Bharatpedia - User contributions [en]

It's a Wonderful Afterlife

2026-05-05T23:40:59Z

IgnacioElem3: started entry!

{{distinguish|It's a Wonderful Life (disambiguation){{!}}It's a Wonderful Life}}
{{Use British English|date=September 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox film
| name = It's a Wonderful Afterlife
| image = Its-a-wonderful-afterlife-april-21-film-poster.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[Gurinder Chadha]]
| producer =
| writer = {{unbulleted list|[[Paul Mayeda Berges]]|[[Gurinder Chadha]]}}
| narrator =
| starring = {{unbulleted list|[[Goldy Notay]]|[[Shabana Azmi]]|[[Sally Hawkins]]|[[Sendhil Ramamurthy]]|[[Zoë Wanamaker]]}}
| music = [[Sony Music]]
| cinematography = [[Dick Pope (cinematographer)|Dick Pope]]
| editing = Oral Nottie Ottey
| studio = [[Viacom18 Studios|Indian Films]] Bend It Films [[Viacom18 Studios|Studio 18]]
| distributor = [[Icon Film Distribution]]
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2010|01|26|Sundance Film Festival|2010|05|07|ref2=<ref>{{cite news|title=It's A Wonderful Afterlife|url=http://www.mid-day.com/entertainment/2010/may/030510-wonderful-afterlife-preview.htm |publisher=Icon |date=1 March 2010|access-date=18 March 2010}}</ref>}}
| runtime = 100 minutes
| country = United Kingdom
| language = English
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''It's a Wonderful Afterlife''''' is a 2010 British comedy film directed by [[Gurinder Chadha]]. The screenplay centres on an Indian mother whose obsession with marrying off her daughter leads her into the realm of serial murder. It was filmed primarily in English, with some [[Hindi]] and [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] dialogue.<ref>{{cite news|title=International cast announced for Gurinder Chadha's It's A Wonderful Afterlife|url=http://www.theasiannews.co.uk/entertainment/arts/s/1107786_international_cast_announced_for_gurinder_chadhas_its_a_wonderful_afterlife|publisher=AsianNews.com|date=13 April 2009|access-date=18 April 2009|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130421084520/http://www.theasiannews.co.uk/entertainment/arts/s/1107786_international_cast_announced_for_gurinder_chadhas_its_a_wonderful_afterlife|archive-date=21 April 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> The title is a reference to Chadha's personal attachment to Frank Capra's film ''[[It's a Wonderful Life]]''. Chadha also co-produced the film, and co-wrote the screenplay with her husband and producing partner, [[Paul Mayeda Berges]]. The lead role is played by newcomer [[Goldy Notay]], joining [[Shabana Azmi]], [[Shaheen Khan (British actress)|Shaheen Khan]], [[Sendhil Ramamurthy]] and [[Sally Hawkins]] in the cast.

==Plot==
{{Hook|date=August 2024}}
Mrs Sethi is a widow living in [[Southall]] who wants to marry off her only daughter, for she is alone and unhappy. Her daughter, Roopi, is a little plump and opinionated. Mrs Sethi finds that all her matchmaking efforts are rudely rejected. She avenges this behaviour toward her daughter by murdering the failed dates using her culinary skills. A police hunt begins for a serial murderer using a killer [[curry]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Gurinder Chadha's big fat Punjabi wedding|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/cinemascope/Gurinder-Chadha-s-big-fat-Punjabi-wedding/Article1-531988.aspx|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022112041/http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/cinemascope/Gurinder-Chadha-s-big-fat-Punjabi-wedding/Article1-531988.aspx|url-status=dead|archive-date=22 October 2012|publisher=Hindustan Times |date=20 April 2010}}</ref>

Mrs Sethi does not feel guilty until the spirits of her victims come back to haunt her. They are unable to [[reincarnate]] until their murderer dies. Mrs Sethi must kill herself to free the spirits, but vows to get her daughter married first.

The spirits realise that helping Roopi find a suitable husband before the police catch Mrs Sethi is in their best interests, and everyone begins to work together. Meanwhile, Roopi catches the eye of the young Sergeant investigating the case.

==Cast==
* [[Shabana Azmi]] as Mrs Sethi
* [[Goldy Notay]] as Roopi
* [[Sendhil Ramamurthy]] as Raj (D.S. Murthy)
* [[Sally Hawkins]] as Linda/Gitali
* [[Zoë Wanamaker]] as Mrs Goldsmith
* [[Sanjeev Bhaskar]] as The Curry Man
* Catherine Balavage as Waitress
* [[Shaheen Khan (British actress)|Shaheen Khan]] as Manjeet Kahl/The Kebab Woman
* Adlyn Ross as Mrs Chakra/The Rolling Pin Woman
* Ash Varrez as Mr Chakra/The Naan Man
* [[Mark Addy]] as D.I. Smythe
* [[Preeya Kalidas]] as Karishma
* [[Jimi Mistry]] as Dev
* Ray Panthaki as Jazz
* [[Don Warrington]] as Chief Superintendent

==Production==
The film is a comedy which uses [[satirical]] and [[Ealing Comedies|Ealing-style humour]]. Depicting life amongst the Asian community in Britain, it is set in the west London suburb of Southall.

===Development===
Chadha conceived the film while watching 'The 100 Greatest Family Films' on [[Channel 4]] when narrator [[Bob Hoskins]] introduced a wedding scene from her earlier film ''[[Bend It Like Beckham]]'' at position 71.

“It was the Indian wedding scene and the party, which was inter-cut with the football,” says Chadha, “and immediately I remembered how much fun we'd had shooting that scene. The wedding is so integral to our culture that I suddenly thought ‘How can I do another wedding scene without repeating myself?’ So I thought maybe I could do it with a horror spin, where everything goes awry. Much like the prom scene at the end of ''[[Carrie (1976 film)|Carrie]]''.”<ref>{{cite news|title=It's A Wonderful Afterlife – Gurinder Chadha interview|url=http://www.indielondon.co.uk/Film-Review/it-s-a-wonderful-afterlife-gurinder-chadha-interview|publisher=IndieLondon}}</ref>

Working with long-time collaborator and screenwriter Berges, Chadha spent two and half years writing the script. “I started seeing this crazy film, set in [[Ealing]], in the world of ''Bend It Like Beckham'' and yet in a completely different genre,” continues Chadha. “We worked on the script, came up with the idea of the mum, the plump daughter and these spirits that return.”

Starting with the working title ''My Bloody Wedding'', Chadha and Berges created the character of Roopi, a young British Indian woman, and Mrs Sethi, her meddling mother. “Really it's an Ealing comedy about an Indian mum who lives with her daughter. The daughter is a little bit overweight, not exactly beautiful and has a broken engagement behind her,” explained Chadha. “People in the community have been really mean about this girl and the mother has had enough. So she devises all kinds of ways of killing people off, using Indian cooking methods. And of course, being Indian, we believe in reincarnation. The people she kills come back as spirits and these spirits can't work out why they've not been reincarnated.”

[[Goldy Notay]] gained weight to play the role of Roopi, which she then promptly had to shed for her part in ''[[Sex and the City 2]]''.<ref>{{cite news|title=It's A Wonderful Afterlife – Goldy Notay interview|url=http://www.indielondon.co.uk/Film-Review/it-s-a-wonderful-afterlife-goldy-notay-interview|publisher=IndieLondon}}</ref>

===Funding===
''It's a Wonderful Afterlife'' was co-produced by the AIM-listed The Indian Film Company (TIFC) and Bend It Films in association with [[Viacom 18 Motion Pictures]]. [[HanWay Films]] is handling worldwide sales and distribution, and pitched the film as ''[[My Big Fat Greek Wedding]]'' meets ''[[Shaun of the Dead]]''. [[Icon Film Distribution]] is the UK distributor.<ref>{{cite news|title=Here comes summer: The cultural events of the season|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/films/features/here-comes-summer-the-cultural-events-of-the-season-1945758.html?action=Popup&ino=4|publisher=Independent | location=London | date=16 April 2010}}</ref>

===Filming===
Principal photography began in London on 28 March 2009.<ref>{{cite news|title=Gurinder Chadha begins shooting for It's A Wonderful Afterlife|url=http://www.businessofcinema.com/news.php?newsid=12581&page=24|publisher=Business of Cinema|date=30 May 2009}}</ref> Most of the filming took place in Southall in London and at [[Ealing Studios]]. Chadha and Berges took inspiration for the horror elements from [[Ridley Scott]]'s sci-fi classic ''[[Aliens (film)|Aliens]]'', [[Brian De Palma]]’s adaptation of [[Stephen King]]'s ''[[Carrie (1976 film)|Carrie]]'', and [[John Landis]]’ 1981 horror classic ''[[An American Werewolf in London]]''. Several scenes required [[Special effect|SFX]] to create the effect of ghosts and [[supernatural phenomena]].

==Music and sound==
{{Anchor|Music|Soundtrack}}
{{Infobox album
| name = It's a Wonderful Afterlife
| type = compilation
| artist = Various Artists
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 9 April 2010
| recorded =
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[blues-rock]], [[Britpop]], [[hip hop music|hip hop]], [[Bhangra (music)|Bhangra]], [[indie rock]]
| length = 62:02
| label = Sony Music
| producer = Sony Music
| prev_title =
| prev_year =
| next_title =
| next_year =
}}
The soundtrack features a mix of licensed tracks, remixed tracks and original compositions, including mainstream music such as [[disco]] and [[hip-hop]] with the [[Desi dhol]] and [[Bhangra (music)|Bhangra]]. It includes songs by popular British-Asian and Bhangra artists such as [[Panjabi MC]] and [[Taz (singer)|Taz]] of [[Stereo Nation]]. It has 14 tracks in total, including [[Rahat Fateh Ali Khan]], [[Neeraj Shridhar]] of [[Bombay Vikings]], a makeover of a disco track by the [[Bee Gees]], "[[Stayin Alive]]", re-composed by noted British-Asian DJ and music producer [[Bally Sagoo]]. Bally developed the track "Staying Alive Desified" by fusing traditional Bhangra beats with a performance from the Bee Gees tribute band Stayin' Alive UK. In a nod to the film's title, "[[Wonderful Life (Black song)|Wonderful Life]]" by the British band [[Black (English band)|Black]] features in its original form on the soundtrack. Promotional music videos feat. Stereo nation are choreographed by [[Rohit Chawla]].

{{track listing
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Artist
| extra_credits = yes
| title1 = Punjabi Soldiers A Team Theme
| note1 =
| extra1 = [[Punjabi MC]]
| length1 = 3:32
| title2 = Bhangra Chic / Bhangra Rap
| note2 =
| extra2 = Kidd Skilly
| length2 = 3:05
| title3 = So Real So Right
| note3 =
| extra3 = [[San-j Sanj]] featuring Natty A
| length3 = 4:01
| title4 = Larl Larl Buleeya
| note4 =
| extra4 = [[Taz (singer)|Taz]] with Stereo Nation featuring Mumzy
| length4 = 3:35
| title5 = Do the Nach
| note5 =
| extra5 = Chillitown featuring 10shott
| length5 = 3:11
| title6 = [[Wonderful Life (Black song)|Wonderful Life]]
| note6 =
| extra6 = Colin Vearncombe/Performed by [[Black (English band)|Black]]
| length6 = 5:46
| title7 = Disco Bhangra
| note7 =
| extra7 = [[Bally Sagoo]] Featuring Niraj Shridhar
| length7 = 3:27
| title8 = Crazee
| note8 =
| extra8 = [[Taz (singer)|Taz]] with Stereo Nation
| length8 = 3:42
| title9 = Nikkiye (Madhanian)
| note9 =
| extra9 = Parminder Chadha
| length9 = 2:20
| title10 = Ghum Suhm
| note10 =
| extra10 = [[Sukshinder Shinda]] and Rahet Fateh Ali Khan
| length10 = 3:22
| title11 = Stayin Alive Desified
| note11 =
| extra11 = Bally Sagoo and Stayin' Alive UK
| length11 = 4:39
| title12 = [[Stayin Alive]]
| note12 =
| extra12 = [[Bee Gees]]
| length12 = 3:24
| title13 = [[It's Love]]
| note13 =
| extra13 = [[Mica Paris]], Andrew Griffiths, Syrona Marie and Bally Sagoo, Gurinder Chadha & Paul Mayeda Berges
| length13 = 4:16
| title14 = Ghosts of Ealing
| note14 =
| extra14 = [[Craig Pruess]] and Bally Sagoo
| length14 = 3:09
|
}}

==Reception==
The film received overwhelmingly negative reviews, with ''[[The Scotsman]]'' calling it an "exceptionally lazy effort, which, like the similarly weak ''[[Bride and Prejudice]]'', is more of a pun in search of a story than an actual fully-fledged idea".<ref>[http://news.scotsman.com/entertainment/Film-Review-It39s-a-Wonderful.6248066.jp Film review:It's a Wonderful Afterlife" The Scotsman 21 April 2010] Retrieved 24 April 2010</ref> ''[[The Radio Times]]'' suggested, "The gags are brash, the plot is messy and there's an element of mild horror (culminating in a send-up of ''[[Carrie (1976 film)|Carrie]]'') that feels totally random."<ref>[http://www.radiotimes.com/servlet_film/com.icl.beeb.rtfilms.client.simpleSearchServlet?searchTypeSelect=5&frn=49508 It's a Wonderful Afterlife Radio Times.com]{{Dead link|date=January 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }} Retrieved 24 April 2010</ref> It was described as "the worst British film of the year" by ''[[Daily Express|The Express]]''.<ref>[http://www.express.co.uk/posts/view/170983/It-s-A-Wonderful-Afterlife-film-review-and-trailer Express.co.uk April 23 2010] Retrieved 26 April 2010</ref> Noyon Jyoti Parasara of [[AOL India]] stated "Every filmmaker has their bad days. And after watching ''It's a Wonderful Afterlife'' I am confident that Gurinder Chadha is in one of hers."<ref>{{cite web|last=Parasara|first=Noyon Jyoti|title=It's a Wonderful Afterlife Review|url= http://www.aol.in/bollywood-story/Its-a-Wonderful-Afterlife-review/900227|publisher=AOL India|access-date=7 May 2010}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|1319716}}

{{Gurinder Chadha}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:It's A Wonderful Afterlife}}
[[Category:2010 films]]
[[Category:2010 comedy films]]
[[Category:British comedy films]]
[[Category:British Indian films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Gurinder Chadha]]
[[Category:Films set in London]]
[[Category:British independent films]]
[[Category:Films with screenplays by Paul Mayeda Berges]]
[[Category:Films with screenplays by Gurinder Chadha]]
[[Category:2010 English-language films]]
[[Category:2010 British films]]
[[Category:English-language comedy films]]

2026 in Kerala

2026-05-04T21:23:56Z

IgnacioElem3: Added a stub

{{Short description|none}}
{{refimprove|date=January 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}
{{Year in Kerala}}

Events in the year '''2026''' in '''[[Kerala]]''', India.

==Incumbents==
===State government===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Photo
!Post
!Name
|-
|[[File:Rajendra Arlekar.jpg|99x99px]]
|[[List of governors of Kerala|Governor of Kerala]]
|[[Rajendra Arlekar|Rajendra Vishwanath Arlekar]]
|-
|[[File:Pinarayi Vijayan 1.jpg|center|frameless|80x80px]]
|[[List of chief ministers of Kerala|Chief minister Of Kerala]]
|[[Pinarayi Vijayan]]
|-
| rowspan="2" |
| rowspan="2" |[[Kerala High Court|Chief Justice of Kerala High Court]]
|[[Nitin Madhukar Jamdar]]
|-
|[[Soumen Sen]]
|}

== Events ==

=== January ===

* 1 January – [[Government of Kerala]] starts ''Navakeralam Citizens Response Program'' to collect feedback from citizens to plan future developments in the state.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2026-01-02 |title=Kerala government kicks off Navakeralam Citizens Response Programme |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/kerala-government-kicks-off-navakeralam-citizens-response-programme/article70462812.ece |access-date=2026-01-02 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>
* 3 January – Former Minister and sitting MLA [[Antony Raju]] gets three year imprisonment on [[Evidence tampering]] case.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=2026-01-03 |title=After 36 years, Kerala MLA Antony Raju found guilty in evidence tampering case |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/kerala/after-36-years-kerala-mla-antony-raju-found-guilty-in-evidence-tampering-case |access-date=2026-01-03 |website=The News Minute |language=en}}</ref>
* 8 January – Controversy erupts following issuance of stop memo by revenue authorities invoking Kerala River Protection Act 2001 on ''Maha Magha Festival'' planned to conduct by Hindu groups at [[Thirunavaya Navamukunda Temple]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Row erupts in Kerala over stop memo on preparatory work for ‘Kumbh Mela’ |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kozhikode/authorities-issue-stop-memo-to-halt-prep-work-for-mahamagha-mahotsavam/articleshow/126512257.cms |access-date=2026-01-15 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
* 9 January – Kantararu Rajeevaru of [[Thazhamon Madom]], the [[Thantri]] family of [[Sabarimala Temple]] arrested by SIT in connection with the temple gold theft case.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2026-01-09 |title=SIT arrests senior Tantri Kandararu Rajeevaru in Sabarimala gold theft case |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/sabarimala-gold-theft-case-sit-questioning-tantri-kandararu-rajeevaru-arrest-likely/article70490212.ece |access-date=2026-01-11 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-01-10 |title=Know about Kandararu Rajeevaru, Thazhamon Tantris and why they hold hereditary rights at Sabarimala? |url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/news/kerala/sabarimala-tantri-thazhamon-family-legacy-b2iku23g |access-date=2026-01-11 |website=@mathrubhumi |language=en}}</ref>
* 11 January – [[Rahul Mamkootathil]] is arrested and [[Pre-trial detention|remanded]] to Mavelikkara subjail in connection with a sexual assault case.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2026-01-11 |title=Expelled Congress MLA Rahul Mamkootathil arrested from hotel room in Palakkad in sexual assault case |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/mla-rahul-mamkootathil-arrested-from-hotel-room-in-palakkad/article70496908.ece |access-date=2026-01-11 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>
* 12 January – Protests against toll gate at [[Arikady]] in [[Kasaragod]] on [[NH 66]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=NH 66 protest: Manjeshwar MLA arrested, toll collection resumes in Kumbla |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/news/kerala/2026/01/12/national-highway-toll-collection-kasaragod-kumbla.html |access-date=2026-01-13 |website=NH 66 protest: Manjeshwar MLA arrested, toll collection resumes in Kumbla |language=en}}</ref>
*13 January – [[P. Aisha Potty]] leaves [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]] and joins [[Indian National Congress]].
*18 January – Juna Akhara and [[Mata Amritanandamayi|Amrita Trust]] conducts a [[Kumbh Mela]] at [[Thirunavaya Navamukunda Temple]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-01-15 |title=Kerala’s ‘Kumbh Mela’: What triggered the row and how Malappuram collector cleared the way |url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/news/kerala/what-kerala-kumba-mela-or-kumbh-mela-2026-of-south-india-means-why-row-erupted-in-thirunavaya-of-malappuram-regarding-kumbamela-lw4z62g4 |access-date=2026-01-21 |website=@mathrubhumi |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-01-16 |title=Kerala Kumbh Mela: Mahamagha rituals begin in Thirunavaya |url=https://www.thestatesman.com/india/kerala-kumbh-mela-mahamagha-rituals-begin-in-thirunavaya-1503541672.html |access-date=2026-01-21 |website=The Statesman |language=en}}</ref>
*23 January – Senior [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]] leader from Kannur, V Kunhikrishnan alleges about misappropriation of martyr's fund by party members.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kerala: CPI(M) leader alleges fund misappropriation in Kannur, party denies|url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/kerala/kerala-cpim-leader-alleges-fund-misappropriation-in-kannur-party-denies|website=The News Minute|date=2026-01-24|access-date=2026-01-30|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=CPI(M) in Kerala expels V. Kunhikrishnan over martyrs’ fund allegations|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/cpim-in-kerala-expels-v-kunhikrishnan-over-martyrs-fund-allegations/article70552859.ece|work=The Hindu|date=2026-01-27|access-date=2026-01-30|issn=0971-751X|language=en-IN}}</ref>
*28 January – [[Second Vijayan ministry|Kerala Cabinet]] approves [[Regional Rapid Transit System]] between [[Kasaragod]] and [[Thiruvananthapuram]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kerala Cabinet approves Thiruvananthapuram–Kasaragod RRTS corridor|url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/kerala/kerala-cabinet-approves-thiruvananthapuramkasaragod-rrts-corridor|website=The News Minute|date=2026-01-29|access-date=2026-01-30|language=en|last=IANS}}</ref>
*30 January – [[CJ Roy]] CEO of Confident Group committed suicide during an [[Income Tax Department|Income Tax raid]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Attar |first=Samrah |date=2026-02-10 |title=Behind the public image: CJ Roy’s finances and final interactions |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/karnataka/behind-the-public-image-cj-roys-finances-and-final-interactions |access-date=2026-02-11 |website=The News Minute |language=en|last3=Chandrashekar|first3=Nandini|first2=Jisha|last2=Surya}}</ref>

=== February ===

* 8 February – [[Services football team|Services]] defeats [[Kerala football team|Kerala]] in the final of [[Santosh Trophy]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-02-08 |title=Services beats Kerala in extra-time to win Santosh Trophy 2025-26 |url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/football/indian-football/santosh-trophy-2025-26-final-services-beats-kerala-to-lift-mens-senior-nationals-ssb-v-ker-highlightss/article70607017.ece |access-date=2026-02-11 |website=Sportstar |language=en}}</ref>
* 21 February –
** [[Election Commission of India]] finishes [[Special Intensive Revision]] in [[Kerala]] removing 9 lakh voters from [[Electoral roll]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=KG |first=Shibimol |date=2026-02-21 |title=Final SIR list for poll-bound Kerala out, 9 lakh names dropped |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/kerala/story/kerala-final-electoral-roll-nine-lakh-voters-removed-after-sir-drive-2872241-2026-02-21 |access-date=2026-03-10 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref>
** [[Amrita Institute of Medical Sciences]] removes [[Artery forcep]] left in a women abdomen five years back during a surgery at [[Government TD Medical College, Alappuzha]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2026-03-03 |title=Forceps in abdomen controversy: woman discharged from private hospital in Kochi |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/forceps-in-abdomen-controversy-woman-discharged-from-private-hospital-in-kochi/article70699861.ece |access-date=2026-03-11 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>
* 24 February – [[Union Council of Ministers|Union cabinet]] approve change of state's name from [[Kerala]] to [[Kerala|Keralam]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2026-02-24 |title=Kerala to ‘Keralam’: Union Cabinet approves changing name of state |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/union-cabinet-approves-change-of-name-of-kerala-to-keralam/article70670696.ece |access-date=2026-03-10 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>
* 25 February – [[Veena George]] claims to be injured following a [[Kerala Students' Union]] protest against her at [[Kannur]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-02-25 |title=Veena George injury episode: MRI advised; 5 KSU activists arrested |url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/news/kerala/veena-george-injury-episode-mri-advised-5-ksu-activists-arrested-nu8yc1wi |access-date=2026-03-10 |website=@mathrubhumi |language=en}}</ref>
* 26 February – [[Kerala High Court]] stays release of [[The Kerala Story 2 Goes Beyond]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2026-02-26 |title=The Kerala Story 2: High Court stays release of movie |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/kerala-high-court-stays-release-of-the-kerala-story-2/article70679114.ece |access-date=2026-03-10 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

=== March ===

* 7 March –
** [[Pinarayi Vijayan]] inaugurates the [[Perumbalam Bridge]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pinarayi Vijayan inaugurates Perumbalam Bridge, dedicates it to the people |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/news/kerala/2026/03/07/perumbalam-bridge-inauguration.html |access-date=2026-03-10 |website=@onmanorama |language=en}}</ref>
** [[Mammootty]] faces [[Cyberbullying]] from [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]] cadres following his remarks made to a party worker on visit to [[2024 Wayanad landslides|Wayanad township]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Staff |first=T. N. M. |date=2026-03-08 |title=Mammootty’s visit to Wayanad sparks controversy after he asks CPI(M) leader to step aside |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/kerala/mammoottys-visit-to-wayanad-sparks-controversy-after-he-asks-cpim-leader-to-step-aside |access-date=2026-03-10 |website=The News Minute |language=en}}</ref>
* 8 March – [[India national cricket team]] won the [[Men's T20 World Cup]] and [[Sanju Samson]] becomes the player of the tournament.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-03-09 |title=Sanju Samson: The nearly-forgotten cricketer who became India's T20 World Cup hero |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cx2lw902gr6o |access-date=2026-03-10 |website=www.bbc.com |language=en-GB}}</ref>
* 9 March –
** The wife of Minister [[K. B. Ganesh Kumar]] raises allegation of sexual misconduct against him.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Staff |first=T. N. M. |date=2026-03-10 |title=‘What I saw in the bedroom was shameful’: Minister KB Ganesh Kumar’s wife alleges |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/kerala/what-i-saw-in-the-bedroom-was-shameful-minister-kb-ganesh-kumars-wife-alleges |access-date=2026-03-10 |website=The News Minute |language=en}}</ref>
** [[United Nurses Association]] begins nurses strike across various districts of state in private hospitals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nurses to boycott duty in Kerala private hospitals today; protest to hit 5 districts |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/news/kerala/2026/03/09/nurses-strike-to-hit-over-100-private-hospitals-in-five-districts-of-kerala.html |access-date=2026-03-10 |website=@onmanorama |language=en}}</ref>
*10 March – [[Kerala High Court]] dismissed plea on grounds of [[Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023]] filed against [[Second Vijayan ministry]] for using personal data of government employees for [[Bulk messaging]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Thomas |first=Praisy |date=2026-03-10 |title=Kerala High Court dismisses plea against CMO over bulk WhatsApp messages to government employees |url=https://www.barandbench.com/news/kerala-high-court-dismisses-plea-against-cmo-over-bulk-whatsapp-messages-to-government-employees |access-date=2026-03-10 |website=Bar and Bench - Indian Legal news |language=en}}</ref>
*11 March – [[Fuel gas]] shortage in [[Kerala]] due to [[2026 Iran war]] more than 20% of restaurants in state stay closed.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-03-12 |title=Cooking gas crisis in Kerala forces hotels to shut; schools turn to firewood for midday meals |url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/news/kerala/kerala-cooking-gas-shortage-hotel-closures-schools-crisis-kw5w2zuy |access-date=2026-03-12 |website=@mathrubhumi |language=en}}</ref>
*12 March –
**[[Kerala High Court]] orders removal of [[Vellappally Natesan]] from [[Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam]] general secretary post.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Thomas |first=Praisy |date=2026-03-12 |title=Kerala High Court orders removal of Vellappally Natesan as SNDP General Secretary |url=https://www.barandbench.com/news/kerala-high-court-orders-removal-of-vellappally-natesan-as-sndp-general-secretary |access-date=2026-03-12 |website=Bar and Bench - Indian Legal news |language=en}}</ref>
**[[G. Sudhakaran]] leaves [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]] and announced that he is going to contest [[Ambalappuzha Assembly constituency]] as an Independent candidate [[United Democratic Front (Kerala)]] promises support.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-03-13 |title=Kerala: Sudhakaran ends decades-old ties with CPI(M), announces independent candidacy |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/kerala/kerala-sudhakaran-ends-decades-old-ties-with-cpim-announces-independent-candidacy |access-date=2026-03-15 |website=The News Minute |language=en}}</ref>
**[[Internet personality]] who shot to fame during [[Kumbh Mela]], Monalisa Bhosle did [[Interfaith marriage]] at [[Poovar]] at the time when her age was not legal to marry in India and that leads to filing of a legal case under POSCO act, the controversy has been fuelled by claims of “love jihad,” .<ref>{{Cite news |date=2026-03-12 |title=Monalisa Bhosle Framan Khan marriage: Kumbh Mela fame actor defends inter-faith marriage. |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/kumbh-mela-fame-monalisa-bhosle-defends-interfaith-marriage-with-actor-farman-khan-in-kerala-rejects-love-jihad-claims/article70734329.ece |access-date=2026-03-15 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Desk |first=Trending |date=2026-04-10 |title=Monalisa's marriage takes an ugly turn: Probe finds Kumbh viral girl as minor, FIR filed against husband Farman |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/new-updates/monalisas-marriage-takes-an-ugly-turn-probe-finds-kumbh-viral-girl-as-minor-fir-filed-against-husband-farman/articleshow/130165376.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2026-04-12 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref>
*22 March - [[V. D. Satheesan]] alleges deal between [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] and [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]] in upcoming polls.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-03-23 |title=CPI(M), BJP ‘deal’ to defeat UDF in 10 seats in Kerala polls, claims VD Satheesan |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/cpim-bjp-deal-to-defeat-udf-in-10-seats-claims-vd-satheesan-101774208824325.html |access-date=2026-04-13 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Bureau |first=The Hindu |date=2026-03-26 |title=Kerala Assembly Elections 2026: Satheesan accuses Pinarayi of being an RSS agent |url=https://www.thehindu.com/elections/kerala-assembly/kerala-assembly-elections-2026-satheesan-accuses-pinarayi-of-being-an-rss-agent/article70787961.ece |access-date=2026-04-13 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

=== April ===
* 5 April -
** [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] leader caught for electoral malpractice in [[Vadanappally]] for distributing kits to voters for votes.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2026-04-05 |title=Kerala election 2026: Kit row explodes again in Thrissur; 4,000 kits seized at Vadanappally |url=https://www.thehindu.com/elections/kerala-assembly/kerala-assembly-polls-2026-kit-row-explodes-again-in-thrissur-4000-kits-seized-at-vadanappally/article70826412.ece |access-date=2026-04-13 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>
** A women trekker from [[Kozhikode]] who was lost in [[Tadiandamol]] rescued.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Daily |first=Keralakaumudi |title=Search concludes in Kodagu: Missing Malayali techie Saranya rescued from dense forest |url=https://keralakaumudi.com/en/news/news.php?id=1726857 |access-date=2026-04-13 |website=Keralakaumudi Daily |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-04-03 |title=Kerala woman trekker goes missing in Thadiyandamol |url=https://starofmysore.com/kerala-woman-trekker-goes-missing-in-thadiyandamol/ |access-date=2026-04-13 |website=Star of Mysore |language=en-US}}</ref>
* 8 April -
** Case filed against [[Sobha Surendran]] for distributing cash to voters for votes.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Staff |first=T. N. M. |date=2026-04-09 |title=Cash-for-vote FIR filed against Sobha Surendran's team in Palakkad |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/kerala/cash-for-vote-fir-filed-against-sobha-surendrans-team-in-palakkad |access-date=2026-04-13 |website=The News Minute |language=en}}</ref>
** [[Pinarayi Vijayan]] responds to [[Revanth Reddy]] using a derogatory remarks and invites criticism.<ref>{{Cite news |last=PTI |date=2026-04-08 |title=Kerala Assembly polls: Congress leaders criticise Pinarayi Vijayan’s remarks against Revanth Reddy |url=https://www.thehindu.com/elections/kerala-assembly/kerala-assembly-polls-congress-leaders-criticise-pinarayi-vijayans-remarks-against-revanth-reddy/article70837669.ece |access-date=2026-04-13 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>
* 9 April - [[2026 Kerala Legislative Assembly election]]
* 10 April -
** A first year [[Bachelor of Dental Science]] student committed suicide in [[Kannur Medical College, Anjarakandy]] following [[Caste discrimination in India|Caste discrimination]] by faculty.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2026-04-12 |title=Kerala: Kannur dental college student death raises questions about casteism in campuses |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/kannur-dental-college-student-death-raises-questions-about-casteism-in-campuses/article70853703.ece |access-date=2026-04-13 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Staff |first=T. N. M. |date=2026-04-12 |title=Caste harassment alleged after Kannur dental student’s death; 2 teachers suspended |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/kerala/caste-harassment-alleged-after-kannur-dental-students-death-2-teachers-suspended |access-date=2026-04-13 |website=The News Minute |language=en}}</ref>
** A fifteen year old girl from [[Palakkad]] who was lost during a trek at [[Chikmagalur]] found dead.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Palakkad teen Sreenanda, who was found dead in Chikkamagaluru, cremated |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/news/kerala/2026/04/11/missing-teenager-found-chikkamagaluru.html |access-date=2026-04-13 |website=@onmanorama |language=en}}</ref>
* 21 April -
** A massive explosion at a fireworks manufacturing unit in Mundathikkode, Thrissur, resulted in at least 13 fatalities and over 40 injuries <ref>{{cite news |last1=Gandhi |first1=Swati |title=Kerala blaze horror: 13 killed, several injured in massive fire at fireworks unit in Thrissur; PM announces ex gratia {{!}} Today News |url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/kerala-thrissur-fire-accident-fireworks-unit-pm-modi-death-toll-11776779393158.html |work=mint |date=21 April 2026 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=13 dead, several injured in blast at fireworks unit in Kerala’s Thrissur ahead of Pooram |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/several-injured-in-blast-at-fireworks-unit-in-keralas-thrissur-ahead-of-pooram/article70888297.ece |work=The Hindu |date=21 April 2026 |language=en-IN}}</ref>

=== May ===
* 4 May – Results of [[2026 Kerala Legislative Assembly election|Assembly elections]] in Kerala are declared.

== Deaths ==

* 9 Mar - [[K. N. Panikkar]], [[Historian]], (b.1936)

== See also ==

* [[History of Kerala]]
* [[2026 in India]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:2020s in Kerala]]
[[Category:Long stubs with short prose]]

{{Kerala-stub}}

Government Funded Technical Institutes

2026-05-01T12:48:36Z

IgnacioElem3: added new info

{{Short description|Education institutions in India}}
{{Unreferenced|date=May 2026}}
{{Infobox
| title = '''Government Funded Technical Institutes'''
| label4 = Participating institutes (2025–26)
| data4 = 47
| label5 = Admission authority
| data5 = [[Joint Seat Allocation Authority]]
| label6 = Country
| data6 = [[India]]
}}

The '''Government Funded Technical Institutes''' ('''GFTIs''') are 47 academic institutions funded by the [[Government of India]] or [[state governments of India]] that participate in the [[Joint Seat Allocation Authority]] (JoSAA) for undergraduate admissions in engineering, technology, architecture, planning, and sciences.

Admissions are conducted by JoSAA on the basis of merit in the [[Joint Entrance Examination – Main]].

== Institutes ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Government Funded Technical Institutes (2025–26)
! Sl. No. !! Name !! Place !! State/UT
|-
| 1 || [[Assam University]] || [[Silchar]] || [[Assam]]
|-
| 2 || [[Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra]] || [[Ranchi]] || [[Jharkhand]]
|-
| 3 || [[Birla Institute of Technology, Deoghar]] Off-Campus || [[Deoghar]] || [[Jharkhand]]
|-
| 4 || [[Birla Institute of Technology, Patna]] Off-Campus || [[Patna]] || [[Bihar]]
|-
| 5 || [[Central Institute of Technology, Kokrajhar]] || [[Kokrajhar]] || [[Assam]]
|-
| 6 || [[Central University of Haryana]] || [[Mahendragarh district|Mahendragarh]] || [[Haryana]]
|-
| 7 || [[Central University of Jammu]] || [[Jammu]] || [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu & Kashmir]]
|-
| 8 || [[Central University of Jharkhand]] || [[Ranchi]] || [[Jharkhand]]
|-
| 9 || [[Central University of Rajasthan]] || [[Ajmer]] || [[Rajasthan]]
|-
| 10 || [[Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University]] || [[Bhilai]] || [[Chhattisgarh]]
|-
| 11 || [[Gati Shakti Vishwavidyalaya]] || [[Vadodara]] || [[Gujarat]]
|-
| 12 || [[Ghani Khan Choudhury Institute of Engineering & Technology]] || [[Malda, West Bengal|Malda]] || [[West Bengal]]
|-
| 13 || [[Gurukul Kangri University]] || [[Haridwar]] || [[Uttarakhand]]
|-
| 14 || [[Indian Institute of Carpet Technology]] || [[Bhadohi]] || [[Uttar Pradesh]]
|-
| 15 || [[Indian Institutes of Handloom Technology|Indian Institute of Handloom Technology]], Salem || [[Salem, Tamil Nadu|Salem]] || [[Tamil Nadu]]
|-
| 16 || [[Indian Institutes of Handloom Technology|Indian Institute of Handloom Technology]], Varanasi || [[Varanasi]] || [[Uttar Pradesh]]
|-
| 17 || [[Institute of Chemical Technology]], Mumbai: Indian Oil Odisha Campus || [[Bhubaneswar]] || [[Odisha]]
|-
| 18 || Institute of Engineering and Technology, [[Dr. Hari Singh Gour University]] (A Central University) || [[Sagar, Madhya Pradesh|Sagar]] || [[Madhya Pradesh]]
|-
| 19 || [[Institute of Infrastructure Technology Research and Management]] || [[Ahmedabad]] || [[Gujarat]]
|-
| 20 || [[Institute of Technology, Guru Ghasidas University|Institute of Technology]], [[Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya]] || [[Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh|Bilaspur]] || [[Chhattisgarh]]
|-
| 21 || [[International Institute of Information Technology, Bhubaneswar]] || [[Bhubaneswar]] || [[Odisha]]
|-
| 22 || [[International Institute of Information Technology, Naya Raipur|Dr. Shyama Prasad Mukherjee International Institute of Information Technology]] || [[Naya Raipur]] || [[Chhattisgarh]]
|-
| 23 || [[Islamic University of Science and Technology]] || [[Pulwama]] || [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu & Kashmir]]
|-
| 24 || [[J. K. Institute of Applied Physics and Technology]], [[University of Allahabad]] || [[Allahabad]] || [[Uttar Pradesh]]
|-
| 25 || [[Jawaharlal Nehru University]] || [[New Delhi]] || [[Delhi]]
|-
| 26 || [[Mizoram University]] || [[Aizawl]] || [[Mizoram]]
|-
| 27 || [[National Institute of Advanced Manufacturing Technology]] || [[Ranchi]] || [[Jharkhand]]
|-
| 28 || [[National Institute of Electronics & Information Technology]] || [[Aurangabad|Chhatrapati Sambhaji Nagar]] || [[Maharashtra]]
|-
| 29 || [[National Institute of Electronics and Information Technology]], Ajmer || [[Ajmer]] || [[Rajasthan]]
|-
| 30 || [[National Institute of Electronics and Information Technology]], Gorakhpur || [[Gorakhpur]] || [[Uttar Pradesh]]
|-
| 31 || [[National Institute of Electronics and Information Technology]], Patna || [[Patna]] || [[Bihar]]
|-
| 32 || [[National Institute of Electronics and Information Technology]], Ropar || [[Ropar]] || [[Punjab, India|Punjab]]
|-
| 33 || [[National Institute of Food Technology Entrepreneurship and Management]] || [[Sonepat]] || [[Haryana]]
|-
| 34 || [[National Institute of Food Technology, Entrepreneurship and Management, Thanjavur]] || [[Thanjavur]] || [[Tamil Nadu]]
|-
| 35 || [[North Eastern Regional Institute of Science and Technology]] || [[Itanagar]] || [[Arunachal Pradesh]]
|-
| 36 || [[North-Eastern Hill University]] || [[Shillong]] || [[Meghalaya]]
|-
| 37 || [[Puducherry Technological University]] || [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]] || [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]]
|-
| 38 || [[Punjab Engineering College]] || [[Chandigarh]] || [[Chandigarh]]
|-
| 39 || [[Rajiv Gandhi National Aviation University]] || [[Amethi district|Fursatganj, Amethi]] || [[Uttar Pradesh]]
|-
| 40 || [[Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology]] || [[Longowal]] || [[Punjab, India|Punjab]]
|-
| 41 || School of Engineering, [[Tezpur University]] || [[Tezpur]] || [[Assam]]
|-
| 42 || [[School of Planning and Architecture, Bhopal]] || [[Bhopal]] || [[Madhya Pradesh]]
|-
| 43 || [[School of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi]] || [[New Delhi]] || [[Delhi]]
|-
| 44 || [[School of Planning and Architecture, Vijayawada]] || [[Vijayawada]] || [[Andhra Pradesh]]
|-
| 45 || [[Shri Govindram Seksaria Institute of Technology and Science|Shri G. S. Institute of Technology and Science]] || [[Indore]] || [[Madhya Pradesh]]
|-
| 46 || [[Shri Mata Vaishno Devi University]] || [[Katra, Jammu and Kashmir|Katra]] || [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu & Kashmir]]
|-
| 47 || [[University of Hyderabad]] || [[Hyderabad]] || [[Telangana]]
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Technical universities and colleges in India]]
[[Category:Government universities and colleges in India]]
[[Category:India education-related lists]]

Raj Kumar Goyal

2026-04-20T09:10:32Z

IgnacioElem3: New bio

{{Short description|Chief Information Commissioner of India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2025}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Raj Kumar Goyal
| birth_name = Raj Kumar Goyal
| caption =
| occupation = [[Bureaucrat]]
| image = Raj Kumar Goyal (IAS Retd. 1990).jpg
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=y|1965|08|10}}
| birth_place = [[India]]
| office = [[Chief Information Commissioner of India]]
| predecessor = [[Heeralal Samariya]]
| appointer = [[Appointments Committee of the Cabinet]]
| term_start = 15 December 2025
| office1 = [[Secretary to the Government of India|Law Secretary of India]]
| term_start1 = 28 May 2024
| term_end1 = 31 August 2025
| predecessor1 = S. K. G. Rahate
| successor1 = Niraj Verma<ref>{{Cite web |date= 1 September 2025|title= Office Order |url=https://xn--i1b5bzbybhfo5c8b4bxh.xn--11b7cb3a6a.xn--h2brj9c/sites/default/files/NirajVerma_04092025.pdf |access-date= 16 December 2025|website=[[Ministry of Home Affairs (India)|Ministry of Home Affairs of India]]|language=en}}</ref>
| appointer1 = [[Appointments Committee of the Cabinet]]
| office2 = [[Secretary to the Government of India|Secretary of Border Management]] [[Ministry of Home Affairs (India)|Ministry of Home Affairs of India]]
| appointer2 = [[Appointments Committee of the Cabinet]]
| term_start2 = 12 February 2024
| term_end2 = 27 May 2024
| successor2 = Rajendra Kumar<ref>{{Cite web |date= 28 May 2024 |title= Rajendra Kumar IAS has been appointed as secretary of border management|url=https://www.witnessinthecorridors.com/BureaDetails/rajender-kumar-ias-has-been-appointed-as-secretary-department-of-border-management-government-of-india |access-date= 16 December 2025|website=Whisperers in Corridors |language=en}}</ref>
| predecessor2 = Atal Dulloo
| alma_mater = ([[Bachelor of Technology|B.Tech]]) [[IIT Roorkee]]
}}

'''Raj Kumar Goyal''' (born 10 August 1965<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|title= Raj Kumar Goyal ER Sheet|url=https://supremo.nic.in/ERSheetHtml.aspx?OffIDErhtml=MTUyMjU=&PageId= |access-date= 15 December 2025|website=[[Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions]]|language=en}}</ref>) is a [[retired]] 1990 batch [[Indian Administrative Service|Indian Administrative Service officer]] of [[Union Territories|AGMUT]] cadre who is currently serving as the [[Chief Information Commissioner of India]] since 15 December 2025. He previously served as the [[Secretary to the Government of India|Law Secretary of India]].<ref>{{Cite web |date= 15 December 2025|title=ex bureaucrat Raj Kumar Goyal appointed as chief information commissioner|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/ex-bureaucrat-raj-kumar-goyal-chief-information-commissioner-10421005/ |access-date= 15 December 2025|website=[[The Indian Express ]]|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date= 13 December 2025|title= Former Law Secretary Raj Kumar Goyal appointed as Chief Information Commissioner|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/former-law-secretary-raj-kumar-goyal-appointed-as-chief-information-commissioner-3829880 |access-date= 15 December 2025|website=[[Deccan Herald]] |language=en}}</ref>

==Early life and education==
Raj Kumar Goyal was born on 10 August 1965{{Clarify|date=December 2025}} in [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[India]]. He completed his [[Bachelor of Technology|B.Tech]] degree in [[Electronics|Electronics Engineering]] from [[IIT Roorkee]].<ref name="auto"/><ref>{{Cite web |date= 16 December 2025|title= Former Law Secy Raj Kumar Goyal appointed as CIC|url=https://www.thebuckstopper.com/former-law-secy-raj-kumar-goyal-appointed-as-cic/ |access-date= 16 December 2025|website= The Buck Stopper |language=en}}</ref>

==Civil Service career==
Goyal was an [[Indian Administrative Service|Indian Administrative Service officer]] of 1990 batch from the [[Union Territories|Arunachal Pradesh-Goa-Mizoram-Union Territories]].<ref>{{Cite web |date= 16 December 2025|title= Former IAS officer Raj Kumar Goyal sworn in as CIC|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/former-ias-officer-raj-kumar-goyal-sworn-in-as-new-chief-information-commissioner-1923994 |access-date= 16 December 2025|website=[[Deccan Chronicle ]]|language=en}}</ref>

Throughout his career Goyal has served in various positions in the [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]] both as [[Principal Secretary (India)|Principal Secretary]] and as Joint Secretary in the [[Government of Jammu and Kashmir]]. He then served as [[Secretary to the Government of India|Secretary of Border Management]] in the [[Ministry of Home Affairs (India)|Ministry of Home affairs of India]] and then as [[Secretary to the Government of India|Secretary of Department of Justice]] in the [[Ministry of Law and Justice (India)|Ministry of Law and Justice of India]].<ref>{{Cite web |date= 15 December 2025|title= who is Raj Kumar Goyal new CIC|url=https://indianmasterminds.com/news/ias-raj-kumar-goyal-appointed-chief-information-commissioner-cic-168243/ |access-date= 16 December 2025|website= India Masterminds |language=en}}</ref>

On 15 December 2025 the Government appointed Goyal as the new [[Chief Information Commissioner of India]] after months of vacancy since the September when [[Heeralal Samariya]] left.<ref>{{Cite web |date= 14 December 2025|title= Finally former law secretary Raj Kumar Goyal appointed as CIC|url= https://thesecretariat.in/article/finally-former-law-secretary-raj-kumar-goyal-to-take-oath-as-cic|access-date= 16 December 2025|website= The Secretariat|language=en}}</ref>

== References ==

{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Goyal, Raj Kumar}}
[[Category:1965 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian Institutes of Technology alumni]]
[[Category:IIT Roorkee alumni]]
[[Category:Indian Administrative Service officers]]
[[Category:People from Uttar Pradesh]]
{{Improve categories|date=December 2025}}

Kunal Choudhary

2026-04-19T23:34:27Z

IgnacioElem3: started details!

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2022}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Kunal Choudhary
| image =
| office = Member of the [[Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
| term_start = 2018
| term_end = 2023
| predecessor = Inder Singh Parmar
| successor = Ghanshyam Chandravanshi
| constituency = [[Kalapipal Assembly constituency|Kalapipal]]
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1982|10|10|df=y}}
| birth_place =
| death_date =
| death_place =
| party = [[Indian National Congress]]
| relations =
| spouse =
| children =
| parents = Kailashchander
| education = Post Graduate
| alma_mater =
| profession =
| website =
| footnotes =
| date = 14 December
| year = 2022
| source = https://ourneta.com/neta/kunal-choudhary/
}}

'''Kunal Choudhary''' is an [[Indian National Congress]] politician from [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[India]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Kunal Choudhary|work= ourneta.com |url=https://ourneta.com/neta/kunal-choudhary/|access-date=14 Dec 2022}}</ref> He was a member of [[Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly]] elected from [[Kalapipal Assembly constituency|Kalapipal]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Kunal Choudhary|work= prsindia.org |url=https://prsindia.org/mlatrack/kunal-choudhary|access-date=14 Dec 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Gujarat 2017|work= myneta.info |url=https://myneta.info/madhyapradesh2018/candidate.php?candidate_id=4066|access-date=14 Dec 2022}}</ref> and currently serving as [[All India Congress Committee]] secretary incharge [[Maharashtra]].

==Positions held==
*Member of [[Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly]] from [[Kalapipal Assembly constituency|Kalapipal]] 2018-2023
*[[All India Congress Committee]] secretary incharge [[Maharashtra]] 2024 present

==Electoral Performance==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Sl.No
! Year
! Election
! Constituency
! Votes
! Vote share
! Margin
! Result
|-
|1.
|[[2018 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2018]]
|[[Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
|[[Kalapipal Assembly constituency|Kalapipal]]
|86,249
|52.1%
|13,699
| {{won}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://resultuniversity.com/election/kalapipal-madhya-pradesh-assembly-constituency |title=Kalapipal Assembly Constituency Election Result |publisher=resultuniversity.com |accessdate=14 Dec 2022}}</ref>
|-
|2.
|[[2023 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2023]]
|[[Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
|[[Kalapipal Assembly constituency|Kalapipal]]
|86,451
|44.37%
|11,765
| {{lost}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/AcResultGenDecNew2023/candidateswise-S12169.htm |title=Kalapipal Assembly Constituency Election Result |publisher=eci.gov.in |accessdate=3 Dec 2023}}</ref>
|-
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Choudhary, Kunal}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1982 births]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Madhya Pradesh MLAs 2018–2023]]

{{MadhyaPradesh-INC-politician-stub}}

Altone D'Costa

2026-04-18T20:55:50Z

IgnacioElem3: Added stub

{{Short description|Indian politician and businessperson}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Altone D'Costa
| image = Altone D'Costa.png
| caption = D'Costa in 2024
| birth_date = 1976/77 (age 45—46)
| birth_place = [[Goa]], India
| office = [[Goa Legislative Assembly|Member of Goa Legislative Assembly]]
| constituency = [[Quepem Assembly constituency|Quepem]]
| term_start = 10 March 2022
| term_end =
| predecessor = [[Chandrakant Kavlekar]]
| successor =
| party = [[Indian National Congress]]
| spouse = Valanki D'Costa
| alma_mater = {{plainlist|
* Perpetual Succour Convent High School, [[Navelim]] ([[S.S.C]])
* Agnel Trade school, [[Verna, Goa|Verna]]}} (electric and [[welding]] course)
| occupation = {{hlist|Politician|businessperson}}
| website = {{URL|twitter.com/altone_d}}
}}

'''Altone D'Costa''' (born 1976/77), is an Indian politician and businessman who currently serves as a member of [[Goa Legislative Assembly]] representing the [[Quepem Assembly constituency]]. D'Costa contested on [[Indian National Congress]] ticket in [[2022 Goa Legislative Assembly election]] and emerged victorious. He defeated former Deputy Chief Minister and four term [[BJP]] MLA, [[Chandrakant Kavlekar]] by a margin of 3601 votes.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Altone D'costa, INC MLA from Quepem – Our Neta |url=https://ourneta.com/neta/altone-dcosta/ |access-date=2022-08-03 |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Early and personal life==
Altone D'Costa was born to Cruzinho D'Costa in [[Goa]]. He completed his [[Secondary School Certificate]] from Perpetual Succour Convent High School, [[Navelim]] in 1992. D'Costa also has completed an electric and [[welding]] course from Agnel Trade School, [[Verna, Goa|Verna]] in 1995.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Altone D Costa(Indian National Congress(INC)):Constituency- QUEPEM(SOUTH GOA) - Affidavit Information of Candidate |url=https://myneta.info/goa2022/candidate.php?candidate_id=144 |access-date=2022-08-03 |website=myneta.info}}</ref>

D'Costa is married to businesswoman, Valanki D'Costa.<ref>{{Cite web |title=La Grace Resort - Without This Amazing Lady Mr.Altone is... |url=https://www.facebook.com/gracehospitalitygoa/photos/a.721909837918343/1711771595598824/?type=3 |access-date=2022-08-03 |website=www.facebook.com |language=en}}</ref> The couple own the La Grace Resort Chains in Goa.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Timbu.in |title=Hotel Grace Majestic |url=http://timbu.in/hotel/1425844-hotel-grace-majestic |access-date=2022-08-03 |website=Hotel Grace Majestic {{!}} Hotel in Madgaon {{!}} Timbu.in |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Grace Hospitality, La Grace Resort, Hotels in Goa |url=https://www.gracehospitality.in/about1.html |access-date=2022-08-03 |website=www.gracehospitality.in}}</ref> He currently resides in [[Quepem]], Goa.<ref name=":0" />

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:D'Costa, Altone}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1970s births]]
[[Category:Goa MLAs 2022–2027]]
[[Category:Year of birth uncertain]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Goa]]
[[Category:Businesspeople from Goa]]

Vaishali Assembly constituency

2026-04-15T23:52:06Z

IgnacioElem3: added basic biography initial version

{{Use Indian English|date=January 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Vaishali
| type = SLA
| map_image = 125-Vaishali constituency.svg
| map_caption =
| map_alt =
| mla = [[Siddarth Patel]] 
| party = {{Party index link|Janata Dal (United)}}
| alliance = {{Party index link|National Democratic Alliance}}
| latest_election_year = [[2025 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2025]] 
| region =
| state = [[Bihar]]
| district = [[Vaishali district|Vaishali]]
| division =
| loksabha_cons = 
| constituency_no = [[List of constituencies of the Bihar Legislative Assembly|125]]
| established = 1967
| electors = 337,584
| reservation = 
| abolished = 
}}
'''Vaishali Assembly constituency''' is an [[Vidhan Sabha|assembly]] constituency in [[Vaishali district]] in the [[India]]n [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[Bihar]]. It was established in 1967.

==Overview==
As per Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly constituencies Order, 2008, No. 125 Vaishali Assembly constituency is composed of the following: Vaishali, Paterhi Belsar and [[Goraul (Community development block)|Goraul]] [[Community Development Block in India|community development blocks]].<ref name=commission>{{cite web|url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf |title = Schedule – XIII of Constituencies Order, 2008 of Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly constituencies Order, 2008 of the Election Commission of India|work= Schedule VI Bihar, Part A – Assembly constituencies, Part B – Parliamentary constituencies |access-date = 2011-01-10 }}</ref>

Vaishali Assembly constituency is part of No. 16 [[Vaishali (Lok Sabha constituency)]].<ref name=commission/>

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Year
!Name<ref name="election2020">{{Cite web |title=Lalganj Election and Results 2020, Candidate list, Winner, Runner-up, Current MLA and Previous MLAs |url=https://www.elections.in/bihar/assembly-constituencies/lalganj.html |access-date= |website=Elections in India}}</ref>
! colspan="2" |Party
|-
|[[1967 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
| rowspan="3" |[[Laliteshwar Prasad Shahi]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1969 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1969]]
| style="background-color: {{party color|Akhil Bharatiya Loktantrik Congress}}" |
|Lok Tantrik Congress
|-
|[[1972 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1972]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1977 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1977]]
|Nagendra Prasad Singh
|{{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|-
|[[1980 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1980]]
| rowspan="3" |[[Brishin Patel]]
|{{Full party name with color|Janata Party (Secular)}}
|-
|[[1985 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
|{{Full party name with color|Lokdal}}
|-
|[[1990 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1990]]
|{{Full party name with color|Janata Dal}}
|-
|1991^
|Hemant Kumar Shahi
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|1992^
|[[Veena Shahi]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1995 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1995]]
|Raj Kishore Singh
|{{Full party name with color|Janata Dal}}
|-
|[[2000 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2000]]
|[[Veena Shahi]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[February 2005 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2005]]
| rowspan="3" |[[Brishin Patel]]
| {{Full party name with color|Janata Dal (United)|dab=y|rowspan=6}}
|-
|[[October 2005 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2005]]
|-
|[[2010 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2010]]
|-
|[[2015 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2015]]
|Raj Kishore Singh
|-
|[[2020 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2020]]
|rowspan=2|[[Siddarth Patel]]
|-
|[[2025 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2025]]
|}

==Election results==
=== 2025 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2025 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|Bihar Legislative Assembly Election, 2025]]: Vaishali<ref name="election2025">{{Cite web |date=2025-12-15 |title=Bihar General Legislative Election 2020 |url=https://www.eci.gov.in/statistical-report/ae/2025/16 |website=[[Election Commission of India]]}}</ref>

}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|candidate = [[Siddarth Patel]]
|party = Janata Dal (United)
|votes = {{formatnum:108377}}
|percentage = 45.6
|change = +9.64
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Ajay Kushwaha
|party = Rashtriya Janata Dal
|votes = {{formatnum:75787}}
|percentage = 31.89
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Sanjeev Singh
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = {{formatnum:20395}}
|percentage = 8.58
|change = -23.56
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Sunil Kumar
|party = Jan Suraaj Party
|votes = {{formatnum:9108}}
|percentage = 3.83
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Brishin Patel
|votes = {{formatnum:4116}}
|percentage = 1.73
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Rubi Kumari
|votes = {{formatnum:3174}}
|percentage = 1.34
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Ram Nath Ray
|party = Socialist Unity Centre of India (Communist)
|votes = {{formatnum:2823}}
|percentage = 1.19
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Nisha Raj
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|votes = {{formatnum:2321}}
|percentage = 0.98
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:4562}}
|percentage = 1.92
|change = -0.74
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:32590}}
|percentage = 13.71
|change = +9.89
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:237684}}
|percentage = 70.41
|change = +11.4
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|winner = Janata Dal (United)
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2020 ===
{{Election box begin |title=[[2020 Bihar Legislative Assembly election]]: Vaishali<ref name="election2020"/>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|candidate = Siddharth Patel
|party = Janata Dal (United)
|votes = {{formatnum:69780}}
|percentage = 35.96
|change = -11.66
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Sanjeev Singh
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = {{formatnum:62367}}
|percentage = 32.14
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Lok Janshakti Party
|candidate = Ajay Kumar Kushwaha
|votes = {{formatnum:33351}}
|percentage = 17.18
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Sugandh Kumar
|votes = {{formatnum:5582}}
|percentage = 2.88
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Raj Narayan Kumar
|votes = {{formatnum:4386}}
|percentage = 2.26
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Abhishek Raj
|votes = {{formatnum:2864}}
|percentage = 1.48
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Janvadi Party (Socialist)
|candidate = Tarun Singh Alias Pintoo
|votes = {{formatnum:2735}}
|percentage = 1.41
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bhartiya Sablog Party
|candidate = Arun Kumar Singh
|votes = {{formatnum:2190}}
|percentage = 1.13
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:5155}}
|percentage = 2.66
|change = +0.09
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:7413}}
|percentage = 3.82
|change = -14.84
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:194073}}
|percentage = 59.01
|change = +2.74
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|winner = Janata Dal (United)
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2015 ===
{{Election box begin|title = [[2015 Bihar Legislative Assembly election]]: Vaishali<ref name="election2015">{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main1/AE2015/bihar.html.htm |title = Bihar - Vaishali |work =Bihar Assembly Elections Nov 2015 Results | publisher = Election Commission of India|access-date = 2011-08-11 }}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|party = Janata Dal (United)
|candidate = Raj Kishore Singh
|votes = {{formatnum:79286}}
|percentage = 47.62
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Hindustani Awam Morcha
|candidate = Brishin Patel
|votes = {{formatnum:48225}}
|percentage = 28.96
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Vinay Paswan
|votes = {{formatnum:7975}}
|percentage = 4.79
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Lok Dal
|candidate = Rajnarayan Kumar
|votes = {{formatnum:4695}}
|percentage = 2.82
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Jan Adhikar Party (Loktantrik)
|candidate = Mahtab Ahmad Khan
|votes = {{formatnum:4301}}
|percentage = 2.58
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Muhamad Abas
|votes = {{formatnum:2765}}
|percentage = 1.66
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Amiya Bhushan
|votes = {{formatnum:2009}}
|percentage = 1.21
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Mahabir Prasad
|votes = {{formatnum:1959}}
|percentage = 1.18
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Aap Aur Hum Party
|candidate = Kundan Singh
|votes = {{formatnum:1735}}
|percentage = 1.04
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Socialist Unity Centre of India (Communist)
|candidate = Sigeshwar Bhagat
|votes = {{formatnum:1663}}
|percentage = 1.0
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Gareeb Aadmi Party
|candidate = Sudhir Ku Sharma
|votes = {{formatnum:1556}}
|percentage = 0.93
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:4275}}
|percentage = 2.57
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:31061}}
|percentage = 18.66
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:166498}}
|percentage = 56.27
|change =
}}
{{Election box end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cite web |title=Results of all Bihar Assembly elections |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/68-bihar/ |website=eci.gov.in |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=15 March 2022}}

{{Vidhan Sabha constituencies of Bihar}}
{{Vaishali district topics }}
{{Tirhut Division topics}}

{{Bihar elections}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Bihar]]
[[Category:Politics of Vaishali district]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1967]]
[[Category:1967 establishments in Bihar]]
{{coord|26|00|16|N|85|04|50|E|region:IN-BR|display=inline,title}}

Haripal Assembly constituency

2026-04-15T23:39:59Z

IgnacioElem3: started details!

{{Use Indian English|date=January 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Haripal
| type = SLA
| map_image = {{Maplink|frame=yes|plain=y|frame-width=300|frame-height=300|frame-align=center|type=shape|from=Vidhan Sabha constituencies/West Bengal/Haripal.map}}
| map_caption = Interactive Map Outlining Haripal Assembly Constituency
| map_alt =
| mla = [[Karabi Manna]]
| party = {{Party index link|Trinamool Congress}}
| alliance = {{Party index link|Trinamool Congress}}+
| latest_election_year = [[2021 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2021]]
| state = [[West Bengal]]
| district = [[Hooghly district|Hooghly]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Arambagh Lok Sabha constituency|Arambagh]]
| constituency_no = 196
| established = 1967
| electors = 213,832
| reservation = None
| abolished =
}}

'''Haripal Assembly constituency''' is an [[Vidhan Sabha|assembly]] constituency in [[Hooghly district]] in the [[India]]n [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[West Bengal]].

==Overview==
As per orders of the Delimitation Commission, No. 196 Haripal Assembly constituency is composed of the following: [[Haripal (community development block)|Haripal]] [[Community Development Block in India|community development block]] and Balarambati, Basubati and [[Kamarkundu|Kamarkundu Gopalnagar]], Daluigachha [[gram panchayat]]s of [[Singur]] community development block.<ref name=delimitation>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/delim/Final_Publications/WestBengal/FINAL%20ORDER%20NOTIFICATION_English.pdf | title = Delimitation Commission Order No. 18 dated 15 February 2006 | access-date= 26 July 2015|work = West Bengal| publisher= Election Commission of India}}</ref>

Haripal Assembly constituency is part of No. 29 [[Arambagh Lok Sabha constituency]] (SC).<ref name=delimitation/> It was earlier part of [[Hooghly Lok Sabha constituency]].

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Year
!Name
!colspan=2|Party
|-
|[[1967 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
|rowspan="2"|Amalesh Chandra Mazumdar
|{{Full party name with color|Samyukta Socialist Party|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[1969 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1969]]
|-
|[[1971 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1971]]
|rowspan="2"|Chittaranjan Basu
|{{Full party name with color|Workers Party of India|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[1972 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1972]]
|-
|[[1977 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1977]]
|rowspan="3"|Balai Banerjee
|{{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)|rowspan=7|dab=yes}}
|-
|[[1982 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1982]]
|-
|[[1987 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1987]]
|-
|[[1991 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1991]]
|rowspan="3"|Kaliprasad Biswas
|-
|[[1996 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1996]]
|-
|[[2001 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2001]]
|-
|[[2006 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2006]]
|Bharati Mukherjee
|-
|[[2011 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2011]]
|rowspan="2"|[[Becharam Manna]]
|{{Full party name with color|Trinamool Congress|rowspan=3}}
|-
|[[2016 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2016]]
|-
|[[2021 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2021]]
|[[Karabi Manna]]
|}

==Election results==
===2026===
{{Election box begin|title=[[2026 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]]: Haripal}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = [[Karabi Manna]]
|party = Trinamool Congress
|votes = {{formatnum:}}
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = [[Madhumita Ghosh]]
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = {{formatnum:}}
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Sheikh Muzaffar Ali
|party = Indian Secular Front
|votes = {{formatnum:}}
|percentage =
|change =
}}

{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Saif Azad
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = {{formatnum:}}
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|party = None of the above (India)
|votes = {{formatnum:}}
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = {{formatnum:}}
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = {{formatnum:}}
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner =
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2021===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2021 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]]: Haripal}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|party = Trinamool Congress
|candidate = [[Karabi Manna]]
|votes = 1,10,215
|percentage = 49.92
|change = {{decrease}}3.3
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Samiran Mitra
|votes = 87,143
|percentage = 39.47
|change = {{increase}}34.13
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Indian Secular Front
|candidate = Simal Saren
|votes = 15,795
|percentage = 7.15
|change = {{new}}
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above (India)
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the Above]]
|votes = 3,367
|percentage = 1.53
|change = {{decrease}}0.16
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Totan Bag
|votes = 2,132
|percentage = 0.97
|change = {{New}}
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Socialist Unity Centre of India (Communist)
|candidate = Biswanath Ghosh
|votes = 2,122
|percentage = 0.96
|change = {{increase}}0.09
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = 23,072
|percentage = 10.45
|change = {{decrease}}4.66
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = 2,20,774
|percentage = 81.87
|change = {{decrease}}2.64
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|winner = Trinamool Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2016===
{{Election box begin|title=[[2016 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]]: Haripal}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|party = Trinamool Congress
|candidate = [[Becharam Manna]]
|votes = 1,10,899
|percentage = 53.22
|change = {{decrease}}0.48
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
|candidate = Jogiyananda Mishra
|votes = 79,424
|percentage = 38.11
|change = {{decrease}}3.51
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Ramakrishna Pal
|votes = 11,124
|percentage = 5.34
|change = {{increase}}3.06
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above (India)
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the Above]]
|votes = 3,526
|percentage = 1.29
|change = {{new}}
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Socialist Unity Centre of India (Communist)
|candidate = Sheikh Rafiuddarajat
|votes = 1,814
|percentage = 0.87
|change = {{new}}
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Jharkhand Disom Party
|candidate = Sukumar Mandi
|votes = 2,122
|percentage = 0.40
|change = {{decrease}}0.83
}}
{{Election box candidate
|party = IUC
|candidate = L. K. Singh
|votes = 782
|percentage = 0.38
|change = {{new}}
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = 31,475
|percentage = 15.11
|change = {{increase}}3.05
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = 2,08,398
|percentage = 84.51
|change = {{decrease}}0.89
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|winner = Trinamool Congress
|loser = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2011===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2011 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]]: Haripal<ref name=vidhansabha2011>{{cite web| url =http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/AE2011/stat_WB_May2011.pdf|title = General Elections, India, 2011, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data, AC No |publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 9 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.empoweringindia.org/new/constituency.aspx?eid=736&cid=196|title = West Bengal Assembly Election 2011|work = Haripal|publisher = Empowering India|access-date = 1 May 2011|archive-date = 19 May 2012|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120519164350/http://www.empoweringindia.org/new/constituency.aspx?eid=736&cid=196|url-status = usurped}}</ref>}}

{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|party = Trinamool Congress
|candidate = [[Becharam Manna]]
|votes = 98,146
|percentage = 53.70
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
|candidate = Bharati Mukherjee
|votes = 76,073
|percentage = 41.62
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Partha Sarathi Banerjee
|votes = 4,175
|percentage = 2.28
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Jharkhand Disom Party
|candidate = Lakshmi Kanta Hansda
|votes = 2,244
|percentage = 1.23
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate
|party = PDCI
|candidate = Mohammad Nizamuddin Sheikh
|votes = 2,137
|percentage = 1.17
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = 22,073
|percentage = 12.08
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = 1,82,775
|percentage = 85.40
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
|winner = Trinamool Congress
|loser = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===1977-2006===
In the [[2006 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2006 state assembly elections]]<ref name=vidhansabha2006>{{cite web| url =http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2006/StatReport_WB_2006.pdf |title = General Elections, India, 2006, to the Legislativer Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data, AC No |publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 9 July 2015}}</ref> Bharati Mukherjee of [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]] won the Haripal seat defeating Safiul Islam Sarkar of [[All India Trinamool Congress|Trinamool Congress]]. Contests in most years were multi cornered but only winners and runners are being mentioned. Kaliprasad Biswas of CPI(M) defeated Samiran Mitra representing Trinamool Congress in 2001<ref name=vidhansabha2001>{{cite web| url =http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2001/StatRept_WB_2001.pdf |title = General Elections, India, 2001, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data, AC No |publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 9 July 2015}}</ref> and [[Indian National Congress|Congress]] in 1996,<ref name=vidhansabha1996>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1996/StatisticalReport-WB96.pdf |title = General Elections, India, 1996, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data, AC No |publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 6 February 2015}}</ref> and Tushar Sinha Roy of Congress in 1991.<ref name=vidhansabha1991>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1991/StatisticalReport-West%20Bengal91.pdf|title = General Elections, India, 1991, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data, AC No | publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 9 July 2015}}</ref> Balai Banerjee of CPI(M) defeated Tushar Sinha Roy of Congress in 1987<ref name=vidhansabha1987>{{cite web| url =http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1987/StatisticalReportWestBengal87.pdf |title = General Elections, India, 1987, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data, AC No |publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 9 July 2015}}</ref> and Chandrasekhar Banik representing [[Indian National Congress (Socialist)|ICS]] in 1982<ref name=vidhansabha1982>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1982/StatisticalReportWestBengal82.pdf |title = General Elections, India, 1982, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data, AC No |publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 9 July 2015}}</ref> and Congress in 1977.<ref name=vidhansabha1977>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1977/StatisticalReportWestBengal77.pdf |title = General Elections, India, 1977, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data, AC No |publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 9 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/archive/ElectionAnalysis/AE/S25/Partycomp184.htm |title =184 - Haripal Assembly Constituency |work = Partywise Comparison Since 1977 | publisher = Election Commission of India|access-date = 1 December 2010}}</ref>

===1967-1972===
Chittaranjan Basu of [[Workers Party of India|WPI]] won in 1972<ref name=vidhansabha1972>{{cite web| url =http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1972/StatReport_WB_72.pdf |title =General Elections, India, 1972, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data, AC No |publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 9 July 2015}}</ref> and 1971.<ref name=vidhansabha1971>{{cite web| url =http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1971/StatReport_WB_71.pdf |title = General Elections, India, 1971, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data, AC No ?|publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 9 July 2015}}</ref> Amalesh Chandra Mazumdar of [[Samyukta Socialist Party|SSP]] won in 1969 and 1967.<ref name=vidhansabha1967>{{cite web| url =http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1967/Statistical%20report%20WB1967.pdf |title = General Elections, India, 1967, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data, AC No |publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 9 July 2015}}</ref> Prior to that the Haripal seat did not exist.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Hooghly topics}}
{{Vidhan Sabha constituencies of West Bengal}}

{{West Bengal elections}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of West Bengal]]
[[Category:Politics of Hooghly district]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1967]]
[[Category:1967 establishments in West Bengal]]

Mumbai CSMT–Amravati Superfast Express

2026-04-13T21:00:14Z

IgnacioElem3:

{{Short description|Train in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2016}}
{{Infobox rail service
| name = Mumbai Amravati Express
| image= 12111 Amravati Express trainboard.jpg
| caption =
| type = [[Superfast Express trains in India|Superfast Express]]
| locale = [[Maharashtra]]
| first = {{start date and age|2008|09|07}}
| last =
| operator = [[Central Railway zone|Central Railway]]
| ridership =
| start = [[Mumbai CST|Mumbai]]
| stops = 16
| end = [[Amravati railway station|Amravati]]
| distance = {{convert|672|km|0|abbr=on}}
| journeytime = 12 hours (Approx.)
| frequency = Daily
| class = AC 1st Class, AC 2 Tier, AC 3 Tier, Sleeper Class, General Unreserved
| seating = Yes
| sleeping = Yes
| autorack =
| catering = No Pantry Car
| observation = No Rake Sharing
| entertainment =
| baggage =
| other facilities=
| stock = [[LHB coach]]
| gauge = {{RailGauge|1676mm|allk=on}}
| el =
| trainnumber = 12111 / 12112
| speed ={{convert|57.19|km/h|0|abbr=on}}
| map =
| map_state =
}}

The 12111/12112 '''Amravati Express''' is a [[Superfast Express trains in India|Superfast Express]] train belonging to [[Indian Railways]] that runs between [[Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus|Mumbai CSMT]] and [[Amravati railway station|Amravati]] Terminus in India. It is a daily service.
It operates as train number 12111 from [[Mumbai CST|Mumbai]] to [[Amravati railway station|Amravati]] and as train number 12112 in the reverse direction.
This train was introduced on 7 September 2008.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cr.indianrailways.gov.in/view_section.jsp?lang%3D0%26id%3D0%2C6%2C1191%2C1193%2C1216%2C1244 |title=Central Railway / Indian Railways Portal |accessdate=2013-03-24 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130403165812/http://www.cr.indianrailways.gov.in//view_section.jsp?lang=0&id=0%2C6%2C1191%2C1193%2C1216%2C1244 |archivedate=3 April 2013 |df=dmy }}</ref>

==Coaches==

12111/12112 ''' Amravati Express''' presently has 1 AC 1st Class cum AC 2 tier, 2 AC 2 tier, 4 AC 3 tier, 8 Sleeper Class, 3 General Unreserved and 1 SLR (Seating Cum Luggage Van) coache and 1 EOG.

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders unsortable" style="text-align:center"
|-
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:white;"| Loco
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:grey;"| 1
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:pink;"| 2
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:orange;"| 3
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:royalblue;"| 4
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:royalblue;"| 5
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background: lightskyblue;"| 6
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:lightskyblue;"| 7
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:lightskyblue;"| 8
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:lightskyblue;"| 9
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:yellow;"| 10
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:yellow;"| 11
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:yellow;"| 12
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:yellow;"| 13
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:yellow;"| 14
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:yellow;"| 15
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:yellow;"| 16
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:yellow;"| 17
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:pink;"| 18
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:pink;"| 19
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:violet;"| 20

|-
|[[File:BSicon LDER.svg|25px]] ||SLRD||GS|GS||S8|||S7||S6||S5
|S4||S3||S2||S1||B4||B3||B2||B1||A3||A2||A1||HA1|||GS|||GS||GV1
|}

[[File:12111 Amravati Express - AC 2 tier coach.jpg|thumb|12111 Amravati Express – AC 2 tier coach]]
[[File:12111 Amravati Express at Mumbai CST.jpg|thumb|12111 Amravati Express at [[Mumbai CST]]]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==

* [http://indiarailinfo.com/train/mumbai-cst-amravati-sf-express-12111/2072/1620/3446 12111/Mumbai CSMT - Amravati SF Express]
* [https://indiarailinfo.com/train/amravati-mumbai-cst-sf-express-12112/2073/3446/1620 12112/Amravati - Mumbai CSMT SF Express]

{{Railways in Western India}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mumbai CSMT - Amravati Express}}
[[Category:Express trains in India]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Transport in Mumbai]]
[[Category:Transport in Amravati]]
[[Category:Railway services introduced in 2008]]

Siyaram Rai

2026-04-12T12:39:23Z

IgnacioElem3: added initial data and citations

{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Siyaram Rai
| image =
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_date = 2 June 1929
| birth_place = Pipra, [[Bhagalpur district]], [[British India]]
| death_date = 22 February 2020
| death_place = [[Banka district]], Bihar
| death_cause =
| resting_place =
| resting_place_coordinates =
| office1 = Member of the [[Bihar Legislative Assembly]]
| constituency1 = Belhar
| term_start1 = 1985
| predecessor1 = Chandra Mauleshwar Singh
| term_end1 = 1990
| successor1 = Chandra Mauleshwar Singh
| other_names =
| education =
| alma_mater =
| party = [[Indian National Congress]]
| spouse =
| children =
| parents = Babu Nawal Kishore Rai
| awards =
| signature =
| footnotes =
| website =
}}
'''Siyaram Rai''' was an Indian politician from [[Bihar]]. He was elected from [[Belhar Assembly constituency|Belhar assembly constituency]] in 1985.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bihar 1985 |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3896-bihar-1985/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240112152601/https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3896-bihar-1985/ |archive-date=2024-01-12 |access-date=2025-05-21 |website=Election Commission of India |language=en-IN}}</ref>

==Biography==
Siyaram Rai was born to Babu Nawal Kishore Rai, landlord of Pipra in [[Banka district]] of Bihar. In 1985, He contested and won the Belhar assembly seat on a Congress ticket.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qz-OAAAAMAAJ&q=siyaram+rai+belhar |title=Report on the General Elections to the Legislative Assemblies of Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Goa, Daman & Diu, and Pondicherry, 1984-85: pts. 1-4. Tables 1-13 |date=1988 |publisher=Election Commission of India |language=hi}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Bihar]]
[[Category:Bihar MLAs 1985–1990]]
[[Category:People from Banka district]]
[[Category:1929 births]]
[[Category:2020 deaths]]

{{Bihar-INC-politician-stub}}

Jaydeep Bihani

2026-04-10T01:07:48Z

IgnacioElem3: started a post!

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Jaydeep Bihani
| office = Member of [[16th Rajasthan Assembly]]
| constituency = [[Ganganagar Assembly constituency|Ganganagar]]
| country = {{flag|India}}
| assembly = [[Rajasthan Legislative Assembly]]
| predecessor = Karuna Ashok Chandak
| successor =
| term_start = 15 December 2023
| term_end =
| source =
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| birth_name =
| birth_place =
| occupation = Politician
| profession =
}}

'''Jaydeep Bihani''' is an Indian politician serving as a member of the [[16th Rajasthan Assembly]]. He is a member of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] and represents the [[Ganganagar Assembly constituency]] from [[Sri Ganganagar district]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/elections/rajasthan-assembly-election/ganganagar-constituency/|title=Ganganagar Election 2023: Get Latest News Updates of the Ganganagar Constituency Seat in Rajasthan Assembly Election 2023.|website=The Indian Express}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/assembly-elections/rajasthan/constituency-show/ganganagar|title=Ganganagar Constituency Election Results 2023: Ganganagar Assembly Seat Details, MLA Candidates & Winner|website=The Times of India}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.abplive.com/elections/rajasthan-assembly-election-2023/rajasthan-ganganagar-constituency-2.html|title=Ganganagar Election Result 2023 Live, Ganganagar Elections Vote Counting, Rajasthan Results 2023 | ABP News|website=news.abplive.com}}</ref>

==Political career==
Following the [[2023 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election]], he was elected as [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]] from the Ganganagar assembly constituency, defeating Karuna Ashok Chandak ([[Independent politician|IND]]) by a margin of 29,779 votes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oneindia.com/ganganagar-assembly-elections-rj-2/|title=Ganganagar Election Result 2023 LIVE: Ganganagar MLA Election Result & Vote Share - Oneindia}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/story/ganganagar-assembly-election-results-2023-live-2470605-2023-12-03|title=Ganganagar Assembly Election Results 2023 Highlights: BJP's Jaydeep Bihani defeats Independent's Karuna Ashok Chandak with 28991 votes|website=India Today|date=3 December 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/elections/rajasthan-assembly-election/Ganganagar-2|title=Ganganagar Assembly Rajasthan Election 2023 Results Live: Rajasthan constituency Results, Winner list and vote share|website=Hindustan Times}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bihani, Jaydeep}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Rajasthan MLAs 2023–2028]]
[[Category:People from Sri Ganganagar district]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Rajasthan]]

{{Rajasthan-BJP-politician-stub}}

Manorathangal

2026-04-09T16:10:13Z

IgnacioElem3: Starting Post

{{short description|Indian anthology television series}}
{{Unreliable sources|date=August 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox television
| image = Manorathangal.webp
| genre = [[Drama (film and television)|Drama]] [[Anthology]]
| creator =
| director = {{plainlist|
* [[Priyadarshan]]
* [[Santhosh Sivan]]
* [[Ranjith (director)|Ranjith]]
* [[Jayaraj]]
* [[Shyamaprasad]]
* [[Mahesh Narayanan]]
* [[Ratheesh Ambat]]
* Aswathy V. Nair
}}
| based_on = Short stories by [[M. T. Vasudevan Nair]]
| writer = M. T. Vasudevan Nair
| starring = {{plainlist|

* [[Mammootty]]
* [[Mohanlal]]
* [[Biju Menon]]
* [[Asif Ali (actor)|Asif Ali]]
* [[Fahadh Faasil]]
* [[Madhoo]]
* [[Parvathy Thiruvothu]]
* [[Surabhi Lakshmi]]
* [[Siddique (actor)|Siddique]]
* [[Aparna Balamurali]]
}}
| narrator = [[Kamal Haasan]]
| country = India
| language = Malayalam
| num_seasons = 1
| num_episodes = 9
| editor =
| cinematography =
| runtime = 402 minutes
| network = [[ZEE5]]
| music =
| company = [[Saregama]] Jumping Tomato Studios Newsvalue Productions
| composer = [[M. Jayachandran]] [[Ouseppachan]] [[Bijibal]] [[Ramesh Narayan]] [[Rajesh Murugesan]] [[Rahul Raj]] [[Jakes Bejoy]] Saeed Abbas
| producer = Rohandeep Singh
| caption =
| released = {{Start date|2024|08|15|df=y}}<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.news18.com/movies/kamal-haasan-mammootty-and-mohanlals-anthology-series-manorathangal-to-release-on-this-date-8968942.html|language=en|newspaper=News 18|title=Kamal Haasan, Mammootty And Mohanlal's Anthology Series Manorathangal To Release On This Date|date=17 July 2024|access-date=24 July 2024|archive-date=17 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240717115300/https://www.news18.com/movies/kamal-haasan-mammootty-and-mohanlals-anthology-series-manorathangal-to-release-on-this-date-8968942.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
}}

'''''Manorathangal''''' ({{Translation|''Mindscapes''}}) is a 2024 Indian [[Malayalam]]-language [[Anthology series|anthology]] [[streaming television]] series.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment-news/malayalam/mt-vasudevan-nairs-anthology-series-gets-a-title-trailer-release-on-this-date-article-111726840|title=MT Vasudevan Nair's Anthology Series Gets A Title, Trailer Release On This Date!|work=[[Times Now]]|date=14 July 2024|access-date=14 July 2024|archive-date=14 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240714133346/https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment-news/malayalam/mt-vasudevan-nairs-anthology-series-gets-a-title-trailer-release-on-this-date-article-111726840|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Netflix anthology, starring Mammootty, Mohanlal and Fahadh, wraps up filming, here's all we know|newspaper=OTTPlay|url=https://www.ottplay.com/news/netflixs-anthology-starring-mammootty-mohanlal-and-fahadh-wraps-up-filming-heres-all-we-know/8327dd5c55679|date=28 August 2022|access-date=15 July 2024|archive-date=15 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240715041656/https://www.ottplay.com/news/netflixs-anthology-starring-mammootty-mohanlal-and-fahadh-wraps-up-filming-heres-all-we-know/8327dd5c55679|url-status=live}}</ref> The anthology features nine [[featurette]]s based on [[M. T. Vasudevan Nair]]'s nine short stories.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ramachandran |first=Naman |date=16 July 2024 |title=Kamal Haasan, Mohanlal, Mammootty, Fahadh Faasil Lead ZEE5 Global Anthology 'Manorathangal' |url=https://variety.com/2024/tv/asia/kamal-haasan-mohanlal-mammootty-fahadh-faasil-zee5-manorathangal-1236073308/ |access-date=16 July 2024 |website=Variety |language=en-US |archive-date=17 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240717010312/https://variety.com/2024/tv/asia/kamal-haasan-mohanlal-mammootty-fahadh-faasil-zee5-manorathangal-1236073308/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title='Manorathangal' Series Review {{!}} A collection of 9 films each different from the rest |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/entertainment/movie-reviews/2024/08/15/manorathangal-films-anthology-series-priyadarshan-directors-movie-review.html |access-date=16 August 2024 |website=Onmanorama}}</ref> Aswathy V Nair, daughter of Vasudevan Nair, is the creative director of the film. Titles of the featurettes are ''[[Olavum Theeravum (2024 film)|Olavum Theeravum]]'', ''Kadugannawa; Oru Yathra Kurippu'', ''Sherlock'', ''Silalikhitham'', ''Vilpana'', ''Kadalkkaattu'', ''Kazhcha'', ''Abhayam Thedi Veendum'', and ''Swargam Thurakkuna Samayam''.<ref>{{cite news |title=എം.ടിയുടെ 'മനോരഥങ്ങള്‍' പ്രേക്ഷകരിലേക്ക്; മമ്മൂട്ടിയും മോഹന്‍ലാലും അടക്കം പ്രധാന വേഷങ്ങളില്‍|language =ml|newspaper=News Malayalam 24X7|url=https://www.newsmalayalam.com/article/movie/manorathangal-written-by-mt-vasudevan-nair-ready-to-release|date=14 July 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=M.T. Vasudevan Nair and nine shades of life |newspaper=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/mt-vasudevan-nair-and-nine-shades-of-life/article67070579.ece|date=14 July 2023}}</ref>

The anthology is presented by [[Kamal Haasan]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Manorathangal trailer: Kamal Haasan, Mammootty, Mohanlal, Fahadh Faasil star in Malayalam anthology. Watch|newspaper=Hindustan Times|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/others/manorathangal-trailer-kamal-haasan-mammootty-mohanlal-fahadh-faasil-star-in-malayalam-anthology-watch-101721123624534.html|date=16 July 2024|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716132624/https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/others/manorathangal-trailer-kamal-haasan-mammootty-mohanlal-fahadh-faasil-star-in-malayalam-anthology-watch-101721123624534.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Netflix assembles Mohanlal, Mammootty, Kamal Haasan, Fahadh Faasil for star-studded Malayalam anthology|newspaper=South Live|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/malayalam/netflix-mohanlal-mammootty-kamal-haasan-fahadh-faasil-malayalam-anthology-7720839/lite/|date=13 January 2023|access-date=14 July 2024|archive-date=14 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240714172003/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/malayalam/netflix-mohanlal-mammootty-kamal-haasan-fahadh-faasil-malayalam-anthology-7720839/lite/|url-status=live}}</ref> It comprises an [[ensemble cast]] including [[Mammootty]], [[Mohanlal]], [[Fahad Fazil|Fahadh Faasil]], [[Biju Menon]], [[Nedumudi Venu]], [[Siddique (actor)|Siddique]], [[Indrajith Sukumaran]], [[Asif Ali (actor)|Asif Ali]], [[Mamukkoya]], [[Vineeth]], [[Indrans]], [[Madhoo]], [[Aparna Balamurali]], [[Parvathy Thiruvothu]], [[Surabhi Lakshmi]], and [[Ann Augustine]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/movies-music/news/entertainment-news-1.6230171|title=Ann Augustine makes re-entry, teams up with Indrajith for Rathish Ambat's web series|work=Mathrubhumi|date=1 December 2021|access-date=15 July 2024|archive-date=15 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240715042759/https://english.mathrubhumi.com/movies-music/news/entertainment-news-1.6230171|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.onmanorama.com/entertainment/entertainment-news/2022/07/19/priyadarshan-olavum-theeravum-movie.html|title=Priyadarshan's 'Olavum Theeravum' shot in black and white|website=Onmanorama|access-date=14 July 2024|archive-date=8 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231108184542/https://www.onmanorama.com/entertainment/entertainment-news/2022/07/19/priyadarshan-olavum-theeravum-movie.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Sanath Jayasuriya welcomes 'true superstar' Mammootty to Sri Lanka |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/entertainment/entertainment-news/2022/08/16/mammootty-visits-sri-lanka-meets-sanath-jayasuriya.html |date=17 August 2022 |access-date=14 July 2024 |archive-date=22 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230422135246/https://www.onmanorama.com/entertainment/entertainment-news/2022/08/16/mammootty-visits-sri-lanka-meets-sanath-jayasuriya.amp.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The anthology released on 15 August 2024 on [[ZEE5]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Manorathangal trailer: Kamal Haasan, Mohanlal, Mammootty, Fahadh Faasil take deep dive into various worlds created by MT Vasudevan Nair|newspaper=Indian Express|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/malayalam/manorathangal-trailer-kamal-haasan-mohanlal-mammootty-fahadh-faasil-9455142/|date=15 July 2024|access-date=15 July 2024|archive-date=15 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240715173127/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/malayalam/manorathangal-trailer-kamal-haasan-mohanlal-mammootty-fahadh-faasil-9455142/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=മമ്മൂട്ടിയും മോഹൻലാലും ഫഹദും എംടി ചിത്രത്തിൽ; 'മനോരഥങ്ങൾ' റിലീസിന്|language=ml|newspaper=South Live|url=https://www.southlive.in/movie/film-news/mt-vasudevan-nair-s-manorathangal-mammootty-mohanlal-fahadh-faasil-priyadarshan|date=14 July 2024|access-date=14 July 2024|archive-date=14 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240714172004/https://www.southlive.in/movie/film-news/mt-vasudevan-nair-s-manorathangal-mammootty-mohanlal-fahadh-faasil-priyadarshan|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Manorathangal: MT Vasudevan Nair anthology gets a title, trailer launch to be held on this date?|newspaper=OTTPlay|url=https://www.ottplay.com/news/manorathangal-mt-vasudevan-nair-anthology-gets-a-title-trailer-launch-to-be-held-on-this-date/802e082216404|date=14 July 2024|access-date=15 July 2024|archive-date=15 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240715041305/https://www.ottplay.com/news/manorathangal-mt-vasudevan-nair-anthology-gets-a-title-trailer-launch-to-be-held-on-this-date/802e082216404|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Plot==
{{AI-generated|section=Plot|date=November 2025}}
[[Olavum Theeravum (2024 film)|Olavum Theeravum]]: Baputty, a [[Lumber|timber]] trader falls in love with his dead friend's sister Nabeesa. However her mother, a prostitute, wants to marry her off to Kunjali, a wealthy trader. But Baputty and Nabeesa are determined to marry each other. Kunjali rapes Nabeesa, and offers to marry her as a compensation. The story culminates in a dramatic confrontation between the two men, with Bapputty asserting his love for Nabeesu. But by the time he reaches Nabeesu's home after beating down Kunjali, Nabeesu would have committed suicide due to the trauma caused by the rape.

