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Ganesha

2023-01-22T05:01:18Z

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{{short description|Hindu god of new beginnings, wisdom and luck}}
{{Redirect-multi|3|Vinayaka|Ganapati|Lambodara||Vinayaka (disambiguation)|and|Ganapati (disambiguation)|and|Lambodara (film)|and|Ganesha (disambiguation)}}
{{featured article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2019}}
{{Infobox deity
| type = Hindu
| name = Ganesha
| gender = Male
| father = [[Shiva]]
| mother = [[Parvati]]
| siblings = [[Kartikeya]] (brother)
| consort = [[Riddhi]] and [[Siddhi]] or [[brahmacharya|celibate]]
| deity_of = God of Luck and New Beginnings Remover of Obstacles{{Sfn|Heras|1972|p=58}}{{Sfn|Getty|1936|p= 5}} Supreme God (Ganapatya)
| image = Ganesha Basohli miniature circa 1730 Dubost p73.jpg
| caption = [[Basohli]] miniature, c. 1730. [[National Museum, New Delhi]].<ref>"Ganesha getting ready to throw his lotus. Basohli miniature, circa 1730. National Museum, New Delhi. In the {{IAST|Mudgalapurāṇa}} (VII, 70), in order to kill the demon of egotism ({{IAST|Mamāsura}}) who had attacked him, {{IAST|Gaṇeśa Vighnarāja}} throws his lotus at him. Unable to bear the fragrance of the divine flower, the demon surrenders to {{IAST|Gaṇeśha}}." For quotation of description of the work, see: {{Harvard citation no brackets|Martin-Dubost|1997|p=73}}.</ref>
| alt = Attired in an orange dhoti, an elephant-headed man sits on a large lotus. His body is red in colour and he wears various golden necklaces and bracelets and a snake around his neck. On the three points of his crown, budding lotuses have been fixed. He holds in his two right hands the rosary (lower hand) and a cup filled with three modakas (round yellow sweets), a fourth modaka held by the curving trunk is just about to be tasted. In his two left hands, he holds a lotus in the upper hand and an axe in the lower one, with its handle leaning against his shoulder.
| affiliation = [[Deva (Hinduism)|Deva]], [[Brahman]] ([[Ganapatya]]), [[Saguna Brahman]] ([[Panchayatana puja]])
| mantra = {{IAST|Oṃ Ekadantaya Vidmahe,Vakrathundaya Dhimahi,Thanno Danthi Prachodhayat}}
{{IAST|Oṃ Shri Gaṇeśāya Namaḥ Oṃ Gaṃ Gaṇapataye Namaḥ}}
| abode = • [[Mount Kailash]] (with parents) • Svānandaloka
| weapon = [[Parashu|{{IAST|Paraśu}} (axe)]], [[Pasha (Hinduism)|{{IAST|pāśa}} (noose)]], [[Elephant goad|{{IAST|aṅkuśa}} (elephant goad)]]
| mount = [[Mouse]]
| symbols = [[Swastika]], [[Om]], [[Modak]]
| festivals = [[Ganesh Chaturthi]], [[Diwali]]
| texts = ''[[Ganesha Purana]]'', ''[[Mudgala Purana]]'', ''[[Ganapati Atharvashirsa]]''
| equivalent1_type = Buddhists
| equivalent1 = [[Kangiten]]
}}

'''Ganesha''' ({{lang-sa|गणेश}}, {{IAST3|Gaṇeśa}}), also known as '''Ganapati,''' '''Vinayaka''', and '''Pillaiyar''', is one of the best-known and most worshipped [[Deva_(Hinduism)|deities]] in the [[Hindu deities|Hindu pantheon]]{{Sfn|Ramachandra Rao|1992|p=6}} and is the Supreme God in Ganapatya sect. His image is found throughout [[India]].<ref>{{Spaces|5}}
* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Brown|1991|p=1}} "{{IAST|Gaṇeśa}} is often said to be the most worshipped god in India."
* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Getty|1936|p=1}} "{{IAST|Gaṇeśa}}, Lord of the {{IAST|Gaṇas}}, although among the latest deities to be admitted to the Brahmanic pantheon, was, and still is, the most universally adored of all the Hindu gods and his image is found in practically every part of India."</ref> [[Hindu denominations]] worship him regardless of affiliations.<ref>{{Spaces|5}}
* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Ramachandra Rao|1992|p=1}}
* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Martin-Dubost|1997|p=1}}
* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Brown|1991|p=1}}</ref> Devotion to Ganesha is widely diffused and extends [[Ganesha in world religions|to Jains and Buddhists]] and includes [[Nepal]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Thailand]], [[Indonesia]] ([[Java]] and [[Bali]]), [[Singapore]], [[Malaysia]], [[Philippines]], and [[Bangladesh]] and in countries with large ethnic Indian populations including [[Fiji]], [[Guyana]], [[Mauritius]], and [[Trinidad and Tobago]].<ref>{{Spaces|5}}
* Chapter XVII, "The Travels Abroad", in: {{Harvard citation no brackets|Nagar|1992|pp=175–187}}. For a review of Ganesha's geographic spread and popularity outside of India.
* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Getty|1936|pp=37–38}}, For discussion of the spread of Ganesha worship to Nepal, [[Xinjiang|Chinese Turkestan]], Tibet, Burma, Siam, [[Indochina|Indo-China]], Java, Bali, Borneo, China, and Japan
* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Martin-Dubost|1997|pp=311–320}}
* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Thapan|1997|p=13}}
* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Apte|1965|pp=2–3}}</ref>

Although Ganesha has many attributes, he is readily identified by his [[Asiatic Elephant|elephant]] head.<ref>Martin-Dubost, p. 2.</ref> He is widely revered, more specifically, as the remover of obstacles and thought to bring good luck;<ref>For Ganesha's role as an eliminator of obstacles, see commentary on {{IAST|Gaṇapati Upaniṣad}}, verse 12 in {{Harvnb|Saraswati|2004|p=80}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title= India - Mahabharata. Fulbright-Hays Summer Seminar Abroad 1994 (India) |first1=Carole|last1=DeVito|first2=Pasquale|last2=DeVito|publisher=United States Educational Foundation in India|year=1994|page=4}}</ref> the patron of [[The arts|arts]] and [[Science|sciences]]; and the [[Deva (Hinduism)|deva]] of intellect and wisdom.<ref>{{Harvnb|Heras|1972|p=58}}</ref> As the god of beginnings, he is honoured at the start of rites and ceremonies. Ganesha is also invoked as a patron of letters and learning during writing sessions.{{Sfn|Getty|1936|p= 5}}<ref name = "Vignesha">These ideas are so common that Courtright uses them in the title of his book, ''Ganesha: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings''.</ref> Several texts relate [[Mythological anecdotes of Ganesha|mythological anecdotes]] associated with his birth and exploits.

While scholars differ about his origins dating him between 1st century BCE and 2nd century CE, Ganesha was well established by the 4th and 5th centuries CE, during the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta period]] and had inherited traits from [[Vedas|Vedic]] and pre-Vedic precursors.<ref>Narain, A.K. "{{IAST|Gaṇeśa}}: The Idea and the Icon" in {{Harvnb|Brown|1991|p=27}}</ref> Hindu mythology identifies him as the son of [[Parvati]] and [[Shiva]] of the [[Shaivism]] tradition, but he is a pan-Hindu god found in its various traditions.<ref>{{cite book|author=Gavin D.|first=Flood|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo|title=An Introduction to Hinduism|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1996|isbn=978-0521438780|pages=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo/page/14 14]–18, 110–113|author-link=Gavin Flood|url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Vasudha|first=Narayan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E0Mm6S1XFYAC|title=Hinduism|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|year=2009|isbn=978-1435856202|pages=30–31|author-link=Vasudha Narayanan}}</ref> In the ''[[Ganapatya]]'' tradition of Hinduism, Ganesha is the [[Supreme Being]].<ref>For history of the development of the ''{{IAST|gāṇapatya}}'' and their relationship to the wide geographic dispersion of Ganesha worship, see: Chapter 6, "The {{IAST|Gāṇapatyas}}" in: {{Harvard citation no brackets|Thapan|1997|pp=176–213}}.</ref> The principal texts on Ganesha include the ''[[Ganesha Purana]]'', the ''[[Mudgala Purana]]'' and the ''[[Ganapati Atharvaśīrṣa|Ganapati Atharvasirsha]]''.

== Etymology and other names ==
[[File:Ganesha - Gupta Period - ACCN 15-758 - Government Museum - Mathura 2013-02-23 5418.JPG|thumb|upright|Ganesha, [[Gupta Period]] (4th-6th century CE), [[Art of Mathura]].]]
Ganesha has been ascribed many other titles and epithets, including ''Ganapati'' (''Ganpati''), ''Vighneshvara'', and Pillaiyar. The Hindu title of respect ''[[Shri]]'' ({{lang-sa|श्री}}; [[IAST]]: ''{{IAST|śrī}}''; also spelled ''Sri'' or ''Shree'') is often added before his name.<ref>{{Cite web|date=4 April 2019|title=Lord Ganesha – Symbolic description of Lord Ganesha {{!}} – Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/astrology/rituals-puja/symbolic-description-of-lord-ganesha/articleshow/68207007.cms|url-status=live|archive-url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/astrology/hindu-mythology/heres-why-every-puja-starts-with-worshiping-lord-ganesha/articleshow/70565026.cms|archive-date=7 September 2019|access-date=4 November 2020|website=[[The Times of India]]|language=en}}</ref>

The name ''Ganesha'' is a Sanskrit compound, joining the words ''[[gana]]'' ({{IAST|gaṇa}}), meaning a 'group, multitude, or categorical system' and ''isha'' ({{IAST|īśa}}), meaning 'lord or master'.<ref>* Narain, A.K. "{{IAST|Gaṇeśa}}: A Protohistory of the Idea and the Icon". {{Harvard citation no brackets|Brown|1991|pp=21–22}}.
* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Apte|1965|p=395}}.</ref> The word ''gaṇa'' when associated with Ganesha is often taken to refer to the gaṇas, a troop of semi-divine beings that form part of the retinue of [[Shiva]], Ganesha's father.<ref>For the derivation of the name and relationship with the {{IAST|gaṇas}}, see: {{Harvard citation no brackets|Martin-Dubost|1965|p=2}}</ref> The term more generally means a category, class, community, association, or corporation.{{Sfn|Apte|1965|p= 395}} Some commentators interpret the name "Lord of the {{IAST|Gaṇas}}" to mean "Lord of Hosts" or "Lord of created categories", such as the elements.<ref>The word gaṇa is interpreted in this metaphysical sense by Bhāskararāya in his commentary on the {{IAST|gaṇeśasahasranāma}}. See in particular commentary on verse 6 including names {{IAST|Gaṇeśvaraḥ}} and {{IAST|Gaṇakrīḍaḥ}} in: {{Harvnb|Śāstri Khiste|1991|pp=7–8}}.</ref> ''Ganapati'' ({{lang|sa|गणपति}}; {{IAST|gaṇapati}}), a synonym for ''Ganesha'', is a compound composed of ''{{IAST|gaṇa}}'', meaning "group", and ''{{IAST|pati}}'', meaning "ruler" or "lord".{{Sfn|Apte|1965|p= 395}} Though the earliest mention of the word ''Ganapati'' is found in [[hymn]] 2.23.1 of the 2nd-millennium BCE ''[[Rigveda]]'', it is however uncertain that the Vedic term referred specifically to Ganesha.{{Sfn|Grimes|1995|pp=17–19, 201}}<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_२.२३ Rigveda Mandala 2] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202001602/https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6:_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A8.%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A9|date=2 February 2017}}, Hymn 2.23.1, Wikisource, Quote: गणानां त्वा '''गणपतिं''' हवामहे कविं कवीनामुपमश्रवस्तमम् । ज्येष्ठराजं ब्रह्मणां ब्रह्मणस्पत आ नः शृण्वन्नूतिभिः सीद सादनम् ॥१॥; For translation, see {{Harvard citation no brackets|Grimes|1995|pp=17–19}}</ref> The ''[[Amarakosha]]'',<ref>
* {{Harvnb|Oka|1913|p=8}} for source text of {{IAST|Amarakośa}} 1.38 as {{IAST|vināyako vighnarājadvaimāturagaṇādhipāḥ – apyekadantaherambalambodaragajānanāḥ}}.
* {{Harvnb|Śāstri|1978}} for text of ''{{IAST|Amarakośa}}'' versified as 1.1.38.</ref> an early Sanskrit lexicon, lists eight synonyms of ''Ganesha'': ''Vinayaka'', ''{{IAST|Vighnarāja}}'' (equivalent to ''Vighnesha''), ''{{IAST|Dvaimātura}}'' (one who has two mothers),<ref>Y. Krishan, ''{{IAST|Gaṇeśa}}: Unravelling an Enigma'', 1999, p. 6): "Pārvati who created an image of {{IAST|Gaṇeśa}} out of her bodily impurities but which became endowed with life after immersion in the [[sacred waters]] of the Gangā. Therefore he is said to have two mothers—Pārvati and Gangā and hence called dvaimātura and also Gāngeya."</ref> ''{{IAST|Gaṇādhipa}}'' (equivalent to ''Ganapati'' and ''Ganesha''), ''Ekadanta'' (one who has one tusk), ''[[Heramba]]'', ''Lambodara'' (one who has a pot belly, or, literally, one who has a hanging belly), and ''Gajanana'' (''{{IAST|gajānana}}''); having the face of an [[elephant]].<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Krishan|1999|p=6}}</ref>

''Vinayaka'' ({{lang|sa|विनायक}}; ''{{IAST|vināyaka}}'') or ''Binayaka'' is a common name for Ganesha that appears in the {{IAST|Purāṇa}}s and in Buddhist Tantras.<ref name="Thapan">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Thapan|1997|p=20}}</ref> This name is reflected in the naming of the eight famous Ganesha temples in Maharashtra known as the ''[[Ashtavinayak]]'' ({{lang-mr|अष्टविनायक}}, {{IAST|aṣṭavināyaka}}).<ref>For the history of the ''{{IAST|aṣṭavināyaka}}'' sites and a description of pilgrimage practices related to them, see: {{Harvard citation no brackets|Mate|1962|pp=1–25}}</ref> The names ''Vighnesha'' ({{lang|sa|विघ्नेश}}; ''{{IAST|vighneśa}}'') and ''Vighneshvara'' ({{lang|sa|विघ्नेश्वर}}; ''{{IAST|vighneśvara}}'') (Lord of Obstacles)<ref name="Vighnesha">These ideas are so common that Courtright uses them in the title of his book, ''Ganesha: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings''. For the name ''Vighnesha'', see: {{Harvnb|Courtright|1985|pp= 156, 213}}</ref> refers to his primary function in Hinduism as the master and remover of obstacles (''{{IAST|vighna}}'').<ref name="Krishanvii">For Krishan's views on Ganesha's dual nature see his quote: "{{IAST|Gaṇeśa}} has a dual nature; as Vināyaka, as a ''{{IAST|grāmadevatā}}'', he is ''{{IAST|vighnakartā}}'', and as {{IAST|Gaṇeśa}} he is ''{{IAST|vighnahartā}}'', a ''{{IAST|paurāṇic devatā}}''." ({{Harvard citation no brackets|Krishan|1999|p=viii}})</ref>

A prominent name for Ganesha in the [[Tamil language]] is ''Pillai'' ({{lang-ta|பிள்ளை}}) or ''Pillaiyar'' ({{lang|ta|பிள்ளையார்}}).<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Martin-Dubost|1965|p=367}}.</ref> A.K. Narain differentiates these terms by saying that ''pillai'' means a "child" while ''pillaiyar'' means a "noble child". He adds that the words ''pallu'', ''pella'', and ''pell'' in the [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian family of languages]] signify "tooth or tusk", also "[[elephant]] tooth or tusk".<ref>Narain, A.K. "{{IAST|Gaṇeśa}}: The Idea and the Icon".{{Harvard citation no brackets|Brown|1991|p=25}}</ref> Anita Raina Thapan notes that the [[Root (linguistics)|root word]] ''pille'' in the name ''Pillaiyar'' might have originally meant "the young of the elephant", because the [[Pali]] word ''pillaka'' means "a young elephant".<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Thapan|1997|p=62}}</ref>

In the [[Burmese language]], Ganesha is known as ''Maha Peinne'' ({{my|မဟာပိန္နဲ}}, {{IPA-my|məhà pèiɰ̃né|pron}}), derived from [[Pali]] {{IAST|Mahā Wināyaka}} ({{my|မဟာဝိနာယက}}).<ref>{{Citation |title=Myanmar-English Dictionary |year=1993 |publisher=Dunwoody Press |location=Yangon |isbn=978-1881265474 |url=http://sealang.net/burmese/dictionary.htm |access-date=20 September 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100210001846/http://www.sealang.net/burmese/dictionary.htm |archive-date=10 February 2010 }}</ref> The widespread name of Ganesha in [[Thailand]] is ''Phra Phikanet''.<ref>{{cite book|author=Justin Thomas McDaniel|title=The Lovelorn Ghost and the Magical Monk: Practicing Buddhism in Modern Thailand|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tMWrAgAAQBAJ |year=2013 | publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0231153775|pages=156–157}}</ref> The earliest images and mention of Ganesha names as a major deity in present-day Indonesia,<ref>{{citation|jstor=3351212|title=A Note on the Recently Discovered Gaṇeśa Image from Palembang, Sumatra|journal=Indonesia|volume=43|issue=43|pages=95–100|last1=Brown|first1=Robert L.|year=1987|doi=10.2307/3351212|hdl=1813/53865|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam date from the 7th and 8th centuries,{{Sfn|Brown|1991|pp=176, 182, Note: some scholars suggest adoption of Ganesha by the late 6th century CE, see p. 192 footnote 7}} and these mirror Indian examples of the 5th century or earlier.{{Sfn|Brown|1991|p=190}} In [[Sri Lanka]]n Singhala Buddhist areas, he is known as ''Gana deviyo'', and revered along with [[Buddha]], [[Vishnu]], [[Kartikeya|Skanda]] and others.<ref>{{cite book|author=John Clifford Holt |title=Buddha in the Crown : Avalokitesvara in the Buddhist Traditions of Sri Lanka: Avalokitesvara in the Buddhist Traditions of Sri Lanka |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aT3AMR8g1gEC|year=1991|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0195362466|pages=6, 100, 180–181}}</ref>

== Iconography ==
[[File:India ganesha.jpg|thumb|A 13th-century statue of Ganesha, [[Hoysala Empire|Hoysala]]-style, [[Karnataka]]]]

Ganesha is a popular figure in [[Indian art]].<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Metcalf|Metcalf|p=vii}}</ref> Unlike those of some deities, representations of Ganesha show wide variations and distinct patterns changing over time.<ref>* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Martin-Dubost|1965}}, for a comprehensive review of iconography abundantly illustrated with pictures.
* Chapter X, "Development of the Iconography of {{IAST|Gaṇeśa}}", in: {{Harvnb|Krishan|1999|pp=87–100}}, for a survey of iconography with emphasis on developmental themes, well-illustrated with plates.
* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Pal|1995}}, for a richly illustrated collection of studies on specific aspects of Ganesha with a focus on art and iconography.</ref> He may be portrayed standing, dancing, heroically taking action against demons, playing with his family as a boy, sitting down on an elevated seat, or engaging in a range of contemporary situations.

Ganesha images were prevalent in many parts of [[India]] by the 6th century CE.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Brown|1991|p=175}}</ref> The 13th-century statue pictured is typical of Ganesha statuary from 900 to 1200, after Ganesha had been well-established as an independent deity with his own sect. This example features some of Ganesha's common iconographic elements. A virtually identical statue has been dated between 973 and 1200 by Paul Martin-Dubost,<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Martin-Dubost|1997}}, p. 213. In the upper right corner, the statue is dated as (973–1200).</ref> and another similar statue is dated c. 12th century by Pratapaditya Pal.<ref>Pal, p. vi. The picture on this page depicts a stone statue in the [[Los Angeles County Museum of Art|Los Angeles County Museum]] of Art that is dated as c. 12th century. Pal shows an example of this form dated c. 13th century on p. viii.</ref> Ganesha has the head of an elephant and a big belly. This statue has four arms, which is common in depictions of Ganesha. He holds his own broken tusk in his lower-right hand and holds a delicacy, which he samples with his trunk, in his lower-left hand. The motif of Ganesha turning his trunk sharply to his left to taste a sweet in his lower-left hand is a particularly archaic feature.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Brown|1991|p=176}}</ref> A more primitive statue in one of the [[Ellora Caves]] with this general form has been dated to the 7th century.<ref>See photograph 2, "Large Ganesh", in: {{Harvard citation no brackets|Pal|1995|p=16}}</ref> Details of the other hands are difficult to make out on the statue shown. In the standard configuration, Ganesha typically holds an [[Parashu|axe]] or a [[Ankus|goad]] in one upper arm and a [[Pasha (Hinduism)|pasha]] ([[noose]]) in the other upper arm. In rare instances, he may be depicted with a human head.{{refn|group=note|For the human-headed form of Ganesha in:
* [[Adhi Vinayaka]] temple near [[Koothanur|Koothanur, Tamil Nadu]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://agasthiar.org/a/adinmv.htm|title=Adi Vinayaka - The Primordial Form of Ganesh.|website=agasthiar.org|access-date=28 December 2017}}</ref>
* [[Cambodia]], see {{Harvard citation no brackets|Brown|1991|p=10}}
* [[Nandrudayan Vinayaka Temple]].<ref>{{cite news|date=10 October 2003|title=Vinayaka in unique form|work=[[The Hindu]]|url=http://www.thehindu.com/fr/2003/10/10/stories/2003101001411200.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/2015.05.01-000652/http://www.thehindu.com/fr/2003/10/10/stories/2003101001411200.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 May 2015|access-date=30 April 2015}}</ref>
* [[Uthrapathiswaraswamy Temple]].<ref>Catlin, Amy; "Vātāpi Gaṇapatim": Sculptural, Poetic, and Musical Texts in the Hymn to Gaṇeśa" in {{Harvard citation no brackets|Brown|1991|pp=146, 150}}</ref>}}

The influence of this old constellation of iconographic elements can still be seen in contemporary representations of Ganesha. In one modern form, the only variation from these old elements is that the lower-right hand does not hold the broken tusk but is turned towards the viewer in a gesture of protection or fearlessness (Abhaya [[mudra]]).<ref>In:

* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Martin-Dubost|1965|pp=197–198}}
* photograph 9, "Ganesh images being taken for immersion", in: {{Harvard citation no brackets|Pal|1995|pp=22–23}}. For an example of a large image of this type being carried in a festival procession.
* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Pal|1995|p=25}}, For two similar statues about to be immersed.</ref> The same combination of four arms and attributes occurs in statues of Ganesha dancing, which is a very popular theme.<ref>In:
* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Pal|1995|pp=41–64}}. For many examples of Ganesha dancing.
* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Brown|1991|p=183}} For the popularity of the dancing form.</ref>

=== Common attributes ===
{{for|thirty-two popular iconographic forms of Ganesha|Thirty-two forms of Ganesha}}

[[File:Ganesha Nurpur miniature circa 1810 Dubost p64.jpg|thumb|A typical four-armed form. Miniature of [[Nurpur State|Nurpur]] school (circa 1810)<ref>Four-armed {{IAST|Gaṇeśa}}. Miniature of Nurpur school, circa 1810. Museum of Chandigarh. For this image see: Martin-Dubost (1997), p. 64, which describes it as follows: "On a terrace leaning against a thick white bolster, {{IAST|Gaṇeśa}} is seated on a bed of pink lotus petals arranged on a low seat to the back of which is fixed a parasol. The elephant-faced god, with his body entirely red, is dressed in a yellow [[dhoti]] and a yellow scarf fringed with blue. Two white mice decorated with a pretty golden necklace salute {{IAST|Gaṇeśa}} by joining their tiny feet together. {{IAST|Gaṇeśa}} counts on his rosary in his lower right hand; his two upper hands brandish an axe and an elephant goad; his fourth hand holds the broken left tusk."</ref>]]

Ganesha has been represented with the head of an elephant since the early stages of his appearance in Indian art.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Nagar|1992|p=77}}</ref> Puranic myths provide many explanations for how he got his elephant head.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Brown|1991|p=3}}</ref> One of his popular forms, ''[[Heramba|Heramba-Ganapati]]'', has five elephant heads, and other less-common variations in the number of heads are known.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Nagar|1992|p=78}}</ref> While some texts say that Ganesha was born with an elephant head, he acquires the head later in most stories.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Brown|1991|p=76}}</ref> The most recurrent motif in these stories is that Ganesha was created by [[Parvati]] using clay to protect her and [[Shiva]] beheaded him when Ganesha came between [[Shiva]] and [[Parvati]]. Shiva then replaced Ganesha's original head with that of an elephant.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Brown|1991|p=77}}</ref> Details of the battle and where the replacement head came from vary from source to source.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Brown|1991|pp=77–78}}</ref> Another story says that Ganesha was created directly by Shiva's laughter. Because Shiva considered Ganesha too alluring, he gave him the head of an elephant and a protruding belly.<ref>For creation of Ganesha from Shiva's laughter and subsequent curse by Shiva, see ''Varaha Purana'' 23.17 as cited in {{Harvard citation no brackets|Brown|1991|p=77}}.</ref>

Ganesha's earliest name was ''Ekadanta'' (One Tusked), referring to his single whole tusk, the other being broken.{{Sfn|Getty|1936|p= 1}} Some of the earliest images of Ganesha show him holding his broken tusk.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Heras|1972|p=29}}</ref> The importance of this distinctive feature is reflected in the ''[[Mudgala Purana]]'', which states that the name of Ganesha's second [[incarnation]] is Ekadanta.<ref>Granoff, Phyllis. "{{IAST|Gaṇeśa}} as Metaphor". {{Harvard citation no brackets|Brown|1991|pp=92–94}}</ref> Ganesha's protruding belly appears as a distinctive attribute in his earliest statuary, which dates to the Gupta period (4th to 6th centuries).<ref>"Ganesha in Indian Plastic Art" and ''Passim''. {{Harvard citation no brackets|Nagar|1992|p=78}}</ref> This feature is so important that according to the ''Mudgala Purana'', two different incarnations of Ganesha use names based on it: ''Lambodara'' (Pot Belly, or, literally, Hanging Belly) and ''Mahodara'' (Great Belly).<ref>Granoff, Phyllis. "{{IAST|Gaṇeśa}} as Metaphor". {{Harvard citation no brackets|Brown|1991|p=76}}</ref> Both names are Sanskrit compounds describing his belly (IAST: ''{{IAST|udara}}'').<ref>For translation of ''Udara'' as "belly" see: {{Harvard citation no brackets|Apte|1965|p=268}}</ref> The ''Brahmanda Purana'' says that Ganesha has the name Lambodara because all the universes (i.e., [[World egg|cosmic eggs]]; IAST: ''{{IAST|brahmāṇḍas}}'') of the past, present, and future are present in him.<ref>
* ''Br. P.'' 2.3.42.34
* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Thapan|1997|p=200}}, For a description of how a variant of this story is used in the ''Mudgala Purana'' 2.56.38–9</ref>

The number of Ganesha's arms varies; his best-known forms have between two and sixteen arms.<ref>For an iconographic chart showing number of arms and attributes classified by source and named form, see: {{Harvard citation no brackets|Nagar|1992|pp=191–195}} Appendix I.</ref> Many depictions of Ganesha feature four arms, which is mentioned in Puranic sources and codified as a standard form in some iconographic texts.<ref>For history and prevalence of forms with various arms and the four-armed form as one of the standard types see: {{Harvnb|Krishan|1999|p=89}}.</ref> His earliest images had two arms.<ref>
* {{Harvnb|Krishan|1999|p=89}}, For two-armed forms as an earlier development than four-armed forms.
* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Brown|1991|p=103}} Maruti Nandan Tiwari and Kamal Giri say in "Images of {{IAST|Gaṇeśa}} In Jainism" that the presence of only two arms on a Ganesha image points to an early date.</ref> Forms with 14 and 20 arms appeared in Central India during the 9th and the 10th centuries.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Martin-Dubost|1965|p=120}}.</ref> The serpent is a common feature in Ganesha iconography and appears in many forms.<ref>
* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Martin-Dubost|1965|p=202}}, For an overview of snake images in Ganesha iconography.
* {{Harvnb|Krishan|1999|pp=50–53}}, For an overview of snake images in Ganesha iconography.</ref> According to the ''Ganesha Purana'', Ganesha wrapped the serpent [[Vasuki (snake)|Vasuki]] around his neck.<ref>'''[[Ganesha Purana]]'''
* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Martin-Dubost|1965|p=202}}. For the [[Ganesha Purana]] references for {{IAST|Vāsuki}} around the neck and use of a serpent-throne.
* {{Harvnb|Krishan|1999|pp=51–52}}. For the story of wrapping {{IAST|Vāsuki}} around the neck and {{IAST|Śeṣa}} around the belly and for the name in his sahasranama as {{IAST|Sarpagraiveyakāṅgādaḥ}} ("Who has a serpent around his neck"), which refers to this standard iconographic element.</ref> Other depictions of snakes include use as a sacred thread (IAST: ''{{IAST|yajñyopavīta}}'')<ref>* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Martin-Dubost|1965|p=202}}. For the text of a stone inscription dated 1470 identifying Ganesha's sacred thread as the serpent {{IAST|Śeṣa}}.
* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Nagar|1992|p=92}}. For the snake as a common type of ''{{IAST|yajñyopavīta}}'' for Ganesha.</ref> wrapped around the stomach as a belt, held in a hand, coiled at the ankles, or as a throne. Upon Ganesha's forehead may be a [[third eye]] or the sectarian mark (IAST: {{IAST|[[tilaka]]}}), which consists of three horizontal lines.<ref>* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Nagar|1992|p=81}}. ''tilaka'' with three horizontal lines.
* the ''{{IAST|dhyānam}}'' in: Sharma (1993 edition of ''Ganesha Purana'') I.46.1. For Ganesa visualized as ''{{IAST|trinetraṁ}}'' (having three eyes).</ref> The ''Ganesha Purana'' prescribes a ''tilaka'' mark as well as a crescent moon on the forehead.<ref>* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Nagar|1992|p=81}}. For a citation to ''Ganesha Purana'' I.14.21–25 and For a citation to ''Padma Purana'' as prescribing the crescent for decoration of the forehead of Ganesha
* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Bailey|1995|pp=198–199}}. For the translation of ''Ganesha Purana'' I.14, which includes a meditation form with the moon on forehead.</ref> A distinct form of Ganesha called ''Bhalachandra'' (IAST: ''{{IAST|bhālacandra}}''; "Moon on the Forehead") includes that iconographic element.<ref>
* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Nagar|1992|p=81}} For Bhālacandra as a distinct form worshipped.
* Sharma (1993 edition of Ganesha Purana) I.46.15. For the name Bhālacandra appearing in the Ganesha Sahasranama
</ref>

Ganesha is often described as red in colour.<ref name="Nagar, Preface">{{Cite book|last=Civarāman̲|first=Akilā|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pyb8oAEACAAJ|title=Sri Ganesha Purana|date=2014|publisher=Giri Trading Agency|isbn=978-81-7950-629-5|language=en}}</ref> Specific colours are associated with certain forms.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Martin-Dubost|first=Paul|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H5DjAAAAMAAJ|title=Gaṇeśa, the Enchanter of the Three Worlds|date=1997|publisher=Franco-Indian Research|isbn=978-81-900184-3-2|pages=412–416|language=en}}</ref> Many examples of color associations with specific meditation forms are prescribed in the Sritattvanidhi, a treatise on [[Hindu iconography]]. For example, white is associated with his representations as ''Heramba-Ganapati'' and ''Rina-Mochana-Ganapati'' (Ganapati Who Releases from Bondage).<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Martin-Dubost|1997|pp=224–228}}</ref> ''Ekadanta-Ganapati'' is visualised as blue during meditation in that form.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Martin-Dubost|1997|p=228}}</ref>

=== Vahanas ===
[[File:Thajavur Ganesha.jpg|thumb|Ganesha on his [[vahana]] ''mooshika'' the rat, c. 1820]]
The earliest Ganesha images are without a [[vahana]] (mount/vehicle).<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Krishan|1999|pp=47–48, 78}}</ref> Of [[Mudgala Purana#The eight incarnations of Ganesha|the eight incarnations of Ganesha described in the ''Mudgala Purana'']], Ganesha uses a [[mouse]] (shrew) in five of them, a lion in his incarnation as ''Vakratunda'', a peacock in his incarnation as ''Vikata'', and [[Shesha]], the divine serpent, in his incarnation as ''Vighnaraja''.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Krishan|1981–1982|p=49}}</ref> ''Mohotkata'' uses a [[lion]], ''{{IAST|Mayūreśvara}}'' uses a peacock, ''Dhumraketu'' uses a [[horse]], and ''Gajanana'' uses a mouse, in the [[Mahotkata|four incarnations of Ganesha]] listed in the ''Ganesha Purana''. Jain depictions of Ganesha show his vahana variously as a [[mouse]], [[elephant]], [[tortoise]], ram, or [[Peafowl|peacock]].<ref>

* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Krishan|1999|pp=48–49}}
* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Bailey|1995|p=348}}. For the Ganesha Purana story of {{IAST|Mayūreśvara}} with the peacock mount (GP I.84.2–3)
* Maruti Nandan Tiwari and Kamal Giri, "Images of {{IAST|Gaṇeśa}} In Jainism", in: {{Harvard citation no brackets|Brown|1991|pp=101–102}}.</ref>

Ganesha is often shown riding on or attended by a [[mouse]], [[shrew]] or [[rat]].<ref>* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Nagar|1992}}. Preface.
* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Martin-Dubost|1965|pp=231–244}}.</ref> Martin-Dubost says that the rat began to appear as the principal vehicle in sculptures of Ganesha in central and western India during the 7th century; the rat was always placed close to his feet.<ref>See note on figure 43 in: {{Harvard citation no brackets|Martin-Dubost|1997|p=144}}.</ref> The mouse as a mount first appears in written sources in the ''[[Matsya Purana]]'' and later in the ''Brahmananda Purana'' and ''Ganesha Purana'', where Ganesha uses it as his vehicle in his last incarnation.<ref>Citations to ''Matsya Purana'' 260.54, ''Brahmananda Purana Lalitamahatmya'' XXVII, and ''[[Ganesha Purana]]'' 2.134–136 are provided by: {{Harvard citation no brackets|Martin-Dubost|1997|p=231}}.</ref> The [[Ganapati Atharvashirsa]] includes a meditation verse on Ganesha that describes the mouse appearing on his flag.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Martin-Dubost|1997|p=232}}.</ref> The names ''{{IAST|Mūṣakavāhana}}'' (mouse-mount) and ''{{IAST|Ākhuketana}}'' (rat-banner) appear in the ''[[Ganesha Sahasranama]]''.<ref>For {{IAST|Mūṣakavāhana}} see v. 6. For Ākhuketana see v. 67. In: ''{{IAST|Gaṇeśasahasranāmastotram: mūla evaṁ srībhāskararāyakṛta 'khadyota' vārtika sahita}}''. ({{IAST|Prācya Prakāśana: Vārāṇasī}}, 1991). Source text with a commentary by {{IAST|[[Bhaskararaya|Bhāskararāya]]}} in Sanskrit.</ref>

The mouse is interpreted in several ways. According to Grimes, "Many, if not most of those who interpret {{IAST|Gaṇapati}}'s mouse, do so negatively; it symbolizes ''[[Tamas (philosophy)|{{IAST|tamoguṇa}}]]'' as well as desire".<ref>For a review of different interpretations, and quotation, see: {{Harvard citation no brackets|Grimes|1995|p=86}}.</ref> Along these lines, Michael Wilcockson says it symbolises those who wish to overcome desires and be less selfish.<ref>''A Student's Guide to AS Religious Studies for the OCR Specification,'' by Michael Wilcockson, p. 117</ref> Krishan notes that the rat is destructive and a menace to crops. The Sanskrit word ''{{IAST|mūṣaka}}'' (mouse) is derived from the root ''{{IAST|mūṣ}}'' (stealing, robbing). It was essential to subdue the rat as a destructive pest, a type of ''vighna'' (impediment) that needed to be overcome. According to this theory, showing Ganesha as master of the rat demonstrates his function as ''Vigneshvara'' (Lord of Obstacles) and gives evidence of his possible role as a folk ''grāma-devatā'' (village deity) who later rose to greater prominence.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Krishan|1999|pp=49–50}}</ref> Martin-Dubost notes a view that the rat is a symbol suggesting that Ganesha, like the rat, penetrates even the most secret places.<ref>* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Martin-Dubost|1965|p=231}}
* Rocher, Ludo. "{{IAST|Gaṇeśa}}<nowiki/>'s Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature", in: {{Harvard citation no brackets|Brown|1991|p=73}}. For mention of the interpretation that "the rat is 'the animal that finds its way to every place,'"</ref>

== Features ==
[[File:Nepal, ganesha, xviii sec.JPG|thumb|175px|[[Heramba]]-Ganesha with consort, 18th century Nepal]]

=== Removal of obstacles ===
Ganesha is ''Vighneshvara'' (''Vighnaraja,'' [[Marathi language|Marathi]] – ''Vighnaharta)'', the Lord of Obstacles, both of a material and spiritual order.<ref>"Lord of Removal of Obstacles", a common name, appears in the title of Courtright's ''{{IAST|Gaṇeśa}}: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings''. For equivalent Sanskrit names ''Vighneśvara'' and ''Vighnarāja'', see: {{Harvard citation no brackets|Mate|1962|p=136}}</ref> He is popularly worshipped as a remover of obstacles, though traditionally he also places obstacles in the path of those who need to be checked. Hence, he is often worshipped by the people before they begin anything new.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://chopra.com/articles/ganesha-the-remover-of-obstacles | title=Ganesha: The Remover of Obstacles| date=31 May 2016}}</ref> Paul Courtright says that Ganesha's ''dharma'' and his raison d'être is to create and remove obstacles.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Courtright|1985|p=136}}</ref>

Krishan notes that some of Ganesha's names reflect shadings of multiple roles that have evolved over time.<ref name="Krishanvii"/> Dhavalikar ascribes the quick ascension of Ganesha in the Hindu pantheon, and the emergence of the {{IAST|Ganapatyas}}, to this shift in emphasis from ''{{IAST|vighnakartā}}'' (obstacle-creator) to ''{{IAST|vighnahartā}}'' (obstacle-averter).<ref>For Dhavilkar's views on Ganesha's shifting role, see Dhavalikar, M.K. "{{IAST|Gaṇeśa}}: Myth and reality" in {{Harvnb|Brown|1991|p=49}}</ref> However, both functions continue to be vital to his character.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Brown|1991|p=6}}</ref>

=== Buddhi (Intelligence) ===
Ganesha is considered to be the Lord of letters and learning.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Nagar|1992|p=5}}.</ref> In Sanskrit, the word ''[[buddhi]]'' is an active noun that is variously translated as intelligence, wisdom, or intellect.{{Sfn|Apte|1965|p= 703}} The concept of buddhi is closely associated with the personality of Ganesha, especially in the Puranic period, when many stories stress his cleverness and love of intelligence. One of Ganesha's names in the ''[[Ganesha Purana]]'' and the ''[[Ganesha Sahasranama]]'' is ''Buddhipriya''.<ref>''Ganesha Purana'' I.46, v. 5 of the Ganesha Sahasranama section in GP-1993, Sharma edition. It appears in verse 10 of the version as given in the Bhaskararaya commentary.</ref> This name also appears in a list of 21 names at the end of the ''Ganesha Sahasranama'' that Ganesha says are especially important.<ref>Sharma edition, GP-1993 I.46, verses 204–206. The Bailey edition uses a variant text, and where Sharma reads ''Buddhipriya'', Bailey translates ''Granter-of-lakhs.''</ref> The word ''priya'' can mean "fond of", and in a marital context it can mean "lover" or "husband",<ref>Practical Sanskrit Dictionary By [[Arthur Anthony McDonell]]; p. 187 (''priya''); Published 2004; [[Motilal Banarsidass]] Publ; {{ISBN|8120820002}}</ref> so the name may mean either "Fond of Intelligence" or "Buddhi's Husband".<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Krishan|1999|pp=60–70}}p. discusses Ganesha as "Buddhi's Husband".</ref>

=== Om ===
[[File:Ganesha asianartmuseumsf.jpg|thumb|upright|175px|Ganesha, Chola period, early 13th century.]]
Ganesha is identified with the Hindu [[mantra]] [[Om]]. The term ''{{IAST|oṃkārasvarūpa}}'' (Om is his form), when identified with Ganesha, refers to the notion that he personifies the primal sound.<ref>Grimes, p. 77.</ref> The ''[[Ganapati Atharvashirsa]]'' attests to this association. Chinmayananda translates the relevant passage as follows:{{Sfn|Chinmayananda|1987|p= 127, In Chinmayananda's numbering system, this is ''upamantra'' 8.}}

{{quote|(O Lord Ganapati!) You are (the Trimurti) [[Brahma]], [[Vishnu]], and [[Shiva|Mahesa]]. You are [[Indra]]. You are fire <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[Agni]]<nowiki>]</nowiki> and air <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[Vayu|{{IAST|Vāyu}}]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>. You are the sun <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[Surya|{{IAST|Sūrya}}]]<nowiki>]</nowiki> and the moon <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[Chandra]]ma<nowiki>].</nowiki> You are [[Brahman]]. You are (the three worlds) Bhuloka [earth], Antariksha-loka [space], and [[Swarga]]loka [heaven]. You are Om. (That is to say, You are all this).}}

Some devotees see similarities between the shape of Ganesha's body in iconography and the shape of Om in the [[Devanagari|Devanāgarī]] and [[Tamil language|Tamil]] scripts.<ref>For examples of both, see: {{Harvard citation no brackets|Grimes|1995|pp=79–80}}</ref>

=== First chakra ===
According to [[Kundalini yoga]], Ganesha resides in the first [[chakra]], called [[Muladhara]] ({{IAST|mūlādhāra}}). ''Mula'' means "original, main"; ''adhara'' means "base, foundation". The muladhara chakra is the principle on which the manifestation or outward expansion of primordial Divine Force rests.<ref name="T83">Tantra Unveiled: Seducing the Forces of Matter & Spirit By Rajmani Tigunait; Contributor Deborah Willoughby; Published 1999; Himalayan Institute Press; p. 83; {{ISBN|0893891584}}</ref> This association is also attested to in the ''Ganapati Atharvashirsa''. Courtright translates this passage as follows: "You continually dwell in the [[sacral plexus]] at the base of the spine [{{IAST|mūlādhāra cakra}}]."<ref name="courtright">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Courtright|1985|p=253}}.</ref> Thus, Ganesha has a permanent abode in every being at the Muladhara.{{Sfn|Chinmayananda|1987|p= 127, In Chinmayananda's numbering system this is part of ''upamantra'' 7. 'You have a permanent abode (in every being) at the place called "Muladhara"'.}} Ganesha holds, supports and guides all other chakras, thereby "governing the forces that propel the [[wheel of life]]".<ref name="T83" />

== Family and consorts ==
{{see also|Mythological anecdotes of Ganesha|Consorts of Ganesha}}
[[File:Ganesha Kangra miniature 18th century Dubost p51.jpg|thumb|left|[[Shiva]] and [[Parvati]] giving a bath to Ganesha. Kangra miniature, 18th century. [[Allahabad Museum]], New Delhi.<ref>This work is reproduced and described in Martin-Dubost (1997), p. 51, which describes it as follows: "This square shaped miniature shows us in a Himalayan landscape the god {{IAST|Śiva}} sweetly pouring water from his {{IAST|kamaṇḍalu}} on the head of baby {{IAST|Gaṇeśa}}. Seated comfortably on the meadow, {{IAST|Pārvatī}} balances with her left hand the baby {{IAST|Gaņeśa}} with four arms with a red body and naked, adorned only with jewels, tiny anklets and a golden chain around his stomach, a necklace of pearls, bracelets and armlets."</ref>]]

Though Ganesha is popularly held to be the son of [[Shiva]] and [[Parvati]], the [[Puranas|Puranic]] texts give different versions about his birth.<ref>In:
* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Nagar|1992|pp=7–14}}. For a summary of Puranic variants of birth stories.
* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Martin-Dubost|1965|pp=41–82}}. Chapter 2, "Stories of Birth According to the {{IAST|Purāṇas}}".</ref> In some he was created by Parvati,<ref>''Shiva Purana'' IV. 17.47–57. ''Matsya Purana'' 154.547.</ref> or by Shiva<ref>Linga Purana</ref> or created by Shiva ''and'' Parvati,<ref>''{{IAST|Varāha}} Purana'' 23.18–59.</ref> in another he appeared mysteriously and was discovered by Shiva and Parvati<ref>For summary of ''Brahmavaivarta Purana, Ganesha Khanda'', 10.8–37, see: {{Harvard citation no brackets|Nagar|1992|pp=11–13}}.</ref> or he was born from the elephant headed goddess Malini after she drank Parvati's bath water that had been thrown in the river.<ref name="Melton2011">{{cite book|last=Melton|first=J. Gordon|title=Religious Celebrations: An Encyclopedia of Holidays, Festivals, Solemn Observances, and Spiritual Commemorations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KDU30Ae4S4cC&pg=PA325|date=13 September 2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1598842050|pages=325–}}</ref>

The family includes his brother, the god of war, [[Kartikeya]], who is also called Skanda and Murugan.<ref>For a summary of variant names for Skanda, see: {{Harvard citation no brackets|Thapan|1997|p=300}}.</ref> Regional differences dictate the order of their births. In northern India, Skanda is generally said to be the elder, while in the south, Ganesha is considered the firstborn.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Khokar|Saraswati|2005}} p.4.</ref> In [[North India|northern India]], Skanda was an important martial deity from about 500 BCE to about 600 CE, after which worship of him declined significantly. As Skanda fell, Ganesha rose. Several stories tell of sibling rivalry between the brothers<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Brown|1991|p=79}}.</ref> and may reflect sectarian tensions.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Oka|1913|p=38}}.</ref>

Ganesha's marital status, the subject of considerable scholarly review, varies widely in mythological stories.<ref name="lawrence_cohen">For a review, see: Cohen, Lawrence. "The Wives of {{IAST|Gaṇeśa}}". {{Harvard citation no brackets|Brown|1991|pp=115–140}}</ref> One pattern of myths identifies Ganesha as an unmarried ''[[Brahmacharya|brahmachari]]''.<ref>In:
* {{Harvnb|Getty|1936|p=33}}. "According to ancient tradition, {{IAST|Gaṇeśa}} was a {{IAST|Brahmacārin}}, that is, an unmarried deity; but legend gave him two consorts, personifications of Wisdom (Buddhi) and Success (Siddhi)."
* {{Harvnb|Krishan|1999|p=63}}. "... in the ''{{IAST|smārta}}'' or orthodox traditional religious beliefs, {{IAST|Gaṇeśa}} is a bachelor or ''{{IAST|brahmacārī}}''"</ref> This view is common in southern India and parts of northern India.<ref>For discussion on celibacy of Ganesha, see: Cohen, Lawrence, "The Wives of {{IAST|Gaṇeśa}}", in: {{Harvnb|Brown|1991|pp=126–129}}.</ref> Another popularly-accepted mainstream pattern associates him with the concepts of ''Buddhi'' (intellect), ''Siddhi'' (spiritual power), and ''Riddhi'' (prosperity); these qualities are personified as goddesses, said to be Ganesha's wives.<ref>For a review of associations with Buddhi, Siddhi, Riddhi, and other figures, and the statement "In short the spouses of {{IAST|Gaṇeśa}} are the personifications of his powers, manifesting his functional features...", see: {{Harvnb|Krishan|1999|p=62}}.</ref> He also may be shown with a single consort or a nameless servant (Sanskrit: ''{{IAST|daşi}}'').<ref>For single consort or a nameless ''{{IAST|daşi}}'' (servant), see: Cohen, Lawrence, "The Wives of {{IAST|Gaṇeśa}}", in: {{Harvnb|Brown|1991|p=115}}.</ref> Another pattern connects Ganesha with the goddess of culture and the arts, [[Sarasvati]] or {{IAST|Śarda}} (particularly in [[Maharashtra]]).<ref>For associations with Śarda and [[Sarasvati]] and the identification of those goddesses with one another, see: Cohen, Lawrence, "The Wives of {{IAST|Gaṇeśa}}", in: {{Harvnb|Brown|1991|pp=131–132}}.</ref> He is also associated with the goddess of luck and prosperity, [[Lakshmi]].<ref>For associations with Lakshmi see: Cohen, Lawrence, "The Wives of {{IAST|Gaṇeśa}}", in: {{Harvnb|Brown|1991|pp=132–135}}.</ref> Another pattern, mainly prevalent in the [[Bengal]] region, links Ganesha with the banana tree, [[Kala Bo]].<ref>For discussion of the Kala Bou, see: Cohen, Lawrence, "The Wives of {{IAST|Gaṇeśa}}", in: {{Harvnb|Brown|1991|pp=124–125}}.</ref>

The ''[[Shiva Purana]]'' says that Ganesha had begotten two sons: {{IAST|Kşema}} (safety) and {{IAST|Lābha}} (profit). In northern Indian variants of this story, the sons are often said to be {{IAST|Śubha}} (auspiciousness) and {{IAST|Lābha}}.<ref>For statement regarding sons, see: Cohen, Lawrence, "The Wives of {{IAST|Gaṇeśa}}", in: {{Harvnb|Brown|1991|p=130}}.</ref> The 1975 [[Hindi film]] ''[[Jai Santoshi Maa]]'' shows Ganesha married to Riddhi and Siddhi and having a daughter named [[Santoshi Mata|Santoshi Ma]], the goddess of satisfaction. This story has no Puranic basis, but Anita Raina Thapan and Lawrence Cohen cite Santoshi Ma's cult as evidence of Ganesha's continuing evolution as a popular deity.<ref>In:

* Cohen, Lawrence. "The Wives of {{IAST|Gaṇeśa}}". {{Harvard citation no brackets|Brown|1991|p=130}}.
* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Thapan|1997}}, p. 15–16, 230, 239, 242, 251.</ref>

== Worship and festivals ==
[[File:Hindus in Ghana celebrating Ganesh Chaturti.jpg|thumb|[[Hinduism in Ghana|Hindus in Ghana]] celebrating [[Ganesh Chaturti]]]]

Ganesha is worshipped on many religious and secular occasions, especially at the beginning of ventures such as buying a vehicle or starting a business.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Krishan|1981–1982|pp=1–3}}</ref> K.N Soumyaji says, "there can hardly be a [Hindu] home [in India] which does not house an idol of Ganapati. ... Ganapati, being the most popular deity in India, is worshipped by almost all castes and in all parts of the country".<ref>K.N. Somayaji, ''Concept of Ganesha'', p. 1 as quoted in {{Harvard citation no brackets|Krishan|1999|pp=2–3}}</ref> Devotees believe that if Ganesha is propitiated, he grants success, prosperity and protection against adversity.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Krishan|1999|p=38}}</ref>

Ganesha is a non-sectarian deity. Hindus of all denominations invoke him at the beginning of prayers, important undertakings, and religious ceremonies.<ref>For worship of Ganesha by "followers of all sects and denominations, Saivites, Vaisnavites, Buddhists, and Jainas" see {{Harvnb|Krishan|1981–1982|p=285}}</ref> Dancers and musicians, particularly in southern India, begin art performances such as the [[Bharatnatyam|Bharatanatyam]] dance with a prayer to Ganesha.<ref name="Nagar, Preface"/> [[Mantra]]s such as ''Om Shri {{IAST|Gaṇeshāya}} Namah'' (Om, salutation to the Illustrious Ganesha) are often used. One of the most famous mantras associated with Ganesha is ''Om {{IAST|Gaṃ}} Ganapataye Namah'' (Om, {{IAST|Gaṃ}}, Salutation to the Lord of Hosts).<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Grimes|1995|p=27}}</ref>

Devotees offer Ganesha sweets such as [[modak]]a and small sweet balls called [[laddu]]s. He is often shown carrying a bowl of sweets, called a ''{{IAST|modakapātra}}''.<ref>The term ''modaka'' applies to all regional varieties of cakes or sweets offered to Ganesha. {{Harvard citation no brackets|Martin-Dubost|1965|p=204}}.</ref> Because of his identification with the color red, he is often worshipped with [[red sandalwood]] paste ({{IAST|raktachandana}})<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Martin-Dubost|1965|p=369}}.</ref> or red flowers. {{IAST|Dūrvā}} grass (''[[Cynodon dactylon]]'') and other materials are also used in his worship.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Martin-Dubost|1965|pp=95–99}}</ref>

Festivals associated with Ganesh are [[Ganesha Chaturthi]] or Vināyaka chaturthī in the ''[[paksha|{{IAST|śuklapakṣa}}]]'' (the fourth day of the waxing moon) in the month of ''[[Bhadrapada]]'' (August/September) and the [[Ganesh Jayanti]] (Ganesha's birthday) celebrated on the ''cathurthī'' of the ''{{IAST|śuklapakṣa}}'' (fourth day of the waxing moon) in the month of ''[[Maagha|magha]]'' (January/February)."<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Thapan|1997}} p. 215</ref>

===Ganesha Chaturthi===
[[File:Ganesh mimarjanam EDITED.jpg|thumb|175px|upright|Street festivities in [[Hyderabad, India]] during the festival of Ganesha Chaturthi]]

An annual festival honours Ganesha for ten days, starting on Ganesha Chaturthi, which typically falls in late August or early September.<ref>For the fourth waxing day in {{IAST|Māgha}} being dedicated to Ganesa ({{IAST|Gaṇeśa-caturthī}}) see: {{Harvard citation|Bhattacharyya|1956}}., "Festivals and Sacred Days", in: Bhattacharyya, volume IV, p. 483.</ref> The festival begins with people bringing in clay idols of Ganesha, symbolising the god's visit. The festival culminates on the day of [[Ananta Chaturdashi]], when the idols (''[[murti]]s'') are immersed in the most convenient body of water.<ref>''The Experience of Hinduism: Essays on Religion in Maharashtra''; Edited By Eleanor Zelliot, Maxine Berntsen, pp. 76–94 ("The Ganesh Festival in Maharashtra: Some Observations" by Paul B. Courtright); 1988; SUNY Press; {{ISBN|088706664X}}</ref>  Some families have a tradition of immersion on the 2nd, 3rd, 5th, or 7th day. In 1893, [[Lokmanya Tilak]] transformed this annual Ganesha festival from private family celebrations into a grand public event.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Metcalf|Metcalf}}, p. 150.</ref> He did so "to bridge the gap between the [[Brahmin]]s and the non-Brahmins and find an appropriate context in which to build a new grassroots unity between them" in his nationalistic strivings against the British in [[Maharashtra]].<ref>In:

* {{Harvard citation|Brown|1991|p=9}}.
* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Thapan|1997|p=225}} For Tilak's role in converting the private family festivals to a public event in support of [[Indian nationalism]].</ref> Because of Ganesha's wide appeal as "the god for Everyman", Tilak chose him as a rallying point for Indian protest against British rule.<ref>In:
* Momin, A.R., ''The Legacy of G.S. Ghurye: A Centennial Festschrift'', p. 95.
* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Brown|1991}}, p. 9. For Ganesha's appeal as "the god for Everyman" as a motivation for Tilak.</ref> Tilak was the first to install large public images of Ganesha in [[Pandal|pavilions]], and he established the practice of submerging all the public images on the tenth day.<ref>For Tilak as the first to use large public images in ''{{IAST|maṇḍapas}}'' (pavilions or tents) see: {{Harvard citation no brackets|Thapan|1997}}, p. 225.</ref>
Today, Hindus across India celebrate the Ganapati festival with great fervour, though it is most popular in the state of Maharashtra.<ref>For Ganesh Chaturthi as the most popular festival in Maharashtra, see: {{Harvard citation no brackets|Thapan|1997}}, p. 226.</ref><ref>"{{IAST|Gaṇeśa}} in a Regional Setting". {{Harvard citation no brackets|Courtright|1985}}, p. 202–247.</ref> The festival also assumes huge proportions in [[Mumbai]], [[Pune]], and in the surrounding belt of Ashtavinayaka temples.

=== Temples ===
{{further|List of Ganapati temples|Ashtavinayak}}
[[File:Morgaon.jpg|thumb|upright|left|The Morgaon temple, the chief Ashtavinyak temple]]

In Hindu temples, Ganesha is depicted in various ways: as a subordinate deity (''{{IAST|pãrśva-devatã}}''); as a deity related to the principal deity (''{{IAST|parivāra-devatã}}''); or as the principal deity of the temple ({{IAST|pradhāna}}).<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Krishan|1999}}, p. 92</ref> As the god of transitions, he is placed at the doorway of many Hindu temples to keep out the unworthy, which is analogous to his role as Parvati's doorkeeper.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Brown|1991}}, p. 3</ref> In addition, several shrines are dedicated to Ganesha himself, of which the Ashtavinayak (Sanskrit: अष्टविनायक; {{IAST|aṣṭavināyaka}}; lit. "eight Ganesha (shrines)") in Maharashtra are particularly well known. Located within a 100-kilometer radius of the city of [[Pune]], each of the eight shrines celebrates a particular form of Ganapati, complete with its own lore.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Grimes|1995}}, p. 110–112</ref> The eight shrines are: [[Morgaon Ganesha Temple|Morgaon]], [[Siddhivinayak Temple, Siddhatek|Siddhatek]], [[Ballaleshwar Pali|Pali]], [[Varadvinayak|Mahad]], [[Chintamani Temple, Theur|Theur]], [[Lenyadri]], [[Vigneshwara Temple, Ozar|Ozar]] and [[Ranjangaon Ganpati|Ranjangaon]].

There are many other important Ganesha temples at the following locations: [[Siddhivinayak Temple, Mumbai|Siddhivinayak temple]] in Mumbai, Ganpatipule temple at [[Ganpatipule]], Binkhambi Ganesh mandir in Kolhapur, Jai Vinayak temple in Jaigad, Ratnagiri, [[Wai, Maharashtra|Wai]] in Maharashtra; [[Chintaman Ganesh temple, Ujjain|
Ujjain]] in [[Madhya Pradesh]]; [[Jodhpur]], [[Nagaur]] and Raipur ([[Pali, Rajasthan|Pali]]) in [[Rajasthan]]; Baidyanath in [[Bihar]]; [[Baroda]], Dholaka, and [[Valsad]] in [[Gujarat]] and Dhundiraj Temple in [[Varanasi]], [[Uttar Pradesh]]. Prominent Ganesha temples in southern India include the following: [[Vinayaka Temple, Kanipakam|Kanipakam]] in [[Andhra Pradesh]]; the [[Rockfort Ucchi Pillayar Temple]] at [[Tiruchirapalli]] and [[Arulmigu Munthi Vinayagar Temple|Puliakulam Munthi Vinayagar Temple]] at [[Coimbatore]]<ref>{{cite news|title=Major Ganesha Temples around the world|url=https://tamilminutes.com/famous-vinayagar-temple-in-the-world/|date=31 August 2022|newspaper=Tamil Minutes|access-date=22 October 2022}}</ref> in [[Tamil Nadu]]; [[Kottarakkara Sree Mahaganapathi Kshethram|Kottarakkara]], [[Trivandrum|Pazhavangadi]], [[Madhur Temple|Kasargod]] in [[Kerala]]; [[Hampi]], and [[Ganesha Temple, Idagunji|Idagunji]] in [[Karnataka]]; and [[Bhadrachalam]] in [[Telangana]].<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Krishna|1985}}, p. 91–92</ref>

T. A. Gopinatha notes, "Every village however small has its own image of ''{{IAST|Vighneśvara}}'' (Vigneshvara) with or without a temple to house it in. At entrances of villages and forts, below ''{{IAST|pīpaḹa}}'' ([[Sacred fig]]) trees ... in a niche ... in temples of ''{{IAST|Viṣṇu}}'' (Vishnu) as well as ''{{IAST|Śiva}}'' (Shiva) and also in separate shrines specially constructed in ''{{IAST|Śiva}}'' temples ... the figure of ''{{IAST|Vighneśvara}}'' is invariably seen."<ref>T.A. Gopinatha; ''Elements of Hindu Iconography'', p. 47–48 as quoted in {{Harvard citation no brackets|Krishan|1999|p=2}}</ref> Ganesha temples have also been built outside of India, including [[Southeast Asia]], [[Nepal]] (including the four ''Vinayaka'' shrines in the [[Kathmandu Valley]]),<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Krishan|1999}}, p. 147–158</ref> and in several western countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ganapati.club.fr/anglais/tslesganesheng.html|title=Ganesha Temples worldwide|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071217044207/http://ganapati.club.fr/anglais/tslesganesheng.html|archive-date=17 December 2007}}</ref>

== Rise to prominence ==

=== First appearance ===
[[File:Kabul ganesh khingle.jpg|thumb|175px|upright|The ''[[Gardez Ganesha]]'', a 7th-century marble Ganesha found in [[Gardez]], [[Afghanistan]], and once displayed at Dargah Pir Rattan Nath, [[Kabul]].<ref>The inscription says that this "great and beautiful image of {{IAST|Mahāvināyaka}}" was consecrated by the [[Turk Shahis|Shahi]] King Khingala. For photograph of statue and details of inscription, see: Dhavalikar, M.K., "{{IAST|Gaņeśa}}: Myth and Reality", in: {{Harvnb|Brown|1991|pp=50, 63}}. </ref><ref>{{citation|jstor=29755703|title=A Note on Two Gaṇeśa Statues from Afghanistan|journal=East and West|volume=21|issue=3/4|pages=331–336|last1=Dhavalikar|first1=M. K.|year=1971}}</ref>]]

An elephant–headed anthropomorphic figure on [[Indo-Greek Kingdom|Indo-Greek]] coins from the 1st century BCE has been proposed by some scholars to be "incipient Ganesha", while others have suggested Ganesha may have been an emerging deity in India and southeast Asia around the 2nd century CE based on the evidence from archaeological excavations in Mathura and outside India.<ref>{{Harvnb|Brown|1991|pages=6–7}}</ref> First [[terracotta]] images of Ganesha are from 1st century CE found in Ter, Pal, Verrapuram, and Chandraketugarh. These figures are small, with an elephant head, two arms, and chubby physique. The earliest Ganesha icons in stone were carved in Mathura during Kushan times (2nd–3rd centuries CE).<ref name="Kumar, Ajit 2007. pp. 89-91">{{cite journal |last1=Kumar |first1=Ajit|date=2007 |title=A Unique Early Historic Terracotta Ganesa Image from Pal, District Aurangabad, Maharashtra |url=https://www.academia.edu/4417003 |journal=Kala, the Journal of Indian Art History Congress, Vol XI. (2006–2007)|language=en|pages=89–91}}</ref>

Ganesha appeared in his classic form as a clearly-recognizable deity with well-defined iconographic attributes in the early 4th to 5th centuries CE.{{Sfn|Brown|1991|pp=19–21, chapter by AK Narain}} Some of the earliest known Ganesha images include two images found in eastern Afghanistan. The first image was discovered in the ruins north of [[Kabul]] along with those of [[Surya]] and [[Shiva]]. It is dated to the 4th century. The second image found in [[Gardez]], the [[Gardez Ganesha]], has an inscription on Ganesha pedestal that has helped date it to the 5th century. Another Ganesha sculpture is embedded in the walls of Cave 6 of the [[Udayagiri Caves]] in [[Madhya Pradesh]]. This is dated to the 5th century. An early iconic image of Ganesha with elephant head, a bowl of sweets and a goddess sitting in his lap has been found in the ruins of the [[Bhumara Temple]] in Madhya Pradesh, and this is dated to the 5th-century [[Gupta Empire|Gupta period]].<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Nagar|1992|p=4}}</ref>{{Sfn|Brown|1991|pp=50–55, 120}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Raman Sukumar|title=The Living Elephants: Evolutionary Ecology, Behaviour, and Conservation |url=https://archive.org/details/livingelephantse00suku_0 |url-access=registration|year=2003|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0198026730|pages=[https://archive.org/details/livingelephantse00suku_0/page/67 67]–68}}</ref> Other recent discoveries, such as one from Ramgarh Hill, are also dated to the 4th or 5th century.{{Sfn|Brown|1991|pp=50–55, 120}} An independent cult with Ganesha as the primary deity was well established by about the 10th century.{{Sfn|Brown|1991|pp=19–21, chapter by AK Narain}} Narain summarises the lack of evidence about Ganesha's history before the 5th century as follows:{{Sfn|Brown|1991|pp=19–21, chapter by AK Narain}}

[[File:Ganesha at Bhumara.jpg|thumb|left|Ganesha from [[Bhumara Temple]], 5th-6th century CE.]]
{{quote|What is inscrutable is the somewhat dramatic appearance of Gaṇeśa on the historical scene. His antecedents are not clear. His wide acceptance and popularity, which transcend sectarian and territorial limits, are indeed amazing. On the one hand, there is the pious belief of the orthodox devotees in Gaṇeśa's Vedic origins and in the {{IAST|Purāṇic}} explanations contained in the confusing, but nonetheless interesting, mythology. On the other hand, there are doubts about the existence of the idea and the icon of ''this'' deity" before the fourth to fifth century A.D. ... [I]n my opinion, indeed there is no convincing evidence [in ancient Brahmanic literature] of the existence of this divinity prior to the fifth century.}}

The evidence for more ancient Ganesha, suggests Narain, may reside outside Brahmanic or Sanskritic traditions, or outside geocultural boundaries of India.{{Sfn|Brown|1991|pp=19–21, chapter by AK Narain}} Ganesha appears in [[China]] by the 6th century, states Brown,{{Sfn|Brown|1991|p=2}} and his artistic images in temple setting as "remover of obstacles" in South Asia appear by about 400 CE.{{Sfn|Brown|1991|p=8}} He is, states Bailey, recognised as goddess Parvati's son and integrated into [[Shaivism]] theology by early centuries of the common era.{{Sfn|Bailey|1995|p=ix}}

=== Possible influences ===
[[File:Durga Puja Köln 2009 4.jpg|thumb|left|175px|upright|Ganesha worshipped in the [[Durga Puja]] celebrations in [[Cologne]]]]
Courtright reviews various speculative theories about the early history of Ganesha, including supposed tribal traditions and animal cults, and dismisses all of them in this way:<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Courtright|1985}} p. 10–11.</ref>
{{quote|In this search for a historical origin for Gaṇeśa, some have suggested precise locations outside the {{IAST|Brāhmaṇic}} tradition.... These historical locations are intriguing to be sure, but the fact remains that they are all speculations, variations on the Dravidian hypothesis, which argues that anything not attested to in the Vedic and Indo-European sources must have come into {{IAST|Brāhmaṇic}} religion from the Dravidian or aboriginal populations of India as part of the process that produced Hinduism out of the interactions of the Aryan and non-Aryan populations. There is no independent evidence for an elephant cult or a totem; nor is there any archaeological data pointing to a tradition prior to what we can already see in place in the {{IAST|Purāṇic}} literature and the iconography of {{IAST|Gaṇeśa}}.}}

Thapan's book on the development of Ganesha devotes a chapter to speculations about the role elephants had in early India but concludes that "although by the second century CE the elephant-headed ''{{IAST|yakṣa}}'' form exists it cannot be presumed to represent {{IAST|Gaṇapati-Vināyaka}}. There is no evidence of a deity by this name having an elephant or elephant-headed form at this early stage. {{IAST|Gaṇapati-Vināyaka}} had yet to make his debut."<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Thapan|1997}}, p. 75.</ref>

The [[Pashupati seal]] (c. 2300 BCE - 2000 BCE) depicts 4 animals including an elephant around a deity who is claimed by some to be [[Shiva]]. Brown notes that this seal indicates the sacredness of elephants before Vedic period.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Brown|1991|p=33}}</ref> One theory of the origin of Ganesha is that he gradually came to prominence in connection with the four [[Vinayakas]] ({{IAST|Vināyakas}}).<ref>In:

* ''Passim''. {{Harvard citation no brackets|Thapan|1997}}.
* Rocher, Ludo. "Gaṇeśa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature". {{Harvard citation no brackets|Brown|1991}}, p. 70–72.</ref> In [[Hindu mythology]], the {{IAST|Vināyakas}} were a group of four troublesome demons who created obstacles and difficulties<ref>''Aitareya Brāhmana'', I, 21.</ref> but who were easily propitiated.<ref>Bhandarkar. [[Vaishnavism|Vaisnavism]], Saivism and other Minor Sects. p. 147–148.</ref> The name Vināyaka is a common name for Ganesha both in the {{IAST|Purāṇas}} and in Buddhist Tantras.<ref name="Thapan" /> Krishan is one of the academics who accept this view, stating flatly of Ganesha, "He is a non-Vedic god. His origin is to be traced to the four Vināyakas, evil spirits, of the ''Mānavagŗhyasūtra'' (7th–4th century BCE) who cause various types of evil and suffering".<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Krishan|1999}}, p. vii.</ref> Depictions of elephant-headed human figures, which some identify with Ganesha, appear in [[Indian art]] and [[Indian coinage|coinage]] as early as the 2nd century.<ref>For a discussion of early depiction of elephant-headed figures in art, see {{Harvnb|Krishan|1981–1982|pp=287–290}} or {{Harvnb|Krishna|1985|pp=31–32}}</ref> According to Ellawala, the elephant-headed Ganesha as lord of the Ganas was known to the people of [[Sri Lanka]] in the early pre-Christian era.{{Sfn|Ellawala|1969| p= 159}}

=== Vedic and epic literature ===
[[File:Ganesa writing the Mahabharat.jpeg|thumb|250px|17th century [[Rajasthan]]I manuscript of the [[Mahabharata]] depicting [[Vyasa]] narrating the Mahabharata to Ganesha, who serves as the scribe]]
The title "Leader of the group" (Sanskrit: ''{{IAST|gaṇapati}}'') occurs twice in the ''[[Rig Veda]]'', but in neither case does it refer to the modern Ganesha. The term appears in RV 2.23.1 as a title for [[Brahmanaspati]], according to commentators.<ref>Wilson, H. H. ''{{IAST|Ṛgveda Saṃhitā}}''. Sanskrit text, English translation, notes, and index of verses. Parimal Sanskrit Series No. 45. Volume II: {{IAST|Maṇḍalas}} 2, 3, 4, 5. Second Revised Edition; Edited and Revised by Ravi Prakash Arya and K. L. Joshi. (Parimal Publications: Delhi, 2001). (Vol. II); {{ISBN|8171101380}} (Set). RV 2.23.1 (2222) {{IAST|gaṇānāṃ tvā gaṇapatiṃ havāmahe kaviṃ kavīnāmupamaśravastamam}} | 2.23.1; "We invoke the {{IAST|Brahmaṇaspati}}, chief leader of the (heavenly) bands; a sage of sages."</ref> While this verse doubtless refers to Brahmanaspati, it was later adopted for worship of Ganesha and is still used today.<ref>In:

* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Nagar|1992|p=3}}.
* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Mate|1962|p=1}}.</ref> In rejecting any claim that this passage is evidence of Ganesha in the ''Rig Veda'', Ludo Rocher says that it "clearly refers to {{IAST|Bṛhaspati}}—who is the deity of the hymn—and {{IAST|Bṛhaspati}} only".<ref>Rocher, Ludo. "{{IAST|Gaṇeśa}}<nowiki/>'s Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature". {{Harvard citation no brackets|Brown|1991}}, p. 69. {{IAST|Bṛhaspati}} is a variant name for Brahamanaspati.</ref> Equally clearly, the second passage ([[Mandala 10|RV 10]].112.9) refers to [[Indra]],<ref>Rocher, Ludo. "{{IAST|Gaṇeśa}}<nowiki/>'s Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature". {{Harvard citation no brackets|Brown|1991}}, p. 69–70.</ref> who is given the epithet '{{IAST|gaṇapati}}', translated "Lord of the companies (of the ''Maruts'')."<ref>Wilson, H.H. ''{{IAST|Ṛgveda Saṃhitā}}''. Sanskrit text, English translation, notes, and index of verses. Parimal Sanskrit Series No. 45. Volume IV: {{IAST|Maṇḍalas}} 9, 10. Second Revised Edition; Edited and Revised by Ravi Prakash Arya and K.L. Joshi. (Parimal Publications: Delhi, 2001). (Vol. IV); {{ISBN|8171101380}} (Set). RV 10.112.9 (10092) {{IAST|ni ṣu sīda gaṇapate gaṇeṣu tvāmāhurvipratamaṃ kavīnām}}; "Lord of the companies (of the ''[[Maruts]]''), sit down among the companies (of the worshippers), they call you the most sage of sages".</ref> However, Rocher notes that the more recent Ganapatya literature often quotes the Rigvedic verses to give Vedic respectability to Ganesha.<ref>For use of RV verses in recent Ganapatya literature, see Rocher, Ludo. "{{IAST|Gaṇeśa}}'s Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature" in {{Harvnb|Brown|1991|p=70}}</ref>

The Sangam period Tamil poet [[Avvaiyar]] (3rd century BCE), invokes Ganesha while preparing the invitation to the three Tamil Kingdoms for giving away in marriage of Angavay and Sangavay of [[Ceylon]] in marriage to the King of [[Tirukoilur|Tirucovalur]] (pp. 57–59).<ref name="Robinson1873">{{cite book |author= Edward Jewitt Robinson |title=Tamil Wisdom; Traditions Concerning Hindu Sages, and Selections from their writings |url=https://archive.org/details/tamilwisdomtradi00robiuoft |year=1873 |publisher= Wesleyan Conference Office | location=London}}</ref>

Two verses in texts belonging to [[Yajurveda|Black Yajurveda]], ''{{IAST|Maitrāyaṇīya Saṃhitā}}'' (2.9.1)<ref>The verse : "{{IAST|tát karāţāya vidmahe}} | {{IAST|hastimukhāya dhîmahi}} | {{IAST|tán no dántî pracodáyāt}}||"</ref> and ''{{IAST|Taittirīya Āraṇyaka}}'' (10.1),<ref>The verse: " {{IAST|tát púruṣâya vidmahe vakratuṇḍāya dhîmahi}}| {{IAST|tán no dántî pracodáyāt}}||"</ref> appeal to a deity as "the tusked one" ({{IAST|Dantiḥ}}), "elephant-faced" (Hastimukha), and "with a curved trunk" ({{IAST|Vakratuṇḍa}}). These names are suggestive of Ganesha, and the 14th century commentator [[Sayana]] explicitly establishes this identification.<ref>For text of ''{{IAST|Maitrāyaṇīya Saṃhitā}}'' 2.9.1 and ''{{IAST|Taittirīya Āraṇyaka}}'' 10.1 and identification by {{IAST|Sāyaṇa}} in his commentary on the {{IAST|āraṇyaka}}, see: Rocher, Ludo, "{{IAST|Gaṇeśa}}'s Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature" in {{Harvnb|Brown|1991|p=70}}.</ref> The description of Dantin, possessing a twisted trunk ({{IAST|vakratuṇḍa}}) and holding a corn-sheaf, a sugar cane,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rajarajan|first=R.K.K.|year=2001|title=Sugarcane Gaṇapati|url=https://www.academia.edu/2378055|journal=East and West, Rome|volume=51|issue=3/4|pages=379–84|jstor=29757520|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201041014/http://www.academia.edu/2378055/Sugarcane_Ganapati|archive-date=1 February 2016}}</ref> and a club,<ref>Taittiriya Aranyaka, X, 1, 5.</ref> is so characteristic of the Puranic Ganapati that Heras says "we cannot resist to accept his full identification with this Vedic Dantin".<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Heras|1972}}, p. 28.</ref> However, Krishan considers these hymns to be post-Vedic additions.<ref>In:

* {{Harvnb|Krishan|1981–1982|p=290}}
* {{Harvnb|Krishan|1999|pp=12–15}}. For arguments documenting interpolation into the ''{{IAST|Maitrāyaṇīya Saṃhitā}}''</ref> Thapan reports that these passages are "generally considered to have been interpolated". Dhavalikar says, "the references to the elephant-headed deity in the ''{{IAST|Maitrāyaṇī Saṃhitā}}'' have been proven to be very late interpolations, and thus are not very helpful for determining the early formation of the deity".<ref>
* Thapan, p. 101. For interpolation into the {{IAST|Maitrāyaṇīya Saṃhitā}} and {{IAST|Taittirīya Āraṇyaka}}.
* Dhavalikar, M.K. "{{IAST|Gaṇeśa}}: Myth and reality" in {{Harvnb|Brown|1991|pp=56–57}}. For Dhavilkar's views on Ganesha's in early Literature.</ref>

Ganesha does not appear in the [[Indian epic]] literature that is dated to the [[Vedic period]]. A late interpolation to the epic poem ''[[Mahabharata]]'' (1.1.75–79{{efn|Bombay edition}}) says that the sage [[Vyasa]] ({{IAST|Vyāsa}}) asked Ganesha to serve as his scribe to transcribe the poem as he dictated it to him. Ganesha agreed but only on the condition that Vyasa recites the poem uninterrupted, that is, without pausing. The sage agreed but found that to get any rest he needed to recite very complex passages so Ganesha would have to ask for clarifications. The story is not accepted as part of the original text by the editors of the critical edition of the ''Mahabharata'',<ref>Rocher, Ludo "Ganesa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature". Brown, pp. 71–72.</ref> in which the twenty-line story is relegated to a footnote in an appendix.<ref>''{{IAST|Mahābhārata}}'' Vol. 1 Part 2. Critical edition, p. 884.</ref> The story of Ganesha acting as the scribe occurs in 37 of the 59 manuscripts consulted during the preparation of the critical edition.<ref>For a statement that "Fifty-nine manuscripts of the ''{{IAST|Ādiparvan}}'' were consulted for the reconstruction of the critical edition. The story of {{IAST|Gaṇeśa}} acting as the scribe for writing the ''{{IAST|Mahābhārata}}'' occurs in 37 manuscripts", see: {{Harvnb|Krishan|1999|p=31, note 4}}.</ref> Ganesha's association with mental agility and learning is one reason he is shown as scribe for {{IAST|Vyāsa}}'s dictation of the ''Mahabharata'' in this interpolation.<ref>Brown, p. 4.</ref> Richard L. Brown dates the story to the 8th century, and [[Moriz Winternitz]] concludes that it was known as early as c. 900, but it was not added to the ''Mahabharata'' some 150 years later. Winternitz also notes that a distinctive feature in [[South India]]n manuscripts of the ''Mahabharata'' is their omission of this Ganesha legend.<ref>Winternitz, Moriz. "{{IAST|Gaṇeśa}} in the {{IAST|Mahābhārata}}". Journal of [[Royal Asiatic Society|the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland]] (1898:382). Citation provided by Rocher, Ludo. "{{IAST|Gaṇeśa}}<nowiki/>'s Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature". {{Harvard citation no brackets|Brown|1991}}, p. 80.</ref> The term ''{{IAST|vināyaka}}'' is found in some recensions of the ''{{IAST|Śāntiparva}}'' and ''{{IAST|Anuśāsanaparva}}'' that are regarded as interpolations.<ref>For interpolations of the term vināyaka see: {{Harvnb|Krishan|1999|p=29}}.</ref> A reference to ''{{IAST|Vighnakartṛīṇām}}'' ("Creator of Obstacles") in ''Vanaparva'' is also believed to be an interpolation and does not appear in the critical edition.<ref>For reference to {{IAST|Vighnakartṛīṇām}} and translation as "Creator of Obstacles", see: {{Harvnb|Krishan|1999|p=29}}.</ref>

=== Puranic period ===
{{details|Mythological anecdotes of Ganesha}}
[[File:Ganesha pachayatana.jpg|thumb|A Ganesha-centric Panchayatana: Ganesha (centre) with Shiva (top left), Devi (top right), Vishnu (bottom left) and Surya (bottom right).]]
Stories about Ganesha often occur in the [[Puranas|Puranic]] corpus. Brown notes while the Puranas "defy precise chronological ordering", the more detailed narratives of Ganesha's life are in the late texts, c. 600–1300.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Brown|1991}}, p. 183.</ref> Yuvraj Krishan says that the Puranic myths about the birth of Ganesha and how he acquired an elephant's head are in the later Puranas, which were composed of c. 600 onwards. He elaborates on the matter to say that references to Ganesha in the earlier Puranas, such as the Vayu and Brahmanda Puranas, are later interpolations made during the 7th to 10th centuries.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Krishan|1999}}, p. 103.</ref>

In his survey of Ganesha's rise to prominence in [[Sanskrit literature]], Ludo Rocher notes that:<ref>Rocher, Ludo. "{{IAST|Gaṇeśa}}<nowiki/>'s Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature". {{Harvard citation no brackets|Brown|1991}}, p. 73.</ref>

{{quote|Above all, one cannot help being struck by the fact that the numerous stories surrounding {{IAST|Gaṇeśa}} concentrate on an unexpectedly limited number of incidents. These incidents are mainly three: his birth and parenthood, his elephant head, and his single tusk. Other incidents are touched on in the texts, but to a far lesser extent.}}

Ganesha's rise to prominence was codified in the 9th century when he was formally included as one of the five primary deities of [[Smartism]]. The 9th-century philosopher [[Adi Shankara]] popularised the "worship of the five forms" ([[Panchayatana puja]]) system among orthodox Brahmins of the Smarta tradition.<ref>* {{Harvard citation|Courtright|1985|p=163}} For Dating of the ''{{IAST|pañcāyatana pūjā}}'' and its connection with {{IAST|Smārta}} Brahmins.
* Bhattacharyya, S., "Indian Hymnology", in: {{Harvard citation no brackets|Bhattacharyya|1956|pp=volume IV|p=470}}. Volume VI. For the "five" divinities (''{{IAST|pañcādevatā}}'') becoming "the major deities" in general, and their listing as Shiva, Shakti, Vishnu, Surya, and Ganesha.</ref> This worship practice invokes the five deities Ganesha, [[Vishnu]], Shiva, [[Devi]], and [[Surya]].<ref>{{Spaces|5}}
* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Grimes|1995}}, p. 162.
* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Pal|1995}}, p. ix.</ref> Adi Shankara instituted the tradition primarily to unite the principal deities of these five major sects on an equal status. This formalised the role of Ganesha as a complementary deity.

=== Scriptures ===
{{further|Ganesha Purana|Mudgala Purana|Ganapati Atharvashirsa}}
[[File:Prambanan-ganesha.jpg|thumb|upright|175px|left|Ganesha statue in 9th-century [[Prambanan]] temple, Java, Indonesia]]

Once Ganesha was accepted as one of the five principal deities of Hinduism, some Hindus chose Ganesha as their principal deity. They developed the [[Ganapatya]] tradition, as seen in the ''Ganesha Purana'' and the ''Mudgala Purana''.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Thapan|1997}}, pp. 196–197. Addresses the {{IAST|pañcāyatana}} in the {{IAST|Smārta}} tradition and the relationship of the ''Ganesha Purana'' and the ''Mudgala Purana'' to it.</ref>

The date of composition for the ''Ganesha Purana'' and the ''Mudgala Purana''—and their dating relative to one another—has sparked academic debate. Both works were developed over time and contain age-layered strata. Anita Thapan reviews comment about dating and provide her own judgment. "It seems likely that the core of the Ganesha Purana appeared around the twelfth and thirteenth centuries", she says, "but was later interpolated."<ref>For a review of major differences of opinions between scholars on dating, see: {{Harvard citation no brackets|Thapan|1997|pp=30–33}}.</ref> Lawrence W. Preston considers the most reasonable date for the ''Ganesha Purana'' to be between 1100 and 1400, which coincides with the apparent age of the sacred sites mentioned by the text.<ref>Preston, Lawrence W., "Subregional Religious Centers in the History of Maharashtra: The Sites Sacred to {{IAST|Gaṇeśa}}", in: N.K. Wagle, ed., ''Images of Maharashtra: A Regional Profile of India''. p. 103.</ref>

R.C. Hazra suggests that the ''Mudgala Purana'' is older than the ''Ganesha Purana'', which he dates between 1100 and 1400.<ref>R.C. Hazra, "The {{IAST|Gaṇeśa Purāṇa}}", ''Journal of the Ganganatha Jha Research Institute'' (1951); 79–99.</ref> However, Phyllis Granoff finds problems with this relative dating and concludes that the ''Mudgala Purana'' was the last of the philosophical texts concerned with Ganesha. She bases her reasoning on the fact that, among other internal evidence, the ''Mudgala Purana'' specifically mentions the ''Ganesha Purana'' as one of the four Puranas (the ''Brahma'', the ''Brahmanda'', the ''Ganesha'', and the ''Mudgala'' Puranas) which deal at length with Ganesha.<ref>Phyllis Granoff, "{{IAST|Gaṇeśa}} as Metaphor", in {{Harvard citation no brackets|Brown|1991|pp=94–95}}, note 2.</ref> While the kernel of the text must be old, it was interpolated until the 17th and 18th centuries as the worship of Ganapati became more important in certain regions.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Thapan|1997}}, pp. 30–33.</ref> Another highly regarded scripture in the ''Ganapatya'' tradition, the Sanskrit ''Ganapati Atharvashirsa'', was probably composed during the 16th or 17th century.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Courtright|1985|p=252}}.</ref>{{Sfn|Grimes|1995|pp=21–22}}

The ''[[Ganesha Sahasranama]]'' is part of the Puranic literature, and is a litany of a thousand names and attributes of Ganesha. Each name in the [[sahasranama]] conveys a different meaning and symbolises a different aspect of Ganesha. Versions of the ''Ganesha Sahasranama'' are found in the ''Ganesha Purana''.{{Sfn|Bailey|1995|pp=258–269}}

== Beyond India and Hinduism ==
{{Photomontage
| photo1a = TibetianGanpati.jpg
| photo2a = Seal of the City of Salatiga.svg
| photo2b = Buddhist Ganesha.jpg
| photo3a = 雙身歡喜天 - Sōshin Kangiten.png
| photo3b = Bronze Ganesh, the largest in the world. - panoramio.jpg
| position = right
| size = 250
| color = #F5F5F5
| border = 0
| color_border = black
| spacing = 3
| text = (clockwise from top) Ganesha in Tibet (as Maharakta), Nepal, Thailand, Japan (as [[Kangiten]]) and coat of arms of [[Salatiga]], Indonesia.
}}

{{details|Ganesha in world religions}}

Commercial and cultural contacts extended India's influence in Western and Southeast Asia. Ganesha is one of a number of Hindu deities who consequently reached foreign lands.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Nagar|1992}}, p. 175.</ref>

Ganesha was particularly worshipped by traders and merchants, who went out of India for commercial ventures.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Nagar|1992|p=174}}.</ref> From approximately the 10th century onwards, new networks of exchange developed including the formation of trade guilds and a resurgence of money circulation. During this time, Ganesha became the principal deity associated with traders.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Thapan|1997}}, p. 170.</ref> The earliest inscription invoking Ganesha before any other deity is associated with the merchant community.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Thapan|1997}}, p. 152.</ref>

Hindus migrated to [[Maritime Southeast Asia]] and took their culture, including Ganesha, with them.{{Sfn|Getty|1936|p= 55}} Statues of Ganesha are found throughout the region, often beside Shiva sanctuaries. The forms of Ganesha found in the Hindu art of [[Philippines]], [[Java]], [[Bali]], and [[Borneo]] show specific regional influences.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Getty|1936}}, p. 55–66.</ref> The spread of Hindu culture throughout Southeast Asia established Ganesha worship in modified forms in Burma, Cambodia, and Thailand. In [[Indochina]], Hinduism and [[Buddhism]] were practised side by side, and mutual influences can be seen in the iconography of Ganesha in the region.{{Sfn|Getty|1936|p= 52}} In Thailand, Cambodia, and among the Hindu classes of the [[Cham (Asia)|Chams]] in Vietnam, Ganesha was mainly thought of as a remover of obstacles.<ref name="Brown">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Brown|1991|p=182}}.</ref>

Among the Indonesian, who predominantly profess Muslim faith, Ganesha is not worshipped, but seen as a symbol of knowledge, wisdom and education. Many Indonesian public universities feature Ganesha's likeness in their grounds and/or logo. [[Blitar]], [[Salatiga]] City, and [[Kediri Regency]] are among 3 local governments that include Ganesha in their Regency/City official seals. Indonesia is the only country who featured Ganesha on her bill ([[Banknotes_of_the_rupiah#Updates to high denominations and introduction of the Rp100,000 note (1998-1999)|20 thousand denomination]], between 1998 and 2008), although it is no longer in circulation.

Today in Buddhist Thailand, Ganesha is regarded as a remover of obstacles, the god of success.<ref name="Brown"/> Thailand regards Ganesha mainly as the god of arts and academics. The belief was initiated by King [[Vajiravudh]] of [[Chakri Dynasty]] who was devoted to Ganesha personally. He even built a Ganesha shrine at his personal palace, [[Sanam Chandra Palace]] in [[Nakhon Pathom Province]] where he focused on his academic and literature works. His personal belief regarding Ganesha as the god of arts formally became prominent following the establishment of the [[Fine Arts Department (Thailand)|Fine Arts Department]] where he took Ganesha as the seal. Today, Ganesha is depicted both in the seal of the Fine Arts Department, and Thailand's first prominent fine arts academy; the [[Silpakorn University]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=วัฒนะมหาตม์ |first=กิตติ |date=November 2011 |title= พระคเณศไม่ใช่เทพศิลปะ รัชกาลที่ 6 ทรงทำให้เป็นเทพศิลปะ|trans-title= Ganesh was not the god of art. King Vajiravudh was the one who made him be one. |url= https://www.silpa-mag.com/history/article_5821|language= TH|journal= ศิลปวัฒนธรรม (Arts and Culture)|issue= November 2011 |access-date=26 May 2020}}</ref>

Before the arrival of [[Islam]], Afghanistan had close cultural ties with India, and the adoration of both Hindu and Buddhist deities was practised. Examples of sculptures from the 5th to the 7th centuries have survived, suggesting that the worship of Ganesha was then in vogue in the region.<ref>In:

* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Nagar|1992}}, p. 175.
* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Martin-Dubost|1965}}, p. 311.</ref>

Ganesha appears in [[Mahayana]] Buddhism, not only in the form of the Buddhist god {{IAST|Vināyaka}}, but also as a Hindu demon form with the same name.{{Sfn|Getty|1936|pp= 37–45}} His image appears in Buddhist sculptures during the late Gupta period.{{Sfn|Getty|1936|p= 37}} As the Buddhist god {{IAST|Vināyaka}}, he is often shown dancing. This form, called {{IAST|Nṛtta}} Ganapati, was popular in northern India, later adopted in Nepal, and then in Tibet.{{Sfn|Getty|1936|p= 38}} In Nepal, the Hindu form of Ganesha, known as [[Heramba]], is popular; he has five heads and rides a lion.{{Sfn|Getty|1936|p= 40}} Tibetan representations of Ganesha show ambivalent views of him.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Nagar|1992}}, p. 185.</ref> A Tibetan rendering of Ganapati is ''tshogs bdag''.<ref>Wayman, Alex (2006). ''Chanting the Names of Manjushri''. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers: p. 76. {{ISBN|8120816536}}</ref> In one Tibetan form, he is shown being trodden under foot by [[Mahakala|{{IAST|Mahākāla}}]],(Shiva) a popular Tibetan deity.<ref>Ganesha

* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Getty|1936|p=42}}.
* {{Harvard citation no brackets|Nagar|1992|p=185}}.</ref> Other depictions show him as the Destroyer of Obstacles, and sometimes dancing.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Nagar|1992}}, p. 185–186.</ref> Ganesha appears in China and Japan in forms that show distinct regional character. In [[North China|northern China]], the earliest known stone statue of Ganesha carries an inscription dated to 531.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Martin-Dubost|1997}}, p. 311.</ref> In Japan, where Ganesha is known as [[Kangiten]], the Ganesha cult was first mentioned in 806.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Martin-Dubost|1997}}, p. 313.</ref>

The canonical literature of [[Jainism]] does not mention the worship of Ganesha.<ref name="Krishan">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Krishan|1999}}, p. 121.</ref> However, Ganesha is worshipped by some [[Jainism|Jains]], for whom he appears to have taken over certain functions of the god of wealth, [[Kubera]].<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Thapan|1997}}, p. 157.</ref> Jain ties with the trading community support the idea that Jainism took up Ganesha worship as a result of commercial connections and influence of Hinduism.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Thapan|1997}}, p. 151, 158, 162, 164, 253.</ref> The earliest known Jain Ganesha statue dates to about the 9th century.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Krishna|1985}}, p. 122.</ref> A 15th-century Jain text lists procedures for the installation of its images.<ref name="Krishan"/> Images of Ganesha appear in some Jain temples of Rajasthan and Gujarat.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Thapan|1997}}, p. 158.</ref>

==See also==
* [[Gajasura]]
* [[Cultural depictions of elephants]]
== Explanatory notes ==
{{notelist}}
{{reflist|group=note}}

== Citations ==
{{reflist|30em}}

== General references ==
{{refbegin|33em}}
*{{Cite book|last=Pal|first=Pratapaditya|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eY7XAAAAMAAJ|title=Ganesh, the Benevolent|publisher=[[Marg (magazine)|Marg Publications]]|year=1995|isbn=9788185026312|location=[[University of Michigan|the University of Michigan]]|author-link=Pratapaditya Pal}}
* {{Cite book|last=Apte|first=Vaman Shivram|title=The Practical Sanskrit Dictionary|year=1965|edition=Fourth revised and enlarged|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers|location=Delhi|isbn=978-8120805675}}
* {{Cite book|last=Bailey|first=Greg|title=Ganeśapurāna: Introduction, translation, notes and index|year=1995|publisher=Harrassowitz|isbn=978-3447036474}}
* {{Cite book|editor-last=Bhattacharyya|editor-first=Haridas|title=The Cultural Heritage of India|year=1956|publisher=The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture|location=Calcutta}} Four volumes.
* {{Citation| last =Brown| first =Robert| year = 1991| title =Ganesh: Studies of an Asian God | location =Albany| publisher =State University of New York | isbn =978-0791406571 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oF-Hqih3pBAC}}
* {{Citation |last=Chinmayananda |first=Swami |author-link=Chinmayananda |title=Glory of Ganesha |year=1987 |publisher=Central Chinmaya Mission Trust |location=Bombay |isbn= 978-8175973589}}
* {{Citation |last=Courtright |first=Paul B. |title={{IAST|Gaṇeśa}}: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings |year=1985 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0195057423 }}
* {{Citation |last=Ellawala|first=H |title=Social History of Early Ceylon |year=1969 |publisher=Department of Cultural Affairs |location=Colombo }}.
* {{cite book|last=Getty|first=Alice|year=1936|title=Gaṇeśa: A Monograph on the Elephant-Faced God|edition=1992 reprint|location=Oxford|publisher=Clarendon Press|isbn=978-8121503778}}
* {{Citation |series=SUNY Series in Religious Studies |last=Grimes |first=John A. |title=Ganapati: Song of the Self |year=1995 |publisher=State University of New York Press |location=Albany |isbn=978-0791424407 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=duOe-jM8kRIC}}
* {{Citation |last=Heras |first=H. |title=The Problem of Ganapati |year=1972 |publisher=Indological Book House |location=Delhi }}
* {{Citation |last1=Khokar |first1=Ashish |first2=S. |last2=Saraswati |title=Ganesha-Karttikeya |year=2005 |publisher=Rupa and Co |location=New Delhi |isbn= 978-8129107763}}
* {{Citation |last=Krishan |first=Yuvraj |year=1981–1982 |title={{IAST|The Origins of Gaṇeśa}} |journal=Artibus Asiae |volume=43 |issue=4 |pages=285–301 |doi=10.2307/3249845 |publisher=Artibus Asiae Publishers |jstor=3249845}}
* {{Citation| last =Krishan| first =Yuvraj| year = 1999| title =Gaṇeśa: Unravelling An Enigma | location =Delhi | publisher =Motilal Banarsidass Publishers | isbn =978-8120814134 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BKoyRJxj9jUC}}
* {{Citation| last= Krishna | first=Murthy, K. | year=1985 | title= Mythical Animals in Indian Art|location=New Delhi| publisher = Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-0391032873 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dMI4rZuRs1MC}}
* {{Citation |series=Religious Studies |last=Brahminji |first=Kate G. |title=Ganesha Chaturthi |year=2022 |publisher = C. Shri Balaji Prakashan |location=India |url=https://www.brahminji.com/product/ganesh-chaturthi-puja/}}
* {{Citation|last=Martin-Dubost|first=Paul|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H5DjAAAAMAAJ|title=Gaṇeśa, the Enchanter of the Three Worlds|publisher=Franco-Indian Research|year=1965|isbn=9788190018432|location=[[University of Michigan|the University of Michigan]]}}
* {{Citation |last=Mate |first=M.S. |title=Temples and Legends of Maharashtra |year=1962 |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan |location=Bombay |oclc=776939647 }}
* {{Citation |last1=Metcalf |first1=Thomas R.|last2=Metcalf |first2=Barbara Daly|title=A Concise History of India |isbn=978-0521630276 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jGCBNTDv7ac}}
*{{cite book|last=Nagar|first=Shanti Lal|year=1992|title=The Cult of Vinayaka|publisher=Intellectual Publishing House|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-7076-044-3}}
* {{Citation| last =Oka | first =Krishnaji Govind| year =1913| title =The Nāmalingānuśāsana (Amarakosha) of Amarasimha: with the Commentary ({{IAST|Amarakoshodghāṭana}}) of Kshīrasvāmin
| location =Poona| publisher =Law Printing Press| url=https://archive.org/details/namalinganusasan00amariala| access-date =14 September 2007}}.
* {{Citation |last=Ramachandra Rao |first=S.K. |title=The Compendium on Gaṇeśa |year=1992 |publisher=Sri Satguru Publications |location=Delhi |isbn= 978-8170308287 }}
* {{Citation| last =Saraswati| first =Swami Tattvavidananda | year = 2004| title ={{IAST|Gaṇapati Upaniṣad}} | location =Delhi | publisher =D.K. Printworld Ltd. | isbn =978-8124602652}}
* {{Citation | last=Śāstri Khiste | first={{IAST|Baṭukanātha}} | year=1991 | title={{IAST|Gaṇeśasahasranāmastotram: mūla evaṁ srībhāskararāyakṛta 'khadyota' vārtika sahita}}
| place={{IAST|Vārāṇasī}} | publisher=Prācya Prakāśana }}. Source text with a commentary by Bhāskararāya in Sanskrit.
* {{Citation | last=Śāstri | first=Hargovinda | year=1978 | title={{IAST|Amarkoṣa}} with Hindi commentary | place=Vārānasi | publisher=Chowkhambā Sanskrit Series Office }}
* {{cite book|last=Thapan|first=Anita Raina|title=Understanding Gaṇapati: Insights into the Dynamics of a Cult|year=1997|publisher=Manohar Publishers|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-8173041952}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070210051104/http://ganapati.club.fr/anglais/indexe.html Ganesh: Symbol and presence]


{{Ganesha|state=expanded}}
{{Hindu Culture and Epics}}
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[[Category:Ganesha| ]]
[[Category:Animal gods]]
[[Category:Arts gods]]
[[Category:Creator gods]]
[[Category:Buddhist gods]]
[[Category:Commerce gods]]
[[Category:Elephants in Indian culture]]
[[Category:Abundance gods]]
[[Category:Fortune gods]]
[[Category:Heavenly attendants in Jainism]]
[[Category:Hindu gods]]
[[Category:Knowledge gods]]
[[Category:Mythological human hybrids]]
[[Category:Wisdom gods]]
[[Category:Names of God in Sikhism]]
[[Category:Hindu given names]]
[[Category:Names of God in Hinduism]]
[[Category:Buddhism and Hinduism]]
[[Category:Elephants in Hinduism]]
[[Category:Elephants in Buddhism]]

Indra

2023-01-22T01:57:44Z

ImportMaster: robot: Create/update articles in Category:Hindu gods.

{{short description|Hindu god of rain, weather, storms, and thunder}}
{{About|the deity in Indian religions|the Buddhist deity|Śakra (Buddhism)|other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2016}}
{{Infobox deity
| type = Hindu
| parents = {{ubl|[[Kashyapa]] (father)|[[Aditi]] (mother)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dalal |first=Roshen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&q=Indra+aditi|title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide |date=2010 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-14-341421-6 |lang=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Mani|1975}}{{efn|These are his parents in the Epics and Puranas. For various earlier versions, see [[#Literature]]}}}}
| image = Indra deva.jpg
| caption = Painting of Indra on his elephant mount, Airavata, c. 1820.
| alt = Indra, Parjanya
| Devanagari = इन्द्र
| Sanskrit_transliteration = Indra
| affiliation = [[Deva (Hinduism)|Deva]], [[Dikpala]], [[Parjanya]], [[Vishnu]]
| other_names = [[Devendra]], [[Mahendra]], Surendra, Surapati, Suresha, Devesha, [[Devaraja]], Amaresha, [[Parjanya]], [[Dravidian folk religion|Vendhan]]
| children = [[Jayanta]], Rishabha, Midhusha, [[Jayanti (Hinduism)|Jayanti]], [[Devasena]] ([[Shashthi]]), [[Vali (Ramayana)|Vali]] and [[Arjuna]]
| festivals = [[Indra Jatra]], [[Indra Vizha (festival)|Indra Vila]], [[Raksha Bandhan]], [[Lohri]], [[Sawan]], [[Deepavali]]
| siblings = [[Adityas]] including [[Surya]], [[Varuna]], [[Bhaga]], [[Aaryaman]], [[Mitra (Hindu god)|Mitra]], [[Savitra]] and [[Vamana]]
| god_of = King of the [[Deva (Hinduism)|Devas]] King of [[Svarga]] God of [[Lightning]], [[Thunder]], [[Storms]] and [[Rain]]
| abode = [[Amaravati (mythology)|Amarāvati]], the capital of [[loka|Indraloka]] in [[Svarga]]<ref>{{cite book |author=Dalal, Roshen |year=2014 |title=Hinduism: An alphabetical guide |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=9788184752779 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zrk0AwAAQBAJ&pg=PT561 |via=Google Books}}</ref>
| weapon = [[Vajra]] (thunderbolt), [[Astra (weapon)|Astras]], [[Indrastra]], Aindrastra, Vasavi Shakti
| consort = [[Shachi]]
| mount = [[Airavata]] (white elephant), [[Uchchaihshravas]] ([[white horse (mythology)|white horse]])
| symbols = [[Vajra]], [[Indra's net]]
| texts = ''[[Vedas]], [[Ramayana]], [[Mahabharata]], [[Puranas]]''
| Buddhist_equivalent = [[Śakra (Buddhism)|Śakra]]
| greek_equivalent = [[Zeus]]
| Norse_equivalent = [[Thor]]
| Roman_equivalent = [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]]
| Celtic_equivalent = [[Taranis]]
| Slavic_equivalent = [[Perun]]
| mantra = Om Indra Devaya Namah Om Indra Rajaya Vidmahe Mahaindraya Dhimahi Tanno Indraya Prachodayat
| gender = Male
| equivalent1_type = Celtic
| equivalent1 = [[Taranis]]
| abodes = [[Svarga]]
}}

'''Indra''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɪ|n|d|r|ə}}; [[Sanskrit]]: इन्द्र) is the king of the [[Deva (Hinduism)|devas]] (god-like deities) and [[Svarga]] (heaven) in [[Hindu mythology]]. He is associated with the sky, lightning, weather, thunder, storms, rains, river flows, and war.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gopal |first=Madan |year=1990 |title=India Through the Ages |publisher=Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India |page=[https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada/page/66 66] |url=https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada |via=Internet Archive}}</ref><ref name="urlWar and Religion: An Encyclopedia of Faith and Conflict [3 volumes] - Google Książki">{{cite book |last1=Shaw |first1=Jeffrey M., Ph.D. |last2=Demy |first2=Timothy J., Ph.D. |date=27 March 2017 |title=War and Religion: An encyclopedia of faith and conflict |series=Google Książki |isbn=9781610695176 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KDlFDgAAQBAJ&q=Indra+god+war&pg=PA380}} [3 volumes]</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Perry |first=Edward Delavan |year=1885 |title=Indra in the Rig-Veda |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=11 |issue=1885 |page=121 |jstor=592191 |doi=10.2307/592191 }}</ref><ref name="Berry1996p20">{{cite book |author=Berry, Thomas |year=1996 |title=Religions of India: Hinduism, Yoga, Buddhism |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-10781-5 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/religionsofindia00berr/page/20 20]–21 |url=https://archive.org/details/religionsofindia00berr |url-access=registration}}</ref> Indra's myths and powers are similar to other [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] deities such as [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]], [[Perun]], [[Perkūnas]], [[Zalmoxis]], [[Taranis]], [[Zeus]], and [[Thor]], part of the greater [[Proto-Indo-European mythology]].<ref name="Berry1996p20"/><ref>{{cite book |author=Madan, T.N. |year=2003 |title=The Hinduism Omnibus |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-566411-9 |page=81 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EUsqAAAAYAAJ}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Bhattacharji, Sukumari |year=2015 |title=The Indian Theogony |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=280–281 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lDc9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA280}}</ref>

Indra is the most referred [[deity]] in the ''[[Rigveda]]''.<ref name="Gonda1989p3">{{cite book |author=Gonda, Jan |author-link=Jan Gonda |year=1989 |title=The Indra Hymns of the Ṛgveda |publisher=Brill Archive |isbn=90-04-09139-4 |page=3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KtcUAAAAIAAJ}}</ref> He is celebrated for his powers, and as the one who killed the great evil (a malevolent type of [[Asura (Hinduism)|asura]]) named [[Vritra]], who obstructed human prosperity and happiness. Indra destroys Vritra and his "deceiving forces", and thereby brings rains and sunshine as the saviour of mankind.<ref name="Berry1996p20"/><ref>{{cite book |author=Griswold, Hervey de Witt |year=1971 |title=The Religion of the Ṛigveda |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0745-7 |pages=177–180 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vhkt5K1fw2wC&pg=PA177}}</ref> He is also an important deity worshipped by the [[Kalash people]], indicating his prominence in [[ancient Hinduism]].<ref name="Bezhan2017">{{cite web |last=Bezhan |first=Frud |date=19 April 2017 |title=Pakistan's Forgotten Pagans Get Their Due |publisher=[[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]] |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/28439107.html |access-date=11 July 2017 |quote=About half of the Kalash practice a form of ancient Hinduism infused with old pagan and animist beliefs.}}</ref><ref name=Barrington-Kendrick-2006>{{cite book |last1=Barrington |first1=Nicholas |last2=Kendrick |first2=Joseph T. |last3=Schlagintweit |first3=Reinhard |date=18 April 2006 |title=A Passage to Nuristan: Exploring the mysterious Afghan hinterland |publisher=[[I.B. Tauris]] |isbn=9781845111755 |page=111}}</ref>{{efn|Prominent sites include Hadda, near Jalalabad, but Buddhism never seems to have penetrated the remote valleys of Nuristan, where the people continued to practise an early form of polytheistic Hinduism.<ref name=Barrington-Kendrick-2006/>}}<ref name=Weiss-Maurer-2012>{{cite book |last1=Weiss |first1=Mitch |last2=Maurer |first2=Kevin |date=31 December 2012 |title=No Way Out: A story of valor in the mountains of Afghanistan |publisher=Berkley Caliber |isbn=9780425253403 |page=299}}</ref>{{efn|Up until the late nineteenth century, many Nuristanis practised a primitive form of Hinduism. It was the last area in Afghanistan to convert to Islam — and the conversion was accomplished by the sword.<ref name=Weiss-Maurer-2012/>}}<ref name=Ghai-2014>{{cite news |last=Ghai |first=Rajat |date=2014-02-17 |title=Save the Kalash! |newspaper=Business Standard India |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/opinion/save-the-kalash-114021700863_1.html |access-date=2021-03-08}}</ref><ref name=Jamil-2019>{{cite web |last=Jamil |first=Kashif |date=19 August 2019 |title=Uchal — a festival of shepherds and farmers of the Kalash tribe |newspaper=[[Daily Times (Pakistan)|Daily Times]] |lang=en |url=https://dailytimes.com.pk/450469/uchal-a-festival-of-shepherds-and-farmers-of-the-kalash-tribe/ |access-date=23 January 2020}}</ref>{{efn|Some of their deities who are worshiped in Kalash tribe are similar to the Hindu god and goddess like Mahadev in Hinduism is called Mahandeo in Kalash tribe. ... All the tribal also visit the Mahandeo for worship and pray. After that they reach to the gree (dancing place).<ref name=Jamil-2019/>}}<ref name=West-2010>{{cite book |last=West |first=Barbara A. |date=19 May 2010 |title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania |publisher=[[Infobase Publishing]] |isbn=9781438119137 |page=357 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pCiNqFj3MQsC&pg=PA357}}</ref>{{efn|The Kalasha are a unique people living in just three valleys near Chitral, Pakistan, the capital of North-West Frontier Province, which borders Afghanistan. Unlike their neighbors in the Hindu Kush Mountains on both the Afghan and Pakistani sides of the border the Kalasha have not converted to [[Islam]]. During the mid-20th century a few Kalasha villages in Pakistan were forcibly converted to this dominant religion, but the people fought the conversion and once official pressure was removed the vast majority continued to practice their own religion. Their religion is a form of Hinduism that recognizes many gods and spirits and has been related to the religion of the ancient Greeks ... given their Indo-Aryan language, ... the religion of the Kalasha is much more closely aligned to the Hinduism of their Indian neighbors that to the religion of Alexander the Great and his armies.<ref name=West-2010/>}}<ref>{{cite book |author=Witzel, M. |chapter=[Extract: ''Kalash religion''] The Ṛgvedic religious system and its central Asian and Hindukush antecedents |editor1=Griffiths, A. |editor2=Houben, J.E.M. |year=2004 |title=The Vedas: Texts, language, and ritual |location=Groningen |publisher=Forsten |pages=581–636 |url=http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/KalashaReligion.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100817110142/http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/%7Ewitzel/KalashaReligion.pdf |archive-date=2010-08-17 |url-status=live |access-date=2022-03-11}}</ref>

Indra's significance diminishes in the post-Vedic Indian literature, but he still plays an important role in various mythological events. He is depicted as a powerful hero, and is known for having sexual relations with sage [[Gautama Maharishi|Gautama's]] wife, [[Ahalya|Ahalyā]].<ref>{{cite web
| url = https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/ahalya
| title = Ahalya, Ahalyā: 15 definitions
| last =
| first =
| date = n.d.
| website = Wisdom Library
| publisher =
| access-date = 14 December 2022
| quote = }}</ref>

According to the ''[[Vishnu Purana]]'', Indra is the title borne by the king of the gods, which changes every [[Manvantara]] – a cyclic period of time in [[Hindu cosmology]]. Each Manvantara has its own Indra and the Indra of the current Manvantara is called ''Purandhara''.<ref name = "Dalal2010" /><ref name=":2">{{cite book |last=Dutt |first=Manmath Nath |title=Vishnu Purana |language=English |pages=170–173 |url=https://archive.org/details/Vishnupurana-English-MnDutt}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{cite web |last=Wilson |first=Horace Hayman |date=1840 |title=The Vishnu Purana |at=Book III, Chapter I, pages 259–265 |url=https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp075.htm|access-date=2021-06-15|website=www.sacred-texts.com}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Gita Press Gorakhpur|url=https://archive.org/details/vishnu-puran-illustrated-with-hindi-translations-gita-press-gorakhpur|title=Vishnu Puran Illustrated With Hindi Translations Gita Press Gorakhpur|pages=180–183|language=Sanskrit, Hindi}}</ref>

Indra is also depicted in [[Buddhist]] (''Indā''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.buddhistdoor.net/dictionary/details/inda|title=Dictionary {{!}} Buddhistdoor|website=www.buddhistdoor.net|access-date=2019-01-18}}</ref> in [[Pali]])<ref name="Baroni2002p153">{{cite book|author=Helen Josephine Baroni|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Zen Buddhism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=smNM4ElP3XgC&pg=PA153 |year=2002|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-8239-2240-6|page=153}}</ref> and [[Jainism|Jaina]]<ref name="Owen2012p25">{{cite book|author=Lisa Owen|title=Carving Devotion in the Jain Caves at Ellora|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vHK2WE8xAzYC&pg=PA25 |year=2012|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=978-90-04-20629-8|page=25}}</ref> mythologies. Indra rules over the much-sought ''Devas'' realm of rebirth within the [[Saṃsāra (Buddhism)|Samsara]] doctrine of Buddhist traditions.<ref name=buswelllopez739>{{cite book|author1=Robert E. Buswell Jr.|author2=Donald S. Lopez Jr.|title=The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DXN2AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA231 |year=2013|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-4805-8|pages=739–740}}</ref> However, like the post-Vedic Hindu texts, Indra is also a subject of ridicule and reduced to a figurehead status in Buddhist texts,<ref name=donigerindra/> shown as a god that suffers rebirth.<ref name=buswelllopez739/> In Jain traditions, unlike Buddhism and Hinduism, Indra is not the king of gods, but the king of superhumans residing in Svarga-Loka, and very much a part of Jain rebirth cosmology.<ref>{{cite book|author=Naomi Appleton|title=Narrating Karma and Rebirth: Buddhist and Jain Multi-Life Stories|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AhT7AgAAQBAJ |year=2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-91640-0|pages=50, 98}}</ref> He is also the one who appears with his wife Indrani to celebrate the auspicious moments in the life of a Jain [[Tirthankara]], an iconography that suggests the king and queen of superhumans residing in Svarga (heaven) reverentially marking the spiritual journey of a Jaina.<ref name=Wileyj99>{{cite book|author=Kristi L. Wiley|title=The A to Z of Jainism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kUz9o-EKTpwC&pg=PA99|year=2009|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-6821-2|page=99}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=John E. Cort|title=Jains in the World: Religious Values and Ideology in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PZk-4HOMzsoC&pg=PA161|date=22 March 2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-803037-9|pages=161–162}}</ref>

Indra's iconography shows him wielding a lightning thunderbolt weapon known as ''[[Vajra]]'', riding on a [[white elephant]] known as [[Airavata]].<ref name="Daniélou1991p108"/><ref>{{cite book|author=T. A. Gopinatha Rao|title=Elements of Hindu iconography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MJD-KresBwIC |year=1993|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0878-2|page=111}}</ref> In Buddhist iconography, the elephant sometimes features three heads, while Jaina icons sometimes show the elephant with five heads. Sometimes, a single elephant is shown with four symbolic tusks.<ref name="Daniélou1991p108"/> Indra's abode exists in the capital city of Svarga, [[Amaravati (mythology)|Amaravati]], though he is also associated with [[Mount Meru]] (also called Sumeru).<ref name=buswelllopez739/>{{sfn|Wilkings|1882|p=52}}

== Etymology and nomenclature ==
[[File:031 Riding a Horse (33651796566).jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|Indra on his elephant, guarding the entrance of the 1st century BCE Buddhist Cave 19 at [[Bhaja Caves]] (Maharashtra).<ref>{{cite book|author1=Sita Pieris|author2=Ellen Raven|title=ABIA: South and Southeast Asian Art and Archaeology Index: Volume Three – South Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fCL8pjd0JVMC&pg=PA232|year=2010|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=978-90-04-19148-8|page=232}}</ref>]]
The etymological roots of Indra are unclear, and it has been a contested topic among scholars since the 19th-century, one with many proposals.<ref name="Müller1903p395">{{cite book|author=Friedrich Max Müller|title=Anthropological Religion: The Gifford Lectures Delivered Before the University of Glasgow in 1891 |url= https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.154287 |year= 1903|publisher=Longmans Green|pages=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.154287/page/n421 395]–398}}</ref><ref name=Chakravarty-1995>{{cite journal |author=Chakravarty, Uma |year=1995 |title=On the etymology of the word Í{{sc|NDRA}} |journal=Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute |volume=76 |number=1–4 |pages=27–33 |jstor=41694367}}</ref> The significant proposals have been:
* root ''ind-u'', or "rain drop", based on the Vedic mythology that he conquered rain and brought it down to earth.<ref name="Daniélou1991p108">{{cite book |author=Alain Daniélou |title=The Myths and Gods of India: The Classic Work on Hindu Polytheism from the Princeton Bollingen Series|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1HMXN9h6WX0C&pg=PA108 |year=1991 |publisher=Inner Traditions|isbn=978-0-89281-354-4|pages=108–109}}</ref><ref name="Müller1903p395"/>
*root ''ind'', or "equipped with great power". This was proposed by Vopadeva.<ref name="Daniélou1991p108"/>
* root ''idh'' or "kindle", and ''ina'' or "strong".<ref name="Griswold1971p177">{{cite book|author=Hervey De Witt Griswold|title=The Religion of the Ṛigveda|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vhkt5K1fw2wC&pg=PA177 |year=1971|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0745-7|pages=177–178 with footnote 1}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Edward Delavan Perry |jstor=592191|title=Indra in the Rig-Veda |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society| volume= 11 |year=1885 |page=121|doi=10.2307/592191}}</ref>
* root ''indha'', or "igniter", for his ability to bring light and power (''indriya'') that ignites the vital forces of life (''prana''). This is based on [[Shatapatha Brahmana]].<ref>{{cite book|author1=Annette Wilke|author2=Oliver Moebus|title=Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9wmYz_OtZ_gC |year=2011|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-024003-0|pages=418 with footnote 148}}</ref>
*root ''idam-dra'', or "It seeing" which is a reference to the one who first perceived the self-sufficient metaphysical [[Brahman]]. This is based on [[Aitareya Upanishad]].<ref name="Daniélou1991p108"/>
* roots in ancient Indo-European, Indo-Aryan deities.<ref name="Colarusso329">{{cite book|author=John Colarusso|title=Nart Sagas from the Caucasus: Myths and Legends from the Circassians, Abazas, Abkhaz, and Ubykhs |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BaE5BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA329 |year=2014|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-6528-4|page=329}}</ref> For example, states [[John Colarusso]], as a reflex of [[proto-Indo-European]] ''*h₂nḗr-'', Greek ''anēr'', [[Sabine]] ''nerō'', [[Avestan]] ''nar-'', [[Umbrian]] ''nerus'', [[Old Irish]] ''nert'', [[Pashto]] ''nər'', [[Ossetic]] ''nart'', and others which all refer to "most manly" or "hero".<ref name="Colarusso329"/>

Colonial era scholarship proposed that Indra shares etymological roots with [[Avestan]] ''Andra'', [[Old High German]] ''*antra'' ("giant"), or [[Old Church Slavonic]] ''jedru'' ("strong"), but [[Max Muller]] critiqued these proposals as untenable.<ref name="Müller1903p395"/><ref>{{cite book |author=Winn, Shan M.M. |year=1995 |title=Heaven, Heroes, and Happiness: The Indo-European roots of Western ideology |publisher=University Press of America |isbn=978-0-8191-9860-0 |page=371, note 1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-UCU0I918bsC&pg=PA371}}</ref> Later scholarship has linked Vedic Indra to ''Aynar'' (the Great One) of Circassian, Abaza and Ubykh mythology, and ''Innara'' of Hittite mythology.<ref name="Colarusso329"/><ref>{{cite book |author=Chakraborty, Uma |year=1997 |title=Indra and Other Vedic Deities: A euhemeristic study |publisher=DK Printworld |isbn=978-81-246-0080-1 |pages=91, 220 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ooDXAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> Colarusso suggests a Pontic{{efn|The ''Pontic'' is the region near [[Black Sea]].}} origin and that both the phonology and the context of Indra in Indian religions is best explained from Indo-Aryan roots and a [[Circassians|Circassian]] etymology (i.e. ''*inra'').<ref name="Colarusso329"/>

=== Other languages ===
For other languages, he is also known as
{{div col begin|colwidth=12em}}
* [[Askunu language|Ashkun]]: ''Indra''
* [[Bengali language|Bengali]]: {{lang|bn|ইন্দ্র}} (''Indro'')
* [[Burmese language|Burmese]]: {{my|သိကြားမင်း}} ({{IPA-my|ðadʑá mɪ́ɰ̃|pron}})
* [[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 因陀羅 (''Yīntuóluó'') or 帝釋天 (''Dìshìtiān'')
* [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]/[[Malay language|Malay]]: (''Indera'')
* [[Japanese language|Japanese]]: {{lang|ja|帝釈天}} (''[[Taishakuten]]'').<ref>''Presidential Address'' W. H. D. Rouse ''Folklore'', Vol. 18, No. 1 (Mar., 1907), pp. 12-23: "King of the Gods is Sakka, or Indra"</ref>
* [[Javanese language|Javanese]]: {{lang|jv|ꦧꦛꦫꦲꦶꦤ꧀ꦢꦿ}} (''Bathara Indra'')
* [[Kamkata-vari language|Kamkata-vari]]: ''Inra''
* [[Kannada language|Kannada]]: {{lang|kn|ಇಂದ್ರ}} (''Indra'')
* [[Khmer language|Khmer]]: {{lang|km|ព្រះឥន្ទ្រ }} (''Preah In'' {{IPA-km|preah ʔən|pron}})
* [[Korean language|Korean]]: {{lang|ko|제석천}} (''Jeseokcheon'')
* [[Lao language|Lao]]: {{lang|lo|ພະອິນ}} (''Pha In'') or {{lang|lo|ພະຍາອິນ}} (''Pha Nya In'')
* [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]]: {{lang|ml|ഇന്ദ്രൻ}} (''Indran'')
* [[Mon language|Mon]]: {{lang|mnw|ဣန်}} (''In'')
* [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]]: {{lang|mn|Индра}} (Indra)
* [[Odia language|Odia]]: {{lang|or|ଇନ୍ଦ୍ର}} (''Indrô'')
* [[Vasi-vari|Prasun]]: ''Indr''
* [[Sinhala language|Sinhala]]: {{lang|si|ඉඳු}} (''In̆du'') or {{lang|si|ඉන්ද්‍ර}} (''Indra'')
* [[Tai Lue language|Tai Lue]]: {{lang|khb|ᦀᦲᧃ}} (''In'') or {{lang|khb|ᦘᦍᦱᦀᦲᧃ}} (''Pha Ya In'')
* [[Tamil language|Tamil]]: {{lang|ta|இந்திரன்}} (''Inthiran'')
* [[Telugu language|Telugu]]: {{lang|te|ఇంద్రుడు}} (''Indrudu'' or ''Indra'')
* [[Classical Tibetan|Tibetan]]: དབང་པོ་ (''dbang po'')
* [[Thai language|Thai]]: {{lang|th|พระอินทร์}} (''Phra In'')
* [[Kalasha-ala|Waigali]]: ''Indr''
{{div col end}}

===Epithets===
Indra has many epithets in the Indian religions, notably
[[Śakra (Buddhism)|Śakra]] (शक्र, powerful one),

{{div col begin|colwidth=15em}}
* Vṛṣan (वृषन् , mighty)
* Vṛtrahan (वृत्रहन् , slayer of [[Vritra|Vṛtra]])
* Meghavāhana (मेघवाहन, he whose vehicle is cloud)
* Devarāja (देवराज, king of deities)
* Devendra (देवेन्द्र, the lord of deities){{sfn|Wilkings|1882|p=53}}
* Surendra (सुरेन्द्र, chief of deities)
* Svargapati (स्वर्गपति, the lord of heaven)
*Śatakratu (शतक्रतु one who performs 100 sacrifices).
* Vajrapāṇī (वज्रपाणि, wielder of Vajra, i.e., thunderbolt)
* Vāsava (वासव, lord of Vasus)
* Purandara (पुरंदर, the breaker of forts)
* [[Kaushik|Kaushika]] (कौशिक, [[Vishvamitra]] was born as the embodiment of Indra)
* Shachin or Shachindra (शचीन, the consort of Shachi).
{{div col end}}
*[[Parjanya]] (पर्जन्य,Rain)

==Origins==
[[File:Banteay Srei - 032 Indra on Airavata (8581494845).jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Banteay Srei]] temple's pediment carvings depict Indra mounts on [[Airavata]], [[Cambodia]], c. 10th century.]]
Indra is of ancient but unclear origin. Aspects of Indra as a deity are cognate to other Indo-European gods; there are [[list of thunder gods|thunder god]]s such as [[Thor]], [[Perun]], and [[Zeus]] who share parts of his heroic mythologies, act as king of gods, and all are linked to "rain and thunder".<ref>{{cite book|author=Alexander Stuart Murray|title=Manual of Mythology: Greek and Roman, Norse, and Old German, Hindoo and Egyptian Mythology, 2nd Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x7lLAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA329|year=1891|publisher=C. Scribner's sons|pages=329–331}}</ref> The similarities between Indra of Vedic mythology and of [[Thor]] of Nordic and Germanic mythologies are significant, states [[Max Müller]]. Both Indra and Thor are storm gods, with powers over lightning and thunder, both carry a hammer or an equivalent, for both the weapon returns to their hand after they hurl it, both are associated with bulls in the earliest layer of respective texts, both use thunder as a battle-cry, both are protectors of mankind, both are described with legends about "milking the cloud-cows", both are benevolent giants, gods of strength, of life, of marriage and the healing gods.<ref>{{cite book|author=Friedrich Max Müller|author-link=Max Müller|title=Contributions to the Science of Mythology|url=https://archive.org/details/contributionsto01mlgoog|year=1897|publisher=Longmans Green|pages=[https://archive.org/details/contributionsto01mlgoog/page/n334 744]–749}}</ref>

Michael Janda suggests that Indra has origins in the Indo-European ''*trigw-welumos'' [or rather ''*trigw-t-welumos''] "smasher of the enclosure" (of [[Vritra]], [[Vala (Vedic)|Vala]]) and ''diye-snūtyos'' "impeller of streams" (the liberated rivers, corresponding to Vedic ''apam ajas'' "agitator of the waters").<ref>{{cite book |author=Janda, Michael |year=2000 |title=Eleusis: Das Indogermanische Erbe der Mysterien |publisher=Institut für Sprachwissenschaft der Universität Innsbruck |isbn=978-3-85124-675-9 |pages=261–262 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-dUoAAAAYAAJ}}</ref> Brave and heroic Innara or Inra, which sounds like Indra, is mentioned among the [[Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni#Names of gods|gods]] of the [[Mitanni]], a [[Hurrians|Hurrian-speaking people]] of Hittite region.<ref>{{cite book |author=von Dassow, Eva |year=2008 |title=State and Society in the Late Bronze Age |publisher=University Press of Maryland |isbn=978-1-934309-14-8 |pages=77, 85–86 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L5QtAQAAIAAJ}}</ref>

Indra as a deity had a presence in northeastern [[Asia minor]], as evidenced by the inscriptions on the Boghaz-köi clay tablets dated to about 1400 BCE. This tablet mentions a treaty, but its significance is in four names it includes reverentially as ''Mi-it-ra'', ''U-ru-w-na'', ''In-da-ra'' and ''Na-sa-at-ti-ia''. These are respectively, Mitra, Varuna, Indra and Nasatya-Asvin of the Vedic pantheon as revered deities, and these are also found in Avestan pantheon but with Indra and Naonhaitya as demons. This at least suggests that Indra and his fellow deities were in vogue in South Asia and Asia minor by about mid 2nd-millennium BCE.<ref name="Griswold1971p177"/><ref>{{cite book |author=Rapson, Edward James |year=1955 |title=The Cambridge History of India |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=320–321 |id=GGKEY:FP2CEFT2WJH |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gYg8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA320}}</ref>

Indra is praised as the highest god in 250 hymns of the ''[[Rigveda]]'' – a [[Hindu]] scripture dated to have been composed sometime between 1700 and 1100 BCE. He is co-praised as the supreme in another 50 hymns, thus making him one of the most celebrated Vedic deities.<ref name="Griswold1971p177"/> He is also mentioned in ancient Indo-Iranian literature, but with a major inconsistency when contrasted with the Vedas. In the Vedic literature, Indra is a heroic god. In the Avestan (ancient, pre-Islamic Iranian) texts such as ''[[Vendidad|Vd.]]'' 10.9, ''[[Denkard|Dk.]]'' 9.3 and ''[[Bundahishn|Gbd]]'' 27.6-34.27, Indra – or accurately Andra<ref name="Müller1897p757">{{cite book |author=Müller, Friedrich Max |year=1897 |title=Contributions to the Science of Mythology |publisher=Longmans Green |pages=[https://archive.org/details/contributionsto01mlgoog/page/n346 756]–759 |url=https://archive.org/details/contributionsto01mlgoog}}</ref> – is a gigantic demon who opposes truth.<ref name="Colarusso329"/>{{efn|In deities that are similar to Indra in the [[Hittite mythology|Hittite]] and European mythologies, he is also heroic.<ref name="Colarusso329"/>}} In the Vedic texts, Indra kills the archenemy and demon Vritra who threatens mankind. In the Avestan texts, Vritra is not found.<ref name="Müller1897p757"/>

Indra is called ''vr̥tragʰná-'' (literally, "slayer of obstacles") in the Vedas, which corresponds to [[Verethragna]] of the [[Zoroastrian]] noun ''verethragna-''. According to David Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the contact zone between the [[Zeravshan River]] (present-day [[Uzbekistan]]) and (present-day) Iran.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=462}} It was "a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements",{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=462}} which borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices"{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=32}} from the [[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex|Bactria–Margiana Culture]].{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=32}} At least 383 non-Indo-European words were found in this culture, including the god Indra and the ritual drink [[Soma (drink)|Soma]].{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=454-455}} According to Anthony,
{{blockquote|Many of the qualities of Indo-Iranian god of might/victory, [[Verethraghna]], were transferred to the god Indra, who became the central deity of the developing Old Indic culture. Indra was the subject of 250 hymns, a quarter of the ''Rig Veda''. He was associated more than any other deity with ''Soma'', a stimulant drug (perhaps derived from ''Ephedra'') probably borrowed from the BMAC religion. His rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=454}}}}

==Iconography==
{{multiple image
| align = right
| image1 = Tiruchchirappalli painting Indra (cropped).jpg
| width1 = 170
| alt1 =
| caption1 =
| image2 = 12th-century Vedic Indra and Indrani at Shaivism Hindu temple Hoysaleswara arts Halebidu Karnataka India (crop).jpg
| width2 = 90
| alt2 =
| caption2 =
| footer = Indra's iconography shows him holding a [[thunderbolt]] or [[Vajra]] and a sword. In addition he is shown on top of his elephant [[Airavata]], which reinforces his characteristic of [[King of the Gods]]. Sometimes he is accompanied by his wife, [[Shachi]]. Left: From [[Tiruchchirappalli]], [[Tamil Nadu]], 1820-1825. Right: From [[Hoysaleswara temple]], 12th century CE.
}}
In ''Rigveda'', Indra is described as strong willed, armed with a thunderbolt, riding a chariot:

{{blockquote|5. Let bullish heaven strengthen you, the bull; as bull you travel with your two bullish fallow bays.
As bull with a bullish chariot, well-lipped one, as bull with bullish will, you of the mace, set us up in loot.|Rigveda, Book 5, Hymn 37: Jamison<ref name="The Rigveda">{{cite book |last1 = Jamison |first1 = Stephanie |last2 = Brereton |first2 = Joel |date = 23 February 2020 |title = The Rigveda |isbn = 9780190633394 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1LTRDwAAQBAJ}}</ref>}}

Indra's weapon, which he used to kill the evil Vritra, is the [[Vajra]] or thunderbolt. Other alternate iconographic symbolism for him includes a [[bow (weapon)|bow]] (sometimes as a colorful rainbow), a sword, a [[Indra's net|net]], a noose, a hook, or a conch.<ref name="Daniélou1991p110">{{cite book |author=Daniélou, Alain |year=1991 |title=The Myths and Gods of India: The classic work on Hindu polytheism from the Princeton Bollingen Series |publisher=Inner Traditions |isbn=978-0-89281-354-4 |pages=110–111 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1HMXN9h6WX0C&pg=PA110}}</ref> The thunderbolt of Indra is called Bhaudhara.<ref name="Madan">{{cite book |last=Gopal |first=Madan |year=1990 |title=India through the Ages |editor=Gautam, K.S. |publisher=Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India |page=[https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada/page/75 75] |url=https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada}}</ref>

In the post-Vedic period, he rides a large, four-tusked white elephant called [[Airavata]].<ref name="Daniélou1991p108"/> In sculpture and relief artworks in temples, he typically sits on an elephant or is near one. When he is shown to have two, he holds the Vajra and a bow.{{sfn|Masson-Oursel|Morin|1976|p=326}}

In the ''[[Shatapatha Brahmana]]'' and in Shaktism traditions, Indra is stated to be same as goddess [[Shodashi]] (Tripura Sundari), and her iconography is described similar to those of Indra.<ref>{{cite book|author=Alain Daniélou|title=The Myths and Gods of India: The Classic Work on Hindu Polytheism from the Princeton Bollingen Series|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1HMXN9h6WX0C |year=1991|publisher=Inner Traditions|isbn=978-0-89281-354-4|page=278}}</ref>

The [[rainbow]] is called Indra's [[bow and arrow|Bow]] (Sanskrit: ''indradhanus'' {{IAST|इन्द्रधनुस्}}).<ref name="Daniélou1991p110"/>

==Literature==
===Vedic texts===
[[File:Guardians of the eight directions 02.JPG|thumb|upright|Indra is typically featured as a guardian deity on the east side of a [[Hindu temple]].]]
[[File:Indra.png|thumb|upright|Devraj Indra, Old Kalyan Print]]
Indra was a prominent deity in the [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic era]] of Hinduism.<ref name="Griswold1971p177"/> In Vedic times Indra was described in Rig Veda 6.30.4 as superior to any other god. Sayana in his commentary on Rig Veda 6.47.18 described Indra as assuming many forms, making [[Agni]], [[Vishnu]], and [[Rudra]] his illusory forms.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/rig-veda-english-translation/d/doc834193.html | title=Rig Veda 6.47.18 [English translation] | date=27 August 2021 }}</ref>

Over a quarter of the 1,028 hymns of the ''[[Rigveda]]'' mention Indra, making him the most referred to deity.<ref name="Griswold1971p177"/><ref name="Daniélou1991p106">{{cite book|author=Alain Daniélou|title=The Myths and Gods of India: The Classic Work on Hindu Polytheism from the Princeton Bollingen Series|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1HMXN9h6WX0C&pg=PA106 |year=1991|publisher=Inner Traditions|isbn=978-0-89281-354-4|pages=106–107}}</ref> These hymns present a complex picture of Indra, but some aspects of Indra are often repeated. Of these, the most common theme is where he as the god with thunderbolt kills the evil serpent [[Vritra]] that held back rains, and thus released rains and land nourishing rivers.<ref name="Müller1903p395"/> For example, the Rigvedic hymn 1.32 dedicated to Indra reads:
{{Verse translation|italicsoff=y|
{{lang|sa|इन्द्रस्य नु वीर्याणि प्र वोचं यानि चकार प्रथमानि वज्री <nowiki>।</nowiki>
अहन्नहिमन्वपस्ततर्द प्र वक्षणा अभिनत्पर्वतानाम् <nowiki>॥१।।</nowiki>
अहन्नहिं पर्वते शिश्रियाणं त्वष्टास्मै वज्रं स्वर्यं ततक्ष ।
वाश्रा इव धेनवः स्यन्दमाना अञ्जः समुद्रमव जग्मुरापः <nowiki>॥२।।</nowiki>}}
| attr1 = Rigveda, 1.32.1–2<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१.३२ ऋग्वेद: सूक्तं १.३२], Wikisource Rigveda Sanskrit text</ref>
|1. Now I shall proclaim the heroic deeds of Indra, those foremost deeds that the mace-wielder performed:
He smashed the serpent. He bored out the waters. He split the bellies of the mountains.
2. He smashed the serpent resting on the mountain—for him Tvaṣṭar had fashioned the resounding [sunlike] mace.
Like bellowing milk-cows, streaming out, the waters went straight down to the sea.<ref>{{cite book |author=Stephanie Jamison|title=The Rigveda –– Earliest Religious Poetry of India|year=2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0190633394|page=135 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1LTRDwAAQBAJ}}</ref>}}

In the myth, [[Vritra|Vṛtra]] has coiled around a mountain and has trapped all the waters, namely the [[Sapta Sindhu|Seven Rivers]]. All the gods abandon Indra out of fear of Vṛtra. Indra uses his vajra, a mace, to kill Vritra and smash open the mountains to release the waters. In some versions, he is aided by the [[Maruts]] or other deities, and sometimes cattle and the sun is also released from the mountain.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Oldenberg|first=Hermann|title=Die Religion Des Veda|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|year=2004|pages=77|language=de|translator-last=Shrotri|translator-first=Shridhar B.|trans-title=The Religion of the Veda|orig-year=1894 (First Edition), 1916 (Second Edition)}}</ref> In one interpretation by Oldenberg, the hymns are referring to the snaking thunderstorm clouds that gather with bellowing winds (Vritra), Indra is then seen as the storm god who intervenes in these clouds with his thunderbolts, which then release the rains nourishing the parched land, crops and thus humanity.<ref name="griswold180">{{cite book|author=Hervey De Witt Griswold|title=The Religion of the Ṛigveda|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vhkt5K1fw2wC&pg=PA177 |year=1971|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0745-7|pages=180–183 with footnotes}}</ref> In another interpretation by Hillebrandt, Indra is a symbolic sun god ([[Surya]]) and Vritra is a symbolic winter-giant (historic mini cycles of ice age, cold) in the earliest, not the later, hymns of ''Rigveda''. The Vritra is an ice-demon of colder central Asia and northern latitudes, who holds back the water. Indra is the one who releases the water from the winter demon, an idea that later metamorphosed into his role as storm god.<ref name="griswold180" /> According to Griswold, this is not a completely convincing interpretation, because Indra is simultaneously a lightning god, a rain god and a river-helping god in the Vedas. Further, the Vritra demon that Indra slew is best understood as any obstruction, whether it be clouds that refuse to release rain or mountains or snow that hold back the water.<ref name="griswold180" /> Jamison and Brereton also state that Vritra is best understood as any obstacle. The Vritra myth is associated with the Midday Pressing of soma, which is dedicated to Indra or Indra and the Maruts.<ref name=":0" />

Even though Indra is declared as the king of gods in some verses, there is no consistent subordination of other gods to Indra. In Vedic thought, all gods and goddesses are equivalent and aspects of the same eternal abstract [[Brahman]], none consistently superior, none consistently inferior. All gods obey Indra, but all gods also obey Varuna, Vishnu, Rudra and others when the situation arises. Further, Indra also accepts and follows the instructions of [[Savitr]] (solar deity).<ref name="Keith1925p93">{{cite book|author=Arthur Berriedale Keith|title=The Religion and Philosophy of the Veda and Upanishads |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PaH4uKI7MaEC |year=1925 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0645-0|pages=93–94}}</ref> Indra, like all Vedic deities, is a part of [[henotheism|henotheistic]] theology of ancient India.<ref>{{cite book|author=Friedrich Max Müller |title=Contributions to the Science of Mythology|url=https://archive.org/details/contributionsto01mlgoog |year=1897|publisher=Longmans Green |page=[https://archive.org/details/contributionsto01mlgoog/page/n348 758]}}</ref>

The second-most important myth about Indra is about the Vala cave. In this story, the [[Panis]] have stolen cattle and hidden them in the Vala cave. Here Indra utilizes the power of the songs he chants to split the cave open to release the cattle and dawn. He is accompanied in the cave by the Angirases (and sometimes Navagvas or the Daśagvas). Here Indra exemplifies his role as a priest-king, called ''bṛhaspati''. Eventually later in the Rigveda, [[Bṛhaspati]] and Indra become separate deities as both Indra and the Vedic king lose their priestly functions. The Vala myth was associated with the Morning Pressing of soma, in which cattle was donated to priests, called ''[[Dakshina|dakṣiṇā]].''<ref name=":0">{{cite book |author=Stephanie Jamison|url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Rigveda_3_Volume_Set/fgzVAwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0|title=The Rigveda –– Earliest Religious Poetry of India |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2015|isbn=978-0190633394|location=|pages=38–40}}</ref>

Indra is not a visible object of nature in the Vedic texts, nor is he a personification of any object, but that agent which causes the lightning, the rains and the rivers to flow.<ref>{{cite book|author=Friedrich Max Müller|title=Contributions to the Science of Mythology|url=https://archive.org/details/contributionsto01mlgoog |year=1897|publisher=Longmans Green |page=[https://archive.org/details/contributionsto01mlgoog/page/n347 757]}}</ref> His myths and adventures in the Vedic literature are numerous, ranging from harnessing the rains, cutting through mountains to help rivers flow, helping land becoming fertile, unleashing sun by defeating the clouds, warming the land by overcoming the winter forces, winning the light and dawn for mankind, putting milk in the cows, rejuvenating the immobile into something mobile and prosperous, and in general, he is depicted as removing any and all sorts of obstacles to human progress.<ref>{{cite book|author=Jan Gonda|author-link=Jan Gonda|title=The Indra Hymns of the Ṛgveda|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KtcUAAAAIAAJ |year=1989|publisher=Brill Archive|isbn=90-04-09139-4|pages=4–5}}</ref> The Vedic prayers to Indra, states [[Jan Gonda]], generally ask "produce success of this rite, throw down those who hate the materialized [[Brahman]]".<ref>{{cite book|author=Jan Gonda|author-link=Jan Gonda|title=The Indra Hymns of the Ṛgveda|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KtcUAAAAIAAJ |year=1989|publisher=Brill Archive|isbn=90-04-09139-4|page=12}}</ref> The hymns of ''Rigveda'' declare him to be the "king that moves and moves not", the friend of mankind who holds the different tribes on earth together.<ref>{{cite book|author=Hervey De Witt Griswold|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vhkt5K1fw2wC&pg=PA180|title=The Religion of the Ṛigveda|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|year=1971|isbn=978-81-208-0745-7|page=180, verse 1.32.15}}</ref>

Indra is often presented as the twin brother of [[Agni]] (fire) – another major Vedic deity.<ref>{{cite book|author=Friedrich Max Müller|title=Contributions to the Science of Mythology|url=https://archive.org/details/contributionsto01mlgoog |year=1897|publisher=Longmans Green |page=[https://archive.org/details/contributionsto01mlgoog/page/n417 827]}}</ref> Yet, he is also presented to be the same, states Max Muller, as in Rigvedic hymn 2.1.3, which states, "Thou Agni, art Indra, a bull among all beings; thou art the wide-ruling Vishnu, worthy of adoration. Thou art the Brahman, (...)."<ref>{{cite book |author=Müller, Friedrich Max |year=1897 |title=Contributions to the Science of Mythology |publisher=Longmans Green |page=[https://archive.org/details/contributionsto01mlgoog/page/n418 828] |url=https://archive.org/details/contributionsto01mlgoog}}</ref> He is also part of one of many Vedic trinities as "Agni, Indra and Surya", representing the "creator-maintainer-destroyer" aspects of existence in Hindu thought.<ref name="Daniélou1991p106"/>{{efn|The Trimurti idea of Hinduism, states [[Jan Gonda]], "seems to have developed from ancient cosmological and ritualistic speculations about the triple character of an individual god, in the first place of ''Agni'', whose births are three or threefold, and who is threefold light, has three bodies and three stations".<ref name=Gonda-1969>{{cite journal |first=Jan |last=Gonda |year=1969 |title=The Hindu trinity |journal=Anthropos |volume=63–64 |issue=1–2 |pages=212–226 |jstor=40457085}}</ref>{{rp|style=ama|pages=218-219}} Other trinities, beyond the more common "Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva", mentioned in ancient and medieval Hindu texts include: "'''Indra''', Vishnu, Brahmanaspati", "Agni, '''Indra''', Surya", "Agni, Vayu, Aditya", "Mahalakshmi, Mahasarasvati, and Mahakali", and others.<ref name=Gonda-1969/>{{rp|style=ama|pages=212-226}}</ref><ref name=davidwhite29>{{cite book |first=David |last=White |year=2006 |title=Kiss of the Yogini |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0226894843 |pages=4, 29}}</ref>}}

Rigveda 2.1.3 Jamison 2014<ref name=Jamison-2014/>

# You, Agni, as bull of beings, are Indra; you, wide-going, worthy of homage, are Viṣṇu. You, o lord of the sacred formulation, finder of wealth, are the Brahman [Formulator]; you, o Apportioner, are accompanied by Plenitude.
Parentage of Indra is inconsistent in Vedic texts, and in fact Rigveda 4.17.12 states that Indra himself may not even know that much about his mother and father. Some verses of Vedas suggest that his mother was a ''grishti'' (a cow), while other verses name her Nishtigri. The medieval commentator [[Sayana]] identified her with [[Aditi]], the goddess who is his mother in later Hinduism. The [[Atharvaveda]] states Indra's mother is Ekashtaka, daughter of [[Prajapati]]. Some verses of Vedic texts state that Indra's father is [[Tvastr|Tvashtr]] or sometimes the couple [[Dyaus]]h and [[Prithvi]] are mentioned as his parents.<ref name=Jamison-2014>{{cite book |last=Jamison |first=Stephanie W. |year=2014 |title=The Rigveda: Earliest religious poetry of India |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199370184 |pages=39, 582}}</ref>{{rp|style=ama|pages=39, 582}}<ref name=":1"/><ref name="DPr"/> According to a legend found in it, before Indra is born, his mother attempts to persuade him to not take an unnatural exit from her womb. Immediately after birth, Indra steals soma from his father, and Indra's mother offers the drink to him. After Indra's birth, Indra's mother reassures Indra that he will prevail in his rivalry with his father, Tvaṣṭar. Both the unnatural exit from the womb and rivalry with the father are universal attributes of heroes.<ref name=":0"/> In the Rigveda, Indra's wife is Indrani, alias Shachi, and she is described to be extremely proud about her status.<ref>{{cite book |author=Kinsley, David |year=1988 |title=Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the divine feminine in the Hindu religious tradition |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-90883-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/hindugoddessesvi0000kins/page/17 17]–18 |url=https://archive.org/details/hindugoddessesvi0000kins |url-access=registration}}</ref> Rigveda 4.18.8 says after his birth Indra got swallowed by a demon Kushava.<ref name="The hymns of the Rigveda">{{cite book |editor=Griffith, R.T.H. |year=1920 |title=The Hymns of the Rigveda |place=Benares, IN |publisher=E.J. Lazarus and Co. |url=https://archive.org/details/hymnsrigveda00grifgoog/page/n133/mode/1up}}</ref>

Indra is also found in many other myths that are poorly understood. In one, Indra crushes the cart of [[Ushas]] (Dawn), and she runs away. In another Indra beats [[Surya]] in a chariot race by tearing off the wheel of his chariot. This is connected to a myth where Indra and his sidekick [[Kutsa]] ride the same chariot drawn by the horses of the wind to the house of Uśanā Kāvya to receive aid before killing [[Susna|Śuṣṇa]], the enemy of Kutsa. In one myth Indra (in some versions helped by [[Vishnu#Vedas|Viṣṇu]]) shoots a boar named Emuṣa in order to obtain special rice porridge hidden inside or behind a mountain. Another myth has Indra kill Namuci by beheading him. In later versions of that myth Indra does this through trickery involving the foam of water. Other beings slain by Indra include Śambara, Pipru, Varcin, Dhuni and Cumuri, and others. Indra's chariot is pulled by fallow bay horses described as ''hárī''. They bring Indra to and from the sacrifice, and are even offered their own roasted grains.<ref name=":0"/>

====Upanishads====
The ancient ''[[Aitareya Upanishad]]'' equates Indra, along with other deities, with [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (soul, self) in the Vedanta's spirit of internalization of rituals and gods. It begins with its cosmological theory in verse 1.1.1 by stating that, "in the beginning, Atman, verily one only, was here - no other blinking thing whatever; he bethought himself: let me now create worlds".<ref name=Hume-1921>{{cite book |first=Robert |last=Hume |year=1921 |section=verses 1.1.1, and 1.3.13-.3.14 |title=The Thirteen Principal Upanishads |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=294-298 with footnotes |url=https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n315/mode/2up}}</ref>{{rp|style=ama|page=294}}<ref name="Deussen1997p15"/> This soul, which the text refers to as Brahman as well, then proceeds to create the worlds and beings in those worlds wherein all Vedic gods and goddesses such as sun-god, moon-god, Agni, and other divinities become active cooperative organs of the body.<ref name="Deussen1997p15"/><ref name=Hume-1921/>{{rp|style=ama|page=295-297}}<ref>{{cite book |author=Bronkhorst, Johannes |year=2007 |title=Greater Magadha: Studies in the culture of early India |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-15719-4 |page=128 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4GNG5KuH73QC}}</ref> The Atman thereafter creates food, and thus emerges a sustainable non-sentient universe, according to the Upanishad. The eternal Atman then enters each living being making the universe full of sentient beings, but these living beings fail to perceive their Atman. The first one to see the Atman as Brahman, asserts the Upanishad, said, "''idam adarsha'' or "I have seen It".<ref name="Deussen1997p15">{{cite book |author=Deussen, Paul |year=1997 |title=A Sixty Upanishads Of the Veda |volume=1 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0430-2 |pages=15–18 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cQFXNgAACAAJ}}</ref> Others then called this first seer as ''Idam-dra'' or "It-seeing", which over time came to be cryptically known as "Indra", because, claims ''Aitareya Upanishad'', everyone including the gods like short nicknames.<ref name=Hume-1921/>{{rp|style=ama|pages=297-298}} The passing mention of Indra in this Upanishad, states Alain Daniélou, is a symbolic folk etymology.<ref name="Daniélou1991p108"/>

The section 3.9 of the ''[[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]]'' connects Indra to thunder, thunderbolt and release of waters.<ref>{{cite book |author=Olivelle, Patrick |year=1998 |title=The Early Upanishads: Annotated text and translation |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-535242-9 |page=20 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lsp18ZvstrcC}}</ref> In section 5.1 of the ''[[Avyakta Upanishad]]'', Indra is praised as he who embodies the qualities of all gods.<ref name="Daniélou1991p106"/>

===Post-Vedic texts===
{{multiple image
| total_width=400px
| image1 = SAHASRAKHSYA AHALYA.jpg
| caption1 = Indra with Ahalya, contemporary [[Pattachitra]] painting.
| image2 = Krishna Holding Mount Govardhan - Crop.jpg
| caption2 = [[Krishna]] holding [[Govardhan hill]] from [[Smithsonian Institution]]'s collections. [[Mola Ram]], c. 1790
}}
In post-Vedic texts, Indra is depicted as an intoxicated hedonistic god, his importance declines, and he evolves into a minor deity in comparison to others in the Hindu pantheon, such as [[Shiva]], [[Vishnu]], or [[Devi]]. In Hindu texts, Indra is some times known as an aspect ([[avatar]]) of [[Shiva]].<ref name="Daniélou1991p106"/>

In the [[Puranas]], [[Ramayana]] and [[Mahabharata]], the divine sage [[Kashyapa]] is described as the father of Indra, and [[Aditi]] as his mother. In this tradition, he is presented as one of their thirty-three sons.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Mani|first=Vettam|title=Purāṇic Encyclopaedia: A Comprehensive Dictionary with Special Reference to the Epic and Purāṇic Literature|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|year=1975|isbn=978-81-208-0597--2|location=|pages=318}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Dalal|first=Roshen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&q=Indra+aditi|title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide|date=2010|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=978-0-14-341421-6 |pages=164–165}}</ref> Indra married [[Shachi]], the daughter of [[Danava (Hinduism)|Danava]] [[Puloman]]. Most texts state that Indra had only one wife, though sometimes other names are mentioned.<ref name=":1" /> The text ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'' mention that Indra and Shachi had three sons [[Jayanta]], Rishabha, Midhusha.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Daniélou|first=Alain|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1HMXN9h6WX0C&q=Indra+wife&pg=RA1-PA260|title=The Myths and Gods of India: The Classic Work on Hindu Polytheism from the Princeton Bollingen Series|date=December 1991|publisher=Inner Traditions / Bear & Co|isbn=978-0-89281-354-4|language=en|pages=109}}</ref> Some listings add Nilambara and Rbhus.<ref name="DPr">{{Cite book|last=Jordan|first=Michael|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aqDC5bwx4_wC&q=Indra|title=Dictionary of Gods and Goddesses|date=2014-05-14|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-0985-5|language=en}}</ref> Indra and Shachi also had two daughters, [[Jayanti (Hinduism)|Jayanti]] and [[Devasena]]. Goddess Jayanti is the spouse of [[Shukra]], while Devasena marries the war god [[Kartikeya]].<ref name="Dalal2010">{{cite book|author=Roshen Dalal|title=The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths|year=2010|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=978-0-14-341517-6|pages=190, 251}}</ref> Indra is depicted as the spiritual father of [[Vali (Ramayana)|Vali]] in the ''[[Ramayana]]'' and [[Arjuna]] in the ''[[Mahabharata]]''.<ref name=donigerindra/> Since he is known for mastering over all weapons in warfare, his spiritual sons Vali and [[Arjuna]] are also very good in warfare. He has a charioteer named [[Mātali|Matali]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dowson |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=leH7AQAAQBAJ&dq=matali+charioteer+of+indra&pg=PA205 |title=A Classical Dictionary of Hindu Mythology and Religion, Geography, History and Literature |date=2013-11-05 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-39029-6 |pages=205 |language=en}}</ref>

Indra had multiple affairs with other women. One such was [[Ahalya]], wife of sage Gautama. Indra was cursed by the sage. Although the Brahmanas (9th to 6th centuries BCE) are the earliest scriptures to hint at their relationship, the 7th- to 4th-century BCE Hindu epic [[Ramayana]] – whose hero is [[Rama]] – is the first to explicitly mention the affair in detail.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Söhnen|first=Renate|date=February 1991|title=Indra and Women|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bulletin-of-the-school-of-oriental-and-african-studies/article/indra-and-women/7F6A10EAFE97A94A433232ACF75C2712|journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies|language=en|volume=54|issue=1|pages=68–74|doi=10.1017/S0041977X00009617|s2cid=162225024|issn=1474-0699}}</ref>

Indra becomes a source of nuisance rains in the Puranas, out of anger and with an intent to hurt mankind. But, [[Krishna]] as an avatar of [[Vishnu]], comes to the rescue by lifting [[Govardhan Hill|Mount Govardhana]] on his fingertip, and letting mankind shelter under the mountain till Indra exhausts his anger and relents.<ref name=donigerindra>Wendy Doniger (2015), [https://www.britannica.com/topic/Indra Indra: Indian deity], Encyclopædia Britannica</ref> Also, according to Mahabharata, Indra disguised himself as a [[Brahmin]] approached Karna and asked for his kavacha (body armor) and kundala (earrings) as charity. Although being aware of his true identity, [[Karna]] peeled off his kavacha and kundala and fulfilled the wish of Indra. Pleased by this act Indra, gifted Karna a dart called Vasavi Shakthi.

According to the ''[[Vishnu Purana]]'', Indra is the position of being the king of the gods which changes in every [[Manvantara]]—a cyclic period of time in [[Hindu cosmology]]. Each [[Manvantara]] has its own Indra and the Indra of the current [[Manvantara]] is called ''Purandhara''.<ref name = "Dalal2010" /><ref name=":2"/><ref name=":3"/><ref name=":4"/>

=== Sangam literature (300 BCE–300 CE) ===
[[Sangam literature]] of the [[Tamil language]] contains more stories about Indra by various authors. In [[Silapathikaram]] Indra is described as ''Maalai venkudai mannavan'' (மாலைவெண் குடை மன்னவன்), literally meaning Indra with the pearl-garland and white umbrella.<ref>{{cite book|author=S Krishnamoorthy|title=Silappadikaram|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=STbMzFKaxcQC |year=2011|publisher=Bharathi Puthakalayam}}</ref>

The [[Sangam literature]] also describes [[Indra Vizha (festival)|Indira Vizha]] (festival for Indra), the festival for want of rain, celebrated for one full month starting from the full moon in Ootrai (later name – Cittirai) and completed on the full moon in Puyaazhi (Vaikaasi) (which coincides with Buddhapurnima). It is described in the epic [[Silappatikaram]] in detail.<ref>{{cite book|author=S Krishnamoorthy|title=Silappadikaram|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=STbMzFKaxcQC |year=2011|publisher=Bharathi Puthakalayam|pages=31–36}}</ref>

In his work of the [[Tirukkural]] (before c. 5th century CE), [[Valluvar]] cites Indra to exemplify the virtue of conquest over one's senses.<ref>{{cite book|author=P. S. Sundaram|title=Kural (Tiruvalluvar)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aPpv2F2RRgcC|year=1987|publisher=Penguin Books|pages=21,159|isbn=978-93-5118-015-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author= S. N. Kandasamy |title= திருக்குறள்: ஆய்வுத் தெளிவுரை (அறத்துப்பால்) [Tirukkural: Research commentary: Book of Aram] |year= 2017 |publisher= Manivasagar Padhippagam | location= Chennai |pages= 42–43}}</ref>

==In other religions==
===Buddhism===
{{Main|Śakra (Buddhism)}}
[[File:Indrasala cave, Loriyan Tangai.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.15|Buddhist relief from [[Loriyan Tangai]], showing Indra paying homage to the Buddha at the [[Indrasala Cave]], 2nd century CE, [[Gandhara]].]]
The Buddhist cosmology places Indra above [[Mount Sumeru]], in Trayastrimsha heaven.<ref name="Baroni2002p153"/> He resides and rules over one of the six realms of rebirth, the ''Devas'' realm of [[Saṃsāra (Buddhism)|Saṃsāra]], that is widely sought in the Buddhist tradition.{{sfn|Trainor|2004|p=62}}{{efn|Scholars<ref name=Fowler-1999>{{cite book |author=Fowler, Merv |year=1999 |title=Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |isbn=978-1-898723-66-0 |page=65 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A7UKjtA0QDwC }}{{Dead link|date=January 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>{{efn|For a vast majority of Buddhists in Theravadin countries, however, the order of monks is seen by lay Buddhists as a means of gaining the most merit in the hope of accumulating good karma for a better rebirth.<ref name=Fowler-1999/>}}<ref>{{cite book |author=Gowans, Christopher |year=2004 |title=Philosophy of the Buddha: An Introduction |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-46973-4 |page=169 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EbU4Hd5lro0C}}</ref> note that better rebirth, not nirvana, has been the primary focus of a vast majority of lay Buddhists. This is sought in the Buddhist traditions through merit accumulation and good ''kamma''.}} Rebirth in the realm of Indra is a consequence of very good [[Karma]] (Pali: ''kamma'') and accumulated merit during a human life.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Buswell, Robert E., Jr. |author2=Lopez, Donald S., Jr. |year=2013 |title=The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-4805-8 |pages=230–231 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DXN2AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA231}}</ref>

[[File:Seal Bangkok Metropolitan Admin (green).svg|thumb|upright=0.65|Many official seals in southeast Asia feature Indra.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Waraporn |last=Poopongpan |year=2007 |title=Thai kingship during the Ayutthaya period: A note on its divine aspects concerning Indra |journal=Silpakorn University International Journal |volume=7 |pages=143–171}}</ref> Above: seal of Bangkok, Thailand.]]
In [[Buddhism]], Indra is commonly called by his other name, [[Śakra (Buddhism)|Śakra]] or Sakka, ruler of the [[Trāyastriṃśa|{{IAST|Trāyastriṃśa}}]] heaven.<ref name="HoltKinnard2012p45">{{cite book |author1=Holt, John Clifford |author2=Kinnard, Jacob N. |author3=Walters, Jonathan S. |year=2012 |title=Constituting Communities: Theravada Buddhism and the religious cultures of south and southeast Asia |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-8705-1 |pages=45–46, 57–64, 108 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PnnG8sclrdYC}}</ref> Śakra is sometimes referred to as ''Devānām Indra'' or "Lord of the Devas". Buddhist texts also refer to Indra by numerous names and epithets, as is the case with Hindu and Jain texts. For example, Asvaghosha's ''Buddhacarita'' in different sections refers to Indra with terms such as "the thousand eyed",{{sfn|Cowell |Davis|1969 |pp=5, 21}} ''Puramdara'',{{Sfn|Cowell |Davis |1969|p=44}} ''Lekharshabha'',{{Sfn|E. B. Cowell|Francis A. Davis|1969|p=71 footnote 1}} ''Mahendra'', ''Marutvat'', ''Valabhid'' and ''Maghavat''.{{Sfn|E. B. Cowell|Francis A. Davis|1969|p=205}} Elsewhere, he is known as ''Devarajan'' (literally, "the king of gods"). These names reflect a large overlap between Hinduism and Buddhism, and the adoption of many Vedic terminology and concepts into Buddhist thought.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Robert E. Buswell Jr.|author2=Donald S. Lopez Jr.|title=The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DXN2AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA231 |year=2013|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-4805-8|pages=235}}</ref> Even the term ''Śakra'', which means "mighty", appears in the Vedic texts such as in hymn 5.34 of the ''Rigveda''.<ref name="Daniélou1991p108"/><ref>Sanskrit: [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_५.३४ Rigveda 5.34], Wikisource; English Translation: {{cite book |author=Wilson, H.H. |year=1857 |title=Rig-veda Sanhita: A collection of ancient Hindu hymns |publisher=Trübner & Company |pages=288–291, 58–61 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LxwYAAAAYAAJ}}</ref>

In [[Theravada]] [[Buddhism]] Indra is referred to as Indā in evening chanting such as the Udissanādiṭṭhānagāthā (Iminā).<ref>{{cite web |title=Part 2 – Evening Chanting |website=www.Watpasantidhamma.org |url=https://www.watpasantidhamma.org/p/part-2-evening-chanting.html#2.12 |access-date=2019-01-18}}</ref>

[[File:BimaranCasket2.JPG|thumb|right|[[Bimaran casket]]: the Buddha (middle) is flanked by Brahma (left) and Indra, in one of the earliest Buddhist depictions (1st century CE).<ref name=lopez37/>]]
The [[Bimaran Casket]] made of gold inset with garnet, dated to be around 60 CE, but some proposals dating it to the 1st century BCE, is among the earliest archaeological evidences available that establish the importance of Indra in Buddhist mythology. The artwork shows the Buddha flanked by gods [[Brahma]] and Indra.<ref name=lopez37>{{cite book | author=Lopez, Donald S. Jr. |year=2013 |title=From Stone to Flesh: A short history of the Buddha |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-49321-3 |page=37 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pITNHIZnZ5QC}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=K. Walton |last=Dobbins |date=March–June 1968 |title=Two Gandhāran reliquaries |journal=East and West |volume=18 |number=1–2 |pages=151–162 |jstor=29755217}}</ref>

In [[China]], [[Korea]], and [[Japan]], he is known by the characters 帝釋天 (Chinese: 釋提桓因, pinyin: shì dī huán yīn, Korean: "Je-seok-cheon" or 桓因 ''Hwan-in'', Japanese: "Tai-shaku-ten", [[kanji]]: 帝釈天) and usually appears opposite [[Brahma]] in Buddhist art. Brahma and Indra are revered together as protectors of the historical Buddha (Chinese: 釋迦, [[kanji]]: 釈迦, also known as [[Gautama Buddha|Shakyamuni]]), and are frequently shown giving the infant Buddha his first bath. Although Indra is often depicted like a [[bodhisattva]] in the Far East, typically in [[Tang dynasty]] costume, his iconography also includes a martial aspect, wielding a thunderbolt from atop his elephant mount.{{citation needed|date=October 2016}}

In some schools of Buddhism and in Hinduism, the image of [[Indra's net]] is a metaphor for the emptiness of all things, and at the same time a metaphor for the understanding of the universe as a web of connections and interdependences<ref>[[Indra's Net (book)#cite note-FOOTNOTEMalhotra20144-10]]</ref>{{circular reference|date=December 2019}}.

In China, Indra (帝釋天 Dìshìtiān) is regarded as one of the twenty-four protective devas ([[:zh:二十四诸天|二十四諸天]] Èrshísì zhūtiān) of Buddhism. In Chinese Buddhist temples, his statue is usually enshrined in the [[Mahavira Hall]] along with the other devas.

In Japan, Indra (帝釈天 Taishakuten) is one of the twelve Devas, as guardian deities, who are found in or around Buddhist temples (十二天[[:ja:十二天|Jūni-ten]]).<ref>{{cite web |title=Twelve heavenly deities (devas) |publisher=Nara National Museum |place=Nara, Japan |url=http://www.emuseum.jp/detail/100031/000/000?mode=detail&d_lang=en |access-date=31 December 2015 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304201634/http://www.emuseum.jp/detail/100031/000/000?mode=detail&d_lang=en |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="biswas184">{{cite book |first=S. |last=Biswas |year=2000 |title=Art of Japan |publisher=Northern |isbn=978-817211269-1 |page=184}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Willem Frederik |last1=Stutterheim |display-authors=etal |year=1995 |title=Rāma-legends and Rāma-reliefs in Indonesia |isbn=978-817017251-2 |pages={{mvar|xiv–xvi}} }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Snodgrass, A. |author-link=Adrian Snodgrass |year=2007 |title=The Symbolism of the Stupa, Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-812080781-5 |pages=120-124, 298-300}}</ref>

The ceremonial name of [[Bangkok]] claims that the city was "given by Indra and built by [[Vishvakarman]]."<ref>{{cite journal |journal=Royal Institute Newsletter |volume=3 |issue=31 |date=December 1993 |script-title=th:กรุงเทพมหานคร |lang=th |trans-title=Bangkok}} Reproduced in {{cite web |script-title=th:กรุงเทพมหานคร |trans-title=Krung Thep Mahanakhon |lang=th |url=http://www.royin.go.th/th/knowledge/detail.php?ID=639 |access-date=12 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141206140602/http://www.royin.go.th/th/knowledge/detail.php?ID=639 |archive-date=2016-12-10}}</ref>

===Jainism===
{{multiple image
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| caption1 = Left: Indra as a guardian deity sitting on elephant in Jain cave temple at [[Ellora Caves|Ellora]], c. 600–1000 CE
| image2 = Bhagvan Indra.jpg
| width2 = 220
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| caption2 = Right: Indra, Indrani with elephant at the 9th-century [[Mirpur Jain Temple]] in Rajasthan (rebuilt 15th-century).
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}}
Indra in [[Jainism|Jain]] mythology always serves the [[Tirthankara]] teachers. Indra most commonly appears in stories related to Tirthankaras, in which Indra himself manages and celebrates the [[Panch Kalyanaka|five auspicious events]] in that Tirthankara's life, such as Chavan kalyanak, [[Birth|Janma]] kalyanak, [[Diksha]] kalyanak, [[Kevala Jnana]] kalyanak, and [[Moksha (Jainism)|moksha]] kalyanak.{{sfn|Goswamy|2014|p=245}}

There are sixty-four Indras in Jaina literature, each ruling over different heavenly realms where heavenly souls who have not yet gained Kaivalya ([[moksha]]) are reborn according to Jainism.<ref name=Wileyj99/><ref name=owenj64/> Among these many Indras, the ruler of the first Kalpa heaven is the Indra who is known as ''Saudharma'' in [[Digambara]], and ''Sakra'' in [[Śvētāmbara]] tradition. He is most preferred, discussed and often depicted in Jaina caves and marble temples, often with his wife Indrani.<ref name=owenj64>{{cite book |author=Owen, Lisa |year=2012 |title=Carving Devotion in the Jain Caves at Ellora |publisher=BRILL Academic |isbn=978-90-04-20629-8 |pages=25–28, 29–33 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vHK2WE8xAzYC&pg=PA25}}</ref>{{rp|style=ama|pages=25–28}}<ref>{{cite book |author=von Glasenapp, Helmuth |year=1999 |title=Jainism: An Indian religion of salvation |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1376-2 |pages=268–269 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC}}</ref> They greet the devotee as he or she walks in, flank the entrance to an idol of [[Arihant (Jainism)|Jina]] (conqueror), and lead the gods as they are shown celebrating the five auspicious moments in a Jina's life, including his birth.<ref name=Wileyj99/> These Indra-related stories are enacted by laypeople in Jainism tradition during special Puja (worship) or festive remembrances.<ref name=Wileyj99/><ref name=owenj64/>{{rp|style=ama|pages=29–33}}

In outh Indian [[Digambara]] Jaina community, Indra is also the title of hereditary priests who preside over Jain temple functions.<ref name=Wileyj99/>

==See also==
{{div col begin|colwidth=12em}}
* [[Rigvedic deities]]
* [[Indreswor|Indreshwar]]
* [[Deva (Hinduism)|Deva]]
* [[Nahusha]]
* [[Aditya]]
* [[Lokapala]]
* [[Dikpala]]
* [[Swarga|Indraloka]]
* [[Astra (weapon)|Astra]]
* [[Indrajit#Celestial weapons (Astra's) of Indrajit|Astra of Indrajit]]
* [[Dhvaja#In Hinduism|Indra Dhwaja]]
* [[Indra's net|Indrajāla]]
* [[Vajra]], also ''Bhaudhara''
* [[Vijaya (bow)|Vijaya Dhanush]]
* [[Trāyastriṃśa]]
* [[Nat (spirit)|Nat]]
* [[Japanese Buddhist pantheon#Level 4: Heavenly deities (Ten-bu)|Ten-bu]]
* [[Dharmapala]]
* [[Śakra (Buddhism)|Sakra]] or ''Sakka''
* [[Indranama]]
* [[Saman (deity)|Saman]]
* [[Japanese Buddhist pantheon#Level 4: Heavenly deities (Ten-bu)|Taishakuten]]
* [[Thagyamin]]
* [[Vajrapani]]
* [[Yuanshi Tianzun]]
* [[Jade Emperor]]
* [[Hwanin]]
* [[Tengri]]
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist|25em}}

===Bibliography===
{{refbegin|25em}}

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* {{cite book |last=Beckwith |first=Christopher I. |year=2009 |title=Empires of the Silk Road |publisher=Princeton University Press}}
* {{cite book |author1=Cowell, E.B. |author2=Davis, Francis A. |year=1969 |title=Buddhist Mahayana Texts |publisher=Courier Corporation |isbn=978-0-486-25552-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LYIfAwAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book |last=Wilkings |first=W.J. |year=2001 |orig-year=1882 |title=Hindu mythology, Vedic & Puranic |publisher=Elibron Classics |edition=reprint |isbn=9780766188815 |quote=Reprint of original Thaker, Spink & Co., Calcutta, IN |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=84pTrICjfRcC&q=indra |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141009000446/http://books.google.co.th/books?id=84pTrICjfRcC&q=indra#v=snippet&q=indra&f=false |archive-date=9 October 2014 |df=dmy-all }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |author1-link=Paul Masson-Oursel |author1=Masson-Oursel, P. |author2=Morin, Louise |year=1976 |title=Indian Mythology |encyclopedia=New Larousse Encyclopedia of Mythology |pages=325–359 |place=New York, NY |publisher=The Hamlyn Publishing Group}}
* Janda, M., ''Eleusis, das indogermanische Erbe der Mysterien'' (1998).
* {{cite book |last=Trainor |first=Kevin |year=2004 |title=Buddhism: The Illustrated Guide |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-517398-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_PrloTKuAjwC}}

{{refend}}

==External links==
{{sister project links|commonscat=yes|n=no|s=no|b=no|voy=no|v=no}}
* {{cite web |author=Lee, Phil |title=Indra and Skanda deities in Korean Buddhism |department=Chicago Divinity School |publisher=University of Chicago |place=Chicago, IL |url=https://divinity.uchicago.edu/sightings/vivid-indra-and-heavenly-dragon-general-korean-peoples-trust-buddhist-deities}}
* {{cite web |title=Indra, Lord of Storms and King of the Gods' Realm |publisher=Philadelphia Museum of Art |place=Philadelphia, PA |url=http://www.philamuseum.org/collections/permanent/88503.html}}
* {{cite web |title=Indra wood idol – 13th century, Kamakura period |place=Nara, Japan |url=http://www.narahaku.go.jp/english/collection/858-6.html}}

{{Rigveda}}
{{HinduMythology}}
{{Hindudharma}}
{{Burmese nats}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Adityas]]
[[Category:Buddhist gods]]
[[Category:Characters in the Mahabharata]]
[[Category:Heroes in mythology and legend]]
[[Category:Hindu gods]]
[[Category:Lokapala]]
[[Category:Mythological kings]]
[[Category:Rain deities]]
[[Category:Rigvedic deities]]
[[Category:Sky and weather gods]]
[[Category:Thunder gods]]
[[Category:War gods]]
[[Category:Sea and river gods]]

Modak

2023-01-21T21:20:37Z

ImportMaster:

{{Short description|Indian sweet dumpling dish}}
{{refimprove|date=December 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2017}}
{{Infobox prepared food
| name = Modak
| image = Ukadiche Modak (Rice).jpg
| caption =
| alternate_name =Koḻukattai
| country = [[India]]
| region = India, Japan, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei, Singapore, Myanmar
| course = [[Dessert]]
| type = [[Dumpling]]
| served =
| main_ingredient = [[Rice flour]], or [[wheat flour|wheat]] and [[maida flour]], [[coconut]], [[jaggery]]
| variations = Kangidan (歓喜団) Khanom tom (ขนมต้ม) Kuih modak Kue modak [[Mont lone yay baw]] (မုန့်လုံးရေပေါ်)
| calories =
| other = }}

'''Modak''' ([[Sanskrit]]: मोदकं; [[Japanese language|Japanese]]: 歓喜団; [[Thai language|Thai]]: โมทกะ or ขนมต้ม; [[Malaysian language|Malaysian]]: Kuih modak; [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]: Kue modak; [[Burmese language|Burmese]]: မုန့်လုံးရေပေါ်), also referred to as '''Koḻukattai''' (கொழுக்கட்டை) in [[Tamil language|Tamil]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=S |first=Latha Maheswari |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ylCqCgAAQBAJ&dq=kozhukattai+modak&pg=PA130 |title=So Tasty Healthy Low Calorie Vegetarian Cooking Book-2: Take care calorie by calorie DOSAS AND SOUTH INDIAN MOUTH WATERING VARIETIES |date=2015-10-03 |publisher=AB Publishing House |isbn=978-1-5176-3269-4 |pages=130 |language=en}}</ref> is an [[Cuisine of India|Indian]] sweet [[dumpling]] dish popular in many Indian states and cultures. According to [[Hinduism|Hindu]] and [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] beliefs, it is considered one of the favourite dishes of [[Lord Ganesha]] and the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] and is therefore used in prayers.<ref name="favourite"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.traveldine.com/indian-classic-modak|title=Indian classic: Modak|website=Traveldine}}</ref> The sweet filling on the inside of a modak consists of freshly grated [[coconut]] and [[jaggery]], while the outer soft shell is made from [[rice flour]] or [[wheat flour]] mixed with khava or [[maida flour]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://food.ndtv.com/recipe-modak-287978|title=Modak Recipe}}</ref>

There are two types of modak, fried and steamed. The steamed version (called ''ukdiche modak'')<ref>{{cite news|title= Jatra gets its flavour from Maharashtra for authentic taste|url=https://timesofindia.com/city/indore/jatra-gets-its-flavour-from-maharashtra-for-authentic-taste/articleshow/60988483.cms|location=[[Indore]]|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=7 October 2017|access-date=19 October 2017}}</ref> is often served hot with [[ghee]].

==Religious significance==
===Hinduism===
Modak is considered to be the favourite sweet of the [[Hindu]] deity, [[Ganesha]].<ref name="favourite">{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/life-and-style/food/a-modak-by-any-other-name/article19552392.ece|work=[[The Hindu]]|title=A modak by any other name|last=Chef Mandaar Sukhtankar|date=24 August 2017|access-date=19 October 2017}}</ref> From it, he gets the moniker '''modakapriya''' (one who likes modak) in Sanskrit. The word modak means "small part of bliss" and it symbolises spiritual knowledge.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2005-09-14|title=Why is Ganapati with the right sided trunk not commonly worshipped?|url=https://www.sanatan.org/en/a/77.html|access-date=2021-04-22|website=Sanatan Sanstha|language=en-US}}</ref> During [[Ganesh Chaturthi]], the [[puja (Hinduism)|puja]] usually concludes with an offering of 21 or 101 modaks to Ganesha. Modaks made with rice flour shells are often preferred for this purpose, although wheat shell versions are also used. Local businesses outside Ganesh Temples across India usually sell pre-packed/ready-made versions of modaks.

===Buddhism===
Modak is also considered to be the favourite sweet of [[Gautama Buddha]]. During [[Buddha's Birthday]], modaks are offered to the Buddha.

===Japan===
In [[Japan]], a sweet similar to modak and known locally as ''kangidan'' (歓喜団), is offered to both the god [[Kangiten]], the Japanese version of Lord Ganesha, and the Buddha. Kangidans are made from curds, honey, and red bean paste. They are wrapped in kneaded dough made from parched flour and shaped like a bun before they are deep fried. However, as the majority of Japanese are non-religious, it can be eaten at any occasions such as [[Japanese New Year|Shōgatsu]], [[Culture Day]], [[Christmas]], [[Halloween]], birthdays and retirement parties.

===Malay world===
In the [[Malay world]], modaks are known as '''kuih modak''' (in [[Malaysia]], [[Brunei]] and [[Singapore]]) or '''kue modak''' (in [[Indonesia]]).

===Myanmar===
In [[Myanmar]], modaks are known as ''[[Mont lone yay baw]]'' (မုန့်လုံးရေပေါ်) and is eaten during [[Thingyan]].

===Thailand===
In [[Thailand]], modaks are known locally as ''[[:th:ขนมต้ม|Khanom tom]]'' (ขนมต้ม) and are offered to Phikanet or Phra Phikanesuan (the Thai version of Lord Ganesha) and the Buddha. It is covered in coconut shreds.

==Varieties==
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Type
!Characteristics
|-
|Steamed modak (''ukadiche modak'' in the [[Marathi language]])
|Made of coconuts and sugar/jaggery. This variation is especially prepared during the Ganesh Festival. They are hand-made and cooked in a steamer. They are perishable and need to be consumed immediately.<ref name="Ukadiche modak">{{cite book|last=Khanna|first=Vikas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LSTRAQAAQBAJ&q=mo&pg=PT36|title=SAVOUR MUMBAI: A CULINARY JOURNEY THROUGH INDIA's MELTING POT|publisher=Westland Limited|year=2013|location=New Delhi|isbn=9789382618959}}</ref>{{sfn|Reejhsinghani|1975|p=x [https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=RwMRaDxJcWwC&oi=fnd&pg=PT10&dq=reejhsinghani+1975&ots=7tCOTMqLfS&sig=m-iuxigNuXLGt5_NlzJwfeXX8k4#v=onepage&q=modakas&f=false]}}<ref name=":0">{{cite book|last1=Reejhsinghani|first1=Aroona|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RwMRaDxJcWwC&q=modakas&pg=PT10|title=Delights from Maharashtra|date=1975|isbn=9788172245184|location=New Delhi}}</ref>
|-
|Fried modak
|Deep fried in oil instead of being steamed. Frying makes the modaks last longer and have a different taste.<ref>[http://www.boldsky.com/cookery/sweet-tooth/indian-sweets/modak-recipes-ganesh-chaturthi/types-of-modak-pf220-031027.html Modak]</ref>
|-
|Mawa modak
|These are [[khoa]] (milk solids) based preparations that are shaped like a modak. A variety of flavors can be obtained by addition of materials such as pistachio, cardamom, chocolate, and almond.
|}

==See also==
{{portal|Food}}
* [[List of dumplings]]
* [[List of Indian sweets and desserts]]
* [[Maharashtrian cuisine]]
* [[List of Japanese desserts and sweets]]
* [[List of Thai desserts and snacks]]
* [[Kue]]
* [[Kuih]]
* [[Mantou]]
* [[Mandu (dumpling)|Mandu]]
* [[Manti (dumpling)|Manti]]
* [[Mont lone yay baw]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://www.theyummyplatter.com/ukdiche-modak/ Ukdiche Modak]

{{Ganesha}}
{{Gautama Buddha}}
{{Dumplings}}
{{Bruneian cuisine}}
{{Indonesian cuisine}}
{{Malaysian cuisine}}
{{Kue}}
{{Singaporean cuisine}}
{{Thai cuisine}}

[[Category:Dumplings]]
[[Category:Buddhist symbols]]
[[Category:Bruneian snack foods]]
[[Category:Indian desserts]]
[[Category:Maharashtrian cuisine]]
[[Category:Goan cuisine]]
[[Category:Konkani cuisine]]
[[Category:Kue]]
[[Category:Hindu symbols]]
[[Category:Japanese desserts and sweets]]
[[Category:Indian cuisine]]
[[Category:Malaysian snack foods]]
[[Category:Singaporean cuisine]]
[[Category:Thai desserts and snacks]]
[[Category:Foods containing coconut]]
[[Category:Ganesha]]
[[Category:Gautama Buddha]]

Radha Krishna

2023-01-21T16:14:00Z

ImportMaster: robot: Create/update articles in Category:Hindu gods.

{{short description|Divine couple in Hinduism}}
{{other uses}}
{{Infobox deity
| type = Hindu
| image = Sri Sri Radha Govindji.jpg
| caption = Idols of [[Krishna]] and [[Radha]] at [[ISKCON]] [[Ahmedabad]]
| name = Radha Krishna
| Sanskrit_transliteration = {{IAST|''rādhā-kṛṣṇa''}}
| Devanagari = राधाकृष्ण
| mantra = {{bulleted list|''Om Radha Krishnabhyam namah''|''Om kleem Radha Krishnaye namah''|''[[Radhe Radhe]]''|''[[Hare Krishna (mantra)|Hare Krishna]]''}}
| abode = {{bulleted list|[[Goloka]]|[[Vaikuntha]]| [[Vrindavan]]|[[Barsana]]}}
| festivals = {{bulleted list|[[Holi]]|[[Lathmar Holi]]|[[Sharad Purnima]]| [[Kartik Purnima]]|[[Janmashtami]]| [[Radhashtami]]| [[Gopashtami]]|[[Jhulan Purnima]]}}
| other_names = {{bulleted list|Madhavi Madhav|Keshavi Keshav|Shyama Shyam|Kishori Kishore|Gopi Gopinath}}
| affiliation = {{bulleted list|[[Vaishnavism]]|[[Krishnaism]]|[[Lakshmi Narayan]]}}
| texts = {{bulleted list|[[Brahmavaivarta Purana]]|[[Padma Purana]]|[[Shiva Purana]]|[[Skanda Purana]]|[[Devi-Bhagavata Purana]]|[[Naradiya Purana]]|[[Gopala Tapani Upanishad]]|[[Brahma Samhita]]|[[Chaitanya Charitamrita]]|Garga Samhita|[[Gita Govinda]]}}
| venerated_in = {{bulleted list|[[Nimbarka Sampradaya]]|[[Gaudiya Vaishnavism]]|[[Pushtimarg]]|[[Radha Vallabh Sampradaya]]| [[Mahanam Sampraday]]| [[Pranami]]|[[Swaminarayan Sampradaya]]|[[Vaishnava-Sahajiya]]|[[Warkari|Warkari Sampradaya]]}}{{efn|In Warkari tradition, Radha and Krishna are worshipped in their regional form as [[Rahi (goddess)|Rahi]] and [[Vithoba]].}}
| deity_of = God and Goddess of Love,<ref>{{cite book|title=Alternative Krishnas: Regional and Vernacular Variations on a Hindu Deity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0SJ73GHSCF8C&pg=PA65|author=Guy Beck|publisher=Suny Press|year=2005|pages=64–81|isbn=9780791464151|access-date=2021-04-22|archive-date=2023-01-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115162309/https://books.google.com/books?id=0SJ73GHSCF8C&pg=PA65|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Bryant|Ekstrand|2004|pp=20–25}} [[Purusha]] and [[Prakṛti|Mūlaprakriti]],<ref>{{cite journal|title= Mask and Creative Symbolisation in Contemporary Oriya Literature : Krishna, Radha and Ahalya|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23341400|author=Prafulla Kumar Mohanty|journal=Indian Literature |year=2003|volume=2 |issue=214 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi|pages=182|jstor=23341400 }}</ref> [[Avatar]] of [[Lakshmi Narayan]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Goddesses in World Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qotjet-Hb0MC&q=Radha|author=Patricia Monaghan|year=2010|publisher=ABC CLIO|pages=7|isbn=9780313354656|access-date=2022-05-18|archive-date=2023-01-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115162309/https://books.google.com/books?id=qotjet-Hb0MC&q=Radha|url-status=live}}</ref>
}}
{{Infobox Hindu term|sa= राधाकृष्ण
({{IAST|Rādhā Kṛṣṇa}})|bn=রাধাকৃষ্ণ
({{IAST|Rādhā Kṛṣṇa}})|gu=રાધાકૃષ્ણ ({{IAST|Rādhā Kṛṣṇa}})|hi=राधाकृष्ण
({{IAST|Rādhā Kṛṣṇa}})|or=ରାଧାକୃଷ୍ଣ
({{IAST|Rādhā Kṛṣṇa}})|mr=राधाकृष्ण
({{IAST|Rādhā Kṛṣṇa}})|te=రాధకృష్ణ
({{IAST|Rādhā Kṛṣṇa}})}}
{{Vaishnavism}}
'''Radha-Krishna''' ([[IAST]] {{IAST|rādhā-kṛṣṇa}}, {{lang-sa|राधा कृष्ण}}) are collectively known within [[Hinduism]] as the combined forms of feminine as well as the masculine realities of God.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bryant|first=Edwin Francis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0z02cZe8PU8C|title=Krishna: A Sourcebook|date=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-803400-1|language=en|access-date=2021-11-19|archive-date=2023-01-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115162310/https://books.google.com/books?id=0z02cZe8PU8C|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Krishna]] and [[Radha]] are the primeval forms of God and his pleasure potency (Hladini [[Shakti]]), respectively, in several [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnavite]] schools of thought.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kar|first=Nishamani|date=2001|title=Sriradha: A Study|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23344745|journal=Indian Literature|volume=45|issue=2 (202)|pages=184–192|jstor=23344745|issn=0019-5804}}</ref>

In [[Krishnaism|Krishnaite]] traditions of Vaishnavism, Krishna is referred to as ''[[Svayam Bhagavan]]'' {{sfn|Hardy|1987|pp=387–392}} and Radha is illustrated as the primeval potency of the three main potencies of God, ''Hladini (immense spiritual bliss), Sandhini (eternality) and Samvit (existential consciousness)'' of which Radha is an embodiment of the feeling of love towards the almighty Lord Krishna (''Hladini'').<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bhandarkar |first=R. G. |title=Vaisnavism, Saivism and minor religious systems |chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783111551975-023/html |chapter=XXIII. Caitanya |date=2019-05-20 |pages=82–86 |publisher=De Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-155197-5 |language=en |doi=10.1515/9783111551975-023}}</ref>

With Krishna, Radha is acknowledged as the Supreme Goddess.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=AMORE |first=ROY C |title=Religion in India |date=1976-06-01 |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/jaarel/XLIV.2.366-a |journal=Journal of the American Academy of Religion |volume=XLIV |issue=2 |pages=366–a |doi=10.1093/jaarel/XLIV.2.366-a |issn=0002-7189 |access-date=2022-05-08 |archive-date=2023-01-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115162244/https://academic.oup.com/crawlprevention/governor?content=%2fjaar%2farticle-lookup%2fdoi%2f10.1093%2fjaarel%2fXLIV.2.366-a |url-status=live }}</ref> It is said that Krishna is only satiated by devotional service in loving servitude and Radha is the personification of devotional service to the supreme lord. Various devotees worship her with the understanding of her merciful nature as the only way to attain Krishna. Radha is also depicted to be Krishna himself, split into two, for the purpose of his enjoyment.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pintchman |first=Tracy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JfXdGInecRIC |title=Seeking Mahadevi: Constructing the Identities of the Hindu Great Goddess |date=2001-06-14 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-9049-5 |language=en |access-date=2022-05-18 |archive-date=2023-01-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115162311/https://books.google.com/books?id=JfXdGInecRIC |url-status=live }}</ref> As per Hindu scriptures, Radha is considered as the complete incarnation of [[Lakshmi|Mahalakshmi]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Rosen|2002|p=50}}</ref>

It is believed that Krishna enchants the world, but Radha enchants even him. Therefore, she is the supreme goddess of all and together they are called as Radha-Krishna.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rosen|2002|p=52}}'' [[Chaitanya-charitamrita]]''[http://vedabase.net/cc/adi/4/95/en Adi-lila 4.95] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080824092217/http://vedabase.net/cc/adi/4/95/en |date=2008-08-24}},</ref> In many Vaishnava sections, Radha Krishna are often identified as the avatars of [[Lakshmi Narayan]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Monaghan |first=Patricia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qotjet-Hb0MC&q=Radha |title=Goddesses in World Culture |date=2010-12-31 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-313-35465-6 |language=en |access-date=2022-05-18 |archive-date=2023-01-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115162309/https://books.google.com/books?id=qotjet-Hb0MC&q=Radha |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Names==

[[File:RadhaKrishnaUdaipur.JPG|thumb|left|14th-century CE fresco of Radha Krishna in [[Udaipur]], Rajasthan]]

'''Vigneshwara''' ''cannot be broken into two'' – [[Krishna]] ([[Devanagari]]: कृष्ण), the eighth incarnation ([[Avatar]]) of [[Vishnu]], and his shakti [[Radha]] (Devanagari: राधा) such was the love of Radha towards Krishna that they are one. Krishna in [[Vrindavana]] is depicted with Radha standing on his left. Some important names of Radha and Krishna mentioned in scriptures are:

* '''''Names of Radha''''' - Radhika, Radhe, Madhavi, Keshavi, Shyama, Shreeji, Gopika, Kishori, Laadli ji, Radharani, Gaurangi, Madan Mohini, Nitya, Shubhangi, Aparajita, Raseshwari, Brajeshwari, Vrindavaneshwari, Golokeshwari, Krishna Priya, Krishna Kaanta, Krishna Samyukta, KrishnaVallabha, Krishna Stuta, and Krishneshwari.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Names of Srimati Radharani|url=http://www.krishna.com/names-srimati-radharani|url-status=live}}</ref>

* '''''Names of Krishna''''' - Kanha, Madhav, Keshav, Shyam, Gopinath, Kishore, Gaurang, Madan Mohan, Gopal, Kanhaiya, Madhusudan, Hari, Damodar, Murlidhar, Govinda, Raseshwar, Brajeshwar, Vrindavaneshwar, Golokeshwar, RadhaRaman, RadhaVallabh, Radhanath, RadhaKaant, and Radheshwar.

==Literature==
[[File:Radha Krishna at Sheesh Mahal Lahore.jpg|thumb|
Gilded mural of Radha Krishna in [[Kangra painting|Kangra style]] at [[Sheesh Mahal (Lahore Fort)|Sheesh Mahal, Lahore]]]]

[[Radha]] [[Krishna]]'s first literary mention was found in King [[Hāla|Hala]]'s [[Prakrit]] text ''[[Gaha Sattasai|Gatha Saptasati]]'' which is composed of 700 verses and was written in the 1st century CE.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jash|first=Pranabananda|title=Radha-Madhava Sub-Sect in Eastern India|date=1979|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44141958|journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|volume=40|pages=177–184|jstor=44141958|issn=2249-1937}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Gokhale|first1=Namita|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KWJ7DwAAQBAJ&dq=Radha+in+Padma+Purana&pg=PT7|title=Finding Radha: The Quest for Love|last2=Lal|first2=Malashri|date=2018-12-10|publisher=Penguin Random House India Private Limited|isbn=978-93-5305-361-1|language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Ramnarace|2014|p=}} Later, The popular ''[[Gita Govinda]]'' written by [[Jayadeva]] in 12th century CE widely depicted Radha and Krishna as a couple.{{sfn|Love Song of the Dark Lord: Jayadeva's Gītagovinda|1977}}{{sfn|Archer|2004|loc=5.2 The Gita Govinda}}{{sfn|Datta|1988|pp=1414–1423}} According to scriptures like ''[[Brahma Vaivarta Purana]]'' and ''Garga Samhita'', Radha-Krishna are the supreme deities. Content of both the scriptures are majorly based on the divine pastimes of Radha Krishna in [[Vrindavan]] and [[Goloka]]. The other relevant texts mentioning Radha Krishna are Radhopnishad of [[Rigveda|Rig Veda]], Radhatapani Upanishad of [[Atharvaveda|Atharva Veda]], [[Shiva Purana|Shiva Puran]] , [[Brahmanda Purana|Brahmanda Puran]], [[Skanda Purana|Skanda Puran]], [[Padma Purana|Padma Puran]], [[Matsya Purana|Matsya Puran]], [[Devi-Bhagavata Purana]], [[Pancharatra|Narada Pancharatra]] and [[Brahma Samhita|Brahma samhita]]. Goddess Radha is also indirectly mentioned in [[Bhagavata Purana]] of [[Shuka|Sukadeva Goswami]] along with Lord Krishna under many different names like "Aradhika" and "Gopi".{{sfn|Archer|2004|loc=5.1 The Triumph of Radha}} [[Adi Shankara|Adi Shankracharya]] who happened way before Jayadeva also mentioned Goddess Radha in his work called "Achyuta Ashtakam" which is dedicated to [[Achyuta]] form of Lord Krishna.

The devotional works of Jayadeva, [[Nimbarkacharya]], Rasik saints like [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] along with his six disciple goswamis, Bhakti poet-saints [[Narsinh Mehta]], [[Vidyapati]], [[Chandidas]], [[Meera Bai]], [[Surdas]], [[Swami Haridas]] and many more played pivotal role in enlighting society about goddess Radha who is believed to be the feminine form of Krishna himself.{{sfnm|1a1=Archer|1y=2004|1loc=5.3 Later Poetry|2a1=Hardy|2y=1987|2pp=387–392|3a1=Rosenstein|3y=1997|3p=|4a1=Schwartz|4y=2004|4p=49|5a1=Hawley|5y=2005|5p=}}
According to several [[Hindu denominations]] including [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism]], [[Nimbarka Sampradaya]], [[Pushtimarg]], and [[Swaminarayan Sampradaya]], it is believed that Radha is not just one cowherd maiden, but the origin of all the [[gopis]], or divine personalities that participate in the [[rasa (theology)|rasa]] dance.<ref>{{Harvnb|Schweig|2005|p=43}}</ref> They are also mentioned in [[Gopala Tapani Upanishad]], [[Chaitanya Charitamrita]] and [[Gita Govinda]].{{citation needed|date=January 2023}}

==Shakti and Shaktiman==
[[File:Sri Radha Krishna at Parashakthi Temple.jpg|thumb|Shree Radha Krishna Ashta Shakthi Mandir at [[Parashakthi Temple]], Pontiac, USA]]
The common derivation of ''[[shakti]]'' and ''shaktiman'', i.e. female and male principle in a god implies that shakti and shaktiman are the same.<ref>Surendranath Dasgupta, A History of Indian Philosophy (1991) p. 31</ref> Each and every god has its partner, or Shakti, and without this Shakti, is sometimes viewed being without essential power.<ref>Santilata Dei, Del Santilata, Vaisnavism in Orissa (1988) p. 167</ref> It is a not uncommon feature of [[Hinduism]] when worship of a pair rather than one personality constitutes worship of [[God]], such is worship of Radha Krishna. Traditions worshiping Krishna, as ''[[svayam bhagavan]]'', who is male, include reference and veneration to his Radha, who is worshiped as supreme. A view that exists of orthodox Krishnaism, the sect of the worship of Krishna, is that Radha is shakti and Krishna is shaktiman and are always found without any tinge of materialistic attributes or cause.<ref>Kakoli Basak, (1991) Rabindranath Tagore, a Humanist - p. 11</ref>

==Theology and philosophy==
[[File:Jayadeva bow to Radha-krishna.jpg|thumb|[[Jayadeva]] worshipping of Radha Krishna.]]
From the Vaishnava point of view the divine feminine energy (''[[shakti]]'') implies a divine source of energy, God or ''shaktiman''. "[[Sita]] relates to [[Rama]]; [[Lakshmi]] belongs to [[Narayana]]; [[Radha]] has her [[Krishna]]." As Krishna is believed to be [[svayam bhagavan|the source of all manifestations]] of [[God]], "Radha, his consort, is the original source of all ''[[shakti]]s''" or feminine manifestation of divine energy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rosen|2002|p=54}}</ref>

The first theologo-philosophical justification for worshiping Radha-Krishna was given by [[Nimbarkacharya]], a founder of the [[Nimbarka Sampradaya]] in 12th or 13th century CE.{{sfn|Ramnarace|2014|p=}} In accordance with the [[Sahitya Akademi]] Encyclopaedia, he more than any other acharyas gave Radha a place as a deity.{{sfn|Datta|1988|p=1415}}

A number of interpretations according to traditions possess a common root of personalism in the understanding of worship. Specifically Caitanyaite [[Gaudiya Vaishnava]] doctrine and mission is fiercely "personalistic," proclaiming the supremacy of Krishna, the identification of [[Caitanya]] as Radha-Krishna, the reality and eternality of individual selves, and a method for approaching the absolute reality and the Deity as a person first and foremost.<ref>{{Harvnb|Valpey|2006|p=110}}</ref>

[[Jiva Goswami]] in his ''Priti Sandarbha'' states that each of the Gopis exhibits a different level of intensity of passion, among which Radha's is the greatest.<ref>{{Harvnb|Schweig|2005|p=125}}</ref>

In his famous dialogs [[Ramananda Raya]] describes Radha to [[Caitanya]] and quotes, among other texts, a verse from [[Chaitanya Charitamrta]] 2.8.100, before he goes on to describe her role in the pastimes of [[Vrindavana]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Schweig|2005|p=126}}</ref>

The central pivot point of the theology is related to the word [[rasa (theology)|rasa]]. The theological use of the word can be found very early, about two thousand years before the [[Nimbarka]] or Caitanya school, in a phrase that the tradition frequently quotes: "Truly, the Lord is ''rasa''" (''raso vai sah'') of [[Brahma sutras]]. This statement expresses the view that God is the one who enjoys the ultimate rasa or spiritual rapture, emotions.<ref>{{Harvnb|Schweig|2005|p=79}}</ref>

==In traditions==
[[File:Lord Krishna and Radha in ISKCON, Pune.jpg|thumb|Radha Krishna idols at [[ISKCON Temple, Pune|Iskcon Temple Pune]]]]
Radha Krishna are worshiped in the following [[Hindu denominations]]:


===Bhagavata===
{{Main|Bhagavata}}
In Vedic and [[Purana|Puran]]ic literature, Radhas and other forms of the root ''Radh'' have meaning of ‘perfection’, ‘success’ and even ‘wealth’. Lord of Success, Indra was referred to as ''Radhaspati''. In references to [[Mahavishnu]] as the Lord of Fortune and freely used by [[Jayadeva]] as ''Jaya Jayadeva Hare'' – the victorious [[Hari]], and ‘''Radhaspati''’ all found in many places. The word Radha occurs in the Atharva Veda, Taittiriya Brahmana and Taittiriya Samhita.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.iskcondesiretree.com/m/blogpost?id=2103886:BlogPost:2629710|title=Lord Krishna and Rama in the Primary Vedas – ISKCON Desire Tree - Devotee Network|website=www.iskcondesiretree.com|language=en|access-date=2017-06-09|archive-date=2018-01-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180106063507/http://www.iskcondesiretree.com/m/blogpost?id=2103886:BlogPost:2629710|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Charlotte Vaudeville]], in the article ''Evolution of Love Symbolism in Bhagavatism'' draws some parallel to Nappinnai, appearing in Godha's magnum opus Thiruppavai and in [[Nammalwar]]'s references to Nappinnani, the daughter-in-law of Nandagopa. Nappinnai is believed to be the source of Radha's conception in [[Prakrit]] and [[Sanskrit]] literature although their characteristic relations with Krishna are different. In the ritual dance called Kuravai, Krishna dances with his wife Nappinnai. "It is a complex relationship, for the devotee is the ‘same as and yet different from’ the Lord, and so even in the joy of union there is the pain of separation. Indeed, the highest form of devotion, according to Yamunacarya, comes not in union but after the union, in the ‘fear of new separation’."<ref>Charlotte Vaudeville, "Evolution of Love Symbolism in Bhagavatism", ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'' LXXXII (1962), 39</ref>

''[[Yashastilaka|Yasastilaka Champukavya]]'' (959 CE) all make references to Radha and Krishna well before Jayadeva's period. There are elaborate references to Radha in [[Brahma vaivarta]] and [[Padma Purana]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sankeertanam.com/saints%20texts/Jayadeva%20%26%20Gita%20Govindam_2003_SK.pdf |title=Musical Saints of India |access-date=2013-12-27 |archive-date=2017-12-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171215100851/http://www.sankeertanam.com/saints%20texts/Jayadeva%20%26%20Gita%20Govindam_2003_SK.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Gaudiya Vaishnava Sampradaya===
{{Main|Gaudiya Vaishnavism}}
{{See also|Manipuri Vaishnavism}}
[[Gaudiya Vaishnava]], as the name suggests, usually refers to the region of Bengal. Early [[Bengal]]i literature gives a vivid description of the depiction and evolution of understanding of Radha and Krishna.<ref name=Chatterji>{{cite journal |author = Chatterji, S.K. |year =1936 |title = Purana Legends and the Prakrit Tradition in New Indo-Aryan |jstor=608054 |pages = 457–466 |volume = 8 |issue = 2 |journal = Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies |doi = 10.1017/S0041977X00141096
|s2cid =162425847 }} literary study of their lyric literature of Bengal Vaishnavism, has given a useful
conspectus of the "Historical Development of the Radha-Krishna Legend"</ref>

In this Bengali tradition metaphysical status and Radha-worship is considered to be established by Krsnadasa in his [[Chaitanya Charitamrta]] where he represents the doctrine that prevailed among the [[Vrindavan]] Caitanyaites following Caitanya's demise in 1533. It is believed that Krishna, desiring to experience fully what it is like to love Krishna as Radha does, has appeared as [[Caitanya Mahaprabhu]]. And what Radha (appearing as [[Caitanya]]) does in her longing for Krishna is to chant his names.<ref>{{Harvnb|Valpey|2006|pp=30–31}}</ref>
One of the self manifested Deities established by [[Gopala Bhatta Goswami]] is called [[Radha Ramana]], it is not surprising that Radha Ramana is seen as not only Krishna but also as Radha-Krishna.<ref>{{Harvnb|Valpey|2006|p=52}}</ref> And worship in his temple, located in the centre of [[Vrindavana]] is a perpetual daily affair, involving several prescribed events throughout the day,<ref>{{Harvnb|Valpey|2006|p=58}}</ref> with the goal of being theoretical and remote, but with aspiration of the possibility to attend and associate directly with Radha and Krishna.<ref>{{Harvnb|Valpey|2006|p=75}}</ref>

The [[Manipuri Vaishnavism]] is a regional variant of Gaudiya Vaishnavism with a culture-forming role among the [[Meitei people]] in the north-eastern Indian state of [[Manipur]].{{sfn|Singh|2004|pp=125–132}} There, after a short period of [[Ramanandi Sampradaya|Ramaism]] penetration, Gaudiya Vaishnavism spread in the early 18th century, especially from beginning its second quarter. Raja [[Gharib Nawaz (Manipur)|Gharib Nawaz (Pamheiba)]] under the influence of [[Narottama Dasa|Natottama Thakura]]'s disciples was initiated into the Chaitanya tradition with worship of Radha-Krishna as the supreme deity.{{sfn|Singh|2004|p=128}}<ref name="ML">{{cite book |author= chief ed. K. Ayyappa Paniker.|title=Medieval Indian Literature: An Anthology |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |location=New Delhi |year=1997 |isbn=81-260-0365-0}}[https://books.google.com/books?id=KYLpvaKJIMEC&pg=RA1-PA327 p.327]</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=g-wbAAAAIAAJ&q=Manipur+Radha&dq=Manipur+Radha&lr=&client=firefox-a Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature - p. 4290], Amaresh Datta, Mohan Lal, 1994.</ref> Every village there has a Thakur-ghat and a temple.<ref name = years>{{cite book |author=Shanti Swarup |title=5000 Years of Arts and Crafts in India and Pakistan |location=New Delhi |year=1968 |page=272}}[https://books.google.com/books?id=lnVQAAAAMAAJ&q=Manipur+Radha&dq=Manipur+Radha&pgis=1 p.183].</ref> [[Manipuri Raas Leela]] and other dances are a feature of the regional folk and religious tradition and often, for example, a female dancer will portray both Krishna and his consort, Radha, in the same piece.{{sfn|Singh|2004|p=128}}<ref>{{Harvnb|Schwartz|2004|p=35}}</ref>

===Nimbarka Sampradaya===
{{Main|Nimbarka Sampradaya}}
[[File:Shankhchakra.jpg|thumb|left|The Shankha-Chakra-Tilaka emblems of the Sri Nimbarka Sampradaya.]]
The [[Nimbarka Sampradaya]] worship the youthful form of Krishna, alone or with his consort Radha, is one of the earliest dating at least to the 12th century CE, just as [[Rudra Sampradaya]] does.<ref>The penny cyclopædia [ed. by G. Long]. 1843, p.390 [https://books.google.com/books?id=_8cWRilIuE0C&pg=RA1-PA390&dq=rudra+sampradaya&as_brr=3#PRA1-PA390,M1]</ref>{{sfn|Hardy|1987|pp=387–392}}{{sfn|Ramnarace|2014|p=}} According to [[Nimbarkacharya]], a founder of the sampradaya, Radha is the eternal consort of Vishnu-Krishna and there is also a suggestion, though not a clear statement, that she became the wife of her beloved Krishna.<ref>Sharda Arya, Sudesh Narang, ''Religion and Philosophy of the Padma-purāṇa: Dharmaśāstra.'' Miranda House (University of Delhi). Dept. of Sanskrit, India University Grants Commission, 1988. 547, p.30</ref> Nimbarka rescues Radha from the presumed immoral implication of much of the literature, and gives to her a dignity unattained elsewhere.<ref>Melville T. Kennedy, ''The Chaitanya Movement: A Study of the Vaishnavism of Bengal'', 1925. 270, p.7</ref>

The Nimbarka Sampradaya is one of the four bona fide Vaishnavite traditions. Lack of evidence due to the destruction of Mathura and Vrindavan in the 13th century and 14th century has meant that the true dates and origins of this tradition are shrouded in mystery and await investigation.

[[File:Krishna-radha ardhanari.jpg|thumb|Radha-Krishna [[ardhanari]]—depicted as half-male and half-female]]

Nimbarka, who is widely held by scholars such as Satyanand Joseph, Prof. Rasik Bihari Joshi, Prof. M. M. Aggrawal etc., to be at least of the same time or before the appearance of [[Shankaracharya]], was the first acharya to worship Radha along with Krishna in Sakhi Bhava Upasana method of worship.{{sfn|Datta|1988|p=1415}} In his ''Vedanta Kamadhenu Dashashloki'' (verse 6), it is clearly stated that:
{{Verse translation
|ange tu vaame vrishabhaanujaam mudaa viraajamaanaam anuruupasaubhagaam.
sakhiisahasraih parisevitaam sadaa smarema deviim sakalestakaamadaam
|The left portion of the body of the Supreme Lord is Shrimati Radha, seated blissfully, as beautiful as the Lord Himself; who is served by thousands of gopis: we meditate on the Supreme Goddess, the fulfiller of all desires.}}

This theme was taken up by [[Jayadeva]] Goswami and other poets of the time who saw the inherent beauty and bliss which constitute this philosophy.{{sfn|Datta|1988|pp=1414–1423}} In his [[Gita Govinda]] Krishna speaks to Radha:
{{blockquote|<poem>
O woman with desire, place on this patch of flower-strewn floor your lotus foot,
And let your foot through beauty win,
To me who am the Lord of All, O be attached, now always yours.
O follow me, my little Radha.
</poem>|sign=Jayadeva|source=''Gita Govinda''{{sfn|Archer|2004|loc=5.2 The Gita Govinda}}}}

It is believed, however, that the source of Jayadeva's heroine in his poem remains a puzzle of the Sanskrit Literature. At the same time there are well documented references to works earlier than Gita Govinda, which some count to be more than twenty. The figure of Radha is one of the most elusive in the literature of Sanskrit; she is described only in a few selected passages of Prakrit or Sanskrit poetry, a few inscriptions and a few works on grammar, poetry and drama. Jayadeva has referred to them and created an exquisite lyrical poem of passionate devotion in the 12th century CE, and from this poetic beginning a huge movement specific to Bengal began.{{sfn|Miller|1975|pp=655–671}}{{sfn|Love Song of the Dark Lord: Jayadeva's Gītagovinda|1977}}

[[File:Krishna and Radha looking into a mirror. - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|Radha Krishna looking into the mirror (1800 CE painting)]]

In this sampradaya, the significance of Radha is not less than the significance of Sri Krsna. Both are conjointly the object to be worshiped in this school of Nimbarka,<ref>Ramesh M. Dave, K. K. A. Venkatachari, ''The Bhakta-bhagawan Relationship: Paramabhakta Parmeshwara Sambandha''. Sya. Go Mudgala, Bochasanvasi Shri Aksharpurushottama Sanstha, 1988. p.74</ref> who is also one of the first commentators on [[Brahma Sutras]] under the name ''Vedanta-Parijata-Saurabha''. The later [[acharya]]s of the Nimbarka Sampradaya in the 13th and 14th centuries in [[Vrindavan]]a composed much literature on the Divine Couple. Swami Sri Sribhatta, the elder god-brother of Jayadeva composed the Yugala Shataka for the Dhrupada style of musical presentation like Jayadeva, however unlike Jayadeva who composed his work in [[Sanskrit]], Swami Shribhatta's compositions are in Vraja language, a [[Hindi]] vernacular which was understood by all inhabitants of [[Vraja]]. Indeed, the rest of the acharyas of this tradition wrote in Vraja language and due to the lack of prevalence of this language in modern times, very little research has been done, even though these Acharyas predate the [[Six Goswamis]] of Vrindavan by centuries. Rare exception was Vijay Ramnarace's PhD thesis in 2014.{{sfn|Ramnarace|2014|p=}}

In any case, the sole object of worship in the Nimbarka Sampradaya is the unified Divine Couple of Shri Radha Krishna. According to the 15th century Mahavani written by Jagadguru Swami Sri Harivyasa Devacharya -

''"radhaamkrsnasvaroopaam vai, krishnam raadhaasvarupinam; kalaatmaanam nikunjastham gururoopam sadaa bhaje"''

which means "I ceaselessly praise Radha who is none other than Krishna, and Sri Krishna who is none other than Radha, whose unity is represented by the Kaamabeeja and who are forever resident in Nikunja [[Goloka]] Vrindavana."{{sfn|Ramnarace|2014|p=}}

The contribution from the [[Nimbarka Sampradaya]] to the philosophy of Radha Krishna is undeniable, as the philosophy and theology originate in it.

===Pranami Sampradaya===
{{Main|Pranami}}
The [[Pranami|Pranami Sampradaya]] (Pranami Panth) emerged in the 17th century in [[Gujarat]], based on the Radha-Krishna-focussed syncretic Hindu-[[Islam]]ic teachings of Devchandra Maharaj and his famous successor, Mahamati Prannath.{{sfn|Toffin|2012|pp=249–254}}

===Pushtimarg Sampradaya===
{{Main|Pushtimarg}}
[[Vallabha]]charya, founder of [[Pushtimarg]] tradition even before Chaitanya, worshipped Radha, where according to some sects, the devotees identify mainly with the female companion (''sakhis'') of Radha who are privileged to arrange intimate pastimes for RadhaKrishna.<ref name=White1990>{{cite journal
| author = White, C.S.J.
| year = 1990
| title = Vallabhacarya on the Love Games of Krsna
| journal = Journal of the American Oriental Society
| volume = 110
| issue = 2
| pages = 373–374
| doi = 10.2307/604565
| last2 = Redington
| first2 = James D.
| jstor=604565
}}</ref>

One of the prominent poets of this tradition, which also called Radhavallabhi, named Dhruvadasa was notable for being principally concerned with the private relationships of Radha and Krishna. In his poetry ''Caurasi Pad'' and in the commentaries of his followers, the concentration is in meditation on the unique benefits of constant reflection on the [[lila (Hinduism)|eternal lila]].

