indians? |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-49520593 |access-date=4 December 2020 |archive-date=15 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115123645/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-49520593 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-india-politics-citizenship-idUSKCN1VL04W |title=India leaves nearly two million people off citizens' list, fate... |date=31 August 2019 |work=Reuters |access-date=2 September 2019 |archive-date=1 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190901193524/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-india-politics-citizenship-idUSKCN1VL04W |url-status=live }}</ref>

In January 2019, the Assam's peasant organisation [[Krishak Mukti Sangram Samiti]] (KMSS) claimed that there are around 20 [[lakh]] [[Hinduism in Bangladesh|Hindu Bangladeshis]] in Assam who would become Indian citizens if the [[Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019|Citizenship (Amendment) Bill]] is passed. [[BJP]], however claimed that only eight lakh Hindu Bangladeshis will get citizenship.<ref>{{cite news |title=20 lakh Bangladeshi Hindus to become Indians if Citizenship Bill is passed: Krishak Mukti Sangram Samiti |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/20-lakh-bangladeshi-hindus-to-become-indians-if-citizenship-bill-is-passed-krishak-mukti-sangram-samiti/articleshow/67574226.cms |access-date=3 November 2020 |work=The Economic Times |date=17 January 2019 |archive-date=12 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112021109/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/20-lakh-bangladeshi-hindus-to-become-indians-if-citizenship-bill-is-passed-krishak-mukti-sangram-samiti/articleshow/67574226.cms |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Saikia |first1=Arunabh |title=Bengali Hindus in this Assam village live the anxious life of 'NRC rejects' |url=https://scroll.in/article/971038/residents-of-this-bengali-speaking-hindu-village-in-assam-live-the-anxious-life-of-nrc-rejects |access-date=3 November 2020 |work=Scroll.in |date=30 August 2020 |archive-date=27 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201027145241/https://scroll.in/article/971038/residents-of-this-bengali-speaking-hindu-village-in-assam-live-the-anxious-life-of-nrc-rejects |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Tewari |first1=Ruhi |title=Bengali Hindus in Assam look at Citizenship Bill to get out of NRC mess |url=https://theprint.in/india/bengali-hindus-in-assam-look-at-citizenship-bill-to-get-out-of-nrc-mess/287076/ |access-date=3 November 2020 |work=ThePrint |date=5 September 2019 |archive-date=25 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201025230949/https://theprint.in/india/bengali-hindus-in-assam-look-at-citizenship-bill-to-get-out-of-nrc-mess/287076/ |url-status=live }}</ref> According to various sources, the total number of illegal Hindu Bangladeshis is hard to ascertain.<ref>{{cite news |title=Confusion, hope run high among Assam's Hindu Bengalis |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/national/east-and-northeast/confusion-hope-run-high-among-assams-hindu-bengalis-786418.html |access-date=3 November 2020 |work=Deccan Herald |date=17 December 2019 |language=en |archive-date=25 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211025160713/https://www.deccanherald.com/national/east-and-northeast/confusion-hope-run-high-among-assams-hindu-bengalis-786418.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="FP">{{cite news |title=Citizenship Amendment Act: BJP chasing ghosts in Assam; Census data shows number of Hindu immigrants may have been exaggerated |url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/citizenship-amendment-bill-bjp-chasing-ghosts-in-assam-as-census-data-shows-number-of-hindu-immigrants-couldve-been-exaggerated-5640511.html |access-date=3 November 2020 |work=Firstpost |date=18 December 2019 |archive-date=25 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725082148/https://www.firstpost.com/india/citizenship-amendment-bill-bjp-chasing-ghosts-in-assam-as-census-data-shows-number-of-hindu-immigrants-couldve-been-exaggerated-5640511.html |url-status=live }}</ref> According to the [[Census of India|census data]], the number of Hindu immigrants have been largely exaggerated.<ref name="FP"/>

In February 2020, the Assam Minority Development Board announced plans to segregate illegal Bangladeshi Muslim immigrants from the indigenous Muslims of the state, though some have expressed problems in identifying an indigenous Muslim person. According to the board, there are 1.4 [[crore]] Muslims in the state, of which 1 crore are of Bangladeshi origin.<ref>{{cite news |title=BJP wants to segregate Assamese Muslims from Bangladeshi Muslims, but some ask how |url=https://theprint.in/india/bjp-wants-to-segregate-assamese-muslims-from-bangladeshi-muslims-but-some-ask-how/363736/?amp |first=Mytithili |last=Hazarika |access-date=4 November 2020 |work=The Print |date=12 February 2020 |language=en-IN |archive-date=27 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227034321/https://theprint.in/india/bjp-wants-to-segregate-assamese-muslims-from-bangladeshi-muslims-but-some-ask-how/363736/?amp |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Assam plans survey to identify indigenous Muslim population |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/assam-plans-survey-to-identify-indigenous-muslim-population/article30780667.ece |last=PTI |access-date=4 November 2020 |work=The Hindu |date=10 February 2020 |language=en-IN |archive-date=16 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416195642/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/assam-plans-survey-to-identify-indigenous-muslim-population/article30780667.ece |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/online-census-of-assamese-muslims-launched/article34325747.ece |title=Online census of Assamese Muslims launched |newspaper=The Hindu |date=15 April 2021 |access-date=17 July 2021 |archive-date=16 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516152722/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/online-census-of-assamese-muslims-launched/article34325747.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> A report reveals that out of total 33 districts in Assam, Bangladeshis dominate almost 15 districts of Assam.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.indiablooms.com/news-details/N/34467/hari-shankar-brahma-report-reveals-illegal-bangladeshis-dominates-15-out-of-33-assam-districts-massive-threats-to-indigenous-people.html |title=Hari Shankar Brahma report reveals illegal Bangladeshis dominates 15 out of 33 Assam districts, massive threats to indigenous people | Indiablooms - First Portal on Digital News Management |date=20 September 2017 |access-date=17 July 2021 |archive-date=24 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210524123719/https://www.indiablooms.com/news-details/N/34467/hari-shankar-brahma-report-reveals-illegal-bangladeshis-dominates-15-out-of-33-assam-districts-massive-threats-to-indigenous-people.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/muslim-majority-districts-in-assam-up/articleshow/48682463.cms |title=Muslim majority districts in Assam up | India News |website=[[The Times of India]] |date=26 August 2015 |access-date=17 July 2021 |archive-date=2 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902032515/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/muslim-majority-districts-in-assam-up/articleshow/48682463.cms |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/politics/assam-elections-2021-how-muslims-of-the-state-one-third-of-electorate-voted-in-2016-and-2019-6714131.html |title=Assam Elections 2021 | How Muslims of the State, One-third of Electorate, Voted in 2016 and 2019 |date=31 March 2021 |access-date=17 July 2021 |archive-date=24 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210524123716/https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/politics/assam-elections-2021-how-muslims-of-the-state-one-third-of-electorate-voted-in-2016-and-2019-6714131.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Floods===
{{Main|Brahmaputra floods}}

In the rainy season every year, the Brahmaputra and other rivers overflow their banks and flood adjacent land. Flood waters wash away property including houses and livestock. Damage to crops and fields harms the agricultural sector. Bridges, railway tracks, and roads are also damaged, harming transportation and communication, and in some years requiring food to be air-dropped to isolated towns. Some deaths are attributed to the floods.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://m.ndtv.com/india-news/assam-flood-toll-rises-to-13-chief-minister-gogoi-undertakes-aerial-visit-1210178 |title=Assam Flood Toll Rises to 13 |publisher=NDTV |date=23 August 2015 |access-date=25 August 2015 |archive-date=24 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150824155525/http://m.ndtv.com/india-news/assam-flood-toll-rises-to-13-chief-minister-gogoi-undertakes-aerial-visit-1210178 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://m.hindustantimes.com/india-news/flood-situation-in-assam-worsens-7-dead-over-650-000-displaced/article1-1383226.aspx |title=Flood situation in Assam worsens |work=Hindustan Times |date=23 August 2015 |access-date=25 August 2015}}{{dead link|date=August 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>

===Unemployment===
[[Unemployment]] is a chronic problem in Assam. It is variously blamed on poor [[infrastructure]], limited connectivity, and government policy;<ref>{{cite news |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/indicators/Poor-infrastructure-stringent-policies-bottleneck-for-Assams-growth-Assocham/articleshow/48003338.cms |title=Poor infrastructure, stringent policies bottleneck for Assam's growth |work=The Economic Times |date=9 July 2015 |access-date=17 November 2019 |archive-date=26 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826135157/http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/indicators/poor-infrastructure-stringent-policies-bottleneck-for-assams-growth-assocham/articleshow/48003338.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> on a "poor work culture";<ref>{{cite web |url=http://zeenews.india.com/news/assam/panel-for-study-of-unemployment-problem-in-assam_807697.html |title=Panel for study of unemployment problem in Assam |publisher=Zee News |date=26 October 2012 |access-date=17 November 2019 |archive-date=25 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925135649/http://zeenews.india.com/news/assam/panel-for-study-of-unemployment-problem-in-assam_807697.html |url-status=live }}</ref> on failure to advertise vacancies;<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.assamtribune.com/scripts/mdetails.asp?id=oct1713/at098 |title=Govt inaction deprives local aspirants |first=Shivasish |last=Thakur |publisher=The Assam Tribune |date=17 October 2013 |access-date=17 November 2019 |archive-date=23 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923200248/http://www.assamtribune.com/scripts/mdetails.asp?id=oct1713%2Fat098 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and on government hiring candidates from outside Assam.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.assamtribune.com/scripts/mdetails.asp?id=jan2114/city07 |title=80% of Central jobs occupied by outsiders |publisher=The Assam Tribune |date=21 January 2014 |access-date=17 November 2019 |archive-date=23 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923200246/http://www.assamtribune.com/scripts/mdetails.asp?id=jan2114%2Fcity07 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 2020 a series of [[2020 Assam mob lynchings|violent lynchings]] occurred in the region.

== Education ==
{{Main|Education in Assam}}

{{See also|List of colleges affiliated to Gauhati University}}
{{See also|List of colleges affiliated to Assam University}}
{{See also|List of educational institutions in Assam}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="134">
File:Lakhiganj HSS.jpg|School girls in the classroom, Lakhiganj High School, Assam
File:Assam Cotton College.jpg|[[Cotton University|Cotton University, Guwahati]]
File:IITG acad complex.jpg|Academic complex of [[IIT Guwahati]]
File:NIT_Silchar_Guest_House.jpg|[[National Institute of Technology, Silchar]]
File:Dibrugarh_university_Entrance.jpg|Entrance of [[Dibrugarh University]]
File:Jec frontview.jpg|[[Jorhat Engineering College]] of [[Assam Science and Technology University]]
</gallery>
Universities, colleges and institutions include:

=== Universities ===
* [[Assam University]]
* [[Assam Agricultural University]], [[Jorhat]]
* [[Assam Don Bosco University]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dbuniversity.ac.in/index.php |title=Don Bosco University – Azara – Guwahati – Welcome to Don Bosco University |publisher=Dbuniversity.ac.in |access-date=22 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807103907/http://www.dbuniversity.ac.in/index.php |archive-date=7 August 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Assam down town University]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.adtu.in/ |publisher=adtu.in |title=Assam Down Town University|access-date=22 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110913010242/http://www.adtu.in/|archive-date=13 September 2011|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Assam Rajiv Gandhi University of Cooperative Management]], (ARGUCOM), Sivasagar
* [[Assam Science and Technology University]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://astu.ac.in/astu/ |title=Assam Science and Technology University - Home |access-date=23 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180423170740/https://astu.ac.in/astu/ |archive-date=23 April 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Guwahati]]
* [[Assam Women's University]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://awu.ac.in |title=Assam Women's University |publisher=Assam Women's University | access-date=7 August 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151220050933/http://www.awu.ac.in/ | archive-date=20 December 2015 | url-status=live }}</ref> Jorhat
* [[Bodoland University]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bodolanduniversity.org.in/ |publisher=bodolanduniversity.org.in |title=Bodoland University website|access-date=22 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120419202453/http://bodolanduniversity.org.in/|archive-date=19 April 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> Kokrajhar
* [[Cotton University]], Guwahati
* [[Dibrugarh University]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dibru.ac.in |title=Dibrugarh University |publisher=Dibrugarh University | access-date=7 August 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150810104814/http://www.dibru.ac.in/ | archive-date=10 August 2015 | url-status=live }}</ref> Dibrugarh
* [[Gauhati University]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gauhati.ac.in |title=Gauhati University |publisher=Gauhati University | access-date=7 August 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150810042834/http://www.gauhati.ac.in/ | archive-date=10 August 2015 | url-status=live }}</ref> [[Guwahati]]
* [[Kaziranga University]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kazirangauniversity.in/ |publisher=kazirangauniversity.in |title=Kaziranga University|access-date=22 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103005719/http://kazirangauniversity.in/|archive-date=3 January 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Jorhat
* [[Krishnaguru Adhyatmik Vishvavidyalaya]]
* [[Krishna Kanta Handique State Open University]]
* [[Kumar Bhaskar Varma Sanskrit and Ancient Studies University]]
* [[Mahapurusha Srimanta Sankaradeva Viswavidyalaya]]
* [[National Law University and Judicial Academy, Assam]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://nluassam.ac.in/ |title=National Law University and Judicial Academy, Assam |publisher=National Law University and Judicial Academy, Assam |access-date=11 May 2019 |archive-date=11 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190511082316/http://nluassam.ac.in/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Royal Global University]]
* [[Srimanta Sankaradeva University of Health Sciences]]
* [[Tezpur University]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tezu.ernet.in |title=Tezpur University |publisher=Tezpur University | access-date=7 August 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150810115112/http://www.tezu.ernet.in/ | archive-date=10 August 2015 | url-status=live }}</ref> [[Tezpur]]

=== Medical colleges ===
*[[All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Guwahati|AIIMS]], [[Guwahati]]
* [[Assam Medical College]], [[Dibrugarh]]
*[[Gauhati Medical College and Hospital]], [[Guwahati]]
* [[Jorhat Medical College and Hospital]], [[Jorhat]]
* [[Diphu Medical College and Hospital]], [[Diphu]]
*[[Lakhimpur Medical College and Hospital|Lakhimpur Medical college and Hospital]], [[Lakhimpur district|Lakhimpur]]
* [[Silchar Medical College and Hospital]], [[Silchar]]
* [[Tezpur Medical College]] & Hospital, [[Tezpur]]
*[[Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed Medical College]], [[Barpeta]]
* [[Nagaon Medical College and Hospital]], [[Nagaon]]
* [[Kokrajhar Medical College and Hospital]], [[Kokrajhar]]
*[[Dhubri Medical College and Hospital]], [[Dhubri]]
* [[Regional Dental College, Guwahati|Regional Dental College]], [[Guwahati]]
*[[Government Dental College, Silchar|Government Dental College]], [[Silchar]]

Assam has 12 medical colleges at present with 4 more scheduled to be completed by 2026–27.

=== Engineering and technological colleges ===
* [[Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati|Indian Institute of Technology]] in [[Guwahati]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://iitg.ac.in/ |title=Indian Institute of Technology |access-date=20 October 2021 |archive-date=20 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020151140/https://iitg.ac.in/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Indian Institute of Information Technology, Guwahati]]
* [[National Institute of Technology, Silchar]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nits.ac.in/ |title=National Institute of Technology, Silchar |access-date=17 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150821141331/http://www.nits.ac.in/ |archive-date=21 August 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Assam Engineering College]], [[Guwahati]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://aec.ac.in/ |title=Assam Engineering College |access-date=20 October 2021 |archive-date=20 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020151148/https://aec.ac.in/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Assam Science and Technology University]]
* [[Bineswar Brahma Engineering College]], [[Kokrajhar]]
* [[Central Institute of Technology]], [[Kokrajhar]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://cit.ac.in/ |title=Central Institute of Technology |access-date=20 October 2021 |archive-date=20 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020151142/https://cit.ac.in/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Institute of Engineering and Technology, [[Dibrugarh University]]
* Institute of Science and Technology, [[Guwahati University]]
* [[Jorhat Engineering College]], [[Jorhat]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://jecassam.ac.in// |title=Jorhat Engineering College |access-date=20 October 2021 |archive-date=20 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020151142/https://jecassam.ac.in// |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Jorhat Institute of Science & Technology]], [[Jorhat]]
* [[NETES Institute of Technology & Science Mirza]], {{citation needed|date=August 2015}}
* [[Barak Valley Engineering College]] Nirala [[Karimganj]]
* [[Golaghat Engineering College]], [[Golaghat]]
* [[Dhemaji Engineering College]], [[Dhemaji]]

Research institutes present in the state include National Research Centre on Pig, (ICAR) in Guwahati,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nrcp.in/ |title=National Research Centre on Pig, (ICAR) in Guwahati|access-date=16 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141019122751/http://www.nrcp.in/|archive-date=19 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of Assam}}

[[File:Assam historical pci.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Per capita income of Assam since 1950]]
Assam's economy is based on agriculture and oil. Assam produces more than half of India's tea.<ref>{{cite web |author=Indian Tea Association |title=Tea Scenario |url=http://www.indiatea.org/tea_sencor.php| access-date = 19 April 2015| url-status=dead| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150301002205/http://www.indiatea.org/tea_sencor.php| archive-date = 1 March 2015 }}</ref> The Assam-Arakan basin holds about a quarter of the country's oil reserves, and produces about 12% of its total petroleum.<ref>{{cite web |author=U.S. Energy Information Administration |title=India – Analysis |url=http://www.eia.gov/countries/cab.cfm?fips=in| access-date = 19 April 2015| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150412003452/http://www.eia.gov/countries/cab.cfm?fips=IN| archive-date = 12 April 2015| url-status=live }}</ref> According to the recent estimates,<ref name="government2005">{{cite web |author=Government of Assam |title=Economic Survey of Assam 2005–2006 in NEDFi, Assam Profile, NER Databank |url=http://databank.nedfi.com/index.php?module=pagemaster&PAGE_user_op=view_page&PAGE_id=4| access-date =6 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081231164030/http://databank.nedfi.com/index.php?module=pagemaster&PAGE_user_op=view_page&PAGE_id=4|archive-date=31 December 2008}}</ref> Assam's per capita GDP is [[Indian rupee|₹]]6,157 at constant prices (1993–94) and [[Indian rupee|₹]]10,198 at current prices; almost 40% lower than that in India.<ref>{{cite book |author=Government of Assam |title=Economic Survey of Assam 2001–2002 in Assam Human Development Report, 2003 |page=25 |chapter-url=http://planassam.org/reports/hdr_2003/HRD.htm |chapter=2, Income, Employment and Poverty |chapter-format=PDF |access-date=6 June 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070220213032/http://planassam.org/reports/hdr_2003/HRD.htm |archive-date=20 February 2007}}</ref> According to the recent estimates,<ref name="government2005" /> per capita income in Assam has reached [[Indian rupee|₹]]6756 (1993–94 constant prices) in 2004–05, which is still much lower than India's.

=== Macro-economy ===
Between 1951 and 1979, Assam registered an average level of [[real gross domestic product]] growth compared to the national average.{{sfn|Ahmed|Baruah|Bhuyan|2006|pages=22}} However, the state's real gdp growth lagged behind the national average after 1979 due to socio-political instability.{{sfn|Ahmed|Baruah|Bhuyan|2006|pages=19}} Between 1981 and 2001, Assam's GSDP increased 3.3 per cent annually compared to the national average of 6 per cent.{{sfn|Ahmed|Baruah|Bhuyan|2006|pages=22}} Since the 2000s, Assam has registered higher levels of real gross domestic product growth. [[GSDP]] at [[Real gross domestic product|constant]] (1999-2000) prices increased 5.33 per cent annually between 2002 and 2007.<ref name="The-Hindu">{{Cite web|url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/other/advertorial/article30182738.ece|title=New direction|publisher=[[The Hindu]]|date=3 December 2010|last=Talukdar|first=Sushanta|access-date=6 February 2026}}</ref><ref name="The-Telegraph">{{Cite web|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/north-east/adb-aid-opens-new-avenues/cid/253054|title=ADB aid opens new avenues|publisher=[[The Telegraph (India)]]|date=16 October 2013|last=Reporter|first=Staff|access-date=6 February 2026}}</ref> Real GSDP increased 6.78 per cent annually between 2007 and 2012.<ref name="The-Telegraph"/> Real GSDP at constant (2011-12) prices increased approximately 7.6 per cent annually between 2012 and 2016.<ref name="Ministry-of-Statistics-and-Programme-Implementation"/> Real GSDP at constant (2011-12) prices increased approximately 7.0 per cent annually between 2016 and 2025.<ref name="Ministry-of-Statistics-and-Programme-Implementation">{{Cite web|title=Economy of Assam|url=https://statisticstimes.com/economy/india/assam-economy.php|author=|access-date=6 February 2026|website=statisticstimes.com|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260206072839/https://statisticstimes.com/economy/india/assam-economy.php|archive-date=6 February 2026}}</ref>

=== Tea plantations ===
{{Main|Assam tea}}

[[File:TeaGardenOfAssam.jpg|thumb|upright|<div class="center">A tea garden in Assam: tea is grown at elevations near sea level, giving it a malty sweetness and an earthy flavor, as opposed to the more floral aroma of highland (e.g. [[Darjeeling tea|Darjeeling]], [[Taiwanese tea|Taiwanese]]) teas</div>]]
{{multiple image
| align = right
| image1 =
| width1 = 185
| caption1 = Woman tea worker plucking tea leaves in a tea garden, Assam produces a significant portion of the world's tea
| alt1 = Assam Tea
| image2 = Assam.jpg
| width2 = 185
| caption2 = This 1850 engraving shows the different stages in the process of making tea in Assam
| alt2 = Process of making tea in Assam
}}

=== Employment ===
Unemployment is one of the major problems in Assam. This problem can be attributed to overpopulation and a faulty education system. Every year, large numbers of students obtain higher academic degrees but because of non-availability of proportional vacancies, most of these students remain unemployed.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/indicators/Poor-infrastructure-stringent-policies-bottleneck-for-Assams-growth-Assocham/articleshow/48003338.cms |title=Poor infrastructure, stringent policies bottleneck for Assam's growth |newspaper=The Economic Times |date=9 July 2015 |access-date=25 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826135157/http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/indicators/poor-infrastructure-stringent-policies-bottleneck-for-assams-growth-assocham/articleshow/48003338.cms |archive-date=26 August 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://zeenews.india.com/news/assam/panel-for-study-of-unemployment-problem-in-assam_807697.html |title=Panel for study of unemployment problem in Assam |publisher=Zee News |date=26 October 2012 |access-date=25 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925135649/http://zeenews.india.com/news/assam/panel-for-study-of-unemployment-problem-in-assam_807697.html |archive-date=25 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> A number of employers hire over-qualified or efficient, but under-certified, candidates, or candidates with narrowly defined qualifications. The problem is exacerbated by the growth in the number of technical institutes in Assam which increases the unemployed community of the State. The reluctance on the part of the departments concerned to advertise vacancies in vernacular language has also made matters worse for local unemployed youths particularly for the job-seekers of Grade C and D vacancies.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.assamtribune.com/scripts/mdetails.asp?id=oct1713/at098 |title=The Assam Tribune |publisher=The Assam Tribune |date=17 October 2013 |access-date=25 August 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923200248/http://www.assamtribune.com/scripts/mdetails.asp?id=oct1713%2Fat098 |archive-date=23 September 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.assamtribune.com/scripts/mdetails.asp?id=jan2114/city07 |title=The Assam Tribune |publisher=The Assam Tribune |date=21 January 2014 |access-date=25 August 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923200246/http://www.assamtribune.com/scripts/mdetails.asp?id=jan2114%2Fcity07 |archive-date=23 September 2015}}</ref>

Reduction of the unemployed has been threatened by [[illegal immigration]] from Bangladesh. This has increased the workforce without a commensurate increase in jobs. Immigrants compete with local workers for jobs at lower wages, particularly in construction, domestics, Rickshaw-pullers, and vegetable sellers.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2015-08-05/news/65244059_1_foreigners-tribunals-illegal-migrants-assam |title=Centre taking steps to check illegal immigration into Assam |newspaper=The Economic Times |date=5 August 2015 |access-date=25 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925123930/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2015-08-05/news/65244059_1_foreigners-tribunals-illegal-migrants-assam |archive-date=25 September 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://m.hindustantimes.com/india-news/soon-blueprint-to-detect-deport-illegal-bangladeshis-in-assam/article1-1294954.aspx |archive-url=https://archive.today/20151216080510/http://m.hindustantimes.com/india-news/soon-blueprint-to-detect-deport-illegal-bangladeshis-in-assam/article1-1294954.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 December 2015 |title=Soon blueprint to deport illegal Bangladeshis in Assam |newspaper=Hindustan Times |date=10 December 2014 |access-date=25 August 2015}}</ref> The government has been identifying (via [[National Register of Citizens for Assam|NRC]]) and deporting illegal immigrants. Continued immigration is exceeding deportation.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://m.indiatoday.in/story/illegal-immigration-from-bangladesh-a-national-problem-kiran-ririju/1/365190.html |title=Illegal immigration from Bangladesh a national problem |magazine=India Today |date=4 June 2014 |access-date=25 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925135012/http://m.indiatoday.in/story/illegal-immigration-from-bangladesh-a-national-problem-kiran-ririju/1/365190.html |archive-date=25 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://m.firstpost.com/politics/leave-in-15-days-bjp-mps-tell-illegal-immigrants-in-assam-1553405.html |title=Leave in 15 days, BJP MPs tell illegal immigrants in Assam |work=Firstpost |date=2 June 2014 |access-date=25 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925103455/http://m.firstpost.com/politics/leave-in-15-days-bjp-mps-tell-illegal-immigrants-in-assam-1553405.html |archive-date=25 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Agriculture ===
[[File:Paddy cultivation in Nagaon.jpg|thumb|left|Assamese women busy planting paddy seedlings in their agricultural field in Pahukata village in the Nagaon district of Assam]]
[[File:Rice Field..JPG|thumb|left|A paddy field in Assam]]
In Assam among all the productive sectors, agriculture makes the highest contribution to its domestic sectors, accounting for more than a third of Assam's income and employs 69% of workforce.<ref>{{cite web |author=Government of Assam |title=Economic Survey of Assam 2001–2002 in Assam Human Development Report, 2003 |page=32 |url=http://planassam.org/reports/hdr_2003/HRD.htm |access-date=6 June 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070220213032/http://planassam.org/reports/hdr_2003/HRD.htm |archive-date=20 February 2007}}</ref> Assam's biggest contribution to the world is [[Assam tea]]. It has its own variety, ''Camellia sinensis'' var. ''assamica''. The state produces rice, [[rapeseed]], [[mustard seed]], [[jute]], potato, sweet potato, banana, [[papaya]], [[areca nut]], sugarcane and [[turmeric]].{{citation needed|date=July 2015}}

Assam's agriculture is yet to experience modernisation in a real sense. With implications for food security, per capita food grain production has declined in the past five decades.<ref name="AHDR2003III">UNDP 2004, p. 33</ref> Productivity has increased marginally, but is still low compared to highly productive regions. For instance, the yield of rice (a staple food of Assam) was just 1531 kg per hectare against India's 1927 kg per hectare in 2000–01<ref name="AHDR2003III" /> (which itself is much lower than [[Egypt]]'s 9283, US's 7279, South Korea's 6838, Japan's 6635 and China's 6131 kg per hectare in 2001<ref>{{cite web |date=2007 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|website=faostat |title=core production data|url=http://faostat.fao.org/site/340/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=340| access-date =5 June 2006| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070211180852/http://faostat.fao.org/site/340/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=340| archive-date=11 February 2007}}</ref>). On the other hand, after having strong domestic demand, and with 1.5 million hectares of inland water bodies, numerous rivers and 165 varieties of fishes,<ref>{{cite web |website=Assam Small Farmers' Agri-business Consortium |title=Fish Species of Assam |url=http://www.assamagribusiness.nic.in/2ndoct/fishspeciesofAssam.pdf |access-date = 5 June 2006|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060514212850/http://assamagribusiness.nic.in/2ndoct/fishspeciesofAssam.pdf |archive-date = 14 May 2006|url-status = dead }}</ref> fishing is still in its traditional form and production is not self-sufficient.<ref name="AHDR2003IV">UNDP 2004, p. 37</ref>

Floods in Assam greatly affect the farmers and the families dependent on agriculture because of large-scale damage of agricultural fields and crops by flood water.<ref name="Assam Flood Toll Rises to 13" /><ref name="Flood situation in Assam worsens" /> Every year, flooding from the Brahmaputra and other rivers deluges places in Assam. The water levels of the rivers rise because of rainfall resulting in the rivers overflowing their banks and engulfing nearby areas. Apart from houses and livestock being washed away by flood water, bridges, railway tracks and roads are also damaged by the calamity, which causes communication breakdown in many places. Fatalities are also caused by the natural disaster in many places of the state.<ref name="Assam Flood Toll Rises to 132">{{cite web |url=http://m.ndtv.com/india-news/assam-flood-toll-rises-to-13-chief-minister-gogoi-undertakes-aerial-visit-1210178 |title=Assam Flood Toll Rises to 13 |date=23 August 2015 |publisher=NDTV|access-date=25 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150824155525/http://m.ndtv.com/india-news/assam-flood-toll-rises-to-13-chief-minister-gogoi-undertakes-aerial-visit-1210178|archive-date=24 August 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Flood situation in Assam worsens2">{{cite news |url=http://m.hindustantimes.com/india-news/flood-situation-in-assam-worsens-7-dead-over-650-000-displaced/article1-1383226.aspx |title=Flood situation in Assam worsens |date=23 August 2015 |newspaper=Hindustan Times|access-date=25 August 2015}}{{dead link|date=August 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>{{See also|2016 Assam floods}}

=== Infrastructure ===
On 30 August 2023, [[Maligaon Flyover]] was inaugurated. The flyover is Assam's longest flyover, spanning 2.63 kilometres and connecting Maligaon Chariali to Kamakhya Gate in Guwahati.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Assam To Build 1,000 New Bridges By 2026: Himanta Biswa Sarma |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/assam-to-build-1-000-new-bridges-by-2026-himanta-biswa-sarma-4343162 |work=NDTV |agency=PTI |date=30 August 2023 |access-date=4 September 2023 |archive-date=4 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230904182127/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/assam-to-build-1-000-new-bridges-by-2026-himanta-biswa-sarma-4343162 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Industry ===
Handlooms and handicrafts are traditional industries that continue to survive, especially among rural women, in the state.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 August 2022 |title=National Handloom Day 2022: How self-help groups sustain Indian handicrafts and handlooms |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/lifestyle/art-and-culture/national-handloom-day-2022-how-self-help-groups-sustain-indian-handicrafts-handlooms-har-ghar-tiranga-8074511/ |access-date=27 December 2022 |website=The Indian Express |language=en |archive-date=27 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221227210549/https://indianexpress.com/article/lifestyle/art-and-culture/national-handloom-day-2022-how-self-help-groups-sustain-indian-handicrafts-handlooms-har-ghar-tiranga-8074511/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Assam's proximity to some neighbouring countries such as Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan, benefits its trade. The major [[Border checkpoint]]s through which border trade flows to Bangladesh from Assam are : Sutarkandi (Karimganj), Dhubri, Mankachar (Dhubri) and Golokanj. To facilitate border trade with Bangladesh, Border Trade Centres have been developed at Sutarkandi and [[Mankachar]]. It has been proposed in the 11th five-year plan{{clarify|WHOSE five-year plan?|date=January 2015}} to set up two more Border Trade Center, one at [[Ledo, Assam|Ledo]] connecting China and other at [[Darrang]] connecting Bhutan. There are several Land Custom Stations (LCS) in the state bordering Bangladesh and Bhutan to facilitate border trade.<ref>{{cite web |title=Indian state: Assam |url=http://indiainbusiness.nic.in/know-india/states/assam.htm |publisher=Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India|access-date=1 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130124172800/http://indiainbusiness.nic.in/know-india/states/assam.htm|archive-date=24 January 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The government of India has identified some thrust areas for industrial development of Assam:<ref>{{cite web |title=Indian state: Assam, Thrust Areas |url=http://indiainbusiness.nic.in/know-india/states/assam2.htm#t1 |publisher=Ministry of External Affairs, Govt. of India|access-date=1 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130407180123/http://indiainbusiness.nic.in/know-india/states/assam2.htm#t1|archive-date=7 April 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>
{{div col|content=
* Petroleum and natural gas-based industries
* Industries based on locally available minerals
* Processing of plantation crops
* Food processing industries
* Agri-Horticulture products
* Herbal products
* Biotech products
* Pharmaceuticals
* Chemical and plastic-based industries
* Export oriented industries
* Electronic and IT base industries including services sector
* Paper making industries
* Textiles and sericulture
* Engineering industries
* Cane and bamboo-based industries
* Other handicrafts industry
}}

Although, the region in the eastern periphery of India is landlocked and is linked to the mainland by the narrow [[Siliguri Corridor]] (or the Chicken's Neck) improved transport infrastructure in all the three modes – rail, road and air – and developing urban infrastructure in the cities and towns of Assam are giving a boost to the entire industrial scene. The [[Lokpriya Gopinath Bordoloi International Airport]] at Guwahati, with international flights to [[Bangkok]] and [[Singapore]] offered by [[Druk Air]] of [[Bhutan]], was the 12th busiest airport of India in 2012.<ref>[[List of busiest airports in India by passenger traffic]]</ref> The cities of Guwahati<ref>{{cite web |title=GMC |url=http://gmcportal.in:8080/GMCPortal/ |publisher=Guwahati Municipal Corporation |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104033938/http://gmcportal.in:8080/GMCPortal/ |archive-date=4 November 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Guwahati |url=http://www.indiaunveiled.in/location/Guwahati |publisher=IndiaUnveiled|access-date=1 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104044832/http://www.indiaunveiled.in/location/Guwahati|archive-date=4 November 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> in the west and [[Dibrugarh]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Dibrugarh Municipality |url=http://dibrugarhmunicipality.org/about%20us.html |publisher=Dibrugarh Municipal Board |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140901185847/http://dibrugarhmunicipality.org/About%20Us.html |archive-date=1 September 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Dibrugarh |url=http://www.indiaunveiled.in/location/dibrugarh |publisher=IndiaUnveiled|access-date=1 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104045146/http://www.indiaunveiled.in/location/dibrugarh|archive-date=4 November 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> in the east with good rail,<ref>{{cite web |title=New Delhi Dibrugarh Trains |url=http://indiarailinfo.com/search/dibrugarh-town-dbrt-to-new-delhi-ndls/680/664 |publisher=Indiarailinfo|access-date=1 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130522230505/http://indiarailinfo.com/search/dibrugarh-town-dbrt-to-new-delhi-ndls/680/664|archive-date=22 May 2013|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Trains from Dibrugarh |url=http://indiarailinfo.com/departures/dibrugarh-dbrg/7288 |publisher=Indiarailinfo|access-date=1 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005002950/http://indiarailinfo.com/departures/dibrugarh-dbrg/7288|archive-date=5 October 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> road and air connectivity are the two important nerve centres of Assam, to be selected by Asian Development Bank for providing $200 million for improvement of urban infrastructure.<ref name="Asian Development Bank">{{cite web |title=ADB $200 Million Loan to Upgrade Services in Key Cities of India's Assam State |url=http://www.adb.org/news/adb-200-million-loan-upgrade-services-key-cities-indias-assam-state |publisher=Asian Development Bank|access-date=2 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006122800/http://www.adb.org/news/adb-200-million-loan-upgrade-services-key-cities-indias-assam-state|archive-date=6 October 2014|url-status=live |date=3 October 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=$81-million ADB loan for State urban infrastructure |url=http://www.assamtribune.com/scripts/detailsnew.asp?id=mar1012/at092|access-date=1 August 2013 |newspaper=The Assam Tribune|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103180502/http://www.assamtribune.com/scripts/detailsnew.asp?id=mar1012%2Fat092|archive-date=3 November 2013}}</ref>

Assam is a producer of [[crude oil]] and it accounts for about 15% of India's crude output,<ref>{{cite web |author=Government of Assam |url=http://assamgovt.nic.in/business/resources.asp |title=Available Resources in Assam |publisher=Government of Assam |date=18 February 2007 |access-date=18 July 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716031122/http://assamgovt.nic.in/business/resources.asp |archive-date=16 July 2011}}</ref> exploited by the Assam Oil Company Ltd.,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.assamco.com/ |publisher=assamco.com |title=Assamco|access-date=22 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110903083354/http://www.assamco.com/|archive-date=3 September 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> and natural gas in India. Oil was discovered in [[Makum]] in 1867, and [[Oil well|oil drilling]] started in 1889.<ref name="Oil"/> Most of the oilfields are located in the Eastern Assam region. Assam has four oil refineries in [[Digboi]] (Asia's first and world's second refinery), Guwahati, [[Bongaigaon]] and [[Numaligarh]] and with a total capacity of 7 million metric tonnes (7.7 million [[short ton]]s) per annum. Asia's first refinery was set up at Digboi and discoverer of Digboi oilfield was the Assam Railways & Trading Company Limited (AR&T Co. Ltd.), a registered company of London in 1881.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://investinassam.com/overview.html |title=Government of Assam | Department of Industries and Commerce |publisher=Investinassam.com|access-date=22 September 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120316145633/http://investinassam.com/overview.html |archive-date=16 March 2012}}</ref> One of the biggest public sector oil company of the country [[Oil India Ltd.]] has its plant and headquarters at [[Duliajan]].

There are several other industries, including a chemical [[fertiliser]] plant at [[Namrup]], [[petrochemical]] industries in Namrup and Bongaigaon, paper mills at [[Jagiroad]], [[Hindustan Paper Corporation Ltd. Township Area Panchgram]] and [[Jogighopa]], sugar mills in Barua Bamun Gaon, Chargola, Kampur, cement plants in Bokajan and [[Badarpur, Assam|Badarpur]], and a cosmetics plant of [[Hindustan Unilever]] (HUL) at [[Doom Dooma]]. Moreover, there are other industries such as jute mill, textile and yarn mills, [[Assam silk]], and silk mills. Many of these industries are facing losses and closure due to lack of infrastructure and improper management practices.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iloveindia.com/states/assam/economy.html |title=Assam Economy – Economy of Assam, Business & Economy of Assam India |publisher=iloveindia.com|access-date=18 July 2010 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100710050533/http://www.iloveindia.com/states/assam/economy.html| archive-date= 10 July 2010 | url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Tourism ===
{{Main|Tourism in Assam}}

{{See also|Tourism in North East India}}
Wildlife, cultural, and historical destinations have attracted visitors.

== Culture ==
{{Main|Culture of Assam}}

{{See also|Assamese cinema}}

[[File:Moran Bihu Dance.jpg|thumb|Moran [[bihu dance]] in the traditional attire of the [[Moran people]] on the occasion of [[Bohag Bihu]]]]
[[Assamese Culture]] is described as a [[Hybridity|hybrid]] and [[syncretic]] in nature developed due to the assimilation of numerous ethnic groups and cultural practices of [[Austroasiatic]], [[Tibeto-Burman]], [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Indo-aryan]] and [[Tai peoples|Tai]] inhabitants. Therefore, both local elements or the local elements in Sanskritised forms are distinctly found.<ref name="BKakatiAIFD">{{Citation |first=Banikanta |last=Kakati |title=Assamese, Its Formation and Development, 2nd edition |place=Guwahati, India |publisher=Lawyer's Book Stall |year=1962}}</ref> The major milestones in the evolution of Assamese culture are:
[[File:Dakhinpat Temple.jpg|thumb|{{center|Dakhinpat Satra of [[Majuli]]}}]]

* Assimilation in the [[Kamarupa|Kamarupa kingdom]] for almost 800 years ([[Varman dynasty]] for 300 years, [[Mlechchha dynasty]] for 250 years and the [[Pala dynasty (Kamarupa)|Pala dynasty]] for 200 years.<ref name="HKBarpujariCHOA" />
* Establishment of the [[Chutia kingdom]] in the 12th century in eastern Assam and assimilation for next 400 years.<ref name="HKBarpujariCHOA" />
* Establishment of the [[Ahom kingdom]] in the 13th century CE and assimilation for next 600 years.<ref name="HKBarpujariCHOA" />
* Assimilation in the [[Koch kingdom]] (15th–16th century CE) of western Assam and Kachari kingdom (12th–18th century CE) of central and southern Assam.<ref name="HKBarpujariCHOA" />
* [[Ekasarana Dharma|Neo-Vaishanavite (Ekasarana Dharma)]] Movement led by [[Srimanta Shankardeva]] (''Xongkordeu'') made an enormous impact on the socio-cultural and religious sphere of Assam. This 15th century religio-cultural movement under the leadership of [[Srimanta Sankardeva]] (Xonkordeu) and his disciples have provided another dimension to Assamese culture. A renewed Hinduisation in local forms took place, which was initially greatly supported by the Koch and later by the Ahom kingdoms. The resultant social institutions such as ''[[namghar]]'' and ''[[sattra]]'' (the Vaishnav Monasteries) have become an integral part of the Assamese way of life. The movement contributed greatly towards language, literature, and performing and fine arts.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}}. It was also an egalitarian reform movement as it broke away with the old caste barriers of Brahmanical Hinduism and converted into its fold people of all castes, ethnicity and religions (including [[Islam]]).
[[File:Celebrations 1.jpg|thumb|left|{{center|Presenting ''[[Gayan Bayan]]'' in [[Majuli]], the Neo-Vaishnavite cultural heritage of Assam}}]]
The modern culture has been influenced by events in the British and the post-British era. [[Assamese language|Assamese]] language was standardised by American [[Baptist]] [[Missionary|Missionaries]] such as [[Nathan Brown (missionary)|Nathan Brown]], [[Miles Bronson and the Noctes|Dr. Miles Bronson]] and local pundits such as [[Hemchandra Barua]] with the dialect spoken in undivided [[Sibsagar]] district (the centre of the Ahom kingdom) forming the standardised dialect.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}}

Increasing efforts of standardisation in the 20th century alienated the localised forms present in different areas and with the less-assimilated [[Ethnic groups|ethno-cultural groups]] (many source-cultures). However, Assamese culture in its hybrid form and nature is one of the richest, still developing and in true sense is a '[[cultural system]]' with sub-systems. Many source-cultures of the Assamese cultural-system are still surviving either as sub-systems or as sister entities, e.g. the; [[Bodo people|Bodo]] or [[Karbi people|Karbi]] or [[Mising people|Mishing]]. It is important to keep the broader system closer to its roots and at the same time focus on development of the sub-systems.

Some of the common and unique cultural traits in the region are peoples' respect towards [[Betel nut|areca-nut]] and [[betel]] leaves, symbolic ([[gamosa]], arnai, etc.), [[Assam silk|traditional silk]] garments (e.g. [[mekhela chador]], traditional dress of Assamese women) and towards forefathers and elderly. Moreover, great hospitality and bamboo culture are common.

=== Symbols ===
{{See also|List of Assam state symbols|Jaapi}}
[[File:Missing tribal woman weaving Mekhela sador at Majuli.jpg|thumb|upright|{{center|A [[Mising people|Mising]] woman using a handloom to weave a traditional [[Mekhela chador]] dress.}}]]
[[File:Jaapi with Gamosa.jpg|thumb|upright|{{center|A decorative Assamese ''[[Jaapi]]'' laid over a Gamosa}}]]
Symbolism is an ancient cultural practice in Assam and is still a very important part of the Assamese way of life. Various elements are used to represent beliefs, feelings, pride, identity, etc.

'''Tamulpan''' (areca nut and betel leaves),
'''[[Xorai]]''' and '''[[Gamosa of Assam|Gamosa]]''' are three important symbolic elements in Assamese culture. ''Tamulpan'' or ''guapan'' (gua from ''kwa'') are considered along with the Gamosa (a typical woven cotton or silk cloth with embroidery) as the offers of devotion, respect and friendship. The Tamulpan-tradition is an ancient one and is being followed since time-immemorial with roots in the aboriginal Austric culture. ''[[Xorai]]'' is a traditionally manufactured bell-metal article of great respect and is used as a container-medium while performing respectful offers. Moreover, symbolically many ethno-cultural groups use specific clothes to portray respect and pride.

[[File:Monikutdhekiakhowa.JPG|thumb|Singhasan of manikut in a [[Namghar]]]]
There were many other symbolic elements and designs, but are now only found in literature, art, sculpture, architecture, etc. or in use today for only religious purposes. The typical designs of ''Assamese-lion'', ''dragon'' (ngi-ngao-kham), and ''flying-lion'' (Naam-singho) are used for symbolising various purposes and occasions. The archaeological sites such as the [[Madan Kamdev]] (c. 9th–10th centuries CE) exhibits mass-scale use of lions, dragon-lions and many other figures of demons to show case power and prosperity.[[File:Jhumura.jpg|thumb|Jhumura]] The Vaishnavite monasteries ([[Satra (Ekasarana Dharma)|Sattras]]) and many other architectural sites of the late medieval period display the use of lions and dragons for symbolic effects.

=== Festivals and traditions ===
{{Main|List of festivals in Assam}}

{{See also|Domahi|Bohag Bihu|Magh Bihu|Bwisagu}}
[[File:Bihu dancer with a horn.jpg|thumb|upright|{{center|A [[Bihu]] dancer blowing a ''[[pepa (musical instrument)|pepa]]'' (horn)}}]]
[[File:Jaapi,Dhemaji.jpg|thumb|upright|Ornate [[Jaapi]]s from [[Dhemaji]]]]
[[File:Meji burning in Kamrup, Assam.jpg|thumb|The burning of Meji (an offering to the god of fire) during the festival of [[Magh Bihu|Maghor bihu]]]]
There are diversified important traditional festivals in Assam. Bihu is the most important festival of Assam and is celebrated all over the state.The Assamese new year (Ek Bohag) is celebrated in April of the Gregorian calendar.

[[File:Husori in Bihu.jpg|thumb|left|Husori in Bihu]]

'''[[Bihu]]''' is described as the soul and life of Assam. It is a series of three prominent festivals each associated with a certain stage during the cultivation of paddy. Primarily a secular festival celebrated to mark the seasons and the significant points of a cultivator's life over yearly cycle. Three Bihus, ''rongali'' (in the month of ''bohag''), celebrated with the coming of spring and the beginning of the sowing season; ''kongali'' or ''kati'', the barren bihu when the fields are lush but the barns are empty and ''[[Bhogali Bihu|bhogali]]'' (in the month of ''magh''), the thanksgiving when the crops have been harvested and the granaries are full. Bihu songs and [[Bihu dance]] are associated with ''rongali'' and ''bhogali'' bihu. The day before the each bihu is known as the day of '''Uruka'''. The first day of 'Rongali bihu' is called 'Goru bihu' (the bihu of the cows), when the cows are taken to the nearby rivers or ponds to be bathed with special care. In recent times the form and nature of celebration has changed with the growth of urban centres.

[[File:Bwisagu Dance.jpg|thumb|Traditional Bwisagu dance]]
'''[[Bwisagu]]''' is one of the most popular seasonal festivals of the [[Bodo people|Bodos]]. '''Baisagu''' is a Boro word which originated from the word "Baisa" which means year or age, and "Agu" meaning starting or beginning. Bwisagu marks the beginning of the new year. It is celebrated at the beginning of the first month of the Boro year, around mid-April in the Gregorian Calendar. It has remarkable similarities to the festival of Rongali Bihu, also celebrated at the same time in Assam. The worship of Bathow is done on the second day of the festival.

[[File:Mising girls dancing During Ali-Aye-Ligang.jpg|thumb|left|[[Mising people|Mising girls]] dancing during [[Ali Ai Ligang]] (Spring Festival) to the tunes of [[Oi Nitom|Oi:Nitom]]]]

'''[[Ali Ai Ligang|Ali-Aye-Ligang]]''' or Ali-Ai-Ligang is a spring festivital associated with agriculture celebrated by the indigenous [[Mising people|Mising]] of Assam and other Northeast Indian states. It marks the beginning of the Ahu paddy cultivation in the farms. The term "Ali" denotes legumes, "Aye" means seed and "Ligang" is 'to sow'. The festival is celebrated on a Wednesday of the month of Fagun of the Assamese calendar and in the month of February in English calendar. The ''gumrag'' dance is associated with this festival.

[[File:Barman Dimasa Girl.jpg|thumb|[[Dimasa people|Dimasa women]] performing Baidima, the traditional dance of the Dimasa people.]]

'''[[Dimasa people#Festivals|Bushu Dima]]''' or simply Bushu is a major harvest festival of the [[Dimasa people]]. This festival is celebrated during the end of January. Officially 27 January has been declared as the day of Bushu Dima festival. The Dimasa people celebrate by playing musical instruments- khram (a type of drum), muri (a kind of huge long flute). The people dance to the different tunes of "murithai" and each dance has its own unique name, the most prominent being the "Baidima" There are three types of Bushu celebrated by the Dimasas- Jidap, Surem and Hangsou.

'''[[Me-Dam-Me-Phi]]''' is the day of the [[Veneration of the dead#Assam|veneration of the dead ancestors]] for the [[Tai-Ahom]] community. It bears striking similarity in the concept of ancestor worship that the Tai-Ahoms share with other peoples originating from the [[Tai peoples|Tai]] stock. The word ‘Me’ means offerings, ‘Dam’ means ancestors and ‘Phi’ means gods. According to the Buranjis, Lengdon (God of thunder), the king of Mong Phi ([[Tian|The heavenly kingdom]]), sent two of his grandsons Khunlung and Khunlai to Mong Ri Mong Ram (present day [[Xishuangbanna]], China) and at that moment Ye-Cheng-Pha, the God of knowledge, advised them to perform Umpha, Phuralong, Mae Dam Mae Phi and Rik-khwan rituals in different months of the year on different occasions to pay respect to the [[Tai folk religion|Phi-Dam]] (Ancestral Spirit) and Khwan elements. Since that day till now Mae Dam Mae Phi has been observed by the Tai-Ahoms. It is celebrated on 31 January every year according to the Gregorian calendar.
[[File:Dovan.jpg|thumb|[[Rongker]] is celebrated every year by the [[Karbi people]]]]
'''[[Rongker]]''' also called '''[[Rongker|Dehal]]''' is an annual winter festival of merriment celebrated by the [[Karbi people]] of Assam. It is observed in order to appease the local deities associated with the welfare of the village and the harvest of crops and also to get rid of all evil spirits. Although the festival does have a specific time it is usually observed at the beginning of the Karbi New year (Thang thang) which falls on February of the Gregorian calendar.

[[File:Holi at Barpeta22.jpg|thumb|left|Doul Mohutsav (Holi) in [[Barpeta Satra]]]]

'''Doul Mohutsav''', also called '''Fakuwa''' or Doul Utsav is a festival of colours and happiness popular in [[Lower Assam]] and especially in [[Barpeta district|Barpeta]]. It is synonymous with the festival of [[Holi]] celebrated in Northern India. Holigeets of Barpeta are sung which is incredibly popular and enthralls the heart of every Assamese. These holigeets are the exquisite compositions in praise of [[Lord Krishna]]. People from different parts of the state visit Barpeta Satra to experience this colourful and joyful festival.

'''Chavang Kut''' is a post harvesting festival of the [[Kuki people]]. The festival is celebrated on the first day of November every year. Hence, this particular day has been officially declared as a Restricted Holiday by the Assam government. In the past, the celebration was primarily important in the religio-cultural sense. The rhythmic movements of the dances in the festival were inspired by animals, agricultural techniques and showed their relationship with ecology. Today, the celebration witnesses the shifting of stages and is revamped to suit new contexts and interpretations. The traditional dances which form the core of the festival is now performed in out-of-village settings and are staged in a secular public sphere. In Assam, the Kukis mainly reside in the two autonomous districts of Dima Hasao and Karbi Anglong.

'''Beshoma''' is a festival of [[Deshi people]] (one of the indigenous [[Muslim]] groups of Assam).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://nenow.in/north-east-news/bihu-myriad-colours.html |title=Bihu – Its Myriad Colours |website=NORTHEAST NOW |date=20 April 2018 |language=en-US |access-date=8 September 2019 |archive-date=21 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190921143102/https://nenow.in/north-east-news/bihu-myriad-colours.html |url-status=live }}</ref> It is a celebration of sowing crop. The Beshoma starts on the last day of Chaitra and goes on until the sixth of Baisakh. With varying locations it is also called ''Bishma'' or ''Chait-Boishne.''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thethumbprintmag.com/beshoma-the-rongali-bihu-of-deshi-muslims/|title=Beshoma: The 'Rongali Bihu' of Deshi Muslims {{!}} The Thumb Print - A magazine from the East|language=en-US|access-date=8 September 2019|archive-date=8 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190908113448/http://www.thethumbprintmag.com/beshoma-the-rongali-bihu-of-deshi-muslims/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Moreover, there are other important traditional festivals being celebrated every year on different occasions at different places. Many of these are celebrated by different ethno-cultural groups (sub and sister cultures). Some of these are:
{{div col|content=

* [[Wanshuwa Festival]] (by the [[Tiwa (Lalung)|Tiwas]])
* [[Kherai]] (by the Bodos)
* Garja
* Bisu ([[Deori people|Deori]])
* Awnkham Gwrlwi Janai
* Chojun/Swarak
* Deusi Bhailo ( Traditional Nepalese songs that are sung during the festival of light "Dipavali" and also called "Tihar" )
* Sokk-erroi
* Hacha-kekan
* Hapsa Hatarnai
* [[Porag]]
* [[Bathow]]
* [[Wangala]]
* [[Bohuwa dance|Bohuwa nrityo]]
}}
[[File:Durga puja pandel.jpg|left|thumb|Durga puja in [[Guwahati]].]]
[[Christmas]] is observed with great merriment by [[Christians]] of various denominations, including [[Catholics]], [[Protestants]] and [[Baptists]], throughout Assam.
[[Durga Puja]] is widely celebrated across the state. Muslims celebrate two Eids ([[Eid ul-Fitr]] and [[Eid al-Adha]]) with much eagerness all over Assam.

Other few yearly celebrations are [[Brahmaputra Beach Festival]], Guwahati, [[Kaziranga Elephant Festival]], Kaziranga and [[Dehing Patkai Festival]], Lekhapani, Karbi Youth Festival of Diphu and International Jatinga Festival, [[Jatinga]] can not be forgotten. Few yearly ''Mela's'' like [[Jonbeel Mela]], started in the 15th century by the Ahom Kings, [[Ambubachi Mela]], Guwahati etc.

Asom Divas or [[Sukapha]] Divas (2 December) is celebrated to commemorate the advent of the first king of the [[Ahom kingdom]] in Assam after his journey over the Patkai Hills.

[[Lachit Borphukan|Lachit]] Divas (24 November) is celebrated on the birth anniversary of the great Ahom general [[Lachit Borphukan]]. [[Sarbananda Sonowal]], the chief minister of Assam took part in the Lachit Divas celebration at the statue of Lachit Borphukan at Brahmaputra riverfront on 24 November 2017.
He said, the first countrywide celebration of 'Lachit Divas' would take place in New Delhi followed by state capitals such as Hyderabad, Bangalore and Kolkata in a phased manner.

=== Music, dance, and drama ===
{{See also|Music of Assam|Folk dances of Assam|Mobile theatre in Assam}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="134">
File:Krishnakahi Kashyap performing Sattriya Dance.jpg|[[Sattriya|Sattriya Dance]] (An [[Indian classical dance|Indian classical dance form]])
File:Bodo dance.jpg|Bodo dance [[Bagurumba]]
File:Tea Tribe Dance of Assam.jpg|Jhumair dance in Tea garden
File:Lukobadya nagara.jpg|Nagara drums
File:Dr. Bhupen Hazarika, Assam, India.jpg|[[Bhupen Hazarika]] (Music maestro of Assam)

File:Bihu dance of Assam.jpg|Assamese youth performing Bihu Dance
File:Statue of Kalaguru, Rupkonwar and Natasurjya at Guwahati (Side view).JPG|Statue of [[Bishnu Prasad Rabha]], [[Jyoti Prasad Agarwala]] and [[Phani Sarma]] at District Library, Guwahati.
File:Vauna't Laxmi Narayan.jpg|[[Bhaona]] performance
File:Mask of Samaguri Satra 5.jpg|Mask making in [[Majuli]]
</gallery>
[[File:Assamese mythological play "Surjya Mandirot Surjyasta".jpg|thumb|right|Actors of Abinaswar Gosthi performs the play "Surjya Mandirot Surjyasta" directed by Dipok Borah]]
Performing arts include: ''[[Ankia Naat]]'' (''Onkeeya Naat''), a traditional Vaishnav dance-drama (''[[Bhaona]]'') popular since the 15th century CE.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} It makes use of large masks of gods, goddesses, demons and animals and in between the plays a ''Sutradhar'' (''Xutrodhar'') continues to narrate the story.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}

Besides [[Bihu dance]] and ''Husori'' performed during the [[Bohag Bihu]], dance forms of tribal minorities such as; ''Kushan nritra'' of Rajbongshi's, ''[[Bagurumba]]'' and ''Bordoicikhla'' dance of [[Bodo people|Bodos]], Mishing Bihu, ''Banjar Kekan'' performed during ''Chomangkan'' by [[Karbis]], [[Jhumair]] of [[Tea-garden community of Assam|Tea-garden community]] are some of the major folk dances.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bharatonline.com/assam/dance/index.html |title=Dances of Assam – Folk Dances of Assam, Traditional Dances of Assam |website=www.bharatonline.com|access-date=20 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620153050/http://www.bharatonline.com/assam/dance/index.html|archive-date=20 June 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> ''[[Sattriya]]'' (''Sotriya'') dance related to Vaishnav tradition is a classical form of dance. Moreover, there are several other age-old dance-forms such as Barpeta's ''Bhortal Nritya'', [[Deodhani dance|Deodhani Nritya]], ''[[Ojapali]]'', ''Beula Dance'', ''Ka Shad Inglong Kardom'', ''Nimso Kerung'', etc. The tradition of modern moving theatres is typical of Assam with immense popularity of many [[Mobile theatre in Assam|Mobile theatre]] groups such as [[Kohinoor Theatre|Kohinoor]], [[Brindabon Theatre|Brindabon]], etc.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}.