Kadugannava, Oru Yathra Kurippu: A journalist named Venugopal travels to Sri Lanka for an official purpose, but is motivated to explore a place called Kadugannava, motivated by a childhood mystery involving his father and a young girl named Leela. He searches for Leela in the village of Kadugannava, where his father once lived, hoping to uncover the truth about their past. He finds out evidences pointing to the truth that Leela was born out of a Sri Lankan woman whom his father had married while he was living there. Leela is still alive, and she and her son lives in abject poverty. Leela refuses to meet Venu. Venu leaves the place entrusting money to a trusted local of Sri Lanka, to meet Leela and her son's needs.

Kazhcha: Sudha, a woman living in a troubled marriage, returns to her Kerala village to inform her family of her decision to divorce. Faced with opposition and societal pressure, she seeks advice from an elderly woman named Valiyamma. The story explores themes of women's choices, societal expectations, and the complexities of marriage.

Shilalikhitham: A historian, Gopalankutty, and his daughter witness a young woman dying alone in their village. The indifference of the villagers to the woman's plight becomes a focal point of the story, highlighting societal hypocrisy and the failure to help those in need. This story paints a picture that contradicts the popular nostalgic narrative that villages are full of innocence, love and empathy while cities are not.

Vilpana: A journalist, Sunil Das, encounters a mysterious woman named Mrs. Parekh while looking for buying a second hand typewriter. When he arrives at her house for the same, she asks his help to sell off other furniture in the house to other potential buyers who keeps coming. The story delves into the loneliness of Ms. Parekh, the complexities of human connection and the unexpected bonds that can form between strangers.

Sherlock: Balu, a recovering alcoholic, visits his sister in Philadelphia. He develops a strained relationship with her pet cat, Sherlock, who seems to have an uncanny ability to expose Balu's secrets. The loneliness of Balu's sister whose husband is always away on work tours, is also shown. The story explores themes of surveillance, privacy, and the complexities of family relationships.

Swargam Thurakkunna Samayam: Kuttinarayanan, known for his expertise in end-of-life rituals, is called to a dying man's bedside. The arrival of the man's selfish children disrupts the peaceful atmosphere, revealing the stark contrast between the dying man's character and his family's materialistic values.

Abhayam Thedi Veendum: A stranger arrives in a village and takes refuge in an abandoned house. As he becomes increasingly attached to the place, he faces resistance from the local villagers. The story builds suspense as the stranger awaits a confrontation with the house's owner, ultimately revealing a chilling truth.

Kadalkkaattu: A successful businessman leads a double life, juggling his family in the village and a lover in the city who is unaware that he is married. His life takes an unexpected turn when his lover asks him to marry her and he says no. The lover is crestfallen on his refusal and goes ahead to marry someone else without informing the businessman. Saddened by this, he goes back to his pregnant wife and child in his village to start his abandoned life afresh. His wife is revealed to have been aware of his affair, and is shown to be relieved that he has let go of the affair.

==Cast==
*[[Kamal Haasan]] as Narrator for all the segments
===''Kadugannawa, Oru Yathra Kurippu''===
* [[Mammootty]] as Adult Venugopal
* [[Vineeth]] as Venugopal's father
* [[Anumol]] as Venugopal's mother

===''Olavum Theeravum''===
{{further|Olavum Theeravum (2024 film)}}
* [[Mohanlal]] as Baputty
* [[Surabhi Lakshmi]] as Beevathu
* [[Durga Krishna]] as Nabeesa
* [[Hareesh Peradi]] as Kunjali
* [[Mamukkoya]] as Mammadikka

===''Kazhcha''===
* [[Parvathy Thiruvothu]] as Sudha
* [[Harish Uthaman]] as Vishwanathan
* [[Narain (actor)|Narain]] as Prabhakaran
* Kalamandalam Saraswathy as Grandma
* [[Manju Pathrose]] as Sumathi

===''Shilalikhitam''===
* [[Biju Menon]] as Gopalankutty
*[[Sshivada]] as Sarala
* [[Shanthi Krishna]] as Malu amma
* [[Joy Mathew]] as Raghavan Mama
*[[T. G. Ravi]] as Parameshwaran
* [[Manikandan Pattambi]] as Kumaran Mash
* Nila Bharathi as Renu
* Geethi Sangeetha as Kurumba
* Nandu Poduval as Eroman
* Krittika Pradeep as Narayani
* Hareesh Pengan as Uzhuthura Warrier

===''Vilpana''===
* [[Asif Ali (actor)|Asif Ali]] as Sunil Das
* [[Madhoo]] as Gita Parekh
*[[Sreejith Ravi]] as broker Balu
*[[Chitra Iyer]] as visitor
* [[Ujjwal Chopra]] as Mr. Parekh

===''Sherlock''===
* [[Fahadh Faasil]] as Balu
* [[Nadhiya]] as Balu's elder sister
*Cat as Sherlock

===''Swargam Thurakkuna Samayam''===
* [[Surabhi Lakshmi]] as Sita
* [[Kailash (actor)|Kailash]] as Achu
* [[Indrans]] as Kuttinarayanan
* [[Nedumudi Venu]] as Madhavan Mash
* [[Renji Panicker]] as Pathmanabhan
*[[Jayakumar Parameswaran Pillai]]

===''Abhyam Theedi Veendum''===
* [[Siddique (actor)|Siddique]] as The Man
* Ishit Yamini as The Woman
* [[Naseer Sankranthi]] as Karyasthan

===''Kadalkkaattu''===
* [[Aparna Balamurali]] as Bharathi
* [[Indrajith Sukumaran]] as Keshav
* [[Ann Augustine]] as Margaret
* [[Sanju Sivram]] as Vincent

== Episodes ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Title
!Director
!Writer(s)
!Music director
!Cinematographer
!Editor
|-
|''[[Olavum Theeravum (2024 film)|Olavum Theeravum]]''<ref>{{cite news |title='ഓളവും തീരവും' റീമേക്കിന് മോഹന്‍ലാലും പ്രിയദര്‍ശനും? |url=https://www.asianetnews.com/entertainment-news/mohanlal-and-priyadarshan-to-remake-mt-vasudevan-nair-script-of-olavum-theeravum-r09bma |access-date=15 July 2024 |work=[[Asianet News]] |language=ml |archive-date=15 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240715130051/https://www.asianetnews.com/entertainment-news/mohanlal-and-priyadarshan-to-remake-mt-vasudevan-nair-script-of-olavum-theeravum-r09bma |url-status=live }}</ref>
|[[Priyadarshan]]
|rowspan="9"|[[MT Vasudevan Nair]]
|[[Bijibal]]
|[[Santosh Sivan]]
|MS Aiyappan Nair
|-
|''Kadugannawa, Oru Yathra Kurippu''<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.mathrubhumi.com/movies-music/news/kadugannawa-oru-yathrakurippu-mammootty-ranjith-mt-vasudevan-nair-movie-1.7718079|title=കടുഗണ്ണാവ ഒരു യാത്രാക്കുറിപ്പ്; എംടിയും രഞ്ജിത്തും മമ്മൂട്ടിയും ഒന്നിക്കുന്നു |date=22 July 2022 |work=[[Mathrubhumi News]] |language=ml}}</ref>
| [[Ranjith (director)|Ranjith]]
|[[Bijibal]]
|[[Sujith Vassudev]], Prasanth Raveendran
|Manoj Kannoth
|-
|''Kazhcha''<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.etvbharat.com/en/!entertainment/manorathangal-trailer-kamal-haasan-mammootty-mohanlal-fahadh-faasil-bring-mt-vasudevan-nairs-timeless-stories-to-life-enn24071601773|title=Manorathangal Trailer: Kamal Haasan, Mammootty, Mohanlal, Fahadh Faasil Bring MT Vasudevan Nair's Timeless Stories to Life|date=16 July 2024|work=ETV Bharat|language=en|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716164416/https://www.etvbharat.com/en/!entertainment/manorathangal-trailer-kamal-haasan-mammootty-mohanlal-fahadh-faasil-bring-mt-vasudevan-nairs-timeless-stories-to-life-enn24071601773|url-status=live}}</ref>
|[[Shyamaprasad]]
|[[Ouseppachan]]
|[[Nimish Ravi]]
|[[Vinod Sukumaran]]
|-
|''Shilalikhitam''<ref name=.1/>
|[[Priyadarshan]]
|[[Rajesh Murugesan]]
|Divakar Mani
|MS Aiyappan Nair
|-
|''Vilpana''<ref>{{cite news |title=Asif Ali, Madhoo team up for Aswathy Vasudevan Nair's segment Vilpana in Netflix anthology? |url=https://www.ottplay.com/news/asif-ali-madhoo-team-up-for-aswathy-vasudevan-nair-segment-vilpana-in-netflix-anthology/680861e60f181 |date=14 October 2021 |work=OTTPlay |language=en |access-date=16 July 2024 |archive-date=26 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211026100839/https://www.ottplay.com/news/asif-ali-madhoo-team-up-for-aswathy-vasudevan-nair-segment-vilpana-in-netflix-anthology/680861e60f181 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|Ashwathy V Nair
|[[Bijibal]]
|Divakar Mani
|Dilip Damodar
|-
|''Sherlock''<ref>{{cite news|title=മാലിക്കിന് ശേഷം എം.ടിയുടെ ഷെർലക്ക്; മഹേഷ് നാരായണനും ഫഹദും വീണ്ടും ഒന്നിക്കുന്നു|url=https://malayalam.indiatoday.in/cinema/photo/mahesh-narayanan-and-fahad-fazil-sherlock-321629-2021-12-09|date=9 December 2021|work=India Today|language=ml|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716164416/https://malayalam.indiatoday.in/cinema/photo/mahesh-narayanan-and-fahad-fazil-sherlock-321629-2021-12-09|url-status=live}}</ref>
|[[Mahesh Narayanan]]
|Saeed Abbas
|[[Mahesh Narayanan]]
|Rahul Radhakrishnan
|-
||''Swargam Thurakkuna Samayam''<ref>{{cite news|title=Captivated by cinema: Interview with film director Jayaraj|url=https://www.onmanorama.com/entertainment/interviews/2022/02/06/interview-film-director-jayaraj.html|date=7 February 2022|work=Onmanorama|language=en|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716165228/https://www.onmanorama.com/entertainment/interviews/2022/02/06/interview-film-director-jayaraj.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
| [[Jayaraj]]
|[[Ramesh Narayan]]
|[[Nikhil S. Praveen]]
|CR Sreejith
|-
|''Abhyam Theedi Veendum''<ref>{{cite news|title='അഭയം തേടി, വീണ്ടും', എംടിയുടെ കഥയ്ക്ക് ദൃശ്യഭാഷ്യമൊരുക്കി സന്തോഷ് ശിവന്‍, കൂട്ടുകെട്ട് 30 വര്‍ഷത്തിന് ശേഷം|url=https://www.thecue.in/videos/entertainment/film-news/mt-vasudevan-nair-santhosh-sivan-movie-abhayam-thedi-veendum|date=19 September 2021|work=The Cue|language=ml|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716164416/https://www.thecue.in/videos/entertainment/film-news/mt-vasudevan-nair-santhosh-sivan-movie-abhayam-thedi-veendum|url-status=live}}</ref>
|[[Santosh Sivan]]
|[[Jakes Bejoy]]
|[[Santosh Sivan]]
|Dilip Damodar
|-
|''Kadalkkaattu''<ref>{{cite news |title=Ann Augustine to make her comeback through Indrajith, Rathish Ambat's segment Kadalkaattu in Netflix anthology |url=https://www.ottplay.com/news/ann-augustine-to-make-her-comeback-through-indrajith-rathish-ambat-s-segment-kadalkaattu-in-netflix-anthology/5f93476a2e265 |date=9 November 2021 |work=OTTPlay |language=en |access-date=16 July 2024 |archive-date=16 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716164416/https://www.ottplay.com/news/ann-augustine-to-make-her-comeback-through-indrajith-rathish-ambat-s-segment-kadalkaattu-in-netflix-anthology/5f93476a2e265 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|[[Rathish Ambat]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Rathish Ambat on Manorathangal: Never dreamt I could direct an MT Vasudevan Nair script |url=https://www.ottplay.com/interview/rathish-ambat-on-manorathangal-kadalkkattu-mt-vasudevan-nair-script/d6fcdf3eb6242 |date=8 August 2024 |work=OTTPlay |language=en |access-date=8 August 2024 |archive-date=8 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240808172356/https://www.ottplay.com/interview/rathish-ambat-on-manorathangal-kadalkkattu-mt-vasudevan-nair-script/d6fcdf3eb6242 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|[[Rahul Raj]]
|Lokanathan
|Dilip Damodar
|}

==Production==
The anthology consists of nine short stories by [[M. T. Vasudevan Nair]].<ref>{{cite news |title='Manorathangal': Mammootty, Kamal Haasan, Fahadh Faasil in MT Vasudevan's anthology|newspaper=Mathrubhumi News|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/manorathangal-trailer-mammootty-kamal-haasan-mohanlal-fahadh-faasil-paravathy-thiruvothu-2567395-2024-07-16|date=16 July 2024}}</ref> It was conceptualised by Nair's daughter, Aswathy V. Nair, during the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] to commemorate his 90th birthday. Initially, she selected 20 stories, but eventually narrowed it down to 10, and finally settled on nine. While her initial intention was to focus on stories with female protagonists, she also included stories with male protagonists after discovering several compelling narratives. Explaining her decision, she stated, "I wanted women as the protagonists but discovered many wonderful stories with male protagonists. Ultimately, I chose stories with an abiding human element, with emotions of love, lust, greed and revenge, etc". Aswathy also directed one segment titled ''Vilpana''.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Salam |first1=Ziya Us |title=MT Vasudevan Nair and nine shades of life |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/mt-vasudevan-nair-and-nine-shades-of-life/article67070579.ece |access-date=15 July 2024 |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=13 July 2023 |archive-date=14 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240714172003/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/mt-vasudevan-nair-and-nine-shades-of-life/article67070579.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> According to ''[[Onmanorama]]'', the anthology draws inspiration from ''[[Stories by Rabindranath Tagore]]'' (2015), a television series based on the works of poet [[Rabindranath Tagore]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Thampuran |first1=Atmaja Varma |title=MT Vasudevan Nair, Mollywood A-listers come together for Netflix anthology |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/entertainment/entertainment-news/2022/01/12/mt-vasudevan-nair-mammootty-mohanlal-netflix-anthology.html |access-date=14 July 2024 |work=[[Onmanorama]] |date=12 January 2022 |archive-date=14 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240714172003/https://www.onmanorama.com/entertainment/entertainment-news/2022/01/12/mt-vasudevan-nair-mammootty-mohanlal-netflix-anthology.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Aswathy served as the creative producer. The series began production in 2021. By January 2022, six of the films had completed production, including ''Silalikhitham'', ''Vilpana'', ''Kadalkkaattu'', ''Kazhcha'', ''Abhayam Thedi Veendum'', and ''Swargam Thurakkuna Samayam''. [[Priyadarshan]]-directed ''[[Olavum Theeravum (2024 film)|Olavum Theeravum]]'' is a remake of the 1970 [[Olavum Theeravum|film of the same name]]. It began production on 10 July 2022<ref>{{cite news |title=Mohanlal Begins Shooting For Priyadarshan's 'Olavum Theeravum' In Thodupuzha|newspaper=The Times Of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/mohanlal-begins-shooting-for-priyadarshans-olavum-theeravum-in-thodupuzha/articleshow/92779872.cms|date=10 July 2022}}</ref> and wrapped up on 17 July 2022.<ref>{{cite news |title=It's a wrap for Mohanlal-Priyadarshan's 'Olavum Theeravum'|newspaper=The Times Of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/its-a-wrap-for-mohanlal-priyadarshans-olavum-theeravum/articleshow/92946851.cms|date=18 July 2022}}</ref> Priyadarshan also directed ''Silalikhitham''.<ref name=.1>{{cite news|title=എംടിയുടെ രചനയില്‍ സിനിമയൊരുക്കാന്‍ പ്രിയദര്‍ശന്‍; ബിജു മേനോന്‍ നായകന്‍|newspaper=Asianet News|url=https://www.asianetnews.com/entertainment-news/priyadarshan-to-direct-a-movie-on-mt-vasudevan-nair-script-lead-role-by-biju-menon-qybzsu|date=24 August 2021|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716045752/https://www.asianetnews.com/entertainment-news/priyadarshan-to-direct-a-movie-on-mt-vasudevan-nair-script-lead-role-by-biju-menon-qybzsu|url-status=live}}</ref> ''Kadugannawa Oru Yathra'' was initially supposed to be directed by [[Lijo Jose Pellissery]].<ref name=OTTPlay1>{{cite news|title=MT Vasudevan Nair, Mollywood A-listers come together for Netflix anthology|newspaper=Onmanorama|url=https://www.onmanorama.com/entertainment/entertainment-news/2022/01/12/mt-vasudevan-nair-mammootty-mohanlal-netflix-anthology.html|date=12 January 2022|access-date=14 July 2024|archive-date=14 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240714172003/https://www.onmanorama.com/entertainment/entertainment-news/2022/01/12/mt-vasudevan-nair-mammootty-mohanlal-netflix-anthology.html|url-status=live}}</ref> But [[Ranjith (director)|Ranjith]] replaced him and began production on 16 August 2022<ref>{{cite news|title=Mammootty, Ranjith to start shooting for Kadugannawa Oru Yathra next week|newspaper=Cinema Express|url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2022/Aug/09/mammootty-ranjith-to-start-shooting-forkadugannawa-oru-yathra-next-week-33592.html|date=9 August 2022|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716043410/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2022/Aug/09/mammootty-ranjith-to-start-shooting-forkadugannawa-oru-yathra-next-week-33592.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and wrapped up on 26 August 2022.<ref>{{cite news|title=Mammootty's 'Kadugannawa Oru Yathra' Wraps Up The Shoot|newspaper=The Times Of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/mammoottys-kadugannawa-oru-yathra-wraps-up-the-shoot/articleshow/93794186.cms|date=26 August 2022|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716043410/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/mammoottys-kadugannawa-oru-yathra-wraps-up-the-shoot/articleshow/93794186.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> ''Olavum Theeravum'' completed filming in July 2022 in [[Thodupuzha]],<ref name="wrapped">{{cite news|author=ETimes.in|title=It's a wrap for Mohanlal-Priyadarshan's 'Olavum Theeravum'|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/its-a-wrap-for-mohanlal-priyadarshans-olavum-theeravum/articleshow/92946851.cms|access-date=14 July 2024|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=18 July 2022|archive-date=13 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240713211021/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/its-a-wrap-for-mohanlal-priyadarshans-olavum-theeravum/articleshow/92946851.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> which was made in [[black-and-white]] format.<ref>{{cite news |author1=Web Team |title=ആ വ്യത്യസ്‍താനുഭവവുമായി എത്തി ഞെട്ടിച്ചത് മമ്മൂട്ടി; പക്ഷേ ആദ്യം ഷൂട്ട് പൂർത്തിയാക്കിയത് മോഹൻലാൽ |url=https://www.asianetnews.com/entertainment-news/mohanlal-completed-shoot-in-black-and-white-format-in-olavum-theeravum-before-bramayugam-starring-mammootty-nsn-s98uqv |access-date=15 July 2024 |work=[[Asianet News]] |date=22 February 2022 |language=ml |archive-date=14 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240714192400/https://www.asianetnews.com/entertainment-news/mohanlal-completed-shoot-in-black-and-white-format-in-olavum-theeravum-before-bramayugam-starring-mammootty-nsn-s98uqv |url-status=live }}</ref> Initially, the series was produced for [[Netflix]], but the platform rejected the anthology reportedly due to the addition of new segments starring [[Mohanlal]], [[Mammootty]], and [[Fahadh Faasil]] which increased the production cost. Later, [[ZEE5]] acquired the series.<ref>{{cite news|title=Netflix drops Mohanlal, Mammootty and Fahadh Faasil's MT Vasudevan Nair anthology?|newspaper=South Live|url=https://www.ottplay.com/news/netflix-drops-mt-vasudevan-nair-anthology-starring-mammootty-mohanlal-fahadh-after-tiff-with-producers/e5268ac3af319|date=2 June 2023|access-date=14 July 2024|archive-date=14 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240714172003/https://www.ottplay.com/news/netflix-drops-mt-vasudevan-nair-anthology-starring-mammootty-mohanlal-fahadh-after-tiff-with-producers/e5268ac3af319|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Mammootty-Mohanlal starrer anthology series based on MT Vasudevan Nair's works set for OTT release|newspaper=Mathrubhumi News|url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/movies-music/news/mammootty-mohanlal-among-others-manoradhangal-scripted-by-mt-vasudevan-nair-set-for-ott-release-1.9724393|date=14 July 2024|access-date=14 July 2024|archive-date=14 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240714172003/https://english.mathrubhumi.com/movies-music/news/mammootty-mohanlal-among-others-manoradhangal-scripted-by-mt-vasudevan-nair-set-for-ott-release-1.9724393|url-status=live}}</ref>the series was co-produced by Anil Thampi and Chandana Thampi<ref>{{cite web | url=https://m.imdb.com/name/nm16437258/?ref_=ext_shr_lnk | title=Anil Thampy | Producer | website=[[IMDb]] }}</ref>

==Release==
The trailer of the anthology released on 15 July 2024 on Occasion of [[M.T. Vasudevan Nair|M.T. Vasudevan Nair's]] birthday.<ref>{{cite news|title=മമ്മൂട്ടിയും മോഹൻലാലും ഫഹദും ഒന്നിച്ച്; എംടിയുടെ 'മനോരഥങ്ങൾ' ട്രെയിലർ|newspaper=Manorama Online|url=https://www.manoramaonline.com/movies/movie-news/2024/07/15/watch-manorathangal-trialer.html|language=ml|date=15 July 2024|access-date=15 July 2024|archive-date=15 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240715173541/https://www.manoramaonline.com/movies/movie-news/2024/07/15/watch-manorathangal-trialer.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Mammootty, Mohanlal and Kamal Hassan;"Manorathangal" gearing up for OT release|newspaper=Kerala Kaumudi|url=https://keralakaumudi.com/en/news/mobile/news.php?id=1344731&u=mammootty-mohanlal-and-kamal-haasan-manorathangal-gearing-up-for-ott-release-know-details|date=15 July 2024|access-date=15 July 2024|archive-date=15 August 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240815075304/https://keralakaumudi.com/en/news/news.php?id=1344731&u=mammootty-mohanlal-and-kamal-haasan-manorathangal-gearing-up-for-ott-release-know-details|url-status=live}}</ref> The series will release on the OTT platform [[ZEE5]].<ref>{{cite news|title='മനോരഥങ്ങൾ' : 9 എംടി കഥകള്‍ 8 സംവിധായകര്‍ പ്രമുഖ അഭിനേതാക്കള്‍ - ട്രെയിലര്‍ ഇറങ്ങി, റിലീസ് പ്രഖ്യാപിച്ചു|newspaper=Asianet News|language=ml|url=https://www.asianetnews.com/entertainment-news/manorathangal-official-trailer-mohanlal-mammootty-fahadh-premieres-15th-aug-mt-vasudevan-nair-vvk-sgo96a|date=15 July 2024|access-date=15 July 2024|archive-date=15 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240715173541/https://www.asianetnews.com/entertainment-news/manorathangal-official-trailer-mohanlal-mammootty-fahadh-premieres-15th-aug-mt-vasudevan-nair-vvk-sgo96a|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=മലയാളത്തിന്റെ സൂപ്പർ താരങ്ങൾ ഒന്നിക്കുന്നു; തിരക്കഥയെഴുതി എം ടി വാസുദേവൻ നായർ: പിറന്നാൾ ദിനത്തിൽ 'മനോരഥങ്ങൾ' ട്രെയിലർ പുറത്ത്|language=ml|newspaper=Janam TV|url=https://janamtv.com/80891232/|date=15 July 2024|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=15 August 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240815075236/https://janamtv.com/80891232/|url-status=live}}</ref> The series was initially planned for release in September on Occasion of [[Onam]] but later advanced to 15 August 2024.<ref>{{cite news|title=ഓണത്തിനെത്തും എം ടിയുടെ 'മനോരഥങ്ങൾ'|language=ml|newspaper=Janam TV|url=https://www.thefourthnews.in/entertainment/manorathangal-ott-release-date-and-platform|date=15 July 2024|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=15 August 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240815075330/https://www.thefourthnews.in/entertainment/manorathangal-ott-release-date-and-platform|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Manorathangal Trailer: Film legends assemble for anthology on MT Vasudevan Nair's stories|newspaper=Cinema Express|url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2024/Jul/15/manorathangal-trailer-film-legends-assemble-for-anthology-on-mt-vasudevan-nairs-stories|date=15 July 2024|access-date=15 July 2024|archive-date=15 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240715173541/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2024/Jul/15/manorathangal-trailer-film-legends-assemble-for-anthology-on-mt-vasudevan-nairs-stories|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=ಮಮ್ಮುಟ್ಟಿ, ಮೋಹನ್‌ಲಾಲ್, ಫಹಾದ್ ಫಾಸಿಲ್ Manorathangal Movie; 8 ನಿರ್ದೇಶಕರ ಚಿತ್ರವಿದು!|url=https://vijaykarnataka.com/entertainment/news/actor-mammootty-mohanlal-fahadh-faasil-starrer-manorathangal-movie-trailer-release/articleshow/111771086.cms|newspaper=TV9|language=kn|date=16 July 2024|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716132744/https://vijaykarnataka.com/entertainment/news/actor-mammootty-mohanlal-fahadh-faasil-starrer-manorathangal-movie-trailer-release/articleshow/111771086.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> Apart from [[Malayalam]], the series is also released in [[Hindi]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]], and [[Kannada]] languages.<ref>{{cite news|title=Manorathangal: മമ്മൂട്ടിയും മോഹൻലാലും അടക്കം 9 സൂപ്പർ താരങ്ങൾ, 8 സംവിധായകർ, 9 കഥകൾ; എംടിയുടെ 'മനോരഥങ്ങൾ' ഓഗസ്റ്റ് 15ന്|url=https://zeenews.india.com/malayalam/movies/manorathangal-premiers-on-august-15-202383|newspaper=ZEE Malayalam News|date=16 July 2024|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716080652/https://zeenews.india.com/malayalam/movies/manorathangal-premiers-on-august-15-202383|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=9 कहानियां, 9 सुपरस्टार्स, साउथ से आई इस सीरीज के ट्रेलर ने जीता फैंस का दिल, बोले- ब्लॉकबस्टर मास्टरपीस|url=https://ndtv.in/bollywood/manorathangal-trailer-starring-kamal-haasan-mohanlal-mammootty-fahadh-faasil-on-zee5-6116606|newspaper=NDTV|language=hi|date=16 July 2024|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716135029/https://ndtv.in/bollywood/manorathangal-trailer-starring-kamal-haasan-mohanlal-mammootty-fahadh-faasil-on-zee5-6116606|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Manorathangal: ఓటీటీలో బిగ్గెస్ట్ మల్టీ స్టారర్ వెబ్ సిరీస్.. తెలుగులోనూ స్ట్రీమింగ్.. ఎప్పుడు, ఎక్కడంటే|url=https://tv9telugu.com/entertainment/ott/kamal-haasan-mohanlal-and-mammootty-starrer-manorathangal-web-series-to-stream-on-zee5-ott-from-august-15th-1304114.html|newspaper=TV9|language=te|date=16 July 2024|access-date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716132024/https://tv9telugu.com/entertainment/ott/kamal-haasan-mohanlal-and-mammootty-starrer-manorathangal-web-series-to-stream-on-zee5-ott-from-august-15th-1304114.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=From Indian 2 to Manorathangal: Tamil new OTT releases to watch this week|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/from-india-2-to-manorathangal-tamil-ott-releases-to-watch-this-week-on-netflix-amazon-prime-and-zee-5/articleshow/112289370.cms?from=mdr|newspaper=The Economic Times|language=En|date=5 August 2024|access-date=8 August 2024|archive-date=8 August 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240808172120/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/from-india-2-to-manorathangal-tamil-ott-releases-to-watch-this-week-on-netflix-amazon-prime-and-zee-5/articleshow/112289370.cms?from=mdr|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Controversy==
During the trailer launch of the series, [[Asif Ali (actor)|Asif Ali]] was supposed to present a memento to [[Ramesh Narayan]], but Ramesh allegedly refused to accept it from the actor, leading to widespread criticism about his behaviour.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ramesh Narayan REFUSES To Take Award From Asif Ali at Manorathangal Trailer Launch, Video Goes Viral|url=https://www.news18.com/movies/ramesh-narayan-refuses-to-take-award-from-asif-ali-at-manorathangal-trailer-launch-video-goes-viral-8967465.html|access-date=16 July 2024|website=News18|date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716144848/https://www.news18.com/movies/ramesh-narayan-refuses-to-take-award-from-asif-ali-at-manorathangal-trailer-launch-video-goes-viral-8967465.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=WATCH: Ramesh Narayan refuses to accept award from Asif Ali at Manorathangal trailer launch; faces severe backlash|url=https://www.pinkvilla.com/entertainment/south/watch-ramesh-narayan-refuses-to-accept-award-from-asif-ali-at-manorathangal-trailer-launch-faces-severe-backlash-1328606|access-date=16 July 2024|website=Pinkvilla|date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716145630/https://www.pinkvilla.com/entertainment/south/watch-ramesh-narayan-refuses-to-accept-award-from-asif-ali-at-manorathangal-trailer-launch-faces-severe-backlash-1328606|url-status=live}}</ref> He responded that he was music director of [[Jayaraj|Jayaraj's]] segment of the series, but he didn't get invited to stage on launch event and he was disappointed. He also clarified that he didn't hear the announcement and didn't know that [[Asif Ali (actor)|Asif Ali]] is presenting the momento.<ref>{{Cite news |date=16 July 2024 |title=Ramesh Narayan clarifies the incident with Asif Ali, says, 'I don't feel I insulted him" |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/ramesh-narayan-clarifies-the-incident-with-asif-ali-says-i-dont-feel-i-insulted-him/articleshow/111782094.cms |access-date=16 July 2024 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257 |archive-date=16 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716174957/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/ramesh-narayan-clarifies-the-incident-with-asif-ali-says-i-dont-feel-i-insulted-him/articleshow/111782094.cms |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Ready to apologise to Asif Ali if I made a mistake: Ramesh Narayan responds to controversy |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/entertainment/entertainment-news/2024/07/16/music-composer-ramesh-narayan-responds-controversy-asif-ali-manorathangal.html |access-date=16 July 2024 |website=Onmanorama |archive-date=16 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716150932/https://www.onmanorama.com/entertainment/entertainment-news/2024/07/16/music-composer-ramesh-narayan-responds-controversy-asif-ali-manorathangal.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Ramesh Narayan under fire for 'insulting' Asif Ali at Manorathangal trailer launch; composer responds: 'It is true that I didn't notice Asif, but...'|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/malayalam/ramesh-narayan-under-fire-for-insulting-asif-ali-at-manorathangal-trailer-launch-9456443/|access-date=16 July 2024|website=Indian Express|date=16 July 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716144848/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/malayalam/ramesh-narayan-under-fire-for-insulting-asif-ali-at-manorathangal-trailer-launch-9456443/|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Reception ==
A review in the [[The Indian Express|''Indian Express'']] found, the anthology film "has some standout segments, some that are decent and others that fall short."<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 August 2024 |title=Manorathangal review: Mammootty and Mohanlal's anthology series has some standout segments, some that are decent and others that fall short |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/malayalam/manorathangal-review-rating-mammootty-mohanlal-kamal-haasan-mt-vasudevan-nair-fahadh-faasil-anthology-streaming-series-9516855/ |access-date=16 August 2024 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> while ''[[The Hindu]]'' too stated it contained "a few hidden gems".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Praveen |first=S. R. |date=15 August 2024 |title='Manorathangal' series review: An uneven anthology celebrating M. T. Vasudevan Nair, with a few hidden gems |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/manorathangal-series-review-an-uneven-anthology-celebrating-m-t-vasudevan-nair-with-a-few-hidden-gems/article68527792.ece |access-date=16 August 2024 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> [[Hindustan Times|''The Hindustan Times'']] praised the poetic achievement of the production.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Manorathangal review: Anthology with best of Malayalam film industry that captures the essence of human relationships |work=Hindustan Times |date=15 August 2024 |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/telugu-cinema/manorathangal-review-kamal-haasan-mohanlal-fahadh-faasil-anthology-101723655573983.html}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|15478036}}
* [https://www.zee5.com/web-series/details/manorathangal/0-6-4z5594936 ''Manorathangal'']

[[Category:2024 Indian television series debuts]]
[[Category:2024 web series debuts]]
[[Category:Indian drama television series]]
[[Category:ZEE5 original programming]]
[[Category:Malayalam-language web series]]
[[Category:Indian anthology television series]]
[[Category:Anthology web series]]
[[Category:Anthology series]]
[[Category:2020s anthology television series]]
[[Category:Yoodlee Films films]]

Lokmanya Tilak Terminus–Thiruvananthapuram North Express

2026-03-29T05:29:59Z

IgnacioElem3:

{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2019}}
{{Infobox rail service
| name = Lokmanya Tilak Terminus–Thiruvananthapuram North Superfast Express
| image =
| caption =
| type = [[Superfast Express trains in India|Superfast]]
| first = {{start date and age|df=yes|2014|01|24}}
| last =
| operator = [[Central Railway zone]]
| ridership =
| start = [[Lokmanya Tilak Terminus]]
| stops = 24
| end = {{stnlnk|Thiruvananthapuram North}}
| distance = {{convert|1777|km|0|abbr=on}}
| journeytime = 28 hours
| frequency = Bi-Weekly
| class = AC 1st class, AC 2 tier, AC 3 tier, sleeper class, general unreserved
| seating = Yes
| sleeping = Yes
| autorack =
| catering = No
| observation =
| entertainment =
| baggage =
| other facilities =
| stock = [[LHB coach]]
| gauge = {{track gauge|1676mm|al=on|allk=on}}
| electrification =
| trainnumber = 22113 / 22114
| speed = {{convert|57.5|km/h|0|abbr=on}}
| map =
| map_state =
}}

The 22113 / 14 '''Lokmanya Tilak Terminus–Thiruvananthapuram North Superfast Express''' is a [[Superfast Express trains in India|Superfast Express]] train belonging to [[Indian Railways]]' [[Central Railway zone|Central Railway Zone]] that runs between [[Lokmanya Tilak Terminus]] and [[Thiruvananthapuram North railway station|Thiruvananthapuram North]] in India.

It operates as train number 22113 from Lokmanya Tilak Terminus to Thiruvananthapuram North and as train number 22114 in the reverse direction, serving the states of [[Maharashtra]], [[Goa]], [[Karnataka]] & [[Kerala]].

==Coaches==
The 22113 / 14 Lokmanya Tilak Terminus–Thiruvananthapuram North Superfast Express has 1 AC First class, 1 AC 2-tier, 5 AC 3-tier, 9 sleeper class, 4 general unreserved and two EOG coaches. It does not carry a [[pantry car]].<ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Southern-Railway-to-augment-coaches-on-several-trains-to-clear-extra-rush-of-passengers/articleshow/47736827.cms | title=Southern Railway to augment coaches on several trains to clear extra rush of passengers | newspaper=The Times of India | date=19 June 2015 | first=Jaideep | last=Shenoy | accessdate=13 January 2019}}</ref><ref>[http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/special-stop-for-trains-at-aluva/article7635454.ece], ''thehindu.com'', 10 September 2015</ref>

As is customary with most train services in India, coach composition may be amended at the discretion of Indian Railways depending on demand. The train has [[LHB coach]].

==Service==
The 22113 Lokmanya Tilak Terminus–Kochuveli Express covers the distance of {{convert|1777|km|0|abbr=on}} in 30 hours 05 mins (50 km/h) and in 31 hours 25 mins as the 22114 Kochuveli–Lokmanya Tilak Terminus Express (48 km/h).

As the average speed of the train is above {{convert|55|km/h|0|abbr=on}}, as per railway rules, its fare includes a Superfast surcharge.

==Routing==
The 22113 / 14 Lokmanya Tilak Terminus–Thiruvananthapuram North Superfast Express runs from Lokmanya Tilak Terminus via {{stnlnk|Panvel}}, {{stnlnk|Ratnagiri}}, {{stnlnk|Madgaon Junction}}, {{stnlnk|Mangalore Junction}}, {{stnlnk|Kasaragod}}, {{stnlnk|Kannur}}, {{stnlnk|Kozhikode}}, {{stnlnk|Shoranur Junction}}, {{stnlnk|Thrissur}}, {{stnlnk|Ernakulam Town}},
{{stnlnk|Kottayam}},
{{stnlnk|Tiruvalla}}
to [[Thiruvananthapuram North railway station|Thiruvananthapuram North]].<ref>[http://www.livechennai.com/detailnews.asp?newsid=17252], ''livechennai.com'', 20 February 2015</ref>

==Traction==
It is hauled by a [[Electric Loco Shed, Kalyan|Kalyan]] based [[WAP-7]] [[Electric Loco Shed, Vadodara|Vadodara]] based [[WAP-5]] electric locomotive from end to end.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://indiarailinfo.com/train/mumbai-ltt-kochuveli-sf-express-pt-22113/22015/466/1009 22113 Lokmanya Tilak Terminus–Kochuveli Express] at India Rail Info
*[https://indiarailinfo.com/train/kochuveli-mumbai-ltt-sf-express-22114/22016/1009/466 22114 Lokmanya Tilak Terminus–Kochuveli Express] at India Rail Info

{{Railways in Western India}}
{{Railways in Southern India}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lokmanya Tilak Terminus-Kochuveli Express}}
[[Category:Express trains in India]]
[[Category:Transport in Mumbai]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Goa]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Karnataka]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Kerala]]
[[Category:Transport in Thiruvananthapuram]]
[[Category:Konkan Railway]]

Bamanhat

2026-03-25T21:16:45Z

IgnacioElem3: reworked layout for consistency and added references per standard format

{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2018}}
{{More citations needed|date=January 2021}}

{{Infobox settlement
| name = Bamanhat
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = Neighbourhood
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India West Bengal#India
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in West Bengal, India
| coordinates = {{coord|26.0706|N|89.5862|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[West Bengal]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Cooch Behar district|Cooch Behar]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total =
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 736168
| area_code_type = Telephone/[[Subscriber trunk dialing|STD]] code
| area_code = 03581
| registration_plate = WB
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha]] constituency
| blank1_info_sec1 = [[Cooch Behar (Lok Sabha constituency)|Cooch Behar]]
| blank2_name_sec1 = [[Vidhan Sabha]] constituency
| blank2_info_sec1 = [[Dinhata (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Dinhata]]
| website = {{URL|coochbehar.gov.in/}}
| footnotes =
}}
'''Bamanhat''' is a [[neighbourhood]] and a [[gram panchayat]] in the [[Dinhata II]] [[Community development blocks in India|CD block]] in the [[Dinhata subdivision]] of the [[Cooch Behar district]], [[West Bengal]], [[India]].

==Geography==
{{OSM Location map
| width=400| height=380| zoom=10
| coord={{coord|26|12|0|N|89|35|0|E}}| float=left|caption='''Places in the Tufanganj and Dinhata subdivisions (except Sitai CD block) in Cooch Behar district''' CT: census town, M: municipal town, R: rural/ urban centre, H: historical/ religious centre Owing to space constraints in the small map, the actual locations in a larger map may vary slightly
|mark-coord1={{coord|26|19|52|N|89|46|18|E}}| label-pos1=top|label1= Chhota Laukuthi | numbered1=CT| mark-title1= [[Chhota Laukuthi]] (CT)|label-color1= #800000 |label-size1=11| mark-size1=12|shape1=l-circle|shape-color1= #A40000 |shape-outline1=white|label-offset-x1=2
|mark-coord2={{coord|26|18|0|N|89|40|6|E}}| label-pos2=bottom|label2=Kamat Phulbari| numbered2=CT| mark-title2= [[Kamat Phulbari]] (CT)
|mark-coord3={{coord|26|7|0|N|89|28|12|E}}| label-pos3=left|label3=Bhangri |labela3= Pratham| labelb3 = Khanda| numbered3=CT| mark-title3= [[Bhangri Pratham Khanda]] (CT)
|mark-coord4={{coord|26|19|20|N|89|39|20|E}}| label-pos4=left|label4=Tufanganj| numbered4=M| mark-title4= [[Tufanganj]] (M)|shape-color4= #800000
|mark-coord5={{coord|26|8|20|N|89|28|32|E}}| label-pos5=right|label5=Dinhata| numbered5=M| mark-title5= [[Dinhata]] (M)|shape-color5= #800000
|mark-coord6={{coord|26|19|41|N|89|45|32|E}}| label-pos6=left|label6=Bakshirhat| numbered6=R| mark-title6= [[Bakshirhat]] (R)| shape-color6= #C42222
|mark-coord7={{coord|26|24|52|N|89|35|40|E}}| label-pos7=left|label7=Natabari| numbered7=R| mark-title7= [[Natabari, Cooch Behar]] (R)| shape-color7= #C42222
|mark-coord8={{coord|26|4|14|N|89|35|10|E}}| label-pos8=left|label8=Bamanhat| numbered8=R| mark-title8= Bamanhat (R)|shape-color8=black| label-size8=13|label-color8=black 
|mark-coord9={{coord|26|1|59|N|89|29|3|E}}| label-pos9=right|label9=Gitaldaha| numbered9=R| mark-title9= [[Gitaldaha]] (R)| shape-color9= #C42222
|mark-coord10={{coord|26|6|50|N|89|35|3|E}}| label-pos10=left|label10=Sahebganj| numbered10=R| mark-title10= [[Sahebganj, Cooch Behar]] (R)| shape-color10= #C42222
|mark-coord11={{coord|26|9|10|N|89|23|0|E}}| label-pos11=right|label11=Gosanimari| numbered11=H| mark-title11= [[Gosanimari]] (H) |shape-color11=#AA6666
|mark-coord12={{coord|26|20|15|N|89|33|10|E}}| label-pos12=left|label12=Airani Chitalia| numbered12=H| mark-title12= [[Airani Chitalia]] (H)|shape-color12=#AA6666
|mark-coord13={{coord|26|20|24|N|89|39|15|E}}| label-pos13=top|label13=Andaranfulbari| numbered13=H| mark-title13= [[Andaranfulbari]] (H) |shape-color13=#AA6666
|mark-coord14={{coord|26|18|16|N|89|42|42|E}}| label-pos14=right|label14=Bara Kodali| numbered14=H| mark-title14= [[Bara Kodali]] (H)|shape-color14=#AA6666
|mark-coord15={{coord|26|23|36|N|89|34|14|E}}| label-pos15=right|label15=Bhuchungmari| numbered15=H| mark-title15= [[Bhuchungmari]] (H)|shape-color15=#AA6666
|mark-coord16={{coord|26|17|51|N|89|39|14|E}}| label-pos16=left|label16=Chamta| numbered16=H| mark-title16= [[Chamta]] (H)|shape-color16=#AA6666
|mark-coord17={{coord|26|16|13|N|89|39|20|E}}| label-pos17=right|label17=Nakkatigachhi| numbered17=H| mark-title17= [[Nakkatigachhi]] (H)|shape-color17=#AA6666
|mark-coord18={{coord|26|1|35|N|89|27|0|E}}|label18= Dharla River| label-color18 = #77A1CB| label-angle18=55| label-pos18=top| label-size18=10| mark-size18=0| mark-title18=none
|mark-coord19={{coord|26|6|0|N|89|43|0|E}}|label19= Dudhkumar| label-color19 = #77A1CB| label-angle19=65| label-pos19=top| label-size19=10| mark-size19=0| mark-title19=none
|mark-coord20={{coord|26|3|30|N|89|43|0|E}}|label20= River| label-color20 = #77A1CB| label-angle20=100| label-pos20=top| label-size20=10| mark-size20=0| mark-title20=none
|mark-coord21={{coord|26|12|0|N|89|49|0|E}}|label21= Gangadhar River| label-color21 = #77A1CB| label-angle21=95| label-pos21=top| label-size21=11| mark-size21=0| mark-title21=none
|mark-coord22={{coord|26|17|30|N|89|32|30|E}}|label22= Mara Torsha| label-color22 = #77A1CB| label-angle22=25| label-pos22=top| label-size22=10| mark-size22=0| mark-title22=none
|mark-coord23={{coord|26|16|0|N|89|35|40|E}}|label23= River| label-color23 = #77A1CB| label-angle23=35| label-pos23=top| label-size23=10| mark-size23=0| mark-title23=none
|mark-coord24={{coord|26|9|6|N|89|20|30|E}}| label-pos24=top|label24=Rajpat| numbered24=H| mark-title24= [[Rajpat]] (H)|shape-color24=#AA6666
|mark-coord25={{coord|26|8|29|N|89|21|47|E}}| label-pos25=right|label25=Kamteswari |labela25= temple| numbered25=H| mark-title25= [[Kamteswari temple]] (H)|shape-color25=#AA6666
|arc-coordA={{coord|26|16|30|N|89|45|30|E}}|arc-textA= ASSAM| arc-text-colorA=hard grey| arc-angleA=70| arc-gapA=6.5| arc-radiusA=0.35
|arc-coordB={{coord|26|0|30|N|89|36|30|E}}|arc-textB= BANGLADESH| arc-text-colorB=hard grey| arc-angleB=-25| arc-gapB=4.2| arc-radiusB=0.4}}

===Location===
Bamanhat is located at {{coord|26.0706|N|89.5862|E|display=inline}}.

Bamanhat I and Bamanhat II are gram panchayats in Dinhata II CD block.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://wbprd.gov.in/HtmlPage/PANCHAYATS.aspx |title = Directory of District, Subdivision, Panchayat Samiti/ Block and Gram Panchayats in West Bengal |work = Cooch Behar | accessdate = 31 July 2020}}</ref>

Bamanhat is not identified as a separate inhabited settlement in the 2011 census record. As per map of Dinhata II map in the ''District Census Handbook 2011, Koch Bihar'' it appears to be a part of Kalamati village/ mouza.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/19/1903_PART_A_DCHB_KOCH%20BIHAR.pdf| title = District Census Handbook, Koch Bihar, Series 20, Part XIIA| work= Census of India 2011, page 457: Map of Dinhata II CD block| publisher = Directorate of Census Operations, West Bengal| accessdate = 22 July 2020}}</ref>

===Area overview===
The map alongside shows the eastern part of the district. In Tufanganj subdivision 6.97% of the population lives in the urban areas and 93.02% lives in the rural areas. In Dinhata subdivision 5.98% of the population lives in the urban areas and 94.02% lives in the urban areas.<ref name="handbook">{{cite web |url = http://wbpspm.gov.in/publications/District%20Statistical%20Handbook |title = District Statistical Handbook 2013 Cooch Behar |work = Tables 2.2, 2.4b |publisher = Department of Planning and Statistics, Government of West Bengal |accessdate = 5 August 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190121045803/http://www.wbpspm.gov.in/publications/District%20Statistical%20Handbook |archive-date = 21 January 2019 |url-status = dead }}</ref> The entire district forms the flat [[alluvium|alluvial]] flood plains of mighty rivers.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/19/1903_PART_A_DCHB_KOCH%20BIHAR.pdf| title = District Census Handbook, Koch Bihar, Series 20, Part XIIA| work= Census of India 2011, pages 17-21 Physical feafures| publisher = Directorate of Census Operations, West Bengal |accessdate = 5 August 2020}}</ref>

Note: The map alongside presents some of the notable locations in the subdivisions. All places marked in the map are linked in the larger full screen map.

==Education==
Bamanhat High School is a Bengali-medium coeducational institution established in 1970.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.schoolsworld.in/schools/showschool.php?school_id=19030207201 | title = Bamanhat High School Dinhata II| publisher = Schoolsworld |accessdate = 31 July 2020}}</ref>

==Culture==
Bamanhat also has the Madhaikhal fair, held annually in the Bengali month of Chaitra.

==Railway links==
[[Bamanhat railway station]] is on the broad gauge [[Alipurduar-Bamanhat branch line]]. Local trains link the area to larger stations at Cooch Behar and Alipurduar from where trains are available for places all over the country.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://indiarailinfo.com/train/-train-alipurduar-bamanhat-passenger-55465/21260/449/7550| title = 55765 =>55465 Alipurduar – Bamunhat Passenger | work= Time Table| publisher = Indiarailinfo |accessdate = 31 July 2020}}</ref>

In the early 1900s, [[Eastern Bengal Railway]] extended the [[Metre gauge]] railways to [[Lalmonirhat railway station|Lalmonirhat]], [[Gitaldaha railway station|Gitaldaha]] (via [[Mogalhat Railway Station|Mogalhat]]), [[Bamanhat railway station|Bamanhat]], [[Golokganj railway station|Golokganj]] and other places, thereby connecting Assam to Katihar, in Bihar. In 1901 [[Cooch Behar State Railway]] built the [[Narrow-gauge railway|narrow gauge]] line from Gitaldaha to [[Jayanti, Alipurduar|Jayanti]], near the Bhutan border. Shortly thereafter, the line was upgraded to metre gauge. During the British era, there was a railway line linking Assam with Bengal that passed through [[Sonahat]].<ref name=Sonahat>{{cite web | url =https://www.daily-sun.com/printversion/details/360397/Govt-to-build-highway-to-boost-trade-thru-Sonahat-land-port | title = Govt to build highway to boost trade thu Sonahat land port | publisher = The Daily Sun, 30 December 2018 |accessdate = 1 August 2020}}</ref><ref name=timeline>{{cite web |url=http://irse.bravehost.com/IRHTML.htm |title=Indian Railway History timeline |author=R.P. Saxena |accessdate=31 July 2020 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120714085533/http://irse.bravehost.com/IRHTML.htm |archive-date=14 July 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://coochbehar.nic.in/htmfiles/history_book5.html| title = Royal History| work= page 5| publisher = Cooch Behar district authorities |accessdate = 31 July 2020}}</ref> The partition of the country and formation of the erstwhile East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) led to complete severance of communication with the State of Assam from the rest of India.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.railwayrecruitment.co.in/north-east-frontier-railway/ | title = The North-east Frontier Railway| publisher = Railway Recruitment |accessdate = 31 July 2020}}</ref>
{{Alipurduar-Bamanhat branch line|collapse=y}}
The 72 km long [[Alipurduar-Bamanhat branch line]] was converted to {{Track gauge|5ft6in|lk=on}} [[broad gauge]] in 2007.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://wiki.iricen.gov.in/doku/lib/exe/fetch.php?media=11301:vps.pdf | title = Role of Engineering Deptt in Meeting Corporate Objectives of Indian Railways | first = V.P. | last = Srivastava | accessdate = 31 July 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140330160317/http://wiki.iricen.gov.in/doku/lib/exe/fetch.php?media=11301:vps.pdf | archive-date = 30 March 2014 | url-status = dead }}</ref>

==Healthcare==
Bamanhat Rural Hospital, with 30 beds at Bamanhat, is the major government medical facility in the Dinhata II CD block.<ref>{{cite web | url =https://www.wbhealth.gov.in/other_files/RH.pdf | title =Health & Family Welfare Department | work =Health Statistics – Rural Hospitals | publisher =Government of West Bengal | accessdate =29 July 2020 | archive-date =8 October 2022 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20221008143352/https://www.wbhealth.gov.in/other_files/RH.pdf | url-status =dead }}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|3}}

{{Cooch Behar District}}

[[Category:Villages in Cooch Behar district]]

Brahma Jinalaya, Lakkundi

2026-03-25T18:56:08Z

IgnacioElem3: added a post

{{Short description|11th-century Mahavira temple in Lakkundi, Gadag District of Karnataka state, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2019}}

{{Infobox religious building
| religious_affiliation = [[Jainism]]
| image = Jain temple at Lakkundi.jpg
| alt = Brahma Jinalaya
| caption = Brahma Jinalaya
| map_type = India Karnataka#India
| map_alt = Saavira
| map_size = 180px
| map_caption = Location within Karnataka
| relief = yes
| location = [[Lakkundi]], [[Karnataka]]
| deity = [[Neminatha]]
| established = 1007 CE
| sect = [[Digambara]]
| festivals = [[Mahavir Janma Kalyanak]]
| creator = [[Attimabbe]]
| architecture_style = [[Western Chalukya architecture]]
| temple_quantity = 1
| coordinates = {{coord|15|23|22.2|N|75|42|51.2|E|region:IN|display=inline,title}}
| governing_body =
| website =
}}
The '''Brahma Jinalaya''', sometimes called as the '''Greater Jain Temple of Lakkundi''', is an early 11th-century [[Neminatha]] temple in [[Lakkundi]], [[Gadag District]] of Karnataka state, India. The temple is attributed to Attiyabbe (Danacintamani Attimbbe), the wife of the local governor Dandanayaka Nagadeva. It faces east, has a mukhamandapa, a gudhamandapa and its sanctum is covered by a sur-temple style vimana superstructure. The temple is notable for its reliefs depicting Jaina artwork, statues of the Tirthankaras and the two statues of Brahma and Saraswati inside its inner mandapa.{{sfn|Dhaky|Meister|1996|p=89}}{{sfn|Cousens|1926|pages=77-78}}

The temple was ruined and mutilated during or after the wars of the 13th-century.{{Clarification needed|date=September 2021|reason=No discussion in body.}} It was rediscovered by British archaeologists led by Henry Cousens in "deserted, filthy condition, occupied by a colony of bats" with beheaded Mahavira statue outside. Now cleaned and restored, the Jain temple of Lakkundi is one of many historic Chalukya era Jain and Hindu temples found in Lakkundi. It is the oldest major Jain temple in this region.

[[Archaeological Survey of India]] has listed this basadi in the complex in the list of "Must See" Indian Heritage.{{Sfn|ASI must see|Jain Basti, Lakkundi}}

==Location==
Lakkundi is about 12 kilometers southeast of Gadag-Betageri twin city, between [[Hampi]] and [[Goa]]. It can be reached by India's National Highway 67. The Bramha Jinalaya temple is one of many Jain and Hindu temples found in and around Lakkundi. It is located on the southwest side of the village, near few other historic Jaina temples.{{sfn|Cousens|1926|pp=77–82}}

== History ==
The town of [[Lakkundi]] was known as Lokkigundi in medieval times. It was of considerable importance during the 11-12th century A.D. [[Western Chalukya]] rule, and hosted a number of Jain and Hindu temples. The Brahma Jinalaya was built in 1007 CE{{Sfn|Hartmann|Ray|2020|p=2360}} by [[Attimabbe]], wife of Nagadeva, who served as general under both [[Taila II]] and [[Satyashraya Irivabedanga]] (997-1008 A.D.).{{sfn|Krishnamachari|2013}} The temple represents the second phase of [[Western Chalukya Empire|Kalyani Chalukyas]] art.{{Sfn|Chugh|2016|p=305}} In 1191 A.D., the noted [[Hoysala empire]] king [[Veera Ballala II]] made this town an important garrison.{{Sfn|Cousens|1926|p=77}}

The temple includes several inscriptions that helps date this temple and the gifts it received before the 14th-century. When mentioned, the temple is called Brahma Jinalaya of Lokkigundi in these historic inscriptions.{{sfn|Dhaky|Meister|1996|pp=89-92}}{{sfn|Ansari|1997|p=417}}

== Architecture ==
[[File:Brahma Jinalaya temple plan, Lakkundi, Karnataka.jpg|thumb|left|Brahma Jinalaya temple plan, Lakkundi, Karnataka]]
According to the art historian [[Adam Hardy (architectural historian)|Adam Hardy]], the temple illustrates the "[[Western Chalukya architecture|Later Chalukya]] architecture, mainstream Lakkundi school of mid-11th century with late 11th century superstructure (''[[shikhara]]'')".{{Sfn|Hardy|1995|p=335}} The temple has single shrine (''ekakuta'') connected to a closed mantapa hall via a [[vestibule (architecture)|vestibule]] (''[[sukanasi]]'' or ''ardhamantapa'') that is connected to another, open mantapa.{{Sfn|Hardy|1995|p=173}} This temple is one of the fine illustrations of the Western Chalukya architecture.{{Sfn|Prakash|2005|p=178}}{{Sfn|Sangave|1980|p=371}} The temple has a [[garbhagriha]], an [[antarala]], a closed navaranga mandapa, and an open pillared mukha-[[mandapa]]. Over the garbhagriha is the three storeyed nirandhara vimana with a square griva and sikhara.{{sfn|Dhaky|Meister|1996|pp=89-92}} Above the cornice of these arched niches at regular intervals is a seated Jaina figure. The ceilings are plain and pillars are well decorated. The open [[mandapa]] is supported by 32 pillars and pilasters.{{Sfn|ASI must see|Jain Basti, Lakkundi}}

According to art critic [[Percy Brown (art historian)|Percy Brown]], these elements are found commonly in all [[Western Chalukya architecture|Western Chalukya temples]]. The building material is [[soapstone]], which according to Percy Brown became the standard in later [[Hoysala architecture]] as well.{{Sfn|Hardy|1995|p=335}}{{Sfn|Kamath|2001|pp=115-117}} According to art historians Henry Cousens and Om Prakash, the most conspicuous feature of the Western Chalukya temples is the decrease in the size of masonry and the resulting decrease in the overall height of the temples compared to those built by the [[Badami Chalukyas]] at [[Pattadakal]]. This was a result of a shift in the basic building material, from [[sandstone]] to the more workable soapstone (Chloritic [[schist]]). In the coming decades, this transformation was to lead ''[[Vesara]]'' architecture toward increased ornamentation and articulation.{{Sfn|Cousens|1926|p=77}}{{Sfn|Prakash|2005|p=178}}

[[File:11th century Brahma Jinalaya temple, Lakkundi, Karnataka India - 11.jpg|thumb|A view of the Brahma Jinalaya from its south.]]
The temple style is quite similar to the older Shiva temple in Kukkanur, and they represent the transition phase between early Chalukya and Late Chalukya styles.{{Sfn|Cousens|1926|p=77}} He categorizes the tower over the shrine as Dravidian (south Indian) with a square plan.{{Sfn|Cousens|1926|p=77}} Kamath classifies it as ''[[Vesara]]'' because each tier are encrusted with motifs that make the tower more "curvilinear".{{Sfn|Kamath|2001|p=117}} According to Cousens, the overall structure with its well proportioned tiers and finial (''[[amalaka]]'', ''[[kalasha]]'') give the superstructure a "majestic" look. Above the [[cornice]] are circular niches, each of which holds the image of a Jain saint (Jaina) in relief, with a ''[[kirtimukha]]'' decoration above. The walls of the shrine have [[pilaster]]s, with the spaces between them containing, in relief, [[pavilion]]s, and miniature decorative towers ([[aedicula]]) on slender half pilasters. Some miniature towers have niches below them. Overall, decorative ornamentation is taken to a new level compared to earlier temples.{{Sfn|Cousens|1926|p=78}}

Dhaky and Meister call the temple as the ''Great Jaina temple of Lakkundi'', thereby differentiating it from other minor Jaina temples of Lakkundi.{{sfn|Dhaky|Meister|1996|pp=89-92}}

== Sculpture ==
There are several notable freestanding sculptures in the temple:{{Sfn|Cousens|1926|pages=77–78}}{{sfn|Dhaky|Meister|1996|pp=89-92}}
[[File:11th century Brahma Jinalaya temple, Lakkundi, Karnataka India - 85.jpg|thumb|The Tirthankara statue inside the temple]]
* A beheaded image of [[Mahavira]] that is a little over 4 feet tall, made of black polished stone and seated on a "lion throne" (''simhaasana'') is found outside the temple. The sanctum's door lintel (''lalita-bimba'') depicts Mahavira, which in Indian tradition typically marks the sanctum's primary dedication. It is therefore believed that originally this idol was housed as the primary sanctum deity of temple.{{Sfn|ASI must see|Jain Basti, Lakkundi}}{{sfn|Rao|2019}}
* In the contemporary era, the sanctum has a statue of [[Neminatha]] as the mulnayak with yaksha and yakshi on either side. There is a beautiful sculpture of seven hooded [[Parshva]] in [[Kayotsarga]] position with yakshi and yaksha on both sides.{{Sfn|Shah|1987|p=185}} The sculpture of [[Padmavati (Jainism)|Padmavati]]{{Sfn|Chugh|2016|p=305}}{{sfn|Karunakaran|2016}} sitting with left knee upright besides Parshva depicts Goddess with [[goad]] and noose in right and left upper arms respectively and the lower hands are in [[varadamudra]] with fruit.{{Sfn|Shah|1987|p=270}} Cousens states it may have been taken out and left there. The saint has an attendant on either side, holding a ''chowri'' (a type of brush) in one hand a fruit in another.
* A large standing, monolithically carved four-headed [[Brahma]] stands in the inner hall.{{Sfn|Chugh|2016|p=305}}{{sfn|Rao|2019}} He is shown predominantly with Hindu iconography, but the pedestal is shown with Jaina art such as those of lions.
* Opposite Brahma in the inner mandapa is the statue of a goddess which Cousens and many scholars consider [[Saraswati]] given the iconographic details.{{sfn|Rao|2019}} The alternate interpretation is that she is a Jaina goddess which shares some features with Saraswati. As depicted, in each of her four hands she holds an attribute; a ''ankusa'' (elephant goad), a petaled flower, a book and a [[citron]].
* The doorframes are intricately carved in five parallel bands (panchasakha) in the famous Karnata plateresque style, with hamsavali, padmamala, bhutasakha and ratnasakha. The pedya figures include Rati and Kamadeva.{{sfn|Dhaky|Meister|1996|pp=89-92}}
* A serenely contemplative Parsvanatha with seven-headed snake hood above his head but damaged (broken limbs, mutilated nose, mutilated sexual organs);{{sfn|Dhaky|Meister|1996|pp=89-92}} it was discovered outside the temple by Cousens, now moved for safekeeping by ASI.

In addition to these sculptures, reliefs of Jaina goddesses and apsaras are depicted on the pillars. On the door lintel at the entrance to the vestibule, an image of [[Gajalakshmi]] (Hindu goddess Lakshmi with elephants on either side) is shown like other historic temples of Jainism.{{Sfn|Cousens|1926|pages=78-79}}{{sfn|Karunakaran|2016}}

== Lakkundi Utsav ==
Lakkundi Utsav is two-day annual cultural event organised annually. The event has main stage with temples as the background, is named 'Daana Chintamani Attimabbe Vedike' after 11th century queen Attimabbe.{{sfn|Pattanashetti|2017}}

== Protection ==
The temple is protected as a monument of national importance by the [[Archaeological Survey of India]] (ASI).{{sfn|ASI}} Karnataka government has announced setting up Lakkundi Development Authority for the development of [[Lakkundi]] at cost of Rs. 3 crores.{{Sfn|Deccan Herald|2017}} More than 50 ruined, mutilated Jain and Hindu sculpture, 3 inscriptions were discovered during tourist facility development and site restoration efforts at the nearby Naganatha temple – another Jain temple. Some of these sculpture are on display near the Brahma Jinalaya temple in a shed, conserved by the ASI.{{sfn|Koppar|2018}}

<gallery widths="200" heights="200">
File:Old Kannada inscription (1172 A.D.) at the Jain temple in Lakkundi.JPG|Old Kannada inscription dated 1172 A.D. at Jain temple in Lakkundi
File:11th century Brahma Jinalaya temple, Lakkundi, Karnataka India - 15.jpg|Mukhamandapa (entrance, open)
File:11th century Brahma Jinalaya temple, Lakkundi, Karnataka India - 04.jpg|Gudhamandapa (inner, closed)
File:Kirtimukha relief decoration at the Jain temple in Lakkundi.JPG|''[[Kirtimukha]]'' wall relief
File:Door jamb and lintel decoration, and Tirthankara image in the sanctum at the Jain temple at Lakkundi.jpg|[[Neminatha]] image in sanctum, doorframe and lintel decoration
File:11th century Brahma Jinalaya temple, Lakkundi, Karnataka India - 84.jpg|''Chaturmukha'', four-faced Brahma inside with Jaina-base decoration
File:11th century Brahma Jinalaya temple, Lakkundi, Karnataka India - 53.jpg|Mahavira on the lalita-bimba of the sanctum, evidence that the temple was originally dedicated to Mahavira
File:11th century Brahma Jinalaya temple, Lakkundi, Karnataka India - 72.jpg|Damaged idol of [[Mahavira]], the original mulnayaka idol
File:11th century Brahma Jinalaya temple, Lakkundi, Karnataka India - 46.jpg|Inner mandapa pillars, Jaina artwork in the lower sections
File:11th century Brahma Jinalaya temple, Lakkundi, Karnataka India - 16.jpg|Outer mandapa pillar
File:11th century Brahma Jinalaya temple, Lakkundi, Karnataka India - 03.jpg|Another view, showing the secondary Jain shrine north of the Greater Jain temple of Lakkundi
</gallery>

== See also ==
* [[Akkana Basadi]]
* [[Shantinatha Basadi, Jinanathapura]]
* [[Lakshmeshwara Jain temples]]

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{reflist}}

=== Sources ===
==== Books ====
* {{cite book| last1=Dhaky | first1=Madhusudan A. | author-link1=Madhusudan Dhaky | last2=Meister | first2=Michael | author-link2=Michael W. Meister |title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, Volume 1 Part 3 South India Text & Plates| url={{Google books|a1VJAQAAIAAJ|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |year=1996|publisher=[[American Institute of Indian Studies]]|isbn=978-81-86526-00-2|pages=89–92}}
* {{cite book|last1=Hartmann |first1=Jens-Uwe |last2=Ray |first2=Himanshu Prabha |url={{Google books|KWHwDwAAQBAJ|pg=PT2360|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|title=Power, Presence and Space South Asian Rituals in Archaeological Context| series=Archaeology and Religion in South Asia |date=2020|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] | isbn=9781000168808 | volume=5 }}
* {{cite book |last=Chugh |first=Lalit |title=Karnataka's Rich Heritage - Art and Architecture: From Prehistoric Times to the Hoysala Period | volume=6 |url={{Google books|JpnoCwAAQBAJ|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} | date=2016|publisher=[[Notion Press]]|isbn=9789352068258}}
* {{cite book| last=Cousens | first=Henry | author-link=Henry Cousens |title= The Chalukyan Architecture of Kanarese Districts|year= 1926| publisher=[[Archaeological Survey of India]] |location= New Delhi|oclc = 37526233 | url=http://www.new.dli.ernet.in/handle/2015/529290 }}{{dead link|date=January 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}} [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.529290/ Alt URL]
* {{cite book |last=Foekema|first=Gerard |title= Architecture decorated with architecture: Later medieval temples of Karnataka, 1000–1300 AD|orig-year=2003|year=2003|publisher=[[Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd.]]|location=New Delhi|isbn= 81-215-1089-9 | url=https://easaa.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/04-foekema.pdf }}
* {{cite book |last=Kamath |first=Suryanath U. |title=A concise history of Karnataka: from pre-historic times to the present |orig-year=1980 |year=2001 |publisher=Jupiter books |location=Bangalore |oclc=7796041 |lccn=80905179 | url=http://ijar.org.in/stuff/issues/v1-i1/v1-i1-a018.pdf }}
* {{cite book |last=Hardy |first=Adam | author-link=Adam Hardy (architectural historian) |title=Indian Temple Architecture: Form and Transformation : the Karṇāṭa Drāviḍa Tradition, 7th to 13th Centuries |url={{Google books|aU0hCAS2-08C|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |year=1995|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=9788170173120}}
* {{cite book |last=Sangave |first=Vilas Adinath | author-link=Vilas Adinath Sangave |title=Jaina Community: A Social Survey | volume=2 |url={{Google books|FWdWrRGV_t8C|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |year=1980|publisher=[[Popular Prakashan]]|location=Mumbai|isbn=9780317123463}}
* {{cite book |last=Shah |first=Umakant Premanand | author-link=Umakant Premanand Shah |title=Jaina-rūpa-maṇḍana | volume=1 |url={{Google books|m_y_P4duSXsC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |year=1987|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=9788170172086}}
* {{ cite book| last=Prakash | first=Om | title=Cultural History Of India, New Age International, 2005, New Delhi | url={{Google books|nzpYb5UOeiwC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} | publisher=New Age International | date=2005 | isbn=81-224-1587-3 }}

==== Web ====
* {{cite journal | last=Ansari | first=Zakia K. | title=Pandyas Of Uchchangi – Some Cultural Contributions | journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress | publisher=[[Indian History Congress]] | volume=58 | year=1997 | page=417 | url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/44143940 | jstor=44143940 | access-date=27 January 2023 }}
* {{cite news | last=Karunakaran | first=K. | title=Heritage shrines of Lakkundi | url=https://www.deccanherald.com/spectrum/poet-novelist-and-icon-kuvempu-s-enduring-impact-1176124.html | newspaper=[[Deccan Herald]] | date=26 July 2016 }}
* {{cite news | last=Koppar | first=Raghotta M. | url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/2018/dec/26/11th-century-chalukya-era-sculptures-found-in-gadag-district-1916474.html | title=11th-century Chalukya era sculptures found in Gadag district | date=26 December 2018 | newspaper=[[The New Indian Express]] }}
* {{cite news | last=Krishnamachari | first=Suganthy | title=Speaks of catholic outlook | newspaper=[[The Hindu]] | date=11 May 2013 | url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/speaks-of-catholic-outlook/article4698597.ece }}
* {{cite news | last=Pattanashetti | first=Girish | url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/village-of-hundreds-of-wells-temples-ready-for-lakkundi-utsav/article17285416.ece1 | year=2017 | newspaper=[[The Hindu]] | title=Village of hundreds of wells, temples ready for Lakkundi Utsav (11 February 2017)}}
* {{cite news | last=Rao | first=Padma | title=Luminous Lakkundi | url=https://www.deccanherald.com/spectrum/spectrum-top-stories/luminous-lakkundi-787295.html | newspaper=[[Deccan Herald]] | date=21 December 2019 }}
* {{cite news | url=https://www.deccanherald.com/content/601607/lakkundi-development-authority-set-up.html | title=Lakkundi Development Authority to be set up at a cost Rs 3 crore | date=16 March 2017 | newspaper=[[Deccan Herald]] | ref={{SfnRef|Deccan Herald|2017}} }}
* {{cite web | author=ASI |url=http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_alphalist_karnataka_dharwad.asp|title=Alphabetical List of Monuments - Karnataka - Dharwad, Dharwad Circle, Karnataka|work=Archaeological Survey of India, Government of India| location=Dharwad|publisher=Indira Gandhi National Center for the Arts|access-date=8 April 2013 }}
* {{Cite web| url=http://asimustsee.nic.in/jain-basti.php | title=Jain Basti, Lakkundi, Karnataka | website=Archaeological Survey of India | ref={{SfnRef|ASI must see|Jain Basti, Lakkundi}} }}

== External links ==
* {{commons category-inline|Brahma Jinalaya Temple, Lakkundi}}

{{Jain temples}}
{{Jainism topics}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Chalukya dynasty]]
[[Category:11th-century Jain temples]]
[[Category:Jain temples in Karnataka]]
[[Category:Western Chalukya Empire]]

Member of parliament

2026-03-23T18:54:33Z

IgnacioElem3: fixed section further and added references after review

{{Short description|Representative of the voters to a parliament}}
{{Use British English|date=May 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2018}}
{{Legislature}}
A '''member of parliament''' ('''MP''') is the representative in parliament of the people who live in their [[electoral district]]. Members of parliament typically form [[parliamentary group]]s, sometimes called [[caucus]]es, with members of the same [[political party]]. In many countries with [[Bicameralism|bicameral]] parliaments, this term refers only to members of the [[lower house]] since [[upper house]] members often have a different title. The terms [[Member of Congress|congressman]] (or congresswoman) and [[Deputy (legislator)|deputy]] are equivalent terms used in other jurisdictions.

== Westminster system ==
{{Main|Westminster system}}
The Westminster system is a [[Democracy|democratic]] [[parliamentary system]] of [[government]] modelled after the [[politics of the United Kingdom]]. This term comes from the [[Palace of Westminster]], the seat of the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]].

=== Australia ===
At the national level, a "member of parliament" is a member of the [[Australian House of Representatives|House of Representatives]], the lower house of the [[Parliament of Australia|Federal Parliament]]. Members may use the post-nominal "MP" after their names. "MHR" ("Member of the House of Representatives") was not used, which was affirmed by cabinet in 1901 and reaffirmed in 1951 and 1965.<ref>{{cite web |title=House of Representative Practice: Members' titles |url=https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/House_of_Representatives/Powers_practice_and_procedure/Practice7/HTML/Chapter5/Member%27s_titles |publisher=Parliament of Australia - House of Representatives |access-date=27 March 2023 |archive-date=27 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327125024/https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/House_of_Representatives/Powers_practice_and_procedure/Practice7/HTML/Chapter5/Member%27s_titles |url-status=live }}</ref> However, the prohibition of "MHR" does not appear to have been strictly enforced, as it was used most recently by [[Tony Abbott]] when he was in the parliament (1994–2019).<ref>{{cite news |last1=Abbott |first1=Tony |title=The Coalition's deregulation agenda |url=https://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/search/display/display.w3p;query=Id%3A%22media%2Fpressrel%2F2019036%22 |access-date=27 March 2023 |publisher=Parliament of Australia |date=2 November 2012 |format=Media Release |archive-date=27 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220527090322/https://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/search/display/display.w3p;query=Id%3A%22media%2Fpressrel%2F2019036%22 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=tonyabbott.com.au>{{cite web|url= http://www.tonyabbott.com.au/Pages/Media/AboutTony.aspx|title= Biography: Tony Abbott MHR|publisher= Tonyabbott.com.au|access-date= 5 June 2010|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080720044406/http://www.tonyabbott.com.au/Pages/Media/AboutTony.aspx|archive-date= 20 July 2008}}</ref>

A member of the [[Australian Senate|Senate]], the upper house of parliament, is known as a "Senator".<ref>{{cite web |title=Odgers' Australian Senate Practice Chapter 6 Senators - Designation of senators |url=https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Senate/Powers_practice_n_procedures/Odgers_Australian_Senate_Practice/Chapter_06#h04 |publisher=Parliament of Australia - Senate |access-date=27 March 2023 |archive-date=27 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327125029/https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Senate/Powers_practice_n_procedures/Odgers_Australian_Senate_Practice/Chapter_06#h04 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== States and territories ====
Lower houses members of the Legislative Assemblies of [[New South Wales Legislative Assembly|New South Wales]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/prod/web/common.nsf/key/MembersAbout|title=The Role of Members of Parliament|date=2 February 2008|work=parliament.nsw.gov.au|access-date=9 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110424004156/https://parliament.nsw.gov.au/prod/web/common.nsf/key/MembersAbout|archive-date=24 April 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Legislative Assembly of Queensland|Queensland]]<ref>Resolution of Commonwealth Parliamentary Association (Qld branch), 19 October 2000. Source: Queensland Parliamentary Library, 15 November 2005.</ref> and [[Victorian Legislative Assembly|Victoria]], and the Houses of Assembly in [[South Australian House of Assembly|South Australia]] and [[Tasmanian House of Assembly|Tasmania]] use the post-nominal "MP".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.stylemanual.gov.au/grammar-punctuation-and-conventions/titles-honours-forms-address/parliaments-and-councils |title=Parliaments and councils |website=Australian Government Style Manual |publisher=Australian Government |access-date=9 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240409060501/https://www.stylemanual.gov.au/grammar-punctuation-and-conventions/titles-honours-forms-address/parliaments-and-councils |archive-date=9 April 2024}}</ref> Previously, these states used the post-nominals "MLA" ("Member of the Legislative Assembly")<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.parliament.vic.gov.au/contacting-members/|title=Members' titles|date=25 October 2010|work=parliament.vic.gov.au|access-date=9 April 2011|archive-date=6 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110406103000/http://www.parliament.vic.gov.au/about/people-in-parliament/members|url-status=live}}</ref> and "MHA" ("Member of the House of Assembly") respectively.

Members of the Legislative Assemblies of [[Western Australian Legislative Assembly|Western Australia]], [[Northern Territory Legislative Assembly|Northern Territory]], and [[Australian Capital Territory Legislative Assembly|Australian Capital Territory]] use the post-nominal "MLA". However, "MP" is also commonly used.

In [[bicameral]] legislatures, members of the upper house ([[legislative council]]) use "MLC" ("Member of the Legislative Council").

=== Bahamas ===
The [[Parliament of the Bahamas]] is the bicameral national parliament of the Commonwealth of the Bahamas. The parliament is formally made up of the monarch (represented by the governor-general), an appointed Senate, and an elected House of Assembly. It currently sits at Nassau, the national capital.

The structure, functions, and procedures of the parliament are based on the Westminster system.

=== Bangladesh ===
{{Main|Member of Parliament (Bangladesh)|Jatiya Sangsad}}
In [[Bangladesh]], a member of parliament is an individual who serves in the [[Unicameralism|unicameral]] [[Jatiya Sangsad]] or House of the Nation. Members of the Jatiya Sangsad are elected at a [[Elections in Bangladesh|general election]], usually held once every five years unless Parliament is dissolved sooner by the [[President of Bangladesh|president]] on the advice of the [[Prime Minister of Bangladesh|prime minister]]. Under the [[Constitution of Bangladesh]], an individual is required to be a citizen of Bangladesh and must have attained the age of 25 years in order to qualify for election to Parliament.

The Parliament consists of 300 directly elected members from general seats elected by use of [[First-past-the-post voting|first past the post]] who represent single-constituencies, while 50 seats are reserved exclusively for women and are allocated on a [[Proportional representation|proportional basis]]. After an election, the [[Bangladesh Election Commission|Election Commission]] allocates reserved seats to parties based on the number of general seats they won. A party then presents a list of candidates, each requiring a presenter and a seconder. If the number of candidates presented and seats allocated is equal, then there is no election and the reserved seats are filled in accordance with the candidate lists prepared by parties. In the event there are more candidates than seat allocations, the 300 MPs elected from general seats vote through use of the [[single transferable vote]] system to determine the reserved seats. In reality, there has never been an election for reserved seats as parties have never nominated more candidates than they have been allocated.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ifes.org/sites/default/files/womens_reserved_seat_systems_in_bangladesh_february_2020.pdf|title=Women's Reserved Seat Systems in Bangladesh|access-date=2021-07-21|publisher=[[International Foundation for Electoral Systems]]|archive-date=16 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210616233844/https://www.ifes.org/sites/default/files/womens_reserved_seat_systems_in_bangladesh_february_2020.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> In order to form a [[Government of Bangladesh|Government]], a [[political party]] or [[Electoral alliance|alliance]] usually requires a [[Majority government|simple majority]] in Parliament. Since Bangladesh's independence, the prime minister has concurrently held the position of [[Leader of the House (Bangladesh)|Leader of the House]].

=== Barbados ===
{{Main|Parliament of Barbados}}
The Parliament of Barbados is the legislative branch of the government of Barbados. It is a bicameral body, composed of an appointed Senate and an elected House of Assembly. The Senate (upper house), the direct successor of a pre-Independence body known as the "Legislative Council"—comprises 21 senators appointed by the president. The President appoints 12 Senators on the advice of the Prime Minister and two on the advice of the Leader of the Opposition. The remaining seven Senators are nominated by the President at their discretion (that is, the President is not bound by other political leaders' advice in these appointments) to represent various religious, social, economic, or other interests in Barbados.

In the absence of an opposition leader in parliament (i.e. in the case of a [[landslide victory]] where one party takes all 30 seats in the House of Assembly, as occurred in [[2018 Barbadian general election|2018]] and [[2022 Barbadian general election|2022)]] the president will then appoint the remaining two senators in the opposition's stead allowing for 9 independents instead.

The House of Assembly (lower house) is made up of [[List of members of the House of Assembly of Barbados|30 members of Parliament]], elected to five-year terms on a first-past-the-post basis in single-seat constituencies.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Constitution of Parliament |url=https://www.barbadosparliament.com/main_page_content/show_content/9 |access-date=2024-02-20 |website=BARBADOSPARLIAMENT.COM}}</ref>

=== Canada ===
{{Main|Member of Parliament (Canada)}}

The [[Parliament of Canada]] consists of the [[Monarchy of Canada|monarch]], the [[Senate of Canada|Senate]] and the [[House of Commons of Canada|House of Commons]]. Only members of the House of Commons are referred to as members of Parliament ({{Langx|fr|[[Deputy (legislator)|député]]}}); members of the Senate are called Senators ({{Langx|fr|link=no|sénateur}}).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.parl.gc.ca/About/Parliament/Education/OurCountryOurParliament/glossary-e.asp |title=ESL Home |publisher=Parl.gc.ca |access-date=30 March 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120203063249/http://www.parl.gc.ca/About/Parliament/Education/OurCountryOurParliament/glossary-e.asp |archive-date=3 February 2012 }}</ref> There are currently 105 seats in the Senate and 343 in the House of Commons.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.parl.gc.ca/information/about/education/gloss-inter/index.asp?Language=E#03 |title=Glossary of Parliamentary Terms for intermediate students |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080420154020/http://www.parl.gc.ca/information/about/education/gloss-inter/index.asp?Language=E#03 |archive-date=20 April 2008 |url-status=dead |publisher=Parliament of Canada}}</ref> Members of Parliament are elected, while senators are appointed by the [[Governor General of Canada|governor general]] on behalf of the sovereign at the direction of the [[Prime Minister of Canada|prime minister]]. Retirement is mandatory for senators upon reaching the age of 75 years.

Each province (and territory) has its own legislature, with each member usually known as a [[Member of the Legislative Assembly]] (MLA). In certain provinces, legislators carry other titles: [[Member of Provincial Parliament (Ontario)|Member of Provincial Parliament]] (MPP) in [[Ontario]], [[Member of the National Assembly (Quebec)|Member of the National Assembly]] (MNA) in [[Quebec]] ({{Langx|fr|député}}) and [[Newfoundland and Labrador House of Assembly|Member of the House of Assembly]] (MHA) in [[Newfoundland and Labrador]]. The provincial upper houses were eliminated between 1876 ([[Manitoba]]) and 1968 (Quebec).

=== Gibraltar ===
{{Main|Gibraltar Parliament|Elections in Gibraltar}}
In Gibraltar, members of parliament serve in the [[Unicameralism|unicameral]] [[Gibraltar Parliament]]. There are 17 seats in the Parliament, to which candidates are elected by [[Plurality-at-large voting|block voting]]. Each candidate represents the whole of Gibraltar as their constituency.

=== India ===
{{See also|Member of Parliament (India)}}
A member of Parliament is a member of either of the two houses of the [[Indian Parliament]]: [[Lok Sabha]] (lower house) and [[Rajya Sabha]] (upper house). Lok Sabha has 543 seats, all of whom are directly elected by the citizens of [[India]] from each parliamentary constituency of states and union territories via [[first-past-the-post voting]]. Rajya Sabha can have 245 members, of which 238 members are indirectly elected. Of these 238 members, 229 belong to the state legislatures and 9 belongs to the union territories of [[Delhi]], [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]], and [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]], and are elected by using the [[single transferable vote]] method of [[proportional representation]]. The remaining 12 members are nominated by the [[President of India|president]] for their contributions to art, literature, science, and social services. Each state has a fixed number of representatives allocated in each chamber, in order of their respective populations. The state of [[Uttar Pradesh]] has the greatest number of representatives in both houses. The person which secures the support of more than half the seats in the Lok Sabha forms the [[Government of India|Government]]. To form the government, parties may form a coalition.

The term of a member of the Rajya Sabha is six years, while Lok Sabha members are elected for a term of five years, unless the house is dissolved sooner. [[Rajya Sabha]] is a permanent house that is not subject to dissolution, and one third of the members retire every two years. Vacancies in both houses, whether because of death or resignation of a member, must be filled by using a [[by-election|bypoll]] within six months of the vacancy; the newly elected member then only serves the remainder of the term of the seat to which they are elected. The number of seats in both houses is regulated by the [[Constitution of India|Constitution]] and [[Amendment of the Constitution of India|parliamentary statutes]].

=== Ireland ===
{{Main|Teachta Dála}}
Since the formation of the [[Irish Free State]] in 1922 and subsequently in the [[Republic of Ireland]], the legislature of Ireland is known as the [[Oireachtas]], and consists of the president; the upper house, [[Seanad Éireann]] (or Senate); and lower house, [[Dáil Éireann]] (Assembly, or House of Representatives). They are functionally similar to other bicameral parliaments, with the lower house being significantly more influential and having more power over the creation of legislation. Elections to Dáil Éireann are held at least every five years using the single transferable vote; while elections to Seanad Éireann are restricted to members of both houses, elected members of local authorities, and alumni of [[National University of Ireland]] colleges. Eleven senators are nominated directly by the [[Taoiseach]].

A Member of Dáil Éireann is known as a [[Teachta Dála]] (TD) or "Deputy to the Dáil", and addressed as "Teachta" (Deputy), while a Member of the Seanad is known and addressed as Seanadóir (Senator). These titles are used much more commonly in English than the official Irish.

A ''member of Parliament'' was the term used to refer to a member of the pre-1801 [[Irish House of Commons]] of the [[Parliament of Ireland]]. Irish members elected to the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]] of the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]] were also called ''members of Parliament'' from 1801 to 1922. [[Northern Ireland]] continues to elect MPs to the Parliament of the United Kingdom.

=== Jamaica ===

{{Main|Parliament of Jamaica}}

The Parliament of Jamaica is the legislative branch of the government of Jamaica. It is a bicameral body, composed of an appointed Senate and an elected House of Representatives. The Senate (upper house), the direct successor of a pre-Independence body known as the "Legislative Council"—comprises 21 senators appointed by the governor-general: thirteen on the advice of the prime minister and eight on the advice of the leader of the opposition.

The House of Representatives, the lower house, is made up of 63 (previously 60) members of Parliament, elected to five-year terms on a first-past-the-post basis in single-seat constituencies.