Radhavallabhis share with their Vaishnava co-religionists a great regard for [[Bhagavata Purana]], but some of the pastimes that are outside the scope of relationships with Radha and [[gopis]] do not feature in the concept of this school. Emphasis is placed on the sweetness of the relationship, or [[rasa (theology)|rasa]].<ref name=Snell1992>{{cite book
| author = Snell, R.
| isbn = 0-521-41311-7
| year = 1992
| title = Synoptic and sectarian bhakti in the poetry of Dhruvdas
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=BE40dp6SCFUC&pg=PA247
}}</ref>

===Radha Vallabh Sampradaya===
{{Main|Radha Vallabh Sampradaya}}

The Radha-centered [[Radha Vallabh Sampradaya]] founded by [[Hith Harivansh Mahaprabhu]] in the 16th century occupies a special position among other traditions. In its theology, Radha is worshiped as the supreme deity, and Krishna is in a subordinate position.{{sfnm|1a1=White|1y=1977|1p=|2a1=Snell|2y=1991|2loc=chapter 1|3a1=Rosenstein|3y=1998|3p= |4a1=Beck|4y=2005|4p=}}

===Swaminarayan Sampradaya===
Radha-Krishna Dev has a special place in the [[Swaminarayan Sampraday]] as [[Swaminarayan]] himself referred to Radha Krishna in the [[Shikshapatri]] he wrote.<ref name="swaminarayan.nu">{{cite web | url =http://www.swaminarayan.nu/sampraday/shiksha.shtml | title =Shikshapatri, verse 109 by Swaminarayan | access-date =2008-05-15 | archive-date =2012-02-10 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20120210201259/http://www.swaminarayan.nu/sampraday/shiksha.shtml | url-status =live }}</ref> Further, he himself ordered the construction of temples in which Radha Krishna have been installed as deities. Swaminarayan "explained that Krishna appears in many forms. When he is together with Radha, he is regarded as supreme lord under the name of Radha-Krishna; with Rukmini he is known as [[Lakshminarayan|Lakshmi-Narayana]]."<ref>{{Harvnb|Williams|2001|p=74}}</ref> The first temple constructed in the sect, built in [[Ahmedabad]] in 1822, houses the images of [[Nara Narayana]], forms of [[Arjuna]] and Krishna, in the central shrine. The shrine on the left of the hall has [[murti]]s of Radha Krishna.<ref>{{Harvnb|Williams|2001|p=96}}</ref> According to the philosophy of the tradition there were many female companions of Krishna, [[gopi]]s, but out of all of them Radha was considered to be the perfect devotee. Those who wish to come close to Krishna must cultivate the devotional qualities of Radha.<ref>{{Harvnb|Williams|2001|p=85}}</ref> According to theory the sect has set aside [[Goloka]] as the supreme heaven or abode (in fact, in some of their temples, such as the [[Shri Swaminarayan Mandir Mumbai|Mumbai Temple]], the murtis installed are those of Shri Gaulokvihari and Radhikaji), because there Krishna is supposed to be enjoying himself with his Gopis,<ref>{{Harvnb|Williams|2001|p=59}}</ref> who according to the Swaminarayana sampradaya the milkmaids with whom Krishna danced; his relations with them symbolize the relation of God with the devotee in reciprocation.<ref>{{Harvnb|Williams|2001|loc=back matter}}</ref>

===Vaishnava-Sahajiya===
{{Main|Vaishnava-Sahajiya}}
Since the 15th century CE in Bengal and [[Assam]] flourished [[Tantra|Tantric]] [[Vaishnava-Sahajiya]] tradition inspired by Bengali spiritual poet [[Chandidas]], where Krishna is the inner divine aspect of man and Radha is the aspect of woman.{{sfn|Basu|1932}}{{sfn|Hayes|2005|pp=19–32}}

The date of Chandidas poem ''Srikrsnakirtana'' is still under question however the text remains one of the most important evidences of early portrayal of the popular story of "Lord Krishna's love for the cowherd girl [[Radha]]" in [[Bengali language|Bengali]] literature and religion. The 412 songs of ''Srikrsnakirtana'' are divided into thirteen sections that represent the core of the Radha-Krishna legendary cycle,
with many variants providing excellent comparative material. The manuscript clearly suggests that the songs were meant to be song, and implies particular ''[[raga]]s'' for the recitation. There is considerable debate as to the authenticity of the text that has significant religious meaning.<ref name=Stewart1986>{{cite journal
| author = Stewart, T.K.
| year = 1986
| title = Singing the Glory of Lord Krishna: The" Srikrsnakirtana
| journal = Asian Folklore Studies
| volume = 4554
| issue = 1
| pages = 152–154
| doi = 10.2307/1177851
| last2 = Caṇḍīdāsa
| first2 = Baṛu
| last3 = Klaiman
| first3 = M. H.
| last4 = Candidasa
| first4 = Baru
| jstor=1177851
}}</ref>

=== Warkari Tradition ===
In [[Warkari]] tradition which is majorly based in the region of [[Maharashtra]], Radha and Krishna are often venerated in their regional forms of [[Rahi (goddess)|Rahi]] and [[Vithoba]], also called Vithala. According to the local legends, Rahi (Radha) is the wife of Vithala (Krishna).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pande |first=Dr Suruchi |date=2008 |title=Vithoba of Pandharpur |url=http://www.advaitaashrama.org/pb_archive/2008/PB_2008_August.pdf |journal=Prabuddha Bharat |volume=113 |pages=447 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081221081306/http://www.advaitaashrama.org/pb_archive/2008/PB_2008_August.pdf |archive-date=21 December 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Novetzke|first=C.L.|title=A family affair: Krishna comes to Pandharpur and makes himself at home|date=2005-01-01|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/292378289|pages=113–138|access-date=2022-01-13}}</ref>

==Outside Hinduism==

[[File:Krishna and Radha seated in a bower (6124543159).jpg|thumb|Radha Krishna art inspired by Gita Govinda]]

In opinion of some Hindu scholars as well as scholars of [[Hinduism]], a [[golden age]] existed when [[Muslim]]s and Hindus created a common culture mainly because some Muslim rulers patronized [[Sanskrit]] and translations from Sanskrit into [[Persian language|Persian]], while there were Muslim poets who criticised Hinduism and personal form of Radha-Krishna.<ref name = S1992>{{cite book
| author = Gaeffke, P.
| isbn = 0-521-41311-7
| year = 1992
| title = How a Muslim looks at Hindu bhakti
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=BE40dp6SCFUC&q=%22Radha+Krsna+%22&pg=PA247
}}p. 80</ref>

==Temples==
[[File:Radha govinda.jpg|thumb|upright|Radha Krishna at [[Hare Krishna Golden Temple]], Hyderabad]]
[[File:Interiors of Laljiu Temple, Ambika Kalna WLM2016-0193.jpg|thumb|A devotee reading holy book inside the interiors of dedicated to Radha-Krishna 18th-century Lalji Temple, [[Kalna City|Kalna]], West Bengal]]
{{commons category|Radha Krishna temples}}

'''In India'''

Temples of ''Shri Radha Krishna'' are prevalent throughout India and the world. However, [[Braj]] region including [[Vrindavan]], [[Barsana]], [[Gokul]], [[Nandgaon, Uttar Pradesh|Nandgaon]], and [[Mathura]] are considered to be the centers of Radha Krishna worship. Some of the important temples of Radha Krishna in Braj region are -

'''''In [[Vrindavan]]''''' — [[Radha Madan Mohan Temple, Vrindavan|Shri Radha Madan Mohan temple]], Shri Govind Dev ji temple, [[Radha Raman Temple|Shri Radha Raman temple]], Shri Radha Gokulananda temple, [[Radha Damodar Temple, Vrindavan|Shri Radha Damodar temple]], [[Bankey Bihari Temple|Shri Bankey Bihari temple]], Shri Jugal Kishore temple, Shri Radha Gopinath temple, Shri Radha Shyamasundar temple, [[Prem Mandir, Vrindavan|Prem Mandir]], Shahji temple, [[Krishna Balaram Mandir|Krishna Balram Mandir]] (Iskcon temple),<ref>{{Harvnb|Rosen|2002|p=117}}</ref> [[Nidhivan, Vrindavan|Nidhivan temple]], Seva Kunj temple, [[Radha Vallabh Temple, Vrindavan|Shri Radha Vallabh temple]], [[Kusum Sarovar]], [[Radha Kund]], Pagal Baba temple, Shri Radha Raas Bihari Ashtsakhi Temple, Priyakant ji temple, and [[Vrindavan Chandrodaya Mandir|Shri Vrindavan Chandrodaya temple]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Rājaśekhara Dāsa |year=2000 |title=The Color Guide to Vṛndāvana: India's Most Holy City of Over 5,000 Temples |publisher=Vedanta Vision Publication |url={{Google books|Q1cvAAAAYAAJ|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}}}</ref>

'''''In [[Mathura]]''' -'' [[Krishna Janmasthan Temple Complex|Shri Krishna Janambhoomi temple]] and [[Dwarkadheesh temple Mathura|Shri Dwarkadheesh temple]]

'''''In [[Barsana]]''''' - [[Radha Rani Temple|Shri Radha Rani Temple (Shreeji temple)]], [[Rangeeli Mahal Barsana|Rangeeli Mahal]] (Kirti Mandir), Shri Maan Mandir (Maan Garh)

'''''In [[Nandgaon, Uttar Pradesh|Nandgaon]]''''' - Shri NandBaba temple

'''''In''''' '''''[[Gokul]]''''' - Shri Nand Yashoda Bhawan, Raman Reti temple

'''''In [[Radha Krishna Vivah Sthali, Bhandirvan|Bhandirvan]]''''' [[Radha Krishna Vivah Sthali, Bhandirvan|- Shri Radha Krishna Vivah Sthali]]

Some other important Radha Krishna temples across India are - [[Govind Dev Ji Temple|Shri Radha Govind Dev ji temple]] in [[Jaipur]], Lalji Temple in [[Kalna City|Kalna]], [[Hare Krishna Golden Temple]] in [[Hyderabad]], Murlidhar Krishna Temple in [[Naggar]], [[Shree Govindajee Temple|Shri Govindajee temple]] in [[Imphal]], [[Madan Mohan Temple|Madan Mohan temple]] in [[Karauli]], [[Mayapur Chandrodaya Mandir]] in [[Nadia district|Nadia]], [[Swaminarayan Mandir, Gadhada|Swaminarayan temple Gadhada]] in [[Botad]], [[Swaminarayan Mandir, Vadtal|Swaminarayan temple Vadtal]] in [[Kheda]], [[ISKCON Temple Bangalore|Iskcon Bangalore]], [[ISKCON Temple Chennai|Iskcon Chennai]], [[ISKCON Temple, Delhi|Iskcon Delhi]], [[Radha Damodar Temple, Junagadh]], [[Bhakti Mandir Mangarh]], [[Shri Swaminarayan Mandir, Mumbai|Swaminarayan temple Mumbai]], Iskcon temple Mumbai, Iskcon temple Ujjain, [[Swaminarayan Mandir, Bhuj|Swaminarayan temple Bhuj]], [[ISKCON Temple Patna|Iskcon temple Patna]], [[Shri Swaminarayan Mandir, Dholera|Swaminarayan temple Dholera]] near [[Ahmedabad]], Radha Krishna temple of [[Baba Baroh|Baroh]] in [[Kangra, Himachal Pradesh|Kangra]], historical [[List of temples in Bishnupur|temples in Bishnupur]] of [[Bankura district]] including [[Rasmancha, Bishnupur|Rasmancha]], RadheShyam temple, Jor Bangla, and [[Radha Madhab Temple]].
[[File:Gopinathji Maharaj Gadhada Mandir.jpg|thumb|upright|Radha (right), Krishna (center) at [[Swaminarayan Mandir, Gadhada|Swaminarayan temple Gadhada]], Gujarat]]

'''Outside India'''

There are number of traditions that spread the worship of Radha Krishna across world, be it associated with migration or preaching activities of [[sadhus]].
There are around 850 [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness|Iskcon]] temples spread across the world which promotes the worship of Radha Krishna.<ref>{{Harvnb|Valpey|2006|p=109}}</ref> Similarly, [[Swaminarayan Sampradaya]] has also established many temples outside India in which Radha Krishna Dev are worshipped. [[Radha Madhav Dham]] in [[Austin, Texas|Austin]], [[Texas]] built by [[Jagadguru Kripalu Parishat]] is one of the biggest Radha Krishna temple in Western hemisphere.
[[File:Iskcon (6640436).jpeg|thumb|upright|Radha Krishna temple in Wheeling, West Virginia]]

==Popular songs and prayers==
The ''[[Shri Radhika Krishnastaka]]'' (also called the Radhashtak) is a [[hymn]]. It is said that the reciter can get to Krishna via Radha by chanting it. The other popular songs and prayers include — ''Yugalashtakam'' written by [[Jiva Goswami]] which glorifies the love and inseparability of the divine couple Radha Krishna and [[Jayadeva]]'s much acclaimed work ''[[Gita Govinda]]'' which was written in the 12th century and is still the part of temple songs of [[Jagannath Temple, Puri|Jagannath temple, Puri]].{{sfn|Datta|1988|pp=1419–1420}} ''Radhe Krishna'' — the maha-mantra of [[Nimbarka Sampradaya]] is as follows:
{{blockquote|<poem>
''Rādhe Kṛṣṇa Rādhe Kṛṣṇa''
''Kṛṣṇa Kṛṣṇa Rādhe Rādhe''
''Rādhe Shyām Rādhe Shyām''
''Shyām Shyām Rādhe Rādhe''</poem>}}

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

==See also==
{{commons category}}
*''[[Krishna and Radha in a Pavilion]]''
*[[Lakshmi Narayan]]
*[[Goloka]]
*[[Bankey Bihari Temple|Banke Bihari Temple, Vrindavan]]
*[[Radha Rani Temple|Radha Rani Temple, Barsana]]
*[[Radha Krishna Vivah Sthali, Bhandirvan]]
*[[Radha Vallabh Temple, Vrindavan]]

==Footnotes==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

===References===
{{Refbegin|2}}
* {{cite book |surname=Archer |given=W. G. |author-link=W.G. Archer |title=The Loves of Krishna in Indian Painting and Poetry |url={{Google books|czLDAgAAQBAJ|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |year=2004 |orig-year=1957 |place=Mineola, NY |publisher=Dover Publ. |isbn=0-486-43371-4 }}
* {{cite book |surname=Banerjee |given=Samanta |title=Appropriation of a Folk-heroine: Radha in Medieval Bengali Vaishnavite Culture |url={{Google books|gPJEAQAAIAAJ|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |year=1993 |place=[[Shimla]] |publisher=Indian Institute of Advanced Study |isbn=8185952086 }}
* {{cite book|surname=Basu |given=M. M. |title=The Post-Caitanya Sahajiya Cult of Bengal |year=1932 |place=Calcutta |publisher=University of Calcutta Press}}
* {{cite book |surname=Beck |given=Guy L. |chapter=Krishna as Loving Husband of God: The Alternative Krishnology of the Rādhāvallabha Sampradaya |pages=65–90 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0SJ73GHSCF8C&pg=PA65 |title=Alternative Krishnas: Regional and Vernacular Variations on a Hindu Deity |url={{Google books|0SJ73GHSCF8C|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |editor=Guy L. Beck |place=Albany, NY |publisher=SUNY Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7914-6415-1 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |editor-surname=Datta |editor-given=Amaresh |title=Gitagovinda |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: Devraj to Jyoti |year=1988 |volume=2 |place=New Delhi |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zB4n3MVozbUC&pg=PA1414 |pages=1414–1423 |isbn=81-260-1194-7 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |year=1987 |surname=Hardy |given=Friedhelm E. |author-link=Friedhelm Hardy |title=Kṛṣṇaism |editor=Mircea Eliade |editor-link=Mircea Eliade |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Religion |pages=387–392 |place=New York |publisher=MacMillan |volume=8 |isbn=978-0-02897-135-3 |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/krsnaism |via=[[Encyclopedia.com]] }}
* {{cite book |surname=Hawley |given=John Stratton |year=2005 |title=Three Bhakti Voices. Mirabai, Surdas, and Kabir in Their Time and Ours |url={{Google books|5LZjAAAAMAAJ|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |place=Oxford; New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0195670851 }}
* {{cite book |surname=Hayes |given=Glen Alexander |chapter=Contemporary Metaphor Theory and Alternative Views of Krishna and Rādhā in Vaishnava Sahajiyā |pages=19–32 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0SJ73GHSCF8C&pg=PA19 |title=Alternative Krishnas: Regional and Vernacular Variations on a Hindu Deity |url={{Google books|0SJ73GHSCF8C|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |editor=Guy L. Beck |place=Albany, NY |publisher=SUNY Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7914-6415-1 }}
* {{cite book |title=Love Song of the Dark Lord: Jayadeva's Gītagovinda |translator=Miller, Barbara Stoler |translator-link=Barbara Stoler Miller |year=1977 |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |isbn=0231040288 |url=https://cup.columbia.edu/book/love-song-of-the-dark-lord/9780231110976 |ref={{sfnref|Love Song of the Dark Lord: Jayadeva's Gītagovinda|1977}} |access-date=2021-04-26 |archive-date=2018-12-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225090752/https://cup.columbia.edu/book/love-song-of-the-dark-lord/9780231110976 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last=Miller |first=Barbara S. |author-link=Barbara Stoler Miller |year=1975 |title=Rādhā: Consort of Kṛṣṇa's Vernal Passion |journal=[[Journal of the American Oriental Society]] |volume=95 |issue=4 |pages=655–671 |doi=10.2307/601022 |jstor=601022 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/601022 }}
* {{cite thesis |surname=Ramnarace |given=Vijay |year=2014 |title=Rādhā-Kṛṣṇa's Vedāntic Debut: Chronology & Rationalisation in the Nimbārka Sampradāya |type=PhD thesis |place=University of Edinburgh |url=https://www.era.lib.ed.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/1842/26018/Ramnarace2015.pdf |access-date=2021-04-20 |archive-date=2022-10-09 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.era.lib.ed.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/1842/26018/Ramnarace2015.pdf |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |surname=Rosen |given=Steven |title=The hidden glory of India |publisher=[[Bhaktivedanta Book Trust]] |location=[[Los Angeles]] |year=2002 |isbn=0-89213-351-1}}
* {{cite journal |last=Rosenstein |first=Lucy |date=1998 |title=The Rādhāvallabha and the Haridāsā Samprādayas: A Comparison |journal=[[Journal of Vaishnava Studies]] |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=5–18}}
* {{cite book|surname=Rosenstein |given=Ludmila L. |chapter=The Devotional Poetry of Svami Haridas |title=A Study of Early Braj Bhasa Verse |year=1997 |series=Groningen Oriental Studies, 12 |place=Groningen |publisher=Egbert Forsten}}
* {{cite book |surname=Schwartz |given=Susan |title=Rasa: performing the divine in India |url=https://archive.org/details/rasa00susa |url-access=registration |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |year=2004 |isbn=0-231-13145-3 }}
* {{cite book |surname=Schweig |given=Graham M. |title=Dance of Divine Love: The Rڄasa Lڄilڄa of Krishna from the Bhڄagavata Purڄana, India's classic sacred love story |publisher=Princeton University Press |place=Princeton, NJ |year=2005 |url={{Google books|TPOLHQAACAAJ|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |isbn=0-691-11446-3 }}{{Dead link|date=January 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* {{cite book |surname=Singh |given=Kunj Bihari |year=2004 |orig-year=1963 |chapter=Manipur Vaishnavism: A Sociological Interpretation |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mc6GAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA125 |title=Sociology of Religion in India |editor=Rowena Robinson |series=Themes in Indian Sociology, 3 |place=New Delhi |publisher=Sage Publ. India |pages=125–132 |url={{Google books|Mc6GAwAAQBAJ|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |isbn=0-7619-9781-4 }}
* {{cite book |surname=Snell |given=Rupert |title=The Eighty-four Hymns of Hita Harivaṃśa: An Edition of the Caurāsī Pada |url={{Google books|jOs-G0-VIWQC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |year=1991 |place=Delhi; London |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]]; School of Oriental and African Studies |isbn=81-208-0629-8 }}
* {{cite book |surname=Toffin |given=Gérard |chapter=The Power of Boundaries: Transnational Links among Krishna Pranamis of India and Nepal |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uuuICwAAQBAJ&pg=PT249 |editor=John Zavos |display-editors=etal |title=Public Hinduisms |url={{Google books|uuuICwAAQBAJ|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |year=2012 |place=New Delhi |publisher=SAGE Publ. India |isbn=978-81-321-1696-7 |pages=249–254 }}
* {{cite book |surname=Valpey |given=Kenneth Russell |title=Attending Kṛṣṇa's image: Caitanya Vaiṣṇava mūrti-sevā as devotional truth |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |year=2006 |isbn=0-415-38394-3}}
* {{cite book |surname=White |given=Charles S. J. |title=The Caurāsī Pad of Śri Hit Harivaṃś: Introduction, Translation, Notes, and Edited Braj Bhaṣa |series=Asian studies at Hawaii, 16 |url={{Google books|X8Q_zgEACAAJ|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |year=1977 |publisher=University Press of Hawaii |place=Honolulu |isbn=9780824803599 |issn=0066-8486 }}
* {{cite book |last=Williams |first=Raymond |year=2001 |title=Introduction to Swaminarayan Hinduism |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-65422-7}}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
* Kakar, Sudhir (Jan-June 1985). "Erotic fantasy: the secret passion of Radha and Krishna", ''Contributions to Indian Sociology'' (New Series) 19, no.1. pp. 75–94.
* [[Barbara Stoler Miller|Miller, Barbara Stoller]] (1982). "The divine duality of Radha and Krishna", in ''The Divine Consort'': ''Radha and the Goddesses of India'', eds. J. S. Hawley and D. M. Wulff. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 13–26.
* Goswami, [[Rupa Goswami|Sri Rupa]]. ''Bhakti-Rasamrta-Sindhuh''. Vrindaban: Institute of Oriental Philosophy, 1965.
* Ligier, Frédéric; Masson, Annick Le Scoëzec (2016). ''Les Amours de Râdhâ,'' Musique et poésie inspirées de miniatures de l'École de Kangra, Paris: Garamond.
* Mishra, Baba (1999). ''"Radha and her contour in Orissan culture"''. In Orissan history, culture and archaeology. In Felicitation of Prof. P.K. Mishra. Ed. by S. Pradhan. (Reconstructing Indian History & Culture 16). New Delhi. pp. 243–259.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Patnaik | first1 = Debi Prasanna | year = 1955 | title = Concept of Radhakrishna in the Panchasakha Literature | journal = Proceedings of Indian Oriental Conference | volume = 18 | pages = 406–411}}
* Prabhupada, [[A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami]]. ''Krsna: The Supreme Personality of Godhead''. [A Summary Study of Srila Vyasadeva's ''Srimad-Bhagavatam'', Tenth Canto.] Los Angeles: Bhaktivedanta Trust, 1970. 2 vols.
* {{cite journal | last = Vaudeville | first = Ch. | year = 1962 | title = Evolution of Love-Symbolism in Bhagavatism | journal = Journal of the American Oriental Society | volume = 82 | issue = 1| pages = 31–40 | doi = 10.2307/595976 | jstor = 595976 }}
* Wilson, Frances, ed. ''The Love of Krishna'': ''The Krsnakarnamarta of [[Lilasuka]] Bilvamangala''. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1975.
* Wulff, D. M. ''The Divine Consort: Radha and the Goddesses of India'', Berkeley: University of California Press. 1982

==External links==
*[https://www.radhadamodarmandir.com/ Shri Radha Damodar Temple], Vrindavan
*[https://shreeradhadamodarji.org/ Shree Radha Damodar Temple], Junagadh
*[http://www.ashtasakhimandir.org/temple.php Shri Radha Raas Bihari Ashtsakhi Temple], Vrindavan
*[https://maanmandir.org/ Shri Maan Mandir] (Maan Garh), Barsana

{{Krishna}}

[[Category:Hindu deities]]
[[Category:Swaminarayan Sampradaya]]
[[Category:Gaudiya Vaishnavism]]
[[Category:Forms of Krishna]]
[[Category:Gender and Hinduism]]
[[Category:Vaishnavism]]
[[Category:Krishna]]
[[Category:Hindu given names]]

Vishvaksena

2023-01-21T09:32:46Z

ImportMaster: robot: Create/update articles in Category:Hindu gods.

{{Short description|Commander-in-chief of the army of the Hindu god Vishnu}}
{{confuse|Vishwak Sen}}
{{Infobox deity
| type = Hindu
| deity_of = Commander of [[Vishnu]]'s Armies<ref>{{cite book | url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Life_of_Sri_Ramanuja/FmdoEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=vishvaksena+commander&pg=PT41&printsec=frontcover | title=Life of Sri Ramanuja | date=7 April 2022 | publisher=Sri Ramakrishna Math }}</ref>
| venerated_in = [[Vaishnavism]]
| abode = [[Vaikuntha]]
| spouse = Sutravati<ref>{{cite book | url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Sri_Vishnu_Sahasranama/ge5ZAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=vishvaksena+commander&dq=vishvaksena+commander&printsec=frontcover | title=Sri Vishnu Sahasranama: With the Bhashya of Sri Parasara Bhattar : With Translation in English | year=1983 | publisher=Sri Visishtadvaita Pracharini Sabha }}</ref>
| image = Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple, dedicated to Vishnu, in Srirangam, near Tiruchirappali (145) (37255580330).jpg
| caption = Vishvaksena, depicted as a [[dvarapala]] (gatekeeper) at [[Srirangam]]
| other_names = Senai Mudalavar, Senathipati
| parents =
| children =
}}
'''Vishvaksena''' ({{Lang-sa|विष्वक्सेन|lit=all-conqueror|translit=Viṣvaksenā}})<ref name="Nayar p. 103">Nayar p. 103</ref> or '''Vishwaksena''', is the commander-in-chief of the army of the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] deity [[Vishnu]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2015-08-27 |title=Vishvaksena, Viṣvaksenā, Visvaksena, Viṣvaksena, Vishvac-sena, Vishvakshena: 17 definitions |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/vishvaksena |access-date=2022-10-24 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref> additionally serving as a gatekeeper and chamberlain of his celestial abode of [[Vaikuntha]].<ref name="tirumala" /><ref>Nayar p. 96</ref> As the embodiment of the [[Tantras (Hinduism)|tantras]],<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HUSCDwAAQBAJ&dq=vishvaksena+purana&pg=PT499 |title=The Bhagavata Purana 3 |date=2019-01-21 |publisher=Penguin Random House India Private Limited |isbn=978-93-5305-380-2 |language=en}}</ref> Vishvaksena is worshipped before any ritual or function in the [[Vaikhanasas]] and [[Sri Vaishnavism]] sects. He occupies an important place in [[Vaikhanasa]] and [[Pancaratra]] temple traditions, where temple festivals often begin with his worship and procession.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pattanaik |first=Devdutt |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wh22qvzQuowC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=RA1-PA67-IA4&dq=vishvaksena+doorkeeper&hl=en |title=99 Thoughts on Ganesha |date=2015-01-27 |publisher=Jaico Publishing House |isbn=978-81-8495-152-3 |pages=67 |language=en}}</ref>

==Iconography and associations==
{{Blockquote|text=धर्मः स्वनुष्ठितः पुंसां विष्वक्सेनकथासु यः ।
नोत्पादयेद्यदि रतिं श्रम एव हि केवलम् ॥८॥|author=[[Vyasa]]|title=Srimad Bhagavatam|source=Book I, Chapter II}}{{Blockquote|text=Vishva is the universe or entire creation and Sena is Army. As Lord has his army in every nook and corner of the universe, he is Vishvaksena.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_Prose_English_Translation_of_Srimadbha/RQQ-AQAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=srimad+bhagavatam+vishvaksena&pg=PA48&printsec=frontcover | title=A Prose English Translation of Srimadbhagavatam | year=1896 | publisher=M.N. Dutt }}</ref>}}

The ''[[Kurma Purana]]'' describes Vishvaksena to have born out of a portion of Vishnu, carrying a conch ([[shankha]]), [[Sudarshana chakra|Sudarshana Chakra]] (discus) and [[gada (weapon)|gada]] (mace) and wearing yellow clothes like his master.<ref name="Dimmitt1978">{{cite book|author=Cornelia Dimmitt|title=Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the Sanskrit Puranas|date=15 June 1978|publisher=Temple University Press|isbn=978-0-87722-122-7|page=208}}</ref> The ''[[Kalika Purana]]'' describes him as an attendant of Vishnu, who has four arms, and is red and brown in complexion. He seats on a white [[Nelumbo nucifera|lotus]], has long beard and wears matted hair. He carries a lotus, gada, shanka, and chakra in his hands.<ref name="ShastriArts1994">{{cite book|author1=Biswanarayan Shastri|author2=Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts|title=Kālikāpurāṇe Mūrtivinirdeśaḥ7|date=1 January 1994|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1124-9|page=107}}</ref><ref name="Dalal p. 462">Dalal p. 462</ref>

The [[Pancharatra]] text ''[[Lakshmi Tantra]]'' mentions Vishvaksena as [[Chaturbhuja|four-armed]] and holding a shankha and a lotus.<ref>Gupta p. 246</ref> In another instance, he is said to carry a sword and a club, wear yellow clothes and have tawny eyes, beard and eyebrows, and four teeth.<ref>Gupta pp. 263</ref> In a hymn, the remark is that Vishvaksena carries all attributes of Vishnu, including the [[srivatsa]] mark and his weapons.<ref>Gupta p. 90</ref> The Vishvaksena icon of the [[Tirumala Venkateswara Temple]] has four hands and carries a conch ([[shankha]]) [[Sudarshana chakra]] (discus) in his upper hands and his lower hands are on thigh (''Gada hasta'') and in ''Avgana hasta''.<ref name="tirumala" />

== Literature ==
{{Vaishnavism}}
The [[Brihad Bhagavatamrita]] describes Vishvaksena in service to Vishnu at Vaikuntha:<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2020-11-05 |title=Verse 2.4.73 [Brihad-bhagavatamrita] |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/brihad-bhagavatamrita-commentary/d/doc427309.html |access-date=2022-11-04 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref>
{{Blockquote|text=Śeṣa, Suparṇa (Garuḍa), Viṣvaksena, and other principle attendants were standing in front of the Lord. With bowed heads and hands folded in devotion, they were glorifying the Lord with most wonderful prayers.|title=[[Brihad Bhagavatamrita]]}}
The ''[[Garga Samhita (Vaishnavite text)|Garga Samhita]]'' states that Vishvaksena guards the northern gate of Vaikuntha day and night.<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2022-07-16 |title=Verse 6.21.7 [Garga Samhita] |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/garga-samhita-english/d/doc1126821.html |access-date=2022-11-04 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref>

In one of the [[Puranas]], it is mentioned that [[Sugreeva|Sugriva]], the chief of The [[vanara]] army that helped Rama (who was an incarnation of Vishnu) in [[Treta Yuga]] was the avatar of Vishvaksena.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

Vishvaksena does not appear in [[Vedas]] or the [[Dharma Shastra]] texts, but his worship is mentioned in Pancharatra and other [[Āgama (Hinduism)|Agama]] texts.<ref name="Nayar p. 103" /> Vishvaksena is believed to symbolize the sacred Agama scriptures.<ref name="Dalal p. 462" />

The twelve [[Alvars|Alvar saints]] of [[Sri Vaishnavism]] sect are considered as manifestations of Vishnu in some form, and the Alvar saint [[Nammalvar]] is considered as an [[avatar]] of Vishvaksena.<ref>Dalal p. 20, 270</ref> The poet Bhattar, in his ''Srirangaraja Stava,'' has ''taniyans,'' or verses, praising various [[acharya]]s (teachers). Vishvaksena also has a ''taniyan'' dedicated to him in the later part of the work, incorporating him in the list of the traditional Sri Vaishnava [[Guru-shishya tradition|guru parampara]] (succession of teachers and disciples) starting from Vishnu's consort [[Lakshmi]] (Sri) to Nammalvar. This indicates the influence of Pancharatra texts on [[Sri Vaishnavism]].<ref>Nayar pp. 95–96</ref>

==Legends==
[[File:Kankalamurti.jpg|thumb|upright|Shiva as ''Kankalamurti'', who defeated Vishvaksena.]]

In one myth, Vishvaksena, the son of [[Varuna]], prayed to [[Venkateswara|Venkateshvara]] at [[Tirumala]] in order to become blessed with the title of the commander of his forces.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Krishna |first=Nanditha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KnXXAAAAMAAJ&q=tirupati+vishvaksena |title=Balaji-Venkateshwara, Lord of Tirumala-Tirupati: An Introduction |date=2000 |publisher=Vakils, Feffer, and Simons |isbn=978-81-87111-46-7 |pages=26 |language=en}}</ref>

The ''[[Kurma Purana]]'' speaks of a visit of the god [[Shiva]] in the form of a cursed mendicant or beggar ([[Bhikshatana]], a form of [[Bhairava]]) to Vaikuntha. The Vaikuntha gate was guarded by Vishvaksena, who did not recognise Shiva and did not allow him to enter. Bhairava ordered his terrible attendant Kalavega to fight with Vishvaksena. However, Kalavega was defeated by Vishvaksena. As Vishvaksena charged towards Bhairava, Bhairava himself slew Vishvaksena with his [[trishula]] and impaled his corpse upon it. This form of Bhairava is known as ''Kankala'' or ''[[Kankalamurti]]'' ("One with the skeleton").<ref name="Kramrisch1992">{{cite book|author=Stella Kramrisch|title=The Presence of Śiva|year=1992|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-01930-7|pages=293–4, 297}}</ref><ref name="Dimmitt1978">{{cite book|author=Cornelia Dimmitt|title=Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the Sanskrit Puranas|date=15 June 1978|publisher=Temple University Press|isbn=978-0-87722-122-7|page=208}}</ref>

==Worship==
Vishvaksena occupies an important place in the [[Vaikhanasa]] sect of [[Vaishnavism]], a sect dedicated to Vishnu. Any ritual or function begins with the worship of Vishvaksena. As the commander-in-chief of Vishnu's army, he is believed to protect the ritual or function from obstacles and evil.<ref name = "tirumala"/> This role is similar to that of [[Ganesha]], who generally is the first worshipped god in [[Hinduism]], especially the [[Shaiva]] (dedicated to the god [[Shiva]]) tradition.<ref name="Pattanaik2006">{{cite book|author=Devdutt Pattanaik|title=Shiva to Shankara: Decoding the Phallic Symbol|year=2006|publisher=Indus Source|isbn=978-81-88569-04-5|page=29}}</ref>

In [[Sri Vaishnavism]], he is described as the "dispeller of difficulties" and the bearer of a moon-like shining complexion. [[Ramanuja]] remarks that the [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnavas]] worship Vishvaksena in the place of [[Kartikeya]] and Ganesha.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ramakrishnananda |first=Swami |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FmdoEAAAQBAJ&dq=sri+vaishnavism+vishvaksena&pg=PT41 |title=Life of Sri Ramanuja |date=2022-04-07 |publisher=Sri Ramakrishna Math |language=en}}</ref>

In the ''taniyan'' (hymn), Bhattar invokes Vishvaksena as one who facilities the life of Vishnu and Lakshmi and controls all creations by gesture of his hands to cause ''[[Cit (consciousness)|chit]]'' (conscious) and ''achit'' (not conscious) to execute their duty.<ref name="Nayar p. 103"/> In another hymn, Bhattar seeks happiness by appealing to Vishvaksena and his consort Sutravati.<ref>Nayar p. 104</ref>

===Mantra and mudra===
The ''[[Lakshmi Tantra]]'' prescribe the worship of Vishvaksena and mention his [[mantra]] ''om rhum vaum jnanadaya namah''.<ref name="Gupta p. 187">Gupta p. 187</ref> The devotee should mediate upon Vishvaksena in the north direction.<ref name="Gupta p. 187"/> Before making an offering of rice to Vishnu, Vishvaksena is prescribed to be worshipped with his [[mantra]], portion of the rice offering and oblations.<ref>Gupta pp. 263–4</ref> Apart from invoking Vishvaksena to the rites, he is also offered by the Chief Priest by reciting the ''anga mantras'' (''anga'' means "body" and "mantra" is hymns") with ''hasta mudras'' (hand gestures).<ref name="Gupta p. 187"/> Vishvaksena anga-mantras recited at the beginning of rites is as below.<ref name="Gupta p. 187"/>

"''Om rhyram hrdayaya namaha (we salute your heart) 
Om rhyrim sirasa svaha (salutation to the head) 
Om rhrum sikhayai vausat (decorate the hairstyle) 
Om rhraim havekcaya hum (decorate the hairstyle) 
Om rhraum netraya vausat (decorate the eyes) 
Om hrah astray phat.(decorate with armaments)''"

The [[mudra]] for Vishvaksena mantra, which will enable a person to be free of all human bondage, is the following form. Three fingers of the left hand including the little finger are folded into the left palm itself, the index finger is held backwards away from the thumb. On the right hand three fingers, as in the case of the left hand, are folded into the palm. Then the hand is placed on the side of the nostril. The index finger is then doubled and placed on top of the thumb. The right hand is then raised up to show the mudra of throwing a disc. With this [[mudra]], it is stated that a person can achieve freedom from the human bondage.<ref>Gupta p. 195</ref>

===Temple rituals===
At [[Venkateswara Temple, Tirumala|Tirumala Venkateswara Temple]] (which follows Vaikhanasa tradition), Vishvaksena is worshipped before any temple ritual. The temple for Vishvaksena is located at the northern side of the main temple, in the ''Mukkoti Pradakshinam'' ('Pradakshinam' means: clockwise [[circumambulation]]). Offerings of flowers and garlands (''nirmalya'') to the [[Tirumala Dhruva Bera|central icon]] of [[Venkateswara]] (an aspect of Vishnu) are removed from it and then offered to the Vishvaksena icon. The temple festival [[Brahmotsavam]] commences with the worship of Vishvaksena and his bronze icon is taken in procession around the temple precincts. Vishvaksena is believed to arrange for the festival and ensure that it goes on smoothly.<ref name="tirumala">{{Cite web|url=http://www.tirumala.org/maintemple_tour_vishwaksena.htm|title=Sri Vishwaksena Temple|access-date=1 January 2013|publisher=Official website of Turumala Tirupati Devastahanams. Org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121224144130/http://tirumala.org/maintemple_tour_vishwaksena.htm|archive-date=24 December 2012|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

The ritual of offering of remnants of [[Puja (Hinduism)|puja]] offerings to the central or festival icon of Vishnu to Vishvaksena, before closing of the temple doors, is embedded in Pancharatra tradition. The poet Kuresha remarks that Vishvaksena sustains on the remnants of his master's food, which is a sign of approval of his master.<ref>Nayar p. 145</ref>

The [[Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam|Srirangam temple]], dedicated to [[Ranganatha]] (an aspect of Vishnu), also celebrates similar festivals where Vishvaksena plays a role in the temple festivals. On the first day of the festival, images of Vishvaksena and [[Hanuman]] are paraded to the shrine of [[Ranganayaki]], the presiding consort goddess of the temple. Soil from a holy [[Aegle marmelos|bael]] tree and from the banks of the [[Kaveri]] river are brought by priests, as though collected by the deities and seeds are sown in this soil as part of the ''Ankurarpanam'' (sprouting the seeds) ritual. Then as part of the ''Nagarasodani'', Vishvaksena is paraded again as though inspecting the streets before the commencement of the main procession of the central deity of the temple.<ref name="MuseumDallapiccola2010">{{cite book|author1=British Museum|author2=Anna Libera Dallapiccola|title=South Indian Paintings: A Catalogue of the British Museum Collection|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FIzWapiacQcC&pg=PA27|access-date=1 January 2013|date=22 June 2010|publisher=Mapin Publishing Pvt Ltd|isbn=978-0-7141-2424-7|page=27}}</ref>

The temple festival Brahmotsavam of [[Varadharaja Perumal Temple, Kanchipuram|Varadharaja Perumal Temple]], [[Kanchipuram]] also begins with worship and procession of the god on the day before the main days of [[Srivari Brahmotsavam|Brahmostavam]], which is known as ''Sena Mudaliar''.<ref name="Raman2003">{{cite book|author=K.V. Raman|title=Sri Varadarajaswami Temple, Kanchi: A Study of Its History, Art and Architecture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=myK8ZYEIu4YC&pg=PA202|access-date=1 January 2013|date=1 June 2003|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-026-6|page=202}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book|author=Sanjukta Gupta|title=Laksmi Tantra a Pancaratra text|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1BoVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA263|access-date=1 January 2013|year=1972|publisher=Brill Archive|pages=263–|id=GGKEY:20P66TDPELS}}
*{{cite book|author=Nancy Ann Nayar|title=Poetry as Theology: The Śrīvaiṣṇava Stotra in the Age of Rāmānuja|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9vG1syVBXKAC&pg=PA145|access-date=2 January 2013|year=1992|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-03255-1|pages=145–}}
*{{cite book|author=Roshen Dalal|title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&pg=PA460|access-date=1 January 2013|date=5 October 2011|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=978-0-14-341421-6|pages=20, 270, 460–462}}

{{HinduMythology}}

[[Category:Hindu gods]]
[[Category:Tutelary deities]]
[[Category:Forms of Vishnu]]

Dhanvantari

2023-01-21T09:28:01Z

ImportMaster: robot: Create/update articles in Category:Hindu gods.

{{short description|Physician of the devas in Hinduism}}
{{EngvarB|date=March 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2017}}
{{Infobox deity
| type = Hindu
| image = Dhanvantari-at-Ayurveda-expo.jpg
| caption = [[Murti]] of Dhanvantari
| name = Dhanvantari
| Devanagari = धन्वन्तरि
| affiliation = [[Vaishnavism]], [[Vishnu|Adi Narayana]], [[Deva (Hinduism)|Deva]]
| god_of = God of [[Ayurveda]] Physician of the devas<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/dhanvantari#purana | title=Dhanvantari, Dhanvamtari: 22 definitions | date=29 June 2012 }}</ref>
| abode = Samudra
| mantra = ''Om Namo Bhagavate Vasudevaya Dhanvantraye Amrutha Kalasha Hastaaya Sarva Maya Vinashanaya Trailokya Nathaya Shri Mahavishnave Namaha''
| weapon = [[Shankha]], [[Chakra]]
| mount = [[Padma (attribute)|Lotus]]
| symbols = [[Amrita]], [[Leech]]
| festivals = [[Dhanteras]]
| father = Dirghatapas<ref>Bhagavata Purana Skandha IX Chapter 17</ref>
| children = Ketuman
}}
{{Vaishnavism}}{{Hinduism}}
'''Dhanvantari''' ({{Lang-sa|धन्वन्तरि|lit=moving in a curve|translit=Dhanvantari, Dhanvamtari}})<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hudson |first=D. Dennis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IMCxbOezDi4C&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA548&dq=dhanvantari+meaning&hl=en |title=The Body of God: An Emperor's Palace for Krishna in Eighth-Century Kanchipuram |date=2008-09-25 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-970902-1 |pages=548 |language=en}}</ref> is the physician of the [[Deva (Hinduism)|devas]] in [[Hinduism]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2012-06-29 |title=Dhanvantari, Dhanvamtari: 22 definitions |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/dhanvantari |access-date=2022-11-26 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Frawley |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6oTYbTZsthwC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA287&dq=dhanvantri+amrutha+kalasha&hl=en |title=Soma in Yoga and Ayurveda: The Power of Rejuvenation and Immortality |date=2012 |publisher=Lotus Press |isbn=978-0-940676-21-3 |pages=287 |language=en}}</ref> He is regarded to be an avatar of [[Vishnu]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dalal |first=Roshen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zrk0AwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PT431&dq=dhanvantri+vishnu&hl=en |title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide |date=2014-04-18 |publisher=Penguin UK |isbn=978-81-8475-277-9 |pages=431 |language=en}}</ref> He is mentioned in the [[Puranas]] as the god of [[Ayurveda]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2012-06-29 |title=Dhanvantari, Dhanvamtari: 22 definitions |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/dhanvantari#purana |access-date=2022-08-02 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref>

During his incarnation on earth, he reigned as the King of Kashi, today locally referred to as [[Varanasi]]. Dhanvantari is also identified as the great-grandfather of [[Divodasa]], a mythological King of Kashi in the [[Vishnu Purana]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gray |first=Louis H. |date=1922 |title=The Indian God Dhanvantari |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/593645 |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=42 |pages=323–337 |doi=10.2307/593645 |jstor=593645 |issn=0003-0279}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2014-08-30 |title=Lineage of Ayu and origin of Dhanvantari [Chapter VIII] |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/vishnu-purana-wilson/d/doc116005.html |access-date=2022-08-02 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref>

== Iconography ==
[[File:Godofayurveda.jpg|thumb|Painting of Dhanvantari.]]
According to the ancient [[Sanskrit]] work ''Vishnudharamottara'', Dhanvantari is a handsome individual and is to usually be depicted with [[Chaturbhuja|four hands]], with one or two of them carrying a bowl of [[amrita]], the elixir of immortality.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Stutley |first=Margaret |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vQWQDwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PT123&dq=dhanvantri+iconography&hl=en |title=The Illustrated Dictionary of Hindu Iconography |date=2019-04-09 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-62425-4 |pages=123 |language=en}}</ref> Dhanvantari is depicted in a stark resemblance to Vishnu, with four hands, holding the [[shankha]], [[chakra]], jalauka (leech), and a pot containing amrita. He is often shown with a leech in his hand rather than the scriptures, indicating the historical practice of [[bloodletting]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lad |first=Vasant |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hJIeAQAAIAAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&dq=dhanvantari+leech&q=dhanvantari+leech&hl=en |title=Textbook of Ayurveda |date=2002 |publisher=Ayurvedic Press |isbn=978-1-883725-07-5 |pages=119 |language=en}}</ref>

Some texts describe him as holding a conch, [[amrita]], medicinal herbs, and a book of [[Ayurveda]].

== Legend ==

=== Origin ===
''The [[Balakanda|Bala Kanda]]'' of the ''[[Ramayana]]''<ref>{{cite book|title=Valmiki Ramayana: Balakanda|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=glKDtKF8XOIC|page=556|author=Harekrishna Satapathy|publisher=Rashtriya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha|year=2010}}</ref> and ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'' state that Dhanvantari emerged from the [[Ocean of Milk]] and appeared with the pot of [[amrita]] (elixir of immortality) during the ''[[Samudra manthan|Samudra Mathana]],'' whilst the ocean was being churned by the [[Deva (Hinduism)|deva]]s and the [[asura]]s, using the [[Mount Mandara|Mandara]] mountain and the serpent [[Vasuki]]. The pot of amrita was snatched by the asuras, and after this event, Vishnu's avatar, [[Mohini]], appears and takes the nectar back from the asuras. It is also believed that Dhanvantari promulgated the practice of Ayurveda.<ref name="M107">[[#Madhavan|Madhavan 2007]], p. 107</ref> Of special mention here is the treatise of ''Dhanvantari-Nighantu'', which completely elucidates Dhanvantari's medicinal plants.<ref>[https://www.exoticindiaart.com/book/details/studies-on-medicinal-planets-and-drugs-in-dhanvantari-nighantu-two-volumes-NAD479/][http://www.saujanyabooks.com/details.aspx?id=34040][https://www.scribd.com/doc/290274952/dhanvantari-nighantu-pdf][http://www.vaidyaraj-ayurveda.com/dhanvantari.html][https://docslide.us/documents/dhanvantari-nighantupdf.html][https://www.amazon.in/Dhanvantari-Nighantu-Sanskrit-Text-English-Translation/dp/8189469126 Dhanvantari-Nighantu]</ref>

The [[Brahmanda Purana]] describes the origin of the physician deity:<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2019-06-21 |title=The origin of Dhanvantari [Chapter 67] |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/the-brahmanda-purana/d/doc362925.html |access-date=2022-08-02 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref>
{{Blockquote|text=Let the origin of Dhanvantari be heard, O Brāhmaṇas. He was born formerly when the ocean was being churned, for the sake of nectar. At the outset, he was born before the Kalaśa (pot). He was encircled by a halo of glory all round. On seeing him having accomplished his task suddenly, Viṣṇu who was standing by said—“You are born of water”. Hence, he is remembered as Abja (water-born). Abja said to Viṣṇu—“O lord, I am your son. Allot me my share and place in the world, O excellent god.”

On being told thus, the lord said after review in the factual position, “The division of the Yajña has already been made by the sons of Diti as well as the Suras. The due performance of Homas etc. has been laid down in the Vedas by the great sages. It is not possible to get Homa performed unto you at any time. As you are born subsequent to Vedas O god, you have no Mantra (assignable to you). O lord, in your second incarnation you will earn reputation in the world. Then you will attain the super-natural powers like Aṇimā (minuteness) and others. O lord, you will attain Deva-hood with this selfsame body. Brāhmaṇas (and other twice-born ones) shall worship you with Caturmantras (i.e. Mantras from the four Vedas), ghee offerings and Gavyas (materials of worship obtained from milk, milk products). You will once again reproduce the Āyurveda (the Science of Medicine). These incidents and events are inevitable and have already been visualised by the lotus-born lord (Brahmā) earlier. Undoubtedly you will be born in the second Dvāpara Yuga”. Therefore, after granting the boon, Viṣṇu disappeared.|title=[[Brahmanda Purana]]|source=Chapter 67}}

=== Incarnation ===
During the second Dvapara Yuga, the King of Kashi, Dirghatapas, propitiated the physician deity for the birth of a son. The deity agreed to incarnate himself as the desired child as a boon. Dhanavantri proved to be a great king, and is described as the "dispeller of all ailments". He is described to have been exempt from infirmities and recognised as a "master of universal knowledge".<ref name=":0" /> The sage [[Bharadvaja]] educated him regarding the therapeutic practice of Ayurveda, and further caused him to study medicine. The king created a classification of his knowledge of medicine into eight fields and disseminated it to a number of diverse disciples.<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2019-06-21 |title=The origin of Dhanvantari [Chapter 67] |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/the-brahmanda-purana/d/doc362925.html |access-date=2022-08-02 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref>

=== Dhanvantari and Manasa ===
According to the [[Brahma Vaivarta Purana]], Dhanvantari, accompanied by his disciples, once journeyed to [[Mount Kailash|Kailasha]]. On the way, a [[Nāga|naga]] named [[Takshaka]] emitted a venom-spitting hiss. A disciple plucked the diamond upon the head of Takshaka and hurled it towards the earth. Upon learning these events, the powerful serpent-king [[Vasuki]] amassed thousands of serpents under the leadership of Drona, Pundarika, and Dhananjaya against the entourage. The poisonous emissions of all these serpents united to make the disciples of Dhanvantari faint. Immediately, Dhanvantari concocted a medicine made from ''vanaspati'', allowing his followers to recover and causing the snakes to faint in turn. When Vasuki understood what had transpired, he sent a [[Shaivism|Shaiva]] serpent goddess, [[Manasa]], to face Dhanvantari. Manasa sent the disciples of Dhanvantari into a swoon, but since the deity was proficient in the art of ''Vishvavidya'', he soon restored his disciples to consciousness. When Manasa deemed it impossible to defeat Dhanvantari or his disciples, she held the [[trishula]] given to her by Shiva and aimed it at Dhanvantari. Seeing this, [[Shiva]] and [[Brahma]] appeared before them and restored the peace, sending them all on their way.<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2019-01-28 |title=Story of Dhanvantari |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/compilation/puranic-encyclopaedia/d/doc241541.html |access-date=2022-08-02 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Statue of Dhanvantari.jpg|thumb|Statue of Dhanvantari at Tarakeshwar temple]]
== Temples ==

=== India ===
[[File:Dhanwantari Bhagwan.jpg|thumb|160px|Dhanvantari at Ayurved Sankul Anand, which is a premier institute of [[Ayurveda]] situated in the Milk City of India, [[Anand, Gujarat]].]]
==== In Maharashtra ====
In Konkan, There is a Dhanvantari temple at Dapoli, District Ratnagiri, Maharashtra. It belongs to Dongare family and is owned and run by Vaidya Aniruddha Dongare. Many devotees from Konkan and rest of Maharashtra visit the temple and offer their prayers.

=== Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Puducherry ===
There are a few dedicated temples to Dhanvantari in South India especially in [[Kerala]] and [[Tamil Nadu]], where ayurveda is highly practised and patronised. The [[Thottuva Dhanwanthari temple]] in Kerala is a particularly famous temple, where Lord Dhanvantari's idol is almost six feet tall and facing east. On the right hand the lord holds amrita and with the left hand the lord holds Atta, Shanku and Chakra. The 'Ekadasi' day celebration, which falls on the same day as the 'Guruvayur Ekadasi' is of special significance.

In [[Tamil Nadu]], in the courtyard of [[Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple (Srirangam)]], there is a Dhanvantari shrine where daily worship of the deity is performed. In front of this temple there is an engraved stone believed to be from the 12th century. According to the writings on the stone, Garuda Vahana Bhattar, a great ayurvedic physician, established the statue inside the temple. A ''[[prasada]]'' or ''[[theertham|tirtham]]'', a herbal [[decoction]], is given to the visitors. The shrine is the oldest Dhanvantari shrine in the state.<ref>[[#Madhavan|Madhavan 2007]], p. 108</ref> Another Dhanvantari shrine is found in the second precinct of [[Varadharaja Perumal Temple, Kanchipuram|Varadaraja Perumal Temple]] in [[Kanchipuram]].<ref>[[#Madhavan|Madhavan 2007]], p. 110</ref>

Dhanvanthari temples in Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Puducherry include:
* Nelluvai Dhanwantari Temple, Wadakkanchery, Thrissur, Kerala
* Sri Danvantri Arogya Peedam, Walajapet, Vellore District, Tamil Nadu<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.danvantritemple.org|title=Sri Danvantri Temple|website=www.danvantritemple.org}}</ref>
* Thevalakkadu Sree Dhanwanthari Temple, Kulasekharamangalam Post, Vaikom, Kottayam, Kerala<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sreedhanwantharitemple.in|title=Thevalakkadu Sree Dhanwanthari Temple Kulasekharamangalam, Vaikom, Kottayam, Kerala, India|website=www.sreedhanwantharitemple.in}}</ref>
* Aanakkal Dhanwanthari Temple, Thaniyathukunnu, Thrissur<ref>{{cite web |url=http://aanakkaldhanwanthari.com/home.htm |title=Welcome |access-date=2013-10-15 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022060438/http://aanakkaldhanwanthari.com/home.htm |archive-date=22 October 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
* Sree Dhanwanthari Temple, Ramanathapuram, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu<ref>http://temples.avpayurveda.com {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140301222422/http://temples.avpayurveda.com/ |date=1 March 2014 }}</ref>
* Sree Dhanwanthari Temple, Maruthorvattom, Cherthala, Kerala<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dhanwantharitemple.org|title=Official website of Maruthorvattom Sree Dhanwanthari Temple: Temple of Lord Dhanwanthari, the Master God of Ayurveda|website=www.dhanwantharitemple.org}}</ref>
* Sree Dhanwanthari Temple, Prayikara, Mavelikara, Alleppey, Kerala<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sreedhanwantharitemple.com/index.html|title=Sree Dhanwanthari Temple Prayikara, Mavelikara|website=sreedhanwantharitemple.com}}</ref>
* Sree Dhanwanthari Temple Elanthoor, Pathanamthitta, Kerala
* Sree Dhanwanthari Temple Kanakkoor, Alappuzha, Kerala
* Sree Dhanwanthari Temple Poothakulam, Kollam, Kerala
* Shri Dhanwantari Temple, Gopabandhu Ayurveda Mahavidyalaya Campus, Puri, Odisha
* Sri Dhanvantri Swamy Sannidhi within the Sanjeevi Vinayakar Temple, JIPMER campus
*Shri Aalkkalmanna Dhanwanthari Temple is situated at Eranthod Village, Angadippuram Panchayat, Perintalmanna Taluk of Malappuram District.
*There is also Sri Murrari Dhanvantri Moorthi Kshetram temple in kollam district (boothakulam) paravur. It belongs to a family called Thundvilla, it is owned and run by the family members itself. People offer prayer for there beloved ones and offer paalpayasam to god.
*Shri Dhanvantari Temple, Palluruthy, Kochi, Kerala is a small temple managed by Gowda Saraswath Brahmin Community.

==== Others ====
In Varanaseya Sanskrit Vishwavidyalaya, [[Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh]] state, one statue of Dhanvantari is present in the university museum. Two statues are at the headquarters of the [[Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha]] at [[New Delhi]]. There is another statue inside the Ayurveda Maha Sammelan office, Dhanawantari Bhawan at New Delhi and one statue of Dhanvantari is present at Mohyal Ashram in [[Haridwar]].{{citation needed|date=January 2016}}

=== Nepal ===
[[File:Dhanwanantari Temple Jaybageshwori Pashupatinath Kathmandu Nepal Rajesh Dhungana 1.jpg|thumb|Dhanwanantari Temple, Jaya Bageshwari, Kathmandu]]
There is a shikar style temple dedicated to the god in the Jaya Bageshwari neighbourhood of [[Kathmandu]]. The temple is near the famous [[Pashupatinath Temple|Pashupatinath temple]].

== Commemoration ==
Devotees pray to Dhanvantari to seek his blessings for sound health for themselves and others on [[Dhanteras]], two days before [[Diwali|Deepavali]].<ref name="indiatimes.com">{{cite web |title=Dhanteras to be observed as National Ayurveda Day - Times of India |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/varanasi/Dhanteras-to-be-observed-as-National-Ayurveda-Day/articleshow/54599037.cms |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> It is also celebrated as National Ayurveda Day in India, which was first observed in 2016.<ref name="indiatimes.com" />

==See also==
* [[Ashvins]]
* [[Ayurveda]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book|title=Vishnu temples of South India, Volume two|last=Madhavan|first=Chitra|year=2008|publisher=Chitra Madhavan|isbn=978-81-908445-1-2|ref=Madhavan}}

== External links ==
{{commons category|Dhanvantari}}
*
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070930163831/http://vedabase.net/sb/9/17/4/en1 Dhanvantari in the Bhagavata Purana]

{{HinduMythology}}
{{HinduAvatars}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Hindu gods]]
[[Category:Ayurveda]]
[[Category:Avatars of Vishnu]]
[[Category:Health gods]]
[[Category:Medicine deities]]

Kubera

2023-01-21T09:24:17Z

ImportMaster: robot: Create/update articles in Category:Hindu gods.

{{other uses}}
{{short description|Hindu god of wealth}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2016}}
{{good article}}
{{Infobox deity
| type = Hindu
| image = SAMA Kubera 1.jpg
| caption = A 10th century statue of Kubera at San Antonio Museum of Art
| affiliation = [[Yaksha]], [[Deva (Hinduism)|Deva]], [[Lokapala]]
| god_of = God of Wealth<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/kubera | title=Kubera, Kuvera, Kuberā: 52 definitions | date=15 June 2012 }}</ref> Treasurer of the Devas<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Myth_Mithya/8wKK7KNnMzAC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=kubera+treasurer+devas&pg=PT42&printsec=frontcover|title=MYTH=MITHYA|first=Devdutt|last=Pattanaik|date=2006| publisher=Penguin UK | isbn=9788184750218 }}</ref>
| abode = [[Lanka]] and later [[Alaka]]
| mantra = {{IAST|Oṃ Shaṃ Kuberāya Namaḥ}}
| weapon = {{IAST|Gadā}} ([[Gada (mace)|Mace]] or club)
| father = [[Vishrava]]
| mother = [[Ilavida]]
| consort = [[Bhadra]]
| children = [[Nalakuvara]], [[Manibhadra]], Mayuraja, and Minakshi
| mount = [[Wild Boar]], [[Mongoose]]
| member_of = [[Lokapalas]]
}}
'''Kubera''' ({{lang-sa|कुबेर|translit=Kuberā}}) also known as '''Kuvera''', '''Kuber''' and ''' Kuberan''', is the god of wealth, and the god-king of the semi-divine [[yakshas]] in [[Hinduism]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qmUssUXUFFYC&pg=PA359 |title=The Poems of Sūradāsa|publisher=Abhinav publications|year=1999|isbn=9788170173694}}</ref> He is regarded as [[Guardians of the directions|the regent of the north (''Dikpala'')]], and a protector of the world (''[[Lokapala]]''). His many epithets extol him as the overlord of numerous semi-divine species, and the owner of the treasures of the world. Kubera is often depicted with a plump body, adorned with jewels, and carrying a money-pot and a club.

Originally described as the chief of evil spirits in [[Veda|Vedic]]-era texts, Kubera acquired the status of a ''[[Deva (Hinduism)|deva]]'' (god) only in the [[Puranas|''Purana''s]] and the [[Hindu epic]]s. The scriptures describe that Kubera once ruled [[Lanka]], but was overthrown by his half-brother [[Ravana]], later settling in the city of [[Alaka]] in the [[Himalayas]]. Descriptions of the "glory" and "splendour" of Kubera's city are found in many scriptures.

Kubera has also been assimilated into the [[Buddhist]] and [[Jain]] pantheons. In Buddhism, he is known as [[Vaisravana]], the patronymic used of the Hindu Kubera and is also equated with [[Pañcika]], while in Jainism, he is known as '''Sarvanubhuti'''.

==Iconography==
Kubera is often depicted as a dwarf, with complexion of lotus leaves and a big belly. He is described as having three legs, only eight teeth, one eye, and being adorned with jewels. He is sometimes depicted riding a man.<ref name="knapp" /><ref name="Britannica" /> The description of deformities like the broken teeth, three legs, three heads and [[Chaturbhuja|four arms]] appear only in the later ''Puranic'' texts.<ref name="H147">{{harvnb|Hopkins|1915|p=147}}</ref> Kubera holds a mace, a pomegranate, or a money bag in his hand.<ref name="knapp" /> He may also carry a sheaf of jewels or a [[mongoose]] with him. In Tibet, the mongoose is considered a symbol of Kubera's victory over [[nāga]]s—the guardians of treasures.<ref name="Thomas" /> Kubera is usually depicted with a mongoose in Buddhist iconography.<ref name="Britannica" />

[[File:British Museum Ganesha Matrikas Kubera.jpg|thumb|A bronze [[Matrika]] goddess group along with [[Ganesha]] (left) and Kubera (right) currently at the [[British Museum]]. Originally from Eastern India, it was dedicated in 43rd year of reign of [[Mahipala]] I (c. 1043 AD).|280x280px]]
In the ''[[Vishnudharmottara Purana]]'', Kubera is described as the embodiment of both ''[[Artha]]'' ("wealth, prosperity, glory") and ''[[Arthashastra]]''s, the treatises related to it—and his iconography mirrors it. Kubera's complexion is described as that of lotus leaves. He rides a man—the [[State (polity)|state]] personified, adorned in golden clothes and ornaments, symbolizing his wealth. His left eye is yellow. He wears an armour and a necklace down to his large belly. The ''Vishnudharmottara Purana'' further describes his face to be inclined to the left, sporting a beard and mustache, and with two small tusks protruding from the ends of his mouth, representing his powers to punish and to bestow favours. His wife Riddhi, representing the journey of life, is seated on his left lap, with her left hand on the back of Kubera and the right holding a ''ratna-patra'' (jewel-pot). Kubera should be four-armed, holding a ''gada'' (mace: symbol of ''dandaniti''—administration of justice) and a ''[[shakti]]'' (power) in his left pair, and standards bearing a lion—representing ''Artha'' and a ''shibika'' (a club, the weapon of Kubera). The ''[[nidhi]]'' treasures Padma and Shankha stand beside him in human form, with their heads emerging from a lotus and a conch respectively.<ref name="prakash">{{cite book|last=Prakash|first=Om|editor=Nagendra Kumar Singh|title=Encyclopaedia of Hinduism |year=2000|publisher=Anmol Publications PVT. LTD|isbn=81-7488-168-9|pages=41–4|chapter=Artha and Arthasastra in the Puranic Iconography and their symbolic implications|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=UG9-HZ5icQ4C&q=kubera&pg=PA43|volume = 31–45}}</ref>

The ''[[Agni Purana]]'' states that Kubera should be installed in temples as seated on a goat, and with a club in his hand.<ref name = "Mani"/> Kubera's image is prescribed to be that of gold, with multi-coloured attributes.<ref name="Alain"/> In some sources, especially in [[Jain]] depictions, Kubera is depicted as a drunkard, signified by the "nectar vessel" in his hand.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sutherland|1991|p=65}}</ref>

==Etymology and other names==
The exact origins of the name Kubera are unknown.<ref name="Alain"/> "Kubera" or "Kuvera" (कुवेर) as spelt in later Sanskrit, means "deformed or monstrous" or "ill-shaped one"; indicating his deformities.<ref name="Alain"/><ref name = "monier">[http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/cgi-bin/monier/serveimg.pl?file=/scans/MWScan/MWScanjpg/mw0291-kudri.jpg Monier-Williams Dictionary: Kubera]</ref> Another theory suggests that Kubera may be derived from the verb root ''kumba'', meaning to conceal. Kuvera is also split as ''ku'' (earth), and ''vira'' (hero).<ref name = "S63"/>

As the son of [[Vishrava]] ("Fame"), Kubera is called ''[[Vaisravana]]'' (in the [[Pali language]], Vessavana) and as the son of Ilavila, ''Ailavila''.<ref name = "H142">{{harvnb|Hopkins|1915|pp=142–3}}</ref> Vaisravana is sometimes translated as the "Son of Fame".<ref name="Alain"/> The ''Sutta Nitapa'' commentary says that ''Vaisravana'' is derived from a name of Kubera's kingdom, ''Visana''.<ref name = "S63"/> Once, Kubera looked at Shiva and his wife [[Parvati]] with jealousy, so he lost one of his eyes. Parvati also turned this deformed eye yellow. So, Kubera gained the name ''Ekaksipingala'' ("one who has one yellow eye").<ref name = "Mani"/> He is also called ''Bhutesha'' ("Lord of spirits") like Shiva. Kubera usually is drawn by spirits or men (''nara''), so is called ''Nara-vahana'', one whose ''[[vahana]]'' (mount) is ''nara''. [[Edward Washburn Hopkins|Hopkins]] interprets ''nara''s as being water-spirits, although Mani translates ''nara'' as men.<ref name = "Mani"/><ref name = "H144"/> Kubera also rides the elephant called ''Sarvabhauma'' as a ''loka-pala''.<ref name = "H142"/> His garden is named Chaitrarath.<ref name="Madan"/>

Kubera also enjoys the titles "king of the whole world", "king of kings" (''Rajaraja''), "Lord of wealth" (''Dhanadhipati'') and "giver of wealth" (''Dhanada''). His titles are sometimes related to his subjects: "king of [[yaksha]]s" (''Yaksharajan''), "Lord of [[rakshasa]]s" (''Rakshasadhipati''), "Lord of [[Guhyaka]]s" (''Guhyakadhipa''), "king of [[Kinnara]]s"(''Kinnararaja''), "king of animals resembling men" (''Mayuraja''), and "king of men" (''Nararaja'').<ref name="Alain"/><ref name = "H142"/><ref name = "H144"/> Kubera is also called ''Guhyadhipa'' ("Lord of the hidden"). The ''[[Atharvaveda]]'' calls him the "god of hiding".<ref name = "H144"/>

==Literature==
[[File:Kubera - Circa 1st Century CE - Kosi Kalan - ACCN 18-1506 - Government Museum - Mathura 2013-02-23 5710.JPG|thumb|Kubera, 1st century CE, [[Mathura Museum]].]]

===Early descriptions and parentage===
In the ''Atharvaveda''—where he first appears<ref name="Alain">{{cite book|last= Daniélou|first=Alain|title=The myths and gods of India|year=1964|publisher=Inner Traditions / Bear & Company|pages=135–7|chapter=Kubera, the Lord of Riches}}</ref>—and the ''[[Shatapatha Brahmana]]'', Kubera is the chief of evil spirits or spirits of darkness, and son of Vaishravana.<ref name = "monier"/><ref name = "williams"/> The ''Shatapatha Brahmana'' calls him the Lord of thieves and criminals.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbr/sbe44/sbe44104.htm|title=Satapatha Brahmana Part V (SBE44): Thirteenth Kâ''n''''d''a: XIII, 4, 3. Third Brâhmana (13.4.3.10)|website=www.sacred-texts.com|access-date=2017-06-23}}</ref> In the ''[[Manusmriti]]'', he becomes a respectable ''lokapala'' ("world protector") and the patron of merchants.<ref name = "S63">{{Harvnb|Sutherland|1991|p=63}}</ref> In the epic ''[[Mahabharata]]'', Kubera is described as the son of ''[[Prajapati]]'' [[Pulastya]] and his wife Idavida, and the brother of sage [[Vishrava]]. Kubera is described as born from a cow. However, from the ''Purana''s, he is described as the grandson of Pulastya and the son of Vishrava and his wife [[Ilavida]] (or Ilivila or Devavarnini), daughter of the sage [[Bharadvaja]] or Trinabindu.<ref name = "Mani">{{cite book|author = Mani, Vettam|title = Puranic Encyclopaedia: A Comprehensive Dictionary With Special Reference to the Epic and Puranic Literature|url = https://archive.org/details/puranicencyclopa00maniuoft|publisher = Motilal Banarsidass|year = 1975|location = Delhi|isbn = 0-8426-0822-2|pages = [https://archive.org/details/puranicencyclopa00maniuoft/page/434 434]–7}}</ref><ref name="Alain"/><ref name = "H142"/><ref name = "williams">{{cite book|last=Williams|first=George Mason|title=Handbook of Hindu mythology|year=2003|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=1-85109-650-7|pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9791576071068/page/190 190–1]|chapter=Kubera|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9791576071068/page/190}}</ref>

By this time, though still described as an ''[[asura]]'', Kubera is offered prayers at the end of all ritual sacrifices.<ref name = "williams"/> His titles, such as "best of kings" and "Lord of kings" (The''[[Harivamsa]]'' indicates that Kubera is made "Lord of kings"), in contrast to the god-king of heaven, [[Indra]], whose title of "best of gods" led to the later belief that Kubera was a man. The early texts ''Gautama [[Dharmaśāstra|Dharmashastra]]'' and ''[[Apastamba]]'' describe him as a man. Only the ''[[Grhya Sutras#Grhya Sutras|Grihyasutra]]''s of Shankhayana and Hiranyakesin call him a god, and suggest offerings of meat, sesame seeds and flowers to him.<ref name="prakash"/><ref name = "H146">{{harvnb|Hopkins|1915|p=146}}</ref>

===Puranic and epic descriptions===

The ''Purana''s and the epics ''[[Mahabharata]]'' and ''[[Ramayana]]'' grant Kubera unquestioned godhood.<ref name="prakash" /> Kubera also acquired the status of the "Lord of riches" and the wealthiest Deva. He also becomes a ''lokapala'' ("world protector") and [[Guardians of the directions|guardian (''dikapala'') of the North direction]], although he is also sometimes associated with the East.<ref name="H142" /><ref name="williams" /> Kubera's status as a ''lokapala'' and a ''dikpala'' is assured in the ''Ramayana'', but in the ''Mahabharata'', some lists do not include Kubera. Thus, Kubera is considered a later addition to the original list of ''Loka-pala''s, where the gods [[Agni]] or [[Soma (deity)|Soma]] appear in his place.<ref>For Loka-palas, {{harvnb|Hopkins|1915|pp=149–52}}</ref> This status, the ''Ramayana'' records, was granted to Kubera by [[Brahma]]—the creator-god and father of Pulastya—as a reward for his severe penance. Brahma also conferred upon Kubera the riches of the world (''[[Nidhi]]s''), "equality with gods", and the [[Pushpaka Vimana]], a flying chariot. Kubera then ruled in the golden city of [[Lanka]], identified with modern-day [[Sri Lanka]].<ref name="Mani" /><ref name="Alain" /><ref name="H142" /> The ''Mahabharata'' says that Brahma conferred upon Kubera the lordship of wealth, friendship with Shiva, godhood, status as a world-protector, a son called ''Nalakubera''/''Nalakubara'', the Pushpaka Vimana and the lordship of the ''Nairrata'' demons.<ref name="H142" />

Both the ''Purana''s and the ''Ramayana'' feature the half-blood siblings of Kubera. Vishrava, Kubera's father, also married the ''[[rakshasa]]'' (demigod) princess [[Kaikesi]], who mothered four ''rakshasa'' children: [[Ravana]], the chief antagonist of the Ramayana, and his siblings, [[Kumbhakarna]], [[Vibhishana]], and [[Soorpanaka|Shurpanaka]].<ref name="Mani" /><ref name="williams" /> The ''Mahabharata'' regards Vishrava as the brother of Kubera, so Kubera is described as the uncle of Ravana and his siblings. It records that when Kubera approached Brahma for the favour of superseding his father Pulastya, Pulastya created Vishrava. To seek the favour of Vishrava, Kubera sent three women to him, by whom Vishrava begot his demon children.<ref name="H142" /><ref name="wilkins">{{cite book|last=Wilkins|first=W. J. |title=Hindu Mythology, Vedic and Puranic|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/hmvp/hmvp39.htm|year=1990|publisher=Sacred texts archive|pages=388–93|isbn=1-4021-9308-4}}</ref> Ravana, after acquiring a boon of Brahma, drove Kubera away from Lanka and seized his Pushpaka Vimana, which was returned to Kubera after Ravana's death. Kubera then settled on Gandhamandana mountain, near [[Mount Kailash]] – the abode of the god [[Shiva]]—in the [[Himalayas]]. Sometimes, Kailash itself is called Kubera's residence. His city is usually called [[Alaka]] or Alaka-puri ("curl-city"), but also ''Prabha'' ("splendour"), ''Vasudhara'' ("bejeweled") and ''Vasu-sthali'' ("abode of treasures").<ref name="Mani" /><ref name="Alain" /><ref name="H142" /><ref name="Madan">{{cite book|title=India through the ages|url=https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada|last=Gopal|first=Madan|year= 1990| page= [https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada/page/65 65]|editor=K.S. Gautam|publisher=Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India}}</ref> There, Kubera had a grove called ''Caitraratha'', where the leaves were jewels and the fruits were girls of heaven. There is also a charming lake called ''Nalini'' in the grove.<ref name="H142" /><ref name="wilkins" /> Kubera is often described as a friend of Shiva in the epics.<ref name="knapp" /> The ''[[Padma Purana]]'' says that Kubera prayed to Shiva for many years, and Shiva granted him the kingship of yakshas.<ref name="Mani" />

[[File:Kubera, the God of Riches LACMA M.69.13.8 (1 of 9).jpg|thumb|left|An 11th century Kubera, [[Karnataka]].]]
A description of Kubera's magnificent court appears in the ''Mahabharata'' as well as the ''[[Meghaduta]]''. Here, gandharvas and [[apsara]]s entertain Kubera. Shiva and his wife [[Parvati]] often frequent Kubera's court, which is attended by semi-divine beings like the ''[[vidyadhara]]s''; ''[[Kimpurusha Kingdom|kimpurusha]]s''; rakshasas; ''[[pishacha]]s''; as well as Padma and Shankha; personified treasures (''[[nidhi]]''); and Manibhadra, Kubera's chief attendant and chief of his army. Like every world-protector, Kubera has seven seers of the North in residence. Alaka is recorded to be plundered by Ravana once, and attacked by the [[Pandava]] prince, [[Bhima]] once.<ref name="prakash" /><ref name="Mani" /><ref name="Alain" /><ref name="H142" /><ref name="H144">{{harvnb|Hopkins|1915|pp=144–5}}</ref> Kubera's ''Nairrata'' army is described to have defeated king Mucukunda, who then defeated them by the advice of his guru [[Vashishta]]. [[Shukra]], the preceptor of the asuras, is also recorded to have defeated Kubera and stolen his wealth.<ref name="H147" /><ref name="Mani" /> Another major tale in the scriptures records how Kubera entertained the sage [[Ashtavakra]] in his palace.<ref name="H147" /><ref name="Mani" />

Kubera is the treasurer of the gods, and the overlord of the semi-divine yakshas, the ''[[guhyaka]]''s, ''[[kinnara]]''s and gandharvas, who act as his assistants and protectors of the jewels of the earth, as well as guardians of his city. Kubera is also the guardian of travelers and the giver of wealth to individuals, who please him. The rakshasas also serve Kubera,<ref name="knapp">{{cite book|last=Knapp|first=Stephen |title=The Heart of Hinduism: The Eastern Path to Freedom, Empowerment and Illumination| year=2005|publisher=iUniverse|isbn=0-595-79779-2|pages=192–3}}</ref> however, some cannibalistic rakshasas are described to have sided with Ravana in the battle against Kubera.<ref name="H142" /> Kubera also developed as minor marriage-divinity. He is invoked with Shiva at weddings and is described as ''Kameshvara'' ("Lord of ''[[Kama]]'' – pleasure, desire etc.").<ref name="H148">{{harvnb|Hopkins|1915|p=148}}</ref> He is associated with fertility of the aquatic type.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sutherland|1991|p=61}}</ref>

The ''Purana''s and the ''Mahabharata'' record that Kubera married [[Bhadra]] ("auspicious"), or Kauberi ("wife of Kubera"), daughter of the [[Danava (Hinduism)|demon]] Mura. She is also called ''Yakshi'' – a female yaksha and ''Charvi'' ("splendour"). They had three sons: [[Nalakuvara|Nalakubara]] ("Reed-axle"), [[Manibhadra|Manigriva]] ("Bejewled-neck") or Varna-kavi ("Colourful poet"), and Mayuraja ("king of animals resembling men"); and a daughter called Minakshi ("fish-eyed").<ref name="knapp" /><ref name="Alain" /><ref name="wilkins" />

==Worship==
As the treasurer of the riches of the world, Kubera is prescribed to be worshipped. Kubera is also credited money to the deity [[Venkateshwara]] (a form of Vishnu) for his marriage with [[Alamelu|Padmavati]]. In remembrance of this, the reason devotees go to [[Tirumala Venkateswara Temple|Tirupati]] to donate money in Venkateshwara's ''Hundi'' ("Donation pot"), is so that he can pay it back to Kubera.<ref>{{cite book|title=Fairs and Festivals of India|date=September 2006|publisher=Pustak Mahal|isbn=81-223-0951-8|page=32}}</ref> He is also associated with [[Lakshmi]] for this reason, and is sometimes represented with her as Kubera Lakshmi.

While Kubera still enjoys prayers as the god of wealth, his role is largely taken by the god of wisdom, fortune and obstacle-removal, [[Ganesha]], with whom he is generally associated.<ref name="knapp"/><ref name = "williams"/>

==Beyond Hinduism==
{{Multiple image
| align =
| direction =
| total_width =
| image1 = Jambhala.jpg
| alt1 =
| caption1 = Jambhala, the Buddhist Kubera, depicted similar to Kubera
| image2 = Matanga Yaksha (God of Prosperity) Ellora Cave 32.jpg
| caption2 = Kubera on an elephant in the Jain caves of Ellora.
| width1 = 200
| width2 = 220
}}
Kubera is recognized outside India and Hinduism as well. Kubera is a popular figure in Buddhist as well as Jain mythology.<ref name = "Britannica">Kubera.(2010). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved July 08, 2010, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/324235/Kubera</ref> The [[Oriental studies|Orientalist]] Dr. Nagendra Kumar Singh remarked that, "Every [[Indian religion]] has a Kubera after the Hindu prototype".<ref name="jain"/>

=== Buddhism ===
{{see also|Jambhala|Vaiśravaṇa}}

Kubera is the Buddhist Vaiśravaṇa or Jambhala, and the Japanese Bishamon. The Buddhist Vaisravana, like the Hindu Kubera, is the regent of the North, a ''lokapala'' and the Lord of yakshas. He is one of the [[Four Heavenly Kings]], each associated with a cardinal direction.<ref>{{cite book|last=Chaudhuri|first=Saroj Kumar|title=Hindu gods and goddesses in Japan |year=2003|publisher=Vedams eBooks (P) Ltd|isbn=81-7936-009-1|chapter=Chapter 2: Vaisravana, the Heavenly King}}</ref> In Buddhist legends, Kubera is also equated with [[Pañcika]], whose wife [[Hariti]] is the symbol of abundance.<ref>Sutherland pp. 63–4, 66</ref> The iconography of Kubera and Pancika is so similar that in certain cases, A. Getty comments, it is extremely difficult to distinguish between Pancika and Kubera.<ref name = "Thomas">{{cite book|last=Donaldson|first=Thomas E. |title=Iconography of the Buddhist Sculpture of Orissa|year=2001|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=81-7017-406-6|pages=329–30|chapter=Jambhala/Pancika}}</ref> The Japanese Bishamon, also known as Tamon-Ten,<ref name=biswas184/> is one of the Jūni-Ten (十二天), a group of 12 Hindu deities adopted in Buddhism as guardian deities (''[[deva (Buddhism)|deva]]'' or ''ten'') who are found in or around Buddhist shrines. The Juni-Ten group of twelve deities were created by adding four deities to the older grouping of Happou-Ten, the eight guardians of the directions. Bishamon rules over the north, like his Hindu counterpart Kubera.<ref name=biswas184>S Biswas (2000), Art of Japan, Northern, {{ISBN|978-8172112691}}, page 184</ref><ref>[http://www.emuseum.jp/detail/100031/000/000?mode=detail&d_lang=en Twelve Heavenly Deities (Devas)] Nara National Museum, Japan</ref><ref>[[Adrian Snodgrass]] (2007), The Symbolism of the Stupa, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120807815}}, pages 120–124, 298–300</ref>

=== Jainism ===
In Jainism, Kubera is the attendant yaksha of the 19th [[Tirthankar]] [[Mallinath]].<ref name="jain">{{cite book|editor=Nagendra Kumar Singh|title=Encyclopaedia of Jainism|volume=1|year=2001|publisher=Anmol Publications PVT. LTD.|isbn=81-261-0691-3|page=7280}}</ref> He is usually called ''Sarvanubhuti'' or ''Sarvahna'', and may be depicted with four faces, rainbow colours and eight arms. The [[Digambara]] sect of Jainism gives him six weapons and three heads; while the [[Svetambara]]s portray him with four to six arms, numerous choices of weapons, though his attributes, the money bag and citron fruit are consistent. He may ride a man or an elephant.<ref name="jain"/><ref name = "Jose">{{cite book|last=Pereira|first= José|title=Monolithic Jinas The Iconography of the Jain Temples of Ellora|year=1977|publisher=Motilal Banarsidas|isbn=0-8426-1027-8|pages=60–1}}</ref> He is related to the Buddhist Jambhala rather than the Hindu Kubera.<ref name = "Jose"/>
{{clear}}

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

==Bibliography==
*{{cite book|last=Hopkins |first=Edward Washburn|author-link=Edward Washburn Hopkins|title=Epic mythology |url=https://archive.org/stream/epicmythology00hopkuoft#page/n147/mode/2up/search/Kubera|year=1915|publisher=Strassburg K.J. Trübner|isbn=0-8426-0560-6}}
* {{cite book|last=Sutherland|first=Gail Hinich|title=The disguises of the demon: the development of the Yakṣa in Hinduism and Buddhism|year=1991|publisher=[[SUNY]] Press|isbn=0-7914-0622-9}}
==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{HinduMythology}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Hindu gods]]
[[Category:Lokapala]]
[[Category:Fortune gods]]
[[Category:Abundance gods]]
[[Category:Characters in the Ramayana]]
[[Category:Yakshas]]
[[Category:Heavenly attendants in Jainism]]
[[Category:Vaiśravaṇa]]

Om Namo Narayanaya

2023-01-20T23:26:26Z

ImportMaster: robot: Create/update articles in Category:Hindu gods.

{{Short description|A Hindu mantra}}[[File:Lord Vishnu.jpg|thumb|Statue of Narayana, the addressee of this mantra|300x300px]]

'''Om Namo Narayanaya''' ({{Lang-sa|ॐ नमो नारायणाय|lit=I bow to the Ultimate Reality, Narayana|translit=Om Namo Nārāyanāya}}),<ref>{{Cite book |last=Krishnamurthy |first=V. |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Thoughts_of_Spiritual_Wisdom/pOFaDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=om+namo+narayanaya+meaning&pg=PA129-IA128&printsec=frontcover |title=Thoughts of Spiritual Wisdom |publisher=[[Notion Press]] |date=2018-05-16 |isbn=978-1642499018 |page=129}}</ref> also referred to as the '''Ashtakshara''' (eight syllables), and the '''Narayana Mantra''', is among the most popular [[mantra]]s of [[Hinduism]], and the principal mantra of [[Vaishnavism]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jayaraman |first=Dr P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UpmeDwAAQBAJ&dq=om+namo+narayanaya+vaishnavism&pg=PA16 |title=A Brief History of Vaishnava Saint Poets : The Alwars |date=2019 |publisher=Vani Prakashan |isbn=978-93-89012-69-9 |language=en}}</ref> It is an invocation addressed to [[Narayana]], the god of preservation, the form of [[Vishnu]] who lays in eternal rest beneath the [[Kshira Sagara|cosmic waters]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Werner |first=Karel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mldcAgAAQBAJ&dq=narayana+cosmic+waters&pg=PA135 |title=Love Divine: Studies in 'Bhakti and Devotional Mysticism |date=2013-12-16 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-77468-3 |pages=135 |language=en}}</ref>

== Origin ==
{{Vaishnavism}}
In the [[Samaveda|Sama Veda]], '''Om Namo Narayanaya'<nowiki/>'' is said to have been taught by [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic]] sages to the seekers who came to them for wisdom. It is traditionally believed that this mantra revealed its significance and meaning to these sages through their penances, after which they shared it with seekers as a means of self-realisation.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Debroy |first=Bibek |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tM49EAAAQBAJ&dq=sama+veda+om+namo+narayanaya&pg=PT311 |title=Brahma Purana Volume 1 |date=2022-01-24 |publisher=Penguin Random House India Private Limited |isbn=978-93-91149-73-4 |language=en}}</ref>

== Literature ==
[[File:Hindoo Gods; Wallpaper.jpg|thumb|A painting of Narayana]]
''Om Namo Narayanaya'' is heavily featured in [[Hindu texts|Hindu literature]], especially in the [[Upanishads]] and the [[Puranas]]. The mantra is often specified as being invoked by the characters of these scriptures to gain salvation from the deity, and as an instruction to the devotees of Narayana in the performance of rituals.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Makarand Joshi |url=http://archive.org/details/varahapuranaeng2volumesin1fileocrmotilalbanasirdass1960 |title=Varaha Purana ENG 2 Volumes In 1 File OCR Motilal Banasirdass 1960}}</ref>

According to the [[Tarasara Upanishad]], ''om'' is the divine sacred syllable that represents the nature of [[Brahman]], the Ultimate Reality that is unchanging and eternal. ''Namo'' can be translated from Sanskrit as “to bow to” or “to pay homage to”, as well as refer to an individual's name. ''Narayanaya'' is a term that may be translated as "to or of Narayana". ''Nara'' refers to “water”, and ''anaya'' means “abode” or “shelter.” Narayana is an epithet of Vishnu, whose celestial realm is [[Vaikuntha]], amid the cosmic waters of creation. Hence, it is a mantra that is associated with submission to [[Brahman|God]], accepting one's existence in the grand design, as well as seeking the protection of Vishnu.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Narayanasvami Aiyar |first=K. |url=http://archive.org/details/thirtyminorupani00xxxxuoft |title=Thirty minor Upanishads |date=1914 |publisher=Madras : Printed by Annie Besant at the Vasanta Press |others=Robarts - University of Toronto}}</ref>

The sage and philosopher [[Yajnavalkya]] provides an explanation of the breakdown of the components of the mantra:<ref>{{Cite book |last=Narayanasvami Aiyar |first=K. |url=http://archive.org/details/thirtyminorupani00xxxxuoft |title=Thirty minor Upanishads |date=1914 |publisher=Madras : Printed by Annie Besant at the Vasanta Press |others=Robarts - University of Toronto |pages=124}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Syllable
!Symbolism
!Invocation
|-
|Om
|[[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atma]]
|[[Brahma]]
|-
|Na/Ma
|[[Prakṛti|Prakrti]]
|[[Vishnu]]/[[Shiva|Rudra]]
|-
|Na/Ra/Ya/Na/Ya
|[[Para Brahman|Parabrahman]]
|[[Ishvara]]/[[Hiranyagarbha|Virata]]/[[Purusha]]/[[Bhagavan]]/[[Paramatman|Paramatma]]
|}
In the [[Vaishnava Upanishads]], the ''Samashti-Yantra'', the words described over [[Shesha|Ananta]], the seat of Vishnu, bear the ''ashtakshara.''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brahmayogin |first=Upanishad |url=https://archive.org/details/108_Upanishads_with_Sanskrit_Commentary_of_Upanishad_Brahma_Yogin |title=108 Upanishads with Sanskrit Commentary of Upanishad Brahma Yogin |publisher=Adyar Library |language=English}}</ref>

The [[Naradiya Purana|Narada Purana]] furnishes the following details regarding the chanting of this mantra: If a man performs the [[japa]] of chanting the mantra in the banks of the river [[Ganges|Ganga]], he would achieve [[moksha]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Makarand Joshi |url=http://archive.org/details/naradapuranaeng051952ocrmotilalbanasirdass |title=Narada Purana ENG 05 1952 OCR Motilal Banasirdass |pages=1766}}</ref>

The [[Narayana Upanishad]] also remarks upon the mantra, stating that one attains [[Vaikuntha]] by chanting it.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/108upanishad_201910 |title=108 Upanishad}}</ref>

The mantra is also often associated with [[Prahlada]], a [[daitya]] devotee of Narayana, and the son of [[Hiranyakashipu]]. Despite repeated instruction by his instructors to chant the invocation, "''Hiranyaya namah''" (glory to Hiranya), the devotee sticks to his favoured mantra, "''Om Namo Narayanaya Namah''" (glory to Narayana).<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Muthukumaraswamy |first1=M. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xsrgg1Mel8UC&dq=om+namo+narayanaya+bhakti+movement&pg=PA203 |title=Folklore, Public Sphere, and Civil Society |last2=Kaushal |first2=Molly |date=2004 |publisher=NFSC www.indianfolklore.org |isbn=978-81-901481-4-6 |language=en}}</ref>
[[File:Arulmigu Sri Parthasarathyswamy Temple-Narayana Krishnaraja Puram,Triplicane,Chennai-Tamil Nadu 600005-DSC 0023 03.jpg|thumb|280x280px|Om Namo Narayanaya written in Tamil, [[Parthasarathy Temple, Chennai|Parthasarathy Perumal temple]], Chennai]]

== Historical usage ==
[[Periyalvar]], an [[Alvars|Alvar]], a poet-saint of the [[Sri Vaishnavism|Sri Vaishnava]] tradition, invoked the mantra to convince the [[Pandya dynasty|Pandya]] king of [[Madurai]] of the supremacy of Vishnu. He proclaimed that Narayana was the supreme deity, all-merciful and all-bountiful, and that he was the path towards the achievement of bliss.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shuddhananda Bharati |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.68160 |title=Alvar Saints |date=1942 |pages=13–14}}</ref>
== Significance ==
[[File:Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam si0589.jpg|thumb|267x267px|The [[Urdhva Pundra]], worn by adherents of Narayana. Wall painting in [[Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam|Ranganathaswamy Temple]], Srirangam.]]
The mantra is held in supreme regard by the [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnavas]], the adherents of Vishnu who make up the dominant denomination within Hinduism.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Johnson |first=Todd M. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/826899669 |title=The worlds religions in figures : an introduction to international religious demography |date=2013 |others=Gina A. Bellofatto |isbn=978-1-118-32303-8 |location=Chichester, West Sussex, UK |oclc=826899669}}</ref> The religious significance of chanting this incantation is described in the [[Tarasara Upanishad]], stating that he who chants the mantra is purified by the deities [[Agni]], [[Vayu]], [[Surya]], as well as [[Shiva]]. The merit attained by chanting it is described to be the equivalent of reciting the [[Itihasa|Itihasas]], the [[Puranas]], and all the mantras a hundred thousand times. It is also stated to be the equivalent of reciting the [[Gayatri Mantra|Gayatri mantra]] a hundred thousand times, and the syllable '[[Om]]' ten thousand times. It is stated to be powerful enough to purify ten of one's immediate ancestors, and ten of one's immediate descendants. Finally, it states that the recitation of the mantra allows one to attain the state of union with Narayana.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Narayanasvami Aiyar |first=K. |url=http://archive.org/details/thirtyminorupani00xxxxuoft |title=Thirty minor Upanishads |date=1914 |publisher=Madras : Printed by Annie Besant at the Vasanta Press |others=Robarts - University of Toronto |pages=126}}</ref>

The [[Linga Purana]] states that chanting the mantra is the means for achieving all objects, and hence must be invoked for every occasion.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Studholme |first=Alexander |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sxJWgldrIHoC&dq=om+namo+narayanaya&pg=PA177 |title=The Origins of Om Manipadme Hum: A Study of the Karandavyuha Sutra |date=2012-02-01 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-8848-5 |pages=177 |language=en}}</ref>

In [[Sri Vaishnavism]], the chanting of the mantra was part of the ''panchasamskaras'' of [[Ramanuja]], the five sacraments that initiated him into the tradition by his guru, Periyanambi.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Narasimhacharya |first=Madabhushini |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4rW8nLogjekC&dq=om+namo+narayanaya&pg=PA22 |title=Sri Ramanuja |date=2004 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |isbn=978-81-260-1833-8 |language=en}}</ref>

According to Vaishnava theology, it is held that whoever studies this ''ashtakshara'' of Narayana and recites it constantly attains a full life, supremacy over men, enjoys the pleasures of royalty, and becomes the master of all souls. Whoever chants this mantra is held to attain [[moksha]], according to the teachings of the Sama Veda.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/702548741 |title=Sixty Upaniṣads of the Veda |date=1997 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |others=Paul Deussen, V. M. Bedekar, Gajanan Balkrishna Palsule |isbn=81-208-0430-9 |edition=1st |location=Delhi |oclc=702548741}}</ref>

== See also ==

* [[Om Namo Bhagavate Vāsudevāya|Om Namo Bhagavate Vasudevaya]]
* [[Om Namah Shivaya]]
* [[Hare Krishna (mantra)|Hare Krishna]]

== References ==

{{reflist}}{{Worship in Hinduism}}
[[Category:Vishnu]]
[[Category:Vaishnavism]]
[[Category:Vedas]]
[[Category:Upanishadic concepts]]
[[Category:Hindu mantras]]
[[Category:Om mantras]]
[[Category:Mantras]]

Gogaji

2023-01-20T20:50:05Z

ImportMaster: robot: Create/update articles in Category:Hindu gods.

{{about|the Hindu deity||Goga (disambiguation)}}
{{short description|Indian folk deity}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2022}}
{{Infobox deity
|type = Hindu; folk Deity of [[Rajasthan]] [[Gujarat]] [[Jammu Division|Jammu]] [[Punjab Region]]
|image = Gogga.jpg
|caption = Gogaji riding the horse
|name = Goga Maharaj
|Devanagari = गोगाजी
|birth_place = [[Dadrewa]], present day [[Sadulpur|Rajgarh]], [[Rajasthan]], [[India]].
|affiliation =
|deity_of = Protects against snake bites
|mantra =
|weapon = [[Spear]]
|consort =
|abode = [[Dadrewa]], [[Gogamedi]], [[Rajasthan]], [[India]].
|parents = Father: Raja Jewar Thakur, Mother: Queen Bachhal
|Worship_center = [[Rajasthan]], [[Punjab Region]], parts of [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Haryana]], [[Himachal Pradesh]], [[Jammu Division|Jammu]], [[Gujarat]]
|mount = Blue [[horse]]
|texts =
}}

[[File:VeerGogaji.jpg|thumb|right]]

'''Gogaji''' (also known as '''Goga''', '''Jahar Veer Gogga''', '''Gugga''', '''Gugga Pir''', '''Gugga Jaharpir''', '''Gugga Chohan''', '''Gugga Rana''', '''Gugga Bir''' and '''Raja Mandlik''') is a [[folklore|folk]] [[deity]], worshipped in the northern states of India especially in [[Rajasthan]], [[Himachal Pradesh]], [[Haryana]], [[Uttarakhand]], [[Punjab region]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Jammu Division|Jammu]] and [[Gujarat]]. He is a warrior-hero of the region, venerated as a saint and a 'snake-god'.

Although there are references to him in the folklore of [[Rajasthan]], little historical knowledge of Gugga exists other than that he ruled the small kingdom of [[Dadrewa]] (in present day Rajasthan) and was a contemporary of [[Prithviraj Chauhan]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Naga Cults and Traditions in the Western Himalaya |first=Omacanda |last=Hāṇḍā |publisher=Indus Publishing |location=New Delhi |year=2004 |isbn=9788173871610 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xd50t19YpJEC&pg=PA317 |page=330 |access-date=17 October 2012}}</ref>

==Etymology==
According to legend, Goga was born with the blessings of Guru Gorakhnath, who gave 'Gugal' fruit to Goga's mother Bachhal which was used to name him. Another belief is that he was called Goga because of his remarkable service to cows(Gou in [[Sanskrit]]).

== Kingdom ==
Goga had a kingdom called [[Dadrewa|Bagad Dedga]] near [[Ganganagar]] that spanned over to Hansi near [[Hisar (city)|Hisar]] in [[Haryana]] and included territory up to the river [[Sutlej]] in [[Punjab]].<ref>Rajasthan [district Gazetteers].: Ganganagar (1972) [https://books.google.com/books?id=DCpuAAAAMAAJ&q=guga+hansi+satluj&dq=guga+hansi+satluj&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CCAQ6AEwAGoVChMItbCZs_3pxwIVCcAUCh0IegyV]</ref> It is believed that Goga lived during the 12th Century AD<ref>[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G0Z457ZOR44C&pg=PA29&lpg=PA29&dq=guga+sirsa+kingdom&source=bl&ots=TtuVDv6Huy&sig=qerHkyXTzGNMYKCgBPXmnddW0cs&hl=en&sa=X&ei=ovDvUr3TEoGL7Aaxw4GQDQ&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=guga%20sirsa%20kingdom&f=false] Gupta, Jugal Kishore: History of Sirsa Town</ref> In the past, the river [[Sutlej]] flowed through the district of [[Bathinda]] in present-day [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] in India.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mcbathinda.com/physiography-and-climate.asp |title=Welcome to the official website of the Municipal Corporation Bathinda |publisher=Mcbathinda.com |access-date=2014-02-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222142700/http://www.mcbathinda.com/physiography-and-climate.asp |archive-date=2014-02-22 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The capital was at [[Dadrewa]] near [[Ganganagar]].

==Legends==
===Family===
Goga ({{lang-hi|गोगा}}) ([[Rajasthani language|Rajasthani]]: (Gugo) गुग्गो) was born in c. 900 [[Anno Domini|AD]] to queen Bachchal (the daughter of a Rajput ruler, Kanwarpala who in 1173 AD ruled over [[Sirsa district|Sirsa]] in present-day [[Haryana]]) and king Zewar in [[Dadrewa]] of the [[Chauhan|Chauhan Clan]] in the [[Churu district]] of [[Rajasthan]].<ref name="ElliotBeames1869">{{cite book|author1=Sir Henry Miers Elliot|author2=John Beames|title=Memoirs on the History, Folk-lore, and Distribution of the Races of the North Western Provinces of India: Being an Amplified Edition of the Original Supplemental Glossary of Indian Terms|url=https://archive.org/details/memoirsonhistor00elligoog|year=1869|publisher=Trübner & Company|pages=[https://archive.org/details/memoirsonhistor00elligoog/page/n268 256]–}}</ref> The earliest parts of Goga's life were spent in the village of Dadrewa, situated on [[Hisar, India|Hissar]]—[[Bikaner]] highway in Sadulpur tehsil of [[Churu district]] in [[Rajasthan]]. According to other legends, his father was Vachha Chauhan, the Raja of Jangal Desh, which stretched from the Sutlej to Haryana.<ref>[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=L9gcAQAAMAAJ&q=bachhal++gugga+haryana&dq=bachhal++gugga+haryana&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CDgQ6AEwA2oVChMI07uCmuPpxwIVyG0UCh2sVwOl Census of India, 1961: India, Volume 1, Issue 4; Volume 1, Issue 19]</ref>

===Birth===
When Bachal was worshipping [[Gorakhnath]], her twin-sister decided to usurp the blessings from the Gorakhnath. In the middle of the night, she wore her sister's clothes and deceived Gorakhnath into giving her the blessing fruit. When Bachal realised it, she rushed to Gorakhnath and said that she had not received anything. To this, Gorakhnath replied that he had already given his blessings and said that her sister was attempting to deceive her. After repeated requests by Bachal, Gorakhnath relented and gave her two Gugal candies. She distributed these candies to ladies having no child, including the 'blue mare' who was pregnant at that time. When the Guru gave the blessing to Bachal, he foretold that her son would become very powerful and would rule over the other two sons of their aunt, Kachal.

===Marriage===
Goga was married to Shreeyal Roz who was daughter of Tandul Nagari's King Sindha Singh.

===Other===
Another story is that Arjan and Sarjan were against Goga and was a part of conspiracy with king [[Anangpal Tomar]] of Delhi. King Anganpal attacked [[Bagar tract#Bagri region|bagad region]] with Arjan and Sarjan. Both of them were killed by Goga. Goga spared the king after his miserere. In a quarrel about land he killed his two brothers on which account he drew upon himself the anger of his mother.<ref name="ElliotBeames1869"/>

==Celebration and fairs==
The history of Goga falls within [[folk religion]] and therefore his followers include people from all faiths. Goga is popular as a [[Devata|Devta]] who protects his followers from snakes and other evils. He has been deified as a snake demigod and is a prominent figure among those who follow the [[Nāga]] cult in what is now [[Rajasthan]] and since the seventeenth century has been worshipped in the [[Western Himalaya]]s also, possibly as a consequence of migration there from Rajasthan.<ref>[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Xd50t19YpJEC&pg=PA330&lpg=PA330&dq=the+cult+of+gugga&source=bl&ots=vYsJsjCERt&sig=cqQekkCu8vfFMMGumsBK8e82FMA&hl=en&sa=X&ei=QtvwUvvzK-GN7QadmYGgAg&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=the%20cult%20of%20gugga&f=false Naga Cults and Traditions in the Western Himalaya: Omacanda Hāṇḍā]</ref>

He is particularly popular among those engaged in agrarian pursuits, for whom the fear of snakebite is common. Although a Hindu, he has many Muslim devotees and is chiefly considered to be a saint (''[[Pir (Sufism)|pir]]'') who had the power to cure the effects of poison (''jahar'').<ref>{{cite book |title=Naga Cults and Traditions in the Western Himalaya |first=Omacanda |last=Hāṇḍā |publisher=Indus Publishing |location=New Delhi |year=2004 |isbn=9788173871610 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xd50t19YpJEC&pg=PA317 |pages=317–320, 330 |access-date=17 October 2012}}</ref>

He was reputed to be a disciple of Guru [[Gorakhnath]]. According to Muslim [[oral tradition]] prevalent in [[Punjab]], he learnt the way of entering and leaving solid earth by a [[Pir (Sufism)|Muslim Pir]] Hazi Rattan of [[Bathinda]].<ref name="autogenerated1"/><ref>[http://kafila.org/2013/01/18/lets-meet-on-ajay-bharadwajs-milange-babey-ratan-de-mele-te-virinder-s-kalra/ Shivam Vij 18/01/2013]</ref> Goga is also believed to have lived for some time in [[Bathinda]].<ref>James Todd (1920) Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan: Or The Central and Western Rajput States of India, Volume 2 [https://archive.org/details/annalsantiquitie02todj ]</ref>

The cult is prevalent in [[Rajasthan]] and other states of northern India, including [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], [[Haryana]], [[Himachal Pradesh]] and the north western districts of [[Uttar Pradesh]]. His followers can also be found in [[Gujarat]] and [[Madhya Pradesh]].

===Rajasthan===
His shrine, referred as [[Samādhi|medi]] (shortened colloquial term for [[Samādhi]]), consists of a one-room building with a minaret on each corner and a Hindu grave inside, marked by a Nishan (a symbol or sign), which is made up of a long bamboo with peacock plumes, a coconut, some colored threads and some handpankhas with a blue flag on the top.

Worship of Goga starts in [[Bhaadra]] month of [[Hindu]] calendar. On the 9th of Bhadra, the people worship his symbol, a black snake painted on a wall. Worshippers take a fly-flap, known as chhari, round the village. Devotees pay their respect to it and offer [[churma]]. The Savayians sing devotional songs known as ‘Pir ke Solle’ in his honour to the accompaniment of [[Damaru|deroos]]. Beating of deroos is the exclusive privilege of the Savayian community; others may sing, dance or offer [[Bhog#In Hinduism|charhawa]]. It is believed that the spirit of Gugga temporarily takes abode in the devotee dancer who lashes himself with a bunch of iron chains. People also open their rakhis on this day(bhadra krishna paksh navmi) and offer them to him. They also offer sweet [[Puri (food)|puri]] (a type of sweet chappati) and other sweets and take his blessing.

Grand fairs are held at [[samadhi]] sathal [[Gogamedi]]. Gogamedi is 359 km from [[Jaipur]], in [[Hanumangarh]] district of Rajasthan. It is believed that Goga went into [[samādhi]] at Gogamedi. Thousands of devotees gather to pay homage at this memorial annually in the month of [[Bhadrapada]] during the Goga [[fair]], which lasts for three days. The fair is held from the ninth day of the dark half of Bhadrapada (Goga Navami) to the eleventh day of the dark half of the same month. People sing and dance to the beats of drums with multicoloured flags called ''nishans'' in their hands. The songs and [[bhajan]]s on the life history of Gogaji are recited accompanied by music played with traditional instruments like [[Damru]], [[Chimta]], etc. At his birthplace [[Dadrewa]], the fair goes on over a month. Devotees from far eastern places of Dadrewa start arriving from the beginning of the auspicious month of [[Bhaadra]]. These devotees are commonly known as purbia (those who belong to east). It is a common sight to see people with snakes lying around their necks. According to a folklore in and around his birthplace [[Dadrewa]] it is believed that if someone picks up even a stick from [[johad|johra]] (a barren land which has a sacred pond in [[Dadrewa]]), it would turn into a snake. Devotees of Gogaji worship him when they get a snake bite and apply sacred ash ([[Vibhuti|bhabhoot]]) on the bite as an immediate remedy.

===Himachal Pradesh===
In [[Thaneek Pura]], [[Himachal Pradesh]], a very large scale festival and fair is organized on Gugga Navami. The tale of Gugga Ji is recited, from Raksha Bandhan to Gugga Naumi, by the followers who visit every house in the region. These followers while singing the tales of Gugga Ji carry a [[Chatra (umbrella)|Chhat]] (a wooden umbrella) and people offer them grains and other stuff. They bring all the collected offerings to the temple and then the grand festival of Gugga Navami is celebrated for three days. Apart from various pujas and rituals, the wrestling competition ([[Malla-yuddha|Mall]] or [[Akhara#Dangal|Dangal]]) is organized for three days where participants from all over the region compete. The annual three-day fair is also a part of these festivities where people come and enjoy great food, and shop for decorative items, handicrafts, clothes, cosmetics, household goods, and toys for children.

===Punjab===
{{Punjabis}}{{See also|Folk practices in Punjab}}Goga is known as Gugga in the Punjab who has a significant following. Many Punjabi villages have a shrine dedicated to Gugga. A fair is organised annually in the village of [[Chhapar]] and is known as the [[Chhapar Mela]]. Gugga's legacy in [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] can be seen in towns such as [[Bareta|Bareta Mandi]], which is situated at a distance of 51 km from [[Mansa, Punjab|Mansa]] in [[Punjab, India|Punjab]]. "The town is predominantly inhabited by Chauhans who trace their origin from Gugga, ‘Lord of Snakes’. It is said that nobody has ever died here on account of snakebite because of the blessings of Gugga."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://punjabrevenue.nic.in/Ga/MANSA-19.htm |title=Punjab Revenue|publisher=Punjabrevenue.nic.in |date=1992-04-13 |access-date=2014-02-04}}</ref>

In the [[Punjab region]], it is traditional to offer sweet [[Vermicelli]] to the shrines of Gugga Ji<ref name="autogenerated2">Alop ho riha Punjabi virsa – bhag dooja by Harkesh Singh Kehal Unistar Book PVT Ltd {{ISBN|978-93-5017-532-3}}</ref> and sweet fried bread (mathya ({{lang-pa|ਮੱਥੀਆ}})). He is worshiped in the month of Bhadon especially on the ninth day of that month. Gugga is meant to protect against snake bites and he is venerated in shrines known as marris. The shrines do not conform to any religion and can range from antholes to structures that resemble a Sikh Gurdwara or a Mosque. When worshipping Gugga, people bring noodles as offerings and also leave them in places where snakes reside.<ref name="autogenerated1">Bhatti, H.S Folk Religion Change and Continuity Rawat Publications</ref> People perform a devotional dance while dancing on the legendary songs of bravery sung in his praise.<ref name=harcu3>{{cite web|url=http://www.global.ucsb.edu/punjab/journalfall04.html|title=Journal of Punjab Studies – Center for Sikh and Punjab Studies – UC Santa Barbara|website=www.global.ucsb.edu|access-date=4 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303213237/http://www.global.ucsb.edu/punjab/journalfall04.html|archive-date=3 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>

On the day of Gugga naumi, when offering the sweet dish, songs are sung which include:

[[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]:
<blockquote>
''ਪੱਲੇ ਮੇਰੇ ਮਥੀਆਂ'' 
''ਨੀ ਮੈਂ ਗੁੱਗਾ ਮਨਾਓੁਣ ਚੱਲੀਆਂ'' 
''ਨੀ ਮੈਂ ਬਾਰੀ ਗੁੱਗਾ ਜੀ'' <ref name="autogenerated2"/>
</blockquote>

<blockquote>
''Palle mere mathyaa'' 
''ni mein Gugga manaun challyaa'' 
''ni mein bari Gugga ji'' 
</blockquote>

Translation
<blockquote>
''I have got mathya'' 
''I am going to worship Gugga ji'' 
''Oh Gugga ji'' 
</blockquote>

== See also ==
*[[Dadrewa]]
*[[Chauhan]]
*[[Thaneek Pura]]

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

==Bibliography==
*{{cite book|first=George Weston |last=Briggs|title=Gorakhnāth and the Kānphaṭa Yogīs|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DXPa3jZDQZUC&pg=PA192|access-date=11 January 2011|date=1 January 2001|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0564-4|page=192}}

{{Punjab, India}}
{{Punjabi folk religion}}

[[Category:Folk deities of Rajasthan]]
[[Category:Regional Hindu gods]]
[[Category:Hindu folk deities]]
[[Category:Punjabi folklore]]
[[Category:Punjabi folk religion]]
[[Category:Punjabi culture]]

Main Naahin Maakhan Khaayo

2023-01-20T19:08:37Z

ImportMaster: robot: Create/update articles in Category:Hindu gods.

{{Short description|Devotional song by Surdas}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2022}}
{{Infobox song
| name = Main Naahin Maakhan Khaayo
| cover =
| alt =
| type = song
| artist =
| album =
| language = [[Braj Bhasa]]
| released =
| format =
| recorded =
| studio =
| venue =
| genre = Classical
| length = 3:20
| label =
| writer = [[Surdas]]
| producer =
}}
'''Main Naahin Maakhan Khaayo''' is a popular Indian [[bhajan]], a Hindu devotional song written by 15th-century mystic-poet, [[Surdas]] set to Raga [[Ramkali]].<ref>{{cite news|author=Usha Ramdas |url=http://www.thehindu.com/arts/article179476.ece |title=Arts : Imaginative concepts |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=2010-03-05 |accessdate=2012-01-03 |location=Chennai, India}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-04-03/news-interviews/28121255_1_duggu-hrithik-barbara-mori |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120708045756/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-04-03/news-interviews/28121255_1_duggu-hrithik-barbara-mori |url-status=dead |archive-date=2012-07-08 |title=Bollywood's firang fascination - |date= 2010-04-03|work=[[The Times of India]] |accessdate=2012-01-03}}</ref> It is written in [[Braj Bhasha]], a dialect of [[Hindi]] native to [[Braja]], and epitomizes Vātsalya (Parental Love) ''[[Rasa (aesthetics)|Rasa]]'' describing an episode from the [[lilas of Krishna]].

== Popular culture ==
The bhajan was popularised by singers like [[Lata Mangeshkar]], [[Anup Jalota]] and [[Kundan Lal Saigal]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Tribute: King of pain |url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2005/20050116/spectrum/main3.htm |work=[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|The Tribune]] |date=16 January 2005}}</ref> Song was also included in [[B.R. Chopra]]'s popular television series [[Mahabharat (1988 TV series)|Mahabharat]] and it was performed by [[Nitin Mukesh]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-06-02|title=जानिए, महाभारत के प्रसिद्ध गीतों को किन-किन गायकों ने दी थी आवाज|url=https://zeenews.india.com/hindi/zee-hindustan/glamour-gadgets/know-which-singers-gave-voice-to-famous-songs-of-mahabharata/690035|access-date=2020-07-29|website=Zee Hindustan}}</ref>

==Context==
Lord Krishna says to his mother that he did not steal the butter. A very popular bhajan, the naughty child [[Krishna]] was caught with
freshly churned butter by his mother [[Yashoda]], with some still on his face. He claims:

:''O Mother mine, believe me, I have not eaten the butter''
:''These friends of mine, out of sheer spite, spread some butter on my face''{{fact|date=June 2022}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Lata Mangeshkar}}

[[Category:Hindi songs]]
[[Category:Hindi poetry]]
[[Category:15th-century poems]]
[[Category:Bhakti movement]]
[[Category:Krishna]]
[[Category:Lata Mangeshkar songs]]

Braj

2023-01-20T15:56:32Z

ImportMaster: robot: Create/update articles in Category:Hindu gods.

{{For|the language|Braj Bhasha}}
{{Redirect|Brij Bhoomi|the 1982 film|Brij Bhoomi (film)}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2016}}
{{Infobox region 
| name = Braj
| type = [[Region]]
| image_skyline = {{Photomontage |border=0 |size=250 |spacing=2 |color=none | photo1a = Mathura Temple-Mathura-India0002.JPG |photo2a=Chhatris of Barsana 03.jpg |photo3a =A Hindu temple Prem Mandir Love temple sights culture India.jpg | photo4a = Kusuma Sarovar Ghat.jpg}}
| image_caption = ''top to bottom:'' [[Krishna Janmasthan Temple Complex|Krishna Janmasthan]] at [[Mathura]], [[Radha Rani Temple]] at [[Barsana]], [[Prem Mandir, Vrindavan|Prem Mandir]] at [[Vrindavan]] and [[Kusum Sarovar]] at [[Govardhan Hill]].
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type2 = Region
| subdivision_name2 = [[Northern India]]
| blank_name_sec1 = [[Language]]
| blank_info_sec1 = [[Braj Bhasha]] dialect of [[Hindi]]
| seat_type = Proposed [[Capital (political)|capitals]]
| seat = [[Mathura]], [[Agra]]
| parts_type = Proposed Districts
| parts_style = list
| p1 = [[Mathura district]]
| p2 = [[Agra district]]
| p3 = [[Aligarh district]]
| p4 = [[Ghaziabad district]]
| p5 = [[Hathras district]]
| p6 = [[Gautam Buddha Nagar district]]
| p7 = [[Mainpuri district]]
| p8 = [[Etah district]]
| p9 = [[Kasganj district]]
| p10 = [[Firozabad district]]
| p11 = [[Bulandshahr district]]
| p12 = [[Bharatpur district]]
| p13 = [[Dholpur District]]
| p14 = [[Palwal District]]
| p15 = [[Faridabad District]]
| p16 = [[Karauli District]]
}}

'''Braj''', also known as '''Vraj''', '''Vraja''', '''Brij''' or '''Brijbhumi''', is a region in [[India]] on both sides of the [[Yamuna]] river with its centre at [[Mathura district|Mathura]]-[[Vrindavan]] in [[Uttar Pradesh]] state encompassing the area which also includes [[Palwal]] and [[Ballabhgarh]] in [[Haryana]] state, [[Bharatpur district]] in [[Rajasthan]] state and [[Morena District]] in [[Madhya Pradesh]].<ref name=janet1>Janet Cochrane, 2008, [https://books.google.com.sg/books?id=LC4c7i3WrPgC&pg=PA249&dq=Braj+region+covers+haryana+and+rajasthan&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiplqzB9sXmAhWCF3IKHeV7AFgQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=Braj%20region%20covers%20haryana%20and%20rajasthan&f=false Asian Tourism: Growth and Change], page 249.</ref> Within Uttar Pradesh it is very well demarcated culturally, the area stretches from the [[Mathura district|Mathura]], [[Aligarh]], [[Agra district|Agra]], [[Hathras district|Hathras]] and districts up to the [[Farrukhabad district|Farrukhabad]], [[Mainpuri district|Mainpuri]] and [[Etah district|Etah]] districts.<ref name="LuciaMichelutti1">{{cite web | url=http://etheses.lse.ac.uk/2106/1/U613338.pdf | title=Sons of Krishna: the politics of Yadav community formation in a North Indian town | publisher=London School of Economics and Political Science University of London | work=PhD Thesis Social Anthropology | date=2002 | access-date=20 May 2015 | author=Lucia Michelutti | pages=49}}</ref> Braj region is associated with [[Radha]] and [[Krishna]] who according to scriptures were born in [[Barsana]] and [[Mathura]] respectively.<ref>{{Citation|title=ONE. The Social Construction of Emotion in India|date=1990-12-31|work=Divine Passions|pages=3–34|publisher=University of California Press|doi=10.1525/9780520309753-002|isbn=978-0-520-30975-3|last1=Lynch |first1=Owen M. }}</ref><ref name="Lucia Michelutti00"/> It is the main centre of [[Hindu pilgrimage sites in India|Krishna circuit of Hindu pilgrimage]].<ref name=janet1/>

It is located 150 km south of [[Delhi]] and 50 km northwest of Agra.<ref name=janet1/>

==Etymology==
The term Braj is derived from the [[Sanskrit]] word ''vraja (व्रज)''.<ref name="Lucia Michelutti00">{{cite web | url=http://etheses.lse.ac.uk/2106/1/U613338.pdf | title=Sons of Krishna: the politics of Yadav community formation in a North Indian town | publisher=London School of Economics and Political Science University of London | work=PhD Thesis Social Anthropology | date=2002 | access-date=20 May 2015 | author=Lucia Michelutti | pages=46}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Prasad|first=Dev|title=Krishna: A Journey through the Lands & Legends of Krishna|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o0_5caqiUH0C&pg=PT16|year=2015|publisher=Jaico Publishing House|isbn=978-81-8495-170-7}}</ref> Vraja was first mentioned in [[Rigveda]], and in [[Sanskrit]] it means a [[goshala|pasture, shelter or resort for cattle]] from Sanskrit term ''"{{lang|sa-Latn|vraj}}"'' which means ''"go"'' in English.

==Braj pilgrimage circuits==
{{anchor | Braj Yatra | Braj pilgrimage | Krishna pilgrimage }}
{{main | Vraja Parikrama}}
{{see | 48 kos parikrama of Kurukshetra | Dwarka | Hindu pilgrimage sites in India }}

Since this is a site associated with the [[Vedic era]] Lord Krishna and [[Mahabharata]], it is an important place of [[pilgrimage]] for [[Hindu]]s. It is one of 3 main pilgrimage sites related to ''Krishna'' circuit, namely ''[[48 kos parikrama of Kurukshetra]]'' in [[Haryana]] state, ''[[Vraja Parikrama]]'' in [[Mathura]] in [[Uttar Pradesh]] state and ''[[Dwarkadhish Temple#Pilgrimage|Dwarka Parikrama]]'' (Dwarkadish yatra) at [[Dwarkadhish Temple]] in [[Gujarat]] state.

''[[Vraja Parikrama|Braj Yatra]]'' circuit of pilgrimage was formally established by the 16th-century [[sadhu]]s of [[Sampradaya#Vaishnava sampradayas|vaishnava sampradaya]] with fixed routes, itinerary and rituals. The circuit covers is spread across 2500 km2 area with 84 [[Kos (unit)|kos]] or 300 km long periphery extending 10 km to east and 50 km to north and west. Braj has two main types of pilgrimage circuits, the traditional longer ''Braj Yatra'' encompassing the whole circuit, and the other shorter significantly modified contemporary point-to-point pilgrimage to visit the main sites at Mathura, Vrindavan, [[Gokul]], [[Govardhan]]. The former, longer traditional pilgrimage route, also includes additional sacred sites [[Nandgaon, Uttar Pradesh|Nandgaon]] and [[Barsana]] with travel on foot.<ref name=janet1/>

==See also==
; Regional
* [[Braj language]]
* [[Vajjika League|Vajji]], the ancient region of the Vṛji janapada that Bajjika evolved from

; Religious
* [[48 kos parikrama of Kurukshetra]]
* [[Dwarka]]
* [[Hindu pilgrimage sites in India]]

; Vedic era
* [[King Kuru]]
* [[Cemetery H culture]]
* [[Painted Grey Ware culture]]

; General
* [[Kingdoms of Ancient India]]
* [[Administrative divisions of Haryana|Regions of Haryana]]
* [[:Category:Regions of Rajasthan|Regions of Rajasthan]]
* [[Administrative divisions of Uttar Pradesh|Regions of Uttar Pradesh]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
*Rupert Snell, ''The Hindi Classical Tradition: A Braj Bhasa Reader.'' Includes grammar, readings and translations, and a good glossary.

{{coord missing|Uttar Pradesh}}

{{Mahajanapada}}
{{Tribes and kingdoms of the Mahabharata}}
{{Mahabharata}}
{{Historical regions of North India}}

[[Category:Krishna]]
[[Category:Mahabharata]]
[[Category:Yadava kingdoms]]
[[Category:Rigvedic tribes]]
[[Category:Indo-Aryan peoples]]
[[Category:Iron Age countries in Asia]]
[[Category:Iron Age cultures of South Asia]]
[[Category:Ancient peoples]]
[[Category:Locations in Hindu mythology]]
[[Category:Regions of Haryana]]
[[Category:Regions of Rajasthan]]
[[Category:Regions of Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Tourism in Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Brij]]

Hanuman

2023-01-20T15:47:12Z

ImportMaster: robot: Create/update articles in Category:Hindu gods.

{{Other uses}}
{{pp-protected|small=yes}}
{{short description|Hindu god and a companion of the god Rama}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2019}}
{{Infobox deity 
| type = Hindu
| name = Hanuman
| image = Hanuman painted by Pahari Painter.jpg
| caption = Hanuman painted by a Pahari painter
| god_of = God of Wisdom, Strength, Courage, Devotion and Self-Discipline<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thestatesman.com/supplements/8thday/hanuman-a-symbol-of-unity-1502720672.html |title=Hanuman: A Symbol of Unity |website=[[The Statesman (India)|The Statesman]] |date=21 Jan 2021}}</ref>
| Devanagari = हनुमान
| Sanskrit_transliteration = {{IAST|Hanumān}}
| affiliation = Devotee of [[Rama]], [[Deva (Hinduism)|Deva]], [[Vanara]],<ref
name="Williams2008p146"/> Avatar of [[Vayu]], Mukhyaprana<ref>{{cite book|title=Gayatri: The Profound Prayer|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-3blDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA90|page=90|author=R. K. Madhukar|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|date=1 January 2014|isbn=978-8178-22467-1|quote=Vayu is accorded the status of a deva, an important God in the ancient literature. Lord Hanuman, who is considered to be one of the avatars of Vayudeva, is described as Mukhyaprana.}}</ref>
| abode = [[Kishkindha]]
| festivals = [[Hanuman Jayanti]]
| mantra = ॐ श्री हनुमते नमः (Om Sri Hanumate Namah)
| parents = [[Vayu]] (spiritual father) [[Kesari (Ramayana)|Kesari]] (father)<ref name="Williams2008p146"/><ref name=debroy184/> [[Añjanā]] (mother)<ref name="Williams2008p146"/>
| weapon = [[Gada (mace)]]
| birth_place = [[Anjeyanadri Hill]], [[Koppal district]]
| texts = ''[[Ramayana]]'' and [[Versions of Ramayana|its other versions]], ''[[Hanuman Chalisa]] ''<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=19aoCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT193|title=Hinduism in the Modern World|author=Brian A. Hatcher|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2015|isbn=978-1-135-04630-9}}</ref>
| siblings = [[Bhima]] (spiritual brother)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://zeenews.india.com/entertainment/and-more/mahabharata-s-bhima-is-related-to-lord-hanuman-here-s-how_1888709.html |title=Mahabharata's Bhima is related to Lord Hanuman – Here's how |publisher=Zee News |date=25 May 2016}}</ref>
| region =
| member_of = [[Chiranjivi]]
}}
{{Hinduism|Deity=Hanuman}}
'''Hanuman''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|ʌ|n|ʊ|ˌ|m|ɑː|n|}}; {{lang-sa|हनुमान्}}, {{IAST3|Hanumān}}),<ref>[https://www.dictionary.com/browse/hanuman "Hanuman"], ''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary]]''.</ref> also called '''Anjaneya''' ({{Lang-sa|आञ्जनेय}}),<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2019-01-16 |title=Anjaneya, Āñjaneya, Amjaneya: 9 definitions |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/anjaneya |access-date=2022-11-13 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref> is a [[Hindu god]] and a divine ''[[vanara]]'' companion of the god [[Rama]]. Hanuman is one of the central characters of the [[Hindu epic]] ''[[Ramayana]]''. He is an ardent devotee of Rama and one of the [[chiranjivi|Chiranjivis]]. Hanuman is regarded to be the son of the wind-god [[Vayu]], who in several stories played a direct role in Hanuman's birth,<ref name="debroy184">{{cite book|author=Bibek Debroy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=af1qFbouaVMC&pg=PA184|title=The Mahabharata: Volume 3|publisher=Penguin Books|year=2012|isbn=978-0-14-310015-7|pages=184 with footnote 686}}</ref><ref name="Melton2010p1310">{{cite book|author1=J. Gordon Melton|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v2yiyLLOj88C|title=Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices, 2nd Edition|author2=Martin Baumann|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2010|isbn=978-1-59884-204-3|pages=1310–1311}}</ref> and considered to be an incarnation or son of [[Shiva]] in [[Shaivism]]. Hanuman is mentioned in several other texts, such as the epic ''[[Mahabharata]]'' and the various [[Purana]]s.

Evidence of devotional worship to Hanuman is largely absent in these texts, as well as in most archeological sites. According to [[Philip Lutgendorf]], an American [[Indologist]], the theological significance of Hanuman and devotional dedication to him emerged about 1,000 years after the composition of the ''[[Ramayana]]'', in the 2nd millennium [[Common Era|CE]], after the arrival of Islamic rule in the [[Indian subcontinent]].<ref name="Paula Richman 2010">Paula Richman (2010), ''Review: Lutgendorf, Philip's Hanuman's Tale: The Messages of a Divine Monkey'', The Journal of Asian Studies; Vol 69, Issue 4 (Nov 2010), pages 1287–1288</ref> Lutgendorf also writes that the skills in Hanuman's resume also seem to derive in part from his windy patrimony, reflecting [[Vayu]]'s role in both body and cosmos.{{Sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|p=44}} [[Bhakti movement]] saints such as [[Samarth Ramdas]] have positioned Hanuman as a symbol of nationalism and resistance to persecution.<ref name=lele114/> The [[Vaishnava]] saint [[Madhva|Madhava]] said that whenever Vishnu incarnates on earth, Vayu accompanies him and aids his work of preserving dharma.{{Sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|p=67}} In the modern era, Hanuman's iconography and temples have been increasingly common.<ref name="JonesRyan2006p177">{{cite book|author1=Constance Jones|author2=James D. Ryan|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC |year=2006|publisher=Infobase|isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5|pages=177–178}}</ref> He is viewed as the ideal combination of "strength, heroic initiative and assertive excellence" and "loving, emotional devotion to his personal god Rama", as [[Shakti]] and [[Bhakti]].{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pages=26–32, 116, 257–259, 388–391}} In later literature, he is sometimes portrayed as the patron god of martial arts such as wrestling and acrobatics, as well as activities such as meditation and diligent scholarship.<ref name="Williams2008p146">{{cite book|author=George M. Williams|title=Handbook of Hindu Mythology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N7LOZfwCDpEC&pg=PA146 |year=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-533261-2|pages=146–148}}</ref> He symbolises the human excellences of inner [[Temperance (virtue)|self-control]], faith, and service to a cause, hidden behind the first impressions of a being who looks like a [[Vanara]].<ref name="JonesRyan2006p177"/><ref name="Lutgendorf 1997 311–332">{{cite journal | last=Lutgendorf | first=Philip | title=Monkey in the Middle: The Status of Hanuman in Popular Hinduism | journal=Religion | volume=27 | issue=4 | year=1997| doi=10.1006/reli.1997.0095 | pages=311–332}}</ref><ref name=ludvik2>{{cite book|author=Catherine Ludvik|title=Hanumān in the Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki and the Rāmacaritamānasa of Tulasī Dāsa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KCXQN0qoAe0C |year=1994|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1122-5|pages=2–9}}</ref> Hanuman is considered to be a bachelor and an exemplary [[Brahmacarya|celibate]].{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pages=223, 309, 320}}

Some scholars have identified Hanuman as one potential inspiration for [[Sun WuKong|Sun Wukong]], the Monkey King character in the Chinese epic adventure ''[[Journey to the West]]''.<ref name=hanuman>Wendy Doniger, [https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hanuman Hanuman: Hindu mythology], Encyclopaedia Britannica; For a summary of the Chinese text, see [https://www.britannica.com/topic/Xiyouji Xiyouji: NOVEL BY WU CHENG’EN]</ref><ref>H. S. Walker (1998), [https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e76/16987a9845d9aefc84e0aaf88f4ffd6a3a4b.pdf Indigenous or Foreign? A Look at the Origins of the Monkey Hero Sun Wukong]{{Dead link|date=January 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, Sino-Platonic Papers, No. 81. September 1998, Editor: [[Victor H. Mair]], University of Pennsylvania</ref>

==Names and etymology==
[[File:A Hanuman sculpture in Singapore.jpg|left|upright=0.8|thumb|Hanuman with a [[Namaste]] (Anjali Mudra) posture]]
The meaning or origin of the word "Hanuman" is unclear. In the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] [[pantheon (religion)|pantheon]], deities typically have many synonymous names, each based on some noble characteristic, attribute, or reminder of a mythical deed achieved by that deity.{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=31–32}} One interpretation of "Hanuman" is "one having a disfigured jaw". This version is supported by a Puranic legend wherein infant Hanuman mistakes the [[Sun]] for a fruit, heroically attempts to reach it, and is wounded in the jaw for his attempt by [[Indra]] the King of Gods.{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=31–32}}

Hanuman combines two of the most cherished traits in the Hindu [[bhakti]]-[[shakti]] worship traditions: "heroic, strong, assertive excellence" and "loving, emotional devotion to personal God".{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=31–32}}

Linguistic variations of "Hanuman" include ''Hanumat'', ''Anuman'' ([[Tamil language|Tamil]]), ''Hanumantha'' ([[Kannada]]), ''Hanumanthudu'' ([[Telugu language|Telugu]]). Other names include:

* ''Anjaneya'',<ref>{{cite book|title=India through the ages|url=https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada|last=Gopal|first=Madan|year= 1990| page= [https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada/page/68 68]|editor=K.S. Gautam|publisher=Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India}}</ref> ''Anjaniputra'' (Kannada), ''Anjaneyar'' (Tamil), ''Anjaneyudu'' (Telugu), ''Anjanisuta'' all meaning "the son of [[Añjanā|Anjana]]"
* ''Kesari Nandana or Kesarisuta'', based on his father, which means "son of [[Kesari (Ramayana)|Kesari]]"
* ''Vayuputra/ Pavanputra'' : the son of the [[Vayu]] deva- Wind god<ref name="Claus2003p280"/>
* ''Vajrang Bali/Bajrang Bali'', "the strong one (''bali''), who had limbs (''anga'') as hard or as tough as [[vajra]] (''diamond'')"; this name is widely used in rural North India{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=31–32}}
* ''Sankata Mochana'', "the remover of dangers, hardships, or hurdles" (''sankata''){{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=31–32}}
* ''Māruti'', "son of Maruta" (another name of [[Vayu]] deva)
* ''Kapeeshwara'', "lord of monkeys."
* ''Rama Doota'', "the messenger (''doota'') of Lord [[Rama]]"
* ''Mahakaya'', "gigantic"
* ''Vira'', ''Mahavira'', "most valiant"
* ''Mahabala/Mahabali'', "the strongest one"
* ''Vanarkulathin Thondaiman'', "descendant of the [[Vanara|Vanar]] clan" (Tamil)
* ''Panchavaktra'', "five-faced"
* ''Mukhya Prana Devaru'', "Primordial Life Giver" (more prominent amongst followers of Dvaita, such as Madhwas)

== Historical development ==
[[File:StandingHanumanCholaDynasty11thCentury.jpg|thumbnail|right|upright=0.8|Standing Hanuman, [[Chola]] Dynasty, 11th century, [[Tamil Nadu]], India]]

===Vedic roots===
The earliest mention of a divine monkey, interpreted by some scholars as the proto-Hanuman, is in hymn 10.86 of the ''[[Rigveda]]'', dated to between 1500 and 1200 BCE. The twenty-three verses of the hymn are a metaphorical and riddle-filled legend. It is presented as a dialogue between multiple characters: the god [[Indra]], his wife Indrani and an energetic monkey it refers to as ''Vrisakapi'' and his wife ''Kapi''.<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/s/9c ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१०.८६], Rigveda, Wikisource</ref><ref name=lutgendorf23>Philip Lutgendorf (1999), [http://www.manushi.in/docs/106.%20Like%20Mother,%20Like%20Son.pdf Like Mother, Like Son, Sita and Hanuman] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170929092531/http://www.manushi.in/docs/106.%20Like%20Mother,%20Like%20Son.pdf |date=29 September 2017 }}, Manushi, No. 114, pages 23–25</ref>{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=39–40}} The hymn opens with Indrani complaining to Indra that some of the soma offerings for Indra have been allocated to the energetic and strong monkey, and the people are forgetting Indra. The king of the gods, Indra, responds by telling his wife that the living being (monkey) that bothers her is to be seen as a friend, and that they should make an effort to coexist peacefully. The hymn closes with all agreeing that they should come together in Indra's house and share the wealth of the offerings.

=== Proto Dravidian roots ===
The orientalist [[F. E. Pargiter]] (1852–1927) theorized that Hanuman was a [[Dravidian folk religion|proto-Dravidian]] deity.{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|p=40}} According to this theory, the name "Hanuman" derives from Tamil word for male monkey (''ana-mandi''), first transformed to "Anumant" – a name which remains in use. "Anumant", according to this hypothesis, was later Sanskritized to "Hanuman" because the ancient Aryans confronted with a popular monkey deity of ancient Dravidians coopted the concept and then Sanskritized it.{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=39–40}}<ref>{{cite book |title=Legend of Ram–Retold |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KIALB4WXHOMC&pg=PT56 |publisher=PublishAmerica |isbn=978-1-4512-2350-7 |pages=56–|date=2012-12-28 }}</ref> According to [[Murray Emeneau]], known for his Tamil linguistic studies, this theory does not make sense because the Old Tamil word ''mandi'' in [[Sangam literature]] can only mean "female monkey", and Hanuman is male. Further, adds Emeneau, the compound ''ana-mandi'' makes no semantic sense in Tamil, which has well developed and sophisticated grammar and semantic rules. The "prominent jaw" etymology, according to Emeneau, is therefore plausible.{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=39–40}}

===Epics and Puranas===

{{Quote box
|quote = '''Sita's scepticism'''
<poem>
''Vanaranam naranam ca''
''kathamasit samagamah''

Translation:
How can there be a
relationship between men and monkeys?
</poem>
|source = —''Valmiki's Ramayana''' Sita's first meeting with Hanuman (Translator: Philip Lutgendorf)<ref>Philip Lutgendorf (1999), [http://www.manushi.in/docs/106.%20Like%20Mother,%20Like%20Son.pdf Like Mother, Like Son, Sita and Hanuman], Manushi, No. 114, pages 22–23</ref>
|bgcolor=#FFE0BB
|align = right
}}
Hanuman is mentioned in both the [[Hindu epic]]s, ''[[Ramayana]]'' and ''[[Mahabharata]]''.<ref>{{cite book |author=Nanditha Krishna |title=Sacred Animals of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J3NU35nngxEC&pg=PA178 |date=1 January 2010 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-14-306619-4 |pages=178–}}</ref> A twentieth-century [[Jesuit]] missionary [[Camille Bulcke]], in his ''Ramkatha: Utpatti Aur Vikas'' ("The tale of Rama: its origin and development"), proposed that Hanuman's worship had its basis in the cults of [[adivasi|aboriginal tribes]] of Central India.<ref name="CamillePrasada2010">{{cite book | author1=Camille Bulcke | author2=Dineśvara Prasāda | title=Rāmakathā and Other Essays | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cvE4wF-cfX0C&pg=PA117 | access-date=14 July 2012 | year=2010 | publisher=Vani Prakashan | isbn=978-93-5000-107-3 | pages=117–126}}</ref>

Hanuman is mentioned in the [[Puranas]].<ref name="Parmeshwaranand">{{cite book | author=Swami Parmeshwaranand | title=Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Puranas, Volume 1 | year=2001 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nmmkM0fVS-cC&pg=PA411 | access-date=14 July 2012 | publisher=Sarup & Sons | isbn=978-81-7625-226-3 | pages=411–}}</ref><ref name="CamillePrasada2010"/> Hanuman is mentioned as an avatar of Rudra in few medieval-era Sanskrit texts. Only [[Shiva Purana]] mentions Hanuman as an avatar of [[Shiva]]; all other Puranas and scriptures clearly mention him as an avatar of [[Vayu]] or spiritual son of [[Vayu]] or sometimes avatar of [[Rudra]] (which is also another name of [[Vayu]]).<ref name="CamillePrasada2010"/><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W3PXAAAAMAAJ|title=The Rigveda, with Dayananda Saraswati's Commentary, Volume 1|publisher=Sarvadeshik Arya Pratinidhi Sabha|year=1974|page=717|quote=The third meaning of Rudra is Vayu or air that causes pain to the wicked on the account of their evil actions...... Vayu or air is called Rudra as it makes a person weep causing pain as a result of bad deeds .}}</ref> Author Devdutt Patnaik says, "In Vaishnava traditions, Hanuman is not related to Shiva. In Shaiva traditions, Hanuman is either Shiva's avatar or son".<ref>{{cite book|title=Gender Fluidity in Hindu Mythology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bk1tDwAAQBAJ|author=Devdutt Pattanaik|publisher=Penguin Random House|date=10 September 2018|page=11|isbn = 9789353052720|quote=In Vaishnava traditions, Hanuman is not related to Shiva. In Shaiva traditions, Hanuman is either Shiva's avatar or son.}}</ref> [[Indologist]] [[Philip Lutgendorf]] writes, "The later identification of Hanuman as one of the eleven rudras may reflect a [[Shaiva]] sectarian claim on an increasing popular god, it also suggests his kinship with, and hence potential control over, a class of awesome and ambivalent deities". Lutgendorf also writes, "Other skills in Hanuman's resume also seem to derive in part from his windy patrimony, reflecting [[Vayu]]'s role in both body and cosmos".{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|p=44}}

Other mythologies, such as those found in South India, present Hanuman as a being who is the union of Shiva and Vishnu, or associated with the origin of [[Ayyappa]].<ref name="Williams2008p146"/> The 17th century [[Odia language|Odia]] work ''Rasavinoda'' by [[Dinakrushna Das|Dinakrishnadasa]] goes on to mention that the [[trimurti|three gods]] – Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva – combined to take to the form of Hanuman.<ref name="Nagar1999">{{cite book | author=Shanti Lal Nagar | title=Genesis and evolution of the Rāma kathā in Indian art, thought, literature, and culture: from the earliest period to the modern times | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gPLqAAAAMAAJ | access-date=14 July 2012 | year=1999 | publisher=B.R. Pub. Co. | isbn=978-81-7646-082-8}}</ref>

===Late medieval and modern era===
[[File:Hampi ei1180.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.85|Numerous 14th-century and later Hanuman images are found in the ruins of the Hindu [[Vijayanagara Empire]].{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=64–71}}]]
In Valmiki's ''Ramayana'', estimated to have been composed before or in about the 3rd century BCE,{{citation needed|date=December 2018}} Hanuman is an important, creative character as a simian helper and messenger for Rama. The character evolved over time, reflecting regional cultural values. It is, however, in the late medieval era that his profile evolves into more central role and dominance as the exemplary spiritual devotee, particularly with the popular vernacular text ''[[Ramcharitmanas]]'' by [[Tulsidas]] (~ 1575 CE).<ref name="Claus2003p280"/><ref>{{cite book|author=Catherine Ludvik|editor=F.S. Growse|title=The Rāmāyaṇa of Tulasīdāsa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5WViTwAKqzoC&pg=PA723|year=1987|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0205-6|pages=723–725}}</ref> According to scholars such as Patrick Peebles and others, during a period of religious turmoil and Islamic rule of the Indian subcontinent, the [[Bhakti movement]] and devotionalism-oriented [[Bhakti yoga]] had emerged as a major trend in Hindu culture by the 16th-century, and the ''Ramcharitmanas'' presented [[Rama]] as a Vishnu avatar, supreme being and a personal god worthy of devotion, with Hanuman as the ideal loving devotee with legendary courage, strength and powers.<ref name=lele114/><ref name=peebles100>{{cite book|author=Patrick Peebles|title=Voices of South Asia: Essential Readings from Antiquity to the Present|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l2JsBgAAQBAJ |year=2015|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-45248-5|pages=99–100}}</ref>

During this era, Hanuman evolved and emerged as the ideal combination of [[shakti]] and [[bhakti]].{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pages=26–32, 116, 257–259, 388–391}} Stories and folk traditions in and after the 17th century, began to reformulate and present Hanuman as a divine being, as a descendant of deities, and as an avatar of [[Shiva]].<ref name=peebles100/> He emerged as a champion of those religiously persecuted, expressing resistance, a yogi,{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|p=85}} an inspiration for martial artists and warriors,{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=57–64}} a character with less fur and increasingly human, symbolizing cherished virtues and internal values, and worthy of devotion in his own right.<ref name=lele114/><ref>{{cite book|author=Thomas A. Green|title=Martial Arts of the World: En Encyclopedia|year=2001|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v32oHSE5t6cC |publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-150-2|pages=467–468}}</ref> As Hindu monks morphed into soldiers, they often named their organizations after Hanuman.<ref name="Pinch1996">{{cite book|author=William R. Pinch|title=Peasants and Monks in British India|url=https://archive.org/details/peasantsmonksinb0000pinc |url-access=registration|year=1996|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-91630-2|pages=[https://archive.org/details/peasantsmonksinb0000pinc/page/27 27]–28, 64, 158–159}}</ref><ref name="Sarvepalli Gopal 1993 41–46, 135–137">{{cite book|author=Sarvepalli Gopal|title=Anatomy of a Confrontation: Ayodhya and the Rise of Communal Politics in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=47AARF595dUC |year=1993|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-1-85649-050-4|pages=41–46, 135–137}}</ref> This evolution of Hanuman's character, his religious status, and his cultural role as well as his iconography, continued through the colonial era and into post-colonial times.<ref>Philip Lutgendorf (2002), Evolving a monkey: Hanuman, poster art and postcolonial anxiety, Contributions to Indian Sociology, Vol 36, Issue 1–2, pages 71–112</ref>

==Legends==
===Birth===

According to Hindu legends, Hanuman was born to mother [[Añjanā|Anjana]] and father [[Kesari (Ramayana)|Kesari]].<ref name="Williams2008p146"/><ref name=Puranas>[https://books.google.com/books?id=nmmkM0fVS-cC Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Puranas Vol 2.(D-H)] pp=628–631, Swami Parmeshwaranand, Sarup & Sons, 2001, {{ISBN|978-81-7625-226-3}}</ref> Hanuman is also called the son of the deity [[Vayu]] (Wind god) because of legends associated with Vayu's role in Hanuman's birth and is said to be the incarnation of lord [[Shiva]] (Destroyer god). One story mentioned in [[Eknath]]'s ''Bhavartha Ramayana'' (16th century CE) states that when Anjana was worshiping Vayu, the King [[Dasharatha]] of [[Ayodhya]] was also performing the ritual of [[Putrakameshti]] [[yagna]] in order to have children. As a result, he received some sacred pudding ([[payasam]]) to be shared by his three wives, leading to the births of [[Rama]], [[Lakshmana]], [[Bharata (Ramayana)|Bharata]] and [[Shatrughna]]. By divine ordinance, a [[Kite (bird)|kite]] snatched a fragment of that pudding and dropped it while flying over the forest where Anjana was engaged in worship. [[Vayu]], the [[Hindu]] deity of the wind, delivered the falling pudding to the outstretched hands of Anjana, who consumed it, leading to the birth of Hanuman.<ref name=Puranas/>{{vn|date=May 2017}}

Maharshi Veda Vyasa proposed Anjanadri Hill at Tirumala is the birthplace of Hanuman. [[Anjaneri]] in [[Nashik district|Nasik]], [[Maharashtra]]{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|p=249}}<ref>{{Cite web|last=Deshpande|first=Chaitanya|date=2016-04-22|title=Hanuman devotees to visit Anjaneri today - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/nashik/hanuman-devotees-to-visit-anjaneri-today/articleshow/51935825.cms|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160914042952/https://m.timesofindia.com/city/nashik/hanuman-devotees-to-visit-anjaneri-today/amp_articleshow/51935825.cms|archive-date=2016-09-14|access-date=2021-04-16|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Bose|first=Mrityunjay|date=2020-11-07|title=Maharashtra govt to develop Hanuman's birthplace Anjaneri|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/national/west/maharashtra-govt-to-develop-hanuman-s-birthplace-anjaneri-912617.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201107164524/https://www.deccanherald.com/national/west/maharashtra-govt-to-develop-hanuman-s-birthplace-anjaneri-912617.html|archive-date=2020-11-07|access-date=2021-04-16|website=Deccan Herald|language=en}}</ref> along with Anjeneri Anjanadri (Near Hampi) in Gangavathi Taluk Koppal District, [[Karnataka]] is one of a number of places that claim to be the location of Kishkinda.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Malagi|first=Shivakumar G.|date=2018-12-20|title=At Hampi, fervour peaks at Hanuman's birthplace|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/201218/at-hampi-fervour-peaks-at-hanumans-birthplace.html|access-date=2020-12-04|website=Deccan Chronicle|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Anjaneya Hill|url=http://hampi.in/anjaneya-hill|access-date=2020-12-04|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2014-10-22|title=Anjeyanadri Hill {{!}} Sightseeing Hampi {{!}} Hampi|url=https://www.karnataka.com/hampi/anjeyanadri-hill/|access-date=2020-12-04|website=Karnataka.com|language=en-US}}</ref>

===Childhood===
[[File:Hanuman Mistakes the Sun for a Fruit.jpg|thumb|upright=0.85|left|''Child Hanuman reaches for the Sun thinking it is a fruit'' by [[Bhawanrao Shriniwasrao Pant Pratinidhi|BSP Pratinidhi]]]]
According to Valmiki's Ramayana, one morning in his childhood, Hanuman was hungry and saw the rising red-colored [[sun]]. Mistaking it for a ripe fruit, he leapt up to eat it. In one version of the Hindu legend, the king of gods [[Indra]] intervened and struck Hanuman with his thunderbolt. It hit Hanuman on his jaw, and he fell to the earth dead with a broken jaw. Hanuman's father Vayu (air) became upset and withdrew all the air on Earth. The lack of air created immense suffering to all living beings. This led lord [[Shiva]] to intervene and resuscitate Hanuman, which in turn prompted Vayu to return to the living beings. As the mistake was done by the god [[Indra]], he grants Hanuman a wish that his body would be as strong as Indra's [[Vajra]], and that his Vajra can also not harm him. Along with Indra other gods have also granted him wishes: the God [[Agni]] granted Hanuman a wish that [[fire]] won't harm him; God [[Varuna]] granted a wish for Hanuman that [[water]] won't harm him; God [[Vayu]] granted a wish for Hanuman that he will be as fast as [[wind]] and the wind won't harm him. Lord [[Brahma]] also granted Hanuman a wish that he can move to any place where he cannot be stopped. Hence these wishes make Hanuman an [[Immortality|immortal]], who has unique powers and strength.<ref>{{cite book|author=Catherine Ludvik|title=Hanumān in the Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki and the Rāmacaritamānasa of Tulasī Dāsa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KCXQN0qoAe0C |year=1994|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1122-5|pages=61–62}}</ref>

In another Hindu version of his childhood legend, which Lutgendorf states is likely older and also found in [[Jainism|Jain]] texts such as the 8th-century ''Dhurtakhyana'', Hanuman's [[Icarus]]-like leap for the sun proves to be fatal and he is burnt to ashes from the sun's heat. His ashes fall onto the earth and oceans.{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=188–189}} Gods then gather the ashes and his bones from land and, with the help of fishes, re-assemble him. They find everything except one fragment of his jawbone. His great-grandfather on his mother's side then asks [[Surya]] to restore the child to life. Surya returns him to life, but Hanuman is left with a disfigured jaw.{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=188–189}} Hanuman is said to have spent his childhood in [[Kishkindha]].

Some time after this event, Hanuman begins using his supernatural powers on innocent bystanders as simple pranks, until one day he pranks a meditating sage. In fury, the sage curses Hanuman to forget the vast majority of his powers. The curse remains into effect, until he is reminded of his powers in his adulthood.

=== Adulthood ===
====Ramayana====
There is quite a lot of variation between what happens between his childhood and the events of the ''Ramayana'', but his story becomes much more solid in the events of the Ramayana. After [[Rama]] and his brother [[Lakshmana]], searching for Rama's kidnapped wife, [[Sita]], arrive in Kishkindha, the new king, and Rama's newfound ally the monkey king [[Sugriva]], agree to send scouts in all four directions to search for Rama's missing wife. To the south, Sugriva sends Hanuman and some others, including the great bear [[Jambavan]]. This group travels all the way to the southernmost tip of India, where they encounter the ocean with the island of [[Lanka]] (modern day [[Sri Lanka]]) visible in the horizon. The group wishes to investigate the island, but none can swim or jump so far (it was common for such supernatural powers to be common amongst characters in these epics). However, Jambavan knows from prior events that Hanuman used to be able to do such a feat with ease, and lifts his curse.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Valmiki's Ramayana|last=Pai|first=Anant|publisher=Amar Chitra Katha|year=1978|location=India|pages=1–96}}</ref>

[[File:Hanuman then allows himself to be captured by Ravana, who sets his tail on fire; bazaar art, c.1910's.jpg|thumb|left|Ravana burns Hanuman's tail.]]
The curse lifted, Hanuman now remembers all of his dynamic divine powers. He is said to have transformed into the size of mountain, and flew across the narrow channel to Lanka. Upon landing, he discovers a city populated by the Lanka king [[Ravana]] and his demon followers, so he shrinks down to the size of an ant and sneaks into the city. After searching the city, he discovers Sita in a grove, guarded by demon warriors. When they all fall asleep, he meets with Sita and discusses how he came to find her. She reveals that Ravana kidnapped her and is forcing her to marry him soon. He offers to rescue her but Sita refuses, stating that her husband must do it (a belief from the time of [[Ancient Indian philosophy|ancient India]]).<ref name=":0"/><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Hanuman|last=Pai|first=Anant|publisher=Amar Chitra Katha|year=1971|location=India|pages=1–32}}</ref>

What happens next differs by account, but a common tale is that after visiting Sita, he starts destroying the grove, prompting his capture. Regardless of the tale, he ends up captured in the court of Ravana himself, who laughs when Hanuman tells him that Rama is coming to take back Sita. Ravana orders his servants to light Hanuman's tail on fire as torture for threatening his safety. However, every time they put on an oil-soaked cloth to burn, he grows his tail longer so that more cloths need to be added. This continues until Ravana has had enough and orders the lighting to begin. However, when his tail is lit, he shrinks his tail back and breaks free of his bonds with his superhuman strength. He jumps out a window and jumps from rooftop to rooftop, burning down building after building, until much of the city is ablaze. Seeing this triumph, Hanuman leaves back for India.<ref name=":0"/><ref name=":1"/>

Upon returning, he tells his scouting party what had occurred, and they rush back to Kishkindha, where Rama had been waiting all along for news. Upon hearing that Sita was safe and was awaiting him, Rama gathered the support of Sugriva's army and marched for Lanka. Thus begins the legendary Battle of Lanka.<ref name=":0"/>

Throughout the long battle, Hanuman played a role as a general in the army. During one intense fight, Lakshmana, Rama's brother, was fatally wounded; it was thought that he would die without the aid of an [[Sanjeevani (plant)|herb]] from a Himalayan mountain. Hanuman was the only one who could make the journey so quickly, and was thus sent to the mountain.

Upon arriving, he discovered that there were many herbs along the mountainside, and did not want to take the wrong herb back. So instead, he grew to the size of a mountain, ripped the mountain from the Earth, and flew it back to the battle. This act is perhaps his most legendary among Hindus.<ref name=":1"/> A chunk of this mountain was said to be fallen down while carrying and the present day “Mount Roomassala” is believed to be the fallen piece.

In the end, Rama revealed his divine powers as the incarnation of the God Vishnu, and slew Ravana and the rest of the demon army. Finally finished, Rama returned to his home of Ayodhya to return to his place as king. After blessing all those who aided him in the battle with gifts, Rama gave Hanuman his gift, who threw it away. Many court officials, perplexed, were angered by this act. Hanuman replied that rather than needing a gift to remember Rama, he would always be in his heart. Some court officials, still upset, asked him for proof, and Hanuman tore open his chest, which had an image of Rama and Sita on his heart.
Now proven as a true devotee, Rama cured him and blessed him with immortality, but Hanuman refused this and asked only for a place at Rama's feet to worship him. Touched, Rama blessed him with immortality anyway. Like Shesha Nag, Hanuman would live on after the [[Kalpa (aeon)|Kalpa]] (destruction of the universe).<ref name=":0"/><ref name=":1"/>

====Mahabharata====
[[File:Bhimanjaneyula_kalayika.jpg|thumb|Bhima tries to lift Hanuman's tail.]]
Centuries after the events of the Ramayana, and during the events of the Mahabharata, Hanuman is now a nearly forgotten demigod living his life in a forest. After some time, his spiritual brother through the god [[Vayu]], [[Bhima]], passes through looking for flowers for his [[Draupadi|wife]]. Hanuman senses this and decides to teach him a lesson, as Bhima had been known to be boastful of his superhuman strength (at this point in time supernatural powers were much rarer than in the Ramayana but still seen in the Hindu epics). Bhima encountered Hanuman lying on the ground in the shape of a feeble old monkey. He asked Hanuman to move, but he would not. As stepping over an individual was considered extremely disrespectful in this time, Hanuman suggested lifting his tail up to create a passage. Bhima heartily accepted, but could not lift the tail to any avail.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=Bheema and Hanuman|last=Chandrakant|first=Kamala|publisher=Amar Chitra Katha|year=1980|location=India|pages=1–32}}</ref>

Bhima, humbled, realized that the frail monkey was some sort of deity, and asked him to reveal himself. Hanuman revealed himself, much to Bhima's surprise, and the brothers embraced. Hanuman prophesied that Bhima would soon be a part of [[Kurukshetra War|a terrible war]], and promised Bhima that he would sit on the flag of his brother Arjuna's chariot and shout a battle cry for Bhima that would weaken the hearts of his enemies. Content, Hanuman left his brother to his search, and after that prophesied war, would not be seen again until [[Tulsidas|early 1600s.]]
==Attributes==
[[File:Hanuman fetches the herb-bearing mountain, in a print from the Ravi Varma Press, 1910's.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.85|Hanuman fetches the [[Sanjeevani (plant)|herb-bearing]] mountain, in a print from the Ravi Varma Press, 1910s]]
Hanuman has many attributes, including:
* ''[[Chiranjivi]]'' (immortal): various versions of ''Ramayana'' and ''Rama Katha'' state towards their end, just before Rama and Lakshmana die, that Hanuman is blessed to be immortal. He will be a part of humanity forever, while the story of Rama lives on and the story will go on as the gods recite the story always. Thus, he will live forever.<ref>{{cite book|author=Joginder Narula|title=Hanuman, God and Epic Hero: The Origin and Growth of Hanuman in Indian Literary and Folk Tradition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k-5jAAAAMAAJ|year=1991|publisher=Manohar Publications|isbn=978-81-85054-84-1|pages=19–21}}</ref>
* ''[[Brahmacharya|Brahmachari]]'' (self-controlled): one who control their lust from all materialistic things of material world.
* ''Kurūp'' and ''Sundar'': he is described in Hindu texts as ''kurūp'' (ugly) on the outside, but divinely ''sundar'' (beautiful inside).{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=188–189}} The [[Hanuman Chalisa]] describes him as handsome with a complexion of molten gold (''kanchana barana birāja subesā'').<ref>{{cite book|title=Mahaviri: Hanuman Chalisa Demystified|author=Nityananda Misra|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing, 2018}}</ref>
* ''Kama-rupin'': He can shapeshift, become smaller than the smallest, larger than the largest adversary at will.{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=45–47, 287}} He uses this attribute to shrink and enter Lanka, as he searches for the kidnapped Sita imprisoned in Lanka. Later on, he takes on the size of a mountain, blazing with radiance, to show his true power to Sita.<ref>Goldman, Robert P. (Introduction, translation and annotation) (1996). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=sFmsrEszbxgC The Ramayana of Valmiki: An Epic of Ancient India, Volume V: Sundarakanda]''. Princeton University Press, New Jersey. 0691066620. pp. 45–47.</ref>
* ''Strength'': Hanuman is extraordinarily strong, one capable of lifting and carrying any burden for a cause. He is called ''Vira'', ''Mahavira'', ''Mahabala'' and other names signifying this attribute of his. During the epic war between Rama and Ravana, Rama's brother Lakshmana is wounded. He can only be healed and his death prevented by a herb found in a particular Himalayan mountain. Hanuman leaps and finds the mountain. There, states ''Ramayana'', Hanuman finds the mountain is full of many herbs. He doesn't know which one to take. So, he lifts the entire Himalayan mountain and carries it across India to Lanka for Lakshmana. His immense strength thus helps Lakshmana recover from his wound.{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=6, 44–45, 205–210}} This legend is the popular basis for the iconography where he is shown flying and carrying a mountain on his palm.{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|p=61}}
* ''Innovative'': Hanuman is described as someone who constantly faces very difficult odds, where the adversary or circumstances threaten his mission with certain defeat and his very existence. Yet he finds an innovative way to turn the odds. For example, after he finds Sita, delivers Rama's message, and persuades her that he is indeed Rama's true messenger, he is discovered by the prison guards. They arrest Hanuman, and under Ravana's orders take him to a public execution. There, the Ravana's guards begin his torture, tie his tail with oiled cloth and put it on fire. Hanuman then leaps, jumps from one palace rooftop to another, thus burning everything down.{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=140–141, 201}}
* ''Bhakti'': Hanuman is presented as the exemplary devotee (''bhakta'') of Rama and Sita. The Hindu texts such as the ''Bhagavata Purana'', the ''Bhakta Mala'', the ''Ananda Ramayana'' and the ''Ramacharitmanas'' present him as someone who is talented, strong, brave and spiritually devoted to [[Rama]].<ref name=ludvik12>{{cite book|author=Catherine Ludvik|title=Hanumān in the Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki and the Rāmacaritamānasa of Tulasī Dāsa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KCXQN0qoAe0C |year=1994|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1122-5|pages=12–14}}</ref> The Rama stories such as the ''Ramayana'' and the ''Ramacharitmanas'', in turn themselves, present the Hindu [[dharma|dharmic]] concept of the ideal, virtuous and compassionate man (Rama) and woman (Sita) thereby providing the context for attributes assigned therein for Hanuman.<ref>{{cite book|author=A Kapoor|editor=Gilbert Pollet|title=Indian Epic Values: Rāmāyaṇa and Its Impact|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EVnK3q48dL0C&pg=PA181 |year=1995|publisher=Peeters Publishers|isbn=978-90-6831-701-5|pages=181–186}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Roderick Hindery|title=Comparative Ethics in Hindu and Buddhist Traditions |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-FswBLvTkvQC&pg=PA100|year =1978|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn= 978-81-208-0866-9|pages=100–107}}</ref>
* ''Learned Yogi'': In the late medieval texts and thereafter, such as those by [[Tulasidas]], attributes of Hanuman include learned in [[Vedanta]] philosophy of Hinduism, the [[Vedas]], a poet, a polymath, a grammarian, a singer and musician par excellence.<ref name=ludvik12/><ref name="Williams2008p146"/>
* ''Remover of obstacles'': in devotional literature, Hanuman is the remover of difficulties.<ref name=ludvik12/>
* ''Bestower of [[Siddhi|eight Siddhis]] and [[Nidhi|nine Nidhis]]'' ''to his devotees'': Hanuman is described as the bestower of eight classical Siddhis and nine Nidhis, a boon granted to him by [[Sita]], and also famously described by [[Tulsidas|Goswami Tulsidas]] in his devotional hymn named [[Hanuman Chalisa]] - ''"अष्ट सिद्धि नौ निधि के दाता।'' ''अस बर दीन्ह जानकी माता॥ ३१ ॥"''.
* ''Healer of diseases, pains and sorrows:'' Heals all kinds of diseases, pains and sorrows of devotees.
* ''Slayer of demons, evil and negative energies:'' Keeps away ghosts, evil spirits, demons, [[Brahmarakshasa]], devils, Sakini, Dakini, and prevents effects of the planets in the sky, evil created by thalismans, thanthra done by others and evil chants. The following names of Hanuman describe some of these qualities, ''Rakshovidhwansakaraka, Akshahantre, Dashagreevakulantaka, Lankineebhanjana, Simhikaprana Bhanjana, Maharavanamardana, Kalanemi Pramathana.''
* ''Protector and saviour of devotees of Shri Ram and himself:'' The doorkeeper and protector of the door to Rama's court, and protector and saviour of devotees.
* ''[[Panchamukha|Five-faced or Panchmukha]] when he assumes his fierce form:'' East facing Hanuman face (Anjaneya) that grants purity of mind and success. South facing man-lion face (Karala Ugraveera [[Narasimha]]) that grants victory and fearlessness. West facing [[Garuda]] face (Mahaveera Garuda) that grants protection from black magic and poisons. North facing Boar face (Lakshmi [[Varaha]]) that grants prosperity and wealth. Horse face ([[Hayagriva]]) facing towards the sky (upwards) that grants knowledge and good children.

== Texts ==
===Hinduism===
'''Veda'''

Muktikā refers to the collection of 108 Upanishads available in printed form since 1883 CE. The canon is part of a dialogue between [[Rama]] and Hanuman dealing with the inquiry into mukti in the [[Muktikā|Muktikā Upanishad]] (108 in the list).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Deussen |first=Paul |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XYepeIGUY0gC&q=telugu&pg=PA725 |title=Sixty Upanishads of the Veda |date=September 1997 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=978-81-208-1467-7 |language=en}}</ref>

==== Ramayana ====
[[File:Hanuman finds Sita in the ashoka grove, and shows her Rama's ring.jpg|upright=0.85|thumb|Hanuman finds Sita in the Ashoka grove, and delivers her Rama's ring.]]

The [[Sundara Kanda]], the fifth book in the Ramayana, focuses on Hanuman. Hanuman meets [[Rama]] in the last year of the latter's 14-year exile, after the demon king Ravana had kidnapped Sita. With his brother [[Lakshmana]], Rama is searching for his wife [[Sita]]. This, and related Rama legends are the most extensive stories about Hanuman.<ref>{{cite book|author=Catherine Ludvik|editor=F.S. Growse|title=The Rāmāyaṇa of Tulasīdāsa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5WViTwAKqzoC&pg=PA723|year=1987|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0205-6|pages=723–728}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Catherine Ludvik|title=Hanumān in the Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki and the Rāmacaritamānasa of Tulasī Dāsa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KCXQN0qoAe0C |year=1994|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1122-5|pages=1–16}}</ref>

Numerous versions of the ''Ramayana'' exist within India. These present variant legends of Hanuman, Rama, Sita, Lakshamana and Ravana. The characters and their descriptions vary, in some cases quite significantly.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Peter J. Claus|author2=Sarah Diamond|author3=Margaret Ann Mills|title=South Asian Folklore: An Encyclopedia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=au_Vk2VYyrkC |year=2003|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-415-93919-5|pages=509–511}}</ref>

====Mahabharata====
[[File:Hanuman statue and shrine. South of Chennai.jpg|upright=0.85|thumb|Roadside Hanuman shrine south of [[Chennai]], [[Tamil Nadu]].]]
The ''Mahabharata'' is another major epic which has a short mention of Hanuman. In Book 3, the Vana Parva of the ''Mahabharata'', he is presented as a half brother of [[Bhima]], who meets him accidentally on his way to Mount Kailasha. A man of extraordinary strength, Bhima is unable to move Hanuman's tail, making him realize and acknowledge the strength of Hanuman. This story attests to the ancient chronology of the Hanuman character. It is also a part of artwork and reliefs such as those at the Vijayanagara ruins.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Dallapiccola | first1=A.L. | last2=Verghese | first2=Anila | title=Narrative Reliefs of Bhima and Purushamriga at Vijayanagara | journal=South Asian Studies | volume=18 | issue=1 | year=2002 | doi=10.1080/02666030.2002.9628609 | pages=73–76| s2cid=191646631 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=J. A. B. van Buitenen|title=The Mahabharata, Volume 2: Book 2: The Book of Assembly; Book 3: The Book of the Forest|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2QG_ZgsM13IC&pg=PA371|year=1973|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-84664-4|pages=180, 371, 501–505}}</ref>

==== Other literature ====
Apart from Ramayana and Mahabharata, Hanuman is mentioned in several other texts. Some of these stories add to his adventures mentioned in the earlier epics, while others tell alternative stories of his life. The ''[[Skanda Purana]]'' mentions Hanuman in [[Rameswaram]].<ref name="Eck1991">{{cite book | author=Diana L. Eck | title=Devotion divine: Bhakti traditions from the regions of India : studies in honour of Charlotte Vaudeville | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Uz0qAAAAYAAJ | access-date=14 July 2012 | year=1991 | publisher=Egbert Forsten | isbn=978-90-6980-045-5 | page = 63}}</ref>

In a South Indian version of ''[[Shiva Purana]]'', Hanuman is described as the son of Shiva and [[Mohini]] (the female avatar of Vishnu), or alternatively his mythology has been linked to or merged with the origin of Swami [[Ayyappa]] who is popular in parts of South India.<ref name="Williams2008p146"/>

==== Hanuman Chalisa ====
The 16th-century Indian poet [[Tulsidas]] wrote ''[[Hanuman Chalisa]]'', a devotional song dedicated to Hanuman. He claimed to have visions where he met face to face with Hanuman. Based on these meetings, he wrote ''[[Ramcharitmanas]]'', an [[Awadhi language]] version of Ramayana.<ref name="Ludvík1994">{{cite book | author=Catherine Ludvík | title=Hanumān in the Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki and the Rāmacaritamānasa of Tulasī Dāsa | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KCXQN0qoAe0C&pg=PA164 | access-date=14 July 2012 | year=1994 | publisher=Motilal Banarasidas publ. | isbn=978-81-208-1122-5 | pages=164–}}</ref>

====Relation with [[Devi]] or [[Shakti]]====
The relation between Hanuman and [[Goddess Kali]] finds mention in the Krittivasi Ramayana. Their meeting takes place in the [[Yuddha Kanda]] of Ramayana in the legend of [[Mahiravana]]. Mahiravana was a trusted friend/brother of Ravana. After his son, Meghanatha was killed, Ravana sought Mahiravana, the King of Patalaloka's help to kill [[Rama]] and [[Lakshmana]]. One night, Mahiravana, using his maya, took Vibhishana's form and entered Rama's camp. There he cast the nidra mantra on the Vanar Sena, kidnapped Rama and Lakshmana and took them to Patala Loka. He was an adherent devotee of [[Devi]] and Ravana convinced him to sacrifice the valiant fighters of [[Ayodhya]] to the goddess, to which Mahiravana agreed.
Hanuman, upon understanding the way to Patala from [[Vibhishana]] made haste to rescue his lords. On his journey, he met Makardhwaja who claimed of being Hanuman's son, being born from his sweat which was consumed by a Makara (crocodile). Hanuman defeated and tied him and went inside the palace. There he met Chandrasena who told about the sacrifice and the way to kill Ahiravana.
Hanuman then shrunk his size to that of a bee and went towards the huge idol of Maha-Kali. He asked her to let him save Rama, and the fierce mother goddess agreed as Hanuman took her place while she slipped below. When Mahiravana asked the prince-sages to bow, they refused as they were of royal lineage and didn't know how to bow.
So as Mahiravana was about to show them how to bow, Hanuman took his Pancha-mukha form (with the head of Garuda, Narasimha, Varaha, Hayagreeva and himself: each head signifying a particular trait. Hanuman courage and strength, Narasimha fearlessness, Garuda magical skills and the power to cure snake bites, Varaha health and exorcism and Hayagriva victory over enemies), blew the 5 oil lamps in 5 directions and severed the head of Mahiravana, thus killing him.
He later took Shri Rama and Lakshmana on his shoulders and as he flew outside Shri Rama saw Makardhwaja tied with his tail. He immediately ordered Hanuman to crown him the King of Patala.
The story of Ahiravan finds its place in the Ramayanas of the East. It can be found in the Bengali version of the Ramayana, written by Krittibash. The passage which talks about this incident is known as ‘Mahirabonerpala’.
It is also believed that after being pleased with Hanuman, [[Goddess Kali]] blessed him to be her dwara-paal or gate-keeper and hence one finds Bhairava and Hanuman on either sides of the temple entrance of the Goddess' shrine.
<ref>Mystery of Hanuman - Inspiring Tales from Art and Mythology
The Story of Ahiravan Vadh - Hanuman Saves Lord</ref>

=== Buddhism ===
Hanuman appears with a Buddhist gloss in Tibetan (southwest China) and [[Kingdom of Khotan|Khotanese]] (west China, central Asia and northern Iran) versions of Ramayana. The Khotanese versions have a [[Jātaka]] tales-like theme, but are generally similar to the Hindu texts in the storyline and character of Hanuman. The Tibetan version is more embellished, and without attempts to include a Jātaka gloss. Also, in the Tibetan version, novel elements appear such as Hanuman carrying love letters between Rama and Sita, in addition to the Hindu version wherein Rama sends the wedding ring with him as a message to Sita. Further, in the Tibetan version, Rama chides Hanuman for not corresponding with him through letters more often, implying that the monkey-messenger and warrior is a learned being who can read and write.<ref name=whitfield212>{{cite book|author1=Susan Whitfield|author-link=Susan Whitfield|author2=Ursula Sims-Williams|title=The Silk Road: Trade, Travel, War and Faith|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ArWLD4Qop38C&pg=PA212 |year=2004|publisher=Serindia Publications |isbn=978-1-932476-13-2|page=212}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=J. L. Brockington|title=Righteous Rāma: The Evolution of an Epic|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-QFkAAAAMAAJ|year=1985|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-815463-1|pages=264–267, 283–284, 300–303, 312 with footnotes}}</ref>

[[File:Hie Shrine Saru-gami.jpg|thumb|upright=0.85|In Japan, icons of the divine monkey (Saruta Biko), guards temples such as Saru-gami at [[Hie Shrine]].{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=353–354}}<ref name=ohnuki42>{{cite book|author=Emiko Ohnuki-Tierney|title=The Monkey as Mirror: Symbolic Transformations in Japanese History and Ritual|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gBKI6BKx0sYC&pg=PA42 |year=1989|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-02846-0|pages=42–54}}</ref>]]
In the Sri Lankan versions of Ramayana, which are titled after Ravana, the story is less melodramatic than the Indian stories. Many of the legends recounting Hanuman's bravery and innovative ability are found in the Sinhala versions. The stories in which the characters are involved have Buddhist themes, and lack the embedded ethics and values structure according to Hindu dharma.<ref name="Holt2005">{{cite book|author=John C. Holt|title=The Buddhist Visnu: Religious Transformation, Politics, and Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HYUqsYbLP6QC |year=2005|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-50814-8|pages=138–140}}</ref> According to Hera Walker, some Sinhalese communities seek the aid of Hanuman through prayers to his mother.<ref>{{cite book|author=Hera S. Walker|title=Indigenous Or Foreign?: A Look at the Origins of the Monkey Hero Sun Wukong, Sino-Platonic Papers, Issues 81–87|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ulxkAAAAMAAJ|year= 1998|publisher= University of Pennsylvania|page= 45}}</ref> In Chinese Buddhist texts, states Arthur Cotterall, myths mention the meeting of the Buddha with Hanuman, as well as Hanuman's great triumphs.<ref>{{cite book|author=Arthur Cotterall|title=The Pimlico Dictionary of Classical Mythologies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0TvCkXvnV6EC&pg=PT45|year=2012|publisher=Random House|isbn=978-1-4481-2996-6|page=45}}</ref> According to Rosalind Lefeber, the arrival of Hanuman in East Asian Buddhist texts may trace its roots to the translation of the Ramayana into Chinese and Tibetan in the 6th-century CE.<ref>{{cite book|author=Rosalind Lefeber|title=The Ramayana of Valmiki: An Epic of Ancient India-Kiskindhakanda|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BJMWT0ZJYHAC&pg=PA30 |year=1994|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-06661-5|pages=29–31}}</ref>

In both China and Japan, according to Lutgendorf, much like in India, there is a lack of a radical divide between humans and animals, with all living beings and nature assumed to be related to humans. There is no exaltation of humans over animals or nature, unlike the Western traditions. A divine monkey has been a part of the historic literature and culture of China and Japan, possibly influenced by the close cultural contact through Buddhist monks and pilgrimage to India over two millennia.{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=353–354}} For example, the Japanese text ''Keiranshuyoshu'', while presenting its mythology about a divine monkey, that is the theriomorphic [[Shinto]] emblem of [[Hie Shrine|Hie]] shrines, describes a flying white monkey that carries a mountain from India to China, then from China to Japan.<ref>{{cite book|author=Richard Karl Payne|title=Re-Visioning "Kamakura" Buddhism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w5nJT5NYvn4C&pg=PA65| year= 1998|publisher= University of Hawaii Press|isbn= 978-0-8248-2078-7|pages=65–66}}</ref> This story is based on a passage in the Ramayana where the wounded hero asks Hanuman to bring a certain herbal medicine from the Himalayas. As Hanuman does not know the herb he brings the entire mountain for the hero to choose from. By that time a learned medicine man from Lanka discovered the cure and Hanuman brings the mountain back to where it came from.
Many Japanese shinto shrines and village boundaries, dated from the 8th to the 14th centuries, feature a monkey deity as guardian or intermediary between humans and gods (kami).{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=353–354}}<ref name=ohnuki42/>

The Jātaka tales contain Hanuman-like stories.{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=38–41}} For example, the Buddha is described as a monkey-king in one of his earlier births in the ''Mahakapi Jātaka'', wherein he as a compassionate monkey suffers and is abused, but who nevertheless continues to follow [[dharma]] in helping a human being who is lost and in danger.<ref>{{cite book|author=Peter D. Hershock|title=Buddhism in the Public Sphere: Reorienting Global Interdependence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N_2SAgAAQBAJ |year=2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-98674-2|page=18}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Reiko Ohnuma|title=Unfortunate Destiny: Animals in the Indian Buddhist Imagination|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ci7ADgAAQBAJ |year=2017|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-063755-2|pages=80–81}}</ref>

=== Jainism ===
{{main|Rama in Jainism|Salakapurusa}}

''Paumacariya'' (also known as ''Pauma Chariu'' or ''Padmacharit''), the [[Jainism|Jain]] version of Ramayana written by Vimalasuri, mentions Hanuman not as a divine monkey, but as a [[Vidyadhara]] (a supernatural being, demigod in Jain cosmology). He is the son of Pavangati (wind deity) and [[Añjanā|Anjana]] Sundari. Anjana gives birth to Hanuman in a forest cave, after being banished by her in-laws. Her maternal uncle rescues her from the forest; while boarding his [[vimana]], Anjana accidentally drops her baby on a rock. However, the baby remains uninjured while the rock is shattered. The baby is raised in Hanuruha.

There are major differences from the Hindu text: Hanuman is a supernatural being in Jain texts, (Rama is a pious Jaina who never kills anyone, and it is Lakshamana who kills Ravana.) Hanuman becomes a supporter of Rama after meeting him and learning about [[Sita]]'s kidnapping by Ravana. He goes to [[Lanka]] on Rama's behalf, but is unable to convince Ravana to give up Sita. Ultimately, he joins Rama in the war against Ravana and performs several heroic deeds.

Later Jain texts, such as ''[[Uttarapurana]]'' (9th century CE) by [[Gunabhadra (Jain monk)|Gunabhadra]] and ''Anjana-Pavananjaya'' (12th century CE), tell the same story.

In several versions of the Jain ''Ramayana'' story, there are passages that explain the connection of Hanuman and Rama (called Pauma in Jainism). Hanuman, in these versions, ultimately renounces all social life to become a Jain ascetic.

=== Sikhism ===
In [[Sikhism]], the Hindu god Rama has been referred to as Sri Ram Chandar, and the story of Hanuman as a ''[[siddha]]'' has been influential. After the birth of the martial Sikh [[Khalsa]] movement in 1699, during the 18th and 19th centuries, Hanuman was an inspiration and object of reverence by the Khalsa.{{citation needed|date=March 2019}} Some Khalsa regiments brought along the Hanuman image to the battleground. The Sikh texts such as ''Hanuman Natak'' composed by Hirda Ram Bhalla, and ''Das Gur Katha'' by Kavi Kankan describe the heroic deeds of Hanuman.<ref>{{cite book|author=Louis E. Fenech|title=The Sikh Zafar-namah of Guru Gobind Singh: A Discursive Blade in the Heart of the Mughal Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aUUfAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA149| year=2013|publisher= Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-993145-3|pages=149–150 with note 28}}</ref> According to Louis Fenech, the Sikh tradition states that [[Guru Gobind Singh]] was a fond reader of the ''Hanuman Natak'' text.{{citation needed|date=March 2019}}

During the colonial era, in Sikh [[Seminary|seminaries]] in what is now [[Pakistan]], Sikh teachers were called ''bhai'', and they were required to study the ''Hanuman Natak'', the Hanuman story containing ''Ramcharitmanas'' and other texts, all of which were available in Gurmukhi script.<ref>{{cite book|author1=John Stratton Hawley|author2=Gurinder Singh Mann|title=Studying the Sikhs: Issues for North America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fWJGAECpClsC&pg=PA98 |year=1993|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-1426-2|pages=98–99}}</ref>

[[Bhagat Kabir]], a prominent writer of the scripture explicitly states that the being like Hanuman does not know the full glory of the divine. This statement is in the context of the Divine as being unlimited and ever expanding. Ananta is therefore a name of the divine. In [[Sanskrit]], ''anta'' means "end". The prefix ''-an'' is added to create the word ''Ananta'' (meaning "without end" or "unlimited").

{{quote
|1=
ਹਨੂਮਾਨ ਸਰਿ ਗਰੁੜ ਸਮਾਨਾਂ
Hanūmān sar garuṛ samānāŉ.

Beings like Hanumaan, Garura,

ਸੁਰਪਤਿ ਨਰਪਤਿ ਨਹੀ ਗੁਨ ਜਾਨਾਂ
Surpaṯ narpaṯ nahī gun jānāŉ.

Indra the King of the gods and the rulers of humans – none of them know Your Glories, Lord.
|2={{SGGS page|1=691|2=12096}}}}

=== Southeast Asian texts ===
[[File:Statue of Hanuman with a yoni (14th century), Singapore Pinacothèque De Paris - 20160410.jpg|upright=0.85|thumb|A [[Majapahit]] statue of Hanuman with a yoni (andesite; 14th century) from [[East Java]], [[Indonesia]]]]
There exist non-Indian versions of the ''Ramayana'', such as the Thai ''[[Ramakien]].'' According to these [[Versions of Ramayana|versions of the ''Ramayana'']], [[Macchanu]] is the son of Hanuman borne by Suvannamaccha, daughter of [[Ravana]].

Another legend says that a demigod named Matsyaraja (also known as [[Makardhwaja]] or Matsyagarbha) claimed to be his son. Matsyaraja's birth is explained as follows: a fish (''matsya'') was impregnated by the drops of Hanuman's sweat, while he was bathing in the ocean.<ref name="CamillePrasada2010"/>

Hanuman in southeast Asian texts differs from the north Indian Hindu version in various ways in the Burmese Ramayana, such as ''Rama Yagan'', ''Alaung Rama Thagyin'' (in the Arakanese dialect), ''Rama Vatthu'' and ''Rama Thagyin'', the Malay Ramayana, such as ''Hikayat Sri Rama'' and ''Hikayat Maharaja Ravana'', and the Thai Ramayana, such as ''Ramakien''. However, in some cases, the aspects of the story are similar to Hindu versions and Buddhist versions of Ramayana found elsewhere on the Indian subcontinent. Valmiki Ramayana is the original holy text; others are edited versions by the poets for performing Arts like folk dances, the true story of Ramayana is Valmikis,
Sage Valmiki known as the Adikavi "the first poet".

==Significance and influence==
[[Image:Hanuman HYC 20181014.jpg|upright=0.85|thumb|Hanuman [[murti]] seated in meditation in [[Lotus position|lotus asana]]]]
Hanuman became more important in the medieval period and came to be portrayed as the ideal devotee ([[bhakti|bhakta]]) of Rama.<ref name="CamillePrasada2010"/> Hanuman's life, devotion, and strength inspired wrestlers in India.<ref name="Pattanaik2000">{{cite book | author=Devdutt Pattanaik | title=The Goddess in India: The Five Faces of the Eternal Feminine | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rjL3ogbdJNkC&pg=PA71 | access-date=18 July 2012 | date=1 September 2000 | publisher=Inner Traditions * Bear & Company | isbn=978-0-89281-807-5 | page=71}}</ref>

According to Philip Lutgendorf, devotionalism to Hanuman and his theological significance emerged long after the composition of the ''Ramayana'', in the 2nd millennium CE. His prominence grew after the arrival of Islamic rule in the [[Indian subcontinent]].<ref name="Paula Richman 2010"/> He is viewed as the ideal combination of shakti ("strength, heroic initiative and assertive excellence") and bhakti ("loving, emotional devotion to his personal god Rama").{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pages=26–32, 116, 257–259, 388–391}} Beyond wrestlers, he has been the patron god of other martial arts. He is stated to be a gifted grammarian, meditating yogi and diligent scholar. He exemplifies the human excellences of temperance, faith and service to a cause.<ref name="JonesRyan2006p177"/><ref name="Lutgendorf 1997 311–332"/><ref name=ludvik2/>

{{Quote box
|quote = '''"Greater than Ram is Ram's servant."'''
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</poem>
|source = – [[Tulsidas]], ''Ramcharitmanas 7.120.14''<ref>{{cite journal | last=Lutgendorf | first=Philip | title=Monkey in the Middle: The Status of Hanuman in Popular Hinduism | journal=Religion | volume=27 | issue=4 | year=1997 | doi=10.1006/reli.1997.0095 | page=311}}</ref>
|bgcolor=#FFE0BB
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In 17th-century north and western regions of India, Hanuman emerged as an expression of resistance and dedication against Islamic persecution. For example, the bhakti poet-saint [[Samarth Ramdas|Ramdas]] presented Hanuman as a symbol of Marathi nationalism and resistance to Mughal Empire.<ref name=lele114>{{cite book|author=Jayant Lele|title=Tradition and Modernity in Bhakti Movements|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kLs3AAAAIAAJ |year=1981|publisher=Brill Academic|isbn=978-90-04-06370-9|pages=114–116}}</ref>

Hanuman in the colonial and post-colonial era has been a cultural icon, as a symbolic ideal combination of [[shakti]] and [[bhakti]], as a right of Hindu people to express and pursue their forms of spirituality and religious beliefs ([[dharma]]).{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pages=26–32, 116, 257–259, 388–391}}<ref>Philip Lutgendorf (2002), Evolving a monkey: Hanuman, poster art and postcolonial anxiety, Contributions to Indian Sociology, Vol 36, Issue 1–2, pages 71–110</ref> Political and religious organizations have named themselves after him or his synonyms such as ''Bajrang''.<ref>{{cite book|author=Christophe Jaffrelot|title=Religion, Caste, and Politics in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XAO3i_gS61wC |year=2010|publisher=Primus Books|isbn=978-93-80607-04-7|page=183 note 4}}</ref><ref name="Pinch1996"/><ref name="Sarvepalli Gopal 1993 41–46, 135–137"/> Political parades or religious processions have featured men dressed up as Hanuman, along with women dressed up as ''[[gopi]]s'' (milkmaids) of god Krishna, as an expression of their pride and right to their heritage, culture and religious beliefs.<ref>{{cite book|author=Christophe Jaffrelot|title=Religion, Caste, and Politics in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XAO3i_gS61wC |year=2010|publisher=Primus Books|isbn=978-93-80607-04-7|pages=332, 389–391}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Daromir Rudnyckyj|author2=Filippo Osella|title=Religion and the Morality of the Market|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MV5EDgAAQBAJ |year=2017|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-18605-7|pages=75–82}}</ref> According to some scholars, the Hanuman-linked youth organizations have tended to have a paramilitary wing and have opposed other religions, with a mission of resisting the "evil eyes of Islam, Christianity and Communism", or as a symbol of Hindu nationalism.<ref>{{cite book|author=Pathik Pathak|title=Future of Multicultural Britain: Confronting the Progressive Dilemma: Confronting the Progressive Dilemma|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6QarBgAAQBAJ |year=2008|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=978-0-7486-3546-7|page=18}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Chetan Bhatt|title=Hindu nationalism: origins, ideologies and modern myths|url=https://archive.org/details/hindunationalism00chet|url-access=registration|year=2001|publisher=Berg|isbn=978-1-85973-343-1|pages=[https://archive.org/details/hindunationalism00chet/page/180 180]–192}}</ref>

In Hindu astrology, Saturn or [[Shani]] is a dreaded planet whose transit in the constellation before the natal moon, over the natal moon and in the constellation subsequent to the natal moon is considered to be a very tough period for a person, referred to as [[Sade Sati|Sadesati]]. It is believed that Hanuman and Ganesha are the two deities whose worship leads to a reduction in the malefic influence of planets. People worship Hanuman as an astrological remedy to pacify the disastrous effects of a badly placed Saturn. This is done by preparing offerings made of [[urad dal]], peppered with sugar, called jalebi or peppered with salt and pepper, called [[vadai]], stringing it and offering this as an edible garland of sorts to Hanuman on Saturdays (South India) or Tuesdays (North India). Offerings of sesame oil are also made to Hanuman. The same goes for offerings of butter. The origins of offering butter to Hanuman are found in the [[Ramayana]] where, it is said that [[Lord Rama|Rama]] applied butter as a balm on Hanuman's wounds to help heal from the wounds of the war with [[Ravana]].{{cn|date=February 2021}}

The offering of sesame oil has its origins from the Saturnian quality of extreme hard work with no expectations of any results for foreseeable time, such as the tenacity exhibited by a mountain goat and which tenacity is also needed to extract oil from sesame seeds. In the old days, this oil extraction was done by hand and was considered akin to the kind of effort one needs to put in one's tasks and day-to-day life, to get through the malefic phases of Saturn.{{cn|date=February 2021}}

==Iconography==
{{expand section|date=June 2017}}
[[File:Five headed Hanuman.jpg|left|upright=0.8|thumb|A five-headed ''panchamukha'' Hanuman icon. It is found in esoteric tantric traditions that weave Vaishvana and Shaiva ideas, and is relatively uncommon.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Lutgendorf | first=Philip | title=Five heads and no tale: Hanumān and the popularization of Tantra | journal=International Journal of Hindu Studies | volume=5 | issue=3 | year=2001 | doi=10.1007/s11407-001-0003-3 | pages=269–296| s2cid=144825928 }}</ref>{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=319, 380–388}}]]
Hanuman's iconography shows him either with other central characters of the ''Ramayana'' or by himself. If with Rama and Sita, he is shown to the right of Rama, as a devotee bowing or kneeling before them with a [[Namaste]] (Anjali Hasta) posture. If alone, he carries weapons such as a big [[Gada (mace)]] and thunderbolt (''vajra''), sometimes in a scene reminiscent of his life.<ref name="Williams2008p146"/><ref>{{cite book|author=T. A. Gopinatha Rao|title=Elements of Hindu iconography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MJD-KresBwIC |year=1993|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0878-2|pages=58, 190–194}}</ref>

His iconography and temples are common today. He is typically shown with Rama, Sita and Lakshmana, near or in Vaishnavism temples, as well as by himself usually opening his chest to symbolically show images of Rama and Sita near his heart. He is also popular among the followers of [[Shaivism]].<ref name="JonesRyan2006p177"/>

In north India, aniconic representation of Hanuman such as a round stone has been in use by [[yogi]], as a means to help focus on the abstract aspects of him.<ref>{{cite book|author=David N. Lorenzen|title=Bhakti Religion in North India: Community Identity and Political Action|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rpSxJg_ehnIC |year=1995|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-2025-6|page=271}}</ref>

He is also shown carrying a saffron flag in service of the Goddess [[Durga]] along with [[Bhairava]].

==Temples and shrines==

[[File:Hanuman-vijayawada-paritala.jpg|thumb|200px|41 meters (135 ft) high Hanuman monument at Paritala, [[Andhra Pradesh]]]]
[[File:Punchamukhi Hanuman Temple 1.jpg|thumb|[[Panchmukhi Hanuman Temple]] in [[Karachi]], Pakistan is the only temple in the world which has a natural statue of Hanuman]]
Hanuman is often worshipped along with Rama and Sita of [[Vaishnavism]], and sometimes independently of them.<ref name="Claus2003p280">{{cite book|author1=Peter J. Claus|author2=Sarah Diamond|author3=Margaret Ann Mills|title=South Asian Folklore: An Encyclopedia : Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=au_Vk2VYyrkC&pg=PA280 |year=2003|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-415-93919-5|pages=280–281}}</ref> There are numerous statues to celebrate or temples to worship Hanuman all over India. Author Vanamali says, "[[Vaishnavite]]s or followers of [[Vishnu]], believe that the wind god [[Vayu]] underwent three incarnations to help Lord Vishnu. As Hanuman he helped [[Rama]], as [[Bhima]], he assisted [[Krishna]], and as [[Madhvacharya]] (1238 - 1317) he founded the Vaishnava sect called [[Dvaita]]".{{Sfn|Vanamali|2010|p=14}} [[Shaivism|Shaivites]] claim him as an avatar of [[Shiva]].<ref name="Claus2003p280"/> [[Indologist]] [[Philip Lutgendorf]] writes, "The later identification of Hanuman as one of the eleven rudras may reflect a [[Shaiva]] sectarian claim on an increasing popular god, it also suggests his kinship with, and hence potential control over, a class of awesome and ambivalent deities". Lutgendorf also writes, "Other skills in Hanuman's resume also seem to derive in part from his windy patrimony, reflecting [[Vayu]]'s role in both body and cosmos".{{Sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|p=67}} According to a review by Lutgendorf, some scholars state that the earliest Hanuman [[murti]]s appeared in the 8th century, but verifiable evidence of Hanuman images and inscriptions appear in the 10th century in Indian monasteries in central and north India.{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|p=60}}
[[File:Wall Carvings at Undavalli Caves.jpg|thumb|Wall carvings depicting the worship of Hanuman at [[Undavalli Caves]] in [[Guntur District]].]]
Tuesday and Saturday of every week are particularly popular days at Hanuman temples. Some people keep a partial or full fast on either of those two days and remember Hanuman and the theology he represents to them.{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=11–12, 101}}

Major temples and shrines of Hanuman include:
* The oldest known independent Hanuman temple and statue is at [[Khajuraho]], dated to about 922 CE from the [[Khajuraho Hanuman inscription]].<ref>Reports of a Tour in Bundelkhand and Rewa in 1883–84, and of a Tour in Rewa, Bundelkhand, Malwa, and Gwalior, in 1884–85, Alexander Cunningham, 1885</ref>{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=59–60}}
* [[Mahavir Mandir]] is one of the holiest Hindu temples dedicated to Hanuman, located in [[Patna]], [[Bihar]], [[India]].
*Bajrang bali Hanuman temple - Lakdikapool, Hyderabad.
*[[Hanumangarhi, Ayodhya]], is a 10th-century temple dedicated to Hanuman.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Hanuman Garhi|url=http://www.uptourism.gov.in/post/hanuman-garhi|access-date=2020-07-28|website=www.uptourism.gov.in}}</ref>
*[[Panchmukhi Hanuman Temple|Shri Panchmukhi Hanuman Mandir]] is a 1,500-year-old temple in Pakistan. It is located in Soldier Bazaar in [[Karachi]], [[Pakistan]]. The temple is highly venerated by Pakistani Hindus as it is the only temple in the world which has a natural statue of [[Lord Hanuman|Hanuman]] that is not man-made([[Swayambhu]]).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Five historical Hindu temples of Pakistan|url=https://www.wionews.com/south-asia/five-historical-hindu-temples-of-pakistan-33163|access-date=2020-12-04|website=WION|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Academy|first=Himalayan|title=Hinduism Today Magazine|url=https://www.hinduismtoday.com/|access-date=2020-12-04|website=www.hinduismtoday.com|language=en}}</ref>
* [[Jakhu temple]] in [[Shimla]], the capital of [[Himachal Pradesh]]. A monumental 108-foot (33-metre) statue of Hanuman marks his temple and is the highest point in [[Shimla]].<ref>''The Indian Express'', [[Chandigarh]], Tuesday, 2 November 2010, p. 5.</ref>
* The tallest Hanuman statue is the [[Paritala Anjaneya Temple|Veera Abhaya Anjaneya Swami]], standing 135 feet tall at Paritala, 32 km from [[Vijayawada]] in [[Andhra Pradesh]], installed in 2003.{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007}}
* [[Chitrakoot, Madhya Pradesh|Chitrakoot]] in Madhya Pradesh features the Hanuman Dhara temple, which features a panchmukhi statue of Hanuman. It is located inside a forest, and it along with Ramghat that is a few kilometers away, are significant Hindu pilgrimage sites.<ref>{{cite book|author=Swati Mitra|title=Temples of Madhya Pradesh|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=THW_OkoTuE4C&pg=PA41|year=2012|publisher=Eicher Goodearth and Government of Madhya Pradesh|isbn=978-93-80262-49-9|page=41}}</ref>
*The Peshwa era rulers in 18th century city of [[Pune]] provided endowments to more Maruti temples than to temples of other deities such as Shiva, [[Ganesh]] or [[Vitthal]]. Even in present time there are more Maruti temples in the city and the district than of other deities.{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|pp=239, 24}}
* Other monumental statues of Hanuman are found all over India, such as at the [[Sholinghur]] Sri Yoga Narasimha swami temple and Sri Yoga Anjaneyar temple, located in [[Vellore District]]. In Maharashtra, a monumental statue is at Nerul, Navi Mumbai. In Bangalore, a major Hanuman statue is at the [[Ragigudda Anjaneya temple]]. Similarly, a {{convert|32|ft|m|0}} idol with a temple exists at [[Nanganallur]] in [[Chennai]]. At the Hanuman Vatika in [[Rourkela]], Odisha there is {{convert|75|ft|m|0|adj=on}} statue of Hanuman.<ref>{{cite book | author=Raymond Brady Williams | title=An introduction to Swaminarayan Hinduism | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2001 | url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontosw0000will | url-access=registration | page=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontosw0000will/page/128 128] | quote=hanuman sarangpur. |access-date=14 May 2009 | isbn=978-0-521-65422-7}} Page 128</ref>
[[File:Ramlila artists.jpg|thumb|left|In India, the annual autumn season Ramlila play features Hanuman, enacted during Navratri by rural artists (above).]]
* Outside India, a major Hanuman statue has been built by Tamil Hindus near the Batu caves in Malaysia, and an {{convert|85|ft|m|0|adj=on}} Karya Siddhi Hanuman statue by colonial era Hindu indentured workers' descendants at [[Carapichaima]] in [[Trinidad and Tobago]]. Another Karya Siddhi Hanuman Temple has been built in [[Frisco, Texas]] in the United States.<ref>[https://www.dallasnews.com/news/frisco/2015/08/06/new-hindu-temple-serves-friscos-growing-asian-indian-population New Hindu temple serves Frisco's growing Asian Indian population], Dallas Morning News, 6 August 2015</ref>
* Panchamukhi is a very famous place near Mantralayam in Andhrapradesh where famous Dvaita saint Sri Raghavendra swamy spent for many years. Here Hanuman statue will be depicted with five faces primarily face of hanuman himself, Garuda, Varaha, Narasimha, Hayagreeva
* 732 Hanuman deities were installed by Sri Vyasa raya Teertha 15th century philosopher and Dvaita saint, Guru of Sri Purandra dasa, Sri Kanaka Dasa and Sri krishna Devaraya.

===Festivals and celebrations===
Hanuman is a central character in the annual [[Ramlila]] celebrations in India, and seasonal dramatic arts in southeast Asia, particularly in Thailand; and Bali and Java, Indonesia. Ramlila is a dramatic folk re-enactment of the life of Rama according to the ancient Hindu epic ''[[Ramayana]]'' or secondary literature based on it such as the ''[[Ramcharitmanas]]''.<ref>{{cite book|author=James G. Lochtefeld|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N-Z|url= https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch |url-access=registration|year= 2002|publisher= The Rosen Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-8239-2287-1| page=[https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch/page/n401 389]}}</ref> It particularly refers to the thousands<ref name="SchechnerHess51">{{cite journal | last1=Schechner | first1=Richard | last2=Hess | first2=Linda | title=The Ramlila of Ramnagar [India] | journal=The Drama Review: TDR | volume=21 | issue=3 | year=1977 | pages=51–82 | doi=10.2307/1145152 | jstor=1145152 }}</ref> of dramatic plays and dance events that are staged during the annual autumn festival of [[Navratri]] in [[India]].<ref>{{cite web | title=Navratri – Hindu festival | author=Encyclopedia Britannica | url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Navratri | year= 2015}}</ref> Hanuman is featured in many parts of the folk-enacted play of the legendary war between Good and Evil, with the celebrations climaxing in the [[Dussehra]] (Dasara, [[Vijayadashami]]) night festivities where the giant grotesque effigies of Evil such as of demon Ravana are burnt, typically with fireworks.<ref name=unescodussehra>[http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/RL/ramlila-the-traditional-performance-of-the-ramayana-00110 Ramlila, the traditional performance of the Ramayana], UNESCO</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Sv7Uk0UcdM8C Ramlila] ''Pop Culture India!: Media, Arts, and Lifestyle'', by Asha Kasbekar. Published by ABC-CLIO, 2006. {{ISBN|1-85109-636-1}}. ''Page 42''.</ref>

The Ramlila festivities were declared by UNESCO as one of the "Intangible Cultural Heritages of Humanity" in 2008. Ramlila is particularly notable in the historically important Hindu cities of [[Ayodhya]], [[Varanasi]], [[Vrindavan]], [[Almora]], [[Satna]] and [[Madhubani district|Madhubani]] – cities in Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh.<ref name=unescodussehra/>

Hanuman's birthday is observed by some Hindus as Hanuman Jayanti. It falls in much of India in the traditional month of Chaitra in the [[lunisolar]] [[Hindu calendar]], which overlaps with March and April. However, in parts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu, Hanuman Jayanthi is observed in the regional Hindu month of Margazhi, which overlaps with December and January. The festive day is observed with devotees gathering at Hanuman temples before sunrise, and day long spiritual recitations and story reading about the victory of good over evil.<ref name="Melton2010p1310"/>

== Hanuman in Southeast Asia ==
=== Cambodia ===
[[File:L'exposition_"Angkor_-_la_naissance_d'un_mythe"_(musée_Guimet)_(11804234493).jpg|thumb|right|Cambodian depiction of Hanuman at Angkor Wat. Rama is standing on top of Hanuman in the middle of the mural.]]
Hanuman is a revered heroic figure in Khmer history in southeast Asia. He features predominantly in the [[Reamker]], a Cambodian epic poem, based on the [[Sanskrit]] [[Itihasa]] Ramayana epic.<ref>Toni Shapiro-Phim, [http://asiasociety.org/education/reamker Reamker], The Cambodian Version of Ramayana, Asia Society</ref> Intricate carvings on the walls of Angkor Wat depict scenes from the Ramayana including those of Hanuman.<ref>{{Cite journal|jstor = 25212421|title = Reamker (Rāmakerti), the Cambodian Version of the Rāmāyaṇa. A Review Article|journal = Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland|issue = 1|pages = 122–129|last1 = Marrison|first1 = G. E|year = 1989|volume = 121|doi = 10.1017/S0035869X00167917| s2cid=161831703 }}</ref>

In Cambodia and many other parts of southeast Asia, mask dance and shadow theatre arts celebrate Hanuman with Ream (same as Rama of India). Hanuman is represented by a white mask.<ref>{{cite book|author=Jukka O. Miettinen|title=Classical Dance and Theatre in South-East Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GD3YAAAAMAAJ |year=1992|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-588595-8|pages=120–122}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Leakthina Chau-Pech Ollier|author2=Tim Winter|title=Expressions of Cambodia: The Politics of Tradition, Identity and Change|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vs98AgAAQBAJ |year=2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-17196-5|pages=140–141}}</ref> Particularly popular in southeast Asian theatre are Hanuman's accomplishments as a martial artist ''Ramayana''.<ref>{{cite book|author1=James R. Brandon|author2=Martin Banham|title=The Cambridge Guide to Asian Theatre|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ttnH5W9qoBAC |year=1997|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-58822-5|pages=236–237}}</ref>

=== Indonesia ===
[[File:Statue-IMG 4662.JPG|thumb|Hanuman statue at [[Bali]], [[Indonesia]]]]
Hanuman ([[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]: ''Hanoman'' or ''Anoman'' ) is the central character in many of the historic dance and drama art works such as [[Wayang Wong]] found in [[Javanese people|Javanese culture]], [[Indonesia]]. These performance arts can be traced to at least the 10th century.<ref>{{cite book|author=Margarete Merkle|title=Bali: Magical Dances|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QgQcmPUrO_wC&pg=PA43|year=2012|publisher=epubli|isbn=978-3-8442-3298-1|pages=42–43}}</ref> He has been popular, along with the local versions of ''Ramayana'' in other islands of Indonesia such as Java.<ref>J. Kats (1927), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/606956 The Rāmāyana in Indonesia], Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, Cambridge University Press, Vol. 4, No. 3 (1927), pp. 579–585</ref><ref>Malini Saran (2005), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/23005981 The Ramayana in Indonesia: alternate tellings], India International Centre Quarterly, Vol. 31, No. 4 (SPRING 2005), pp. 66–82</ref>

[[File:Relief on Prambanan - Hanuman meeting Sita, Pentas Ramajana, p33.jpg|thumb|Hanuman relief in [[Prambanan]] temple, Indonesia]]
In major medieval era Hindu temples, archeological sites and manuscripts discovered in Indonesian and Malay islands, Hanuman features prominently along with Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, Vishvamitra and Sugriva.<ref>{{cite book|author=Willem Frederik Stutterheim|title=Rāma-legends and Rāma-reliefs in Indonesia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OoitUqGk8PAC |year=1989|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-251-2|pages=xvii, 5–16 (Indonesia), 17–21 (Malaysia), 34–37}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Marijke Klokke|title=Archaeology: Indonesian Perspective : R.P. Soejono's Festschrift|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dSFfD0dpdS4C |year=2006|publisher=Yayasan Obor Indonesia|isbn=978-979-26-2499-1|pages=391–399}}</ref> The most studied and detailed [[relief]] artworks are found in the [[Candi of Indonesia|Candi]]s [[Panataran]] and [[Prambanan]].<ref>{{cite book|author1=Andrea Acri|author2=H.M. Creese|author3=A. Griffiths|title=From Lanka Eastwards: The Ramayana in the Literature and Visual Arts of Indonesia |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=LXdhAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA209 |year=2010|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=978-90-04-25376-6|pages=197–203, 209–213}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Moertjipto|title=The Ramayana Reliefs of Prambanan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hd3VAAAAMAAJ|year=1991|publisher=Penerbit Kanisius|isbn=978-979-413-720-8|pages=40–42}}</ref>

Hanuman, along with other characters of the ''[[Ramayana]]'', are an important source of plays and dance theatre repertoire at [[Odalan]] celebrations and other festivals in Bali.<ref>{{cite book|author=Hildred Geertz|title=The Life of a Balinese Temple: Artistry, Imagination, and History in a Peasant Village|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JbrPXcurKxAC |year=2004|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-2533-1|pages=154–165}}</ref>

====Wayang story====
[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Wajangfiguur voorstellende de apenkoning Hanuman TMnr 15-954-41.jpg|thumb|Hanuman [[wayang]] (puppetry) in [[Indonesian culture]]]]
Hanoman in [[Javanese people|Javanese]] [[wayang]] is the son of [[Batara Guru]] who became the disciple and adopted son of [[Vayu|Batara Bayu]]. Hanoman himself is a cross-generational figure from the time of [[Rama]] to the time of [[Jayabaya]]. [[Anjani]] is the eldest daughter of Rishi Gotama who is cursed so that she has the face of an [[ape]]. On the orders of his father, he was imprisoned naked in the lake Madirda. Once upon a time, Batara Guru and [[Narada|Batara Narada]] flew across the sky. When he saw Anjani, Batara Guru was so amazed that he released semen. The king of the puppet gods rubbed it with tamarind leaves and threw it into the lake. The sinom leaf fell on Anjani's lap. He also picked it up and ate it until it became pregnant. When it was time to give birth, Anjani was assisted by the angels sent by Batara Guru. She gave birth to a baby monkey with white hair, while herself again had a beautiful face and was taken to heaven as an angel.

The baby in the form of a white monkey, which is Anjani's son, was taken by Batara Bayu and adopted as a child. After completing his education, Hanoman returned to the world and served his uncle, Sugriwa, the monkey king of Kiskenda Cave. At that time, Sugriwa had just been defeated by his brother, Subali, another uncle of Hanoman. Hanoman managed to meet Rama and Laksmana, a pair of princes from Ayodhya who were undergoing exile. The two then work together with Sugriwa to defeat Subali, and together attack the land of [[Lanka|Alengka]] to free Sita, Rama's wife who was kidnapped by Rahwana, Subali's disciple.

Hanoman infiltrates the Alengka palace to investigate Ravana's power and witness Sita's plight. There he made such a mess that he was caught and burned. Instead, Hanoman actually managed to burn parts of the capital city of Alengka. This event is known as Hanuman Obong. After Hanoman returned to Rama's place, the monkey army set out to attack Alengka. Hanoman appears as a hero who kills many Alengka troops, for example Surpanaka (Sarpakenaka) [[Ravana]]'s younger brother. In the final battle between Rama and Ravana, he was overwhelmed with his Aji Pancasu, the ability to live eternally. Every time Rama's weapon killed Ravana, immediately Ravana rose again. Wibisana, Ravana's sister who sided with Rama immediately asked Hanoman to help. Hanoman also lifted Mount Ungaran to fall on top of Ravana's corpse when Ravana had just died at the hands of Rama for the umpteenth time. Seeing Hanuman's impudence, Rama also punished him to guard Ravana's grave. Rama believes that Ravana is still alive under the crush of the mountain, and at any time can release his spirit to wreak havoc in the world.

Several years later after Rama died, Ravana's spirit escaped from Mount Pati and went to [[Sumatra Island]] to seek the reincarnation of Sita, namely [[Subhadra]], Krishna's sister. [[Krishna]] himself is the reincarnation of Rama. Hanoman chases and meets Bima, his younger brother and Bayu's adopted son. Hanuman then served Krishna. He also managed to capture the spirit of Ravana and imprisoned him in Mount Kendalisada. On the mountain Hanoman acts as a hermit.

Unlike the original version, Hanoman in the wayang has two children. The first is named Trigangga who is in the form of a white ape like himself. It is said that when he came home from burning Alengka, Hanoman had the image of Trijata's face, Wibisana's daughter, who took care of Sita. Over the ocean, Hanuman's semen fell and caused the seawater to boil. Unbeknownst to him, Baruna created the foam into Trigangga. Trigangga immediately grew up and met Bukbis, the son of Ravana. The two are friends and sided with Alengka against Rama. In the war Trigangga managed to kidnap Rama and Laksmana but was chased by Hanoman. Narada came down to intervene and explained the blood relationship between the two white monkeys. Finally, Trigangga turned against Ravana.

Hanuman's second son was named Purwaganti, who had only appeared in the Pandavas era. He was credited with finding Yudhisthira's lost heirloom named Kalimasada. Purwaganti was born to a priest's daughter whom Hanoman married, named Purwati. Hanuman lived so long that he was tired of living. [[Narada]] descends to grant his wish, which is to die, as long as he can complete the final task, which is to reconcile the six descendants of Arjuna who are involved in a civil war. Hanoman disguised himself as Resi Mayangkara and succeeded in marrying Astradarma, son of Sariwahana, to Pramesti, daughter of Jayabaya. The Sariwahana family and Jayabaya were involved in a dispute even though they were both descendants of Arjuna. Hanoman then appeared to face Jayabaya's enemy named Yaksadewa, the king of Selahuma. In that war, Hanuman died, moksha with his body, while Yaksadewa returned to his original form, namely [[Batara Kala]], the god of death.<ref>{{citation | url=https://www.google.co.id/books/edition/Hanoman/26z0DwAAQBAJ?hl=id&gbpv=1&dq=hanoman+wayang&printsec=frontcover| author= Pitoyo Amrih| title=Hanoman, Akhir bisu sebuah perang besar| year= 2014| publisher= Pitoyo Ebook}}</ref>

=== Thailand ===
[[File:Hanuman1.jpg|thumb|Thai iconography of Hanuman. He is one of the most popular characters in the ''[[Ramakien]]''.<ref>{{cite book|author=Paula Richman|title=Many Rāmāyaṇas: The Diversity of a Narrative Tradition in South Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XkifYfljHP4C |year=1991|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-07589-4|pages=38–39}}</ref>]]
Hanuman plays a significantly more prominent role in the ''Ramakien''.<ref>Amolwan Kiriwat (1997), [https://library.umaine.edu/theses/pdf/KiriwatAX2001.pdf KHON: MASKED DANCE DRAMA OF THE THAI EPIC RAMAKIEN] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304052338/http://www.library.umaine.edu/theses/pdf/kiriwatax2001.pdf |date=4 March 2016 }}, University of Maine, Advisor: Sandra Hardy, pages 3–4, 7</ref> In contrast to the strict devoted lifestyle to Lord Rama of his Indian counterpart, Hanuman is known in Thailand as a promiscuous and flirtatious character.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Planet |first1=Lonely |last2=Isalska |first2=Anita |last3=Bewer |first3=Tim |last4=Brash |first4=Celeste |last5=Bush |first5=Austin |last6=Eimer |first6=David |last7=Harper |first7=Damian |last8=Symington |first8=Andy |title=Lonely Planet Thailand |date=2018 |publisher=Lonely Planet |isbn=978-1-78701-926-3 |page=112 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cEljDwAAQBAJ |access-date=1 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref> One famous episode of the ''Ramakien'' has him fall in love with the mermaid [[Suvannamaccha]] and fathering [[Macchanu]] with her. In another, Hanuman takes on the form of Ravana and sleeps with [[Mandodari]], Ravana's consort, thus destroying her chastity, which was the last protection for Ravana's life.{{sfn|Lutgendorf|2007|p=211}}

As in the Indian tradition, Hanuman is the patron of martial arts and an example of courage, fortitude and excellence in Thailand.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Tony Moore|author2=Tim Mousel|title=Muay Thai|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9IDf4dW99QYC&pg=PA67|year=2008|publisher=New Holland|isbn=978-1-84773-151-7|pages=66–67}}</ref> He is depicted as wearing a crown on his head and [[armor]]. He is depicted as an albino white, strong character with open mouth in action, sometimes shown carrying a trident.

Hanuman is the mascot of [[2009 Asian Martial Arts Games|the 1st Asian Martial Arts Games]] in [[Bangkok]], Thailand.

==Lineage==
Though Hanuman is described to be celibate in the [[Ramayana]] and most of the Puranas, according to some regional sources, Hanuman married Suvarchala, the daughter of [[Surya]] (Sun-God).<ref>{{Cite web| url=https://www.speakingtree.in/allslides/hanuman-was-married-to-whom/45648|title=Wives Of Hanuman}}
</ref>

However, once Hanuman was flying above the seas to go to [[Lanka]], a drop of his sweat fell in the mouth of a crocodile, which eventually turned into a baby. The monkey baby was delivered by the crocodile, who was soon retrieved by [[Ahiravana]], and raised by him, named [[Makardhwaja]], and made the guard of the gates of Patala, the former's kingdom. One day, Hanuman, when going to save [[Rama]] and [[Lakshmana]] from Ahiravana, faced Makardhwaja and defeated him combat. Later, after knowing the reality and after saving both, he made his son, the king of Patala.

The [[Jethwa]] clan claims to be a descendant of Makardhwaja, and, according to them, he had a son named Modh-dhwaja, who in turn had a son named Jeth-dhwaja, hence the name of the clan.

==In popular culture==
While Hanuman is a quintessential character of any movie on [[Ramayana]], Hanuman centric movies have also been produced with Hanuman as the central character. In 1976 the [[Bajrangbali (film)|first biopic movie]] on Hanuman in Hindi was released with wrestler [[Dara Singh]] playing the role of Hanuman. He again reprised the character in [[Ramanand Sagar]]'s television series [[Ramayan (1987 TV series)|Ramayan]] and [[B. R. Chopra]]'s [[Mahabharat (1988 TV series)|Mahabharat]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-05-30|title=Did you know how Dara Singh was chosen for the role of Hanuman in Ramayan?|url=https://www.mid-day.com/articles/did-you-know-how-dara-singh-was-chosen-for-the-role-of-hanuman-in-ramayan/22814246|access-date=2020-06-14|website=mid-day|language=en}}</ref>

In 2005 an animated movie [[Hanuman (2005 film)|of the same name]] was released and was extremely popular among children. Actor [[Mukesh Khanna]] voiced the character of Hanuman in the film.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2005-10-21|title=Hanuman: the journey of a mythical superhero|url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/hanuman-the-journey-of-a-mythical-superhero-228121.html|access-date=2020-06-14|website=News18}}</ref> Following this several series of movies featuring the legendary God were produced though all of them were animated, prominent ones being the Bal Hanuman series 2006–2012. Another movie Maruti Mera dost (2009) was a contemporary adaptation of Hanuman in modern times.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://in.bookmyshow.com/entertainment/movies/5-bollywood-movies-hanuman|title=5 Bollywood Movies About Hanuman|date=2017-06-02|website=BookMyShow|language=en-US|access-date=2019-03-29}}</ref>

The 2015 Bollywood movie [[Bajrangi Bhaijaan]] had [[Salman Khan]] playing the role of Pawan Kumar Chaturvedi who is an ardent Hanuman devotee and regularly invokes him for his protection, courage, and strength.<ref>{{Citation|title=Bajrangi Bhaijaan (2015)|url=https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/bajrangi_bhaijaan|language=en|access-date=2019-03-19}}</ref>

US president [[Barack Obama]] had a habit of carrying with him a few small items given to him by people he had met. The items included a small figurine of Hanuman.<ref>{{cite news |title=Revealed: Obama always carries Hanuman statuette in pocket |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/Revealed-Obama-always-carries-Hanuman-statuette-in-pocket/article14001552.ece |access-date=8 April 2021 |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=16 January 2016 |language=en-IN}}</ref><ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/ox6LidnmbPM Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20160116012625/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ox6LidnmbPM Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{cite web |title=Obama Reveals Lucky Charms During Interview |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ox6LidnmbPM |publisher=[[Associated Press]] |access-date=8 April 2021 |language=en |date=16 January 2016}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

Hanuman was referenced in the 2018 [[Marvel Cinematic Universe]] film, [[Black Panther (film)|''Black Panther'']], which is set in the fictional African nation of [[Wakanda]]; the "Hanuman" reference was removed from the film in screenings in India.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/global-opinions/wp/2018/03/12/what-india-can-learn-from-black-panther |title=What India can learn from 'Black Panther' |author=Amish Tripathi |date=12 March 2018 |website=washingtonpost.com |access-date=17 May 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://comicbook.com/marvel/2018/02/21/black-panther-censored-in-india |title='Black Panther' Movie Had a Word Censored in India |author=Nicole Drum |date=20 February 2018 |website=comicbook.com |access-date=17 May 2018 }}</ref>

The Mexican acoustic-metal duo, [[Rodrigo Y Gabriela]] released a hit single named "Hanuman" from their album [[11:11 (Rodrigo y Gabriela album)|''11:11'']]. Each song on the album was made to pay tribute to a different musician that inspired the band, and the song Hanuman is dedicated to [[Carlos Santana]]. Why the band used the name Hanuman is unclear, but the artists have stated that Santana "was a role model for musicians back in Mexico that it was possible to do great music and be an international musician."<ref>{{Cite news|title=Rodrigo y Gabriela: Fusing Flamenco And Metal|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=113658095|access-date=2020-09-21|website=NPR.org|language=en}}</ref>

Hanuman is the protagonist in the 2022 film ''[[Hanuman White Monkey]]'', a fantasy film combines special effects with a ''[[Khon]]'' (Thai masked pantomime) performance style.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thainews.prd.go.th/en/news/detail/TCATG221108015929988|title=White Monkey' Khon performance film to hit cinemas on December 5|date=2022-11-08|accessdate=2022-12-05|work=NNT}}</ref> In the 2022 action-adventure ''[[Ram Setu (film)|Ram Setu]]'', it is implied that the character "AP" is actually Hanuman.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Samrat |first1=Ujjwal |title=Who is AP in Ram Setu? |url=https://www.truescoopnews.com/newsdetail/who-is-ap-in-ram-setu-human-avatar-of-lord-hanuman-in-akshay-kumars-adventuredrama |website=True Scoop News |access-date=16 January 2023 |language=en |date=24 December 2022}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[:Category:Hanuman temples|Hanuman temples]]
* [[Vayu Stuti]]
* [[Hanuman Chalisa]]
* [[Hanuman Jayanti]]
* [[Hanumanasana]], an [[asana]] named after Hanuman
* [[Sun Wukong]], a Chinese literary character in [[Wu Cheng'en]]'s masterpiece ''[[Journey to the West]]''
* ''[[The 6 Ultra Brothers vs. the Monster Army]]''
* ''[[Hanuman and the Five Riders]]''
* [[Gray langur]], also known as the Hanuman langur

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Bibliography===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book|last=Claus|first=Peter J.|author2=Sarah Diamond |author3=Margaret Ann Mills |title=South Asian folklore|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=2003|pages=280–281|chapter=Hanuman|isbn=978-0-415-93919-5|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=au_Vk2VYyrkC&pg=PA280}}
* {{cite book | first=Philip |last=Lutgendorf | title=Hanuman's Tale: The Messages of a Divine Monkey | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fVFC2Nx-LP8C&pg=PA31 | access-date=14 July 2012 | year= 2007 | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0-19-530921-8 }}
* {{cite book|title=Hanuman: The Devotion and Power of the Monkey God|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t10oDwAAQBAJ|last=Vanamali|first=V|publisher=Simon and Schuster|year=2010|isbn=978-1-59477-914-5}}
* Sri Ramakrishna Math (1985): ''Hanuman Chalisa''. Chennai (India): Sri Ramakrishna Math. {{ISBN|81-7120-086-9}}.
* ''Mahabharata'' (1992). Gorakhpur (India): Gitapress.
* ''Anand Ramayan'' (1999). Bareily (India): Rashtriya Sanskriti Sansthan.
* Swami Satyananda Sarawati: ''Hanuman Puja''. India: Devi Mandir. {{ISBN|1-887472-91-6}}.
* ''The Ramayana'' Smt. Kamala Subramaniam. Published by Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan (1995). {{ISBN|81-7276-406-5}}
* ''Hanuman – In Art, Culture, Thought and Literature'' by Shanti Lal Nagar (1995). {{ISBN|81-7076-075-5}}

{{refend}}

==Further reading==

* {{cite book|author= Catherine Ludvik|title= Hanumān in the Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki and the Rāmacaritamānasa of Tulasī Dāsa|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=KCXQN0qoAe0C |year= 1994|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1122-5}}
* {{cite book|author=Helen M. Johnson |title= Hanumat's birth and Varuṇa's subjection (Chapter III of the Jain Ramayana by Hemachandra)|url= https://www.wisdomlib.org/jainism/book/trishashti-shalaka-purusha-caritra/d/doc214005.html |year= 1931|publisher=Baroda Oriental Institute}}
* {{cite book | first=Philip |last=Lutgendorf | title=Hanuman's Tale: The Messages of a Divine Monkey | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fVFC2Nx-LP8C | year= 2007 | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0-19-530921-8 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book|author1=Robert Goldman|author2=Sally Goldman|title=The Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki: An Epic of Ancient India. Volume V: Sundarakāṇḍa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mGseItRDAc8C |year=2006|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-3166-7}}
* Vanamali, Mataji Devi (2010). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=j5qFlxXSS48C Hanuman: The Devotion and Power of the Monkey God]'' Inner Traditions, USA. {{ISBN|1-59477-337-8}}.

==External links==
{{Wikisource|Hanuman|Hanuman}}{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons category|Hanuman}}
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hanuman Hanuman] at ''Encyclopædia Britannica''



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[[Category:Chiranjivins]]
[[Category:Animals in Hinduism]]
[[Category:Vanara in the Ramayana]]
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[[Category:Wisdom gods]]
[[Category:Anthropomorphic animals]]
[[Category:Characters in the Mahabharata]]
[[Category:Mythological monkeys]]
[[Category:Characters in the Ramayana]]
[[Category:Hanuman|Hanuman]]

Hanuman Chalisa

2023-01-20T10:32:09Z

ImportMaster: robot: Create/update articles in Category:Hindu gods.

{{Short description|Hindu devotional hymn by Tulsidas dedicated to lord Hanuman}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2017}}
{{Infobox religious text

| name = Hanuman Chalisa
| image = Hanuman with the sun in his tail carrying the Mountain of He Wellcome V0044940.jpg
| caption = The Hindu deity [[Hanuman]]
| author = [[Tulsidas]]
| title_orig = Shubham Krishnatray
| religion = [[Hinduism]]
| translator =
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| language = [[Awadhi language]]<ref>Nityanand Misra 2015, p. xviii.</ref>
| series =
| subject =
| genre = [[Bhakti]] literature (Devotional poetry)
|verses = 40
| website =
| publisher =
| pub_date =
| english_pub_date =
| media_type =
| pages =
| isbn =
| oclc =
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The '''''Hanuman Chalisa''''' ({{IPA-hi|ɦənʊmaːn tʃaːliːsaː}}; ''[[Chaupai (poetry)|Forty chaupais]] on Hanuman'') is a [[Hinduism|Hindu]] devotional hymn (''[[stotra]]'') in praise of [[Hanuman]].<ref name="mahaviriintro">Rambhadradas 1984, [http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/amukha.php pp. 1–8.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203052448/http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/amukha.php |date=3 February 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/2003/02/26/stories/2003022601521700.htm |title=Hanuman Chalisa in digital version |publisher=The Hindu Business Line |date=26 February 2003 |access-date=2011-06-25}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=किसने लिखी थी हनुमान चालीसा, जिसके बारे में कही जाती हैं कई बातें|url=https://hindi.news18.com/news/dharm/who-wrote-hanuman-chalisa-the-story-behind-it-2999632.html|access-date=2020-09-15|website=News18 India|date=9 April 2020}}</ref> It was authored by [[Tulsidas]] in the [[Awadhi language]],<ref name="mahaviriintro" /> and is his best known text apart from the ''[[Ramcharitmanas]]''.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/br/2006/01/03/stories/2006010300511400.htm |title=Book Review / Language Books : Epic of Tulasidas |newspaper=The Hindu |date=3 January 2006 |access-date=2011-06-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/fr/2002/11/29/stories/2002112900990400.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040103112927/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/fr/2002/11/29/stories/2002112900990400.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 January 2004 |title=Lineage shows |date=29 November 2002 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=2011-06-25}}</ref> Apart from Awadhi, the ''Hanuman Chalisa'' is also available in various languages including [[Sanskrit]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Pt Kashinath Shastri|first=H. H.|author-link= Pt Kashinath Shastri |title= Sanskrit translation of Hanuman Chalisa |url= https://pdffile.co.in/hanuman-chalisa-sanskrit/ |year=2018|publisher= Sanskrit Documents Organisation |page=i}}</ref> [[Kannada language|Kannada]], [[Marathi Language|Marathi]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]<ref>{{cite book|title= Punjabi translation of Hanuman Chalisa |url= https://hanumanchalisapdf.com/shri-hanuman-chalisa-punjabi-pdf/ |year=2022|publisher= hanumanchalisapdf.com}}</ref> and [[Bengali language|Bengali]].<ref>{{cite book|title= Bengali translation of Hanuman Chalisa |url= https://estudypoint.com/hanuman-chalisa-in-bengali-%e0%a6%b9%e0%a6%a8%e0%a7%81%e0%a6%ae%e0%a6%be%e0%a6%a8-%e0%a6%9a%e0%a6%be%e0%a6%b2%e0%a6%bf%e0%a6%b6%e0%a6%be/ |year=2022|publisher= estudypoint.com}}</ref> The word "chālīsā" is derived from "chālīs", which means the number forty in [[Hindi]], as the ''Hanuman Chalisa'' has 40 verses (excluding the couplets at the beginning and at the end).<ref name="mahaviriintro" />

Hanuman is a devotee of [[Rama]] and one of the central characters of the ''[[Ramayana]]''. According to the [[Shaivism|Shaivite]] tradition, God Hanuman is also an incarnation of God Shiva. Folk tales acclaim the powers of Hanuman.<ref name="peeb100">Peebles 1986, p. 100</ref> The qualities of lord Hanuman – his strength, courage, wisdom, celibacy, devotion to Lord Rama and the many names by which he is known – are detailed in the ''Hanuman Chalisa''.<ref name="peeb100" /> Recitation or chanting of the ''Hanuman Chalisa'' is a common religious practice.<ref>Peebles 1986, p. 99</ref> The ''Hanuman Chalisa'' is the most popular hymn in praise of Hanuman, and is recited by millions of Hindus every day.<ref name="nm2015foreword">[[Karan Singh]], in Nityanand Misra 2015, p. xvi.</ref>

A [[Gulshan Kumar]] produced rendition of ''Hanuman Chalisa'' sung by [[Hariharan (singer)|Hariharan]] has received more than 2 billion views on [[YouTube]] as of June 2022, making it the first devotional song on the platform to achieve this feat.<ref>{{YouTube|id=AETFvQonfV8|title=हनुमान चालीसा Hanuman Chalisa I GULSHAN KUMAR I HARIHARAN, Full HD Video I Shree Hanuman Chalisa}}</ref>

== About the work ==
The authorship of the ''Hanuman Chalisa'' is attributed to [[Tulsidas]], a poet-saint who lived in the 16th century CE. He mentions his name in the last verse of the hymn. It is said in the 39th verse of the ''Hanuman Chalisa'' that whoever chants it with full devotion to [[Hanuman]], will have Hanuman's grace. Among Hindus worldwide, it is a very popular belief that chanting the Chalisa invokes Hanuman's divine intervention in grave problems.

=== Author ===
[[File:Goswami Tulsidas Awadhi Hindi Poet.jpg|upright|thumb|The most common picture of [[Tulsidas]]]]
[[File:Tulsi Das Home from the Ganga River near Hanuman Ghat, Varanasi.jpg|upright|thumb|Home of Tulsidas on the banks of River Ganga [[Tulsi Ghat]] Varanasi where Hanuman Chalisa was written, a small temple is also located at this site ]]
[[Tulsidas]]<ref name="frommer" /> (1497/1532–1623) was a [[Hinduism|Hindu]] poet-saint, reformer and philosopher renowned for his devotion for [[Rama]]. A composer of several popular works, he is best known for being the author of the epic ''[[Ramcharitmanas]]'', a retelling of the ''[[Ramayana]]'' in the vernacular Awadhi language. Tulsidas was acclaimed in his lifetime to be a reincarnation of [[Valmiki]], the composer of the original Ramayan in [[Sanskrit]].<ref>Lutgendorf 2007, p. 293.</ref> Tulsidas lived in the city of [[Varanasi]] until his death.<ref>Prasad 2008, p. 857, quoting Mata Prasad Gupta: Although he paid occasional visits to several places of pilgrimage associated with Rama, his permanent residence was in Kashi.</ref> The Tulsi Ghat in Varnasi is named after him.<ref name="frommer">de Bruyn 2010, p. 471</ref> He founded the [[Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple]] dedicated to Hanuman in Varanasi, believed to stand at the place where he had the sight of Hanuman.<ref>Callewaert 2000, p. 90</ref> Tulsidas started the [[Ramlila]] plays, a folk-theatre adaption of the Ramayan.<ref name="handoo-ramlila">Handoo 1964, p. 128: ... this book ... is also a drama, because Goswami Tulasidasa started his ''Ram Lila'' on the basis of this book, which even now is performed in the same manner everywhere.</ref> He has been acclaimed as one of the greatest poets in [[Hindi literature|Hindi]], [[Indian literature|Indian]], and [[World literature]].<ref>Prasad 2008, p. xii: He is not only the supreme poet, but the unofficial poet-laureate of India.</ref><ref>Prasad 2008, p. xix: Of Tulsidas's place among the major Indian poets there can be no question: he is as sublime as Valmiki and as elegant as Kalidasa in his handling of the theme.</ref><ref name="jonesryan-tulsi">Jones 2007, p. 456</ref><ref name="nirala-tulsi">Sahni 2000, pp. 78–80</ref> The impact of Tulsidas and his works on the art, culture and society in India is widespread and is seen to date in vernacular language, Ramlila plays, [[Hindustani classical music]], popular music, and television series.<ref name="handoo-ramlila" /><ref>Lutgendorf 1991, p. 11: ... – scores of lines from the ''Rāmcaritmānas'' have entered folk speech as proverbs – ...</ref><ref>Mitra 2002, p. 216</ref><ref>Subramanian 2008, p. inside cover</ref>

=== Language ===
There are 2 couplets in the beginning and one couplet at the ending between the 40 verses of ''Hanuman Chalisa''.<ref>Mehta 2007, p. xxv</ref> The Chalisa detail in the order of his knowledge, devotion to Rama and man without any desire.<ref>Mehta 2007, p. xxvii</ref> As with the case of devotional literature, Tulsidas starts the poem with two couplets praising his [[Guru]] (teacher).<ref>Mehta 2007, p. xxxi</ref> The language of Chalisa is in the [[Awadhi language]].<ref>Mehta 2007, p. xxxvix</ref>

=== Deity ===
The [[Hindu]] deity to whom the prayer is addressed as the 11th [[rudra]] avatar of lord [[Shiva]], [[Hanuman]], is an ardent devotee of [[Rama|Ram]] (the seventh [[avatar]] of [[Vishnu]]) and a central character in the ''Ramayana''. A general among the [[vanara]]s, Hanuman was a warrior of Ram in the war against the demon king [[Ravan]]. Hanuman's exploits are much celebrated in a variety of religious and cultural traditions,<ref>Orlando O. Espín, James B. Nickoloff ''An introductory dictionary of theology and religious studies''. 2007, page 537</ref> particularly in Hinduism, to the extent that he is often the object of worship according to some [[Bhakti movement|bhakti traditions]],<ref>Rosen, Steven. ''Essential Hinduism''. 2006, page 67-8</ref> and is the prime deity in many temples known as Hanuman Mandirs. He is one of seven chiranjeevs (immortals) as per Sanatan Dharma. Hanuman also appears in Mahabharata on Arjuna's chariot as 'dhwaj' (flag).