[[File:Sattriya Group Dance.webm|thumb|Satriya Dance]]
The indigenous folk music has influenced the growth of a modern idiom, that finds expression in the music of artists like [[Jyoti Prasad Agarwala]], [[Bishnuprasad Rabha]], [[Parvati Prasad Baruwa]], [[Bhupen Hazarika]], [[Pratima Barua Pandey]], [[Anima Choudhury]], [[Rudra Baruah|Luit Konwar Rudra Baruah]], [[Jayanta Hazarika]], [[Khagen Mahanta]], [[Dipali Barthakur]], among many others. Among the new generation, [[Zubeen Garg]], [[Angaraag Mahanta]] and [[Joi Barua]].{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}
There is an award given in the honour of [[Bishnu Prasad Rabha]] for achievements in the cultural/music world of Assam by the state government.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}

Contemporary Assamese music also saw the rise of [[Zubeen Garg]], one of the most popular modern singers of the region. His Assamese song "Mayabini Raatir Bukut" has achieved iconic status and is widely regarded as an anthem in Assam.<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Das |first1=Yudhajit Shankar |date=22 September 2025 |title=A phenomenon called Zubeen Garg and how Mayabini became an anthem |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/zubeen-garg-funeral-song-mayabini-ratir-bukut-song-anthem-procession-guwahati-fans-grief-2791423-2025-09-22 |magazine=India Today |access-date=23 September 2025}}</ref>

=== Cuisine ===
{{Main|Assamese cuisine}}

[[File:Assamese Thali.jpg|thumb|Assamese Thali]]
Typically, an Assamese meal consists of many things such as ''[[Bhat (food)|bhat]]'' ([[rice]]) with ''dayl/ daly'' ([[lentils]]), ''masor jool'' ([[fish]] stew), ''mangxô'' ([[meat]] [[stew]]) and stir fried [[Leaf vegetable|greens]] or [[herbs]] and [[vegetables]].{{citation needed|date=July 2015}}

[[File:Bhut-Jolokia-pc.jpg|thumb|[[Bhut jolokia]] (ghost pepper) is used in preparation of traditional meat stews]]

The two main characteristics of a traditional meal in Assam are ''[[Assamese cuisine#Khar|khar]]'' (an Alkali, named after its main ingredient) and ''tenga'' (preparations bearing a characteristically [[Flavoring|rich]] and [[Pungent|tangy]] flavour). ''Khorika'' is the smoked or fire grilled meat eaten with meals. Pitika (mash) is another delicacy of Assam. It includes alu pitika (mashed potatoes), bilahi (tomatoes), bengena (brinjals) or even masor pitika (fish). Commonly consumed varieties of [[meat]] include [[Goat meat|Mutton]], [[fowl]], [[duck]]/[[goose]], [[fish]], [[pigeon]], [[pork]] and [[beef]] (among [[Muslim]] and [[Christianity|Christian]] indigenous Assamese ethnic groups). [[Grasshoppers]], [[locusts]], [[silkworms]], [[snails]], [[eels]], [[bat]] wild [[fowl]], [[squab]] and other birds, and [[venison]] are also eaten, albeit in moderation.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}}

[[File:Pork s.jpg|thumb|A [[Mising people|Mising]] girl roasting fish and pork in bamboo tubes (''bahor sungha'') in an ethnic festival]]
''Khorisa'' (fermented [[bamboo shoots]]) are used at times to flavour curries while they can also be preserved and made into pickles. ''Koldil'' ([[banana flower]]) and [[squash (plant)|squash]] are also used in popular culinary preparations.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/north-east/khorisa-turns-natural-preservative/cid/383338 |title=khorisa turns natural preservative|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190411174159/https://www.telegraphindia.com/states/north-east/khorisa-turns-natural-preservative/cid/383338|archive-date=11 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Rice beer.jpg|thumb|[[Apo (drink)|Rice beer]] is consumed on festivals by the various indigenous ethnic communities of Assam]]

A variety of different rice cultivars are grown and consumed in different ways, viz., roasted, ground, boiled or just soaked.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}}

Fish curries made of [[free range]] [[Wildlife|wild]] [[fish]] as well as ''Bôralí'', ''rôu'', ''illish'', or ''sitôl'' are the most popular.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}}

Another favourite combination is ''[[luchi]]'' (fried flatbread), a curry which can be vegetarian or non-vegetarian.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}}

Many indigenous Assamese communities households still continue to brew their traditional alcoholic [[beverages]]; examples include: Laupani, Xaaj, Paniyo, Jou, Joumai, Hor, [[Apo (drink)|Apong]], Sujen etc. Such beverages are served during traditional festivities. Declining them is considered socially offensive.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}}

Assamese food is generally served in traditional [[bell metal]] dishes and platters like ''Kanhi'', ''Maihang'' and so on.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}}

<gallery mode="packed" heights="134">
File:Patot dia maas - Homemade - Assam DSC 012.jpg|Fish cooked in banana leaves
File:Narikol Pitha From Assam - Sweets Table - Wikiconference India 2023 - Hyderabad 2023-04-28 7673.jpg|Narikol [[Pitha#In Assam|Pitha]] is a very popular dish especially during [[Bihu]]
File:GHOST CHILLY CHICKEN.jpg
</gallery>

=== Literature ===
{{Main|Assamese literature}}

[[File:Laksminath Bezbaruah.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Lakshminath Bezbaroa]], one of the foremost figures of [[Assamese literature]]]]
[[File:Sankaradeva.jpg|thumb|upright|Imaginary portrait of [[Sankardev|Srimanta Sankardeva]] by [[Bishnu Prasad Rabha]]<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/north-east/portrait-of-a-poet-as-an-artist-bishnu-rabha-s-family-compiles-coffee-table-book-on-his-paintings/cid/797447 |title=Portrait of a poet as an artist |date=13 October 2003 |work=The Telegraph |access-date=26 June 2019 |archive-date=26 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190626125652/https://www.telegraphindia.com/states/north-east/portrait-of-a-poet-as-an-artist-bishnu-rabha-s-family-compiles-coffee-table-book-on-his-paintings/cid/797447 |url-status=live }}</ref>|alt=]]

Assamese literature dates back to the composition of [[Charyapada]], and later on works like [[Saptakanda Ramayana]] by [[Madhava Kandali]], which is the first translation of the [[Ramayana]] into an [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan language]], contributed to Assamese literature.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KYLpvaKJIMEC&pg=PA3 |title=Medieval Indian Literature: Surveys and selections |last=Paniker |first=K. Ayyappa |date=1997 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |isbn=9788126003655 |access-date=1 October 2020 |archive-date=1 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201230336/https://books.google.com/books?id=KYLpvaKJIMEC&pg=PA3 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7LFzfbhmJcMC&pg=PA74 |title=The History of Medieval Vaishnavism in Orissa |last=Mukherjee |first=Prabhat |date=1981 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=9788120602298 |access-date=3 May 2020 |archive-date=1 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201230336/https://books.google.com/books?id=7LFzfbhmJcMC&pg=PA74 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vedamsbooks.in/no17118/madhava-kandali-ramayana-composed-assamese-by-sage-great-son-soil-fourteenth-century-ad-2-volumes-translated-into-english-shanti-lal-nagar |title=Madhava Kandali Ramayana : Composed in Assamese by Sage Madhava Kandali, the great son of the soil in the Fourteenth Century CE/Translated into English by Shanti Lal Nagar Translated into English by Shanti Lal Nagar Vedams Books 9788121509350 |website=www.vedamsbooks.in |access-date=3 September 2019 |archive-date=3 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190903103038/http://www.vedamsbooks.in/no17118/madhava-kandali-ramayana-composed-assamese-by-sage-great-son-soil-fourteenth-century-ad-2-volumes-translated-into-english-shanti-lal-nagar |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Sankardev]]a's [[Borgeet]], [[Ankia Naat]], [[Bhaona]] and [[Satra (Ekasarana Dharma)|Satra]] tradition backed the 15th-16th century Assamese literature.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bordowathan.com/about-bordowa-than/|title=Bordowa Than – Bordowa Than|access-date=3 September 2019|archive-date=3 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190903103034/http://www.bordowathan.com/about-bordowa-than/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Early history of the Vaiṣṇava faith and movement in Assam : Śaṅkaradeva and his times |last=Neog |first=Maheswar |date=1980 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=8120800079 |oclc=15304755}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stewart |first1=Tony K. |last2=Neog |first2=Maheswar |date=April 1988 |title=Early History of the Vaiṣṇava Faith and Movement in Assam: Śaṅkaradeva and His Times |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=108 |issue=2 |page=334 |doi=10.2307/603683 |issn=0003-0279 |jstor=603683}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HkR4Fv37URkC&pg=PA189 |title=North East India: A Sociological Study |last1=Sociology |first1=Dibrugarh University Department of |last2=Region |first2=Dibrugarh University Centre for Sociological Study of Frontier |last3=Association |first3=North East India Sociological |date=1978 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |access-date=3 May 2020 |archive-date=1 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201230338/https://books.google.com/books?id=HkR4Fv37URkC&pg=PA189 |url-status=live }}</ref> Written during the Reign of [[Ahoms]], the [[Buranji]]s are notable literary works which are prominently historical manuscripts.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.97610 |title=Aspects of Early Assamese Literature |last=Kakati |first=Banikanta Ed |date=1953}}</ref> Most literary works are written in Assamese although other local language such as [[Bodo language|Bodo]] and [[Dimasa language|Dimasa]] are also represented.{{citation needed|date=May 2015}} In the 19th and 20th century, Assamese and other literature was modernised by authors including [[Lakshminath Bezbaroa]], [[Birinchi Kumar Barua]], [[Hem Barua]], [[Mamoni Raisom Goswami|Dr. Mamoni Raisom Goswami]], [[Bhabendra Nath Saikia]], [[Birendra Kumar Bhattacharya]], [[Hiren Bhattacharyya]], [[Homen Borgohain]], [[Bhabananda Deka]], [[Rebati Mohan Dutta Choudhury]], [[Mahim Bora]], [[Lil Bahadur Chettri]], [[Syed Abdul Malik]], [[Surendranath Medhi]], [[Hiren Gohain]] etc.

=== Fine arts ===
{{Main|Painting of Assam}}

The archaic [[Mauryan Empire|Mauryan]] [[Stupas]] discovered in and around [[Goalpara district]] are the earliest examples (c. 300 BCE to c. 100 CE) of ancient art and architectural works. The remains discovered in Daparvatiya (''Doporboteeya'') archaeological site with a beautiful doorframe in Tezpur are identified as the best examples of artwork in ancient Assam with influence of [[Sarnath]] School of Art of the late [[Gupta empire|Gupta]] period.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}}

Painting is an ancient tradition of Assam. [[Xuanzang]] (7th century CE) mentions that among the Kamarupa king Bhaskaravarma's gifts to [[Harshavardhana]] there were paintings and painted objects, some of which were on Assamese silk. Many of the manuscripts such as [[Hastividyarnava]] (A Treatise on Elephants), the ''Chitra Bhagawata'' and in the Gita Govinda from the Middle Ages bear excellent examples of traditional paintings.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}}

=== Traditional crafts ===
{{Main|Traditional crafts of Assam|Bell and brass metal crafts of Assam}}

{{See also|Assam silk}}
Assam has a rich tradition of [[crafts]], [[caning (furniture)|Cane]] and bamboo craft, bell metal and [[Brass instrument|brass]] craft, silk and cotton [[weaving]], toy and [[mask]] making, [[pottery]] and [[terracotta]] work, wood craft, [[jewellery]] making, and musical instruments making have remained as major traditions.<ref>{{cite web |website=Assam Tourism|date=2002 |publisher=Government of Assam |title=Arts and Crafts of Assam in About Assam |url=http://www.assamtourism.org/arts.htm| access-date =3 June 2007| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070407040421/http://www.assamtourism.org/arts.htm| archive-date = 7 April 2007}}</ref>

Cane and bamboo craft provide the most commonly used utilities in daily life, ranging from household utilities, weaving accessories, fishing accessories, furniture, musical instruments, construction materials, etc. Utilities and symbolic articles such as ''Sorai'' and ''Bota'' made from bell metal and brass are found in every Assamese household.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Ranjan |first1=M.P. |last2=Iyer |first2=Nilam |last3=Pandya |first3=Ghanshyam |title=Bamboo and Cane Crafts of Northeast India |publisher=National Institute of Design}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |first=T.K. |last=Nath |title=Bamboo Cane and Assam |place=Guwahati, India |publisher=Industrial Development Bank of India, Small Industries Development Bank of India}}</ref> [[Hajo]] and [[Sarthebari]] (''Sorthebaary'') are the most important centres of traditional bell-metal and brass crafts. Assam is the home of several types of silks, the most prestigious are: Muga – the natural golden silk, Pat – a creamy-bright-silver coloured silk and Eri – a variety used for manufacturing warm clothes for winter. Apart from [[Sualkuchi]] (''Xualkuchi''), the centre for the traditional silk industry, in almost every parts of the Brahmaputra Valley, rural households produce silk and silk garments with excellent embroidery designs. Moreover, various ethno-cultural groups in Assam make different types of cotton garments with unique embroidery designs and wonderful colour combinations.

Moreover, Assam possesses unique crafts of toy and mask making mostly concentrated in the Vaishnav Monasteries, pottery and [[terracotta]] work in western Assam districts and wood craft, iron craft, jewellery, etc. in many places across the region.

<gallery mode="packed" heights="134">
File:Citra Bhagavata illustration 2.jpg|''[[Sanchipat]]'' with [[Painting of Assam|Assamese illuminations]]
File:Assam Xorai.png|[[Bell metal]] made sorai and sophura are important parts of culture
File:Assam Knahor Knahi.jpg|Assam Kahor ([[Bell metal]]) Kahi
File:Brihat Ushaharan, an medieval-century manuscript painting of Assam from Budhbari Satra.jpg|Brihat Ushaharan, an 18th-century [[Painting of Assam|manuscript illustration]] of Garhgoan school of painting
File:Mayurpokhyi Kehl-Nao (Pleasure boat) of Kamalabari Satra.jpg|Mayurpokhyi Khel-Nao (Pleasure boat) of medieval Assam, used by Badula Ata of Kamalabari Satra
File:Mahisamardini, 18th century Devi bronze metal sculpture from Tinsukia.jpg|18th century Mahisamardini bronze metal sculpture
File:Hastividyarnava Illustration.png|A painting from the folio of [[Hastividyarnava]]
File:Mask in the Indian Museum, Kolkata 15.jpg|Mask art of Assam

File:Vrindavani Vastra.jpg|[[Vrindavani vastra|Vrindavani Vastra]] was woven in the 16th century under the guidance of [[Sankardev|Mahapurush Shrimanta Shankardev]]. The large drape illustrates the childhood activities of Lord Krishna in Vrindavan.
</gallery>

== Media ==
Print media include Assamese dailies ''[[Amar Asom]]'', ''[[Asomiya Khabar]]'', ''[[Asomiya Pratidin]]'', ''[[Dainik Agradoot]]'', ''[[Dainik Janambhumi]]'', ''[[Dainik Asam]]'', ''[[Gana Adhikar]]'', ''[[Janasadharan]]'' and ''[[Niyomiya Barta]]''. ''Asom Bani'', ''Sadin'' and ''Janambhumi'' are Assamese weekly newspapers. The English dailies of Assam include ''[[The Assam Tribune]]'', ''[[The Sentinel (Guwahati)|The Sentinel]]'', ''[[The Telegraph (Calcutta)|The Telegraph]]'', ''[[The Times of India]]'', ''[[The North East Times]]'', ''Eastern Chronicle'' and ''The Hills Times''. ''[[Thekar]]'', in the Karbi language has the largest circulation of any daily from Karbi Anglong district. ''Bodosa'' has the highest circulation of any Bodo daily from BTR. ''[[Dainik Jugasankha]]'' is a Bengali daily with editions from Dibrugarh, Guwahati, Silchar and Kolkata. ''Dainik Samayik Prasanga'', ''Dainik Prantojyoti'', ''Dainik Janakantha'' and ''Nababarta Prasanga'' are other prominent Bengali dailies published in the Barak Valley towns of Karimganj and Silchar. Hindi dailies include ''Purvanchal Prahari'', ''Pratah Khabar'' and ''Dainik Purvoday''.

Broadcasting stations of [[All India Radio]] have been established in 22 cities across the state. Local news and music are the main priority for those stations. Assam has three public service broadcasting service stations of state-owned [[DD Assam|Doordarshan]] at Dibrugarh, Guwahati and Silchar. The Guwahati-based satellite news channels include [[Assam Talks]], [[DY 365]], [[News Live (Indian TV channel)|News Live]], [[News18 Assam North East]], [[North East Live]], [[Prag News]] and [[Pratidin Time]].

==Geographical indications==
===Boka Chaul===
[[Boka Chaul]] was awarded the [[List of geographical indications in India|Geographical Indication]] (GI) status tag from the [[Geographical Indication Registry (India)|Geographical Indications Registry]], under the [[Government of India|Union Government of India]], on 30 July 2018 and is valid until 24 July 2026.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |title=Boka Chaul |url=https://search.ipindia.gov.in/GIRPublic/Application/Details/558 |website=Intellectual Property India |access-date=12 December 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Borthakur |first1=Anwesha |last2=Singh |first2=Pardeep |title=Addressing the Climate Crisis in the Indian Himalayas: Can Traditional Ecological Knowledge Help? |date=2024 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-031-50097-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_2D8EAAAQBAJ&dq=boka+chaul&pg=PA85 |access-date=11 December 2024 |language=en}}</ref>

Lotus Progressive Centre (LPC) and Centre for Environment Education (CEE) from Guwahati, proposed the GI registration of Boka Chaul.<ref>{{cite news |title=Geographical Indication tag sought for Boka Chaul |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/guwahati/geographical-indication-tag-sought-for-boka-chaul/articleshow/54399008.cms |access-date=11 December 2024 |work=The Times of India |date=19 September 2016}}</ref> After filing the application in July 2018, the rice was granted the GI tag in 2023 by the Geographical Indication Registry in [[Chennai]], making the name "Boka Chaul" exclusive to the rice grown in the region. It thus became the second rice variety from Assam after [[Joha rice]] and the 7th type of goods from Assam to earn the GI tag.<ref>{{cite web |title=APEDA launches gluten-free millet products for all age groups at affordable prices |url=https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleseDetailm.aspx?PRID=1821647&reg=3&lang=1 |website=Press Information Bureau |access-date=11 December 2024}}</ref>

The GI tag protects the rice from illegal selling and marketing, and gives it legal protection and a unique identity.

== See also ==
{{Portal|size=tiny|India}}
* [[Outline of Assam]] – comprehensive topic guide listing articles about Assam
* [[List of people from Assam]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Sources ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite book|url=https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Election_Politics_in_Assam/4oKKAAAAMAAJ?hl|title=Election Politics in Assam: Issues, Trends, and People's Mandate|last1=Ahmed|first1=Abu Nasar Saied|last2=Baruah|first2=Joydeep|last3=Bhuyan|first3=Ratna|year=2006|isbn=978-8183700573|publisher=Akansha Publishing House}}
*{{citation |first=S L |last=Baruah |title=A Comprehensive History of Assam |year=1986 |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal}}
*{{cite thesis |last1=Gogoi |first1=Khagen |title=Ahom warfare evolution nature and strategy |type=PhD |date=2017 |publisher=Gauhati University |hdl=10603/224778}}
*{{Cite journal |last=Lahiri |first=Nayanjot |date=1984 |title=The Pre-Ahom Roots of Medieval Assam |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3517004 |journal=Social Scientist |volume=12 |issue=6 |pages=60–69 |doi=10.2307/3517004 |jstor=3517004 |issn=0970-0293 |access-date=1 July 2021 |archive-date=9 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709232228/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3517004 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite book |last=Saikia |first=Yasmin |author-link=Yasmin Saikia |title=Fragmented Memories: Struggling to be Tai-Ahom in India |date=2004 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=082238616X |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WfSmsuO6QugC |language=en |access-date=30 May 2020 |archive-date=1 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201230337/https://books.google.com/books?id=WfSmsuO6QugC |url-status=live }}
* {{Citation |last=Shin |first=Jae-Eun |contribution=Region Formed and Imagined: Reconsidering temporal, spatial and social context of Kamarupa |year=2018 |title=Modern Practices in North East India: History, Culture, Representation| editor-last = Dzüvichü| editor-first = Lipokmar |editor2-last=Baruah |editor2-first=Manjeet |place=London & New York |publisher=Routledge}}
* {{citation |last=Directorate of Information and Public Relations |first=Government of Assam |title=Assam at a Glance |url=http://janasanyogassam.nic.in/assamataglance.htm |access-date=25 May 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071006161204/http://janasanyogassam.nic.in/assamataglance.htm |archive-date=6 October 2007 }}
* {{Cite book |last1=Goswami |first1=G. C. |last2=Tamuli |first2=Jyotiprakash |editor-last=Cardona |editor-first=George |editor2-last=Jain |editor2-first=Dhanesh |contribution=Asamiya |title=The Indo-Aryan Languages |year=2003 |pages=391–443 |publisher=Routledge |ref={{harvid|Goswami|2003}}}}
* {{citation |author=National Commission for Women |title=Situational Analysis of Women in Assam |year=2004 |url=http://www.ncw.nic.in/pdfreports/Gender%20Profile-Assam.pdf |access-date=5 July 2006 |postscript=. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070615001750/http://www.ncw.nic.in/pdfreports/Gender%20Profile-Assam.pdf |archive-date=15 June 2007 }}
* {{Citation |last=Masica |first=Colin P. |author-link=Colin Masica |year=1993 |title=Indo-Aryan Languages |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J3RSHWePhXwC |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521299442 |access-date=24 April 2020 |archive-date=1 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201230338/https://books.google.com/books?id=J3RSHWePhXwC |url-status=live }}
* {{citation |last=National Mission on Bamboo Applications |title=Assam, State Profile |url=http://www.bambootech.org/subsubTOP.asp?subsubid=101&subid=37&sname=STATE |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929160940/http://www.bambootech.org/subsubTOP.asp?subsubid=101&subid=37&sname=STATE |url-status=dead |archive-date=29 September 2007 }}
* {{citation |last=Revenue Department |first=Government of Assam |title=Revenue Administration – Districts and Subdivisions |url=http://revenueassam.nic.in/ |access-date=25 May 2007 |archive-date=24 July 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070724043102/http://revenueassam.nic.in/ |url-status=live }}
* Singh, K. S (ed) (2003) ''People of India: Assam Vol XV Parts I and II'', Anthropological Survey of India, Seagull Books, Calcutta
* {{cite journal |last1=Das |first1=Paromita |year=2005 |title=The Naraka Legends, Aryanisation and the "varnasramadharma" in the Brahmaputra Valley |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=66 |pages=224–230 |publisher=Indian History Congress |jstor=44145840}}
* {{citation |last=UNDP |author-link=UNDP |url=http://planassam.org/reports/hdr_2003/HRD.htm |title=Chapter 2, Income, Employment and Poverty in Assam Human Development Report, 2003 |publisher=Government of Assam |year=2004 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070220213032/http://planassam.org/reports/hdr_2003/HRD.htm |archive-date=20 February 2007 }}
* {{citation |last=Wandrey |first=C. J. |title=Sylhet-Kopili/Barail-Tipam Composite Total Petroleum System, Assam Geologic Province, India |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/2208/D/b2208-d.pdf |journal=US Geological Survey Bulletin |volume=2208-D |year=2004 |page=5 |doi=10.3133/b2208D |bibcode=2004usgs.rept....5W |access-date=30 May 2007 |archive-date=5 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070605131756/http://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/2208/D/b2208-d.pdf |url-status=live }}
*{{cite book |last=Casson |first=Lionel |author-link=Lionel Casson |title=The Periplus Maris Erythraei: Text With Introduction, Translation, and Commentary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qQWYkSs51rEC |year=1989 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-04060-8 |access-date=27 September 2020 |archive-date=1 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201230338/https://books.google.com/books?id=qQWYkSs51rEC |url-status=live }}
{{Refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|40em}}
* '''Online books and material'''
** [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.125418 An account of Assam] (1800) by J.P. Wade
** [https://books.google.com/books?id=OOBAAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA444 An account of the kingdom of Heerumba] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201230337/https://books.google.co.in/books?id=OOBAAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA444 |date=1 February 2023 }} (1819) by Friend of India
** [https://archive.org/stream/astatisticalacc32huntgoog A statistical account of Assam] (1879) by WW Hunter
** [https://archive.org/details/assamattitudetof034931mbp Assam Attitude to Federalism] (1984)by Girin Phukon
** [https://archive.org/stream/aglimpseassam00wardgoog A Glimpse of Assam] (1884) by Susan Ward
** [https://archive.org/stream/ahistoryassam00gaitgoog A history of Assam] (1906) by Edward Gait
** [https://archive.org/details/physicalpolitica00assa Physical and political geography of the province of Assam] (1896) by Assam Secretariat Printing Office
** [https://archive.org/stream/outlinegrammark00endlgoog Outline Grammar of the Kachári (Bārā) Language as Spoken in District Darrang, Assam](1884) by Sidney Endle
** [https://archive.org/stream/anoutlinegramma00browgoog An outline grammar of the Deori Chutiya language spoken in upper Assam](1895) by William Barclay Brown
** [https://archive.org/stream/travelsandadven00butlgoog Travels and adventures in the province of Assam, during a residence of fourteen years] (1855) by John Butler
* '''Language and literature'''
** {{citation |first=Mahendra |last=Bara |title=The Evolution of the Assamese Script |place=Jorhat, Assam |publisher=Asam Sahitya Sabha |year=1981}}
** {{citation |last=Barpujari |first=H. K. |title=Amerikan Michanerisakal aru Unabimsa Satikar Asam |place=Jorhat, Assam |publisher=Asam Sahitya Sabha |year=1983}}
** {{citation |last=Barua |first=Birinchi Kumar |title=History of Assamese Literature |place=Guwahati |publisher=East-West Centre Press |year=1965}}
** {{citation |last=Barua |first=Hem |title=Assamese Literature |place=New Delhi |publisher=National Book Trust |year=1965}}
** {{citation |last=Brown |first=William Barclay |title=An Outline Grammar of the Deori Chutiya Language Spoken in Upper Assam with an Introduction, Illustrative Sentences, and Short Vocabulary |place=Shillong |publisher=The Assam Secretariat Printing Office |year=1895}}
** {{citation |last=Deka |first=Bhabananda |title=Industrialisation of Assam |place=Guwahati |publisher=Gopal Das |year=1961}}
** {{citation |last=Dhekial Phukan |first=Anandaram |title=Anandaram Dhekiyal Phukanar Racana Samgrah |place=Guwahati |publisher=Lawyer's Book Stall |year=1977}}
** {{citation |last=Endle |first=Sidney |title=Outline of the Kachari (Baro) Language as Spoken in District Darrang, Assam |place=Shillong |publisher=Assam Secretariat Press |year=1884}}
** {{citation |last=Gogoi |first=Lila |title=Sahitya-Samskriti-Buranji |place=Dibrugarh |publisher=New Book Stall |year=1972}}
** {{citation |last=Gogoi |first=Lila |title=The Buranjis, Historical Literature of Assam |place=New Delhi |publisher=Omsons Publications |year=1986}}
** {{citation |last=Goswami |first=Praphulladatta |title=Folk-Literature of Assam |place=Guwahati |publisher=Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies in Assam |year=1954}}
** {{citation |last=Gurdon |first=Philip Richard Thornhagh |title=Some Assamese Proverbs |place=Shillong |publisher=The Assam Secretariat Printing Office |date=2009 |orig-date=1896 |isbn=978-1-104-30633-5 |edition=Reprint}}
** {{citation |last=Kakati |first=Banikanta |title=Aspects of Early Assamese Literature |place=Guwahati |publisher=Gauhati University |year=1959}}
** {{citation |last=Kay |first=S. P. |title=An English-Mikir Vocabulary |place=Shillong |publisher=The Assam Secretariat Printing Office |year=1904}}
** {{citation |last=Medhi |first=Kaliram |title=Assamese Grammar and Origin of the Assamese Language |place=Guwahati |publisher=Assam Publication Board |year=1988}}
** {{citation |last=Miles |first=Bronson |title=A Dictionary in Assamese and English |place=Sibsagar, Assam |publisher=American Baptist Mission Press |year=1867}}
** {{citation |last=Morey |first=Stephen |title=The Tai languages of Assam : a grammar and texts |place=Canberra |publisher=Pacific Linguistics |year=2005 |isbn=0-85883-549-5}}
* '''History'''
** {{citation |last=Antrobus |first=H. |title=A History of the Assam Company |place=Edinburgh |publisher=Private Printing by T. and A. Constable |year=1957}}
** {{citation |last=Barabaruwa |first=Hiteswara |title=Ahomar Din |place=Guwahati |publisher=Assam Publication Board |year=1981}}
** {{citation |last=Barooah |first=Nirode K. |title=David Scott in North-East India, 1802–1831 |place=New Delhi |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers |year=1970}}
** {{citation |last=Barua |first=Harakanta |title=Asama Buranji |place=Guwahati |publisher=Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies, Assam |year=1962}}
** {{citation |last=Barpujari |first=H. K. |title=Assam in the Days of the Company, 1826–1858 |place=Guwahati |publisher=Lawyer's Book Stall |year=1963}}
** {{citation |last=Barpujari |first=H. K. |title=Political History of Assam. Department for the Preparation of Political History of Assam |place=Guwahati |publisher=Government of Assam |year=1977}}
** {{citation |last=Barua |first=Kanak Lal |title=An Early History of Kamarupa, From the Earliest Time to the Sixteenth Century |place=Guwahati |publisher=Lawyers Book Stall}}
** {{citation |last=Barua |first=Kanak Lal |title=Studies in the Early History of Assam |place=Jorhat, Assam |publisher=Asam Sahitya Sabha}}
** {{citation |last=Baruah |first=Swarna Lata |title=Last days of Ahom monarchy : a history of Assam from 1769 to 1826 |place=New Delhi |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers |year=1993}}
** {{citation |last=Bhuyan |first=Suryya Kumar |title=Anglo-Assamese Relations, 1771–1826 |place=Guwahati |publisher=Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies in Assam |year=1949}}
** {{citation |last=Bhuyan |first=Suryya Kumar |title=Annals of the Delhi Badshahate |place=Guwahati |publisher=Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies, Government of Assam |year=1947}}
** {{citation |last=Bhuyan |first=Suryya Kumar |title=Atan Buragohain and His Times |place=Guwahati |publisher=Lawyer's Book Stall |year=1957}}
** {{citation |last=Bhuyan |first=Suryya Kumar |title=Deodhai Asam Buranji |place=Guwahati |publisher=Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies |year=1962}}
** {{citation |last=Bhuyan |first=Suryya Kumar |title=Early British Relations with Assam |place=Shillong |publisher=Assam Secretariat Press |year=1928}}
** {{citation |last=Bhuyan |first=Suryya Kumar |title=Lachit Barphukan and His Times |place=Guwahati |publisher=Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies, Government of Assam |year=1947}}
** {{citation |last=Bhuyan |first=Suryya Kumar |title=Satasari Asama Buranji |place=Guwahati |publisher=Gauhati University |year=1964}}
** {{citation |last=Bhuyan |first=Suryya Kumar |title=Swargadew Rajeswarasimha |place=Guwahati |publisher=Assam Publication Board |year=1975}}
** {{citation |last=Buchanan |first=Francis Hamilton |title=An Account of Assam |place=Guwahati |publisher=Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies |year=1963}}
** {{citation |last=Duara Barbarua |first=Srinath |title=Tungkhungia Buranji |place=Bombay |publisher=H. Milford, Oxford University Press |year=1933}}
** {{citation |last=Gait |first=Edward Albert |title=A History of Assam |place=Calcutta |publisher=Thacker, Spink & Co. |year=1926}}
** {{citation |last=Gogoi |first=Padmeswar |title=The Tai and the Tai Kingdoms |place=Guwahati |publisher=Gauhati University |year=1968}}
** {{citation |last=Guha |first=Amalendu |title=The Ahom Political System |place=Calcutta |publisher=Centre for Studies in Social Sciences |year=1983}}
** {{citation |first=William Wilson |last=Hunter |title=A Statistical Account of Assam |place=London |publisher=Trubner & Co. |year=1879}}
* '''Tradition and Culture'''
** {{citation |last=Barkath |first=Sukumar |title=Hastibidyarnnara Sarasamgraha (English & Assamese), 18th Century |place=Guwahati |publisher=Assam Publication Board |year=1976}}
** {{citation |last=Barua |first=Birinchi Kumar |title=A Cultural History of Assam |place=Guwahati |publisher=Lawyer's Book Stall |year=1969}}
** {{citation |last=Barua |first=Birinchi Kumar |title=Sankardeva |place=Guwahati |publisher=Assam Academy for Cultural Relations |year=1960}}
** {{citation |last=Gandhiya |first=Jayakanta |title=Huncari, Mukali Bihu, aru Bihunac |place=Dibrugarh |publisher=Banalata |year=1988}}
** {{citation |last=Goswami |first=Praphulladatta |title=Ballads and Tales of Assam |place=Guwahati |publisher=Gauhati University |year=1960}}
** {{citation |last=Goswami |first=Praphulladatta |title=Bohag Bihu of Assam and Bihu Songs |place=Guwahati |publisher=Assam Publication Board |year=1988}}
** {{citation |last=Mahanta |first=Pona |title=Western Influence on Modern Assamese Drama |place=Delhi |publisher=Mittal Publications |year=1985}}
** {{citation |last=Medhi |first=Kaliram |title=Studies in the Vaisnava Literature and Culture of Assam |place=Jorhat, Assam |publisher=Asam Sahitya Sabha |year=1978}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|voy=Bihar|s=The New International Encyclopædia/Assam}}
* '''Government'''
** [http://www.assam.gov.in/ Official site] of the [[Government of Assam]]
** [https://web.archive.org/web/20150915011554/http://assamtourism.gov.in/ Official Tourism site of Assam]
* '''General information'''
*** {{OSM relation|2025886}}

{{Geographic location
|Centre = Assam
|North = [[Samdrup Jongkhar District]], {{flag|Bhutan}}
|Northeast = [[Arunachal Pradesh]]
|East = [[Nagaland]]
|Southeast = [[Manipur]]
|South = [[Mizoram]]
|Southwest = [[Meghalaya]] and [[Tripura]] [[Sylhet Division]], {{flag|Bangladesh}}
|West = [[West Bengal]] [[Rangpur Division]], {{flag|Bangladesh}}
|Northwest = [[Sarpang District]], {{flag|Bhutan}}
}}

{{Assam}}
{{States and territories of India}}
{{North East India|state=collapsed}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Assam| ]]
[[Category:Northeast India]]
[[Category:States and union territories of India]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1947]]
[[Category:Tourism in Northeast India]]

Shefali Gupta

2026-04-30T02:25:44Z

Indianeagle1: new - done

{{Short description|Indian politician (born 1976)}}
{{Orphan|date=November 2024}}

{{Infobox person
| name = Shefali Gupta
| image = File:Shefali Gupta.jpg
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1976|11|22}}
| birth_place = [[Siliguri]], India
| occupation = Politician
| education = Master of Science and Bachelor of Education
}}
'''Shefali Gupta''' (born 22 November 1976) is a politician and social worker of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP),<ref>{{cite news |title=BJP leader Shefali Gupta organises Saavan Festival in Hazaribagh |url=https://www.livehindustan.com/jharkhand/hazaribagh/story-bjp-leader-shefali-gupta-organizes-saavan-festival-in-hazaribagh-201724005817618.html |access-date=20 September 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=BJP leader Shefali Gupta started the campaign by putting the tricolour on every house in Amritnagar in the Sadar Assembly constituency |url=https://www.swatantraprabhat.com/article/143990/bjp-leader-shefali-gupta-started-the-campaign-by-putting-tricolor |access-date=20 September 2024 |work=www.swatantraprabhat.com |date=12 August 2024 |language=hi}}</ref> active in Jharkhand.<ref>{{cite news |title=The passion of the players towards football is amazing: Shefali Gupta |url=https://www.bhaskar.com/local/jharkhand/hazaribagh/news/the-passion-of-the-players-towards-football-is-amazing-shefali-gupta-133441202.html |access-date=20 September 2024}}</ref>

==Early life==
Shefali was born in 1976 in the [[Indian state]] of [[West Bengal]]. She pursued her education with an [[MSc]] and [[Bachelor of Education]] from [[Banaras Hindu University]], while she also holds a degree in [[Fashion Design]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Long-distance rail service will soon be available to Hazaribagh: MP |url=https://www.prabhatkhabar.com/state/jharkhand/hazaribagh/prime-minister-narendra-modi-laid-the-foundation |access-date=20 September 2024 |work=Prabhat Khabar |date=15 September 2024 |language=hi}}</ref>

==Career==
Shefali has undertaken much interest in [[social welfare]]. From 2005 to 2010, she was associated with the[East Central Railway Women's Welfare Organisation (ECRWWO), where she worked extensively for those disabled and new-born. She also worked with the Divisional Railway Women's Welfare Organisation (DRWWO).<ref>{{cite news |title=Karma celebrated under the leadership of BJP leader Shefali Gupta |url=https://balajeenews.com/topnews/states-of-india/jharkhand-news/11217/ |access-date=20 September 2024 |work=Balajee News {{!}} balajeenews.com {{!}} Balajee News |date=9 September 2024}}</ref>

From 2014 to 2019, she worked with various groups to combat child and women trafficking,<ref>{{cite news |title=Students take a pledge to end child marriage and child trafficking |url=https://khabarmantra.net/students-took-oath-to-free-from-child-marriage-and-child-trafficking-29038.html |access-date=20 September 2024 |work=Khabar Mantra |date=11 November 2023}}</ref> and between 2019 and 2021, she helped people in need during the COVID-19 pandemic.<ref>{{cite news |title=Hazaribagh: Spectacular performances of Jharkhandi dance seen in Karma festival held at Curzon Ground |url=https://www.news11bharat.com/hazaribagh-amazing-performances-of-jharkhandi-dance-seen-in-karma-mahotsav-organized-at-curzon-ground/jharkhand/news/47413.html |access-date=20 September 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=BJP leader Shefali Gupta attended the morning prayer at Saraswati Shishu Vidya Mandir, Babu Gaon Korra |url=https://samajjagran.in/bjp-leader-shefali-gupta-attended-the-morning-vandana-organized-at-saraswati-shishu-vidya-mandir-babugaon-korra/ |access-date=20 September 2024 |work=Samaj Jagran |date=23 July 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Pioneer |first1=The |title=Shefali Gupta's NGO Om Aarohanam Sansthan helps the poor during COVID |url=https://www.dailypioneer.com/2021/pioneer-exclusive/jab-suppliers-prefer-elite-private-hospitals-at-cost-of-smaller-ones.html |access-date=20 September 2024 |work=The Pioneer |language=en}}</ref>

Currently, she is an active member of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] and is involved in [[social welfare]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Singh |first1=A. |title=Hazaribagh: Sports lead to physical and mental development: Shefali Gupta |url=https://khabarmantra.net/hazaribagh-games-leads-to-physical-and-mental-development-shefali-gupta-59383.html |access-date=20 September 2024 |work=Khabar Mantra |date=13 August 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Inauguration of Khelo Vidhan Sabha Hazaribagh Football Tournament 2024 courtesy of BJP leader Shefali Gupta |url=https://samajjagran.in/khelo-vidhan-sabha-hazaribagh-football-tournament-2024-to-be-inaugurated-courtesy-of-bjp-leader-shefali-gupta/ |access-date=20 September 2024 |work=Samaj Jagran |date=3 August 2024}}</ref> For the first time, Karma Utsav was celebrated in Hazaribagh.<ref>{{cite news |title=Katkammadag: Hazaribagh: Grand conclusion of Karma festival under the leadership of BJP leader Shefali Gupta at Curzon Ground |url=https://public.app/video/sp_8jn55v6bpokqd |access-date=20 September 2024 |work=Public |language=en}}</ref> Shefali made special arrangements for devotees during Rath Yatra. She is always ready to ensure that the Prime Minister's schemes are effectively implemented and reach the last person.<ref>{{cite news |title=BJP leader Shefali Gupta organised a grand feast at the Rath Yatra fair held in the premises of Jagannath Dham Temple in Silwar |url=https://sns24news.in/bjp-leader-shefali-gupta-organized-a-huge-feast-in-the-rath-yatra-fair-organized-in-the-premises-of-jagannath-dham-temple-in-silwar/ |access-date=20 September 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Shefali Gupta announces special train service from Hazaribagh during Saavan month - Hazaribagh Updates |url=https://hazaribaghupdates.com/?p=18816 |access-date=20 September 2024 |date=19 July 2024}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{improve categories|date=October 2024}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Gupta, Shefali}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1976 births]]
[[Category:People from Siliguri]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian women politicians]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians]]
[[Category:Banaras Hindu University alumni]]

Dilawar Singh

2026-04-24T03:34:25Z

Indianeagle1: new biography.

{{short description|Indian Sikh militant (1970–1995)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2018}}
{{NPOV|date=September 2024}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Dilawar Singh Babbar
| image = Dilawar Singh Babbar.jpg
| birth_date = 18 August 1970
| birth_place = [[Panjgrain]], [[Punjab, India]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1995|8|31|1970|8|18|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Chandigarh]], India
| death_cause = [[Suicide bombing]]
| known_for = Assassination of [[Beant Singh (politician)|Beant Singh]]
| parents = Harnek Singh Surjit Kaur
}}
'''Dilawar Singh''' (18 August 1970 – 31 August 1995) was the assassin of [[Beant Singh (chief minister)|Beant Singh]], the [[Chief Minister of Punjab, India|chief minister of Punjab, India]] amid the [[Insurgency in Punjab, India|insurgency in Punjab]].<ref name=ndtv>{{cite news | url = http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/hanging-for-beant-singh-assassin-on-saturday-rules-court-190557 | title = Will Balwant Singh Rajoana be hanged on Saturday? 10 big developments | publisher = NDTV | date = 2012-03-28 | accessdate = 2012-03-29 }}</ref> He was a serving [[Punjab Police (India)|Punjab Police]] officer and became a suicide bomber for the [[Babbar Khalsa|Babbar Khalsa International]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2012/20120325/edit.htm#1|title=The Tribune, Chandigarh, India - Opinions|publisher=|accessdate=1 April 2015}}</ref> He assassinated Beant Singh by blowing up his bullet-proof car at 5 p.m. on 31 August 1995 in the city of Chandigarh killing the chief minister and 17 others.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/states/punjab/terrorist_outfits/BKI.htm|title=Babbar Khalsa International|publisher=|accessdate=1 April 2015}}</ref><ref name="ensaaf.org">{{Citation
|title = Violent Deaths and Enforced Disappearances During the Counterinsurgency in Punjab, India: A Preliminary Quantitative Analysis
|url = http://www.ensaaf.org/publications/reports/descriptiveanalysis/reportwcover.pdf
|year = 2009
|last1 = Romesh
|first1 = Silva
|last2 = Marwaha
|first2 = Jasmine
|last3 = Klingner
|first3 = Jeff
|accessdate = 2012-08-14
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110717050107/http://www.ensaaf.org/publications/reports/descriptiveanalysis/reportwcover.pdf
|archive-date = 17 July 2011
|url-status = dead
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Why-Balwant-Singh-Rajoana-never-appealed-against-his-death-sentence/articleshow/12458451.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202185742/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-03-29/india/31253965_1_beant-singh-first-execution-dilawar-singh|url-status=live|archive-date=2 February 2014|work=[[The Times of India]]|title=Why Balwant Singh Rajoana never appealed against his death sentence|date=29 March 2012 |access-date=1 April 2015}}</ref><ref name="thehindu.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/article3255057.ece|title=Why Balwant Singh Rajoana shouldn't be hanged|author=Yug Mohit Chaudhry|work=The Hindu|accessdate=1 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2012/20120319/edit.htm#5|title=The Tribune, Chandigarh, India - Opinions|publisher=|accessdate=1 April 2015}}</ref>

==Family==
Dilawar Singh's mother, Surjit Kaur, and father, Baba Harnek Singh,<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160309014657/https://business.highbeam.com/408843/article-1P3-1328735731/khalsa-radicals-remember-beant-singh-assasin HighBeam]</ref> live in Guru Nanak Nagar, [[Patiala]], [[Punjab (India)|Punjab]], India. His father was a government employee. Dilawar Singh had two brothers.

== Assassination of Beant Singh ==
In Punjab between 1992 and 1995, at a time when the [[Khalistan movement]] was [[Insurgency in Punjab, India|active in the state]] and the Indian government was aggressively seeking to control the movement, during [[Beant Singh (politician)|Beant Singh]]'s tenure, many innocent Sikhs were killed unlawfully.<ref name="ensaaf.org"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.humanrights.asia/resources/journals-magazines/article2/0103/dark-clouds-of-state-repression-police-excesses-have-broken-punjab|title=Dark clouds of state repression: Police excesses have broken Punjab|publisher=|accessdate=1 April 2015}}</ref>

Dilawar Singh, who was a police constable at that time, conspired with [[Balwant Singh Rajoana]], a police officer, to kill Beant Singh. The attack on 31 August 1995 resulted in the death of Beant Singh, Dilawar Singh and 17 others,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-17532832|title=India puts Sikh radical Rajoana's execution on hold|work=BBC News|date=28 March 2012 |accessdate=1 April 2015}}</ref> and, on 25 December 1997, backup police officer Rajoana confessed his involvement<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.tribuneindia.com/2012/20120319/edit.htm#5 | title = Promises to keep | author = Saurabh Malik | work = The Tribune | location = Chandigarh | date = 2012-03-19 | accessdate = 2012-03-29 }}</ref> while blaming the Indian government that it has murdered its own innocent people and promoted and honored the killers of Sikhs including chief minister Beant Singh. He refused to contest the court proceedings because of his lack of trust in the [[Judiciary of India|Indian judicial system]], and death penalty was awarded to him.<ref name="thehindu.com" />

== Aftermath ==

On 23 March 2012, he was awarded with the title of "National Martyr" by the [[Akal Takht]], the highest temporal seat of the [[Khalsa]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/go-to-president-and-get-beant-killer-released-akal-takht-orders-badal/927736/|title=Go to President and get Beant killer released, Akal Takht orders Badal|date=24 March 2012 |publisher=|accessdate=1 April 2015}}</ref>

The Khalsa Action Committee (KAC), an umbrella organization of several Sikh organizations, honoured the father and mother of Dilawar Singh, Harnek Singh and Surjit Kaur with the Shaheed Baba Deep Singh gold medal at a function in the city of [[Amritsar]].<ref>[http://www.punjabnewsline.com/content/view/5460/38/ PunjabNewsline.com - Punjab radical Sikhs honour human bomb's family] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715133534/http://www.punjabnewsline.com/content/view/5460/38/ |date=2011-07-15 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2007/20070901/punjab1.htm|title=The Tribune, Chandigarh, India - Punjab|publisher=|accessdate=1 April 2015}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
[[Harjinder Singh Dilgeer|Dr Harjinder Singh Dilgeer]], SIKH HISTORY IN 10 VOLUMES, The Sikh University Press, Belgium, 2012.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Babbar, Dilawar Singh}}
[[Category:1970 births]]
[[Category:1995 deaths]]
[[Category:Punjabi Sikhs]]
[[Category:Indian police officers]]
[[Category:Suicides in India]]
[[Category:Assassins of heads of government]]
[[Category:People from Punjab, India]]
[[Category:Indian mass murderers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian murderers]]
[[Category:Suicide bombers]]
[[Category:Indian assassins]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian police officers]]
[[Category:Sikh terrorism in India]]
[[Category:Insurgency in Punjab]]

Lakshya (actor)

2026-04-21T19:31:33Z

Indianeagle1:

{{short description|Indian actor (born 1996)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2019}}
{{Infobox person
| image = Lakshya in 2024 (cropped).jpg
| alt =
| caption = Lakshya in 2024
| birth_name = Laksh Lalwani
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1996|04|19}}<ref name=birtday>{{cite web|url=http://www.fuzionproductions.com/laksh-lalwani-20th-birthday-best-birthday-ever/|title=Laksh Lalwani : My 20th Birthday Is The Best Birthday Ever!|date=18 April 2016|accessdate=21 August 2017|archive-date=21 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170821165949/http://www.fuzionproductions.com/laksh-lalwani-20th-birthday-best-birthday-ever/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| birth_place = [[Delhi]], [[India]]
| occupation = Actor
| years_active = 2015–present
}}

'''Laksh Lalwani''' (born 19 April 1996), known mononymously as '''Lakshya''', is an Indian actor.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Laksh-Lalwani-drops-his-surname/articleshow/54378494.cms|title=Laksh Lalwani drops his surname - Times of India|website=[[The Times of India]]|publisher=|accessdate=8 December 2016}}</ref> He played the [[Porus the Elder|titular warrior]] in the period drama series ''[[Porus (TV series)|Porus]]'' (2017–2018) and made his feature film debut with a starring role in the action film ''[[Kill (film)|Kill]]'' (2023) which earned him the [[Filmfare Award for Best Male Debut]]. He has since starred as an aspiring actor in the satirical drama series ''[[The Ba***ds of Bollywood]]'' for [[Netflix]].

==Career==
===Early television career (2015–2018)===

In 2015, Lakshya made his acting debut with the television series ''Warrior High''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibtimes.co.in/kaisi-yeh-yaariaan-actor-parth-samthaan-thrown-out-upcoming-tv-show-being-unprofessional-646779|title='Kaisi Yeh Yaariaan' actor Parth Samthaan thrown out of upcoming TV show for being unprofessional?|first=Prarthna|last=Sarkar|website=[[International Business Times]]|date=16 September 2015|publisher=|accessdate=8 December 2016}}</ref> He followed this with the role of Yuvraj Madhav Shekhawat/Krish in the supernatural series ''[[Adhuri Kahaani Hamari]]'' (2015–2016) and briefly appeared in ''[[Pyaar Tune Kya Kiya (TV series)|Pyaar Tune Kya Kiya]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indiawest.com/entertainment/television/adhuri-kahani-hamari-s-laksh-lalwani-i-have-worked-on/article_20d2a52e-033f-11e6-bf0e-6b160c833558.html|title='Adhuri Kahani Hamari's' Laksh Lalwani: I Have Worked on My Voice|first=ARIELLE, Special to|last=India-West|publisher=|accessdate=8 December 2016|archive-date=6 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180306004353/http://www.indiawest.com/entertainment/television/adhuri-kahani-hamari-s-laksh-lalwani-i-have-worked-on/article_20d2a52e-033f-11e6-bf0e-6b160c833558.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In November 2016, Lakshya joined [[Ekta Kapoor]]'s romantic drama series ''[[Pardes Mein Hai Meraa Dil]]'' (2016–2017) in the supporting role of Veer Mehra, which proved to be his first breakthrough.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tellychakkar.com/tv/tv-news/laksh-lalwani-back-the-tv-screen-160709|title=Laksh Lalwani is back on the TV screen|first=Tellychakkar|last=Team|publisher=|accessdate=8 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Pardes-Mein-Hai-Mera-Dil-actor-Laksh-Lalwani-doesnt-mind-playing-second-lead/articleshow/55851403.cms|title=Pardes Mein Hai Mera Dil actor Laksh Lalwani doesn't mind playing second lead - Times of India|website=[[The Times of India]]|publisher=|accessdate=8 December 2016}}</ref> He gained further attention for his portrayal of the [[Porus the Younger|titular warrior]] in the historical TV show ''[[Porus (TV series)|Porus]]'' (2017–2018), which is among the most expensive Indian television shows in history.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/porus-actor-laksh-lalwani-gets-injured-during-a-horse-riding-sequence/articleshow/64462467.cms|title=Porus actor Laksh Lalwani gets injured during a horse riding sequence - Times of India|work=The Times of India|date=2018-06-05|access-date=2018-07-29}}</ref>

===Film struggles and breakthrough (2019–present)===
In 2019, Lakshya signed a three-film deal with [[Karan Johar]]'s [[Dharma Productions]] and was cast in two romances, ''Dostana 2'' and ''Bedhadak'' which were both shelved due to issues during production.<ref>{{cite web |title=Laksh Lalwani drops his surname - Times of India |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Laksh-Lalwani-drops-his-surname/articleshow/54378494.cms |accessdate=8 December 2016 |website=[[The Times of India]] |publisher=}}</ref> Lakshya expressed the emotional toll the experience had on him and revealed his uncertainty about pursuing a career in films afterward.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Singh |first=Simran |title=Meet TV actor whose first two films got shelved, was 'desperate' for work, then became action star with... |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/bollywood/report-meet-tv-actor-whose-first-two-films-got-shelved-was-desperate-for-work-then-became-action-star-kill-lakshya-3097286 |access-date=2025-12-28 |website=DNA India |language=en}}</ref>

In 2024, Lakshya ultimately had his first film release with Dharma Productions' action film ''[[Kill (film)|Kill]]'', in which he played Amrit, a stoic army man who has to fight off dacoits in a running train. It premiered at the [[2023 Toronto International Film Festival]] and was theatrically released the following year to largely positive reviews, emerging as his [[breakthrough role]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Ramachandran |first=Naman |author-link=Naman Ramachandran |title=Karan Johar, Guneet Monga Kapoor, Nikhil Nagesh Bhat on Toronto Film 'Kill': 'Even 'John Wick' Gives You Some Respite, This Is Relentless' |url=https://variety.com/2023/film/asia/karan-johar-guneet-monga-kapoor-toronto-kill-john-wick-1235714568/ |access-date=5 March 2024 |work=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]] |date=8 September 2023}}</ref> Barry Hertz of ''[[The Globe and Mail]]'' wrote that he "conjures the hero with frightening ferocity".<ref>{{cite news |last=Hertz |first=Barry |title=Review: Spectacular, and spectacularly violent, Bollywood thriller Kill shoots for the, well, you know |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/arts/film/reviews/article-spectacular-and-spectacularly-violent-bollywood-thriller-kill-shoots/ |work=[[The Globe and Mail]] |date=5 July 2024}}</ref> ''Kill'' emerged as a box-office success and, for his performance, Lakshya earned several Best Male Debut awards, including the [[Filmfare Award for Best Male Debut]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hungama |first=Bollywood |date=2024-07-05 |title=Kill Box Office Collection {{!}} India {{!}} Day Wise {{!}} Box Office - Bollywood Hungama |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/kill/box-office/ |access-date=2025-12-28 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0" />

The following year, Lakshya led the [[Netflix]] satirical drama series ''[[The Ba***ds of Bollywood]]'' directed by [[Aryan Khan]], which opened to positive reception.<ref name="bads">{{Cite web |last=Gupta|first=Hardika|title=The Ba***ds Of Bollywood Review: Aryan Khan's Debut Series Is Undeniably Watchable|url=https://www.ndtv.com/entertainment/the-ba-ds-of-bollywood-review-aryan-khans-debut-series-is-undeniably-watchable-9302259|date=18 September 2025 |access-date=23 September 2025|website=NDTV }}</ref> Sahir Avik D’Souza of ''[[The Quint]]'' was appreciative of his performance as an aspiring actor navigating the Hindi film industry, as well as his chemistry with co-star [[Sahher Bambba]], but felt the supporting cast delivered stronger performances.<ref>{{Cite web |last=D’souza |first=Sahir Avik |date=2025-09-18 |title=Aryan Khan’s 'The Ba***ds of Bollywood', is Outrageous, and Outrageously Fun |url=https://www.thequint.com/entertainment/movie-reviews/the-bads-of-bollywood-review-aryan-khan-shah-rukh-khan-karan-johar-netflix |access-date=2025-12-31 |website=TheQuint |language=en}}</ref> He will appear in the romance ''Chand Mera Dil'' opposite [[Ananya Panday]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=7 November 2024 |title=Ananya Panday, Lakshya to star in Karan Johar’s Chand Mera Dil; makers reveal actors’ first look |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/ananya-panday-lakshya-to-star-in-karan-johars-chand-mera-dil-makers-reveal-actors-first-look-9658067/lite/ |access-date=8 November 2024 |work=[[The Indian Express]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2026-04-06 |title='Chand Mera Dil' first look: Ananya Panday and Lakshya bring back college romance; set to clash with Bobby Deol's 'Bandar' |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/chand-mera-dil-first-look-ananya-panday-and-lakshya-bring-back-college-romance-set-to-clash-with-bobby-deols-bandar/articleshow/130051870.cms |access-date=2026-04-21 |work=[[The Times of India]] |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

==Filmography==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+Key
| style="background:#ffc;"| {{dagger|alt=Films that have not yet been released}}
| Denotes films or television productions that have not yet been released
|}

===Films===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Year
! Title
! Role
! class="unsortable" scope="col"|Notes
|-
|2024
| ''[[Kill (film)|Kill]]''
| Amrit Rathod
|
|-
|2026
|{{pending film|Chand Mera Dil}}
| Aarav
| <ref>{{Cite news |date=2026-04-07 |title='Chand Mera Dil' teaser: Ananya Panday, Lakshya headline campus romance with a tragic turn |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/chand-mera-dil-teaser-ananya-panday-lakshya-headline-campus-romance-with-a-tragic-turn/articleshow/130079618.cms |access-date=2026-04-21 |work=[[The Times of India]] |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
|}

===Television===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Year
! Title
! Role
! class="unsortable" scope="col"|Notes
|-
|2015
| ''Warrior High''
| Parth Samthaan
|
|-
|2015–2016
| ''[[Adhuri Kahaani Hamari]]''
| Yuvraj Madhav Shekhawat,Krish Malhotra and Karan
|
|-
|2016
| ''[[Pyaar Tune Kya Kiya (TV series)|Pyaar Tune Kya Kiya]]''
| Aarav Gaitonde
|
|-
|2016–2017
| ''[[Pardes Mein Hai Mera Dil]]''
| Veer Mehra
|
|-
|2017–2018
| ''[[Porus (TV series)|Porus]]''
|[[Porus the Elder|Porus]]
|
|-
|}

===Web Series===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Year
! Title
! Role
! class="unsortable" scope="col"|Notes
|-
|2025
| ''[[The Ba***ds of Bollywood]]''
|Aasmaan Singh
|<ref name="bads"/>
|-
|}

==Awards and nominations==
{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders"
! scope="col" |Year
! scope="col" |Award
! scope="col" |Category
! scope="col" |Work
! scope="col" |Result
! scope="col" class="unsortable" |Ref
|-
| rowspan="4" |2025
|[[25th IIFA Awards]]
|[[IIFA Award for Star Debut of the Year – Male|Star Debut of the Year (Male)]]
| rowspan="4" |''[[Kill (film)|Kill]]''
|{{won}}
|<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hungama |first=Bollywood |date=2025-03-09 |title=Winners of the IIFA Awards 2025 2025 : Bollywood News - Bollywood Hungama |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/features/winners-iifa-awards-2025/ |access-date=2025-03-10 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|[[Zee Cine Awards]]
|[[Zee Cine Award for Best Male Debut|Best Male Debut]]
|{{won}}
|<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/features/winners-zee-cine-awards-2025/|title=Winners of the Zee Cine Awards 2025|website=Bollywoodhungama|access-date= 18 May 2025}}</ref>
|-
|[[Pinkvilla Screen and Style Icons Awards|Pinkvilla Style Icons Awards]]
|Best Male Debut
|{{won}}
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Pinkvilla Screen & Style Icons Awards 2025: Complete list of winners |url=https://www.msn.com/en-in/news/other/pinkvilla-screen-style-icons-awards-2025-complete-list-of-winners-ft-ananya-panday-akshay-kumar-karan-johar-kajol-shahid-kapoor-and-more/ar-AA1BNFRE |access-date=27 July 2025 |work=www.msn.com}}</ref>
|-
|[[70th Filmfare Awards]]
|[[Filmfare Award for Best Male Debut|Best Male Debut]]
|{{won}}
|<ref name=":0">{{cite news |title=70th Hyundai Filmfare Awards 2025 With Gujarat Tourism: Date, Venue and More
|url=https://www.filmfare.com/news/bollywood/70th-filmfare-awards-2025-with-gujarat-tourism-date-venue-and-more-77779.html|date=23 September 2025|website=Filmfare}}</ref>
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons}}
*{{IMDb name|7786671}}

{{Filmfare Award for Best Male Debut}}
{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lakshya}}
[[Category:1996 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian male models]]
[[Category:Indian male television actors]]
[[Category:Indian male film actors]]
[[Category:Male actors from Delhi]]
[[Category:Sindhi male actors]]
[[Category:Actors from Delhi]]
[[Category:Indian Sindhi people]]

Satyabrata Sarkar

2026-04-21T09:21:36Z

Indianeagle1: done - done

{{Short description|Indian botanist (1928–2022)}}
{{Use British English|date=August 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}
[[File:Ehepaar Ursula und Satyabrata Sakar.jpg|thumb|Research couple Ursula and Satyabrata Sarkar in Tübingen Germany 1957]]
[[File:Satyabrata_Sarkar.jpg|thumb|Prof. Dr. Satyabrata Sarkar 2011]]
'''Satyabrata Sarkar''', (born 1928 in Uttarpara near [[Calcutta]], [[India]]), was a scientist, investigating physiological phenomena in plants and then studying the structure and function of plant-pathogenic viruses in the Max-Planck-Institute for Biology in [[Tübingen]] and at the [[University of Hohenheim]] in Germany. Later on (since 1999) he was teaching [[Bengali language]] and literature in the Department of [[Indology]] of the [[University of Tübingen]].<ref>''Satyabrata Sarkar'' in: Ulrich Fellmeth, Kathrin Quast (Bearb.): ''Die akademischen Lehrer an der Universität Hohenheim 1968–2005.'' Scripta-Mercaturae-Verlag, Stuttgart 2008, S. 136f. [https://www.uni-hohenheim.de/uniarch/Professorenlexikon/Professorenlexikon%201968-2005.pdf (online auf: ''uni-hohenheim.de'')]</ref><ref>[https://uni-tuebingen.de/fakultaeten/philosophische-fakultaet/fachbereiche/aoi/indologie-vgl-religionswissenschaft.html Fachbereich Indologie an der Universität Tübingen]</ref> On 11 December 2022 he died aged 94.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hohenheim |first1=Universität |title=Detailansicht: Universität Hohenheim |url=https://www.uni-hohenheim.de/nachruf?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=57394&cHash=8290672ecb5742bb200b1f1622e2db00 |website=www.uni-hohenheim.de |access-date=12 December 2023 |language=de}}</ref>

== Education and career ==
Sarkar passed his Matriculation from the Uttarpara Government High School (1944), studied at Ripon College (now known as [[Surendranath College]]), Presidency College Calcutta (Bachelor of Science, 1948) and at the [[University of Calcutta]] (Master of Science, 1950). He worked on tissue culture of plants and the application of radioisotopes in biological research at the [[Bose Institute]], Calcutta. From 1954 he was engaged in research at the [[Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics|Max Planck Institute for Biology]] in Tübingen (Departement Georg Melchers) and obtained his Doctorate from the University of Tübingen (1957).