=== Kenya ===

The [[National Assembly of Kenya]] has a total of 349 seats; 205 members are elected from the [[List of constituencies of Kenya|constituencies]], 47 women are elected from the [[Counties of Kenya|counties]] and 12 members are nominated representatives. Kenya also has 47 elected senators from 47 counties; who sit in the Senate parliament. The senators oversee the counties, which are run by governors- also democratically elected. There are also members of county assembly. They are elected from each ward, and seat in county assemblies to oversee and make laws for their respective counties.

=== Malaysia ===

{{Main|Parliament of Malaysia}}

The [[Parliament of Malaysia]] consists of the [[Yang di-Pertuan Agong]] (King) and two houses, the ''[[Dewan Rakyat]]'' (the [[House of Representatives]]) and ''[[Dewan Negara]]'' (the [[Senate]]).

The term "members of Parliament" only refers to members of the ''Dewan Rakyat''. In [[Malay language|Malay]], a member of Parliament is called ''Ahli Parlimen'', or less formally ''wakil rakyat'' (people's representative).<ref>{{cite news|last=Then |first=Stephen |title=Here comes a real wakil rakyat |url=http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2012/10/11/sarawak/12153917 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130413161544/http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2012/10/11/sarawak/12153917 |url-status=dead |archive-date=13 April 2013 |access-date=2 March 2013 |newspaper=The Star (Malaysia) |date=11 October 2012 }}</ref>

Members of Parliament are elected from population-based single-seat constituencies using [[first-past-the-post voting]]. The [[Prime Minister of Malaysia|prime minister]] must be a member of Parliament.

Members of Parliament are styled ''Yang Berhormat'' ("Honourable") with the initials ''Y.B.'' appended [[Pre-nominal letters|prenominally]]. A prince who is a member of Parliament is styled ''Yang Berhormat Mulia''. The prime minister, deputy prime minister and [[Malay styles and titles#Tun|Tuns]] who are members of Parliament are styled ''Yang Amat Berhormat'' ("Most Honourable"), abbreviated Y.A.B.

=== Malta ===

The [[Parliament of Malta]] consists of the president of Malta and the House of Representatives of 69 members (article 51 of the Constitution), referred to as "members of Parliament" (article 52(1) of the Constitution). When appointed from outside the House, the speaker is also considered a member of the Parliament. The Constitution lists the qualifications and disqualifications from serving as a member of Parliament.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://docs.justice.gov.mt/lom/legislation/english/leg/vol_1/chapt0.pdf |title=Court Services |publisher=Docs.justice.gov.mt |access-date=30 March 2012 |archive-date=21 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090521065605/http://docs.justice.gov.mt/lom/legislation/english/leg/vol_1/chapt0.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

Privileges of members of Parliament and their Code of Ethics are laid out in the House of Representatives (Privileges and Powers) Ordinance.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://docs.justice.gov.mt/lom/legislation/english/leg/vol_3/chapt113.pdf |title=Court Services |publisher=Docs.justice.gov.mt |access-date=30 March 2012 |archive-date=6 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190806114343/http://docs.justice.gov.mt/lom/legislation/english/leg/vol_3/chapt113.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Nauru ===

The [[Parliament of Nauru]] consists of 18 seats. Members of Parliament are entitled to use the prefix ''The Honourable''.

===Nepal===
{{Main| Member of Parliament (Nepal)}}
=== New Zealand ===
{{Main|New Zealand Parliament|New Zealand elections|List of New Zealand politicians}}

The New Zealand Parliament is a [[unicameralism|unicameral]] legislature made up of the [[Monarchy in New Zealand|monarch]] and the [[New Zealand House of Representatives|House of Representatives]]. A 'member of Parliament' is a member of the House of Representatives, which has a minimum of 120 members, elected at a general election for a three-year term. There are 72 [[New Zealand electorates|electorate]] MPs, of which seven are elected only by [[Māori people|Māori]] who have chosen to be registered on a separate Māori electoral roll. The remaining members are elected by [[proportional representation]] from published [[party list]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Members of Parliament |url=https://www.parliament.nz/en/mps-and-electorates/members-of-parliament/ |website=www.parliament.nz |publisher=New Zealand Parliament |access-date=10 July 2020 |archive-date=22 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922164019/https://www.parliament.nz/en/mps-and-electorates/members-of-parliament/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Since 1907, members of the House of Representatives have been referred to as 'Member of Parliament', abbreviated MP. From the 1860s until 1907 they were designated as 'Member of the House of Representatives', abbreviated 'MHR'. Between the first general election, in [[1853 New Zealand general election|1853]], and the 1860s, the designation was "Member of the General Assembly", abbreviated MGA.<ref name="Scholefield 1950">{{cite book |last= Scholefield |first= Guy |title= New Zealand Parliamentary Record, 1840–1949 |author-link=Guy Scholefield |edition=3rd |orig-year= First ed. published 1913 |year= 1950 |publisher=Govt. Printer |location= Wellington |page=91|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UO82AAAAIAAJ&q=%22Member+of+the+General+Assembly%22+%22MGA%22+%22New+Zealand%22}}</ref> Before 1951, New Zealand had an upper house, the [[New Zealand Legislative Council|Legislative Council]], whose members were appointed.

=== Pakistan ===
{{See also|Member of the National Assembly of Pakistan|Member of Parliament, Senate of Pakistan|Parliament of Pakistan}}

A member of Parliament is a member of either of the two houses of the Pakistani Parliament: the [[National Assembly of Pakistan]] and [[Senate of Pakistan]]. The National Assembly of Pakistan has a total of 342 members, of whom 272 are directly elected, and 70 seats are reserved for women and minorities. A member of the National Assembly of Pakistan (MNA) has a tenure of five years. On the other hand, there are 104 members of the Senate of Pakistan, in which all four [[Administrative units of Pakistan|provinces]] are represented by 23 senators regardless of population, while the [[Islamabad Capital Territory]] is represented by four senators. A member of the Senate of Pakistan (a senator) has a tenure of six years.

=== Singapore ===
{{main|Lists of members of parliament in Singapore}}

''Member of Parliament'' refers to elected members of the [[Parliament of Singapore]], the appointed [[Non-constituency Member of Parliament]] from the opposition, as well as the [[Nominated Member of Parliament|Nominated Members of Parliament]], who may be appointed from members of the public who have no connection to any political party in Singapore.

=== Sri Lanka ===
{{main|Member of Parliament (Sri Lanka)}}
{{See also|15th Parliament of Sri Lanka|National List Member of Parliament}}
In [[Sri Lanka]], a ''Member of Parliament'' refers to a member of the [[Parliament of Sri Lanka]] (since 1978), the [[National State Assembly]] (1972–78) and the [[House of Representatives of Ceylon]] (1947–72), the lower house of the [[Parliament of Ceylon]]. Members are elected in a [[general elections]] or appointed from the [[National List Member of Parliament|national lists]] allocated to [[List of political parties in Sri Lanka|parties]] (and [[Independent politician|independent]] groups) in proportion to their share of the national vote at a general election. A candidate to become an MP must be a Sri Lankan citizen and can be a holder of dual-citizenship in any other country, be at least 18 years of age, and not be a public official or officeholder.

===Trinidad and Tobago===

{{Main|Parliament of Trinidad and Tobago|List of Trinidad and Tobago Members of Parliament}}

The Parliament of Trinidad and Tobago is the legislative branch of the government of Trinidad and Tobago. The Parliament is bicameral. It consists of the elected House of Representatives, which has 41 members elected for a five-year term in single-seat constituencies, and the Senate which has 31 members appointed by the president: 16 government senators appointed on the advice of the prime minister, 6 opposition senators appointed on the advice of the leader of the opposition and 9 independent senators appointed by the president to represent other sectors of civil society.

=== United Kingdom ===
{{anchor|United Kingdom}}
{{Main|Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)}}
{{See also|List of current United Kingdom MPs|List of United Kingdom MPs|List of Parliaments of the United Kingdom|List of MPs elected in the 2024 United Kingdom general election|Number of Westminster MPs|Salaries of Members of the UK Parliament|Records of members of parliament of the United Kingdom|List of United Kingdom Parliament constituencies}}

The United Kingdom elects members of its parliament:

* the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]], with 650 members elected by the [[First-past-the-post voting|first-past-the-post]] system to the (lower) [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]], referred to as members of Parliament, abbreviated to ''MP''

and four devolved legislatures:

* the [[Scottish Parliament]], with 129 members elected under the [[additional member system]] every five years, and each called [[Member of the Scottish Parliament]] (''MSP''; {{langx|gd|Ball Pàrlamaid na h-Alba, BPA}}; {{langx|sco|Memmer o the Scots Pairliament, MSP}})
* the [[Northern Ireland Assembly]], with 90 members each known as [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (Northern Ireland)|Member of the Legislative Assembly]] (''MLA''; {{langx|ga|Comhalta den Tionól Reachtach, CTR}}; [[Ulster Scots dialects|Ulster-Scots]]: ''Laa-Makkan Forgaitherar'', LMF). (Between 1921 and 1973, Northern Ireland was governed by the bicameral [[Parliament of Northern Ireland]]. Members of its lower house, the [[House of Commons of Northern Ireland]], were known as ''Member of Parliament''.)
* the [[Senedd (Welsh Parliament)]], with 60 elected members called ''[[Member of the Senedd]]'' (''English - MS''); {{langx|cy|Aelod o'r Senedd, AS}})<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parliament.uk/about/languages.cfm |title=UK Parliament |access-date=15 July 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029230135/http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20080806121825/http%3A//www.parliament.uk/about/languages.cfm |archive-date=29 October 2013 }}</ref>
* the [[London Assembly]], with 25 members elected under the additional member system every four years, called ''Members of the London Assembly'' (''AM'')

MPs are elected in [[United Kingdom general elections|general elections]] and by-elections to represent [[United Kingdom constituencies|constituencies]], and may remain MPs until Parliament is dissolved. "If it has not been dissolved earlier, a Parliament dissolves at the beginning of the day that is the fifth anniversary of the day on which it first met."
([[Dissolution and Calling of Parliament Act 2022]]).

A candidate to become an MP must be a British or Irish or Commonwealth citizen, be at least 18 years of age (reduced from 21 in 2006), and not be a public official or officeholder, as set out in the schedule to the [[Electoral Administration Act 2006]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts2006/20060022.htm |title=Electoral Administration Act 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071110144847/http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts2006/20060022.htm |archive-date=10 November 2007 |url-status=dead |publisher=Office of Public Sector Information}}</ref>

Technically, MPs have no right to [[resignation from the British House of Commons|resign]] their seats (though they may refuse to seek re-election). However a [[legal fiction]] allows voluntary resignation between elections; as MPs are forbidden from holding an "[[office of profit]] under the Crown", an MP wishing to resign will apply for the [[Stewardship of the Chiltern Hundreds]] or the [[Steward of the Manor of Northstead|Stewardship of the Manor of Northstead]] which are nominally such paid offices and thus result in the MP vacating their seat. (Accepting a salaried ministerial office does not amount to a paid office under the Crown for these purposes.)

The [[House of Lords]] is a legislative chamber that is part of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Although they are part of the parliament, its members are referred to as [[peerage|peers]], more formally as ''Lords of Parliament'', not MPs. [[Lords Temporal]] sit for life, [[Lords Spiritual]] while they occupy their ecclesiastical positions. [[Hereditary peers]] may no longer pass on a seat in the House of Lords to their heir automatically. The 92 who remain have been elected from among their own number, following the [[House of Lords Act 1999]] and are the only elected members of the Lords.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20060103134602/http://www.parliament.uk/documents/upload/HLLReformChronology.pdf House of Lords Reform] UK Parliament</ref>

=== Zimbabwe ===

Members of the [[National Assembly of Zimbabwe|National Assembly]], the lower house of [[Parliament of Zimbabwe|Parliament]], are styled "members of Parliament", while members of the [[Senate of Zimbabwe|Senate]], the upper house, are referred to as "senators".

== Other systems ==
''Member of Parliament'' can be the term (often a translation) for representatives in parliamentary democracies that do not follow the Westminster system and who are usually referred to in a different fashion, such as ''deputé'' in France, ''deputato'' in Italy, ''deputat'' in Bulgaria, ''parlamentario'' or ''diputado'' in Spain and Spanish-speaking Latin America, ''deputado'' in Portugal and Brazil, and ''Mitglied des [[Bundestag]]es (MdB)'' in Germany. However, better translations are often possible.

=== Afghanistan ===
Prior to the takeover of the [[Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan]] in August 2021, a member of parliament (MP) was a member of the lower house of the bicameral [[National Assembly of Afghanistan]]: a member of the [[Wolesi Jirga]] (House of People) held one of the in total 250 seats in the lower house. The 102 members of the upper house [[Meshrano Jirga]] (House of Elders) were called Senators.

=== Austria ===
A ''member of Parliament'' is a member of either of the two chambers of the [[Parliament of Austria]] (''Österreichisches Parlament''). The members of the [[National Council of Austria|Nationalrat]] are called ''Abgeordnete zum Nationalrat''. The members of the [[Federal Council of Austria|Bundesrat]], elected by the provincial diets (''[[Landtag]]e'') of the nine federal [[States of Austria]], are known as ''Mitglieder des Bundesrats''.

=== Azerbaijan ===
{{Further|National Assembly (Azerbaijan)}}

=== Bulgaria ===
{{See also|National Assembly (Bulgaria)}}

In Bulgaria there are 240 members of Parliament ({{langx|bg|Народно събрание / Парламент}}; transliteration Narodno sabranie / Parlament), which are called 'Deputati' (singular Deputat). Moreover, there are 240 MPs in the normal parliament and 400 in the "Great Parliament". The Great Parliament is elected when a new constitution is needed. There have been seven Great Parliaments in modern [[Bulgarian history]], in 1879, 1881, 1886, 1893, 1911, 1946 and 1990. MPs in Bulgaria are called депутати (''deputies)''.

=== Cambodia ===
{{See also|National Assembly (Cambodia)}}

The ''member of parliament'' ({{langx|km|សមាជិកសភា}}) refers to the elected members of the [[National Assembly (Cambodia)|National Assembly]]. There are 125 members of parliament in total. They are also alternatively called ''member of the National Assembly''. Parliamentary elections are traditionally held every five years with no term limits imposed. The 25 [[provinces of Cambodia]] are represented by the members of Parliament in the National Assembly. A constituency may have more than one MP, depending on the population.

=== Czech Republic ===
A ''member of Parliament'' is a member of either of the two chambers of the [[Parliament of the Czech Republic]], although the term ''member of Parliament of the Czech Republic'' is commonly referred to as ''deputy of the Parliament of the Czech Republic'' ([[Czech language|Czech]]: ''Poslanec Parlamentu České republiky''), who is a member of the lower house of the Parliament, the [[Chamber of Deputies of the Czech Republic|Chamber of Deputies]]. For the upper house, the [[Senate of the Parliament of the Czech Republic|Senate]], the term ''senator'' is used.

=== Denmark ===
{{Main|Member of the Folketing}}
{{Further|Folketing}}

In Denmark, a ''member of the Folketinget'' ({{langx|da|medlem af Folketinget}}) is one of the 179 members of the [[Folketing]]et. The title is almost always shortened to the [[initialism]] "MF".

=== France ===
{{Main|Deputy (France){{!}}Member of Parliament (France)}}
In France, ''member of parliament'' refers in English to the elected (one for each of the 577 [[List of constituencies of the National Assembly of France|constituencies]]) members of the [[National Assembly (France)|National Assembly]], the [[lower house]] of the [[French Parliament]]. They are known in [[French language|French]] as {{lang|fr|députés}} (deputies) and sit for five years, unless a [[snap election]] is called before the end of their term.

=== Germany ===
{{Main|Member of the German Bundestag}}
A ''member of parliament'' refers to the elected members of the federal [[Bundestag]] at the [[Reichstag building]] in Berlin. In German a member is called ''{{lang|de|Mitglied des Bundestages}}'' (member of the Federal Diet) or officially ''{{lang|de|Mitglied des Deutschen Bundestages}}'' (member of the German Federal Diet), abbreviated [[MdB]] and attached .<ref name="MdB">{{cite web|title=Mitglieder des Deutschen Bundestages (MdB) |url=http://www.bundestag.de/service/glossar/M/mitglieder.html |publisher=German [[Bundestag]] |access-date=18 October 2010 |language=de |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100909112653/http://www.bundestag.de/service/glossar/M/mitglieder.html |archive-date=9 September 2010 }}</ref> Unofficially the term ''Abgeordneter'' ({{Lit|delegate}}, i.e. of a certain electorate) is also common (abbreviated ''Abg.'', never follows the name but precedes it).

In accordance with article 38 of the [[Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany]], which is the German constitution, "[m]embers of the German Bundestag shall be elected in general, direct, free, equal, and secret elections. They shall be representatives of the whole people, not bound by orders or instructions, and responsible only to their conscience." An important though not constitutionally required feature of German parliamentarianism is a slightly modified proportional representation.

The 16 federal [[states of Germany]] (''Länder'') are represented by the Bundesrat at the former [[Prussian House of Lords]], whose members are representatives of the respective ''Länder's'' governments and not directly elected by the people.

=== Greece ===
Members of the [[Hellenic Parliament]] are known as ''vouleftés'' (βουλευτής, "councillors") in Greek, which is rendered into English as "members of parliament". The ''Vouli'' is a unicameral legislature of 300 constituency members, each elected for a four-year term.

=== Iceland ===
{{further|Alþingi}}

=== Indonesia ===
{{Main|People's Representative Council|People's Consultative Assembly}}
Although there are no official definition to what a ''member of parliament'' is, it commonly refers to the elected members of the lower [[People's Representative Council]] ({{lang|id|Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat, {{abbr.}} DPR}}), known in Indonesian as {{lang|id|Anggota DPR}} (member of the DPR). Members of the upper [[Regional Representative Council]] ({{lang|id|Dewan Perwakilan Daerah, {{abbr.}} DPD}}) are referred to as ''[[senator]]'',<ref>{{cite web|url=https://twitter.com/dpdri|title=Senator Indonesia|language=id|website=twitter.com|access-date=27 September 2018|archive-date=19 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819124015/https://twitter.com/DPDRI|url-status=live}}</ref> although the term
{{lang|id|Anggota DPD}} (member of the DPD) is also widely used. These titles are not used in formal naming convention following a member's name unlike the Westminster system.

Currently, there are 575 and 136 members in the DPR and the DPD respectively, both elected for a renewable five-year term. Members of the DPR are required to be a member of a registered political party, whereas members of the DPD are independent.

=== Israel ===
{{See also|Knesset}}
A ''member of the Knesset'' ({{langx|he|חבר הכנסת}}) is one of the 120 members of the [[Knesset]]. The title is usually shortened to the [[initialism]] "MK".

=== Italy ===
Members of the lower house of the [[Italian Parliament]], the [[Chamber of Deputies (Italy)|Chamber of Deputies]], are known as "deputies" (''deputati''), while members of the upper house, the [[Senate of the Republic (Italy)|Senate of the Republic]], are known as "senators" (''senatori'').<ref>Judgment no.390/2007 of the Constitutional Court makes clear that the third paragraph of Article 68 of the Constitution is intended to prevent that — listening to confidential discussions of a senator or a deputy — the Judiciary may become a source of constraints and pressures on the free development of an elected mandate : {{cite journal|last1=Buonomo|first1=Giampiero|title=Intercettazioni "telefoniche" indirette: illegittima la distruzione immediata e la conseguente immunità dei terzi (non parlamentari) coinvolti|journal=Diritto&Giustizia Edizione Online|date=2007|url=https://www.questia.com/projects#!/project/89404936|access-date=9 April 2016|archive-date=24 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160324160801/https://www.questia.com/projects#!/project/89404936|url-status=dead}}</ref> Deputies and senators may use the style "The Honourable" (''Onorevole''). There are currently 400 deputies and 200 senators, who are elected in general elections held every five years. The [[president of the Italian Republic]] nominates five [[Senators for life in Italy|senators for life]] (''senatori a vita''). [[List of presidents of Italy|Emeritus presidents of the republic]] are also appointed senators for life. The two houses of parliament together form a perfect bicameral system, meaning they perform identical functions, but do so separately.

=== Japan ===
{{Main|List of members of the Diet of Japan}}
In [[Japan]], both houses of today's national parliament, the [[National Diet]] (''Kokkai''), are directly elected, and although the two chambers differ in legislative and political authority, term length and age restriction of eligibility, the members of both houses are generally equal in personal status (financial compensation, immunity, etc.). There are currently 713 members of the National Diet (''Kokkai giin'', 国会議員): 465 members of the [[House of Representatives (Japan)|House of Representatives]] (''Shūgiin giin'', 衆議院議員) and 248 members of the [[House of Councillors]] (''Sangiin giin'', 参議院議員). The former are elected in [[Elections in Japan|general/by-/repeat elections of members of the House of Representatives]] ''(Shūgiin giin sō-/hoketsu-/sai-senkyo)'', the latter in [[Elections in Japan|regular/by-/repeat elections of members of the House of Councillors]] ''(Sangiin giin tsūjō-/hoketsu-/sai-senkyo)''. Under the [[Constitution of Japan|1947 constitution]], the [[Prime Minister of Japan|prime minister]] is elected by the National Diet and must be a member of the National Diet, as must the majority of other ministers; by practice, all prime ministers since 1947 have been members of the House of Representatives so far.

==== Empire of Japan ====
Under the [[Meiji Constitution|constitution of the Empire of Japan]], the [[National Diet#History|Imperial Diet]] (''Teikoku-gikai'') was a bicameral legislature of two houses, generally equal in legislative authority, and while the members of both houses received the same financial compensation - from 1920 and 1947, [[Japanese yen|¥]]7500 for the two presidents, ¥4500 for the two vice-presidents, ¥3000 for all other members of both houses, except Imperial princes, dukes and marquesses—their status was different by definition: The upper house consisted mainly of hereditary nobles and lifetime-appointed peers, the lower house of elected commoners. In the First Imperial Diet in 1890, there were initially 551 members of the Imperial Diet (''Teikoku-gikai giin'', 帝国議会議員, or in [[Kyūjitai|contemporaneous script]] 帝國議會議員): 251 [[House of Peers (Japan)|members of the House of Peers]] (''Kizokuin giin'', 貴族院議員) and 300 members of the House of Representatives ''(Shūgiin giin)''; of the House of Peers members, 10 were members of the Imperial family, 31 were hereditary members from the two upper [[Kazoku|nobility ranks]], 104 were members elected in mutual elections from the three lower nobility ranks, 61 were lifetime-appointed members (many of these from the bureaucracy) and 45 were members elected by the 15 top taxpayers in each of the 45 prefectures. The number of noble and appointed members of the House of Peers was not fixed and varied gradually over time as members died or new peerages were granted; the number of elected top taxpayer seats, Imperial Academy seats (introduced in 1925), members appointed from the colonies Chōsen/Korea and Taiwan/Formosa (introduced in 1945), and the size of the House of Representatives was fixed by law, but was also changed several times over the decades. The last, 92nd Imperial Diet of 1946–1947 had 839 members - 466 members of the House of Representatives and 373 members of the House of Peers.<ref>[[National Diet Library]], Reference ([http://www.ndl.go.jp/jp/diet/publication/refer/ レファレンス] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828230237/http://www.ndl.go.jp/jp/diet/publication/refer/ |date=28 August 2017 }}, an NDL monthly) 2005.5, Ōyama Hidehisa, [http://www.ndl.go.jp/jp/diet/publication/refer/200505_652/065202.pdf 帝国議会の運営と会議録をめぐって] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190722035826/http://www.ndl.go.jp/jp/diet/publication/refer/200505_652/065202.pdf |date=22 July 2019 }}, pp.49–50, Table 2: Number of members of the House of Peers and House of Representatives [by Imperial Diet and in the House of Peers, by membership category]</ref> As the regulations establishing the [[Cabinet of Japan|cabinet]] ''(naikaku)'' and the cabinet's prime minister ''(naikaku sōri-daijin)'' were decreed before the Imperial constitution, the prime minister did not have to be a member of the Imperial Diet, but after the establishment of the Imperial Diet in 1890, many prime ministers were appointed from the House of Peers; very few were members of the House of Representatives, ''viz.'' [[Hara Takashi|Takashi Hara]], [[Osachi Hamaguchi]], and [[Inukai Tsuyoshi|Tsuyoshi Inukai]].

=== Kazakhstan ===
According to the jurisdiction of the [[Kazakhstan|Republic of Kazakhstan]], the term ''deputy'' ({{Langx|kk|депутат|translit=deputat}}) is the main and widely used word to describe a ''member of parliament'' ({{Langx|kk|парламент депутаты|translit=parlament deputaty}}) as a whole, encompassing both the lower house [[Mäjilis]] and the upper house [[Senate of Kazakhstan|Senate]]. While ''senator'' is also used to interchangeably describe a member of the Senate, the word "deputy" is the inclusive and general term for all 120 members of the [[Parliament of Kazakhstan|Parliament]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=On the Parliament of the Republic of Kazakhstan and the status of its deputies |url=https://adilet.zan.kz/eng/docs/Z950002529_ |access-date=2023-07-30 |website=adilet.zan.kz}}</ref>

The 98 deputies of the Mäjilis obtain their [[Mandate (politics)|mandate]] through [[mixed-member majoritarian representation]], with 29 deputies elected from [[Single-member district|single-member districts]] and 69 deputies from [[Closed list|closed-list]] [[proportional representation]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bulatkulova |first=Saniya |date=2023-01-25 |title=What You Need to Know About Upcoming Election in Kazakhstan |url=https://astanatimes.com/2023/01/what-you-need-to-know-about-upcoming-election-in-kazakhstan/ |access-date=2023-07-30 |website=The Astana Times |language=en}}</ref> The Senate consists of 50 deputies, out of which 40 are [[Indirect election|indirectly elected]] by [[mäslihat]]s (local assemblies), while the remaining 10 are appointed by the [[President of Kazakhstan|President]] and the [[Assembly of People of Kazakhstan|Assembly of People]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bulatkulova |first=Saniya |date=2023-01-12 |title=What You Need to Know About Senate Election in Kazakhstan This Week |url=https://astanatimes.com/2023/01/what-you-need-to-know-about-senate-election-in-kazakhstan-this-week/ |access-date=2023-07-30 |website=The Astana Times |language=en}}</ref>

=== Lebanon ===
The [[Parliament of Lebanon]] is the Lebanese national legislature. It is elected to a four-year term by universal adult suffrage in multi-member constituencies, apportioned among Lebanon's diverse Christian and Muslim denominations. Its major functions are to elect the [[President of Lebanon|president of the republic]], to approve the government (although appointed by the president, the prime minister, along with the Cabinet, must retain the confidence of a majority in the Parliament), and to approve laws and expenditure. The name of a deputy in Arabic is ''Naeb'' (نائب). The plural of ''Naeb'' is ''Nuwab'' (نواب).

=== Netherlands ===
The Parliament of the Netherlands is known as the ''Staten-Generaal'', the [[States General of the Netherlands|States General]]. It is bicameral, divided into two ''kamers'' (English: chambers). The [[Senate (Netherlands)|Senate]] is known in Dutch as the ''Eerste Kamer'' (First Chamber) and its members as ''senatoren'', senators. The [[House of Representatives (Netherlands)|House of Representatives]], known in Dutch as the ''Tweede Kamer'' (Second Chamber), is the most important one. The important debates take place here. Also, the Second Chamber can amend proposed laws and can propose laws itself. The Senate does not have these capabilities. Its function is a more technical reviewing of laws. It can only pass a law or reject it. Both chambers are in [[The Hague]], which is the seat of parliament but not the official capital of the Netherlands, which is [[Amsterdam]].

The 150 members of the House of Representatives are elected by general elections every four years (or earlier if the government falls). The 75 members of the Senate are elected indirectly. The members of the twelve provincial parliaments and the councils of the three Caribbean [[Caribbean Netherlands|special municipalities]] elect the senators. The value of a vote of a member of a provincial parliament is weighted by the population of the province. Provincial parliaments, the [[Provincial council (Netherlands)|States Provincial]], are elected by general elections every four years; a new Senate is elected three months after the provincial elections.

=== North Macedonia ===
{{Main|Assembly of North Macedonia}}
In the Republic of North Macedonia there are 123 members of parliament ({{langx|mk|Sobranie}}) called ''Pratenici'' (singular ''Pratenik'').

=== Norway ===
A member of parliament is an elected member of the ''[[Storting]]et''. They are called ''stortingsrepresentanter'' ({{Lit|representatives of the Storting}}). Since 2009, Norway has had a unicameral parliament, which previously consisted of the ''[[Odelstinget]]'' and ''[[Lagtinget]]''; the Odelstinget comprised three-quarters, or 127, of the total 169 members, whereas the Lagtinget comprised the remainder. The dividing of the parliament into chambers was only used when dealing with passing regular laws and in cases of impeachment (''[[Impeachment in Norway|riksrett]]''). In other matters, such as passing the national budget or changing the constitution (the latter requiring a majority of two-thirds), the chambers were united.

The members of the unicameral parliament of Norway are chosen by popular vote for a parliamentary period of four years.

=== Philippines ===
{{further|Batasang Pambansa (legislature)}}
From 1978 to 1984, the Philippine parliament was called the ''[[Batasang Pambansa (legislature)|Batasang Pambansa]]'' (National Assembly), and its elected members were called ''Mambabatas Pambansa'' (National Assemblyman), often shortened to "MP".

==== Bangsamoro ====
In the [[Bangsamoro Parliament]], members of the interim body, known as the [[Bangsamoro Transition Authority]], are nominated by both the [[Moro Islamic Liberation Front]] (MILF) and the [[Philippine government]], and appointed by the [[president of the Philippines]].

=== Poland ===
{{Further|Sejm of the Republic of Poland}}

=== Portugal ===
The Portuguese parliament is called the ''[[Assembleia da República]]''. A member of parliament is known as a ''deputado'', that is, a person who is appointed through democratic election to act on the people's behalf.

=== Spain ===
{{See also|List of members of the Congress of Deputies (Spain)}}

The word '''''parlamento'''—''of the same origin as Parliament in English—is used as a common name for all legislative assemblies, and hence '''''{{lang|es|parlamentario}}''''' for the member of any of them, which can usually refer to members of:
* both chambers of the national legislature ([[Cortes Generales]]), the [[Congress of Deputies (Spain)|Congress of Deputies]] and the [[Senate of Spain|Senate]].
* the regional devolved legislatures of the [[Autonomous Communities]].
* the European Parliament.

Members of the Congress of Deputies are called ''diputados'' (deputies), implying that they are elected to act in the name and on behalf of the people they represent. It is also usual to call members of the European Parliament ''eurodiputados''. Members of the Senate are called ''senadores'' (senators).

===South Africa===
The [[Parliament of South Africa]] consists of two houses: the [[National Assembly of South Africa]] (lower house) and the [[National Council of Provinces]] (upper house). Members of both houses are given the title ''Member of Parliament''.<ref name="ZAParliament">{{Cite web |url=https://www.parliament.gov.za/what-parliament-does |title=What Parliament Does – Parliament of South Africa |access-date=24 May 2020 |archive-date=29 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200529124849/https://www.parliament.gov.za/what-parliament-does |url-status=live }}</ref>

The National Assembly is made up of 400 members, who are all elected by the public in general elections using a [[proportional representation]] system with [[closed list]]s. The National Council of Provinces is composed of 90 delegates with 10 delegates for each of the nine provinces regardless of the population of the province. A provincial delegation consists of six permanent delegates and four special delegates. NCOP delegates are elected by the nine provincial legislatures on the day when they reconvene, usually the same day as the National Assembly. The delegates are sworn in the next day.<ref name="ZAParliament" />

===South Korea===
A ''member of Parliament'' refers to a member of the [[National Assembly (South Korea)|Parliament of South Korea]]. A total of 253 MPs are elected using the [[first-past-the-post system]] from [[Electoral district|parliamentary constituencies]], 30 MPs are elected by [[Mixed-member proportional representation|proportional compensation]], and 17 MPs are elected by [[Parallel voting|mixed member majoritarian]].

In the [[Second Republic of Korea]] or if the [[Constitution of South Korea]] is amended as a [[parliamentary system]] with [[bicameralism]], only the members of the [[House of Representatives (South Korea)|House of Commons of South Korea]] are called members of Parliament, while the members of the [[House of Councillors (South Korea)|Senate of South Korea]] are called senators.

The members of [[Administrative divisions of South Korea|provincial]] legislatures are called [[Member of the Legislative Assembly|members of the Legislative Assembly]] or '''MLA'''. In some provinces, such individuals are called as '''Members of the Provincial Parliament (MPP)'''.

South Korea's National Assembly members are among the world's highest elite.<ref>{{cite news |last= |first= |date=18 March 2024|script-title=ko:"韓 국회의원 학력 가장 높은 나라"…3명 중 1명 '박사'|trans-title= |url=https://www.edaily.co.kr/News/Read?newsId=01886006639086376&mediaCodeNo=257|language=Korean|work=}}</ref>

{{ill|Members of the National Assembly|ko|대한민국 국회}} enjoy various privileges, including immunity from arrest and immunity for legislative acts, along with high power, allowances, and extensive institutional support such as offices, official vehicles, and drivers. Each lawmaker may employ up to nine butler, whose salaries are fully funded by the state. On this foundation of privileges, political experience, personal networks, and local power bases accumulate, making it easier for children or relatives to enter politics. Although power is not legally inherited, in practice this creates a system in which political influence is passed down within families, resembling a form of aristocratic succession.<ref>{{cite news |last= |first= |date=18 March 2024|script-title=ko:국회의원은 국민 위 군림하는 귀족계급···특권폐지에 시민 나서야 [이철영의 500자 논평]|trans-title= |url=https://www.newdaily.co.kr/site/data/html/2023/05/29/2023052900045.html|language=Korean|work=}}</ref>

=== Sweden ===
{{Main|Member of Parliament (Sweden)}}

''Members of parliament'' refers to the elected [[List of members of the Swedish Riksdag|members]] of the [[Riksdag]]. In Swedish, an MP is usually referred to as a ''riksdagsledamot'' (''member of the Riksdag'') or a ''riksdagsman'' (''gentleman of the Riksdag''). The former is in more common use today, especially in official contexts, due to its status as a [[unisex]] word, while the latter was used more often historically and literally refers to a male MP exclusively.

The parliament is a unicameral assembly with 349 members who are chosen every four years in [[Elections in Sweden|general elections]]. To become an MP, a person must be entitled to vote (i.e. be a Swedish [[Citizenship|citizen]], be at least 18 years old and be or have been resident in Sweden) and must be nominated by a [[List of political parties in Sweden|political party]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.riksdagen.se/templates/R_Page____770.aspx|title=Members and parties|access-date=6 January 2008|date=3 October 2006|publisher=[[Parliament of Sweden]]|archive-date=10 August 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070810080229/http://www.riksdagen.se/templates/R_Page____770.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref> The MPs are elected by proportionality in constituencies across the nation. To decide which candidate will be elected the [[Sainte-Laguë method|modified Sainte-Laguë method]] is used. This method usually but not always gives an accurate result in proportion to cast votes.

The salaries of the MPs are decided by the [[Riksdag Pay Committee]] (''Riksdagens arvodesnämnd''), a [[Government agencies in Sweden|government agency]] under the Riksdag. Since 1 November 2007, the basic monthly pay of an MP is [[Swedish krona|SEK]]52,900 (ca. US$6,500). The pay of the [[Speaker of the parliament of Sweden|speaker]] is SEK126,000 a month (ca. US$15,000), which is the same as that of the [[Prime Minister of Sweden|prime minister]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.samhallsguiden.riksdagen.se/templates/R_Page____774.aspx |title=Pay and economic benefits |access-date=6 January 2008 |date=1 November 2007 |publisher=The [[Riksdag]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070822101921/http://www.samhallsguiden.riksdagen.se/templates/R_Page____774.aspx |archive-date=22 August 2007 }}</ref> The deputy speakers receive an increment of 30% of the pay of a member. The chairs and deputy chairs of the parliamentary committees receive a similar increment of 20% and 15% respectively.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.samhallsguiden.riksdagen.se/templates/R_Page____10934.aspx |archive-url=https://archive.today/20070613173822/http://www.samhallsguiden.riksdagen.se/templates/R_Page____10934.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-date=13 June 2007 |title=Members' pay |access-date=6 January 2008 |date=13 July 2007 |publisher=The [[Riksdag]] }}</ref>

According to a survey investigation by the sociologist Jenny Hansson,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www8.umu.se/soc/personal/Jenny%20Hanssons%20avhandlingsarbete.%20Presentation%20samt%20.pdf|title=Sociologiska institutionen – Välkommen till oss!|author=Hansson, Jenny|year=2008|publisher=De Folkvaldas Livsvillkor, Umea University|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090303215553/http://www8.umu.se/soc/personal/Jenny%20Hanssons%20avhandlingsarbete.%20Presentation%20samt%20.pdf|archive-date=3 March 2009|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Swedish national parliamentarians have an average workweek of 66 hours, including side responsibilities. Hansson's investigation further reports that the average Swedish national parliamentarian sleeps 6.5 hours per night.

=== Switzerland ===
{{See also|Federal Assembly (Switzerland)}}

=== Thailand ===
In the [[Thailand|Kingdom of Thailand]], ''members of parliament'' ({{langx|th|สมาชิกรัฐสภา}}; {{RTGS|Samachik Ratthasapha}}) refer to the members of the [[National Assembly of Thailand]], that is, the [[House of Representatives (Thailand)|members of the House of Representatives]] and the [[Senate of Thailand|senators]]. Following the [[2006 Thai coup d'état|military coup d'état]] on 19 September 2006, all members of the assembly were suspended from duty until the next election. The assembly was fully reconvened after the [[2007 Thai general election|general elections]] under a slightly amended new [[Constitution of Thailand|constitution]]. Under the [[2007 Constitution of Thailand|2007 constitution]] there are 650 members of parliament, consisting of 500 members in the House of Representatives, of which 375 elected from constituencies and the other 125 by party-list, and 150 senators.

=== Turkey ===
{{See also|Grand National Assembly of Turkey}}

In the Republic of Turkey, a member of parliament is an elected member of the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey]] ({{langx|tr|Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi, TBMM}}), which has 600 members elected at a general election for a term of office of five years.

=== Ukraine ===
A people's deputy of [[Ukraine]] (''[[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]'': народний депутат України, narodnyi deputat Ukrayiny) is a member of parliament or [[legislator]] elected by a [[Direct election|popular vote]] to the [[Verkhovna Rada]] (the unicameral parliament of Ukraine). Often people's deputies of Ukraine are referred to simply as deputies.

The main statutes that define the order of elections, rights and duties of the people's deputies of Ukraine are outlined in Articles 76–81 of the [[Constitution of Ukraine]]. There are 450 people's deputies of Ukraine who are elected based on the general, equal and direct electoral right for five years. The deputies may be appointed to various parliamentary positions such as the [[Chairman of the Verkhovna Rada|chairperson (speaker)]] of parliament, a head of a committee or a parliamentary faction, etc. Upon its appointment, to the office, each people's deputy of Ukraine receives a ''deputy mandate''.

People's deputies that run for parliament as self-nominated candidates can join factions if they wish.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.kyivpost.com/content/ukraine/yanukovych-signs-law-on-open-voting-to-elect-parliamentary-chairman-316360.html |title=Yanukovych signs law on open voting to elect parliamentary chairman |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140629011604/http://www.kyivpost.com/content/ukraine/yanukovych-signs-law-on-open-voting-to-elect-parliamentary-chairman-316360.html |archive-date=29 June 2014 |url-status=dead |work=[[Kyiv Post]] |date=19 November 2012}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Deputy (legislator)]]
* [[Member of Congress]]
* [[Australia and New Zealand Association of Clerks-at-the-Table]], an association with the aim of advancing the professional development of parliamentarians.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Legislators]]
[[Category:Parliamentary titles]]
[[Category:Members of parliament| ]]

Ali Adil Shah II

2026-03-23T16:07:57Z

IgnacioElem3: fixed issues

{{Short description|Sultan of Bijapur from 1656 to 1672}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{more footnotes needed|date=February 2018}}
{{more citations needed|date=February 2018}}
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2019}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Ali Adil Shah II
| title = [[Sultan]] [[Shah]]
| image = Ali Adil Shah II.jpg
| reign = 4 November 1656 – 24 November 1672
| othrtitles =
| full name = Sultan Adil Shah Sani
| predecessor = [[Mohammed Adil Shah, Sultan of Bijapur|Mohammed Adil Shah]]
| successor = [[Sikandar Adil Shah]]
| succession = 8th [[Adil Shahi dynasty|Sultan of Bijapur]]
| spouse = Khurshida Khanum
| issue = [[Shahar Banu Begum]] (Padshah Bibi) Husain [[Sikandar Adil Shah]]
| royal house = [[Adil Shahi|Adil Shahi house]]
| dynasty = [[Adil Shahi|Adil Shahi Empire]]
| father = [[Mohammed Adil Shah, Sultan of Bijapur|Mohammed Adil Shah]]
| mother = [[Khadija Sultana]] of [[Qutb Shahi dynasty|Golconda]]
| birth_place =
| death_date = 24 November 1672
| death_place = [[Adil Shahi|Bijapur]]
| burial_date =
| burial_place = Bara Kaman
| religion = [[Sunni Islam]]<ref name="ReferenceF">Muhammad Qasim [[Firishta]]'s Tarikh-e-Firishta.</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">Busateenus-Salateen a Persian Manuscript of Mirza Ibrahim Zubairi.</ref><ref name="ReferenceC">Mirza Ibrahim Zubairi, Rouzatul Auliya-e-Bijapur.</ref>
}}

'''Ali Adil Shah II''' ({{langx|ur|{{nq|علی عادل شاه دوم}}|translit=ʿAlī ʿĀdil Shāh}}; died 24 November 1672) was the 8th Sultan of [[Adil Shahi dynasty|Bijapur]]. He succeeded to the throne of Bijapur through the efforts of the Prime Minister Khan Muhammad and the Queen, Badi Sahiba, sister of [[Qutb Shahi dynasty|Qutb Shah]] of [[Golkonda]] on the death of [[Mohammed Adil Shah of Bijapur]] on 4 November 1656.

His accession signaled disasters to the Kingdom and his reign marked the decline of the Bijapur Kingdom.

== Reign ==
{{Unreferenced section|date=October 2025}}
[[Shah Jahan]], anxious to annex Bijapur to his empire, found a pretext in the legitimacy of Ali's parents. On [[Aurangzeb]]’s plea, [[Shah Jahan]] sanctioned the invasion of Bijapur and gave him a free hand to deal with the situation. This sanction of such a war was wholly unrighteous. Bijapur was not a vassal state of the [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]], but an independent and equal ally of the Mughal Emperor, and the latter had no lawful right to confirm or question the succession to the [[Bijapur Sultanate]]. However, Aurangzeb had to raise the siege and rush north for the war of succession to the Mughal throne.

With Muhammad's death and Ali's accession, disorder had begun in the [[Karnataka]]. The [[Nayak dynasty|Nayaks]] tried to recover their former lands. ([[Bangalore]], the capital of [[Karnataka]], was Bijapur's administrative headquarters for controlling these feudatories by Kempegouda.) Meanwhile, [[Shivaji]] increased the momentum of acquiring more and more Bijapur territory and carved an independent [[Maratha]] state, while his diplomacy prevented any [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]]-[[Bijapur Sultanate|Bijapur]] coalition against him.

At the court, things were even worse. With the coming of a young and weak ruler, the party factions and struggle for supremacy was at its zenith. To aggravate them, [[Aurangzeb]] intrigued with Bijapur nobles and succeeded in winning over most of them.

Throughout his reign of 16 years, Ali struggled desperately both against the [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]] and the [[Maratha Empire|Maratha]]s. He thrice repulsed Mughal invasions. But when he died in 1672, the Bijapur kingdom was deprived of most of its important territorial possessions. With the expansion of [[Shivaji]]’s kingdom, there was a corresponding shrinkage in the Bijapur territory.

==Literary activity==
The reign of ʿAlī ʿĀdil Shāh II was marked by developments in [[Persian literature|Persian]] and [[Deccani language|Deccani]] literature and fine arts. [[Nusrati]] served as his poet-laureate. A history known as the ''Taʾrīkh-i ʿAlī ʿĀdil Shāh'' by Nūrullāh ibn Qāḍī Sayyid ʿAlī Muḥammad al-Ḥusaynī al-Qadirī was also produced under his patronage.<ref>Charles Rieu, ''Catalogue of the Persian Manuscripts in the British Museum'', volume 1 (London: British Museum, 1879), 318.</ref>

==Tomb==
ʿAlī ʿĀdil Shāh II was buried in Ali Ka Rouza, the well-known [[Bara Kaman]] in Bijapur.

==See also==
*[[Adil Shahi–Portuguese conflicts]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{commons category}}
* Dehlavi, Basheeruddin: ''Wāqīyāt-i mamlakat-i Bījāpūr'', Bangalore (Karnatak Urdu Academy) 2003.
* [[Firishta]], Muḥammad Qāsim Hindū-Shāh Astarābādī: ''History of the Rise of the Mahomedan Power in India, till the Year 1612'', translated by John Briggs, Calcutta (Editions Indian) 1829, rep. 1966.
* Nayeem, Muhammad: ''External Relations of the Bijapur Kingdom'', Hyderabad A.P. (Bright Publishers) 1974.
* Verma, Dinesh Chandra: ''Social, economic, and cultural history of Bijapur'', Delhi (Idarah-i Adabiyat-i Delli) 1990.

{{s-start}}
{{succession box|title=[[List of Adil Shahi Emperors|Adil Shahi Rulers of Bijapur]]|before=[[Mohammed Adil Shah, Sultan of Bijapur|Mohammed Adil Shah]]|after=[[Sikandar Adil Shah]]|years=1656–1672}}
{{s-end}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ali Adil Shah 02}}
[[Category:1672 deaths]]
[[Category:17th-century Indian Muslims]]
[[Category:17th-century Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:Sultans of Bijapur]]
[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]

Sanam Shetty

2026-03-22T11:37:42Z

IgnacioElem3: added basic data with sources

{{short description|Indian actress}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2019}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Sanam Shetty
| image = Sanam_Shetty.jpg
| caption = Shetty in 2020
| birth_name = Sanam Prasad Shetty
| birth_date =
| birth_place = 
| death_date =
| death_place =
| title = [[Miss South India]] (2016)
| website =
| partner =
| occupation = {{Hlist| Film actress | model }}
| years_active = 2012–present
| notable_works =
| television =
}}

'''Sanam Prasad Shetty''' is an Indian actress and model, who has worked predominantly in [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]] and [[Malayalam]] films.<ref name="thehindu">{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-cinemaplus/the-telugu-connect/article4751646.ece |title=The Telugu connect |last=Rajendra |first=Ranjani |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=26 May 2013 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref name="timesofindia">{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/bigg-boss-tamil-4-contestant-sanam-shetty-everything-you-need-to-know-about-the-beauty-queen-and-model-turned-actress/articleshow/78477905.cms |title=Bigg Boss Tamil 4 contestant Sanam Shetty: Everything you need to know about the beauty queen and model-turned-actress |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=4 October 2020}}</ref> In 2020, she was a contestant on the reality series ''[[Bigg Boss (Tamil season 4)|Bigg Boss 4 Tamil]]''.

==Career==
Born to [[Tulu people|Tulu]] father and a [[Telugu people|Telugu]] mother in Bangalore, Shetty became interested in fashion shows while studying computer engineering in college. In the mid-2000s, Shetty was initially recruited to model by fashion choreographer [[Prasad Bidapa]] and subsequently took part in the Miss Bangalore 2004 competition.<ref name="start"/> In 2010, Sanam, along with [[Arthi Venkatesh]], were described by [[The New Indian Express]] as being among "the top models" in Chennai.<ref name="start">{{Cite web |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/2010/dec/14/taking-the-modelling-world-by-storm-211053.html |title=Taking the modelling world by storm |date=14 December 2010 |work=[[The New Indian Express]]}}</ref>

Sanam was first cast in the Malayalam film ''[[Cinema Company]]'' (2012), but ended up making her feature film debut through the Tamil science fiction film, ''[[Ambuli]]'' (2012), which garnered attention for being the first digital stereoscopic Tamil film.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/Itsy-bitsy/article15459712.ece |title=Itsy-bitsy |first=Nikhil |last=Raghavan |date=26 February 2011 |work=[[The Hindu]] |url-access=subscription |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.thehindu.com/arts/music/article2426412.ece |title=Two albums, many tunes |author=S. R. Ashok Kumar |date=5 September 2011 |work=[[The Hindu]] |url-access=subscription |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301080228/http://www.thehindu.com/arts/music/article2426412.ece |archive-date=1 March 2012}}</ref> Set in the 1970s, Sanam portrayed a young college girl who becomes caught up in mysterious happenings in a village. The film opened to mixed reviews in February 2012 after a low-profile release at the box office.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movie-reviews/ambuli/movie-review/11949127.cms|title=Ambuli Movie Review {3.5/5}: Critic Review of Ambuli by Times of India|work=The Times of India}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/ambuli-wheres-the-thrill/article2906911.ece |title=Ambuli: Where's the thrill? |first=Malathi |last=Rangarajan |newspaper=The Hindu |date=18 February 2012 }}</ref> Sanam continued to receive acting offers and completed a series of low-profile films including the Malayalam project ''[[Ravu]]'' (2013) by Ajit Ravi Pegasus, ''[[Maayai]]'' (2013) and ''[[Vilaasam]]'' (2014), all of which went unnoticed at the box office.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/131114/entertainment-kollywood/article/censors-decline-%E2%80%98u%E2%80%99-certification-maayai |title=Censors decline 'U' certification for Maayai |first=Anupama |last=Subramanian |date=14 November 2013 |work=[[Deccan Chronicle]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://cinema.maalaimalar.com/cinema/review/2014/11/14121345/Vilasam-movie-review.vpf |title=விலாசம் |language=ta |trans-title=Address |date=14 November 2014 |website=maalaimalar.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://cinema.maalaimalar.com/cinema/review/2014/08/23212226/thottal-vidathu-movie-review.vpf |title=தொட்டால் விடாது |language=ta |date=23 August 2014 |website=maalaimalar.com}}</ref> A more high-profile film she featured in during the period was the [[Mammootty]]-starrer ''[[Daivathinte Swantham Cleetus]]'' (2014), where she portrayed a supporting role.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/130620/entertainment-mollywood/article/programming-her-film-career |title=Programming her film career |first=Priya |last=Sreekuma |work=[[Deccan Chronicle]] |date=20 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130815014348/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/130620/entertainment-mollywood/article/programming-her-film-career |archive-date=15 August 2013}}</ref> Sanam was also set to make her debut in Telugu films through veteran director [[K. Raghavendra Rao]]'s ''Intinta Anamayya'', playing a "NRI rockstar with a very modern outlook". However, despite completing production, the film was never released.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-04-04/news-interviews/38276914_1_telugu-debut-telugu-culture-sanam-shetty |title=Sanam Shetty, the new girl in Tollywood |date=11 January 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140111211859/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-04-04/news-interviews/38276914_1_telugu-debut-telugu-culture-sanam-shetty |work=[[The Times of India]] |archive-date=11 January 2014}}</ref> She had also signed on to play the lead role in a female-centric film by [[Aabavanan]], where she would play a martial arts expert, though the film was later dropped.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-cinemaplus/actionpacked/article2958584.ece |title=Action-packed |date=4 March 2012 |work=[[The Hindu]] |url-access=subscription}}</ref>

In the mid-2010s, Sanam continued to appear in small budget films in the four South Indian film industries. Her notable Tamil films during the period included the action film ''[[Katham Katham]]'' (2015), the comedy drama ''[[Vellaiya Irukiravan Poi Solla Maatan]]'' (2015) and the slasher film ''[[Sadhuram 2]]'' (2016). Meanwhile, proposed roles in higher profile film such as [[Susi Ganesan]]'s ''[[Thiruttu Payale 2]]'' (2015) did not materialise.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/sanam-shetty-in-thiruttu-payale-2/articleshow/57329600.cms |title=Sanam Shetty in Thiruttu Payale 2 |first=Sharanya |last=CR |date=25 February 2017 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> In Telugu films, Sanam portrayed a small role alongside [[Mahesh Babu]] in ''[[Srimanthudu]]'' (2015), and lead roles in the comedy film ''[[Singam 123]]'' (2015) and ''[[Premikudu (2016 film)|Premikudu]]'' (2016).<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/Sanam-Shetty-bags-a-role-opposite-Mahesh-Babu/articleshow/47251534.cms |title=Sanam Shetty bags a role opposite Mahesh Babu |first=Hemanth |last=Kumar |date=15 January 2017 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> Sanam featured in her first Kannada film, ''[[Atharva (2018 film)|Atharva]]'' (2018), appearing alongside debutant Pavan Teja.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/stories/interviews/2018/jul/10/sanam-shetty-sense-of-family-in-sandalwood-6897.html |title=Sanam Shetty: My character has equal importance in Atharva |first=A |last=Sharadhaa |date=10 July 2018 |work=[[Cinema Express]]}}</ref> In 2017, she launched her first film as a producer, ''Magie'', the tale of a girl brought up in [[Meghalaya]]. However, the project was later stalled following her fallout with the lead actor Tharshan.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/kollywood/161017/sanam-shetty-turns-producer.html |title=Sanam Shetty turns producer |first=Anupama |last=Subramanian |date=16 October 2017 |work=[[Deccan Chronicle]]}}</ref>

In 2019, Sanam was belatedly crowned as the winner of the Miss South India 2016 beauty pageant, after the organiser opted to dethrone [[Meera Mithun]] owing to fraudulent activities. Sanam participated in the reality television show, ''[[Bigg Boss Tamil]]'' hosted by [[Kamal Haasan]] in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies-cinema-news-16/sanam-shetty-talks-about-tharshan-and-bigg-boss-3-contestants.html |title=Sanam Shetty talks about Tharshan and Bigg Boss 3 contestants |date=20 July 2019 |website=Behindwoods}}</ref> She received positive reviews from audiences for her stint on the show, with viewers praising her "straightforward answers and bold questioning" of issues among contestants.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies-cinema-news-16/fans-trend-hashtag-no-sanam-no-bigg-boss-as-word-spreads-of-her-eviction.html |title=Fans trend hashtag No Sanam No Bigg Boss as word spreads of her eviction |date=5 December 2020 |website=Behindwoods}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/bigg-boss-tamil-4-suresh-chakravarthy-reshma-pasupuleti-and-harathi-ganesh-are-all-praise-for-evicted-contestant-sanam-shetty/articleshow/79610716.cms |title=Bigg Boss Tamil 4: Suresh Chakravarthy, Reshma Pasupuleti and Harathi Ganesh are all praise for evicted contestant Sanam Shetty |date=8 December 2020 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/ill-forever-be-grateful-to-tamil-people-across-the-world-sanam-shetty/articleshow/79826759.cms |title=I'll forever be grateful to Tamil people across the world: Sanam Shetty |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Sanam Shetty became engaged to actor [[Tharshan Thiyagarajah]] in May 2019, with the wedding planned for June 2019. Tharshan's involvement in the 2019 series of ''[[Bigg Boss Tamil]]'' later meant that the ceremony was postponed, before the pair cancelled the engagement in late 2019.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://jfwonline.com/article/i-was-mentally-and-physically-harassed-sanam-shetty-lodges-a-police-complaint-against-tharshan/ |title=I was Mentally and Physically Harassed: Sanam Shetty Lodges A Police Complaint Against Tharshan! |date=1 February 2020 |work=Just for Women |via=jfwonline.com}}</ref> Sanam later filed a police complaint against Tharshan for his misuse of her funds.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.sify.com/movies/sanam-shetty-files-police-complaint-against-bigg-boss--tharshan-news-tamil-ucdes6djbchej.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200203070038/https://www.sify.com/movies/sanam-shetty-files-police-complaint-against-bigg-boss--tharshan-news-tamil-ucdes6djbchej.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 February 2020 |title=Sanam Shetty files police complaint against 'Bigg Boss' Tharshan! |date=3 February 2020 |website=Sify}}</ref>

==Filmography==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Films
|- style="background:#ccc; text-align:center;"
! Year !! Film !! Role(s) !! Language(s) !! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2012 || ''[[Ambuli]]'' || Poongavanam || [[Tamil language|Tamil]] ||
|-
| ''[[Cinema Company]]'' || Deepika || [[Malayalam]] ||
|-
| rowspan="3" | 2013 || ''[[Maayai]]'' || Jenny || Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Ravu]]'' || Sanjana || rowspan="2" | Malayalam ||
|-
| ''[[Daivathinte Swantham Cleetus]]'' || Anna ||
|-
|2014
| ''[[Vilaasam]]'' || Abhi
| rowspan="2" |Tamil||
|-
| rowspan="5" |2015 || ''[[Katham Katham]]'' || Madhu ||
|-
| ''[[Srimanthudu]]'' || Meghana || rowspan="2" | [[Telugu language|Telugu]] ||
|-
| ''[[Singam 123]]''|| Chandini ||
|-
| ''[[Kalai Vendhan]]'' || Malar || rowspan="3" | Tamil ||
|-
|''[[Vellaiya Irukiravan Poi Solla Maatan]]'' ||Aruna ||
|-
|rowspan="4" | 2016 || ''[[Sawaari (2016 film)|Sawaari]]'' || Jeni||
|-
| ''[[Premikudu (2016 film)|Premikudu]]'' || Krishna || Telugu ||
|-
| ''[[Thagadu]]'' || Indhumathi || rowspan="3" | Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Sadhuram 2]]'' ||Preethi ||
|-
| 2017 || ''[[Ticket (2017 film)|Ticket]]'' || Ria||
|-
| 2018 || ''[[Atharva (2018 film)|Atharva]]'' || Rachita || [[Kannada]] ||
|-
| 2020 || ''[[Walter (2020 film)|Walter]]'' || Narmadha Pramod || rowspan="4" | Tamil ||Cameo appearance
|-
| 2021 || ''[[Oomai Sennaai]]'' || Amudha ||
|-
|2022
| ''[[Maha (film)|Maha]]''|| Riya ||Cameo appearance<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 September 2019 |title=Sanam Shetty joins Jameel's Maha with Hansika ft. Simbu |url=https://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies-cinema-news-16/sanam-shetty-joins-jameels-maha-with-hansika-ft-simbu.html |access-date=9 April 2021 |website=behindwoods.com}}</ref>
|-
|TBA
| style="background:#FFFFCC;" | ''Ethir Vinaiyatru'' {{Dagger}}|| {{TBA}} || Post-production<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/sanam-shettys-film-team-gifts-her-with-a-trailer-for-her-birthday/articleshow/79198791.cms |title=Sanam Shetty's film team gifts her with a trailer for her birthday |date=12 November 2020 |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref>
|}

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Television
|- style="background:#ccc; text-align:center;"
! Year !! Title !! Role !! Channel !! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| 2018 || ''[[Villa To Village]]'' || rowspan="2" | Contestant || rowspan="3" | [[Star Vijay]] ||
|-
| 2020–2021 || ''[[Bigg Boss (Tamil season 4)|Bigg Boss Tamil Season 4]]''|| Evicted Day 63
|-
| rowspan="2"|2021
|''Bigg Boss Season 4 Kondattam''
|Guest
|Special Show
|-
| ''[[Kuruthi Kalam]]'' || Maha Lakshmi (Maha) || [[MX Player]] ||<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.nakkheeran.in/cinema/cinema-news/kuruthi-kalam-gonna-release-soon |script-title=ta:சென்னையின் பின்புல குற்றவாளிகளைத் தோலுரிக்கும் 'குருதிக்களம்' |language=ta |trans-title='Blood field' to skin criminals behind Chennai |date=20 January 2021 |website=nakkheeran}}</ref>
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb name|id=4317930}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shetty, Sanam}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Place of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian actresses]]
[[Category:Actresses from Bengaluru]]
[[Category:Actresses in Kannada cinema]]
[[Category:Actresses in Malayalam cinema]]
[[Category:Actresses in Tamil cinema]]
[[Category:Actresses in Telugu cinema]]
[[Category:Indian film actresses]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Actresses in Tamil television]]
[[Category:Participants in Indian reality television series]]

Religion

2026-03-21T17:04:17Z

IgnacioElem3: small adjusted layout per sources and cleaned formatting for accuracy

{{Short description|Social-cultural system}}
{{hatnote group|
{{about|a cultural system of behaviors, practices and ethics|other uses}}
{{redirect|Religious|the term describing a type of monk or nun|Religious (Western Christianity)||}}
{{distinguish|Religious denomination}}
}}
{{pp|small=yes}}
{{if mobile|tag=div|
[[File:16 religionist symbols.png|thumb|Religious symbols from left to right, top to bottom: [[Christianity]], [[Islam]], [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Judaism]], the [[Baháʼí Faith]], [[Eckankar]], [[Sikhism]], [[Jainism]], [[Wicca]], [[Unitarian Universalism]], [[Shinto]], [[Taoism]], [[Thelema]], [[Tenrikyo]], and [[Zoroastrianism]]]]|
{{Religion sidebar}}
{{Spirituality sidebar|expanded=religion}}
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2022}}{{CS1 config|mode=cs1}}
'''Religion''' is a range of [[social system|social]]-[[cultural system]]s, including designated [[religious behaviour|behaviors]] and practices, [[Ethics in religion|ethics]], [[morals]], [[belief]]s, [[worldview]]s, [[religious text|texts]], [[sanctified places]], [[prophecies]], or [[religious organization|organizations]], that generally relate humanity to [[supernatural]], [[transcendence (religion)|transcendental]], and [[spirituality|spiritual]] elements<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/religion|title=Religion – Definition of Religion by Merriam-Webster|access-date=16 December 2019|archive-date=12 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210312024948/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/religion|url-status=live}}</ref>—although there is no scholarly consensus over what precisely constitutes a religion.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Morreall |first1=John |last2=Sonn |first2=Tamara |title=50 Great Myths of Religion |chapter=Myth 1: All Societies Have Religions |date=2013 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons|Wiley]]-Blackwell|isbn=978-0-470-67350-8 |pages=12–17}}</ref><ref name="Nongbri" /> It is an [[essentially contested concept]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Astor |first1=Avi |title=Religion and its Modifiers: Making Sense of the Definition and Subtypification of a Contested Concept |journal=Theory and Society |date=1 March 2022 |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=213–232 |doi=10.1007/s11186-021-09447-z |language=en |issn=1573-7853}}</ref> Different religions may or may not contain various elements ranging from the [[divine]],{{sfn|James|1902|p=31}} [[sacredness]],{{sfn|Durkheim|1915|p=}} [[faith]],<ref name="Tillich, P. 1957 p.1">Tillich, P. (1957) ''Dynamics of faith''. Harper Perennial; (p. 1).</ref> and a supernatural being or beings.<ref name="vergote" />

The origin of religious belief is an open question, with possible explanations including awareness of individual death, a sense of community, and dreams.<ref name=Zeigler/> Religions have [[sacred histories]], [[narrative]]s, and [[mythologies]], preserved in oral traditions, [[sacred texts]], [[Religious symbol|symbols]], and [[holy places]], that may attempt to explain the [[origin of life]], the [[religious cosmology|universe]], and other phenomena. Religious practice may include [[ritual]]s, [[sermon]]s, commemoration or veneration (of [[deities]] or [[saint]]s), [[sacrifice]]s, [[Religious festival|festivals]], [[feast]]s, [[trance]]s, [[initiation]]s, [[matrimonial]] and [[funerary]] services, [[meditation]], [[prayer]], [[Religious music|music]], [[Religious art|art]], [[Religious dance|dance]], or [[public service]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Worldmark encyclopedia of religious practices |date=2015 |publisher=Gale, Cengage Learning |isbn=978-1-4144-9870-6 |editor-last=Riggs |editor-first=Thomas |location=Farmington Hills, Mich}}</ref>

There are an estimated 10,000 distinct religions worldwide,<ref>{{cite book |author1= African Studies Association|author2=University of Michigan|title=History in Africa |date=2005 |page=119 |volume= 32}}</ref> though nearly all of them have regionally based, relatively small followings. Four religions—[[Christianity]], [[Islam]], [[Hinduism]], and [[Buddhism]]—account for over 77% of the world's population, and 92% of the world either follows one of those four religions or identifies as [[nonreligious]],<ref name="EB2012">{{cite web |url=https://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-exec/ |title=The Global Religious Landscape |access-date=18 December 2012 |date=18 December 2012 |archive-date=19 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130719060225/http://www.pewforum.org/global-religious-landscape.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref> meaning that the vast majority of remaining religions account for only 8% of the population combined. The religiously unaffiliated demographic includes those who do not identify with any particular religion, [[atheists]], and [[agnostics]], although many in the demographic still have various religious beliefs.<ref name="Pew Global Unaffiliated 12/2012">{{cite web |date=18 December 2012 |title=Religiously Unaffiliated |url=https://www.pewforum.org/global-religious-landscape-unaffiliated.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130730043126/http://www.pewforum.org/global-religious-landscape-unaffiliated.aspx |archive-date=30 July 2013 |access-date=16 February 2022 |work=The Global Religious Landscape |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]: Religion & Public Life |quote=The religiously unaffiliated include atheists, agnostics and people who do not identify with any particular religion in surveys. However, many of the religiously unaffiliated have some religious beliefs.}}</ref> Many [[world religions]] are also [[organized religion]]s, most definitively including the [[Abrahamic religions]] Christianity, Islam, [[Judaism]], and the [[Baháʼí Faith]], while others are arguably less so, in particular [[folk religion]]s, [[indigenous religion]]s, and some [[Eastern religions]]. A portion of the world's population are members of [[new religious movement]]s.<ref name="barker1999">[[Eileen Barker]], 1999, "New Religious Movements: their incidence and significance", ''New Religious Movements: challenge and response'', Bryan Wilson and Jamie Cresswell editors, [[Routledge]] {{ISBN|0-415-20050-4}}</ref> Scholars have indicated that [[Desecularization|global religiosity may be increasing]] due to religious countries having generally higher birth rates.<ref name="CambridgeZuckerman">{{cite book |last=Zuckerman |first=Phil |title=The Cambridge Companion to Atheism |date=2006 |isbn=978-1-13900-118-2|editor1-last=Martin |editor1-first=Michael |pages=47–66 |chapter=3 – Atheism: Contemporary Numbers and Patterns |doi=10.1017/CCOL0521842700.004}}</ref>

The [[study of religion]] comprises a wide variety of academic disciplines, including [[theology]], [[philosophy of religion]], [[comparative religion]], and social scientific studies. [[Theories about religion]] offer various explanations for its origins and workings, including the [[ontological]] foundations of religious [[being]] and belief.<ref>{{cite book | year= 2018 | last1= James | first1= Paul | author-link1= Paul James (academic) | chapter= What Does It Mean Ontologically to Be Religious? | title= Religion in a Secular Age: The Struggle for Meaning in an Abstracted World | editor= Stephen Ames | editor2= Ian Barns | editor3= John Hinkson | editor4= Paul James | editor5= Gordon Preece | editor6= Geoff Sharp | chapter-url= https://www.academia.edu/37278937 | publisher= Arena Publications | pages= 56–100 | access-date= 23 August 2018 | archive-date= 14 December 2021 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20211214151335/https://www.academia.edu/37278937 | url-status= live }}</ref>

==Etymology and history of the concept of "religion"==
[[File:Sakyamuni, Lao Tzu, and Confucius - Google Art ProjectFXD.jpg|thumb|The [[Buddha]], [[Laozi]], and [[Confucius]] – founders of [[Buddhism]], [[Taoism]] (Daoism) and [[Confucianism]] – in a [[Ming dynasty]] painting]]

===Etymology===
{{See also|History of religion}}

The term ''religion'' comes from both [[Old French]] and [[Anglo-Norman language|Anglo-Norman]] (1200s [[Common Era|CE]]) and means respect for sense of right, moral obligation, sanctity, what is sacred, reverence for the gods.<ref>{{OEtymD|religion}}</ref><ref>"Religion" Oxford English Dictionary https://www.oed.com/viewdictionaryentry/Entry/161944 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211003070115/https://www.oed.com/viewdictionaryentry/Entry/161944 |date=3 October 2021 }}</ref> It is ultimately derived from the [[Latin]] word {{lang|la|[[religio|religiō]]}}. According to Roman philosopher [[Cicero]], {{lang|la|religiō}} comes from {{lang|la|relegere}}: {{lang|la|re}} (meaning 'again') + {{lang|la|lego}} (meaning 'read'), where {{lang|la|lego}} is in the sense of 'go over', 'choose', or 'consider carefully'. Contrarily, some modern scholars such as [[Tom Harpur]] and [[Joseph Campbell]] have argued that {{lang|la|religiō}} is derived from {{lang|la|religare}}: {{lang|la|re}} (meaning 'again') + {{lang|la|ligare}} ('bind' or 'connect'), which was made prominent by [[Augustine of Hippo|St. Augustine]] following the interpretation given by [[Lactantius]] in {{lang|la|Divinae institutiones}}, IV, 28.<ref>In ''The Pagan Christ: Recovering the Lost Light.'' Toronto. Thomas Allen, 2004. {{ISBN|0-88762-145-7}}</ref><ref>In ''[[The Power of Myth]],'' with Bill Moyers, ed. Betty Sue Flowers, New York, Anchor Books, 1991. {{ISBN|0-385-41886-8}}</ref> The medieval usage alternates with ''order'' in designating bonded communities like those of [[monastic orders]]: "we hear of the 'religion' of the [[Order of the Golden Fleece|Golden Fleece]], of a knight 'of the [[Order of Aviz|religion of Avys]]'."<ref name="Huizinga Middle">{{cite book |last1=Huizinga |first1=Johan |title=The Waning of the Middle Ages |date=1924 |publisher=Penguin Books |page=86|title-link=The Autumn of the Middle Ages }}</ref>

==== {{lang|la|Religiō}} ====
{{Main|Religio}}
In classic antiquity, {{lang|la|religiō}} broadly meant [[conscientiousness]], sense of [[righteousness|right]], moral [[obligation]], or [[duty]] to anything.<ref>{{cite web |title=Religio |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0060%3Aentry%3Dreligio |website=Latin Word Study Tool |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=21 February 2021 |archive-date=24 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224155206/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0060%3Aentry%3Dreligio |url-status=live }}</ref> In the ancient and medieval world, the etymological Latin root {{lang|la|religiō}} was understood as an individual virtue of [[worship]] in mundane contexts; never as [[doctrine]], practice, or actual source of [[knowledge]].<ref name="Harrison Territories" /><ref name="Roberts Jon">{{cite book|last1=Roberts|first1=Jon|editor1-last=Shank|editor1-first=Michael|editor2-last=Numbers|editor2-first=Ronald|editor3-last=Harrison|editor3-first=Peter|title=Wrestling with Nature: From Omens to Science|date=2011|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|isbn=978-0-226-31783-0|page=254|chapter=10. Science and Religion}}</ref> In general, {{lang|la|religiō}} referred to broad social obligations towards anything including family, neighbors, rulers, and even towards [[God]].<ref name="50 great" /> {{lang|la|Religiō}} was most often used by the [[ancient Romans]] not in the context of a relation towards gods, but as a range of general emotions which arose from heightened attention in any mundane context such as [[hesitation]], caution, [[anxiety]], or [[fear]], as well as feelings of being bound, restricted, or inhibited.<ref name="religio roman">{{cite book |last1=Barton |first1=Carlin |last2=Boyarin |first2=Daniel |title=Imagine No Religion : How Modern Abstractions Hide Ancient Realities |date=2016 |publisher=Fordham University Press |isbn=978-0-8232-7120-7 |chapter=1. 'Religio' without "Religion" |pages=15–38}}</ref> The term was also closely related to other terms like {{lang|la|scrupulus}} (which meant "very precisely"), and some Roman authors related the term {{lang|la|superstitio}} (which meant too much fear or anxiety or shame) to {{lang|la|religiō}} at times.<ref name="religio roman" /> When {{lang|la|religiō}} came into [[English language|English]] around the 1200s as religion, it took the meaning of "life bound by monastic vows" or monastic orders.<ref name="Huizinga Middle" /><ref name="50 great" /> The compartmentalized concept of religion, where religious and [[worldly]] things were separated, was not used before the 1500s.<ref name="50 great" /> The concept of religion was first used in the 1500s to distinguish the domain of the [[Catholic Church|church]] and the domain of [[civil authorities]]; the [[Peace of Augsburg]] marks such an instance,<ref name="50 great">{{cite book |last1=Morreall |first1=John |last2=Sonn |first2=Tamara |title=50 Great Myths about Religions |date=2013 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |isbn=978-0-470-67350-8 |pages=12–17 |chapter=Myth 1: All Societies Have Religions }}</ref> which has been described by [[Christian Reus-Smit]] as "the first step on the road toward a European system of [[sovereign state]]s."<ref>{{cite journal |last=Reus-Smit |first=Christian |date=April 2011 |title=Struggles for Individual Rights and the Expansion of the International System |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-organization/article/abs/struggles-for-individual-rights-and-the-expansion-of-the-international-system/9D4AB3695056FA85DCDE1D90D3C551B3 |journal=International Organization |language=en |volume=65 |issue=2 |pages=207–242 |doi=10.1017/S0020818311000038 |s2cid=145668420 |issn=1531-5088 |archive-date=25 September 2022 |access-date=6 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220925085215/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-organization/article/abs/struggles-for-individual-rights-and-the-expansion-of-the-international-system/9D4AB3695056FA85DCDE1D90D3C551B3 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Roman general [[Julius Caesar]] used {{lang|la|religiō}} to mean 'obligation of an oath' when discussing captured soldiers making an oath to their captors.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Caesar |first1=Julius |translator-last1=McDevitte |translator-first1=W.A. |translator-first2=W.S. |translator-last2=Bohn |title=The Works of Julius Caesar: Parallel English and Latin |date=2007 |publisher=Forgotten Books |isbn=978-1-60506-355-3 |pages=377–378 |chapter=Civil Wars – Book 1|quote={{native name|la|Sic terror oblatus a ducibus, crudelitas in supplicio, nova religio iurisiurandi spem praesentis deditionis sustulit mentesque militum convertit et rem ad pristinam belli rationem redegit.}} – "Thus the terror raised by the generals, the cruelty and punishments, the new obligation of an oath, removed all hopes of surrender for the present, changed the soldiers' minds, and reduced matters to the former state of war." )}}</ref> Roman naturalist [[Pliny the Elder]] used the term {{lang|la|religiō}} to describe the apparent respect given by elephants to the [[night sky]].<ref>{{cite book |author1=Pliny the Elder |chapter=Elephants; Their Capacity |title=The Natural History, Book VIII |chapter-url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137%3Abook%3D8%3Achapter%3D1 |publisher=Tufts University |language=en |quote={{lang|la|maximum est elephans proximumque humanis sensibus, quippe intellectus illis sermonis patrii et imperiorum obedientia, officiorum quae didicere memoria, amoris et gloriae voluptas, immo vero, quae etiam in homine rara, probitas, prudentia, aequitas, religio quoque siderum solisque ac lunae veneratio."}} – "The elephant is the largest of them all, and in intelligence approaches the nearest to man. It understands the language of its country, it obeys commands, and it remembers all the duties which it has been taught. It is sensible alike of the pleasures of love and glory, and, to a degree that is rare among men even, possesses notions of honesty, prudence, and equity; it has a religious respect also for the stars, and a veneration for the sun and the moon." |access-date=21 February 2021 |archive-date=7 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210507142052/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137%3Abook%3D8%3Achapter%3D1 |url-status=live }}</ref> Cicero used {{lang|la|religiō}} as being related to {{lang|la|cultum deorum}} (worship of the gods).<ref>Cicero, ''De natura deorum'' Book II, Section 8.</ref>

==== {{transliteration|grc|Threskeia}} ====
In [[Ancient Greece]], the Greek term {{transliteration|grc|threskeia}} ({{lang|grc|θρησκεία}}) was loosely translated into Latin as {{lang|la|religiō}} in [[late antiquity]]. {{transliteration|grc|Threskeia}} was sparsely used in classical Greece but became more frequently used in the writings of [[Josephus]] in the 1st century CE. It was used in mundane contexts and could mean multiple things from respectful fear to excessive or harmfully distracting practices of others, to cultic practices. It was often contrasted with the Greek word {{transliteration|grc|deisidaimonia}}, which meant too much fear.<ref name="threskeia greece">{{cite book |last1=Barton |first1=Carlin |last2=Boyarin |first2=Daniel |title=Imagine No Religion : How Modern Abstractions Hide Ancient Realities |date=2016 |publisher=Fordham University Press |isbn=978-0-8232-7120-7 |chapter=8. Imagine No 'Threskeia': The Task of the Untranslator |pages=123–134}}</ref>

===History of the concept of "religion"===
{{For timeline|Timeline of religion}}

Religion is a modern concept<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pasquier |first1=Michael |title=Religion in America: The Basics |date=2023 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0367691806 |pages=2–3 |quote=Religion is a modern concept. It is an idea with a history that developed, most scholars would agree, out of the social and cultural disruptions of Renaissance and Reformation Europe. From the fourteenth to the seventeenth century, at a time of unprecedented political transformation and scientific innovation, it became possible for people to differentiate between things religious and things not religious. Such a dualistic understanding of the world was simply not available in such clear terms to ancient and medieval Europeans, to say nothing of people from the continents of North America, South America, Africa, and Asia.}}</ref> and not a universal concept across history, cultures or languages.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nongbri |first1=Brent |title=Before Religion: A History of a Modern Concept |chapter=2. Lost in Translation: Inserting "Religion" into Ancient Texts |date=2013 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-15416-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Morreall|first1=John|last2=Sonn|first2=Tamara|title=50 Great Myths about Religions|date=2013|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=978-0-470-67350-8|page=13|quote=Many languages do not even have a word equivalent to our word 'religion'; nor is such a word found in either the Bible or the Qur'an.}}</ref> The concept was invented recently in the English language and is found in texts from the 17th century due to events such as the splitting of [[Christendom]] during the [[Protestant Reformation]] and [[globalization]] in the [[Age of Exploration]], which involved contact with numerous foreign cultures with non-European languages.<ref name="Harrison Territories">{{cite book |last1=Harrison |first1=Peter |title=The Territories of Science and Religion |date=2015 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-18448-7}}</ref><ref name="Roberts Jon" /><ref name="Religion enlightenment">{{cite book|last1=Harrison|first1=Peter|title='Religion' and the Religions in the English Enlightenment|date=1990|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-89293-3}}</ref> Some argue that regardless of its definition, it is not appropriate to apply the term religion to non-Western cultures,<ref name=dubuisson>{{cite book|first1=Daniel|last1=Dubuisson|title=The Western Construction of Religion: Myths, Knowledge, and Ideology|date=2007|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|location=Baltimore, Md.|isbn=978-0-8018-8756-7}}</ref><ref name="Fitzgerald" /> while some followers of various faiths rebuke using the word to describe their own belief system.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Wilfred Cantwell |url=https://archive.org/details/meaningendofre00smit/page/125/mode/2up |title=The Meaning and End of Religion |publisher=MacMillan |year=1963 |location=New York |pages=125–126 |author-link1=Wilfred Cantwell Smith}}</ref>

The concept of "ancient religion" stems from modern interpretations of a range of practices that conform to a modern concept of religion, influenced by early modern and 19th century Christian discourse.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rüpke |first1=Jörg |title=Religion: Antiquity and its Legacy |date=2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780195380774 |pages=7–8| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q-cwmAEACAAJ}}</ref> The concept of religion was formed in the 16th and 17th centuries,<ref name=Nongbri1>{{cite book |last1=Nongbri |first1=Brent |title=Before Religion: A History of a Modern Concept|page=152 |quote=Although the Greeks, Romans, Mesopotamians, and many other peoples have long histories, the stories of their respective religions are of recent pedigree. The formation of ancient religions as objects of study coincided with the formation of religion itself as a concept of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.|date=2013 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-15416-0}}</ref><ref name="Religion enlightenment1">{{cite book|last1=Harrison|first1=Peter|title='Religion' and the Religions in the English Enlightenment|url=https://archive.org/details/religionreligion00harr|url-access=limited|date=1990|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|page=[https://archive.org/details/religionreligion00harr/page/n11 1]|isbn=978-0-521-89293-3|quote=That there exist in the world such entities as 'the religions' is an uncontroversial claim...However, it was not always so. The concepts 'religion' and 'the religions', as we presently understand them, emerged quite late in Western thought, during the Enlightenment. Between them, these two notions provided a new framework for classifying particular aspects of human life.}}</ref> despite the fact that ancient sacred texts like the [[Bible]], the [[Quran]], and others did not have a word or even a concept of religion in the original languages and neither did the people or the cultures in which these sacred texts were written.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nongbri |first1=Brent |title=Before Religion: A History of a Modern Concept |chapter=2. Lost in Translation: Inserting "Religion" into Ancient Texts |date=2013 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-15416-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Morreall|first1=John|last2=Sonn|first2=Tamara|title=50 Great Myths about Religions|date=2013|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=978-0-470-67350-8|page=13|quote=Many languages do not even have a word equivalent to our word 'religion'; nor is such a word found in either the Bible or the Qur'an.}}</ref><ref name="Enc Qur" /> For example, there is no precise equivalent of religion in Hebrew, and [[Judaism]] does not distinguish clearly between religious, national, racial, or ethnic identities.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Pluralism Project, Harvard University |title=Judaism - Introductory Profiles |date=2015 |publisher=Harvard University |page=2 |url=https://rpl.hds.harvard.edu/files/rpl/files/judaism_pluralism_project_harvard_university_religious_literacy_project_harvard_divinity_school_march_24_2015.pdf?m=1660591091#:~:text=In%20the%20English%2Dspeaking%20Western,and%20practices%20associated%20with%20a |quote=In the English-speaking Western world, "Judaism" is often considered a "religion," but there are no equivalent words for "Judaism" or for "religion" in Hebrew; there are words for "faith," "law," or "custom" but not for "religion" if one thinks of the term as meaning solely the beliefs and practices associated with a relationship with God or a vision of transcendence. |archive-date=28 October 2023 |access-date=28 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231028181906/https://rpl.hds.harvard.edu/files/rpl/files/judaism_pluralism_project_harvard_university_religious_literacy_project_harvard_divinity_school_march_24_2015.pdf?m=1660591091#:~:text=In%20the%20English%2Dspeaking%20Western,and%20practices%20associated%20with%20a |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=God, Torah, and Israel |url=https://pluralism.org/god-torah-and-israel |website=Pluralism Project - Judaism |publisher=Harvard University |language=en |access-date=28 October 2023 |archive-date=28 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231028182713/https://pluralism.org/god-torah-and-israel |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Hershel Edelheit, Abraham J. Edelheit, [https://www.questia.com/library/book/history-of-zionism-a-handbook-and-dictionary-by-abfaham-j-edelheit-hershel-edelheit.jsp History of Zionism: A Handbook and Dictionary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110624015852/http://www.questia.com/library/book/history-of-zionism-a-handbook-and-dictionary-by-abfaham-j-edelheit-hershel-edelheit.jsp|date=24 June 2011}}, p. 3, citing [[Solomon Zeitlin]], ''The Jews. Race, Nation, or Religion?'' (Philadelphia: Dropsie College Press, 1936).</ref> One of its central concepts is {{transliteration|he|[[halakha]]}}, meaning the walk or path sometimes translated as law, which guides religious practice and belief and many aspects of daily life.<ref name="WhitefordII2008">{{cite book |last1=Whiteford |first1=Linda M. |last2=Trotter II |first2=Robert T. |title=Ethics for Anthropological Research and Practice |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZeokAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA22 |year=2008 |publisher=Waveland Press |isbn=978-1-4786-1059-5 |page=22 |access-date=28 November 2015 |archive-date=10 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610090106/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZeokAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA22 |url-status=live }}</ref> Even though the beliefs and traditions of Judaism are found in the ancient world, ancient Jews saw [[Jewish identity]] as being about an ethnic or national identity and did not entail a compulsory belief system or regulated rituals.<ref name="Burns Jewish">{{cite book|last1=Burns|first1=Joshua Ezra|editor1-last=Omar|editor1-first=Irfan|editor2-last=Duffey|editor2-first=Michael|title=Peacemaking and the Challenge of Violence in World Religions|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=978-1-118-95342-6|chapter=3. Jewish ideologies of Peace and Peacemaking|pages=86–87|date= 2015}}</ref> In the 1st century CE, Josephus had used the Greek term {{transliteration|grc|ioudaismos}} (Judaism) as an ethnic term and was not linked to modern abstract concepts of religion or a set of beliefs.<ref name=Nongbri /> The very concept of "Judaism" was invented by the [[Christian Church]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Boyarin |first1=Daniel |title=Judaism: The Genealogy of a Modern Notion |date=2019 |publisher=Rutgers University Press |isbn=978-0-8135-7161-4}}</ref> and it was in the 19th century that Jews began to see their ancestral culture as a religion analogous to Christianity.<ref name="Burns Jewish" /> The Greek word {{transliteration|grc|threskeia}}, which was used by Greek writers such as [[Herodotus]] and Josephus, is found in the [[New Testament]]. {{transliteration|grc|Threskeia}} is sometimes translated as "religion" in today's translations, but the term was understood as generic "worship" well into the [[medieval period]].<ref name=Nongbri>{{cite book |last1=Nongbri |first1=Brent |title=Before Religion: A History of a Modern Concept |date=2013 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-15416-0}}</ref> In the Quran, the [[Arabic]] word {{transliteration|ar|[[Din (Arabic)|din]]}} is often translated as religion in modern translations, but up to the mid-1600s translators expressed {{transliteration|ar|din}} as "law."<ref name=Nongbri /> According to the Encyclopaedia of the Qur'ān, prior to the 20th century, "English word “religion” had no direct equivalent in Arabic nor had the Arabic word dīn in English".<ref name="Enc Qur">{{cite web |title=Religion |url=https://referenceworks.brill.com/display/entries/EQO/EQCOM-00170.xml |website=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'ān |publisher=Brill |access-date=21 March 2026 |quote=Prior to the twentieth century, the English word “religion” had no direct equivalent in Arabic nor had the Arabic word dīn in English. They became partially synonymous only in the course of the twentieth century as a result of increased English-Arabic encounters and the need for consistency in translation (see translations of the qurʾān ).}}</ref>

The [[Sanskrit]] word [[dharma]], sometimes translated as religion,<ref name="14.1A: The Nature of Religion">{{cite web |title=14.1A: The Nature of Religion |url=https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Sociology/Book%3A_Sociology_(Boundless)/14%3A_Religion/14.01%3A_The_Nature_of_Religion/14.1A%3A_The_Nature_of_Religion#:~:text=For%20example%2C%20the%20Sanskrit%20word,and%20ceremonial%20and%20practical%20traditions.&text=Some%20religions%20place%20an%20emphasis%20on%20belief%20while%20others%20emphasize%20practice. |website=Social Sci LibreTexts |access-date=10 January 2021 |language=en |date=15 August 2018 |archive-date=12 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112070302/https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Sociology/Book:_Sociology_(Boundless)/14:_Religion/14.01:_The_Nature_of_Religion/14.1A:_The_Nature_of_Religion#:~:text=For%20example%2C%20the%20Sanskrit%20word,and%20ceremonial%20and%20practical%20traditions.&text=Some%20religions%20place%20an%20emphasis%20on%20belief%20while%20others%20emphasize%20practice. |url-status=live }}</ref> also means law. Throughout classical [[South Asia]], the [[Dharmaśāstra|study of law]] consisted of concepts such as [[Prāyaścitta|penance through piety]] and [[Ācāra|ceremonial as well as practical traditions]]. Medieval Japan at first had a similar union between imperial law and universal or Buddha law, but these later became independent sources of power.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Toshio |last=Kuroda |author-link=Toshio Kuroda (Shinto professor)|translator1-link=Jacqueline Stone |translator=Jacqueline I. Stone |url=https://www.nanzan-u.ac.jp/SHUBUNKEN/publications/jjrs/pdf/477.pdf |title=The Imperial Law and the Buddhist Law |access-date=28 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030323095019/https://www.nanzan-u.ac.jp/SHUBUNKEN/publications/jjrs/pdf/477.pdf |archive-date=23 March 2003 |journal=Japanese Journal of Religious Studies |pages= 23.3–4 |date=1996}}</ref><ref>Neil McMullin. ''Buddhism and the State in Sixteenth-Century Japan''. Princeton, N.J. : Princeton University Press, 1984.</ref>