== Text ==
The work consists of forty-three verses – two introductory [[Doha (poetry)|Dohas]], forty [[Chaupai (poetry)|Chaupais]] and one Doha in the end.<ref name="mahaviriintro" /> The first introductory Doha begins with the word ''shrī'', which refers to Shiva, who is considered the Guru of Hanuman.<ref name="mahaviridoha01" /> The auspicious form, knowledge, virtues, powers and bravery of Hanuman are described in the first ten Chaupais.<ref name="mahavirichaupai1415" /><ref name="rao" /><ref name="Mehtaxv" /> Chaupais eleven to twenty describe the acts of Hanuman in his service to Ram, with the eleventh to fifteenth Chaupais describing the role of Hanuman in bringing back Lakshman to consciousness.<ref name="mahavirichaupai1415" /> From the twenty-first Chaupai, Tulsidas describes the need of Hanuman's [[Kripa (philosophy)|Kripa]].<ref name="mahavirichaupai20" /> At the end, Tulsidas greets Lord Hanuman with subtle devotion<ref name="mahavirichaupai37" /> and requests him to reside in his heart and in the heart of devotees.<ref name="mahavirichaupai40" /> The concluding Doha again requests Hanuman to reside in the heart, along with Ram, Lakshman and Sita.<ref name="mahaviridoha03" />

The translation below follows the English and Hindi translations by [[Gita Press]], Rao, Mehta and [[Rambhadracharya]].<ref name="rao">Rao 2009, pp. 393–397</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://hanumanchalisa.net/hanuman-chalisa-english-with-meaning/|title=Hanuman Chalisa With Meaning (English)|date=7 June 2017|work=Hanuman Chalisa {{!}} All About Hanuman|access-date=2017-06-15}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B7T0zBCVuV7cMWR3TGllNUR6bkk/view|title=1528 Hanuman Chalisa Web.pdf|work=Google Docs|access-date=2017-06-15}}</ref><ref name="Mehta">Mehta 2007, p. xiii</ref><ref name="mahaviri">Rambhadradas 1984, [http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/contents.php pp. 17–82] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117205618/http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/contents.php |date=17 November 2013 }}</ref>

=== Introductory dohas ===
{| style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto; width: 60em;"
|-
|
| colspan="2" |
|
|
|- style="text-align:center;"
|
|<poem>
[[Devanagari]]
श्रीगुरु चरन सरोज रज, निज मनु मुकुरु सुधारि।
बरनऊं रघुबर बिमल जसु, जो दायकु फल चारि॥
</poem>
| <poem>
[[Hunterian transliteration|Hunterian]]
shrī guru charana saroja raj, nija manu mukuru sudhāri।
baranaun raghubara bimala jasu, jo dayaku phala chāri॥
</poem>
|
|
|}
''Cleansing the mirror in the form of my mind with the pollen of the lotus-feet of the Guru, I describe the unblemished glory of Rama, which bestows the four fruits: ''Dharma'' (righteousness, moral values), Artha (prosperity, economic values), Kama (pleasure, love, psychological values) and ''Moksha'' (liberation, spiritual values).''<ref name="mahaviridoha01">Rambhadradas 1984, [http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/doha01.php pp. 11–14] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203053021/http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/doha01.php |date=3 February 2014 }}</ref><ref name="gphc">{{cite book|url=http://www.gitapress.org/books/1528/1528%20Hanuman%20chalisa.pdf|title=Śrī Hanumānacālīsā|publisher=[[Gita Press]]|location=Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh, India|access-date=4 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121119071944/http://www.gitapress.org/books/1528/1528%20Hanuman%20chalisa.pdf|archive-date=19 November 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[Gita Press]] translation interprets the four fruits as the four [[Puruṣārtha]]s – [[Dharma]], [[Artha]], [[Kāma]], and [[Mokṣa]].<ref name="gphc" /> Rambhadracharya comments that the four fruits refer to any of the following
# The four Puruṣārthas – Dharma, Artha, Kāma, Mokṣa
# The four types of Mukti – Sālokya, Sāmīpya, Sāyujya, Sārūpya
# Dharma, [[Jñāna]], [[Yoga]], [[Japa]]

{| style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto; width: 60em;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
|<poem>
[[Devanagari]]
बुद्धिहीन तनु जानिके, सुमिरौं पवन-कुमार।
बल बुद्धि विद्या देहु मोही, हरहु कलेश विकार॥
</poem>
| <poem>
[[Hunterian transliteration|Hunterian]]
budhiheena tanu janike, sumiraun pavana-kumara।
bala budhi vidya dehu mohi, harahu kalesha vikara॥
</poem>
|-
| colspan="2" |
|}
''Knowing my body to be devoid of intelligence, I remember Hanuman, the son of [[Vayu|Vāyu]]. Give me strength, intelligence and knowledge and remove all ailments (kalesa) and impurities (bikāra).''<ref name="rao" /><ref name="Mehta" /><ref name="gphc" /><ref name="mahaviridoha02">Rambhadradas 1984, [http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/doha02.php pp. 15–16] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203052249/http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/doha02.php |date=3 February 2014 }}</ref>

[[Gita Press]] interprets ''kalesa'' as bodily ailments and ''bikāra'' as mental maladies.<ref name="gphc" /> Rambhadracharya comments that ''kalesa'' (Sanskrit ''kleśa'') refers to the five afflictions (Avidyā, Asmitā, Rāga, Dveṣa, and Abhiniveśa) as described in the [[Yoga Sutra]]s, and ''bikāra'' (Sanskrit ''vikāra'') refers to the six impurities of the mind (Kāma, Krodha, Lobha, Moha, Mada, and Mātsarya).<ref name="mahaviridoha02" /> Rambhadracharya adds that these five afflictions and six impurities are the eleven enemies, and Hanuman is capable of removing them as he is the incarnation of the eleven [[Rudra]]s.<ref name="mahaviridoha02" />

=== ''Hanuman Chalisa'' ===

{| style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto; width: 60em;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
|<poem>
[[Devanagari]]
जय हनुमान ज्ञान गुन सागर।
जय कपीश तिहु लोक उजागर॥ १ ॥
</poem>
| <poem>
[[Hunterian transliteration|Hunterian]]
jaya hanumāna gnyāna guna sāgara।
jaya kapīsa tihu loka ujāgara॥ 1 ॥
</poem>
|-
| colspan="2" |
|}
''O Hanuman, the ocean of knowledge and virtues, may you be victorious. O the chief amongst [[Vanara]]s famous across the three [[Loka]]s ([[Patala|Pātāla]], [[Prithvi]] (earth) and [[Svarga]]), may you be victorious.''<ref name="Mehtaxv">Mehta 2007, p. xv</ref><ref name="gphc" /><ref name="mahavirichaupai01">Rambhadradas 1984, [http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai01.php pp. 17–19] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203053539/http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai01.php |date=3 February 2014 }}</ref>

Rambhadracharya comments that Hanuman is called ocean of knowledge by Tulsidas as the Valmiki Ramayana describes him as one who knows the three Vedas ([[Rigveda|Ṛigveda]], [[Yajurveda]], and [[Samaveda|Sāmaveda]]) and [[Vyākaraṇa]].<ref name="mahavirichaupai01" />

{| style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto; width: 60em;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
|<poem>
[[Devanagari]]
राम दूत अतुलित बल धामा।
अंजनि पुत्र पवनसुत नामा॥ २ ॥
</poem>
| <poem>
[[Hunterian transliteration|Hunterian]]
rāma dūta atulita bala dhāmā।
anjani putra pavanasuta nāmā॥ 2 ॥
</poem>
|-
| colspan="2" |
|}
''You are the trusted messenger of Rama and you are the abode of incomparable strength. You are known by the names of Anjaniputra (son of [[Añjanā|Anjana]]) and Pavanasuta (son of Vāyu).''<ref name="rao" /><ref name="Mehtaxv" /><ref name="mahavirichaupai02">Rambhadradas 1984, [http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai02.php pp. 20–21] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141009200255/http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai02.php |date=9 October 2014 }}</ref>

Hanuman is called ''Anjaniputra'' as he was born from the womb of Anjana, who was an [[Apsara]] with the name Puñjikasthalā and was born as a Vanara by the curse of [[Agastya]].<ref name="mahavirichaupai02" /> Hanuman is called Pavanasuta since he is the divine son of [[Vayu|Vāyu]], and since the Valmiki Ramayana calls Hanuman as Vāyu's own son (''mārutasyaurasaḥ putraḥ'').<ref name="mahavirichaupai02" /><ref name="mahavirichaupai06">Rambhadradas 1984, [http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai06.php pp. 29–31]</ref>

{| style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto; width: 60em;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
|<poem>
[[Devanagari]]
महावीर विक्रम बजरंगी।
कुमति निवार सुमति के संगी॥ ३ ॥
</poem>
| <poem>
[[Hunterian transliteration|Hunterian]]
mahāvīra vikrama bajarangī।
kumati nivāra sumati ke sangī॥ 3 ॥
</poem>
|-
| colspan="2" |
|}
''You are the great hero, you are endowed with valour, your body is as strong as [[Indra]]'s [[Vajra#The Vajra in the Puranas|Vajra]]. You are the destroyer of vile intellect, and you are the companion of one whose intellect is pure.''<ref name="rao" /><ref name="Mehtaxv" /><ref name="mahavirichaupai03">Rambhadradas 1984, [http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai03.php pp. 22–25] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131211222303/http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai03.php |date=11 December 2013 }}</ref>

Rambhadracharya explains the word ''bajarangī'' to come from Sanskrit ''Vajrāṅgī'' and gives two meanings of the word ''bikrama'' based on the root ''kram'' in Sanskrit and usage of the verb form ''vikramasva'' in Valmiki Ramayana –<ref name="mahavirichaupai03" />
# Hanuman is endowed with special progression of ''sādhanā'' (penance).
# Hanuman is endowed with the special action of ''going over or across'', i.e. the crossing of the ocean

{| style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto; width: 60em;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
|<poem>
[[Devanagari]]
कंचन वर्ण विराज सुवेशा।
कानन कुंडल कुंचित केशा॥ ४ ॥
</poem>
| <poem>
[[Hunterian transliteration|Hunterian]]
kanchana barana birāja subesā।
kānana kundala kunchita kesā॥ 4 ॥
</poem>
|-
| colspan="2" |
|}
''Your complexion is that of molten gold, and you are resplendent in your handsome form. You wear Kundalas (small earrings worn in old times by Hindus) in your ears and your hair is curly.''<ref name="mahavirichaupai04">Rambhadradas 1984, [http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai04.php pp. 26–27] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304192733/http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai04.php |date=4 March 2016 }}</ref>

Noting that in the Ramcharitmanas Tulsidas calls Hanuman as ''Subeṣa'' (one with a handsome form), Rambhadracharya comments that this verse describes the form of Hanuman when he took the appearance of a Brahmin, which happens three times in the Ramcharitmanas.<ref name="mahavirichaupai04" />

{| style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto; width: 60em;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
|<poem>
[[Devanagari]]
हाथ वज्र अरु ध्वजा विराजै।
काँधे मूँज जनेऊ साजै॥ ५ ॥
</poem>
| <poem>
[[Hunterian transliteration|Hunterian]]
hātha bajra au dhvajā birājai।
kādhe mūnja janeū sājai॥ 5 ॥
</poem>
|-
| colspan="2" |
|}
''You have the [[Vajra]] and the flag in your hands, and the sacred-thread ([[Yajnopavita]]) made of the [[Tripidium bengalense|Munja grass]] adorns your shoulder.''<ref name="mahavirichaupai05">Rambhadradas 1984, [http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai05.php p. 28] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203051943/http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai05.php |date=3 February 2014 }}</ref>

Rambhadracharya gives two meanings for the first half of the verse –<ref name="mahavirichaupai05" />
# The flag signifying the victory of Rama shines forth in Hanuman's Vajra-like powerful hand
# The Vajra-like powerful [[Gada (weapon)|Gadā]] and the victory flag of Rama shine forth in Hanuman's hands
He also gives the variant reading ''chhājai'' (छाजै) instead of ''sājai'' (साजै) in the second half.<ref name="mahavirichaupai05" />

{| style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto; width: 60em;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
|<poem>
[[Devanagari]]
शंकर सुवन केसरी नंदन।
तेज प्रताप महा जग वंदन॥ ६ ॥
</poem>
| <poem>
[[Hunterian transliteration|Hunterian]]
shankara suvana kesarī nandana।
teja pratāpa mahā jaga bandana॥ 6 ॥
</poem>
|-
| colspan="2" |
|}
''O embodiment of Shiva (or son of Vāyu carrying the power of Shiva), the delighter of Kesari, your aura and majesty is great and is revered by the whole world.''<ref name="rao" /><ref name="Mehtaxv" /><ref name="mahavirichaupai06" />

Rao and Mehta explain the first half as Hanuman is the son of [[Kesari (Ramayana)|Kesari]] and Shiva.<ref name="rao" /><ref name="Mehtaxv" /> Rambhadracharya gives two variant readings for the first part–<ref name="mahavirichaupai06" />
# ''shankara svayam'' which is explained as Hanuman is Shiva himself, as Vāyu carried the power of Shiva himself in Anjana's womb from which Hanuman was born. Tulsidas mentions Hanuman as an Avatar of Shiva in the Vinayapatrika.
# ''shankara suvana'' which is explained as Hanuman is the son of Vāyu, who is one of the eight manifestations of Shiva as per [[Kalidasa]]. An alternate explanation is that the word ''suvana'' is used in the sense of ''Aṃśa'' as per the Puranic narrative of Vāyu carrying Shivas power to Anjana's womb.
Rambhadracharya explains ''kesarī nandana'' as the ''Kṣetraja'' son of Kesari, which is one of the twelve kinds of offspring recognized in the [[Classical Hindu law|ancient Hindu law]].<ref name="mahavirichaupai06" />

{| style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto; width: 60em;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
|<poem>
[[Devanagari]]
विद्यावान गुणी अति चातुर।
राम काज करिबे को आतुर॥ ७ ॥
</poem>
| <poem>
[[Hunterian transliteration|Hunterian]]
vidyāvāna gunī ati chātura।
rāma kāja karibe ko ātura॥ 7 ॥
</poem>
|-
| colspan="2" |
|}
''You are the praiseworthy abode of the eighteen types of [[Vidya (Knowledge)|Vidyā]] (knowledge), all virtues reside in you, and you are exceedingly clever.''<ref name="mahavirichaupai07">Rambhadradas 1984, [http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai07.php pp. 32–34] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203053019/http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai07.php |date=3 February 2014 }}</ref> ''You are ever eager to perform tasks for Rama.''<ref name="mahavirichaupai07" />

{| style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto; width: 60em;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
|<poem>
[[Devanagari]]
प्रभु चरित्र सुनिबे को रसिया।
राम लखन सीता मन बसिया॥ ८ ॥
</poem>
| <poem>
[[Hunterian transliteration|Hunterian]]
prabhu charitra sunibe ko rasiyā।
rāma lakhana sītā mana basiyā॥ 8 ॥
</poem>
|-
| colspan="2" |
|}
''You delight in listening to the acts of Rama (Ramayana).''<ref name="mahavirichaupai08">Rambhadradas 1984, [http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai08.php pp. 34–36] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203053028/http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai08.php |date=3 February 2014 }}</ref> ''Rama, Lakshmana and Sita reside in your mind.''<ref name="mahavirichaupai08" /> Alternately, ''you reside in the minds of Rama, Lakshmana and Sita [owing to their affection towards you].''<ref name="mahavirichaupai08" />

{| style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto; width: 60em;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
|<poem>
[[Devanagari]]
सूक्ष्म रूप धरी सियहिं दिखावा।
विकट रूप धरि लंक जरावा॥ ९ ॥
</poem>
| <poem>
[[Hunterian transliteration|Hunterian]]
sūkshma rūpa dhari siyahi dikhāvā।
bikata rūpa dhari lanka jarāvā॥ 9 ॥
</poem>
|-
| colspan="2" |
|}
''You assumed an extremely minute form and appeared to Sita in the Ashok Vatika. You assumed a very large and scary form and burnt the city of Lanka.''<ref name="mahavirichaupai09">Rambhadradas 1984, [http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai09.php pp. 37–38] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203053542/http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai09.php |date=3 February 2014 }}</ref>

{| style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto; width: 60em;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
|<poem>
[[Devanagari]]
भीम रूप धरि असुर सँहारे।
रामचन्द्र जी के काज सँवारे॥ १० ॥
</poem>
| <poem>
[[Hunterian transliteration|Hunterian]]
bhīma rūpa dhari asura sahāre।
rāmachandra ke kāja savāre॥ 10 ॥
</poem>
|-
| colspan="2" |
|}
''You assumed a frightening form and destroyed the demons [in the army of Ravana]. You carried out all the tasks of Rama.''<ref name="mahavirichaupai10">Rambhadradas 1984, [http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai10.php pp. 39–42] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203052112/http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai10.php |date=3 February 2014 }}</ref>

Rambhadracharya comments that the word ''bhīma'' is an allusion to the event in the [[Mahabharata]] when Hanuman showed the same frightening form to [[Bhima#Searching for Saugandhika flower|Bhima]].<ref name="mahavirichaupai10" />

[[File:Hanuman fetches the herb-bearing mountain, in a print from the Ravi Varma Press, 1910's.jpg|Hanuman fetches the mountain bearing the herb [[Sanjeevani (plant)|Sanjeevani]]|upright|thumb|left]]
{| style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto; width: 60em;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
|<poem>
[[Devanagari]]
लाय सँजीवन लखन जियाए।
श्रीरघुवीर हरषि उर लाए॥ ११ ॥
</poem>
| <poem>
[[Hunterian transliteration|Hunterian]]
lāya sanjīvani lakhana jiyāe।
shrī raghubīra harashi ura lāe॥ 11 ॥
</poem>
|-
| colspan="2" |
|}
''You brought the Sanjivini, the life saving herb from Dronagiri in Himalayas, and revitalized Lakshman. Out of elation, Rama embraced you.''<ref name="rao" /><ref name="Mehtaxvi">Mehta 2007, p. xvi</ref><ref name="mahavirichaupai11">Rambhadradas 1984, [http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai11.php p. 43] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203052635/http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai11.php |date=3 February 2014 }}</ref>

{| style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto; width: 60em;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
|<poem>
[[Devanagari]]
रघुपति कीन्ही बहुत बडाई।
तुम मम प्रिय भरतहिसम भाई॥ १२ ॥
</poem>
| <poem>
[[Hunterian transliteration|Hunterian]]
raghupati kīnhī bahut badāī।
tuma mam priya bharathi sama bhāī॥ 12 ॥
</poem>
|-
| colspan="2" |
|}
''Rama, the chief among [[Raghu]]'s descendants, praised you profusely saying "You are dear to me like my brother [[Bharata (Ramayana)|Bharata]].''<ref name="rao" /><ref name="Mehtaxvi" /><ref name="mahavirichaupai12">Rambhadradas 1984, [http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai12.php pp. 44–45] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203052908/http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai12.php |date=3 February 2014 }}</ref>

Rambhadracharya associates the term ''bhāī'' with ''bharata''.<ref name="mahavirichaupai12" /> In contrast, Rao and Mehta interpret the second half as ''Rama said that you (Hanuman) are my dear brother, like Bharata.''<ref name="rao" /><ref name="Mehtaxvi" />

{| style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto; width: 60em;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
|<poem>
[[Devanagari]]
सहस्त्र बदन तुम्हरो यश गावैं।
अस कहि श्रीपति कंठ लगावैं॥ १३ ॥
</poem>
| <poem>
[[Hunterian transliteration|Hunterian]]
sahasa badana tumharo jasa gāvai।
asa kahi shrīpati kantha lagāvai॥ 13 ॥
</poem>
|-
| colspan="2" |
|}
Rao and Mehta's translation – ''Rama also added that a thousand people will praise Hanuman's glory and embraced him again.''<ref name="rao" /><ref name="Mehtaxvi" />

Rambhadracharya interprets ''sahasa badana'' as the thousand-hooded serpent [[Shesha]].<ref name="mahavirichaupai13">Rambhadradas 1984, [http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai13.php pp. 45–46]</ref> His translation is ''The serpent Shesha, who has a thousand mouths, sings and will sing your glory, saying thus Rama embraces Hanuman again and again.''<ref name="mahavirichaupai13" />

{| style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto; width: 60em;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
|<poem>
[[Devanagari]]
सनकादिक ब्रह्मादि मुनीशा।
नारद शारद सहित अहीशा॥ १४ ॥
यम कुबेर दिगपाल जहाँते।
कवि कोविद कहि सकैं कहाँते॥ १५ ॥
</poem>
| <poem>
[[Hunterian transliteration|Hunterian]]
sanakādika brahmādi munīsā।
nārada sārada sahita ahīsā॥ 14 ॥
jama kubera dikpāla jahā te।
kabi kobida kahi sakai kahā te॥ 15 ॥
</poem>
|-
| colspan="2" |
|}
Rao and Mehta translate the two verses as ''Saints like [[Four Kumaras|Sanka]], Bramha, Munisa, [[Narad]], Sarad, Sahit and Ahisa have blessed Hanuman; [[Yama]] (God of death), [[Kubera]] (God of wealth), [[Dikpala]] (Gods of eight directions), Kavis (poets), Kovidas (folk singers) cannot describe Hanuman's reputation.''<ref name="rao" /><ref name="Mehtaxvi" /> Rambhadracharya associates the verb ''gāvai'' in verse 13 with verse 14 and first half of verse 15 also, interprets ''ahīsā'' as standing for both Shiva and Vishnu, and ''kovida'' as one who knows Vedas.<ref name="mahavirichaupai1415">Rambhadradas 1984, [http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai14.php pp. 46–47], [http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai15.php 48–49]</ref> His translation reads ''The celibate Rishis like Sanaka, the [[Devata]]s like [[Brahma]], [[Narada]] the best among Munis (sages), [[Saraswati]] with Shiva and Vishnu, the eight Dikpalas including Yama and Kubera – all these will sing your glory. To what extent can the mortal poets and scholars of Vedas speak about your infinite glory?''<ref name="mahavirichaupai1415" />

{| style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto; width: 60em;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
|<poem>
[[Devanagari]]
तुम उपकार सुग्रीवहि कीन्हा।
राम मिलाय राजपद दीन्हा॥ १६ ॥
</poem>
| <poem>
[[Hunterian transliteration|Hunterian]]
tuma upakāra sugrīvahi kīnhā।
rāma milāya rājapada dīnhā॥ 16 ॥
</poem>
|-
| colspan="2" |
|}
''You did [[Sugriva]] a great favour by making him meet Rama and bestowing on him the kingdom of [[Kishkindha]].''<ref name="rao" /><ref name="Mehtaxvi" /><ref name="mahavirichaupai16">Rambhadradas 1984, [http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai16.php pp. 49–50]</ref>

{| style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto; width: 60em;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
|<poem>
[[Devanagari]]
तुम्हरो मन्त्र विभीषण माना।
लंकेश्वर भए सब जग जाना॥ १७ ॥
</poem>
| <poem>
[[Hunterian transliteration|Hunterian]]
tumharo mantra bibhīshana mānā।
lankeshvara bhae saba jaga jānā॥ 17 ॥
</poem>
|-
| colspan="2" |
|}
''Your [[Mantra]] was accepted by [[Vibishana]], as a result of which he became the king of [[Lanka]].''<ref name="rao" /><ref name="Mehtaxvi" /><ref name="mahavirichaupai17">Rambhadradas 1984, [http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai17.php pp. 51–52]</ref> ''The whole world knows this.''<ref name="mahavirichaupai17" />

{| style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto; width: 60em;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
|<poem>
[[Devanagari]]
युग सहस्र योजन पर भानू।
लील्यो ताहि मधुर फल जानू॥ १८ ॥
</poem>
| <poem>
[[Hunterian transliteration|Hunterian]]
juga sahasra jojana para bhānū।
līlyo tāhi madhura phala jānū॥ 18 ॥
</poem>
|-
| colspan="2" |
|}
''On your own you dashed upon the sun, [[Surya]], which is thousands of [[yojana]]s away, thinking it to be a sweet fruit.'' <ref group=note>A [[yuga]] is 12000 years, [[sahasra]] means 1000, and [[yojana]] can be interpreted as 8 miles. This gives the distance between the Earth and the sun as 12000 × 1000 × 8 = 9,60,00,000 miles. (More accurately, this distance is actually 9,29,55,807.273 miles.)</ref>

{| style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto; width: 60em;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
|<poem>
[[Devanagari]]
प्रभु मुद्रिका मेलि मुख माही।
जलधि लाँघि गये अचरज नाही॥ १९ ॥
</poem>
| <poem>
[[Hunterian transliteration|Hunterian]]
prabhu mudrikā meli mukha māhī।
jalaghi lāghi gaye acharaja nāhī॥ 19 ॥
</poem>
|-
| colspan="2" |
|}
''O Lord, placing the ring given by Rama in your mouth, you leaped across the ocean – there is no wonder here.''<ref name="mahavirichaupai19">Rambhadradas 1984, [http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai19.php p. 55] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203052632/http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai19.php |date=3 February 2014 }}</ref>

{| style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto; width: 60em;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
|<poem>
[[Devanagari]]
दुर्गम काज जगत के जेते ।
सुगम अनुग्रह तुम्हरे तेते॥ २० ॥
</poem>
| <poem>
[[Hunterian transliteration|Hunterian]]
durgama kāja jagata ke jete।
sugama anugraha tumhare tete॥ 20 ॥
</poem>
|-
| colspan="2" |
|}
''All the unattainable tasks in the world become easily attainable with your grace.''<ref name="mahavirichaupai20">Rambhadradas 1984, [http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai20.php pp. 56–57] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203052243/http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai20.php |date=3 February 2014 }}</ref>

{| style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto; width: 60em;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
|<poem>
[[Devanagari]]
राम दुआरे तुम रखवारे।
होत न आज्ञा बिन पैसारे॥ २१ ॥
</poem>
| <poem>
[[Hunterian transliteration|Hunterian]]
rāma duāre tuma rakhavāre।
hota na āgnyā binu paisāre॥ 21 ॥
</poem>
|-
| colspan="2" |
|}
''You are the doorkeeper and protector of the door to Rama's court. Without your command, nobody can enter the abode of Rama.''<ref name="mahavirichaupai21">Rambhadradas 1984, [http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai21.php pp. 57–60]</ref>

Rambhadracharya explains ''paisāre'' as the [[Tadbhava]] form of Sanskrit ''padasāra''.<ref name="mahavirichaupai21" />

[[File:Raja Ravi Varma, Bharat Milap (Lithographic Print).jpg|right|upright|thumb|Depiction of Bharata (Lord Rama's Youngest Brother) meeting Lord Rama watched by Hanuman, Sita and Lakshman.... From Left – Hanuman, Bharata, Lord Rama, Sita and Lakshman]]
{| style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto; width: 60em;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
|<poem>
[[Devanagari]]
सब सुख लहै तुम्हारी शरना।
तुम रक्षक काहू को डरना॥ २२ ॥
</poem>
| <poem>
[[Hunterian transliteration|Hunterian]]
saba sukha lahai tumhārī saranā।
tuma rakshaka kāhū ko daranā॥ 22 ॥
</poem>
|-
| colspan="2" |
|}
''Once in your refuge, a Sādhaka obtains all the pleasures. You are the protector, and there is nothing to be afraid of.''<ref name="mahavirichaupai22">Rambhadradas 1984, [http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai22.php p. 61]</ref>

{| style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto; width: 60em;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
|<poem>
[[Devanagari]]
आपन तेज सम्हारो आपै।
तीनौं लोक हाँक ते काँपे॥ २३ ॥
</poem>
| <poem>
[[Hunterian transliteration|Hunterian]]
āpana teja samhāro āpai।
tinau loka hāka te kāpai॥ 23 ॥
</poem>
|-
| colspan="2" |
|}
''When you roar, after remembering your powers, the three worlds tremble with fear.''<ref name="mahavirichaupai23">Rambhadradas 1984, [http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai23.php p. 62–63] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203053405/http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai23.php |date=3 February 2014 }}</ref>

Rambhadracharya comments that this verse refers to the narrative of [[Jambavan]] reminding Hanuman of his powers in the Kishkindha Kanda of Ramayana.<ref name="mahavirichaupai23" />

{| style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto; width: 60em;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
|<poem>
[[Devanagari]]
भूत पिशाच निकट नहिं आवै।
महावीर जब नाम सुनावै॥ २४ ॥
</poem>
| <poem>
[[Hunterian transliteration|Hunterian]]
bhūta pishācha nikata nahi āvai।
mahābīra jaba nāma sunāvai॥ 24 ॥
</poem>
|-
| colspan="2" |
|}
''Evil spirits (bhūta) and meat-eating ghosts (pishācha) do not come near those chant the Mahāvira name of yours.''<ref name="mahavirichaupai24">Rambhadradas 1984, [http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai24.php pp. 63–64]</ref>

{| style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto; width: 60em;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
|<poem>
[[Devanagari]]
नासै रोग हरै सब पीरा।
जपत निरंतर हनुमत बीरा॥ २५ ॥
</poem>
| <poem>
[[Hunterian transliteration|Hunterian]]
nāsai roga harai saba pīrā।
japata nirantara hanumata bīrā॥ 25 ॥
</poem>
|-
| colspan="2" |
|}
''The brave Hanuman, when invoked incessantly by the means of Japa, destroys all ailments and removes all sufferings.''<ref name="mahavirichaupai25">Rambhadradas 1984, [http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai25.php p. 64] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203053135/http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai25.php |date=3 February 2014 }}</ref>

{| style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto; width: 60em;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
|<poem>
[[Devanagari]]
संकट से हनुमान छुड़ावै।
मन क्रम बचन ध्यान जो लावै॥ २६ ॥
</poem>
| <poem>
[[Hunterian transliteration|Hunterian]]
sankata te hanumāna chhudāvai।
mana krama bachana dhyāna jo lāvai॥ 26 ॥
</poem>
|-
| colspan="2" |
|}
''Hanuman extricates those from all adversities who remember him (or contemplate upon him) in their heart, by their actions and by their words.''<ref name="rao" /><ref name="Mehtaxix">Mehta 2007, p. xix</ref><ref name="mahavirichaupai26">Rambhadradas 1984, [http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai26.php p. 65] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203052445/http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai26.php |date=3 February 2014 }}</ref>

{| style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto; width: 60em;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
|<poem>
[[Devanagari]]
सब पर राम तपस्वी राजा।
तिन के काज सकल तुम साजा॥ २७ ॥
</poem>
| <poem>
[[Hunterian transliteration|Hunterian]]
saba para rāma tapasvī rājā।
tina ke kāja sakala tuma sājā॥ 27 ॥
</poem>
|-
| colspan="2" |
|}
''Rama is the supreme God and a king with [[Tapas (Sanskrit)|Tapas]], and yet you executed all his tasks.''<ref name="rao" /><ref name="Mehtaxix" /><ref name="mahavirichaupai27">Rambhadradas 1984, [http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai27.php pp. 66–67] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203051823/http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai27.php |date=3 February 2014 }}</ref>

Rambhadracharya explains that the word ''saba para'' is from Sanskrit ''sarvapara'', meaning supreme. A variant reading of this verse is ''sabapara rāma rāya siratājā'', on which Rambhadracharya's commentary says Rama is the supreme God and king of kings.<ref name="mahavirichaupai27" />

{| style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto; width: 60em;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
|<poem>
[[Devanagari]]
और मनोरथ जो कोई लावै।
सोई अमित जीवन फल पावै॥ २८ ॥
</poem>
| <poem>
[[Hunterian transliteration|Hunterian]]
aura manoratha jo koī lāvai।
Sohi amita jīvana phala pāvai॥ 28 ॥
</poem>
|-
| colspan="2" |
|}
''And whoever comes to you with any wish, that wish is fulfilled beyond limits (literally, "they obtain the unlimited fruit of the wish") in this very birth.''<ref name="rao" /><ref name="Mehtaxix" /><ref name="mahavirichaupai28">Rambhadradas 1984, [http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai28.php pp. 67–68]</ref>

A variant reading is ''soī amita jīvana phala pāvai''.<ref name="mahavirichaupai28" />

{| style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto; width: 60em;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
|<poem>
[[Devanagari]]
चारों युग परताप तुम्हारा।
है परसिद्ध जगत उजियारा॥ २९ ॥
</poem>
| <poem>
[[Hunterian transliteration|Hunterian]]
chāro juga para tāpa tumhārā।
hai parasiddha jagata ujiyyārā॥ 29 ॥
</poem>
|-
| colspan="2" |
|}
''Your glory is famous in all the four [[Yuga]]s, and illuminates the whole world.''<ref name="rao" /><ref name="Mehtaxxi">Mehta 2007, p. xxi</ref><ref name="mahavirichaupai29">Rambhadradas 1984, [http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai29.php pp. 68–69]</ref>

Rambharacharya adds that this verse refers to the Immortality and Glory of Lord Hanuman in all the four Yugas.

{| style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto; width: 60em;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
|<poem>
[[Devanagari]]
साधु संत के तुम रखवारे।
असुर निकंदन राम दुलारे॥ ३० ॥
</poem>
| <poem>
[[Hunterian transliteration|Hunterian]]
sādhu santa ke tuma rakhavāre।
asura nikandana rāma dulāre॥ 30 ॥
</poem>
|-
| colspan="2" |
|}
''You are the protector of [[Sadhu]]s (good people or ascetics) and [[Sant (religion)|Sants]] (saints). You are the destroyer of demons and dear as a son to Rama.''<ref name="mahavirichaupai30">Rambhadradas 1984, [http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai30.php p. 70] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203053025/http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai30.php |date=3 February 2014 }}</ref>

Rambhadracharya interprets the word ''sādhu'' as Bhaktas who are performing ''sādhanā'' and the word ''santa'' as Bhaktas whose ''sādhanā'' is complete.<ref name="mahavirichaupai30" />

{| style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto; width: 60em;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
|<poem>
[[Devanagari]]
अष्ट सिद्धि नव निधि के दाता।
अस बर दीन्ह जानकी माता॥ ३१ ॥
</poem>
| <poem>
[[Hunterian transliteration|Hunterian]]
ashta siddhi nau nidhi ke dātā।
asa bara dīnha jānakī mātā॥ 31 ॥
</poem>
|-
| colspan="2" |
|}
''You are the bestower the eight ''[[Siddhi]]s ''(supernatural powers named Aṇimā, Garimā, Mahimā, Laghimā, Prāpti, Prākāmya, Īśitva, and Vaśitva) and the nine [[Nidhi]]s'' (divine treasures named Mahāpadma, Padma, Śaṅkha, Makara, Kacchapa, Mukunda, Kunda, Nīla and Kharva). Mother Sita, the daughter of [[Janaka]], has granted you this boon.''<ref name="mahavirichaupai31">Rambhadradas 1984, [http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai31.php pp. 71–72]</ref>

{| style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto; width: 60em;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
|<poem>
[[Devanagari]]
राम रसायन तुम्हरे पासा।
सादर हे रघुपति के दासा॥ ३२ ॥
</poem>
| <poem>
[[Hunterian transliteration|Hunterian]]
rāma rasāyana tumhare pāsā।
sādar he raghupati ke dāsā॥ 32 ॥
</poem>
|-
| colspan="2" |
|}
''You have the treasure of Rama's Bhakti (''rāma rasāyana'') with you. Oh, respectfully, the servant of Raghupati (Shri Raam).''<ref name="mahavirichaupai32">Rambhadradas 1984, [http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai32.php pp. 72–73] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203051938/http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai32.php |date=3 February 2014 }}</ref>

Rambhadracharya explains the term ''rāma rasāyana'' in two ways –<ref name="mahavirichaupai32" />
# The treasure of love (Bhakti) towards Rama, with ''rasa'' meaning devotion and ''āyana'' meaning repository
# The abode of devotion to Rama (i.e. Ramāyana), with ''rasa'' meaning devotion and ''āyana'' meaning a house or edifice
The second half has variant readings including ''sadā raho'' and ''sādara tuma'' instead of ''sādara ho''<ref>Nityanand Misra 2015, pp. 139, 182.</ref>

{| style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto; width: 60em;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
|<poem>
[[Devanagari]]
तुम्हरे भजन राम को भावै।
जनम जनम के दुख बिसरावै॥ ३३ ॥
</poem>
| <poem>
[[Hunterian transliteration|Hunterian]]
tumhare bhajana rāma ko pāvai।
janama janama ke dukha bisarāvai॥ 33 ॥
</poem>
|-
| colspan="2" |
|}
''Singing of you (Hanuman), a Bhakta obtains Rama and forgets the adversities and afflictions of [[Reincarnation|many births]].''<ref name="mahavirichaupai33">Rambhadradas 1984, [http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai33.php pp. 73–74]</ref>

Rambhadracharya explains using verses from Ramcharitmanas and Kavitavali, that as per Tulsidas [[Jnana|Jñāna]] and [[Vairagya|Vairāgya]] are the two means to obtain Rama, and Hanuman is both Jñāna and Vairāgya incarnate.<ref name="mahavirichaupai33" /> Hence serving Hanuman leads to Rama.<ref name="mahavirichaupai33" />

{| style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto; width: 60em;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
|<poem>
[[Devanagari]]
अंत काल रघुपति पुर जाई।
जहाँ जन्म हरिभक्त कहाई॥ ३४ ॥
</poem>
| <poem>
[[Hunterian transliteration|Hunterian]]
anta kāla raghubara pura jāī।
jahā janma hari bhakta kahāī॥ 34 ॥
</poem>
|-
| colspan="2" |
|}
''As a result of devotion to you, a Bhakta goes to [[Saket|Sāketa Loka]] (''raghubara pura'') at the time of their end (physical death). Once the Bhakta reaches Sāketa, wherever they take birth, they are known as the Bhaktas of Hari.''<ref name="mahavirichaupai34">Rambhadradas 1984, [http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai34.php pp. 74–75] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203052638/http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai34.php |date=3 February 2014 }}</ref>

Rambhadracharya interprets this verse to mean that the Bhakta, even discards the blissful Moksha to take birth again in this world as a devotee of Hari, as Tulsidas says in the fourth book of Ramcharitmanas.<ref name="mahavirichaupai34" />

{| style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto; width: 60em;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
|<poem>
[[Devanagari]]
और देवता चित्त न धरई।
हनुमत सेइ सर्व सुख करई॥ ३५ ॥
</poem>
| <poem>
[[Hunterian transliteration|Hunterian]]
aura devatā chitta na dharaī।
hanumata sei sarba sukha karaī॥ 35 ॥
</poem>
|-
| colspan="2" |
|}
''Even one who does not contemplate on any other Devatas in their mind and only serves Hanuman, achieves all favourable bliss in this world and the next.''<ref name="mahavirichaupai35">Rambhadradas 1984, [http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai35.php pp. 76–77] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203052105/http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai35.php |date=3 February 2014 }}</ref>

Rambhadracharya explains that as per [[Bhagavad Gita]], only Devatas can grant the desired results of actions, but even if one serves Hanuman and no other Devata, they obtain all worldly and other-worldly bliss.<ref name="mahavirichaupai35" />

{| style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto; width: 60em;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
|<poem>
[[Devanagari]]
संकट हटै मिटै सब पीरा।
जो सुमिरै हनुमत बलबीरा॥ ३६ ॥
</poem>
| <poem>
[[Hunterian transliteration|Hunterian]]
sankata katai mitai saba pīrā।
jo sumirai hanumata balabīrā॥ 36 ॥
</poem>
|-
| colspan="2" |
|}
''Whoever remembers the brave and mighty Hanuman gets free of all adversities and relief from all pains.''<ref name="rao" /><ref name="Mehtaxix" /><ref name="mahavirichaupai36">Rambhadradas 1984, [http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai36.php pp. 77–78] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203053247/http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai36.php |date=3 February 2014 }}</ref>

{| style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto; width: 60em;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
|<poem>
[[Devanagari]]
जय जय जय हनुमान गोसाईं।
कृपा करो गुरुदेव की नाईं॥ ३७ ॥
</poem>
| <poem>
[[Hunterian transliteration|Hunterian]]
jaya jaya jaya hanumāna gosāī।
kripā karahu gurudeva kī nāī॥ 37 ॥
</poem>
|-
| colspan="2" |
|}
''O Hanuman, the master of senses, may you be victorious, may you be victorious, may you be victorious. May you shower your grace lovingly, as a Guru does, and reveal to me the knowledge of devotion to Rama.''<ref name="rao" /><ref name="mahavirichaupai37">Rambhadradas 1984, [http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai37.php pp. 78–79] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203052912/http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai37.php |date=3 February 2014 }}</ref><ref name="Mehtaxix" />

Rambhadracharya interprets the three utterances of ''jaya'' to mean that Hanuman is [[Satcitananda|sat-cit-ānanda]].<ref name="mahavirichaupai37" />

{| style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto; width: 60em;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
|<poem>
[[Devanagari]]
यह शत बार पाठ कर जोई।
छूटहि बंदि महा सुख होई॥ ३८ ॥
</poem>
| <poem>
[[Hunterian transliteration|Hunterian]]
jo shata bāra pātha kara koī।
chhūtahi bandi mahā sukha hoī॥ 38 ॥
</poem>
|-
| colspan="2" |
|}
''One who recites ''Hanuman Chalisa'' a hundred times (or for hundred days) is released from bondage and obtains great bliss".''<ref name="rao" /><ref name="Mehtaxxiii">Mehta 2007, p. xxiii</ref><ref name="mahavirichaupai38">Rambhadradas 1984, [http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai38.php pp. 79–80]</ref>

Rambhadracharya interprets ''shata'' as standing for the number 108 and ''bāra'' (Sanskrit ''vāra'') to mean a day.<ref name="mahavirichaupai38" /> He explains the words to mean that one who recites the ''Hanuman Chalisa'' 108 times daily for 108 days will be released from the bondages of this world and the next, and will obtain great bliss.<ref name="mahavirichaupai38" />

{| style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto; width: 60em;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
|<poem>
[[Devanagari]]
जो यह पढ़ै हनुमान चालीसा।
होय सिद्धि साखी गौरीसा॥ ३९ ॥
</poem>
| <poem>
[[Hunterian transliteration|Hunterian]]
jo yaha padhai hanumāna chālīsā।
hoya siddhi sākhī gaurīsā॥ 39 ॥
</poem>
|-
| colspan="2" |
|}
''One who reads this ''Hanuman Chalisa'' obtains Siddhi (accomplishment or liberation). Shiva himself bears witness to this statement.''<ref name="mahavirichaupai39">Rambhadradas 1984, [http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai39.php pp. 80–81]</ref>

Rao and Mehta explain this as "One who reads ''Hanuman Chalisa'' attains ''siddhis'' of God [[Shiva]] and becomes his friend."<ref name="rao" /><ref name="Mehtaxxiii" />

{| style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto; width: 60em;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
|<poem>
[[Devanagari]]
तुलसीदास सदा हरि चेरा।
कीजै नाथ हृदय मह डेरा॥ ४० ॥
</poem>
| <poem>
[[Hunterian transliteration|Hunterian]]
tulasīdāsa sadā hari cherā।
kījai nātha hridaya maha derā॥ 40 ॥
</poem>
|-
| colspan="2" |
|}
''Tulsidas is always a devotee of Hari. O Lord, make my heart your abode.''<ref name="rao" /><ref name="Mehtaxxiii" />

Rambhadracharya offers three explanations for this verse in accordance with three different ''Anvaya''s (connection of words)<ref name="mahavirichaupai40">Rambhadradas 1984, [http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai40.php pp. 81–82] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203051945/http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/chaupai40.php |date=3 February 2014 }}</ref> –
# O Hanuman, the lord of Vanaras, you are always in the service of Hari (Rama), may you reside in the heart of Tulsidas.
# Tulsidas says O Lord Hanuman, may you ever reside in the heart of the devotees who serve Hari (Rama).
# Tulsidas is ever the servant of Hari (Hanuman, as Hari also means Vanara in Sanskrit), may you reside in my heart.

=== Concluding doha ===
{| style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto; width: 60em;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
|<poem>
[[Devanagari]]

पवनतनय संकट हरण मंगल मूरति रूप।
राम लखन सीता सहित हृदय बसहु सुर भूप॥
</poem>
| <poem>
[[Hunterian transliteration|Hunterian]]
pavantanaya sankata harana mangala mūrati rūpa।
rāma lakhan sītā sahita hridaya basahu sura bhūpa॥
</poem>
|-
| colspan="2" |
|}
''O Son of Vāyu, remover of adversities, one with an auspicious form, and the chief among all Devas, may you reside in our hearts along with Rama, Lakshman and Sita.''<ref name="rao" /><ref name="mahaviridoha03">Rambhadradas 1984, [http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/doha03.php pp. 83–84] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203051940/http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/doha03.php |date=3 February 2014 }}</ref><ref name="Mehtaxxiii" />

Rambhadracharya explains that Tulsidas addresses Hanuman with four adjectives in this final verse to indicate that Hanuman helps cleanse the mind (''Manas''), intellect (''Buddhi''), heart (''Citta'') and ego (''Ahaṅkāra''), and by asking him to reside in the heart of the devotee, Tulsidas ends the work by implying that the refuge of Hanuman is the supreme pursuit.<ref name="mahaviridoha03" />

=== Commentaries ===
Before the 1980s, no commentary had been composed on the ''Hanuman Chalisa'', which Rambhadracharya attributes to the work not being included in printed editions of collected works of Tulsidas.<ref name="mahaviriintro" /> Indubhushan Ramayani authored the first brief commentary on ''Hanuman Chalisa''.<ref name="mahaviriintro" /> Rambhadracharya's ''Mahaviri'' commentary in Hindi, authored in 1983,<ref name="mahaviriintro" /> was called the best commentary on ''Hanuman Chalisa'' by Ram Chandra Prasad.<ref name="prasad-hc">{{cite book | last = Prasad | first = Ram Chandra | title = Sri Ramacaritamanasa The Holy Lake of the Acts of Rama | publisher = Motilal Banarsidass | year = 1999 | edition = Illustrated, reprint | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BiYt00x5tcQC&pg=849 | access-date=7 June 2013 | orig-year = First published 1991 | location = Delhi, India | isbn = 978-81-208-0443-2 | quote = श्रीहनुमानचालीसा की सर्वश्रेष्ठ व्याख्या के लिए देखें महावीरी व्याख्या, जिसके लेखक हैं प्रज्ञाचक्षु आचार्य श्रीरामभद्रदासजी। श्रीहनुमानचालीसा के प्रस्तुत भाष्य का आधार श्रीरामभद्रदासजी की ही वैदुष्यमंडित टीका है। इसके लिए मैं आचार्यप्रवर का ऋणी हूँ। [For the best explanation of Śrīhanumānacālīsā, refer the Mahāvīrī commentary, whose author is the visually-disabled Ācārya Śrīrāmabhadradāsa. The base for the commentary on Śrīhanumānacālīsā being presented is the commentary by Śrīrāmabhadradāsa, which is adorned with erudition. For this, I am indebted to the eminent Ācārya.]}}</ref>

== Review ==
[[Swami Karpatri]] considered ''Hanuman Chalisa'' to be a supreme ''[[pramana]]'', omnipotent and capable of fulfilling all wishes, like the Vedic [[mantra]]s.<ref name="mahaviriintro" /> Rambhadracharya called it full of auspiciousness and a "jewel amongst stotras", and said that he had witnessed and heard of many instances where the wishes of people reciting the Chalisa with [[Śraddhā|faith]] were granted.<ref name="mahaviriintro" />

== In popular culture ==
The ''Hanuman Chalisa'' is recited by millions of Hindus every day,<ref name="nm2015foreword" /> and most practising Hindus in India know its text by heart.<ref name="nm2015preface">Nityanand Misra 2015, pp. xvii–xxi.</ref> The work is known to be popular among people from diverse educational, social, linguistic, musical, and geographical groups.<ref name="nm2015preface" />

=== Classical and folk music ===
The ''Hanuman Chalisa'' is one of the best selling Hindu religious books and has been sung by many popular bhajan, classical and folk singers.<ref name="nm2015preface" /> The rendition of ''Hanuman Chalisa'' by [[Hari Om Sharan]], originally released in 1974 by the [[Saregama|Gramophone Company of India]] and re-released in 1995 by [[Super Cassettes Industries T-Series|Super Cassettes Industries]],<ref name="nm2015notation" /> is one of the most popular, and is regularly played at temples and homes across Northern India.<ref name="nm2015preface" /><ref>{{cite book | title=Cassette Culture: Popular Music and Technology in North India – Chicago Studies in Ethnomusicology | last=Manuel | first=Peter | edition=2, illustrated | publisher=University of Chicago Press | year=1993 | page=[https://archive.org/details/cassetteculturep00manu/page/n138 117] | isbn=978-0-226-50401-8 | url-access=registration | url=https://archive.org/details/cassetteculturep00manu }}</ref> This rendition is based on traditional melodies in the Mishra Khamaj, a [[raga]] belonging to the [[Khamaj]] [[That (music)|That]],<ref name="nm2015notation">Nityanand Misra 2015, pp. 199–212.</ref> with the base note taken at the second black key (''kali do'') of the [[harmonium]].<ref name="nm2015notation" /> A recording based on the same traditional melodies was released in 1992 by Super Cassettes Industries, with [[Hariharan (singer)|Hariharan]] as the singer and [[Gulshan Kumar]] as the artiste.<ref name="nm2015notation" />

Other notable renditions include those by bhajan singers [[Anup Jalota]] and [[Ravindra Jain]], Hindustani vocalists [[Pandit Jasraj]] and [[Rajan and Sajan Mishra]], and the Carnatic vocalist [[M.S. Subbulakshmi]].<ref name="nm2015notation" /> The renditions by [[P. Unni Krishnan|Unni Krishnan]], [[Nithyasree Mahadevan]], [[Pandit Bhimsen Joshi]], [[Ganapathi Sachchidananda]] Swamiji and [[Morari Bapu]] are also popular.{{citation needed|date=January 2014}}

Among western singers [[Krishna Das (singer)|Krishna Das]] has performed the Hanuman Chalisa in both slow and fast formats.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://krishnadas.com/podcasts/call-response/spiritual-experiences-auschwitz-and-bernie-glassman/|title = Ep. 27 | Spiritual Experiences, Auschwitz and Bernie Glassman|date = June 15, 2020}}</ref>

=== Popular movies ===
In the Hindi movie ''[[1920 (film)|1920]]'' (directed by [[Vikram Bhatt]]), ''Hanuman Chalisa'' is frequently used in different scenes. One of the scenes show the protagonist Arjun Singh Rathod (played by [[Rajneesh Duggal]]), reciting the ''Hanuman Chalisa'' in full. It is used in an important sequence in ''[[Bajrangi Bhaijaan]],'' when the protagonist fights back against child traffickers and rescues a little girl from them.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bajrangi Bhaijaan Plot Summary – Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/bajrangi-bhaijaan-plot-summary/articleshow/48108672.cms|access-date=2021-02-01|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>

An animation movie named ''Shri Hanuman Chalisa'' directed by [[Charuvi Agrawal|Charuvi Agarwal]] and designed by [[Charuvi Design Labs]] is a film on Hanuman.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://animationgalaxy.in/Newsindetail.aspx?Dept=Creatives&PID=96|title=Charuvi Design Labs release The Second official teaser for "Shri Hanuman Chalisa"|access-date=2016-04-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160423025521/http://animationgalaxy.in/Newsindetail.aspx?Dept=Creatives&PID=96|archive-date=23 April 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://animationgalaxy.in/Newsindetail.aspx?Dept=Creatives&PID=91|title=Charuvi Design Labs release The first official teaser for "Shri Hanuman Chalisa"|access-date=2016-04-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160423033637/http://animationgalaxy.in/Newsindetail.aspx?Dept=Creatives&PID=91|archive-date=23 April 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Popular music ===
Popular singers who have sung the ''Hanuman Chalisa'' include Carnatic singer [[M. S. Subbulakshmi]], as well as [[Lata Mangeshkar]], [[Mahendra Kapoor]], [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]], [[Shankar Mahadevan]], [[Anuradha Paudwal]], [[Kailash Kher]], [[Sukhwinder Singh]], and [[Udit Narayan]].<ref name="nm2015preface" />

The ''Hanuman Chalisa'' was sung by [[Amitabh Bachchan]] in chorus with twenty other singers.<ref name="nm2015preface" /> This recording was released as a part of the ''Shri Hanuman Chalisa'' album in 2011 and received an unprecedented response by the releasing music label during November 2011.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-11-06/news-and-interviews/30364066_1_tv-ad-campaign-music-label-album|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111109075136/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-11-06/news-and-interviews/30364066_1_tv-ad-campaign-music-label-album|url-status=dead|archive-date=9 November 2011|title=All in praise of the Almighty|date=6 November 2011|work=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=10 June 2012}}</ref>

A rendition of ''Hanuman Chalisa'' sung by [[Gulshan Kumar]] and [[Hariharan (singer)|Hariharan]] became the first devotional song and first on [[YouTube]] to cross 2 billion views in November 2021. It is also currently the most viewed [[List of most-viewed Indian music videos on YouTube|Indian]] music video on [[YouTube]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://infotonline.com/hanuman-chalisa-by-gulshan-kumar-crosses-1b-views/|title=Hanuman Chalisa by Gulshan Kumar crosses 1B views on YouTube, another World record made by T-series|work=Infotonline|date=27 May 2020|access-date=May 27, 2020}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Shri Ramachandra Kripalu]]
* [[Thumak Chalat Ram Chandra]]
{{Portal bar|India|Religion}}

== Notes ==
{{reflist|group=note}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

=== Bibliography ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last1=de Bruyn |first1=Pippa |last2=Bain |first2=Keith |last3=Allardice |first3=David |last4=Joshi |first4=Shonar |title=Frommer's India |year=2010 |publisher=John Wiley and Sons |isbn=978-0-470-60264-5 |location=Hoboken, New Jersey |page=471}}
* {{cite book |last1=Callewaert |first1=Winand M. |last2=Schilder |first2=Robert |title=Banaras: Vision of a Living Ancient Tradition |year=2000 |publisher=Hemkunt Press |isbn=9788170103028 |location=New Delhi, India |page=90}}
* {{cite book |last=Chaturvedi |first=B.K. |title=Shri Hanuman Chalisa (Roman) |year=1994b |publisher=Diamond Pocket Books |location=New Delhi |isbn=81-7182-395-5}}
* {{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Constance |last2=Ryan |first2=James D. |isbn=978-0-8160-5458-9 |title = Encyclopedia of Hinduism |series=Encyclopedia of World Religions |location=New York |year=2007 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |page=456 |quote=It can be said without reservation that Tulsidas is the greatest poet to write in the Hindi language. Tulsidas was a Brahmin by birth and was believed to be a reincarnation of the author of the Sanskrit Ramayana, Valmiki.}}
* {{cite book |last=Mehta |first=Pt. Vijay Shankar |title=Kripa Karahu Guru Dev Ki Naain |year=2007 |publisher=Radhakrishnan Prakashan |location=New Delhi |isbn=978-81-8361-041-4 |page=9 |edition=2nd}}
* {{cite book |last=Misra |first=Munindra |title=Shri Hanuman Chalisa in English Rhyme with original text |year=2015 |publisher=Osmora Inc. |location=United States |isbn=9782765913702}}
* {{cite book |last=Misra |first=Nityanand |author-link=Nityanand Misra |title=Mahāvīrī: Hanumān-Cālīsā Demystified |year=2015 |publisher=Niraamaya Publishing Services Pvt Ltd |location=Mumbai, India |isbn=9788193114407}}
* {{cite book |last=Mitra |first=Swati |title=Good Earth Varanasi City Guide |publisher=Eicher Goodearth Limited |location=New Delhi, India |year=2002 |isbn=9788187780045 |page=216}}
* {{cite book |last=Peebles |first=Patrick |title = Voices of South Asia: Essential Readings from Antiquity to the Present |publisher=M.E. Sharpe Inc. |location=United States |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-7656-3480-1 |page=216}}
* {{cite web |last=Rambhadradas |author-link=Rambhadracharya |website=Jagadgururambhadracharya.org |date=8 June 1984 |publisher=Krishnadas Charitable Trust |location=New Delhi, India |language=hi |trans-title=Shri Hanuman Chalisa (with the Mahaviri commentary) |script-title=hi:संकट तें हनुमान छुड़ावै। मन क्रम बचन ध्यान जो लावै |url=http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/contents.php |access-date=29 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117205618/http://jagadgururambhadracharya.org/works/hcm/contents.php |archive-date=17 November 2013}}
* {{cite book |last=Rao |first=Cheeni |title=In Hanuman's Hands: A Memoir |year=2009 |publisher=Harper Collins Publishers |location=United States |isbn=978-0-06-073662-0 |page=393 |edition=First}}
* {{cite book |last=Sahni |first=Bhisham |author-link=Bhisham Sahni |isbn=9788171789603 |title=Nilu, Nilima, Nilofara |location=New Delhi, India |language=hi |year=2000 |publisher=Rajkamal Prakashan Pvt Ltd |pages=78–80 |quote=हिन्दी का सौभाग्य है कि उसके काव्यकुंज की तुलसी-मंजरी की जैसी सुगंध संसार की साहित्य वाटिका में शायद कहीं नहीं। ... आकर्षण दोनों में अत्यधिक है अपने-अपने ढंग पर दोनों ही बहुत बड़े हैं, पर फिर भी सब तरफ़ से केवल काव्य के सौंदर्य पर विचार करने पर तुलसीदास ही बड़े ठहरते हैं – भाषा साहित्य में रवीन्द्रनाथ के संबंध में कहना पड़ता है कि भ्रम त्रुटियाँ मिल सकती हैं पर तुलसीदास के संबंध में कोई शायद ही मिले। ... और यही कारण है निराला जी तुलसीदास को कालिदास, व्यास, वाल्मीकि, होमर, गेटे और शेक्सपियर के समकक्ष रखकर उनके महत्त्व का आकलन करते हैं।}}
* {{cite book |last=Subramanian |first=Vadakaymadam Krishnier |location=New Delhi, India |title=Hymns of Tulsidas |publisher=Abhinav Publications |year=2008 |isbn=9788170174967 |page=inside cover |quote=Famous classical singers like Paluskar, Anoop Jalota and MS Subbulakshmi have popularised Tulsidas's hymns among the people of India.}}
{{refend}}

[[Category:Hanuman]]
[[Category:Hindi poetry]]
[[Category:Bhakti movement]]
[[Category:Hindu music]]
[[Category:16th-century poems]]

Shani

2023-01-20T08:28:00Z

ImportMaster: robot: Create/update articles in Category:Hindu gods.

{{Short description|Hindu deity associated with Saturn}}
{{Other uses}}
{{EngvarB|date=April 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2019}}
{{Infobox deity
| type = Hindu
| name = '''Shani'''
| other_names = Shaneeshwara, Chhayasutha, Pingala, Kakadhwaja, Konastha, Babhru, Roudhraantak, Shanescharam, Sauri, Mand, Krishna, Pipplayshraya, Raviputram
| script_name = Devanagari
| script = शनि
| image = Shani graha.JPG
| affiliation = [[Graha]], [[Deva (Hinduism)|Deva]]
| abode = Shaniloka
| deity_of ='''[[Saturn]]'''
| day = Saturday
| color = [[Black]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.astrosagar.com/article.asp?id=71 |title=Archived copy |access-date=10 June 2018 |archive-date=21 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191021002911/http://www.astrosagar.com/article.asp?id=71 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| tree = Jammi/Peepal/ Shami/ Khejri/ or Ghaf tree.
| number = 8,17,26
| mount = [[Crow]]
| father = [[Surya]]
| mother = [[Chhaya]]
| consort = [[Manda (goddess)|Manda]] and [[Neela (goddess)|Neelima]]
| offspring = Maandi and Kuligna
| gender = Male
| weapon = [[Sceptre]], [[trident]], [[axe]]
| mantra = {{IAST|"Om kaakadhwajaaya vidmahae khadga hastaaya dheemahi tanno mandah prachodayaat"}}{{refn|group=note|Translation: Om, Let me meditate on him who has crow in his flag,
Oh, He who has a sword in his hand, give me higher intellect,
And let Saneeswara illuminate my mind.}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hindupedia.com/en/G%C4%81yatri_Mantras_of_Several_Gods |title=Gāyatri Mantras of Several Gods - Hindupedia, the Hindu Encyclopedia |publisher=Hindupedia.com |date= |accessdate=2022-08-11}}</ref> and {{IAST|"Om Sham Shaneeshwaraya Namaha"}}<ref>{{cite web | url=https://allbhajanlyrics.com/shani-mantra-lyrics-video/ |title=Shani Mantra|date=27 June 2021}}</ref>
| planet = [[Saturn]]
| member_of = [[Navagraha]]
| siblings = [[Tapati]], [[Savarni Manu]], [[Yamraj]], [[Yami]], [[Ashvins]], [[Shraddhadeva Manu]] and [[Revanta]]
| greek_equivalent = [[Cronus]]
| roman_equivalent = [[Saturn (mythology)|Saturn]]
| norse_equivalent = [[Njörðr]]
| etruscan_equivalent = [[Satre (Etruscan god)|Satre]]
| caption = A lithograph print of Shani riding a chariot led by a crow
| texts = [[Brahma Vaivarta Purana]], [[Harivamsa]]
| temple = Shani Shignapur
| god_of = Justice
}}
'''Shani''' ({{lang-sa|शनि}}, {{IAST|Śani}}), or '''Shanaishchara''' ({{lang-sa|शनैश्चर}}, {{IAST|Śanaiśchara}}), refers to the divine personification of the planet [[Saturn]] in [[Hinduism]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Planet Saturn (Shani) in Astrology|url=https://www.rudraksha-center.com/pages/planet-saturn-shani|access-date=2021-01-14|website=www.rudraksha-center.com}}</ref> and is one of the nine heavenly objects ([[Navagraha]]) in [[Hindu astrology]].<ref name="Dalal2010p373">{{cite book |first = Roshen |last = Dalal |title = Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&pg=PA373 |year = 2010 |publisher = Penguin Books India |isbn = 978-0-14-341421-6 |page = 373 }}</ref> Shani is also a male Hindu deity in the [[Puranas]], whose iconography consists of a black figure carrying a sword or danda (sceptre) and sitting on a [[crow]].<ref name="Dalal2010p373" /><ref name="Lochtefeld2002p608" /> He is the god of ''[[Karma|Karma (deeds)]], ''justice, and retribution and delivers results depending upon one's thoughts, speech, and deeds (karma).<ref>{{Citation|last=LastWeekTonight|title=Felony Disenfranchisement: Last Week Tonight with John Oliver (HBO)|date=2018-09-09|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NpPyLcQ2vdI |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211219/NpPyLcQ2vdI |archive-date=2021-12-19 |url-status=live|access-date=2018-10-27}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Shani is the controller of longevity, misery, sorrow, old age, discipline, restriction, responsibility, delays, ambition, leadership, authority, humility, integrity, and wisdom born of experience. He also signifies spiritual asceticism, penance, discipline, and conscientious work. He married twice, first to [[Neela (goddess)|Neela]], the personification of the [[Sapphire|Blue Sapphire gemstone]] and second to [[Manda (goddess)|Manda]], a [[Gandharva]] princess.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Saxena|first=Archit|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=duzcDwAAQBAJ&q=neelima+manda&pg=PR149|title=Durga : A Governing Mother: Mother-Son Duo logy Book - 2|date=2020-04-13|publisher=Archit Saxena|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Why Was Shani Dev Cursed By His Wife?|url=https://in.style.yahoo.com/why-shani-dev-cursed-wife-074832628.html|access-date=2021-01-14|website=in.style.yahoo.com|language=en-IN}}</ref>

==Planet==
''Shani'' as a planet appears in various Hindu astronomical texts in [[Sanskrit]], such as the 5th-century ''Aryabhatiya'' by [[Aryabhatta]], the 6th-century ''Romaka'' by Latadeva and ''Pancha Siddhantika'' by Varahamihira, the 7th-century ''Khandakhadyaka'' by Brahmagupta and the 8th-century ''Sisyadhivrddida'' by Lalla.<ref name="Burgess1989vii">{{cite book|first=Ebenezer|last=Burgess|editor=P Ganguly, P Sengupta|title=Sûrya-Siddhânta: A Text-book of Hindu Astronomy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W0Uo_-_iizwC|year=1989|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass (Reprint), Original: Yale University Press, American Oriental Society|isbn=978-81-208-0612-2|pages=vii–xi}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Aryabhatta|author2=H. Kern (Editor, Commentary)|title=The Aryabhatiya|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z8EUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PT21 |year=1973|publisher=Brill Archive |language=sa, en|pages=6, 21}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Bina|last=Chatterjee|title=The Khandakhadyaka (an astronomical treatise) of Brahmagupta: with the commentary of Bhattotpala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WKOtRmgr1nkC| year=1970|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass| oclc= 463213346 | language=sa|pages=75–77, 40, 69}}</ref> These texts present Shani as one of the planets and estimate the characteristics of the respective planetary motion.<ref name="Burgess1989vii" /> Other texts such as [[Surya Siddhanta]] dated to have been complete sometime between the 5th century and 10th century present their chapters on various planets as divine knowledge linked to deities.<ref name="Burgess1989vii" />

The manuscripts of these texts exist in slightly different versions, present Shani's motion in the skies, but vary in their data, suggesting that the text were open and revised over their lives. The texts slightly disagree in their data, in their measurements of Shani's revolutions, apogee, epicycles, nodal longitudes, orbital inclination, and other parameters.<ref>{{cite book|first=Ebenezer|last=Burgess|editor=P Ganguly, P Sengupta|title=Sûrya-Siddhânta: A Text-book of Hindu Astronomy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W0Uo_-_iizwC|year=1989|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass (Reprint), Original: Yale University Press, American Oriental Society|isbn=978-81-208-0612-2|pages=ix-xi}}</ref> For example, both ''Khandakhadyaka'' and ''Surya Siddhanta'' of Varaha state that Shani completes 146,564 revolutions on its own axis every 4,320,000 earth years, an Epicycle of Apsis as 60 degrees, and had an apogee (aphelia) of 240 degrees in 499 CE; while another manuscript of ''Soorya Siddhantha'' revises the revolutions to 146,568, the apogee to 236 degrees and 37 seconds and the Epicycle to about 49 degrees.<ref>{{cite book|first=Ebenezer|last=Burgess|editor=P Ganguly, P Sengupta|title=Soorya-Siddhânta: A Text-book of Hindu Astronomy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W0Uo_-_iizwC|year=1989|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass (Edited and Reprinted), Original: Yale University Press, American Oriental Society|isbn=978-81-208-0612-2|pages=ix-x}}</ref>

The 1st-millennium-CE Hindu scholars had estimated the time it took for sidereal revolutions of each planet including Shani, from their astronomical studies, with slightly different results:<ref name="Burgess198926">{{cite book|first=Ebenezer|last=Burgess|editor=P Ganguly, P Sengupta|title=Soorya-Siddhânta: A Text-book of Hindu Astronomy|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=W0Uo_-_iizwC|year=1989|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass (Reprint), Original: Yale University Press, American Oriental Society|isbn=978-81-208-0612-2|pages=26–27}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:auto; background:none;"
|+ Sanskrit texts: How many days does it take for Shani (Saturn) to complete its orbit?
|- style="text-align: center;"
| width="200" | Source
| width="340" | Estimated time per sidereal revolution<ref name="Burgess198926"/><ref>{{cite web|last=Williams|first=Matt|date=2017-04-17|title=The Orbit of Saturn. How Long is a Year on Saturn?|url=https://www.universetoday.com/44172/how-long-does-it-take-saturn-to-orbit-the-sun/|access-date=2021-01-14|website=Universe Today|language=en-US}}</ref>
|- style="text-align: center;"
| width="200" style="background: #ffad66;" | [[Surya Siddhanta]]
| width="340" | 10,765 days, 18 hours, 33 minutes, 13.6 seconds
|- style="text-align: center;"
| width="200" style="background: #ffad66;" | Siddhanta Shiromani
| width="340" | 10,765 days, 19 hours, 33 minutes, 56.5 seconds
|- style="text-align: center;"
| width="200" | [[Ptolemy]]
| width="340" | 10,758 days, 17 hours, 48 minutes, 14.9 seconds
|- style="text-align: center;"
| width="200" | 20th-century calculations
| width="340" | 10,759 days, 5 hours, 16 minutes, 32.2 seconds
|}

== Iconography ==
[[File:Shani Dev.jpg|thumb|left|Shani Dev in a temple, Kolkata, West Bengal, India]]
[[File:Shani Deva roadside shrine between Dharamsala and Chandigarh. 2010.jpg|thumb|Shani [[wayside shrine]] between [[Dharamsala]] and [[Chandigarh]], 2010]]
Shani is depicted wearing blue or black robes, having dark complexion and riding a vulture or on an iron chariot drawn by eight horses. He holds in his hands a bow, an arrow, an axe and a trident. He is canonically represented riding on a large crow which follows him wherever he goes. Some astrologers believe he has more than one mount such as a horse, elephant, donkey, lion, dog, jackal, deer and vulture, although this is controversial.<ref>{{cite web|last=M. A.|first=English Literature|title=Learn About the Hindu Deity Shani Dev and How Praying Wards Off Evil|url=https://www.learnreligions.com/shani-dev-1770303|access-date=2021-02-19|website=Learn Religions|language=en}}</ref>

Shani is believed to be the incarnation of [[Krishna]] according to [[Brahma Vaivarta Purana]] where Krishna said that he is "Shani among planets". He is also called ''Saneeswar'' meaning "Lord of Saturn" and is designated the task of granting the fruits of one's action, thus becoming the most feared amongst Hindu astrological gods. He is often the most misunderstood deity in the Hindu Pantheon as he is said to cause persistent chaos in one's life, and is known to be milder if worshipped.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Mohan|first=Lavanya|date=2016-01-30|title=Shani's law|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/thread/arts-culture-society/article8168976.ece|access-date=2021-03-07|issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Shani Dev – Know Everything About him|url=https://www.mantraquest.com/shani-dev.html|access-date=2021-03-09|website=MantraQuest.com}}</ref>

Shani is the root for name for the day Saturday in many other Indian languages. In modern [[Hindi]], [[Odia language|Odia]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Urdu]], [[Kannada language|Kannada]] and [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], Saturday is called ''Shanivaar''; [[Tamil language|Tamil]]: ''Sani kizhamai''; [[Malayalam]]: ''Shaniyazhcha''; [[Thai solar calendar#Weeks|Thai]]: ''Wạn s̄eār̒'' (วันเสาร์).

== Calendar ==
''Shani'' is the basis for ''Shanivara'' – one of the seven days that make a week in the Hindu calendar.<ref name="Lochtefeld2002p608">{{cite book |first = James G. |last = Lochtefeld |title = The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N-Z |url = https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch |url-access = registration |year = 2002 |publisher = The Rosen Publishing Group |isbn = 978-0-8239-3180-4 |pages = [https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch/page/608 608]–609 }}</ref> This day corresponds to Saturday – after Saturn – in the Greco-Roman convention for naming the days of the week.<ref>{{cite book |first = Walter W. |last = Skeat |title = The Concise Dictionary of English Etymology |url = https://archive.org/details/concisedictionar0000skea |url-access = registration |year = 1993 |publisher = Wordsworth |isbn = 978-1-85326-311-8 |page = [https://archive.org/details/concisedictionar0000skea/page/415 415] }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author = T. F. Hoad |title = The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=CDaPuAAACAAJ |year = 2008 |publisher = Oxford University Press |isbn = 978-1-4395-0571-7 |page = 1329 |chapter = Saturday }}</ref> ''Shani'' is considered to be the most malefic planet that brings restrictions and misfortunes.<ref>{{cite web|title=Benefic And Malefic Planets For Each Ascendant|url=http://shrivinayakaastrology.com/Planets/beneficandmaleficplanets.html|access-date=2021-01-14|website=shrivinayakaastrology.com}}</ref>

Shani is part of the [[Navagraha]] in Hindu zodiac system, considered malefic, associated with spiritual asceticism, penance, discipline and conscientious work. The role and importance of the Navagraha developed over time with various influences. Deifying planetary bodies and their astrological significance occurred as early as the [[Vedic period]] and was recorded in the [[Vedas]]. The earliest work of astrology recorded in India is the [[Vedanga Jyotisha]] which began to be compiled in the 14th century BCE. It was possibly based on works from the Indus Valley Civilization as well as various foreign influences. [[Babylonian astrology]] which was the first astrology and calendar to develop, and was adopted by multiple civilizations including India. The [[classical planet]]s, including Saturn.

The Navagraha developed from early works of astrology over time. Saturn and various [[classical planet]]s were referenced in the [[Atharvaveda]] around 1000 BCE. The Navagraha was furthered by additional contributions from [[Western Asia]], including [[Zoroastrian calendar|Zoroastrian]] and [[Hellenistic astrology|Hellenistic]] influences. The [[Yavanajataka]], or 'Science of the [[Yavana]]s', was written by the [[Indo-Greek Kingdom|Indo-Greek]] named "[[Yavanesvara]]" ("Lord of the Greeks") under the rule of the [[Western Kshatrapa]] king [[Rudrakarman I]]. The Yavanajataka written in 120 CE is often attributed to standardizing Indian astrology. The Navagraha would further develop and culminate in the [[Shaka era]] with the [[Saka]] or Scythian, people. Additionally the contributions by the Saka people would be the basis of the [[Indian national calendar]], which is also called the Saka calendar.

The [[Hindu calendar]] is a [[Lunisolar calendar]] which records both lunar and solar cycles. Like the Navagraha, it was developed with the successive contributions of various works.

Planet ''Shani'' rules over both zodiac signs, [[Capricorn (astrology)|Capricorn]] and [[Aquarius (astrology)|Aquarius]], two of the twelve constellations in the zodiac system of Hindu astrology.<ref>{{cite web|last=Backlund|first=Roya|title=Every Zodiac Sign Has A Ruling Planet & This Is Yours|url=https://www.elitedaily.com/p/every-zodiac-sign-has-a-ruling-planet-this-is-yours-9049398|access-date=2021-01-14|website=Elite Daily|language=en}}</ref> If ''Shani'' rules over your zodiac sign, it is said you must wear a ring with a stone made of [[Sapphire|Blue Sapphire]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=Lucky Stone by Date of Birth - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/astrology/gemstones/lucky-stone-by-date-of-birth/articleshow/68204969.cms|access-date=2021-01-04|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>

==Deity==
''Shani'' is a deity in medieval era texts, who is considered inauspicious and is feared for delivering misfortune and loss to those who deserve it.<ref>{{cite book|first=Michael|last=Jordan|title=Dictionary of Gods and Goddesses|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aqDC5bwx4_wC |year=2014|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-0985-5|page=283}}</ref> He is also capable of conferring boons and blessings to the worthy, depending upon their karma. In medieval Hindu literature, he is mainly referred to as the son of [[Surya]] and [[Chhaya]], or in few accounts as the son of [[Balarama]] and [[Revati]].<ref name="Dalal2010p373" /><ref>{{cite book|first=John|last=Dowson|title=A Classical Dictionary of Hindu Mythology and Religion, Geography, History and Literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=leH7AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA278 |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-39029-6|page=278}}</ref> His alternate names include '''Ara'', ''Kona''' and '''Kroda'''.<ref name="Dalal2010p373" /> As per the Hindu texts, 'peepal' or fig tree is the abode of Shani (while other texts associate the same tree with Vasudeva).<ref>{{cite book |first = David L. |last = Haberman |title = People Trees: Worship of Trees in Northern India |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=s8cVDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA106 |year = 2013 |publisher = Oxford University Press |isbn = 978-0-19-992916-0 |page = 106 }}</ref> He is also believed to be the greatest teacher who rewards the righteous acts and punishes those who follow the path of evil, [[Adharma]] and betrayal.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Apr 5|first1=Sonam Gupta {{!}}|last2=2017|last3=Ist|first3=11:16|title=Saturn and its Effects on Humans {{!}} - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/astrology/planets-transits/saturn-and-its-effects-on-humans/articleshow/68206180.cms|access-date=2021-01-14|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Bennanje Sri Shaneeswara 23 feet Statue Udupi.JPG|160px|thumb|Statue of Shani in [[Bannanje]], [[Udupi]], [[Karnataka]]]]
In 2013, a 20-foot-tall statue of Lord ''Shani'' was established at Yerdanur in the mandal of [[Sangareddi|Sangareddy]], [[Medak district]], [[Telangana]], nearly 40 kilometers from Hyderabad city. It was carved from a [[Monolith]] and weighs about nine tonnes.{{citation needed|date=April 2022}}

== Mantra Translation ==
Shani's mantra is depicted here, in Sanskrit and English, with the translation;<ref>{{cite web|title=Gāyatri Mantras of Several Gods - Hindupedia, the Hindu Encyclopedia|url=http://www.hindupedia.com/en/G%C4%81yatri_Mantras_of_Several_Gods#.C5.9Aani.C5.9Bwara_G.C4.81yatri|access-date=2021-02-15|website=www.hindupedia.com}}</ref>

''English: "Om kaakadhwajaaya vidmahae khadga hastaaya dheemahi tanno mandah prachodayaat<nowiki>''</nowiki>''

Sanskrit: ओम काकध्वजाय विद्महे खड्ग हस्ताय धीमहि तन्नो मंदः प्रचोदयात्

Translation: Om, Let me meditate on him who has crow in his flag, Oh, He who has a sword in his hand, give me higher intellect, And let Saneeswara illuminate my mind.

== Dedicated Day ==
On Saturdays, it is believed that one should worship Lord Shani to keep oneself away from evil and to reduce the hardships of life as he blesses those who willingly and voluntarily donate to the poor without seeking anything in return.<ref>{{cite web|title=Shani Puja {{!}} Blessings of Shani Dev {{!}} Shani Dev Pooja Vidhi|url=https://www.pavitrajyotish.com/shani-puja/|access-date=2021-02-10|website=www.pavitrajyotish.com|date=10 February 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Here's how you can worship Lord Shani to keep your karma in check|url=https://www.timesnownews.com/spiritual/article/here-s-how-you-can-worship-lord-shani-to-keep-your-karma-in-check/589244|access-date=2021-02-10|website=www.timesnownews.com|language=en}}</ref>
[[File:Shani dev statue at Naksaal Bhagwati Temple.jpg|thumb|Shani statue at Naksaal Bhagwati Temple]]
Shani puja is usually done to keep one safe from Lord Shani's malefic effects. On Saturday, the devotee also fasts from dawn to dusk. Wake up early in the morning and take oil bath after applying sesame oil on your body. After bath, wear black clothes for the day. On the whole day, use Sesame oil for lighting lamp.<ref>{{cite web|last=OnlinePuja|title=Method of worship of Lord Shani - Onlinepuja.com|url=https://onlinepuja.com/blog/method-worship-lord-shani|access-date=2021-02-10|website=onlinepuja.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=How To Do Shani Puja At Home - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/religion/rituals-puja/how-to-do-shani-puja-at-home/articleshow/68206139.cms|access-date=2021-02-10|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>

== Saturn Temples ==
{{anchor | Temple | Temples }}
{{ see also | List of Natchathara temples | List of Hindu temples }}
[[File:A Shani temple in Jammu.jpg|thumb|Entrance of a Shani temple in [[Jammu]]]]

Shani temples are found in more populated areas of India, such as [[Maharashtra]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Haryana]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Karnataka]], [[West Bengal]] and [[Andhra Pradesh]].
Shani Shingnapur Dham in particular is a famous holy place associated with Lord Shani, the deity. Shani Shinganapur or Shingnapur is a village in the Indian state of Maharashtra. Situated in Nevasa taluka in Ahmednagar district, the village is known for its popular temple of Shani, the Hindu god associated with the planet Saturn. Shingnapur is 35 km from Ahmednagar city.
More common than Shani temples are artwork related to himself, which are found in all types of temples of various traditions within Hinduism, mostly connected to [[Shaivism]]. Popularity for praying to Shani, especially on Saturday's, has increased gradually over the years.<ref>{{cite web|title=10 Most Important Shrines and Temples Of God Shanidev|url=http://www.walkthroughindia.com/hindu-temple/10-most-important-shrines-and-temples-of-god-shanidev/|access-date=2021-03-18|language=en-US}}</ref>

== In television ==
*[[Daya Shankar Pandey]] played the role of Shani Dev in ''Mahima Shani Dev Ki'' which aired on NDTV Imagine from 2010 to 2012.
*On 7 November 2016 the show ''[[Shani (TV series)|Karmafal Daata Shani]]'' aired on [[Colors TV]]; it depicts the life of Shani. [[Kartikey Malviya]] plays the role of younger Shani and [[Rohit Khurana]] of mature Shani.The show ended on 9 March 2018.
* In 2017 the remake of the [[Shani (TV series)|Karmafal Daata Shani]] was made in [[Kannada]] titled ''Shani'' telecasted on [[Colors Kannada]]. Sunil plays the role of young Shani. Pranav Sridhar plays the role of mature Shani.
*In 2020 the show [[Devi Adi Parashakti]] aired on [[Dangal (TV channel)|Dangal TV]]; [[Rohit Khurana]] plays the role of Lord Shani.

== See also ==

* [[Rigvedic deities]]
** [[Nakshatra]]
** [[List of Natchathara temples]]
** [[Aditi]]
** [[Surya Namaskar]]
* [[List of Hindu deities]]
* [[List of Hindu temples]]
* [[Hindu pilgrimage sites|List of Hindu pilgrimage sites]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite journal |last = Pingree |first = David |author-link1= David Pingree|title = The Mesopotamian Origin of Early Indian Mathematical Astronomy |journal = Journal for the History of Astronomy |publisher = SAGE |volume = 4 |issue = 1 |year = 1973 |pages = 1–12 |doi = 10.1177/002182867300400102 |bibcode = 1973JHA.....4....1P |s2cid = 125228353 }}
* {{cite book |last = Pingree |first = David |title = Jyotihśāstra : Astral and Mathematical Literature |publisher = Otto Harrassowitz |year = 1981 |isbn = 978-3-447-02165-4 }}
* {{cite book |first = Yukio |last = Ohashi |editor-first = Johannes |editor-last = Andersen |title = Highlights of Astronomy, Volume 11B |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=gQYscrT0fgQC |year = 1999 |publisher = Springer Science |isbn = 978-0-7923-5556-4 }}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://adsbit.harvard.edu//full/1999JRASC..93..122F/0000123.000.html Astronomical Names for the Days of the Week], M Falk (1999)
* [http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/other/019wdz000001063u00047000.html The God Shani or the Planet Saturn], Iconongraphy on a column in Madurai [[Meenakshi Temple]], British Library
* Shani Chalisa [https://lyricsbean.com/shani-chalisa-lyrics-pdf/ In Hindi With English PDF File]

{{Navagraha}}
{{Hindu astrology}}
{{HinduMythology}}
{{authority control}}

[[Category:Navagraha]]
[[Category:Hindu gods]]
[[Category:Rigvedic deities]]
[[Category:Saturnian deities]]
[[Category:Justice gods]]
[[Category:Shani]]

Ashvins

2023-01-20T07:20:26Z

ImportMaster: robot: Create/update articles in Category:Hindu gods.

{{short description|Hindu twin gods of medicine}}
{{Infobox deity
| type = Hindu
| deity_of = Gods of Health and Medicine
| other_names = Ashvini Kumaras, Ashvinau, Nasatya, Dasra
| consort = Sūryā{{sfn|Kramisch|Miller|1983|p=171}}{{sfn|Jamison|Brereton|2014|p=48}}
| children = [[Nakula]] (spiritual son) [[Sahadeva]] (spiritual son)
| father = [[Surya]]
| mother = [[Sanjna]]
| siblings = [[Revanta]], [[Yami]], [[Yama]], [[Shraddhadeva Manu]], [[Shani]], [[Karna]], [[Tapati]] and [[Savarni Manu]]
| image = Ashwini Kumaras-L.jpg
| affiliation = [[Deva (Hinduism)|Devas]]
| greek_equivalent = [[Dioskuri]]
| equivalent1 = [[Ašvieniai]], [[Dieva Dēli]]
| equivalent1_type = Baltic
| texts = ''[[Rigveda]], [[Mahabharata]], [[Purana]]''s
}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}

The '''Ashvins''' ({{lang-sa|अश्विन्|Aśvin|horse possessors}}), also known as the '''Ashvini Kumaras''' and '''Asvinau''',<ref name=":0">{{Harvnb|Frame|2009}}, §1.42.</ref> are [[Hindu deities|Hindu]] twin gods associated with medicine, health, dawn, and the sciences.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wise|first=Thomas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2u0lAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA4|title=Commentary on the Hindu System of Medicine|date=1860|publisher=Trübner|language=en|pages=4}}</ref> In the ''[[Rigveda]]'', they are described as youthful divine twin horsemen, travelling in a chariot drawn by horses that are never weary, and portrayed as guardian deities that safeguard and rescue people by aiding them in various situations.{{sfn|Jamison|Brereton|2014|p=48}}{{Sfn|West|2007|p=187}}

There are varying accounts, but Ashvins are generally mentioned as the sons of the sun god [[Surya]] and his wife [[Sanjna]]. In the epic ''[[Mahabharata]],'' the Pandava twins [[Nakula]] and [[Sahadeva]] were the children of the Ashvins.

== Etymology and epithets ==
The [[Sanskrit]] name ''{{IAST|Aśvín}}'' (अश्विन्) derives from the [[Proto-Indo-Iranian language|Indo-Iranian]] stem ''*Haćwa-'' (cf. [[Avestan]] ''aspā''), itself from the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Indo-European]] word for the horse, ''*H1éḱwos'', from which also descends the Lithuanian name ''[[Ašvieniai]]''.<ref name=":02">[[Alexander Lubotsky|Lubotsky, Alexander]]. "Indo-Aryan Inherited Lexicon". ''Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Project''. [[Leiden University]]. s.v. ''áśva-''.</ref>

In the ''[[Rigveda]]'', the Ashvins are always referred to in the dual, without individual names,{{Sfn|West|2007|p=187}} although Vedic texts differentiate between the two Ashvins: "one of you is respected as the victorious lord of Sumakha, and the other as the fortunate son of heaven" (''RV'' 1.181.4). They are called several times ''divó nápātā,'' that is 'grandsons of [[Dyaus|Dyaús]] (the sky-god)'. This formula is comparable with the Lithuanian ''Dievo sūneliai'', 'sons of [[Dievas]] (the sky-god'), attached to the [[Ašvieniai]]; the Latvian ''[[Dieva Dēli]]'', the 'sons of Dievs (the sky-god)'; and the Greek ''Diós-kouroi'', the 'boys of [[Zeus]]', designating [[Castor and Pollux]].{{sfn|West|2007|p=187–191}}{{Sfn|Parpola|2015a|pp=109–110}}

The twin gods are also referred to as ''Nā́satyā'' (possibly 'saviours'; a derivative of ''nasatí'', 'safe return home'), a name that appears 99 times in the ''Rigveda''.{{Sfn|Parpola|2015a|pp=109–110}} The [[epithet]] probably derives from the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] root ''*nes-'' ('to return home [safely]'), with [[cognate]]s in the [[Avestan]] ''Nā̊ŋhaiθya'', the name of a demon – as a result of a [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] religious reformation that changed the status of prior deities –, and also in the Greek hero [[Nestor (mythology)|Nestor]] and in the [[Gothic language|Gothic]] verb ''nasjan'' ('save, heal').{{Sfn|Frame|2009|p=}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ahmadi|first=Amir|date=2015|title=Two Chthonic Features of the Daēva Cult in Historical Evidence|journal=History of Religions|volume=54|issue=3|pages=348|doi=10.1086/679000|issn=0018-2710|jstor=10.1086/679000|s2cid=162230518}}</ref>

In the later ''[[Mahabharata]]'', the Ashvins are often called the ''Nasatyas'' or ''Dasras''. Sometimes one of them is referred to as ''Nasatya'' and one as ''Dasra''.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Thadani|first=N.v.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MlKeGQiC58oC&q=nasatya+and+dasra&pg=PA362|title=The Mystery of the Mahabharata: Vol. I|publisher=India Research Press|pages=362|language=en}}</ref>

== Origin and equivalents==
The Ashvins are an instance of the [[Proto-Indo-European religion|Indo-European]] [[Divine twins|divine horse twins]].{{Sfn|Mallory|Adams|2006|p=432}}<ref>{{cite book|title=Comparative Mythology|last=Puhvel|first=Jaan|date=1987|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|isbn=0-8018-3938-6|location=Baltimore, Maryland|pages=58–61|author-link=Jaan Puhvel}}
</ref>{{Sfn|West|2007|p=187}} Reflexes in other Indo-European religions include the Lithuanian [[Ašvieniai]], the Latvian [[Dieva Dēli]], the Greek [[Castor and Pollux]]; and possibly the English [[Hengist and Horsa]], and the Welsh [[Bran the Blessed|Bran]] and [[Manawydan]].{{Sfn|Mallory|Adams|2006|p=432}}{{sfn|West|2007|p=187–191}} The first mention of the Nasatya twins is from a [[Mitanni-Aryan|Mitanni]] treaty (c.1350 BCE), between [[Suppiluliuma]] and [[Shattiwaza]], respectively kings of the Hittites and the [[Mitanni]].<ref>KBo 1 1. {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/hittitediplomati00beck_0 |title=Hittite Diplomatic Texts|author=Gary M. Beckman|date=1999 |publisher=Scholars Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/hittitediplomati00beck_0/page/53 53]|isbn=9780788505515|url-access=registration}}. Excerpt http://www.heritageinstitute.com/zoroastrianism/ranghaya/suppiluliuma_shattiwaza_treaty.htm</ref>

==Literature and legends==
[[File:Birth of the Celestial Twins, Folio from a Harivamsha (Lineage of Vishnu) LACMA M.83.1.7 (1 of 2).jpg|thumb|upright|Birth of Ashwinikumar, a folio from the text ''[[Harivansha]]'']]

===Vedic texts===
The Ashvins are mentioned 398 times in the ''Rigveda'',<ref name=":0" /> with more than 50 hymns specifically dedicated to them: 1.3, 1.22, 1.34, 1.46–47, 1.112, 1.116–120, 1.157–158, 1.180–184, 2.20, 3.58, 4.43–45, 5.73–78, 6.62–63, 7.67–74, 8.5, 8.8–10, 8.22, 8.26, 8.35, 8.57, 8.73, 8.85–87, 10.24, 10.39–41, 10.143.{{Sfn|West|2007|p=187}}

{{Poemquote|text=Your chariot, o Aśvins, swifter than mind, drawn by good horses, comes to the clans.
By which (chariot) you go to the home of the good ritual performer, by that, o men, travel your course to us.
You free Atri, the seer of the five peoples, from narrow straits, from the earth cleft along with his band, o men—confounding the wiles of the merciless Dasyu, driving them out, one after another, o bulls.

O Aśvins—you men, you bulls—by the wondrous powers you draw back together the seer Rebha, who bobbed away in the waters, like a horse hidden by those of evil ways. Your ancient deeds do not grow old.|char=1.117.2–4|sign=|title=|source=The Rigveda, translated by Stephanie W. Jamison (2014){{sfn|Jamison|Brereton|2014|pp=272–273}}}}
According to the text, the Ashvins were born after the sun god [[Vivasvat]] and his wife [[Saranyu]] (Sanjna) engaged in love making in the form of a stallion and a mare respectively.{{sfn|Lang|1887}} The Ashvins are also called "''divó nápātā"'', which is variously translated as either "sons" or "grandsons" of Dyaush.{{sfn|West|2007|p=187–191}}{{Sfn|Parpola|2015a|pp=109–110}}<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Macdonell|first=Arthur Anthony|title=Vedic Mythology|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1897|pages=51}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last1=De Witt Griswold|first1=Harvey|title=The Religion of the Rigveda|last2=Farquhar|first2=J. N.|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1923|pages=262}}</ref> At one mention, the [[Indus River|Indus (Sindhu) River]] is stated to be their mother.{{sfn|Jamison|Brereton|2014|p=157}} Ashvins were the close companions of the Vedic mother goddess [[Ushas]] (dawn) and sometimes they are even mentioned as her sons.{{sfn|Kinsley|1988|p=6}} The marriage of the Ashvin brothers is narrated in the ''Sukta'' 117 of Rigveda. According to the legend, the sun god, Surya-[[Savitra]], had a daughter named Sūryā (with a long ā) and arranged a horse-race to choose her bridegroom. The Ashvins won the race and thus, both of them married Suryā.{{sfn|Mani|1975|p=71}}{{sfn|Jamison|Brereton|2014|p=48}}{{efn|Contradictory to this, some chapters of Rigveda suggest that Sūryā's bridegroom was the god Soma and the Ashvins were his friends.{{sfn|Kramisch|Miller|1983|p=171}}}} [[Pushan]] is also stated to have chosen the Ashvins to be his fathers.<ref name=":2" />{{Sfn|Jamison|Brereton|2014|p=1522}}

The Ashvins are depicted as the helpers of mortals in various ''suktas'' of Rigveda. The ''sukta'' 112 describes that when the sage Dirghashravas prayed to Ashvins for rain, the twins poured sweet water from the sky. According to ''sukta'' 16, they also helped the sage Gotama, who was lost in a desert and begged for water. It is described that the gods dug a water well and helped the sage.{{sfn|Mani|1975|p=71}} According to another account, Rebha was bound, stabbed, and cast into the waters for nine days and ten nights before being saved by the twins. He was explicitly described as "dead" when the twins "raised (him) up" to save him (''RV'' 10.39.9). Similarly, Bhujyu was saved after his father or evil companions abandoned him at sea when the twins brought him home from the dead ancestors (''RV,'' 1.119.4).{{Sfn|Frame|2009|p=}}

The Ashvins also raised Vandana, rescued Atri from a fissure in the earth and its heat, found Vishnapu and returned him to his father, restored the youth of Kali, brought Kamadyū as a wife for Vimada, gave a son to Vadhrimatī (whose husband was a steer), restored the eyesight of Rijrashva, replaced the foot of [[Vishpala]] with a metal one, made the cow Śayu give milk, gave a horse to Pedu, and put a horse's head on [[Dadhichi|Dadhyañc]].{{sfn|Jamison|Brereton|2014|p=48}}
According to the ''[[Shatapatha Brahmana]]'', Ashvins once tried to seduce [[Sukanya]], the daughter of king Saryati and wife of an old sage named [[Chyavana]]. However, she refused and claimed that the twins were imperfect and told them to restore the youth of Chyavana. Desperate to know the reason for her words, they fulfilled her condition and the sage finally revealed that Ashvins were excluded from a [[yajna]] (fire sacrifice) performed by the gods, and thus, they were incomplete. Ashvins went to the sacrifice but the gods don't accept, claiming that the Ashvins were spending too much time with the mortals. After many attempts of explanation, they were finally accepted.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FeAyMeaRwtMC&q=chyavana+sukanya&pg=PA342|title = "The" Vishnu Purana ; 3: A System of Hindu Mythology and Tradition ; Translated from the Original Sanskrit, and Illustrated by Notes Derived Chiefly from Other Puranas|year = 1866|last1 = Wilson|first1 = Horace H.}}</ref> The Ashvins are sometimes presented as fierce deities. In the ''sukta'' 117, they even destroyed an ''[[asura]]'' Vishvaka as well as his dynasty.{{sfn|Mani|1975|p=71}}

=== Post-Vedic text ===
[[File:Sukanya praying to Aswini kumaras to reveal her husband's identity.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Sukanya praying to the Ashvini Kumaras to reveal her husband's identity]]
In the post-Vedic texts of Hinduism, the Ashvins remain significant, and in these texts, one of them is referred as Nasatya and the another one is known as Darsa. Many of their legends are rewritten in various texts like the epic ''[[Mahabharata]]'', ''[[Harivansha|Harivamsha]],'' and the ''[[Puranas]]''.

According to these texts, Sanjna, daughter of [[Vishvakarma]], was married to Surya, but she was unable to bear his heat and decided to abandon him. She ran away and roamed in the forest of northern [[Kuru kingdom]] in the form of a mare. The ''[[Vishnu Purana]]'' adds that she performed austerities in the forest to gain control over Surya's heat. After Surya discovered Sanjna's disappearance, he located her and made love with her in a form of stallion. Sanjna gave birth to the twins.{{sfn|Mani|1975|p=69}} Rarely, in some ''Purana''s, Ashvins are mentioned as the sons (creation) of the god [[Brahma]].{{sfn|Dalal|2010|p=64}}

These texts also elaborate the story of [[Chyavana]], which was first narrated in [[Brahmanas]].{{sfn|Dalal|2010|p=100}} In this version, [[Sukanya]]{{mdash}}the beautiful daughter of the king Saryati{{mdash}}
accidentally blinded the old Chyavana, who was performing austerities. She married him to save her kingdom from his wrath and served him dutifully.{{sfn|Mani|1975|p=69}} While traveling on their chariot, the Ashvins saw Sukanya in a forest and tried to seduce her. They asked her to choose one of them as her new husband, but she refused and remained faithful to Chyavana. The twins were impressed by her chastity and asked her to wish anything. Upon their request, she told them to restore the youth and sight of Chyavana. Ashvins agreed but they had a condition. After curing Chyavana, they would also take similar form and she would have to identify Chyavana. Sukanya showed her consent after getting permission from her husband. Ashvins took Chyavana into a lake and cured him. When a young Chyavana emerged from the lake, Ashvins also took forms similar to him and Sukanya successfully identified her husband.{{sfn|Mani|1975|p=70}}{{sfn|Dalal|2010|p=101}}

The ''Mahabharata'' also narrates about the birth of Nakula and Sahadeva, who were the “spiritual sons” of the Ashvins. According to the epic, a king named [[Pandu]] was unable to make love due to a curse and didn't have any heir. However, he advised his wives, [[Kunti]] and [[Madri]], to invoke various gods and ask for sons. Ashvins Nasatya and Darsa blessed Madri with Nakula and Sahadeva respectively.{{sfn|Mani|1975|p=71}}<ref>Hindu World: An Encyclopedic Survey of Hinduism. Volume II M-Z. Benjamin Walker. Routledge. 2019. Entry: "Pandava"</ref>

== Associations ==
[[File:Thewakamnoet (1959, p. 147).jpg|thumb|Thai depiction of the Horse-faced Ashvins on a chariot]]
The Ashvins are often associated with rescuing mortals and bringing them back to life.<ref>{{Harvnb|Frame|2009}}, §1.43.</ref>{{efn|See [[#Vedic texts]] section of Literature and legends}} The ''[[Rigveda]]'' also describes the Ashvins as "bringing light": they gave "light-bringing help" (''svàrvatīr''…''ūtī́r'', 1.119.8) to Bhujyu, and "raised (Rebha) up to see the sun" (''úd''…''aírayataṃ svàr dṛśé'', 1.112.5).<ref>{{Harvnb|Frame|2009}}, §1.44.</ref>{{Sfn|West|2007|p=187}}

The Ashvins are associated with honey, which was likely offered to them in a sacrifice. They are the chief deities in the [[Pravargya|Pravargya rite]], in which they are offered hot milk. They are also associated with the morning pressing of [[Soma (drink)|Soma]], because they are dual deities, along with [[Indra]]-[[Vayu|Vāyu]] and [[Mitra (Vedic)|Mitra]]-[[Varuna|Varuṇa]]. They also are the last deities to receive Soma in the Atirātra, or Overnight Soma Ritual.{{sfn|Jamison|Brereton|2014|p=47}}

The Ashvins are invoked at dawn, the time of their principal sacrifice, and have a close connection with the dawn goddess, [[Ushas|Uṣas]]: she is bidden to awaken them (8.9.17), they follow her in their chariot (8.5.2), she is born when they hitch their steeds (10.39.12), and their chariot is once said to arrive before her (1.34.10). They are consequently associated with the "return from darkness": the twins are called “darkness slayers” (''tamohánā'', 3.39.3), they are invoked with the formula "you who have made light for mankind" (''yā́v''…''jyótir jánāya cakráthuḥ'', 1.92.17), and their horses and chariot are described as "uncovering the covered darkness" (''aporṇuvántas táma ā́ párīvṛtam'', 4.45.2).<ref>{{Harvnb|Frame|2009}}, §1.45.</ref>

The chariot of the Ashvins is repeatedly mentioned in the ''Rigveda''. Their chariot has three chariot-boxes, three wheels, three turnings, and three wheel rims. The emphasis on the number 3 is symbolized in the sacrifice with its three soma pressings. The chariot is pulled by bulls, buffaloes, horses, birds, geese, and falcons. The chariot allows the Ashvins to be quick and mobile and travel to a number of places, which is necessary to fulfill their role of rescuing people. Sūryā, the daughter of the Sun, is sometimes mentioned as the wife of the Ashvins, and she rides with them in their chariot.{{sfn|Jamison|Brereton|2014|p=48}}

It is also believed that the Ashvins were the first one to prepare the [[Chyawanprash]] formulation for Rishi [[Chyavana]] at his [[Ashram]] on [[Dhosi Hill]] near [[Narnaul]], [[Haryana]], [[India]], hence the name ''Chyawanprash''.<ref>Panda, H; ''Handbook on Ayurvedic Medicines With Formulae, Processes And Their Uses'', 2004, p10 {{ISBN|978-81-86623-63-3}}</ref>

==See also==
[[Ašvieniai]], counterparts in [[Lithuanian mythology]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Bibliography===
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite book|last=Dalal|first=Roshen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&q=Ashvins+brahma|title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide|date=2010|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=978-0-14-341421-6|language=en}}
* {{Cite web|last=Frame|first=Douglas|title=Hippota Nestor - 3. Vedic|date=2009|url=https://chs.harvard.edu/CHS/article/display/5466.ch-3-vedic|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190920133941/https://chs.harvard.edu/CHS/article/display/5466.ch-3-vedic|archive-date=20 September 2019|website=Center for Hellenic Studies}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Jamison |first1=Stephanie W. |last2=Brereton |first2=Joel P. |title=The Rigveda: The Earliest Religious Poetry of India|date=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-937018-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1-PRAwAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book |last=Kinsley |first=David |title=Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition|url=https://archive.org/details/hindugoddessesvi0000kins |url-access=registration|year=1988|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-90883-3|pages=[https://archive.org/details/hindugoddessesvi0000kins/page/7 7]–8}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Kramisch|first1=Stella|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bxPeWwFz9MkC&q=S%C5%ABry%C4%81+asvins&pg=PP197|title=Exploring India's Sacred Art|last2=Miller|first2=Barbara|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press, Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited|year=1983|isbn=81-208-1208-5|location=Shri Jainendra Press A-45, Naraina Industrial Area, Phase I, New Delhi-110 028, India|page=171}}
* {{Cite book|last=Lang|first=Andrew|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ClcWhh1eYPEC&q=Vivasvat+a%C5%9Bvins&pg=PA156|title=Myth, Ritual and Religion|date=1887|publisher=Longmans, Green|language=en}}
* {{Cite book|title=The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World|last1=Mallory|first1=James P.|last2=Adams|first2=Douglas Q.|date=2006|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-929668-2|location=Oxford, England|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tF5wAAAAIAAJ}}
* {{Cite book|last=Mani|first=Vettam|pages= [https://archive.org/details/puranicencyclopa00maniuoft/page/69/mode/2up 69]|title=Puranic encyclopaedia : a comprehensive dictionary with special reference to the epic and Puranic literature|date=1975|publisher=Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass|others=Robarts - University of Toronto}}
* {{Cite book|last=Parpola|first=Asko|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DagXCgAAQBAJ|title=The Roots of Hinduism: The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization|date=2015a|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-022693-0|language=en|author-link=Asko Parpola}}
* {{Cite book|last=West|first=Martin L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZXrJA_5LKlYC|title=Indo-European Poetry and Myth|date=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-928075-9 |author-link=Martin Litchfield West}}
{{refend}}

===Further reading===
{{refbegin}}
* [[Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend]] ({{ISBN|0-500-51088-1}}) by Anna L. Dallapiccola
* {{cite journal |last1=BOSCH |first1=F. D. K. |title=De Aśvin-goden en de epische tweelingen in de oudjavaanse kunst en literatuur |trans-title=The Aśvin godlings and the epic twins in old-javanese art and literature |language=nl |journal=Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde |date=1967 |volume=123 |issue=4 |pages=427–441 |doi=10.1163/22134379-90002890 |id={{ProQuest|1130862317}} |jstor=27860895 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Chakravarty |first1=Uma |title=The Aśvins: an Incarnation of the Universal Twinship Motif |journal=Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute |date=1989 |volume=70 |issue=1/4 |pages=137–143 |jstor=41693465 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=JAMISON |first1=S. W. |title=Review of Les Nāsatya, Volume II |journal=Indo-Iranian Journal |date=2002 |volume=45 |issue=4 |pages=347–350 |doi=10.1163/000000002124994928 |jstor=24664156 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Mitra |first1=Jyotir |title=Ashvins, the Twin Celestial Physicians, and Their Medical Skill |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |date=1984 |volume=45 |pages=220–228 |jstor=44140202 }}
* {{cite book |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190226909.003.0011 |chapter=The Aśvins as Funerary Gods |title=The Roots of Hinduism |year=2015b |last1=Parpola |first1=Asko |pages=117–129 |isbn=978-0-19-022690-9 }}
* {{Cite web|last=Parva|first=Paushya|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m01/m01004.htm|title=Section III (Paushya Parva|pages=32–33|access-date=1 November 2013|publisher=Sacred Texts}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{Rigveda}}
{{HinduMythology}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Asvins}}
[[Category:Characters in the Mahabharata]]
[[Category:Divine twins]]
[[Category:Health gods]]
[[Category:Hindu gods]]
[[Category:Rigvedic deities]]
[[Category:Savior gods]]
[[Category:Medicine deities]]

Krishna

2023-01-20T06:01:18Z

ImportMaster:

{{short description|Major deity in Hinduism}}
{{about|the Hindu deity}}
{{Redirect|Krsna|other uses|Krsna (disambiguation)}}
{{redirect|Kanhaiya|the 1959 Bollywood film|Kanhaiya (film)}}
{{good article}}
{{pp-protected|small=yes}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{Infobox deity
| type = Hindu
| name = Krishna
| image = Sri Mariamman Temple Singapore 2 amk.jpg
| member_of = [[Dashavatara]]
| caption = Statue of Krishna at the [[Sri Mariamman Temple, Singapore]].
| birth_place = [[Mathura]], [[Surasena]] (present-day [[Uttar Pradesh]], India)<ref name="Raychaudhuri 1972124">{{harvnb|Raychaudhuri|1972|p=124}}</ref>
| Sanskrit_transliteration = {{IAST|Kṛṣṇa}}
| Devanagari = कृष्ण
| affiliation = {{unbulleted list|[[Svayam Bhagavan]]|[[Brahman]] (Krishnaism-Vaishnavism)|[[Avatar]] of [[Vishnu]]|[[Dashavatara]]|[[Radha Krishna]]{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=114}}<ref name="KK"/>}}
| weapon = {{unbulleted list|[[Sudarshana Chakra]]|[[Kaumodaki]]}}
| battles = [[Kurukshetra War]]
| mount = [[Garuda]]
| abode = {{hlist|[[Goloka]]|[[Vrindavan]]|[[Gokul]]|[[Dvaraka]]}}
| mantra = ''[[Hare Krishna (mantra)|Hare Krishna]]'' ''[[Om Namo Bhagavate Vasudevaya]]''
| texts = {{unbulleted list|''[[Bhagavata Purana]]''|''[[Garga Samhita (Vaishnavite text)|Garga Samhita]]''|''[[Harivamsa]]''|''[[Vishnu Purana]]''|''[[Mahabharata]]'' (''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'')|''[[Brahma Vaivarta Purana]]''}}
| parents = {{unbulleted list|[[Devaki]] (mother)|[[Vasudeva]] (father)|[[Yashoda]] (foster-mother)|[[Nanda]] (foster-father)}}
| siblings = {{unbulleted list|[[Balarama]] (brother)|[[Subhadra]] (sister)|[[Yogamaya]] (cousin)}}
| consorts = {{hlist|[[Radha]]|[[Rukmini]]|[[Satyabhama]]|[[Kalindi]]|[[Jambavati]]| [[Junior wives of Krishna|16,000 – 16,100 Junior queens]]<ref name=hawley12>{{cite book |title=The Divine Consort: Rādhā and the Goddesses of India|author=John Stratton Hawley, Donna Marie Wulff |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publisher |date=1982 |isbn=978-0-89581-102-8 |page=12}}</ref>}}{{refn|group=note|Radha is seen as Krishna's lover-consort. On the other hand, Rukmini and others are married to him. Krishna had eight chief wives, who were referred to as the [[Ashtabharya]]. The regional texts vary in the identity of Krishna's wife (consort), some presenting it as Rukmini, some as Radha, all ''gopis'', and some identifying all to be different aspects or manifestation of [[Devi]] Lakshmi.<ref name=hawley12 />{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=443}}}}
| festivals = {{hlist|[[Krishna Janmashtami]]|[[Holi]]|[[Gopastami]]|[[Govardhan Puja]]|[[Kartik Purnima]]|[[Sharad Purnima]]|[[Lathmar Holi]]}}
| children = {{hlist|[[Pradyumna]]|[[Samba (Krishna's son)|Samba]]|[[Characters in the Mahabharata#Bhanu|Bhanu]] and various other children<ref>{{Cite book|last=Naravane|first=Vishwanath S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zZTXAAAAMAAJ&q=+eighty+sons+|title=A Companion to Indian Mythology: Hindu, Buddhist & Jaina|date=1987|publisher=Thinker's Library, Technical Publishing House|language=en}}</ref>}}{{refn|group=note|The number of Krishna's children varies from one interpretation to another. According to some scriptures like the [[Bhagavata Purana]], Krishna had 10 children from each of his wives (16,008 wives and 160,080 children)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sinha|first=Purnendu Narayana|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OveYh2v-1roC&q=sons+of+krishna&pg=PT691|title=A Study of the Bhagavata Purana: Or, Esoteric Hinduism|date=1950|publisher=Library of Alexandria|isbn=978-1-4655-2506-2|language=en}}</ref>}}
| dynasty = [[Yadu|Yaduvamsha]]-[[Chandravamsha]]
| god_of = God of Protection, Compassion, Tenderness, and Love;{{sfn|Bryant|Ekstrand|2004|pp=20–25, quote: "Three Dimensions of Krishna's Divinity (...) divine majesty and supremacy; (...) divine tenderness and intimacy; (...) compassion and protection.; (..., p. 24) Krishna as the God of Love"}} [[Yogeshvara]] – Lord of [[Yoga]] or [[Yogi]]s;<ref>{{cite book|title=Sri Krishna|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oKiGPRGChjYC|author=Swami Sivananda|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan|year=1964|page=4}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Krishna the Yogeshwara|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/religion/religious-discourse-krishna-the-yogeshwara/article6405504.ece|work=The Hindu|date=12 September 2014}}</ref> [[Parabrahman]], [[Svayam Bhagavan]] ([[Krishnaism]]-[[Vaishnavism]])
| death_place = [[Bhalka]], [[Saurashtra Kingdom|Saurashtra]] (present-day [[Veraval]], [[Gujarat]], India)<ref name=eck380 />
}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = [[Dashavatara]] Sequence
| predecessor = [[Rama]]
| successor = [[Gautama Buddha in Hinduism|Buddha]]
}}
{{Vaishnavism}}
'''Krishna''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|r|ɪ|ʃ|n|ə}};<ref>[http://www.dictionary.com/browse/krishna "Krishna"]. ''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary]]''.</ref> {{lang-sa|कृष्ण}} {{IAST3|Kṛṣṇa}} {{IPA-sa|ˈkr̩ʂɳɐ|}})  is a major [[deity]] in [[Hinduism]]. He is worshipped as the eighth [[avatar]] of [[Vishnu]] and also as the [[Svayam Bhagavan|Supreme god]] in his own right.<ref name=EB>{{cite encyclopedia |title= Krishna |url= https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/323556/Krishna |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] Online}}</ref> He is the god of protection, compassion, tenderness, and love;<ref name="Scharfstein1993p166">{{cite book|author=Ben-Ami Scharfstein|title=Ineffability: The Failure of Words in Philosophy and Religion |url=https://archive.org/details/ineffabilityfail0000scha |url-access=registration|year=1993|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-1347-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/ineffabilityfail0000scha/page/166 166]}}</ref>{{sfn|Bryant|Ekstrand|2004|pp=20–25, quote: "Three Dimensions of Krishna's Divinity (...) divine majesty and supremacy; (...) divine tenderness and intimacy; (...) compassion and protection.; (..., p. 24) Krishna as the God of Love"}} and is one of the most popular and widely revered among Indian divinities.<ref>{{cite book|title =Krishna, Lord Or Avatara?|author=Freda Matchett|publisher =Psychology Press|date=2001|isbn =978-0-7007-1281-6|page=199}}</ref> Krishna's birthday is celebrated every year by Hindus on [[Krishna Janmashtami]] according to the [[lunisolar calendar|lunisolar]] [[Hindu calendar]], which falls in late August or early September of the [[Gregorian calendar]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Krishna|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Krishna/#:~:text=One%20day%20Vishnu%2C%20the%20great,his%20earthly%20father%20being%20Vasudeva.|website=World History Encyclopedia}}</ref><ref name="Lochtefeld2002p314">{{cite book|author=James G. Lochtefeld|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M|url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch|url-access=registration|year=2002|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-8239-3179-8|pages=[https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch/page/n436 314]–315}}</ref>

The anecdotes and narratives of Krishna's life are generally titled as ''Krishna Leela''. He is a central character in the ''[[Mahabharata]]'', the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'', the ''[[Brahma Vaivarta Purana]],'' and the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', and is mentioned in many [[Hindu philosophy|Hindu philosophical]], [[Hindu theology|theological]], and [[Hindu mythology|mythological]] texts.<ref name=Thompson>{{cite web |author=Richard Thompson, Ph.D. | date = December 1994 | title = Reflections on the Relation Between Religion and Modern Rationalism | url = http://content.iskcon.com/icj/1_2/12thompson.html | access-date = 12 April 2008 | url-status=dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110104040530/http://content.iskcon.com/icj/1_2/12thompson.html | archive-date = 4 January 2011 | df = dmy-all}}</ref> They portray him in various perspectives: as a god-child, a prankster, a model lover, a divine hero, and the universal supreme being.<ref name="Mahony1987">{{cite journal | author = Mahony, W. K. | year = 1987 | title = Perspectives on Krsna's Various Personalities | journal = History of Religions | volume = 26 | issue = 3 | pages = 333–335 | jstor = 1062381 | doi=10.1086/463085| s2cid = 164194548 }} Quote: "Krsna's various appearances as a divine hero, alluring god child, cosmic prankster, perfect lover, and universal supreme being (...)".</ref> His iconography reflects these legends, and shows him in different stages of his life, such as an infant eating butter, a young boy playing a [[Venu|flute]], a young boy with [[Radha]] or surrounded by female devotees; or a friendly charioteer giving counsel to [[Arjuna]].<ref name=Knott2000>{{Harvnb|Knott|2000|pp=15, 36, 56}}</ref>

The name and synonyms of Krishna have been traced to 1st{{nbsp}}millennium{{nbsp}}[[BCE]] literature and cults.<ref name="Cultofgopal" /> In some sub-traditions, Krishna is worshipped as ''[[Svayam Bhagavan]]'' (the Supreme God), and it is sometimes known as [[Krishnaism]]. These sub-traditions arose in the context of the medieval era [[Bhakti movement]].{{sfn|Hardy|1987|pp=387–392}}<ref name="Kenneth Valpey 2013">Ravi Gupta and Kenneth Valpey (2013), ''The Bhagavata Purana'', Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0231149990}}, pp. 185–200</ref> Krishna-related literature has inspired numerous performance arts such as [[Bharatanatyam]], [[Kathakali]], [[Kuchipudi]], [[Odissi]], and [[Manipuri dance]].{{sfn|Bryant|2007|page=118}}<ref name="ML Varadpande 1987">ML Varadpande (1987), ''History of Indian Theatre'', Vol 1, Abhinav, {{ISBN|978-8170172215}}, pp. 98–99</ref> He is a pan-Hindu god, but is particularly revered in some locations, such as [[Vrindavan]] in [[Uttar Pradesh]],{{sfn|Hawley|2020}} [[Dwarka]] and [[Junagadh]] in [[Gujarat]]; the [[Jagannath]]a aspect in [[Odisha]], [[Mayapur]] in [[West Bengal]];{{sfn|Hardy|1987|pp=387–392}}{{sfn|Miśra|2005}}<ref>{{cite book |author=[[J. Gordon Melton]] |title=Religious Celebrations: An Encyclopedia of Holidays, Festivals, Solemn Observances, and Spiritual Commemorations |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KDU30Ae4S4cC&pg=PA330 |year=2011 |publisher=ABC-Clio |isbn=978-1-59884-205-0 |pages=330–331}}</ref> in the form of [[Vithoba]] in [[Pandharpur]], [[Maharashtra]], [[Shrinathji]] at [[Nathdwara]] in [[Rajasthan]],{{sfn|Hardy|1987|pp=387–392}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Cynthia Packert|title=The Art of Loving Krishna: Ornamentation and Devotion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SyTgMt4AQl4C&pg=PA181 |year=2010|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-22198-8|pages=5, 70–71, 181–187}}</ref> [[Udupi]] Krishna in [[Karnataka]],{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=3}} [[Sarathy|Parthasarathy]] in [[Tamil Nadu]] and in [[Aranmula]], [[Kerala]], and [[Guruvayoorappan]] in [[Guruvayoor]] in [[Kerala]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Lavanya Vemsani |title=Krishna in History, Thought, and Culture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4fw2DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA112|year=2016|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-61069-211-3|pages=112–113}}</ref> Since the 1960s, the worship of Krishna has also spread to the Western world and to Africa, largely due to the work of the [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness]] (ISKCON).<ref name="bare_url">{{Cite journal|last=Selengut |first=Charles |title=Charisma and Religious Innovation: Prabhupada and the Founding of ISKCON |journal=[[ISKCON Communications Journal]] |volume=4 |issue=2 |year=1996 |url=http://content.iskcon.com/icj/4_2/4_2charisma.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/2012.07.10-005633/http://content.iskcon.com/icj/4_2/4_2charisma.html |archive-date=10 July 2012 }}</ref>

== Names and epithets ==
{{Main|List of titles and names of Krishna}}

The name "Krishna" originates from the [[Sanskrit]] word ''{{IAST|Kṛṣṇa}}'', which is primarily an adjective meaning "black", "dark", "dark blue" or “the all attractive”.<ref name="dictionaries">* [http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/cgi-bin/monier/serveimg.pl?file=/scans/MWScan/MWScanjpg/mw0306-kRzanAvat.jpg Monier Williams Sanskrit–English Dictionary (2008 revision)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191018224028/https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/cgi-bin/monier/serveimg.pl?file=%2Fscans%2FMWScan%2FMWScanjpg%2Fmw0306-kRzanAvat.jpg |date=18 October 2019 }}
* [http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.2:1:1423.apte Apte Sanskrit–English Dictionary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180916122511/http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.2:1:1423.apte |date=16 September 2018 }}</ref> The waning moon is called Krishna [[Paksha]], relating to the adjective meaning "darkening".<ref name="dictionaries" /> The name is also interpreted sometimes as "all-attractive".<ref>{{Harvnb|Bryant|2007|p=382}}</ref>

As a name of [[Vishnu]], Krishna is listed as the 57th name in the ''[[Vishnu Sahasranama]]''. Based on his name, Krishna is often depicted in [[murti|idols]] as black- or blue-skinned. Krishna is also known by various [[List of titles and names of Krishna|other names, epithets, and titles]] that reflect his many associations and attributes. Among the most common names are ''Mohan'' "enchanter"; ''[[Govinda]]'' "chief herdsman",<ref>Monier Monier Williams, [http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/0300/mw__0399.html Go-vinda], Sanskrit English Dictionary and Etymology, Oxford University Press, p. 336, 3rd column</ref> ''[[Keev]]'' "prankster", and ''[[Gopala Krishna|Gopala]]'' "Protector of the 'Go'", which means "soul" or "the cows".<ref>{{Harvnb|Bryant|2007|p=17}}</ref><ref name="Hilt">{{cite book|author = Hiltebeitel, Alf|title = Rethinking the Mahābhārata: a reader's guide to the education of the dharma king|url = https://archive.org/details/rethinkingmahabh00hilt|url-access = limited|publisher = University of Chicago Press|location = Chicago|year = 2001|pages = [https://archive.org/details/rethinkingmahabh00hilt/page/n130 251]–253, 256, 259|isbn = 978-0-226-34054-8}}</ref> Some names for Krishna hold regional importance; ''[[Jagannatha]]'', found in the [[Jagannatha Puri|Puri]] Hindu temple, is a popular incarnation in [[Odisha]] state and nearby regions of [[eastern India]].<ref>{{cite book|author = B. M. Misra|title = Orissa: Shri Krishna Jagannatha: the Mushali parva from Sarala's Mahabharata|year = 2007|publisher = [[Oxford University Press]]|isbn = 978-0-19-514891-6}}</ref>{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=139}}<ref>For the historic Jagannath temple in Ranchi, [[Jharkhand]] see: {{cite book|author=Francis Bradley Bradley-Birt|title=Chota Nagpur, a Little-known Province of the Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W0x74TZB3eoC&pg=PA61|year=1989|publisher=Asian Educational Services (Orig: 1903) |isbn= 978-81-206-1287-7|pages=61–64}}</ref>

Krishna may also be referred to as [[Vāsudeva-Krishna]], Murlidhar, or Chakradhar. The honorary title "Sri" (also spelled "Shri") is often used before the name of Krishna.

=== Names in different states of India ===
Krishna is commonly worshipped as:
# ''Kanhaiyya/[[Bankey Bihari Temple|Bankey Bihari]]/Thakurji'': Uttar Pradesh
# ''[[Jagannath]]'': Odisha
# ''[[Vithoba]]'': Maharashtra
# ''[[Shrinathji]]'': Rajasthan
# ''[[Guruvayoorappan]]''/''Kannan'': Kerala
# ''[[Dwarkadhish Temple|Dwarakadheesh]]/Ranchhod'': Gujarat
# ''Mayon/Parthasarathy/Kannan'': Tamil Nadu

== Historical and literary sources ==
The tradition of Krishna appears to be an amalgamation of several independent deities of ancient India, the earliest to be attested being [[Vāsudeva]].<ref name="GDF119">{{harvnb|Flood|1996|pp=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo/page/119 119]–120}}</ref> Vāsudeva was a hero-god of the tribe of the [[Vrishni]]s, belonging to the [[Vrishni heroes]], whose worship is attested from the 5th-6th century BCE in the writings of [[Pāṇini]], and from the 2nd century BCE in epigraphy with the [[Heliodorus pillar]].<ref name="GDF119"/> At one point in time, it is thought that the tribe of the Vrishnis fused with the tribe of the Yadavas/Abhiras, whose own hero-god was named Krishna.<ref name="GDF119"/> Vāsudeva and Krishna fused to become a single deity, which appears in the ''[[Mahabharata]]'', and they started to be identified with [[Vishnu]] in the ''Mahabharata'' and the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]''.<ref name="GDF119"/> Around the 4th century CE, another tradition, the cult of [[Gopala-Krishna]] of the Ābhīras, the protector of cattle, was also absorbed into the Krishna tradition.<ref name="GDF119"/>

===Early epigraphic sources===
{{main|Vāsudeva-Krishna}}

====Depiction in coinage (2nd century BCE)====
[[File:Vasudeva Krishna on a coin of Agathocles of Bactria circa 180 BCE.jpg|thumb|upright|{{center|[[Vāsudeva]]-Krishna, on a coin of [[Agathocles of Bactria]], {{circa}}{{nbsp}}180{{nbsp}}BCE.<ref name="US">{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Upinder |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |date=2008 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-81-317-1120-0 |pages=436–438 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA437 |language=en}}</ref><ref>[[Osmund Bopearachchi]], [https://www.academia.edu/25807197 Emergence of Viṣṇu and Śiva Images in India: Numismatic and Sculptural Evidence], 2016.</ref> This is "the earliest unambiguous image" of the deity.<ref name="BRILL">{{cite book |last1=Srinivasan |first1=Doris |title=Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes: Origin, Meaning, and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art |date=1997 |publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-10758-8 |page=215 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vZheP9dIX9wC&pg=PA215 |language=en}}</ref>}}]]
Around 180 BCE, the [[Indo-Greek]] king [[Agathocles of Bactria|Agathocles]] issued some coinage bearing images of deities that are now interpreted as being related to [[Vaisnava]] imagery in India.<ref name="Bopearachchi"/><ref>Audouin, Rémy, and Paul Bernard, "[http://www.persee.fr/doc/numi_0484-8942_1974_num_6_16_1062 Trésor de monnaies indiennes et indo-grecques d'Aï Khanoum (Afghanistan). II. Les monnaies indo-grecques.]" Revue numismatique{{nbsp}}6, no.{{nbsp}}16 (1974), pp.{{nbsp}}6–41 (in French).</ref> The deities displayed on the coins appear to be [[Saṃkarṣaṇa]]-[[Balarama]] with attributes consisting of the [[Gada (mace)|Gada]] mace and the [[plow]], and Vāsudeva-Krishna with attributes of the [[Shankha]] (conch) and the [[Sudarshana Chakra]] wheel.<ref name="Bopearachchi" /><ref>Nilakanth Purushottam Joshi, Iconography of Balarāma, Abhinav Publications, 1979, [https://books.google.com/books?id=5vd-lKzyFg0C&pg=PA22 p. 22]</ref> According to [[Bopearachchi]], the headdress on top of the deity is actually a misrepresentation of a shaft with a half-moon parasol on top ([[chattra]]).<ref name="Bopearachchi" />

====Inscriptions====
[[File:Heliodorus pillar.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Heliodorus Pillar]] in the Indian state of [[Madhya Pradesh]], erected about 120{{nbsp}}BCE. The inscription states that Heliodorus is a ''Bhagvatena'', and a couplet in the inscription closely paraphrases a Sanskrit verse from the ''Mahabharata''.<ref name=allchin309>{{cite book|author1=F. R. Allchin|author2=George Erdosy|title=The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5kI02_zW70C&pg=PA309 |year=1995| publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-37695-2|pages=309–310}}</ref><ref>L. A. Waddell (1914), Besnagar Pillar Inscription{{nbsp}}B Re-Interpreted, ''The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland'', Cambridge University Press, pp.{{nbsp}} 1031–1037</ref>]]
The [[Heliodorus Pillar]], a stone pillar with a Brahmi script inscription, was discovered by colonial era archaeologists in Besnagar ([[Vidisha]], central Indian state of [[Madhya Pradesh]]). Based on the internal evidence of the inscription, it has been dated to between 125 and 100{{nbsp}}BCE and is now known after [[Heliodorus (ambassador)|Heliodorus]] – an [[Indo-Greek]] who served as an ambassador of the Greek king [[Antialcidas]] to a regional Indian king, Kasiputra [[Bhagabhadra]].<ref name="Bopearachchi" /><ref name=allchin309 /> The Heliodorus pillar inscription is a private religious dedication of Heliodorus to "[[Vāsudeva]]", an early deity and another name for Krishna in the Indian tradition. It states that the column was constructed by "the ''Bhagavata'' Heliodorus" and that it is a "''Garuda'' pillar" (both are Vishnu-Krishna-related terms). Additionally, the inscription includes a Krishna-related verse from chapter{{nbsp}}11.7 of the ''Mahabharata'' stating that the path to immortality and heaven is to correctly live a life of three virtues: self-[[Temperance (virtue)|temperance]] (''damah''), generosity (''cagah'' or ''tyaga''), and vigilance (''apramadah'').<ref name=allchin309 /><ref name=salomon265>{{cite book|author=Richard Salomon|title=Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XYrG07qQDxkC|year=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-535666-3|pages=265–267}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Benjamín Preciado-Solís|title=The Kṛṣṇa Cycle in the Purāṇas: Themes and Motifs in a Heroic Saga |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JvCaWvjGDVEC&pg=PA34 |year=1984|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-0-89581-226-1|page=34}}</ref> The Heliodorus pillar site was fully excavated by archaeologists in the 1960s. The effort revealed the brick foundations of a much larger ancient elliptical temple complex with a sanctum, ''[[mandapa]]s'', and seven additional pillars.{{sfn|Khare|1967}}{{sfn|Irwin|1974|pp=169–176 with Figure 2 and 3}} The Heliodorus pillar inscriptions and the temple are among the earliest known evidence of Krishna-Vasudeva devotion and [[Vaishnavism]] in ancient India.{{sfn|Susan V Mishra|Himanshu P Ray|2017|p=5}}<ref name="Bopearachchi">{{cite web|author=[[Osmund Bopearachchi]]| year= 2016| url=https://www.academia.edu/25807197|title= Emergence of Viṣṇu and Śiva Images in India: Numismatic and Sculptural Evidence}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Burjor Avari|title=India: The Ancient Past: A History of the Indian Subcontinent from C. 7000 BCE to CE 1200|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WTaTDAAAQBAJ |year=2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-23673-3|pages=165–167}}</ref>

[[File:Rama Krishna at Chilas.jpg|thumb|[[Balarama]] and Krishna with their attributes at [[Chilas]]. The [[Kharoshthi]] inscription nearby reads ''Rama [kri]ṣa''. 1st century CE.<ref name="BRILL"/>]]

The [[Heliodorus Pillar|Heliodorus inscription]] is not isolated evidence. The [[Hathibada Ghosundi Inscriptions]], all located in the state of [[Rajasthan]] and dated by modern methodology to the 1st{{nbsp}}century{{nbsp}}BCE, mention Saṃkarṣaṇa and Vāsudeva, also mention that the structure was built for their worship in association with the supreme deity [[Narayana]]. These four inscriptions are notable for being some of the oldest-known Sanskrit inscriptions.<ref>{{cite book|author=Richard Salomon|title=Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the Other Indo-Aryan Languages |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=t-4RDAAAQBAJ |year= 1998|publisher= Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-509984-3|pages=86–87}}</ref>

A [[Mora well inscription|Mora stone slab]] found at the Mathura-Vrindavan archaeological site in [[Uttar Pradesh]], held now in the [[Mathura Museum]], has a Brahmi inscription. It is dated to the 1st{{nbsp}}century{{nbsp}}CE and mentions the five [[Vrishni heroes]], otherwise known as Saṃkarṣaṇa, Vāsudeva, [[Pradyumna]], [[Aniruddha]], and [[Samba (Krishna's son)|Samba]].<ref name=vardpande6>{{cite book|author=Manohar Laxman Varadpande|title=Krishna Theatre in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TaF603WEv4IC&pg=PA6 |year=1982|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-151-5|pages=6–7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title= Hindu Gods and Heroes: Studies in the History of the Religion of India|last= Barnett|first= Lionel David|year= 1922 |publisher= J. Murray|page= [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.173123/page/n92 93]|url= https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.173123}}</ref><ref name=Puri1968>{{cite book|author = Puri, B. N.|year = 1968|title = India in the Time of Patanjali|publisher = Bhartiya Vidya Bhavan}} p. 51: The coins of Rajuvula have been recovered from the Sultanpur District...the Brahmi inscription on the Mora stone slab, now in the Mathura Museum,</ref>

The inscriptional record for [[Vāsudeva]] starts in the 2nd century BCE with the coinage of Agathocles and the Heliodorus pillar, but the name of Krishna appears rather later in epigraphy. At the [[Chilas]] II archaeological site dated to the first half of the 1st-century CE in northwest Pakistan, near the Afghanistan border, are engraved two males, along with many Buddhist images nearby. The larger of the two males held a plough and club in his two hands. The artwork also has an inscription with it in Kharosthi script, which has been deciphered by scholars as ''Rama-Krsna'', and interpreted as an ancient depiction of the two brothers, Balarama and Krishna.<ref>{{cite book|author=Doris Srinivasan|title=Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes: Origin, Meaning, and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vZheP9dIX9wC |year=1997|publisher=Broll Academic|isbn=90-04-10758-4|pages=214–215 with footnotes}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Jason Neelis|title=Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks: Mobility and Exchange Within and Beyond the Northwestern Borderlands of South Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GB-JV2eOr2UC |year=2010|publisher=Btill Academic|isbn=978-90-04-18159-5|pages=271–272}}</ref>

The first known depiction of the life of Krishna himself comes relatively late, with [[:File:Vasudeva_Carrying_Baby_Krishna_in_Basket_Across_Yamuna_-_Circa_1st_Century_CE_-_Gatashram_Narayan_Temple.jpg|a relief]] found in [[Mathura]], and dated to the 1st-2nd century CE.<ref name="KCIA">{{cite book |last1=Bhattacharya |first1=Sunil Kumar |title=Krishna-cult in Indian Art |date=1996 |publisher=M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. |isbn=978-81-7533-001-6 |page=27 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SyyNIL7Ug2kC&pg=PA27 |language=en}}</ref> This fragment seems to show [[Vasudeva]], Krishna's father, carrying baby Krishna in a basket across the [[Yamuna river|Yamuna]].<ref name="KCIA"/> The relief shows at one end a seven-hooded Naga crossing a river, where a ''[[makara]]'' crocodile is thrashing around, and at the other end a person seemingly holding a basket over his head.<ref name="KCIA"/>

===Literary sources===
==== Mahabharata ====
{{See also|Krishna in the Mahabharata|Bhagavad Gita}}
[[File:Krishna advising Pandavas.jpg|thumb|Krishna advising Pandavas]]
The earliest text containing detailed descriptions of Krishna as a personality is the epic ''[[Mahabharata]]'', which depicts Krishna as an incarnation of Vishnu.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url= https://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-357806/Mahabharata|title= Britannica: Mahabharata|access-date=2008-10-13 |encyclopedia = encyclopedia|publisher= Encyclopædia Britannica Online |year= 2008|author = Wendy Doniger}}</ref> Krishna is central to many of the main stories of the epic. The eighteen chapters of the sixth book (''Bhishma Parva'') of the epic that constitute the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' contain the advice of Krishna to [[Arjuna]] on the battlefield. The ''[[Harivamsa]]'', a later appendix to the ''Mahabharata,'' contains a detailed version of Krishna's childhood and youth.<ref>Maurice Winternitz (1981), ''History of Indian Literature'', Vol. 1, Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-0836408010}}, pp. 426–431</ref>

==== Other sources ====
[[File:Baby thief Krishna (bazaar art, c.1950's).jpg|thumb|left|Krishna is celebrated in the Vaishnava tradition in various stages of his life.]]
The ''[[Chandogya Upanishad]]'', estimated to have been composed sometime between the 8th and 6th{{nbsp}}centuries{{nbsp}}BCE, has been another source of speculation regarding Krishna in ancient India. The verse (III.xvii.6) mentions Krishna in ''Krishnaya Devakiputraya'' as a student of the sage Ghor' of the Angirasa family. Ghora is identified with [[Neminatha]], the twenty-second ''[[tirthankara]]'' in [[Jainism]], by some scholars.{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|2004|p=23}} This phrase, which means "To Krishna the son of [[Devaki]]", has been mentioned by scholars such as [[Max Müller]]<ref name=maxmuller316>Max Müller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/48/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad 3.16–3.17], The Upanishads, Part{{nbsp}}I, Oxford University Press, pp. 50–53 with footnotes</ref> as a potential source of fables and Vedic lore about Krishna in the ''Mahabharata'' and other ancient literature{{snd}} only potential because this verse could have been interpolated into the text,<ref name=maxmuller316 /> or the Krishna Devakiputra, could be different from the deity Krishna.<ref>Edwin Bryant and Maria Ekstrand (2004), ''The Hare Krishna Movement'', Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0231122566}}, pp. 33–34 with note 3</ref> These doubts are supported by the fact that the much later age ''Sandilya Bhakti Sutras'', a treatise on Krishna,<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/ShandilyaBhaktiSutra/shandilya_bhakti_sutras#page/n0/mode/2up Sandilya Bhakti Sutra] SS Rishi (Translator), Sree Gaudia Math (Madras)</ref> cites later age compilations such as the ''[[Narayana Upanishad]]'' but never cites this verse of the Chandogya Upanishad. Other scholars disagree that the Krishna mentioned along with [[Devaki]] in the ancient Upanishad is unrelated to the later Hindu god of the ''Bhagavad Gita'' fame. For example, Archer states that the coincidence of the two names appearing together in the same Upanishad verse cannot be dismissed easily.<ref>WG Archer (2004), ''The Loves of Krishna in Indian Painting and Poetry'', Dover, {{ISBN|978-0486433714}}, p. 5</ref>

[[Yāska]]'s ''[[Nirukta]]'', an etymological dictionary published around the 6th{{nbsp}}century{{nbsp}}BCE, contains a reference to the Shyamantaka jewel in the possession of [[Akrura]], a motif from the well-known Puranic story about Krishna.<ref name = bryant4>{{Harvnb|Bryant|2007|p=4}}</ref> [[Shatapatha Brahmana]] and ''Aitareya-Aranyaka'' associate Krishna with his Vrishni origins.<ref>Sunil Kumar Bhattacharya ''Krishna-cult in Indian Art''. 1996 M. D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. {{ISBN|81-7533-001-5}} p. 128: Satha-patha-brahmana and Aitareya-[[Aranyaka]] with reference to first chapter.</ref>

In ''Ashṭādhyāyī'', authored by the [[ancient]] grammarian [[Pāṇini]] (probably belonged to the 5th or 6th{{nbsp}}century{{nbsp}}BCE), ''Vāsudeva'' and ''Arjuna'', as recipients of worship, are referred to together in the same ''[[sutra]]''.<ref name="kurukshetra.nic.in">[http://kurukshetra.nic.in/museum-website/archeologicaltreasure.html] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120217161420/http://kurukshetra.nic.in/museum-website/archeologicaltreasure.html|date=17 February 2012}}</ref><ref>Pâṇ. IV. 3. 98, Vâsudevârjunâbhyâm vun. See Bhandarkar, Vaishnavism and Śaivism, p.{{nbsp}}3 and J.R.A.S. 1910, p.{{nbsp}}168. Sûtra{{nbsp}}95, just above, appears to point to bhakti, faith or devotion, felt for this Vâsudeva.</ref><ref>Sunil Kumar Bhattacharya ''Krishna-cult in Indian Art''. 1996 M. D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. {{ISBN|81-7533-001-5}} p. 1</ref>[[File:Dancing Krishna, India, Tanjore, Tamil Nadu, Chola dynasty, 14th century, bronze, HAA.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Bala Krishna]] dancing, 14th{{nbsp}}century{{nbsp}}CE [[Chola]] sculpture, [[Tamil Nadu]], in the [[Honolulu Academy of Arts]].]]
[[Megasthenes]], a [[Greek ethnographer]] and an ambassador of [[Seleucus I]] to the court of [[Chandragupta Maurya]] towards the end of 4th{{nbsp}}century{{nbsp}}BCE, made reference to [[Megasthenes' Herakles|Herakles]] in his famous work [[Indica (Megasthenes)|Indica]]. This text is now lost to history, but was quoted in secondary literature by later Greeks such as [[Arrian]], [[Diodorus]], and [[Strabo]].{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=5}} According to these texts, Megasthenes mentioned that the Sourasenoi tribe of India, who worshipped Herakles, had two major cities named Methora and Kleisobora, and a navigable river named the Jobares. According to [[Edwin Bryant (author)|Edwin Bryant]], a professor of Indian religions known for his publications on Krishna, "there is little doubt that the Sourasenoi refers to the Shurasenas, a branch of the [[Yadu]] dynasty to which Krishna belonged".{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=5}} The word Herakles, states Bryant, is likely a Greek phonetic equivalent of Hari-Krishna, as is Methora of Mathura, Kleisobora of Krishnapura, and the Jobares of [[Yamuna|Jamuna]]. Later, when [[Alexander the Great]] launched his campaign in the northwest [[Indian subcontinent]], his associates recalled that the soldiers of [[King Porus|Porus]] were carrying an image of Herakles.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=5}}

The Buddhist [[Pali canon]] and the Ghata-Jâtaka (No. {{nbsp}}454) [[polemic]]ally mention the devotees of Vâsudeva and Baladeva. These texts have many peculiarities and may be a garbled and confused version of the Krishna legends.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=5–6}} The texts of [[Jainism]] mention these tales as well, also with many peculiarities and different versions, in their legends about [[Tirthankara]]s. This inclusion of Krishna-related legends in ancient [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] and Jaina literature suggests that Krishna theology was existent and important in the religious landscape observed by non-Hindu traditions of [[Ancient india|ancient India]].{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=6}}<ref>Hemacandra Abhidhânacintâmani, Ed. Boehtlingk and Rien, p. 128, and Barnett's translation of the Antagada Dasāo, pp.{{nbsp}}13–15, 67–82.</ref>

The ancient Sanskrit grammarian [[Patanjali]] in his ''[[Mahabhashya]]'' makes several references to Krishna and his associates found in later Indian texts. In his commentary on Pāṇini's verse 3.1.26, he also uses the word ''Kamsavadha'' or the "killing of Kamsa", an important part of the legends surrounding Krishna.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=5}}<ref>{{cite book|title=India through the ages|url=https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada|last=Gopal|first=Madan|publisher=Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India|year=1990|editor=K.S. Gautam|page=[https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada/page/73 73]}}</ref>

====Puranas====
Many [[Puranas]], mostly compiled during the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta period]] (4–5th century CE),<ref name="GDF110">{{harvnb|Flood|1996|pp=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo/page/110 110]–111}}</ref> tell Krishna's life story or some highlights from it. Two Puranas, the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'' and the ''[[Vishnu Purana]]'', contain the most elaborate telling of Krishna's story,<ref name="Elkman1986">{{cite book|author = Elkman, S. M.|author2=Gosvami, J.|year = 1986|title = Jiva Gosvamin's Tattvasandarbha: A Study on the Philosophical and Sectarian Development of the Gaudiya Vaisnava Movement|publisher = Motilal Banarsidass}}</ref> but the life stories of Krishna in these and other texts vary, and contain significant inconsistencies.{{sfn|Rocher|1986|pp=18, 49–53, 245–249}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Gregory Bailey|editor=Arvind Sharma|title=The Study of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=npCKSUUQYEIC|year=2003|publisher=University of South Carolina Press|isbn=978-1-57003-449-7|pages=141–142}}</ref> The ''Bhagavata Purana'' consists of twelve books subdivided into 332{{nbsp}}chapters, with a cumulative total of between 16,000 and 18,000 verses depending on the version.<ref name=barbaraholdrege109>Barbara Holdrege (2015), Bhakti and Embodiment, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415670708}}, pp.{{nbsp}}109–110</ref><ref>Richard Thompson (2007), ''The Cosmology of the Bhagavata Purana 'Mysteries of the Sacred Universe'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120819191}}</ref> The tenth book of the text, which contains about 4,000 verses (~25%) and is dedicated to legends about Krishna, has been the most popular and widely studied part of this text.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=112}}{{sfn|Matchett|2001|pages=127–137}}

== Iconography ==
[[File: Krishna with flute.jpg|thumb|left|Krishna with cows, herdsmen, and [[Gopi]]s.]]

Krishna is represented in the [[Indian tradition]]s in many ways, but with some common features.{{sfn|Archer|2004|loc=The Krishna of Painting}} His iconography typically depicts him with black, dark, or blue skin, like [[Vishnu]].<ref>{{cite book|author=T. Richard Blurton|title=Hindu Art|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xJ-lzU_nj_MC&pg=PA134 |year=1993|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-39189-5|pages=133–134}}</ref> However, ancient and medieval reliefs and stone-based arts depict him in the natural color of the material out of which he is formed, both in India and in [[southeast Asia]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Guy, John|title=Lost Kingdoms: Hindu-Buddhist Sculpture of Early Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vO_-AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA222|year=2014|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art|isbn=978-1-58839-524-5|pages=222–223}}</ref><ref>[a] {{cite journal | last=Cooler | first=Richard M. | title=Sculpture, Kingship, and the Triad of Phnom Da | journal=Artibus Asiae | volume=40 | issue=1 | pages=29–40 | year=1978 | doi=10.2307/3249812 | jstor=3249812}}; [b] Bertrand Porte (2006), "La statue de Kṛṣṇa Govardhana du Phnom Da du Musée National de Phnom Penh." UDAYA, Journal of Khmer Studies, Volume 7, pp. 199–205</ref> In some texts, his skin is poetically described as the color of [[Jambul]] (''[[Jamun]]'', a purple-colored fruit).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Vishvanatha|first1=Cakravarti Thakura|title=Sarartha-darsini|date=2011|publisher=Sri Vaikunta Enterprises|isbn=978-81-89564-13-1|page=790|edition=[[Bhanu Swami]]}}</ref>

Krishna is often depicted wearing a peacock-feather [[wreath]] or crown, and playing the [[bansuri]] (Indian flute).<ref name="Grolier">{{cite book|title = The Encyclopedia Americana|publisher = Grolier|location = [s.l.]|year = 1988|page = [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaamer30grol/page/589 589]|isbn = 978-0-7172-0119-8|url = https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaamer30grol/page/589}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title= The New Encyclopædia Britannica |author = Benton, William|year= 1974|publisher= Encyclopædia Britannica|isbn=978-0-85229-290-7|page= 885|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=G8YqAAAAMAAJ&q=Krsna+blue+skin+deity}}</ref> In this form, he is usually shown standing with one leg bent in front of the other in the ''[[Tribhanga]]'' posture. He is sometimes accompanied by cows or a calf, which symbolise the divine herdsman ''Govinda''. Alternatively, he is shown as a romantic young boy with the [[gopi]]s (milkmaids), often making music or playing pranks.<ref>{{cite book |author=Harle, J. C. |title=The art and architecture of the Indian subcontinent |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |location=New Haven, Conn |year=1994 |page=[https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo00harl/page/410 410] |isbn=978-0-300-06217-5 |quote=figure 327. Manaku, Radha's messenger describing Krishna standing with the cow-girls, gopi from Basohli. |url=https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo00harl/page/410 }}</ref>

[[File:Krishna Govardhana. Bharat Kala Bhavan, ni03-24.jpg|thumb|upright|Krishna lifting Govardhana at [[Bharat Kala Bhavan]], recovered from a Muslim graveyard in Varanasi. It is dated to the [[Gupta Empire]] era (4th/6th century{{nbsp}}CE).<ref>{{cite book|author=Diana L. Eck|author-link=Diana L. Eck|title=Banaras, City of Light|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J57C4d8Bv6UC|year=1982|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-11447-9|pages=66–67}}</ref>]]

In other icons, he is a part of battlefield scenes of the epic ''[[Mahabharata]]''. He is shown as a charioteer, notably when he is addressing the Pandava prince [[Arjuna]] character, symbolically reflecting the events that led to the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]''{{snd}}a scripture of Hinduism. In these popular depictions, Krishna appears in the front as the charioteer, either as a counsel listening to Arjuna or as the driver of the chariot while Arjuna aims his arrows in the [[Kurukshetra war|battlefield of Kurukshetra]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Ariel Glucklich|title=The Strides of Vishnu: Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KtLScrjrWiAC&pg=PA106|year=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-971825-2|page=106}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=T. A. Gopinatha Rao|title=Elements of Hindu iconography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MJD-KresBwIC&pg=PA210 |year=1993|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0878-2|pages=210–212}}</ref>

Alternate icons of Krishna show him as a baby (''[[Bala Krishna]]'', the child Krishna), a toddler crawling on his hands and knees, a dancing child, or an innocent-looking child playfully stealing or consuming butter (''Makkan Chor''),<ref name="hawley3">{{cite book|author=John Stratton Hawley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ncb_AwAAQBAJ|title=Krishna, The Butter Thief|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2014|isbn=978-1-4008-5540-7|pages=3–8}}</ref> holding [[Laddu]] in his hand (''Laddu Gopal'')<ref>{{cite book |title= Students' Britannica India|last= Hoiberg|first= Dale |author2=Ramchandani, Indu |year= 2000|publisher= Popular Prakashan|isbn=978-0-85229-760-5|page= 251|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=kEj-2a7pmVMC&q=Bala+Krishna&pg=PA251}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | title = The Qualities of Sri Krsna | author = Satsvarupa dasa Goswami| author-link = Satsvarupa dasa Goswami | publisher = GNPress | year = 1998 | page = 152 | isbn = 978-0-911233-64-3 }}</ref> or as a cosmic infant sucking his toe while floating on a banyan leaf during the [[Pralaya]] (the cosmic dissolution) observed by sage [[Markandeya]].<ref>{{cite book |
title=India: Art and Culture, 1300–1900
|author=Stuart Cary Welch
|publisher = Metropolitan Museum of Art |date=1985
|isbn= 978-0-03-006114-1|page =58}}</ref> Regional variations in the iconography of Krishna are seen in his different forms, such as [[Jaganatha]] in Odisha, [[Vithoba]] in Maharashtra,<ref name="vithoba">[[Vithoba]] is not only viewed as a form of Krishna. He is also by some considered that of Vishnu, [[Shiva]] and [[Gautama Buddha]] according to various traditions. See: {{cite encyclopedia | title = ''Sri-Vitthal: Ek Mahasamanvay (Marathi)'' by R. C. Dhere | volume = 5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KnPoYxrRfc0C&q=vithoba&pg=PA4179|access-date=2008-09-20|author= Kelkar, Ashok R.| encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia of Indian literature|publisher = [[Sahitya Akademi]]|pages= 4179|year = 2001|orig-year = 1992| isbn = 978-8126012213 }} and {{Cite book|author=Mokashi, Digambar Balkrishna|author2=Engblom, Philip C. |title=Palkhi: a pilgrimage to Pandharpur – translated from the Marathi book Pālakhī by Philip C. Engblom|year=1987|publisher=[[State University of New York Press]]|isbn=978-0-88706-461-6| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=vgLZGFH1ZTIC&q=Palkhi:+a+pilgrimage+to+Pandharpur&pg=PA14|page = 35|location=Albany}}</ref> [[Shrinathji]] in Rajasthan<ref>{{cite book|author=Tryna Lyons|title=The Artists of Nathdwara: The Practice of Painting in Rajasthan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cKnGJGOEQukC |year=2004|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-34417-5|pages=16–22}}</ref> and [[Guruvayurappan|Guruvayoorappan]] in Kerala.<ref>{{cite book|author=Kunissery Ramakrishnier Vaidyanathan|title=Sri Krishna, the Lord of Guruvayur |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1XLXAAAAMAAJ |year=1992|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan|pages=2–5}}</ref>

Guidelines for the preparation of Krishna icons in design and architecture are described in medieval-era Sanskrit texts on Hindu temple arts such as ''Vaikhanasa [[Agama (Hinduism)|agama]]'', ''Vishnu dharmottara'', ''Brihat samhita'', and ''[[Agni Purana]]''.<ref>{{cite book|author=T. A. Gopinatha Rao|title=Elements of Hindu iconography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MJD-KresBwIC&pg=PA200 |year=1993|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0878-2|pages=201–204}}</ref> Similarly, early medieval-era [[Tamil literature|Tamil texts]] also contain guidelines for sculpting Krishna and Rukmini. Several statues made according to these guidelines are in the collections of the [[Government Museum, Chennai]].<ref>{{cite book|author=T. A. Gopinatha Rao|title=Elements of Hindu iconography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MJD-KresBwIC&pg=PA204 |year=1993|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0878-2|pages=204–208}}</ref>

Krishna iconography forms an important element in the figural sculpture on 17th–19th century terracotta temples of Bengal. In many temples, the stories of Krishna are depicted on a long series of narrow panels along the base of the facade. In other temples, the important Krishnalila episodes are depicted on large brick panels above the entrance arches or on the walls surrounding the entrance.<ref name="Amit">{{citation |url=https://www.aishee.org/krishnalila-in-terracotta-temples|title=Krishnalila in Terracotta Temples |author=Amit Guha}}</ref>

== Life and legends ==
This summary is a mythological account, based on literary details from the ''[[Mahābhārata]]'', the ''[[Harivamsa]]'', the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'', and the ''[[Vishnu Purana]]''. The scenes from the narrative are set in ancient India, mostly in the present states of [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Bihar]], [[Rajasthan]], [[Haryana]], [[Delhi]], and [[Gujarat]]. The legends about Krishna's life are called ''Krishna charitas'' ([[IAST]]: Kṛṣṇacaritas).{{sfn|Matchett|2001|p=145}}

=== Birth ===
[[File: Indischer Maler um 1755 002.jpg|thumb|right|Baby Krishna on a swing, depicted with his foster parents [[Nanda Baba|Nanda]] and [[Yashoda]].]]

In the ''Krishna Charitas'', Krishna is born to [[Devaki]] and her husband, [[Vasudeva]], of the [[Yadava]] clan in [[Mathura]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qmUssUXUFFYC&pg=PA359 |title=The Poems of Sūradāsa|publisher=Abhinav publications|year=1999|isbn=978-8170173694}}</ref> Devaki's brother is a tyrant named [[Kamsa]]. At Devaki's wedding, according to Puranic legends, Kamsa is told by fortune tellers that a child of Devaki would kill him. Sometimes, it is depicted as an [[Akashvani (word)|akashvani]] announcing Kamsa's death. Kamsa arranges to kill all of Devaki's children. When Krishna is born, Vasudeva secretly carries the infant Krishna away across the Yamuna, and exchanges him with [[Yashoda]]'s daughter. When Kamsa tries to kill the newborn, the exchanged baby appears as the Hindu goddess [[Yogmaya|Yogamaya]], warning him that his death has arrived in his kingdom, and then disappears, according to the legends in the Puranas. Krishna grows up with [[Nanda Baba|Nanda]] and his wife, [[Yashoda]], near modern-day [[Mathura]].<ref name="yashoda">{{cite web|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ho/07/sss/ho_1982.220.8.htm|title=Yashoda and Krishna|date=2011-10-10|publisher=Metmuseum.org|access-date=2011-10-23|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081013214426/http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ho/07/sss/ho_1982.220.8.htm|archive-date=13 October 2008}}</ref><ref name="tkk">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-UiwMRwcT-kC |title=The Krishna key|date=2012|publisher=Westland|isbn=978-9381626689|location=Chennai|page=Key7|language=en|last1=Sanghi|first1=Ashwin|access-date=9 June 2016}}</ref><ref name="Lok Nath Soni">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wT-BAAAAMAAJ |title=The Cattle and the Stick: An Ethnographic Profile of the Raut of Chhattisgarh|publisher=Anthropological Survey of India, Government of India, Ministry of Tourism and Culture, Department of Culture, 2000 Original from the University of Michigan|year=2000|isbn=978-8185579573|location=Anthropological Survey of India, Government of India, Ministry of Tourism and Culture, Department of Culture, Delhi|pages=16|author=Lok Nath Soni}}</ref> Two of Krishna's siblings also survive, namely [[Balarama]] and [[Subhadra]], according to these legends.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bryant|2007|pp=124–130, 224}}</ref> The day of the birth of Krishna is celebrated as [[Krishna Janmashtami]].

=== Childhood and youth ===
The legends of Krishna's childhood and youth describe him as a cow-herder, a mischievous boy whose pranks earn him the nickname ''Makhan Chor'' (butter thief), and a protector who steals the hearts of the people in both Gokul and Vrindavana. The texts state, for example, that Krishna lifts the [[Govardhana hill]] to protect the inhabitants of Vrindavana from [[Sāṁvartaka|devastating rains and floods]].<ref name="MW">{{cite book|author = Lynne Gibson|title = Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions|publisher = Merriam-Webster|year = 1999|page = 503}}</ref>

[[File:Krishna and Balarama Studying with the Brahman Sandipani (1525-1550 CE).jpg|thumb|left|''Krishna and [[Balarama]] Studying with the Brahman [[Sandipani]]'' (''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'', 1525-1550 CE print).]]
Other legends describe him as an enchanter and playful lover of the gopis (milkmaids) of Vrindavana, especially [[Radha]]. These metaphor-filled love stories are known as the ''[[Rasa lila]]'' and were romanticized in the poetry of [[Jayadeva]], author of the [[Gita Govinda]]. They are also central to the development of the Krishna [[bhakti]] traditions worshiping [[Radha Krishna]].<ref>{{cite book|author = Schweig, G. M.|year = 2005|title = Dance of divine love: The Rasa Lila of Krishna from the Bhagavata Purana, India's classic sacred love story.|publisher = [[Princeton University Press]], Princeton, NJ; Oxford|isbn = 978-0-691-11446-0}}</ref>

Krishna's childhood illustrates the Hindu concept of ''Lila'', playing for fun and enjoyment and not for sport or gain. His interaction with the gopis at the rasa dance or [[Rasa-lila]] is an example. Krishna plays his flute and the gopis come immediately, from whatever they were doing, to the banks of the [[Yamuna River]] and join him in singing and dancing. Even those who could not physically be there join him through meditation. He is the spiritual essence and the love-eternal in existence, the gopis metaphorically represent the ''[[prakṛti]]'' matter and the impermanent body.<ref name="Largen">{{cite book|author=Largen|first=Kristin Johnston|url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Baby_Krishna_Infant_Christ/D7_gveSP6-sC?hl=en&gbpv=0|title=God at Play: Seeing God Through the Lens of the Young Krishna|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2011|isbn=978-1608330188|location=India|pages=|oclc=1030901369}}</ref>{{rp|256}}

This ''Lila'' is a constant theme in the legends of Krishna's childhood and youth. Even when he is battling with a serpent to protect others, he is described in Hindu texts as if he were playing a game.<ref name=Largen />{{rp|255}} This quality of playfulness in Krishna is celebrated during festivals as Rasa-Lila and [[Janmashtami]], where Hindus in some regions such as [[Maharashtra]] playfully mimic his legends, such as by making human gymnastic pyramids to break open ''handis'' (clay pots) hung high in the air to "steal" butter or buttermilk, spilling it all over the group.<ref name=Largen />{{rp|253–261}}

=== Adulthood ===
[[File:Krishna Rukmini Satyabhama Garuda.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Krishna with his consorts [[Rukmini]] and [[Satyabhama]] and his mount [[Garuda]], [[Tamil Nadu]], India, late 12th–13th{{nbsp}}century<ref name="lacma">{{cite web|url=http://collections.lacma.org/node/203163|title=Krishna Rajamannar with His Wives, Rukmini and Satyabhama, and His Mount, Garuda | LACMA Collections|publisher=collections.lacma.org|access-date=2014-09-23|archive-date=16 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140716040855/http://collections.lacma.org/node/203163|url-status=dead}}</ref>]]
Krishna legends then describe his return to Mathura. He overthrows and kills the tyrant king, ''his uncle'' Kamsa/Kansa after quelling several assassination attempts by Kamsa. He reinstates Kamsa's father, [[Ugrasena]] as the king of the [[Yadava]]s and becomes a leading prince at the court.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bryant|2007|p=290}}</ref> In one version of the Krishna story, as narrated by Shanta Rao, Krishna after Kamsa's death leads the Yadavas to the newly built city of [[Dvārakā|Dwaraka]]. Thereafter Pandavas rise. Krishna befriends [[Arjuna]] and the other [[Pandava]] princes of the [[Kuru (kingdom)|Kuru]] kingdom. Krishna plays a key role in the ''Mahabharata''.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Rao|first1=Shanta Rameshwar|title=Krishna|date=2005|publisher=Orient Longman|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-8125026969|page=108|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NJ747fOWTRMC&pg=PA1}}</ref>

The Bhagavata Purana describes [[Ashtabharya|eight wives]] of Krishna that appear in sequence as [[Rukmini]], [[Satyabhama]], [[Jambavati]], [[Kalindi]], [[Mitravinda]], [[Nagnajiti]] (also called Satya), [[Bhadra (Krishna's wife)|Bhadra]] and [[Lakshmana (Krishna's wife)|Lakshmana]] (also called Madra).<ref name="Hudson2008">{{cite book|author=D Dennis Hudson|title=The Body of God : An Emperor's Palace for Krishna in Eighth-Century Kanchipuram: An Emperor's Palace for Krishna in Eighth-Century Kanchipuram|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IMCxbOezDi4C&pg=PA264|access-date=28 March 2013|year=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-970902-1|pages=263–264}}</ref> According to Dennis Hudson, this is a metaphor where each of the eight wives signifies a different aspect of him.<ref>{{cite book|author=D Dennis Hudson|title=The Body of God : An Emperor's Palace for Krishna in Eighth-Century Kanchipuram: An Emperor's Palace for Krishna in Eighth-Century Kanchipuram|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IMCxbOezDi4C&pg=PA264|access-date=28 March 2013|date=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-970902-1|pages=102–103, 263–273}}</ref> According to George Williams, Vaishnava texts mention all Gopis as wives of Krishna, but this is spiritual symbolism of devotional relationship and Krishna's complete loving devotion to each and everyone devoted to him.<ref>{{cite book|author=George Mason Williams|title=Handbook of Hindu Mythology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N7LOZfwCDpEC&pg=PA188|access-date=10 March 2013|year=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-533261-2|pages=188, 222}}</ref>

In Krishna-related Hindu traditions, he is most commonly seen with [[Radha]]. All of his wives and his lover Radha are considered in the Hindu tradition to be the [[avatar]]s of the goddess [[Lakshmi]], the consort of Vishnu.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rosen|2006|p=136}}</ref>{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=443}} [[Gopi]]s are considered as Lakshmi's or Radha's manifestations.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=443}}<ref name=hawley13>{{cite book|title = The Divine Consort: Rādhā and the Goddesses of India|author=John Stratton Hawley, Donna Marie Wulff|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publisher|date= 1982|isbn = 978-0-89581-102-8|page=12}} Quote: "The regional texts vary in the identity of Krishna's wife (consort), some presenting it as Rukmini, some as Radha, some as Svaminiji, some adding all ''gopis'', and some identifying all to be different aspects or manifestation of one [[Devi]] Lakshmi."</ref>

=== Kurukshetra War and ''Bhagavad Gita'' ===
{{Main|Kurukshetra War|Bhagavad Gita}}
According to the epic poem ''Mahabharata'', Krishna becomes Arjuna's charioteer for the [[Kurukshetra War]], but on the condition that he personally will not raise any weapon. Upon arrival at the battlefield and seeing that the enemies are his family, his grandfather, and his cousins and loved ones, Arjuna is moved and says his heart will not allow him to fight and kill others. He would rather renounce the kingdom and put down his ''[[Gandiva]]'' (Arjuna's bow). Krishna then advises him about the nature of life, ethics, and morality when one is faced with a war between good and evil, the impermanence of matter, the permanence of the soul and the good, duties and responsibilities, the nature of true peace and bliss and the different types of yoga to reach this state of bliss and inner liberation. This conversation between Krishna and Arjuna is presented as a discourse called the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]''.<ref>Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita, by Robert N. Minor in {{Harvnb|Bryant|2007|pp=77–79}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Jeaneane D. Fowler|title=The Bhagavad Gita: A Text and Commentary for Students|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dHX5XwAACAAJ|year=2012|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|isbn=978-1-84519-520-5|pages=1–7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Eknath Easwaran|title=The Bhagavad Gita: (Classics of Indian Spirituality)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bcnJAAAAQBAJ|year=2007|publisher=Nilgiri Press|isbn=978-1-58638-019-9|pages=21–59}}</ref>

=== Death and ascension ===
{{Main|Mausala Parva}}
It is stated in the Indian texts that the legendary Kurukshetra War led to the death of all the hundred sons of Gandhari. After Duryodhana's death, Krishna visits Gandhari to offer his condolences when Gandhari and Dhritarashtra visited Kurukshetra, as stated in Stree Parva. Feeling that Krishna deliberately did not put an end to the war, in a fit of rage and sorrow, Gandhari said, "Thou were indifferent to the Kurus and the Pandavas whilst they slew each other. Therefore, O Govinda, thou shalt be the slayer of thy own kinsmen!" According to the ''Mahabharata'', a fight breaks out at a festival among the Yadavas, who end up killing each other. Mistaking the sleeping Krishna for a deer, a hunter named Jara shoots an arrow towards Krishna's foot that fatally injures him. Krishna forgives ''Jara'' and dies.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bryant|2007|p=148}}</ref><ref name=eck380>{{cite book|author=Diana L. Eck|title=India: A Sacred Geography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uD_0P6gS-vMC&pg=PA380|year=2012|publisher=Harmony |isbn=978-0-385-53190-0|pages=380–381}}, Quote: "Krishna was shot through the foot, hand, and heart by the single arrow of a hunter named Jara. Krishna was reclining there, so they say, and Jara mistook his reddish foot for a deer and released his arrow. There Krishna died."</ref><ref name="Mani, Vettam 1975 429">{{cite book|author = Mani, Vettam|title = Puranic Encyclopaedia: A Comprehensive Dictionary With Special Reference to the Epic and Puranic Literature|url = https://archive.org/details/puranicencyclopa00maniuoft|publisher = Motilal Banarsidass|year = 1975|location = Delhi|isbn = 978-0-8426-0822-0|author-link =Vettam Mani|page=[https://archive.org/details/puranicencyclopa00maniuoft/page/429 429]}}</ref> The pilgrimage (''[[Tirtha (Hinduism)|tirtha]]'') site of [[Bhalka]] in [[Gujarat]] marks the location where Krishna is believed to have died. It is also known as ''Dehotsarga'', states [[Diana L. Eck]], a term that literally means the place where Krishna "gave up his body".<ref name=eck380 /> The ''Bhagavata Purana'' in Book 11, Chapter 31 states that after his death, Krishna returned to his transcendent abode directly because of his yogic concentration. Waiting gods such as [[Brahma]] and [[Indra]] were unable to trace the path Krishna took to leave his human incarnation and return to his abode.<ref>{{cite book|author=Edwin Bryant|title=Krishna: The Beautiful Legend of God: Srimad Bhagavata Purana|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=y8Bb0tRW7W4C |year= 2003|publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0-14-191337-7|pages=417–418}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Baby Krishna, Infant Christ: A Comparative Theology of Salvation|last=Largen|first=Kristin Johnston|publisher=Orbis Books|year=2011|isbn=978-1-60833-018-8|page=44}}</ref>

=== Versions and interpretations ===
{{multiple image
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| footer = Krishna iconography appears in many versions across India. For example (left to right): Srinath, Jagannath, Vithoba.
}}
There are numerous versions of Krishna's life story, of which three are most studied: the ''Harivamsa'', the ''Bhagavata Purana'', and the ''Vishnu Purana''.{{sfn|Matchett|2001|pp=9–14, 145–149}} They share the basic storyline but vary significantly in their specifics, details, and styles.<ref>{{cite book|author=Benjamín Preciado-Solís|title=The Kṛṣṇa Cycle in the Purāṇas: Themes and Motifs in a Heroic Saga |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JvCaWvjGDVEC&pg=PA40 |year=1984|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-0-89581-226-1|page=40}}, Quote: "Within a period of four or five centuries [around the start of the common era], we encounter our major sources of information, all in different versions. The Mahabharata, the Harivamsa, the Visnu Purana, the Ghata Jataka, and the Bala Carita all appear between the first and the fifth century AD, and each of them represents a tradition of a Krsna cycle different from the others".</ref> The most original composition, the ''Harivamsa'' is told in a realistic style that describes Krishna's life as a poor herder but weaves in poetic and [[Allusion|allusive]] fantasy. It ends on a triumphal note, not with the death of Krishna.{{sfn|Matchett|2001|pp=44–49, 63–64, 145}} Differing in some details, the fifth book of the ''Vishnu Purana'' moves away from ''Harivamsa'' realism and embeds Krishna in mystical terms and eulogies.{{sfn|Matchett|2001|pp=89–104, 146}} The ''Vishnu Purana'' manuscripts exist in many versions.{{sfn|Rocher|1986|pp=18, 245–249}}

The tenth and eleventh books of the ''Bhagavata Purana'' are widely considered to be a poetic masterpiece, full of imagination and metaphors, with no relation to the realism of pastoral life found in the ''Harivamsa''. Krishna's life is presented as a cosmic play (''Lila''), where his youth is set as a princely life with his foster father Nanda portrayed as a king.{{sfn|Matchett|2001|pp=108–115, 146–147}} Krishna's life is closer to that of a human being in ''Harivamsa'', but is a symbolic universe in the ''Bhagavata Purana'', where Krishna is within the universe and beyond it, as well as the universe itself, always.{{sfn|Matchett|2001|pp=145–149}} The ''Bhagavata Purana'' manuscripts also exist in many versions, in numerous Indian languages.{{sfn|Rocher|1986|pp=138–149}}{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=112}}

[[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] is considered as the incarnation of Krishna in [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism]] and by the [[ISKCON]] community.<ref>{{cite news |title=Gaura Purnima Mahotsava By International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON)
|url=https://www.sentinelassam.com/news/gaura-purnima-mahotsava-by-international-society-for-krishna-consciousness-iskcon/|date=18 March 2019 |newspaper=Sentinelassam |department=City: Guwahati|access-date=30 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Alfred Ford on mission to fund biggest temple
|url=https://telanganatoday.com/alfred-ford-on-mission-to-fund-biggest-temple|date=14 October 2019 |newspaper=Telanganatoday |department=City: Hyderabad|access-date=30 January 2020}}</ref><ref>Benjamin E. Zeller (2010), ''Prophets and Protons'', New York University Press, {{ISBN|978-0814797211}}, pp. 77–79</ref>

== Proposed datings ==
{{See also|Vedic-Puranic chronology|History of Hinduism}}
[[File:RadhaKrishnaUdaipur.JPG|thumb|upright|14th-century [[fresco]] of [[Radha Krishna]] in [[Udaipur]], Rajasthan]]

The date of Krishna's birth is celebrated every year as [[Janmashtami]].{{sfn|Knott|2000}}{{page needed|date=December 2021}}

According to Guy Beck, "most scholars of Hinduism and Indian history accept the historicity of Krishna{{snd}}that he was a real male person, whether human or divine, who lived on Indian soil by at least 1000 BCE and interacted with many other historical persons within the cycles of the epic and puranic histories." Yet, Beck also notes that there is an "enormous number of contradictions and discrepancies surrounding the chronology of Krishna's life as depicted in the Sanskrit canon".<ref>{{cite book|title=Alternative Krishnas: Regional And Vernacular Variations on a Hindu Deity|pages=4–5|first=Guy|last=Beck|publisher=Suny Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K0XqbG0LKBUC&pg=PA4|isbn=978-0-7914-8341-1|date=2012}}</ref>

According to mythologies in the Jain tradition, Krishna was a cousin of Neminatha.{{sfn|Sangave|2001|p=104}} Neminatha is believed in the Jain tradition to have been born 84,000 years before the 9th-century{{nbsp}}BCE [[Parshvanatha]], the twenty-third ''tirthankara''.{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|p=226}}

== Philosophy and theology ==
[[File:12th-century Krishna playing flute with gathered living beings lost in music at Shaivism Hindu temple Hoysaleswara arts Halebidu Karnataka India.jpg|thumb|12th-century art depicting Krishna playing flute with gathered living beings at [[Hoysaleswara Temple|Hoysaleswara temple]], Karnataka]]

A wide range of theological and philosophical ideas are presented through Krishna in Hindu texts. The teachings of the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' can be considered, according to [[Friedhelm Hardy]], as the first Krishnaite system of theology.{{sfn|Hardy|1987|pp=387–392}}

[[Ramanuja]], a Hindu theologian and philosopher whose works were influential in [[Bhakti movement]],<ref name="KulkeRothermund2004p149">{{cite book|author1=Hermann Kulke|author2=Dietmar Rothermund|title=A History of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RoW9GuFJ9GIC&pg=PA149|year=2004|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-32920-0|page=149}}</ref> presented him in terms of qualified [[monism]], or [[nondualism]] (namely [[Vishishtadvaita]] school).{{sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=329–334 (Francis X Clooney)}} [[Madhvacharya]], a philosopher whose works led to the founding of [[Haridasa]] tradition of Vaishnavism,<ref name="SharmaB">{{cite book|author1=Sharma|author2=B. N. Krishnamurti|title=A History of the Dvaita School of Vedānta and Its Literature|year=2000|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-8120815759|pages=514–516}}</ref> presented Krishna in the framework of [[Dualism (Indian philosophy)|dualism]] ([[Dvaita]]).{{sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=358–365 (Deepak Sarma)}} [[Bhedabheda]]{{snd}}a group of schools, which teaches that the individual self is both different and not different from the ultimate reality{{snd}}predates the positions of monism and dualism. Among medieval Bhedabheda thinkers are [[Nimbarkacharya]], who founded the [[Nimbarka Sampradaya|Kumara Sampradaya]] (Dvaitadvaita philosophical school),{{sfn|Ramnarace|2014|p=}} as well as [[Jiva Goswami]], a saint from [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism|Gaudiya Vaishnava school]],<ref>{{cite web|last=Tripurari |first=Swami |title=The Life of Sri Jiva Goswami |url=http://harmonist.us/2009/12/the-life-of-sri-jiva-goswami/ |work=Harmonist |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130324101939/http://harmonist.us/2009/12/the-life-of-sri-jiva-goswami/ |archive-date=24 March 2013 }}</ref> described Krishna theology in terms of Bhakti yoga and [[Achintya Bheda Abheda]].{{sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=373–378 (Satyanarayana Dasa)}} Krishna theology is presented in a pure monism ([[advaita]], called ''shuddhadvaita'') framework by [[Vallabha Acharya]], who was the founder of [[Pushtimarg|Pushti]] sect of vaishnavism.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=175zjT9bStcC&q=nathdwara | title=Culture of a Sacred Town: A Sociological Study of Nathdwara | publisher=Popular Prakashan | author=Jindel, Rajendra | year=1976 | pages=34, 37 | isbn=978-8171540402}}</ref>{{sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=479–480 (Richard Barz)}} Madhusudana Sarasvati, an India philosopher,<ref name="David_1996">{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jEUdPqYQjhoC&pg=PA156 |title=Contesting the Nation |editor=David Ludden |chapter=Soldier Monks and Militant Sadhus |author=William R. Pinch |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-8122-1585-4 |pages=148–150 }}</ref> presented Krishna theology in nondualism-monism framework ([[Advaita Vedanta]]), while [[Adi Shankara]], who is credited for unifying and establishing the main currents of thought in [[Hinduism]],<ref>Johannes de Kruijf and Ajaya Sahoo (2014), ''Indian Transnationalism Online: New Perspectives on Diaspora'', {{ISBN|978-1-4724-1913-2}}, p. 105, Quote: "In other words, according to Adi Shankara's argument, the philosophy of Advaita Vedanta stood over and above all other forms of Hinduism and encapsulated them. This then united Hinduism; (...) Another of Adi Shankara's important undertakings which contributed to the unification of Hinduism was his founding of a number of monastic centers."</ref><ref>''Shankara'', Student's Encyclopædia Britannica – India (2000), Volume 4, Encyclopædia Britannica (UK) Publishing, {{ISBN|978-0-85229-760-5}}, p. 379, Quote: "Shankaracharya, philosopher and theologian, most renowned exponent of the Advaita Vedanta school of philosophy, from whose doctrines the main currents of modern Indian thought are derived."; David Crystal (2004), The Penguin Encyclopedia, Penguin Books, p. 1353, Quote: "[Shankara] is the most famous exponent of Advaita Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy and the source of the main currents of modern Hindu thought."</ref><ref>Christophe Jaffrelot (1998), ''The Hindu Nationalist Movement in India'', Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-231-10335-0}}, p. 2, Quote: "The main current of Hinduism – if not the only one – which became formalized in a way that approximates to an ecclesiastical structure was that of Shankara".</ref> mentioned Krishna in his early eighth-century discussions on [[Panchayatana puja]].{{sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=313–318 (Lance Nelson)}}

The ''Bhagavata Purana'', a popular text on Krishna considered to be like scripture in [[Assam]], synthesizes an Advaita, Samkhya, and Yoga framework for Krishna but one that proceeds through loving devotion to Krishna. {{sfn|Sheridan|1986|pp=1–2, 17–25}}{{sfn|Kumar Das|2006| pages=172–173}}{{sfn|Brown|1983|pages=553–557}} Bryant describes the synthesis of ideas in Bhagavata Purana as,

{{Blockquote|The philosophy of the Bhagavata is a mixture of Vedanta terminology, Samkhyan metaphysics, and devotionalized Yoga praxis. (...) The tenth book promotes Krishna as the highest absolute personal aspect of godhead – the personality behind the term [[Ishvara]] and the ultimate aspect of [[Brahman]].|Edwin Bryant|''Krishna: A Sourcebook''{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=114}}}}

While Sheridan and Pintchman both affirm Bryant's view, the latter adds that the Vedantic view emphasized in the Bhagavata is [[nondualism|non-dualist]] with a difference. In conventional nondual Vedanta, all reality is interconnected and one, the Bhagavata posits that the reality is interconnected and plural.<ref>Tracy Pintchman (1994), ''The rise of the Goddess in the Hindu Tradition'', State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791421123}}, pp. 132–134</ref>{{sfn|Sheridan|1986|pages=17–21}}

Across the various theologies and philosophies, the common theme presents Krishna as the essence and symbol of divine love, with human life and love as a reflection of the divine. The longing and love-filled legends of Krishna and the gopis, his playful pranks as a baby,<ref>{{cite book|author=John Stratton Hawley|title=Krishna, The Butter Thief|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ncb_AwAAQBAJ |year=2014|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-5540-7|pages=10, 170}}</ref> as well as his later dialogues with other characters, are philosophically treated as metaphors for the human longing for the divine and for meaning, and the play between the universals and the human soul.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Krishna-Hindu-deity Krishna: Hindu Deity], Encyclopædia Britannica (2015)</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=John M Koller|title=The Indian Way: An Introduction to the Philosophies & Religions of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lgg3DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA210 |year=2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-315-50740-8|pages=210–215}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=Vaudeville | first=Ch. | title=Evolution of Love-Symbolism in Bhagavatism | journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society | volume=82 | issue=1 | pages=31–40 | year=1962 | doi=10.2307/595976 | jstor=595976}}</ref> Krishna's ''lila'' is a theology of love-play. According to John Koller, "love is presented not simply as a means to salvation, it is the highest life". Human love is God's love.<ref>{{cite book|author=John M Koller|title=The Indian Way: An Introduction to the Philosophies & Religions of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lgg3DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA210 |year=2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-315-50740-8|page=210}}</ref>

Other texts that include Krishna such as the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' have attracted numerous ''[[bhasya]]'' (commentaries) in the Hindu traditions.<ref name=Juanxxvi /> Though only a part of the Hindu epic ''Mahabharata'', it has functioned as an independent spiritual guide. It allegorically raises through Krishna and Arjuna the ethical and moral dilemmas of human life, then presents a spectrum of answers, weighing in on the ideological questions on human freedoms, choices, and responsibilities towards self and towards others.<ref name=Juanxxvi /><ref name=feuersteinix /> This Krishna dialogue has attracted numerous interpretations, from being a metaphor of inner human struggle teaching non-violence, to being a metaphor of outer human struggle teaching a rejection of quietism to persecution.<ref name=Juanxxvi>{{cite book|author=Juan Mascaró|title=The Bhagavad Gita|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UZEKghCNbVIC |year=1962|publisher=Penguin|isbn=978-0-14-044918-1|pages=xxvi–xxviii}}</ref><ref name=feuersteinix>{{cite book|author1=Georg Feuerstein|author2=Brenda Feuerstein|title=The Bhagavad-Gita: A New Translation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V0exkVFiyvcC |year=2011| publisher=Shambhala Publications|isbn=978-1-59030-893-6|pages=ix–xi}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Nicholas F. Gier|title=The Virtue of Nonviolence: From Gautama to Gandhi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tVLt99uleLwC&pg=PA36| year=2004| publisher= State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-5949-2|pages=36–40}}</ref>

== Influence ==
=== Vaishnavism ===
{{Main|Vaishnavism|Krishnaism}}
The worship of Krishna is part of [[Vaishnavism]], a major tradition within Hinduism. Krishna is considered a full avatar of Vishnu, or one with Vishnu himself.<ref>{{cite book |author=John Dowson |title=Classical Dictionary of Hindu Mythology and Religion, Geography, History and Literature |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |year=2003 |page= 361|isbn=978-0-7661-7589-1| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=6JB-KOXy5k8C&q=Vishnu+Sahasranama+Krishna&pg=PA361}}</ref> However, the exact relationship between Krishna and Vishnu is complex and diverse,<ref name = Beck>See Beck, Guy, ''"Introduction"'' in {{Harvnb|Beck|2005|pp=1–18}}</ref> with Krishna of [[Krishnaism|Krishnaite]] sampradayas considered an independent deity and supreme.{{sfn|Hardy|1987|pp=387–392}}<ref name=Knott55>{{Harvnb|Knott|2000|p=55}}</ref> Vaishnavas accept many incarnations of Vishnu, but Krishna is particularly important. Their theologies are generally centered either on Vishnu or an avatar such as Krishna as supreme. The terms [[Krishnaism]] and Vishnuism have sometimes been used to distinguish the two, the former implying that Krishna is the transcendent Supreme Being. {{sfn|Flood|1996|p =117}} Some scholars, as [[Friedhelm Hardy]], do not define Krishnaism as a sub-order or offshoot of Vaishnavism, considering it a parallel and no less ancient current of Hinduism.{{sfn|Hardy|1987|pp=387–392}}

All Vaishnava traditions recognise Krishna as the eighth avatar of Vishnu; others identify Krishna with Vishnu, while Krishnaite traditions such as [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism]],<ref name = McDaniel>See McDaniel, June, ''Folk Vaishnavism and {{IAST|Ṭhākur Pañcāyat}}: Life and status among village Krishna statues'' in {{Harvnb|Beck|2005|p=39}}</ref><ref name=Kennedy1925>{{cite book| author = Kennedy, M. T.| year = 1925 | title = The Chaitanya Movement: A Study of the Vaishnavism of Bengal| url = https://archive.org/details/pli.kerala.rare.24847| publisher = H. Milford, Oxford university press}}</ref> [[Ekasarana Dharma]], [[Mahanam Sampraday]], [[Nimbarka Sampradaya]] and the [[Pushtimarg|Vallabha Sampradaya]] regard Krishna as the ''[[Svayam Bhagavan]]'', the original form of Lord or the same as the concept of [[Brahman]] in Hinduism.<ref name="KK">{{cite book |author=K. Klostermaier |title=The Charles Strong Trust Lectures, 1972–1984 |publisher=Brill Academic Pub |year=1997 |page= 109 |isbn=978-90-04-07863-5 |quote=(...) After attaining to fame eternal, he again took up his real nature as [[Brahman]]. The most important among Visnu's avataras is undoubtedly Krsna, the black one, also called ''Syama''. For his worshippers he is not an avatara in the usual sense, but Svayam Bhagavan, the Lord himself.|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=F_0UAAAAIAAJ&q=Svayam+bhagavan&pg=PA109 | others = Crotty, Robert B.}}</ref><ref name = VaisnavaInstitute1956>{{cite book |title= Indian Philosophy & Culture, Volume 20 |year= 1975|publisher=The Institute |page= 148|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=yEMB3RBwjTsC |others= Institute of Oriental Philosophy (Vrindāvan, India), Institute of Oriental Philosophy, Vaishnava Research Institute, contributors |quote=On the touch-stone of this definition of the final and positive characteristic of Sri Krsna as the Highest Divinity as Svayam-rupa Bhagavan}}</ref><ref name=Delmonico>Delmonico, N., ''The History Of Indic Monotheism And Modern Chaitanya Vaishnavism'' in {{Harvnb|Bryant|Ekstrand|2004}}</ref><ref name=De1960>{{cite book|author = De, S. K.|year = 1960|title = Bengal's contribution to Sanskrit literature & studies in Bengal Vaisnavism|publisher = KL Mukhopadhyaya}} p. 113: "The Bengal School identifies the Bhagavat with Krishna depicted in the Shrimad-Bhagavata and presents him as its highest personal God."</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Bryant|2007|p=381}}</ref> [[Gitagovinda]] of [[Jayadeva]] considers Krishna to be the supreme lord while the ten incarnations are his forms. [[Swaminarayan]], the founder of the [[Swaminarayan Sampradaya]], also worshipped Krishna as God himself. "Greater Krishnaism" corresponds to the second and dominant phase of Vaishnavism, revolving around the cults of the [[Vasudeva]], Krishna, and [[Gopal (Krishna)|Gopala]] of the late [[Vedic period]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url= http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/hindu/devot/vaish.html|title= Vaishnava|access-date= 13 October 2008|encyclopedia= encyclopedia|publisher= Division of Religion and Philosophy University of Cumbria|url-status=dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120212183626/http://www.philtar.ac.uk/encyclopedia/hindu/devot/vaish.html|archive-date= 12 February 2012|df= dmy-all}}, University of Cumbria website Retrieved 21 May 2008</ref> Today the faith has a significant following outside of India as well.<ref name="Princeton">{{cite book|author = Graham M. Schweig|title = Dance of Divine Love: The Rڄasa Lڄilڄa of Krishna from the Bhڄagavata Purڄa. na, India's classic sacred love story|publisher = Princeton University Press|location = Princeton, N.J.|year = 2005|pages = Front Matter|isbn = 978-0-691-11446-0|no-pp = true}}</ref>

'''Early traditions'''

The deity ''[[Krishna-Vasudeva]]'' (''{{IAST|kṛṣṇa vāsudeva}}'' "Krishna, the son of [[Vasudeva Anakadundubhi]]") is historically one of the earliest forms of worship in [[Krishnaism]] and [[Vaishnavism]].<ref name="Cultofgopal">{{cite journal|title = A Revolution in {{IAST|Kṛṣṇaism}}: The Cult of Gopāla |last = Hein|first = Norvin|jstor = 1062622 |volume=25 |issue = 4|pages=296–317 |doi=10.1086/463051 |journal=History of Religions |year=1986|s2cid = 162049250}}</ref><ref name = bryant4 /> It is believed to be a significant tradition of the early history of Krishna religion in antiquity.<ref>Bhattacharya, Gouriswar: ''Vanamala of Vasudeva-Krsna-Visnu and Sankarsana-Balarama''. In: Vanamala. Festschrift A. J. Gail. Serta Adalberto Joanni Gail LXV. diem natalem celebranti ab amicis collegis discipulis dedicata.</ref> Thereafter, there was an amalgamation of various similar traditions. These include ancient [[Bhagavatism]], the cult of [[Gopala]], of "Krishna Govinda" (cow-finding Krishna), of [[Bala Krishna|Balakrishna]] (baby Krishna) and of "Krishna Gopivallabha<ref>{{cite web|date=2014-08-05|title=Gopala: Understanding the Essence of Krishna as a Cowherd|url=https://isha.sadhguru.org/in/en/wisdom/article/gopala-understanding-essence-krishna-cowherd |access-date=2021-06-30 |website=Isha Sadhguru|language=en}}</ref>" (Krishna the lover).<ref name=kk20072>{{cite book|author = Klostermaier, Klaus K.|pages = [https://archive.org/details/surveyhinduismth00klos/page/n221 203]–204|year = 2005|title = A Survey of Hinduism|url = https://archive.org/details/surveyhinduismth00klos|url-access = limited|publisher = State University of New York Press; 3 edition|isbn = 978-0-7914-7081-7|quote = Present-day Krishna worship is an amalgam of various elements. According to historical testimonies, Krishna-Vasudeva worship already flourished in and around Mathura several centuries before Christ. A second important element is the cult of Krishna Govinda. Still later is the worship of Bala-Krishna, the Child Krishna{{snd}}a quite prominent feature of modern Krishnaism. The last element seems to have been Krishna Gopijanavallabha, Krishna the lover of the Gopis, among whom Radha occupies a special position. In some books, Krishna is presented as the founder and first teacher of the Bhagavata religion.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title = Review: ''Krishna: Myths, Rites, and Attitudes''. by Milton Singer; Daniel H. H. Ingalls|journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=27 |number=3 |date=May 1968|last = Basham|first = A. L.
|jstor = 2051211|pages=667–670 |doi=10.2307/2051211|s2cid=161458918 }}</ref> According to Andre Couture, the [[Harivamsa]] contributed to the synthesis of various characters as aspects of Krishna.<ref>{{cite journal |title= The emergence of a group of four characters (Vasudeva, Samkarsana, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha) in the Harivamsa: points for consideration|journal = Journal of Indian Philosophy|author = Couture, André |s2cid = 170133349|year= 2006|volume = 34|issue = 6|pages= 571–585|doi= 10.1007/s10781-006-9009-x }}</ref>

Already in the early Middle Ages, the Jagannathism ({{a.k.a.}} [[Odisha|Odia]] Vaishnavism) was origined as the cult of the god [[Jagannath]] ({{lit|'Lord of the Universe'}}){{snd}}an abstract form of Krishna.{{sfnm|1a1=Eschmann|1a2=Kulke|1a3=Tripathi|1y=1978|1p=|2a1=Hardy|2y=1987|2pp=387–392|3a1=Starza|3y=1993|3p=|4a1=Miśra|4y=2005|4loc=chapter 9. Jagannāthism}} Jagannathism was a regional temple-centered version of [[Krishnaism]],{{sfn|Hardy|1987|pp=387–392}} where Lord Jagannath is understood as a principal god, [[Purushottama]] and [[Para Brahman]], but can also be regarded as a non-sectarian syncretic Vaishnavite and all-Hindu cult.{{sfn|Miśra|2005|p=97|loc=chapter 9. Jagannāthism}} According to the ''Vishnudharma Purana'' ({{circa}} 4th century), Krishna is woshipped in the form of Purushottama in Odia (Odisha).{{sfn|Starza|1993|p=76}} The notable [[Jagannath Temple, Puri|Jagannath temple]] in [[Puri]], Odisha became particularly significant within the tradition since about 800 CE.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=139–141}}

=== Bhakti tradition ===
{{Main|Bhakti movement|Bhakti yoga}}[[File:Meerabai (crop).jpg|thumb|left|upright|Krishna has been a major part of the [[Bhakti movement]]. One of the key devotees was [[Meera]] (pictured).]]
The use of the term bhakti, meaning devotion, is not confined to any one deity. However, Krishna is an important and popular focus of the devotionalism tradition within Hinduism, particularly among the [[Vaishnava]] [[Krishnaism|Krishnaite]] sects.<ref name = McDaniel /><ref name="Klostermaier1974">{{cite journal|author = Klostermaier, K.|year = 1974|title = The Bhaktirasamrtasindhubindu of Visvanatha Cakravartin|journal = Journal of the American Oriental Society|volume = 94|issue = 1|pages = 96–107|doi = 10.2307/599733 |jstor = 599733}}</ref> Devotees of Krishna subscribe to the concept of ''[[lila (divine play)|lila]]'', meaning 'divine play', as the central principle of the universe. It is a form of bhakti yoga, one of three types of yoga discussed by Krishna in the ''Bhagavad Gita''.<ref name="Kennedy1925" /><ref name="Jacobsen">{{cite book |editor-last=Jacobsen |editor-first=Knut A. | year = 2005 | title = Theory And Practice of Yoga: Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson | page=351 | publisher = Brill Academic Publishers| isbn=978-90-04-14757-7}}</ref><ref name=chapple>Christopher Key Chapple (Editor) and Winthrop Sargeant (Translator), ''The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition'', State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-1438428420}}, pp. 302–303, 318</ref>

==== Indian subcontinent ====
The bhakti movements devoted to Krishna became prominent in southern India in the 7th to 9th{{nbsp}}centuries CE. The earliest works included those of the [[Alvars|Alvar]] saints of [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref name=Vaudeville1962>{{cite journal|author = Vaudeville, C.|year = 1962|title = Evolution of Love-Symbolism in Bhagavatism|journal = Journal of the American Oriental Society|volume = 82|issue = 1|pages = 31–40|doi = 10.2307/595976|jstor = 595976}}</ref> A major collection of their works is the ''[[Divya Prabandham]]''. Alvar [[Andal]]'s popular collection of songs [[Tiruppavai]], in which she conceives of herself as a gopi, is the most famous of the oldest works in this genre.<ref name="cassel">{{cite book |author=Bowen, Paul |title=Themes and issues in Hinduism |publisher=Cassell |location=London |year=1998 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/themesissuesinhi0000unse/page/64 64–65] |isbn=978-0-304-33851-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/themesissuesinhi0000unse/page/64 }}</ref><ref name=Radhak1975>{{cite book|author = Radhakrisnasarma, C.|year = 1975|title = Landmarks in Telugu Literature: A Short Survey of Telugu Literature|publisher = Lakshminarayana Granthamala}}</ref><ref name=histor>{{cite book|author = Sisir Kumar Das|year = 2005|title = A History of Indian Literature, 500–1399: From Courtly to the Popular|publisher = Sahitya Akademi|page = 49|isbn = 978-81-260-2171-0}}</ref>

The movement originated in South India during the 7th century CE, spreading northwards from Tamil Nadu through Karnataka and Maharashtra; by the 15th{{nbsp}}century, it was established in Bengal and northern India.{{sfnp|Schomer|McLeod|1987|pp=1–2|ps=}} Early [[Krishnaism|Krishnaite]] Bhakti pioneers included [[Nimbarkacharya]] (12th or 13th{{nbsp}}century CE),{{sfn|Ramnarace|2014|p=}}<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nimbarka-Indian-philosopher Nimbarka], Encyclopædia Britannica</ref>{{refn|group=note|"The first ''Kṛṣṇaite sampradāya'' was developed by Nimbārka."{{sfn|Hardy|1987|pp=387–392}}}} but most emerged later, including [[Vallabhacharya]] (15th{{nbsp}}century CE) and [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]]. They started their own schools, namely [[Nimbarka Sampradaya]], [[Vallabha Sampradaya]], and [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism]], with Krishna and Radha as the supreme gods. In addition, since the 15th century, flourished [[Tantra|Tantric]] variety of Krishnaism, [[Vaishnava-Sahajiya]], is linked to the Bengali poet [[Chandidas]].{{sfn|Basu|1932}}

In the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]], particularly in [[Maharashtra]], saint poets of the [[Warkari]] sect such as [[Dnyaneshwar]], [[Namdev]], [[Janabai]], [[Eknath]], and [[Tukaram]] promoted the worship of [[Vithoba]],<ref name="vithoba" /> a local form of Krishna, from between the 13th to 18th century.<ref name=" Mahony1987" /> Before the Warkari tradition, Krishna devotion became well established in Maharashtra due to the rise of the [[Mahanubhava|Mahanubhava Sampradaya]] founded by Sarvajna [[Chakradhar Swami|Chakradhara]].<ref>The religious system of the Mahānubhāva sect, by Anne Feldhaus, Manohar publications: Delhi, 1983.</ref> The [[Pranami|Pranami Sampradaya]] emerged in the 17th century in [[Gujarat]], based on the Krishna-focussed syncretist Hindu-[[Islam]]ic teachings of Devchandra Maharaj and his famous successor, Mahamati Prannath.{{sfn|Toffin|2012|pp=249–254}} In southern India, [[Purandara Dasa]] and [[Kanakadasa]] of [[Karnataka]] composed songs devoted to the Krishna image of [[Udupi]]. [[Rupa Goswami]] of Gaudiya Vaishnavism has compiled a comprehensive summary of bhakti called Bhakti-rasamrita-sindhu.<ref name="Klostermaier1974" />

In South India, the acharyas of the Sri Sampradaya have written reverently about Krishna in most of their works, including the [[Thiruppavai]] by Andal<ref>{{cite web|title=Thiruppavai|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/tpv/|work=Ibiblio|access-date=2013-05-24}}</ref> and Gopala Vimshati by [[Vedanta Desika]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Desika|first=Vedanta|title=Gopala Vimshati|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/vdesikan/gopala_vimsati/index.html|work=Ibiblio, Sripedia|access-date=2013-05-23}}</ref>

Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Kerala states have many major Krishna temples, and [[Janmashtami]] is one of the widely celebrated festivals in South India.<ref name="Maithily">{{cite book |last1=Jaganathan |first1=Maithily |title=South Indian Hindu festivals and traditions |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=xcIrkKUJH9QC|edition= 1st |year=2005 |publisher=Abhinav Publication |location=New Delhi |language=en |isbn=978-81-7017-415-8 |pages=104–105 |chapter=Sri Krishna Jayanti }}</ref>

==== Outside Asia ====
[[File:Radhakrishna manor.JPG|thumb|upright|Krishna (left) with Radha at [[Bhaktivedanta Manor]], [[Watford]], England]]
By 1965, the ''Krishna-bhakti'' movement had spread outside India after [[Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada]] (as instructed by his [[guru]], [[Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakura]]) travelled from his homeland in West Bengal to [[New York City]]. A year later, in 1966, after gaining many followers, he was able to form the [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness]] (ISKCON), popularly known as the Hare Krishna movement. The purpose of this movement was to write about Krishna in English and to share the [[Gaudiya Vaishnava]] philosophy with people in the Western world by spreading the teachings of the saint [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]]. In the biographies of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, the mantra he received when he was given [[diksha]] or initiation in [[Gaya, India|Gaya]] was the six-word verse of the ''[[Kali-Saṇṭāraṇa Upaniṣad|Kali-Santarana Upanishad]]'', namely "Hare Krishna Hare Krishna, Krishna Krishna Hare Hare; Hare Rama Hare Rama, Rama Rama Hare Hare". In the Gaudiya tradition, it is the ''maha-mantra'', or great mantra, about Krishna [[bhakti]].{{sfn|Bryant|2013|p=42}}<ref>Alanna Kaivalya (2014), Sacred Sound: Discovering the Myth and Meaning of Mantra and Kirtan, New World, {{ISBN|978-1608682430}}, pp. 153–154</ref> Its chanting was known as ''hari-nama sankirtana''.<ref>''Srila Prabhupada – He Built a House in which the whole world can live in peace'', Satsvarupa Dasa Goswami, Bhaktivedanta Book Trust, 1984, {{ISBN|0-89213-133-0}} p. xv</ref>

The ''maha-mantra'' gained the attention of [[George Harrison]] and [[John Lennon]] of [[The Beatles]] fame,<ref name=charlesbrooks83 /> and Harrison produced a 1969 recording of the mantra by devotees from the London [[Radha Krishna Temple]].<ref>Peter Lavezzoli (2006), ''The Dawn of Indian Music in the West'', Continuum, {{ISBN|0-8264-2819-3}}, p. 195</ref> Titled "[[Hare Krishna Mantra (song)|Hare Krishna Mantra]]", the song reached the top twenty on the UK music charts and was also successful in West Germany and Czechoslovakia.<ref name=charlesbrooks83 /><ref name=Clarke308>Peter Clarke (2005), ''Encyclopedia of New Religious Movements'', Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415267076}}, p. 308 Quote: "There they captured the imagination of The Beatles, particularly George Harrison who helped them produce a chart-topping record of the Hare Krishna mantra (1969) and ...".</ref> The mantra of the Upanishad thus helped bring Bhaktivedanta and ISKCON ideas about Krishna into the West.<ref name=charlesbrooks83>Charles Brooks (1989), ''The Hare Krishnas in India'', Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-8120809390}}, pp. 83–85</ref> ISCKON has built many Krishna temples in the West, as well as other locations such as South Africa.<ref>{{cite book|author=Brian A. Hatcher|title=Hinduism in the Modern World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IdeoCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA118 |year= 2015|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-04631-6|pages=118–119}}</ref>

=== Southeast Asia ===
[[File:Krishna, Khuong My, 7th-8th century, Quang Nam - Museum of Cham Sculpture - Danang, Vietnam - DSC01580.JPG|thumb|left|''Krishna lifts "[[Govardhan Hill|Govardhan]]" mountain'', a 7th-century artwork from a [[Danang|Da Nang]], Vietnam, archaeological site<ref name="John2014p17" /><ref>{{cite book|author1=Anne-Valérie Schweyer|author2=Paisarn Piemmettawat|title=Viêt Nam ancien: histoire arts archéologie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mSrsUuIxZXkC&pg=PA388 |year=2011|publisher=Editions Olizane|isbn=978-2-88086-396-8|page=388}}</ref>]]
Krishna is found in Southeast Asian history and art, but to a far lesser extent than [[Shiva]], [[Durga]], [[Nandi (bull)|Nandi]], [[Agastya]], and [[Buddha]]. In temples (''candi'') of the archaeological sites in hilly volcanic [[Java]], Indonesia, temple reliefs do not portray his pastoral life or his role as the erotic lover, nor do the historic Javanese Hindu texts.{{sfn|Marijke J. Klokke|2000|pp=19–23}} Rather, either his childhood or the life as a king and Arjuna's companion have been more favored. The most elaborate temple arts of Krishna is found in a series of ''Krsnayana'' reliefs in the Prambanan Hindu temple complex near [[Yogyakarta]]. These are dated to the 9th{{nbsp}}century CE.{{sfn|Marijke J. Klokke|2000|pp=19–23}}<ref>{{cite book |author=Subhadradis Diskul (M.C.) |author2=[[Jean Boisselier]] |editor=Natasha Eilenberg |editor2=Robert L. Brown |title=Living a life in accord with Dhamma: papers in honor of professor Jean Boisselier on his eightieth birthday |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=--m5oQEACAAJ |year=1997 |publisher=Silpakorn University |pages=191–204}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Triguṇa (Mpu.)|author2=Suwito Santoso|title=Krĕṣṇāyana: The Krĕṣṇa Legend in Indonesia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=341kAAAAMAAJ |year=1986|publisher=IAIC| oclc= 15488486}}</ref> Krishna remained a part of the Javanese cultural and theological fabric through the 14th{{nbsp}}century, as evidenced by the 14th-century [[Penataran]] reliefs along with those of the Hindu god Rama in east Java, before Islam replaced Buddhism and Hinduism on the island.{{sfn|Marijke J. Klokke|2000|pp=19–23, for reliefs details see 24–41}}

The medieval era arts of Vietnam and Cambodia feature Krishna. The earliest surviving sculptures and reliefs are from the 6th and 7th{{nbsp}}centuries, and these include Vaishnavism iconography.<ref name="John2014p17">{{cite book|author=John Guy|title=Lost Kingdoms: Hindu-Buddhist Sculpture of Early Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vO_-AgAAQBAJ|year=2014|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art|isbn=978-1-58839-524-5|pages=17, 146–148}}</ref> According to John Guy, the curator and director of Southeast Asian arts at the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], the Krishna Govardhana art from 6th/7th-century Vietnam at [[Danang]], and 7th-century Cambodia at [[Phnom Da]] cave in [[Angkor Borei District|Angkor Borei]], are some of the most sophisticated of this era.<ref name="John2014p17" />

Krishna's iconography has also been found in Thailand, along with those of [[Surya]] and [[Vishnu]]. For example, a large number of sculptures and icons have been found in the Si{{nbsp}}Thep and Klangnai sites in the [[Phetchabun Province|Phetchabun]] region of northern Thailand. These are dated to about the 7th and 8th{{nbsp}}centuries, from both the Funan and Zhenla period archaeological sites.<ref>{{cite book |author1=John Guy |author2=Pierre Baptiste |author3=Lawrence Becker |title=Lost Kingdoms: Hindu-Buddhist Sculpture of Early Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gCw_AwAAQBAJ |year=2014 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-20437-7 |pages=222–223 |display-authors=etal}}</ref>

== Performance arts ==
{{multiple image
| direction = horizontal
| width1 = 100
| width2 = 250
| image1 = Flickr - dalbera - Danseuse de Kuchipudi jouant Krishna (musée Guimet).jpg
| image2 = Rasa Lila in Manipuri dance style.jpg
| footer = The Krishna legends in the ''Bhagavata Purana'' have inspired many performance arts repertoire, such as [[Kathak]], [[Kuchipudi]] (left) and [[Odissi]].<ref name="Kenneth Valpey 2013"/><ref name="ML Varadpande 1987"/> The ''[[Rasa lila|Rasa Lila]]'' where Krishna plays with the gopis in [[Manipuri dance]] style (right)}}

Indian dance and music theatre traces its origins and techniques to the ancient ''[[Samaveda|Sama Veda]]'' and ''[[Natyasastra]]'' texts.{{sfn|Beck|1993|pp=107–108}}<ref>PV Kane, ''History of Sanskrit Poetics'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120802742}} (2015 Reprint), pp. 10–41</ref> The stories enacted and the numerous choreographic themes are inspired by the mythologies and legends in Hindu texts, including Krishna-related literature such as ''[[Harivamsa]]'' and ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]''.{{sfn|Varadpande|1987|pages=92–94}}

The Krishna stories have played a key role in the history of Indian theatre, music, and dance, particularly through the tradition of [[Rasa leela|''Rasaleela'']]. These are dramatic enactments of Krishna's childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. One common scene involves Krishna playing flute in Rasa Leela, only to be heard by certain gopis (cowherd maidens), which is theologically supposed to represent divine call only heard by certain enlightened beings.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Vemsani |first1=Lavanya |title=Krishna in history thought and culture |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=4fw2DAAAQBAJ |year=2016 |publisher=ABC-Clio LLC|location=California |language=en |isbn=978-1-61069-210-6|pages=179–180 |chapter=Music and Krishna }}</ref> Some of the text's legends have inspired secondary theatre literature such as the eroticism in [[Gita Govinda]].<ref>Graham Schweig (2007), ''Encyclopedia of Love in World Religions'' (Editor: Yudit Kornberg Greenberg), Volume{{nbsp}}1, {{ISBN|978-1851099801}}, pp. 247–249</ref>

Krishna-related literature such as the ''Bhagavata Purana'' accords a metaphysical significance to the performances and treats them as a religious ritual, infusing daily life with spiritual meaning, thus representing a good, honest, happy life. Similarly, Krishna-inspired performances aim to cleanse the hearts of faithful actors and listeners. Singing, dancing, and performing any part of ''Krishna Lila'' is an act of remembering the dharma in the text, as a form of ''para bhakti'' (supreme devotion). To remember Krishna at any time and in any art, asserts the text, is to worship the good and the divine.{{sfn|Varadpande|1987|pages=95–97}}

Classical dance styles such as [[Kathak]], [[Odissi dance|Odissi]], [[Manipuri dance|Manipuri]], [[Kuchipudi]] and [[Bharatanatyam]] in particular are known for their Krishna-related performances.{{sfn|Varadpande|1987|page=98}} [[Krisnattam]] (Krishnattam) traces its origins to Krishna legends, and is linked to another major classical Indian dance form called [[Kathakali]].<ref name=Zarrilli2000>{{cite book|author = Zarrilli, P. B.|year = 2000|title = Kathakali Dance-Drama: Where Gods and Demons Come to Play|url = https://archive.org/details/kathakalidancedr00zarr|url-access = limited|publisher = Routledge|page = [https://archive.org/details/kathakalidancedr00zarr/page/n262 246]}}</ref> Bryant summarizes the influence of Krishna stories in the ''Bhagavata Purana'' as, "[it] has inspired more derivative literature, poetry, drama, dance, theatre and art than any other text in the history of Sanskrit literature, with the possible exception of the ''[[Ramayana]]''.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|page=118}}{{sfn|Archer|2004}}

The [[Palliyodam]], a type of large built and used by [[Aranmula Parthasarathy Temple]] in Kerala for the annual water processions of [[Aranmula Boat Race|Uthrattathi Jalamela]] and [[Valla Sadhya]] has the legend that it was designed by [[Lord Krishna]] and were made to look like [[Shesha]]naga, the serpent on which [[Lord Vishnu]] rests.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/explained-what-palliyodam-and-why-kerala-actor-was-arrested-photoshoot-it-155155|title=Explained: What is a Palliyodam, and why a Kerala actor was arrested for photoshoot on it|newspaper=thenewsminute|access-date=13 September 2021}}</ref>

== Temples ==
{{Div col|colwidth=25em}}
* [[Bankey Bihari Temple]]
* [[Radha Raman Temple]]
* [[Jagannath Temple, Puri]]
* [[Dwarkadhish Temple]], [[Dwarka]]
* [[Vithoba Temple]], [[Pandarpur]]
* [[Shrinathji Temple]], [[Nathdwara]]
* [[Guruvayur Temple]], [[Kerala]]
* [[Radha Vallabh Temple, Vrindavan]]
* [[Udupi Sri Krishna Matha]]
* [[Prem Mandir, Vrindavan]]
* [[Krishna Balaram Mandir]]
* [[Dakor|Ranchodrai Temple, Dakor]]
* [[Radha Damodar Temple, Junagadh]]
* [[Radha Damodar Temple, Vrindavan]]
* [[Govind Dev Ji Temple]], [[Jaipur]]
* [[Shree Govindajee Temple]], [[Imphal]]
* [[Madan Mohan Temple]], [[Karauli]]
* [[Radha Madan Mohan Temple, Vrindavan]]
* [[Dwarkadheesh temple Mathura]]
* [[Radha Madhab Temple]], [[Bishnupur, Bankura|Bishnupur]]
* [[Krishna Janmasthan Temple Complex]], [[Mathura]]
* [[Kantajew Temple]], [[Bangladesh]]
* [[Swaminarayan|Swaminarayan Temples]]
** [[Shri Swaminarayan Mandir, Dholera]]
** [[Swaminarayan Mandir, Gadhada|Gopinathji Dev Mandir]]
* [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness|ISKCON Temples]]
** [[ISKCON Temple, Bangalore|ISKCON Temple, Banglore]]
** [[ISKCON Temple, Pune]]
** [[ISKCON Temple, Delhi]]
** [[Iskcon Prabartak Sri Krishna Temple]]
** [[Vrindavan Chandrodaya Mandir|Vrindavan Chandrodara Mandir]]
** [[ISKCON Temple, Chennai]]
* [[Rajagopalaswamy Temple, Mannargudi]]
* [[Parthasarathy Temple, Chennai]]
{{Div col end}}

== Krishna outside of Hinduism ==
[[File:Radhamadhava.JPG|left|thumb|[[Radha Krishna|Radha-Krishna]]]]

=== Jainism ===
The [[Jainism]] tradition lists 63 ''[[Śalākāpuruṣa]]'' or notable figures which, amongst others, includes the twenty-four ''[[Tirthankara]]s'' (spiritual teachers) and nine sets of triads. One of these triads is Krishna as the ''Vasudeva'', [[Balarama]] as the ''[[Balabhadra|Baladeva]]'', and [[Jarasandha]] as the ''Prati-Vasudeva''. In each age of the Jain cyclic time is born a ''Vasudeva'' with an elder brother termed the ''Baladeva''. Between the triads, ''Baladeva'' upholds the principle of non-violence, a central idea of Jainism. The villain is the ''Prati-vasudeva'', who attempts to destroy the world. To save the world, ''Vasudeva-Krishna'' has to forsake the non-violence principle and kill the ''Prati-Vasudeva''.<ref>{{citation|last=Jaini|first=P. S.|author-link=Padmanabh Jaini|date=1993|title=Jaina Puranas: A Puranic Counter Tradition|isbn=978-0-7914-1381-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-kZFzHCuiFAC&pg=PA207}}</ref> The stories of these triads can be found in the ''[[Harivamsa Purana]]'' (8th{{nbsp}}century CE) of [[Jinasena]] (not be confused with its namesake, the addendum to ''Mahābhārata'') and the ''Trishashti-shalakapurusha-charita'' of [[Hemachandra]].{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2016|p=26}}<ref name = Jer>See Jerome H. Bauer "Hero of Wonders, Hero in Deeds: [https://books.google.com/books?id=0SJ73GHSCF8C&pg=PA151 "Vasudeva Krishna in Jaina Cosmohistory]" in {{Harvnb|Beck|2005|pp=167–169}}</ref>

The story of Krishna's life in the ''Puranas'' of Jainism follows the same general outline as those in the Hindu texts, but in details, they are very different: they include Jain ''Tirthankaras'' as characters in the story, and generally are polemically critical of Krishna, unlike the versions found in the ''Mahabharata'', the ''Bhagavata Purana'', and the ''Vishnu Purana''.<ref>{{citation|last=Cort| first=J. E.|date=1993|editor=Wendy Doniger|title=An Overview of the Jaina Puranas, in Purana Perennis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-kZFzHCuiFAC&pg=PA191 |pages=220–233 |isbn=978-1-4384-0136-2}}</ref> For example, Krishna loses battles in the Jain versions, and his ''gopis'' and his clan of Yadavas die in a fire created by an ascetic named Dvaipayana. Similarly, after dying from the hunter Jara's arrow, the Jaina texts state Krishna goes to the [[Naraka (Jainism)|third hell]] in [[Jain cosmology]], while his brother is said to go to the [[Svarga (Jainism)|sixth heaven]].<ref name="Glasenapp1999p317">{{cite book|author=Helmuth von Glasenapp|title=Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC&pg=PA317 |year=1999|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1376-2|pages=316–318}}</ref>

Vimalasuri is attributed to be the author of the Jain version of the ''Harivamsa Purana'', but no manuscripts have been found that confirm this. It is likely that later Jain scholars, probably Jinasena of the 8th{{nbsp}}century, wrote a complete version of Krishna legends in the Jain tradition and credited it to the ancient Vimalasuri.<ref name=Cort1993>{{citation|last=Cort| first=J. E.|date=1993|editor=Wendy Doniger|title=An Overview of the Jaina Puranas, in Purana Perennis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-kZFzHCuiFAC&pg=PA191 |page=191 |isbn=978-1-4384-0136-2}}</ref> Partial and older versions of the Krishna story are available in Jain literature, such as in the ''Antagata Dasao'' of the ''[[Svetambara]]'' ''Agama'' tradition.<ref name=Cort1993 />

In other Jain texts, Krishna is stated to be a cousin of the twenty-second ''Tirthankara'', Neminatha. The Jain texts state that Neminatha taught Krishna all the wisdom that he later gave to Arjuna in the ''Bhagavad Gita''. According to [[Jeffery D. Long]], a professor of religion known for his publications on Jainism, this connection between Krishna and Neminatha has been a historic reason for Jains to accept, read, and cite the ''Bhagavad Gita'' as a spiritually important text, celebrate Krishna-related festivals, and intermingle with Hindus as spiritual cousins.<ref>{{cite book|author=Jeffery D. Long|title=Jainism: An Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JmRlAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA42 |year= 2009|publisher =I.B. Tauris|isbn= 978-1-84511-625-5|page=42}}</ref>

=== Buddhism ===
[[File:Krishna-in-Kyoto-1.jpg|thumb|upright|Depiction of Krishna playing the flute in a temple constructed in 752{{nbsp}}CE on the order of Emperor Shomu, [[Tōdai-ji|Todai-ji Temple]], Great Buddha Hall in [[Nara, Nara|Nara]], Japan]]
The story of Krishna occurs in the [[Jataka]] tales in [[Buddhism]].<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.vipassana.info/ay/andhakavenhu_puttaa.htm|title = Andhakavenhu Puttaa|publisher = www.vipassana.info|access-date = 15 June 2008}}</ref> The ''Vidhurapandita Jataka'' mentions ''Madhura'' (Sanskrit: Mathura), the ''Ghata Jataka'' mentions Kamsa, Devagabbha (Sk: Devaki), Upasagara or Vasudeva, Govaddhana (Sk: Govardhana), Baladeva (Balarama), and Kanha or Kesava (Sk: Krishna, Keshava).<ref name=Law1941>{{cite book|author = Law, B. C.|year = 1941|title = India as Described in Early Texts of Buddhism and Jainism|publisher = Luzac|url =https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.513920/2015.513920.India-as#page/n5/mode/2up|pages=99–101}}</ref><ref name=Jaiswal>{{cite journal|author = Jaiswal, S.|year = 1974|title = Historical Evolution of the Ram Legend|journal = Social Scientist|jstor = 3517633|volume = 21|issue = 3–4|pages = 89–97|doi = 10.2307/3517633}}</ref>

Like the Jaina versions of the Krishna legends, the Buddhist versions such as one in ''Ghata Jataka'' follow the general outline of the story,<ref>{{cite book|author=G.P. Malalasekera|title=Dictionary of Pali Proper Names|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=x8ObMQ1GGsUC&pg=PA439|year=2003|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-1823-7|page=439}}</ref> but are different from the Hindu versions as well.<ref name=Law1941 />{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=6}} For example, the Buddhist legend describes Devagabbha (Devaki) to have been isolated in a palace built upon a pole after she is born, so no future husband could reach her. Krishna's father similarly is described as a powerful king, but who meets up with Devagabbha anyway, and to whom Kamsa gives away his sister Devagabbha in marriage. The siblings of Krishna are not killed by Kamsa, though he tries. In the Buddhist version of the legend, all of Krishna's siblings grow to maturity.<ref name= Francis314 />

Krishna and his siblings' capital becomes Dvaravati. The Arjuna and Krishna interaction is missing in the Jataka version. A new legend is included, wherein Krishna laments in uncontrollable sorrow when his son dies, and a Ghatapandita feigns madness to teach Krishna a lesson.<ref>{{cite book|author=Gunapala Piyasena Malalasekera|title=Dictionary of Pāli Proper Names: A-Dh|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=up5O9zrSX80C&pg=PA825 |year=2007|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-3021-9|pages=825–826}}</ref> The Jataka tale also includes internecine destruction among his siblings after they all get drunk. Krishna also dies in the Buddhist legend by the hand of a hunter named Jara, but while he is traveling to a frontier city. Mistaking Krishna for a pig, Jara throws a spear that fatally pierces his feet, causing Krishna great pain and then his death.<ref name= Francis314>{{cite book|author1=H. T. Francis|author2=E. J. Thomas|title=Jataka Tales|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WYjRAwAAQBAJ |year=1916|publisher=Cambridge University Press (Reprinted: 2014) |isbn=978-1-107-41851-6|pages=314–324}}</ref>

At the end of this ''Ghata-Jataka'' discourse, the Buddhist text declares that [[Sariputta]], one of the revered disciples of the Buddha in the Buddhist tradition, was incarnated as Krishna in his previous life to learn lessons on grief from the Buddha in his prior rebirth:

{{Blockquote|Then he [Master] declared the Truths and identified the Birth: "At that time, Ananda was Rohineyya, Sariputta was Vasudeva [Krishna], the followers of the Buddha were the other persons, and I myself was Ghatapandita."|Jataka Tale No. 454|Translator: W. H. D. Rouse<ref name=cowell57>{{cite book|author1=E.B. Cowell|author2=WHD Rouse|title=The Jātaka: Or, Stories of the Buddha's Former Births|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.553497|year=1901|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.553497/page/n75 57]}}</ref>}}

While the Buddhist Jataka texts co-opt Krishna-Vasudeva and make him a student of the [[Buddha]] in his previous life,<ref name=cowell57 /> the Hindu texts co-opt the Buddha and make him an [[avatar]] of [[Vishnu]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Daniel E Bassuk |title=Incarnation in Hinduism and Christianity: The Myth of the God-Man |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k3iwCwAAQBAJ |date= 1987 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-349-08642-9 |pages=40 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Edward Geoffrey Parrinder|title=Avatar and Incarnation: The Divine in Human Form in the World's Religions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VkV5AAAAMAAJ|year=1997|publisher=Oxford: Oneworld|isbn=978-1-85168-130-3|pages=19–24, 35–38, 75–78, 130–133}}</ref> In [[Chinese Buddhism]], [[Taoism]] and [[Chinese folk religion]], the figure of Krishna has been amalgamated and merged with that of [[Nalakuvara]] to influence the formation of the god [[Nezha]], who has taken on iconographic characteristics of Krishna such as being presented as a divine god-child and slaying a [[nāga]] in his youth.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Shahar|first=Meir|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/899138008|title=Oedipal god : the Chinese Nezha and his Indian origins|date=2015|isbn=978-0-8248-4760-9|location=Honolulu|oclc=899138008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Shen|first1=Xuezheng|last2=Li|first2=Jingwen|last3=Zhang|first3=Yunzhuo|last4=Liu|first4=Shanshan|last5=Hong|first5=Jangsun|last6=Lee|first6=Jongyoon|date=2020-03-31|title=Devil or God: Image Transformation of Chinese Mythology Character "Nezha"（1927–2019）|url=http://www.dbpia.co.kr/Journal/ArticleDetail/NODE09330491|journal=Cartoon and Animation Studies|language=en|volume=58|pages=159–200|doi=10.7230/KOSCAS.2020.58.159|s2cid=219661006|issn=1738-009X}}</ref>

=== Other ===
[[File: Raja Ravi Varma, Yasoda Adorning Krishna.jpg|thumbnail|Infant Krishna with Mother Yashoda]]

Krishna is mentioned as "Krishna Avtar" in the ''[[Chaubis Avtar]]'', a composition in Dasam Granth traditionally and historically attributed to [[Sikh]] [[Guru Gobind Singh]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ww1.info-sikh.com/VVPage1.html|title=info-sikh.com – Diese Website steht zum Verkauf! – Informationen zum Thema info-sikh.|website=ww1.info-sikh.com}}</ref>

Within the Sikh-derived 19th-century [[Radha Soami]] movement, the followers of its founder [[Shiv Dayal Singh]] used to consider him the [[Living Master]] and incarnation of God (Lord Krishna/Vishnu).{{refn|group=note|"Various branches of Radhasoami have argued about the incarnationalism of Satguru ([[David C. Lane|Lane]], 1981). Guru Maharaj Ji has accepted it and identifies with Krishna and other incarnations of Vishnu."<ref>{{cite journal |last=DuPertuis |first=Lucy |title=How People Recognize Charisma: The Case of Darshan in Radhasoami and Divine Light Mission |journal=Sociological Analysis |publisher=Oxford University Press |volume=47 |issue=2 |pages=111–124 |date=1986 |doi=10.2307/3711456 |jstor=3711456}}</ref>}}

[[Baháʼí Faith|Baháʼís]] believe that Krishna was a "[[Manifestation of God (Baháʼí Faith)|Manifestation of God]]", or one in a line of prophets who have revealed the Word of God progressively for a gradually maturing humanity. In this way, Krishna shares an exalted station with [[Abraham]], [[Moses]], [[Zoroaster]], [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]], [[Muhammad]], [[Jesus]], the [[Báb]], and the founder of the [[Baháʼí Faith]], [[Bahá'u'lláh]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last= Smith |first= Peter |encyclopedia= A concise encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith |title= Manifestations of God |year= 2000 |publisher= Oneworld Publications |location= Oxford |isbn= 978-1-85168-184-6 |page= [https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit/page/231 231] |url= https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit/page/231 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author= Esslemont, J. E. |author-link=John Esslemont |year= 1980 |title= Bahá'u'lláh and the New Era |edition= 5th |publisher=Baháʼí Publishing Trust |location=Wilmette, Illinois|isbn= 978-0-87743-160-2 |url= http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/je/BNE/bne-6.html#gr5 |page = 2}}</ref>

[[Ahmadiyya]], a 20th-century Islamic movement, consider Krishna as one of their ancient prophets.<ref>Siddiq & Ahmad (1995), Enforced Apostasy: Zaheeruddin v. State and the Official Persecution of the Ahmadiyya Community in Pakistan, Law & Inequality, Volume 14, pp. 275–324</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=Minahan | first=James | title=Ethnic groups of South Asia and the Pacific: An Encyclopedia | publisher=ABC-CLIO | location=Santa Barbara, California| year=2012 | isbn=978-1-59884-659-1 | pages=6–8}}</ref><ref>Burhani A. N. (2013), Treating minorities with fatwas: a study of the Ahmadiyya community in Indonesia, Contemporary Islam, Volume 8, Issue 3, pp. 285–301</ref> Ghulam Ahmad stated that he was himself a prophet in the likeness of prophets such as Krishna, Jesus, and Muhammad,<ref>{{cite book|title=Muslims, and Others in Sacred Space|pages=104–105|first=Margaret|last=Cormack|year=2013|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref> who had come to earth as a latter-day reviver of religion and morality.