From 1959 he started with intensive studies on the structure and function of [[plant viruses]] and obtained his "[[Habilitation]]" from the University of Tübingen in 1969. After Habilitation he gave lessons in [[Virology]] and [[Genetics]] as an associate professor at the same university.

From 1977 to 1995 he was engaged in teaching and research at the [[University of Hohenheim]] near Stuttgart. After retirement he started teaching [[Bengali language|Bengali]] (since 1999) at the University of Tübingen.

Sarkar was trained in the use of isotopes in Biology at the Nuclear Research Center in Karlsruhe (Germany 1961), in studies on Genetics of Bacteriophages in the Department of Genetics, [[University of Cologne]] (1962) and in the structure of ribosomes at an EMBO workshop held in the Max-Planck-Institute for Molecular genetics in Berlin (1970).

== Scientific achievements ==
His studies on the physiological background of the mechanism of flowering of higher plants revealed some interaction between the role of [[vernalisation]] (mainly cold treatment) and the direct effect of the plant hormone Gibberellic acid. He used, among others, two lines of [[Arabidopsis thaliana]], a plant, that has proved to be of great significance in modern Molecular Biology of plants. Working with the components of mutants of the [[tobacco mosaic virus]] (TMV) he analysed the behaviour of their coat proteins. These findings were the first experimental proof of the "trimer" character of this virus protein (Sarkar, 1960; Caspar, 1963). From a mutant of TMV with a defective coat protein he isolated a rare mutant, which had no coat protein but only the free nucleic acid (RNA). (Ref. 1981). The presence of this free RNA prevented the spread of other related TMV mutants, offering an early experimental proof of the phenomenon, later known as "Gene Silencing". Cellwall-free protoplasts of plant cells (mainly of tobacco and Chinese cabbage) were infected with viruses or with their RNA with a high efficiency and used for physiological investigations. Synergism between potato virus x and potato virus y was studied in vivo by classical methods as well as by ultrastructural, i.e. electronmicroscopic techniques.

== Membership of scientific societies ==
*[[Indian Science Congress Association]], life member
*Indian Phytopathological Society, life member
*Indian Virological Society, fellow
*Deutsche Phytomedizinische Gesellschaft
*Deutsche Virologische Gesellschaft

==Publications ==
*Scientific papers
**Dutt, M., Sarkar, S. & Dutta, C.T.: Physiological studies on diploid and polyploid varieties of banana. Science and Culture 16, 215,1950
**Sarkar, S.: Versuche zur Physiologie der Vernalisation. Biol. Zentralblatt 77, 1–49,1958
**Sarkar, S.: Interaction and mixed aggregation of proteins from tobacco mosaic virus strains. Zeitschr. Naturforschung. 15b,778–786, 1960 (See also Caspar, D.L.D.: Assembly and stability of the tobacco mosaic virus particle. Adv. in Protein Chemistry 18, 37–121, 1963)
**Sarkar, S.: Relative infectivity of tobacco mosaic virus and its nucleic acid. Virology 20,185–193,1963
**Sarkar, S.: Assay of infectivity of nucleic acids. In METHODS IN VIROLOGY (Maramorosch and Koprowski eds.) Vol. 2, 607–644, Academic Press, New York, 1967
**Sarkar, S. & Schilde-Rentschler, L.: Interaction of TMV proteins during electrophoretic separation in polyacrylamide gels. Molec. Gen. Genetics 103, 244–247, 1968
**Sarkar, S.: Use of protoplasts for plant virus studies. In METHODS IN VIROLOGY (Maramorosch and Koprowski eds.) Vol.6, 435–456, Academic Press, New York, 1977
**Matthews, R.E.F. & Sarkar, S.: A light-induced structural change in chloroplasts of Chinese cabbage cells infected with turnip yellow mosaic virus. Jour. Gen. Virol. 33, 435–446, 1976
**Sarkar, S.& Smitamana, P.: A truly coat-protein-free mutant of tobacco mosaic virus. Naturwissenschaften 68, 145–147, 1981
**Sarkar, S. & Smitamana, P.: A proteinless mutant of tobacco mosaic virus: Evidence against the role of a viral coat protein for interference. Molec. Gen. Genetics 184, 158–159, 1981
**Blessing, J. & Sarkar, S.: Isolierung und morphologische Charakterisierung des Kartoffelblattrollvirus (PLRV). Zeirschr. Naturforschung 36c,884–887, 1981
**Mayee, C.D. & Sarkar, S.: The ultrastructure of Nicotiana tabacum cells infected with potato virus X and potato virus Y. Jour. Ultrastructure Res. 81, 124–131, 1982
**Sarkar, S.: A simple cage for a controlled transmission of plant viruses by aphids. Zeitschr. Pfl.-Krankh. U. Pfl.-schutz 89,612–615,1982
**Sarkar, S.: Tobacco mosaic virus: Mutants and strains. In THE PLANT VIRUSES (M.H.V.van Regenmortel and H. Fraenkel-Conrat eds.) Vol.2, 59–77, Plenum Publ. Corp., New York & London, 1986
**Gerber, M. & Sarkar, S.: The coat protein of tobacco mosaic virus does not play a significant role for cross-protection. Jour. Phytopathol. 124, 323–331, 1989
**Osbourn, J.K., Sarkar, S. & Wilson, T.M.A.: Complementation of coat protein-defective mutants in transgenic tobacco plants expressing TMV coat protein. Virology 179, 921–925, 1990
*Books
**Satyabrata Sarkar: Ich lerne Bengalisch, Teil 1. Verlag Grauer; Beuren, Stuttgart, 2002. {{ISBN|3-86186-403-7}}; Teil 2. Ibid. {{ISBN|3-86186-480-0}}
**Satyabrata Sarkar: German Prabesika (German learner). Ananda Publishers Private Ltd., Calcutta, 2011. {{ISBN|978-93-5040-038-8}}
**Sarkar, S.: (translator). Die Sonne des Tages. Poems of Rabindranath Tagore. About one hundred poems translated from Bengali to German. Knirsch-Verlag Kirchentellinsfurt, Germany. 2012. {{ISBN|978-3-927091-89-4}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*[https://phytomedizin.uni-hohenheim.de/phytopathologie Departement Phytomedizin at the University of Hohenheim]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20150411041120/http://www.uni-tuebingen.de/uni/aid/impressum.html Departement Indologie at the University of Tübingen]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sarkar, Satyabrata}}
[[Category:20th-century Indian botanists]]
[[Category:1928 births]]
[[Category:2022 deaths]]
[[Category:University of Calcutta alumni]]
[[Category:Scientists from Kolkata]]

Sanjay Seth (Jharkhand politician)

2026-04-21T04:20:41Z

Indianeagle1: done

{{short description|Indian politician (born 1959)}}
{{Not to be confused with|Sanjay Seth (Uttar Pradesh politician)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2020}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Sanjay Seth
| native_name =
| image = File:Sanjay Seth (cropped).jpg
| caption =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1959|08|25|df=y}}
| birth_place =
| death_date =
| death_place =
| office = [[Ministry of Defence (India)| Minister of State for Defence]]
| prime_minister = [[Narendra Modi]]
| minister = [[Rajnath Singh]]
| predecessor = [[Ajay Bhatt (politician)|Ajay Bhatt]]
| successor =
| term_start = 11 June 2024
| term_end =
| office1 = [[Member of Parliament (India)|Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha]]
| constituency1 = [[Ranchi (Lok Sabha constituency)|Ranchi]]
| term_start1 = 23 May 2019
| predecessor1 = [[Ram Tahal Choudhary]]
| successor1 =
| party = [[File:BJP Flag.svg|25px]] [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| alma_mater = [[Ranchi University]]
| profession = Politician
| spouse = Smt. Neeta Seth
| children = Aishwar Seth (son)
Dipti Seth (daughter)
| website =
| footnotes =
| date =
| year =
| source =
}}
'''Sanjay Seth''' (born 25 August 1959; {{IPA|hi|sən.d͡ʒəj seːʈʰ}}) is an Indian politician from [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] who serves as the Minister of State for Defence in the [[Premiership of Narendra Modi|Modi Government.]] He is a [[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha]] from [[Ranchi (Lok Sabha constituency)|Ranchi]], [[Jharkhand]] since 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.news18.com/lok-sabha-elections-2019/jharkhand/ranchi-election-result-s27p08/|title=Ranchi Lok Sabha Election Results 2019 Live: Ranchi Constituency Election Results, News, Candidates, Vote Paercentage|website=News18}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://loksabhaph.nic.in/Members/MemberBioprofile.aspx?mpsno=5117|title=Members : Lok Sabha|website=loksabhaph.nic.in}}</ref>

==Positions held==
Sanjay Seth has held a range of positions throughout his career. In June 2024, he was elected to the 18th Lok Sabha and currently serves as the Union Minister of State in the Ministry of Defence since June 2024. He has been a Member of the Committee on Subordinate Legislation since October 9, 2019, and a Member of the Standing Committee on Communications and Information Technology since September 13, 2019. Additionally, since July 31, 2019, he has served as a Member of the Committee on Welfare of Other Backward Classes.

Previously, Sanjay Seth was elected to the 17th Lok Sabha in May 2019. He also held the position of Chairman of the Jharkhand State Khadi and Village Industries Board from 2016 to 2019. His early career involved significant involvement in banking and industry, having served as a Member of the Local Board of the State Bank of India for two terms from 1999 to 2005, and as President of the Federation of Jharkhand Chamber of Commerce and Industries in 1999-2000.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://sansad.in/ls/members/biographyM/5117?from=members |title=Profile: Sanjay Seth |accessdate=2024-12-10}}</ref>

==Personal life==
He was born into a Punjabi family and completed his education from Ranchi University. He later married Neeta Seth and has one son, Aishwar Seth who is married to Gargi Malkani, a renowned dancer, and a daughter Dipti Seth.

==See also==
* [[Third Modi ministry]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Seth, Sanjay}}
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Jharkhand]]
[[Category:1959 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:India MPs 2019–2024]]
[[Category:India MPs 2024–2029]]
[[Category:Lok Sabha members from Jharkhand]]

{{Jharkhand-BJP-politician-stub}}

William Dalrymple

2026-04-19T15:50:02Z

Indianeagle1:

{{short description|British historian and writer (born 1965)}}
{{Other people|William Dalrymple}}
{{Use British English|date=September 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2024}}
{{Infobox writer
| name = William Dalrymple
| honorific_suffix = {{post-nominals|country=GBR|CBE|FRAS|FRSL|FRGS|FRSE|FRHistS|size=100%}}
| image = William Dalrymple (sq cropped).png
| imagesize =
| caption = Dalrymple in 2025
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1965|3|20|df=y}}
| education = [[Trinity College, Cambridge]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]])
| birth_place = [[Edinburgh]], Scotland<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/family/life/william-dalrymplewe-think-everyone-loves-us-india-national-myth/|title=William Dalrymple: We think everyone loves us in India, but it's a national myth of the first order |website=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=29 August 2020 }}</ref>
| occupation = Historian, writer & broadcaster
| period = 1989–present
| subject = The [[East India Company]] in 18th century South Asia and Afghanistan, Eastern Christianity and the Muslim world; Hindu and Buddhist art; late Mughal and [[Company style|Company school]] painting
| spouse = [[Olivia Fraser (artist)|Olivia Fraser]]
| website = {{Official URL}}
| children = 3, including [[Sam Dalrymple (historian)|Sam Dalrymple]]
| relatives =
}}
'''William Benedict Hamilton-Dalrymple''' (born 20 March 1965) is a Scottish [[historian]], [[art historian]], [[Indology|indologist]], curator, broadcaster, critic and author.<ref>{{cite web
|url =https://www.hindustantimes.com/books/my-job-is-set-up-for-lockdown-william-dalrymple/story-e2Qb5qCGipLZm0cFVyPJrI.html|title=My job is set up for lockdown: William Dalrymple|first=Navneet|last=Vyasan|website=Hindustan Times|date=25 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|url = https://www.architecturaldigest.in/content/writer-in-residence-william-dalyrimple-opens-the-doors-to-his-delhi-farmhouse/|title=Writer in residence: William Dalrymple opens the doors to his Delhi farmhouse|website=Architectural Digest|first=Divya|last=Mishra|date=21 May 2016}}</ref>

Dalrymple's books have won numerous awards and prizes, including the [[Wolfson History Prize]], the [[Duff Cooper Prize]], the Hemingway, the Kapuściński, the Arthur Ross Medal of the [[Council on Foreign Relations]], the [[Thomas Cook Travel Book Award]], [[Mark Lynton History Prize]]<ref>{{Cite news |date=18 March 2026 |title=William Dalrymple wins Mark Lynton History Prize for book on ancient India |url=https://www.ptinews.com/story/national/william-dalrymple-wins-mark-lynton-history-prize-for-book-on-ancient-india/3477725 |access-date=20 March 2026 |work=Press Trust of India}}</ref> and the Sunday Times Young British Writer of the Year Award. He has been five times long-listed and once shortlisted for the [[Baillie Gifford Prize]] for non-fiction and was a finalist for the [[Cundill History Prize]]. The [[BBC]] television documentary on his pilgrimage to the source of the river [[Ganges]], "Shiva's Matted Locks", one of three episodes of his ''Indian Journeys'' series, which Dalrymple wrote and presented, won him the [[Grierson Award]] for Best Documentary Series at [[BAFTA]] in 2002.<ref>{{cite web |title=William Dalrymple |url=http://www.penguinbooksindia.com/AuthorLounge/AuthorDetail.asp?aid=2754 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070109062249/http://www.penguinbooksindia.com/AuthorLounge/AuthorDetail.asp?aid=2754  |archive-date=9 January 2007 |access-date=30 June 2007 |publisher=Penguin Books India}}</ref>

In 2012 he was appointed a Whitney J. Oates Visiting Fellow in the Humanities by [[Princeton University]].<ref>[http://humanities.princeton.edu/fellows/short-term-visiting-fellows Short-Term Visiting Fellows] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160528110927/http://humanities.princeton.edu/fellows/short-term-visiting-fellows|date=28 May 2016}}, Princeton University. Retrieved 1 October 2012.</ref> In 2015 he was appointed the OP Jindal Distinguished Lecturer at [[Brown University]].<ref>[https://www.brown.edu/initiatives/india/opjindal/william-dalrymple] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150926033413/http://www.brown.edu/initiatives/india/opjindal/william-dalrymple|date=26 September 2015}}, Brown University. Retrieved 28 April 2015.</ref> In 2018 he was awarded the [[President's Medal (British Academy)|President's Medal]] of the [[British Academy]], the academy's highest honour in its suite of prizes and medals awarded for "outstanding service to the cause of the humanities and social sciences".<ref name="British Academy-2018">{{cite web |date=20 August 2018 |title=Award-winning journalists, prehistorians and world-leading economists honoured with prestigious British Academy prizes and medals |url=https://www.britac.ac.uk/news/journalists-prehistorians-economists-honoured-british-academy-prizes-medals |access-date=5 September 2018 |website=British Academy |archive-date=2 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190702001820/https://www.thebritishacademy.ac.uk/news/journalists-prehistorians-economists-honoured-british-academy-prizes-medals |url-status=live }}</ref> He is also since 2021 an honorary fellow of the [[Bodleian Library]]. He was a [[visiting fellow]] at [[All Souls College, Oxford]], in 2024.<ref>{{cite web|url = https://www.asc.ox.ac.uk/person/mr-william-dalrymple|title = Mr William Dalrymple - Historian and Author - Visiting Fellow, Trinity Term 2024 - Archived copy|access-date = 19 April 2024|archive-date = 19 April 2024|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240419111948/https://www.asc.ox.ac.uk/person/mr-william-dalrymple|url-status = live}}</ref>

He was named in the 2020 ''[[Prospect (magazine)|Prospect]]'' list of the top 50 thinkers for the [[COVID-19 pandemic|COVID-19 era]].<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=2020 |title=The world's top 50 thinkers for the Covid-19 age |url=https://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/content/uploads/2020/09/PWTT20.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200907185002/https://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/content/uploads/2020/09/PWTT20.pdf |archive-date=7 September 2020 |access-date=2020-09-08 |magazine=Prospect}}</ref> He was appointed [[Commander of the Order of the British Empire]] (CBE) in the [[2023 Birthday Honours]] for services to literature and the arts.<ref>{{London Gazette| issue = 64082| date = 17 June 2023| page = B9| supp = y}}</ref> He is one of the co-founders and co-directors of the world's largest writers' festival, the annual [[Jaipur Literature Festival]] in India.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gopalakrishnan |first1=Amulya |date=27 January 2009 |title=The Greatest Literary Show on Earth |url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/blogs-and-stories/2009-01-27/the-greatest-literary-show-on-earth |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090213082523/http://www.thedailybeast.com/blogs-and-stories/2009-01-27/the-greatest-literary-show-on-earth/ |archive-date=13 February 2009 |access-date=3 February 2009 |newspaper=The Daily Beast}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Looking for something special? Try treasure hunting in India |url=http://www.kiwicollection.com/around_world_detail/ITEM=242/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080602040759/http://www.kiwicollection.com/around_world_detail/ITEM%3D242/ |archive-date=2 June 2008 |access-date=22 April 2008 |publisher=KiwiCollection.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=30 January 2008 |title=Writes of passage |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/StoryPage/StoryPage.aspx?id=0640ff75-70ec-460d-8d06-a9bfc6d124aa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081020092621/http://www.hindustantimes.com/StoryPage/StoryPage.aspx?id=0640ff75-70ec-460d-8d06-a9bfc6d124aa |archive-date=20 October 2008 |access-date=23 April 2008 |work=Hindustan Times}}</ref>

==Early life==
William Benedict Hamilton-Dalrymple was born in [[Edinburgh]], Scotland, on 20 March 1965 as the youngest son of Major [[Sir Hew Hamilton-Dalrymple, 10th Baronet]] (1926–2018), [[Lord Lieutenant of East Lothian]] from 1987 to 2001, and Lady Anne-Louise Keppel, a daughter of [[Walter Keppel, 9th Earl of Albemarle]]; through this line of descent he is a third cousin of [[Queen Camilla]], both being great-great-grandchildren of [[William Keppel, 7th Earl of Albemarle]]. He is a great-nephew of the writer [[Virginia Woolf]].<ref>{{cite AV media | people=Cambridge Muslim College | date=15 May 2003 | title=Return of a King | medium=Lecture recording | location=Cambridge, UK | time = 1:22}}</ref> His brother [[Jock Dalrymple (cricketer)|Jock]] was a [[first-class cricket]]er. Dalrymple, the youngest of four brothers, grew up in [[North Berwick]] on the shores of the [[Firth of Forth]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kremmer |first1=Christopher |title=White Mughal's burden |url=https://www.smh.com.au/entertainment/books/white-mughals-burden-20070526-gdq80z.html |access-date=26 November 2024 |newspaper=The Sydney Morning Herald |date=26 May 2007}}</ref> He has described his childhood as being old-fashioned and "almost [[Edwardian era|Edwardian]]". Among his forebears is a [[Mughal dynasty|Mughal]] princess who married a Dalrymple ancestor.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Fox-Leonard |first1=Boudicca |title=William Dalrymple: We think everyone loves us in India, but it's a national myth of the first order |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/family/life/william-dalrymplewe-think-everyone-loves-us-india-national-myth/ |access-date=27 November 2024 |newspaper=The Telegraph |date=29 August 2020 |archive-date=7 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241007091056/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/family/life/william-dalrymplewe-think-everyone-loves-us-india-national-myth/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Dalrymple was educated at [[Ampleforth College]] and [[Trinity College, Cambridge]], where he was first a history [[Exhibition (scholarship)|exhibitioner]] and then a senior history scholar.<ref>{{cite web |title=Biography – William Dalrymple |url=https://www.williamdalrymple.uk.com/biog |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220201220131/https://www.williamdalrymple.uk.com/biog |archive-date=1 February 2022 |access-date=28 October 2017}}</ref>

== Career ==

=== Curator ===
Dalrymple was the curator of ''Princes and Painters in Mughal Delhi 1707–1857'', a major show of the late Mughal painting for the ''[[Asia Society]]'' in New York, which ran from February to May 2012.<ref>[http://sites.asiasociety.org/princesandpainters/ Princes and Painters] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121001081813/http://sites.asiasociety.org/princesandpainters/ |date=1 October 2012 }}, Asia Society retrieved 4 October 2012.</ref> A catalogue of this exhibit co-edited by Dalrymple with Yuthika Sharma was published by Yale University Press, then later in India by Penguin, in 2012 under the same name.<ref name="William Dalrymple`s book on first Anglo" /> In 2019, he curated the exhibition of [[Company style]] painting, ''Forgotten Masters: Indian Painting for the East India Company'', at the [[Wallace Collection]] in London.<ref>{{cite web |date=3 December 2019 |title=Forgotten Masters review – the natural history geniuses robbed by the British empire |url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2019/dec/03/forgotten-masters-review-the-natural-history-geniuses-robbed-by-the-british-empire |website=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref>

=== Authorship ===
[[File:William Dalrymple.jpg|thumb|200px|Dalrymple (left) with [[Esther Freud]] (centre) and [[Hanan Ashrawi]] at [[PalFest]] 2008.]]
Dalrymple's interests include the history and art of [[India]], [[Pakistan]], [[Afghanistan]], the [[Middle East]], [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], the [[Jainism|Jains]] and early [[Eastern Christianity]]. Every one of his ten books has won literary prizes. His first three were travel books based on his journeys in the Middle East, India and Central Asia. His early influences included travel writers such as [[Robert Byron (travel writer)|Robert Byron]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://literature.britishcouncil.org/writer/william-dalrymple|title=William Dalrymple – Literature|access-date=1 July 2016|archive-date=28 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160828181540/https://literature.britishcouncil.org/writer/william-dalrymple|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Eric Newby]], and [[Bruce Chatwin]].

Dalrymple published a book of essays about current affairs in the Indian subcontinent, and four award-winning histories of the interaction between the East India Company and the peoples of India and Afghanistan between the eighteenth and mid-nineteenth century, his "Company Quartet". His books have been translated into more than 40 languages.

He is a regular contributor to ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'',<ref name="The New York Review of Books">{{cite web
|url = http://www.nybooks.com/authors/9809|title = Book review by William Dalrymple|access-date = 30 June 2007
|work = [[The New York Review of Books]]|archive-date = 10 June 2007|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070610004850/http://www.nybooks.com/authors/9809|url-status = live}}</ref> ''[[The Guardian]]'',<ref>{{cite news|url = http://commentisfree.guardian.co.uk/william_dalrymple/index.html|title = Articles by William Dalrymple|access-date = 30 June 2007|newspaper = The Guardian|location = London|archive-date = 4 January 2008|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20080104105443/http://commentisfree.guardian.co.uk/william_dalrymple/index.html
|url-status = dead}}</ref> the ''[[New Statesman]]''<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.newstatesman.com/writers/william_dalrymple|title = Articles by William Dalrymple
|access-date = 30 June 2007|work = The New York Review of Books|archive-date = 30 September 2007|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070930205317/http://www.newstatesman.com/writers/william_dalrymple|url-status = live
}}</ref> and ''[[The New Yorker]]''.<ref>{{cite magazine|url = https://www.newyorker.com/search/query?queryType=nonparsed&query=%22William+Dalrymple%22&submit.x=0&submit.y=0&submit=Submit&bylquery=&month1=-1&day1=-1&year1=-1&month2=-1&day2=-1&year2=-1&page=&sort=|title = Articles by William Dalrymple|access-date = 30 June 2007
|magazine = The New Yorker|archive-date = 29 September 2007|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070929165919/http://www.newyorker.com/search/query?queryType=nonparsed&query=%22William+Dalrymple%22&submit.x=0&submit.y=0&submit=Submit&bylquery=&month1=-1&day1=-1&year1=-1&month2=-1&day2=-1&year2=-1&page=&sort=|url-status = live}}</ref> He has also written many articles for [[Time (magazine)|''Time'']] magazine. He was the Indian Subcontinent correspondent of the ''[[New Statesman]]'' from 2004 to 2014.{{Citation needed|date=November 2025}} Dalrymple covered the [[First Intifada|First]] and [[Second Intifada|Second Intifadas]] as a journalist.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Dalrymple |first=William |date=2002-10-01 |title=Profit and loss |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/oct/01/israel |access-date=2025-11-14 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref name="Lloyd-2024">{{Cite web |last=Lloyd |first=Will |date=2024-08-31 |title=William Dalrymple: Britain viewed India as an ignorant backwater. It wasn't |url=https://www.thetimes.com/uk/history/article/william-dalrymple-britain-viewed-india-as-an-ignorant-backwater-it-wasnt-g5n0nr7ld |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240901024553/https://www.thetimes.com/uk/history/article/william-dalrymple-britain-viewed-india-as-an-ignorant-backwater-it-wasnt-g5n0nr7ld |archive-date=1 September 2024 |access-date=2025-11-14 |website=[[The Times]] |language=en}}</ref>

He attended the inaugural [[Palestine Festival of Literature]] in 2008, giving readings and taking workshops in [[Jerusalem]], [[Ramallah]] and [[Bethlehem]].<ref>{{cite news
|url =http://www.caabu.org/events/caabu/caabu-reception-evening-william-dalrymple
|title =Caabu Reception: An evening with William Dalrymple
|access-date =5 October 2012
|publisher =The Council for Arab-British Understanding}}</ref>

His 2009 book, ''Nine Lives: In Search of the Sacred in Modern India'', a study of some of the more esoteric forms of modern Indian, and especially Hindu spirituality, was published by Bloomsbury, and like all his others, went to the number one slot on the Indian non-fiction best-seller list.<ref>{{cite news
|url =http://www.hindustantimes.com/rssfeed/bestsellers/William-s-new-book-tops-bestseller-list/Article1-467856.aspx
|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20110606111736/http://www.hindustantimes.com/rssfeed/bestsellers/William-s-new-book-tops-bestseller-list/Article1-467856.aspx
|url-status =dead
|archive-date =6 June 2011
|title =William's new book tops bestseller list
|date =22 October 2009
|access-date =28 October 2009
|newspaper =Hindustan Times}}</ref> After its publication he toured the UK, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Australia, Holland and the US with a band consisting of some of the people featured in his book including [[Sufis]], [[Fakirs]], [[Bauls]], [[Tevaram]] hymn singers as well as a prison warder and part-time [[Theyyam]] dancer widely believed to incarnate the god [[Vishnu]].<ref>{{cite web |url =https://www.ft.com/content/0acfc01e-a3e1-11de-9fed-00144feabdc0 |title =On Tour with the Madmen |date =18 September 2009 |work =Financial Times |location =London |access-date =3 May 2010 |archive-date =28 August 2010 |archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20100828201439/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/0acfc01e-a3e1-11de-9fed-00144feabdc0.html |url-status =live }}</ref>

''Return of a King: The Battle for Afghanistan'', a history of the [[First Anglo-Afghan War|First Afghan War 1839–42]], was published in India in December 2012,<ref name="William Dalrymple`s book on first Anglo">[http://zeenews.india.com/entertainment/bookworm/william-dalrymple-s-book-on-first-anglo-afghan-war-out-in-december_2501.htm "William Dalrymple`s book on first Anglo-Afghan war out in December"], Zee News.</ref> in the UK in February 2013, and in the US in April 2013. Dalrymple's great-great-granduncle [[Colin Mackenzie (Indian Army officer)|Colin Mackenzie]] fought in the war and was briefly detained by the Afghans. Following the publication of the book Dalrymple was called to brief both the Afghan President [[Hamid Karzai]] and the [[White House]] on the lessons to be learned from Afghan history.{{citation needed|date=June 2017}}

In 2019 he published ''[[The Anarchy (book)|The Anarchy]]'', a history of the Indian subcontinent during the period from 1739 to 1803, which saw the collapse of the Mughal imperial system,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://theprint.in/pageturner/excerpt/east-india-company-sent-a-diplomat-to-jahangir-all-the-mughal-emperor-cared-about-was-beer/281255/|title=East India Company sent a diplomat to Jahangir & all the Mughal Emperor cared about was beer|date=24 August 2019|access-date=24 August 2019|archive-date=24 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190824144031/https://theprint.in/pageturner/excerpt/east-india-company-sent-a-diplomat-to-jahangir-all-the-mughal-emperor-cared-about-was-beer/281255/|url-status=live}}</ref> rise of the Maratha imperial confederacy, and the militarisation and rise to power of the [[East India Company]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/mar/04/east-india-company-original-corporate-raiders |title=Anarchy EIC |website=[[The Guardian]] |date=4 March 2015 |access-date=18 December 2016 |archive-date=26 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226080858/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/mar/04/east-india-company-original-corporate-raiders |url-status=live }}</ref> It was long-listed for the [[Baillie Gifford Prize]] 2019, and short listed for the Duke of Wellington medal for Military History, the Tata Book of the Year (Non-fiction) and the Historical Writers Association Book Award 2020. It was a Finalist for the [[Cundill Prize for History]] and won the 2020 Arthur Ross Bronze Medal from the US [[Council on Foreign Relations]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-10-21|title=US$75k Cundill History Prize 2020 finalists announced|url=https://www.booksandpublishing.com.au/articles/2020/10/21/158205/us75k-cundill-history-prize-2020-finalists-announced/|access-date=2020-11-05|website=Books+Publishing|archive-date=26 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026165959/https://www.booksandpublishing.com.au/articles/2020/10/21/158205/us75k-cundill-history-prize-2020-finalists-announced/|url-status=live}}</ref>

As at 2020 he was writing a book that is "a sweeping look at India's ideological colonisation of Asia, China and Europe during the short period between 250 BC to about 800 AD."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/more-lifestyle/william-dalrymple-s-next-book-being-penned-through-lockdown/story-GQVDtc5BfI9GaB9MJcwksL.html|title=William Dalrymple's next book being penned through lockdown}}</ref> This book was published in September 2024 and is titled ''[[The Golden Road: How Ancient India Transformed the World]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lakshmi |first=Rama |date=2024-03-08 |title=Silk Route talk irritates Dalrymple. His new book says India, not China, ruled trade, ideas |url=https://theprint.in/feature/around-town/silk-route-talk-irritates-dalrymple-his-new-book-says-india-not-china-ruled-trade-ideas/1992912/ |access-date=2024-08-29 |website=ThePrint |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Golden Road by William Dalrymple — ancient India's cultural conquest of the globe |url=https://www.ft.com/content/e746b949-9137-45c9-b369-1e9778c59c1c |access-date=2024-10-15 |website=www.ft.com |archive-date=17 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240917215604/https://www.ft.com/content/e746b949-9137-45c9-b369-1e9778c59c1c |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Controversy ==

=== Criticism of his engagement with contemporary politics ===
In 2024, Dalrymple stirred controversy when he criticized many [[India|Indian]] academic historians for failing to communicate with the public, blaming that failure for the rise of what he called “WhatsApp history” (a pejorative for simplified or distorted history spread via social media). The comment provoked backlash from Indian academics, who argued that Dalrymple overgeneralized and overlooked structural issues in academia other than mere communication style.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Daniyal |first=Shoaib |date=2024-11-10 |title=Why have Indian historians failed to combat ‘WhatsApp history’? |url=https://scroll.in/article/1075453/why-have-indian-historians-failed-to-combat-whatsapp-history |access-date=2025-12-05 |website=Scroll.in |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-11-08 |title=Are academic historians to blame for WhatsApp University? The answer isn’t straightforward |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/are-academic-historians-to-blame-for-whatsapp-university-9660005/ |access-date=2025-12-05 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Naqvi |first=Zainab |date=2024-11-17 |title=Dalrymple is Wrong. Don't Blame Historians for the Rise of WhatsApp History |url=https://www.thequint.com/opinion/william-dalrymple-is-wrong-dont-blame-historians-for-the-rise-of-whatsapp-history |access-date=2025-12-05 |website=TheQuint |language=en}}</ref>

==TV, radio and podcasts==
Dalrymple has written and presented the six-part television series ''Stones of the Raj'' ([[Channel 4]], August 1997),<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://ftvdb.bfi.org.uk/sift/series/28568
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080111223235/http://ftvdb.bfi.org.uk/sift/series/28568
|url-status = dead
|archive-date = 11 January 2008
|title = Stones of the Raj
|access-date = 18 August 2007
|publisher = British Film Institute}}</ref> the three-part ''Indian Journeys'' (BBC, August 2002)<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.indiantelevision.com/headlines/y2k2/aug/aug107.htm
|title = BBC World to premiere Indian Journeys 20 August
|access-date = 18 August 2007
|publisher = Channel 4}}</ref> and ''Sufi Soul'' (Channel 4, Nov 2005).<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.channel4.com/culture/microsites/C/can_you_believe_it/debates/sufi.html
|title = Sufi Soul
|access-date = 18 August 2007
|publisher = Channel 4 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070612183013/http://www.channel4.com/culture/microsites/C/can_you_believe_it/debates/sufi.html  |archive-date = 12 June 2007}}</ref>

The six-part ''Stones of the Raj'' documents the stories behind some of [[British India's colonial architecture]] starting with ''Lahore'' (16 August 1997), ''The French Connection'' (23 August 1997), ''Calcutta'' (30 August 1997), ''The Fatal Friendship'' (6 September 1997), ''Surrey in Tibet'' (13 September 1997), and concluded with ''The Magnificent Ruin'' (20 September 1997).

The trilogy of ''Indian Journeys'' consists of three one-hour episodes starting with ''Shiva's Matted Locks'' which, while tracing the source of the [[Ganga]], takes Dalrymple on a journey to [[the Himalayas]]; the second part, ''City of Djinns'', is based on his travel book of the same name, and takes a look at [[Delhi's history]]; lastly, ''Doubting Thomas'' takes Dalrymple to the Indian states of [[Kerala]] and [[Tamil Nadu]], with which [[Thomas the Apostle]] of Jesus is closely associated.<ref>{{cite news|url = http://www.mid-day.com/entertainment/television/2002/august/28541.htm|date = 9 August 2002|title = The voyager – William Dalrymple|access-date = 17 August 2007|publisher = Mid Day}}</ref>

He has done a six-part history series ''The Long Search'' for [[BBC Radio 4|Radio 4]].<ref>{{cite web
|url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2002/05_may/27/long_search.shtml|title = The Long Search|access-date = 18 August 2007|publisher = BBC|archive-date = 25 March 2010|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20100325183531/http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2002/05_may/27/long_search.shtml|url-status = live}}</ref> In this series, Dalrymple searches to discover the spiritual roots of the British Isles. Dalrymple says: "In the course of my travels I often came across the assumption that intense spirituality was somehow the preserve of what many call 'the mystic East'... it's a misconception that has always irritated me as I've always regarded our own indigenous British traditions of spirituality as especially rich."

The BBC broadcast a documentary on 3 September 2015 entitled ''Love and Betrayal in India: The White Mughal'',<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/articles/18SDBJqWwgc7VLDM7MhGK2S/a-love-story-that-broke-the-conventional-boundaries-of-empire "A love story that broke the conventional boundaries of Empire"], BBC September 2015.</ref> based on Dalrymple's book ''White Mughals''.

Dalrymple was the historical consultant to ITV's 2019 series ''[[Beecham House]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.express.co.uk/showbiz/tv-radio/1146791/Beecham-House-ITV-How-historically-accurate-is-Beecham-House-true-story-John-Beecham|title=Beecham House ITV: How historically accurate is Beecham House?|date=30 June 2019|access-date=26 May 2021|archive-date=26 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210526182434/https://www.express.co.uk/showbiz/tv-radio/1146791/Beecham-House-ITV-How-historically-accurate-is-Beecham-House-true-story-John-Beecham|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url = https://www.hindustantimes.com/tv/is-the-tv-show-beecham-house-a-case-of-raj-nostalgia-two-british-historians-weigh-in/story-BplhUbetnvk9HZEwnsrr3I.html|title = Is the TV show Beecham House a case of Raj nostalgia? Two British historians weigh in|date = 3 August 2019|access-date = 26 May 2021|archive-date = 26 May 2021|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210526182436/https://www.hindustantimes.com/tv/is-the-tv-show-beecham-house-a-case-of-raj-nostalgia-two-british-historians-weigh-in/story-BplhUbetnvk9HZEwnsrr3I.html|url-status = live}}</ref>

In 2022 Dalrymple and the journalist [[Anita Anand (journalist)|Anita Anand]] created the [[podcast]] ''Empire'', the first series of which examines the British [[East India Company]] and British involvement and influence on India.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Nicol |first=Patricia |title=The best podcasts on the British Empire and East India Company |work=[[The Times]] |location=London |date=2022-08-22 |url=https://www.thetimes.com/culture/tv-radio/article/the-best-podcasts-on-the-british-empire-and-east-india-company-8zxtkwpn5 |access-date=2022-08-31 |issn=0140-0460 |archive-date=31 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220831124314/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/the-best-podcasts-on-the-british-empire-and-east-india-company-8zxtkwpn5 |url-status=live }}</ref> The pair had previously collaborated on the book ''[[Koh-i-Noor: The History of the World's Most Infamous Diamond]]''. The Empire podcast went straight to No.1 in the UK Apple Podcast charts, had more than five million downloads in its first six months and was twice nominated for UK Podcast of the Year in the [[Broadcasting Press Guild]] Audio Awards.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.broadcastingpressguild.org/category/awards-latest/ |title=Politics, power and new voices dominate BPG Audio award nominations |website=broadcastingpressguild.org |date=3 March 2023 |access-date=13 March 2023 |archive-date=13 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230313184035/http://www.broadcastingpressguild.org/category/awards-latest/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Personal life ==
Dalrymple first went to [[Delhi]] on 26 January 1984,<ref>{{cite book |author=William Dalrymple |title=The Last Mughal |publisher=Penguin |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-143-10243-4 |page=6 |chapter=Introduction}}</ref> and has lived in India on and off since 1989 and spends most of the year at his [[Mehrauli]] farmhouse in the outskirts of Delhi,<ref>{{cite news |author=Karan Mahajan |date=February–March 2011 |title=The Don of Dehli |url=http://www.bookforum.com/inprint/017_05/7000 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190109063224/http://www.bookforum.com/inprint/017_05/7000 |archive-date=9 January 2019 |access-date=18 February 2011 |newspaper=Bookforum.com}}</ref> but summers in [[London]] and [[Edinburgh]].{{Citation needed|date=November 2025}}

Dalrymple's wife, [[Olivia Fraser (artist)|Olivia Fraser]], is an artist and comes from a family with long-standing connections to India. The couple have three children.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-05-20 |title=FarmHouses in Delhi – William Dalrymple Opens the doors to his Delhi Farmhouse {{!}} AD India |url=https://www.architecturaldigest.in/content/writer-in-residence-william-dalyrimple-opens-the-doors-to-his-delhi-farmhouse/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231118201138/https://www.architecturaldigest.in/content/writer-in-residence-william-dalyrimple-opens-the-doors-to-his-delhi-farmhouse/ |archive-date=18 November 2023 |access-date=2023-09-18 |website=Architectural Digest India}}</ref> Fraser is related to the Scottish actress [[Rose Leslie]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Atwood |first=Margaret |author-link=Margaret Atwood |date=22 March 2015 |title=Margaret Atwood on Game of Thrones: 'Real people, every murderous one' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2015/mar/22/margaret-atwood-on-game-of-thrones-season-five?CMP=share_btn_tw |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406050211/https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2015/mar/22/margaret-atwood-on-game-of-thrones-season-five?CMP=share_btn_tw |archive-date=6 April 2023 |access-date=30 March 2021 |work=The Guardian}}</ref> Their son [[Sam Dalrymple (historian)|Sam Dalrymple]] is a historian and a co-founder of [[Project Dastaan]], a peace initiative.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Habib |first=Waquar |date=2023-08-30 |title=Samuel Dalrymple on Showcasing The Partition With Sensitivity |url=https://www.outlooktraveller.com/editors-picks/celebrating-people/samuel-dalrymple-on-showcasing-the-partition-with-sensitivity |access-date=2023-09-18 |website=Outlook Traveller}}</ref> The English journalist and author [[Alice Albinia]] is his cousin.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Maclean |first=Rory |date=2008-12-04 |title=Travel books of the year |url=https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2008/dec/04/travel-christmas-books-gifts |access-date=2023-09-18 |newspaper=The Guardian |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

Dalrymple has been critical of Israel's actions during the [[Gaza war]] and the [[United Kingdom and the Gaza war|United Kingdom's support for Israel]].<ref name="Lloyd-2024" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Hashem |first=Mohamed |date=7 July 2025 |title=William Dalrymple: 'Britain's education system sold me a lie about Palestine' |url=https://www.middleeasteye.net/video/william-dalrymple-britains-education-system-sold-me-lie-about-palestine |access-date=2025-11-14 |website=[[Middle East Eye]] |language=en}}</ref> In a 2024 interview with ''[[The Times]]'', he made an analogy between Israel's [[Israeli bombing of the Gaza Strip|response]] to the [[October 7 attacks]] and Britain's response to the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]], saying, "The Mutiny has contemporary echoes. The same feeling that innocent women and children were attacked, and that it therefore provided a [[carte blanche]] for revenge and reprisals."<ref name="Lloyd-2024" /> In May 2025, Dalrymple signed an [[open letter]] calling the Gaza war a [[Gaza genocide|genocide]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Creamer |first=Ella |date=2025-05-28 |title=Zadie Smith and Ian McEwan among 380 writers and groups to call Gaza war 'genocide' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2025/may/28/gaza-letter-genocide-zadie-smith-ian-mcewan |access-date=2025-11-14 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> In a September 2025 article for the ''[[New Statesman]]'', Dalrymple argued that Britain had a historic responsibility to help establish a [[Palestine|Palestinian state]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dalrymple |first=William |date=2025-09-17 |title=Britain must help establish a Palestinian state |url=https://www.newstatesman.com/international-politics/2025/09/britain-must-help-establish-a-palestinian-state |access-date=2025-11-14 |website=New Statesman |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Bibliography ==
{{Incomplete list |date=January 2023}}
{{bots|deny=Citation bot}}

=== Books ===
* ''[[In Xanadu|In Xanadu: A Quest]]'' (1989)
*''[[City of Djinns|City of Djinns: A Year in Delhi]]'' (1994)
*''[[From the Holy Mountain|From the Holy Mountain: A Journey in the Shadow of Byzantium]]'' (1997)
*''[[The Age of Kali|The Age of Kali: Indian Travels and Encounters]]'' (1998)
*''[[White Mughals|White Mughals: Love and Betrayal in Eighteenth-Century India]]'' (2002)
*''[[The Last Mughal|The Last Mughal: The Fall of a Dynasty, Delhi, 1857]]'' (2006)
*''[[Nine Lives: In Search of the Sacred in Modern India]]''. London, Bloomsbury (2009), {{ISBN|978-1-4088-0061-4}}
*''[[Return of a King|Return of a King: The Battle for Afghanistan]]'' (2012), {{ISBN|978-1-4088-1830-5}}
*''The Writer's Eye'' (2016), HarperCollins India, {{ISBN|978-9-3517-7925-4}}
*''[[Koh-i-Noor: The History of the World's Most Infamous Diamond]]'' (2017), {{ISBN|978-1-63557-076-2}}
*''[[The Anarchy: The Relentless Rise of the East India Company]]'' (2019), {{ISBN|978-1-40886-437-1}}
*''[[The Golden Road: How Ancient India Transformed the World]]'' (2024), {{ISBN|978-1639734146}}

;Editor 
*''Lonely Planet Sacred India''. Lonely Planet Publications, (1999) {{ISBN|1740593669}}
*''[[Begums Thugs And White Mughals|Begums, Thugs & White Mughals: The Journals of Fanny Parkes]]'' (2002)
*''Princes and Painters in Mughal Delhi 1707–1857''. Penguin Books India, (2012) {{ISBN|978-0-1434-1906-8}}
*''Forgotten Masters: Indian Painting for the East India Company''. Philip Wilson Publishers, (2020) {{ISBN|978-1781301012}}

=== Essays and reporting ===
* {{cite journal |author=Dalrymple, William |date=29 June 2015 |title=The great divide: The violent legacy of Indian Partition |journal=[[The New Yorker]] |volume=91 |issue=18 |pages=65–70 |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/06/29/the-great-divide-books-dalrymple }}<ref group=lower-alpha>Title in the online table of contents is "The mutual genocide of Indian Partition".</ref> (Review of the book ''[[Midnight's Furies: The Deadly Legacy of India's Partition|Midnight's Furies]]'' by [[Nisid Hajari]])

———————
;Notes
{{reflist|30em|group=lower-alpha}}

==Awards and honours==
* ''In Xanadu'' received the 1990 ''[[Yorkshire Post]]'' Best First Work Award and the [[Scottish Arts Council]] Spring Book Award.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.oxfordbookstore.com/oxfordonline/asppages/item_final.asp?strSKU=BD95637&strSKUSrl=2&sid=2FK4E9B103R89N6LEB8SW8WC3C500439
|title = The Last Mughal
|access-date = 30 June 2007
|publisher = Oxford Bookstore |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080111172107/http://www.oxfordbookstore.com/oxfordonline/asppages/item_final.asp?strSKU=BD95637&strSKUSrl=2&sid=2FK4E9B103R89N6LEB8SW8WC3C500439  |archive-date = 11 January 2008}}</ref>
* ''City of Djinns'' received the 1994 [[Thomas Cook Travel Book Award]] and the ''[[The Sunday Times (UK)|Sunday Times]]'' Young British Writer of the Year Award.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://home.comcast.net/~netaylor1/cooktravel.html
|title = thomas cook travel book award 1980–2003
|access-date = 30 June 2007
|publisher = THE BOOKLIST CENTER }}</ref>
* Elected a [[Royal Society of Literature|Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature]] (1995)<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-09-01 |title=Dalrymple, William |url=https://rsliterature.org/fellows/william-dalrymple/,%20https://rsliterature.org/fellows/william-dalrymple/ |access-date=2025-07-06 |website=Royal Society of Literature |language=en-GB}}</ref>
* ''From the Holy Mountain'' received the 1997 [[Scottish Arts Council]] Autumn Book Award.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.stanfords.co.uk/stock/from-the-holy-mountain-a-journey-in-the-shadow-of-byzantium-72283/
|title = From the Holy Mountain: A Journey in the Shadow of Byzantium
|access-date = 30 June 2007
|publisher = Stanfords
|archive-date = 27 September 2007
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070927213051/http://www.stanfords.co.uk/stock/from-the-holy-mountain-a-journey-in-the-shadow-of-byzantium-72283/
|url-status = live
}}</ref>
* ''The Age of Kali'' (1998) won the 2005 French Prix d'Astrolabe.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.stanfords.co.uk/stock/age-of-kali-indian-travels-and-encounters-80706/
|title = Age of Kali: Indian Travels and Encounters
|access-date = 30 June 2007
|publisher = Stanfords |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070927213031/http://www.stanfords.co.uk/stock/age-of-kali-indian-travels-and-encounters-80706/  |archive-date = 27 September 2007}}</ref>
* ''White Mughals: Love & Betrayal in Eighteenth-Century India'' (2002) won the 2001 [[Wolfson Prize for History]].<ref name="The City Circle">{{cite web
|url = http://www.thecitycircle.com/events_full_text2.php?id=347
|title = White Mughals
|access-date = 30 June 2007
|publisher = The City Circle |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071006094446/http://www.thecitycircle.com/events_full_text2.php?id=347  |archive-date = 6 October 2007}}</ref>
* Dalrymple was awarded the [[Mungo Park Medal]] in 2002 by the [[Royal Scottish Geographical Society]] for his outstanding contribution to [[travel literature]].<ref name="Contemporary Writers: British Council">{{cite web
|url = http://www.contemporarywriters.com/authors/?p=auth519D193A0f109211E7HsY1BA97C3
|title = William Dalrymple
|access-date = 30 June 2007
|publisher = Contemporary Writers: British Council
|url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071001130054/http://www.contemporarywriters.com/authors/?p=auth519D193A0f109211E7HsY1BA97C3
|archive-date = 1 October 2007
}}</ref>
* The television series ''Stones of the Raj'' and ''Indian Journeys'', which Dalrymple wrote and presented, won him the [[Grierson Award]] for Best Documentary Series at [[BAFTA]] in 2002.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.penguinbooksindia.com/AuthorLounge/AuthorDetail.asp?aid=2754
|title = William Dalrymple
|access-date = 30 June 2007
|publisher = Penguin Books India |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070109062249/http://www.penguinbooksindia.com/AuthorLounge/AuthorDetail.asp?aid=2754  |archive-date = 9 January 2007}}</ref>
* ''The Long Search'', Dalrymple's [[BBC Radio 4]] series on the history of British [[spirituality]] and [[mysticism]], won the 2002 [[Sandford St Martin Trust|Sandford St Martin Prize]] for Religious Broadcasting and was described by the judges as "thrilling in its brilliance...near perfect radio."<ref name="Contemporary Writers: British Council" />
* ''White Mughals: Love & Betrayal in Eighteenth-Century India'' (2002) won the 2003 Scottish Book of the Year Prize.<ref name="The City Circle"/>
* Dalrymple's article on ''[[madrasas]]'' of Pakistan was awarded the prize for Best Print Article of the Year at the 2005 FPA Media Awards.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.cerebration.org/dalrymple.html
|title = Author in Focus: Interview with William Dalrymple
|access-date = 30 June 2007
|publisher = Penguin Books India}}</ref>
* The Sykes Medal in 2005 from the [[Royal Society for Asian Affairs]] for his contribution "to understanding (of) contemporary Islam."<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.penguinbooksindia.com/AuthorLounge/AuthorDetail.asp?aid=2754
|title = William Dalrymple
|access-date = 30 June 2007
|publisher = Cerebration.Org |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070109062249/http://www.penguinbooksindia.com/AuthorLounge/AuthorDetail.asp?aid=2754  |archive-date = 9 January 2007}}</ref>
* An [[Honorary Doctorate]] of Letters, Honoris Causa, from the [[University of St. Andrews]] in 2006 "for his services to literature and international relations, to broadcasting and understanding."<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://calvin.st-andrews.ac.uk/external_relations/news_article.cfm?reference=955
|title = Honorary Degrees June 2006
|access-date = 30 June 2007
|publisher = University of St. Andrews
|archive-date = 26 August 2006
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060826034128/http://calvin.st-andrews.ac.uk/external_relations/news_article.cfm?reference=955
|url-status = live
}}</ref>
* ''The Last Mughal'' won the Duff Cooper Memorial Prize for History and Biography in February 2007.<ref name="The New York Review of Books"/>
* Dalrymple received an [[Honorary Doctorate]] of Letters, Honoris Causa, from the [[University of Lucknow]] in 2007 "for his outstanding contribution in literature and history."<ref>{{cite news
|url = http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/Girls-steal-the-show-at-LU-convocation/240394/
|title = Girls steal the show at LU convocation
|date = 18 November 2007
|access-date = 19 November 2007
|publisher = Express India
|archive-date = 12 January 2008
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080112012343/http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/Girls-steal-the-show-at-LU-convocation/240394/
|url-status = live
}}</ref>
* ''The Last Mughal'' won the 2007 [[Vodafone Crossword Book Award]] for best work in English non-fiction.<ref>{{cite news
|url =http://www.indiainfoline.com/news/innernews.asp?storyId=72532&lmn=1&cat=18
|title =Vodafone Crossword Popular Book Awards honours best writers
|date =5 July 2008
|access-date =5 July 2008
|publisher =India Infoline.com
|archive-date =23 July 2011
|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20110723115634/http://www.indiainfoline.com/news/innernews.asp?storyId=72532&lmn=1&cat=18
|url-status =live
}}</ref>
* An [[Honorary Doctorate]] of Letters, Honoris Causa, from the [[University of Aberdeen]] (2008).<ref>{{cite news
|url =http://www.pressandjournal.co.uk/Article.aspx/716673?UserKey=0
|title =Graduates told to make their mark in life
|date =8 July 2008
|access-date =5 July 2008
|publisher =The Press and Journal
|archive-date =19 May 2011
|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20110519041301/http://www.pressandjournal.co.uk/Article.aspx/716673?UserKey=0
|url-status =live
}}</ref>
* The 2008 Colonel James Tod Award given by the Maharana Mewar Foundation for achieving excellence in his field.<ref>{{cite news
|url =http://www.hindu.com/mp/2008/03/08/stories/2008030852170100.htm
|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20121103023453/http://www.hindu.com/mp/2008/03/08/stories/2008030852170100.htm
|url-status =dead
|archive-date =3 November 2012
|title =The winners take it all
|date = 8 March 2008
|access-date = 6 August 2008
|work =[[The Hindu]]
|location=Chennai, India}}</ref>
* ''Nine Lives'' received the 2010 Asia House Award for Asian Literature.
* The Media Citizen Puraskar by the Indian Confederation of NGOs for emphasising as an author issues of global importance and concern.<ref>{{cite news
|url =http://news.outlookindia.com/item.aspx?702803
|title =Anupam Kher, William Dalrymple Honoured
|date =27 November 2010
|access-date =29 November 2010
|publisher =OutlookIndia.com
|archive-date =5 December 2010
|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20101205230857/http://news.outlookindia.com/item.aspx?702803
|url-status =dead
}}</ref>
* [[Honorary Doctorate]] from the [[University of Bradford]] for his contributions to creative writing, literature and the Indian Subcontinent history fields (2012).<ref>{{cite news
|url =http://www.thetelegraphandargus.co.uk/news/local/localbrad/9817523.University_of_Bradford_degree_honours_for_familiar_faces/
|title =University of Bradford degree honours for familiar faces
|date =14 July 2012
|access-date =21 July 2017
|newspaper =The Telegraph & Argus
|archive-date =15 July 2016
|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20160715101940/http://www.thetelegraphandargus.co.uk/news/local/localbrad/9817523.University_of_Bradford_degree_honours_for_familiar_faces/
|url-status =live
}}</ref>
* Honorary Doctorate of Letters from the [[University of Edinburgh]].<ref>[http://www.scotsman.com/news/education/university-of-edinburgh-graduates-1-3816017 University Of Edinburgh graduates], ''The Scotsman'', 30 June 2015.</ref>
* The 2015 [[Premio Hemingway|Hemingway Prize]] for ''Return of a King''.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160304225028/http://www.telegraphindia.com/pressrelease/prnw/enin201506221778_indiapublic.html#.Vf-Q7H3CdTU "Bloomsbury is Delighted to Announce That the Italian Edition of William Dalrymple's Return of a King"], ''The Telegraph'', 23 June 2015.</ref>
* The 2015 [[Ryszard Kapuściński Award|Kapuściński Prize]] for ''Return of a King''.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20151118123746/http://www.davidgodwinassociates.com/blog/2015/9/14/william-dalrymple-wins-the-kapuciski-prize William Dalrymple wins the Kapuściński Prize], David Godwin Associates, 14 September 2015.</ref><ref>[https://twitter.com/bloomsburyindia/status/642243151558672384 Kapuściński Prize for RETURN OF A KING] Bloomsbury India's Twitter account 11 September 2015.</ref>
* Elected a Corresponding Fellow of the [[Royal Society of Edinburgh]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.rse.org.uk/fellow/william-dalrymple/|title=Mr William Hamilton Dalrymple CorrFRSE – The Royal Society of Edinburgh|work=The Royal Society of Edinburgh|access-date=2018-03-14|archive-date=15 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180315030703/https://www.rse.org.uk/fellow/william-dalrymple/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Elected a [[Fellow of the Royal Asiatic Society]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Dalrymple |first=William |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-26483320 |title=BBC News – Is Afghanistan really impossible to conquer? |publisher=BBC |date=2014-03-08 |access-date=2014-08-11 |archive-date=1 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180301023804/http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-26483320 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* He was awarded the [[President's Medal (British Academy)|President's Medal]] of the [[British Academy]] "for his literary achievements and for co-founding Jaipur Literary Festival".<ref name="British Academy-2018"/>
* He was awarded the 2022 [[Minerva Medal]] of the [[Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow]] for his contribution to the writing of history.
* Elected a Fellow of the [[Royal Historical Society]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://royalhistsoc.org/society-elects-239-new-fellows-associate-fellows-members-and-postgraduate-members/ |title=Society elects 239 new Fellows, Associate Fellows, Members and Postgraduate Members |date=30 September 2022|publisher=The Royal Historical Society|access-date=5 February 2023}}</ref>
* Honorary Doctorate of Letters from the [[University of York]] (2023).<ref>Horner, Emily Horner (17 July 2023), [https://www.yorkpress.co.uk/news/23660068.university-york-announce-honorary-graduates-2023 "University of York announce the honorary graduates for 2023"], University of York.{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230719132931/https://www.yorkpress.co.uk/news/23660068.university-york-announce-honorary-graduates-2023/ |date=19 July 2023 }} </ref>

* Elected Honorary Fellow of the Association of Scottish Literature (2024)

==See also==
* [[Yvonne, Lady Cochrane]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
* {{Official website}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080430223841/http://www.newstatesman.com/print/200401190012 Islamophobia] Article by William Dalrymple

{{Wolfson History Prize Winners}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Dalrymple, William}}
[[Category:1965 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:20th-century Scottish historians]]
[[Category:Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge]]
[[Category:Brown University faculty]]
[[Category:Commanders of the Order of the British Empire]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Asiatic Society]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Geographical Society]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society of Literature]]
[[Category:People educated at Ampleforth College]]
[[Category:People from North Berwick]]
[[Category:Recipients of the President's Medal (British Academy)]]
[[Category:Scottish art historians]]
[[Category:Scottish expatriates in India]]
[[Category:Scottish Roman Catholics]]
[[Category:Scottish travel writers]]
[[Category:Scottish travel writers]]
[[Category:The New Yorker people]]
[[Category:Wolfson History Prize winners]]
[[Category:Younger sons of baronets]]
[[Category:Dalrymple family|William]]

Bansilal Gurjar

2026-04-18T23:09:00Z

Indianeagle1: started some post more to come

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Bansilal Gurjar
| image =
| caption =
| birth_date =
| birth_place =
| office = [[Member of Parliament, Rajya Sabha]]
| term_start = 2024
| term_end =
| constituency = [[List of Rajya Sabha members from Madhya Pradesh|Madhya Pradesh]]
| predecessor =
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| other_party =
| spouse =
| children =
}}
'''Bansilal Gurjar''' is an Indian politician. He is a [[Member of Parliament]], representing [[Madhya Pradesh]] in the [[Rajya Sabha]] the [[upper house]] of [[Parliament of India|India's Parliament]] as a member of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]].<ref name="Noronha 2024 w751">{{cite web | last=Noronha | first=Rahul | title=Who are the 5 Rajya Sabha members from MP, and why were they nominated? | website=India Today | date=21 February 2024 | url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india-today-insight/story/who-are-the-5-rajya-sabha-members-from-mp-and-why-were-they-nominated-2505273-2024-02-21 | access-date=4 March 2024}}</ref><ref name="The Times of India 2024 b618">{{cite web | title=All 4 BJP candidates file papers for RS Bhopal | website=The Times of India | date=16 February 2024 | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bhopal/all-4-bjp-candidates-file-papers-for-rs-bhopal/articleshow/107738053.cms | access-date=4 March 2024}}</ref><ref name="The Times of India 2024 i949">{{cite web | title=BJP Nominates 3 New Faces for Rajya Sabha, Including Sadhu from Ujjain | website=The Times of India | date=15 February 2024 | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bhopal/bjp-nominates-3-new-faces-for-rajya-sabha-including-sadhu-from-ujjain/articleshow/107706327.cms | access-date=4 March 2024}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Gurjar, Bansilal}}
[[Category:Rajya Sabha members from Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

{{MadhyaPradesh-BJP-politician-stub}}

Sarangarh Assembly constituency

2026-04-15T02:14:16Z

Indianeagle1: done - done

{{short description|Legislative Assembly constituency in Chhattisgarh State, India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2021}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Sarangarh
| mla = [[Uttari Ganpat Jangde]]
| party = [[Indian National Congress]]
| state = [[Chhattisgarh]]
| district = [[Sarangarh-Bilaigarh District|Sarangarh-Bilaigarh]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Raigarh (Lok Sabha constituency)|Raigarh]]
| established = 1951
| reservation = SC
| electors = {{formatnum:263526}}<ref name=election2023>{{cite web |url=https://www.eci.gov.in/chhattisgarh-legislative-election-2023-statistical-report |title=State Election, 2023 to the Legislative Assembly Of Chhattisgarh |website=Election Commission of India |date= |accessdate=25 January 2023 |url-access=limited}}</ref>{{update after|2029|1}}
| type = SLA
| latest_election_year = [[2023 Chhattisgarh Legislative Assembly election|2023]]
| preceded_by = Kera Bai Manhar
| constituency_no = 17
| map_image = Sarangarh Assembly constituency map.svg
}}
'''Sarangarh''' is one of the 90 [[Chhattisgarh Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]] constituencies of [[Chhattisgarh]] state in [[India]].<ref name=ceoMap>{{cite web |url=https://ceochhattisgarh.nic.in/en/new-maps-assembly-constituency |title=New Maps of Assembly Constituency |website=ceochhattisgarh.nic.in |accessdate= 3 February 2021}}</ref>

It is part of [[Raigarh district|Raigarh]] district and is reserved for candidates belonging to the [[Scheduled Castes]].