Though traditions, sacred texts, and practices have existed throughout time, most cultures did not align with Western conceptions of religion since they did not separate everyday life from the sacred. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the terms Buddhism, Hinduism, Taoism, Confucianism, and [[world religions]] first entered the English language.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Harrison |first1=Peter |title=The Territories of Science and Religion |date=2015|page=101 |quote=The first recorded use of "Boudhism" was 1801, followed by "Hindooism" (1829), "Taouism" (1838), and "Confucianism" (1862) (see figure 6). By the middle of the nineteenth century these terms had secured their place in the English lexicon, and the putative objects to which they referred became permanent features of our understanding of the world. |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-18448-7}}</ref><ref name="Josephson 2">{{cite book |last1=Josephson |first1=Jason Ananda |title=The Invention of Religion in Japan |date=2012 |page=12|quote=The early nineteenth century saw the emergence of much of this terminology, including the formation of the terms Boudhism (1801), Hindooism (1829), Taouism (1839), Zoroastri-anism (1854), and Confucianism (1862). This construction of "religions" was not merely the production of European translation terms, but the reification of systems of thought in a way strikingly divorced from their original cultural milieu. The original discovery of religions in different cultures was rooted in the assumption that each people had its own divine "revelation," or at least its own parallel to Christianity. In the same period, however, European and American explorers often suggested that specific African or Native American tribes lacked religion altogether. Instead these groups were reputed to have only superstitions and as such they were seen as less than human.|publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-41234-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Morreall|first1=John|last2=Sonn|first2=Tamara|title=50 Great Myths about Religions|date=2013|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=978-0-470-67350-8|page=12|quote=The phrase "World Religions" came into use when the first Parliament of the World's Religions was held in Chicago in 1893. Representation at the Parliament was not comprehensive. Naturally, Christians dominated the meeting, and Jews were represented. Muslims were represented by a single American Muslim. The enormously diverse traditions of India were represented by a single teacher, while three teachers represented the arguably more homogenous strains of Buddhist thought. The indigenous religions of the Americas and Africa were not represented. Nevertheless, since the convening of the Parliament, Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism have been commonly identified as World Religions. They are sometimes called the "Big Seven" in Religious Studies textbooks, and many generalizations about religion have been derived from them.}}</ref> Native Americans were also thought of as not having religions and also had no word for religion in their languages either.<ref name="Josephson 2" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rhodes |first1=John |title=An American Tradition: The Religious Persecution of Native Americans |journal=Montana Law Review |date=January 1991 |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=13–72 |quote=In their traditional languages, Native Americans have no word for religion. This absence is very revealing.}}</ref> No one self-identified as a Hindu or Buddhist or other similar terms before the 1800s.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Morreall|first1=John|last2=Sonn|first2=Tamara|title=50 Great Myths about Religions|date=2013|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=978-0-470-67350-8|page=14|quote=Before the British colonized India, for example, the people there had no concept "religion" and no concept "Hinduism." There was no word "Hindu" in classical India, and no one spoke of "Hinduism" until the 1800s. Until the introduction of that term, Indians identified themselves by any number of criteria—family, trade or profession, or social level, and perhaps the scriptures they followed or the particular deity or deities upon whose care they relied in various contexts or to whom they were devoted. But these diverse identities were united, each an integral part of life; no part existed in a separate sphere identified as "religious." Nor were the diverse traditions lumped together under the term "Hinduism" unified by sharing such common features of religion as a single founder, creed, theology, or institutional organization.}}</ref> "Hindu" has historically been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for people indigenous to the [[Indian subcontinent]].<ref name=brian111>{{citation|last=Pennington|first=Brian K.|title=Was Hinduism Invented?: Britons, Indians, and the Colonial Construction of Religion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7drluePK-acC&pg=PA111|year=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-803729-3|pages=111–118|access-date=5 August 2018|archive-date=17 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217044908/https://books.google.com/books?id=7drluePK-acC&pg=PA111|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Lloyd Ridgeon|title=Major World Religions: From Their Origins to the Present|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HFKBAgAAQBAJ |year= 2003|publisher= Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-42935-6|pages=10–11|quote=It is often said that Hinduism is very ancient, and in a sense this is true ... . It was formed by adding the English suffix -ism, of Greek origin, to the word ''Hindu'', of Persian origin; it was about the same time that the word ''Hindu'', without the suffix -ism, came to be used mainly as a religious term. ... The name ''Hindu'' was first a geographical name, not a religious one, and it originated in the languages of Iran, not of India. ... They referred to the non-Muslim majority, together with their culture, as 'Hindu'. ... Since the people called Hindu differed from Muslims most notably in religion, the word came to have religious implications, and to denote a group of people who were identifiable by their Hindu religion. ... However, it is a religious term that the word ''Hindu'' is now used in English, and Hinduism is the name of a religion, although, as we have seen, we should beware of any false impression of uniformity that this might give us.}}</ref> Throughout its long history, Japan had no concept of religion since there was no corresponding Japanese word, nor anything close to its meaning, but when [[Perry Expedition|American warships appeared off the coast of Japan]] in 1853 and forced the Japanese government to sign treaties demanding, among other things, [[freedom of religion]], the country had to contend with this idea.<ref name="Invention Japan">{{cite book |last1=Josephson |first1=Jason Ananda |title=The Invention of Religion in Japan |date=2012 |pages=1, 11–12 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-41234-4}}</ref><ref name="japan Galen">{{cite book|last1=Zuckerman|first1=Phil|last2=Galen|first2=Luke|last3=Pasquale|first3=Frank|title=The Nonreligious: Understanding Secular People and Societies|date=2016|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-992494-3|pages=39–40|chapter=2. Secularity around the World|quote=It was only in response to Western cultural contact in the late nineteenth century that a Japanese word for religion (shukyo) came into use. It tends to be associated with foreign, founded, or formally organized traditions, particularly Christianity and other monotheisms, but also Buddhism and new religious sects.}}</ref>

According to the [[philologist]] [[Max Müller]] in the 19th century, the root of the English word religion, the Latin {{lang|la|religiō}}, was originally used to mean only reverence for God or the gods, careful pondering of divine things, [[pietas|piety]] (which Cicero further derived to mean diligence).<ref>[[Max Müller]], ''Natural Religion'', p. 33, 1889</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0059%3Aentry%3D%2340976| title = Lewis & Short, ''A Latin Dictionary''| access-date = 21 February 2021| archive-date = 26 February 2021| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210226000346/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0059%3Aentry%3D%2340976| url-status = live}}</ref> Müller characterized many other cultures around the world, including Egypt, Persia, and India, as having a similar power structure at this point in history. What is called ancient religion today, they would have only called law.<ref>{{cite book|author=[[Max Müller]] | title=Introduction to the Science of Religion: Four Lectures Delivered at the Royal Institution with Two Essays on False Analogies, and the Philosophy of Mythology | year=1870 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aM0FAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA28 |page=28 }}</ref>

====History of "nonreligion" and "secular"====

Accordingly, other concepts like the "secular", "nonreligion", and "atheism" have been called into question since they are, like religion, not universal concepts as they are not found in many other cultures.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=G. Alexander |first1=Nathan |title=Rethinking histories of atheism, unbelief, and nonreligion: An interdisciplinary perspective |journal=Global Intellectual History |date=2 January 2021 |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=95–104 |doi=10.1080/23801883.2019.1657640}}</ref> Anthropologically, this is also the case where Western terms and concepts like "religion" and "secular" do not exist in other cultures.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eller |first1=David |title=Varieties of Secular Experience |journal=The Oxford Handbook of Secularism |date=2017 |pages=500–501, 512 |url=https://www.jimmunol.org/edited-volume/28028/chapter-abstract/211860078?redirectedFrom=fulltext |publisher=Oxford University Press|quote=It is commonplace today to note that the term "secular" is of Western origin—and not originally antagonistic to religion ("secular priests" were hardly averse to religion). Frankly, "secular" is not inherently related to religion at all: denoting "of the current age" or "of the present generation," it could apply to any subject...Some societies, as anthropology has discovered, do not even have a term or concept for "religion" and therefore obviously do not have a concept akin to our "secular." For the purposes of the present chapter, they do not have "secular experience" at all, since "the secular"—like religion—is nowhere and everywhere...What investigators can and should do is discover how particular groups, institutions, and societies talk about and practice secularism—if in fact they do at all—rather than to impose a speciously unified concept, derived from one society's experience, on all places and times.}}</ref> Sociologists and demographers have noted that outside the West, concepts of "religion" or "the secular" are not always rooted in local culture and may not even be present.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Nonreligious: Understanding Secular People and Societies|last1=Zuckerman|first1=Phil|author-link1=Phil Zuckerman|last2=Galen|first2=Luke W.|last3=Pasquale|first3=Frank L.|date=24 March 2016|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-992495-0|pages=31–34}}</ref> Other studies indicate that religion and nonreligion are not necessarily mutually exclusive experiences since there is overlap in individuals regular lives.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Blankholm |first1=Joseph |title=The Secular Paradox : On the Religiosity of the Not Religious |date=2022 |publisher=New York University Press |isbn=9781479809509 |location=New York |page=3,8}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fuller |first1=Robert C. |title=Secular Spirituality |journal=The Oxford Handbook of Secularism |date=2017 |pages=571–586 |url=https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/28028/chapter/211861053 |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en}}</ref>

== Definition ==
{{Main|Definition of religion}}

Scholars have failed to agree on a definition of religion. There are, however, two general definition systems: the sociological/functional and the phenomenological/philosophical.<ref>Vgl. Johann Figl: ''Handbuch Religionswissenschaft: Religionen und ihre zentralen Themen.'' Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2003, {{ISBN|3-7022-2508-0}}, S. 65.</ref><ref>Julia Haslinger: ''Die Evolution der Religionen und der Religiosität,'' s. [[#Religionsgeschichte|Literatur Religionsgeschichte]]{{Broken anchor|date=2025-08-02|bot=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration|target_link=#Religionsgeschichte|reason= }}, S. 3–4, 8.</ref><ref>Johann Figl: ''Handbuch Religionswissenschaft: Religionen und ihre zentralen Themen.'' Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2003, {{ISBN|3-7022-2508-0}}, S. 67.</ref><ref>Peter Antes: ''Religion, religionswissenschaftlich.'' In: EKL Bd. 3, Sp. 1543. S. 98.</ref>

=== Modern Western ===
The concept of religion originated in the [[modern era]] in the [[Western culture|West]].<ref name="Fitzgerald">{{cite book|first=Timothy|last=Fitzgerald|title=Discourse on Civility and Barbarity|url=https://archive.org/details/discourseoncivil00fitz|url-access=limited|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2007|pages=[https://archive.org/details/discourseoncivil00fitz/page/n57 45]–46|isbn=978-0-19-530009-3}}</ref> Parallel concepts are not found in many current and past cultures; there is no equivalent term for religion in many languages.<ref name="Nongbri" /><ref name="50 great" /> Scholars have found it difficult to develop a consistent definition, with some giving up on the possibility of a definition.<ref>McKinnon, AM. 2002. [https://aura.abdn.ac.uk/bitstream/2164/3073/1/McKinnon_Definition_of_Religion_author_version_no_format.pdf "Sociological Definitions, Language Games and the 'Essence' of Religion"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304070842/http://aura.abdn.ac.uk/bitstream/2164/3073/1/McKinnon_Definition_of_Religion_author_version_no_format.pdf|date=4 March 2016}}. ''Method & Theory in the Study of Religion'', vol 14, no. 1, pp. 61–83.</ref><ref>Josephson, Jason Ānanda. (2012) ''The Invention of Religion in Japan.'' Chicago: University of Chicago Press, p. 257</ref> Others argue that regardless of its definition, it is not appropriate to apply it to non-Western cultures.<ref name="dubuisson" /><ref name="Fitzgerald" />

An increasing number of scholars have expressed reservations about ever defining the essence of religion.<ref>{{cite journal | last=McKinnon | first=A.M. | date=2002 | title=Sociological definitions, language games, and the 'essence' of religion | journal=Method & Theory in the Study of Religion | volume=14 | issue=1 | issn=0943-3058 | doi=10.1163/157006802760198776 | pages=61–83 | hdl=2164/3073 | url=https://aura.abdn.ac.uk/bitstream/2164/3073/1/McKinnon_Definition_of_Religion_author_version_no_format.pdf | access-date=20 July 2017 | citeseerx=10.1.1.613.6995 | archive-date=4 March 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304070842/http://aura.abdn.ac.uk/bitstream/2164/3073/1/McKinnon_Definition_of_Religion_author_version_no_format.pdf | url-status=live }}</ref> They observe that the way the concept today is used is a particularly modern construct that would not have been understood through much of history and in many cultures outside the West (or even in the West until after the [[Peace of Westphalia]]).<ref>{{cite book |last=Smith |first=Wilfred Cantwell |date=1978 |title=The Meaning and End of Religion |location=New York |publisher=Harper and Row}}</ref> The MacMillan Encyclopedia of Religions states:

{{blockquote|The very attempt to define religion, to find some distinctive or possibly unique essence or set of qualities that distinguish the religious from the remainder of human life, is primarily a Western concern. The attempt is a natural consequence of the Western speculative, intellectualistic, and scientific disposition. It is also the product of the dominant Western religious mode, what is called the Judeo-Christian climate or, more accurately, the theistic inheritance from Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The theistic form of belief in this tradition, even when downgraded culturally, is formative of the [[dichotomy|dichotomous]] Western view of religion. That is, the basic structure of theism is essentially a distinction between a transcendent deity and all else, between the creator and his creation, between God and man.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=King |first=W.L. |date=2005 |article=Religion (First Edition) |editor-link=Mircea Eliade |editor-first=Mircea |editor-last=Eliade |title=The Encyclopedia of Religion |publisher=[[Gale (publisher)|MacMillan Reference US]] |edition=2nd |page=7692}}</ref>}}

The anthropologist [[Clifford Geertz]] defined religion as a:

{{blockquote|... system of symbols which acts to establish powerful, pervasive, and long-lasting moods and motivations in men by formulating conceptions of a general order of existence and clothing these conceptions with such an aura of factuality that the moods and motivations seem uniquely realistic.{{sfn|Geertz|1993|pp=87–125}}}}

Alluding perhaps to Tylor's "deeper motive", Geertz remarked that:
{{blockquote|... we have very little idea of how, in empirical terms, this particular miracle is accomplished. We just know that it is done, annually, weekly, daily, for some people almost hourly; and we have an enormous ethnographic literature to demonstrate it.{{sfn|Geertz|1993|p=90}}}}

The theologian [[Antoine Vergote]] took the term supernatural simply to mean whatever transcends the powers of nature or human agency. He also emphasized the cultural reality of religion, which he defined as:
{{blockquote|... the entirety of the linguistic expressions, emotions and, actions and signs that refer to a supernatural being or supernatural beings.<ref name="vergote">Vergote, A. (1996) ''Religion, Belief and Unbelief. A Psychological Study'', Leuven University Press. (p. 16)</ref>}}

[[Peter Mandaville]] and [[Paul James (academic)|Paul James]] intended to get away from the modernist dualisms or dichotomous understandings of immanence/transcendence, spirituality/materialism, and sacredness/secularity. They define religion as:
{{blockquote|... a relatively-bounded system of beliefs, symbols and practices that addresses the nature of existence, and in which communion with others and Otherness is ''lived'' as if it both takes in and spiritually transcends socially-grounded ontologies of time, space, embodiment and knowing.<ref name="Paul James and Peter Mandaville 2010">{{cite book |last1=James |first1=Paul |last2=Mandaville |first2=Peter |year=2010 |name-list-style=amp |title=Globalization and Culture, Vol. 2: Globalizing Religions |url=https://www.academia.edu/4416072 |publisher=Sage Publications |location=London |access-date=1 May 2014 |archive-date=25 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191225133622/https://www.academia.edu/4416072 |url-status=live }}</ref>}}

According to the ''MacMillan Encyclopedia of Religions'', there is an experiential aspect to religion which can be found in almost every culture:
{{blockquote|... almost every known culture [has] a depth dimension in cultural experiences ... toward some sort of ultimacy and transcendence that will provide norms and power for the rest of life. When more or less distinct patterns of behavior are built around this depth dimension in a culture, this structure constitutes religion in its historically recognizable form. Religion is the organization of life around the depth dimensions of experience—varied in form, completeness, and clarity in accordance with the environing culture.<ref>MacMillan Encyclopedia of religions, ''Religion'', p. 7695</ref>}}

Anthropologists Lyle Steadman and Craig T. Palmer emphasized the communication of supernatural beliefs, defining religion as:
{{blockquote|... the communicated acceptance by individuals of another individual's "supernatural" claim, a claim whose accuracy is not verifiable by the senses.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Steadman |first1=Lyle |last2=Palmer |first2=Craig T. |title=The Supernatural and Natural Selection |date=2008 |publisher=Paradigm |isbn=978-1-59451-565-1 |page=ix |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/291523214}}</ref>}}

=== Classical ===
[[File:Будажап Цыреторов.JPG|thumb|Budazhap Shiretorov (Будажап Цыреторов), the head shaman of the religious community Altan Serge (Алтан Сэргэ) in [[Buryatia]]]]
[[Friedrich Schleiermacher]] in the late 18th century defined religion as ''das schlechthinnige Abhängigkeitsgefühl'', commonly translated as "the feeling of absolute dependence".<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1017/S0034412504007462|title='Feeling of absolute dependence' or 'absolute feeling of dependence'? A question revisited|journal=Religious Studies|volume=41|pages=81–94|year=2005|last1=Finlay|first1=Hueston E.|s2cid=170541390 | issn = 0034-4125 }}</ref>

His contemporary [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] disagreed thoroughly, defining religion as "the Divine Spirit becoming conscious of Himself through the finite spirit."<ref>[[Max Müller]]. "Lectures on the origin and growth of religion."</ref>{{better source needed|date=October 2023}}

[[Edward Burnett Tylor]] defined religion in 1871 as "the belief in spiritual beings".<ref name="archive.org">Tylor, E.B. (1871) ''[https://archive.org/stream/primitiveculture1tylouoft#page/424/mode/2up Primitive Culture: Researches Into the Development of Mythology, Philosophy, Religion, Art, and Custom. Vol. 1]''. London: John Murray; (p. 424).</ref> He argued that narrowing the definition to mean the belief in a supreme deity or judgment after death or [[idolatry]] and so on, would exclude many peoples from the category of religious, and thus "has the fault of identifying religion rather with particular developments than with the deeper motive which underlies them." He also argued that the belief in spiritual beings exists in all known societies.

In his book ''[[The Varieties of Religious Experience]]'', the psychologist [[William James]] defined religion as "the feelings, acts, and experiences of individual men in their solitude, so far as they apprehend themselves to stand in relation to whatever they may consider the divine."{{sfn|James|1902|p=31}} By the term divine James meant "any object that is god''like'', whether it be a concrete deity or not"{{sfn|James|1902|p=34}} to which the individual feels impelled to respond with solemnity and gravity.{{sfn|James|1902|p=38}}

Sociologist [[Émile Durkheim]], in his seminal book ''[[The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life]]'', defined religion as a "unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things".{{sfn|Durkheim|1915|p=}} By sacred things he meant things "set apart and forbidden—beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral community called a Church, all those who adhere to them." [[Sacred|Sacred things]] are not, however, limited to gods or spirits.<ref group=note>That is how, according to Durkheim, Buddhism is a religion. "In default of gods, Buddhism admits the existence of sacred things, namely, the [[Four Noble Truths|four noble truths]] and the practices derived from them" {{harvnb|Durkheim|1915|p=}}</ref> On the contrary, a sacred thing can be "a rock, a tree, a spring, a pebble, a piece of wood, a house, in a word, anything can be sacred."{{sfn|Durkheim|1915|p=37}} Religious beliefs, myths, dogmas and legends are the representations that express the nature of these sacred things, and the virtues and powers which are attributed to them.{{sfn|Durkheim|1915|pp=40–41}}

Echoes of James' and Durkheim's definitions are to be found in the writings of, for example, [[Frederick Ferré]] who defined religion as "one's way of valuing most comprehensively and intensively".<ref>Frederick Ferré, F. (1967) ''Basic modern philosophy of religion''. Scribner, (p. 82).</ref> Similarly, for the theologian [[Paul Tillich]], faith is "the state of being ultimately concerned",<ref name="Tillich, P. 1957 p.1" /> which "is itself religion. Religion is the substance, the ground, and the depth of man's spiritual life."<ref>Tillich, P. (1959) ''Theology of Culture''. Oxford University Press; (p. 8).</ref>

When religion is seen in terms of sacred, divine, intensive valuing, or ultimate concern, then it is possible to understand why scientific findings and philosophical criticisms (e.g., those made by [[Richard Dawkins]]) do not necessarily disturb its adherents.<ref>Pecorino, P.A. (2001) [https://www2.sunysuffolk.edu/pecorip/scccweb/etexts/phil_of_religion_text/CHAPTER_10_DEFINITION/The-Definition-of-Religion.htm ''Philosophy of Religion. Online Textbook''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130619213234/https://www2.sunysuffolk.edu/pecorip/scccweb/etexts/phil_of_religion_text/CHAPTER_10_DEFINITION/The-Definition-of-Religion.htm |date=19 June 2013 }}. Philip A. Pecorino.</ref>

== Aspects ==

=== Beliefs ===
{{Main|Religious beliefs}}

The origin of religious belief is an open question, with possible explanations including awareness of individual death, a sense of community, and dreams.<ref name=Zeigler>{{cite magazine |last=Zeigler |first=David |date=January–February 2020 |title=Religious Belief from Dreams? |magazine=[[Skeptical Inquirer]] |location=Amherst, NY |publisher=[[Center for Inquiry]] |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=51–54}}</ref> Traditionally, [[faith]], in addition to [[reason]], has been considered a source of religious beliefs. The interplay between faith and reason, and their use as perceived support for religious beliefs, have been a subject of interest to philosophers and theologians.<ref name="iep.utm.edu">{{cite web|last=Swindal|first=James|date=April 2010|title=Faith and Reason|url=https://iep.utm.edu/faith-re/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220131073503/https://iep.utm.edu/faith-re/|archive-date=31 January 2022|access-date=16 February 2022|publisher=[[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]|language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Mythology ===
{{Main|Mythology}}

[[File:Kurukshetra.jpg|thumb|A manuscript depicting the climactic [[Kurukshetra War]] in [[Hindu epic]] ''[[Mahabharata]]''. The ''Mahabharata'' is the longest epic poem known and a key source of [[Hindu mythology]].]]

The word ''myth'' has several meanings:
# A traditional story of ostensibly historical events that serves to unfold part of the world view of a people or explain a practice, belief, or natural phenomenon;
# A person or thing having only an imaginary or unverifiable existence; or
# A metaphor for the spiritual potentiality in the human being.<ref>Joseph Campbell, ''The Power of Myth'', p. 22 {{ISBN|0-385-24774-5}}</ref>

Ancient [[polytheistic]] religions, such as those of Greece, [[Ancient Rome|Rome]], and [[Scandinavia]], are usually categorized under the heading of [[mythology]]. Religions of pre-industrial peoples, or [[culture]]s in development, are similarly called myths in the [[anthropology of religion]]. The term myth can be used pejoratively by both religious and non-religious people. By defining another person's religious stories and beliefs as mythology, one implies that they are less real or true than one's own religious stories and beliefs. [[Joseph Campbell]] remarked, "Mythology is often thought of as ''other people's'' religions, and religion can be defined as misinterpreted mythology."<ref>Joseph Campbell, ''Thou Art That: Transforming Religious Metaphor''. Ed. Eugene Kennedy. New World Library {{ISBN|1-57731-202-3}}.</ref>

In sociology, however, the term myth has a non-pejorative meaning. There, myth is defined as a story that is important for the group, whether or not it is objectively or provably true.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/myth|title=myth|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=24 April 2016|archive-date=13 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913072251/https://www.britannica.com/topic/myth|url-status=live}}</ref> Examples include the [[resurrection]] of their real-life founder [[Jesus]], which, to Christians, explains the means by which they are freed from sin, is symbolic of the power of life over death, and is also said to be a historical event. But from a mythological outlook, whether or not the event actually occurred is unimportant. Instead, the [[symbol]]ism of the death of an old life and the start of a new life is most significant. Religious believers may or may not accept such symbolic interpretations.

=== Practices ===
{{Main|Religious behaviour|Cult (religious practice)}}

The practices of a religion may include [[ritual]]s, [[sermon]]s, commemoration or veneration of a [[deity]] (god or [[goddess]]), [[sacrifice]]s, [[festival]]s, [[Banquet|feasts]], [[trance]]s, [[initiation]]s, [[funeral|funerary services]], [[matrimony|matrimonial services]], [[meditation]], [[prayer]], [[religious music]], [[religious art]], [[sacred dance]], [[Community service|public service]], or other aspects of human culture.<ref name="OD">[https://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/mythology Oxford Dictionaries] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908182513/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/mythology |date=8 September 2016 }} mythology, retrieved 9 September 2012</ref>

=== Social organisation ===
Religions have a societal basis, either as a living tradition which is carried by lay participants, or with an organized [[clergy]], and a definition of what constitutes adherence or membership.

== Academic study ==
{{Main|Religious studies|Classifications of religious movements}}
A number of disciplines study the phenomenon of religion: [[theology]], [[comparative religion]], [[history of religion]], [[evolutionary origin of religions]], [[anthropology of religion]], [[psychology of religion]] (including [[neurotheology|neuroscience of religion]] and [[evolutionary psychology of religion]]), [[law and religion]], and [[sociology of religion]].

Daniel L. Pals mentions eight classical theories of religion, focusing on various aspects of religion: [[animism]] and [[Magic (paranormal)|magic]], by [[Edward Burnett Tylor|E.B. Tylor]] and [[J.G. Frazer]]; the [[Psychoanalysis|psycho-analytic]] approach of [[Sigmund Freud]]; and further [[Émile Durkheim]], [[Karl Marx]], [[Max Weber]], [[Mircea Eliade]], [[E.E. Evans-Pritchard]], and [[Clifford Geertz]].{{sfn|Pals|2006}}

[[Michael Stausberg]] gives an overview of contemporary theories of religion, including [[Cognitive science of religion|cognitive]] and biological approaches.{{sfn|Stausberg|2009}}

=== Theories ===
{{Main|Theories of religion}}

[[Sociology of religion|Sociological]] and [[Anthropology of religion|anthropological]] theories of religion generally attempt to explain the [[origin of religion|origin]] and [[social function|function of religion]].<ref>{{harvnb|Segal|2005|p=49}}</ref> These theories define what they present as universal characteristics of [[religious belief]] and [[Religious behaviour|practice]].

==== Origins and development ====
{{Main|History of religion}}
[[File:Yazilikaya B 12erGruppe.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|The [[Yazılıkaya]] sanctuary in [[Turkey]], with the twelve gods of the underworld]]
The origin of religion is uncertain. There are a number of theories regarding the subsequent origins of religious practices.

According to [[anthropologists]] John Monaghan and Peter Just, "Many of the great world religions appear to have begun as revitalization movements of some sort, as the vision of a charismatic prophet fires the imaginations of people seeking a more comprehensive answer to their problems than they feel is provided by everyday beliefs. Charismatic individuals have emerged at many times and places in the world. It seems that the key to long-term success—and many movements come and go with little long-term effect—has relatively little to do with the prophets, who appear with surprising regularity, but more to do with the development of a group of supporters who are able to institutionalize the movement."<ref>{{cite book |title=Social & Cultural Anthropology |url=https://archive.org/details/socialculturalan00mona |url-access=limited |last1=Monaghan |first1=John |last2=Just |first2=Peter |year=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-19-285346-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/socialculturalan00mona/page/n136 126]}}</ref>

The [[development of religion]] has taken different forms in different cultures. Some religions place an emphasis on belief, while others emphasize practice. Some religions focus on the subjective experience of the religious individual, while others consider the activities of the religious community to be most important. Some religions claim to be universal, believing their [[law]]s and [[cosmology]] to be binding for everyone, while others are intended to be practiced only by a closely defined or localized group. In many places, religion has been associated with public institutions such as [[education]], [[hospital]]s, the [[family]], [[government]], and [[politics|political]] hierarchies.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite book |title=Social & Cultural Anthropology |url=https://archive.org/details/socialculturalan00mona |url-access=limited |last1=Monaghan |first1=John |last2=Just |first2=Peter |year=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-19-285346-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/socialculturalan00mona/page/n134 124]}}</ref>

Anthropologists John Monoghan and Peter Just state that, "it seems apparent that one thing religion or belief helps us do is deal with problems of human life that are significant, persistent, and intolerable. One important way in which religious beliefs accomplish this is by providing a set of ideas about how and why the world is put together that allows people to accommodate anxieties and deal with misfortune."<ref name=autogenerated1 />

==== Cultural system ====
While religion is difficult to define, one standard model of religion, used in [[religious studies]] courses, was proposed by [[Clifford Geertz]], who simply called it a "cultural system".<ref>Clifford Geertz, ''Religion as a Cultural System'', 1973</ref> A critique of Geertz's model by [[Talal Asad]] categorized religion as "an [[anthropology|anthropological]] category".<ref>Talal Asad, ''The Construction of Religion as an Anthropological Category'', 1982.</ref> Richard Niebuhr's (1894–1962) five-fold classification of the relationship between Christ and culture, however, indicates that religion and culture can be seen as two separate systems, though with some interplay.<ref>Richard Niebuhr, ''Christ and Culture'' (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1951) as cited by Domenic Marbaniang, "The Gospel and Culture: Areas of Conflict, Consent, and Conversion", ''Journal of Contemporary Christian'' Vol. 6, No. 1 (Bangalore: CFCC, Aug 2014), {{ISSN|2231-5233}} pp. 9–10</ref>

==== Social constructionism ====
{{Main|Theories about religions#Social constructionism|l1=Social constructionism}}
One modern academic theory of religion, [[social constructionism]], says that religion is a modern concept that suggests all [[spirituality|spiritual]] practice and [[worship]] follows a model similar to the [[Abrahamic religions]] as an orientation system that helps to interpret reality and define human beings.<ref name="vergote 89">Vergote, Antoine, ''Religion, belief and unbelief: a psychological study'', Leuven University Press, 1997, p. 89</ref> Among the main proponents of this theory of religion are Daniel Dubuisson, Timothy Fitzgerald, Talal Asad, and Jason Ānanda Josephson. The social constructionists argue that religion is a modern concept that developed from Christianity and was then applied inappropriately to non-Western cultures.

==== Cognitive science ====
{{Main|Cognitive science of religion}}
{{Further|Religion and schizophrenia}}
Cognitive science of religion is the study of religious thought and behavior from the perspective of the cognitive and evolutionary sciences.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barrett |first1=Justin L. |title=Cognitive Science of Religion: What Is It and Why Is It? |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1749-8171.2007.00042.x |journal=Religion Compass |access-date=10 January 2021 |pages=768–786 |language=en |doi=10.1111/j.1749-8171.2007.00042.x |date=2007 |volume=1 |issue=6 |archive-date=12 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112011855/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1749-8171.2007.00042.x |url-status=live }}</ref> The field employs methods and theories from a very broad range of disciplines, including: [[cognitive psychology]], [[evolutionary psychology]], [[cognitive anthropology]], [[artificial intelligence]], [[cognitive neuroscience]], [[neurobiology]], [[zoology]], and [[ethology]]. Scholars in this field seek to explain how human minds acquire, generate, and transmit religious thoughts, practices, and schemas by means of ordinary cognitive capacities.

[[Hallucination]]s and [[Religious delusion|delusions related to religious content]] occurs in about 60% of people with [[schizophrenia]]. While this number varies across cultures, this had led to theories about a number of influential religious phenomena and possible relation to psychotic disorders. A number of prophetic experiences are consistent with psychotic symptoms, although [[Retrospective diagnosis|retrospective diagnoses]] are practically impossible.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Nicholson|first1=PT|title=Psychosis and paroxysmal visions in the lives of the founders of world religions.|journal=The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences|volume=26|issue=1|date=2014|pages=E13–14|doi=10.1176/appi.neuropsych.12120412|pmid=24515692}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Murray|first1=ED|last2=Cunningham|first2=MG|last3=Price|first3=BH|title=The role of psychotic disorders in religious history considered.|journal=The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences|volume=24|issue=4|date=2012|pages=410–426|doi=10.1176/appi.neuropsych.11090214|pmid=23224447|s2cid=207654711}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Weber|first1=SR|last2=Pargament|first2=KI|title=The role of religion and spirituality in mental health.|journal=Current Opinion in Psychiatry|date=September 2014|volume=27|issue=5|pages=358–363|doi=10.1097/YCO.0000000000000080|pmid=25046080|s2cid=9075314}}</ref> Schizophrenic episodes are also experienced by people who do not have belief in gods.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Reina|first1=Aaron|title=Faith Within Atheism|journal=Schizophrenia Bulletin|date=July 2014|volume=40|issue=4|pages=719–720|doi=10.1093/schbul/sbt076|pmid=23760918|pmc=4059423}}</ref>

Religious content is also common in [[temporal lobe epilepsy]], and [[obsessive–compulsive disorder|obsessive-compulsive disorder]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Favazza|first1=A|editor1-last=Sadock|editor1-first=B|editor2-last=Sadock|editor2-first=V|editor3-last=Ruiz|editor3-first=P|title=Kaplan and Sadocks Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry|publisher=Wolters Kluwer|edition=10th|chapter=Psychiatry and Spirituality}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Altschuler|first1=EL|title=Temporal lobe epilepsy in the priestly source of the Pentateuch|journal=South African Medical Journal|date=2004|volume=11|issue=94|page=870|pmid=15587438}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sapolsky |first=Robert M. |author-link=Robert Sapolsky |chapter=Circling the Blanket for God |title=The Trouble with Testosterone: and Other Essays on the Biology of the Human Predicament |publisher=A Touchstone Book, Simon & Schuster |location=New York |year=1998 |pages=263–269 |isbn=978-0-684-83409-2 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/troublewithtesto00sapo}}</ref> Atheistic content is also found to be common with temporal lobe epilepsy.<ref name="Heilman">{{cite book|last1=Heilman|first1=Kenneth M.|last2=Valenstein|first2=Edward |title=Clinical Neuropsychology|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|language=en|isbn=978-0-19-538487-1|page=488|quote=Studies that claim to show no difference in emotional makeup between temporal lobe and other epileptic patients (Guerrant et al., 1962; Stevens, 1966) have been reinterpreted (Blumer, 1975) to indicate that there is, in fact, a difference: those with temporal lobe epilepsy are more likely to have more serious forms of emotional disturbance. This typical personality of temporal lobe epileptic patient has been described in roughly similar terms over many years (Blumer & Benson, 1975; Geschwind, 1975, 1977; Blumer, 1999; Devinsky & Schachter, 2009). These patients are said to have a deepening of emotions; they ascribe great significance to commonplace events. This can be manifested as a tendency to take a cosmic view; hyperreligiosity (or intensely professed atheism) is said to be common.}}</ref>

=== Comparativism ===
{{Main|Comparative religion}}
Comparative religion is the branch of the [[study of religions]] concerned with the systematic comparison of the doctrines and practices of the world's religions. In general, the comparative study of religion yields a deeper understanding of the fundamental philosophical concerns of religion such as [[ethics]], [[metaphysics]], and the nature and form of [[salvation]]. Studying such material is meant to give one a richer and more sophisticated understanding of human beliefs and practices regarding the [[sacred]], [[numinous]], [[spirituality|spiritual]] and [[Divinity|divine]].<ref>"Human beings' relation to that which they regard as holy, sacred, spiritual, and divine" [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] (online, 2006), cited after {{cite web |url=https://www.religionfacts.com/religion/quotes.htm |title=Definitions of Religion |website=Religion facts |access-date=16 February 2022 |archive-date=12 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141012135217/http://www.religionfacts.com/religion/quotes.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the field of comparative religion, a common geographical classification<ref name="EB" /> of the [[Major religious groups|main world religions]] includes [[Middle Eastern religions]] (including [[Zoroastrianism]] and [[Iranian religions]]), [[Indian religions]], [[East Asian religions]], African religions, American religions, Oceanic religions, and classical Hellenistic religions.<ref name="EB">{{cite encyclopedia| url = https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/497215/classification-of-religions/38029/Normative| title = Charles Joseph Adams, ''Classification of religions: geographical'', Encyclopædia Britannica| encyclopedia = Encyclopedia Britannica| access-date = 16 February 2022| archive-date = 7 November 2014| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141107202404/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/497215/classification-of-religions/38029/Normative| url-status = live}}</ref>

== Classification ==
{{Main|History of religion}}
[[File:Prevailing religious population by country percentage.svg|thumb|upright=2|A map of [[List of religious populations|major denominations and religions of the world]]{{Needs update|date=June 2025|reason=Information from the source from 2015 and is therefore 10 years old, the map needs an update}}]]

In the 19th and 20th centuries, the academic practice of [[comparative religion]] divided religious belief into philosophically defined categories called world religions. Some academics [[Study of religion|studying the subject]] have divided religions into three broad categories:
# [[World religions]], a term which refers to [[Transculturation|transcultural]], international religions;
# [[Indigenous religions]], which refers to smaller, culture-specific or nation-specific religious groups; and
# [[New religious movements]], which refers to recently developed religions.<ref>[[Graham Harvey (religious studies scholar)|Harvey, Graham]] (2000). ''Indigenous Religions: A Companion''. (Ed: Graham Harvey). London and New York: Cassell. p. 6.</ref>

Some recent scholarship has argued that not all types of religion are necessarily separated by mutually exclusive philosophies, and furthermore that the utility of ascribing a practice to a certain philosophy, or even calling a given practice religious, rather than cultural, political, or social in nature, is limited.<ref name="pennington">Brian Kemble Pennington ''Was Hinduism Invented?'' New York: Oxford University Press US, 2005. {{ISBN|0-19-516655-8}}</ref><ref>Russell T. McCutcheon. ''Critics Not Caretakers: Redescribing the Public Study of Religion''. Albany: SUNY Press, 2001.</ref><ref>Nicholas Lash. ''The beginning and the end of 'religion'.'' Cambridge University Press, 1996. {{ISBN|0-521-56635-5}}</ref> The current state of psychological study about the nature of religiousness suggests that it is better to refer to religion as a largely invariant phenomenon that should be distinguished from cultural norms (i.e. religions).<ref>Joseph Bulbulia. "Are There Any Religions? An Evolutionary Explanation." ''Method & Theory in the Study of Religion'' 17.2 (2005), pp. 71–100</ref>{{clarify|What is meant here by "i.e. religions"? To what does it refer?|date=August 2022}}

=== Morphological classification ===
Some [[Religious studies|religion scholars]] classify religions as either ''[[Universalizing religion|universal religions]]'' that seek worldwide acceptance and actively look for new [[Religious conversion|converts]], such as the Baháʼí Faith, Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, and Jainism, while ''[[ethnic religion]]s'' are identified with a particular ethnic group and do not seek converts.<ref name="Hinnells">{{cite book |first=Chris |last=Park |chapter=Religion and Geography |title=The Routledge companion to the study of religion |editor-last=Hinnells |editor-first=John R. |year=2005 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-33311-5 |pages=439–440 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IGspjXKxIf8C |access-date=7 September 2020 |archive-date=9 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509023830/https://books.google.com/books?id=IGspjXKxIf8C |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=Peter |last=Flügel |title=The Invention of Jainism: A Short History of Jaina Studies |journal=International Journal of Jaina Studies |volume=1 |issue=1 |year=2005 |pages=1–14 |url=https://www.soas.ac.uk/ijjs/archive/file32517.pdf |access-date=8 March 2019 |archive-date=1 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201182630/https://www.soas.ac.uk/ijjs/archive/file32517.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Others reject the distinction, pointing out that all religious practices, whatever their philosophical origin, are ethnic because they come from a particular culture.<ref>Timothy Fitzgerald. ''The Ideology of Religious Studies''. New York: Oxford University Press US, 2000.</ref><ref>Craig R. Prentiss. ''Religion and the Creation of Race and Ethnicity''. New York: NYU Press, 2003. {{ISBN|0-8147-6701-X}}</ref><ref>Tomoko Masuzawa. ''The Invention of World Religions, or, How European Universalism Was Preserved in the Language of Pluralism''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005. {{ISBN|0-226-50988-5}}</ref>

=== Demographic classification ===
{{Main|Major religious groups|List of religious populations}}
{{multipleimage
| perrow = 2
| total_width = 335
| footer = Example of followers of popular and [[world religions]], from top-left: [[Christians]], [[Muslims]], [[Hindus]], [[Buddhism|Buddhists]], [[Sikhs]], and [[Jews]].
| image1 = Via Dolorosa, Jerusalem.jpg
| image2 = The Umayyad Mosque, Muslim Women, Damascus, Syria.jpg
| image3 = Hindu marriage ceremony offering.jpg
| image4 = Incense-LE.jpg
| image5 = Sikh people.jpg
| image6 = Western Wall, Jerusalem, (16037897867).jpg
}}

The five largest religious groups by world population, estimated to account for 5.8 billion people and 84% of the population, are Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism (with the relative numbers for Buddhism and Hinduism dependent on the extent of [[syncretism]]), and traditional folk religions.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Five largest religions
! 2015 (billion)<ref>{{cite web |title=Christians are the largest religious group in 2015 |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2017/04/05/the-changing-global-religious-landscape/pf_17-04-05_projectionsupdate_grl310px/ |website=Pew Research Center |access-date=8 July 2022 |archive-date=8 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220708123444/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2017/04/05/the-changing-global-religious-landscape/pf_17-04-05_projectionsupdate_grl310px/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
! 2015 (%)
! Demographics
|-
| [[Christianity]]
| 2.3
| 31%
| [[Christianity by country]]
|-
| [[Islam]]
| 1.8
| 24%
| [[Islam by country]]
|-
| [[Hinduism]]
| 1.1
| 15%
| [[Hinduism by country]]
|-
| [[Buddhism]]
| 0.5
| 6.9%
| [[Buddhism by country]]
|-
| [[Folk religion]]
| 0.4
| 5.7%
|
|-
| Total
| 6.1
| 83%
| [[Religions by country]]
|}
[[File:Abraham Dharma.png|thumb|A rough split of the world among belief systems: [[Abrahamic religions|Abrahamic]] in pink, [[Indian religions|Indian]] in yellow.]]

A global poll in 2012 surveyed 57 countries and reported that 59% of the world's population identified as religious, 23% as [[Irreligion|not religious]], 13% as convinced [[Atheism|atheists]], and also a 9% decrease in identification as religious when compared to the 2005 average from 39 countries.<ref name="gia">{{cite web |url= https://www.wingia.com/web/files/richeditor/filemanager/Global_INDEX_of_Religiosity_and_Atheism_PR__6.pdf |title= Global Index of Religiosity and Atheism |publisher= WIN-Gallup International |date= 27 July 2012 |access-date= 24 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120906165952/https://www.wingia.com/web/files/richeditor/filemanager/Global_INDEX_of_Religiosity_and_Atheism_PR__6.pdf |archive-date= 6 September 2012}}</ref> A follow-up poll in 2015 found that 63% of the globe identified as religious, 22% as not religious, and 11% as convinced atheists.<ref name="GallupInt2015">{{cite web|title=Losing our Religion? Two-Thirds of People Still Claim to be Religious|url=https://www.wingia.com/web/files/news/290/file/290.pdf|website=WIN/Gallup International|date=13 April 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150430232945/https://www.wingia.com/web/files/news/290/file/290.pdf|archive-date=30 April 2015}}</ref> On average, women are more religious than men.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.livescience.com/7689-women-religious-men.html|title=Women More Religious Than Men|work=Live Science|date=28 February 2009|access-date=14 July 2013|archive-date=8 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130708085942/http://www.livescience.com/7689-women-religious-men.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Some people follow multiple religions or multiple religious principles at the same time, regardless of whether or not the religious principles they follow traditionally allow for [[syncretism]].<ref>''Soul Searching: The Religious and Spiritual Lives of American Teenagers'' – p. 77, Christian Smith, Melina Lundquist Denton – 2005</ref><ref>"Christ in Japanese Culture: Theological Themes" in Shusaku Endo's ''Literary Works'', Emi Mase-Hasegawa – 2008</ref><ref>[https://www.christianpost.com/news/new-poll-reveals-how-churchgoers-mix-eastern-new-age-beliefs-42215/ New poll reveals how churchgoers mix eastern new age beliefs] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220122041129/https://www.christianpost.com/news/new-poll-reveals-how-churchgoers-mix-eastern-new-age-beliefs-42215/ |date=22 January 2022 }} retrieved 26 July 2013</ref> Unaffiliated populations are projected to drop, even when taking disaffiliation rates into account, due to differences in birth rates.<ref>{{cite news |title=Islam set to become world's largest religion by 2075, study suggests |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/apr/05/muslim-population-overtake-christian-birthrate-20-years |access-date=20 March 2021 |work=The Guardian |date=5 April 2017 |language=en |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414064511/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/apr/05/muslim-population-overtake-christian-birthrate-20-years |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=The Changing Global Religious Landscape |url=https://www.pewforum.org/2017/04/05/the-changing-global-religious-landscape/ |access-date=21 March 2021 |work=[[Pew Research Center]]'s Religion & Public Life Project |date=5 April 2017 |archive-date=28 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928225648/http://www.pewforum.org/2017/04/05/the-changing-global-religious-landscape/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Scholars have indicated that [[Desecularization|global religiosity may be increasing]] due to religious countries having higher birth rates in general.<ref name="CambridgeZuckerman2">{{cite book |last=Zuckerman |first=Phil |title=The Cambridge Companion to Atheism |date=2006 |isbn=978-1139001182 |editor1-last=Martin |editor1-first=Michael |pages=47–66 |chapter=3 - Atheism: Contemporary Numbers and Patterns |doi=10.1017/CCOL0521842700.004}}</ref>

== Specific religions ==
{{Main|List of religions and spiritual traditions}}
[[File:2020+ Proportion of people in world religions.svg |thumb |Global percentage of adherents by religion<ref name=Pew_20250609>{{cite web |last1=Hackett |first1=Conrad |last2=Stonawski |first2=Marcin |last3=Tong |first3=Yunping |last4=Kramer |first4=Stephanie |last5=Shi |first5=Anne |last6=Fahmy |first6=Dalia |title=How the Global Religious Landscape Changed From 2010 to 2020 |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/06/09/how-the-global-religious-landscape-changed-from-2010-to-2020/ |publisher=Pew Research Center |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260222070137/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/06/09/how-the-global-religious-landscape-changed-from-2010-to-2020/ |archive-date=22 February 2026 |date=9 June 2025 |url-status=live |quote=Source: Pew Research Center estimates based on more than 2,700 censuses and surveys. "How the Global Religious Landscape Changed From 2010 to 2020"}}</ref>]]
=== Abrahamic ===
[[File:Molnár Ábrahám kiköltözése 1850.jpg|thumb|The patriarch [[Abraham]] (by [[József Molnár (painter)|József Molnár]])]]
[[Abrahamic religions]] are [[monotheistic]] religions which believe they descend from [[Abraham]].

==== Judaism ====
{{Main|Judaism}}
[[File:Open Torah and pointer.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Torah]] is the primary sacred text of Judaism.]]

[[Judaism]] is the oldest Abrahamic religion, originating in the people of [[History of ancient Israel and Judah|ancient Israel and Judah]].<ref name="britannica.com">{{cite web |title=Judaism {{!}} Definition, Origin, History, Beliefs, & Facts |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Judaism |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=10 January 2021 |language=en |archive-date=1 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210101160152/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Judaism |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Torah]] is its foundational text, and is part of the larger text known as the [[Tanakh]] or [[Hebrew Bible]]. It is supplemented by oral tradition, set down in written form in later texts such as the [[Midrash]] and the [[Talmud]]. Judaism includes a wide corpus of texts, practices, theological positions, and forms of organization. Within Judaism there are a variety of movements, most of which emerged from [[Rabbinic Judaism]], which holds that God revealed his laws and [[613 Mitzvot|commandments]] to [[Moses]] on [[Biblical Mount Sinai|Mount Sinai]] in the form of both the [[Torah|Written]] and [[Oral Torah]]; historically, this assertion was challenged by various groups. The [[Jewish people]] were scattered after the destruction of the [[Temple in Jerusalem]] in 70 CE. Today there are about 13 million Jews, about 40 per cent living in Israel and 40 per cent in the United States.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cbs.gov.il/shnaton61/st02_27.pdf |title=Info |website=www.cbs.gov.il |access-date=22 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111026202909/https://www.cbs.gov.il/shnaton61/st02_27.pdf |archive-date=26 October 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The largest [[Jewish religious movements]] are [[Orthodox Judaism]] ([[Haredi Judaism]] and [[Modern Orthodox Judaism]]), [[Conservative Judaism]] and [[Reform Judaism]].<ref name="britannica.com" />

==== Christianity ====
[[File:ISR-2013-Jerusalem-Holy Sepulchre-dome.jpg|thumb|Jesus is the central figure of Christianity.]]

[[Christianity]] is based on the life and teachings of [[Jesus]] of Nazareth (1st century) as presented in the New Testament.<ref name="Christianity">{{cite web |title=Christianity {{!}} Definition, Origin, History, Beliefs, Symbols, Types, & Facts |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Christianity |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=10 January 2021 |language=en |archive-date=1 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141101193717/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/115240/Christianity/67592/Forms-of-Christian-education |url-status=live }}</ref> The Christian faith is essentially faith in Jesus as the [[Christ]],<ref name="Christianity" /> the [[Son of God (Christianity)|Son of God]], and as [[Messiah|Savior]] and Lord. Almost all Christians believe in the [[Trinity]], which teaches the unity of [[God the Father|Father]], [[God the Son|Son]] (Jesus Christ), and [[Holy Spirit in Christianity|Holy Spirit]] as three persons in [[Godhead in Christianity|one Godhead]]. Most Christians can describe their faith with the [[Nicene Creed]]. As the religion of [[Byzantine Empire]] in the first millennium and of [[Western Europe]] during the time of colonization, Christianity has been propagated throughout the world via [[Christian mission|missionary work]].<ref name="Spread">{{cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=g2AtOlJMPTUC&pg=PA52|title = Muslim-Christian Relations|publisher = Amsterdam University Press|quote = The enthusiasm for evangelization among the Christians was also accompanied by the awareness that the most immediate problem to solve was how to serve the huge number of new [[Conversion to Christianity|converts]]. Simatupang said, if the number of the Christians were double or triple, then the number of the ministers should also be doubled or tripled and the role of the laity should be maximized and Christian service to society through schools, universities, hospitals and orphanages, should be increased. In addition, for him the Christian mission should be involved in the struggle for justice amid the process of modernization.|access-date = 18 October 2007|isbn = 978-90-5356-938-2|year = 2006|archive-date = 20 June 2013|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130620150610/http://books.google.com/books?id=g2AtOlJMPTUC&pg=PA52|url-status = live}}</ref><ref name="Charity">{{cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=WmuV6g0yR3sC&pg=PA77|page = 77|author = Fred Kammer|title = Doing Faith Justice|publisher = [[Paulist Press]]|quote = Theologians, bishops, and preachers urged the Christian community to be as compassionate as their God was, reiterating that creation was for all of humanity. They also accepted and developed the identification of Christ with the poor and the requisite Christian duty to the poor. Religious congregations and individual charismatic leaders promoted the development of a number of helping institutions-hospitals, hospices for [[Christian pilgrimage|pilgrims]], orphanages, shelters for unwed mothers-that laid the foundation for the modern "large network of hospitals, orphanages and schools, to serve the poor and society at large."|access-date = 18 October 2007|isbn = 978-0-8091-4227-9|date = 2004|archive-date = 26 January 2021|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210126184216/https://books.google.com/books?id=WmuV6g0yR3sC&pg=PA77|url-status = live}}</ref><ref name="Service">{{cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=dz_EM2ofIb4C&pg=PA132|title = Christian Church Women: Shapers of a Movement|publisher = Chalice Press|quote = In the central provinces of India they established schools, orphanages, hospitals, and churches, and spread the gospel message in zenanas.|access-date = 18 October 2007|isbn = 978-0-8272-0463-8|date = March 1994|archive-date = 20 June 2013|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130620110214/http://books.google.com/books?id=dz_EM2ofIb4C&pg=PA132|url-status = live}}</ref> It is the [[Major religious groups|world's largest religion]], with about 2.3 billion followers as of 2015.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/04/05/christians-remain-worlds-largest-religious-group-but-they-are-declining-in-europe/|title=World's largest religion by population is still Christianity|website=Pew Research Center|date=5 April 2017 |language=en-US|access-date=27 February 2019|archive-date=24 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191124021738/https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/04/05/christians-remain-worlds-largest-religious-group-but-they-are-declining-in-europe/|url-status=live}}</ref> The main divisions of Christianity are, according to the number of adherents:<ref name="history.com">{{cite web |title=Christianity |url=https://www.history.com/topics/religion/history-of-christianity#:~:text=Christianity%20is%20broadly%20split%20into,Catholic%20bishops%20around%20the%20world. |website=HISTORY | date=13 October 2017 |access-date=10 January 2021 |language=en |archive-date=11 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210111205557/https://www.history.com/topics/religion/history-of-christianity#:~:text=Christianity%20is%20broadly%20split%20into,Catholic%20bishops%20around%20the%20world. |url-status=live }}</ref>
* The [[Catholic Church]], led by the [[Bishop of Rome]] and the bishops worldwide in communion with him, is a [[Communion (Christian)|communion]] of 24 Churches ''[[sui iuris]]'', including the [[Latin Church]] and 23 [[Eastern Catholic Churches|Eastern Catholic churches]], such as the [[Maronite]] Catholic Church.<ref name="history.com" />
* [[Eastern Christianity]], which include [[Eastern Orthodoxy]], [[Oriental Orthodoxy]], and the [[Church of the East]].
* [[Protestantism]], separated from the Catholic Church in the 16th-century [[Protestant Reformation]] and is split into thousands of [[Religious denomination|denominations]]. Major branches of Protestantism include [[Anglicanism]], [[Baptists]], [[Calvinism]], [[Lutheranism]], and [[Methodism]], though each of these contain many different denominations or groups.<ref name="history.com" />

There are also smaller groups, including:
* [[Restorationism]], the belief that Christianity should be restored (as opposed to reformed) along the lines of what is known about the [[Apostolic Age|apostolic early church]].
* [[Latter-day Saint movement]], founded by [[Joseph Smith]] in the late 1820s.
* [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], founded in the late 1870s by [[Charles Taze Russell]].

==== Islam ====
[[File:The Kaaba during Hajj - edited.jpg|alt=|thumb|220x220px|[[Muslim]]s [[Tawaf|circumambulating]] the [[Kaaba]] in [[Mecca]], [[Saudi Arabia]], the [[Holiest sites in Islam|most sacred site]] in [[Islam]]]]
[[Islam]] is a [[Monotheism|monotheistic]]<ref name="Islam">{{cite web |title=Islam |url=https://www.history.com/topics/religion/islam#:~:text=The%20word%20%E2%80%9CIslam%E2%80%9D%20means%20%E2%80%9C,of%20complete%20submission%20to%20Allah. |website=HISTORY | date=5 January 2018 |access-date=10 January 2021 |language=en |archive-date=3 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200503051151/https://www.history.com/topics/religion/islam#:~:text=The%20word%20%E2%80%9CIslam%E2%80%9D%20means%20%E2%80%9C,of%20complete%20submission%20to%20Allah. |url-status=live }}</ref> religion based on the [[Quran]],<ref name="Islam" /> one of the [[Islamic holy books|holy books]] considered by Muslims to be [[Wahy|revealed]] by [[God in Islam|God]], and on the [[Hadith|teachings (hadith)]] of the [[Prophets of Islam|Islamic prophet]] [[Muhammad]], a major political and religious figure of the 7th century CE. Islam is based on the unity of all religious philosophies and accepts all of the [[Abrahamic religions|Abrahamic]] prophets of Judaism, Christianity and other Abrahamic religions before [[Muhammad]]. It is the most widely practiced religion of [[Southeast Asia]], [[North Africa]], [[Western Asia]], and [[Central Asia]], while [[Muslim-majority countries]] also exist in parts of [[South Asia]], [[Sub-Saharan Africa]], and [[Southeast Europe]]. There are also several [[Islamic republic]]s, including [[Iran]], [[Pakistan]], [[Mauritania]], and [[Afghanistan]]. With about 1.8 billion followers (2015), almost a quarter of [[world population|earth's population]] are [[Muslims]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2017/04/05/the-changing-global-religious-landscape/|website=Pew Research Center|date=5 April 2017|title=The Changing Global Religious Landscape|access-date=20 October 2018|archive-date=6 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170406033738/http://www.pewforum.org/2017/04/05/the-changing-global-religious-landscape/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Sunni Islam]] is the largest denomination within Islam and follows the Qur'an, the ahadith (plural of Hadith) which record the [[sunnah]], whilst placing emphasis on the [[sahabah]].
* [[Shia Islam]] is the second largest denomination of Islam and its adherents believe that [[Ali]] succeeded Muhammad and further places emphasis on Muhammad's family.
* There are also Muslim revivalist movements such as [[Muwahhidism]] and [[Salafism]].

Other denominations of Islam include [[Nation of Islam]], [[Ibadi]], [[Sufism]], [[Quranism]], [[Mahdavia]], [[Ahmadiyya]] and [[non-denominational Muslims]]. [[Wahhabism]] is the dominant Muslim [[Maddhab|schools of thought]] in the [[Kingdom of Saudi Arabia]].

==== Other ====
Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are the three most popular Abrahamic faiths, however there are smaller and newer traditions that lay claim to the designation of Abrahamic as well.<ref>{{harvnb|Massignon|1949|pp=20–23}}</ref>
[[File:Lotus Temple in New Delhi 03-2016.jpg|thumb|The [[Baháʼí Faith|Baháʼí]] Lotus Temple in Delhi]]
For example, the [[Baháʼí Faith]], though often called a [[new religious movement]], claims to be a world religion from the line of major Abrahamic religions, while recognizing the Indo-Iranian traditions (Hinduism, Buddhism, Zoroastrianism). Founded in 19th-century Iran, it teaches the unity of all great religious traditions as the progressive unfolding of one religion<ref name="bahai.org">{{cite web |title=What Bahá'ís Believe {{!}} The Bahá'í Faith |url=https://www.bahai.org/beliefs/ |website=www.bahai.org |access-date=11 January 2021 |archive-date=13 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413230539/https://www.bahai.org/beliefs/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and accepts all of the prophets of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam as well as additional prophets (Krishna, Buddha, Zoroaster), including its founder [[Bahá'u'lláh]]. Its initial phase as [[Bábism]] forms an integral part of its history.<ref>{{cite book |last=Stockman |first=Robert H. |date=2013 |title=The Bahá'í Faith: A Guide for the Perplexed |location=London |publisher=Bloomsbury |page=31-43 |isbn=9781441192011}}</ref>
[[File:PikiWiki Israel 45144 Nabi Shuayb.JPG|thumb|The shrine of [[Nabi Shu'ayb]] complex is revered as the foremost religious site in the [[Druze]] religion]]
Even smaller regional Abrahamic groups also exist, including [[Samaritanism]] (primarily in Israel and the [[State of Palestine]]), the [[Rastafari movement]] (primarily in Jamaica), and [[Druze]] (primarily in [[Druze in Syria|Syria]], [[Druze in Lebanon|Lebanon]], and [[Druze in Israel|Israel]]).

The Druze faith originally developed out of [[Isma'ilism]], and it has sometimes been considered an [[Islamic schools and branches|Islamic school]] by some Islamic authorities, but Druze themselves do not identify as [[Muslims]].<ref name="Incorporated-1996">{{cite book|author=[[James R. Lewis (scholar)|James Lewis]]|title=The Encyclopedia of Cults, Sects, and New Religions|url=https://books.google.com/books?isbn=1615927387|access-date=13 May 2015|year=2002|publisher=[[Prometheus Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Are the Druze People Arabs or Muslims? Deciphering Who They Are |url=https://www.arabamerica.com/are-the-druze-people-arabs-or-muslims-deciphering-who-they-are/ |website=Arab America |access-date=13 April 2020 |language=en |date=8 August 2018 |archive-date=20 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191020060455/https://www.arabamerica.com/are-the-druze-people-arabs-or-muslims-deciphering-who-they-are/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title= The Political Role of Minority Groups in the Middle East|first=Ronald|last= De McLaurin|year= 1979| isbn= 978-0-03-052596-4| page =114 |publisher=Michigan University Press|quote= Theologically, one would have to conclude that the Druze are not Muslims. They do not accept the five pillars of Islam. In place of these principles the Druze have instituted the seven precepts noted above.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Middle East Today: Political, Geographical and Cultural Perspectives| first=Dona|last= J. Stewart|year=2008| isbn=9781135980795| page = 33|publisher=Routledge|quote= Druze do not consider themselves Muslim. Historically they faced much persecution and keep their religious beliefs secrets.}}</ref> Scholars classify the Druze faith as an independent Abrahamic religion because it developed its own unique doctrines and eventually separated from both Isma'ilism and Islam altogether.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Poonawala |first=Ismail K. |date=July–September 1999 |title=Review: ''The Fatimids and Their Traditions of Learning'' by Heinz Halm |journal=[[Journal of the American Oriental Society]] |publisher=[[American Oriental Society]] |volume=119 |issue=3 |page=542 |doi=10.2307/605981 |issn=0003-0279 |jstor=605981 |lccn=12032032 |oclc=47785421}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://rpl.hds.harvard.edu/faq/druze-syria|title=Druze in Syria|date=|publisher=Harvard University|quote=The Druze are an ethnoreligious group concentrated in Syria, Lebanon, and Israel with around one million adherents worldwide. The Druze follow a millenarian offshoot of Isma'ili Shi'ism. Followers emphasize Abrahamic monotheism but consider the religion as separate from Islam.|access-date=13 July 2024|archive-date=21 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201021033846/https://rpl.hds.harvard.edu/faq/druze-syria|url-status=dead}}</ref> One of these doctrines includes the belief that [[Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah|Al-Ḥākim bi-Amr Allāh]] was an [[Incarnation|incarnation of God]].<ref>{{cite journal | last = Bryer | first = David R. W. | title = The Origins of the Druze Religion (Fortsetzung) | journal = [[Der Islam]] | year = 1975 | volume = 52 | issue = 2 | pages = 239–262 | doi = 10.1515/islm.1975.52.2.239 | s2cid = 162363556 | url = https://doi.org/10.1515/islm.1975.52.2.239 | issn = 1613-0928 | ref = {{harvid|Bryer|1975b}} | archive-date = 8 December 2022 | access-date = 13 July 2024 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221208041734/https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fislm.1975.52.2.239 | url-status = live }}</ref>

[[Mandaeism]], sometimes also known as Sabianism (after the mysterious [[Sabians]] mentioned in the Quran, a name historically claimed by several religious groups),<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=De Blois|first1=François|year=1960–2007|title=Ṣābiʾ|editor1-last=Bearman|editor1-first=P.|editor1-link=Peri Bearman|editor2-last=Bianquis|editor2-first=Th.|editor2-link=Thierry Bianquis|editor3-last=Bosworth|editor3-first=C.E.|editor3-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth|editor4-last=van Donzel|editor4-first=E.|editor4-link=Emeri Johannes van Donzel|editor5-last=Heinrichs|editor5-first=W.P.|editor5-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition|doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0952}} {{cite book|last1=Van Bladel|first1=Kevin|year=2017|title=From Sasanian Mandaeans to Ṣābians of the Marshes|location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|doi=10.1163/9789004339460|isbn=978-90-04-33943-9|url=https://brill.com/view/title/34389|access-date=19 June 2022|archive-date=1 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220601074236/https://brill.com/view/title/34389|url-status=live}} p. 5.</ref> is a [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]], [[monotheistic]] and [[ethnic religion]].<ref name="Mandaens">{{cite book |last=Buckley |first=Jorunn Jacobsen |author-link= |year=2002 |chapter=Part I: Beginnings – Introduction: The Mandaean World |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I9G-zLZRMLQC&pg=PA3 |title=The Mandaeans: Ancient Texts and Modern People |location=[[New York City|New York]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] on behalf of the [[American Academy of Religion]] |doi=10.1093/0195153855.003.0001 |pages=1–20 |isbn=978-0-19-515385-9 |oclc=57385973 |access-date=17 December 2021 |archive-date=8 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211208175543/https://books.google.com/books?id=I9G-zLZRMLQC&pg=PA3 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|4}}<ref name=Ginza>{{cite book|title=[[Ginza Rabba]]|translator1-last=Al-Saadi |translator1-first=Qais |translator2-last=Al-Saadi |translator2-first=Hamed |edition=2nd |place=Germany |year=2019 |publisher=Drabsha}}</ref>{{rp|1}} Its adherents, the [[Mandaeans]], consider [[John the Baptist]] to be their chief prophet.<ref name="Mandaens" /> Mandaeans are the last surviving Gnostics from antiquity.<ref name=McGrath>{{Citation|last=McGrath|first=James|title=The First Baptists, The Last Gnostics: The Mandaeans|website=YouTube-A lunchtime talk about the Mandaeans by Dr. James F. McGrath at Butler University|date=23 January 2015|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gvv6I02MNlc|access-date=16 December 2021|archive-date=4 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211104131705/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gvv6I02MNlc|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== East Asian ===
{{Main|East Asian religions}}
East Asian religions (also known as Far Eastern religions or Taoic religions) consist of several religions of East Asia which make use of the concept of Tao (in Chinese), Dō (in Japanese or Korean) or Đạo (in Vietnamese). They include:

==== Taoism and Confucianism ====
[[File:Beijing China Hall-of-Prayer-for-Good-Harvests-01.jpg|thumb|The [[Temple of Heaven]], a Taoist [[temple]] complex in Beijing]]
* [[Taoism]] and [[Confucianism]], as well as Korean, Vietnamese, and Japanese religion influenced by Chinese thought.

==== Folk religions ====
[[Chinese folk religion]]: the indigenous religions of the [[Han Chinese]], or, by [[metonymy]], of all the populations of the [[Chinese cultural sphere]]. It includes the syncretism of [[Confucianism]], [[Taoism]] and [[Buddhism]], [[Wuism]], as well as many new religious movements such as [[Chen Tao (UFO religion)|Chen Tao]], [[Falun Gong]] and [[Yiguandao]].

Other folk and new religions of [[East Asia]] and [[Southeast Asia]] such as [[Korean shamanism]], [[Chondogyo]], and [[Jeung San Do]] in Korea; [[indigenous Philippine folk religions]] in the [[Philippines]]; [[Shinto]], [[Shugendo]], [[Ryukyuan religion]], and [[Japanese new religions]] in Japan; [[Satsana Phi]] in Laos; [[Vietnamese folk religion]], and [[Cao Đài]], [[Hòa Hảo]] in Vietnam.

=== Indian religions ===
[[Indian religions]] are practiced or were founded in the [[Indian subcontinent]]. They are sometimes classified as the ''dharmic religions'', as they all feature [[dharma]], the specific law of reality and duties expected according to the religion.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mittal |first=Sushil |title=Surprising Bedfellows: Hindus and Muslims in Medieval and Early Modern India |year=2003 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-0-7391-0673-0 |page=103}}</ref>

==== Hinduism ====
[[File:Sree Padmanabhaswamy temple Thiruvananthapuram, kerala.jpg|thumb|The [[Padmanabhaswamy Temple]] is a significant temple of the Hindu god [[Vishnu]] in [[Thiruvananthapuram]], India.]][[Hinduism]] is also called ''Vaidika Dharma'', the ''[[dharma]]'' of the [[Vedas]],<ref name="Klostermaier2010">{{cite book|author=Klaus K. Klostermaier|title=Survey of Hinduism, A: Third Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8CVviRghVtIC|date=2010|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-8011-3|page=15|access-date=22 August 2018|archive-date=31 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331192043/https://books.google.com/books?id=8CVviRghVtIC|url-status=live}}</ref> although many practitioners refer to their religion as ''[[Sanātana Dharma]]'' ("the Eternal Dharma") which refers to the idea that its origins lie beyond [[human history]]. ''Vaidika Dharma'' is a [[synecdoche]] describing the similar philosophies of [[Vaishnavism]], [[Shaivism]], and [[Hindu denominations|related groups]] practiced or founded in the [[Indian subcontinent]]. Concepts most of them share in common include [[karma]], [[caste]], [[reincarnation]], [[mantra]]s, [[yantra]]s, and [[darśana]].<ref group="note">Hinduism is variously defined as a religion, set of religious beliefs and practices, religious tradition etc. For a discussion on the topic, see: "Establishing the boundaries" in Gavin Flood (2003), pp. 1–17. [[René Guénon]] in his'' [[Introduction to the Study of the Hindu doctrines]]'' (1921 ed.), Sophia Perennis, {{ISBN|0-900588-74-8}}, proposes a definition of the term religion and a discussion of its relevance (or lack of) to Hindu doctrines (part II, chapter 4, p. 58).</ref> Deities in Hinduism are referred to as [[Deva (Hinduism)|Deva]] (masculine) and [[Devi]] (feminine).<ref name="monierdevi">Monier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary" Etymologically and Philologically Arranged to cognate Indo-European Languages, Motilal Banarsidass, p. 496</ref><ref>John Stratton Hawley and Donna Marie Wulff (1998), Devi: Goddesses of India, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814912}}, p. 2</ref><ref>William K Mahony (1997), The Artful Universe: An Introduction to the Vedic Religious Imagination, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791435809}}, p. 18</ref> Major deities include [[Vishnu]], [[Lakshmi]], [[Shiva]], [[Parvati]], [[Brahma]] and [[Saraswati]]. These deities have distinct and complex personalities yet are often viewed as aspects of the same Ultimate Reality called [[Brahman]].<ref name=":2">[[:no:Knut A. Jacobsen|Knut Jacobsen]] (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga : 'Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120832329}}, pp. 77–78</ref>{{refn|[a] {{cite book|title=Achieving Cultural Competency|first1=Lisa|last1=Hark|first2=Horace|last2=DeLisser|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2011|quote=Three gods, Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva, and other deities are considered manifestations of and are worshipped as incarnations of Brahman.}}
 [b] {{harvnb|Toropov|Buckles|2011}}: The members of various Hindu sects worship a dizzying number of specific deities and follow innumerable rites in honor of specific gods. Because this is Hinduism, however, its practitioners see the profusion of forms and practices as expressions of the same unchanging reality. The panoply of deities are understood by believers as symbols for a single transcendent reality.
 [d] {{cite book|year=2007|title=An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies|author=Orlando O. Espín, James B. Nickoloff|publisher=Liturgical Press|quote=While Hindus believe in many devas, many are monotheistic to the extent that they will recognise only one Supreme Being, a God or Goddess who is the source and ruler of the devas.}}|name=avatars|group=note}} Hinduism is one of the most ancient of still-active religious belief systems,<ref>p. 434 ''Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions'' By Wendy Doniger, M. Webster, Merriam-Webster, Inc</ref><ref>p. 219 ''Faith, Religion & Theology'' By Brennan Hill, Paul F. Knitter, William Madges</ref> with origins perhaps as far back as prehistoric times.<ref>p. 6 ''The World's Great Religions'' By Yoshiaki Gurney Omura, Selwyn Gurney Champion, Dorothy Short</ref> Therefore, Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world.

==== Jainism ====
[[File:Shravanabelagola Bahubali wideframe.jpg|thumb|The 10th century [[Gommateshwara statue]] in [[Karnataka]]]][[Jainism]], taught primarily by [[Rishabhanatha]] (the founder of [[ahimsa]]) is an ancient Indian religion that prescribes a path of [[non-violence]], [[truth]] and [[anekantavada]] for all forms of living beings in this universe; which helps them to eliminate all the [[Karma in Jainism|Karmas]], and hence to attain freedom from the cycle of birth and death ([[Saṃsāra (Jainism)|saṃsāra]]), that is, achieving [[Moksha (Jainism)|nirvana]]. Jains are found mostly in India. According to Dundas, outside of the Jain tradition, historians date the [[Mahavira]] as about contemporaneous with the [[Buddha]] in the 5th-century BCE, and accordingly the historical [[Parshvanatha]], based on the c. 250-year gap, is placed in 8th or 7th century BCE.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=30–31}}
* [[Digambara]] Jainism (or sky-clad) is mainly practiced in South India. Their holy books are [[Pravachanasara]] and [[Samayasara]] written by their Prophets [[Kundakunda]] and [[Amritchandra]] as their [[Jain Agamas (Digambara)|original canon]] is lost.
* [[Shwetambara]] Jainism (or white-clad) is mainly practiced in Western India. Their holy books are [[Jain Agamas (Śvētāmbara)|Jain Agamas]], written by their Prophet [[Sthulibhadra]].

==== Buddhism ====
[[File:Open front door over Wat Mixay and praying bhikkhus, Vientiane, Laos.jpg|thumb|Wat Mixay Buddhist shrine in [[Vientiane]], Laos]][[Buddhism]] was founded by [[Gautama Buddha|Siddhartha Gautama]] in the 5th century BCE. Buddhists generally agree that Gotama aimed to help [[Sentient beings (Buddhism)|sentient beings]] end their [[dukkha|suffering (dukkha)]] by understanding the [[dharma|true nature of phenomena]], thereby escaping the cycle of suffering and rebirth ([[Saṃsāra (Buddhism)|saṃsāra]]), that is, achieving [[Nirvana (Buddhism)|nirvana]].
* [[Theravada]] Buddhism, which is practiced mainly in [[Sri Lanka]] and Southeast Asia alongside folk religion, shares some characteristics of Indian religions. It is based in a large collection of texts called the [[Pali Canon]].
* [[Mahayana]] Buddhism (or the Great Vehicle) under which are a multitude of doctrines that became prominent [[Buddhism in China|in China]] and are still relevant [[Buddhism in Vietnam|in Vietnam]], [[Buddhism in Korea|Korea]], [[Buddhism in Japan|Japan]] and to a lesser extent [[Buddhism in the West|in Europe and the United States]]. Mahayana Buddhism includes such disparate teachings as [[Zen]] or [[Pure Land Buddhism|Pure Land]].
* [[Vajrayana]] Buddhism first appeared in India in the 3rd century CE.<ref>Williams, Paul; Tribe, Anthony (2000), ''Buddhist Thought: A complete introduction to the Indian tradition'', Routledge, {{ISBN|0-203-18593-5}} p. 194</ref> It is currently most prominent in the Himalaya regions<ref>Smith, E. Gene (2001). Among Tibetan Texts: History and Literature of the Himalayan Plateau. Boston: Wisdom Publications. {{ISBN|0-86171-179-3}}</ref> and extends across all of Asia<ref>''Kenkyusha's New Japanese-English Dictionary'', {{ISBN|4-7674-2015-6}}</ref> (cf. [[Mikkyō]]).
* Two notable new Buddhist sects are [[Hòa Hảo]] and the [[Navayana]] ([[Dalit Buddhist movement]]), which were developed separately in the 20th century.

==== Sikhism ====
[[File:Miniature of Guru Nanak from Astronomical treatise.jpg|thumb|An 1840 miniature of [[Guru Nanak]]]][[Sikhism]] is a [[panentheistic]] religion founded on the teachings of [[Guru Nanak]] and ten successive [[Sikh gurus]] in 15th-century [[Punjab region|Punjab]]. It is the [[Major religious groups|fifth-largest]] [[organized religion]] in the world, with approximately 30 million Sikhs.<ref>{{cite news|title=Sikhism: What do you know about it?|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/on-faith/sikhism-what-do-you-know-about-it/2012/08/06/19131ef6-dff1-11e1-8fc5-a7dcf1fc161d_gallery.html|access-date=13 December 2012|newspaper=The Washington Post|archive-date=11 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120811193301/http://www.washingtonpost.com/national/on-faith/sikhism-what-do-you-know-about-it/2012/08/06/19131ef6-dff1-11e1-8fc5-a7dcf1fc161d_gallery.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Zepps |first=Josh |title=Sikhs in America: What You Need To Know About The World's Fifth-Largest Religion |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/08/06/sikhs-in-america_n_1748125.html |access-date=13 December 2012 |newspaper=Huffington Post |date=6 August 2012 |archive-date=10 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120810040309/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/08/06/sikhs-in-america_n_1748125.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Sikh]]s are expected to embody the qualities of a ''Sant-Sipāhī''—a saint-soldier, have control over one's internal [[Five Thieves|vices]] and be able to be constantly immersed in virtues clarified in the [[Guru Granth Sahib]]. The principal beliefs of Sikhi are faith in ''[[Waheguru]]''—represented by the phrase ''[[ik Onkar|ik ōaṅkār]]'', one cosmic divine actioner (God), who prevails in everything, along with a [[praxis (process)|praxis]] in which the Sikh is enjoined to engage in social reform through the pursuit of justice for all human beings.

=== Indigenous and folk ===
[[File:Chickasaw Stomp Dance Demonstration.jpg|thumb|Chickasaw Native cultural/religious dancing]]
[[File:Image from page 976 of "Bulletin" (1901).jpg|thumb|Peyotists with their ceremonial tools]]
[[File:SB - Altay shaman with drum.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|Altay shaman in Siberia]]
[[File:文澳城隍廟.jpg|thumb|Temple to the [[City God (China)|city god]] of Wenao in [[Magong]], Taiwan]]
[[Indigenous religions]] or [[ethnic religion|folk religions]] refers to a broad category of traditional religions that can be characterised by [[shamanism]], [[animism]] and [[ancestor worship]], where traditional means "indigenous, that which is aboriginal or foundational, handed down from generation to generation...".<ref>J.O. Awolalu (1976) [https://www.studiesincomparativereligion.com/uploads/ArticlePDFs/268.pdf What is African Traditional Religion?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211022153258/http://www.studiesincomparativereligion.com/uploads/ArticlePDFs/268.pdf |date=22 October 2021 }} Studies in Comparative Religion Vol. 10, No. 2. (Spring, 1976).</ref> These are religions that are closely associated with a particular group of people, ethnicity or tribe; they often have no formal creeds or sacred texts.<ref name="pew global">Pew Research Center (2012) [https://www.pewforum.org/global-religious-landscape.aspx The Global Religious Landscape. A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Major Religious Groups as of 2010] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130719060225/http://www.pewforum.org/global-religious-landscape.aspx |date=19 July 2013 }}. The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life.</ref> Some religions are [[syncretic]], fusing diverse religious beliefs and practices.<ref name="CIA">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html |title=Religions |author=Central Intelligence Agency |work=World Factbook |access-date=3 January 2013 |archive-date=20 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181220203407/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[Australian Aboriginal mythology|Australian Aboriginal religions]].
* Folk religions of the Americas: [[Native American religion]]s

Folk religions are often omitted as a category in surveys even in countries where they are widely practiced, e.g., in China.<ref name="pew global" />

=== Traditional African ===
[[File:Brooklyn Museum 1992.133.4 Figure of Shango on Horseback.jpg|thumb|[[Shango]], the [[Orisha]] of fire, lightning, and thunder, in the [[Yoruba religion]], depicted on horseback]]
{{Main|Traditional African religion}}
{{Further|African diasporic religions}}
[[Traditional African religion|African traditional religion]] encompasses the traditional religious beliefs of people in Africa. In West Africa, these religions include the [[Akan religion]], [[Dahomey mythology|Dahomey (Fon) mythology]], [[Efik mythology]], [[Odinani]], [[Serer religion|Serer religion (A ƭat Roog)]], and [[Yoruba religion]], while [[Bushongo mythology]], [[Mbuti mythology|Mbuti (Pygmy) mythology]], [[Lugbara mythology]], [[Dinka religion]], and [[Lotuko mythology]] come from central Africa. Southern African traditions include [[Akamba mythology]], [[Masai mythology]], [[Malagasy mythology]], [[San religion]], [[Lozi mythology]], [[Tumbuka mythology]], and [[Zulu mythology]]. [[Bantu mythology]] is found throughout central, southeast, and southern Africa. In north Africa, these traditions include [[traditional Berber religion|Berber]] and [[ancient Egyptian religion|ancient Egyptian]].

There are also notable [[African diasporic religions]] practiced in the Americas, such as [[Santeria]], [[Candomble]], [[Haitian Vodun|Vodun]], [[Lucumi religion|Lucumi]], [[Umbanda]], and [[Macumba]].
[[File:Templo de fuego, Baku, Azerbaiyán, 2016-09-27, DD 34.jpg|thumb|Sacred flame at the [[Ateshgah of Baku]]]]

=== Iranian ===
[[Iranian religions]] are ancient religions whose roots predate the [[Islamization]] of [[Greater Iran]]. Nowadays these religions are practiced only by minorities.

[[Zoroastrianism]] is based on the teachings of prophet [[Zoroaster]] in the 6th century BCE. Zoroastrians worship the [[Creator deity|creator]] [[Ahura Mazda]]. In Zoroastrianism, good and evil have distinct sources, with evil trying to destroy the creation of Mazda, and good trying to sustain it.

[[Religion in Kurdistan|Kurdish religions]] include the traditional beliefs of the [[Yazidi]],<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hVVsBAAAQBAJ&pg=PAPR8|title=The Religion of the Peacock Angel: The Yezidis and Their Spirit World|last1=Asatrian|first1=Garnik S.|last2=Arakelova|first2=Victoria|year=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-54429-6|language=en|access-date=4 September 2020|archive-date=25 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200225223929/https://books.google.com/books?id=hVVsBAAAQBAJ&pg=PAPR8|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Birgül">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ql4BAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA71|title=The Yezidis: The History of a Community, Culture and Religion|last=Açikyildiz|first=Birgül|date= 2014|publisher=I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85772-061-0|language=en|access-date=4 September 2020|archive-date=26 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200226032745/https://books.google.com/books?id=ql4BAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA71|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Alevi]], and [[Ahl-e Haqq]]. Sometimes these are labeled [[Yazdânism]].