Krishna worship or reverence has been adopted by several [[new religious movements]] since the 19th{{nbsp}}century, and he is sometimes a member of an eclectic pantheon in [[occult]] texts, along with [[Greek mythology|Greek]], [[Buddhism|Buddhist]], [[Bible|biblical]], and even historical figures.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Harvey |first= D. A. |s2cid= 143606373 |year= 2003|title= Beyond Enlightenment: Occultism, Politics, and Culture in France from the Old Regime to the ''Fin-de-Siècle'' |journal= [[The Historian (journal)|The Historian]] |volume= 65 |issue= 3 |pages= 665–694|doi= 10.1111/1540-6563.00035 }}</ref> For instance, [[Édouard Schuré]], an influential figure in [[perennial philosophy]] and occult movements, considered Krishna a ''Great Initiate'', while [[Theosophist]]s regard Krishna as an incarnation of [[Maitreya (Theosophy)|Maitreya]] (one of the [[Ascended master|Masters of the Ancient Wisdom]]), the most important spiritual teacher for humanity along with Buddha.<ref name = Schure>{{cite book|last = Schure| first = Edouard| author-link = Édouard Schuré |title=Great Initiates: A Study of the Secret History of Religions| publisher = Garber Communications| year = 1992|isbn = 978-0-89345-228-5}}</ref><ref name = Others>See for example: {{cite book|last = Hanegraaff |first = Wouter J. | author-link = Wouter Hanegraaff |title = New Age Religion and Western Culture: Esotericism in the Mirror of Secular Thought |publisher = [[Brill Publishers]] |year= 1996|page =390 |isbn=978-90-04-10696-3}}, {{cite book|last = Hammer |first =Olav| author-link = Olav Hammer |title = Claiming Knowledge: Strategies of Epistemology from Theosophy to the New Age|url = https://archive.org/details/claimingknowledg00hamm_713 |url-access = limited |publisher =Brill Publishers |year=2004 |pages =[https://archive.org/details/claimingknowledg00hamm_713/page/n83 62], 174 |isbn = 978-90-04-13638-0}}, and {{cite book|last = Ellwood |first = Robert S. |title =Theosophy: A Modern Expression of the Wisdom of the Ages | publisher = Quest Books |page= 139 |year =1986 |isbn=978-0-8356-0607-3 }}</ref>

Krishna was canonised by [[Aleister Crowley]] and is recognised as a saint of [[Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica]] in the [[Gnostic Mass]] of [[Ordo Templi Orientis]].<ref>Crowley associated Krishna with Roman god [[Dionysus]] and [[Magick (Aleister Crowley)|Magickal formulae]] IAO, [[Om|AUM]] and [[INRI]]. See {{Cite book|last = Crowley|first = Aleister| author-link = Aleister Crowley | title = Liber Aleph |publisher = Weiser Books| isbn=978-0-87728-729-2| page = 71|url = http://sacred-texts.com/oto/aleph_3.htm|year = 1991}} and {{cite book | last = Crowley|first = Aleister| author-link = Aleister Crowley| title = The Book of Lies| publisher = Red Wheels| year = 1980|isbn = 978-0-87728-516-8| pages = 24–25|title-link = The Book of Lies (Crowley)}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last = Apiryon |first = Tau |author2=Apiryon |title = Mystery of Mystery: A Primer of Thelemic Ecclesiastical Gnosticism | publisher = Red Flame|location= Berkeley |year = 1995| isbn = 978-0-9712376-1-2}}</ref>

== Explanatory notes ==
{{Hinduism|Deity=Krishna}}
{{reflist|group=note}}

== References ==
===Citations===
{{Reflist|20em}}

=== General and cited ources ===
{{Refbegin|30em}}
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{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite journal |surname=Brown |given=Sara Black |title=Krishna, Christians, and Colors: The Socially Binding Influence of Kirtan Singing at a Utah Hare Krishna Festiva |journal=Ethnomusicology |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5406/ethnomusicology.58.3.0454 |date=2014 |volume=58 |number=3 |pages=454–480 |doi=10.5406/ethnomusicology.58.3.0454|jstor=10.5406/ethnomusicology.58.3.0454 }}
* {{cite book |surname=Case |given=Margaret H. |title=Seeing Krishna: The Religious World of a Brahman Family in Vrindavan |url={{Google books|Zh7OoTSH5UwC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |place=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2000 |isbn=0-19-513010-3}}
* {{cite journal |surname=Crooke |given=W. |title=The Legends of Krishna |journal=Folklore |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1253142 |date=March 1900 |volume=11 |number=1 |pages=1–42|doi=10.1080/0015587X.1900.9720517 |jstor=1253142 }}
* {{cite journal |surname=Hudson |given=Dennis |title=Bathing in Krishna: A Study in Vaiṣṇava Hindu Theology |journal=The Harvard Theological Review |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1509739 |date=1980 |volume=73 |number=3/4 |pages=539–566|doi=10.1017/S0017816000002315 |jstor=1509739 |s2cid=162804501 }}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|wikt= no|n= no |b= no |v= no|commonscat=yes|d=Q42891}}


{{Krishna|state = expanded}}
{{VishnuAvatars}}
{{Mahābhārata}}
{{Hindudharma}}
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[[Category:Akilattirattu Ammanai]]
[[Category:Avatars of Vishnu]]
[[Category:Ayyavazhi mythology]]
[[Category:Creator gods]]
[[Category:Characters in the Bhagavata Purana]]
[[Category:Characters in the Mahabharata]]
[[Category:Commerce gods]]
[[Category:Destroyer gods]]
[[Category:Flautists]]
[[Category:Forms of Vishnu]]
[[Category:Fortune gods]]
[[Category:Heroes in mythology and legend]]
[[Category:Hindu eschatology]]
[[Category:Hindu given names]]
[[Category:Hindu gods]]
[[Category:Krishna| ]]
[[Category:Life-death-rebirth gods]]
[[Category:Love and lust gods]]
[[Category:Men centenarians]]
[[Category:Miracle workers]]
[[Category:Names of God in Hinduism]]
[[Category:People from Mathura]]
[[Category:Puranic chronology]]
[[Category:Salakapurusa]]
[[Category:Savior gods]]
[[Category:Self-declared messiahs]]
[[Category:Vaishnavism]]
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[[Category:Year of birth uncertain]]
[[Category:Year of death uncertain]]

Ishana

2023-01-19T22:15:22Z

ImportMaster: robot: Create/update articles in Category:Hindu gods.

{{short description|Hindu direction deity}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{infobox deity
| type = Hindu
| name = Ishana
| gender = Male
| deity_of = Regent of the Northeast Direction<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/ishana | title=Ishana, Īśānā, Īṣaṇa, Īsāna, Isana, Īśāna: 39 definitions | date=12 April 2009 }}</ref>
| image = Guardians of the eight directions 01.JPG
| affiliation = [[Shiva]], [[Deva (Hinduism)|Deva]]
}}

'''Ishana''' ([[Sanskrit]]: ईशान, [[IAST]]: Īśāna), is a [[Hindu god]]. He is often considered to be one of the forms of the [[Hindu]] merger (Layam) god [[Shiva]],<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Gopinatha Rao|first=T. A.|url=http://archive.org/details/ElementsOfHinduIconographyVol.IIPartII|title=Elements Of Hindu Iconography, Vol. II Part II|year=1916|pages=537}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> and is also often counted among the eleven [[Rudras]].<ref name=":0">{{cite book|last1=Apte|first1=Vaman Shivram|title=The Practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary|year=1965|publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]]|isbn=0-89581-171-5|edition=Fourth Revised and Enlarged|page=252}}</ref> In [[Hinduism]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gopinatha Rao|first=T. A.|url=http://archive.org/details/ElementsOfHinduIconographyVol.IIPartII|title=Elements Of Hindu Iconography, Vol. II Part II|date=1916|pages=515}}</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref>{{cite thesis|last=Marie|first=Stella|date=9 March 2009|title=The Significance of the Mūla Beras in the Hindu Temples of Tamil Nadu: With Special Reference To Bharatanatyam and Hindu Iconography|type=PhD|chapter=4|publisher=[[Bharathidasan University]]|hdl=10603/5089|docket=|oclc=|chapter-url=http://hdl.handle.net/10603/5089|access-date=9 August 2021|chapter-format=PDF}}</ref> some schools of [[Buddhism]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=English|first=Elizabeth|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PTcLAAAAYAAJ|title=Vajrayogini: Her Visualization, Rituals, and Forms|date=2002-06-15|publisher=Wisdom Publications|isbn=978-0-86171-329-5|pages=313, 142|language=en}}</ref> and [[Jainism]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bhattacharya|first=B. C.|url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.507554|title=The Jaina Iconography (1939)|date=1939|publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]]|isbn=|pages=115}}</ref> he is the ''[[Guardians of the directions|dikapala]]'' of the northeast direction. In the [[Vastu shastra|Vastu Shastra]], the north-eastern corner of a plot of land is referred to as "Ishana".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Acharya|first=Prasanna Kumar|url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.31242|title=Architecture Of Manasara Vol.5|date=1934|pages=39}}</ref> Ishana also shares qualities with [[Bhairava|Samhara Bhairava]] and is therefore a part of the [[Ashta Bhairava]].

== Iconography ==
Ishana is described as having three eyes, a tranquil appearance and white complexion, dressed with a white cloth and a tiger's skin.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=Gopinatha Rao |first=T. A. |url=http://archive.org/details/ElementsOfHinduIconographyVol.IIPartII |title=Elements Of Hindu Iconography, Vol. II Part II |date=1916 |pages=537–538}}</ref> On his head, a ''jata-[[Makuṭa|makuta]]'' which has on top of it the crescent moon must be placed.<ref name=":7" />

He may be seated on a white bull, or simply in the ''[[Padmāsana|padmasana]]'' though being seated on the bull is preferred.<ref name=":7" />

If he is represented with only two arms, his hands must carry a trident and a [[kapala]] or one of the hands (the left one generally) might be in the ''[[varadamudra]]''; if, however, he has four hands, the two front ones should be sculptured as playing upon a [[veena]] and the others are to be held in the ''varada'' and ''[[Abhayamudra|abhaya]]'' [[mudra]]s.<ref name=":7" /> Gopinatha Rao suggests that description might be incorrect, as the veena must be held only by the hands of the front pair of arms, which are also the very hands that are necessarily to be in the ''varada'' and ''abhaya'' poses.<ref name=":7" />

When represented in Lingam form along with the other Panchabrahmas, his face, uncarved, would face upward.<ref>{{cite magazine |author= |date=July 2012 |title=Five Powers of Siva : Sadasiva in the Agama Scriptures |url=https://www.himalayanacademy.com/media/books/five-powers-of-siva_ei/five-powers-of-siva_ei.pdf |url-status=live |magazine=[[Hinduism Today]] |location=Kapaa, Hawaii |publisher=Himalayan Academy |page=51 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170925013113/https://www.himalayanacademy.com/media/books/five-powers-of-siva_ei/five-powers-of-siva_ei.pdf |archive-date=25 September 2017 |access-date=10 August 2021}}</ref>

One verse of the Linga Purana describes Ishana as having three feet, seven hands, four horns and two heads<ref name=":6" /> while in one verse of the Shiva Purana, he is described as "resembling pure crystal".<ref>{{Cite book |last=J.L.Shastri |url=http://archive.org/details/SivaPuranaJ.L.ShastriPart4 |title=Siva Purana - English Translation - Part 4 of 4 |date=1950 |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |pages=2036}}</ref>

==Hinduism==

=== Vedas ===
An early mention of Ishana is in one of the Pañchabrahma Mantrāṇī found in the Taittiriya Aranyaka (TA 10.21.1)<ref name=":2">{{cite magazine|author=|date=July 2012|title=Five Powers of Siva : Sadasiva in the Agama Scriptures|url=https://www.himalayanacademy.com/media/books/five-powers-of-siva_ei/five-powers-of-siva_ei.pdf|url-status=live|magazine=[[Hinduism Today]]|location=Kapaa, Hawaii|publisher=Himalayan Academy|page=49|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170925013113/https://www.himalayanacademy.com/media/books/five-powers-of-siva_ei/five-powers-of-siva_ei.pdf|archive-date=25 September 2017|access-date=10 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Sarma|first=Subramania|date=November 2005|title=Taittiriya Aranyaka Edited By Subramania Sarma|url=http://www.sanskritweb.net/yajurveda/ta-comb.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810021245/http://www.sanskritweb.net/yajurveda/ta-comb.pdf|archive-date=10 August 2017|access-date=9 August 2021|website=SanskritWeb}}</ref> of the [[Krishna Yajurveda]] (c.1200 BCE):

: {{lang|sa|ईशानस्सर्वविद्यानां ईश्वरस्सर्वभूतानां ब्रह्माधिपतिर्ब्रह्मणोऽधिपतिर्ब्रह्माशिवो मे अस्तु सदाशिवोम्।}}<ref name=":2" />
: {{IAST|īśānassarvavidyānām īśvara-ssarvabhūtānām-brahmādhipatir-brahmaṇo’dhipatir-brahmā-śivo me astu sadāśivom}}<ref name=":2" />
Translation by Sabharathnam Sivacharyar:
:"Lord Ishana—the Supreme Lord and Revealer of little knowledge through lord Ishvara and spiritual disciplines, the nourisher and controller of all living beings, the Directing Lord of northeast, He who is the guided by main direct authority of the Vidyeshvaras, who directs Brahma, Vishnu and others—may He who is vidyeshwara present Himself in this Sivalinga. By such benign presence, let there occur absolute purity and auspiciousness in Shiva. Om"<ref name=":2" />
Ishana is also mentioned in the [[Vajasaneyi Madhyandiniya|Vajasneyi Madyandina Samhita]] of the [[Shukla Yajurveda]] (VS 27.35),<ref>{{Cite web|title=Samhita Patha 21-30 – Adhyaya – 27 {{!}} Vedic Heritage Portal|url=https://vedicheritage.gov.in/samhitas/yajurveda/vajasneyi-madhyandina-samhita/samhita-patha-21-30-adhyaya-27/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200720032129/https://vedicheritage.gov.in/samhitas/yajurveda/vajasneyi-madhyandina-samhita/samhita-patha-21-30-adhyaya-27/|archive-date=20 July 2020|access-date=10 August 2021|website=Vedic Heritage Portal}}</ref> which the [[Shiva Purana]] calls the "Ishana Mantra",<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=Shastri|first=J.L|url=http://archive.org/details/SivaPuranaJ.L.ShastriPart1|title=Siva Purana - English Translation - Part 1 of 4|date=1950|publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]]|pages=139}}</ref> though the Purana calls a different verse from the same Samhita which also mentions Ishana (VS 39.8)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Samhita Patha 31-40 – Adhyaya – 39 {{!}} Vedic Heritage Portal|url=https://vedicheritage.gov.in/samhitas/yajurveda/vajasneyi-madhyandina-samhita/samhita-patha-31-40-adhyaya-39/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200712233253/https://vedicheritage.gov.in/samhitas/yajurveda/vajasneyi-madhyandina-samhita/samhita-patha-31-40-adhyaya-39/|archive-date=12 July 2020|access-date=10 August 2021|website=Vedic Heritage Portal}}</ref> the "Ishana Mantra" as well.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Shastri|first=J.L.|url=http://archive.org/details/SivaPuranaJ.L.ShastriPart1|title=Siva Purana - English Translation - Part 1 of 4|date=1950|publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]]|pages=166}}</ref>

=== Puranas ===
Several Puranas mention Ishana; a few of them are detailed here:
==== Shiva Purana ====
In the Shiva Purana, Ishana is described as a form or aspect of Shiva.<ref>{{Cite book|last=J.L.Shastri|url=http://archive.org/details/SivaPuranaJ.L.ShastriPart1|title=Siva Purana - English Translation - Part 1 of 4|date=1950|publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]]|pages=110}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Shastri|first=J.L.|url=http://archive.org/details/SivaPuranaJ.L.ShastriPart1|title=Siva Purana - English Translation - Part 1 of 4|date=1950|publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]]|pages=208}}</ref> The Purana states that Ishana bestows knowledge and riches on those with intelligence, while curbing evil-doers.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Shastri|first=J.L.|url=http://archive.org/details/SivaPuranaJ.L.ShastriPart4|title=Siva Purana - English Translation - Part 4 of 4|date=1950|publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]]|pages=1914}}</ref> Ishana is declared to be the form of Shiva presiding over the ear, speech, sound and ether as well as the "individual soul, the enjoyer of [[Prakṛti|Prakriti]]".<ref>{{Cite book|last=J.L.|first=Shastri|url=http://archive.org/details/SivaPuranaJ.L.ShastriPart4|title=Siva Purana - English Translation - Part 4 of 4|date=1950|publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]]|pages=1917}}</ref>

The Purana also asserts that the "Ishana Mantra" should be recited when fixing [[Lingam]]s to pedestals,<ref name=":3" /> when wearing ''[[rudraksha]]'' beads on the head<ref name=":4" /> or (only for some) when wearing [[Vibhuti|sacred ash]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=J.L.Shastri|url=http://archive.org/details/SivaPuranaJ.L.ShastriPart1|title=Siva Purana - English Translation - Part 1 of 4|date=1950|publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]]|pages=157}}</ref>

==== Linga Purana ====
One verse of the [[Linga Purana]] describes Ishana as "the omnipresent lord of all".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Shastri|first=J.L.|url=http://archive.org/details/LingaPuranaJ.L.ShastriPart1|title=Linga Purana - English Translation - Part 1 of 2|date=1951|publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]]|pages=55}}</ref> In another verse, one who makes the idol of Ishana is said to be "honoured in the world of Vishnu."<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|last=Shastri|first=J.L.|url=http://archive.org/details/LingaPuranaJ.L.ShastriPart1|title=Linga Purana - English Translation - Part 1 of 2|date=1951|publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]]|pages=374}}</ref> In one verse, he is said to hold an axe<ref>{{Cite book|last=Shastri|first=J.L.|url=http://archive.org/details/LingaPuranaJ.L.ShastriPart1|title=Linga Purana - English Translation - Part 1 of 2|date=1951|publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]]|pages=421}}</ref> while in another, he is described as wielding a trident.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Shastri|first=J.L.|url=http://archive.org/details/LingaPuranaJ.L.ShastriPart2|title=Linga Purana - English Translation - Part 2 of 2|date=1951|publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]]|pages=564}}</ref> Ishana described as being stationed in every being as the organ of speech.<ref>{{Cite book|last=J.L.Shastri|url=http://archive.org/details/LingaPuranaJ.L.ShastriPart2|title=Linga Purana - English Translation - Part 2 of 2|date=1951|pages=652}}</ref>

The Purana mentions Ishana as one of the deities present at [[Daksha yajna|Daksha's sacrifice]] who was attacked by [[Virabhadra]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Shastri|first=J.L.|url=http://archive.org/details/LingaPuranaJ.L.ShastriPart2|title=Linga Purana - English Translation - Part 2 of 2|date=1951|publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]]|pages=556}}</ref> He is also described as having attended the [[svayamvara]] of Parvati to Shiva.<ref>{{Cite book|last=J.L.Shastri|url=http://archive.org/details/LingaPuranaJ.L.ShastriPart2|title=Linga Purana - English Translation - Part 2 of 2|date=1951|publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]]|pages=563}}</ref>

==== Brahmavaivarta Purana ====
The Brahmavaivarta Purana states that Ishana was born out of the left eye of [[Krishna]]. He is described as wearing tiger's skin, adorned with a crescent crown on his head, possessing three eyes and holding a trident, patissa (sword) and club. He became the leader of the Dikpalas.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Shanti Lal Nagar|url=http://archive.org/details/brahma-vaivarta-purana-all-four-kandas-english-translation|title=Brahma Vaivarta Purana - English Translation - All Four Kandas|date=2003-01-01|publisher=Parimal Publications|pages=21}}</ref>

=== Pañchabrahma ===
{{See also|Pancabrahma Upanishad}}
The Pañchabrahmas are five specific aspects of Shiva collectively taken together.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Gopinatha Rao|first=T. A.|url=http://archive.org/details/ElementsOfHinduIconographyVol.IIPartII|title=Elements Of Hindu Iconography, Vol. II Part II|date=1916|pages=375}}</ref> These aspects include [[Sadyojata]], [[Vamadeva]], [[Aghora (Shiva)|Aghora]], Tatpurusha, and Ishana.<ref name=":5" /> Each of these aspects are glorified in their own mantra in the Pañchabrahma Mantrani present in the Taittiriya Aranyaka (TA 10.17-21).<ref name=":2" />

These aspects of Shiva are often depicted in [[Mukhalinga|five-faced Lingams]] which Stella Kramrisch states are physical equivalents of the five Pañchabrahma Mantrani, with each face of the five-faced lingams corresponding to one of the Mantras and representing a particular manifestation of Shiva.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kramrisch|first=Stella|title=The Presence of Shiva|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|year=1981|pages=179}}</ref>

As one of the Panchabrahmas, Ishana is the source of spontaneous grace directed to all beings and to all worlds.<ref>{{cite magazine|author=|date=July 2012|title=Five Powers of Siva : Sadasiva in the Agama Scriptures|url=https://www.himalayanacademy.com/media/books/five-powers-of-siva_ei/five-powers-of-siva_ei.pdf|url-status=live|magazine=[[Hinduism Today]]|location=Kapaa, Hawaii|publisher=Himalayan Academy|page=46|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170925013113/https://www.himalayanacademy.com/media/books/five-powers-of-siva_ei/five-powers-of-siva_ei.pdf|archive-date=25 September 2017|access-date=10 August 2021}}</ref>

=== Vastu Shastra ===
According to [[Vastu|Vastu Shastra]], it is auspicious for homes and offices to be situated in the northeast. North is the direction wealth resides, associated with [[Kubera]], while East is the direction where knowledge resides, associated with [[Indra]]. For this reason, Ishana symbolizes the culmination of both knowledge and wealth.{{Citation needed|date=August 2021}}

==Buddhism and Shinto==
{{Unreferenced section|date=August 2021}}
He is a chief among the gods of [[Paranirmitavaśavarti]], the sixth heaven of the [[Desire realm|Kāmadhātu]].

According to the [[Ainōshō]], there is a theory that this deity is synonymous with [[Mara (demon)|Pāpīyas]] as well as the [[Shinto]] deity [[Izanagi]]. The [[Jinnō Shōtōki]] also states that there is a theory that the names of Japan's primordial creator gods [[Izanagi]] and [[Izanami]] are the same as the Sanskrit names Īśāna and Īśānī.

'''Īśānī''' is Īśāna's consort. According to the [[Secret Storehouse Records]] (祕藏記) she is flesh white in color and wields a [[Hoko yari|spear]].

==References==
{{Reflist}}
* {{cite book|first=John A.|last=Grimes|title=A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English|publisher=State University of New York Press|year=1996|isbn= 0791430677}}

{{Portal|Religion}}
{{Buddhism topics}}
{{HinduMythology}}

[[Category:Buddhist gods]]
[[Category:Lokapala]]
[[Category:Indian masculine given names]]
[[Category:Hindu gods]]

Karkuvel Ayyanar Temple

2023-01-19T16:31:45Z

ImportMaster: robot: Create/update articles in Category:Hindu gods.

{{Use Indian English|date=November 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{more citations needed|date=July 2016}}
[[File:Karkuvelayyanartemple.jpg|thumb|Karguvel Ayyanar Temple entrance]]
[[File:Karkuvel Ayyanar.jpg|thumb|Sri Karkuvel Ayyanar]]
'''Karkuvel Ayyanar Temple''' is a [[Hindu temple]] in a village named Kuthiraimozhi in [[Thoothukudi district|Thoothukudi]], in the Indian state of [[Tamil Nadu]]. The temple is 500–1,000 years old. The temple is surrounded by a red sand desert with many [[cashew]] and [[palm trees]]. This is the only [[desert]] found in [[south India]].

==Location==
This temple is located in Kuthiraimozhi-Theri Kudiyiruppu village, {{convert|1|km}} from Kayamozhi which is {{convert|14|km}} from [[Thiruchendur]].<ref name=karku>{{Cite web |url=http://karkuvelayyanartemple.tnhrce.in/ |title=Arulmigu Karkuvel Ayyanar Temple |access-date=2015-11-23 |archive-date=2015-12-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208232653/http://karkuvelayyanartemple.tnhrce.in/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Deities==
It is said that the presiding deity of the [[Ayyanar]] has come from a tree known as Karkuva. He is also called Karkuva Ayyan, Karku Velappan, Karukkuvalai Ayyan, and Karkuvel Ayyanar, among other names.<ref>[http://temple.dinamalar.com/New.php?id=1481 அருள்மிகு கற்குவேல் அய்யனார் திருக்கோயில், தினமலர் கோயில்கள்]</ref> He is found with his consorts, goddess Poornam and goddess Porkamalam, in a sitting posture. There are also separate shrines for other deities.<ref name=karku/> Other Gods there include Periyandavar, Udhiramadan, Malayamman, Ivar Raja, Vanniya Raja, Vannichi, Pechiyamman, Ponirulapar, Kallar Sami, SolkelaVeeran Thuppakki Madan, and Sarvasakthi Amman.<ref>[http://karkuvelayyanartemple.tnhrce.in/ Arulmigu Karguvel Ayyanar Temple]</ref>

==Kallar Vettu==
The main festival of this temple is Kallar Vettu ('Killing of Robber'). It is celebrated every year on the last five days of Tamil month Karthigai (mid-November to mid-December) and the first day of Tamil month Margazhi (mid-December to mid-January). The sixth day festival is celebrated in a grand manner. On that day during morning taking of milk pot and taking holy water from [[Thamirabarani River]] took place. The holy water placed on the elephant would be brought. Later Mulaippari is taken. By 12.00 noon special [[Puja (Hinduism)|puja]]s are held.<ref>[http://www.dailythanthi.com/News/Districts/2014/11/15212124/TerikkutiyiruppuKarkuvel-Ayyanar-templeCut-robbers.vpf தேரிக்குடியிருப்பு கற்குவேல் அய்யனார் கோவிலில் கள்ளர் வெட்டு திருவிழா, தினத்தந்தி, 8 டிசம்பர் 2015]</ref> On that day, by 4.00 p.m. 'Kallar Vettu' took place. At that time tender cocoanut, considered as Kallar, is broken in the rear side of the temple. The cocoanut water which came from it is considered as holy water. The devotees, took the sand on which the cocoanut water, spray it in their field for bounty yield. Some keep them in their cash box. It is considered as auspicious and would bring them wealth.<ref>[http://www.dinamani.com/edition_thirunelveli/article989695.ece தேரிக்குடியிருப்பு கற்குவேல் அய்யனார் கோயில் கள்ளர் வெட்டு திருவிழா, தினமணி, 17 டிசம்பர் 2009]</ref>

Due to this God, no theft occurs around this village. Several lakhs of people gather there to celebrate. Villu Pattu (bow song) about the Praise of Karguvel Ayyanar is another attraction. At that time Konar (Yadavar) caste people perform the Kallar Vettu. [[Palayamkottai]], [[Thachanallur]], Valliyoor Yadava (Konar) Pattaraikararkal start the festival by conducting the Ivaraja puja and the festival time they conduct the Munnadian puja. Temple puja are performed three times daily. The people of the Nadar community built the auditorium.

== Kumbhabhishekham ==
The latest [[Kumbhabhishekam]] of this temple was held on 1 September 2022.<ref>[https://www.dailythanthi.com/News/State/kumbabhishekam-ceremony-at-garkuvel-ayyanar-temple-779529 கற்குவேல் அய்யனார் கோவில் கும்பாபிஷேக விழா, தினத்தந்தி 29 ஆகஸ்டு 2022]</ref> From an inscription found in this temple it is learnt that previous Kumbhabhishekam was held on 31 October 2008.

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*[http://karkuvelayyanartemple.tnhrce.in/ Official website]
*[http://temple.dinamalar.com/en/new_en.php?id=1481 Dinamalar]

{{coord missing|Tamil Nadu}}

[[Category:Regional Hindu gods]]
[[Category:Hindu temples in Thoothukudi district]]

{{TamilNadu-hindu-temple-stub}}

Ayyappan

2023-01-19T14:42:54Z

ImportMaster: robot: Create/update articles in Category:Hindu gods.

{{Short description|Hindu deity}}
{{Redirect|Ayyappa}}
{{Infobox deity
| type = Hindu 
| name = Ayyappan
| image = Ayyappa Swamy bazaar art, c.1950's.jpg
| alt = A painting of Ayyapppan seated on a tiger with a herd of tigers behind him.
| caption = A painting of Ayyappan dating to c. 1950s
| script_name =
| script =
| affiliation = [[Hinduism]]
| god_of = God of righteousness and celibacy
| abode = [[Sabarimala]]
| mantra = Swamiye Saranam Ayyappa and Ayyapan Gayatri Mantra
| weapon = [[Bow and arrow]], [[sword]]
| mount = [[Tiger]]
| symbols = [[Bell]], [[bow and arrow]]
| father = [[Shiva]]
| mother = [[Vishnu]] as [[Mohini]]
| texts = ''[[Brahmanda Purana]]''
}}
'''Ayyappan''', also called '''Dharmasastha''' and '''Manikandan,''' is a [[Hindu]] deity popular in [[Southern India]], He is considered to be the epitome of dharma, truth, and righteousness and is often called upon to obliterate evil.

Although devotion to Ayyappan has been prevalent earlier in South India, his popularity rose only in the late 20th century.<ref>{{cite book|first=Suresh|last=Chandra|year=1998|title=Encyclopaedia of Hindu Gods and Goddesses|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mfTE6kpz6XEC|publisher=Sarup and Sons|page=28|isbn=8176250392}}</ref><ref name="bri" /><ref name="CushRobinson2008p78" /> According to Hindu theology, he is the son of [[Harihara]] ([[Vishnu]] in the form of [[Mohini]], and [[Shiva]]).<ref name="CushRobinson2008p78">{{cite book|author1=Denise Cush|author2=Catherine A. Robinson|author3=Michael York|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i_T0HeWE-EAC |year=2008|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-7007-1267-0|page=78}}</ref><ref name=Quinn>Constance Jones and Ryan James (2014), Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Infobase Publishing, {{ISBN|978-0-8160-5458-9}}, page 58</ref> Ayyappan is also referred to as Ayyappa, Sastavu, Hariharasudhan, Manikandan, Shasta or Dharma Shasta and Sabarinath.<ref name=bri/><ref name="CushRobinson2008p78"/>

The iconography of Ayyappan depicts him as a handsome celibate ([[Brahmacharya|Brahmachari]]) deity doing yoga and as an epitome of [[Dharma]], who wears a bell around his neck. In the Hindu tradition popular in the Western Ghats of India, he was born with the powers of Shiva and Vishnu to confront and defeat the shape-shifting evil Buffalo demoness Mahishi. He was raised by a childless royal couple Rajashekara pandiyan and Koperundevi, and grows up as a warrior [[yogi]] champion of ethical and dharmic living.<ref name=bri/><ref>{{cite book|author=Jeffery D. Long|title=Historical Dictionary of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZkkFCwAAQBAJ |year=2011|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-7960-7|page=78}}</ref>{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=17-21}} In South Indian portrayals, Ayyappan images show him riding a tigress, but in some places such as [[Sri Lanka]] he is shown as riding a white elephant.<ref>{{cite book|author=MN Srinivas|title=Collected Essays|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2e_ZAAAAMAAJ|year=2002|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-565174-4|pages=352}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=D. P. Dubey|title=Pilgrimage Studies: Sacred Places, Sacred Traditions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BHLXAAAAMAAJ|year=1995|publisher=SPS|isbn=978-81-900520-1-6|pages=136–137}}</ref>

Ayyappan's popularity has grown in many parts of India, and the most prominent Ayyappan shrine is at [[Sabarimala]], nestled in the hills of [[Pathanamthitta]] of [[Kerala]]. The shrine receives millions of pilgrims every year in late December and early January, many of whom prepare for weeks before and then climb the hill barefoot,<ref name=Quinn/> making it one of the largest active pilgrimage sites in the world.{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=22–24}}<ref>{{cite news|author=Press Trust of India|title=Safety Manual for Sabarimala prepared|url=http://expressbuzz.com/topic/safety-manual-for-sabarimala-to-be-prepared/287323.html|access-date=13 July 2011|newspaper=The New Indian Express|date=June 23, 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304083502/http://expressbuzz.com/topic/safety-manual-for-sabarimala-to-be-prepared/287323.html|archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref> The pilgrimage attracts a wide range of devotees, from diverse social or economic backgrounds, except women in their fertile age because Ayyappan is believed to be the celibate deity. He remains one of the few deities in Hindu tradition, who is respected by other religious communities, including Muslims and Christians in Kerala.<ref name=bri>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ayyappan| title=Ayyappan – Hindu deity|encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia Britannica|year= 2014}}</ref> The most significant festival linked to him is the Makaravilakku ([[Makara Sankranti]]), observed around the winter solstice.<ref name="CushRobinson2008p78"/><ref>{{cite book|author=Roshen Dalal|title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&pg=PA350 |year=2010|publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-341421-6|pages=238, 350}}</ref>

==Names and iconography==
[[File:Lord Ayyappa old painting.jpg|thumb|A painting of lord Ayyapppan sitting in yogapattasana]]
[[File:Ayyapan(1).jpg|thumb|Ayyappan icon similar to the Sabarimala icon in a yogic position.]]
The name Ayyappan (sometimes spelled as Ayyappa or Aiyappan) may be related to as "Lord Father". The name may literally come from "Ayyan" and "Appan" both meaning "Father". The root names "Ayyan" and "Appan" denotes [[Mohini]] (Mohini here called father, she is a female form of the god [[Vishnu]]) and [[Shiva]] respectively.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Paul Williams|author2=Anthony Tribe|author3=Alexander Wynne|title=Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NOLfCgAAQBAJ |year=2012| publisher= Routledge|isbn= 978-1-136-52088-4|page=62}}; Contemporary scholar Peter Harvey translates the term "arya satya" (see [[Four Noble Truths]]) as "True Realities for the Spiritually Ennobled" (Peter Harvey (2013), An Introduction to Buddhism, Cambridge University Press, page 52)</ref> However, the word Ayyappan is not found in South Indian versions of the medieval era [[Puranas]], leading scholars to the hypothesis that Ayyappan may have roots elsewhere. The alternate theory links it to the Malayali word ''acchan'' and Tamil word ''appa'' which means "father", with Ayyappan connoting "Lord-father".<ref>{{cite book|author=Mikhail Sergeevich Andronov|title=A Grammar of the Malayalam Language in Historical Treatment|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H422cDV5qX4C&pg=PA49|year=1996|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-03811-9|page=49}}</ref><ref name=bronkhorst>{{cite book|author1=Johannes Bronkhorst|author2=Madhav Deshpande|title=Aryan and non-Aryan in South Asia: evidence, interpretation, and ideology; proceedings of the International Seminar on Aryan and Non-Aryan in South Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EOdtAAAAMAAJ|year=1999|publisher=Harvard University, Dept. of Sanskrit and Indian Studies|isbn=978-1-888789-04-1|pages=177–178}}</ref> The alternate proposal is supported by the alternate name for Ayyappan being ''Sastava'' (''Sasta'', ''Sashta'', ''Sastra''), a Vedic term that also means "Teacher, Guide, Lord, Ruler".<ref name=bronkhorst/> The words ''Sastha'' and ''Dharmasastha'' in the sense of a Hindu god are found in the Puranas.<ref name="Dalal2010p43">{{cite book|author=Roshen Dalal|title=The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pNmfdAKFpkQC |year=2010|publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-341517-6|page=43}}</ref>

Ayyappan is also known as ''Hariharasudhan''<ref>Kumar, cited ref by author is (Sekar 2009, 479-84)</ref> – meaning the "son of [[Harihara]]" or a fusion deity of ''Hari'' and ''Hara'', the names given to Vishnu and Shiva respectively.<ref>Younger, p.22</ref> He is also called ''Manikanta'' from Mani, Sanskrit for precious stone,<ref>{{cite web|title=maNi|url=http://spokensanskrit.org/index.php?mode=3&script=hk&tran_input=Mani&direct=se|website=Sanskrit Dictionary for Spoken Sanskrit|publisher=spokensanskrit.org|access-date=27 August 2017}}</ref> and ''kanta'', Sanskrit for neck. In some regions, Ayyappa and Ayyanar are considered to be the same deity given their similar origin. Others consider him as different because their worship methods are not the same.<ref name="Dalal2010p43"/>

Ayyappan is a warrior deity. He is revered for his ascetic devotion to Dharma – the ethical and right way of living, to deploy his military genius and daring yogic war abilities to destroy those who are powerful but unethical, abusive and arbitrary.{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=21–25}} His iconography is usually shown with a bow and arrow upraised in his left hand, while in his right he holds either a bow or a sword diagonally across his left thigh.<ref>{{cite book|last=Williams|first=Joanna Gottfried|year=1981|isbn=9004064982|page=72|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-qoeAAAAIAAJ|title=Kalādarśana: American Studies in the Art of India}}</ref> Other depictions of Ayyappan, particularly paintings, generally show him in a yogic posture wearing a bell around his neck<ref name=bri/> and sometimes shown riding a tiger.{{Cn|date=December 2022}}

==Life and legends==
The legends and mythology of Ayyappa varies across region like other Hindu gods and goddesses, reflecting a tradition that evolved and enriched over time, sometimes in conflicting ways.{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=18–25}}<ref name=kent83/> For example, the ''Sribhutanatha Purana'' text presents Ayyappan as an incarnation of the Hindu deity [[Harihara]]putra, the son of Shiva and Mohini. This interaction between Shiva and Mohini is mentioned in the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'', but Ayyappan is not mentioned.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Goudriaan|first=Teun|title=Māyā divine and human|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ|year=1978|pages=42–43|chapter=The Māyā of the Gods: Mohini|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=15-heLWM3UcC&pg=PA42|isbn=978-81-208-2389-1}}</ref> In the oral tradition as represented by Malayalam folk songs, Ayyappa is presented as a warrior hero of Pandala kingdom. According to Eliza Kent, the legends in the Ayyappa tradition seem to be "artificially mixed and assembled into a kind of collage".<ref name=kent83>{{cite book|author=Eliza Kent|title=Lines in Water: Religious Boundaries in South Asia|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=iYOiAgAAQBAJ |year=2013| publisher=Syracuse University Press|isbn= 978-0-8156-5225-0|pages=80–83}}</ref> Ruth Vanita suggests that Ayyappan probably emerged from the fusion of a [[Dravidian people|Dravidian]] god of tribal provenance and the Puranic story of Shiva and Mohini's interaction.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VbvIDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA94|page=94|title=Same-Sex Love in India: Readings in Indian Literature|publisher=[[Springer Publishing]]|author1=Ruth Vanita|author-link=Ruth Vanita|author2=Saleem Kidwai|author2-link=Saleem Kidwai|year=2000|isbn=1137054808}}</ref>

===Core story===

There once was a kingdom of Pandalam where Ayyappan originated.{{sfn|Younger|2002|p=18}} The royal family was childless. One day the king of Pandalam found a baby boy in a forest.<ref name=bri/><ref name="CushRobinson2008p78"/><ref name=Quinn/> The king carried the baby to an ascetic in the forest to inquire about the boy.{{sfn|Younger|2002|p=18}} The ascetic advised the king to take the baby home, raise him like his own son, and that in 12 years he would discover who the baby was.{{sfn|Younger|2002|p=18}} The royal family did so, naming the baby Manikantha.{{sfn|Younger|2002|p=18}}

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| footer = Ayyappan, also called Hariharaputra, is believed to be born from the union of Shiva and Mohini.<ref>{{cite book|author=Eliza Kent|title=Lines in Water: Religious Boundaries in South Asia|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=iYOiAgAAQBAJ |year=2013| publisher=Syracuse University Press|isbn= 978-0-8156-5225-0|pages=79–80}}</ref>
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At age 12, the king wanted to formally invest Manikantha as the heir prince (''yuvraja''). However, the queen under the influence of an evil minister objected. The minister had advised the queen that only her younger biological child should be the next king. The younger child was disabled and lacked the ability to perform the duties of the king, something that the scheming evil minister thought would make him the de facto ruler.{{sfn|Younger|2002|p=18}} The minister persuaded the queen to feign an illness, ask for "tiger's milk" to cure her illness and demand that Manikantha be sent to get the milk from the forest. Manikantha volunteers, goes into the forest, and returns riding a tigress.{{sfn|Younger|2002|p=18}} The king, realising Manikantha's special ability recognizes the adopted son to be a divine being, resolves to make a shrine for him. For the location, Manikantha shoots an arrow that lands thirty kilometers away. The young boy then transforms into Ayyappan. The place where arrow landed is now an Ayyappa shrine, a site of a major pilgrimage that is particularly popular for visits on [[Makar Sankranti|Makara Sankranti]] (about January 14).{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=18–19}}

The above core story is shared wherever Ayyappan is revered in India.{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=18–22}} Sometimes the story is slightly different or extended, such as the younger son of the queen is not disabled, Ayyappan does bring tigress milk for the queen riding on a tiger, but after doing so Ayyappan renounces the kingdom, becomes an ascetic yogi and returns to live as a great warrior in the forested mountain.<ref name="Pattanaik2014p109">{{cite book|author=Devdutt Pattanaik|title=Pashu: Animal Tales from Hindu Mythology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ojqQBQAAQBAJ |year=2014|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-81-8475-692-0|pages=109–111}}</ref>

===Medieval interpretations===
[[File:Ayyanar with Poorna Pushkala IMG 20170813 170522 1.jpg|thumb|Dharma Shasta is a complete incarnation, worshiped as a celibate deity, but in some places one of his incarnations, Shasta is worshipped as Ayyanar along with two consorts.]]
In the medieval age, the stories of Ayyappan expanded. One story has roots between the 1st and 3rd century CE, where Ayyappan evolves to be a deity who also protects traders and merchants from enemies such as robbers and plundering outlaws.{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=20–21}} Ayyappa came to be portrayed as a military genius. His temple and tradition inspired Hindu yogi mercenaries who protected the trade routes in South India from criminals and looters, restoring Dharmic trading practices.{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=20–21}}

In one of the stories, Ayyappan is portrayed as a child of a priest whose father was murdered by the fearsome outlaw Udayanan. The outlaw also kidnaps a princess. Ayyappan then makes a daring rescue, attacks and kills evil Udayanan.{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=20–21}} In another version of this story, the rulers of Pantalam themselves sent Ayyappan as a mercenary to the Pantya rulers to whom the ruler of Pantalam was related. In another late medieval era variation of the story, Ayyappan forms an alliance with the Muslim warrior Vavar against Udayanan, the basis for some devotees worshiping both in a mosque and then in the Hindu temple before starting a pilgrimage to Ayyappan shrine.{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=20–21}}

According to Paul Younger, supplementary legends appeared in the late medieval times that linked other Hindu deities and mythologies to Ayyappan heritage.{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=20–21}} One such story links Ayyappan to the buffalo-demon Mahishasura and buffalo-demoness Mahishasuri. The divine beings [[Dattatreya|Datta]] and Lila came to earth as humans. Datta wanted to return to the divine realm, but Lila enjoyed her life on earth and Datta's company. She wanted to stay on earth.{{sfn|Younger|2002|p=21}} Datta became angry and cursed her to become a Mahishi, or water buffalo demoness. Lila in turn cursed him to become a Mahisha, or water buffalo demon. They plundered earth with their evil acts. The water buffalo demon Mahishasura was killed by goddess [[Durga]], while the water demoness Mahishasuri was killed by Ayyapan, ending the terror of evil and liberating divine Lila who was previously cursed.{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=21–22}} These legends, states Younger, syncretically link and combine various Hindu traditions around Shiva ([[Shaivism]]), Vishnu ([[Vaishnavism]]) and [[Devi]] ([[Shaktism]]).{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=21–22}}

== Temples ==
[[File:Sri Ayyappa Swamy Temple at Koduru, Krishna District.jpg|thumb|Sri Ayyappa Swamy Temple at Koduru, Krishna District, [[Andhra Pradesh]]. The entrance shows Ayyappan riding a tiger.]]
There are many [[Temple|temples]] in [[Kerala]] whose presiding deity is Ayyappan, the most famous among them being the [[Sabarimala]] temple. Padinettam Padi Karuppan is Guardian Of [[Ayyappan Temple|Ayyappan temple]]. The temple attracts millions of visitors every year during mandala season from mid November to mid January. Other important temples are [[Kulathupuzha Sastha Temple]], [[Aryankavu Sastha Temple]], [[Achankovil Sree Dharmasastha Temple]], [[Erumely Sree Dharmasastha Temple]] and [[Ponnambalamedu]] Temple.{{Cn|date=December 2022}}

Ayyappan temples typically show him as a celibate yogi. A few important temples such as the one at [[Achankovil Sree Dharmasastha Temple]] near Travancore, however, depict him as a married man with two wives Poorna and Pushkala, as well as a son ''Satyaka''.<ref>{{cite book|author=K. Srikumaran|title=Theerthayathra: A Pilgrimage Through Various Temples|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FGvXAAAAMAAJ |year=2005|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan|isbn=978-81-7276-363-3|pages=103, 120}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ky3GBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT127|title=The Man Who Was a Woman and Other Queer Tales from Hindu Lore|page=127 |first=Devdutt|last=Pattanaik |date=9 January 2014|publisher= Routledge|isbn=9781317766308}}</ref> Some of Ayyappan temples are believed to have been established by the Vishnu avatar [[Parashurama]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Maria A. David|title=Beyond Boundaries: Hindu-Christian Relationship and Basic Christian Communities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YYlC_qF_eB0C&pg=PA9 |year=2009| publisher=ISPCK| isbn=978-81-8465-001-3|page=9}}</ref>

===Sabarimala===
[[File:Sabarimala pilgrims walking.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.85|Ayyappan pilgrims walking barefoot to the Sabarimala shrine.]]
Ayyappan has roots in Kerala, but his influence and popularity have grown among the Hindus in South Indian states. Of his many temples, the most significant is at [[Sabarimala]] (also spelled Sabarimalai), set in the forests of the Pathanamthitta district in the Western Ghats on the banks of river Pamba, southeast of [[Kottayam]]. It is a major pilgrimage, attracting millions of Hindus every year, particularly of Malayali, Tamil, Kannada and Telugu heritage.<ref name="Smith1978p3">{{cite book|author=Fred Clothey|editor=Bardwell L. Smith|title=Religion and the Legitimation of Power in South Asia|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=x2Jzn_LuLasC |year=1978|publisher= BRILL Academic|isbn=90-04-05674-2|pages=3–9 with footnotes}}</ref>{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=18-23}}<ref name="Eck2012p13"/>

[[File:SabarimalaRush2010.JPG|thumb|A crowd in front of the Ayyappan temple, Sabarimala]]
Many begin preparations months in advance by leading a simple life, doing yoga, abstaining from sex, eating a vegetarian diet or partially fasting, wearing black or blue or ''[[sadhu]]''-style dress for forty one days, then trekking as a group to the shrine. The group does not recognize any form of social or economic discrimination such as caste, and all devotees form a fraternity welcoming each other as equals.<ref name="Smith1978p3"/><ref name="Kent2013p14">{{cite book|author=Eliza Kent|title=Lines in Water: Religious Boundaries in South Asia|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=iYOiAgAAQBAJ |year=2013| publisher=Syracuse University Press|isbn= 978-0-8156-5225-0|pages=14–15}}</ref><ref name="Eck2012p13"/> The pilgrims call each other by the same name during the trek: ''swami''.<ref name="Eck2012p13">{{cite book|author=Diana L Eck|author-link=Diana L. Eck|title=India: A Sacred Geography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rNlJOSf__xYC&pg=PA13|year=2012|publisher=Random House|isbn=978-0-385-53191-7|pages=13–14}}</ref><ref name="Daniel1987p244">{{cite book|author=E. Valentine Daniel|title=Fluid Signs: Being a Person the Tamil Way|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KwZatzse3CsC|year=1987|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-06167-5|pages=244–262}}</ref> After their long walk covering about 18 miles, they bathe in the Pamba river, then they climb 18 steps at the Sabarimala shrine, each representing a dharmic value (ethics, or interiorized gods). The shrine priests and devotees bring flowers from all over the Western Ghats and scatter them near the shrine, all the while chanting ''[[shlokas]]''.<ref name="Smith1978p3"/>{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=18–23}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Stephen Knapp|title=Spiritual India Handbook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=djI5mL2qeocC&pg=PT416 |year=2009| publisher=Jaico|isbn=978-81-8495-024-3|pages=416–419}}</ref>

To keep the human traffic organized, Ayyappan devotees reserve and are assigned a pilgrimage day from one of the 51 days of pilgrimage, and each day sees over 100,000 walking pilgrims. Women of menstruating age (between the ages of 10-50) were strictly prohibited in the temple until 2018. This was said to be due to the belief that Lord Ayyappan is a [[Brahmacharya|Brahmachari]] (celibate) deity.<ref name=bri/><ref name="Smith1978p3"/>{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=18–23}} The Supreme Court of India ruled on 28 September 2018 that [[Entry of women to Sabarimala|women could not be prohibited from entering the temple]]. This led to violent protests.{{Cn|date=December 2022}}

The devotees wear simple dress on the day of the pilgrimage up the hills and through the forest, many go barefoot, carry ''irumudi'' (a walking stick for regional Hindu yogis with two compartment little bag sometimes carried on head), wear Tulasi leaves and Rudraksha beads around their neck (symbolism for Vishnu and Shiva) while fellow Hindus gather along the trek path, cheering and helping them complete their journey.<ref name="Smith1978p3" />{{sfn|Younger|2002|pp=18–23}} For the Ayyappan pilgrims, states E. Valentine Daniel, the pilgrimage is a part of their spiritual journey.<ref name="Daniel1987p244" />

==Other religions==
[[File:Vavar mosque kerala.jpg|thumb|right|Vavar's mosque on the way to Sabarimala.]]
He is also revered by [[Islam in Kerala|Muslims in Kerala]]<ref name=Quinn/> due to his friendship with [[Vavar]],<ref>Mohammada, Malika (23 August 2017). [https://books.google.com/books?id=dwzbYvQszf4C&pg=PA333 "The Foundations of the Composite Culture in India"]. Aakar Books. Retrieved on 23 August 2017 – via Google Books.</ref> who is identified as a Muslim brigand in local versions of the Ayyappan myth.<ref>Osella, Caroline; Osella, Filippo (23 August 2017). [https://books.google.com/books?id=yGLrI8-io_AC&pg=PA148 "Men and Masculinities in South India"]. Anthem Press – via Google Books.</ref> In this mythology, Ayyappan confronts the plunder-driven pirate robber Vavar in the jungle on his way to collect tigress milk. They fight. Ayyappan defeats Vavar, and Vavar changes his way, becomes Ayyappan's trusted lieutenant helping fight other pirates and robbers.<ref name=kent81>{{cite book|author=Eliza Kent|title=Lines in Water: Religious Boundaries in South Asia|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=iYOiAgAAQBAJ |year=2013| publisher=Syracuse University Press|isbn= 978-0-8156-5225-0|pages=81–86}}</ref> In another version, Vavar is stated to be a Muslim saint from Arabia, who works with Ayyappan.<ref name=kent81/><ref>{{cite news | url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/before-arriving-at-sabarimala-temple-in-kerala-devotees-visit-a-mosque/articleshow/50334905.cms | title=Before arriving at Sabarimala temple in Kerala, devotees visit a mosque | newspaper=The Economic Times | last1=Kumar | first1=KP Narayana }}</ref>

A mosque dedicated to Ayyappan's lieutenant Vavar swami stands next to the Kadutha swami shrine at the foot of the pilgrimage path, both as a form of guardian deities. Some pilgrims offer a prayer to both, before beginning their Sabarimala forest and mountain pilgrimage hike.<ref name=kent81/> According to Kent, the mosque does not contain mortal remains of Vavar swami though the mosque near Sabarimala includes a grave, and no one can date Vavar nor provide when and where he lived, so he may be a myth. The Vavar legend and ''palli'' shrines may reflect the Hindu approach to accepting and co-opting legendary figures or saints of other religions within its fold.<ref>{{cite book|author=Eliza Kent|title=Lines in Water: Religious Boundaries in South Asia|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=iYOiAgAAQBAJ |year=2013| publisher=Syracuse University Press|isbn= 978-0-8156-5225-0|pages=84–88}}</ref>

== Popular culture ==
A number of Indian films have been made about the deity. These include: ''[[Sabarimala Ayyappan]]'' (1961) by [[S. M. Sriramulu Naidu]], [[Swami Ayyappan (1975 film)|''Swami Ayyappan'']] (1975) by [[P. Subramaniam]], ''[[Saranam Ayyappa]]'' (1980) by Dasarathan, ''Arul Tharum Ayyappan'' (1987) by Dasarathan, ''Shiv Putra Swami Ayappa'' (1990) by P.S. Mani, [[Sabarimala Sri Ayyappan]] (1990) by Renuka Sharma, ''[[Engal Swamy Ayyappan]]'' (1990) by Dasarathan, ''Ayyappa Swamy Mahatyam'' (1991), ''Ayyappa Deeksha Mahimalu'' (1992) by Guda Rama Krishna, ''Swami Ayappa Shabarimalai'' (1993) by [[K. Shankar]], ''Jai Hari Hara Putra Ayyappa'' (1995), ''Bhagwaan Ayyappa'' (2007) by Irajaral Bhakhta and V. Swaminathan, ''[[Swami Ayyappan (2012 film)|Swami Ayyappan]]'' (2012) by Chetan Sharma and Mahesh Vettiyar, ''Om Sharanam Ayyappa'' (2015) by K. Sharath, ''Sri Omkara Ayyappane'' (2016) by [[Sai Prakash]], ''Ayyappa Kataksham'' (2019) by Rudrapatla Venugopal.<ref name="RajadhyakshaWillemen1999">{{cite book|last1=Rajadhyaksha|first1=Ashish|last2=Willemen|first2=Paul|title=Encyclopaedia of Indian cinema|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediaofi0000raja|url-access=registration|accessdate=|year=1999|publisher=British Film Institute|isbn=9780851706696 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | title = Ayyappan now in toon avatar |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] | url = http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/ayyappan-now-in-toon-avatar/article3549553.ece |date=June 20, 2012| access-date = 2014-06-21 }}</ref>

The Indian television channel [[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]] launched a [[Malayalam]]-language series named [[Swami Ayyappan (TV series)|''Swami Ayyappan'']] in 2006, this was followed by ''Swami Ayyappan Saram'' (2010), ''Sabarimala Shri Dharmashasta'' (2012) and ''Sabarimala Swami Ayappan'' (2019). The 2021 movie [[The Great Indian Kitchen]] prominently features a family of devotees of Ayyappan.

The story of Ayyappa is dictated by [[Parvati]] to [[Ganesha]] in the Indian TV show on [[Sony TV]], called [[Vighnaharta Ganesha|Vighnaharta Ganesh]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sonyliv.com/details/episodes/6117114715001/Ep.-608---Story-Time-For-The-Kids---Vighnaharta-Ganesh---19-December-2019|title=Ep. 608 - Story Time For The Kids - Vighnaharta Ganesh|website=SonyLIV}}</ref>

==See also==

* [[Achankovil Sree Dharmasastha Temple|Achankovil]]
* [[Alappancode Easwara Kala Bhoothathan Temple|Alappancode]]
* [[Aranmula kottaram]] (Aranmula palace)
* [[Gurunathanmukadi]]
* [[Harihara]]
* [[Harivarasanam]]
* [[Maalikapurathamma]]
* [[Makara Jyothi]]
* [[Sabarimala]]
* [[Tazhamon Madom]]
* [[Temples of Kerala]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

===Bibliography===
{{Refbegin}}
* {{citation|last=Younger|first=Paul|title=Playing Host to Deity: Festival Religion in the South Indian Tradition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VqPmCwAAQBAJ|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2002|isbn=0195140443}}
*{{cite book|first=P. Pratap|last=Kumar|title=Contemporary Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o2d_BAAAQBAJ|publisher=Routledge|date=2014|isbn=978-1317546351}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
* {{Commons category-inline}}

{{Hindu deities and texts}}
{{Hindudharma}}
{{Shaivism}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Hindu gods]]
[[Category:Fertility gods]]
[[Category:Regional Hindu gods]]

Puri

2023-01-19T12:59:21Z

ImportMaster: robot: Create/update articles in Category:Hindu gods.

{{Short description|City in Odisha, India}}
{{About|the city in Odisha, India|}}
{{Good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2019}}

{{Infobox settlement
| name = Puri
| other_name =
| settlement_type = City
| image_skyline = Puri Montage1.png
| image_alt =
| image_caption = Montage of Puri City
| nickname = Spiritual City, Sri Jagannath Dham
| image_map =
| map_alt =
| map_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Odisha#India#Asia
| pushpin_label_position = Right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption =
| coordinates = {{coord|19|48|38|N|85|49|53|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{Flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = {{flagicon image|Orissa Flag(INDIA).png}} [[Odisha]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Puri district|Puri]]
| established_title = 
| established_date = More than thousand years old
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type = [[Nagar Palika|Municipality]]
| governing_body = '''Puri Municipality'''

| leader_title = [[District Collector|Collector & District Magistrate]]
| leader_name = Samarth Verma, [[Indian Administrative Service|IAS]]
| leader_title1 = [[Superintendent of Police (India)|Superintendent of Police]]
| leader_name1 = Kanwar Vishal Singh, [[Indian Police Service|IPS]]<ref>{{cite web |title=SP's Desk {{!}} Puri Police |url=http://puripolice.nic.in/?q=node/60 |website=puripolice.nic.in |access-date=20 January 2021}}</ref>
| leader_title2 = [[Puri (Lok Sabha constituency)|Member of Parliament]]
| leader_name2 = [[Pinaki Misra|Shri Pinaki Misra]], ([[Biju Janata Dal|BJD]])
| leader_title3 = [[Puri (Odisha Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Member of Legislative Assembly]]
| leader_name3 = Jayanta Kumar Sarangi, ([[Bhartiya Janata Party|BJP]])
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes = <ref>{{cite web |title=Puri City |url=http://purimunicipality.nic.in/ |access-date=22 November 2020}}</ref>
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 16.84
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 0.1
| population_total = 201026
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank = [[List of cities in India by population|India 228th]], [[List of cities in Odisha by population|Odisha 5th]]
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Language
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Odia language|Odia]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 752001
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| area_code = 06752,06758 (06758 for Nimapara & 06752 for Puri)
| registration_plate = OD-13
| website = {{URL|puri.nic.in}}
| footnotes =
| official_name =
}}
{{location map+|India|float=right|width=270|caption='''Char Dham'''|places=
{{location map~|India|label=[[Badrinath]]|position=left|lat=30.73|long=79.48}}
{{location map~|India|label=[[Dwarka]]|position=right|lat=22.23|long=68.97}}
{{location map~|India|label=[[Jagannath Puri]]|position=left|lat=19.81|long=85.83}}
{{location map~|India|label=[[Rameswaram]]|position=left|lat=9.28|long=79.3}}
}}

'''Puri''' ({{IPA-or|ˈpuɾi|lang|Puri.ogg}}) is a [[coast]]al city and a [[Nagar Palika|municipality]] in the state of [[Odisha]] in eastern [[India]]. It is the district headquarters of [[Puri district]] and is situated on the [[Bay of Bengal]], {{convert|60|km|mi|0}} south of the state capital of [[Bhubaneswar]]. It is also known as ''Sri Jagannatha Dhama'' after the 12th-century [[Jagannath Temple (Puri)|Jagannath Temple]] located in the city. It is one of the original [[Char Dham]] pilgrimage sites for [[Hindus]].

Puri is known by several names since the ancient times, and was locally known as "Sri Kshetra" and the Jagannath temple is known as "Badadeula". Puri and the Jagannath Temple were invaded 18 times by [[Muslim]] rulers, from the 7th century AD till the early 19th century with the objective of looting the treasures of the temple. Odisha, including Puri and its temple, were part of [[British India]] from 1803 till India attained independence in August 1947. Even though [[princely states]] do not exist in India today, the heirs of the [[House of Gajapati]] still perform the ritual duties of the temple. The temple town has many Hindu religious [[Matha|''matha''s]] or monasteries.

The economy of Puri is dependent on the religious importance of the [[Jagannath Temple, Puri|Jagannath Temple]] to the extent of nearly 80 percent. The 24 festivals, including 13 major ones, held every year in the temple complex contribute to the economy; [[Ratha Yatra]] and its related festivals are the most important which are attended by millions of people every year. [[Sand art and play|Sand art]] and [[applique]] art are some of the important crafts of the city.

Puri has been chosen as one of the heritage cities for [[Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana]] (HRIDAY) scheme of Government of India.

Puri is a significant part of the "Krishna pilgrimage circuit" which also includes [[Mathura]], [[Vrindavan]], [[Barsana]], [[Gokula]], [[Govardhan]], [[Kurukshetra]] and [[Dwarka]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Development of Ramayana and Krishna Circuits |url=https://pib.gov.in/pib.gov.in/Pressreleaseshare.aspx?PRID=1513307 |access-date=2022-08-20 |website=pib.gov.in}}</ref>

==History==
{{For timeline}}

===Names in history===
Puri, the holy land of [[Jagannatha]], also known by the popular vernacular name Srikshetram, has many ancient names in the Hindu scriptures such as the [[Rigveda]], [[Matsya purana]], [[Brahma Purana]], [[Narada Purana]], [[Padma Purana]], [[Skanda Purana]], [[Kapila Purana]] and Niladrimahodaya. In the Rigveda, in particular, it is mentioned as a place called Purushamandama-grama meaning the place where the Creator deity of the world – Supreme Divinity deified on an altar or [[mandapa]] was venerated near the coast and prayers offered with [[Vedic hymns]]. Over time the name got changed to Purushottama Puri and further shortened to Puri, and the Purusha came to be known as Jagannatha. Sages like [[Bhrigu]], [[Atri]] and [[Markandeya]] had their hermitage close to this place.{{Sfn|Mahanti|2014|p=xxix}} Its name is mentioned, conforming to the deity worshipped, as [[Srikshetra]], Purusottama Dhāma, [[Purusottama Kshetra]], Purusottama Puri and [[Jagannath Puri]]. Puri, however, is the popular usage. It is also known by the geographical features of its location as [[Shankhakshetra]] (the layout of the town is in the form of a conch shell),{{Sfn|Mahanti|2014|p=xxx}} Neelāchala ("Blue mountain" a terminology used to name a very large sand lagoon over which the temple was built but this name is not in vogue), Neelāchalakshetra, [[Neelādri]].{{Sfn|Mahanti|2014|p=xxxi}} In [[Sanskrit Language|Sanskrit]], the word "Puri" means town or city,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Glashoff |first1=Klaus |url=http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?script=HK&tinput=puri&trans=Translate&direction=SE |title=Sanskrit Dictionary for Spoken Sanskrit |publisher=Spokensanskrit.de |access-date=19 September 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003141324/http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?script=HK&tinput=puri&trans=Translate&direction=SE |archive-date=3 October 2011 }}</ref> and is cognate with ''polis'' in [[Greek language|Greek]].{{Sfn|Ananda|2015|p=11}}

Another ancient name is Charita as identified by General [[Alexander Cunningham]] of the [[Archaeological Survey of India]], which was later spelled as Che-li-ta-lo by Chinese traveller [[Hiuen Tsang]]. When the present temple was built by the [[Eastern Ganga dynasty|Eastern Ganga]] king [[Anantavarman Chodaganga]] in the 11th and 12th centuries AD, it was called Purushottamkshetra. However, the [[Mughal people|Moghul]]s, the [[Marathas]] and early [[British Raj|British ruler]]s called it Purushottama-chhatar or just Chhatar. In Moghul ruler [[Akbar]]'s [[Ain-i-Akbari]] and subsequent Muslim historical records it was known as Purushottama. In the Sanskrit drama ''Anargha Raghava Nataka'' as well, authored by Murari Mishra, a playwright, in the 8th century AD, it is referred to as Purushottama.{{Sfn|Mahanti|2014|p=xxx}} It was only after the 12th century AD that Puri came to be known by the shortened form of Jagannatha Puri, named after the deity or in a short form as Puri.{{Sfn|Mahanti|2014|p=xxxi}} It is the only shrine in India, where [[Radha]], along with [[Lakshmi]], [[Saraswati]], [[Durga]], [[Bhudevi]], [[Sati (goddess)|Sati]], [[Parvati]], and [[Shakti]], abodes with [[Krishna]], who is also known by the name Jagannatha.<ref name="Jagannathyatra">{{cite web|title=Jagannathyatra|url=http://jagannathyatra.com/about_puri.html|publisher=Jagannathyatra|access-date=11 October 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017051306/http://jagannathyatra.com/about_puri.html|archive-date=17 October 2013}}</ref>

===Ancient period===
[[File:Watercolour painting on paper of Indradyumna seated in a carriage.jpg|right|thumb|King [[Indradyumna]] of [[Ujjayani]] credited with building the original Puri Jagannath temple in 318 AD]]
According to the chronicle [[Madala Panji]], in 318 AD, the priests and servitors of the temple spirited away the idols to escape the wrath of the [[Rashtrakuta dynasty|Rashtrakuta]] king [[Govinda III|Rakatavahu]].{{Sfn|Mahanti|2014|p=7}} In the temple's historical records it finds mention in the Brahma Purana and Skanda Purana stating that the temple was built by the king [[Indradyumna]], [[Ujjayani]].{{Sfn|Kapoor|2002|p=5890}}

S. N. Sadasivan, a historian, in his book ''A Social History of India'' quotes [[William Joseph Wilkins]], author of the book ''Hindu Mythology, Vedic and Purānic'' as stating that in Puri, [[Buddhism]] was once a well established practice but later [[Buddhism]] faded and [[Brahmanism]] became the order of the religious practice in the town; the [[Buddha]] deity is now worshipped by the Hindus as Jagannatha. It is also said by Wilkinson that some relics of Buddha were placed inside the idol of Jagannatha which the Brahmins claimed were the bones of Krishna. Even during [[Maurya dynasty|Maurya]] king [[Ashoka]]'s reign in 240 BC, [[Kalinga (historical kingdom)|Kalinga]] was a Buddhist center and that a tribe known as Lohabahu (barbarians from outside Odisha) converted to Buddhism and built a temple with an idol of Buddha which is now worshipped as Jagannatha. Wilkinson also says that the Lohabahu deposited some Buddha relics in the precincts of the temple.{{Sfn|Sadasivan|2000|p=211}}

Construction of the present Jagannath Temple started in 1136 AD and completed towards the latter part of the 12th century. The [[Eastern Ganga dynasty|Eastern Ganga]] king [[Anangabhima III]] dedicated his kingdom to Jagannatha, then known as the Purushottama-Jagannatha, and resolved that from then on he and his descendants would rule under "divine order as Jagannatha's sons and vassals". Even though [[princely state]]s do not exist in India today, the heirs of the [[Puri Estate]] still perform the ritual duties of the temple; the king formally sweeps the road in front of the chariots before the start of the [[Ratha Yatra]]. This ritual is called Cherra Pahanra.{{Sfn|Ring|Salkin|Boda|1994|p=699}}

===Medieval and early modern periods===
The history of Puri is on the same lines as that of the Jagannath Temple, which was invaded 18 times during its history to plunder the treasures of the temple, rather than for religious reasons. The first invasion occurred in the 8th century AD by Rastrakuta king [[Govinda III]] (798–814 AD), and the last took place in 1881 AD by the [[Monotheism|monotheistic]] followers of ''Alekh'' ([[Mahima Dharma]]) who did not recognise the worship of Jagannatha.{{Sfn|Dash|2011|p=82}} From 1205 AD onward {{Sfn|Ring|Salkin|Boda|1994|p=699}} there were many invasions of the city and its temple by Muslims of [[Afghanistan|Afghan]] and Moghul descent, known as [[Yavanas]] or foreigners. In most of these invasions the idols were taken to safe places by the priests and the servitors of the temple. Destruction of the temple was prevented by timely resistance or surrender by the kings of the region. However, the treasures of the temple were repeatedly looted.{{Sfn|Mahanti|2014|p=xliii7}} The table lists all the 18 invasions along with the status of the three images of the temple, the triad of Jagannatha, Balabhadra and Subhadra following each invasion.{{Sfn|Dash|2011|p=82}}

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Invasion number !! Invader (s), year (s) AD !!Local rulers !! Status of the three images of the Jagannath temple
|-
|1 ||Raktabahu or [[Govinda III]] (798–814) of the [[Rashtrakuta Empire]]||King Subhanadeva of [[Bhauma-Kara dynasty|Bhaumakara]] dynasty || Idols shifted to Gopali near [[Sonepur, Odisha|Sonepur]]. Was brought back to Puri by Yayati I after 146 years and re-consecrated after performing Nabakalebara.{{Sfn|Dash|2011|p=82–83}}
|-
|2 || Illias Shah, [[Sultan of Bengal]], 1340||Narasinghadeva III||Images shifted to a secret location.{{Sfn|Dash|2011|p=83}}
|-
|3 || [[Feroz Shah Tughlaq]], 1360||Ganga King Bhanudeva III ||Images not found, though rumored that they were thrown into the Bay Of Bengal.{{Sfn|Dash|2011|p=83}}
|-
|4 || Ismail Ghazi commander of [[Alauddin Hussain Shah]] of Bengal, 1509||King Prataprudradeva ||Images shifted to Chandhei Guha Pahada near Chilika Lake.{{Sfn|Dash|2011|p=83}}
|-
|5 || Kalapahara, army assistant general of [[Sulaiman Khan Karrani|Sulaiman Karrani]] of the Afghan Sultan of Bengal, 1568|| Mukundadeva Harichandan ||Images initially hidden in an island in Chilika Lake. However, the invader took the idols from here to the banks of the [[Ganges River]] and burnt them. Bisher Mohanty, a Vaishnavite saint, who had followed the invading army, retrieved the ''Brahmas'' and hid it in a drum at Khurdagada in 1575 AD and finally re-installed it in the deities. Deities were brought back to Puri and consecrated in the Jagannath Temple.{{Sfn|Dash|2011|p=84}}
|-
|6 || Suleman, the son of Kuthu Khan and Osman, the son of Isha (ruler of Orissa), 1592
|| Ramachandradeva, the Bhoi dynasty ruler of Khurda || Revolt was by local Muslim rulers who desecrated the images.{{Sfn|Dash|2011|p=85}}
|-
|7 || Mirza Khurum, the commander of [[Islam Khan I]], the Nawab of Bengal, 1601
||Purushottamadeva of Bhoi Dynasty || Image moved to Kapileswarpur village by boat through the river Bhargavi and kept in the Panchamukhi Gosani temple. Thereafter, the deities were kept in Dobandha—Pentha.{{Sfn|Dash|2011|p=85}}
|-
|8 || Hasim Khan, the Subedar of Orissa, 1608 ||Purushottam Deva, the King of Khurda
|| Images shifted to the Gopal temple at Khurda and brought back in 1608.{{Sfn|Dash|2011|p=85}}
|-
|9 || Kesodasmaru, 1610||Purusottamdeva, the king of Khurda||Images kept at the Gundicha Temple and brought back to Puri after eight months.{{Sfn|Dash|2011|p=85}}
|-
|10 || Kalyan Malla, 1611||Purushottamadeva, the King of Khurda|| Images moved to 'Mahisanasi' also known as'Brahmapura' or 'Chakanasi' in the Chilika Lake where they remained for one year.{{Sfn|Dash|2011|pp=86–87}}
|-
|11 || Kalyan Malla, 1612 ||Paiks of Purushottamadeva, the King of Khurda || Images placed on a fleet of boats at Gurubai Gada and hidden under the 'Lotani Baragachha' or [[Banyan]] tree) and then at 'Dadhibaman Temple'.{{Sfn|Dash|2011|p=87}}
|-
|12 || Mukarram Khan, 1617||Purushottama Deva, the King of Khurda ||Images moved to the Bankanidhi temple, Gobapadar and brought back to Puri in 1620.{{Sfn|Dash|2011|p=87}}
|-
|13 || Mirza Ahmad Beg, 1621 ||Narasingha Deva ||Images shifted to 'Andharigada' in the mouth of the river Shalia across the Chilika Lake. Moved back to Puri in 1624.{{Sfn|Dash|2011|pp=87–88}}
|-
|14 || Amir Mutaquad Khan alias Mirza Makki, 1645|| Narasingha Deva and Gangadhar|| Not known.{{Sfn|Dash|2011|p=88}}
|-
|15 ||Amir Fateh Khan, 1647||Not known|| Not known{{Sfn|Dash|2011|p=88}}
|-
|16 ||Ekram Khan and Mastram Khan on behalf of [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] [[Emperor Aurangzeb]], 1692 ||Divyasingha Deva, the king of Khurda|| Images moved to 'Maa Bhagabati Temple' and then to Bada Hantuada in Banpur across the Chilika Lake, and finally brought back to Puri in 1699.{{Sfn|Dash|2011|p=88}}
|-
|17 ||[[Muhammad Taqi Khan]], 1731 and 1733 ||Birakishore Deva and Birakishore Deva of Athagada || Images moved to Hariswar in Banpur, Chikili in Khalikote, Rumagarh in Kodala, Athagada in Ganjam and lastly to Marda in Kodala. Shifted back to Puri after 2.5 years.{{Sfn|Dash|2011|p=88}}
|-
|18 ||Followers of [[Mahima Dharma]], 1881 ||Birakishore Deva and Birakishore Deva of Athagada || Images burnt in the streets. {{Sfn|Dash|2011|p=89}}
|}

Puri is the site of the [[Govardhana matha|Govardhana Matha]], one of the four cardinal institutions established by [[Adi Shankaracharya]], when he visited Puri in 810 AD, and since then it has become an important ''dham'' (divine centre) for the Hindus; the others being those at [[Sringeri]], [[Dwarka]] and [[Jyotirmath]]. The ''Matha'' (monastery of various Hindu sects) is headed by [[Shankaracharya|Jagatguru Shankarachrya]]. It is a local belief about these dhams that Vishnu takes his dinner at Puri, has his bath at [[Rameshwaram]], spends the night at Dwarka and does penance at [[Badrinath]].{{Sfn|Kapoor|2002|p=5890}}{{Sfn|Mahanti|2014|p=xxxii}}

In the 16th century, [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] of [[Bengal]] established the [[Bhakti]] movements of India, now known by the name the [[Hare Krishna movement]]. He spent many years as a devotee of Jagannatha at Puri; he is said to have merged with the deity.{{Sfn|Ring|Salkin|Boda|1994|p=697}} There is also a ''matha'' of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu here known as [[Radhakanta Math]].{{Sfn|Kapoor|2002|p=5890}}

In the 17th century, for the sailors sailing on the east coast of India, the temple served as a landmark, being located in a plaza in the centre of the city, which they called the "White Pagoda" while the [[Konark Sun Temple]], {{Convert|60| km}} away to the east of Puri, was known as the "Black Pagoda".{{Sfn|Ring|Salkin|Boda|1994|p=697}}

The iconic representation of the images in the Jagannath temple is believed to be the forms derived from the worship made by the tribal groups of [[Sabaras]] belonging to northern Odisha. These images are replaced at regular intervals as the wood deteriorates. This replacement is a special event carried out ritualistically by special group of carpenters.{{Sfn|Ring|Salkin|Boda|1994|p=697}}
[[File:Goverdhana matha.jpg|thumb|[[Govardhana matha]] main gate]]
The city has many other ''Mathas'' as well. The [[Emar Matha]] was founded by the [[Tamil Nadu|Tamil]] [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava]] saint [[Ramanujacharya]] in the 12th century AD. This Matha, which is now located in front of Simhadvara across the eastern corner of the Jagannath Temple, is reported to have been built in the 16th century during the reign of kings of [[Gajapati Kingdom|Suryavamsi Gajapati]]s. The Matha was in the news on 25 February 2011 for the large cache of 522 silver slabs unearthed from a closed chamber.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ignca.nic.in/asi_reports/orpuri117.pdf|title=Documentation format for Archaeological / Heritage Sites / Monuments|work=Emar Matha, Puri town|access-date=25 September 2015|publisher=Indira Gandhi National Centre for Arts|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121001172142/http://ignca.nic.in/asi_reports/orpuri117.pdf|archive-date=1 October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article1493118.ece|title=Hidden treasure' worth Rs. 90 crores found in Puri's Emar Mutt|access-date=25 September 2015|date=28 February 2012|newspaper=The Hindu|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023222343/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article1493118.ece|archive-date=23 October 2012}}</ref>

The British conquered Orissa in 1803, and, recognising the importance of the Jagannath Temple in the life of the people of the state, they initially appointed an official to look after the temple's affairs and later declared the temple as part of a district.{{Sfn|Ring|Salkin|Boda|1994|p=699}}

===Modern history===
[[File:Shankaracharya of Puri.jpg|thumb|H.H Jagadguru Swami Nischalananda Saraswati, The Shankaracharya of Puri]]

In 1906, [[Sri Yukteswar]], an exponent of [[Kriya Yoga school|Kriya Yoga]] and a resident of Puri, established an [[ashram]], a spiritual training center, named "Karar Ashram<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kriya Yoga Teaching & Meditation Centre {{!}} Karar Ashram |url=http://www.kararashram.org/ |access-date=2022-08-20 |website=www.kararashram.org}}</ref>" in Puri. He died on 9 March 1936 and his body is buried in the garden of the ashram.{{Sfn|Jones|Ryan|2006|p=248}}{{Sfn|Davis|1997|p=265}}

The city is the site of the former summer residence of British Raj, the [[Raj Bhavan (Puri)|Raj Bhavan]], built in 1913–14 during the era of governors.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rajbhavanodisha.gov.in/rajbhavanpuri.asp|title=Raj Bhavan, Puri|access-date=25 September 2015|publisher=Official website of rajbhavan|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151121021301/http://www.rajbhavanodisha.gov.in/rajbhavanpuri.asp|archive-date=21 November 2015}}</ref>

For the people of Puri, Jagannatha, visualized as Krishna, is synonymous with their city. They believe that Jagannatha looks after the welfare of the state. However, after the partial collapse of the Jagannath Temple (in the [[Amalaka]] part of the temple) on 14 June 1990, people became apprehensive and considered it a bad omen for Odisha. The replacement of the fallen stone by another of the same size and weight ({{Convert|7|tonne}}), that could be done only in the early morning hours after the temple gates were opened, was done on 28 February 1991.{{Sfn|Ring|Salkin|Boda|1994|p=697}}

Puri has been chosen as one of the heritage cities for the [[Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana]] scheme of the Indian Government. It is chosen as one of the 12 [[Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana|heritage cities]] with "focus on holistic development" to be implemented within 27 months by the end of March 2017.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://hridayindia.in/|title=Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana|access-date=30 September 2015|publisher=HRIDAY National Project Management Unit National Institute of Urban Affairs|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150826075658/http://hridayindia.in/|archive-date=26 August 2015}}</ref>

Non-Hindus are not permitted to enter the shrines but are allowed to view the temple and the proceedings from the roof of the Raghunandan library, located within the precincts of the temple, for a small donation.{{Sfn|Bindloss|Brown| Elliott |2007|p=253}}

==Geography and climate==
===Geography===

[[File:Atharanala, Puri.JPG|thumb|The [[Atharanala]] Bridge dating back to the 16th century at the entrance of Puri]]
Puri, located on the east coast of India on the [[Bay of Bengal]], is in the centre of the [[Puri district]]. It is delimited by the Bay of Bengal on the southeast, the Mauza Sipaurubilla on the west, [[Gopinathpur, Baleshwar|Mauza Gopinathpur]] in the north and Mauza Balukhand in the east. It is within the {{Convert|67|km}} coastal stretch of sandy beaches that extends between [[Chilika Lake]] and the south of Puri city. However, the administrative jurisdiction of the Puri Municipality extends over an area of {{Convert|16.3268|km2}} spread over 30 wards, which includes a shore line of {{Convert|5|km}}.{{Sfn|Managers|2006|p=1–2}}

Puri is in the coastal delta of the [[Mahanadi River]] on the shores of the Bay of Bengal. In the ancient days it was near to [[Sisupalgarh]] (also known as "Ashokan Tosali"). Then the land was drained by a [[tributary]] of the [[Bhargavi River]], a branch of the Mahanadi River. This branch underwent a meandering course creating many arteries altering the [[estuary]], and formed many sand hills. These sand hills could be cut through by the streams. Because of the sand hills, the Bhargavi River, flowing to the south of Puri, moved away towards the [[Chilika Lake]]. This shift also resulted in the creation of two [[lagoons]], known as Sar and Samang, on the eastern and northern parts of Puri respectively. Sar lagoon has a length of {{Convert|5|mi}} in an east–west direction and a width of {{Convert|2|mi}} in north–south direction. The estuary of the Bhargavi River has a shallow depth of just {{Convert|5|ft}} and the process of siltation continues. According to a 15th-century [[Odia language|Odia]] writer [[Sarala Das|Saraladasa]], the bed of the unnamed stream that flowed at the base of the Blue Mountain or ''Neelachal'' was filled up. ''Katakarajavamsa'', a 16th-century chronicle (c.1600), attributes filling up of the bed of the river which flowed through the present Grand Road, as done during the reign of King Narasimha II (1278–1308) of [[Eastern Ganga dynasty]].{{Sfn|Starza|1993|p=1}}

===Climate===
According to the [[Köppen climate classification|Köppen–Geiger climate classification system]] the climate of Puri is classified as [[Tropical savanna climate|Aw]] (Tropical savanna climate). The city has moderate and tropical climate. Humidity is fairly high throughout the year. The temperature during summer touches a maximum of {{Convert|36|C}} and during winter it is {{Convert|17|C}}. The average annual rainfall is {{Convert|1337|mm}} and the average annual temperature is {{Convert|26.9|C}}. The weather data is given in the following table.{{Sfn|Mahanti|2014|p=xxxiiii}}<ref name=IMDnormals>
{{cite web |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200205040301/http://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/1981-2010%20CLIM%20NORMALS%20%28STATWISE%29.pdf |archive-date = 5 February 2020 |url = https://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/1981-2010%20CLIM%20NORMALS%20%28STATWISE%29.pdf |title = Station: Puri Climatological Table 1981–2010 |work= Climatological Normals 1981–2010 |publisher= India Meteorological Department |date = January 2015 |pages = 629–630 |access-date = 10 January 2021}}</ref><ref name=IMDextremes>{{cite web |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200205042509/http://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/EXTREMES%20OF%20TEMPERATURE%20and%20RAINFALL%20upto%202012.pdf |archive-date= 5 February 2020 |url= https://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/EXTREMES%20OF%20TEMPERATURE%20and%20RAINFALL%20upto%202012.pdf |title= Extremes of Temperature & Rainfall for Indian Stations (Up to 2012 |publisher= India Meteorological Department |date=December 2016 |page= M166 |access-date= 10 January 2021}}</ref>

{{Weather box
| location = Puri (1981–2010, extremes 1901–2012)
| metric first = yes
| single line = yes
| Jan record high C = 33.4
| Feb record high C = 35.8
| Mar record high C = 40.0
| Apr record high C = 41.1
| May record high C = 42.2
| Jun record high C = 44.2
| Jul record high C = 37.6
| Aug record high C = 36.8
| Sep record high C = 39.1
| Oct record high C = 36.1
| Nov record high C = 34.2
| Dec record high C = 32.8
| year record high C = 44.2
| Jan high C = 27.5
| Feb high C = 29.1
| Mar high C = 31.0
| Apr high C = 31.7
| May high C = 32.8
| Jun high C = 32.5
| Jul high C = 31.6
| Aug high C = 31.6
| Sep high C = 32.1
| Oct high C = 32.0
| Nov high C = 30.3
| Dec high C = 28.2
| year high C = 30.9
| Jan low C = 17.9
| Feb low C = 21.4
| Mar low C = 24.9
| Apr low C = 26.5
| May low C = 27.5
| Jun low C = 27.5
| Jul low C = 26.9
| Aug low C = 26.7
| Sep low C = 26.8
| Oct low C = 25.1
| Nov low C = 21.2
| Dec low C = 17.6
| year low C = 24.2
| Jan record low C = 10.6
| Feb record low C = 12.2
| Mar record low C = 12.1
| Apr record low C = 17.4
| May record low C = 16.7
| Jun record low C = 19.4
| Jul record low C = 19.4
| Aug record low C = 20.9
| Sep record low C = 17.0
| Oct record low C = 16.3
| Nov record low C = 11.8
| Dec record low C = 8.6
| year record low C = 8.6
| rain colour = green
| Jan rain mm = 15.3
| Feb rain mm = 20.7
| Mar rain mm = 20.9
| Apr rain mm = 24.9
| May rain mm = 68.7
| Jun rain mm = 178.1
| Jul rain mm = 290.5
| Aug rain mm = 361.0
| Sep rain mm = 261.4
| Oct rain mm = 168.9
| Nov rain mm = 65.9
| Dec rain mm = 10.7
| year rain mm = 1486.8
| Jan rain days = 0.9
| Feb rain days = 1.6
| Mar rain days = 1.4
| Apr rain days = 1.2
| May rain days = 3.8
| Jun rain days = 8.5
| Jul rain days = 11.5
| Aug rain days = 14.1
| Sep rain days = 10.3
| Oct rain days = 7.0
| Nov rain days = 2.3
| Dec rain days = 0.3
| year rain days = 62.8
| time day = 17:30 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| Jan humidity = 71
| Feb humidity = 76
| Mar humidity = 81
| Apr humidity = 84
| May humidity = 83
| Jun humidity = 84
| Jul humidity = 84
| Aug humidity = 84
| Sep humidity = 81
| Oct humidity = 74
| Nov humidity = 66
| Dec humidity = 64
| year humidity = 78
|source 1 = [[India Meteorological Department]]<ref name=IMDnormals/><ref name=IMDextremes/>
}}

==Demographics==
{{See also|List of cities in Odisha}}
According to the [[2011 Census of India]], Puri is an [[urban agglomeration]] governed by the Municipal Corporation in Odisha state, with a population of 200,564,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/2118_PART_B_DCHB_PURI.pdf| title = Puri District Handbook 2011}}
</ref> comprising 104,086 males, 96,478 females, and 18,471 children (under six years of age). The sex ratio is 927. The average literacy rate in the city is 88.03 percent (91.38 percent for males and 84.43 percent for females).


==Administration==
[[File:Samudra arati.jpg|thumb|Samudra arati or worship of the sea at Swargadwar by disciples of the [[Govardhana matha]] ]]
The Puri Municipality, Puri Konark Development Authority, Public Health Engineering Organisation and Orissa Water Supply Sewerage Board are some of the principal organisations that are devolved with the responsibility of providing for civic amenities such as water supply, sewerage, waste management, street lighting and infrastructure of roads. The major activity, which puts maximum pressure on these organisations, is the annual event of the Ratha Yatra held during June- July. According to the Puri Municipality more than a million people attend this event. Hence, development activities such as infrastructure and amenities to the pilgrims, apart from security, gets priority attention.{{Sfn|Managers|2006|p=3}}

The civic administration of Puri is the responsibility of the Puri Municipality. The municipality came into existence in 1864 in the name of the Puri Improvement Trust, which was converted into Puri Municipality in 1881. After India's independence in 1947, the Orissa Municipal Act (1950) was promulgated entrusting the administration of the city to the Puri Municipality. This body is represented by elected representatives with a Chairperson and councilors representing the 30 wards within the municipal limits.{{Sfn|Managers|2006|p=4}}

The electricity is provided by [[Tata Power Central Odisha Distribution Limited]] in the city and the entire district.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sharma |first1=Vikash |title='Irregularities' In Meter Installation By TPCODL: Puri Congress Stages Dharna, Admin Sets Up Committee |url=https://odishatv.in/news/miscellaneous/-irregularities-in-meter-installation-by-tpcodl-puri-congress-stages-dharna-160027 |access-date=10 March 2022 |work=Odisha TV |date=19 September 2021 |language=en}}</ref>

==Economy==
The economy of Puri is dependent on tourism to the extent of about 80 percent. The temple is the focal point of the city and provides employment to the people of the town. Agricultural production of rice, ghee, vegetables and so forth of the region meet the large requirements of the temple. Many settlements around the town exclusively cater to the other religious requirements of the temple.{{Sfn|Managers|2006|pp=2–3}} The temple administration employs 6,000 men to perform the rituals. The temple also provides economic sustenance to 20,000 people.{{Sfn|Bindloss|Brown|Elliott|2007|p=253}} According to [[Colleen Taylor Sen]], an author on food and travel, writing on the food culture of India, the temple kitchen has 400 cooks serving food to as many as 100,000 people,.{{Sfn|Sen|2004|p=126}} According to J Mohapatra, Director, Ind Barath Power Infra Ltd (IBPIL), the kitchen is known as "a largest and biggest kitchen of the world."{{Sfn|Mohapatra|2013|p=61}}

==Landmarks==

===Jagannath Temple at Puri===
{{main|Jagannath Temple (Puri)}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| image1 = Sri Jagannath Temple Puri, Orissa.jpg
| width1 = 150
| alt1 =
| caption1 =
| image2 = Sri_Jagannath_Temple_Puri,_Orissa.jpeg
| width2 = 192
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| footer = Left: Jagannath Temple at Puri Right: View of the temple at night
}}

The Jagannath Temple at Puri is one of the major Hindu temples built in the [[Kalinga (historical kingdom)|Kalinga]] style of architecture.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://orissaculture.gov.in/Architecture.asp|title=Temple Architecture|publisher=Culture Department, Government of Orissa|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150707223017/http://www.orissaculture.gov.in/Architecture.asp|archive-date=7 July 2015}}</ref> The temple tower, with a spire, rises to a height of {{Convert|58|m}}, and a flag is unfurled above it, fixed over a wheel (''chakra'').{{Sfn|Bindloss|Brown| Elliott |2007|p=253}}<ref name=Seven>{{cite web |url=http://www.7wonders.org/wonders/asia/india/puri/jagannath-temple.aspx |title=Jagannath Temple, India – 7 wonders |work=7wonders.org |year=2012 |quote=The temple is divided into four chambers: Bhogmandir, Natamandir, Jagamohana and Deul |access-date=3 July 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120612083058/http://www.7wonders.org/wonders/asia/india/puri/jagannath-temple.aspx |archive-date=12 June 2012 }}</ref>

{{multiple image
| align = right
| image1 = Jagannatha Puri temple chakra.jpg
| width1 = 150
| alt1 =
| caption1 = Left:Ritual chakra and flags at the top [[Sikhara|shikhara]] of Puri temple of [[Jagannatha]] also related to [[Sudarsana chakra]]. The red flag (12 hand or {{Convert|14|ft}} denotes that Jagannath is within the temple.
| image2 = Jagannath Temple, Puri 10 - Arun.jpg
| width2 = 150
| alt2 =
| caption2 = Right: Statue of Aruna the charioteer of the Sun God on top of the Aruna Stambha in front of the Singhadwara
| footer =
}}
The temple is built on an elevated platform (of about {{Convert|420000|ft2}} area),<ref name=Official/> {{convert|20|ft}} above the adjacent area. The temple rises to a height of {{Convert|214|ft}} above the road level. The temple complex covers an area of {{Convert|10.7| acre}}.{{Sfn|Managers|2006|p=3}} There are four entry gates in four cardinal directions of the temple, each gate located at the central part of the walls. These gates are: the eastern gate called the ''Singhadwara'' (Lions Gate), the southern gate known as ''Ashwa Dwara'' (Horse Gate), the western gate called the ''Vyaghra Dwara'' (Tigers Gate) or the ''Khanja'' Gate, and the northern gate called the ''Hathi Dwara'' or (elephant gate). These four gates symbolize the four fundamental principles of [[Dharma]] (right conduct), [[Jnana]] (knowledge), [[Vairagya]] (renunciation) and [[Aishwarya]] (prosperity). The gates are crowned with pyramid shaped structures. There is a stone pillar in front of the Singhadwara, called the ''Aruna Stambha'' {Solar Pillar}, {{Convert|11|m}} in height with 16 faces, made of chlorite stone; at the top of the stamba an elegant statue of [[Aruṇa]] (Sun) in a prayer mode is mounted. This pillar was shifted from the [[Konarak Sun Temple]].{{Sfn|Managers|2006|pp=3–4}} The four gates are decorated with guardian statues in the form of lion, horse mounted men, tigers, and elephants in the name and order of the gates.{{Sfn|Bindloss|Brown| Elliott |2007|p=253}} A pillar made of fossilized wood is used for placing lamps as offering. The Lion Gate (Singhadwara) is the main gate to the temple, which is guarded by two guardian deities [[Jaya-Vijaya|Jaya and Vijaya]].<ref name=Official>{{Cite web|url=http://jagannath.nic.in/?q=node/81|title=About Jagannath Temple|access-date=27 September 2015|publisher=Official Website of Shree jagannath temple Administration|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150831140432/http://jagannath.nic.in/?q=node%2F81|archive-date=31 August 2015}}</ref>{{Sfn|Managers|2006|pp=3–4}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Temple information: Jagannath temple|url=http://www.fullodisha.com/puri/temple_temple.htm|publisher=Full Orissa|access-date=28 November 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150827024854/http://www.fullodisha.com/puri/temple_temple.htm|archive-date=27 August 2015}}</ref> The main gate is ascended through 22 steps known as ''Baisi Pahaca'', which are revered, as it is believed to possess "spiritual animation". Children are made to roll down these steps, from top to bottom, to bring them spiritual happiness. After entering the temple, on the left side, there is a large kitchen where food is prepared in hygienic conditions in huge quantities; the kitchen is called as "the biggest hotel of the world".<ref name=Official/>
[[File:Jagannath Temple, Puri 01.jpg|thumb|The main entrance of the Jagannath Temple]]
According to a legend King Indradyumma was directed by Jagannatha in a dream to build a temple for him which he did as directed. However, according to historical records the temple was started some time during the 12th century by King Chodaganga of the Eastern Ganga dynasty. It was completed by his descendant, Anangabhima Deva, in the 12th century. The wooden images of Jagannatha, Balabhadra and Subhadra were then deified here. The temple was under the control of the Hindu rulers up to 1558. Then, when Orissa was occupied by the Afghan Nawab of Bengal, it was brought under the control of the Afghan General Kalapahad. Following the defeat of the Afghan king by [[Raja Mansingh]], the General of Mughal emperor [[Akbar]], the temple became part of the [[Mughal empire]] till 1751. Subsequently, it was under the control of the Marathas till 1803. During the British Raj, the Puri Raja was entrusted with its management until 1947.<ref name=Seven/>

The triad of images in the temple are of Jagannatha, personifying Krishna, Balabhadra, His older brother, and Subhadra, His younger sister. The images are made of neem wood in an unfinished form. The stumps of wood which form the images of the brothers have human arms, while that of Subhadra does not have any arms. The heads are large, painted and non-carved. The faces are marked with distinctive large circular eyes.{{Sfn|Ring|Salkin|Boda|1994|p=697}}

=== The Pancha Tirtha of Puri===
{{main|Pancha Tirtha of Puri}}
[[File:Markandeshwar Tank.jpg|thumb|Markandeshwar Tank]]
Hindus consider it essential to bathe in the [[Pancha Tirtha of Puri|Pancha Tirtha]] or the five sacred bathing spots of Puri, to complete a pilgrimage to Puri. The five [[Sacred waters|sacred water bodies]] are the Indradyumana Tank, the Rohini Kunda, the Markandeya Tank, the Swetaganga Tank, and the Bay of Bengal also called the ''Mahodadhi'', in Sanskrit 'Mahodadhi' means a "great ocean";{{Sfn|Ravi|p=230}} all are considered sacred bathing spots in the [[Swargadwara]] area.<ref name="Sri">{{cite web|title=Panch Tirtha of Puri|url=http://www.shreekhetra.com/panchatirtha.html|publisher=Shreekhetra|access-date=5 December 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121015074001/http://shreekhetra.com/panchatirtha.html|archive-date=15 October 2012}}</ref>{{Sfn|Starza|1993|p = 10}}{{Sfn|Madan1988|p=161}} These tanks have perennial sources of supply from rainfall and ground water.{{Sfn|Managers|2006|p=7}}
[[File:Sunrise at Puri Sea Beach.jpg|thumb|Sunrise at Puri Sea Beach]]

===Gundicha Temple===
{{main|Gundicha Temple}}
[[File:Puri-gundica-mandir.jpg|thumb|Main entrance of the Gundicha Temple]]
The Gundicha Temple, known as the Garden House of Jagannatha, stands in the centre of a garden, bounded by compound walls on all sides. It lies at a distance of about {{convert|3|km}} to the northeast of the Jagannath Temple. The two temples are located at the two ends of the ''Bada Danda'' (Grand Avenue), which is the pathway for the Ratha Yatra. According to a legend, Gundicha was the wife of King Indradyumna who originally built the Jagannath temple.{{Sfn|Bansal|2012|pp=30–31}}

The temple is built using light-grey [[sandstone]], and, architecturally, it exemplifies typical [[Kalinga architecture|Kalinga temple architecture]] in the ''[[Deula]]'' style. The complex comprises four components: [[vimana]] (tower structure containing the sanctum), [[jagamohana]] (assembly hall), nata-[[mandapa]] (festival hall) and ''bhoga-mandapa'' (hall of offerings). There is also a kitchen connected by a small passage. The temple is set within a garden, and is known as "God's Summer Garden Retreat" or garden house of Jagannatha. The entire complex, including the garden, is surrounded by a wall which measures {{Convert|430|x|320|ft}} with height of {{Convert|20|ft}}.<ref name=Mahapatra>{{Cite web|last=Mahapatra|first=Bhagaban|url=http://odisha.gov.in/e-magazine/Orissareview/2013/jul/engpdf/77-79.pdf|title=Significance of Gundicha Temple in Car festival|access-date=3 October 2015|publisher=E-Magazine, Government of Orissa|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151004163057/http://odisha.gov.in/e-magazine/Orissareview/2013/jul/engpdf/77-79.pdf|archive-date=4 October 2015}}</ref>

Except for the 9-day Ratha Yatra, when the triad images are worshipped in the Gundicha Temple, otherwise it remains unoccupied for the rest of the year. Tourists can visit the temple after paying an entry fee. Foreigners (generally prohibited entry in the main temple) are allowed inside this temple during this period.<ref>{{cite news|last=Panda|first=Namita|title=Ready for the Trinity|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1120622/jsp/odisha/story_15644438.jsp|access-date=4 December 2012|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=22 June 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130621103006/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1120622/jsp/odisha/story_15644438.jsp|archive-date=21 June 2013}}</ref> The temple is under the Jagannath Temple Administration, Puri, the governing body of the main temple. A small band of servitors maintain the temple.<ref name= Mahapatra/>

===Swargadwar===
[[File:Swargadwar, Puri 2.JPG|thumb|Sea at Swargadwar of Puri]]
[[Swargadwara|Swargadwar]] is the name given to the cremation ground or burning ghat which is located on the shores of the sea. Here thousands of dead bodies of Hindus brought from faraway places are cremated. It is a belief that the Chaitanya Mahaparabhu disappeared from this Swargadwar about 500 years back.{{Sfn|Mahanti|2014|pp=xl–xli}}

===Beach===
[[File:Puri sea sunrise.jpg|thumb|Puri sea sunrise]]
[[File:Puri Sea Beach viewed from the light house.jpg|thumb|Puri sea beach viewed from the light house]]
The beach at Puri, known as the "Ballighai beach, at the mouth of Nunai River", is {{Convert|8|km}} away from the town and is fringed by casurina trees.{{Sfn|Kapoor|2002|p=5890}} It has golden yellow sand. Sunrise and sunset are pleasant scenic attractions here.{{Sfn|Mahanti|2014|p=xiii}} Waves break in at the beach which is long and wide.{{Sfn|Ring|Salkin|Boda|1994|p=697}}

===District museum===
The Puri district museum is located on the station road where the exhibits in display are the different types of garments worn by Jagannatha, local sculptures, [[patachitra]] (traditional, cloth-based scroll painting), ancient [[Palm-leaf manuscript]]s, and local craft work.{{Sfn|Mahanti|2014|p=xli}}

===Raghunandana library===
Raghunandana Library is located in the Emara Matha complex (opposite Simhadwara or lion gate, the main entrance gate). The Jagannatha Aitihasika Gavesana Samiti (Jagannatha Historical Centre) is also located here. The library houses ancient palm leaf manuscripts on Jagannatha, His cult and the history of the city.{{Sfn|Mahanti|2014|p=xli}}

==Festivals of Puri==
{{main|List of festivals observed at Jagannatha Temple, Puri}}
[[File:Grand Road, Puri 02.jpg|thumb|The Grand Road near the Jagannath Temple]]
Puri witnesses 24 festivals every year, of which 13 are major. The most important of these is the [[Ratha Yatra]], or the car festival, held in the June–July, which is attended by more than 1 million people.{{Sfn|Managers|2006|p=2}}

===Ratha Yatra at Puri===
{{Main|Ratha-Yatra (Puri)}}
[[File:Rath Yatra Puri 07-11027.jpg|thumb|The [[Ratha Yatra]] in Puri in modern times showing the three chariots of the deities with the Temple in the background]]
The Jagannath Temple triad are normally worshipped in the sanctum of the temple at Puri, but once during the month of [[Asadha]] (rainy season of Orissa, usually in June or July), they are brought out on the Bada Danda (main street of Puri) and taken over a distance of ({{Convert|3|km}}) to the [[Gundicha Temple]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.roaddistance.in/odisha/bada-danda-puri-puri-to-gundicha-temple-puri-distance/by-road/ |title=Bada Danda Puri Puri and Gundicha Temple Puri by Road, Distance Between Bada Danda Puri Puri and Gundicha Temple Puri, Distance by Road from Bada Danda Puri Puri and Gundicha Temple Puri with Travel Time, Gundicha Temple Puri Distance from Bada Danda Puri Puri, Driving Direction Calculator from bada danda puri puri and gundicha temple puri |access-date=6 July 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160818091839/http://www.roaddistance.in/odisha/bada-danda-puri-puri-to-gundicha-temple-puri-distance/by-road/ |archive-date=18 August 2016 }}</ref> in huge chariots (''ratha''), allowing the public to have [[darśana]] (holy view). This festival is known as the Ratha Yatra, meaning the journey (''yatra'') of the chariots.{{Sfn|Das|1982|p = 40}} The yatra starts every year according to the Hindu calendar on the Asadha Sukla Dwitiya day, the second day of bright fortnight of Asadha (June–July).<ref name=Barik>{{Cite web|last=Barik|first=Sarmistha|url=http://odisha.gov.in/e-magazine/Orissareview/june_july-2007/engpdf/Pages18-24.pdf|title=Festivals in Shri Jagannath Temple|access-date=28 September 2015|publisher=Government of Odisha|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150928213056/http://odisha.gov.in/e-magazine/Orissareview/june_july-2007/engpdf/Pages18-24.pdf|archive-date=28 September 2015}}</ref>

Historically, the ruling Ganga dynasty instituted the Ratha Yatra on the completion of the Jagannath Temple around 1150 AD. This festival was one of those Hindu festivals that was reported to the Western world very early.{{Sfn|Starza|1993|p = 133}} [[Odoric of Pordenone|Friar Odoric]], in his account of 1321, reported how the people put the "idols" on chariots, and the King, the Queen and all the people drew them from the "church" with song and music.{{Sfn|Starza|1993|p=129}}{{Sfn|Das|1982|p=48}}

The Rathas are huge wooden structures provided with large wheels, which are built anew every year and are pulled by the devotees. The chariot for Jagannatha is about {{Convert|45|ft}} high and {{Convert|35|ft2}} and takes about 2 months for its construction.{{Sfn|Starza|1993|p = 16}} The chariot is mounted with 16 wheels, each of {{Convert|7|ft}} diameter. The carving in the front face of the chariot has four wooden horses drawn by [[Maruti Nandan|Maruti]]. On its other three faces, the wooden carvings are of [[Rama]], [[Surya]] and Vishnu. The chariot is known as Nandi Ghosha. The roof of the chariot is covered with yellow and red coloured cloth. The next chariot is of Balabhadra which is {{Convert|44|ft}} in height fitted with 14 wheels. The chariot is carved with [[Satyaki]] as the charioteer, roof covered in red and green coloured cloth, and the chariot is known as Taladhwaja. The carvings on this chariot include images of [[Narasimha]] and [[Rudra]] as Jagannatha's companions. The next chariot in the order is of Subhadra, which is {{Convert|43|ft}} in height supported on 12 wheels, roof covered in black and red colour cloth, and the chariot is known as Darpa Dalaan and the charioteer carved is [[Arjuna]]. Other images carved on the chariot are of [[Vana Durga]], [[Tara (Devi)|Tara Devi]] and [[Chandi Devi]].<ref name=Barik/><ref name=Chariot>{{cite book|title=Encyclopaedia of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sDmwCcLza2AC&pg=PA1077|year=1999|publisher=Sarup & Sons|isbn=978-81-7625-064-1|pages=1076–77|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303152455/https://books.google.com/books?id=sDmwCcLza2AC&pg=PA1077|archive-date=3 March 2018}}</ref> The artists and painters of Puri decorate the cars and paint flower petals and other designs on the wheels, the wood-carved charioteer and horses, and the inverted lotuses on the wall behind the throne.{{Sfn|Das|1982|p = 40}} The chariots of Jagannatha pulled during Ratha Yatra is the etymological origin of the [[English language|English]] word [[Juggernaut]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Juggernaut-Definition and Meaning|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/juggernaut|publisher=Merriam Webster Dictionary|access-date=28 November 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107120441/http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/juggernaut|archive-date=7 November 2012}}</ref> The Ratha Yatra is also termed as the Shri Gundicha yatra and Ghosha yatra<ref name=Barik/>
[[File:Jagannath 4 - Pahandi bije.jpg|thumb|right|Pahandi bije during Ratha Yatra at Puri]]

===Chhera Panhara===
The Chhera Panhara<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://learningandcreativity.com/lord-jagannath-tales-the-royal-sweeper/|title=Tales of Lord Jagannath: Chera Panhara, The Royal Sweeper |author=Ramendra Kumar|date=26 July 2015}}</ref> (sweeping with water) is a significant ritual associated with the Ratha Yatra. During this ritual, the Gajapati King wears the outfit of a sweeper and sweeps all around the deities and chariots. The king cleans the road in front of the chariots with a gold-handled broom and sprinkles [[sandalwood]] water and powder. As per the custom, although the Gajapati King has been considered the most exalted person in [[Kalinga (historical kingdom)|the Kalingan kingdom]], he still renders the menial service to Jagannatha. This ritual signifies that under the lordship of Jagannatha, there is no distinction between the powerful sovereign and the humblest devotee.<ref>{{cite news|last=Karan|first=Jajati|title=Lord Jagannatha yatra to begin soon|url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/lord-jagannath-yatra-to-begin-soon/68263-3-2.html|access-date=28 November 2012|newspaper=IBN Live|date=4 July 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714215117/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/lord-jagannath-yatra-to-begin-soon/68263-3-2.html|archive-date=14 July 2014}}</ref>

===Chandan Yatra===
[[File:Narendra Pokhari.jpg|thumb|right|The '''Narendra Tirtha''' tank where ceremonies of [[Chandan Yatra]] are performed]]
{{main|Chandan Yatra}}
The [[Chandan Yatra]] festival held every year on [[Akshaya Tritiya]] day marks the commencement of the construction of the chariots of the Ratha Yatra. It also marks the celebration of the Hindu new year.{{Sfn|Kapoor|2002|p=5890}}

===Snana Yatra===
{{main|Snana Yatra}}
Every year, on the [[Full Moon|Purnima]] day in the Hindu calendar month of [[Jyestha]] (June), the triad images of the Jagannath Temple are ceremonially bathed and decorated on the occasion of Snana Yatra. Water for the bath is taken in 108 pots from the ''Suna kuan'' (meaning: "golden well") located near the northern gate of the temple. Water is drawn from this well only once in a year for the sole purpose of the religious bath of the deities. After the bath the triad images are dressed in the fashion of the elephant god, [[Ganesha]]. Later, during the night, the original triad images are taken out in a procession back to the main temple but kept at a place known as ''Anasara pindi''.<ref name=Barik/> After this the [[Jhulana Yatra]] is performed when proxy images of the deities are taken out in a grand procession for 21 days, cruised over boats in the Narendra Tirtha tank.{{Sfn|Kapoor|2002|p=5890}}

===Anavasara or Anasara===
[[File:Chaturdha Murtti at Snana Mandapa, Nalconagar.jpeg|right|thumb|Images during the [[Snana Yatra]].]]
Anasara, a derivative of the Sanskrit word "Anabasara",<ref name=Govt>{{cite book|title=Orissa Review|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SQhDAAAAYAAJ|year=1980|publisher=Home Department, Government of Orissa|page=29|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303152455/https://books.google.com/books?id=SQhDAAAAYAAJ|archive-date=3 March 2018}}</ref> literally means vacation. Every year after the holy Snana Yatra, the triad images, without the [[Sudarshana Chakra]], are taken to a secret altar named ''Anavasara Ghar'' (also known as ''Anasara pindi,'' 'pindi' is Oriya term meaning "platform" <ref name=Govt/>) where they remain for the next fortnight of ([[Krishna paksha]]); devotees are not allowed to view these images. Instead, devotees go to the nearby [[Brahmagiri, Orissa|Brahmagiri]] to see the Lord in the four-handed form of Alarnath, a depiction of Vishnu.<ref name=Barik/><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.shreekhetra.com/alarnath.html|title=Temple of Alarnath|access-date=4 October 2015|publisher=Official web site of Shreekshetra|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160129105746/http://shreekhetra.com/alarnath.html|archive-date=29 January 2016}}</ref> Devotees then get the first glimpse of the Lord only on the day before Ratha Yatra, which is called ''Navayouvana.'' It is a local belief that the gods suffer from fever after taking an elaborate ritual bath, and they are treated by the special servants, the Daitapatis, for 15 days. Daitapatis perform special [[Ethics in religion#Hindu ethics|niti]]s (rites) known as ''Netrotchhaba'' (a rite of painting the eyes of the triad). During this period cooked food is not offered to the deities.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://nilachakra.org/Temple/festivals.htm |title=Festivals of Lord Sri Jagannath |work=nilachakra.org |year=2010 |quote=suffer from fever on the account of elaborate bath and for that they are kept in dietary provisions (No cooked food is served) and are nursed by the Daitas |access-date=16 May 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022015102/http://nilachakra.org/Temple/festivals.htm |archive-date=22 October 2012 }}</ref>

===Naba Kalebara===
{{main|Nabakalevara|Nabakalebara 2015}}
Naba Kalebara is one of the most grand events associated with the LJagannatha that takes place when one [[lunar month]] of Ashadha is followed by another of Ashadha called Adhika Masa (extra month). This can take place at an interval of 8, 12 or even 18 years. Literally meaning the "New Body" (Nava = New, Kalevar = Body) in Odia, the festival is witnessed by millions of people and the budget for this event generally exceeds $500,000. The event involves installation of new images in the temple and burial of the old ones in the temple premises at Koili Vaikuntha. During the [[Nabakalebara 2015|Nabakalebara ceremony held during July 2015]] the idols that were installed in the temple in 1996 were replaced by specially carved new images made of neem wood.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dailypioneer.com/state-editions/bhubaneswar/30988-puri-gearing-up-for-2015-nabakalebar.html |title=Puri gearing up for 2015 Nabakalebar |work=dailypioneer.com |year=2011 |quote=Nabakalebar ritual of Lord Jagannath to be held in 2015, |access-date=4 January 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714162629/http://www.dailypioneer.com/state-editions/bhubaneswar/30988-puri-gearing-up-for-2015-nabakalebar.html |archive-date=14 July 2014 }}</ref><ref name=Bije/> More than 3 million people are reported to have attended this festival.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gettyimages.ca/license/482086448|title=During the tight security of the millennium's first…|date=7 July 2015|access-date=3 February 2016|publisher=Gettyimages.ca|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170208213121/http://www.gettyimages.ca/license/482086448|archive-date=8 February 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Suna Besha===
{{main|Suna Besha}}
[[File:Suna Vesha or Golden Attire of Lord Shri Jagannath of Puri.jpg|thumb|[[Suna Besha]] or Golden Attire of Lord Jagannatha]]
Suna Besha, ('Suna besh'in English translates to "gold dressing"<ref>{{cite book|title=The Eastern Anthropologist|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hZMiAQAAMAAJ|year=1978|publisher=Ethnographic and Folk Culture Society|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303152455/https://books.google.com/books?id=hZMiAQAAMAAJ|archive-date=3 March 2018}}</ref>) also known as Raja or Rajadhiraja Bhesha {{Sfn|Mahanti|2014|p=103}} or Raja Bhesha, is an event when the triad images of the Jagannath Temple are adorned with gold jewelry. This event is observed five times in a year. It is commonly observed on [[Magha (month)|Magha]] [[Purnima]] (January), Bahuda Ekadashi also known as [[Asadha]] [[Ekadashi]] (July), [[Dashahara]] (Bijayadashami) (October), [[Karthik Purnima]] (November), and Pousa Purnima (December).<ref name=Bhesha>{{Cite web|url=http://www.puripolice.nic.in/?q=node/417|title=Suna Bhesha(Ashadha/ June – July)|access-date=2 July 2015|publisher=National Informatics center|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150704085052/http://www.puripolice.nic.in/?q=node%2F417|archive-date=4 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Arts of Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OY1MAAAAYAAJ|year=2001|publisher=Arts of Asia|page=84|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303152455/https://books.google.com/books?id=OY1MAAAAYAAJ|archive-date=3 March 2018}}</ref> One such Suna Bhesha event is observed on Bahuda Ekadashi during the Ratha Yatra on the chariots placed at the Simhadwar. The other four Beshas are observed inside the temple on the ''Ratna Singhasana'' (gem studded altar). On this occasion gold plates are decorated over the hands and feet of Jagannatha and Balabhadra; Jagannatha is also adorned with a [[Chakra]] (disc) made of gold on the right hand while a silver conch adorns the left hand. Balabhadra is decorated with a plough made of gold on the left hand while a golden [[Kaumodaki|mace]] adorns his right hand.<ref name=Bhesha/>

===Niladri Bije===
Niladri Bije, celebrated in the Hindu calendar month Asadha (June–July) on Trayodashi (13th day),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://nilachakra.org/Temple/festivals.htm |title=Festivals of Lord Sri Jagannath |work=nilachakra.org |year=2010 |quote=NILADRI BIJE – Celebrated on 13th day of bright fortnight of Asadha. |access-date=4 October 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022015102/http://nilachakra.org/Temple/festivals.htm |archive-date=22 October 2012 }}</ref> marks the end of the Ratha Yatra. The large wooden images of the triad of gods are taken out from the chariots and then carried to the sanctum sanctorum, swaying rhythmically; a ritual which is known as ''pahandi''.<ref name=Bije>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/nabakalebara-festival-comes-to-end-with-niladri-bije/article7483145.ece|title=Nabakalebara festival comes to end with Niladri Bije|date=31 July 2015|newspaper=The Hindu|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303152455/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/nabakalebara-festival-comes-to-end-with-niladri-bije/article7483145.ece|archive-date=3 March 2018}}</ref>

===Sahi yatra===
[[File:Sahi Yatra of Puri, Odisha.jpg|thumb|right| A scene from a play being enacted during the Sahi Yatra]]
The Sahi Yatra, considered the world's biggest open-air theatre,<ref>{{cite news|last1=Mahapatra|first1=Prasanta|title=World's Biggest Open-Air Theatre Sahi Yatra Begins at Puri|url=http://www.dailypioneer.com/state-editions/bhubaneswar/worlds-biggest-open-air-theatre--sahi-yatra-begins-at-puri.html|access-date=19 March 2015|publisher=The Pioneer|date=24 April 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923230303/http://www.dailypioneer.com/state-editions/bhubaneswar/worlds-biggest-open-air-theatre--sahi-yatra-begins-at-puri.html|archive-date=23 September 2015}}</ref> is an annual event lasting 11 days; a traditional cultural theatre festival or folk drama which begins on [[Ram Navami]] and ends on Rama ''[[Abhisheka|avishke]]'' (Sanskrit meaning : anointing). The festival includes plays depicting various scenes from the [[Ramayana]]. The residents of various localities, or
Sahis, are entrusted the task of performing the drama at the street corners.{{Sfn|Mahanti|2014|p=xl}}

===Samudra Arati===
[[File:Samudra arati.jpg|thumb|Samudra arati of worship of the sea by disciples of the Matha at Puri]]
The Samudra [[arati]] is a daily tradition started by the present Shankaracharya 9 years ago.<ref name=Aarti>{{cite news|last1=Sahu|first1=Monideepa|title=The great fire|url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/532849/fire.html|access-date=6 March 2016|publisher=Deccan Herald|date=6 March 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306214139/http://www.deccanherald.com/content/532849/fire.html|archive-date=6 March 2016}}</ref> The daily practise includes prayer and fire offering to the sea at Swargadwar in Puri by disciples of the Govardhan Matha. On Paush Purnima of every year the Shankaracharya himself comes out to offer prayers to the sea.<ref name=Aarti/>

==Transport==
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=== Road ===
Earlier, when roads did not exist, people used to walk or travel by animal-drawn vehicles or carriages along beaten tracks to reach Puri. Travel was by riverine craft along the [[Ganges]] up to Calcutta, and then on foot or by carriages. It was only during the Maratha rule that the Jagannath Sadak (Road) was built around 1790. The [[East India Company]] laid the rail track from Calcutta to Puri, which became operational in 1898.{{Sfn|Mahanti|2014|p=xxxiii}} Puri is now well-connected by rail, road and air services.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/The_Saga_of_Jagannatha_and_Badadeula_at/QweqCQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Puri+is+now+well-connected+by+rail,+road+and+air+services.&pg=PR33&printsec=frontcover|last=Mani|first=J.C.|title=The Saga of Jagannatha and Badadeula at Puri|year= 2014|page=33|publisher=VIJ Books}}</ref>

=== Train ===
A [[broad gauge]] railway line of the [[South Eastern Railway zone|South Eastern Railways]] which connects Puri with Calcutta, and Khurda is an important railway junction on this route. The rail distance is {{Convert|499|km}} from Calcutta and {{Convert|468|km}} from [[Vishakhapatnam]]. Road network includes [[National Highway 203 (India)(old numbering)|NH 203]] that links the city with Bhubaneswar, the state capital, situated about {{Convert|60|km}} away. NH 203 B connects the city with [[Satapada]] via [[Brahmagiri, Odisha|Brahmagiri]]. Marine drive, which is part of NH 203 A, connects Puri with Konark. [[Puri railway station]] is among the top hundred booking stations of the [[Indian Railways]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.roaddistance.in/west-bengal/kolkata-west-bengal-to-puri-distance/by-road/}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.indianrail.gov.in/7days_Avl.html|title = Indian Railways Passenger Reservation Enquiry|work=Availability in trains for Top 100 Booking Stations of Indian Railways| publisher= IRFCA| accessdate = 2013-01-04 }}</ref> Puri railway station is {{Convert|1321| km}} away from New Delhi..{{Sfn|Managers|2006|p=2}}<ref name=Rail>{{Cite book|url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Discover_India_by_Rail/gL7pGaL3vooC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Air,+road,+Train+connectivity+to+Puri&pg=PA75&printsec=frontcover|last=Silas|first=Sandeep|title=Discover India by Rail| year=2005|page=75|publisher=Sterlingpublishers.com}}</ref>

=== Air ===
The nearest airport is the [[Biju Patnaik International Airport]] at Bhubaneswar.<ref>{{Cite News|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231000543/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-10-31/bhubaneswar/43558773_1_new-domestic-terminal-bhubaneswar-airport-international-terminal |last= V|first= Riyan Ramanath |title=Centre accords international tag to Bhubaneswar airport|date=31 October 2013|publisher= Times Of India (archive.org)}}</ref>,{{Convert|61|km}} from Puri.<ref name=Rail/>

==Arts and crafts==
===Sand art===
[[File:Puri Sterling 12.jpg|thumb|220 px|Sand art of a baby elephant]]
[[Sandpainting|Sand art]] is a special art form that is created on the beaches of Puri. The art form is attributed to Balaram Das, a poet who lived in the 14th century. Sculptures of various gods and famous people are now created in sand by amateur artists. These are temporary in nature as they get washed away by waves. This art form has gained international fame in recent years. One of the famed sand artists of Odisha is [[Sudarshan Patnaik]]. He established the Golden Sand Art Institute in 1995, in the open air on the shores of Bay of Bengal, to provide training to students interested in this art form.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.odisha.gov.in/portal/ViewDetails.asp?vchglinkid=GL010&vchplinkid=PL060&vchslinkid=SL035|title=Sand Arts|access-date=28 September 2015|publisher=Government of Orissa|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150926033747/http://www.odisha.gov.in/portal/ViewDetails.asp?vchglinkid=GL010&vchplinkid=PL060&vchslinkid=SL035|archive-date=26 September 2015}}</ref>{{Sfn|Mahanti|2014|p=xl}}

===Appliqué art===
[[File:Quilt block applique flower detail.jpg|right|thumb|An applique art work]]
[[Appliqué|Appliqué art]], which is a stitching-based craft unlike embroidery, was pioneered by Hatta Maharana of [[Pipili]]. It is widely used in Puri, both for decoration of the deities and for sale. Maharana's family members are employed as [[darji]]s or tailors or ''sebaks'' by the Maharaja of Puri. They prepare articles for decorating the deities in the temple for various festivals and religious ceremonies. The appliqué works are brightly colored and patterned fabric in the form of canopies, umbrellas, drapery, carry bags, flags, coverings of dummy horses and cows, and other household textiles; these are marketed in Puri. The cloth used is made in dark colours of red, black, yellow, green, blue and turquoise blue.{{Sfn|Naik|1996|pp=95–96}}

===Pattachitra===
[[Pattachitra]], the one of the oldest forms of cloth-based scroll painting of the region, originally created for ritual use and as souvenirs for pilgrims to Puri, as well as other temples in Odisha.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gadon|first=Elinor W.|date=February 2000|title=Indian Art Worlds in Contention: Local, Regional and National Discourses on Orissan Patta Paintings. By Helle Bundgaard. Nordic Institute of Asian Studies Monograph Series, No. 80. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon, 1999. 247 pp. $45.00 (cloth).|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-asian-studies/article/indian-art-worlds-in-contention-local-regional-and-national-discourses-on-orissan-patta-paintings-by-helle-bundgaard-nordic-institute-of-asian-studies-monograph-series-no-80-richmond-surrey-curzon-1999-247-pp-4500-cloth/F46E8FB8E5D42BF037AA4A8178BDFB75|journal=The Journal of Asian Studies|language=en|volume=59|issue=1|pages=192–194|doi=10.2307/2658630|jstor=2658630|s2cid=201436927|issn=1752-0401}}</ref>

==Culture==
[[File:Nandini Ghosal.jpg|right|thumb|Odissi dancer]]
Cultural activities, including the annual religious festivals, in Puri are: The Puri Beach Festival held from 5 to 9 November every year, and the Shreekshetra Utsav held from 20 December to 2 January every year. The cultural programs include unique sand art, display of local and traditional handicrafts and food festival.{{Sfn|Mahanti|2014|p=Xxxviii}} In addition, cultural programs are held for two hours on every second Saturday of the month at the district Collector's Conference Hall near Sea Beach Police Station. [[Odissi dance]], [[Odissi music]] and folk dances are part of this event.{{Sfn|Mahanti|2014|p=Xxxviii}} [[Odissi|Odissi dance]] is the cultural heritage of Puri. This dance form originated in Puri from the dances performed by [[Devadasis]] (Maharis) attached to the Jagannath Temple who performed dances in the Nata ''mandapa'' of the temple to please the deities. Though the devadasi practice has been discontinued, the dance form has become modern and classical and is widely popular; many of the Odissi virtuoso artists and gurus (teachers) are from Puri.{{Sfn|Mahanti|2014|p=XL}} Some of the notable Odissi dancers are [[Kelucharan Mohapatra]], [[Mayadhar Raut]], [[Sonal Mansingh]], and [[Sanjukta Panigrahi]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/The_Idea_of_Dance/sIJVEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Some+of+the+notable+Odissi+dancers+are+Kelucharan+Mohapatra,+Mayadhar+Raut,+Sonal+Mansingh,+and+Sanjukta+Panigrahi.&pg=PT53&printsec=frontcover | last= Maharaj |first=Guru Pandit Shyamal|title=The Idea of Dance |year=2021|page=53|publisher=Notion Press.com}}</ref>

==Education==
[[File:Scs college puri.jpeg|thumb|right|Samanta Chandra Sekhara College, Puri]]

===Schools===
* [[Bholanath Vidyapith]]
* [[Biswambhar Bidyapitha]]
* [[Blessed Sacrament High School Puri]]
* [[D.A.V Public School]], Puri<ref>{{cite web |title=Welcome to DAV Public School, Puri |url=http://davpuri.in/ |website=davpuri.in |access-date=10 March 2022}}</ref>
* [[Kendriya Vidyalaya]], Puri<ref>{{cite web |title=KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA PURI {{!}} KVS- Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan {{!}} Government of India |url=https://kvsangathan.nic.in/kendriya-vidyalaya-puri |website=kvsangathan.nic.in |access-date=10 March 2022}}</ref>
* [[Puri Zilla School]]

===Colleges and universities===
* [[Ghanashyama Hemalata Institute of Technology and Management]]
* [[Shri Jagannath Sanskrit University]]
* [[Sri Jagannath Medical College and Hospital]]

==Notable people==

*[[Bidhu Bhusan Das]] - Academic and Vice Chancellor, DPI Odisha
*[[Gopabandhu Das]] – Social worker
*[[Nilakantha Das]] – Social activist
*[[Pankaj Charan Das]] – Odissi dancer
*[[Prabhat Nalini Das]] - pro Vice Chancellor, academician, feminist, Dean IIT Kanpur
*[[Gajapati Maharaja Dibyasingha Deb]] - Odia King
*[[Charles Garrett]] – Cricketer
*[[Chakhi Khuntia]] – Freedom fighter <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.odisha.gov.in/portal/LIWPL/event_archive/Events_Archives/144birth_anniversary_chakhi_khuntia.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2 November 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304191331/http://www.odisha.gov.in/portal/LIWPL/event_archive/Events_Archives/144birth_anniversary_chakhi_khuntia.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016 }}</ref>
*[[Mayadhar Mansingh]] - Odia poet and writer
*[[Pinaki Misra]] - Politician
*[[Kelucharan Mohapatra]] – Odissi dancer
*[[Raghunath Mohapatra]] – Architect and sculptor
*[[Baisali Mohanty]] - ALC Global Fellow at [[University of Oxford]], [[United Kingdom]]
*[[Rituraj Mohanty]] – Singer
*[[Sarat Kumar Mukhopadhyay]] - Poet, novelist
*[[Sudarshan Pattnaik]] – Sand Artist
*[[Jayee Rajguru]] - Freedom fighter
*[[Madhusudan Rao]] – Odia Poet
*[[Sudarshan Sahoo]] - Sculptor

==See also==
* [[Chari Kshetra]]
* [[Pancha Tirtha, Puri]]
* [[Konark Dance Festival]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
*{{cite book|last= Ananda |first=Sri G. |title=Empires of the Vedas Volume IV: The Kingdom of God|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xMeVBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11|date= 2015|publisher=Art of Unity|isbn=978-1-5078-9942-7}}
*{{cite book|last= Bansal |first=Sunita Pant |title=HIndu Pilgrimage: A journey through the holy places of hindus all over India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KqONAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT30|date=1 April 2012|publisher=V&S Publishers|isbn=978-93-5057-251-1}}
*{{cite book|last= Das |first=Manoranjan |title=The wooden horse: drama|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ciFNAQAAIAAJ|year=1982|publisher=Bookland International}}
*{{Cite web|last=Dash|first=Abhimanyu|url=http://odisha.gov.in/e-magazine/Orissareview/2011/july/engpdf/82-89.pdf|title=Invasions on the Temple of Lord Jagannath, Puri|date=July 2011|publisher=Government of Odisha|access-date=3 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170329120858/http://odisha.gov.in/e-magazine/Orissareview/2011/july/engpdf/82-89.pdf|archive-date=29 March 2017|url-status=dead}}
*{{cite book|last1= Bindloss |first1=Joe |last2= Brown |first2=Lindsay |last3= Elliott |first3=Mark |last4=Harding|first4=Paul|title=Northeast India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QmR5p1tb5mcC&pg=PA253|year=2007|publisher=Lonely Planet|isbn=978-1-74179-095-5}}
*{{cite book|last= Davis |first=Roy Eugene |title=Life Surrendered in God: The Philosophy and Practices of Kriya Yoga|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4Kadb8hYtC0C&pg=PA265|date=1 January 1997|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1495-0}}
*{{cite book|last1= Jones |first1=Constance |last2= Ryan |first2=James D. |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC&pg=PA248|year=2006|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5}}
*{{cite book|last= Kapoor |first=Subodh |title=The Indian Encyclopaedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SDh2WjvLo7gC&pg=PA5890|year=2002|publisher=Cosmo Publications|isbn=978-81-7755-257-7}}
*{{cite book|last=Madan|first=T. N |title=Way of Life: King, Householder, Renouncer : Essays in Honour of Louis Dumont|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1_qMH9PY9fQC&pg=PA161|date=1 January 1988|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0527-9}}
*{{Cite web|last=Managers|first=City|url=http://jnnurm.nic.in/wp-content/uploads/2010/12/CDP_Puri.pdf|title=Puri City DevelopmentPlan 2006|access-date=16 September 2015|year=2006|publisher=Puri Municipality:Government of Odisha|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305021617/http://jnnurm.nic.in/wp-content/uploads/2010/12/CDP_Puri.pdf|archive-date=5 March 2016|url-status=dead}}
*{{cite book|last= Mahanti |first=J C |title=The Saga of Jagannatha and Badadeula at Puri (: Story of Lord Jagannatha and his Temple)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QweqCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA311|date=2014|publisher=Vij Books India Pvt Ltd|isbn=978-93-82652-45-8}}
*{{cite book|last= Mohapatra |first=J |title=Wellness In Indian Festivals & Rituals: Since the Supreme Divine is manifested in all the Gods, worship of any God is quite legitimate.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R0aVAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA61|date=24 December 2013|publisher=Partridge Publishing|isbn=978-1-4828-1689-1}}
*{{cite book|last= Naik |first=Shailaja D. |title=Traditional Embroideries of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oNAwl-jS3gwC&pg=PA95|date=1 January 1996|publisher=APH Publishing|isbn=978-81-7024-731-9}}
*{{cite book|last1= Ring |first1=Trudy |last2= Salkin |first2=Robert M. |last3= Boda |first3=Sharon La |title=International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vWLRxJEU49EC&pg=PA697|year=1994|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-884964-04-6}}
*{{cite book|last= Sadasivan |first=S. N. |title=A Social History of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Be3PCvzf-BYC&pg=PA211|date=1 January 2000|publisher=APH Publishing|isbn=978-81-7648-170-0}}
*{{cite book|last= Starza |first=O. M. |title=The Jagannatha Temple at Puri: Its Architecture, Art, and Cult|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v4bV3beb0n8C|year=1993|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-09673-6}}

==External links==

{{Commons category}}
* [https://www.puritourism.co.in/ Puri TOURISM]
* [http://www.puri.nic.in www.puri.nic.in] – Official website of Puri District]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140524024433/http://www.orissatourism.gov.in/portal/ Odisha Tourism]
* [http://www.panthanivas.com/ OTDC]

{{Hindu Temples in Puri|state=expanded}}
{{Hindu holy cities}}
{{Puri district}}
{{Municipalities of Odisha}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Puri| ]]
[[Category:Cities and towns in Puri district]]
[[Category:Hindu holy cities]]
[[Category:Port cities in India]]
[[Category:Hinduism]]
[[Category:Krishna temples]]
[[Category:Krishna]]
[[Category:Locations in Hindu mythology]]
[[Category:Holy cities]]
[[Category:Hindu pilgrimages]]
[[Category:Hindu pilgrimage sites in India]]
[[Category:Religious tourism in India]]
[[Category:Ancient Indian cities]]

Thirty-three gods

2023-01-19T09:31:22Z

ImportMaster: robot: Create/update articles in Category:Hindu gods.

{{Short description|Deities of Hinduism}}

[[File:Part_of_Vyomamandala_Showing_Rudras_-_Circa_5th_Century_CE_-_Katra_Keshav_Dev_-_ACCN_13-362_-_Government_Museum_-_Mathura_2013-02-23_5476.JPG|thumb|Part of Vyomamandala Showing Rudras - Circa 5th Century CE, Katra Keshav Dev; currently at [[Mathura Museum]].]]
The '''Thirty-three gods''' or '''Tridasha''' ([[Sanskrit]] {{lang|sa|त्रिदश}} {{IAST|tridaśa}} "three tens") is a [[pantheon (gods)|pantheon]] of [[Hindu deities]], of [[Vedic mythology|Vedic]] origin and a few of later development.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lynn Foulston, Stuart Abbott |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XgwVgPx5G5UC&q=%22330+million%22+infinity&pg=PA2 |title=Hindu goddesses: beliefs and practices |year=2009 |isbn=9781902210438 |pages=1–2}}</ref><ref name="Mani">Mani{{full citation needed|date=January 2023}} pp. 654–5</ref> The [[Samhita|Samhitas]], which are the oldest layer of text in [[Vedas]], enumerate 33 devas, either 11 each for the three worlds, or as 12 [[Aditya|Adityas]], 11 [[Rudras|Rudras]], 8 [[Vasu|Vasus]], and 2 [[Ashvins]] in the [[Brahmanas]] layer of Vedic texts.<ref name="George Williams 2008 pages 90, 112">George Williams (2008), A Handbook of Hindu Mythology, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195332612}}, pp. 90, 112</ref><ref name="monier">Monier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary" Etymologically and Philologically Arranged to cognate Indo-European Languages, Motilal Banarsidass, p. 492</ref>

== List ==
The 33 are:
* '''Eight [[Vasu]]s''' (deities of material elements) – [[Dyaus Pita|{{IAST|Dyauṣ}}]] "Sky", [[Prithvi|{{IAST|Pṛthivī}}]] "Earth", [[Vayu|Vāyu]] "Wind", [[Agni]] "Fire", [[Nakshatra|{{IAST|Nakṣatra}}]] "Stars", [[Varuna| {{IAST|Varuṇa}}]] "Water", [[Surya|Sūrya]] "Sun", [[Chandra]] "Moon"
* '''Twelve [[Ādityas|Adityas]]''' (personified deities) – [[Vishnu]], [[Aryaman]], [[Indra]] ({{IAST|Śakra}}), [[Tvashtri|{{IAST|Tvāṣṭṛ}}]], [[Varuna|{{IAST|Varuṇa}}]], [[Bhaga]], [[Savitr|{{IAST|Savitṛ}}]], [[Vivasvan|Vivasvat]], [[Ansa (Hinduism)|{{IAST|Aṃśa}}]], [[Mitra (Vedic)|Mitra]], [[Pushan|{{IAST|Pūṣan}}]], [[Daksha|{{IAST|Dakṣa}}]] (This list sometimes varies in particulars)
* '''Eleven [[Rudras]]''', consisting of Aja, Ekapada, Ahirbudhanya, Tvasta, [[Rudra]], [[Shiva|Hara]], Sambhu, Trayambaka, Aparjita, Isana and Tribhuvan.
*'''Two [[Ashvins]]''' (or Nāsatyas), twin solar deities.

===Variations===
The list of Vedic Devas somewhat varies across the manuscripts found in different parts of South Asia, particularly in terms of guides (Aswins) and personified Devas. One list based on Book 2 of Aitereya Brahmana is:<ref>Hermann Oldenberg (1988), The Religion of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120803923}}, pp. 23-50</ref><ref>AA MacDonell, {{Google books|KCQ_AQAAMAAJ|Vedic mythology|page=PA19}}, Oxford University Press, pp. 19-21</ref> 
* Devas personified: [[Indra]] ({{IAST|Śakra}}), [[Varuna|{{IAST|Varuṇa}}]], [[Mitra (Vedic)|Mitra]], [[Aryaman]], [[Bhaga]], [[Ansa (Hinduism)|{{IAST|Aṃśa}}]], Vidhata,<ref>Francis X Clooney (2010), Divine Mother, Blessed Mother, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0199738731}}, p. 242</ref> [[Tvashtri|{{IAST|Tvāṣṭṛ}}]], [[Pushan|{{IAST|Pūṣan}}]], [[Vivasvan|Vivasvat]] (Surya), [[Savitr|{{IAST|Savitṛ}}]] (Dhatr), Vishnu.
* Devas as abstractions or inner principles: Ānanda (bliss, inner contentment), Vijñāna (knowledge), Manas (mind, thought), Prāṇa (life-force), Vāc (speech), [[Atman (Hinduism)|Ātmā]] (Self within each person), and five manifestations of ''Rudra/Shiva'' – [[Ishana|Īśāna]], Tatpuruṣa, Aghora, Vāmadeva, Sadyojāta
* Devas as forces or principles of nature – [[Prithvi|{{IAST|Pṛthivī}}]] (earth), [[Agni]] (fire), Antarikṣa (atmosphere, space), Jal (water), [[Vayu|Vāyu]] (wind), [[Dyaus Pita|{{IAST|Dyauṣ}}]] (sky), [[Surya|Sūrya]] (sun), {{IAST|Nakṣatra}} (stars), Soma (moon)
* Devas as guide or creative energy – Vasatkara, [[Prajapati|Prajāpati]]

The identity of the 2 [[Ashvins]] sometimes varies:

{{blockquote|There are eight Vasus, eleven Rudras, twelve Âdityas; and these two, Heaven and Earth, are the (thirty-second and) thirty-third. And there are thirty-three gods, and Pragâpati is the thirty-fourth;--thus he makes him (the sacrificer, or Yagña) to be Pragâpati 2: now that 3 is, for that is immortal, and what is immortal that is. But what is mortal that also is Pragâpati; for Pragâpati is everything: thus he makes him to be Pragâpati, and hence there are these thirty-four utterances, called expiations. {{refn|group=note|''aṣṭau vasavaḥ : ekādaśa rudrā dvādaśādityā ime eva dyāvāpṛthivī trayastriṃśyau trayastriṃśadvai devāḥ prajāpatiścatustriṃśastadenam prajāpatiṃ karotyetadvā astyetaddhyamṛtaṃ yaddhyamṛtaṃ taddhyastyetadu tadyanmartyaṃ sa eṣa prajāpatiḥ sarvaṃ vai prajāpatistadenam prajāpatiṃ karoti tasmādetāścatustriṃśadvyāhṛtayo bhavanti prāyaścittayo nāma.''}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbr/sbe26/sbe2666.htm|title=Satapatha Brahmana Part II (SBE26), Julius Eggeling tr. [1885]|publisher=Sacred Texts}}</ref>|Satapatha Brahmana 4:5:7:2}}

== Literature ==
The [[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]] describes the existence of these deities with a different lineup:<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2015-02-23 |title=Yajnavalkya and Vidagdha [Section IX] |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/the-brihadaranyaka-upanishad/d/doc118360.html |access-date=2022-07-31 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|text=Yājñavalkya said, 'These are but the manifestations of them, but there are only thirty-three gods.' 'Which are those thirty-three?' 'The eight Vasus, the eleven Rudras and the twelve Ādityas—these are thirty-one, and Indra and Prajāpati make up the thirty-three.'|title=[[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]]|source=Section 9, Verse 3.9.2}}

==See also==
* [[Trāyastriṃśa]], the Buddhist equivalent

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{HinduMythology}}
{{Indian Philosophy}}

[[Category:Hindu gods]]

Sakshigopal Temple

2023-01-19T08:12:19Z

ImportMaster:

{{Short description|Temple of lord Krishna}}
{{Infobox temple
| name = Sakhigopal Temple
| image = Shree Gopalaji Temple.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Shree Gopalaji Temple
| map_type =
| map_caption =
| coordinates =
| country = India
| state = [[Odisha]]
| district =
| location = Town of Sakhigopal on the [[Puri]] [[Bhubaneshwar]] highway
| elevation_m =
| deity = [[Lord Krishna|Gopinatha]]
| year_completed =
| architecture = [[Kalinga Architecture]] style
| creator =
| website =
}}

[[File:Satyabadi gopinath temple.jpg|thumb|The Satyabadi Gopinatha temple in Sakshigopal]]
'''Sakhigopal Temple''' formally known as Satyabadi Gopinatha Temple is a medieval temple dedicated to Lord [[Lord Krishna|Gopinatha]] located in the town of Sakhigopal on the [[Puri]] [[Bhubaneshwar]] highway in [[Odisha]]. The temple is built in the [[Kalinga Architecture]] style.

== Origin ==
[[File:Sakhigopal chandan yatra.jpg|thumb|The annual chandana yatra festival of Satyabadi Gopinatha]]
It is said that a poor young man of the village, later named Sakshigopala, fell in love with the daughter of the village headman. However, being of a higher economic status, the headman opposed marriage between this young man and his daughter. The villagers, including the headman and the young man, went on a pilgrimage to Vrindavan. The village headman fell ill and was abandoned by fellow villagers. The young man tended to him so well that he soon got well, and, in gratitude, promised his daughter in marriage to the young man. As soon as they returned to the village, the headman went back on his promise, asking the young man to produce a witness in support of his claim.

Lord Gopala, impressed by the young man's devotion, agreed to come and bear witness to the promise on one condition: that the young man lead the way, and he would follow. But the young man must never look back. He led the way to the village, passing a mound of sand. As they passed, the man could not hear the Lord's footsteps and turned back. Immediately the Lord turned into a statue of stone rooted to the spot. The villagers were still so impressed that God himself came to back the young man's claim that the youngsters were married off; they were later appointed as the first clergy of the temple built in Lord Gopala's honor who came to bear witness (known in [[Sanskrit]] as [[Sakshi (Witness)|Sakshi]]).

== Deity made by Vajra (grandson of Krishna) ==

King Vajra (the grandson of Lord [[Krishna]]) had 16 deities of Krishna and other gods carved from a rare, imperishable stone called Braja and built temples to house these deities in and around [[Mathura]] so as to feel the presence of Lord Krishna. The four presiding deities of Braja Mandala are Sri Harideva of [[Govardhan]], Sri Keshava Deva of Mathura, Sri Baladeva of Baladeo, and Govindaji of [[Vrindavan]]. There are two Naths—Sri Nathji, who was originally at Govardhan and is now in Nathdwara, [[Rajasthan]], and Sri Gopinath, who is now in [[Jaipur]]. The two Gopals are Sri Madana Mohana, who is now housed at Karoli Rajasthan, and Sakshi Gopala, who is now moved to the town of Sakhi Gopal, Odisha, near Puri.

== Anla Navami ==
[[File: Gopalaji temple.jpg|thumb|Gopalaji temple]]The temple is famous for celebrating the annual Anla Navami Festival (''Anla'' = [[gooseberry]]; ''Navami'' = ninth day in a lunar cycle). The festival is associated with the practice of touching [[Radha]]'s feet (Radha was the legendary lover of Lord Krishna). Legend has it that the temple was originally built without a statue of Radha. But when a girl named Lakhmi claimed to be the incarnation of Radha, and it is believed that Lord Krishna (here as Gopala) should not be without his true love Radha, a statue from northern India was installed here. The statue had originally [[Ghagra]] and [[Choli]] adorned but when it was clad on a traditional [[saree]] of Odisha, the feet of the statue were visible and the priests took it as a holy sign. From that day Anla Navami is celebrated and Hindu pilgrims are allowed inside the temple to touch the goddess' feet. Hundreds of thousands of devotees throng the temple on this holy occasion<ref>{{cite news|title=Lakhs witness ‘Radha pada’ at Sakhigopal|url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/odisha/2010/nov/18/lakhs-witness-radha-pada-at-sakhigopal-203843.html|accessdate=13 November 2016|publisher=The New Indian Express|date=18 November 2010}}</ref><ref>Famous for Radha Pad Darshan festival: https://www.bhaktibharat.com/en/mandir/sakhi-gopal-mandir</ref>

== Daily food offerings ==
The food offerings at Sakshigopala temple are made of wheat instead of rice. This is one of the exceptional offerings among the worshiping processes of [[Vishnu]] temples all over the world, which is called [[prasada]].

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{coord |19.816598|85.837626|display=title}}

{{Hindu temples in Odisha}}

[[Category:Hindu temples in Puri district]]
[[Category:Krishna]]

Kartikeya

2023-01-19T07:00:01Z

ImportMaster: robot: Create/update articles in Category:Hindu gods.

{{Short description|Hindu god of victory and war}}
{{Redirect|Muruga|the 2007 film|Muruga (film)}}
{{Redirect|Murugan|the people with the name|Murugan (surname)}}
{{About||given names see [[Karthikeyan]], [[Karthik (disambiguation)|Karthik, Kartik]] or|Karthika (disambiguation)}}
{{Pp-move-dispute|small=yes}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2016}}
{{Infobox deity
| type = Hindu
| image = Gombak Selangor Batu-Caves-01.jpg
| alt = Lord Muruga in Malaysia Batu Caves
| caption = Large statue of Murugan in [[Batu Caves]] temple
| affiliation = [[Brahman]] ([[Kaumaram]]), [[Deva (Hinduism)|Deva]]
| father = [[Shiva]]
| mother = [[Parvati]]
| other_names = Murugan, Mahasena, Subramanya, Kumara, Skanda, Saravana, Arumugan, Devasenapati, Shanmukha, Guha, Swaminatha, Velayuda, Vēļ{{sfn|Kumar|2008|p=179}}{{sfn|Pillai|2004|p=17}}
| god_of = God of Victory and War Commander of the Devas<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Tamil_Traditions_on_Subrahma%E1%B9%87ya_Muruga/nnIcAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=murugan+commander+devas&dq=murugan+commander+devas&printsec=frontcover |title=Tamil Traditions on Subrahmaṇya-Murugan - Kamil Zvelebil - Google Books |date=2007-02-05 |accessdate=2022-10-04}}</ref>
| day = [[Tuesday]]
| weapon = [[Vel]]
| mantra = Om Saravana Bhava <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rudraksha-ratna.com/articles/lord-kartikeya |title=Lord Kartikeya, Birth of Lord Kartikeya, , Lord Murugan, Story of Lord Kartikeya – Rudraksha Ratna |access-date=2018-06-09 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171117075322/http://www.rudraksha-ratna.com/articles/lord-kartikeya |archive-date=17 November 2017 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> 
Vetrivel Muruganukku Arohara <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kaumaram.com/articles/arohara_e.html|title=The meaning of arohara|access-date=24 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190911110727/http://kaumaram.com/articles/arohara_e.html|archive-date=11 September 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
| planet = [[Mangala]], [[Mars]]
| consort = {{unbulleted list|[[Devasena]]|[[Valli]] {{refn|group=note|Kartikeya's marital status varies from region to region. In Northern India, he is generally considered celibate. The Sanskrit scriptures only mention Devasena (also known as [[Shashthi]]) as his wife, while in South Indian traditions, he has two wives — Devayanai (identified with Devasena) and Valli.{{sfn|Dalal|2010}}{{sfn|Varadara|1993|pp=113-114}} }}}}
| mount = [[Indian peafowl|Peacock]]
| siblings = [[Ganesha]] (brother)
| abode = [[Six Abodes of Murugan|Āṟupadai veedu (Six Abodes of Murugan)]], [[Palani Hills]], [[Mount Kailash]]
| festivals = {{Bulleted list
| [[Sooranporu|Skanda Sashti]] or [[Shashthi (day)|Shashthi]]
| [[Thaipusam]]
| [[Karthikai Deepam]]
| [[Panguni Uthiram]]
| [[Vaisakha | Vaikaasi Visakam]]
| [[Kartik Purnima]]
| [[Mahashivarathri]]
}}
| gender = Male
| symbol = [[Rooster]]
| name = Kartikeya
}}
{{Kaumaram}}

'''Kartikeya''' ({{lang-sa|कार्त्तिकेय|Kārttikeya}}), also known as '''Skanda''',{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002|p=377}} '''Subrahmanya''', '''Shanmukha''' ({{IAST3|Ṣaṇmukha}}), and '''Murugan''' ({{lang-ta|முருகன்}}), is the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] [[List of war deities|god of war]].{{sfn|Parpola|2015|p=285}}{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002|pp=655-656}}{{sfn|Clothey|1978|pp=1-2}} He is the son of [[Parvati]] and [[Shiva]], the brother of [[Ganesha]] and a god whose legends have many versions in Hinduism.{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2006|p=228}} Kartikeya has been an important deity in the [[Indian subcontinent]] since ancient times, worshipped as Mahasena and Kumara in North India and is predominantly worshipped in the state of Tamil Nadu and other parts of [[South India]], Sri Lanka, Singapore, and Malaysia as Murugan.

Murugan is widely regarded as the "God of the [[Tamils|Tamil]] people".<ref>{{cite web |title=Murugan {{!}} Tamil deity {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Murugan |access-date=2022-05-10 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2015-01-22 |title=Tracing the roots of the Tamil God |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/society/tracing-the-roots-of-the-tamil-god/article6808508.ece |access-date=2022-05-10 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> It has been postulated that the [[Dravidian folk religion|Tamil]] deity of Murugan was syncretised with the [[Vedas|Vedic]] deity of Subrahmanya following the [[Sangam era]]. Both Muruga and Subrahmanya refer to Kartikeya.{{sfn|Parpola|2015|p=285}}{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002|pp=655-656}}{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2006|p=228}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Murukan Temples in Singapore|url=http://murugan.org/temples/singapore_temples.htm|access-date=2021-10-19|website=murugan.org}}</ref>

The iconography of Kartikeya varies significantly; he is typically represented as an ever-youthful man, riding or near an [[Indian peafowl]], called Paravani,<ref>{{cite web|title=::: ENVIS :::|url=http://ecoheritage.cpreec.org/Viewcontall.php?$mFJyBfK$MkoNJ@juGYO|access-date=2021-06-19|website=ecoheritage.cpreec.org}}</ref> bearing a [[vel]] and sometimes with an [[Cock flag|emblem of a rooster]] upon his banner. Most icons show him with only one head, but some show him with six heads which reflect the legend surrounding his birth.{{sfn|Parpola|2015|p=285}}{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002|pp=655-656}}{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2006|p=228}} He is described to have aged quickly from childhood, becoming a philosopher-warrior, destroyed the demons [[Tarakasura]], Simhamukha and [[Surapadma]], and taught the pursuit of an ethical life and the theology of [[Shaiva Siddhanta]].{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002|pp=655-656}}{{sfn|Clothey|1978|pp=1-2}} He has inspired many poet-saints, such as the aforementioned [[Arunagirinathar]].{{sfn|Clothey|1978|pp=1-2}}{{sfn|Lal|1992|p=4339}}

Murugan is an ancient god, traceable to the [[Vedic period]]. He was hailed as 'Palaniappa' (Father of [[Palani]]), the tutelary deity of the [[Sangam landscape|Kurinji]] region whose cult gained immense popularity in the south. Sangam literature has several works on Murugan such as ''[[Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai|Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai]]'' by Nakkirar and ''[[Thiruppugal|Thirupugal]]'' by poet-saint Arunagirinathar. Archaeological evidence from the 1st-century CE and earlier,<ref name=":0" /> where he is found with the Hindu god [[Agni]] (fire), suggests that he was a significant deity in early Hinduism.{{sfn|Parpola|2015|p=285}} He is found in many medieval temples all over India, such as the [[Ellora Caves]] and [[Elephanta Caves]].{{sfn|Gopinatha Rao|1993|p=40}}

Murugan is found as a primary deity in temples wherever communities of the [[Tamil people]] live worldwide, particularly in the [[Tamil Nadu]] state of [[India]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Mauritius]], [[Indonesia]], [[Malaysia]], [[Singapore]], [[South Africa]], [[Canada]], and [[Réunion]]. The [[Six Abodes of Murugan|Aru Padai Veedu]] are the six temples of Tamil Nadu that are dedicated to him.{{sfn|Clothey|1978|pp=1-2}} The [[Kataragama|Kataragama temple]] dedicated to him in [[Sri Lanka]] attracts Tamils, [[Sinhalese people]] and [[Vedda people]].<ref name=":0">{{cite book|first=G |last=Obeyesekere | editor=Jacob Kẹhinde Olupona|title=Beyond Primitivism: Indigenous Religious Traditions and Modernity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qK5bre18YkQC&pg=PA272 |year=2004|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-27319-0|pages=272–274}}</ref> He is also found in other parts of India, sometimes as Skanda, but in a secondary role along with Ganesha, Parvati and Shiva.{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002|pp=655-656}}

== Etymology and nomenclature ==
[[File:Skanda, from Kannuaj.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Sculpture of the god Skanda, from [[Kannauj]], North India, circa 8th century.]]

Kartikeya means "of the Krittikas".{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002|pp=655-656}} This epithet is linked to his birth. According to Hindu legends, when Kartikeya appears on the banks of the River Ganga, he is seen by the six of the seven brightest stars of [[Kṛttikā]] [[nakshatra]] ([[Pleiades]]). These stars, personified as his mothers, all wanted to take care of him and nurse the baby Kartikeya. Kartikeya ended the dispute by growing five more heads in order to have a total of six heads so that he could look at all six mothers and let them each nurse one aspect of him.{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002|pp=655-656}}{{sfn|Srinivasan|1997|pp=302-303, 333-334}}

He has 108 names according to Tamil and Sanskrit folklore.<ref>{{cite web|date=2017-10-26|title=108 Murugar Names Tamil {{!}} 108 முருகர் போற்றி|url=https://aanmeegam.co.in/blogs/lyrics/108-murugar-names-tamil/|access-date=2021-10-19|website=Aanmeegam|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=சுப்பிரமணிய 108 போற்றி பாடல் வரிகள்|url=https://tamil.samayam.com/religion/pooja-vidhanam/lord-subramanya-swamy-108-potri-names-in-tamil/articleshow/80346661.cms|access-date=2021-10-19|website=Samayam Tamil|language=ta}}</ref>

Kartikeya is known by many names in ancient and medieval texts. Most common amongst these are Murugan, Kumara, Skanda, and Subrahmanya. Others include Aaiyyan, Cheyyon, Senthil, Vēlaṇ, Swaminatha ("ruler of the gods", from -natha ''king''), śaravaṇabhava ("born amongst the reeds"), Arumugam or ṣaṇmukha ("six-faced"),<ref>{{cite book|title=India through the ages|last=Gopal|first=Madan|year= 1990| page= 80|editor=K.S. Gautam|publisher=Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India}}</ref> Dandapani ("wielder of the mace", from -pani ''hand''), Guha (cave, secret) or ''Guruguha'' (cave-teacher), Kadhirvelan, Kathiresan, Kandhan, Vishakha, and Mahasena.{{sfn|Clothey|1978|pp=1, 22-25, 35-39, 49-58, 214-216}} On ancient coins where the inscription has survived along with his images, his names appear as Kumara, Brahmanya, or Brahmanyadeva.{{sfn|Mann|2011|pp=104-106 with footnotes}} On some ancient Indo-Scythian coins, his names appear in Greek script as Skanda, Kumara, and Vishaka.<ref name="Edward Thomas 1877 60, 62 see e.g. coin 11">{{cite book|first= Edward|last= Thomas|title= Jainism: Or, The Early Faith of Aṣoka|url= https://archive.org/details/cu31924022953529|year= 1877|publisher= Trübner & Company|pages= [https://archive.org/details/cu31924022953529/page/n95 60], 62 (see e.g. coin 11)|access-date= 28 January 2020|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170610060016/https://archive.org/details/cu31924022953529|archive-date= 10 June 2017|url-status= live}}</ref> In ancient statues, he appears as Mahasena, Skanda, and Vishakha.{{sfn|Mann|2011|pp=123-124}}

Skanda is derived from {{IAST|skand-}}, which means "to leap or to attack".{{sfn|Clothey|1978|pp=49, 54-55}} In Kalidasa's epic poem Kumarasambhava ("The Birth of the War God"; 5th century CE), as in most versions of the story, the gods wished for Skanda to be born in order to destroy the demons Taraka, Simhamukha, and Surapadma, in which the brothers had been granted a boon that he could be killed only by Shiva's power (Skanda was purely born of Shiva). They sent Parvati to induce Shiva to marry her. Shiva, however, was lost in meditation and was not attracted to Parvati until he was struck by an arrow from the bow of Kamadeva, the god of love, whom he immediately burned to ashes. After many years of abstinence, Shiva's seed became so powerful that the gods, fearing the result, sent Agni, the god of fire, to interrupt Shiva's amorous play with Parvati. Agni received the seed and dropped it into the Ganges from which Skanda was born.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Skanda|title=Skanda {{!}} Hindu deity|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2019-04-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181203193129/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Skanda|archive-date=3 December 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Textual references ==

=== Ancient ===
There are ancient references which can be interpreted to be Kartikeya in the Vedic texts, in the works of [[Pāṇini]] (~500 BCE), in the Mahabhasya of [[Patanjali]] and in Kautilya's ''Arthashastra''.{{sfn|Clothey|1978|pp=49-53}} For example, the term ''Kumara'' appears in hymn 5,2 of the ''[[Rig Veda]]''.{{sfn|Clothey|1978|pp=49-51}}{{refn|group=note|'''कुमारं''' माता युवतिः समुब्धं गुहा बिभर्ति न ददाति पित्रे । अनीकमस्य न मिनज्जनासः पुरः पश्यन्ति निहितमरतौ ॥१॥ कमेतं त्वं युवते कुमारं पेषी बिभर्षि महिषी जजान । पूर्वीर्हि गर्भः शरदो ववर्धापश्यं जातं यदसूत माता ॥२॥ हिरण्यदन्तं शुचिवर्णमारात्क्षेत्रादपश्यमायुधा मिमानम् । ददानो अस्मा अमृतं विपृक्वत्किं मामनिन्द्राः कृणवन्ननुक्थाः ॥३॥ क्षेत्रादपश्यं सनुतश्चरन्तं सुमद्यूथं न पुरु शोभमानम् । न ता अगृभ्रन्नजनिष्ट हि षः पलिक्नीरिद्युवतयो भवन्ति ॥४॥ (...) [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_५.२ Hymn 5.2, Wikisource]; English: "The youthful Mother keeps the Boy in secret pressed to her close, nor yields him to the Father. But, when he lies upon the arm, the people see his unfading countenance before them. [5.2.1] What child is this thou carriest as handmaid, O Youthful One? The Consort-Queen hath bome him. The Babe unborn increased through many autumns. I saw him born what time his Mother bare him. [5.2.2] I saw him from afar gold-toothed, bright-coloured, hurling his weapons from his habitation, What time I gave him Amrta free from mixture. How can the Indraless, the hymnless harm me? [5.2.3] I saw him moving from the place he dwells in, even as with a herd, brilliantly shining. These seized him not: he had been born already. They who were grey with age again grow youthful. [5.2.4] – Translated by Ralph T.H. Griffith, [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Rig_Veda/Mandala_5/Hymn_2 Wikisource]}} The ''Kumara'' of verse 5.2.1 can be interpreted as Skanda, or just any "boy". However, the rest of the verses depict the "boy" as bright-colored, hurling weapons and other motifs that later have been associated with Skanda. The difficulty with interpreting these to be Skanda is that Indra, Agni and Rudra are also depicted in similar terms and as warriors.{{sfn|Clothey|1978|pp=46-51}}

[[File:Kumara, The Divine General LACMA M.85.279.3.jpg|thumb|upright|Kartikeya with a [[Kushan]] devotee, 2nd century CE.]]
The Skanda-like motifs found in ''Rig Veda'' are found in other Vedic texts, such as section 6.1-3 of the ''Shatapatha Brahmana''.{{sfn|Clothey|1978|pp=48-50}} In these, the mythology is very different for ''Kumara'', as Agni is described to be the ''Kumara'' whose mother is [[Ushas]] (goddess Dawn) and whose father is Purusha.{{sfn|Clothey|1978|pp=49-51}} The section 10.1 of the ''Taittiriya Aranyaka'' mentions ''Sanmukha'' (six faced one), while the ''Baudhayana Dharmasutra'' mentions a householder's rite of passage that involves prayers to Skanda with his brother Ganapati (Ganesha) together.{{sfn|Clothey|1978|pp=50-51}} The chapter 7 of the ''[[Chandogya Upanishad]]'' (~800–600 BCE) equates Sanat-Kumara (eternal son) and Skanda, as he teaches sage [[Narada]] to discover his own [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (soul, self) as a means to the ultimate knowledge, true peace and liberation.{{sfn|Clothey|1978|pp=49-50}}<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n271/mode/2up The Thirteen Principal Upanishads] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525171448/https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n271/mode/2up |date=25 May 2017 }}, Robert Hume, Oxford University Press, pages 250-262</ref>{{refn|group=note|Verse 7.26.2 states Kumara is Skanda, but there are stylistic differences between this verse and the rest of the chapter. This may be because this verse was interpolated into the text at a later date.<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n283/mode/2up/search/skanda The Thirteen Principal Upanishads] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525171448/https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n283/mode/2up/search/skanda |date=25 May 2017 }}, Robert Hume, Oxford University Press, page 262 with footnote 3</ref>}}
[[File:YaudheyaCoin.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.85|Coins of the [[Yaudheyas]] feature Kartikeya, and these are dated to 1st century CE [[Haryana]], [[Punjab]], [[Rajasthan]] and [[Uttar Pradesh]].{{sfn|Mann|2011|pp=101-103}}]]

According to Fred Clothey, the evidence suggests that Kartikeya mythology had become widespread sometime around 200 BCE or after in north India.{{sfn|Clothey|1978|pp=45-46}} The first clear evidence of Kartikeya's importance emerges in the Hindu [[Itihasa|Epics]] such as the ''Ramayana'' and the ''Mahabharata'' where his story is recited. In addition to textual evidence, his importance is affirmed by the archeological, the epigraphical and the numismatic evidence of this period. For example, he is found in numismatic evidence linked to the [[Yaudheya]]s, a confederation of warriors in north India who are mentioned by ancient Pāṇini.{{sfn|Mann|2011|pp=101-105 with footnotes}} They ruled an area consisting of modern era Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh (extending into [[Pauri Garhwal district|Garhwal]] region, Uttarakhand).{{sfn|Mann|2011|pp=101-105 with footnotes}} They struck coins bearing the image of Skanda, and these coins are dated to be from before [[Kushan Empire]] era started.{{sfn|Mann|2011|pp=101-105 with footnotes}} During the Kushan dynasty era, that included much of northwest [[Indian subcontinent]], more coins featuring Kartikeya were minted.{{sfn|Mann|2011|pp=101-105 with footnotes}} He is also found on ancient Indo-Scythian coins, where his various names are minted in Greek script.<ref name="Edward Thomas 1877 60, 62 see e.g. coin 11"/>{{refn|group=note|Richard Mann states that Skanda-Kumara may be composite deity linked to Greek deities pair called [[Castor and Pollux|Dioscuri]] (Castor and Pollux), given the numismatic overlap in their iconography and similar warrior-god mythologies.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Benjamin|last1=Fleming|first2=Richard|last2=Mann|title=Material Culture and Asian Religions: Text, Image, Object|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kDYsAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA234|year=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-01373-8|pages=234–246|access-date=21 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170422051359/https://books.google.com/books?id=kDYsAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA234|archive-date=22 April 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>}}

Kartikeya was revered in major cultural centers of ancient India. For example, he was a major god for the [[Ikshvaku]]s, an [[Andhra in Indian epic literature|Andhra]] dynasty, as well as for the [[Gupta Empire]].<ref name="ReferenceA">Ratna Navaratnam; Karttikeya, the divine child:the Hindu testament of wisdom, 1973, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan</ref> In south India, eight of the early [[Pallava dynasty]] rulers (300-550 CE) were named after Skanda or Kumara, suggesting the significance of Kartikeya by then.{{sfn|Clothey|1978|p=22}} Kalidasa's epic poem the ''[[Kumārasambhava]]'' features Kartikeya.

=== Puranas ===
Kartikeya is mentioned in Shaiva Puranas. Of these, the ''[[Skanda Purana]]'' is the largest ''[[Puranas#Mahapuranas|Mahāpurāṇa]]'', a genre of eighteen [[Hindu]] religious texts.<ref>Ganesh Vasudeo Tagare (1996). ''Studies in {{IAST|Skanda Purāṇa}}.'' Published by Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|81-208-1260-3}}</ref> The text contains over 81,000 verses, and is part of [[Shaivism|Shaivite]] literature,{{Sfn|Bakker|2014|pp=4-6}} While the text is named after Skanda (Kartikeya), he does not feature either more or less prominently in this text than in other Shiva-related Puranas.{{Sfn|Rocher|1986|pp=114, 229-238}} The text has been an important historical record and influence on the Hindu traditions related to war-god Skanda.{{Sfn|Rocher|1986|pp=114, 229-238}}<ref>KK Kurukkal (1961), A Study of the Karttikeya Cult as reflected in the Epics and the Puranas, University of Ceylon Review, Vol. 19, pages 131-138</ref> The earliest text titled ''Skanda Purana'' likely existed by the 6th-century CE,{{sfn|Mann|2011|p=187}}{{Sfn|Bakker|2014|pp=1-3}} but the ''Skanda Purana'' that has survived into the modern era exists in many versions.{{Sfn|Doniger|1993|pp=59-83}}

===Buddhism===
[[File:Skanda Bodhisattva.jpeg|thumb|upright|Skanda Bodhisattva is the [[Dharma]] protector in [[Mahayana Buddhism]].<ref>{{cite book|author1=Robert E. Buswell Jr.|author2=Donald S. Lopez Jr.|title=The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DXN2AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA452|year=2013|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-4805-8|page=452|access-date=20 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170421110855/https://books.google.com/books?id=DXN2AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA452|archive-date=21 April 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Above: Skanda's statue in [[Anhui]] province, China.]]

The earliest mention of Kartikeya in Buddhist texts may be found in the [[Janavasabha Sutta]] of the [[Pali Canon]], where he is referred to as '''Sanankumāra'''. Here he is introduced as a deva of the rank of Mahābrahmā and a disciple of the Buddha. The Chinese translation of the [[Dīrgha Āgama]] features the same deity with the title Brahmā[sanan]kumāra (梵童子). He is described as a manifestation of Mahābrahmārāja. He has five hair coils (頭五角髻), a handsome face (顏貌端正) and emanates purple-golden light (紫金色) that surpasses the light of the other devas. In Chinese Buddhism, [[Skanda (Buddhism)|Skanda]] (also sometimes known as [[Kumāra (Buddhism)|Kumāra]] (鳩摩羅天)) is known as Weituo (韋陀 or 韋馱), a young heavenly general, the guardian deity of local monasteries and the protector of Buddhist [[dharma|dhamma]].{{sfn|Mann|2011|p=32 with footnote 24}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Angela Falco Howard|title=Chinese Sculpture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PGuPsNCaJdwC&pg=PA380|year=2006|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=0-300-10065-5|pages=373, 380–381|access-date=19 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170420062102/https://books.google.com/books?id=PGuPsNCaJdwC&pg=PA380|archive-date=20 April 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> According to Henrik Sørensen, this representation became common after the [[Tang period]], and became well established in the late Song period.<ref name= Henrik124>{{cite book|first=Henrik|last=Sørensen|editor-first1=Charles|editor-last1=Orzech|editor-first2=Henrik|editor-last2=Sørensen|editor-first3=Richard|editor-last3=Payne|title=Esoteric Buddhism and the Tantras in East Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F0XNX3N1a2AC&pg=PA124|year=2011|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=978-90-04-18491-6|pages=124–125, 654–655 with footnotes|access-date=19 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170420062150/https://books.google.com/books?id=F0XNX3N1a2AC&pg=PA124|archive-date=20 April 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> He is also regarded as one of the [[Twenty-Four Protective Deities|twenty-four celestial guardian deities]], who are a grouping of originally Hindu and Taoist deities adopted into Chinese Buddhism as [[dharmapala]]s.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/275253538|title=A dictionary of Chinese Buddhist terms : with Sanskrit and English equivalents and a Sanskrit-Pali index|date=2004|publisher=RoutledgeCurzon|others=Lewis Hodous, William Edward Soothill|isbn=0-203-64186-8|location=London|oclc=275253538}}</ref> Skanda was also adopted by [[Korean Buddhism]], and he appears in its woodblock prints and paintings.<ref name= Henrik124/>

According to Richard Gombrich, Skanda has been an important deity in [[Theravada Buddhism]] pantheon, in countries such as [[Sri Lanka]] and Thailand. The ''Nikaya Samgraha'' describes Skanda Kumara as a guardian deity of the land, along with Upulvan (Vishnu), Saman and Vibhisana.<ref name="Gombrich1988p176">{{cite book|author1=Richard Francis Gombrich|first2=Gananath|last2=Obeyesekere|title=Buddhism Transformed: Religious Change in Sri Lanka|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rpN9atSFua0C&pg=PA176|year=1988|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0702-0|pages=176–180|access-date=19 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170420061833/https://books.google.com/books?id=rpN9atSFua0C&pg=PA176|archive-date=20 April 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Similarly, the 16th-century Siamese text ''Jinakalamali'' mentions him as a guardian god.

In Sri Lanka, Skanda as [[Kataragama deviyo]] (whose major shrine is at [[Kataragma]]), is a popular object of devotion among both Tamil Hindus and Sinhalese Buddhists. While many regard him as a [[bodhisattva]], he is also associated with sensuality and retribution. Anthropologist [[Gananath Obeyesekere]] has suggested that the deity's popularity among Buddhists is due to his power to grant emotional gratification, which is in stark contrast to sensual restraint that characterizes Buddhist practice in Sri Lanka.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Trainor |editor1-first=Kevin |title=Buddhism: The Illustrated Guide |date=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York, NY |isbn=0-19-521849-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/buddhism00kevi/page/123 123] |url=https://archive.org/details/buddhism00kevi/page/123 }}</ref> There are Buddhist Sinhala shrines such as at Kataragama dedicated to Skanda which have historically been officiated by Hindu priests, which attracted Buddhist devotees and enjoyed royal support.<ref name="Gombrich1988p176"/> Since the 1950s, states Brian Morris, the Kataragama shrine of Skanda has attracted over half a million devotional pilgrims every year, most being Buddhists.<ref>{{cite book|first=Brian|last=Morris|title=Religion and Anthropology: A Critical Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PguGB_uEQh4C&pg=PA68|year=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-85241-8|pages=68–69|access-date=19 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170420060010/https://books.google.com/books?id=PguGB_uEQh4C&pg=PA68|archive-date=20 April 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Kevin|last=Trainor|title=Buddhism: The Illustrated Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_PrloTKuAjwC&pg=PA123|year=2004|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-517398-7|pages=123–124|access-date=19 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170420062439/https://books.google.com/books?id=_PrloTKuAjwC&pg=PA123|archive-date=20 April 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

In [[Mahayana Buddhism]], the [[Nirvana Sutra|Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra]] mentions Kumāra as one of the eighty gods (八十神) worshiped by the common people. The ''[[Ārya Kaṇikrodhavajrakumārabodhisattava Sādhanāvidhi Sūtra]]'' (聖迦抳忿怒金剛童子菩薩成就儀軌經) (T 1796) features a section for the recitation of a mantra dedicated to the deity, where he is also paired with [[Iśvara]]. [[Yi Xing]]'s [[Commentary of the Mahāvairocana Tantra]] (大毘盧遮那成佛經疏) clarifies that Kumāra is the son of Iśvara.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Chia |first1=Siang Kim |title=鳩摩羅天 |url=http://www.buddhism-dict.net/cgi-bin/xpr-ddb.pl?q=%E9%B3%A9%E6%91%A9%E7%BE%85%E5%A4%A9 |website=Digital Dictionary of Buddhism |access-date=2019-11-05 |date=2016}}</ref>

===Jainism===
According to Asko Parpola, the Jain deity [[Naigamesha|Naigamesa]], who is also referred to as Hari-Naigamesin, is depicted in early Jain texts as riding the peacock and as the leader of the divine army, both symbols of Kartikeya.{{sfn|Parpola|2015|p=285}}

== Iconography ==
Ancient coins of the Yaudheyas, dated to 1st and 2nd century CE, show Kartikeya as a warrior with either one or six heads. Kushan coins show him with one head. In general, single head is far more common regardless of which dynasty minted them.{{sfn|Mann|2011|pp=111-114}} The earliest statues discovered in Punjab and Kashmir show him with either one or six heads. The oldest sculptures such as those found in Mathura show him with one head, while six head iconography is dated to post-[[Gupta Empire]] era.{{sfn|Mann|2011|pp=113-114, 122-126}} All Kushan Empire era artwork show him with one head, even though there are Kushan deities such as a goddess who is shown with multiple heads.{{sfn|Srinivasan|1997|pp=302-303, 333-334}}

The Kushan Empire era statues of Kartikeya, dated to 1st and 2nd-century CE, have been found at various sites in the Indian subcontinent, particularly at [[Mathura]] and [[Gandhara]]. They show him as a warrior dressed in ''dhoti'' (sheet wrapped at waist, covering the legs), armour like a warrior, spear in his right hand and a bird (rooster) in his left.{{sfn|Mann|2011|pp=122-126}}{{sfn|Srinivasan|2007|pp=333-335}} There is some difference between his ancient iconography in Mathura and Gandhara artwork. The Gandhara arts show him in more a Scythian dress, likely reflecting the local dress culture prevalent in those times. Further, it is in the oldest Gandharan statues where he is shown with a bird that looks like a chicken or cock.{{sfn|Mann|2011|pp=124-126}} According to Richard Mann, the bird may symbolize Kartikeya's agility and maneuverability as a warrior god, and may be a [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] influence.{{sfn|Mann|2011|pp=124-126}} His iconography symbolizes his attributes as a hunter, warrior and philosopher.<ref name=xavier167/>

Kartikeya iconography shows him as a youthful god, dressed as a warrior, carrying the weapon called ''[[Vel]]''. It is a divine spear, often called ''sakti'', signifying the [[Kundalini]] ''shakti''.<ref>{{cite web|date=2016-11-13|title=Significance of Lord Kartikeya and a story from Skanda Purana|url=https://wisdom.srisriravishankar.org/significance-of-lord-kartikeya/|access-date=2021-06-19|website=Wisdom by Sri Sri Ravi Shankar|language=en-US}}</ref> He is sometimes depicted with many weapons including: a sword, a javelin, a mace, a discus and a bow although more usually he is depicted wielding the ''sakti'' or spear. His ''vahana'' (vehicle, mount) is a peacock. He has either one head or six, depending on the region or artist.{{sfn|Mann|2011|pp=123-126 with footnotes}}{{sfn|Srinivasan|2007|pp=333-336, 515-516}}

== Legends ==
[[File:Skanda Musée Guimet 1197.jpg|thumb|upright|Skanda statues are found in [[Southeast Asia]]. Above: 6th–8th century Skanda from [[Prey Veng Province]], Cambodia.<ref>{{cite book|first=John|last=Guy|title=Lost Kingdoms: Hindu-Buddhist Sculpture of Early Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vO_-AgAAQBAJ|year=2014|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art|isbn=978-1-58839-524-5|pages=176–178|access-date=19 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161223141140/https://books.google.com/books?id=vO_-AgAAQBAJ|archive-date=23 December 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>]]

The Epic era literature of ancient India recite numerous legends of Kartikeya, often with his other names such as Skanda. For example, the ''[[Vana Parva]]'' of the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' dedicates chapters 223 to 232 to the legends of Skanda, but depicts him as the son of [[Agni]] and Svaha.{{sfn|Clothey|1978|pp=50-51}} Similarly, Valmiki's ''[[Ramayana]]'' dedicates chapters 36 and 37 to Skanda, but describes him as the child of deities Rudra (Shiva) and Parvati, whose birth is aided by Agni and Ganga.{{sfn|Clothey|1978|p=51}}{{sfn|Clothey|1978|p=54}}

The legends of Kartikeya vary significantly, sometimes within the same text. For example, while the ''Vana Parva'' of the ''Mahabharata'' describes Skanda as the son of Agni, the ''[[Shalya Parva]]'' and the ''[[Anushasana Parva]]'' of the same text presents Skanda's legend as the son of Maheshvara (Shiva) and Parvati.{{sfn|Clothey|1978|pp=50-51}}

In ''Vana Parva'', the circumstances behind Kartikeya's birth legend do not involve Shiva and Parvati.{{sfn|Clothey|1978|pp=51-52}} Rather it is deity Agni who goes to a hermitage of seven married [[Rishi]]s (sages) and meets their seven wives. He is sexually attracted to all seven, but none reciprocate. ''Svaha'' is present there and she is attracted to Agni, but Agni is not. According to the legend, Svaha takes the form of six of the wives, one by one, and sleeps with Agni.{{sfn|Clothey|1978|pp=51-52}} She does not take the form of Arundhati, [[Vasistha]]'s wife, because of Arundhati's extraordinary virtuous powers. Svaha deposits the semen of Agni into the reeds of River Ganges, where it develops and then is born as six headed Skanda.{{sfn|Clothey|1978|pp=51-52}}

A totally different legend in the later books of the ''Mahabharata'' make Shiva and Parvati as the parents. They were making love, but they are disturbed, and Shiva inadvertently spills his semen on the ground.{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002|pp=655-656}} Shiva's semen incubates in River Ganges, preserved by the heat of god Agni, and this fetus is born as baby Kartikeya on the banks of Ganges.{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002|pp=655-656}}{{sfn|Clothey|1978|pp=49, 54-55}}

Some legend state that he was the elder son of Shiva, others make him the younger brother of Ganesha. This is implied by another legend connected to his birth. Devas have been beaten up by Asuras led by Taraka, because Taraka had a boon from ascetic celibate yogi Shiva that only Shiva's son can kill him. Devas learn about this boon, and plan how to get Shiva into a relationship. So, they bring Parvati into the picture, have her seduce yogi Shiva, and wed Parvati so that Skanda can be born to kill Taraka.{{sfn|Clothey|1978|pp=54-56}}

Kartikeya's legends vary by region. For example, in the northern and western Indian traditions Kartikeya or Skanda is the perpetual celibate bachelor, though Sanskrit texts mention [[Devasena]] as his wife.{{sfn|Dalal|2010}}{{sfn|Varadara|1993|pp=113-114}} Kartikeya's youth, beauty and bravery was much celebrated in Sanskrit works like the [[Kathasaritsagara]]. [[Kalidasa]] made the birth of Kumara the subject of a lyrical epic, the ''[[Kumārasambhava]]''.{{sfn|Clothey|1978|p=51}}<ref name="google1985">{{cite book|author1=Kālidāsa|author2=C.R. Devadhar (Translator)|title=Kumara-Sambhava of Kalidasa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7zRx24MG4UEC|year=1985|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0012-0|pages=iii-viii|access-date=19 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170420062451/https://books.google.com/books?id=7zRx24MG4UEC|archive-date=20 April 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Worship==
=== West Bengal ===
[[File:Kartik Puja of West Bengal 2007.jpg|thumb|Worship of Kartikeya in West Bengal, with toys (right side of image)]]
In West Bengal, Kartikeya is associated with the birth of children. He is worshipped on the last day of the Month of Kartik (October–November). It has become a trend in Bengal that the clay model of the deity is kept at night before the day of worship (usually by friends) for the newly married couple before the door of their house. The deity is worshiped the next day in the evening and is offered toys.<ref>7 Secrets of the Goddess by Devdutt Pattanaik</ref>

The deity is also worshipped during the [[Durga Puja]] festival in Bengal. Goddess [[Durga]] is accompanied by her four children [[Lakshmi]], [[Saraswati]], [[Ganesha]], and Kartikeya. Kartikeya is the youngest of them visualized as a young man, riding a peacock and wielding a bow and arrows. He is stated to be Kumara, that is, a bachelor as he is unmarried. While Ganesha is paired with the rich Lakshmi, Kartikeya is paired with the learned Saraswati.<ref>7 Secrets of the Goddess by Devdutt Pattanaik, {{ISBN|9789386224033}}, Durga and Saraswati's Secret (Chapter 4 & 6)</ref>

=== Rest of India ===
Temples also exist in the rest of India in [[Kartikeya Temple, Pehowa|Pehowa]] in [[Haryana]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Kartikeya Temple |url=http://www.haryanatourism.gov.in/Destination/kartikeya-temple |website=Haryana tourism |access-date=15 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180815164553/http://www.haryanatourism.gov.in/Destination/kartikeya-temple |archive-date=15 August 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Rudraprayag]] in [[Uttarakhand]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Himalaya's hidden gem: Pilgrimage to Karthik Swami temple |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/photos/india-news/himalaya-s-hidden-gem-pilgrimage-to-karthik-swami-temple/photo-CnFdW09ITDt3zKjIxgKnIM.html |access-date=23 August 2018 |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |date=1 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181208112027/https://www.hindustantimes.com/photos/india-news/himalaya-s-hidden-gem-pilgrimage-to-karthik-swami-temple/photo-CnFdW09ITDt3zKjIxgKnIM.html |archive-date=8 December 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> with Kartik swami temples in [[Manali, Himachal Pradesh|Manali]] and [[Chamba, Himachal Pradesh|Chamba]] in [[Himachal Pradesh]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kulludussehra.hp.gov.in/devtas-of-manali/kartik-swami/|title = Official website for Kullu Dussehra}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://bharmourview.com/bharmour/chaurasi-temple/kelang-or-kartikeya-temple|title = Kelang or Kartikeya Temple - Bharmour View}}</ref>

=== Nepal ===
Kartikeya is worshipped as Kumar in Nepal both by Hindu and Buddhist Communities.{{citation needed|date=January 2021}} The Newah community celebrates Sithi Nakha: Festival dedicated to Sithi Kumar. Sithi Nakha (Kumar Shashthi) is celebrated on this sixth day of the waxing moon, according to the lunar calendar, in the Lunar month of Jestha. The festival is celebrated by cleaning water sources like wells, ponds and stone spouts and ending it with a grand Newah feast of six different varieties of Newarhi food including Wo or Waa (fried lintel bread) and Chatamari (Newah pizza).
The Festival is traditional Environment day as houses, courtyards, streets and allies are cleaned during this day. It is believed that cleaning such water sources will bring in rain for good cultivation of crops. It is also celebrated to welcome monsoon as this was the ideal time to set up rice seedbeds. The most of Newah communities also mark the festival as the end of Dewaali, to worship their family deities.

===Andra Pradesh ===
In Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, he is worshipped as Subrahmanya, Kumara Swamy, Skanda, Subba Rayudu or depending on the place. Important temples include [[Mopidevi]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Sir Subrahmanyeswara Swamy Temple |url=http://www.mopidevitemple.org/# |website=Official website of temple |access-date=15 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180815170438/http://www.mopidevitemple.org/ |archive-date=15 August 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Biccavolu]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Sri Subrahmanya Devalayam |url=https://srisubrahmanyadevalayam.com/ |website=Official website of temple |access-date=15 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180822154936/http://srisubrahmanyadevalayam.com/ |archive-date=22 August 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> Skandagiri, [[Secunderabad]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Official website of temple |url=https://www.srisubrahmanyaswamydevalayamskandagiri.org/ |access-date=15 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180806003509/http://srisubrahmanyaswamydevalayamskandagiri.org/ |archive-date=6 August 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Sri Subrahmanyaswamy Temple, Skandagiri, Secunderabad |url=https://www.tripadvisor.com/Attraction_Review-g679014-d2476339-Reviews-Sri_Subrahmanyaswamy_Temple_Skandagiri_Secunderabad-Secunderabad_Hyderabad_Distri.html |website=Trip Advisor |access-date=15 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180815164224/https://www.tripadvisor.com/Attraction_Review-g679014-d2476339-Reviews-Sri_Subrahmanyaswamy_Temple_Skandagiri_Secunderabad-Secunderabad_Hyderabad_Distri.html |archive-date=15 August 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> and Mallam<ref>{{cite web |title=Mallamu Subramanyaswamy temple |url=https://www.prudwi.com/temples/andhrapradesh/mallamu-subramanya-swamy-temple/509 |website=Prudwi |access-date=15 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180815171327/https://www.prudwi.com/temples/andhrapradesh/mallamu-subramanya-swamy-temple/509 |archive-date=15 August 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Sri Subramanyeswara Swamy Temple, Mallam |url=http://1nellore.com/426/sri-subramanyeswara-swamy-temple-mallam/ |website=1nellore |access-date=15 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180815164602/http://1nellore.com/426/sri-subramanyeswara-swamy-temple-mallam/ |archive-date=15 August 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> and as Bala Subrahmanya on Indrakeeladri, Vijayawada.<ref>{{cite web|last=Ilamurugan|date=2019-04-21|title=Hindu Temples of India: Subramanya Swamy Temple, Kothapet, Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh|url=http://hindutemples-india.blogspot.com/2019/04/subramanya-swamy-temple-kothapet-vijayawada-andhra-pradesh.html|access-date=2022-01-19|website=Hindu Temples of India}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Sri Subramanya Swamy Temple in Vijayawada, Indrakeeladri Hill Temple|url=https://www.vijayawadaonline.in/city-guide/sri-subramanya-swamy-temple-in-vijayawada|access-date=2022-01-19|website=www.vijayawadaonline.in}}</ref>
=== Karnataka ===
In Karnataka, the deity that is worshipped as Subrahmanya where he is regarded as Lord of the serpents in temples like [[Kukke Subramanya Temple]],<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.mangalore.com/documents/subramanya.html
|title=Kukke Subrahmanya Temple
|access-date=2018-08-15
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100428165151/http://www.mangalore.com/documents/subramanya.html
|archive-date=28 April 2010
|url-status=dead
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.kukke.org/en/home.aspx |title=Kukke Subramanya temple |access-date=15 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180815164346/https://www.kukke.org/en/home.aspx |archive-date=15 August 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Ghati Subramanya]].
== Murugan ==
[[File:Murugan by Raja Ravi Varma.jpg|thumb|upright|The six-headed Murugan riding a peacock with his consorts Valli and Devasena, The peacock is seen trampling a snake by [[Raja Ravi Varma]].]]
Murugan is an ancient god, traceable to the [[Vedic period]]. He was hailed as 'Palaniappa' (Father of [[Palani]]), the tutelary deity of the [[Sangam landscape|Kurinji]] region whose cult gained immense popularity in the south. Sangam literature has several works on Murugan such as ''Tirumugratrupadai'' by Nakkirar and ''[[Thiruppugal|Thirupugal]]'' by poet-saint Arunagirinathar. Archaeological evidence from the 1st-century CE and earlier,<ref name=":0" /> where he is found with the Hindu god [[Agni]] (fire), suggests that he was a significant deity in early Hinduism.{{sfn|Parpola|2015|p=285}} He is found in many medieval temples all over India, such as the Kumaraswamy Temple Sandur <ref>{{Cite web |title=Kumaraswamy Temple Sandur {{!}} Ballari District, Government of Karnataka {{!}} India |url=https://ballari.nic.in/en/tourist-place/kumaraswamy-temple-sandur/ |access-date=2023-01-15 |language=en-US}}</ref> [[Ellora Caves]] and [[Elephanta Caves]]{{sfn|Gopinatha Rao|1993|p=40}}

Murugan is found as a primary deity in temples wherever communities of the [[Tamil people]] live worldwide, particularly in the [[Tamil Nadu]] state of [[India]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Mauritius]], [[Indonesia]], [[Malaysia]], [[Singapore]], [[South Africa]], [[Canada]], and [[Réunion]]. The [[Six Abodes of Murugan|Aru Padai Veedu]] are the six temples of Tamil Nadu that are dedicated to him.{{sfn|Clothey|1978|pp=1-2}} The [[Kataragama|Kataragama temple]] dedicated to him in [[Sri Lanka]] attracts Tamils, [[Sinhalese people]] and [[Vedda people]].<ref name=":0">{{cite book|first=G |last=Obeyesekere | editor=Jacob Kẹhinde Olupona|title=Beyond Primitivism: Indigenous Religious Traditions and Modernity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qK5bre18YkQC&pg=PA272 |year=2004|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-27319-0|pages=272–274}}</ref>
===Textual references===
The ''[[Tolkāppiyam]]'', one of the most ancient texts of the Tamil literature, mentions ''cēyōṉ'' "the red one", who is identified with Murugan, whose name is literally ''Murukaṉ'' "the youth"; the other gods referred to in the ''Tolkāppiyam'' are ''Māyōṉ'' "the dark one" (identified with [[Vishnu]]), ''Vēntaṉ'' "the sovereign" (identified with [[Indra]]) and ''[[Korravai]]'' "the victorious" (identified with [[Kali]]) and [[Varuna|''Varunan'']] "the sea god".<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZjoRAAAAYAAJ&q=tolkappiyam+varuna|title=Journal of Tamil Studies, Volume 1|date=1969|publisher=International Institute of Tamil Studies|page=131|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171113060321/https://books.google.no/books?id=ZjoRAAAAYAAJ&q=tolkappiyam+varuna&dq=tolkappiyam+varuna&hl=no&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiloMXV6bnXAhXiDZoKHXyuDMAQ6AEILTAB|archive-date=13 November 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Extant [[Sangam literature]] works, dated between the third century BCE and the fifth century CE glorified Murugan, "the red god seated on the blue peacock, who is ever young and resplendent," as "the favoured god of the Tamils."<ref name="sangam">Kanchan Sinha, Kartikeya in Indian art and literature, Delhi: Sundeep Prakashan (1979).</ref> Korravai is often identified as the mother of Murugan.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Korravai Korravai] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107031924/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Korravai |date=7 November 2017 }} ''2017-11-1.'' Britannica Online</ref>

In the ''Tirumurukāṟtruuppaṭai'', he is called ''Murugu'' and described as a god of beauty and youth, with phrases such as "his body glows like the sun rising from the emerald sea". It describes him with six faces each with a function, twelve arms, his victory over evil, and the temples dedicated to him in the hilly regions.<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/TheSmileOfMuruganOnTamilLiteratureOfSouthIndia/01.theSmileOfMurugan#page/n137/mode/1up The Smile of Murugan on Tamil Literature of South India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170223013006/http://archive.org/stream/TheSmileOfMuruganOnTamilLiteratureOfSouthIndia/01.theSmileOfMurugan#page/n137/mode/1up |date=23 February 2017 }}, by Kamil Zvelebil (1973), E.J. Brill, pages 125-127</ref>

The ancient Tamil lexicon ''Pinkalandai'' identifies the name Vēļ(வேள்) with the slayer of [[Tarakasura|Taraka]], that is Murugan among other things.{{refn|group=note|Not only are king of Chalukyas defined as "Velpularasar" in the Tamil lexicons but the name Vel is expressly stated to have belonged to them as stated in the following passage of ''Pinkalandai'':Vēļ means either the slayer of Taraka, the king of Chalukyas or the god of love.{{sfn|Kumar|2008|p=179}}{{sfn|Pillai|2004|p=17}}}} Sangam literature ([[Paripatal]]) refers to Murugan as ''Sevvēļ'' (செவ்வேள் meaning the red Vēļ) and as ''Neduvēļ'' (நெடுவேள் meaning the tall Vēļ).{{sfn|Ramanujan|2014|p=22}}{{sfn|Balasubrahmanyam|1966|p=8}}{{sfn|Subramanian|1978|p=161}} In Tamil, the word ''Murukku'' means to kill or slay as in to destroy evil or [[Asura]]s.{{sfn|Meenakshi|1997|p=23}}
=== Theology ===
{{Quote box
| border = 2px
| align = right
| width = 30%
| quote = '''Guha (Muruga)'''
<poem>
You who has form and who is formless,
you who are both being and non-being,
who are the fragrance and the blossom,
who are the jewel and its lustre,
who are the seed of life and life itself,
who are the means and the existence itself,
who are the supreme guru, come
and bestow your grace, O Guha [Murugan]
</poem>
| source = —''Kantaranuputi 51'', [[Arunagirinathar]] (Translator: Kamil Zvelebil)<ref>{{cite book|first=Kamil|last=Zvelebil|title=The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=degUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA243|year=1973|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=90-04-03591-5|page=243|access-date=19 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170420064157/https://books.google.com/books?id=degUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA243|archive-date=20 April 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>
| bgcolor = #FFE0BB
}}
There is extensive Hindu symbolism and theology associated with Muruga. Regardless of the variance among the legends, his birth is in difficult circumstances, he is born through a surrogate after being left near a river. He is raised not by his natural mother but a host of mothers, but later he is a part of his biological family. Muruga symbolizes a union of polarities.{{sfn|Clothey|1978|p=3}} He is handsome warrior and described as a celibate yogi. He uses his creative martial abilities to lead an army against Taraka and other demons, and described as a philosopher-warrior.{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002|pp=655-656}}{{sfn|Clothey|1978|pp=1-2}} He is a uniter, championing the attributes of both [[Shaivism]] and [[Vaishnavism]].{{sfn|Clothey|1978|pp=3-4}}

His theology is most developed in the Tamil texts,{{sfn|Lal|1992|p=4339}} and in the Shaiva Siddhanta tradition.{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002|pp=655-656}}{{sfn|Clothey|1978|pp=1-2}} He is described as ''dheivam'' (abstract neuter divinity, ''nirguna Brahman''), as ''kadavul'' (divinity in nature, in everything), as ''Devan'' (masculine deity), and as ''iraivativam'' (concrete manifestation of the sacred, ''saguna Brahman'').{{sfn|Clothey|1978|pp=10-14}}

According to Fred Clothey, as Murugan (also referred to as Murugan, Cheyyon), he embodies the "cultural and religious whole that comprises South Indian Shaivism".{{sfn|Clothey|1978|p=3}} He is the philosopher and exponent of Shaiva Siddhanta theology, as well as the patron deity of the Tamil language.<ref name=xavier167>{{cite book|author=S. Xavier Alphonse|title=Kanthapura to Malgudi: Cultural Values and Assumptions in Selected South Indian Novelists in English|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rp9lAAAAMAAJ|year=1997|publisher=Prestige|isbn=978-81-7551-030-2|page=167|access-date=19 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170420062026/https://books.google.com/books?id=rp9lAAAAMAAJ|archive-date=20 April 2017|url-status=live}}, Quote: "He [Skanda] has been hunter, warrior, philosopher. He is the teacher and inspiration of literature and arts. He is the eternal child, as old as time itself, yet as young as every new beginning. He is the handsome hero and lover, the wise Primordial One."</ref>{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002|p=[https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch/page/n416 450]}}<ref>{{cite book|first=Vijaya|last=Ramaswamy|title=Historical Dictionary of the Tamils|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H4q0DHGMcjEC&pg=PA152|year=2007|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-6445-0|pages=152–153|access-date=19 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170419200045/https://books.google.com/books?id=H4q0DHGMcjEC&pg=PA152|archive-date=19 April 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Legends ===
[[File:Karttikeya, God of War, Seated on a Peacock.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Basalt Murugan seated on a peacock from 12th-century [[Andhra Pradesh]].]]
According to Raman Varadara, Murugan was originally a Tamil deity, who was adopted by north Indians.{{sfn|Varadara|1993|pp=113-114}} He was the god of war and knowledge in the Dravidian legends, and became so elsewhere in the Indian subcontinent too.{{sfn|Varadara|1993|pp=113-114}} In contrast, [[G. S. Ghurye]] states that according to the archeological and epigraphical evidence, the contemporary Murugan, Subrahmanya and Kartikeya is a composite of two influences, one from south and one from north in the form of Skanda and Mahasena.<ref name=ghurye152/> He as the warrior-philosopher god was the patron deity for many ancient northern and western Hindu kingdoms, and of the [[Gupta Empire]], according to Ghurye. After the 7th-century, Skanda's importance diminished while his brother Ganesha's importance rose in the west and north, while in the south the legends of Murugan continued to grow.<ref name=ghurye152>{{cite book|author=Govind Sadashiv Ghurye|title=Indian Acculturation: Agastya and Skanda|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HLMtAAAAMAAJ|year=1977|publisher=Popular Prakashan|pages=152–167|access-date=19 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190105231228/https://books.google.com/books?id=HLMtAAAAMAAJ|archive-date=5 January 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=S. Devadas Pillai|title=Indian Sociology Through Ghurye, a Dictionary|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P3uD22Ghqs4C&pg=PA159|year=1997|publisher=Popular Prakashan|isbn=978-81-7154-807-1|pages=159–160|access-date=19 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170420060016/https://books.google.com/books?id=P3uD22Ghqs4C&pg=PA159|archive-date=20 April 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> According to Norman Cutler, Kartikeya-Murugan-Skanda of South and North India coalesced over time, but some aspects of the South Indian iconography and mythology for Murugan have remained unique to Tamil Nadu.<ref>{{cite book|first=Norman|last=Cutler|editor-first=Gavin|editor-last=Flood|title=The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SKBxa-MNqA8C|year=2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-99868-7|page=146|access-date=21 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223102025/https://books.google.com/books?id=SKBxa-MNqA8C|archive-date=23 December 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

In the Tamil legends he has two consorts, Devayanai (identified with Devasena) and [[Valli]].{{sfn|Dalal|2010}}{{sfn|Varadara|1993|pp=113-114}} Many of the major events in Murugan's life take place during his youth, and legends surrounding his birth are popular in Tamil Nadu. This has encouraged the worship of Murugan as a child-God, very similar to the worship of the child Krishna in north India.{{sfn|Clothey|1978|p=51}}<ref name="google1985"/>

=== Worship ===
==== Southern India ====

[[File:முருகன் வீதி உலா.jpg|thumb|Murugan with Valli (on left of image) and Devayanai (on right of image).]]

Murugan is a major deity among the Hindus of [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Kerala]], [[Karnataka]], [[Andhra Pradesh]] and [[Telangana]].

Murugan is considered the god of Tamil language and he is mentioned a lot in Sangam literature.<ref name="sangam" /> The [[Six Abodes of Murugan|six abodes of Murugan]], together referred to as ''Aru Padaiveedu'' ({{lang-ta|ஆறுபடை வீடு }}), that are mentioned in Thirumurugatrupadai, written by [[Nakkeerar]] and in Thirupugal, written by Arunagirinathar.<ref>{{cite book|last1=hithra Madhavan|first1=Prema Kasturi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_HwMAQAAMAAJ&q=Nakkeerar+|title=South India Heritage: An Introduction|publisher=East West Books (madras) Pvt Ltd|year=2007|isbn=978-8188661640|access-date=17 August 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Outlook|first1=Travelers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1DtuAAAAMAAJ&q=Arunagirinathar|title=Outlook Publishing (India)|date=July 30, 2008|publisher=8189449036|isbn=978-8189449032|access-date=17 August 2018}}</ref> Each of these temples, all in Tamil Nadu, has a unique history and different reason to worship Murugan:<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Clothey|first1=Fred W.|year=1972|title=Pilgrimage Centers in the Tamil Cultus of Murukan|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Religion|volume=40|issue=1|pages=79–95|doi=10.1093/jaarel/XL.1.79|jstor=1461919}}</ref>
* [[Palani Murugan Temple]]
* [[Swamimalai Murugan Temple]]
* [[Thiruchendur Murugan Temple]]
* [[Thirupparamkunram Murugan Temple]]
* [[Thiruthani Murugan Temple]]
* [[Pazhamudircholai|Pazhamudircholai Murugan Temple]]
[[File:Thiruchendur Temple Rajagopuram.JPG|thumb|upright|Rajagopuram of [[Subramaniya Swamy Temple, Tiruchendur|Thiruchendur Murugan Temple]], [[Tamil Nadu]]]]
Temples in Kerala dedicated to Subrahmanya (as Kartikeya is known in the region) include [[Haripad Sree Subrahmanya Swamy temple|Haripad]], [[Neendoor Subrahmanya Swami Temple|Neendoor]], [[Kidangoor Subramanya Temple|Kidangoor]], [[Kodumbu Subramanya Swamy Temple|Kodumbu]], [[Panmana]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Sree Subramanya Swamy Temple |url=https://www.keralatourism.org/1000festivals//index.php/preview/festival_info?fest_id=813 |website=Kerela Tourism |access-date=17 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180817193434/https://www.keralatourism.org/1000festivals//index.php/preview/festival_info?fest_id=813 |archive-date=17 August 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Payyanur]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mathew |first1=Biju |title=Pilgrimage to Temple Heritage |date=September 2017 |publisher=Info Kerala Communications |isbn=978-8192128443 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_II5DwAAQBAJ&q=Subramanya+Swamy+temple+in+%5B%5BPayyanur%5D%5D&pg=PA377 |access-date=17 August 2018}}</ref> The temple to him in Udayanapuram is historically connected to the [[Vaikom Sree Mahadeva Temple|temple to his deity father, Shiva, in Vaikom]].

Festivals pertaining to Murugan are:
* Thai Poosam during January – February month is celebrated as a 6-day festival. On Thai Poosam day, Kavadis and Palkudams are taken by devotees in procession around Chhedanagar. Special Abhishekams are performed to the Moolavar and Utsavar. Annadhanam is provided to all devotees participating in the functions. In the night, Murugan is taken in procession accompanied by Nadaswaram, Veda Parayanam around Chhedanagar.
* Vaikasi Visakam day, (during May –June month), Kavadis and Palkudams are taken by devotees in procession around Chhedanagar.
* Skanda Sashti during October–November month is celebrated as a 6-day festival. Spiritual discourses by learned scholars and/or music concerts by popular artists from South or from Mumbai are organized.

==== Malaysia ====
[[File:Thaipusam idols.jpg|thumb|upright|Thaipusam festivities near the [[Batu Caves]], Malaysia]]
Murugan is revered by the Tamil people in [[Malaysia]] and other South-East Asian countries such as Singapore and Indonesia. [[Thaipusam]] is one of the important festivals celebrated. Sri Subramanyar Temple at [[Batu Caves]] temple complex in Malaysia is dedicated to Murugan, which has a 42.7-m-high statue of Murugan at the entrance, the largest Murugan statue in the world.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Star |first1=The |title=Tallest statue of deity unveiled |url=https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2006/01/31/tallest-statue-of-deity-unveiled/ |access-date=15 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180815200705/https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2006/01/31/tallest-statue-of-deity-unveiled/ |archive-date=15 August 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Batu Caves |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Batu-Caves |website=Britannica |access-date=15 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180815170927/https://www.britannica.com/place/Batu-Caves |archive-date=15 August 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> There are some other temples in Malaysia such as:
* Kallumalai Temple in [[Ipoh]]<ref name="malaysianTemples" /><ref>{{cite web |last1=A |first1=Jeyaraj |title=Hindu Temples In Ipoh |url=http://www.ipohecho.com.my/v4/article/2016/07/16/hindu-temples-in-ipoh |website=ipohecho |access-date=2 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180902220525/http://www.ipohecho.com.my/v4/article/2016/07/16/hindu-temples-in-ipoh |archive-date=2 September 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Ipoh Kallumalai Murugan Temple, Ipoh |url=https://www.inspirock.com/malaysia/ipoh/ipoh-kallumalai-murugan-temple-a8364696527 |website=Inspirock |access-date=2 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180902220538/https://www.inspirock.com/malaysia/ipoh/ipoh-kallumalai-murugan-temple-a8364696527 |archive-date=2 September 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Arulmigu Balathandayuthapani Temple, Penang]] and [[Nattukkottai Chettiar Temple, Penang]]
* Sannayasi Andavar Temple in Cheng, [[Malacca]]<ref name="malaysianTemples">{{cite web |title=Tour Information |url=http://www.ichss.org/tour.html |website=ICHSS |access-date=2 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181027134159/http://www.ichss.org/tour.html |archive-date=27 October 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=10,000 celebrate Masi Magam festival Sannayasi Andavar Temple in Cheng |url=https://www.thestar.com.my/news/community/2008/03/31/10000-celebrate-masi-magam-festival-sannayasi-andavar-temple-in-cheng/ |access-date=2 September 2018 |agency=The Star |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180902183850/https://www.thestar.com.my/news/community/2008/03/31/10000-celebrate-masi-magam-festival-sannayasi-andavar-temple-in-cheng/ |archive-date=2 September 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[Sri Marathandavar Bala Dhandayuthapani Alayam]], [[Maran, Pahang]]
*[[Sri Kandaswamy Kovil, Brickfields]], [[Kuala Lumpur]]

==== Sri Lanka ====
In Sri Lanka Muruga is worshipped by Sri Lankan Tamils as Murugan and also by the [[Sinhalese people|Sinhalese]] as [[Kataragama deviyo]] , a guardian deity of [[Sri Lanka]]. Numerous temples exist throughout the island. He is a favourite deity of the common folk everywhere and it is said he never hesitates to come to the aid of a devotee when called upon. In the deeply Sinhalese south of Sri Lanka, he is worshipped at the [[Kataragama temple]], where he is known as Kathiravel or Kataragama deviyo. Local legend holds that Murugan alighted in Kataragama and was smitten by Valli, one of the local girls. After a courtship, they were married. This event is taken to signify that Murugan is accessible to all who worship and love him, regardless of their birth or heritage. The [[Nallur Kandaswamy temple]], the [[Maviddapuram Kandaswamy Temple]] and the Sella Channithy Temple near Valvettiturai are the three foremost Murugan temples in [[Jaffna]]. The Chitravelayutha temple in Verukal on the border between Trincomalee and Batticaloa is also noteworthy as is the Mandur Kandaswamy temple in Batticaloa. The late medieval-era temple of the tooth in [[Kandy]], dedicated to the tooth relic of the Buddha, has a Kataragama deiyo shrine adjacent to it dedicated to the veneration of Skanda in the Sinhalese tradition. Almost all Buddhist temples house a shrine room for Kataragama deviyo reflecting the significance of Murugan in Sinhala Buddhism.

[[File:Nallur Kandasamy front entrance.jpg|thumb|The Sri Lankan [[Nallur Kandaswamy temple]] (Jaffna) is dedicated to Murugan.]]
By the 16th century, the Kataragama temple had become synonymous with the worship of Skanda-Kumara who was a guardian deity of Sinhala Buddhism.<ref name=P>{{cite journal|last=Pathmanathan|first=S|author-link=S. Pathmanathan|date=September 1999|title=The guardian deities of Sri Lanka: Skanda-Murgan and Kataragama|journal=The Journal of the Institute of Asian Studies|publisher=The institute of Asian studies|url=http://kataragama.org/research/pathmanathan.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100926205619/http://kataragama.org/research/pathmanathan.htm|archive-date=26 September 2010|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The town was popular as a place of pilgrimage for Hindus from India and Sri Lanka by the 15th century. The popularity of the deity at the Kataragama temple was also recorded by the Pali chronicles of Thailand such as Jinkalmali in the 16th century. There are a number of legends both Buddhist and Hindu that attribute supernatural events to this very locality.<ref name=P/> Scholars such as Paul Younger and [[Heinz Bechert]] speculate that the rituals practiced by the native priests of Kataragama temple indicate Vedda ideals of propitiation. Hence, they believe that the area was important in Vedda culture and was later taken over by Buddhists and Hindus in the medieval period.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bechert|first=Heinz|author-link=Heinz Bechert|year=1970|title=Skandakumara and Kataragama: An Aspect of the Relation of Hinduism and Buddhism in Sri Lanka|journal=Proceedings of the Third International Tamil Conference Seminar|publisher=International Association of Tamil Research|location=Paris|url=http://kataragama.org/research/bechert.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100925212357/http://kataragama.org/research/bechert.htm|archive-date=25 September 2010|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

==== United Kingdom ====
[[File:London Sri Murugan Temple, Manor Park, E12 3.jpg|thumb|upright|A Murugan Temple known as London Sri Murugan Temple located at [[Manor Park, London|Manor Park]], [[London]].]]
There are a lot of Murugan Temples in the United Kingdom that are built by [[British Tamil]]s. Sri Murugan Temple at [[Manor Park, London|Manor Park]] in [[London]] and Murugan Temple in Highgate Hill, [[London]] to name a few.<ref>{{cite web |title=HIGHGATEHILL MURUGAN TEMPLE |url=https://www.highgatehillmurugan.org/ |access-date=2022-08-08 |website=www.highgatehillmurugan.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Home |url=https://www.londonsrimurugan.org/index.html |access-date=2022-08-08 |website=The London Sri Murugan Temple |language=en}}</ref> Throughout the year Tamils in [[United Kingdom]], celebrate Murugan Festivals like [[Thaipusam]], [[Soorasamharam|Skanda Shasti]], [[Karthika Deepam|Karthikai Deepam]], Vaikasi Visakam, [[Maha Shivaratri|Mahasivarathri]] in grand fashion.<ref name="easterneye1">{{cite web |date=2022-07-27 |title=More than 15,000 people attend London Sri Murugan Temple chariot festival |url=https://www.easterneye.biz/more-than-15000-people-attend-london-sri-murugan-temple-chariot-festival/ |access-date=2022-08-08 |website=EasternEye |language=en-GB}}</ref>

Tamil devotees of Murugan take part in Kavadi possession on Thaipusam day every year and this practice is followed by Tamils in Europe and North America as well.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kavadi |url=https://tamilandvedas.com/tag/kavadi/ |access-date=2022-08-08 |website=Tamil and Vedas |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Hooked On Faith: Discovering Kaavadi Aattam In Quebec |url=https://tamilculture.com/hooked-on-faith |access-date=2022-08-08 |website=TamilCulture.com |language=en}}</ref> It's worth to take note of the temple chariot (Ther) procession every year organized by the London Sri Murugan Temple. It was estimated that more than 15000 people attended during the annual event in 2022.<ref name="easterneye1"/>

The Highgate Hill Murugan Temple also known as Archway Murugan Temple located in [[London]] is a famous temple with the main deity as Murugan. In 1966, Hindu [[British Tamil]]s formed the Hindu Association of Great Britain to foster the tamil [[Shaiva Siddhanta|Saiva Siddhanta]] religion and its form of worship and be a unifying force among Tamils from various parts of the world.<ref>{{cite web |title=Welcome to Highgatehill Murugan Temple |url=http://www.highgatehillmurugan.org/History.html |access-date=2022-08-10 |website=www.highgatehillmurugan.org}}</ref> In 1973, a [[Subramaniya Swamy Temple, Tiruchendur|Thiruchendur Murugan]] [[Murti|vigraham]] (statue) was specially made from [[Kumbakonam]] was installed with special rites in October 1973. The advent of the Murugan vigraham and the regular abhishekams and poojas further intensified religious fervour. Subsequently, to meet the spiritual needs of the devotees of Murugan, a Temple was built in 1979. [[Prana Pratishtha|The Prana Prathishtha]] for Murugan at this temple was held on the auspicious day of Vaikasi Visakam in May 1982. The temple celebrates all Murugan festivals along with an annual [[Temple car|temple chariot]] festival.<ref>{{cite web |title=HIGHGATEHILL MURUGAN TEMPLE |url=http://www.highgatehillmurugan.org/index.html |access-date=2022-08-10 |website=www.highgatehillmurugan.org}}</ref>

===Other countries===

[[Sri Thendayuthapani Temple]] is a major Hindu temple in [[Singapore]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Home Page of Sri Thendayuthapani Temple |url=http://www.sttemple.com/sri-thendayuthapani-temple/about-st-temple.html |website=Official website of temple |access-date=15 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150706030159/http://www.sttemple.com/sri-thendayuthapani-temple/about-st-temple.html |archive-date=6 July 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> Murugan temples also exist in several western countries like United States of America,<ref>{{cite web |title=Shiva Murugan Temple |url=https://www.shivamurugantemple.org/ |website=Shiva Murugan Temple |access-date=15 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080414232132/http://www.shivamurugantemple.org/ |archive-date=14 April 2008 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Hindu temple headed for banks of Deep River |url=https://chathamnewsrecord.com/stories/hindu-temple-headed-for-banks-of-deep-river,1845?/ |newspaper=The Chatham News + Record |access-date=22 April 2019}}</ref> Canada,<ref>{{cite web |title=Explanation of Deities |url=http://www.sivananda.org/temple/deities.php |website=Official website of temple |access-date=15 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180822204801/http://www.sivananda.org/temple/deities.php |archive-date=22 August 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> United Kingdom,<ref>{{cite web |title=HIGHGATEHILL MURUGAN TEMPLE |url=https://www.highgatehillmurugan.org/ |website=Official website of temple |access-date=16 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180809065851/http://highgatehillmurugan.org/ |archive-date=9 August 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The London Sri Murugan |url=http://www.londonsrimurugan.org/ |website=Official website of temple |access-date=16 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180809144124/http://londonsrimurugan.org/ |archive-date=9 August 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Leicester Shri Murugan (Hindu) Temple |url=http://beta.charitycommission.gov.uk/charity-details/?subid=0&regid=1141315 |website=Registered charities in England |access-date=16 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180816194443/http://beta.charitycommission.gov.uk/charity-details/?subid=0&regid=1141315 |archive-date=16 August 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Sri Murugan Temple |url=http://www.goleicestershire.com/thedms.aspx?dms=3&venue=2532266 |website=Official visitor website for Leicestershire |access-date=16 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180817023039/http://www.goleicestershire.com/thedms.aspx?dms=3&venue=2532266 |archive-date=17 August 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Lord Murugan Temple |url=https://www.skandavale.org/lord-murugan-temple/ |website=Official website of temple |access-date=16 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180816194729/https://www.skandavale.org/lord-murugan-temple/ |archive-date=16 August 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> Australia,<ref>{{cite web |title=Sydeny Murugan Temple |url=http://www.sydneymurugan.org.au/murugan2/index.php/services/daily-opening-times |website=Official website of temple |access-date=16 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180816194442/http://www.sydneymurugan.org.au/murugan2/index.php/services/daily-opening-times |archive-date=16 August 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Perth Bala Murugan |url=http://www.perthmurugan.org.au/OurTimings.aspx |website=Official website of temple |access-date=16 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180816194707/http://www.perthmurugan.org.au/OurTimings.aspx |archive-date=16 August 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Kundrathu Kumaran Temple |url=http://www.kumarantemple.org.au/ |website=Official website of temple |access-date=16 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180816232007/http://www.kumarantemple.org.au/ |archive-date=16 August 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> New Zealand,<ref>{{cite web |title=New Zealand Thirumurugan Temple |url=http://nzmurugan.org.nz/ |website=Official website of temple |access-date=16 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180815125050/http://nzmurugan.org.nz/ |archive-date=15 August 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Reeves |first1=Peter |title=The Encyclopedia of the Sri Lankan Diaspora |date=March 7, 2014 |publisher=Didier Millet |isbn=978-9814260831 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4N5UAgAAQBAJ&q=Kurinji+Kumaran+Temple+in+%5B%5BWellington&pg=PA173 |access-date=16 August 2018}}</ref> Germany<ref>{{cite web |title=Architectural History – Sri Mayurapathy Murugan Temple Berlin |url=http://en.mayurapathy-murugan-berlin.com/architectural-history/ |access-date=2022-08-09 |language=de-DE}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Unusual sightseeing in Berlin: a Hindu temple beside a highway |url=http://www.secretcitytravel.com/berlin-august-2014/unusual-sights-in-berlin-hindu-temple.shtml |access-date=2022-08-09 |website=www.secretcitytravel.com |language=en}}</ref> and Switzerland.<ref name="religionenschweiz">{{cite web|url=http://www.religionenschweiz.ch/hinduismus.html |title=Hinduismus :::: Religionen in der Schweiz / Religions en Suissse :::: Universität Luzern |date=2 June 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215200913/http://religionenschweiz.ch/hinduismus.html |archive-date=15 February 2015 }}</ref>

== Explanatory notes ==
{{reflist|group=note}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{reflist|30em}}

=== General bibliography ===
{{Refbegin|40em}}
*{{cite book|first=Hans|last=Bakker|title=The World of the Skandapurāṇa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6p2XCgAAQBAJ| year=2014| publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=978-90-04-27714-4}}
*{{cite book|first=Fred W.|last=Clothey|title=The Many Faces of Murukan̲: The History and Meaning of a South Indian God|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=0AevljBmCRQC |year =1978|publisher= Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-90-279-7632-1}}
* {{cite book|first=Roshen |last=Dalal|title=The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pNmfdAKFpkQC&pg=PA251|year=2010|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=978-0-14-341517-6|pages=}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Doniger |editor-first=Wendy|title={{IAST|Purāṇa}} Perennis: Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts |year=1993 |publisher=State University of New York |location=Albany, New York |isbn= 0-7914-1382-9 }}
*{{cite book|first1=Constance|last1=Jones|first2=James D.|last2=Ryan|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC |year= 2006|publisher= Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5}}
*{{cite book|first=Richard D.|last=Mann|title=The Rise of Mahāsena: The Transformation of Skanda-Kārttikeya in North India from the Kuṣāṇa to Gupta Empires|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YcYyAQAAQBAJ |year=2011|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-21886-4}}
*{{cite book|first=Asko|last=Parpola|title=The Roots of Hinduism: The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ld3XCQAAQBAJ |year=2015|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-022691-6}}
*{{cite book|last= Gopinatha Rao|first=T. A. |title=Elements of Hindu iconography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MJD-KresBwIC |year=1993|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0878-2}}
*{{cite book|first=Mohan|last=Lal|title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KnPoYxrRfc0C |year=1992|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|isbn=978-81-260-1221-3}}
*{{cite book|first=James G.|last=Lochtefeld|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N-Z |url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch |url-access=registration|year=2002|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-8239-3180-4}}
*{{Cite book|first=Ludo |last=Rocher| year= 1986| title= The Puranas| publisher= Otto Harrassowitz Verlag| isbn= 978-3447025225}}
* Mani, Vettam. ''Puranic Encyclopedia''. 1st English ed. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1975.
* G. V. Tagare, Dr. ''The Skanda-Purana (23 Vols.)'', Motilal Banarsidass. 2007.
*{{cite journal | last=Kaur | first=Jagdish | title=Bibliographical Sources for Himalayan Pilgrimages and Tourism Studies: Uttarakhand | journal=Tourism Recreation Research | volume=4 | issue=1 | year=1979 | pages=13–16 | doi=10.1080/02508281.1979.11014968}}
*{{cite book|first=Doris|last=Srinivasan|title=On the Cusp of an Era: Art in the Pre-Kuṣāṇa World |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dCz8NczNbcMC |year=2007|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=978-90-04-15451-3}}
*{{cite book|first=Doris|last=Srinivasan|title=Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes: Origin, Meaning, and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=vZheP9dIX9wC |year= 1997|publisher= BRILL Academic|isbn=90-04-10758-4}}
*{{cite book|first=Raman|last=Varadara| title=Glimpses of Indian Heritage|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GWIkmUq8lIUC |year=1993| publisher= Popular Prakashan|isbn=978-81-7154-758-6}}
*{{cite book|last= Pillai|first=V. J. Thamby|title=Origin on the Tamil Vellalas (T.A.- Vol. 1 Pt.10)|publisher=Asian Educational Services|year=2004}}
*{{cite book|last= Ramanujan|first=S R|title=The Lord of Vengadam A Historical Perspective |publisher=Partridge Publishing|year=2014}}
*{{cite book|last= Meenakshi|first=K.|title=Tolkappiyam and Astadhyayi |publisher=International Institute of Tamil Studies|year=1997}}
*{{cite book|last= Balasubrahmanyam|first=S. R.|title=Early Chola Art Part 1 |publisher=New Asia Publishing House|year=1966}}
*{{cite book|editor-last=Subramanian|editor-first=A.|title=New Dimensions in the Study of Tamil Culture |year=1978}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Murugan}}
*[http://www.inuvilkanthan.com/ Inuvil kanthan Temple]
*[http://murugan.org/research/shanmugampillai.htm Muruga in Sangam literature]
*[http://murugan.org/research/hernault.htm Mailam a Muruga Temple in the Cross Roads]

{{Shaivism|state=collapsed}}
{{Hindudharma}}
{{Murugan temples}}
{{Burmese nats}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Beauty gods]]
[[Category:Hindu gods]]
[[Category:Kaumaram]]
[[Category:Sri Lankan deities]]
[[Category:Tamil deities]]
[[Category:Tutelary deities]]
[[Category:War gods]]
[[Category:Fortune gods]]

Angarki Sankashti Chaturthi

2023-01-18T10:25:00Z

ImportMaster: robot: Create/update articles in Category:Hindu gods.

{{Short description|Hindu holy days}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2014}}
{{Infobox holiday
|holiday_name = Angarika Sankashti Chaturthi
|type = Hindu
|longtype = [[Marathi people|Maharashtra]] [[Hindu]]
|image = Ganesha India.jpg
|caption = Ganesha
|nickname =
|observedby = [[Hindu]]s
|date = Krishna paksha chaturthi in [[Hindu lunar calendar]] coming on Tuesday (fourth day of the dark half of moon’s cycle during Every month), decided by [[Hindu calendar]] (lunar calendar)
|date2012 =
|date2013 = 1 January, 28 May and 22 October
|date2014 = 18 February,15 July,9 December
|date2019 = 17 September
|celebrations = Fast and Pooja
|observances =
|relatedto =
}}
'''Angarika Chaturth''' (अंगारिका चतुर्थी) is a [[Sankashti Chaturthi]] falling on Tuesday. It is considered highly auspicious among all Sankashti Chaturthi days.