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Year
!Member
!colspan="2"|Party
|-
! colspan=4|[[Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
|-
| rowspan="2" |[[1952 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1952]]
|Vedram
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=8}}
|-
|rowspan="2" |[[Nareshchandra Singh|Raja Nareshchandra Singh]]
|-
| rowspan="2" |[[1957 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1957]]
|-
| rowspan="2" |Nanhu Dai
|-
|[[1962 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1962]]
|-
|[[1967 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
|Kunjram
|-
|[[1972 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1972]]
|Sheo Prasad Gotia
|-
|[[1977 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1977]]
|rowspan="2" | Hulasram Manhar
|-
|[[1980 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1980]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress (I)}}
|-
|[[1985 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
|Puriram Chauhan
|{{party name with color|Independent politician}}
|-
|[[1990 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1990]]
|Bhaiya Ram Khunte
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1993 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1993]]
|Shamsher Singh
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
|[[1998 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1998]]
|Dr. Chhabilal Ratre
|{{Full party name with color|Bahujan Samaj Party}}
|-
! colspan=4|[[Chhattisgarh Legislative Assembly]]
|-
|[[2003 Chhattisgarh Legislative Assembly election|2003]]
|Kamda Jolhe
|{{Full party name with color|Bahujan Samaj Party}}
|-
|[[2008 Chhattisgarh Legislative Assembly election|2008]]
|Padma Mahnar
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[2013 Chhattisgarh Legislative Assembly election|2013]]
|Kera Bai Manhar
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
|[[2018 Chhattisgarh Legislative Assembly election|2018]]
|rowspan=2 | Uttari Ganpat Jangde
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[2023 Chhattisgarh Legislative Assembly election|2023]]<ref name="Chhattisgarh Election Result 2023: Full list of winners from BJP and Congress">{{cite news|url=https://www.livemint.com/elections/assembly-elections/chhattisgarh-assembly-election-result-2023-full-winners-list-bjp-congress-bhupesh-baghel-live-updates-11701451241747.html|title=Chhattisgarh Election Result 2023: Full list of winners from BJP and Congress|last1=mint|date=3 December 2023|accessdate=10 December 2023|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20231210105307/https://www.livemint.com/elections/assembly-elections/chhattisgarh-assembly-election-result-2023-full-winners-list-bjp-congress-bhupesh-baghel-live-updates-11701451241747.html|archivedate=10 December 2023|language=en}}</ref>
|}

== Election results ==

=== 2023 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2023 Chhattisgarh Legislative Assembly election|Chhattisgarh Legislative Assembly Election, 2023]]: Sarangarh<ref name=election2023/>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|candidate = Uttari Ganpat Jangde
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = 109,484
|percentage = 52.15
|change = -0.34
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Shivkumari Saradhan Chouhan
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = 79,789
|percentage = 38.01
|change = +12.53
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Narayan Ratnakar
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|votes = 13,215
|percentage = 6.30
|change = -9.72
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = [[None of the Above]]
|party = None of the above
|votes = 2,287
|percentage = 1.09
|change = -0.12
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 29,695
|percentage = 14.14
|change = -12.87
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 209,926
|percentage = 79.66
|change = -0.20
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser = Bharatiya Janata Party
|swing =
}}

{{Election box end}}

=== 2018 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2018 Chhattisgarh Legislative Assembly election|Chhattisgarh Legislative Assembly Election, 2018]]: Sarangarh<ref name=election2018>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/9643-statistical-data-of-general-election-to-chhatisgarh-assembly/ |title=Statistical data of General Election to Chhatisgarh Assembly - 2018 |website=Election Commission of India |accessdate= 3 February 2021}}</ref>
}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|candidate = Uttari Ganpat Jangde
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = 1,01,843
|percentage = 52.49
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Kera Bai Manhar
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = 49,445
|percentage = 25.48
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = [[ARVIND KHATKER]]
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|votes = 31,083
|percentage = 16.02
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = [[None of the Above]]
|party = None of the above
|votes = 2,342
|percentage = 1.21
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 52,398
|percentage = 27.01
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 1,94,024
|percentage = 79.86
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser = Bharatiya Janata Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[List of constituencies of the Chhattisgarh Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Sarangarh-Bilaigarh District|Sarangarh-Bilaigarh district]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Chhattisgarh}}

{{coord|21.59|83.08|display=title}}

[[Category:Sarangarh-Bilaigarh district]]
[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Chhattisgarh]]
[[Category:Politics of Chhattisgarh]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1951]]

Honnavar Assembly constituency

2026-04-14T03:23:31Z

Indianeagle1: creating a post from scratch

{{Short description|Former Assembly constituency in Mysore state, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2018}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Honnavar
| state = [[Mysore State]]
| district = [[Uttara Kannada]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Uttara Kannada Lok Sabha constituency|Uttara Kannada]]
| division = [[Belagavi division|Belagavi]]
| constituency_no =
| type = SLA
| established = 1951
| reservation = None
| abolished = 1967
| map_image =
| mla =
| party =
}}
'''Honnavar Assembly constituency''' was one of the [[Karnataka Legislative Assembly]] or [[Vidhan Sabha]] constituencies in [[Karnataka]]. It was part of [[Uttara Kannada Lok Sabha constituency]].

==Members of the Legislative Assembly==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Election
! Member
! colspan=2|Party
|-
| bgcolor="#FFF58A" | [[1952 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election|1952]] || Kamat Ramkrishna Narsinh || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=3}}
|-
| bgcolor="#FFF58A" | [[1957 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election|1957]] || rowspan="2" | Shamsuddin Bin Hussain Saheb Jukaku
|-
| bgcolor="#FFF58A" | [[1962 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election|1962]]
|-
| bgcolor="#FFF58A" | [[1963 elections in India#Mysore|1963 By-election]] {{efn|Death of Shamsuddin Bin Hussain Saheb Jukaku [26 March 1964]}} || R. Hegde || {{Full party name with color|Independent politician}}
|}
{{notelist}}

==Election results==
=== Assembly By-election 1964 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1963 elections in India#Mysore|1963 Mysore State Legislative Assembly by-election]] : Honawar <ref>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/2511-details-of-bye-elections-from-1952-to-1995/ |title=Details of Bye Elections from 1952 to 1995 |access-date=21 December 2025 |website=old.eci.gov.in |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] }}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = R. Hegde |party = Independent politician |votes = 12,940 |percentage = 60.01% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = S. V. Naik |party = Praja Socialist Party |votes = 8,624 |percentage = 39.99% |change = {{increase}}5.28 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 4,316 |percentage = 20.01% |change = {{decrease}}3.75 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 21,564}}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Independent politician |loser = Indian National Congress |swing = {{increase}}1.54 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1962 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1962 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election]] : Honawar <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1962 to the Legislative Assembly of Mysore |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1962/StatRep_Mysore_1962.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006093153/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1962/StatRep_Mysore_1962.pdf |archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Shamsuddin Bin Hussain Saheb Jukaku |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 18,506 |percentage = 58.47% |change = {{increase}}6.77 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Honna Goydappa Naik |party = Praja Socialist Party |votes = 10,986 |percentage = 34.71% |change = {{increase}}1.83 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Deepanna Manjayya Shetti |party = Communist Party of India |votes = 1,676 |percentage = 5.30% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Ganesh Mahabal Hegde |party = Independent politician |votes = 484 |percentage = 1.53% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 7,520 |percentage = 23.76% |change = {{increase}}4.95 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 34,164 |percentage = 58.30% |change = {{decrease}}0.73 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 31,652}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 58,598 |ref = |change = {{increase}}10.57 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = {{increase}}6.77 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1957 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1957 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election]] : Honawar <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1957 to the Legislative Assembly of Mysore |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1957/StatRep_Mysore_1957.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111195053/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1957/StatRep_Mysore_1957.pdf |archive-date=11 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Shamsuddin Bin Hussain Saheb Jukaku |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 16,172 |percentage = 51.70% |change = {{increase}}16.09 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Naik Devendra Kalinga |party = Praja Socialist Party |votes = 10,287 |percentage = 32.88% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Kamat Vasudeo Rama |party = Independent politician |votes = 4,824 |percentage = 15.42% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 5,885 |percentage = 18.81% |change = {{increase}}11.88 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 31,283 |percentage = 59.03% |change = {{increase}}3.66 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 31,283}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 52,998 |ref = |change = {{decrease}}4.03 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = {{increase}}16.09 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1952 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1952 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election]] : Honawar <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1951 to the Legislative Assembly of Mysore |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/StatRep_51_MYSORE.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101007130946/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/StatRep_51_MYSORE.pdf|archive-date=7 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Kamat Ramkrishna Narsinh |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 10,888 |percentage = 35.61% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Naik Devendra Kalinga |party = Socialist Party (India) |votes = 8,770 |percentage = 28.68% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Shamsuddin Bin Hussain Saheb Jukaku |party = Independent politician |votes = 8,659 |percentage = 28.32% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Singh. D. V |party = Communist Party of India |votes = 2,260 |percentage = 7.39% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 2,118 |percentage = 6.93% |change = }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 30,577 |percentage = 55.37% |change = }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 30,577}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 55,225 |ref = |change = }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = }}
{{Election box end}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Vidhan Sabha constituencies of Karnataka}}
{{coord|14.282|74.443|display=title}}

[[Category:Former assembly constituencies of Karnataka]]
[[Category:Uttara Kannada district]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1951]]
[[Category:1951 establishments in Bombay State]]
[[Category:Constituencies disestablished in 1967]]
[[Category:1967 disestablishments in India]]
[[Category:Politics of Karnataka]]

{{India-constituency-stub}}
{{UttaraKannada-geo-stub}}

Guwahati–Dullabcherra Express

2026-04-13T00:02:10Z

Indianeagle1: creating some pg initial version.

{{Short description|Train in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2024}}
{{Infobox rail service
| name = Guwahati – Dullabcherra Express
| color = bf955d
| image = 15617 Ghy Dlcr KXJ.jpg
| image_width = 300px
| caption = 15617 at Karimganj Junction
| type = [[Express trains in India|Mail/Express]]
| status = Operating
| locale = [[Assam]]
| first = {{Start date and age|df=yes|2023|10|21}}
| operator = [[Northeast Frontier Railway zone|Northeast Frontier Railway]]
| ridership = 900+ one way (per journey)
| start = [[Guwahati railway station|Guwahati]] (Ghy)
| stops = 10
| end = [[Dullabcherra railway station|Dullabcherra]] (Dlcr)
| distance = {{convert|411|km|0|abbr=on}}
| journeytime = 11h 30m (DN) 11h 50m (UP)
| frequency = Tri-weekly<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.news9live.com/utility/indian-railways-introduces-new-trains-boosting-northeast-and-jammu-and-kashmir-connectivity-check-train-names-numbers-and-other-details-here-2327391|title=Indian Railways introduces new trains boosting Northeast and Jammu and Kashmir connectivity|date=21 October 2023|newspaper=News9|accessdate=26 November 2024|author=Ashutosh Raj|archive-date=1 December 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241201113334/https://www.news9live.com/utility/indian-railways-introduces-new-trains-boosting-northeast-and-jammu-and-kashmir-connectivity-check-train-names-numbers-and-other-details-here-2327391|url-status=live}}</ref>
| line_used = 3;
* [[Guwahati–Lumding section|Guwahati-Lumding Line]]
* [[Lumding-Sabroom section|Lumding-Sabroom Line]]
* Baraigram-Dullabcherra Branch Line
| class = AC 2-tier AC 3-tier Sleeper class (Non-AC) General Unreserved
| access = Available (2 coaches only)
| seating = Ordinary style (unreserved)
| sleeping = Both AC and Non-AC (reserved)
| autorack = Not available
| catering = E-Catering
| observation = Windows
| entertainment = Not available
| baggage = Below the seats
| stock = [[ICF coach|ICF]] (Utkrisht livery)
| gauge = {{track gauge|1676mm|al=on|allk=on}} Broad gauge
| electrification = No
| trainnumber = 15617/15618
| trainlength = 335 m approx.
| owners = [[Indian Railways]]
| speed = Avg. speed {{convert|36|km/h|0|abbr=on}} (DN) {{convert|35|km/h|0|abbr=on}} (UP) Max. speed {{convert|110|km/h|0|abbr=on}}
| maintenance = Guwahati
| sharing = 05697/05698
| map = {{Dlcr Express Route}}
}}

The 15617/15618 '''Guwahati–Dullabcherra Express''' is an [[Express trains in India|Express]] train belonging to [[Northeast Frontier Railway zone]] of [[Indian Railways]] that runs between [[Guwahati railway station|Guwahati]] and [[Dullabcherra railway station|Dullabcherra]] via old [[Karimganj Junction railway station|Karimganj Junction]] in the Indian state of [[Assam]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.northeasttoday.in/2023/10/18/agartala-and-silchar-to-witness-new-rail-services-for-enhanced-connectivity-union-minister-ashwini-vaishnaw-to-flag-off-ceremony-virtually/|title=Agartala And Silchar To Witness New Rail Services For Enhanced Connectivity; Union Minister Ashwini Vaishnaw To Flag Off Ceremony Virtually|date=18 October 2023|author=Abhijit Nath|newspaper=northeast today|accessdate=4 August 2024|archive-date=17 July 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250717125323/https://northeasttoday.in/northeast/agartala-and-silchar-to-witness-new-rail-services-for-enhanced-connectivity-union-minister-ashwini-vaishnaw-to-flag-off-ceremony-virtually/|url-status=live}}</ref> It is currently being operated with 15617 DN / 15618 UP train numbers on a tri-weekly basis.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.zeebiz.com/indian-railways/news-indian-railways-introduces-two-new-trains-in-northeast-check-route-running-days-other-details-guwahati-dullabcherra-tripura-agartala-mumbai-kamakhya-lokmanya-tilak-terminus-express-mizoram-260529|title=Indian railways introduces two new trains in Northeast|date=19 October 2023|newspaper=Zee Business|accessdate=19 July 2024|archive-date=19 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231019183939/https://www.zeebiz.com/indian-railways/news-indian-railways-introduces-two-new-trains-in-northeast-check-route-running-days-other-details-guwahati-dullabcherra-tripura-agartala-mumbai-kamakhya-lokmanya-tilak-terminus-express-mizoram-260529|url-status=live}}</ref>{{efn|''15617 - Mondays, Wednesdays and Saturdays {{pipe}} 15618 - Tuesdays, Thursdays and Sundays''}} It runs as an overnight train from Guwahati and as a Day-Night train from Dullabcherra.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.oneindia.com/india/new-train-flagged-off-in-guwahati-and-agartala-gen-3663057.html|title=New trains flagged off in Guwahati and Agartala|date=18 October 2023|author=Krishna Kripa|website=[[Oneindia]]|accessdate=19 July 2024|archive-date=19 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231019035819/https://www.oneindia.com/india/new-train-flagged-off-in-guwahati-and-agartala-gen-3663057.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/new-train-services-provide-boost-for-rail-connectivity-in-north-east-and-jk/article67439170.ece|title=New train services provide boost for rail connectivity in North East and J&K|date=19 October 2023|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|accessdate=27 November 2024|archive-date=19 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231019180948/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/new-train-services-provide-boost-for-rail-connectivity-in-north-east-and-jk/article67439170.ece|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Background==
This train was inaugurated and flagged off on 19 October 2023, from [[Guwahati]] by [[Himanta Biswa Sarma]], [[List of chief ministers of Assam|chief minister of Assam]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.abplive.com/northeast/north-east-railway-connectivity-gets-big-boost-as-centre-introduces-new-trains-routes-in-region-1637088|title=North East Railway Connectivity Gets Big Boost As Centre Introduces New Trains, Routes In Region|date=19 October 2023|newspaper=[[ABP News]]|accessdate=26 November 2024|author=Pallav Bora|archive-date=25 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231025032117/https://news.abplive.com/northeast/north-east-railway-connectivity-gets-big-boost-as-centre-introduces-new-trains-routes-in-region-1637088|url-status=live}}</ref> After inauguration, this became the first direct train service between Guwahati and Dullabcherra.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://morungexpress.com/nfr-introduces-two-new-trains-extends-services|title=NFR introduces two new trains, extends services|date=20 October 2023|newspaper=morungexpress|accessdate=19 July 2024|archive-date=20 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231020021022/https://morungexpress.com/nfr-introduces-two-new-trains-extends-services|url-status=live}}</ref> This was also the first train to Guwahati via old Karimganj Junction in 5 years, with the last time a train ran via this station to Guwahati was way back in 2018.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/north-east/protest-for-train-halt/cid/1442388|title=Protest for train halt|date=19 February 2018|newspaper=[[The Telegraph (India)|The Telegraph]]|accessdate=19 July 2024|archive-date=25 April 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250425223500/https://www.telegraphindia.com/north-east/protest-for-train-halt/cid/1442388|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.livemint.com/news/vande-bharat-train-to-soon-run-in-kashmir-railway-minister-ashwini-vaishnaw-shares-update-11697780149550.html|title=Vande Bharat train to soon run in Kashmir; Railway Minister Ashwini Vaishnaw shares update|date=20 October 2023|newspaper=[[Mint (newspaper)|Mint]]|accessdate=28 November 2024|author=Karishma Pranav Bhavsar|archive-date=21 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231021025553/https://www.livemint.com/news/vande-bharat-train-to-soon-run-in-kashmir-railway-minister-ashwini-vaishnaw-shares-update-11697780149550.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Service==

The 15617 DN/Guwahati–Dullabcherra Express has an average speed of 36 km/h and covers a distance of 411 km in 11h 30m. The 15618 UP/Dullabcherra–Guwahati Express has an average speed of 35 km/h and covers a distance of 411 km in 11h 50m.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://way2barak.com/guwahati-dullabcherra-trian-to-be-introduced-on-thursday/|title=Guwahati-Dullabcherra train to be introduced on thursday|date=18 October 2023|website=way2barak|accessdate=2 November 2024|archive-date=25 April 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250425215227/https://way2barak.com/guwahati-dullabcherra-trian-to-be-introduced-on-thursday/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Schedule==

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Train number !! Departure station !! Departure time !! Departure day !! Arrival station !! Arrival time !! Arrival day
|-
| 15617<ref>{{cite news|url=https://travel.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/railways/new-extended-trains-under-nf-railway-to-be-flagged-off-from-guwahati-agartala/104542737|title=New, extended trains under NF Railway to be flagged off from Guwahati, Agartala|date=19 October 2023|website=[[The Economic Times|Economic Times]]|accessdate=4 August 2024|archive-date=1 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231201074934/https://travel.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/railways/new-extended-trains-under-nf-railway-to-be-flagged-off-from-guwahati-agartala/104542737|url-status=live}}</ref> || Guwahati || 10:15 PM || Mon, Wed, Sat || Dullabcherra || 09:45 AM || Next day
|-
| 15618 || Dullabcherra || 11:40 AM || Tue, Thu, Sun || Guwahati || 11:30 PM || Same day
|}

{| class="wikitable" width="45%" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="12" align="center" style="background:#DAA06D;" |''GHY - DLCR - GHY Express''
|-
! colspan="2" |15617
! rowspan="2" |Stations
! colspan="2" |15618
|-
|'''Arrival'''
|'''Departure'''
|'''Arrival'''
|'''Departure'''
|-
| '''----'''
|22:15
|'''[[Guwahati railway station|Guwahati]]'''
|23:30
| '''----'''
|-
|23:12
|23:14
|[[Jagiroad railway station|Jagiroad]]
|21:40
|21:42
|-
|23:41
|23:43
|[[Chaparmukh Junction railway station|Chaparmukh Junction]]
|21:12
|21:14
|-
|00:19
|00:21
|[[Hojai railway station|Hojai]]
|20:36
|20:38
|-
|00:35
|00:37
|Lanka
|20:20
|20:22
|-
|01:18
|01:20
|[[Manderdisa railway station|Manderdisa Junction]]
|19:15
|19:17
|-
|02:40
|02:42
|Maibang
|17:25
|17:27
|-
|04:00
|04:05
|[[New Haflong railway station|New Haflong]]
|16:15
|16:20
|-
|06:20
|06:30
|'''[[Badarpur Junction railway station|Badarpur Junction]]'''
|14:00
|14:10
|-
|07:20
|07:30
|'''[[Karimganj Junction railway station|Karimganj Junction]]'''
|13:00
|13:10
|-
|08:23
|08:25
|Baraigram Junction
|12:25
|12:27
|-
|09:45
| ----
|[[Dullabcherra railway station|Dullabcherra]]
| ----
|11:40
|}

== Route and halts ==

The halts of the train are:

'''Guwahati''' (Ghy) ⬇️
* Jagiroad (Jid)
* Chaparmukh Junction (Cpk)
* Hojai (Hji)
* Lanka (Lka)
* Manderdisa Junction (Myd)
* Maibang (Mbg)
* New Haflong (Nhlg)
* '''Badarpur Junction''' (Bpb)
* '''Karimganj Junction''' (Kxj) ''(reversal)''
* Baraigram Junction (Brgm)
Dullabcherra (Dlcr) ⬆️

==Coach composition==

The train has dedicated Utkrisht livery ICF rakes with a max speed of 100 km/h. The train consists of 14 coaches:

* 1 AC II Tier Sleeper (A1)
* 2 AC III Tier Sleeper (B1, B2)
* 6 Non-AC Sleeper coaches (S1 to S6)
* 3 General Unreserved
* 2 Seating cum Luggage Rake (Divyangjan)

===Coach position===

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders unsortable" style="text-align:center"
|-
!scope="col" style="background:grey;"| Loco
!scope="col" style="background:#74C365;"| 1
!scope="col" style="background:yellow;"| 2
!scope="col" style="background:#bf955d;"| 3
!scope="col" style="background:#bf955d;"| 4
!scope="col" style="background:#bf955d;"| 5
!scope="col" style="background:#bf955d;"| 6
!scope="col" style="background:#bf955d;"| 7
!scope="col" style="background:#bf955d;"| 8
!scope="col" style="background:violet;"| 9
!scope="col" style="background:skyblue;"| 10
!scope="col" style="background:skyblue;"| 11
!scope="col" style="background:yellow;"| 12
!scope="col" style="background:yellow;"| 13
!scope="col" style="background:#74C365;"| 14
|-
|| [[File:Wam-2. SVG.svg]]|| SLRD || GN || S1 || S2 || S3 || S4 || S5 || S6 || A1 || B1 || B2 || GN || GN || SLRD
|}

== Traction ==

The route is not completely electrified, so both way the trains are hauled by diesel locomotive. Both way the trains are hauled by [[Diesel Loco Shed, Siliguri|Siliguri loco shed]] based [[WDP-4]], WDP-4D & [[New Guwahati railway station|New Guwahati loco shed]] based WDP-4D, WDG-4D.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://energy.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/power/electrification-of-railway-network-in-tripura-to-be-completed-before-august-this-year/110178260|title=Electrification of railway network in Tripura to be completed before August this year|date=16 May 2024|newspaper=Economic Times|accessdate=19 July 2024|archive-date=22 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522085806/https://energy.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/power/electrification-of-railway-network-in-tripura-to-be-completed-before-august-this-year/110178260|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Gallery ==

<gallery mode="packed">
</gallery>

== See also ==

* [[Agartala–Narangi Express]]
* [[Rangiya–Silchar Express]]
* [[Guwahati–Sairang Express]]
* [[Barak Brahmaputra Express]]
* [[Nagaland Express]]
* [[Guwahati–Ledo Intercity Express]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==

{{reflist}}

== External links ==
{{commons category|Guwahati Dullabcherra Express}}
{{external media|width=220px|float=right
| video1 = {{YouTube|c4FYk69NgbI|15617 journey from Badarpur Jn to Dullabcherra}}, Infinity Rails
}}

* [https://indiarailinfo.com/train/209587 15617/Guwahati–Dullabcherra Express] India Rail Info
* [https://indiarailinfo.com/train/209597 15618/Dullabcherra–Guwahati Express] India Rail Info

{{Railway stations in Assam}}

{{coord missing|Assam}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Guwahati-Dullabcherra Express}}
[[Category:Rail transport in Assam]]
[[Category:Named passenger trains of India]]
[[Category:Express trains in India]]
[[Category:Railway stations in India opened in 1898]]
[[Category:Railway stations in Karimganj district]]
[[Category:Lumding railway division]]
[[Category:Railway stations in Guwahati]]

Jayakodi

2026-04-07T03:47:43Z

Indianeagle1: creating the post w/ refs

{{short description|1940 film by Bhagwan Dada}}
{{EngvarB|date=January 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Jayakodi
| image = Jayakodi.jpg
| caption = Poster
| director = [[Bhagwan Dada]]
| producer =
| story = Bhagwan Dada
| starring = {{ubl|K. T. Rukmini|K. Natarajan}}
| music = [[C. Ramchandra]]
| cinematography = Ahmedulla
| editing = S. Kumar
| studio = South Indian United Artistes Corporation
| released = {{film date|1940|3|17|df=y}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}

'''''Jayakodi''''' is a 1940 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language [[social problem film]] directed by [[Bhagwan Dada]]. The film stars K. T. Rukmini and K. Natarajan. It revolves around a girl who rebels against the dowry system. The film was released on 17 March 1940 and became a success. No print of it is known to survive, making it a [[lost film]].

== Plot ==
Rajam, an impoverished Brahmin girl, is unmarried due to her family's inability to give dowry. Though a neighbouring family helps Rajam's family during their times of need, attempts to have her married still fail. Because of misunderstandings over money, a voracious moneylender murders Rajam's father and sets fire to their house. Rajam becomes a social activist and rebels against the dowry system. She becomes known as "Jayakodi", and prospective bridegrooms demanding dowry begin to disappear under mysterious circumstances, making people wonder what happened to them. After Rajam solves many dowry issues, she marries a man who genuinely loves her, and the couple continue their war against the dowry system.<ref name="thehindu" />

== Cast ==
* K. T. Rukmini as Rajam / Jayakodi
* K. Natarajan as Rajam's husband
* Kulathu Mani
* K. Kokila
* S. Basha
* K. T. Saku Bai

== Production ==
''Jayakodi'' was produced by the South Indian United Artistes Corporation and directed by [[Bhagwan Dada]], who also wrote the story. The dialogues were written by B. V. Swamy and S. R. Sarangan. Cinematography was handled by Ahmedulla, and editing by S. Kumar.<ref name="Anandan" />

== Music ==
The music of the film was composed by [[C. Ramchandra]], while the lyrics were written by C. Murugesan.<ref name="thehindu" /><ref name="Anandan" />

;Songs list
''Song'' - Singer/s
#''Padu Mosamey'' - K. Kokila
#''Thaniye'' - K. Natarajan
#''Idhu Vakai Yaan'' - K. Natarajan, [[R. B. Lakshmi Devi]]
#''Aasai Naayagi'' - K. T. Saku Bai, Comedian Ambi

== Release and reception ==
''Jayakodi'' was released on 17 March 1940,<ref name="Anandan" /> and became a commercial success, establishing Rukmini as a star. The film's title later became prefixed to Natarajan's name. No print of the film is known to survive, making it a [[lost film]].<ref name="thehindu" />

== References ==
<references>

<ref name="thehindu">{{Cite news |last=Guy |first=Randor |url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/article2820260.ece |title=Jayakodi 1940 |date=21 January 2012 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=23 January 2020 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161125134725/http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/article2820260.ece |archive-date=25 November 2016 |author-link=Randor Guy}}</ref>
<ref name="Anandan">{{Cite book |last=Film News Anandan |url=http://www.lakshmansruthi.com/cineprofiles/1940-cinedetails35.asp |title=Sadhanaigal Padaitha Thamizh Thiraipada Varalaru |publisher=Sivagami Publishers |year=2004 |location=Chennai |language=Tamil |trans-title=Tamil film history and its achievements |author-link=Film News Anandan |archive-url=https://archive.today/20200123043018/http://www.lakshmansruthi.com/cineprofiles/1940-cinedetails35.asp |archive-date=23 January 2020 |url-status=usurped}}</ref>

</references>

==External links==
*{{IMDb title|6264532}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Jayakodi}}
[[Category:1940 films]]
[[Category:1940 Indian films]]
[[Category:1940 lost films]]
[[Category:1940 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:1940s color films]]
[[Category:Films about social issues in India]]
[[Category:Lost Indian films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]

Punjab Reorganisation Act, 1966

2026-03-25T23:32:31Z

Indianeagle1:

{{Short description|Act of the Parliament of India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2018}}
{{Infobox legislation
|status = In force
|enacted_by = [[Parliament of India]]
|short_title = Punjab Reorganization Act, 1966
|long_title = An Act to provide for the Reorganisation of the existing State of Punjab and for matters connected therewith.
|date_enacted = 18 September 1966
|citation = No. 31 of 1966
|image={{Annotated image|image=Punjab 1951-66.svg|image-width=528|image-left=-257|image-top=0|width=267|height=213|annotations=|caption=}}
|caption=The region before and after reorganisation
}}
The '''Punjab Reorganisation Act, 1966''' was passed by the [[Indian Parliament]] on 18 September 1966, separating territory from the state of [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], most of which formed the new state of [[Haryana]]. Some of the Punjab state territory was transferred to [[Himachal Pradesh]], then a [[Union territory]]; while [[Chandigarh]], the capital of Punjab, was made a temporary Union territory to serve as the provisional capital of both Punjab and Haryana. The larger state of Punjab had been formed under the [[States Reorganisation Act, 1956]] by merging [[East Punjab]] and [[PEPSU]]. The 1966 separation was the result of the [[Punjabi Suba movement]], which agitated for the creation of a [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]-speaking state (the modern state of Punjab); in the process a majority [[Hindi]]-speaking state was created (effectively, Haryana).<ref>{{cite web | url=http://indiankanoon.org/doc/933499/ | title=The Punjab Reorganisation Act, 1966 | publisher=Indian Kanoon | access-date=13 November 2015}}</ref><ref name="singh2015">{{cite book|author=Virendra Singh|title=INDIAN POLITY with Indian Constitution & Parliamentary Affairs: Special Focus on CSAT and Different State PSC Prelims & Mains, Graduate & Post Graduate Course (Public Administration & Political Science) Staff Selection Commission Examination (Metric & Graduate level and also helpful for different Law examination|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PEX5CQAAQBAJ&pg=PA509|access-date=13 November 2015|date=24 June 2015|publisher=Neelkanth Prakashan|isbn=978-81-925472-9-9|pages=509–}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://lawmin.nic.in/legislative/textofcentralacts/1966.pdf | title=1966 - Ministry of Law and Justice | publisher=Ministry of Law and Justice India | access-date=13 November 2015}}</ref>

The territorial changes as a result of the reorganisation of the erstwhile composite Punjab State are listed below :

# Entire districts of [[Hisar district|Hisar]], [[Rohtak district|Rohtak]], [[Gurgaon district|Gurgaon]], [[Karnal district|Karnal]] and [[Mahendragarh district|Mahendra-garh]], complete tahsils of [[Ambala district|Ambala]], [[Jagadhri]], [[Naraingarh]] and 153 villages along with [[Kalka|Kalka town]] of [[Kharar, SAS Nagar|Kharar tahsil]] of Ambala district and two tahsils viz., [[Jind]] and [[Narwana]] of [[Sangrur district|Sangrur District]] (44,222.0 [[Square kilometre|kmsq.]]) were transferred from the composite [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] for formation of the newly created State of [[Haryana]] on 1 November 1966.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Government of Haryana |first=District Panchkula |title=District Panchkula, Government of Haryana |url=https://panchkula.nic.in/about-district/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=CENSUS OF INDIA 1971 |first=SERIES 6-HARYANA AMBALA DISTRICT |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/28244 |title=Ambala District Census Handbook Part X-C Analytical Report District Census Tables and Administrative, Welfare and Developmental Statistics |pages=6}}</ref>
# Entire districts of [[Kangra district|Kangra]], [[Shimla|Simla]], [[Lahaul and Spiti district|Lahaul and Spiti]], three towns viz. [[Bakloh|Bakloh(C.B.)]], [[Dalhousie, India|Dalhousie(M.C)]] and [[Dalhousie Cantonment|Dalhousie Cantt.]] town (14.3 [[Kilometre|kmsq.]]) of [[Gurdaspur district]], complete [[Nalagarh|Nalagarh tahsil]] of Ambala district and 290 villages along with [[Una, Himachal Pradesh|Una town]] of the Una tahsil of [[Hoshiarpur district]] (27,277.3 [[Square kilometre|kmsq.]]) were transferred to [[Himachal Pradesh]].<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://new.census.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/30735 |title=CENSUS OF INDIA 1971, SERIES-7, HIMACHAL PRADESH PART II-A, GENERAL POPULATION TABLES |pages=9}}</ref>
# 36 villages, [[Mani Majra|Manimajra]] and [[Chandigarh|Chandigarh towns]] of Kharar tahsil of Ambala district (114.0 [[Square kilometre|kmsq]], were lumped together to come out as a separate administrative unit styled as Union Territory of [[Chandigarh]].<ref name=":0" />
# Entire districts of [[Amritsar district|Amritsar]], [[Bathinda district|Bathinda]], [[Kapurthala district|kapurthala]], [[Jalandhar district|Jalandhar]], [[Ludhiana district|Ludhiana]], [[Firozpur district|Firozpur]], [[Patiala district|Patiala]] and Complete tahsil of [[Barnala district|Barnala]], [[Malerkotla district|Malerkotla]] & [[Sangrur]] tahsil of [[Sangrur district]] and [[Gurdaspur district]] without [[Bakloh]], [[Dalhousie, India|Dalhousie]] and [[Dalhousie Cantonment|Dalhousie Cantt.]] town, Complete tahsils of [[Dasuya]], [[Garhshankar]], [[Hoshiarpur]], 237 villages with [[Nangal]], [[Naya Nangal]] and [[Anandpur Sahib]] towns of the [[Una, Himachal Pradesh|Una]] tahsil of [[Hoshiarpur district]], Entire tahsil of [[Rupnagar|Ropar]], 282 villages along with [[Kharar, SAS Nagar|Kharar]] and [[Kurali]] towns [[Kharar, SAS Nagar|Kharar]] tahsil of composite [[Ambala district]] remain in Punjab.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/30738 |title=CENSUS OF INDIA-1971 SERIES-17 PUNJAB PART II-A GENERAL POPULATION TABLES |pages=13}}</ref>

Within the [[Chandigarh Capitol Complex]], the Palace of Justice hosts a sole [[Punjab and Haryana High Court]] as the common state supreme court for both states; the [[Palace of Assembly]] houses both the [[Punjab Legislative Assembly]] and the [[Haryana Legislative Assembly]]; and the [[Secretariat Building, Chandigarh|Secretariat Building]] hosts the offices of the [[Chief secretary (India)|Chief Secretaries]] of both states. The [[Governor (India)|state governors]]' residences, [[Punjab Raj Bhavan]] and [[Haryana Raj Bhavan]], are next to each other on [[Sukhna Lake]].

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/1645/1/196631.pdf Punjab Reorganisation Act, 1966] as passed, with schedules; from ''India Code'', [[National Informatics Centre]]

[[Category:Acts of the Parliament of India 1966]]
[[Category:Reorganisation of Indian states]]
[[Category:1960s in Punjab, India]]
[[Category:1960s in Haryana]]
[[Category:1960s in Himachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:Government of Himachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:Government of Haryana]]
[[Category:Government of Punjab, India]]
[[Category:1960s in Chandigarh]]
[[Category:Government of Chandigarh]]

Kavya Madhavan

2026-03-24T03:17:25Z

Indianeagle1:

{{Short description|Indian actress (born 1984)}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2023}}
{{Indian name|Kavya|Madhavan}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Kavya Madhavan
| image = Kavya madhavan.jpg
| caption = Kavya Madhavan in 2013
| birth_name = 
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1984|09|19}}
| birth_place = [[Nileshwaram]], [[Kasaragod, Kerala]], India
| occupation = {{hlist|Film actress|[[Indian classical dance|classical dancer]]|singer|lyricist}}
| yearsactive = 1991–2016
| notable_works = [[#Filmography|Full list]]
| spouse = {{unbulleted_list|{{marriage|Nishal Chandra|2009|2011|reason=divorced}}|{{marriage|[[Dileep (actor)|Dileep]]|2016}}}}
| children = 1
| awards = [[List of awards and nominations received by Kavya Madhavan|Full list]]
}}

'''Kavya Madhavan''' (born 19 September 1984),<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/meenakshi-dileep-drops-a-lovely-photo-on-kavya-madhavans-birthday/articleshow/94318216.cms |title=Meenakshi Dileep drops a lovely photo on Kavya Madhavan's birthday |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> is an Indian actress who acted predominantly in [[Malayalam cinema|Malayalam films]], and a few [[Tamil films]]. She made her debut in 1991 as a child artist in ''[[Pookkalam Varavayi]]''. Her debut role as one of the lead actresses (the other being Samyuktha Varma) was in [[Lal Jose]]'s ''[[Chandranudikkunna Dikkil]]'' in 1999, when she was in the ninth grade. Its success established her status as one of the leading actress in the Malayalam industry during the 2000s. She has since acted in over 75 films. She has won the [[Kerala State Film Award for Best Actress]] twice, for her performances in ''[[Perumazhakkalam]]'' (2004) and ''[[Khaddama]]'' (2010).<ref name=2000-12>{{cite web |title=State Film Awards (2000–12) |url=http://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/stateawards4.htm |publisher=[[Kerala State Chalachitra Academy]] |access-date=26 September 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150707210332/http://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/stateawards4.htm |archive-date=7 July 2015}}</ref>

==Early life==
Kavya Madhavan was born on 19 September 1984 into a [[Chaliya]] family<ref> https://theopinionatedindian.com/south/actor-kavya-madhavan-age-caste-date-of-birth-family-in-2025/cid16949985.htm</ref> to P. Madhavan and Shyamala in [[Nileshwaram]], [[Kasaragod district|Kasaragod]], India.<ref>{{cite news |date=19 September 2017 |title=Kavya Madhavan turns 33 years old today: Controversies that rocked her life |work=[[The Indian Express]] |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/malayalam/kavya-madhavan-turns-33-years-old-controversies-that-rocked-her-life-4849765/ |url-status=live |access-date=15 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180501230359/http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/malayalam/kavya-madhavan-turns-33-years-old-controversies-that-rocked-her-life-4849765/ |archive-date=1 May 2018}}</ref> She has a brother Midhun Madhavan, who is a fashion designer. She completed her schooling at Rajah's Higher Secondary School in Nileshwaram. She began learning [[Indian classical dance|classical dance]] whilst at school and participated in various dance competitions.

==Personal life==
Kavya married Nishal Chandra on 9 February 2009,{{Citation needed|date=January 2023}} after which she moved to [[Kuwait]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2023}} However, she returned home in June the same year and filed for divorce on 24 July 2009.{{Citation needed|date=January 2023}} Both Kavya and Nishal appeared before the court on 25 May 2011 and expressed their willingness for a mutual divorce. The divorce was granted on 30 May 2011. She married actor [[Dileep]] whom Kavya always called as a ‘daddy figure’ in her interviews after her divorce,<ref>“Dileep-Kavya Madhavan wedding divides the Internet”, Onmanorama, November 26, 2016. https://www.onmanorama.com/entertainment/entertainment-news/dileep-kavya-madhavan-wedding-divides-the-internet.html</ref><ref>''“കാവ്യ ദിലീപിനെ കണ്ടത് അച്ഛനെ പോലെ, അതുപോലെ ആകുമോ”; അധിക്ഷേപിച്ചയാക്ക് രേണുവിന്റെ മറുപടി”'', OneIndia Malayalam, March 8, 2025. https://malayalam.oneindia.com/news/kerala/kavya-madhavan-once-consider-dileep-as-her-father-one-comments-this-is-wht-kollam-sudhi-wife-renu-507609.html</ref> in spite of infidelity rumours, on 25 November 2016 at Vedanta Hotel, [[Kochi]].<ref>[http://keralaweddingtrends.com/dileep-kavya-madhavan-wedding-live-video/ "Kavya Madhavan's Marriage Photos"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328142107/http://keralaweddingtrends.com/dileep-kavya-madhavan-wedding-live-video/ |date=28 March 2019 }}. Keralaweddingtrends.com. Retrieved 27 January 2017.</ref><ref>[http://www.filmclickz.com/dileep-kavya-madhavan-marriage-photos-videos/ Dileep Kavya Madhavan Marriage Photos Videos] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180130032529/http://www.filmclickz.com/dileep-kavya-madhavan-marriage-photos-videos |date=30 January 2018 }}. Filmclickz.com (22 July 2002). Retrieved 27 January 2017.</ref> The couple have a daughter, Mahalakshmi, born on 19 October 2018.<ref>[https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/pics-dileep-and-kavya-madhavans-daughter-mahalakshmi-her-first-step-into-the-world-of-letters-on-vijayadashmi-day]{{dead link|date=April 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}} https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/pics-dileep-and-kavya-madhavans-daughter-mahalakshmi-her-first-step-into-the-world-of-letters-on-vijayadashmi-day/articleshow/87130184.cms. Retrieved 1 February 2022.</ref>

Kavya owns a textile shop named Laksyah. In April 2013, [[Mathrubhumi|Mathrubhumi Books]] published a collection of memoirs written by Kavya, titled ''Kathayil Alpam Kavyam'' which gives a glimpse into her childhood memories and the experiences of her school days and in the film industry. The book was released by writers [[Subhash Chandran]] and [[Deedi Damodaran]] at a function held in K. P. Kesava Menon Hall in [[Kozhikode]] on 11 April.<ref>[http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/Kavya-Madhavans-Memoirs-Released/2014/04/12/article2164187.ece "Kavya Madhavan's Memoirs Released"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413145909/http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/Kavya-Madhavans-Memoirs-Released/2014/04/12/article2164187.ece |date=13 April 2014 }}. ''The New Indian Express''</ref>

==Acting career==
Kavya first appeared as a child artist in Kamal's film ''[[Pookkalam Varavayi]]'' (1991) at the age of six in a cameo role along the students in a bus. Subsequently, she was offered parts in other projects such as ''Pavam IA Ivachan'' (1994), ''Parassala Pachan Payyannur Paramu'' (1994) by [[P. Venu]] and ''[[Azhakiya Ravanan]]'' (1996), directed by [[Kamal (director)|Kamal]]. She was offered one of the female lead in ''[[Chandranudikkunna Dikkil]]'', also starring [[Dileep]], in 1999.<ref name=heights>{{cite web |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/content/222699/reaching-heights.html |title=Reaching new heights |work=[[Deccan Herald]] |author=C V Aravind |date=29 January 2012}}</ref><ref name=family>{{cite web |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/sathyan-anthikad-and-lal-jose-winning-hearts-malayalam-family-audience-64648?amp |title=Sathyan Anthikad and Lal Jose: Winning the hearts of the Malayalam 'family' audience |work=[[The News Minute]] |date=4 July 2017}}</ref> After the success of ''Chandranudikkunna Dikhil'', Kavya and Dileep became a popular pairing in Malayalam cinema, and they worked together in 21 movies.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-boFy2fRYIQ |title=Kavya Dileep Kadha Ithu vare – Mazhavil Manorama Live |via=YouTube |date=19 December 2011 |access-date=19 October 2013 |archive-date=1 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130801142240/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-boFy2fRYIQ |url-status=live}}</ref> Some of their movies are ''[[Thenkasipattanam]]'' (2000),'' [[Darling Darling (2000 film)|Darling Darling]]'' (2000), [[Dhosth (2001 Malayalam film)|''Dhosth'']] (2001), ''[[Meesa Madhavan]]'' (2002) which was one of biggest grosser of the year and was directed by [[Lal Jose]], ''[[Mizhi Randilum]]'' (2003) in which she played a double role, ''[[Sadanandante Samayam]]'' (2003), ''[[Thilakkam]]'' (2003) directed by [[Jayaraj]], ''[[Runway (2004 film)|Runway]]'' (2004) directed by [[Joshiy]], ''[[Kochi Rajavu]]'' (2005), ''[[Lion (2006 film)|Lion]]'' (2006) again directed by [[Joshiy]], ''[[Chakkaramuthu]]'' (2006), ''[[Inspector Garud]]'' (2007), ''[[Paappi Appacha]]'' (2010), ''[[Vellaripravinte Changathi]]'' (2011) and ''[[Pinneyum]]'' (2016). Most of their movies were in the romantic comedy genre.

She also acted in films with [[Mammootty]] and [[Mohanlal]], and in movies with several stars, such as ''[[Ee Pattanathil Bhootham]]'', ''[[Christian Brothers (film)|Christian Brothers]]'' and ''[[China Town (2011 film)|China Town]]''.

She got critical acclaim for her performance in ''[[Perumazhakkalam]]'' for which she won 2004 [[Kerala State Film Award for Best Actress]] and for the role of Ashwati in ''[[Khaddama]]'' where she played a housemaid working in [[Saudi Arabia]]. The movie was based on a feature by K. U. Iqbal, published in ''[[Bhashaposhini]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.khaleejtimes.com/displayarticle.asp?xfile=data/diversions/2011/January/diversions_January18.xml&section=diversions&col= |title=Maid film highlights abuse |publisher=Khaleejtimes.com |date=14 January 2011 |access-date=19 October 2013 |archive-date=1 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121001184922/http://www.khaleejtimes.com/displayarticle.asp?xfile=data%2Fdiversions%2F2011%2FJanuary%2Fdiversions_January18.xml&section=diversions&col= |url-status=live}}</ref> The movie was directed by her mentor [[Kamal (director)|Kamal]], and she got her second [[Kerala State Film Award for Best Actress]] for 2011. She won the 2011 Kerala Film Critics Awards for Best Actress, Amrita-FEFKA Film Awards for Best Actress, Best Actress-Malayalam cinema in [[59th Filmfare Awards South]] and Best Actress in [[Thikkurissy Sukumaran Nair|Thikkurissy]] Foundation Awards.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ibnlive.in.com/generalnewsfeed/news/aadminte-makan-abu-chosen-best-film-by-thikkurissy-foundation/947678.html |title='Aadminte Makan Abu chosen best film by Thikkurissy foundation, IBN Live News |publisher=Ibnlive.in.com |date=7 January 2012 |access-date=19 October 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119053141/http://ibnlive.in.com/generalnewsfeed/news/aadminte-makan-abu-chosen-best-film-by-thikkurissy-foundation/947678.html |archive-date=19 January 2012}}</ref> She was part of big grossers like ''Christian Brothers'' and ''China Town'' in 2011 and was selected as Top Star (Female) 2011 in Malayalam.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://themoviesdetails.blogspot.in/2012/11/top-10-grossing-malayalam-movies-of-2011.html |title=Top 10 Highest Grossing Malayalam Movies – 2011 |date=n.d. |access-date=28 November 2016 |archive-date=9 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170709003420/https://themoviesdetails.blogspot.in/2012/11/top-10-grossing-malayalam-movies-of-2011.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

She was cast in [[Adoor Gopalakrishnan]]'s ''[[Naalu Pennungal]]'' in which she played a supporting role.

Though she had many offers from [[Tamil cinema]], she was very reluctant to act due to her busy schedule in Malayalam. Her first was ''[[Kasi (film)|Kasi]]'' (2001) which was the remake of [[Vinayan]]s ''[[Vasanthiyum Lakshmiyum Pinne Njaanum]]''. She went on to act in ''[[En Mana Vaanil]]'' and ''[[Sadhu Miranda]]'' and enjoyed moderate success.{{Citation needed|date=July 2021}}

She wrote lyrics for the song "En Khalbillulloru Pennaanu" for the film ''[[One Way Ticket (2008 film)|One Way Ticket]]'' (2008) and for ''Akashavani'' (2016).<ref>{{cite web |author=Ajith Lal |url=http://kavyamadhavanonline.blogspot.com/ |title=Kavya Madhavan |publisher=Kavyamadhavanonline.blogspot.com |date=24 February 2004 |access-date=19 October 2013 |archive-date=24 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131024140553/http://kavyamadhavanonline.blogspot.com/ |url-status=live}}</ref> She sang her first movie song for the Malayalam film ''[[Matinee (2012 film)|Matinee]]'' (2012).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-Jt27sl52_c |title=Kavya Madhavan Singing – Mounamai Manasil Song – MATINEE Movie |via=YouTube |date=12 November 2012 |access-date=19 October 2013 |archive-date=21 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140121152435/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-Jt27sl52_c |url-status=live}}</ref> She has appeared in many advertisements, TV shows, short films and stage shows. She also sang songs for the movies ''Hadiya'' (2017) and ''[[Daivame Kaithozham K. Kumar Akanam]]'' (2018).

From acting as a child to acting as an actress, [[Sreeja Ravi|Sreeja]] has provided voice to her in many films.{{Citation needed|date=July 2021}} [[Devi S.|Devi]], [[Praveena]], [[Bhagyalakshmi]] and Vimmy Mariam George and Nithuna Nevil Dinesh have also lent their voices in some films.{{Citation needed|date=July 2021}}

==Filmography==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Film
! Role
! Notes
|-
| 1991 || ''[[Pookkalam Varavayi]]'' || Geethu's friend || Child artist
|-
| 1992 || ''Mayilppeeli'' || ||
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1994 || ''Pavam I. A. Ivachan'' || Sara Ivachan ||
|-
| ''The President'' || ||
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1996 || ''Parassala Pachan Payyannur Paramu'' || Neena ||
|-
|''[[Azhakiya Ravanan]]''|| Young Anuradha ||
|-
| rowspan="5" | 1997 ||''[[Oral Mathram]]''|| Gopika Menon ||
|-
|''Snehasindooram''|| Anjali ||
|-
|''[[Bhoothakkannadi]]''|| Meenu ||
|-
|''[[Irattakuttikalude Achan]]''|| Dhanya||
|-
|''[[Krishnagudiyil Oru Pranayakalathu]]''|| Anjali ||
|-
| 1998 ||''Kattathoru Penpoovu''||Yamuna ||
|-
| 1999 || ''[[Chandranudikkunna Dikhil]]'' || Radha || Debut film in a leading role
|-
| rowspan="4" | 2000 || ''[[Madhuranombarakattu]]'' || Sunaina||
|-
| ''[[Darling Darling (2000 film)|Darling Darling]]'' || Padmaja/Puppy||
|-
| ''[[Kochu Kochu Santhoshangal]]'' || Celin ||
|-
| ''[[Thenkasipattanam]]'' || Devu ||
|-
| rowspan="6" | 2001||''[[Sahayathrikakku Snehapoorvam]]'' ||Maya ||
|-
| ''[[Rakshasa Rajavu]]'' || Daisy ||
|-
| ''Jeevan Masai'' || Manjula ||
|-
| ''Mazhamegha Pravukal'' ||Malu ||
|-
|''[[Dhosth (2001 Malayalam film)|Dosth]]'' || Geethu ||
|-
| ''[[Kasi (film)|Kasi]]'' || Lakshmi ||[[Tamil language|Tamil film]]
|-
| rowspan="4" | 2002 || ''[[Onnaman]]'' ||Suhara ||
|-
| ''[[Oomappenninu Uriyadappayyan]]'' || Gopika Rajashekhara Varma ||
|-
| ''[[Meesa Madhavan]]'' || Rugmini ||
|-
| ''[[En Mana Vaanil]]'' ||Thilaka ||[[Tamil language|Tamil film]]; remake of ''[[Oomappenninu Uriyadappayyan]]''
|-
| rowspan="6" | 2003 || ''[[Thilakkam]]'' || Ammu ||
|-
| ''[[Vellithira]]'' || Pankajam ||Cameo appearance
|-
| ''[[Sadanandante Samayam]]'' || Sumangala ||
|-
| ''[[Gowrisankaram]]'' || Gauri ||
|-
| ''[[Mizhi Randilum]]'' || Bhadra and Bhama || Dual role
|-
| ''[[Pulival Kalyanam]]'' || Ganga ||
|-
| rowspan="3" | 2004 || ''[[Perumazhakkalam]]'' || Ganga ||
|-
|''[[Greetings (2004 film)|Greetings]]''|| Sheethal
|
|-
| ''[[Runway (2004 film)|Runway]]'' || Gopika ||
|-
| rowspan="7" | 2005 || ''[[Iruvattam Manavaatti]]''|| Bhumika ||
|-
| ''Annorikkal''|| Ponnu ||
|-
| '' [[Ananthabhadram]]''|| Bhadra ||
|-
| ''[[Seelabathi]]''|| Seelabathi ||
|-
| ''[[Kochi Rajavu]]''|| Ashwathy/Achu ||
|-
| ''[[Aparichithan]]''|| Meenakshi ||
|-
| ''[[Kadha]]'' || Meera ||
|-
| rowspan="7" | 2006 || ''[[Chakkara Muthu]]''|| Anitha||
|-
| ''[[Vadakkumnadhan]]''|| Bhama ||
|-
| ''[[Vasthavam]]''|| Sumithra ||
|-
| ''Arunam''||Valli ||
|-
| ''[[Classmates (2006 film)|Classmates]]''|| Thara Kurup ||
|-
| ''[[Kilukkam Kilukilukkam]]''|| Chandini ||
|-
| ''[[Lion (2006 film)|Lion]]''|| Sharika||
|-
| rowspan="5" | 2007 || ''[[Athisayan]]''|| Maya ||
|-
| ''[[Naalu Pennungal]]''||Subhadra ||
|-
| ''[[Inspector Garud]]''|| Subcollector.Sethulakshmi ||
|-
| ''[[Nadiya Kollappetta Rathri]]''|| Nadiya and Nadira ||Dual role
|-
| ''[[Kangaroo (2007 film)|Kangaroo]]''|| Jancy ||
|-
| rowspan="3" | 2008 || ''[[Sadhu Miranda]]''|| Priya ||[[Tamil language|Tamil film]]
|-
| ''[[Madampi]]''|| Jayalakshmi ||
|-
| ''[[Twenty:20 (film)|Twenty:20]]''|| Ancy||
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2009|| ''[[Ee Pattanathil Bhootham]]''|| Ancy ||
|-
| ''[[Banaras (2009 film)|Banaras]]''|| Amritha ||
|-
| 2010 || ''[[Paappi Appacha]]'' || Annie ||
|-
| rowspan="6" | 2011 || ''[[Bhaktha Janangalude Sradhakku]]'' || Sumangala ||
|-
| ''[[Gaddama]]'' || Aswathy ||
|-
| ''[[Chinatown (2011 film)|Chinatown]]'' ||Rosamma ||
|-
| ''[[Venicile Vyaapari]]'' || Ammu ||
|-
| ''[[Vellaripravinte Changathi]]'' ||Sulekha / Mary Varghese ||
|-
| ''[[Christian Brothers (film)|Christian Brothers]]'' || Meenakshi ||
|-
| 2012 || ''[[Bavuttiyude Namathil]]''|| Vanaja ||
|-
| rowspan="4" | 2013 || ''Players'' || Rose ||
|-
| ''[[Lokpal (Malayalam film)|Lokpal]]''||Dr.Geetha ||
|-
| ''[[Breaking News Live]]''|| Nayana ||
|-
|''[[5 Sundarikal]]''|| Gauri||Anthology film; Segment: ''Gauri''
|-
| 2015 || ''[[She Taxi (film)|She Taxi]]''|| Sharika||
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2016 || ''[[Aakashvani]]''||Vani|| Also lyricist for the song "Kaalam Ni"
|-
| ''[[Pinneyum]]'' ||Devi ||
|}

==Short films==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Film
! Role
! Notes
|-
| 2006 || ''Bhoomikkoru Charamageetham''||College student ||Short film
|-
| 2016 || ''Kaavalal''|| Herself ||Short film
|}

== Awards and nominations ==
{{BLP sources section|date=January 2023}}
{{Infobox actor awards
| name = Kavya Madhavan
| image = Kavya Madhavan.jpg
| image_size = 220
| alt =
| caption =
| wins = 26
| nominations = 21
}}
{| class="wikitable"
! Year
! Award
! Award category & awarded work
! {{Abbr|Ref.|Reference}}
|-
| 2004 || rowspan="2" | [[Kerala State Film Awards]] || [[Kerala State Film Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]] – ''[[Perumazhakkalam]]''||<ref>{{cite web |title=State Film Awards (2000–12) |url=http://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/stateawards4.htm |publisher=[[Kerala State Chalachitra Academy]] |access-date=31 January 2023 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150707210332/http://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/stateawards4.htm |archive-date=7 July 2015}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2011 || [[Kerala State Film Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]] – ''[[Gaddama]]''||<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/2011/05/23/stories/2011052361020100.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110526155715/http://www.hindu.com/2011/05/23/stories/2011052361020100.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=26 May 2011 |title=Adaminte Makan Abu adjudged best film |date=23 May 2011 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=31 January 2023}}</ref>
|-
| [[Filmfare Awards South]] || [[Filmfare Award for Best Actress – Malayalam|Best Actress (Malayalam)]] – ''[[Gaddama]]''||<ref>{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/tamil/news-interviews/The-59th-Idea-Filmfare-Awards-2011South/articleshow/14742576.cms |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121204180003/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-07-08/news-interviews/32588512_1_aadukalam-video-pranayam |url-status=live |archive-date=4 December 2012 |work=[[The Times of India]] |title=The 59th Idea Filmfare Awards 2011(South) |access-date=8 July 2012}}</ref>
|-
| 2013 ||[[Asiavision Awards]]|| [[Asiavision Awards|Best Actress]] || <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.emirates247.com/entertainment/mammotty-kavya-madhavan-bag-asiavision-awards-2013-11-05-1.526962 |title=Mammotty, Kavya Madhavan bag Asiavision awards |first=VM |last=Sathish |access-date=28 November 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304060116/http://www.emirates247.com/entertainment/mammotty-kavya-madhavan-bag-asiavision-awards-2013-11-05-1.526962 |archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref>
|-
| 2000 2001 2003 || rowspan="2" | [[Kerala Film Critics Association Awards|Kerala Film Critics Awards]]||Second Best Actress – ''[[Chandranudikkunna Dikhil]]'' Second Best Actress – ''[[Kochu Kochu Santhoshangal]]'' Second Best Actress – ''[[Mizhi Randilum]]''||<ref name="Critics Awards List">[https://www.keralafilmcritics.com/2020/10/film-critics-awards-complete-list-from.html "കേരള ഫിലിം ക്രിട്ടിക്‌സ് അവാര്‍ഡ് 1977 – 2012"]. Kerala Film Critics Association. Retrieved 31 January 2023.</ref>
|-
|2004 2005 2010 ||[[Kerala Film Critics Association Awards|Best Actress]] – ''[[Perumazhakkalam]]'' & ''Annorikkal'' [[Kerala Film Critics Association Awards|Best Actress]] – ''[[Anandabhadram]]'' [[Kerala Film Critics Association Awards|Best Actress]] – ''[[Gaddama]]''||<ref name="Critics Awards List"/>
|-
|2011|| rowspan="2" | [[South Indian International Movie Awards]]||Best Actress – ''[[Gaddama]]''||<ref>[https://siima.in/index.php/awards-2012/ "SIIMA WINNER'S 2012"]. South Indian International Movie Awards. Retrieved 31 January 2023.</ref>
|-
|2013 || [[South Indian International Movie Awards|Special Appreciation Award for her contribution to Malayalam Cinema]]||<ref>{{cite news |title=Siimas: Kavya Madhavan's fabulous decade in film |url=https://gulfnews.com/entertainment/siimas-kavya-madhavans-fabulous-decade-in-film-1.1229623 |access-date=31 January 2023 |work=Gulf News |date=11 September 2013}}</ref>
|-
|2000 2002 2004 2009 2011 2012||[[Asianet Film Awards]]||Special Jury Award – ''[[Kochu Kochu Santhoshangal]]'', ''[[Madhuranombarakattu]]'' Best Star Pair – ''[[Meesa Madhavan]]'' [[Asianet Fim Award for Best Actor - Female|Best Actress]] – ''[[Oomappenninu Uriyadappayyan]]'' Special Jury Award – ''[[Perumazhakkalam]]'' [[Asianet Fim Award for Best Actor - Female|Best Actress]] – ''[[Banaras]]'' [[Asianet Fim Award for Best Actor - Female|Best Actress]] – ''[[Gaddama]], [[Bhaktha Janangalude Sradhakku]]'' [[Asianet Fim Award for Best Actor - Female|Best Actress]] – ''[[Bavuttiyude Namathil]] ''
||
|-
|2004 2006 2011||[[Vanitha Film Awards]]||Best Actress – ''[[Mizhi Randilum]]'' Best Actress – ''[[Anandabhadram]]'' Best Actress – ''[[Gaddama]]''||
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2011 || [[Sathyan (Malayalam actor)#Awards established in his name|Sathyan Awards]] [[Travancore sisters|Lalitha-Padmini-Ragini]] Memorial Award Viewers Choice Awards || rowspan="2" | [[Best Actress]] – ''[[Gaddama]]''||<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kottaka.com/blog/2011/10/sathyan-award-for-jayaram-and-kavya/ |title=Sathyan Awards 2011 |work=kottaka.com |date=October 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111025070930/http://www.kottaka.com/blog/2011/10/sathyan-award-for-jayaram-and-kavya/ |archive-date=25 October 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kottaka.com/blog/2011/11/award-for-kavya-madhavan-and-m-a-yusufali/ |title=Lalitha Padmini ragini memorial award for Kavya |work=kottaka.com |date=November 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111110142342/http://www.kottaka.com/blog/2011/11/award-for-kavya-madhavan-and-m-a-yusufali/ |archive-date=10 November 2011}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web |url=http://filmcrack.com/malayalam/viewers-choice-award-2011/ |title=Viewers Choice Award – Malayalam 2011 |work=filmcrack.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111224182021/http://filmcrack.com/malayalam/viewers-choice-award-2011/ |archive-date=24 December 2011}}</ref>
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==References==
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==External links==
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Tripura Sundari

2026-03-23T17:19:06Z

Indianeagle1: Page updated with relevant improvements

{{Short description|Hindu goddess}}
{{other uses|Tripurasundari (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2017}}
{{AI-generated|date=December 2025}}
{{Tone|Iconography|date=March 2026}}
{{Infobox deity
| type = Hindu
| image = File:Lalita sm.JPG
| caption = Painting of the Goddess, Tripura Sundari
| name = Tripura Sundari
| deity_of = Mother Goddess; One of the Highest Forms of [[Mahadevi]] The Governess of the Universe
 [[Para Brahman|The Supreme Being]] ([[Kaula (Hinduism)|Srikula]]-[[Shaktism]])
| abode = [[Manidvipa]] / Śrī Nagara
| weapon = [[Pasha (Hinduism)|Pasha]] (rope), [[Ankusha]] (elephant goad), floral arrows and Sugarcane bow
{{sfn|Kinsley|1998|p=112}}
| consort = Kameshvara, a form of Lord [[Shiva]]
| children = 
| mantra = {{IAST|Oṃ Śrī Mātre Namaḥ}}
| festivals = {{hlist|Lalita Jayanti on Magha Purnima|Lalita Panchami|[[Navaratri]]|Adi-Puram}}
| member_of = the ten [[Mahavidyas]]
| avatar_birth = flower
| other_names = Kamakshi, Kameshvari, Lalita, Lalitambika, Rajarajeshvari, Shodashi, Sri Mata
| mount = [[Lion]]
| symbols = [[Sri Yantra]]
| texts = {{bulleted list|[[Brahmanda Purana]]|[[Tripura Rahasya]]|[[Devi Bhagavata Purana]]|[[Bahvricha Upanishad]]|[[Tripura Upanishad]]|[[Tantra]]s}}
| gender = [[Female]]
| day = [[Friday]]
| region = Worshipped In the form of Goddess Kamakshi and Kamakhya in Kanchipuram and Assam
| affiliation = [[Para Brahman|Parabrahaman]], [[Mahadevi]], [[Mahavidyas]], [[Parvati]], [[Kamakhya]]
}}
'''Tripura Sundari''' (Sanskrit: त्रिपुरसुन्दरी; IAST: ''Tripura Sundarī''), also known as '''Lalita''', '''Shodashi''', '''Kamakshi''', and '''Rajarajeshvari''', is a [[Hindus|Hindu]] goddess revered primarily within the [[Shaktism]] tradition and recognized as one of the ten [[Mahavidyas]].{{sfn|Kinsley|1998}} She embodies the essence of the supreme goddess [[Mahadevi]]. Central to the Shakta texts, she is widely praised in the ''[[Lalita Sahasranama]]'' and the ''[[Saundarya Lahari]]''.{{sfn|Das|2001}} In the Lalitopakhyana of the ''[[Brahmanda Purana]]'', she is referred to as [[Adi Parashakti]].