=== New religious movements ===
{{Main|New religious movement}}
{{See also|List of new religious movements}}
* The [[Baháʼí Faith]] teaches the unity of all religions.<ref name="bahai.org" />
* [[Cao Đài]] is a [[Syncretism|syncretistic]], [[Monotheism|monotheistic]] religion, established in [[Vietnam]] in 1926.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cao Dai {{!}} Vietnamese religion |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cao-Dai |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=11 January 2021 |language=en |archive-date=7 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190107010729/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cao-Dai |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Eckankar]] is a [[Pantheism|pantheistic]] religion with the purpose of making God an everyday reality in one's life.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is Eckankar? Eckankar is Love, Wisdom and Freedom |url=https://www.eckankar.org/explore/what-is-eckankar/ |website=Eckankar |access-date=11 January 2021 |archive-date=19 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210119133411/http://www.eckankar.org/explore/what-is-eckankar/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Epicureanism]] is a Hellenistic philosophy that is considered by many of its practitioners as a type of (sometimes non-theistic) religious identity. It has its own scriptures, a monthly "feast of reason" on the Twentieth and considers friendship to be holy.
* [[Hindu reform movements]], such as [[Ayyavazhi]], [[Swaminarayan Faith]] and [[Ananda Marga]], are examples of new religious movements within Indian religions.
* [[Japanese new religions]] ''(shinshukyo)'' is a general category for a wide variety of religious movements founded in Japan since the 19th century. These movements share almost nothing in common except the place of their founding. The largest religious movements centered in Japan include [[Soka Gakkai]], [[Tenrikyo]], and [[Seicho-No-Ie]] among hundreds of smaller groups.<ref>{{cite web |title=New Religious Movements: New Religious Movements in Japan {{!}} Encyclopedia.com |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/new-religious-movements-new-religious-movements-japan |website=www.encyclopedia.com |access-date=11 January 2021 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414042229/https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/new-religious-movements-new-religious-movements-japan |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], a [[Nontrinitarianism|non-trinitarian]] [[Christians|Christian]] Reformist movement sometimes described as [[millenarian]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thearda.com/timeline/movements/movement_23.asp|title=Movements | Millenarian Movement | Timeline | The Association of Religion Data Archives|website=www.thearda.com|access-date=16 February 2022|archive-date=1 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210801202241/https://www.thearda.com/timeline/movements/movement_23.asp|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Neo-Druidism]] is a religion promoting harmony with nature,<ref>{{cite book |title=World Druidry: A Globalizing Path of Nature Spirituality |first=Larisa A. |last=White |year=2021 |publisher=Larisa A. White |location=Belmont, California |isbn=978-1-7367792-0-0 |pages=253–255}}</ref> named after but not necessarily connected to the Iron Age [[druid]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/explore/highlights/article_index/d/the_druids.aspx |publisher=The British Museum |title=The Druids |access-date=15 January 2022 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121223123600/http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/explore/highlights/article_index/d/the_druids.aspx |archive-date=23 December 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[Modern pagan]] movements attempting to reconstruct or revive ancient [[pagan]] practices, such as [[Heathenry (new religious movement)|Heathenry]], [[Hellenism (religion)|Hellenism]], [[Reconstructionist Roman religion|Roman Traditionalism]], and [[Kemeticism]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Neo-Paganism {{!}} religion |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Neo-Paganism |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=11 January 2021 |language=en |archive-date=1 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210101105558/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Neo-Paganism |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Noahidism]] is a monotheistic ideology based on the [[Seven Laws of Noah]],<ref>{{cite web |title=7 Noahide Laws » Judaism Humanity Noahidism |url=https://noahideworldcenter.org/7/ |website=The Seven Noahide Laws |access-date=11 January 2021 |archive-date=16 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220216060611/https://noahideworldcenter.org/7-commandments/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and on their traditional interpretations within Rabbinic Judaism.
* Some forms of [[parody religion]] or fiction-based religion<ref name=Davidsen2013>{{cite journal | doi=10.1080/14755610.2013.838798|title = Fiction-based religion: Conceptualising a new category against history-based religion and fandom| journal=Culture and Religion| volume=14| issue=4| pages=378–395|year = 2013|last1 = Davidsen|first1 = Markus Altena|hdl = 1887/48123|s2cid = 143778202|hdl-access=free}}</ref> like [[Jediism]], [[Pastafarianism]], [[Dudeism]], "Tolkien religion",<ref name=Davidsen2013 /> and others often develop their own writings, traditions, and cultural expressions, and end up behaving like traditional religions.
* [[Satanism]] is a broad category of religions that, for example, worship Satan as a deity ([[Theistic Satanism]]) or use Satan as a symbol of carnality and earthly values ([[LaVeyan Satanism]] and [[The Satanic Temple]]).<ref>{{cite web |title=Satanism |url=https://www.history.com/topics/1960s/satanism |website=HISTORY |date=27 September 2019 |access-date=11 January 2021 |language=en |archive-date=30 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230201320/https://www.history.com/topics/1960s/satanism |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Scientology]] is characterised by scholarship in psychology and behavioral sciences as a [[confidence trick|scam]] or a [[Scientology as a business|commercial business]].<ref name=Bei03>{{cite journal|last=Beit-Hallahmi|first=Benjamin|title=Scientology: Religion or Racket?|author-link=Benjamin Beit-Hallahmi|journal=[[Marburg Journal of Religion]]|volume=8|number=1|date=September 2003|pages=1–56|publisher=[[University of Marburg]]|doi=10.17192/mjr.2003.8.3724|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Halupka |first=Max |title=The Church of Scientology: Legitimacy through Perception Management |journal=Politics and Religion |volume=7 |issue=3 |year=2014 |pages=613–630 |doi=10.1017/S1755048314000066 |s2cid=143524953 |quote=its characterization as a cult stemmed from its implementation of several contentious practices, including: forced labor; brainwashing; and the excommunication of ex-member ... the Church of Scientology has demonstrated the effectiveness of business structure and tactics in the pursuit of legitimization through legal recognition}}</ref><ref name=She20>{{cite book|last=Shermer|first=Michael|chapter=The Curious Case of Scientology|title=Giving the Devil his Due|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|url=https://www.cambridge.org/gb/academic/subjects/psychology/psychology-general-interest/giving-devil-his-due-reflections-scientific-humanist?format=HB|isbn=9781108489782|location=Cambridge|pages=93–103|year=2020|archive-date=7 March 2023|access-date=18 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307000436/https://www.cambridge.org/gb/academic/subjects/psychology/psychology-general-interest/giving-devil-his-due-reflections-scientific-humanist?format=HB|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Passas |first1=Nikos |last2=Castillo |first2=Manuel Escamilla |title=Scientology and its 'Clear' Business |journal=[[Behavioral Sciences & the Law]]|publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons|Wiley]]|date=1992 |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=103–116 |doi=10.1002/bsl.2370100110}}</ref> News sources, politicians and [[Anti-cult movement|counter-cult]] organisations have characterised it in similar terms, or as a [[cult]].<ref name=timecult2>{{cite magazine|title=[[The Thriving Cult of Greed and Power]]|last=Behar|first=Richard|author-link=Richard Behar|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|TIME]] |location=New York|date=May 6, 1991}}</ref><ref name=ECRec1178>{{Cite book | last = Espersen | first = Søren | author-link = Søren Espersen | title = Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe, 1992 session | chapter = Debate on Recommendation 1178 (1992): ''Sects and New Religious Movements'' | date = 5 February 1992 | publisher = Council of Europe | isbn = 978-92-871-2274-2 | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=JRPz4_u7AxMC&pg=PA668 | quote = It is a cool, cynical, manipulating business and nothing else. | access-date = 1 December 2025}}</ref><ref name="Westbrook18">{{cite journal |last1=Westbrook |first1=Donald A. |title=The Art of PR War: Scientology, the Media, and Legitimation Strategies for the 21st Century |journal=[[Studies in Religion|Studies in Religion/Sciences Religieuses]] |publisher=[[SAGE Publishing]]|date=August 10, 2018 |volume=47 |issue=3 |pages=373–395 |doi=10.1177/0008429818769404|s2cid=149581057 |quote=Since the mid-1990s, the Internet has become ... a platform for a series of grassroots counter-cult movements directed against the Church of Scientology ... These efforts qualify as "counter-cult," "anti-cult," or "cult-awareness" because the individuals in question regularly use the term "cult" to describe the beliefs and practices of Scientology}}</ref> Academics who study religious movements classify it as a new religious movement or religion.<ref name="p970">{{cite book |last=Willms|first=Gerald|title=Scientology|chapter=Scientology: "Modern Religion" or "Religion of Modernity"?|publisher=Oxford University Press|date=2009-03-11|doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195331493.003.0013|pages=245–266 |isbn=978-0-19-533149-3 |quote=this claim [being a religion] seems to be supported by the majority of the (mainly Anglo-Saxon) scientific community}}</ref><ref name="k930">{{cite web | title=Religion Dictionary | website=[[Association of Religion Data Archives|ARDA]]| date=2001-09-11 | url=https://www.thearda.com/research/religion-dictionary#Scientology | access-date=2025-12-01 | quote=A new religious movement}}</ref><ref name="w308">{{cite book |last=Westbrook|first=Donald|title=Among the Scientologists|publisher=Oxford University Press|date=2018-12-20|isbn=978-0-19-066497-8|doi=10.1093/oso/9780190664978.001.0001|quote=one of the most recognizable American-born new religious movements}}</ref> Its mythological framework is similar to a [[UFO cult]] and includes references to [[Extraterrestrial life|aliens]], but it is kept secret from most followers. It charges a fee for its central activity, on the basis of which it has been characterised as a commercial enterprise.<ref name="Bei03" /><ref name="She20" />
* [[UFO Religion]]s in which extraterrestrial entities are an element of belief, such as [[Raëlism]], [[Aetherius Society]], and [[Marshall Vian Summers]]'s ''New Message from God.''
* [[Unitarian Universalism]] is a religion characterized by support for a free and responsible search for truth and meaning, and has no accepted [[creed]] or [[theology]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Unitarianism and Universalism – English Unitarianism |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Unitarianism/English-Unitarianism |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=11 January 2021 |language=en |archive-date=22 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122200949/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Unitarianism/English-Unitarianism |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Wicca]] is a neo-pagan religion first popularised in 1954 by British civil servant [[Gerald Gardner]], involving the worship of a God and Goddess.<ref>{{cite web |title=Wicca {{!}} History, Beliefs, & Facts |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wicca |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=11 January 2021 |language=en |archive-date=27 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127210741/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wicca |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Related aspects ==

=== Law ===
{{Main|Law and religion}}
The study of law and religion is a relatively new field, with several thousand scholars involved in law schools, and academic departments including political science, religion, and history since 1980.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Witte |first1=John |year=2012 |title=The Study of Law and Religion in the United States: An Interim Report |journal=Ecclesiastical Law Journal |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=327–354 |doi=10.1017/s0956618x12000348|s2cid=145170469 |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/Delivery.cfm/SSRN_ID2705602_code685174.pdf?abstractid=2705602&mirid=3 }}</ref> Scholars in the field are not only focused on strictly legal issues about religious freedom or non-establishment, but also study religions as they are qualified through judicial discourses or legal understanding of religious phenomena. Exponents look at canon law, natural law, and state law, often in a comparative perspective.<ref>Norman Doe, ''Law and Religion in Europe: A Comparative Introduction'' (2011).</ref><ref>W. Cole Durham and Brett G. Scharffs, eds., ''Law and religion: national, international, and comparative perspectives'' (Aspen Pub, 2010).</ref> Specialists have explored themes in Western history regarding Christianity and justice and mercy, rule and equity, and discipline and love.<ref>John Witte Jr. and Frank S. Alexander, eds., ''Christianity and Law: An Introduction'' (Cambridge U.P. 2008)</ref> Common topics of interest include marriage and the family<ref>John Witte Jr., ''From Sacrament to Contract: Marriage, Religion, and Law in the Western Tradition'' (1997).</ref> and human rights.<ref>John Witte, Jr., ''The Reformation of Rights: Law, Religion and Human Rights in Early Modern Calvinism'' (2008).</ref> Outside of Christianity, scholars have looked at law and religion links in the Muslim Middle East<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Elizabeth Mayer |first1=Ann |year=1987 |title=Law and Religion in the Muslim Middle East |journal=American Journal of Comparative Law |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=127–184 |jstor=840165 |doi=10.2307/840165}}</ref> and pagan Rome.<ref>Alan Watson, ''The state, law, and religion: pagan Rome'' (University of Georgia Press, 1992).</ref>

Studies have focused on [[secularization]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ferrari |first1=Silvio |year=2012 |title=Law and Religion in a Secular World: A European Perspective |journal=Ecclesiastical Law Journal |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=355–370 |doi=10.1017/s0956618x1200035x|s2cid=145347158 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Palomino |first1=Rafael |year=2012 |title=Legal dimensions of secularism: challenges and problems |url=https://eprints.ucm.es/12247/ |journal=Contemporary Readings in Law and Social Justice |volume=2 |pages=208–225 |access-date=16 February 2022 |archive-date=6 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806153405/http://eprints.ucm.es/12247/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In particular, the issue of wearing religious symbols in public, such as headscarves that are banned in French schools, have received scholarly attention in the context of human rights and feminism.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bennoune |first1=Karima |year=2006 |title=Secularism and human rights: A contextual analysis of headscarves, religious expression, and women's equality under international law |journal=Columbia Journal of Transnational Law |volume=45 |page=367 }}</ref>

=== Science ===
{{Main|Faith and rationality|Relationship between religion and science|Epistemology}}

[[Science]] acknowledges reason and [[empirical evidence]]; and religions include [[revelation]], [[faith]] and [[sacredness]] whilst also acknowledging philosophical and [[metaphysical]] explanations with regard to the study of the universe. Both science and religion are not monolithic, timeless, or static because both are complex social and cultural endeavors that have changed through time across languages and cultures.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Stenmark |first1=Mikael |title=How to Relate Science and Religion: A Multidimensional Model |date=2004 |publisher=W.B. Eerdmans Pub. Co. |location=Grand Rapids, Mich. |isbn=978-0-8028-2823-1}}</ref>

The concepts of science and religion are a recent invention: the term religion emerged in the 17th century in the midst of colonization and globalization and the Protestant Reformation.<ref name=Nongbri /><ref name="Harrison Territories" /> The term science emerged in the 19th century out of [[natural philosophy]] in the midst of attempts to narrowly define those who studied nature ([[natural science]]),<ref name="Harrison Territories" /><ref name="Cahan Natural Philosophy">{{cite book|editor1-last=Cahan|editor1-first=David|title=From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences: Writing the History of Nineteenth-Century Science|date=2003|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|isbn=978-0-226-08928-7}}</ref><ref name="WSACM">{{cite book|editor1-last=Numbers|editor1-first=Ronald|editor2-last=Lindberg|editor2-first=David|title=When Science and Christianity Meet|date=2003|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|isbn=978-0-226-48214-9}}</ref> and the phrase religion and science emerged in the 19th century due to the reification of both concepts.<ref name="Harrison Territories" /> It was in the 19th century that the terms Buddhism, Hinduism, Taoism, and Confucianism first emerged.<ref name="Harrison Territories" /> In the ancient and medieval world, the etymological Latin roots of both science (''scientia'') and religion (''religio'') were understood as inner qualities of the individual or virtues, never as doctrines, practices, or actual sources of knowledge.<ref name="Harrison Territories" />

In general, the [[scientific method]] gains knowledge by testing hypotheses to develop [[theories]] through elucidation of facts or evaluation by [[experiment]]s and thus only answers [[physical cosmology|cosmological]] questions about the [[universe]] that can be observed and measured. It develops [[theory|theories]] of the world which best fit physically observed evidence. All scientific knowledge is subject to later refinement, or even rejection, in the face of additional evidence. Scientific theories that have an overwhelming preponderance of favorable evidence are often treated as ''[[de facto]]'' verities in general parlance, such as the theories of [[general relativity]] and [[natural selection]] to explain respectively the mechanisms of [[gravity]] and [[evolution]].

Religion does not have a method per se partly because religions emerge through time from diverse cultures and it is an attempt to find meaning in the world, and to explain humanity's place in it and relationship to it and to any posited entities. In terms of Christian theology and ultimate truths, people rely on reason, experience, scripture, and tradition to test and gauge what they experience and what they should believe. Furthermore, religious models, understanding, and metaphors are also revisable, as are scientific models.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Tolman |first1=Cynthia |title=Methods in Religion |url=https://akbar.marlboro.edu/~mahoney/vhs/SciRelCourse/Religion_methods.html |website=Malboro College |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904013431/https://akbar.marlboro.edu/~mahoney/vhs/SciRelCourse/Religion_methods.html |archive-date=4 September 2015}}</ref>

Regarding religion and science, [[Albert Einstein]] states (1940): "For science can only ascertain what is, but not what should be, and outside of its domain value judgments of all kinds remain necessary.<ref name="The New Republic">{{cite magazine |last1=Coyne |first1=Jerry A. |title=Einstein's Famous Quote About Science and Religion Didn't Mean What You Were Taught |url=https://newrepublic.com/article/115821/einsteins-famous-quote-science-religion-didnt-mean-taught |access-date=11 January 2021 |magazine=The New Republic |date=5 December 2013 |archive-date=29 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129011430/https://newrepublic.com/article/115821/einsteins-famous-quote-science-religion-didnt-mean-taught |url-status=live }}</ref> Religion, on the other hand, deals only with evaluations of human thought and action; it cannot justifiably speak of facts and relationships between facts<ref name="The New Republic" />...Now, even though the realms of religion and science in themselves are clearly marked off from each other, nevertheless there exist between the two strong reciprocal relationships and dependencies. Though religion may be that which determine the goals, it has, nevertheless, learned from science, in the broadest sense, what means will contribute to the attainment of the goals it has set up."<ref>{{cite journal |title=Personal God Concept Causes Science-Religion Conflict |journal=The Science News-Letter |date=21 September 1940 |first=Albert |last=Einstein |volume=38 |issue=12 |pages=181–182 |jstor=3916567 |doi=10.2307/3916567}}</ref>

=== Morality ===
{{Main|Morality and religion}}

Many religions have value frameworks regarding personal behavior meant to guide adherents in determining between right and wrong. These include the [[Five Vows]] of Jainism, Judaism's [[halakha]], Islam's [[sharia]], Catholicism's [[Canon law (Catholic Church)|canon law]], Buddhism's [[Noble Eightfold Path]], and Zoroastrianism's [[Theological Aspects of the Avesta|good thoughts, good words, and good deeds]] concept, among others.<ref>{{cite book|title=Good Without God: What a Billion Nonreligious People Do Believe|last=Esptein|first=Greg M.|publisher=HarperCollins|year=2010|isbn=978-0-06-167011-4|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/goodwithoutgodwh00epst/page/117 117]|url=https://archive.org/details/goodwithoutgodwh00epst/page/117}}</ref>

Religion and morality are not synonymous. While it is often assumed in Christian thought that morality is ultimately based in religion, it can also have a [[Secular morality|secular basis]].<ref name="The Elements of Moral Philosophy">{{Cite book |title=The Elements of Moral Philosophy |publisher=McGraw-Hill |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-078-03824-2 |editor-last=Rachels |editor-first=James |edition=7th |location=New York |pages=62–63 |editor-last2=Rachels |editor-first2=Stuart}}</ref>

The study of religion and morality can be contentious due to ethnocentric views on morality, failure to distinguish between in group and out group altruism, and inconsistent definitions of religiosity.

=== Politics ===
==== Impact ====
{{Main|Religion in politics}}

Religion has had a significant impact on the political system in many countries.<ref>{{cite web |title=Religion and Politics {{!}} Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |url=https://iep.utm.edu/rel-poli/ |access-date=11 January 2021 |archive-date=18 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210118103032/https://iep.utm.edu/rel-poli/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Notably, most Muslim-majority countries adopt various aspects of [[sharia]], the Islamic law.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sharia Law |url=https://www.mpvusa.org/sharia-law |website=Muslims for Progressive Values |access-date=11 January 2021 |archive-date=11 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111200521/https://www.mpvusa.org/sharia-law |url-status=live }}</ref> Some countries even define themselves in religious terms, such as [[Iran|The Islamic Republic of Iran]]. The sharia thus affects up to 23% of the global population, or 1.57 billion people who are [[Muslim world|Muslims]]. However, religion also affects political decisions in many western countries. For instance, in the [[United States]], 51% of voters would be less likely to vote for a presidential candidate who did not believe in God, and only 6% more likely.<ref>[https://www.economist.com/blogs/economist-explains/2016/02/economist-explains-18?cid1=cust/noenew/n/n/n/20160229n/owned/n/n/nwl/n/n/NA/email The Economist explains: The role of religion in America's presidential race] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809213140/https://www.economist.com/blogs/economist-explains/2016/02/economist-explains-18?cid1=cust%2Fnoenew%2Fn%2Fn%2Fn%2F20160229n%2Fowned%2Fn%2Fn%2Fnwl%2Fn%2Fn%2FNA%2Femail |date=9 August 2017 }}, ''The Economist'', 25 February 2016</ref> Christians made up 92% of members of the US Congress, compared with 71% of the general public (in 2014). At the same time, while 23% of US adults are religiously unaffiliated, only one former member of Congress ([[Kyrsten Sinema]], Arizona), or 0.2% of that body, claims no religious affiliation.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/08/27/10-facts-about-religion-in-america/|title=10 facts about religion in America|last=Lipka|first=Michael|date=27 August 2015|publisher=Pew Research Center|access-date=9 July 2016|archive-date=25 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125032511/http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/08/27/10-facts-about-religion-in-america/|url-status=live}}</ref> In most European countries, however, religion has a much smaller influence on politics<ref>[https://www.economist.com/blogs/erasmus/2014/04/europe-religion-and-politics Europe, religion and politics:Old world wars] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809212902/https://www.economist.com/blogs/erasmus/2014/04/europe-religion-and-politics |date=9 August 2017 }}, The Economist, 22 April 2014</ref> although it used to be much more important. For instance, [[same-sex marriage]] and [[abortion]] were illegal in many European countries until recently, following Christian (usually [[Catholicism|Catholic]]) doctrine. Several [[List of atheists in politics and law|European leaders are atheists]] (e.g., [[France]]'s former president [[François Hollande|Francois Hollande]] or Greece's prime minister [[Alexis Tsipras]]). In Asia, the role of religion differs widely between countries. For instance, [[India]] is still one of the most religious countries and religion still has a strong impact on politics, given that Hindu nationalists have been targeting minorities like the Muslims and the Christians, who historically{{when|date=August 2021}} belonged to the lower castes.<ref>Lobo, L. 2000 [https://americamagazine.org/issue/276/article/religion-and-politics-india Religion and Politics in India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161210120920/http://www.americamagazine.org/issue/276/article/religion-and-politics-india |date=10 December 2016 }}, ''America Magazine'', 19 February 2000</ref> By contrast, countries such as [[Religion in China|China]] or [[Religion in Japan|Japan]] are largely secular and thus religion has a much smaller impact on politics.

==== Secularism ====
{{Main|Secularism| Secularization}}
[[File:Ranjitsingh.gif|thumb|upright|[[Ranjit Singh]] established [[Ranjit Singh#Secular Sikh rule|secular rule]] over [[Punjab region|Punjab]] in the early 19th century.]]

Secularization is the transformation of the politics of a society from close identification with a particular religion's values and institutions toward nonreligious values and [[secular]] institutions. The purpose of this is frequently modernization or protection of the population's religious diversity.

=== Economics ===
{{Main|Economics of religion}}
{{Further|Religion and business|Wealth and religion}}
[[File:Religion economy.png|thumb|upright=1.6|Average income correlates negatively with (self-defined) religiosity.<ref name="gia" />]]

One study has found there is a negative correlation between self-defined religiosity and the wealth of nations.<ref name=WIN-Gallup>{{cite web |last=WIN-Gallup |title=Global Index of religion and atheism. |url=https://www.wingia.com/web/files/news/14/file/14.pdf |access-date=12 July 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021065544/https://www.wingia.com/web/files/news/14/file/14.pdf |archive-date=21 October 2013}}</ref> In other words, the richer a nation is, the less likely its inhabitants to call themselves religious, whatever this word means to them (Many people identify themselves as part of a religion (not irreligion) but do not self-identify as religious).<ref name="WIN-Gallup" />

Sociologist and political economist [[Max Weber]] has argued that Protestant Christian countries are wealthier because of their [[Protestant work ethic]].<ref>Max Weber, [1904] 1920. ''[[The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism]]''</ref> According to a study from 2015, [[Christians]] hold the largest amount of wealth (55% of the total world wealth), followed by [[Muslims]] (5.8%), [[Hindus]] (3.3%) and [[Jews]] (1.1%). According to the same study it was found that adherents under the classification [[Irreligion]] or other religions hold about 34.8% of the total global wealth (while making up only about 20% of the world population, see section on classification).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/content/453467/christians-hold-largest-percentage-global.html6|title=Christians hold largest percentage of global wealth: Report|publisher=deccanherald.com|date=14 January 2015|access-date=16 February 2022|archive-date=14 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180614021411/https://www.deccanherald.com/content/453467/christians-hold-largest-percentage-global.html6|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Health ===
{{Main|Religion and health}}

[[Mayo Clinic]] researchers examined the association between religious involvement and spirituality, and physical health, mental health, health-related quality of life, and other health outcomes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mueller |first1=Paul S. |last2=Plevak |first2=David J. |last3=Rummans |first3=Teresa A. |title=Religious Involvement, Spirituality, and Medicine: Implications for Clinical Practice |url=https://www.mayoclinicproceedings.org/article/S0025-6196(11)62799-7/fulltext |journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings |access-date=11 January 2021 |pages=1225–1235 |language=English |doi=10.4065/76.12.1225 |date=1 December 2001 |volume=76 |issue=12 |pmid=11761504 |doi-access=free |archive-date=9 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210809205018/https://www.mayoclinicproceedings.org/article/S0025-6196%2811%2962799-7/fulltext |url-status=live }}</ref> The authors reported that: "Most studies have shown that religious involvement and spirituality are associated with better health outcomes, including greater longevity, coping skills, and health-related quality of life (even during terminal illness) and less anxiety, depression, and suicide."<ref name="Religion and Medicine">{{cite journal |first1=Paul S. |last1=Mueller |first2=David J. |last2=Plevak |first3=Teresa A. |last3=Rummans |title=Religious Involvement, Spirituality, and Medicine: Implications for Clinical Practice |journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings |volume=76 |issue=12 |pages=1225–1235 |url=https://www.mayoclinicproceedings.org/article/S0025-6196(11)62799-7/pdf |quote=We reviewed published studies, meta-analyses, systematic reviews, and subject reviews that examined the association between religious involvement and spirituality and physical health, mental health, health-related quality of life, and other health outcomes. We also reviewed articles that provided suggestions on how clinicians might assess and support the spiritual needs of patients. Most studies have shown that religious involvement and spirituality are associated with better health outcomes, including greater longevity, coping skills, and health-related quality of life (even during terminal illness) and less anxiety, depression, and suicide |access-date=13 November 2010 |doi=10.4065/76.12.1225 |pmid=11761504 |year=2001 |doi-access=free |archive-date=8 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191108220203/https://www.mayoclinicproceedings.org/article/S0025-6196(11)62799-7/pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

The authors of a subsequent study concluded that the influence of religion on health is largely beneficial, based on a review of related literature.<ref>{{cite journal |last2=Hill |first2=Peter C. |title=The Role of Religion and Spirituality in Mental and Physical Health |journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science |date=February 2001 |first1=Kevin S. |last1=Seybold |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=21–24 |doi=10.1111/1467-8721.00106|s2cid=144109851 }}</ref> According to academic James W. Jones, several studies have discovered "positive correlations between religious belief and practice and mental and physical health and longevity."<ref>{{cite journal |title=Religion, Health, and the Psychology of Religion: How the Research on Religion and Health Helps Us Understand Religion |journal=Journal of Religion and Health |year=2004 |first=James W. |last=Jones |volume=43 |issue=4 |pages=317–328 |doi=10.1007/s10943-004-4299-3 |s2cid=33669708 |url=https://dergipark.gov.tr/bilimname/issue/3501/47580 |access-date=16 February 2022 |archive-date=2 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302181542/http://dergipark.gov.tr/bilimname/issue/3501/47580 |url-status=live }}</ref>

An analysis of data from the 1998 US General Social Survey, whilst broadly confirming that religious activity was associated with better health and well-being, also suggested that the role of different dimensions of spirituality/religiosity in health is rather more complicated. The results suggested "that it may not be appropriate to generalize findings about the relationship between spirituality/religiosity and health from one form of spirituality/religiosity to another, across denominations, or to assume effects are uniform for men and women.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.socscimed.2005.11.008|pmid=16359765|title=Gender differences in religious practices, spiritual experiences and health: Results from the US General Social Survey|journal=Social Science & Medicine|volume=62|issue=11|pages=2848–2860|year=2006|last1=Maselko|first1=Joanna|author2-link=Laura Kubzansky|last2=Kubzansky|first2=Laura D.}}</ref>

=== Violence ===
{{Main|Religious violence}}
{{See also|Islam and violence|Christianity and violence|Judaism and violence}}

Critics such as [[Hector Avalos]],<ref>{{cite book |title=Fighting Words: The Origins of Religious Violence |first=Hector |last=Avalos |publisher=Prometheus Books |location=Amherst, New York |year=2005}}</ref> [[Regina Schwartz]],<ref name=ReginaSchwartz>{{cite book |title=The Curse of Cain: The Violent Legacy of Monotheism By Regina M. Schwartz |url=https://archive.org/details/curseofcainviole00schw |url-access=registration |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1998}}</ref> [[Christopher Hitchens]],<ref name="Hitchens 2007">{{cite book |last=Hitchens |first=Christopher |title=God is not Great |publisher=Twelve |year=2007|isbn=9780446579803}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=September 2010}} and [[Richard Dawkins]]<ref name="Dawkins 2006">{{cite book |last=Dawkins |first=Richard |title=The God Delusion |publisher=Bantam Books |year=2006|isbn=0593055489}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=September 2010}} have argued that religions are inherently violent and harmful to society by using violence to promote their goals, in ways that are endorsed and exploited by their leaders.

Anthropologist Jack David Eller asserts that religion is not inherently violent, arguing "religion and violence are clearly compatible, but they are not identical." He asserts that "violence is neither essential to nor exclusive to religion" and that "virtually every form of religious violence has its nonreligious corollary."<ref name="CruelCreeds1">{{cite book |last=Eller |first=Jack David |title=Cruel Creeds, Virtuous Violence: Religious Violence Across Culture and History |year=2010 |publisher=Prometheus Books |isbn=978-1-61614-218-6 |quote=As we have insisted previously, religion is not inherently and irredeemably violent; it certainly is not the essence and source of all violence.}}</ref><ref name="CruelCreeds2">{{cite book |last=Eller |first=Jack David |title=Cruel Creeds, Virtuous Violence: Religious Violence Across Culture and History |year=2010 |publisher=Prometheus Books |isbn=978-1-61614-218-6 |quote=Religion and violence are clearly compatible, but they are not identical. Violence is one phenomenon in human (and natural existence), religion is another, and it is inevitable that the two would become intertwined. Religion is complex and modular, and violence is one of the modules—not universal, but recurring. As a conceptual and behavioral module, violence is by no means exclusive to religion. There are plenty of other groups, institutions, interests, and ideologies to promote violence. Violence is, therefore, neither essential to nor exclusive to religion. Nor is religious violence all alike... And virtually every form of religious violence has its nonreligious corollary.}}</ref>

==== Animal sacrifice ====
{{Main|Animal sacrifice|l1=Animal sacrifice}}

Some (but not all) religions practise [[animal sacrifice]], the [[ritual]] killing and offering of an animal to appease or maintain favour with a [[deity]]. It has been banned in [[India]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/sep/02/india-court-bans-animal-sacrifice-hindu-temples |title=Indian court bans animal sacrifice |agency=Agence France-Presse |newspaper=The Guardian |date=2 September 2014 |access-date=17 December 2016 |archive-date=27 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827053603/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/sep/02/india-court-bans-animal-sacrifice-hindu-temples |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Superstition ===
{{Further|Superstition|Magical thinking|Magic and religion}}

Greek and Roman pagans, who saw their relations with the gods in political and social terms, scorned the man who constantly trembled with fear at the thought of the gods (''deisidaimonia''), as a slave might fear a cruel and capricious master. The Romans called such fear of the gods ''superstitio''.<ref>{{cite book |editor=Veyne, Paul |title=A History of Private Life I: From Pagan Rome to Byzantium |date=1987 |page=211}}</ref> Ancient Greek historian [[Polybius]] described superstition in [[ancient Rome]] as an ''[[instrumentum regni]]'', an instrument of maintaining the cohesion of the [[Roman Empire|Empire]].<ref>Polybius, [[The Histories (Polybius)|The Histories]], VI 56.</ref>

Superstition has been described as the non-rational establishment of cause and effect.<ref>{{cite journal |name-list-style=amp |url=https://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~kfoster/FosterKokko2008%20Proc%20B%20superstition.pdf |author=Kevin R. Foster |author2=Hanna Kokko |title=The evolution of superstitious and superstition-like behaviour |journal=Proc. R. Soc. B |volume=276 |date=2009 |issue=1654 |pages=31–37 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2008.0981 |pmid=18782752 |pmc=2615824 |orig-date=Published online 9 September 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100728042608/https://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~kfoster/FosterKokko2008%20Proc%20B%20superstition.pdf |archive-date=28 July 2010 }}</ref> Religion is more complex and is often composed of social institutions and has a moral aspect. Some religions may include superstitions or make use of magical thinking. Adherents of one religion sometimes think of other religions as superstition.<ref>{{cite book |title=Religion Explained |last=Boyer |first=Pascal |year=2001 |chapter=Why Belief |author-link=Pascal Boyer |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wreF80OHTicC&q=%22fang+too+were+quite+amazed%22&pg=PA297 |title-link=Religion Explained |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-00696-0 }}{{Dead link|date=August 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Some [[atheists]], [[deists]], and [[skeptics]] regard religious belief as superstition.

The Roman Catholic Church considers superstition to be sinful in the sense that it denotes a lack of trust in the divine providence of God and, as such, is a violation of the first of the Ten Commandments. The [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]] states that superstition "in some sense represents a perverse excess of religion" (para. #2110). "Superstition", it says, "is a deviation of religious feeling and of the practices this feeling imposes. It can even affect the worship we offer the true God, e.g., when one attributes an importance in some way magical to certain practices otherwise lawful or necessary. To attribute the efficacy of prayers or of sacramental signs to their mere external performance, apart from the interior dispositions that they demand is to fall into superstition. Cf. Matthew 23:16–22" (para. #2111)

=== Agnosticism and atheism ===
{{Main|Atheism|Agnosticism|Irreligion|Humanism}}
The terms [[atheist]] (lack of belief in gods) and agnostic (belief in the unknowability of the existence of gods), though specifically contrary to theistic (e.g., Christian, Jewish, and Muslim) religious teachings, do not by definition mean the opposite of religious. The true opposite of religious is the word irreligious. [[Irreligion]] describes an absence of any religion; [[antireligion]] describes an active opposition or aversion toward religions in general. There are religions (including Buddhism and Taoism) that classify some of their followers as agnostic, atheistic, or [[nontheism|nontheistic]]. For example, in ancient India, there were large atheistic movements and traditions ([[Hindu atheism|Nirīśvaravāda]]) that rejected the [[Vedas]], such as the atheistic [[Ājīvika]] and the [[Ajñana]] which taught agnosticism.

=== Interfaith cooperation ===
{{Main|Interfaith dialogue}}
Because religion continues to be recognized in Western thought as a universal impulse, many religious practitioners<ref>{{cite web |last1=Raja Juli |first1=Antoni |title=The Role of Religion in Peacebuilding in Conflict-Torn Society in Southeast Asia |url=https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/data/UQ_345401/s4187186_phd_sumbmission.pdf?Expires=1610295553&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJKNBJ4MJBJNC6NLQ&Signature=hUJPv-OD7l7Jpt4ccMX7BNlW4QFHnj8-GboiYteu5igkrj5sG4AkHix54sEaPg1oo8y7JSVMxwJL~A~09lqYk5VZSsCsLGG5IdiBquOyIyNX8LtILuovzgJe9Fta1uQWoTsrpQlxb~XgW5Zc2b1GdzBxHYGNj62-mNpflOVRltbgemo8IeIot75xdcQr03KIX8L57V4sspfryKXa7aWdbe6QR7NId7VVrhsD-CRp6JDo-s-jnxKYhionmqASyeryiUCYwCpBzyqaMXPQ~fLccofFFJFVkfPd2wazbxO4AIcEbW8MHb4oiOavkqwG9SUrbQ-D8mkIbJsQ6xEAdGRDJA__ |publisher=The University of Queensland, Australia |access-date=10 January 2021}}</ref> have aimed to band together in [[Interfaith dialogue|interfaith]] dialogue, cooperation, and [[Religion and peacebuilding|religious peacebuilding]]. The first major dialogue was the [[Parliament of the World's Religions]] at the 1893 [[World's Columbian Exposition|Chicago World's Fair]], which affirmed universal values and recognition of the diversity of practices among different cultures.<ref>{{cite web |title=1893 Chicago {{!}} parliamentofreligions.org |url=https://parliamentofreligions.org/parliament/1893-chicago |website=parliamentofreligions.org |access-date=10 January 2021 |language=en |archive-date=27 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127075956/https://parliamentofreligions.org/parliament/1893-chicago |url-status=live }}</ref> The 20th century has been especially fruitful in use of interfaith dialogue as a means of solving ethnic, political, or even religious conflict, with [[Christian–Jewish reconciliation]] representing a complete reverse in the attitudes of many Christian communities towards Jews.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Miles |first1=Leroyce |title=Introduction to the Study of Religion |date=2018 |publisher=EDTECH |isbn=978-1-83947-363-0 |page=6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A-TEDwAAQBAJ&dq=The+20th+century+has+been+especially+fruitful+in+use+of+interfaith+dialogue+as+a+means+of+solving+ethnic,+political,+or+even+religious+conflict,+with+Christian%E2%80%93Jewish+reconciliation+representing+a+complete+reverse+in+the+attitudes+of+many+Christian+communities+towards+Jews&pg=PA6 |access-date=10 January 2021 |archive-date=16 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220216060614/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Introduction_to_the_Study_of_Religion/A-TEDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=The+20th+century+has+been+especially+fruitful+in+use+of+interfaith+dialogue+as+a+means+of+solving+ethnic%2C+political%2C+or+even+religious+conflict%2C+with+Christian%E2%80%93Jewish+reconciliation+representing+a+complete+reverse+in+the+attitudes+of+many+Christian+communities+towards+Jews&pg=PA6&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref>

Recent interfaith initiatives include A Common Word, launched in 2007 and focused on bringing Muslim and Christian leaders together,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://acommonword.com/|title=A Common Word Between Us and You|work=acommonword.com|access-date=16 February 2022|archive-date=10 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220210054700/https://www.acommonword.com/|url-status=live}}</ref> the "C1 World Dialogue",<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.c1worlddialogue.com/|title=konsoleH :: Login|work=c1worlddialogue.com|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110128195027/https://www.c1worlddialogue.com/|archive-date=28 January 2011}}</ref> the Common Ground initiative between Islam and Buddhism,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://islambuddhism.com/|title=Islam and Buddhism|work=islambuddhism.com|access-date=16 February 2022|archive-date=20 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120075808/https://www.islambuddhism.com/|url-status=live}}</ref> and a [[United Nations]] sponsored "World Interfaith Harmony Week".<ref>{{cite web|title=Home|url=https://worldinterfaithharmonyweek.com/|access-date=8 August 2020|website=World Interfaith Harmony Week|language=en-US|archive-date=7 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807190033/https://worldinterfaithharmonyweek.com/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://worldinterfaithharmonyweek.com/world-interfaith-harmony-week-resolution/|title=» World Interfaith Harmony Week UNGA Resolution A/65/PV.34|work=worldinterfaithharmonyweek.com|access-date=16 February 2022|archive-date=21 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170921082633/http://worldinterfaithharmonyweek.com/world-interfaith-harmony-week-resolution/|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Culture ===
Culture and religion have usually been seen as closely related.<ref name="14.1A: The Nature of Religion" /> [[Paul Tillich]] looked at religion as the soul of culture and culture as the form or framework of religion.<ref>Edward L. Queen, ''Encyclopedia of American Religious History, Volume 1'' Facts on File, 1996. p. vi.</ref> In his own words:
<blockquote>Religion as ultimate concern is the meaning-giving substance of culture, and culture is the totality of forms in which the basic concern of religion expresses itself. In abbreviation: religion is the substance of culture, culture is the form of religion. Such a consideration definitely prevents the establishment of a dualism of religion and culture. Every religious act, not only in organized religion, but also in the most intimate movement of the soul, is culturally formed.<ref>Paul Tillich, ''Theology of Culture'', Robert C. Kimball (ed), (Oxford University Press, 1959). p.42</ref></blockquote>
[[Ernst Troeltsch]], similarly, looked at culture as the soil of religion and thought that, therefore, transplanting a religion from its original culture to a foreign culture would kill it in the same manner that transplanting a plant from its natural soil to an alien soil would kill it.<ref>Eric J. Sharpe, "Religion and Cultures", An inaugural lecture delivered on 6 July 1977 by Eric J. Sharpe, Professor of Religious Studies in the University of Sydney. Accessed at [https://openjournals.library.sydney.edu.au/index.php/ART/article/download/5496/6167 Openjournals] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200414095017/https://openjournals.library.sydney.edu.au/index.php/ART/article/download/5496/6167 |date=14 April 2020 }} on 22 June 2018</ref> However, there have been many attempts in the modern pluralistic situation to distinguish culture from religion.<ref>See Taslima Nasreen, [https://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/story/i-say-three-cheers-for-ayaan/232289 "I Say, Three Cheers For Ayaan"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180622192721/https://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/story/i-say-three-cheers-for-ayaan/232289 |date=22 June 2018 }}, ''Outlook, The Magazine'' 28 August 2006. Also, Nemani Delaibatiki, [https://fijisun.com.fj/2017/07/08/religion-and-the-vanua/ "Religion and the Vanua"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506215535/https://fijisun.com.fj/2017/07/08/religion-and-the-vanua/ |date=6 May 2021 }} ''Fiji Sun'' 8 July 2017 in which the distinctive elements of culture against religion are taken from Domenic Marbaniang, [https://philpapers.org/bbs/thread.pl?tId=959 "Difference Between Culture and Religion: A Proposal Requesting Response"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180622165520/https://philpapers.org/bbs/thread.pl?tId=959 |date=22 June 2018 }}, 12 October 2014.</ref> Domenic Marbaniang has argued that elements grounded on beliefs of a metaphysical nature (religious) are distinct from elements grounded on nature and the natural (cultural). For instance, language (with its grammar) is a cultural element while sacralization of language in which a particular religious scripture is written is more often a religious practice. The same applies to music and the arts.<ref>Domenic Marbaniang, "The Gospel and Culture: Areas of Conflict, Consent, and Conversion", ''Journal of Contemporary Christian'' Vol. 6, No. 1 (Bangalore: CFCC, Aug 2014), {{ISSN|2231-5233}} pp. 7–17</ref>

== Criticism ==
{{Main|Criticism of religion}}
Criticism of religion is [[criticism]] of the ideas, the truth, or the practice of religion, including its political and social implications.<ref>{{cite book| last=Beckford|first=James A.|title=Social Theory and Religion| url=https://archive.org/details/socialtheoryreli00beck| url-access=limited| page=[https://archive.org/details/socialtheoryreli00beck/page/n11 2]| year=2003| publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-77431-4}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{portal|Religion}}
{{col div|colwidth=20em}}
* {{anl|Cosmogony}}
* {{anl|Cult}}
* {{anl|Index of religion-related articles}}
* {{anl|Life stance}}
* [[List of foods with religious symbolism]]
* [[List of religion-related awards]]
* [[List of religious texts]]
* {{anl|Matriarchal religion}}
* {{anl|Nontheistic religions}}
* {{anl|Outline of religion}}
* {{anl|Priest}}
* [[Religion and happiness]]
* {{anl|Religious conversion}}
* {{anl|Religious discrimination}}
* {{anl|Social conditioning}}
* {{anl|Socialization}}
* {{anl|Theocracy}}
* [[Theology of religions]]
{{colend}}

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|group=note|30em}}

== References ==
{{reflist|22em}}

== Sources ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
;Primary
* Lao Tzu; ''Tao Te Ching'' (Victor H. Mair translator); Bantam (1998).
* ''The Holy Bible'', King James Version; New American Library (1974).
* ''The Koran''; Penguin (2000), {{ISBN|0-14-044558-7}}.
* ''The Origin of Live & Death'', African Creation Myths; Heinemann (1966).
* ''Poems of Heaven and Hell from Ancient Mesopotamia''; Penguin (1971).
* ''Selected Work'' Marcus Tullius Cicero

;Secondary
* Yves Coppens, ''Origines de l'homme – De la matière à la conscience'', De Vive Voix, Paris, 2010
* Yves Coppens, ''La preistoria dell'uomo'', Jaca Book, Milano, 2011
* Descartes, René; ''Meditations on First Philosophy''; Bobbs-Merrill (1960), {{ISBN|0-672-60191-5}}.
* Dow, James W. (2007), ''[https://www.anpere.net/2007/2.pdf A Scientific Definition of Religion] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211022153443/http://www.anpere.net/2007/2.pdf |date=22 October 2021 }}''
* {{citation |last=Dundas |first=Paul |author-link=Paul Dundas |title=The Jains |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ |edition=Second |date=2002 |orig-date=1992 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-415-26605-5 |access-date=17 March 2018 |archive-date=22 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170122135027/https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}
* Durant, Will (& Ariel (uncredited)); ''Our Oriental Heritage''; MJF Books (1997), {{ISBN|1-56731-012-5}}.
* Durant, Will (& Ariel (uncredited)); ''Caesar and Christ''; MJF Books (1994), {{ISBN|1-56731-014-1}}
* Durant, Will (& Ariel (uncredited)); ''The Age of Faith''; Simon & Schuster (1980), {{ISBN|0-671-01200-2}}.
* {{cite book|last=Durkheim|first=Emile|date=1915|url=https://archive.org/details/elementaryformso00durkrich|title=The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life|location=London|publisher=George Allen & Unwin}}
* {{cite book|last=Geertz|first=Clifford|date=1993|chapter=Religion as a cultural system|title=The interpretation of cultures: selected essays, Geertz, Clifford|location=London|publisher=Fontana Press|pages=87–125}}
* [[Marija Gimbutas]] 1989. ''The Language of the Goddess''. Thames and Hudson New York
* Gonick, Larry; ''The Cartoon History of the Universe''; Doubleday, vol. 1 (1978) {{ISBN|0-385-26520-4}}, vol. II (1994) {{ISBN|0-385-42093-5}}, W.W. Norton, vol. III (2002) {{ISBN|0-393-05184-6}}.
* Haisch, Bernard ''The God Theory: Universes, Zero-point Fields, and What's Behind It All''—discussion of science vs. religion ([https://archive.today/20121204150309/https://www.thegodtheory.com/preface.html Preface]), Red Wheel/Weiser, 2006, {{ISBN|1-57863-374-5}}
* {{cite book|last=James|first=William|date=1902|url=https://archive.org/details/varietiesreligi02jamegoog|title=The Varieties of Religious Experience. A Study in Human Nature|publisher=Longmans, Green, and Co.}}
* Khanbaghi, A., ''The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early Modern Iran'' (IB Tauris; 2006) 268 pages. Social, political and cultural history of religious minorities in Iran, c. 226–1722 AD.
* King, Winston, ''Religion'' [First Edition]. In: ''Encyclopedia of Religion''. Ed. Lindsay Jones. Vol. 11. 2nd ed. Detroit: Macmillan Reference US, 2005. pp. 7692–7701.
* [[Andrey Korotayev|Korotayev, Andrey]], ''World Religions and Social Evolution of the Old World Oikumene Civilizations: A Cross-cultural Perspective'', [[Lewiston, New York]]: [[Edwin Mellen Press]], 2004, {{ISBN|0-7734-6310-0}}.
* McKinnon, Andrew M. (2002), [https://aura.abdn.ac.uk/bitstream/2164/3073/1/McKinnon_Definition_of_Religion_author_version_no_format.pdf "Sociological Definitions, Language Games and the 'Essence' of Religion"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304070842/http://aura.abdn.ac.uk/bitstream/2164/3073/1/McKinnon_Definition_of_Religion_author_version_no_format.pdf |date=4 March 2016 }}. Method & theory in the study of religion, vol 14, no. 1, pp. 61–83.
* {{cite journal |last=Massignon |first=Louis |author-link=Louis Massignon |title=Les trois prières d'Abraham, père de tous les croyants |journal=Dieu Vivant |volume=13 |year=1949 |pages=20–23 }}
* Palmer, Spencer J., ''et al.''. ''Religions of the World: a Latter-day Saint [Mormon] View''. 2nd general ed., tev. and enl. Provo, Utah: Brigham Young University, 1997. xv, 294 p., ill. {{ISBN|0-8425-2350-2}}
* {{Citation |last=Pals |first=Daniel L. |year=2006 |title=Eight Theories of Religion |publisher=Oxford University Press}}
* Ramsay, Michael, ''Abp.'' ''Beyond Religion?'' Cincinnati, Ohio: Forward Movement Publications, (cop. 1964).
* Saler, Benson; ''Conceptualizing Religion: Immanent Anthropologists, Transcendent Natives, and Unbounded Categories'' (1990), {{ISBN|1-57181-219-9}}
* Schuon, Frithjof. ''The Transcendent Unity of Religions'', in series, ''Quest Books.'' 2nd Quest ... rev. ed. Wheaton, Ill.: Theosophical Publishing House, 1993, cop. 1984. xxxiv, 173 p. {{ISBN|0-8356-0587-6}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | first=Robert A | last=Segal | title=Theories of Religion | editor-first=John R. | editor-last=Hinnells| encyclopedia=The Routledge Companion to the Study of Religion | year=2005 | location=London; New York | publisher=Routledge | pages=49–60}}
* {{Citation |last=Stausberg |first=Michael |year=2009 |title=Contemporary Theories of religion |publisher=Routledge}}
* {{cite book |last1=Toropov |first1=Brandon |last2=Buckles |first2=Luke |date=2011 |title=Guide to World Religions |publisher=Penguin}}
* [[Anthony F. C. Wallace|Wallace, Anthony F.C.]] 1966. ''Religion: An Anthropological View''. New York: [[Random House]]. (pp. 62–66)
* ''The World Almanac'' (annual), World Almanac Books, {{ISBN|0-88687-964-7}}.
* ''The World Almanac'' (for numbers of adherents of various religions), 2005
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
;Encyclopedias
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Britannica Encyclopedia of World Religions |url={{Google books|id=IDsk47MeksAC|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |editor-surname=Doniger |editor-given=Wendy |editor-link=Wendy Doniger |publisher=[[Encyclopaedia Britannica]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-1593392666}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|year=2004 |editor-surname=Jones |editor-given=Lindsay |title=Encyclopedia of Religion |edition=2 |place=New York |publisher=MacMillan Reference |volume=1–15 |isbn=0029094801}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |editor-surname=Juergensmeyer |editor-given=Mark |editor-link=Mark Juergensmeyer |editor-surname2=Roof |editor-given2=Wade Clark |year=2012 |title=Encyclopedia of Global Religion |url={{Google books|id=B105DQAAQBAJ|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |place=Los Angeles, Ca |publisher=SAGE Publ. |volume=1 |isbn=978-0-7619-2729-7}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|year=2010 |editor-surname1=Melton |editor-given1=J. Gordon |editor-surname2=Baumann |editor-given2=Martin |editor-link1=J. Gordon Melton |title=Religions of the world: a comprehensive encyclopedia of beliefs and practices |edition=2nd |place=Santa Barbara, Cal.; Denver, Colo.; Oxford |publisher=ABC-Clio |volume=1–6 |url={{Google books|id=v2yiyLLOj88C|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |isbn=978-1-59884-203-6}}
* Rigg, Thomas, ed. ''Worldmark encyclopedia of religious practices''. 3 vols. Detroit, Mich.: Thomson/Gale, 2006.
* Smith, Jonathan Z., et al., eds. ''HarperCollins Dictionary of Religion''. San Francisco, Cal.: HarperSanFrancisco, 1995.
* {{cite encyclopedia |year=2004 |editor1=Walter, Mariko Namba |editor2=Neumann Fridman |editor3=Eva Jane |title=Shamanism: An Encyclopedia of World Beliefs, Practices, and Culture |place=Santa Barbara, Ca; Denver, Co; Oxford |publisher=ABC-Clio |volume=1 |isbn=9781576076453}}

;Handbooks
* Barrett, Justin L., ed. ''The Oxford handbook of the cognitive science of religion''. NY: Oxford University Press, 2022.
* Clayton, Philip, ed. ''The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Science''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
* Corrigan, John, ed. ''The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Emotion''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016.
* Gottlieb, Roger S., ed. ''The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Ecology''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.
* Hinnells, John, ed. ''The Penguin handbook of the world's living religions'', rev. edn. London: Penguin, 2010.
* Jenkins, Willis, et al., eds. ''Routledge Handbook of Religion and Ecology''. Abingdon: Routledge, 2018.
* Juergensmeyer, Mark, Margo Kitts, & Michael Jerryson, eds. ''The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Violence''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.
* Narayanan, Vasudha, ed. ''The Wiley Blackwell companion to religion and materiality''. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Blackwell, 2020.
* Paloutzian, Raymond & Crystal L. Park, eds. ''Handbook of the psychology of religion and spirituality'', 2nd edn. NY: Guilford, 2013.

;Monographs
* {{cite book|chapter=[[s:Sermons from the Latins/Sermon 48|Sermon 48: The Necessity of Religion.]] |title=Sermons from the Latins|year=1902|publisher= Benziger Brothers |first=Robert |last=Bellarmine|author-link=Robert Bellarmine}}
* Bloesch, Sarah J. & Meredith Minister, eds. ''Cultural approaches to studying religion: an introduction to theories and methods''. London/NY: Bloomsbury Academic, 2019.
* Cox, James L. ''An introduction to the phenomenology of religion''. London: Continuum, 2010.
* Day, Matthew. ''No bosses, no gods: Marx, Engels, and the twenty-first century study of religion''. Berlin: De Gruyter, 2023.
* Hedges, Paul. ''Understanding religion: theories and methods for studying religiously diverse societies''. Oakland, Cal.: University of California Press, 2021.
* [[Ronald F. Inglehart|Inglehart, Ronald F.]], "Giving Up on God: The Global Decline of Religion", ''[[Foreign Affairs]]'', vol. 99, no. 5 (September / October 2020), pp. 110–118.
* {{cite book |last1=James |first1=Paul |last2=Mandaville |first2=Peter |year=2010 |name-list-style=amp |title=Globalization and Culture, Vol. 2: Globalizing Religions |location=London |url=https://www.academia.edu/4416072 |publisher=Sage Publ.}}
* Kessler, Gary. ''Fifty key thinkers on religion''. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.
* Kunin, Seth Daniel. ''Religion: The Modern Theories''. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003.
* Lang, Andrew (1909). [https://archive.org/details/makingofreligion00languoft/ The Making of Religion]. 3rd ed. Longmans, Green, and Co.
* {{cite book |last=Levy |first=Gabriel |title=Beyond Heaven and Earth: A Cognitive Theory of Religion |publisher=[[MIT Press]] |isbn=9780262367684 |year=2022 |url=https://direct.mit.edu/books/oa-monograph/5257/Beyond-Heaven-and-EarthA-Cognitive-Theory-of}}
* Livingston, John. ''Anatomy of the Sacred: An Introduction to Religion'', 6th edn. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 2009.
* Luhmann, Niklas. ''A systems theory of religion''. Trans. by David A. Brenner & Adrian Hermann. Stanford, Cal.: Stanford University Press, 2013.
* Marx, Karl & Friedrich Engels. ''On Religion''. Compiled by Saul Kussiel Padover. Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1957. 384 p. (repr. Mineola, NY: Dover, 2008)
* [[Moojan Momen|Momen, Moojan]]. ''The Phenomenon of Religion: A Thematic Approach''. Oxford: Oneworld, 1999 (repr. 2009).
* Monk, Robert C., et al. ''Exploring religious meaning'', 6th edn. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2003.
* Noss, John B. (1980). ''Man's Religions'', 6th edn.; New York: Macmillan. ''N.B''.: The first ed. appeared in 1949, {{ISBN|978-0-02-388430-6}}. {{OCLC|4665144}}.
* Pals, Daniel L. ''Ten theories of religion'', 4th edn. NY: Oxford University Press, 2022.
* Raines, John, ed. ''Marx on Religion''. Philadelphia, Penn.: Temple University Press, 2002.
* [[Ninian Smart|Smart, Ninian]]. ''The Religious Experience'', 5th edn. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1996.
* Strenski, Ivan. ''Understanding theories of religion: an introduction'', 2nd edn. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2015.
* Vásquez, Manuel A. ''More than belief: a materialist theory of religion''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011.
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Religion}}
{{Wikiquote|Religion}}
{{Wikivoyage|Religion and spirituality}}
{{Wikiversity|at=Real Good Religion}}
{{Library resources box|onlinebooks=yes}}
* {{Sep entry|concept-religion|The Concept of Religion|Kevin Schilbrack}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160110065737/https://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/us/religion.htm Religion Statistics] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''
* {{usurped|[https://web.archive.org/web/20110422093857/https://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents]}} by Adherents.com August 2005
* [https://www.as.ua.edu/rel/studyingreligion.html Studying Religion] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120229191224/http://www.as.ua.edu/rel/studyingreligion.html |date=29 February 2012 }} – Introduction to the methods and scholars of the academic study of religion
* [https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1843/critique-hpr/intro.htm#05 A Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right] – Marx's original reference to religion as the ''opium of the people''.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120215004018/https://www.law.harvard.edu/students/orgs/hrj/iss16/gunn.shtml The Complexity of Religion and the Definition of "Religion" in International Law] – Harvard Human Rights Journal article from the President and Fellows of Harvard College (2003)
* [https://www.sociologyofreligion.net/ Sociology of Religion Resources]

{{Religion topics|state=expanded}}
{{World view}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Religion| ]]
[[Category:Main topic articles]]

List of Indian monarchs

2026-03-18T21:27:03Z

IgnacioElem3: minor cleanup

{{Short description|none}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}

This article is a list of the various dynasties and monarchs that have ruled in the Indian subcontinent and it is one of several [[lists of incumbents]].
[[File:Indian Subcontinent (orthographic projection).svg|thumb|The [[Indian subcontinent]], the main centre of Indian culture]]

The [[Mahajanapada|earliest Indian rulers]] are known from epigraphical sources found in archeological inscriptions on [[Edicts of Ashoka|Ashokan edicts]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Alexander |title=Inscriptions of Asoka |year=1877 |url=https://archive.org/details/inscriptionsaso00hultgoog |language=en }}</ref><ref>Inscriptions of Asoka de D.C. Sircar [https://books.google.com/books?id=1_omDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT30 p.30]</ref> written in Pali language and using brahmi script. They are also known from the literary sources like [[Sanskrit literature]], [[Jain literature]] and [[Buddhist literature]] in context of [[Indian literature|literary sources]]. [[Pottery in the Indian subcontinent|Archaeological sources]] include archeological remains in [[Indian subcontinent]] which give many details about earlier kingdoms, monarchs, and their interactions with each other.

Early types of historic documentation include [[Coinage of India|metal coins]] with an indication of the ruler, or at least the [[dynasty]], at the time. These [[Punch-marked coins]] were issued around 600s BCE and are found in abundance from the [[Maurya Empire]] in 300s BCE. There are also [[Early Indian epigraphy|stone inscriptions]] and documentary records from foreign cultures from around this time. The main imperial or quasi-imperial rulers of [[North India]] are fairly clear from this point on, but many local rulers, and the situation in the [[Deccan]] and [[South India]] has less clear stone inscriptions from early centuries. Main sources of [[South India]]n history is [[Sangam Literature]] dated from 300s BCE. Time period of ancient Indian rulers is speculative, or at least uncertain.

== Vedic India (c. 2000s – 200s BCE) ==
{{see also|Outline of ancient India|Iron Age in India|Vedic Period|Janapada|Mahajanapada}}

=== Kingdom of Magadha ===
[[List of monarchs of Magadha]]

=== Kingdom of Kashmir ===
[[List of monarchs of Kashmir]]

=== Gandhara Kingdom (c. 1500 – 518 BCE) ===
[[Gandhara Kingdom#Rulers|Kings of Gandhara]]

=== Kuru Kingdom (c. 1200 – 345 BCE) ===
[[List of Kuru kings]]

=== Kingdom of Avanti (c. 1100 – 400 BCE) ===
[[Haiheya Kingdom|Haiheyas]]
# Maharaj Adarsh
# Maharaj Ayu
# Maharaj Nahusha
# Maharaj Yayati
# Maharaj Yadu
# Sahasrajit
# Satajit
# Mahahaya, Renuhaya and Haihaya (the founder of Haihaya Kingdom). (Contemporary to Suryavanshi king Mandhatri)
# Dharma was the son of Haihaya.
# Netra
# Kunti
# Sohanji
# Mahishman was the founder of [[Mahishmati]] on the banks of River Narmada.
# Bhadrasenaka (Bhadrasena) (Contemporary to Suryavanshi king [[Trishanku]])
# Durmada (Contemporary to Suryavanshi king Harischandra)
# Durdama
# Bhima
# Samhata
# Kanaka
# Dhanaka
# Krtavirya, Krtagni, Krtavarma and Krtauja. (Contemporary to Suryavanshi king [[Rohitashva]])
# Sahasrabahu [[Kartavirya Arjuna]] was the son of Krtavirya who ruled 88 years and was finally killed by Lord [[Parashurama]].
# Jayadhwaja, Vrshabha, Madhu and Urujit were left by Parshurama and 995 others were killed by Lord Parashurama. Pajanya was adopted by Kroshta king Devamidha
# Talajangha (Contemporary to Suryavanshi king Asita)
# Vithihotra (Contemporary to Suryavanshi king Sagara)
# Madhu
# Vrshni
[[Pradyota dynasty]]

=== Videha (c. 1100 – 700 BCE) ===
[[Videha#Rulers|Kings of Videha]]

# [[Videgha Mathava]] - Founder of Videha
# [[Nimi (king)|Nimi]] - Earliest ancestor of [[Janaka|Janaka Dynasty]]
# [[King Mithi|Mithi]] - First Janaka and founder of Mithila
# Udavasu - Second Janaka
# Nandivardhana - Third Janaka
# Suketu - Fourth Janaka
# [[Devarata Janaka]] - Fifth Janaka
# Brihadvrata
# Mahavira
# Sudhriti
# Dristaketu
# Haryasva
# Maru
# Pratindhaka
# Kritiratha
# Devamidha
# Vibhuta
# Mahidhrata
# Kirtirata
# Mahorama
# Svarnorama
# [[Hrasvaroman Janaka|Hrasvaroma]]
# [[Janaka|Seeradhvaja]] (father of Sita in [[Ramayana]]) - Twenty first Janaka
# [[Bhanumaan Janaka|Bhaanumaan]]
# Shatadyumna
# Shuchi
# Oorjanaamaa
# Kriti
# Anjana
# Kurujit
# Arishtanemi
# Shrutaayu
# Supaarshva
# Srinjaya
# Kshemaavee
# Anenaa
# Bhaumaratha
# Satyaratha
# Upagu
# Upagupta
# Svaagata
# Svaananda
# Suvarchaa
# Supaarshwa
# Subhaasha
# Sushruta
# Jaya
# Vijaya
# Rita
# Sunaya
# Veetahavya
# Dhriti
# [[Bahulashva Janaka|Bahulashva]]
# Kriti
Apart from the above list of Janakas, there more Janakas mentioned in different texts
# [[Karala Janaka]]
# [[Dharmadhwaja Janaka]]
# [[Janadeva Janaka]]

=== Kalinga Kingdom (c. 1100 – 261 BCE) ===
[[Kalinga (historical region)#Ancient Kalinga : Kalinga Kingdom (c. 1100 – 261 BCE)|Kings of Kalinga]]

=== Kosala Kingdom (c. 1100 – 345 BCE) ===
Kings of Kosala:<ref>Misra, V.S. (2007). ''Ancient Indian Dynasties'', Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, {{ISBN|81-7276-413-8}}, pp.283-8, 384</ref>
* [[Brihadbala]]
* Brihatkshaya
* Urukriya
* Vatsavyuha
* Prativyoma
* Bhaanu
* Divakara
* Veer Sahadeva
* Brihadashva
* Bhanuratha
* Pratitashva
* Supratika
* Marudeva
* Sunakshatra
* Pushkara
* Antariksha
* Suvarna
* Bruhadaraaj
* Kritanjaya
* Ranajjaya
* [[Kosala#History|Sanjaya Mahakoshala]] or Jayasena
* [[Pasenadi|Prasenajit]]
* [[Viḍūḍabha|Virudhaka]]
* [[King Sumitra|Sumitra]]

=== Panchala Kingdom (c. 1100 BCE – 350 CE) ===
Kings of Panchala:
* Rishin
* Brihadbhanu, (son of Brihadvasu)
* Brihatkaya
* Puranjaya
* Riksha
* Bramhyaswa
* Aramyaswa
* Mudgala, Yavinara, Pratiswan, Maharaja Kampilya - (founder of [[Kampilya]] capital of [[Panchala Kingdom (Mahabharata)|Panchala Kingdom]])
* Sranjaya, (son of Aramyaswa)
* Dritimana
* Drdhanemi
* Sarvasena, (founder of [[Avanti Kingdom (Mahabharata)|Ujjain Kingdom]])
* Mitra
* Rukmaratha
* Suparswa
* Sumathi
* Sannatimana
* Krta
* Pijavana
* Somadutta
* Jantuvahana
* Badhrayaswa
* Brihadhishu
* Brihadhanu
* Brihadkarma
* Jayaratha
* Visvajit
* Seinyajit
* Nepavirya, (after this King's name the country was named Nepaldesh)
* Samara
* Sadashva
* Ruchiraswa
* Pruthusena
* Prapti
* Prthaswa
* Sukrthi
* Vibhiraja
* Anuha
* Bramhadatta II
* Vishwaksena
* Dandasena
* Durmukha
* Durbuddhi
* Dharbhya
* Divodasa
* Sivana I
* Mitrayu
* Maitrayana
* Soma
* Sivana II
* Sadasana
* Sahadeva
* Somaka, (Somaka's eldest son was Sugandakrthu and youngest was Prishata. But in a war all sons died and Prishata Survived and became the king of Panchala)
* [[Prishati]], (son of Somaka)
* [[Drupada]], (son of Prishata)
* [[Dhrishtadyumna]], (was the son of Drupada, [[Draupadi]] and [[Shikhandi]] were the daughters of Drupada)
* [[Keśin Dālbhya]]
* [[Pravahana Jaivali]]
* [[Achyuta of Panchala|Achyuta]], (last known ruler of Panchala Kingdom which was defeated in c. 350 CE by [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] ruler [[Samudragupta]].)

=== Anga Kingdom (c. 1100 – 530 BCE) ===
Kings of Anga:
* Maharaj Anga - (founder of the kingdom and son of King [[Bali (Chandravanshi)|Bali]])
* [[King Romapada|Romapada]]
* [[Brihadratha]]
* [[Karna|Angaraj Karna]]
* [[Vrishaketu]] - (son of Karna)
* Tamralipta
* Lomapada
* Chitraratha
* Vrihadratha
* Vasuhoma
* Dhatarattha
* Dhadivahana
* [[Brahmadatta of Anga|Brahmadatta]] - (last king of Anga kingdom)

=== Kamboja Kingdom (c. 700 – 200 BCE) ===
Kings of Kamboja:
* [[Kamatha]]
* [[Chandravarma Kamboja]]
* [[Kamatha Kamboja]]
* [[Prapaksha Kamboja]]
* [[Sudakshina Kamboja]]
* [[Srindra Varmana Kamboj]]

=== Shakya Republic (c. 7th to 5th century BCE) ===
Rulers of Shakya:
* [[Shakya]]
* [[Sihahanu]]
* [[Śuddhodana]]
* [[Gautama Buddha|Siddhartha Shakya]] (aka [[Gautama Buddha]])
* [[Rāhula]]
''Later [[Shakya|Shakya Republic]] was conquered by [[Viḍūḍabha|Virudhaka]] of [[Kosala]].''

=== Kingdom of Tambapanni (c. 543 – 437 BCE) ===

{|style="text-align:center; width:100%" class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" width="9%" | Portrait
! rowspan="2" width="20%" | Name
! rowspan="2" width="9%" | Birth
! rowspan="2" width="9%" | Death
! colspan="2" width="9%" | Reign (BCE)
! rowspan="2" width="9%" | Marriages
! rowspan="2" width="26%" | Claim
|-
!Start
!End
|-
|[[File:The Consecration Of King Sinhala-Prince Vijaya (Detail From The Ajanta Mural Of Cave No 17).jpg|100px|Vijaya]]
||'''[[Prince Vijaya|Vijaya]]'''
||? [[Sinhapura]] son of [[Sinhabahu]], and [[Sinhasivali]]
||505 [[Tambapanni]]
||543
||505
||[[Kuveni]] two children [[Pandyan dynasty|Pandu Princes]]
||Founded [[Sinhala Kingdom|Kingdom]] Marriage to [[Kuveni]]
|-
|||''[[Upatissa (regent)|Upatissa]]'' ''(regent)''
||-
||-
||505
||504
||
||Prince Vijaya's Chief Minister
|-
|||'''[[Panduvasdeva of Tambapanni|Panduvasdeva]]'''
||-
||-
||504
||474
||
||Nephew of Vijaya
|-
|||'''[[Abhaya of Tambapanni|Abhaya]]'''
||-
||-
||474
||454
||
||Son of Panduvasdeva
|-
|||''[[Prince Tissa|Tissa]]'' ''(regent)''
||-
||-
||454
||437
||
||Younger brother of Abhaya
|}

== Ancient and early medieval Southern Indian dynasties ==
{{see also|History of Southern India|Tamilakam|}}

=== Pandya dynasty (c. 600 BCE–1650 CE) ===
{{main|Pandya dynasty}}

====Early Pandyans====
{{main|Early Pandyan kingdom}}
* [[Koon Pandiyan]] - ''(Earliest Known Pandyan king)''
* [[Nedunjeliyan I|Nedunj Cheliyan I]] ''(Aariyap Padai Kadantha Nedunj Cheliyan)'', he was mentioned in legend of [[Kannagi (Tamil mythology)|Kannagi]]
* Pudappandiyan
* Mudukudumi Paruvaludhi
* [[Nedunjeliyan II|Nedunj Cheliyan II]] ''(Pasumpun Pandiyan)''
* Nan Maran
* Nedunj Cheliyan III ''(Talaiyaalanganathu Seruvendra Nedunj Cheliyan)''
* Maran Valudi
* Musiri Mutriya Cheliyan
* Ukkirap Peruvaluthi

====Middle Pandyans (c. 590–920 CE)====
* [[Kadungon]] (590–620 CE)
* [[Maravarman Avani Culamani]] (c. 620–645 CE)
* [[Jayantavarman]] (c. 645–670 CE)
* [[Arikesari Maravarman|Arikesari Maravarman Nindraseer Nedumaaran]] (c. 670–710 CE)
* [[Kochadaiyan Ranadhiran]] (710–735 CE)
* [[Maravarman Rajasimha I|Arikesari Parankusa Maravarman Rajasimha I]] (735–765)
* Parantaka Nedunjadaiyan (765–815)
* Rasasingan II (790–800)
* Varagunan I (800–830)
* [[Srimara Srivallabha]] (815–862)
* [[Varagunavarman II]] (862–880)
* Parantaka Viranarayana (880–900)
* [[Maravarman Rajasimha II]] (900–920)

====Pandyans under Chola Empire (c. 920–1216 CE)====
* Sundara Pandyan I
* Vira Pandyan I
* Vira Pandyan II
* Amarabhujanga Tivrakopa
* Jatavarman Sundara Chola Pandyan
* Maravarman Vikrama Chola Pandyan
* Maravarman Parakrama Chola Pandyan
* Jatavarman Chola Pandya
* Seervallabha Manakulachala (1101–1124)
* Maaravaramban Seervallaban (1132–1161)
* [[Parakrama Pandyan I]] (1161–1162)
* Kulasekara Pandyan III
* Vira Pandyan III
* Jatavarman Srivallaban (1175–1180)
* [[Jatavarman Kulasekaran I]] (1190–1216)

==== Pandalam dynasty (Later Pandyans) (c. 1212–1345 CE) ====
{{main|Pandalam dynasty}}
* [[Parakrama Pandyan II]] (1212–1215)
* [[Maravarman Sundara Pandyan]] (1216–1238)
* [[Sadayavarman Kulasekaran II]] (1238–1240)
* [[Maravarman Sundara Pandyan II]] (1238–1251)
* [[Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan]] (1251–1268)
* [[Maaravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I]] (1268–1308)
* Sundara Pandyan IV (1309–1327)
* Vira Pandyan IV (1309–1345)

====Tenkasi Pandya dynasty (c. 1422–1650 CE)====
{{main|Tenkasi Pandyas}}

During the 15th century, the Pandyans lost their traditional capital city [[Madurai]] because of the Islamic and [[Madurai Nayak dynasty|Nayaks]] invasion, and were forced to move their capital to [[Tirunelveli]] in southern [[Tamilakam]] and existed there as vassals.
* Cataiyavarman Parakrama Pandyan (1422–1463)
* Cataiyavarman III Kulasekara Pandyan (1429–1473)
* [[Azhagan Perumal Parakrama Pandyan]] (1473–1506)
* Kulasekara Pandyan (1479–1499)
* Cataiyavarman Civallappa Pandyan (1534–1543)
* Parakrama Kulasekara Pandyan (1543–1552)
* Nelveli Maran (1552–1564)
* Cataiyavarman Adiveerama Pandyan (1564–1604)
* Varathunga Pandyan (1588–1612)
* Varakunarama Pandyan (1613–1618)
* Kollankondan (1618–1650){{citation needed|date=March 2025}}

=== Chera dynasty (c. 600 BCE–1530 CE) ===
[[Chera dynasty#Cheras from early Tamil texts|Ancient Chera kings]]

[[Kongu Chera dynasty#Kongu Chera genealogy|Kongu Cheras (c. 400–844 CE)]]

[[Chera dynasty#Chera Perumal genealogy|Makotai Cheras]]

Venadu Cheras (Kulasekharas) (c. 1090–1530 CE):
* [[Rama Varma Kulashekhara|Rama Kulasekhara]] (1090–1102)
* Kotha Varma Marthandam (1102–1125)
* Vira Kerala Varma I (1125–1145)
* Kodai Kerala Varma (1145–1150)
* Vira Ravi Varma (1145–1150)
* Vira Kerala Varma II (1164–1167)
* Vira Aditya Varma (1167–1173)
* Vira Udaya Martanda Varma (1173–1192)
* Devadaram Vira Kerala Varma III (1192–1195)
* Vira Manikantha Rama Varma Tiruvadi (1195- ?)
* Vira Rama Kerala Varma Tiruvadi (1209–1214)
* Vira Ravi Kerala Varma Tiruvadi (1214–1240)
* Vira Padmanabha Martanda Varma Tiruvadi (1240–1252)
* Ravi Varma (1252–1313)
* Vira Udaya Martanda Varma (1313–1333)
* Aditya Varma Tiruvadi (1333–1335)
* Vira Rama Udaya Martanda Varma Tiruvadi (1335–1342)
* Vira Kerala Varma Tiruvadi (1342–1363)
* Vira Martanda Varma III (1363–1366)
* Vira Rama Martanda Varma (1366–1382)
* Vira Ravi Varma (1383–1416)
* Vira Ravi Ravi Varma (1416–1417)
* Vira Kerala Martanda Varma (1383)
* Chera Udaya Martanda Varma (1383–1444)
* Vira Ravi Varma (1444–1458)
* Sankhara Sri Vira Rama Martanda Varma (1458–1468)
* Vira Kodai Sri Aditya Varma (1468–1484
* [[Vira Ravi Ravi Varma]] (1484–1503)
* Martanda Varma, Kulasekhara Perumal (1503–1504)
* Vira Ravi Kerala Varma, Kulasekhara Perumal (1504–1530)

=== Chola dynasty (c. 600 BCE–1279 CE) ===
==== Ancient Chola kings (c. 600 BCE – 300 CE) ====
* Eri Oliyan Vaendhi
* Maandhuvaazhi
* El Mei Nannan
* Keezhai Kinjuvan
* Vazhisai Nannan
* Mei Kiyagusi Aerru
* Aai Kuzhi Agusi Aerru
* Thizhagan Maandhi
* Maandhi Vaelan
* Aai Adumban
* [[Ilamcetcenni]]
* [[Karikala Chola]]
* [[Nedunkilli]]
* [[Nalankilli]]
* [[Killivalavan]]
* [[Perunarkilli]]
* [[Kocengannan]]
* Nalluruththiran

==== [[Chola Empire#Emperors|Chola emperors (848 – 1279 AD)]] ====

=== Velir dynasties (c. 300 BCE–1200 CE) ===
{{main|Velirs}}
Major dynasties of Velir are-
* [[Vēl Pāri]]
* [[Ilanji Vel]]
* [[Irunkōvēl]]
* [[Athiyamān]]
* [[Malayamān]]
* [[Malaiyamān Thirumudi Kāri]]
* [[Athiyamān Nedumān Añci]]
* [[Vaiyāvik Kōpperum Pēkan]]

=== Ay dynasty (Velir) (c. 300 BCE–800 CE) ===
{{main|Ay dynasty}}

==== Early Ay Kings ====
* [[Ay Andiran]]
* [[Ay Titiyan (the Podiyil Chelvan)|Ay Titiyan]]
* Ay Atiyan

==== Medieval Ay Kings ====
* [[Chadayan Karunanthan]]
* [[Karunanthadakkkan Srivallabha]] (r. 856–884 CE)
* [[Vikramaditya Varaguna]] (r. 884–911 CE)

=== Pallava dynasty (c. 275 – 897 CE) ===
{{Main|Pallava dynasty#Chronology}}

=== Kadamba dynasties (c. 345–1310 CE) ===
==== Principality of Banavasi (c. 345–540 CE) ====
{{main|Kadamba dynasty}}

'''Banavasi branch rulers-'''
* [[Mayurasharma]] (345–365)
* Kangavarma (365–390)
* Bhageerath (390–415)
* Raghu (415–435)
* [[Kakusthavarma]] (435–455)
* Santivarma (455–460)
* Shiva Mandhatri (460–475)
* Mrigeshavarma (475–485)
* Ravivarma (485–519)
* Harivarma (519–530)

'''Triparvatha branch rulers-'''
* Krishna Varma I (455–475)
* Vishnuvarma (475–485)
* Simhavarma (485–516)
* [[Krishna Varma II]] (516–540)

==== Principality of Goa (c. 960–1345 CE) ====
{{main|Kadambas of Goa}}
* Shashthadeva I alis Kantakacharya (c. 960 CE), founder of dynasty
* Nagavarma
* Guhalladeva I
* Shashathadeva II
* Guhalladeva II (1038–1042)
* Veeravarmadeva ( 1042–1054)
* Jayakeshi I (1054–1080)
* Guhalladeva II alias Tribhuvanamalla (1080–1125)
* Vijayaditya I alias Vijayarka, (ruling prince up to 1104)
* Jayakeshi II (1125–1148)
* Shivachitta alis Paramadideva ( 1148–1179)
* Vishnuchitta alias Vijayaditya II (1179–1187)
* Jayakeshi III (1188–1216)
* Vajradeva alis Shivachitta (regin?)
* Sovideva alis Tribhuvanamalla (1216–1246?)
* Shashthadeva III (?1246–1265)
* Kamadeva (1265–1310), last known ruler of dynasty

==== Principality of Hangal (c. 980–1275 CE) ====
{{main|Kadambas of Hangal}}

;known rulers are-
* Chattadeva (980–1031), founder of dynasty
* Kamadeva
* Somadeva
* Mayuravarma

==== Other minor Kadamba principalities ====
;[[Kadambas of Halasi]]
;Kadambas of Bankapur
;Kadambas of Bayalnad
;Kadambas of Nagarkhanda
;Kadambas of Uchchangi
;Kadambas of Bayalnadu (Vainadu)

=== Chutu dynasty of Banavasi (c. 100 BCE–200 CE) ===
[[Chutu dynasty#List of rulers|List of rulers of Banavasi]]

=== Vishnukundina dynasty of Denduluru (c. 420–624 CE) ===
[[Vishnukundina dynasty#Chronology|List of rulers of Denduluru]]

=== Chalukya dynasty (c. 500–1200 CE) ===
{{main|Chalukya dynasty|Eastern Chalukyas|Chalukyas of Vemulavada|Western Chalukya Empire}}

{| class="wikitable"
!colspan=2|Ruler!!Born!!Reign!!Capital/ Ruling part!!Consort!!Death!!Notes
|- style="background:#fff"
|[[Jayasimha (Vatapi Chalukya dynasty)|Jayasimha I]]||
|align=center|?
|align=center|500–520|| rowspan="6" |[[Badami]]|| rowspan="2" |? at least one child
|align=center|520||First ruler of the dynasty.
|- style="background:#fff"
|[[Ranaraga]]||
|align=center|? Son of [[Jayasimha (Vatapi Chalukya dynasty)|Jayasimha I]]
|align=center|520–540
|align=center|540||
|- style="background:#fff"
|[[Pulakeshin I]]||
|align=center|? Son of [[Ranaraga]]
|align=center|540–567||Durlabhadevi at least two children
|align=center|567||
|- style="background:#fff"
|[[Kirtivarman I]]||
| rowspan="2" align="center" |? Sons of [[Pulakeshin I]] and Durlabhadevi
|align=center|567–592||? at least two children
|align=center|592||
|- style="background:#fff"
|[[Mangalesha]]||[[File:6th century Kannada inscription in cave temple number 3 at Badami.jpg|100px]]
|align=center|592–610||? at least one child
|align=center|610||
|- style="background:#fff"
|[[Pulakeshin II]]||[[File:Pulikesin II, the Chalukhaya, receives envoys from Persia (1).jpg|100px]]
|align=center|? First son of [[Kirtivarman I]]
|align=center|610–642||? five children
|align=center|642
|rowspan="2"|Children of Kirtivarman I, divided their inheritance.
|- style="background:#def"
|[[Kubja Vishnuvardhana|Kubja Vishnuvardhana I]]||
|align=center|? Second son of [[Kirtivarman I]]
|align=center|610–641|| rowspan="2" |[[Vengi]] ([[Eastern Chalukyas|Eastern]])||? two children
|align=center|641
|- style="background:#def"
|[[Jayasimha I (Eastern Chalukya dynasty)|Jayasimha I]]<ref>The numbering in Eastern Chalukya is independent from the main branch of the family.</ref>||
|align=center|? First son of [[Kubja Vishnuvardhana|Vishnuvardhana I]]
|align=center|641–673||?
|align=center|673||
|- style="background:#fff"
|[[Adityavarman (Chalukya dynasty)|Adityavarman]]||
|align=center|? First son of [[Pulakeshin II]]
|align=center|642–645||[[Badami]]||? one child
|align=center|645
|rowspan="2"|Children of Pulakeshin II, divided their inheritance. The second son's filiation is however not certain, and based on chronology and in the name Chalukya which was adopted also by his descendants.
|- style="background:#dce
|[[Satyashraya (Vemulavada Chalukya dynasty)|Satyashraya]]||
|align=center|? Second son (?) of [[Pulakeshin II]]
|align=center|642–675<ref>Ruling dates for the Vemulavada Chalukyas are estimated.</ref>||[[Vemulawada, Rajanna Sircilla district|Vemulavada]]||? at least one child
|align=center|675
|- style="background:#fff"
|[[Abhinavaditya]]||
|align=center|? Son of [[Adityavarman (Chalukya dynasty)|Adityavarman]]
|align=center|645–646|| rowspan="2" |[[Badami]]||?
|align=center|645||
|- style="background:#fff"
|[[Chandraditya (Chalukya dynasty)|Chandraditya]]||
|align=center|? Third son of [[Pulakeshin II]]
|align=center|646–649||[[Vijaya-Bhattarika]] one child
|align=center|649||
|- style="background:#fff"
|colspan="7" align="center"|''Regency of [[Vijaya-Bhattarika]]'' (649–655)
|rowspan="2"|Regent for her minor son. She was deposed by her brother-in-law.
|- style="background:#fff"
|''A son of Chandraditya''||
|align=center|? Son of [[Chandraditya (Chalukya dynasty)|Chandraditya]] and [[Vijaya-Bhattarika]]
|align=center|649–655|| rowspan="2" |[[Badami]]||?
|align=center|655
|- style="background:#fff"
|[[Vikramaditya I]]||
|align=center|? Fourth son of [[Pulakeshin II]]
|align=center|655–680||Gangamahadevi at least one child
|align=center|680||
|- style="background:#def
|[[Indra Bhattaraka]]||
|align=center|? Second son of [[Kubja Vishnuvardhana|Vishnuvardhana I]]
|align=center|673|| rowspan="2" |[[Vengi]] ([[Eastern Chalukyas|Eastern]])||? at least one child
|align=center|673||
|- style="background:#def
|[[Vishnuvardhana II]]||
|align=center|? Son of [[Indra Bhattaraka]]
|align=center|673–682||? at least one child
|align=center|682||
|- style="background:#dce
|[[Prithvipathi]]||
|align=center|? Son of [[Satyashraya (Vemulavada Chalukya dynasty)|Satyashraya]]
|align=center|675–700||[[Vemulawada, Rajanna Sircilla district|Vemulavada]]||? at least one child
|align=center|700||
|- style="background:#fff
|[[Vinayaditya of Vatapi|Vinayaditya]]||
|align=center|? Son of [[Vikramaditya I]]
|align=center|680–696||[[Badami]]||? at least one child
|align=center|696||
|- style="background:#def
|[[Mangi Yuvaraja]]||
|align=center|? Son of [[Vishnuvardhana II]]
|align=center|682–706||[[Vengi]] ([[Eastern Chalukyas|Eastern]])||? at least one child
|align=center|706||
|- style="background:#fff
|[[Vijayaditya|Vijayaditya I]]||
|align=center|? Son of [[Vinayaditya of Vatapi|Vinayaditya]]
|align=center|696–733||[[Badami]]||? at least one child
|align=center|733||
|- style="background:#dce
|[[Maharaja (Vemulavada Chalukya dynasty)|Maharaja]]||
|align=center|? Son of [[Prithvipathi]]
|align=center|700–725||[[Vemulawada, Rajanna Sircilla district|Vemulavada]]||? at least one child
|align=center|725||
|- style="background:#def
|[[Jayasimha II (Eastern Chalukya dynasty)|Jayasimha II]]||
| rowspan="3" align="center" |? Sons of [[Vishnuvardhana II]]
|align=center|706–718|| rowspan="3" |[[Vengi]] ([[Eastern Chalukyas|Eastern]])|| rowspan="3" |? at least one child
|align=center|718||
|- style="background:#def
|[[Kokkli]]||
|align=center|718–719
|align=center|719||
|- style="background:#def
|[[Vishnuvardhana III]]||
|align=center|719–755
|align=center|755||
|- style="background:#dce
|[[Rajaditya (Vemulavada Chalukya dynasty)|Rajaditya]]||
|align=center|? Son of [[Maharaja (Vemulavada Chalukya dynasty)|Maharaja]]
|align=center|725–750||[[Vemulawada, Rajanna Sircilla district|Vemulavada]]||? at least one child
|align=center|750||
|- style="background:#fff
|[[Vikramaditya II]]||[[File:8th century Kannada inscription on victory pillar at Pattadakal.jpg|100px]]
|align=center|? Son of [[Vijayaditya|Vijayaditya I]]
|align=center|733–746|| rowspan="2" |[[Badami]]|| rowspan="2" |? at least one child
|align=center|746||
|- style="background:#fff
|[[Kirtivarman II|Kirtivarman II Rahappa]]||
|align=center|? Son of [[Vikramaditya II]]
|align=center|746–757
|align=center|757||
|- style="background:#fff
|colspan="8" align="center"|''Annexed to the [[Rashtrakuta dynasty|Rashtrakuta Empire]]''
|- style="background:#dce
|[[Vinayaditya of Podana|Vinayaditya Yuddhamalla I]]||
|align=center|? Son of [[Rajaditya (Vemulavada Chalukya dynasty)|Rajaditya]]
|align=center|750–775||[[Vemulawada, Rajanna Sircilla district|Vemulavada]]||? at least one child
|align=center|775|| Considered the first effectively independent ruler of Vemulavada. Vassal of the [[Rashtrakuta dynasty]].
|- style="background:#def
|{{ill|Vijayaditya I Bhattaraka|uk|Віджаядітья I|lt=Vijayaditya I Bhattaraka}}||
| rowspan="2" align="center" |? Sons of [[Vishnuvardhana II]]
|align=center|755–772|| rowspan="2" |[[Vengi]] ([[Eastern Chalukyas|Eastern]])||? at least one child
|align=center|772|| His sister Silamahadevi married [[Dhruva Dharavarsha]], ruler of the [[Rashtrakuta Empire]].
|- style="background:#def
|[[Vishnuvardhana IV|Vishnuvardhana IV Vishnuraja]]||
|align=center|772–808||Silabhattarika of the [[Rashtrakuta Empire]] three children
|align=center|808|| Married his first cousin.
|- style="background:#dce
|[[Arikesari I]]||
|align=center|? Son of [[Vinayaditya of Podana|Vinayaditya Yuddhamalla I]]
|align=center|775–800|| rowspan="2" |[[Vemulawada, Rajanna Sircilla district|Vemulavada]]||? at least two children
|align=center|800||
|- style="background:#dce
|[[Narasimha I (Vemulavada Chalukya dynasty)|Narasimha I]]||
|align=center|? Son of [[Arikesari I]]
|align=center|800–825||? at least one child
|align=center|825||
|- style="background:#def
|{{ill|Vijayaditya II|uk|Віджаядітья II|lt=Vijayaditya II}}||
|align=center|? Son of [[Vishnuvardhana IV]] and Silabhattarika of the [[Rashtrakuta Empire]]
|align=center|808–847||[[Vengi]] ([[Eastern Chalukyas|Eastern]])||? at least one child
|align=center|847||
|- style="background:#dce
|[[Yuddhamalla II (Vemulavada Chalukya dynasty)|Yuddhamalla II]]||
|align=center|? Son of [[Narasimha I (Vemulavada Chalukya dynasty)|Narasimha I]]
|align=center|825–850||[[Vemulawada, Rajanna Sircilla district|Vemulavada]]||? at least one child
|align=center|850||
|- style="background:#def
|[[Vishnuvardhana V|Kali Vishnuvardhana V]]||
|align=center|? Son of {{ill|Vijayaditya II|uk|Віджаядітья II|lt=Vijayaditya II}}
|align=center|847–849|| rowspan="4" |[[Vengi]] ([[Eastern Chalukyas|Eastern]])||Shilamadevi of the [[Rashtrakuta Empire]] three children
|align=center|849|| Married Shilamadevi, niece of Queen Silabhattarika.
|- style="background:#def
|[[Vijayaditya III|Gunaga Vijayaditya III]]||
| rowspan="3" align="center" |? Sons of [[Vishnuvardhana V]] and Shilamadevi of the [[Rashtrakuta Empire]]
|align=center rowspan="3"|849–892|| rowspan="3" |? at least one child
|align=center|892
|rowspan="3"|Children of Vishnuvardhana V, ruled jointly.
|- style="background:#def
|[[Vikramaditya I (Eastern Chalukya dynasty)|Yuvaraja Vikramaditya I]]||
|align=center|892?
|- style="background:#def
|[[Yuddhamalla I]]||
|align=center|892?
|- style="background:#dce
|[[Baddega I|Baddega I Soladaganda]]||
|align=center|? Son of [[Yuddhamalla II (Vemulavada Chalukya dynasty)|Yuddhamalla II]]
|align=center|850–895||[[Vemulawada, Rajanna Sircilla district|Vemulavada]]||? at least one child
|align=center|895||
|- style="background:#def
|{{ill|Bhima I Dronarjuna|uk|Чалук'я Бхіма I|lt=Bhima I Dronarjuna}}||
|align=center|? Son of [[Vikramaditya I (Eastern Chalukya dynasty)|Vikramaditya I]]
|align=center|892–921||[[Vengi]] ([[Eastern Chalukyas|Eastern]])||? at least one child
|align=center|921||
|- style="background:#dce
|[[Yuddhamalla III (Vemulavada Chalukya dynasty)|Yuddhamalla III]]||
|align=center|? Son of [[Baddega I|Baddega I Soladaganda]]
|align=center|895–915|| rowspan="2" |[[Vemulawada, Rajanna Sircilla district|Vemulavada]]|| rowspan="2" |? at least one child
|align=center|925||
|- style="background:#dce
|[[Narasimha II of Vemulavada|Narasimha II]]||
|align=center|? Son of [[Yuddhamalla III (Vemulavada Chalukya dynasty)|Yuddhamalla III]]
|align=center|915–930
|align=center|930||
|- style="background:#def
|{{ill|Vijayaditya IV|uk|Віджаядітья IV|lt=Vijayaditya IV}}||
|align=center|? First son of {{ill|Bhima I|uk|Чалук'я Бхіма I|lt=Bhima I}}
|align=center|921|| rowspan="7" |[[Vengi]] ([[Eastern Chalukyas|Eastern]])||? two children
|align=center|921|| Beginning of a civil war in Vengi. During the seven years of the war (921–928), six different kings sat on Vengi's throne.
|- style="background:#def
|[[Vishnuvardhana VI (Eastern Chalukya dynasty)|Vishnuvardhana VI]]<ref>Known alternatively as ''Amma I''.</ref>||
|align=center|? First son of {{ill|Vijayaditya IV|uk|Віджаядітья IV|lt=Vijayaditya IV}}
|align=center|921–927||? at least one child
|align=center|927||
|- style="background:#def
|[[Vijayaditya V (Eastern Chalukya dynasty)|Vijayaditya V]]||
|align=center|? First son of [[Vishnuvardhana VI (Eastern Chalukya dynasty)|Vishnuvardhana VI]]
|align=center|927||?
|align=center|927||Ruled for fifteen days.
|- style="background:#def
|[[Tala I (Eastern Chalukya dynasty)|Tala I]]||
|align=center|? Son of [[Yuddhamalla I]]
|align=center|927||? at least one child
|align=center|927|| Ruled for one month.
|- style="background:#def
|{{ill|Vikramaditya II, King of Vengi|uk|Вікрамадітья II (Венга)|lt=Vikramaditya II}}||
|align=center|? Second son of {{ill|Bhima I|uk|Чалук'я Бхіма I|lt=Bhima I}}
|align=center|927–928||?
|align=center|928||
|- style="background:#def
|[[Bhima II (Eastern Chalukya dynasty)|Bhima II]]||
|align=center|? Second son of [[Vishnuvardhana VI (Eastern Chalukya dynasty)|Vishnuvardhana VI]]
|align=center|928||?
|align=center|928||
|- style="background:#def
|{{ill|Yuddhamalla II|uk|Юддха Малла II|lt=Yuddhamalla II}}||
|align=center|? Son of [[Tala I (Eastern Chalukya dynasty)|Tala I]]
|align=center|928–935||? At least one child
|align=center|935||End of the war. However, the throne still moved between different branches of the family.
|- style="background:#dce
|[[Arikesari II]]||
|align=center|? Son of [[Narasimha II of Vemulavada|Narasimha II]]
|align=center|930–941||[[Vemulawada, Rajanna Sircilla district|Vemulavada]]||? at least one child
|align=center|941||
|- style="background:#def
|{{ill|Bhima III Vishnuvadhana VII|uk|Чалук'я Бхіма III|lt=Vishnuvardhana VII}}<ref>Alternatively known as ''Bhima III''.</ref>||
|align=center|? Second son of {{ill|Vijayaditya IV|uk|Віджаядітья IV|lt=Vijayaditya IV}}
|align=center|935–947||[[Vengi]] ([[Eastern Chalukyas|Eastern]])||? at least one child
|align=center|947||
|- style="background:#dce
|[[Bhadradeva (Vemulavada Chalukya dynasty)|Bhadradeva Baddega II]]||
| rowspan="2" align="center" |? Sons of [[Arikesari II]]
|align=center|941–946
|rowspan="2"|[[Vemulawada, Rajanna Sircilla district|Vemulavada]]||? at least one child
|align=center|946
|rowspan="2"| Children of Arikesari II, ruled jointly.
|- style="background:#dce
|[[Vagaraja]]||
|align=center|941–950||? at least one child
|align=center|950
|- style="background:#def
|{{ill|Amma II Vijayaditya VI|uk|Амма II|lt=Vijayaditya VI}}<ref>Alternatively known as ''Amma II''.</ref>||
|align=center|? First son of [[Bhima II (Eastern Chalukya dynasty)|Bhima II]]
|align=center|947–970||[[Vengi]] ([[Eastern Chalukyas|Eastern]])||? At least one child
|align=center|970||
|- style="background:#dce
|[[Arikesari III]]||
|align=center|? Son of [[Bhadradeva (Vemulavada Chalukya dynasty)|Bhadradeva Baddega II]]
|align=center|950–968||[[Vemulawada, Rajanna Sircilla district|Vemulavada]]||?
|align=center|968||
|- style="background:#dce
|colspan="8" align="center"|''Annexed to the [[Western Chalukya Empire]]''
|- style="background:#def
|[[Danarnava]]||
|align=center|? Second son of [[Bhima II (Eastern Chalukya dynasty)|Bhima II]]
|align=center|970–973|| rowspan="2" |[[Vengi]] ([[Eastern Chalukyas|Eastern]])||? At least one child
|align=center|973||
|- style="background:#def
|{{ill|Jata Choda Bhima|uk|Джата Чода Бхіма|lt=Jata Choda Bhima}}||
|align=center|?
|align=center|973–999||?
|align=center|999|| Non-dynastic usurper.
|- style="background:#ceb
|[[Tailapa II|Tailapa II Ahvamalla]]<ref>Numbered after his non-ruling great-great-grandfather Tailapa I.</ref>||[[File:Old Kannada inscription dated Shaka 913 (c.991 AD) of Kalyani (Western) Chalukya King Ahvamalla Tailapa II.JPG|100px]]
|align=center|? Son of Vikramaditya (IV) Chalukya
|align=center|973–997|| rowspan="2" |[[Basavakalyan|Kalyani]] ([[Western Chalukyas|Western]])||? at least one child
|align=center|997|| Grandson in fifth generation of a brother of [[Vikramaditya II]] of [[Badami]]. While Vengi was being taken by an usurper on the demise of the [[Rashtrakuta Empire]], Tailapa proclaimed independence from the latter and built a new empire of his own, that saw the re-emergence of the Chalukya dynasty's power.
|- style="background:#ceb
|[[Satyashraya]]||
|align=center|? Son of [[Tailapa II]]
|align=center|997–1008||? at least one child
|align=center|1008||
|- style="background:#def
|{{ill|Shaktivarman, King of Vengi|uk|Шакті-варман I|lt=Shaktivarman}}||
|align=center|? First son of [[Danarnava]]
|align=center|999–1011||[[Vengi]] ([[Eastern Chalukyas|Eastern]])||? At least one child
|align=center|1011||
|- style="background:#ceb
|[[Vikramaditya V]]<ref>Numbered after his great-grandfather Vikramaditya IV and an unknown or non-existent Vikramaditya III. The numbering follows Vikramaditya II of Badami.</ref>||
|align=center|? First son of Prince Dasavarman and Princess Bhagyavati
|align=center|1008–1015||[[Basavakalyan|Kalyani]] ([[Western Chalukyas|Western]])||?
|align=center|1015|| Paternal nephew of Satyashraya.
|- style="background:#def
|{{ill|Vimaladitya|uk|Вімаладітья|lt=Vimaladitya}}||
|align=center|? Second son of [[Danarnava]]
|align=center|1011–1018||[[Vengi]] ([[Eastern Chalukyas|Eastern]])||Kundavai of the [[Chola Empire]] one child ? one child
|align=center|1018||
|- style="background:#ceb
|[[Jayasimha II (Western Chalukya dynasty)|Jayasimha II]]<ref>Numbered after Jayasimha I of Badami. Also known as ''Jagadhekamalla I''.</ref>||[[File:Old Kannada inscription dated Shaka 957 (c.1035 AD) of Kalyani (Western) Chalukya King Jayasimha II.JPG|100px]]
|align=center|? Second son of Prince Dasavarman and Princess Bhagyavati
|align=center|1015–1043||[[Basavakalyan|Kalyani]] ([[Western Chalukyas|Western]])||Suggaladevi at least one child
|align=center|1043||
|- style="background:#def
|[[Rajaraja Narendra]]||[[File:King Rajaraja Narendra founder of rajahmundry city.jpg|100px]]
|align=center|? Son of {{ill|Vimaladitya|uk|Вімаладітья|lt=Vimaladitya}} and Kundavai of the [[Chola Empire]]
|align=center|1018–1031 1035–1061|| rowspan="2" |[[Vengi]] ([[Eastern Chalukyas|Eastern]])||Amangaidevi of the [[Chola Empire]] one child
|align=center|1061||Rajaraja had support in the throne from the Cholas, whose influence grew significantly. He supported Cholas against his cousins, the [[Western Chalukyas]]. His own son managed to succeed in the [[Chola Empire]], in 1070, as [[Kulottunga I]], beginning the [[Later Cholas]] period, in which the Chola Empire was ruled by a branch of the Eastern Chalukyas renamed Chola, which inherited Narendra's kingdom.
|- style="background:#def
|{{ill|Vijayaditya VII|bg|Віджаядітья VII|lt=Vijayaditya VII}}||
|align=center|? Son of {{ill|Vimaladitya|uk|Вімаладітья|lt=Vimaladitya}}
|align=center|1031–1035 1061–1075||?
|align=center|1075||Half-brother of Rajaraja, had support from [[Western Chalukya]]. After his death Vengi was incorporated in the [[Chola Empire]].
|- style="background:#def
|colspan="8" align="center"|''Annexed to the [[Chola Empire]] (1061-1118); Annexed to the [[Western Chalukya Empire]] (since 1118)''
|- style="background:#ceb
|[[Someshvara I|Someshvara I Trilokyamalla]]||[[File:Western Chalukyas of Kalyana King Somesvara I Trailokyamalla 1043-1068.jpg|100px]]
|align=center|? Son of [[Jayasimha II (Western Chalukya dynasty)|Jayasimha II]] and Suggaladevi
|align=center|1043–1068|| rowspan="8" |[[Basavakalyan|Kalyani]] ([[Western Chalukyas|Western]])||? two children
|align=center|1068||
|- style="background:#ceb
|[[Someshvara II|Someshvara II Bhuvanaikamalla]]||[[File:Old Kannada inscription dated Shaka 990 (c.1068 AD) of Kalyani (Western) Chalukya King Bhuvanaikamalla Someshvara II.JPG|100px]]
| rowspan="2" align="center" |? Sons of [[Someshvara I]]
|align=center|1068–1076||? at least one child
|align=center|1076||
|- style="background:#ceb
|[[Vikramaditya VI|Vikramaditya VI Tribhuvanamalla]]||[[File:Old Kannada inscription (c.1108 AD) of Kalyani (Western) Chalukya King Tribhuvanamalla Vikramaditya VI.jpg|100px]]
|align=center|1076–1126||Chandaladevi Kethaladevi Savaladevi at least one child
|align=center|1126||
|- style="background:#ceb
|[[Someshvara III]]||[[File:Old Kannada inscription (1129 AD) at Kedareshvara temple in Balligavi.JPG|100px]]
|align=center|? Son of [[Vikramaditya VI]]
|align=center|1126–1138||? at least one child
|align=center|1138||
|- style="background:#ceb
|[[Jagadhekamalla II]]||[[File:Old Kannada inscription (c.1148 AD) of Kalyani (Western) Chalukya King Jagadekamalla II.JPG|100px]]
|align=center|? Son of [[Someshvara III]]
|align=center|1138–1151||? at least one child
|align=center|1151||
|- style="background:#ceb
|[[Tailapa III]]||
|align=center|? Son of [[Jagadhekamalla II]]
|align=center|1151–1164||? at least one child
|align=center|1164||
|- style="background:#ceb
|[[Jagadhekamalla III]]||
|align=center|? Son of [[Tailapa III]]
|align=center|1164–1183||? at least one child
|align=center|1183||
|- style="background:#ceb
|[[Someshvara IV]]||[[File:Chalukyas of Kalyana (Western Chalukyas) Possibly King Somesvara IV Chalukya. 1181-4 1189.jpg|100px]]
|align=center|? Son of [[Jagadhekamalla III]]
|align=center|1183–1200||? at least one child
|align=center|1200||
|- style="background:#ceb
|colspan="8" align="center"|''Annexed to the [[Seuna]], [[Hoysala]] and the [[Kakatiya dynasty|Kakatiya dynasties]]''
|-
|}