Sankashti Chaturthi (संकष्टी चतुर्थी), also known as Sankatahara Chaturthi, is an auspicious day dedicated to Lord [[Ganesha]]. This day is celebrated in every lunar Hindu calendar month on the fourth day of the Krishna Paksha (the dark lunar phase or the waning fortnight of the moon).<ref>[http://sankashti.com/about-sankashti-chaturthi-angaraki-chaturthi/19/ About Sankashti Chaturthi & Angaraki Chaturthi ]</ref>

==History==
According to Hindu teachings, Angarak, the son of [[Prithvi|Mother Earth]] and Bharadwaj Rishi, was an accomplished [[rishi]] and a great devotee of Lord [[Ganesha]]. He worshipped Lord Ganesha and sought his blessings. On Magh Krishna Chaturthi (a Tuesday), Lord Ganesha blessed him and asked him for a wish. Angarak expressed that his only wish was to be associated with Lord Ganesha’s name forever. The Lord granted his wish and proclaimed that whoever worships Lord Ganesha on Angarika Chaturthi will be granted all that he/she prays for. From that day onwards, Magh Krishna Chaturthi came to be known as Angarak Chaturthi.

==Details==
On the day of Angarika Sankashti Chaturthi, the devotees observe a strict fast from morning till evening. They break the fast at night after having a darshan/auspicious sighting of the moon, preceded by prayers and a [[Puja (Hinduism)|pooja]] for [[Lord Ganesha]]. The Angarika Chaturthi (angarak in Sanskrit means red like burning coal embers) devotees believe their wishes will be fulfilled if they pray on this auspicious day. The fast of Sankashti Chaturthi is generally started from the day "Angarika Sankashti Chaturthi". Also ''Angarika Sankashti'' means deliverance during troubled times, hence observing this fast is believed to reduce a person's problems, as Lord Ganesha is the remover of all obstacles and the supreme lord of intelligence. Before moonlight, the Ganapati Atharvashesha is recited to summon the blessings of Lord Ganesha.

==Legend==
{{main|Ganesha}}
Note: this is only one version of the story in which Ganesha gets his famous elephant head. The other, better-known version of this legend is completely different- it involves Shiva beheading a much older Ganesha and differs in many other ways as well.

==Part 1: Sage Durvasa and Lord Indra’s meeting==

Once, Sage [[Durvasa]] was travelling from [[Vaikuntha]] to [[Kailasa]]. He came upon Lord [[Indra]], who was spending time with the [[apsara]] [[Rambha (apsara)|Rambha]]. Lord Indra bowed before Sage Durvasa in reverence, and Sage Durvasa, who was pleased, handed him a [[Parijata]] flower, and spoke the following words:

“O Indra, this is a flower given by the lord which removes all the obstructions and the person whose head it will be placed will be victorious all around. He will be adored by the people first of all and will be the foremost of all gods. [[Mahalakshmi]] will not part company from him and follow him like a shadow. He will equate himself with [[Vishnu]] in knowledge, wisdom, prowess. He will be more powerful than all gods and will be valorous like Vishnu.”

Sage Durvasa left after this, and Lord Indra, still intoxicated by the presence of Rambha, placed the flower on the head of his elephant. The elephant thus got all the qualities that were ordained by the flower. The elephant then fought and defeated all other elephants and left Lord Indra. Thus destiny resulted in the elephant getting all the advantages associated with the blessings of the Parijata flower. If Indra had accepted the flower, he would have got all its qualities. But destiny, which was also a play of Vishnu, had other plans, and it waited for the birth of Ganesha.

==Part 2: Lord Shani visits Kailasa on the occasion of Ganesha’s birth==

The second part of this story is the occasion of the birth of Lord Ganesha and the conversation between Devi [[Parvati]] and Lord [[Shani]].

On the birth of Lord Ganesha, all the other gods visited Kailasa to see him and bless him. Lord Shani also came to Kailasa and requested Lady Parvati to let him see Lord Ganesha. She granted him permission, and Lord Shani stood there, casting his gaze downwards. He did not look at the child and was satisfied with just standing near Lord Ganesha.

Lady Parvati enquired about the reason why he wasn’t looking at Lord Ganesha, and Lord Shani replied with the following:

"O chaste lady, all the people have to face the results of their deeds. Whatever good or bad deeds are done, they cannot be washed away even after completion of [[crores]] of [[Kalpa (aeon)|kalpas]]. The [[jiva]] is born as [[Brahma]], [[Indra]] and [[Surya]] because of his deeds, and he is reborn as an animal because of his deeds."

"One achieves hell because of his deeds and also heaven because of his deeds. He becomes a great king because of his own deeds and an ordinary servant because of his own deeds. He is born beautiful because of his own deeds, and he becomes sick the same way. O mother, because of his own deeds, he indulges in vices, and by his own deeds, he becomes detached from the world."

"The people become rich because of their own deeds, and it is due to their own deeds that they become paupers. One gets a loving family because of his own deeds, and one gets a bad family because of his own deeds. Because of his own deeds, one gets the best spouse and kids, and because of his own deeds, he remains unmarried, or gets a wicked spouse or remains childless.

O beloved of Shiva, I will tell you a secret story. In my childhood, I was a great devotee of Lord [[Krishna]], and I was always devoted to him. I always recited his name. My father married me to the daughter of Citraratha, but I was always devoted to [[Tapas (Indian religions)|tapas]]. Once, when I was engrossed in meditation on Lord Krishna, she came to me seeking attention. I was unaware of her presence, being engrossed in meditation, and hence, I kept on performing tapas. She became annoyed and pronounced a curse in anger that whatever I cast my glance on would be destroyed. Thereafter after getting out of meditation, I calmed her and she repented.

O mother, because of the curse, I cannot cast my gaze at anything, and in order to save creatures from destruction, I always cast my glance downwards."

On hearing the words of Lord Shani, Lady Parvati laughed, and all the goddesses present also laughed.

Lady Parvati replied, "The entire universe moves according to the wishes of the Lord, more than the moves of destiny. You look at me and my child."

Lord Shani was in a fix whether to look at the son of Parvati or not; he did not want to offend Lady Parvati, and at the same time, he did not want to cause any unintended harm. Finally, so as not to offend Lady Parvati, he looked only at Lord Ganesha and not the Lady. His mind was disturbed, and his throat, lips and palate were dried up. With the corner of his right eye, he glanced at the child’s face.

At his gaze, the head of the child was cut off, and Lord Shani closed his eyes at once, looking downwards and stood there.

The severed head of the child went to [[Gokul]] and entered the body of Lord Krishna. Lady Parvati started lamenting and fainted. All the Gods and Goddesses panicked at this turn of events. Therefore, Lord Vishnu mounted on [[Garuda]], went north, and reached the bank of the Puspabhadra river. There, he found Indra's elephant, who was all powerful by virtue of the flower given by Sage Durvasa. Lord Vishnu cut off the head of the elephant by using the [[Sudarshana chakra]].

Lord Vishnu then brought the dead elephant back to life and returned him to Lord Indra. Lord Vishnu then lifted the elephant's head, which had been cut off and had special powers. He came back and joined the head of the elephant to the body of Lord Ganesha using his divine knowledge and brought the child back to life.

==Understanding the story==

The Brahmavaivarat [[Purana]] states that Lord Ganesha is an ansh (manifestation) of the supreme consciousness. It was destined for an ansh to manifest as remover of obstacles for men and gods, and he became the god of intellect and wisdom.

When we read the purana, we are amazed at how all incidents in the past come together and lead towards a chosen destiny. The flower was presented to Indra by Sage Durvasa, but it was not utilized by the king of the gods. The elephant temporarily benefited from the powers of the Parijata flower, but it was Lord Ganesha who was destined to be the foremost among gods and men and become known as the remover of obstacles. Thus, destiny worked in such a way that the attributes of the flower, which were accumulated by the austerities of Sage Durvasa, came to Lord Ganesha, and that is the reason he has an elephant head.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Tithi}}
{{Ganesha}}
{{HinduFestivals}}

[[Category:Hindu holy days]]
[[Category:Ganesha]]

[[Category:Hindu festivals]]

Harihara

2023-01-17T12:56:47Z

ImportMaster:

{{for multi|the city in Karnataka, India|Harihar|the founder of the Vijayanagara Empire|Harihara I}}
{{Short description|Fused Hindu deity of Vishnu (Hari) and Shiva (Hara)}}
{{EngvarB|date=April 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2015}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| image1 = Harihara V&A.jpg
| width1 = 180
| alt1 =
| caption1 =
| image2 = Harihara Badami.jpg
| width2 = 135
| alt2 =
| caption2 =
| footer = Left: [[Vishnu]] (left half—blue) and [[Shiva]] (right half—white). Right: A 6th-century Harihara [[murti]] in [[Badami cave temples]] of Karnataka.
}}
'''Harihara''' ([[Sanskrit]]: हरिहर) is the fused [[Sattva|sattvika]] characterisation of [[Vishnu]] (Hari) and [[Shiva]] (Hara) from [[Hinduism|Hindu]] theology. Hari is the form of Vishnu, and Hara is the form of Shiva. Harihara is also known as '''Shankaranarayana''' ("Shankara" is Shiva, and "Narayana" is Vishnu).

''Harihara'' is also sometimes used as a philosophical term to denote the unity of Vishnu and Shiva as different aspects of the same Ultimate Reality called [[Brahman]]. This concept of equivalence of various gods as one principle and "oneness of all existence" is discussed as Harihara in the texts of [[Advaita Vedanta]] school of [[Hindu philosophy]].<ref>David Leeming (2001), A Dictionary of Asian Mythology, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195120530}}, page 67</ref>

Some of the earliest sculptures of Harihara, with one half of the image as Vishnu and other half as Shiva, are found in the surviving cave temples of India, such as in the cave 1 and cave 3 of the 6th-century [[Badami cave temples]].<ref>Alice Boner (1990), Principles of Composition in Hindu Sculpture: Cave Temple Period, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120807051}}, pages 89-95, 115-124, 174-184</ref><ref>TA Gopinatha Rao (1993), Elements of Hindu iconography, Vol 2, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120808775}}, pages 334-335</ref>

==Concept==
[[File:Indian god-sivakesava.JPG|thumb|[[Vishnu]] (holding [[Sudarshana Chakra]]) and [[Shiva]] (lighter coloured half, wearing tiger skin, holding [[Trishula]]) combined in a single Harihara [[murti]], sometimes referred to as ''Sivakesava''and "Haryadhamurti".]]
The diversity within Hinduism encourages a wide variety of beliefs and traditions, of which two important and large traditions are associated with Vishnu and Shiva. Some schools focus on Vishnu (including his associated [[avatar]]s such as Rama and Krishna) as the Supreme God, and others on Shiva (including his different avatars such as Mahadeva and Pashupata). The [[Puranas]] and various Hindu traditions treat both Shiva and Vishnu as being different aspects of the one [[Brahman]]. Harihara is a symbolic representation of this idea. A similar idea, called [[Ardhanarishvara]] or ''Naranari'', fuses masculine and feminine deities as one and equivalent representation in Hinduism.<ref>Ellen Goldberg (2002), The Lord who is half woman: Ardhanārīśvara in Indian and feminist perspective, SUNY Press, {{ISBN|0-791453251}}, pages 1-4</ref>

Depending on which scriptures (and translations) are quoted, evidence is available to support each of the different arguments. In most cases, even if one personality is taken as being superior over the other, much respect is still offered to both Vishnu and Shiva by the other's worshippers (i.e. Shiva is still regarded as being above the level of an ordinary [[jiva]] and 'the greatest of the Vaishnavas' by Vaishnavas who worship only Vishnu).<ref>"Lord Sambhu [Siva] the greatest of Vaishnavas and vice versa" from [http://srimadbhagavatam.com/12/13/16/en1 Bhag-Purana 12.13.16] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071009160352/http://srimadbhagavatam.com/12/13/16/en1 |date=9 October 2007 }}</ref>

[[Swaminarayan]] holds that Vishnu and Shiva are different aspects of the same God.<ref>[http://www.kakaji.org/shikshapatri_verses.asp?catid=viewAll] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303180131/http://www.kakaji.org/shikshapatri_verses.asp?catid=viewAll|date=3 March 2016}}, verses 47, 84, of their scripture, [[Shikshapatri]], [http://www.kakaji.org/shikshapatri_verses.asp?catid=viewAll] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303180131/http://www.kakaji.org/shikshapatri_verses.asp?catid=viewAll|date=3 March 2016}} states, "And the oneness of [[Narayana]] and [[Shiva]] should be understood, as the Vedas have described both to be brahmaroopa, or form of [[Brahman]], i.e., [[Saguna Brahman]], indicating that Vishnu and Shiva are different forms of the one and same God.</ref><ref>[http://www.swaminarayansatsang.com/library/scriptures/index.asp?idCategory=2&curPage=2&MediaType= Swaminarayan Satsang – Scriptures] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716171647/http://www.swaminarayansatsang.com/library/scriptures/index.asp?idCategory=2&curPage=2&MediaType= |date=16 July 2011 }}</ref><ref>http://www.swaminarayansatsang.com/library/scriptures/scriptureexplanation.asp?IDProduct=762&idcategory=2={{Dead link|date=January 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

== Legends ==
The earliest mention of Harihara is likely to be observed in the [[Harivamsa|Harivamsha]], where [[Markandeya]] discusses the being.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://mahabharata-resources.org/harivamsa/vishnuparva/hv_2_125.html |access-date=2023-01-17 |website=mahabharata-resources.org}}</ref> In the [[Mahabharata]], Harihara is mentioned as the one of thousand names of Lord [[Shiva]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mahabharata, Anushasana Parva, Section XVII |url=https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m13/m13a017.htm}}</ref>

==Depictions==
{{multiple image
|image1=Harihara, statue.jpg
|caption1=Statue of Harihara. This statue is the mortuary deified portrayal of King [[Kertarajasa]], the first king of Majapahit (1293-1309) from the temple Candi Simping in East Java.
|width1=150
|image2=British Museum Harihara.JPG
|caption2=Harihara sculpture, British Museum. The left half represents Shiva (with the Trishula) and the right half represents Vishnu (with the Chakra and Conch).
|width2=158
}}
Harihara is depicted in art as split down the middle, one half representing Shiva, the other half representing Vishnu.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rajarajan |first=R.K.K. |date=2021 |title=Rāmagiri Tēr Harihara and Harihara-Ekapāda Trimūrti |url=https://www.academia.edu/78964505 |journal=Journal of Indian History and Culture |volume=28 |pages=187–213}}</ref> The Shiva half will have the matted locks of a yogic master piled high on his head and sometimes will wear a tiger skin, reserved for the most revered ascetics. Shiva's pale skin may be read as ash-covered in his role as an ascetic. The Vishnu half will wear a tall [[Crown (headgear)|crown]] and other [[jewelry]], representing his responsibility for maintaining world order. Vishnu's black skin represents holiness. Broadly, these distinctions serve to represent the duality of humble religious influence in the ascetic and authoritative secular power in the king or householder.<ref>Thirty Thousand Years of Art. Phaidon Press Limited. p. 484</ref> However, in other aspects Shiva also takes on the authoritative position of householder, a position which is [[Shiva#Ascetic and householder|directly at odds]] with the ascetic position depicted in his Harihara manifestation.{{Cn|date=February 2022}}

Harihara has been part of temple iconography throughout South Asia and Southeast Asia, with some illustrations listed in the following table. In some states, the concept of Harihara appears through alternate names and its progeny; for example, temples incorporating [[Ayyappan]] and [[Shasta (deity)|Shasta]] deities in [[Kerala]] illustrate this Hindu tradition there since at least the 7th century.<ref>Jones and Ryan (2007), Encyclopedia of Hinduism, {{ISBN|978-0816054589}}, page 58</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+Temples with Harihara murti (half Vishnu, half Shiva)
|-
!Temple name !! Location !! Harihara [[murti]] date !! Reference
|-
|Badami cave temples || [[Karnataka]] || 6th century ||<ref>TA Gopinatha Rao (1993), Elements of Hindu iconography, Vol 2, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120808775}}, pages 334-335</ref>
|-
|[[Dharmaraja Ratha]] || [[Tamil Nadu]] || 7th century ||<ref>[http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_whs_mahabalipuram_monolithic.asp World Heritage Sites - Mahabalipuram] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130312100940/http://www.asi.nic.in/asi_monu_whs_mahabalipuram_monolithic.asp |date=12 March 2013 }} Archaeological Survey of India, Government of India (2011), Quote: "The sculptures around the sanctum in the corner blocks depict simple forms of Siva, '''Harihara''', Brahma-Sasta, Brahma, a delicately balanced representation of Ardhanarisvara."</ref>
|-
|Birasini temple || [[Madhya Pradesh]] || ||
|-
|[[Harihareshwara Temple]] || Karnataka || 13th century ||<ref>Henry Cousens (1996), The Chalukyan Architecture of Kanarese Districts, Archaeological Survey of India, page 93</ref>
|-
|Ossian temples || [[Rajasthan]] || two from 8th century, one 9th century ||<ref>[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/images/aiis/aiis_search.html?depth=Get+Details&id=59436 Harihara temple 1] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304052425/http://dsal.uchicago.edu/images/aiis/aiis_search.html?depth=Get+Details&id=59436 |date=4 March 2016 }}, Osian, Jodhpur, India, University of Chicago Archives</ref><ref>Cynthia Packert Atherton (1997), The Sculpture of Early Medieval Rajasthan, BRILL, {{ISBN|978-9004107892}}, pages 42-46</ref>
|-
|Deopani temple || [[Assam]] || two from 9th, 10th century ||<ref>CD Tripathi (2008), Kāmarūpa-Kaliṅga-Mithilā: a politico-cultural alignment in Eastern India : history, art, traditions, IIAS, {{ISBN|978-8173053276}}, pages 55-57</ref>
|-
|[[Mukteshvara Temple, Bhubaneswar|Mukteshvara Temple]]
|[[Odisha]]
|9th-10th Century CE
|
|-
|Saugal-tol temple || [[Nepal]] || statue: 6th century temple: 12th to 16th century ||<ref>Mary Slusser, [http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/contributions/pdf/CNAS_02_01_04.pdf Saugal-tol temple of Patan], INAS Journal, page 40-41 and 46-48 (images)</ref>
|-
|Purandi temple || [[Nepal]] || 11th century ||<ref>Mary Slusser (1996), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3250106 The Purandi Hoard: Metalwork from Eleventh-Century Nepal], Artibus Asiae, Vol. 56, No. 1/2, pages 95-137, 139-143</ref>
|-
|Prasat Andet || [[Cambodia]] || late 7th to early 8th century ||<ref>Fred Kleiner (2012), Gardner’s Art through the Ages: A Global History, Cengage, {{ISBN|978-0495915423}}, pages 443-444</ref><ref>[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/1977.241 Standing Hari–Hara, Pre–Angkor period] The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, USA</ref>
|-
|Candi Simping || [[Indonesia]] || 13th or 14th century ||<ref>[[Edi Sedyawati]] et al (2013), Candi Indonesia: Seri Jawa, Direktorat Jenderal Kebudayaan, {{ISBN|978-6021766934}}, pages 246-248</ref>
|-
|[[Baijnath Temple]]
|[[Himachal Pradesh]]
|13th century
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://baijnathtemple.com/sculpture.htm|title=Baijnath Temple}}</ref>
|-
|Hariharnath Temple
|Bihar
|Exact dates not known.
|[[Sonpur, Bihar]]
|}

==See also==
* [[Ardhanarishvara]]
* [[Vaikuntha Kamalaja]]
* [[Ayyappan]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Harihara}}

* [http://www.dlshq.org/download/lordsiva.htm#_VPID_127 Shiva and Vishnu as One and the Same] (dlshq.org)
* [http://www.art-and-archaeology.com/india/halebid/hal07.html Harihara - Photograph of Carving from Hoysaleshvara Temple, Halebid] (art-and-archaeology.com)

{{Hindu Culture and Epics}}

[[Category:Hindu philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Hindu gods]]
[[Category:Forms of Shiva]]
[[Category:Forms of Vishnu]]

Bhaga

2023-01-16T17:24:16Z

ImportMaster: robot: Create/update articles in Category:Hindu gods.

{{short description|Hindu god associated with fortune}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2016}}
{{More citations needed|date=December 2020}}{{Infobox deity
| type = Hindu
| deity_of = God of Wealth
| parents = {{ubl|[[Kashyapa]] (father)|[[Aditi]] (mother)<ref name="Garg1992">{{cite book|author=Gaṅgā Rām Garg|title=Encyclopaedia of the Hindu World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w9pmo51lRnYC&pg=PA170|year=1992|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=978-81-7022-374-0|pages=170–}}</ref>}}
| affiliation = [[Adityas]]
| planet = [[Sun]]
| image =
| caption =
}}
'''''Bhaga''''' is the [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic]] god of wealth,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kulasrestha |first=Mahendra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OIoRWGSfMikC&dq=bhaga+wealth+book&pg=PA90 |title=The Golden Book of Rigveda |date=2006 |publisher=Lotus Press |isbn=978-81-8382-010-3 |language=en}}</ref> as well as a term for "[[lord]], [[patron]]" and "wealth, prosperity". He is an [[Ādityas|Āditya]], a group of societal deities who are the sons of [[Aditi]]. Bhaga's responsibility was to make sure that people received a share of the goods in life. He is associated with his brother, [[Aryaman]], regarding the expectation of a successful marriage.<ref name=":0">{{cite book|author=Stephanie Jamison|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1LTRDwAAQBAJ|title=The Rigveda –– Earliest Religious Poetry of India|last2=Brereton|first2=Joel|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2015|isbn=978-0190633394|pages=44}}</ref>

== Etymology ==

The cognate term in [[Avestan]] and [[Old Persian]] is ''{{lang|peo-Latn|baga}}'', of uncertain meaning but used in a sense in which "lord, patron, sharer/distributor of good fortune" might also apply. The cognate in [[Slavic languages]] is the root [[wikt:Appendix:Proto-Slavic/bogъ#Etymology|bogъ]]. The [[semantics]] is similar to [[English language|English]] ''[[lord]]'' (from ''[[:wikt:hlaford|hlaford]]'' "bread-warden"), the idea being that it is part of the function of a chieftain or leader to distribute riches or spoils among his followers. The name of the city of [[Baghdad]] derives from [[Middle Persian]] ''baga-data'', "lord-given".

== Role ==
=== In Sanskrit religious literature ===
In the [[Rigveda|Rigveda Samhita]], Bhaga is invoked and praised as the "sustainer of the world", "giver of wealth", "chief leader of rites", and "possessor of opulence". He is asked to bestow upon his adherents cattle and horses, male issue, felicity, and riches.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6tf0xYQRrsgC&dq=bhaga+wealth+book&pg=PA108 |title=Rig-Veda Sanhitá a Collection of Ancient Hindú Hymns, Constituting the Fifth Ashtaka, Or Book of the Reg-Veda ... Translated from the Original Sanskrit by the Late H. H. Wilson |date=1866 |publisher=N. Trübner |language=en}}</ref>

In the Sanskrit [[Rigveda]], ''bhaga'' is an epithet of both mortals and gods (e.g. of [[Savitr]], [[Indra]] and [[Agni]]) who bestow wealth and prosperity, as well as the personification of a particular god, ''the'' Bhaga, who bestows the same. In the Rigveda, the personification is attested primarily in ''RV'' 7.41, which is devoted to the praise of the Bhaga and of the deities closest to him, and in which the Bhaga is invoked about 60 times, together with Agni, Indra, the [[Dvandva|dual]] [[Mitra-Varuna]], the two [[Ashvins]], [[Pushan|Pusan]], [[Brahmanaspati]], [[Soma (deity)|Soma]] and [[Rudra]]. Bhaga is also invoked elsewhere in the company of Indra, [[Varuna]] and [[Mitra (Vedic)|Mitra]] (e.g. ''RV'' 10.35, 42.396). The personification is occasionally intentionally ambiguous, as in ''RV'' 5.46 where men are portrayed as requesting the Bhaga to share in ''bhaga''. In the Rigveda, the Bhaga is occasionally associated with the sun: in ''RV'' 1.123, the Dawn ([[Ushas]]) is said to be the Bhaga's sister, and in ''RV'' 1.136, the Bhaga's eye is adorned with rays.

The 5th/6th-century BCE ''[[Nirukta]]'' (''Nir.'' 12.13) describes Bhaga as the god of the morning. In the Rigveda, the Bhaga is named as one of the [[Adityas]], the seven (or eight) celestial sons of [[Aditi]], the Rigvedic mother of the gods. In the medieval [[Bhagavata Purana]], the Bhaga reappears with the Puranic Adityas, which are by then twelve solar gods.

== Legacy ==
Elsewhere, the Bhaga continues as a god of wealth and marriage, in a role that is also attested for the [[Sogdian language|Sogdian (Buddhist)]] equivalent of the Bhaga.

The common noun ''bhaga'' survives in the 2nd century CE inscription of [[Rudradaman I]], where it is a fiscal term; in ''[[bhagavan]]'' for "one who possesses (''-van'') the properties of a ''bhaga-''", hence itself "lord, god"; and in ''bhagya'', and "that which derives from ''bhaga''", hence "[[destiny]]" as an abstract noun, and also ''Bhagya'' personified as the proper name of a son of [[Surya]].

Bhaga is also the presiding deity of the [[Purva Phalgunī]] Nakshatra.

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Rigveda}}
{{Hindu Deities and Texts}}

[[Category:Hindu gods]]
[[Category:Adityas]]
[[Category:Rigvedic deities]]

Brahma

2023-01-16T17:03:36Z

ImportMaster: robot: Create/update articles in Category:Hindu gods.

{{short description|Creator god in Hinduism}}
{{About|Hindu creation god|the genderless metaphysical concept of Ultimate Reality in Hindu philosophy|Brahman}}
{{other uses}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2015}}
{{Infobox deity 
| type = Hindu
| image = A roundel of Brahma.jpg
| caption = A roundel with depiction of Brahma, 19th century
| name = Brahma
| devanagari = ब्रह्मा
| sinhala = බ්‍රහ්ම
| sanskrit_transliteration = Brahmā
| affiliation = [[Trideva]], [[Deva (Hinduism)|Deva]]
| deity_of = God of Creation
Creator of the Universe
Epitome of knowledge and the [[Veda]]s<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/brahma |title=Brahma, Brahmā, Brāhma: 66 definitions |publisher=Wisdomlib.org |date=2022-06-06 |access-date=2022-08-05}}</ref>
| abode = [[Satyaloka]] or [[Brahmaloka]], [[Pushkara]]
| weapon = [[Brahmastra]], [[Brahmashirsha astra]]
| mantra = ॐ वेदात्मनाय विद्महे हिरण्यगर्भाय धीमही तन्नो ब्रह्मा प्रचोदयात् ।। ''{{IAST|Oṃ vedātmanāya vidmahe hiraṇyagarbhāya dhīmahī tan no brahmā pracodayāt}}''
| symbol = [[Nelumbo nucifera|Lotus]], the [[Vedas]], ''[[japamala]]'' and ''[[kamandalu]]''
| consort = [[Saraswati]] ([[Brahmani (Matrika)|Brahmani]])
| mount = [[Hamsa (bird)|Hamsa]]
| festivals = [[Kartik Purnima]]
| member_of = [[Trimurti]]
| other_names = Svayambhu, Virinchi, Prajapati
| children = [[Manasputra|Mind-born children]] including [[Angiras (sage)|Angiras]], [[Atri]], [[Bhrigu]], [[Chitragupta]], [[Daksha]], [[Himavan]], [[Jambavan]], [[Kratu]], [[Four Kumaras|Kumara]]s, [[Marichi]], [[Narada]], [[Pulaha]], [[Pulastya]], [[Shatarupa]], [[Svayambhuva Manu]] [[Vashishtha]]
}}
'''Brahma''' ({{lang-sa|ब्रह्मा|Brahmā}}) is a [[Hindu god]], referred to as "the Creator" within the [[Trimurti]], the [[triple deity|trinity]] of [[Para Brahman|supreme divinity]] that includes [[Vishnu]], and [[Shiva]].<ref name=davidwhite29>{{cite book|first=David|last=White|author-link=David Gordon White|year=2006|title=Kiss of the Yogini|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0226894843|pages=4, 29}}</ref><ref name="gonda212">Jan Gonda (1969), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/40457085 The Hindu Trinity], Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pp. 212–226.</ref><ref>Jan Gonda (1969), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/40457085 The Hindu Trinity], Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pp. 218–219.</ref> He is associated with creation, knowledge, and the ''[[Veda]]s''.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.12977|title=THE VAYU PURANA PART. 1|last=N.A|date=1960|publisher=MOTILAL BANARSIDASS PUBLISHERS PVT. LTD, DELHI|pages=[https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.12977/page/n184 174] (26.31)}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first1=Charles Russell|last1=Coulter|first2=Patricia|last2=Turner|title=Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VWxekbhM1yEC&pg=PT240|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-96397-2|page=240}}, Quote: "Brahma, a creator god, received the basics of his mythological history from Purusha. During the Brahmanic period, the Hindu Trimurti was represented by Brahma with his attribute of creation, Shiva with his attribute of destruction and Vishnu with his attribute of preservation."</ref><ref name=bruce86>{{cite book|first=Bruce|last=Sullivan|year=1999|title=Seer of the Fifth Veda: Kr̥ṣṇa Dvaipāyana Vyāsa in the Mahābhārata|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-8120816763|pages=85–86}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Barbara|last=Holdrege|year=2012|title=Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-1438406954|pages=88–89}}</ref> Brahma is prominently mentioned in [[Creation myth|creation legends]]. In some ''[[Purana]]s'', he created himself in a golden embryo known as the [[Hiranyagarbha]].

Brahma is frequently identified with the [[Rigvedic deities|Vedic god]] [[Prajapati]].<ref name="david183">{{cite book |last=Leeming |first=David |title=Creation Myths of the World |year=2009 |isbn=978-1598841749 |edition=2nd |page=146 |author-link=David Adams Leeming}}; David Leeming (2005), The Oxford Companion to World Mythology, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195156690}}, page 54, '''Quote:''' "Especially in the Vedanta Hindu Philosophy, Brahman is the Absolute. In the Upanishads, Brahman becomes the eternal first cause, present everywhere and nowhere, always and never. Brahman can be incarnated in Brahma, in Vishnu, in Shiva. To put it another way, everything that is, owes its existence to Brahman. In this sense, Hinduism is ultimately monotheistic or monistic, all gods being aspects of Brahman"; Also see pages 183-184, Quote: "Prajapati, himself the source of creator god Brahma – in a sense, a personification of Brahman (...) [[Moksha]], the connection between the transcendental absolute Brahman and the inner absolute [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]]."</ref> During the post-Vedic period, Brahma was a prominent deity and his sect existed; however, by the 7th century, he had lost his significance. He was also overshadowed by other major deities like [[Vishnu]], [[Shiva]], and [[Adi Parashakti|Devi]],<ref name = "Dalal1" /> and demoted to the role of a secondary creator, who was created by the major deities.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Achuthananda|first=Swami|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F9FqDwAAQBAJ&q=in+which+sect+Brahma+is+considered+supreme|title=The Ascent of Vishnu and the Fall of Brahma|date=2018-08-27|publisher=Relianz Communications Pty Ltd|isbn=978-0-9757883-3-2|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Stella Kramrisch 1994 pages 205-206">{{cite book|first=Stella|last=Kramrisch|author-link=Stella Kramrisch|year=1994|title=The Presence of Siva|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0691019307|pages=205–206}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Pattanaik|first=Devdutt|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rjL3ogbdJNkC&q=devi+created+brahma+vishnu&pg=PA123|title=The Goddess in India:The Five Faces of the Eternal Feminine|date=September 2000|publisher=Inner Traditions / Bear & Co|isbn=978-0-89281-807-5|language=en}}</ref>

Brahma is commonly depicted as a red or golden [[complexion]]ed bearded man, with four heads and hands. His four heads represent the four Vedas and are pointed to the four cardinal directions. He is seated on a lotus and his ''[[vahana]]'' (mount) is a ''[[hamsa (bird)|hamsa]]'' (swan, goose or crane). According to the scriptures, Brahma created his children from his mind and thus, they are referred to as ''[[Manasputra|Manasaputra]]''.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=87k0AwAAQBAJ&pg=PT936|title=The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths|last=Dalal|first=Roshen|author-link=Roshen Dalal|date=2014-04-18|publisher=Penguin UK|isbn=9788184753967|language=en}}</ref><ref name="turner258">Charles Coulter and Patricia Turner (2000), Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0786403172}}, page 258, Quote: "When Brahma is acknowledged as the supreme god, it was said that Kama sprang from his heart."</ref>

In contemporary Hinduism, Brahma does not enjoy popular worship and has substantially less importance than the other two members of the Trimurti. Brahma is revered in the ancient texts, yet rarely worshiped as a primary deity in India, owing to the absence of any significant sect dedicated to his veneration.<ref name=morris123>{{cite book|first=Brian|last=Morris|year=2005|title=Religion and Anthropology: A Critical Introduction|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521852418|page=123}}</ref> Very few temples dedicated to him exist in India, the most famous being the [[Brahma Temple, Pushkar]] in Rajasthan.<ref name=chakravarti15>{{cite book|first=SS|last=Charkravarti|year=2001|title=Hinduism, a Way of Life|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-8120808997|page=15}}</ref> Some Brahma temples are found outside India, such as at the [[Erawan Shrine]] in [[Bangkok]].<ref name=ellenlondon74>{{cite book|first=Ellen|last=London|year=2008|title=Thailand Condensed: 2,000 Years of History & Culture|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|isbn=978-9812615206|page=74}}</ref>

==Origin and meaning==
The origins of the term {{IAST|brahmā}} are uncertain, in part because several related words are found in the Vedic literature, such as ''[[Brahman]]'' for the 'Ultimate Reality' and [[Brahmin|''Brāhmaṇa'']] for 'priest'. A distinction between the spiritual concept of ''brahman'' and the deity Brahmā is that the former is a genderless abstract metaphysical concept in Hinduism<ref>James Lochtefeld, Brahman, The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN|978-0823931798}}, page 122</ref> while the latter is one of the many masculine gods in Hindu tradition.<ref>James Lochtefeld, Brahma, The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN|978-0823931798}}, page 119</ref> The spiritual concept of ''brahman'' is quite old{{Citation needed|date=March 2021}} and some scholars suggest that the deity Brahma may have emerged as a personification and visible icon of the impersonal universal principle ''brahman''.<ref name="brucesullivan">Bruce Sullivan (1999), Seer of the Fifth Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120816763}}, pages 82-83</ref> The existence of a distinct deity named ''Brahma'' is evidenced in late Vedic texts.<ref name="brucesullivan" />

Grammatically, the nominal stem ''brahma-'' has two distinct forms: the [[Neuter (grammar)|neuter]] noun ''bráhman'', whose [[nominative case|nominative singular form]] is ''{{IAST|brahma}}'' ({{lang|sa|ब्रह्म}}); and the [[Masculine (grammar)|masculine]] noun ''brahmán'', whose nominative singular form is ''{{IAST|brahmā}}'' ({{lang|sa|ब्रह्मा}}). The former, neuter form has a generalised and abstract meaning<ref>{{cite book|last=Gopal|first=Madan|url=https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada|title=India through the ages|publisher=Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India|year=1990|editor=K.S. Gautam|page=[https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada/page/79 79]}}</ref> while the latter, masculine form is used as the proper name of the deity Brahma.

==Literature and legends==
===Vedic literature===
[[File:Brahma Bimaran casket.jpg|thumb|An early depiction of Brahma, on the [[Bimaran casket]], early 1st century CE. [[British Museum]].<ref>"The Bimaran Reliquary, a Gandharan work, which is now housed in the British Museum, London, is of great historical and iconographic significance. It shows Buddha in the centre, attended by Brahma to his right and Indra to the left." in {{cite book |last1=Banerjee |first1=Priyatosh |title=Central Asian art: new revelations from Xinjiang |date=2001 |publisher=Abha Prakashan |page=48 |isbn=9788185704241 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iazpAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref><ref>"Standing Buddha in the arched compartment, flanked by figures of Brahma and Indra standing in similar compartments, detail of the side of Bimaran gold casket" in {{cite book |last1=Agrawala |first1=Prithvi Kumar |title=Early Indian Bronzes |date=1977 |publisher=Prithvi Prakashan |page=152 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kZUrAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref>]]
{{multiple image
| align = right
| image1 = 12th century Chennakesava temple at Somanathapura, Karnataka, India Lord Brahma.jpg
| width1 = 100
| alt1 =
| caption1 =
| image2 = A sculpture of Brahma Hindu deity at Museum CSMVS Mumbai.jpg
| width2 = 254
| alt2 =
| caption2 =
| footer = Left: Brahma at the 12th century [[Chennakesava Temple, Somanathapura]]; Right: Brahma at a 6th/7th century [[Aihole]] temple.
}}
One of the earliest mentions of Brahma with Vishnu and Shiva is in the fifth ''Prapathaka'' (lesson) of the ''[[Maitrayaniya Upanishad]]'', probably composed around late 1st millennium BCE. Brahma is first discussed in verse 5,1, also called the ''Kutsayana Hymn'', and then expounded in verse 5,2.<ref name=hume51>{{citation|first=Robert Ernest|last=Hume|author-link=Robert Ernest Hume|title=The Thirteen Principal Upanishads |url=https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n443/mode/2up|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1921|pages=422–424}}</ref>

In the pantheistic ''Kutsayana Hymn'',<ref name=hume51/> the Upanishad asserts that one's Soul is Brahman, and this Ultimate Reality, Cosmic Universal or God is within each living being. It equates the [[Ātman (Hinduism)|''atman'']] (Soul, Self) within to be Brahma and various alternate manifestations of Brahman, as follows, "Thou art Brahma, thou art Vishnu, thou art Rudra (Shiva), thou art [[Agni]], [[Varuna]], [[Vayu]], [[Indra]], thou art All."<ref name=hume51/>

In the verse (5,2), Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva are mapped into the theory of [[Guṇa]], that is qualities, psyche and innate tendencies the text describes can be found in all living beings.<ref name=maxmuller51>[[Max Müller|Max Muller]], The Upanishads, Part 2, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/302/mode/2up Maitrayana-Brahmana Upanishad], Oxford University Press, pages 303-304</ref><ref>Jan Gonda (1968), The Hindu Trinity, Anthropos, Vol. 63, pages 215-219</ref> This chapter of the ''[[Maitri Upanishad]]'' asserts that the universe emerged from darkness (''[[Tamas (philosophy)|tamas]]''), first as passion characterized by innate quality (''[[rajas]]''), which then refined and differentiated into purity and goodness (''[[sattva]]'').<ref name=hume51/><ref name=maxmuller51/> Of these three qualities, ''rajas'' is then mapped to ''Brahma'', as follows:<ref>[[Paul Deussen]], Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 344-346</ref>

{{Blockquote|
<poem>
Now then, that part of him which belongs to ''tamas'', that, O students of sacred knowledge ([[Brahmacharya|Brahmacharins]]), is this Rudra.
That part of him which belongs to ''rajas'', that O students of sacred knowledge, is this '''Brahma'''.
That part of him which belongs to ''sattva'', that O students of sacred knowledge, is this Vishnu.
Verily, that One became threefold, became eightfold, elevenfold, twelvefold, into infinite fold.
This Being (neuter) entered all beings, he became the overlord of all beings.
That is the [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (Soul, Self) within and without – yea, within and without!
</poem>
|[[Maitrayaniya Upanishad|Maitri Upanishad]] 5.2|<ref name=hume51/><ref name=maxmuller51/>}}

While the ''Maitri Upanishad'' maps Brahma with one of the elements of ''guṇa'' theory of Hinduism, the text does not depict him as one of the trifunctional elements of the Hindu ''Trimurti'' idea found in later Puranic literature.<ref>GM Bailey (1979), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3269716 Trifunctional Elements in the theology of the Hindu Trimūrti], Numen, Vol. 26, Fasc. 2, pages 152-163</ref>

===Post-Vedic, Epics and Puranas===
[[File:Sheshashayi Vishnu.jpg|thumb|upright|In [[Vaishnava]] Puranic scriptures, Brahma emerges on a lotus from Vishnu's navel as Vishnu (Mahavishnu) creates the cosmic cycle. Shaivite texts describe that Shiva told Vishnu to create, Shiva ordered Vishnu to make Brahma.<ref name=bryant18/>]]

During the post-Vedic period, Brahma was a prominent deity and his sect existed during 2nd to 6th century CE. The early texts like [[Brahmananda Purana]] describe that there was nothing, but an eternal ocean. From which, a golden egg, called [[Hiranyagarbha]], emerged. The egg broke open and Brahma, who had created himself within it, came into existence (gaining the name Swayambhu). Then, he created the universe, the earth and other things. He also created people to populate and live on his creation.<ref name = "ACK" >{{Cite book|last=Srinivasan|first=Shalini|title=Stories of Creation|date=April 1971|publisher=Amar Chitra Katha private limited|isbn=8184826478}}</ref><ref name = "Fall" >{{Cite book|last=Achuthananda|first=Swami|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F9FqDwAAQBAJ&q=Brahma|title=The Ascent of Vishnu and the Fall of Brahma|date=2018-08-27|publisher=Relianz Communications Pty Ltd|isbn=978-0-9757883-3-2|language=en}}</ref><ref name = "Dalal1" >{{Cite book|last=Dalal|first=Roshen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&q=Brahma|title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide|date=2010|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=978-0-14-341421-6|language=en|pages=78–79}}</ref>

However, by the 7th century, Brahma lost his importance. Puranic legends mention various reasons for his downfall. There are primarily two prominent versions why Brahma lost his ground. The first version refers to Shiva Purana where Brahma and Vishnu were arguing who was the greatest among them. Then suddenly they hear a voice and saw a huge lightning pillar. The voice asked them to find out the end of the pillar and whoever could find the end of the pillar will be the greatest. Vishnu went towards the bottom and Brahma went towards the top. Vishnu came back and accepted his defeat that he couldn't find the end. However, Brahma came back and lied that he could find the top end. The pillar was Shiva Linga and the voice was of Shiva and this lie infuriated Shiva. Angry Shiva cursed Brahma that he will never be worshiped henceforth.

Historians believe that some of the major reasons of Brahma's downfall were the rise of Shaivism and Vaishnavism, replacement of him with Shakti in the Smarta tradition and the frequent attacks by Buddhist, Jains and even by Hindu followers of Vaishnavas and Shaivites.<ref name="Dalal1" /><ref name="Fall" />

The post-Vedic texts of Hinduism offer multiple theories of [[cosmogony]], many involving the Brahma. These include ''Sarga'' (primary creation of universe) and ''Visarga'' (secondary creation), ideas related to the Indian thought that there are two levels of reality, one primary that is unchanging ([[metaphysics|metaphysical]]) and other secondary that is always changing ([[empiricism|empirical]]), and that all observed reality of the latter is in an endlessly repeating cycle of existence, that cosmos and life we experience is continually created, evolved, dissolved and then re-created.<ref name=tpinchman125>Tracy Pintchman (1994), The Rise of the Goddess in the Hindu Tradition, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791421123}}, pages 122-138</ref> The primary creator is extensively discussed in Vedic cosmogonies with ''Brahman'' or ''[[Purusha]]'' or ''[[Devi]]'' among the terms used for the primary creator,<ref name=tpinchman125/><ref>Jan Gonda (1969), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/40457085 The Hindu Trinity], Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pages 213-214</ref> while the Vedic and post-Vedic texts name different gods and goddesses as secondary creators (often Brahma in post-Vedic texts), and in some cases a different god or goddess is the secondary creator at the start of each cosmic cycle (''kalpa'', aeon).<ref name="Stella Kramrisch 1994 pages 205-206"/><ref name=tpinchman125/>

Brahma is a "secondary creator" as described in the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' and [[Puranas]], and among the most studied and described.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last1=Bryant|editor-first1=Edwin F.|title=Krishna : a sourcebook|date=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-19-514891-6|page=7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Sutton|first1=Nicholas|title=Religious doctrines in the Mahābhārata|date=2000|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers|location=Delhi|isbn=81-208-1700-1|page=182|edition=1st}}</ref><ref>Asian Mythologies by Yves Bonnefoy & Wendy Doniger. Page 46</ref> Some texts suggest that Brahma was born from a lotus emerging from the navel of the god [[Vishnu]] and from Lord Brahma's wrath, Shiva was born.<ref>{{cite book|author=S. M. Srinivasa Chari |title=Vaiṣṇavism: Its Philosophy, Theology, and Religious Discipline|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=evmiLInyxBMC |year=1994|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1098-3 |page=147 }}</ref><ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Brahma-Hindu-god Brahma: Hindu god] Encyclopædia Britannica.</ref> In contrast, the [[Shiva]]-focused Puranas describe Brahma and Vishnu to have been created by [[Ardhanarishvara]], that is half Shiva and half Parvati; or alternatively, Brahma was born from [[Rudra]], or Vishnu, Shiva and Brahma creating each other cyclically in different aeons ([[Kalpa (aeon)|kalpa]]).<ref name="Stella Kramrisch 1994 pages 205-206"/><ref>{{cite book|author=Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty |title=Siva: The Erotic Ascetic |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dnfZ_MBErlQC |year=1981|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-972793-3 |page=125 }}</ref> Yet others suggest the goddess Devi created Brahma,<ref name=kinsley137>{{cite book|author=David Kinsley |title=Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition|url=https://archive.org/details/hindugoddessesvi0000kins |url-access=registration |year=1988|publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-90883-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/hindugoddessesvi0000kins/page/137 137] }}</ref> and these texts then go on to state that Brahma is a secondary creator of the world working respectively on their behalf.<ref name=kinsley137/><ref>{{cite book|author=Stella Kramrisch|title=The Presence of Siva|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O5BanndcIgUC&pg=PA205|year=1992|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0-691-01930-4 |pages=205–206 }}</ref> Brahma creates all the forms in the universe, but not the primordial universe itself.<ref name=bryant18>{{cite book|editor-last1=Bryant|editor-first1=Edwin F.|title=Krishna : a sourcebook|date=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-19-514891-6|page=18}}</ref> Thus in most Puranic texts, Brahma's creative activity depends on the presence and power of a higher god.<ref name="Continuum">{{cite book|last1=Frazier|first1=Jessica|title=The Continuum companion to Hindu studies | date=2011|publisher=Continuum|location=London|isbn=978-0-8264-9966-0|page=72}}</ref> Further, the medieval era texts of these major theistic traditions of Hinduism assert that the ''saguna'' (representation with face and attributes)<ref>{{cite book|author=Arvind Sharma|title=Classical Hindu Thought: An Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gDmUToaeMJ0C |year=2000|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-564441-8|page=4}}</ref> Brahma is Vishnu,<ref>{{cite book|author1=Mark Juergensmeyer |author2=Wade Clark Roof |title=Encyclopedia of Global Religion |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WwJzAwAAQBAJ |year=2011|publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-1-4522-6656-5 |page=1335}}</ref> Shiva,<ref>{{cite book|author=Stella Kramrisch |title=The Presence of Siva |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O5BanndcIgUC |year=1992|publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=0-691-01930-4 |page=171 }}</ref> or Devi<ref>{{cite book|author=David Kinsley |title=Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition |url=https://archive.org/details/hindugoddessesvi0000kins |url-access=registration |year=1988|publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-90883-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/hindugoddessesvi0000kins/page/136 136] }}</ref> respectively.

In the post-Vedic Puranic literature,<ref name=pandeyp40>{{cite book|author=R. M. Matthijs Cornelissen|title=Foundations of Indian Psychology Volume 2: Practical Applications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BkkgeKXyiOIC |year=2011|publisher=Pearson |isbn=978-81-317-3085-0 |page=40 }}</ref> Brahma creates but neither preserves nor destroys anything. He is envisioned in some Hindu texts to have emerged from the metaphysical [[Brahman]] along with Vishnu (preserver), Shiva (destroyer), all other deities, matter and other beings. In theistic schools of Hinduism where deity Brahma is described as part of its cosmology, he is a mortal like all deities and dissolves into the abstract immortal Brahman when the universe ends, then a new cosmic cycle (kalpa) restarts.<ref name=pandeyp40/><ref name="Fowler2002p330">{{cite book|author=Jeaneane D. Fowler|title=Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8dRZ4E-qgz8C |year=2002|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|isbn=978-1-898723-93-6 |page=330 }}</ref>

[[File:Sculpture of Brahma, Tamil Nadu.jpg|thumb|left|Sculpture of Brahma flanked by [[Yama]] and [[Chitragupta]], [[Tamil Nadu]], 10th Century]]
In the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'', Brahma is portrayed several times as the one who rises from the "Ocean of Causes".<ref name=richard>Richard Anderson (1967), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1769398 Hindu Myths in Mallarmé: Un Coup de Dés], Comparative Literature, Vol. 19, No. 1, pages 28-35</ref> Brahma, states this Purana, emerges at the moment when time and universe is born, inside a lotus rooted in the navel of ''Hari'' (deity Vishnu, whose praise is the primary focus in the Purana). The scriptures assert that Brahma is drowsy, errs and is temporarily incompetent as he puts together the universe.<ref name=richard/> He then becomes aware of his confusion and drowsiness, meditates as an ascetic, then realizes ''Hari'' in his heart, sees the beginning and end of the universe, and then his creative powers are revived. Brahma, states Bhagavata Purana, thereafter combines ''[[Prakriti]]'' (nature, matter) and ''[[Purusha]]'' (spirit, soul) to create a dazzling variety of living creatures, and tempest of causal nexus.<ref name=richard/> The Bhagavata Purana thus attributes the creation of [[Maya (illusion)|Maya]] to Brahma,{{Citation needed|date=June 2020}} wherein he creates for the sake of creation, imbuing everything with both the good and the evil, the material and the spiritual, a beginning and an end.<ref>Richard Anderson (1967), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1769398 Hindu Myths in Mallarmé: Un Coup de Dés], Comparative Literature, Vol. 19, No. 1, page 31-33</ref>

The Puranas describe Brahma as the deity creating time.{{Citation needed|date=June 2020}} They correlate human time to Brahma's time, such as a [[Kalpa (aeon)|mahākalpa]] being a large cosmic period, correlating to one day and one night in Brahma's existence.<ref name="Continuum"/>{{Citation needed|date=June 2020}}

The stories about Brahma in various Puranas are diverse and inconsistent. In [[Skanda Purana]], for example, goddess Parvati is called the "mother of the universe", and she is credited with creating Brahma, gods, and the three worlds. She is the one, states Skanda Purana, who combined the three ''Gunas'' - Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas - into matter (''Prakrti'') to create the empirically observed world.<ref>Nicholas Gier (1998), The Yogi and the Goddess, International Journal of Hindu Studies, Vol. 1, No. 2, pages 279-280</ref>

The Vedic discussion of Brahma as a ''Rajas''-quality god expands in the Puranic and Tantric literature. However, these texts state that his wife [[Saraswati]] has ''[[Sattva]]'' (quality of balance, harmony, goodness, purity, holistic, constructive, creative, positive, peaceful, virtuous), thus complementing Brahma's ''Rajas'' (quality of passion, activity, neither good nor bad and sometimes either, action qua action, individualizing, driven, dynamic).<ref>H Woodward (1989), The Lakṣmaṇa Temple, Khajuraho and Its Meanings, Ars Orientalis, Vol. 19, pages 30-34</ref><ref>Alban Widgery (1930), The principles of Hindu Ethics, International Journal of Ethics, Vol. 40, No. 2, pages 234-237</ref><ref>[[Joseph Alter]] (2004), Yoga in modern India, Princeton University Press, page 55</ref>

==Iconography==
{{multiple image
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| footer = Left: 17th century painting of four-headed Brahma as an aged man, holding manuscript (Vedas), a ladle and a [[kamandalu]]; Right: 6th century Brahma in [[Badami cave temples]] holding a writing equipment, ladle, and mala.
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Brahma is traditionally depicted with four faces and four arms.<ref name=kenmorgan>Kenneth Morgan (1996), The Religion of the Hindus, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120803879}}, page 74</ref> Each face of his points to a cardinal direction. His hands hold no weapons, rather symbols of knowledge and creation. In one hand he holds the sacred texts of [[Vedas]], in second he holds ''mala'' (rosary beads) symbolizing time, in third he holds a ''sruva'' or ''shruk'' — ladle types symbolizing means to feed sacrificial fire, and in fourth a ''kamandalu'' – utensil with water symbolizing the means where all creation emits from.<ref name=dalal2010p67>{{cite book|author=Roshen Dalal|title=The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=pNmfdAKFpkQC&pg=PA67|year=2010|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-0-14-341517-6|pages=66–67}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author= Thomas E. Donaldson|title= Iconography of the Buddhist Sculpture of Orissa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DbxE8zOuRbUC&pg=PA99 |year=2001|publisher =Abhinav |isbn= 978-81-7017-406-6|page=99}}</ref> His four mouths are credited with creating the four Vedas.<ref name=bruce86/> He is often depicted with a white beard, implying his sage-like experience. He sits on lotus, dressed in white (or red, pink), with his vehicle ([[vahana]]) – [[Hamsa (bird)|hansa]], a swan or goose – nearby.<ref name=kenmorgan/><ref>Philip Wilkinson and Neil Philip (2009), Mythology, Penguin, {{ISBN|978-0756642211}}, page 156</ref>

Chapter 51 of ''Manasara-Silpasastra'', an ancient design manual in Sanskrit for making [[Murti]] and temples, states that a Brahma statue should be golden in color.<ref name=pkacharya50>PK Acharya, A summary of the Mānsāra, a treatise on architecture and cognate subjects, PhD Thesis awarded by Rijksuniversiteit te Leiden, published by BRILL, {{oclc|898773783}}, page 50</ref> The text recommends that the statue have four faces and four arms, have ''jata-mukuta-mandita'' (matted hair of an ascetic), and wear a [[diadem]] (crown).<ref name=pkacharya50/> Two of his hands should be in refuge granting and gift giving [[mudra]], while he should be shown with ''kundika'' (water pot), ''akshamala'' (rosary), and a small and a large ''sruk-sruva'' (laddles used in yajna ceremonies).<ref name=pkacharya50/> The text details the different proportions of the ''murti'', describes the ornaments, and suggests that the idol wear ''chira'' (bark strip) as lower garment, and either be alone or be accompanied with goddess [[Saraswati]]. Brahma is associated largely with the Vedic culture of [[yajna]] and knowledge. In some Vedic [[yajna]], Brahma is summoned in the ritual to reside and supervise the ritual in the form of [[Prajapati]].

Brahma's wife is the goddess Saraswati.<ref name=elizabeth204>Elizabeth Dowling and W George Scarlett (2005), Encyclopedia of Religious and Spiritual Development, SAGE Publications, {{ISBN|978-0761928836}} page 204</ref><ref>David Kinsley (1988), Hindu Goddesses: Vision of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Traditions, University of California Press, {{ISBN|0-520063392}}, pages 55-64</ref> She is considered to be "the embodiment of his power, the instrument of creation and the energy that drives his actions".

==Worship==
===India===
[[File:BrahmaPushkarGurjarPilgrimage.jpg|thumb|Brahma temples are relatively rare in India. Above: Brahma temple in [[Pushkar]], Rajasthan.]]
Very few temples in India are primarily dedicated to Brahma and his worship.<ref name=morris123/> The most prominent Hindu temple for Brahma is the [[Brahma Temple, Pushkar]].<ref name=chakravarti15/> Other temples include a temple in [[Asotra]] village, [[Balotra]] taluka of Rajasthan's [[Barmer district]] known as ''Kheteshwar Brahmadham Tirtha''.
* Brahmaji Temple [[Chhinch]] Town,[[Banswara]] in [[Rajasthan]] Also Lord Brahma Temple.12th century Brahma Temple hear.
[[File:BRAHMAJI TEMPLE CHHINCH.jpg|thumb|12th century Statue Of Lord Brahma in [[Chhinch]] Town,[[Banswara]],of [[Rajasthan]].]]

Brahma is also worshipped in temple complexes dedicated to the Trimurti: [[Thanumalayan Temple]], [[Uthamar Kovil]], [[Ponmeri Shiva Temple]], in [[Tirunavaya]], the [[Thripaya Trimurti Temple]] and [[Mithrananthapuram Trimurti Temple]]. In Tamil Nadu, Brahma temples exist in the temple town of [[Kumbakonam]], in [[Kodumudi]] and within the [[Brahmapureeswarar Temple]] in [[Tiruchirappalli]]. There is also a shrine for Brahma in Kandiyur Shiva temple in a rare posture along with his consort Goddess [[Saraswathi]].

There is a temple dedicated to Brahma in the temple town of [[Srikalahasti]] near [[Tirupati]], [[Andhra Pradesh]]. There are a Chaturmukha Brahma temple in [[Chebrolu, Guntur district|Chebrolu]], Andhra Pradesh, and a seven feet height of Chatrumukha (Four Faces) Brahma temple at [[Bangalore]], [[Karnataka]]. In the coastal state of [[Goa]], a shrine belonging to the fifth century, in the small and remote village of [[Carambolim]], [[Sattari]] Taluka in the northeast region of the state is found.{{citation needed|date=September 2016}}

Mithrananadapuram temple in [[Thiruvananthapuram]] has Brahma as the main deity.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Sekhar|first=Sasi|title=Mithrananadapuram in Thiruvananthapuram, a temple complex full of surprises|url=https://www.onmanorama.com/travel/kerala/2019/11/14/mithranandapuram-temple-complex-full-of-surprises.html|date=14 November 2019|access-date=29 May 2022}}</ref> There is also a shrine for Brahma in Thiruvallam [[Parasurama]] temple.

A famous icon of Brahma exists at [[Mangalwedha]], 52 km from the [[Solapur]] district of [[Maharashtra]] and in [[Sopara]] near [[Mumbai]]. There is a 12th-century temple dedicated to him in [[Khedbrahma#Brahma temple|Khedbrahma]], [[Gujarat]] and also a [[Brahma Kuti Temple]] in [[Kanpur]]. Temples exist in [[Khokhan]], [[Annamputhur]] and [[Hosur]].

===Southeast and East Asia===
{{multiple image
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| footer = '''1:''' The four-faced Brahma ([[Phra Phrom]]) statue, Erawan Shrine, [[Thailand]] '''2''': 12th-century Brahma with missing book and water pot, [[Cambodia]] '''3''': 9th-century Brahma in [[Prambanan]] temple, [[Yogyakarta]], [[Indonesia]] 
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A shrine to Brahma can be found in Cambodia's [[Angkor Wat]]. One of the three largest temples in the 9th-century [[Prambanan]] temples complex in Yogyakarta, central [[Java]] (Indonesia) is dedicated to Brahma, the other two to Shiva (largest of three) and Vishnu respectively.<ref>Trudy Ring et al (1996), International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-1884964046}}, page 692</ref> The temple dedicated to Brahma is on the southern side of Śiva temple.

A statue of Brahma is present at the [[Erawan Shrine]] in [[Bangkok]], Thailand and continues to be revered in modern times.<ref name="ellenlondon74"/> The golden dome of the [[Government House of Thailand]] houses a statue of [[Phra Phrom]] (Thai representation of Brahma). An early 18th-century painting at Wat Yai Suwannaram in [[Phetchaburi]] city of Thailand depicts Brahma.<ref>Chami Jotisalikorn et al (2002), Classic Thai: Design, Interiors, Architecture., Tuttle, {{ISBN|978-9625938493}}, pages 164-165</ref>

The name of the country [[Myanmar|Burma]] may be derived from Brahma. In medieval texts, it is referred to as ''Brahma-desa''.<ref>Arthur P. Phayre (2013), History of Burma, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415865920}}, pages 2-5</ref><ref>Gustaaf Houtman (1999), Mental Culture in Burmese Crisis Politics, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies, {{ISBN|978-4872977486}}, page 352</ref>

Brahma is known in Chinese as ''Simianshen'' (四面神, "Four-Faced God"), ''Simianfo'' (四面佛, "Four-Faced Buddha") or ''Fantian'' (梵天), ''Tshangs pa'' in Tibetan and ''[[Japanese Buddhist pantheon#Level 4: Heavenly deities (Ten-bu)|Bonten]]'' (梵天) in Japanese.<ref name=buswelllopez141>{{cite book|author1=Robert E. Buswell Jr.|author2=Donald S. Lopez Jr.|title=The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DXN2AAAAQBAJ |year=2013|publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-4805-8 |pages=141–142 }}</ref> In [[Chinese Buddhism]], he is regarded as one of the ''[[Twenty-Four Protective Deities|Twenty Devas]]'' (二十諸天 Èrshí Zhūtiān) or the ''[[Twenty-Four Protective Deities|Twenty-Four Devas]]'' (二十四諸天 Èrshísì zhūtiān), a group of protective [[dharmapala]]s.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/275253538|title=A dictionary of Chinese Buddhist terms : with Sanskrit and English equivalents and a Sanskrit-Pali index|date=2004|publisher=RoutledgeCurzon|others=Lewis Hodous, William Edward Soothill|isbn=0-203-64186-8|location=London|oclc=275253538}}</ref>

===Indonesia===
[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Beeld van Brahma op de Candi Lara Jonggrang oftewel het Prambanan tempelcomplex TMnr 10016204.jpg|thumb|Brahma sculpture at the [[Prambanan]] temple complex, [[Special Region of Yogyakarta]], Indonesia]]Hindus in [[Indonesia]] still have a high regard for Brahma ([[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] and [[Javanese language|Javanese]]: ''Batara Brahma'' or ''Sanghyang Brahma''). In [[Prambanan]] there is a special temple made for Brahma, side by side with Vishnu, and in [[Bali]] there is Andakasa Temple dedicated to Brahma.<ref>{{citation|url= https://baliexpress.jawapos.com/read/2017/08/24/9520/menyingkap-misteri-dewa-brahma-jarang-dipuja |title= Menyingkap Misteri Dewa Brahma Jarang Dipuja (Indonesian)|work=Baliexpress}}</ref>

In the past, although not as popular as Vishnu and Shiva, the name Brahma appeared on several occasions. In the legend that developed in [[East Java]] about Ken Arok, for example, Brahma is believed to be the biological father of [[Ken Arok]]. It is said that Brahma was fascinated by the beauty of Ken Arok's mother, Ken Endok and made her a lover. From this relationship was born Ken Arok. The name Brahma is also used as the name of a mountain in the Tengger Mountains range, namely [[Mount Bromo]]. Mount Bromo is believed to be derived from the word Brahma and there was once a sect that believed that Brahmaloka – the universe where Brahma resided – was connected to Mount Bromo.

In the [[Javanese people|Javanese]] version of [[wayang]], Brahma has a very different role from his initial role. When Hindu society began to disappear from [[Java]] and the era of [[Walisongo]]'s wayang kulit began to emerge, Brahma's role as creator in the shadow puppet standard was given to a figure named Sang Hyang Wenang, while Brahma himself was renamed to Brama (fire) where he was a ruling god. Brama, the son of the figure of [[Bathara Guru]] (Shiva). The figure of Brahma in Javanese wayang is fused and mixed with the figure of Agni.<ref>{{citation|url= https://gamabali.com/dewa-brahma/|title=Dewa Brahma|work=GamaBali}}</ref>

==See also==
{{col div|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Brahma (Buddhism)]]
* [[Brahma Samhita]]
* [[Brahmastra]]
* [[Brahma from Mirpur-Khas]]
* [[Brahmakumari]]
* [[Brahmani]]
* [[Demiurge]]
* [[Svetovid]]
{{colend}}



==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links|commonscat=|n=no|s=no|b=no|voy=no|v=no}}
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/Brahma-Hindu-god Brahma] at ''Encyclopædia Britannica''
* [http://www.oldandsold.com/articles25/hindu-23.shtml Hinduism - Brahma And The Trimurti]
* [http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1981/JSS_069_0f_ManeepinPromsuthirak_HinduBrahmaInThaiLiterature.pdf Hindu Brahma in Thai Literature - Maneepin Phromsuthirak]
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[[Category:Brahma]]
[[Category:Hindu gods]]
[[Category:Creator gods]]
[[Category:Lokapala]]
[[Category:Triple gods]]
[[Category:Wisdom gods]]
[[Category:Names of God in Hinduism]]

Prajapati

2023-01-16T16:52:01Z

ImportMaster: robot: Create/update articles in Category:Hindu gods.

{{Short description|Vedic deity identified with Brahma}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2017}}
{{distinguish|Pashupati}}
[[File:Prajapati.JPG|thumb|Prajapati with similar iconographical features associated with [[Brahma]], a sculpture from [[Tamil Nadu]].]]
[[File:Daksha Prajapati Temple, Banapur , Odisha - 8.jpg|thumb|Sculpture of Prajapati at Daksha Prajapati Temple, Banapur , Odisha]]
'''Prajapati''' ({{lang-sa|प्रजापति|Prajāpati|lord and protector of creation}}) is a [[Vedas|Vedic]] deity of [[Hinduism]].<ref name="Dalal2010p311"/><ref name="Williams2008p234"/><ref name="Lochtefeld2002p518">{{cite book|author=James G. Lochtefeld|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N-Z|url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch |url-access=registration|year=2002|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-8239-3180-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch/page/518 518]–519}}</ref> In later literature, Prajapati is identified with the creator god [[Brahma]], but the term also connotes many different gods, depending on the Hindu text, ranging from being the creator god to being same as one of the following: [[Viswakarma]], [[Agni]], [[Indra]], [[Daksha]], and many others,<ref name="Dalal2010p311"/> reflecting the diverse [[Hindu cosmology]].<ref name="Williams2008p234"/> In classical and medieval era literature, Prajapati is equated to the metaphysical concept called [[Brahman]] as Prajapati-Brahman (Svayambhu Brahman), or alternatively Brahman is described as one who existed before Prajapati.<ref>{{cite book|author=Sukumari Bhattacharji|title=The Indian Theogony |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lDc9AAAAIAAJ |year=2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=322–323, 337, 338, 341–342}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/prajapati | title=Prajapati, Prajāpati, Prajāpatī, Praja-pati: 30 definitions | date=28 September 2010 }}</ref>

==Etymology==
Prajapati ([[Sanskrit]]: {{lang|sa|प्रजापति}}) is a compound of "praja" (creation, procreative powers) and "pati" (lord, master).<ref>[[Jan Gonda]] (1982), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1062566 The Popular Prajāpati] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200215195110/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1062566 |date=15 February 2020 }}, History of Religions, Vol. 22, No. 2 (Nov., 1982), University of Chicago Press, pp. 137-141</ref> The term means "lord of creatures",<ref name="Dalal2010p311"/><ref name="Williams2008p234"/> or "lord of all born beings".<ref name="JonesRyan2006p332"/> In the later Vedic texts, Prajapati is a distinct Vedic deity, but whose significance diminishes.<ref name="Williams2008p234"/> Later, the term is synonymous with other gods, particularly Brahma.<ref name="Dalal2010p311"/><ref name="Lochtefeld2002p518"/> Still later, the term evolves to mean any divine, semi-divine or human sages who create something new.<ref name="Dalal2010p311"/><ref name="Williams2008p234"/><ref>{{cite book|author=James G. Lochtefeld|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N-Z|url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch |url-access=registration|year=2002|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-8239-3180-4|pages=169, 518–519}}</ref>

==Origins==
[[File:An attempt to depict the creative activities of Prajapati.jpg|thumb|"An attempt to depict the creative activities of Prajapati", a steel engraving from the 1850s.]]
The origins of Prajapati are unclear. He appears late in the Vedic layer of texts, and the hymns that mention him provide different cosmological theories in different chapters.<ref name="Lochtefeld2002p518"/> He is missing from the [[Samhita]] layer of Vedic literature, conceived in the [[Brahmana]] layer, states [[Jan Gonda]].<ref name="Gonda1986p2"/> Prajapati is younger than [[Savitr]], and the word was originally an epithet for the sun.<ref name=gonda130>[[Jan Gonda]] (1982), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1062566 The Popular Prajāpati] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200215195110/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1062566 |date=15 February 2020 }}, History of Religions, Vol. 22, No. 2 (Nov., 1982), University of Chicago Press, pp. 129-130</ref> His profile gradually rises in the Vedas, peaking within the [[Brahmana]]s.<ref name="Gonda1986p2">{{cite book|author=Jan Gonda|title=Prajāpatiʼs rise to higher rank |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2OIUAAAAIAAJ |year=1986|publisher=BRILL Academic |isbn=90-04-07734-0|pages=2–5}}</ref> Scholars such as Renou, Keith and Bhattacharji posit Prajapati originated as an abstract or semi-abstract deity in the later Vedic milieu as speculations evolved from the archaic to more learned speculations.<ref name=gonda130/>

===Indo-European===
A possible connection between Prajapati (and related figures in Indian tradition) and the [[Phanes|Prōtogonos]] ({{lang-grc|Πρωτογόνος}}, literally "first-born") of the Greek [[Orphism (religion)|Orphic tradition]] has been proposed:<ref>Martin West, ''Early Greek Philosophy and the Orient''. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1971: 28-34</ref><ref name=alsobrook20>Kate Alsobrook (2008), "The Beginning of Time: Vedic and Orphic Theogonies and Poetics". M.A. Thesis, Reviewers: James Sickinger, Kathleen Erndl, John Marincola and Svetla Slaveva-Griffin, Florida State University, pages 20, 1-5, 24-25, 40-44</ref>

{{Quote|
Protogonos is the [[Orpheus|Orphic]] equivalent of Vedic Prajapati in several ways: he is the first god born from a cosmic egg, he is the creator of the universe, and in the figure of [[Dionysus]]— a direct descendant of Protogonos—worshippers participate in his death and rebirth.
|Kate Alsobrook|''The Beginning of Time: Vedic and Orphic Theogonies and Poetics''<ref name=alsobrook20/>}}

According to Robert Graves, the name of /PRA-JĀ[N]-pati/ ('progeny-potentate') is etymologically equivalent to that of the oracular god at [[Colophon (city)|Colophon]] (according to Makrobios<ref>Robert Graves : ''The Greek Myths''. 1955. vol. 1, p. 31, sec. 2.2</ref>), namely /prōtogonos/.{{Citation needed|date=July 2017}} The cosmic egg concept linked to Prajapati and Protogonos is common in many parts of the world, states David Leeming, which appears in later Orphic cult in Greece.<ref>{{cite book|author=David Adams Leeming|title=Creation Myths of the World: An Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9I62BcuPxfYC |year=2010|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-174-9|pages=313–314}}</ref>

==Texts==
Prajapati is described in many ways and inconsistently in Hindu texts, both in the Vedas and in the post-Vedic texts. These range from being the creator god to being same as one of the following: [[Brahma]], [[Agni]], [[Indra]], [[Vishvakarma]], [[Daksha]] and many others.<ref name="Dalal2010p311"/><ref>{{cite book|author=Sukumari Bhattacharji |year= 2007 |title=The Indian Theogony |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=lDc9AAAAIAAJ |publisher = Cambridge University Press|pages= 322–330}}</ref>

===Vedas===
His role varies within the Vedic texts such as being one who created heaven and earth, all of water and beings, the chief, the father of gods, the creator of ''[[Deva (Hinduism)|devas]]'' and ''[[asura]]s'', the cosmic egg and the [[Purusha]] (spirit).<ref name="Williams2008p234"/><ref name="JonesRyan2006p332">{{cite book|author1=Constance Jones|author2=James D. Ryan|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC |year=2006|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5|page=332}}</ref> His role peaked in the Brahmanas layer of Vedic text, then declined to being a group of helpers in the creation process.<ref name="Williams2008p234"/> In some Brahmana texts, his role remains ambiguous since he co-creates with the powers with goddess [[Vāc]] (sound).<ref name="Kinsley1988p12">{{cite book|author=David Kinsley|title=Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition|url=https://archive.org/details/hindugoddessesvi0000kins|url-access=registration|year=1988|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-90883-3|pages=[https://archive.org/details/hindugoddessesvi0000kins/page/12 12]–13}}</ref>

In the ''[[Rigveda]]'', Prajapati appears as an epithet for Savitr, Soma, Agni and Indra, who are all praised as equal, same and lord of creatures.<ref name= Bhattacharji322>{{cite book|author=Sukumari Bhattacharji |year= 2007 |title=The Indian Theogony |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=lDc9AAAAIAAJ |publisher = Cambridge University Press|pages= 322–323}}</ref> Elsewhere, in hymn 10.121 of the ''Rigveda'', is described ''Hiranyagarbha'' (golden embryo) that was born from the waters containing everything, which produced Prajapati. It then created ''manah'' (mind), ''kama'' (desire) and ''tapas'' (heat). However, this Prajapati is a metaphor, one of many [[Hindu cosmology]] theories, and there is no supreme deity in the ''Rigveda''.<ref>{{cite book|author=Gavin D. Flood|title=An Introduction to Hinduism |url= https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo |url-access=registration|year=1996 |publisher= Cambridge University Press|isbn= 978-0-521-43878-0|pages= [https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo/page/45 45]–46}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Henry White Wallis|title=The Cosmology of the Ṛigveda: An Essay|url= https://archive.org/details/cosmologyigveda00wallgoog|year= 1887|publisher= Williams and Norgate|pages=[https://archive.org/details/cosmologyigveda00wallgoog/page/n67 61]–73, 117}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Laurie L. Patton|title=Bringing the Gods to Mind: Mantra and Ritual in Early Indian Sacrifice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gSZmbbsg9bEC |year=2005|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-93088-9|pages=113, 216}}</ref> One of the striking features about the Hindu Prajapati myths, states Jan Gonda, is the idea that work of creation is a gradual process, completed in stages of trial and improvement.<ref>{{cite book|author=Jan Gonda|title=Prajāpatiʼs rise to higher rank |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=2OIUAAAAIAAJ |year= 1986|publisher= BRILL Academic |isbn=90-04-07734-0|pages=20–21}}</ref>

In the ''[[Shatapatha Brahmana]]'', embedded inside the ''[[Yajurveda]]'', Prajapati emanated from Purusha (cosmic spirit) and Prajapati co-creates the world with the goddess of Language.<ref name="WilkeMoebus2011p414">{{cite book|author1=Annette Wilke|author2=Oliver Moebus|title=Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9wmYz_OtZ_gC |year=2011|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-024003-0|pages=414–416}}</ref> It also includes the "golden cosmic egg" mythology, wherein Prajapati is stated to be born from a golden egg in primeval sea after the egg was incubated for a year. His sounds became the sky, the earth and the seasons. When he inhaled, he created the devas (gods), fire and light. When he exhaled, he created the asuras (demons) and darkness. Then, together with the goddess of Language, he created all beings and time.<ref name="Leeming2010p144">{{cite book|author=David Adams Leeming|title=Creation Myths of the World: An Encyclopedia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9I62BcuPxfYC |year=2010|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-174-9|pages=144–146}}</ref> In Chapter 10 of the ''Shatapatha Brahmana'', as well as chapter 13 of ''Pancavimsa Brahmana'', is presented another theory wherein he (Prajapati) is a mother, becomes self-pregnant with all living creatures self-generated, then evil ''Mrtyu'' seizes these beings within his womb, but because these beings are part of the eternal Prajapati, they desire to live long like him.<ref>{{cite book|author=Jan Gonda|title=Prajāpatiʼs rise to higher rank |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=2OIUAAAAIAAJ |year= 1986|publisher= BRILL Academic |isbn=90-04-07734-0|pages=5, 14–16}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Sukumari Bhattacharji |year= 2007 |title=The Indian Theogony |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=lDc9AAAAIAAJ |publisher = Cambridge University Press|pages= 324–325}}</ref>

The ''Aitareya Brahmana'' offers a different myth, wherein Prajapati, having created the gods, metamorphosed into a stag and approached his daughter Dawn who was in the form of a doe, to produce other earthly beings. The gods were horrified by the incest, and joined forces to produce angry destructive [[Rudra]] to punish Prajapati for "doing what is not done". Prajapati was killed by Rudra.<ref name="Leeming2010p144"/> The ''Kausitaki Brahmana'' offers yet another myth, wherein Prajapati created from his own self fire, sun, moon, wind and feminine dawn. The first four saw dawn and released their seeds, which became existence (''Bhava'').<ref name="Leeming2010p144"/>

In section 2.266 of Jaiminiya Brahmana, Prajapati is presented as a spiritual teacher. His student [[Varuna]] lives with him for 100 years, studying the art and duties of being the "father-like king of gods".<ref>{{cite book|author=Jan Gonda|title=Prajāpatiʼs rise to higher rank |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=2OIUAAAAIAAJ |year= 1986|publisher= BRILL Academic |isbn=90-04-07734-0|pages=17–18}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Sukumari Bhattacharji |year= 2007 |title=The Indian Theogony |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=lDc9AAAAIAAJ |publisher = Cambridge University Press|pages= 326–327}}</ref>

===Upanishads===
Prajapati appears in early Upanishads, among the most influential texts in Hinduism.<ref>Patrick Olivelle (2014), The Early Upanisads, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195352429}}, pages 3, 279-281; Quote: "Even though theoretically the whole of vedic corpus is accepted as revealed truth [shruti], in reality it is the Upanishads that have continued to influence the life and thought of the various religious traditions that we have come to call Hindu. Upanishads are the scriptures par excellence of Hinduism".</ref> He is described in the Upanishads in diverse ways. For example, in different Upanishads, he is presented as the personification of creative power after Brahman,<ref>{{cite book|author=Paul Deussen|title=Sixty Upaniṣads of the Veda|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8mSpQo9q-tIC|year=1980|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1468-4|pages=19–21, 205, 240, 350, 510, 544}}</ref> the same as the wandering eternal soul,<ref>{{cite book|author=Paul Deussen|title=Sixty Upaniṣads of the Veda|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8mSpQo9q-tIC|year=1980|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1468-4|page=495}}</ref> as symbolism for unmanifest obscure first born,<ref>{{cite book|author=Paul Deussen|title=Sixty Upaniṣads of the Veda|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8mSpQo9q-tIC|year=1980|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1468-4|pages=85, 96–97, 252}}</ref> as manifest procreative sexual powers,<ref>{{cite book|author=Paul Deussen|title=Sixty Upaniṣads of the Veda|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8mSpQo9q-tIC|year=1980|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1468-4|pages=53–56, 471, 534, 540}}</ref> the knower particularly of [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (soul, self),<ref>{{cite book|author=Paul Deussen|title=Sixty Upaniṣads of the Veda|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8mSpQo9q-tIC|year=1980|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1468-4|page=371}}</ref> and a spiritual teacher that is within each person.<ref>{{cite book|author=Paul Deussen|title=Sixty Upaniṣads of the Veda|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8mSpQo9q-tIC|year=1980|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1468-4|pages=21, 106, 198–205, 263, 508, 544}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Klaus G. Witz|title=The Supreme Wisdom of the Upaniṣads: An Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2jnPlEqwe_UC |year=1998|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1573-5|pages=115, 145–153, 363–365}}</ref> The ''Chandogya Upanishad'', as an illustration, presents him as follows:<ref name=olivelle279/>

{{Quote|
The self (atman) that is free from evils,
free from old age and death,
free from sorrow, free from hunger and thirst;
the self whose desires and intentions are real –
that is the self that you should try to discover,
that is the self that you should seek to perceive.
When someone discovers that self and perceives it,
he obtains all the worlds, and all his desires are fulfilled,
so said Prajapati.
|[[Chandogya Upanishad]] 8.7.1|Translator: [[Patrick Olivelle]]<ref name=olivelle279>{{cite book|title=The Early Upanishads: Annotated Text and Translation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lsp18ZvstrcC|year=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-535242-9|pages=279–281}}</ref>}}In Chandogya Upanishad 1.2.1, Prajapati appears as the creator (father) of all gods and asuras: "The gods and the demons are both children of Prajāpati, yet they fought among themselves" ({{lang-sa|देवासुरा ह वै यत्र संयेतिरे उभये प्राजापत्यास्तद्ध|translit=devāsurā ha vai yatra saṃyetire ubhaye prājāpatyāstaddha}}).<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2019-01-04 |title=Chandogya Upanishad, Verse 1.2.1 (English and Sanskrit) |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/chandogya-upanishad-english/d/doc238721.html |access-date=2023-01-16 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref>

===Post-Vedic texts===
In the ''[[Mahabharata]]'', Brahma is declared to be a Prajapati who creates many males and females, and imbues them with desire and anger, the former to drive them into reproducing themselves and the latter to prevent them from being like gods.<ref name="Leeming2010p144"/> Other chapters of the epics and Puranas declare Shiva or Vishnu to be Prajapati.<ref name= Bhattacharji322/>

The ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' uses the epithet Prajapati to describe [[Krishna]], along with many other epithets.<ref>{{cite book|author=Winthrop Sargeant|editor=Christopher Key Chapple|title=The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=COuy5CDAqt4C |year=2010|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-1-4384-2840-6|pages=37, 167, 491 (verse 11.39)}}</ref>

The [[Grhyasutra]]s include Prajapati as among the deities invoked during wedding ceremonies and prayed to for blessings of prosperous progeny, and harmony between husband and wife.<ref>[[Jan Gonda]] (1982), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1062566 The Popular Prajāpati] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200215195110/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1062566 |date=15 February 2020 }}, History of Religions, Vol. 22, No. 2 (Nov., 1982), University of Chicago Press, pp. 131-132</ref>

Prajapati is identified with the personifications of Time, Fire, the Sun, etc. He is also identified with various mythical progenitors, especially (Manu Smrti 1.34) the ten lords of created beings first created by Brahmā: the Prajapatis Marichi, Atri, Angiras, Pulastya, Pulaha, Kratu, Vasishtha, [[Prachetas]] or [[Daksha]], Bhrigu and Nārada.<ref>{{cite book|title=Hindu Mythology|last=Wilkins|first=W.J.|page=369|publisher=D.K. Printworld (P) Limited|location=New Delhi|isbn=81-246-0234-4|year=2003}}</ref>

In the [[Puranas]], there are groups of Prajapati called ''Prajapatayah'' who were [[rishi]]s (sages) or "grandfathers" from whom all of humanity resulted, followed by a Prajapatis list that widely varies in number and name between different texts.<ref name="Dalal2010p311">{{cite book|author=Roshen Dalal|title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC |year=2010 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0-14-341421-6|page=311}}</ref><ref name="Williams2008p234">{{cite book|author=George M. Williams|title=Handbook of Hindu Mythology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N7LOZfwCDpEC&dq=prajapati+williams+pandas&pg=PA234 |year=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-533261-2|pages=234–235 }}</ref> According to George Williams, the inconsistent, varying and evolving Prajapati concept in Hindu mythology reflects the diverse [[Hindu cosmology]].<ref name="Williams2008p234"/>

The ''Mahabharata'' and the genre of Puranas call various gods and sages as Prajapati. Some illustrations, states Roshen Dalal, include Agni, Bharata, Shashabindu, Shukra, Havirdhaman, Indra, Kapila, Kshupa, Prithu-Vainya, Soma, Svishtakrit, Tvashtr, Vishvakarma and Virana.<ref name="Dalal2010p311"/>

In the medieval era texts of Hinduism, Prajapati refers to legendary agents of creation, working as gods or sages, who appear in every cycle of creation-maintenance-destruction (''manvantara''). Their numbers vary between seven, ten, sixteen or twenty-one.<ref name="Dalal2010p311"/>

===A list of twenty one includes===

# [[Rudra]],
# [[Manu (Hinduism)|Manu]],
# [[Daksha]],
# [[Bhrigu]],
# [[Dharma]],
# [[Tapa (Hinduism)|Tapa]],
# [[Yama]],
# [[Marichi|Marici]],
# [[Angiras (sage)|Angiras]],
# [[Atri]],
# [[Pulastya]],
# [[Pulaha]],
# [[Kratu]],
# [[Vasishtha]],
# Parameshti,
# [[Surya]],
# [[Chandra]],
# [[Kardama (Hinduism)|Kardama]],
# [[Krodha (Hinduism)|Krodha]] and
# [[Vikrita]].<ref name="Dalal2010p311"/><ref name="Williams2008p234"/>

===A list of sixteen found in the ''Ramayana'' includes===

# Angiras,
# [[Arishtanemi]],
# [[Atri]],
# [[Daksha]],
# Kardama,
# [[Kashyapa]],
# [[Kratu]],
# [[Marichi]],
# [[Prachetas]],
# [[Pulaha]],
# Pulastya,
# [[Samshraya]],
# [[Shesha]],
# &emsp; —
# Vikrita
# [[Vivasvan]].<ref name="Dalal2010p311"/>

===A list of ten includes===

# [[Marichi]],
# [[Angiras]],
# [[Atri]],
# [[Pulastya]],
# [[Pulaha]],
# [[Kratu]],
# [[Vasishtha]],
# [[Daksha]] (or [[Prachetas]]),
# [[Bhrigu]]
# [[Narada]].<ref name=" Dalal2010p311"/>

Their creative role varies. Pulaha, for example, is the mythical mind-born son of Brahma and a great rishi. As one of the Prajapatis, he helps create living wildlife such as lions, tigers, bears, wolves, as well as mythical beasts such as kimpurushas and shalabhas.<ref>{{cite book|author=Roshen Dalal|title= Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC |year=2010 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0-14-341421-6|page=316}}</ref>

==Balinese Hinduism==
Hindu temples in Bali Indonesia called ''Pura Prajapati'', also called ''Pura Mrajapati'', are common. They are most associated with funeral rituals and the [[Ngaben]] (cremation) ceremony for the dead.<ref>{{cite book|author=David J. Stuart-Fox|title=Pura Besakih: Temple, Religion and Society in Bali|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vbxwAAAAMAAJ|year=2002|publisher=KITLV|isbn=978-90-6718-146-4|pages=92–94, 207–209}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Between Harmony and Discrimination: Negotiating Religious Identities within Majority-Minority Relationships in Bali and Lombok|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sma7AwAAQBAJ |year=2014|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-27149-4|pages=264–266}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Nasadiya sukta]]
*[[Hiranyagarbha sukta]]
*[[Hinduism and monotheism]]
*[[List of Hindu deities]]
*[[Creation myth]]
*[[Saptarishi]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*''Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend'' ({{ISBN|0-500-51088-1}}) by Anna Dhallapiccola

==External links==
*[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Prajapati-Hindu-deity Prajapati: Hindu Deity], ''Encyclopaedia Britannica''

{{Hindudharma}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Hindu gods]]
[[Category:Prajapatis| ]]
[[Category:Nature gods]]
[[Category:Creator gods]]
[[Category:Nature gods in Hinduism]]

Bhagavad Gita

2023-01-16T14:06:09Z

ImportMaster: robot: Create/update articles in Category:Hindu gods.

{{Short description|Major Hindu scripture}}
{{Redirect-several|Bhagavad Gita|Gita}}
{{Cleanup|reason=messy layout|date=July 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2014}}
{{Infobox religious text
| image =File:BhagavadGita-19th-century-Illustrated-Sanskrit-Chapter 1.20.21.jpg
| image_size=250
| alt =
| caption = Bhagavad Gita{{'s}} revelation: [[Krishna]] tells the Gita to [[Arjuna]]
| religion = [[Hinduism]]
| verses = 700
| author = Traditionally attributed to [[Vyasa]]
| language = [[Sanskrit]]
| date =
| chapters =18
| name=Bhagavad Gita
|}}
{{Vaishnavism}}
The '''Bhagavad Gita''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|b|ʌ|ɡ|ə|v|ə|d|_|ˈ|ɡ|iː|t|ɑː}}; {{lang-sa|श्रीमद्भगवद्गीता|lit=The Song by God|translit=śrīmadbhagavadgītā}};{{efn|"God" here denotes ''[[Bhagavan]]'' i.e, [[Krishna]]}}),{{sfn|Davis|2014|p=2}} often referred to as the '''Gita''' ({{IAST3|gītā}}), is a 700-[[Sanskrit prosody|verse]] [[Hindu texts|Hindu scripture]] that is part of the [[Hindu epic|epic]] ''[[Mahabharata]]'' (chapters 23–40 of book 6 of the Mahabharata called the [[Bhishma Parva]]), dated to the second half of the [[first millennium BCE]] and is typical of the [[Hindu synthesis]]. It is considered to be one of the holy scriptures for [[Hinduism]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bhagavadgita {{!}} Definition, Contents, & Significance {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Bhagavadgita |access-date=2022-12-27 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

The Gita is set in a narrative framework of dialogue between [[Pandava]] prince [[Arjuna]] and his guide and charioteer [[Krishna]]. At the start of the [[dharma]] [[War|yuddha]] (or the "righteous war") between the [[Pandava]]s and the [[Kaurava]]s, [[Arjuna]] is preoccupied by a [[Morality|moral]] and emotional [[dilemma]] and despairs about the violence and death the war will cause in the battle against his kin.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Song Celestial, Or, Bhagavad-gîtâ (from the Mahâbhârata) Being a Discourse Between Arjuna, Prince of India, and the Supreme Being Under the Form of Krishna|publisher=Roberts Bros|year=1885|pages=Book one the first, page 19}}</ref> Wondering if he should renounce the war, he seeks Krishna's counsel, whose answers and discourse constitute the Gita. Krishna counsels Arjuna to "fulfil his [[Kshatriya]] (warrior) duty to uphold the [[dharma]]" through Karma ("selfless action").<ref group=web name="EB-BG"/>{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=111–122}}{{refn|group=note|Krishna states that the body is impermanent and dies, never the immortal Self, the latter being either reborn or achieving ''[[moksha]]'' for those who have understood the true spiritual path he teaches in the Gita.<ref group=web name="EB-BG"/>}} The Krishna–Arjuna dialogues cover a broad range of spiritual topics, touching upon ethical dilemmas and philosophical issues that go far beyond the war that Arjuna faces.{{sfn|Davis|2014|p=2}}{{sfn|Eliot Deutsch|Rohit Dalvi|2004|pp=60–62}}{{sfn|Sargeant|2009|pp=x–xviii}}

Numerous commentaries have been written on the Bhagavad Gita with widely differing views on the essentials. According to some, the Bhagavad Gita was written by the god [[Ganesha]], as told to him by [[Veda Vyasa]]. [[Vedanta]] commentators read varying relationships between the Self and [[Brahman]] in the text: [[Advaita Vedanta]] sees the non-dualism of [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (Self) and [[Brahman]] (universal Self) as its essence';<ref name="Deutsch 2004 page=97">{{harvnb|Eliot Deutsch|Rohit Dalvi|2004|page=97}}</ref> [[Bhedabheda]] and [[Vishishtadvaita]] see Atman and Brahman as both different and not different; while [[Dvaita Vedanta]] sees the dualism of [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (Self) and [[Brahman]] as its essence. The setting of the Gita in a battlefield has been interpreted as an allegory for the ethical and moral struggles of human life.{{sfn|Sargeant|2009|pp=x–xviii}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Ronald Neufeldt|editor=Robert Neil Minor|title=Modern Indian Interpreters of the Bhagavad Gita |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qVmSnL23_xgC&pg=PA31 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-1-4384-1325-9|pages=31–33}}</ref>{{sfn|M.V. Nadkarni|2016|pp=15}}

The Bhagavad Gita presents a synthesis{{sfn|Eliot Deutsch|Rohit Dalvi|2004|p=61}}{{sfn|Scheepers|2000}} of Hindu ideas about [[dharma]],{{sfn|Eliot Deutsch|Rohit Dalvi|2004|p=61}}{{sfn|Scheepers|2000}}{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=211}} [[Theism|theistic]] [[bhakti]],{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=211}}{{sfn|Eliot Deutsch|Rohit Dalvi|2004|pp=61–62}} and the [[Yoga|yogic]] ideals{{sfn|Scheepers|2000}} of [[moksha]].{{sfn|Scheepers|2000}} The text covers [[Jnana yoga|Jñāna]], [[Bhakti yoga|Bhakti]], [[Karma yoga|Karma]], and [[Rāja yoga]]s (spoken of in the 6th chapter),{{sfn|Eliot Deutsch|Rohit Dalvi|2004|pp=61–62}} incorporating ideas from the [[Samkhya]]-[[Yoga]] philosophy.<ref group=web name="EB-BG" />{{refn|group=note|The Bhagavad Gita also integrates [[theism]] and [[transcendentalism]]<ref group=web name="EB-BG" /> or spiritual[[monism]],{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=211}} and identifies a God of personal characteristics with the [[Brahman]] of the [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic tradition]].<ref group=web name="EB-BG" />}}

The Bhagavad Gita is the most revered of all the Hindu texts,<ref name="Robinson2014viii"/> and has a unique pan-Hindu influence.<ref name=buitenen7/><ref name="Neusner2009"/> The Gita{{'}}s call for selfless action inspired many leaders of the [[Indian independence movement]] including [[Bal Gangadhar Tilak]] and [[Mahatma Gandhi]], the latter referring to it as his "spiritual dictionary".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mahatma-Gandhi/Resistance-and-results#toc22635|title=Mahatma Gandhi {{!}} Biography, Accomplishments, & Facts|work=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=16 May 2017}}</ref>

{{Hindu scriptures |expanded=Itihasa}}
{{TOC limit|limit=3}}

==Nomenclature==
The ''gita'' in the title of the Bhagavad Gita means "song." Religious leaders and scholars interpret the word ''[[Bhagavān|Bhagavad]]'' in a number of ways. Accordingly, the title has been interpreted as "the word of God" by the theistic schools,<ref>{{cite book|author1=Swami Prabhavananda|author2=Christopher Isherwood|title=Bhagavad-Gita: The words of God|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=za3mi8MA2OIC|year=2002|publisher=Signet Classic|isbn=978-0-451-52844-5}}</ref> "the words of the Lord",<ref name=EBG/> "the Divine Song",<ref>{{cite book|author=Catherine Cornille|title=Song Divine: Christian Commentaries on the Bhagavad Gītā|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F8DxPDYHgbEC|year=2006|publisher=Peeters Publishers|isbn=978-90-429-1769-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Sachindra Kumar Majumdar|title=The Bhagavad Gita: A Scripture for the Future|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rG7XAAAAMAAJ|year=1991|publisher=Asian Humanities Press|isbn=978-0-89581-885-0}}</ref> and "Celestial Song" by others.<ref>{{cite book|author=Braja Dulal Mookherjee|title=The Essence of Bhagavad Gita|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9YeZMP9WRdcC&pg=PA18|year=2002|publisher=Academic Publishers|isbn=978-81-87504-40-5|page=18}}, Quote: "Bhagavad Gita means that Celestial Song."</ref>
In India, its Sanskrit name is often written as Shrimad Bhagavad Gita, श्रीमद् भगवद् गीता (the latter two words often written as a single word भगवद्गीता), where the Shrimad prefix is used to denote a high degree of respect. This is not to be confused with the [[Shrimad Bhagavatam]], which is a [[Purana]] dealing with the life of the Hindu God [[Krishna]] and various avatars of [[Vishnu]].

The work is also known as the ''Iswara Gita'', the ''Ananta Gita'', the ''Hari Gita'', the ''Vyasa Gita'', or the Gita.{{sfn|Sharma|1986|p=ix}}

==Authorship==
[[File:Vyasa.jpg|thumb|right|The ''Bhagavata Gita'' is attributed to the sage [[Vyasa]].]]
In the Indian tradition, the Bhagavad Gita, as well as the epic ''[[Mahabharata]]'' of which it is a part, is attributed to the sage [[Vyasa]],<ref name="Folwerxxvi">{{harvnb|Fowler|2012|page=xxvi}}</ref> whose full name was Krishna Dvaipayana, also called Veda-Vyasa.{{sfn|M.V. Nadkarni|2016|pages=16}} Another Hindu legend states that Vyasa narrated it when the lord [[Ganesha]] broke one of his tusks and wrote down the Mahabharata along with the Bhagavad Gita.<ref name="McLeod2014p168"/><ref name="Slavitt2015vii">{{cite book|author=David Slavitt|title=Mahabharata|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yHfIBgAAQBAJ |year=2015|publisher=Northwestern University Press|isbn=978-0-8101-3060-9|page=vii}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|This legend is depicted with Ganesha (Vinayaka) iconography in Hindu temples where he is shown with a broken right tusk and his right arm holds the broken tusk as if it was a stylus.<ref name="Rao1985">{{cite book|author=T.A. Gopinatha Rao|title=Elements of Hindu Iconography|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=MJD-KresBwIC |year=1985|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0878-2|pages=xvii, 58–61}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Lawrence Cohen|editor=Robert L. Brown|title=Ganesh: Studies of an Asian God|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oF-Hqih3pBAC|year=1991|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-0656-4|page=132}}</ref>}}

Scholars consider Vyasa to be a mythical or symbolic author, in part because Vyasa is also the traditional compiler of the [[Vedas]] and the [[Puranas]], texts dated to be from different millennia.<ref name="McLeod2014p168">{{cite book|author=Alexus McLeod|title=Understanding Asian Philosophy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X1PwAwAAQBAJ |year=2014|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-78093-631-4|pages=168–169}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=George M. Williams|title=Handbook of Hindu Mythology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N7LOZfwCDpEC&pg=PA304 |year=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-533261-2|page=304}}, Quote: "Veda Vyasa was said to have edited the four Vedas and authored the Puranas and the Mahabharata. Accomplishing all that would require a human who lived several thousand years, so scholars do place the story of his achievements as those of one man in the area of mythology."</ref>{{sfn|Davis|2014|p=37, Quote: "Textual historians generally prefer terms that undercut any implications of Vyasa's actual authorship. They refer to Vyasa as a mythical or symbolic author of the Mahabharata."}} The word ''Vyasa'' literally means "arranger, compiler", and is a surname in India. According to Kashi Nath Upadhyaya, a Gita scholar, it is possible that a number of different individuals with the same name compiled different texts.{{sfn|Upadhyaya|1998|page=25 with footnote 1}}

[[Swami Vivekananda]], the 19th-century Hindu monk and Vedantist, stated that the Bhagavad Gita may be old but it was mostly unknown in Indian history till the early 8th century when [[Adi Shankara]] (Shankaracharya) made it famous by writing his much-followed commentary on it.<ref name=vivekanandabg/><ref>{{cite book|author=Alexus McLeod|title= Understanding Asian Philosophy|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=X1PwAwAAQBAJ |year=2014|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-78093-631-4|pages= 169–170}}</ref> Some infer, states Vivekananda, that "Shankaracharya was the author of Gita, and that it was he who foisted it into the body of the ''Mahabharata''."<ref name=vivekanandabg>{{cite book|author=Swami Vivekananda| title=The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda |volume=4 |publisher=Advaita Ashram |edition=12th| year=1958 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.99642/page/n114 102]–104 | url= https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.99642 }}</ref> This attribution to Adi Shankara is unlikely in part because Shankara himself refers to the earlier commentaries on the Bhagavad Gita, and because other Hindu texts and traditions that compete with the ideas of Shankara refer to much older literature referencing the Bhagavad Gita, though much of this ancient secondary literature has not survived into the modern era.<ref name=vivekanandabg/>

According to [[J. A. B. van Buitenen]], an Indologist known for his translations and scholarship on ''Mahabharata'', the Gita is so contextually and philosophically well knit with the ''Mahabharata'' that it was not an independent text that "somehow wandered into the epic".<ref name=buitenen2013p5>{{harvnb|J.A.B. van Buitenen|2013|pp=5–6}}</ref> The Gita, states van Buitenen, was conceived and developed by the ''Mahabharata'' authors to "bring to a climax and solution the dharmic dilemma of a war".<ref name=buitenen2013p5/>{{refn|group=note|The debate about the relationship between the Gita and the ''Mahabharata'' is historic, in part the basis for chronologically placing the Gita and its authorship. The Indologist Franklin Edgerton was among the early scholars and a translator of the Gita who believed that the Gita was a later composition that was inserted into the epic, at a much later date, by a creative poet of great intellectual power intimately aware of emotional and spiritual aspects of human existence.<ref name=edgerton1952/> Edgerton's primary argument was that it makes no sense that two massive armies facing each other on a battlefield will wait for two individuals to have a lengthy dialogue. Further, he states that the ''Mahabharata'' has numerous such interpolations and inserting the Gita would not be unusual.<ref name=edgerton1952>{{cite book|author=Franklin Edgerton| title=The Bhagavad Gita, Part 2| publisher= Harvard University Press|year=1952|pages=3–4}}</ref> In contrast, the Indologist James Fitzgerald states, in a manner similar to van Buitenen, that the Bhagavad Gita is the centerpiece and essential to the ideological continuity in the ''Mahabharata'', and the entire epic builds up to the fundamental dharma questions in the Gita. This text, states Fitzgerald, must have been integral to the earliest version of the epic.<ref>{{cite journal|author=James L. Fitzgerald| title=The Great Epic of India as Religious Rhetoric: A Fresh Look at the "Mahābhārata"| journal=Journal of the American Academy of Religion| volume= 51| number= 4| year= 1983| pages= 615–619, context: 611–630}}</ref>}}

According to [[Alexus McLeod]], a scholar of Philosophy and Asian Studies, it is "impossible to link the Bhagavad Gita to a single author", and it may be the work of many authors.<ref name="McLeod2014p168"/>{{sfn|Minor|1982|p=xxxiv, Quote: "Therefore, instead of the traditional view of authorship, many scholars have argued that the Gita is not the work of one author but a composite work."}} This view is shared by the Indologist [[Arthur Llewellyn Basham|Arthur Basham]], who states that there were three or more authors or compilers of Bhagavad Gita. This is evidenced by the discontinuous intermixing of philosophical verses with theistic or passionately theistic verses, according to Basham.<ref name=basham1991p85/>{{refn|group=note|According to Basham, passionately theistic verses are found, for example, in chapters 4, 7, 9, 10, 11, 14.1–6 with 14.29, 15, 18.54–78; while more philosophical verses with one or two verses where Krishna identifies himself as the highest god are found, for example, in chapters 2.38–72, 3, 5, 6, 8, 13 and 14.7–25, 16, 17 and 18.1–53. Further, states Basham, the verses that discuss ''Gita's'' "motiveless action" doctrine was probably authored by someone else and these constitute the most important ethical teaching of the text.<ref name=basham1991p85/>}}

==Date==
Theories on the date of the composition of the Gita vary considerably. Some scholars accept dates from the 5th century to the 2nd century BCE as the probable range, the latter likely. The Hinduism scholar Jeaneane Fowler, in her commentary on the Gita, considers second century BCE to be the probable date of composition.
{{sfn|Fowler|2012|page=xxiv}} [[J. A. B. van Buitenen]] also states that the Gita was likely composed about 200 BCE.{{sfn|J.A.B. van Buitenen|2013|pp=6, Quote: "ca. 200 BC is a likely date".}} According to the Indologist [[Arvind Sharma]], the Gita is generally accepted to be a 2nd-century-BCE text.{{sfn|Sharma|1986|p=3}}

[[File:Kurukshetra.jpg|right|thumb|upright=1.2|alt=An old torn paper with a painting depicting the ''Mahabharata'' war, with some verses recorded in Sanskrit.|A manuscript illustration of the battle of Kurukshetra, fought between the Kauravas and the Pandavas, recorded in the ''Mahabharata''.]]
Kashi Nath Upadhyaya, in contrast, dates it a bit earlier. He states that the Gita was always a part of the ''Mahabharata'', and dating the latter suffices in dating the Gita.{{sfn|Upadhyaya|1998|pages=16–18}} On the basis of the estimated dates of ''Mahabharata'' as evidenced by exact quotes of it in the Buddhist literature by [[Asvaghosa]] (c. 100 CE), Upadhyaya states that the ''Mahabharata'', and therefore the Gita, must have been well known by then for a Buddhist to be quoting it.{{sfn|Upadhyaya|1998|pages=16–18}}{{refn|group=note|According to the Indologist and Sanskrit literature scholar [[Moriz Winternitz]], the founder of the early Buddhist [[Sautrāntika]] school named Kumaralata (1st century CE) mentions both ''Mahabharata'' and ''Ramayana'', along with early Indian history on writing, art and painting, in his ''[[Sanskrit Buddhist literature|Kalpanamanditika]]'' text. Fragments of this early text have survived into the modern era.<ref>{{cite book|author=Moriz Winternitz|author-link=Moriz Winternitz|title=A History of Indian Literature: Buddhist literature and Jaina literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lgz1eMhu0JsC&pg=PA255 |year=1996|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0265-0|pages=258–259}}</ref>}} This suggests a ''[[:wikt:terminus ante quem|terminus ante quem]]'' (latest date) of the Gita to be sometime prior to the 1st century CE.{{sfn|Upadhyaya|1998|pages=16–18}} He cites similar quotes in the dharmasutra texts, the ''[[Brahma sutras]]'', and other literature to conclude that the Bhagavad Gita was composed in the fifth or fourth century BCE.{{sfn|Upadhyaya|1998|pages=17–19}}{{refn|group=note|The Indologist [[Étienne Lamotte]] used a similar analysis to conclude that the Gita in its current form likely underwent one redaction that occurred in the 3rd or 2nd century BCE.<ref>{{cite book|author=Étienne Lamotte|title=Notes sur la Bhagavadgita| publisher=Librairie Orientaliste Paul Geuthner|year=1929|pages=126–127}}</ref>}}

According to Arthur Basham, the context of the Bhagavad Gita suggests that it was composed in an era when the [[Dharma-yuddha|ethics of war]] were being questioned and renunciation to monastic life was becoming popular.<ref name=basham1991p95/> Such an era emerged after the rise of [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]] in the 5th century BCE, and particularly after the semi-legendary life of [[Ashoka]] in the 3rd century BCE. Thus, the first version of the Bhagavad Gita may have been composed in or after the 3rd century BCE.<ref name=basham1991p95>{{cite book|author=Arthur Llewellyn Basham|title=The Origins and Development of Classical Hinduism| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2aqgTYlhLikC |year =1991| publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-507349-2|pages=95–96}}</ref>

Linguistically, the Bhagavad Gita is in [[Sanskrit#Classical Sanskrit|classical Sanskrit]] of the early variety, states the Gita scholar [[Winthrop Sargeant]].{{sfn|Sargeant|2009|pp=3–4}} The text has occasional pre-classical elements of the Sanskrit language, such as the [[aorist]] and the prohibitive ''mā'' instead of the expected ''na'' (not) of classical Sanskrit.{{sfn|Sargeant|2009|pp=3–4}} This suggests that the text was composed after the [[Pāṇini]] era, but before the long compounds of classical Sanskrit became the norm. This would date the text as transmitted by the [[oral tradition]] to the later centuries of the 1st-millennium BCE, and the first written version probably to the 2nd or 3rd century CE.{{sfn|Sargeant|2009|pp=3–4}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Heather Elgood|title=Hinduism and the Religious Arts|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cj2tAwAAQBAJ |year=2000|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-0-304-70739-3|pages=13–14}}</ref>

According to Jeaneane Fowler, "the dating of the Gita varies considerably" and depends in part on whether one accepts it to be a part of the early versions of the ''Mahabharata'', or a text that was inserted into the epic at a later date.{{sfn|Fowler|2012|pages=xxiv–xxiv}} The earliest "surviving" components therefore are believed to be no older than the earliest "external" references we have to the ''Mahabharata'' epic. The ''Mahabharata'' – the world's longest poem – is itself a text that was likely written and compiled over several hundred years, one dated between "400 BCE or little earlier, and 2nd century CE, though some claim a few parts can be put as late as 400 CE", states Fowler. The dating of the Gita is thus dependent on the uncertain dating of the ''Mahabharata''. The actual dates of composition of the Gita remain unresolved.{{sfn|Fowler|2012|pages=xxiv–xxiv}} While the year and century is uncertain, states [[Richard Davis (professor of religion)|Richard Davis]],<ref>{{cite web|last=College|first=Bard|title=Richard H. Davis|url=https://www.bard.edu/academics/faculty/details/?id=240|access-date=2021-06-09|website=www.bard.edu|language=en}}</ref> the internal evidence in the text dates the origin of the Gita discourse to the Hindu lunar month of ''[[wikt:Margashirsha|Margashirsha]]'' (also called ''[[Agrahayana]]'', generally December or January of the Gregorian calendar).{{sfn|Davis|2014|p=3}}

== Composition and significance ==
The Bhagavad Gita is the best known,<ref>{{cite book|author=James G. Lochtefeld |title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Volume 1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5kl0DYIjUPgC |year=2001|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc|isbn=978-0-8239-3179-8|page=93}}</ref> and most influential of Hindu scriptures.<ref name="Robinson2014viii">{{cite book|author=Catherine A. Robinson |title=Interpretations of the Bhagavad-Gita and Images of the Hindu Tradition: The Song of the Lord |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NKHKAgAAQBAJ |year=2014|publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-134-27891-6|pages=viii–ix}}</ref> While Hinduism is known for its diversity and its synthesis therefrom, the Bhagavad Gita has a unique pan-Hindu influence.<ref name=buitenen7>{{harvnb|J.A.B. van Buitenen|2013|pp=6–7}}, Quote: "Its [Bhagavadgita's] importance as a religious text is demonstrated by its uniquely pan-Hindu influence".</ref><ref name=Maitra2018>{{cite book|author=Keya Maitra|title=Philosophy of the Bhagavad Gita: A Contemporary Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UmRHDwAAQBAJ |year=2018| publisher= Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-350-04017-5| pages=5–6}}</ref> [[Gerald James Larson]] – an Indologist and scholar of classical Hindu philosophy, states that "if there is any one text that comes near to embodying the totality of what it is to be a [[Hindu]], it would be the Bhagavad Gita."<ref name="Robinson2014viii"/><ref name="Neusner2009">{{cite book|author=Gerald James Larson|editor=Jacob Neusner|title=World Religions in America, Fourth Edition: An Introduction | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=34vGv_HDGG8C |year=2009|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press| isbn=978-1-61164-047-2| page=187}}</ref>

The Bhagavad Gita is part of the [[Prasthanatrayi]], which also includes the [[Upanishads]] and [[Brahma sutras]]. These are the three starting points for the [[Vedanta]] school of Hindu philosophy.<ref name=nvisaeva35>NV Isaeva (1992), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-1281-7}}, p. 35 with footnote 30</ref> The Brahma sutras constitute the ''Nyāya prasthāna'' or the "starting point of reasoning canonical base", while the principal Upanishads constitute the ''Sruti prasthāna'' or the "starting point of heard scriptures", and the Bhagavad Gita constitutes the ''Smriti prasthāna'' or the "starting point of remembered canonical base".<ref name=nvisaeva35/> The Bhagavad Gita is a "summation of the Vedanta", states Sargeant.{{sfn|Sargeant|2009|p=x}} It is thus one of the key texts for the [[Vedanta]],{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=7}}{{sfn|Singh|2005|p=37}} a school that provides one of the theoretical foundations for Hinduism,{{sfn|Nakamura|1950|p=3}} and one that has had an enormous influence over time, becoming the central ideology of the Hindu renaissance in the 19th century, according to [[Gavin Flood]] – a scholar of Hinduism.{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=231–232, 238}}

[[File:Arjuna and His Charioteer Krishna Confront Karna, crop.jpg|thumb|150px|Krishna recounts Gita to Arjuna during [[Kurukshetra War]], in ''[[Mahabharata]]''; c.1820 painting.]]
Some Hindus give it the status of an Upanishad, and some consider it to be a "revealed text".<ref>{{cite book|author=Ronald Neufeldt|editor=Robert Neil Minor|title=Modern Indian Interpreters of the Bhagavad Gita|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Ku2DGm20WWUC |year=1986 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-88706-297-1|pages=11–12, 213}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |first=Thomas B.|last=Coburn |title='Scripture' in India: Towards a Typology of the Word in Hindu Life |journal=Journal of the American Academy of Religion |volume=52 |issue=3 |year=1984 |pages=435–59 |jstor=1464202 |doi=10.1093/jaarel/52.3.435 }}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Tapasyananda|1990|page=1}}</ref> Others consider the Bhagavad Gita as an important [[Smrti|Smriti]],<ref>{{cite book|author=Swami Prabhavananda|title=Bhagavad Gita – The Song of God|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x358CgAAQBAJ&pg=PT7|year=1964|publisher=New American Library|isbn=978-1-4474-8104-1|pages=7–8}}</ref> or secondary text that exist in alternate versions such as one found in Kashmir though it does not affect the basic message of the text.{{sfn|Upadhyaya|1998|pages=10–12 with footnote 1 on p. 11}}{{sfn|Davis|2014|pp=39–40}}{{sfn|Minor|1982|pp= li–lii, Quote: "the Kashmir recension is a later reading of the Gita." (note the different views of F Otto Schrader from those of SK Belvalkar as well as JAB van Buitenen.)}}

===Hindu synthesis===
{{See also|Smarta tradition}}
[[File:A didactic print from the 1960's that uses the Gita scene as a focal point for general religious instruction.jpg|thumb|A didactic print from the 1960s that uses the Gita scene as a focal point for general religious instruction]]
The Bhagavad Gita is the sealing achievement of the [[Hindu synthesis]], incorporating its various religious traditions.{{sfn|Scheepers|2000}}{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=211}}{{sfn|Eliot Deutsch|Rohit Dalvi|2004|pp=61–62}} The synthesis is at both philosophical and socio-religious levels, states the Gita scholar Keya Maitra.{{sfn|Maitra|2018| pages=5, 26–30, 143}} The text refrains from insisting on one right ''marga'' (path) to spirituality. It openly synthesizes and inclusively accepts multiple ways of life, harmonizing spiritual pursuits through action (''karma''), knowledge (''gyaana''), and devotion (''bhakti'').{{sfn|Robinson|2006|pp=69–70, 95–100}} According to the Gita translator Radhakrishnan, quoted in a review by Robinson, Krishna's discourse is a "comprehensive synthesis" that inclusively unifies the competing strands of Hindu thought such as "Vedic ritual, Upanishadic wisdom, devotional theism and philosophical insight".{{sfn|Robinson|2006|p=95}} Aurobindo described the text as a synthesis of various [[Yoga]]s. The Indologist Robert Minor, and others,<ref group=web name="EB-BG">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Bhagavadgita |title=Hinduism| encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> in contrast, state that the Gita is "more clearly defined as a synthesis of Vedanta, Yoga and Samkhya" philosophies of Hinduism.{{sfn|Minor|1986|pp=74–75, 81}}

The synthesis in Bhagavad Gita addresses the question of what constitutes the virtuous path that is necessary for spiritual liberation or release from the cycles of rebirth (''moksha'').<ref name="Flood2004p85">{{cite book|author=Gavin Flood|title=The Ascetic Self: Subjectivity, Memory and Tradition|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=fapXqp-JSL0C |year=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-60401-7|pages=85–89 with notes}}</ref><ref name="Gill2017p129">{{cite book|author=Robin Gill|title=Moral Passion and Christian Ethics|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=xNwcDgAAQBAJ |year=2017| publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-17682-9|pages=129–130}}</ref> It discusses whether one should renounce a householder lifestyle for a life as an ascetic, or lead a householder life dedicated to one's duty and profession, or pursue a householder life devoted to a personalized God in the revealed form of Krishna. Thus Gita discusses and synthesizes the three dominant trends in Hinduism: enlightenment-based renunciation, dharma-based householder life, and devotion-based theism. According to Deutsch and Dalvi, the Bhagavad Gita attempts "to forge a harmony" between these three paths.{{sfn|Eliot Deutsch|Rohit Dalvi|2004|pp=61–62}}{{refn|group=note|They state that the authors of the Bhagavad Gita must have seen the appeal of the soteriologies found in "the heterodox traditions of Buddhism and Jainism" as well as those found in " the orthodox Hindu traditions of Samkhya and Yoga". The Gita attempts to present a harmonious, universalist answer, state Deutsch and Dalvi.{{sfn|Eliot Deutsch|Rohit Dalvi|2004|pp=61–62}}}}

The Bhagavad Gita{{'}}s synthetic answer recommends that one must resist the "either-or" view, and consider a "both-and" view.<ref name="Zaehner1973p187">{{cite book|author=Robert Charles Zaehner|title=The Bhagavad-gītā|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=nY6PRhqdlJsC |year=1973|publisher= Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-501666-6| pages=187, 200}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=Nikam | first=N.A.| title=A Note on the Individual and His Status in Indian Thought | journal=Philosophy East and West | publisher= University of Hawai'i Press| volume=2 | issue=3 | year=1952 | doi=10.2307/1397274 | pages=254–258| jstor=1397274}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Franklin Edgerton| title=The Bhagavad Gita, Part 2| publisher= Harvard University Press|year=1952|pages=91–92}}</ref> It states that the dharmic householder can achieve the same goals as the renouncing monk through "inner renunciation" or "motiveless action".<ref name="Flood2004p85"/>{{refn|group=note|This is called the doctrine of ''[[Nishkam Karma|nishakama karma]]'' in Hinduism.<ref>{{cite book|author=Jonardon Ganeri|title=The Concealed Art of the Soul: Theories of Self and Practices of Truth in Indian Ethics and Epistemology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5dITDAAAQBAJ |year= 2007|publisher= Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-920241-6|pages=68–70}}</ref><ref name= Framarin/>}} One must do the right thing because one has determined that it is right, states Gita, without craving for its fruits, without worrying about the results, loss or gain.<ref name= Framarin>{{cite journal|title =The Desire You Are Required to Get Rid of: A Functionalist Analysis of Desire in the Bhagavadgītā| author= Christopher G. Framarin| journal= Philosophy East and West| volume= 56| pages= 604–617| number= 4| year= 2006| publisher = University of Hawai'i Press| jstor= 4488055| doi= 10.1353/pew.2006.0051| s2cid= 170907654}}</ref><ref name="Basham1991p86">{{cite book|author=Arthur Llewellyn Basham|title=The Origins and Development of Classical Hinduism| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2aqgTYlhLikC |year =1991| publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-507349-2|pages=86–87}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=White | first=David | title=Human Perfection in the Bhagavadgita | journal=Philosophy East and West | publisher=University of Hawai'i Press | volume=21 | issue=1 | year=1971 | doi=10.2307/1397763 | pages=43–53| jstor=1397763 }}</ref> Desires, selfishness, and the craving for fruits can distort one from spiritual living.<ref name="Basham1991p86"/> The Gita synthesis goes further, according to its interpreters such as Swami Vivekananda, and the text states that there is Living God in every human being and the devoted service to this Living God in everyone – without craving for personal rewards – is a means to spiritual development and liberation.<ref name="Nadkarni2016p82">{{harvnb|M.V. Nadkarni|2016|pp=82, 95–96}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Franklin Edgerton| title=The Bhagavad Gita, Part 2| publisher= Harvard University Press|year=1952|pages=47–48, 73–74, 83–84}}</ref>{{sfn|Minor|1986|pp=38–39, 123–128, 143}} According to Galvin Flood, the teachings in the Gita differ from other Indian religions that encouraged extreme austerity and self-torture of various forms (''karsayanta''). The Gita disapproves of these, stating that not only is it against tradition but against Krishna himself, because "Krishna dwells within all beings, in torturing the body the ascetic would be torturing him", states Flood. Even a monk should strive for "inner renunciation" rather than external pretensions.<ref>{{cite book|author=Gavin Flood|title=The Ascetic Self: Subjectivity, Memory and Tradition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fapXqp-JSL0C |year=2004|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-60401-7|pages=83–84 with notes}}</ref>

The Gita synthesizes several paths to spiritual realization based on the premise that people are born with different temperaments and tendencies (''guna'').{{sfn|Sargeant|2009|p=xii}} According to Winthrop Sargeant, the text acknowledges that some individuals are more reflective and intellectual, some affective and engaged by their emotions, some are action driven, yet others favor experimentation and exploring what works.{{sfn|Sargeant|2009|p=xii}} It then presents different spiritual paths for each personality type respectively: the path of knowledge (''jnana yoga''), the path of devotion (''bhakti yoga''), the path of action (''karma yoga''), and the path of meditation (''raja yoga'').{{sfn|Sargeant|2009|p=xii}}{{sfn|Robinson|2006|pages=92–93, 133–134}} The ''guna'' premise is a synthesis of the ideas from the Samkhya school of Hinduism. According to Upadhyaya, the Gita states that none of these paths to spiritual realization is "intrinsically superior or inferior", rather they "converge in one and lead to the same goal".{{sfn|Upadhyaya|1998|pp=474–475}}

According to Hiltebeitel, ''Bhakti'' forms an essential ingredient of this synthesis, and the text incorporates ''Bhakti'' into ''Vedanta''.{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002}} According to Scheepers, The Bhagavad Gita is a Brahmanical text which uses [[Shramana|Shramanic]] and Yogic terminology to spread the Brahmanic idea of living according to one's duty or ''dharma'', in contrast to the ascetic ideal of liberation by avoiding all karma.{{sfn|Scheepers|2000|pp=122-127}} According to Galvin Flood and Charles Martin, the Gita rejects the Shramanic path of non-action, emphasizing instead "the renunciation of the fruits of action".<ref>{{cite book|author1=Galvin Flood|author2=Charles Martin|title=The Bhagavad Gita: A New Translation|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=PDYEAwAAQBAJ&pg=PR26 |year=2013 |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company| isbn=978-0-393-34513-1| page=xxvi}}</ref> The Bhagavad Gita, according to Raju, is a great synthesis of impersonal spiritual monism with personal God, of "the ''yoga'' of action with the ''yoga'' of transcendence of action, and these again with the ''yogas'' of devotion and knowledge".{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=211}}

== Manuscripts ==
[[File:Bhagavad Gita, a 19th century manuscript.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|alt=Photograph of four pieces of paper with verses in Sanskrit.|A 19th-century Sanskrit manuscript of the Bhagavad Gita, Devanagari script]]
The Bhagavad Gita manuscript is found in the sixth book of the ''Mahabharata'' manuscripts – the ''Bhisma-parvan''. Therein, in the third section, the Gita forms chapters 23–40, that is 6.3.23 to 6.3.40.{{sfn|Fowler|2012|pp=xxi–xxii}} The Bhagavad Gita is often preserved and studied on its own, as an independent text with its chapters renumbered from 1 to 18.{{sfn|Fowler|2012|pp=xxi–xxii}}
[[File:Vintage Hindu God Krishan Gita Birth Litho Print Original Vasudeo Pandya 1932.jpg|thumb|Vintage Hindu God Krishan Gita Birth Litho Print Original Vasudeo Pandya 1932|left]]
The Bhagavad Gita manuscripts exist in numerous Indic scripts.<ref name=nadkarni18>{{harvnb|M.V. Nadkarni|2016|pp=18–19}}</ref> These include writing systems that are currently in use, as well as early scripts such as the now dormant [[Sharada script]].<ref name=nadkarni18/><ref>{{cite book|author=Friedrich Otto Schrader|title=A descriptive catalogue of the Sanskrit manuscripts in the Adyar Library|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QD-Qmb2XIr8C&pg=PA57|year=1908|publisher=Adyar Library Oriental Pub.|page=57}}</ref> Variant manuscripts of the Gita have been found on the Indian subcontinent{{sfn|Upadhyaya|1998|pages=10–12 with footnote 1 on p. 11}}<ref name=minor1982lli/> Unlike the enormous variations in the remaining sections of the surviving ''Mahabharata'' manuscripts, the Gita manuscripts show only minor variations.{{sfn|Upadhyaya|1998|pages=10–12 with footnote 1 on p. 11}}<ref name=minor1982lli/>

According to Gambhirananda, the old manuscripts may have had 745 verses, though he agrees that “700 verses is the generally accepted historic standard."{{sfn|Gambhirananda|1997|page=xvii}} Gambhirananda's view is supported by a few versions of chapter 6.43 of the ''Mahabharata''. According to Gita exegesis scholar Robert Minor, these versions state that the Gita is a text where "Kesava [Krishna] spoke 574 slokas, Arjuna 84, Sanjaya 41, and Dhritarashtra 1".{{sfn|Minor|1982|pp= l–li}} An authentic manuscript of the Gita with 745 verses has not been found.{{sfn|Minor|1982|pp= l–ii}} Adi Shankara, in his 8th-century commentary, explicitly states that the Gita has 700 verses, which was likely a deliberate declaration to prevent further insertions and changes to the Gita. Since Shankara's time, "700 verses" has been the standard benchmark for the [[critical edition]] of the Bhagavad Gita.{{sfn|Minor|1982|pp= l–ii}}

== Content ==
=== Structure ===
The Bhagavad Gita is a poem written in the [[Sanskrit]] language.<ref name=flood2013xviii>{{cite book|author1=Galvin Flood|author2=Charles Martin|title=The Bhagavad Gita: A New Translation|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=PDYEAwAAQBAJ |year=2013 |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company| isbn=978-0-393-34513-1| page=xxviii}}</ref> Its 700 [[Verse (poetry)|verses]]<ref name=minor1982lli/> are structured into several ancient Indian poetic [[Metre (poetry)|meters]], with the principal being the ''shloka'' (''Anushtubh chanda''). It has 18 chapters in total. {{sfn|Coburn|1991|page=27}} Each ''shloka'' consists of a couplet, thus the entire text consists of 1,400 lines. Each ''shloka'' has two quarter verses with exactly eight syllables. Each of these quarters is further arranged into two metrical feet of four syllables each.<ref name=flood2013xviii/>{{refn|group=note|An alternate way to describe the poetic structure of Gita, according to Sargeant, is that it consists of "four lines of eight syllables each", similar to one found in Longfellow's ''[[The Song of Hiawatha|Hiawatha]]''.{{sfn|Sargeant|2009|p=8}}}} The metered verse does not rhyme.{{sfn|Sargeant|2009|p=8}} While the ''shloka'' is the principal meter in the Gita, it does deploy other elements of [[Sanskrit prosody]].{{sfn|Egenes|2003|page=4}} At dramatic moments, it uses the ''tristubh'' meter found in the Vedas, where each line of the couplet has two quarter verses with exactly eleven syllables.{{sfn|Sargeant|2009|p=8}}

=== Narrative ===
The Gita is a dialogue between Krishna and Arjuna right before the start of the climactic [[Kurukshetra War]] in the Hindu epic ''Mahabharata''.<ref>{{cite book|author=Alexus McLeod|title= Understanding Asian Philosophy|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=X1PwAwAAQBAJ |year=2014|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-78093-631-4|page= 136}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|In the epic ''Mahabharata'', after [[Sanjaya]]—counsellor of the [[Kuru Kingdom|Kuru]] king [[Dhritarashtra]]—returns from the battlefield to announce the death of [[Bhishma]], he begins recounting the details of the ''Mahabharata'' war. Bhagavad Gita is a part of this recollection.<ref>{{harvnb|Fowler|2012|page=xxii}}</ref>}} Two massive armies have gathered to destroy each other. The Pandava prince Arjuna asks his charioteer [[Krishna]] to drive to the center of the battlefield so that he can get a good look at both the armies and all those "so eager for war".{{sfn|Davis|2014|pp=1–2}} He sees that some among his enemies are his own relatives, beloved friends, and revered teachers. He does not want to fight to kill them and is thus filled with doubt and despair on the battlefield.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kriyananda |first1=Goswami |title=The Bhagavad Gita |date=1994 |publisher=The Temple of Kriya Yoga |location=Chicago, IL |isbn=978-0-9613099-3-0 |page=4 |edition=3rd}}</ref> He drops his bow, wonders if he should renounce and just leave the battlefield.{{sfn|Davis|2014|pp=1–2}} He turns to his charioteer and guide Krishna, for advice on the rationale for war, his choices and the right thing to do. The Bhagavad Gita is the compilation of Arjuna's questions and moral dilemma and Krishna's answers and insights that elaborate on a variety of philosophical concepts.{{sfn|Davis|2014|pp=1–2}}{{sfn|Eliot Deutsch|Rohit Dalvi|2004|pp=59–61}} The compiled dialogue goes far beyond the "rationale for war"; it touches on many human ethical dilemmas, philosophical issues and life's choices.{{sfn|Davis|2014|pp=1–2}} According to Flood and Martin, although the Gita is set in the context of a wartime epic, the narrative is structured to apply to all situations; it wrestles with questions about "who we are, how we should live our lives, and how should we act in the world".<ref>{{cite book|author1=Galvin Flood|author2=Charles Martin|title=The Bhagavad Gita: A New Translation|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=PDYEAwAAQBAJ&pg=PR26 |year=2013 |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company| isbn=978-0-393-34513-1| pages=xv–xvi}}</ref> According to Sargeant, it delves into questions about the "purpose of life, crisis of self-identity, human Self, human temperaments, and ways for spiritual quest".{{sfn|Sargeant|2009|pp=x–xviii}}

=== Characters ===
[[File:Arjuna Wijaya chariot statue in Jakarta.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The thematic story of Arjuna and Krishna at the [[Kurukshetra War]] became popular in southeast Asia as Hinduism spread there in the 1st-millennium CE.<ref>{{cite journal| author=Jan Gonda|title=The Javanese version of the Bhagavadgita|journal=Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal, Land- en Volkenkunde |volume= LXXV| year=1935|pages= 36–82|publisher=Koninklijk Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author = Amara Srisuchat|title= Mahabharata in Art and Literature in Thailand| journal= Indian Literature| volume= 49| number=1| year=2005| page= 113|jstor=23346580}}</ref> Above, an Arjuna-Krishna chariot scene in Jakarta center, [[Indonesia]].]]
* [[Arjuna]], one of the five [[Pandavas]]
* [[Krishna]], Arjuna's charioteer and [[guru]] who was actually an incarnation of [[Vishnu]]
* [[Sanjaya]], counselor of the Kuru king [[Dhritarashtra]] (secondary narrator)
* [[Dhritarashtra]], Kuru king (Sanjaya's audience) and father of the Kauravas

=== Chapters ===
Bhagavad Gita comprises 18 chapters (section 23 to 40)<ref>{{harvnb|Bose|1986|page=71}}</ref><ref group=web>{{cite web|title=Gita Introduction |url=http://www.bhagavad-gita.org/Gita/intro.html |publisher=Bhagavad-Gita Trust 1998–2009 U.S. |access-date=2 October 2011}}</ref> in the [[Bhishma Parva]] of the epic ''Mahabharata''. Because of differences in [[recension]]s, the verses of the Gita may be numbered in the full text of the ''Mahabharata'' as chapters 6.25–42 or as chapters 6.23–40.<ref group=web name="Bhandarkar"/> The number of verses in each chapter vary in some manuscripts of the Gita discovered on the Indian subcontinent. However, variant readings are relatively few in contrast to the numerous versions of the ''Mahabharata'' it is found embedded in.<ref name=minor1982lli>{{harvnb|Minor|1982|pp= l–li, Quote: "The current text of the Bhagavad Gita is well-preserved with relatively few variant readings and none quite serious. This is especially remarkable in the light of the numerous variants for the remainder of the Mahabharata, some of which are quite serious. Secondary insertions are found in individual manuscripts of the Gita, but these are clearly secondary. The number of stanzas in the Gita is 700, a number confirmed by Shankara, and possibly deliberately chosen in order to prevent interpolations."}}</ref>

The original Bhagavad Gita has no chapter titles. Some Sanskrit editions that separate the Gita from the epic as an independent text, as well as translators, however, add chapter titles.{{sfn|Maitra|2018|p=39}}<ref group=web name="Bhandarkar">see {{cite web |url=http://bombay.indology.info/mahabharata/statement.html |title=The Mahabharata (Electronic text) |publisher=Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Pune |year=1999}}</ref> For example, [[Swami Chidbhavananda]] describes each of the eighteen chapters as a separate yoga because each chapter, like yoga, "trains the body and the mind". He labels the first chapter "Arjuna Vishada Yogam" or the "Yoga of Arjuna's Dejection".<ref>{{harvnb|Chidbhavananda|1997|page=33}}</ref> Sir [[Edwin Arnold]] titled this chapter in his 1885 translation as "The Distress of Arjuna".<ref name=EBG>{{Citation|last=translated by Sir [[Edwin Arnold]]|title=Bhagavadgita|year=1885|publisher=[[Dover Publications]] (1993 Reprint)|location=New York|isbn=0-486-27782-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KOd6N2_t6XoC|edition=Unabridged}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|Some editions include the ''[[Gita Dhyanam]]'' consisting of 9 verses. The ''Gita Dhyanam'' is not a part of the original Bhagavad Gita, but some modern era versions insert it as a prefix to the ''Gītā''. The verses of the ''Gita Dhyanam'' (also called ''Gītā Dhyāna'' or ''Dhyāna Ślokas'') offer salutations to a variety of sacred scriptures, figures, and entities, characterise the relationship of the ''Gītā'' to the [[Upanishads]], and affirm the power of divine assistance.<ref name=chinmaya98>{{harvnb|Chinmayananda|1998|page=3}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Ranganathananda|2000|pages=15–25}}</ref>}}

====Chapter 1: Arjuna Vishadayoga (47 verses)====
Translators have variously titled the first chapter as ''[[Arjunvishadyog (Bhagvad Geeta's Chapter)|Arjuna vishada yoga]]'', ''Prathama Adhyaya'', ''The Distress of Arjuna'', ''The War Within'', or ''Arjuna's Sorrow''.<ref name=EBG />{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=5–6}}{{sfn|Maitra|2018|pp=vii–viii}} The Bhagavad Gita is opened by setting the stage of the Kurukshetra battlefield. Two massive armies representing different loyalties and ideologies face a catastrophic war. With Arjuna is Krishna, not as a participant in the war, but only as his charioteer and counsel. Arjuna requests Krishna to move the [[Ratha|chariot]] between the two armies so he can see those "eager for this war". He sees family and friends on the enemy side. Arjuna is distressed and in sorrow.{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=71–82}} The issue is, states [[Arvind Sharma]], "is it morally proper to kill?"{{sfn|Sharma|1986|pp=xiv–xv}} This and other moral dilemmas in the first chapter are set in a context where the Hindu epic and Krishna have already extolled ''[[ahimsa]]'' (non-violence) to be the highest and divine virtue of a human being.{{sfn|Sharma|1986|pp=xiv–xv}} The war feels evil to Arjuna and he questions the morality of war. He wonders if it is noble to renounce and leave before the violence starts, or should he fight, and why.{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=71–82}}

====Chapter 2: Sankhyayoga (72 verses)====
{{multiple image
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| width = 220
| footer = Face pages of chapters 1, 2 and 3 of historic Bhagavad Gita manuscripts. Top: [[Bengali alphabet|Bengali script]]; Bottom: [[Gurmukhi script]].
| image1 = 1st and 2nd chapter face page, Bhagavad Gita, Bengali script, 19th century.jpg
| image2 = 3rd Chapter Verses 1-2, Bhagavad Gita, Gurmukhi script, Punjab.jpg
}}
Translators title the chapter as ''Sankhya Yoga'', ''The Book of Doctrines'', ''Self-Realization'', or ''The Yoga of Knowledge (and Philosophy)''.<ref name=EBG />{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=5–6}}{{sfn|Maitra|2018|pp=vii–viii}} The second chapter begins the philosophical discussions and teachings found in the Gita. The warrior Arjuna whose past had focused on learning the skills of his profession now faces a war he has doubts about. Filled with introspection and questions about the meaning and purpose of life, he asks Krishna about the nature of life, Self, death, afterlife and whether there is a deeper meaning and reality.{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=83–98}} Krishna answers. The chapter summarizes the Hindu idea of rebirth, samsara, eternal Self in each person (Self), universal Self present in everyone, various types of yoga, divinity within, the nature of knowledge of the Self and other concepts.{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=83–98}} The ideas and concepts in the second chapter reflect the framework of the [[Samkhya]] and [[Yoga]] schools of [[Hindu philosophy]]. This chapter is an overview for the remaining sixteen chapters of the Bhagavad Gita.{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=83–98}}{{sfn|Sharma|1986|pp=xv–xvi}}{{sfn|Sargeant|2009|p=xx}} [[Mahatma Gandhi]] memorized the last 19 verses of the second chapter, considering them as his companion in his non-violent movement for social justice during colonial rule.{{sfn|Sargeant|2009|p=xxviii}}

====Chapter 3: Karmayoga (43 verses)====
Translators title the chapter as ''Karma yoga'', ''Virtue in Work'', ''Selfless Service'', or ''The Yoga of Action''.<ref name=EBG />{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=5–6}}{{sfn|Maitra|2018|pp=vii–viii}} Arjuna, after listening to Krishna's spiritual teachings in Chapter 2, gets more confounded and returns to the predicament he faces. He wonders if fighting the war is "not so important after all" given Krishna's overview on the pursuit of spiritual wisdom. Krishna replies that there is no way to avoid action (karma), since abstention from work is also an action.{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=99–110}} Krishna states that Arjuna has an obligation to understand and perform his duty (dharma), because everything is connected by the law of cause and effect. Every man or woman is bound by activity. Those who act selfishly create the Karmic cause and are thereby bound to the effect which may be good or bad.{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=99–110}} Those who act selflessly for the right cause and strive to do their dharmic duty do God's work.{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=99–110}} Those who act without craving for fruits are free from the Karmic effects, because the results never motivated them. Whatever the result, it does not affect them. Their happiness comes from within, and the external world does not bother them.{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=99–110}}{{sfn|Fowler|2012|pages=50–63, 66–70}} According to Flood and Martin, chapter 3 and onwards develops "a theological response to Arjuna's dilemma".<ref>{{cite book|author1=Galvin Flood|author2=Charles Martin|title=The Bhagavad Gita: A New Translation|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=PDYEAwAAQBAJ |year=2013 |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company| isbn=978-0-393-34513-1| page=xix}}</ref>

====Chapter 4: Gyana Karma Sanyasayoga (42 verses)====
Translators title the fourth chapter as ''Jñāna–Karma-Sanyasa yoga'', ''The Religion of Knowledge'', ''Wisdom in Action'', or ''The Yoga of Renunciation of Action through Knowledge''.<ref name=EBG />{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=5–6}}{{sfn|Maitra|2018|pp=vii–viii}} Krishna reveals that he has taught this yoga to the Vedic sages. Arjuna questions how Krishna could do this, when those sages lived so long ago, and Krishna was born more recently. Krishna reminds him that everyone is in the cycle of rebirths, and while Arjuna does not remember his previous births, he does. Whenever dharma declines and the purpose of life is forgotten by Man, says Krishna, he returns to re-establish dharma.{{refn|group=note|This is the [[avatara]] concept found in the Vaishnavism tradition of Hinduism.{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=111–122}}}} Every time he returns, he teaches about the inner Self in all beings. The later verses of the chapter return to the discussion of motiveless action and the need to determine the right action, performing it as one's dharma (duty) while renouncing the results, rewards, fruits. The simultaneous outer action with inner renunciation, states Krishna, is the secret to the life of freedom. Action leads to knowledge, while selfless action leads to spiritual awareness, state the last verses of this chapter.{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=111–122}} The 4th chapter is the first time where Krishna begins to reveal his divine nature to Arjuna.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Galvin Flood|author2=Charles Martin|title=The Bhagavad Gita: A New Translation|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=PDYEAwAAQBAJ |year=2013 |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company| isbn=978-0-393-34513-1| page=xxi}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Arthur Llewellyn Basham|title=The Origins and Development of Classical Hinduism| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2aqgTYlhLikC |year =1991| publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-507349-2|page=93}}</ref>

====Chapter 5: Karma Sanyasayoga (29 verses)====
Translators title this chapter as ''Karma–Sanyasa yoga'', ''Religion by Renouncing Fruits of Works'', ''Renounce and Rejoice'', or ''The Yoga of Renunciation''.<ref name=EBG />{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=5–6}}{{sfn|Maitra|2018|pp=vii–viii}} The chapter starts by presenting the tension in the Indian tradition between the life of ''sannyasa'' (monks who have renounced their household and worldly attachments) and the life of ''grihastha'' (householder). Arjuna asks Krishna which path is better.{{sfn|Miller|1986|page=59}} Krishna answers that both are paths to the same goal, but the path of "selfless action and service" with inner renunciation is better. The different paths, says Krishna, aim for—and if properly pursued, lead to—Self-knowledge. This knowledge leads to the universal, transcendent Godhead, the divine essence in all beings, to Brahman – to Krishna himself. The final verses of the chapter state that the self-aware who have reached self-realization live without fear, anger, or desire. They are free within, always.{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=123–132}}{{sfn|Fowler|2012|pages=91–103}} Chapter 5 shows signs of interpolations and internal contradictions. For example, states Arthur Basham, verses 5.23–28 state that a sage's spiritual goal is to realize the impersonal Brahman, yet the next verse 5.29 states that the goal is to realize the personal God who is Krishna.<ref name=basham1991p85>{{cite book|author=Arthur Llewellyn Basham|title=The Origins and Development of Classical Hinduism| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=2aqgTYlhLikC |year =1991| publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-507349-2|pages=85–87}}</ref>
{{Quote box
|quote = '''Selfless service'''
[[File:6th Chapter, verse 1, Bhagavad Gita, Sanskrit, Devanagari script.jpg|260px]]
<poem>
It is not those who lack energy
nor those who refrain from action,
but those who work without expecting reward
who attain the goal of meditation,
Theirs is true renunciation([[Sannyasa|sanyāsā]]).
</poem>
|source = —Bhagavad Gita 6.1 Eknath Easwaran{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|p=139}}{{refn|group=note|For alternate worded translations, see Radhakrishnan,{{sfn|Radhakrishnan|1993|p=187}} Miller,{{sfn|Miller|1986|page=63}} Sargeant,{{sfn|Sargeant|2009|p=272}} Edgerton,<ref>{{cite book|author=Franklin Edgerton| title=The Bhagavad Gita, Part 2| publisher= Harvard University Press|year=1952|page=118}}</ref> Flood & Martin,<ref>{{cite book|author1=Galvin Flood|author2=Charles Martin|title=The Bhagavad Gita: A New Translation|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=PDYEAwAAQBAJ |year=2013 |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company| isbn=978-0-393-34513-1| page=49}}</ref> and others.}}
|bgcolor=#FFE0BB
|align = right
}}

====Chapter 6: Dhyanayoga (Aatmasamyamyoga) (47 verses)====
Translators title the sixth chapter as ''Dhyana yoga'', ''Religion by Self-Restraint'', ''The Practice of Meditation'', or ''The Yoga of Meditation''.<ref name=EBG />{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=5–6}}{{sfn|Maitra|2018|pp=vii–viii}} The chapter opens as a continuation of Krishna's teachings about selfless work and the personality of someone who has renounced the fruits that are found in chapter 5. Krishna says that such self-realized people are impartial to friends and enemies, are beyond good and evil, equally disposed to those who support them or oppose them because they have reached the summit of consciousness. The verses 6.10 and after proceed to summarize the principles of Yoga and meditation in the format similar to but simpler than Patanjali's ''Yogasutra''. It discusses who is a true yogi, and what it takes to reach the state where one harbors no malice towards anyone.{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=133–146}}{{sfn|Fowler|2012|pages=106–120}}

====Chapter 7: Gyana Vigyanayoga (30 verses)====
Translators title this chapter as ''Jnana–Vijnana yoga'', ''Religion by Discernment'', ''Wisdom from Realization'', or ''The Yoga of Knowledge and Judgment''.<ref name=EBG />{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=5–6}}{{sfn|Maitra|2018|pp=vii–viii}} The chapter 7 opens with Krishna continuing his discourse. He discusses ''jnana'' (knowledge) and ''vijnana'' (realization, understanding) using the [[Prakriti]]-[[Purusha]] (matter-Self) framework of the [[Samkhya]] school of Hindu philosophy, and the [[Maya (illusion)|Maya]]-[[Brahman]] framework of its [[Vedanta]] school. The chapter states that evil is the consequence of ignorance and attachment to the impermanent, the elusive Maya. It states that Self-knowledge and union with Purusha (Krishna) are the highest goal of any spiritual pursuit.{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=147–156}}

====Chapter 8: Akshara Brahmayoga (28 verses)====
Translators title the chapter as ''Aksara–Brahma yoga'', ''Religion by Devotion to the One Supreme God'', ''The Eternal Godhead'', or ''The Yoga of the Imperishable Brahman''.<ref name=EBG />{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=5–6}}{{sfn|Maitra|2018|pp=vii–viii}} The chapter opens with Arjuna asking questions such as what is Brahman and what is the nature of ''karma''. Krishna states that his own highest nature is the imperishable Brahman, and that he lives in every creature as the ''adhyatman''. Every being has an impermanent body and an eternal Self, and that "Krishna as Lord" lives within every creature. The chapter discusses cosmology, the nature of death and rebirth.{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=157–168}} This chapter contains [[eschatology]] of the Bhagavad Gita. Importance of the last thought before death, differences between material and spiritual worlds, and light and dark paths that a Self takes after death are described.{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=157–168}}

====Chapter 9: Raja Vidya Raja Guhyayoga (34 verses)====
Translators title the ninth chapter as ''Raja–Vidya–Raja–Guhya yoga'', ''Religion by the Kingly Knowledge and the Kingly Mystery'', ''The Royal Path'', or ''The Yoga of Sovereign Science and Sovereign Secret''.<ref name=EBG />{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=5–6}}{{sfn|Maitra|2018|pp=vii–viii}} Chapter 9 opens with Krishna continuing his discourse as Arjuna listens. Krishna states that he is everywhere and in everything in an unmanifested form, yet he is not in any way limited by them. Eons end, everything dissolves and then he recreates another eon subjecting them to the laws of ''Prakriti'' (nature).{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=169–178}} He equates himself to being the father and the mother of the universe, to being the [[Om]], to the three Vedas, to the seed, the goal of life, the refuge and abode of all. The chapter recommends devotional worship of Krishna.{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=169–178}} According to theologian Christopher Southgate, verses of this chapter of the Gita are [[panentheistic]],{{sfn|Southgate|2005|page=246}} while German physicist and philosopher [[Max Bernhard Weinstein]] deems the work [[Pandeism|pandeistic]].<ref name="Weinstein-India">Max Bernhard Weinsten, ''Welt- und Lebensanschauungen, Hervorgegangen aus Religion, Philosophie und Naturerkenntnis'' ("World and Life Views, Emerging From Religion, Philosophy and Perception of Nature") (1910), p. 213: "Wir werden später sehen, daß die Indier auch den Pandeismus gelehrt haben. Der letzte Zustand besteht in dieser Lehre im Eingehen in die betreffende Gottheit, Brahma oder Wischnu. So sagt in der Bhagavad-Gîtâ Krishna-Wischnu, nach vielen Lehren über ein vollkommenes Dasein."</ref> It may, in fact, be neither of them, and its contents may have no definition with previously developed Western terms.

[[File:Bhagavad Gita narrative sculpture on a column in the Virupaksha Temple, Pattadakal 1885 photo.jpg|thumb|A frieze in the early 8th-century [[Pattadakal|Virupaksha temple (Pattadakal)]] depicting ''Mahabharata'' scenes involving Arjuna-Krishna chariot. Pattadakal is a UNESCO [[World Heritage Site]].]]

====Chapter 10: Vibhutiyoga (42 verses)====

Translators title the chapter as ''Vibhuti–Vistara–yoga'', ''Religion by the Heavenly Perfections'', ''Divine Splendor'', or ''The Yoga of Divine Manifestations''.<ref name="EBG" />{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=5–6}}{{sfn|Maitra|2018|pp=vii–viii}} When Arjuna asks of the opulences (Vibhuti) of Krishna, he explains how all the entities are his forms. He reveals his divine being in greater detail as the ultimate cause of all material and spiritual existence, as one who transcends all opposites and who is beyond any duality. Nevertheless, at Arjuna's behest, Krishna says the following are his major opulences. He says he is the ''atman'' in all beings, Arjuna's innermost Self, also compassionate Vishnu, [[Surya]], Indra, Shiva-Rudra, Ananta, Yama, as well as the Om, Vedic sages, time, Gayatri mantra, and the science of Self-knowledge. Krishna says, "Among the Pandavas, I am Arjuna," implying he is manifest in all the beings, including Arjuna. He also says that he is [[Rama]] when he says, "Among the wielders of weapons, I am Rama". Arjuna accepts Krishna as the ''purushottama'' (Supreme Being).{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=179–190}}

====Chapter 11: [[Vishvarupa]] Darshanayoga (55 verses)====
{{main|Vishvarupa}}
Translators title the chapter as ''Vishvarupa–Darshana yoga'', ''The Manifesting of the One and Manifold'', ''The Cosmic Vision'', or ''The Yoga of the Vision of the Cosmic Form''.<ref name=EBG />{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=5–6}}{{sfn|Maitra|2018|pp=vii–viii}} On Arjuna's request, Krishna displays his "universal form" (''Viśvarūpa'').{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=191–202}} This is an idea found in the ''[[Rigveda]]'' and many later Hindu texts, where it is a symbolism for ''[[Ātman (Hinduism)|atman]]'' (Self) and ''[[Brahman]]'' (Absolute Reality) eternally pervading all beings and all existence.<ref>{{cite book|author=T. S. Maxwell|title=Viśvarūpa|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=6AbWAAAAMAAJ|year=1988|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=131–136|isbn=978-0-19-562117-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Kapila Vatsyayan|author2=Bettina Bäumer|author3=Ramesh Chandra Sharma|title=Kalātattvakośa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dhRKCh70ouMC |year=1988 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1917-7|pages=79–81, 87–88}}</ref> Chapter 11, states Eknath Eswaran, describes Arjuna entering first into ''savikalpa samadhi'' (a particular form), and then ''nirvikalpa samadhi'' (a universal form) as he gets an understanding of Krishna. A part of the verse from this chapter was recited by Robert [[J. Robert Oppenheimer|Oppenheimer]] as he witnessed the first atomic bomb explode.{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=191–202}}

====Chapter 12: Bhaktiyoga (20 verses)====
Translators title the chapter as ''Bhakti yoga'', ''The Religion of Faith'', ''The Way of Love'', or ''The Yoga of Devotion''.<ref name=EBG />{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=5–6}}{{sfn|Maitra|2018|pp=vii–viii}} In this chapter, Krishna glorifies the path of love and devotion to God. Krishna describes the process of devotional service ([[Bhakti yoga]]). This chapter of the Gita, states Easwaran, offers a "vastly easier" path to most human beings to identify and love God in an anthropomorphic representation.{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=203–210}} He can be projected as "a merciful father, a divine mother, a wise friend, a passionate beloved, or even a mischievous child", according to Easwaran. The text states that combining "action with inner renunciation" with the love of Krishna as a personal God leads to peace. In the last eight verses of this chapter, Krishna states that he loves those who have compassion for all living beings, are content with whatever comes their way, who live a detached life that is impartial and selfless, unaffected by fleeting pleasure or pain, neither craving for praise nor depressed by criticism.{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=203–210}}<ref>{{cite journal | last=Moffitt | first=John | title=The Bhagavad Gita as Way-Shower to the Transcendental | journal=Theological Studies | publisher=Sage Publications | volume=38 | issue=2 | year=1977 | doi=10.1177/004056397703800204 | pages=323, context: 316–331| s2cid=170697131 }}</ref>

====Chapter 13: Kshetra Kshetragya Vibhagayoga (34 verses)====
{{multiple image
| direction = vertical
| width = 220
| footer = Bhagavad Gita and related commentary literature exists in numerous Indian languages.
| image1 = 16th century Bhagavad Gita palm leaf manuscript, Sanskrit, Malayalam script, Kerala.jpg
| caption1 = Sanskrit, Malayalam script (Kerala)
| image2 = 18th century Bhagavad Gita and bhasya, Sanskrit, Kannada script, Karnataka.jpg
| caption2 = Sanskrit, Kannada script (Karnataka)
}}
Translators title this chapter as ''Ksetra–Ksetrajna Vibhaga yoga'', ''Religion by Separation of Matter and Spirit'', ''The Field and the Knower'', or ''The Yoga of Difference between the Field and Field-Knower''.<ref name=EBG />{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=5–6}}{{sfn|Maitra|2018|pp=vii–viii}} The chapter opens with Krishna continuing his discourse. He describes the difference between the transient perishable physical body (''kshetra'') and the immutable eternal Self (''kshetrajna''). The presentation explains the difference between ''ahamkara'' (ego) and ''atman'' (Self), from there between individual consciousness and universal consciousness. The knowledge of one's true self is linked to the realization of the Self.{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=211–220}}{{sfn|Fowler|2012|pages=216–221}} The 13th chapter of the Gita offers the clearest enunciation of the [[Samkhya]] philosophy, states Basham, by explaining the difference between field (material world) and the knower (Self), ''prakriti'' and ''purusha''.<ref>{{cite book|author=Arthur Llewellyn Basham|title=The Origins and Development of Classical Hinduism| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=2aqgTYlhLikC |year =1991| publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-507349-2|pages=88–89}}</ref> According to Miller, this is the chapter which "redefines the battlefield as the human body, the material realm in which one struggles to know oneself" where human dilemmas are presented as a "symbolic field of interior warfare".{{sfn|Miller|1986|page=12}}

====Chapter 14: Gunatraya Vibhagayoga (27 verses)====
Translators title the fourteenth chapter as ''Gunatraya–Vibhaga yoga'', ''Religion by Separation from the Qualities'', ''The Forces of Evolution'', or ''The Yoga of the Division of Three Gunas''.<ref name=EBG />{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=5–6}}{{sfn|Maitra|2018|pp=vii–viii}} Krishna continues his discourse from the previous chapter. Krishna explains the difference between ''purusha'' and ''prakriti'', by mapping human experiences to three ''[[Guṇa]]s'' (tendencies, qualities).{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=221–228}} These are listed as ''sattva'', ''rajas'' and ''tamas''. All phenomena and individual personalities are a combination of all three ''gunas'' in varying and ever-changing proportions. The ''gunas'' affect the ego, but not the Self, according to the text.{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=221–228}} This chapter also relies on Samkhya theories.{{sfn|Miller|1986|pages=12–13, 59}}{{sfn|J.A.B. van Buitenen|2013|pp==35–36}}{{sfn|Maitra|2018|pp=17–18}}

====Chapter 15: Purushottamayoga (20 verses)====
Translators title the chapter as ''Purushottama yoga'', ''Religion by Attaining the Supreme Krishna'', ''The Supreme Self'', or ''The Yoga of the Supreme Purusha''.<ref name=EBG />{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=5–6}}{{sfn|Maitra|2018|pp=vii–viii}} The fifteenth chapter expounds on Krishna's theology, in the Vaishnava Bhakti tradition of Hinduism. Krishna discusses the nature of God, according to Easwaran, wherein Krishna not only transcends the impermanent body (matter) but also transcends the ''atman'' (Self) in every being.{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=229–234}} According to Franklin Edgerton, the verses in this chapter, in association with select verses in other chapters, make the metaphysics of the Gita to be [[Dvaita|dualistic]]. However, its overall thesis, according to Edgerton, is more complex because other verses teach the Upanishadic doctrines and "through its God the Gita seems after all to arrive at an ultimate monism; the essential part, the fundamental element, in every thing, is after all One — is God."<ref name="Franklin Edgerton 1952 44–45 with footnotes, context: pp. 30–54 Part 2">{{cite book|author=Franklin Edgerton| title=The Bhagavad Gita, Part 2| publisher= Harvard University Press|year=1952|pages=44–45 with footnotes, context: pp. 30–54 (Part 2)}}</ref>

====Chapter 16: Daivasura Sampad Vibhagayoga (24 verses)====
Translators title the chapter as ''Daivasura–Sampad–Vibhaga yoga'', ''The Separateness of the Divine and Undivine'', ''Two Paths'', or ''The Yoga of the Division between the Divine and the Demonic''.<ref name=EBG />{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=5–6}}{{sfn|Maitra|2018|pp=vii–viii}} According to Easwaran, this is an unusual chapter where two types of human nature are expounded, one leading to happiness and the other to suffering. Krishna identifies these human traits to be divine and demonic respectively. He states that truthfulness, self-restraint, sincerity, love for others, desire to serve others, being detached, avoiding anger, avoiding harm to all living creatures, fairness, compassion and patience are marks of the divine nature. The opposite of these are demonic, such as cruelty, conceit, hypocrisy and being inhumane, states Krishna.{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=235–242}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Franklin Edgerton| title=The Bhagavad Gita, Part 2| publisher= Harvard University Press|year=1952|pages=82–83 (Part 2), 149–153 (Part 1)}}</ref>{{sfn|Fowler|2012|pages=253–257}} Some of the verses in Chapter 16 may be polemics directed against competing Indian religions, according to Basham.<ref name=basham1991p95/> The competing tradition may be the materialists ([[Charvaka]]), states Fowler.{{sfn|Fowler|2012|pages=253–257}}

====Chapter 17: Shraddhatraya Vibhagayoga (28 verses)====
Translators title the chapter as ''Shraddhatraya-Vibhaga yoga'', ''Religion by the Threefold Kinds of Faith'', ''The Power of Faith'', or ''The Yoga of the Threefold Faith''.<ref name=EBG />{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=5–6}}{{sfn|Maitra|2018|pp=vii–viii}} Krishna qualifies the three divisions of faith, thoughts, deeds, and even eating habits corresponding to the three modes (gunas).{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=243–250}}

====Chapter 18: Moksha Sanyasayoga (78 verses)====
Translators title the chapter as ''Moksha–Sanyasa yoga'', ''Religion by Deliverance and Renunciation'', ''Freedom and Renunciation'', or ''The Yoga of Liberation and Renunciation''.<ref name=EBG />{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=5–6}}{{sfn|Maitra|2018|pp=vii–viii}} In the final and longest chapter, the Gita offers a final summary of its teachings in the previous chapters.<ref>{{cite book|author=Franklin Edgerton| title=The Bhagavad Gita, Part 2| publisher= Harvard University Press|year=1952|pages=70–71 (Part 2, Chapter IX)}}</ref> It begins with the discussion of spiritual pursuits through ''sannyasa'' (renunciation, monastic life) and spiritual pursuits while living in the world as a householder. It re-emphasizes the ''karma-phala-tyaga'' teaching ("act while renouncing the fruits of your action").{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|pp=251–265}}

==Chapters==
There are total 18 chapters and 700 verses in Geeta. These are:
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|'''Chapter'''
|'''Title'''
|'''Total Verses'''
|-
|1
|[[Arjunvishadyog (Bhagvad Geeta's Chapter)|Arjuna Vishada Yoga]]
|47
|-
|2
|Sankhya Yoga
|72
|-
|3
|Karma Yoga
|50
|-
|4
|Jnana-Karma-Sanyasa Yoga
|42
|-
|5
|Karma-Sanyasa Yoga
|29
|-
|6
|Atma-Samyama Yoga
|47
|-
|7
|Jnana-Vijnana Yoga
|30
|-
|8
|Aksara-ParaBrahma Yoga
|28
|-
|9
|Raja-Vidya-Raja-Guhya Yoga
|34
|-
|10
|Vibhuti Yoga
|42
|-
|11
|Viswarupa-Darsana Yoga
|55
|-
|12
|Bhakti Yoga
|20
|-
|13
|Ksetra-Ksetrajna-Vibhaga Yoga
|34
|-
|14
|Gunatraya-Vibhaga Yoga
|27
|-
|15
|Purushottama Yoga
|20
|-
|16
|Daivasura-Sampad-Vibhaga Yoga
|24
|-
|17
|Shraddhatraya-Vibhaga Yoga
|28
|-
|18
|Moksha-Sanyasa Yoga
|78
|-
|
|'''Total'''
|'''700'''
|}

== Themes ==
{{multiple image|perrow = 2|total_width=260
| image1 = Vishnuvishvarupa.jpg
| image2 = Bazaar art print of Bhavadgita, c. mid-1900's.jpg
| image3 = Vishvarupa Vishnu LACMA M.83.248.1.jpg
| image4 = Le temple de Changu Narayan (Bhaktapur) (8567805757).jpg
| footer = Chapter 11 of the Gita refers to Krishna as ''[[Vishvarupa]]'' (above). This is an idea found in the ''Rigveda''.<ref>{{cite book|author=T.S. Maxwell|title=Viśvarūpa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6AbWAAAAMAAJ|year=1988|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=131–135|isbn=978-0-19-562117-4}}</ref> The ''Vishvarupa'' omniform has been interpreted as symbolism for Absolute Reality, God or Self that is in all creatures, everywhere, eternally.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Kapila Vatsyayan|author2=Bettina Bäumer|author3=Ramesh Chandra Sharma|title=Kalātattvakośa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dhRKCh70ouMC |year=1988 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1917-7|pages=79–81, 88}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=R.D. Ranade|title=Mysticism in Maharashtra: Indian Mysticism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=73vbTVsPga0C |year=1982|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0576-7|pages=67–68}}</ref>
}}
{{Contains special characters|Indic|section}}

===Theology===
==== The nature of God ====
The Gita adopts the Upanishadic concept of Absolute Reality ([[Brahman]]), a shift from the earlier ritual-driven Vedic religion to one abstracting and internalizing spiritual experiences.{{sfn|Fowler|2012|pp=xxxiii–xxiv}}{{sfn|Zaehner|1969|pp=30–32, 36–41}} According to Jeaneane Fowler, the Gita builds on the Upanishadic Brahman theme, conceptualized to be that which is everywhere, unaffected, constant Absolute, indescribable and ''nirguna'' (abstract, without features). This Absolute in the Gita is neither a He nor a She, but a "neuter principle", an "It or That".{{sfn|Fowler|2012|pp=xxxiii–xxiv}}{{sfn|Zaehner|1969|pp=30–32, 36–41}} Like some of the Upanishads, the Gita does not limit itself to the ''nirguna'' Brahman. It teaches both the abstract and the personalized Brahman (God), the latter in the form of Krishna.{{sfn|Fowler|2012|pp=xxxiii–xxiv}}{{sfn|Zaehner|1969|pp=30–32, 36–41}} It accomplishes this synthesis by projecting the ''nirguna'' Brahman as higher than ''saguna'' or personalized Brahman, where the ''nirguna'' Brahman "exists when everything else does not".{{sfn|Fowler|2012|pp=xxxiii–xxv}}<ref name="Bryant2007p312">{{cite book|author=Edwin F. Bryant| title=Krishna: A Sourcebook |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2n4VDAAAQBAJ |year=2007| publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn= 978-0-19-972431-4|pages =312–315}}</ref> The text blurs any distinction between a personalized God and impersonal absolute reality by amalgamating the two and using the concepts interchangeably in later chapters.{{sfn|Fowler|2012|pp=xxxiii–xxv}} This theme has led scholars to call the Gita panentheistic,{{sfn|Fowler|2012|pp=xxxiii–xxiv}} theistic as well as monistic.{{sfn|Edgerton|1952|pp=44–45 with footnote 1}}{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=211}}{{sfn|Eliot Deutsch| Rohit Dalvi| 2004| pp= 61–62}}

==== The nature of Self ====
The Gita, states Fowler, "thoroughly accepts" ''[[Atman (Hinduism)|atman]]'' as a foundational concept.{{sfn|Fowler|2012|p=xxxvi}} In the Upanishads, this is the Brahmanical idea that all beings have a "permanent real self", the true essence, the Self it refers to as ''Atman'' (Self).<ref>{{cite book|author=Juan Mascaró|title=The Bhagavad Gita|url=https://archive.org/details/bhagavadgita00masc|url-access=registration|year=1962|publisher=Penguin|isbn=978-0-14-044121-5|pages=xiv–xviii}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Paul Deussen|title=Sixty Upaniṣads of the Veda|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8mSpQo9q-tIC|year=1980|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1468-4|pages=409–410}}</ref><ref>'''[a]''' [https://web.archive.org/web/20141230210157/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/atman Atman], Oxford Dictionaries, Oxford University Press (2012), '''Quote''': "1. real self of the individual; 2. a person's Self"; '''[b]''' John Bowker (2000), The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-280094-7}}, See entry for Atman; '''[c]''' WJ Johnson (2009), [[:d:Q55879169|A Dictionary of Hinduism]], Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-861025-0}}, See entry for Atman (self). {{ODNBsub}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|This contrasts with a few competing schools of Indian religions which denied the concept of Self.<ref>John C. Plott et al. (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0158-5}}, p. 63, Quote: "The Buddhist schools reject any Ātman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism".</ref><ref>'''[a]''' [https://www.britannica.com/topic/anatta Anatta], Encyclopædia Britannica (2013), '''Quote:''' "Anatta in Buddhism, the doctrine that there is in humans no permanent, underlying Self. The concept of anatta, or anatman, is a departure from the Hindu belief in atman ("the self")."; '''[b]''' Steven Collins (1994), Religion and Practical Reason (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David Tracy), State Univ of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-2217-5}}, p. 64; '''Quote:''' "Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not-self (Pali: anattā, Sanskrit: anātman, the opposed doctrine of ātman is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the [Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence."; '''[c]''' Edward Roer (Translator), {{Google books|3uwDAAAAMAAJ|Shankara's Introduction|page=2}} to ''Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad'', pp. 2–4; '''[d]''' KN Jayatilleke (2010), Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0619-1}}, pp. 246–249, from note 385 onwards; '''[e]''' Bruno Nagel (2000), Roy Perrett (editor), Philosophy of Religion: Indian Philosophy, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-8153-3611-2}}, p. 33, '''Quote:''' "The dispute with Buddhists, who do not accept an imperishable Self, gives the Atman schools [Vedanta, Kashmir Shaivism] a chance to articulate the intellectual aspects of their way to meditative liberation".</ref>}} In the Upanishads that preceded the Gita, such as the ''[[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]]'', the salvational goal is to know and realize this Self, a knowledge that is devoid of the delusions of the instinctive "I, mine" egoism typically connected with the body and material life processes that are impermanent and transient. The Gita accepts ''atman'' as the pure, unchanging, ultimate real essence.{{sfn|Fowler|2012|pp=xxxv, xxxvii–xix}}

==== The nature of the world ====
The Gita considers the world to be transient, all bodies and matter as impermanent. Everything that constitutes ''[[prakriti]]'' (nature, matter) is process driven and has a finite existence. It is born, grows, matures, decays, and dies. It considers this transient reality as [[Maya (illusion)|Maya]]. Like the Upanishads, the Gita focuses on what it considers real in this world of change, impermanence, and finitude.{{sfn|Fowler|2012|pp= xxxix–xl}}{{sfn|Zaehner|1969|pp=13–15, 254}} To build its theological framework about the world, the text relies on the theories found in the Samkhya and Vedanta schools of Hinduism.{{sfn|Zaehner|1969|pp=13–15, 254}}

==== Brahman-atman ====
The Upanishads developed the equation "Atman = Brahman", states Fowler, and this belief is central to the Gita.{{sfn|Fowler|2012|pp= xxxix–xl}} This equation is, however, interpreted in a number of ways by different sub-schools of Vedanta. In the Gita, the Self of each human being is considered to be identical to every other human being and all beings, but it "does not support an identity with the Brahman", according to Fowler.{{sfn|Fowler|2012|pp= xxxix–xl}} According to Raju, the Gita supports this identity and spiritual monism, but as a form of synthesis with a personal God.{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=211}} According to Edgerton, the authors of the Gita rely on their concept of a personalized God (Krishna) to ultimately arrive at an ultimate monism, where the devotee realizes that Krishna is the essential part, the real fundamental element within everyone and everything. Krishna is simultaneously one and all.<ref name="Franklin Edgerton 1952 44–45 with footnotes, context: pp. 30–54 Part 2"/> According to [[Huston Smith]], the Gita is teaching that "when one sees the entire universe as pervaded by the single Universal Spirit [Krishna], one contemplates, marvels, and falls in love with its amazing glory. [...] Having experienced that Truth oneself, all doubts are dispelled. This is how the flower of devotion evolves into the fruit of knowledge."{{sfn|Sargeant|2009|p=xvii}}

==== Means to God ====
The Gita teaches several spiritual paths – jnana, bhakti and karma – to the divine. However, states Fowler, it "does not raise any of these to a status that excludes the others".{{sfn|Fowler|2012|pp= xl}} The theme that unites these paths in the Gita is "inner renunciation" where one is unattached to personal rewards during one's spiritual journey.{{sfn|Fowler|2012|pp= xl}}

==== Karma yoga ====
{{Main|Karma yoga}}
The Gita teaches the path of Karma yoga in Chapter 3 and others. It upholds the necessity of action.{{sfn|Fowler|2012|pages=xliii–iv}} However, this action should "not simply follow spiritual injunctions", without any attachment to personal rewards or because of craving for fruits. The Gita teaches, according to Fowler, that the action should be undertaken after proper knowledge has been applied to gain a full perspective on "what the action should be".{{sfn|Fowler|2012|pages=xliii–xliv}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Stephen Phillips|title=Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=uLqrAgAAQBAJ |year =2009| publisher= Columbia University Press|isbn= 978-0-231-14485-8|pages=99–100}}</ref>

The concept of such detached action is also called ''[[Nishkama Karma]]'', a term not used in the Gita but equivalent to other terms such as ''karma-phala-tyaga''.{{sfn|Fowler|2012|pages=xliii–xliv}} This is where one determines what the right action ought to be and then acts while being detached to personal outcomes, to fruits, to success or failure. A karma yogi finds such work inherently fulfilling and satisfying.<ref name="Bhawuk2011p147">{{cite book|author=Dharm Bhawuk|title=Spirituality and Indian Psychology: Lessons from the Bhagavad-Gita |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VO7jV2OZDF4C |year=2011|publisher=Springer Science |isbn=978-1-4419-8110-3|pages=147–148 with footnotes}}</ref> To a ''karma yogi'', right work done well is a form of prayer,<ref>Robert A. McDermott (1975), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1397942 Indian Spirituality in the West: A Bibliographical Mapping], Philosophy East and West, University of Hawai'i Press, Vol. 25, No. 2 (Apr 1975), pp. 228–230</ref> and ''karma yoga'' is the path of selfless action.<ref name="Coward2012p142">{{cite book|author=Harold G. Coward|title=Perfectibility of Human Nature in Eastern and Western Thought, The|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UVsXcS3xPFsC&pg=PA142 |year=2012|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-7885-1|pages=142–145}}</ref>

According to Mahatma Gandhi, the object of the Gita is to show the way to attain self-realization, and this "can be achieved by selfless action, by desireless action; by renouncing fruits of action; by dedicating all activities to God, i.e., by surrendering oneself to Him, body and Self." Gandhi called the Gita "The Gospel of Selfless Action".<ref name="gandhi">{{harvnb|Gandhi|2009|pages=xv–xxiv}}</ref> According to Jonardon Ganeri, the premise of "disinterested action" is one of the important ethical concepts in the Gita.<ref>{{cite book|author=Jonardon Ganeri|title=The Concealed Art of the Soul: Theories of Self and Practices of Truth in Indian Ethics and Epistemology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5dITDAAAQBAJ |year=2007| publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-920241-6|pages=67–69}}</ref>

==== Bhakti yoga ====
{{Main|Bhakti yoga}}

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In the Bhagavad Gita, bhakti is characterized as the "loving devotion, a longing, surrender, trust and adoration" of the divine Krishna as the ''ishta-devata''.{{sfn|Fowler|2012|pages=xlii–xliii}} While bhakti is mentioned in many chapters, the idea gathers momentum after verse 6.30, and chapter 12 is where is fully developed. According to Fowler, the bhakti in the Gita does not imply renunciation of "action", but the bhakti effort is assisted with "right knowledge" and dedication to one's ''dharma''.{{sfn|Fowler|2012|pages=xlii–xliii}} Theologian [[Catherine Cornille]] writes, "The text [of the Gita] offers a survey of the different possible disciplines for attaining liberation through knowledge (''Jnana''), action (karma), and loving devotion to God (bhakti), focusing on the latter as both the easiest and the highest path to salvation."<ref>{{harvnb|Cornille|2006|page=2}}</ref>

According to M. R. Sampatkumaran, a Bhagavad Gita scholar, the Gita's message is that mere knowledge of the scriptures cannot lead to final release, but "devotion, meditation, and worship are essential."<ref>{{harvnb|Sampatkumaran|1985|page=xxiii}}</ref> The Gita likely spawned a "powerful devotionalism" movement, states Fowler, because the text and this path was simpler, and available to everyone.{{sfn|Fowler|2012|pages=xxii–xxiv, xlii–xliii}}

=== Jnana yoga ===
{{Main|Jnana yoga}}
[[File:Raja Ravi Varma - Sankaracharya.jpg|right|thumb|''[[Adi Shankara]] with Disciples'', by [[Raja Ravi Varma]] (1904); Shankara published 700 verses of the Gita (800 CE), now the standard version.]]
Jnana yoga is the path of knowledge, wisdom, and direct realization of the Brahman.{{sfn|Fowler|2012|pages=xl–xlii, 89–93}}<ref>{{cite book|author=P.T. Raju|title=Structural Depths of Indian Thought |url=https://archive.org/details/structuraldepths0000raju |url-access=registration|year=1985|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-88706-139-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/structuraldepths0000raju/page/7 7]–8}}</ref> In the Bhagavad Gita, it is also referred to as ''buddhi yoga'' and its goal is self-realization.{{sfn|M.V. Nadkarni|2016|p=266}} The text states that this is the path that intellectuals tend to prefer.<ref>{{cite book|author=Eknath Easwaran|title=Essence of the Bhagavad Gita: A Contemporary Guide to Yoga, Meditation, and Indian Philosophy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xcvJAAAAQBAJ |year=2011 |publisher=Nilgiri Press|isbn=978-1-58638-068-7|pages=118, 281}}</ref> The chapter 4 of the Bhagavad Gita is dedicated to the general exposition of ''jnana yoga''.{{sfn|Fowler|2012|pages=72–90}}{{sfn|Sargeant|2009|pp=201–242}}

The Gita praises the path, calling the jnana yogi to be exceedingly dear to Krishna, but adds that the path is steep and difficult.{{sfn|Fowler|2012|pages=xli–xlii}}

==== Synthesis of yogas, Raja yoga ====
Sivananda's commentary regards the eighteen chapters of the Bhagavad Gita as having a progressive order, by which Krishna leads "Arjuna up the ladder of Yoga from one rung to another."<ref>{{harvnb|Sivananda|1995|page=xvii}}</ref> The influential commentator [[Madhusudana Sarasvati]] divided the Gita{{'}}s eighteen chapters into three sections with six chapters each. [[Swami Gambhirananda]] characterises Madhusudana Sarasvati's system as a successive approach in which Karma yoga leads to Bhakti yoga, which in turn leads to Jnana yoga:<ref>{{harvnb|Gambhirananda|1997|pages=xx, 16}}</ref>
* Chapters 1–6 = Karma yoga, the means to the final goal
* Chapters 7–12 = Bhakti yoga or devotion
* Chapters 13–18 = Jnana yoga or knowledge, the goal itself

Some scholars treat the "yoga of meditation" to be a distinct fourth path taught in the Gita, referring to it as [[Raja yoga]].{{sfn|Sargeant|2009|p=xii}}{{sfn|Robinson|2006|pages=92–93, 133–134}}{{sfn|Minor|1986|pages=131, 194–196}} Others consider it a progressive stage or a combination of Karma yoga and Bhakti yoga.{{sfn|Minor|1986|page=123 }} Some, such as Adi Shankara, have considered its discussion in the 13th chapter of the Gita and elsewhere to be an integral part of Jnana yoga.<ref>{{cite book|author=Trevor Leggett|title=Realization of the Supreme Self: The Bhagavad Gītā Yoga's |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZkhwsvL4InsC |year=1995|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-7103-0433-9|pages=48, 204–205, 222–231}}</ref><ref name="Phillips2009p179">{{cite book|author=Stephen H. Phillips|title=Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cRg2AAAAQBAJ |year=2009|publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-51947-2|pages=178–179}}</ref>

==== Asceticism, renunciation and ritualism ====
The Gita rejects ascetic life, renunciation as well as Brahminical Vedic ritualism where outward actions or non-actions are considered a means of personal reward in life, after-life or as a means of liberation. Instead it recommends the pursuit of an active life where the individual adopts "inner renunciation", acts to fulfill what he determines to be his ''dharma'', without craving for or being concerned about personal rewards, viewing this as an "inner sacrifice to the personal God for a higher good".<ref name="Johnson2004xi">{{cite book|author=W.J. Johnson|title=The Bhagavad Gita|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cPSoXHhh-Q0C|year=2004|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-283581-9|pages=xi–xv}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Galvin Flood|author2=Charles Martin|title=The Bhagavad Gita: A New Translation|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=PDYEAwAAQBAJ |year=2013 |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company| isbn=978-0-393-34513-1| pages=xxv–xxvii}}</ref>

According to Edwin Bryant, the Indologist with publications on Krishna-related Hindu traditions, the Gita rejects "actionless behavior" found in some Indic monastic traditions. It also "relegates the sacrificial system of the early Vedic literature to a path that goes nowhere because it is based on desires", states Bryant.<ref>{{cite book|author=Edwin Francis Bryant |title=Krishna: A Sourcebook |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0z02cZe8PU8C |year=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-803400-1|pages=78 }}</ref>

===Dharma===
{{Main|Dharma}}
Dharma is a prominent paradigm of the ''Mahabharata'', and it is referenced in the Gita as well. The term ''dharma'' has a number of meanings.{{sfn|Fowler|2012|p=2}} Fundamentally, it refers to that which is right or just.{{sfn|Fowler|2012|p=2}} Contextually, it also means the essence of "duty, law, class, social norms, ritual and cosmos itself" in the text, in the sense "the way things should be in all these different dimensions".{{sfn|Fowler|2012|p=2}} According to Zaehner, the term ''dharma'' means "duty" in the Gita{{'}}s context; in verse 2.7, it refers to the "right [and wrong]", and in 14.27 to the "eternal law of righteousness".{{sfn|Zaehner|1969|pp=123, 382}}

Few verses in the Bhagavad Gita deal with dharma, according to the Indologist Paul Hacker, but the theme of dharma is broadly important.{{sfn|Hacker|Halbfass|1995|p=260}} In Chapter 1, responding to [[Arjuna]]'s despondency, [[Krishna]] asks him to follow his ''sva-dharma'',{{sfn|Hacker|1958|pp=1–15}} "the dharma that belongs to a particular man (Arjuna) as a member of a particular ''[[Varna (Hinduism)|varna]]'', (i.e., the ''kshatriya'' – the warrior varna)".{{sfn|Hacker|1958|p=261}} According to Paul Hacker, the term ''dharma'' has additional meanings in the context of Arjuna. It is more broadly, the "duty" and a "metaphysically congealed act" for Arjuna.{{sfn|Hacker|Halbfass|1995|p=261}} According to the Indologist Jacqueline Hirst, the ''dharma'' theme is "of significance only at the beginning and end of the Gita" and this may have been a way to perhaps link the Gita to the context of the ''Mahabharata''.<ref name="Hirst1997p48">{{cite book|author=Jacqueline Hirst|editor=Julius Lipner|title=The Fruits of Our Desiring: An Enquiry Into the Ethics of the Bhagavadgītā for Our Times |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=tk9YBPOl36UC&pg=PA48|year=1997|publisher=Bayeux|isbn=978-1-896209-30-2|page=48}}</ref>

According to Malinar, "Arjuna's crisis and some of the arguments put forward to call him to action are connected to the debates on war and peace in the ''[[Udyoga Parva]]''."{{sfn|Malinar|2007|p=36}} The ''Udyoga Parva'' presents many views about the nature of a warrior, his duty and what calls for heroic action. While [[Duryodhana]] presents it as a matter of status, social norms, and fate, [[Vidura]] states that the heroic warrior never submits, knows no fear and has the duty to protect people.{{sfn|Malinar|2007|pp=36–41}} The ''[[Bhishma Parva]]'' sets the stage of two ideologies in conflict and two massive armies gathered for what each considers as a righteous and necessary war. In this context, the Gita advises Arjuna to do his holy duty (''sva-dharma'') as a warrior; fight and kill.{{sfn|Miller|2004|p=3}}{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=59}}{{sfn|Malinar|2007|pp=36–39}}

According to the Indologist Barbara Miller, the text frames heroism not in terms of physical abilities, but instead in terms of effort and inner commitment to fulfill a warrior's ''dharma'' in the battlefield.{{sfn| Miller|1986|pp=1–8}} War is depicted as a horror, the impending slaughter a cause for self-doubt, yet at stake is the spiritual struggle against evil.{{sfn| Miller|1986|pp=1–8}} The Gita's message emphasizes that personal moral ambivalence must be addressed, the warrior needs to rise above "personal and social values" and understand what is at stake and "why he must fight". The text explores the "paradoxical interconnectedness of disciplined action and freedom".{{sfn| Miller|1986|pp=1–8}}

==== ''The Field of Dharma'' ====
The first reference to ''dharma'' in the Bhagavad Gita occurs in its first verse, where [[Dhritarashtra]] refers to the Kurukshetra, the location of the battlefield, as the ''Field of Dharma'', "The Field of Righteousness or Truth".{{sfn|Fowler|2012|p=2}} According to Fowler, dharma in this verse may refer to the ''[[sanatana dharma]]'', "what Hindus understand as their religion, for it is a term that encompasses wide aspects of religious and traditional thought and is more readily used for religion".{{sfn|Fowler|2012|p=2}} Therefore, "field of dharma" implies the field of righteousness, where truth will eventually triumph, states Fowler.{{sfn|Fowler|2012|p=2}} According to Jacqueline Hirst, the "field of dharma" phrase in the Gita epitomizes that the struggle concerns dharma itself. This dharma has "resonances at many different levels".<ref>{{cite book|author=Jacqueline Hirst|editor=Julius Lipner|title=The Fruits of Our Desiring: An Enquiry Into the Ethics of the Bhagavadgītā for Our Times |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=tk9YBPOl36UC&pg=PA48|year=1997|publisher=Bayeux|isbn=978-1-896209-30-2|pages=50–58}}</ref>

==== Allegory of war ====
Unlike any other religious scripture, the Bhagavad Gita broadcasts its message in the centre of a battlefield.<ref>{{harvnb|Krishnananda|1980|pages=12–13}}</ref> Several modern Indian writers have interpreted the battlefield setting as an allegory for "the war within".{{sfn|Easwaran|2007|p=15}} [[Eknath Easwaran]] writes that the Gita{{'}}s subject is "the war within, the struggle for self-mastery that every human being must wage if he or she is to emerge from life victorious".<ref>{{harvnb|Easwaran|2007|page=15}}</ref>

[[Swami Nikhilananda]], takes Arjuna as an allegory of Ātman, Krishna as an allegory of [[Brahman]], Arjuna's chariot as the body, and Dhritarashtra as the ignorant mind.{{refn|group=note|{{harvnb|Nikhilananda|Hocking|2006|page=2}} "Arjuna represents the individual Self, and Sri Krishna the Supreme Self dwelling in every heart. Arjuna's chariot is the body. The blind king Dhritarashtra is the mind under the spell of ignorance, and his hundred sons are man's numerous evil tendencies. The battle, a perennial one, is between the power of good and the power of evil. The warrior who listens to the advice of the Lord speaking from within will triumph in this battle and attain the Highest Good."}} Nikhilananda's allegorical interpretation is shared by Huston Smith.{{sfn|Sargeant|2009|p=x}} [[Swami Vivekananda]] interprets the first discourse in the Gita as well as the "Kurukshetra war" allegorically.<ref>{{Citation|last=Vivekananda|first=Swami|title=The Complete works of Swami Vivekananda |volume=9 |chapter=[[wikisource:The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda/Volume_9/Sayings_and_Utterances|Sayings and Utterances]] }}</ref> Vivekananda states that "when we sum up its esoteric significance, it means the war which is constantly going on within man between the tendencies of good and evil".<ref name="SV-vol4">{{Citation|last=Vivekananda|first=Swami|title=The Complete works of Swami Vivekananda |volume=4 |chapter=[[Wikisource:The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda/Volume_4/Lectures_and_Discourses/Thoughts_on_the_Gita|Lectures and Discourses ~ Thoughts on the Gita]] }}</ref>

[[Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi]], in his commentary on the Gita,<ref>see {{harvnb|Gandhi|2009}}</ref> interprets the battle as an allegory in which the battlefield is the soul and Arjuna embodies man's higher impulses struggling against evil.<ref>{{harvnb|Fischer|2010|pages=15–16}}</ref>

In [[Aurobindo]]'s view, Krishna was a historical figure, but his significance in the Gita is as a "symbol of the divine dealings with humanity",<ref>{{harvnb|Aurobindo|2000|pages=15–16}}</ref> while Arjuna typifies a "struggling human soul".<ref name =THD/> However, Aurobindo rejected the interpretation that the Gita, and the ''Mahabharata'' by extension, is only "an allegory of the inner life", and it has nothing to do with our outward human life and actions.<ref name =THD>{{harvnb|Aurobindo|2000|pages=20–21}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|Aurobindo writes, "... That is a view which the general character and the actual language of the epic does not justify and, if pressed, would turn the straightforward philosophical language of the Gita into a constant, laborious and somewhat puerile mystification ... the Gita is written in plain terms and professes to solve the great ethical and spiritual difficulties which the life of man raises, and it will not do to go behind this plain language and thought and wrest them to the service of our fancy. But there is this much of truth in the view, that the setting of the doctrine though not symbolical, is certainly typical.<ref name="THD"/>}}

==== Promotion of just war and duty ====
Other scholars such as Steven Rosen, Laurie L. Patton and Stephen Mitchell have seen in the Gita a religious defense of the warrior class' ([[Kshatriya]] [[Varna (Hinduism)|Varna]]) duty (''svadharma''), which is to wage war with courage. They do not see only an allegorical teaching but also a real defense of [[just war]].<ref>Rosen, Steven; Krishna's Song: A New Look at the Bhagavad Gita, p. 22.</ref><ref>Patton, Laurie L.; The Failure of Allegory in ''Fighting Words''</ref>

[[Indian independence movement|Indian independence leaders]] like [[Lala Lajpat Rai]] and [[Bal Gangadhar Tilak]] saw the Gita as a text which defended war when necessary and used it to promote armed rebellion against colonial rule. Lajpat Rai wrote an article on the "Message of the Bhagavad Gita". He saw the main message as the bravery and courage of Arjuna to fight as a warrior.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{harvnb|M.V. Nadkarni|2016|pp=Chapter 4}}</ref> [[Bal Gangadhar Tilak]] saw the Gita as defending killing when necessary for the betterment of society, such as, for example, the killing of [[Afzal Khan (general)|Afzal Khan]].<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

=== Moksha: Liberation ===
{{Main|Moksha}}
Liberation or ''[[moksha]]'' in [[Vedanta]] philosophy is not something that can be acquired. ''[[Ātman (Hinduism)|Ātman]]'' (Self) and Self-knowledge, along with the loss of egotistic ignorance, the goal of ''moksha'', is something that is always present as the essence of the self, and must be realized by each person by one's own effort. While the [[Upanishads]] largely uphold such a monistic viewpoint of liberation, the Bhagavad Gita also accommodates the dualistic and theistic aspects of ''moksha''. The Gita, while including impersonal ''Nirguna Brahman'' as the goal, mainly revolves around the relationship between the Self and a personal God or ''[[Saguna Brahman]]''. A synthesis of knowledge, devotion, and desireless action is offered by Krishna as a spectrum of choices to Arjuna; the same combination is suggested to the reader as a way to moksha.<ref>{{harvnb|Fowler|2012|pages=xlv–xlviii}}</ref> Christopher Chapple---a scholar focusing on Indian religions---in [[Winthrop Sargeant|Winthrop Sargeant's]] translation of the Gita, states that "In the model presented by the Bhagavad Gita, every aspect of life is in fact a way of salvation."{{sfn|Sargeant|2009|pages=xxii–xxiii}}

===Pancaratra Agama===
[[File:Vasudeva Krishna on a coin of Agathocles of Bactria circa 180 BCE.jpg|thumb |upright|{{center|1=[[Vāsudeva-Krishna]], on a coin of [[Agathocles of Bactria]], c.{{nbsp}}180{{nbsp}}BCE.<ref name="US">{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Upinder |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |date=2008 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-81-317-1120-0 |pages=436–438 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA437 |language=en}}</ref><ref>[[Osmund Bopearachchi]], [https://www.academia.edu/25807197 Emergence of Viṣṇu and Śiva Images in India: Numismatic and Sculptural Evidence], 2016.</ref> This is "the earliest unambiguous image" of the deity.<ref name="BRILL">{{cite book |last1=Srinivasan |first1=Doris |title=Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes: Origin, Meaning, and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art |date=1997 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-10758-8 |page=215 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vZheP9dIX9wC&pg=PA215 |language=en}}</ref>}}]]
According to Dennis Hudson, there is an overlap between Vedic and Tantric rituals within the teachings found in the Bhagavad Gita.{{sfn|Hudson|2002|pp=9, 160–163}} He places the ''Pancaratra Agama'' in the last three or four centuries of 1st-millennium BCE, and proposes that both the tantric and vedic, the Agama and the Gita share the same [[Vāsudeva-Krishna]] roots.{{sfn|Hudson|2002|p=133}} Some of the ideas in the Bhagavad Gita connect it to the ''Shatapatha Brahmana'' of ''[[Yajurveda]]''. The ''Shatapatha Brahmana'', for example, mentions the absolute Purusha who dwells in every human being. According to Hudson, a story in this Vedic text highlights the meaning of the name Vāsudeva as the 'shining one (deva) who dwells (vasu) in all things and in whom all things dwell', and the meaning of Vishnu to be the 'pervading actor'. In Bhagavad Gita, similarly, '[[Krishna]] identified himself both with [[Vāsudeva]], Vishnu and their meanings'.{{sfn|Hudson|2002|pp=156–157}}{{refn|group=note|Other parallelism include verse 10.21 of Gita replicating the structure of verse 1.2.5 of the Shatapatha Brahmana.{{sfn|Hudson|2002|p=157}}}} The ideas at the center of Vedic rituals in ''Shatapatha Brahmana'' and the teachings of the Bhagavad Gita revolve around this absolute Person, the primordial genderless absolute, which is the same as the goal of Pancaratra Agama and Tantra.{{sfn|Hudson|2002|pp=162–163}}

== Translations ==
The first English translation of the Bhagavad Gita was published by [[Charles Wilkins]] in 1785.<ref name= "Gita-Wilkins">{{cite book|editor1-last=Wilkins|editor1-first=Charles|title=The Bhagavat-Geeta, Or, Dialogues of Krishna and Arjoon in Eighteen Lectures with notes|date=1785|location =LONDON|url=https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/wilkins-the-bhagvat-geeta-or-dialogues-of-kreeshna-and-arjoon}}</ref> The Wilkins translation had an introduction to the Gita by [[Warren Hastings]]. Soon the work was translated into other European languages such as French (1787), German, and Russian. In 1849, the Weleyan Mission Press, Bangalore published ''The Bhagavat-Geeta, Or, Dialogues of Krishna and Arjoon in Eighteen Lectures'', with Sanskrit, [[Kannada|Canarese]] and English in parallel columns, edited by Rev. John Garrett, with the effort being supported by [[Mark Cubbon (army officer)|Sir. Mark Cubbon]].<ref name= "Gita-Garrett">{{cite book|editor1-last=Garrett|editor1-first=John|editor2-last=Wilhelm|editor2-first=Humboldt|title=The Bhagavat-Geeta, Or, Dialogues of Krishna and Arjoon in Eighteen Lectures|date=1849|publisher=Wesleyan Mission Press|location =Bangalore|url= https://archive.org/details/bhagavatgeetaor00humbgoog|access-date=18 January 2017}}</ref>

{{multiple image
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| image2 = 1787 Bhagavad Gita re-translation French.jpg

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| image3 = Bhagvat - Geeta, Wesleyan Mission Press, Bangalore, 1849.jpg
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| footer = Cover pages of early Gita translations. Left: Charles Wilkins (1785); Center: Parraud re-translation of Wilkins (1787); Right: Wesleyan Mission Press (1849).
}}
In 1981, Larson stated that "a complete listing of Gita translations and a related secondary bibliography would be nearly endless".<ref name=larson81>{{Citation |doi=10.2307/1398797 |author=Gerald James Larson |year=1981 |title=The Song Celestial: Two centuries of the Bhagavad Gita in English |journal=Philosophy East and West |publisher= University of Hawai'i Press |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=513–40 |jstor=1398797}}</ref>{{rp|514}} According to Larson, there is "a massive translational tradition in English, pioneered by the British, solidly grounded philologically by the French and Germans, provided with its indigenous roots by a rich heritage of modern Indian comment and reflection, extended into various disciplinary areas by Americans, and having generated in our time a broadly based cross-cultural awareness of the importance of the Bhagavad Gita both as an expression of a specifically Indian spirituality and as one of the great religious "classics" of all time."<ref name=larson81/>{{rp|518}}

According to Sargeant, the Gita is "said to have been translated at least 200 times, in both poetic and prose forms".{{sfn|Sargeant|2009|page=1}} Richard Davis cites a count by Callewaert & Hemraj in 1982 of 1,891 translations of the Bhagavad Gita in 75 languages, including 273 in English.{{sfn|Davis|2014|pp=154–155}} These translations vary,<ref>{{cite book|author=George Thompson|title=The Bhagavad Gita: A New Translation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K_knYDLJMfsC |year=2008|publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux|isbn=978-1-4668-3531-3|pages=xi–xii}}</ref> and are in part an interpretative reconstruction of the original Sanskrit text that differ in their "friendliness to the reader",{{sfn|Davis|2014|pp=159–161}} and in the amount of "violence to the original Gita text".{{sfn|Sargeant|2009|page=xxv}}{{refn|group=note|Sanskrit scholar [[Barbara Stoler Miller]] produced a translation in 1986 intended to emphasise the poem's influence and current context within [[English Literature]], especially the works of [[T.S. Eliot]], [[Henry David Thoreau]] and [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]].<ref>{{harvnb|Miller|1986|pages=14–17}}</ref> The translation was praised by scholars as well as literary critics.<ref>{{harvnb|Bloom|1995|page=531}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Doniger|first=Wendy|title=Obituary: Barbara Stoler Miller|journal=Journal of Asian Studies|date=August 1993|volume=52|issue=3|pages=813–15|jstor=2058944|doi=10.1017/S002191180003789X|doi-access=free}}</ref> Similarly, the Hinduism scholar Jeaneane Fowler's translation and student text has been praised for its comprehensive introduction, quality of translation, and commentary.<ref>Arvind Sharma (2014), ''Review: Three New Books on the "Bhagavad Gītā", International Journal of Hindu Studies, Vol. 18, No. 2, p. 269</ref>}}

The translations and interpretations of the Gita have been so diverse that these have been used to support apparently contradictory political and philosophical values. For example, Galvin Flood and Charles Martin note that interpretations of the Gita have been used to support "pacifism to aggressive nationalism" in politics, from "monism to theism" in philosophy.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Galvin Flood|author2=Charles Martin|title=The Bhagavad Gita: A New Translation|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=PDYEAwAAQBAJ |year=2013 |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company| isbn=978-0-393-34513-1| page=xii}}</ref> According to William Johnson, the synthesis of ideas in the Gita is such that it can bear almost any shade of interpretation.<ref>{{cite book|author=W.J. Johnson|title=The Bhagavad Gita|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cPSoXHhh-Q0C|year=2004|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-283581-9|pages=vii–ix}}</ref> A translation "can never fully reproduce an original and no translation is transparent", states Richard Davis, but in the case of the Gita the linguistic and cultural distance for many translators is large and steep which adds to the challenge and affects the translation.{{sfn|Davis|2014|pp=80–81}} For some native translators, their personal beliefs, motivations, and subjectivity affect their understanding, their choice of words and interpretation.{{sfn|Davis|2014|pp=157–158}}<ref>{{cite book|author=W.J. Johnson|title=The Bhagavad Gita|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cPSoXHhh-Q0C|year=2004|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-283581-9|pages=ix–xi}}</ref>{{sfn|Sharma|1986|pp=xvi–xxvii}} Some translations by Indians, with or without Western co-translators, have "orientalist", "apologetic", "Neo-Vedantic" or "guru phenomenon" biases.<ref name=larson81/>{{rp|525–530}}
{{External links|date=January 2022|section}}
{| class="wikitable autocollapse"
! colspan="3" style="text-align: center;" |A sample of translations of the Bhagavad Gita<ref name="larson81" />
|-
! style="background: #ffad66;" |Title
! Translator
! Year
|-
| ''The Bhagavat geeta, or Dialogue of Kreeshna and Arjoon in Eighteen Lectures with Notes''
| Charles Wilkins
| 1785
|-
| ''Bhagavad-Gita''
| August Wilhelm Schlegel
| [[iarchive:bhagavadgitaide00schlgoog/page/n11|1823]]
|-
| ''The Bhagavadgita''
| J.C. Thomson
| 1856
|-
| ''La Bhagavad-Gita''
| Eugene Burnouf
| 1861
|-
| ''The Bhagavad Gita''<ref group="note">Second edition in 1898</ref>
| Kashninath T. Telang
| 1882
|-
| ''[[The Song Celestial]]''<ref group="note">Or Bhagavat-Gita, Edwin Arnold, reprinted by Dover Publications, New York, 1900</ref>
| Sir Edwin Arnold
| [[iarchive:songcelestialor00arnogoog/page/n10|1885]]
|-
| ''The Bhagavad Gita''<ref group="note">Reprinted by Theosophical University Press, Los Angeles, California, 1967</ref>
| William Quan Judge
| 1890
|-
| ''The Bhagavad-Gita with the Commentary of Sri Sankaracarya''
| A. Mahadeva Sastry
| 1897
|-
|Young Men's Gita
|Jagindranath Mukharji
|1900
|-
| ''Bhagavadgita: The Lord's Song''
| L.D. Barnett
| 1905
|-
| Bhagavad Gita<ref group="note">Reprinted by Theosophical Publishing House, Los Angeles, California, 1987</ref>
| Anne Besant and Bhagavan Das
| [[iarchive:bhagavadgitaorlo00besa/page/n1|1905]]
|-
| ''Die Bhagavadgita''
| Richard Garbe
| 1905
|-
|Srimad Bhagavad-Gita
|Swami Swarupananda
|1909
|-
| ''Der Gesang des Heiligen''
| Paul Deussen
| [[iarchive:dergesangdeshei00deusgoog/page/n7|1911]]
|-
| ''Srimad Bhagavad-Gita''
| Swami Paramananda
| [[iarchive:srimadbhagavadg00swamgoog/page/n10|1913]]
|-
| ''La Bhagavad-Gîtâ''
| Emile Sénart
| [https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Livre:La_Bhagavadgita,_trad._de_Senart,_1922.djvu 1922]
|-
|The Bhagavad Gita according to Gandhi<ref group="note">Eventually published by Navajivan Publishing House, Ahmedabad, 1946.</ref>
|Mohandas K. Gandhi
|1926
|-
|The Bhagavad Gita
|W. Douglas P. Hill
|1928
|-
| ''The Bhagavad-Gita''
| Arthur W. Ryder
| [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.32106016334002;view=1up;seq=7 1929]
|-
| ''The Song of the Lord, Bhagavad-Gita''
| E.J. Thomas
| 1931
|-
|The Geeta
|Shri Purohit Swami
|1935
|-
| ''The Yoga of the Bhagavat Gita''
| Sri Krishna Prem
| 1938
|-
|The Message of the Gita (or Essays on the Gita)
|Sri Aurobindo, edited by Anilbaran Roy
|1938
|-
|Bhagavadgita<ref group="note">Reprint 1995</ref>
|Swami Sivananda
|1942
|-
|Bhagavad Gita<ref group="note">Reprint 1974</ref>
|Swami Nikhilananda
|1943
|-
| ''The Bhagavad Gita''
| Franklin Edgerton
| [[iarchive:TheBhagavadGitaByEdgertonFranklinClark/page/n1|1944]]
|-
| ''Bhagavad Gita: The Song of God''
| [[Swami Prabhavananda]] and [[Christopher Isherwood]]
| [https://books.google.com/books?id=JfRjAAAAMAAJ 1944]
|-
| ''The Bhagavad Gita''
| Swami Nikhilananda
| [[iarchive:SrimadBhagavadGitaTranslatedSwamiNikhilananda1944/page/n0|1944]]
|-
| ''The Bhagavadgita''
| S. Radhakrishnan
| [[iarchive:BhagavadGitaBySRadhakrishnan/page/n1|1948]]
|-
|God Talks with Arjuna
|Paramhamsa Yogananda
|1955
|-
| ''The Bhagavadgita''
| Shakuntala Rao Sastri
| 1959
|-
| ''The Bhagavad Gita''
| Juan Mascaro
| [[iarchive:bhagavadgitatran00masc|1962]]
|-
|Bhagavad Gita
|C. Rajagopalachari
|1963
|-
| ''The Bhagavadgita''
| Swami Chidbhavananda
| [[iarchive:TheBhagavadBySwamiChidbhavanand/page/n0|1965]]
|-
|The Bhagavad Gita<ref group="note">Only the first six chapters were translated</ref>
|[[Maharishi Mahesh Yogi]]
|1967
|-
| ''The Bhagavadgita: Translated with Introduction and Critical Essays''
| Eliot Deutsch
| [[iarchive:bhagavadgita00deut|1968]]
|-
| {{IAST|[[Bhagavad-Gītā As It Is]]}}
| [[A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada]]
| [[iarchive:BhagavadGitaHisDivineGraceACBhaktivedantaSwamiPrabhupada 201712/page/n3|1968]]
|-
| ''The Bhagavad Gita''
| R.C. Zaehner
| 1969
|-
| ''The Bhagavad Gita: A New Verse Translation''
| Ann Stanford
| 1970
|-
|The Holy Gita, Translation & Commentary
|Swami Chinmayananda
|1972
|-
|Srimad Bhagavad Gita
|Swami Vireswarananda
|1974
|-
|Bhagavad Gita: A Verse Translation<ref group="note">Reprint 1996</ref>
|Geoffrey Parrinder
|1974
|-
|The Bhagavad Gita
|Kees. W. Bolle
|1979
|-
| ''The Bhagavad Gita''
| Winthrop Sargeant (Editor: Christopher K Chapple)
| [https://books.google.com/books?id=COuy5CDAqt4C 1979]
|-
| ''The Bhagavadgita in the Mahabharata''
| [[J. A. B. van Buitenen|J.A.B. van Buitenen]]
| [https://books.google.com/books?id=4S5OCgAAQBAJ 1981]
|-
|The Bhagavad-Gita
|Winthrop Sargeant
|1984
|-
|Srimad Bhagavad Gita Bhasya of Sri Samkaracharya
|A.G. Krishna Warrier
|1984
|-
| ''The Bhagavadgita''
| [[Eknath Easwaran]]
| 1985
|-
|Srimad Bhagavad Gita
|Swami Tapasyananda
|1985
|-
|Bhagavad Gita
|Srinivasa Murthy
|1985
|-
| ''The Bhagavad-Gita: Krishna's Counsel in Time of War''
| Barbara Stoler Miller
| [https://books.google.com/books?id=l_dvDwAAQBAJ 1986]
|-
|Bhagavad-Gita
|Raghavan Iyer
|1986
|-
| ''The Bhagavad-Gita''
| Ramananda Prasad
| 1988
|-
|Bhagavad-Gita for You & Me
|M.S. Patwardhan
|1990
|-
|Bhagavad Gita
|Antonio T. De Nicholas
|1991
|-
|Bhagavad Gita
|Sachindra K. Majumdar
|1991
|-
|Bhagavad Gita
|O.P. Ghai
|1992
|-
|Ramanuja Gita Bhashya
|Swami Adidevananda
|1992
|-
|Gita Bhashya
|Jagannatha Prakasha
|1993
|-
|Bhagavad Gita: Translation & Commentary
|Richard Gotshalk
|1993
|-
|The Bhagavad Gita<ref group="note">A trans-creation rather than translation</ref>
|P. Lal
|1994
|-
| ''The Bhagavad-Gita''
| W.J. Johnson
| [https://books.google.com/books?id=U3MRAQAAIAAJ 1994]
|-
|Bhagavad Gita (The Song of God)
|Ramananda Prasad
|1996
|-
|Bhagavad Gita<ref group="note">Originally translated in 1933</ref>
|Vrinda Nabar and Shanta Tumkur
|1997
|-
|The Living Gita: The Complete Bhagavat Gita: A Commentary for Modern Readers
|Swami Satchidananda
|1997
|-
|Bhagavad-Gita
|Satyananda Saraswati
|1997
|-
|Bhagavad-Gita with the Commentary of Sankaracarya
|Swami Gambhirananda
|1998
|-
|Bhagavad Gita, With Commentary of Sankara
|Alladi M. Sastry
|1998
|-
|Transcreation of the Bhagavad Gita
|Ashok K. Malhotra
|1998
|-
|You Know Me: The Gita
|Irina Gajjar
|1999
|-
|The Bhagavad Gita, Your Charioteer in the Battlefield of Life
|R.K. Piparaiya
|1999
|-
|The Bhagavad Gita, an Original Translation
|V. Jayaram
|2000
|-
|Bhagavad Gita: A Walkthrough for Westerners
|Jack Hawley
|2001
|-
|Bhagavad Gita<ref group="note">Implicitly targeted at children, or young adults</ref>
|Rosetta Williams
|2001
|-
|The Bhagavad Gita of Order
|Anand Aadhar Prabhu
|2001
|-
|Bhagavad Gita: The Song Divine
|Carl E. Woodham
|2001
|-
|The Bhagavat Gita (as part of the Wisdom Bible)
|Sanderson Beck
|2001
|-
|Bhagavad Gita: A New Translation
|Stephen Mitchell
|2002
|-
|Bhagavad Gita As a Living Experience
|Wilfried Huchzermeyer and Jutta Zimmermann
|2002
|-
|Bhagvad Gita
|Alan Jacobs
|2002
|-
|Bhagavad Gita: Translation and Commentary
|Veeraswamy Krishnaraj
|2002
|-
|The Bhagavad Gita
|Richard Prime
|2003
|-
|The Sacred Song: A New Translation of the Bhagavad Gita for the Third Millennium
|McComas Taylor and Richard Stanley
|2004
|-
|Śrīmad Bhagavad Gītā
|[[Dayananda Saraswati (Arsha Vidya)|Swami Dayananda Saraswati]]
|2007
|-
| ''The Bhagavad Gita: A New Translation''
| George Thompson
| [https://books.google.com/books?id=K_knYDLJMfsC 2008]
|-
| ''The Bhagavad Gita, A New Translation''
| [[Georg Feuerstein]]
| 2011
|-
| ''The Bhagavad Gita: A Text and Commentary for Students''
| Jeaneane D. Fowler
| [https://books.google.com/books?id=dHX5XwAACAAJ 2012]
|-
| ''The Bhagavad Gita: A New Translation''
| [[Gavin Flood]], Charles Martin
| [https://books.google.com/books?id=PDYEAwAAQBAJ 2012]
|-
|Bhagavad Gita: The Song of God
| [[Swami Mukundananda]]
|[https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Bhagavad_Gita/5JUJmQEACAAJ 2013]
|-
|Bhagavad Gita: Rhythm of Krishna (Gita in Rhymes)
|[[Sushrut Badhe]]
|2015
|-
| ''Philosophy of the Bhagavad Gita''
| Keya Maitra
| 2018
|-
|''The Bhagavad Gita Chapter 1 to 13 – English'' {{ISBN|978-93-87578-96-8}}
| [[Ravi Shankar (spiritual leader)|Ravi Shankar]]
| 2018
|-
|The Bhagavad Gita<ref group="note">Originally translated in 2005 and also based on Critical Edition by BORI</ref>
|Bibek Debroy
|2019
|-
| ''The Teachings of Bhagavad Gita: Timeless Wisdom for the Modern Age''<ref>{{cite web |title=Review: 'The Teachings of Bhagavad Gita' by Richa Tilokani |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/books/reviews/review-the-teachings-of-bhagavad-gita-by-richa-tilokani/articleshow/84342650.cms |website=Times of India |publisher=Times of India |access-date=23 July 2021}}</ref>
| Richa Tilokani
| 2021
|-
|''The Poetic Saga of Mahabharata''
|Shiva Ramnath Pillutla
|2022
|}

According to the [[exegesis]] scholar Robert Minor, the Gita is "probably the most translated of any Asian text", but many modern versions heavily reflect the views of the organization or person who does the translating and distribution. In Minor's view, the Harvard scholar Franklin Edgerton's English translation and Richard Garbe's German translation are closer to the text than many others.{{sfn|Minor|1982|pp=xx–xxi}} According to Larson, the Edgerton translation is remarkably faithful, but it is "harsh, stilted, and syntactically awkward" with an "orientalist" bias and lacks "appreciation of the text's contemporary religious significance".<ref name=larson81/>{{rp|524}}

=== The Gita in other languages ===

The Gita has also been translated into European languages other than English. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, in the [[Mughal Empire]], multiple Persian translations of the Gita were completed.<ref>{{Cite thesis|title=Persian interpretations of the Bhagavadgita in the Mughal period : with special reference to the Sufi version of #Abd al-Raham Chishti.|url=https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.241699/|publisher=School of Oriental and African Studies (University of London)|date=1988|degree=Ph.D.|first=R.|last=Vassie}}</ref> In 1808, passages from the Gita were part of the first direct translation of Sanskrit into German, appearing in a book through which [[Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel|Friedrich Schlegel]] became known as the founder of Indian philology in Germany.<ref>What had previously been known of Indian literature in Germany had been translated from the English. {{harvnb|Winternitz|1972|page=15|volume=1}}</ref> The most significant French translation of the Gita, according to J. A. B. van Buitenen, was published by [[Émile Senart]] in 1922.{{sfn|J.A.B. van Buitenen|2013|p=xii; Emile Senart's Translation: Wikisource}} More recently, a new French translation was produced by the Indologist Alain Porte in 2004.<ref>{{cite book|language=fr|author=Alain Porte|title=Bhagavad Gîtâ|place=Paris|publisher=Arléa Poche (n°6)|date=2004|pages=167|isbn=2363082060}} The book was reprinted in 2019.</ref> [[Rambhadracharya|Swami Rambhadracharya]] released the first [[Braille]] version of the scripture, with the original Sanskrit text and a Hindi commentary, on 30 November 2007.<ref group=web>{{cite news |date=3 December 2007 |url=http://zeenews.india.com/news/lifestyle/bhagwad-gita-in-braille-language_411003.html |title=Bhagavad Gita in Braille Language |work=Zee News |access-date=24 April 2011}}</ref>

The [[Gita Press]] has published the Gita in multiple Indian languages.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/after-selling-580-mn-books-gita-press-facing-existential-crisis-115090700780_1.html |title=After selling 580 mn books, Gita Press faces labour crisis|date=8 September 2015|newspaper=Business Standard|first=Virendra Singh|last=Rawat|access-date=12 October 2019}}</ref> [[R. Raghava Iyengar]] translated the Gita into Tamil in the sandam metre poetic form.<ref>{{Citation|title=Bhagavadgita|year=1997|publisher=Bharati Publications|location=Chennai, India}}</ref> The [[Bhaktivedanta Book Trust]] associated with ISKCON has re-translated and published A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada's 1972 English translation of the Gita in 56 non-Indian languages.<ref>{{cite web|title=Bhagavad Gita As It Is|author= A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada|display-authors=etal|year=2015 |publisher=Bhaktivedanta Book Trust (1972 edition) |url=http://files.krishna.com/2016/01-Jan/BBT_Books_Printed_SEP15.pdf }}</ref><ref name="Davis 2014 page=168"/>{{refn|group=note|Teachings of [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness]] (ISKCON), a [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism|Gaudiya Vaishnava]] religious organisation which spread rapidly in North America in the 1970s and 1980s, are based on a translation of the Gita called ''[[Bhagavad-Gītā As It Is]]'' by [[A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada]].<ref>{{harvnb|Jones|Ryan|2007|page=199}}</ref> These teachings are also illustrated in the [[diorama]]s of [[Bhagavad-gita Museum]] in Los Angeles, California.<ref>{{cite journal|title=F.A.T.E. – the First American Theistic {{sic|Exib|ition|nolink=y}} – Back To Godhead|journal=[[Back to Godhead]]|date=1 July 1977|volume=12|issue=7|pages=16–23|url=http://www.backtogodhead.in/f-a-t-e-the-first-american-theistic-exibition/|access-date=8 February 2018}}</ref>}} [[Vinoba Bhave]] has written the Geeta in [[Marathi language|Marathi]] as Geetai (or "Mother Geeta") in a similar shloka form.

[[Paramahansa Yogananda]]'s commentary on the Bhagavad Gita called ''[[God Talks with Arjuna: The Bhagavad Gita]]'' has been translated into Spanish, German, Thai and Hindi so far. The book is significant in that unlike other commentaries of the Bhagavad Gita, which focus on [[karma yoga]], [[jnana yoga]], and [[bhakti yoga]] in relation to the Gita, Yogananda's work stresses the training of one's mind, or [[raja yoga]].<ref name="Taylor & Francis">{{cite book |last1=Nadkarni |first1=M.V.|title=The Bhagavad-Gita for the Modern Reader: History, Interpretations and Philosophy |date=2016 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |pages=135–137 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DCklDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA135|isbn=978-1-315-43899-3}}</ref>

== Bhashya (commentaries) ==
Bhagavad Gita integrates various schools of thought, notably Vedanta, Samkhya and Yoga, and other theistic ideas. It remains a popular text for commentators belonging to various philosophical schools. However, its composite nature also leads to varying interpretations of the text and historic scholars have written ''[[bhashya]]'' (commentaries) on it.<ref name=sadhale>SGS Sadhale ( 1935), [https://archive.org/details/Gita-SgsSadhaleWith11MajorAnd3MinorCommentaries/page/n7 The Bhagavad Gita with Eleven Commentaries], Volume 1 & 2, pages 1–7</ref> According to [[Mysore Hiriyanna]], the Gita is "one of the hardest books to interpret, which accounts for the numerous commentaries on it—each differing from the rest in one essential point or the other".<ref>{{harvnb|Singh|2006|pages=54–55}}</ref>

According to Richard Davis, the Gita has attracted much scholarly interest in Indian history and some 227 commentaries have survived in the Sanskrit language alone.{{sfn|Davis|2014|pages=55–56}} It has also attracted commentaries in regional vernacular languages for centuries, such as the one by Sant Dnyaneshwar in Marathi (13th century).<ref name=Dnyandevfull/>

=== Classical commentaries ===
The Bhagavad Gita is referred to in the ''[[Brahma Sutras]]'' and numerous scholars, including [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]], [[Bhāskara (philosopher)|Bhaskara]], [[Abhinavagupta]] of the Shaivism tradition, [[Ramanuja]] and [[Madhvacharya]], wrote commentaries on it.{{sfn|Eliot Deutsch|Rohit Dalvi|2004|p=60}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|page=124}} Many of these commentators state that the Gita is "meant to be a ''moksa-shastra'' (''moksasatra''), and not a ''dharmasastra'', an ''arthasastra'' or a ''kamasastra''".<ref>{{cite book|author1=Abhinavagupta (Rājānaka.)|author2=Arvind Sharma (Translator, Reviewer)|author-link2=Arvind Sharma|title= Gītārthasaṅgraha|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=U9oUAAAAIAAJ |year=1983|publisher=Brill Academic|isbn=90-04-06736-1| pages=30–31 with footnotes}}</ref>

====Śaṅkara (c. 800 CE)====
The oldest and most influential surviving commentary was published by [[Adi Shankara]] (Śaṅkarācārya).<ref name="Zaehner, p. 3">{{harvnb|Zaehner|1969|page=3}}</ref><ref name="Flood 1996 page=124">{{harvnb|Flood|1996|page=124}}</ref> Shankara interprets the Gita in a monist, nondualistic tradition ([[Advaita Vedanta]]).<ref>{{cite book| title= The Bhagavad Gita with the Commentary of Sri Sankaracharya| author=Alladi Mahadeva Sastry|publisher= Samata| url=https://archive.org/details/Bhagavad-Gita.with.the.Commentary.of.Sri.Shankaracharya/page/n0| year=1980}}</ref> Shankara prefaces his comments by stating that the Gita is popular among the laity, that the text has been studied and commented upon by earlier scholars (these texts have not survived), but that "I have found that to the laity it appears to teach diverse and quite contradictory doctrines". He calls the Gita "an epitome of the essentials of the whole [[Vedas|Vedic teaching]]".<ref>{{cite book| title= The Bhagavad Gita with the Commentary of Sri Sankaracharya| author=Alladi Mahadeva Sastry|publisher= Samata| url=https://archive.org/details/Bhagavad-Gita.with.the.Commentary.of.Sri.Shankaracharya/page/n0| year=1980| pages=ii, 1–6}}</ref> To Shankara, the teaching of the Gita is to shift an individual's focus from the outer, impermanent, fleeting objects of desire and senses to the inner, permanent, eternal atman-Brahman-Vasudeva that is identical, in everything and in every being.<ref>{{cite book|author=N.V. Isaeva|title=Shankara and Indian Philosophy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J43SDe9ilOsC |year=1993|publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-1282-4|pages=211–214}}</ref>

====Abhinavagupta (c. 1000 CE)====
Abhinavagupta was a theologian and philosopher of the Kashmir Shaivism ([[Shiva]]) tradition.<ref name="Flood 1996 page=124"/> He wrote a commentary on the Gita as ''Gitartha-Samgraha'', which has survived into the modern era. The Gita text he commented on is a slightly different recension than the one of Adi Shankara. He interprets its teachings in the Shaiva Advaita (monism) tradition quite similar to Adi Shankara, but with the difference that he considers both Self and matter to be metaphysically real and eternal. Their respective interpretations of ''jnana yoga'' are also somewhat different, and Abhinavagupta uses Atman, Brahman, Shiva, and Krishna interchangeably. Abhinavagupta's commentary is notable for its citations of more ancient scholars, in a style similar to Adi Shankara. However, the texts he quotes have not survived into the modern era.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Abhinavagupta (Rājānaka.)|author2=Arvind Sharma (Translator, Reviewer)|author-link2=Arvind Sharma|title= Gītārthasaṅgraha|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=U9oUAAAAIAAJ |year=1983|publisher=Brill Academic|isbn=90-04-06736-1| pages=30–35, 41–47 with footnotes}}</ref>

====Rāmānuja (c. 1100 CE)====
[[Ramanuja]] was a Hindu theologian, philosopher, and an exponent of the Sri Vaishnavism ([[Vishnu]]) tradition in 11th and early 12th century. Like his Vedanta peers, Ramanuja wrote a ''[[bhasya|bhashya]]'' (commentary) on the Gita.<ref>{{harvnb|Sampatkumaran|1985|page=xx}}</ref> Ramanuja's commentary disagreed with Adi Shankara's interpretation of the Gita as a text on nondualism (Self and Brahman are identical), and instead interpreted it as a form of dualistic and qualified monism ([[Vishishtadvaita]]).<ref>{{cite book|author=William M. Indich|title=Consciousness in Advaita Vedanta|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=7ykZjWOiBMoC|year=1995|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1251-2|pages=1–2, 97–102}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=C.J. Bartley |title=The Theology of Rāmānuja: Realism and Religion|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=9SpTAQAAQBAJ| year=2013| publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-85306-7|pages=2–3, 87–91}}</ref>

====Madhva (c. 1250 CE)====
[[Madhvacharya|Madhva]], a commentator of the Dvaita (modern taxonomy) Tatvavada (actually quoted by Madhva) Vedanta school,<ref name="Flood 1996 page=124"/> wrote a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita, which exemplifies the thinking of the Tatvavada school ([[Dvaita Vedanta]]).<ref name="Zaehner, p. 3"/> According to Christopher Chapelle, in Madhva's school there is "an eternal and complete distinction between the Supreme, the many Selfs, and matter and its divisions".{{sfn|Sargeant|2009|pages=xxiii–xxiv}} His commentary on the Gita is called {{IAST|Gita Bhāshya}}. Madhva's commentary has attracted secondary works by pontiffs of the [[Dvaita Vedanta]] monasteries such as [[Padmanabha Tirtha]], [[Jayatirtha]], and [[Raghavendra Tirtha]].<ref>{{harvnb|Rao|2002|page=86}}</ref>

====Keśava Kāśmīri (c. 1479 CE)====
Keśava Kāśmīri Bhaṭṭa, a commentator of Dvaitādvaita Vedanta school, wrote a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita named {{IAST|Tattva-prakāśikā}}. The text states that ''Dasasloki''—possibly authored by Nimbarka—teaches the essence of the Gita; the ''Gita tattva prakashika'' interprets the Gita also in a hybrid monist-dualist manner.<ref name="Nadkarni2016p37"/><ref name="archive.org">SGS Sadhale ( 1936), [https://archive.org/details/SrimadBhagavadGita-11SanskritCommentaries-GsSadhaleVol2Of3/page/n0 The Bhagavad Gita with Eleven Commentaries], Volume 2 of 3</ref>

====Vallabha (1481–1533 CE)====
[[Vallabhacharya|Vallabha]], the proponent of "Suddhadvaita" or pure non-dualism, wrote a commentary on the Gita, the ''Sattvadipika''. According to him, the true Self is the Supreme Brahman. [[Bhakti]] is the most important means of attaining liberation.

====Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇava Commentaries====
*[[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] (b. 1486 CE). Commentaries on various parts of the Gita are in the [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism]] Bhakti Vedanta tradition (''[[Achintya Bheda Abheda|achintya bheda abheda]].'';{{refn|group=note|According to Edwin Bryant and Maria Ekstrand, this school incorporates and integrates aspects of "qualified monism, dualism, monistic dualism, and pure nondualism".<ref name=ekstrand175>{{cite book|author1=Edwin Bryant|author2=Maria Ekstrand|title=The Hare Krishna Movement: The Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mBMxPdgrBhoC&pg=PA175 |year=2004|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-50843-8|pages=175–176}}</ref>}}

====Others====
Other classical commentators include
* [[Bhāskara (philosopher)|Bhāskara]] ({{circa|900 CE}}) disagreed with Adi Shankara, wrote his own commentary on both Bhagavad Gita and ''Brahma Sutras'' in the {{IAST|Bhedābheda}} tradition.<ref name="Nadkarni2016p37">{{harvnb|M.V. Nadkarni|2016|pp=37–38}}</ref> According to Bhaskara, the Gita is essentially Advaita, but not quite exactly, suggesting that "the ''Atman'' (Self) of all beings are like waves in the ocean that is Brahman". Bhaskara also disagreed with Shankara's formulation of the ''Maya'' doctrine, stating that prakriti, atman and Brahman are all metaphysically real.<ref name="Nadkarni2016p37"/>
* [[Yamunacharya]], Ramanuja's teacher, summarised the teachings of the Gita in his ''Gitartha sangraham''.
* [[Nimbarka]] (1162 CE) followed Bhaskara, but it is unclear if he ever wrote a commentary. The commentary ''Gita tattva prakashika'' is generally attributed to a student named Kesava Bhatta in his tradition, written in a hybrid monist-dualist manner, which states that ''Dasasloki''—possibly authored by Nimbarka—teaches the essence of the Gita.<ref name="Nadkarni2016p37"/><ref name="archive.org"/>
* [[Dnyaneshwar|Dnyaneshwar's]] (1290 CE)<ref name=Dnyandevfull>{{Citation|last1 = Dnyandev | last2 = Pradhan| first2= Vitthal Ganesh| title = Dnyaneshwari : Bhāvārthadipikā | publisher =State University of New York Press | editor-last = Lambert | editor-first = Hester Marjorie |year = 1987 |pages = x–xi |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=Xxg0RI7dSWIC |isbn = 978-0-88706-487-6}}</ref><ref>W. Doderet (1926), '']https://www.jstor.org/stable/607401 The Passive Voice of the Jnanesvari]'', Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, Cambridge University Press, Vol. 4, No. 1 (1926), pp. 59–64</ref> commentary ''[[Dnyaneshwari]]'' ({{aka}} ''Jnaneshwari'' or ''Bhavarthadipika'')<ref>{{harvnb|Gyaānadeva|Pradhan|1987}}</ref> is the oldest surviving literary work in the [[Marathi language]],<ref name="Sircar1996"/> one of the foundations of the Varkari tradition (the [[Bhakti movement]], [[Eknath]], [[Tukaram]]) in Maharashtra .<ref name="Sircar1996">{{cite book|author=D.C. Sircar|title=Indian Epigraphy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hXMB3649biQC|year=1996|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1166-9|pages=53–54}}</ref><ref name="Ranade1997">{{cite book|author=R.D. Ranade|title=Tukaram| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOWIAwAAQBAJ |year=1997| publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-1-4384-1687-8|pages=9–11}}</ref><ref name="Melton2011">{{cite book|author=J. Gordon Melton|title=Religious Celebrations: An Encyclopedia of Holidays, Festivals, Solemn Observances, and Spiritual Commemorations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lD_2J7W_2hQC |year=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-206-7|pages=373–374}}</ref> The commentary interprets the Gita in the Advaita Vedanta tradition.<ref>{{Citation|last1 = Dnyandev | last2 = Pradhan| first2= Vitthal Ganesh| title = Dnyaneshwari : Bhāvārthadipikā | publisher =State University of New York Press | editor-last = Lambert | editor-first = Hester Marjorie |year = 1987 |page =xviii with footnote 1 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Xxg0RI7dSWIC |isbn= 978-0-88706-487-6}}</ref> Dnyaneshwar belonged to the [[Nath]] yogi tradition. His commentary on the Gita is notable for stating that it is the devotional commitment and love with inner renunciation that matters, not the name ''Krishna'' or ''Shiva'', either can be used interchangeably.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Karine Schomer|author2=W.H. McLeod|title=The Sants: Studies in a Devotional Tradition of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OkKhOivXrhgC&pg=PA222|year=1987|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0277-3|pages=219–223}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Christian Novetzke |editor=Guy L. Beck|title=Alternative Krishnas: Regional and Vernacular Variations on a Hindu Deity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0SJ73GHSCF8C |year=2005|publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-6415-1|pages=113–118}}</ref>
* Vallabha II, a descendant of [[Vallabha]] (1479 CE), wrote the commentary ''Tattvadeepika'' in the Suddha-Advaita tradition.<ref name=sadhale/>
* [[Madhusudana Saraswati|Madhusudana Saraswati's]] commentary ''Gudhartha Deepika'' is in the Advaita Vedanta tradition.<ref name=sadhale/>
* Hanumat's commentary ''Paishacha-bhasya'' is in the Advaita Vedanta tradition.<ref name=sadhale/>
* Anandagiri's commentary ''Bhashya-vyakhyanam'' is in the Advaita Vedanta tradition.<ref name=sadhale/>
* Nilkantha's commentary ''Bhava-pradeeps'' is in the Advaita Vedanta tradition.<ref name=sadhale/>
* Shreedhara's (1400 CE) commentary ''Avi gita'' is in the Advaita Vedanta tradition.<ref name=sadhale/>
* Dhupakara Shastri's commentary ''Subodhini'' is in the Advaita Vedanta tradition.<ref name=sadhale/>
* [[Raghuttama Tirtha|Raghuttama Tirtha's]] (1548-1596), commentary ''Prameyadīpikā Bhavabodha'' is in the [[Dvaita Vedanta]] tradition.{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=266}}
* [[Raghavendra Tirtha|Raghavendra Tirtha's]] (1595-1671) commentary ''Artha samgraha'' is in the [[Dvaita Vedanta]] tradition.<ref name=sadhale/>
* Vanamali Mishra's (1650-1720) commentary ''Gitagudharthacandrika'' is quite similar to Madhvacharya's commentary and is in the Dvaita Vedanta tradition.{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=391}}
* Purushottama (1668–1781 CE), Vallabha's follower, wrote a commentary.

=== Modern-era commentaries ===
* Among notable modern commentators of the Bhagavad Gita are [[Bal Gangadhar Tilak]], [[Vinoba Bhave]], [[Mahatma Gandhi]] (who called its philosophy Anasakti Yoga), [[Sri Aurobindo]], [[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan]], [[B. N. K. Sharma]], [[Osho]], and Chinmayananda. Chinmayananda took a syncretistic approach to interpret the text of the Gita.<ref>For Aurobindo, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, and Chinmayananda as notable commentators see: {{harvnb|Sargeant|2009|page=xix}}</ref><ref>For Aurobindo as notable commentators, see: {{harvnb|Gambhirananda|1997|page=xix}}</ref>
* Tilak wrote his commentary ''Shrimadh Bhagavad Gita Rahasya'' while in jail during the period 1910–1911 serving a six-year sentence imposed by the [[British Raj|colonial government]] in India for [[sedition]].<ref>Stevenson, Robert W., "Tilak and the Bhagavadgita's Doctrine of Karmayoga", in: {{harvnb|Minor|1986|page=44}}</ref> While noting that the Gita teaches possible paths to liberation, his commentary places most emphasis on Karma yoga.<ref>Stevenson, Robert W., "Tilak and the Bhagavadgita's Doctrine of Karmayoga", in: {{harvnb|Minor|1986|page=49}}</ref>
* No book was more central to Gandhi's life and thought than the Bhagavad Gita, which he referred to as his "spiritual dictionary".<ref name="Minor,p.88">Jordens, J.T.F., "Gandhi and the Bhagavadgita", in: {{harvnb|Minor|1986|page=88}}</ref> During his stay in Yeravada jail in 1929,<ref name="Minor,p.88"/> Gandhi wrote a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita in [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]. The Gujarati manuscript was translated into English by Mahadev Desai, who provided an additional introduction and commentary. It was published with a foreword by Gandhi in 1946.<ref>{{harvnb|Gandhi|2009}}, First Edition 1946. Other editions: 1948, 1951, 1956.</ref><ref>A shorter edition, omitting the bulk of Desai's additional commentary, has been published as: ''Anasaktiyoga: The Gospel of Selfless Action''. Jim Rankin, editor. The author is listed as M.K. Gandhi; Mahadev Desai, translator. (Dry Bones Press, San Francisco, 1998) {{ISBN|1-883938-47-3}}.</ref>
* The version by [[A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada]], entitled ''[[Bhagavad-Gita as It Is]],'' is "by far the most widely distributed of all English Gīta translations" due to the efforts of [[ISKCON]].<ref name="Davis 2014 page=168">{{harvnb|Davis|2014|pages=167–168, 175}}</ref> Its publisher, the {{IAST|Bhaktivēdānta Book Trust}}, estimates sales at twenty-three million copies, a figure which includes the original English edition and secondary translations into fifty-six other languages.<ref name="Davis 2014 page=168"/> The Prabhupada commentary interprets the Gita in the [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism]] tradition of Chaitanya,<ref name="Davis 2014 page=168"/> quite similar to [[Madhvacharya|Madhvacharya's]] Dvaita Vēdanta ideology.{{sfn|Sargeant|2009|pages=xxiv–xxvi}} It presents Krishna as the Supreme, a means of saving mankind from the anxiety of material existence through loving devotion. Unlike in Bengal and nearby regions of India where the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'' is the primary text for this tradition, the devotees of Prabhupada's ISKCON tradition have found better reception for their ideas by those curious in the West through the Gita, according to Richard Davis.<ref name="Davis 2014 page=168"/>
* In 1966, Mahārishi Mahesh Yogi published a partial translation.<ref name="Davis 2014 page=168"/>
* An abridged version with 42 verses and commentary was published by [[Ramana Maharishi]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Arthur Osborne|title=The Collected Works of Ramana Maharshi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_rdMEhgClvEC|year=1997|publisher=Weiser|isbn=978-0-87728-907-4|pages=101–104}}</ref>
* ''Bhagavad Gita – The song of God'', is a commentary by [[Swami Mukundananda]].<ref name=SongOfGod>{{cite web|url=http://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org|title= Bhagavad Gita The Song of God, Commentary by Swami Mukundananda}}</ref>
* [[Paramahansa Yogananda|Paramahansa Yogananda's]] two-volume commentary on the Bhagavad Gita, called ''[[God Talks with Arjuna: The Bhagavad Gita]]'', was released in 1995 and is available in 4 languages and as an English e-book.<ref>{{harvnb|Yogananda|1993}}</ref> The book is significant in that unlike other commentaries of the Bhagavad Gita, which focus on [[karma yoga]], [[jnana yoga]], and [[bhakti yoga]] in relation to the Gita, Yogananda's work stresses the training of one's mind, or [[raja yoga]].<ref name="Taylor & Francis"/> It is published by [[Self-Realization Fellowship]]/[[Yogoda Satsanga Society of India]]
* [[Eknath Easwaran|Eknath Easwaran's]] commentary interprets the Gita for his collection of problems of daily modern life.<ref>{{harvnb|Easwaran|1993}}</ref>
* Other modern writers such as [[Swami Parthasarathy]] and Sādhu Vāsvāni have published their own commentaries.<ref>{{cite book|author=A. Pārthasārathy|title=Bhagavad Gita|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ZVC5AwAAQBAJ |year=2013| isbn= 978-93-81094-13-6}}</ref>
* Academic commentaries include those by Jeaneane Fowler,{{sfn|Fowler|2012}} Ithamar Theodor,{{sfn|Theodor|2010}} and Robert Zaehner.{{sfn|Zaehner|1969}}
* A collection of Christian commentaries on the Gita has been edited by Catherine Cornille, comparing and contrasting a wide range of views on the text by theologians and religion scholars.<ref>{{cite book|author=Catherine Cornille|title=Song Divine: Christian Commentaries on the Bhagavad Gītā |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F8DxPDYHgbEC|year=2006|publisher=Peeters Publishers|isbn=978-90-429-1769-9}}</ref>
* The book ''The Teachings of Bhagavad Gita: Timeless Wisdom for the Modern Age'' by Richa Tilokani offers a woman's perspective on the teachings of the Bhagavad Gita in a simplified and reader-friendly spiritual format.<ref>{{cite web |title=Richa Tilokani's The Teachings of Bhagavad Gita: Timeless Wisdom for the Modern Age |url=https://www.ritzmagazine.in/richa-tilokanis-the-teachings-of-bhagavad-gita/ |website=Ritz Magazine |date=28 June 2021 |publisher=Ritz Magazine |access-date=28 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Who Would Want a Woman's Perspective on the Bhagavad Gita? A Writer's Story |url=https://www.shethepeople.tv/personal-stories/womans-perspective-on-the-bhagavad-gita/ |website=She The People |publisher=She The People |access-date=28 July 2021}}</ref>
*[[Dayananda Saraswati (Arsha Vidya)|Swami Dayananda Saraswati]] published a four-volume Bhagavad Gītā, Home Study Course in 1998 based on transcripts from his teaching and commentary of the Bhagavad Gītā in the classroom. This was later published in 2011 in a new edition and nine volume format.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dayananda Saraswati|first=Swami|title=Bhagavad Gītā Home Study Course.|publisher=Arsha Vidya Research and Publication Trust, Chennai.|year=2011|isbn=978-93-80049-39-7|language=English}}</ref>
*Galyna Kogut and Rahul Singh published ''An Atheist Gets the Gita'', a 21st-century interpretation of the 5,000-year-old text.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://rupapublications.co.in/authors/rahul-singh/|title=About Rahul Singh|publisher=Rupa|access-date=23 Dec 2021}}</ref>

==Reception==
With its translation and study by Western scholars beginning in the early 18th century, the Bhagavad Gita gained a growing appreciation and popularity.<ref group=web name="EB-BG" /> According to the Indian historian and writer [[Khushwant Singh]], [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s famous poem "[[If—]]" is "the essence of the message of the Gita in English."<ref>[[Khushwant Singh]], [http://www.outlookindia.com/article.aspx?211656 ''Review of ''The Book of Prayer by Renuka Narayanan'' ''], 2001</ref>

=== Praise and popularity ===
{{Main|Influence of Bhagavad Gita}}
The Bhagavad Gita has been highly praised, not only by prominent Indians including [[Mahatma Gandhi]] and [[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan]],<ref>''Modern Indian Interpreters of the Bhagavad Gita'', by Robert Neil Minor, 1986, p. 161</ref> but also by [[Aldous Huxley]], [[Henry David Thoreau]], [[J. Robert Oppenheimer]],{{sfn|Hijiya|2000}} [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]], [[Carl Jung]], [[Herman Hesse]],<ref name="bansi">{{harvnb|Pandit|2005|page=27}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Hume|1959|page=29}}</ref> and [[Bülent Ecevit]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1021114/asp/opinion/story_1363040.asp|title=The Telegraph – Calcutta : Opinion|work=The Telegraph|location=Kolkota}}</ref>

At a time when [[Indian nationalism|Indian nationalists]] were seeking an indigenous basis for social and political action against colonial rule, Bhagavad Gita provided them with a rationale for their activism and fight against injustice.<ref>{{harvnb|Robinson|2006|page=70}}</ref> [[Bal Gangadhar Tilak]] and [[Mahatma Gandhi]] used the text to help inspire the Indian independence movement.{{refn|group=note|For B.G. Tilak and Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi as notable commentators see: {{harvnb|Gambhirananda|1997|page=xix}}}}{{refn|group=note|For notability of the commentaries by B.G. Tilak and Gandhi and their use to inspire the independence movement see: {{harvnb|Sargeant|2009|page=xix}}}} Mahatma Gandhi expressed his love for the Gita in these words:

{{blockquote|I find a solace in the ''{{IAST|Bhagavadgītā}}'' that I miss even in the [[Sermon on the Mount]]. When disappointment stares me in the face and all alone I see not one ray of light, I go back to the ''{{IAST|Bhagavadgītā}}''. I find a verse here and a verse there and I immediately begin to smile in the midst of overwhelming tragedies – and my life has been full of external tragedies – and if they have left no visible, no indelible scar on me, I owe it all to the teaching of ''{{IAST|Bhagavadgītā}}''.<ref>Quotation from M.K. Gandhi. ''Young India''. (1925), pp. 1078–79, is cited from {{harvnb|Radhakrishnan|1993}} ''Front matter''.</ref>}}

[[Jawaharlal Nehru]], the first Prime Minister of independent India, commented on the Gita:

{{blockquote|The ''Bhagavad-Gita'' deals essentially with the spiritual foundation of human existence. It is a call of action to meet the obligations and duties of life; yet keeping in view the spiritual nature and grander purpose of the universe.<ref>{{harvnb|Londhe|2008|page=191}}</ref>}}

[[A. P. J. Abdul Kalam]], 11th President of India, despite being a Muslim, used to read Bhagavad Gita and recite its mantras.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ndtv.com/opinion/dr-kalam-indias-most-non-traditional-president-1201311?site=full|title=Dr Kalam, India's Most Non-Traditional President}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://archive.mid-day.com/news/2002/jun/25726.htm|title=Kalam a puppet of votebank politics|access-date=28 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150731014324/http://archive.mid-day.com/news/2002/jun/25726.htm|archive-date=31 July 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.outlookindia.com/article/kalam-and-islam/216493|title=Kalam And Islam}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2002/jun/22sai.htm|title=Kalam, Islam and Dr Rafiq Zakaria}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title = Three books that influenced APJ Abdul Kalam deeply – Firstpost|date = 28 July 2015|url = http://www.firstpost.com/living/three-books-that-influenced-apj-abdul-kalam-deeply-2367912.html|access-date = 4 August 2015|url-status = live|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150730195411/http://www.firstpost.com/living/three-books-that-influenced-apj-abdul-kalam-deeply-2367912.html|archive-date = 30 July 2015}}</ref>

[[File:Trinity Detonation T&B.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The [[Trinity (nuclear test)|Trinity test]] of the [[Manhattan Project]] was the first detonation of a [[nuclear weapon]], which led Oppenheimer to recall verses from the Bhagavad Gita, notably being: "Now I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds".]]
[[J. Robert Oppenheimer]], American physicist and director of the [[Manhattan Project]], learned Sanskrit in 1933 and read the Bhagavad Gita in the original form, citing it later as one of the most influential books to shape his philosophy of life. Oppenheimer later recalled that, while witnessing the explosion of the [[Trinity nuclear test]], he thought of verses from the Bhagavad Gita (XI,12):
{{blockquote|दिवि सूर्यसहस्रस्य भवेद्युगपदुत्थिता यदि भाः सदृशी सा स्याद्भासस्तस्य महात्मनः॥११- १२॥

If the radiance of a thousand suns were to burst at once into the sky, that would be like the splendor of the mighty one ...{{sfn|Jungk|1958|p=201}}}}
Years later he would explain that another verse had also entered his head at that time:
{{blockquote|We knew the world would not be the same. A few people laughed, a few people cried. Most people were silent. I remembered the line from the Hindu scripture, the Bhagavad Gita; [[Vishnu]] is trying to persuade the [[Arjuna|Prince]] that he should do his duty and, to impress him, takes on [[Vishvarupa|his multi-armed form]] and says, 'Now I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds.' I suppose we all thought that, one way or another.<ref name="The Decision to Drop the Bomb" />{{refn|group=note|Oppenheimer spoke these words in the television documentary ''[http://www.atomicarchive.com/Movies/Movie8.shtml The Decision to Drop the Bomb]'' (1965).<ref name="The Decision to Drop the Bomb">{{cite web | url = http://www.atomicarchive.com/Movies/Movie8.shtml | title = J. Robert Oppenheimer on the Trinity test (1965) |access-date=May 23, 2008 | publisher = Atomic Archive}}</ref> Oppenheimer read the original text in [[Sanskrit]], "{{IAST|kālo'smi lokakṣayakṛtpravṛddho lokānsamāhartumiha pravṛttaḥ}}" (XI,32), which he translated as "I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds". In the literature, the quote usually appears in the form ''shatterer'' of worlds, because this was the form in which it first appeared in print, in [[Time (magazine)|''Time'' magazine]] on 8 November 1948.<ref>{{cite news |newspaper=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=8 November 1948 |title=The Eternal Apprentice |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,853367-8,00.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20110819005552/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,853367-8,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=19 August 2011 |access-date=6 March 2011}}</ref> It later appeared in Robert Jungk's ''Brighter than a Thousand Suns: A Personal History of the Atomic Scientists'' (1958),{{sfn|Jungk|1958|p=201}} which was based on an interview with Oppenheimer. See Hijiya, ''The Gita of Robert Oppenheimer''{{sfn|Hijiya|2000|pp=123–124}}}}}}

Ralph Waldo Emerson, remarked the following after his first study of the Gita, and thereafter frequently quoted the text in his journals and letters, particularly the "work with inner renunciation" idea in his writings on man's quest for spiritual energy:{{sfn|Miller|1986|pp=147–149}}
{{blockquote|I owed – my friend and I owed – a magnificent day to the ''Bhagavad Geeta''. It was the first of books; it was as if an empire spoke to us, nothing small or unworthy, but large, serene, consistent, the voice of an old intelligence which in another age and climate had pondered and thus disposed of the same questions which exercise us.{{sfn|Miller|1986|pp=147–149}}}}

[[Narendra Modi]], the [[List of Prime Ministers of India|14th prime minister of India]], called the Bhagavad Gita "India's biggest gift to the world".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Gita-is-Indias-biggest-gift-to-the-world-Modi/articleshow/41530350.cms|title=Gita is India's biggest gift to the world: Modi|website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> Modi gave a copy of it to the then President of the United States of America, [[Barack Obama]] in 2014 during his U.S. visit.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/narendra-modi-gifts-bhagavad-gita-to-obama/|title=Narendra Modi gifts Bhagavad Gita to Obama|date=30 September 2014}}</ref>

The world's largest Bhagavad Gita is in the [[ISKCON Temple Delhi]], which is the world's largest sacred book of any religion. It weighs 800 kg and measures over 2.8 metres by 2.0 metres. It was unveiled by [[Narendra Modi]], the Prime Minister of India on 26 February 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=188970|title=English rendering of Text of PM's speech at Unveiling ceremony of world's largest Bhagavad Gita|website=pib.nic.in|access-date=9 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=188967|title=PM attends Gita Aradhana Mahotsav at ISKCON, New Delhi|website=pib.nic.in|access-date=9 February 2020}}</ref> On 27 February 2021, the Bhagavad Gita, was launched into [[outer space]] in a [[SD card]], on a [[PSLV-C51]] rocket launched by the [[Indian Space Research Organisation]] (ISRO) from the [[Satish Dhawan Space Centre]] in [[Sriharikota]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/280221/brazils-amazonia-1-on-board-with-bhagavad-gita.html|title = Brazil's Amazonia-1 on board with Bhagavad Gita|date = 28 February 2021}}</ref>
=== Criticisms and apologetics ===

==== Ethics, war and violence ====
[[file:Fight between Bhisma and Arjun.jpg|thumb|Bhisma and Arjuna in combat, illustration from [[Gita Press]] ''Mahabharata'']]
In the Gita, Krishna persuades Arjuna to wage war where the enemy includes some of his own relatives and friends. In light of the ''[[Ahimsa]]'' (non-violence) teachings in Hindu scriptures, the Gita has been criticized as violating the ''Ahimsa'' value, or alternatively, as supporting political violence.{{sfn|Minor|1986|pp=65–73}} The justification of political violence when peaceful protests and all else fails, states Varma, has been a "fairly common feature of modern Indian political thought" along with the "mighty antithesis of Gandhian thought on non-violence". During the independence movement in India, Hindus considered the active "burning and drowning of British goods". While technically illegal under colonial legislation, these acts were viewed as a moral and [[Just war theory|just war]] for the sake of liberty and righteous values of the type that the Gita discusses.<ref name="Varma1990p232">{{cite book |author=Vishwanath Prasad Varma |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bLrp0c0hizAC |title=The Political Philosophy of Sri Aurobindo |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1990 |isbn=978-81-208-0686-3 |pages=232–235}}</ref> According to Paul Schaffel the influential Hindu nationalist [[Vinayak Damodar Savarkar|V.D. Savarkar]] "often turned to Hindu scripture such as the Bhagavad Gita, arguing that the text justified violence against those who would harm Mother India."<ref>Schaffel, Paul. ''Empire and Assassination: Indian Students, 'India House', and Information Gathering in Great Britain, 1898–1911.'' Wesleyan University, 2012, p. 38.</ref>

[[Narla Venkateswara Rao|V. R. Narla]], in his book length critique of the text titled ''The Truth About the Gita,'' criticizes the ethical teachings of the Gita. He argues that the ethics of the Gita are so ambiguous, that one can use it to justify any ethical position.<ref>V. R. Narla (2010), ''The Truth About the Gita,'' pp. 126-135. Prometheus Books.</ref> Narla argues that the Gita is mainly a theological argument in favor of the warrior ethos.<ref>V. R. Narla (2010), ''The Truth About the Gita,'' p. 135. Prometheus Books.</ref> Narla argues that the fact that the Gita tries constantly to make Arjuna kill his kin in order to gain a petty kingdom shows it is not a pacifist work. Narla compares the Krishna of the Gita with a modern day [[Terrorism|terrorist]], who uses theology to excuse violence.<ref>V. R. Narla (2010), ''The Truth About the Gita,'' pp. 142-148. Prometheus Books.</ref> Narla also cites [[Damodar Dharmananda Kosambi|D.D. Kosambi]] who argued that the apparent moral of the Gita is "kill your brother if duty calls, without passion; as long as you have faith in Me, all sins are forgiven...".<ref>V. R. Narla (2010), ''The Truth About the Gita,'' p. 148. Prometheus Books.</ref>

In his ''Myth and Reality'', the Indian historian [[Damodar Dharmananda Kosambi|D.D. Kosambi]] argued that the Gita was written as a religious text that could provide support for the actions of the upper castes, including the warrior caste. These sort of exhortations to battle would not have been uncommon in ancient India as it was the job of Indian bards. Kosambi writes that in the Gita, "the high god repeatedly emphasizes the great virtue of non-killing (''ahimsa''), yet the entire discourse is an incentive to war."<ref name=":2">[[Damodar Dharmananda Kosambi|D.D. Kosambi]] (1962) ''[[iarchive:MythAndReality|Myth and Reality: Studies in the Formation of Indian Culture]]'' p. 21. (Popular Prakashail, Bombay).</ref> He also cites the Gita, which states: "if slain, you gain heaven; if victorious, the earth; so up, son of Kunti, and concentrate on fighting."<ref name=":2" /> Kosambi argues that the injunctions and excuses for killing found in the Gita are unethical.<ref name=":2" />

The Indian jurist and politician [[B. R. Ambedkar]] also saw the Gita's defense of violence based on the eternity of the soul (atman) as unethical. Ambedkar wrote that "to say that killing is no killing because what is killed is the body and not the soul is an unheard of defense of murder...If Krishna were to appear as a lawyer acting for a client who is being tried for murder and pleaded the defense set out by him in the Bhagvat Gita there is not the slightest doubt that he would be sent to the lunatic asylum."<ref>Engels, Jeremy David (2021). ''The Ethics of Oneness: Emerson, Whitman, and the Bhagavad Gita'', p. 14. University of Chicago Press.</ref>

In his introduction to his translation of the Gita, [[Purushottama Lal]] argues that while Arjuna appears as a pacifist, concerned with [[ahimsa]], Krishna "is the [[Militarism|militarist]]" who convinces him to kill.<ref name=":3">P. Lal (2019). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BPePDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT15&lpg=PT15&dq=%22There+could+hardly+be+a+better+example+of+forked-tongue+speciousness%22++P.+Lal&source=bl&ots=PYO5Fv-wN_&sig=ACfU3U2cKoOXmeO1wEDqlLu_mIF6A1mY_Q&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwib6Ibkra35AhUuLVkFHRvyAHwQ6AF6BAgCEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false The Bhagavadgita],'' Introduction''.'' Orient Paperbacks</ref> According to Lal, Krishna makes use of a "startling" argument to convince Arjuna to kill, which Lal outlines as "the atman is eternal; only the body dies; so go ahead and kill - you will kill only the body, the atman will remain unaffected [2:19-21]."<ref name=":3" /> Lal states that "there could hardly be a better example of forked-tongue speciousness."<ref name=":3" /> Lal further argues that: "the truth of the matter surely is that no rational refutation is possible of the essential humanist position that killing is wrong...many of the answers given by Krishna appear to be evasive and occasionally sophistic. When logic fails, Krishna apparently resorts to divine magic."<ref name=":3" /> According to Lal, in the Gita, Krishna "stuns Arjuna with a glorious 'revelation' of psychedelic intensity." This "confidence trick" is problematic for Lal, who sees Arjuna's plight as a "painful and honest problem that Krishna should have faced on its own terms, painfully and honestly, and did not."<ref name=":3" />

Mahatma Gandhi credited his commitment for ''ahimsa'' to the Gita. For Gandhi, the Gita is teaching that people should fight for justice and righteous values, that they should never meekly suffer injustice to avoid a war. According to the Indologist Ananya Vajpeyi, the Gita does not elaborate on the means or stages of war, nor on ''ahimsa'', except for stating that "''ahimsa'' is virtuous and characterizes an awakened, steadfast, ethical man" in verses such as 13.7–10 and 16.1–5.<ref name="Vajpeyi2012p66">{{cite book |author=Ananya Vajpeyi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=knCDsvJYy1EC&pg=PA66 |title=Righteous Republic: The Political Foundations of Modern India |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-674-06728-8 |pages=66–67}}</ref> For Gandhi, states Vajpeyi, ''ahimsa'' is the "relationship between self and other" as he and his fellow Indians battled against colonial rule. Gandhian ahimsa is in fact "the essence of the entire Gita", according to Vajpeyi.<ref name="Vajpeyi2012p66" /> The teachings of the Gita on ''ahimsa'' are ambiguous, states Arvind Sharma, and this is best exemplified by the fact that Nathuram Godse stated the Gita as his inspiration to do his dharma after he [[Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi|assassinated Mahatma Gandhi]].{{sfn|Sharma|1986|pp=xiv–xv}} [[Thomas Merton]], the Trappist monk and author of books on Zen Buddhism, concurs with Gandhi and states that the Gita is not teaching violence nor propounding a "make war" ideology. Instead, it is teaching peace and discussing one's duty to examine what is right and then act with pure intentions, when one faces difficult and repugnant choices.{{sfn|Miller|1986|pp=149–150}}

==== Varna and svadharma ====
The Gita has been cited and criticized as a Hindu text that supports ''varna-dharma'' and the caste system.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Olcott |first=Mason |year=1944 |title=The Caste System of India |journal=American Sociological Review |publisher=Sage Publications |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=648–657 |doi=10.2307/2085128 |jstor=2085128}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Susan Bayly |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HbAjKR_iHogC |title=Caste, Society and Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-521-79842-6 |pages=13–14}}</ref>{{sfn|Maitra|2018|p=22}} [[B. R. Ambedkar]], born in a [[Dalit]] family and the principal architect of the Constitution of India, criticized the text for its stance on caste and for "defending certain dogmas of religion on philosophical grounds".{{sfn|Maitra|2018|p=22}} According to Jimmy Klausen, Ambedkar in his essay ''Krishna and his Gita'' stated that the Gita was a "tool" of Brahmanical Hinduism and for its latter-day saints such as Mahatma Gandhi and [[Bal Gangadhar Tilak|Lokmanya Tilak]]. To Ambedkar, states Klausen, it is a text of "mostly barbaric, religious particularisms" offering "a defence of the ''kshatriya'' duty to make war and kill, the assertion that ''varna'' derives from birth rather than worth or aptitude, and the injunction to perform ''karma''" neither perfunctorily nor egotistically.<ref>{{cite book |author=Jimmy Casas Klausen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9QLfAQAAQBAJ |title=Disobedience: Concept and Practice |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-135-14383-1 |editor=Elena Loizidou |pages=71–72}}</ref>

In his ''Myth and Reality'', [[Damodar Dharmananda Kosambi|D.D. Kosambi]] argued that "practically anything can be read into the Gita by a determined person, without denying the validity of a class system."<ref name=":1">[[Damodar Dharmananda Kosambi|D.D. Kosambi]] (1962) ''[[iarchive:MythAndReality|Myth and Reality: Studies in the Formation of Indian Culture]]'' p. 19. (Popular Prakashail, Bombay)</ref> Kosambi argued that the Gita was a scripture that supported the superiority of the higher varnas while seeing all other varnas as "defiled by their very birth, though they may in after-life be freed by their faith in the god who degrades them so casually in this one."<ref name=":1" /> He quotes the Gita which states that Krishna says "The four-caste (class) division has been created by Me."<ref name=":1" /><ref name="Nadkarni2016p2322">{{harvnb|M.V. Nadkarni|2016|pp=231–238}}</ref> Similarly, [[Narla Venkateswara Rao|V. R. Narla]] also argues that the Gita states that God created the caste (varna) system.<ref name=":0">V. R. Narla (2010), ''The Truth About the Gita,'' pp. 154-159. Prometheus Books.</ref> Narla also critiques the Gita for stating that those who are not kshatriyas or brahmins are "born from sinful wombs".<ref name=":0" />

The Gita presents its teaching in the context of a war where the warrior Arjuna is in inner crisis about whether he should renounce and abandon the battlefield, or fight and kill the enemy (which includes many relatives and friends of his). He is advised by Krishna to do his ''sva-dharma'', a term that has been variously interpreted. According to the Indologist [[Paul Hacker (Indologist)|Paul Hacker]], the contextual meaning in the Gita is the "dharma of a particular [[Varna (Hinduism)|varna]]".{{sfn|Hacker|Halbfass|1995|p=264}} In this case, Arjuna is part of the warrior (''[[kshatriya]]'') varna (social class), so Krishna is telling Arjuna to do what warrior social class must do by virtue of his belonging to that class.{{sfn|Hacker|Halbfass|1995|p=264}}

Neo-Hindus such as [[Bankim Chandra Chatterjee]], states Hacker, have preferred to not translate it in those terms, or "dharma" as religion, but leave ''Gita's'' message as "everyone must follow his ''sva-dharma''".{{sfn|Hacker|Halbfass|1995|pp=261–262}} According to Chatterjee, the Hindus already understand the meaning of that term. To render it in English for non-Hindus for its better understanding, one must ask ''what is the sva-dharma for the non-Hindus''? The Lord, states Chatterjee, created millions and millions of people, and he did not ordain ''dharma'' only for Indians [Hindus] and "make all the others dharma-less", for "are not the non-Hindus also his children"? According to Chatterjee, the Krishna's religion of Gita is "not so narrow-minded".{{sfn|Hacker|Halbfass|1995|pp=261–262}} This argument, states Hacker, is an attempt to "universalize Hinduism".{{sfn|Hacker|Halbfass|1995|pp=261–262}}

Nadkarni and Zelliot present the opposite view, citing early Bhakti saints of the Krishna-tradition such as the 13th-century saint [[Dnyaneshwar]].{{sfn|Maitra|2018|pp=22–23}} According to Dnyaneshwar, the Gita starts off with the discussion of ''sva-dharma'' in Arjuna's context but ultimately shows that caste differences are not important. For Dnyaneshwar, people err when they see themselves distinct from each other and Krishna, and these distinctions vanish as soon as they accept, understand and enter with love unto Krishna.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Doranne Jacobson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3WcMAQAAMAAJ |title=From untouchable to Dalit: essays on the Ambedkar Movement |author2=Eleanor Zelliot |author3=Susan Snow Wadley |publisher=Manohar Publications |year=1992 |isbn=978-81-85425-37-5 |pages=21–22 |author3-link=Susan Snow Wadley}}</ref>{{sfn|M.V. Nadkarni|2016|pp=232–233}}

According to [[Swami Vivekananda]], ''sva-dharma'' in the Gita does not mean "caste duty", rather it means the duty that comes with one's life situation (mother, father, husband, wife) or profession (soldier, judge, teacher, doctor). For Vivekananda, the Gita was an egalitarian scripture that rejected caste and other hierarchies because of its verses such as 13.27—28, which states "He who sees the Supreme Lord dwelling equally in all beings, the Imperishable in things that perish, he sees verily. For seeing the Lord as the same everywhere present, he does not destroy the Self by the Self, and thus he goes to the highest goal."{{sfn|M.V. Nadkarni|2016|pp=96–97}}{{refn|This view in the Gita of the unity and equality in the essence of all individual beings as the hallmark of a spiritually liberated, wise person is also found in the classical and modern commentaries on Gita verses 5.18, 6.29, and others.{{sfn|Fowler|2012|pp=100, 118–119}}{{sfn|M.V. Nadkarni|2016|pp=233–234}} Scholars have contested Kosambi's criticism of the Gita based on its various sections on karma yoga, bhakti yoga and jnana yoga.<ref name="Nadkarni2016p2322" />|group=note}}

[[Sri Aurobindo|Aurobindo]] modernises the concept of ''dharma'' by internalising it, away from the social order and its duties towards one's personal capacities, which leads to a radical individualism,{{sfn|Hacker|Halbfass|1995|p=266}} "finding the fulfilment of the purpose of existence in the individual alone."{{sfn|Hacker|Halbfass|1995|p=266}} He deduced from the Gita the doctrine that "the functions of a man ought to be determined by his natural turn, gift, and capacities",{{sfn|Hacker|Halbfass|1995|p=266}} that the individual should "develop freely"{{sfn|Hacker|Halbfass|1995|p=266}} and thereby would be best able to serve society.{{sfn|Hacker|Halbfass|1995|p=266}}

Gandhi's view differed from Aurobindo's view.{{sfn|Hacker|Halbfass|1995|p=267}} He recognised in the concept of ''sva-dharma'' his idea of ''svadeshi'' (sometimes spelled ''swadeshi''), the idea that "man owes his service above all to those who are nearest to him by birth and situation."{{sfn|Hacker|Halbfass|1995|p=267}} To him, ''svadeshi'' was "''sva-dharma'' applied to one's immediate environment."{{sfn|Hacker|Halbfass|1995|page=268}}

According to [[Jacqueline Suthren Hirst|Jacqueline Hirst]], the universalist neo-Hindu interpretations of ''dharma'' in the Gita are modernist readings, though any study of pre-modern distant foreign cultures is inherently subject to suspicions about "control of knowledge" and bias on the various sides.<ref name="hirst1997p502">{{cite book |author=Jacqueline Hirst |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tk9YBPOl36UC&pg=PA48 |title=The Fruits of Our Desiring: An Enquiry Into the Ethics of the Bhagavadgītā for Our Times |publisher=Bayeux |year=1997 |isbn=978-1-896209-30-2 |editor=Julius Lipner |pages=50–51}}</ref> Hindus have their own understanding of ''dharma'' that goes much beyond the Gita or any particular Hindu text.<ref name="hirst1997p502" /> Further, states Hirst, the Gita should be seen as a "unitary text" in its entirety rather than a particular verse analyzed separately or out of context. Krishna is presented as a teacher who "drives Arjuna and the reader beyond initial preconceptions". The Gita is a cohesively knit pedagogic text, not a list of norms.<ref>{{cite book |author=Jacqueline Hirst |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tk9YBPOl36UC&pg=PA48 |title=The Fruits of Our Desiring: An Enquiry Into the Ethics of the Bhagavadgītā for Our Times |publisher=Bayeux |year=1997 |isbn=978-1-896209-30-2 |editor=Julius Lipner |pages=50–58}}</ref>

====Modern-Hinduism====
Novel interpretations of the Gita, along with apologetics on it, have been a part of the modern era revisionism and renewal movements within Hinduism.{{sfn|Minor|1986|pp=34–35, 131–133, 147–149}} Bankim Chandra Chatterji, the author of ''[[Vande Mataram]]'' – the national song of India, challenged orientalist literature on Hinduism and offered his interpretations of the Gita, states Ajit Ray.{{sfn|Minor|1986|pp=34–43}}{{sfn|Hacker|1958|p=261}} Bal Gangadhar Tilak interpreted the ''karma yoga'' teachings in Gita as a "doctrine of liberation" taught by Hinduism,{{sfn|Minor|1986|pp=44–57}} while [[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan]] stated that the Bhagavad Gita teaches a universalist religion and the "essence of Hinduism" along with the "essence of all religions", rather than a private religion.{{sfn|Minor|1986|pp=154, 161–163}}

[[Vivekananda]]'s works contained numerous references to the Gita, such as his lectures on the four yogas – Bhakti, Jnana, Karma, and Raja.<ref>{{harvnb|Minor|1986|page=131}}</ref> Through the message of the Gita, Vivekananda sought to energise the people of India to reclaim their dormant but strong identity.<ref>{{harvnb|Minor|1986|page=144}}</ref> Aurobindo saw Bhagavad Gita as a "scripture of the future religion" and suggested that Hinduism had acquired a much wider relevance through the Gita.<ref>{{harvnb|Robinson|2006|page=69}}</ref> Sivananda called Bhagavad Gita "the most precious jewel of Hindu literature" and suggested its introduction into the curriculum of Indian schools and colleges.<ref>{{harvnb|Robinson|2006|page=102}}</ref>

According to Ronald Neufeldt, it was the [[Theosophical Society]] that dedicated much attention and energy to the allegorical interpretation of the Gita, along with religious texts from around the world, after 1885 and given H. P. Blavatsky, Subba Rao and Anne Besant writings.{{sfn|Minor|1986|pp=11–14}} Their attempt was to present their "universalist religion". These late 19th-century theosophical writings called the Gita as a "path of true spirituality" and "teaching nothing more than the basis of every system of philosophy and scientific endeavor", triumphing over other "Samkhya paths" of Hinduism that "have degenerated into superstition and demoralized India by leading people away from practical action".{{sfn|Minor|1986|pp=11–14}}

=== Adaptations ===
[[Philip Glass]] retold the story of Gandhi's early development as an activist in South Africa through the text of the Gita in the opera ''[[Satyagraha (opera)|Satyagraha]]'' (1979). The entire libretto of the opera consists of sayings from the Gita sung in the original Sanskrit.<ref group=web>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/14/arts/music/14saty.html|title=Fanciful Visions on the Mahatma's Road to Truth and Simplicity |last=Tommasini|first=Anthony|date=14 April 2008|work=The New York Times|access-date=16 October 2009}}</ref>

In [[Douglas J. Cuomo|Douglas Cuomo's]] ''Arjuna's dilemma'', the philosophical dilemma faced by Arjuna is dramatised in operatic form with a blend of Indian and Western music styles.<ref group=web>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/07/arts/music/07arju.html|title=Warrior Prince From India Wrestles With Destiny |last=Tommasini|first=Anthony|date=7 November 2008|work=The New York Times|access-date=16 October 2009}}</ref>

The 1993 Sanskrit film, ''[[Bhagavad Gita (film)|Bhagavad Gita]]'', directed by [[G. V. Iyer]] won the [[40th National Film Awards|1993]] [[National Film Award (India)|National Film Award]] for [[National Film Award for Best Feature Film|Best Film]].<ref group=web name="40thaward">{{cite web|url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm40thNFAAward.aspx|title=40th National Film Awards|publisher=[[India International Film Festival]]|access-date=2 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160602174839/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm40thNFAAward.aspx|archive-date=2 June 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref group=web name="40thawardPDF">{{cite web|url=http://dff.nic.in/2011/40th_nff_1993.pdf|title=40th National Film Awards (PDF)|publisher= [[Directorate of Film Festivals]]|access-date=2 March 2012}}</ref>

The 1995 novel by Steven Pressfield, and its adaptation as the 2000 golf movie ''[[The Legend of Bagger Vance]]'' by [[Robert Redford]] has parallels to the Bhagavad Gita, according to Steven J. Rosen. Steven Pressfield acknowledges that the Gita was his inspiration, the golfer character in his novel is Arjuna, the caddie is Krishna, states Rosen. The movie, however, uses the plot but glosses over the teachings unlike in the novel.<ref>[https://www.hinduismtoday.com/modules/smartsection/item.php?itemid=3988 Legend of Bagger Vance] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140804211632/http://hinduismtoday.com/modules/smartsection/item.php?itemid=3988 |date=4 August 2014 }}, Steven Rosen</ref>

== See also ==
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Ashtavakra Gita]]
* [[Avadhuta Gita]]
* [[Devi Gita]]
* [[Bhagavata Purana]]
* [[Ganesha Purana#The Ganesha Gita|The Ganesha Gita]]
* [[Puranas]]
* [[Self-consciousness (Vedanta)]]
* [[Uddhava#Uddhava Gita|Uddhava Gita]]
* [[Vedas]]
* [[Prasthanatrayi]]
* [[Vyadha Gita]]
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}
{{reflist|group=note|2}}

== References ==

=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|30em}}

===Sources===

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* {{Citation |last=Singh|first=R. Raj|title= Bhakti and philosophy|year=2006|publisher=Lexington Books|isbn=0-7391-1424-7}}
* {{Citation |last=Sivananda |first=Swami |title=The Bhagavad Gita |year=1995 |publisher=The Divine Life Society |isbn=81-7052-000-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/bhagavadgitatext00siva }}
* {{Citation |last=Southgate|first=Christopher|title=God, Humanity and the Cosmos – 2nd edition: A Companion to the Science-Religion Debate|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2euuM3YOh6YC&pg=PA246|year=2005|publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-567-03016-0}}
* {{Citation |last=Tambyah |first=Tambi-Piḷḷai Isaac |title=A Comparative Study of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Christianity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i3D7QW5YiF0C&pg=PA215 |year=1925 |publisher=Indian Book Gallery |isbn=978-81-7755-915-6}}
* {{Citation |last=Tapasyananda |first=Swami |title=Śrīmad Bhagavad Gītā |year= 1990 |publisher=Sri Ramakrishna Math |isbn=81-7120-449-X }}
* {{Citation |last=Theodor|first=Ithamar|title=Exploring the Bhagavad Gitā: Philosophy, Structure, and Meaning|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rH615KbcEdcC|year=2010|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=978-0-7546-6658-5 }}
* {{Citation|last=Upadhyaya|first=Kashi Nath|title=Early Buddhism and the Bhagavadgītā|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JBbznHuPrTYC&pg=PA16|year=1998|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ|isbn=978-81-208-0880-5}}
* {{Citation|last=Bangalore|first=ISKCON|title=Bhagavad Gita As It Is|url=https://www.iskconbangalore.org/bhagavad-gita/|year=1972|publisher=Macmillan Pub|isbn=978-01-404-4121-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Vivekananda |first=Swami |chapter=[[wikisource:The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda/Volume 4/Lectures and Discourses/Thoughts on the Gita |Thoughts on the Gita]] |title=The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda |volume=4 |year=1998 |publisher=Advaita Ashrama |location=Delhi |isbn=81-7505-033-0}}
* {{Citation |last=Winternitz |first=Maurice |title=History of Indian Literature |year=1972 |publisher=Oriental Books |location=New Delhi }}
* {{cite book |last=Wood |first=Ernest |title=The Bhagavad Gīta Explained. With a New and Literal Translation |year=1954 |publisher=New Century Foundation Press |location=Los Angeles }}
* {{Citation |last=Yogananda |first=Paramahansa |title=God Talks with Arjuna: The Bhagavad Gita |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KMtVSgAACAAJ |year=1993 |publisher=Self Realization Fellowship Publ.|isbn=978-0-87612-031-6}}
* {{Citation |last=Zaehner |first=R.C.|title=The Bhagavad Gītā |year=1969 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-501666-1 }}
* {{cite book |series=Compression from the two volumes "The Bhagavad Gītā" of Yogananda|last=Yogananda |first=Paramahansa |title=The Yoga of the Bhagavad Gita |year=2007 |publisher=Self Realization Fellowship |isbn=978-0-87612-033-0 }}
* {{cite book |last=Baba |first=Sathya Sai |title=Gita Vahini Stream of Divine Song |url=http://www.sssbpt.info/english/vgita.htm |year=2010 |publisher=Sri Sathya Sai Sadhana Trust, Publications Division |location= Prasanthi Nilayam P.O. 515 134, Anantapur District, A.P. (India.) |isbn=978-81-7208-908-5 }}
{{Refend}}

====Online sources====
{{reflist|group=web}}

== External links ==
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* {{wikisourcelang-inline|sa|भगवद्गीता|भगवद्गीता}}
* {{Wikisource-inline|The Bhagavad Gita}}
* {{curlie|Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Hinduism/Religious_Texts/Bhagavad_Gita|Bhagavad Gita}}
*[https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/wilkins-the-bhagvat-geeta-or-dialogues-of-kreeshna-and-arjoon Bhagvat Geeta – Dialogues of Kreeshna and Arjoon by Charles Wilkins]
* [https://www.bhagavad-gita.org/ Bhagavad-Gita]
* [http://www.iep.utm.edu/bha-gita/ Bhagavid Gita] article in the ''[[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]''

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Padma (Vishnu)

2023-01-16T12:21:49Z

ImportMaster: robot: Create/update articles in Category:Hindu gods.

{{Short description|The lotus attribute of Vishnu}}
{{Infobox deity
| type = Hindu
| image = Vishnu holding lotus flowers, National Museum, New Delhi.jpg
| caption = Painting of Vishnu holding multiple lotus flowers
| affiliation = [[Vaishnavism]]
| script = पद्म
| script_name = [[Devanagari]]
| texts = [[Vishnu Purana]]
}}
'''Padma''' ({{Lang-sa|पद्म|lit=Lotus|translit=Padmā}}) is one of the four attributes borne by [[Vishnu]] in his iconography.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Easwaran |first=Eknath |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AfQ5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT171 |title=Vishnu and His 1000 Names |date=2017-10-17 |publisher=Jaico Publishing House |isbn=978-93-86348-87-6 |language=en}}</ref> It is associated with Vishnu's [[Kshira Sagara|abode]] upon water, as well as his role in creation and birth.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=The Burlington Magazine |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/875819 |website=JSTOR | year=1968 | volume=110 | issue=788 | pages=629–631 | jstor=875819 |issn=0007-6287}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kenoyer |first=Jonathan M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7CjvF88iEE8C&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA93&dq=lotus+vishnu&hl=en |title=The Ancient South Asian World |last2=Heuston |first2=Kimberley Burton |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-522243-2 |pages=93 |language=en}}</ref>

== Mythology ==
In the [[Vishnu Purana]], in the beginning of time, [[Brahma]] is described to have been created within a lotus blooming from the navel of Vishnu. The ''padma'' is hence prominent in the Vaishnava narrative of [[cosmogony]], where Brahma is instructed by Vishnu to start generating the universe and the rest of creation. The lotus is regarded to be a representation of dharma, the cosmic law, as well the epitome of purity, as it rose beneath the impure seabed towards the sun.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pattanaik |first=Devdutt |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zdkswFlJtjQC&pg=PA99 |title=Indian Mythology: Tales, Symbols, and Rituals from the Heart of the Subcontinent |date=2003-04-24 |publisher=Inner Traditions / Bear & Co |isbn=978-0-89281-870-9 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Krishna |first=Nanditha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f9cSlaLMlgEC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA24&dq=lotus+narayana&hl=en |title=The Book of Vishnu |date=June 2010 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-14-306762-7 |pages=24 |language=en}}</ref>

During the [[Samudra Manthana|Samudra Manthanam]], when [[Lakshmi]] chooses Vishnu as her eternal consort, she throws a garland of lotuses around his neck, and is also eulogised as the lotus-faced one.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bhagat |first=Dr S. P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RJIjDQAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PT83&dq=lotus+throat+vishnu&hl=en |title=Shrimad Bhagavata Purana |date=2016-09-18 |publisher=Lulu Press, Inc |isbn=978-1-365-40462-7 |pages=83 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Debroy |first=Bibek |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x2J2EAAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PT52&dq=lotus+chest+vishnu&hl=en |title=Vishnu Purana |date=2022-06-30 |publisher=Penguin Random House India Private Limited |isbn=978-93-5492-661-7 |pages=52 |language=en}}</ref>

In the legend of the [[Gajendra Moksha|Gajendra Moksham]], the elephant Gajendra holds a lotus as an offering to Vishnu as he arrives to save his devotee from a crocodile.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mukherjee |first=Sreecheta |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lkM4DwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA22&dq=lotus+vishnu&hl=en |title=Temples of Bengal |date=2012-12-25 |publisher=Aesthetics Media Services |pages=22 |language=en}}</ref>

The realm of [[Krishna]], [[Goloka]], is evoked as [[Vrindavan|Vrindavana]] upon the earth, portrayed in the form of a lotus.

Vishnu is generally depicted as holding the lotus in his lower left hand, while his consort [[Lakshmi]] holds one in her right hand, and the goddess is also usually portrayed as sitting on the flower.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ph.D |first=Lavanya Vemsani |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4fw2DAAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA123&dq=lotus+vishnu&hl=en |title=Krishna in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Hindu Lord of Many Names: An Encyclopedia of the Hindu Lord of Many Names |date=2016-06-13 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-61069-211-3 |pages=123 |language=en}}</ref>
[[File:Vishnu and Parikshit.jpg|thumb|Vishnu seated upon a lotus and granting an audience to [[Parikshit]]]]
A [[Shaivism|Shaiva]] myth describes Vishnu's worship of [[Shiva]] with 1008 lotus flowers, offering one for each of his epithets. In order to test him, Shiva removed one lotus from the bunch so that Vishnu would be one short and the [[Puja (Hinduism)|puja]] would be incomplete. However, the omniscient Vishnu merely plucked one of his lotus eyes, placing it upon the [[lingam]]. Pleased, Shiva presents him with the [[Sudarshana Chakra]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vanamali |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BmAoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT148 |title=Shiva: Stories and Teachings from the Shiva Mahapurana |date=2013-10-04 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-1-62055-249-0 |language=en |chapter=Chapter 23}}</ref>

== Symbolism ==
[[File:Vishnu with Lakshmi on a lotus (6125133540).jpg|thumb|Vishnu and Lakshmi seated upon a lotus]]
It is believed that Vishnu's association of the lotus is derived from the flower's presence in the symbolism of his consort, [[Lakshmi]], for whom it represented water and fertility. Sculptures of Vishnu bearing a lotus are dated back to the fifth or the sixth century, presenting him with the epithets ''Padmanabha'' (the one with the lotus-navel), ''Pundarikaksha'' (lotus-eyed), and ''Padmapani'' (lotus-handed). Icons of [[Narasimha]] with a lotus growing out of the deity's head have been dated back to the mid-sixth century. On one level, the conch and lotus in Vishnu's hands signify his association with the waters as both a fertilising agent and a cosmic symbol. The [[Panchajanya|conch]] and the lotus are among the most auspicious symbols, and by themselves are often painted on either side of the entrance to a domestic building. The lotus also symbolises the earth and is even said to contain the universe, and hence it is especially appropriate as an emblem for the divine preserver of the universe. The [[Vishnudharmottara Purana|Vishnudharmottara]] specifically states that the lotus emerging from Vishnu's navel symbolises the earth, while the stalk represents the cosmic mountain, [[Meru Peak|Meru]], the axis of the universe. In Vishnu's hand, it symbolises water, and in Lakshmi's hand, wealth.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Art |first1=Los Angeles County Museum of |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=clUmKaWRFTkC&pg=PA41 |title=Indian Sculpture: Circa 500 B.C.-A.D. 700 |last2=Pal |first2=Pratapaditya |date=1986-01-01 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-05991-7 |pages=41 |language=en}}</ref> A piece of the [[Varaha]] avatar of Vishnu and his consort [[Bhumi (goddess)|Bhudevi]] has also been discovered dating back to the third century. Bhudevi herself stands upon a lotus, while Varaha holds a lotus bud with his left hand to represent his effortless act of holding the earth.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Art |first1=Los Angeles County Museum of |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=clUmKaWRFTkC&pg=PA41 |title=Indian Sculpture: Circa 500 B.C.-A.D. 700 |last2=Pal |first2=Pratapaditya |date=1986-01-01 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-05991-7 |pages=198 |language=en}}</ref>

== Literature ==
[[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava]] hymns often reference the padma as an attribute of Vishnu or [[Narayana]], offering allusions to his lotus feet,<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LM4aAAAAYAAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA106&dq=lotus+narayana&hl=en |title=The Brahmavâdin |date=1901 |publisher=M.C. Alasingaperumal |pages=101 |language=en}}</ref> lotus eyes, lotus navel,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sasidharan |first=G. K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z6zbDwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PT159&dq=lotus+eye+vishnu&hl=en |title=Not Many, But One Volume I: Sree Narayana Guru’s Philosophy of Universal Oneness |date=2020-04-08 |publisher=Penguin Random House India Private Limited |isbn=978-0-14-349759-2 |pages=159 |language=en}}</ref> and lotus throat.

The [[Padma Purana]] is one of the eighteen major [[Puranas]] that is named after the attribute of Vishnu, and contains large sections dedicated to his praise.{{Vaishnavism}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Hinduism]]
[[Category:Vishnu]]
[[Category:Hindu mythology]]
[[Category:Hindu symbols]]
[[Category:Vaishnavism]]

Ila (Hinduism)

2023-01-16T03:47:59Z

ImportMaster: robot: Create/update articles in Category:Hindu gods.

{{short description|Hindu deity known for sex changes}}
{{Infobox deity
| type = Hindu
| image = Budhadeva.jpg
| caption = Budha (Mercury) with consort Ilā
| mother = Shradha
| name = Ila/Ilā
| Devanagari = इल/इला
| Sanskrit_transliteration = Ila/Ilā
| affiliation = [[Devi]]
| god_of =
| abode = Budhaloka
| mantra = Om Illaya Namah
| weapon =
| consort = [[Budha]] (as a woman)
| children = [[Pururavas]] (son as a woman) Utkala, Gaya and Vinatashva (sons as a man)
| father = [[Vaivasvata Manu]]
| siblings = [[Ikshvaku]] and 9 others
}}

'''Ila''' ({{lang-sa|इल}}) or '''Ilā''' ({{lang-sa|इला}}) is a deity in [[Hindu mythology|Hindu legends]], known for their sex changes. As a man, he is known as Ila or '''Sudyumna''' and as a woman, is called Ilā. Ilā is considered the chief progenitor of the [[Lunar dynasty]] of Indian kings – also known as the Aillas ("descendants of Ilā").

While many versions of the tale exist, Ila is usually described as a daughter or son of [[Shraddhadeva Manu|Vaivasvata Manu]] and thus the sibling of [[Ikshvaku (Hinduism)|Ikshvaku]], the founder of the [[Solar Dynasty]]. In versions in which Ila is born female, she changes into a male form by divine grace soon after her birth. After mistakenly entering a sacred grove as an adult, Ila is either cursed to change his/her gender every month or cursed to become a woman. As a woman, Ilā married [[Budha]], the god of the planet [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]] and the son of the lunar deity [[Chandra]] (Soma), and bore him a son called [[Pururavas]], the father of the Lunar dynasty. After the birth of Pururavas, Ilā has transformed into a man again and fathered three sons.

In the [[Vedas]], Ilā is praised as '''Idā''' ({{lang-sa|इडा}}), goddess of speech, and described as the mother of Pururavas.

The tale of Ila's transformations is told in the [[Puranas]] as well as the [[Indian epic poetry|Indian epic poems]], the ''[[Ramayana]]'' and the ''[[Mahabharata]]''.

==Birth==

According to the ''[[Linga Purana]]'' and the ''[[Mahabharata]]'', Ilā was born as the eldest daughter of Vaivasvata Manu, the progenitor of mankind, and his wife Shraddha. However, the parents desired a son and so prayed and performed austerities to propitiate the deities [[Mitra (Vedic)|Mitra]] and [[Varuna]], who changed Ilā's gender. The boy was named Sudyumma.<ref name="LP_MBH"/><ref name="williams">{{cite book|last= Williams|first=George Mason|title=Handbook of Hindu mythology|publisher=ABC-CLIO Inc.|location=Saint Barbara|year=2003|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9791576071068/page/156 156]|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9791576071068 |url-access= registration| isbn=978-1-57607-106-9}}</ref> The ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'', the ''[[Devi-Bhagavata Purana]]'',<ref name="bhagavat">For translation, see {{cite book|last=Swami Vijnanananda|title=The S'Rimad Devi Bhagawatam|publisher=BiblioBazaar, LLC|year=2008|volume=1|pages=62–6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kt02ZSt2Q8AC&q=Ila+Budha&pg=PA62|orig-year = 1921 | isbn=978-1-4375-3059-9}}</ref> the ''[[Kurma Purana]]'', the ''[[Harivamsa]]'', the ''[[Markandeya Purana]]'' and the ''[[Padma Purana]]'' (referred to as "''Bhagavata Purana'' et al. texts" further) narrate a variant: Ila's parents could not have any children for a long time and approached the sage [[Agastya]] for a solution. The sage performed a [[yajna]] (fire sacrifice) dedicated to Mitra and Varuna to attain a son for the couple. Due to either an error in the ritual or a failure to offer the appropriate sacrifice, Mitra and Varuna instead sent a daughter to the couple. In one version, the couple supplicated the deities, who transformed Ilā's gender. In another version, this transformation happens after the erroneous hymns are rectified and the son is called Ila.<ref name = "williams"/><ref name="BP_KP">O'Flaherty pp. 303-4</ref><ref name = "Pattanaik46"/><ref name=connerila/> According to a variant, Shraddha wished for a daughter; [[Vashistha]] heeded her wish while performing the sacrifice and thus, a daughter was born. However, Manu desired a son so Vashistha appealed to Vishnu to change the gender of his daughter. Ilā was renamed Sudhyumna.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hudson|first=D. Dennis|title=The body of God: an emperor's palace for Krishna in eighth-century Kanchipuram|publisher=Oxford University Press US|year= 2008|pages=413–4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IMCxbOezDi4C | isbn=978-0-19-536922-9}}</ref> The accounts describe Ila as either the eldest or the youngest child of Manu. As the child of Manu, Ila had nine brothers, the most notable was [[Ikshvaku (Hinduism)|Ikshvaku]], the founder of the [[Solar dynasty]].<ref name="samuel">{{cite book|last=Samuel|first=Geoffrey|title=The origins of yoga and tantra: Indic religions to the thirteenth century|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2008|pages=67–8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JAvrTGrbpf4C&q=Ila&pg=PA67 | isbn=978-0-521-69534-3}}</ref><ref name="Shashi" /><ref name="p1">{{cite book|last=Pargiter, F.E.|title=Ancient Indian Historical Tradition|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|location=Delhi|year=1972|pages=253–4}}</ref> As the son of Manu, Ila is the grandson of [[Surya]].<ref name="Shulman">Shulman p.59</ref> According to another account found in the ''[[Vayu Purana]]'' and the ''[[Brahmanda Purana]]'', Ilā was born female and remained female.<ref name=p1/>

In the ''[[Ramayana]]'', Ila is born as a son of Kardama, the [[Prajapati]] born of the god [[Brahma]]'s shadow. Ila's tale is told in the ''Uttara Kanda'' chapter of the Ramayana, while describing the greatness of the [[Ashvamedha]] – the horse sacrifice.<ref name = "Pattanaik46"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Swami Venkatesananda |title=The concise Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki|publisher=SUNY Press|year=1988|pages=397–9}}</ref>

==Curse and marriage to Budha==
[[File: King Ila argument with Bhuda son of Chandra.jpg|thumb|The male Ila with Budha.]]
In the ''Ramayana'', the ''[[Linga Purana]]'' and the ''[[Mahabharata]]'', Ila grows to become the king of [[Bactria|Bahlika]]. While hunting in a forest, Ila accidentally trespassed Sharavana ("Forest of Reeds"), the sacred grove of the goddess [[Parvati]], the consort of the god [[Shiva]]. Upon entering Sharavana, all-male beings except for Shiva, including trees and animals, are transformed into females.<ref group = "Notes">Sharavaṇa ("Forest of Reeds") is described as the place where [[Murugan|Skanda]], the son of Shiva, was born. The ''Devi-Bhagavata Purana'' narrates that once the sages intruded on the love-making of Shiva and Parvati so Shiva cursed the forest that all-male beings entering it would be transformed into females.</ref> One legend tells that a female ''[[yakshini]]'' disguised herself as a deer and purposefully led Ila to the grove in order to save her husband from the king.<ref name="Shulman" /> The ''Linga Purana'' and the ''Mahabharata'' emphasize the sex change of Ila to be a deliberate act of Shiva to start the Lunar dynasty.<ref name="LP_MBH">For Linga Purana and Mahabharata, O'Flaherty p. 303</ref> The ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'' et al. texts tell that Ila's entire entourage, as well as his horse, also changed their genders.<ref name="BP_KP"/>

According to the ''[[Ramayana]]'', when Ila approached [[Shiva]] for help, Shiva laughed with scorn but the compassionate Parvati reduced the curse and allowed Ila to switch genders every month. However, as a male, he would not remember his life as a female and vice versa. While Ilā roamed the forest in her new form with her female attendants, [[Budha]], the god of the [[planet Mercury]] and the son of the moon-god [[Chandra]], noticed her. Although he had been practising [[asceticism]], Ilā's beauty caused him to fall in love with her at first sight. Budha turned Ilā's attendants into ''[[Kimpurusha Kingdom|Kimpurusha]]s'' ([[hermaphrodite]], lit. "is it a man?")<ref name=p1/><ref>Vanita, Kidwai p.18</ref> and ordered them to run away, promising that they would find mates as Ilā had.<ref name="rama">For Ramayana, Meyer pp. 374-5 or Shulman pp. 58-9</ref>

Ilā married Budha and spent an entire month with him and consummated the marriage. However, Ilā woke one morning as Sudyumna and remembered nothing about the past month. [[Budha]] told Ila that his retinue had been killed in a rain of stones and convinced Ila to stay with him for a year. During each month she spent as a woman, Ilā had a good time with Budha. During each month as a man, Ila turned to pious ways and performed austerities under the guidance of Budha. In the ninth month, Ilā gave birth to [[Pururavas]], who grew to become the first king of the Lunar dynasty. Then, as per the advice of Budha and Ila's father Kardama, Ila pleased Shiva and Shiva restored Ila's masculinity permanently.<ref name = "Pattanaik46"/><ref name = "rama"/>

Another legend from the ''[[Vishnu Purana]]'' credits Vishnu of restoring Ilā's manhood as Sudyumma.<ref name = "williams"/><ref>O'Flaherty p. 320</ref> The ''Bhagavata Purana'' et al. texts tell that after Pururavas's birth, the nine brothers of Ila – by horse-sacrifice – or the sage Vasistha – the family priest of Ila – pleased Shiva to compel him to give the boon of alternate month manhood to Ila, turning him into a ''Kimpurusha''.<ref name = bhagavat/><ref name="BP_KP"/><ref name = "Shashi"/> The ''Linga Purana'' and the ''Mahabharata'' record the birth of Pururavas, but do not narrate the end of Ila's alternating gender condition. In fact, the ''Mahabharata'' describes Ilā to be the mother as well as the father of Pururavas.<ref>Meyer p. 374</ref> According to another account found in the ''Vayu Purana'' and the ''Brahmanda Purana'', Ilā was born female, married Budha, then was transformed into a male called Sudyumna. Sudyumna was then cursed by Parvati and transformed once again into a female, but became a man once again through Shiva's boon.<ref name=p1/>

In almost all versions of the tale, Ila wants to live as a man, but in the ''[[Skanda Purana]]'', Ila desires to be a woman. The king Ela (Ila) entered Parvati's grove at [[Sahya Mountains|Sahya]] mountain and became the woman Ilā. Ilā wished to remain a woman and serve Parvati (Gauri) and [[Ganges in Hinduism|Ganga]], the goddess of the [[Ganges]] river. However, the goddesses dissuaded him. Ilā bathed in a sacred pool and returned as Ela, bearded and deep-voiced.<ref name = "Pattanaik46"/><ref>Shulman pp. 61-2</ref>

==Later life and descendants==
The descendants of Ilā through [[Pururavas]] are known as Ailas after Ilā or as the [[Lunar Dynasty|Lunar dynasty]] (Chandravamsha) due to their descent from Budha, the son of the moon-god Chandra.{{sfn|Thapar|2013|p=308}}<ref name = "Pattanaik46">Pattanaik p.46</ref> Most versions of the tale call Ilā the father as well as the mother of the Ailas.<ref name = "Pattanaik47"/> The ''[[Linga Purana]]'' and the ''[[Mahabharata]]'', in which Sudyumma's curse does not end, state that as a male, Sudyumma also bore three sons named Utkala, Gaya and [[Vinatashva]] (also known as Haritashva and Vinata).<ref name=p1/> The three sons ruled the kingdom for their father as Sudyumma was unable to do so himself due to his alternating gender. The sons and their principalities are called the ''Saudyumna''s. Utkala, Gaya, and Vinatashva ruled [[Utkala Kingdom|Utkala]] country, [[Gaya, India|Gaya]], and eastern regions including northern [[Kuru (kingdom)|Kurus]] respectively.<ref name=p2>Pargiter, F.E. (1972). ''Ancient Indian Historical Tradition'', Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, p.255.</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Garg|first=Ganga Ram|title=Encyclopaedia of the Hindu world |publisher=Concept Publishing Company|year=1992 |volume=1|page=17|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w9pmo51lRnYC&q=Ila&pg=PA17 | isbn=978-81-7022-374-0}}</ref> With the assistance of the family priest Vasistha, Sudyumma regained control of the entire kingdom. He was succeeded by Pururavas.<ref name="LP_MBH"/>

In the ''[[Matsya Purana]]'', Ila was disinherited after becoming a female or ''kimpurusha''. Ila's father passed his inheritance directly to Pururavas, ignoring the three sons Ila-Sudyumma bore as a male. Pururavas ruled from Pratishtanapura (present-day [[Allahabad]]), where Ila stayed with him.<ref name = "Shashi">{{cite book|title=Encyclopaedia Indica: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh|editor=Shashi, Shyam Singh|publisher=Anmol Publications PVT. LTD| year=1998| edition=1| volume=20| pages=517–8| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=NzyDQ215nfgC&q=ila+budha&pg=PA588 | isbn=978-81-7041-859-7}}</ref><ref>O'Flaherty p.305</ref> The ''Ramayana'' says that having returned to manhood, Ila ruled Pratishtana while his son Shashabindu ruled over [[Bahlikas|Bahlika]].<ref name = "rama"/> The ''Devi-Bhagavata Purana'' tells that as a man Sudyumma governed the kingdom and as a woman remained indoors. His subjects were disturbed by his sex changes and did not respect him as they once had. When Pururavas attained adulthood, Sudyumma left his kingdom to Pururavas and went to the forest for penance. The sage [[Narada]] told Sudyumma a nine-syllable [[mantra]], ''Navakshara'', which would please the [[Mahadevi|Supreme Goddess]]. Pleased with his austerities, the Goddess emerged before Sudyumma, who was in his female form Ilā. Sudyumma praised the Goddess, who merged the king's soul with herself and thus, Ilā gained salvation.<ref name = bhagavat/>

The ''Bhagavata Purana'', the ''Devi-Bhagavata Purana'' and the ''Linga Purana'' declare that Ila ascended to heaven with both male and female anatomy.<ref name = "Pattanaik47">Pattanaik p.47</ref> Ila is considered the chief progenitor of the Lunar Dynasty through Pururavas and of the Solar Dynasty through his brother Iksavaku and sons Utkala, Gaya, and Vinatashva.<ref name = "Shashi"/><ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopaedia of Jainism|editor=Singh, Narendra|publisher=Anmol Publications PVT. LTD.|year=2001|page=1724}}</ref> The marriage of Ilā, a descendant of the Sun, and Budha, the son of the Moon, is the first union of the solar and lunar races recorded in the scriptures.<ref name="Shulman" />

==In Vedic literature==
In [[Vedic Literature|Vedic literature]], Ilā is also known as Idā. Idā, in the ''[[Rigveda]]'', signifies food and refreshment, personified as the goddess of speech.<ref name = "dowson"/> Ilā-Idā is also associated with [[Sarasvati]], the goddess of knowledge.<ref name=connerila>Conner & Sparks (1998), p. 183, "Ila/Sudyumna"</ref> Ilā-Idā is mentioned a number of times in the ''[[Rigveda]]'', mostly in the hymns known as [[Āprīsūktas|''Āprīsūkta''s]]. She is often mentioned along with Sarasvati and Bharati (or Mahi) and Pururavas is described as her son.<ref>Misra, V.S. (2007). ''Ancient Indian Dynasties'', Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, {{ISBN|81-7276-413-8}}, p.57
* For hymns, see ''Ṛgveda'' I.13.9, I.142.9, I.188.8, II.3.8, III.4.8, VII.2.8, X.70.8 and X.110.8
* For mother of Pururavas, ''Ṛgveda'' X.95,18</ref> Idā is the instructor of Manu, in performing ritual sacrifices. According to [[Sayana]] – a commentator on the [[Vedas]] – she presides over the Earth.<ref name = "dowson"/>
Rig Veda 3.123.4 mentions that "land of Ila" was situated nearby banks of Sarasvati river.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/hymnsrigveda00grifgoog/page/n28/mode/2up|title = The hymns of the Rigveda|year = 1920|publisher = Benares, E.J. Lazarus and Co.}}</ref>
Rigveda 3.29.3 describes Agni as the son of Ila.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/hymnsrigveda00grifgoog/page/n34/mode/2up|title = The hymns of the Rigveda|year = 1920|publisher = Benares, E.J. Lazarus and Co.}}</ref>

In the ''[[Shatapatha Brahmana]]'', [[Manu (Hinduism)|Manu]] performed a fire-sacrifice in order to have children. Idā emerged from the sacrifice. She was claimed by [[Mitra–Varuna|Mitra-Varuna]], but she lived with Manu and together they initiated the race of Manu.<ref name="dowson">{{cite book|last=Dowson|first=John|title=A classical dictionary of Hindu mythology, and religion, geography, history|publisher=Asian Educational Services|year=2004|pages= 122–23|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ejh82j8G_CYC&q=Ila+Budha&pg=PA123 | isbn=978-81-206-1786-5|orig-year = 1820-1881}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbr/sbe12/sbe1234.htm|title=''Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa'' I.8.1|last=Eggeling|first=Julius (tr.)|year=1882|work=Satapatha Brahmana Part 1 (SBE12)|publisher=at sacred-texts.com|access-date=2009-11-12}}</ref> In this text, Idā is the goddess of the sacrificial meal. She is described as the ''Mānavi'' (daughter of Manu) and ''Ghṛtapadī'' (with the [[ghee]]-dripping foot) and she is represented by a cow, also known as Idā during a sacrifice.<ref>Upadhyaya, G.P. (1967) ''Śatapatha Brāhmaṇam'' (Sanskrit text with Hindi translation), Vol.I, New Delhi: The Research Institute of Ancient Scientific Studies, pp.158-67- ''Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa'' I.8.1</ref><ref name="Heesterman">{{cite book|last=Heesterman|first=J. C.|title=The Broken World of Sacrifice: An Essay in Ancient Indian Ritual |publisher=The University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|year=1993|page=127|isbn=0-226-32300-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HotCD9GJQDkC&q=Ida+Ghrtapadi&pg=PA127}}</ref> Pururavas is mentioned as the son of Ilā in the text.<ref>Misra, V.S. (2007). ''Ancient Indian Dynasties'', Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, {{ISBN|81-7276-413-8}}, p.59 – ''Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa'' XI.5.1</ref>

==See also==
*[[Hindu mythology]]
*[[LGBT themes in Hindu mythology]]

==Notes==
<references group = "Notes"/>

==References==
===Citations===
{{reflist|30em}}

===Sources===
*{{cite book|last=Doniger|first=Wendy|title=Self and self-transformation in the history of religions|editor=Shulman, David Dean|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2002|chapter=Transformation of Subjectivity and Memory in the Mahabharata and the Ramayana|isbn=0-19-514450-3}}
*{{cite book|last=O'Flaherty|first=Wendy Doniger |title=Women, androgynes, and other mythical beasts|publisher=University of Chicago Press|date=182|orig-year = 1980|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EBvHzornoMwC&q=Ila+Budha&pg=PA303 | isbn=978-0-226-61850-0}}
*{{cite book|last=Meyer|first=Johann Jakob |title=Sexual life in ancient India|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|location=Delhi|year=1989|orig-year = 1971|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=izFNswlJ9LMC&q=Ila+Budha&pg=PA374 | isbn=978-81-208-0638-2}}
*{{cite book |title= The man who was a woman and other queer tales of Hindu lore|last= Pattanaik|first= Devdutt |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Odsk9xfOp6oC&q=Ila+Budha&pg=PA45|year= 2001|publisher= Routledge|isbn=978-1-56023-181-3}}
*{{citation |last=Thapar |first=Romila |author-link=Romila Thapar |title=The Past Before Us|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aei9AAAAQBAJ |year=2013 |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |isbn=978-0-674-72651-2 }}
*{{cite book |title= Same-sex love in India: readings from literature and history|last= Vanita|first= Ruth |author2=Kidwai, Saleem |year= 2001|publisher= Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-312-29324-6}}

==External links==
*{{Commonscatinline}}

{{Hindu deities and texts}}
{{Good article}}

[[Category: Hindu gods]]
[[Category: Earth gods]]
[[Category:Characters in Hindu mythology]]
[[Category: Characters in the Ramayana]]
[[Category: Lunar dynasty]]

Svayam Bhagavan

2023-01-15T16:41:41Z

ImportMaster: robot: Create/update articles in Category:Hindu gods.

{{Short description|Concept in Hinduism}}
{{Hindu philosophy}}
{{EngvarB|date=March 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2015}}

'''Svayam Bhagavan''' ({{Lang-sa|स्वयं भगवान्}}) refers to a [[Sanskrit]] concept in [[Hinduism]], referring to the absolute representation of [[Bhagavan]] as the monotheistic [[God]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bryant |first=Edwin F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2n4VDAAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA381&dq=svayam+bhagavan+absolute&hl=en |title=Krishna: A Sourcebook |date=2007-06-18 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-972431-4 |pages=381 |language=en}}</ref> The concept is most commonly associated with [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism]], where [[Krishna]] is regarded to be Svayam Bhagavan.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chakravarty |first=Saumitra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IEZ1EAAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PT141&dq=svayam+bhagavan&hl=en |title=The Goddess Re-discovered: Gender and Sexuality in Religious Texts of Medieval Bengal |date=2022-08-05 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-000-63287-3 |pages=141 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Knapp |first=Stephen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eIqyv8A9XBAC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PT27&dq=svayam+bhagavan+absolute&hl=en |title=Hindu Gods & Goddesses |date=2012 |publisher=Jaico Publishing House |isbn=978-81-8495-366-4 |pages=27-28 |language=en}}</ref>

== Description ==
As stated in the [[Bhagavata Purana]], [[Vishnu]] appeared before [[Vasudeva]] and [[Devaki]] in his divine original four-armed form before taking birth as Krishna. Vasudeva and Devaki, after praising Vishnu, requested him to hide his divine form which Vishnu agreed to do by transforming himself into a small baby Krishna.

''Svayam Bhagavan'' is a term most often used in ''[[Gaudiya Vaishnavism|Gaudiya Vaishnava]]'' and other Krishna-centered theologies, and that title is used there exclusively to designate Krishna,<ref name="Gupta2007" /> there being conflicting semantics or other usages in the Bhagavata Purana. Traditions of [[Gaudiya Vaishnavas]], the [[Nimbarka Sampradaya]] and followers of [[Vallabha]] consider him to be the source of all [[avatars]],<ref name="jsn" /> and the source of Vishnu and [[Narayana]]. As such, he is therefore regarded as ''Svayam Bhagavan''.<ref name="Delmonico2004">{{cite journal|author=Delmonico, N.|year=2004|title=The History Of Indic Monotheism And Modern Chaitanya Vaishnavism|journal=The Hare Krishna Movement: The Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mBMxPdgrBhoC&q=Vaisnava+monotheism&pg=PA31|access-date=2008-04-12|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-12256-6}}</ref><ref name="Elkman1986">{{cite book|author=Elkman, S.M.|author2=Gosvami, J.|year=1986|title=Jiva Gosvamin's Tattvasandarbha: A Study on the Philosophical and Sectarian Development of the Gaudiya Vaishnava Movement|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Pub}}</ref><ref name="Dimock1989" />

Though Krishna is recognized as ''Svayam Bhagavan'' by many,<ref name = "RKm"/> he is also perceived and understood from an eclectic assortment of perspectives and viewpoints.<ref name=Mahony1987>{{cite journal|author=Mahony, W.K.|year=1987|title=Perspectives on Krishna's Various Personalities|journal=History of Religions|volume=26|issue=3|pages=333–335|jstor=198702|doi=10.1086/463085|s2cid=164194548}}</ref> When Krishna is recognized to be ''Svayam Bhagavan'', it can be understood that this is the belief of ''Gaudiya Vaishnavism'',<ref name=Kennedy1925>{{cite book|author=Kennedy, M.T.|year=1925|title=The Chaitanya Movement: A Study of the Vaishnavism of Bengal|url=https://archive.org/details/pli.kerala.rare.24847|publisher=H. Milford, Oxford university press}}</ref> the ''[[Vallabha Sampradaya]]'',<ref name = "flood">{{cite book|author=Flood, Gavin D.|author-link=Gavin Flood|title=An introduction to Hinduism|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, UK|year=1996|pages=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo/page/341 341]|isbn=0-521-43878-0|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo|url-access=registration|quote=gavin flood.|access-date=2008-04-21}}"Early Vaishnava worship focuses on three deities who become fused together, namely [[Vasudeva-Krishna]], [[Krishna-Gopala]], and Narayana, who in turn all become identified with Vishnu. Put simply, Vasudeva-Krishna and Krishna-Gopala were worshiped by groups generally referred to as [[Bhagavatas]], while Narayana was worshipped by the [[Pancaratra]] sect."</ref> and the [[Nimbarka Sampradaya]], where Krishna is accepted to be the source of all other avatars, and the source of Vishnu himself. This belief is drawn primarily from the "famous statement" of the [[Bhagavatam]]<ref name=Gupta2007 />(1.3.28).<ref name = Rosen>''Essential [[Hinduism]]'' S. Rosen, 2006, Greenwood Publishing Group [https://books.google.com/books?id=VlhX1h135DMC&pg=PA124&dq=Krishna+is+the+original+Personality+of+Godhead&client=firefox-a&sig=2Yojs3j3lTcocPQ7RaIqBnpLrq0 p.124] {{ISBN|0-275-99006-0}}</ref>

A different viewpoint differing from this theological concept is the concept of Krishna as an avatar of Narayana or Vishnu. It should be however noted that although it is usual to speak of Vishnu as the source of the avatars, this is only one of the names of the God of Vaishnavism, who is also known as Narayana, Vasudeva-Krishna, and just Krishna, and behind each of those names there is a divine figure with attributed supremacy in Vaishnavism.<ref name = Krishna4>
{{Harvnb|Matchett|2000|p=4}}</ref>

==Meaning==
The theological interpretation of ''{{IAST|svayam bhagavān}}'' differs with each tradition, and the literal translation of the term has been understood in several distinct ways. Translated from the [[Sanskrit language]], the term literally means "[[Bhagavan]] Himself" or "directly Bhagavan".<ref name=Gupta2007 /> Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition often translates it within its perspective as ''primeval Lord'' or ''original Personality of Godhead''; it also considers the terms such as ''Supreme Personality of Godhead'' and ''Supreme God'' as an equivalent to the term ''Svayam Bhagavan'', and may also choose to apply these terms to Vishnu, Narayana and many of their [[Dashavatara|associated avatars]].<ref name=Knapp2005>{{cite book|author=Knapp, S.|year=2005|title=The Heart of Hinduism: The Eastern Path to Freedom, Empowerment and Illumination -|publisher=iUniverse}} "Krishna is the primeval Lord, the original Personality of Godhead, so He can expand Himself into unlimited forms with all potencies." [https://books.google.com/books?id=a2KPChj7lTwC&pg=PA161 page 161]</ref><ref name= ICJKnott>{{cite journal|author=Kim Knott|year=1993|title=Contemporary Theological Trends In The Hare Krishna Movement: A Theology of Religions|url=http://content.iskcon.com/icj/1_1/knott.html|access-date=2008-04-12}}..."''Bhakti'', the highest path, was that of surrender to Lord Krishna, the way of pure devotional service to the Supreme Personality of Godhead".</ref>

'Bhagavān', to be understood, is split into ''Bhaga'' and ''vān''. ''vān'' and ''mān'' are Sanskrit male-denoting words, meaning 'possessor of' which are used as a suffix to nouns like ''Bhaga'' (blessed attributes), ''Śrī'' (splendour), ''Kīrti'' (fame) etc. Thus, Bhaga, as per Viṣṇu Purāṇa, refers to the six attributes of the Lord - aiśvaryam (wealth), vīryam (valour), jñānam (wisdom), balam (prowess), śaktī (power) and tejas (splendour). Thus, Bhaga-vān means the possessor of the six divine qualities, ''ṣadguṇa''.

Another interpretation of Bhagavān as per Viṣṇu Purāṇa is ''bha'' denotes aiśvaryam and vīryam, ''ga'' denotes jñānam and balam and ''va'' denotes śaktī and tejas, and ''an'' which is etymoligically ''na'', means 'none', symbolising that he is devoid of inauspicious or evil qualities.

As the etymology of Bhagavān is perfectly illustrated in the Vishnu Purana, referring to the Vishnu Purana on who is Bhagavan too is perfect. Vishnu Purana clearly states that Bhagavan denotes none but Vāsudeva alias [[Narayana]]-[[Krishna]].

''Svayam'' means Himself, thus ''Svayam Bhagavān'' refers to one who is Bhagavān (Vāsudeva) Himself. As Śrī Kr̥ṣṇa, the most perfect descent (avatāra) of Narayana (Vāsudeva), He is no different from the latter, and hence, the Bhāgavata states ''kr̥ṣṇastu bhagavān svayam'' - Kr̥ṣṇa is the Supreme, Blessed Lord (Nārāyaṇa) Himself.

Early commentators of Bhagavata Purana such as [[Madhvacharya]] translated the term ''Svayam Bhagavan'' as "he who has ''bhagavata''"; meaning "he who has the quality of possessing all good qualities".<ref name="Dimock1989">{{cite book|author=Dimock Jr, E.C.|author2=Dimock, E.C.|year=1989|title=The Place of the Hidden Moon: Erotic Mysticism in the Vaisnava-Sahajiya Cult of Bengal|publisher=University Of Chicago Press}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=EAYa1BtUTm0C&pg=PA132&dq=Svayam+bhagavan&sig=jcyEA-4tyPoddQmWg-FnYKDBgEY page 132]</ref> Others have translated it simply as "the Lord Himself".<ref name="KK">{{cite book|author=K. Klostermaier|author-link=Klaus Klostermaier|title=The Charles Strong Trust Lectures, 1972–1984|publisher=Brill Academic Pub|year=1997|pages=206|isbn=90-04-07863-0|quote=For his worshippers he is not an avatara in the usual sense, but Svayam Bhagavan, the Lord himself.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F_0UAAAAIAAJ&q=Svayam+bhagavan&pg=PA109|others=Crotty, Robert B.}} p.109 Klaus Klostermaier translates it simply as "the Lord Himself"</ref> Followers of Vishnu-centered [[sampradaya]]s of Vaishnavism rarely address this term, but believe that it refers to their belief that Krishna is among the highest and fullest of all ''Avatars''<ref name="Pal1958" /> and is considered to be the "''paripurna avatara''", complete in all respects and the same as the original.<ref>
{{cite web|url=http://www.tirumala.org/sapthagiri/122002/purana.htm|title=Sapthagiri|publisher=www.tirumala.org|access-date=2008-05-03|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121103726/http://www.tirumala.org/sapthagiri/122002/purana.htm|archive-date=21 November 2008|df=dmy-all}} Parashara Maharishi, [[Vyasa]]'s father had devoted the largest Amsa (part) in Vishnu Purana to the description of Sri Krishna Avatara the ''Paripoorna Avatara''. And according to Lord Krishna's own (instructions) ''upadesha'', "he who knows (the secrets of) His (Krishna's) Janma (birth) and Karma (actions) will not remain in [[samsara]] (''punar janma naiti- maam eti'') and attain Him after leaving the mortal coil." (BG 4.9). [[Parasara]] Maharishi ends up Amsa 5 with a phalashruti in an identical vein ([[Vishnu Purana]] .5.38.94)</ref> According to them Krishna is described in the Bhagavata Purana as the ''purnavatara'' (complete manifestation) of Bhagavan, while other incarnations are called partial. "Krishna being Bhagavan; the mind of man 'centred intensely', whatever the motive and however ignorant it might be, is centred in Him."(p. 334)<ref name="RKm" /> Generally there is a universal acceptance of the uniqueness of Krishna incarnation throughout [[Hinduism]], as well as the principles involved in His life and personality for which He has been described as ''Svayam Bhagavan''.<ref name="RKm">{{cite book|author=Mepathur Narayana Bhattatiri|title=Narayaneeyam-Bhagavata, Condensed Edition|publisher=Sri Ramakrishna Math|year=2003|isbn=81-7120-419-8}}pp.234-239</ref>

==Perspectives==

===Supporting views===
There is an element of countenance in many Krishna centered traditions to the subordination of Krishna to Vishnu. The reasons for that are given that it was the easiest way to accommodate Krishna's human story within the composite Vaishnava theological perspective. These "core texts assert and defend the ultimacy of Krishna's identity".<ref>{{Harvnb|Valpey|2006|p=154}}</ref> However inclusion of Krishna in the list of avataras does not necessarily subordinate him to Vishnu as one of the latter's expansions.<ref name = Krishna182>
{{cite book|author=Matchett, Freda|title=Krsna, Lord or Avatara? the relationship between Krsna and Visnu: in the context of the Avatara myth as presented by the Harivamsa, the Visnupurana and the Bhagavatapurana|publisher=Routledge|location=Surrey|year=2000|pages=254|isbn=0-7007-1281-X|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1oqTYiPeAxMC}}
p. 182-183</ref> Early authors, such as 12th century [[Jayadeva]] considered [[dasavatara]] to be principal incarnations of Krishna, rather than Vishnu.

The prime supporters of the Krishna-centered theology, Gaudiya Vaishnavas and followers of the Vallabha Sampradaya and Nimbarka Sampradaya, use the [[Gopala Tapani Upanishad]],<ref name=Trip>{{cite book|author=B. V. Tripurari|title=Gopala-tapani Upanisad|publisher=Audarya Press|year=2004|isbn=1-932771-12-3}}</ref> [[Vedanta Sutras]]<ref name=Gupta2007 /> and other Hindu scriptures<ref name = Bhaktivinda/> such as the [[Bhagavata Purana]] [http://vedabase.net/sb/1/3/28/en.php as in verse 1.3.28] and the [[Brahma Vaivarta Purana]], among others, to support their view that Krishna is indeed the ''Svayam Bhagavan''. This belief was summarized by the 16th century author [[Jiva Goswami]] in some of his works, such as ''Krishna-sandarbha''.<ref name=Gupta2007>{{cite book|author=Gupta, Ravi M.|year=2007|title=Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta of Jiva Gosvami|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-40548-5}}</ref><ref name=Gupta2004>{{cite book|author=Gupta, Ravi M.|year=2004|title=Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta: Acintyabhedabheda in Jiva Gosvami's Catursutri tika|publisher=University Of Oxford}}</ref>

In the sixth book of the [[Hindu epic]] [[Mahābhārata]], the ''Bhishma Parva'' (where the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' is part of), Krishna offers numerous quotations that reaffirm the belief that he himself is the ''Svayam Bhagavan''. Verse [http://www.asitis.com/7/7.html 7.7] of the Bhagavad Gita, is often used to support the opinion that Krishna himself is the ''Svayam Bhagavan'', and that no impersonal form of [[Brahman]] supersedes his existence, as it is a common view that Bhagavad Gita was propounding Krishna-theism before first major proponents of [[Advaita Vedanta|monism]].<ref name = "IST">{{cite book|editor=S. Devadas Pillai|title=Indian Sociology Through Ghurye: A Dictionary|publisher=South Asia Books|location=Columbia, Mo|year=1997|pages=403|isbn=81-7154-807-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P3uD22Ghqs4C&pg=PA283}}</ref>

Other pervading understandings of the position of ''Svayam Bhagavan'' asserted in the Gita are connected to, non-Krishna-centered, traditions. One tradition follows predominately the views of [[Sankaracharya]] commentary on [[Brahma Sutras]] and is referred as ''[[mayavada|maya-vad]]''<ref name = "IST"/> which justifies ''Svayam Bhagavan'' supremacy by a concept of power, wisdom or illusionary [[maya (illusion)|maya]].

The second alternative understanding of the evident supremacy of ''Svayam Bhagavan'' in the Gita, is a popular view on Krishna being the highest and fullest [[Avatar]] of the Lord, Vishnu or Narayana.<ref name = Pal1958>{{cite book|author=Bipin Chandra Pal|date=1964|title=Shree Krishna: Letters Written to a Christian Friend|publisher=Yugayatri/New India Printing & Publishing Co.|quote=First edition published in 1938 under the title of 'Europe asks: who is Shree Krishna'.}}p. 31: Shree Krishna stands at the top of this series. He is therefore called by his votaries as Purna Avatara or the highest and fullest incarnation of the Lord.</ref> "The Bhagavad Gita depicts Krishna not only as Brahman but also as an 'Avatar of Vishnu' and the friend of [[Arjuna]]."<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=dys3AAAAIAAJ&dq=Avatara+of+Narayana+purna++Krishna+Gita Panjab University Journal of Medieval Indian Literature. Page 56] Panjab University Sheikh Baba Farid Dept. of Medieval Indian Literature</ref> In summary in accordance with this view ''Svayam Bhagavan Krishna'' is considered to be the ''purna-avatara'' (full incarnation) of Vishnu or, according to some, the universal Narayana who transcends even [[Brahman]].<ref name = jsn>' Swaminarayan bicentenary commemoration volume, 1781–1981. p. 154: ...Shri Vallabhacharya [and] Shri Swaminarayan... Both of them designate the highest reality as Krishna, who is both the highest avatara and also the source of other avataras. To quote R. Kaladhar Bhatt in this context. "In this transcendental devotion (Nirguna Bhakti), the sole Deity and only" is Krishna. [https://books.google.com/books?id=_Q0YAAAAIAAJ&q=Avatara+Swaminarayan+Krishna+origina%3B&dq=Avatara+Swaminarayan+Krishna+origina%3B New Dimensions in Vedanta Philosophy – Page 154], Sahajānanda, [https://books.google.com/books?q=+subject:%22Vedanta%22 Vedanta]. 1981</ref>
<ref name = Divine>{{cite book|author=Sri Swami Chidananda|date=1964|title=The Divine Name and Its Practice: Souvenir on the Occasion of the Double|quote=Preface Sri Swami Krishnananda}}p. 24</ref>

Supremacy or a concept of ''originality'' is often referred to in the words of Krishna himself, as for example, the theologian [[Abhinavagupta]], in another tradition of Hinduism, introduces a quotation from the [[Bhagavad-gita]] of 'I', Krishna referencing Himself as the highest Self who transcends the perishable and imperishable.<ref name="Flood150">{{Harvnb|Flood|2006|p=150}}</ref>

===Sri Vaishnava tradition===

The [[Sri Vaishnavism|Sri Vaishnavas]] identify Vishnu with the Brahman, while Krishna-centered traditions will associate [[Para Brahman]] with Krishna as Svayam Bhagavan. According to [[Ramanujacharya]], Brahman is [[personal god|personal]]. Indeed, he is the ''supreme'' person, creator and Lord, who leads souls to salvation. Far from having no (positive) attributes, as some [[Advaita Vedanta]] followers maintain, Brahman is the ''sum'' of all “noble attributes”—i.e. omniscient, omnipotent, omnipresent, and all-merciful, all qualities attributed to Vishnu by all Vaishavas. According to South Indian traditions he is also ''advitya'' (Sanskrit meaning without rival). To such Vaishnavas, [[Shiva]], [[Brahma]], and the other gods of the [[Hindu]] pantheon are viewed as Brahman's agents or [[servant of God|servants]], created and commissioned by him. Some Vaishnavas consider them to be or see that they have the same status that of [[angels]] have in the western religious traditions.<ref>
{{cite web|url=http://www.seop.leeds.ac.uk/entries/monotheism/#7.3|title=Monotheism (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) ''Nov 1, 2005''|publisher=www.seop.leeds.ac.uk|access-date=2008-07-26}}
</ref>

“The entire complex of intelligent and non-intelligent beings – is viewed as real and constitutes the form, i. e., the body of the highest Brahman”.<ref>Ramanuja (1962) p. 88</ref> A soul-body relationship, according to Ramanujacharya, is “entirely subordinate” to its soul, having no independent reality or value.<ref>Ramanuja (1962) p. 424</ref> However Ramanujacharya himself did not stress a subordination of the 'puravatara' Krishna to Vishnu.

=== Other views ===
However, Vaishnava traditions do not adhere to the concept of ''Svayam Bhagavan'' with the same views as those who support the concept.<ref name=Tapasyananda1990>{{cite book|author=Tapasyananda, S.|year=1982|title=Śrīmadbhāgavatam-Srimad Bhagavata, the Holy Book of God|publisher=Sri Ramakrishna Math, Madras}}Page xxvi</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=July 2008}}{{Unreliable source?|date=July 2008}}
To support their view they quote the 149th chapter of ''Anushāsanaparva'' in the epic [[Mahabharata]], [[Bhishma]] which states, with Krishna present, that mankind will be free from all sorrows by chanting the ''[[Vishnu sahasranama]]'', which are the thousand names of the all-pervading [[God|supreme being]] Vishnu, who is the master of all the worlds, supreme over the ''[[Deva (Hinduism)|devas]]'' and who is one with Brahman.<ref>see, Ganguli English translation of Mahabharata, Chapter 148, at http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m13/m13b113.htm</ref><ref>For Sanskrit text and translation, see: Tapasyananda, Vishnu Sahasrnama, Ramakrishna Mission pp. 3–4.</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=July 2008}} This seems to indicate that Krishna is identical with Vishnu. Indeed, Krishna himself said, "Arjuna, one may be desirous of praising by reciting the thousand names. But, on my part, I feel praised by one [[shloka]]. There is no doubt about it.” <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.srivaishnavan.com/tomcat/visnu.html|title=Srivaishnavism|website=srivaishnavan.com|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080220070950/http://www.srivaishnavan.com/tomcat/visnu.html|archive-date=20 February 2008|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

Many Vaishnava schools have different interpretation of the concept as for example followers of the [[Swaminarayan Sampraday]] believe that Lord Narayana manifested himself as [[Swaminarayan]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.swaminarayanwales.org.uk/Murtis/murtis.asp|title=Lord Narayan manifested himself as Swaminarayan|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080420155619/http://www.swaminarayanwales.org.uk/Murtis/murtis.asp|archive-date=20 April 2008|df=dmy-all}}</ref> This view is only supported within their particular tradition.

===Comparison===

Some early schools of thought, such as Pancaratra in particular, refer to Vasudeva-Krishna (Krishna, the son of Vasudeva) as the source of all incarnations and as no different from the ultimate and absolute reality, and as non-distinct from Vasudeva and any other manifestations of the supreme self.<ref name = Flood2006>{{cite book|author=Flood, G.D.|year=2006|title=The Tantric Body: The Secret Tradition of Hindu Religion|publisher=IB Tauris|isbn=1-84511-012-9}} p.102-105 - describes Vasudeva-Krishna, (Krishna son of Vasudeva) as the source of all or as the same the ultimate reality, non-distinct from Vasudeva and other manifestations. Having a hundred-fold radiance of fire from whom all other forms of [[Purusha]], Achuta and Satya emanate.</ref>

==Krishnaism==
{{main|Krishnaism}}
The term Krishnaism has been used to describe the cults of Krishna, reserving the term "Vaishnavism" for cults focusing on Vishnu in which Krishna is an Avatar, rather than a transcended being.<ref>Flood p. 117</ref>

"Greater Krishnaism" corresponds to the second and dominant phase of Vaishnavism, revolving around the cults of [[Vasudeva]], Krishna, and [[Gopala]].<ref>[http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/hindu/devot/vaish.html Vaishnava] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120212183626/http://www.philtar.ac.uk/encyclopedia/hindu/devot/vaish.html |date=12 February 2012 }} University of Cumbria website Retrieved on 5-21-2008</ref> Today the faith has a significant following outside of India as well.<ref name="Princeton">{{cite book|author=Graham M. Schweig|title=Dance of Divine Love: The Rڄasa Lڄilڄa of Krishna from the Bhڄagavata Purڄa. na, India's classic sacred love story|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton, N.J|year=2005|pages=Front Matter|isbn=0-691-11446-3}}</ref> Supremacy of Krishna is the key concept of [[Krishnaism]]. [[Gaudiya]] is one of the main traditions worshiping [[Radha Krishna]] that developed this concept.
[[File:Krishna as Svayam Bhagavan in relation to Vishnu.png|thumb|400px|Relationship between different forms of Krishna as [[avatar|paripurna avatara]] of Vishnu and as ''svayam bhagavan'' being direct representation of ''svayam rupa''.]]

==Gaudiya Vaishnava perspective==

===Theory of Avatars===
Primary theology of Caitanyaite or [[Gaudiya]] traditions is based and presented in [[Bhagavata Purana]] and [[Caitanya Caritamrita]].<ref name = "Valpey">{{cite book|author=Valpey, Kenneth Russell|title=Attending {{IAST|Kṛṣṇa}}'s image: {{IAST|Caitanya Vaiṣṇava}} mūrti-sevā as devotional truth|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|year=2006|isbn=0-415-38394-3}}Ch. 1</ref>''Svayam'' in ''Svayam rupa'' does not imply one and only, and all conceptions by previous [[Vaishnava]] traditions, according to the [[Gaudiya Vaishnavas]] beliefs, fall under a second category, ''tad ekatma rupa''<ref name = beck/> (meaning: one that ''one'' and ''not different'').<ref>
{{cite web|url=http://vedabase.net/cc/madhya/20/165/en|title=Sri Caitanya Caritamrta Madhya-lila Chapter 20 Verse 165|publisher=[[Bhaktivedanta Book Trust]]|access-date=2008-05-07|last=Swami Prabhupada|first=A.C. Bhaktivedanta|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917122404/http://vedabase.net/cc/madhya/20/165/en|archive-date=17 September 2008|df=dmy-all}}
</ref> 'Svayam' as a term means ''not depending on others'' or ''being himself''.
<ref name="Gupta2004 b">{{cite book|author=Gupta, Ravi M.|year=2004|title=Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta: Acintyabhedabheda in Jiva Gosvami's Catursutri tika|publisher=University Of Oxford}}Chapter: Caitanya Vaishnava Hermeneutics.</ref> In his instruction to Sanatana Goswami, at Kasi, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu explains the implications of the ''vadanti'' verse: "The word ''brahman'' refers to ''Svayam Bhagavan'', who has one consciousness without a second, and without whom there is nothing else." (Gupta 2007, p 36).<ref name=Gupta2007 />

[[File:UdupiTulasiKrsna.jpg|thumb|left|The deity of Tulasi Krishna at [[Udupi]]. Krishna is the main deity worshipped by the followers of [[Madhvacharya]].]]
[[Rupa Goswami|Rūpa Gosvāmī]] has described the ''{{IAST|svayaṁ-rūpa}}'' in his ''{{IAST|Laghu-bhāgavatāmṛta}}'':<ref>[[Rupa Goswami]], ''{{IAST|Laghu-bhāgavatāmṛta}}'' ({{IAST|Pūrva-khaṇḍa}}, verse 12) Kusakrathadasa, 1990, [https://books.google.com/books?q=inpublisher:%22Krsna+Institute%22&client=firefox-a&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 Krsna Institute], {{ISBN|1-56130-008-X}}
:[http://vedabase.net/cc/madhya/20/165/en ''{{IAST|ananyāpekṣi yad rūpaṁ svayaṁ-rūpaḥ sa ucyate}}''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917122404/http://vedabase.net/cc/madhya/20/165/en |date=17 September 2008 }}.</ref> "The form of the Supreme Personality of Godhead that does not depend on other forms is called ''{{IAST|svayaṁ-rūpa}}'', the original form."<ref name = beck>{{Harvnb|Beck|2005|p=39|loc=page 39 'According to Orthodox Gaudiya. Krishnas svarupa, or true form manifests in three ways. His svayam-rupa or transcendent form is self-existent, not dependent on anything. His tadekatma rupa is identical in essence to his true form, though it differs in appearance (and would include such forms of Krishna as Narayana and Vasudeva). His avesa form has Krishna appearing though in varying degrees of possession'}}</ref><ref name = rupa1990/>

The ''tad-ekātma-rūpa'' forms<ref name = beck/> are also described in the {{IAST|Laghu-bhāgavatāmṛta}} <ref name = rupa1990>Srila [[Rupa Gosvami]]'s ''Sri Laghu-Bhagavatamrta'', Translated by Kusakrathadasa, 1990, [https://books.google.com/books?q=inpublisher:%22Krsna+Institute%22&client=firefox-a&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 Krsna Institute], {{ISBN|1-56130-008-X}}</ref><ref>Rupa Goswami, ''{{IAST|Laghu-bhāgavatāmṛta}}'' ({{IAST|Pūrva-khaṇḍa}}, verse 14)
: ''{{IAST|yad rūpaṁ tad-abhedena svarūpeṇa virājate}}''
: ''{{IAST|ākṛtyādibhir anyādṛk sa tad-ekātma-rūpakaḥ}}''
“The tad-ekātma-rūpa forms exist simultaneously with the {{IAST|svayaṁ-rūpa}} form and are nondifferent. At the same time, their bodily features and specific activities appear to be different.” quoted in {{cite web|url=http://vedabase.net/cc/madhya/20/165/en|title=Sri Caitanya Caritamrta Madhya-lila Chapter 20 Verse 165|publisher=[[Bhaktivedanta Book Trust]]|access-date=2008-05-07|last=Swami Prabhupada|first=A.C. Bhaktivedanta|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917122404/http://vedabase.net/cc/madhya/20/165/en|archive-date=17 September 2008|df=dmy-all}}
</ref>
"The'' tad-ekātma-rūpa ''forms simultaneous to ''{{IAST|svayaṁ-rūpa}}'' form and are non-different.<ref name = beck/> At the same time by their bodily features and specific activities they appear to be different."

Two best known Vedic descriptions of the creation are [[purusha sukta]] and [[nasadiya sukta]]. One hymn addresses to Vishvakarma, The one who makes all. To beliefs of [[Vaishnavas]],<ref>Klaus K. Klostermaier, ''A Survey of Hinduism''. Page 113, 1994, {{ISBN|0-7914-2109-0}}</ref> the ''Visvakarma Sukta'' of [[Rig Veda]] (10.82) refers to {{IAST|Garbhodakasayi Viṣṇu}} indirectly as the Supreme God: The waters verily first retained the embryo in which all the gods were aggregated, single deposited on the navel of the unborn (ajah), in which all beings abide.<ref>[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10082.htm Rg.10.082.06] [[Ralph T. H. Griffith]], [1896] translates it "The waters, they received that germ primeval wherein the Gods were gathefed all together. It rested set upon the Unborn's navel, that One wherein abide all things existing."</ref> and according to the Gaudiyas, falls under category of ''tad-ekātma-rūpa'',<ref name = beck/>

According to the [[Gaudiya Vaishnava]] interpretation, it is also confirmed in the Bhagavad-gītā (7.7), which says, ''{{IAST|mattaḥ parataraṁ nānyat}}'': "There is no truth superior to Me." Where Krishna is 'bhagavan' himself, whose partial manifestations are the other gods. This idea is reflected in the [[Bhagavata Purana]]. The [[Brahma Vaivarta Purana]] tells us Krishna is the ultimate source from which Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva and [[Prakriti]] originate. He is ''Svayam Bhagavan'' while other incarnation are his partial manifestations. The comments of [[Sridhara Svami]] (an early Sankara sect commentator), bring out uniqueness of Krishna. According to him Krishna is perfect as all potencies are observed to be full in him.<ref name = Gosvami1986>{{cite book|author=Gosvami, J.|author2=Chatterjee, C.|year=1986|title=Srikrsnasandarbha and its critical study}} p xvii-xviii</ref> In ''Atharvavedasamhita'', Krishna is described as having slain the giant Kesi, Keshava. The ''Kaustiki Brahmana'' (30.9) alludes to Krishna Angirasa, who is an object of evening ceremony in connection with Brahmanaacchamsin priest. The Aitareya Aranyaka speaks of two Krishnas of Harita Gotra.<ref name = "Gosvami1986 2">{{cite book|author=Gosvami, J.|author2=Chatterjee, C.|year=1986|title=Srikrsnasandarbha and its critical study}} p vi</ref> However the south Indian [[Vaishnavism]] makes very little stress on Krishna and altogether ignored [[Radha]] in contrast with the other traditions.<ref name = "Gosvami1986 3">{{cite book|author=Gosvami, J.|author2=Chatterjee, C.|year=1986|title=Srikrsnasandarbha and its critical study}} p iv</ref>

To the views of the Gaudiya Sampradaya, the [[Bhagavad-gita]]<ref name = BG16>[http://www.asitis.com/18/64.html BG 18.64 "sarva-guhya-tamam—the most confidential of all"] [[Prabhupada|Purport]] states : "This essence is not understood by a common man, but by one who is actually very dear to {{IAST|Kṛṣṇa}}"</ref> states that this ''bhakti-yoga'' is secretive:<ref name = "Klostermaier1974">{{cite journal|author=Klostermaier, K.|year=1974|title=The Bhaktirasamrtasindhubindu of Visvanatha Cakravartin|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|volume=94|issue=1|pages=96–107|doi=10.2307/599733|jstor=599733|publisher=American Oriental Society}}</ref> - "Just hear from Me again about the most confidential part of the instructions in [[Bhagavad-gītā]]."<ref name = BG16/> It is also described as such in [[Bhagavata Purana]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://srimadbhagavatam.com/2/9/35/en|title=SB 2.9.35: {{IAST|yathā mahānti bhūtāni bhūteṣūccāvaceṣv anu praviṣṭāny apraviṣṭāni tathā teṣu na teṣv aham}}|website=srimadbhagavatam.com}}</ref> Vaishnavas of [[ISKCON]] often stress their view that in both cases Krishna is speaking about himself, ''aham'' and ''me'' in [[Sanskrit]] mean, ''I am'' and ''Me'' respectively. While some commentators derive secondary meanings,<ref name=Hiltebeitel1984>{{cite journal|author=Hiltebeitel, A.|year=1984|title=The Two Krishnas on One Chariot: Upanisadic Imagery and Epic Mythology|journal=History of Religions|volume=24|issue=1|pages=1–26|jstor=198408|doi=10.1086/462971|s2cid=162378274}}</ref> all major Sanskrit dictionary accept that the direct meaning of ''aham'' and ''me'', refers to Krishna himself.<ref name=Sivananda1958>{{cite book|author=Sivananda, S.|year=1958|title=God Exists.|publisher=Yoga-Vedanta Forest University}}Quote: “Aham” means “I” in Sanskrit. “Idam” means “this.”</ref>
[[File:Krishna meets parents.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Krsna|Krishna]] and [[Balarama]] meet their father and mother - [[Vasudeva]] and Devaki. Thus a personal name of Krishna as Vaasudeva or ''son of Vasudeva'', and Devakinandana, ''son of Devaki''. Painting by [[Raja Ravi Varma]]]]

===Lakshmi===

When Gaudiya Vaishnavas present their views on Krishna being ''Svayam Bhagavan'',
<ref name = harekrsna>
{{cite web|url=http://www.veda.harekrsna.cz/bhaktiyoga/vaisnavism.htm|title=VEDA – Vedas and Vedic Knowledge Online – Vedic Encyclopedia, Bhakti-yoga in vedas, Library|publisher=www.veda.harekrsna.cz|access-date=2008-05-04}}
</ref> they present a number of perspectives some include comparison with other forms such as Vishnu, that are considered supreme in other sampradayas. The [http://www.saragrahi.org/Header%20Links/Bhagavat%20Sandarbha/Contents.htm Bhagavat Sandarbha] and the [http://www.saragrahi.org/Header%20Links/Tattva%20Sandarbha/Tattva%20Sandarbha%20Contents.htm Tattva Sandabha] are among quoted works by [[Jiva Goswami]],<ref name=Gupta2007 /> "Vaishnavas don't argue among themselves if Krishna or Vishnu is the Supreme. They consider it a matter of one's relationship with the Lord. Someone has a relationship with Vishnu, someone with Rama, someone with Krishna, etc. as per rasa theology." In the [[Caitanya Caritamrita]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://vedabase.net/cc/madhya/9/108/en|title=Caitanya Caritamrita 2.9.108|website=vedabase.net}}</ref> Chaitanya discusses this in a joking mood with [[Venkatta Bhatta]] from [[Sri sampradaya]].<ref name = hk>
{{cite web|url=http://www.veda.harekrsna.cz/bhaktiyoga/vaisnavism.htm|title=VEDA – Vedas and Vedic Knowledge Online – Vedic Encyclopedia, Bhakti-yoga in vedas, Library|publisher=www.veda.harekrsna.cz|access-date=2008-05-04|last=Jan|first=Marez}}
</ref> While [[Pustimarga]] tradition predates Gaudiya Vaisnavism in Radha worship.
<ref name = Brzezinski1992>{{cite journal|author=Brzezinski, J.K.|year=1992|title=Prabodhananda, Hita Harivamsa and the" Radharasasudhanidhi|journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London|volume=55|issue=3|pages=472–497|jstor=620194|doi=10.1017/S0041977X00003669|s2cid=161089313 }}"identify Radha as the supreme Laksmi.."</ref>
When Chaitanya traveled through South India in 1509-10, he stayed at the house of Venkata Bhatta, the father of [[Gopala Bhatta]], priest of [[Srirangam]]. Venkata and his two brothers, Gopala's uncles Trimalla and [[Prabodhananda Sarasvati]] "were converted from their [[Sri Vaishnava]] faith in [[Lakshmi]]-[[Narayana]] as supreme to one in [[Radha Krishna]]" as Svayam Bhagavan.<ref name = Brzezinski1992/> The dialog of this conversion is recorded in 16 c. Caitanya Caritamrita biography by [[Krishna dasa Kaviraja]].<ref name = hk/>

In the Madhya lila of the Chaitanya charitamrita a presentation is given,<ref>[http://vedabase.net/cc/madhya/9/113/en Madhya 9.113–114]: "Just to associate with {{IAST|Kṛṣṇa}}, [http://vedabase.net/l/laksmi {{IAST|Lakṣmī}}] abandoned all transcendental happiness in [http://vedabase.net/v/vaikuntha {{IAST|Vaikuṇṭha}}] and for a long time accepted vows and regulative principles and performed unlimited austerities."</ref> with a reference to the particular verse of the tenth canto of [[Bhagavata Purana]] as to the reason why [[Lakshmi]] also known as [[Sri]] (thus the name of Sri Sampradaya) is burning with desire and still not capable of entering to the realm of [[Vrindavana]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://vedabase.net/sb/10/16/36/en|title=SB 10.16.36|website=vedabase.net}}</ref>

[[Prabodhananda Sarasvati]] who was a Sri Sampradaya [[sannyasi]] was converted as to supreme position of Radha-Krishna being Svayam Bhagavan instead of Lakshmi-Narayana. He as well apparently came to appreciate the supremacy of Radha worship from Caitanya.<ref name = Brzezinski19922>{{cite journal|author=Brzezinski, J.K.|year=1992|title=Prabodhananda Sarasvati: From Benares to Braj|journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London|volume=55|issue=1|pages=52–75|doi=10.1017/S0041977X00002640|jstor=620476|s2cid=154350212 }}</ref>

===Cosmological perspective===
The view of South Indian Vaishnava groups on ''sarga'', or subtle creation, is based upon scriptural adherence to [[Narayana]] or Vishnu being the cause of creation<ref>The Eleventh Canto of ''Śrīmad-Bhāgavatam'' [http://srimadbhagavatam.com/11/4/3/en(11.4.3-4) describes Lord {{IAST|Mahāpuruṣa}}: ''{{IAST|bhūtair yadā pañcabhir ātma-sṛṣṭaiḥ puraṁ virājaṁ viracayya tasmin svāṁśena viṣṭaḥ puruṣābhidhānam avāpa nārāyaṇa ādi-devaḥ}}'' "When the primeval Lord {{IAST|Nārāyaṇa}} created His universal body out of the five elements produced from Himself, and then entered within that universal body by His own plenary portion, He thus became known as the {{IAST|Puruṣa}}.]</ref> expanding into Viraja and then {{IAST|Maha-Viṣṇu}} glancing over ''[[pradhana]]'', and that is the start of actual function of creation. This view is not contradicted by Krishna-centered Vashnavism and does not appear to be in contradiction with ''Svayam Bhagavan'' who as [[Vasudeva]] (son of Vasudeva, Krishna) is according to Pancaratra is at the source of creation.

Pancaratra sources are accepted by all of Vaishnava traditions, and confirmed by [[Yamunacarya]] who preceding in the line of [[Ramanuja]], summarizing in his ''Agamapramanya'', a defense of the revelation of the ''tantric'' Vaishnava Pancaratra, defending whole body of the texts being part of the Veda: "The Pancadratra Tantra is authoritative like the Vedic sentences ordaining sacrifice on the grounds that it is based on knowledge free from all defects". Amalananda, also defends Pancaratra and while confirming that [[Āgama (Hinduism)|Agamas]] do not have the same self-authenticating validity, as the four Vedas, but the authenticity of it assured because Veda bear witness to the omniscience of [[Vasudeva]]. This position also forms the basis of [[Bhagavata Purana]] based theology.<ref name=2Flood2006>"self-authenticating validity as the Veda, but their authenticity is nevertheless assured because the Veda bear witness to the omniscience of Vasudeva." p. 53-54, Flood. 2006</ref>

It is also a view of [[Gaudiya Vaishnava]]s that [[Sanatana Goswami]]s ''Brihad Bhagavatamrita'', has illustrated this principle, not just in terms of comparative cosmology or ''avatara'' hierarchy as in Vaishnava Pancaratra, but also in terms of cosmology of ''adi-rasa''.<ref name=KDasa>{{cite journal|author=K Dasa|year=2006|title=The Life and Teachings of Krishna dasa Baba|url=http://blazingsapphirepress.com/krsna-das-baba/krsna-das-baba-sample.pdf|access-date=2008-04-13|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090304041801/http://blazingsapphirepress.com/krsna-das-baba/krsna-das-baba-sample.pdf|archive-date=4 March 2009|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The cosmological principle of the four dhamas (with a separate place for the last two: ''Vaikuntha'' – abode of Vishnu or [[Narayana]], ''tad-ekatma rupa'', in transcendence, and ''Goloka'' as abode of ''Svayam Bhagavan'' in transcendence) is the key of the graphical presentation, but it is also an answer to the dilemma.<ref>
{{cite web|url=http://www.ramanuja.org/sv/bhakti/archives/apr2000/0168.html|title=krushNAstu bhagavAn swayam|publisher=www.ramanuja.org|access-date=2008-04-29|last=Anand Karalapakkam|first=Bhakti List : Archives Wed Apr 19 2000}}
</ref> In accordance with the cosmology of the ''Brihad Bhagavatamrita'' Krishna is believed being the original and most complete in all ''[[Rasa (theology)|rasas]]'' or tastes is in fact not engaged and non engaging, is his independence, he does not even, at least in this his original form, carry symbols of {{IAST|Viṣṇu}}, he only carries his own flute, and that is the pleasure of his devotees.<ref name="GPD">{{cite book|author=Dāsa, {{IAST|Gopīparāṇadhana}}; Sanātana Gosvāmī
|title=Śrī Brhad Bhāgavatāmrta of Śrīla Sanātana Gosvāmī: translated from the original Sanskrit, with a summary of the author's Dig-darśinī commentary
|publisher=Bhaktivedanta Book Trust
|location=Los Angeles
|year=2002
|pages=920
|isbn=0-89213-345-7
}}</ref>

===Original Purusha of the Vedas===

The form of [[Narayana]] is linked with the concept of sacrifice in the earliest known references to him. In Vedic sources such as the [[Purusha sukta]], Narayana is given as the name of the self-offering of the great cosmic sacrifice of the [[Rig Veda]].<ref>Rig Veda 10.90</ref> Narayana is not mentioned in Rig Veda itself, but came to be regarded as the seer who authored the [[hymn]]. It is possible that the sage who composed the Purusha Sukta hymn has been assimilated to the Purusha whose praise he had sung, and he himself became the object of worship. Mentions of a divine sage named [[Nara-Narayana|Narayana, along with counterpart Nara]], appears in many [[Puranas|Puranic]] texts.<ref name = Krishna5>
{{cite book|author=Matchett, Freda|title=Krsna, Lord or Avatara? the relationship between Krsna and Visnu: in the context of the Avatara myth as presented by the Harivamsa, the Visnupurana and the Bhagavatapurana|publisher=Routledge|location=Surrey|year=2000|pages=254|isbn=0-7007-1281-X|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1oqTYiPeAxMC}}
p. 5</ref> ''Purusha'' is also identified with Vishnu in the [[Rig Veda]] and interpreted accordingly by many [[sampradayas|traditions]] of [[Vaishnavism]]. In the Bhagavata he is recognized as "the Lord whose being is sacrifice, Yajna [[Purusha]]"<ref name = Bhaktivinda>[[Gaudiya]] scholar, [[Bhaktivinoda Thakura]] in his ''Dasa Mula Tattva'' Ch.3: '{{IAST|Śrī Kṛṣṇa}}—The Supreme Absolute Truth', Part: ''Vedic Evidences of {{IAST|Śrī Kṛṣṇa}} ’s Divinity'' states:

In the {{IAST|Ṛg-Veda}} ({{IAST|Ṛg.}} 1.22.23):

: ''{{IAST|tad viṣṇoḥ paramaṁ padaṁ sadā paśyanti sūrayaḥ}}''
: ''{{IAST|divīva cakṣur ātataṁ viṣṇor yat paramaṁ padam}}''

"The Personality of Godhead, {{IAST|Viṣṇu}}, is the Absolute Truth whose lotus feet all the demigods are always eager to see. His lotus-feet are only visible to those endowed with spiritual vision, for they are completely transcendental and supreme like {{IAST|Śrī Kṛṣṇa}}, Himself."

Again, in the {{IAST|Ṛg-Veda}} (1.22.164 sūkta 31) we find this verse:

: ''{{IAST|apaśyaṁ gopām anipadyamāna mā ca parā ca pathibhiś carantam}}''
: ''{{IAST|sa sadhrīcīḥ sa viṣucīr vasāna avarīrvati bhuvaneṣv antaḥ}}''

"I saw a young cowherd boy, who never falls from His position. Sometimes He is near, sometimes He is far away; in this manner, He moves in various ways. Sometimes, He is clothed in many robes and at other times differently dressed; in this way, He is repeatedly appearing and disappearing in this universe."

The next verse establishes the eternal aspect of {{IAST|Śrī Kṛṣṇa}}'s transcendental pastimes as found in the {{IAST|Ṛg Veda}} (1.54.6):

: ''{{IAST|tā vāṁ vāstuny uśmasi gamadhyai yatra gavo bhūri sṛṅga ayāsaḥ}}''
: ''{{IAST|atrāha tad urugāyasya viṣṇoḥ parama-padam avabhāti bhuri}}''

"I desire to attain Your (Śrī Rādhikā and {{IAST|Śrī Kṛṣṇa}}'s) abode where the wish-fulfilling cows, known as kāmadhenu, are decorated with gracefully long horns. The eternal residence of {{IAST|Śrī Kṛṣṇa}}, the fulfiller of His devotees' desires, is pre-eminently exhibiting itself in all grandeur."</ref><ref>Bhagavata Purana 3.13.23</ref><ref name = Krishna194>{{Harvnb|Matchett|2000|p=194}}''bhagavan yajñapuruso''</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Matchett, Freda|title=Krsna, Lord or Avatara? the relationship between Krsna and Visnu: in the context of the Avatara myth as presented by the Harivamsa, the Visnupurana and the Bhagavatapurana|publisher=Routledge|location=Surrey|year=2000|pages=254|isbn=0-7007-1281-X|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1oqTYiPeAxMC}}
p.74-75</ref> Some believe that thus this verse of the [[Rig Veda]] is a foundation of Vaishnava tradition. In the [[Gopala Tapani Upanishad]] the Rig Veda verse(1.22.20) was addressed paraphrasing the original of the Vedic hymn in accordance with the beliefs of the [[Gaudiya Vaishnava]]:<ref>

:''etad visnoh paramam padam ye nityodyuktah samyajante na kaman''
:''tesam asau gopa-rupah prayatnat prakasayad atma-padam tadaiva''- "To they who always diligently worship Lord {{IAST|Viṣṇu}}'s transcendental form, the Lord, in His original form as a cowherd boy, shows His lotus feet."{{cite book|author=B. V. Tripurari|title=Gopala-tapani Upanisad|publisher=Audarya Press|year=2004|isbn=1-932771-12-3}}</ref> It outlines a specific view held by the [[Gaudiya Vaishnava]] and [[Vallabha Sampradaya]], that the conclusion of Vishnu worship is meditation on ''gopa-rupah'' or specific form of Krishna.<ref name=Trip /><ref>[https://archive.org/details/sreekrishnalord00bhgoog Krishna, the Lord of Love]. Bábá Premánand Bhárati, 1904</ref>

The ''[[Krishna Upanishad]]'' supports this conclusion of Gopala Tapani,<ref name = yoga>{{cite book|author=Wood, Ernest|title=Great Systems of Yoga (Forgotten Books)|publisher=Forgotten Books|year=2008|isbn=978-1-60506-644-8}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=87cxkdlOA0sC&pg=PA85 "Once the sages came to the great Brahma and asked: 'Who is the supreme God?... He replied Shri Krishna verily is the supreme God. Death is afraid of Godinda."]</ref> and refers to the original "the most divine form of bliss dwells in the supremacy of love of Lord Krishna",<ref>{{cite book|author=Stephen Knapp|title=The Heart of Hinduism: The Eastern Path to Freedom, Empowerment and Illumination|publisher=iUniverse, Inc|location=[United States]|year=2005|isbn=0-595-35075-5}} p.16: "the Krishna Upanishad that directly reveals that the most divine form of bliss dwells in the supremacy of love of Lord Krishna."</ref> ''saksad'', Hari as ''gopa-rüpa''. (1.10-12):
<ref>
: ''{{IAST|gopa-rūpo hariḥ sakṣan maya-vigraha-dharaṇaḥ}}''
: ''{{IAST|durbodhaṁ kuhakaṁ tasya mayayā mohitaṁ jagat}}''
: ''{{IAST|durjayā sa suraiḥ sarvair dhṛṣṭi-rūpo bhaved dvijaḥ}}''
: ''{{IAST|rudro yena kṛto vaṁsas tasya māyā jagat katham}}''
: ''{{IAST|balaṁ janaṁ suraṇaṁ vai teṣāṁ janaṁ hṛtaṁ kṣaṇat}}''
: ''{{IAST|śeṣa-nago bhaved ramaḥ kṛṣṇo brahmaiva sasvatam}}''
{{cite book|author=Vyasadeva, Baladevavidyabhusana|title=Sri Krsna Upanisad and Other Vaisnava Upanisads|location=[United States]|year=1992|isbn=1-56130-078-0}}</ref>
:"The Supreme Personality of Godhead appeared in His original form as a cowherd boy. Cheated and bewildered by His illusory potency, the world could not understand His true identity.
:"Even all the demigods cannot defeat the Lord's Maya potency. By the Lord's Yogamaya potency Brahma became a stick and Siva became a flute. How did the Lord's Maya potency manifest the entire universe?
:"Knowledge is the strength of the demigods. The Lord's Maya potency steals away that knowledge in a single moment. Lord Sesanaga appeared in His original form as Lord Balarama. The eternal Supreme Personality of Godhead appeared in His original form as Lord Krishna."<ref name = Trip/><ref>{{cite book|author=Vyasadeva, Baladevavidyabhusana|title=Sri Krsna Upanisad and Other Vaisnava Upanisads|location=[United States]|year=1992|isbn=1-56130-078-0}}</ref>

[[Gaudiya Vaishnava]] believe that Krishna possesses qualities that are absent in other forms and they relate to his sweetness in [[Vrindavana lila]]. Krishna is himself Narayana.<ref>''Cyclopædia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia'', Edward Balfour. Published 1871, Scottish and Adelphi Presses. p.604: Krishna indeed, himself is Narayana;</ref> [[Narayana]] is often identified with supreme, however, when his beauty and ''sweetness'' (madhurya) overshadow his majesty, he is known as ''Krishna'', i.e. ''Svayam Bhagavan''.<ref name = HKM>[https://books.google.com/books?id=mBMxPdgrBhoC The Hare Krishna Movement: The Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant], Edwin Bryant, Maria Ekstrand, 2004, 448 pages, Page 151: known as Narayana and is served in awe and reverence. However, when his beauty and sweetness (madhurya) overshadow his majesty, he is known as Krishna...</ref> As Friedhelm Hardy says, the concept of Bhagavan, "a single, all-powerful, eternal, personal and loving God ... is an empty slot, to be filled by concrete characteristics" and these characteristics culminate in Krishna.<ref name = Krishna2>
{{Harvnb|Matchett|2000|p=2}}</ref>

===Paribhasa-sutra of Bhagavata Purana===

{{See also|Bhagavata Purana|l1=Dating of the Bhagavata Purana}}
[[File:JivaGoswami.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Jiva Gosvami]]’s [[Bhajan Kutir]] at [[Radha-kunda]]. Jiva Goswamis ''Sandarbhas'' summarize Vedic sources of [[Gaudiya Vaishnava]] tradition's accretion of the concept ''{{IAST|bhagavān svayam}}'' based on paribhasa-sutra of [[Bhagavata Purana]] <ref name="Gupta2007"/>]]
In [[Gaudiya Vaishnava]], [[Vallabha Sampradaya]] [[Nimbarka sampradaya]] and old [[Bhagavata]] school, Krishna believed to be fully represented in his original form in the [[Bhagavata Purana]], that at the end of the list of ''avataras'' concludes with the following text:<ref name = Krishna153>
{{Harvnb|Matchett|2000|p=153}}Bhag. Purana 1.3.28
: ''{{IAST|ete cāṁśa-kalāḥ puṁsaḥ kṛṣṇas tu bhagavān svayam}}'' :''{{IAST|indrāri-vyākulaṁ lokaṁ mṛḍayanti yuge yuge}}''</ref>
{{Quotation|All of the above-mentioned incarnations are either plenary portions or portions of the plenary portions of the Lord, but Sri Krishna is the original Personality of Godhead (''Svayam Bhagavan'').<ref>[http://srimadbhagavatam.com/1/3/28/en 1.3.28] {{cite web|url=http://srimadbhagavatam.com/1/3/28/en|title=Srimad Bhagavatam Canto 1 Chapter 3 Verse 28|publisher=[[Bhaktivedanta Book Trust]]|access-date=2008-05-07|last=Swami Prabhupada|first=A.C. Bhaktivedanta}}
</ref>}}

Not all commentators on the Bhagavata Purana stress this verse, however a majority of Krishna-centered and contemporary commentaries highlight this verse as a significant statement.<ref>
{{cite web|url=http://www.stephen-knapp.com/sri_krishna.htm|title=Sri Krishna|publisher=www.stephen-knapp.com|access-date=2008-04-30}}
</ref>[[Jiva Goswami]] has called it ''Paribhasa-sutra'', the “thesis statement” upon which the entire book or even theology is based.<ref>
{{cite book|author=Dhanurdhara Swami|title=Waves of Devotion|publisher=Bhagavat Books|year=2000|isbn=0-9703581-0-5}} - {{cite web|url=http://www.wavesofdevotion.com/wod/an.html|title=Waves of Devotion|publisher=www.wavesofdevotion.com|access-date=2008-05-04|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/65DKopEzr?url=http://www.wavesofdevotion.com/wod/an.html|archive-date=5 February 2012|df=dmy-all}}In [[Hari-namamr†a-vyakarana]], [[Jiva Gosvami]] defines paribhasa-sutra as ''aniyame niyama-karini paribhasa'': “A ''paribhasa-sutra'' implies a rule or theme where it is not explicitly stated.” In other words, it gives the context in which to understand a series of apparently unrelated statements in a book.</ref>

In another place of the [[Bhagavata Purana]] 10.83.5–43 those who are named as wives of Krishna all explain to Draupadi how the 'Lord himself' (''Svayam Bhagavan'', [[Bhagavata Purana]] 10.83.7) came to marry them. As they relate these episodes, several of the wives speak of themselves as Krishna's devotees.<ref name = Krishna141>
{{Harvnb|Matchett|2000|p=141}}</ref>

Many Krishna-centered traditions believe that ''Svayam Bhagavan'' personally carries his unalloyed devotees (''vahamy aham'') like a husband carries his bride across the threshold into the house of ''prema bhakti''.<ref>Bg 9.22</ref> Badarayana [[Vyasa]] says in his [[Brahma Sutras]], ''visesam ca darsayati'', implying that the scripture declares a difference with regard to the passing from the world of ''nirapeksa'' or unflinching devotees.<ref>
{{cite web|url=http://www.vnn.org/editorials/ET9902/ET09-2981.html|title=VNN Editorial – 'Uttarayana', The Path Of Light And Darkness|publisher=www.vnn.org|access-date=2008-05-03}}
</ref>

===Source of Para-Vasudeva===

[[Baladeva Vidyabhusana]], in his commentary on [[Gopala Tapani Upanishad]] states: Glory to the ''[[Gopala Tapani Upanishad]]'', which to the pious reveals Lord Krishna, the original Personality of Godhead, the Supersoul near to all moving and unmoving creatures.<ref name = Tripp>{{cite book|author=B. V. Tripurari|title=Gopala-tapani Upanisad|publisher=Audarya Press|year=2004|isbn=1-932771-12-3}}''Śrī Gopāla Tapanī bhāśya'' 1.1:
:''gopala-tapanim naumi ya krsnam svayam isvaram''
:''kara-stharava-sankasam sandarsayati sad-dhiyah''</ref>

The word used is ''krsna svayam isvaram'', the paraphrase of the Bhagavata Purana verse 1.3.28 that [[Jiva Goswami]] has called a key ''sutra'',<ref name = "IAST 29.4-5">{{IAST|Kṛṣṇa sandarbha}} 29.4–5</ref> not only to the [[Bhagavata Purana]] but to [[Vedanta]] and thus all the Vedas.<ref name = "IAST 29.104">{{IAST|Kṛṣṇa sandarbha}} 29.104</ref><ref name=Gosvami1995>{{cite book|author=Gosvami, J.|author2=Dasa, S.N.|author3=Dasa, K.|author4=Dasa, K.|author5=Dasa, G.|author6=Dasa, D.|year=1995|title=Sri Tattva-sandarbha: The First Book of the Sri Bhagavata-Sandarbha Also Known as Sri-sandarbha|publisher=Jiva Institute for Vaisnava Studies}}</ref>

According to the Upanishads it is believed that when Brahma, who is said to be the original created being, was approached by the sages, the [[Four Kumaras]], he was presented with critical questions: – Who is the Supreme Lord? Who does death fear? – By knowing whom, does everything become realized? – Who is that person, who is behind the repetition of the creation of this Universe?<ref name = Tipp/><ref>[http://www.celextel.org/108upanishads/gopalatapaniya.html alternative translation of Gopala-tapani Upanisad]</ref> His own original or sweet form, ''{{IAST|Sva-bimbaṁ}}'' is not manifested very often in the Universe, ''loka-locanam''.<ref>SB 3.2.11</ref> [[Gaudiya Vaishnavas]] quote sources that claim that it happens only once in a ''[[Kalpa (aeon)|kalpa]]'' (universal day of [[Brahma]]), which consists of fourteen ''[[manvantara]]s'', each having seventy-one ''[[Divya Yuga|divya-yugas]]''.<ref>[http://vedabase.net/cc/adi/3/10/en Chaitanya Charitamrita ''Adi'' 3.10]</ref> To answer the four Kumaras, Brahma needed to relate this secret word of the ''seed'' mantra.<ref name=Rosen2006>{{cite book|author=Rosen, S.J.|year=2006|title=Essential Hinduism|publisher=Praeger Publishers}}</ref>
And this is believed to be the answer to the question, who is supreme god and how he creates this world.<ref name = Tipp>
:''krsno vai paramam daivatam govindan mrtyur bibheti''
:''gopijanavallabha-jnanena taj jnatam bhavati svahayedam samsarati''</ref>
Brahma replied to the sages: "Krisna is the Supreme Personality of Godhead. Death fears Govinda. By knowing Gopijanavallabha everything becomes realized. By pronouncing the word "svaha" the Personality of Godhead created the world.<ref>Svähä is the mantra by which offerings are made into the sacrificial fire.5 It is derived from the root ä(hu with the prefix su meaning “well-done,” meaning “according to the vidhi.” This etymology is tentatively accepted by Monier-Williams. The verb root vah is only used in the perfect tense. “to say, speak, state.” Monier-Williams gives the following meanings for svähä: “hail! hail to! May a blessing rest on” As a noun: “an oblation, oblation personified.” Both svähuti and svähväna are found in Rg.</ref> In the wider context of the Bhagavata's total perspective, Krishna is "not one among many but the Lord himself".<ref name = Krishna184>
{{Harvnb|Matchett|2000|p=184}}</ref>

''Sanat-Kumara Samhita'' confirms the belief that this ''Kama Gayatri'' is the foundational structure of the [[Goloka]], believed to be the abode of Krishna, who is the original Vaasudeva:<ref>om namo bhagavate sarva-bhutatmane vasudevaya sarvatma-samyoga-yoga-padma-pithatmane namah – "I offer my respectful obeisances unto Lord Vasudeva, the all-pervading Supreme Personality of Godhead who resides in His own transcendental abode, which resembles a lotus flower."</ref>
"In the whorl of the [[lotus flower]] which is Lord Krishna's transcendental abode, the Gopala [[mantra]] is written."<ref>
: ''karnikayam likhed vahni-''
: ''putitam mandala-dvayam''
: ''tasya madhye likhed bijam''
: ''sadhyakhyam karma samyutam''</ref><ref name=Cult1927>{{cite journal|author=Cult, P.C.S.|year=1927|title=An Introduction To The Post-chaitanya Sahajia Cult|journal=Journal}} – refers to Kama Gayatri in the practice of Post-chaitanya Sahajia Cult and orthodox Gaudiya.</ref>
<ref name=Mukherjee1979>{{cite book|author=Mukherjee, P.|year=1979|title=History of the Chaitanya Faith in Orissa|publisher=Manohar}} refers to practice of Gopal mantra and its significance</ref><ref name=Rosen2004>{{cite journal|author=Rosen, S.J.|year=2004|title=Who Is Shri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu?|journal=The Hare Krishna Movement: The Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mBMxPdgrBhoC&q=%22Gopala+mantra%22+Gaudiya&pg=PA63|access-date=2008-04-19|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-12256-6}}"he was given the ten-syllable Gopala mantra, a confidential incantation"</ref>

==Related historical records==
[[File:Inscription of Heliodorus pillar.gif|thumb|300px|The first inscription of the [[Heliodorus pillar]] that was made by Heliodorus 110 BCE. This Garuda-standard of Vasudeva (i.e. [[Krishna]]) the God of Gods, was erected here by the devotee Heliodoros,]]
While some place Krishna-centered worship as ''Svayam Bhagavan'' in the medieval times of Indian history, there is some evidence suggesting the opposite. In antiquity Krishna images were worshiped at many places. Quoting Curtius, Dr. D.C. Sircar says that an image of Herakles (i.e. Vasudeva-Krishna according to Sircar) was being carried in front of the Paurava army, as it advanced against the Greeks led by Alexander the Great (''The Cultural Heritage of India'', vol. 4. p. 115) An interesting terracotta plaque showing Vasudeva carrying the infant Krishna over his head across the flooded Yamuna river, belonging to c. first century is housed in the Mathura Museum. A Mora stone inscription of about the same time refers to some images of Bhagavata Vrshni Panchaviras, Sankarshana, Vasudeva, Pradyumna, Samba and Aniruddha – which were very beautifully carved in stone.<ref name = Krsnat>[https://books.google.com/books?id=vNiKM-ky3DQC Chapter: ''Krishna and His Cult''. Krishna Theatre in India By M.L. Varalpande], p.6; 2002. {{ISBN|81-7017-151-2}}</ref> A [[Gupta period]] research makes a "clear mention of [[Vasudeva]] as the exclusive object of worship of a group of people," who are referred as [[bhagavatas]].<ref name=1Banerjea1966>Banerjea, 1966, page 20</ref>

Verifying the antiquity of the exclusive worship of ''Svayam Bhagavan'', Krishna, the early [[Jainism|Jaina]] texts repeatedly stress two categories of [[Balabhadra|Baladevas]] and [[Vasudeva]]s that clearly can not be attributed to the [[Buddhist]] tradition, and can not be traced to the earlier strata of the Jaina canon itself. The introduction of these novel categories in the Jaina tradition, therefore, can hardly be explained without references to the legends surrounding the two popular figures of the early Vaishnava tradition, namely [[Balarama]] and Krishna of Mathura.<ref name = "Doniger"/>

Archaeological remains found in the region of [[Mathura, Uttar Pradesh|Mathura]] support the fact that the popularity of these two divine figures had reached its zenith in the [[Mauryan]] and the [[Shunga Empire|Shunga]] period and associated Bhagavata religion had become widespread throughout Mathura and Western India areas. This period coincides with the large migrations of Jainas from Magadha to [[Mathura, Uttar Pradesh|Mathura]]. Baladeva is referred to by Jaina Puranas as Halabhrit, without any support from Brahminical texts. All the Vasudevas are modeled after the description of Krishna found in the [[Purana]]s. They are called blue-black (nila) in complexion and are designated by several names that are normally applied exclusively to Krishna e.g. Keshava, Madhava, Govinda, Vishnu and Narayana (which is used as synonym for the name Vasudeva). List of opposites (or ''prati'' categories) include most of the names associated with [[Asuras]] in Puranas.<ref name = "Doniger">
{{cite book|author=Doniger, Wendy|title={{IAST|Purāṇa perennis}}: reciprocity and transformation in Hindu and Jaina texts|publisher=State University of New York Press|location=Albany, N.Y|year=1993|pages=331|isbn=0-7914-1381-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KI5D5aexThoC}}p.210-212</ref>
According to an opinion of some scholars in Patanjali's time identification of Krishna with Vasudeva is an established fact as is surmised from a passage of the Mahabhasya – (''jaghana kamsam kila vasudevah'').<ref name = Shastri>A Corpus of Indian Studies: Essays in Honour of Professor Gaurinath Sastri, Page 150, 1980 – 416 pages.</ref> This "supposed earliest phase is thought to have been established from the sixth to the fifth centuries BCE at the time of Panini, who in his Astadhyayi explained the word ''vasudevaka'' as a bhakta, devotee, of Vasudeva and its believed that [[Bhagavata]] religion with the worship of Vasudeva Krishna were at the root of the Vaishnavism in Indian history."<ref name = Kakati53>Page 76 of 386 pages: The Bhagavata religion with the worship of Vasudeva Krishna as the ... of Vasudeva Krishna and they are the direct forerunners of Vaisnavism in India.{{cite journal|author=Ehrenfels, U.R.|year=1953|title=The University Of Gauhati|journal=Dr. B. Kakati Commemoration Volume}}</ref><ref>Page 98: In the Mahabharata, Vasudeva-Krishna is identified with the highest God.{{cite book|author=Mishra, Y.K.|year=1977|title=Socio-economic and Political History of Eastern India|publisher=Distributed by DK Publishers' Distributors}}</ref>
Not just Indian [[Gupta period]] but also some historical records of the Greeks show existence of the bhakti tradition to Krishna-Vaasudeva,<ref name=Vaidisa1987>{{cite journal|author=Vaidisa, B.|author2=Wessanagar, V. |display-authors=etal|year=1987|title=The Impact Of Vaisnavism—excavated Remains From Vidisha (mp)|journal=Vaisnavism in Indian Arts and Culture: Collected Papers of the University Grants Commission National Seminar On" Impact of Vaisnavism on the Indian Arts"}}</ref> it needs to be noted that, even Panini gives some support to the ancient root of Krishna-Vaasudeva bhakti – (''{{IAST|vāsudeva arjunābhyāṁ}}'', or related to [[Arjuna]]),<ref>{{IAST|bhaktiḥ}} | 4.3.96 {{IAST|acittāt adeśakālāt ṭhak}} | 4.3.97 {{IAST|mahārājāt ṭhañ}} | 4.3.98 {{IAST|vāsudeva arjunābhyāṁ vun}} | Panini 4.3.95</ref> it is however only much later (2nd century BC) [[Patanjali]] who refer in his definition of the ''devotee'' or ''bhakta'' as "the follower of Vasudeva, God of gods."<ref name = Shastri/><ref name = Singh2007>{{cite book|author=Singh, R.R.|year=2007|title=Bhakti And Philosophy|publisher=Lexington Books|isbn=978-0-7391-1424-7}} p. 10: "[Panini's] term Vaasudevaka, explained by the second century B.C commentator Patanjali, as referring to "the follower of Vasudeva, God of gods."</ref>

==Other uses==
In the [[Bhagavata purana|Bhagavata Purana]] the term is used for other forms of God, including [[Dhanvantari]],<ref>Bhag.P. 2.7.21: ''{{IAST|dhanvantariś ca bhagavān svayam eva kīrtir nāmnā nṛṇāṁ puru-rujāṁ ruja āśu hanti}} {{IAST|yajñe ca bhāgam amṛtāyur-avāvarundha}} {{IAST|āyuṣya-vedam anuśāsty avatīrya loke}}.'' The Lord in His incarnation of Dhanvantari very quickly cures the diseases of the ever-diseased living entities simply by his fame personified, and only because of him do the demigods achieve long lives. Thus the Personality of Godhead becomes ever glorified. He also exacted a share from the sacrifices, and it is he only who inaugurated the medical science or the knowledge of medicine in the universe.</ref> [[Vamana]],<ref>Bhag. P. 5.24.27: ''{{IAST|tasyānucaritam upariṣṭād vistariṣyate yasya bhagavān svayam akhila-jagad-gurur nārāyaṇo dvāri gadā-pāṇir avatiṣṭhate nija-janānukampita-hṛdayo yenāṅguṣṭhena padā daśa-kandharo yojanāyutāyutaṁ dig-vijaya uccāṭitaḥ.}}'' Śukadeva Gosvāmī continued: My dear King, how shall I glorify the character of Bali Mahārāja? The Supreme Personality of Godhead, the master of the three worlds, who is most compassionate to His own devotee, stands with club in hand at Bali Mahārāja's door. When {{IAST|Rāvaṇa}}, the powerful demon, came to gain victory over Bali Mahārāja, Vāmanadeva kicked him a distance of eighty thousand miles with His big toe. I shall explain the character and activities of Bali Mahārāja later [in the Eighth Canto of Śrīmad-Bhāgavatam].</ref> Vishnu,<ref>Bhag. P. 7.1.1 ''{{IAST|samaḥ priyaḥ suhṛd brahman bhūtānāṁ bhagavān svayam indrasyārthe kathaṁ daityān avadhīd viṣamo yathā}}'' King {{IAST|Parīkṣit}} inquired: My dear {{IAST|brāhmaṇa}}, the Supreme Personality of Godhead, {{IAST|Viṣṇu}}, being everyone's well-wisher, is equal and extremely dear to everyone. How, then, did He become partial like a common man for the sake of Indra and thus kill Indra's enemies? How can a person equal to everyone be partial to some and inimical toward others?</ref> and [[Vaikuntha]]deva.<ref>Bhag. P. 8.5.4 ''{{IAST|patnī vikuṇṭhā śubhrasya vaikuṇṭhaiḥ sura-sattamaiḥ}} {{IAST|tayoḥ sva-kalayā jajñe}} {{IAST|vaikuṇṭho bhagavān svayam}}'' From the combination of Śubhra and his wife, {{IAST|Vikuṇṭhā}}, there appeared the Supreme Personality of Godhead, {{IAST|Vaikuṇṭha}}, along with demigods who were His personal plenary expansions.</ref> Although the term appears in the text referring to other forms, these references do not form a part of the [[Krishnology|Krishna-centered theology]] on which the reference to Krishna is based.

The [[Brahma Vaivarta Purana]] and [[Garga (sage)|Garga Samhita]] often refer to Krishna as {{IAST|''paripūrṇatama''}}, the term used in Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition by [[Bhaktivinoda Thakura]] in his ''Amnaya Sutra'' – ''krishnas tu paripurnatma sarvatra sukha-rupakah'' translated as 'original Supreme Personality of Godhead'.<ref>"In that devotional liberation the spiritual senses of the spiritual form of the liberated soul are filled. There Lord Krishna, the original Supreme Personality of Godhead, enjoys blissful pastimes." [http://nitaaiveda.com/All_Scriptures_By_Acharyas/Bhaktivinoda_Thakura/Amnaya_Sutra.htm Amnaya Sutra] 3.5 Sampatti-prakarana, Sutra 114</ref>

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
*[[Acintya Bheda Abheda]]
*[[Bhagavata]]
*[[Gopala Tapani Upanishad]]
*[[International Society for Krishna Consciousness|Hare Krishna]]
*[[Krishna]]
*[[Krishnology]]
*[[Narayana]]
*[[Para Brahman]]
*[[Radha]]
*[[Vasudeva]]
*[[Vedanta]]
*[[Vishnu]]
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
{{Refbegin|40em}}
* {{cite book|author=Elkman, S.M.|author2=Gosvami, J.|year=1986|title=Jiva Gosvamin's Tattvasandarbha: A Study on the Philosophical and Sectarian Development of the Gaudiya Vaisnava Movement|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Pub}}
*{{cite book|author=Flood, G.D.|author-link=Gavin Flood|year=2006|title=The Tantric Body: The Secret Tradition of Hindu Religion|publisher=IB Tauris|isbn=1-84511-012-9}}
* {{cite book|author=Kennedy, M.T.|year=1925|title=The Chaitanya Movement: A Study of the Vaishnavism of Bengal|url=https://archive.org/details/pli.kerala.rare.24847|publisher=H. Milford, Oxford university press}}
* {{cite journal|author=Ramanuja|translator=George Thibaut|year=1962|title=The Vedanta Sutras with the Commentary by Ramanuja|publisher=Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass}}
* {{cite journal|author1=Richard Thompson|author2=Ph. D.|date=December 1994|title=Reflections on the Relation Between Religion and Modern Rationalism|url=http://content.iskcon.com/icj/1_2/12thompson.html|access-date=2008-04-12|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110104040530/http://content.iskcon.com/icj/1_2/12thompson.html|archive-date=4 January 2011|df=dmy-all}}
* {{cite book|author=Gupta, Ravi M.|author-link=Ravi Gupta|year=2004|title=Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta: Acintyabhedabheda in Jiva Gosvami's Catursutri tika|publisher=University Of Oxford}}
* {{cite book|author=Gupta, Ravi M.|year=2007|title=Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta of Jiva Gosvami's Catursutri tika|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-40548-5}}
*{{cite book|author=Ganguli, K.M.|year=1883–1896|title=The Mahabharata of Krishna Dwaipayana Vyasa|publisher=Kessinger Publishing}}
*{{cite book|author=Kaviraja, K.|author2=Prabhupada, A.C.B.S.|author3=Bhaktivedanta, A.C.|year=1974|title=Sri Caitanya-Caritamrta of Krsnadasa Kaviraja|url=https://archive.org/details/sricaitanyacarit00krsh|url-access=registration|publisher=[[Bhaktivedanta Book Trust]]}}
* {{Cite book|title=The Qualities of Sri Krsna|author=S.D. Goswami|author-link=Satsvarupa dasa Goswami|publisher=GNPress|year=1998|pages=152 pages|isbn=0-911233-64-4}}
* ''Garuda Pillar of Besnagar'', Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Report (1908–1909). Calcutta: Superintendent of Government Printing, 1912, 129.
* {{cite journal|author=Rowland Jr, B.|year=1935|title=Notes on Ionic Architecture in the East|journal=American Journal of Archaeology|volume=39|issue=4|pages=489–496|doi=10.2307/498156|jstor=498156|publisher=Archaeological Institute of America|s2cid=193092935 }}
* {{Cite journal|author=Delmonico, N.|year=2004|title=The History Of Indic Monotheism And Modern Chaitanya Vaishnavism|journal=The Hare Krishna Movement: The Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mBMxPdgrBhoC&q=Vaisnava+monotheism&pg=PA31|access-date=2008-04-12|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-12256-6}}
* {{cite journal|author=Mahony, W.K.|year=1987|title=Perspectives on Krsna's Various Personalities|journal=History of Religions|volume=26|issue=3|pages=333–335|jstor=1062381|doi=10.1086/463085|s2cid=164194548}}
* {{cite journal|author=D Hudson|year=1993|title=Vasudeva Krsna in Theology and Architecture: A Background to Srivaisnavism|journal=Journal of Vaiṣṇava Studies|issue=2}}
* {{Cite book|title=Alternative Krishnas: Regional and Vernacular Variations on a Hindu Deity|last=Beck|first=Guy L. (Ed.)|author-link=Guy Beck|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0SJ73GHSCF8C|publisher=SUNY Press|year=2005|isbn=0-7914-6415-6}}
*{{cite book|author=Matchett, Freda|title=Krsna, Lord or Avatara? the relationship between Krsna and Visnu: in the context of the Avatara myth as presented by the Harivamsa, the Visnupurana and the Bhagavatapurana|publisher=Routledge|location=Surrey|year=2000|pages=254|isbn=0-7007-1281-X}}
*{{cite book|author=Valpey, Kenneth Russell|title=Attending {{IAST|Kṛṣṇa}}'s image: {{IAST|Caitanya Vaiṣṇava mūrti-sevā}} as devotional truth
|publisher=Routledge
|location=New York
|year=2006
|isbn=0-415-38394-3
}}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book|author=Ganguli, K.M.|year=1896|title=Bhagavad-Gita ([http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m06/m06025.htm XXV]–[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m06/m06042.htm XLII]). [http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/maha/index.htm The Mahabharata], Book 6|publisher=Calcutta: Bharata Press}}
* {{cite book|author=A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupāda|year=1988|title=Śrīmad-Bhāgavatam (Bhāgavata Purāṇa)|url=http://www.vedabase.com/en/sb/|publisher=The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust}}
* {{cite book|author=A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupāda|year=1972|title=Bhagavad-gītā As It Is|url=http://www.vedabase.com/en/bg/|publisher=The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust}}

==External links==
*[http://www.stephen-knapp.com/sri_krishna.htm Sri Krishna - Differences in Realisation & Perception of the Supreme] (stephen-knapp.com)

{{Krishna|state=collapsed}}
{{Vaishnava philosophy}}
{{Names of God}}

[[Category:Krishna]]
[[Category:Vaishnavism]]
[[Category:Hindu philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Gaudiya Vaisnava philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Titles and names of Krishna]]
[[Category:Names of God in Hinduism]]

Statue of Ganesha

2023-01-15T00:12:18Z

ImportMaster:

{{use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Infobox religious building|name=Statue of Ganesha|native_name=|native_name_lang=hin|religious_affiliation=[[Hinduism]]|image=|alt=Statue of Ganesha largest statue in India|caption=The tallest Aishwarya Ganapathi statue in the world|map_type=India Telangana|coordinates={{coord|16.7129|N|78.253191|E|region:IN|display=inline,title}}|map_alt=Statue of Ganesha|map_caption=Statue of Ganesha|location=Avancha, [[Thimmajipeta]]|deity=|festival=[[Ganesha]]|district=[[Nagarkurnool]]|state=[[Telangana]]|website={{url|http://telangana.gov.in}}|creator=[[Western Chalukya Empire]]|elevation_m=9.144|elevation_footnotes=}}The '''Statue of Ganesha''' or '''Monolith Ganesh''' or '''Aishwarya Ganapathi''' is located at Avancha, [[Thimmajipeta]], [[Nagarkurnool]] in the Indian state of [[Telangana]]. It is the tallest Ganesh statue in India. The statue depicts the [[Western Chalukya Empire]]. The statue is 7.62 meters tall – 9.144 meters including pedestal.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Aishwarya Ganapathi, Avancha, Mahbubnagar District, Telangana - YouTube|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Th_S28WuSnw|access-date=2020-08-23|website=www.youtube.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Goud|first=R. Narender|date=2017-08-25|title=Historic Ganesh idol lies in neglect|url=https://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Hans/2017-08-24/Historic-Ganesh-idol-lies-in-neglect/321598|access-date=2020-08-23|website=www.thehansindia.com|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=30 అడుగుల అరుదైన ఏకశిలా గణపతి.. మన అవంచలో!|url=https://telugu.samayam.com/religion/festivals/indias-largest-single-stone-ganesh-at-30-feets-in-telanganas-avancha/articleshow/65807122.cms|access-date=2020-08-23|website=Samayam Telugu|language=te}}</ref>

== History ==
Ancient Ganesha idol sculpted on a big granite boulder is lying in Avancha, Thimmajipet, Telangana in [[12th century|12th Century]] by a king of [[Western Chalukya Dynasty|western Chalukya dynasty]], the idol is located in agricultural field.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Telangana Government Neglects Eka Shila Ganesh in Mahabubnagar {{!}} Sneha TV Telugu - YouTube|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YzHBDFwCOdM|access-date=2020-08-23|website=www.youtube.com}}</ref>

Kapilavai Linga Moorthy, the monolithic idol was sculpted by king Thylapudu, ruled Avancha as its capital. King Vikramaditya of Badami kingdom, present of Gulbarga district, belonged to western Chalukya dynasty.

The dynasty ruled Telangana region for over 200 years. [[Vikramaditya VI|Vikramaditya]] sons Someshwarudu and Thylapudu. The Thylapudu was made Samanta Raju to a particular province of erstwhile Kandoor as its capital. Thylapudu shifted his capital to Avancha in 1113 AD.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Hindu temples in Telangana]]
[[Category:Nagarkurnool district]]
[[Category:Statues in India]]
[[Category:12th-century sculptures]]
[[Category:12th-century establishments in India]]
[[Category:Ganesha]]

{{Telangana-stub}}
{{Sculpture-stub}}

Shiva

2023-01-14T12:14:22Z

ImportMaster: robot: Create/update articles in Category:Hindu gods.

{{short description|One of the principal deities of Hinduism}}
{{about|the Hindu god|the Jewish period of mourning|Shiva (Judaism)|other uses|Shiva (disambiguation)}}
{{redirect|Neelkanth|the 2012 film|Neelkanth (film)|the bird|Indian roller}}
{{Redirect|Manjunatha|other uses|Manjunath (disambiguation)}}
{{good article}}
{{pp|small=yes}}
{{EngvarB|date=March 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox deity
| type = Hindu
| image = Shiva cropped.jpg
| caption =
| script_name = [[Devanagari]]
| script = {{lang|sa|शिव}}
| day = [[Monday]] and also [[Thrayodashi]]
| gender = Male
| mantra = * [[Om Namah Shivaya]]
* Om Namo Bhagavate Rudraya
* [[Mahamrityunjaya Mantra]]
| affiliation = [[Trimurti]], [[Ishvara]], [[Parabrahman]] and [[Paramatman]] ([[Shaivism]])
| deity_of = God of Destruction, Master of Poison and Medicine, the Great Yogi, God of [[Kāla|Time]], the Cosmic Dancer
[[Para Brahman]], the Supreme Being (Shaivism)<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dbibAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA445|year=2008 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of World Religions |publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.|isbn=978-1593394912 |pages=445–448}}</ref>
| weapon = [[Trishula]], [[Pashupatastra]], [[Parashu]], [[Pinaka (Hinduism)|Pinaka bow]]{{sfn|Fuller|2004|p=58}}
| symbols = [[Lingam]],{{sfn|Fuller|2004|p=58}} [[Crescent]] Moon, [[Damaru]] (Drum), [[Vasuki]]
| spouse = [[Parvati]]/[[Sati (Hindu goddess)|Sati]]{{refn|group=note|Sati, the first wife of Shiva, was reborn as Parvati after she immolated herself. According to [[Shaivism]], Parvati has various appearances like [[Durga]] and [[Kali]] with the supreme aspect of [[Adi Shakti]] which are also associated with Shiva. All these goddesses are the same [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atma (Self)]] in different bodies.{{sfn|Kinsley|1998|p=35}}}}
| children = [[Kartikeya]] (son) [[Ganesha]] (son){{sfn|Cush|Robinson|York|2008|p=78}}{{sfn|Williams|1981|p=62}}
| abode = * [[Mount Kailash]]{{sfn|Zimmer|1972|pp=124–126}}
* Cremation grounds ([[Shmashana Adhipati]])
| mount = [[Nandi (bull)]]{{sfn|Javid|2008|pp=20–21}}
| festivals = [[Maha Shivaratri]], [[Shravana]], [[Kartik Purnima]], [[Bhairava Ashtami]]{{sfn|Dalal|2010|pp=137, 186}}
| other_names = Shankara, Bholenath, Maheśvara, Mahadeva, [[Rudra]], [[Mahakala]], [[Sadashiva]], [[Batara Guru|Batara Siwa]], [[Nataraja]]
| member_of = [[Trimurti]]
}}

'''Shiva ''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ʃ|ɪ|v|ə}}; {{lang-sa|शिव|lit=The Auspicious One|Śiva}} {{IPA-sa|ɕɪʋɐ|}}), also known as '''Mahadeva''' ({{IPAc-en|m|ə|'|h|ɑː|_|'|d|ei|v|ə}}; {{Lang-sa|महादेव:|links=no|lit=The Great God|Mahādevaḥ}} [[Help:IPA/Sanskrit|[mɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐ]]]),{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=65}}{{Sfn|Issitt|Main|2014|pp=147, 168}}{{Sfn|Flood|1996|p=151}} or '''Hara''',{{sfn|Sharma|1996|p=314}} is one of the [[Hindu deities|principal deities]] of [[Hinduism]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/national/shiva-in-mythology-let-s-reimagine-the-lord-magazine-231225|title=Shiva In Mythology: Let’s Reimagine The Lord}}</ref> He is the [[Supreme Being]] in [[Shaivism]], one of the major traditions within [[Hinduism]].{{sfnm|Flood|1996|1pp=17, 153|Sivaraman|1973|2p=131}}

Shiva is known as "The Destroyer" within the [[Trimurti]], the [[Hindus|Hindu]] trinity which also includes [[Brahma]] and [[Vishnu]].{{sfn|Zimmer|1972|pp=124–126}}{{sfn|Gonda|1969}} In the Shaivite tradition, Shiva is the Supreme Lord who creates, protects and transforms the universe.{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=65}}{{Sfn|Issitt|Main|2014|pp=147, 168}}{{Sfn|Flood|1996|p=151}} In the goddess-oriented [[Shaktism|Shakta]] tradition, the Supreme Goddess ([[Devi]]) is regarded as the energy and creative power (Shakti) and the equal complementary partner of Shiva.{{sfn|Kinsley|1988|pp=50, 103–104}}{{sfn|Pintchman|2015|pp=113, 119, 144, 171}} Shiva is one of the five equivalent deities in [[Panchayatana puja]] of the [[Smarta Tradition|Smarta]] tradition of Hinduism.{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=17, 153}}

Shiva has many aspects, benevolent as well as fearsome. In benevolent aspects, he is depicted as an omniscient [[Yogi]] who lives an [[Asceticism#Hinduism|ascetic life]] on [[Mount Kailash]]{{sfn|Zimmer|1972|pp=124–126}} as well as a householder with his wife [[Parvati]] and his three children, [[Ganesha]], [[Kartikeya]] and [[Ashokasundari]]. In his fierce aspects, he is often depicted slaying demons. Shiva is also known as Adiyogi Shiva, regarded as the patron god of [[yoga]], [[Meditation#Hinduism|meditation]] and the arts.<ref>''Shiva Samhita'', e.g. {{harvnb|Mallinson|2007}}; {{harvnb|Varenne|1976|p=82}}; {{harvnb|Marchand|2007}} for Jnana Yoga.</ref>

The iconographical attributes of Shiva are the serpent around his neck, the adorning [[crescent]] moon, the [[holy river]] [[Ganga]] flowing from his matted hair, the [[third eye]] on his forehead (the eye that turns everything in front of it into ashes when opened), the [[trishula]] or trident as his weapon, and the [[damaru]] drum. He is usually worshipped in the [[aniconic]] form of [[lingam]].{{sfn|Fuller|2004|p=58}}

Shiva has pre-Vedic roots,{{sfnm|Sadasivan|2000|1p=148|Sircar|1998|2pp=3 with footnote 2, 102–105}} and the figure of Shiva evolved as an amalgamation of various older non-Vedic and Vedic deities, including the [[Rigvedic deity|Rigvedic]] [[wind god|storm god]] [[Rudra]] who may also have non-Vedic origins,{{Sfn|Flood|1996|p=152}} into a single major deity.{{sfnm|Flood|1996|1pp=148–149|Keay|2000|2p=xxvii|Granoff|2003|3pp=95–114|Nath|2001|4p=31}} Shiva is a pan-Hindu deity, revered widely by Hindus in [[Hinduism in India|India]], [[Hinduism in Nepal|Nepal]], [[Hinduism in Sri Lanka|Sri Lanka]] and [[Hinduism in Indonesia|Indonesia]] (especially in [[Java]] and [[Bali]]).{{sfnm|Keay|2000|1p=xxvii|Flood|1996|2p=17}}
{{Saivism}}

== Etymology and other names ==
{{Main|Shiva Sahasranama}}
[[File:Elephanta Caves Trimurti.jpg|thumb|200px|An ancient sculpture of Shiva at the [[Elephanta Caves]], Maharashtra. 6th century CE]]
According to [[Monier Monier-Williams]], the Sanskrit word "{{transliteration|sa|ISO|śiva}}" ({{lang-sa|शिव|label=[[Devanagari]]}}, also transliterated as ''shiva'') means "auspicious, propitious, gracious, benign, kind, benevolent, friendly".<ref name="mmwshiva">Monier Monier-Williams (1899), [http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/1100/mw__1107.html Sanskrit to English Dictionary with Etymology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170227192855/http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/1100/mw__1107.html |date=27 February 2017 }}, Oxford University Press, pp. 1074–1076</ref> The root words of {{transliteration|sa|ISO|śiva}} in folk etymology are ''śī'' which means "in whom all things lie, pervasiveness" and ''va'' which means "embodiment of grace".<ref name="mmwshiva" />{{sfn|Prentiss|2000|p=199}}

The word Shiva is used as an adjective in the Rig Veda ({{Circa|1700–1100 BCE}}), as an epithet for several [[Rigvedic deities]], including [[Rudra]].<ref>For use of the term ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|śiva}}'' as an epithet for other Vedic deities, see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|p=28}}.</ref> The term Shiva also connotes "liberation, final emancipation" and "the auspicious one"; this adjectival usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic literature.<ref name="mmwshiva" />{{Sfn|Chakravarti|1986|pp=21–22}} The term evolved from the Vedic ''Rudra-Shiva'' to the noun ''Shiva'' in the Epics and the Puranas, as an auspicious deity who is the "creator, reproducer and dissolver".<ref name="mmwshiva" />{{Sfn|Chakravarti|1986|pp=1, 7, 21–23}}

Sharma presents another etymology with the [[Sanskrit]] root ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|śarv}}-'', which means "to injure" or "to kill",<ref>For root ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|śarv}}-'' see: {{harvnb|Apte|1965|p=910}}.</ref> interpreting the name to connote "one who can kill the forces of darkness".{{Sfn|Sharma|1996|p=306}}

The [[Sanskrit literature|Sanskrit]] word ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|śaiva}}'' means "relating to the god Shiva", and this term is the Sanskrit name both for one of the principal sects of Hinduism and for a member of that sect.{{sfn|Apte|1965|p=927}} It is used as an adjective to characterize certain beliefs and practices, such as Shaivism.<ref>For the definition "Śaivism refers to the traditions which follow the teachings of {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Śiva}} (''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|śivaśāna}}'') and which focus on the deity {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Śiva}}... " see: {{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=149}}</ref>

Some authors associate the name with the [[Tamil language|Tamil word]] ''{{IAST|śivappu}}'' meaning "red", noting that Shiva is linked to the Sun (''{{IAST|śivan}}'', "the Red one", in Tamil) and that Rudra is also called ''Babhru'' (brown, or red) in the Rigveda.<ref>{{cite book|last1=van Lysebeth|first1=Andre|title=Tantra: Cult of the Feminine|date=2002|publisher=Weiser Books|isbn=978-0877288459|page=213|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R4W-DivEweIC&pg=FA213}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Tyagi|first1=Ishvar Chandra|title=Shaivism in Ancient India: From the Earliest Times to C.A.D. 300|publisher=Meenakshi Prakashan|year=1982| page=81| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WH3XAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> The ''[[Vishnu sahasranama]]'' interprets ''Shiva'' to have multiple meanings: "The Pure One", and "the One who is not affected by three [[Guṇa]]s of [[Prakṛti]] ([[Sattva]], [[Rajas]], and [[Tamas (philosophy)|Tamas]])".{{sfnm|Sri Vishnu Sahasranama|1986|1pp=47, 122|Chinmayananda|2002|2p=24}}

Shiva is known by many names such as Viswanatha (lord of the universe), Mahadeva, Mahandeo,{{sfn|Powell|2016|p=27}} Mahasu,{{sfn|Berreman|1963|p=[https://archive.org/details/hindusofhimalaya00inberr/page/385 385]}} Mahesha, Maheshvara, Shankara, Shambhu, Rudra, Hara, Trilochana, Devendra (chief of the gods), Neelakanta, Subhankara, Trilokinatha (lord of the three realms),<ref name="Manmatha">For translation see: {{harvnb|Dutt|1905|loc=Chapter 17 of Volume 13}}.</ref><ref name="Kisari">For translation see: {{harvnb|Ganguli|2004|loc=Chapter 17 of Volume 13}}.</ref><ref name="Chidbhav">{{harvnb|Chidbhavananda|1997}}, ''Siva Sahasranama Stotram''.</ref> and Ghrneshwar (lord of compassion).{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002|p=247}} The highest reverence for Shiva in Shaivism is reflected in his epithets ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|Mahādeva}}'' ("Great god"; ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|mahā}}'' "Great" and ''deva'' "god"),{{sfn|Kramrisch|1994a|p=476}}<ref>For appearance of the name {{lang|sa|महादेव}} in the ''Shiva Sahasranama'' see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=297}}</ref> ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|Maheśvara}}'' ("Great Lord"; ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|mahā}}'' "great" and ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|īśvara}}'' "lord"),{{sfn|Kramrisch|1994a|p=477}}<ref>For appearance of the name in the Shiva Sahasranama see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=299}}</ref> and ''[[Parameshwara (god)|{{transliteration|sa|ISO|Parameśvara}}]]'' ("Supreme Lord").<ref>For {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Parameśhvara}} as "Supreme Lord" see: {{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|p=479}}.</ref>

[[Sahasranama]] are medieval Indian texts that list a thousand names derived from aspects and epithets of a deity.<ref name="mmwsahasran">Sir Monier Monier-Williams, ''sahasranAman'', A Sanskrit-English Dictionary: Etymologically and Philologically Arranged with Special Reference to Cognate Indo-European Languages, Oxford University Press (Reprinted: Motilal Banarsidass), {{ISBN|978-8120831056}}</ref> There are at least eight different versions of the ''Shiva Sahasranama'', devotional hymns (''[[stotras]]'') listing many names of Shiva.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|pp=viii–ix}}</ref> The version appearing in Book 13 ({{transliteration|sa|ISO|''Anuśāsanaparvan''}}) of the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' provides one such list.{{efn|This is the source for the version presented in Chidbhavananda, who refers to it being from the Mahabharata but does not explicitly clarify which of the two Mahabharata versions he is using. See {{harvnb|Chidbhavananda|1997|p=5}}.}} Shiva also has ''Dasha-Sahasranamas'' (10,000 names) that are found in the ''Mahanyasa''. The ''Shri Rudram Chamakam'', also known as the ''Śatarudriya'', is a devotional hymn to Shiva hailing him by many names.<ref>For an overview of the ''Śatarudriya'' see: {{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|pp=71–74}}.</ref><ref>For complete Sanskrit text, translations, and commentary see: {{harvnb|Sivaramamurti|1976}}.</ref>

== Historical development and literature ==
{{See also|History of Shaivism|l1=}}

=== Assimilation of traditions ===
{{See also|Hinduism#Roots of Hinduism|l1=Roots of Hinduism}}

The Shiva-related tradition is a major part of Hinduism, found all over the [[Indian subcontinent]], such as India, [[Nepal]], [[Sri Lanka]],{{sfnm|Flood|1996|1p=17|Keay|2000|2p=xxvii}} and [[Southeast Asia]], such as [[Bali, Indonesia]].{{sfn|Boon|1977|pp=143, 205}} Shiva has pre-Vedic tribal roots,{{sfnm|Sadasivan|2000|1p=148|Sircar|1998|2pp=3 with footnote 2, 102–105}} having "his origins in primitive tribes, signs and symbols."{{sfn|Sadasivan|2000|p=148}} The figure of Shiva as we know him today is an amalgamation of various older deities into a single figure, due to the process of [[Sanskritization]] and the emergence of the [[Hindu synthesis]] in post-Vedic times.{{sfnm|Flood|1996|1pp=148–149|Keay|2000|2p=xxvii|Granoff|2003|3pp=95–114}} How the persona of Shiva converged as a composite deity is not well documented, a challenge to trace and has attracted much speculation.<ref>For Shiva as a composite deity whose history is not well documented, see {{harvnb|Keay|2000|p=147}}</ref> According to Vijay Nath:
{{blockquote|Vishnu and Siva [...] began to absorb countless local cults and deities within their folds. The latter were either taken to represent the multiple facets of the same god or else were supposed to denote different forms and appellations by which the god came to be known and worshipped. [...] Siva became identified with countless local cults by the sheer suffixing of ''Isa'' or ''Isvara'' to the name of the local deity, e.g., Bhutesvara, Hatakesvara, Chandesvara."{{sfn|Nath|2001|p=31}}}}

An example of assimilation took place in [[Maharashtra]], where a regional deity named [[Khandoba]] is a patron deity of farming and herding [[caste]]s.{{sfn|Courtright|1985|p=205}} The foremost center of worship of Khandoba in Maharashtra is in [[Jejuri]].<ref>For Jejuri as the foremost center of worship see: {{harvnb|Mate|1988|p=162}}.</ref> Khandoba has been assimilated as a form of Shiva himself,{{sfn|Sontheimer|1976|pp=180–198|ps=: "Khandoba is a local deity in Maharashtra and been Sanskritised as an incarnation of Shiva."}} in which case he is worshipped in the form of a lingam.{{sfn|Courtright|1985|p=205}}<ref>For worship of Khandoba in the form of a lingam and possible identification with Shiva based on that, see: {{harvnb|Mate|1988|p=176}}.</ref> Khandoba's varied associations also include an identification with [[Surya]]{{sfn|Courtright|1985|p=205}} and [[Karttikeya]].<ref>For use of the name Khandoba as a name for Karttikeya in Maharashtra, see: {{harvnb|Gupta|1988|loc=''Preface'', and p. 40}}.</ref>

=== Pre-Vedic elements ===

==== Pre-historic art ====
Scholars have interpreted early prehistoric paintings at the [[Bhimbetka rock shelters]], considered to be from pre-10,000 BCE period,{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007|pp=24–25|ps=: "... prehistoric cave paintings at Bhimbetka (from ca. 100,000 to ca. 10,000 BCE) which were discovered only in 1967..."}} as Shiva dancing, Shiva's trident, and his mount Nandi.{{sfnm|Javid|2008|1pp=20–21|Mathpal|1984|2p=220|3a1=Rajarajan|3y=1996}} Rock paintings from Bhimbetka, depicting a figure with a trident or [[trishula|trishul]], have been described as [[Nataraja]] by Erwin Neumayer, who dates them to the [[mesolithic]].{{sfn|Neumayer|2013|p=104}}{{efn|reference=Temporal range for Mesolithic in South Asia is from 12000 to 4000 years [[before present]]. The term "Mesolithic" is not a useful term for the periodization of the South Asian Stone Age, as certain [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes|tribes]] in the interior of the Indian subcontinent retained a mesolithic culture into the modern period, and there is no consistent usage of the term. The range 12,000–4,000 Before Present is based on the combination of the ranges given by Agrawal et al. (1978) and by Sen (1999), and overlaps with the early Neolithic at [[Mehrgarh]]. D.P. Agrawal et al., "Chronology of Indian prehistory from the Mesolithic period to the Iron Age", ''Journal of Human Evolution'', Volume 7, Issue 1, January 1978, 37–44: "A total time bracket of c. 6,000–2,000 B.C. will cover the dated Mesolithic sites, e.g. Langhnaj, Bagor, '''Bhimbetka''', Adamgarh, Lekhahia, etc." (p. 38). S.N. Sen, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA23 ''Ancient Indian History and Civilization''], 1999: "The Mesolithic period roughly ranges between 10,000 and 6,000 B.C." (p. 23).}}

==== Indus Valley and the Pashupati seal ====
{{Main|Pashupati seal}}
[[File:Shiva Pashupati.jpg|upright|thumb|200px|The [[Pashupati seal]] discovered during excavation of the [[Indus Valley civilisation|Indus Valley]] archaeological site of [[Mohenjo-Daro]] and showing a possible representation of a "yogi" or "proto-Shiva" figure as [[Pashupati|Paśupati]] (Lord of the Animals" c. 2350–2000 BCE]]

Of several Indus valley seals that show animals, one seal that has attracted attention shows a large central figure, either horned or wearing a horned headdress and possibly [[ithyphallic]],{{refn|group=note|name="ilph_rep_l"}}<ref>{{harvnb|Singh|1989}}; {{harvnb|Kenoyer|1998}}. For a drawing of the seal see Figure 1 in {{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=29}}</ref> seated in a posture reminiscent of the [[Lotus position]], surrounded by animals. This figure was named by early excavators of [[Mohenjo-daro]] as ''[[Pashupati]]'' (Lord of Animals, [[Sanskrit]] ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|paśupati}}''),<ref>For translation of ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|paśupati}}'' as "Lord of Animals" see: {{harvnb|Michaels|2004|p=312}}.</ref> an epithet of the later [[Hindu deities]] Shiva and Rudra.{{sfnm|Vohra|2000|p=[https://archive.org/details/makingindiahisto00vohr/page/n10 15]|Bongard-Levin|1985|2p=45|3a1=Rosen|3a2=Schweig|3y=2006|3p=45}} [[John Marshall (archaeologist)|Sir John Marshall]] and others suggested that this figure is a prototype of Shiva, with three faces, seated in a "[[yoga]] posture" with the knees out and feet joined.{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=28–29}} Semi-circular shapes on the head were interpreted as two horns. Scholars such as [[Gavin Flood]], [[John Keay]] and [[Doris Meth Srinivasan]] have expressed doubts about this suggestion.{{sfnm|Flood|1996|1pp=28–29|Flood|2003|2pp=204–205|Srinivasan|1997|3p=181}}

[[Gavin Flood]] states that it is not clear from the seal that the figure has three faces, is seated in a yoga posture, or even that the shape is intended to represent a human figure. He characterizes these views as "speculative", but adds that it is nevertheless possible that there are echoes of Shaiva [[iconographic]] themes, such as half-moon shapes resembling the horns of a [[bull]].{{sfnm|Flood|1996|1pp=28–29|Flood|2003|2pp=204–205}} John Keay writes that "he may indeed be an early manifestation of Lord Shiva as Pashu-pati", but a couple of his specialties of this figure does not match with Rudra.{{sfn|Keay|2000|p=14}} Writing in 1997, Srinivasan interprets what [[John Marshall (archaeologist)|John Marshall]] interpreted as facial as not human but more bovine, possibly a divine buffalo-man.{{sfn|Srinivasan|1997|p=181}}

The interpretation of the seal continues to be disputed. [[McEvilley]], for example, states that it is not possible to "account for this posture outside the yogic account".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=McEvilley|first=Thomas|date=1981-03-01|title=An Archaeology of Yoga| journal=Res: Anthropology and Aesthetics| volume=1| page =51| doi= 10.1086/RESv1n1ms20166655|s2cid=192221643|issn=0277-1322 }}</ref> Asko Parpola states that other archaeological finds such as the early Elamite seals dated to 3000–2750 BCE show similar figures and these have been interpreted as "seated bull" and not a yogi, and the bovine interpretation is likely more accurate.<ref>Asko Parpola(2009), Deciphering the Indus Script, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0521795661}}, pp. 240–250</ref> Gregory L. Possehl in 2002, associated it with the water buffalo, and concluded that while it would be appropriate to recognize the figure as a deity, and its posture as one of ritual discipline, regarding it as a proto-Shiva would "go too far".<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XVgeAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA154|title=The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective|last=Possehl|first=Gregory L.|date=2002|publisher=Rowman Altamira|isbn=978-0759116429|pages=140–144|author-link=Gregory Possehl}}</ref>

=== Vedic elements ===
According to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the contact zone between the [[Zeravshan River]] (present-day [[Uzbekistan]]) and (present-day) Iran.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=462}} It was "a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements",{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=462}} which according to Beckwith borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices"{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=32}} from the [[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex|Bactria–Margiana Culture]].{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=32}} At least 383 non-Indo-European words were borrowed from this culture, including the god Indra and the ritual drink [[Soma (drink)|Soma]].{{sfn|Anthony|2007|pp=454–455}}

==== Proto-Indo-European elements ====
The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to the hypothesised [[Proto-Indo-European religion]],<ref name="Woodard2006">{{cite book|author=Roger D. Woodard|title=Indo-European Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EB4fB0inNYEC&pg=FA242|date=2006|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=978-0252092954|pages=242–}}</ref> and the pre-Islamic Indo-Iranian religion.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=32}} The similarities between the iconography and theologies of Shiva with Greek and European deities have led to proposals for an [[Proto-Indo-European religion|Indo-European]] link for Shiva,<ref name=woodward60 /><ref>{{cite book|author=Alain Daniélou|title=Gods of Love and Ecstasy: The Traditions of Shiva and Dionysus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QDQK7l13WIIC |year=1992|publisher=Inner Traditions / Bear & Co|isbn=978-0892813742|pages=49–50}}, Quote: "The parallels between the names and legends of Shiva, Osiris and Dionysus are so numerous that there can be little doubt as to their original sameness".</ref> or lateral exchanges with ancient central Asian cultures.<ref>{{cite book|author=Namita Gokhale|title=The Book of Shiva|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pFN15nX9_zsC|year=2009|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-0143067610|pages=10–11}}</ref><ref>Pierfrancesco Callieri (2005), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/29757637 A Dionysian Scheme on a Seal from Gupta India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220104032/http://www.jstor.org/stable/29757637 |date=20 December 2016 }}, East and West, Vol. 55, No. 1/4 (December 2005), pp. 71–80</ref> His contrasting aspects such as being terrifying or blissful depending on the situation, are similar to those of the Greek god [[Dionysus]],<ref>{{cite journal | last=Long | first=J. Bruce | title=Siva and Dionysos: Visions of Terror and Bliss | journal=Numen | volume=18 | issue=3 | pages=180–209 | year=1971 | doi=10.2307/3269768 | jstor=3269768 }}</ref> as are their iconic associations with bull, snakes, anger, bravery, dancing and carefree life.<ref name=flahertyds81 /><ref>{{cite book|author=Patrick Laude|title=Divine Play, Sacred Laughter, and Spiritual Understanding|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cTDIAAAAQBAJ |year=2005|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-1403980588|pages=41–60}}</ref> The ancient Greek texts of the time of Alexander the Great call Shiva as "Indian Dionysus", or alternatively call Dionysus as ''"god of the Orient"''.<ref name=flahertyds81>Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1980), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1062337 Dionysus and Siva: Parallel Patterns in Two Pairs of Myths] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220102525/http://www.jstor.org/stable/1062337 |date=20 December 2016 }}, History of Religions, Vol. 20, No. 1/2 (Aug. – Nov., 1980), pp. 81–111</ref> Similarly, the use of phallic symbol{{refn|group=note|name="ilph_rep_l"}} as an icon for Shiva is also found for Irish, Nordic, Greek (Dionysus<ref>{{cite book|author1=Walter Friedrich Otto|author2=Robert B. Palmer|title=Dionysus: Myth and Cult|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XCDvuoZ8IzsC&pg=PA164 |year=1965|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=0253208912|page=164}}</ref>) and Roman deities, as was the idea of this aniconic column linking heaven and earth among early Indo-Aryans, states Roger Woodward.<ref name=woodward60>{{cite book|author=Roger D. Woodard|title=Indo-European Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EB4fB0inNYEC |year=2010|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=978-0252-092954|pages=60–67, 79–80}}</ref> Others contest such proposals, and suggest Shiva to have emerged from indigenous pre-Aryan tribal origins.{{sfn|Sircar|1998|pp=3 with footnote 2, 102–105}}

==== Rudra ====
[[File:ThreeHeadedShivaGandhara2ndCentury.jpg|upright|thumb|200px|Three-headed Shiva, Gandhara, 2nd century AD]]

Shiva as we know him today shares many features with the Vedic god [[Rudra]],{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=316}} and both Shiva and Rudra are viewed as the same personality in [[Hindu texts|Hindu scriptures]]. The two names are used synonymously. Rudra, a [[Rigvedic deity]] with fearsome powers, was the god of the roaring [[storm]]. He is usually portrayed in accordance with the element he represents as a fierce, destructive deity.{{sfn|Flood|2003|p=73}} In RV 2.33, he is described as the "Father of the [[Rudras]]", a group of storm gods.<ref>Doniger, pp. 221–223.</ref>{{full citation needed|date=April 2022}}

Flood notes that Rudra is an ambiguous god, peripheral in the Vedic pantheon, possibly indicating non-Vedic origins.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=152}} Nevertheless, both Rudra and Shiva are akin to [[Odin|Wodan]], the Germanic God of rage ("wütte") and the [[wild hunt]].{{sfnm|Zimmer|2000|p=186}}{{sfn|Storl|2004}}{{page needed|date=April 2022}}{{sfn|Winstedt|2020}}{{page needed|date=April 2022}}

According to Sadasivan, during the development of the [[Hindu synthesis]] attributes of the Buddha were transferred by Brahmins to Shiva, who was also linked with [[Rudra]].{{Sfn|Sadasivan|2000|p=148}} The Rigveda has 3 out of 1,028 hymns dedicated to Rudra, and he finds occasional mention in other hymns of the same text.{{Sfn|Chakravarti|1986|pp=1–2}} Hymn 10.92 of the Rigveda states that deity Rudra has two natures, one wild and cruel (Rudra), another that is kind and tranquil (Shiva).{{sfn|Kramrisch|1994a|p=7}}

The term Shiva also appears simply as an epithet, that means "kind, auspicious", one of the adjectives used to describe many different Vedic deities. While fierce ruthless natural phenomenon and storm-related Rudra is feared in the hymns of the Rigveda, the beneficial rains he brings are welcomed as Shiva aspect of him.{{Sfn|Chakravarti|1986|pp=2–3}} This healing, nurturing, life-enabling aspect emerges in the Vedas as Rudra-Shiva, and in post-Vedic literature ultimately as Shiva who combines the destructive and constructive powers, the terrific and the gentle, as the ultimate recycler and rejuvenator of all existence.{{Sfn|Chakravarti|1986|pp=1–9}}

The Vedic texts do not mention bull or any animal as the transport vehicle (''vahana'') of Rudra or other deities. However, post-Vedic texts such as the Mahabharata and the Puranas state the Nandi bull, the Indian [[zebu]], in particular, as the vehicle of Rudra and of Shiva, thereby unmistakably linking them as same.{{sfn|Kramrisch|1994a|pp=14–15}}

==== Agni ====
[[Rudra]] and [[Agni]] have a close relationship.{{refn|group=note|For a general statement of the close relationship, and example shared epithets, see: {{harvnb|Sivaramamurti|1976|p=11}}. For an overview of the Rudra-Fire complex of ideas, see: {{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|pp=15–19}}.}} The identification between Agni and Rudra in the Vedic literature was an important factor in the process of Rudra's gradual transformation into Rudra-Shiva.{{refn|group=note|For quotation "An important factor in the process of Rudra's growth is his identification with Agni in the Vedic literature and this identification contributed much to the transformation of his character as {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Rudra-Śiva}}." see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|p=17}}.}} The identification of [[Agni]] with Rudra is explicitly noted in the ''[[Nirukta]]'', an important early text on etymology, which says, "Agni is also called Rudra."<ref>For translation from ''Nirukta'' 10.7, see: {{harvnb|Sarup|1998|p=155}}.</ref> The interconnections between the two deities are complex, and according to Stella Kramrisch:
{{blockquote|The fire myth of {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Rudra-Śiva}} plays on the whole gamut of fire, valuing all its potentialities and phases, from conflagration to illumination.{{sfn|Kramrisch|1994a|p=18}}}}

In the [[Shri Rudram Chamakam|''Śatarudrīya'']], some epithets of Rudra, such as {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Sasipañjara}} ("Of golden red hue as of flame") and {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Tivaṣīmati}} ("Flaming bright"), suggest a fusing of the two deities.{{refn|group=note|For "Note Agni-Rudra concept fused" in epithets {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Sasipañjara}} and {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Tivaṣīmati}} see: {{harvnb|Sivaramamurti|1976|p=45}}.}} Agni is said to be a bull,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv06048.htm |title=Rig Veda: Rig-Veda, Book 6: HYMN XLVIII. Agni and Others |publisher=Sacred-texts.com |access-date=2010-06-06}}</ref> and Lord Shiva possesses a bull as his vehicle, [[Nandi (bull)|Nandi]]. The horns of [[Agni]], who is sometimes characterized as a bull, are mentioned.<ref>For the parallel between the horns of Agni as bull, and Rudra, see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|p=89}}.</ref><ref>RV 8.49; 10.155.</ref> In medieval sculpture, both [[Agni]] and the form of Shiva known as [[Bhairava]] have flaming hair as a special feature.<ref>For flaming hair of Agni and Bhairava see: Sivaramamurti, p. 11.</ref>

==== Indra ====
According to [[Wendy Doniger]], the Saivite fertility myths and some of the phallic characteristics of Shiva are inherited from [[Indra]].<ref>{{cite book|last =Doniger|first=Wendy|author-link=Wendy Doniger|title=Śiva, the erotic ascetic|year=1973|publisher=Oxford University Press US|pages=84–89|chapter = The Vedic Antecedents }}</ref> Doniger gives several reasons for her hypothesis. Both are associated with mountains, rivers, male fertility, fierceness, fearlessness, warfare, the transgression of established mores, the [[Om|Aum]] sound, the Supreme Self. In the Rig Veda the term ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|śiva}}'' is used to refer to Indra. (2.20.3,{{refn|group=note|For text of RV 2.20.3a as {{lang|sa|स नो युवेन्द्रो जोहूत्रः सखा शिवो नरामस्तु पाता ।}} and translation as "May that young adorable ''Indra'', ever be the friend, the benefactor, and protector of us, his worshipper".{{Sfn|Arya|Joshi |2001|p=48, volume 2}}}} 6.45.17,<ref>For text of RV 6.45.17 as {{lang|sa|यो गृणतामिदासिथापिरूती शिवः सखा । स त्वं न इन्द्र मृलय ॥ }} and translation as "''Indra'', who has ever been the friend of those who praise you, and the insurer of their happiness by your protection, grant us felicity" see: {{harvnb|Arya|Joshi|2001|p=91}}, volume 3.</ref><ref>For translation of RV 6.45.17 as "Thou who hast been the singers' Friend, a Friend auspicious with thine aid, As such, O Indra, favour us" see: {{Harvnb|Griffith|1973|p=310}}.</ref> and 8.93.3.<ref>For text of RV 8.93.3 as {{lang|sa|स न इन्द्रः सिवः सखाश्चावद् गोमद्यवमत् । उरूधारेव दोहते ॥}} and translation as "May ''Indra'', our auspicious friend, milk for us, like a richly-streaming (cow), wealth of horses, kine, and barley" see: {{harvnb|Arya|Joshi|2001|p=48}}, volume 2.</ref>) Indra, like Shiva, is likened to a bull.<ref>For the bull parallel between Indra and Rudra see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|p=89}}.</ref><ref>RV 7.19.</ref> In the Rig Veda, Rudra is the father of the [[Maruts]], but he is never associated with their warlike exploits as is Indra.<ref>For the lack of warlike connections and difference between Indra and Rudra, see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|p=8}}.</ref>

Indra himself may have been adopted by the Vedic Aryans from the [[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex|Bactria–Margiana Culture]].{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=32}}{{sfn|Anthony|2007|pp=454–455}} According to Anthony,
{{blockquote|Many of the qualities of Indo-Iranian god of might/victory, [[Verethraghna]], were transferred to the adopted god Indra, who became the central deity of the developing Old Indic culture. Indra was the subject of 250 hymns, a quarter of the ''Rig Veda''. He was associated more than any other deity with ''Soma'', a stimulant drug (perhaps derived from ''Ephedra'') probably borrowed from the BMAC religion. His rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=454}}}}

The texts and artwork of [[Jainism]] show Indra as a dancer, although not identical generally resembling the dancing Shiva artwork found in Hinduism, particularly in their respective mudras.{{sfn|Owen|2012|pp=25–29}} For example, in the Jain caves at [[Ellora Caves|Ellora]], extensive carvings show dancing Indra next to the images of [[Tirthankara]]s in a manner similar to Shiva Nataraja. The similarities in the dance iconography suggests that there may be a link between ancient Indra and Shiva.{{sfnm|Sivaramamurti|2004|1pp=41, 59|Owen|2012|2pp=25–29}}

=== Development ===
A few texts such as ''[[Atharvashiras Upanishad]]'' mention [[Rudra]], and assert all gods are Rudra, everyone and everything is Rudra, and Rudra is the principle found in all things, their highest goal, the innermost essence of all reality that is visible or invisible.{{Sfn|Deussen|1997|p=769}} The ''[[Kaivalya Upanishad]]'' similarly, states [[Paul Deussen]] – a German Indologist and professor of philosophy, describes the self-realized man as who "feels himself only as the one divine essence that lives in all", who feels identity of his and everyone's consciousness with Shiva (highest Atman), who has found this highest Atman within, in the depths of his heart.{{sfnm|Deussen|1997|1pp=792–793|Radhakrishnan|1953|2p=929}}

Rudra's evolution from a minor Vedic deity to a supreme being is first evidenced in the ''[[Shvetashvatara Upanishad]]'' (400–200 BCE), according to Gavin Flood, presenting the earliest seeds of theistic devotion to Rudra-Shiva.{{sfn|Flood|2003|pp=204–205}} Here Rudra-Shiva is identified as the creator of the cosmos and [[Saṃsāra|liberator of Selfs]] from the birth-rebirth cycle. The Svetasvatara Upanishad set the tone for early Shaivite thought, especially in chapter 3 verse 2 where Shiva is equated with Brahman: "Rudra is truly one; for the knowers of Brahman do not admit the existence of a second".<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.esamskriti.com/e/Spirituality/Upanishads-Commentary/Svetasvatara-Upanishad-~-Chap-3-The-Highest-Reality-1.aspx | title=Svetasvatara Upanishad - Chap 3 the Highest Reality }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/edit-page/speaking-tree-the-trika-tradition-of-kashmir-shaivism/articleshow/4822600.cms | title=Speaking Tree: The Trika Tradition of Kashmir Shaivism | website=[[The Times of India]] }}</ref> The period of 200 BC to 100 AD also marks the beginning of the Shaiva tradition focused on the worship of Shiva as evidenced in other literature of this period.{{sfn|Flood|2003|pp=204–205}} Other scholars such as Robert Hume and Doris Srinivasan state that the ''Shvetashvatara Upanishad'' presents pluralism, [[pantheism]], or [[henotheism]], rather than being a text just on Shiva theism.{{sfnm|Hume|1921|1pp=399, 403|Hiriyanna|2000|2pp=32–36|3a1=Kunst|3y=1968|Srinivasan|1997|4loc=pp. 96–97 and Chapter 9}}

{{Quote box
|quote ='''Self-realization and Shaiva Upanishads'''
<poem>
He who sees himself in all beings,
And all beings in him,
attains the highest [[Brahman]],
not by any other means.
</poem>
|source = —''[[Kaivalya Upanishad]] 10'' {{Sfn|Deussen|1997|pp=792–793}}{{Sfn|Sastri|1898|pp=80–82}}
|width = 28%
| bgcolor=#FFE0BB
|align = right
}}

Shaiva devotees and ascetics are mentioned in [[Patanjali]]'s ''[[Mahābhāṣya]]'' (2nd-century BCE) and in the ''[[Mahabharata]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Flood|2003|p=205}} For date of Mahabhasya see: {{harvnb|Scharf|1996|loc=page 1 with footnote}}.</ref>

The earliest iconic artworks of Shiva may be from Gandhara and northwest parts of ancient India. There is some uncertainty as the artwork that has survived is damaged and they show some overlap with meditative Buddha-related artwork, but the presence of Shiva's trident and phallic symbolism{{refn|group=note|name="ilph_rep_l"}} in this art suggests it was likely Shiva.{{sfn|Blurton|1993|pp=84, 103}} [[Numismatics]] research suggests that numerous coins of the ancient [[Kushan Empire]] (30–375 CE) that have survived, were images of a god who is probably Shiva.{{sfn|Blurton|1993|p=84}} The Shiva in Kushan coins is referred to as Oesho of unclear etymology and origins, but the simultaneous presence of Indra and Shiva in the Kushan era artwork suggest that they were revered deities by the start of the Kushan Empire.<ref>{{cite book|author=Pratapaditya Pal|title=Indian Sculpture: Circa 500 B.C.–A.D. 700|url=https://archive.org/details/indiansculpturec00losa |url-access=registration|year=1986|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0520-059917|pages=[https://archive.org/details/indiansculpturec00losa/page/75 75]–80}}</ref>{{sfn|Sivaramamurti|2004|pp=41, 59}}

The [[Shaiva Upanishads]] are a group of 14 minor Upanishads of Hinduism variously dated from the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE through the 17th century.{{Sfn|Deussen| 1997|p=556, 769 footnote 1}} These extol Shiva as the metaphysical unchanging reality [[Brahman]] and the [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (Self),{{Sfn|Deussen|1997|p=769}} and include sections about rites and symbolisms related to Shiva.{{Sfn|Klostermaier|1984|pp=134, 371}}

The [[Puranas#Classification|Shaiva Puranas]], particularly the [[Shiva Purana]] and the [[Linga Purana]], present the various aspects of Shiva, mythologies, cosmology and pilgrimage (''[[Tirtha (Hinduism)|Tirtha]]'') associated with him.{{sfnm|Flood|2003|1pp=205–206|Rocher|1986|2pp=187–188, 222–228}} The Shiva-related [[Tantra]] literature, composed between the 8th and 11th centuries, are regarded in devotional dualistic Shaivism as [[Sruti]]. Dualistic [[Āgama (Hinduism)#Philosophy|Shaiva Agamas]] which consider Self within each living being and Shiva as two separate realities (dualism, ''dvaita''), are the foundational texts for [[Shaiva Siddhanta]].{{sfn|Flood|2003|pp=208–212}} Other Shaiva Agamas teach that these are one reality (monism, ''advaita''), and that Shiva is the Self, the perfection and truth within each living being.<ref>{{harvnb|Sharma|1990|pp=9–14}}; {{harvnb|Davis|1992|loc=p. 167 note 21}}, ''Quote (page 13):'' "Some agamas argue a monist metaphysics, while others are decidedly dualist. Some claim ritual is the most efficacious means of religious attainment, while others assert that knowledge is more important".</ref> In Shiva related sub-traditions, there are ten dualistic Agama texts, eighteen qualified monism-cum-dualism Agama texts and sixty-four monism Agama texts.<ref>Mark Dyczkowski (1989), The Canon of the Śaivāgama, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120805958}}, pl. 43–44</ref><ref>JS Vasugupta (2012), Śiva Sūtras, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120804074}}, pp. 252, 259</ref>{{Sfn|Flood|1996|pp=162–169}}

Shiva-related literature developed extensively across India in the 1st millennium CE and through the 13th century, particularly in Kashmir and Tamil Shaiva traditions.{{Sfn|Flood|1996|pp=162–169}} Shaivism gained immense popularity in [[Tamilakam]] as early as the 7th century CE, with poets such as [[Appar]] and [[Sambandar]] composing rich poetry that is replete with present features associated with the deity, such as his [[tandava]] dance, the mulavam (dumru), the aspect of holding fire, and restraining the proud flow of the Ganga upon his braid.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Somasundaram |first1=Ottilingam |last2=Murthy |first2=Tejus |date=2017 |title=Siva - The Mad Lord: A Puranic perspective |journal=Indian Journal of Psychiatry |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=119–122 |doi=10.4103/0019-5545.204441 |issn=0019-5545 |pmc=5418997 |pmid=28529371}}</ref> The monist Shiva literature posit absolute oneness, that is Shiva is within every man and woman, Shiva is within every living being, Shiva is present everywhere in the world including all non-living being, and there is no spiritual difference between life, matter, man and Shiva.{{sfn|Tagare|2002|pp=16–19}} The various dualistic and monist Shiva-related ideas were welcomed in medieval southeast Asia, inspiring numerous Shiva-related temples, artwork and texts in Indonesia, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Thailand and Malaysia, with syncretic integration of local pre-existing theologies.{{sfnm|Flood|2003|1pp=208–212|Gonda|1975|2pp=3–20, 35–36, 49–51|Thakur|1986|3pp=83–94}}

== Position within Hinduism ==
[[File:Lingothbhavar.jpg|thumb|[[Lingodbhava]] is a Shaiva sectarian icon where Shiva is depicted rising from the [[Lingam]] (an infinite fiery pillar) that narrates how Shiva is the foremost of the [[Trimurt]]i; [[Brahma]] on the left and [[Vishnu]] on the right are depicted bowing to Shiva in the centre.]]

=== Shaivism ===
{{Main|Shaivism}}
Shaivism is one of the four major sects of [[Hinduism]], the others being [[Vaishnavism]], [[Shaktism]] and the [[Smarta Tradition]]. Followers of Shaivism, called "Shaivas", revere Shiva as the Supreme Being. Shaivas believe that Shiva is All and in all, the creator, preserver, destroyer, revealer and concealer of all that is.{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=65}}{{Sfn|Issitt|Main|2014|pp=147, 168}} He is not only the creator in Shaivism, but he is also the creation that results from him, he is everything and everywhere. Shiva is the primal Self, the pure consciousness and [[Brahman|Absolute Reality]] in the Shaiva traditions.{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=65}}

The Shaivism theology is broadly grouped into two: the popular theology influenced by Shiva-Rudra in the Vedas, Epics and the Puranas; and the esoteric theology influenced by the Shiva and Shakti-related Tantra texts.{{Sfn|Michaels|2004|p=216}} The Vedic-Brahmanic Shiva theology includes both monist (''Advaita'') and devotional traditions (''Dvaita'') such as Tamil [[Shaiva Siddhanta]] and [[Lingayatism]] with temples featuring items such as linga, Shiva-Parvati iconography, bull Nandi within the premises, relief artwork showing aspects of Shiva.{{Sfn|Michaels|2004|pp=216–218}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Surendranath Dasgupta|title=A History of Indian Philosophy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aohGsuUuXuMC |year=1973|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-81208-04166|pages=17, 48–49, 65–67, 155–161}}</ref>

The [[Tantra|Tantric]] Shiva tradition ignored the mythologies and Puranas related to Shiva, and depending on the sub-school developed a variety of practices. For example, historical records suggest the tantric [[Kapalika]]s (literally, the 'skull-men') co-existed with and shared many Vajrayana Buddhist rituals, engaged in esoteric practices that revered Shiva and Shakti wearing skulls, begged with empty skulls, and sometimes used meat as a part of ritual.<ref>{{cite book|author=David N. Lorenzen|title=The Kāpālikas and Kālāmukhas: Two Lost Śaivite Sects|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q4hm-k6fKs4C |year=1972|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0520-018426|pages=2–5, 15–17, 38, 80}}</ref> In contrast, the esoteric tradition within [[Kashmir Shaivism]] has featured the ''Krama'' and ''Trika'' sub-traditions.<ref name=patil125>{{cite book|author=Narendranath B. Patil|title=The Variegated Plumage: Encounters with Indian Philosophy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3C1GWkeyXnQC |year=2003|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-8120819535|pages=125–126}}</ref> The Krama sub-tradition focussed on esoteric rituals around Shiva-Kali pair.<ref>{{cite book|author=Mark S. G. Dyczkowski|title=The Doctrine of Vibration: An Analysis of the Doctrines and Practices Associated with Kashmir Shaivism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QXn5n4gdfcIC |year=1987|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0887064319|page=9}}</ref> The Trika sub-tradition developed a theology of triads involving Shiva, combined it with an ascetic lifestyle focusing on personal Shiva in the pursuit of monistic self-liberation.<ref name=patil125 />{{Sfn|Michaels|2004|pp=215–216}}<ref>David Lawrence, [http://www.iep.utm.edu/kashmiri/#SH1d Kashmiri Shaiva Philosophy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312172048/http://www.iep.utm.edu/kashmiri/#SH1d |date=12 March 2017 }}, University of Manitoba, Canada, IEP, Section 1(d)</ref>

=== Vaishnavism ===
The Vaishnava (Vishnu-oriented) literature acknowledges and discusses Shiva. Like Shaiva literature that presents Shiva as supreme, the Vaishnava literature presents [[Vishnu]] as supreme. However, both traditions are pluralistic and revere both Shiva and Vishnu (along with Devi), their texts do not show exclusivism, and Vaishnava texts such as the ''Bhagavata Purana'' while praising [[Krishna]] as the Ultimate Reality, also present Shiva and Shakti as a personalized form an equivalent to the same Ultimate Reality.<ref>Edwin Bryant (2003), Krishna: The Beautiful Legend of God: Srimad Bhagavata Purana, Penguin, {{ISBN|978-0141913377}}, pp. 10–12, Quote: "(...) accept and indeed extol the transcendent and absolute nature of the other, and of the Goddess Devi too"</ref><ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|978-3447025225}}, p. 23 with footnotes</ref><ref>EO James (1997), The Tree of Life, Brill Academic, {{ISBN|978-9004016125}}, pp. 150–153</ref> The texts of Shaivism tradition similarly praise Vishnu. The Skanda Purana, for example, states:

{{Blockquote|
Vishnu is no one but Shiva, and he who is called Shiva is but identical with Vishnu.
|Skanda Purana |1.8.20–21<ref>Gregor Maehle (2009), Ashtanga Yoga, New World, {{ISBN|978-1577316695}}, p. 17; for Sanskrit, see: [https://archive.org/stream/SriSkandaPuranam-SankaraSamhitaPart1#page/n31/mode/2up Skanda Purana] Shankara Samhita Part 1, Verses 1.8.20–21 (Sanskrit)</ref>}}

Both traditions include legends about who is superior, about Shiva paying homage to Vishnu, and Vishnu paying homage to Shiva. However, in texts and artwork of either tradition, the mutual salutes are symbolism for complementarity.<ref>{{cite book|author=Saroj Panthey|title=Iconography of Śiva in Pahāṛī Paintings|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GUBXNueBQo0C|year=1987|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=978-8170990161|page=94}}</ref> The Mahabharata declares the unchanging Ultimate Reality (Brahman) to be identical to Shiva and to Vishnu,<ref>{{cite book|author=Barbara Holdrege|editor=Hananya Goodman|title=Between Jerusalem and Benares: Comparative Studies in Judaism and Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XF_a3cfrcLQC&pg=PA122|year=2012|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-1438404370|pages=120–125 with footnotes}}</ref> that Vishnu is the highest manifestation of Shiva, and Shiva is the highest manifestation of Vishnu.<ref>{{cite book|author=Charles Johnston|title=The Atlantic Monthly|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SGACAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA835|volume=CXII|year=1913|publisher=Riverside Press, Cambridge|pages=835–836}}</ref>

=== Shaktism ===
[[File:Khajuraho Ardharnareshvar.jpg|thumb|Ardhanarishvara sculpture, [[Khajuraho]], depicting Shiva with goddess [[Parvati]] as his equal half.{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2006|p=43}} In the [[Ardhanarisvara]] concept, the icon is presented as half-man and half woman.]]
The goddess-oriented Shakti tradition of Hinduism is based on the premise that the Supreme Principle and the Ultimate Reality called Brahman is female ([[Devi]]),{{Sfn|Coburn|2002|pp=1, 53–56, 280}}{{Sfn|Lochtefeld|2002|p=426}}{{Sfn|Kinsley|1988|pp=101–105}} but it treats the male as her equal and complementary partner.{{sfnm|Kinsley|1988|1pp=50, 103–104|Pintchman|2015|2pp=113, 119, 144, 171}} This partner is Shiva.{{sfn|Pintchman|2014|pp=85–86, 119, 144, 171}}{{Sfn|Coburn|1991|pp=19–24, 40, 65, Narayani p. 232}}

The earliest evidence of the tradition of reverence for the feminine with Rudra-Shiva context, is found in the Hindu scripture ''[[Rigveda]]'', in a hymn called the Devi Sukta.{{Sfn| McDaniel |2004|p=90}}{{Sfn| Brown |1998|p=26}}{{Sfn| McDaniel |2004|p=90}}{{Sfn| Brown |1998|p=26}}<ref name="Hymn 125">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1LTRDwAAQBAJ|title = The Rigveda|isbn = 978-0190633394|last1 = Jamison|first1 = Stephanie|last2 = Brereton|first2 = Joel|date = 2020}}</ref>

The ''[[Devi Upanishad]]'' in its explanation of the theology of Shaktism, mentions and praises Shiva such as in its verse 19.{{Sfn|Brown|1998|p=77}}{{Sfn|Warrier|1967|pp=77–84}} Shiva, along with Vishnu, is a revered god in the ''[[Devi Mahatmya]]'', a text of Shaktism considered by the tradition to be as important as the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]''.{{Sfn|Rocher|1986|p=193}}<ref>{{cite book|author=David R. Kinsley|title=The Sword and the Flute: Kālī and Kṛṣṇa, Dark Visions of the Terrible and the Sublime in Hindu Mythology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ih1By08_Yj0C |year=1975|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0520026759|pages=102 with footnote 42}}, Quote: "In the Devi Mahatmya, it is quite clear that [[Durga]] is an independent deity, great in her own right, and only loosely associated with any of the great male deities. And if any one of the great gods can be said to be her closest associate, it is Visnu rather than Siva".</ref> The [[Ardhanarisvara]] concept co-mingles god Shiva and goddess Shakti by presenting an icon that is half-man and half woman, a representation and theme of union found in many Hindu texts and temples.<ref>{{cite book|author=Gupteshwar Prasad|title=I.A. Richards and Indian Theory of Rasa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hmy5cnSbsWYC&pg=PA117 |year=1994|publisher=Sarup & Sons|isbn=978-8185431376|pages=117–118}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Jaideva Vasugupta|title=The Yoga of Delight, Wonder, and Astonishment|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aVc5JCnO1VgC|year=1991|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0791410738|page=xix}}</ref>

=== Smarta tradition ===
{{Main|Panchayatana puja}}
[[File:Traditional Indian Print by Artist Raja Ravi Varma.jpg|thumb|Oleograph by [[Raja Ravi Varma]] depicting a Shiva-centric Panchayatana. A bearded Shiva sits in the centre with his wife Parvati and their infant son Ganesha; surrounded by (clockwise from left upper corner) Ganesha, Devi, Vishnu, and Surya. Shiva's mount is the bull Nandi below Shiva.]]
In the [[Smarta tradition]] of Hinduism, Shiva is a part of its [[Panchayatana puja]].<ref name="Bühnemann2003p60">{{cite book|author=Gudrun Bühnemann|author-link=Gudrun Bühnemann |title=Mandalas and Yantras in the Hindu Traditions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kQf2m8VaC_oC&pg=PA60 |year=2003|publisher=Brill Academic|isbn=978-9004129023|page=60}}</ref> This practice consists of the use of icons or anicons of five deities considered equivalent,<ref name="Bühnemann2003p60" /> set in a [[quincunx]] pattern.<ref name="Harle1994p141">{{cite book|author=James C. Harle|title=The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent| url=https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo00harl |url-access=registration|year=1994|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0300062175|pages=[https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo00harl/page/140 140]–142, 191, 201–203}}</ref> Shiva is one of the five deities, others being Vishnu, [[Devi]] (such as [[Parvati]]), [[Surya]] and [[Ganesha]] or [[Kartikeya|Skanda]] or any personal god of devotee's preference ([[Ishta Devata]]).{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo/page/17 17]}}

Philosophically, the Smarta tradition emphasizes that all idols ([[murti]]) are icons to help focus on and visualize aspects of Brahman, rather than distinct beings. The ultimate goal in this practice is to transition past the use of icons, recognize the Absolute symbolized by the icons,<ref>{{cite book|author=J. N. Farquhar|title=Outline of the Religious Literature of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lwggjSPrjxUC |year=1984|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-8120820869|page=180}}</ref> on the path to realizing the [[Advaita Vedanta|nondual]] identity of one's Atman (Self) and the Brahman.<ref>{{cite book|author=Edwin F. Bryant|title=Krishna: A Sourcebook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2n4VDAAAQBAJ |year=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0199724314|pages=313–314}}</ref> Popularized by [[Adi Shankara]], many Panchayatana mandalas and temples have been uncovered that are from the [[Gupta Empire]] period, and one Panchayatana set from the village of Nand (about 24 kilometers from [[Ajmer]]) has been dated to belong to the [[Kushan Empire]] era (pre-300 CE).{{sfn|Williams|1981|pp=1–4}} The Kushan period set includes Shiva, Vishnu, Surya, Brahma and one deity whose identity is unclear.{{sfn|Williams|1981|pp=1–4}}

=== Yoga ===

Shiva is considered the Great Yogi who is totally absorbed in himself – the transcendental reality. He is the Lord of [[Yogi]]s, and the teacher of [[Yoga]] to sages.{{sfn|Kramrisch|1981|p=[https://archive.org/details/manifestationsof00kram/page/22 22]}} As Shiva Dakshinamurthi, states Stella Kramrisch, he is the supreme [[guru]] who "teaches in silence the oneness of one's innermost self (''atman'') with the ultimate reality (''brahman'')."{{sfn|Kramrisch|1981|p=[https://archive.org/details/manifestationsof00kram/page/23 23] }} Shiva is also an archetype for ''samhara'' ({{lang-sa|संहार}}) or ''dissolution'' which includes transcendence of human misery by the dissolution of ''[[Maya (religion)|maya]]'', which is why Shiva is associated with [[Yoga]].<ref name="inv07">{{cite book|first1=Krishnan|last1=Ramaswamy|first2=Antonio|last2=de Nicolas|first3=Aditi|last3=Banerjee|title=Invading the Sacred|page=59|isbn=978-8129111821|publisher=Rupa Publication|year=2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/samhara|title=Samhara, Saṃhāra: 18 definitions|date=3 August 2014}}</ref>

The theory and practice of Yoga, in different styles, has been a part of all major traditions of Hinduism, and Shiva has been the patron or spokesperson in numerous Hindu Yoga texts.<ref name=shivayoga1 /><ref name=shivayoga2 /> These contain the philosophy and techniques for Yoga. These ideas are estimated to be from or after the late centuries of the 1st millennium CE, and have survived as Yoga texts such as the ''Isvara Gita'' (literally, 'Shiva's song'), which [[Andrew J. Nicholson|Andrew Nicholson]] – a professor of Hinduism and Indian Intellectual History – states have had "a profound and lasting influence on the development of Hinduism".<ref>{{cite book|author=Andrew J. Nicholson|title=Lord Siva's Song: The Isvara Gita|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=IAEvAwAAQBAJ|year=2014| publisher= State University of New York Press|isbn= 978-1438451022|pages= 1–2}}</ref>

Other famed Shiva-related texts influenced [[Hatha Yoga]], integrated monistic (''Advaita Vedanta'') ideas with Yoga philosophy and inspired the theoretical development of [[Indian classical dance]]. These include the ''Shiva Sutras'', the ''Shiva Samhita'', and those by the scholars of Kashmir Shaivism such as the 10th-century scholar [[Abhinavagupta]].<ref name=shivayoga1>[a] {{cite book|author1=Vasugupta|author2=Jaideva|title=Śiva Sūtras|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j4SOIISR9PUC|year=1979|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-8120804074|pages=xv–xx}}; [b] {{cite book|author=James Mallinson|title=The Shiva Samhita: A Critical Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hlQRnDOr178C|year=2007|publisher=Yoga|oclc= 76143968 |isbn=978-0971646650|pages=xiii–xiv}}</ref><ref name=shivayoga2>[a] {{cite book|author=Jaideva Vasugupta|title=The Yoga of Delight, Wonder, and Astonishment: A Translation of the Vijnana-bhairava with an Introduction and Notes by Jaideva Singh|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aVc5JCnO1VgC|year=1991|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0791410738|pages=xii–xvi}}; [b] {{cite book|author1=Vasugupta|author2=Jaideva|title=The Yoga of Vibration and Divine Pulsation: A Translation of the Spanda Karika with Ksemaraja's Commentary, the Spanda Nirnaya|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sQwtCrGERjkC |year=1980|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0791411797|pages=xxv–xxxii, 2–4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=David Smith|title=The Dance of Siva: Religion, Art and Poetry in South India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fTLlcGlkdjkC&pg=PA237 |year=2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521528658|pages=237–239}}</ref> Abhinavagupta writes in his notes on the relevance of ideas related to Shiva and Yoga, by stating that "people, occupied as they are with their own affairs, normally do nothing for others", and Shiva and Yoga spirituality helps one look beyond, understand interconnectedness, and thus benefit both the individual and the world towards a more blissful state of existence.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Jaideva Vasugupta|author2=Mark S. G. Dyczkowski|title=The Aphorisms of Siva: The Siva Sutra with Bhaskara's Commentary, the Varttika|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o6-n4ulAsdIC|year=1992|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0791412640|pages=7–8}}</ref>

=== Trimurti ===
{{Main|Trimurti}}
The Trimurti is a concept in Hinduism in which the cosmic functions of creation, maintenance, and destruction are personified by the forms of [[Brahma]] the creator, Vishnu the maintainer or preserver and Shiva the destroyer or transformer.<ref>For quotation defining the Trimurti see Matchett, Freda. "The {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Purāṇas}}", in: {{harvnb|Flood|2003|p=139}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Ralph Metzner|title=Opening to Inner Light: The Transformation of Human Nature and Consciousness|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ke0RAQAAIAAJ|year=1986|publisher=J.P. Tarcher|isbn=978-0874773538|page=61}}; {{cite book|author=David Frawley|title=Inner Tantric Yoga: Working with the Universal Shakti: Secrets of Mantras, Deities and Meditation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T6Vp_rTWkAAC&pg=PA25|year=2009|publisher=Lotus|isbn=978-0940676503|page=25}}</ref> These three deities have been called "the Hindu triad"<ref>For definition of Trimurti as "the unified form" of Brahmā, {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Viṣṇu}} and Śiva and use of the phrase "the Hindu triad" see: {{harvnb|Apte|1965|p=485}}.</ref> or the "Great Triple deity".<ref>For the term "Great Trinity" in relation to the Trimurti see: {{harvnb|Jansen|1993|p=83}}.</ref> However, the ancient and medieval texts of Hinduism feature many triads of gods and goddesses, some of which do not include Shiva.<ref>The Trimurti idea of Hinduism, states [[Jan Gonda]], "seems to have developed from ancient cosmological and ritualistic speculations about the triple character of an individual god, in the first place of ''Agni'', whose births are three or threefold, and who is threefold light, has three bodies and three stations". See: {{harvnb|Gonda|1969|pp=218–219}}; Other trinities, beyond the more common "Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva", mentioned in ancient and medieval Hindu texts include: "Indra, Vishnu, Brahmanaspati", "Agni, Indra, Surya", "Agni, Vayu, Aditya", "Mahalakshmi, Mahasarasvati, and Mahakali", and others. See: [a] David White (2006), Kiss of the Yogini, University of Chicago Press, {{ISBN|978-0226894843}}, pp. 4, 29 [b] {{harvnb|Gonda|1969}}</ref>

== Attributes ==
[[File:6 Śiva and Pārvatī seated on a terrace. 1800 (circa) BM.jpg|thumb|Shiva with Parvati. Shiva is depicted three-eyed, the [[Ganges]] flowing through his matted hair, wearing ornaments of serpents and a skull garland, covered in ashes, and seated on a tiger skin.]]
[[File:Indian - Festival Image of Shiva - Walters 543084.jpg|thumb|A seated Shiva holds an axe and deer in his hands.]]
* '''Third eye''': Shiva is often depicted with a [[third eye]], with which he burned Desire ({{transliteration|sa|ISO|[[Kamadeva|Kāma]]}}) to ashes,<ref>For Shiva as depicted with a third eye, and mention of the story of the destruction of Kama with it, see: {{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=151}}.</ref> called "Tryambakam" (Sanskrit: ''त्र्यम्बकम् ''), which occurs in many scriptural sources.<ref>For a review of 4 theories about the meaning of ''tryambaka'', see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|pp=37–39}}.</ref> In classical Sanskrit, the word ''ambaka'' denotes "an eye", and in the ''Mahabharata'', Shiva is depicted as three-eyed, so this name is sometimes translated as "having three eyes".<ref>For usage of the word ''ambaka'' in classical Sanskrit and connection to the Mahabharata depiction, see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|pp=38–39}}.</ref> However, in Vedic Sanskrit, the word ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|ambā}}'' or ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|ambikā}}'' means "mother", and this early meaning of the word is the basis for the translation "three mothers".<ref>For translation of Tryambakam as "having three mother eyes" and as an epithet of Rudra, see: {{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|p=483}}.</ref><ref>For Vedic Sanskrit meaning Lord has three mother eyes which symbolize eyes are the Sun, Moon and Fire.</ref> These three mother-goddesses who are collectively called the {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Ambikās}}.<ref>For discussion of the problems in translation of this name, and the hypothesis regarding the {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Ambikās}} see: Hopkins (1968), p. 220.</ref> Other related translations have been based on the idea that the name actually refers to the oblations given to Rudra, which according to some traditions were shared with the goddess {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Ambikā}}.<ref>For the {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Ambikā}} variant, see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|pp=17, 37}}.</ref>
* '''Crescent moon''': Shiva bears on his head the crescent moon.<ref>For the moon on the forehead see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|p=109}}.</ref> The epithet {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Candraśekhara}} (Sanskrit: {{lang|sa|चन्द्रशेखर}} "Having the moon as his crest" – ''[[chandra|{{transliteration|sa|ISO|candra}}]]'' = "moon"; ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|śekhara}}'' = "crest, crown")<ref>For ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|śekhara}}'' as crest or crown, see: {{harvnb|Apte|1965|p=926}}.</ref><ref>For {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Candraśekhara}} as an iconographic form, see: {{harvnb|Sivaramamurti|1976|p=56}}.</ref><ref>For translation "Having the moon as his crest" see: {{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|p=472}}.</ref> refers to this feature. The placement of the moon on his head as a standard iconographic feature dates to the period when Rudra rose to prominence and became the major deity Rudra-Shiva.<ref>For the moon iconography as marking the rise of Rudra-Shiva, see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|p=58}}.</ref> The origin of this linkage may be due to the identification of the moon with Soma, and there is a hymn in the Rig Veda where Soma and Rudra are jointly implored, and in later literature, Soma and Rudra came to be identified with one another, as were Soma and the moon.<ref>For discussion of the linkages between Soma, Moon, and Rudra, and citation to RV 7.74, see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|pp=57–58}}.</ref>
* '''Ashes''': Shiva iconography shows his body covered with ashes (bhasma, [[vibhuti]]).{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=151}}<ref>This smearing of cremation ashes emerged into a practice of some Tantra-oriented ascetics, where they would also offer meat, alcohol and sexual fluids to Bhairava (a form of Shiva), and these groups were probably not of [[Brahmanism|Brahmanic]] origin. These ascetics are mentioned in the ancient Pali Canon of Thervada Buddhism. See: {{harvnb|Flood|1996|pp=92, 161}}</ref> The ashes represent a reminder that all of material existence is impermanent, comes to an end becoming ash, and the pursuit of eternal Self and spiritual liberation is important.<ref>Antonio Rigopoulos (2013), Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Volume 5, Brill Academic, {{ISBN|978-9004178960}}, pp. 182–183</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Paul Deussen|title=Sechzig Upaniṣad's des Veda|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XYepeIGUY0gC |year=1980|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-8120814677|pages=775–776, 789–790, 551}}</ref>
* '''Matted hair''': Shiva's distinctive hair style is noted in the epithets {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Jaṭin}}, "the one with matted hair",{{sfn|Chidbhavananda|1997|p=22}} and Kapardin, "endowed with matted hair"<ref>For translation of Kapardin as "Endowed with matted hair" see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=279}}.</ref> or "wearing his hair wound in a braid in a shell-like (kaparda) fashion".<ref>{{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|p=475}}.</ref> A kaparda is a cowrie shell, or a braid of hair in the form of a shell, or, more generally, hair that is shaggy or curly.<ref>For Kapardin as a name of Shiva, and description of the kaparda hair style, see, Macdonell, p. 62.</ref>
* '''Blue throat''': The epithet {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Nīlakaṇtha}} (Sanskrit {{lang|sa|नीलकण्ठ}}; ''nīla'' = "blue", ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|kaṇtha}}'' = "throat").<ref>{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=290}}</ref><ref>See: name #93 in {{harvnb|Chidbhavananda|1997|p=31}}.</ref> Since Shiva drank the [[Halahala]] poison churned up from the [[Samudra manthan|Samudra Manthana]] to eliminate its destructive capacity. Shocked by his act, Parvati squeezed his neck and stopped it in his neck to prevent it from spreading all over the universe, supposed to be in Shiva's stomach. However the poison was so potent that it changed the color of his neck to blue.<ref>For Shiva drinking the poison churned from the world ocean see: {{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=78}}</ref>{{sfn|Kramrisch|1981|p=473}} This attribute indicates that one can become Shiva by swallowing the worldly poisons in terms of abuses and insults with equanimity while blessing those who give them.<ref name="Neelkanth">{{Cite web|url=https://www.dadabhagwan.org/about/trimandir/lord-shiva/|title=Lord Shiva | Shiv | God Shiva | Shiva God | Mahadev | Lord Shiv | Neelkanth|website=www.dadabhagwan.org}}</ref>
* '''Meditating yogi''': his iconography often shows him in a [[Yoga]] pose, meditating, sometimes on a symbolic Himalayan Mount Kailasha as the Lord of Yoga.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=151}}
* '''Sacred Ganga''': The epithet ''Gangadhara'', "Bearer of the river [[Ganga]]" (Ganges). The Ganga flows from the matted hair of Shiva.<ref>For alternate stories about this feature, and use of the name {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Gaṅgādhara}} see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|pp=59 and 109}}.</ref><ref>For description of the {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Gaṅgādhara}} form, see: {{harvnb|Sivaramamurti|1976|p=8}}.</ref> The ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|Gaṅgā}}'' (Ganga), one of the major rivers of the country, is said to have made her abode in Shiva's hair.<ref>For Shiva supporting {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Gaṅgā}} upon his head, see: {{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|p=473}}.</ref>
* '''Tiger skin''': Shiva is often shown seated upon a tiger skin.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=151}}
* '''Serpents''': Shiva is often shown garlanded with a [[Nāga|snake]].{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=151}}
* '''Trident''': Shiva typically carries a [[trident]] called ''[[Trishula]]''.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=151}} The trident is a weapon or a symbol in different Hindu texts.{{sfn | Wayman | Singh | 1991 | p=266}} As a symbol, the ''Trishul'' represents Shiva's three aspects of "creator, preserver and destroyer",{{sfn|Suresh Chandra|1998|p=309}} or alternatively it represents the equilibrium of three [[Gunas]] of "sattva, rajas and tamas".{{sfn|Sitansu S. Chakravarti|1991|p=51}}
* '''Drum''': A small drum shaped like an hourglass is known as a ''[[damaru]]''.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=218}}<ref>For definition and shape, see: {{harvnb|Apte|1965|p=461}}.</ref> This is one of the attributes of Shiva in his famous dancing representation{{sfn|Jansen|1993|p=44}} known as [[Nataraja]]. A specific hand gesture ([[mudra]]) called ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|ḍamaru-hasta}}'' (Sanskrit for "{{transliteration|sa|ISO|ḍamaru}}-hand") is used to hold the drum.{{sfn|Jansen|1993|p=25}} This drum is particularly used as an emblem by members of the {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Kāpālika}} sect.<ref>For use by {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Kāpālikas}}, see: {{harvnb|Apte|1965|p=461}}.</ref>
* '''Axe''' (''[[Parashu]]'') and '''Deer''' are held in Shiva's hands in Odisha & south Indian icons.<ref>{{Cite book|title=South Indian Bronzes|last=C. Sivaramamurti|publisher=Lalit Kalā Akademi|year=1963|page=41}}</ref>
* '''Rosary beads''': he is garlanded with or carries a string of rosary beads in his right hand, typically made of ''[[Rudraksha]]''.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=151}} This symbolises grace, mendicant life and meditation.<ref>{{cite book|author=John A. Grimes|title=A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qcoUFYOX0bEC&pg=PA257 |year=1996|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0791430675|page=257}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Prabhavati C. Reddy|title=Hindu Pilgrimage: Shifting Patterns of Worldview of Srisailam in South India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TkUsAwAAQBAJ |year=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1317806318|pages=114–115}}</ref>
* '''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|Nandī}}:''' [[Nandi (bull)|Nandī]], (Sanskrit: [[wikt:नन्दिन्|नन्दिन्]] (nandin)), is the name of the [[Bull (mythology)|bull]] that serves as Shiva's mount.<ref>For a review of issues related to the evolution of the bull (Nandin) as Shiva's mount, see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|pp=99–105}}.</ref><ref>For spelling of alternate proper names {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Nandī}} and Nandin see: {{harvnb|Stutley|1985|p=98}}.</ref> Shiva's association with cattle is reflected in his name {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Paśupati}}, or [[Pashupati]] (Sanskrit: पशुपति), translated by Sharma as "lord of cattle"<ref>{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=291}}</ref> and by Kramrisch as "lord of animals", who notes that it is particularly used as an epithet of Rudra.{{sfn|Kramrisch|1981|p=479}}
* '''Mount {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Kailāsa}}:''' [[Mount Kailash]] in the [[Himalayas]] is his traditional abode.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=151}}<ref>For the name ''Kailāsagirivāsī'' (''Sanskrit'' कैलासिगिरवासी), "With his abode on Mount Kailāsa", as a name appearing in the ''Shiva Sahasranama'', see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=281}}.</ref> In Hindu mythology, Mount {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Kailāsa}} is conceived as resembling a ''[[Linga]]'', representing the center of the universe.<ref>For identification of Mount {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Kailāsa}} as the central ''linga'', see: {{Harvard citation no brackets|Stutley|1985}}, p. 62.</ref>
* '''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|Gaṇa}}:''' The [[Gana|{{transliteration|sa|ISO|Gaṇa}}s]] are attendants of Shiva and live in Kailash. They are often referred to as the bhutaganas, or ghostly hosts, on account of their nature. Generally benign, except when their lord is transgressed against, they are often invoked to intercede with the lord on behalf of the devotee. His son [[Ganesha]] was chosen as their leader by Shiva, hence Ganesha's title ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|gaṇa-īśa}}'' or ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|gaṇa-pati}}'', "lord of the {{transliteration|sa|ISO|gaṇas}}".<ref>[[Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend]] ({{ISBN|0500510881}}) by Anna L. Dallapiccola</ref>
* '''Varanasi:''' [[Varanasi]] (Benares) is considered to be the city specially loved by Shiva, and is one of the holiest places of pilgrimage in India. It is referred to, in religious contexts, as Kashi.{{sfn|Keay|2000|p=33}}

== Forms and depictions ==
According to [[Gavin Flood]], "Shiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox," whose attributes include opposing themes.<ref>For quotation "Shiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox" and overview of conflicting attributes see: {{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=150}}</ref> The ambivalent nature of this deity is apparent in some of his names and the stories told about him.