The term "Tripura" conveys the concept of three cities or worlds, while "Sundari" translates to "beautiful woman". She signifies the most beautiful woman across the three realms, with associations to the yoni symbol and the powers of creation, preservation, and dissolution.

According to the [[Kaula (Hinduism)|Srikula tradition]] in Shaktism, Tripura Sundari is the foremost of the Mahavidyas, the [[Para Brahman|supreme divinity]] of Hinduism and also the primary goddess of [[Sri Vidya]]. The ''[[Tripura Upanishad]]'' places her as the ultimate [[Shakti]] (energy, power) of the universe.{{Sfn|Mahadevan|1975|pp=235}} She is described as the supreme consciousness, ruling from above [[Brahma]], [[Vishnu]], and [[Shiva]].{{Sfn|Brooks|1990|pp=155–156}}

The ''Lalita Sahasranama'' narrates the cosmic battle between Lalita Tripura Sundari and the demon [[Bhandasura]], symbolizing the triumph of good over evil. This sacred text offers a detailed portrayal of her divine attributes and qualities. Temples dedicated to her exist across India, with prominent ones in [[Tripura]], [[West Bengal]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Telangana]], [[Jharkhand]], and [[Karnataka]]. Her festivals, including Lalita Jayanti and Lalita Panchami, are celebrated fervently, reflecting devotees' deep spiritual connection to the Goddess and her embodiment of the Divine Feminine energy.

== Etymology and nomenclature ==
The word Tripura (त्रिपुर ) means three cities or three worlds, Sundari (सुन्दरी) means beautiful woman. Tripura Sundari means the most beautiful woman in the three worlds. Tripura could also mean the [[Tripura (mythology)|three cities]] crafted by [[Mayasura]] and destroyed by [[Tripurantaka]], thus meaning "She who is beautiful to the destroyer of the Three Cities". She is known as Tripura as her mantra has three clusters of letters. She is also called Tripura because she is manifested in [[Brahma]], [[Vishnu]] and [[Shiva]] as the creator, preserver and destroyer of the universe.{{Sfn|Brooks|1990|pp=155–156}}{{sfn|Woodroffe|1974|pp=132–37}}

== History and ''paramparas''==
The ''Srikula'' (family of ''Sri'') tradition (''[[sampradaya]]'') focuses worship on Devi in the form of the goddess ''Lalita-Tripura Sundari''. Rooted in first-millennium. Srikula became a force in South India no later than the seventh century, and is today the prevalent form of Shaktism practised in South Indian regions such as the [[Kerala]], [[Tamil Nadu]] and Tamil areas of [[Sri Lanka]].{{sfn|Brooks|1992|loc=back cover}}

The Srikula's best-known school is [[Shri Vidya|Srividya]], "one of Shakta Tantrism's most influential and theologically sophisticated movements." Its central symbol, the ''[[Sri Chakra]]'', is probably the most famous visual image in all of Hindu Tantric tradition. Its literature and practice is perhaps more systematic than that of any other Shakta sect.{{sfn|Brooks|1990|page=xiii}}

Srividya largely views the goddess as "benign [''saumya''] and beautiful [''saundarya'']" (in contrast to Kalikula's focus on "terrifying [''ugra''] and horrifying [''ghora'']" Goddess forms such as Kali or Durga). In Srikula practice, moreover, every aspect of the goddess – whether malignant or gentle – is identified with Lalita.{{sfn|Brooks|1992|pages=59-60}}

Srikula adepts most often worship Lalita using the abstract ''Sri Chakra'' [[yantra]], which is regarded as her subtle form. The Sri Chakra can be visually rendered either as a two-dimensional diagram (whether drawn temporarily as part of the worship ritual, or permanently engraved in metal) or in the three-dimensional, pyramidal form known as the ''Sri Meru''. It is not uncommon to find a ''Sri Chakra'' or ''Sri Meru'' installed in South Indian temples, because – as modern practitioners assert – "there is no disputing that this is the highest form of Devi and that some of the practice can be done openly. But what you see in the temples is not the ''srichakra'' worship you see when it is done privately."{{efn|A senior member of Guru Mandali, Madurai, November 1984, cited in Brooks 1992.{{sfn|Brooks|1992|page=56}} }}

The Srividya ''[[parampara]]s'' can be further broadly subdivided into two streams, the ''[[Kaula (Hinduism)|Kaula]]'' (a ''[[vamachara|vamamarga]]'' practice) and the ''Samaya'' (a ''[[dakshinachara|dakshinamarga]]'' practice). The ''Kaula'' or ''Kaulachara'', first appeared as a coherent ritual system in the 8th century in central India,{{sfn|White|2003|page=219}} and its most revered theorist is the 18th-century philosopher [[Bhaskararaya]], widely considered "the best exponent of Shakta philosophy".{{sfn|Bhattacharyya|1996|page=209}}

The ''Samaya'' or ''Samayachara'' finds its roots in the work of the 16th-century commentator Lakshmidhara, and is "fiercely puritanical [in its] attempts to reform Tantric practice in ways that bring it in line with high-caste [[brahmin|brahmanical]] norms."{{sfn|Brooks|1990|page=28}} Many Samaya practitioners explicitly deny being either Shakta or Tantric, though scholars argue that their cult remains technically both.{{sfn|Brooks|1990|page=28}} The Samaya–Kaula division marks "an old dispute within Hindu Tantrism".{{sfn|Brooks|1990|page=28}}

== Legend ==
{{no footnotes|section|date=January 2023}}
The battle between Lalita Tripura Sundari and the demon [[Bhandasura|Bhaṇḍāsura]] is primarily described in the ''[[Lalita Sahasranama]]'', a sacred text from Hinduism that consists of a thousand names of Goddess Lalita. The Lalita Sahasranama is a part of the larger scripture called the ''[[Brahmanda Purana]]'', specifically in the ''Uttara Khanda'' (the concluding section) of the Purana.

The gods sought the help of [[Kamadeva]] to awaken Lord Shiva from his penance. Shiva opened his third eye and reduced Kamadeva to ashes. Taking those ashes, the Ganatha named Chitrakarma created a beautiful human form. Shiva gave it life. That is Bhandasura.

In this narrative, Bhandasura is depicted as a powerful demon who has obtained a boon from [[Shiva]] that makes him nearly invincible. With his newfound powers, Bhandasura wreaks havoc and establishes his own kingdom, challenging the divine order. In response to the growing threat posed by Bhandasura, the gods, led by Shiva and [[Vishnu]], approach Lalita Tripura Sundari for help.

Lalita Tripura Sundari is a manifestation of the divine feminine energy and is considered the ultimate form of [[Adi Parashakti]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dalal |first=Roshen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC |title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide |date=2010 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-14-341421-6 |pages=221 |language=en}}</ref> She is often depicted as a beautiful and benevolent goddess, but when faced with the need to restore cosmic balance and protect the universe, she transforms into a fierce and powerful warrior. She is widely known as Parvati or Kamakshi.

The battle between Lalita and Bhandasura is described in the ''Lalita Sahasranama'' as a cosmic confrontation that symbolizes the triumph of good over evil, righteousness over tyranny, and divine intervention over malevolent forces. The goddess, adorned with various weapons and symbols of power, engages in a fierce battle with Bhandasura and his army of demons. With her extraordinary prowess and the assistance of her divine companions and manifestations, Lalita defeats Bhandasura and restores cosmic harmony.

The ''Lalita Sahasranama'' not only describes the battle itself but also delves into the divine qualities and aspects of Lalita, highlighting her significance as the embodiment of [[bhakti|divine love]], grace, power, and wisdom. The text is revered by devotees of the goddess and is recited as a form of worship and meditation to invoke her blessings and protection.

=== Role in creation ===
According to the Tripura Rahasya, only goddess Tripura Sundari existed before the beginning of the universe. She created the [[Trimurti]] and began the creation of the universe.

== Literature ==
The most important text of Tripura Sundari is the ''[[Lalita sahasranama|Lalita Sahasranama]]'' (from the ''[[Brahmanda Purana]]'').{{sfn|Dikshitar|1999|pages=1–36}}{{sfn|Brown|1998|pages=8, 17, 10, 21, 320}} Tripura Sundari is most often mentioned in the Lalitopakhyana (the fourth book of the ''[[Brahmanda Purana]]'') and ''[[Tripura Rahasya]]''. The ''Lalitopakhyana'' tells of the epic battle between her forces and the forces of the arch-demon [[Bhandasura]].

The [[Tripura Rahasya]] is a key Sanskrit text that explores the greatness of Tripura Sundari and the philosophy of [[nondualism]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=S |date=2024-04-24 |title=Spiritual Teachings from 'Tripura Rahasya' |url=https://mahaavidya.org/spiritual-teachings-from-tripura-rahasya/ |access-date=2024-10-14 |website=Mahavidya Sadhana Centre |language=en-US}}</ref> It emphasizes the goddess as the supreme consciousness and the ultimate reality behind the universe. The text highlights her role in guiding seekers toward spiritual liberation through self-realization and knowledge of the highest truth.

The ''[[Tripura Upanishad]]'' places the goddess Tripura Sundari as the ultimate [[Shakti]] (energy, power) of the universe.{{Sfn|Mahadevan|1975|pp=235}} She is described as the supreme consciousness, above [[Brahma]], [[Vishnu]] and [[Shiva]].{{Sfn|Brooks|1990|pp=155–156}} The ''Tripura Upanishad'' is historically the most complete introduction to Shakta Tantrism,{{Sfn|Brooks|1990|pp=xiii–xiv}} distilling into its 16 verses almost every important topic in Shakta Tantra tradition.{{Sfn|Brooks|1990|pp=xvi}} Along with the ''Tripura Upanishad'', the ''[[Tripuratapini Upanishad]]'' has attracted scholarly [[bhasya]] (commentary) in the second half of 2nd-millennium, such as the work of [[Bhaskararaya]],{{Sfn|Brooks|1990|pp=37-38}} and Ramanand.{{Sfn|Brooks|1990|p=221 with note 64}}

The ''[[Bahvricha Upanishad]]'' is notable for asserting that the Self (soul, Atman) is a Goddess who alone existed before the creation of the universe.{{Sfn|Mahadevan|1975|p=237}}{{better source needed|date=January 2023}}

According to the "Patala Khanda" of ''[[Padma Purana]]''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Deshpande |first=N. A. |title=The Padma Purana |year=2014 |orig-year=1st pub. 1951 |isbn=8120838297}}</ref> and the ''[[Naradiya Purana|Narada Purana]]'',{{sfn|Joshi|1997|p=[https://archive.org/details/naradapuranaeng031951ocrmotilalbanasirdass/page/n353/mode/2up 1264]}} the god [[Krishna]] is the male form of the goddess Lalita.

The Tantraraja Tantra of the Shakta tradition describe that goddess Lalita assumed a male form as Krishna. Krishna has six forms namely Siddha-gopala, Kamaraja-gopala, Manmatha-gopala, Kandarpa-gopala, Makaraketana-gopala and Manobhava-gopaila and goddess Lalita created the last five forms from it.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shastri |first=Mahamahopadhyaya Lakshmana |title=Tantraraja Tantra |publisher=Motilal Banarasidass Publishers |year=2000 |isbn=81-208-1253-0 |edition=4th |pages=15–16}}</ref>

=== ''Lalita Sahasranama'' ===
''[[Lalita Sahasranama]]'' contains a thousand names of the Hindu mother goddess ''Lalita''.{{sfn|Dalal|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pNmfdAKFpkQC&pg=PA207 207]}} The names are organized in a hymn (''[[stotras]]''). It is the only ''[[sahasranama]]'' that does not repeat a single name. Further, in order to maintain the meter, other ''sahasranamas'' use the artifice of adding suffixes like tu, api, ca, and hi, which are conjunctions that do not necessarily add to the meaning of the name except in cases of interpretation. The ''Lalita sahasranama'' does not use any such auxiliary conjunctions and is unique in being an enumeration of holy names that meet the metrical, poetical and mystic requirements of a ''sahasranama'' by their order throughout the text.

''Lalita Sahasranama'' begins by calling the goddess ''Shri Mata'' (the great mother), ''Shri Maharajni'' (the great queen) and ''Shrimat Simhasaneshwari'' (the queen sitting on the lion-throne).{{sfn|Venkatasubramanian|1999|p=343}} In verses 2 and 3 of the ''Sahasranama'' she is described as a ''Udayatbhanu Sahasrabha'' (the one who is as bright as the rays of thousand rising suns), ''Chaturbahu Samanvita'' (the one who has four hands) and ''Ragasvarupa Pashadhya'' (the one who is holding the rope).{{sfn|Deshpande|1986|p=108}} ''Chidagnikunda Sambhuta'' (one who was born from the altar of the fire of consciousness) and ''Devakarya samudyata'' (one who manifested Herself for fulfilling the objects of the ''[[Deva (Hinduism)|devas]]'') are among other names mentioned in the ''sahasranama''.

==== Composition ====
The ''Lalita Sahasranama'' is said to have been composed by the eight ''vaag'' [[devi]]s (''Vasini'', ''Kameshvari'', ''Aruna'', ''Vimala'', ''Jayani'', ''Modini'', ''Sarveshvari'', and ''Kaulini'') upon the command of the goddess Lalita herself. The ''Sahasranama'' says that "One can worship Lalita only if she wishes us to do so." This ''stotra'' occurs in the ''[[Brahmanda Purana]]'' (history of the universe) in the chapter of discussion between [[Hayagreeva|Hayagriva]] and Sage [[Agasthya|Agastya]] in Kanchipuram.{{sfn|Tagare|1958}} Hayagriva is an incarnation of [[Vishnu]] with the head of a horse and is held to be the storehouse of knowledge. Agastya is one of the sages of yore and one of the stars of the constellation [[Saptarishi]]. At the request of Agastya, Hayagriva is said to have taught him the thousand holiest names of Lalita. The [[Tirumeeyachur Mehanadhar Temple|temple at Thirumeyachur]], near [[Kumbakonam]], is said to be where Agastya was initiated into this ''sahasranama''. An alternative origin is that the ''Upanishad Bramham Mutt'' at [[Kanchipuram]] is where this initiation happened.{{citation needed|date=January 2023}} In Carnatic Music, the composer Shyama Sastry composed many Swarajathis and lovely compositions in praise of the goddess. Most popular being the three swarajathis called as Ratnatrayam and the Navaratnamalika on goddess Meenakshi of Madurai.

===''Tripura Rahasya''===
Tripura Sundari occupies a very special place in the ''[[Tripura Rahasya]]'', a Shakta scripture popular in [[Shri Vidya]] tradition.

The '''Tripura Rahasya''' is traditionally divided into three volumes: the '''Mahatmya Khanda''', which extols the greatness of '''Tripura Sundari''' and her cosmic power; the '''Jnana Khanda''', which focuses on the nature of ultimate knowledge and self-realization through the teachings of the sage [[Dattatreya]] to [[Parashurama]]; and the '''Charya Khanda''', which is believed to contain instructions on rituals and practices, though the last part is largely considered lost or unavailable today. Each volume progressively guides seekers from devotion to spiritual wisdom and liberation.

{{Blockquote|text=The Power called Tripura is Pure Consciousness. It is beyond speech, senses and mind. She, the Parameshvari exists as Atma in everything. She is beyond codes of conduct, free from conduct and the conductor. She is merely Pure Consciousness supporting all and beyond speech. She is just the soul and consciousness. By virtue of Her freedom She is termed as Maya (illusion). Her glory that encompasses all is beyond logic and questioning. The being gets deluded in many ways by Her who is the pure soul. The creation is said to be the sport of the Devi.|source=Shri Tripura Rahasya (Mahatmya Khanda), Chapter 58, Verses 12 to 14|author=T. B. Lakshmana Rao}}

{{Blockquote|text=She rules over three cities, three paths children of the universe. a, ka, and tha, fully present. She is present in these letters. She is ageless, birth less, the greatest and she is the glory of all gods.|source=Tripura Upanishad Verse 01|author=Swami Narasimhananda}}

== Iconography ==
Her form is described in her Dhyana Stotra as follows.

{{poemquote|'aruṇāṃ karuṇā taraṅgitākṣīṃ
dhṛtapāśāṅkuśa puṣpa bāṇa cāpām ।
aṇimādibhirāvṛtāṃ mayukhaiḥ
ahamityeva vibhāvaye bhavānīm'.{{quote without source|date=December 2022}} }}

I imagine of my goddess Bhavani, who has a color of the rising sun. Who has eyes which are waves of mercy, who holds Pasha, Ankusha, bow made of sugarcane, arrows made of soft flowers,in her hands and who is surrounded, by her devotees with powers great, as personification of the concept of “I”.

Also details of her appearance are found in the famous hymn in her praise, the [[Lalita Sahasranama]], where she is said to be,

{{blockquote|seated on a throne like a queen (names 2 and 3), to wear jewels (names 13 and 14), to have the auspicious marks of a married woman (names 16–25), and to have heavy breasts and a thin waist (name 36); the crescent moon adorns her forehead, and her smile overwhelms Kameshwara, the lord of desire (name 28). She has as her throne with its legs being Pancha Brahmas (five Brahmas) (name 249).}}

She is often depicted iconographically as a 16-year-old girl (hence the appellation "Shodashi") [[Lotus throne|seated on a lotus]] that rests on the supine body of Sadashiva, which in turn lies on a throne whose legs are the gods Brahma, Vishnu, Isvara, and Rudra. In some cases, the lotus is growing out of Shiva's navel. In other more common cases, the lotus is grown directly from the Sri Chakra.

In the Jnana Khanda of Tripura Rahasya, goddess herself describes her eternal form.

{{Blockquote|text=In the island of jewels, encircled by the ocean of nectar, beyond the universe, there is a mansion made of Chintamani (wish giving jewel) in the grove Kadamba (Burflower) trees. There is a platform with four legs representing Brahma, Vishnu, Mahesha and Ishwara, and the platform itself represent the back Sadashiva. On it, is installed my non-transcendent form as Tripura Sundari in the form of eternal consciousness.<ref>{{Cite book |first=A. U. |last=Vasavada |title=Tripura-Rahasya (Jnankhanda) |publisher=Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office |year=2014 |isbn=978-8170804161 |edition=2014 |pages=135 |language=English}}</ref>|source=Shri Tripura Rahasya (Jnana Khanda), Chapter 20, Verses 36:37}}

The ''Vamakeshvara tantra'' says that Tripura-sundari dwells on the peaks of the [[Himalayas]]; is worshipped by sages and heavenly nymphs; has a body like pure crystal; wears a tiger skin, a snake as a garland around her neck, and her hair tied in a jata; holds a trident and drum; is decorated with jewels, flowers, and ashes; and has a large bull as a vehicle.

The [[Saundarya Lahari]] and the [[Tantrasara]] describe her in detail from her hair to her feet. The ''Tantrasara dhyana'' mantra says that she is illuminated by the jewels of the crowns of Brahma and Visnu, which fell at her feet when they bowed down to worship her.{{sfn|Kinsley|1998|pp=112-113}} Kinsley also says that "In the Saundarya Lahari and Tantrasara she is not associated with [[Shiva]] in any obvious way as she is in other depictions".{{Sfn|Kinsley|1998|pp=112-113}}

Vaishnavism traditions have a similar set of complementary parallels between [[Vishnu]] and [[Lakshmi]]. The Tantric [[Vaishnava]] [[Pancharatra]] texts associates Lalita with Lakshmi. Author Douglas Renfrew Brooks says, "Lalita, like the Pancharatra conception of Lakshmi, acts independently by taking over the cosmic functions of the male deity; yet she does not defy the god's wishes". Brooks also says, "In contrast to most Vaishnava conceptions of Lakshmi, however, Lalita destabilizes temporarily for the purpose of reasserting order".{{Sfn|Brooks|1992|p=67}}

Scholar and professor [[Thomas B. Coburn]] says, {{blockquote|[[Sri Vidya]], then, can be understood as one of the premier instances of Hindu Shakta Tantrism. Specifically, it is the tradition (sampradaya) which deals with worship of Tripurasundari, "the most beautiful Tantric form of Sri/Lakshmi, [who is]... the most benign, beautiful and youthful yet motherly manifestation of the Supreme Shakti.{{Sfn|Coburn|1991|p=125}}}}

== Sri Yantra ==
{{main|Sri Yantra}}

[[File:Powerful Sri Chakra.jpg|thumb|The Sri Yantra in diagrammatic form, showing how its nine interlocking triangles form a total of 43 smaller triangles]]

The [[Sri Yantra]] is a form of mystical diagram (''[[yantra]]'') used in the [[Shri Vidya]] school of [[Hinduism]]. Comprising nine interlocking triangles, it embodies complex symbolism. Four upward triangles signify [[Shiva]], while five downward triangles represent [[Shakti]], encompassing the cosmic and human realms around a central point called the bindu. This configuration is sometimes termed the [[Navayoni Chakra]].{{sfn|Shankaranarayanan|2004}}

The Sri Yantra holds great significance in the [[Shri Vidya]] school, central to its worship. It symbolizes the union of masculine and feminine divine energies. The triangles, varying in size, form 43 smaller triangles in concentric levels, mirroring the cosmos. The power point (bindu) stands as the cosmic center, encompassed by concentric circles with lotus petal patterns denoting creation and life force. These elements, set within an earth square, depict a temple with doors to different regions of the universe.

In the Shri Vidya tradition, the Sri Yantra represents the core of devotion. Each triangle and level is associated with specific aspects of divinity, culminating in a structure known as the nava chakra. Its projection into three dimensions results in the [[Maha Meru]], symbolizing the philosophy of [[Kashmir Shaivism]]. [[Subhash Kak]] has drawn parallels between the Sri Yantra and ancient Vedic texts, emphasizing its enduring significance across Hindu spiritual thought.{{sfn|Kak|2008–2009}}

== Temples ==

=== India ===
There are several temples dedicated to Tripura Sundari across India.<ref>{{cite web |title= “Tripura Sundari Temple: A New Dawn for Spiritual Tourism in the North-East” |url=https://www.pib.gov.in/PressNoteDetails.aspx?NoteId=155254&ModuleId=3&reg=3&lang=2 |website=pib.gov.in}} </ref>
Some of the most significant ones include:

*[[Tirumeeyachur_Mehanadhar_Temple|Tirumeeyachur Mehanadhar Temple]]: Tirumeeyachur Mehanadhar Temple (திருமீயச்சூர் மேகநாதர் கோயில்) is located at Thirumeeyachur in Tiruvarur district, Tamil Nadu, India. As per a belief, Tirumeeyachur Mehanadhar Temple is where Sri Lalita Sahasranama was composed and [[Hayagriva]] taught it to [[Agastya]] maharishi.

*[[Adyar Kamakshi Temple]], Tamil Nadu: While the primary deity of this temple is Goddess Kamakshi, she is often associated with Tripura Sundari in the Shakta tradition. The temple is located in Chennai, Tamil Nadu.{{citation needed|date=October 2023}}

*[[Kanchi Kamakoti Peetham]], Tamil Nadu: also called the Sri Kanchi Matham or the Sri Kanchi Monastery, is a [[Hinduism|Hindu]] institution, located in [[Kanchipuram]], [[Tamil Nadu]]. It is located near a temple dedicated to Goddess Sri Kamakshi, along with a shrine for the Advaita Vedanta teacher [[Adi Shankara]].{{sfn|Krishna|2006|p=100}}

[[File:Kanchipuram.in Kamakshi-Amman Temple - panoramio - SINHA (cropped).jpg|upright|thumb|Kamakshi Amman Temple in Kanchipuram, Tamil Nadu, India (2005)]]

*[[Ratneshwari Temple]], Jharkhand: Located in Jharkhand, this temple is dedicated to Goddess Tripura Sundari. It is believed to be one of the Shakti Peethas and holds immense importance among devotees.{{citation needed|date=October 2023}}

*Lalita Devi Temple, Uttar Pradesh: This temple is located in [[Naimiṣāraṇya (forest)|Naimisharanya]]. It is one of the 51 Shakti Peethas, which are considered highly sacred in the [[Shaktism|Shakta]] tradition. The temple complex is dedicated to Goddess Tripura Sundari.<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 November 2024 |title=Lalita Devi (Naimisharanya) |url=https://uptourism.gov.in/en/article/lalita-devi-naimisharanya |website=Uttar Pradesh Tourism}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Lalita Devi Temple {{!}} District Sitapur, Government of Uttar Pradesh {{!}} India |url=https://sitapur.nic.in/tourist-place/lalita-devi-temple/ |access-date=2025-09-01 |language=en-US}}</ref>

*[[Jnanakshi Rajarajeshwari Temple|Sri Rajarajeswari Temple]], Karnataka: This peetham (spiritual institution) in Karnataka is dedicated to Goddess Rajarajeswari, a form of Tripura Sundari. It is a well-known center of worship and spiritual activities.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-05-09 |title=Sri Kailash Ashrama Mahasamsthana {{!}} Rajeshwari Temple |url=https://www.srikailashashrama.org/rajeshwari-temple.html |access-date=2024-11-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509152814/https://www.srikailashashrama.org/rajeshwari-temple.html |archive-date=9 May 2016 }}</ref>

[[File:Sri_Raja_Rajeshwari_Temple_02.jpg|upright|thumb|Sri Raja Rajeshwari Temple is located at Kenchenhalli, Raja Rajeshwari Nagar, Bangalore Karnataka, India (2024)]]

*[[Tiruvakkarai Kamakshi Amman Temple]], Tamil Nadu: This temple is located in Tiruvakkarai near Pondicherry, Tamil Nadu. It is an important pilgrimage site dedicated to Goddess Tripura Sundari. The temple is known for its intricate architecture and serene surroundings.{{citation needed|date=October 2023}}

*[[Tripura Sundari Temple]], Tripura: This temple is located in the ancient city of Udaipur in Tripura, India. It is one of the 51 Shakti Peethas, which are considered highly sacred in the Shakta tradition. The temple complex is dedicated to Goddess Tripura Sundari and attracts devotees from all over the country.{{citation needed|date=October 2023}}

*Rajrajeswari Temple in Tehri district of Uttarakhand. The presiding deity Rajrajeswari is identical with Nanda, the patron goddess of Kumaoni and Garhwali people. She is worshipped by Tantric and Shamanic methods like [[Jaagar]] in Uttarakhand.
*Tripura Sundari Temple in [[Naggar, Himachal Pradesh|Naggar]] of Kullu district in Himachal Pradesh.

=== Germany ===
[[File:Hamm-Tempel-Farbgestaltung2014-11-02-13-07.jpg|upright|thumb|Sri Kamakshi Ambal Temple in [[Hamm, North Rhine-Westphalia|Hamm]], Germany (2014)]]
In [[Hamm, North Rhine-Westphalia|Hamm]] in [[North Rhine-Westphalia]], Germany, there is the ''Sri Kamadchi Ampal Temple'', built in 2002.{{sfn|Ben-Rafael|Sternberg|2010|pp=242–254}}

== Festivals ==
Festivals dedicated to Tripura Sundari are celebrated with devotion and reverence across various regions in the [[Shakta]] tradition. Her main festivals are Lalita Jayanti and Lalita Panchami, but other festivals also hold significance.

=== Lalita Jayanti ===
Lalita Jayanthi is celebrated on [[Magha Purnima]], the full moon day of the month of Magha (January–February). It is a very important day in some parts of North India when special offerings and ceremonies are held. It is believed that devotees on this day will be blessed if they worship Goddess Lalita with full devotion and dedication.{{citation needed|date=September 2022}}

=== Lalita Panchami ===
Lalita Panchami is a very auspicious [[tithi]], celebrated on the fifth day of the Sharad [[Navaratri]] festival. Legend has it that on this auspicious day Goddess Lalita emerged from fire to defeat [[Bhandasura]], a demon created from the ashes of [[Kamadeva]]. This day is very important in [[Gujarat]] and [[Maharashtra]]. On this day, some devotees also hold a fast called Lalita Panchami vrata, which is also called the Upang Lalita Vrat.<ref>[https://www.drikpanchang.com/navratri/events/lalita-panchami-date-time.html?year=2023 Lalita Panchami, Upang Lalita Vrat]</ref> It is believed to bring wealth, happiness and wisdom. Chanting of Vedic mantras dedicated to Goddess Lalita on this day is very useful. It is a popular belief that doing so will immediately solve all the personal as well as business related problems in life.

===Other festivals===
[[Navaratri]], a nine-night festival, holds immense significance as devotees engage in elaborate rituals, fasting, prayer, and recitation of sacred texts in honor of the divine feminine. [[Dussehra]], which marks the triumph of good over evil, often includes the worship of Tripura Sundari, emphasizing her role as a protector and nurturer. [[Shodashi Puja]], dedicated to her youthful form, is conducted by initiated devotees. [[Chaitra Navaratri]], observed in March–April, mirrors the autumn Navaratri celebrations. [[Pournami Pooja]], observed during full moon days, involves special prayers and rituals to seek her blessings. Additionally, various regions might organize [[Shakti Utsav]], celebrating the multifaceted forms of the goddess. These festivals collectively showcase the devotion, cultural richness, and spiritual connection that devotees share with Goddess Tripura Sundari.

==See also==
*{{annotated link|Kurukullā}}
*{{annotated link|Triple Goddess}}

== References ==
===Notes===
{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}

=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Works cited ===
{{refbegin|2|indent=yes}}
*{{cite book |editor1-first=Eliezer |editor1-last=Ben-Rafael |editor2-first=Yitzhak |editor2-last=Sternberg |title=World Religions and Multiculturalism: A Dialectic Relation |year=2010 |place=Netherlands |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-9004188921}}
*{{cite book |last=Bhattacharyya |first=N. N. |title=History of the Sakta Religion |publisher=[[Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers]] |location=New Delhi |orig-year=1974 |edition=2nd |year=1996 }}
*{{cite book |first=Douglas Renfrew |last=Brooks |title=The Secret of the Three Cities: An Introduction to Hindu Sakta Tantrism |location=Chicago & London |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0226075709}}
*{{cite book |title=Auspicious Wisdom: The Texts and Traditions of Srividya Sakta Tantrism in South India |first=Douglas Renfrew |last=Brooks |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0791411469}}
*{{cite book |first=Cheever Mackenzie |last=Brown |title=The Devi Gita: The Song of the Goddess: A Translation, Annotation, and Commentary |year=1998 |publisher=State University of New York Press |location=Albany |isbn=978-0-7914-3939-5}}
*{{cite book |title=Encountering the Goddess: A Translation of the Devi-Mahatmya and a Study of Its Interpretation |year=1991 |first=Thomas B. |last=Coburn |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0791499313}}
* {{cite book |last=Dalal |first=Roshen |year=2014 |title=Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-341517-6}}
*{{cite book |title=Human rights and indigenous peoples |last=Das |first=J. K. |pages=208–9 |publisher=A.P.H. Publishing |year=2001 |isbn=978-81-7648-243-1 |chapter=Chapter 5: Old and new political process in realization of the rights of indigenous peoples (regarded as tribals) in Tripura}}
*{{cite book |last=Deshpande |first=Madhusudan Narhar |year=1986 |title=The Caves of Panhāle-Kājī, Ancient Pranālaka: An Art Historical Study of Transition from Hinayana, Tantric Vajrayana to Nath Sampradāya (third to Fourteenth Century A.D.) |location=New Delhi |publisher=Archaeological Survey of India, Government of India |oclc=923371295}}
*{{cite book |last=Dikshitar |first=V. R. Ramachandra |title=The Lalitā Cult |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |location=Delhi |orig-year=1942 |year=1999 |isbn=978-8120814981}}
*{{cite book |last=Joshi |first=Makarand |title=The Narada-Purana: Part III |place=Delhi |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. |year=1997 |orig-year=1952 |url=https://archive.org/details/naradapuranaeng031951ocrmotilalbanasirdass |url-access=registration}}
* {{cite journal |url=http://ikashmir.net/subhashkak/docs/SriChakra.pdf |first=Subhash |last=Kak |title=The Great Goddess Lalitā and the Śrī Cakra |journal=Brahmavidyā: The Adyar Library Bulletin |volume=72–73 |pages=155–172 |date=2008–2009}}
*{{cite book |last=Kinsley |first=David |date=1998 |title=Tantric Visions of the Divine Feminine: The Ten Mahāvidyās |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |isbn= 978-8120815230 }}
*{{cite book |editor-first=Nanditha |editor-last=Krishna |title=Kanchipuram: A Heritage of Art and Religion |year=2006 |place=India |publisher=C.P. Ramaswami Aiyar Foundation |isbn=978-8190148412}}
*{{cite book |last= Mahadevan |first=T. M. P. |title=Upaniṣads: Selections from 108 Upaniṣads |year=1975 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1611-4}}
*{{cite book |last=Shankaranarayanan |first=S. |year=2004 |title=Sri Chakra |place=India |publisher=Nesma Books India |isbn=978-8185208046}}
*{{cite book |title=Discovery of North East India |volume=11 |editor1-first=S. K. |editor1-last=Sharma |editor2-first=Usha |editor2-last=Sharma |publisher=Mittal Publication |place=New Delhi, India |year=2015 |isbn=978-81-8324-045-1}}
*{{cite book |last=Tagare |first=G. V. |title=Lalitopakhyana |chapter=Chapters 41-44 |chapter-url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/lalitopakhyana-lalita-mahatmya/d/doc362983.html |year=1958 |place=Delhi |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt.}}
*{{cite book |last=Venkatasubramanian |first=Krishnaswamy |title=The Spectrum: Festschrift, Essays in Honour of Dr. K. Venkatasubramanian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OGOcAAAAMAAJ |year=1999 |publisher=Variant Communications}}
*{{cite book |last=White |first=David Gordon |title=Kiss of the Yogini: "Tantric Sex" in its South Asian Contexts |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-226-89483-6 }}
*{{cite book |last=Woodroffe |first=Sir John George |year=1974 |title=The Serpent Power: Being the Shat-Chakra-Nirūpana and Pādukā-Panchaka, Two Works on Laya-Yoga |publisher=Dover Publications |isbn=978-0486230580}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|2|indent=yes}}
*{{cite journal |last=Golovkova |first=A. A. (Anya) |year=2020 |title=The Forgotten Consort: The Goddess and Kāmadeva in the Early Worship of Tripurasundarī |journal=International Journal of Hindu Studies |volume=24 |number=1 |pages=87–106 |doi=10.1007/s11407-020-09272-6 |s2cid=255166456 |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Kinsley |first=David R. |year=1988 |title=Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition |location=Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0520063396 |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |editor-first=Kathleen |editor-last=Kuiper |title=The Culture of India |year=2010 |publisher=Britannica Educational Pub. |isbn=978-1615301492 |ref=none}}
*{{cite web |last=Magee |first=Mike |date=n.d. |title=Lalitā Tripurāsundarī, the Red Goddess |website=Shivashakti.com |url=https://shivashakti.com/tripura |access-date=2023-01-06 |ref=none}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
*{{Commons category-inline}}
{{Mahavidya}}
{{HinduMythology}}
{{Portal bar|Hinduism|India|Religion}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Tripura Sundari| ]]
[[Category:Forms of Lakshmi]]
[[Category:Forms of Parvati]]
[[Category:Mahavidyas]]
[[Category:Shaktism]]
[[Category:Hindu tantric deities]]
[[Category:Consorts of Shiva]]
[[Category:Folk deities of Rajasthan]]

Lords of the Deccan

2026-03-20T13:56:21Z

Indianeagle1: stub!

{{Short description|2022 book by Anirudh Kanisetti}}
{{Infobox book
| name = Lords of the Deccan
| image = Lords of the Deccan.jpeg
| caption =
| author = [[Anirudh Kanisetti]]
| country = India
| language = English
| series =
| release_number =
| subject = Medieval South Indian history
| genre = Non-fiction, history
| set_in =
| publisher = [[Juggernaut Books]]
| published = 2022
| media_type = Print
| pages =
| isbn =
| isbn_note =
| oclc =
| dewey =
| congress =
| preceded_by =
| followed_by =
| notes =
| exclude_cover =
}}

'''''Lords of the Deccan''''' is a 2022 non-fiction history book by Indian public historian [[Anirudh Kanisetti]]. It explores the medieval history of South India, focusing on the [[Chalukya dynasty|Chalukya]], [[Rashtrakuta Empire|Rashtrakuta]], and [[Chola Empire|Chola]] empires, and their political, military, and cultural contributions. Published by [[Juggernaut Books]], the book was released in 2022 and received the Tata Literature Live! Book of the Year Award in the non-fiction category and the [[List of Yuva Puraskar winners for English|Sahitya Akademi Yuva Puraskar]] for English in the same year.<ref name="Scroll2022">{{Cite web |title=Tata Literature Live! announces winners in all categories for its 2022 awards |url=https://scroll.in/article/1037397/tata-literature-live-announces-winners-in-all-categories-for-its-2022-awards |date=18 November 2022 |access-date=25 May 2025 |website=[[Scroll.in]]}}</ref><ref name="IndianExpress2023">{{Cite web |title=Sahitya Akademi announces winners of Bal Sahitya Puraskar, Yuva Puraskar |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/books-and-literature/sahitya-akademi-announces-winners-of-bal-sahitya-puraskar-yuva-puraskar-8682706/ |date=15 June 2023 |access-date=25 May 2025 |website=[[The Indian Express]]}}</ref>

== Summary ==
''Lords of the Deccan'' chronicles the history of South Indian empires from the 6th to the 12th centuries, focusing on the [[Chalukyas]], [[Rashtrakutas]], and [[Chola Empire|Cholas]].<ref name="IndiaToday2022">{{Cite web |title=Book review: Lords of the Deccan by Anirudh Kanisetti |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/leisure/story/20220411-book-review-lords-of-the-deccan-by-anirudh-kanisetti-1932285-2022-04-01 |date=1 April 2022 |access-date=25 May 2025 |website=[[India Today]]}}</ref> Written in a first-person narrative by Kanisetti, the book examines the political structures, military campaigns, and cultural developments of these empires, including their contributions to temple architecture and trade networks.<ref name="Hindu2022">{{Cite web |title=An extract from Anirudh Kanisetti's book 'Lords of the Deccan' |url=https://www.thehindu.com/books/an-extract-from-anirudh-kanisettis-book-lords-of-the-deccan/article38340167.ece |date=26 February 2022 |access-date=25 May 2025 |website=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> It highlights figures such as [[Pulakeshin II]] and the role of merchant guilds in economic systems.<ref name="Hindu2022" /> The book also addresses social issues, including the treatment of women and slaves in medieval South Indian society.<ref name="HindustanTimes2022">{{Cite web |title=Anirudh Kanisetti, author, Lords of the Deccan: I feel gleeful when I demolish binaries |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/books/anirudh-kanisetti-author-lords-of-the-deccan-i-feel-gleeful-when-i-demolish-binaries-101670250377061.html |date=22 October 2022 |access-date=25 May 2025 |website=[[Hindustan Times]]}}</ref> Kanisetti's narrative aims to integrate South India's regional history into broader Indian historical narratives, challenging North India-centric perspectives.<ref name="HindustanTimes2022" /><ref name="Scroll2021">{{Cite web |title=Most histories ignore the Deccan – a new book reminds us of the years the Deccan ruled India |url=https://scroll.in/article/1016977/most-histories-ignore-the-deccan-a-new-book-reminds-us-of-the-years-the-deccan-ruled-india |date=5 February 2022 |access-date=25 May 2025 |website=[[Scroll.in]]}}</ref>

== Development and release ==
The idea for ''Lords of the Deccan'' emerged from Kanisetti's work as a public historian, aiming to make South Indian history accessible to a broader audience.<ref name="NewIndianExpress2022">{{Cite web |title=Author Anirudh Kanisetti narrates south side story |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/hyderabad/2022/Nov/19/author-anirudh-kanisetti-narrates-south-side-story-2519677.html |date=19 November 2022 |access-date=25 May 2025 |website=[[The New Indian Express]]}}</ref> Kanisetti spent four years researching, editing, and fact-checking the book, drawing on historical records and archaeological evidence.<ref name="NewIndianExpress2022" /> The book was published by [[Juggernaut Books]] in 2022.<ref name="IndiaToday2022" /> A Telugu-language series adaptation was announced by actor [[Rana Daggubati]] at Comic-Con USA in July 2023.<ref name="Hindu2023">{{Cite web |title=Rana Daggubati announces Telugu series 'Lords of the Deccan' at Comic-Con USA |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/rana-daggubati-announces-telugu-series-lords-of-the-deccan-at-comic-con-usa/article67097827.ece |date=30 July 2023 |access-date=25 May 2025 |website=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref>

== Critical reception ==
Critical reviews of ''Lords of the Deccan'' were generally positive. The book was praised for its engaging narrative and focus on the understudied Deccan region.<ref name="IndiaToday2022" /><ref name="Telegraph2022">{{Cite web |title=Lords of the Deccan by Anirudh Kanisetti |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/my-kolkata/try-this/read/lords-of-the-deccan-by-anirudh-kanisetti/cid/1850096 |date=28 January 2022 |access-date=25 May 2025 |website=[[The Telegraph India]]}}</ref> A review in ''[[India Today]]'' noted its accessibility and vivid storytelling, calling it a valuable contribution to Indian historical literature.<ref name="IndiaToday2022" /> ''[[Business Standard]]'' commended Kanisetti for challenging conventional historical narratives by highlighting South India's contributions.<ref name="BusinessStandard2022">{{Cite web |title=A southern perspective of Indian history |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/beyond-business/a-southern-perspective-of-indian-history-122041501050_1.html |date=15 April 2022 |access-date=25 May 2025 |website=[[Business Standard]]}}</ref> ''[[The Telegraph India]]'' described it as a compelling read that brings lesser-known histories to life.<ref name="Telegraph2022" />
''[[Frontline (magazine)|Frontline]]'' highlighted how he brought the audience's attention towards the Deccan, which is often ignored in historical discussions.<ref name="Frontline2022">{{Cite web |title=Book review: 'Lords of the Deccan' by Anirudh Kanisetti – The South writes back |url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/books/book-review-lords-of-the-deccan-by-anirudh-kanisetti-the-south-writes-back/article65982358.ece |date=25 November 2022 |access-date=25 May 2025 |website=[[Frontline (magazine)|Frontline]]}}</ref> However, some reviews were critical. A review in ''[[Loksatta]]'' praised the book's research but suggested it could have been more concise in parts where the architect's name could've been mentioned.<ref name="Loksatta2022">{{Cite web |title=Book review: Lords of the Deccan by Anirudh Kanisetti – Book about history of South India |url=https://www.loksatta.com/sampadkiya/columns/book-review-lords-of-the-deccan-by-anirudh-kanisetti-book-about-history-of-south-india-zws-70-3412506/ |date=15 April 2022 |access-date=25 May 2025 |website=[[Loksatta]]}}</ref>

== References ==

{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{Google books|6pnmzgEACAAJ|Lords of the Deccan}}

[[Category:2022 non-fiction books]]
[[Category:Indian history books]]
[[Category:Juggernaut Books books]]

Kosal state movement

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Indianeagle1: redirect

#REDIRECT [[Kosal movement]]

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Yerpedu mandal

2026-03-09T13:38:24Z

Indianeagle1:

{{Short description|Mandal in Tirupati district, Andhra Pradesh, India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Yerpedu mandal
| settlement_type = [[Mandal]]
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{IND}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Andhra Pradesh]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts in Andhra Pradesh|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Tirupati district|Tirupati]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[List of revenue divisions in Andhra Pradesh|Revenue division]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[Srikalahasti revenue division|Srikalahasti]]
| subdivision_type4 = Headquarters
| subdivision_name4 = [[Yerpedu]]
| mapframe = yes
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset = +05:30
}}

'''Yerpedu mandal''' is one of the 36 [[mandal]]s in [[Tirupati district]] in the [[India]]n state of [[Andhra Pradesh]]. It is a part of [[Srikalahasti revenue division]]. The mandal was made part of the newly formed Tirupati district on 4 April 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sasidhar |first=B. M. |date=2022-04-04 |title=Chittoor, Tirupati, Annamayya districts formed as part of rejig |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/andhra-pradesh/chittoor-tirupati-annamayya-districts-formed-as-part-of-rejig-736459 |access-date=2022-04-06 |website=The Hans India |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2021-05-16 |title=IIT to become COVID Care centre |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/iit-to-become-covid-care-centre/article34574742.ece |access-date=2022-04-11 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Tirupati district}}

[[Category:Mandals in Tirupati district]]

{{AndhraPradesh-geo-stub}}

List of Tamil films of 1949

2026-03-07T05:16:03Z

Indianeagle1: brief cleaned up citations and fixed typos

{{Short description|None}}
{{more citations needed|date=June 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2020}}

{{Tamil films}}

The following is a list of films produced in the [[Tamil cinema|Tamil film industry]] in India in [[1949 in film|1949]], in alphabetical order.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lakshmansruthi.com/cineprofiles/1949.asp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405200407/http://www.lakshmansruthi.com/cineprofiles/1949.asp|url-status=usurped|archive-date=5 April 2017|title=1949 Tamil Films|access-date=2019-11-18|publisher=lakshmansruthi}}</ref>

==1949==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
![[Title]] !![[Film director|Director]] !! [[Film producer|Production]] !! [[Music]]!! [[Cast member|Cast]] !! Release date (D-M-Y)
|-
|''[[Apoorva Sagodharargal (1949 film)|Apoorva Sagodharargal]]''
| Acharya
| [[Gemini Studios]]
| [[S. Rajeswara Rao]] [[M. D. Parthasarathy]] R. Vaidyanathan
|[[M. K. Radha]], [[P. Bhanumathi]], [[R. Nagendra Rao]], L. Narayana Rao, G. Pattu Iyer, [[D. Balasubramaniam]], Lakshmi Prabha, Surya Prabha, ''Stunt'' Somu
| 21-10-1949
|-
|''Deva Manohari''<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/Devamanohari-1951/article15502198.ece|title=Deva Manohari|access-date=2019-11-18|publisher=hindu}}</ref>
| [[A. T. Krishnaswamy]]
| R. K. S. Pictures
| [[G. Ramanathan]]
|[[Honnappa Bhagavathar|C. Honnappa Bhagavathar]], [[P. Bhanumathi]], [[B. S. Saroja]], M. R. Swaminathan, [[Kali N. Rathnam]], G. M. Basheer, R. Padma, Lakshmi Devi
| 21-10-1949
|-
|''[[Geetha Gandhi]]''
| [[Krishnaswami Subrahmanyam|K. Subramanyam]]
| [[Krishnaswami Subrahmanyam|Madras United Artists Corporation]]
| [[C. N. Pandurangan]] [[Br Lakshmanan]]
| [[B. S. Saroja]], [[P. A. Periyanayaki]], [[T. R. Ramachandran]], [[Krishnaswami Subrahmanyam|K. Subramanyam]], V. Kumaraswami, [[Padma Subramanyam|''Baby'' Padma]], M. R. S. Mani, R. Padma
| 16-03-1949
|-
|''[[Inbavalli]]''
| [[S. Nottani]]
| Shyamala Pictures
| [[G. Ramanathan]]
| [[T. R. Mahalingam (actor)|T. R. Mahalingam]], [[B. S. Saroja]], [[N. S. Krishnan]], [[T. A. Madhuram]], M. R. Swaminathan, E. R. Sahadevan, P. K. Saraswathi, S. Menaka
| 16-09-1949
|-
|''[[Kanniyin Kathali]]''
| [[K. Ramnoth]]
| [[Jupiter Pictures]]
| [[S. M. Subbaiah Naidu]] [[C. R. Subburaman]]
| [[Madhuri Devi]], [[Anjali Devi]], [[S. A. Natarajan]], [[N. S. Krishnan]], [[T. A. Madhuram]], [[K. R. Ramsingh]], [[K. Sarangapani]], Pulimoottai Ramaswami, M. S. S. Bhagyam
| 06-08-1949
|-
|''Kanakangi''
|
| State Productions
|
| Gangadharan, Srinivasan, Leela
| 29-07-1949
|-
|''[[Krishna Bhakthi]]''
| R. S. Mani
| [[Lena Chettiar|Krishna Pictures]]
| [[S. V. Venkatraman]]
| [[P. U. Chinnappa]], [[T. R. Rajakumari]], [[K. R. Ramasamy (actor)|K. R. Ramasamy]], S. P. L. Dhanalakshmi, [[D. Balasubramaniam]], [[N. S. Krishnan]], [[T. A. Madhuram]], [[C. T. Rajakantham]], [[P. A. Periyanayaki]]
| 14-01-1949
|-
|''[[Laila Majnu (1949 film)|Laila Majnu]]'' (dubbed from [[Telugu language|Telugu]])
| [[P. S. Ramakrishna Rao]]
| [[Bharani Studios]]
| [[C. R. Subburaman]]
| [[Akkineni Nageswara Rao|A. Nageswara Rao]], [[P. Bhanumathi]], [[Mukkamala (actor)|Mukkamala]], [[C. S. R. Anjaneyulu]], [[Sriranjani, Jr.|Sriranjani]], Kasturi Siva Rao, Arani Satyanarayana
| 01-10-1949
|-
|''[[Keelu Gurram|Mayakkudirai]]'' (dubbed from [[Telugu language|Telugu]])
| Raja of Mirzapur
| Sobhanachala Pictures
| [[Ghantasala (musician)|Ghantasala]]
| [[Akkineni Nageswara Rao|A. Nageswara Rao]], [[Anjali Devi]], A. V. Subba Rao, [[Relangi (actor)|Relangi]], [[T. Kanakam]], Suryashree, Lakshmirajyam Jr., [[Surabhi Kamalabai]]
|
|-
|''[[Mayavathi]]''
| [[T. R. Sundaram]]
| Ganapathi Pictures
| [[G. Ramanathan]]
|[[T. R. Mahalingam (actor)|T. R. Mahalingam]], [[Anjali Devi]], [[S. V. Subbaiah]], [[Kali N. Rathnam]], [[C. T. Rajakantham]], K. K. Perumal, [[M. G. Chakrapani]]
| 12-08-1949
|-
|''[[Mangayarkarasi]]''
| Jiten Bannerjee
| Bhagya Pictures
| [[G. Ramanathan]] [[Kunnakudi Venkatarama Iyer]] [[C. R. Subburaman]]
| [[P. U. Chinnappa]], [[P. Kannamba]], [[Anjali Devi]], [[N. S. Krishnan]], [[T. S. Durairaj]], [[T. A. Madhuram]], [[Kaka Radhakrishnan]]
| 03-09-1949
|-
|''[[Naattiya Rani]]''
| B. N. Rao
| Baskar Pictures
| [[Papanasam Sivan]]
| [[Vasundhara Devi]], B. S. Raja Iyengar, [[B. S. Saroja]], [[T. S. Balaiah]], Charli, B. Jayamma, [[K. Thavamani Devi]]
| 19-08-1949
|-
|''[[Nallathambi (1949 film)|Nallathambi]]''
| [[Krishnan–Panju]]
| Uma Pictures [[N. S. Krishnan|N. S. K. Films]]
| [[C. R. Subburaman]]
| [[N. S. Krishnan]], [[P. Bhanumathi]], [[T. A. Madhuram]], [[S. V. Sahasranamam]], [[M. N. Rajam]], [[V. K. Ramasamy (actor)|V. K. Ramasamy]]
| 04-02-1949
|-
|''[[Apna Desh (1949 film)|Nam Naadu]]''
| [[V. Shantaram]]
| [[V. Shantaram|Rajkamal Kalamandir]]
| [[G. Govindarajulu Naidu]]
| Pushpa Hans, Umesh Sharma, Sudha Apte, Chandrasekhar, [[Manmohan Krishna]], [[Keshavrao Date]]
| 09-07-1949
|-
|''[[Navajeevanam]]''
| [[Kadaru Nagabhushanam|K. B. Nagabhushanam]]
| [[Kadaru Nagabhushanam|Raja Rajeswari Films]]
| [[S. V. Venkatraman]]
| [[V. Nagayya]], [[P. Kannamba]], Sriram, [[S. Varalakshmi]], [[T. R. Ramachandran]], T. A. Jayalakshmi, L. Narayana Rao, C. V. V. Panthulu, ''Baby'' Rajamani
| 28-05-1949
|-
|''[[Pavalakodi (1949 film)|Pavalakodi]]''
| [[S. M. Sriramulu Naidu]]
| [[Pakshiraja Studios]]
| [[C. R. Subburaman]]
| [[T. R. Mahalingam (actor)|T. R. Mahalingam]], [[T. R. Rajakumari]], T. E. Varadhan, M. S. Sarojini, [[N. S. Krishnan]], [[T. A. Madhuram]], Nagercoil K. Mahadevan, [[M. N. Rajam]]
| 09-04-1949
|-
|''[[Ratnakumar]]''
| [[Krishnan–Panju]]
| Murugan Talkies
| [[G. Ramanathan]] [[C. R. Subburaman]]
| [[P. U. Chinnappa]], [[P. Bhanumathi]], [[M. G. Ramachandran]], K. Malathi, [[N. S. Krishnan]], [[T. A. Madhuram]], [[D. Balasubramaniam]], Nagercoil K. Mahadevan, K. P. Kesavan, [[T. S. Durairaj]]
| 15-12-1949
|-
| ''[[Vaazhkai (1949 film)|Vazhkai]]''
| [[A. V. Meiyappan]]
| [[AVM Productions]]
| R. Sudharsanam
| [[Vyjayanthimala]], M. S. Draupadi, [[T. R. Ramachandran]], [[S. V. Sahasranamam]], [[K. Sarangapani]], P. A. Subbaiah Pillai, M. S. Karuppaiah, [[V. M. Ezhumalai]], S. R. Janaki
| 22-12-1949
|-
| ''[[Velaikari]]''
| [[A. S. A. Sami]]
| [[Jupiter Pictures]]
| [[S. M. Subbaiah Naidu]] [[C. R. Subburaman]]
| [[K. R. Ramasamy (actor)|K. R. Ramasamy]], [[V. N. Janaki]], [[T. S. Balaiah]], [[M. N. Nambiar]], [[M. V. Rajamma]], [[S. A. Natarajan]], [[D. Balasubramaniam]]
| 25-02-1949
|-
|''Vinothini''
| Ramji Bai Arya - S. R. Krishna Iyengar
| Vainatheyin Photo Films
| Srinivasa Iyengar
| N. Krishnamoorthy, K. T. Dhanalakshmi, V. S. Mani, M. V. Raju, 'Stunt' Somu, T. V. Sethuraman, S. Sathyabama
| 24-03-1949
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Tamil cinema}}
{{1949 films}}
{{Indian film list}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tamil Films Of 1949}}
[[Category:1949 in Indian cinema|Films, Tamil]]
[[Category:Lists of 1949 films by language]]
[[Category:Lists of Tamil films by year|1949]]
[[Category:1949 Tamil-language films| ]]
[[Category:1940s Indian films]]