== Middle Kingdoms (c. 250s BCE – 550s CE) ==
{{main|Middle kingdoms of India}}

=== Satavahana dynasty (c. 228 BCE – 224 CE) ===
{{see also|Satavahana dynasty}}
[[List of Satavahana emperors]]

=== Mahameghavahana dynasty of Kalinga (c. 225 BCE – 300 CE) ===
{{main|Mahameghavahana dynasty}}
* Maharaja Vasu
* Maharaja Mahamegha Vahana
* Sobhanaraja
* Chandraja
* Ksemaraja
* Vakradeva (or) Virdhharaja
* [[Kharavela]] (c. 193 BCE–155 BCE)<ref>{{cite book|last=Raychaudhuri|first=Hemchandra|title=Political History Of Ancient India|year=2006|publisher=Genesis Publishing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h1KObc_qaXYC&q=Cheti%20Dynasty&pg=PA348|access-date=25 October 2012|page=348|isbn=9788130702919}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Studies in Jaina Art and Iconography and Allied Subjects|year=1995|publisher=Abhinav Publications|pages=31|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fETebHcHKogC&q=Mahishaka%20%20Guntupalli%20inscription&pg=PA31|author=R. T. Vyas|author2=Umakant Premanand Shah|isbn=9788170173168|access-date=12 November 2012}}</ref>
* [[Kudepasiri]] Vakradeva ll
* Vaduka
* Galaveya
* Mana-Sada
* Siri-Sada
* Maha-Sada
* Sivamaka-Sada
* Asaka-Sada

===Kingdom of Kangleipak (Manipur) (c. 200s BCE –1950 CE)===
[[List of Manipuri kings]]

===Kuninda Kingdom (c. 2nd century BCE to 3rd century CE)===
The only known ruler of Kuninda Kingdom is:
* [[Amoghabhuti]] (late 2nd to early 1st century BCE)

=== Indo-Greek Kingdom (''Yavanarajya'') (c. 200 BCE – 10 CE) ===
[[Indo-Greek Kingdom|List of Indo-Greek Kings]]

=== Indo-Scythian (''Saka'') ( c. 12 BCE – 395 CE) ===
[[List of Indo-Scythian dynasties and rulers]]

=== Kushan dynasty (c. 1 – 375 CE) ===
[[Kushan Empire#Rulers|List of Kushan emperors]]

=== Indo-Parthian (''Pahalava'') (c. 21 – 100 CE) ===
[[Indo-Parthian Kingdom#Main Indo-Parthian rulers|List of Indo-Parthian kings]]

=== Indo-Sasanian Kingdom (c. 233 – 365 CE) ===
[[Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom#Main Kushano-Sassanid rulers|List of Indo-Sasanian kings]]

=== Alchon Huns (''Huna'') (c. 400 – 670 CE) ===
[[Alchon Huns#Rulers|List of Alchon Hun Kings]]

=== Chutu dynasty of Banavasi (c. 100 BCE–200 CE) ===
[[Chutu dynasty#List of rulers|Kings of Banavasi]]

===Khokhra (Nagvanshi) chieftaincy (c. 64–1952 CE)===
[[Khokhra chieftaincy#Rulers|List of Nagvanshi chiefs]]

=== Naga Kingdom of Padmavati (c. 170–350 CE) ===
[[Nagas of Padmavati#Chronology|Kings of Padmavati]]

=== Chandra dynasty of Samatata (c. 202–1050 CE) ===
[[Chandra dynasty#History|Rulers of Samatata]]

=== Kingdom of Abhira (c. 203–370 CE) ===
{{main|Abhira dynasty}}
* Abhira Sivadatta
* Sakasena alias Saka Satakrni
* [[Ishwarsena|Abhira Ishwarsena]] alias ''Mahaksatrapa'' Isvaradatta
* Abhira Vashishthiputra Vasusena

=== Principality of Khoh (c. 221–1028 CE) ===
[[Khoh#List of rulers|Prince of Khoh]]

=== Second Magadha Empire (c. 240 – 750 CE) ===
{{main|Gupta Empire|Later Gupta dynasty}}
[[List of Gupta emperors]]
[[Later Gupta dynasty|Later Gupta rulers]]

=== Vakataka dynasty (c. 250–500 CE) ===
[[Vakataka dynasty#Family tree|Vakataka family tree]]

=== Aulikara Kingdom of Malwa (c. 300 – 550 CE) ===
[[Aulikaras#List of rulers|List of monarchs of Malwa (Aulikara dynasty)]]

===Kingdom of Kamarupa (c. 350–650 CE)===
[[Kamarupa Kingdom#Political History|Kings of Kamarupa]]

=== Western Ganga of Talakad (c. 350–1424 CE) ===
[[Western Ganga dynasty#History|Rulers of Talakad]]

=== Eastern Ganga of Kalinga (c. 493-1947 CE) ===
[[Eastern Ganga dynasty#List of rulers|Eastern Ganga of Kalinga]]

==== Other minor Ganga states ====
===== Principality of Gudari Kataka =====
{{Main|Gudari, Rayagada}}

According to Gangavansucharitam written in sixteenth or seventeenth century, ''Bhanu Deva IV also known as Kajjala Bhanu'' founded a new small princedom in southern Odisha at [[Gudari, Rayagada|Gudari]] in modern [[Rayagada district|Rayagada]] district after he was toppled from power by his general Kapilendra Deva.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/119409/15/15_chapter%206.pdf|title=The Historical Value of Gangavamsanucharita Champu|website=www.shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in|access-date=22 September 2018}}</ref>
* Kajjala Bhanu (or Bhanu Deva IV)
* Svarna Bhanu
* Kalasandha Deva
* Chudanga Deva
* Harimani Deva
* Narasimha Deva
* Ananta Deva
* Padmanabha Deva
* Pitambara Deva
* Vasudeva
* Purrushottama Anangabhima Deva (or Bhima Deva)

===== Principality of Chikiti (c. 881–1950 CE) =====
[[Chikiti#List of rulers|Prince of Chikiti]]

===== Parlakhemundi Estate#Rulers (c. 1309–1950) =====
[[Parlakhemundi Estate#Rulers|Zamindars of Parlakhemundi]]

=== Traikutaka dynasty of Aparanta (c. 370–520 CE) ===
[[Traikutaka dynasty#Traikutaka rulers|Rulers of Aparanta]]

=== Maitraka dynasty of Vallabhi (c. 475–776 CE) ===
[[Maitraka dynasty#List of rulers|Kings of Vallabhi]]

===Rai Kingdom of Sindh (c. 489–632 CE)===
[[Rai dynasty#Rulers|Kings of Sindh (Rai)]]

=== Kabul Shahi Kingdom (c. 500–1026 CE) ===
In Kabul Shahi Kingdom two dynasties ruled (both were [[Hindu]] dynasties):
* [[Turk Shahi]] (c. 500–850 CE)
* [[Hindu Shahi]] (c. 850–1026 CE)

=== Pushyabhuti/Vardhan dynasty (c. 500 – 647 CE) ===
[[Pushyabhuti dynasty#List of rulers|List of Vardhan kings]]

=== Jaintia Kingdom (c. 525–1835 CE) ===
[[Jaintia Kingdom#Rulers|Rulers of Jantia]]

== Early Medieval Period (c. 550s CE – c. 1200s CE) ==

=== Gauda Kingdom (c. 590 – 626 CE) ===
{{Main|Gauda Kingdom}}
* [[Shashanka]] (590–625 CE), first recorded independent king of [[Bengal]], created the first unified political entity in [[Bengal]]
* [[Manava (king)|Manava]] (625–626 CE), ruled for 8 months before being conquered by [[Harshavardhana]] and [[Bhaskarvarman]]

=== Pala dynasty of Bengal (c. 750 – 1174 CE) ===
{{main|Pala Empire}}
{{List of Pala rulers}}

=== Kalachuri dynasties (c. 550 – 1225 CE) ===

==== Kingdom of Malwa (Early Kalachuris) (c. 550 – 625 CE) ====
[[Kalachuris of Mahishmati|Kings of Malwa (Kalachuri)]]

==== Kalachuri dynasty of Tripuri/Chedi (''Later Kalachuris'') (c. 675 – 1212 CE) ====
{{main|Kalachuris of Tripuri}}
;Rulers-
* Vamaraja-deva (675–700 CE), founder of dynasty
* Shankaragana I (750–775 CE)
* Lakshmana-raja I (825–850 CE)
* Kokalla I (850–890 CE); his younger son established the '''[[Kalachuris of Ratnapura|Ratnapura Kalachuri branch]]'''
* Shankaragana II (890–910 CE), alias Mugdhatunga
* Balaharsha (910–915 CE)
* Yuvaraja-deva I (915–945 CE)
* Lakshmana-raja II (945–970 CE)
* [[Shankaragana III]] (970–980 CE)
* [[Yuvarajadeva II|Yuvaraja-deva II]] (980–990 CE)
* [[Kokalla II]] (990–1015 CE)
* [[Gangeyadeva|Gangeya-deva]] (1015–1041 CE)
* [[Lakshmikarna|Lakshmi-karna]] (1041–1073 CE), alias Karna
* [[Yashahkarna|Yashah-karna]] (1073–1123 CE)
* [[Gayakarna|Gaya-karna]] (1123–1153 CE)
* [[Narasimha (Kalachuri dynasty)|Nara-simha]] (1153–1163 CE)
* [[Jayasimha (Kalachuri dynasty)|Jaya-simha]] (1163–1188 CE)
* [[Vijayasimha|Vijaya-simha]] (1188–1210 CE)
* [[Trailokyamalla (Kalachuri dynasty)|Trailokya-malla]] (c. 1210– at least 1212 CE), last ruler<ref>{{cite book |author=V. V. Mirashi |title=Bhavabhuti |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hLGgZOzTYzsC&pg=PA376 |date=1974 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1180-5}}</ref>

==== Kalachuri dynasty of Ratnapura (c. 1000 – 1225 CE) ====
{{main|Kalachuris of Ratnapura}}
The following is a list of the Ratnapura Kalachuri rulers, with estimated period of their reigns:<ref>{{cite book |author=P. C. Roy |chapter=The Coinage of the Kalachuris of Ratnapura |title=The Coinage of Northern India |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f2Et2zZGJPUC&pg=PA18 |year=1980 |publisher=Abhinav Publications |isbn=978-81-7017-122-5}}</ref>
* Kalinga-raja (1000–1020 CE), founder of dynasty
* Kamala-raja (1020–1045 CE)
* Ratna-raja (1045–1065 CE), alias Ratna-deva I
* Prithvi-deva I (1065–1090 CE), alias Prithvisha
* Jajalla-deva I (1090–1120 CE) (declared independence)
* [[Ratnadeva II|Ratna-Deva II]] (1120–1135 CE)
* [[Prithvi-deva II]] (1135–1165 CE)
* Jajalla-deva II (1165–1168 CE)
* Jagad-deva (1168–1178 CE)
* Ratna-deva III (1178–1200 CE)
* Pratapa-malla (1200–1225 CE)
* Parmardi Dev (governor of [[Eastern Ganga dynasty|Eastern Gangas]])

==== Kalachuri dynasty of Kalyani (''Southern Kalachuris'') (c. 1130 – 1184 CE) ====
{{main|Kalachuris of Kalyani}}
;Rulers-
* [[Bijjala II]] (1130–1167), proclaimed independence from [[Western Chalukya Empire|Kalyani Chalukyas]] in 1162 CE
* Sovideva (1168–1176)
* Mallugi, overthrown by his brother Sankama
* Sankama (1176–1180)
* Ahavamalla (1180–83)
* Singhana (1183–84), last ruler

=== Patola/Gilgit Shahi dynasty (c. 550 – 750 CE) ===
{{main|Patola Shahis}}

;Regin of known rulers is disputed-<ref>{{cite web |last1=von Hinüber |first1=Oskar |title=Bronzes of the Ancient Buddhist Kingdom of Gilgit |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/metmedia/video/collections/asian/bronzes-of-ancient-gilgit |website=www.metmuseum.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Metropolitan Museum of Art |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/76445 |website=www.metmuseum.org}}</ref>
* Somana (Mid 6th century CE)
* Vajraditayanandin (585–605 CE)
* Vikramadityanandin (605–625 CE)
* Surendravikramadityanandin (625–644 or 654 CE)
* Navasurendrāditya-nandin (644 or 654–685 CE)
* Jayamaṅgalavikramāditya-nandin (685–710 CE)
* Nandivikramadityanandin (710–715 CE)
* ''Su-fu-che-li-chi-li-ni'' (name by foreign sources) (715–720 CE)
* Surendradityanandin (720–740 or 750 CE), last known ruler

=== Gurjara-Pratihara Empire (c. 550 – 1036 CE) ===
{{main|Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty}}

==== Pratiharas of Mandavyapura (Mandor) (c. 550 – 860 CE) ====
{{main|Pratiharas of Mandavyapura}}

[[R. C. Majumdar]], on the other hand, assumed a period of 25 years for each generation, and placed him in c. 550 CE. The following is a list of the dynasty's rulers ([[IAST]] names in brackets) and estimates of their reigns, assuming a period of 25 years.
* Harichandra (Haricandra) alias Rohilladhi (r. c. 550 CE), founder of dynasty
* Rajilla (r. c. 575 CE)
* Narabhatta (Narabhaṭa) alias Pellapelli (r. c. 600 CE)
* Nagabhata (Nāgabhaṭa) alias Nahada (r. c. 625 CE)
* Tata (Tāta) and Bhoja (r. c. 650 CE)
* Yashovardhana (Yaśovardhana) (r. c. 675 CE)
* Chanduka (Canduka) (r. c. 700 CE)
* Shiluka (Śīluka) alias Silluka (r. c. 725 CE)
* Jhota (r. c. 750 CE)
* Bhilladitya alias Bhilluka (r. c. 775 CE)
* Kakka (r. c. 800 CE)
* Bauka (Bāuka) (r. c. 825 CE)
* Kakkuka (r. c. 861 CE), last ruler

==== Imperial Pratiharas of Kannauj (c. 730 – 1036 CE) ====
{{main|Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty}}

;List of rulers–
{| class="wikitable"
|+List of Imperial Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty rulers
! Serial No.
! Ruler
! Reign (CE)
|-
|1
|[[Nagabhata I]]
|730–760
|-
|2
|[[Kakustha (Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty)|Kakustha]] and [[Devaraja (Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty)|Devaraja]]
|760–780
|-
|3
|[[Vatsaraja]]
|780–800
|-
|4
|[[Nagabhata II]]
|800–833
|-
|5
|[[Ramabhadra]]
|833–836
|-
|6
|[[Mihira Bhoja]] or Bhoja I
|836–885
|-
|7
|[[Mahendrapala I]]
|885–910
|-
|8
|[[Bhoja II (Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty)|Bhoja II]]
|910–913
|-
|9
|[[Mahipala I]]
|913–944
|-
|10
|[[Mahendrapala II]]
|944–948
|-
|11
|Devapala
|948–954
|-
|12
|Vinayakapala
|954–955
|-
|13
|Mahipala II
|955–956
|-
|14
|Vijayapala II
|956–960
|-
|15
|Rajapala
|960–1018
|-
|16
|Trilochanapala
|1018–1027
|-
|17
|[[Yasahpala (king)|Yasahpala]]
|1024–1036
|-
|}

====Other Pratihara Branches====

;Baddoch Branch (c. 600 – 700 CE)
Known Baddoch rulers are-
* [[Dhaddha]] 1 (600–627)
* Dhaddha 2 (627–655)
* [[Jaibhatta]] (655–700)

;Rajogarh Branch
Badegujar were rulers of [[Rajogarh]]
* [[Parmeshver Manthandev]], (885–915)
* No records found after Parmeshver Manthandev

=== Chahamana (Chauhan) dynasties (c. 551 – 1315 CE) ===

;The ruling dynasties belonging to the Chauhan clan included–
* [[Chahamanas of Shakambhari]] (Chauhans of Ajmer) (c. 551 – 1194 CE)
* [[Chahamanas of Naddula]] (Chauhans of Nadol) (c. 950 – 1197 CE)
* [[Chahamanas of Jalor]] (c. 1160 – 1311 CE), branched off from the Chahamanas of Naddula
* [[Chahamanas of Ranastambhapura]] (c. 1192 – 1301 CE), branched off from the Chahamanas of Shakambhari
* [[Sirohi State|Chahamanas of Chandravati and Abu]] ([[Sirohi State|Kingdom of Sirohi]]) (c. 1311 – 1949 CE)
* Chahamanas of Lata
* Chahamanas of Dholpur
* Chahamanas of Partabgarh
* [[Hada Chauhan|Hada Chauhan kingdoms]] of [[Hadoti|Hadoti region]] are–
** [[Bundi State|Kingdom of Bundi]] (c. 1342 – 1949 CE)
** [[Kota State|Kingdom of Kota]] (c. 1579 – 1948 CE)
** [[Jhalawar State|Kingdom of Jhalawar]] (c. 1838 – 1949 CE), branched off from the [[Kota State|Kingdom of Kota]] in 1838 CE.

==== Chahamanas of Sambhar Ajmer and Delhi (c. 551 – 1194 CE) ====
{{main|Chahamanas of Shakambhari}}

Following is a list of Chahamana rulers of [[Sambhar Lake Town|Shakambhari]], [[Ajmer]] and [[Delhi]] with approximate period of reign, as estimated historian by R. B. Singh:<ref>{{cite book |author=R. B. Singh |year=1964 |title=History of the Chāhamānas |publisher=Nand Kishore & Sons |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TKs9AAAAIAAJ |oclc=11038728 |pages=51–70}}</ref>

{| style="width:100%;" class="wikitable"
! style="background:#f0dc88; width:5%;"|Serial no.
! style="background:#f0dc88; width:17%;"| Regnal names
! style="background:#f0dc88; width:17%;"| Reign (CE)
|-
|1
|[[Chauhan Dynasty|Chahamana]]
|(mythical)
|-
|2
|[[Vasudeva (Chahamana dynasty)|Vasu-deva]]
|c. 551 CE (disputed)
|-
|3
|[[Samantaraja|Samanta-raja]]
|684–709
|-
|4
|[[Naradeva|Nara-deva]]
|709–721
|-
|5
|[[Ajayaraja I|Ajaya-raja I]]
|721–734
|-
|6
|[[Vigraharaja I|Vigraha-raja I]]
|734–759
|-
|7
|[[Chandraraja I|Chandra-raja I]]
|759–771
|-
|8
|[[Gopendraraja|Gopendra-raja]]
|771–784
|-
|9
|[[Durlabharaja I|Durlabha-raja I]]
|784–809
|-
|10
|[[Govindaraja I|Govinda-raja I]] alias ''Guvaka I''
|809–836
|-
|11
|[[Chandraraja II|Chandra-raja II]]
|836–863
|-
|12
|[[Govindaraja II]] alias ''Guvaka II''
|863–890
|-
|13
|[[Chandanaraja|Chandana-raja]]
|890–917
|-
|14
|[[Vakpatiraja I|Vakpati-raja]]
|917–944
|-
|15
|[[Simharaja|Simha-raja]]
|944–971
|-
|16
|[[Vigraharaja II|Vigraha-raja II]]
|971–998
|-
|17
|[[Durlabharaja II|Durlabha-raja II]]
|998–1012
|-
|18
|[[Govindaraja III|Govinda-raja III]]
|1012–1026
|-
|19
|[[Vakpatiraja II|Vakpati-raja II]]
|1026–1040
|-
|20
|[[Viryarama]]
|1040 (few months)
|-
|21
|[[Chamundaraja (Chahamana dynasty)|Chamunda-raja]]
|1040–1065
|-
|22
|[[Durlabharaja III|Durlabha-raja III]] alias ''Duśala''
|1065–1070
|-
|23
|[[Vigraharaja III|Vigraha-raja III]] alias ''Visala''
|1070–1090
|-
|24
|[[Prithviraja I|Prithvi-raja I]]
|1090–1110
|-
|25
|[[Ajayaraja II|Ajaya-raja II]]
|1110–1135
|-
|26
|[[Arnoraja|Arno-raja]] alias ''Ana''
|1135–1150
|-
|27
|[[Jagaddeva (Chahamana dynasty)|Jagad-deva]]
|1150
|-
|28
|[[Vigraharaja IV|Vigraha-raja IV]] alias ''Visaladeva''
|1150–1164
|-
|29
|[[Aparagangeya|Apara-gangeya]]
|1164–1165
|-
|30
|[[Prithviraja II|Prithvi-raja II]]
|1165–1169
|-
|31
|[[Someshvara (Chahamana dynasty)|Someshvara]]
|1169–1178
|-
|32
|[[Prithviraja III]] '''''Rai Pithora'''''
|1177–1192
|-
|33
|[[Govindaraja IV|Govinda-raja IV]]
|1192–1193
|-
|34
|[[Hariraja|Hari-raja]]
|1193–1194
|-
|}

==== Chahamanas of Naddula (c. 950 – 1197 CE) ====
{{main|Chahamanas of Naddula}}

Following is a list of Chahmana rulers of Naddula, with approximate period of reign, as estimated by R. B. Singh:

{| class="wikitable"
|+List of Chauhan rulers of Naddula
!Serial no.
!Kings
!Reign (CE)
|-
|1
|[[Lakshmana (Chahamana dynasty)|Lakshmana]]
|950–982
|-
|2
|[[Shobhita]]
|982–986
|-
|3
|[[Baliraja]]
|986–990
|-
|4
|[[Vigrahapala (Chahamana dynasty)|Vigrahapala]]
|990–994
|-
|5
|[[Mahindu|Mahindra]]
|994–1015
|-
|6
|[[Ashvapala]]
|1015–1019
|-
|7
|[[Ahila]]
|1019–1024
|-
|8
|[[Anahilla]]
|1024–1055
|-
|9
|[[Balaprasada]]
|1055–1070
|-
|10
|[[Jendraraja]]
|1070–1080
|-
|11
|[[Prithvipala]]
|1080–1090
|-
|12
|[[Jojalladeva]]
|1090–1110
|-
|13
|[[Asharaja]]
|1110–1119
|-
|14
|[[Ratnapala (Chahamana dynasty)|Ratnapala]]
|1119–1132
|-
|15
|[[Rayapala]]
|1132–1145
|-
|16
|[[Katukaraja]]
|1145–1148
|-
|17
|[[Alhanadeva]]
|1148–1163
|-
|18
|[[Kelhanadeva]]
|1163–1193
|-
|19
|[[Jayatasimha]]
|1193–1197
|-
|}

==== Chahamanas of Jalor (c. 1160 – 1311 CE) ====
{{main|Chahamanas of Jalor}}

The Chahamana rulers of the Jalor branch, with their estimated periods of reign, are as follows:<ref>{{cite book |author=Ashok Kumar Srivastava |year=1979 |title=The Chahamanas of Jalor |publisher=Sahitya Sansar Prakashan |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.547206 |page=xvi |oclc=12737199}}</ref>

[[Viramadeva|Virama-deva]] (1311 CE) was last ruler of dynasty, crowned during the [[Alauddin Khalji's conquest of Jalore|Siege of Jalore]], but died 2{{frac|1|2}} days later.<ref>{{cite book |author=Dasharatha Sharma |author-link=Dasharatha Sharma |year=1975 |orig-year=First published 1959 |title=Early Chauhān Dynasties |edition=2nd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n4gcAAAAMAAJ |publisher=S. Chand / Motilal Banarsidass |page=169 |isbn=978-0-8426-0618-9}}</ref>{{sfn|Ashok Kumar Srivastava|1979|p=53}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+List of Chauhan rulers of Jalor
!Serial no.
!Kings
!Reign (CE)
|-
|1
|[[Kirtipala|Kirti-pala]]
|1160–1182
|-
|2
|[[Samarasimha|Samara-simha]]
|1182–1204
|-
|3
|[[Udayasimha|Udaya-simha]]
|1204–1257
|-
|4
|[[Chachigadeva|Chachiga-deva]]
|1257–1282
|-
|5
|[[Samantasimha (Chahamana)|Samanta-simha]]
|1282–1305
|-
|6
|[[Kanhadadeva|Kanhada-deva]]
|1292–1311
|-
|7
|[[Viramadeva|Virama-deva]]
|1311
|}

==== Chahamanas of Ranastambhapura (c. 1192 – 1301 CE) ====
{{main|Chahamanas of Ranastambhapura}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+List of Chauhan rulers of Ranastambhapura
!Serial no.
!Kings
!Reign (CE)
|-
|1
|[[Govindaraja IV|Govinda-raja]]
|1192
|-
|2
|Balhana-deva
|
|-
|3
|Prahlada-deva
|
|-
|4
|Viranarayana
|
|-
|5
|Vagabhata
|
|-
|6
|Jaitra-simha
|
|-
|7
|Shakti-deva
|
|-
|8
|[[Hammiradeva|Hammira-deva]]
|1283–1311
|}

=== Kingdom of Mewar (c. 566 – 1947 CE) ===
{{main|Kingdom of Mewar}}

In the 6th century, three different Guhila dynasties are known to have ruled in present-day [[Rajasthan]]:
# Guhilas of [[Nagda]]-[[Ahar]]– most important branch and future ruling dynasty of Mewar.
# Guhilas of Kishkindha (modern [[Kalyanpur, Rajasthan|Kalyanpur]])
# Guhilas of Dhavagarta (modern [[Dhor]])

==== Guhila dynasty (c. 566 – 1303 CE) ====
{{main|Guhila dynasty|Gahlot}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+List of Guhila dynasty rulers
!Nu.
!King (Rawal)
!Reign (CE)
|-
|1
|[[Guhila dynasty|Rawal Guhil]]
|566–586
|-
|2
|Rawal Bhoj
|586–606
|-
|3
|Rawal Mahendra I
|606–626
|-
|4
|Rawal Naga (Nagaditya)
|626–646
|-
|5
|Rawal Shiladitya
|646–661
|-
|6
|Rawal Aprajeet
|661–688
|-
|7
|Rawal Mahendra II
|688–716
|-
|8
|[[Bappa Rawal]]
|728–753
|-
|9
|Rawal Khuman I
|753–773
|-
|10
|Rawal Mattat
|773–793
|-
|11
|Rawal Bhartri Bhatt I
|793–813
|-
|12
|Rawal Sinh
|813–828
|-
|13
|Rawal Khuman II
|828–853
|-
|14
|Rawal Mahayak
|853–878
|-
|15
|Rawal Khuman III
|878–926
|-
|16
|Rawal Bhartri Bhatt II
|926–951
|-
|17
|Rawal Allat
|951–971
|-
|18
|Rawal Narwahan
|971–973
|-
|19
|Rawal Saliwahan
|973–977
|-
|20
|Rawal Shakti Kumar
|977–993
|-
|21
|Rawal Amba Prasad
|993–1007
|-
|22
|Rawal Shuchivarma
|1007–1021
|-
|23
|Rawal Narvarma
|1021–1035
|-
|24
|Rawal Keertivarma
|1035–1051
|-
|25
|Rawal Yograj
|1051–1068
|-
|26
|Rawal Vairath
|1068–1088
|-
|27
|Rawal Hanspal
|1088–1103
|-
|28
|Rawal Vair Singh
|1103–1107
|-
|29
|Rawal Vijai Singh
|1107–1116
|-
|30
|Rawal Ari Singh I
|1116–1138
|-
|31
|Rawal Chaudh Singh
|1138–1148
|-
|32
|Rawal Vikram Singh
|1148–1158
|-
|33
|Rawal Ran Singh
|1158–1168
|-
| colspan="4" |'''Post-split Rawal branch rulers'''
|-
|34
|Rawal Khshem Singh
|1168–1172
|-
|35
|Rawal Samant Singh
|1172–1179
|-
|36
|Rawal Kumar Singh
|1179–1191
|-
|37
|Rawal Mathan Singh
|1191–1211
|-
|38
|Rawal Padam Singh
|1211–1213
|-
|39
|[[Jaitrasimha|Rawal Jaitra Singh]]
|1213–1252
|-
|40
|[[Tejasimha|Rawal Tej Singh]]
|1252–1273
|-
|41
|[[Rawal Samarasimha|Rawal Samar Singh]]
|1273–1302
|-
|42
|[[Ratnasimha|Rawal Ratan Singh]]
|1302–1303
|-
|}

==== Branching of Guhil dynasty ====

During reign of Rawal Ran Singh (1158–1168), the Guhil dynasty got divided into two branches.
;First (Rawal Branch)
Rawal Khshem Singh (1168–1172), son of Ran Singh, ruled over Mewar by building Rawal Branch.
;Second (Rana Branch)
Rahapa, the second son of Ran Singh started the Rana Branch by establishing [[Sisoda]] bases. Later [[Hammir Singh]] of Sisoda base started main Sisodia or Mewar dynasty in 1326 CE.

==== Rana branch rulers (c. 1168 – 1326 CE) ====

"Rahapa", a son of Ranasimha alias Karna, established the Rana branch. According to the 1652 Eklingji inscription, Rahapa's successors were:

{| class="wikitable"
|+List of Rana branch rulers
!Nu.
!King (Rana)
!Reign (CE)
|-
|1
|Rahapa/Karna
|1168 CE
|-
|2
|Narapati
|
|-
|3
|Dinakara
|
|-
|4
|Jasakarna
|
|-
|5
|Nagapala
|
|-
|6
|Karnapala
|
|-
|7
|Bhuvanasimha
|
|-
|8
|Bhimasimha
|
|-
|9
|Jayasimha
|
|-
|10
|Lakhanasimha
|
|-
|11
|Arisimha
|
|-
|12
|[[Hammir Singh]]
|1326 CE
|-
|}

==== Sisodia dynasty (c. 1326 – 1947 CE) ====
{{Main|Sisodia dynasty|List of ranas of Mewar}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Picture
!King (Maharana)
!Reign
|-
|
|[[Hammir Singh]]
|1326–1364
|-
|
|[[Kshetra Singh]]
|1364–1382
|-
|
|[[Lakha Singh]]
|1382–1421
|-
|[[File:Rana Mokal Singh.jpg|100px]]
|[[Mokal Singh]]
|1421–1433
|-
|[[File:Kumbha of Mewar.jpg|100px]]
|[[Rana Kumbha]]
|1433–1468
|-
|
|[[Udai Singh I]]
|1468–1473
|-
|
|[[Rana Raimal]]
|1473–1508

|-
|[[File:Depiction of king Rana Sanga.jpg|100px]]
|[[Rana Sanga]]
|1508–1527
|-
|
|[[Ratan Singh II]]
|1528–1531
|-
|
|[[Vikramaditya Singh (Maharana)|Vikramaditya Singh]]
|1531–1536
|-
|
|[[Vanvir Singh]]
|1536–1540
|-
|[[File:Rana-udai-singh-ii.jpg|100px]]
|[[Udai Singh II]]
|1540–1572
|-
|[[File:RajaRaviVarma MaharanaPratap.jpg|100px]]
|[[Maharana Pratap]]
|1572–1597
|-
|[[File:Raja Ravi Varma, Maharana Amar Singh - I.jpg|100px]]
|[[Amar Singh I]]
|1597–1620
|-
|[[File:Karan Singh.jpg|100px]]
|[[Karan Singh II]]
|1620–1628
|-
|[[File:Jagat Singh I.jpg|100px]]
|[[Jagat Singh I]]
|1628–1652
|-
|[[File:Painting of Maharana Raj Singh - I (1652 - 80).jpg|100px]]
|[[Raj Singh I]]
|1652–1680
|-
|[[File:Raja Ravi Varma, Maharana Jai Singh.jpg|100px]]
|[[Jai Singh of Mewar|Jai Singh]]
|1680–1698
|-
|[[File:Maharana Amar Singh II.jpg|100px]]
|[[Amar Singh II]]
|1698–1710
|-
|[[File:Maharana Sangram Singh Riding a Prize Stallion.jpg|100px]]
|[[Sangram Singh II]]
|1710–173
|-
|[[File:Maharana Jagat Singh II.jpg|100px]]
|[[Jagat Singh II]]
|1734–1751
|-
|[[File:Brooklyn Museum - Maharaja Pratap Singh II of Mewar Hunting Boar.jpg|100px]]
|[[Pratap Singh II]]
|1751–1754
|-
|[[File:Equestrian portrait of Maharana Raj Singh II.jpg|100px]]
|[[Raj Singh II]]
|1754–1762
|-
|[[File:Mewar Maharana Ari Singh.jpg|100px]]
|[[Ari Singh II]]
|1762–1772
|-
|
|[[Hamir Singh II]]
|1772–1778
|-
|[[File:Bhim Singh of Mewar.jpg|100px]]
|[[Bhim Singh of Mewar|Bhim Singh]]
|1778–1828
|-
|[[File:Maharana Jawan Singh.jpg|100px]]
|[[Jawan Singh]]
|1828–1838
|-
|
|[[Sardar Singh]]
|1838–1842
|-
|[[File:Portrait of Sarup Singh with attendants (after William Carpenter). Udaipur, 1851, City Palace Museum, Udaipur. (cropped).jpg|100px]]
|[[Swarup Singh of Udaipur|Swarup Singh]]
|1842–1861
|-
|[[File:Maharana Shambhu Singh throwing a javelin, By Tara, Mewar 1866.jpg|100px]]
|[[Shambhu Singh]]
|1861–1874
|-
|[[File:Maharana Sajjan Singh.jpg|100px]]
|[[Sajjan Singh of Udaipur|Sajjan Singh]]
|1874–1884
|-
|[[File:Maharana Fateh Singh of Udaipur.jpg|100px]]
|[[Fateh Singh of Udaipur and Mewar|Fateh Singh]]
|1884–1930
|-
|[[File:Maharana Bhupal Singh.jpg|100px]]
|[[Bhupal Singh]]
|1930–1948 1948-1955 (titular)
|-
|
| colspan="3" align=center" |'''Titular Maharanas'''
|-style="background:#eee
|[[File:Maharana of Udaipur Bhagwat Singh at Lake Palace on Lake Pichola in India.jpg|100px]]
|''[[Bhagwat Singh Mewar|Bhagwat Singh]]''
|1955–1984
|-style="background:#eee
|[[File:The 76th Maharana of Mewar, Shri Mahendra Singh Mewar.jpg|100px]]
|''[[Mahendra Singh Mewar|Mahendra Singh]]''
|1984–2024
|-style="background:#eee
|[[File:Vishvaraj Singh Mewar (cropped).jpg|100px]]
|''[[Vishvaraj Singh Mewar|Vishvaraj Singh]]''
|2024–present
|}

===Karkota dynasty of Kashmir (c. 625–855 CE)===
{{main|Karkota dynasty|Kashmir}}
* Durlabhavardhana (625–662), (founder of the dynasty)
* Durlabhaka or Pratipaditya (662–712)
* Chandrapeeda or Varnaditya (712–720)
* Tarapida or Udayaditya (720–724)
* [[Lalitaditya Muktapida]] (724–760), (built the famous [[Martand Sun Temple]] in [[Kashmir]])
* Kuvalayaditya (760–761)
* Vajraditya or Bapyayika or Lalitapida (761–768)
* Prithivyapida I (768–772)
* Sangramapida (772–779)
* Jayapida (also Pandit and poet) (779–813)
* Lalitapida (813–825)
* Sangramapida II (825–832)
* Chipyata-Jayapida (832–885), (last ruler of dynasty)

;Other puppet rulers under [[Utpala dynasty]] are:
* Ajitapida
* Anangapida
* Utpalapida
* Sukhavarma

===Chacha dynasty of Sindh (c. 632–724 CE)===
{{main|Brahman dynasty of Sindh}}

The known rulers of the Brahman dynasty are:<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wink |first1=André |author-link=André Wink |year=1996 |orig-year=First published 1990 |title=Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World |volume=I |edition=3rd |publisher=BRILL |pages=152–153 |isbn=978-90-04-09249-5}}</ref>
* [[Chach of Aror|Chach]] (632–671 CE)
* [[Chandar of Sindh|Chandar]] (671–679 CE)
* [[Dahir of Aror|Dahir]] (679–712 CE)
;Under the [[Umayyad Caliphate]]:
* Dahirsiya (679–709 CE) from [[Brahmanabad]]
* Hullishāh (712–724 CE)
* Shishah (until 724 CE)

===Mlechchha dynasty of Kamarupa (650–900 CE)===
{{main|Mlechchha dynasty|Kamarupa}}
* Salastamba (650–670), founder of dynasty
* Vijaya alias Vigrahastambha
* Palaka
* Kumara
* Vajradeva
* Harshadeva alias Harshavarman (725–745)
* Balavarman II
* Jivaraja
* Digleswaravarman
* Salambha<ref>Pralambha, read from the Tezpur plates, can be corrected to Salambha, in light of the Parbatiya plates, {{cite book |last=Sharma |first=Mukunda Manhava |year=1978 |title=Inscriptions of Ancient Assam |url=https://archive.org/details/inscriptionsofancientassammmsharmagauhatiuniversity1978c |place=Guwahati |publisher=Gauhati University |page=105}}</ref>
* Harjjaravarman (815–832)
* Vanamalavarmadeva (832–855)
* Jayamala alias Virabahu (855–860)
* Balavarman III (860–880)
* Tyagasimha (890–900), last ruler of dynasty

===Garhwal Kingdom (c. 688–1949 CE)===
{{main|Garhwal Kingdom}}

[[Mola Ram]] the 18th century painter, poet, historian and diplomat of Garhwal wrote the historical work ''Garhrajvansh Ka Itihas'' (History of the Garhwal royal dynasty) which is the only source of information about several Garhwal rulers.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kingdom that Mughals could never win |url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/news/uttarakhand/community/kingdom-that-mughals-could-never-win/199323.html |date=22 February 2016 |access-date=2018-01-29 |work=The Tribune }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=International Cyclopaedia: A Library of Universal Knowledge |volume=6 |publisher=Dodd, Mead & Company|year=1885|pages=451}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|+Rulers of Garhwal - Panwar clan of Garhwali Rajputs
|No.
|Name
|Reign
|Years Reigned
|No.
|Name
|Reign
|Years Reigned
|No.
|Name
|Reign
|Years Reigned
|-
|1
|[[Kanak Pal]]
|688–699
|11
|21
|Vikram Pal
|1116–1131
|15
|41
|Vijay Pal
|1426–1437
|11
|-
|2
|Shyam Pal
|699–725
|26
|22
|Vichitra Pal
|1131–1140
|9
|42
|Sahaj Pal
|1437–1473
|36
|-
|3
|Pandu Pal
|725–756
|31
|23
|Hans Pal
|1141–1152
|11
|43
|Bahadur Shah
|1473–1498
|25
|-
|4
|Abhijat Pal
|756–780
|24
|24
|Som Pal
|1152–1159
|7
|44
|Man Shah
|1498–1518
|20
|-
|5
|Saugat Pal
|781–800
|19
|25
|Kadil Pal
|1159–1164
|5
|45
|Shyam Shah
|1518–1527
|9
|-
|6
|Ratna Pal
|800–849
|49
|26
|Kamadev Pal
|1172–1179
|7
|46
|Mahipat Shah
|1527–1552
|25
|-
|7
|Shali Pal
|850–857
|7
|27
|Sulakshan Dev
|1179–1197
|18
|47
|Prithvi Shah
|1552–1614
|62
|-
|8
|Vidhi Pal
|858–877
|19
|28
|Lakhan Dev
|1197–1220
|23
|48
|Medini Shah
|1614–1660
|46
|-
|9
|Madan Pal
|877–894
|17
|29
|Anand Pal II
|1220–1241
|21
|49
|[[Fateh Shah]]
|1660–1708
|48
|-
|10
|Bhakti Pal
|895–919
|24
|30
|Purva Dev
|1241–1260
|19
|50
|Upendra Shah
|1708–1709
|1
|-
|11
|Jayachand Pal
|920–948
|28
|31
|Abhay Dev
|1260–1267
|7
|51
|Pradip Shah
|1709–1772
|63
|-
|12
|Prithvi Pal
|949–971
|22
|32
|Jayaram Dev
|1267–1290
|23
|52
|Lalit Shah
|1772–1780
|8
|-
|13
|Medinisen Pal
|972–995
|23
|33
|Asal Dev
|1290–1299
|9
|53
|Jayakrit Shah
|1780–1786
|6
|-
|14
|Agasti Pal
|995–1014
|19
|34
|Jagat Pal
|1299–1311
|12
|54
|[[Pradyumna Shah]]
|1786–1804
|18
|-
|15
|Surati Pal
|1015–1036
|21
|35
|Jit Pal
|1311–1330
|19
|55
|[[Sudarshan Shah]]
|1804–1859
|55
|-
|16
|Jay Pal
|1037–1055
|18
|36
|Anant Pal II
|1330–1358
|28
|56
|Bhawani Shah
|1859–1871
|12
|-
|17
|Anant Pal I
|1056–1072
|16
|37
|Ajay Pal
|1358–1389
|31
|57
|Pratap Shah
|1871–1886
|15
|-
|18
|Anand Pal I
|1072–1083
|11
|38
|Kalyan Shah
|1389–1398
|9
|58
|Kirti Shah
|1886–1913
|27
|-
|19
|Vibhog Pal
|1084–1101
|17
|39
|Sundar Pal
|1398–1413
|15
|59
|Narendra Shah
|1913–1946
|33
|-
|20
|Suvayanu Pal
|1102–1115
|13
|40
|Hansadev Pal
|1413–1426
|13
|60
|[[Manabendra Shah]]
|1946–1949
|3
|}

===Mallabhum (Bishnupur) kingdom (c. 694–1947 CE)===
{{Main|Mallabhum kingdom}}

Mallabhum kingdom or Bishnupur kingdom was the kingdom ruled by the [[Malla (tribe)|Malla]] kings of [[Bishnupur, Bankura|Bishnupur]], primarily in the present [[Bankura district]] in Indian state of [[West Bengal]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Bishnupur |title=Bishnupur |quote="Mallabhum kingdom" |website=Britannica }}</ref> (also known as '''Mallabhoom'''),<ref>{{cite book |last1=Steemers |first1=Koen |title=Architecture, City, Environment: Proceedings of PLEA 2000 : July 2000 ...|publisher=James & James (Science Publishers) Ltd|isbn=1902916166|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ee4XH1wFFFYC&q=Mallabhoom&pg=PA377|page=377|year=2000 }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
!Name of the king<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dasgupta |first1=Gautam Kumar |last2=Biswas |first2=Samira |last3=Mallik |first3=Rabiranjan |year=2009 |title=Heritage Tourism: An Anthropological Journey to Bishnupur |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_0_o9Qj1LOEC&pg=PA18 |publisher=A Mittal Publication |pages=31–43 |isbn=978-81-8324-294-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Mallik|first1=Abhaya Pada|title=History of Bishnupur-Raj: An Ancient Kingdom of West Bengal|date=1921|publisher=Calcutta|pages=128–130|edition=the University of Michigan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QF4dAAAAMAAJ|access-date=11 March 2016}}</ref>
! Reign
|-
|[[Adi Malla]]
|694–710
|-
|[[Jay Malla]]
|710–720
|-
|Benu Malla
|720–733
|-
|[[Kinu Malla]]
|733–742
|-
|Indra Malla
|742–757
|-
|[[Kanu Malla]]
|757–764
|-
|Dha (Jhau) Malla
|764–775
|-
|[[Shur Malla]]
|775–795
|-
|Kanak Malla
|795–807
|-
|Kandarpa Malla
|807–828
|-
|Sanatan Malla
|828–841
|-
|[[Kharga Malla]]
|841–862
|-
|Durjan (Durjay) Malla
|862–906
|-
|[[Yadav Malla]]
|906–919
|-
|Jagannath Malla
|919–931
|-
|Birat Malla
|931–946
|-
|Mahadev Malla
|946–977
|-
|Durgadas Malla
|977–994
|-
|[[Jagat Malla]]
|994–1007
|-
|Ananta Malla
|1007–1015
|-
|Rup Malla
|1015–1029
|-
|Sundar Malla
|1029–1053
|-
|Kumud Malla
|1053–1074
|-
|Krishna Malla
|1074–1084
|-
|Rup II (Jhap) Malla
|1084–1097
|-
|[[Prakash Malla]]
|1097–1102
|-
|Pratap Malla
|1102–1113
|-
|Sindur Malla
|1113–1129
|-
|Sukhomoy(Shuk) Malla
|1129–1142
|-
|Banamali Malla
|1142–1156
|-
|Yadu/Jadu Malla
|1156–1167
|-
|Jiban Malla
|1167–1185
|-
|[[Ram Malla]]
|1185–1209
|-
|Gobinda Malla
|1209–1240
|-
|[[Bhim Malla]]
|1240–1263
|-
|Katar(Khattar) Malla
|1263–1295
|-
|[[Prithwi Malla]]
|1295 -1319
|-
|Tapa Malla
|1319–1334
|-
|[[Dinabandhu Malla]]
|1334–1345
|-
|Kinu/Kanu II Malla
|1345–1358
|-
|Shur Malla II
|1358–1370
|-
|[[Shiv Singh Malla]]
|1370–1407
|-
|[[Madan Malla]]
|1407–1420
|-
|Durjan II (Durjay) Malla
|1420–1437
|-
|Uday Malla
|1437–1460
|-
|[[Chandra Malla]]
|1460–1501
|-
|[[Bir Malla]]
|1501–1554
|-
|[[Dhari Malla]]
|1554–1565
|-
|[[Bir Hambir|Hambir Malla Dev (Bir Hambir)]]
|1565–1620
|-
|[[Dhari Hambir Malla Dev]]
|1620–1626
|-
|[[Raghunath Singha Dev]]
|1626–1656
|-
|[[Bir Singha Dev]]
|1656–1682
|-
|[[Durjan Singha Dev]]
|1682–1702
|-
|[[Raghunath Singha Dev II]]
|1702–1712
|-
|[[Gopal Singha Dev]]
|1712–1748
|-
|[[Chaitanya Singha Dev]]
|1748–1801
|-
|[[Madhav Singha Dev]]
|1801–1809
|-
|[[Gopal Singha Dev II]]
|1809–1876
|-
|[[Ramkrishna Singha Dev]]
|1876–1885
|-
|Dwhaja Moni Devi
|1885–1889
|-
|[[Nilmoni Singha Dev]]
|1889–1903
|-
|Churamoni Devi (Regency)
|1903–1930
|-
|[[Kalipada Singha Thakur]]
|1930–1947
|}

===Chand Kingdom of Kumaon (700–1790 CE)===
{{main|Chand kings}}

[[Badri Datt Pandey]], in his book ''Kumaun Ka Itihaas'' lists the Chand kings as following:

{|class="sortable wikitable" style="text-align:center;font-size: 11pt"
|-
!width="150" rowspan="1"| King
!rowspan="1"|Reign
|-
| Som Chand
| 700–721
|-
| Atm Chand
| 721–740
|-
| Purn Chand
| 740–758
|-
| Indra Chand
| 758–778
|-
| Sansar Chand
| 778–813
|-
| Sudha Chand
| 813–833
|-
| Hamir Chand
| 833–856
|-
| Vina Chand
| 856–869
|-
| Vir Chand
| 1065–1080
|-
| Rup Chand
| 1080–1093
|-
| Laxmi Chand
| 1093–1113
|-
| Dharm Chand
| 1113–1121
|-
| Karm Chand
| 1121–1140
|-
| Ballal Chand
| 1140–1149
|-
| Nami Chand
| 1149–1170
|-
| Nar Chand
| 1170–1177
|-
| Nanaki Chand
| 1177–1195
|-
| Ram Chand
| 1195–1205
|-
| Bhishm Chand
| 1205–1226
|-
| Megh Chand
| 1226–1233
|-
| Dhyan Chand
| 1233–1251
|-
| Parvat Chand
| 1251–1261
|-
| Thor Chand
| 1261–1275
|-
| Kalyan Chand II
| 1275–1296
|-
| Trilok Chand
| 1296–1303
|-
| Damaru Chand
| 1303–1321
|-
| Dharm Chand
| 1321–1344
|-
| Abhay Chand
| 1344–1374
|-
| Garur Gyan Chand
| 1374–1419
|-
| Harihar Chand
| 1419–1420
|-
| Udyan Chand
| 1420–1421
|-
| Atma Chand II
| 1421–1422
|-
| Hari Chand II
| 1422–1423
|-
| Vikram Chand
| 1423–1437
|-
| Bharati Chand
| 1437–1450
|-
| Ratna Chand
| 1450–1488
|-
| Kirti Chand
| 1488–1503
|-
| Pratap Chand
| 1503–1517
|-
| Tara Chand
| 1517–1533
|-
| Manik Chand
| 1533–1542
|-
| Kalyan Chand III
| 1542–1551
|-
| Purna Chand
| 1551–1555
|-
| Bhishm Chand
| 1555–1560
|-
| Balo Kalyan Chand
| 1560–1568
|-
| Rudra Chand
| 1568–1597
|-
| Laxmi Chand
| 1597–1621
|-
| Dilip Chand
| 1621–1624
|-
| Vijay Chand
| 1624–1625
|-
| Trimal Chand
| 1625–1638
|-
| Baz Bahadur Chand
| 1638–1678
|-
| Udyot Chand
| 1678–1698
|-
| Gyan Chand
| 1698–1708
|-
| Jagat Chand
| 1708–1720
|-
| Devi Chand
| 1720–1726
|-
| Ajit Chand
| 1726–1729
|-
| Kalyan Chand V
| 1729–1747
|-
| Deep Chand
| 1747–1777
|-
| Mohan Chand
| 1777–1779]]
|-
| Pradyumn Chand
| 1779–1786
|-
| Mohan Chand
| 1786–1788
|-
| Shiv Chand
| 1788
|-
| Mahendra Chand
| 1788–1790
|}

=== Karttikeyapur (Katyur) Kingdom (700–1065 CE) ===
{{main|Katyuri kings}}
The period of certain Katyuri rulers, is generally determined as below, although there is some ambiguity in respect to exact number of years ruled by each King{{sfn|Handa|2002|p=28 to 32}}

;List–
* Vasu Dev (700–849 CE)
* Basantana Dev (850–870 CE)
* Kharpar Dev (870–880 CE)
* Abhiraj Dev (880–890 CE)
* Tribhuvanraj Dev (890–900 CE)
* Nimbarta Dev (900–915 CE)
* Istanga (915–930 CE)
* Lalitasura Dev (930–955 CE)
* Bhu Dev (955–970 CE)
* Salonaditya (970–985 CE)
* Ichchhata Dev (985–1000 CE)
* Deshat Dev (1000–1015 CE)
* Padmata Dev (1015–1045 CE)
* Subhiksharaja Dev (1045–1060 CE)
* Dham Dev (1060–1064 CE)
* Bir Dev (Very short period until 1065 CE)

===Varman dynasty of Kannauj (c. 725–770 CE)===
{{main|Varman dynasty of Kannauj}}
* [[Yashovarman]] (c. 725–752 CE), founder of dynasty
* [[Āma]]
* [[Dunduka]]
* [[Bhoja of Kannauj|Bhoja]] (ruled until 770 CE), last ruler of dynasty.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sen |first1=Sailendra Nath |year=1999 |orig-year=First published 1988 |title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization |publisher=New Age International |edition=2nd |isbn=81-224-1198-3 |pages=264–668 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA246}}</ref>

===Rashtrakuta Empire (c. 753–982 CE)===
{{main|Rashtrakuta Empire}}

{| style="width:100%;" class="wikitable"
! style="background:#f0dc88; width:5%;"|Serial no.
! style="background:#f0dc88; width:17%;"| Regnal names
! style="background:#f0dc88; width:17%;"|Reign
! style="background:#f0dc88; width:17%;"|Notes

|-
|1
|[[Dantidurga]] (Founder)
|753–756 CE
|Founder of dynasty
|-
|2
|[[Krishna I]]
|756–774 CE
|
|-
|3
|[[Govinda II]]
|774–780 CE
|
|-
|4
|[[Dhruva Dharavarsha]]
|780–793 CE
|
|-
|5
|[[Govinda III]]
|793–814 CE
|
|-
|6
|[[Amoghavarsha]]
|814–878 CE
| Longest reigning monarch and founded of [[Manyakheta]] city, which became the capital of the dynasty.<ref>[[Georg Bühler]], 'Pâiyalachchhî Nâmamâlâ', in Beiträge zur Kunde der Indogermanischen Sprachen, vol. 4, edited by Adalbert Bezzenberger (Göttingen, 1878) and B. J. Dośī, Pāia-lacchīnāmamāla (Prākṛta-Lakṣmināmamālā) (Bombay, 1960): v. 276</ref>
|-
|7
|[[Krishna II]]
|878–914 CE
|
|-
|8
|[[Indra III]]
|914–929 CE
|
|-
|9
|[[Amoghavarsha II]]
|929–932 CE
|
|-
|10
|[[Govinda IV]]
|930–935 CE
|
|-
|11
|[[Amoghavarsha III]]
|934–939 CE
|
|-
|12
|[[Krishna III]]
|939–967 CE
|
|-
|13
|[[Khottiga Amoghavarsha]]
|967–972 C
|
|-
|14
|[[Karka II]] or Amoghhavarsha IV
|972–973 CE
|
|-
|15
|[[Indra IV]] (only a claimer for the lost throne.)
|973–982 CE
| He was the only a claimer for the lost throne.
|-
|}

=== Tomar dynasty of Delhi (c. 736–1151 CE) ===
{{main|Tomara dynasty}}

Various historical texts provide different lists of the Tomara kings:<ref>{{cite book |editor=Alexander Cunningham |year=1871 |title=Archaeological Survey of India: Reports 1862–1884 |volume=I |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SmgSvB5B9I4C&pg=PA149 |publisher=Archaeological Survey of India |pages=141–145 |oclc=421335527}}</ref>
* Khadag Rai's history of [[Gwalior]] (''[[Gopanchala Akhyana|Gopācala ākhyāna]]'') names 18 Tomara kings, plus Prithvi Pala (who is probably the [[Chahamanas of Shakambhari|Chahamana]] king [[Prithviraja III]]). According to Khadag Rai, Delhi was originally ruled by the legendary king [[Vikramaditya]]. It was deserted for 792 years after his death, until Bilan Dev [Veer Mahadev or Birmaha] of Tomara dynasty re-established the city (in 736 CE).
* The Kumaon-Garhwal manuscript names only 15 rulers of "Toar" dynasty, and dates the beginning of their rule to 789 CE (846 [[Vikram Samvat]]).
* [[Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak|Abul Fazl]]'s ''[[Ain-i-Akbari]]'' (Bikaner manuscript, edited by [[Syed Ahmad Khan]]) names 19 Tomara kings. It places the first Tomara king in 372 CE (429 Vikram Samvat). It might be possible that the era mentioned in the original source used by Abul Fazl was [[Gupta era]], which starts from 318 to 319 CE; Abul Fazl might have mistaken this era to be Vikrama Samvat. If this is true, then the first Tomara king can be dated to 747 CE (429+318), which is better aligned with the other sources.

As stated earlier, the historians doubt the claim that the Tomaras established Delhi in 736 CE.<ref>{{cite book |author=D. C. Ganguly |year=1981 |editor=R. S. Sharma |title=A Comprehensive History of India (A. D. 300–985) |volume=3, Part 1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kXtDAAAAYAAJ |publisher=Indian History Congress / Orient Longmans |page=704}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|+ List of Tomara rulers according to various sources{{sfn|Alexander Cunningham|1871|p=149}}<ref>{{cite book |author=Jagbir Singh |year=2002 |title=The Jat Rulers of Upper Doab: Three Centuries of Aligarh Jat Nobility |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9H9uAAAAMAAJ |publisher=Aavishkar |page=28 |isbn=978-81-7910-016-5}}
</ref>
! rowspan="2" | #
! rowspan="2" | [[Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak|Abul Fazl]]'s ''[[Ain-i-Akbari]]'' / Bikaner manuscript
! rowspan="2" | Gwalior manuscript of Khadag Rai
! rowspan="2" | Kumaon-Garhwal manuscript
! rowspan="2" | Ascension year in [[Common Era|CE]] (according to Gwalior manuscript)
! colspan="3" | Length of reign
|-
! Years
! Months
! Days
|-
| 1 || Ananga Pāla || Bilan Dev || || 736 || 18 || 0 || 0
|-
| 2 || Vasu Deva || || || 754 || 19 || 1 || 18
|-
| 3 || Gangya || Ganggeva || || 773 || 21 || 3 || 28
|-
| 4 || Prithivi Pāla (or Prithivi Malla) || Prathama || Mahi Pāla || 794 || 19 || 6 || 19
|-
| 5 || Jaya Deva || Saha Deva || Jadu Pāla || 814 || 20 || 7 || 28
|-
| 6 || Nīra Pāla or Hira Pāla || Indrajita (I) || Nai Pāla || 834 || 14 || 4 || 9
|-
| 7 || Udiraj (or Adereh) || Nara Pāla || Jaya Deva Pāla || 849 || 26 || 7 || 11
|-
| 8 || Vijaya (or Vacha) || Indrajita (II) || Chamra Pāla || 875 || 21 || 2 || 13
|-
| 9 || Biksha (or Anek) || Vacha Raja || Bibasa Pāla || 897 || 22 || 3 || 16
|-
| 10 || Rīksha Pāla || Vira Pāla || Sukla Pāla || 919 || 21 || 6 || 5
|-
| 11 || Sukh Pāla (or Nek Pāla) || Go-Pāla || Teja Pāla || 940 || 20 || 4 || 4
|-
| 12 || Go-Pāla || Tillan Dev || Mahi Pāla || 961 || 18 || 3 || 15
|-
| 13 || Sallakshana Pāla || Suvari || Sursen || 979 || 25 || 10 || 10
|-
| 14 || Jaya Pāla || Osa Pāla || Jaik Pāla || 1005 || 16 || 4 || 3
|-
| 15 || Kunwar Pāla || Kumara Pāla || || 1021 || 29 || 9 || 18
|-
| 16 || [[Anangpal Tomar|Ananga Pāla]] (or Anek Pāla) || Ananga Pāla || Anek Pāla || 1051 || 29 || 6 || 18
|-
| 17 || Vijaya Pāla (or Vijaya Sah) || Teja Pāla || Teja Pāla || 1081 || 24 || 1 || 6
|-
| 18 || Mahi Pāla (or Mahatsal) || Mahi Pāla || Jyūn Pāla || 1105 || 25 || 2 || 23
|-
| 19 || Akr Pāla (or Akhsal) || Mukund Pāla || Ane Pāla || 1130 || 21 || 2 || 15
|-
| || [[Prithviraj Chauhan|Prithivi Raja (Chahamana)]] || Prithvi Pala || || 1151 || || ||
|}
Another resource tells that the son of King Mukundpal Tomar, King Prithvipal Tomar had a son named King Govind Raj Tomar ruled for 1189 to 1192 .

===Shilahara dynasty (765–1265 CE)===
{{main|Shilahara}}

Shilahara Kingdom was split into '''three''' branches:
* First branch ruled [[Konkan|North Konkan]]
* Second branch ruled [[Konkan|South Konkan]] (between 765 and 1029 CE)
* Third branch ruled in modern districts of [[Kolhapur]], [[Satara district|Satara]] and [[Belgaum]] (between 940 and 1215 CE) after which they were overwhelmed by the [[Seuna (Yadava) dynasty|Yadavas]].<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.maharashtra.gov.in/english/gazetteer/nasik/005%20History/001%20AncientPeriod.htm
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20050429040159/http://www.maharashtra.gov.in/english/gazetteer/nasik/005%20History/001%20AncientPeriod.htm
|url-status = dead
|archive-date = 29 April 2005
|title = Nasik History - Ancient Period
|publisher = State Government of Maharashtra
|access-date = 2006-10-14
|df = dmy-all
}}</ref>

====South Konkan branch (c. 765–1020 CE)====

;List of rulers–
# Sanaphulla (765–795 CE)
# Dhammayira (795–820 CE)
# Aiyaparaja (820–845 CE)
# Avasara I (845–870 CE)
# Adityavarma (870–895 CE)
# Avasara II (895–920 CE)
# Indraraja (920–945 CE)
# Bhima (945–970 CE)
# Avasara III (970–995 CE)
# Rattaraja (995–1020 CE)

====North Konkan (Thane) branch (c. 800–1265 CE)====
;List of rulers–

# [[Kapardin I]] (800–825 CE)
# [[Pullashakti]] (825–850 CE)
# Kapardin II (850–880 CE)
# [[Vappuvanna]] (880–910 CE)
# [[Jhanjha]] (910–930 CE)
# [[Goggiraja]] (930–945 CE)
# Vajjada I (945–965 CE)
# Chhadvaideva (965–975 CE)
# [[Aparajita]] (975–1010 CE)
# [[Vajjada II]] (1010–1015 CE)
# [[Arikesarin]] (1015–1022 CE)
# [[Chhittaraja]] (1022–1035 CE)
# Nagarjuna (1035–1045 CE)
# Mummuniraja (1045–1070 CE)
# Ananta Deva I (1070–1127 CE)
# [[Aparaditya I]] (1127–1148 CE)
# [[Haripaladeva]] (1148–1155 CE)
# [[Mallikarjuna (Shilahara dynasty)|Mallikarjuna]] (1155–1170 CE)
# Aparaditya II ( 1170–1197 CE)
# Ananta Deva II (1198–1200 CE)
# [[Keshideva II]] (1200–1245 CE)
# Ananta Deva III (1245–1255 CE)
# [[Someshvara (Shilahara dynasty)|Someshvara]] (1255–1265 CE), last ruler of dynasty

====Kolhapur branch (c. 940–1212 CE)====
;List of rulers–

# Jatiga I (940–960 CE)
# Naivarman (960–980 CE)
# Chandra (980–1000 CE)
# [[Jatiga II]] (1000–1020 CE)
# [[Gonka]] (1020–1050 CE)
# Guhala I (1050 CE)
# Kirtiraja (1050 CE)
# Chandraditya (1050 CE)
# [[Marsimha]] (1050–1075 CE)
# Guhala II (1075–1085 CE)
# [[Bhoja I]] (1085–1100 CE)
# Ballala (1100–1108 CE)
# Gonka II (1108 CE)
# [[Gandaraditya I]] (1108–1138 CE)
# [[Vijayaditya I]] (1138–1175 CE)
# [[Bhoja II (Shilahara dynasty)|Bhoja II]] (1175–1212 CE)

===Ayudha dynasty of Kannauj (c. 770–810 CE)===
{{main|Ayudha dynasty}}
* Vajrayudha (770–783), founder of dynasty
* Indrayudha
* Chakrayudha (until 810){{sfn|Sen|1999|p=264}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Kannauj after Harsha |url=https://www.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/kannauj-after-harsha-1444825262-1 |website=Jagran Josh|date=14 October 2015 }}</ref>

===Chandela dynasty of Jejakabhukti (c. 831–1315 CE)===
{{main|Chandelas of Jejakabhukti}}

The ''Chandelas of Jejakabhukti'' were a dynasty in [[Central India]]. They ruled much of the [[Bundelkhand]] region (then called ''Jejakabhukti'') between the 9th and the 13th centuries.

Based on epigraphic records, the historians have come up with the following list of Chandela rulers of Jejākabhukti ([[IAST]] names in brackets):<ref>{{cite book |last=Dikshit |first=R. K. |year=1976 |title=The Candellas of Jejākabhukti |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a9j9ZJGJOV0C&pg=PA130 |publisher=Abhinav |page=25 |isbn=978-81-7017-046-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Sullerey |first=Sushil Kumar |year=2004 |title=Chandella Art |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rj8RusFpYHIC&pg=PA25 |publisher=Aakar Books |page=25|isbn=978-81-87879-32-9 }}</ref>
* [[Nannuka]], (c. 831-845 CE)
* [[Vakpati (Chandela dynasty)|Vakpati]] (Vākpati), (c. 845-865 CE)
* [[Jayashakti]] (Jayaśakti) and [[Vijayashakti]] (Vijayaśakti), (c. 865-885 CE)
* [[Rahila]] (Rāhila), (c. 885-905 CE)
* [[Harsha (Chandela dynasty)|Shri Harsha]] (Śri Harśa), (c. 905-925 CE)
* [[Yashovarman (Chandela dynasty)|Yasho-Varman]] (Yaśovarman), (c. 925-950 CE)
* [[Dhanga|Dhanga-Deva]] (Dhaṅgadeva), (c. 950-999 CE)
* [[Ganda (Chandela dynasty)|Ganda-Deva]] (Gaṇḍadeva), (c. 999-1002 CE)
* [[Vidyadhara (Chandela ruler)|Vidyadhara]] (Vidyādhara), (c. 1003-1035 CE)
* [[Vijayapala|Vijaya-Pala]] (Vijayapāla), (c. 1035-1050 CE)
* [[Devavarman (Chandela dynasty)|Deva-Varman]], (c. 1050-1060 CE)
* [[Kirttivarman (Chandela dynasty)|Kirtti-Varman]] (Kīrtivarman), (c. 1060-1100 CE)
* [[Sallakshanavarman|Sallakshana-Varman]] (Sallakṣaṇavarman), (c. 1100-1110 CE)
* [[Jayavarman (Chandela dynasty)|Jaya-Varman]], (c. 1110-1120 CE)
* [[Prithvivarman|Prithvi-Varman]] (Pṛthvīvarman), (c. 1120-1128 CE)
* [[Madanavarman|Madana-Varman]], (c. 1128-1165 CE)
* [[Yashovarman II (Chandela dynasty)|Yasho-Varman II]] (c. 1164-65 CE); did not rule or ruled for a very short time
* [[Paramardideva|Paramardi-Deva]], (c. 1165-1203 CE)
* [[Trailokyavarman|Trailokya-Varman]], (c. 1203-1245 CE)
* [[Viravarman|Vira-Varman]] (Vīravarman), (c. 1245-1285 CE)
* [[Bhojavarman|Bhoja-Varman]], (c. 1285-1288 CE)
* [[Hammiravarman|Hammira-Varman]] (Hammīravarman), (c. 1288-1311 CE)
* Vira-Varman II (c. 1311–1315 CE) (an obscure ruler with low titles, attested by only one 1315 CE inscription)<ref>{{cite book |last=Jackson |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Jackson (historian) |year=2003 |title=The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lt2tqOpVRKgC&pg=PA199 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=199 |isbn=978-0-521-54329-3 }}</ref>

===Seuna (Yadava) dynasty of Devagiri (c. 850–1334 CE)===
{{main|Seuna (Yadava) dynasty}}
* [[Dridhaprahara]]
* Seunachandra (850–874)
* Dhadiyappa (874–900)
* Bhillama I (900–925)
* Vadugi (Vaddiga) (950–974)
* Dhadiyappa II (974–975)
* [[Bhillama II]] (975–1005)
* Vesugi I (1005–1020)
* Bhillama III (1020–1055)
* Vesugi II (1055–1068)
* Bhillama III (1068)
* Seunachandra II (1068–1085)
* Airamadeva (1085–1115)
* Singhana I (1115–1145)
* Mallugi I (1145–1150)
* Amaragangeyya (1150–1160)
* Govindaraja (1160)
* Amara Mallugi II (1160–1165)
* Kaliya Ballala (1165–1173)
* [[Bhillama V]] (1173–1192), proclaimed independence from Kalyani Chalukya
* [[Jaitugi I]] (1192–1200)
* [[Simhana|Singhana II]] (1200–1247)
* [[Krishna of Devagiri|Kannara]] (1247–1261)
* [[Mahadeva of Devagiri|Mahadeva]] (1261–1271)
* [[Ammana|Amana]] (1271)
* [[Ramachandra of Devagiri|Ramachandra]] (1271–1312)
* Singhana III (1312–1313)
* Harapaladeva (1313–1318)
* Mallugi III (1318–1334)

=== Paramara dynasty of Malwa (c. 9th century to 1305 CE) ===
{{main|Paramara dynasty}}
{{see also|List of rulers of Malwa}}

According to historical 'Kailash Chand Jain', "Knowledge of the early Paramara rulers from Upendra to Vairisimha is scanty; there are no records, and they are known only from later sources."<ref>{{cite book |last=Jain |first=Kailash Chand |year=1972 |title=Malwa Through the Ages, from the Earliest Times to 1305 A.D |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_3O7q7cU7k0C&pg=PA329 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |pages=329 |isbn=978-81-208-0824-9}}</ref>
The Paramara rulers mentioned in the various inscriptions and literary sources include:

{| class="wikitable"
|+List of Paramara dynasty rulers
! Serial No.
! Ruler
! Reign (CE)
|-
|1
|[[Paramara dynasty#Origin|King Paramar]]
|(Legendary)
|-
|2
|[[Paramara dynasty#Early rulers|Upendra Krishnraja]]
|early 9th century
|-
|3
|[[Paramara dynasty#Origin|Vairisimha (I)]]
|early 9th century
|-
|4
|[[Paramara dynasty#Origin|Siyaka (I)]]
|mid of 9th century
|-
|5
|[[Paramara dynasty#Origin|Vakpatiraj (I)]]
|late 9th to early 10th century
|-
|6
|[[Paramara dynasty#Origin|Vairisimha (II)]]
|mid of 10th century
|-
|7
|[[Siyaka|Siyaka (II)]]
|940–972
|-
|8
|[[Vakpati Munja|Vakpatiraj (II)]] alias ''Munja''
|972–990
|-
|9
|[[Sindhuraja]]
|990–1010
|-
|10
|[[Bhoja]]
|1010–1055
|-
|11
|[[Jayasimha I (Paramara dynasty)|JayasimhaI]]
|1055–1070
|-
|12
|[[Udayaditya]]
|1070–1086
|-
|13
|[[Lakshmadeva]]
|1086–1094
|-
|14
|[[Naravarman]]
|1094–1133
|-
|15
|[[Yashovarman (Paramara dynasty)|Yashovarman]]
|1133–1142
|-
|16
|[[Jayavarman I (Paramara dynasty)|Jayavarman I]]
|1142–1143
|-
|17
|''[[Interregnum]] from (1143 to 1175 CE)'' under an usurper named 'Ballala' and later the [[Solanki dynasty|Solanki king]] [[Kumarapala (Chaulukya dynasty)|Kumarapala]]
|1143–1175
|-
|18
|[[Vindhyavarman]]
|1175–1194
|-
|19
|[[Subhatavarman]]
|1194–1209
|-
|20
|[[Arjunavarman I]]
|1210–1215
|-
|21
|[[Devapala (Paramara dynasty)|Devapala]]
|1215/1218–1239
|-
|22
|[[Jaitugideva]]
|1239–1255
|-
|23
|[[Jayavarman II (Paramara dynasty)|Jayavarman II]]
|1255–1274
|-
|24
|[[Arjunavarman II]]
|1274–1285
|-
|25
|[[Bhoja II (Paramara dynasty)|Bhoja II]]
|1285–1301
|-
|26
|[[Mahalakadeva]]
|1301–1305
|-
|}

After death of [[Mahalakadeva]] in 1305 CE, Paramara dynasty rule was ended in [[Malwa]] region, but not in other [[Paramara dynasty#Branches and claimed descendants|Parmar states]].

=== Utpala dynasty of Kashmir (c. 855 – 1009 CE) ===
{{main|Utpala dynasty}}

{| class="wikitable"
! Ruler !! Reign
|-
| [[Avanti Varman (Utpala dynasty)|Avantivarman]] || 853/855 – 883 CE
|-
| [[Shankaravarman]]|| 883 – 902 CE
|-
| Gopalavarman || 902 – 904 CE
|-
| Sankata || 904 CE
|-
| [[Sugandha]] || 904 – 906 CE
|-
| Partha || 906 – 921 CE
|-
| Nirjitavarman || 921 – 922 CE
|-
| Chakravarman || 922 – 933 CE
|-
| Shuravarman I || 933 – 934 CE
|-
| Partha (2nd reign) || 934 – 935 CE
|-
| Chakravarman (2nd reign) || 935 CE
|-
| Shankaravardhana (or Shambhuvardhana) || 935 – 936 CE
|-
| Chakravarman (3rd reign) || 936 – 937 CE
|-
| Unmattavanti ("Mad Avanti") || 937 – 939 CE
|-
| Shuravarman II || 939 CE
|-
| Yashaskara-deva || 939 CE
|-
| Varnata || 948 CE
|-
| Sangramadeva (Sanggrama I) || 948 CE
|-
| Parvagupta || 948 – 950 CE
|-
| Kshemagupta || 950 – 958 CE
|-
| Abhimanyu II || 958 – 972 CE
|-
| Nandigupta || 972 – 973 CE
|-
| Tribhuvanagupta || 973 – 975 CE
|-
| Bhimagupta || 975 – 980 CE
|-
| [[Didda]] || 980 to 1009/1012 CE
|}

[[Didda]] (c. 980 – 1003 CE) placed [[Samgrāmarāja]], son of her brother on the throne, who became founder of the '''[[Lohara dynasty]]'''.

=== Somavamshi dynasty (c. 882 – 1110 CE) ===
{{main|Somavamshi dynasty}}

Historian [[Krishna Chandra Panigrahi]] provides the following chronology of the later Somavamshis:<ref>{{cite book |last=Smith |first=Walter |title=The Mukteśvara Temple in Bhubaneswar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y0MQmNx8g2gC&pg=PA23 |year=1994 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |pages=23–24 |isbn=978-81-208-0793-8}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
! Name ([[IAST]]) !! Regnal name (IAST) !! Reign
|-
| Janmejaya I || Mahābhavagupta I || c. 882–922
|-
| Yayāti I || Mahāśivagupta I (Mahashivagupta) || c. 922–955
|-
| Bhīmaratha || Mahābhavagupta II || c. 955–980
|-
| Dharmaratha || Mahāśivagupta II || c. 980–1005
|-
| Nahuṣa (Nahusha) || Mahābhavagupta III || c. 1005–1021
|-
| Yayāti II || Candihara (Chandihara) Mahāśivagupta III || c. 1025–1040
|-
| Uddyotakeśarī (Uddyotakeshari) || Mahābhavagupta IV || c. 1040–1065
|-
| Janmejaya II || Mahāśivagupta IV || c. 1065–1085
|-
| Purañjaya || Mahābhavagupta V || c. 1085–1110
|-
| Karṇadeva || Mahāśivagupta V || c. 1100–1110
|}

=== Pala dynasty of Kamarupa (c. 900 – 1100 CE) ===
{{main|Pala dynasty (Kamarupa)}}

{| class="wikitable"
! S.nu !! King !! Reign (CE)
|-
| 1 || [[Brahma Pala]] || 900–920
|-
| 2 || [[Ratna Pala]] || 920–960
|-
| 3 || [[Indra Pala]] || 960–990
|-
| 4 || [[Go Pala]] ''aka'' [[Go Pala|Gopalavarman]] || 990–1015
|-
| 5 || [[Harsha Pala]] || 1015–1035
|-
| 6 || [[Dharma Pala]] || 1035–1060
|-
| 7 || [[Jaya Pala]] || 1075–1100
|-
|}

=== Paramara dynasty of Chandravati (Abu) (c. 910 – 1220 CE) ===
{{main|Paramaras of Chandravati}}

The following is a list of Paramara rulers of Chandravati, with approximate regnal years, as estimated by epigraphist H. V. Trivedi.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Dániel Balogh |title=Raṇasiṃha Revisited: A New Copper-plate Inscription of the Candrāvatī Paramāra Dynasty |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society |series=Third Series |volume=22 |issue=1 |year=2012 |page=103 |jstor=41490376}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Dániel Balogh |title=A Copperplate Land Grant by Raṇasiṃhadeva of the Candrāvatī Paramāras |journal=Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae |volume=63 |issue=3 |year=2010 |pages=270 |doi=10.1556/AOrient.63.2010.3.3 |jstor=23659005}}</ref> The rulers are sons of their predecessors unless noted otherwise:

{| class="wikitable"
! Regional Name !! [[IAST]] Name !! Reign (CE)
|-
| Utpala-raja || Utpalarāja || c. 910–930
|-
| Arnno-raja, or Aranya-raja || Arṇṇorāja, or Araṇyarāja || c. 930–950
|-
| Krishna-raja || Kṛṣṇarāja || c. 950–979
|-
| Dhara-varaha or Dharani-varaha || Dhāravarāha or Dharaṇīvarāha || c. 970–990
|-
| Dhurbhata || Dhūrbhaṭa || c. 990–1000
|-
| Mahi-pala || Mahīpāla || c. 1000–1020
|-
| Dhandhuka || Dhaṃdhuka || c. 1020–1040
|-
| Punya-pala or Purna-pala || Puṇyapāla or Pūrṇapāla || c. 1040–1050
|-
| Danti-varmman || Daṃtivarmman || c. 1050–1060
|-
| Krishna-deva, or Krishna-raja II || Kṛṣṇadeva, or Kṛṣṇarāja II || c. 1060–1090
|-
| Kakkala-deva, or Kakala-deva || Kakkaladeva, or Kākaladeva || c. 1090–1115
|-
| Vikrama-simha || Vikramāsiṃha || c. 1115–1145
|-
| Yasho-dhavala || Yaśodhavala || c. 1145–1160
|-
| Rana-simha || Raṇāsiṃha || ?
|-
| Dhara-varsha || Dhāravarṣa || c. 1160–1220
|}

=== Kingdom of Ladakh (c. 930 – 1842 CE) ===
{{main|History of Ladakh}}

==== Maryul dynasty of Ngari (c. 930 – 1460 CE) ====
{{main|Maryul}}

;Known Maryul rulers are-
* [[Lhachen Palgyigon]] (c. 930 CE)
* [[Lhachen Utpala]] (c. 1110 CE)

==== Namgyal dynasty (Gyalpo of Ladakh) (c. 1460 – 1842 CE) ====
{{main|Namgyal dynasty of Ladakh}}

The kings of the Namgyal dynasty along with their periods of reign are as follows:<ref>{{cite book |last=Petech |first=Luciano |year=1977 |title=The Kingdom of Ladakh, c. 950–1842 A.D. |publisher=Instituto Italiano Per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente |pages=171–172}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z6y2E9gw5oIC|title=India-China Border Dispute: A Case Study of the Eastern Sector|first=M. L.|last=Sali|date=20 April 1998|publisher=APH Publishing|isbn=9788170249641|access-date=20 April 2018|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mg8My6WaWRcC|title=Rediscovery of Ladakh|first=H. N.|last=Kaul|date=20 April 1998|publisher=Indus Publishing|isbn=9788173870866|access-date=20 April 2018|via=Google Books}}</ref>
* [[Lhachen Bhagan]] (c. 1460–1485)
* ''Unknown ruler'' (c. 1485–1510)
* Lata Jughdan (c. 1510–1535)
* Kunga Namgyal I (c. 1535–1555)
* Tashi Namgyal (c. 1555–1575)
* Tsewang Namgyal I (c. 1575–1595)
* Namgyal Gonpo (c.1595–1600)
* [[Jamyang Namgyal]] (c. 1595–1616)
* [[Sengge Namgyal]] (first rule, c. 1616–1623)
* Norbu Namgyal (c. 1623–1624)
* [[Sengge Namgyal]] (second rule, c. 1624–1642)
* Deldan Namgyal (c. 1642–1694)
* Delek Namgyal (c. 1680–1691)
* Nyima Namgyal (c. 1694–1729)
* Deskyong Namgyal (c. 1729–1739)
* Phuntsog Namgyal (c. 1739–1753)
* Tsewang Namgyal II (c. 1753–1782)
* Tseten Namgyal (c. 1782–1802)
* [[Tsepal Dondup Namgyal]] (c. 1802–1837, 1839–1840)
* Kunga Namgyal II (c. 1840–1842)

;Later [[Ladakh]] was conquered by [[Sikh Empire]] in 1842 CE.