=== Destroyer and Benefactor ===
{{multiple image
| align = left
| image1 = Masque de Bhairava (musée dart asiatique de Berlin) (2707467043).jpg
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| image2 = Shiva meditating Rishikesh.jpg
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| footer = Shiva is represented in his many aspects.<ref>{{cite book|author=George Michell|title=The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ajgImLs62gwC |year=1977|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0226532301|pages=25–26}}</ref> Left: [[Bhairava]] icon of the fierce form of Shiva, from 17th/18th century Nepal; right: Shiva as a meditating yogi in [[Rishikesh]].
}}
In [[Yajurveda]], two contrary sets of attributes for both malignant or terrifying (Sanskrit: ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|rudra}}'') and benign or auspicious (Sanskrit: ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|śiva}}'') forms can be found, leading Chakravarti to conclude that "all the basic elements which created the complex Rudra-Śiva sect of later ages are to be found here".<ref>For quotation regarding Yajur Veda as containing contrary sets of attributes, and marking point for emergence of all basic elements of later sect forms, see: {{Harvard citation no brackets|Chakravarti|1986}}, p. 7.</ref> In the Mahabharata, Shiva is depicted as "the standard of invincibility, might, and terror", as well as a figure of honor, delight, and brilliance.<ref>For summary of Shiva's contrasting depictions in the Mahabharata, see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1988|pp=20–21}}.</ref>

The duality of Shiva's fearful and auspicious attributes appears in contrasted names. The name Rudra reflects Shiva's fearsome aspects. According to traditional etymologies, the Sanskrit name ''Rudra'' is derived from the root ''rud-'', which means "to cry, howl".<ref>For ''rud-'' meaning "cry, howl" as a traditional etymology see: {{Harvard citation no brackets|Kramrisch|1981|p=5}}.</ref> [[Stella Kramrisch]] notes a different etymology connected with the adjectival form ''raudra'', which means "wild, of ''rudra'' nature", and translates the name ''[[Rudra]]'' as "the wild one" or "the fierce god".<ref>Citation to M. Mayrhofer, ''Concise Etymological Sanskrit Dictionary'', ''s.v.'' "rudra", is provided in: {{Harvard citation no brackets|Kramrisch|1981}}, p. 5.</ref> R. K. Sharma follows this alternate etymology and translates the name as "terrible".{{sfn|Sharma|1996|p=301}} Hara is an important name that occurs three times in the Anushasanaparvan version of the ''[[Shiva Sahasranama|Shiva sahasranama]]'', where it is translated in different ways each time it occurs, following a commentorial tradition of not repeating an interpretation. Sharma translates the three as "one who captivates", "one who consolidates", and "one who destroys".{{sfn|Sharma|1996|p=314}} Kramrisch translates it as "the ravisher".{{sfn|Kramrisch|1981|p=473}} Another of Shiva's fearsome forms is as {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Kāla}} "time" and {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Mahākāla}} "great time", which ultimately destroys all things.{{sfnm|Kramrisch|1994a|1p=476|Kramrisch|1981|2p=474}} The name {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Kāla}} appears in the ''Shiva Sahasranama'', where it is translated by Ram Karan Sharma as "(the Supreme Lord of) Time".{{sfn|Sharma|1996|p=280}} [[Bhairava]] "terrible" or "frightful"{{sfn|Apte|1965|p=727|loc=left column}} is a fierce form associated with annihilation. In contrast, the name {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Śaṇkara}}, "beneficent"{{Sfn|Sharma| 1996| p=306}} or "conferring happiness"{{sfn|Kramrisch|1981|p=481}} reflects his benign form. This name was adopted by the great [[Vedanta]] philosopher [[Adi Shankara]] (c. 788–820),{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=92}} who is also known as Shankaracharya.{{sfn|Kramrisch|1994a|p=476}} The name {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Śambhu}} (Sanskrit: {{lang|sa|शम्भु}} swam-on its own; bhu-burn/shine) "self-shining/ shining on its own", also reflects this benign aspect.{{sfn|Kramrisch|1994a|p=476}}{{sfn|Chakravarti|1986| pp= 28 (note 7), and p. 177}}

=== Ascetic and householder ===
[[File:2 image collage of Shiva as yogi and householder.jpg|thumb|Shiva is depicted both as an ascetic yogi, and as a householder with goddess [[Parvati]].|276x276px]]
Shiva is depicted as both an ascetic [[yogi]] and as a householder ([[grihasta]]), roles which have been traditionally mutually exclusive in Hindu society.<ref>For the contrast between ascetic and householder depictions, see: {{harvnb|Flood|1996|pp=150–151}}</ref> When depicted as a yogi, he may be shown sitting and meditating.<ref>For Shiva's representation as a yogi, see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|p=32}}.</ref> His epithet Mahāyogi ("the great Yogi: ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|Mahā}}'' = "great", ''Yogi'' = "one who practices Yoga") refers to his association with yoga.<ref>For name Mahāyogi and associations with yoga, see, {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|pp=23, 32, 150}}.</ref> While [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic religion]] was conceived mainly in terms of sacrifice, it was during the [[Indian epic poetry|Epic period]] that the concepts of [[Tapas (Sanskrit)|tapas]], yoga, and asceticism became more important, and the depiction of Shiva as an ascetic sitting in philosophical isolation reflects these later concepts.<ref>For the ascetic yogin form as reflecting Epic period influences, see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|p=32}}.</ref>

As a family man and householder, he has a wife, Parvati and two sons, Ganesha and Kartikeya. His epithet {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Umāpati}} ("The husband of {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Umā}}") refers to this idea, and Sharma notes that two other variants of this name that mean the same thing, {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Umākānta}} and {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Umādhava}}, also appear in the ''sahasranama''.<ref>For {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Umāpati}}, {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Umākānta}} and {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Umādhava}} as names in the Shiva Sahasranama literature, see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=278}}.</ref> {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Umā}} in epic literature is known by many names, including the benign {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Pārvatī}}.<ref>For {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Umā}} as the oldest name, and variants including {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Pārvatī}}, see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|p=40}}.</ref><ref>For {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Pārvatī}} identified as the wife of Shiva, see: {{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|p=479}}</ref> She is identified with [[Devi]], the Divine Mother; Shakti (divine energy) as well as goddesses like [[Tripura Sundari]], [[Durga]], [[Kali]], [[Kamakshi]] and [[Minakshi]]. The consorts of Shiva are the source of his creative energy. They represent the dynamic extension of Shiva onto this universe.<ref name="Search for Meaning">Search for Meaning By Antonio R. Gualtieri</ref> His son Ganesha is worshipped throughout [[India]] and [[Nepal]] as the Remover of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings and Lord of Obstacles. Kartikeya is worshipped in [[South India|Southern India]] (especially in [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Kerala]] and [[Karnataka]]) by the names Subrahmanya, Subrahmanyan, Shanmughan, Swaminathan and Murugan, and in [[North India|Northern India]] by the names Skanda, Kumara, or Karttikeya.<ref>For regional name variants of Karttikeya see: {{harvnb|Gupta|1988|loc=''Preface''}}.</ref>

Some regional deities are also identified as Shiva's children. As one story goes, Shiva is enticed by the beauty and charm of [[Mohini]], Vishnu's female avatar, and procreates with her. As a result of this union, [[Shasta (deity)|Shasta]] – identified with regional deities [[Ayyappan]] and [[Aiyanar]] – is born.<ref>{{cite book|last=Doniger|first= Wendy |title=Splitting the difference: gender and myth in ancient Greece and India|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=London|year=1999|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JZ8qfQbEJB4C&q=mohini+Vishnu&pg=PA263|pages= 263–265 | isbn=978-0226156415}}</ref><ref name=Vanita69>{{cite book |title= Same-sex love in India: readings from literature and history|last= Vanita|first= Ruth |author2=Kidwai, Saleem |year= 2001|publisher= Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0312293246|page = 69}}</ref><ref name="P71">{{cite book |title= The man who was a woman and other queer tales of Hindu lore|last= Pattanaik|first= Devdutt |year= 2001|publisher= Routledge|isbn=978-1560231813|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Odsk9xfOp6oC&q=mohini&pg=PA71|page = 71}}</ref><ref>See [[Mohini#Relationship with Shiva]] for details</ref> In outskirts of Ernakulam in [[Kerala]], a deity named [[Vishnumaya]] is stated to be offspring of Shiva and invoked in local exorcism rites, but this deity is not traceable in Hindu pantheon and is possibly a local tradition with "vaguely Chinese" style rituals, states Saletore.<ref name=Saletore>{{cite book|author=RN Saletore|title=Indian Witchcraft|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ETz3_bv8t0cC&pg=PA93 |year=1981| publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-0391024809|pages=93}}</ref> In some traditions, Shiva has daughters like the serpent-goddess [[Manasa]] and [[Ashokasundari]].{{sfn|McDaniel|2004|p=[https://archive.org/details/offeringflowersf00mcda/page/n166 156]}}<ref name="mani">{{cite book |title = Puranic Encyclopaedia: a Comprehensive Dictionary with Special Reference to the Epic and Puranic Literature |url = https://archive.org/details/puranicencyclopa00maniuoft | publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |year = 1975| isbn = 978-0842608220 | author = Vettam Mani|pages= [https://archive.org/details/puranicencyclopa00maniuoft/page/62 62], 515–516}}</ref> According to Doniger, two regional stories depict demons [[Andhaka]] and [[Jalandhara]] as the children of Shiva who war with him, and are later destroyed by Shiva.<ref name=doniger1>{{cite book|author=Wendy Doniger|title=The Bedtrick: Tales of Sex and Masquerade|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KfA9ByNVjZ8C&pg=PA72 |year=2005|publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0226156439|pages=72, 206}}</ref>

=== Iconographic forms ===
[[File:Shiva as the Lord of Dance LACMA edit.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Chola dynasty]] statue depicting Shiva dancing as [[Nataraja]] ([[Los Angeles County Museum of Art]])]]
The depiction of Shiva as [[Nataraja]] ([[Sanskrit]] नटराज; ''Naṭarāja'') is a form (''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|mūrti}}'') of Shiva (literally, "Lord of Dance").<ref>For description of the nataraja form see: {{harvnb|Jansen|1993|pp=110–111}}.</ref><ref>For interpretation of the ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|naṭarāja}}'' form see: {{harvnb|Zimmer|1972|pp=151–157}}.</ref> The names Nartaka ("dancer") and Nityanarta ("eternal dancer") appear in the Shiva Sahasranama.<ref>For names Nartaka (''Sanskrit'' नर्तक) and Nityanarta (Sanskrit नित्यनर्त) as names of Shiva, see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=289}}.</ref> His association with dance and also with music is prominent in the [[Puranas|Puranic]] period.<ref>For prominence of these associations in puranic times, see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|p=62}}.</ref> In addition to the specific iconographic form known as Nataraja, various other types of dancing forms (Sanskrit: ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|nṛtyamūrti}}'') are found in all parts of India, with many well-defined varieties in Tamil Nadu in particular.<ref>For popularity of the ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|nṛtyamūrti}}'' and prevalence in South India, see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|p=63}}.</ref> The two most common forms of the dance are the [[Tandava]], which later came to denote the powerful and masculine dance as Kala-Mahakala associated with the destruction of the world. When it requires the world or universe to be destroyed, Shiva does it by the Tandava,{{sfnm|Kramrisch|1994a|1p=439|Klostermaier|1984|2p=151|2loc=''Shiva the Dancer''}} and [[Lasya]], which is graceful and delicate and expresses emotions on a gentle level and is considered the feminine dance attributed to the goddess Parvati.<ref>{{cite book|last=Massey|first=Reginald |title=India's Kathak Dance, Past Present, Future|publisher=Abhinav Publications|page=8|chapter=India's Kathak Dance}}</ref><ref name="VMoorthy">{{cite book|last=Moorthy|first=Vijaya |title=Romance of the Raga|publisher=Abhinav Publications|year=2001|page=96}}</ref> ''Lasya'' is regarded as the female counterpart of ''Tandava''.<ref name="VMoorthy" /> The ''Tandava''-''Lasya'' dances are associated with the destruction-creation of the world.<ref>{{cite book|last=Leeming|first=David Adams |title=A Dictionary of Asian Mythology|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2001|page=45}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Radha|first=Sivananda |title=Kuṇḍalinī Yoga|publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]]|year=1992|page=304|chapter=Mantra of Muladhara Chakra}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://vedabase.net/sb/1/2/23/en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101123213949/http://vedabase.net/sb/1/2/23/en|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 November 2010|title=Srimad Bhagavatam Canto 1 Chapter 2 Verse 23|date=23 November 2010}}</ref>

[[Dakshinamurthy]] ([[Sanskrit]] दक्षिणामूर्ति; ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|Dakṣiṇāmūrti}})''<ref>For iconographic description of the {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Dakṣiṇāmūrti}} form, see: {{harvnb|Sivaramamurti|1976|p=47}}.</ref> is a form (''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|mūrti}}'') of Shiva (literally, "[facing] south form"). Dakshinamurthy is depicted as a figure seated upon a deer-throne surrounded by sages receiving instruction.<ref>For the deer-throne and the audience of sages as {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Dakṣiṇāmūrti}}, see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|p=155}}.</ref> This form represents Shiva in his aspect as a teacher of yoga, music, and wisdom and giving exposition on the ''shastras''.<ref>For description of the form as representing teaching functions, see: {{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|p=472}}.</ref> This iconographic form for depicting Shiva in Indian art is mostly from Tamil Nadu.<ref>For characterization of {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Dakṣiṇāmūrti}} as a mostly south Indian form, see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|p=62}}.</ref>

[[Bhikshatana]] ([[Sanskrit]] भिक्षाटन; ''Bhikṣāṭana'') is a form (''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|mūrti}}'') of Shiva (literally "wandering about for alms, mendicancy" <ref>{{cite book |last=Monier-Williams |first=Monier |title=Sanskrit-English Dictionary |publisher=Universität zu Köln |year=2008 |origyear=1899 |page=756}}</ref>). Bhikshatana is depicted as a nude four-armed man adorned with ornaments who holds a begging bowl in his hand and is followed by demonic attendants. The nudity and begging bowl are associated with the [[Kapalika|kapali]] tradition. This form of Shiva is associated with his penance for committing brahmicide, and with his encounters with the sages and their wives in the Deodar forest.

[[Tripurantaka]] ([[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] त्रिपुरांतक; ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|Tripurāntaka}}'') is a form (''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|mūrti}}'') of Shiva (literally "ender of Tripura"{{sfn|Sivaramamurti|1976|pp=34, 49}}). Tripurantaka is depicted with four arms, the upper pair holding an axe and a deer, and the lower pair wielding a bow and arrow. This form of Shiva is associated with his destruction of the three cities ([[Tripura (mythology)|Tripura]]) of the [[Asura]]s.<ref>For evolution of this story from early sources to the epic period, when it was used to enhance Shiva's increasing influence, see: Chakravarti, p. 46.</ref>

[[Ardhanarishvara]] ([[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]]: अर्धनारीश्वर; ''Ardhanārīśvara'') is a form (''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|mūrti}}'') of Shiva (literally "the lord who is half woman"<ref>Goldberg specifically rejects the translation by Frederique Marglin (1989) as "half-man, half-woman", and instead adopts the translation by Marglin as "the lord who is half woman" as given in Marglin (1989, 216). Goldberg, p. 1.</ref>). Adhanarishvara is depicted with one half of the body as male and the other half as female. [[Ardhanarishvara]] represents the synthesis of masculine and feminine energies of the universe (Purusha and Prakriti) and illustrates how [[Shakti]], the female principle of God, is inseparable from (or the same as, according to some interpretations) Shiva, the male principle of God, and vice versa.<ref name="britannica">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2011 |title=Ardhanārīśvara |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/33339/Ardhanarisvara |access-date=26 January 2011}}</ref>

[[Kalyanasundara]]-murti (Sanskrit कल्याणसुन्दर-मूर्ति, literally "icon of beautiful marriage") is the depiction of Shiva's marriage to [[Parvati]]. The divine couple are often depicted performing the ''[[Hindu wedding#Panigrahana|panigrahana]]'' (Sanskrit "accepting the hand") ritual from traditional Hindu wedding ceremonies. [[Āgama (Hinduism)|Agamic]] texts like the ''Amsumadbhedagama'', the ''Uttara-kamaikagama'' and the ''Purva-Karanagama'' prescribe the iconography of the Kalyanasunadara icon.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rao, (1916). Elements of Hindu Iconography. Vol. 2: Part I. Madras: Law Printing House |first=T.A. Gopinatha |title=Elements of Hindu Iconography. Vol. 2: Part I |publisher=Law Printing House |year=1916 |location=Madras |pages=338–343}}</ref> The most basic form of this ''murti'' consists of only Shiva and Parvati together, but in more elaborate forms they are accompanied by other persons, sometimes including Parvati's parents, as well as deities (often with Vishnu and Lakshmi standing as Parvati's parents, Brahma as the officiating priest, and various other deities as attendants or guests).

[[Somaskanda]] is the depiction of Shiva, Parvati, and their son Skanda ([[Kartikeya]]), popular during the [[Pallava dynasty|Pallava]] Dynasty in southern India.

[[Pañcānana]] ([[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]]: पञ्चानन), also called the ''pañcabrahma'', is a form of Shiva depicting him as having five faces which correspond to his five divine activities (''pañcakṛtya''): creation (''sṛṣṭi''), preservation (''sthithi''), destruction (''saṃhāra''), concealing grace (''tirobhāva''), and revealing grace (''anugraha''). Five is a sacred number for Shiva.<ref>For five as a sacred number, see: {{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|p=182}}.</ref> One of his most important mantras has five syllables ({{transliteration|sa|ISO|namaḥ śivāya}}).<ref>It is first encountered in an almost identical form in the Rudram. For the five syllable mantra see: {{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|p=182}}.</ref>
[[File:10th century five headed Shiva Sadashiva Cambodia Metmuseum.jpg|thumb|The 10th century five headed Shiva, Sadashiva, Cambodia]]
{| border="0pt"
||
* [[Sadyojata|{{transliteration|sa|ISO|Sadyojāta}}]]
* [[Vamadeva|{{transliteration|sa|ISO|Vāmadeva}}]]
* [[Bhairava|Aghora]]
* [[Tatpuruṣa|{{transliteration|sa|ISO|Tatpuruṣa}}]]
* [[Ishana|{{transliteration|sa|ISO|Īsāna}}]]
|}
Shiva's body is said to consist of five mantras, called the {{transliteration|sa|ISO|[[pañcabrahman]]}}.<ref>For discussion of these five forms and a table summarizing the associations of these five mantras see: {{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|pp=182–189}}.</ref> As forms of God, each of these have their own names and distinct iconography:<ref>For distinct iconography, see {{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|p=185}}.</ref> These are represented as the five faces of Shiva and are associated in various texts with the five elements, the five senses, the five organs of perception, and the five organs of action.<ref>For association with the five faces and other groups of five, see: {{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|p=182}}.</ref><ref>For the epithets ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|[[pañcamukha]]}}'' and ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|[[pañcavaktra]]}}'', both of which mean "five faces", as epithets of {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Śiva}}, see: {{harvnb|Apte|1965|p=578}}, middle column.</ref> Doctrinal differences and, possibly, errors in transmission, have resulted in some differences between texts in details of how these five forms are linked with various attributes.<ref>For variation in attributions among texts, see: {{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|p=187}}.</ref> The overall meaning of these associations is summarized by Stella Kramrisch, "
{{blockquote|Through these transcendent categories, Śiva, the ultimate reality, becomes the efficient and material cause of all that exists.{{sfn|Kramrisch|1994a|p=184}}}}

According to the ''[[Pañcabrahma Upanishad]]'':

{{blockquote|One should know all things of the phenomenal world as of a fivefold character, for the reason that the eternal verity of {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Śiva}} is of the character of the fivefold Brahman. (''Pañcabrahma Upanishad'' 31)<ref>Quotation from ''Pañcabrahma Upanishad'' 31 is from: {{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|p=182}}.</ref>}}

In the hymn of [[Manikkavacakar]]'s [[Thiruvasagam]], he testifies that at [[Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram]] had, by the pre-[[Chola]] period, an abstract or 'cosmic' symbolism linked to [[Pancha Bhoota|five elements (Pancha Bhoota)]] including ether.{{sfn|Srinivasan|2004|p=446}} Nataraja is a significant visual interpretation of [[Brahman]] and a dance posture of Shiva.<ref>{{cite book |author=James C. Harle |title=The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent |url=https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo00harl |url-access=registration |year=1994 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0300062175 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo00harl/page/309 309]–310}}</ref> [[Sharada Srinivasan]] notes that, [[Nataraja]] is described as [[Satcitananda]] or "Being, Consciousness and Bliss" in the [[Shaiva Siddhanta]] text ''Kunchitangrim Bhaje'', resembling the [[Advaita Vedanta|Advaita doctrine]], or "abstract monism," of [[Adi Shankara]], "which holds the individual Self ([[Jiva|Jīvātman]]) and supream Self ([[Paramatman|Paramātmā]]) to be one," while "an earlier hymn to Nataraja by Manikkavachakar identifies him with the unitary supreme consciousness, by using Tamil word '''Or Unarve''', rather than [[Sanskrit]] '''Chit'''." This may point to an "osmosis" of ideas in [[medieval India]], states Srinivasan.{{sfn|Srinivasan|2004|pp=447}}

[[File:Shiv lingam Tripundra.jpg|thumb|232x232px|[[Lingam|Shiva Lingam]] with [[tripundra]]]]

=== Lingam ===
{{Main|Lingam}}
The ''Linga Purana'' states, "Shiva is signless, without color, taste, smell, that is beyond word or touch, without quality, motionless and changeless".<ref name="Daniélou1991p222"/> The source of the universe is the signless, and all of the universe is the manifested Linga, a union of unchanging Principles and the ever changing nature.<ref name="Daniélou1991p222"/> The ''Linga Purana'' and [[Ishvara Gita|Siva Gita]] texts builds on this foundation.{{Sfn|Kramrisch|1994a|pp=171–185}}<ref>{{cite book|first=Anantharaman|last=K.V|title=Siva Gita A Critical Study|url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/295754|chapter=Chapter X – Omnipotence of Siva Linga|hdl=10603/295754}}</ref> Linga, states [[Alain Daniélou]], means sign.<ref name="Daniélou1991p222">{{cite book|author=Alain Daniélou|title=The Myths and Gods of India |url=https://archive.org/details/mythsgodsofindia00dani|url-access=registration|series=Princeton Bollingen Series|year=1991|publisher=Inner Traditions / Bear & Co|isbn=978-0892813544|pages=[https://archive.org/details/mythsgodsofindia00dani/page/222 222]–224}}</ref> It is an important concept in Hindu texts, wherein Linga is a manifested sign and nature of someone or something. It accompanies the concept of [[Brahman]], which as invisible signless and existent Principle, is formless or linga-less.<ref name="Daniélou1991p222"/>

[[Shvetashvatara Upanishad]] states one of the three significations, the primary one, of ''Lingam'' as "[[Purusha|the imperishable Purusha]]", [[Brahman|the absolute reality]], where says the ''linga'' as "sign", a mark that provides the existence of [[Brahman]], thus the original meaning as "sign".{{sfn|Kramrisch|1994a|p=221}} Furthermore, it says "Shiva, the Supreme Lord, has no liūga", '''liuga''' ({{lang-sa|लिऊग}} {{IAST3|liūga}}) meaning Shiva is transcendent, beyond any characteristic and, specifically the sign of gender.{{sfn|Kramrisch|1994a|p=221}}

Apart from anthropomorphic images of Shiva, he is also represented in aniconic form of a lingam.{{sfnm|Michaels|2004|1p=216|Flood|1996|2p=29}}<ref>Tattwananda, pp. 49–52.</ref> These are depicted in various designs. One common form is the shape of a vertical rounded column in the centre of a lipped, disk-shaped object, the ''yoni'', symbolism for the goddess Shakti.<ref name=britannicalingam>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/lingam Lingam: Hindu symbol] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161011224444/https://www.britannica.com/topic/lingam |date=11 October 2016 }} Encyclopædia Britannica</ref> In Shiva temples, the ''linga'' is typically present in its sanctum sanctorum and is the focus of votary offerings such as milk, water, flower petals, fruit, fresh leaves, and rice.<ref name=britannicalingam /> According to Monier Williams and Yudit Greenberg, ''linga'' literally means 'mark, sign or emblem', and also refers to a "mark or sign from which the existence of something else can be reliably inferred". It implies the regenerative divine energy innate in nature, symbolized by Shiva.<ref>Monier Williams (1899), Sanskrit to English Dictionary, लिङ्ग, p. 901</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Yudit Kornberg Greenberg|title=Encyclopedia of Love in World Religions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nGoag6b3JvYC&pg=PA572 |year=2008|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1851099801|pages=572–573}}</ref>

Some scholars, such as [[Wendy Doniger]], view ''linga'' as merely a phallic symbol,<ref>{{cite book|author=O'Flaherty, Wendy Doniger|title=Śiva, the erotic ascetic|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1981|isbn=0195202503|location=Oxford}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=O'Flaherty, Wendy Doniger|title=On Hinduism|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0199360079|location=Oxford}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=O'Flaherty, Wendy Doniger|title=The Hindus: An Alternative History|publisher=Viking Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0143116691|location=United States}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Rohit Dasgupta|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bHytBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA107|title=Cultural Encyclopedia of the Penis|date= 2014|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0759123144|editor1=Michael Kimmel|page=107|editor2=Christine Milrod|editor3=Amanda Kennedy}}</ref> although this interpretation is criticized by others, including [[Swami Vivekananda]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Sen|first=Amiya P.|title=The Indispensable Vivekananda|publisher=Orient Blackswan|year=2006|pages=25–26|chapter=Editor's Introduction}}</ref> [[Sivananda Saraswati]],<ref name="Sivananda 1996">{{cite book|last=Sivananda|first=Swami|title=Lord Siva and His Worship|publisher=The Divine Life Trust Society|year=1996|chapter=Worship of Siva Linga|chapter-url=http://www.dlshq.org/download/lordsiva.htm#_VPID_80}}</ref> [[Stella Kramrisch]],{{sfn|p=26|Kramrisch|1994a}} [[Swami Agehananda Bharati]],<ref name="abha70">{{cite book|title=The Tantric Tradition|author=Swami Agehananda Bharati|year=1970|isbn=0877282536|publisher=Red Wheel/Weiser|page=294}}</ref> [[S. N. Balagangadhara]],<ref name="Balagangadhara, S.N., Sarah Claerhout 118–143">{{cite journal|last1=Balagangadhara |first1=S. N. |last2=Claerhout |first2=Sarah |date=Spring 2008|title=Are Dialogues Antidotes to Violence? Two Recent Examples From Hinduism Studies|url=http://www.jsri.ro/new/?download=19_balagangadhara_claerhout.pdf|url-status=dead|journal=Journal for the Study of Religions and Ideologies|volume=7|issue=19|pages=118–143|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090820023251/http://www.jsri.ro/new/?download=19_balagangadhara_claerhout.pdf|archive-date=20 August 2009|access-date=18 January 2009}}</ref> and others.<ref name="acahin">{{cite book|isbn=978-9385485015|author=Rajiv Malhotra|title=Academic Hinduphobia: A critique of Wendy Doniger's erotic school of Indology|year=2016|publisher=Voice of India}}</ref><ref name="inreinter">{{cite book|title=Invading the Sacred: An Analysis of Hinduism Studies in America|publisher=Rupa & Co.|date=2007|isbn=978-8129111821|chapter=The Hindu Goddess Reinterpreted}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://magazine.uchicago.edu/0412/features/|author=Amy M. Braverman|year=2004|publisher=University of Chicago|title=The interpretation of gods}}</ref><ref name="Balagangadhara, S.N., Sarah Claerhout 118–143"/> According to [[Moriz Winternitz]], the ''linga'' in the Shiva tradition is "only a symbol of the productive and creative principle of nature as embodied in Shiva", and it has no historical trace in any obscene phallic cult.<ref>{{cite book|last=Winternitz|first=Moriz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JRfuJFRV_O8C&pg=PA543|title=A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1|author2=V. Srinivasa Sarma|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|year=1981|isbn=978-8120802643|page=543 footnote 4}}</ref> According to [[Sivananda Saraswati]], westerners who are curiously passionate and have impure understanding or intelligence, incorrectly assume Siva Linga as a phallus or sex organ.<ref name="Sivananda 1996"/> Later on, [[Sivananda Saraswati]] mentions that, this is not only a serious mistake, but also a grave blunder.<ref name="Sivananda 1996"/>

The worship of the lingam originated from the famous hymn in the ''Atharva-Veda Samhitâ'' sung in praise of the ''Yupa-Stambha'', the sacrificial post. In that hymn, a description is found of the beginningless and endless ''[[Stambha]]'' or ''Skambha'', and it is shown that the said ''Skambha'' is put in place of the eternal [[Brahman]]. Just as the [[Yajna]] (sacrificial) fire, its smoke, ashes, and flames, the ''Soma'' plant, and the ox that used to carry on its back the wood for the [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic sacrifice]] gave place to the conceptions of the brightness of Shiva's body, his tawny matted hair, his blue throat, and the riding on the bull of the Shiva, the ''Yupa-Skambha'' gave place in time to the ''Shiva-Linga''.<ref name="E.U.Harding">{{cite book | last = Harding | first = Elizabeth U. | title = Kali: The Black Goddess of Dakshineswar | chapter = God, the Father | publisher = Motilal Banarsidass | year = 1998 | pages = 156–157 | isbn = 978-8120814509}}</ref><ref name="paris_congress">{{cite book | last = Vivekananda | first = Swami | title = The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda | chapter = The Paris congress of the history of religions | chapter-url = http://www.ramakrishnavivekananda.info/vivekananda/volume_4/translation_prose/the_paris_congress.htm | volume = 4}}</ref> In the text ''Linga Purana'', the same hymn is expanded in the shape of stories, meant to establish the glory of the great Stambha and the superiority of Shiva as Mahadeva.<ref name="paris_congress" />

The oldest known archaeological ''linga'' as an icon of Shiva is the Gudimallam lingam from 3rd-century BCE.<ref name=britannicalingam /> In Shaivism pilgrimage tradition, twelve major temples of Shiva are called [[Jyotirlinga]], which means "linga of light", and these are located across India.<ref>{{cite book|author=Swati Mitra|title=Omkareshwar and Maheshwar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_0RpUoGiou4C&pg=PA25|year=2011|publisher=Eicher Goodearth and Madhya Pradesh Government|isbn=978-9380262246|page=25}}</ref>

=== Avatars ===
[[Puranas|Puranic scriptures]] contain occasional references to "ansh" – literally 'portion, or avatars of Shiva', but the idea of Shiva avatars is not universally accepted in [[Shaivism]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Parrinder| first= Edward Geoffrey |title=Avatar and incarnation |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=1982 |page= 88 |isbn=0195203615 }}</ref> The Linga Purana mentions twenty-eight forms of Shiva which are sometimes seen as avatars,<ref>{{cite book|last=Winternitz|first=Moriz|author2=V. Srinivasa Sarma |title=A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass| year=1981| pages=543–544| isbn=978-8120802643| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JRfuJFRV_O8C&pg=PA543}}</ref> however such mention is unusual and the avatars of Shiva is relatively rare in Shaivism compared to the well emphasized concept of Vishnu avatars in [[Vaishnavism]].<ref>James Lochtefeld (2002), "Shiva" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N–Z, Rosen Publishing, {{ISBN|0823922871}}, p. 635</ref>{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2006|p=474}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Parrinder| first= Edward Geoffrey |title=Avatar and incarnation |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=1982 |pages= 87–88 |isbn=0195203615 }}</ref>
Some Vaishnava literature reverentially link Shiva to characters in its Puranas. For example, in the ''[[Hanuman Chalisa]]'', [[Hanuman]] is identified as the eleventh avatar of Shiva.<ref>{{cite book|last= Lutgendorf|first=Philip|title=Hanuman's tale: the messages of a divine monkey|publisher=Oxford University Press US|year=2007|page=44|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fVFC2Nx-LP8C&q=avatara+Hanuman&pg=PT333 | isbn=978-0195309218}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Catherine Ludvík|title=Hanumān in the Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki and the Rāmacaritamānasa of Tulasī Dāsa|pages=10–11|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KCXQN0qoAe0C&q=Hanuman+Rudra&pg=PA10 | isbn=978-8120811225 | year=1994 | publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ.}}</ref><ref>Sri Ramakrishna Math (1985) "Hanuman Chalisa" p. 5</ref> The ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'' and the ''[[Vishnu Purana]]'' claim sage [[Durvasa]] to be a portion of Shiva.<ref name="Footnote 1 HH Wilson">{{cite web | url= http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp044.htm#fn_229 | title= Footnote 70:1 to Horace Hayman Wilson's English translation of The Vishnu Purana: Book I – Chapter IX}}</ref><ref name="Footnote 2 HH Wilson">{{cite web | url= http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp045.htm#fn_243 | title= Footnote 83:4 to Horace Hayman Wilson's English translation of The Vishnu Purana: Book I – Chapter X}}</ref><ref name="Bhagavata Purana 4.1">{{cite web | url= http://vedabase.net/sb/4/1/en1 | title= Srimad Bhagavatam Canto 4 Chapter 1 – English translation by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada | url-status=dead | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120829232539/http://vedabase.net/sb/4/1/en1 | archive-date= 29 August 2012}}</ref> Some medieval era writers have called the [[Advaita Vedanta]] philosopher [[Adi Shankara]] an incarnation of Shiva.<ref>{{cite book|translator-first=Sengaku |translator-last=Mayeda |title=A Thousand Teachings: The Upadesasahasri of Sankara |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8fkLggRFFBwC |year=1979 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0791409435 |page=4}}</ref>

== Temple ==
{{For|list of the temples by nation|List of Shiva temples in India|List of Shiva Temples in Pakistan|label 2=Pakistan}}

== Festivals ==
{{Main|Maha Shivaratri}}
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There is a ''Shivaratri'' in every lunar month on its 13th night/14th day,<ref name="Raj2012p152">{{cite book|author=Karen Pechilis|editor=Selva J. Raj|title=Dealing with Deities: The Ritual Vow in South Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h80yOTwlAUcC&pg=PA152 |year=2012|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0791482001|pages=152–153}}</ref> but once a year in late winter (February/March) and before the arrival of spring, marks ''Maha Shivaratri'' which means "the Great Night of Shiva".{{sfnm|Dalal|2010|1pp=137, 186|2a1=Jones|2a2=Ryan|2y=2006|2p=269}}

Maha Shivaratri is a major Hindu festival, but one that is solemn and theologically marks a remembrance of "overcoming darkness and ignorance" in life and the world,{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2006|p=269}} and meditation about the polarities of existence, of Shiva and a devotion to humankind.<ref name="Raj2012p152" /> It is observed by reciting Shiva-related poems, chanting prayers, remembering Shiva, fasting, doing [[Yoga]] and meditating on ethics and virtues such as self-restraint, honesty, noninjury to others, forgiveness, introspection, self-repentance and the discovery of Shiva.{{sfnm|1a1=Jones|1a2=Ryan|1y=2006|1p=269|Long|1982|2pp=189–217}} The ardent devotees keep awake all night. Others visit one of the Shiva temples or go on pilgrimage to [[Jyotirlingam]] shrines. Those who visit temples, offer milk, fruits, flowers, fresh leaves and sweets to the lingam.{{sfn|Dalal|2010|pp=137, 186}} Some communities organize special dance events, to mark Shiva as the lord of dance, with individual and group performances.<ref>{{cite book|author=Cath Senker|title=My Hindu Year|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lGZ5dWKRw5EC&pg=PA12|year=2007|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|isbn=978-1404237315|pages=12–13}}</ref> According to Jones and Ryan, Maha Sivaratri is an ancient Hindu festival which probably originated around the 5th-century.{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2006|p=269}}

Another major festival involving Shiva worship is [[Kartik Purnima]], commemorating [[Tripurantaka|Shiva's victory]] over the three demons known as [[Tripurasura]]. Across India, various Shiva temples are illuminated throughout the night. Shiva icons are carried in procession in some places.<ref>{{cite book|author=Muriel Marion Underhill|title=The Hindu Religious Year|year=1991|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=8120605233| pages=95–96}}</ref>

[[Thiruvathira]] is a festival observed in Kerala dedicated to Shiva. It is believed that on this day, Parvati met Shiva after her long penance and Shiva took her as his wife.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/life-and-style/food/tubers-are-the-veggies-of-the-day-to-celebrate-thiruvathira-in-kerala/article30522721.ece|title=Tubers are the veggies of choice to celebrate Thiruvathira|access-date=6 March 2020}}</ref> On this day Hindu women performs the Thiruvathirakali accompanied by Thiruvathira paattu (folk songs about Parvati and her longing and penance for Shiva's affection).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://travel.manoramaonline.com/travel/essential-kerala/thiruvathira-and-its-unique-traditions.html|title=Thiruvathira – Kerala's own version of Karva Chauth|publisher=Manorama|access-date=6 March 2020}}</ref>

Regional festivals dedicated to Shiva include the [[Chithirai festival]] in [[Madurai]] around April/May, one of the largest festivals in South India, celebrating the wedding of [[Minakshi]] (Parvati) and Shiva. The festival is one where both the Vaishnava and Shaiva communities join the celebrations, because Vishnu gives away his sister Minakshi in marriage to Shiva.{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2006|pp=112–113}}

Some Shaktism-related festivals revere Shiva along with the goddess considered primary and Supreme. These include festivals dedicated to [[Annapurna (goddess)|Annapurna]] such as ''Annakuta'' and those related to Durga.{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2006|pp=39, 140}} In Himalayan regions such as Nepal, as well as in northern, central and western India, the festival of [[Teej]] is celebrated by girls and women in the monsoon season, in honor of goddess Parvati, with group singing, dancing and by offering prayers in Parvati-Shiva temples.<ref>{{cite journal| author=Manju Bhatnagar| title=The Monsoon Festival Teej in Rajasthan| year=1988|volume=47|number=1| jstor=1178252| journal=Asian Folklore Studies|pages=63–72| doi=10.2307/1178252}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1=Skinner | first1=Debra | last2=Holland | first2=Dorothy | last3=Adhikari | first3=G. B. | title=The Songs of Tij: A Genre of Critical Commentary for Women in Nepal | journal=Asian Folklore Studies | volume=53 | issue=2 | year=1994 | pages=259–305 | doi=10.2307/1178647 | jstor=1178647 }}</ref>

The ascetic, Vedic and Tantric sub-traditions related to Shiva, such as those that became [[Sannyasa#Warrior ascetics|ascetic warriors]] during the Islamic rule period of India,<ref name=david>David N. Lorenzen (1978), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/600151 Warrior Ascetics in Indian History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201105162150/https://www.jstor.org/stable/600151 |date=5 November 2020 }}, Journal of the American Oriental Society, 98(1): 61–75</ref><ref name=pinch>William Pinch (2012), Warrior Ascetics and Indian Empires, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-1107406377}}</ref> celebrate the [[Kumbha Mela]] festival.{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2006|p=301}} This festival cycles every 12 years, in four pilgrimage sites within India, with the event moving to the next site after a gap of three years. The biggest is in [[Allahabad|Prayaga]] (renamed Allahabad during the Mughal rule era), where millions of Hindus of different traditions gather at the confluence of rivers Ganges and Yamuna. In the Hindu tradition, the Shiva-linked ascetic warriors (''Nagas'') get the honor of starting the event by entering the ''Sangam'' first for bathing and prayers.{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2006|p=301}}

In Pakistan, major Shivaratri celebration occurs at the [[Umarkot Shiv Mandir]] in the [[Umerkot District|Umarkot]]. The three-day [[Shivarathri]] celebration at the temple is attended by around 250,000 people.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1392074 |title=The thriving Shiva festival in Umarkot is a reminder of Sindh's Hindu heritage |date=27 February 2018 |first1=Zulfiqar Ali |last1=Kalhoro |work=[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]] |access-date=5 August 2020}}</ref>

== Beyond the Indian subcontinent and Hinduism ==

=== Indonesia ===
[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Beeld van Shiva Dijeng-plateau TMnr 60037355.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Shiva sculpture, [[Dieng Plateau]] in [[Java]], [[Indonesia]]]]
In [[Hinduism in Indonesia|Indonesian Shaivism]] the popular name for Shiva has been ''[[Batara Guru]]'', which is derived from Sanskrit ''Bhattāraka'' which means "noble lord".{{sfn|Ghose|1966|pp=16, 123, 494–495, 550–552}} He is conceptualized as a kind spiritual teacher, the first of all [[Guru]]s in Indonesian Hindu texts, mirroring the Dakshinamurti aspect of Shiva in the [[Indian subcontinent]].{{sfn|Ghose|1966|pp=130–131, 550–552}} However, the Batara Guru has more aspects than the Indian Shiva, as the Indonesian Hindus blended their spirits and heroes with him. Batara Guru's wife in [[Southeast Asia]] is the same Hindu deity [[Durga]], who has been popular since ancient times, and she too has a complex character with benevolent and fierce manifestations, each visualized with different names such as Uma, Sri, Kali and others.<ref>Hariani Santiko (1997), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1178725 The Goddess Durgā in the East-Javanese Period] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180822214426/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1178725 |date=22 August 2018 }}, Asian Folklore Studies, Vol. 56, No. 2, pp. 209–226</ref>{{sfn|Ghose|1966|pp=15–17}} In contrast to Hindu religious texts, whether Vedas or Puranas, in [[wayang|Javanese puppetry (wayang)]] books, Batara Guru is the king of the gods who regulates and creates the world system. In the classic book that is used as a reference for the puppeteers, it is said that Sanghyang Manikmaya or Batara Guru was created from a sparkling light by Sang Hyang Tunggal, along with the blackish light which is the origin of Ismaya.<ref>{{cite book|title=Ensiklopedi wayang Indonesia: A-B |volume=1 |editor=Sena Wangi |publisher=Sekretariat Nasional Pewayangan Indonesia |year=1999 |isbn=9799240018 |language=id |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pN9kAAAAMAAJ |page=259}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IytwAAAAMAAJ |page=525 |title=The British in Java, 1811–1816: a Javanese account |volume=10 |series=Oriental documents |editor=P. B. R. Carey |publisher=Oxford University Press, for British Academy |year=1992 |isbn=0197260624}}</ref> Shiva has been called Sadāśiva, Paramasiva, Mahādeva in benevolent forms, and Kāla, Bhairava, Mahākāla in his fierce forms.{{sfn|Ghose|1966|pp=15–17}}

The Indonesian Hindu texts present the same philosophical diversity of Shaivite traditions found in the Indian subcontinent. However, among the texts that have survived into the contemporary era, the more common are of those of [[Shaiva Siddhanta]] (locally also called Siwa Siddhanta, Sridanta).{{sfn|Ghose|1966|pp=155–157, 462–463}}

During the pre-Islamic period on the island of [[Java]], Shaivism and Buddhism were considered very close and allied religions, though not identical religions.{{sfn|Ghose|1966|pp=160–165}} The medieval-era Indonesian literature equates Buddha with Siwa (Shiva) and Janardana (Vishnu).<ref>J.L. Moens (1974), ''Het Buddhisme Java en Sumatra in Zijn laatste boeiperiods'', T.B.G., pp. 522–539, 550; {{oclc|10404094}}</ref> This tradition continues in predominantly Hindu Bali Indonesia in the modern era, where Buddha is considered the younger brother of Shiva.{{sfn|Ghose|1966|pp=4–6, 14–16, 94–96, 160–161, 253}}

=== Central Asia ===
The worship of Shiva became popular in [[Central Asia]] through the influence of the [[Hephthalite Empire]]<ref name="ReferenceA">P. 377 ''Classical Hinduism'' By Mariasusai Dhavamony</ref> and [[Kushan Empire]]. Shaivism was also popular in [[Sogdia]] and the [[Kingdom of Yutian]] as found from the wall painting from Penjikent on the river Zervashan.<ref name="ReferenceB">Puri, P. 133 Buddhism in Central Asia</ref> In this depiction, Shiva is portrayed with a sacred halo and a sacred thread (''Yajnopavita'').<ref name="ReferenceB" /> He is clad in tiger skin while his attendants are wearing Sogdian dress.<ref name="ReferenceB" /> A panel from [[Dandan Oilik]] shows Shiva in His Trimurti form with Shakti kneeling on her right thigh.<ref name="ReferenceB" /><ref name="unesco427">{{Cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/silkroad/files/knowledge-bank-article/vol_III%20silk%20road_religions%20and%20religious%20movements%20II.pdf|title=Request Rejected}}</ref> Another site in the [[Taklamakan Desert]] depicts him with four legs, seated cross-legged on a cushioned seat supported by two bulls.<ref name="ReferenceB" /> It is also noted that the [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] wind god [[Vayu-Vata]] took on the iconographic appearance of Shiva.<ref name="unesco427" />

=== Sikhism ===
The Japuji Sahib of the [[Guru Granth Sahib]] says: "The Guru is Shiva, the Guru is Vishnu and Brahma; the Guru is Paarvati and Lakhshmi."<ref>{{cite book|title=Neighboring Faiths: A Christian Introduction to World Religions|page=377|author=Winfried Corduan|publisher=InterVarsiry Press}}</ref> In the same chapter, it also says: "Shiva speaks, and the Siddhas listen." In [[Dasam Granth]], [[Guru Gobind Singh]] has mentioned two avatars of Rudra: [[Dattatreya]] Avatar and [[Parasnath]] Avatar.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8-h8ptzp0lUC&q=chaubis+avtar&pg=PA16|title=Dasam Granth|isbn=978-8170103257}}</ref>

=== Buddhism ===
[[File:Tibetan thangka from AD 1500, Mahakala, Protector of the Tent, Central Tibet. Distemper on cloth- (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|[[Mahakala]], c. 1500 CE Tibetan Thangka]]
Shiva is mentioned in the [[Buddhist Tantras]] and worshipped as the fierce deity [[Mahākāla]] in [[Vajrayana]], [[Chinese Esoteric Buddhism|Chinese Esoteric]], and [[Tibetan Buddhism]].<ref>{{cite book |author-last=Bryson |author-first=Megan |year=2017 |chapter=Between China and Tibet: Mahākāla Worship and Esoteric Buddhism in the Dali Kingdom |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mz-9DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA402 |editor1-last=Bentor |editor1-first=Yael |editor2-last=Shahar |editor2-first=Meir |title=Chinese and Tibetan Esoteric Buddhism |location=Leiden and Boston |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |series=Studies on East Asian Religions |volume=1 |pages=402–428 |doi=10.1163/9789004340503_019 |isbn=978-9004340497 |issn=2452-0098}}</ref> In the cosmologies of Buddhist Tantras, Shiva is depicted as passive, with Shakti being his active counterpart: Shiva as ''[[Prajñā (Buddhism)|Prajña]]'' and Shakti as ''[[Upaya|Upāya]]''.<ref name="Kalupahana 2001">{{cite book |last=Kalupahana |first=David J. |author-link=David Kalupahana |year=2001 |origyear=1991 |chapter=Integration of Sūtra and Tantra: Śiva, Śakti interpreted as ''Prajña'', ''Upāya'' |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x_FJcRDXhfQC&pg=PA95 |title=Buddhist Thought and Ritual |location=New Delhi |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |page=95 |isbn=978-8120817739 |oclc=487199178}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9aWyaaw9pC0C&pg=PA43 | title=What Is Tantric Practice? | author=Barnaby B. Dhs | page=43 |access-date=13 October 2013| isbn=978-1465330093 | date=2006}}</ref>

In [[Mahayana Buddhism]], Shiva is depicted as [[Maheśvara (Buddhism)|Maheshvara]], a deva living in [[Akaniṣṭha|Akanishta Devaloka]]. In [[Theravada Buddhism]], Shiva is depicted as [[Ishana]], a deva residing in the 6th heaven of [[Kamadhatu]] along with [[Sakra (Buddhism)|Sakra Indra]]. In [[Vajrayana Buddhism]], Shiva is depicted as [[Mahakala]], a dharma protecting [[Bodhisattva]]. In most forms of Buddhism, the position of Shiva is lesser than that of [[Mahabrahma]] or [[Sakra (Buddhism)|Sakra Indra]]. In Mahayana Buddhist texts, Shiva (Maheshvara) becomes a buddha called Bhasmeshvara Buddha ("Buddha of ashes").{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}

In [[China]] and [[Taiwan]], Shiva, better known there as [[Maheśvara (Buddhism)|Maheśvara]] ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 大自在天; [[pinyin]]: Dàzìzàitiān; or [[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 摩醯首羅天 [[pinyin]]: Móxīshǒuluótiān) is considered one of the ''[[Twenty-Four Protective Deities|Twenty Devas]]'' ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 二十諸天, [[pinyin]]: Èrshí Zhūtiān) or the ''[[Twenty-Four Protective Deities|Twenty-Four Devas]]'' ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 二十四諸天, [[pinyin]]: Èrshísì zhūtiān) who are a group of ''[[dharmapala]]s'' that manifest to protect the Buddhist dharma.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/275253538|title=A dictionary of Chinese Buddhist terms: with Sanskrit and English equivalents and a Sanskrit-Pali index|date=2004|publisher=RoutledgeCurzon|first1=Lewis |last1=Hodous |first2=William Edward |last2=Soothill|isbn=0203641868|location=London|oclc=275253538}}</ref> Statues of him are often enshrined in the [[Mahavira Hall]]s of [[Chinese Buddhism|Chinese Buddhist]] [[Buddhist temple|temples]] along with the other ''[[Deva (Buddhism)|devas]]''. In addition, he is also regarded as one of thirty-three manifestations of [[Avalokiteśvara|Avalokitesvara]] in the [[Lotus Sutra]].<ref>{{Cite book|author=Watson, Burton|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/247391640|title=The lotus sutra|date=1999|publisher=Sri Satguru Publications|isbn=8170306337|oclc=247391640}}</ref> In [[Mahayana]] [[Buddhist cosmology]], Maheśvara resides in [[Akaniṣṭha]], highest of the Śuddhāvāsa ("[[Pure Abodes]]") wherein [[Anāgāmi]] ("Non-returners") who are already on the path to [[Arhat]]hood and who will attain enlightenment are born.

[[Daikokuten]], one of the [[Seven Lucky Gods]] in [[Japan]], is considered to be evolved from Shiva. The god enjoys an exalted position as a household deity in Japan and is worshipped as the god of wealth and fortune.<ref>{{cite book|first=Jeremy|last=Roberts|title=Japanese Mythology A to Z|publisher=Infobase Publishing|year=2009|page=28|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xdfgjV2kw6oC|isbn=978-1438128023}}</ref> The name is the Japanese equivalent of [[Mahākāla]], the Buddhist name for Shiva.<ref>{{cite book|first=Pratapaditya|last=Pal|title=Indian Sculpture: 700–1800|publisher=Los Angeles County Museum of Art|page=180}}</ref>

{{gallery
|title = Shiva has been [[Syncretism|merged]] with [[Deva (Buddhism)|Buddhist deities]] in [[East Asia]]n Buddhism
|mode = nolines
|align = center
|File:Daikoku.jpg|[[Daikokuten]] is a Shiva-[[Ōkuninushi]] fusion deity in [[Japan]]<ref>{{cite book|author=Ronald Morse|title=Folk Legends from Tono: Japan's Spirits, Deities, and Phantastic Creatures|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rkmwCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA131 |year=2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1442248236|page=131}}</ref>
|File:2016 Singapur, Chinatown, Świątynia i Muzeum Relikwi Zęba Buddy (30).jpg|[[Acala]] is a fierce Shiva adaptation in both [[China]] and Japan<ref>{{cite book|author1=Charles Russell Coulter|author2=Patricia Turner|title=Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sEIngqiKOugC&pg=PA182 |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1135963903|page=182}}</ref>
|File:60523bb7ly1goo37whi2rj20u0140125.jpg|Statue of Shiva depicted as a [[Chinese Buddhism|Chinese Buddhist]] ''[[Deva (Buddhism)|deva]]'' on [[Mount Putuo]] Guanyin Dharma Realm in [[Zhejiang]], China
}}

== In contemporary culture ==

In contemporary culture, Shiva is depicted in art, films, books, tattoos, etc. He has been referred to as "the god of cool things"<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/lord-shiva-god-of-cool-things-wendy-doniger/1/261983.html|title=Shiva, the god of cool things|access-date=2017-04-11}}</ref> and a "bonafide rock hero".<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://blogs.economictimes.indiatimes.com/onmyplate/shiva-the-brand-god-who-never-fails/|title=Shiva, the brand God who never fails|work=Economic Times Blog|access-date=2017-04-11|language=en-US}}</ref>

Popular films include the [[Gujarati language]] movie ''Har Har Mahadev'',<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZsKR1RKoJKUC&pg=PA50|title=Filming the Gods: Religion and Indian Cinema|last=Dwyer|first=Rachel|date=2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1134380701|language=en}}</ref> the [[Kannada]] movie ''[[Gange Gowri]]'' and well-known books include [[Amish Tripathi]]'s ''[[Shiva Trilogy]]'', which has sold over a million copies.<ref name=":1" /> On television, ''[[Devon Ke Dev...Mahadev]]'', a television serial about Shiva on the [[Life OK]] channel was among the most watched shows at its peak popularity.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Mahadev-tops-TRP-charts-with-a-new-record-of-8-2-TVR/articleshow/16488940.cms|title=Mahadev tops TRP charts with a new record of 8.2 TVR|work=The Times of India|access-date=2017-04-11}}</ref> A 90's television series of [[DD National]] titled [[Om Namah Shivay (1997 TV series)|Om Namah Shivay]] was also based on legends of Shiva.<ref>{{cite news |title=TV series ''Om Namah Shivay'' had 52 songs by top singers: Director Dheeraj Kumar |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/newsscroll/tv-series-om-namah-shivay-had-52-songs-by-top-singers-director-dheeraj-kumar/1868023 |access-date=2 December 2021 |work=www.outlookindia.com/ |agency=IANS |date=16 June 2020 |language=en}}</ref>

Popular video games featuring Shiva include the [[Shin Megami Tensei]] series and especially [[Smite (video game)|Smite]]. The god is also depicted as the mascot for the Washington Commanders in the popular animated series, Gridiron Heights.

== Notes ==

=== Explanatory notes ===
{{notelist}}
{{reflist|group=note|refs=
{{refn|name="ilph_rep_l"|group=note|
The ithyphallic representation of the erect shape connotes the very opposite in this context.{{sfn|Kramrisch|1994a|p=218}} It contextualize "[[Tantric sex|seminal retention]]", practice of [[Celibacy#Hinduism|celibacy]] ([[Brahmacarya]])<ref name="govind52">{{cite journal|author=Ghurye, G.S.|year= 1952|title= Ascetic Origins|journal= Sociological Bulletin|volume= 1|issue= 2|publisher= Sociological Bulletin, 1(2)|pages= 162–184|doi=10.1177/0038022919520206|s2cid= 220049343}}</ref> and illustration of ''Urdhva Retas''{{sfn|Kramrisch|1994a|p=26}}<ref name="brill72">Pensa, Corrado. "Some Internal and Comparative Problems in the Field of Indian Religions." Problems and Methods of the History of Religions. Brill, 1972. 102–122.</ref><ref name="patt06" >Pattanaik, Devdutt. Shiva to Shankara: Decoding the phallic symbol. Indus Source, 2006.</ref><ref>Ghurye, G.S., 1952. Ascetic Origins. Sociological Bulletin, 1(2), pp. 162–184.</ref> and represents Shiva as "he stands for complete control of the senses, and for the supreme carnal renunciation".{{sfn|Kramrisch|1994a|p=218}}}}

}}

=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

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{{refend}}

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{{refend}}

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* [http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399318/obo-9780195399318-0051.xml Shaivism], Peter Bisschop

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Adityas

2023-01-14T12:08:16Z

ImportMaster: robot: Create/update articles in Category:Hindu gods.

{{short description|Offsprings of the Hindu goddess Aditi}}
{{other uses|Aditya (disambiguation)}}
[[File:Surya with Adityas.jpg|thumb|An 11th–century sculpture of [[Surya]] with eleven other Adityas depicted at the top]]

In [[Hinduism]], '''Adityas''' ({{lang-sa|आदित्य|Āditya|of Aditi}}, {{IPA-sa|aːd̪ɪt̪jɐ|pronunciation}}), refers to the offspring of [[Aditi]], the goddess representing the infinity.<ref name=Karel-2005/> The name ''Aditya'', in the singular, is taken to refer to the [[solar deity|sun god]] [[Surya]]. Generally, Adityas are twelve in number and consists of Vivasvan, [[Aryaman]], [[Tvashta]], [[Savitr]], [[Bhaga]], [[Dhatri|Dhata]], [[Mitra (Vedic)|Mitra]], [[Varuna]], [[Ansa (god)|Amsa]], [[Pushan]], [[Indra]] and [[Vishnu]] (in the form of [[Vamana]]).<ref name=Dalal-2014/>

They appear in the ''[[Rig Veda]]'', where there are 6–8 in number, all male. The number increases to 12 in the ''[[Brahmanas]]''. The [[Mahabharata]] and the ''[[Puranas]]'' mention the sage [[Kashyapa]] as their father.<ref name=Dalal-2014/> In each month of the year a different Aditya is said to shine.

==Sun worship ==
[[File:Surya Namaskar sculpture at IGIA T3 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Sculpture of the 12 [[asana]]s of one form of Surya Namaskar{{efn|Incorporating [[Ashtanga Namaskara]] in place of [[Caturanga Dandasana]]}} in [[Indira Gandhi International Airport|Indira Gandhi Airport, Delhi]]<ref>{{cite news |work=Indian Express |date=4 September 2010 |url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/destination-delhi/677151 |title=Destination Delhi}}</ref> (figures sculpted by Nikhil Bhandari)]]

===Characterisation===
{{see also | Solar deity }}

The Aditya have been described in the [[Rig Veda]] as bright and pure as streams of water, free from all guile and falsehood, blameless, perfect.

This class of deities has been seen as upholding the movables and immovable [[Dharma]].
Adityas are beneficent gods who act as protectors of all beings, who are provident and guard the world of spirits and protect the world. In the form of [[Mitra-Varuna]], the Adityas are true to the eternal Law and act as the exactors of debt.<ref name=RigVeda-2-XXVII/>

In present-day usage in [[Sanskrit]], the term Aditya has been made singular in contrast to Vedic ''Adityas'', and are being used synonymously with [[Surya]], the Sun. The twelve Adityas are believed to represent the twelve months in the calendar and the twelve aspects of Sun. Since they are twelve in number, they are referred as DvadashAdityas.<ref name=Sathyam-Anc-Sages/>

The 12 Ādityás are basically the monthly suns, corresponding to the approximately 12 lunations in a solar year.{{efn|The actual value is close to {{sfrac|12|7|19}}; {{nowrap|   {{sfrac|7|19}} ≈ {{frac|1|3}} ; }} so there always 12 complete lunar months in a solar year, and about every third year there is an extra, 13 th lunar month, which the assignment of deities to months does not appear to address.}} These are also called the 12 purushas, pertaining to the 12 lunar months of the year. Here the months refer to the lunar months. In astronomy the lunar months with a solar sankranti are said to have an Aditya or purusha. The month without a sankranti is said to be neuter and is said to be an extra month or the intercalary lunar month.

===Mentions in Hindu scriptures===
{{anchor | scripture | Scriptures | Text | Texts }}
{{see also | Hindu texts}}

The Ādityas are one of the principal deities of the [[Vedic]] classical [[Hinduism]] belonging to the solar class. In the Vedas, numerous hymns are dedicated to [[Mitra]], [[Varuna]], [[Savitr]], etc.

In hymn 7.99 of the ''[[Rigveda]]'', [[Indra]]-[[Vishnu]] produces the sun, his discus a vestige of his solar creation, equivalent to the sun. The Vishnu [[purana]] identifies the Discus chakra with the following: 'thoughts, like the chakra, flow faster than even the mightiest wind.'

The [[Gayatri mantra]], which is regarded as one of the most sacred of the Vedic hymns is dedicated to Savitr, one of the principal Ādityas. The Adityas are a group of solar deities, from the [[Brahmana]] period numbering twelve. The ritual of ''[[Surya Namaskār|Surya Namaskaar]]'', performed by [[Hindus]], is an elaborate set of hand gestures and body movements, designed to greet and revere the Sun.

The sun god in Hinduism is an ancient and revered deity. In later Hindu usage, all the Vedic Ādityas lost identity and metamorphosed into one composite deity, [[Surya]], the Sun. The attributes of all other Ādityas merged into that of Surya and the names of all other [[Ādityas]] became synonymous with, or epithets of, Surya.

The ''[[Ramayana]]'' has [[Rama]] as a direct descendant of the Surya, thus belonging to the [[Suryavansha|Suryavamsha]] or the Solar dynasty. The ''[[Mahabharata]]'' describes one of its warrior heroes, [[Karna]], as being the son of the Pandava mother [[Kunti]] and Surya.

The sun god is said to be married to the goddess [[Sanjna|Sanjnya]]. She is depicted in dual form, being both sunlight and shadow, personified. The goddess is revered in Gujarat and Rajasthan.

The charioteer of Surya is [[Aruṇa|Aruna]], who is also personified as the redness that accompanies the sunlight in dawn and dusk. The sun god is driven by a seven-horsed Chariot depicting the seven days of the week and the seven colours of rainbow which are seen due to the dispersion by [[Surya]]'s rays.

=== Surya Namaskaram ===
{{main|Sun Salutation}}
[[Surya Namaskar|Surya Namaskaram]], the ''Salute to the Sun'' or ''Sun Salutation'', is worship of sun<ref name="Sun Salutation">{{cite book |last=Singh |first=Kritika |title=Sun Salutation: Full step by step explanation |url=https://www.suryanamaskar.org/ |publisher=Surya Namaskar Organization}}</ref> which is also included as a practice in [[yoga as exercise]] incorporating a flow sequence of some twelve gracefully linked [[asana]]s.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mitchell |first=Carol |title=Yoga on the Ball |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b8Xgqsbp_6oC |year=2003 |publisher=Inner Traditions |isbn=978-0-89281-999-7 |page=48}}</ref><ref name=macmullen68>{{cite journal |last=MacMullen |first=Jane |title=Ashtanga Yoga |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cfUDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA68 |volume=September/October |year=1988 |journal=[[Yoga Journal]] |pages=68–70}}</ref> Similar exercises were in use in India, for example [[Indian wrestling|among wrestlers]]. The basic sequence involves moving from a standing position into [[Downward dog|Downward]] and [[Upward Dog]] poses and then back to the standing position, but many variations are possible. The set of 12 asanas is dedicated to the solar deity [[Surya]]. In some Indian traditions, the positions are each associated with a different [[mantra]].

=== Sun worship festivals ===
{{anchor | Festivals | Festival }}
{{see also | List of Hindu festivals }}

[[Makar Sankranti]] is a festival dedicated to sun worship in India and by the [[hindu diaspora]] of India.

[[Chhath]] (Hindi: छठ, also called ''Dala Chhath'') is an ancient Hindu festival dedicated to Surya, the chief solar deity, unique to [[Bihar]], [[Jharkhand]] and the [[Terai]]. This major festival is also celebrated in the northeast region of [[India]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], and parts of [[Chhattisgarh]]. Hymns to the Sun can be found in the Vedas, the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism. Practiced in different parts of India, the worship of the Sun has been described in the Rigveda. There is another festival called Sambha-Dasami, which is celebrated in the state of Odisha for the ''surya''.

The sun is prayed to by South Indians during the harvest festival.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Jain Chanchreek|author2=K.L. Chanchreek|author3=M.K. Jain|title=Encyclopaedia of Great Festivals |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=TicTAQAAIAAJ |year=2007 |publisher=Shree Publishers |isbn=978-81-8329-191-0|pages=36–38}}</ref> In [[Tamil Nadu]], the [[Tamil people]] worship the sun god during the [[Tamil culture|Tamil]] month of [[Tamil calendar|Thai]], after a year of [[crop]] farming. The month is known as the harvesting month and people pay respects to the sun on the first day of the [[Tamil calendar|Thai]] month known as [[Thai pongal]], or Pongal, which is a four-day celebration.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pongal-festival.com/|title=502 Bad Gateway nginx openresty 208.80.154.49|website=www.pongal-festival.com}}</ref> It is one of the few indigenous worship by the [[Tamil people]] irrespective of religion.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ntyo.org/kolangal/thaipongal.htm |title=Tamizhs festival |publisher=ntyo.org |access-date=3 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011227113057/http://www.ntyo.org/kolangal/thaipongal.htm |archive-date=27 December 2001 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Names of solar deities ==
{{ anchor | Name | names | Deity | Deities | List of deities | List of solar deities | List of adityas | List of Hindu solar deities }}
{{ see also | List of solar deities }}
[[File:Sun Temple of Gwalior.jpg|thumb|The Sun Temple of [[Gwalior]] is modelled after the famous [[Konark]].]]

===Rigveda===

In the [[Rigveda]], the Adityas are seven or eight in number and include:<ref name=Dalal-2014/>

# [[Varuna]]
# [[Mitra (Vedic)|Mitra]]
# [[Aryaman]]
# [[Daksha]]
# [[Bhaga]]
# [[Amsha]]
# [[Savitr]] or [[Surya]]<ref name=Jamison-Brereton-2015/><ref name=MacDonell-1897/>
# Sometimes [[Martanda]]

===Brahmanas===

In the [[Satapatha Brahmana]], the number of Adityas is eight in some passages, and in other texts of the same [[Brahmana]], twelve Adityas are mentioned.<ref name=Muir-1863/>{{rp|page=102}} The list of 12 Adityas is as follows:

# [[Yama (Hinduism)|Yama]]
# [[Aryaman]]
# [[Indra]]
# [[Ravi (god)|Ravi]]
# [[Varuna|{{IAST|Varuṇa}}]]
# [[Dhatri|{{IAST|Dhātṛ}}]]
# [[Bhaga]]
# [[savitr|{{IAST|Savitṛ}}]]
# [[Surya|Sūrya]] or Arka
# [[Ansa (Hinduism)|{{IAST|Aṃśa}}]]
# [[Mitra (Vedic)|Mitra]]
# [[Daksha|{{IAST|Dakṣa}}]]

===Upanishads===

In the ''[[Chandogya Upanishad]]'', Aditya is a name of [[Vishnu|{{IAST|Viṣṇu}}]] in his avatar as [[Vamana|Vāmana]]. His mother is [[Aditi]].

===Vishnu Purana===

The Adityas in the ''[[Vishnu Purana]]''<ref name=Vishnu-Purana-I-XV/> are:

# [[Vishnu]]
# [[Aryaman]]
# [[Indra|Śakra]]
# [[Tvastar|{{IAST|Tvaṣṭṛ}}]]
# [[Varuna|{{IAST|Varuṇa}}]]
# [[Dhatri|Dhūti]]
# [[Bhaga]]
# [[Savitr|{{IAST|Savitṛ}}]]
# [[Vivasvat]]
# [[Ansa (Hinduism)|{{IAST|Aṃśa}}]]
# [[Mitra (Vedic)|Mitra]]
#[[ Pushan|{{IAST|Pūṣan}}]]

===Bhagavata Purana===

In the [[Bhagavata Purana]], the Adityas are associated with each month of the year, it is a different Aditya who shines as the Sun-God (Surya).<ref name="Srimad-Bhagavata-12-11-27" />

{|
|-
|   || {{small|'''Name'''}} || {{small|'''Action'''}}
|- style="vertical-align:center;"
| 1 || As [[Indra]] {{small|or Vishnu}} (Vamana) || he destroys the enemies of the gods
|-
| 2 || As [[Dhata]]|| he creates living beings
|-
| 3 || As [[Parjanya]]|| he showers down rain
|-
| 4 || As [[Tvastar|Tvashtha]]|| he lives in the trees and herbs
|-
| 5 || As [[Pushan|Pushya]]|| he makes foodgrains grow
|-
| 6 || As [[Aryaman]]|| he is in the wind
|-
| 7 || As [[Bhaga]]|| he is in the body of all living beings
|-
| 8 || As [[Vivasvat|Vivasvan]]  || he is in fire and helps to cook food
|-
| 9 || As [[Amshuman (deity)|Amshuman]]  || he is again in the wind
|-
| 10 || As [[Varuna]]|| he is in the waters and
|-
| 11 || As [[Mitra]]|| he is in the moon and in the oceans
|}

===Linga Purana===

According to the ''Linga Purana'',<ref name=Linga-Purana-6/> the Adityas are:

# [[Brahma]]
# [[Vishnu]]
# [[Indra]]
# [[Tvastar|{{IAST|Tvaṣṭṛ}}]]
# [[Varuna|{{IAST|Varuṇa}}]]
# [[Dhatri|Dhata]]
# [[Bhaga]]
# [[Savitr|{{IAST|Savitṛ}}]]
# [[Surya|Vivasvat]]
# [[Amshuman (deity)|Amshuman]]
# [[Mitra]]
# [[Pushan|{{IAST|Pūṣan}}]]

=== Aditya as nakshatra devatas ===
{{unreferenced|section|date=May 2020}}

Adityas are responsible for proper functioning of the universe and in Hindu cosmology they are given lordship over celestial constellations, called ''[[nakshatra]]s'' in [[Jyotish vidya|Jyotish]]. Nakshatras are forces of universal intelligence which are intertwined with the birth-death cycle of life, identity of all created beings, events and day to day consciousness in our lives. In India, at [[Konark]], in the state of [[Odisha]], a temple is dedicated to Surya. The [[Konark Sun Temple]] has been declared a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]. Surya is the most prominent of the ''[[navagrahas]]'' or nine celestial objects of the Hindus. ''Navagrahas'' can be found in almost all Hindu temples.

Adityas manage the Shakti of the nakshatras. Here are few examples.

# Bhaga has lordship over [[Pūrva Phalgunī|Purva Phalguni]] nakshatra. Bhaga is bestower of fortune. Bhaga in Sanskrit means "a portion" so our portion in life is regulated by this divine celestial being. Many a times this is related to fortunate marriages, or fortune from marriage and partnerships. It is a very worldly nakshatra bestowing divine intelligence with respect to worldly gains in life. Beings born when Purva Phalguni is rising in the east are literal physical manifestation of this energy.
# [[Aryaman|Aryama]], the God of Patronage, is an Aditya who is the lord of [[Uttara Phalgunī|Uttar Phalguni]] nakshatra and as suggested by the name, a person born under the auspices of Aryama finds many lucky opportunities with benefactors in their lives, among many other qualities that are possessed by this divine being.
# [[Savitr|Savitur]], rules over [[Hasta (nakshatra)|Hasta]] Nakshatra and is the cheerful Aditya who manages worldly skills and artistry. Handiwork of all kinds, from needlework, pottery making to technical skills industry, sleight of hand pick pockets, magicians, and Reiki masters all are blessed by the divine intelligence and benevolence of this Aditya.
# [[Mitra]], rules over [[Anuradha (nakshatra)|Anuradha]] nakshatra they are the peacekeepers of this world.
# [[Varuna]], rules over [[Shatabhisha|Shatbhishak]] nakshatra the nakshatra of 1000 healers and gives a person intelligence about all sorts of medicine. Varuna as its ruling Aditya is lord keeper of law, hence themes of crime and punishment, law and order fall under his rulership. Varuna in RigVeda is to be feared and not taken lightly.

This makes Vedic Adityas not some conceptual, abstract, or mythological characters in a story book, but part of the visible cosmology and the everyday realities of our daily lives. We manifest their qualities in our lives and as such are part of the divine ourselves.

==See also==

; [[Solar_deity#Hinduism|Sun worship in Hinduism]]
* [[Aditi]]
* [[List of solar deities#Hindu|List of solar deities in Hinduism]]
* [[Sun_temple#Hindu|List of Surya temples]]
* [[Surya Namaskar]]

; Other related
* [[Ashvins]]
* [[Prajapati]]
* [[Rudras]]
* [[Vasus]]
* [[List of Hindu deities]]
* [[List of Hindu temples]]
* [[Hindu pilgrimage sites|List of Hindu pilgrimage sites]]

==Further reading==
* {{cite web
|title=On the Ādityas
|series=Concepts in Hinduism
|website=hinduwebsite.com
|url=http://www.hinduwebsite.com/hinduism/concepts/Adityas.asp
}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist|25em|refs=

* {{cite book |last=Singleton |first=Mark |author-link=Mark Singleton (yoga scholar) |title=Yoga Body: The Origins of Modern Posture Practice |year=2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-974598-2 |pages=180–181, 205–206 }}

<ref name=Dalal-2014>
{{cite book
|last=Dalal |first=Roshen
|date=2014-04-18
|title=Hinduism: An alphabetical guide
|publisher=Penguin UK
|isbn=978-81-8475-277-9
|lang=en
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zrk0AwAAQBAJ&q=Pushan
}}
</ref>

<ref name=Jamison-Brereton-2015>
{{cite book
|last1=Jamison |first1=Stephanie
|last2=Brereton |first2=Joel
|year=2015
|title=The Rigveda – Earliest religious poetry of India
|page=43
|publisher=Oxford University Press
|isbn=978-0190633394
}}
</ref>

<ref name=Karel-2005>
{{cite book
|first=Karel |last=Werner
|year=2005 |title=A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism
|page=17
|publisher=Routledge
|isbn = 9781135797539
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HvuQAgAAQBAJ&q=%C4%80dityas+offspring+aditi&pg=PA17
}}
</ref>

<ref name=Linga-Purana-6>
{{cite book
|title=Linga Purana
|url=http://www.astrojyoti.com/lingapurana-6.htm
}}
</ref>

<ref name=MacDonell-1897>
{{cite book
|last=MacDonell |first=Arthur Anthony
|year=1897
|title=Vedic Mythology
|pages=43
|publisher=Oxford University Press
}}
</ref>

<ref name=Muir-1863>
{{cite book
|last=Muir |first=John
|year=1863
|title=Original Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and Progress of the Religion and Institutions of India
|publisher=Williams and Norgate
|url=https://archive.org/details/originalsanskri01muirgoog
}}
</ref>

<ref name=RigVeda-2-XXVII>
{{cite book
|title=Rig Veda
|at=Book 2, Hymn XXVII
|translator=Griffith, Ralph T.H.
|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv02027.htm
}}
</ref>

<ref name=Sathyam-Anc-Sages>
{{cite book
|last=Sathyamayananda |first=Swami
|title=Ancient Sages
|year=2012
|page=173
|publisher=Sri Ramakrishna Math
|location=Mylapore, Chennai
|isbn=978-81-7505-356-4
}}</ref>



<ref name=Srimad-Bhagavata-12-11-27>
{{cite book
|title=Srimad Bhagavata Purana
|at=12.11.27–49
}}
</ref>

<ref name=Vishnu-Purana-I-XV>
{{cite book
|title=Vishnu Purana
|chapter=Book I: Chapter XV
|chapter-url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp050.htm
|via=Sacred-Texts.com
}}
</ref>

}} 

==External links==
*{{Commonscatinline|Adityas}}

{{Hindu deities and texts}}
{{Worship in Hinduism}}
{{Hindu inscriptions and arts}}
{{Hindudharma}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Hindu deities]]
[[Category:Hindu temples]]
[[Category:Hindu pilgrimage sites]]
[[Category:Adityas| ]]
[[Category:Solar gods]]
[[Category:Rigvedic deities]]

Dhata

2023-01-14T12:02:48Z

ImportMaster: robot: Create/update articles in Category:Hindu gods.

{{short description|Hindu god, son of Aditi}}
{{distinguish|Dharti (disambiguation){{!}}Dharti}}
{{refimprove|date=August 2016}}
In [[Hinduism]], '''Dhata''' or '''Dhatri''' is the name of the [[solar deity]], one of the [[Adityas]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Original Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and History of the People of India, Their Religion and Institutions, Volume 2 |page=106|author=John Muir}}</ref><ref name="Mani232">Mani p. 232</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Lochtefeld|first=James G.|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Volume 1|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc|year=2001l|isbn=978-0-8239-3179-8|language=en|page=10}}</ref> He is also a god of health and magic. He is invoked in [[tantra]] by drawing tantras and chanting [[Vedas|Vedic]] [[hymn]]s. Often invoked during major [[yagna]]s such as [[Ashwamedha]] yagna.

Dhata is evidenced as an Aditya in both Hindu epics - the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' and the ''[[Ramayana]]''.<ref>Mani p. 265</ref> He is described to fought [[Arjuna]] and [[Krishna]] in burning of [[Khandava Forest]] episode in the epic ''Mahabharata''.<ref name="Mani232"/> In the ''[[Agni Purana]]'', he is associated with the zodiac of Cancer and the colour yellow.<ref>Mani p. 265</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
* {{cite book | author = Mani, Vettam | title = Puranic Encyclopaedia: A Comprehensive Dictionary With Special Reference to the Epic and Puranic Literature | url = https://archive.org/details/puranicencyclopa00maniuoft | publisher = Motilal Banarsidass | year = 1975 | location = Delhi | isbn = 0-8426-0822-2 }}

{{Hindu Deities and Texts}}

[[Category:Health gods]]
[[Category:Solar gods]]
[[Category:Hindu gods]]
[[Category:Adityas]]

{{Hindu-myth-stub}}

Venkateswara

2023-01-13T11:45:22Z

ImportMaster: robot: Create/update articles in Category:Hindu gods.

{{Short description|Form of the Hindu god Vishnu}}
{{Redirect|Srinivasa}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2015}}
{{Infobox deity
| type = Hindu
| name = Venkateswara
| image = Malekallu Tirupathi-balaji, Arsikere.jpg
| caption = Venkateswara at the ISKCON Bangalore
| alt =
| deity_of = God of the Seven Hills<ref>{{cite web | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=10QgAAAAMAAJ&q=venkateshwara+God+of+Seven+hills | title=Sri Venkateswara, the Lord of the Seven Hills, Tirupati | last1=Sitapati | first1=Pidatala | year=1968 }}</ref>
| affiliation = [[Sri Vaishnavism]]
| abode = [[Vaikuntha]], [[Tirumala]]
| mantra = Om Namo Venkatesaya [[Om Namo Narayanaya]]
| weapon = [[Panchajanya|Shanku]], [[Sudarshana Chakra|Chakram]]
| symbols = [[Sricharanam|Namam]]
| mount = [[Garuda]]
| texts = [[Naalayira Divya Prabandham]]<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YlvikndgEmIC&dq=venkateshwara+naalayira+divya+prabandham&pg=PA429 | title=Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture | isbn=9781438406954 | last1=Holdrege | first1=Barbara A. | date=February 2012 }}</ref>
| region = [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[India]]
| other_names = Venkatesa, Venkata Ramana, Venkata Chalapathi, Srinivasa, Balaji, Yedukondalavadu, Tirupati Thimmappa, Govinda, Perumal
| spouse = [[Lakshmi|Sridevi]] and [[Bhudevi]]
}}
{{Vaishnavism}}
{{Hinduism}}
'''Venkateswara''',{{efn|{{Lang-te|వేంకటేశ్వరుడు}}, {{Lang-ta|வெங்கடேஸ்வரா}}, {{Lang-kn|ವೆಂಕಟೇಶ್ವರ}}, {{Lang-sa|वेङ्कटेश्वरः}}}} also known by various other names,<ref name=namegovinda>{{cite book |date= 1992 |title= Tourist Guide to Andhra Pradesh|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=E4l78qG3TkAC&q=other+names+of+venkateswara&pg=PA21|publisher= Sura Books |page= 21|isbn= 9788174781765}}</ref> is a form of the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] god [[Vishnu]]. Venkateswara is the presiding deity of the [[Tirumala Venkateswara Temple]], located in [[Tirupati]], Sri Balaji District, [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[India]].

==Etymology==
Venkateswara literally means, "Lord of [[Venkata (hill)|Venkata]]".<ref>{{cite book |title=Visions of a New Earth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kQMj8QQb6BwC&pg=PA115 |page=115 |author1=Daniel C. Maguire |author2=Harold Coward |author2-link=Harold Coward |publisher=[[SUNY Press]] |year=2000 |isbn = 9780791499962}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XK2kQJqyXdEC&pg=PA474 |title=The Blackwell Companion to Religious Ethics |author=William Schweiker |author-link=William Schweiker |page=474 |year=2008 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]]|isbn=9781405144445 }}</ref> The word is a combination of the words ''Venkata'' (the name of a hill in Andhra Pradesh) and ''isvara'' ("Lord").<ref>{{cite book |title=The Life of Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4-s325pdqW8C&pg=PA233 |year=2006 |page=233 |authors=John Stratton Hawley and Vasudha Narayanan |publisher=University of California Press |isbn = 9780520940079}}</ref> According to the ''[[Brahmanda Purana|Brahmanda]]'' and ''[[Bhavishya Purana|Bhavishyottara]]'' [[Puranas]], the word "Venkata" means "destroyer of sins", deriving from the Sanskrit words ''vem'' (sins) and ''kata'' (power of immunity).<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KnXXAAAAMAAJ |title=Balaji-Venkateshwara, Lord of Tirumala-Tirupati |author=Nanditha Krishna |publisher=Vakils, Feffer, and Simons |year=2000 |page=49 |isbn=9788187111467 }}</ref>

It is also said that 'Venkata' is a combination of two words: '<nowiki/>''ven''<nowiki/>' (keeps away) and '''kata''<nowiki/>' (troubles). Venkata means he 'who keeps away troubles' or 'who takes away problems' or such terms in a similar context.

==Legend==
{{Main|Legend of Tirumala}}
[[File:ISKCON Lord Balaji.jpg|thumb|Venkateswara with consorts Bhudevi and Padmavati.]]
Every year, hundreds of thousands of devotees donate a large amount of wealth at the [[Tirumala Venkateswara Temple]] at [[Tirupati]], [[Andhra Pradesh]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hindu-blog.com/2010/01/why-do-we-hindus-offer-gold-and-large.html|title=Why do we Hindus offer Gold and large amount of money at Tirupati Balaji Temple?|work=Hindu Blog|access-date=25 July 2016|date=31 October 2015}}</ref> A legend provides the reason for the same.

Once, the sages wanted to decide the deity to whom a ritual was to be dedicated. The sages appointed the sage [[Bhrigu]] to select the god. Bhrigu decided to test the gods. He first went to the King of [[Svarga]], [[Indra]], who ignored the sage, and was busy in enjoying the dance of ''[[Apsara|apsaras]]'' in heaven. Bhrigu cursed Indra that he would only be referred to as an egoistic soul, all over the universe. He next visited [[Brahma]]. Brahma was busy with his four heads in chanting the [[Vedas]], performing meditation, creating the world, and spending his time with his wife, [[Saraswati]]. Next, he visited [[Shiva]]. Shiva was busy in his ''Rudradhyanam'' with his wife, [[Parvati]], at his feet. Bhrigu cursed Shiva that he would be worshipped only in the formless [[Lingam]]. At last, Bhrigu went to [[Vishnu]]. Vishnu was sleeping on [[Shesha|Adishesha]], and [[Lakshmi]] was at his feet. When Bhrigu arrived, he first saw Vishnu's feet, and felt humiliated. Enraged, he kicked Vishnu on his chest. Awakened, Vishnu started massaging Bhrigu's feet, and served him with great hospitality. Bhrigu was pleased, and ordered the sages to perform the rites to Vishnu. Lakshmi quarelled with Vishnu, as she felt that Bhrigu insulted her indirectly by hitting Vishnu on his chest where she lived, and thus left [[Vaikuntha]].

She settled on earth in disguise as a young-sage like boy in the ancient city of Karvir, and meditated the name of Vishnu (Regarded by adherents to be the site of the Mahalakshmi temple). Vishnu soon arrived on earth, searching for his consort. He failed to find her, and instead settled on the [[Seshachalam]] hills. This happened to be the spot in Tirupati where [[Varaha]] had rested and taught Karma Yoga to the people till the beginning of [[Kali Yuga]], after having rescuing [[Bhumi (goddess)|Bhudevi]] from the wicked [[Hiranyaksha]]. Vishnu sat inside an anthill in his disguise, which was situated under a tamarind tree, and started chanting the name of his wife, Mahalakshmi.<ref>{{Cite book|last=HS|first=ANUSHA|title=Stories on lord Venkateshwara series - 1: From various sources|publisher=Independently published (April 25, 2020)|year=2020|isbn=979-8640227642|pages=1 page}}</ref>

The whole earth became gloomy. On the request of Parvati and Saraswati, Shiva and Brahma incarnated as a cow and a calf respectively, in the [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] kingdom. This cow and calf were being grazed daily by a shepherd of Chola kingdom in the Seshachalam hills. Everyday, the cow used to pour her milk into the anthill to lessen the thirst of Vishnu. Due to this, the cow and calf became pale and unhealthy. The shepherd noticed this, and felt that something was awry. The next day, the shepherd took the animals for grazing, and as was the custom, the cow poured milk into the anthill. The shepherd saw this act, and he threw an axe (parasu) on the cow and calf. Vishnu noticed, and in order to protect them, Vishnu arose from the anthill and the axe hit his own forehead (the blood poured as his [[Urdhva Pundra|namam]] on his head). An enraged Vishnu cursed the shepherd that he would die immediately, and the latter succumbed to the blow of his own axe. This news reached the Chola king. The ruler suspected the absence of the shepherd. He went near the grazing field, and was surprised to see the corpse of the shepherd. He went to the grazing field, where the cows were offering their milk to Vishnu. However, Vishnu was in disguise, and so the king could not identify him. The king strung his arrow, believing that the milk should serve the kingdom rather than the boy he saw. Vishnu, once again, emerged, and grew enormous, stopped the arrows from passing further and he cursed the king for not maintaining the [[dharma]] of his kingdom. The king repented and surrendered at the deity's feet. Unlike the shepherd, the king had realised his mistake, which pleased Vishnu, and hence presented him with the boon that he would marry the king's daughter in his next birth.

In his next birth, Vishnu incarnated as Srinivasa, to a woman named Vakuladevi. It is said that in the ''[[Dvapara Yuga]]'', [[Krishna]] presented [[Yashoda]] with a boon that he would be born to the former in the ''[[Kali Yuga]]''. Vakuladevi is regarded as the reincarnation of Yashoda. Meanwhile, the goddess Lakshmi was born at the palace of Akasha Raja, the next birth of the Chola king. Srinivasa was a forest-dweller. One day, he met a beautiful girl named [[Alamelu|Padmavati]], the princess of the Chola dynasty. Padmavati fell in love with Srinivasa , and decided to get married to him. According to the boon of Vishnu to the Chola king in their previous births, Srinivasa has to get married to Padmavati, princess of Chola dynasty. For the marriage expenses, Srinivasa borrowed riches from [[Kubera]], and promised to repay the loan with interest at the end of the ''Kali Yuga''.

== Literature ==

=== Skanda Purana ===
The [[Skanda Purana]] extols the significance of worshipping this deity:<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2020-02-25 |title=The Glory of Śrī Veṅkaṭeśvara [Chapter 18] |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/the-skanda-purana/d/doc370697.html |access-date=2022-08-12 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref>
{{Blockquote|text=If people wish for perpetual happiness and kingdom in heaven, let them joyously bow down at least once to the Lord residing on Veṅkaṭādri.

Whatever may be the sins committed in the course of crores of births, all of them perish by visiting Veṅkaṭeśvara.

If anyone remembers Veṅkaṭeśa, the great Lord, on account of his association with other people, or out of curiosity, or due to covetousness or on account of fear, he shall not be miserable here or hereafter.

One who glorifies and worships the Lord of Devas on Veṅkaṭācala shall certainly attain Sārūpya with Viṣṇu. There is no doubt about it.

Just as a well-kindled fire reduces firewood to ash in a moment, so also a visit to Veṅkaṭeśa destroys all sins.|title=[[Skanda Purana]]|source=Chapter 18}}

==Deity==
{{See also|Tirumala Dhruva Bera|Deities in Tirumala Venkateswara Temple}}
Venkateswara, an [[avatar]] of [[Vishnu]], is the presiding deity of the [[Tirupati]] temple. It is believed that the deity is ''Swayambhu'' (self manifested). The deity possesses the power of the [[Trimurti]]: Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva, and some sects believe that Venkateswara holds the power of Shakthi and Skanda as well. Sage Annamacharya praised Venkateswara as the 'Supreme Lord' who appears as [[Dattatreya]] for yogis, Shiva for [[Shaivism|Shaivas]], and appears as whichever form the devotee desires.

In the 12th century, [[Ramanujacharya]] visited Tirupati for settling a dispute that arose between the [[Saivites]] and [[Vaishnavites]], regarding the nature of the deity set up in the Tirumala temple.<ref>{{Cite book |last=R. |first=Sreenivasa Ayyangar, C. |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/30865934 |title=The life and teachings of Sri Ramanujacharya |date=1908 |publisher=R. Venkateshwar |pages=181 |oclc=30865934}}</ref> Ramanuja streamlined the rituals at Tirumala temple according to [[Vaikhanasas|Vaikanasa]] [[Agama (Hinduism)|Agama]] tradition, and introduced the recitation of the [[Naalayira Divya Prabandham]]. He also set up the Tirupati Jeeyar [[Matha]] in 1119 AD, in consultation with Tirumalai Ananthalwan to institutionalise service to the deity and supervise the temple rituals. The Jeeyars, to this day, ensures that the rituals ordained by Ramanuja are observed.<ref>{{cite news |title=Pontiffs Jeeyangars, the Ombudsman of Tirumala Temple rituals – TTD News |url=http://news.tirumala.org/pontifs-jeeyangars-the-ombudsman-of-tirumala-temple-rituals/ |access-date=6 June 2022 |work=T. T. D. News}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Voice of a mighty philosophy |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/Voice-of-a-mighty-philosophy/article16614610.ece |access-date=6 June 2022 |work=The Hindu |date=25 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Narasimhan |first1=T. A |title=He streamlined the rituals at Tirumala temple |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/He-crawled-all-the-way-up/article14425912.ece |access-date=6 June 2022 |work=The Hindu |date=16 June 2016}}</ref> The deity is believed to be as old as the "Shila thoranam" in Tirumala. Tirumala has tremendous fame from the ancient period. The deity is referred to as 'Balaji' by north Indians. The scriptures state that Venkateswara is the saviour of all suffering people in the [[Kali Yuga]]. Emperors like [[Krishnadevaraya]] and many devotees have paid homage to Venkateswara.
[[File:Lord Venkat.jpeg|thumb|250px|A replica of the [[Garbhagriha]] of the Sri Venkateswara Temple in Tirumala depicting '''Left''' - [[Lakshmi|Sridevi]] and [[Bhūmi|Bhudevi]] and [[Malayappa swami|Malayappa Swami]], '''Center''' - Venkateswara Main Deity (Dhruva beram), '''Center bottom''' - Bhoga Srinivasa, '''Right'''- Ugra Srinivasa, Koluvu Srinivasa, [[Sita]] and [[Lakshmana]] and Sri [[Rama]], Sri [[Krishna]], [[Rukmini]] ]]

===Five Deities===
According to the Vaikhanasa Agamas, Venkateswara is represented by five [[Murti|deities]] (berams) including the [[Moolavar|Moolavirat]], which are together referred to as the '''Pancha beramulu''' in [[Telugu language|Telugu]] (pancha means five; beram means deity).<ref name=panchaberam>{{cite book | title =Sri Venkateshwara| date = 7 January 2014| publisher = Shantha Nair| isbn = 9788184954456| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=CY9eAAAAQBAJ&q=pancha+beram&pg=PT219}}</ref> The five deities are Dhruva Beram (Moolavar), Kautuka Beram, Snapana Beram, Utsava Beram, and Bali Beram. All the pancha berams are placed in the Garbha griha under [[Ananda Nilayam|Ananda Nilayam Vimanam]].<ref name=panchaberam />

#'''Moolavirat ('''Chief deity) or '''[[Tirumala Dhruva Bera|Dhruva Beram]]'''- In the centre of the [[Garbha griha]], under the Ananda Nilayam Vimana, the Moolavirat of Venkateswara is seen in a standing posture on lotus base, with four arms, two holding shanka and chakra, one in the Varada posture, and the other in the Kati posture. This deity is considered the main source of energy for the temple, and is adorned with the Vaishnavite nama and jewels, including vajra kiritam (diamond crown), Makarakundalas, Nagabharana, Makara Kanti, [[Saligrama]] haram, Lakshmi haram.<ref name=panchaberam /> Venkateswara's consort, [[Lakshmi]], stays on the chest of the Moolavirat as Vyuha Lakshmi.
#'''[[Bhoga Srinivasa]]''' or '''Kautuka Beram''' -- This is a small one-foot (0.3 m) silver deity that was given to the temple in 614 AD by the [[Pallava dynasty|Pallava]] queen, Samavai, for conducting festivals. Bhoga Srinivasa is always placed near the left foot of Moolavirat, and is believed to always be connected to the main deity by the holy ''Sambandha Kroocha''. This deity receives many daily sevas (pleasures) on behalf of Moolavar, and is hence known as Bhoga Srinivasa (Bhoga: pleasure). This deity receives Ekanthaseva daily<ref name=bhoga1>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/Tiruppavai-to-replace-Suprabhata-Seva/articleshow/55865340.cms| title=Tiruppavai to replace Suprabhata Seva | work=times of india | date=8 December 2016 | access-date=27 July 2018}}</ref> (the last ritual of the day), and Sahasra Kalasabhisheka (a special [[Abhisheka|abhishekam]] (ablution) with [[sacred waters]] in 1008 [[kalasha]]s (pots)) on Wednesdays.
#'''[[Ugra Srinivasa]]''' or '''Snapana Beram''' - This deity represents the fearsome (Ugra: terrible) aspect of Venkateswara.<ref name=ugra2>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/Much-awaited-Kaisika-Dwadasi-falls-on-November-11/articleshow/55271593.cms| title=Much awaited Kaisika Dwadasi falls on November 11 | work=times of india | date=6 November 2016 | access-date=27 July 2018}}</ref><ref name=ugra1>{{cite news | url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/Fervour-marks-%E2%80%98Kaisika-Dwadasi%E2%80%99-at-Tirumala/article16443338.ece| title=Fervour marks 'Kaisika Dwadasi' at Tirumala | work=The Hindu | date=2 December 2016 | access-date=27 July 2018}}</ref> This deity was the main processional deity until 1330 CE, when it was replaced by the Malayappa Swami deity.<ref name=panchaberam /> Ugra Srinivasa remains inside the sanctum sanctorum, and is carried out on a procession only one day in a year, on ''Kaishika Dwadasi,'' before the sunrise.<ref name=ugra1 /><ref name=ugra2 /> This deity receives daily ''[[abhishekam]]'' on behalf of Moolavirat, offering it the name Snapana Beram (Snapana: cleansing)
#'''[[Malayappa swami|Malayappa Swami]]''' or '''Utsava Beram''' - Malayappa is the processional deity (Utsava beram) of the temple, and is always flanked by the idols of his consorts, [[Lakshmi|Sridevi]] and [[Bhūmi|Bhudevi]]. This deity receives veneration on all festivals, like [[Srivari Brahmotsavam|Brahmotsavams]], Kalyanotsavam, Dolotsavam, Vasanthotsavam, Sahasra deepalankarana seva, Padmavati parinyotsavams, pushpapallaki, Anivara asthanam, Ugadi asthanam, etc.
#'''[[Koluvu Srinivasa]]''' or '''Bali Beram''' - Koluvu Srinivasa represents the Bali Beram. Koluvu Srinivasa is regarded as the guardian deity of the temple, that presides over its financial and economic affairs. Daily Koluvu seva (Koluvu: engaged in) is held in the morning, during which the previous day's offerings, income, expenditures. are notified to this deity, with a presentation of accounts. Panchanga sravanam is also held at the same time, during which that particular day's [[tithi]], sunrise and sunset time, and nakshatra. are notified to Venkateswara.

==Hymns==
The [[Suprabhatam#Venkateshwara Suprabhatam|Venkateswara Suprabhatam]] is the first and pre-dawn prayer performed to Venkateswara at Sayana Mandapam, inside the sanctum sanctorum of the Tirumala Temple. 'Suprabhatam' is a Sanskrit term, which literally means ‘morning salutations’, and is meant to wake up the deity from his celestial sleep.<ref name=suprabhatham>{{cite book |last=V.K. |first=Subramanian |title=Sacred Songs of India, Volume 10 |year=1996 |publisher=Abhinav publications |page=59 |isbn=81-7017-444-9}}</ref><ref name=song>{{cite web|url = http://www.tirumala.org/Suprabhatam.aspx|publisher= Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams|title =Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams-Suprabhatam|access-date=29 July 2015}}</ref> The Venkateswara Suprabhatam hymns were composed by [[Prathivadhi Bhayankaram Annangaracharya]] during the 13th century, and consists of 70 slokas in four parts, including Suprabhatam (29), Stotram (11), Prapatti (14), and Mangalasasanam (16).<ref name=song/><ref name=suprabhatham />

[[Annamacharya|Tallapaka Annamacharya]] (Annamayya), the poet saint<ref name=annam1>{{cite book | title =Poet Saints of India| publisher = Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd | year = 1996 | isbn = 9788120718838 | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=zMvlDsnEgRoC&q=annamacharya&pg=PA145}}</ref> of 14th century, one of the greatest Telugu poets and a great devotee of Venkateswara, had sung 32000 songs in praise of Venkateswara.<ref name=annam3>{{cite book | title = 101 Mystics of India| publisher = Abhinav Publications | year = 2006 | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=KPPWvkKXwCwC&q=annamacharya&pg=PA97}}</ref><ref name=annam1 /> All his songs, which are in [[Telugu Language|Telugu]] and [[Sanskrit]], are referred to as Sankirtanas and are classified as Sringara Sankirtanalu and Adhyatma Sankirtanalu.<ref name=annam1 />

==Other Venkateswara temples==
;India:

* [[Venkateswara Temple, Dwaraka Tirumala|Venkateswara Temple, Dwaraka Tirumala, West Godavari District, Andhra Pradesh]]
* Sri Venkateswara Swamy Temple, Kurukshetra, Haryana
* [[Padutirupathi|Paduthirupathi Venkataramana Temple]], Karkala, Karnataka
* Sri Venkataramana Temple, Carstreet, Mangalore, Karnataka, India
*[[Venkatachalapathy Temple]]
* Shree Balaji Mandir, Fanaswadi
*Shri Lakshmi Venkate Devasthan, Chatribagh, Indore, Madhya Pradesh
*Shri Ramanuj Kot Mandir,291. MG Road,Indore,Madhya Pradesh
*Kodandarama Temple, Buchireddypalem, Nellore District, Andhra Pradesh
*Shri Balaji Temple, Washim, Maharastra
*Sri Venkateswara Swamy Devastanam, Jamalapuram, Khammam Dist, Telangana
*Sri Venkateswara Swamy Devastanam, Kaman Bajar, Khammam Dist, Telangana
*Sri Venkateswara Swamy Devastanam, Garla, Khammam Dist, Telangana
*Sri Venkateswara Swamy Devastanam, Jeelacheruvu, Khammam Dist, Telangana
*Sri Venkateswara Swamy Devastanam, Palvoncha, Khammam Dist, Telangana

;Indonesia:
* Sri Balaji Venkateswara Temple, [[Medan]], [[North Sumatera]]

;Mauritius:
*Sri Prasanna Venkateswara Swami Temple, [[La Laura-Malenga]]
*Hari Hara Devasthanam
;United States of America:
[[File:Lord Balaji only at Parashakthi Temple.jpg|thumb|Lord Sri Venkateswara at [[Parashakthi Temple]] in Pontiac, [[Michigan]], USA]]
*[[Malibu Hindu Temple]], [[California]]
*[[Venkateswara Temple, Minnesota]]
*[[Sri Venkateswara Temple, Pittsburgh]]
*[[Sri Venkateswara Temple of North Carolina|Sri Venkatewara Temple of North Carolina]]
*[[Sri Venkateswara Temple (New Jersey)|Sri Balaji Temple, Bridgewater, NJ]]
* Sri Venkateswara Temple at Castle Rock, Denver, Colorado
*[https://www.balajiusa.org/#/home Sree Venkatesvara temple, Richfield Ohio] (Cleveland area)
*[[Hindu Temple of Atlanta]], Riverdale GA
*[https://svsbalaji.org/ Sri Venkateswara Swami (Balaji) Temple, Aurora Illinois] (Chicago Area)
*[https://www.svtco.org/#/home Sri Venkateswara Temple of Central Ohio] (Columbus, Ohio)
*[https://www.ebalajitemple.com/html/index.aspx?page=home HECSA Portland Balaji Temple] (Hillsboro, Oregon)

;Australia:

*Venkateswara Temple

;England:
*[[Shri Venkateswara (Balaji) Temple]], [[West Midlands (county)|West Midlands]], England

;Malaysia
*Sri Venkatachalapathi & Alamelu Temple, Batu Caves, Selangor

;Nepal
*Narayanhiti Temple (Inside Royal Palace of Narayanhiti) Kathmandu
*Budhanilakantha Temple ( Sleeping Vishnu), Kathmandu

==See also==
{{commons category|Venkateshwara}}
*[[Alamelu|Padmavathi]]
*[[Vakula Devi]]
*[[Perumal (deity)|Perumal]]
*[[Sri Venkateswara Mahatyam]]
*[[Sri Tirupati Venkateswara Kalyanam]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}

==External links==
* [https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/the-skanda-purana/d/doc370679.html Veṅkaṭācala-māhātmya, Skanda Purana]
*[http://www.tirumala.org/ Official Tirumala Homepage]

{{VishnuAvatars}}
{{Hindu deities and texts}}
{{Venkateswara Temple, Tirumala}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Forms of Vishnu]]
[[Category:Regional Hindu gods]]
[[Category:Telugu names]]

Navagraha temples

2023-01-13T09:40:42Z

ImportMaster: robot: Create/update articles in Category:Hindu gods.

{{short description|Hindu temple in India}}
{{Short description|none}}
{{more citations needed|date=January 2017}}

'''Navagraha '''(Pron: nævəˈgrɑ:ə)''' pilgrimages''' are pilgrimages devoted to [[Navagraha]]—the nine (nava) major celestial bodies ([[Graha]]s) of [[Hindu astronomy]]. These temples are made of stone. These celestial bodies are named [[Surya]] (Sun), [[Chandra]] (Moon), [[Mangala]] (Mars), [[Budha]] (Mercury), [[Brihaspati]] (Jupiter), [[Shukra]] (Venus), [[Shani]] (Saturn), [[Rahu]] (North [[Lunar Node]]) and [[Ketu (mythology)|Ketu]] (South [[Lunar Node]]). Many temples in South India contain a shrine dedicated to the Navagrahas. However, the term Navagraha temples refers to a cluster of nine separate temples, each an abode of one of the Navagrahas.

==Navagraha temples in Kerala==
In Kerala, the Navagraha temples are rare, like other states. Unlike other Navagraha temples,[[Kilimarathukavu Temple|Kilimarathukavu]] navagraha temple is elliptical in structure, much like the galaxy.

==Navagraha temples in Tamil Nadu==
The [[Navagraha temples in Tamil Nadu]] near [[Kumbakonam]] in [[Tamil Nadu]] date from the [[Chola]] dynasty.
As per Hindu legend, Sage Kalava was suffering from serious ailments along with leprosy. He prayed to the [[Navagrahas]], the nine planet deities. The planets were pleased by his devotion and offered cure to the sage. [[Brahma]], the Hindu god of creation, was angered, as he felt that the planets had no powers to give boons to humans. He cursed the nine planets to suffer from leprosy and sent them down to earth in Vellerukku Vanam, the white wild flower jungle - the modern [[Suryanar Kovil]]. The planets prayed to [[Shiva]] to relieve them of the curse. Shiva appeared to them and said that the place belonged to them and they would have to grace the devotees worshipping them from the place. Each temple is located in a different village, and is considered an abode of one of the Navagrahas. However, eight of these temples are dedicated to [[Shiva]].

The Surya temple is the only one dedicated to the Graham.{{what|date=December 2022}} In fact, it is dedicated entirely to the worship of the Sun-God and the other navagrahas, the former being the object of worship as the principal deity and the latter as attendant deities. It was built around the 11th or 12th century. The other temples were built earlier, ranging back to 7th-9th century.<ref name=A>{{cite book|title=Temples of South India|last=Anantharaman|first=Ambjuam|publisher=East West|edition=second|year=2006|isbn=978-81-88661-42-8|pages=43–47}}</ref>

* Surya Navagrahastalam -- [[Suryanar Temple|Sooriyanar Kovil]] ([[Thanjavur District]])
* Chandra Navagrahastalam -- [[Kailasanathar Temple, Thingalur|Thingalur]] ([[Thanjavur District]])
* Angaarakan Navagrahastalam -- [[Vaitheeswaran Temple|Vaitheeswaran Kovil]] ([[Mayiladuthurai district]])
* Budha Navagrahastalam -- [[Swetharanyeswarar Temple|Thiruvenkadu]] ([[Mayiladuthurai district]])
* Guru Navagrahastalam -- [[Apatsahayesvarar Temple, Alangudi|Alangudi]] ([[Thiruvarur District]])
* Sukra Navagrahastalam -- [[Agniswarar Temple, Kanjanur|Kanjanur]] ([[Thanjavur District]])
* Shani Navagrahastalam -- [[Tirunallar Saniswaran Temple|Thirunallar]] ([[Karaikal]])
* Raahu Navagrahastalam -- [[Rahu stalam|Thirunageswaram]] ([[Thanjavur District]])
* Ketu Navagrahastalam -- [[Ketu stalam|Keezhperumpallam]] ([[Mayiladuthurai district]])
* Angineeshwar temple—Birth place of Lord Sanieeswarar and Lord Yematharmar, Kodiyalur, Thirumeyachur, Thiruvarur District.
*

===Navagraha temples in Chennai Kundrathur===

There is a similar cluster of Navagraha temples in Chennai, erstwhile Thondai Nadu in and around [[Kundrathur]].

* Agatheeswarar Temple - Suryan - Kolapakkkam
* Somanaadheeswarar Temple - Chandran - Somangalam
* Vaidheeswaran Temple - Angaragan - Poovirundhavalli (Poondhamalli)
* [[Kovur Sundareswarar Temple|Sundareswarar Temple]] - Budhan - Kovur
* Ramanaadheeswarar Temple - Guru - Porur
* [[Velleswarar Temple, Mangadu|Velleeswarar Temple]] - Sukran - Mangadu
* Agatheeswarar Temple - Shaneeswaran - Pozhichalur
* [[Neelakandeswarar Temple, Gerugambakkam|Neelakandeswarar Temple]] - Kethu - Gerugambakkam
* [[Kundrathur Nageswarar Temple|Nageshwarar Temple]] - Rahu - Kundratthur
These were founded by Thiyagaraja Gurukkal and Bhuvaneshwari and their family published to people through small sized book of Navagraha stalam puranam in Chennai.

=== Thirunelveli ===
A separate set of Navagraha temples which are dedicated to Lord Vishnu on the Tiruchendur-Tirunelveli route are called [[Nava Tirupathi]].

* Srivaikuntanathan Permual Temple—Suryan
* Vijayaasana Perumal Temple—Chandran
* Vaithamanidhi Perumal Temple—Sevvai
* ThiruPulingudi Perumal Temple—Budhan
* AlwarThirunagari Temple—Gurubhagawan
* Makara Nedunkuzhai Kannan Temple—Sukran
* Srinivasa Perumal Temple—Shaniswaran
* Irattai Thiruppathy, Aravindalochanar—Raghu
* Irattai Thiruppathy, Devapiran—Kedhu

=== Gudiyatham, Nellore ===

Navagraha temples <ref>Annual Reports on Indian Epigraphy 1887-1907, New Delhi, 1986</ref> The Navagraha temples listed contain separate shrines for these gods or temple deity worshipped as that god.
*Surya Navagrahastalam - Karupulleshwarar temple, Nellore, Gudiyatham
*Chandra Navagrahastalam - Sri Linganatha Swamy temple
*Angaarakan Navagrahastalam - Sri Mahadevar temple
*Budha Navagrahastalam - Sri Semmalai temple
*Guru Navagrahastalam - Sri Gurubhagavan temple, Perumbadi.
*Sukra Navagrahastalam - Sri Kaalabhairavar temple, Pogalur
*Shani Navagrahastalam - Sri Baalasarthuleshwarar temple, Gudiyatham north
*Raahu Navagrahastalam - Sri Naganathaswamy temple, near Gudiyatham
*Ketu Navagrahastalam - Sri Naganathaswamy temple, near Gudiyatham

==Navagraha temple in Assam==
[[File:NAVAGRAHA TEMPLE GUWAHATI.jpg|thumb|Navagraha temple in [[Guwahati]]]]
The Navagraha Temple is found on the top of Chitrasal Hill (or Navagraha Hill), in [[Guwahati]] city, [[Assam]], [[India]]. Enshrined in this temple are nine Shivalingams, representing the nine Celestial bodies, each covered with a colored garment symbolic of each of the celestial bodies, with a Shivaligam in the centre symbolising the Sun.

==Navagraha temples in Nashik Maharashtra==
Shri Anna Ganapati Navgraha Siddhapeetham, Nasik .
Which is 1.5 km from Nasik Road railway station. All Navgraha are residing in nine temple (gabhara/garbhagudi) with their wives.
The only navgraha Siddhapeetham in Maharashtra
Peth (central [[Pune]]), there is a major Navagraha temple behind [[Shaniwar Wada]], which is also specifically devoted to [[Shani]]. There is also a Navagraha Maruti temple in Balaji Nagar.
There is a newly constructed Navagraha temple near Dapoli in Ratnagiri district, Maharashtra.
The temple complex is 5 km from Dapoli town on the Dapoli - Mandangad - Mumbai state highway. Go to Kherdi village titha ( junction ) and then take the small tar road to Palavan village.
The temple complex is at a distance of 1.5 km from Kherdi junction. It is owned by Shri Sainath Maharaj Trust, Dombivli ( E ), Thane. The main temple belongs to Sai Baba and there are surrounding temples of Ganapathi, Shivji, Navagraha temple and Sri Dattatreya temple.
Temple complex is very clean and beautifully maintained.

==Navgraha temple in Madhya Pradesh==
A historical Navagraha temple is established inside the Bada Ganpati Temple just behind Makaleshwar Temple towards [[Harsidhhi]] temple in City of [[Ujjain]] in [[Madhya Pradesh]]. It is believed that it is their since hundreds of years and people are getting blessing and relief when Prey their specially during their Shani -Ssde sati period which is supposed to be the most dreaded phase in one's lifetime.

Devotees worship to all nine planets here and they offer Mustard oil and flowers to Lord Shani at the temple during their prayers.

Devotees have to pray while doing Parikrama of Navagraha stones and present Flowers and or Bel Leaves while performing pooja. It is famous temple.

==Navagraha temple in Uttar Pradesh==
===Navagraha temple - Prayagraj===
Navagraha Temple at Prayagraj in Uttar Pradesh-India has been built by Shri Patharchatti Ram Lila Committee in prayagraj . It was opened for public in 2012. It is located in Rambagh area in prayagraj . It can be reached within two minutes from the City Railway Station at Rambagh in prayagraj.

There are other temples as well in it as below
*
* Shri Khatu Shyam Temple
* Shri Ram Temple

Nowadays, a very special Jhaanki of Ganga Avataran is under construction and is expected to complete by Nov 2012.

===Navagrah temple - Karari Kaushambi===
Navagrah temple - Karari kaushambi

Navagrah temple at Karari Kaushambi in Uttar Pradesh was built by Shri Somnath Verma. It was opened to the public in 2017, in Ashok Nager in Karari Kaushambi. It can be reached within 15 minutes from the Bharwari railway station at Ashok Nagar.

There other gods are in it as well:
* Ram Darbar
* Radha Krishna
* Shiv parivar
* Maa Durga
* Ganesh Bhagwan
* Hanuman Ji

==See also==
* [[Navagraha Jain Temple]]
* [http://traveltwosome.com/navagraha-temples-tour-guide/ Navagraha temple tour in Tamil Nadu - Step by Step Guide]
* [[Jyotisha]]
* [[Nakshatra]]
* [[Navagraha]]
* [[Saptarishi]]
* [[List of Hindu deities]]
* [[Hindu pilgrimage sites|List of Hindu pilgrimage sites]]
* [[List of Natchathara temples]]
* [[List of Hindu temples]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

*[http://swayamvaraparvathi.org/navagaraha-sthala-navagraha-temple Various Navagraha Temples]
*[http://www.templenet.com/Assam/navagraha.html Navagraha Temples in Assam]
*[https://templesyatra.com/kumbakonam-navagraha-temples-travels.html Navagraha temples in Kumbakonam, Tamil Nadu]
*[http://www.templenet.com/Tamilnadu/Navagraha/navagraha.html Navagraha Temples in Tamil Nadu]
*[https://maps.google.com/maps/ms?msa=0&msid=100721200960607481466.000459a3645812fe8df99&cd=3&ie=UTF8&t=h&z=10 Navagraha Temple on Google Maps - '''Virtual Darshan of Navagraha Sthalam''']

{{Hindu Temples in Assam}}
{{Navagraha}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Navagraha Temples}}
[[Category:Navagraha temples| ]]
[[Category:Navagraha]]

Vishnu

2023-01-13T04:18:05Z

ImportMaster: robot: Create/update articles in Category:Hindu gods.

{{short description|One of the principal deities in Hinduism}}
{{Other uses}}
{{pp|small=yes}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2015}}
{{Infobox deity 
| type = Hindu
| image = File:God Vishnu.jpg
| name = Vishnu
| caption = Vishnu bearing his four attributes
| affiliation = [[Parabrahman]], [[Trimurti]], [[Brahman]], [[Bhagavan]], [[Ishvara]], [[Dashavatara]]
| deity_of = God of Preservation
God of Time, The Protector of Good, Bestower of [[Karma]]<ref>https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Indian_Civilization_and_Culture/KItocaxbibUC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=vishnu+supreme+being+vaishnavism&pg=PA112&printsec=frontcover</ref>
[[Para Brahman]], the Supreme Being<ref>{{cite book |author=Wendy Doniger|title=Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780877790440 |url-access=registration|year=1999|publisher=Merriam-Webster|isbn=978-0-87779-044-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780877790440/page/1134 1134]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of World Religions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dbibAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA445|year=2008|publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.|isbn=978-1-59339-491-2 |pages=445–448}}</ref>{{Sfn|Soifer|1991|p=85}}
| abode = * [[Vaikuntha]] ([[Narayana]])
* [[Causal Ocean]] ([[Mahavishnu]])
* [[Garbhodaka Ocean]] ([[Garbhodaksayi Vishnu]])
* [[Kshira Sagara]] ([[Ksirodakasayi Vishnu]])
| mantra = * [[Om Namo Narayanaya]]
* [[Om Namo Bhagavate Vasudevaya]]
*Hari Om
| weapon = * [[Sudarshana Chakra]] (Discus)
* [[Panchajanya]] ([[Shankha|Conch]])
* [[Kaumodaki]] ([[Gada (weapon)|Mace]])
* [[Sharanga]] (Bow)
* [[Nandaka]] (Sword)

<ref name=jones492>{{cite book|author1=Constance Jones|author2=James D. Ryan|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC |year=2006|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5|pages=491–492}}</ref>
| consort = [[Lakshmi]]
| mount = [[Garuda]],<ref name=jones492/> [[Shesha]]<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/shesha | title=Shesha, Sesa, Śeṣa, Śeṣā: 34 definitions | date=23 August 2009 }}</ref>
| festivals = [[Holi]], [[Rama Navami]], [[Krishna Janmashtami]], [[Narasimha Jayanti]], [[Deepavali]], [[Onam]], [[Vishu]], [[Vivaha Panchami]], [[Vijayadashami]], [[Ananta Chaturdashi]], [[Shayani Ekadashi]], [[Prabodhini Ekadashi]] and other [[ekadashi]]s, [[Kartik Purnima]], [[Tulasi Vivaha]]<ref>{{cite book|author=Muriel Marion Underhill|title=The Hindu Religious Year|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fb9Zc0yPVUUC |year=1991|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-0523-7|pages=75–91}}</ref>
| symbols = [[Padma (Vishnu)|Padma]] (Lotus), [[Shaligram|Shaligrama]], [[Dvaravati sila]]
| siblings = [[Parvati]] or [[Durga]] (ceremonial sister; according to [[Shaivism]])
| member_of = [[Trimurti]]
| other_names = [[Hari]], [[Narayana]], [[Madhava (Vishnu)|Madhava]], [[Keshava]], [[Achyuta]], [[Janardana]], various others ([[Vishnu Sahasranama]])
| children = *[[Kamadeva]]
*18 sons (from Lakshmi)<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.stephen-knapp.com/prayers_to_goddess_lakshmi.htm | title=Prayers to Goddess Lakshmi }}</ref>
*[[Devasena]] and [[Sundaravalli]] (Tamil tradition)
*[[Mangala]] and [[Narakasura]] (from Bhudevi)
*[[Ayyappan]] (as Mohini)
| day = [[Thursday]]
}}
{{Infobox Hindu term|sa=विष्णु ({{IAST|Viṣṇu}})|as=বিষ্ণু ({{IAST|Biṣṇu}})|bn=বিষ্ণু ({{IAST|Biṣṇu}})|gu=વિષ્ણુ ({{IAST|Viṣṇu}})|hi=विष्णु
({{IAST|Viṣṇu}})|kn=ವಿಷ್ಣು ({{IAST|Viṣṇu}})|mr=विष्णु ({{IAST|Viṣṇu}})|or=ବିଷ୍ଣୁ ({{IAST|Biṣṇu}})|te=విష్ణు ({{IAST|Viṣṇu}})|ta=விஷ்ணு
({{IAST|Viṣṇu}})|ml=വിഷ്ണു
({{IAST|Viṣṇu}})}}

'''Vishnu''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|v|ɪ|ʃ|n|uː}} {{respell|VISH|noo}}; {{Lang-sa|विष्णु|Viṣṇu|lit=the pervader}}, {{IPA-sa|ʋɪʂɳʊ|pron}}), also known as '''Narayana''' and '''Hari''', is one of the [[Hindu deities|principal deities]] of [[Hinduism]]. He is the supreme being within [[Vaishnavism]], one of the major traditions within contemporary [[Hinduism]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Comparative Religion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jb0rCQD9NcoC|page=38|author=Kedar Nath Tiwari|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publications|year=1987|isbn = 9788120802933}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Pratapaditya Pal|title=Indian Sculpture: Circa 500 BCE- 700 CE|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=clUmKaWRFTkC |year=1986|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-05991-7|pages=24–25}}</ref>

Vishnu is known as "The Preserver" within the [[Trimurti]], the [[triple deity]] of [[Para Brahman|supreme divinity]] that includes [[Brahma]] and [[Shiva]].<ref>{{cite book|author1=Orlando O. Espín|author2=James B. Nickoloff|title=An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k85JKr1OXcQC&pg=PA539|year=2007|publisher=Liturgical Press|isbn=978-0-8146-5856-7|page=539}}</ref><ref name="Flood 1996, p. 17">[[Gavin Flood]], ''[https://books.google.com/books/about/An_Introduction_to_Hinduism.html?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C An Introduction to Hinduism]'' (1996), p. 17.</ref> In [[Vaishnavism]], Vishnu is the [[Para Brahman|supreme being]] who creates, protects, and transforms the [[Hindu cosmology|universe]]. In the [[Shaktism]] tradition, the Goddess, or [[Adi Shakti]], is described as the supreme [[para brahman|Para Brahman]], yet Vishnu is revered along with Shiva and Brahma. [[Tridevi]] is stated to be the energy and creative power ([[Shakti]]) of each, with [[Lakshmi]] being the equal complementary partner of Vishnu.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Oxford Companion to World Mythology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iPrhBwAAQBAJ|page=236|author=David Leeming|publisher=Oxford University Press|date=17 November 2005|isbn=978-0190288884}}</ref> He is one of the five equivalent deities in [[Panchayatana puja]] of the [[Smarta tradition]] of Hinduism.<ref name="Flood 1996, p. 17" />

According to Vaishnavism, the highest form of [[Ishvara]] is with qualities ([[Saguna Brahman|Saguna]]), and have certain form, but is limitless, transcendent and unchanging absolute [[Brahman]], and the primal [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (Self) of the universe.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Hare Krishna Movement: The Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mBMxPdgrBhoC|page=16|author1=Edwin Bryant|author2=Maria Ekstrand|publisher=Columbia University Press|date=23 June 2004|isbn=978-0231508438}}</ref> There are many both benevolent and fearsome depictions of Vishnu. In benevolent aspects, he is depicted as an omniscient being sleeping on the coils of the serpent [[Adishesha]] (who represents time) floating in the primeval ocean of milk called [[Kshira Sagara]] with his consort, [[Lakshmi]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_OIzDwAAQBAJ|title=In the Lost City of Sri Krishna: The Story of Ancient Dwaraka|page=737|author=Vanamali|publisher=Simon and Schuster|date=20 March 2018|isbn=978-1620556825}}</ref>

Whenever the world is threatened with evil, chaos, and destructive forces, Vishnu descends in the form of an [[avatar]] ''(incarnation)'' to restore the [[Hindu cosmology|cosmic order]], and protect ''[[dharma]]''. The [[Dashavatara]] are the ten primary [[avatar]]s ''(incarnations)'' of Vishnu. Out of these ten, [[Rama]] and [[Krishna]] are the most important.<ref name="Zimmer 1972 p. 124">{{cite book|last1=Zimmer|first1=Heinrich Robert|author-link1=Heinrich Zimmer|title=Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-01778-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PTfNMQP81nAC|page=124|year=1972}}</ref>

==Nomenclature==
Vishnu (or Viṣṇu, {{Lang-sa|विष्णु}}) means 'all pervasive'<ref>[[Vishnu Sahasranāma]], translated by [[Swami Chinmayananda]]. Central Chinmaya Mission Trust. pp. 16–17.</ref> and, according to [[Medhātithi|Medhātith]] ({{circa|1000}} CE), 'one who is everything and inside everything'.<ref name="Klostermaier2000p84">{{cite book|author=Klaus K. Klostermaier|title=Hinduism: A Short History|url=https://archive.org/details/hinduismshorthis0000klos|url-access=registration|year=2000|publisher=Oneworld|isbn=978-1-85168-213-3|pages=[https://archive.org/details/hinduismshorthis0000klos/page/83 83]–84}}</ref> [[Vedanga]] scholar [[Yaska]] (4th century BCE) in the [[Nirukta]] defines Vishnu as ''viṣṇur viṣvater vā vyaśnoter vā'' ('one who enters everywhere'); also adding ''atha yad viṣito bhavati tad viṣnurbhavati'' ('that which is free from fetters and bondage is Vishnu').<ref name="VishwaBagchee12">{{cite journal|last=Adluri|first=Vishwa|author2=Joydeep Bagchee|date=February 2012|title=From Poetic Immortality to Salvation: Ruru and Orpheus in Indic and Greek Myth|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/918fe25c13f6b3926c690a2b970b369f5848c599|journal=History of Religions|volume=51|issue=3|pages=245–246|doi=10.1086/662191|jstor=10.1086/662191|s2cid=56331632}}</ref>

In the tenth part of the ''[[Padma Purana]]'' (4-15th century CE), Danta (Son of [[Bhima|Bhīma]] and King of [[Vidarbha]]) lists 108 names of Vishnu (17.98–102).<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.21961|title=THE PADMA-PURANA PART.10|last=N.A.|date=1956|publisher=MOTILAL BANARSIDASS PUBLISHERS PVT. DELHI|pages=[https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.21961/page/n201 3471]–3473}}</ref> These include the ten primary avatars (see ''Dashavarara'', below'')'' and descriptions of the qualities, attributes, or aspects of God.

The ''[[Garuda Purana]]'' (chapter XV)<ref>{{Cite book|last=N.A.|url=https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.20541|title=THE GARUDA-PURANA PART. 1|date=1957|publisher=MOTILAL BANARSIDASS PUBLISHERS PVT. DELHI|pages=[https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.20541/page/n54 44]–71}}</ref> and the "[[Anushasana Parva]]" of the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' both list over 1000 names for Vishnu, each name describing a quality, attribute, or aspect of God. Known as the ''[[Vishnu Sahasranama]]'', ''Vishnu'' here is defined as 'the omnipresent'.

Other notable names in this list include :

* [[Hari]]
* Lakshmikanta
* [[Jagannatha]]
* [[Janardana]]
* [[Govinda]]
* [[Hrishikesha]]
* Padmanabha
* Mukunda

== Iconography ==
[[File:Vishnu Kumartuli Park Sarbojanin Arnab Dutta 2010.JPG|alt=|thumb|A statue of Vishnu.|left|261x261px]]

Vishnu iconography shows him with dark blue, blue-gray or black coloured skin, and as a well-dressed jewelled man. He is typically shown with four arms, but two armed representations are also found in Hindu texts on artworks.<ref name="KossakWatts2001p30"/><ref name="Rao1993p73"/>

The historic identifiers of his icon include his image holding a conch shell ([[shankha]] named [[Panchajanya]]) between the first two fingers of one hand (left back), a [[chakra]] – war discus named [[Sudarshana]] – in another (right back). The conch shell is spiral and symbolizes all of interconnected spiraling cyclic existence, while the discus symbolizes him as that which restores dharma with war if necessary when cosmic equilibrium is overwhelmed by evil.<ref name="KossakWatts2001p30"/> One of his arms sometimes carries a ''gada'' (club, mace named [[Kaumodaki]]) which symbolizes authority and power of knowledge.<ref name="KossakWatts2001p30"/> In the fourth arm, he holds a lotus flower (''[[Padma (Vishnu)|padma]]'') which symbolizes purity and transcendence.<ref name="KossakWatts2001p30">{{cite book|author1=Steven Kossak|author2=Edith Whitney Watts|title=The Art of South and Southeast Asia: A Resource for Educators |year= 2001 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=orBAYzCRJhIC |publisher= Metropolitan Museum of Art|isbn= 978-0-87099-992-5|pages= 30–31, 16, 25, 40–41, 74–78, 106–108}}</ref><ref name="Rao1993p73">{{cite book|author=T. A. Gopinatha Rao|title=Elements of Hindu iconography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MJD-KresBwIC|year=1993|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0878-2|pages=73–115}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=James G. Lochtefeld|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism|year=2002|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5kl0DYIjUPgC&pg=PA137 137], 231 (Vol. 1), 624 (Vol. 2)}} {{*}}{{cite book|title=Vol. 1|isbn=978-0-8239-3179-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5kl0DYIjUPgC|via=Google Books|last1=James g. Lochtefeld |first1=Ph. D. |date=15 December 2001 }} {{*}}{{cite book|title=Vol. 2|isbn= 978-0-8239-2287-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive|last1= Lochtefeld |first1= James G. |year= 2002 }}</ref> The items he holds in various hands varies, giving rise to twenty four combinations of iconography, each combination representing a special form of Vishnu. Each of these special forms is given a special name in texts such as the ''Agni Purana'' and ''Padma Purana''. These texts, however, are inconsistent.<ref name=bidyabinod>P.B.B. Bidyabinod, Varieties of the Vishnu Image, Memoirs of Archaeological Survey of India, No. 2, Calcutta, pages 23-33</ref> Rarely, Vishnu is depicted bearing the bow [[Sharanga]] or the sword [[Nandaka]]. He is depicted with the [[Kaustubha]] gem in a necklace and wearing [[Vaijayanti]], a garland of forest flowers. The [[shrivatsa]] mark is depicted on his chest in the form of a curl of hair. He generally wears yellow garments.

Vishnu iconography show him either in standing pose, seated in a [[yoga]] pose, or reclining.<ref name="Rao1993p73"/> A traditional depiction of Vishnu is that of him reclining on the coils of the serpent [[Shesha]], accompanied by his consort [[Lakshmi]], as he "dreams the universe into reality."<ref>{{cite book |author1=Fred S. Kleiner|title=Gardner's Art through the Ages: Non-Western Perspectives |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TlVeuxIgjwQC&q=vishnu+ananta&pg=PA22|year=2007 |publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-0495573678|page=22}}</ref>

== The Trimurti ==
{{Main|Trimurti}}
[[File:Trimurti_ellora.jpg|thumb|The [[Trimurti]] at [[Ellora]], with Vishnu in the middle.|left]]
Particularly in [[Vaishnavism]], the Trimurti (also known as the '''Hindu Triad''' or '''Great Trinity''')<ref>See Apte, p. 485, for a definition of ''Trimurti'' as 'the unified form' of Brahmā, {{IAST|Viṣṇu}} and Śiva, as well as the use of phrase "Hindu triad."</ref><ref>See: Jansen, p. 83, for the term "Great Trinity" in relation to the Trimurti.</ref> represents the three fundamental forces ([[Guṇa|''guṇas'']]) through which the universe is created, maintained, and destroyed in [[Hindu cosmology|cyclic succession]]. Each of these forces is represented by a Hindu deity:<ref>For quotation defining the Trimurti see: Matchett, Freda. 2003. "'The Purāṇas'." In ''Flood'', p. 139.</ref><ref>For the Trimurti system having Brahma as the creator, Vishnu as the maintainer or preserver, and Shiva as the transformer or destroyer see Zimmer (1972) p. 124.</ref>

* '''[[Brahma]]:''' presiding deity of [[Rajas]] (passion, creation)
* '''Vishnu:''' presiding deity of [[Sattva]] (goodness, preservation)
* '''[[Shiva]]:''' presiding deity of [[Tamas (philosophy)|Tamas]] (darkness, destruction)
The trimurti themselves are beyond three gunas and are not affected by it.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2008-03-06|title=Shiva: The Auspicious One|url=https://iskconnews.org/shiva-the-auspicious-one/|access-date=2022-02-12|website=ISKCON News|language=en}}</ref>

In Hindu tradition, the trio is often referred to as '''Brahma-Vishnu-Mahesh'''. All have the same meaning of three in One; different forms or manifestations of [[One]] person the [[Supreme Being]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://vedabase.net/sb/1/2/23/en|title=Srimad Bhagavatam Canto 1 Chapter 2 Verse 23|publisher=Vedabase.net|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101123213949/http://vedabase.net/sb/1/2/23/en|archive-date=23 November 2010|access-date=2011-11-30|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

==Avatars==
{{Main|Avatar|Dashavatara}}
[[File:The God Vishnu in Three Incarnations. Northern India (Mathura), Gupta period, mid-5th century AD. Boston Museum.jpg|thumb|Vishnu and his [[avatar]]s (''[[Vaikuntha Chaturmurti]]''): Vishnu himself or [[Krishna]] in human form, [[Narasimha]] as a lion, [[Varaha]] as a boar. [[Art of Mathura]], mid-5th century CE. [[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston|Boston Museum]].<ref name="CS">For English summary, see page 80 {{cite journal|last1=Schmid|first1=Charlotte|url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/arasi_0004-3958_1997_num_52_1_1401|title=Les Vaikuṇṭha gupta de Mathura : Viṣṇu ou Kṛṣṇa?|journal=Arts Asiatiques|date=1997|volume=52|pages=60–88|doi=10.3406/arasi.1997.1401}}</ref>]]
The concept of the avatar (or incarnation) within Hinduism is most often associated with Vishnu, the preserver or sustainer aspect of God within the Hindu [[Trimurti]]. The avatars of Vishnu descend to empower the good and to destroy evil, thereby restoring [[Dharma]] and relieving the burden of the Earth. An oft-quoted passage from the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' describes the typical role of an avatar of Vishnu:
{{Blockquote|<poem>
Whenever righteousness wanes and unrighteousness increases I send myself forth.
For the protection of the good and for the destruction of evil,
and for the establishment of righteousness,
I come into being age after age.
</poem>|''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' 4.7–8|
|source=}}

[[Vedas|Vedic]] literature, in particular the ''[[Puranas]]'' ('ancient'; similar to [[encyclopedia|''encyclopedias'']]) and ''[[Itihasa]]'' ('chronicle, history, legend'), narrate numerous [[avatar]]s of Vishnu. The most well-known of these avatars are [[Krishna]] (most notably in the ''[[Vishnu Purana]]'', ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'', and ''[[Mahabharata]]''; the latter encompassing the [[Bhagavad Gita]]), and [[Rama]] (most notably in the ''[[Ramayana]]''). Krishna in particular is venerated in [[Vaishnavism]] as the ultimate, primeval, [[Transcendence (religion)#Hinduism|transcendental]] source of all existence, including all the other [[demigod]]s and gods such as Vishnu.

=== The ''Mahabharata'' ===
In the ''[[Mahabharata]]'', Vishnu (as [[Narayana]]) states to [[Narada]] that He will appear in the following ten incarnations:

{{blockquote|Appearing in the forms of a swan [Hamsa], a tortoise [<nowiki/>[[Kurma]]], a fish [<nowiki/>[[Matsya]]], O foremost of regenerate ones, I shall then display myself as a boar [<nowiki/>[[Varaha]]], then as a Man-lion ([[Narasimha|Nrisingha]]), then as a dwarf [<nowiki/>[[Vamana]]], then as [[Parashurama|Rama]] of Bhrigu's race, then as [[Rama]], the son of Dasaratha, then as [[Krishna]] the scion of the Sattwata race, and lastly as [[Kalki]].|source=Book 12, Santi Parva, Chapter CCCXL (340), translated by Kisari Mohan Ganguli, 1883-1896<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m12/m12c039.htm|title=The Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Section CCCXL|website=sacred-texts.com|access-date=2019-12-12}}</ref>|author=|title=}}

=== The Puranas ===
Specified avatars of Vishnu are listed against some of the [[Puranas]] in the table below. However, this is a complicated process and the lists are unlikely to be exhaustive because:

* Not all Puranas provide lists ''per se'' (e.g. the Agni Purana dedicates entire chapters to avatars, and some of these chapters mention other avatars within them)
* A list may be given in one place but additional avatars may be mentioned elsewhere (e.g. the Bhagavata Purana lists 22 avatars in Canto 1, but mentions others elsewhere)
*Manava Purana, the only Upa Purana listed 42 avatars of Vishnu.
* A personality in one Purana may be considered an avatar in another (e.g. Narada is not specified as an avatar in the Matsya Purana but is in the Bhagavata Purana)
* Some avatars consist of two or more people considered as different aspects of a single incarnation (e.g. Nara-Narayana, Rama and his three brothers)

{| class="wikitable"
!Purana
!Avatars
!Names / Descriptions (with chapters and verses) - [[Dashavatara]] lists are in bold
|-
| rowspan="2" |[[Agni Purana|Agni]]<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/AgniPuranaUnabridgedEnglishMotilal|title=Agni Purana Unabridged English Motilal (vol 1.)|last=J. L. Shastri|first=G. P. Bhatt|date=1998-01-01|pages=[https://archive.org/details/AgniPuranaUnabridgedEnglishMotilal/page/n8 1]–38}}</ref>
|12<ref group="lower-alpha">Rama and his brothers are considered as one unit. Volume 3, Chapter 276 also lists the same incarnations. [[Samba (Krishna's son)|Samba]], [[Pradyumna]], and [[Aniruddha]] have not been counted; a list of the ''[[Dashavatara]]'' is provided in chapter 49.</ref>
|[[Matsya]] (2), [[Kurma]] (3), [[Dhanvantari]] (3.11), [[Mohini]] (3.12), [[Varaha]] (4), [[Narasimha]] (4.3-4), [[Vamana]] (4.5-11), [[Parashurama|Parasurama]] (4.12-20), [[Rama]] (5-11; one of the 'four forms' of Vishnu, including his brothers [[Bharata (Ramayana)|Bharata]], [[Lakshmana|Laksmana]] and [[Shatrughna|Satrughna]]), [[Krishna]] (12), [[Sugata|Buddha]] (16), [[Kalki]] (16)
|-
|'''10<ref name=":0" group="lower-alpha">Rama and his brothers are considered as one unit. Volume 3, Chapter 276 also lists the same incarnations. [[Samba (Krishna's son)|Samba]], [[Pradyumna]], and [[Aniruddha]] have not been counted; a list of the ''[[Dashavatara]]'' is provided in chapter 49.</ref>'''
|Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha, Vamana, Parasurama, Rama, Buddha, and Kalki (Chapter 49)
|-
| rowspan="2" |[[Bhagavata Purana|Bhagavata]]
|22<ref group="lower-alpha">Others such as Hamsa, Ajita, [[Samba (Krishna's son)|Samba]], [[Pradyumna]], and [[Aniruddha]] are mentioned elsewhere but have not been counted. For a complete list, see [[Bhagavata Purana#Avatars of Vishnu|Bhagavata Purana]]</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=CHAPTER THREE|url=https://vedabase.io/en/library/sb/1/3/|access-date=2019-10-31|website=vedabase.io|language=en}}</ref>
|[[Four Kumaras|Kumaras]], Varaha, [[Narada]], [[Nara-Narayana]], [[Kapila]], [[Dattatreya]], [[Yajna (avatar)|Yajna]], [[Rishabhanatha|Rsabha]], [[Prithu|Prthu]], Matsya, Kurma, Dhanvantari, Mohini, Nrsimha, Vamana, Parashurama, [[Vyasa]]deva, Rama, [[Balarama]] and Krishna, Buddha, and Kalki (Canto 1, Chapter 3).
|-
|20<ref name=":1" group="lower-alpha">Others such as Hamsa, Ajita, [[Samba (Krishna's son)|Samba]], [[Pradyumna]], and [[Aniruddha]] are mentioned elsewhere but have not been counted. For a complete list, see [[Bhagavata Purana#Avatars of Vishnu|Bhagavata Purana]]</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://vedabase.io/en/library/sb/2/7/|title=CHAPTER SEVEN|website=vedabase.io|language=en|access-date=2019-10-31}}</ref>
|Varaha, Suyajna (Hari), Kapila, Dattātreya, Four Kumaras, Nara-Narayana, Prthu, Rsabha, [[Hayagriva]], Matsya, Kurma, Nṛsiṁha, Vamana, [[Manu (Hinduism)|Manu]], Dhanvantari, Parashurama, Rama, Krishna, Buddha, and Kalki (Canto 2, Chapter 7)
|-
|[[Brahma Purana|Brahma]]<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.20270|title=BRAHMA PURANA PART. 4|last=N.A.|date=1957|publisher=MOTILAL BANARSIDASS PUBLISHERS PVT. DELHI|pages=[https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.20270/page/n222 970]}}</ref>
|15
|Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha, Vamana, [[Hayagriva]], Buddha, Rama, Kalki, [[Shesha|Ananta]], Acyuta, Jamadagnya ([[Parashurama]]), [[Varuna]], [[Indra]], and [[Yama (Hinduism)|Yama]] (Volume 4: 52.68-73)
|-
| rowspan="3" |[[Garuda Purana|Garuda]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.20541|title=THE GARUDA-PURANA PART. 1|last=N.A.|date=1957|publisher=MOTILAL BANARSIDASS PUBLISHERS PVT. DELHI|pages=[https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.20541/page/n33 1]–6}}</ref>
|20<ref name=":2" group="lower-alpha">Kumara is more likely to be the Four Kumaras (one unit) than - as the translator believes - [[Kartikeya|Karttikeya]], one of [[Shiva|Shiva's]] sons and the Hindu god of war</ref>
|Kumara, Varaha, Narada, Nara-Narayana, Kapila, [[Dattatreya|Datta]] (Dattatreya), Yajna, Urukrama, Prthu, Matsya, Kurma, Dhanavantari, Mohini, Narasimha, Vamana, Parasurama, Vyasadeva, Balarama, Krishna, and Kalki (Volume 1: Chapter 1)
|-
|'''10'''<ref name=":2" group="lower-alpha" />
|Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Nrsimha, Vamana, Parasurama, Rama, Krishna, Buddha, and Kalki (Volume 1, Chapter 86, Verses 10–11)
|-
|10<ref name=":2" group="lower-alpha" /><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.12942|title=THE GARUDA-PURANA PART. 3|last=N.A|date=1957|publisher=MOTILAL BANARSIDASS PUBLISHERS PVT. LTD, DELHI}}</ref>
|Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Nrsimha, Rama, Parasurama, Krishna, [[Balarama]], Buddha, and Kalki (Volume 3, Chapter 30, Verse 37)
|-
|[[Linga Purana|Linga]]<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/LingaPuranaJ.L.ShastriPart2|title=Linga Purana - English Translation - Part 2 of 2|last=J.L.Shastri|date=1951|pages=[https://archive.org/details/LingaPuranaJ.L.ShastriPart2/page/n281 774]}}</ref>
|'''10'''<ref group="lower-alpha">These avatars are stated to incarnate 'for the good of the world' in every cycle of [[yuga]]s; It is also stated that there are other avatars due to the curse of [[Bhrigu|Bhrgu]]</ref>
|Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Nrsimha, Vamana, Rama, Parasurama, Krishna, Buddha, and Kalki (Part 2, Chapter 48, Verses 31–32)
|-
|[[Matsya Purana|Matsya]]<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.45856|title=The Matsya Puranam|last=Basu|first=B. D.|date=1916|pages=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.45856/page/n157 137]–138}}</ref>
|10<ref group="lower-alpha">[[Narada]], [[Samba (Krishna's son)|Samba]], [[Pradyumna]], and [[Aniruddha]], etc., have not been counted</ref>
|3 celestial incarnations of [[Dharma]], Nrishimha, and Vamana; and 7 human incarnations of [[Dattatreya]], [[Mandhatri|Mandhitri]], Parasurama, Rama, Vedavyasa (Vyasa), Buddha, and Kalki (Volume 1: Chapter XLVII / 47)
|-
|[[Naradiya Purana|Narada]]<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.12976|title=THE NARADA-PURANA PART. 4|last=N.A|date=1952|publisher=MOTILAL BANARSIDASS PUBLISHERS PVT. LTD, DELHI|pages=[https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.12976/page/n152 1486]}}</ref>
|'''10'''
|Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha, Trivikrama (Vamana), Parasurama, Sri-Rama, Krisna, Buddha, Kalki (Part 4, Chapter 119, Verses 14–19), and Kapila<ref name=jacobsen08>{{cite book |year=2008 |surname=Jacobsen |given=Knut A. |author-link=Knut A. Jacobsen |title=Kapila, Founder of Sāṃkhya and Avatāra of Viṣṇu: With a Translation of Kapilāsurisaṃvāda |place=New Delhi |publisher=[[Munshiram Manoharlal]] |isbn=978-81-215-1194-0 |pages=9–25}}</ref>
|-
|[[Padma Purana|Padma]]<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.12949|title=THE PADMA-PURANA PART. 7|last=N.A|date=1952|publisher=MOTILAL BANARSIDASS PUBLISHERS PVT. LTD, DELHI}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.12954|title=THE PADMA-PURANA PART. 9|last=N.A|date=1956|publisher=MOTILAL BANARSIDASS PUBLISHERS PVT. LTD, DELHI}}</ref>
|'''10'''
|'''Part 7:''' [[Yama (Hinduism)|Yama]] (66.44-54) and [[Brahma]] (71.23-29) name 'Matsya, Kurma, and Varaha. Narasimha and Vamana, (Parasu-)rama, Rama, Krsna, Buddha, and Kalki'; '''Part 9:''' this list is repeated by [[Shiva]] (229.40-44); Kapila<ref name=jacobsen08 />
|-
|[[Shiva Purana|Shiva]]<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/SivaPuranaJ.L.ShastriPart4|title=Siva Purana - English Translation - Part 4 of 4|last=J.L.Shastri|date=1950}}</ref>
|'''10'''
|Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Nrsimha, Vamana, 'Rama trio' [Rama, Parasurama, Balarama], Krishna, Kalki (Part 4: Vayaviya Samhita: Chapter 30, Verses 56-58 and Chapter 31, verses 134–136)
|-
| rowspan="2" |[[Skanda Purana|Skanda]]
|14<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.13008|title=THE SKANDA-PURANA PART. 7|last=N.A|date=1951|publisher=MOTILAL BANARSIDASS PUBLISHERS PVT. LTD, DELHI|pages=[https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.13008/page/n295 285]–288}}</ref>
|Varaha, Matsya, Kurma, Nrsimha, Vamana, Kapila, Datta, Rsabha, Bhargava Rama (Parashurama), Dasarathi [[Rama]], Krsna, Krsna Dvaipayana (Vyasa), Buddha, and Kalki (Part 7: Vasudeva-Mamatmya: Chapter 18)
|-
|'''10'''<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.20778|title=THE SKANDA-PURANA PART.15|last=N.A.|date=1957|publisher=MOTILAL BANARSIDASS PUBLISHERS PVT. DELHI}}</ref>
|Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha, Trivikrama (Vamana), Parasurama, Sri-Rama, Krisna, Buddha, and Kalki (Part 15: Reva Khanda: Chapter 151, Verses 1–7)
|-
|Manavā
|42
|[[Adi Purusha]], Kumaras, Narada, Kapila, Yajna, Dattatreya, Nara-Narayana, Vibhu, Satyasena, Hari, Vaikunta, Ajita, Shaligram, Sarvabhauma, Vrishbha, Visvaksena, Sudhama(not krishna's friend Sudama), Dharmasetu, Yogeshwara, Brihadbhanu, Hamsa, Hayagriva, Vyasa, Prithu, Vrishbha deva, Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Vamana, Parashurama, Rama, Balrama, Krishna, Buddha, [[Venkateswara]], [[Dnyaneshwar]], [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu|Chaitanya]], Kalki
|-
|[[Varaha Purana|Varaha]]<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.12962|title=THE VARAHA PURANA PART. 1|last=N.A|date=1960|publisher=MOTILAL BANARSIDASS, DELHI|pages=[https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.12962/page/n23 13]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.12972|title=THE VARAHA PURANA PART. 2|last=N.A|date=1960|publisher=MOTILAL BANARSIDASS, DELHI|pages=[https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.12972/page/n308 652]}}</ref>
|'''10'''
|Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Nrsimha, Vamana, Parasurama, Rama, Krishna, Buddha, and Kalki (Chapter 4, Verses 2–3; Chapter 48, Verses 17–22; and Chapter 211, Verse 69)
|-
| colspan="3" |{{Reflist|group=lower-alpha}}
|}

===Dashavatara===
[[File:Vishnu Avatars.jpg|thumb|[[Hindu]] god Vishnu (centre) surrounded by his avatars namely (counter-clockwise, from left-top) [[Matsya]]; [[Kurma]]; [[Varaha]]; [[Narasimha]]; [[Vamana]]; [[Parashurama]]; [[Rama]]; [[Krishna]]; [[Gautama Buddha in Hinduism|Buddha]] and [[Kalki]], [[Raja Ravi Varma]] oleograph]]
{{Main|Dashavatara}}
The ''Dashavatara'' is a list of the so-called ''Vibhavas'', or '10 [primary] [[Avatar]]s' of Vishnu. The [[Agni Purana]], [[Varaha Purana]], [[Padma Purana]], [[Linga Purana]], [[Naradiya Purana|Narada Purana]], [[Garuda Purana]], and [[Skanda Purana]] all provide matching lists. The same ''Vibhavas'' are also found in the ''Garuda Purana'' ''Saroddhara'', a commentary or ‘extracted essence’ written by Navanidhirama about the Garuda Purana (i.e. not the [[Puranas|Purana]] itself, with which it seems to be confused):
{{blockquote|The [[Matsya|Fish]], the [[Kurma|Tortoise]], the [[Varaha|Boar]], the [[Narasimha|Man-Lion]], the [[Vamana|Dwarf]], [[Parashurama|Parasurama]], [[Rama]], [[Krishna|Krisna]], [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]], and also [[Kalki]]: These ten names should always be meditated upon by the wise. Those who recite them near the diseased are called relatives.|source=''Garuda Purana Saroddhara'', Chapter VIII, Verses 10-11, translated by E. Wood and S.V. Subrahmanyam<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.45762|title=The Garuda Purana|last=Subrahmanyam|first=S. V.|date=1911|pages=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.45762/page/n74 62]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/gpu/gpu10.htm|title=The Garuda Purana: Chapter VIII. An Account of the Gifts for the Dying|website=sacred-texts.com|access-date=2019-10-31}}</ref>|author=Navanidhirama|title=}}

Apparent disagreements concerning the placement of either the [[Sugata|Buddha]] or [[Balarama]] in the ''Dashavarara'' seems to occur from the ''Dashavarara'' list in the [[Shiva Purana]] (the only other list with ten avatars including Balarama in the Garuda Purana substitutes Vamana, not Buddha). Regardless, both versions of the ''Dashavarara'' have a scriptural basis in the canon of authentic [[Vedas|Vedic]] literature (but not from the ''Garuda Purana'' ''Saroddhara'')''.''

===Perumal===
{{Main|Perumal (deity)}}
[[File:Malekallu Tirupathi-balaji, Arsikere.jpg|thumb|[[Venkateswara|Venkatesvara]], one of the forms of Perumal (Vishnu)]]
Perumal ({{Lang-ta|பெருமாள்}})—also known as Thirumal ({{Lang-ta|திருமால்|links=no}}), or Mayon (as described in the Tamil scriptures)— was accepted as a manifestation of Vishnu during the process of the syncretism of South Indian deities into mainstream Hinduism. He is a popular [[Hinduism|Hindu]] deity among [[Tamils|Tamilians]] in [[Tamil Nadu]], as well among the [[Tamil diaspora]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.philtar.ac.uk/encyclopedia/hindu/ascetic/mal.html|title=Devotion to Mal (Mayon)|website=University of Cumbria, Division of Religion and Philosophy|access-date=10 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Who's who in non-classical mythology|last=Sykes, Egerton|others=Kendall, Alan, 1939-|date=4 February 2014|isbn=9781136414442|edition=2nd|location=London|oclc=872991268}}</ref> Revered by the [[Sri Vaishnavism|Sri Vaishnava]] denomination of Hinduism, Perumal is venerated in popular tradition as [[Venkateswara|Venkateshwara]] at [[Tirupati]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Krishna |first=Nanditha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KnXXAAAAMAAJ&q=perumal+venkateshwara+temple |title=Balaji-Venkateshwara, Lord of Tirumala-Tirupati: An Introduction |date=2000 |publisher=Vakils, Feffer, and Simons |isbn=978-81-87111-46-7 |pages=56 |language=en}}</ref> and [[Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam|Sri Ranganathaswamy]] at [[Srirangam]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ayyar |first=P. V. Jagadisa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NLSGFW1uZboC&q=perumal+srirangam+temple |title=South Indian Shrines: Illustrated |date=1982 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=978-81-206-0151-2 |pages=453 |language=en}}</ref>

==Literature==
{{Infobox
| title = Vishnu icons across cultures
| image =
{{image array|perrow=2|width=125|height=125
| image1 = KINGS of BAKTRIA. Agathokles. Circa 185-170 BC. AR Drachm (3.22 gm, 12h). Bilingual series. BASILEWS AGAQOKLEOUS with Indian god Balarama-Samkarshana.jpg|caption1=180 BCE [[Indo-Greek]] coin of [[Agathocles of Bactria|Agathocles]].
| image2 = VishnuGandhara.JPG| caption2 = [[Vishnu Nicolo Seal]], {{nowrap|4th–6th}} century CE, [[Gandhara]].
| image3 = Museum für Indische Kunst Dahlem Berlin Mai 2006 036 2.jpg| caption3 = 13th century [[Cambodia]]n Vishnu.
| image4 = Statue of Vishnu, Victoria and Albert Museum, London, UK (IM 127-1927) - 20090209.jpg| caption4 = India
| image5 = Beikthano (Vishnu) Nat.jpg| caption5 = [[Myanmar]]
| image6 = Vishnu Kediri.jpg| caption6 = [[Indonesia]]
}}
|caption =The iconography of Hindu god Vishnu has been widespread in history.
}}

===Vedas===
Vishnu is a [[Rigvedic deities|Rigvedic deity]], but not a prominent one when compared to [[Indra]], Agni and others.<ref name="Gonda1969p1">{{cite book|author=Jan Gonda|author-link=Jan Gonda|title=Aspects of Early Viṣṇuism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b8urRsuUJ9oC |year=1969|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1087-7|pages=1–2}}</ref> Just 5 out of 1028 hymns of the [[Rigveda]] are dedicated to Vishnu, although he is mentioned in other hymns.<ref name="Klostermaier2000p84" /> Vishnu is mentioned in the [[Brahmana]] layer of text in the Vedas, thereafter his profile rises and over the history of Indian scriptures, states [[Jan Gonda]], Vishnu becomes a divinity of the highest rank, one equivalent to the Supreme Being.<ref name="Gonda1969p1" /><ref name="Macdonell1898p167">{{cite book|author=Arthur Anthony Macdonell|title=Vedic Mythology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b7Meabtj8mcC |year=1898|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass (1996 Reprint)|isbn=978-81-208-1113-3|pages=167–169}}</ref>

Though a minor mention and with overlapping attributes in the Vedas, he has important characteristics in various hymns of Rig Veda, such as 1.154.5, 1.56.3 and 10.15.3.<ref name="Gonda1969p1" /> In these hymns, the Vedic scriptures assert that Vishnu resides in that highest home where departed [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (Self) reside, an assertion that may have been the reason for his increasing emphasis and popularity in Hindu [[soteriology]].<ref name="Gonda1969p1" /><ref name="Macdonell1898p10">{{cite book|author=Arthur Anthony Macdonell|title=Vedic Mythology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b7Meabtj8mcC |year=1898 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass (1996 Reprint) |isbn=978-81-208-1113-3|pages=9–11, 167–169}}</ref> He is also described in the Vedic literature as the one who supports heaven and earth.<ref name="Klostermaier2000p84" />

{{Verse translation|तदस्य प्रियमभि पाथो अश्यां नरो यत्र देवयवो मदन्ति । उरुक्रमस्य स हि बन्धुरित्था विष्णोः पदे परमे मध्व उत्सः ॥५॥ ऋग्वेद १-१५४-५|5. Might I reach that dear cattle-pen of his, where men seeking the gods find elation, for exactly that is the bond to the wide-striding one: the wellspring of honey in the highest step of Viṣṇu.|lang=sa|attr1=RV. 1.154.5<ref name="ऋग्वेदः सूक्तं १.१५४ - विकिस्रोतः">"[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7.%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%AB%E0%A5%AA ऋग्वेदः सूक्तं १.१५४ - विकिस्रोतः]". ''sa.wikisource.org''. Retrieved 17 June 2020.</ref>|italicsoff=off|attr2=translated by Stephanie Jamison, 2020<ref name="Jamison, Stephanie 2020">Jamison, Stephanie (2020). ''The Rigveda''. Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0190633395}}.</ref>}}

{{Verse translation|आहं पितॄन्सुविदत्राँ अवित्सि नपातं च विक्रमणं च विष्णोः ।
बर्हिषदो ये स्वधया सुतस्य भजन्त पित्वस्त इहागमिष्ठाः ॥३॥ ऋग्वेद १०-१५-३|3. I have found here the forefathers good to find and the grandson and the wide stride of Viṣṇu.
Those who, sitting on the ritual grass, share in the pressed soma and the food at (the cry of) “svadhā,” they are the most welcome arrivals here.|lang=sa|attr1=RV 10.15.13<ref name="ऋग्वेदः सूक्तं १.१५४ - विकिस्रोतः"/>|italicsoff=off|attr2=translated by Stephanie Jamison, 2020<ref name="Jamison, Stephanie 2020"/>}}

In the Vedic hymns, Vishnu is invoked alongside other deities, especially Indra, whom he helps in killing the symbol of evil named [[Vritra]].<ref name="Klostermaier2000p84" /><ref name="Macdonell1898p18" /> His distinguishing characteristic in Vedas is his association with light. Two Rigvedic hymns in [[Mandala 7]] refer to Vishnu. In section 7.99 of the Rigveda, Vishnu is addressed as the god who separates heaven and earth, a characteristic he shares with Indra. In the Vedic texts, the deity or god referred to as Vishnu is [[Surya]] or [[Savitr]] (Sun god), who also bears the name ''Suryanarayana''. Again, this link to Surya is a characteristic Vishnu shares with fellow Vedic deities named Mitra and Agni, wherein different hymns, they too "bring men together" and cause all living beings to rise up and impel them to go about their daily activities.<ref name="Macdonell1898p29">{{cite book|author=Arthur Anthony Macdonell|title=Vedic Mythology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b7Meabtj8mcC |year=1898|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass (1996 Reprint)|isbn=978-81-208-1113-3|pages=29–32}}</ref>

In hymn 7.99 of Rigveda, Indra-Vishnu is equivalent and produce the sun, with the verses asserting that this sun is the source of all energy and light for all.<ref name="Macdonell1898p29" /> In other hymns of the Rigveda, Vishnu is a close friend of Indra.<ref name="Nilakanta Sastri 1980">Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (1980). ''Advanced History of India'', Allied Publishers, New Delhi.</ref> Elsewhere in Rigveda, Atharvaveda and Upanishadic texts, Vishnu is equivalent to Prajapati, both are described as the protector and preparer of the womb, and according to Klaus Klostermaier, this may be the root behind the post-Vedic fusion of all the attributes of the Vedic [[Prajapati]] unto the avatars of Vishnu.<ref name="Klostermaier2000p84"/>

In the ''[[Yajurveda]]'', [[Taittiriya Aranyaka]] (10.13.1), "[[Narayana sukta]]", Narayana is mentioned as the supreme being. The first verse of "Narayana Suktam" mentions the words ''paramam padam'', which literally mean 'highest post' and may be understood as the 'supreme abode for all Selfs'. This is also known as '''Param Dhama''', '''Paramapadam''', or '''Vaikuntha'''. Rigveda 1.22.20 also mentions the same ''paramam padam''.<ref>{{cite book |title=Brahmapurāṇa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J2c6-tAt4vwC |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|year=1989|page=106|author1=Renate Söhnen-Thieme |author2=Renate Söhnen |author3=Peter Schreiner |isbn=9783447029605}}</ref>

In the [[Atharvaveda]], the mythology of a boar who raises goddess earth from the depths of cosmic ocean appears, but without the word Vishnu or his alternate avatar names. In post-Vedic mythology, this legend becomes one of the basis of many cosmogonic myth called the [[Varaha]] legend, with Varaha as an avatar of Vishnu.<ref name="Macdonell1898p18">{{cite book|author=Arthur Anthony Macdonell|title=Vedic Mythology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b7Meabtj8mcC |year=1898|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass (1996 Reprint)|isbn=978-81-208-1113-3|pages=18–19}}</ref>

====Trivikrama: The Three Steps of Vishnu====
{{multiple image|total_width=450
| header=The Three Strides of Vishnu
| align = right
| image1 = Trivikram Vishnu - Gupta Period - ACCN 70-58 - Government Museum - Mathura 2013-02-23 5411.JPG
| image2 = Le temple de Changu Narayan (Bhaktapur) (8567815983).jpg
| image3 = Badami Cave Temples 35.jpg
| footer = The depiction of the "three strides of Vishnu" is common in [[Hindu art]], wherein his leg is shown raised like a gymnast, symbolizing a huge step. Left: Trivikrama in the [[Art of Mathura]], [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] period. Center: at a temple in [[Bhaktapur]], Nepal; Right: at 6th-century [[Badami cave temples]], India.
}}

Several hymns of the Rigveda repeat the mighty deed of Vishnu called the ''Trivikrama'', which is one of the lasting mythologies in Hinduism since the Vedic times.<ref name="Klostermaier2000p85">{{cite book |author=Klaus K. Klostermaier |year=2000|title=Hinduism: A Short History |url=https://archive.org/details/hinduismshorthis0000klos |url-access=registration |publisher=Oneworld |isbn=978-1-85168-213-3|pages=[https://archive.org/details/hinduismshorthis0000klos/page/84 84]–85}}</ref> It is an inspiration for ancient artwork in numerous [[Hindu temple]]s such as at the [[Ellora Caves]], which depict the Trivikrama legend through the Vamana avatar of Vishnu.<ref>{{cite book|author=Alice Boner|title=Principles of Composition in Hindu Sculpture: Cave Temple Period|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=doQLZ21CGScC&pg=PA96|year=1990|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0705-1|pages=96–99}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Bettina Bäumer|author2=Kapila Vatsyayan|title=Kalātattvakośa: A Lexicon of Fundamental Concepts of the Indian Arts |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8f38pN2lvhIC&pg=PA251|year=1988|publisher=Motilal Banarsidas |isbn=978-81-208-1044-0|page=251}}</ref> ''Trivikrama'' refers to the celebrated ''three steps'' or "three strides" of Vishnu. Starting as a small insignificant looking being, Vishnu undertakes a herculean task of establishing his reach and form, then with his first step covers the earth, with second the ether, and the third entire heaven.<ref name="Klostermaier2000p85" /><ref>{{cite book |author=J. Hackin |title=Asiatic Mythology: A Detailed Description and Explanation of the Mythologies of All the Great Nations of Asia|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=HAZrFhvqnTkC&pg=PA130| year=1994|publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=978-81-206-0920-4|pages=130–132}}</ref>

{{blockquote|
<poem>
विष्णोर्नु कं वीर्याणि प्र वोचं यः पार्थिवानि विममे रजांसि ।
यो अस्कभायदुत्तरं सधस्थं विचक्रमाणस्त्रेधोरुगायः ॥१॥…

''viṣṇōrnu kaṃ vīryāṇi pra vōcaṃ yaḥ pārthivāni vimamē rajāṃsi |''
''yō askabhāyaduttaraṃ sadhasthaṃ vicakramāṇastrēdhōrugāyaḥ ||1||''

I will now proclaim the heroic deeds of Visnu, who has measured out the terrestrial regions,
who established the upper abode having, wide-paced, strode out triply…
</poem>
|Rigveda 1.154.1|Translated by [[Jan Gonda]]<ref>{{cite book|author=Jan Gonda|title=Viṣṇuism and Śivaism: a comparison|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d1YIAQAAIAAJ|year=1970|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic|isbn=978-1474280808 |pages=71–72}}</ref>|source=}}

The Vishnu Sukta 1.154 of Rigveda says that the first and second of Vishnu's strides (those encompassing the earth and air) are visible to the mortals and the third is the realm of the immortals. The Trivikrama describing hymns integrate salvific themes, stating Vishnu to symbolize that which is freedom and life.<ref name="Klostermaier2000p85"/> The [[Shatapatha Brahmana]] elaborates this theme of Vishnu, as his herculean effort and sacrifice to create and gain powers that help others, one who realizes and defeats the evil symbolized by the Asuras after they had usurped the three worlds, and thus Vishnu is the saviour of the mortals and the immortals ([[Deva (Hinduism)|Devas]]).<ref name="Klostermaier2000p85"/>

===Brahmanas===
{{Quote box
| quote = '''To what is One'''
<poem>
Seven germs unripened yet are heaven's prolific seed:
their functions they maintain by '''Vishnu's''' ordinance.
Endued with wisdom through intelligence and thought,
they compass us about present on every side.

What thing I truly am I know not clearly:
mysterious, fettered in my mind I wonder.
When the first-born of holy Law approached me,
then of this speech, I first obtain a portion.
(...)

They call him Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Agni,
and he is heavenly-winged Garutman.
To what is One, sages give many a title.
</poem>
| source = — ''[[Rigveda]] 1.164.36-37, 46''<ref>{{cite book|author=Klaus K. Klostermaier|title=A Survey of Hinduism: Third Edition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8CVviRghVtIC |year=2010|publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-8011-3|pages=103 with footnote 10 on page 529}}</ref><ref>See also, Griffith's Rigveda translation: [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Rig_Veda/Mandala_1/Hymn_164 Wikisource]</ref>
| bgcolor = #FFE0BB
| align = right
}}
The ''[[Shatapatha Brahmana]]'' contains ideas which Vaishnavism tradition of Hinduism has long mapped to a pantheistic vision of Vishnu as supreme, he as the essence in every being and everything in the empirically perceived universe. In this Brahmana, states Klaus Klostermaier, Purusha Narayana (Vishnu) asserts, "all the worlds have I placed within mine own self, and my own self has I placed within all the worlds."<ref name="klostermaier86" /> The text equates Vishnu to all knowledge there is (Vedas), calling the essence of everything as imperishable, all Vedas and principles of universe as imperishable, and that this imperishable which is Vishnu is the all.<ref name="klostermaier86">{{cite book|author=Klaus K. Klostermaier|title=Hinduism: A Short History|url=https://archive.org/details/hinduismshorthis0000klos|url-access=registration| year=2000| publisher=Oneworld| isbn=978-1-85168-213-3| pages=[https://archive.org/details/hinduismshorthis0000klos/page/85 85]–87}}</ref>

Vishnu is described to be permeating all object and life forms, states S. Giora Shoham, where he is "ever-present within all things as the intrinsic principle of all", and the eternal, transcendental self in every being.<ref>{{cite book|author=S. Giora Shoham|title=To Test the Limits of Our Endurance|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8_hOAQAAIAAJ |year=2010|publisher=Cambridge Scholars |isbn=978-1-4438-2068-4|page=116}}</ref> The Vedic literature, including its Brahmanas layer, while praising Vishnu do not subjugate others gods and goddesses. They present an inclusive pluralistic [[henotheism]]. According to [[Max Müller|Max Muller]], "Although the gods are sometimes distinctly invoked as the great and the small, the young and the old (Rig Veda 1:27:13), this is only an attempt to find the most comprehensive expression for the divine powers and nowhere is any of the gods represented as the subordinate to others. It would be easy to find, in the numerous hymns of the Veda, passages in which almost every single god is represented as supreme and absolute."<ref>[[Max Müller|Müller, Max]]. ''History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature''. London: Spottiswoode and Co. p. 533</ref>

===Upanishads===
The [[Vaishnava Upanishads]] are minor [[Upanishad]]s of [[Hinduism]], related to Vishnu theology. There are 14 Vaishnava Upanishads in the [[Muktika]] anthology of 108 [[Upanishads]].{{Sfn|Deussen|1997|p=556}} It is unclear when these texts were composed, and estimates vary from the 1st-century BCE to 17th-century CE for the texts.{{Sfn|Mahony|1998|p=290}}{{Sfn|Lamb|2002|p=191}}

These Upanishads highlight Vishnu, [[Narayana]], [[Rama]] or one of his [[avatar]]s as the supreme metaphysical reality called [[Brahman]] in Hinduism.<ref name="Mahony1998p271">{{cite book|author=William K. Mahony|title=The Artful Universe: An Introduction to the Vedic Religious Imagination|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B1KR_kE5ZYoC |year=1998|publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-3579-3 |page=271}}</ref><ref name="WinternitzSarma1996p217">{{cite book|author1=Moriz Winternitz|author2=V. Srinivasa Sarma|title=A History of Indian Literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JRfuJFRV_O8C |year=1996|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0264-3 |pages=217–224 with footnotes }}</ref> They discuss a diverse range of topics, from ethics to the methods of worship.{{Sfn|Sen|1937|p=26}}

===Puranas===
[[File:Bhagavata Purana (Ancient Stories of the Lord) Manuscript LACMA M.88.134.4 (2 of 2).jpg|thumb|The [[Bhagavata Purana]] is centred around [[Krishna]], a Vishnu avatar.]]
Vishnu is the primary focus of the Vaishnavism-focused [[Puranas]] genre of [[Hindu texts]]. Of these, according to [[Ludo Rocher]], the most important texts are the [[Bhagavata Purana]], [[Vishnu Purana]], [[Nāradeya Purana]], [[Garuda Purana]] and [[Vayu Purana]].{{Sfn|Rocher|1986|pp=59-61}} The Purana texts include many versions of cosmologies, mythologies, encyclopedic entries about various aspects of life, and chapters that were medieval era regional Vishnu temples-related tourist guides called {{lang|sa|mahatmyas}}.{{Sfn|Glucklich|2008|p=146, '''Quote:''' The earliest promotional works aimed at tourists from that era were called ''mahatmyas''.}}

One version of the cosmology, for example, states that Vishnu's eye is at the Southern Celestial Pole from where he watches the cosmos.<ref>{{Cite book | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=IsSpbyjw5DMC&pg=PA273 | title = Sinister Yogis | isbn = 978-0-226-89515-4 | last1 = White | first1 = David Gordon | page=273 with footnote 47| date = 2010-07-15}}</ref> In another version found in section 4.80 of the Vayu Purana, he is the [[Hiranyagarbha]], or the golden egg from which were simultaneously born all feminine and masculine beings of the universe.<ref>{{cite book|author=J.M Masson|title=The Oceanic Feeling: The Origins of Religious Sentiment in Ancient India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=swsrBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA63 |year=2012|publisher=Springer Science|isbn=978-94-009-8969-6|pages=63 with footnote 4}}</ref>

==== Vishnu Purana ====
The Vishnu Purana presents Vishnu as the central element of its cosmology, unlike some other Puranas where Shiva or Brahma or goddess Shakti are. The reverence and the worship of Vishnu is described in 22 chapters of the first part of Vishnu Purana, along with the profuse use of the synonymous names of Vishnu such as Hari, Janardana, Madhava, Achyuta, Hrishikesha and others.{{Sfn|Rocher|1986|pp=246-247}}

The [[Vishnu Purana]] also discusses the Hindu concept of supreme reality called [[Brahman]] in the context of the [[Upanishad]]s; a discussion that the theistic Vedanta scholar [[Ramanuja]] interprets to be about the equivalence of the Brahman with Vishnu, a foundational theology in the [[Sri Vaishnavism]] tradition.<ref>Sucharita Adluri (2015), Textual Authority in Classical Indian Thought: Ramanuja and the Visnu Purana, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415695756}}, pages 1-11, 18-26</ref>

==== Bhagavata Purana ====
Vishnu is equated with [[Brahman]] in the [[Bhagavata Purana]], such as in verse 1.2.11, as "learned transcendentalists who know the Absolute Truth call this non-dual substance as [[Brahman]], [[Paramatman|Paramatma]] and Bhagavan."<ref>{{cite web |author=Bhagavata Purana |url=http://vedabase.net/sb/1/2/11/en |title=1.2.11 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060523204721/http://vedabase.net/sb/1/2/11/en |archive-date=23 May 2006 |work=Bhaktivedanta VedaBase |quote=vadanti tat tattva-vidas tattvam yaj jnanam advayam brahmeti paramatmeti bhagavan iti sabdyate}}</ref>

The [[Bhagavata Purana]] has been the most popular and widely read Purana texts relating to Vishnu avatar Krishna, it has been translated and available in almost all Indian languages.{{Sfn|Bryant|2007|p=112}} Like other Puranas, it discusses a wide range of topics including cosmology, genealogy, geography, mythology, legend, music, dance, yoga and culture.{{Sfn|Kumar Das|2006| pages=172–173}}{{Sfn|Rocher|1986|pp=138–151}} As it begins, the forces of evil have won a war between the benevolent ''[[Deva (Hinduism)|deva]]s'' (deities) and evil ''[[asura]]s'' (demons) and now rule the universe. Truth re-emerges as the Vishnu avatar first makes peace with the demons, understands them and then creatively defeats them, bringing back hope, justice, freedom and good – a cyclic theme that appears in many legends.<ref>Ravi Gupta and Kenneth Valpey (2013), The Bhagavata Purana, Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0231149990}}, pages 3-19</ref> The ''Bhagavata Purana'' is a revered text in [[Vaishnavism]].<ref>Constance Jones and James Ryan (2007), Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Infobase, {{ISBN|978-0816054589}}, page 474</ref> The Puranic legends of Vishnu have inspired plays and dramatic arts that are acted out over festivals, particularly through performance arts such as the [[Sattriya]], [[Manipuri dance]], [[Odissi]], [[Kuchipudi]], [[Kathakali]], [[Kathak]], [[Bharatanatyam]], [[Bhagavata Mela]] and [[Mohiniyattam]].{{Sfn|Bryant|2007|p=118}}{{Sfn|Varadpande|1987|pages=92–97}}<ref>Graham Schweig (2007), Encyclopedia of Love in World Religions (Editor: Yudit Kornberg Greenberg), Volume 1, {{ISBN|978-1851099801}}, pages 247-249</ref>

==== Other Puranas ====
Some versions of the Purana texts, unlike the Vedic and Upanishadic texts, emphasize Vishnu as supreme and on whom other gods depend. Vishnu, for example, is the source of creator deity [[Brahma]] in the Vaishnavism-focussed Purana texts. Vishnu's iconography typically shows Brahma being born in a lotus emerging from his navel, who then is described as creating all the forms in the universe, but not the primordial universe itself.{{Sfn|Bryant|2007|p=[https://archive.org/details/krishnasourceboo00brya_424/page/n32 18]}} In contrast, the [[Shiva]]-focussed Puranas describe Brahma and Vishnu to have been created by [[Ardhanarishvara]], that is half Shiva and half Parvati; or alternatively, Brahma was born from [[Rudra]], or Vishnu, Shiva and Brahma creating each other cyclically in different aeons ([[Kalpa (aeon)|kalpa]]).<ref name="Stella Kramrisch 1994 pages 205-206">Stella Kramrisch (1994), The Presence of Siva, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0691019307}}, pages 205-206</ref>

In some Vaishnava Puranas, Vishnu takes the form of Rudra or commands Rudra to destroy the world, thereafter the entire universe dissolves and along with time, everything is reabsorbed back into Vishnu. The universe is then recreated from Vishnu all over again, starting a new ''Kalpa''.<ref name="doniger71">{{cite book|author=Wendy Doniger|title=Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YxoaUKmMG9gC&pg=PA71 |year=1988|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-61847-0|pages=71–73}}</ref> For this the ''Bhagavata Purana'' employs the metaphor of Vishnu as a spider and the universe as his web. Other texts offer alternate cosmogenic theories, such as one where the universe and time are absorbed into Shiva.<ref name="doniger71" /><ref>{{cite book|author=Stella Kramrisch|title=The Presence of Siva |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O5BanndcIgUC |year=1993|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-01930-7|pages=274–276}}</ref>

=== Agama ===
The [[Agama (Hinduism)|Agama]] scripture called the [[Pancharatra]] describes a mode of worship of Vishnu.

===Sangam and Post-Sangam literature===
{{main|Thirumal}}
The Sangam literature refers to an extensive regional collection in the [[Tamil language]], mostly from the early centuries of the common era. These Tamil texts revere Vishnu and his avatars such as Krishna and Rama, as well as other pan-Indian deities such as Shiva, [[Kartikeya|Muruga]], Durga, Indra and others.<ref name="padmaja27">{{cite book|author=T. Padmaja|title=Temples of Kr̥ṣṇa in South India: History, Art, and Traditions in Tamilnāḍu|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pzgaS1wRnl8C&pg=PA27 |year=2002|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-398-4|page=27}}</ref> Vishnu is described in these texts as ''mayon'', or "one who is dark or black in color" (in north India, the equivalent word is Krishna).<ref name="padmaja27" /> Other terms found for Vishnu in these ancient Tamil genre of literature include ''mayavan, mamiyon, netiyon, mal'' and ''mayan''.<ref>{{cite book |author=T. Padmaja|title=Temples of Kr̥ṣṇa in South India: History, Art, and Traditions in Tamilnāḍu|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pzgaS1wRnl8C&pg=PA28 |year=2002|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-398-4 |page=28}}</ref>

Krishna as Vishnu avatar is the primary subject of two post-Sangam Tamil epics ''[[Silappadikaram]]'' and ''[[Manimekalai]]'', each of which was probably composed about the 5th century CE.<ref name="padmaja30">{{cite book|author=T. Padmaja|title=Temples of Kr̥ṣṇa in South India: History, Art, and Traditions in Tamilnāḍu|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pzgaS1wRnl8C&pg=PA28 |year=2002|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-398-4|pages=30–31}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=John Stratton Hawley|author2=Donna Marie Wulff|title=The Divine Consort: Rādhā and the Goddesses of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j3R1z0sE340C&pg=PA238 |year=1982|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-0-89581-102-8|pages=238–244}}</ref> These Tamil epics share many aspects of the story found in other parts of India, such as those related to baby Krishna such as stealing butter, and teenage Krishna such as teasing girls who went to bathe in a river by hiding their clothes.<ref name="padmaja30" /><ref>{{cite book|author=Guy L. Beck|title=Alternative Krishnas: Regional and Vernacular Variations on a Hindu Deity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K0XqbG0LKBUC |year=2012|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-8341-1|pages=68–69}}</ref>

===Bhakti Movement===
Ideas about Vishnu in the mid 1st millennium CE were important to the [[Bhakti movement]] theology that ultimately swept India after the 12th century. The [[Alvars]], which literally means "those immersed in God", were Tamil Vaishnava poet-saints who sang praises of Vishnu as they traveled from one place to another.<ref name="olson231">{{cite book|last=Olson|first=Carl|title=The many colors of Hinduism: a thematic-historical introduction|publisher=[[Rutgers University Press]]|year=2007|page=231|isbn=978-0-8135-4068-9}}</ref> They established temple sites such as [[Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam|Srirangam]], and spread ideas about [[Vaishnavism]]. Their poems, compiled as Alwar Arulicheyalgal or [[Divya Prabhandham]], developed into an influential scripture for the Vaishnavas. The [[Bhagavata Purana]]'s references to the South Indian Alvar saints, along with its emphasis on ''bhakti'', have led many scholars to give it South Indian origins, though some scholars question whether this evidence excludes the possibility that ''bhakti'' movement had parallel developments in other parts of India.{{sfn|Sheridan|1986|p={{page needed|date=January 2021}}}}<ref>{{cite book | last=[[J. A. B. van Buitenen]] | chapter=The Archaism of the Bhāgavata Purāṇa |title=Encyclopedia Indica | year = 1996| editor=S.S Shashi | isbn=978-81-7041-859-7 | pages=28–45 }}</ref>

==Vaishnava theology==
{{Vaishnavism}}
{{Main|Vaishnavism|Pañcaratra}}
The Bhagavata Purana summarizes the Vaishnava theology, wherein it frequently discusses the merging of the individual Self with the Absolute [[Brahman]] (Ultimate Reality, Supreme Truth), or "the return of Brahman into His own true nature", a distinctly [[Advaitic]] or non-dualistic philosophy of [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]].{{sfn|Kumar Das|2006| pages=172–173}}<ref name="Brown" />{{Sfn|Sheridan|1986|pp=1–2, 17–25}} The concept of ''[[moksha]]'' is explained as ''Ekatva'' ('Oneness') and ''Sayujya'' ('Absorption, intimate union'), wherein one is completely lost in Brahman (Self, Supreme Being, one's true nature).<ref name="Rukmani_217-218" /> This, states Rukmini (1993), is proclamation of "return of the individual Self to the Absolute and its merging into the Absolute", which is unmistakably Advaitic in its trend.<ref name="Rukmani_217-218" /> In the same passages, the Bhagavata includes a mention of [[Bhagavan]] as the object of concentration, thereby presenting the [[Bhakti]] path from the three major paths of Hindu spirituality discussed in the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]''.<ref name="Rukmani_217-218">{{Harvnb|Rukmani|1993|pp=217–218}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Murray Milner Jr.|title=Status and Sacredness: A General Theory of Status Relations and an Analysis of Indian Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EdqMMcYQ7r8C |year=1994|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-535912-1|pages=191–203}}</ref>

The theology in the ''Bhagavad Gita'' discusses both the sentient and the non-sentient, the Self and the matter of existence. It envisions the universe as the body of Vishnu (Krishna), state Harold Coward and Daniel Maguire. Vishnu in Gita's theology pervades all Selfs, all matter and time.<ref name="coward113">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gkIwI84XajEC&pg=PA113|title=Visions of a New Earth: Religious Perspectives on Population, Consumption, and Ecology|author1=Harold Coward|author2=Daniel C. Maguire|publisher=State University of New York Press|year=2000|isbn=978-0-7914-4458-0|page=113}}</ref> In Sri Vaishnavism sub-tradition, Vishnu and Sri (goddess [[Lakshmi]]) are described as inseparable, that they pervade everything together. Both together are the creators, who also pervade and transcend their creation.<ref name="coward113" />

The Bhagavata Purana, in many passages, parallels the ideas of Nirguna Brahman and non-duality of [[Adi Shankara]]. {{Sfn|Sheridan|1986|pp=1–2, 17–25}} For example:

{{Blockquote|
<poem>
The aim of life is an inquiry into the Truth, and not the desire for enjoyment in heaven by performing religious rites,
Those who possess the knowledge of the Truth, call the knowledge of non-duality as the Truth,
It is called [[Brahman]], the Highest [[Atman (Hinduism)|Self]], and [[Bhagavan]].
</poem>
|Sūta|Bhagavata Purana 1.2.10-11, translated by Daniel Sheridan<ref>{{harvnb|Sheridan|1986|page=23 with footnote 17}}; Sanskrit: कामस्य नेन्द्रियप्रीतिर्लाभो जीवेत यावता | जीवस्य तत्त्वजिज्ञासा नार्थो यश्चेह कर्मभिः || वदन्ति तत्तत्त्वविदस्तत्त्वं यज्ज्ञानमद्वयम् | ब्रह्मेति परमात्मेति भगवानिति शब्द्यते || Source: [http://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_purana/bhagpur.html?lang=sa Bhagavata Purana] Archive</ref>|source=}}

Scholars describe the Vaishnava theology as built on the foundation of non-dualism speculations in Upanishads, and term it as "Advaitic Theism."{{Sfn|Sheridan|1986|pp=1–2, 17–25}}{{Sfn|Brown|1998|p=17}} The Bhagavata Purana suggests that Vishnu and the Self (Atman) in all beings is one.<ref name="Brown">{{harvnb|Brown|1983|pages=553–557}}</ref> Bryant states that the monism discussed in Bhagavata Purana is certainly built on the Vedanta foundations, but not exactly the same as the monism of Adi Shankara.<ref name="bryant45" /> The Bhagavata asserts, according to Bryant, that the empirical and the spiritual universe are both metaphysical realities, and manifestations of the same Oneness, just like heat and light are "real but different" manifestations of sunlight.<ref name="bryant45">Edwin Bryant (2004), Krishna: The Beautiful Legend of God: Srimad Bhagavata Purana Book X, Penguin, {{ISBN|978-0140447996}}, pages 43-48</ref>

In the [[Bhakti]] tradition of Vaishnavism, Vishnu is attributed with numerous qualities such as omniscience, energy, strength, lordship, vigour, and splendour.<ref name="Tapasyananda">{{cite book | author = Tapasyananda | year = 1991 | title = Bhakti Schools of Vedānta | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Q_VtAAAACAAJ | isbn = 978-81-7120-226-3 | publisher = Sri Ramakrishna Math | location = Madras}}</ref> The Vaishnava tradition started by [[Madhvacharya]] considers Vishnu in the form of Krishna to be the supreme creator, personal God, all-pervading, all devouring, one whose knowledge and grace leads to "moksha".<ref>{{cite book|author= Deepak Sarma| editor =Edwin F. Bryant|title=Krishna: A Sourcebook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HVDqCkW1WpUC&pg=PA358|year= 2007| publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-972431-4| pages=358–360}}</ref> In Madhvacharya Vaishnava theology, the supreme Vishnu and the Selfs of living beings are two different realities and nature (dualism), while in Ramanuja's [[Sri Vaishnavism]], they are different but share the same essential nature (qualified non-dualism).<ref>{{cite book|last=Sharma |first=Chandradhar |title=A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy|year= 1994|publisher= Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0365-7 |page=373}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Madhva (1238-1317) |first= Valerie| last= Stoker| encyclopedia= Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|year=2011 |access-date=17 April 2016| url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/madhva/ }}</ref><ref>Stafford Betty (2010), Dvaita, Advaita, and Viśiṣṭādvaita: Contrasting Views of Mokṣa, Asian Philosophy: An International Journal of the Philosophical Traditions of the East, Volume 20, Issue 2, pages 215-224</ref>

==Associated deities==

===Lakshmi===
{{Main|Lakshmi}}
[[File:Lakshmi Vishnu.jpg|thumb|Vishnu with [[Lakshmi]] ([[Lakshmi Narayan]]) on [[Garuda]].]]
Lakshmi, the [[Hindu goddess]] of wealth, fortune and prosperity (both material and spiritual), is the wife and [[shakti|active energy]] of Vishnu.<ref name="anandrao167">{{cite book|author=Anand Rao|title=Soteriologies of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UxGEy6m4N9kC&pg=PA167|year=2004|publisher=LIT Verlag Münster|isbn=978-3-8258-7205-2|page=167}}</ref><ref>A Parasarthy (1983), Symbolism in Hinduism, Chinmaya Mission Publication, {{ISBN|978-8175971493}}, pages 91-92, 160-162</ref> She is also called [[Sri]].<ref name="mmwlak">{{Cite MWSD|url=http://faculty.washington.edu/prem/mw/l.html|lakṣmī}}</ref><ref name="jmuir">John Muir, {{Google books|ymLZAAAAMAAJ|Original Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and History of the People of India - Their Religions and Institutions|348}}, Volume 5, pp. 348-362 with footnotes</ref> When Vishnu incarnated on earth as the [[avatar]]s [[Rama]] and [[Krishna]], Lakshmi incarnated as his respective consorts: [[Sita]] and [[Radha]] or [[Rukmini]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Monaghan |first=Patricia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qotjet-Hb0MC&q=Radha |title=Goddesses in World Culture |date=2010-12-31 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-313-35465-6 |language=en}}</ref>
<ref name="Rosen2006">{{cite book|last=Rosen|first=Steven J.|author-link=Steven J. Rosen|title=Essential Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WuVG8PxKq_0C&pg=PA136|date=1 January 2006|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-275-99006-0|page=136}}</ref> Various regional beliefs consider Lakshmi to be manifested as various goddesses, who are considered Vishnu's wives. In South India, Lakshmi is worshipped in two forms — Sridevi and [[Bhudevi]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Knapp |first=Stephen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=djI5mL2qeocC&dq=sridevi+and+bhudevi&pg=PT378 |title=Spiritual India Handbook |date=2009-01-01 |publisher=Jaico Publishing House |isbn=978-81-8495-024-3 |pages=378 |language=en}}</ref> In Tirupati, [[Venkateshwara]] (identified as a form of Vishnu) is depicted with consorts, Lakshmi and [[Padmavathi]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Critical Companion to George Orwell|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hZET2sSUVsgC|publisher=Infobase Publishing|page=491|author=Edward Quinn|year=2014|isbn = 9781438108735}}</ref>

===Garuda===
{{Main|Garuda}}
Among Vishnu's primary mounts ([[vahana]]) is Garuda, the demigod eagle. Vishnu is commonly depicted as riding on his shoulders. Garuda is also considered as Vedas on which Vishnu travels. Garuda is a sacred bird in Vaishnavism. In the [[Garuda Purana]], Garuda carries Vishnu to save the elephant [[Gajendra Moksha|Gajendra]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/stream/HindiBook-gajendra-moksha#page/n0/mode/2up|title=Gajendra Moksha|website=archive.org|access-date=30 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Purana Perennis: Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-kZFzHCuiFAC|publisher=[[SUNY Press]]|author=Wendy Doniger|year=1993|page=127|isbn = 9780791413814}}</ref>

=== Shesha ===
{{Main|Shesha}}
[[File:Vishnu sleeps on the coils of Ananta (the World Snake). He will awake for the next cycle of creation which heralds the destruction of all things. Sculpture. From India, c. 14th century CE. National Museum of Scotland.jpg|thumb|Vishnu sleeps on the coils of Ananta (Shesha, the World Snake). He will awake for the next cycle of creation which heralds the destruction of all things. Sculpture. From India, c. 14th century CE. National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh]]
One of the primordial beings of creation, Shesha, or Adishesha, is the king of the serpents in [[Hindu mythology]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hāṇḍā |first=Omacanda |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/55617010 |title=Naga cults and traditions in the western Himalaya |date=2004 |publisher=Indus Pub. Co |isbn=81-7387-161-2 |location=New Delhi |oclc=55617010}}</ref> Residing in [[Vaikuntha]], Vishnu sleeps upon Adishesha in a perpetual slumber in his form of [[Narayana]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Achuthananda |first=Swami |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F9FqDwAAQBAJ&dq=shesha+vishnu&pg=PA75 |title=The Ascent of Vishnu and the Fall of Brahma |date=2018-08-27 |publisher=Relianz Communications Pty Ltd |isbn=978-0-9757883-3-2 |pages=175 |language=en}}</ref>

===Vishvaksena===
{{Main|Vishvaksena}}
Vishvaksena, also known as Senadhipathi (both meaning 'army-chief'), is the commander-in-chief of the army of Vishnu.

=== Harihara ===
{{Main|Harihara}}
[[File:Harihara V&A.jpg|thumb|Harihara - Combined form of Vishnu and Shiva]]
[[File:Gods prayed Vishnu for Incarination.jpg|thumb|Hindu gods praying to god Vishnu]]
Shiva and Vishnu are both viewed as the ultimate form of god in different Hindu denominations. Harihara is a composite of half Vishnu and half Shiva, mentioned in literature such as the [[Vamana Purana]] (chapter 36),<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.313087|title=The Vamana Purana With English Translation|last=Gupta|first=anand Swarup|date=1968|pages=326}}</ref> and in artwork found from mid 1st millennium CE, such as in the cave 1 and cave 3 of the 6th-century [[Badami cave temples]].<ref>Alice Boner (1990), Principles of Composition in Hindu Sculpture: Cave Temple Period, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120807051}}, pages 89-95, 115-124, 174-184</ref><ref>TA Gopinatha Rao (1993), Elements of Hindu iconography, Vol 2, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120808775}}, pages 334-335</ref> Another half Vishnu half Shiva form, which is also called Harirudra, is mentioned in [[Mahabharata]].<ref>For Harirudra citation to Mahabharata 3:39:76f see Hopkins (1969), p. 221.</ref>

==Beyond Hinduism==

===Sikhism===
Vishnu is referred to as '''Gorakh''' in the scriptures of [[Sikhism]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Nikky-Guninder Kaur Singh|title=Sikhism: An Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e0ZmAXw7ok8C&pg=PA65 |year=2011|publisher=I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-1-84885-321-8|page=65}}</ref> For example, in verse 5 of [[Japji Sahib]], the [[Guru]] ('teacher') is praised as who gives the word and shows the wisdom, and through whom the awareness of immanence is gained. [[Guru Nanak]], according to [[Christopher Shackle|Shackle]] and Mandair (2013), teaches that the Guru are "Shiva (isar), Vishnu (gorakh), Brahma (barma) and mother Parvati (parbati)," yet the one who is all and true cannot be described.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Christopher Shackle|author2=Arvind Mandair|title=Teachings of the Sikh Gurus: Selections from the Sikh Scriptures|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VvoJV8mw0LwC |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-45101-0|pages=5–6}}</ref>

The ''[[Chaubis Avtar]]'' lists the 24 avatars of Vishnu, including [[Krishna]], [[Rama]], and [[Buddha]]. Similarly, the ''[[Dasam Granth]]'' includes Vishnu mythology that mirrors that found in the [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnav]] tradition.<ref name=Oberoi97>{{cite book|author=Harjot Oberoi|title=The Construction of Religious Boundaries: Culture, Identity, and Diversity in the Sikh Tradition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dKl84EYFkTsC |year=1994|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-61593-6|pages=97–98}}</ref> The latter is of particular importance to [[Sanatan Sikh]]s, including [[Udasi]]s, [[Nirmala (sect)|Nirmalas]], [[Nanakpanthi]]s, [[Sahajdhari]], and [[Keshdhari]]/Khalsa sects of Sikhism; however, the Khalsa Sikhs disagree with the Sanatan Sikhs.<ref name=Oberoi97/><ref>[http://www.philtar.ac.uk/encyclopedia/sikhism/sanatan.html Sanatan Singh Sabha], Overview of World Religions, Division of Religion and Philosophy, University of Cumbria</ref> According to Sanatan Sikh writers, the Gurus of Sikhism were avatars of Vishnu, because the Gurus brought light in the age of darkness and saved people in a time of evil [[Mughal Empire|Mughal-era]] persecution.<ref>{{cite book|author=Harjot Oberoi|title=The Construction of Religious Boundaries: Culture, Identity, and Diversity in the Sikh Tradition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dKl84EYFkTsC |year=1994|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-61593-6|pages=102–105}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Arvind-Pal Singh Mandair|title=Sikhism: A Guide for the Perplexed|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vdhLAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA83 |year=2013|publisher=Bloomsburg Academic|isbn=978-1-4411-0231-7|page=83}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Louis E. Fenech|author2=W. H. McLeod|title=Historical Dictionary of Sikhism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xajcAwAAQBAJ |year=2014|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1-4422-3601-1|pages=48, 238}}</ref>

===Buddhism===
[[File:Devinuwara Sri Vishnu Maha Devalaya in Sri Lanka.jpg|thumb|Uthpalawarna Vishnu Devalaya in Devinuwara, Matara, Sri Lanka.]]
While some Hindus consider Buddha as an incarnation of Vishnu, Buddhists in Sri Lanka venerate Vishnu as the custodian deity of [[Sri Lanka]] and protector of Buddhism.<ref>{{cite book | author = Swarna Wickremeratne| title = Buddha in Sri Lanka: Remembered Yesterdays| publisher = State University of New York Press | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cYrQnZT9JREC |year = 2012| isbn=978-0791468814 |page = 111}}</ref>

Vishnu is also known as '''[[Upulvan]]''' or '''Upalavarṇā''', meaning 'Blue Lotus coloured'. Some postulate that Uthpala varna was a local deity who later merged with Vishnu while another belief is that Utpalavarṇā was an early form of Vishnu before he became a supreme deity in [[Puranic Hinduism]]. According to the chronicles of ''[[Mahāvaṃsa]]'', ''[[Cūḷavaṃsa]]'', and folklore in Sri Lanka, Buddha himself handed over the custodianship to Vishnu. Others believe that Buddha entrusted this task to Sakra ([[Indra]]), who delegated this task of custodianship to Vishnu.<ref>{{cite book | author = Wilhelm Geiger| title = Mahawamsa: English Translation (1908)| title-link = Mahawamsa| author-link = Wilhelm Geiger}}</ref> Many [[Buddhist]] and [[Hindu]] shrines are dedicated to Vishnu in Sri Lanka. In addition to specific Vishnu ''Kovils'' or ''Devalayas'', all Buddhist temples necessarily house shrine rooms (Devalayas) closer to the main Buddhist shrine dedicated to Vishnu.<ref>{{cite book | author = Swarna Wickremeratne| title = Buddha in Sri Lanka: Remembered Yesterdays| publisher = State University of New York Press | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cYrQnZT9JREC| year = 2012| isbn=978-0791468814 |page = 226}}</ref>

John Holt states that Vishnu was one of the several Hindu gods and goddesses who were integrated into the Sinhala Buddhist religious culture, such as the 14th and 15th-century [[Lankatilaka Vihara|Lankatilaka]] and [[Gadaladeniya Vihara|Gadaladeniya]] Buddhist temples.<ref>{{cite book | author = John C Holt|title = The Buddhist Vishnu: Religious transformation, politics and culture| publisher = Columbia University Press | year = 2004|isbn= 978-0231133234|page=51}}</ref> He states that the medieval Sinhala tradition encouraged Visnu worship (puja) as a part of Theravada Buddhism just like Hindu tradition incorporated the Buddha as an avatar of Vishnu, but contemporary [[Theravada]] monks are attempting to purge the Vishnu worship practice from Buddhist temples.<ref>{{cite book | author = John C Holt|title = The Buddhist Vishnu: Religious transformation, politics and culture| publisher = Columbia University Press | year = 2004|isbn= 978-0231133234|pages=5–7, 13–27}}</ref> According to Holt, the veneration of Vishnu in Sri Lanka is evidence of a remarkable ability over many centuries, to reiterate and reinvent culture as other ethnicities have been absorbed into their own. Though the Vishnu cult in [[Ceylon]] was formally endorsed by Kandyan kings in the early 1700s, Holt states that Vishnu images and shrines are among conspicuous ruins in the medieval capital [[Polonnaruwa]].

Vishnu iconography such as statues and etchings have been found in archaeological sites of Southeast Asia, now predominantly of the Theravada Buddhist tradition. In [[Thailand]], for example, statues of four-armed Vishnu have been found in provinces near Malaysia and dated to be from the 4th to 9th-century, and this mirror those found in ancient India.<ref name=hobsonxxiii>{{cite book|author1=Michel Jacq-Hergoualc'h |author2=Victoria Hobson (Translator) |title=The Malay Peninsula: Crossroads of the Maritime Silk-Road (100 BC-1300 AD) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a5rG6reWhloC&pg=PR23 |year=2002|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=978-90-04-11973-4|page=xxiii, 116–128}}</ref> Similarly, Vishnu statues have been discovered from the 6th to 8th century eastern [[Prachinburi Province]] and central [[Phetchabun Province]] of Thailand and southern [[Đồng Tháp Province]] and [[An Giang Province]] of [[Vietnam]].{{sfn|Guy|2014|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vO_-AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA131 131]–135, 145}} Krishna statues dated to the early 7th century to 9th century have been discovered in [[Takéo Province]] and other provinces of [[Cambodia]].{{sfn|Guy|2014|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vO_-AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA146 146]–148, 154–155}}

Archeological studies have uncovered Vishnu statues on the islands of Indonesia, and these have been dated to the 5th century and thereafter.{{sfn|Guy|2014|pages=7–9}} In addition to statues, inscriptions and carvings of Vishnu, such as those related to the "three steps of Vishnu" (Trivikrama) have been found in many parts of Buddhist southeast Asia.{{sfn|Guy|2014|pages=11–12, 118–129}} In some iconography, the symbolism of [[Surya]], Vishnu and Buddha are fused.{{sfn|Guy|2014|pages=221–225}}

In [[Japanese Buddhist pantheon]], Vishnu is known as '''Bichū-ten''' (毘紐天), and he appears in Japanese texts such as the 13th century compositions of [[Nichiren]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Nichiren|author-link=Nichiren|title=The Major Writings of Nichiren Daishonin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YxoHJwAACAAJ |year=1987|publisher=Nichiren Shoshu International Center|isbn=978-4-88872-012-0|page=1107}}, Alternate site: [http://www.nichirenlibrary.org/en/wnd-2/Appendix/C Archive]</ref>

=== In science ===
[[4034 Vishnu]] is an asteroid discovered by [[Eleanor F. Helin]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.waymarking.com/waymarks/WMH64M_Vishnu_4034_Vishnu_Asteroid__Pasadena_CA|title=Vishnu & 4034 Vishnu Asteroid - Pasadena, CA - Extraterrestrial Locations on Waymarking.com|website=www.waymarking.com}}</ref> Vishnu rocks are a type of volcanic [[Sedimentary rock|sediment]] found in the [[Grand Canyon]], Arizona, USA. Consequently, mass formations are known as Vishnu's temples.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://pandasthumb.org/archives/2012/08/vishnu-temple-a.html|title=Vishnu Temple at the Grand Canyon|first=Matt|last=Young|date=27 August 2012|website=The Panda's Thumb}}</ref>

==Outside Indian subcontinent==
===Indonesia===
[[File:Garuda Mount.jpg|thumb|270px|Statue of Vishnu riding Garuda in [[Garuda Wisnu Kencana]], [[Bali]], [[Indonesia]]]]
In [[Indonesia]], Vishnu or ''Wisnu'' ([[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] spelling) is a well-known figure in the world of [[wayang]] ([[Culture of Indonesia|Indonesian]] Puppetry), Wisnu is often referred to as the title ''Sanghyang Batara Wisnu''. Wisnu is the god of justice or welfare, wisnu was the fifth son of [[Batara Guru]] and Batari Uma. He is the most powerful son of all the sons of Batara Guru.

Wisnu is described as a god who has bluish black or dark blue skin, has four arms, each of which holds a weapon, namely a [[Mace (bludgeon)|mace]], a [[lotus flower|lotus]], a [[trumpet]] and a [[chakra|Cakra]]. He can also do tiwikrama, become an infinitely large giant.

According to [[Javanese mythology]], Wisnu first came down to the world and became a king with the title Srimaharaja Suman. The country is called [[Medang Kingdom|Medangpura]], located in the present-day [[Central Java]] region. Then changed its name to Sri Maharaja Matsyapati. In addition, according to the Javanese wayang puppet version, Batara Wisnu also incarnates
Srimaharaja Kanwa, Resi Wisnungkara, Prabu Arjunasasrabahu, Sri Ramawijaya, Sri Batara Kresna, Prabu [[Airlangga]], Prabu [[Jayabaya]], Prabu Anglingdarma.

In Javanese mythology, Wisnu also incarnated as a matswa ([[fish]]) to kill the giant Hargragiwa who stole the [[Veda]]. Become Narasingha (human with a tiger head) to destroy King [[Hiranyakashipu]]. He once intended to become a Wimana ([[dwarf (folklore)|dwarf]]) to defeat Ditya Bali. Batara Wisnu also incarnated in Ramaparasu to destroy gandarwa. Menitis in Arjunasasra / Arjunawijaya to defeat King Rahwana. The last one was for King Krishna to become the great Pandavas parampara or advisor to get rid of greed and evil committed by the [[Kauravas]].

Sang Hyang Wisnu has a mount in the form of a giant [[garuda]] named ''Bhirawan''. Because of his affection for the garuda he rode, Bhirawan was then adopted as son-in-law, married to one of his daughters named Dewi Kastapi.<ref>{{Cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=W5YLAQAAMAAJ&q=wisnu+jawa|title= Layang kandha kelir Jawa Timuran: seri Mahabharata |year= 2007 |publisher= Surwedi|isbn= 9789791596923 |access-date=20 February 2021}}</ref>

==Temples==
[[File:Angkor Wat.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Angkor Wat]] Temple was built as a dedication to Vishnu.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.livescience.com/24440-angkor-wat-canals.html|title=Mystery of Angkor Wat Temple's Huge Stones Solved|author1=Tia Ghose|date=31 October 2012|website=livescience.com}}</ref>]]
[[File:Sree Padmanabhaswamy temple Thiruvananthapuram,.jpg|thumb|The front-view of [[Padmanabhaswamy Temple]] in [[Thiruvananthapuram]], [[Kerala]]]]

Some of the earliest surviving grand Vishnu temples in India have been dated to the [[Gupta Empire]] period. The Sarvatobhadra temple in [[Jhansi]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], for example, is dated to the early 6th century and features the ten avatars of Vishnu.<ref>Alexander Lubotsky (1996), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4629500 The Iconography of the Viṣṇu Temple at Deogarh and the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa], Ars Orientalis, Vol. 26 (1996), page 65</ref>{{Sfn|Bryant|2007|p=7}} Its design based on a square layout and Vishnu iconography broadly follows the 1st millennium Hindu texts on architecture and construction such as the ''Brihat Samhita'' and ''Visnudharmottarapurana''.<ref>Alexander Lubotsky (1996), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4629500 The Iconography of the Viṣṇu Temple at Deogarh and the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa], Ars Orientalis, Vol. 26 (1996), pages 66-80</ref>

Archaeological evidence suggest that Vishnu temples and iconography probably were already in existence by the 1st century BCE.{{Sfn|Bryant|2007|p=18 with footnote 19}} The most significant Vishnu-related epigraphy and archaeological remains are the two 1st century BCE inscriptions in [[Rajasthan]] which refer to temples of Sankarshana and Vasudeva, the Besnagar Garuda column of 100 BCE which mentions a Bhagavata temple, another inscription in [[Naneghat]] cave in [[Maharashtra]] by a Queen Naganika that also mentions Sankarshana, Vasudeva along with other major Hindu deities and several discoveries in [[Mathura]] relating to Vishnu, all dated to about the start of the common era.{{Sfn|Bryant|2007|p=18 with footnote 19}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Doris Srinivasan|title=Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes: Origin, Meaning, and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vZheP9dIX9wC |year=1997|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=978-90-04-10758-8|pages=211–220, 240–259}}</ref><ref>[a] {{cite book|author=Doris Srinivasan|title=Mathurā: The Cultural Heritage|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=82vtCre6vTcC|year=1989|publisher=Manohar|isbn=978-81-85054-37-7|pages=389–392}}; [b] {{cite book|author=Doris Srinivasan|editor=Joanna Gottfried Williams|title=Kalādarśana: American Studies in the Art of India|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-qoeAAAAIAAJ |year=1981|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=978-90-04-06498-0|pages=127–136|chapter=Early Krishan Icons: the case at Mathura}}</ref>

The [[Padmanabhaswamy Temple]] in [[Thiruvananthapuram]], [[Kerala]], is dedicated to Vishnu. The temple has attracted huge donations in gold and precious stones over its long history.<ref>{{cite news | title=Keralas Sree Padmanabha Swamy temple may reveal more riches | website=India Today | date=2011-07-07 | url=http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/kerala-temple-may-reveal-more-riches/1/144004.html | access-date=2016-10-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last=Pomfret | first=James | title=Kerala temple treasure brings riches, challenges | website=Reuters India | date=2011-08-19 | url=http://in.reuters.com/article/idINIndia-58866020110819 | access-date=2016-10-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine | last=Blitzer | first=Jonathan | title=The Secret of the Temple | magazine=The New Yorker | date=2012-04-23 | url=http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2012/04/30/the-secret-of-the-temple | access-date=2016-10-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|title=A One Trillion Dollar Hidden Treasure Chamber is Discovered at India's Sree Padmanabhaswamy Temple|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/jimdobson/2015/11/13/a-one-trillion-dollar-hidden-treasure-chamber-is-discovered-at-indias-sree-padmanabhaswam-temple/|magazine=Forbes.com}}</ref>

'''List of temples'''

• [[Divya Desam|108 Divya Desams]]

•[[Venkateswara Temple]]

• [[Padmanabhaswamy Temple]]

• [[Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam]]

• [[Jagannath Temple, Puri]]

• [[Badrinath Temple]]

•[[List of Swaminarayan temples|Swaminarayan temples]]

• [[Angkor Wat]] , Cambodia

• [[Laxminarayan Temple|Birla Mandir]]

• [[Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh]]

• [[Pundarikakshan Perumal Temple]]

• [[Kallalagar temple|Kallalagar temple , Madurai]]

{{wide image|Srirangamlong view.jpg|600px|[[Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam|Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple]] is a [[Hindu temple]] dedicated to Vishnu located in [[Srirangam]], [[Tiruchirapalli]], [[Tamil Nadu]], India. The temple occupies an area of {{convert|156|acres|m2|abbr=on}} with a perimeter of {{convert|4,116|m|ft|abbr=on}} making it the largest temple in India and one of the largest religious complexes in the world.{{sfn|Mittal| Thursby |2005| p= 456}}||none}}

==Gallery==
<gallery heights="240" widths="180">
File:011 Vishnu (32881394093).jpg|5th-century Vishnu at [[Udayagiri Caves]].
File:Vishnu and his Avatars.jpg|11th-century Vishnu sculpture the goddesses [[Lakshmi]] and [[Sarasvati]]. The edges show reliefs of Vishnu avatars Varaha, Narasimha, Balarama, Rama, and others. Also shown is Brahma. ([[Brooklyn Museum]])<ref>[https://www.brooklynmuseum.org/opencollection/objects/147369 Stele with Vishnu, His Consorts, His Avatars, and Other Dieties], Brooklyn Museum, Item 1991.244, Gift of David Nalin</ref>
File:077 Visnu, 14c, Sukhothai (35086946062).jpg|14th-century Vishnu, Thailand.
File:Garudabkkholidayinn0609.jpg|A statue in [[Bangkok]] depicting Vishnu on his [[vahana]] Garuda, the eagle. One of the oldest discovered Hindu-style statues of Vishnu in Thailand is from Wat Sala Tung in [[Surat Thani Province]] and has been dated to ~400 CE.<ref name="hobsonxxiii" />
File:Bronze metal Vishnu sculptures from Medieval Assam ( Ahom kingdom).jpg|16th century Vishnu bronze metal sculpture from Dibrugarh, [[Assam]]
</gallery>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

===Works cited===
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*{{cite journal|doi=10.1353/pew.2002.0005|last=Sheth|first=Noel| year= 2002| title=Hindu Avatāra and Christian Incarnation: A Comparison| journal=Philosophy East and West| publisher=[[University of Hawai'i Press]]| volume=52| issue=1 (January)|pages=98–125 |jstor = 1400135 |s2cid=170278631}}
*{{cite book| last=Varadpande| first= Manohar Laxman|title=History of Indian theatre, Vol. 3 | publisher=Abhinav Publications| year=1987| isbn=978-81-7017-221-5| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SyxOHOCVcVkC }}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links|auto=1|d=1}}
* {{cite news |title=BBC Religion & Ethics – Who is Vishnu |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/deities/vishnu.shtml |publisher= BBC News }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Machek |first1=Vaclav |title=Origin of the God Vishnu |journal=Archiv Orientální |date=1960 |pages=103–126 |url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/13e939c55359de68af67a10fdaf9d1c3/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=1817606 |language=en |via =ProQuest}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Peyton |first1=Allysa B. |title=Vishnu: Hinduism's Blue-Skinned Savior |journal= Brooklyn Museum, June 24–October 2, 2011 |date=2012 |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=145–150 |doi=10.1086/665691 |jstor=10.1086/665691 |s2cid=192592953 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/665691 |access-date= |issn=2153-5531}}

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[[Category:Vishnu| ]]
[[Category:Characters in the Bhagavata Purana]]
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Ganesha pancharatnam

2023-01-12T16:58:09Z

ImportMaster: robot: Create/update articles in Category:Hindu gods.

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2019}}
{{more citations needed|date=January 2023}}
'''Ganesha Pancharatnam''' is a [[stotra]] composed by Sri [[Adi Sankara]] in the 8th century on Lord [[Ganesha]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kumar |first=S. R. Ashok |date=2020-08-06 |title=Festival songs, next in Ghibran’s music series |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/music/ghibran-changing-track-from-chartbusters-to-spiritual-music/article32288259.ece |access-date=2023-01-02 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> Ganesha is referred to as Vinayaka in the strota, and the title itself can be translated as "The five jewels in praise of Sri Ganesha".<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Ganesha Pancharatnam - In sanskrit with meaning |url=https://greenmesg.org/stotras/ganesha/ganesha_pancharatnam.php |access-date=2023-01-02 |website=greenmesg.org}}</ref> The five jewels are the first five verses, while the sixth verse implores the listener to themselves read or recite the strota and tells them the resulting benefits.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-09-01 |title=Ganesha Pancharatnam: Lyrics, Meaning, and Benefits - Hinduism Outlook |url=https://www.hinduismoutlook.com/ganesha-pancharatnam/ |access-date=2023-01-02 |language=en-US}}</ref>

The strota is set in ''Adi in thisranadai,'' or eight beats in units of three.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sri Maha Ganesha Pancharatnam |url=https://www.sangeethapriya.org/bhajanapriya/GPMeaning.pdf |access-date=2 January 2023 |website=Sangeethapriya}}</ref>

== Text ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Sanskrit Text<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ganesha Pancha Ratna Stotra |url=https://www.kamakoti.org/shlokas/kshlok3.htm |access-date=2023-01-02 |website=www.kamakoti.org}}</ref>
!Romanized Text<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sree Maha Ganesha Pancharatnam - English {{!}} Vaidika Vignanam |url=https://vignanam.org/english/sree-maha-ganesha-pancharatnam.html |access-date=2023-01-02 |website=vignanam.org}}</ref>
|-
|मुदाकरात्तमोदकं सदा विमुक्तिसाधकं
कलाधरावतंसकं विलासिलोकरक्षकम् ।
अनायकैकनायकं विनाशितेभदैत्यकं
नताशुभाशुनाशकं नमामि तं विनायकम्
|mudākarātta mōdakaṃ sadā vimukti sādhakam
kaḻādharāvataṃsakaṃ vilāsilōka rakṣakam

anāyakaika nāyakaṃ vināśitēbha daityakam

natāśubhāśu nāśakaṃ namāmi taṃ vināyakam
|-
|नतेतरातिभीकरं नवोदितार्कभास्वरं
नमत्सुरारिनिर्जरं नताधिकापदुद्धरम् ।

सुरेश्वरं निधीश्वरं गजेश्वरं गणेश्वरं

महेश्वरं तमाश्रये परात्परं निरन्तरम्
|natētarāti bhīkaraṃ navōditārka bhāsvaram
namatsurāri nirjaraṃ natādhikāpadudḍharam

surēśvaraṃ nidhīśvaraṃ gajēśvaraṃ gaṇēśvaram

mahēśvaraṃ tamāśrayē parātparaṃ nirantaram
|-
|समस्तलोकशंकरं निरस्तदैत्यकुञ्जरं
दरेतरोदरं वरं वरेभवक्त्रमक्षरम् ।

कृपाकरं क्षमाकरं मुदाकरं यशस्करं

मनस्करं नमस्कृतां नमस्करोमि भास्वरम्
|samasta lōka śaṅkaraṃ nirasta daitya kuñjaram
darētarōdaraṃ varaṃ varēbha vaktramakṣaram

kṛpākaraṃ kṣamākaraṃ mudākaraṃ yaśaskaram

manaskaraṃ namaskṛtāṃ namaskarōmi bhāsvaram
|-
|अकिंचनार्तिमार्जनं चिरन्तनोक्तिभाजनं
पुरारिपूर्वनन्दनं सुरारिगर्वचर्वणम् ।

प्रपञ्चनाशभीषणं धनंजयादिभूषणम्

कपोलदानवारणं भजे पुराणवारणम्
|akiñchanārti mārjanaṃ chirantanōkti bhājanam
purāri pūrva nandanaṃ surāri garva charvaṇam
prapañcha nāśa bhīṣaṇaṃ dhanañjayādi bhūṣaṇam
kapōla dānavāraṇaṃ bhajē purāṇa vāraṇam
|-
|नितान्तकान्तदन्तकान्तिमन्तकान्तकात्मजं
अचिन्त्यरूपमन्तहीनमन्तरायकृन्तनम् ।

हृदन्तरे निरन्तरं वसन्तमेव योगिनां

तमेकदन्तमेव तं विचिन्तयामि सन्ततम्
|nitānta kānti danta kānti manta kānti kātmajam
achintya rūpamanta hīna mantarāya kṛntanam
hṛdantarē nirantaraṃ vasantamēva yōginām
tamēkadantamēva taṃ vichintayāmi santatam
|-
|महागणेशपञ्चरत्नमादरेण योऽन्वहं
प्रजल्पति प्रभातके हृदि स्मरन् गणेश्वरम् ।
अरोगतामदोषतां सुसाहितीं सुपुत्रतां
समाहितायुरष्टभूतिमभ्युपैति सोऽचिरात्
|mahāgaṇēśa pañcharatnamādarēṇa yō'nvaham
prajalpati prabhātakē hṛdi smaran gaṇēśvaram

arōgatāmadōṣatāṃ susāhitīṃ suputratām

samāhitāyu raṣṭabhūti mabhyupaiti sō'chirāt
|}

==See also==
*[[Shloka]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{Cite web |url=http://www.stutimandal.com/gif_adi/ganesh_pancharatnam.htm |title=Ganesh Pancharatnam by Adi Sankara |website=www.stutimandal.com}}

[[Category:Hindu texts]]
[[Category:Indian literature]]
[[Category:Ganesha]]
[[Category:Adi Shankara]]

Rama

2023-01-12T16:21:27Z

ImportMaster: robot: Create/update articles in Category:Hindu gods.