Timepass 3

2026-03-04T09:36:09Z

Indianeagle1: starting - done

{{Short description|2022 Indian romantic comedy drama film}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2022}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Timepass 3
| image = Timepass 3 poster.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[Ravi Jadhav]]
| writer = {{ubl|[[Priyadarshan Jadhav]]|Ravi Jadhav}}
| screenplay = Priyadarshan Jadhav
| producer = Meghana Jadhav
| starring = {{ubl|[[Hruta Durgule]]|[[Prathamesh Parab]]|[[Bhalchandra Kadam]]|[[Sanjay Narvekar]]|[[Vaibhav Mangle]]}}
| cinematography = Lawrence D'Cunha
| editing = [[Jayant Jathar]]
| music = [[Amitraj]]
| studio = {{ubl|[[Zee Studios]]|Athaansh Communications}}
| distributor = Zee Studios
| released = {{Film date|2022|07|29|df=yes}}
| runtime = 122 minutes
| country = India
| language = Marathi
| budget = {{estimation}}[[Indian rupee|₹]]8–10 [[crore]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Timepass 3: Marathi Ekikaran Samiti Demands Removal Of Some Scenes|url=https://www.news18.com/news/movies/timepass-3-marathi-ekikaran-samiti-demands-removal-of-some-scenes-5673943.html|publisher=News 18|website=News18}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Naik |first=Payal Shekhar |title=Timepass ३ Box Office Collection: प्रथमेश- ऋताच्या जोडीची जादू, किती आहे कमाई? |url=https://marathi.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/timepass-3-box-office-collection-prathmesh-parab-and-hruta-durgule-timepass-3-collection-141659259368973.html |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=Hindustan Times Marathi |language=mr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-08-01 |title=Timepass 3 box office collection : दगडू आणि पालवीची लव्हस्टोरी हिट की फ्लॉप, 'टाइमपास ३' चे बॉक्स ऑफिस कलेक्शन समोर |url=https://www.loksatta.com/manoranjan/timepass-3-box-office-collection-hruta-durgule-prathamesh-parab-movie-release-update-nrp-97-3050451/ |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=Loksatta |language=mr}}</ref>
| gross =
}}

'''''Timepass 3''''' is a 2022 Indian [[Marathi language|Marathi]]-language [[romantic comedy]] film directed by [[Ravi Jadhav]] and produced by Meghana Jadhav under the banner of Athaansh Communications. The third installment in ''Timepass'' franchise, starring [[Prathamesh Parab]], [[Hruta Durgule]] and [[Bhalchandra Kadam]] in the leading roles, while [[Sanjay Narvekar]] and [[Vaibhav Mangle]] in supporting roles.<ref>{{Citation |title=Timepass 3 Movie: Showtimes, Review, Trailer, Posters, News & Videos |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/marathi/movie-details/timepass-3/movieshow/92982006.cms |website=The Times of India|access-date=2022-08-15}}</ref>

''Timepass 3'' was theatrically released on 29 July 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ravi Jadhav's Timepass 3 to Hit 400 Screens and Have 10,000 Shows |url=https://www.news18.com/news/movies/ravi-jadhavs-timepass-3-to-hit-400-screens-and-have-10000-shows-5643697.html |access-date=2022-08-15 |website=News18 }}</ref>

== Plot ==
After finally passing his 12th exam, Dagdu Parab is ready to start fresh after taking admission in Science College. His bonding with classmate Pallavi is also blooming.<ref>{{Citation |title=Timepass 3 Movie: Showtimes, Review, Trailer, Posters, News & Videos {{!}} eTimes |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/marathi/movie-details/timepass-3/movieshow/92982006.cms |access-date=2022-08-20}}</ref>

== Cast ==
* [[Prathamesh Parab]] as Dagdu Shantaram Parab
* [[Hruta Durgule]] as Pallavi Dinkar Patil
* [[Sanjay Narvekar]] as Dinkar Patil
* [[Bhalchandra Kadam|Bhau Kadam]] as Shantaram Parab
* [[Vaibhav Mangle]] as Madhav Lele
* Rakesh Bhavsar
* [[Samir Choughule]] as College principal
* Manmeet Pem as Balbharti
* Anvita Phaltankar as Chanda
* [[Onkar Raut]] as Komdya
* Jayesh Chavan as Malaria
* Prashant Tapasvi as College peon

== Reception ==
=== Critical reception ===
The film received mixed response from critics.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-08-02 |title=Timepass 3: Marathi Ekikaran Samiti Demands Removal Of Some Scenes |url=https://www.news18.com/news/movies/timepass-3-marathi-ekikaran-samiti-demands-removal-of-some-scenes-5673943.html |access-date=2023-08-23 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref>

Kalpeshraj Kubal of ''[[Maharashtra Times]]'' rated three stars out of five stars gave positive review.<ref>{{Cite web |title=टाइमपास ३ |url=https://maharashtratimes.com/entertainment/movie-reviews/timepass-3/moviereview/93247215.cms |access-date=2023-08-23 |website=Maharashtra Times |language=mr}}</ref> Mihir Bhanage of ''[[The Times of India]]'' rates two and half stars out of five wrote "if a light-hearted cinema outing is what you are looking at, this is a decent bet."<ref>{{Cite news |title=Timepass 3 Movie Review : A decent watch if 'timepass' at the cinema is what you're looking at |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/marathi/movie-reviews/timepass-3/movie-review/93213430.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2023-08-23 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> Johnson Thomas of [[FilmiBeat|''Filmibeat'']] gave same rating.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Timepass 3 Movie Review: Prathamesh Parab And Hruta ... |url=https://www.filmibeat.com/marathi-movies/news/timepass-3-movie-review-prathamesh-parab-and-hruta-durgule-s-film-not-enough-timepass-338506.html |access-date=2023-08-24 |website=Filmibeat}}</ref> Shahin Irani of ''[[OTTPlay]]'' gave two and half stars out of five stars wrote "In trying to keep the flavour of the franchise alive, Timepass 3 has become a little offensive and too old for the jokes. Barring those scenes, the movie is a ride which hopes to entertain you. It is only but a good effort today."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Timepass 3 review: Prathamesh Parab's film is partly entertaining |url=https://www.ottplay.com/review/timepass-3-review-prathamesh-parabs-film-is-partly-entertaining/85aa26281b996 |access-date=2023-08-23 |website=OTTPlay |language=en}}</ref> Chitrali Choghale-Anawkar of ''[[Lokmat]]'' gave 2.5 stars out of five stars wrote "There is a distinct twist in the movie at the very end and it definitely keeps the curiosity stretched and the movie gives something as it goes. ''Timepass 3'' definitely makes its timepass due to the cast and the light-hearted humor in the story and some new characters."<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-29 |title=Timepass 3 Movie Review : 'दगडू'च्या प्रेमाला 'फालवी' फुटते खरी, पण... |url=https://www.lokmat.com/marathi-cinema/hruta-durgule-and-prathamesh-parab-starer-timepass-3-movie-review-a734/ |access-date=2023-08-23 |website=Lokmat |language=mr}}</ref> Salonee Mistry of [[Pune Times|''Pune Times Mirror'']] gave 1.5 rating and wrote "''Timepass 3'' is a no-brainer entertainment watch, packed with slapstick comedy that borders on being unfunny at times."<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-30 |title=NOW SHOWING: Wrong formula! It’s anything but amusing |url=https://punemirror.com/entertainment/reviews/now-showing-wrong-formula-it-s-anything-but-amusing/ |access-date=2023-08-23 |website=punemirror.com |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|21345566}}

[[Category:2022 films]]
[[Category:2022 Marathi-language films]]
[[Category:2020s Marathi-language comedy drama films]]

Thithi (film)

2026-03-03T21:35:51Z

Indianeagle1: starting

{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2017}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Thithi
| image = Thithi_Kannada_Poster.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Thithi Kannada Poster
| director = [[Raam Reddy]]
| producer = Pratap Reddy Sunmin Park
| screenplay = [[Eregowda]] Raam Reddy
| starring = Thammegowda S. Channegowda Abhishek H. N. Pooja S.M.
| music =
| cinematography = Doron Tempert
| editing = John Zimmerman Raam Reddy
| studio = Prspctvs Productions Maxmedia
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|2015|08|10|Locarno Film Festival|2016|05|06|India|2017|03|09|Netflix|df=yes}}
| runtime = 120 minutes
| country = India
| language = Kannada
| budget =
| gross =
| native_name =
}}
'''''Thithi''''' (''Funeral'') is a 2015 Indian [[Kannada film|Kannada]] [[drama]] film co-written and directed by [[Raam Reddy]].<ref>{{cite news |title= Thithi director Raam Reddy on awards and more |url=http://www.asianage.com/bollywood/thithi-director-raam-reddy-awards-and-more-294 |date= 26 February 2016 |accessdate= 30 March 2016}}</ref> Consisting of a cast of non-professional actors from villages in the [[Mandya]] district of [[Karnataka]], the film is a (semi-) light-hearted story about three generations of men reacting to the death of their 101-year old patriarch. It is an Indian-American co-production, jointly produced by Pratap Reddy from Prspctvs Productions and Sunmin Park from Maxmedia.

''Thithi'' premiered at the 68th [[Locarno International Film Festival]] on 8 August 2015, where it won the [[Golden Leopard - Filmmakers of the Present]] category as well as the First Feature award. Consequently, it was screened at various film festivals around the world and won numerous awards including the [[National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Kannada]] at the [[63rd National Film Awards]]. It was released in [[Karnataka]] on 6 May 2016 and in the rest of India on 3 June 2016 to generally positive reviews.

==Plot==
''Thithi'' is a dramatic comedy about how three generations of sons react to the death of the oldest in their clan, a man named Century Gowda: a locally renowned, highly cantankerous 101-year-old man. Set in a remote village in [[Karnataka]]'s Mandya district, the three storylines intertwine before converging at Century Gowda's {{'}}''thithi''{{'}} — the final funeral celebration, 11 days after a death.

Century Gowda's eldest son, Gaddappa (literally translating to "Beard Man"), is himself a little old man who spends his time nonchalantly wandering the village fields, puffing cheap cigarettes and swigging brandy. Gaddappa's far more materialistic son, Thammanna, plots to illegally sell Century Gowda's five-acre property, even though the land officially belongs to his father. At the same time, Thammanna's confident pubescent son, Abhi, shrugs his responsibilities to relentlessly pursue a shepherd girl, Kavery (Pooja S.M.)

== Cast ==
* Channegowda as Gaddappa
* Thammegowda as Thammanna
* Abhishek H.N as Abhi
* Pooja S.M. as Kaveri
* Singrigowda as Century Gowda

==Development and production==
The seed that gave rise to Thithi was planted during a visit that Reddy made to Nodekoppalu village in the Mandya district of Karnataka, the home town of the film's co-writer Eregowda. Reddy found the village, seen through the eyes of an insider, to contain within itself a highly cinematic world. Reddy then did a year-long stint at [[Prague Film School]]. Upon returning, he re-visited the area frequently, conducting a three-month exploratory process to better acquaint himself with the world. During this process, Eregowda and Reddy met and decided to revolve the film around three protagonists, Channegowda (Gaddappa), Thammegowda S. (Thammanna), and Abhishek H.N. (Abhi), even before the idea for the story of the film had taken shape. Keeping the true life personalities of these three leads in mind, Reddy and Eregowda then began developing a screenplay that revolved around the death and thithi of a 101-year old cantankerous centenarian, Century Gowda. After Reddy and Eregowda finished the script, they had an ambitious 160 page screenplay with over a hundred characters. They then moved into pre-production work which included an eight-month long casting process to find actors to fill out smaller roles and putting together a crew for the film. At this stage, DoP Doron Tempert, Reddy's batchmate from Prague Film School, joined the development process and started building the story-telling style and approach with Reddy.

Production started in [[Nodekoppalu]] in January 2014. The film was shot in multiple schedules split over a period of five months, the longevity of the shoot owing to the logistical challenges of working with non-actors. When the film was in the rough cut stage, the film made it into [[National Film Development Corporation of India|NFDC]]'s Film Bazaar where it was adjudged as the Best Work In Progress fiction feature and awarded a free [[digital intermediate]] at Prasad Labs, Mumbai. The film, still a work-in-progress, premiered at the Locarno Film Festival in August, and then went on to have its Indian Premiere at the [[Mumbai Film Festival]]. The film was finally completed in December 2015.

==Reception==
{{Music ratings
| rev1 = [[The Times of India]]
| rev1Score = {{Rating|4.5|5}}<ref>{{cite news|title=Thithi Movie Review, Trailer, & Show timings at Times of India|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movie-reviews/Thithi/movie-review/52163508.cms|accessdate=15 October 2016|work=The Times of India|publisher=Sunayana Suresh|date=7 May 2016}}</ref>
| rev2 = [[Deccan Chronicle]]
| rev2Score = {{Rating|4.5|5}}<ref>{{cite news|title=Thithi movie review: Entertainment with 'real' fun|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/movie-reviews/080516/thithi-movie-review-entertainment-with-real-fun.html|access-date=15 October 2016|publisher=SHASHIPRASAD SM|date=8 May 2016}}</ref>
| rev3 = [[Indo-Asian News Service|IANS]]
| rev3Score = {{Rating|4|5}}<ref>{{cite news|title='Thithi': Ground-breaking, rule-bending masterpiece|url=http://www.ianslive.in/index.php?param=review/8/1/Thithi_Ground_breaking_rule_bending_masterpiece-328|accessdate=15 October 2016|work=IANS Live|publisher=Subhash K. Jha}}</ref>
| rev4 = [[Hindustan Times]]
| rev4Score = {{Rating|4.5|5}}<ref>{{cite news|title=Thithi review: A pithy and pungent satire on poverty|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/movie-reviews/thithi-review-a-pithy-and-pungent-satire-on-poverty/story-IwdDS7kVH71T5BLDy8CTIJ.html|accessdate=15 October 2016|publisher=Subhash K Jha|date=4 June 2016}}</ref>
| rev5 = [[Slant Magazine]]
| rev5Score = {{Rating|3|4}}<ref>{{cite news|title=Thithi {{!}} Film Review {{!}} Slant Magazine|url=http://www.slantmagazine.com/film/review/thithi|accessdate=15 October 2016|work=Slant Magazine|publisher=Clayton Dillard|date=9 March 2016}}</ref>
| rev6 = [[Rediff]]
| rev6Score = {{Rating|5|5}}<ref>{{cite news|title=Thithi: What a win!|url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/report/thithi-what-a-win/20160604.htm|accessdate=15 October 2016|work=Rediff|publisher=Sreehari Nair|date=4 June 2016}}</ref>
| rev7 = [[MUBI]]
| rev7Score = {{Rating|4|5}}<ref>{{cite news|title=Thithi|url=https://mubi.com/films/thithi|accessdate=15 October 2016|publisher=Adrian Curry, Daniel Kasman}}</ref>
| rev8 = [[Vijaya Karnataka]]
| rev8Score = {{Rating|4|5}}<ref>{{cite news|title=ತಿಥಿ ವಿಮರ್ಶೆ: ಇದೊಂದು ಮಿಸ್ ಮಾಡಲೇಬಾರದ ಚಿತ್ರ-Movie Review|url=http://vijaykarnataka.indiatimes.com/entertainment/review/thithi-kannada-movie-review/moviereview/52157844.cms|accessdate=15 October 2016|publisher=Shashidhar Chitradurga|date=7 May 2016|language=kn-IN}}</ref>
| rev9 = [[Bangalore Mirror]]
| rev9Score = {{Rating|4.5|5}}<ref>{{cite news|title=Movie Review: Thithi - Bangalore Mirror -|url=http://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/entertainment/reviews/Movie-Review-Thithi/articleshow/52135251.cms|accessdate=15 October 2016|work=Bangalore Mirror|publisher=Shyam Prasad S|date=5 May 2016}}</ref>
| rev10 = [[The Indian Express]]
| rev10Score = {{Rating|4.5|5}}<ref>{{cite news|title='Thithi' Review: Filmmaking at its best|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/kannada/2016/jun/03/thithi-review-filmmaking-at-its-best-936251.html|access-date=15 October 2016|work=The New Indian Express|publisher=Sharadha Srinidhi|date=3 June 2016}}</ref>
}}
Thithi has received largely positive reviews on the International front with [[The Hollywood Reporter]] calling it "a whimsically enjoyable encounter with some slippery backwoods characters."<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/review/thithi-mumbai-review-839010|title='Thithi': Mumbai Review|newspaper=The Hollywood Reporter|access-date=2016-10-15}}</ref> Clayton Dillard of [[Slant Magazine]] gave the film 3 out of 4 stars and said that "the film packs in a miniseries worth of conflict" and that it "possesses the spirit of [[Yasujirō Ozu]]."<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.slantmagazine.com/film/review/thithi|title=Thithi {{!}} Film Review {{!}} Slant Magazine|newspaper=Slant Magazine|language=en-US|access-date=2016-10-15}}</ref> In an enthusiastic review, Daniel Kasman from [[MUBI]] had this to say: "A film that is funny, humane, and seemingly effortless, this young director has coaxed from a massive cast and a specific setting a great deal of character, an evocation of a locality and its society, and wrapped it all in a Renoirian understanding of human behaviour. The film is a real pleasure."<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://mubi.com/notebook/posts/locarno-2015-day-4|title=Locarno 2015. Day 4 on Notebook|newspaper=MUBI|access-date=2016-10-15}}</ref> The [[Variety (magazine)|Variety]] review by Dennis Harvey praised the film for being "a clever social satire" that is "complexly plot-driven yet never hectic or over-contrived." The review went on to commend the performers by saying that "they're all such naturals it's almost hard to believe they came to the project as amateurs."

The film was received with utmost enthusiasm by the Indian press on its release in Karnataka as well. In a 4.5 star review for [[The Times of India|Times Of India]], Sunayana Suresh compared the film to the classic [[The Gods Must Be Crazy]] "as a film that triumphs as both a clever narrative and a hearty entertainer." In yet another 4.5 star review, Shyam Prasad S. of [[Bangalore Mirror]] called the film "an experience to savour." The film was called "a milestone for Kannada cinema" by [[Deccan Herald]], while [[The New Indian Express]] declared it to be "one of the finest films to come out of India in recent times."

==Awards and nominations==
''Thithi'' premiered at the 68th [[Locarno International Film Festival]] on 8 August 2015, where it won the [[Golden Leopard]] in the "Filmmakers of the Present" category as well as the First Feature award.<ref>{{cite news |title= Kannada Film 'Thithi' Wins Two Awards at Locarno International Film Fest |url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/kannada/Kannada-Film-Thithi-Wins-Two-Awards-at-Locarno-International-Film-Fest/2015/08/16/article2977318.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150819000901/http://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/kannada/Kannada-Film-Thithi-Wins-Two-Awards-at-Locarno-International-Film-Fest/2015/08/16/article2977318.ece |url-status=dead |archive-date=19 August 2015 |date= 16 August 2015 |accessdate= 30 March 2016}}</ref> It has also won numerous other awards at various film festivals including [[Mumbai Film Festival|Mumbai]], [[Palm Springs International Film Festival|Palm Springs]], and [[Marrakech International Film Festival|Marrakech]]. It was also invited to be a part of the 45th edition of [[New Directors/New Films Festival|New Directors/New Films]]. At the 19th [[Shanghai International Film Festival]], ''Thithi'' won the Best Script Writer and the Best Film awards under the Asia New Talent Awards Category. It won the German Star of India award for the Best Feature Film at the 13th Indian Film Festival Stuttgart, Germany. At the [[63rd National Film Awards]], the film won the [[National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Kannada]]<ref>{{cite news |title= 'Thithi' is Best Kannada Film at NFA|url=https://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/bangalore/others/Thithi-is-Best-Kannada-Film-at-NFA/articleshow/51591522.cms |date= 29 March 2016 |accessdate= 30 March 2016}}</ref> It bagged the First Best Film, Best Supporting Actress and Best Dialogue awards at the 2016 Karnataka State Film Awards.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Award
! Category
! Recipient
! Result
|-
| rowspan="7" |2015
| [[63rd National Film Awards]]
| [[National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Kannada]]
| Prspctvs Productions Pvt. Ltd. Raam Reddy
| {{won}}
|-
| rowspan=2|68th [[Locarno International Film Festival]]
| [[Golden Leopard - Filmmakers of the Present]]
| Raam Reddy
| {{won}}
|-
| Swatch Best First Feature
| Raam Reddy
| {{won}}
|-
| [[Mumbai Film Festival]]
| Jury Grand Prize
| Raam Reddy
| {{won}}
|-
| [[Marrakech International Film Festival]]
| The Jury Prize for Best Director
| Raam Reddy
| {{won}}
|-
| rowspan=2|[[Palm Springs International Film Festival]]
| New Voices/New Visions Special Jury Mention
| Raam Reddy
| {{won}}
|-
| New Voices/New Visions Grand Jury Prize
| Raam Reddy
| {{nom}}
|-
| rowspan="12" | 2016
|[[Pune International Film Festival]]
| Best Director
| Raam Reddy
| {{won}}
|-
|8th [[Bengaluru International Film Festival]]
|Best Asian Film
|Raam Reddy
|{{won}}
|-
|[[San Francisco International Film Festival]]
|Golden Gate Persistence of Vision Award
|Raam Reddy
|{{won}}
|-
| rowspan=3|[[Karnataka State Film Awards]]
| [[Karnataka State Film Award for Best Film|First Best Film]]
| Prspctvs Productions Pvt Ltd.
| {{won}}
|-
| [[Karnataka State Film Award for Best Supporting Actress|Best Supporting Actress]]
| Pooja S. M.
| {{won}}
|-
| [[Karnataka State Film Award for Best Dialogue|Best Dialogue]]
| Eregowda
| {{won}}
|-
| rowspan=3 |19th [[Shanghai International Film Festival]]
| Best Film (Asian New Talent Award)
| Prspctvs Productions Pvt Ltd.
| {{won}}
|-
| Best Director (Asian New Talent Award)
| Raam Reddy
| {{nominated}}
|-
| Best Script Writer (Asian New Talent Award)
| Eregowda Raam Reddy
| {{won}}
|-
|13th Indian Film Festival Stuttgart
|Best Feature Film (German Star of India)
|Raam Reddy
| {{won}}
|-
|1st BRICS Film Festival
|Best Film <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.in/2016/09/07/thithi-wins-best-film-award-at-brics-film-festival/|title='Thithi' Wins Best Film Award At First BRICS Film Festival|work=Huffington Post}}</ref>
|Eregowda Raam Reddy
| {{won}}
|-
|Indian Film Festival The Hague - IFFTH
|Audience Award <ref>{{cite web|title=audience award - C:india|url=http://c-india.com/filmfestival/programme/audience-award/|website=C:india|accessdate=15 October 2016|language=nl-NL}}</ref>
|Raam Reddy
| {{won}}
|-
| rowspan="1" | 2017
|[[64th Filmfare Awards South]]
| Best Film
| Prspctvs Productions Pvt Ltd.
| {{won}}
|-
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb title|id=4881362|title=Thithi}}

{{Navboxes
|title = Awards for ''Thithi''
|list =
{{The Jury Prize at the Marrakech International Film Festival Awards}}
{{National Film Award Best Feature Film Kannada}}
{{Filmfare Award for Best Film – Kannada}}
}}

[[Category:2015 films]]
[[Category:2015 Kannada-language films]]
[[Category:Golden Leopard winners]]
[[Category:Films shot in Karnataka]]
[[Category:Indian comedy-drama films]]
[[Category:2015 comedy-drama films]]
[[Category:Best Kannada Feature Film National Film Award winners]]
[[Category:2015 directorial debut films]]

Kalyana Agathigal

2026-03-03T05:21:18Z

Indianeagle1: refine structure further and added references

{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2021}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2021}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Kalyana Agathigal
| image = Kalyana Agathigal.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[K. Balachander]]
| writer = K. Balachander
| producer = Rajam Balachander Pushpa Kandaswamy
| starring = [[Saritha]]
| cinematography = R. Raghunatha Reddy
| editing = N. R. Kittu
| music = [[V. S. Narasimhan]]
| studio = [[Kavithalayaa Productions]]
| released = {{Film date|1985|04|13|df=y}}
| runtime = 148 minutes
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}

'''''Kalyana Agathigal''''' ({{translation|Refugees of marriage}}) is a 1985 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language film directed by [[K. Balachander]]. The film stars [[Saritha]] and was released on 13 April 1985. The film marked the acting debut of [[Nassar (actor)|Nassar]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kumar |first=S.R. Ashok |date=23 February 2006 |title=Nasser: a one-man industry |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-tamilnadu/article3182325.ece |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160801123613/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-tamilnadu/article3182325.ece |archive-date=1 August 2016 |access-date=25 February 2016 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Darshan |first=Navein |date=9 July 2020 |title=K Balachander: The eternal teacher |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2020/jul/09/k-balachander-the-eternal-teacher-2167225.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211005063106/https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2020/jul/09/k-balachander-the-eternal-teacher-2167225.html |archive-date=5 October 2021 |access-date=5 October 2021 |work=[[The New Indian Express]]}}</ref>

== Plot ==
{{more plot|date=October 2021}}
The film begins with a group of six women who live together as friends after their attempt at living a successful married life is thwarted due to various reasons, majorly because of men, sexual abuse, dowry harassment,forced conversion and the backward society. They also form a music band called "Kalyana Agathigal" to raise funds for charity to the underprivileged. Ammulu, a young runaway girl, joins the gang of girls and becomes a part of the household. The story is about how their lives make wild twists and turns as they cope with the society and try to find true love.

== Cast ==
{{Cast listing|
*[[Saritha]] as Ammulu
*[[Ashok (Kannada actor)|Ashok]] as Robert
*[[Y. Vijaya]] as Thangam
*[[Vanitha Krishnachandran]] as Yesodha
*[[Kuyili (actress)|Kuyili]] as Hemalatha
*Lalitha Mani as Premalatha
*[[Nisha Noor]] as Saira
*J. Lalitha as Sumangali
*Akalya as Thamizharasi
*[[Seema (actress)|Seema]] as Valliammai
*[[Raveendran (actor)|Raveendran]] as Ambikapathy
*[[Delhi Ganesh]] as Ammulu's father
*[[Poornam Viswanathan]] as Robert's father
*[[Poovilangu Mohan|T. S. Babumohan]] as Gurumoorthy
*[[Charle]]
*[[Nassar (actor)|Nassar]] as Kannayiram
}}

== Soundtrack ==
The music was composed by [[V. S. Narasimhan]] and lyrics were written by [[Vairamuthu]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kalyana Agathigal by V. S. Narasimhan |url=http://www.saregama.com/album/kalyana-agathigal_13504 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303214957/http://www.saregama.com/album/kalyana-agathigal_13504 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |access-date=25 February 2016 |website=[[Saregama]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Kalyana Agathigal Tamil Film LP Vinyl Record by V S Narasimhan |url=https://mossymart.com/product/kalyana-agathigal-tamil-film-lp-vinyl-record-by-v-s-narasimhan/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211015040013/https://mossymart.com/product/kalyana-agathigal-tamil-film-lp-vinyl-record-by-v-s-narasimhan/ |archive-date=15 October 2021 |access-date=15 October 2021 |website=Mossymart}}</ref>

{{Track listing
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Kalyana Agathigal
| extra1 = [[P. Susheela]], chorus
| length1 =
| title2 = Manasukkul
| extra2 = P. Susheela, Raj Sitaraman
| length2 =
| title3 = Varavendum
| extra3 = Susheela, Aruna, chorus
| length3 =
| title4 = Adi Alligale
| extra4 = [[Malaysia Vasudevan]], Kausalya
| length4 =
| title5 = Kaanal Alaigalile
| extra5 = P. Susheela
| length5 =
}}

== Release and reception ==
''Kalyana Agathigal'' was released on 13 April 1985,<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 April 2023 |title=ரஜினியின் படத்தை முந்திய கமல் படம்.. 38 வருடங்களுக்கு முன் புத்தாண்டில் நடந்த பரபர போட்டி! |url=https://tamil.news18.com/photogallery/entertainment/cinema-38-years-ago-kamal-kaaki-sattai-movie-beat-rajini-naan-sigappu-manithan-movie-937165.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230412183503/https://tamil.news18.com/photogallery/entertainment/cinema-38-years-ago-kamal-kaaki-sattai-movie-beat-rajini-naan-sigappu-manithan-movie-937165.html |archive-date=12 April 2023 |access-date=15 April 2023 |website=[[News18]] |language=ta}}</ref> and failed commercially.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Basu |first=Soma |date=16 July 2015 |title=More than an Actor |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/more-than-an-actor/article7429874.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211005063108/https://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/more-than-an-actor/article7429874.ece |archive-date=5 October 2021 |access-date=5 October 2021 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> [[Subha (writers)|Jayamanmadhan]] of ''[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]]'' wrote whether the film runs or runs away, Balachander's bravery will stand.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=ஜெயமன்மதன் |author-link=Subha (writers) |date=19 May 1985 |title=கல்யாண அகதிகள் |url=https://archive.org/details/kalki1985-05-19/page/n61/mode/2up |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230209081249/https://archive.org/details/kalki1985-05-19/page/n61/mode/2up |archive-date=9 February 2023 |access-date=21 February 2023 |magazine=[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]] |page=57 |language=Ta |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|0154710}}

{{K. Balachander}}
{{Kavithalaya Productions}}

[[Category:1980s feminist films]]
[[Category:1985 Indian films]]
[[Category:1985 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:1985 films]]
[[Category:Films about women in India]]
[[Category:Films directed by K. Balachander]]
[[Category:Films scored by V. S. Narasimhan]]
[[Category:Films with screenplays by K. Balachander]]
[[Category:Indian feminist films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]

Majaa

2026-03-03T04:27:52Z

Indianeagle1: further fixed formatting after review and updated info

{{Use Indian English|date=April 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2024}}
{{Infobox film
| image = Majaa poster.jpg
| caption = Poster
| director = [[Shafi (director)|Shafi]]
| screenplay = [[Viji (Writer/Director)|Viji]]
| story = [[Benny P Nayarambalam]]
| based_on = ''[[Thommanum Makkalum]]''
| producer = [[Rockline Venkatesh]]
| starring = [[Vikram (actor)|Vikram]] [[Asin]] [[Pasupathy]]
| cinematography = [[Balasubramaniem]]
| editing = [[V. T. Vijayan]]
| music = [[Vidyasagar (composer)|Vidyasagar]]
| studio = Rockline Entertainment
| distributor = [[Aascar Films International]]
| released = {{Film date|2005|11|01|df=y}}
| runtime = 138 minutes
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}

'''''Majaa''''' ({{translation|Fun}}) is a 2005 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language [[action comedy]] film directed by [[Shafi (director)|Shafi]] and produced by [[Rockline Venkatesh]]. It is a remake of the director's own [[Malayalam]] film ''[[Thommanum Makkalum]]'' (2005). The film stars [[Vikram (actor)|Vikram]], [[Asin]], and [[Pasupathy]], while [[Manivannan]], [[Vadivelu]], [[Vijayakumar (Tamil actor)|Vijayakumar]], [[Biju Menon]] (in his Tamil debut), [[Murali (Malayalam actor)|Murali]], and [[Abu Salim (actor)|Abu Salim]] (reprising his role from the original) play supporting roles. The music was composed by [[Vidyasagar (composer)|Vidyasagar]]. It tells the story of two adopted children changing from their old, mischievous ways of life.

== Plot ==
Govindan is a thief who has two sons: Aadhi and Mathi. Years go by, and the brothers decide to stop stealing, mend their ways, and lead a hardworking life with their father. They migrate to a neighboring village named Devalapatti and meet a retired agricultural officer Chidambaram, who is in deep debt and is under pressure from the village landlord Kalingarayar to clear his debts. In efforts to help Chidambaram, Mathi confronts Seetha Lakshmi, Kalingarayar's daughter, who comes to collect the money Chidambaram owes her father. Seetha Lakshmi starts to acquire a liking for Mathi but keeps it hidden due to her father's atrocious temper. In an attempt to teach Kalingarayar a lesson, Mathi forcibly ties the mangalasutra around Seetha's neck. Kalingarayar, realizing his daughter's love for Mathi, comes down to arrange a grand remarriage between the two. However, things go awry when Rajavelu, Seetha Lakshmi's maternal uncle, comes to town in an effort to stop the wedding between the two as he has wicked plans of marrying Seetha Lakshmi and usurping her family fortune.

== Cast ==
{{cast listing|
* [[Vikram (actor)|Vikram]] as Arivumathi "Mathi"
* [[Asin]] as Seetha Lakshmi
* [[Pasupathy]] as Aadhi Kesavan "Aadhi"
* [[Manivannan]] as Govindan
* [[Vadivelu]] as Pulipaandi
* [[Aadukalam Naren]] as Ramakrishnan
* [[Vijayakumar (Tamil actor)|Vijayakumar]] as Chidambaram
* [[Biju Menon]] as Rajavelu (Voice dubbed by [[P. Ravi Shankar]])
* [[Murali (Malayalam actor)|Murali]] as Kalingarayar
* [[Anu Prabhakar]] as Selvi
* [[Nithin Sathya]] as Muthu, Chidambaram's son
* [[T. P. Gajendran]] as Doctor
* [[Ilavarasu]]
* [[Mahanadi Shankar]]
* [[Muthukaalai]]
* [[Crane Manohar]]
* [[Abu Salim (actor)|Abu Salim]] as Manickam, Rajavelu's henchman
* [[Sindu Tolani]] (special appearance in the song "Ayyarettu")
* [[Ram Lakshman (stunt choreographers)|Ram Lakshman]] as Ramudu & Bheemudu
}}

== Production ==
Vikram revealed that he watched the original Malayalam film and approached its director about remaking it in Tamil.<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 January 2006 |title=I've struggled a lot to reach this level: Vikram |url=http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/malayalam/interview/6525.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150201121527/http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/malayalam/interview/6525.html |archive-date=2015-02-01 |access-date=2025-08-07 |website=IndiaGlitz}}</ref> The film was primarily shot at [[Pollachi]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2010-08-28 |title=Good times to roll |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Coimbatore/Good-times-to-roll/article16148416.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241109095454/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Coimbatore/Good-times-to-roll/article16148416.ece |archive-date=9 November 2024 |access-date=2024-11-09 |work=[[The Hindu]] |language=en-IN}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Sangeetha |first=P |date=Apr 17, 2023 |title=Ponniyin Selvan 2 star Chiyaan Vikram calls himself the 'original soup boy', says he is like Aditha Karikalan in real life |url=https://www.ottplay.com/news/ponniyin-selvan-2-star-chiyaan-vikram-calls-himself-the-original-soup-boy-says-he-is-like-aditha-karikalan-in-real-life/202636d2e7789 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241207204332/https://www.ottplay.com/news/ponniyin-selvan-2-star-chiyaan-vikram-calls-himself-the-original-soup-boy-says-he-is-like-aditha-karikalan-in-real-life/202636d2e7789 |archive-date=7 Dec 2024 |access-date=2024-11-09 |website=[[OTTPlay]] |language=en}}</ref> Though the title ''Majaa'' received criticism from the media due to its perceived suggestiveness, the makers refused to change it.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 October 2005 |title=Vikram is firm – 'Majaa' title will remain |url=http://cinesouth.com/masala/hotnews/new/20102005-6.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061012085051/http://cinesouth.com/masala/hotnews/new/20102005-6.shtml |archive-date=12 October 2006 |access-date=20 April 2025 |website=Cinesouth}}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
The music was composed by [[Vidyasagar (composer)|Vidyasagar]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 November 2006 |title=Majaa |url=https://www.jiosaavn.com/album/majaa/G2LSCuitSnI_ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240118012210/https://www.jiosaavn.com/album/majaa/G2LSCuitSnI_ |archive-date=18 January 2024 |access-date=27 April 2024 |website=[[JioSaavn]]}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable" width="70%"
! Song title !! Singers !! Lyrics
|-
| "Ayyarettu Naattukettu" || [[Shankar Mahadevan]], [[Anuradha Sriram]], [[Ganga Sitharasu]]|| [[P. Vijay]]
|-
| "Chi Chi Chi" || [[Shankar Mahadevan]], [[Harini (singer)|Harini]], [[Savitha Reddy]], [[Karthik (singer)|Karthik]], [[Manikka Vinayagam]]|| [[Yugabharathi]]
|-
| "Hey Pangaali" || [[Udit Narayan]], [[Tippu (singer)|Tippu]], [[Manikka Vinayagam]] || rowspan="2" |[[P. Vijay]]
|-
| "Podhumadaa Saami" || [[Kailash Kher]]
|-
| "Sollitharavaa" || [[Madhu Balakrishnan]], [[Sadhana Sargam]] || [[Kabilan (lyricist)|Kabilan]]
|}

== Release ==
The film was released on 1 November 2005, [[Diwali]] day, alongside ''[[Sivakasi (film)|Sivakasi]]'' and ''[[Adhu Oru Kana Kaalam]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 October 2005 |title=Deepavali releases – 2005 |url=http://www.chennaionline.com/film/News/2005/10diwalirelease.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061015010910/http://www.chennaionline.com/film/News/2005/10diwalirelease.asp |archive-date=15 October 2006 |access-date=27 April 2024 |website=Chennai Online}}</ref>

=== Critical reception ===
[[Sify]] wrote, "The major flaw of ''Majaa'' is its wafer-thin story and screenplay, a mediocre subject to be remade from Malayalam [...] the film gives you a dreary sense of déjà vu, a feeling that one has seen it before".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Majaa |url=http://www.sify.com/movies/majaa-review-tamil-13975377.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130628033041/http://www.sify.com/movies/majaa-review-tamil-13975377.html |archive-date=28 June 2013 |access-date=25 June 2013 |website=[[Sify]]}}</ref> Malini Mannath from ''Chennai Online'' wrote that "'Thomanum Makkalum', the film's original Malayalam version, in which Mammootty starred, had some perfect casting for the trio. But here the combination of Vikram, Pasupathi and Manivannan somehow fails to jell together as a team".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mannath |first=Malini |date=5 November 2005 |title=Maja |url=http://www.chennaionline.com/film/Moviereviews/2005/11maja.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061014120539/http://www.chennaionline.com/film/Moviereviews/2005/11maja.asp |archive-date=14 October 2006 |access-date=15 May 2022 |website=Chennai Online}}</ref> A critic from ''webindia123'' wrote that "Overall it is a clean family entertainer worth a watch".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Majaa |url=https://webindia123.com/movie/regional/majaa/index.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081031084556/http://www.webindia123.com/movie/regional/majaa/index.htm |archive-date=31 October 2008 |access-date=3 May 2022 |website=Webindia123}}</ref>

Lajjavathi of ''[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]]'' praised the humour and performances of Vadivelu, Pasupathy and Manivannan but felt Asin and Murali were wasted, Vidyasagar did not score well while panning Thaali sentiment scenes, crippling screenplay and lengthy dialogues. He was surprised by Vikram for choosing this film and she do not want to get him wasted in weak plots.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=லஜ்ஜாவதி |date=13 November 2005 |title=மஜா |url=https://archive.org/details/kalki2005-11-13/page/n1/mode/2up |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240427153127/https://archive.org/details/kalki2005-11-13/page/n1/mode/2up |archive-date=27 April 2024 |access-date=27 April 2024 |magazine=[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]] |page=1 |language=ta |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref> S. R. Ashok Kumar of ''[[The Hindu]]'' wrote "Getting an opening from an established producer like Rockline Venkatesh and with Vikram in the lead, director Shafi should have made the effort to make the fare more interesting".<ref name="majaaindure">{{Cite web |last=Kumar, Ashok |date=4 November 2005 |title=Where is the entertainment? |url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/fr/2005/11/04/stories/2005110402340200.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120211234401/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/fr/2005/11/04/stories/2005110402340200.htm |archive-date=11 February 2012 |access-date=14 June 2024 |website=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> G. Ulaganathan of ''[[Deccan Herald]]'' wrote "One word to describe the movie--Bad. One wonders how the original film in Malayalam, Thommanum Makklalum clicked. This Tamil version is a rehash of hundred and odd old films and the only novel feature is that instead of the mother-son sentiment, there is father-sons sentiment".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ulaganathan |first=G. |date=6 November 2005 |title=Majaa |url=http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/nov62005/movies1722312005115.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060518200336/http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/nov62005/movies1722312005115.asp |archive-date=18 May 2006 |access-date=1 April 2025 |website=[[Deccan Herald]]}}</ref>

=== Box office ===
It was declared an average grosser.<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 November 2005 |title=Chennai Box-Office (Nov 04-06) |url=http://www.sify.com/movies/boxoffice.php?id=13980025&cid=13525926 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140124221619/http://www.sify.com/movies/boxoffice.php?id=13980025&cid=13525926 |archive-date=24 January 2014 |access-date=20 June 2012 |website=[[Sify]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=16 November 2005 |title=Chennai Box-Office (Nov 11-13) |url=http://www.sify.com/movies/boxoffice.php?id=14012644&cid=13525926 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170910042143/http://www.sify.com/movies/boxoffice.php?id=14012644&cid=13525926 |archive-date=10 September 2017 |access-date=20 June 2012 |website=[[Sify]]}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title}}
* {{Rotten Tomatoes}}

{{Shafi}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:2005 Indian films]]
[[Category:2000s masala films]]
[[Category:2005 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:2005 action comedy films]]
[[Category:2005 films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Shafi]]
[[Category:Films scored by Vidyasagar (composer)]]
[[Category:Films shot in Pollachi]]
[[Category:Indian action comedy films]]
[[Category:Rockline Entertainments films]]
[[Category:Tamil remakes of Malayalam films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language action comedy films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]

Ittefaq (2017 film)

2026-03-02T04:49:40Z

Indianeagle1: reworked citations for consistency

{{short description|2017 film by Abhay Chopra}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Infobox film
| native_name =
| image = Ittefaq (2017).jpg
| alt = Theatrical poster of Ittefaq
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = Abhay Chopra
| producer = {{Plainlist|
*Renu Ravi Chopra
*[[Gauri Khan]]
*Hiroo Yash Johar
*[[Karan Johar]]
}}
| writer = {{Plainlist|
*Abhay Chopra
*Shreyas Jain
*Nikhil Mehrotra
}}
| based_on = {{Based on|''[[Signpost to Murder]]'' (English) by [[George Englund]]}}
| starring = {{ubl|[[Siddharth Malhotra]]|[[Sonakshi Sinha]]|[[Akshaye Khanna]]}}
| music = '''Score:''' [[BT (musician)|Brian Wayne Transeau]] '''Theme Song:''' [[Tanishk Bagchi]]
| cinematography = Michal Luka
| editing = Nitin Baid
| studio = [[Red Chillies Entertainment]] [[B. R. Chopra|B. R. Studios]] [[Dharma Productions]]
| distributor = [[AA Films]] (India) [[Yash Raj Films]] (Overseas)
| released = {{Film date|df=y|2017|11|03}}
| runtime = 105 minutes
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| budget = {{INR|link=yes}}30 [[crore]]<ref name="BOI Ittefaq">{{cite web |url=https://boxofficeindia.com/movie.php?movieid=3643 |title=Ittefaq – Movie – Box Office India |website=boxofficeindia.com |access-date=13 October 2018}}</ref>
| gross = {{Estimation}} {{INR}}56.26 crore<ref name="BOI Ittefaq" /><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/ittefaq-3/box-office/ |title=Box Office: Worldwide collections and day wise break up of Ittefaq – Bollywood Hungama |first=Bollywood |last=Hungama |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |date=17 December 2017 |access-date=5 January 2019}}</ref>
}}

'''''Ittefaq''''' ({{translation}} Coincidence) is a 2017 Indian [[Hindi]]-language [[neo-noir]] [[mystery film|mystery]] [[thriller film]] directed by Abhay Chopra, written by Chopra, Shreyas Jain and Nikhil Mehrotra, and produced by [[Gauri Khan]] and [[Shah Rukh Khan]] under [[Red Chillies Entertainment]] in association with [[Ravi Chopra|Renu Ravi Chopra]] under B. R. Studios and Hiroo Yash Johar and [[Karan Johar]] under [[Dharma Productions]]. An adaptation of the [[Ittefaq (1969 film)|eponymous 1969 film]] by [[Yash Chopra]],<ref name="Shah Rukh Khan says yes to 'Ittefaq' remake">{{cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/videos/entertainment/hindi/Shah-Rukh-Khan-says-yes-to-Ittefaq-remake/videoshow/51899288.cms |title=Shah Rukh Khan says yes to 'Ittefaq' remake |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |date=19 April 2016 |access-date=4 May 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.ibtimes.co.in/sidharth-malhotra-sonakshi-sinha-star-shah-rukh-khan-karan-johars-ittefaq-remake-676947 |title=Sidharth Malhotra, Sonakshi Sinha to star in Shah Rukh Khan-Karan Johar's 'Ittefaq' remake? |newspaper=[[International Business Times]] |date=1 May 2016 |access-date=4 May 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/bollywood/280416/shah-rukh-khan-s-red-chillies-to-remake-ittefaq.html |title=Shah Rukh Khan not a part of Ittefaq remake |newspaper=[[Deccan Chronicle]] |date=28 April 2016 |access-date=4 May 2016}}</ref> the film stars [[Akshaye Khanna]], [[Sidharth Malhotra]] and [[Sonakshi Sinha]], and has a [[Rashomon effect]] storytelling style.<ref name="Shah Rukh Khan says yes to 'Ittefaq' remake" />

The film was released on 3 November 2017.<ref name=review /> It was a moderate commercial success at the box office and received positive reviews from critics.

== Plot ==
Vikram Sethi is an acclaimed [[British Indians|British writer of Indian descent]]. On the launch of his third book in [[Mumbai]], he finds his publisher wife Katherine dead in their hotel room. The police suspect him, so he flees by car. As the police give chase, his car overturns and he escapes with injuries, taking shelter in a nearby apartment. Maya, a young housewife who lives there, spots a police car outside and rushes there for help. The police find Vikram next to the body of her murdered lawyer husband, Shekhar. They also find burnt photographs in the trash. Dev Verma, an officer investigating the double murder, interrogates Vikram and Maya.

According to Vikram's account, he fled the police because he feared he would be [[Frameup|framed]] for his wife's murder. He found Maya at her door and asked for help. He adds that his wife did not attend the book launch, as she was unwell and took medicines for a [[Cardiovascular disease|heart ailment]]. Vikram entered Maya's flat and claims that she attempted to seduce him. Maya introduced Chirag, who entered her house, as her husband to Vikram. When Vikram saw a wallpaper photo on her PC and realised Chirag is not Maya's husband, Chirag struck him with a [[Candlestick|candle-holder]] and Vikram lost consciousness. Upon waking, he found Shekhar's body next to him. While in custody Vikram was shown removing his shoe as if his foot is sore or shoe is pinching him.

According to Maya's account, she found an injured Vikram at her door, asking for help. She lets him in only to find out from the news that the police are looking for him for the murder of his wife. Vikram whipped out a knife and overpowered her, and began searching for documents at Shekhar's desk when she turned a visiting Chirag away, with whom she confessed of having an extramarital affair. Around midnight, her husband returned and struggled to free her from Vikram. Maya rushed outside to a police vehicle for help. By the time she returned, Vikram had killed her husband with a candle-holder.

Meanwhile, the police find that a [[gang rape]] victim named Sandhya recently killed herself because Vikram had written his third book about that incident and, hoping to prevent his third book from being a failure, he had leaked her identity to generate buzz. Examination of Katherine's body reveals that she had died of a heart attack.

The forensic team informs Dev that Shekhar was attacked on the head by someone who was at least 6 feet tall. The police initially suspect Vikram as he is 6’1". However, it is found that the burnt photographs were those of Maya and Chirag, who is also about 6 feet tall. The photographs had been taken by a detective hired by Shekhar. The police eventually conclude that Vikram's account is true and Maya and Chirag had killed Shekhar when he confronted them with the photos. Moreover, there was no mud on Shekhar's shoes at the time of his death. It had rained at 11 pm and there was mud on the streets. Vikram had stated that Shekhar had come home at 7:30, hence his account was believed to be true whereas Maya's account of her husband returning home at 12 am was labelled false as a result. Vikram is deemed innocent and released from custody. He cremates his wife's body, and Maya and Chirag are arrested and charged with Shekhar's murder.

At home, Dev is reading Vikram's second book when his wife Meera [[Spoiler (media)|spoils]] that the protagonist dies of drug overdose. Dev rushes to the forensic doctor to check if Vikram's wife could have died from an overdose of the medicine she had been taking for her heart. They discover that the capsules had been tampered with and the dose was made three times higher than normal, which caused Katherine's fatal heart attack.

Dev calls Vikram while the latter is about to catch a flight back to London. On the phone, Vikram confesses to having killed Katherine and Shekhar. He killed Katherine because she was threatening to charge him for Sandhya's suicide. Shekhar was the lawyer working with her to file a case against him. He fled to Shekhar's house to destroy the legal documents of the case. When Maya went out to seek help, he killed her husband and stumbled across the photographs with her lover. He partially burnt them and threw them in the trash, banking on the conviction that the police would find the ominously burnt, adulterous pictures, creating a convincing story to dupe the police, which would then insinuate the inquisitory suspicion that it was Maya, in conjunction with Chirag who had orchestrated the murder of her husband Shekhar in order to conceal her affair. He also switched Shekar's muddy shoes with his own. He tells Dev that he has already cremated his wife's body; thus there is no evidence left.

Dev decides to catch Vikram and punish him even if he has to take an illegal action to do so. However, Vikram leaves for London on his flight as Dev watches helplessly.

== Cast ==
*[[Sidharth Malhotra]] as Vikram Sethi
*[[Sonakshi Sinha]] as Maya Sinha
*[[Akshaye Khanna]] as Dev Verma
*[[Pavail Gulati]] as Chirag
*[[Mandira Bedi]] as Meera Verma
*[[Sameer Sharma]] as Shekhar Sinha
*Kimberly Louisa McBeath as Katherine Sethi

== Production ==

=== Development ===
The film was announced in April 2016.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://khabar.ndtv.com/news/bollywood/sidharth-malhotra-sonakshi-sinha-starrer-ittefaq-trailer-out-1758910 |title=Ittefaq: सस्पेंस और थ्रिल से भरपूर सिद्धार्थ-सोनाक्षी की फिल्म का ट्रेलर, मर्डर मिस्ट्री सुलझाएंगे अक्षय खन्ना |work=NDTVIndia|access-date=6 October 2017}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite news |url=https://khabar.ndtv.com/news/bollywood/ittefaq-is-a-100-minutes-non-stop-thriller-with-no-songs-1758952 |title=100 मिनट की इस नॉन स्टॉप थ्रिलर में एक भी सॉन्ग नहीं… |work=NDTVIndia|access-date=6 October 2017}}</ref> ''Ittefaq'' is an adaptation of a 1969 [[Ittefaq (1969 film)|film with the same name]], produced by [[B. R. Chopra]] and directed by [[Yash Chopra]]. The film starred [[Rajesh Khanna]], [[Iftekhar]] and [[Nanda (actress)|Nanda]] in lead roles. [[Sidharth Malhotra]] reprises Khanna's character, [[Sonakshi Sinha]] reprises Nanda's character, while [[Akshaye Khanna]] reprises Iftekhar's character.<ref name="Shah Rukh Khan says yes to 'Ittefaq' remake" /> The film is directed by Abhay Chopra, the grandson of B. R. Chopra, the producer of the original film.

=== Casting ===
[[Akshaye Khanna]], [[Sidharth Malhotra]] and [[Sonakshi Sinha]] were cast in the lead roles.

=== Filming ===
The film was shot on a fifty-day non-stop schedule. [[Principal photography]] commenced in February 2017.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.abplive.in/movies/ittefaq-remake-sonakshi-sinha-and-siddharth-malhotra-starts-shooting-shah-rukh-khan-gives-thumbs-up-496181 |title='Ittefaq' remake: Sonakshi Sinha and Siddharth Malhotra starts shooting, Shah Rukh Khan gives thumbs-up |newspaper=[[ABP News]] |access-date=23 February 2017 |archive-date=22 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222115009/http://www.abplive.in/movies/ittefaq-remake-sonakshi-sinha-and-siddharth-malhotra-starts-shooting-shah-rukh-khan-gives-thumbs-up-496181 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The film was shot entirely in [[Mumbai]].<ref name="Shah Rukh Khan says yes to 'Ittefaq' remake" />

==Marketing==
Before the release of the film, the created a [[digital media]] campaign, requesting viewers not to disclose the culprit after watching the film. Rather than using traditional and costly marketing techniques ([[Reality television|reality show]] promotion, media interviews and city tours), the producers decided to focus on television, radio and print advertising.<ref name="HT Ittefaq mktg">{{cite news |first=Rohit |last=Vats |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/bollywood/ittefaq-why-the-makers-are-keeping-the-stars-away-from-the-promotions/story-IvFl639cKlnzE78CK6m90O.html |title=Will a selective promotional drive for Ittefaq set a trend for other films in Bollywood? |newspaper=[[Hindustan Times]] |access-date=2 November 2017}}</ref>

== Reception ==

=== Critical response ===
{{Rotten Tomatoes prose|91|5.8|11|access-date={{RT data|access date}}}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/ittefaq_2017/ |title=Ittefaq (2017) |website=[[Rotten Tomatoes]]|access-date=14 May 2020}}</ref> ''[[India Today]]'' reviewed "Sidharth-Sonakshi's murder mystery will keep you on your toes".<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/reviews/story/ittefaq-movie-review-sidharth-malhotra-sonakshi-sinha-1076244-2017-11-03 |title=Ittefaq Movie Review: Sidharth-Sonakshi's murder mystery will keep you on your toes |work=[[India Today]] |date=3 November 2017 |first=Samrudhi |last=Ghosh|access-date=3 November 2017}}</ref> ''[[The Indian Express]]'' stated the movie was "a smart, gripping [[whodunit]]".<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/movie-review/ittefaq-movie-review-sidharth-malhotra-sonakshi-sinha-film-star-rating-4918884/ |title=Ittefaq movie review: The Sidharth Malhotra and Sonakshi Sinha starrer is a smart, gripping whodunit |work=[[The Indian Express]]|access-date=4 November 2017}}</ref> ''[[Deccan Chronicle]]'' called the movie "A crackling whodunnit".<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/movie-reviews/041117/ittefaq-movie-review-a-crackling-whodunnit.html |title=Ittefaq movie review: A crackling whodunnit |work=[[Deccan Chronicle]]|access-date=4 November 2017}}</ref>

=== Box office ===
The film, which was released on 1100 screens throughout India, had a moderate opening of {{INR}} 40 million.<ref name=review>{{Cite news |url=https://www.ndtv.com/entertainment/ittefaq-box-office-collection-day-3-sonakshi-sinha-and-sidharth-malhotras-film-shows-steady-growth-w-1771654 |title=Ittefaq Box Office Collection Day 3: Sonakshi Sinha And Sidharth Malhotra's Film Shows 'Steady Growth' With Over Rs. 15 Crore |work=[[NDTV]]|access-date=6 November 2017}}</ref> ''Ittefaq'' was in competition with ''[[Golmaal Again]]'', which released on [[Diwali]], and had been in a strong position even after its third week. Hollywood's ''[[Thor: Ragnarok]]'' of the popular [[Marvel Cinematic Universe]], which recorded strong opening collection, was released concurrently with the film thus affecting its business.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/bollywood/it-s-no-coincidence-that-ittefaq-falls-behind-thor-ragnarok-at-india-box-office-on-day-one/story-GWRdbt690CsdAMB6oGNcnJ.html |title=It's no coincidence that Ittefaq falls behind Thor Ragnarok at India box office on day one |date=4 November 2017 |access-date=13 October 2018}}</ref> Despite the tough competition from ''Golmaal Again'' and ''Thor: Ragnarok'', ''Ittefaq'' was able to earn as much as ₹40 million.<ref name=review /><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/box-office/ittefaq-box-office-collection-day-3-sidharth-malhotra-sonakshi-sinha-starrer-rakes-in-rs-27-50-crore/articleshow/61528052.cms |title='Ittefaq' box-office collection Day 3: Sidharth Malhotra-Sonakshi Sinha starrer rakes in Rs 27.50 crore |work=[[Times of India]]|access-date=6 November 2017}}</ref>

==Music==
{{track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| total_length =
| headline= Track listing
| title1= Ittefaq Se (Raat Baaki)
| length1=3:20
| music1=[[Tanishk Bagchi]]
| lyrics1=Tanishk Bagchi, Groot
| extra1= [[Jubin Nautiyal]], [[Nikhita Gandhi]]
}}The theme song <nowiki>''Ittefaq Se''</nowiki> was recreated by [[Tanishk Bagchi]] from the song "Raat Baaki Baat Baaki" from the film [[Namak Halaal|''Namak Halal'']] (1982), originally composed by [[Bappi Lahiri]] and sung by [[Asha Bhosle]], [[Shashi Kapoor]] and Lahiri. Unlike most mainstream [[Bollywood]] films, which are musicals, the film does not contain any songs like the original 1969 film.<ref name=":0" />

== See also ==

* [[List of Indian films without songs]]
== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|6692354}}
* {{Rotten Tomatoes|m/ittefaq_2017}}
* {{Bollywood Hungama movie|ittefaq-3}}
[[Category:2017 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:2017 Indian films]]
[[Category:2010s mystery thriller films]]
[[Category:2010s police procedural films]]
[[Category:2017 drama films]]
[[Category:2017 films]]
[[Category:2017 thriller films]]
[[Category:AA Films films]]
[[Category:British Indian films]]
[[Category:Fiction with multiple narrators]]
[[Category:Fiction with unreliable narrators]]
[[Category:Fictional portrayals of the Maharashtra Police]]
[[Category:Films about adultery in India]]
[[Category:Films about murder]]
[[Category:Films about rape in India]]
[[Category:Films about suicide]]
[[Category:Films about writers]]
[[Category:Films distributed by Yash Raj Films]]
[[Category:Films scored by BT (musician)]]
[[Category:Films scored by Tanishk Bagchi]]
[[Category:Films set in Mumbai]]
[[Category:Films set in apartment buildings]]
[[Category:Films shot in Mumbai]]
[[Category:Hindi-language crime thriller films]]
[[Category:Hindi-language mystery thriller films]]
[[Category:Indian chase films]]
[[Category:Indian crime drama films]]
[[Category:Indian crime films]]
[[Category:Indian crime thriller films]]
[[Category:Indian detective films]]
[[Category:Indian films based on plays]]
[[Category:Indian mystery thriller films]]
[[Category:Indian neo-noir films]]
[[Category:Indian nonlinear narrative films]]
[[Category:Indian police films]]
[[Category:Indian psychological thriller films]]
[[Category:Indian remakes of American films]]
[[Category:Indian murder mystery films]]
[[Category:Police detective films]]
[[Category:Rashōmon]]
[[Category:Red Chillies Entertainment films]]
[[Category:Remakes of Indian films]]
[[Category:Two-handers]]
[[Category:Films based on adaptations]]
[[Category:Hindi remakes of English films]]
[[Category:Films distributed by AA Films]]

Bamboo Island Wildlife Sanctuary

2026-02-22T16:58:22Z

Indianeagle1: started initial entry v1.