===Solanki dynasty (Chaulukyas of Gujarat) (c. 940–1244 CE)===
{{main|Chaulukya dynasty}}

The Chalukya rulers of Gujarat, with approximate dates of reign, are as follows:<ref>{{cite book |author=Romila Thapar |author-link=Romila Thapar |year=2008 |title=Somanatha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3ZZ8T8tZc4YC&pg=PA236 |publisher=Penguin |page=236 |isbn=9780143064688}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=A. K. Majumdar |year=1956 |title=Chaulukyas of Gujarat |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan |page=199 |oclc=4413150 }}</ref>
* [[Mularaja]] ({{circa|940|995}})
* [[Chamundaraja (Chaulukya dynasty)|Chamundaraja]] ({{circa|996|1008}})
* [[Vallabharaja]] ({{circa|1008}})
* [[Durlabharaja (Chaulukya dynasty)|Durlabharaja]] ({{circa|1008|1022}})
* [[Bhima I]] ({{circa|1022|1064}})
* [[Karna (Chaulukya dynasty)|Karna]] ({{circa|1064|1092}})
* [[Jayasimha Siddharaja]] ({{circa|1092|1142}})
* [[Kumarapala (Chaulukya dynasty)|Kumarapala]] ({{circa|1142|1171}})
* [[Ajayapala (Chaulukya dynasty)|Ajayapala]] ({{circa|1171|1175}})
* [[Mularaja II]] ({{circa|1175|1178}})
* [[Bhima II]] ({{circa|1178|1240}})
* [[Tribhuvanapala]] ({{circa|1240|1244}})

=== Kachchhapaghata dynasty (c. 950–1150 CE) ===
{{main |Kachchhapaghata dynasty}}

====Simhapaniya (Sihoniya) and Gopadri (Gwalior) branch====
* Lakshmana (r. c. 950–975), first ruler of dynasty
* Vajradaman (r. c. 975–1000)
* Mangalaraja (r. c. 1000–1015)
* Kirtiraja (r. c. 1015–1035)
* Muladeva (r. c. 1035–1055)
* Devapala (r. c. 1055–1085)
* Padmapala (r. c. 1085–1090)
* Mahipala (r. c. 1090–1105)
* Ratnapala (r. c. 1105–1130)
* Ajayapala (r. c. 1192–1194)
* Sulakshanapala (r. c. 1196)

====Dubkund (Dobha) branch====
* Yuvaraja (r. c. 1000)
* Arjuna (r. c. 1015–1035)
* Abhimanyu (r. c. 1035–1045)
* Vijayapala (r. c. 1045–1070)
* Vikramasimha (r. c. 1070–1100)

====Nalapura (Narwar) branch====
* Gaganasimha (r. c. 1075–1090)
* Sharadasimha (r. c. 1090–1105)
* Virasimha (r. c. 1105–1125)
* Tejaskarana (r. c. 1125–1150), last ruler of dynasty<ref>{{cite journal |author=Michael D. Willis |title=Architecture in Central India under the Kacchapaghata Rulers |url=https://zenodo.org/record/4264424 |journal=South Asian Studies |volume=12 |issue=1 |year=1996 |page=14 |doi=10.1080/02666030.1996.9628506|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tspasibhopal.nic.in/project/expl_Khadwaha_Ashok_nagar_mp_2009_10/temple_of_kadwaha.html |title=Exploration Of Kadwaha, District Ashoknagar, Madhya Pradesh (2009-2010) |publisher=Archaeological Survey of India (Temple Survey Project) |location=Bhopal |access-date=9 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160828191402/http://www.tspasibhopal.nic.in/project/expl_Khadwaha_Ashok_nagar_mp_2009_10/temple_of_kadwaha.html |archive-date=28 August 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Kachwaha dynasty (c. 966–1949 CE)===
{{main|Jaipur State}}
{{see also|Kachhwaha|Dhundhar}}

Kachwahas King Sorha Dev and [[Dulha Rao]] defeated [[Meena]] of [[Dhundhar|Dhundhar kingdom]] and established the [[Jaipur State|Kachwaha dynasty]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Prasad |first=Rajiva Nain |title=Raja Man Singh of Amber |year=1966 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.35121/page/n17 1] |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.35121 }}</ref> which ruled for more than 1000 years & still ruling in [[Jaipur]] district of [[Rajasthan]].

====Rulers====
* 27 Dec 966 – 15 Dec 1006 Sorha Dev (d. 1006)<ref name="Prasad1966p1-3">{{harvtxt|Prasad|1966|pp=1–3}}</ref>
* 15 Dec 1006 – 28 Nov 1036 [[Dulha Rao]] (d. 1036)<ref name="Prasad1966p1-3" />
* 28 Nov 1036 – 20 Apr 1039 Kakil (d. 1039)<ref name="Prasad1966p1-3" />
* 21 Apr 1039 – 28 Oct 1053 Hanu (d. 1053)<ref name="Prasad1966p1-3" />
* 28 Oct 1053 – 21 Mar 1070 Janddeo (d. 1070)<ref name="Prasad1966p1-3" />
* 22 Mar 1070 – 20 May 1094 Pajjun Rai (d. 1094)<ref name="Prasad1966p1-3" />
* 20 May 1094 – 15 Feb 1146 Malayasi (d. 1146)<ref name="Prasad1966p1-3" />
* 15 Feb 1146 – 25 Jul 1179 Vijaldeo (d. 1179)<ref name="Prasad1966p1-3" />
* 25 Jul 1179 – 16 Dec 1216 Rajdeo (d. 1216)<ref name="Prasad1966p1-3" />
* 16 Dec 1216 – 18 Oct 1276 Kilhan (d. 1276)<ref name="Prasad1966p1-3" />
* 18 Oct 1276 – 23 Jan 1317 Kuntal (d. 1317)<ref name="Prasad1966p1-3" />
* 23 Jan 1317 – 6 Nov 1366 Jonsi (d. 1366)<ref name="Prasad1966p1-3" />
* 6 Nov 1366 – 11 Feb 1388 Udaikarn (d. 1388)<ref name="Prasad1966p1-3" />
* 11 Feb 1388 – 16 Aug 1428 Narsingh (d. 1428)<ref name="Prasad1966p1-3" />
* 16 Aug 1428 – 20 Sep 1439 Banbir (d. 1439)<ref name="Prasad1966p1-3" />
* 20 Sep 1439 – 10 Dec 1467 Udharn (d. 1467)<ref name="Prasad1966p1-3" />
* 10 Dec 1467 – 17 Jan 1503 Chandrasen (d. 1503)<ref name="Prasad1966p1-3" />
* 17 Jan 1503 – 4 Nov 1527 [[Prithviraj Singh I]] (d. 1527)<ref>{{cite book |last=Sarkar |first=Jadunath |author-link=Jadunath Sarkar |year=1994 |orig-year=1984 |title=A History of Jaipur: C. 1503–1938 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O0oPIo9TXKcC&pg=PA31|publisher=Orient Longman |page=31 |isbn=81-250-0333-9 }}</ref>
* 5 Nov 1527 – 19 Jan 1534 [[Puranmal]] (d. 1534)<ref>{{harvtxt|Sarkar|1994|p=33}}</ref>
* 19 Jan 1534 – 22 Jul 1537 [[Bhim Singh of Amber|Bhim Singh]] (d. 1537)
* 22 Jul 1537 – 15 May 1548 [[Ratan Singh of Amber|Ratan Singh]] (d. 1548)
* 15 May 1548 – 1 June 1548 [[Askaran]] (d. 1599)
* 1 Jun 1548 – 27 Jan 1574 [[Bharmal]] (d. 1574)
* 27 Jan 1574 – 4 Dec 1589 [[Bhagwant Das]] (b. 1527 – d. 1589)
* 4 Dec 1589 – 6 Jul 1614 [[Man Singh]] (b. 1550 – d. 1614)
* 6 Jul 1614 – 13 Dec 1621 [[Bhau Singh]] (d. 1621)
* 13 Dec 1621 – 28 Aug 1667 [[Jai Singh I]] (b. 1611 – d. 1667)
* 10 Sep 1667 – 30 Apr 1688: [[Ram Singh I]] (b. 1640 – d. 1688)
* 30 Apr 1688 – 19 Dec 1699: [[Bishan Singh]] (b. 1672 – d. 1699)
* 19 Dec 1699 – 21 Sep 1743: [[Jai Singh II]] (b. 1688 – d. 1743)
* 1743 – 12 Dec 1750: [[Ishvari Singh|Ishwari Singh]] (b. 1721 – d. 1750)
* Dec 1750 – 6 Mar 1768: [[Madho Singh I]] (b. 1728 – d. 1768)<ref>{{harvtxt|Sarkar|1994|p=259}}</ref>
* 7 Mar 1768 – 16 Apr 1778: [[Prithvi Singh II]]<ref>{{harvtxt|Sarkar|1994|p=260}}</ref>
* 1778 – 1803: [[Pratap Singh of Jaipur|Pratap Singh]] (b. 1764 – d. 1803)
* 1803 – 21 Nov 1818: [[Jagat Singh of Amber|Jagat Singh II]] (b. ... – d. 1818)
* 22 Dec 1818 – 25 Apr 1819: [[Mohan Singh]] (regent) (b. 1809 – d. ...)
* 25 Apr 1819 – 6 Feb 1835: [[Jai Singh III]] (b. 1819 – d. 1835)
* Feb 1835 – 18 Sep 1880: [[Ram Singh II]] (b. 1835 – d. 1880)
* 18 Sep 1880 – 7 Sep 1922: [[Madho Singh II]] (b. 1861 – d. 1922)
* 7 Sep 1922 – 15 Aug 1947 (subsidiary): [[Man Singh II|Sawai Man Singh II]] (b. 1912 – d. 1970)
* 15 Aug 1947 – 7 Apr 1949 (independent): [[Sawai Man Singh II]] (b. 1912 – d. 1970)
He was the last ruler of Kachawa dynasty, he annexed [[Jaipur State]] with [[Dominion of India|Union of India]] in 1949 CE.<ref>Arms & Armour at the Jaipur court by Robert Elgood p.10</ref>

====Titular rulers====
* 7 Apr 1949 – 24 Jun 1970: [[Man Singh II|Sawai Man Singh II]]
* 24 Jun 1970 – 28 Dec 1971: [[Bhawani Singh|Sawai Bhawani Singh]] (b. 1931 – d. 2011)
''Titles were abolished in 1971 according to the 26th amendment to the [[Indian Constitution]].''
* 28 Dec 1971 – 17 Apr 2011: [[Sawai Bhawani Singh]] (b. 1931 – d. 2011)
* 17 Apr 2011 – present: [[Padmanabh Singh]] (b. 1998)

===Hoysala Empire (c. 1000–1343 CE)===
{{main|Hoysala Empire}}
* Nripa Kama (1000–1045)
{{Hoysala Kings sidebar}}

===Lohara dynasty of Kashmir (c. 1003–1320 CE)===
{{main|Lohara dynasty}}

The '''Lohara dynasty''' were [[Hindu]] rulers of [[Kashmir]] from the [[Khasas|Khasa tribe]],{{sfn|Stein|1989b|p=433}}{{sfn|Thakur|1990|p=287}} in the northern part of the [[Indian subcontinent]], between 1003 and approximately 1320 CE. The dynasty was founded by the [[Samgramaraja]], the grandson of Khasha chief Simharaja and the nephew of the [[Utpala dynasty]] Queen [[Didda]].

==== First Lohara dynasty ====
{| class="wikitable"
! Ruler !! Reign<ref>{{cite book |last=Stein |first=Marc Aurel |year=1979 |orig-year=First published 1900 |title=Kalhana's Rajatarangini: A Chronicle of the Kings of Kasmir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ImBDAAAAYAAJ |volume=1 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |pages=133–138|isbn=9780896841017}}</ref>
!! Ascension year
|-
| [[Sangramaraja]] (Samgramaraja / Kshamapati) || 25 Years|| 1003 CE
|-
| Hariraja || 22 days || 1028 CE
|-
| [[Ananta (king)|Ananta-deva]] || 35 Years|| 1028 CE
|-
| Kalasha (Ranaditya II) || 26 Years|| 1063 CE
|-
| Utkarsha || 22 days || 1089 CE
|-
| [[Harsha of Kashmir|Harsha]] || 12 Years|| died in 1101 CE
|}

==== Second Lohara dynasty ====
* Radda (Shankharaja)
* Salhana
* Sussala
* Bhikshachara
* Sussala (2nd reign)
* Jayasimha (Sinha-deva)

=== Khasa Malla Kingdom (c. 10th to 14th century CE) ===
{{main|Khasa Malla kingdom}}

The list of Khas Malla kings mentioned by [[Giuseppe Tucci]] is in the following succession up to Prithvi Malla:{{sfn|Tucci|1956|p=66}}

;List–
* Nāgarāja, (first known ruler of dynasty)
* Chaap/Cāpa
* Chapilla/Cāpilla
* Krashichalla
* Kradhichalla
* Krachalla Deva (1207–1223 CE)
* Ashoka Challa (1223–1287)
* Jitari Malla
* Ananda Malla
* Ripu Malla (1312–1313)
* Sangrama Malla
* Aditya Malla
* Kalyana Malla
* Pratapa Malla
* Punya Malla
* Prithvi Malla
* Abhaya Malla (14th century), (last ruler of dynasty)

=== Naga dynasty of Kalahandi (1005 – 1947 CE) ===
{{main|Kalahandi State}}
* Raghunath Sai (1005–1040)
* Pratap Narayan Deo (1040–1072)
* Birabar Deo (1072–1108)
* Jugasai Deo I (1108–1142)
* Udenarayan Deo (1142–1173)
* Harichandra Deo (1173–1201)
* Ramachandra Deo (1201–1234)
* Gopinath Deo (1234–1271)
* Balabhadra Deo (1271–1306
* Raghuraj Deo (1306–1337)
* Rai Singh Deo I (1337–1366)
* Haria Deo (1366–1400)
* Jugasai Deo II (1400–1436)
* Pratap Narayan Deo II (1436–1468)
* Hari Rudra Deo (1468–1496)
* Anku Deo (1496–1528)
* Pratap Deo (1528–1564)
* Raghunath Deo (1564–1594)
* Biswambhar Deo (1594–1627)
* Rai Singh Deo II (1627–1658)
* Dusmant Deo (1658–1693)
* Jugasai Deo III (1693–1721)
* Khadag Rai Deo (1721–1747)
* Rai Singh Deo III (1747–1771)
* Purusottam Deo (1771–1796)
* Jugasai Dei IV (1796–1831)
* Fateh Narayan Deo (1831–1853)
* Udit Pratap Deo I (1853–1881)
* Raghu Keshari De (1894–1897)
* [[Court of Wards (India)|Court of Wards]] (1897–1917)
* Brajamohan Deo (1917–1939)
* [[Pratap Keshari Deo]] (1939–1947)

=== Sena dynasty of Bengal (1070 – 1230 CE) ===
{{main|Sena dynasty}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+List of Sena dynasty rulers
! Serial No.
! Ruler
! Reign (CE)
|-
|1
|[[Hemanta Sen]]
|1070–1096
|-
|2
|[[Vijay Sen]]
|1096–1159
|-
|3
|[[Ballal Sen]]
|1159–1179
|-
|4
|[[Lakshman Sen]]
|1179–1206
|-
|5
|[[Vishwarup Sen]]
|1206–1225
|-
|6
|[[Keshab Sen]]
|1225–1230
|-
|}

===Kakatiya dynasty (1083–1323)===
{{anchor|Kakatiya dynasty}}
{{main|Kakatiya dynasty}}
* Beta I (1000–1030)
* Prola I (1030–1075)
* Beta II (1075–1110)
* [[Prola II]] (1110–1158)
* Prataparudra I/Rudradeva I (1158–1195).[First independent ruler of this dynasty]
* Mahadeva (1195–1198).[Brother of King Rudradeva]
* Ganapati deva (1199–1261)[He changed capital from Hanumakonda to Orugallu(present day warangal)]
* [[Rudrama Devi]] (1262–1296)[Only woman ruler of this dynasty]
* Prataparudra II/ Rudradeva II (1296–1323). [Grandson of Queen Rudrama and last ruler of this dynasty]

===Gahadavala dynasty (1072–1237)===
{{Main | Gahadavala dynasty}}

;List of rulers–
* [[Chandradeva]] (c. 1072–1103 CE), founder of dynasty
* [[Madanapala (Gahadavala dynasty)|Madanapala]] (c. 1104–1113 CE)
* [[Govindachandra (Gahadavala dynasty)|Govindachandra]] (c. 1114–1155 CE
* [[Vijayachandra]] (c. 1155–1169 CE), alias Vijayapala or Malladeva
* [[Jayachandra]] (c. 1170–1194 CE), called Jaichand in vernacular legends
* [[Harishchandra (Gahadavala dynasty)|Harishchandra]] (c. 1194– ?? CE),
* Adakkamalla (c. ?–1237 CE) last ruler of dynasty{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=272}}{{sfn|Niyogi|1959|pp=115–117}}{{sfn|Niyogi|1959|p=38}}{{sfn|Niyogi|1959|p=41}}

===Karnata dynasty of Mithila (1097 – 1324 CE)===
{{main|Karnat dynasty}}
{{see also|History of Mithila}}

;List of rulers–<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hodgson |first1=B. H. |year=1835 |title=Account of a Visit to the Ruins of Simroun, once the capital of the Mithila province |journal=Journal of the Asiatic Society |volume=4 |pages=121−124 |url=https://archive.org/details/JournalOfTheAsiaticSocietyOfBengalVolIv1835}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JO4toCiJ2ecC |title=Mithilak Itihas |last=Chaudhary |first=Radhakrishna |publisher=Ram Vilas Sahu |isbn=9789380538280 |pages=70–112 |language=hi}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! S.N. !! Ruler !! Regin
|-
| 1 || [[Nanyadeva]] || 1097–1147
|-
| 2 || [[Gangadeva]] || 1147–1187
|-
| 3 || [[Narsimhadeva]] || 1187–1227
|-
| 4 || [[Ramasimhadeva]] || 1227–1285
|-
| 5 || [[Karnat dynasty|Shaktisimhadeva]] || 1285–1295
|-
| 6 || [[Harisimhadeva]] || 1295–1324
|}

===Chutia (Sadiya) Kingdom of Assam (1187–1524 CE)===
{{main|Chutia Kingdom}}
;List of rulers:
* Birpal (1187–1224), founder of dynasty
* Ratnadhwajpal (1224–1250)
* Vijayadhwajpal (1250–1278)
* Vikramadhwajpal (1278–1302)
* Gauradhwajpal (1302–1322)
* Sankhadhwajpal (1322–1343)
* Mayuradhwajpal (1343–1361)
* Jayadhwajpal (1361–1383)
* Karmadhwajpal (1383–1401)
* Satyanarayan (1401–1421)
* Laksminarayan (1421–1439)
* Dharmanarayan (1439–1458)
* Pratyashnarayan (1458–1480)
* Purnadhabnarayan (1480–1502)
* Dharmadhajpal (1502–1522)
* Nitypal (1522–1524), last ruler of dynasty

== Late Medieval Period (c. 1200s CE – c. 1500s CE) ==

=== Delhi Sultanate (c. 1206–1526 CE) ===
{{main|List of rulers of the Delhi Sultanate}}

====Mamluk dynasty (1206–1290 CE)====
{{main|Mamluk dynasty (Delhi)}}
* [[Qutb-ud-din Aibak]] (1206–1210)
* [[Aram Shah]] (1210–1211)
* [[Iltutmish|Shams-ud-din Iltutmish]] (1211–1236)
* [[Rukn ud din Firuz|Rukn-ud-din Firuz]] (1236)
* [[Razia Sultana|Raziyyat ud din Sultana]] (1236–1240)
* [[Muiz ud din Bahram|Muiz-ud-din Bahram]] (1240–1242)
* [[Ala ud din Masud|Ala-ud-din Masud]] (1242–1246)
* [[Nasiruddin Mahmud (grandson of Iltutmish)|Nasir-ud-din Mahmud]] (1246–1266)
* [[Ghiyas ud din Balban|Ghiyas-ud-din Balban]] (1266–1286)
* [[Muiz ud din Qaiqabad|Muiz-ud-din Qaiqabad]] (1286–1290)

====Khalji dynasty (1290–1320 CE)====
{{main|Khalji dynasty}}
* [[Jalal-ud-din Khalji|Jalaluddin Firuz Khalji]] (1290–1296)
* [[Alauddin Khalji]] (1296–1316)
* [[Shihabuddin Omar|Shihabuddin Omar Khan Khalji]] (1316)
* [[Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah|Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah Khalji]] (1316–1320)

====Tughlaq dynasty (1321–1414 CE)====
{{main|Tughlaq dynasty}}
* [[Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq]] (1321–1325)
* [[Muhammad bin Tughluq|Muhammad Shah Tughluq I]] (1325–1351)
* [[Firuz Shah Tughlaq|Firuz Shah Tughluq]] (1351–1388)
* [[Tughluq Khan|Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq II]] (1388–1389)
* [[Abu Bakr Shah]] (1389–1390)
* [[Nasir ud din Muhammad Shah III|Muhammad Shah Tughluq III]] (1390–1394)
* [[Ala ud-din Sikandar Shah|Ala ud-din Sikandar Shah Tughluq]] (1394)
* [[Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq|Muhammad Shah Tughuluq IV]] (1394–1413)

After the invasion of [[Timur]] in 1398, the governor of [[Multan]], [[Khizr Khan]] abolished the Tughluq dynasty in 1414.

====Jaunpur Sultanate (1394–1479 CE)====
{{main|Jaunpur Sultanate}}
* Malik Sarwar Shah (1394–1399)
* Mubarak Shah (1399–1402)
* Ibrahim Shah (1402–1440)
* Mahmud Shah (1440–1457)
* Muhammad Shah (1457–1458)
* Hussain Shah (1458–1479)

====Sayyid dynasty (1414–1451 CE)====
{{main|Sayyid dynasty}}
* [[Khizr Khan]] (1414–1421)
* [[Mubarak Shah (Sayyid dynasty)|Mubarak Shah]] (1421–1434)
* [[Muhammad Shah (Sayyid dynasty)|Muhammad Shah]] (1434–1445)
* [[Alam Shah]] (1445–1451)

====Lodi dynasty (1451–1526 CE)====
{{main|Lodi dynasty}}
* [[Bahlul Khan Lodi]] (1451–1489)
* [[Sikandar Khan Lodi]] (1489–1517)
* [[Ibrahim Khan Lodi]] (1517–1526), defeated by [[Babur]] (who replaced the [[Lodi Empire]] with the [[Mughal Empire]])

=== Kadava dynasty (c. 1216–1279 CE) ===
{{main|Kadava dynasty}}
* Kopperunchinga I (c. 1216–1242)
* Kopperunchinga II (c. 1243–1279)

=== Kingdom of Marwar (c. 1226–1950 CE) ===
{{main|Kingdom of Marwar|Rathore dynasty}}

==== Rathore dynasty of Jodhpur ====

===== Rulers from Pali & Mandore (1226–1438 CE) =====

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! colspan=2 | Name
! Reign began
! Reign ended
|-
! 1
| Rao Siha
| 1226
| 1273
|-
! 2
| Rao Asthan
| 1273
| 1292
|-
! 3
| Rao Doohad
| 1292
| 1309
|-
! 4
| Rao Raipal
| 1309
| 1313
|-
! 5
| Rao Kanhapal
| 1313
| 1323
|-
! 6
| Rao Jalansi
| 1323
| 1328
|-
! 7
| Rao Chado
| 1328
| 1344
|-
! 8
| Rao Tida
| 1344
| 1357
|-
! 9
| Rao Kanha Dev
| 1357
| 1374
|-
! 10
| Rao Viram Dev
| 1374
| 1383
|-
! 11
| Rao Chandra
|1383
|1424
|-
! 12
| Rao Kanha
| 1424
| 1427
|-
! 13
| Rao [[Ranmal]]
| 1427
| 1438
|-
|}

===== Rulers from Jodhpur (1459–1950 CE) =====

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! colspan=2 | Name
! Reign began
! Reign ended
|-
! 1
| Rao [[Jodha of Mandore|Jodha]]
| 12 May 1438
| 6 April 1489
|-
! 2
| Rao [[Satal Rathore of Marwar|Satal]]
| 6 April 1489
| March 1492
|-
! 3
| Rao [[Suja Rathore of Marwar|Suja]]
| March 1492
| 2 October 1515
|-
! 4
| Rao [[Biram Singh Rathore of Marwar|Biram Singh]]
| 2 October 1515
| 8 November 1515
|-
! 5
| Rao [[Ganga Rathore of Marwar|Ganga]]
| 8 November 1515
| 9 May 1532
|-
! 6
| [[Maldeo Rathore|Rao Maldeo]]
| 9 May 1532
| 7 November 1562
|-
! 7
| [[Rao Chandra Sen]]
| 7 November 1562
| 1581
|-
! 8
| [[Udai Singh of Marwar|Raja Udai Singh]]
| 4 August 1583
| 11 July 1595
|-
! 9
| [[Sur Singh|Sawai Raja Suraj-Mal]]
| 11 July 1595
| 7 September 1619
|-
! 10
| [[Gaj Singh of Marwar|Maharaja Gaj Singh I]]
| 7 September 1619
| 6 May 1638
|-
! 11
| [[Maharaja Jaswant Singh]]
| 6 May 1638
| 28 December 1678
|-
! 12
| [[Ajit Singh of Marwar|Maharaja Ajit Singh]]
| 19 February 1679
| 24 June 1724
|-
! 13
| [[Raja Indra Singh]]
| 9 June 1679
| 4 August 1679
|-
! 14
| [[Abhai Singh of Marwar|Maharaja Abhai Singh]]
| 24 June 1724
| 18 June 1749
|-
! 15
| [[Ram Singh of Marwar|Maharaja Ram Singh]]
| First reign
| 18 June 1749
| July 1751
|-
! 16
| [[Bakht Singh (Maharaja)|Maharaja Bakht Singh]]
| July 1751
| 21 September 1752
|-
! 17
| [[Vijay Singh of Marwar|Maharaja Vijay Singh]]
| 21 September 1752
| 31 January 1753
|-
! 18
| [[Ram Singh of Marwar|Maharaja Ram Singh]]
| 31 January 1753
| September 1772
|-
! 19
| [[Vijay Singh of Marwar|Maharaja Vijay Singh]]
| September 1772
| 17 July 1793
|-
! 20
| [[Bhim Singh of Marwar|Maharaja Bhim Singh]]
| 17 July 1793
| 19 October 1803
|-
! 21
| [[Man Singh of Marwar|Maharaja Man Singh]]
| 19 October 1803
| 4 September 1843
|-
! 22
| [[Takht Singh|Maharaja Sir Takht Singh]]
| 4 September 1843
| 13 February 1873
|-
! 23
| [[Jaswant Singh II|Maharaja Sir Jaswant Singh II]]
| 13 February 1873
| 11 October 1895
|-
! 24
| [[Sardar Singh of Jodhpur|Maharaja Sir Sardar Singh]]
| 20 March 1911
|-
! 25
| [[Sumer Singh of Jodhpur|Maharaja Sir Sumair Singh]]
| 20 March 1911
| 3 October 1918
|-
! 26
| [[Umaid Singh|Maharaja Sir Umaid Singh]]
| 3 October 1918
| 9 June 1947
|-
! 27
| [[Hanwant Singh|Maharaja Sir Hanwant Singh]]
| 9 June 1947
| 7 April 1949
|-
!28
|[[Gaj Singh II|(titular) Maharaja Gaj Singh II of Jodhpur]]
| 26 January 1952
| Present
|}

===Ahom dynasty of Assam (c. 1228–1826 CE)===
{{main|Ahom dynasty}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ The list of Swargadeos of the [[Ahom Kingdom]]
|-
! Years
! Reign
! Ahom name
! Other names
! succession
! End of reign
! Capital
|-
|----
| 1228–1268
| 40y
| [[Sukaphaa]]
|
|
| natural death
| [[Charaideo]]
|----
| 1268–1281
| 13y
| [[Suteuphaa]]
|
| son of Sukaphaa
| natural death
| Charaideo
|----
| 1281–1293
| 8y
| [[Subinphaa]]
|
| son of Suteuphaa
| natural death
| Charaideo
|----
| 1293–1332
| 39y
| [[Sukhaangphaa]]
|
| son of Subinphaa
| natural death
| Charaideo
|----
| 1332–1364
| 32y
| [[Sukhrangpha]]
|
| son of Sukhaangphaa
| natural death
| Charaideo
|- bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 1364–1369
| 5y
| Interregnum<ref>Gogoi records that Sukhrangphaa died without leaving a son and the two ministers administered the kingdom without a king for five years {{harv|Gogoi|1968|p=273}}. Gait and others do not record this {{harv|Gait|1906|p=358}}, though Baruah does {{harv|Baruah|1993|p=282}}</ref>
|
|
|
|
|----
| 1369–1376
| 7y
| [[Sutuphaa]]
|
| brother of Sukhrangphaa<ref>Sutuphaa was the younger brother of Sukhrangphaa, who was settled in a village called Lahanjing. He was invited by the Burhagohain and Borgohain to become the king and he set up his seat at Chapagurinagar {{harv|Gogoi|1968|p=273}}</ref>
| assassinated<ref>Sukhramphaa was assassinated by the king of the [[Chutiya kingdom]] on a barge ride on Suffry river {{Harvcol|Gogoi|1968|p=273}}.</ref>
| Charaideo
|- bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 1376–1380
| 4y
| Interregnum
|
|
|
|
|----
| 1380–1389
| 9y
| [[Tyao Khamti]]
|
| brother of Sutuphaa
| assassinated<ref>Sukhangphaa and his chief queen were deposed and executed by the ministers for their autocratic rule {{Harvcol|Gogoi|1968|p=274}}.</ref>
| Charaideo
|- bgcolor="#CCFFCC"
| 1389–1397
| 8y
| Interregnum
|
|
|
|
|----
| 1397–1407
| 10y
| [[Sudangphaa]]
| Baamuni Konwar
| son of Tyao Khaamti<ref>Sudangphaa Bamuni Konwar was born to the second queen of Tyao Khamti in a Brahmin household of Habung {{Harvcol|Gogoi|1968|pp=274–275}}.</ref>
| natural death
| Charagua
|----
| 1407–1422
| 15y
| [[Sujangphaa]]
|
| son of Sudangphaa
| natural death
|
|----
| 1422–1439
| 17y
| [[Suphakphaa]]
|
| son of Sujangpha
| natural death
|
|----
| 1439–1488
| 49y
| [[Susenphaa]]
|
| son of Suphakphaa
| natural death
|
|----
| 1488–1493
| 5y
| [[Suhenphaa]]
|
| son of Susenphaa
| assassinated<ref>Suhenphaa was speared to death in his palace by a Tai-Turung chief in revenge for being accused of theft {{Harvcol|Gogoi|1968|p=282}}.</ref>
|
|----
| 1493–1497
| 4y
| [[Supimphaa]]
|
| son of Suhenphaa
| natural death
|
|----valign="top"
| 1497–1539
| 42y
| [[Suhungmung]]
| [[Swarganarayan]], Dihingiaa Rojaa I
| son of Supimphaa
| assassinated<ref>Suhungmung was assassinated by a palace staff in a plot engineered by his son, Suklenmung {{Harvcol|Gogoi|1968|p=309}}.</ref>
| [[Bakata]]
|----
| 1539–1552
| 13y
| [[Suklenmung]]
| Garhgayaan Rojaa
| son of Suhungmung
| natural death
| [[Garhgaon]]
|----
| 1552–1603
| 51y
| [[Sukhaamphaa]]
| Khuraa Rojaa
| son of Suklenmung
| natural death
| Garhgaon
|----valign="top"
| 1603–1641
| 38y
| [[Susenghphaa]]
| [[Prataap Singha]], Burhaa Rojaa, Buddhiswarganarayan
| son of Sukhaamphaa
| natural death
| Garhgaon
|----valign="top"
| 1641–1644
| 3y
| [[Suramphaa]]
| Jayaditya Singha, Bhogaa Rojaa
| son of Susenghphaa
| deposed<ref>Suramphaa was deposed by the ministers when he insisted on burying alive a son of each minister in the tomb of his dead step-son {{Harvcol|Gogoi|1968|p=386}}. He was later murdered on the instructions of his nephew, the son of his brother and succeeding Swargadeo.</ref>
| Garhgaon
|----valign="top"
| 1644–1648
| 4y
| [[Sutingphaa]]
| Noriyaa Rojaa
| brother of Suramphaa
| deposed<ref>Sutingphaa was a sickly king (''Noriaya Raja''), who participated in an intrigue by his chief queen to install a prince unpopular with the ministers. He was deposed and later murdered on the instructions of his son and successor king Sutamla {{Harvcol|Gogoi|1968|pp=391–392}}.</ref>
| Garhgaon
|----valign="top"
| 1648–1663
| 15y
| [[Sutamla]]
| Jayadhwaj Singha, Bhoganiyaa Rojaa
| son of Sutingphaa
| natural death
| Garhgaon/Bakata
|----valign="top"
| 1663–1670
| 7y
| [[Supangmung]]
| [[Chakradhwaj Singha]]
| cousin of Sutamla<ref>Supangmung was grandson of Suleng (''Deo Raja''), the second son of [[Suhungmung]] {{Harvcol|Gogoi|1968|p=448}}.</ref>
| natural death
| Bakata/Garhgaon
|----
| 1670–1672
| 2y
| [[Sunyatphaa]]
| Udayaditya Singha
| brother of Supangmung<ref>The ''Maju Gohain'', the brother of Chakradhwaj Singha, became the king. {{harv|Gogoi|1968|p=470}}</ref>
| deposed<ref>Udayaaditya Sinha's palace was stormed by his brother (and successor king) with a thousand-strong contingent of men led by Lasham Debera, and the king was executed the next day. Udayaaditya's religious fanaticism under the influence of a godman had made him unpopular, and the three great gohains implicitly supported this group {{Harvcol|Gogoi|1968|pp=479–482}}. This event started a very unstable nine-year period of weak kings, dominated by Debera Borbarua, [[Atan Burhagohain]] and Laluk-sola Borphukan in succession. This period ended with the accession of [[Gadadhar Singha]].</ref>
|
|----
| 1672–1674
| 2y
| [[Suklamphaa]]
| Ramadhwaj Singha
| brother of Sunyatphaa
| poisoned<ref>Ramadhwaj Sinha was poisoned on the instructions of Debera Borbarua when he tried to assert his authority {{Harvcol|Gogoi|1968|p=484}}.</ref>
|
|----valign="top"
| 1674–1675
| 21d
|[[Suhung]]<ref>{{Cite book|title=Ahom Language Coins of Assam|last=Deyell|first=John S.}}</ref>
| Samaguria Rojaa Khamjang
| Samaguria descendant of Suhungmung
| deposed<ref>The Samaguria raja was deposed by Debera Borbarua, the de facto ruler, and later executed, along with his queen and her brother {{Harvcol|Gogoi|1968|p=486}}.</ref>
|
|----valign="top"
| 1675-1675
| 24d
|
| [[Gobar Roja]]
| great-grandson of Suhungmung<ref>Gobar Rojaa was the son of Saranga, the son of Suten, the son of [[Suhungmung]] Dihingiya Roja.</ref>
| deposed<ref>Gobar Raja was deposed and executed by the ''Saraighatias'' (the commanders of Saraighat/Guwahati), led by [[Atan Burhagohain]] {{Harvcol|Gogoi|1968|pp=486–488}}. Their target was the ''de facto'' ruler, Debera Borbarua, who was also executed.</ref>
|
|----valign="top"
| 1675–1677
| 2y
|[[Sujinphaa]]<ref>After Ramdhwaj Singha, Chamaguriya Khamjang Konwar alias Shujinpha ruled only 20 days from 10 April 1674 (e.i. Lakni Kat plao (or 26th year) of 18th Taosinga Circle) and on 30 April he was killed. There after Tungkhongiya Gobar Raja rose only 12 ruled. Both were killed by the powerful minister Debera Baruah. After Gobar Raja two more Prince rose only for another 12 days who are not recorded in chronicles. The title of Suhung is suitable for Dihingia Arjun Konwar, who minted coins and ruled more than six months and the minted year 1675 is his rising year (e.i. Lakni khut ni (or 27th year) of 18th Taosinga Circle) -- (Phukan, J.N. (1987). ''Reattribution of the Coins of Suhung'')</ref>
| Arjun Konwar, Dihingia Rojaa II
| grandson of Pratap Singha, son of Namrupian Gohain
| deposed, suicide<ref>Dihingia Arjun Konwar tried to assert control by moving against the ''de facto'' ruler, [[Atan Burhagohain]], but was routed in a skirmish. Sujinphaa was blinded and held captive when he committed suicide by striking his head against a stone {{Harvcol|Gogoi|1968|p=489}}.</ref>
|
|----valign="top"
| 1677–1679
| 2y
| [[Sudoiphaa]]
| Parvatia Rojaa
| great-grandson of Suhungmung<ref>Sudoiphaa was the grandson of Suhungmung's third son, Suteng {{Harvcol|Gogoi|1968|p=490}}.</ref>
| deposed, killed<ref>Sudoiphaa was deposed by Laluk-sola Borphukan, who styled himself as the Burhaphukan, and later executed. [[Atan Burhagohain]], the powerful minister, had been executed earlier {{Harvcol|Gogoi|1968|pp=492–493}}.</ref>
|
|----valign="top"
| 1679–1681
| 3y
| [[Sulikphaa]]
| Ratnadhwaj Singha, Loraa Rojaa
| Samaguria family
| deposed, killed<ref>Sulikphaa Lora Roja was deposed and then executed by [[Gadadhar Singha]] {{Harvcol|Gogoi|1968|pp=496–497}}.</ref>
|
|----
| 1681–1696
| 15y
| [[Supaatphaa]]
| [[Gadadhar Singha]]
| son of Gobar Rojaa
| natural death
| Borkola
|----
| 1696–1714
| 18y
| [[Sukhrungphaa]]
| [[Rudra Singha]]
| son of Supaatphaa
| natural death
| [[Rangpur (Ahom capital)|Rangpur]]
|----
| 1714–1744
| 30y
| [[Sutanphaa]]
| [[Siva Singha]]
| son Sukhrungphaa
| natural death
|
|----
| 1744–1751
| 7y
| [[Sunenphaa]]
| [[Pramatta Singha]]
| brother of Sutanphaa
| natural death
|
|----
| 1751–1769
| 18y
| [[Suremphaa]]
| [[Rajeswar Singha]]
| brother of Sunenphaa
| natural death
|
|----
| 1769–1780
| 11y
| [[Sunyeophaa]]
| [[Lakshmi Singha]]
| brother of Suremphaa
| natural death
|
|---
| 1780–1795
| 15y
| [[Suhitpangphaa]]
| [[Gaurinath Singha]]
| son of Sunyeophaa
| natural death
| Jorhat
|----
| 1795–1811
| 16y
| [[Suklingphaa]]
| [[Kamaleswar Singha]]
| great-grandson of Lechai, the brother of Rudra Singha<ref>Kamaleswar Singha was installed as the king by Purnananda Burhagohain when he was still an infant. He was the son of Kadam Dighala, the son of Ayusut, the son of Lechai, the second son of [[Gadadhar Singha]]. Kadam Dighala, who could not become the king because of physical blemishes, was an important influence during the reign {{Harvcol|Baruah|1993|pp=148–150}}.</ref>
| natural death, smallpox
| Jorhat
|----valign="top"
| 1811–1818
| 7y
| [[Sudingphaa]] (1)
| [[Chandrakaanta Singha]]
| brother of Suklingphaa
| deposed<ref name="purandar-accession">Chandrakanta Singha was deposed by Ruchinath Burhagohain, mutilated and confined as a prisoner near Jorhat {{Harvcol|Baruah|1993|p=221}}. The Burhagohain choose Brajanath, a descendant of [[Suremphaa]] Pramatta Singha, as the king and coins were struck in the new king's name, but it was discovered that he had mutilations on his person and his son, Purandar Singha, was instated instead {{Harvcol|Gait|1906|p=223}}.</ref>
| Jorhat
|----valign="top"
| 1818–1819
| 1y
|
| [[Purandar Singha]] (1)
| descendant of Suremphaa<ref name="purandar-accession"/>
| deposed<ref>Purandar Singha's forces under Jaganath Dhekial Phukan defeated the forces led by the Burmese general Kee-Woomingee (Kiamingi or Alumingi Borgohain) on 15 February 1819, but due to a strategic mistake Jorhat fell into Burmese hands. Kiamingi brought back Chandrakanta Singha and installed him the king {{Harvcol|Baruah|1993|pp=221–222}}.</ref>
| Jorhat
|----valign="top"
| 1819–1821
| 2y
| [[Sudingphaa]] (2)
| [[Chandrakaanta Singha]]
|
| fled the capital<ref>Chandrakanta Singha fled to Guwahati when the army of [[Bagyidaw]] king of Burma, led by Mingimaha Tilwa, approached Jorhat {{Harvcol|Baruah|1993|p=223}}.</ref>
|
|- bgcolor="#CCFFFF" valign="top"
| 1821–1822
| 1y
|
| [[Jogeswar Singha]]
| 5th descendant of Jambor, the brother of Gadadhar Singha. Jogeswar was brother of Hemo Aideo, and was puppet of Burmese ruler<ref>Jogeshwar Singha was the brother of Hemo Aideu, one of the queens of [[Bagyidaw]]. He was installed as the king by Mingimaha Tilwa {{Harvcol|Baruah|1993|p=223}}.</ref>
| removed<ref>Jogeshwar Singha was removed from all pretense of power and Mingimaha Tilwa was declared the "Raja of Assam" toward the end of June 1822 {{Harvcol|Baruah|1993|p=225}}.</ref>
|
|- bgcolor="#FFFF99" valign="top"
| 1833–1838
|
|
| [[Purandar Singha]] (2)<ref>Purandar Singha was set up by the East India Company as the tributary Raja of Upper Assam {{Harvcol|Baruah|1993|p=244}}.</ref>
|
|
|
|}

===Vaghela dynasty (1244–1304 CE)===
{{main|Vaghela dynasty}}

The sovereign Vaghela rulers include:
* Visala-deva (1244–1262), founder of the dynasty
* Arjuna-deva (1262–1275), son of Pratapamalla
* Rama (1275), son of Arjunadeva
* Saranga-deva (1275–1296), son of Arjunadeva
* Karna-deva (1296–1304), son of Rama; also called Karna II to distinguish him from Karna Chaulukya.

===Jaffna (Aryachakravarti) dynasty (c. 1277–1619 CE)===
{{Main|Jaffna Kingdom}}

;List of rulers–
* [[Kulasekara Cinkaiariyan]](1277–1284), founder of dynasty
* [[Kulotunga Cinkaiariyan]] (1284–1292)
* [[Vickrama Cinkaiariyan]] (1292–1302)
* [[Varodaya Cinkaiariyan]] (1302–1325)
* [[Martanda Cinkaiariyan]] (1325–1348)
* [[Gunabhooshana Cinkaiariyan]] (1348–1371)
* [[Virodaya Cinkaiariyan]] (1371–1380)
* [[Jeyaveera Cinkaiariyan]] (1380–1410)
* [[Gunaveera Cinkaiariyan]] (1410–1440)
* [[Kanakasooriya Cinkaiariyan]] (1440–1450 & 1467–1478)
* [[Singai Pararasasegaram]] (1478–1519)
* [[Cankili I]] (1519–1561)
* [[Puviraja Pandaram]] (1561–1565 & 1582–1591)
* [[Kasi Nayinar Pararacacekaran]] (1565–1570)
* [[Periyapillai]] (1565–1582)
* [[Ethirimana Cinkam]] (1591–1617)
* [[Cankili II]] Cekaracacekaran (1617–1619), last ruler of dynasty<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jaffnaroyalfamily.org/family_tree1.php|title=genealogy of the royal house of jaffna|access-date=16 July 2021|archive-date=28 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141228065758/http://www.jaffnaroyalfamily.org/family_tree1.php|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Kingdom of Tripura (c. 1280–1949 CE)===
{{Main|Twipra Kingdom}}

====Manikya dynasty====
{{Main|Manikya dynasty}}
;List of rulers–
* Ratna Manikya (1280 CE)
* Pratap Manikya (1350 CE)
* Mukul Manikya (1400 CE)
{{Kingdom of Tripura}}
On 9 September 1949, "[[Tripura Merger Agreement]]", was signed and come in effect from 15 October 1949 & [[Tripura]] became part of [[India|Indian Union]].<ref>Suresh K. Sharma, ''Documents on North-East India: Tripura'', pp. 93-95</ref>

===Nayaka Kingdoms (c. 1325–1815 CE)===
{{main|Nayaka dynasties|Kingdom of Kandy}}
{{see also|Musunuri Nayakas|Recherla Nayakas|Pemmasani Nayaks|Nayaks of Gingee|Nayakas of Keladi|Thanjavur Nayak kingdom|Madurai Nayak dynasty|Nayakas of Chitradurga|Nayaks of Kandy}}
The Nayakas were originally military governors under the Vijayanagara Empire. It is unknown, in fact, if these founded dynasties were related, being branches of a major family, or if they were completely different families. Historians tend to group them by location.

====Nayaka dynasty====

{{see also|Nayaka dynasties}}
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan=2 | Ruler!!Reign!!Capital
|-
||[[Musunuri Prolaya Nayak|Prolaya]]|| ||1323-1333||[[Warangal]] ([[Musunuri Nayakas|Musunuri line]])
|-
||[[Musunuri Kapaya Nayak|Kapaya]]||[[File:Kaapaneedu.jpg|100px]]||1333-1368||[[Warangal]] ([[Musunuri Nayakas|Musunuri line]])
|-
|colspan="4" align=center|''Warangal annexed to Recherla''
|-
||[[Singama Nayak I|Singama I]]|| ||1335-1361|| rowspan="6" |[[Rachakonda]] ([[Recherla Nayakas|Recherla line]])
|-
||[[Anavotha Nayak I|Anavotha I]]|| ||1361-1384
|-
||[[Singama Nayak II|Singama II]]|| ||1384-1399
|-
||[[Anavotha Nayak II|Anavotha II]]|| ||1399-1421
|-
||[[Mada Nayak|Mada]]|| ||1421-1430
|-
||[[Singama Nayak III|Singama III]]|| ||1430-1475
|-
|colspan="4" align=center|''Rachakonda annexed to [[Vijayanagara Empire]]''
|-
||[[Pemmasani Timmanayudu I|Kumaravira Timma I]]|| ||1441-1462|| rowspan="2" |[[Gandikota]] ([[Pemmasani Nayaks|Pemmasani line]])
|-
||[[Pemmasani Chennavibhudu|Chenna Vibhudu]]|| ||1462-1505
|-style="background: #dcf;"
||[[Vaiyappa Nayak|Vaiyappa]]|| ||1464-1490||[[Gingee Fort|Gingee]] ([[Nayaks of Gingee|Gingee line]])<ref>The list presented for the Gingee line follows Srinivasachari, which takes chronicles mentioned in copper plate grants into account and notes governorship of Gingee began in Saka era 1386 / CE 1464.</ref>
|-style="background: #dcf;"
||[[Tubaki Krishnappa Nayaka|Tubaki Krishnappa]]|| ||1490-1520||[[Gingee Fort|Gingee]] ([[Nayaks of Gingee|Gingee line]])
|-style="background: #fec;"
||[[Chauda Gowda|Chaudappa]]|| ||1499-1530||[[Keladi]] ([[Nayakas of Keladi|Keladi line]])
|-
||[[Pemmasani Ramalinga Nayudu|Ramalinga]]|| ||1505-1540||[[Gandikota]] ([[Pemmasani Nayaks|Pemmasani line]])
|-style="background: #dcf;"
||[[Achyutavijaya Ramachandra Nayak|Achyutavijaya Ramachandra]]|| ||1520-1540||[[Gingee Fort|Gingee]] ([[Nayaks of Gingee|Gingee line]])
|-style="background: #bec;"
||[[Viswanatha Nayak|Viswanatha]]||[[File:King Viswanatha Nayak1.JPG|100px]] ||1529-1564||[[Madurai]] ([[Madurai Nayak dynasty|Madurai line]])
|-style="background: #fec;"
||[[Sadashiva Nayaka|Sadashiva]]|| ||1530-1566<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TlnoMdZu40UC&q=bednore+nayakas&pg=PA469 | title=Sadashiva Nayaka reign | isbn=9780871843081 | access-date=30 June 2015| last1=Friedberg | first1=Arthur L. | last2=Friedberg | first2=Ira S. | year=2009 | publisher=Coin & Currency Institute }}</ref>||[[Keladi]] ([[Nayakas of Keladi|Keladi line]])
|-style="background: #eac;"
||[[Chevvappa Nayak|Chevappa]]|| ||1532-1580||[[Tanjore]] ([[Thanjavur Nayak kingdom|Thanjavur line]])
|-
||[[Pemmasani Bangaru Timma Nayaka|Bangaru Timma]]|| ||1540-1565||[[Gandikota]] ([[Pemmasani Nayaks|Pemmasani line]])
|-style="background: #dcf;"
||[[Muthialu Nayak|Muthialu]]|| ||1540-1570||[[Gingee Fort|Gingee]] ([[Nayaks of Gingee|Gingee line]])
|-style="background: #bec;"
||[[Krishnappa Nayaka I|Krishnappa I]]|| ||1564-1572||[[Madurai]] ([[Madurai Nayak dynasty|Madurai line]])
|-
||[[Pemmasani Narasimha Nayaka|Narasimha]]|| ||1565-1598||[[Gandikota]] ([[Pemmasani Nayaks|Pemmasani line]])
|-style="background: #fec;"
||[[Sankanna Nayaka I|Sankanna I]]|| ||1566-1570||[[Keladi]] ([[Nayakas of Keladi|Keladi line]])
|-style="background: #cef;"
||[[Timmanna Nayaka|Timanna]]|| ||1568-1589||[[Chitradurga]] ([[Nayakas of Chitradurga|Chitradurga line]])
|-style="background: #fec;"
||[[Chikka Sankanna Nayaka II|Sankanna II ''the Younger'']] ''(Chikka Sankanna)''|| ||1570-1580||[[Keladi]] ([[Nayakas of Keladi|Keladi line]])
|-style="background: #dcf;"
||[[Venkatappa Nayak|Venkatappa]]|| ||1570-1600||[[Gingee Fort|Gingee]] ([[Nayaks of Gingee|Gingee line]])
|-style="background: #bec;"
||[[Virappa Nayaka|Virappa]]|| ||1572-1595||[[Madurai]] ([[Madurai Nayak dynasty|Madurai line]])
|-style="background: #fec;"
||[[Rama Raja Nayaka|Ramaraja]]|| ||1580-1586||[[Keladi]] ([[Nayakas of Keladi|Keladi line]])
|-style="background: #eac;"
||[[Achuthappa Nayak|Achuthappa]]|| ||1580-1614||[[Tanjore]] ([[Thanjavur Nayak kingdom|Thanjavur line]])
|-style="background: #fec;"
||[[Hiriya Venkatappa Nayaka I|Venkatappa I ''the Elder'']] ''(Hiriya Venkatappa)''|| ||1586-1629||[[Keladi]] ([[Nayakas of Keladi|Keladi line]])
|-style="background: #cef;"
||[[Obanna Nayaka I|Obanna-Madakari I]]|| ||1589-1602||[[Chitradurga]] ([[Nayakas of Chitradurga|Chitradurga line]])
|-style="background: #bec;"
||[[Krishnappa Nayaka II|Krishnappa II]]|| ||1595-1601||[[Madurai]] ([[Madurai Nayak dynasty|Madurai line]])
|-
||[[Pemmasani Timma Nayak|Timma]]|| ||1598-1623||[[Gandikota]] ([[Pemmasani Nayaks|Pemmasani line]])
|-style="background: #dcf;"
||[[Varadappa Nayak|Varadappa]]|| ||1600-1620||[[Gingee Fort|Gingee]] ([[Nayaks of Gingee|Gingee line]])
|-style="background: #bec;"
||[[Muthu Krishnappa Nayaka|Muthu Krishnappa]]|| ||1601-1609||[[Madurai]] ([[Madurai Nayak dynasty|Madurai line]])
|-style="background: #cef;"
||[[Kasturi Rangappa Nayaka I|Kasturi Rangappa I]]|| ||1602-1652||[[Chitradurga]] ([[Nayakas of Chitradurga|Chitradurga line]])
|-style="background: #bec;"
||[[Muthu Virappa Nayaka I|Muthu Virappa I]]|| ||1609-1623||[[Madurai]] ([[Madurai Nayak dynasty|Madurai line]])
|-style="background: #eac;"
||[[Raghunatha Nayak|Raghunatha]]|| ||1614-1634||[[Tanjore]] ([[Thanjavur Nayak kingdom|Thanjavur line]])
|-style="background: #dcf;"
||[[Appa Nayaka|Appa]]|| ||1620-1649||[[Gingee Fort|Gingee]] ([[Nayaks of Gingee|Gingee line]])
|-style="background: #dcf;"
|colspan="4" align=center|''Gingee annexed to the [[Bijapur Sultanate]]''
|-
||[[Pemmasani Chenna Timma Nayaka|Chenna Timma]]|| ||1623-1652||[[Gandikota]] ([[Pemmasani Nayaks|Pemmasani line]])
|-style="background: #bec;"
||[[Tirumala Nayaka|Tirumala]]|| ||1623-1659||[[Madurai]] ([[Madurai Nayak dynasty|Madurai line]])
|-style="background: #fec;"
||[[Virabhadra Nayaka|Virabhadra]]|| ||1629-1645||[[Keladi]] ([[Nayakas of Keladi|Keladi line]])
|-style="background: #eac;"
||[[Vijaya Raghava Nayak|Vijaya Raghava]]|| ||1634-1673||[[Tanjore]] ([[Thanjavur Nayak kingdom|Thanjavur line]])
|-style="background: #eac;"
|colspan="4" align=center|''Thanjavur annexed to the [[Maratha Empire]]''
|-style="background: #fec;"
||[[Shivappa Nayaka|Shivappa]]||[[File:Shivappanayaka (cropped).jpg|100px]] ||1645-1660||[[Keladi]] ([[Nayakas of Keladi|Keladi line]])
|-style="background: #cef;"
||[[Madakari Nayaka II|Madakari II]]|| ||1652-1674||[[Chitradurga]] ([[Nayakas of Chitradurga|Chitradurga line]])
|-
||[[Pemmasani Veera Kumara Timma Nayaka|Kumaravira Timma II]]|| ||1652-1685||[[Gandikota]] ([[Pemmasani Nayaks|Pemmasani line]])
|-
|colspan="4" align=center|''Gandikota annexed to the [[Sultanate of Golconda]]''
|-style="background: #bec;"
||[[Muthu Virappa Nayaka II|Muthu Virappa II]]|| ||1659|| rowspan="2" |[[Madurai]] ([[Madurai Nayak dynasty|Madurai line]])
|-style="background: #bec;"
||[[Chokanatha Nayaka I|Chokanatha I]]|| ||1659-1682
|-style="background: #fec;"
||[[Chikka Venkatappa Nayaka II|Venkatappa II ''the Younger'']] ''(Chikka Venkatappa)''|| ||1660-1662|| rowspan="4" |[[Keladi]] ([[Nayakas of Keladi|Keladi line]])
|-style="background: #fec;"
||[[Bhadrappa Nayaka|Bhadrappa]]|| ||1662-1664
|-style="background: #fec;"
||[[Somashekara Nayaka I|Somashekara I]]|| ||1664-1672
|-style="background: #fec;"||
||[[Keladi Chennamma|Chennamma]]||[[File:Details on the temple dwajasthamba - Rameshwara Temple.JPG|100px]] ||1672-1697
|-style="background: #cef;"
||[[Obanna Nayaka II|Obanna II]]|| ||1674-1675|| rowspan="3" |[[Chitradurga]] ([[Nayakas of Chitradurga|Chitradurga line]])
|-style="background: #cef;"
||[[Shoora Kantha Nayaka|Shoora Kantha]]|| ||1675-1676
|-style="background: #cef;"
||[[Chikkanna Nayaka|Chikanna]]|| ||1676-1686
|-style="background: #bec;"
|colspan="4" align=center|''Regency of Queen [[Mangammal]] (1682-1689)''
|-style="background: #bec;"
||[[Aranga Krishna Muthu Virappa Nayaka III|''Aranga Krishna'' Muthu Virappa III]]|| ||1682-1689||[[Madurai]] ([[Madurai Nayak dynasty|Madurai line]])
|-style="background: #cef;"
||[[Madakari Nayaka III|Madakari III]]|| ||1686-1688|| rowspan="2" |[[Chitradurga]] ([[Nayakas of Chitradurga|Chitradurga line]])
|-style="background: #cef;"
||[[Donne Rangappa Nayaka|Donne Rangappa]]|| ||1688-1689
|-style="background: #bec;"
|colspan="4" align=center|''Regency of Queen [[Mangammal]] (1689-1704)''
|-style="background: #bec;"
||[[Vijayaranga Chokanatha Nayaka II|''Vijayaranga'' Chokanatha II]]|| ||1689-1732||[[Madurai]] ([[Madurai Nayak dynasty|Madurai line]])
|-style="background: #cef;"
||[[Bharamana Nayaka|Bharamana]]|| ||1689-1721||[[Chitradurga]] ([[Nayakas of Chitradurga|Chitradurga line]])
|-style="background: #fec;"
||[[Basavappa Nayaka|Basavappa]]|| ||1697-1714|| rowspan="2" |[[Keladi]] ([[Nayakas of Keladi|Keladi line]])
|-style="background: #fec;"
||[[Somashekara Nayaka II|Somashekara II]]|| ||1714-1739
|-style="background: #cef;"
||[[Madakari Nayaka IV|Madakari IV]]|| ||1721-1748||[[Chitradurga]] ([[Nayakas of Chitradurga|Chitradurga line]])
|-style="background: #bec;"
||[[Meenakshi (Nayak queen)|Meenakshi]]|| ||1732-1736||[[Madurai]] ([[Madurai Nayak dynasty|Madurai line]])
|-style="background: #bec;"
|colspan="4" align=center|''Madurai annexed to the [[Nawab of Carnatic]]''
|-style="background: #fec;"
||[[Kiriya Basavappa Nayaka|Basavappa]]|| ||1739-1754||[[Keladi]] ([[Nayakas of Keladi|Keladi line]])
|-style="background: #ac9;"
||[[Sri Vijaya Rajasinha]]|| ||1739-1747|| rowspan="2" |[[Kandy]] ([[Nayaks of Kandy|Kandy line]])
|-style="background: #ac9;"
||[[Kirti Sri Rajasinha]]||[[File:118 King Rajasingha makes Ven Saranankara Sangharaja (19820173144).jpg|100px]] ||1747-1782
|-style="background: #cef;"
||[[Kasturi Rangappa Nayaka II|Kasturi Rangappa II]]|| ||1748-1758||[[Chitradurga]] ([[Nayakas of Chitradurga|Chitradurga line]])
|-style="background: #fec;"
||[[Chenna Basappa Nayaka|Basappa]]|| ||1754-1759||[[Keladi]] ([[Nayakas of Keladi|Keladi line]])
|-style="background: #cef;"
||[[Madakari Nayaka|Madakari V]]|| ||1758-1779||[[Chitradurga]] ([[Nayakas of Chitradurga|Chitradurga line]])
|-style="background: #cef;"
|colspan="4" align=center|''Chitradurga annexed to the [[Kingdom of Mysore]]''
|-style="background: #fec;"
||[[Virammaji]]|| ||1759-1763||[[Keladi]] ([[Nayakas of Keladi|Keladi line]])
|-style="background: #fec;"
|colspan="4" align=center|''Keladi annexed to the [[Kingdom of Mysore]]''
|-style="background: #ac9;"
||[[Sri Rajadhi Rajasinha of Kandy|Sri Rajadhi Rajasinha]]||[[File:Sri Rajadhi Raja Sinha, King of Kandy, on his throne.jpg|100px]] ||1782-1798|| rowspan="2" |[[Kandy]] ([[Nayaks of Kandy|Kandy line]])
|-style="background: #ac9;"
||[[Sri Vikrama Rajasinha]]||[[File:Sri Vikrama Rajasinha.jpg|100px]] ||1798-1815<ref>{{cite book |last=Somasekhara Sarma |first=Mallampalli |year=1946 |title=History of the Reddi Kingdoms (Circa. 1325 A.D., to circa. 144B A.D.) |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.32066 |publisher=Andhra University |location=Waltair |page=81}}: "How this discrepancy arose and why such a wrong account was given in the Kaluvaceru grant is a mystery which is yet to be unravelled."</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Rama Rao |first=M. |year=1947 |title=The Fall of Warangal and After |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=10 |page=295 |jstor=44137150 |quote="It is thus impossible that Prolaya Vema could at any time have been a subordinate of the Musunuri chiefs."}}</ref>
|-style="background: #ac9;"
|colspan="4" align=center|''Kandy becomes a British colony''
|}

====Vellore Nayaka Kingdom (c. 1540–1601 CE)====
{{main|Nayaks of Vellore}}
The list of nayaks are unclear. Some of the Nayaks are:
* Chinna Bommi Reddy
* Thimma Reddy Nayak
* Lingama Nayak

====Other Nayaka kingdoms====
* [[Nayakas of Shorapur]]
* [[Nayakas of Kalahasti]]
* Nayakas of Harappanahalli
* Nayakas of Gummanayakana Palya
* Nayakas of Kuppam
* Nayakas of Rayalaseema
* Nayakas of Jarimale
* Nayakas of Gudekote
* Nayakas of Nayakanahatti<ref>{{cite book|last=Howes|first=Jennifer|title=The Courts of Pre-colonial South India: Material Culture and Kingship|date=1 January 1998|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=07-0071-585-1|page=28}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Rao |first1=Velcheru Narayana |last2=Shulman |first2=David |last3=Subrahmanyam |first3=Sanjay |year=1998 |title=Symbols of substance : court and state in Nayaka period Tamil Nadu |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=18}}</ref>

===Reddy Kingdom (c. 1325–1448 CE)===
{{main|Reddy Kingdom}}

;List of rulers–
* [[Prolaya Vema Reddy]] (1325–1335), founder of dynasty
* Anavota Reddy (1335–1364)
* Anavema Reddy (1364–1386)
* Kumaragiri Reddy (1386–1402)
* Kataya Vema Reddy (1395–1414)
* Allada Reddy (1414–1423)
* Veerabhadra Reddy (1423–1448), last ruler of dynasty

===Oiniwar (Sugauna) dynasty of Mithila (c. 1325–1526 CE)===
{{main|Oiniwar dynasty}}

;List of rulers–
According to historian Makhan Jha, the rulers of the Oiniwar dynasty are as follows:<ref>{{cite book|title=Anthropology of Ancient Hindu Kingdoms: A Study in Civilizational Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A0i94Z5C8HMC&pg=PA155|first=Makhan |last=Jha|publisher=M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd|pages=155–157|year=1997|isbn=9788175330344}}</ref>
* Nath Thakur, founder of dynasty in 1325 CE
* Atirupa Thakur
* Vishwarupa Thakur
* Govinda Thakur
* Lakshman Thakur
* [[Kameshwar Thakur]]
* Bhogishwar Thakur, ruled for over 33 years
* Ganeshwar Singh, reigned from 1355; killed by his cousins in 1371 after a long-running internecine dispute
* Kirti Singh
* [[Bhavasimha|Bhava Singh Deva]]
* [[Devasimha|Deva Simha Singh]]
* [[Shiva Simha Singh]] (or Shivasimha Rūpanārāyana), took power in 1402, missing in battle in 1406<ref name="G. Allen & Unwin-1963" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Coomaraswamy|first=Ananda Kentish|title=Vidyāpati: Bangīya Padābali; Songs of the Love of Rādhā and Krishna.|publisher=The Old Bourne Press|year=1915|location=London}}</ref>
* [[Lakhimadevi|Lakhima Devi]], chief wife of Shiva Simha Singh, ruled for 12 years from [[Raj Banauli]]. She committed [[Sati (practice)|sati]] after many years of waiting for her husband's return.<ref name="G. Allen & Unwin-1963" /><ref>{{Cite book |author=Upendra Thakur |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.505783/page/320/mode/1up |title=History of Mithila |pages=320–322|year=1956 |publisher=Mithila Institute}}</ref>
* [[Padmasimha|Padma Simha Singh]], took power in 1418 and died in 1431<ref name="G. Allen & Unwin-1963">{{Cite book|title=Love Songs of Vidyāpati|publisher=G. Allen & Unwin|year=1963|location=London|translator-last=Bhattacharya|translator-first=Deben}}</ref>
* [[Vishwasa Devi|Viswavasa Devi]], wife of Padma Singh, died in 1443
* Hara Singh Deva, younger brother of Deva Singh
* [[King Narasimha|Nara Singh Deva]], died in 1460
* Dhir Singh Deva
* [[Bhairavasimha|Bhairva Singh Deva]], died in 1515, brother of Dhir Singh Deva
* Rambhadra Deva
* Laxminath Singh Deva, last ruler died in 1526 CE

=== Vijayanagara Empire (c. 1336–1646 CE) ===
{{main|Vijayanagara Empire|List of Vijayanagara emperors}}

[[Vijayanagara Empire]] was ruled by four different dynasties for about 310 years on entire [[South India]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Ramchandra |last=Dhere |title=Rise of a Folk God: Vitthal of Pandharpur South Asia Research |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jUeeAgAAQBAJ |year=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press, 2011 |isbn=9780199777648 |pages=243}}</ref>

{| style="width:100%;" class="wikitable"
! style="background:#f0dc88; width:5%;"|Serial no.
! style="background:#f0dc88; width:17%;"| Regnal names
! style="background:#f0dc88; width:17%;"| Reign (CE)
|-
| colspan="3" |'''[[Sangama dynasty]] rulers (1336 to 1485 CE)'''
|-
|1
|[[Harihara I]]
|1336–1356
|-
|2
|[[Bukka Raya I]]
|1356–1377
|-
|3
|[[Harihara II]]
|1377–1404
|-
|4
|[[Virupaksha Raya]]
|1404–1405
|-
|5
|[[Bukka Raya II]]
|1405–1406
|-
|6
|[[Deva Raya]]
|1406–1422
|-
|7
|[[Ramachandra Raya]]
|1422
|-
|8
|[[Vira Vijaya Bukka Raya]]
|1422–1424
|-
|9
|[[Deva Raya II]]
|1424–1446
|-
|10
|[[Mallikarjuna Raya]]
|1446–1465
|-
|11
|[[Virupaksha Raya II]]
|1465–1485
|-
|12
|[[Praudha Raya]]
|1485
|-
| colspan="3" |'''[[Saluva dynasty]] rulers (1485 to 1505 CE)'''
|-
|13
|[[Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya]]
|1485–1491
|-
|14
|[[Thimma Bhupala]]
|1491
|-
|15
|[[Narasimha Raya II]]
|1491–1505
|-
| colspan="3" |'''[[Tuluva dynasty]] rulers (1491 to 1570 CE)'''
|-
|16
|[[Tuluva Narasa Nayaka]]
|1491–1503
|-
|17
|[[Viranarasimha Raya]]
|1503–1509
|-
|18
|[[Krishnadevaraya]]
|1509–1529
|-
|19
|[[Achyuta Deva Raya]]
|1529–1542
|-
|20
|[[Sadasiva Raya]]
|1542–1570
|-
| colspan="3" |'''[[Aravidu dynasty]] rulers (1542 to 1646 CE)'''
|-
|21
|[[Aliya Rama Raya]]
|1542–1565
|-
|22
|[[Tirumala Deva Raya]]
|1565–1572
|-
|23
|[[Sriranga Deva Raya]]
|1572–1586
|-
|24
|[[Venkatapati Deva Raya]]
|1586–1614
|-
|25
|[[Sriranga II]]
|1614–1617
|-
|26
|[[Rama Deva Raya]]
|1617–1632
|-
|27
|[[Peda Venkata Raya]]
|1632–1642
|-
|28
|[[Sriranga III]]
|1642–1646/1652
|-
|}

===Bahmani Sultanate (c. 1347–1527 CE)===
{{main|Bahmani Sultanate}}
* [[Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah]] (1347–1358)
* [[Mohammed Shah I|Muhammad Shah I]] (1358–1375)
* Ala ud din Mujahid Shah (1375–1378)
* Daud Shah I (1378)
* Muhammad Shah II (1378–1397)
* Ghiyas ud din Tahmatan Shah (1397)
* Shams ud din Daud Shah II (1397)
* [[Taj ud-Din Firuz Shah]] (1397–1422)
* [[Ahmad Shah I Wali]] (1422–1435), established his capital at [[Bidar]]
* Ala ud din Ahmad Shah II (1436–1458)
* Ala ud din [[Humayun Shah]] (1458–1461)
* [[Nizam-Ud-Din Ahmad III]] (1461–1463)
* [[Muhammad Shah III Lashkari]] (1463–1482)
* [[Mahmood Shah Bahmani II]](1482–1518)
* Ahmad Shah IV (1518–1521)
* Ala ud din Shah (1521–1522)
* [[Waliullah Shah]] (1522–1524)
* [[Kalimullah Shah]] (1524–1527)

=== Bengal Sultanate (c. 1357–1576 CE) ===
{{Main|Bengal Sultanate}}

=== Malwa Sultanate (c. 1392–1562 CE) ===
{{main|Malwa Sultanate}}

;Ghoris (1390–1436 CE)
* Dilavar Khan Husain (1390–1405)
* [[Hoshang Shah|Alp Khan Hushang]] (1405–1435)
* Ghazni Khan Muhammad (1435–1436)
* Masud Khan (1436)

;Khaljis (1436–1535 CE)
* [[Mahmud Shah I]] (1436–1469)
* [[Ghiyath Shah]] (1469–1500)
* Nasr Shah (1500–1511)
* [[Mahmud Shah II]] (1511–1530)

===Baro-Bhuyan kingdoms (c. 1365–1632 CE)===
{{main|Baro-Bhuyan}}

;List of Kingdoms and their rulers are:

====Baro-Bhuyan of Assam (1365–1440 CE)====
* Sasanka (Arimatta) (1365–1385 CE)
* Gajanka (1385–1400 CE)
* Sukranka (1400–1415 CE)
* Mriganka (1415–1440 CE)

====Baro-Bhuyan of Bengal (1576–1632 CE)====
* [[Isa Khan]]
* [[Musa Khan (Bengal Ruler)]]
* [[Masum Khan]]

=== Tomara dynasty of Gwalior (c. 1375–1523 CE) ===
{{main|Tomaras of Gwalior}}

The Tomara rulers of [[Gwalior]] include the following.<ref>{{cite book |author=Kalyan Kumar Chakravarty |year=1984 |title=Gwalior Fort: art, culture, and history |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WihuAAAAMAAJ |publisher=Arnold-Heinemann |pages=98–116 |isbn=978-0-391-03223-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=B. D. Misra |year=1993 |title=Forts and fortresses of Gwalior and its hinterland |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lihuAAAAMAAJ |publisher=Manohar |pages=27–46 |isbn=978-81-7304-047-4 }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
! Name in dynasty's inscriptions ([[IAST]]) !! Reign !! Names in Muslim chronicles and vernacular literature
|-
| Vīrasiṃha-deva || 1375–1400 CE or (c. 1394–1400 CE) || Virsingh Dev, Bir Singh Tomar, Bar Singh (in Yahya's writings), Har Singh (in [[`Abd al-Qadir Bada'uni|Badauni]]'s writings), Nar Singh (in [[Firishta]]'s and Nizamuddin's writings).<ref>{{cite book |author=Kishori Saran Lal |year=1963 |title=Twilight of the Sultanate |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E8QeAAAAMAAJ |publisher=Asia Publishing House |page=6 |oclc=500687579}}</ref>
|-
| Uddharaṇa-deva || 1400–1402 CE || Uddharan Dev, Usaran or Adharan (in Khadagrai's writings)<ref>{{cite journal |author=Sant Lal Katare |title=Two Gangolatal, Gwalior, Inscriptions of the Tomara Kings of Gwalior |journal=Journal of the Oriental Institute |volume=XXIII |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KGBjAAAAMAAJ |year=1975 |publisher=Oriental Institute, Maharajah Sayajirao University |page=346}}</ref>
|-
| Virāma-deva || 1402–1423 CE || Viram Dev, Biram Deo (in Yahya's writings), Baram Deo (in [[Firishta]]'s writings)
|-
| Gaṇapati-deva || 1423–1425 CE || Ganpati Dev
|-
| Dungarendra-deva alias Dungara-siṃha || 1425–1459 CE || Dungar Singh, Dungar Sen
|-
| Kirtisiṃha-deva || 1459–1480 CE || Kirti Singh Tomar
|-
| Kalyāṇamalla || 1480–1486 CE || Kalyanmal, Kalyan Singh
|-
| [[Man Singh Tomar|Māna-siṃha]] || 1486–1516 CE || Mana Sahi, Man Singh
|-
| Vikramāditya || 1516–1523 CE || Vikram Sahi, Vikramjit
|}

=== Wadiyar Kingdom of Mysore (c. 1399–1950 CE) ===
{{main|Kingdom of Mysore|Wadiyar dynasty}}

;List of rulers:
* [[Yaduraya Wodeyar]] or Raja Vijaya Raj Wodeyar (1399–1423 CE)
* Hiriya Bettada [[Chamaraja Wodeyar I]] (1423–1459 CE)
* [[Timmaraja Wodeyar I|Thimmaraja Wodeyar I]] (1459–1478 CE)
* Hiriya [[Chamaraja Wodeyar II]] (1478–1513 CE)
* Hiriya bettada [[Chamaraja Wodeyar III]] (1513–1553 CE)
* [[Timmaraja Wodeyar II|Thimmaraja Wodeyar II]] (1553–1572 CE)
* Bola [[Chamaraja Wodeyar IV]] (1572–1576 CE)
* Bettada [[Devaraja Wodeyar]] (1576–1578 CE)
* [[Raja Wodeyar I]] (1578–1617 CE)
* [[Chamaraja Wodeyar V]] (1617–1637 CE)
* [[Raja Wodeyar II]] (1637–1638 CE)
* ''Ranadhira'' [[Kanthirava Narasaraja I|Kantheerava Narasaraja Wodeyar I]] (1638–1659 CE)
* [[Dodda Kempadevaraja|Dodda Devaraja Wodeyar]] (1659–1673 CE)
* [[Chikka Devaraja|Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar]] (1673–1704 CE)
* [[Kanthirava Narasaraja II|Kantheerava Narasaraja Wodeyar II]] (1704–1714 CE)
* [[Dodda Krishnaraja I|Dodda Krishnaraja Wodeyar I]] (1714–1732 CE)
* [[Chamaraja Wodeyar VI]] (1732–1734 CE)
* ''Immadi'' [[Krishnaraja Wodeyar II]] (1734–1766 CE), ruled under [[Hyder Ali]] from 1761 CE
* [[Nanjaraja Wodeyar|Nanajaraja Wodeyar]] (1766–1770 CE), ruled under Hyder Ali
* Bettada [[Chamaraja Wodeyar VII]] (1772–1776 CE), ruled under Hyder Ali
* Khasa [[Chamaraja Wodeyar VIII]] (1776–1796 CE), ruled under Hyder Ali until 1782 CE, then under [[Tipu Sultan]] until his deposition in 1796 CE.
** [[Hyder Ali]] (1761–1782 CE), usurper and '''non-dynastic'''
** [[Tipu Sultan]] (1782–1799 CE), son of the previous.
* ''Mummudi'' [[Mummadi Krishnaraja Wodeyar|Krishnaraja Wodeyar III]] (1799–1868 CE), Wodeyar dynasty '''restored'''
* [[Chamaraja Wodeyar X]] (1868–1894 CE)
* [[Maharani Kempa Nanjammani Vani Vilasa Sannidhana|Vani Vilas Sannidhana]], queen of Chamaraja Wodeyar IX served as regent from (1894 to 1902 CE)
* ''Nalvadi'' [[Krishna Raja Wadiyar IV|Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV]] (1894–1940 CE)
* [[Jayachamaraja Wodeyar|Jayachamaraja Wodeyar Bahadur]] (1940–1950 CE)

=== Gajapati Empire (c. 1434–1541 CE) ===
{{main|Gajapati Empire}}

;Rulers–
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Picture
!King
!Reign
|-
|[[File:Gajapati Kapilendradeva.jpg|100px]]
|[[Kapilendra Deva]]
|1434–1467
|-
|[[File:Purushottam Deva Return from Kanchi Expedition.jpg|100px]]
|[[Purushottama Deva]]
|1467–1497
|-
|[[File:Gajapati Prataprudra Deva.png|100px]]
|[[Prataparudra Deva]]
|1497–1540
|-
|
|[[Gajapati Empire|Kalua Deva]]
|1540–1541
|-
|
|[[Gajapati Empire|Kakharua Deva]]
|1541
|-
|}

=== Rathore dynasty of Bikaner (c. 1465–1947 CE) ===
{{Main|Bikaner State|Rathore dynasty}}

;Rulers–
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan=2 | Name
! Reign Began (in CE)
! Reign Ended (in CE)
|-
! 1
| [[Rao Bika]]
| 1465
| 1504
|-
! 2
| [[Rao Narayan Singh]]
| 1504
| 1505
|-
! 3
| [[Rao Luna Karana]] (Lon-Karan)
| 1505
| 1526
|-
! 4
| [[Rao Jait Singh]] (Jetasi)
| 1526
| 1542
|-
! 5
| [[Rao Kalyan Mal]]
| 1542
| 1574
|-
! 6
| [[Rao Rai Singh I]] (Rai Rai Singh)
| 1574
| 1612
|-
! 7
| [[Rai Dalpat Singh]] (Dalip)
| 1612
| 1613
|-
! 8
| [[Rai Surat Singh Bhuratiya]]
| 1613
| 1631
|-
! 9
| [[Rao Karan Singh]] (Jangalpat Badhshah)
| 1631
| 1667
|-
! 10
| [[Anup Singh of Bikaner|Anup Singh]]
| 1669
| 1698
|-
! 11
| [[Rao Sarup Singh]]
| 1698
| 1700
|-
! 12
| [[Rao Sujan Singh]]
| 1700
| 1735
|-
! 13
| [[Rao Zorawar Singh]]
| 1735
| 1746
|-
! 14
| [[Rao Gaj Singh]]
| 1746
| 1787
|-
! 15
| [[Rao Rai Singh II]] (Raj Singh)
| 1787
| 1787
|-
! 16
| [[Rao Pratap Singh]]
| 1787
| 1787
|-
! 17
| [[Rao Surat Singh]]
| 1787
| 1828
|-
! 18
| [[Rao Ratan Singh]]
| 1828
| 1851
|-
! 19
| [[Rao Sardar Singh]]
| 1851
| 1872
|-
! 20
| [[Dungar Singh]]
| 1872
| 1887
|-
! 21
| [[Ganga Singh]]
| 1887
| 1943
|-
! 22
| [[Sadul Singh of Bikaner|Sadul Singh]]
| 1943
| 1947
|-
! 23
| [[Maharaja Karni Singh|Karni Singh]]
| 1947
| 1971
|-
|}

=== Deccan Sultanates (c. 1490–1686 CE) ===
{{main|Deccan Sultanates}}

====Barid Shahi dynasty (1490–1619 CE)====
{{main|Bidar Sultanate}}

* [[Qasim Barid I]] 1490–1504
* [[Amir Barid I]] 1504–1542
* [[Ali Barid Shah I]] 1542–1580
* [[Ibrahim Barid Shah]] 1580–1587
* [[Qasim Barid Shah II]] 1587–1591
* [[Ali Barid Shah II]] 1591
* [[Amir Barid Shah II]] 1591–1601
* [[Mirza Ali Barid Shah III]] 1601–1609
* [[Amir Barid Shah III]] 1609–1619

====Imad Shahi dynasty (1490–1572 CE)====
{{main|Berar sultanate}}

* [[Fathullah Imad-ul-Mulk]] (1490–1504)
* [[Aladdin Imad Shah]] (1504–1530)
* [[Darya Imad Shah]] (1530–1562)
* [[Burhan Imad Shah]] (1562–1574)
* [[Tufal Khan]] 1574

====Adil Shahi dynasty (1490–1686 CE)====
{{main|Adil Shahi dynasty}}

* [[Yusuf Adil Shah]] (1490–1511)
* [[Ismail Adil Shah]] (1511–1534)
* [[Mallu Adil Shah]] (1534)
* [[Ibrahim Adil Shah I]] (1534–1558)
* [[Ali Adil Shah I]] (1558–1579)
* [[Ibrahim Adil Shah II]] (1580–1627)
* [[Mohammed Adil Shah, Sultan of Bijapur]] (1627–1657)
* [[Ali Adil Shah II]] (1657–1672)
* [[Sikandar Adil Shah]] (1672–1686)

====Nizam Shahi dynasty (1490–1636 CE)====
{{main|Ahmadnagar Sultanate}}

* [[Malik Ahmad Nizam Shah I]] 1490–1510
* [[Burhan Shah I|Burhan Nizam Shah I]] 1510–1553
* [[Hussain Nizam Shah I]] 1553–1565
* [[Murtaza Nizam Shah I]] 1565–1588
* [[Hussain Nizam Shah II]] 1588–1589
* [[Ismail Nizam Shah]] 1589–1591
* [[Burhan Nizam Shah II]] 1591–1595
* [[Ibrahim Nizam Shah]] 1595–1596
* [[Malik Ahmad Nizam Shah II]] 1596
* [[Bahadur Nizam Shah]] 1596–1600
* [[Murtaza Nizam Shah II]] 1600–1610
* [[Burhan Nizam Shah III]] 1610–1631
* [[Hussain Nizam Shah III]] 1631–1633
* [[Murtaza Nizam Shah III]] 1633–1636

====Qutb Shahi dynasty (1518–1686 CE)====
{{main|Qutb Shahi dynasty}}

* [[Sultan Quli Qutbl Mulk]] (1518–1543)
* [[Jamsheed Quli Qutb Shah]] (1543–1550)
* [[Subhan Quli Qutb Shah]] (1550)
* [[Ibrahim Quli Qutb Shah Wali|Ibrahim Quli Qutub Shah]] (1550–1580)
* [[Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah]] (1580–1612)
* [[Sultan Muhammad Qutb Shah]] (1612–1626)
* [[Abdullah Qutb Shah]] (1626–1672)
* [[Abul Hasan Qutb Shah]] (1672–1686)

=== Gatti Mudalis of Taramangalam (c. 15th–17th century CE) ===
{{main|Gatti Mudalis|Taramangalam}}

;List of known rulers–
* Vanagamudi Gatti
* Immudi Gatti
* Gatti Mudali

== Early Modern Period (c. 1500s CE – 1850s CE) ==

===Kingdom of Cochin (c. 1503–1948 CE)===
[[Kingdom of Cochin#List of Maharajas of Cochin|List of Maharajas of Cochin]]

=== Koch Kingdom (c. 1515–1949 CE) ===
[[Koch dynasty#Branches|List of Maharajas of Koch]]

=== Mughal Empire (c. 1526–1857 CE) ===
[[List of emperors of the Mughal Empire]]

===Sur Empire (c. 1540–1555 CE)===
[[Sur Empire#List of rulers of the Sur Empire|List of rulers of the Sur Empire]]

===Gajapati of Odisha===
[[Bhoi dynasty#Gajapati of Odisha|Lists of Gajapatis]]

=== Khurda Kingdom ===
[[Bhoi dynasty#Khurda kingdom|List of rulers of Khurda]]

=== Kingdom of Sikkim (c. 1642–1975 CE) ===
[[Chogyal#Chogyal kings of Sikkim|List of Chogyals of Sikkim]]

=== Maratha Empire (c. 1674–1818 CE) ===
{{main|List of Maratha rulers|List of Maratha dynasties and states}}

[[Bhonsle dynasty#List of Members|List of Chhatrapatis of the Marathas]]

==== Thanjavur Maratha kingdom (c. 1674–1855 CE) ====
[[Thanjavur Maratha kingdom#List of Rulers|List of Thanjavur Maratha rulers]]

====The Peshwas (c. 1713–1858 CE)====
[[Peshwa#List of Peshwas|List of Peshwas]]

==== Baroda State (c. 1721–1947 CE) ====
[[Gaekwad dynasty#Gaikwad Maharajas of Baroda|List of Maharajas of Baroda]]

====Gwalior State (c. 1731–1947 CE)====
[[Scindia#Shinde Maharajas of Ujjain and Gwalior|List of Maharajas of Ujjain and Gwalior]]

==== Indore State (c. 1731–1948 CE) ====
[[House of Holkar|List of Maharajas of Indore]]

=== Kingdom of Bengal (c. 1717–1757 CE) ===
{{Main|Nawabs of Bengal}}
List of rulers-

* [[Murshid Quli Khan|Nawab Murshid Quli Khan]] (1717–1727), first ruler
* [[Shuja-ud-Din Muhammad Khan|Nawab Shuja Ud Din Muhammad Khan]] (1727–1739)
* [[Sarfaraz Khan|Nawab Sarfaraz Khan]] (1739–1740)
* [[Alivardi Khan|Nawab Alivardi Khan]] (1740–1756)
* [[Siraj-ud-Daulah|Nawab Siraj-ud-Daulah]] (1756–1757), last ruler