{{short description|Major deity in Hinduism}}
{{About|the Hindu god Rama, Râm, Ramachandra, Sriram|other Ram|Ram (disambiguation)|other Ramchandra|Ramchandra (disambiguation)|other Sriram|Sriram (disambiguation)|other uses|Rama (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-protect|small=yes}}
{{Pp-move-indef|small=no}}
{{Pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2019}}
{{Infobox deity
| type = Hindu
| image = Lord Rama with arrows.jpg
| caption = Rama holding arrows, early 19th century depiction
| name = Rama
| Devanagari = राम
| Sanskrit_transliteration = {{IAST|Rāma}}
| member_of = [[Dashavatara]]
| god_of = {{hlist|The Ideal Man ("Maryada purushottam")<ref>{{Cite book|last=SATTAR|first=ARSHIA|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rmTgDwAAQBAJ&q=the+ideal+man+Rama&pg=PT13|title=Maryada: Searching for Dharma in the Ramayana|date=20 October 2020|publisher=[[HarperCollins|HarperCollins Publishers]], [[India]]|isbn=978-93-5357-713-1|language=en}}</ref> |Embodiment of [[Dharma]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Dharma Personified |website=[[The Hindu]]|date=5 August 2011|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/religion/dharma-personified/article2328340.ece|access-date=16 January 2021}}</ref>}}
| affiliation = {{unbulleted list|Seventh [[avatar]] of [[Vishnu]]|[[Brahman]] ([[Vaishnavism]])|[[Deva (Hinduism)|Deva]]}}
| parents = {{unbulleted list|[[Dasharatha]] (father)|[[Kausalya|Kaushalya]] (mother)|[[Kaikeyi]] (step-mother)|[[Sumitra]] (step-mother)}}
| spouse = [[Sita]]{{sfn|James G. Lochtefeld|2002|p=555}}
| abode = {{hlist|[[Ayodhya]]|[[Saket]]}}
| weapon = [[Bow and arrow]]s
| texts = {{unbulleted list|''[[Ramayana]]''|[[Versions of Ramayana]]}}
| siblings = {{unbulleted list|[[Lakshmana]] (half-brother)|[[Bharata (Ramayana)|Bharata]] (half-brother)|[[Shatrughna]] (half-brother)}}
| festivals = {{hlist|[[Rama Navami]]|[[Vivaha Panchami]]|[[Deepavali]]|[[Vijayadashami|Dusshera]]}}
| birth_place = [[Ayodhya]], [[Kosala]] (present-day [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[India]])
| children = {{unbulleted list|[[Lava (Ramayana)|Lava]] (son)|[[Kusha (Ramayana)|Kusha]] (son)}}
| dynasty = [[Raghuvaṃśa (dynasty)|Raghuvamsha]]-[[Solar Dynasty|Suryavamsha]]
| predecessor = [[Dasharatha]] [[Bharata (Ramayana)|Bharata]]
| gender = Male
| successor = [[Lava (Ramayana)|Lava]]
| mantra = ''[[Jai Shri Ram]]'' ''[[Hare Krishna (mantra)|Hare Rama]]''
}}{{Infobox royalty
| name = [[Dashavatara]] Sequence
| predecessor = [[Parashurama]]
| successor = [[Krishna]]
}}
{{Hinduism small}}{{Contains special characters|Sanskrit}}{{Vaishnavism}}
'''Rama''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|r|ɑː|m|ə}};<ref>{{Cite web|title=Rama|url=https://www.dictionary.com/browse/rama|access-date=9 March 2021|website=[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary|Webster's Dictionary]]|language=en}}</ref> {{Lang-sa|राम|translit=rāma|translit-std=IAST}} {{IPA-sa|ˈraːmɐ|}}) is a major deity in [[Hinduism]]. He is the seventh and one of the most popular ''[[avatar]]s'' of [[Vishnu]]. In Rama-centric traditions of Hinduism, he is considered the Supreme Being.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Tulasīdāsa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VV7leonJ8aQC&pg=PA871|title=Sri Ramacaritamanasa|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|year=1999|isbn=978-81-208-0762-4|pages=871–872|translator-last=Prasad|translator-first=RC|author-link=Tulsidas|translator-link=R. C. Prakash}}</ref>

Rama is said to have been born to [[Kaushalya]] and [[Dasharatha]] in [[Ayodhya]], the capital of the Kingdom of [[Kosala]]. His siblings included [[Lakshmana]], [[Bharata (Ramayana)|Bharata]], and [[Shatrughna]]. He married [[Sita]]. Though born in a royal family, Rama's life is described in the Hindu texts as one challenged by unexpected changes such as an exile into impoverished and difficult circumstances, ethical questions and moral dilemmas.<ref name="Brackney2013p238"/> Of all his travails, the most notable is the kidnapping of Sita by demon-king [[Ravana]], followed by the determined and epic efforts of Rama and Lakshmana to gain her freedom and destroy the evil Ravana against great odds. The entire life story of Rama, Sita and their companions allegorically discusses duties, rights and social responsibilities of an individual. It illustrates [[dharma]] and dharmic living through model characters.<ref name="Brackney2013p238">{{cite book|author=William H. Brackney |title=Human Rights and the World's Major Religions, 2nd Edition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KZRgAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA238 |year=2013|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-4408-2812-6|pages=238–239}}</ref><ref name="Hindery1978p95">{{cite book|author=Roderick Hindery|title=Comparative Ethics in Hindu and Buddhist Traditions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-FswBLvTkvQC&pg=PA95 |year=1978|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0866-9|pages=95–124}}</ref>

Rama is especially important to [[Vaishnavism]]. He is the central figure of the ancient Hindu epic ''[[Ramayana]]'', a text historically popular in the South Asian and Southeast Asian cultures.<ref name="goldmanrama">{{cite book|author1=Vālmīki|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DWX43jnbOngC|title=The Ramayana of Valmiki: Balakanda|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|year=1990|isbn=978-1-4008-8455-1|page=3|translator-last=Goldman|translator-first=Robert P.|author-link=Valmiki|translator-link=Robert P. Goldman}}</ref><ref name=Dimock1963>{{cite journal| author = Dimock Jr, E.C.| year = 1963| title = Doctrine and Practice among the Vaisnavas of Bengal| journal = History of Religions| volume = 3| issue = 1| pages = 106–127| jstor = 1062079| doi = 10.1086/462474| s2cid = 162027021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Marijke J. Klokke|title=Narrative Sculpture and Literary Traditions in South and Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fx3mpR4uKmkC&pg=PA51 |year=2000|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-11865-9|pages=51–57}}</ref> His ancient legends have attracted [[bhasya]] (commentaries) and extensive secondary literature and inspired performance arts. Two such texts, for example, are the ''[[Adhyatma Ramayana]]'' – a spiritual and theological treatise considered foundational by [[Ramanandi Sampradaya|Ramanandi]] monasteries,{{Sfn|Ramdas Lamb|2012|p=28}} and the ''[[Ramcharitmanas]]'' – a popular treatise that inspires thousands of [[Ramlila]] festival performances during autumn every year in India.<ref name="SchechnerHess51">{{cite journal | last1=Schechner | first1=Richard | last2=Hess | first2=Linda | title=The Ramlila of Ramnagar [India] | journal=The Drama Review: TDR | publisher=The MIT Press | volume=21 | issue=3 | year=1977 | pages=51–82 | doi=10.2307/1145152 | jstor=1145152 }}</ref><ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|James G. Lochtefeld|2002|p=389}}.</ref><ref name="Jennifer Lindsay 2006 12–14">{{cite book|author=Jennifer Lindsay|title=Between Tongues: Translation And/of/in Performance in Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ks-nUAO_fJgC&pg=PA12|year=2006|publisher=National University of Singapore Press|isbn=978-9971-69-339-8|pages=12–14}}</ref>

Rama legends are also found in the texts of [[Jainism]] and [[Buddhism]], though he is sometimes called Pauma or Padma in these texts,{{Sfn|Dalal|2010|pp=337-338}} and their details vary significantly from the Hindu versions.<ref name="ClausDiamond2003p508">{{cite book|author1=Peter J. Claus|author2=Sarah Diamond|author3=Margaret Ann Mills|title=South Asian Folklore: An Encyclopedia : Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ienxrTPHzzwC&pg=PA508|year=2003|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-415-93919-5|page=508}}</ref> [[Jain Scriptures|Jain Texts]] also mentioned [[Rama in Jainism|Rama]] as the eighth [[balabhadra]] among the 63 [[salakapurusa]]s.<ref name="King">{{cite book|last=King|first=Anna S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0FvH1aCXETwC|title=The intimate other: love divine in Indic religions|publisher=Orient Blackswan|year=2005|isbn=978-81-250-2801-7|pages=32–33}}</ref><ref name="Matchett">{{cite book|last=Matchett|first=Freda|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1oqTYiPeAxMC|title=Krishna, Lord or Avatara?: the relationship between Krishna and Vishnu|publisher=9780700712816|year=2001|isbn=978-0-7007-1281-6|pages=3–4}}</ref>{{Sfn|James G. Lochtefeld|2002|pp=72-73}} In [[Rama in Sikhism|Sikhism]], Rama is mentioned as one of twenty four divine incarnations of Vishnu in the [[Chaubis Avtar]] in ''[[Dasam Granth]].''<ref name=":0" />

==Etymology and nomenclature==
Rama is also known as Ram, Raman, Ramar,{{Refn|Many Indian languages, such as Hindi, delete the terminal 'a' sound in Sanskrit words. Others, such as Tamil and Malayalam, have their own suffixes; -r and -n in this case. [[Schwa deletion in Indo-Aryan languages]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://hinduism.stackexchange.com/questions/15617/why-we-put-a-after-each-hindu-name/15622|title=Why we put 'a' after each Hindu name|website=Hinduism.Stackexchange|access-date=8 March 2021|date=16 October 2016}}</ref>|group=lower-greek}} and Ramachandra ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|r|ɑː|m|ə|ˈ|tʃ|ae|n|d|r|ə}};<ref>{{cite LPD|3}}</ref> {{IAST3|Rāmacandra}}, {{Lang-sa|रामचन्द्र}}). ''Rāma'' is a Vedic Sanskrit word with two contextual meanings. In one context as found in ''[[Atharva Veda]]'', as stated by [[Monier Monier-Williams]], means "dark, dark-colored, black" and is related to the term ''ratri'' which means night. In another context as found in other Vedic texts, the word means "pleasing, delightful, charming, beautiful, lovely".<ref name="mmwrama">{{Cite web|title=Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary --र|url=https://sanskrit.inria.fr/MW/218.html#raama|access-date=6 March 2021|website=sanskrit.inria.fr}}</ref><ref name=parpola264/> The word is sometimes used as a suffix in different Indian languages and religions, such as Pali in Buddhist texts, where ''-rama'' adds the sense of "pleasing to the mind, lovely" to the composite word.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Thomas William Rhys Davids|author2=William Stede|title=Pali-English Dictionary|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Guw2CnxiucC&pg=PA521 |year=1921|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1144-7|page=521}}</ref>

''Rama'' as a first name appears in the Vedic literature, associated with two patronymic names – Margaveya and Aupatasvini – representing different individuals. A third individual named ''Rama Jamadagnya'' is the purported author of hymn 10.110 of the ''[[Rigveda]]'' in the Hindu tradition.<ref name=mmwrama/> The word ''Rama'' appears in ancient literature in reverential terms for three individuals:<ref name=mmwrama/>

#[[Parashurama|Parashu-rama]], as the sixth [[avatar]] of Vishnu. He is linked to the ''Rama Jamadagnya'' of the ''Rigveda'' fame.
#'''Rama-chandra''', as the seventh avatar of Vishnu and of the ancient ''Ramayana'' fame.
#[[Balarama|Bala-rama]], also called ''Halayudha'', as the elder brother of [[Krishna]] both of whom appear in the legends of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.

The name Rama appears repeatedly in Hindu texts, for many different scholars and kings in mythical stories.<ref name=mmwrama/> The word also appears in ancient [[Upanishad]]s and [[Aranyaka]]s layer of Vedic literature, as well as music and other post-Vedic literature, but in qualifying context of something or someone who is "charming, beautiful, lovely" or "darkness, night".<ref name=mmwrama/>

The Vishnu avatar named Rama is also known by other names. He is called ''Ramachandra'' (beautiful, lovely moon),<ref name=parpola264>{{cite book|author=Asko Parpola|title=Studia Orientalia, Volume 84|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jkBZAAAAMAAJ |year=1998|publisher=Finnish Oriental Society|isbn=978-951-9380-38-4|page=264}}</ref> or ''Dasarathi'' (son of Dasaratha), or ''Raghava'' (descendant of Raghu, solar dynasty in Hindu cosmology).<ref name=mmwrama/><ref>{{cite book|author1=Wagenaar|first=Hank W.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_kWROaer5UsC&pg=PA528|title=Allied Chambers transliterated Hindi-Hindi-English dictionary|last2=Parikh|first2=S. S.|publisher=Allied Publishers|year=1993|isbn=978-81-86062-10-4|page=528}}</ref> He is also known as Ram Lalla ''(Infant form of Rama)''.<ref name="News18RamLalla19">{{Cite web|title=Ayodhya Case Verdict: Who is Ram Lalla Virajman, the 'Divine Infant' Given the Possession of Disputed Ayodhya Land|url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/ayodhya-case-verdict-who-is-ram-lalla-virajman-the-divine-infant-given-the-possession-of-disputed-ayodhya-land-2379679.html|date=9 November 2019|access-date=4 August 2020|website=News18}}</ref>

Additional names of Rama include ''Ramavijaya'' ([[Javanese language|Javanese]]), ''Phreah Ream'' ([[Khmer language|Khmer]]), ''Phra Ram'' ([[Lao language|Lao]] and [[Thai language|Thai]]), ''Megat Seri Rama'' ([[Malay language|Malay]]), ''Raja Bantugan'' ([[Maranao]]), ''Ramudu'' ([[Telugu language|Telugu]]), ''Ramar'' ([[Tamil language|Tamil]]).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rajarajan |first1=R.K.K. |title=Sītāpaharaṇam: Changing thematic Idioms in Sanskrit and Tamil. In Dirk W. Lonne ed. Tofha-e-Dil: Festschrift Helmut Nespital, Reinbeck, 2 vols., pp. 783–97 |date=2001 |isbn=3-88587-033-9 |pages=783–797 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263747582 |language=en}}</ref> In the ''[[Vishnu sahasranama]]'', Rama is the 394th name of [[Vishnu]]. In some Advaita Vedanta inspired texts, Rama connotes the metaphysical concept of Supreme [[Brahman]] who is the eternally blissful spiritual Self (Atman, soul) in whom [[yogi]]s delight nondualistically.{{Sfn|Ramdas Lamb|2012|p=31}}

The root of the word ''Rama'' is ''ram-'' which means "stop, stand still, rest, rejoice, be pleased".<ref name=parpola264/>

According to [[Douglas Q. Adams]], the Sanskrit word ''Rama'' is also found in other Indo-European languages such as [[Tocharian languages|Tocharian]] ''ram'', ''reme'', ''*romo-'' where it means "support, make still", "witness, make evident".<ref name=parpola264/><ref>{{cite book|author1=Adams|author2=Douglas Q. Adams|title=A Dictionary of Tocharian B: Revised and Greatly Enlarged |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EWziAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA587 |year=2013|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=978-90-420-3671-0|page=587}}</ref> The sense of "dark, black, soot" also appears in other Indo European languages, such as ''*remos'' or Old English ''romig''.{{Sfn|Maloory and en|1997|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tzU3RIV2BWIC&pg=PA160 160]}}{{refn|group=lower-greek|The legends found about Rama, state Mallory and Adams, have "many of the elements found in the later Welsh tales such as ''Branwen Daughter of Llyr'' and ''Manawydan Son of Lyr''. This may be because the concept and legends have deeper ancient roots.{{Sfn|Maloory and en|1997|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tzU3RIV2BWIC&pg=PA165 165]}}}}

==Legends==
This summary is a traditional legendary account, based on literary details from the ''[[Ramayana]]'' and other historic mythology-containing texts of [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]]. According to [[Sheldon Pollock]], the figure of Rama incorporates more ancient "morphemes of Indian myths", such as the mythical legends of ''Bali'' and ''Namuci''. The ancient sage [[Valmiki]] used these morphemes in his ''Ramayana'' [[simile]]s as in sections 3.27, 3.59, 3.73, 5.19 and 29.28.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Vālmīki|author2=Sheldon I. Pollock|title=The Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki: An Epic of Ancient India. Araṇyakāṇḍa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h1g6fWIu-kAC |year=2007|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-3164-3|pages=41 with footnote 83}}</ref>

===Birth===
[[File:Ayodhya Nagri.jpg|thumb|300px|Gold carving depiction of the legendary [[Ayodhya (Ramayana)|Ayodhya]] at the [[Ajmer Jain temple]]]]

The ancient epic ''Ramayana'' states in the ''Balakhanda'' that Rama and his brothers were born to Kaushalya and Dasharatha in [[Ayodhya]], a city on the banks of [[Sarayu|Sarayu River]].<ref name="Guruge1991p51"/><ref>[https://archive.org/stream/ShrimadValmikiRamayan-SanskritTextWithHindiTranslation-DpSharma10/ShrimadValmikiRamayan-SktHindi-DpSharmaVol01-BalaKanda1927#page/n177/mode/2up ''Valmiki Ramayana''], ''Bala Kanda''</ref> The Jain versions of the ''Ramayana'', such as the ''Paumacariya'' (literally deeds of Padma) by Vimalasuri, also mention the details of the early life of Rama. The Jain texts are dated variously, but generally pre-500 CE, most likely sometime within the first five centuries of the common era.<ref name="cort313">{{cite book|author=Cort|first=John|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MDBpq23-0QoC|title=Framing the Jina: Narratives of Icons and Idols in Jain History|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2010|isbn=978-0-19-973957-8|pages=313 note 9}}</ref> [[Moriz Winternitz]] states that the ''Valmiki Ramayana'' was already famous before it was recast in the Jain ''Paumacariya'' poem, dated to the second half of the 1st century CE, which pre-dates a similar retelling found in the ''Buddha-carita'' of Asvagosa, dated to the beginning of the 2nd century CE or prior.<ref>{{cite book|first=Moriz|last=Winternitz|author-link=Moriz Winternitz|title=A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JRfuJFRV_O8C&pg=PA491|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited|isbn=81-208-0264-0|year=1981|pages=491–492}}</ref>

[[Dasharatha]] was the king of [[Kosala]], and a part of the [[solar dynasty]] of [[Iksvaku]]s. His mother's name [[Kausalya|Kaushalya]] literally implies that she was from Kosala. The kingdom of Kosala is also mentioned in [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature|Jain texts]], as one of the sixteen ''[[Mahajanapadas|Maha janapadas]]'' of [[ancient India]], and as an important center of pilgrimage for Jains and Buddhists.<ref name="Guruge1991p51">{{cite book|author=A. W. P. Guruge |title=The Society of the Ramayana |url=https://archive.org/details/trent_0116402264364 |url-access=registration |year=1991|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-265-9|pages=[https://archive.org/details/trent_0116402264364/page/51 51]–54}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=John Cort|title=Framing the Jina: Narratives of Icons and Idols in Jain History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MDBpq23-0QoC|year=2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-973957-8|pages=160–162, 196, 314 note 14, 318 notes 57–58}}, Quote (p. 314): "(...) Kosala was the kingdom centered on Ayodhya, in what is now east-central Uttar Pradesh."</ref> However, there is a scholarly dispute whether the modern Ayodhya is indeed the same as the Ayodhya and Kosala mentioned in the ''Ramayana'' and other ancient Indian texts.<ref name=veer157>{{cite book|author=Peter van der Veer|title=Religious Nationalism: Hindus and Muslims in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p29ArJ7j6zgC&pg=PA157|year=1994|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-08256-4|pages=157–162}}</ref>{{refn|group=lower-greek|Kosala is mentioned in many Buddhist texts and travel memoirs. The Buddha idol of Kosala is important in the Theravada Buddhism tradition, and one that is described by the 7th-century Chinese pilgrim Xuanzhang. He states in his memoir that the statue stands in the capital of Kosala then called Shravasti, midst ruins of a large monastery. He also states that he brought back to China two replicas of the Buddha, one of the Kosala icon of Udayana and another the Prasenajit icon of Prasenajit.<ref>{{cite book|author=John Cort|title=Framing the Jina: Narratives of Icons and Idols in Jain History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MDBpq23-0QoC|year=2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-973957-8|pages=194–200, 318 notes 57–58}}</ref>}}

===Youth, family and friends===
{{main|Bharata (Ramayana)|Lakshmana|Shatrughna}}
[[File:An early 20th century Hindu deity Rama painting.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|Rama is portrayed in Hindu arts and texts as a compassionate person who cares for all living beings.<ref name=hindery106>{{cite book|author=Roderick Hindery|title=Comparative Ethics in Hindu and Buddhist Traditions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-FswBLvTkvQC&pg=PA98 |year=1978|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0866-9|pages=106–107}}</ref>]]
Rama had three brothers, according to the ''[[Balakanda|Balakhanda]]'' section of the ''[[Ramayana]]''. These were [[Lakshmana]], [[Bharata (Ramayana)|Bharata]] and [[Shatrughna]].{{sfn|James G. Lochtefeld|2002|p=555}} The extant manuscripts of the text describes their education and training as young princes, but this is brief. Rama is portrayed as a polite, self-controlled, virtuous youth always ready to help others. His education included the [[Veda]]s, the [[Vedanga]]s as well as the martial arts.<ref name="Dalal2010p326">{{harvnb|Dalal|2010|pp=326–327}}</ref>

The years when Rama grew up are described in much greater detail by later Hindu texts, such as the ''Ramavali'' by [[Tulsidas]]. The template is similar to those found for [[Krishna]], but in the poems of [[Tulsidas]], Rama is milder and reserved introvert, rather than the prank-playing extrovert personality of Krishna.{{sfn|James G. Lochtefeld|2002|p=555}}

The ''Ramayana'' mentions an archery contest organised by King [[Janaka]], where Sita and Rama meet. Rama wins the contest, whereby Janaka agrees to the marriage of Sita and Rama. Sita moves with Rama to his father [[Dasharatha|Dashratha's]] capital.{{sfn|James G. Lochtefeld|2002|p=555}}

While Rama and his brothers were away, [[Kaikeyi]], the mother of Bharata and the second wife of King Dasharatha, reminds the king that he had promised long ago to comply with one thing she asks, anything. Dasharatha remembers and agrees to do so. She demands that Rama be exiled for fourteen years to Dandaka forest.<ref name="Dalal2010p326"/> Dasharatha grieves at her request. Her son Bharata, and other family members become upset at her demand. Rama states that his father should keep his word, adds that he does not crave for earthly or heavenly material pleasures, neither seeks power nor anything else. He talks about his decision with his wife and tells everyone that time passes quickly. [[Sita]] leaves with him to live in the forest, the brother [[Lakshmana]] joins them in their exile as the caring close brother.<ref name="Dalal2010p326"/>

===Exile and war===
{{See also|Ravana|Jatayu (Ramayana)|Hanuman|Vibheeshana}}
<gallery class="center" widths="150" heights="200">
Rama exiled to Forest.jpg|Rama, along with his younger brother [[Lakshmana]] and wife [[Sita]], exiled to the forest.
Rama in Forest.jpg|Rama in Forest
Rama Spurns Suparnakha by Warwick Goble.jpg|Ravana's sister Suparnakha attempts to seduce Rama and cheat on Sita. He refuses and spurns her (above).
COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Reliëf op de aan Shiva gewijde tempel op de Candi Lara Jonggrang oftewel het Prambanan tempelcomplex TMnr 10016191.jpg|[[Ravana]] kidnapping [[Sita]] while Jatayu on the left tried to help her. 9th-century [[Prambanan]] bas-relief, Java, Indonesia.
Hanuman meets Sri Rama in Forest.jpg|[[Hanuman]] meets Rama in the forest.
</gallery>
Rama heads outside the Kosala kingdom, crosses Yamuna river and initially stays at Chitrakuta, on the banks of river Mandakini, in the hermitage of sage [[Vasishtha]].<ref name=dalal99>{{harvnb|Dalal|2010|pp=99, 326–327}}</ref> During the exile, Rama meets one of his devotee, [[Shabari]] who happened to love him so much that when Rama asked something to eat she offered her [[ber]], a fruit. But every time she gave it to him she first tasted it to ensure that it was sweet and tasty as a testament to her devotion. Rama also understood her devotion and ate all the half-eaten bers given by her. Such was the reciprocation of love and compassion he had for his people. This place is believed in the Hindu tradition to be the same as [[Chitrakoot, Madhya Pradesh|Chitrakoot]] on the border of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. The region has numerous Rama temples and is an important Vaishnava pilgrimage site.<ref name=dalal99/> The texts describe nearby hermitages of Vedic [[rishi]]s (sages) such as [[Atri]], and that Rama roamed through forests, lived a humble simple life, provided protection and relief to ascetics in the forest being harassed and persecuted by demons, as they stayed at different [[ashram]]s.<ref name=dalal99/><ref name=hindery99>{{harvnb|Hindery|1978|pp=98–99}}</ref>

After ten years of wandering and struggles, Rama arrives at Panchavati, on the banks of river Godavari. This region had numerous demons (''rakshashas''). One day, a demoness called Shurpanakha saw Rama, became enamored of him, and tried to seduce him.<ref name="Dalal2010p326"/> Rama refused her. Shurpanakha retaliated by threatening [[Sita]]. Lakshmana, the younger brother protective of his family, in turn retaliated by cutting off the nose and ears of [[Shurpanakha]]. The cycle of violence escalated, ultimately reaching demon king [[Ravana]], who was the brother of Shurpanakha. Ravana comes to [[Panchavati]] to take revenge on behalf of his family, sees Sita, gets attracted, and kidnaps her to his [[Lanka|kingdom of Lanka]] ''(believed to be modern [[Sri Lanka]])''.<ref name="Dalal2010p326"/><ref name=hindery99/>

Rama and [[Lakshmana]] discover the kidnapping, worry about Sita's safety, despair at the loss and their lack of resources to take on Ravana. Their struggles now reach new heights. They travel south, meet [[Sugriva]], marshall an army of monkeys, and attract dedicated commanders such as [[Hanuman]] who was a minister of Sugriva.<ref name="Ramayana">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4Wzg6wFJ5xwC | title=Ramayana | publisher=University of California Press | author=B. A van Nooten William | year=2000 | isbn=978-0-520-22703-3}}</ref> Meanwhile, Ravana harasses Sita to be his wife, queen or goddess.{{sfn|Goldman|1996|page=406|ps=: 16. ... Ravana is represented as merely requesting that Sita stop thinking of him as an enemy and that she abandon her mistaken notion that he wants her to be his wife. By mentioning his chief queen, he is really saying that he wants Sita to be the chosen goddess of both him and his chief queen, Mandodari.}} Sita refuses him. Ravana gets enraged and ultimately reaches Lanka, fights in a war that has many ups and downs, but ultimately Rama prevails, kills Ravana and forces of evil, and rescues his wife Sita. They return to [[Ayodhya]].<ref name="Dalal2010p326"/>{{Sfn|Goldman|1996|p=90}}

===Post-war rule, death and re-appearance===
[[File:Lord Rama Raj Tilak Ramayana.jpg|thumb|200px|Rama Raj Tilak from Ramayana]]

The return of Rama to Ayodhya was celebrated with his coronation. It is called ''Rama pattabhisheka'', and his rule itself as ''Rama rajya'' described to be a just and fair rule.<ref>{{cite book|author=Ramashraya Sharma|title=A Socio-political Study of the Vālmīki Rāmāyaṇa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Vo0OJtO6DQC&pg=PA2 |year=1986|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0078-6|pages=2–3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Gregory Claeys|title=The Cambridge Companion to Utopian Literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sFCuoqykV9QC&pg=PA240 |year=2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-82842-0|pages=240–241}}</ref> It is believed by many that when Rama returned people celebrated their happiness with ''[[Diya (lamp)|diyas]]'' (lamps), and the festival of [[Diwali]] is connected with Rama's return.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lOnuAAAAIAAJ|title=Self-realization Magazine|date=1971|publisher=Self-Realization Fellowship|pages=[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=lOnuAAAAIAAJ&q=is+diwali+connected+to+lord+rama+returned&dq=is+diwali+connected+to+lord+rama+returned&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwim0d3TqJvvAhW7IbcAHXzsABsQ6AEwAHoECAYQAg 50]|language=en}}</ref>

Upon Rama's accession as king, rumors emerge that Sita may have gone willingly when she was with Ravana; Sita protests that her capture was forced. Rama responds to public gossip by renouncing his wife and asking her to undergo a test before ''Agni'' (fire). She does and passes the test. Rama and Sita live happily together in Ayodhya, have twin sons named Luv and Kush, in the ''Ramayana'' and other major texts.<ref name=hindery99/> However, in some revisions, the story is different and tragic, with Sita dying of sorrow for her husband not trusting her, making Sita a moral heroine and leaving the reader with moral questions about Rama.{{Sfn|Hindery|1978|p=100}}<ref name = "Hess2001"/> In these revisions, the death of Sita leads Rama to drown himself. Through death, he joins her in afterlife.<ref>{{cite book|author=Frye|first=Northrope|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AV-zCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA191|title=Northrop Frye's Uncollected Prose|publisher=[[University of Toronto Press]]|year=2015|isbn=978-1-4426-4972-9|location=[[Toronto]], [[Canada]]|page=191}}</ref> Depiction of Rama dying by drowning himself and then emerging in the sky as a six-armed incarnate of the lord [[Vishnu]] is found in the Burmese version of Rama's life story called ''Thiri Rama''.<ref>{{cite book|author=Rooney|first=Dawn F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iiCEDgAAQBAJ|title=The Thiri Rama: Finding Ramayana in Myanmar|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|year=2017|isbn=978-1-315-31395-5|page=49-51}}</ref>

===Inconsistencies===
Rama's legends vary significantly by the region and across manuscripts. While there is a common foundation, plot, grammar and an essential core of values associated with a battle between good and evil, there is neither a correct version nor a single verifiable ancient one. According to Paula Richman, there are hundreds of versions of "the story of Rama in India, Southeast Asia and beyond".<ref name=richman7>{{harvnb|Richman|1991|pp=7–9 (by Richman), pp. 22–46 (Ramanujan)}}</ref><ref name="Iyengar2005p29">{{cite book|author=A. N. Jani|author-link=A. N. Jani|editor=Kodaganallur R.S. Iyengar|title=Asian Variations in Ramayana: Papers Presented at the International Seminar on 'Variations in Ramayana in Asia|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=CU92nFk5fU4C&pg=PA29| year=2005| publisher= Sahitya Akademi|isbn= 978-81-260-1809-3|pages=29–55}}</ref> The versions vary by region reflecting local preoccupations and histories, and these cannot be called "divergences or different tellings" from the "real" version, rather all the versions of Rama story are real and true in their own meanings to the local cultural tradition, according to scholars such as Richman and Ramanujan.<ref name=richman7/>

The stories vary in details, particularly where the moral question is clear, but the appropriate ethical response is unclear or disputed.{{sfn|Richman|1991|pp=10–12, 67–85}}<ref name="Horstmann1991p9">{{cite book|author=Monika Horstmann|author-link=Monika Boehm-Tettelbach|title=Rāmāyaṇa and Rāmāyaṇas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=40A6s8l1lqQC |year=1991|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-03116-5|pages=9–21}}</ref> For example, when demoness [[Shurpanakha]] disguises as a woman to seduce Rama, then stalks and harasses Rama's wife Sita after Rama refuses her, [[Lakshmana]] is faced with the question of appropriate ethical response. In the Indian tradition, states Richman, the social value is that "a warrior must never harm a woman".{{sfn|Richman|1991|pp=10–12, 67–85}} The details of the response by Rama and Lakshmana, and justifications for it, has numerous versions. Similarly, there are numerous and very different versions to how Rama deals with rumours against Sita when they return victorious to Ayodhya, given that the rumours can neither be objectively investigated nor summarily ignored.{{sfn|Richman|1991|pp=11–12, 89–108}} Similarly the versions vary on many other specific situations and closure such as how Rama, Sita and Lakshmana die.{{sfn|Richman|1991|pp=10–12, 67–85}}<ref name=Padmanabh216/>

The variation and inconsistencies are not limited to the texts found in the Hinduism traditions. The Rama story in the Jain tradition also show variation by author and region, in details, in implied ethical prescriptions and even in names – the older versions using the name Padma instead of Rama, while the later Jain texts just use Rama.<ref>{{cite book|author=Umakant P. Shah|editor=Kodaganallur R.S. Iyengar|title=Asian Variations in Ramayana: Papers Presented at the International Seminar on 'Variations in Ramayana in Asia|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=CU92nFk5fU4C&pg=PA29| year=2005| publisher= Sahitya Akademi|isbn= 978-81-260-1809-3|pages=57–76}}</ref>

==Dating==
[[File:A relief summary of Ramayana at Hindu temple cave 16 Ellora India.jpg|thumb|left|The Rama story is carved into stone as an 8th-century relief artwork in the largest Shiva temple of the [[Ellora Caves]], suggesting its importance to the Indian society by then.<ref name=vatsyayan335>{{cite book|author=Kapila Vatsyayan|editor=Mandakranta Bose|title=The Ramayana Revisited |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Ar2Qfr-UeQC&pg=PA339 |year=2004|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-516832-7|pages=335–339}}</ref>]]

In some Hindu texts, Rama is stated to have lived in the ''[[Treta Yuga]]''{{Sfn|Menon|2008|pp=10-11}} that their authors estimate existed before about 5,000 BCE. A few other researchers place Rama to have more plausibly lived around 1250 BCE,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/news/india/was-ram-born-in-ayodhya/articleshow/77380259.cms|title=Was Ram born in Ayodhya|first=Devdutt|last=Pattanaik|website=mumbaimirror| date=8 August 2020}}</ref> based on regnal lists of Kuru and Vrishni leaders which if given more realistic reign lengths would place Bharat and Satwata, contemporaries of Rama, around that period. Archaeologist [[Hasmukh Dhirajlal Sankalia|H. S. Sankalia]], who specialised in Proto- and Ancient Indian history, find such figures to be "pure speculation" and dates various incidents of Ramayan to have taken place as early as 1,500 BCE.<ref>{{cite book|last=Dhirajlal Sankalia|first=Hasmukhlal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bgVkAAAAMAAJ|title=The Ramayana in historical perspective|publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers]]|year=1982|isbn=9-780-333-90390-2|location=[[India]] (branch)|pages=4–5, 51|author-link=Hasmukh Dhirajlal Sankalia}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Aspects of Indian History and Archaeology|page=205|author=Hasmukhlal Dhirajlal Sankalia|year=1977|publisher=B. R. Publishing Corporation}}</ref>

The composition of Rama's epic story, the ''[[Ramayana]]'', in its current form is usually dated between 7th and 4th century BCE.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Parmeshwaranand|first=Swami|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6F0ZIBIL2ZAC|title=Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Puranas|date=2001a|publisher=Swarup & Sons|isbn=978-81-7625-226-3|language=en|author-link=Swami Prameyananda}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Archaeology: Indonesian Perspective : R.P. Soejono's Festschrift|first=Truman |last=Simanjuntak |page=361|year =2006}}</ref> According to John Brockington, a professor of Sanskrit at Oxford known for his publications on the ''Ramayana'', the original text was likely composed and transmitted orally in more ancient times, and modern scholars have suggested various centuries in the 1st millennium BCE. In Brockington's view, "based on the language, style and content of the work, a date of roughly the fifth century BCE is the most reasonable estimate".<ref>{{cite book|author1=John Brockington|author2=Mary Brockington|title=The Other Ramayana Women: Regional Rejection and Response |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GgQzDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 |year=2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-39063-3|pages=3–6}}</ref>

{{clear}}
[[File:"Incarnation of Vishnu" Rama art detail, from- Indian - Leaf from Bound Collection of 20 Miniatures Depicting Village Life - Walters 35176L (cropped).jpg|thumb|1870 painting on [[mica]] entitled, ''Incarnation of Vishnu'']]

== Appearance ==

[[Valmiki]] in [[Ramayana]] describes Rama as a charming, well built person of a dark complexion (''varṇam śyāmam'') and long arms (''ājānabāhu'', meaning a person whose middle finger reaches beyond their knee).{{Sfn|Valmiki Ramayan|p=[[Ramayan#Kishkindha Kanda|kishkindha kanda]]}} In the [[Sundara Kanda]] section of the epic, [[Hanuman]] describes Rama to [[Sita]] when she is held captive in [[Lanka]] to prove to her that he is indeed a messenger from Rama:
{{blockquote|He has broad shoulders, mighty arms, a conch-shaped neck, a charming countenance, and coppery eyes;
he has his clavicle concealed and is known by the people as Rama.
He has a voice (deep) like the sound of a kettledrum and glossy skin,
is full of glory, square-built, and of well-proportioned limbs and is endowed with a dark-brown complexion.<ref>{{harvnb|Valmiki Ramayan|p=1235 (Volume 2 of Śrīmad Vālmīki-Rāmāyaṇa: With Sanskrit Text and English Translation)}}</ref>}}

==Iconography==
[[File: An image collage of Hindu deity Rama.jpg|left|alt=|thumb|Rama iconography widely varies, and typically show him in context of some legend.|277x277px]]Rama iconography shares elements of [[Vishnu Avataras|Vishnu avatars]], but has several distinctive elements. It never has more than two hands, he holds (or has nearby) a ''bana'' (arrow) in his right hand, while he holds the ''dhanus'' (bow) in his left.<ref name=raoramaicon/> The most recommended icon for him is that he be shown standing in ''tribhanga'' pose (thrice bent "S" shape). He is shown black, blue or dark color, typically wearing reddish color clothes. If his wife and brother are a part of the iconography, [[Lakshmana|Lakshamana]] is on his left side while [[Sita]] always on the right of Rama, both of golden-yellow complexion.<ref name=raoramaicon>{{cite book|author=T. A. Gopinatha Rao|title=Elements of Hindu iconography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MJD-KresBwIC |year=1993|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0878-2|pages=189–193}}</ref>

{{Clear}}

==Philosophy and symbolism==
Rama's life story is imbued with symbolism. According to [[Sheldon Pollock]], the life of Rama as told in the Indian texts is a masterpiece that offers a framework to represent, conceptualise and comprehend the world and the nature of life. Like major epics and religious stories around the world, it has been of vital relevance because it "tells the culture what it is". Rama's life is more complex than the Western template for the battle between the good and the evil, where there is a clear distinction between immortal powerful gods or heroes and mortal struggling humans. In the Indian traditions, particularly Rama, the story is about a divine human, a mortal god, incorporating both into the exemplar who transcends both humans and gods.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Vālmīki|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h1g6fWIu-kAC|title=The Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki: An Epic of Ancient India. Araṇyakāṇḍa|last2=Pollock|first2=Sheldon I.|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|year=2007|isbn=978-81-208-3164-3|pages=41–43|author-link=Valmiki|author-link2=Sheldon Pollock}}</ref>

{{Quote box
|quote = '''Responding to evil'''
<poem>
A superior being does not render evil for evil,
this is the maxim one should observe;
the ornament of virtuous persons is their conduct.
(...)
A noble soul will ever exercise compassion
even towards those who enjoy injuring others.
</poem>
|source = —''Ramayana 6.115'', Valmiki (Abridged, Translator: Roderick Hindery)<ref name=hindery103/>
|bgcolor=#FFE0BB
|align = right
}}
As a person, Rama personifies the characteristics of an ideal person (''purushottama'').<ref name = "Hess2001">{{cite journal| author = Hess, L.| year = 2001| title = Rejecting Sita: Indian Responses to the Ideal Man's Cruel Treatment of His Ideal Wife| journal = Journal of the American Academy of Religion
| volume = 67| issue = 1| pages = 1–32| doi = 10.1093/jaarel/67.1.1| pmid = 21994992}}</ref> He had within him all the desirable virtues that any individual would seek to aspire, and he fulfils all his moral obligations. Rama is considered a ''maryada purushottama'' or the best of upholders of Dharma.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LexraSEgRfIC&q=The+Blackwell+Companion+to+Hinduism|title=THE BLACKWELL COMPANION TO HINDUISM|author=Gavin Flood|isbn=978-81-265-1629-2|date=17 April 2008}}</ref>

According to Rodrick Hindery, Book 2, 6 and 7 are notable for ethical studies.<ref name=hindery100>{{cite book|author=Roderick Hindery|title=Comparative Ethics in Hindu and Buddhist Traditions |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-FswBLvTkvQC&pg=PA100|year =1978|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn= 978-81-208-0866-9|pages=100–101}}</ref><ref name="Horstmann1991p9"/> The views of ''Rama'' combine "reason with emotions" to create a "thinking hearts" approach. Second, he emphasises through what he says and what he does a union of "self-consciousness and action" to create an "ethics of character". Third, Rama's life combines the ethics with the aesthetics of living.<ref name=hindery100/> The story of Rama and people in his life raises questions such as "is it appropriate to use evil to respond to evil?", and then provides a spectrum of views within the framework of Indian beliefs such as on [[karma]] and [[dharma]].<ref name=hindery103>{{cite book|author=Roderick Hindery|title=Comparative Ethics in Hindu and Buddhist Traditions |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-FswBLvTkvQC&pg=PA100|year =1978|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn= 978-81-208-0866-9|pages=103–106}}</ref>

Rama's life and comments emphasise that one must pursue and live life fully, that all three life aims are equally important: virtue (dharma), desires ([[kama]]), and legitimate acquisition of wealth ([[artha]]). Rama also adds, such as in section 4.38 of the ''[[Ramayana]]'', that one must also introspect and never neglect what one's proper duties, appropriate responsibilities, true interests, and legitimate pleasures are.<ref name=hindery106/>
{{clear}}

==Literary sources==
[[File:Valmiki Ramayana.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Valmiki]] composing the ''Ramayana''.]]

===''Ramayana''===
The primary source of the life of Rama is the Sanskrit epic ''Ramayana'' composed by [[Rishi]] [[Valmiki]].{{Sfn|Valmiki Ramayan}}

[[File:Avatars.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Rama (left third from top) depicted in the [[Dashavatara]] (ten incornations) of Vishnu. Painting from [[Jaipur]], now at the [[Victoria and Albert Museum]].]]
The epic had many versions across India's regions. The followers of [[Madhvacharya]] believe that an older version of the ''[[Ramayana]]'', the ''Mula-Ramayana'', previously existed.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Timm|first=Jeffrey R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ryswPhIBcZkC|title=Texts in Context: Traditional Hermeneutics in South Asia|date=1 January 1992|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-0796-7|pages=118|language=en}}</ref> The Madhva tradition considers it to have been more authoritative than the version by [[Valmiki]].{{Sfn|Griffith}}

Versions of the ''Ramayana'' exist in most major Indian languages; examples that elaborate on the life, deeds and divine philosophies of Rama include the epic poem ''[[Ramavataram]]'', and the following vernacular versions of Rama's life story:<ref>{{cite book|author1=Constance Jones|author2=James D. Ryan|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC |year=2006|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5|page=355}}</ref>
*''Ramavataram or Kamba-Ramayanam'' in [[Tamil language|Tamil]] by the poet [[Kambar (poet)|Kambar]]. (12th century)
*[[Saptakanda Ramayana]] in [[Assamese language|Assamese]] by poet [[Madhava Kandali]]. (14th century)
*''[[Krittivasi Ramayan]]'' in [[Bengali language|Bengali]] by poet [[Krittibas Ojha]]. (15th century)
*''[[Ramcharitmanas]]'' in [[Hindi]] by sant [[Tulsidas]]. (16th-century)
*''Pampa Ramayana'', ''Torave Ramayana'' by Kumara Valmiki and ''[[Sri Ramayana Darshanam]]'' by [[Kuvempu]] in [[Kannada]];
*''Ramayana Kalpavruksham'' by [[Viswanatha Satyanarayana]] and ''Ramayana'' by Ranganatha in [[Telugu language|Telugu]];
*''Vilanka Ramayana'' in [[Odia language|Odia]];
*''Eluttachan'' in [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]] (this text is closer to the [[Advaita Vedanta]]-inspired rendition ''Adhyatma Ramayana'').{{sfn|Dalal|2010|p=4}}

The epic is found across India, in different languages and cultural traditions.<ref>[http://www.maxwell.syr.edu/moynihan_sac_inside.aspx?id=36507224368&terms=Regional%20Ramayanas "The Oral Tradition and the many 'Ramayanas'"], Moynihan @Maxwell, [[Maxwell School]] of [[Syracuse University]]'s South Asian Center</ref>

===''Adhyatma Ramayana''===
''Adhyatma Ramayana'' is a late medieval [[Sanskrit]] text extolling the spiritualism in the story of [[Ramayana]]. It is embedded in the latter portion of ''[[Brahmānda Purana]]'', and constitutes about a third of it.<ref name=jnfarquhar158>{{cite book|author=John Nicol Farquhar |title=An Outline of the Religious Literature of India |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.100309 |year=1920|publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.100309/page/n356 324]–325}}</ref> The text philosophically attempts to reconcile [[Bhakti]] in god Rama and [[Shaktism]] with [[Advaita Vedanta]], over 65 chapters and 4,500 verses.{{Sfn|Rocher|1986|pp=158–159 with footnotes}}<ref name="Tulasīdāsa1989p875">{{cite book|author=RC Prasad |title=Tulasīdāsa's Sriramacharitmanasa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BiYt00x5tcQC&pg=PA875 |year=1989|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0443-2 |pages=xiv-xv, 875–876}}</ref>

The text represents Rama as the [[Brahman]] (metaphysical reality), mapping all attributes and aspects of Rama to abstract virtues and spiritual ideals.<ref name="Tulasīdāsa1989p875"/> ''Adhyatma Ramayana'' transposes ''Ramayana'' into symbolism of self study of one's own soul, with metaphors described in Advaita terminology.<ref name="Tulasīdāsa1989p875"/> The text is notable because it influenced the popular ''Ramcharitmanas'' by [[Tulsidas]],<ref name=jnfarquhar158/><ref name="Tulasīdāsa1989p875"/> and inspired the most popular version of [[Nepal]]i ''Ramayana'' by [[Bhanubhakta Acharya]].<ref>{{cite book|author=R. Barz|editor=Monika Horstmann|title=Rāmāyaṇa and Rāmāyaṇas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=40A6s8l1lqQC |year=1991|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-03116-5|pages=32–35}}</ref> This was also translated by [[Thunchath Ezhuthachan]] to [[Malayalam]], which lead the foundation of [[Malayalam literature]] itself.{{Sfn|James|2002|p=72}}

===''Ramacharitmanas''===
The ''Ramayana'' is a Sanskrit text, while ''[[Ramcharitmanas|Ramacharitamanasa]]'' retells the ''Ramayana'' in a vernacular dialect of Hindi language,<ref name=britramcharit/> commonly understood in [[North India|northern India]].{{sfn| Lutgendorf|1991}}<ref>{{harvnb|Miller|2008|p=217}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Varma|2010|p=1565}}</ref> ''Ramacharitamanasa'' was composed in the 16th century by [[Tulsidas]].<ref>{{harvnb|Poddar|2001|pp=26–29}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Das|2010|p=63}}</ref><ref name=britramcharit>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ramcharitmanas Ramcharitmanas], Encyclopaedia Britannica (2012)</ref> The popular text is notable for synthesising the epic story in a [[Bhakti movement]] framework, wherein the original legends and ideas morph in an expression of spiritual [[bhakti]] (devotional love) for a personal god.<ref name=britramcharit/>{{sfn|Schomer|McLeod|1987|p=75}}{{refn|group=lower-greek|For example, like other Hindu poet-saints of the Bhakti movement before the 16th century, Tulsidas in ''Ramcharitmanas'' recommends the simplest path to devotion is ''Nam-simran'' (absorb oneself in remembering the divine name "Rama"). He suggests either vocally repeating the name (''jap'') or silent repetition in mind (''ajapajap''). This concept of Rama moves beyond the divinised hero and connotes an "all-pervading Being" and equivalent to ''atmarama'' within. The term ''atmarama'' is a compound of "Atma" and "Rama", it literally means "he who finds joy in his own self", according to the French Indologist [[Charlotte Vaudeville]] known for her studies on Ramayana and Bhakti movement.{{sfn|Schomer|McLeod|1987|pp=31–32 with footnotes 13 and 16 (by C. Vaudeville).}}}}

Tulsidas was inspired by ''Adhyatma Ramayana'', where Rama and other characters of the ''Valmiki Ramayana'' along with their attributes (''saguna'' narrative) were transposed into spiritual terms and abstract rendering of an ''[[Atman (Hinduism)|Atma]]'' (soul, self, [[Brahmana|''Brahman'']]) without attributes (''[[nirguna]]'' reality).<ref name=jnfarquhar158/><ref name="Tulasīdāsa1989p875"/>{{sfn|Schomer|McLeod|1987|pp=31, 74–75 with footnotes, Quote: "What is striking about the dohas in the Ramcharitmanas however is that they frequently have a sant-like ring to them, breaking into the very midst of the saguna narrative with a statement of nirguna reality".}} According to Kapoor, Rama's life story in the ''Ramacharitamanasa'' combines mythology, philosophy, and religious beliefs into a story of life, a code of ethics, a treatise on universal human values.<ref name="Pollet1995p181"/> It debates in its dialogues the human dilemmas, the ideal standards of behaviour, duties to those one loves, and mutual responsibilities. It inspires the audience to view their own lives from a spiritual plane, encouraging the virtuous to keep going, and comforting those oppressed with a healing balm.<ref name="Pollet1995p181">{{cite book|author=A Kapoor|editor=Gilbert Pollet|title=Indian Epic Values: Rāmāyaṇa and Its Impact|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EVnK3q48dL0C&pg=PA181 |year=1995|publisher=Peeters Publishers|isbn=978-90-6831-701-5|pages=181–186}}</ref>

The ''Ramacharitmanas'' is notable for being the Rama-based play commonly performed every year in autumn, during the weeklong performance arts festival of ''[[Ramlila]]''.<ref name="Jennifer Lindsay 2006 12–14"/> The "staging of the ''Ramayana'' based on the ''Ramacharitmanas''" was inscribed in 2008 by UNESCO as one of the Intangible Cultural Heritages of Humanity.<ref name="unescodussehra">{{Cite web|title=Ramlila-The traditional performance of Ramayana|url=http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/RL/ramlila-the-traditional-performance-of-the-ramayana-00110|access-date=8 March 2021|website=[[UNESCO]]}}</ref>

===''Yoga Vasistha''===
{{main|Yoga Vasistha}}
{{Quote box
|quote =Human effort can be used for self-betterment and that there is no such thing as an external fate imposed by the gods.
|source = – ''Yoga Vasistha (Vasistha teaching Rama)'' Tr: Christopher Chapple<ref>{{Harvnb|Chapple|1984|pp=x–xi with footnote 4}}</ref>
|width = 30%
| bgcolor=#FFE0BB
|align = left
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''Yoga Vasistha'' is a Sanskrit text structured as a conversation between young Prince Rama and sage [[Vasistha]] who was called as the first sage of the [[Vedanta]] school of Hindu philosophy by [[Adi Shankara]]. The complete text contains over 29,000 verses.<ref name=chappleix>{{Harvnb|Chapple|1984|pp=ix–xi}}</ref> The short version of the text is called ''Laghu Yogavasistha'' and contains 6,000 verses.<ref name="Leslie2003-105">{{Harvnb|Leslie|2003|pp=105}}</ref> The exact century of its completion is unknown, but has been estimated to be somewhere between the 6{{Rp|th}} century to as late as the 14{{Rp|th}} century, but it is likely that a version of the text existed in the 1{{Rp|st}} millennium.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chapple|1984|p=x}}</ref>

The ''[[Yoga Vasistha]]'' text consists of six books. The first book presents Rama's frustration with the nature of life, human suffering and disdain for the world. The second describes, through the character of Rama, the desire for liberation and the nature of those who seek such liberation. The third and fourth books assert that liberation comes through a spiritual life, one that requires self-effort, and present cosmology and metaphysical theories of existence embedded in stories.<ref name="Chapple1984-xii"/> These two books are known for emphasising free will and human creative power.<ref name="Chapple1984-xii"/><ref>Surendranath Dasgupta, A History of Indian Philosophy, Volume 2, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-521-04779-1}}, pages 252–253</ref> The fifth book discusses meditation and its powers in liberating the individual, while the last book describes the state of an enlightened and blissful Rama.<ref name="Chapple1984-xii">{{Harvnb|Chapple|1984|pp=xi–xii}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Valmiki |title=The Concise Yoga Vāsiṣṭha |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=1984 |isbn=0-87395-955-8 |location=Albany |translator-last=Venkatesananda |translator-first=S}}</ref>

''Yoga Vasistha'' is considered one of the most important texts of the [[Vedantic]] philosophy.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Tigunait|first=Rajmani|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gukW2iojhrQC&q=The+Himalayan+Masters:+A+Living+Tradition|title=The Himalayan Masters: A Living Tradition|date=2002|publisher=[[Himalayan University|Himalayan Institute Press]]|isbn=978-0-89389-227-2|location=[[Itanagar]]|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gukW2iojhrQC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Himalayan+Masters:+A+Living+Tradition&hl=en&pg=PA33 33]|language=en}}</ref> The text, states David Gordon White, served as a reference on [[Yoga]] for medieval era Advaita Vedanta scholars.<ref name="whiteysxvi">{{cite book|last=White|first=David Gordon|title=The "Yoga Sutra of Patanjali": A Biography|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|year=2014|isbn=978-0-691-14377-4|pages=xvi–xvii, 51}}</ref> The Yoga Vasistha, according to White, was one of the popular texts on Yoga that dominated the Indian Yoga culture scene before the 12th century.<ref name=whiteysxvi/>

===Other texts===
Other important historic Hindu texts on Rama include ''Bhusundi Ramanaya'', ''Prasanna raghava'', and ''Ramavali'' by Tulsidas.{{sfn|James G. Lochtefeld|2002|p=555}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Edmour J. Babineau|url=https://archive.org/details/loveofgodsociald0000babi|title=Love of God and Social Duty in the Rāmcaritmānas|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|year=1979|isbn=978-0-89684-050-8|pages=[https://archive.org/details/loveofgodsociald0000babi/page/85 85]–[https://archive.org/details/loveofgodsociald0000babi/page/85 86]|url-access=registration}}</ref> The Sanskrit poem ''[[Bhaṭṭikāvya]]'' of Bhatti, who lived in [[Gujarat]] in the seventh century CE, is a retelling of the epic that simultaneously illustrates the grammatical examples for [[Pāṇini]]'s ''Aṣṭādhyāyī'' as well as the major figures of speech and the [[Prakrit]] language.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bhaṭṭi|title=[[Bhaṭṭikāvya]]|publisher=[[Clay Sanskrit Library]]|year=600|isbn=978-0-8147-2778-2|location=[[New York City|New York]], [[United States]]|pages=22.35|translator-last=Olliver|translator-first=Fallon|orig-year=2009}}</ref>

Another historically and chronologically important text is ''[[Raghuvaṃśa|Raghuvamsa]]'' authored by [[Kalidasa]].<ref name=":1">{{harvnb|Dalal|2010|p=323}}.</ref> Its story confirms many details of the ''Ramayana'', but has novel and different elements. It mentions that Ayodhya was not the capital in the time of Rama's son named Kusha, but that he later returned to it and made it the capital again. This text is notable because the poetry in the text is exquisite and called a ''Mahakavya'' in the Indian tradition, and has attracted many scholarly commentaries. It is also significant because Kalidasa has been dated to between the 4th and 5th century CE, suggesting that the Ramayana legend was well established by the time of Kalidasa.<ref name=":1" />

The ''Mahabharata'' has a summary of the ''Ramayana''. The Jainism tradition has extensive literature of Rama as well, but generally refers to him as Padma, such as in the ''Paumacariya'' by Vimalasuri.<ref name=cort313/> Rama and Sita legend is mentioned in the Jataka tales of Buddhism, as ''[[Dasaratha Jataka|Dasaratha-Jataka]]'' (Tale no. 461), but with slightly different spellings such as ''Lakkhana'' for ''Lakshmana'' and ''Rama-pandita'' for ''Rama''.<ref name= Francis325>{{cite book|author1=H. T. Francis|author2=E. J. Thomas|title=Jataka Tales|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WYjRAwAAQBAJ |year=1916|publisher=Cambridge University Press (Reprinted: 2014) |isbn=978-1-107-41851-6|pages=325–330}}</ref><ref name="cowell78">{{cite book|author1=Cowell|first=E. B.|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.553497|title=The Jātaka: Or, Stories of the Buddha's Former Births|last2=Rouse|first2=WHD|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=1901|pages=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.553497/page/n94 78–82]}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author-link=Suvira Jaiswal |first=Suvira|last=Jaiswal|title=Historical Evolution of Ram Legend|journal=Social Scientist|date=1993|volume=21|issue=3 / 4 March April 1993|pages=89–96|doi=10.2307/3517633|jstor=3517633}}</ref>

The chapter 4 of ''[[Vishnu Purana]]'', chapter 112 of ''[[Padma Purana]]'', chapter 143 of ''[[Garuda Purana]]'' and chapters 5 through 11 of ''[[Agni Purana]]'' also summarise the life story of Rama.{{sfn|Rocher|1986|p=84 with footnote 26}} Additionally, the Rama story is included in the ''[[Vana Parva]]'' of the ''[[Mahabharata]]'', which has been a part of evidence that the ''[[Ramayana]]'' is likely more ancient, and it was summarised in the ''Mahabharata'' epic in ancient times.<ref>{{cite book|author=Buitenen|first=J. A. B. van|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2QG_ZgsM13IC|title=The Mahabharata, Volume 2: Book 2: The Book of Assembly; Book 3: The Book of the Forest|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|year=1973|isbn=978-0-226-84664-4|pages=207–214}}</ref>

==Influence==
[[File:Burmese Ramayana dance.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Rama (Yama) and Sita (Thida) in [[Yama Zatdaw]], the Burmese version of the Ramayana]]
Rama's story has had a major socio-cultural and inspirational influence across [[South Asia]] and [[Southeast Asia]].<ref name=goldmanrama/>{{sfn|Richman|1991|p=17 note 11}}

<blockquote style="background-color:none;margin-right:5em;margin-left:0em;border-left:solid 6px #FFE0BB;padding:1.0em">
Few works of literature produced in any place at any time have been as popular, influential, imitated and successful as the great and ancient Sanskrit epic poem, the ''Valmiki Ramayana''.
:– [[Robert P. Goldman|Robert Goldman]], Professor of Sanskrit, [[University of California, Berkeley|University of California]] at [[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]].<ref name=goldmanrama/></blockquote>

According to [[Arthur Anthony Macdonell]], a professor at Oxford and Boden scholar of Sanskrit, Rama's ideas as told in the Indian texts are secular in origin, their influence on the life and thought of people having been profound over at least two and a half millennia.<ref name=Goldmanramabp/><ref>{{cite book|author=Sundaram|first=P S|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EPTcCd32pJIC|title=Kamba Ramayana|publisher=[[Penguin Books]]|year=2002|isbn=978-93-5118-100-2|pages=1–2}}</ref> Their influence has ranged from being a framework for personal introspection to cultural festivals and community entertainment.<ref name=goldmanrama/> His life stories, states [[Robert P. Goldman|Goldman]], have inspired "painting, film, sculpture, puppet shows, shadow plays, novels, poems, TV serials and plays."<ref name="Goldmanramabp">{{Cite book|last=Goldman|first=Robert|url=http://southasia.berkeley.edu/sites/default/files/shared/documents/Ramayana.pdf|title=The Valmiki Ramayana|publisher=Center for South Asia Studies|year=2013|location=[[University of California, Berkeley|University of California]], [[Berkeley, California]]|author-link=Robert P. Goldman}}</ref>

===Hinduism===
{{see also|List of Hindu festivals}}[[File:The_Divine_Hero_Rama.jpg|alt=|left|thumb|281x281px|A 5th century terracotta sculpture depicting Rama]]

====Rama Navami====
{{main|Rama Navami}}
Rama Navami is a spring festival that celebrates the birthday of Rama. The festival is a part of the spring [[Navratri]], and falls on the ninth day of the bright half of [[Chaitra]] month in the traditional [[Hindu calendar]]. This typically occurs in the Gregorian months of March or April every year.{{Sfn|James G. Lochtefeld|2002|p=[https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch/page/562 562]}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=City News, Indian City Headlines, Latest City News, Metro City News|url=https://indianexpress.com/section/cities/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090407143924/http://cities.expressindia.com/fullstory.php?newsid=175953|archive-date=7 April 2009|access-date=7 March 2021|website=[[The Indian Express]]|language=en}}</ref>

The day is marked by recital of Rama legends in temples, or reading of Rama stories at home. Some Vaishnava Hindus visit a temple, others pray within their home, and some participate in a [[bhajan]] or [[kirtan]] with music as a part of [[Puja (Hinduism)|puja]] and [[aarti]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20121104195645/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-04-02/mysore/28056195_1_ramanavami-music-festival-temples-devotees Ramnavami]</ref> The community organises charitable events and volunteer meals. The festival is an occasion for moral reflection for many Hindus.<ref name=bbc/><ref name="bp">{{cite web|title=President and PM greet people as India observes Ram Navami today|url=http://news.biharprabha.com/2014/04/president-and-pm-greet-people-as-india-observes-ram-navami-today/|work=IANS|date=8 April 2014|publisher=news.biharprabha.com|access-date=8 April 2014}}</ref> Some mark this day by [[vrata]] (fasting) or a visit to a river for a dip.<ref name=bbc/><ref>{{Cite web|title=National Portal of India|url=https://www.india.gov.in/|access-date=7 March 2021|website=[[Govt. of India]]}}</ref><ref name="dna8apr2014">{{Cite web|last=John|first=Josephine|date=8 April 2014|title=Hindus around the world celebrate Ram Navami today|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-hindus-around-the-world-celebrate-ram-navami-today-1976344|access-date=7 March 2021|website=[[Zee News|DNA India]]|language=en}}</ref>

The important celebrations on this day take place at [[Ayodhya]], [[Sitamarhi]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sitamarhi {{!}} India|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Sitamarhi|access-date=8 March 2021|website=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]|language=en|quote=A large Ramanavami fair, celebrating the birth of Lord Rama, is held in spring with considerable trade in pottery, spices, brass ware, and cotton cloth. A cattle fair held in Sitamarhi is the largest in Bihar state. The town is sacred as the birthplace of the goddess Sita (also called Janaki), the wife of Rama.}}</ref> [[Janakpurdham]] ([[Nepal]]), [[Bhadrachalam]], [[Kodandarama Temple, Vontimitta]] and [[Rameswaram]]. Rathayatras, the chariot processions, also known as ''Shobha yatras'' of Rama, Sita, his brother [[Lakshmana]] and [[Hanuman]], are taken out at several places.<ref name="bbc">{{Cite web|title=BBC – Religions – Hinduism: Rama Navami|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/holydays/rama.shtml|access-date=7 March 2021|website=[[BBC News]]|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Latest News, India News, Breaking News, Today's News Headlines Online|url=https://indianexpress.com/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090407015100/http://www.indianexpress.com/res/web/pIe/ie/daily/19990325/ige25105.html|archive-date=7 April 2009|access-date=8 March 2021|website=[[The Indian Express]]|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=City News, Indian City Headlines, Latest City News, Metro City News|url=https://indianexpress.com/section/cities/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090407143929/http://cities.expressindia.com/fullstory.php?newsid=47910|archive-date=7 April 2009|access-date=8 March 2021|website=[[The Indian Express]]|language=en}}</ref> In Ayodhya, many take a dip in the sacred river [[Sarayu]] and then visit the Rama temple.<ref name="dna8apr2014"/>

Rama Navami day also marks the end of the nine-day spring festival celebrated in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh called [[Vasanthotsavam|''Vasanthothsavam'']] (Festival of Spring), that starts with [[Ugadi]]. Some highlights of this day are ''Kalyanam'' (ceremonial wedding performed by temple priests) at [[Bhadrachalam]] on the banks of the river [[Godavari]] in [[Bhadradri Kothagudem district|Bhadradri Kothagudem]] district of [[Telangana]], preparing and sharing ''Panakam'' which is a sweet drink prepared with jaggery and pepper, a procession and Rama temple decorations.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Satpathy|first=Kriti Saraswat|date=14 April 2016|title=Did you know these rituals of Ram Navami celebration in Karnataka?|url=https://www.india.com/travel/articles/did-you-know-these-rituals-of-ram-navami-celebration-in-karnataka-3234872/|access-date=6 March 2021|website=India News, Breaking News {{!}} India.com|language=en}}</ref>

==== Ramlila and Dussehra====
{{Main|Vijayadashami}}
[[File:Ramlila artists.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.85|In Northern, Central and Western states of India, the Ramlila play is enacted during Navratri by rural artists (above).]]
Rama's life is remembered and celebrated every year with dramatic plays and fireworks in autumn. This is called [[Ramlila]], and the play follows ''[[Ramayana]]'' or more commonly the ''[[Ramcharitmanas]]''.{{sfn|James G. Lochtefeld|2002|p=389}} It is observed through thousands<ref name="SchechnerHess51"/> of Rama-related performance arts and dance events, that are staged during the festival of [[Navratri]] in [[India]].{{sfn | Encyclopedia Britannica | 2015}} After the enactment of the legendary war between Good and Evil, the Ramlila celebrations climax in the [[Dussehra]] (Dasara, [[Vijayadashami]]) night festivities where the giant grotesque effigies of Evil such as of demon Ravana are burnt, typically with fireworks.<ref name="unescodussehra"/><ref>{{Cite book|last=Kasbekar|first=Asha|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sv7Uk0UcdM8C&q=Jatra+bengal&pg=PA44|title=Pop Culture India!: Media, Arts, and Lifestyle|date=2006|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-636-7|language=en}}</ref>

The Ramlila festivities were declared by UNESCO as one of the "Intangible Cultural Heritages of Humanity" in 2008. Ramlila is particularly notable in historically important Hindu cities of [[Ayodhya]], [[Varanasi]], [[Vrindavan]], [[Almora]], [[Satna]] and [[Madhubani district|Madhubani]] – cities in Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh.<ref name=unescodussehra/>{{sfn|James G. Lochtefeld|2002|pp=561–562}} The epic and its dramatic play migrated into southeast Asia in the 1st millennium CE, and ''Ramayana'' based ''Ramlila'' is a part of performance arts culture of Indonesia, particularly the Hindu society of [[Bali]], [[Myanmar]], [[Cambodia]] and [[Thailand]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Bose|first=Mandakranta|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Ar2Qfr-UeQC|title=The Ramayana Revisited|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2004|isbn=978-0-19-516832-7|pages=342–350}}</ref>

====Diwali====
{{Main|Diwali}}
In some parts of India, Rama's return to Ayodhya and his coronation is the main reason for celebrating [[Diwali]], also known as the ''Festival of Lights''.{{Sfn|Gupta|1991|p=fontcover}}

In [[Guyana]], Diwali is marked as a special occasion and celebrated with a lot of fanfare. It is observed as a national holiday in this part of the world and some ministers of the Government also take part in the celebrations publicly. Just like Vijayadashmi, Diwali is celebrated by different communities across India to commemorate different events in addition to Rama's return to Ayodhya. For example, many communities celebrate one day of Diwali to celebrate the Victory of Krishna over the demon [[Narakasur]].{{Refn|As per another popular tradition, in the Dvapara Yuga period, [[Krishna]], an [[avatar]] of [[Vishnu]], killed the demon [[Narakasura]], who was the evil king of Pragjyotishapura, near present-day Assam and released 16000 girls held captive by [[Narakasura]]. Diwali was celebrated as a sign of the triumph of good over evil after Krishna's Victory over Narakasura. The day before [[Diwali]] is remembered as Naraka Chaturdasi, the day on which Narakasura was killed by Krishna.{{Sfn|Richman|1991|p=107}}|group=lower-greek}}

====Hindu arts in Southeast Asia====
[[File:L'exposition "Angkor - la naissance d'un mythe" (musée Guimet) (11804234493).jpg|thumb|upright=0.85|Rama's story is a major part of the artistic reliefs found at [[Angkor Wat]], Cambodia. Large sequences of Ramayana reliefs are also found in Java, Indonesia.<ref>{{cite book|author=Willem Frederik Stutterheim|title=Rāma-legends and Rāma-reliefs in Indonesia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OoitUqGk8PAC |year=1989|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-251-2|pages=109–160}}</ref>]]

Rama's life story, both in the written form of Sanskrit ''Ramayana'' and the oral tradition arrived in southeast Asia in the 1st millennium CE.<ref name="Brandon2009p22">{{cite book|author=James R. Brandon|title=Theatre in Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g-tAlBV5_LkC |year=2009|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-02874-6|pages=22–27}}</ref> Rama was one of many ideas and cultural themes adopted, others being the Buddha, the Shiva and host of other Brahmanic and Buddhist ideas and stories.<ref name="Brandon2009p15">{{cite book|author=Brandon|first=James R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g-tAlBV5_LkC|title=Theatre in Southeast Asia|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-674-02874-6|pages=15–21}}</ref> In particular, the influence of Rama and other cultural ideas grew in [[Java]], [[Bali]], [[Malaysia|Malaya]], [[Burma]], [[Thailand]], [[Cambodia]] and [[Laos]].<ref name="Brandon2009p15"/>

The ''Ramayana'' was translated from Sanskrit into old Javanese around 860 CE, while the performance arts culture most likely developed from the oral tradition inspired by the Tamil and Bengali versions of Rama-based dance and plays.<ref name="Brandon2009p22"/> The earliest evidence of these performance arts are from 243 CE according to Chinese records. Other than the celebration of Rama's life with dance and music, Hindu temples built in southeast Asia such as the [[Prambanan]] near [[Yogyakarta]] (Java), and at the [[Panataran]] near [[Blitar]] (East Java), show extensive reliefs depicting Rama's life.<ref name="Brandon2009p22"/><ref>Jan Fontein (1973), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4171579 The Abduction of Sitā: Notes on a Stone Relief from Eastern Java], Boston Museum Bulletin, Vol. 71, No. 363 (1973), pp. 21–35</ref> The story of Rama's life has been popular in Southeast Asia.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Kats | first=J. | title=The Ramayana in Indonesia | journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies | publisher=Cambridge University Press | volume=4 | issue=3 | year=1927 | page=579 | doi=10.1017/s0041977x00102976 | s2cid=162850921 }}</ref>

In the 14th century, the [[Ayutthaya Kingdom]] and its capital Ayuttaya was named after the Hindu holy city of Ayodhya, with the official religion of the state being Theravada Buddhism.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Francis D. K. Ching|author2=Mark M. Jarzombek|author3=Vikramaditya Prakash|title=A Global History of Architecture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ciywCgAAQBAJ|year=2010|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-40257-3|page=456}}, Quote: "The name of the capital city [Ayuttaya] derives from the Hindu holy city Ayodhya in northern India, which is said to be the birthplace of the Hindu god Rama."</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Michael C. Howard|title=Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies: The Role of Cross-Border Trade and Travel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6QPWXrCCzBIC |year=2012|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-0-7864-9033-2|pages=200–201}}</ref> Thai kings, continuing into the contemporary era, have been called Rama, a name inspired by Rama of ''Ramakien'' – the local version of Sanskrit ''Ramayana'', according to Constance Jones and James Ryan. For example, King [[Chulalongkorn]] (1853–1910) is also known as Rama V, while King [[Vajiralongkorn]] who succeeded to the throne in 2016 is called Rama X.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Constance Jones|author2=James D. Ryan|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC&pg=PA443|year=2006|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5|page=443}}</ref>

===Jainism===
{{see also|Rama in Jainism|Salakapurusa}}
In [[Jainism]], the earliest known version of Rama story is variously dated from the 1st to 5th century CE. This Jain text credited to [[Vimalasuri]] shows no signs of distinction between [[Digambara]]-[[Svetambara]] (sects of Jainism), and is in a combination of [[Marathi language|Marathi]] and [[Sauraseni language]]s. These features suggest that this text has ancient roots.<ref name="Doniger1993p190">{{cite book|author=John E Cort|editor=Wendy Doniger|title=Purana Perennis: Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-kZFzHCuiFAC |year=1993|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-1381-4|page=190}}</ref>

In Jain [[cosmology]], characters continue to be reborn as they evolve in their spiritual qualities, until they reach the Jina state and complete enlightenment. This idea is explained as cyclically reborn triads in its Puranas, called the [[Balabhadra|Baladeva]], [[Vasudeva]] and evil [[Prati-vasudeva]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Jacobi|first=Herman|title=Vimalsuri's Paumachariyam|year=2005|publisher=Prakrit Text Society|location=Ahemdabad|edition=2nd}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Iyengar|first=Kodaganallur Ramaswami Srinivasa|title=Asian Variations in Ramayana|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CU92nFk5fU4C&pg=PA80
|year=2005|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|isbn=978-81-260-1809-3}}</ref> Rama, Lakshmana and evil Ravana are the eighth triad, with Rama being the reborn Baladeva, and Lakshmana as the reborn Vasudeva.<ref name= Padmanabh216>{{cite book|author=Padmanabh S Jaini| editor= Wendy Doniger|title= Purana Perennis: Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-kZFzHCuiFAC |year= 1993|publisher= State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-1381-4|pages=216–219}}</ref> Rama is described to have lived long before the 22nd Jain Tirthankara called [[Neminatha]]. In the Jain tradition, Neminatha is believed to have been born 84,000 years before the 9th-century BCE [[Parshvanatha]].{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|p=226}}

Jain texts tell a very different version of the Rama legend than the Hindu texts such as by Valmiki. According to the Jain version, Lakshmana (Vasudeva) is the one who kills Ravana (Prativasudeva).<ref name=Padmanabh216/> Rama, after all his participation in the rescue of Sita and preparation for war, he actually does not kill, thus remains a non-violent person. The Rama of Jainism has numerous wives as does Lakshmana, unlike the virtue of monogamy given to Rama in the Hindu texts. Towards the end of his life, Rama becomes a Jaina monk then successfully attains [[siddha]] followed by [[moksha]].<ref name= Padmanabh216/> His first wife Sita becomes a Jaina nun at the end of the story. In the Jain version, Lakshmana and Ravana both go to the hell of Jain cosmology, because Ravana killed many, while Lakshmana killed Ravana to stop Ravana's violence.<ref name= Padmanabh216/> ''Padmapurana'' mentions Rama as a contemporary of [[Munisuvrata]], 20th ''[[tirthankara]]'' of Jainism.{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|2004|pp=21–23}}

===Buddhism===
The ''Dasaratha-Jataka'' (Tale no. 461) provides a version of the Rama story. It calls ''Rama'' as ''Rama-pandita''.<ref name="Francis325"/><ref name="cowell78"/>

At the end of this ''Dasaratha-Jataka'' discourse, the Buddhist text declares that the Buddha in his prior rebirth was Rama:

{{Blockquote|The Master having ended this discourse, declared the Truths, and identified the Birth (...): 'At that time, the king Suddhodana was king Dasaratha, Mahamaya was the mother, [[Rahula]]'s mother was Sita, Ananda was Bharata, and I myself was Rama-Pandita.
|Jataka Tale No. 461|Translator: W.H.D. Rouse<ref name=cowell78/>}}

While the Buddhist Jataka texts co-opt Rama and make him an incarnation of [[Buddha]] in a previous life,<ref name=cowell78/> the Hindu texts co-opt the Buddha and make him an [[avatar]] of [[Vishnu]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Bassuk|first=Daniel E|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k3iwCwAAQBAJ|title=Incarnation in Hinduism and Christianity: The Myth of the God-Man|date=1987|publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers|Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-1-349-08642-9|pages=40}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Edward Geoffrey Parrinder|title=Avatar and Incarnation: The Divine in Human Form in the World's Religions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VkV5AAAAMAAJ|year=1997|publisher=Oxford: Oneworld|isbn=978-1-85168-130-3|pages=19–24, 35–38, 75–78, 130–133}}</ref> The ''[[Jataka tales|Jataka]]'' literature of Buddhism is generally dated to be from the second half of the 1st millennium BCE, based on the carvings in caves and Buddhist monuments such as the [[Bharhut]] stupa.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Claus|first=Peter J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ienxrTPHzzwC&pg=PA306|title=South Asian Folklore: An Encyclopedia|last2=Diamond|first2=Sarah|last3=Mills|first3=Margarat|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|year=2003|isbn=978-0-415-93919-5|pages=306–307}}</ref>{{refn|group=lower-greek|Richard Gombrich suggests that the Jataka tales were composed by the 3rd century BCE.<ref>{{cite book|author=Naomi Appleton|title=Jātaka Stories in Theravāda Buddhism: Narrating the Bodhisatta Path |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=86Kaus872e0C&pg=PA51 |year=2010|publisher=Ashgate Publishing |isbn=978-1-4094-1092-8|pages=51–54}}</ref>}} The 2nd-century BCE stone [[relief]] carvings on Bharhut stupa, as told in the ''Dasaratha-Jataka'', is the earliest known non-textual evidence of Rama story being prevalent in ancient India.<ref>{{cite book|author=Mandakranta Bose|title=The Ramayana Revisited|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F_vuoXvAUfQC&pg=PA337 |year=2004|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-803763-7|pages=337–338}}</ref>

===Sikhism===
{{Main|Rama in Sikhism}}
Rama is mentioned as one of twenty four divine incarnations of [[Vishnu]] in the [[Chaubis Avtar]], a composition in ''[[Dasam Granth]]'' traditionally and historically attributed to [[Guru Gobind Singh]].<ref name=":0">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Robin Rinehart|2011|pp=14, 28–30}}.</ref>{{Refn|Ath Beesvan Ram Avtar Kathan or Ram Avtar is a Composition in the second sacred Granth of Sikhs i.e Dasam Granth, which was written by Guru Gobind Singh, at Anandpur Sahib. Guru Gobind Singh was not a worshiper of Ramchandra, as after describing the whole Avtar he cleared this fact that ਰਾਮ ਰਹੀਮ ਪ੝ਰਾਨ ਕ੝ਰਾਨ ਅਨੇਕ ਕਹੈਂ ਮਤਿ ਝਕ ਨ ਮਾਨਿਯੋ ॥. Ram Avtar is based on Ramayana, but a Sikh studies the spiritual aspects of this whole composition.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wpTXAAAAMAAJ&q=Nihang+sikhs+and+shri+ram|last=Singh|first=Govind|author-link=Guru Gobind Singh|title=Dasamgranth|publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers|isbn=978-81-215-1044-8|year=2005}}</ref>|name=rGts|group=lower-greek}} The discussion of Rama and Krishna avatars is the most extensive in this section of the secondary Sikh scripture.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite book|author=Doris R. Jakobsh|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NBJPAQAAIAAJ|title=Sikhism and Women: History, Texts, and Experience|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2010|isbn=978-0-19-806002-4|pages=47–48}}</ref> The name of Rama is mentioned more than 2,500 times in the [[Guru Granth Sahib]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Judge|first1=Paramjit S.|last2=Kaur|first2=Manjit|date=2010|title=The Politics of Sikh Identity: Understanding Religious Exclusion|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23620888|journal=Sociological Bulletin|volume=59|issue=3|pages=219|doi=10.1177/0038022920100303|issn=0038-0229|jstor=23620888|s2cid=152062554|via=Book}}</ref> and is considered as [[avatar]] along with the [[Krishna]].{{Refn||name=rGts|group=lower-greek}}

===Among people===
In [[Assam]], [[Boro people]] call themselves ''Ramsa'', which means ''Children of Ram''.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Dodiya|2001|p=139}}.</ref>

In [[Chhattisgarh]], [[Ramnami Samaj|Ramnami people]] tattooed their whole body with name of Ram.{{Sfn|Ramdas Lamb|2012|pp=31–32}}

==Worship and temples==

=== Worship ===
[[File:View of Hazara Rama temple in Hampi.JPG|thumb|The UNESCO World Heritage Site of [[Hampi]] monuments in [[Karnataka]], built by the [[Vijayanagara Empire]], includes a major Rama temple. Its numerous wall reliefs tell the life story of Rama.<ref>{{cite book|author=Monika Horstmann|author-link=Monika Boehm-Tettelbach|title=Rāmāyaṇa and Rāmāyaṇas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=40A6s8l1lqQC |year=1991|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-03116-5|pages=72–73 with footnotes}}</ref>]]
[[File:Ram Temple, Ramtek - panoramio.jpg|thumb|Rama Temple at [[Ramtek]] (10th century, restored). A medieval inscription here calls Rama as ''Advaitavadaprabhu'' or "Lord of the Advaita doctrine".<ref>{{cite book|author=Hans Bakker|title=The History of Sacred Places in India As Reflected in Traditional Literature: Papers on Pilgrimage in South Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=McwUAAAAIAAJ |year=1990|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-09318-4|pages=70–73}}</ref>]]

Rama is a revered Vaishanava deity, one who is worshipped privately at home or in temples. He was a part of the [[Bhakti movement]] focus, particularly because of efforts of 14th century North Indian poet-saint [[Ramananda]] who created the [[Ramanandi Sampradaya]], a ''[[sannyasi]]'' community. This community has grown to become the largest Hindu [[Sannyasa|monastic]] community in modern times.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raj|first1=Selva J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ov2oltTLinkC|title=Dealing with Deities: The Ritual Vow in South Asia|last2=Harman|first2=William P.|date=1 January 2006|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-6708-4|language=en}}</ref>{{Sfn|James G. Lochtefeld|2002|pp=98-108}} This Rama-inspired movement has championed social reforms, accepting members without discriminating anyone by gender, class, caste or religion since the time of Ramananda who accepted Muslims wishing to leave Islam.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Larson|first=Gerald James|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g6jmckIUHMAC|title=India's Agony Over Religion: Confronting Diversity in Teacher Education|date=16 February 1995|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-2412-4|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Harvard citation no brackets|James G. Lochtefeld|2002|p=1}}.</ref> Traditional scholarship holds that his disciples included later Bhakti movement ''poet-saints'' such as [[Kabir]], [[Ravidas]], [[Bhagat Pipa]] and others.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lorenzen|first=David N.|author-link=David Lorenzen|date=1999|title=Who Invented Hinduism?|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SO-YmMWpcVEC|journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History|volume=41|issue=4|pages=630–659|doi=10.1017/S0010417599003084|issn=0010-4175|jstor=179424|isbn=9788190227261|s2cid=247327484 |via=Book}}</ref>

===Temples===
{{Main|Category:Rama temples|l1 = List of Rama temples}}
Temples dedicated to Rama are found all over India and in places where Indian migrant communities have resided. In most temples, the iconography of Rama is accompanied by that of his wife [[Sita]] and brother [[Lakshmana]].{{Sfn|Gupta|1991|p=[https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Festivals_Fairs_and_Fasts_of_India/XQjgAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=why+Rama+always+drawn+with+sita+and+lakshman&dq=why+Rama+always+drawn+with+sita+and+lakshman&printsec=frontcover 36]}} In some instances, [[Hanuman]] is also included either near them or in the temple premises.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bhat|first=Rama|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZMgclIr9aeEC&q=why+Rama+always+drawn+with+sita+and+lakshman&pg=PA79|title=The Divine Anjaneya: Story of Hanuman|date=2006i|publisher=iUniverse|isbn=978-0-595-41262-4|pages=[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=ZMgclIr9aeEC&pg=PA79&dq=why+Rama+always+drawn+with+sita+and+lakshman&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwie-an2ypzvAhX18HMBHc84CvgQ6AEwAXoECAEQAg 79]|language=en}}</ref>

Hindu temples dedicated to Rama were built by early 5th century, according to copper plate inscription evidence, but these have not survived. The oldest surviving Rama temple is near [[Raipur]] (Chhattisgarh), called the Rajiva-locana temple at [[Rajim]] near the [[Mahanadi]] river. It is in a temple complex dedicated to Vishnu and dates back to the 7th-century with some restoration work done around 1145 CE based on epigraphical evidence.<ref>{{cite book|author=J. L. Brockington|title=The Sanskrit Epics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HR-_LK5kl18C |year=1998| publisher=BRILL |isbn=90-04-10260-4|pages=471–472}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=Meister | first=Michael W. | title=Prasada as Palace: Kutina Origins of the Nagara Temple | journal=Artibus Asiae | volume=49 | issue=3/4 | year=1988 | pages=254–280 (Figure 21) | doi=10.2307/3250039 | jstor=3250039 }}</ref> The temple remains important to Rama devotees in the contemporary times, with devotees and monks gathering there on dates such as [[Rama Navami]].<ref name="Harle1994p207">{{cite book|author=James C. Harle|title=The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent|url=https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo00harl |url-access=registration|year=1994|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-06217-5|pages=[https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo00harl/page/148 148]–149, 207–208}}</ref>

Some of Rama temples include:

* [[Ram Mandir, Ayodhya|Rama temple]], [[Ram Janmabhoomi|Ram Janmabhoomi, Ayodhya]], [[Uttar Pradesh]].
* [[Bhadrachalam Temple]], [[Telangana]].
* [[Kodandarama Temple, Vontimitta]], [[Andhra Pradesh]].
* [[Ramateertham|Ramateertham Temple]], [[Andhra Pradesh]].
* [[Ramaswamy Temple, Kumbakonam]]
* [[Mudikondan Kothandaramar Temple]], [[Tamil Nadu]].
* [[Vijayaraghava Perumal temple]], [[Tamil Nadu]].
* [[Punnainallur Kothandaramar Temple]], Tamil Nadu
* [[Thriprayar Temple|Triprayar Sriramaswami Kshetram]], [[Triprayar]], [[Kerala]].
* [[Kalaram Temple]], [[Nashik]], [[Maharashtra]].
* [[Raghunath Temple]], [[Jammu district|Jammu]].
* [[Ram Mandir, Bhubaneswar]], [[Odisha]].
* [[Kodandarama Temple]], [[Chikmagalur]], [[Karnataka]].
* [[Kothandarama Temple, Thillaivilagam]], [[Tamilnadu]].
* [[Kothandaramaswamy Temple]], [[Rameswaram]], [[Tamil Nadu]].
* [[Odogaon Raghunath Temple]], [[Odisha]].
* [[Ramchaura Mandir]], [[Bihar]].
* [[Sri Rama Temple, Ramapuram]], Kerala.
* [[Vilwadrinatha Temple]], [[Thiruvilwamala]], [[Kerala]].

== Popular culture ==
{{See also|Category:Television series based on the Ramayana|label 1=Television series based on the Ramayana}}
Rama has been considered as a source of inspiration and has been described as ''Maryāda Puruṣottama Rāma'' ({{Trans|The Ideal Man}}).{{Refn| 
* {{harvnb|Blank|2000|p=190}}
* {{harvnb|Dodiya|2001|pp=109–110}}
* {{harvnb|Tripathy|2015|p=1}}|group=lower-greek}} He has been depicted in many films, television shows and plays.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Rajadhyaksha|first1=Ashish|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jOtkAAAAMAAJ|title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Cinema|last2=Willemen|first2=Paul|date=1994|publisher=[[British Film Institute]]|isbn=9780851704555}}</ref>

==See also==
{{div col}}
* [[Ayodhya dispute]]
* [[Ram Mandir, Ayodhya]]
* [[Culture of India]]
* [[Genealogy of Rama]]
* [[Hindu philosophy]]
* [[Natyashastra]]
* [[Ram Nam]]
* [[Ram Statue]]
* [[Jai Shri Ram]]
* [[Ramayan (1987 TV series)|''Ramayan'' (1987 TV series)]]
* [[Rama in Jainism]]
* [[Rama in Sikhism]]
* ''[[Ramayana]]''
* [[Dashavatara]]
* [[Vaishnavism]]
* [[Erlang Shen]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
===Notes===
{{reflist|30em|group=lower-greek}}

===Citations===
{{Reflist|30em}}

===Sources===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book|last=Chapple|first=Christopher|title=The Concise Yoga Vāsiṣṭha|translator=Venkatesananda, Swami|translator-link=Swami Venkatesananda|contribution=Introduction|publisher=State University of New York Press|location=Albany|year=1984|isbn=0-87395-955-8|oclc=11044869|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1FFdOj2dv8cC}}
* {{citation|last=Das|first=Krishna|title=Chants of a Lifetime: Searching for a Heart of Gold|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pOdvo4DcwtkC&pg=PA63|date=15 February 2010|publisher=Hay House, Inc|isbn=978-1-4019-2771-4}}
* {{cite web|title=Navratri – Hindu festival|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|date=21 February 2017|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Navratri|ref={{sfnref | Encyclopedia Britannica | 2015}}|access-date=21 February 2017}}
* {{cite book|last=Flood|first=Gavin|title=The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LexraSEgRfIC&pg=PA192|date=17 April 2008|publisher=Wiley India Pvt. Limited|isbn=978-81-265-1629-2|author-link=Gavin Flood}}
* {{cite book|last1=Hertel|first1=Bradley R.|last2=Humes|first2=Cynthia Ann|title=Living Banaras: Hindu Religion in Cultural Context|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r-OYL6Khg0UC&pg=PA78|year=1993|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-1331-9}}
* {{cite book|last=Miller|first=Kevin Christopher|title=A Community of Sentiment: Indo-Fijian Music and Identity Discourse in Fiji and Its Diaspora|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wWlqK0ZGPJYC&pg=PA217|publisher=[[HarperCollins]]|year=2008|isbn=978-0-549-72404-9}}
* {{Cite book|last=Leslie|first=Julia|year=2003|title=Authority and meaning in Indian religions: Hinduism and the case of Vālmīki|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=0-7546-3431-0|url=https://archive.org/details/authoritymeaning00lesl|url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book|author=Morārībāpu|title=Mangal Ramayan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6XJjAAAAMAAJ|year=1987|author-link=Morari Bapu|publisher=Prachin Sanskriti Mandir}}
* {{cite book|title=Balkand|last=Poddar|first=Hanuman Prasad|author-link=Hanuman Prasad Poddar|year=2001|url=http://www.gitapress.org|location=[[Gorakhpur]], India|publisher=[[Gita Press]]|isbn=81-293-0406-6|series=94|language=awa, hi}}
* {{cite book|last=Lutgendorf|first=Philip|title=The Life of a Text: Performing the Rāmcaritmānas of Tulsidas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=19zvfkwXyzUC&pg=PA27|year=1991|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-06690-8}}
* {{cite book|last=Naidu|first=S. Shankar Raju|title=A Comparative Study of Kamba Ramayanam and Tulasi Ramayan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YmUOAAAAYAAJ|year=1971|publisher=University of Madras}}
* {{cite book|last1=Platvoet|first1=Jan. G.|last2=Toorn|first2=Karel Van Der|title=Pluralism and Identity: Studies in Ritual Behaviour|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=178X5n7zArwC&pg=PA191|year=1995|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-10373-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Richman |first=Paula |title=Many Rāmāyaṇas: The Diversity of a Narrative Tradition in South Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XkifYfljHP4C |year=1991|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-07589-4}}
* {{Cite book|first=Ludo|last=Rocher|year=1986|author-link=Ludo Rocher|title=The Puranas|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-02522-5}}
* {{citation|last1=Schomer|first1=Karine|last2=McLeod|first2=W. H.|title=The Sants: Studies in a Devotional Tradition of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OkKhOivXrhgC&pg=PA31|date=1 January 1987|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0277-3}}
* {{citation |last=Shah |first=Natubhai |title=Jainism: The World of Conquerors |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qLNQKGcDIhsC |volume=I |date=2004 |orig-year=First published in 1998 |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |isbn=81-208-1938-1 |ref={{sfnref|Natubhai Shah|2004}} }}
* {{cite book|last1=Stasik|first1=Danuta|last2=Trynkowska|first2=Anna|title=Indie w Warszawie: tom upamiętniający 50-lecie powojennej historii indologii na Uniwersytecie Warszawskim (2003/2004)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=izBuAAAAMAAJ|date=1 January 2006|publisher=Dom Wydawniczy Elipsa|isbn=978-83-7151-721-1}}
* {{cite book|last=Varma|first=Ram|title=Ramayana : Before He Was God|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p9CJ8Hl6DOcC&pg=PT1565|date=1 April 2010|publisher=Rupa & Company|isbn=978-81-291-1616-1}}
* {{citation |last=Zimmer |first=Heinrich |author-link=Heinrich Zimmer |title=Philosophies Of India |date=1953 |orig-year=April 1952 |editor-first=Joseph |editor-last=Campbell |editor-link=Joseph Campbell |publisher=[[Routledge]] & Kegan Paul Ltd |url=https://archive.org/details/Philosophy.of.India.by.Heinrich.Zimmer |isbn=978-81-208-0739-6 }}
* {{Citation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QQRkuduNXTkC&pg=PA139|last=Dodiya |first=Jaydipsinh |title=Critical Perspectives on the Rāmāyaṇa |pages=139|publisher=Sarup & Sons|year=2001|isbn=978-81-7625-244-7 }}
* {{cite book|author=Bassuk|title=Incarnation in Hinduism and Christianity: The Myth of the God-Man|first=Daniel E|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k3iwCwAAQBAJ|date=1987|publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers|Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-1-349-08642-9|ref={{SfnRef|Daniel E Bassuk|1987}}}}
* {{cite book|author=Parrinder|title=Avatar and Incarnation: The Divine in Human Form in the World's Religions|first=Edward Geoffrey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VkV5AAAAMAAJ|year=1997|publisher=Oxford: Oneworld|isbn=978-1-85168-130-3|ref={{SfnRef|Edward Geoffrey Parrinder|1997}}}}
*{{Cite book|last=Tripathy|first=Amish|title=[[Scion of Ikshvaku]]|publisher=[[Amazon India|Westland Publications]]|year=2015|isbn=9-789-385-15214-6|location=[[New Delhi]], India|author-link=Amish Tripathi}}
* {{cite book|author=Rinehart|title=Debating the Dasam Granth|first=Robin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qe6WnpbT2BkC|year=2011|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-984247-6|ref={{SfnRef|Robin Rinehart|2011}}}}
* {{cite book|author=Lochtefeld|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N-Z|first=James G.|url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch|url-access=registration|year=2002|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-8239-3180-4|pages=|ref={{SfnRef|James G. Lochtefeld|2002}}}}
* {{cite book|author=Lamb|title=Rapt in the Name: The Ramnamis, Ramnam, and Untouchable Religion in Central India|first=Ramdas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R51OEErb9g8C&pg=PA28|year=2012|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-8856-0|pages=28–32|ref={{SfnRef|Ramdas Lamb|2012}}}}
*{{Cite book|last=Gupta|first=Shakti M.|url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Festivals_Fairs_and_Fasts_of_India/XQjgAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0|title=Festivals, Fairs, and Fasts of India|publisher=Clarion Books|year=1991|location=[[University of Indiana]], [[United States]]|isbn=9-788-185-12023-2|oclc=1108734495}}
*{{Cite book|last=Dalal|first=Roshan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&pg=PA338|title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide|publisher=[[Penguin Books]]|year=2010|isbn=978-0-14-341421-6}}
* {{cite book|first=Roderick|last=Hindery|title=Comparative Ethics in Hindu and Buddhist Traditions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-FswBLvTkvQC&pg=PA98|year=1978|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0866-9}}
*{{Cite book|last=Goldman|first=Robert P.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sFmsrEszbxgC|title=The Ramayan of Valmiki|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|year=1996|isbn=978-0-691-06662-2|location=[[New Jersey]], [[United States]]|author-link=Robert P. Goldman}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Van Der Molen|first=Willem|date=2003|title=Rama and Sita in Wonoboyo|journal=Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde|volume=159|issue=2/3|pages=389–403|doi=10.1163/22134379-90003748|jstor=27868037|issn=0006-2294|doi-access=free}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* {{citation | title= Jain Rāmāyaṇa of Hemchandra (English translation), ''book 7 of the Trishashti Shalaka Purusha Caritra'' | url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/jainism/book/trishashti-shalaka-purusha-caritra/d/doc213981.html |year=1931 }}
* {{citation|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/24869|title=Ramayana|author-link=Ralph T. H. Griffith|last=Griffith|publisher=[[Project Gutenberg]]}}
* {{cite book|author=Willem Frederik Stutterheim|title=Rāma-legends and Rāma-reliefs in Indonesia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OoitUqGk8PAC|year=1989|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-251-2}}
* {{cite book|editor-last=Vyas|editor-first=R.T. |title=Vālmīki Rāmāyaṇa|quote=Text as Constituted in its Critical Edition'',|publisher=Oriental Institute|location=[[Vadodara]]|date=1992}}
* {{cite book|last=Valmiki|ref={{SfnRef|Valmiki Ramayan}}|author-link=Valmiki|title=[[Ramayana]]|publisher=[[Gita Press]]|location=[[Gorakhpur]], Uttar Pradesh}}
*{{cite book|author1=J. P. Mallory|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tzU3RIV2BWIC|title=Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture|author2=Douglas Q. Adams|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|year=1997|isbn=978-1-884964-98-5|ref={{SfnRef|Maloory and en|1997}}}}
* {{cite book|last=Menon|first=Ramesh|author-link=Ramesh Menon|orig-year=2004|year=2008|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JmQuLwAACAAJ|title=The Ramayana: A Modern Retelling of the Great Indian Epic|isbn=978-0-86547-660-8}}
* {{cite book|author-link=F.S. Growse|title=The Ramayana of Tulsidas|last=Growse|first=F.S.|year=2017|isbn=9-780-649-46180-6|publisher=Trieste Publishing Pty Limited}}
* {{cite book|author-link=Jonah Blank|last=Blank|first=Jonah|title=Arrow of the Blue-Skinned God: Retracing the Ramayana Through India|year=2000|isbn=0-8021-3733-4}}
* {{cite book|author-link=Kambar (poet)|last=Kambar|title=Kamba Ramayanam}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
*{{Commons and category-inline|Rama}}

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[[Category:Rama| ]]
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Vinayakas

2023-01-11T16:26:38Z

ImportMaster: robot: Create/update articles in Category:Hindu gods.

{{Contains special characters|Indic}}

The '''{{IAST|Vināyakas}}''' were a group of four troublesome demons who created obstacles and difficulties in [[Hindu mythology]],<ref>''Aitareya Brāhmana'', I, 21.</ref> but who were easily propitiated.<ref>Bhandarkar. Vaisnavism, Saivism and other Minor Sects. pp. 147-48.</ref>
One theory of the origin of [[Ganesha]] is that he gradually came to prominence in connection with the {{IAST|Vināyakas}}.<ref>{{harvp|Thapan|1997|loc=''passim''}}</ref>

In Puranic literature of a much later period the group of four Vināyakas was merged into one definite god named Vināyaka whom [[Rudra]] appointed as the "Leader of the Ganas" (Ganapati).<ref name="Heras_28">{{harvp|Heras|1972|p=28}}</ref> This Vināyaka-Ganapati is associated with another god called Dantin, "the one with the tusk," who is said to possess a twisted trunk ({{IAST|vakratuṇḍa}}) and who holds a corn-sheaf, a sugar cane, and a club.<ref>Taittiriya Aranyaka, X, 1, 5.</ref> This description of Dantin is so characteristic of the Puranic Ganapati that Heras says "we cannot resist to accept his full identification with this Vedic Dantin."<ref name="Heras_28" /> The name Vināyaka is a common name for Ganesha both in the {{IAST|Purāṇas}} and in Buddhist Tantras.<ref>{{harvp|Thapan|1997|p=20}}</ref>

In the Smrti of Yājñavalkya, written in the 6th century, Vināyaka is definitely mentioned as a demon who had been exalted to the rank of a deva.<ref>Bhandarkar, op. cit., p. 148; citation by {{harvp|Heras|1972|p=28}}.</ref> He is clearly described as elephant-headed by the 8th century.<ref>{{harvp|Heras|1972|p=29}}</ref>

== The Mānava-Gṛhyasūtra ==
The Vināyakas in their original demonic role are mentioned only in a limited number of Brahmanical texts that are essentially within only one school of the Vedas, the '''[[Yajurveda|Kṛṣṇa Yajur Veda]]'''.<ref>{{harvp|Thapan|1997|p=18}}</ref>
The Vināyakas are first mentioned in the ''[[Kalpa (Vedanga)#Grhya Sutras|Mānava-Gṛhyasūtras]]'' where they appear as four demonic creatures.<ref>{{harvp|Thapan|1997|p=26}}</ref> Dating for the ''Mānava-Gṛhyasūtra'' is only tentative, but P. V. Kane assigns it to a period prior to 600-300 BCE and considers that they had attained a position of authority in the 2nd century BCE. S. Bhattachrji dates them between 600-200 BCE. Macdonell dates them between 500-200 BCE.<ref>{{harvp|Thapan|1997|p=27}}. Chapter III of Thapan's book on the development of Ganesha is based on the ''Mānava-Gṛhyasūtra''. Citations to P. V. Kane, Sukumari Bhattacharji, and Arthur A. Macdonell are given in Thapan.</ref>

Thapan concludes that the period reflected in the Vināyaka section of the ''Mānava-Gṛhyasūtra'' must have been between the end of the 3rd and early 2nd century BCE. She based this conclusion in part on the fact that in the ''Mānava-Gṛhyasūtra'' the Vināyakas are associated with various other beings, including three of the four Buddhist ''[[Lokapala|lokpālas]]'' (guardians of the quarters), as well as the deities [[Shiva|Mahādeva]] and [[Mahasena (deity)|Mahāsena]]. Mahādeva and Mahāsena were popular gods during the [[Aśokan]] period, a time when the spread of Buddhism must have posed a challenge to adherents of the Vedic tradition. Thapan says that this association implies that "not only was Buddhism viewed inimically by the ''brāmaņa'' authors of this text..., but so were Mahādeva and Mahāsena."<ref>{{harvp|Thapan|1997|pp=26–27}}</ref>

== The Mahābhārata ==

The Vināyakas are also mentioned in the ''[[Mahabharata|Mahābhārata]]'' where their role shows a distinct change in two different age strata of that epic.<ref>{{harvp|Thapan|1997|pp=27–28}}</ref>

*In the Śānti Parva they are depicted as evil beings and are mentioned along with ''[[bhoot (ghost)|bhūtas]]'' and ''piśācas''. These passages may date shortly after the composition of the ''{{IAST|Mānava Gṛhya Sūtras}}''.
*In the Anuśāsana Parva they lose their evil characterization and are worshipped as the {{IAST|Gaṇeśvara-Vināyakas}}, part of the {{IAST|Rudragaṇa}} contingent. These passages are certainly dated as belonging to the first one or two centuries CE. A passage in the Sabhā Parva which mentions a being named Danti belongs to the same period. Danti appears to be synonymous with the Mahākāya (One having a huge body) who is named along with the {{IAST|Gaṇeśvara-Vināyakas}} as part of Śiva's entourage in the Anuśāsana Parva.

Thapan notes that almost all of the references to the Vināyakas, Danti, and their related beings do not appear in the main body of the critical edition of the Mahābhārata, but are only mentioned in the Appendices. This means that the traditions associated with these figures were limited to only a few versions which must have been found in only specific regions.

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

=== References ===
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book |last=Brown |first=Robert L. |year=1991 |title=Ganesh: Studies of an Asian God |publisher=State University of New York |location=Albany, NY |isbn=0-7914-0657-1 }}
*{{cite book |last=Heras |first=H. |year=1972 |title=The Problem of Ganapati |publisher=Indological Book House |location=Delhi }}
*{{cite book |last=Martin-Dubost |first=Paul |year=1997 |title=Gaņeśa: The Enchanter of the Three Worlds |publisher=Project for Indian Cultural Studies |location=Mumbai |isbn=81-900184-3-4 }}
*{{cite book |last=Nagar |first=Shanti Lal |year=1992 |title=The Cult of Vinayaka |publisher=Intellectual Publishing House |location=New Delhi |isbn=978-81-7076-044-3 }}
*{{cite book |last=Thapan |first=Anita Raina |year=1997 |title=Understanding Gaņapati: Insights into the Dynamics of a Cult |publisher=Manohar Publishers |location=New Delhi |isbn=81-7304-195-4 }}
{{refend}}

{{Ganesha}}

[[Category:Ganesha]]
[[Category:Demons in Hinduism]]

Naigamesha

2023-01-11T15:19:43Z

ImportMaster: robot: Create/update articles in Category:Hindu gods.

{{Short description|Hindu and Jain childhood god}}
[[File:Brooklyn Museum - Harinegameshin Carrying the Embryo Fragment of a Leaf from a Dispersed Kalpasutra.jpg|thumb| Harinegameshi carrying the embryo, fragment of a leaf from a dispersed [[Kalpasutra (Jain)|Kalpasutra]], Brooklyn Museum]]
[[File:Nejamesa horned god of India.png|thumb|Naigamesha, [[Mathura Museum]], [[Kushan Empire]], 1st-3rd century CE.<ref>"Naigamesa was a popular deity in the Kushana period and we have at least eight figures of this god from Mathura assignable to c. 1st to 3rd century A.D. (GMM., E. 1, 15.909, 15, 1001, 15. 1046, '''15. 1115''', 34.2402, 34. 2547, SML., J 626, etc)" in {{cite book |last1=Joshi |first1=Nilakanth Purushottam |title=Mātr̥kās, Mothers in Kuṣāṇa Art |date=1986 |publisher=Kanak Publications |page=41 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=geYjAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref>]]
'''''Naigamesha''''' ({{lang-sa|नैगमेष}}, {{IAST|Naigameśa}}), also known as '''''Harinegameshi''''', is a goat-headed or deer-headed deity, associated with children. He also appears in [[Jain]] as well as [[Hindu]] traditions, associated with the war-god [[Kartikeya]] and [[childbirth]].

==Associations==
Naigamesha is known by a variety of names: Negamesha, Nemesha, Naigameshin, Negamesi, Harinegameshi. The last is translated as "Negamesi, the general of Hari ([[Indra]])". Another interpretation says that it is derived from ''harina'' (deer) and ''mesha'' ([[sheep|ram]]).<ref name="Dalal2014"/>

Naigamesha is the benefactor and protector of children in Jainism. While the Greek satyr [[Pan (god)|Pan]] is depicted with the lower body of a goat, Naigamesha has a goat head; in both cultures, the goat denotes fertility.<ref>Van der Geer pp. 170–171</ref> He is worshipped to beget children.<ref name="Dalal2014"/>

==Jain texts==
[[File:Naigamesha looks over Mahavira's birth.jpg|thumb|Naigamesha (left) looks over Mahavira's birth; the infant Mahavira is held in his mother's arms. Folio from the ''[[Kalpa Sutra]]'' (1450–1500).]]

According to the ''[[Kalpa Sutra]]'', Naigamesha, on the orders of the king of the gods [[Indra]], transferred the embryo of the [[Tirthankar]] [[Mahavira]] from the womb of the [[Brahmin]] (priest class) woman Devananda to the [[Kshatriya]] (ruling caste) [[Trishala]], who finally delivers Mahavira. According to the [[Shvetambara]] text ''Neminanathacharita'', which recalls the life of the Tirthankar [[Neminatha]], [[Krishna]] – a cousin of Neminatha and generally venerated as Hindu deity – worships Naigamesha to beget a son from his second wife [[Satyabhama]]; a son who equals his first-born [[Pradyumna]], from his first wife [[Rukmini]]. Other texts portray Satyabhama praying to the deity.<ref name="Dalal2014"/>

==In Hinduism==
In Hinduism, Naigamesha is associated with [[Kartikeya]], the god of war and is frequently mentioned as Naigameya. Naigamesha is an epithet and a form of Kartikeya, where he is generally depicted goat-headed. In other instances, Naigamesha is described as the son or brother of the war god. Hindu texts like the ''[[Brahmanas]]'', the ''[[Grhyasutras|Grihya sutras]]'' and medicinal texts mention a similar deity with a [[Sheep|ram]]'s head.<ref name="Dalal2014"/> As a fearsome follower of Kartikeya, Naigamesha was feared and worshipped to ward off evil. Later, he evolved into the patron of childbirth.<ref name="Kala1980"/>

==Iconography==
Depictions of Naigamesha are rare and are generally confined to North India and the pre-third century era. They are many depictions of the deity found in the region around [[Mathura]], dating from the 1st–3rd century.<ref>Van der Geer p. 173</ref><ref name="Dalal2014">{{cite book|author=Roshen Dalal|title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide|date=18 April 2014|publisher=Penguin Books Limited|isbn=978-81-8475-277-9|page=797}}</ref>
Terracotta figurines of Naigamesha from 2nd century BCE to 4th century CE are also been discovered.<ref name="Kala1980">{{cite book|author=Satish Chandra Kala|title=Terracottas in the Allahabad Museum|year=1980|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-0-391-02234-8|page=65}}</ref>

In a 1st–3rd century depiction from Kankali Tila near Mathura (currently in [[Mathura Museum]]), Naigamesha is depicted with a goat's head and short, backward turning horns, a long beard ([[goatee]]) and "drooping" ears. Another sculpture from the 10th–13th century depicts him in the company of Hindu deities. The group of seven Hindu mother-goddesses, the [[Saptamatrika]] – who are associated with children – are surrounded by their usual companions [[Shiva]] and [[Ganesha]] as well as Naigamesha. The goat-features mirror the earlier depiction. In addition, Naigamesha is depicted with three children; one held in his left arm, another seated near his left foot and a third standing near the right leg, which conveys his association with children.<ref>Van der Geer pp. 172–3, xxxii</ref>

Besides his goat-head, Naigamesha may also be shown having a deer head and may be depicted transferring the embryo of Mahavira in narrative panels. He is also depicted as seated on a throne, flanked by children on his lap or shoulders. Female attendants or a goat-headed woman sometimes accompany the god.<ref name="Dalal2014"/>

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* {{cite book|author=Alexandra Anna Enrica van der Geer|title=Animals in Stone: Indian Mammals Sculptured Through Time|year=2008|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-16819-0}}

==External links==
{{commons category-inline|Naigamesha}}

{{Jainism Topics}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Hindu gods]]
[[Category:Childhood gods]]
[[Category:Horned deities]]
[[Category:Animal gods]]
[[Category:Animals in Hinduism]]
[[Category:Heavenly attendants in Jainism]]
[[Category:Mythological caprids]]
[[Category:Mythological deer]]

Gardez Ganesha

2023-01-10T21:22:55Z

ImportMaster: robot: Create/update articles in Category:Hindu gods.

{{Short description|Afghanistani statue of the Hindu god Ganesha}}
{{Infobox artefact
| name = Gardez Ganesha
| image = Ganesha from Gardez.jpg
| image_caption = The [[Ganesha]] from [[Gardez]], [[Afghanistan]].
| material = Marble
| size = 24 inches high x 14 inches wide<ref name="MKD"/>
| writing =
| created = mid-8th century CE
| discovered = [[Gardez]] {{coord|34.525278|N|69.178333|E|display=inline, title}}
| location = Dargha Pir Rattan Nath temple, [[Kabul]]
| id =
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The '''Gardez Ganesha''' is a statue of the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] god [[Ganesha]], discovered in [[Gardez]], near [[Kabul]] in [[Afghanistan]]. It is considered as "a typical product of the Indo-Afghan school".<ref name="MKD"/> It was dedicated by a king named [[Khingal]].

==Temporality==
[[Dineshchandra Sircar|D.C. Sircar]] has dated the statue to the 6th-7th century CE, and more precisely 7th century CE based on the paleography of the inscription on its base.<ref name="MKD"/> Some authors have attributed the statue to the transitional period between [[Kushan art]] to [[Gupta art]], to the 5th or even 4th century CE.<ref name="MKD"/> The statue of Ganesha from Gardez is now attributed to the period of [[Turk Shahis]] in the 7-8th century CE, rather than to their successors the [[Hindu Shahis]] (9th-10th century) as formerly suggested.<ref name="SKSK">"It is not therefore possible to attribute these pieces to the Hindu Shahi period. They should be attributed to the Shahi period before the Hindu Shahis originated by the Brahman wazir Kallar, that is, the Turki Shahis." p.405 " According to the above sources, Brahmanism and Buddhism are properly supposed to have coexisted especially during the 7th-8th centuries A.D. just before the Muslim hegemony. The marble sculptures from eastern Afghanistan should not be attributed to the period of the Hindu Shahis but to that of the Turki Shahis." p.407 in {{cite journal |last1=Kuwayama |first1=Shoshin |title=The Turki Śāhis and Relevant Brahmanical Sculptures in Afghanistan |journal=East and West |date=1976 |volume=26 |issue=3/4 |pages=375–407 |jstor=29756318 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/29756318 |issn=0012-8376}}</ref> The datation is essentially based on stylistic analysis, as the displays great iconographical and stylistic similarities with the works of the Buddhist monastery of [[Fondukistan]], which is also dated to the same period.<ref name="SKSK"/>

The statue of Ganesha is also considered as contemporary to the famous [[Brahmanical]] statue of [[Surya]] in tunic and boots discovered in [[Khair Khaneh]] near Kabul, also attributed to the Turk Shahis in the 7-8th century CE.<ref name="SKSK"/><ref>Images of the sculptures of [[Khair Khaneh]] in {{cite web |title=Afghanistan Significant Site 120. Khair Khana |url=https://www.cemml.colostate.edu/cultural/09476/afgh05-120.html |website=www.cemml.colostate.edu}}</ref> Archaeologically, the construction of the [[Khair Khaneh]] temple itself is now dated to 608-630 CE, at the beginning of the Turk Shahis period.<ref name="KS407">{{cite journal |last1=Kuwayama |first1=Shoshin |title=The Turki Śāhis and Relevant Brahmanical Sculptures in Afghanistan |journal=East and West |date=1976 |volume=26 |issue=3/4 |page=407 |jstor=29756318 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/29756318 |issn=0012-8376}}</ref> [[Brahmanism]] seems to have flourished to some extent under the Turk Shahis, who were primarily supporters of Buddhism, with various works of art also attributed to their period of the 7-8th century CE.<ref name="SKSK"/>

After its discovery in Gardez, the statue was transferred to the Hindu temple of [[Hindu Temples of Kabul|Dargah Pir Rattan Nath]] in Kabul, near the Pamir Cinema.<ref name="MKD">{{cite journal |last1=Dhavalikar |first1=M. K. |title=A Note on Two Gaṇeśa Statues from Afghanistan |journal=East and West |date=1971 |volume=21 |issue=3/4 |pages=331–336 |jstor=29755703 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/29755703.pdf |issn=0012-8376}}</ref>

==Inscription==
The inscription appears on the base of the statue. It is written in the [[Siddhamatrika]] script, a development of the [[Brahmi script]],<ref name="DCS">{{cite book |last1=Sircar |first1=D.C. |title=Epigraphia-indica 35 |date=1966 |publisher=Archeological Survey of India |pages=44–60 |url=https://archive.org/details/epigraphia-indica/epigraphia-indica-vol-35/page/n85/mode/2up}}</ref> or in proto-[[Sharada script]]:<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Khan |first1=M. Nasim |title=A Proto-Sharada Inscription from Hund - Pakistan |journal=Indo-Koko-Kenkyu |issue=20 |date=1 January 1999 |pages=81–82 |url=https://www.academia.edu/38885759}}</ref> An analysis of the writing suggests a date from the 6th or 8th century CE.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=KUWAYAMA |first1=Shoshin |title=Historical Notes on Kapisl and Kabul in the Sixth-Eighth Centuries |journal=ZINBUN |date=1999 |volume=34 |pages=69–72 |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/39183379.pdf}}</ref>

{{blockquote|[[File:Gardez Ganesha inscription.jpg|center|600px]]
1. ''sarṃvatsare aṣṭatame saṃ 8 jyeṣṭha-māsa-śukla-pakṣa-tithau ttrayodaśyāṃ śu di 10-3 rikṣe viśākhe śubhe siṃhe[citra-]'' 
2. ''[-ke] mahat pratiṣṭhāpitam idaṃ māha-vināyaka paramabhaṭṭeraka mahārājādhirāja-śri-ṣāhi-khiṃgālauḍyāna-ṣāhi-pādaiḥ.''

On the thirteenth day of the bright half of the month of yestha, the [lunar] mansion being the Visakha, at the auspicious time when the zodiacal sign Lion was bright on the horizon (lagna), in the year eight, this great [image] of the Mahavinayaka was consecrated by the supreme lord, the great king, the king of the kings, the Sri Shahi Khiṃgāla, the king of Odyana..|Inscription of the Ganesh Ganesha (Translation: Hideaki Nakatani).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=KUWAYAMA |first1=Shoshin |title=Historical Notes on Kapisl and Kabul in the Sixth-Eighth Centuries |journal=ZINBUN |date=1999 |volume=34 |page=71 |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/39183379.pdf}}</ref><ref name="MKD"/><ref name="DCS"/>}}

[[File:Devashahi Khingila.jpg|thumb|left|upright|A coin of [[Khingila I|Khingila]] with the title ''Deva Shahi Kinghila'' ([[File:Gupta ashoka de.svg|10px]][[File:Gupta ashoka v.svg|10px]][[File:Gupta ashoka ss.svg|14px]][[File:Gupta ashoka hi.jpg|16px]][[File:Khi-nngi-la Name of Alchon ruler Khingila in the Brahmi script 430-490 CE.jpg|47px]] "God-King Khingila"), 440-490 CE]]
The identity of this Khingala is uncertain.<ref name="MKD"/> A famous [[Khingila I|Khingila]] is known from the dynasty of the [[Alchon Huns]], and one of his coins has the legend "''Deva Shahi Khingila''" ([[File:Gupta ashoka de.svg|10px]][[File:Gupta ashoka v.svg|10px]][[File:Gupta ashoka ss.svg|14px]][[File:Gupta ashoka hi.jpg|16px]][[File:Khi-nngi-la Name of Alchon ruler Khingila in the Brahmi script 430-490 CE.jpg|47px]] "God-King Khingila"), but he is dated quite earlier, to the 5th century CE.<ref name="MKD"/>

===8th century Turk Shahi ruler Khingala===
{{main|Khingala}}
Given the stylistically probable mid-8th century date for the Ganesha, the ''Śrī Ṣāhi Khiṃgāla'' of the inscription may have been identical with the [[Turk Shahi]] ruler of Kabul known in Arab sources as Khinkhil or [[Khingala]], who, according to [[Ya'qubi|Al-Yakubhi]], gave his submission to [[Al-Mahdi]] in 775–785.<ref name="SK44"/> The Khinkhil of the Arabs may also be identical with the Turk Shahi Bo Fuzhun (勃匐準) of the Chinese sources, which mention that he was the son of [[Fromo Kesaro]] and acceded to the throne precisely in 745 CE.<ref name="SK44">{{cite journal |last1=KUWAYAMA |first1=Shoshin |title=Historical Notes on Kapisl and Kabul in the Sixth-Eighth Centuries |journal=ZINBUN |date=1999 |volume=34 |page=44 |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/39183379.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://pro.geo.univie.ac.at/projects/khm/showcases/showcase15?language=en |title= The Countenance of the other (The Coins of the Huns and Western Turks in Central Asia and India) 2012-2013 exhibit: 15. The Rutbils of Zabulistan and the "Emperor of Rome" |newspaper=Pro.geo.univie.ac.at |publisher=Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna |access-date= July 22, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Inaba |first1=Minoru |title=From Kesar the Kābulšāh and Central Asia |page=446 |url=https://www.academia.edu/7838558 |language=en}}</ref><ref>天寶四年,又冊其子勃匐準為襲罽賓及烏萇國王,仍授左驍衞將軍。"Kesar's son Bo Fuzhun succeed him on the throne as the king of Jibin and Wuchang. He was conferred the title General of the Left Stalwart Guard" in {{cite book |last1=Balogh |first1=Dániel |title=Hunnic Peoples in Central and South Asia: Sources for their Origin and History |date=12 March 2020 |publisher=Barkhuis |isbn=978-94-93194-01-4 |page=104 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=frnVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA104 |language=en}}</ref>

==See also==
[[File:White marble Ganesha, excavated in Sakar Darah near Kabul, circa 7th century CE.jpg|thumb|A similar white marble Ganesha, excavated in Sakar Darah near Kabul, circa 7th century CE.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Turki Śāhis and Relevant Brahmanical Sculptures in Afghanistan|author=桑山正進|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/29756318|journal=East and West|issue=3/4|year=1976|volume=26|page=378|language=en|issn=0012-8376|jstor=29756318}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Siudmak |first1=John |title=The Hindu-Buddhist Sculpture of Ancient Kashmir and Its Influences |date=15 April 2013 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-24832-8 |page=189 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yVft0FqSxc0C&pg=PA189 |language=en}}</ref>]]
* [[Khair Khaneh]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Gandhara}}

[[Category:Ganesha]]
[[Category:Paktia Province]]
[[Category:Hinduism in Afghanistan]]

Biroba

2023-01-10T17:15:59Z

ImportMaster: robot: Create/update articles in Category:Hindu gods.

{{short description|God of Dhangar community in Maharashtra}}
{{One source|date=November 2020}}
''' Biroba''' is a form of [[Hindu]] god [[Shiva]]. Biroba is the [[kuldaivat]] of [[Dhangar]]s of [[Maharashtra]] State.<ref>{{cite book|first=Ramchandra |last=Dhere |title=Rise of a Folk God: Vitthal of Pandharpur South Asia Research |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jUeeAgAAQBAJ |year=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press, 2011 |isbn=9780199777648 |page=247}}</ref> There are many temples of Biroba in villages of Maharashtra. Also Karnataka in [Bijapura dist:] [taluk:Chadachan] Shiradon And also in Hunnur (taluk: [[Mangalwedha]]), [[Arewadi]] (Dist: Sangli), Katphal (taluk: :Sangola, [[Anusewadi]] in [[Atpadi]], Pattankodoli, Pangari(Satara) there are temple of Biroba. Biroba is brother of Mayakka devi.

The god Mahalingraya or Mahalingeshwar is the student of Biroba (called Birling in Karnataka) and their temples are situated on the Maharashtra and Karnataka border in [[Huljanti]]. Festival (i.e. jatra in Marathi) of both gods is celebrated for five days from the first day of Hindu festival [[Diwali]].

Temple of Biroba:
* Virbhadra Mandir, Sakur Mandhave, Sangamner, Ahemadnagar, Maharashtra
* Biroba mandir, Arewadi, Kavthe mahankal, Sangli
* Vitthal-Birdev mandir, Pattankodoli, hatkangle, Kolhapur
* Biroba mandir, Hunnur.
* Mahalingraya-Biroba mandir, Huljanti, Mangalvedha, Solapur
* Birdev mandir, Salape, Phaltan, Satara
* Satoba-Biroba mandir, Takewadi, Man, Satara

==See also==
*[[Beerappa]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Regional Hindu gods]]
[[Category:Forms of Shiva]]

{{Hindu-myth-stub}}

Dwarka

2023-01-09T19:38:00Z

ImportMaster:

{{short description|City in Gujarat, India}}
{{About|a city in Gujarat|the sub-city in Delhi|Dwarka, Delhi|the ancient city in Indian epic literature|Dvārakā|the nearby island|Bet Dwarka|other uses|Dwarka (disambiguation)}}
{{EngvarB|date=November 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}}

{{Infobox settlement
| name = Dwarka
| other_name = Dvarka
| settlement_type = [[City]]
| image_skyline = {{Photomontage
| photo1a = Dwarka 1.jpg
| photo2a = Dwarkadhish Temple 20.jpg
| spacing = 2
| position = center
| color_border = white
| color = black
| size = 266
| foot_montage = Top to bottom: Entrance gate of Dwarka and [[Dwarkadhish Temple]]}}
| pushpin_map = India Gujarat
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption =
| coordinates = {{coord|22|14|47|N|68|58|00|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = [[India]]
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Gujarat]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of regions of India|Region]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Saurashtra (region)|Saurashtra]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder = [[Krishna]]
| named_for =
| government_type = Municipality
| governing_body = Dwarka Municipality
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_total_km2 =
| area_rank =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 0
| population_footnotes =
| population_total = 38,873
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 361335
| registration_plate = GJ-37
| website = https://devbhumidwarka.nic.in/
| official_name =
| subdivision_type3 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[Devbhoomi Dwarka district|Devbhoomi Dwarka]]
}}{{More citations needed|date=January 2023}}{{location map+|India|float=right|width=270|caption='''Char Dham'''|places=
{{location map~|India|label=[[Badrinath]]|position=left|lat=30.73|long=79.48}}
{{location map~|India|label=Dwarka|position=right|lat=22.23|long=68.97}}
{{location map~|India|label=[[Jagannath Puri]]|position=left|lat=19.81|long=85.83}}
{{location map~|India|label=Rameswaram|position=left|lat=9.28|long=79.3}}
}}

'''Dwarka''' ({{pronunciation|Dwarka.ogg}}) is a city and a municipality of [[Devbhumi Dwarka district]] in the [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[Gujarat]] in [[Western India]]. It is located on the western shore of the Okhamandal Peninsula on the right bank of the Gomti river at the mouth of the [[Gulf of Kutch]] facing the [[Arabian Sea]]. Often identified with the [[Dvārakā|Dwarka Kingdom]], described in the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'' as the ancient kingdom of [[Krishna]] and is believed to have been the first capital of Gujarat.{{cn|date=November 2022}}

Dwarka has the [[Dwarkadheesh temple, Gujrat|Dwarkadhish Temple]] dedicated to Krishna, which is one of four sacred [[Hindu]] pilgrimage sites collectively called the [[Chardham]], which were founded by [[Adi Shankara]]charya (686–717 AD) at the four corners of the country, was established as a monastic center and it forms part of the Dwarka temple complex.{{sfn|Brockman|2011|p=94}}{{sfn|Desai|2007|p=285}} Dwarka is also one of the seven-most-ancient religious cities ([[Sapta Puri]]) in India.

Dwarka is part of the "Krishna pilgrimage circuit" which includes [[Vrindavan]], [[Mathura]], [[Barsana]], [[Gokul]], [[Govardhan]], [[Kurukshetra]] and [[Puri]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Development of Ramayana and Krishna Circuits |url=https://pib.gov.in/pib.gov.in/Pressreleaseshare.aspx?PRID=1513307 |access-date=2022-10-08 |website=pib.gov.in}}</ref> It's one of 12 heritage cities across the country selected under the [[HRIDAY - Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana|Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana]] (HRIDAY) scheme of the Government of India to develop civic infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 April 2015 |title=Government to develop 12 heritage cities; blueprint by 2017 |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/money/report-government-to-develop-12-heritage-cities-blueprint-by-2017-2079461 |access-date=30 April 2015 |work=Daily News and Analysis}}</ref>

The city has a hot, arid climate with a 16-day rainy season. It had a population of 38,873 in 2011. The main festival of [[Krishna Janmashtami]] is celebrated in [[Bhadrapada]] (August–September).

==History==

===Puranic traditions===
{{Main|Dvārakā}}
[[File:Dwarkadish-temple-gujarat.jpg|thumb|[[Dwarkadhish Temple|Dwarika Jagat Mandir]] (or Dwarkadhish Temple), view from entrance of the city.]]
[[File:Dwarka.jpg|right|thumb|A painting depicting [[Krishna]]'s Dwarka, made during [[Akbar]]'s reign, from the [[Smithsonian Institution]].]]
Dwarka is believed to have been the first capital of Gujarat.{{sfn|Desai|2007|p=285}} The city's name literally means gateway.{{Sfn|Sridharan|2000|p=7}} Dwarka has also been referred to throughout its history as "Mokshapuri", "Dwarkamati", and "Dwarkavati".<ref name="Dwar">{{Cite web |title=Dwarka Nagari -Introduction & Importance |url=http://www.dwarkadhish.org/Introduction-Importance.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120623190150/http://www.dwarkadhish.org/Introduction-Importance.aspx |archive-date=23 June 2012 |access-date=27 November 2013 |publisher=Dwarkadish organization}}</ref> It is mentioned in the ancient prehistoric epic period of the ''[[Mahabharata]]''.{{Sfn|Sridharan|2000|p=7}} According to legend, [[Krishna]] settled here after he defeated and killed his uncle [[Kamsa|Kansa]] at [[Mathura]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Journal of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QmxEAQAAMAAJ|year=1910|publisher=The Branch}}</ref> This mythological account of Krishna's migration to Dwarka from Mathura is closely associated with the [[culture of Gujarat]].{{sfn|Yagnik|Sheth|2005|p=3}} Krishna is also said to have reclaimed 12 [[yojanas]] or {{Convert|96|km2}} of land from the sea to create Dwarka.<ref name=Under>{{cite journal |last1=Gaur |first1=A. S. |last2=Tripati |first2=Sundaresh |last3=Tripati |first3=Sila |title=An ancient harbour at Dwarka: Study based on the recent underwater explorations |journal=Current Science |date=2004 |volume=86 |issue=9 |pages=1256–1260 |jstor=24109935 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24109935 |issn=0011-3891}}</ref>

Dwarka was established as the capital in [[Saurashtra (region)|Saurashtra]] by the Vedic Indians during the [[Puranas|Puranaic]].{{citation needed|date=January 2019}} The [[Yadavas]], who had migrated from Mathura, established their kingdom here when the city was known as "Kaushathali". It was during this period that the city underwent rebuilding and was named Dwarka.{{sfn|Apte|2012|p=25, 37}} A friendly population of natives also prompted Krishna to settle at Dwarka when he decided, after fighting [[Jarasandha]], the king of [[Magadh]], to retreat from Mathura. The kingdom, also known as the Yaduvanshi empire, was established by Uugrasena, father of Kansa the then ruler and later Krishna flourished and extended its domain.{{Sfn|Yadava|2006|p=160}} It is said that Krishna conducted the administration of his kingdom from Dwarka while residing with his family in [[Bet Dwarka]].<ref name=Places>{{cite book|title=Pilgrim Places of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tygzN5FvSKgC&pg=PA30|publisher=Ocean Books|isbn=978-81-87100-41-6|page=36}}</ref> The city's [[Dwarkadheesh temple, Gujrat|Dwarkadhish Temple]] dedicated to Krishna was originally built around 2,500 years ago, but was destroyed by [[Mahmud Begada]] rulers and subsequently rebuilt in the 16th century. The temple is also the location of [[Dvaraka Pitha|Dwaraka maţha]], also called ''[[Saraswati|Sharada]] Matha/Peeth'' and "western peeth",{{sfn|nn|1964|p=12}}{{refn|group=note|name="Saradha"}} one of the four ''peeths'' ([[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]]: "religious center") established by [[Adi Shankaracharya]]. As an important pilgrimage centre for Hindus, Dwarka has several notable temples, including [[Rukmini Devi Temple]], Gomti Ghat, and [[Bet Dwarka]]. There is also a lighthouse at the land end point of Dwarka.

===Archaeology===
Archaeological investigations at Dwarka, both on shore and offshore in the [[Arabian Sea]], have been performed by the [[Archaeological Survey of India]]. The first investigations carried out on land in 1963 revealed many artefacts.<ref name= Subramanian>{{Cite web|last= Subramanian|first= T.S.|url=http://www.hindu.com/2007/02/23/stories/2007022301242200.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070224105526/http://www.hindu.com/2007/02/23/stories/2007022301242200.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=24 February 2007|title=Significant finds at Dwaraka|date= 23 February 2007|newspaper= [[The Hindu]]|access-date=14 April 2015}}</ref> Excavations done at two sites on the seaward side of Dwarka brought to light submerged settlements, a large stone-built jetty, and triangular stone anchors with three holes. The settlements are in the form of exterior and interior walls, and fort bastions. From the [[Typology (archaeology)|typological]] classification of the anchors it is inferred that Dwarka had flourished as a port during the period of the [[Middle kingdoms of India]].<ref name=Under/> [[Coastal erosion]] was probably the cause of the destruction of what was an ancient port.{{R|Under}}

Dwarka is mentioned in the copper inscription dated 574 AD of Simhaditya, the [[Maitraka|Maitraka dynasty]] minister of [[Vallabhi]]. He was the son of Varahdas, the king of Dwarka. The nearby Bet Dwarka island is a religious pilgrimage site and an important archaeological site of the [[Late Harappan]] period, with one [[thermoluminescence]] date of 1570 BC.{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=222}}<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.533668|title=Excavations At Dwarka: 1963|last=Ansari|first=Z. d|date=1964}}</ref>

===Early history===
An epigraphic reference ascribed to Garulaka Simhaditya, the son of Varahdas, the king of Dwarka, is inscribed on a copper plate dated to 574 AD, found in [[Palitana]]. The Greek writer of the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'' referred to a place called Baraca, which has been interpreted as present-day Dwarka. A reference made in [[Ptolemy]]'s ''[[Geography (Ptolemy)|Geography]]'' identified Barake as an island in the Gulf of Kanthils, which has also been inferred to mean Dwarka.<ref name=Under/>

One of the [[Char Dham|four dhams]] (religious seats), which were founded by [[Adi Shankara]]charya (686–717 AD) at the four corners of the country, was established as a monastic centre and it forms part of the Dwarka temple complex.{{sfn|Brockman|2011|p=94}}{{sfn|Desai|2007|p=285}} In 885 AD, the temple was renovated by Nrushinhaashrma, head of the Shankaracharya pitha (centre).{{cn|date=August 2021}}

===Middle Ages to present===
In 1241, Mohammad Shah invaded Dwarka and damaged the temple. During this battle, five [[Brahmin]]s (Virajee Thakar, Nathu Thakar, Karasan Thakar, Valjee Thakar, and Devasee Thakar) fought against him, died, and were honoured as martyrs. A shrine was built near the temple in their honour and is known as "Panch Peer", which is a name of Muslim origin.{{cn|date=August 2021}}
[[File:Dwarka1.jpg|thumb|left|Dwarka in a painting of the late 1820s by William Purser]]
In 1473 the [[Gujarat Sultanate|Gujarat Sultan]] [[Mahmud Begada]] sacked the city and destroyed the temple of Dwarka.{{sfn|Sen|2013|p=115}}{{sfn|Yagnik|Sheth|2005|p=50}} The Jagat Mandir or the Dwarakadhisa temple was later rebuilt.<ref name=Brit>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/174909/Dwarka|title=Dwarka|access-date=19 April 2015|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> [[Vallabha Acharya]] retrieved an idol of Dwarkadhish, which was revered by Rukmini. He hid it in a [[stepwell]], known as Savitri vav, during the Muslim invasion, before moving it to Ladva village. In 1551, when Turk Aziz invaded Dwarka, the idol was shifted to the island of Bet Dwarka.{{cn|date=August 2021}}

[[File:Dwarka (1909) (20161999144).jpg|thumb|View of Dwarka from the south bank of the Gomti creek, 1909]]
Dwarka, along with the Okhamandal region, was under the rule of [[Gaekwad of Baroda]] state during the [[Indian rebellion of 1857]]. A war broke out at Okhamandal in 1858 between the local [[Wagher|Vaghers]] and the [[British Raj|British]]. The Vaghers had won the battle and ruled until September 1859. Later, after a joint offensive of the British, the Gaekwads, and other princely state troops, the Vaghers were ousted in 1859. During these operations, led by Colonel Donovan, the temples at Dwarka and Bet Dwarka suffered damage and were looted. A complaint of atrocities by the British was made by the local people of Jamnagar, [[Porbander]], and [[Kutch]], which led to their restoration.{{Sfn|Dharaiya|1970|p=120}}<ref name=Democracy>{{cite web | title=Gujarat During The Great Revolt: The Rebellion In Okhmandal | date=7 October 2007|url=http://archives.peoplesdemocracy.in/2007/1007/10072007_1857.htm | access-date=19 April 2015| publisher=People's Democracy | volume=XXXI|issue= 40}}</ref>{{sfn|Yagnik|Sheth|2005|pp=94–95}} In 1861, Dwarakadheesh Temple was renovated by [[Khanderao II Gaekwad|Maharaja Khanderao]] and the British, who refurbished the [[shikara]].{{cn|date=August 2021}} [[Sayajirao Gaekwad III|Maharaja Gaikwad]] of [[Baroda]] added a golden [[pinnacle]] to the shikara in 1958 during a refurbishment by Shankaracharya of Dwarka. Since 1960, the temple has been maintained by the Government of India.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sheikh|first=Samira|date=1 May 2017|title=Ruling Dvārakā: Kṛṣṇa's Capital in Later Times (ca. 1450–1950)|url=https://academic.oup.com/jhs/article/10/1/112/3797244/Ruling-Dvaraka-K-a-s-Capital-in-Later-Times-ca|journal=The Journal of Hindu Studies|volume=10|issue=1|pages=112–130|doi=10.1093/jhs/hix004|issn=1756-4255}}</ref>

The [[Sudama Setu]], a bridge over the Gomti River connecting mainland Dwarka with Panchkui island was opened in 2016.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/sudama-setu-connecting-dwarka-with-panchnad-likely-to-be-completed-befor-janmashtami-festival/|title= Sudama setu' connecting Dwarka with Panchnad likely to be completed before Janmashtami festival|date=20 June 2015|newspaper=The Indian Express|access-date=12 September 2015}}</ref>

==Geography and climate==
[[File:Sudhama setu.jpg|thumb|[[Sudama Setu]]]]
[[File:Dwarka beach when the sea and sun sets.jpg|thumb|The late evening in the sea shores of Dwarka Beach]]

===Geography===
Dwarka, at the mouth of the [[Gulf of Kutch]], on the western shore of the Okhamandal Peninsula, is on the right bank of the Gomti River which rises from the Bhavda village at a place known as Mul-Gomti, {{Convert|10|km}} to the east. It is now under the newly formed district of Devbhoomi Dwarka at the western end of the Saurashtra ([[Kathiawar]]) peninsula, facing the Arabian Sea.<ref name=Gaur>{{Cite web|last1= Gaur |first1= A.S.|last2= Tripati |first2= Sila |url=http://drs.nio.org/drs/bitstream/2264/507/1/Migration_Diffusion_6_56.pdf|title= Ancient Dwarka: Study Based On Recent Underwater Archaeological Investigation|access-date=11 April 2015|publisher=National Institute of Oceanography|pages=56–58}}</ref> The Gomti River was a harbor until the 19th century.<ref name=Under/>

===Climate===
According to the [[Köppen climate classification|Köppen-Geiger classification]], Dwarka has a subtropical desert/low-latitude arid hot climate. The [[Holdridge life zones|Holdridge life zones system of bio-climatic classification]] identifies Dwarka in or near the subtropical thorn woodland biome.<ref name=Climate>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dwarka.climatemps.com/|title= Dwarka Climate & Temperature|access-date=9 April 2015|publisher= Dwarka.climatemps.com}}</ref> The average annual rainfall is {{Convert|403|mm}} spread over a rainy period of 16 days with [[rainfall]] limited to the months of June to September; the average maximum [[temperature]] is {{Convert|30|C}} with a record high of {{Convert|42.7|C}} and an average minimum temperature of {{Convert|23.6|C}} with a minimum of {{Convert|6.1|C}}; the average annual [[relative humidity]] is 72%, with a maximum of 80%.

{{weather box
| width = auto
| location = Dwarka (1991–2020, extremes 1901–present)
| metric first = yes
| single line = yes
| temperature colour = pastel
| Jan record high C = 34.0
| Feb record high C = 36.5
| Mar record high C = 38.8
| Apr record high C = 41.1
| May record high C = 42.7
| Jun record high C = 39.5
| Jul record high C = 36.4
| Aug record high C = 33.8
| Sep record high C = 39.4
| Oct record high C = 40.0
| Nov record high C = 37.6
| Dec record high C = 35.2
| year record high C = 42.7
| Jan high C = 26.4
| Feb high C = 27.2
| Mar high C = 28.7
| Apr high C = 30.3
| May high C = 31.8
| Jun high C = 32.4
| Jul high C = 31.1
| Aug high C = 30.0
| Sep high C = 30.7
| Oct high C = 31.7
| Nov high C = 31.6
| Dec high C = 28.4
| year high C = 30.0
| Jan low C = 16.5
| Feb low C = 18.7
| Mar low C = 22.3
| Apr low C = 25.2
| May low C = 27.4
| Jun low C = 28.4
| Jul low C = 27.6
| Aug low C = 26.4
| Sep low C = 26.1
| Oct low C = 24.9
| Nov low C = 21.7
| Dec low C = 17.9
| year low C = 23.6
| Jan record low C = 6.1
| Feb record low C = 8.3
| Mar record low C = 7.8
| Apr record low C = 17.2
| May record low C = 20.0
| Jun record low C = 22.0
| Jul record low C = 21.3
| Aug record low C = 20.6
| Sep record low C = 21.8
| Oct record low C = 16.7
| Nov record low C = 12.2
| Dec record low C = 8.3
| year record low C = 6.1
| rain colour = green
| Jan rain mm = 1.0
| Feb rain mm = 1.0
| Mar rain mm = 0.6
| Apr rain mm = 0.0
| May rain mm = 0.0
| Jun rain mm = 66.5
| Jul rain mm = 188.8
| Aug rain mm = 141.8
| Sep rain mm = 84.4
| Oct rain mm = 3.9
| Nov rain mm = 2.2
| Dec rain mm = 0.5
| year rain mm = 490.8
| Jan rain days = 0.1
| Feb rain days = 0.1
| Mar rain days = 0.1
| Apr rain days = 0.0
| May rain days = 0.0
| Jun rain days = 2.2
| Jul rain days = 6.6
| Aug rain days = 5.5
| Sep rain days = 2.7
| Oct rain days = 0.5
| Nov rain days = 0.1
| Dec rain days = 0.1
| year rain days = 17.9
| time day = 17:30 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| Jan humidity = 53
| Feb humidity = 62
| Mar humidity = 73
| Apr humidity = 77
| May humidity = 79
| Jun humidity = 79
| Jul humidity = 83
| Aug humidity = 83
| Sep humidity = 80
| Oct humidity = 72
| Nov humidity = 56
| Dec humidity = 49
| year humidity = 70
| source 1 = [[India Meteorological Department]]<ref name=IMDnormals>
{{cite web
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200205040301/http://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/1981-2010%20CLIM%20NORMALS%20%28STATWISE%29.pdf
| archive-date = 5 February 2020
| url = https://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/1981-2010%20CLIM%20NORMALS%20%28STATWISE%29.pdf
| title = Station: Dwarka Climatological Table 1981–2010
| publisher = India Meteorological Department
| date = December 2016
| pages = 263–264
| access-date = 28 September 2020}}</ref><ref name=IMDextremes>
{{cite web
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200205042509/http://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/EXTREMES%20OF%20TEMPERATURE%20and%20RAINFALL%20upto%202012.pdf
| archive-date = 5 February 2020
| url = https://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/EXTREMES%20OF%20TEMPERATURE%20and%20RAINFALL%20upto%202012.pdf
| title = Extremes of Temperature & Rainfall for Indian Stations (Up to 2012)
| publisher = India Meteorological Department
| date = December 2016
| page = M54
| access-date = 28 September 2020}}</ref>
| source =
}}

==Demographics==
[[File:Bhixuvulu at rukmani mandir 1.JPG|thumb|right|Pilgrims at Rukmani Temple]]
As of the [[2011 Census of India]],<ref name="Census Commission of India">{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040616075334/http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archive-date=16 June 2004|title= Census of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional)|access-date=1 November 2008|publisher= Census Commission of India}}</ref> Dwarka had a population of 38873 (as per Census 2011, the population reported is 38,873<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.census2011.co.in/data/town/802510-dwarka-gujarat.html|title=Dwarka Population Census 2011|publisher=Census2011.com|access-date=1 November 2008}}</ref>). Males constitute 20,306 of the population, and females constitute 18,567. Dwarka has an average literacy rate of 75.94%, lower than the national average of 78.03%; the male literacy rate is 83%, and the female literacy rate is 68.27%. 11.98% of the population is under six years of age.<ref name="Census Commission of India"/>

==Economy==
[[File:IndianCharmVendor.jpg|thumb|left|A street vendor's wares in Dwarka]]
Most of the revenue of Dwarka is derived from tourism, due to it being a site for pilgrims.<ref name=Brit/> It is a producer of agricultural produce such as [[millets]], [[ghee]] (clarified butter), [[oilseeds]], and [[salt]], which are transported from its port.<ref name=Brit/> A long-term development plan was proposed in 2011 with investment of {{INRConvert|830|m}} to refurbish the city of Dwarka and to build a bridge connecting the city with Okha and Bet Dwarka.<ref name=Plan>{{Cite news|url=http://www.rediff.com/money/report/gujarat-draws-34-proposals-to-boost-tourism/20110307.htm|title=Gujarat draws 34 proposals to boost tourism|access-date=19 April 2015|date=7 March 2011|work=Rediff.com}}</ref> A wind farm power generation of 39.2 MW, operated near Dwarka by the AES Saurashtra Windfarms Pvt Ltd (ASW), is now run by [[Tata Power|Tata Power Renewable Energy Ltd]] (TPREL).<ref name=Wind>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/companies/tata-power-acquires-392-mw-wind-farm-in-gujarat/article5726326.ece|title=Tata Power acquires 39.2 MW wind farm in Gujarat|access-date=19 April 2015|date=25 February 2014|newspaper=The Hindu Business Line}}</ref> Dwarka's industrial activity mainly centres around cement production.<ref name=Brit/> Sharda Peeth Vidya Sabha is an educational society sponsored by the Sharda Peeth, Dwarka which runs an arts college in Dwarka.

==Landmarks==

===Temples===
[[File:Dwaraka.jpg|right|thumb|[[Dwarakadhisa Temple]]]]
Considered a holy city, Dwarka is well known for its temples and as a pilgrimage centre for Hindus. The [[Dwarakadhisa Temple]], also called ''Jagat Mandir'', located in the heart of Dwarka, is a Vaishnava temple.{{sfn|Desai|2007|p=285}} It was built by Raja Jagat Singh Rathore, hence it is called Jagat Mandir.{{Sfn|Bandyopadhyay|2014|p=71}} The temple, facing west, is at an elevation of {{Convert|12.19|m}} above mean sea-level. It is conjectured that this temple location is 2,500 years old and is where Krishna built his city and a temple. However, the existing temple is dated to the 16th century.{{sfn|Desai|2007|p=285}}{{Sfn|Bansal|2008|pp=20–23}} It is a five-storied edifice built over 72 pillars (a sandstone temple with 60 pillars is also mentioned<ref name=Brit/>). The temple spire rises to a height of {{Convert|78|m}}, and a very large flag with symbols of the sun and moon is hoisted on it.{{Sfn|Bansal|2008|pp=20–23}}{{sfn|Desai|2007|p=285}} The temple layout consists of a [[garbhagriha]] (''Nijamandira'' or ''Harigraha'') and an [[antarala]] (an antechamber).{{Sfn|Paramāra|1996|p=87}} The main deity deified in the sanctum is Dwarkadeesh, which is known as the [[Trivikrama]] form of [[Vishnu]] and is depicted with four arms.{{Sfn|Bansal|2008|pp=20–23}}

The Dwarakadhisa Temple is also the location of [[Dvaraka Pitha]], also called ''Sharada Matha/Peeth'' and "western peeth"),{{sfn|nn|1964|p=12}}{{refn|group=note|name="Saradha"|Dvaraka Peeth, located in the west, and [[:Sringeri Sharada Peetham]], located in the south, are both called "Sharada Peeth".{{sfn|Singh|Mishra|2010|p=322}} In the Telugu language, "Sharada" (శారద) is the name for [[Saraswati]], the [[Hindu]] [[Devi|goddess]] of knowledge, music, arts, wisdom and learning.<ref>Kinsley, David (1988), Hindu Goddesses: Vision of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Traditions, University of California Press, {{ISBN|0-520-06339-2}}, pages 55–64</ref> The ''Sharada Matha/Peeth'' is not to be confused with [[Sharada Peeth]], a temple in Kashmir.}} one of the four peeths (Sanskrit: "religious center") established by Adi Shankaracharya.
[[File:Rukmini temple.JPG|left|thumb|Rukmini Devi Temple]]
Gomti Ghat consists of steps leading to the Gomti River, which is also a holy place for pilgrims to take a dip in the river, before visiting Dwarakadish temple. The ghat has a number of small shrines dedicated to the [[Samudra]] (God of the Sea), [[Saraswati]] and [[Lakshmi]].{{sfn|Desai|2007|p=285}} Other notable temples in the ghat area include the Samudra Narayana (Sangam Narayana) temple, which is at the confluence of the Gomti River with the sea, the Chakra Narayana temple where there is a stone with an imprint of a [[chakra]] as a manifestation of Vishnu, and the Gomati temple, which has an idol of the river goddess Gomati that is said to have been brought to earth by the sage [[Vasishta]].{{Sfn|Bansal|2008|pp=20–23}}

The [[Rukmini Devi Temple]], dedicated to [[Rukmini]], Krishna's chief queen, is located {{convert|2|km|mi}} away from Dwarka. The temple is said to be 2,500 years old, but in its present form it is estimated to belong to the 12th century. It is a richly carved temple decorated with sculptures of gods and goddesses on the exterior with the sanctum housing the main image of Rukmini. Carved ''naratharas'' (human figures) and carved ''gajatharas'' (elephants) are depicted in panels at the base of the tower.<ref>{{Cite web|url= http://www.gujarattourism.com/destination/details/6/307 |title= Jamnagar |access-date=14 April 2015|publisher= Government of Gujarat Tourism}}</ref>

[[Letitia Elizabeth Landon]]'s poetical illustration {{ws|[[s:Letitia Elizabeth Landon (L. E. L.) in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1837/The Sacred Shrines of Dwarka|''The Sacred Shrines of Dwarka'']]}}, to an engraving of William Purser's painting shown above (painting of the late 1820s), says little of the temples themselves but does advocate and praise religious tolerance. It was published in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1837.<ref> {{cite book|last =Landon|first=Letitia Elizabeth|title=Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1837|url=https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=39BbAAAAQAAJ&pg=GBS.PA38|section=picture|year=1836|publisher=Fisher, Son & Co.}}{{cite book|last =Landon|first=Letitia Elizabeth|title=Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1837|url=https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=39BbAAAAQAAJ&pg=GBS.PA40|section=poetical illustration|year=1836|publisher=Fisher, Son & Co.}}</ref>

===Nagesvara Jyotirlinga===
Ancient Shiva temple, [[Nageshvara Jyotirlinga|Nagesvara Jyortirlinga]], one of the 12 [[Jyotirlinga|Jyotirlingas]] and only 16 Km from Dwarkadhish Temple.

===Lighthouse and lake===
[[file:Dwarka - Lighthouse.jpg|thumb|Lighthouse at the Dwarka Point]]
There is a lighthouse at the Dwarka Point on the Dwarka peninsula, which provides a panoramic view of the city. It is a fixed light situated {{Convert|70|ft}} above the sea level, and the light is visible over a distance of {{Convert|10|mi}}. The lighthouse tower is {{Convert|40|ft}} in height and is {{Convert|117|yard}} away from the high water level in the sea.{{Sfn|Kapoor|2002|p=2103}}{{Sfn|Findlay|1876|p=825}} The radio beacon provided on this lighthouse tower is powered by a solar photovoltaic module.{{Sfn|Sah|1995|p=27}}

There is a lake or tank called Gopi Talab in the western part of the city.

A similar lake known for Gopi Chandan, meaning "sandal paste from Gopi", is situated in Bet Dwarka; this mud is found in the bed of the lake. This fragrant mud is applied as a sanctity symbol by devout Hindus on their forehead.<ref name=Places/>

===Bet Dwarka===
[[File:At bet dvaraka samudram.JPG|left|thumb|Bet Dwarka coast]]
{{main|Bet Dwarka}}
Bet Dwarka, an island in the Arabian sea off the coast of Dwarka. Considered the original residence of Krishna, Bet Dwarka was the old port during the ancient times of Krishna before the [[Okha port]] was developed in Dwarka. The temple built here is credited to the religious Guru Vallabhacharya of the "Pushtimarg Sampradaya". Rice is the traditional offering here to the deity as it is believed that [[Sudama]] offered rice to his childhood friend Krishna. There are also smaller shrines on Bet Dwarka which are dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu, Hanuman and [[Devi]].{{sfn|Desai|2007|p=286}} According to a legend, Vishnu killed the demon Shankhasura on this island. There are temples of Vishnu in the incarnation of [[matsya]], or fish. Other shrines here are of Rukmini, [[Vamana|Trivikrama]], [[Devaki]], [[Radha]], Lakshmi, [[Satyabhama]], [[Jambavati]], [[Lakshmi Narayan]], and many other gods.{{Sfn|Kapoor|2002|p=2103}}

Hanuman Dandi temple is another notable temple located in Bet Dwarka, {{Convert|6|km}} away from Dhwarkadhish Temple, Bet Dwarka. The temple is deified with many images of [[Hanuman]] and his son [[Makardhwaja]]. The legend associated with the birth of a son to Hanuman, who is considered celibate, is that the sweat of Hanuman was consumed by a crocodile which then gave birth to a son named Makardhwaja.{{sfn|Desai|2007|p=286}} The Jethwa Rajput clan of Kshatriyas claim their descent from Makardhwaja.

[[File:Nageshwar Temple.jpg|right|thumb|Nageshwar Mandir]]
[[Nageshvara Jyotirlinga]] Mandir is a temple dedicated to [[Shiva]], and one of the twelve [[Jyotirlinga]]s (meaning radiant sign of The Almighty) is deified here in a subterranean cell.{{Sfn|Deshpande|2005|p=273}}

=== Shivrajpur Beach ===
{{main|Shivrajpur beach}}
Shivrajpur Beach is 14.5 km from Dwarka Railway Station and is among eight Indian beaches to get the prestigious [[Blue Flag beach]] certification.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Kumar|first=Ravi Prakash|date=15 October 2020|title=8 Indian beaches get prestigious Blue Flag certification. Check list here|url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/best-indian-beaches-get-prestigious-blue-flag-certification-check-list-here-11602743882083.html|access-date=25 January 2021|work=Mint|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=12 October 2020|first=Kuldeep|last=Tiwari|title=Gujarat's Shivrajpur beach gets Blue Flag certification|url=https://ahmedabadmirror.indiatimes.com/ahmedabad/others/gujarats-shivrajpur-beach-gets-blue-flag-certification/articleshow/78611344.cms|access-date=25 January 2021|work=Ahmedabad Mirror|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=29 December 2020|title=Blue flag flutters high in Shivrajpur beach|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/rajkot/blue-flag-flutters-high-in-shivrajpur-beach/articleshow/79999030.cms|access-date=25 January 2021|work=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>

==Culture and sports==

===Culture===
[[File:An American Guru distributing love of God among Indians and others in Dwarka, India.jpg|thumb|An American Guru distributing love of God among Indians and others in Dwarka]]
[[Janmashtami]] is the main festival that is celebrated during the months of August and September{{Sfn|Desai|2007|p=71}} with great fervor and piety as it is believed to be the abode of Lord Krishna in prehistoric times. The festival is marked by several night long celebrations to mark the birth of Krishna. [[Bhajan]]s and sermons are part of the festivities. At midnight there is reenactment of Krishna's childhood in the form of [[Garba (dance)|Garba]] and [[Dandiya Raas|Raas dances]]. On this occasion, the local boys create a pyramid and a young boy in the costume of Krishna climbs up this pyramid to strike a pot holding butter, an act which Krishna had mischievously performed with the [[gopis]].{{sfn|Desai|2007|p=285}} This is also known as "[[Dahi Handi]]" or Utlotsavam.

Sharda Peeth Vidya Sabha is an educational society sponsored by the Sharda Peeth, which runs an arts college in Dwarka. The city is also home to the N.D.H. High School and P.V.M Girls' High School.<ref>{{cite book|title=District Census Handbook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XcrUAAAAMAAJ|year=1964|publisher=Director, Government Print. and Stationery, Gujarat State|pages=43, 183}}</ref>

===Sports===
The underwater ancient city off the coast of Bet Dwarka has been proposed to be developed as a [[scuba diving]] site. This project is a joint initiative of Adventure Sports Ltd (ASL) and the [[Government of Gujarat]], with investment of {{INRConvert|13|c|lk=on}}. This is believed to be the first effort anywhere in the world to utilise a submerged city for tourism.<ref name= Prabhune>{{Cite web|last= Prabhune |first=Tushar|url=http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2005-02-18/news/27476988_1_scuba-diving-sea-turtles-bet-dwarka|title=Dwarka under sea! Now you can see|date=18 February 2005|newspaper=The Economic Times|access-date=12 September 2015}}</ref> Water and beach sports are also being promoted by the state government, and there are proposals to further promote aero and submarine sports.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gujaratindia.com/about-gujarat/adventure-sports.htm|title=Adventure and Sports Tourism|publisher=Official Gujarat Portal|access-date=12 September 2015}}</ref>

==Transportation==

=== Train ===
The [[Dwarka railway station]] is on [[broad gauge]] railway line that runs from [[Ahmedabad]] to [[Okha, Gujarat|Okha]] at a distance of about {{Convert|137|km}} from Jamnagar.

=== Air ===
Nearest Airport is [[Jamnagar Airport]] at 131 kms

=== Road ===
{{Convert|217|km}} away from [[Rajkot]], 235 km from [[Somnath temple|Somnath]] and {{Convert|378|km}} from [[Ahmedabad]].<ref name="Dwar" />

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=note}}

== See Also ==

* [[Nageshvara Jyotirlinga]]
* [[Somnath temple|Somnath Temple]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin|30em}}
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* {{cite book|last= Dharaiya |first=Ramanlal Kakalbhai |title=Gujarat in 1857|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wps5AQAAIAAJ|year=1970|publisher=Gujarat University}}
* {{cite book|last= Findlay |first=Alexander George |title=A Directory for the Navigation of the Indian Ocean: With Descriptions of Its Coasts, Islands, Etc., from the Cape of Good Hope to the Strait of Sunda and Western Australia : Including Also the Persian Gulf, the Winds, Monsoons, and Currents, and the Passages from Europe to Its Various Ports|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yOcNAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA825|year=1876|publisher=Richard Holmes Laurie}}
* {{cite book|last= Kapoor |first=Subodh |title=The Indian Encyclopaedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gxIpYtnyzu4C&pg=PA2103|year=2002|publisher=Cosmo Publications|isbn=978-81-7755-257-7}}
* {{Citation | last =nn | year =1964 | title =Śāradā pīṭha pradīpa, Volumes 4-6 | publisher =Indological Research Institute, Dwārka | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=kV45AAAAIAAJ&q=dwarka+temple+destroyed}}
* {{cite book|last= Paramāra |first=Thomasa |title=Temples of Gujarat Built During the Mughal Period|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SNjVAAAAMAAJ|year=1996|publisher=Thomas B. Parmar}}
* {{cite book|last= Sah |first=S. L. |title=Renewable and Novel Energy Sources|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O7ofXu6vNt0C&pg=PA27|date=1 January 1995|publisher=M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd.|isbn=978-81-85880-82-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Sen |first=Sailendra |title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History |publisher=Primus Books |year=2013 |isbn=978-93-80607-34-4 |page=115}}
* {{Citation | last1 =Singh | first1 =N.K. | last2 =Mishra |first2=A.P. | year =2010 | title =Global Encyclopaedia of Indian Philosophy, Volume 1 | publisher =Global Vision Publishing House | isbn =9788182202948 | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=U7xOAQAAIAAJ&q=%22sharada+matha%22+dwarka}}
* {{cite book|last= Singh |first=Upinder |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GW5Gx0HSXKUC&pg=PA181|year=2008|publisher=Pearson Education India|isbn=978-81-317-1677-9}}
* {{cite book|last= Sridharan |first=K. |title=Sea: Our Saviour|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9PiwJF7V4EQC&pg=PA7|date=1 January 2000|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-81-224-1245-1}}
* {{cite book|last= Yadava |first=S. D. S. |title=Followers of Krishna: Yadavas of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p69GMA226bgC&pg=PA160|date=1 January 2006|publisher=Lancer Publishers|isbn=978-81-7062-216-1}}
* {{cite book|last1= Yagnik |first1=Achyut |last2= Sheth |first2=Suchitra |title=The Shaping of Modern Gujarat: Plurality, Hindutva, and Beyond|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wmKIiAPgnF0C&pg=PA4|date=1 January 2005|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=978-0-14-400038-8}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.dwarkadhish.org/ Dwarkadhish.org] Official website of Jagad Mandir Dwarka
* {{Britannica|174909}}

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{{Krishna}}
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Daksha

2023-01-09T13:17:50Z

ImportMaster: robot: Create/update articles in Category:Hindu gods.

{{short description|Prajapati, son of the god Brahma in Hinduism}}
{{For|the island in Croatia|Daksa (island)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2016}}
{{Infobox deity
| god_of = God of Ritual Skills<ref>{{cite book | url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Handbook_of_Hindu_Mythology/N7LOZfwCDpEC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=daksha+god+of+rituals&pg=PA261&printsec=frontcover | isbn=978-0-19-533261-2 | title=Handbook of Hindu Mythology | date=27 March 2008 | publisher=Oup USA }}</ref>
| image = File:Daksha two depictions.jpg
| caption = Two depictions of Daksha {{mdash}} One with ordinary human features (left) and another with a goat face (right)
| Devanagari = दक्ष
| consort = [[Prasuti]] and [[Asikni (goddess)|Asikni]]
| father = [[Brahma]]
| mother =
| abode = [[Draksharamam]]
| children = {{unbulleted list|Daughters including [[Svaha]], [[Khyati]], [[Sati (Hindu goddess)|Sati]], [[Aditi]], [[Diti]], [[Danu (Asura)|Danu]], [[Kadru]], [[Vinata]], [[Rohini (goddess)|Rohini]], [[Revati (nakshatra)|Revati]] and [[Rati]]|5000 sons called Haryasvas|1000 sons called Sabalasvas}}
| type = hindu
| affiliation = [[Prajapati#"Prajapati" as a title|Prajapati]], [[Manasputra]]
| gender = Male
| texts = [[Rigveda]], [[Brahmana]], [[Taittiriya Samhita]], [[Ramayana]], [[Mahabharata]], [[Purana]]
}}

In [[Hinduism]], '''Daksha''' ([[Sanskrit]]: दक्ष, [[IAST]]: {{IAST|Dakṣa}}, lit. "able, dexterous, or honest one"<ref>[http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MW72Scan/2014/web/webtc1/index.php Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary]</ref>) is one of the ''[[Prajapati#"Prajapati" as a title|Prajapati]]'', the agents of creation, as well as a divine king-rishi. His iconography depicts him as a man with a stocky body and a handsome face or the head of a goat.

In the ''[[Rigveda]]'', Daksha is an ''[[Adityas|Aditya]]'' and is associated with priestly skills.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Williams |first=George M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N7LOZfwCDpEC&dq=daksha+god+of+rituals&pg=PA261 |title=Handbook of Hindu Mythology |date=2008-03-27 |publisher=OUP USA |isbn=978-0-19-533261-2 |pages=261 |language=en}}</ref> In the epics and [[Puranas|''Puranic'']] scriptures, he is a ''[[Manasputra|son]]'' of the creator god [[Brahma]] and the father of many children, who became the progenitors of various creatures. According to one legend, an egoistic Daksha conducted a [[Daksha yajna|yajna]] (fire sacrifice) and didn't invite his youngest daughter [[Sati (Hindu goddess)|Sati]] and her husband [[Shiva]]. He was beheaded by [[Virabhadra]] for insulting Sati and Shiva but was later resurrected with the head of a goat. Many ''[[Purana]]s'' state that Daksha was reborn to [[Prachetas]] in another ''[[Manvantara]]'' (age).

== Etymology and textual history==
The meaning of the word "Daksha" (दक्ष) is "able", "expert", "skillful" or "honest".<ref name = "N" >{{Cite book|last=Gandhi|first=Maneka|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PkW6hs1OjyEC&q=Daksa&pg=PA379|title=The Penguin Book of Hindu Names|date=1993|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=978-0-14-012841-3|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Monier-Williams|first1=Sir Monier|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zUezTfym7CAC&q=Daksha|title=A Sanskrit-English Dictionary: Etymologically and Philologically Arranged with Special Reference to Cognate Indo-European Languages|last2=Leumann|first2=Ernst|last3=Cappeller|first3=Carl|date=1899|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishing House|isbn=978-81-208-3105-6|language=en}}</ref> According to the [[Bhagavata Purana]], Daksha got this name as he was expert in begetting children.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Prabhupada|first=His Divine Grace A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=voVOCgAAQBAJ&q=Dak%E1%B9%A3a+expert&pg=PT70|title=Srimad-Bhagavatam, Sixth Canto: Prescribed Duties for Mankind|date=1975-12-31|publisher=The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust|isbn=978-91-7149-639-3|language=en}}</ref> The word also means "fit", "energetic" and "fire".<ref name = "N" /> Daksha also has another name "Kan".<ref name = "VM" />

Daksha finds mentions in the ancient scripture ''[[Rigveda]]'' (2nd millennium BCE), where he is described as an [[Ādityas|Aditya]] ('son of the goddess [[Aditi]]') and specifically associated with the skilled actions of sacrificers.<ref name = "Rig">{{cite book|author=Stephanie Jamison|title=The Rigveda –– Earliest Religious Poetry of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1LTRDwAAQBAJ|year=2015|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0190633394|page=44}}</ref> Later in the ''[[Brahmanas]]'' (900 BCE - 700 BCE), he is identified with the creator deity [[Prajapati]].<ref name="Very well" >{{Cite book|last= Dowson|first=John|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PwsYAAAAYAAJ&q=Daksha|title=A Classical Dictionary of Hindu Mythology and Religion, Geography, History, and Literature|year=1870}}</ref><ref name = "Enc" >{{Cite book|last1=Coulter|first1=Charles Russell|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sEIngqiKOugC&q=Daksha&pg=PA285|title=Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities|last2=Turner|first2=Patricia|date=2013-07-04|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-96390-3|language=en}}</ref> Key elements of Daksha including his yajna and ram head, which later became a key feature in the Puranic iconography, are first found in the Taittariya Samhita.<ref name="Very well" /><ref name = "good" >{{Cite book|last=Klostermaier|first=Klaus K.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FB29DwAAQBAJ&q=Dak%E1%B9%A3a&pg=PT84|title=Hinduism: A Short History|date=2014-10-01|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-1-78074-680-7|language=en}}</ref> The epics—the ''[[Ramayana]]'' and the ''[[Mahabharata]]''—also mention Daksha. Most of the myths and stories about Daksha are found in the ''[[Puranas]]'' (3rd - 10th century CE).<ref name = "good" /><ref name="Enc"/>

==Legends==
[[File:Daksha-Prajapati.jpg|thumb|A sculpture of the goat-faced Daksha with his wife.]]
===Birth===
The epic ''[[Mahabharata]]'' describes Daksha and his wife emerging from the right and left thumbs of the creator god [[Brahma]] respectively.<ref name = "VM" /><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Coulter|first1=Charles Russell|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sEIngqiKOugC&q=Sati|title=Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities|last2=Turner|first2=Patricia|date=2013-07-04|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-96390-3|language=en}}</ref> According to [[Matsya Purana]], Daksha, Dharma, Kamadeva, and Agni were born from Brahma's right thumb, chest, heart and eyebrows, respectively. According to many texts including the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'', Daksha is born twice—First as a [[Manasputra]] (mind-created son) of Brahma and later, as a son of [[Prachetas]] and Marisha.<ref name = "VM" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Prabhupada|first=His Divine Grace A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T4VOCgAAQBAJ&q=dak%E1%B9%A3a+yaj%C3%B1a&pg=PT1964|title=Srimad-Bhagavatam, Fourth Canto: The Creation of the Fourth Order|date=1974-12-31|publisher=The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust|isbn=978-91-7149-637-9|language=en}}</ref> In contrast to the later Puranic myths, the ''[[Rig Veda]]'' states that Daksha and the goddess [[Aditi]] emerge from one another, thus he is both her son and father.<ref name="Rig" />

===Consorts and Children===
According to many Puranic scriptures, Daksha married [[Prasuti]] in his first birth and [[Asikni (goddess)|Asikni]] in his second birth.<ref name = "P" >{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvpjAAAAMAAJ&q=asikn%C4%AB+pras%C5%ABti|title=Purāṇam|date=2001|publisher=All-India Kasiraja Trust.|language=en}}</ref> Prasuti is described to be a daughter of [[Svayambhuva Manu]], with whom Daksha had 16, 24 or 60 daughters (depending upon the scriptural source).<ref name = "Enc" /><ref>''Vishnu Purana'', Vol-I, H.H. Willson. Book-I,Ch-#7, Page 109</ref><ref name=Wilkins>{{cite book|title=Hindu Mythology|last=Wilkins|first=W.J.|page=373|publisher=D.K. Printworld (P) Limited|location=New Delhi|isbn=81-246-0234-4|year=2003}}</ref> Asikni (also referred to as Panchajani and Virani) is the daughter of another Prajapati named Virana (or Panchajana). Daksha was delegated by [[Brahma]] to inhabit the world; he went on to create Gods, Sages, Asuras, Yakshas and Rakhashas from the mind but failed to be further successful.<ref name="VM" />{{Efn|Brahmanda Purana and Vayu Purana give a longer list of creations inc. plants, human beings, ghosts, serpents, deer, flesh-eating demons, and birds. Va. P. also mentions that Mahadeva had rebuked him, after the mind-created species failed to propagate.}} Upon a successful penance at the [[Vindhyas]], the god [[Vishnu]] granted Asikni as his wife and urged him to engage in sexual union.<ref name="VM">{{Cite encyclopedia|year=1975|title=Daksha|encyclopedia=Puranic Encyclopedia: a comprehensive dictionary with special reference to the epic and Puranic literature|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi|location=Delhi, India|url=https://archive.org/details/puranicencyclopa00maniuoft/page/193/mode/1up|last=Mani|first=Vettam|pages=193-194}}</ref><ref name=Maha>[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m12/m12b111.htm the Horse-sacrifice of the Prajapati Daksha] [[Mahabharata|The Mahabharata]] translated by [[Kisari Mohan Ganguli]] (1883–1896), Book 12: Santi Parva: Mokshadharma Parva: Section CCLXXXIV. '''p. 317'''. “I am known by the name of [[Virabhadra]]’’ and I have sprung from the wrath of Rudra. This lady (who is my companion), and who is called Bhadrakali, hath sprung from the wrath of the goddess.”</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hindu.com/2006/06/17/stories/2006061708850500.htm |title=The Hindu : Kerala / Kannur News : Huge crowd at Kottiyur temple |website=www.hindu.com |access-date=17 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071001030606/http://www.hindu.com/2006/06/17/stories/2006061708850500.htm |archive-date=1 October 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
====Sons====
[[File:Daksha was angry with Inter galactic traveller Narada, just because he taught good things to his sons. Narada travels o different galaxies with his thought power.jpg|thumb|left|Daksha (right) cursing Narada, an illustration from a 20th-century book.]]
According to the Puranas, Daksha and Asikni first produced five thousand sons, who were known as Haryasvas. They were interested in populating the Earth but upon the advice of [[Narada]], took to discovering worldly affairs instead and never returned. Brahma to have consoled a grievous Daksa after this loss. Daksha and Asikni again produced another thousand sons (Sabalasvas), who had similar intentions but were persuaded by Narada to the same results. An angry Daksha cursed Narada to be a perpetual wanderer.<ref name="VM" />

====Daughters====
The ''Puranic scriptures'' differ in the number of Daksha's daughters. They were married to different deities, sages and kings, and became the progenitors of various kinds of creatures.<ref name = "VM" />

According to the ''[[Mahabharata]] ([[Harivamsa]])'', the ''[[Devi Bhagavata Purana]]'', ''[[Brahma Vaivarta Purana]]'' and the ''[[Vishnu Purana]]'', Daksha fathered 60 daughters from Asikni:<ref name = "VM" />
{{bulleted list|10 of those daughters—Maruvati, Vasu, Jami, Lamba, Bhanu, Urjja, Sankalp, Mahurath, Sadhya, Vishva—were married to [[Yama (Hinduism)#Identification with Dharmadeva|Dharmadeva]], the god of [[Dharma]]|13 daughters—[[Aditi]], [[Diti]], [[Danu (Asura)|Danu]], Arishta, [[Surasa]], [[Surabhi]], [[Vinata]], Tamra, [[Krodhavasha]], Ira, [[Kadru]], Vishva, Muni—were married to sage [[Kashyapa]]|27 daughters—[[Ashvini]], [[Bharani (star)|Bharani]], [[Kṛttikā|Krttika]], [[Rohini (goddess)|Rohini]], [[Mrigashīra|Mrigashira]], Tarakam or Ardra, [[Punarvasu]], [[Pushya]], [[Ashlesha (nakshatra)|Ashlesha]], Janakam or [[Magha (nakshatra)|Magha]], [[Nakshatra#List of Nakshatras|Phalguni]], [[Uttara Phalgunī|Uttarphalguni]], [[Hasta (nakshatra)|Hasta]], [[Chitra (nakshatra)|Chitra]], [[Svati]], [[Vishakha]], [[Anuradha (nakshatra)|Anuradha]], [[Jyeshtha (nakshatra)|Jyestha]], [[Mula (nakshatra)|Mula]], [[Pūrva Ashādhā|Purvashadha]], [[Uttara Ashadha|Uttarasadha]], Srona or [[Shravana]], [[Dhanistha]] or [[Shatabhisha]], [[Abhijit (nakshatra)|Abhijit]] or Prachetas, [[Pūrva Bhādrapadā|Purvabhadrapada]], [[Uttara Bhādrapadā|Uttarabhadrapada]] and [[Revati (nakshatra)|Revati]]—were married to [[Chandra]], the god of the Moon and vegetation|4 were married to sage Arishtanemi|2 were married to sage Bahuputra|2 married sage [[Angiras (sage)|Angiras]]|2 were married to Krisasva}}

The number of Daksha's daughters from Prasuti varies—24 daughters are mentioned in the ''[[Vishnu Purana]]'',<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sen|first=Ramendra Kumar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UYlWAAAAMAAJ&q=daksa+prasuti|title=Aesthetic Enjoyment; Its Background in Philosophy and Medicine|date=1966|publisher=University of Calcutta|language=en}}</ref><ref name = "VM" /> while the ''[[Linga Purana]]'' and ''[[Padma Purana]]'' list 60 daughters.<ref name = "Ch" /> All of Prasuti's daughters represent the virtues of mind and body.<ref name = "Ch" >{{Cite book|last=Chawla|first=Janet|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rbBojsB4u48C&q=Dak%E1%B9%A3a+Pras%C5%ABti&pg=RA1-PA142|title=Birth and Birthgivers: The Power Behind the Shame|date=2006|publisher=Har-Anand Publications|isbn=978-81-241-0938-0|language=en}}</ref> The names of these daughters and their spouse, according to the Vishnu Purana, are:
{{bulleted list|Sraddha, Lakshmi, Dhriti, Thushti, Pushti, Medha, Kriya, Buddhi, Lajja, Vapu, Shanti, Siddhi and Kirti married the god [[Yama (Hinduism)#Identification with Dharma|Dharmadeva]]
|[[Khyati]] married sage [[Bhrigu]]
|Sambhuti married sage [[Marichi]]
|Smriti married sage [[Angiras (sage)|Angiras]]
|Priti married sage [[Pulastya]]
|Kshama married to sage [[Pulaha]]
|Sannati married sage [[Kratu]]
|[[Anasuya]] married sage [[Atri]]
|[[Arundhati (Hinduism)|Urjja]] married sage [[Vashishtha]]
|[[Swaha]] married [[Agni]], the god of fire
|Swadha married [[Pitrs]]
|[[Sati (goddess)|Sati]] married Lord [[Shiva]]}}
Along with these daughters, the goddess of love, [[Rati]], is also considered an offspring of Daksha. Most ''Puranas'' narrate that she emerged from the sweat of Daksha after he was asked by Brahma to present a wife to the love god [[Kamadeva|Kama]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mani |first1=Vettam |title=Purāṇic Encyclopaedia: A Comprehensive Dictionary with Special Reference to the Epic and Purāṇic Literature |date=1975 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-0-8426-0822-0 |page=645 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IAwRAQAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref>

===Cursing Chandra===
The ''Puranas'' portray Daksha as being responsible for the waning and waxing of the Moon. The moon god [[Chandra|Chandra]] married twenty-seven daughters of Daksha, who represents the twenty-seven [[Nakshatras]] (or constellations). Among them, Chandra favoured [[Rohini (goddess)|Rohini]] and spent most of his time with her. The other 26 sisters became jealous and complained to their father. Daksha initially tried to persuade Chandra, but after seeing his efforts fruitless, he cursed the lunar deity to become ill and lose his brightness. Since Chandra was also the god of vegetation, the vegetation began to die. The [[Deva (Hinduism)|devas]] pacified Daksha, and upon their request, he told Chandra that he would suffer from his illness each fortnight and recover from it gradually. This leads to the waning and waxing of the moon each month.<ref name = "VM" /> In another version, it was the god [[Shiva]] (Sati's husband) who partially cured Chandra's illness.<ref name=dalal393>{{cite book|author=Roshen Dalal|title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&pg=PA393| year=2010|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=978-0-14-341421-6|pages=393–394}}</ref>

===Daksha Yajna===
{{main|Daksha yajna}}
[[File:Daksha yagna.jpg|thumb|Daksha insults Shiva while arguing with Sati.]]

The ''Daksha Yagna'' is regarded as an important turning point in the creation and development of a number of sects in Hinduism. The story describes the circumstances that replaced [[Sati (Hindu goddess)|Sati]] with [[Parvati]] as Shiva's consort and later led to the story of [[Ganesha]] and [[Kartikeya]].

One of the daughters of Daksha, often said to be the youngest, was [[Sati (Hindu goddess)|Sati]], who had always wished to marry [[Shiva]]. Daksha forbade it, but later reluctantly allowed her and she married Shiva.

Once, Daksha organised the Brihaspatistava [[Yajna]] and intentionally did not invite Shiva and Sati. Even though discouraged by Shiva, who told her not to go to a ceremony performed by Daksha where her husband and she were not invited, the parental bond made Sati ignore social etiquette and her husband's wishes. Sati went to the ceremony alone. She was snubbed by Daksha and insulted by him in front of the guests. Sati, unable to bear further insult, ran into the sacrificial fire and immolated herself.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chopra |first=Omesh K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n8rTDwAAQBAJ&dq=daksha+sati+shiva&pg=PA199 |title=History of Ancient India Revisited, A Vedic-Puranic View. |date=2020-03-02 |publisher=BlueRose Publishers |pages=199 |language=en}}</ref> Shiva, upon learning about the terrible incident, in his wrath invoked [[Virabhadra]] and [[Bhadrakali]] by plucking a lock of hair and thrashing it on the ground. Virabhadra and the [[Bhutagana|Bhoota ganas]] marched south and destroyed all the premises. Daksha was decapitated, and the ''Yagna shaala'' was devastated during the rampage.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chopra |first=Omesh K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n8rTDwAAQBAJ&dq=daksha+sati+shiva&pg=PA199 |title=History of Ancient India Revisited, A Vedic-Puranic View. |date=2020-03-02 |publisher=BlueRose Publishers |pages=200 |language=en}}</ref> [[Bhrigu]], the chief priest of the Yajna, invoked the Ribhus to fight the Ganas, but the former was tied to a pillar and his beard was forcibly plucked off. According to [[Horace Hayman Wilson]], "Vahni's hands were cut, [[Bhaga]]'s eyes were plucked out, [[Pushan|Pusha]] had broken teeth, [[Yama]]'s mace was broken, Goddesses' noses were cut, [[Soma (deity)|Soma]] was pummelled, while [[Yajneshwara]], the [[Indra]] of Swayambhuva [[Manvantara]], tried to escape in the form of a deer, but was decapitated. Daksha also tried to escape, but [[Virabhadra]] held him and cut off his head (some legends say that he plucked off Daksha's head with his own hands). The head was thrown to the fire, and Virabhadra returned to [[Kailasa]], along with his hordes.

Later, Shiva was pacified. He forgave Daksha and resurrected him, but with a goat's head.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=O'Flaherty |first1=Wendy Doniger |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N7mBwsmp-g0C&dq=daksha+goat+head&pg=PA99 |title=Other Peoples' Myths: The Cave of Echoes |last2=Doniger |first2=Wendy |date=November 1995 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-61857-9 |pages=99 |language=en}}</ref> Bhrigu and the others were restored their respective parts. With Vishnu as the chief priest, Daksha offered a share of the oblations to Shiva, and the sacrifice was successfully completed.

==See also==
{{Portal|Hinduism}}
*[[Prajapati]]
*[[Adityas]]
*[[Kottiyoor Vysakha Mahotsavam|Kottiyoor]], [[Kankhal]], [[Draksharama]]
*''[[Dakshayagnam (1962 film)|Dakshayagnam (film)]]''

==References==
{{Reflist}}
* ''Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend'' ({{ISBN|0-500-51088-1}}) by Anna Dhallapiccola

==Explanatory notes==
{{Notelist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Daksha}}
*[[s:The Mahabharata/Book 1: Adi Parva/Section LXV|Lineage of Daksha, The Mahabharata/Book 1: Adi Parva/Section LXV]]

{{HinduMythology}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Creator gods]]
[[Category:Prajapatis]]
[[Category:Adityas]]
[[Category:Nature gods in Hinduism]]

Vrindavan

2023-01-08T19:18:47Z

ImportMaster: robot: Create/update articles in Category:Hindu gods.

{{Short description|City in Uttar Pradesh, India}}
{{about|the city in Uttar Pradesh, India|the spiritual Vrindavan|Goloka}}
{{Redirect|Brindavanam|the 2010 film|Brindavanam (2010 film)|the 2017 film|Brindavanam (2017 film)}}
{{EngvarB|date=October 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Vrindavan
| other_name = Vrindaban, Brindaban
| nicknames = City of Widows
| settlement_type = [[City]]
| image_skyline = {{Photomontage
| photo1a = Iskon Temple, Vrindawan.jpg
| photo1b = Madanmohan Mandir Vrindavan.JPG
| photo2a = Radha Damodar Temple.JPG
| photo2b = Radhavallabhlalj.jpg
| photo3a = Lovetemple.jpg
| spacing = 2
| position = center
| color_border = white
| color = black
| size = 266
| foot_montage = '''Clockwise from top:'''
[[Krishna Balaram Mandir]], [[Radha Madan Mohan Temple, Vrindavan|Radha Madanmohan Temple]], [[Radha Damodar Temple, Vrindavan|Radha Damodar Temple]], [[Radha Vallabh Temple, Vrindavan|Radha Vallabh Temple]], [[Prem Mandir Vrindavan|Prem Mandir (Love temple)]]}}
| pushpin_map = India Uttar Pradesh#India3
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Uttar Pradesh, India
| pushpin_label_position = right
| coordinates = {{coord|27.58|N|77.7|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = [[List of sovereign states|Country]]
| subdivision_name = {{IND}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Mathura district|Mathura]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type = [[Municipal Corporation]]
| governing_body = Mathura Vrindavan Municipal Corporation
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_total_km2 =
| area_rank =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 170
| population_total = 63,005
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_footnotes = <ref name="Census2011Gov"/>
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_rank =
| population_demonym = Vrindavan wasi
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +05:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 281121
| area_code = 0565
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| registration_plate = UP-85
| website =
| footnotes =
| demographics1_info1 = [[Hindi]]
| demographics1_title3 = Native
| demographics1_info3 = [[Braj Bhasha|Braj Bhasha dialect]]
}}
'''Vrindavan''' ({{audio|Vrindavan.ogg|pronunciation}}; {{IAST3|Vṛndāvana}}), also spelt '''Vrindaban''' and '''Brindaban''',<ref name=":0" /> is a historical city in the [[Mathura district]] of [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[India]]. It is located in the [[Braj|Braj Bhoomi]] region and holds religious importance in [[Hinduism]] as [[Krishna]] spent most of his childhood days in this city.<ref name="Hawley">{{cite book |surname=Hawley |given=John Stratton |title=Krishna's Playground: Vrindavan in the 21st Century |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-0190123987 |place=Oxford; New York}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=UP gets first officially designated 'teerth sthals' in Vrindavan and Barsana|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/agra/up-gets-first-officially-designated-teerth-sthals-in-vrindavan-and-barsana/articleshow/61277272.cms|date=27 October 2017|publisher=[[Times of India]]}}</ref><ref name=route/><ref>{{cite book|last=Keene|first=Henry George|author-link=Henry George Keene (1826–1915)|title=A Handbook for Visitors to Agra and Its Neighbourhood|chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/ahandbookforvis00keengoog#page/n113/mode/1up|chapter=Bindrabun|date=1899|publisher=Thacker, Spink & Co.|pages=98–106}}</ref> Vrindavan has about 5,500 temples dedicated to the worship of [[Krishna]] and his divine consort [[Radha]].<ref name="Madan">{{cite book |last=Gopal |first=Madan |url=https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada |title=India through the ages |publisher=Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India |year=1990 |editor=K.S. Gautam |page=[https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada/page/176 176]}}</ref>

It is one of the most [[sacred]] places for [[Vaishnavism]] tradition.<ref name="Hawley" /><ref name="Madan" /> Vrindavan is a significant part of the "Krishna pilgrimage circuit" which also includes [[Mathura]], [[Barsana]], [[Gokul]], [[Govardhan]], [[Kurukshetra]], [[Dwarka]] and [[Puri]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Development of Ramayana and Krishna Circuits |url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1513307 |website=pib.gov.in |access-date=15 August 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bhattacharya |first=G. |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.t090249 |title=Vrindavan |date=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |series=Oxford Art Online|doi=10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.t090249 }}</ref>

== Etymology ==
The ancient [[Sanskrit]] name of the city, {{lang|sa|वृन्दावन}} ({{IAST|Vṛndāvana}}), comes from its groves of ''vṛndā'' ([[Ocimum tenuiflorum|Holy basil]]) and ''vana'' (a [[Grove (nature)|grove]] or forest).<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V09_023.gif |title=Brindaban|publisher=[[The Imperial Gazetteer of India]]|date=1909}}</ref>

== Geography ==
Vrindavan is located at {{Coord|27.58|N|77.7|E|}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fallingrain.com/world/IN/36/Vrindavan.html|title=Maps, Weather, and Airports for Vrindavan, India|website=www.fallingrain.com|access-date=6 December 2019}}</ref> It has an average elevation of 170 metres (557 feet).{{citation needed|date=July 2020}}

[[Yamuna]] river flows through the city. It is located 125 km away from [[Delhi]] and 15 km away from [[Mathura]] City.

=== Climate ===
{{Weather box
|location = Mathura (1981–2010, extremes 1974–1995)
|metric first = yes
|single line = yes
|width = auto
| Jan record high C = 29.6
| Feb record high C = 34.1
| Mar record high C = 40.1
| Apr record high C = 45.1
| May record high C = 47.1
| Jun record high C = 47.6
| Jul record high C = 44.6
| Aug record high C = 42.7
| Sep record high C = 40.6
| Oct record high C = 42.1
| Nov record high C = 35.1
| Dec record high C = 30.1
|year record high C = 47.6
| Jan high C = 21.3
| Feb high C = 24.4
| Mar high C = 30.4
| Apr high C = 36.6
| May high C = 41.2
| Jun high C = 41.2
| Jul high C = 36.1
| Aug high C = 34.6
| Sep high C = 34.2
| Oct high C = 33.3
| Nov high C = 29.1
| Dec high C = 23.3
|year high C = 32.1
| Jan low C = 6.4
| Feb low C = 8.3
| Mar low C = 13.2
| Apr low C = 17.9
| May low C = 23.9
| Jun low C = 25.9
| Jul low C = 25.5
| Aug low C = 25.0
| Sep low C = 23.5
| Oct low C = 18.3
| Nov low C = 11.6
| Dec low C = 7.7
|year low C = 17.3
| Jan record low C = 1.0
| Feb record low C = 0.5
| Mar record low C = 5.0
| Apr record low C = 7.0
| May record low C = 8.5
| Jun record low C = 17.0
| Jul record low C = 11.5
| Aug record low C = 17.5
| Sep record low C = 17.6
| Oct record low C = 11.5
| Nov record low C = 4.0
| Dec record low C = 2.0
|year record low C = 0.5
| rain colour = green
| Jan rain mm = 10.4
| Feb rain mm = 13.6
| Mar rain mm = 6.8
| Apr rain mm = 10.1
| May rain mm = 17.8
| Jun rain mm = 35.5
| Jul rain mm = 164.7
| Aug rain mm = 205.2
| Sep rain mm = 105.0
| Oct rain mm = 18.0
| Nov rain mm = 3.9
| Dec rain mm = 9.0
|year rain mm = 600.1
| Jan rain days = 0.9
| Feb rain days = 1.3
| Mar rain days = 1.0
| Apr rain days = 0.9
| May rain days = 1.5
| Jun rain days = 3.0
| Jul rain days = 9.0
| Aug rain days = 9.1
| Sep rain days = 4.9
| Oct rain days = 0.9
| Nov rain days = 0.3
| Dec rain days = 1.1
|year rain days = 33.9
|time day = 17:30 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| Jan humidity = 65
| Feb humidity = 59
| Mar humidity = 53
| Apr humidity = 48
| May humidity = 39
| Jun humidity = 43
| Jul humidity = 67
| Aug humidity = 72
| Sep humidity = 71
| Oct humidity = 63
| Nov humidity = 56
| Dec humidity = 60
|year humidity = 58
|source 1 = [[India Meteorological Department]]<ref name=IMDnormals>
{{cite web
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200205040301/http://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/1981-2010%20CLIM%20NORMALS%20%28STATWISE%29.pdf
| archive-date = 5 February 2020
| url = https://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/1981-2010%20CLIM%20NORMALS%20%28STATWISE%29.pdf
| title = Station: Mathura Climatological Table 1981–2010
| work = Climatological Normals 1981–2010
| publisher = India Meteorological Department
| date = January 2015
| pages = 481–482
| access-date = 22 September 2020}}</ref><ref name=IMDextremes>
{{cite web
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200205042509/http://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/EXTREMES%20OF%20TEMPERATURE%20and%20RAINFALL%20upto%202012.pdf
| archive-date = 5 February 2020
| url = https://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/EXTREMES%20OF%20TEMPERATURE%20and%20RAINFALL%20upto%202012.pdf
| title = Extremes of Temperature & Rainfall for Indian Stations (Up to 2012)
| publisher = India Meteorological Department
| date = December 2016
| page = M220
| access-date = 22 September 2020}}</ref>
}}

== Demographics ==
As of [[2011 Indian Census]], Vrindavan had a total population of 63,005, of which 34,769 were males and 28,236 were females. Population within the age group of 0 to 6 years was 7,818. The total number of literates in Vrindavan was 42,917, which constituted 68.11% of the population with male literacy of 73.7% and female literacy of 61.2%. The effective literacy rate of 7+ population of Vrindavan was 77.8%, of which male literacy rate was 83.7% and female literacy rate was 70.3%. The sex ratio is 812 females per 1000 males. The [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes]] population was 6,294 and 18, respectively. Vrindavan had 11,637 households in 2011.<ref name="Census2011Gov">{{cite web |title=Census of India: Vrindavan |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/pca/SearchDetails.aspx?Id=143385 |website=www.censusindia.gov.in |access-date=9 October 2019}}</ref><ref name="nayaka1974">{{cite book| title=A students' history of education in India (1800–1973) | authors=Jayant Pandurang Nayaka, Syed Nurullah | year=1974 |edition=6 | publisher=Macmillan | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kNQLHQAACAAJ}}</ref>

Vrindavan lies in the cultural region of [[Braj]].<ref name="LuciaMichelutti1">{{cite web | url=http://etheses.lse.ac.uk/2106/1/U613338.pdf | title=Sons of Krishna: the politics of Yadav community formation in a North Indian town | publisher=London School of Economics and Political Science University of London | work=PhD Thesis Social Anthropology | date=2002 | access-date=20 May 2015 | author=Lucia Michelutti | pages=49}}</ref>

== Religious heritage ==
{{Main|Radha|Krishna|Radha Krishna}}
[[File:Aindra Dasa Kartik 2009.JPG|thumb|[[ISKCON]] devotee singing bhajan in Vrindavan]]
Vrindavan is considered to be a sacred place for [[Vaisnavism]] tradition of [[Hinduism]]. The other prominent areas surrounding Vrindavan are [[Govardhan Hill|Govardhana]], [[Gokul]], [[Nandgaon, Uttar Pradesh|Nandgaon]], [[Barsana]], [[Mathura]] and [[Chhari|Bhandirvan]]. Along with Vrindavan, all these places are considered to be the center of [[Radha]] and [[Krishna]] worship. Millions of devotees of [[Radha Krishna]] visit Vrindavan and its nearby areas every year to participate in number of festivals.<ref name = kk2007>{{cite book
|author=Klaus Klostermaier|year=2007|title=A Survey of Hinduism|publisher=State University of New York Press; 3 edition
|isbn=978-0-7914-7081-7|quote = The center of Krishna-worship has been for a long time Brajbhumi, the district of Mathura that embraces also Vrindavana, Govardhana, and Gokula, associated with Krishna from the time immemorial. Many millions of Krishna ''bhaktas'' visit these places every year and participate in the numerous festivals that re-enact divine scenes from Krishna's life on Earth, of which were spent in those very places|page=204|author-link=Klaus Klostermaier}} Vrinda means Tulsi (A sacred species of flora) and van as forest, therefore Vrindavan is a holy forest of Tulsi. Vijaypal Baghel, known as GreenMan is promoting, planting and farming Tulsi in mass around the Vrindavan.</ref> The common salutation or greetings used in [[Braj|Braj region]] by its residents is ''[[Radhe Radhe]]'' which is associated with the Goddess Radha<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lynch|first=Owen M.|title=Divine Passions|chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1525/9780520309753-002/html|chapter=ONE. The Social Construction of Emotion in India|date=31 December 1990|pages=3–34|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-30975-3|language=en|doi=10.1525/9780520309753-002}}</ref> or [[Hare Krishna (mantra)|Hare Krishna]] which is associated with Krishna.

== History ==
{{more sources needed | section|date=December 2021}}
[[File:Swiatyniamadanmohan.jpg|thumb|The 17th century [[Radha Madan Mohan Temple, Vrindavan|Shri Radha Madan Mohan Temple]] was built by [[Raja]] Gopal Singhji of [[Karauli]] dynasty]]
Vrindavan has an ancient past, associated with Hindu culture and history, and was established in the 16th and 17th centuries as a result of an explicit treaty between Muslims and Hindu Emperors,<ref>{{cite news |title=Watch {{!}} John Stratton Hawley on His Latest Book on 'Krishna's Playground' |url=https://thewire.in/urban/watch-john-stratton-hawley-book |access-date=3 March 2020 |work=The Wire |date=25 January 2020}}</ref> and is an important Hindu pilgrimage site since long.

Of the contemporary times, [[Vallabha]]charya, aged eleven visited Vrindavan. Later on, he performed three pilgrimages of [[India]], barefoot giving discourses on [[Bhagavad Gita]] at 84 places. These 84 places are known as [[Pushtimarg Baithak]] and since then are the places of pilgrimage. Yet, he stayed in Vrindavan for four months each year. Vrindavan thus heavily influenced his formation of [[Pushtimarg]].
[[File:Bankebihari temple main gate Vrindavan.JPG|alt=Banke Bihari Temple, Vrindavan|thumb|Banke Bihari Temple, Vrindavan]]
The essence of Vrindavan was lost over time until the 16th century, when it was rediscovered by [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]]. In the year 1515, [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] visited Vrindavan, with the purpose of locating the lost holy places associated with Krishna's life.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mvtindia.com/history/discovery.htm|title=Discovery of Vrindavan by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu|access-date=6 December 2019|archive-date=23 January 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110123021950/http://www.mvtindia.com/history/discovery.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In the last 250 years, the extensive forests of Vrindavan have been subjected to urbanization, first by local Rajas and in recent decades by apartment developers. The forest cover has been whittled away to only a few remaining spots, and the local wildlife, including [[peacock]]s, [[cattle|cows]], [[monkey]]s and a variety of bird species has been virtually eliminated.

== Temples ==
[[File:Rangnathji Temple Vrindavan.jpg|thumb|Rangnathji Temple, Vrindavan]]
Vrindavan, the land of [[Radha Krishna]] has about 5500 temples dedicated to them to showcase their divine pastimes.<ref>{{cite book |author=Rājaśekhara Dāsa |year=2000 |title=The Color Guide to Vṛndāvana: India's Most Holy City of Over 5,000 Temples |publisher=Vedanta Vision Publication |url={{Google books|Q1cvAAAAYAAJ|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}}}</ref><ref>[http://news.vrindavantoday.org/2016/06/seven-main-temples-of-vrindavan Seven main temples of Vrindavan], Vrindavantoday.org</ref> Some of the important pilgrimage sites are<ref>{{Cite book |last=Anand |first=D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EsvSwdUgQYcC&q=radha+purana |title=Krishna: The Living God of Braj |date=1992 |publisher=Abhinav Publications |isbn=978-81-7017-280-2 |pages=42–86 |language=en |chapter=Temples and Places}}</ref> -
*[[Radha Madan Mohan Temple, Vrindavan|Shri Radha Madan Mohan Temple]], located near the Kalidah Ghat was built by Kapur Ram Das of [[Multan]]. One of the oldest temples in Vrindavan, it is closely associated with [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]]. The original deity of Madan Gopal was shifted from the shrine to [[Karauli]] in Rajasthan for safekeeping during [[Aurangzeb]]'s rule. Today, a replica of the original (deity) is worshipped at the temple
*[[Radha Raman Temple|Sri Radha Raman Mandir]], constructed at the request of [[Gopala Bhatta Goswami]] and houses a [[saligram]] deity of Krishna as [[Radha Ramana]], alongside [[Radha]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.salagram.net/sstp-RadhaRamanVrindavan.html|title=Sri Radha Raman in Vrindavan|website=www.salagram.net|access-date=6 December 2019}}</ref>
*[[Banke Bihari Temple]], built in 1862<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bihariji.org/may08/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=12&Itemid=26|title=Banke-Bihari Temple website|access-date=6 December 2019|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304032027/https://www.bihariji.org/may08/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=12&Itemid=26|url-status=dead}}</ref> after the image of Banke-Bihari was discovered in [[Nidhivan, Vrindavan|Nidhivan]] by [[Swami Haridas]].
*[[Radha Vallabh Temple, Vrindavan|Radha Vallabh Temple]] is one of the ancient temple of Vrindavan. It was constructed in 1585 AD and was the first temple made up of red sandstones.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781400859894.176/html|chapter=Chapter 7. Cross-Cultural Dynamics of Mystical Emotions in Vrindaban|date=14 July 2014|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-5989-4|language=en|doi=10.1515/9781400859894.176|title=The Hare Krishnas in India|pages=176–198}}</ref>
*[[Radha Damodar Temple, Vrindavan|Radha Damodar Temple]] is a [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism]] temple, which is dedicated to Radha Krishna and was constructed in 1542 CE.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Radha Damodar Mandir, Vrindavan - Info, Timings, Photos, History|url=https://www.templepurohit.com/hindu-temple/radha-damodar-mandir-mandir-vrindavan/|access-date=2 September 2021|website=TemplePurohit - Your Spiritual Destination {{!}} Bhakti, Shraddha Aur Ashirwad|language=en-US}}</ref>
*[[Krishna Balaram Mandir|Sri Krishna-Balarama Temple]] was built by the [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness]] (ISKCON) in Raman-Reti.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ISKCON Vrindavan - Home |url=http://www.iskconvrindavan.com}}</ref> The principal deities of this temple are Krishna and Balaram, with Radha–[[Krishna|Shyamasundar]] and [[Gauranga|Gaura]]-[[Nityananda|Nitai]] alongside. Adjoining the temple is the samadhi of [[A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada]], the founder of ISKCON, built in pure white marble.
*[[Prem Mandir Vrindavan|Prem Mandir]] is a spiritual complex situated on a 54-acre site on the outskirts of Vrindavan dedicated to divine love. The temple structure was established by spiritual guru [[Kripalu Maharaj]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 August 2013 |title=Famous Krishna Temples in India |url=https://zeenews.india.com/entertainment/slideshow/famous-krishna-temples-india_297.html |access-date=6 December 2019 |website=Zee News}}</ref> The main structure built in marble and figures of Krishna cover the main temple.<ref>{{cite news |last=Kumar |first=Mayank |date=13 February 2012 |title=Kripaluji Maharaj's Prem Mandir will be inaugurated on 17 February |publisher=Aaj Ki Khabar |url=http://www.aajkikhabar.com/News/Region/Kripaluji-Maharaj-s-Prem-Mandir-will-be-inaugurated-on-17th-February/690284.html |url-status=dead |access-date=29 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140330113922/http://www.aajkikhabar.com/News/Region/Kripaluji-Maharaj-s-Prem-Mandir-will-be-inaugurated-on-17th-February/690284.html |archive-date=30 March 2014}}</ref>
*[[Vrindavan Chandrodaya Mandir]] is housed in a modern geodesic structure with a traditional gopuram based on [[Khajuraho]] style of architecture. It is being built by one of the [[ISKCON]] factions based in [[Bangalore]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=News18.com: CNN-News18 Breaking News India, Latest News Headlines, Live News Updates |url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/iskcon-to-build-worlds-tallest-temple-at-mathura-from-today/458198-3-242.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140316105823/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/iskcon-to-build-worlds-tallest-temple-at-mathura-from-today/458198-3-242.html |archive-date=16 March 2014 |access-date=6 December 2019 |website=News18}}</ref> At cost of {{INRConvert|300|c}} it will be the tallest temple in world on completion.

==Transportation==
===Road===
Vrindavan is well connected by roads and is connected to [[Delhi]] by [[National Highway 44 (India)|National Highway (NH) 44]] of the [[Golden Quadrilateral]] network. Earlier it was NH 2.<ref name=route>{{cite web |title=NHAI |url=http://www.nhai.org/NH2_Delhi_Kolkata_main.htm |access-date=14 February 2018 |archive-date=4 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161204065036/http://www.nhai.org/NH2_Delhi_Kolkata_main.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

129 km from [[New Delhi]]

117 km from [[Gurgaon]]

54 km from [[Agra]]

9 km from [[Mathura]]

While in Vrindavan, battery powered [[Electric rickshaw|e-rickshaw]] are available for commuting within city-limits.

===Rail===
*[[Vrindavan railway station|BDB/Vrindavan]] is on the Mathura-Vrindavan MG link.
*[[Vrindaban Road railway station|VRBD/Vrindavan Road]] is on the Agra-Delhi chord.

=== Flight ===
Nearest Airports are [[Agra Airport]] and [[Indira Gandhi International Airport|New Delhi International Airport]].

== City of Widows ==
Vrindavan is also known as the "city of widows"<ref name="cnn">{{cite news |title=India's widows live out sentence of shame, poverty |url=http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/9711/16/india.women/ |access-date=25 March 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061129032657/http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/9711/16/india.women/ |archive-date=29 November 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=2 May 2013 |title=The Indian town with 6,000 widows |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-21859622 |access-date=12 January 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=8 March 2019 |title=The widows of Vrindavan |work=cnbctv18.com |url=https://www.cnbctv18.com/photos/buzz/the-widows-of-vrindavan-2537551-12.htm |access-date=12 January 2021}}</ref> due to the large number of [[widow]]s who move into the town and surrounding area after losing their husbands. There are an estimated 15,000 to 20,000 widows. The widows come from states of West Bengal, Assam and Odisha.<ref name="catalyst">{{cite web |title=Catalyst Magazine: ''Moksha: the widows of Vrindavan'' |url=http://www.catalystmagazine.org/Default.aspx.LocID-0hgnew0ha.RefLocID-0hg01b001006009.Lang-EN.htm |access-date=25 March 2007 |archive-date=3 April 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070403073306/http://www.catalystmagazine.org/Default.aspx.LocID-0hgnew0ha.RefLocID-0hg01b001006009.Lang-EN.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="cnn2">{{cite news |date=5 July 2007 |title=''Shunned from society, widows flock to city to die'' |work=CNN |url=http://www.cnn.com/2007/WORLD/asiapcf/07/05/damon.india.widows/index.html |access-date=5 July 2007}}</ref> Many spend time singing [[bhajan]] hymns at [[ashram|bhajanashrams]]. An organization called Guild of Service was formed to assist these deprived women and children.<ref name="cnn" /><ref name="cnn2" /> According to a survey report prepared by the government, several homes run by the government and different NGOs for widows.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sulabh dons mantle |url=http://www.sulabhinternational.org/content/sulabh-dons-mantle-good-samaritan-save-vrindavan-widows |access-date=6 December 2019}}</ref>

== Gallery ==
<gallery>
KesiGhat River.JPG|Keshi Ghat on banks of the [[Yamuna]] river
Vrindavan, India (20566547434).jpg|Rangaji Temple of Vrindavan
PremMandirSideViewFromCanteen.jpg|[[Prem Mandir, Vrindavan]]
ISKON TEMPLE 1.jpg|[[Krishna Balaram Mandir]]
Madanmohan Mandir Vrindavan.JPG|[[Radha Madan Mohan Temple, Vrindavan]]
Radharani 5.jpg|Wall art of the name [[Radha]]
Pagal Baba Mandir.jpg|Pagal Baba Temple
</gallery>

== See also ==
{{Portal|India|Hinduism}}
*[[Gokul]]
*[[Mathura]]
*[[Barsana]]
*[[Nandgaon, Uttar Pradesh|Nandgaon]]
*[[Radha Kund]]
*[[Kusum Sarovar]]
*[[Radha Rani Temple]]
*[[Banke Bihari Temple]]
*[[Radha Raman Temple]]
*[[Radha Madan Mohan Temple, Vrindavan]]
*[[Nidhivan, Vrindavan|Nidhivan]]
*[[Radha Krishna]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|40em}}

== External links ==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons category}}
{{Wikivoyage-inline}}

{{Hindu holy cities}}
{{Krishna}}
{{Mathura district}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Vrindavan| ]]
[[Category:Krishna]]
[[Category:Cities and towns in Mathura district]]
[[Category:Vaishnavism]]
[[Category:Sacred groves]]
[[Category:Widowhood in India]]
[[Category:Yamuna River]]
[[Category:Rigvedic rivers]]
[[Category:Hinduism]]
[[Category:Krishna temples]]
[[Category:Locations in Hindu mythology]]
[[Category:Holy cities]]
[[Category:Hindu holy cities]]
[[Category:Hindu pilgrimages]]
[[Category:Hindu pilgrimage sites in India]]
[[Category:Religious tourism in India]]
[[Category:Ancient Indian cities]]

Hanuman Jayanti

2023-01-08T19:12:32Z

ImportMaster: robot: Create/update articles in Category:Hindu gods.

{{Short description|Hindu festival}}

{{EngvarB|date=November 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox holiday
| type = Hindu
| longtype = Religious
| image =
| image_alt =
| caption = Hanuman worshipped on Hanuman Jayanti
| official_name =
| nickname =
| observedby = [[Hindu]]s
| begins = [[Chaitra]] [[Purnima (day)|Purnima]]
| ends = Chaitra Purnima
| month = April
| date2022 = Saturday Apr 16, 2022
| date2023 = Thursday April 06, 2023<ref>[https://www.drikpanchang.com/hindu-festivals/hanuman-jayanti/hanuman-jayanti.html Hanuman Jayanti]</ref>
| celebrations = 1 day
| observances =
| relatedto =
| frequency = Annual
| holiday_name = Hanuman
| date = 16th oct
}}
{{Hinduism}}

'''Hanuman Jayanti''' ({{Lang-sa|हनुमज्जयंती|lit=Victory of Hanuman|translit=Hanumajjayantī}}) is a [[List of Hindu festivals|Hindu festival]] that celebrates the birth of the Hindu deity, and one of the protagonists of the [[Ramayana]], [[Hanuman]]. In most states of [[India]], the festival is observed on the [[Purnima|full-moon day]] of the [[Hindu calendar|Hindu month]] of [[Chaitra]] (Chaitra Purnima).<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2018-06-09 |title=Hanumajjayanti, Hanumajjayantī, Hanumat-jayanti, Hanūmajjayantī: 3 definitions |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/hanumajjayanti |access-date=2022-11-15 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Melton |first=J. Gordon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v2yiyLLOj88C&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA1310&dq=hanuman+jayanti&hl=en |title=Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices, 2nd Edition [6 volumes] |last2=Baumann |first2=Martin |date=2010-09-21 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-59884-204-3 |language=en}}</ref> In [[Karnataka]], Hanuman Jayanti is observed on Shukla Paksha Trayodashi, during the Margashirsha month or in [[Vaisakha|Vaishakha]], while in a few states like [[Kerala]] and [[Tamil Nadu]], it is celebrated during the month of [[Dhanu (month)|Dhanu]] (called ''[[Tamil calendar|Margali]]'' in Tamil).

Hanuman is regarded to be an ardent devotee of [[Rama]], an incarnation of Vishnu, widely known for his unflinching devotion. He is revered as a symbol of strength<ref>{{Cite book |last=Verma |first=Manish |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z4gzFFLdBoYC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA17&dq=hanuman+jayanti&hl=en |title=Fasts and Festivals of India |date=2013 |publisher=Diamond Pocket Books (P) Ltd. |isbn=978-81-7182-076-4 |language=en}}</ref> and energy, and is venerated for these reasons on this occasion.

== Legend ==
[[File:Anjani with Child Hanuman - Bronze - Pallava Period - ACCN 15-524 - Government Museum - Mathura 2013-02-24 6603.JPG|thumbnail|Anjani (Anjana) with Child Hanuman - Bronze, [[Pallava]] Period, [[Mathura]], India|358x358px]]
Hanuman is a [[vanara]], born to [[Kesari (Ramayana)|Kesari]] and [[Añjanā|Anjana]]. Hanuman is also known as the son of [[Vayu]], the wind-god.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cole |first=Owen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kVc4AgAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PT42&dq=hanuman+hinduism&hl=en |title=Hinduism - An Introduction |last2=Kanit |first2=V. P. Hermant |date=2010-06-25 |publisher=John Murray Press |isbn=978-1-4441-3100-0 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> His mother, [[Añjanā|Anjana]], was an [[apsara]] who was born on [[bhuloka|earth]] due to a curse. She was redeemed from this curse upon giving birth to a son. The [[Valmiki]] Ramayana states that his father, [[Kesari (Ramayana)|Kesari]], was the son of [[Brihaspati]], the king of a region named Sumeru, located near the kingdom of [[Kishkindha]].<ref name=Puranas>[https://books.google.com/books?id=nmmkM0fVS-cC&dq=bibliogroup:%22Encyclopaedic+Dictionary+of+Pur%C4%81%E1%B9%87as%22&source=gbs_navlinks_s Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Puranas: (A-C) ; 2.(D-H) ; 3.(I-L) ; 4.(M-R) ; 5.(S-Z)], pp=628-631, Swami Parmeshwaranand, Sarup & Sons, 2001, {{ISBN|81-7625-226-3}}, {{ISBN|978-81-7625-226-3}}</ref> Anjana is said to have performed intense prayers lasting twelve years to [[Shiva|Rudra]] to bear a child. Pleased with their devotion, Rudra granted them the son they sought.<ref>Sri Ramakrishna Math (1985) "Hanuman Chalisa" p. 5</ref>

[[Eknath]]'s ''Bhavartha Ramayana'' states that when Anjana was worshiping Rudra, King [[Dasharatha]] of [[Ayodhya]] was also performing the ritual of [[Putrakameshti]] in order to have children. As a result, he received some sacred pudding ([[payasam]]) to be shared by his three wives, leading to the births of [[Rama]], [[Lakshmana]], [[Bharata (Ramayana)|Bharata]], and [[Shatrughna]]. By divine ordinance, a [[Kite (bird)|kite]] snatched a fragment of that pudding and dropped it while flying over the forest where Anjana was engaged in worship. Vayu, delivered the falling pudding to the outstretched hands of Anjana, who consumed it. Hanuman was born to her as a result.<ref name=Puranas/><ref>Sri Ramakrishna Math (1985) "Hanuman Chalisa" pp. 5-6</ref>

== Worship ==
Hanuman is worshipped as a deity with the ability to gain victory over evil and provide protection. On this festival, devotees of Hanuman celebrate him and seek his protection and blessings. They join in temples to worship him and present religious offerings. In return, the devotees receive [[Prasad|prasadam]]<ref name=":0" /> by the temple priests as sweets, flowers, coconuts, [[tilak|tilaka]], sacred ash (''udi'') and holy water from the river [[Ganges]] (''Ganga jalam''). People who revere him also recite various devotional hymns and prayers like the [[Hanuman Chalisa]] and read holy scriptures like the [[Ramayana]] and [[Mahabharata]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Illustrated_Encyclopedia_of_Hinduism/g6FsB3psOTIC?hl=en |title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism}}</ref>[[File:Madurai Meenakshi temple prayer.jpg|thumb|left|A woman praying to Hanuman, the monkey god at [[Meenakshi Amman Temple]] in [[Madurai]], India]] Devotees visit temples and apply a ''[[tilaka]]'' of ''[[sindoor|sinduram]]'' to their foreheads from Hanuman's [[murti]]. According to legend, when Hanuman found [[Sita]] applying sinduram to her forehead, he enquired about this custom. She replied that doing so would ensure a long life for her husband, Rama. Hanuman then proceeded to smear his entire body with sinduram, thus ensuring Rama's immortality.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hanuman {{!}} Hindu mythology {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hanuman |access-date=2022-04-15 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

In [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Kerala]], Hanuman Jayanti is celebrated on the [[New Moon]] day in [[Margazhi|Margali]] ([[Dhanu (month)|Dhanu]]) month. Famous Hanuman temples in these states like Nanganallur, Namakkal, Suchindram, Thrikkaviyoor and Alathiyoor celebrate this day with pomp.{{Citation needed|date=November 2022|reason=need to find a reliable source that states this information}}

In [[Telangana]] and [[Andhra Pradesh]], Hanuman Jayanti is celebrated by a [[diksha]] of 41 days, beginning on Chaitra Purnima, and concluding on the tenth day during Krishna Paksha in Vaishaka.{{Citation needed|date=November 2022|reason=reliable source needed to support this information}}

In [[Maharashtra]], Hanuman Jayanti is celebrated on the full moon day (pūrnima) of the Hindu lunar month of Chaitra. A special feature of Hanuman Jayanti is that according to some religious almanacs (panchāngs) the birthday of Hanuman falls on the fourteenth day (chaturdashi) in the dark fortnight of the month of Ashvin, while according to others it falls on the full moon day in the bright fortnight of Chaitra. On this day in a Hanuman temple, spiritual discourses begin at dawn since Hanuman is believed to have been born during sunrise. During the time frame of birth, the spiritual discourse are halted and the offering of food (prasadam) is distributed to everyone.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vamtantra.com/hanuman-jayanti/|title=Hanuman Janmotsav Puja To Make Lord Hanuman Happy|language=en-US|access-date=2019-10-02}}</ref> Spiritual discourses are organised in most of the Hindu temples of the region on this day.

== See also ==
*[[Narasimha Jayanti]]
*[[Rama Navami]]
*[[Krishna Janmashtami]]
*[[Anjaneya Temple, Nanganallur]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{commons category|Hanuman Jayanti}}
{{Sindhi festivals}}
{{HinduFestivals}}

[[Category:Festivals in India]]
[[Category:January observances]] 
[[Category:March observances]]
[[Category:April observances]]
[[Category:Hindu holy days]]
[[Category:Hindu festivals in India]]
[[Category:Hanuman]]

Garga Samhita (Vaishnavite text)

2023-01-08T15:57:06Z

ImportMaster: robot: Create/update articles in Category:Hindu gods.

{{short description|Sanskrit text by Sage Garga}}
{{other uses|Garga Samhita (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox religious text
|image = Garga Sanhita.jpg
|caption = Front cover of Garga Sanhita published by [[Gita Press]], [[Gorakhpur]]
|religion = [[Hinduism]]
|language = [[Sanskrit]]
|verses = 12,000
|chapters = 267
|author = Garga
}}
'''''Garga-samhita''''' ({{lang-sa|गर्ग संहिता}}, [[IAST]]: Garga-saṃhitā) is an ancient [[Sanskrit]]-language [[Vaishnavite]] scripture based on Hindu deities [[Radha]] and [[Krishna]]. Its authorship is attributed to the sage Garga, the head priest of Krishna's clan [[Yadava]].<ref name="Lavanya_Krishna">{{cite book |author=Lavanya Vemsani |title=Krishna in History, Thought, and Culture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4fw2DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA99 |year=2016 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-61069-211-3 |pages=99–100 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1=Danavir Goswami |editor2=Kusakratha Dasa |title=Kr̥ṣṇa Comes to Earth (Śrī Garga-saṃhitā: Ist canto, pt. 2. ch. 7-13) |year=2006 |publisher=Rupanuga Vedic College |url=https://books.google.co.in/books/about/%C5%9Ar%C4%AB_Garga_sa%E1%B9%83hit%C4%81_Ist_canto_pt_2_ch.html?id=079BzgEACAAJ |access-date=2022-10-21 |language=en}}</ref> It is the earliest text that associates [[Radha Krishna]] and [[gopis]] with the [[Holi]] festival.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Varadpande |first=M. L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FX2btUszr6cC&dq=Garga+samhita&pg=PT35 |title=Love in Ancient India |year=2007 |publisher=Wisdom Tree |isbn=978-81-8328-217-8 |language=en |pages=11-12 }}</ref>

== Chapters ==

''Garga-Sanmita''{{efn|A ''sanmita'' is the collection of verses, hymns, prayers and [[mantras]].}} contains 11 ''khandas'' or parts:<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gita Press Gorakhpur |url=http://archive.org/details/garga-samhita-gita-press-gorakhpur |title=Garga Samhita Gita Press Gorakhpur}}</ref><ref name="Lavanya_Krishna"/>

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Garga-samhita contents
! #
! ''Khanda'' (Book)
! Number of chapters
! Content
|-
| 1
| ''Goloka-khanda''
| 20
| Pastimes of [[Radha Krishna]] in [[Goloka]], Structure of Goloka.
|-
| 2
| ''Vrindavana-khanda''
| 26
| Krishna's pastimes with [[Radha]], [[Gopi]]s and Gopas (cowherds); identifies various places (including Vrindavan) in the [[Mathura]] ''mandala'' (region) as the sites of these events.
|-
| 3
| ''Giriraja-khanda''
| 11
| Divinity of [[Govardhan Hill]] and its festivals
|-
| 4
| ''Madhurya-khanda''
| 24
| Love life of Radha Krishna in Vrindavan, including descriptions of [[Radha Krishna]], [[Gopis]], and [[Yamuna in Hinduism|Yamuna]]
|-
| 5
| ''Mathura-khanda''
| 25
| Krishna's return to Mathura, and his killing of [[Kamsa]]; conversation between [[Uddhava]] and [[Gopis]]
|-
| 6
| ''Dvaraka-khanda''
| 22
| Foundation of the [[Dvārakā]] city, its description, and Krishna's pastimes there
|-
| 7
| ''Vishvajit-khanda''
| 50
| Krishna's exploits and divinity, including his role in the [[Mahabharata War]]
|-
| 8
| ''Balabhadra-khanda''
| 13
| [[Balarama]]'s exploits and divinity
|-
| 9
| ''Vijnana-khanda''
| 10
| Devotional instructions for deity worship; it is a concluding chapter, suggesting that the original text comprised only nine books
|-
| 10
| ''Ashvamedha-khanda''
| 62
| [[Ugrasena]]'s ''[[ashvamedha]]''; Radha-Krishna's reunion in Vrindavan and departure to [[Goloka]]; believed to be a later addition to the text
|-
| 11
| ''Garga-samhita Mahatmaya''
| 4
| Significance of ''Garga-samhita''
|}

== See also ==

* [[Brahma Samhita]]
* [[Brahma Vaivarta Purana]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==

* {{cite book |author1=Garga |author2=Danavir Goswami |author3=Kuśakratha Dāsa |title=Śrī Garga-saṃhitā |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pRpMnwEACAAJ |year=2006 |publisher=Rupanuga Vedic College |isbn=978-1-934405-21-5}} Includes the original Sanskrit text with Roman transliteration and English translation.
* [[iarchive:GargaSamhita/page/n49/mode/2up|Garga Sanhita in Sankrit and Hindi]]
* [[iarchive:garga-samhita_202103/page/60/mode/2up|Garga Sanhita in English]]

[[Category:Sanskrit literature]]
[[Category:1st-century books]]
[[Category:Krishna]]
[[Category:Vaishnava texts]]