{{Short description|Wildlife Sanctuary in India}}
{{Infobox protected area
| name = Bamboo Island Wildlife Sanctuary
| alt_name =
| iucn_category = IV
| image =
| image_caption =
| map = India Andaman and Nicobar Islands#India
| relief = 1
| mapframe = Yes
| nearest_city = [[Port Blair]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://moef.gov.in/uploads/2019/10/Andaman-and-Nicobar-Islands.pdf|title=Protected Areas – Andaman & Nicobar Islands|publisher=Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change, GOI|year=2014|access-date=1 Jul 2025}}</ref>
| coordinates = {{coord|13|03|04|N|92|55|59|E|display=inline,title}}
| established = 1987<ref>{{cite web|url=https://moef.gov.in/uploads/2019/10/Andaman-and-Nicobar-Islands.pdf|title=Protected Areas – Andaman & Nicobar Islands|publisher=Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change, GOI|year=2014|access-date=1 Jul 2025}}</ref>
| governing_body = Andaman & Nicobar Forest Department
| iucn_ref =
| area_km2 = 0.05<ref>{{cite web|url=https://moef.gov.in/uploads/2019/10/Andaman-and-Nicobar-Islands.pdf|title=Protected Areas – Andaman & Nicobar Islands|publisher=Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change, GOI|year=2014|access-date=1 Jul 2025}}</ref>
}}

'''Bamboo Island Wildlife Sanctuary''' is a protected area located in the [[North and Middle Andaman district|North and Middle Andaman District]] in the Indian Union territory of the [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]].<ref name=":0">{{cite web |year=2014 |title=Protected Areas – Andaman & Nicobar Islands |url=https://moef.gov.in/uploads/2019/10/Andaman-and-Nicobar-Islands.pdf |access-date=1 Jul 2025 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change, GOI}}</ref> The sanctuary was officially established in 1987 and covers an area of just 0.05 km² (~5 hectares).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Andaman & Nicobar Islands |url=https://wii.gov.in/eia/wildlife_database/andaman_nicobar_islands |access-date=2025-07-01 |website=wii.gov.in |language=en}}</ref> It forms part of a network of small island wildlife sanctuaries in the [[Andaman Islands|Andaman island]] group aimed at preserving unique coastal ecosystems, including coral reefs, littoral forests, and bamboo groves.<ref name=":1">{{cite web |year=2014 |title=Coastal & Marine Protected Areas in India |url=https://wii.gov.in/images/images/documents/GIZ/Reference.pdf |access-date=1 Jul 2025 |publisher=WII & GIZ}}</ref>

== Habitat and biodiversity ==
The sanctuary's habitat includes littoral bamboo and coastal vegetation, typical of small islands in the Andamans.<ref name=":0" /> Although detailed species lists are scarce, the broader region supports a high diversity of marine fish, sea turtles, seabirds, and occasionally visiting mammals.<ref name=":1" />

== Conservation context ==
Bamboo Island is one of several small island sanctuaries declared alongside Arial, Barren, Cinque, and others in 1977–1987 to conserve sensitive coastal and marine environments.<ref name=":1" /> These sanctuaries contribute to India's commitment under the Aichi Biodiversity Targets, specifically Target 11, to conserve at least 10 % of coastal and marine areas.<ref name=":1" />

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==

* [https://moef.gov.in/uploads/2019/10/Andaman-and-Nicobar-Islands.pdf Protected Areas – Andaman & Nicobar Islands (MoEF&CC)]
* [https://wii.gov.in/images/images/documents/GIZ/Reference.pdf Coastal and Marine Protected Areas in India – WII & GIZ]

Oppiliappan Temple

2026-02-22T16:19:23Z

Indianeagle1: starting basic place needs work.

{{Short description|Vishnu temple in Thanjavur district, Tamil Nadu, India}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox Hindu temple
| name = Oppiliappan Temple
| image = Uppliyappan Kovil.jpg
| alt = The [[gopuram|rajagopuram]] (gateway tower) of the temple, depicting the pyramidal structure
| caption = The [[gopuram|rajagopuram]] (gateway tower) of the temple
| map_type = Tamil Nadu
| map_caption = Location in Tamil Nadu
| coordinates = {{coord|10|57|41.63|N|79|25|53.73|E|type:landmark_region:IN|display=inline,title}}
| native_name = Thiruvinnagar
| country = [[India]]
| state = [[Tamil Nadu]]
| district = [[Thanjavur district|Thanjavur]]
| locale = [[Thirunageswaram]]
| elevation_m =
| deity = {{Plainlist|
* Oppiliappan Perumal ([[Vishnu]])
* [[Lakshmi]] as [[Bhumi Devi|Bhudevi]]
}}
| festivals = [[Rama Navami]], [[Vaikuntha Ekadasi]], Sravanam Festival
| tower = Suddhananda Vimana
| temple_tank = Ahoraathra Pushkarani
| architecture = [[Cholas]]
| website = {{url|http://www.oppiliappanswamytemple.tnhrce.in/}}, [http://www.oppiliappan.org oppiliappan.org]
}}

'''Oppiliappan Temple''', is a [[Hindu temple]] dedicated to [[Vishnu]], located near [[Thirunageswaram]] and also known by its old toponym Thiruvinnagar, a village in the outskirts of the [[Kumbakonam]] in the South Indian state of [[Tamil Nadu]]. Constructed in the [[Dravidian architecture|Dravidian style of architecture]], the temple is glorified in the ''[[Divya Prabandha|Naalayira Divya Prabandham]]'', the early medieval [[Tamil literature|Tamil]] canon of the [[Alvars|Alvar]] saints from the 6th–9th centuries CE. It is counted as the 60th of the 108 [[Divya Desams]] dedicated to Vishnu. Vishnu is worshiped as Oppiliappan and his consort [[Lakshmi]] as [[Bhumi Devi|Bhudevi]].

The temple is one of the [[Pancha Kshethram]], where [[Lakshmi]] was born as ''Bhargavi,'' the daughter of the sage [[Bhrigu]].

The temple is believed to be of significant antiquity and to have been initiated by the [[Medieval Cholas]] of the late 8th century CE, with later contributions at different times from [[Thanjavur Nayak kingdom|Thanjavur Nayaks]]. The temple has two inscriptions dating from the Chola period, a five-tiered ''rajagopuram'' (gateway tower), and a granite wall. The complex contains all the shrines and water bodies associated with it.

Oppiliappan is believed to have appeared for sage [[Markandeya]] and the [[Hindu deities]] Bhudevi, [[Brahma]], and [[Shiva]]. The temple observes six daily rituals and three yearly festivals. The chariot festival, celebrated during the [[Tamil calendar|Tamil]] month of "Panguni" (March–April), is the most prominent. The temple is maintained and administered by the [[Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowments Department]] of the [[Government of Tamil Nadu]].<ref>[http://www.tnhrce.org/hrce_act_1959.html Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowments Act, 1959]</ref>

==Legend==
[[File:Temple Elephant, oppiliappan temple.jpg|200px|left|Temple elephant|thumb]]
The legend of the temple is mentioned in the Hindu scripture ''[[Brahmanda Purana]]''. [[Tulasi]], once did penance to attain closeness to the god [[Vishnu]]. Vishnu responded that his consort [[Lakshmi]] would appear under Tulasi's lap in Tiruvinnagaram. Tulasi appeared as a plant in the place where the temple is located. This is mentioned in the 53rd verse of [[Nammalvar|Nammazhwaar]] in ''Thiruviruththam''. The sage [[Markandeya]] worshipped Vishnu and desired to have Lakshmi as his daughter and Vishnu as his son-in-law. Once Markandeya was on a holy trip and after reaching Thiruvinnagaram, he felt it was the right place to get his desire fulfilled. Markandeya started a severe penance for thousand years, seeking Lakshmi's blessings. Lakshmi appeared as a baby under the tulasi plant. Markandeya recognized the baby as Lakshmi and raised her. When the young girl reached adolescence, on the ''[[Phalguna|panguni]]'' month of ''[[Shravana]]'', Vishnu appeared as an old man and proposed marriage to her. Markandeya replied, "You are very ripe and old, my daughter is too young and she does not even know how to cook with proper salt contents", to which the old man replied, "If your daughter must cook without salt, then I will still take it as my best food, but I will not leave from here without marrying her". Markandeya sought Vishnu's help and then realised using his penance that the old man was Vishnu himself. When he opened his eyes, Vishnu appeared in his true celestial form. Markandeya married his daughter to Vishnu. Per the legend, the temple's ''[[Naivedhya|Neyvethiyam]]'' (food offering) is always prepared without salt.<ref name=Meena>{{cite book|title=Temples in South India|last=V.|first=Meena|publisher=Harikumar Arts|location=Kanniyakumari|year=1974|edition=1st|page=29}}</ref> The name Oppiliappan is a result of this legend.

There is also a story behind the tank in this temple. Once a King had consummated with a daughter of a saint and hence the saint cursed him to become a bird. The king lived as a bird and one night when there was a storm, the branch of the tree the bird was sleeping on broke and fell into the water of this tank. The bird regained its original form as the King and since then this is known as the only theerththam that one can do theerth thaadanam even in the night. Since this tank has such healing power in the day as well as night, it is called "Ahoraathra Pushkarani".<ref name="hindu">{{cite news|title=Oppiliappan Rama Navami festivities end today|work=[[The Hindu]]|location=Kumbakonam|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-tamilnadu/oppiliappan-rama-navami-festivities-end-today/article4665499.ece|date=29 April 2013|access-date=7 July 2013}}</ref><ref name="legend">{{cite web|title=History of the temple|url=http://www.oppiliappanswamytemple.org/history.html|publisher=Oppiliappan Temple administration|access-date=7 July 2013}}</ref><ref name="Sravan"/><ref>[[#Ayyar|Ayyar]] 1991, p. 348</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://temple.dinamalar.com/en/new_en.php?id=426|title=Sri Oppiliappan temple|publisher=Dinamalar|access-date=7 July 2013}}</ref> The place is called by various names, including "Agasa Nagaram", "Vaikunda Nagaram", "Thiruvinnagar", "Oppiliappan Sannithi" and "Uppiliappan Sannithi". The presiding deity is also called by various names, including Venkatachalapathy, Thiruvinnagarappan, Oppilaappan, Thanoppillaappan, Uppiliappan and Srinivasan.<ref>[[#Original|Swamigal 2003]], p. 14</ref>

==History==
[[File:Uppiliappan koil1.JPG|200px|thumb|left|View of the [[Pushkarni|temple tank]]]]
It is not clear from the inscriptions and records when the temple was initiated, but there are inscriptions from the [[Medieval Cholas]] period indicating generous gifts to the temple. There are two inscriptions recorded from the [[Rahu Stalam|Naganathar Temple]] in [[Tirunageswaram]]. The epigraph numbered 211 of 1911 on the northern wall of the central shrine indicates gift of gold jewel worked in gems and pearls to the temple from the Chola king Parakesarivarman, alias [[Rajendra Chola I]] (1012–44 CE). The second inscription numbered 218 of 1911 on the shrine's southern wall indicates a gift of land to the temple in the 14th year of the Chola king Rajaraja Rajakkesarivarman I.<ref>{{cite web|title=Temple inscriptions|url=http://www.oppiliappanswamytemple.org/inscription.html|publisher=Oppiliappan Temple administration|access-date=7 July 2013}}</ref><ref>[[#Ayyar|Ayyar]] 1991, p. 344</ref><ref>[[Official|Swamigal 2003]], p. 13</ref>

The tradition in many ancient temples in Tamil Nadu including this one is that the original image of the presiding deity is made of wood and replaced later with stone.<ref>{{cite book|title=Essays On Indian Art And Architecture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BT77yuqxGj4C&pg=PA132|page=132|last=Kumar|first=Raj|publisher=Discovery Publishing House|year=2003|isbn=9788171417155}}</ref> There were a lot of additions made to the temple by [[Govinda Dikshitar]], the minister of successive Nayak rulers, [[Achuthappa Nayak]] (1560–1614) and [[Raghunatha Nayak]] (1600–34).<ref>{{Cite book |last=V.|first=Vriddhagirisan|title=Nayaks of Tanjore |year=1942 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |location=New Delhi |isbn=81-206-0996-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GD_6ka-aYuQC&q=uppiliappan&pg=RA1-PA38|ref=V.|page=107}}</ref> The temple is maintained and administered by the Hindu Religious and Endowment Board of the [[Government of Tamil Nadu]].

==Architecture==
[[File:Pillared hall at the Oppiliappan temple in Thirunageswaram.jpg|thumb|Elephant and mahout walking through the pillared hall.]]
The temple has a five-tiered ''rajagopuram'' (the gateway tower) and enshrined within a granite wall. The complex contains all the shrines and water bodies associated with it. The Sahasradhari plate and pot (''kudam'') are made of gold for performing ''Thirumanjanam'' (ablution) to the presiding deity. The temple also maintains golden sword, diamond crown and gold arm guard for the image of [[Hanuman]]. The shrine over the sanctum is plated with gold.<ref name="hindu1">{{cite news|title=Jewels for Oppiliappan|work=[[The Hindu]]|location=Kumbakonam|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-fridayreview/jewels-for-oppiliappan/article2033169.ece|date=20 May 2011|access-date=7 July 2013|last=G.|first=Srinivasan}}</ref> The main shrine of the temple houses the image of Oppiliappan in standing posture and it also houses the images of Bhoomidevi and sage Markendeya. The [[Vimana (architectural feature)|vimana]] is called Suddhananda, meaning "pure happiness". The Desika shrine is located near the sancturn sanctorum. On the sides of the first precinct, the shrine of Anjaneya is located on the southern, and Alvars' and [[Rama]]'s on the northern and Ramanuja's on the eastern sides. The shrine for Maniappan is located in the second precinct in the southern side, while the shrines of Ennappan and the holy birth spot of Bhoomidevi are located in the northern side. [[Garuda]]'s shrine is located right opposite the sanctum and right behind the temple mast. The shrine of dancing [[Krishna]] is located on the southern side of the main entrance.<ref name=p18>[[#official|Swamigal 2003]], p. 18</ref>

A marble hall is located on the western side in the inner precinct acts as the resting hall for the festival deities during festivals. Dolotsavam festival is celebrated in Another marble hall in the northern side of the temple. Adjoining the hall, there is a shrine where the images of Rama, [[Lakshmana]], [[Sita]] and Hanuman are housed. The sacred bed chamber called Tiruppalliarai, covered full of mirrors is located next to it. A Yaga sala for performing religious rituals is present in the temple. The temple has a hall for housing festival vehicles, a library, and a hall with edight carved pillars on the banks of the temple tank, where the annual float-festival is celebrated. The Kodimandapa, located to the south of the Garuda shrine, is used for several day-to-day religious practices. The annual Kalyana Utsavam festival is performed in the hall amidst music and dance programmes.

The temple is considered the southern counterpart of [[Tirumala Temple|Thirupathi]] temple and hence devotees perform their marriages and vows as they do in Thirupathi.<ref>[[#Ayyar|Ayyar]] 1991, p. 544</ref> Outside the main complex, the temple maintains two marriage halls, a rest house containing five rooms, two other halls, a housing each for the small chariot and the big chariot. There is a garden around the third precinct of the temple and a much bigger garden about {{convert|0.5|km|mi|abbr=on}} to the south of the temple, where Tulasi and flowers are grown. A hall in the garden is used for resting deities during the Vasantotsavam festival celebrated for six days in May–June every year.<ref name="temple">{{cite web|title=The Temple shrines|url=http://www.oppiliappanswamytemple.org/struture.html|publisher=Oppiliappan Temple administration |access-date=7 July 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Temples of South India |first=Ambujam |last=Anantharaman|publisher=East West books|year=2006 |isbn=8188661422|ref=Ambujam Anantharaman|page=54}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Temples of Tamilnadu – Volume 3 of Heritage series|publisher=Vasan Publications|year=2001|last=Rao|first=A. V. Shankaranarayana|pages=92–93}}</ref>

==Festivals and religious practices==
[[File:Uppiliappan koil2.JPG|200px|thumb|right|View of the shrine from the temple tank]]
The temple follows Vaigasana Agama and follows [[Vadakalai|Vadagalai]] practices. During the Viswaroopa Seva, the first worship, Suprapada Prabarthi Mangalam, a verse exclusively dedicated to Oppiliappan is relayed. ''Thiruppavai'' is relayed after it, followed by ''naivethana'' in all shrines. Uchikalam is the last worship during the day time and happens at noon. During the evening, ''mutharkalam'' is the first worship sequence, recitals in ''Veda'' and Nithsuasandamam. Arthajamam is the last ''puja'' of the day.<ref name=p19>[[official|Swamigal 2003]], p. 19</ref>

The chariot festival is the most prominent festival of the temple, celebrated for nine days during the [[Tamil calendar|Tamil]] month of ''Panguni'' (March–April) and devotees from various places pull the chariot round the streets of temple. Verses from the 'Naalayira Divya Prabandham' are recited by a group of temple priests amidst music with ''[[Nagaswaram]]'' (pipe instrument) and ''[[Tavil]]'' (percussion instrument). The processional idols of Oppiliappan and Bhudevi are brought to the temple car early in the morning amidst Vedic chantings. Subsequently, the festive idols are taken to the '[[Temple car|ther]] thatti mandapam' (chariot launching hall). The 'ratharohanam', the rituals associated with taking the idols to the temple car is performed in an auspicious time before starting the procession. The temple celebrates six other festivals:
Vasanta Utsavam (spring festival) for 6 days in the temple garden during ''Vaikasi'' (May–June), Pavitrotsavam (purifying festival) for 5 days during ''Avani'' (Aug – Sep), Brahmotsavam for nine days of ''Purattasi'' (Sept – Oct), Kalyana Utsavam (holy marriage of god and goddess) for 12 days commencing from Sravanam during ''Aippasi'' (Oct–Nov), Adhyayana Utsavam (ten-day-and-ten-night festival) during ''Margali'' (Dec–Jan) and float festival for 5 days during Thai(Jan – Feb).<ref name="festival">{{cite web|title=Temple festivals|url=http://www.oppiliappanswamytemple.org/e%20utchavam.htm|publisher=Oppiliappan Temple administration|access-date=7 July 2013}}</ref> [[Ramanavami]], the festival associated with [[Rama]], an [[avatar]] of Vishnu. The event is celebrated for ten days with music and dance performance and on the concluding day, ''kanakabhishekam'' (ablution with gold for the festival image) and Rama Pattabhishekam.<ref name="hindu"/><ref name="Ram">{{cite web|title=Sri Ramanavami|url=http://www.oppiliappanswamytemple.org/ramanavami.htm|publisher=Oppiliappan Temple administration|access-date=7 July 2013}}</ref> Sravan Deepam is a festival celebrated every month in the temple on the day of Tamil star of ''Thiruvonam'' and devotees observe fast called Sravana Vratham that day by consuming only unsalted food.<ref name="Sravan">{{cite web|title=Sravana Deepam|url=http://www.oppiliappanswamytemple.org/sraravana%20deepam.htm|publisher=Oppiliappan Temple administration|access-date=7 July 2013}}</ref> Tonsure ceremony for getting children shaved for the first time to promote proper growth and ear piercing is a very common practise followed in the temple.<ref>{{cite book|title=Ramanujan: Essays and Surveys|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TT1T8A94xNcC&pg=PA31|page=31|last1=Berndt|first1=Bruce C.|last2=Rankin|first2=Robert Alexander|publisher=American Mathematical Soc.|year=2001|isbn=9780821826249}}</ref> It is believed that the place is as sacred as [[Vaikunta]] and as in Vaikunta, the river Vraja there flows as river Nattaru and hence considered sacred.<ref name=R>{{cite book|title=An introduction to religion and Philosophy - Tévarám and Tivviyappirapantam|last=R.|first=Dr. Vijayalakshmy|publisher=International Institute of Tamil Studies| location=Chennai|year=2001|edition=1st|ref=R.|pages=553–4}}</ref> The temple is counted as one of the temples built on the banks of [[River Kaveri]].<ref name=Ka>{{cite book|title=River cauvery the most battl(r)ed|last=Ka. Vi.|first=Kannan|page=34|publisher=Notion Press|year=2019|isbn=9781684666041|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4CGFDwAAQBAJ&q=thiruvavaduthurai}}</ref>

==Literary mention==
Oppiliappan is considered the elder brother of the presiding deity of [[Tirupathi Venkateshwara Temple]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Illustrated Weekly of India|volume=97|series=4|page=39|publisher=Bennett, Coleman & Company Limited|year=1997}}</ref> The temple is revered in ''[[Nalayira Divya Prabandham|Naalayira Divya Prabandham]]'', the 7th–9th century Vaishnava canon, by [[Periazhwar|Periyalvar]], [[Thirumangai Alvar]] and [[Nammazhwar|Nammalvar]]. The temple is classified as a ''[[divyadesam|Divya Desam]]'', the 108 Vishnu temples that are revered in the Vaishnava canon. The temple is counted as the 14th in the list of ''divyadesams'' in [[Chola Nadu]] and 83rd in the overall list. The [[Azhwars|Alvars]] address the presiding deity by various names like Oppiliappan, Vinnagarappan and Venkatachalapathy and his consort Bhudevi as Bhoomidevi Nachiar and Dharanadevi.<ref>[[#Society|The Society]] 1994, p. 25</ref> Thirumangai Alvar refers to Oppiliappan as "Thiruvinnagar Mevvane" in his verses in ''Peria Tirumoli'' while Nammalvar called him "Thannoppaarillappan", that is, "he who has no comparison", meaning there is neither an equivalent nor superior to Vishnu. He mentions "the Lord who by his powers affords solace for pining hearts and renders them fit for service".<ref>[[#Society|The Society]] 1994, p. 28</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Hindu Pilgrimage|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lzPCOVQGP3wC&q=thiruvinnagar&pg=PT158|page=158|last=Bansal|first=Sunita Kumar|publisher=Pustak Mahal|year=2008|isbn=9788122309973}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The divine wisdom of the Dravida saints|url=https://archive.org/details/divinewisdomdra00govigoog|page=[https://archive.org/details/divinewisdomdra00govigoog/page/n242 196]|last=Govindāchārya|first=Aḷkoṇḍavilli |publisher=C.N. Press|year=1902}}</ref> The temple is one of the most visited in the district.<ref name="TN">{{cite web|title=What to see — Thanjavur district attractions|url=http://www.thanjavur.tn.nic.in/whattoseetou.html|publisher=Thanjavur District Administration|access-date=7 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130518021412/http://www.thanjavur.tn.nic.in/whattoseetou.html|archive-date=18 May 2013|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist
| colwidth = 20em
| refs =
}}

==References==
{{refbegin|2}}
*{{Cite book |last=Ayyar |first=P. V. Jagadisa |title=South Indian shrines: illustrated |year=1991 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |location=New Delhi |isbn=81-206-0151-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NLSGFW1uZboC&pg=PA344|ref=Ayyar}}
*{{cite journal|title=The Quarterly Journal of the Mythic Society (Bangalore, India)|volume=85|journal=The Society|publisher=Mythic Society|location=Bangalore, India |ref=Society}}
* {{cite book|title=Oppliappan Thirukoyil Thalavaralaru|publisher=Venkatachalapathy Thirukoyil, Oppilliappan Koyil|last=Swamigal|first=V.N. Ramadesikacharya|year=2003|ref=official}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
* [http://www.oppiliappan.org Official website of ThiruvinNagara (Oppiliappan Sannidhi)]
{{Hindu Temples of Kumbakonam|state=collapsed}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Oppiliappan Temple}}
[[Category:Hindu temples in Thanjavur district]]
[[Category:Divya Desams]]

Vasavi Penugonda

2026-02-22T10:16:22Z

Indianeagle1:

{{other uses|Vasavi (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2019}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Vasavi Penugonda
| native_name =
| other_name =
| settlement_type = Town
| image_skyline = Panchaloha Vasavi matha Statue, Penugonda.jpg
| image_alt =
| image_caption = Vasavi matha Temple
| nickname =
| pushpin_map = India Andhra Pradesh#India
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Andhra Pradesh, India
| coordinates = {{coord|16.6547|N|81.7445|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Andhra Pradesh]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[West Godavari district]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| parts_type = [[Taluka]]s
| parts = [[Penugonda mandal]]
| government_type = Panchayati raj
| governing_body = Penugonda panchayati
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_total_km2 =
| area_rank =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 16,038
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_footnotes =
| population_rank = 22 in west Godavari
320 in Andhra Pradesh
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = official
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 534320
| area_code = 08819
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| registration_plate = AP 37 & AP 39
| blank1_name_sec1 = Nearest city
| blank1_info_sec1 = [[Palakollu]]
| website =
| footnotes =
| native_name_lang = Telugu
| demographics1_info1 = [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
| blank2_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha]]
constituency
| blank2_info_sec1 = [[Narasapuram, West Godavari|Narasapuram]]
| blank3_name_sec1 = [[Vidhan Sabha]]
constituency
| blank3_info_sec1 = [[Achanta]]
| official_name =
}}
'''Penugonda''', officially known as '''Vasavi Penugonda''' is a historic town in [[West Godavari district]] of the [[Indian state]] of [[Andhra Pradesh]] known as the birthplace of the goddess [[Vasavi Kanyaka Parameswari]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.andhrajyothy.com/2025/andhra-pradesh/west-godavari/from-now-vasavi-penugonda-1462032.html|title=ఇక వాసవి పెనుగొండ|last=ABN|work=Andhrajyothy Telugu News|access-date=2026-01-25|language=te-IN}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://telugu.news18.com/news/andhra-pradesh/east-godavari-vasavi-penugonda-declared-official-arya-vysyas-celebrate-historic-name-change-kanyaka-parameswari-temple-special-spr-tvk-snr-local18-2945206.html|title=Vasavi Penugonda: అమ్మవారి పేరే ఇప్పుడు ఆ ఊరి పేరు.. బంగారంతో తయారైన విగ్రహం అక్కడ దర్శనం|date=2025-10-31|access-date=2026-01-25|language=te}}</ref><ref>District administration-renameing of Village Penugonda as Vasavi Penuginda-West Godavari district-final notification issued [G.O.Ms.No.521, Revenue (Lands-IV), 30th December, 2025.]</ref>

Narasapuram to [[Nidadavolu]] main line passes through Penugonda. It is the junction for the people to go to [[Rajahmundry]], [[Nidadavolu]], [[Palakollu]], [[Pekeru]], [[Tanuku]], and [[Bhimavaram]].

North [[Peravali]] Mandal, South [[Achanta]] mandal and [[Poduru]] mandal, East [[Godavari River]], West [[Iragavaram]] mandal and [[Penumantra]] mandal sharing boundaries with Vasavi Penugonda.

==Etymology==
'''Penugonda''' name originates from [[Telugu language|Telugu]], traditionally associated with the concept of a "big" or "ancient" hill/abode ("Penu" - big/great; "Gonda/Konda" - hill/abode), linked to myths of saints performing penance.

On 31st December 2025 Penugonda has officially renamed as '''Vasavi Penugonda''' by the [[Government of Andhra Pradesh]] because it is the birthplace of the goddess [[Vasavi Kanyaka Parameswari]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.andhrajyothy.com/2025/andhra-pradesh/west-godavari/from-now-vasavi-penugonda-1462032.html|title=ఇక వాసవి పెనుగొండ|last=ABN|work=Andhrajyothy Telugu News|access-date=2026-01-25|language=te-IN}}</ref>

== Demographics ==

{{As of|2011}} [[Census of India]], Penugonda had a population of 16038. The total population constitute, 7857 males and 8181 females with a sex ratio of 1041 females per 1000 males. 1377 children are in the age group of 0–6 years, with sex ratio of 1046 females per 1000 males. The average literacy rate stands at 82.50%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.census2011.co.in/data/village/588681-penugonda-andhra-pradesh.html|title=Penugonda|access-date=23 May 2017}}</ref> Penugonda mandal population of 69857.

== Penugonda mandal ==
[[Penugonda mandal]] is one of the mandal in [[West Godavari district]]. Under Penugonda there are 14 villages and total it is known as Penugonda [[Mandal]].

== Transport ==
The [[Andhra Pradesh State Road Transport Corporation]] operates bus services from Penugonda bus station.<ref>{{cite web|title=Bus Stations in Districts|url=http://www.apsrtc.gov.in/Bus%20Stations.aspx|website=Andhra Pradesh State Road Transport Corporation|access-date=9 March 2016|archive-date=22 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322233330/http://apsrtc.gov.in/Bus%20Stations.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref>
== nearest Bus depots ==
Tanuku = 20kms
Palakollu = 17kms

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{West Godavari district}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Cities and towns in West Godavari district]]

P. N. Oak

2026-02-17T17:27:41Z

Indianeagle1: brief updated lead for consistency and cleaned formatting

{{Short description|Hindu-centric historical negationist}}
{{EngvarB|date=September 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2025}}
{{Infobox person
| name = P. N. Oak
| image = File:Purushottam Nagesh Oak.png
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1917|03|02}}
| birth_place = [[Indore]], Indore State, [[Presidencies and provinces of British India|British India]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|2007|12|04|1917|03|02}}
| death_place = [[Pune]], [[Maharashtra]], India
| other_names =
| known_for = Historical negationism
| occupation = Writer
}}

'''Purushottam Nagesh Oak''' (2 March 1917 – 4 December 2007) was an author from India.<ref name="guardfringe">{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/oct/30/hardline-hindu-nationalists-step-up-campaign-against-taj-mahal|title=Hardline Hindu nationalists campaign against Taj Mahal|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=30 October 2017|access-date=17 February 2020}}</ref>

Among his prominent claims were that Christianity and Islam are both derivatives of [[Hinduism]]; that [[Vatican City]], [[Kaaba]], [[Westminster Abbey]] and the [[Taj Mahal]] were once [[Hindu temple]]s dedicated to [[Shiva]]; and that the [[Pope|Papacy]] was originally a [[Vedas|Vedic]] Priesthood. While all of these claims are demonstrably false and incompatible with historical and archaeological records, their reception in Indian popular culture has been noted by observers of contemporary Indian society. He ran an '''Institute for Rewriting Indian History''<nowiki/>' in the 1980s which published a quarterly periodical called ''Itihas Patrika'' dedicated to fringe causes; he had also written numerous books, some of which have even lead to court cases in a bid to alter the mainstream history narrative.<ref name=india1/><ref name=ht1/><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/thehindu/2000/07/14/stories/0214000q.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171214072255/http://www.thehindu.com/thehindu/2000/07/14/stories/0214000q.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=14 December 2017|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|title=Plea to rewrite Taj history dismissed|date=14 July 2000}}</ref>

==Life==
Oak was born in a Marathi [[Brahmin]] Family<ref>{{Cite web|title=World Vedic Heritage - P.N.Oak (Book 2) {{!}} PDF|url=https://www.scribd.com/document/102721055/World-Vedic-Heritage-Book2|access-date=30 December 2021|website=Scribd|language=en}}</ref> in 1917 in [[Indore]] in the erstwhile [[Indore State|Princely State of Indore]], [[British India]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=25 January 2018|title=P. N. Oak - Indian Authors – Biography & Books|url=https://theindianauthors.in/legends/p-n-oak/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201055649/https://theindianauthors.in/legends/p-n-oak/|archive-date=1 February 2021|access-date=1 February 2021|website=Indian Authors - Biography & Books|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Keralam">{{Cite web|last=Keralam|first=Haindava|date=5 December 2007|title=PN Oak, an obituary|url=https://haindavakeralam.com/pn-oak-hk15318|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201060221/https://haindavakeralam.com/pn-oak-hk15318|archive-date=1 February 2021|access-date=1 February 2021|website=Haindava Keralam|language=ml-IN}}</ref> According to his own account, he completed an M.A. ([[Agra University|Agra]]) and a law degree (LL.B. [[University of Mumbai|Mumbai]]), before being inducted as a Class I Gazetted officer in the [[Ministry of Information and Broadcasting (India)|Ministry of Information and Broadcasting]] wherein he wrote various journalistic pieces.<ref name="Oak1" /> Before joining the army, he also claims to have worked as an English tutor at [[Fergusson College]] in Pune.<ref name=Oak1/> During [[World War II]] he enlisted in the [[Indian National Army]], which fought alongside the [[Empire of Japan|Japanese]] against the [[British Empire|British]].<ref name="Keralam" /> He served in the propaganda sections, but was never captured by the British [[End of World War II in Asia|after the end of hostilities]].<ref name="Roy" /> According to his own account he skillfully evaded capture as he journeyed from [[Singapore]] to [[Kolkata|Calcutta]] between 1945 and 1946.<ref name="Roy" /> While in the Army, he wrote a play called ''Rani of Zanshi: A Play in Three Acts,'' it had been produced to commemorate the first anniversary of the founding of the [[Rani of Jhansi Regiment]] (the Women's Regiment) of the INA in July 1943.<ref name="Roy">{{Cite book |last=Roy |first=Kaushik |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nL6Ct0RDg6wC&q=Indian%20Army%20in%20the%20Two%20World%20Wars%20edited%20by%20Kaushik%20Roy&pg=PA509 |title=The Indian Army in the Two World Wars |date=14 October 2011 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-18550-0 |location=Leiden, Netherlands |pages=508–510 |language=en}}</ref>

In 1964, he founded an organisation called ''Institute for Rewriting Indian History''.<ref name="Oak1" /> He died on 4 December 2007, at 3.30 am at his Pune residence aged 90.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scroll.in/article/767712/how-the-taj-mahal-became-part-of-the-campaign-to-erase-indias-muslim-past|title=How the Taj Mahal became part of the campaign to erase India's Muslim past|last=Paracha|first=Nadeem F.|website=Scroll.in|date=12 November 2015 |language=en-US|access-date=8 October 2019}}</ref>

==Historical Negationism==
===Taj Mahal Theory===
In 2000, India's Supreme Court dismissed Oak's petition to declare that a Hindu king had built the Taj Mahal by saying he had a "bee in his bonnet" about the Taj.<ref name=Tribune1 /> As of 2017, several court cases about Taj Mahal being a Hindu temple have been inspired by Oak's theory.<ref name=india1>Siraj Qureshi, [https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/taj-mahal-court-petition-shiva-temple-1029352-2017-08-12 "Another court petition challenges Taj Mahal's story as a symbol of love"], [[India Today]], 12 August 2017.</ref><ref name=ht1>[http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/is-the-taj-mahal-a-mausoleum-or-a-shiva-temple-cic-tells-government-to-clarify/story-bYyd6mFUmFbrIjOJnbP9CI.html "Is Taj Mahal a mausoleum or a Shiva temple? CIC asks govt to clarify"], [[Hindustan Times]], 10 August 2017.</ref> In August 2017, [[Archaeological Survey of India]] stated there was no evidence to suggest the monument ever housed a temple.<ref>[https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/vinay-katiyar-taj-mahal-tejo-mahalaya-temple-supreme-court-bee-in-bonnet-theory-asi-1066984-2017-10-18 BJP's Vinay Katiyar now calls Taj Mahal a Hindu temple - a 'bee in bonnet' theory that Supreme Court once rejected] [[India Today]]</ref>

[[Giles Tillotson]] calls Oak's claims as a "desperate bid to assign a new meaning to the Taj" and "pseudo-scholarship". He states that Oak interprets the statements of ''[[Padshahnama]]'' about Shah Jahan's purchase of the land for the Taj from [[Jai Singh I]] upon where a mansion built by an ancestor of the Raja earlier existed, to claim that Taj Mahal was a wonder of ancient Hinduism. Tillotson adds that no evidence is offered by Oak to redate it to thirteen centuries earlier. He adds that the technical know-how to construct structural buildings didn't exist in 4th-century India, Oak's original claim, the only surviving architecture being rock-cut or monolithic. Oak later dropped this claim and claimed it to be from the 12th century. He adds that Oak claims Mughals built nothing and only converted Hindu buildings. In relation to similarity with buildings of [[West Asia]], Oak also claims them all to be "products of Hindu architecture".<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q4zYd848UJkC&pg=PA115|author=Giles Tillotson|title=Taj Mahal|pages=112–114|publisher= [[Harvard University Press]]|year=2008|author-link=Giles Tillotson|isbn=9780674031869}}</ref>

===Kaaba Theory: Vedic origins===
{{See also|Kaaba#Pre-Islamic Era}}
In a 13-page pamphlet titled ''Was Kaaba a Hindu Temple?'', Oak derives a claim of a "Vedic past of Arabia" based on an inscription mentioning the legendary Indian king [[Vikramāditya]] that Oak claims was found inside a dish inside the Kaaba. According to Oak, the text of the alleged inscription is taken from the page 315 of an anthology of poetry entitled ''Sayar-ul-Okul'' (''Se'-arul Oqul'' meaning the ''memorable words''),<ref name="Oak1966">Muslim Digest, July to Oct. 1986 pages 23–24;[http://media.isnet.org/antar/etc/DeedatBalance.html] Purushottam Nagesh Oak, ''Indian Kshatriyas Once Ruled from Bali to Baltic & Korea to Kaba'' (1966)</ref> compiled in 1742 on the orders of a "Sultan Salim" (the actual Sultan at the time being [[Mahmud I]], sultan [[Selim III]] lived from 1761 to 1808) from the earlier work of prophet Muhammed's uncle [[Amr ibn Hishām]] (poetic name "Abu al-Ḥakam" (or ابوالحكم) or meaning the "Father of wisdom") who had refused to convert to Islam, and, first modern version published in 1864 in Berlin and a subsequent edition was published in Beirut in 1932.<ref name=vishva1>"Hindu Vishva", Volume 27, Issues 4-11, pp. 16.</ref> Oak goes on to state that the anthology is kept in the "Makhtab-e-Sultania Library" (Galatasaray Mekteb-i Sultanisi or Galatasaray Imperial School) in [[Istanbul]], [[Turkey]] which has been now renamed as [[Galatasaray High School|Galatasaray Lisesi]] school.<ref>Rabbi Simon Altaf, 2011, [https://books.google.com.sg/books?isbn=1599160528 World War III - Unmasking the End-Times Beast: Unmasking End Time Beast], African-Israel International Union of Israelite Qahalim, {{ISBN|1599160528}}.</ref>

== Reception ==
[[Srinivas Aravamudan]] notes Oak to be a 'mythistorian' whose work resorted to exploiting [[Comparative linguistics|comparative philology]] in the generation of delusional etymologies—associating Sanskrit sound-alikes with foreign terms such as [[Holy See|Vatican]] to vatika (hermitage), Christianity to Krishna-niti (the way of Krishna), [[Abraham]] as an aberration of [[Brahma]] ''--'' to purvey an [[Islamophobia|Islamophobic]] and [[Persecution of Christians|anti-Christian]] agenda under the covers of [[Hindutva]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tusUlz2jb00C|title=Guru English: South Asian Religion in a Cosmopolitan Language|last=Aravamudan|first=Srinivas|date=27 June 2011|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9781400826858|pages=34|language=en}}</ref> [[Edwin Bryant (author)|Edwin Bryant]] in his work on Indo-Aryan theory describes Oak to be a self-styled historian whose works suffer from an ubiquitous and very poor standard of professionalism and critical methodology and who fit the definition of a [[Crank (person)|crack-pot]].<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/0195137779.001.0001/acprof-9780195137774|title=The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture|last=Bryant|first=Edwin|date=20 September 2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780195137774|chapter=Aryan Origins and Modern Nationalist Discourse|pages=267–297|doi=10.1093/0195137779.003.0014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/0195137779.001.0001/acprof-9780195137774|title=The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture|last=Bryant|first=Edwin|date=20 September 2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780195137774|chapter=Introduction|pages=3–12|doi=10.1093/0195137779.003.0001}}</ref>

[[Giles Tillotson]] describes Oak's work on Taj Mahal as a "startling piece of pseudo-scholarship",<ref name="Parker2008" /> which was plainly a work of polemical fantasy intended to denigrate Islam and did not merit any serious scholarly attention.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YHEHNSTNnRQC|title=Taj Mahal|last=Giles|first=Tillotson|date=12 November 2012|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674063655|pages=112–115, 163|language=en}}</ref> Art historian Rebecca Brown described Oak's books as "revisionist history as subtle as Captain Russell's smirk" (referring to a character in the Hindi movie ''[[Lagaan]]'').<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brown|first=Rebecca M.|date=8 July 2004|title=Lagaan: Once Upon a Time in India (review)|journal=Film & History: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Film and Television Studies|language=en|volume=34|issue=1|pages=78–80|doi=10.1353/flm.2004.0008|issn=1548-9922|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Oak's theories have been noted to have found a popular following among [[Hindutva|right-wing Hindu factions]] in a bid to wage politico-religious battles.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YHEHNSTNnRQC|title=Taj Mahal|last=Tillotson|first=Giles|date=12 November 2012|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674063655|pages=163|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ahmed|first=Akbar|date=May 1993|title=The Taj Mahal|url=https://www.historytoday.com/archive/taj-mahal|journal=History Today|volume=43|issue=5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-miscellaneous/tp-others/hrd-ministry-its-masters-voice/article27931013.ece|title=HRD Ministry - its master's voice|date=29 April 2001|work=The Hindu|access-date=8 October 2019|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> [[Tapan Raychaudhuri]] has referred to him as "a 'historian' much respected by the [[Sangh Parivar]]."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Raychaudhuri|first=Tapan|date=April 2000|title=Shadows of the Swastika: Historical Perspectives on the Politics of Hindu Communalism|journal=Modern Asian Studies|language=en|volume=34|issue=2|pages=259–279|doi=10.1017/S0026749X00003310|s2cid=145067932|issn=1469-8099}}</ref>

==Books by P.N. Oak==
*The Taj Mahal was a Rajput Palace, 1965.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/14772180|title=Taj Mahal was a Rajput palace | WorldCat.org|oclc=14772180 |accessdate=29 January 2024}}</ref>
*Indian Kshatriyas once ruled from Bali to Baltic & Korea to Kaba, 1966.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/16632739|title=Indian Kshatriyas once ruled from Bali to Baltic & Korea to Kaba | WorldCat.org|oclc=16632739 |accessdate=29 January 2024}}</ref>
*The rationale of astrology, 1967.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/76691|title=The rationale of astrology | WorldCat.org|oclc=76691 |accessdate=29 January 2024}}</ref>
*Who says Akbar was great, 1968.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/583241571|title=Who says Akbar was great! | WorldCat.org|website=www.worldcat.org}}</ref>
*Bhārata meṃ Muslim Sultān, 1968.<ref name="home.rajasthan.gov.in">[https://home.rajasthan.gov.in/content/dam/homeportal/RajasthanPoliceAcademy/PDF/library%20books%20Authorwise.pdf Books]rajasthan.gov.in {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211025065921/https://home.rajasthan.gov.in/content/dam/homeportal/RajasthanPoliceAcademy/PDF/library%20books%20Authorwise.pdf |date=25 October 2021 }}</ref>
*Some Missing Chapters of World History, 1973.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/814963|title=Some missing chapters of world history | WorldCat.org|oclc=814963 |accessdate=29 January 2024}}</ref>
*Lucknow's imambaras are Hindu palaces, 1976.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/3609787|title=Lucknow's imambaras are Hindu palaces | WorldCat.org|oclc=3609787 |accessdate=29 January 2024}}</ref>
*Delhi's Red Fort is Hindu Lalkot, 1976.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/4593899|title=Delhi's Red Fort is Hindu Lalkot | WorldCat.org|oclc=4593899 |accessdate=29 January 2024}}</ref>
*Christianity is Chrisn-nity, 1979.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/812119421|title=Christianity is Chrisn-nity : is Bible the story of a chrisn temple dispute? Is Christianity an off shoot? | WorldCat.org|oclc=812119421 |accessdate=29 January 2024}}</ref>
*World Vedic heritage: a history of histories : presenting a unique unified field theory of history that from the beginning of time the world practiced Vedic culture and spoke Sanskrit, 1984.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://philpapers.org/rec/OAKWVH|title=World Vedic Heritage: A History of Histories: Presenting a Unique Unified Field Theory of History That from the Beginning of Time the World Practised Vedic Culture and Spoke Sanskrit|year=1984|publisher=P.N. Oak}}</ref>
*Fatehpur Sikri ek Hindu Nagri, 2008.<ref name="home.rajasthan.gov.in"/>

He wrote in English, Hindi and Marathi. Most of his books were published by Bharati Sahitya Sadan or Hindi Sahitya Sadan, Delhi.{{Citation needed|date=September 2021}}

==See also==
*[[Taj Mahal#Myths|Taj Mahal#Myths]]
*[[Historical negationism]]
*[[Nationalization of history]]
*[[Hindutva]]
*[[Hindutva pseudohistory]]
*[[The Taj Story]]

==References==
<references>
<ref name=Parker2008>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/non_fictionreviews/3560444/Review-Taj-Mahal-by-Giles-Tillotson.html|title=Review: Taj Mahal by Giles Tillotson|author=Peter Parker|date=13 September 2008|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]}}</ref>
<ref name=Oak1>{{cite web|author=P. N. Oak |url=http://home.freeuk.net/tajmahal/19Author.htm |title=About The Author Prof P.N.Oak 19/20 |date= November 2017|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070119172504/http://home.freeuk.net/tajmahal/19Author.htm |archive-date=19 January 2007 }}</ref>
<ref name=Tribune1>{{cite news|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2000/20000714/nation.htm|work=[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|The Tribune]]|title=Plea on Taj history dismissed|author=PTI|date=14 July 2000}}</ref>
</references>

==Further reading==
*{{cite book|author=Ganga Ram Garg|title=Encyclopaedia of the Hindu World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WjDcd0cTFxQC|year=1992|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=978-81-7022-375-7}}
*{{cite book|author=Ram Gopal|title=Islam, Hindutva, and Congress quest|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IEtuAAAAMAAJ|year=1998|publisher=Reliance Pub. House|isbn=978-81-7510-072-5}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Oak, Purushottam Nagesh}}
[[Category:1917 births]]
[[Category:2007 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian journalists]]
[[Category:English-language Indian writers]]
[[Category:Hindi-language writers]]
[[Category:Indian Hindus]]
[[Category:Indian National Army personnel]]
[[Category:Indigenous Aryanists]]
[[Category:Journalists from Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Marathi-language writers]]
[[Category:Pseudohistorians]]
[[Category:Writers from Indore]]
[[Category:Writers from Pune]]

Coja Petrus Uscan

2026-02-11T14:42:07Z

Indianeagle1: new new data

{{Short description|Armenian merchant (c. 1680–1751)}}
{{EngvarB|date=May 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2018}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Coja Petrus Uscan
| image = Խոջա Պետրոս Ոսկան.jpg
| caption = Painting of Coja Petrus Uscan
| birth_date = 18th century
| birth_place = [[New Julfa]], [[Safavid Iran]]
| death_date = 18th century
| death_place = Madras (Chennai), India
| occupation = Merchant, community leader
| known_for = Prominent Armenian merchant in Madras and benefactor to the Armenian community
| notable_works = Patronage of Armenian churches and community institutions in Madras
}}
'''Coja Petrus Uscan''' (also '''Woskan''', '''Voskan''', 1680/81 – 1751) was an [[Armenian merchantry|Armenian merchant]] and leader of the [[Armenians|Armenian]] community of [[Chennai|Madras]] (a city now part of India) who was known for his immense wealth and unflinching devotion and loyalty to the British during the French occupation of Madras.

== Ancestry and early life ==

Petrus Uscan was born in a family of prominent Armenian traders which had traded with the East for generations.<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp121">[[#Madras Rediscovered|Madras Rediscovered]], Pg 121</ref> His grandfather Coja Pogus (Paul) had been buried in Julfa.<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp121" /> Very little is known of his early life except for the fact that he migrated to [[Chennai|Madras]] in the year 1723 and settled in the city for the rest of his life.<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp121" />

== Assumption of monopoly ==

As soon as Uscan arrived in [[Chennai|Madras]], the [[Nawab of the Carnatic]] visited Madras and Uscan lavished hospitality upon him.<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp121" /> A pleased Nawab offered gifts and titles and sole monopoly of trade in Madras.<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp121" />

== Endowments ==

Petrus Uscan donated lavishly for Christian religious endowments. He was one of the foremost contributors to the construction of St Rita's church in [[Santhome|St Thome]].<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp121" /> A slab on the east wall of the church has the inscription "In memory of the Armenian nation, 1729".<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp121" /> In April, the very same year, the grave of [[Thomas the Apostle|St Thomas]] was opened for public viewing.<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp121" /> Uscan was among those present.<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp122">[[#Madras Rediscovered|Madras Rediscovered]], Pg 122</ref>

== Construction of Marmalong Bridge ==

[[File:Marmalong Bridge plaque.jpg|thumb|200px|A marble plaque with multinlingual inscriptions in [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Latin]] and [[Armenian language|Armenian]] on the northern edge of the Marmalong Bridge adjoining the Saidapet Bus Stand commemorate the construction of the first-ever Marmalong Bridge across the [[Adyar River]].]]

In 1728, Coja Petrus Uscan constructed the Marmalong Bridge across the [[Adyar River]].<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp122" /><ref name="Armenian_benefactor">{{cite news | last= Muthiah| first= S. | title= The Armenian benefactor | date=31 December 2003 | url =http://www.hindu.com/mp/2003/12/31/stories/2003123100130300.htm | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20040117105902/http://www.hindu.com/mp/2003/12/31/stories/2003123100130300.htm | url-status =dead | archive-date =17 January 2004 | work= [[The Hindu]]| access-date = 2008-09-08}}</ref> It cost him 30,000 [[pagoda (coin)|pagodas]].<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp122" /> Still, he paid the full amount and also donated 1,500 pagodas for the bridge's upkeep.<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp122" />

The bridge no longer exists today, having been replaced by a second bridge.<ref name="Armenian_benefactor" /> However, the bridge built by Uscan is the first ever bridge built across the Adyar.<ref name="Armenian_benefactor" /><ref name="marmalong_bridge">{{cite news | last =Muthiah | first =S. | title =The Mount of Thomas | date =7 January 2004 | url =http://www.hinduonnet.com/mp/2004/01/07/stories/2004010700090300.htm | work =The Hindun Metro Plus | access-date =2008-09-09 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20080726074653/http://www.hinduonnet.com/mp/2004/01/07/stories/2004010700090300.htm | archive-date =26 July 2008 | url-status =usurped }}</ref>

In 1726, he constructed the steps which led to the [[Catholic]] shrine atop [[St Thomas Mount]] which still bears a slab commemorating Uscan's legacy.<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp121" /> He also donated 1,500 pagodas for the maintenance of the steps.<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp122" />

== In service of the British East India Company ==

=== As Company Councillor ===

Uscan was appointed Company Councillor for the [[British East India Company]].<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp122" /> Uscan performed well in his newfound role, occasionally serving as the Company's envoy. In 1740, when the [[Raghoji I of Nagpur|Raghuji Bhonsle]] of [[Kingdom of Nagpur|Nagpur]] invaded the Carnatic, Petrus Uscan was appointed the British envoy to negotiate peace with the Maratha general.<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp122" /> Uscan negotiated with the Marathas and impressed the general so much that he even recognized British rule over [[Tiruchirappalli]], [[Chennai|Madras]] and [[Fort St David]].<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp122" /> On another occasion, Petrus Uscan succeeded in obtaining exclusive rights for the British of Madras to mint coins in their own name.<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp122" />

=== During French occupation ===

When the French occupied [[Chennai|Madras]] in 1746, they seized Petrus Uscan's belongings and carried them off to [[Puducherry (city)|Pondicherry]].<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp120">[[#Madras Rediscovered|Madras Rediscovered]], Pg 120</ref> Uscan fled Madras and sought refuge in a Danish ship.<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp120" /> [[Joseph François Dupleix|Dupleix]], then the governor of [[French India]], offered him French protection and restoration of confiscated property in the name of the [[Order of Friars Minor Capuchin|Capuchin]] chapel of Madras Armenians if Uscan shifted his loyalty to the French.<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp120" /> However, Uscan gave a defiant reply that the Armenian tradition was to remain loyal to one's benefactors.<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp120" />

== Later life ==

When [[Chennai|Madras]] reverted to British control in 1749, Petrus Uscan and one Mrs. Madeiros were the only Catholics permitted to reside in the Fort.<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp120" /> Following the reestablishment of British rule over Madras, the Capuchin chapel in the Fort was destroyed by the British who felt that the chief Armenian priest had spied for the French.<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp120" /> Petrus managed to retain Armenian hold over the Chapel of Our Lady of Miracles in [[Vepery]] for some time. But after his death, it was made over to [[Protestants]] and a suitable compensation provided to the Armenian community which previously owned it.<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp120" />

== Death ==

Petrus Uscan died in 1751<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp121" /> and was buried in the Chapel of Our Lady of Miracles, which he owned. On Protestant occupation of the site in the middle of the 18th century, they built an Anglican church over it. Petrus Uscan's tombstone was however left untouched and it remains to this day.<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp120" /> There is a commemorative plaque in his name at the Marmalong bridge and the Armenian church in Chennai to this day.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Armenia Virtual Museum - Armenia in India A Cultural Legacy - Armenian Cultural Centre Chennai |url=https://cognishift.org/armenia-virtual-museum/ |access-date=2023-10-04 |website=CogniShift.Org |language=en-GB}}</ref>

== Legacy ==

The Armenian community of [[Chennai|Madras]] gained prominence in the 17th century AD and exercised a significant amount of power and domination over early Madras till the middle of the 19th century. Coja Petrus Uscan who led the Armenian community of Madras from 1723 to 1751 is regarded as the greatest and most famous member of the community.<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp119">[[#Madras Rediscovered|Madras Rediscovered]], Pg 119</ref> The community has almost become extinct, yet its memory survives through Petrus Uscan's numerous endowments and works of charity.

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

== References ==
* {{cite book | title=[[Madras Rediscovered]]| last=Muthiah| first=S.| year=2004| author-link=S. Muthiah| publisher=East West Books (Madras) Pvt Ltd| isbn=81-88661-24-4|ref=Madras Rediscovered}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Uscan, Petrus Coja}}
[[Category:History of Chennai]]
[[Category:Indian merchants]]
[[Category:Indian people of Armenian descent]]
[[Category:British East India Company people]]
[[Category:1680s births]]
[[Category:1751 deaths]]

Alexander and Co.

2026-02-09T08:03:15Z

Indianeagle1: started the data from scratch

{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2023}}
{{Short description|1700s–1832 Agency House in British India}}
{{Infobox company
| name = Alexander and Company
| logo =
| logo_size =
| logo_alt =
| logo_caption =
| image =
| image_size =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| former_name =
| type = Agency House
| traded_as =
| ISIN =
| industry =
| predecessor =
| founded = 18th century in [[British India]]
| founders = Scottish traders and merchants
| hq_location = [[Fort William, India]], [[Calcutta]]
| hq_location_city = [[Calcutta]], [[Bengal Presidency]]
| hq_location_country = [[Company rule in India|British India]]
| num_locations =
| num_locations_year = 
| area_served = [[Company rule in India|British India]]
| key_people =
| products =
| brands =
| production =
| production_year = 
| services = Trading and Banking
| revenue =
| revenue_year =
| operating_income =
| income_year = 
| net_income =
| net_income_year =
| assets =
| assets_year = 
| equity =
| equity_year = 
| owner =
| members =
| members_year = 
| num_employees =
| num_employees_year = 
| divisions =
| subsid =
| module = 
| website =
| footnotes =
}}

'''Alexander and Company, Limited''', often simply called '''Alexander and Co.''', was an [[Agency Houses in British India|Agency House in British India]] founded by traders and merchants from [[Scotland]]. Alexander and Co. has made several pioneering contributions to the economy of India. Alexander and Co. was the promoter and founder of [[List of oldest banks in India|India's very first bank]], the [[Bank of Hindostan]].<ref name="auto2">{{Cite web|url=https://rbi.org.in/Scripts/pm_earlyissues.aspx|title=Reserve Bank of India - Museum|website=rbi.org.in}}</ref>

== History ==

=== Background ===

Before the advent of joint-stock banking companies in India, the role of banks was played by agency houses. The agency houses performed various quasi-banking functions which included but were not limited to:<ref name="auto3">{{Cite web|title=History of Banking|url=https://lkouniv.ac.in/site/writereaddata/siteContent/202004051341563589anurag_sriv_History_banking.pdf|access-date=27 May 2021|website=Ikouniv.ac.in}}</ref>

* Accepting deposits (Agency houses accepted deposits only from British nationals and other Europeans)
* Financing trade
* Lending of money (primarily to the Government)

=== Business ===

After their initial success, the agency houses started lending money to European entrepreneurs in India and not just the [[Company rule in India|Government]]. The Alexander and Co. agency house also lent money to several European entrepreneurs, the most notable among them was [[Josiah Marshall Heath]], an English metallurgist who owned several mining ventures in [[Company rule in India|British India]].<ref name="auto">{{Cite journal|last=Roy|first=Tirthankar|date=October 2009|title=Did globalisation aid industrial development in colonial India? A study of knowledge transfer in the iron industry|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/001946460904600404|journal=The Indian Economic & Social History Review|language=en|volume=46|issue=4|pages=579–613|doi=10.1177/001946460904600404|s2cid=51991059 |issn=0019-4646|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

An amount of [[Indian Rupee|Rupees]] 100,000 had been loaned to [[Josiah Marshall Heath]] by the Alexander and Co. agency house in order to finance his mining related ventures. He used the sum to start the ''Porto Novo Steel and Iron Company''. By 1832, he was unable to repay the debt, and this contributed to the failure of the Alexander and Co. agency house.<ref name="auto"/>

=== Bank of Hindostan ===

After having experimented with lending and other banking activities, the Alexander and Co. agency house separated its banking activities and divested it into a separate banking company which was named the [[Bank of Hindostan]].<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web|url=https://ehsthelongrun.net/2017/03/14/agency-house-crises-in-india-what-role-did-indigo-play/|title=Agency House Crises in India: What Role Did Indigo Play?|date=14 Mar 2017|access-date=27 May 2021|archive-date=20 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120104659/https://ehsthelongrun.net/2017/03/14/agency-house-crises-in-india-what-role-did-indigo-play/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.livemint.com/Sundayapp/h1fOdMncOKOZ3TPUMvEYMN/The-chequered-history-of-Kolkatas-banks.html|title=The chequered history of Kolkata's banks|first=Aniek|last=Paul|date=22 Aug 2015|website=mint}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.spink.com/media/view?id=48|title=Banknotes For The Raj|website=www.spink.com}}</ref> The [[Bank of Hindostan]] was notable for being [[List of oldest banks in India|one of the oldest banks in India]].<ref name="auto2"/>

=== Failure ===

The Alexander and Co. agency house failed in the year 1832 due to major economic downturn affecting the [[Company rule in India|British India]]. The main cause of the economic crisis was the unexpected fall in the prices of commodities such as [[Indigo dye|Indigo]].<ref name="auto1"/> As a result and consequence of its failure, the [[Bank of Hindostan]] also failed and had to be liquidated in the very same year.<ref name="auto2"/>

== Legacy ==

The legacy of the Alexander and Co. and its role in shaping the [[Economy of India under Company rule|economic fortunes of India]] have been widely recognized. It has been credited as a major pioneer in the history of [[Banking in India]].<ref name="auto2"/>

The failure of the early Indian financial firms also led to the passing of the [[Societies Registration Act, 1860|Companies Act, 1860]] which granted limited liability to banking companies. Many of the early Indian Banks had been partnership firms with unlimited liability.<ref name="auto3"/>

==See also==
{{portal|Companies}}
* [[Banking in India]]
* [[Economy of India under Company rule]]
* [[Company rule in India]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/28816/1/10672984.pdf THE RISE OF THE BRITISH MANAGING AGENCIES IN NORTH EASTERN INDIA 1836-1918]

[[Category:Economic history of India]]
[[Category:Trading companies of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Companies based in Kolkata]]

Malobika Banerjee

2026-02-08T12:05:43Z

Indianeagle1: stub

{{short description|Bengali actress|bot=PearBOT 5}}
{{BLP sources|date=January 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2018}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Malobika Banerjee
| image =
| birth_name = Malobika Banerjee
| birth_place = [[Kolkata]]
| education = [[Calcutta University]]
| occupation = Actress
| years_active = 2008 - Present
| height_ft =
}}

'''Malobika Banerjee''' is a [[Bengali language|Bengali]] actress performed in [[Cinema of Odisha|Oriya films]] also.She also participated in [[Bigg Boss Bangla]]

==Career==
In 2018 Malobika Banerjee started her [[Bollywood]] career with a [[Hindi]] music video named “Dilbar” singer Shahid Mallya from [[Zee Music Company|Zee music]] label. On 2018 she worked another super hit music video “Pretty Girl” singer Kanika kapoor from T- series music label. In 2018 Malobika Banerjee featured in cover page of Famous Filmfare magazine. She acted in movies like [[Chorabali (2016 film)|Chorabali]], [[Katmundu]] and Mister Bhaduri.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://in.bookmyshow.com/person/malobika-banerjee/1046956 |title=Malobika Banerjee Biography, Filmography & Movie List - BookMyShow |website=BookMyShow |access-date=13 January 2017}}</ref> She has also done Odia movies such as ''Mate bohu kari Nei ja'', ''Dele Dhara katha Sare''.

== Filmography ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Film !! Director
|-
| 2011 || Mr. Funtoosh || Raj Mukherjee
|-
| 2011|| Bhalobasa Jindabad || Reshmi Mitra
|-
|2011 || Kokhono Biday bolo na || S.K.Murlidharan
|-
|2011
|Katakuti
|Premangshu Roy
|-
|2012
|Mate bohu kari Nei ja (Oriya)
|Chowdhury Bikash Das
|-
|2013
|Mistake
|S.K.
|-
|2014
|Sada Canvas
|[[Subrata Sen]]
|-
|2015
|Boudi.com
|Raj Mukherjee
|-
|2015
|Professional
|[[Joydeep Mukherjee]]
|-
|2015
|[[Katmundu]]
|[[Raj Chakraborty]]
|-
|2016
|[[Chorabali (2016 film)|Chorabali]]
|[[Subhrajit Mitra]]
|-
|2016
|The Best seller
|Suman Moitra
|-
|2016
|Mister Bhaduri
|[[Subrata Sen]]
|-
|2016
|Dele Dhara katha Sare(Oriya)
|Sailendra Mishra
|-
|2017
|Tope
|[[Buddhadeb Dasgupta]]
|-
|}2018 Badmash Toka (Oriya)||Prem Anand

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb name|4110651}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Banerjee, Malobika}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Bengali actresses]]
[[Category:Actresses from Kolkata]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Actresses in Bengali cinema]]
[[Category:Indian film actresses]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian actresses]]

Marble Rocks

2026-02-06T13:29:42Z

Indianeagle1: fixed layout for clarity and improved wording per standard format

{{Short description|Gorge and fall of the Narmada River}}
{{for|the rock|Marble}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2018}}
{{Infobox valley
|name = Marble Rocks
|length = {{convert|3|km|mi}}
|width =
|elevation =
|location = [[Bhedaghat]], [[Jabalpur]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[India]]
|photo = File:Marble Rocks - Jabalpur.jpg
|photo_caption= Marble Rocks at Bhedaghat near Jabalpur, India
|photo_size =
|map = India Madhya Pradesh#India
|map_size =
|coordinates = {{coord|23.1312|N|79.7965|E|type:landmark|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
}}{{More citations needed|date=January 2024}}[[File:Marble Rocks, MP, India.jpg|thumb|[[Dhuandhar Falls]] of [[Narmada River]] in Marble Rocks.]]
[[File:Naturally formed marble rocks 3.jpg|thumb|Boating during sacred [[Purnima]].]]
The '''Marble Rocks''' is an area along the [[Narmada River]] in central [[India]] near the city of [[Jabalpur]]; in [[Bhedaghat]] of [[Jabalpur District]], in the state of [[Madhya Pradesh]]. The river has carved the soft [[marble]], creating a beautiful gorge of about {{Convert|8|km|mi|abbr=on}} in length. It is a popular Indian [[tourist destination]]. The local marble is mined and carved into various figures and transported all over India.

== Geography ==
The Marble Rocks are a gorge along part of the [[Narmada River]]’s 1,077 km (669.2 mi) path through Madhya Pradesh.<ref name=autogenerated1>[http://nca.gov.in/nb_geogr.htm Narmada Control Authority]</ref> Earlier, the gorge was narrow in size and hence, monkeys could cross over from one side to another. This gave the gorge its local name- Bandar Kudni (meaning monkeys' jumping place).<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rongmei |first=Precious |title=Jabalpur’s Bhedaghat Marble Rocks will leave you stunned |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/travel/destinations/jabalpurs-bhedaghat-marble-rocks-will-leave-you-stunned/articleshow/96837506.cms |access-date=2024-01-26 |work=The Times of India}}</ref> The white marbles are predominantly rich in [[magnesium]] and are closer in hardness to [[soapstone]]. This softness allows them to be carved. The area also contains blue and brown coloured marble.

== Attractions ==
The area has many tourist activities. There is a cable car to take visitors across the gorge, row boats for guided tours of the river downstream of the falls, and many small shops filled with crafts made from the local materials. The most beautiful time for boating is during [[Purnima]]; especially during Kojagari Puja on [[Sharad Purnima]], wherein boating is considered healing for the body and soul.<ref>[https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/astrology/rituals-puja/sharad-punima-26th-october-2015/articleshow/68206813.cms Kojagari Puja] on [[Sharad Purnima]][https://www.drikpanchang.com/festivals/kojagara/kojagara-puja-date-time.html][https://www.freepressjournal.in/cmcm/sharad-purnima-2017-kojagiri-purnima-significance-tithi-and-all-you-need-to-know]</ref> On Kaumudi celebration as it is also called; it's believed that the moon showers elixir or Amrit on Earth through its beams, as the moon and the earth are at closer distance on Sharad Purnima night, and due to this, the moonlight has magical healing properties which are said to nourish the body and soul of an individual. The moonlight on Purnima has magic healing properties, which is why it's acknowledged to shower ''Amrit Varsha'' (Elixir shower) on the [[Narmada River]] which meanders through the pristine rocks. Both bathing and boating are also considered very sacred on [[Kartik Purnima]] in the holy [[Kartik (month)]].

==External links==
*{{commons and category-inline}}
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aBfC39uPWIQ MPTourism] on [[YouTube]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Narmada basin}}
[[Category:Landforms of Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Jabalpur]]
[[Category:Rock formations of India]]
[[Category:Canyons and gorges of India]]
[[Category:World Heritage Tentative List for India]]

{{Jabalpur-geo-stub}}

2025 Women's Premier League (cricket) final

2026-02-04T04:22:42Z

Indianeagle1:

{{short description|2025 WPL cricket tournament final in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}{{Use Indian English|date=March 2025}}
{{Infobox limited overs final
| title = 2025 Women's Premier League Final
| image=
| imagesize = 250 px
| event = [[2025 Women's Premier League (cricket)|2025 Women's Premier League]]
| team1 = [[Mumbai Indians (WPL)|Mumbai Indians]]
| team2 = [[Delhi Capitals (WPL)|Delhi Capitals]]
| team1score = 149/7
| team1overs = 20 overs
| team2score = 141/9
| team2overs = 20 overs
| details = Mumbai Indians won by 8 runs
| date = 15 March 2025
| stadium = [[Brabourne Stadium]]
| city = [[Mumbai]]
| man_of_the_match = [[Harmanpreet Kaur]] (Mumbai Indians)
| umpires = Ankita Guha and Anish Sahasrabudhe
| attendance =
| previous = [[2024 Women's Premier League (cricket) final|2024]]
| next = [[2026 Women's Premier League (cricket) final|2026]]
}}

The '''2025 Women's Premier League Final''' was a [[Women's Twenty20]] match played at the [[Brabourne Stadium]] in [[Mumbai]] on 15 March 2025 to determine the winner of the [[2025 Women's Premier League (cricket)|2025 Women's Premier League]].<ref name="F">{{Cite news |date=1 March 2025 |title=Shafali and Jonassen power DC into playoffs |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/wpl-2024-25-1463356/delhi-capitals-women-vs-royal-challengers-bengaluru-women-14th-match-1469311/match-report |access-date=14 March 2025 |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Sciver-Brunt, Matthews power Mumbai Indians into second WPL final |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/wpl-2024-25-1463356/mumbai-indians-women-vs-gujarat-giants-women-eliminator-1469318/match-report |access-date=13 March 2025 |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |language=en}}</ref> It was played between the table toppers of the 2025 season, [[Delhi Capitals (WPL)|Delhi Capitals]] and the winner of 2025's [[2025 Women's Premier League (cricket)#Eliminator|Eliminator]], [[Mumbai Indians (WPL)|Mumbai Indians]]. It was the second time that Delhi and Mumbai played a WPL final against each other, after the [[2023 Women's Premier League (cricket) final|2023 final]].

== Background ==
{{Main article|2025 Women's Premier League (cricket)}}
On 16 January 2025, the [[Board of Control for Cricket in India|BCCI]] announced the schedule for the 2025 season of the [[Women's Premier League (cricket)|Women's Premier League]] with matches played across four venues - [[Bengaluru]], [[Lucknow]], [[Mumbai]] and [[Vadodara]]. [[Vadodara]], [[Bengaluru]] and [[Lucknow]] hosted the first three rounds of the league stage at the [[Baroda Cricket Association Stadium|Kotambi Stadium]], the [[M. Chinnaswamy Stadium]] and the [[Ekana Cricket Stadium]] respectively and [[Mumbai]] hosted the final round along with the playoffs at the [[Brabourne Stadium]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/cricket/womens-cricket/wpl-2025-host-venues-bcci-plans-to-host-womens-premier-league-in-mumbai-lucknow-bengaluru-vadodara/article69091864.ece |title= WPL 2025: BCCI to host tournament in Mumbai, Lucknow, Bengaluru and Vadodara |date=12 January 2025 |work=[[Sportstar]] |access-date=14 March 2025}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite news |date=16 January 2025 |title=Baroda, Bengaluru, Lucknow, and Mumbai to host WPL 2025 |url=https://www.wplt20.com/news/baroda-bengaluru-lucknow-and-mumbai-to-host-wpl-2025 |access-date=16 January 2025 |work=Women's Premier League}}</ref>

== Road to the final ==
{| style="text-align:center;margin:auto;"
|- style="vertical-align:top;background:#99CCFF"
! colspan="4" |[[Delhi Capitals (WPL)|Delhi Capitals]]
!vs
! colspan="4" |[[Mumbai Indians (WPL)|Mumbai Indians]]
|- style="vertical-align:top;background:#99CCFF"
! colspan="9" |[[2025 Women's Premier League (cricket)#League stage|League Stage]]
|- style="vertical-align:top;background:#C1E0FF"
| Opponent
| Scorecard
| Result
| Points
| Match No.
| Opponent
| Scorecard
| Result
| Points
|-
| style="text-align:center;margin:auto;" |[[Mumbai Indians (WPL)|Mumbai Indians]]
| 15 February 2025
| Won
|2
| style="background:#C1E0FF" | 1
| style="text-align:center" |[[Delhi Capitals (WPL)|Delhi Capitals]]
|15 February 2025
|Lost
|0
|-
| style="text-align:center" |[[Royal Challengers Bengaluru (WPL)|Royal Challengers Bengaluru]]
|17 February 2025
|Lost
| 2
| style="background:#C1E0FF" |2
| style="text-align:center" |[[Gujarat Giants (WPL)|Gujarat Giants]]
|18 February 2025
|Won
|2
|-
| style="text-align:center" |[[UP Warriorz (WPL)|UP Warriorz]]
|19 February 2025
|Won
|4
| style="background:#C1E0FF" |3
| style="text-align:center" |[[Royal Challengers Bengaluru (WPL)|Royal Challengers Bengaluru]]
|21 February 2025
|Won
|4
|-
| style="text-align:center" |[[UP Warriorz (WPL)|UP Warriorz]]
|22 February 2025
|Lost
|4
| style="background:#C1E0FF" |4
| style="text-align:center" |[[UP Warriorz (WPL)|UP Warriorz]]
|26 February 2025
|Won
|6
|-
| style="text-align:center" |[[Gujarat Giants (WPL)|Gujarat Giants]]
|25 February 2025
|Won
|6
| style="background:#C1E0FF" |5
| style="text-align:center" |[[Delhi Capitals (WPL)|Delhi Capitals]]
|28 February 2025
|Lost
|6
|-
| style="text-align:center" |[[Mumbai Indians (WPL)|Mumbai Indians]]
|28 February 2025
|Won
|8
| style="background:#C1E0FF" |6
| style="text-align:center" |[[UP Warriorz (WPL)|UP Warriorz]]
|6 March 2025
|Won
|8
|-
| style="text-align:center" |[[Royal Challengers Bengaluru (WPL)|Royal Challengers Bengaluru]]
|1 March 2025
|Won
|10
| style="background:#C1E0FF" |7
| style="text-align:center" |[[Gujarat Giants (WPL)|Gujarat Giants]]
|10 March 2025
|Won
|10
|-
| style="text-align:center" |[[Gujarat Giants (WPL)|Gujarat Giants]]
|7 March 2025
|Lost
|10
| style="background:#C1E0FF" |8
| style="text-align:center" |[[Royal Challengers Bengaluru (WPL)|Royal Challengers Bengaluru]]
|11 March 2025
|Lost
|10
|-
| colspan="9" style="text-align:left;background:#C1E0FF;" |{{#invoke: Women'sPremierLeagueProgression
| create

| W2, L4, W6, L8, W10, W13, W14, L16


| U, L22


| L2, W5, W7, W11, L13, W15, W17, L19


| W21, W22


| caption=League progression
| teams=Delhi Capitals, Mumbai Indians
| knockoutType=1
| matchesPerTeam=8
| matchReportArticle=2025 Women's Premier League (cricket)}}
|- style="vertical-align:top;background:#99CCFF"
! colspan="9" |[[2025 Women's Premier League (cricket)#Playoffs|Playoff stage]]
|- style="align:center;background:#C1E0FF"
| colspan="9" |{{2025 Women's Premier League Playoffs}}
|- style="vertical-align:top;background:#99CCFF"
! colspan="4" rowspan="3" style="align:center" |Qualified for the finals<ref name="F"/>
! colspan="5" |[[2025 Women's Premier League (cricket)#Eliminator|Elimator]]
|- style="align:center;background:#C1E0FF"
| style="background:#C1E0FF" |
| Opponent
| Scorecard
| colspan="2" |Result
|-
| style="background:#C1E0FF" |9
| [[Gujarat Giants (WPL)|Gujarat Giants]]
| 13 March 2025
| colspan="2" |Won
|- style="vertical-align:center;background:#C1E0FF"
! colspan="9" |2025 Women's Premier League final
|}

== Match ==
=== Match officials ===
* '''On-field [[umpire (cricket)|umpires]]''': Ankita Guha and Anish Sahasrabudhe
* '''[[Third umpire]]''': [[Vrinda Rathi]]
* '''[[Fourth umpire|Reserve umpire]]''': [[Kaushik Gandhi]]
* '''[[Match referee]]''': [[G. S. Lakshmi]]
* '''[[Toss (cricket)|Toss]]''': Delhi Capitals won the toss and elected to field.

=== Summary ===
{{#section:2025 Women's Premier League (cricket)|match22}}

===Scorecard===
{{Cot|Match scorecard<ref name=finalscorecard>{{Cite web |date=2025-03-15 |title=MI Women vs DC Women, Final at Mumbai, WPL, Mar 15 2025 - Full Scorecard |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/wpl-2024-25-1463356/delhi-capitals-women-vs-mumbai-indians-women-final-1469319/full-scorecard |access-date=2025-03-15 |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |language=en}}</ref>|bg=lightblue}}

; {{Visible anchor|1st innings}}
{{Cricket match batting box begin|title=Mumbai Indians batting<ref name=finalscorecard/>}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player= [[Yastika Bhatia]]|status= c Rodrigues b Kapp|runs= 8|balls= 14|4s= 1|6s= 0|strike_rate=57.14}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player= [[Hayley Matthews]]|status= b Kapp|runs= 3|balls= 10|4s= 0|6s= 0|strike_rate=30.00}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player= [[Nat Sciver-Brunt]]|status= c Mani b Charani|runs= 30|balls= 28|4s= 4|6s= 0|strike_rate=107.14}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player= [[Harmanpreet Kaur]]|status= c Kapp b Sutherland|runs= 66|balls= 44|4s= 9|6s= 2|strike_rate=150.00}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player= [[Amelia Kerr]]|status= c Verma b Jonassen|runs= 2|balls= 3|4s= 0|6s= 0|strike_rate=66.66}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player= [[Sajeevan Sajana]]|status= lbw b Jonassen|runs= 0|balls= 2|4s= 0|6s= 0|strike_rate=0.00}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player= G Kamalini|status= st †Bryce b Charani|runs= 10|balls= 7|4s= 0|6s= 1|strike_rate=142.85}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player= [[Amanjot Kaur]]|status= not out|runs= 14|balls= 7|4s= 2|6s= 0|strike_rate=200.00}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player= Sanskriti Gupta|status= not out|runs= 8|balls= 5|4s= 1|6s= 0|strike_rate=160.00}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player= [[Shabnim Ismail]]|status= did not bat|runs= |balls= |4s= |6s= |strike_rate=}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player= [[Saika Ishaque]]|status= did not bat|runs= |balls= |4s= |6s= |strike_rate=}}
|- align=left
| Extras || (b 1, w 7) || {{align|right|8}} || || || ||
|- align=right
| {{align|left|'''Total'''}} || {{align|left|(7 wickets; 20 overs)}} || '''149''' || || 17 || 3 || RR: 7.45
{{Cricket match box end}}
'''Fall of wickets:''' 5/1 (Matthews, 3 ov), 14/2 (Bhatia, 4.3 ov), 103/3 (Sciver-Brunt, 14.5 ov), 112/4 (Kerr, 15.5 ov), 112/5 (Sajana, 16 ov), 118/6 (Harmanpreet, 17.1 ov), 132/7 (Kamalini, 18.4 ov)

{{Cricket match bowling box begin|title=Delhi Capitals bowling<ref name=finalscorecard/>}}
{{Cricket match bowler status|bowler= [[Marizanne Kapp]]|overs= 4|maiden= 0|runs= 11|wickets= 2|econ= 2.75|wides= 0|no-balls=0}}
{{Cricket match bowler status|bowler= [[Shikha Pandey]]|overs= 4|maiden= 0|runs= 29|wickets= 0|econ= 7.25|wides= 0|no-balls=0}}
{{Cricket match bowler status|bowler= [[Annabel Sutherland]]|overs= 4|maiden= 0|runs= 29|wickets= 1|econ= 7.25|wides= 1|no-balls=0}}
{{Cricket match bowler status|bowler= [[Jess Jonassen]]|overs= 3|maiden= 0|runs= 26|wickets= 2|econ= 8.66|wides= 0|no-balls=0}}
{{Cricket match bowler status|bowler= Shree Charani|overs= 4|maiden= 0|runs= 43|wickets= 2|econ= 10.75|wides= 2|no-balls=0}}
{{Cricket match bowler status|bowler= [[Minnu Mani]]|overs= 1|maiden= 0|runs= 10|wickets= 0|econ= 10.00|wides= 0|no-balls=0}}
{{Cricket match box end}}

; {{Visible anchor|2nd innings}}
{{Cricket match batting box begin|title=Delhi Capitals batting<ref name=finalscorecard/>}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player= [[Meg Lanning]]|status= b Sciver-Brunt|runs= 13|balls= 9|4s= 2|6s= 0|strike_rate=144.44}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player= [[Shafali Verma]]|status= lbw b Ismail|runs= 4|balls= 9|4s= 0|6s= 0|strike_rate=44.44}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player= [[Jess Jonassen]]|status= c †Bhatia b Kerr|runs= 13|balls= 15|4s= 2|6s= 0|strike_rate=86.66}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player= [[Jemimah Rodrigues]]|status= c & b Kerr|runs= 30|balls= 21|4s= 4|6s= 0|strike_rate=142.85}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player= [[Annabel Sutherland]]|status= st †Bhatia b Ishaque|runs= 2|balls= 5|4s= 0|6s= 0|strike_rate=40.00}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player= [[Marizanne Kapp]]|status= c Matthews b Sciver-Brunt|runs= 40|balls= 26|4s= 5|6s= 2|strike_rate=153.84}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player= [[Sarah Bryce]]|status= run out (Gupta/†Bhatia)|runs= 5|balls= 5|4s= 0|6s= 0|strike_rate=100.00}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player= Niki Prasad|status= not out|runs= 25|balls= 23|4s= 1|6s= 1|strike_rate=108.69}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player= [[Shikha Pandey]]|status= b Sciver-Brunt|runs= 0|balls= 1|4s= 0|6s= 0|strike_rate=0.00}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player= [[Minnu Mani]]|status= c Sajana b Matthews|runs= 4|balls= 2|4s= 1|6s= 0|strike_rate=200.00}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player= Shree Charani|status= not out|runs= 3|balls= 4|4s= 0|6s= 0|strike_rate=75.00}}
|- align=left
| Extras || (lb 1, w 1) || {{align|right|2}} || || || ||
|- align=right
| {{align|left|'''Total'''}} || {{align|left|(9 wickets; 20 overs)}} || '''141''' || || 15 || 3 || RR: 7.05
{{Cricket match box end}}
'''Fall of wickets:''' 15/1 (Lanning, 2 ov), 17/2 (Verma, 3 ov), 37/3 (Jonassen, 6.2 ov), 44/4 (Sutherland, 8 ov), 66/5 (Rodrigues, 10.4 ov), 83/6 (Bryce, 12.5 ov), 123/7 (Kapp, 17.4 ov), 123/8 (Pandey, 17.5 ov), 128/9 (Mani, 18.2 ov)

{{Cricket match bowling box begin|title=Mumbai Indians bowling<ref name=finalscorecard/>}}
{{Cricket match bowler status|bowler= [[Shabnim Ismail]]|overs= 4|maiden= 0|runs= 15|wickets= 1|econ= 3.75|wides= 0|no-balls=0}}
{{Cricket match bowler status|bowler= [[Nat Sciver-Brunt]]|overs= 4|maiden= 0|runs= 30|wickets= 3|econ= 7.50|wides= 0|no-balls=0}}
{{Cricket match bowler status|bowler= [[Hayley Matthews]]|overs= 4|maiden= 0|runs= 37|wickets= 1|econ= 9.25|wides= 1|no-balls=0}}
{{Cricket match bowler status|bowler= [[Amelia Kerr]]|overs= 4|maiden= 0|runs= 25|wickets= 2|econ= 6.25|wides= 0|no-balls=0}}
{{Cricket match bowler status|bowler= [[Saika Ishaque]]|overs= 4|maiden= 0|runs= 33|wickets= 1|econ= 8.25|wides= 0|no-balls=0}}
{{Cricket match box end}}
{{cob}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{Official website|https://www.wplt20.com/}}
* [https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/wpl-2024-25-1463356 Series home] at [[ESPNcricinfo]]

{{Women's Premier League (cricket)}}
{{Portal bar|India|Cricket}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Women's Premier League (cricket), 2025}}
[[Category:2025 Women's Premier League (cricket)]]
[[Category:Domestic cricket competitions in 2024–25]]
[[Category:March 2025 in India]]
[[Category:Women's Premier League (cricket) finals]]

2024 Mumbai Open

2026-01-23T16:56:24Z

Indianeagle1:

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2025}}
{{Infobox tennis event|2024|Mumbai Open|
| date=5 – 11 February
| edition=3rd
| draw=32S / 16D / 16Q
| surface=[[Hardcourt|Hard]]
| champs={{flagicon|LAT}} [[Darja Semeņistaja]]
| champd={{flagicon|SLO}} [[Dalila Jakupović]] / {{flagicon|USA}} [[Sabrina Santamaria]]
| prize_money=$115,000
| location=[[Mumbai]], India
| venue=[[Cricket Club of India]]
| before_year = 2018
}}

The '''2024 [[L&T Mumbai Open]]''' was a professional women's [[tennis]] tournament played on outdoor [[hardcourt|hard courts]]. It was the third edition of the tournament and first since 2018 which was also part of the [[2024 WTA 125 tournaments]]. It took place from 5 to 11 February 2024 at the [[Cricket Club of India]].<ref>{{cite web|title=L&T Mumbai Open Overview|url=https://www.wtatennis.com/tournament/1100/mumbai-125|website=wtatennis.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=WTA 125 Game On |url=https://mslta.org/LandingPage/wta/ |website=mslta.org |publisher=Maharashtra State Lawn Tennis Association}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=AITA to host a string of international events at home|url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/tennis/aita-international-events-prize-money-mens-womens-categories/article67555016.ece|website=sportstar.thehindu.com}}</ref>

==WTA singles main-draw entrants==
===Seeds===
{|class="sortable wikitable"
|-
! width="70"| Country
! width="175"| Player
! Rank1
! Seed
|-style=
|{{flag|USA}}
|[[Kayla Day]]
|92
|1
|-
|{{flag|JPN}}
|[[Nao Hibino]]
|94
|2
|-
|<s>{{flag|SLO}}</s>
|<s>[[Tamara Zidanšek]]</s>
|<s>97</s>
|<s>3</s>
|-
|{{flag|AUS}}
|[[Arina Rodionova]]
|101
|4
|-
|{{flag|BRA}}
|[[Laura Pigossi]]
|114
|5
|-style="background:#cfc;"
|{{flag|LAT}}
|[[Darja Semeņistaja]]
|120
|6
|-
|{{flag|AUS}}
|[[Kimberly Birrell]]
|124
|7
|-
|{{flag|USA}}
|[[Katie Volynets]]
|125
|8
|}
* 1 Rankings are as of 29 January 2024.

===Other entrants===
The following players received wildcards into the singles main draw:
* {{flagicon|IND}} Vaishnavi Adkar
* {{flagicon|IND}} [[Rutuja Bhosale]]
* {{flagicon|IND}} [[Ankita Raina]]
* {{flagicon|IND}} Sahaja Yamalapalli

The following players received entry from the qualifying draw:
* {{flagicon|IND}} Shrivalli Bhamidipaty
* {{flagicon|ISR}} [[Lina Glushko]]
* {{flagicon|FRA}} [[Amandine Hesse]]
* {{flagicon|THA}} [[Peangtarn Plipuech]]
* <s>{{flagicon|JPN}} [[Himeno Sakatsume]]</s>
* {{flagicon|HUN}} [[Fanny Stollár]]

The following players received entry into the main draw as lucky losers:
* {{flagicon|KOR}} [[Park So-hyun (tennis)|Park So-hyun]]
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Camilla Rosatello]]

===Withdrawals===
* {{flagicon|JPN}} [[Himeno Sakatsume]] → replaced by {{flagicon|KOR}} [[Park So-hyun (tennis)|Park So-hyun]]
* {{flagicon|SLO}} [[Tamara Zidanšek]] → replaced by {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Camilla Rosatello]]

==WTA doubles main-draw entrants==
===Seeds===
{|class="sortable wikitable"
|-
!width="70"| Country
!width="175"| Player
!width="70"| Country
!width="175"| Player
!Rank1
!Seed
|-
|{{flag|ITA}}
|[[Angelica Moratelli]]
|{{flag|ITA}}
|[[Camilla Rosatello]]
|167
|1
|-style="background:#cfc;"
|{{flag|SLO}}
|[[Dalila Jakupović]]
|{{flag|USA}}
|[[Sabrina Santamaria]]
|183
|2
|-
|{{flag|GER}}
|[[Julia Lohoff]]
|{{flag|SUI}}
|[[Conny Perrin]]
|222
|3
|-
|{{flag|THA}}
|[[Luksika Kumkhum]]
|{{flag|THA}}
|[[Peangtarn Plipuech]]
|248
|4
|}
* 1 Rankings as of 29 January 2024.

===Other entrants===
The following team received wildcard into the doubles main draw:
* {{flagicon|IND}} [[Rutuja Bhosale]] / {{flagicon|IND}} [[Ankita Raina]]

==Champions==

===Singles===
{{main|2024 Mumbai Open – Singles}}
* {{flagicon|LAT}} '''[[Darja Semeņistaja]]''' def. {{flagicon|AUS}} [[Storm Hunter]] 5–7, 7–6(8–6), 6–2

===Doubles===
{{main|2024 Mumbai Open – Doubles}}
* {{flagicon|SLO}} '''[[Dalila Jakupović]]''' / {{flagicon|USA}} '''[[Sabrina Santamaria]]''' def. {{flagicon|NED}} [[Arianne Hartono]] / {{flagicon|IND}} [[Prarthana Thombare]], 6–4, 6–3.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==

{{2024 WTA 125 tournaments}}

[[Category:Mumbai Open|2024]]
[[Category:2024 WTA 125 tournaments|Mumbai Open]]
[[Category:2024 in Indian sport|Mumbai Open]]
[[Category:February 2024 sports events in India|Mumbai Open]]

Revali Mahotsav, India

2026-01-23T11:49:56Z

Indianeagle1: starting the bio first draft

{{short description|Village in Maharashtra, India}}
{{More citations needed|date=April 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2018}}
{{Infobox settlement
|name = Revali Village
|native_name =
|native_name_lang = mr
|settlement_type = Village
|image_skyline = Revali Mahotsav.jpg
|imagesize =
|image_alt =
|image_caption = Revali Mahotsav
|etymology =
|nickname =
|coordinates = 
|population_total =
|subdivision_type = Country
|subdivision_name = India
|subdivision_type1 = State
|subdivision_name1 = Maharashtra
|subdivision_type2 =
|subdivision_name2 =
|website = 
}}

'''Revali''' is a small [[village]] in [[Ratnagiri district]], [[Maharashtra]] state in [[Western India]].<ref name="COI-1"/> The [[2011 Census of India]] recorded a total of 208 residents in the village.<ref name="COI-1"/> Revali Mahostsav's geographical area is {{convert|502|hectare|acre}}.<ref name="COI-1"/>

==References==
<references>

<ref name="COI-1">{{cite web | url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/2732_PART_B_DCHB_RATNAGIRI.pdf | title=District Census Handbook | publisher=[[Census of India]] | accessdate=16 April 2016}}</ref>

</references>

[[Category:Villages in Ratnagiri district]]

{{Ratnagiri-geo-stub}}

Vasudeva (Chahamana dynasty)

2025-12-29T19:53:17Z

Indianeagle1: general refined intro based on references further and improved wording

{{use dmy dates|date=November 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2016}}
{{Infobox royalty
| succession = King of Sapadalaksha
| image =
| caption =
| reign = 551 CE – 684 CE
| dynasty = [[Chahamanas of Shakambhari]]
| successor = [[Samantaraja]]
}}
'''Vasudeva''' (c. 6th century CE) was an Indian king belonging to the [[Chahamanas of Shakambhari|Chahamana dynasty]] of Shakambhari (modern [[Sambhar Lake Town|Sambhar]]). He ruled the [[Sapadalaksha]] Region in present-day [[Rajasthan]].

Ignoring Chahamana, the mythical founder of the dynasty, Vasudeva is the earliest known ruler of the dynasty. According to the ''[[Prabandha Kosha|Prabandha-Kosha]]'' of the 14th century Jain scholar Rajashekhara Suri, Vasudeva ascended the throne in 551 CE (608 [[Vikram Samvat]]). The historical accuracy of this statement is not certain.{{sfn|Dasharatha Sharma|1959|p=23}}
According to Chandrashekhar's ''Surjan-charit'', Vasudev Chauhan defeated the Huns and established his kingdom.{{cn|date=December 2025}}

A mythical account in ''[[Prithviraja Vijaya]]'' states that Vasudeva received the [[Sambhar Salt Lake]] as a gift from a [[vidyadhara]] (a supernatural being). According to this legend, Vasudeva once found a vidyadhara sleeping in the royal bed. A magic pill which gave the vidyadhara the power to fly had fallen from his mouth. Vasudeva handed over this magic pill to the vidyadhara. The grateful vidyadhara introduced himself as the son of Shakambhara. He told Vasudeva that the goddess [[Parvati]], pleased with Shakambhara's devotion, had been residing in the local forest under the name "[[Shakambhari]]". The vidyadhara decided to return the favour to Vasudeva. He asked the king to put his sword in the ground at sunset, and ride a horse back to his capital without looking back. The king did as told, and waves of water followed him. The resulting body of water became the salt lake of Sambhar. The vidyadhara appeared before the king, and told him that the lake would remain in the possession of his descendants.{{sfn|R. B. Singh|1964|p=84}} The [[Bijolia]] inscription of his descendant [[Someshvara (Chahamana dynasty)|Someshvara]] states that the lake was born of Vasudeva.{{sfn|Dasharatha Sharma|1959|p=23}}

The next known Chahamana king is [[Samantaraja]], whose relationship to Vasudeva is not clear from the available historical records.{{sfn|R. B. Singh|1964|p=85}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

=== Bibliography ===

* {{cite book |author=Dasharatha Sharma |title=Early Chauhān Dynasties |publisher=S. Chand / Motilal Banarsidass |year=1959 |isbn=9780842606189 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n4gcAAAAMAAJ }}
* {{cite book |author=R. B. Singh |title=History of the Chāhamānas |publisher=N. Kishore |year=1964 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TKs9AAAAIAAJ |oclc=11038728 }}

{{Chahamanas of Shakambhari}}

[[Category:Chahamana kings of Shakambhari]]
[[Category:6th-century Indian monarchs]]

Omchery N. N. Pillai

2025-12-27T10:01:02Z

Indianeagle1:

{{Short description|Indian playwright and novelist (1924–2024)}}
{{Distinguish|N. N. Pillai}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2018}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Omchery N. N. Pillai
| image =
| imagesize =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=y|1924|02|01}}
| birth_place = [[Vaikom]], [[Travancore]], [[British Raj|India]] (present-day [[Vaikom]], [[Kerala]], India)
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=y|2024|11|22|1924|02|01}}
| death_place = [[New Delhi]], India
| restingplace =
| restingplacecoordinates =
| othername =
| occupation = Playwright, novelist, poet
| yearsactive =
| spouse = {{marriage|[[Leela Omchery]]|1950|1 November 2023|end=died}}
| children = 2, including [[Deepti Omchery Bhalla]]
| parents = Narayana Pillai ([[Sr.]]) Pappi Amma
| relatives = [[Kamukara Purushothaman]] (Brother-in-law)
| website =
| awards = [[Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award]]; 1972, 2010 [[List of Sahitya Akademi Award winners for Malayalam|Sahitya Akademi Award for Malayalam]]; 2020
}}

'''Omchery Narayana Pillai Narayana Pillai''' (1 February 1924 – 22 November 2024) was an Indian [[Malayalam|Malayalam–language]] playwright, novelist and poet from [[Kerala]]. He wrote nine full-length plays, more than 80 one-act plays and a few novels. His plays are noted for their bold experiments in form and technique as well as the uncommon vision inherent in many of the themes. Pillai won the [[Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award]] twice: in 1972 for the play ''Pralayam'' and in 2010 for his overall contribution to [[Malayalam literature]]. In 2022, he was honoured with [[Kerala Awards|Kerala Prabha Award]], second highest civilian award given by the Kerala Government.

==Life and career==
Pillai was born in [[Vaikom]] in [[Travancore]], on 1 February 1924, as the son of Omchery Narayanan Pillai, Sr., and Pappikkutty Amma.<ref name="Asianet">{{Cite web|last=arunraj|title=2020ലെ എറ്റവും മികച്ച മലയാള കൃതിക്കുള്ള കേന്ദ്ര സാഹിത്യ അക്കാദമി പുരസ്കാരം ഓംചേരി എൻഎൻ പിള്ളയ്ക്ക്|url=https://www.asianetnews.com/kerala-news/omcheri-n-n-pillai-awarded-sahithya-academy-award-2020-in-malayalam-qyc8ma|access-date=2022-02-11|website=Asianet News Network Pvt Ltd|language=ml}}</ref> He started writing poems at a very young age. After completing his education from [[University College, Thiruvananthapuram]], he joined the news department of [[Delhi]] [[All India Radio]] in 1951 and later promoted as Editor in their publication department. He pursued his higher studies in [[Mass Communication]] from Pennsylvania University, Watten school and [[New Mexico State University]] and worked in the [[Indian Institute of Mass Communication]].<ref name="Asianet"/>

After working in the Chief Censors Office and the Food Corporation of India, Pillai retired from the Central Service on February 1, 1989.<ref name="Asianet"/> He later joined the Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan and worked there till December 2019.<ref name="Asianet"/>

Pillai wrote his first play ''Ee Velicham Ningaludethakunnu'' (This Light is Ours) at the behest of [[A. K. Gopalan]] who was then the [[Leader of the Opposition (India)|Leader of Opposition]] in [[Lok Sabha|the Indian parliament]]. Members of Parliament K. C. George, P. T. Ponnoose, [[E. K. Imbichi Bava]], V. P. Nair etc. acted in the play. Omchery has written nine full-length plays and more than 80 one-act plays. He founded the theatrical organisation 'Experimental Theatre' in 1963. [[DC Books]] published a collection of his 26 selected plays on 27 November 2011. Besides being a regular presence in Kerala's literary and cultural fields, Omchery was the Principal of the Delhi [[Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan]]'s College of Communication Management. He was married to [[Leela Omchery]], a well-known singer and sister of famous Malayalam singer, [[Kamukara Purushothaman]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://leelaomchery.org/ |title=PROF. DR. LEELA OMCHERY | Musician, Musicologist and Author |access-date=2014-04-11 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407065154/http://leelaomchery.org/ |archive-date=2014-04-07 }}</ref> Leela Omcheri was from the Mankoyikkal Nair Tharavadu in Thiruvattar, near the Aadhikeshava Permual Temple. The couple had a son, S. D. Omchery and a daughter, famous classical dancer, [[Deepti Omchery Bhalla]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://leelaomchery.org/my-family/# |title=My Family | PROF. DR. LEELA OMCHERY |access-date=2 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150213224052/http://leelaomchery.org/my-family/# |archive-date=13 February 2015 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

Pillai died in New Delhi on 22 November 2024, aged 100.<ref>[https://english.mathrubhumi.com/news/kerala/omchery-n-n-pillai-passes-away-1.10100185 Renowned writer Omchery N N Pillai passes away]</ref>

==Works==

===Plays===
* ''Ee Velicham Ningaludethakunnu''
* ''Pralayam''
* ''Cherippu Kadikkilla''

===Novels===
* ''Pralayam''
* ''Thevarude Aana''
* ''Kallan Kayariya Veedu''
* ''Daivam Veendum Thettiddharikkappedunnu''

==Awards==
* 1972: [[Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award]] for ''Pralayam''
* 2010: [[Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award]] for his overall contribution to [[Malayalam literature]]<ref>[http://www.keralasahityaakademi.org/ml_aw12.htm "Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award for Overall Contribution to Malayalam Literature"]. [[Kerala Sahitya Akademi]]. Retrieved 7 July 2013.</ref>
* 2013: Pravasi Kalaratna Award<ref>[http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Thiruvananthapuram/an-award-that-feels-like-home/article4557642.ece "An award that feels like home"]. ''[[The Hindu]]''. 28 March 2013. Retrieved 7 July 2013.</ref>
* 2020: [[Sahitya Akademi Award]], for ''Aakasmikam''<ref>{{cite news |title=Sahitya Akademi announces 2020 Odia, Malayalam awards |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/sahitya-akademi-announces-2020-odia-malayalam-awards/article36079187.ece |website=The Hindu |date=24 August 2021 }}</ref>
* 2022: [[Kerala Awards|Kerala Prabha]], second highest civilian award of Kerala

==References==
<references />

{{Malayalam Literature |state=collapsed}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Sahitya Akademi Award For Malayalam}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pillai, Omchery N. N.}}
[[Category:1924 births]]
[[Category:2024 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male writers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian novelists]]
[[Category:Indian men centenarians]]
[[Category:Indian male novelists]]
[[Category:Indian male dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:Writers from Kochi]]
[[Category:Malayalam-language dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:Malayalam-language novelists]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award]]
[[Category:Novelists from Kerala]]
[[Category:Poets from Kerala]]
[[Category:Dramatists and playwrights from Kerala]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Sahitya Akademi Award in Malayalam]]
[[Category:Kerala Prabha Award Winners]]

Congress Nagar metro station

2025-12-19T17:50:34Z

Indianeagle1: new a article

{{short description|Metro station in Nagpur, Maharashtra}}
{{notability|date=November 2021 | 1=Places}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2023}}
{{Infobox station
| name = Congress Nagar
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| symbol_location =
| symbol =
| type = {{Nagpur Metro Infobox station line|line=Orange}}
| style = Nagpur Metro
| image = Congress Nagar metro station.jpg
| alt =
| caption =
| address = Dhantoli, Nagpur, Maharashtra 440012
| borough =
| country =
| coordinates = {{coord|21.12811|79.08253|display=inline,title}}
| owned = [[Maharashtra Metro Rail Corporation Limited]] (MAHA-METRO)
| operator = [[Nagpur Metro]]
| line = {{rcb|Nagpur Metro|Orange|croute}}
| distance =
| platforms = [[Side platform]] Platform-1 → [[Automotive Square metro station|Automotive Square]] Platform-2 → [[Khapri metro station|Khapri]]
| tracks = 2
| train_operators =
| connections =
| structure = [[Elevated]], [[Double-track railway|Double track]]
| levels = 2
| parking =
| bicycle =
| architectural_style =
| accessible = Yes {{access icon}}
| code =
| zone =
| website =
| opened = {{Start date and age|df=yes|2021|04|06}}
| closed = 
| electrified = {{25 kV 50 Hz}} [[Overhead line|overhead catenary]]
| passengers =
| pass_year =
| pass_rank =
| services = {{Adjacent stations|system=Nagpur Metro|line=Orange|left=Sitabuldi|to-left=Automotive Square|right=Rahate Colony}}
| route_map = {{Nagpur Metro North-South Line}}
| map_state = collapsed
| mapframe = yes
| mapframe-marker = rail
| mapframe-marker-color = #{{rail color|Nagpur Metro|Orange}}
| mapframe-zoom = 14
}}
'''Congress Nagar''' is an elevated metro station on the North-South corridor of the [[Orange Line (Nagpur Metro)|Orange Line]] of [[Nagpur Metro]] in the city of [[Nagpur]], Maharashtra. It was opened on 6 April 2021.<ref name="MankaBehl">{{cite web |last1=Behl |first1=Manka |title=4 new Metro stations operational from today|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/nagpur/4-new-metro-stations-operational-from-today/articleshow/81920428.cms |website=The Times of India |access-date=25 November 2021 |language=en}}</ref> The station is connected to platform 1 of the [[Ajni railway station]].<ref name="MankaBehl" />

The station covers an area of 8,100 square meters.<ref>{{cite web|title=NEWLY OPENED NAGPUR METRO STATIONS FOR PUBLIC|url=https://www.punemetrorail.org/download/Newsletter/Newsletter_Apr_2021.pdf|access-date=26 November 2021|website=Pune Metro|publisher=Mahametro}}</ref>

==Station layout==
{{stack|{{Routemap
| title = Congress Nagar track layout
| title color = white
| title-bg = #{{rail color|Nagpur Metro|Orange}}
| legend = track
| collapsible = no
| map = vCONTgfa
cPLT\vSTR\cPLT ~~ ~~ ~~ to {{stl|Nagpur Metro|Sitabuldi}} {{rcb|Nagpur Metro|Aqua|croute}}
*'''P1'''\cPLT\vSTR\cPLT\*'''P2'''
cPLT\vSTR\cPLT ~~ ~~ ~~ to {{stl|Nagpur Metro|Rahate Colony}}
vCONTgfe
| bottom = <div style="width:23.5em;text-align:center">Station with two tracks and two side platforms</div>
}}}}
{|table border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=3
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px grey;border-top:solid 1px grey;" width=50 valign=top|'''G'''
|style="border-top:solid 1px grey;border-bottom:solid 1px grey;" width=100 valign=top|Street level
|style="border-top:solid 1px grey;border-bottom:solid 1px grey;" width=500 valign=top|Exit/Entrance
|-
|valign=top|'''L1'''
|valign=top|Mezzanine
|valign=top|Fare control, station agent, Metro Card vending machines, crossover 
|-
|style="border-top:solid 1px grey;border-bottom:solid 1px grey;" width=50 rowspan=4 valign=top|'''L2'''
|style="border-top:solid 1px grey;border-right:solid 2px black;border-left:solid 2px black;border-bottom:solid 2px black;text-align:center;" colspan=2|[[Side platform]] | Doors will open on the left {{access icon}}
|-
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px grey;" width=100|'''Platform 2''' '''Southbound'''
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px grey;" width=500|Towards → [[Khapri metro station|Khapri]] '''Next Station:''' [[Rahate Colony metro station|Rahate Colony]]
|-
|'''Platform 1''' '''Northbound'''
|Towards ← [[Automotive Square metro station|Automotive Square]] '''Next Station:''' [[Sitabuldi metro station|Sitabuldi]] '''''Change at the next station for {{rcb|Nagpur Metro|Aqua|croute}}'''''
|-
|style="border-top:solid 2px black;border-right:solid 2px black;border-left:solid 2px black;border-bottom:solid 1px grey;" colspan=2 align=center|[[Side platform]] | Doors will open on the left {{access icon}}
|-
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px grey;" width=50 rowspan=2 valign=top|'''L2'''
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px grey;" width=100|
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px grey;" width=500|
|-
|}

==See also==
* [[Nagpur]]
* [[Maharashtra]]
* [[List of Nagpur Metro stations]]
* [[Urban rail transit in India#Rapid transit|Rapid transit in India]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Nagpur Metro navbox}}

[[Category:Nagpur Metro stations]]
[[Category:Railway stations in India opened in 2021]]

Cnemaspis azhagu

2025-12-16T04:08:35Z

Indianeagle1: new a entry.

{{Short description|Species of lizard}}
{{Speciesbox
| image = Cnemaspis azhagu.jpg|
| taxon = Cnemaspis azhagu
| authority = Khandekar, Thackeray, & Agarwal, 2022
}}
'''''Cnemaspis azhagu''''' is a species of [[Diurnality|diurnal]], rock-dwelling, [[insectivorous]] [[gecko]] endemic to India.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cnemaspis azhagu |url=https://reptile-database.reptarium.cz/species.php?genus=Cnemaspis&species=azhagu |access-date=2024-01-24 |website=The Reptile Database}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q113560842}}

[[Category:Cnemaspis|azhagu]]
[[Category:Lizards of India]]
[[Category:Reptiles described in 2022]]

{{Cnemaspis-stub}}

William Urquhart Arbuthnot

2025-11-15T11:20:23Z

Indianeagle1: adjusted content also and cleaned formatting

{{Short description|Scottish administrator in India}}
{{Infobox person
| honorific_prefix =
| name = William Urquhart Arbuthnot
| image =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1807|3|24|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Edinburgh]], [[Scotland]]
| baptised =
| disappeared_date =
| disappeared_place =
| disappeared_status =
| death_date = {{dda|1874|12|11|1807|3|24|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[London]], [[England]]
| education = [[Royal High School, Edinburgh]] [[East India Company College]]
| alma_mater =
| occupation =
| employer = [[East India Company]] Council of India, Arbuthnot & Co.
| title = Member of the Council of India
| term = 1858–1874
| spouse = {{marriage|Elizabeth "Eliza" Jane Taylor |1834|1874|reason=died}}
| mother = Anne Alves
| father = [[Sir William Arbuthnot, 1st Baronet]]
}}

'''William Urquhart Arbuthnot''' (24 March 1807 – 11 December 1874) was a Scottish administrator in India.

==Early life==
Arbuthnot was born on 24 March 1807 in [[Edinburgh]], [[Scotland]] into [[Clan Arbuthnott]]. He was the fifth son of [[Sir William Arbuthnot, 1st Baronet]] (1766–1829) and Anne Alves (d. 1846). His siblings included [[Sir Robert Arbuthnot, 2nd Baronet]], [[John A. Arbuthnot]], George Clerk Arbuthnot (father of [[Charles Ramsay Arbuthnot]]), Archibald Francis Arbuthnot (who married Hon. Gertrude Sophia Gough, daughter of the [[Hugh Gough, 1st Viscount Gough|1st Viscount Gough]], father of [[William Arbuthnot (British Army officer)|Maj.-Gen. William Arbuthnot]] and Sir [[George Gough Arbuthnot]]), and James Edward Arbuthnot. His father served as [[List of Lord Provosts of Edinburgh|Lord Provost of Edinburgh]] and [[Lord Lieutenant]] of the [[City of Edinburgh Council|City of Edinburgh]].<ref>Adams, Thomas, Harvey, William, Whitson, Thomas, editors, ''Edinburgh 1329 - 1929'', Edinburgh, 1929: 140</ref>

His maternal grandfather was John Alves, Esq., of Shipland, [[Inverness-shire]]. His paternal grandparents were Robert Keith Arbuthnot, [[Fellowship of the Royal Society of Edinburgh|FRSE]] of [[Haddo Rattray]], and Mary Urquhart of [[Cromarty]]. Among his extended family were uncles, George Arbuthnot, 1st of [[Elderslie, Scotland|Elderslie]], and [[Robert Arbuthnot (Ceylon)|Robert Arbuthnot]].<ref name=RoyalSociety>{{Cite book |url=https://www.royalsoced.org.uk/cms/files/fellows/biographical_index/fells_indexp1.pdf |title=Former Fellows of The Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1783–2002: Part 1 (A–J) |author=C D Waterston |author2=A Macmillan Shearer |publisher=[[Royal Society of Edinburgh]] |isbn=090219884X |date=July 2006 |access-date=18 September 2015 |archive-date=24 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130124115814/http://www.royalsoced.org.uk/cms/files/fellows/biographical_index/fells_indexp1.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref>

He was educated at the [[Royal High School, Edinburgh]] and the [[East India Company College]], Haileybury.<ref name="Debrett's1921"/>

==Career==
Joining the [[East India Company]], he went to [[Madras Presidency|Madras]] in 1826, eventually becoming the agent to the Governor at [[Vizagapatam]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Buckland |first=C. E. |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_Indian_Biography/Arbuthnot,_William_Urquhart |title=Dictionary of Indian Biography |publisher=Swan Sonnenschein & Co., Lim |year=1906 |location=London |pages=16}}</ref> He resigned from the service in 1846, after which he joined the firm of [[Arbuthnot & Co]]. at Madras. He retired to England in 1838.<ref name=":1" />

In 1858, he was one of the first persons chosen by the Crown to fill seats on the new [[Council of India]], on which he served until his death in 1874.<ref name=":1" /> On several occasions, he declined appointment as finance minister in India.<ref name=":1" />

==Personal life==
On 2 June 1834, he married Elizabeth "Eliza" Jane Taylor (1815–1892), a daughter of Gen. Sir Henry George Andrew Taylor and Eliza Maughan. Together, they lived at Brigden Place in [[Bexley]] in [[Kent]], and were the parents of:<ref name="Debrett's1921">{{cite book |title=Debrett's Baronetage, Knightage, and Companionage: In which is Included Much Information Respecting the Collateral Brances of Baronets, and the Issue of Knights |date=1921 |publisher=Dean & Son |page=21 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=430rhznNVhoC&pg=PA21 |access-date=25 October 2024 |language=en}}</ref>

* William Henry Arbuthnot (1835–1888), who married Mary Pearson Turner, a daughter of Wright Turner, in 1875.<ref name="Debrett's1921"/>
* Eliza Taylor Arbuthnot (1837–1894), who married the mathematician [[William Spottiswoode]], a partner in the printing and publishing firm [[Eyre & Spottiswoode]] who was the son of [[Andrew Spottiswoode]].<ref>{{cite DNB|wstitle=Spottiswoode, William}}</ref><ref>{{MacTutor|id=Spottiswoode}}</ref>
* Mary Charlotte Arbuthnot (1841–1897), who married Judge Arthur Brandreth of the [[Chief Court of the Punjab]], in 1868.<ref name="Debrett's1921"/>
* Frederick George Arbuthnot (1845–1910), who died unmarried.<ref name="Debrett's1921"/>
* Helen Ellen Arbuthnot (1850–1929), who died unmarried.<ref name="Debrett's1921"/>
* Louisa Arbuthnot (1852–1852), who died young.<ref name="Debrett's1921"/>
* [[Reginald Arbuthnot|Reginald James Hugh Arbuthnot]] (1853–1917), a coffee broker and amateur cricketer who died unmarried.<ref name=ci>[http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/8765.html Reginald Arbuthnot], [[CricInfo]]. Retrieved 2017-03-20.</ref><ref name=rugby287>Mitchell AT (1902) ''Rugby School Register'', vol.2, p.287. Rugby: A.J. Lawrence. ([https://archive.org/details/rugbyschoolregis02rugbuoft/page/286 Available online]. Retrieved 2019-12-21.)</ref>
* Madeline Arbuthnot (1856–1858), who died young.<ref name="Debrett's1921"/>

Arbuthnot died in [[London]] on 11 December 1874.<ref name="Debrett's1921"/>

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
*[https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/c/F52091 Arbuthnot, William Urquhart, (1807-1874), Indian administrator and businessman] at the [[National Archives (United Kingdom)]]

{{authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Arbuthnot, William Urquhart}}
[[Category:1808 births]]
[[Category:1874 deaths]]
[[Category:Arbuthnot family|William Urquhart]]
[[Category:Younger sons of baronets]]
[[Category:People educated at the Royal High School, Edinburgh]]
[[Category:British East India Company civil servants]]
[[Category:Scottish bankers]]
[[Category:Members of the Council of India]]
[[Category:19th-century Scottish businesspeople]]

Bapujee College, Sarukshetri

2025-11-11T11:24:41Z

Indianeagle1:

{{short description|College in Assam}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2017}}
{{Infobox university
| name = Bapujee College, Sarukshetri
| image = File:Bapujee College.jpeg
| address = [[Sarthebari]], [[Barpeta district]], Assam, India
| city =
| established = {{Start date and age|df=yes|paren=yes|1970}}
| type = Undergraduate college
| principal = Dr. Ramesh Das
| affiliation = [[Gauhati University]]
| website = {{URL|http://bapujeecollege.Com}}
}}
'''Bapujee College''' is an [[Undergraduate education|undergraduate]] college (& Higher Secondary) established in the year 1970 at [[Sarthebari]] of [[Barpeta district]] in [[Assam]]. The college is affiliated to [[Gauhati University]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gauhati.ac.in/college-affiliated%20colleges.php|publisher=Guahati University|title=Affiliated Colleges|accessdate=7 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170606080313/http://www.gauhati.ac.in/college-affiliated%20colleges.php|archive-date=6 June 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://dheassam.gov.in/gu-college-list.asp|title=Provincialised colleges affiliated to Guahati University|publisher=Directorate of Higher Education, Assam|accessdate=7 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170706192913/http://www.dheassam.gov.in/gu-college-list.asp|archive-date=6 July 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>[http://bapujeecollegeonline.co.in]

==Accreditation==
In 2016 the college has been awarded "B" grade by [[National Assessment and Accreditation Council]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web5.kar.nic.in/naac_ec/ShowPdf.aspx?Field1=College&Field2=Bapujee+College&Field3=Sarthebari&Field4=AS&Field5=Cycle2&Field6=12153|title=CCycle212153|publisher=National Assessment & Accreditation Council|accessdate=7 July 2017}}{{Dead link|date=June 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The college is also recognised by [[University Grants Commission (India)]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ugc.ac.in/inside/browse_reco_colleges.php?st=Assam|publisher=University Grants Commission|title=Colleges in Assam|accessdate=7 July 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928204615/http://www.ugc.ac.in/inside/browse_reco_colleges.php?st=Assam|archivedate=28 September 2011}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Official website|https://bapujeecollege.ac.in/}}

{{Gauhati University}}
{{coord|26.3609|91.2281|type:edu_globe:earth_region:IN|display=title}}

[[Category:Colleges affiliated to Gauhati University]]
[[Category:Universities and colleges in Assam]]
[[Category:Barpeta district]]
[[Category:1970 establishments in Assam]]
[[Category:Universities and colleges established in 1970]]

{{Assam-university-stub}}

Digha–Malda Town Express

2025-11-10T10:33:18Z

Indianeagle1: improved references to improve readability after review

{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2019}}
{{Infobox rail service
| name = Digha–Malda Town Express
| image =
| image_width =
| caption =
| type = [[Express trains in India|Express]]
| locale = {{start date and age|df=yes|2012|02|19}}
| first =
| last =
| operator = [[Eastern Railway zone]]
| ridership =
| start = {{stnlnk|Digha}} (DGHA)
| stops = 14
| end = {{stnlnk|Malda Town}} (MLDT)
| distance = {{convert|656|km|0|abbr=on}}
| journeytime = 14h 30m
| frequency = Weekly{{efn|Runs one day in a week for every direction.}}
| class = 1 AC lll Tier, 3 Sleeper class, 8 General Unreserved
| seating = Yes (Only for day Journey)
| sleeping = Yes
| autorack =
| catering = On-board catering E-catering
| observation = [[ICF coach]]
| entertainment = No
| baggage = No
| other facilities= Below the seats
| stock = 2
| gauge = {{track gauge|1676mm|al=on|allk=on}}
| electrification =
| trainnumber = 13417/13418
| speed = {{convert|45|km/h|0|abbr=on}}, including halts
| map =
| map_state =
}}

The '''Digha–Malda Town Express''' is an [[Express trains in India|Express]] train belonging to [[Eastern Railway zone]] that runs between {{stnlnk|Malda Town}} and {{stnlnk|Digha}} in India via [[Kharagpur Junction railway station|Kharagpur]] , [[Asansol Junction railway station|Asansol]] , [[Rampurhat Junction railway station|Rampurhat]]. It is currently being operated with 13417/13418 train numbers on a weekly basis.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/City/Patna/SMS-web-based-housekeeping-service-on-8-trains/articleshow/50634021.cms | title=SMS, web-based housekeeping service on 8 trains | date=19 January 2016 | newspaper=The Times of India | first=Kumar | last=Rajesh | accessdate=11 February 2019 }}</ref><ref>[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/Railway-passengers-experience-changes-from-scorn-to-smile/articleshow/50637191.cms Railway passengers experience changes from ‘scorn to smile’]</ref><ref>[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/Train-services-hit-due-to-Bihar-bandh/articleshow/31187905.cms Train services hit due to Bihar bandh]</ref><ref>[http://www.transreporter.com/logisticsnews/23392/Train-services-interrupted-between-Eastern%26Northern-parts-of--India/ Train services interrupted between Eastern & Northern parts of India]{{Dead link|date=November 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

== Service==

The 13417/Digha–Malda Town Express has an average speed of 45 km/h and covers 656 km in 14h 30m. The 13418/Malda Town–Digha Express has an average speed of 44 km/h and covers 656 km in 10h 35m.

== Route and stops ==

The important stops of the train are:

* '''{{stnlnk|Digha}}'''
* {{stnlnk|Tamluk}}
* {{stnlnk|Panskura Junction}}
* '''{{stnlnk|Kharagpur Junction}}'''
* {{stnlnk|Midnapore}}
* {{stnlnk|Bishnupur}}
* {{stnlnk|Bankura Junction}}
* {{stnlnk|Adra Junction}}
* '''{{stnlnk|Asansol Junction}}'''
* {{stnlnk|Andal Junction}}
* '''{{stnlnk|Durgapur}}'''
* '''{{stnlnk|Rampurhat Junction}}'''
* {{stnlnk|Pakur}}
* {{stnlnk|New Farakka Junction}}
* '''{{stnlnk|Malda Town}}'''
Note: Bold letters indicates Major Railway Stations/Major Cities.

==Coach composition==

The train has standard ICF rakes with a maximum speed of 110 km/h. The train consists of 12 coaches:

* 1 AC III Tier
* 3 sleeper coaches
* 6 general
* 2 seating cum luggage rake

== Traction==

Both trains are hauled by an [[Electric Loco Shed, Asansol|Asansol Loco Shed]]-based [[WAM-4]] electric locomotive from Digha to [[Durgapur]] and thence by an [[Diesel Loco Shed, Andal|Andal Loco Shed]]-based [[WDM-3A]] diesel locomotive to Malda Town and back.

== Direction reversal==

Train reverses its direction:

* {{stnlnk|Durgapur}}

== Rake sharing ==

The train shares its rake with 13425/13426 [[Surat-Malda Town Express]]

== See also ==

* [[Malda Town railway station]]
* [[Digha railway station]]
* [[Surat-Malda Town Express]]
* [[Howrah–Digha Super AC Express]]
* [[Paharia Express]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==

* [https://indiarailinfo.com/train/16832 13417/Digha–Malda Town Express]
* [https://indiarailinfo.com/train/16831 13418/Malda Town–Digha Express]

{{Railways in Eastern India}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Digha-Malda Town Express}}
[[Category:Transport in Digha]]
[[Category:Transport in Maldah]]
[[Category:Express trains in India]]
[[Category:Rail transport in West Bengal]]
[[Category:Railway services introduced in 2012]]

{{India-express-train-stub}}