=== Sinsinwar Jat Kingdom of Bharatpur and Deeg (c. 1683–1947 CE) ===
{{Main|Bharatpur State}}

;List of rulers
{{Sinsinwar Jat}}

=== Pudukkottai Kingdom (c. 1686–1948 CE) ===
{{main|Pudukkottai state}}

;Rulers-
* [[Raghunatha Raya Tondaiman]] (1686–1730), first ruler
* [[Vijaya Raghunatha Raya Tondaiman I]] (1730–1769)
* [[Raya Raghunatha Tondaiman]] (1769–1789)
* [[Vijaya Raghunatha Tondaiman]] (December 1789–1 February 1807)
* [[Vijaya Raghunatha Raya Tondaiman II]] (1 February 1807–June 1825)
* [[Raghunatha Tondaiman]] (June 1825–13 July 1839)
* [[Ramachandra Tondaiman]] (13 July 1839 – 15 April 1886)
* [[Martanda Bhairava Tondaiman]] (15 April 1886 – 28 May 1928)
* [[Rajagopala Tondaiman]] (28 October 1928 – 15 August 1947), last ruler

=== Sivaganga Kingdom (c. 1725–1947 CE) ===
{{main|Sivaganga estate}}

;Rulers–<ref>K. R. Venkatarama Ayyar, Sri Brihadamba State Press, 1938, ''A Manual of the Pudukkóttai State'', p.720</ref>
* Muthu Vijaya Raghunatha Periyavudaya Thevar (1725–1750), founder of kingdom
* Muthu Vaduganatha Periyavudaya Thevar (1750–1780)
* [[Velu Nachiyar]] (1780–1790)
* [[Vellacci]] (1790–1793)
* Vangam Periya Udaya Thevar (1793–1801), last independent ruler

;[[Zamindar]] under [[British rule]] (1803–1947)

=== Kingdom of Travancore (c. 1729–1949 CE) ===
{{main|Travancore}}

;Rulers–
* [[Marthanda Varma]] (1729–1758 CE), founder of kingdom
* [[Dharma Raja]] (1758–1798 CE)
* [[Balarama Varma]] (1798–1810CE)
* [[Gowri Lakshmi Bayi]] (1810–1815 CE)
* [[Gowri Parvati Bayi]] (1815–1829 CE)
* [[Swathi Thirunal]] (1829–1846 CE)
* [[Uthram Thirunal]] (1846–1860 CE)
* [[Ayilyam Thirunal]] (1860–1880 CE)
* [[Visakham Thirunal]] (1880–1885 CE)
* [[Moolam Thirunal]] (1885–1924 CE)
* [[Sethu Lakshmi Bayi]] (1924–1931 CE)
* [[Chithira Thirunal]] (1931–1949 CE), last ruler

=== Newalkar dynasty of Jhansi (c. 1769–1858 CE) ===
{{main|Newalkar|Jhansi State}}

;List of rulers–
* Raghunath Rao (1769–1796)
* Shiv Hari Rao (1796–1811)
* Ramchandra Rao (1811–1835)
* Raghunath Rao III (1835–1838)
* Sakku Bai Rao (1838–1839)
* [[Gangadhar Rao]] (1843–1853)
* [[Rani Lakshmi Bai]] as regent of [[Anand Rao|Damodar Rao]] of Jhansi (21 November 1853 – 10 March 1854, 4 June 1857 – 4/5 April 1858)<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x3BzmTdQLioC&pg=PA227|title=Women Rulers Throughout the Ages: An Illustrated Guide|author1=Guida M. Jackson|author2=Guida Myrl Jackson-Laufer|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1999|page=227|isbn=9781576070918}}</ref>

=== Phulkian Dynasty of Punjab (c. 1763–1947) ===
[[Phulkian dynasty]]

[[Maharaja of Patiala]]

[[Nabha State]]

[[Jind State]]

===Sikh Empire (c. 1801–1849 CE)===
[[Sikh Empire#List of rulers|Maharaja of Punjab]]

=== Smaller Muslim polities ===
* [[Hyderabad State]]
* [[Nawab of Awadh]]
* [[Nawab of Bengal]]
* [[Kingdom of Mysore]]
** [[Hyder Ali]]
** [[Tipu Sultan]]

=== Dogra dynasty of Kashmir and Jammu (c. 1846–1952 CE) ===
[[Dogra dynasty#History of the Jamwal rulers|Maharaja of Kashmir and Jammu]]

== Modern India (c. 1850s onwards) ==
=== Indian Empire (1858–1947 CE) ===
{{main|British Raj|Emperor of India}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
!Portrait
!Name
!Birth
!Reign
!Death
!Consort
![[Delhi Durbar|Imperial Durbar]]
![[Royal House]]
|-
|[[File:Heinrich von Angeli (1840-1925) - Queen Victoria (1819-1901) - RCIN 403405 - Royal Collection.jpg|180x180px]]
|[[Queen Victoria|Victoria]]
|24 May 1819
|1 May 1876 – 22 January 1901
|22 January 1901
|''None''{{efn|Victoria's husband [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha|Prince Albert]] died on 14 December 1861.}}
|[[Delhi Durbar#Durbar of 1877|1 January 1877]] (''represented by [[Robert Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Earl of Lytton|Lord Lytton]]'')
|[[House of Hanover|Hanover]]
|-
|[[File:King Edward VII by Sir (Samuel) Luke Fildes.jpg|169x169px]]
|{{Nowrap|[[Edward VII]]}}
|9 November 1841
|22 January 1901 – 6 May 1910
|6 May 1910
|[[File:Sir Samuel Luke Fildes (1843-1927) - Queen Alexandra (1844-1925) - RCIN 404554 - Royal Collection.jpg|122x122px]]
[[Alexandra of Denmark]]
|[[Delhi Durbar#Durbar of 1903|1 January 1903]] (''represented by [[George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston|Lord Curzon]]'')
|[[House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha|Saxe-Coburg and Gotha]]
|-
|[[File:King George V 1911.jpg|169x169px]]
|[[George V]]
|3 June 1865
|6 May 1910 – 20 January 1936
|20 January 1936
|[[File:Queen Mary by William Llewellyn.jpg|117x117px]]
[[Mary of Teck]]
|[[Delhi Durbar#Durbar of 1911|12 December 1911]]
|Saxe-Coburg and Gotha {{small|(1910–1917)}} <hr />[[House of Windsor|Windsor]] {{small|(1917–1936)}}
|-
|[[File:His Majesty King Edward VIII in Garter Robes (cropped).jpg|169x169px]]
|{{Nowrap|[[Edward VIII]]}}
|23 June 1894
|20 January 1936 – 11 December 1936
|28 May 1972
|''None''
|''None''{{efn|[[Abdication of Edward VIII|Edward VIII abdicated]] after less than one year of reign.}}
|Windsor
|-
|[[File:King George VI.jpg|169x169px]]
|[[George VI]]
|14 December 1895
|11 December 1936 – 15 August 1947<ref name="George VI">George VI retained the title "[[Emperor of India]]" until 22 June 1948.</ref>
|6 February 1952
|[[File:Queen Elizabeth Bowes Lyon in Coronation Robes by Sir Gerald Kelly.jpg|117x117px]]
[[Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon]]
|''None''{{efn|A durbar was deemed expensive and impractical due to [[Poverty in India#Poverty prevalence and estimates|poverty]] and demands for [[Indian independence movement|independence]].<ref>{{Citation|last=Vickers|first=Hugo|title=Elizabeth: The Queen Mother|publisher=Arrow Books/Random House|year=2006|page=175|isbn=978-0-09-947662-7}}</ref>}}
|Windsor
|}

=== Dominion of India (1947–1950 CE) ===
{{main|Dominion of India|List of heads of state of India#Monarch of India (1947–1950)}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
!Portrait
!Name
!Birth
!Reign
!Death
!Consort
![[Royal House]]
|-
|[[File:King George VI.jpg|170x170px]]
|[[George VI]]
|14 December 1895
|15 August 1947 – 26 January 1950<ref name="George VI"/>
|6 February 1952
|[[File:Queen Elizabeth Bowes Lyon in Coronation Robes by Sir Gerald Kelly.jpg|117x117px]]
[[Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon]]
|Windsor
|}

== See also ==
* [[Greater India]]
* [[History of India]]
* [[History of Hinduism]]
* [[Middle kingdoms of India]]
* [[Timeline of Indian history]]
* [[List of wars involving India]]
* [[Pottery in the Indian subcontinent]]
* [[Outline of South Asian history]]
* [[History of Republic of India (1947–present)]]

=== Other lists of monarchs ===
* [[List of Tamil monarchs]]
* [[List of rulers of Assam]]
* [[List of rulers of Malwa]]
* [[List of rulers of Bengal]]
* [[List of rulers of Odisha]]
* [[List of rulers of India]]
* [[Lists of ancient kings]]
* [[List of heads of state of India]]
* [[List of Manipuri kings]]
* [[List of monarchs of Kashmir]]
* [[Legendary early Chola kings]]
* [[List of monarchs of Magadha]]
* [[Puru and Yadu Dynasties|List of Lunar dynasty kings]]
* [[List of Ikshvaku dynasty kings in Hinduism|List of Solar dynasty kings]]
* [[List of Jat dynasties and states]]
* [[List of Rajput dynasties and states]]
* [[List of Brahmin dynasties and states]]
* [[List of Jain states and dynasties]]
* [[List of Maratha dynasties and states]]
* [[List of rulers of the Delhi Sultanate]]
* [[List of dynasties and rulers of Rajasthan]]
* [[List of Rajput dynasties and states]]
* [[List of Hindu empires and dynasties]]
* [[Mahisapala dynasty|List of Ahir Dynasties and rulers]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=nb}}
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Books===
* {{cite book |last=Baruah |first=S. L. |title=Last Days of Ahom Monarchy |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal |location=New Delhi |year=1993 |oclc=31777697}}
* {{cite book |last=Gait |first=Edward A. |title=A History of Assam |url=https://archive.org/details/ahistoryassam01gaitgoog |publisher=Thacker, Spink & Co |location=Calcutta |year=1906}}
* {{citation | last = Gnyawali| first = Surya Bikram | title = The Malla Kings of Western Nepal | journal = Regmi Research Series | volume = 3 | issue = 12 | pages = 265–268 | date = 1 December 1971 | orig-year = 1962 | url = http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/regmi/pdf/Regmi_03.pdf| access-date = }}
* {{cite book |last=Gogoi |first=Padmeshwar |title=The Tai and the Tai kingdoms |publisher=Gauhati University |year=1968 |oclc=199460}}
* {{cite book |last1=Handa |first1=O. C. (Omacanda) |title=History of Uttaranchal |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=7_Ct9gzvkDQC |year=2002 |publisher= Indus Publishing |location=New Delhi |isbn=9788173871344}}
* {{cite book |first=Roma |last=Niyogi |title=The History of the Gāhaḍavāla Dynasty |publisher=Oriental |year=1959 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EJQBAAAAMAAJ |oclc=5386449 }}
* {{cite book|last1=Pande|first1=Badri Datt|author-link=Badri Datt Pandey|title=History of Kumaun : English version of "Kumaun ka itihas"|date=1993|publisher=Shyam Prakashan|location=[[Almora]]|isbn=81-85865-01-9}}
* {{cite book |first=Ram Vallabh |last=Somani |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NcIBAAAAMAAJ |title=History of Mewar, from Earliest Times to 1751 A.D. |publisher=Mateshwari |year=1976 |oclc=2929852 }}
* {{cite book |first=Mark Aurel |last=Stein |author-link=Mark Aurel Stein |title=Kalhana's Rajatarangini: a chronicle of the kings of Kasmir, Volume 1 |edition=Reprinted |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1989a |orig-year=1900 |isbn=978-81-208-0369-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-dfT2D8mnukC |access-date=2011-07-11}}
* {{cite book |first=Mark Aurel |last=Stein |title=Kalhana's Rajatarangini: a chronicle of the kings of Kasmir, Volume 2 |edition=Reprinted |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1989b |orig-year=1900 |isbn=978-81-208-0370-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KzxTkI9iAxkC |access-date=2011-07-10}}
* {{cite book |last=Thakur |first=Laxman S. |chapter=The Khaśas: An Early Indian Tribe |editor=K. K. Kusuman |title=A Panorama of Indian Culture: Professor A. Sreedhara Menon Felicitation Volume |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z4JqgSUSXDsC&pg=PA287 |year=1990 |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=978-81-7099-214-1 |pages=285–293}}
* {{cite book |last=Tucci |first=Giuseppe |title=Preliminary Report on Two Scientific Expeditions in Nepal |publisher=David Brown Book Company |year=1956 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.6480/}} [https://knowledgekart.in/blog/list-of-indian-kings-serial-wise-for-upsc/ List of Indian Kings Serial Wise]

{{Middle kingdoms of India}}
{{list of lists | monarchs | listcat=Lists of Indian monarchs}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:India, monarchs}}
[[Category:Indian monarchs|*]]
[[Category:India history-related lists|monarchs]]

Nandeshwara

2026-03-14T10:53:45Z

IgnacioElem3:

{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2019}}
{{refimprove|date=September 2015}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Nandeswar
| settlement_type = Village
| native_name_lang =
| other_name = Balkrishna Nagari
| nickname =
| pushpin_map = India Maharashtra
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in [[Maharashtra]], India
| coordinates = {{coord|17.51667|N|75.46667|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Maharashtra]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Solapur district|Solapur]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 9653
| population_as_of = 2001
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Language
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Marathi language|Marathi]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1= +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|413322]]
| postal_code = 413322<ref>[http://www.citypincode.in/MAHARASHTRA/SOLAPUR/NANDESHWAR_PINCODE 413322]</ref>
| registration_plate = [[List of RTO districts in India#MH.E2.80.94Maharashtra|MH]]-13
}}
'''Nandeshwar''' is a village located in the Mangalwedha taluka of Solapur district in the Indian state of Maharashtra. It is situated approximately 15 kilometers from the taluka headquarters, Mangalwedha, and is known for its agricultural activities, cultural heritage, and religious traditions..

==Geography==

Nandeshwar lies in the semi-arid region of southern Maharashtra, part of the Deccan Plateau. The village is surrounded by farmland and small water bodies, and the climate is generally hot and dry, with moderate rainfall during the monsoon season.

==Economy==

Agriculture is the mainstay of Nandeshwar’s economy. The primary crops cultivated include jowar (sorghum), bajra (pearl millet), sugarcane, and pulses. Animal husbandry also plays a supportive role in the local economy. Due to its proximity to Mangalwedha, the village has access to regional markets and trading facilities.

==Culture and Religion==

Nandeshwar is rich in cultural and religious traditions. The most prominent festival celebrated in the village is the Balkrishna Maharaj Palki. Held annually, this event is considered the biggest and most significant celebration in the village. Devotees from Nandeshwar and neighboring villages gather to participate in the procession of Balkrishna Maharaj's Palki (palanquin). The festival includes traditional bhajans, kirtans, communal meals, and a vibrant procession marked by spiritual fervor and community participation.

Other festivals like Ganesh Chaturthi, Diwali, Holi, and local yatra celebrations are also observed with enthusiasm.
==Education and Infrastructure==
The village has a Zilla Parishad (ZP) school that provides primary education. For secondary education and higher facilities such as hospitals or colleges, residents typically travel to Mangalwedha or Solapur. Nandeshwar is connected to nearby towns via rural roads, and transport is available through state buses and private vehicles.

==Demographics==
As per local estimates, Nandeshwar has a population of a few thousand residents. Marathi is the primary language spoken by the villagers. The community is predominantly agrarian, with strong social and cultural cohesion.

==Administration==
Nandeshwar falls under the governance of a Gram Panchayat and is part of the Mangalwedha Vidhan Sabha constituency and the Solapur Lok Sabha constituency. Local governance is managed by elected representatives under the Panchayati Raj system. Current Sarpanch of the village is '''Sajabai Dada Garande'''

The population of this village is approximately 10,000. The village is passes through by m.s.h.171 Jath-Mangalwedha state highway and main district road Sangole-Nandeshwar-Chadchan road.

The town is divided into several areas:
*Mashner Vasti
*Jharewadi
*Harshbodhi Nagar
*Indiranagr
*Balkrishna Nagar
*Jaibhavaninagar
*Hanuman galli
*Kumbhar-chambhar galli.
* Jankarvasti
*Patil Vasti bhose-road
* Metakari Vasti Siddhankeri road

==Location==
It is located on 18 km from Mangalwedha tehsil and 73 km from Solapur district. [[Sangole]] is west on 22 km and Jath is south on 38 km.

==Infrastructure==
Shri balkrishna maharaj temple

===Banks===
*Bank of Maharashtra, Nandeshwar
*[[DCC Bank]]
*Dhanshri mahila bank
*Kondiram Maharaj co-op bank Nandeshwar
*Lokmangal Bank
*Chetana Patsanstha

===Schools===
* Shri balkrishna vidyalaya & Jr.collage nandeshwar
* Z.P. primary school nandeshwar
* z.p. school lavatevasti
*Z.P. School Bandgarwadi
*Z.P. School Masnerwasti
*Z.P. School Zarewadi

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Cities and towns in Solapur district]]
[[Category:Villages in Mangalwedha Taluka]]

Lilium

2026-03-12T23:54:49Z

IgnacioElem3: fix page after review additionally and improved wording per standard format

{{short description|Genus of plants}}
{{redirect2|Lily|Lilies||Lilium (disambiguation)|and|Lily (disambiguation)|and|Lilies (disambiguation)}}
{{For|other plants called lilies|List of plants known as lily}}
{{Automatic taxobox
|image = Lilium candidum 1.jpg
|image_caption = ''[[Lilium candidum]]''
|display_parents = 2
|taxon = Lilium
|authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]<ref name=udder/>
|type_species = ''[[Lilium candidum]]''
|type_species_authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]<ref>lectotype designated by N. L. Britton et A. Brown, Ill. Fl. N. U.S. ed. 2. 1: 502 (1913)</ref>
|subdivision_ranks = Species
|subdivision = [[List of Lilium species]]
|synonyms =
{{Genus list
|Lirium|Scop., nom. illeg.
|Martagon|Wolf
|Martagon|(Rchb.) Opiz, nom. illeg.
|Nomocharis|Franch.
}}
|synonyms_ref = <ref name=udder>{{cite web |title=''Lilium'' |url=http://wcsp.science.kew.org/synonomy.do?name_id=280381 |work=World Checklist of Selected Plant Families |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |access-date=June 13, 2014 |archive-date=November 14, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171114041221/http://wcsp.science.kew.org/synonomy.do?name_id=280381 }}</ref>
}}

'''''Lilium''''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|l|ɪ|l|i|ə|m}} {{respell|LIL|ee|əm}})<ref>{{Cite Merriam-Webster|lilium}}</ref> is a [[genus]] of [[Herbaceous plant|herbaceous]] [[flowering plant]]s growing from bulbs, all with large and often prominent flowers. Lilies are a group of flowering plants which are important in [[culture]] and literature in much of the world. Most species are native to the [[Northern Hemisphere]] and their range is [[temperate climate]]s and extends into the [[subtropics]]. Many other plants have "lily" in their [[common name]]s, but do not belong to the same genus and are therefore not true lilies. True lilies are known to be highly toxic to cats.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Langston |first=Cathy E. |date=2002-01-01 |title=Acute renal failure caused by lily ingestion in six cats |url=https://avmajournals.avma.org/view/journals/javma/220/1/javma.2002.220.49.xml |journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association |volume=220 |issue=1 |pages=49–52 |doi=10.2460/javma.2002.220.49 |pmid=12680447 |issn=0003-1488}}</ref>

==Description==
[[File:Lillium Stamens.jpg|upright=1.15|thumb|''[[Lilium longiflorum]]'' flower – 1. [[Stigma (botany)|stigma]], 2. [[style (botany)|style]], 3. [[anther]]s, 4. filament, 5. [[tepal]]]]
Lilies are tall [[perennial plant|perennials]] ranging in height from {{convert|1|-|6|ft|cm|abbr=on|-1}}. They form naked or tunicless scaly underground [[bulb]]s which are their organs of [[perennation]]. In some North American species the base of the bulb develops into [[rhizome]]s, on which numerous small bulbs are found. Some species develop [[stolon]]s.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Batygina |first=T. B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=33yUDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT217 |title=Embryology of Flowering Plants: Terminology and Concepts, Vol. 3: Reproductive Systems |date=2019-04-23 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0-429-52671-8 |language=en}}</ref> Most bulbs are buried deep in the ground, but a few species form bulbs near the soil surface. Many species form stem-roots. With these, the bulb grows naturally at some depth in the soil, and each year the new stem puts out [[adventitious]] roots above the bulb as it emerges from the soil. These roots are in addition to the basal roots that develop at the base of the bulb, a number of species also produce contractile roots that move the bulbs deeper into the soil.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gracie |first=Carol |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6cvADwAAQBAJ&pg=PA230 |title=Summer Wildflowers of the Northeast: A Natural History |date=2020-04-28 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-20330-0 |language=en}}</ref>
[[File:Lily, petal.jpg|upright|thumb|Lily, petal]]
The flowers are large, often fragrant, and come in a wide range of colors including whites, yellows, oranges, pinks, reds and purples. Markings include spots and brush strokes. The plants are late spring- or summer-flowering. Flowers are borne in [[raceme]]s or [[umbel]]s at the tip of the stem, with six [[tepals]] spreading or reflexed, to give flowers varying from funnel shape to a "Turk's cap". The tepals are free from each other, and bear a [[nectary]] at the base of each flower. The ovary is 'superior', borne above the point of attachment of the [[anthers]]. The [[fruit]] is a three-celled capsule.<ref name='European Garden Flora'>European Garden Flora; Volume 1</ref>
[[File:2012-01-04 17-57-36-lys.jpg|upright|thumb|Stamen of lilium]]
[[Seed]]s ripen in late summer. They exhibit varying and sometimes complex [[germination]] patterns, many adapted to cool temperate climates.

Most cool temperate species are [[deciduous]] and dormant in winter in their native environment. But some species native to areas with hot summers and mild winters (''[[Lilium candidum]]'', ''[[Lilium catesbaei]]'', ''[[Lilium longiflorum]]'') lose their leaves and enter a short dormant period in summer or autumn, sprout from autumn to winter, forming dwarf stems bearing a basal rosette of leaves until, after they have received sufficient chilling, the stem begins to elongate in warming weather.
[[File:Lilium candidum MHNT.BOT.2011.18.27.jpg|upright|thumb|''Lilium candidum'' seeds]]
The basic [[chromosome number]] is twelve (n=12).<ref>{{cite journal|first1= Veli-Pekka|last1= Pelkonen|first2= Anna-Maria|last2= Pirttilä|year= 2012|title= Taxonomy and Phylogeny of the Genus Lilium|journal= Floriculture and Ornamental Biotechnology|volume= 6 |issue=Special Issue 2|pages= 1–8|url= http://www.globalsciencebooks.info/Online/GSBOnline/images/2012/FOB_6(SI2)/FOB_6(SI2)1-8o.pdf|access-date= 2016-07-29|archive-date= 2016-10-08|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20161008030720/http://www.globalsciencebooks.info/Online/GSBOnline/images/2012/FOB_6(SI2)/FOB_6(SI2)1-8o.pdf}}</ref>

==Taxonomy==
Taxonomical division in [[Section (botany)|sections]] follows the classical division of Comber,<ref>Harold Comber, 1949. "A new classification of the genus ''Lilium''". Lily Yearbook, Royal Hortic. Soc., London. 15:86–105.</ref> species acceptance follows the [[World Checklist of Selected Plant Families]],<ref>{{cite web |title=''Lilium'' |url=https://apps.kew.org/wcsp/qsearch.do?plantName=Lilium |editor1-last=Govaerts |editor1-first=R. |work=World Checklist of Selected Plant Families |publisher=The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |access-date=2013-02-03 |archive-date=2020-09-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200901205003/https://wcsp.science.kew.org/prepareChecklist.do;jsessionid=3BE0008163BD6F022E834E66AE060A21.kppapp06-wcsp?checklist=selected_families%40%40245010920202150381 |url-status=live }}</ref> the taxonomy of section ''Pseudolirium'' is from the Flora of North America,<ref>Flora of North America, Vol. 26, [http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=118558 Online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121015010208/http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=118558 |date=2012-10-15 }}</ref> the taxonomy of Section ''Liriotypus'' is given in consideration of Resetnik et al. 2007,<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s00606-006-0513-y |author1=Resetnik I. |author2=Liber Z. |author3=Satovic Z. |author4=Cigic P. |author5=Nikolic T. |title=Molecular phylogeny and systematics of the ''Lilium carniolicum'' group (Liliaceae) based on nuclear ITS sequences |journal=Plant Systematics and Evolution |volume=265 |issue=1–2 |pages=45–58 |year=2007 |bibcode=2007PSyEv.265...45R |s2cid=32644749 }}</ref> the taxonomy of Chinese species (various sections) follows the Flora of China<ref>Flora of China, Vol. 24, [http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=118558 eFloras.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120912151935/http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=118558 |date=2012-09-12 }}</ref> and the taxonomy of Section ''Sinomartagon'' follows Nishikawa et al.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Nishikawa Tomotaro |author2=Okazaki Keiichi |author3=Arakawa Katsuro |author4=Nagamine Tsukasa |title=Phylogenetic Analysis of Section ''Sinomartagon'' in Genus ''Lilium'' Using Sequences of the Internal Transcribed Spacer Region in Nuclear Ribosomal DNA |journal=育種学雑誌 Breeding Science |volume=51 |issue=1 |pages=39–46 |year=2001 |url=http://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jsbbs/51/1/51_39/_article/-char/en |doi=10.1270/jsbbs.51.39|doi-access=free |bibcode=2001BrSci..51...39N }}</ref> as does the taxonomy of Section ''Archelirion''.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Nishikawa Tomotaro |author2=Okazaki Keiichi |author3=Nagamine Tsukasa |title=Phylogenetic Relationships among ''Lilium auratum'' Lindley, ''L. auratum'' var. ''platyphyllum'' Baker and ''L. rubellum'' Baker Based on Three Spacer Regions in Chloroplast DNA |journal=育種学雑誌 Breeding Science |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=207–213 |year=2002 |url=http://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jsbbs/52/3/52_207/_article |doi=10.1270/jsbbs.52.207|doi-access=free |bibcode=2002BrSci..52..207N }}</ref>

The ''Sinomartagon'' are divided into three [[paraphyletic]] groups, while the ''Leucolirion'' are divided into two paraphyletic groups.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Li Juan |author2=Cai Jing |author3=Qin Huan-Huan |author4=Price Megan |author5=Zhang Zhen |author6=Yu Yan |author7=Xie Deng-Feng |author8=He Xing-Jin |author9=Zhou Song-Dong |author10=Gao Xin-Fen |title=Phylogeny, Age, and Evolution of Tribe Lilieae (Liliaceae) Based on Whole Plastid Genomes |journal=Frontiers in Plant Science |volume=12 |date=2022 |article-number=699226 |issn=1664-462X |doi=10.3389/fpls.2021.699226|pmid=35178055 |pmc=8845482 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022FrPS...1299226L }}</ref>

There are seven sections:
*''Martagon''
*''Pseudolirium''
*''Liriotypus''
*''Archelirion''
*''Sinomartagon''
*''Leucolirion''
*''Daurolirion''

There are 119 species counted in this genus.<ref name="POWO" /> For a full list of accepted species with their native ranges, see [[List of Lilium species]].

{| class="wikitable sortable collapsible collapsed"
|-
! Picture !! Section !! Sub Section !!Botanical name !! common name
|-
| [[File:Lilium distichum.jpg|120px]]|| Martagon || || ''[[Lilium distichum]]''||
|-
| [[File:Hanson's Lily Lilium hansonii Flowers 1842px.jpg|120px]]|| Martagon || || ''[[Lilium hansonii]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lil martagon var cattaniae 01Infl Griechenland Rhodopen 16 07 01.jpg|120px]]|| Martagon || || ''[[Lilium martagon]]'' || Martagon or Turk's cap lily
|-
| [[File:Lilium medeoloides 220708.JPG|120px]]|| Martagon || || ''[[Lilium medeoloides]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium tsingtauense.jpg|120px]]|| Martagon || || ''[[Lilium tsingtauense]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium bolanderi.jpg|120px]]||Pseudolirium ||2a|| ''[[Lilium bolanderi]]'' || Bolander's Lily
|-
|-[[File:Lilium columbianum.jpg|120px]]||Pseudolirium ||2a|| ''[[Lilium columbianum]]'' || Columbia Lily or Tiger Lily
|-
|-[[File:Lilium humboldtii ssp ocellatum.jpg|120px]]||Pseudolirium ||2a|| ''[[Lilium humboldtii]]'' || Humboldt's lily
|-
| [[File:LiliumPuberulum.png|120px]]||Pseudolirium ||2a|| ''[[Lilium humboldtii|Lilium puberulum]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium kelloggii.jpg|120px]]||Pseudolirium ||2a|| ''[[Lilium kelloggii]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium rubescens edit.jpg|120px]]||Pseudolirium ||2a|| ''[[Lilium rubescens]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium washingtonianum 3.jpg|120px]]||Pseudolirium ||2a|| ''[[Lilium washingtonianum]]'' || Washington Lily, Shasta Lily, or Mt. Hood Lily
|-
| [[File:Lilium kelleyanum.jpg|120px]]||Pseudolirium ||2b|| ''[[Lilium kelleyanum]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium maritimum 2.jpg|120px]]||Pseudolirium ||2b|| ''[[Lilium maritimum]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium occidentale.jpg|120px]]||Pseudolirium ||2b|| ''[[Lilium occidentale]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium pardalinum.jpg|120px]]||Pseudolirium ||2b|| ''[[Lilium pardalinum]]'' || Panther or Leopard lily
|-
| [[File:Lilium parryi.jpg|120px]]||Pseudolirium ||2b|| ''[[Lilium parryi]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium parvum 2.jpg|120px]]||Pseudolirium ||2b|| ''[[Lilium parvum]]'' || Sierra tiger lily or Alpine lily
|-
| [[File:CanadaLily.jpg|120px]]||Pseudolirium ||2c|| ''[[Lilium canadense]]'' || Canada Lily or Meadow Lily
|-
| [[File:Lilium grayi 2.jpg|120px]]||Pseudolirium ||2c|| ''[[Lilium grayi]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium iridollae.jpg|120px]]||Pseudolirium ||2c|| ''[[Lilium iridollae]]''||
|-
| [[File:Tiger-lily.JPG|120px]]||Pseudolirium ||2c|| ''[[Lilium michiganense]]'' || Michigan Lily
|-
| [[File:Lilium michauxii.jpg|120px]]||Pseudolirium ||2c|| ''[[Lilium michauxii]]'' || Carolina Lily
|-
| [[File:LiliumSuperbum1.jpg|120px]]||Pseudolirium ||2c|| ''[[Lilium superbum]]'' || Swamp lily or American tiger lily
|-
| [[File:L.pyrophilum3r.JPG|120px]]||Pseudolirium ||2c|| ''[[Lilium pyrophilum]]'' || Sandhills Lily<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=242101744 |title=Lilium pyrophilum in Flora of North America @ |publisher=Efloras.org |access-date=2013-02-03 |archive-date=2012-10-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020075459/http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=242101744 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| [[File:Lilium catesbaei1LEPPYONE.jpg|120px]]||Pseudolirium ||2d || ''[[Lilium catesbaei]]''||
|-
| [[File:Wild Lily Blooming along Dog Lake Trail at Kootenay National Park.jpg|120px]]||Pseudolirium ||2d|| ''[[Lilium philadelphicum]]'' || Wood lily, Philadelphia lily or prairie lily
|-
| [[File:Lilium candidum 1.jpg|120px]]||Liriotypus||3a || ''[[Lilium candidum]]'' || Madonna lily
|-
| [[File:Lil albanicum 1aEB Griechenland Katarapass 14 06 00.jpg|120px]]||Liriotypus||3b || ''[[Lilium albanicum]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium bosniacum.JPG|120px]]||Liriotypus||3b || ''[[Lilium bosniacum]] '' (''Lilium carniolicum var. bosniacum'')||
|-
| [[File:Lil chalcedonicum 01EB Griechenland Hrisomiglia 17 07 01.jpg|120px]]||Liriotypus||3b || ''[[Lilium chalcedonicum]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium carniolicum.jpg|120px]]||Liriotypus||3b || ''[[Lilium carniolicum]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium ciliatum (2).jpg|120px]]||Liriotypus||3b || ''[[Lilium ciliatum]]''||
|-
| ||Liriotypus||3b|| ''[[Lilium heldreichii]]''||
|-
| [[File:LiliumJankaeBulgaria1.jpg|120px]]||Liriotypus||3b || ''[[Lilium jankae]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium pomponium.jpg|120px]]||Liriotypus||3b || ''[[Lilium pomponium]]'' || Turban lily
|-
| [[File:Lil carniolicum subsp ponticum 01EB Tuerkei Ikizdere 02 07 93.jpg|120px]]||Liriotypus||3b || ''[[Lilium ponticum]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium pyrenaicum.jpg|120px]]||Liriotypus||3b || ''[[Lilium pyrenaicum]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lii akkusianum 01aHab Tuerkei Akkus 07 07 93.jpg|120px]]||Liriotypus||3c || ''[[Lilium akkusianum]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lil kesselringianum 01Hab Tuerkei Ardahan Savsat 04 07 94.jpg|120px]]||Liriotypus||3c || ''[[Lilium kesselringianum]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium monadelphum.JPG|120px]]||Liriotypus||3c || ''[[Lilium monadelphum]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lil rhodopeum 01Infl Griechenland Rhodopen Livaditis 12 06 00.jpg|120px]]||Liriotypus||3c || ''[[Lilium rhodopeum]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium szovitsianum (Flower).jpg|120px]]||Liriotypus||3c || ''[[Lilium monadelphum|Lilium szovitsianum]]'' || Polish Lily
|-
| [[File:Lilium polyphyllum.jpg|120px]]||Liriotypus||3c || ''[[Lilium polyphyllum]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium ledebourii 2.jpg|120px]]||Liriotypus||3c || ''[[Lilium ledebourii]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium bulbiferum mg-k.jpg|120px]]||Liriotypus||3d || ''[[Lilium bulbiferum]]'' || Orange Lily or Fire Lily
|-
| [[File:Lilium speciosum.jpg|120px]]||Archelirion ||4a || ''[[Lilium speciosum]]'' || Japanese lily
|-
| [[File:LiliumAuratumVVirginaleBluete2Rework.jpg|120px]]||Archelirion||4b || ''[[Lilium auratum]]'' || Golden rayed lily of Japan, or Goldband lily
|-
| [[File:Lilium longiflorum var alexandrae.jpg|120px]]||Archelirion||4c|| ''[[Lilium alexandrae]]'' ||
|-
|[[File:Lilium japonicum 'Hyuga form' 2.jpg|120px|Lilium japonicum 'Hyuga form' in Mount Hokodake]]||Archelirion||4c || ''[[Lilium japonicum]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium nobilissimum.jpg|120px]]||Archelirion||4c||''[[Lilium nobilissimum]]''||
|-
|[[File:Lilium brownii.jpg|120px]]||Archelirion||4d || ''[[Lilium brownii]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium rubellum.jpg|120px]]||Archelirion||4d|| ''[[Lilium rubellum]]''||
|-
|[[File:Lilium auratum var. platyphyllum.jpg|120px]]||Archelirion||4d || ''[[Lilium auratum|Lilium platyphyllum]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium davidii 5.jpg|120px]]||Sinomartagon ||5a|| ''[[Lilium davidii]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium duchartrei.jpg|120px]]||Sinomartagon||5a || ''[[Lilium duchartrei]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium henryi Inflorescence BotGardBln0806b.jpg|120px]]||Sinomartagon||5a|| ''[[Lilium henryi]]'' || Tiger Lily or Henry's lily
|-
| [[File:Tigerlilysmall.jpg|120px]]||Sinomartagon||5a || ''[[Lilium lancifolium]]'' || Tiger Lily (often known as ''L. tigrinum'')
|-
| [[File:Lilium lankongense2.jpg|120px]]||Sinomartagon||5a|| ''[[Lilium lankongense]]''||
|-
| [[File:leichtlinii.jpg|120px]]||Sinomartagon||5a || ''[[Lilium leichtlinii]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium papilliferum (1) edit.jpg|120px]]||Sinomartagon||5a|| ''[[Lilium papilliferum]]''||
|-
| [[File:LiliumRosthorniiFlora.jpg|120px]]||Sinomartagon||5a|| ''[[Lilium rosthornii]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium amabile.jpg|120px]]||Sinomartagon||5b|| ''[[Lilium amabile]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium callosum.jpg|120px]]||Sinomartagon||5b|| ''[[Lilium callosum]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium cernuum.jpg|120px]]||Sinomartagon||5b|| ''[[Lilium cernuum]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium concolor.jpg|120px]]||Sinomartagon||5b || ''[[Lilium concolor]]'' || Morning Star Lily
|-
| [[File:Lilium fargesii.jpg|120px]]||Sinomartagon||5b || ''[[Lilium fargesii]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium pumilum (Flower) 1.JPG|120px]]||Sinomartagon||5b || ''[[Lilium pumilum]]'' || Coral Lily, Low Lily, or Siberian Lily
|-
| ||Sinomartagon||5b|| ''[[Lilium xanthellum]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium amoenum.jpg|120px]]||Sinomartagon||5c|| ''[[Lilium amoenum]]''||
|-
| ||Sinomartagon||5c|| ''[[Lilium arboricola]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium bakerianum.jpg|120px]]||Sinomartagon||5c|| ''[[Lilium bakerianum]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lil euxanthum 02aHab China Yunnan Pass 4150 m 22 06 01.jpg|120px]]||Sinomartagon||5c|| ''[[Lilium euxanthum]]''||
|-
| ||Sinomartagon||5c|| ''[[Lilium henrici]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lil lophophorum 01aHab China Yunnan Big Snow Pass 19 06 01.jpg|120px]]||Sinomartagon||5c || ''[[Lilium lophophorum]]''||
|-
| [[File:Siroi Lily.jpg|120px]]||Sinomartagon||5c || ''[[Lilium mackliniae]]'' || Siroi Lily
|-
| [[File:Lilium majoense.jpg|120px]]||Sinomartagon||5c|| ''[[Lilium majoense]] ''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium nanum.JPG|120px]]||Sinomartagon||5c|| ''[[Lilium nanum]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium nepalense (flower).jpg|120px]]||Sinomartagon||5c || ''[[Lilium nepalense]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium oxypetalum var insigne.jpg|120px]]||Sinomartagon||5c|| ''[[Lilium oxypetalum]]''||
|-
| ||Sinomartagon||5c|| ''[[Lilium paradoxum]]''||
|-
| [[File:Poilanei.jpg|120px]]||Sinomartagon||5c || ''[[Lilium poilanei]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium primulinum var.jpg|120px]]||Sinomartagon ||5c|| ''[[Lilium primulinum]]''||
|-
| ||Sinomartagon||5c|| ''[[Lilium sempervivoideum]]''||
|-
| ||Sinomartagon||5c|| ''[[Lilium sherriffiae]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium souliei.jpg|120px]]||Sinomartagon||5c|| ''[[Lilium souliei]]''||
|-
| ||Sinomartagon||5c|| ''[[Lilium stewartianum]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium taliense.jpg|120px]]||Sinomartagon||5c|| ''[[Lilium taliense]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium wardii.jpg|120px]]||Sinomartagon||5c || ''[[Lilium wardii]]''||
|-
| ||Sinomartagon||5?|| ''[[Lilium brevistylum]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium tenii lykkegaard.jpg|120px]]||Sinomartagon||5?|| ''[[Lilium lijiangense]]''||
|-
| ||Sinomartagon||5?|| ''[[Lilium anhuiense]]''||
|-
| ||Sinomartagon||5?|| ''[[Lilium eupetes]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lil habaense 01aEB China Yunnan Gang Ho Ba 25 06 01.jpg|120px]]||Sinomartagon||5? || ''[[Lilium habaense]]''||
|-
| ||Sinomartagon||5?|| ''[[Lilium huidongense]]''||
|-
| ||Sinomartagon||5?|| ''[[Lilium jinfushanense]]''||
|-
| ||Sinomartagon||5?|| ''[[Lilium matangense]]''||
|-
| ||Sinomartagon||5?|| ''[[Lilium medogense]]''||
|-
| ||Sinomartagon||5?|| ''[[Lilium pinifolium]]''||
|-
| ||Sinomartagon||5?|| ''[[Lilium pyi]]''||
|-
| ||Sinomartagon||5?|| ''[[Lilium saccatum]]''||
|-
| ||Sinomartagon||5?|| ''[[Lilium tianschanicum]]''||
|-
| ||Sinomartagon||5?|| ''[[Lilium floridum]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium leucanthum var. centifolium.jpg|120px]]||Leucolirion||6a|| ''[[Lilium leucanthum]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lil regale 01Infl China Sichuan Wolong 18 06 04.jpg|120px]]||Leucolirion||6a || ''[[Lilium regale]]''||
|-
| [[File:LiliumSargentiae.jpg|120px]]||Leucolirion||6a|| ''[[Lilium sargentiae]]''||
|-
| [[File:Liliumsulphureumflower2.jpg|120px]]||Leucolirion||6a|| ''[[Lilium sulphureum]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium wenshanense.jpg|120px]]||Leucolirion||6a|| ''[[Lilium wenshanense]]''||
|-
| ||Leucolirion||6b|| ''[[Lilium anhuiense]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium formosanum.jpg|120px]]||Leucolirion||6b|| ''[[Lilium formosanum]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium longiflorum (Easter Lily).JPG|120px]]||Leucolirion||6b || ''[[Lilium longiflorum]]'' || Easter Lily
|-
| ||Leucolirion||6b|| ''[[Lilium neilgherrense]]''||
|-
| [[File:LiliumPhillipinenseFlora6.jpg|120px]]||Leucolirion||6b|| ''[[Lilium philippinense]]''|| Benguet lily<ref name=ShootGardening>{{cite news|title=Lilium philippinense (Benguet lily)|url=http://www.shootgardening.co.uk/plant/lilium-philippinense|access-date=10 February 2015|publisher=Shoot Limited|archive-date=10 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150210212144/http://www.shootgardening.co.uk/plant/lilium-philippinense}}</ref><ref name=SunStar>{{cite news|title=Park personnel rear vanishing Benguet lily|url=http://www.sunstar.com.ph/baguio/local-news/2013/08/13/park-personnel-rear-vanishing-benguet-lily-297618|access-date=10 February 2015|publisher=[[Sun.Star]] Baguio|date=13 August 2013|archive-date=10 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150210202625/http://www.sunstar.com.ph/baguio/local-news/2013/08/13/park-personnel-rear-vanishing-benguet-lily-297618}}</ref>
|-
| [[File:Lilium wallichianum.jpg|120px]]||Leucolirion||6b|| ''[[Lilium wallichianum]]''||
|-
| ||Leucolirion||6b|| ''[[Lilium zairii]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium puerense (1).jpg|120px]]||Leucolirion||6b|| ''[[Lilium puerense]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium dauricum.jpg|120px]]||Daurolirion|| || ''[[Lilium dauricum]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium maculatum flower.jpg|120px]]||Daurolirion|| || ''[[Lilium maculatum]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium pensylvanicum.jpg|120px]]||Daurolirion|| || ''[[Lilium pensylvanicum]]''||
|-
| || || ||''[[Lilium eupetes]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium armenum.jpg|120px]]|| || ||''[[Lilium armenum]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium bosniacum.JPG|120px]]|| || ||''[[Lilium bosniacum]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium columbianum by creek.jpg|120px]]|| || ||''[[Lilium columbianum]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium debile (Drawing).jpg|120px]]|| || ||''[[Lilium debile]]''||
|-
| [[File:Lilium humboldtii 1.jpg|120px]]|| || ||''[[Lilium humboldtii]]''||
|-
| || || ||''[[Lilium rockii]]''||
|}

Some species formerly included within this genus have now been placed in other genera. These genera include ''[[Cardiocrinum]]'', ''[[Notholirion]]'', and ''[[Fritillaria]]''.<ref>{{cite POWO |id=925333-1 |title=''Cardiocrinum'' (Endl.) Lindl. |access-date=17 October 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite POWO |id=24568-1 |title=''Notholirion'' Wall. ex Boiss. |access-date=17 October 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite POWO |id=30008840-2 |title=''Fritillaria'' Tourn. ex L. |access-date=17 October 2024}}</ref> Four other genuses,
''Lirium'', ''Martagon'', and ''Nomocharis'' are considered to [[Synonym (botany)|synonyms]] by most sources.<ref name="POWO">{{cite POWO |id=30009317-2 |title=''Lilium'' Tourn. ex L. |access-date=17 October 2024}}</ref>

===Etymology===
The botanic name ''Lilium'' is the [[Latin]] form and is a [[Linnaean taxonomy|Linnaean]] name. The Latin name is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word {{lang|el|λείριον}} ''leírion'', generally assumed to refer to true, white lilies as exemplified by the [[Madonna lily]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hyam |first1=R. |last2=Pankhurst |first2=R.J. |year=1995 |title=Plants and their names: a concise dictionary |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-866189-4 |name-list-style=amp |page=186 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url = http://members.shaw.ca/lilynet/netlil/id35.htm |title = Classification |website= Lily Net |access-date = 22 June 2008 | archive-url = https://archive.today/20080415193108/http://members.shaw.ca/lilynet/netlil/id35.htm| archive-date = 15 April 2008}}</ref><ref name="Liddel">{{cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=lei/rion |title=λείριον |last1=Liddell |first1=Henry George|last2=Scott|first2=Robert |work=A Greek-English Lexicon |publisher=Perseus Digital Library |date= 1940 }}</ref> The word was borrowed from [[Coptic language|Coptic]] {{lang|cop|ϩ̀ⲣⲏⲣⲓ}},<ref> {{cite book |last=Beekes |first=Robert S. P. |title=Etymological Dictionary of Greek |publisher=Koninklijke Brill NV |year=2010 |page=845 |url=https://archive.org/details/etymological-dictionary-of-greek_202306/ |access-date=2025-06-12}} </ref> from [[Demotic Egyptian language|Demotic]] {{transliteration|egy|ḥrry}}, from [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] {{transliteration|egy|ḥrr.t}} "flower".<ref> {{cite book |last=Crum |first=W. E. |title=A Coptic Dictionary |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1939 |page=704 |url=https://archive.org/details/copticdictionary0000crum/ |access-date=2025-06-12}} {{cite web |url=https://coptic-dictionary.org/entry.py?tla=C6808 |title=ϩⲣⲏⲣⲉ |website=Coptic Dictionary Online |access-date=2025-06-12}} </ref> {{langx|grc|κρῖνον|label=}}, {{transliteration|grc|krīnon}}, was used by the Greeks, albeit for lilies of any color.<ref>{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Lily |volume=16 |page=687}}</ref>

The term "lily" has in the past been applied to numerous flowering plants, often with only superficial resemblance to the true lily, including [[water lily (disambiguation)|water lily]], [[fire lily (disambiguation)|fire lily]], [[lily of the Nile (disambiguation)|lily of the Nile]], [[calla Lily (disambiguation)|calla lily]], [[trout lily]], [[kaffir lily]], [[cobra lily (disambiguation)|cobra lily]], [[lily of the valley]], [[daylily]], [[ginger lily (disambiguation)|ginger lily]], [[Amazon lily]], [[leek lily]], [[Peruvian lily]], and others. All English translations of the Bible render the Hebrew ''shūshan'', ''shōshan'', ''shōshannā'' as "lily", but the "lily among the thorns" of ''[[Song of Songs|Song of Solomon]]'', for instance, may be the honeysuckle.<ref>{{cite book|title=Shorter Oxford English dictionary, 6th ed.|year=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=United Kingdom|isbn=978-0-19-920687-2|page=3804}}</ref>

==Distribution and habitat==
[[File:Lilium_martagon_Tauerntal_01.jpg|thumb|[[Lilium martagon|Turk's cap lily]] growing in the [[Carinthian-Styrian Alps|Carinthian Alps]]|upright]]
The range of lilies in the Old World extends across much of Europe, across most of Asia to Japan, south to India, and east to Indochina and the Philippines. In the New World they extend from southern Canada through much of the United States. They are commonly adapted to either woodland habitats, often [[mountain|montane]], or sometimes to grassland habitats. A few can survive in marshland and [[epiphyte]]s are known in tropical southeast Asia. In general they prefer moderately acidic or lime-free soils.

==Ecology==
Lilies are used as food plants by the [[larva]]e of some [[Lepidoptera]] species including the [[Dun-bar]].

The proliferation of deer (e.g. ''[[Odocoileus virginianus]]'') in North America, mainly due to factors such as the elimination of large predators for human safety, is responsible there for a downturn in lily populations in the wild and is a threat to garden lilies as well.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.esa.org/tiee/vol/v2/issues/figure_sets/deer/overview.html |title=Ecological Impacts of High Deer Densities |website=Teaching Issues and Experiments in Ecology |date=2004 |publisher=Ecological Society of America |access-date=2019-11-27 |archive-date=2019-11-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191127164404/https://www.esa.org/tiee/vol/v2/issues/figure_sets/deer/overview.html }}</ref> Fences as high as 8 feet may be required to prevent them from consuming the plants, an impractical solution for most wild areas.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://homeguides.sfgate.com/deer-eat-hostas-lilies-104420.html |title=Will Deer Eat Hostas & Lilies? |website=SFGate |publisher=Hearst |access-date=2019-11-27 |archive-date=2019-11-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191127164343/https://homeguides.sfgate.com/deer-eat-hostas-lilies-104420.html }}</ref>

==Cultivation==
Many species are widely grown in the garden in [[temperateness|temperate]], [[sub-tropical]] and [[tropical]] regions.<ref>{{cite web | title=Azucenas en tierra boricua trascienden generaciones [Lilium in Puerto Rican land transcend generations] | website=El Nuevo Día | date=2017-07-08 | url=https://www.elnuevodia.com/noticias/locales/notas/azucenas-en-tierra-boricua-trascienden-generaciones/ | language=es | access-date=2020-07-19 | archive-date=2020-07-19 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200719222643/https://www.elnuevodia.com/noticias/locales/notas/azucenas-en-tierra-boricua-trascienden-generaciones/ | url-status=live }}</ref> Numerous ornamental [[Hybrid plant|hybrids]] have been developed. They are used in herbaceous borders, woodland and shrub plantings, and as patio plants. Some lilies, especially ''[[Lilium longiflorum]]'', form important [[cut flower]] crops or potted plants. These are forced to flower outside of the normal flowering season for particular markets; for instance, ''Lilium longiflorum'' for the Easter trade, when it may be called the Easter lily.

Lilies are usually planted as bulbs in the dormant season. They are best planted in a south-facing (northern hemisphere), slightly sloping aspect, in sun or part shade, at a depth 2½ times the height of the bulb (except ''[[Lilium candidum]]'' which should be planted at the surface). Most prefer a porous, loamy soil, and good drainage is essential. Most species bloom in July or August (northern hemisphere). The flowering periods of certain lily species begin in late spring, while others bloom in late summer or early autumn.<ref>{{cite web|title=Lily|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/341076/lily|access-date=2014-02-19|year=2016|archive-date=2014-02-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140225070146/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/341076/lily|url-status=live}}</ref> They have contractile roots which pull the plant down to the correct depth, therefore it is better to plant them too shallowly than too deep. A [[soil pH]] of around 6.5 is generally safe. Most grow best in well-drained soils, and plants are watered during the growing season. Some species and cultivars have strong wiry stems, but those with heavy flower heads are staked to stay upright.<ref>{{cite book|title=RHS encyclopedia of plants & flowers|year=2010|publisher=Dorling Kindersley|location=United Kingdom|isbn=978-1-4053-5423-3|page=744}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Jefferson-Brown|first=Michael|title=Lilies|series=Wisley handbooks|year=2008|publisher=Mitchell Beazley|location=London|isbn=978-1-84533-384-3|page=96}}</ref>

===Awards===
The following lily species and [[cultivar]]s currently hold the [[Royal Horticultural Society]]'s [[Award of Garden Merit]] (confirmed 2017):<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/pdfs/agm-lists/agm-ornamentals.pdf | title = AGM Plants – Ornamental | date = July 2017 | page = 60 | publisher = Royal Horticultural Society | access-date = 2 March 2018 | archive-date = 5 January 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180105180412/https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/pdfs/agm-lists/agm-ornamentals.pdf | url-status = live }}</ref><ref name=ourCountryGarden>{{cite web |title=''British Gardening Statistics'' |url=https://ourcountrygarden.co.uk/british-gardening-statistics/ |work=British Gardening Statistics |date=10 May 2024 |publisher=Our Country Garden |access-date=January 28, 2025 }}</ref>
[[File:Lilium Golden Splendour3.jpg|thumb|'Golden Splendor']]
*African Queen Group (VI-/a) 2002 H6
*'Casa Blanca' (VIIb/b-c) 1993 H6
*'Fata Morgana' (Ia/b) 2002 H6
*'Garden Party' (VIIb/b) 2002 H6
*Golden Splendor Group (VIb-c/a)<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/42234/i-Lilium-i-Golden-Splendor-Group-(Vib-c-a)/Details | title = RHS Plantfinder – ''Lilium'' Golden Splendor Group | access-date = 22 March 2018 | archive-date = 24 March 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180324224220/https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/42234/i-Lilium-i-Golden-Splendor-Group-(Vib-c-a)/Details }}</ref>
*''[[Lilium henryi]]'' (IXc/d) 1993 H6
* ''[[Lilium mackliniae]]'' (IXc/a) 2012 H5
* ''[[Lilium martagon]]'' – Turk's cap lily (IXc/d)<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/10205/i-Lilium-martagon-i-(Ixc-d)/Details | title = RHS Plantfinder – ''Lilium martagon'' | access-date = 22 March 2018 | archive-date = 25 March 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180325044941/https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/10205/i-Lilium-martagon-i-(Ixc-d)/Details }}</ref>
* ''[[Lilium pardalinum]]'' – leopard lily (IXc/d)<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/10221/i-Lilium-pardalinum-i-(Ixc-d)/Details | title = RHS Plantfinder – ''Lilium pardalinum'' | access-date = 22 March 2018 | archive-date = 24 March 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180324224217/https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/10221/i-Lilium-pardalinum-i-(Ixc-d)/Details }}</ref>
*Pink Perfection Group (VIb/a)<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/61747/i-Lilium-i-Pink-Perfection-Group-(Vib-a)/Details | title = RHS Plantfinder – ''Lilium'' Pink Perfection Group | access-date = 22 March 2018 | archive-date = 24 March 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180324224213/https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/61747/i-Lilium-i-Pink-Perfection-Group-(Vib-a)/Details }}</ref>
* ''[[Lilium regale]]'' – regal lily, king's lily (IXb/a)<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/10248/i-Lilium-regale-i-(Ixb-a)/Details | title = RHS Plantfinder – ''Lilium regale'' | access-date = 2 March 2018 | archive-date = 24 March 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180324224413/https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/10248/i-Lilium-regale-i-(Ixb-a)/Details }}</ref>

===Classification of garden forms===
Numerous forms, mostly hybrids, are grown for the garden. They vary according to the species and interspecific hybrids that they derived from, and are classified in the following broad groups:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lilies.org/culture/types-of-lilies/ |title=North American Lily Society: Types of Lilies |publisher=Lilies.org |access-date=2013-02-03 |archive-date=2013-11-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103073939/http://www.lilies.org/culture/types-of-lilies/ }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=RHS A-Z encyclopedia of garden plants|year=2008|publisher=Dorling Kindersley|location=United Kingdom|isbn=978-1-4053-3296-5|page=1136}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The RHS is the International Registration Authority for lilies|url=http://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/plantsmanship/plant-registration/Lily-cultivar-registration|access-date=2014-05-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140521152642/http://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/plantsmanship/plant-registration/Lily-cultivar-registration|archive-date=2014-05-21}}</ref>

====Asiatic hybrids (Division I)====
<gallery mode="packed" heights="120px">
File:Lilium canadense.JPG
File:Dwarf Asian Lily Tiny Dessert (closeup).jpg
File:Lilium %27Navona%272.jpg
File:Lily Festival 2009 Neepawa Manitoba Canada %2816%29.JPG
File:Lilium Cappuccino.jpg
File:Lilium Dimension.JPG
</gallery>
: These are derived from hybrids between species in ''Lilium'' [[Section (botany)|section]] ''Sinomartagon''.<ref name=Barba-Gonzalez>{{cite journal |author1=Barba-Gonzalez, R. |author2=Lokker, A.C. |author3=Lim, K.B. |author4=Ramanna, M.S. |author5=Van Tuyl, J.M. |year=2004 |title=Use of 2n gametes for the production of sexual polyploids from sterile Oriental × Asiatic hybrids of lilies (''Lilium'') |journal=Theoretical and Applied Genetics |volume=109 |issue=6 |pages=1125–1132 |doi=10.1007/s00122-004-1739-0|pmid=15290047 |s2cid=7992120 }}</ref><ref name=Tuyl>{{cite journal |url=http://www.liliumbreeding.nl/LA%2010715.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606230707/http://www.liliumbreeding.nl/LA%2010715.pdf |archive-date=2014-06-06 |title=''Lilium'': Breeding History of the Modern Cultivar Assortment |last1=van Tuyl |first1=J.M.|last2=Arens |first2=P. |journal=Acta Horticulturae |volume=900 |year=2011 |pages=223–230 }}</ref>
: They are derived from central and East Asian species and interspecific hybrids, including ''[[Lilium amabile]]'', ''[[Lilium bulbiferum]]'', ''[[Lilium callosum]]'', ''[[Lilium cernuum]]'', ''[[Lilium concolor]]'', ''[[Lilium dauricum]]'', ''[[Lilium davidii]]'', ''[[Lilium × hollandicum]]'', ''[[Lilium lancifolium]]'' (syn. ''[[Lilium tigrinum]]''), ''[[Lilium lankongense]]'', ''[[Lilium leichtlinii]]'', ''[[Lilium maculatum|Lilium × maculatum]]'', ''[[Lilium pumilum]]'', ''[[Lilium × scottiae]]'', ''[[Lilium wardii]]'' and ''[[Lilium wilsonii]]''.
: These are plants with medium-sized, upright or outward facing flowers, mostly unscented. There are various cultivars such as Lilium 'Cappuccino', Lilium 'Dimension', Lilium 'Little Kiss' and [[Lilium 'Navona']].<ref>{{cite web |title=Lilium Asiatic Navona – Lily |url=https://brentandbeckysbulbs.com/Lilium/Navona/Lily |publisher=brentandbeckysbulbs.com |access-date=27 January 2017 |archive-date=2 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202063531/https://brentandbeckysbulbs.com/Lilium/Navona/Lily }}</ref>
* Dwarf (Patio, Border) varieties are much shorter, c.36–61 cm in height and were designed for containers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://extension.umass.edu/floriculture/fact-sheets/production-hybrid-lilies-pot-plants|title=Tina M. Smith. Production of Hybrid Lilies as Pot Plants. University of Massachusetts, Amherst|work=Center for Agriculture, Food and the Environment|access-date=2014-08-06|archive-date=2014-08-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140810193205/https://extension.umass.edu/floriculture/fact-sheets/production-hybrid-lilies-pot-plants}}</ref> They often bear the cultivar name 'Tiny', such as the 'Lily Looks' series, e.g. 'Tiny Padhye',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.perennials.com/plants/lilium-tiny-padhye.html|title=Plant Profile for Lilium 'Tiny Padhye' – Dwarf Asiatic Lily Perennial|access-date=2014-08-06|archive-date=2015-05-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150508095504/http://www.perennials.com/plants/lilium-tiny-padhye.html}}</ref> 'Tiny Dessert'.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.perennials.com/plants/lilium-tiny-dessert.html|title=Plant Profile for Lilium 'Tiny Dessert' – Dwarf Asiatic Lily Perennial|access-date=2014-08-07|archive-date=2014-08-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140811024402/http://www.perennials.com/plants/lilium-tiny-dessert.html}}</ref>

====Martagon hybrids (Division II)====
<gallery mode="packed" heights="120px">
File:Lilium %27Claude Shride%27 2013 013.JPG
File:Lilium %27Kalna Karalis%27 2013 015.JPG
File:Lilium %27Manitoba Fox%27 007.JPG
File:Lilium %27Mrs R.O.Backhouse%27 (cropped).jpg
File:Lilium %27Slate%27s Morning%27.jpg
File:Lilium, Hare Hill, Cheshire 2c.jpg
</gallery>
:These are based on ''[[Lilium dalhansonii]]'', ''[[Lilium hansonii]]'', ''[[Lilium martagon]]'', ''[[Lilium medeoloides]]'', and ''[[Lilium tsingtauense]]''.
:The flowers are nodding, Turk's cap style (with the petals strongly recurved).

====Candidum (Euro-Caucasian) hybrids (Division III)====
<gallery mode="packed" heights="120px">
File:Lilium x testaceum.jpg
</gallery>
: This includes mostly European species: ''[[Lilium candidum]]'', ''[[Lilium chalcedonicum]]'', ''[[Lilium kesselringianum]]'', ''[[Lilium monadelphum]]'', ''[[Lilium pomponium]]'', ''[[Lilium pyrenaicum]]'' and ''[[Lilium × testaceum]]''.

====American hybrids (Division IV)====
: These are mostly taller growing forms, originally derived from ''[[Lilium bolanderi]]'', ''[[Lilium × burbankii]]'', ''[[Lilium canadense]]'', ''[[Lilium columbianum]]'', ''[[Lilium grayi]]'', ''[[Lilium humboldtii]]'', ''[[Lilium kelleyanum]]'', ''[[Lilium kelloggii]]'', ''[[Lilium maritimum]]'', ''[[Lilium michauxii]]'', ''[[Lilium michiganense]]'', ''[[Lilium occidentale]]'', ''[[Lilium × pardaboldtii]]'', ''[[Lilium pardalinum]]'', ''[[Lilium parryi]]'', ''[[Lilium parvum]]'', ''[[Lilium philadelphicum]]'', ''[[Lilium pitkinense]]'', ''[[Lilium superbum]]'', ''[[Lilium ollmeri]]'', ''[[Lilium washingtonianum]]'', and ''[[Lilium wigginsii]]''.
:Many are clump-forming perennials with rhizomatous rootstocks.

====Longiflorum hybrids (Division V)====
: These are cultivated forms of this species and its subspecies.
:They are most important as plants for [[cut flowers]], and are less often grown in the garden than other hybrids.

====Trumpet lilies (Division VI), including Aurelian hybrids (with ''L. henryi'')====
{{anchor|Trumpet lilies}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="120px">
File:Lilium x African Queen.jpg
File:Lilium %27Fanfare%27.jpg
File:Lilium Pink Perfection1f.UME.jpg
File:Lilium x Dresdener Romance.jpg
File:Lilium x aurelianense1MTFL.jpg
</gallery>
: This group includes hybrids of many Asiatic species and their interspecific hybrids, including ''[[Lilium × aurelianense]]'', ''[[Lilium brownii]]'', ''[[Lilium × centigale]]'', ''[[Lilium henryi]]'', ''[[Lilium × imperiale]]'', ''[[Lilium × kewense]]'', ''[[Lilium leucanthum]]'', ''[[Lilium regale]]'', ''[[Lilium rosthornii]]'', ''[[Lilium sargentiae]]'', ''[[Lilium sulphureum]]'' and ''[[Lilium × sulphurgale]]''.
:The flowers are trumpet shaped, facing outward or somewhat downward, and tend to be strongly fragrant, often especially night-fragrant.

====Oriental hybrids (Division VII)====
{{anchor|Oriental lilies}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="120px">
File:Oriental hybrid1 (cropped).jpg
File:Smithsoniangardens1.jpg
File:Lilium Dizzy.jpg
File:Lilium x Universe.jpg
File:Lilium Golden Stargazer.jpg
File:Lilium %27Marco Polo%27 Flower 2580px.jpg
</gallery>
: These are based on hybrids within ''Lilium'' [[Section (botany)|section]] ''Archelirion'',<ref name=Barba-Gonzalez /><ref name=Tuyl /> specifically ''[[Lilium auratum]]'' and ''[[Lilium speciosum]]'', together with crossbreeds from several species native to Japan, including ''[[Lilium nobilissimum]]'', ''[[Lilium rubellum]]'', ''[[Lilium alexandrae]]'', and ''[[Lilium japonicum]]''.
:They are fragrant, and the flowers tend to be outward facing. Plants tend to be tall, and the flowers may be quite large. The whole group are sometimes referred to as "stargazers" because many of them appear to look upwards. (For the specific cultivar, see [[Lilium 'Stargazer'|''Lilium'' 'Stargazer']].)

====Other hybrids (Division VIII)====
<gallery mode="packed" heights="120px">
File:Lilium 'Royal Trinity' 03.JPG
File:Lilium x Sea Treasure.jpg
File:Lilium x Red Alert.jpg
File:Lilium 'Anastasiya' 03.JPG
File:Lily -- Lilium 'Tiny Double You'.jpg|
File:Lilium 'Eyeliner' 06.JPG
File:Dwarf Asiatic Lily Hybrid-Lilium 'Matrix'-Offnfopt 4635.JPG
</gallery>
: Includes all other garden hybrids.

====Species (Division IX)====
: All natural species and naturally occurring forms are included in this group.

The flowers can be classified by flower aspect and form:<ref>{{cite web |title=Application For Registration Of A Lily Name |author=The RHS International Lily Registrar |url=http://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/pdfs/plant-registration-forms/lily-name-registration |publisher=Royal Horticultural Society |access-date=6 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140522045522/http://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/pdfs/plant-registration-forms/lily-name-registration |archive-date=22 May 2014 }}</ref>
* Flower aspect:
:*a up-facing
:*b out-facing
:*c down-facing
* Flower form:
:*a trumpet-shaped
:*b bowl-shaped
:*c flat (or with tepal tips recurved)
:*d tepals strongly recurved (with the Turk's cap form as the ultimate state)

Many newer commercial varieties are developed by using new technologies such as ovary culture and embryo rescue.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=van Tuyl |first1=J.M. |last2=Binoa |first2=R.J. |last3=Vancreij |first3=M. |last4=Vankleinwee |first4=T. |last5=Franken |first5=J. |last6=Bino |first6=R. |title=Application of in vitro pollination, ovary culture, ovule culture and embryo rescue for overcoming incongruity barriers in interspecific ''Lilium'' crosses |journal=Plant Science |volume=74 |issue=1 |year=1991 |pages=115–126 |doi=10.1016/0168-9452(91)90262-7|bibcode=1991PlnSc..74..115V }}</ref>

===Pests and diseases===
[[File:Scarlet lily beetle lilioceris lilii.jpg|thumb|Scarlet lily beetles, [[Oxfordshire]], UK]]
[[Aphids]] may infest plants. [[Tipuloidea|Leatherjackets]] feed on the roots. [[Larva]]e of the [[Scarlet lily beetle]] can cause serious damage to the stems and leaves. The scarlet beetle lays its eggs and completes its life cycle only on true lilies (''Lilium'') and fritillaries (''[[Fritillaria]]'').<ref>{{cite web |title=Lily beetle |work=RHS Gardening |publisher=[[Royal Horticultural Society]] |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/advice/profile?pid=553 |access-date=2014-08-21 |archive-date=2014-08-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821195228/https://www.rhs.org.uk/advice/profile?pid=553 }}</ref> Oriental, rubrum, tiger and trumpet lilies as well as Oriental trumpets (orienpets) and Turk's cap lilies and native North American ''Lilium'' species are all vulnerable, but the beetle prefers some types over others. The beetle could also be having an effect on native Canadian species and some rare and endangered species found in northeastern North America.<ref>{{cite web|last=Whitman|first=Ann|title=Controlling Lily Leaf Beetles|url=http://www.gardeners.com/lily-beetle/8090,default,pg.html|publisher=Gardener's Supply Company|access-date=2014-02-18|archive-date=2014-02-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222130935/http://www.gardeners.com/lily-beetle/8090,default,pg.html}}</ref> Daylilies (''Hemerocallis'', not true lilies) are excluded from this category. Plants can suffer from damage caused by mice, deer and squirrels. Slugs,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Adams |first1=Charles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h449BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA230 |title=Principles of Horticulture: Level 2 |last2=Early |first2=Mike |last3=Brook |first3=Jane |last4=Bamford |first4=Katherine |date=2014-08-07 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-93777-7 }}</ref> snails and millipedes attack seedlings, leaves and flowers.

Brown spots on damp leaves may signal an infection of ''[[Botrytis elliptica]]'', also known as Lily blight, lily fire, and botrytis leaf blight.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=George |first1=Raymond A. T. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=32_HBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA375 |title=Diseases of Temperate Horticultural Plants |last2=Fox |first2=Roland T. V. |date=2014-11-21 |publisher=CABI |isbn=978-1-84593-773-7 |language=en}}</ref> Various viral diseases can cause mottling of leaves and stunting of growth, including lily curl stripe, ringspot, and lily rosette virus.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Kenneth M. |author-link=Kenneth Manley Smith |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6KZkRmlQHN8C&pg=PA315 |title=A Textbook of Plant Virus Diseases |date=2012-12-02 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-323-16205-0 }}</ref>

===Propagation and growth===
Lilies can be propagated in several ways;
* by division of the bulbs
* by growing-on [[bulbil]]s which are [[adventitious]] bulbs formed on the stem
* by scaling, for which whole scales are detached from the bulb and planted to form a new bulb
* by seed; there are many [[Lily Seed Germination Types|seed germination patterns]], which can be complex
* by [[micropropagation]] techniques (which include [[Plant tissue culture|tissue culture]]);<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090325212420/http://www.hcmuaf.edu.vn/ctt/softs/phtqt/biotech2006/papers/nonghoc/DTNhut4.pdf Duong Tan Nhut, Nguyen Thi Doan Tam, Vu Quoc Luan, Nguyen Tri Minh. 2006. Standardization of in vitro Lily (Lilium spp.) plantlets for propagation and bulb formation. Proceedings of International Workshop on Biotechnology in Agriculture, Nong Lam University (NLU), Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, page 134-137.] Retrieved January 25, 2014</ref> commercial quantities of lilies are often propagated [[in vitro]] and then planted out to grow into plants large enough to sell. A highly efficient technique for multiple shoot and propagule formation was given by Yadav et al., in 2013.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yadav |first1=Rakesh |last2=Yadav |first2=Neha |last3=Pal |first3=Minakshi |last4=Goutam |first4=Umesh |date=December 2013 |title=Multiple shoot proliferation, bulblet induction and evaluation of genetic stability in Asiatic hybrid lily (Lilium sp.) |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s40502-014-0060-4 |journal=Indian Journal of Plant Physiology |language=en |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=354–359 |doi=10.1007/s40502-014-0060-4 |bibcode=2013InJPP..18..354Y |s2cid=17091557 |issn=0019-5502|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Plant grow regulators (PGRs) are used to limit the height of lilies, especially those sold as potted plants. Commonly used [[Chemical substance|chemical]]s include ancymidol, fluprimidol, paclobutrazol, and uni-conazole, all of which are applied to the foliage to slow the biosynthesis of [[gibberellin]]s, a class of [[plant hormone]]s responsible for stem growth.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kamenetsky |first1=Rina |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC&pg=PA309 |title=Ornamental Geophytes: From Basic Science to Sustainable Production |last2=Okubo |first2=Hiroshi |date=2012-09-17 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4398-4924-8 |language=en}}</ref>

==Research==

A comparison of [[meiosis|meiotic]] [[Chromosomal crossover|crossing-over]] ([[genetic recombination|recombination]]) in lily and mouse led, in 1977, to the conclusion that diverse [[eukaryote]]s share a common pattern of meiotic crossing-over.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Hotta Y, Chandley AC, Stern H |title=Meiotic crossing-over in lily and mouse |journal=Nature |volume=269 |issue=5625 |pages=240–2 |date=September 1977 |pmid=593319 |doi=10.1038/269240a0 |bibcode=1977Natur.269..240H }}</ref> ''[[Lilium longiflorum]]'' has been used for studying aspects of the basic molecular mechanism of genetic recombination during meiosis.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Terasawa M, Shinohara A, Hotta Y, Ogawa H, Ogawa T |title=Localization of RecA-like recombination proteins on chromosomes of the lily at various meiotic stages |journal=Genes Dev |volume=9 |issue=8 |pages=925–34 |date=April 1995 |pmid=7774810 |doi=10.1101/gad.9.8.925 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Anderson LK, Offenberg HH, Verkuijlen WM, Heyting C |title=RecA-like proteins are components of early meiotic nodules in lily |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=94 |issue=13 |pages=6868–73 |date=June 1997 |pmid=11038554 |pmc=21251 |doi=10.1073/pnas.94.13.6868 |doi-access=free |bibcode=1997PNAS...94.6868A }}</ref>

==Toxicity==
<section begin=lilium-toxicity />Some ''Lilium'' species are toxic to [[cat]]s. This is known to be especially so for ''[[Lilium longiflorum]]'', though other ''Lilium'' and the unrelated ''[[Hemerocallis]]'' can also cause the same symptoms with equal lethality.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.2460/javma.2002.220.49 |author=Langston CE |title=Acute renal failure caused by lily ingestion in six cats |journal=J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. |volume=220 |issue=1 |pages=49–52, 36 |date=January 2002 |pmid=12680447 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Hall J |title=Nephrotoxicity of Easter Lily (''Lilium longiflorum'') when ingested by the cat |journal=Proc Annu Meet Am Vet Int Med |volume=6 |page=121 |year=1992 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Volmer P |title=Easter lily toxicosis in cats |journal=Vet Med |page=331 |date=April 1999 |url=http://www.aspcapro.org/mydocuments/p-toxbrief_0499.pdf }}{{dead link|date=December 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="Fitzgerald2010" /> The true mechanism of toxicity is undetermined, but it involves damage to the [[renal tubular]] epithelium (composing the substance of the kidney and secreting, collecting, and conducting urine), which can cause acute [[kidney failure]].<ref name="Fitzgerald2010">{{cite journal|last1=Fitzgerald|first1=Kevin T.|title=Lily Toxicity in the Cat|journal=Topics in Companion Animal Medicine|volume=25|issue=4|year=2010|pages=213–217|issn=1938-9736|doi=10.1053/j.tcam.2010.09.006|pmid=21147474}}</ref> Veterinary help should be sought, as a matter of urgency, for any cat that is suspected of eating any part of a lily – including licking pollen that may have brushed onto its coat. Due to the high mortality rate, medical care should be sought immediately once it is known a cat came into contact with lilies, ideally before any symptoms develop.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vethelpdirect.com/vetblog/2010/05/02/lily-poisoning-in-cats/|title=Lily poisoning in cats – Vet Help Direct Blog|date=2010-05-02|access-date=2013-10-20|archive-date=2013-11-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102161051/http://www.vethelpdirect.com/vetblog/2010/05/02/lily-poisoning-in-cats/}}</ref><section end="lilium-toxicity" />

==Culinary uses==
{{anchor|Culinary and herb uses}}

===Chinese cuisine===
Lily bulbs are [[starch]]y and edible as [[root vegetable]]s, though bulbs of some species may be too bitter to eat.{{sfnp|Blasdale|1899|p=21}}

[[Lilium brownii var. viridulum|''Lilium brownii'' var. ''viridulum'']], known as 百合 (''pak hop''; {{zh|t=|p=bǎi hé|c=|s=|l=hundred united|cy=baak hap}}), is one of the most prominent edible lilies in [[China]]. Its bulbs are large in size and not bitter. They were even exported and sold in the [[Chinatown, San Francisco|San Francisco Chinatown]] in the 19th century, available both fresh and dry.{{sfnp|Blasdale|1899|p=21}} A landrace called 龍牙百合 ({{zh|t=|p=lóng yá bǎi hé|c=|s=|l=dragon-tooth lily|cy=}}) mainly cultivated in [[Hunan]] and [[Jiangxi]] is especially renowned for its good-quality bulbs.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.sohu.com/a/337250577_394947|title=【药材辨识】百合，你买对了吗？|author=陈辉|author2=张秋霞|date=2019-08-28|website=搜狐网|publisher=羊城晚报|language=zh|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213024342/http://www.sohu.com/a/337250577_394947|archive-date=2020-02-13|access-date=2020-01-17}}</ref>

''[[Lilium lancifolium|L. lancifolium]]'' ({{zh|t=卷丹|p=juǎn dān|c=|s=|l=reflexed red}}) is widely cultivated in China, especially in [[Yixing]], [[Huzhou]] and [[Longshan County|Longshan]]. Its bulbs are slightly bitter.<ref name=":0" />

[[Lilium davidii|''L. davidii'' var. ''unicolor'']] ({{zh|t=蘭州百合|p=|c=|s=|l=Lanzhou lily}}) is mainly cultivated in [[Lanzhou]] and its bulbs are valued for sweetness.<ref name=":0" />

Other edible Chinese lilies include [[Lilium brownii|''L. brownii'' var. ''brownii'']], [[Lilium davidii|''L. davidii'' var. ''davidii'']], ''[[Lilium concolor|L. concolor]]'', ''[[Lilium pensylvanicum|L. pensylvanicum]]'', ''[[Lilium distichum|L. distichum]]'', [[Lilium martagon|''L. martagon'' var. ''pilosiusculum'']], ''[[Lilium pumilum|L. pumilum]]'', ''[[Lilium rosthornii|L. rosthornii]]'' and [[Lilium speciosum|''L. speciosum'' var. ''gloriosoides'']].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.iplant.cn/info/Lilium?t=z|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211017163430/http://www.iplant.cn/info/Lilium?t=z|archive-date=October 17, 2021|title=百合属 Lilium|website=www.iplant.cn|access-date=2020-02-13}}</ref> Researchers have also explored the possibility of using ornamental cultivars as edible lilies.{{Refn|'Batistero' and 'California' among 15 lilies in Beijing,<ref>{{cite web|title=15个百合种和品种的食用性比较研究|url=http://cpfd.cnki.com.cn/Article/CPFDTOTAL-EGYP201310001119.htm|access-date=2014-05-28|archive-date=2014-05-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140529051253/http://cpfd.cnki.com.cn/Article/CPFDTOTAL-EGYP201310001119.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> and 'Prato' and 'Small foreigners' among 13 lilies in Ningbo.<ref>{{cite web|title=不同食用百合品种在宁波地区引种品比试验|url=http://www.nbnky.gov.cn/info.asp?id=5937|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201175455/http://www.nbnky.gov.cn/info.asp?id=5937|archive-date=2014-02-01}}</ref>}}

The dried bulbs are commonly used in the south to flavor soup.<ref>{{cite web |title=Dried Lily Bulbs |url=https://thewoksoflife.com |website=The Woks of Life |access-date= }}</ref> They may be reconstituted and stir-fried, grated and used to thicken soup, or processed to extract starch.<ref>{{cite web |title=Lily Bulbs Ingredient Overview |url=https://seriouseats.com |website=Serious Eats |access-date= }}</ref> Their texture and taste draw comparisons with the potato, although the individual bulb scales are much smaller.<ref>{{cite web |title=Plants for a Future: Lily Bulb Entry |url=https://pfaf.org |website=Plants for a Future |access-date= }}</ref>

The commonly marketed "lily" flower buds, called ''kam cham tsoi'' ({{Lang-zh|cy=gāmjām choi|c=金针菜|s=|t=|p=jīnzhēncài|l=gold needle vegetable}})<ref name="blasdale" /> in [[Chinese cuisine]], are actually from [[daylilies]], ''[[Hemerocallis citrina]]'',<ref>[http://frps.eflora.cn/frps/Hemerocallis%20citrina Hemerocallis citrina] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150711010703/http://frps.eflora.cn/frps/Hemerocallis%20citrina|date=2015-07-11}} Flora Republicae Popularis Sinicae</ref> or possibly ''[[Hemerocallis fulva|H. fulva]]''.{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|Blasdale cites Bretschneider (1889), but in Bretschneider (1875), "{{URL|1=https://books.google.com/books?id=QwXwHwwtnYYC&pg=PA123|2=Notes on Chinese Mediaeval Travellers to the West}}", p. 123, first gives the Chinese name for ''H. fulva'' as "kïm châm hōa" as according to [[João de Loureiro]], while he himself only recognized its name as "kin huang hua" {{lang|zh|金黃花}} or as {{zh|w=huang-hua ts'ai|t=[黃花菜]|l=yellow-flower vegetable|labels=no}} as they were called by Beijing merchants.}}<ref name="blasdale" /> Flowers of the ''[[Hemerocallis graminea|H. graminea]]'' and ''[[Lilium bulbiferum]]'' were reported to have been eaten as well, but samples provided by the informant were strictly daylilies and did not include ''L. bulbiferum''.{{efn|The informant, Pelham L. Warren, consul at Taiwan was presumably providing imports from China (main port [[Hankou]]) or Japan.}}<ref name="kew-misc1889" />

Lily flowers and bulbs are eaten especially in the summer, for their perceived ability to reduce internal heat.<ref>{{cite web|title=《按照传统既是食品又是中药材的物质目录(2013版)》(征求意见稿).doc |url=http://www.moh.gov.cn/ewebeditor/uploadfile/2013/07/20130712155225821.doc|access-date=2014-01-25|archive-date=2014-02-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222021756/http://www.moh.gov.cn/ewebeditor/uploadfile/2013/07/20130712155225821.doc|url-status=live}}</ref> A 19th century English source reported that "Lily flowers are also said to be efficacious in pulmonary affections, and to have tonic properties".<ref name=kew-misc1889>{{cite journal |title=Lily Flowers and Bulbs Used as Food |journal=Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information |publisher=Royal Gardens, Kew |volume=1889 |number=29 |pages=116–118 |year=1889 |doi=10.2307/4113224 |jstor=4113224 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/127028#page/121/mode/1up |access-date=2020-01-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160730131523/http://biodiversitylibrary.org/item/127028#page/121/mode/1up |archive-date=2016-07-30 |url-status=live|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Asiatic lily cultivars are also imported from the Netherlands; the seedling bulbs must be imported from the Netherlands every year.<ref>{{cite web|last=蔡|first=月夏|title=食用百合鱗莖有機栽培模式之建立|url=http://hdais.coa.gov.tw/htmlarea_file/web_articles/hdais/3149/1011220_2_4.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202102837/http://hdais.coa.gov.tw/htmlarea_file/web_articles/hdais/3149/1011220_2_4.pdf|archive-date=2014-02-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=首頁 / 為民服務 / 常見問題(FAQ)|url=http://hdais.coa.gov.tw/view.php?catid=3161 |website= Hualien District Agricultural Research and Extension Station | publisher= Council of Agriculture, Executive Yuan |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202102835/http://hdais.coa.gov.tw/view.php?catid=3161 |archive-date=2 February 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=首頁 / 最新消息 / 本場新聞 / 花蓮、宜蘭生產的有機食用百合深受消費者喜愛|url=http://hdais.coa.gov.tw/view.php?catid=3815 |website= Hualien District Agricultural Research and Extension Station | publisher= Council of Agriculture, Executive Yuan |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202102847/http://hdais.coa.gov.tw/view.php?catid=3815|archive-date=2 February 2014 }}</ref>

The parts of ''Lilium'' species which are officially listed as food material in Taiwan are the flower and bulbs of ''[[Lilium lancifolium]]'', [[Lilium brownii var. viridulum|''Lilium brownii'' var. ''viridulum'']], ''[[Lilium pumilum]]'' and ''[[Lilium candidum]]''.<ref>{{cite web|title=可供食品使用原料彙整一覽表|url=https://consumer.fda.gov.tw/Food/Material.aspx?nodeID=160 |website= [[Food and Drug Administration (Taiwan)|Food and Drug Administration]] |access-date=25 January 2014 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140126120155/https://consumer.fda.gov.tw/Food/Material.aspx?nodeID=160 |archive-date=26 January 2014 }}</ref>

===Japanese cuisine===
[[File:Yurine donburi.JPG|thumb|Loose scales of lily bulb in a [[donburi]] bowl dish]]
The lily bulb or ''yuri-ne'' is sometimes used in Japanese cuisine.{{efn|"not a common food" ({{interlanguage link|Shizuo Tsuji|ja|辻静雄}}).}}<ref name=tsuji/> It may be most familiar in the present day as an occasional {{nihongo|ingredient|具|gu}} in the [[chawanmushi|chawan-mushi]] (savoury egg custard),<ref name=takekawa&iizuka/> where a few loosened scales of this optional ingredient are found embedded in the "hot pudding" of each serving.<ref name=nipponia/>{{sfnp|Tsuji|2007|pp=214–215}} It could also be used as an ingredient in a clear soup or {{interlanguage link|suimono{{!}}''suimono''|ja|吸物}}.<ref name=kingsbury/><ref name=kawakami/>

The boiled bulb may also be [[sieve|strained]]{{efn|The term {{interlanguage link|uragoshi|ja|裏ごし}} "straining" orthodoxically means using the "uragoshi-ki", traditionally a sieve with a fine mesh of horse-hair instead of metal wire.}} into [[purée]] for use, as in the sweetened ''kinton'',{{sfnp|Tsuji|2007|pp=74; 460–461}}<ref name=nihon-shokuhin-jiten/> or ''chakin-shibori''.<ref name=nihon-shokuhin-jiten/><ref name=kosaki&wagner/>{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|These could refer to essentially the same thing, except for slight difference in texture and appearance. The ''yuri-kinton'' has been described as "ogura an (sweet [[adzuki bean]] paste) core surrounded with stipples (''soboro'') of strained lily bulb and white adzuki (''shiroazuki'' or ''shiroshōzu'').<ref name=moriyasu/> A recipe for lily bulb dumplings or ''chakin-shibori'' calls for wrapping adzuki bean paste with lily bulb mashed into [[purée]], then wrapping it in a cloth and wringing the dumpling into a ball shape.<ref name=kosaki&wagner/>}}

====Yokan====
There is also the ''yuri-[[yōkan]]'', one recipe of which calls for combining measures of yuri starch with [[agar]] dissolved in water and sugar.<ref>{{harvp|Shin shikunshi|1901}}, [https://dl.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/840167/73 pp. 133–135] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200210013631/https://dl.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/840167/73 |date=2020-02-10 }}; also excerpted in {{harvp|NSJ|1908}}. [https://books.google.com/books?id=30g4AQAAMAAJ&pg=PP2116 p. 2082b] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200901204944/https://books.google.com/books?id=30g4AQAAMAAJ&pg=PP2116 |date=2020-09-01 }}</ref> This was a specialty of [[Hamada, Shimane]],{{Refn|Allegedly the Hamada city version was 90% adulterated with white [Phaseolus vulgaris|bean] cultivar of called {{nihongo|Tebō|手亡}} (270 grams), to only 10% (30 grams) ground lily powder.<ref name=NDHZ-yuri/><ref name=moriyasu/> Elsewhere it is stated that ground lily dried powder {{nihongo|''kanko''|乾粉}} is far superior in quality to adzuki bean powder.{{sfnp|Shin shikunshi|1901|p=135}}}} and the shop {{nihongo|Kaisei-dō|開盛堂|}} established in 1885 became famous for it.<ref name=NDHZ-yuri/>{{sfnp|Moriyasu|1971|pp=34–35}} Because a certain Viscount Jimyōin wrote a [[Waka (poetry)|waka]] poem about the confection which mentioned ''hime-yuri'' "princess lily",{{efn|{{interlanguage link|Jimyōin Motoaki|ja|持明院基哲}} b. 1865 was a viscount and poet. So was his son Motonori.}} one source stated that the ''hime-yuri'' (usually taken to mean ''[[Lilium concolor|L. concolor]]'') had to have been used,<ref name=NDHZ-yuri/> but another source points out that the city of Hamada lies back to back with across a mountain range with [[Fuchu, Hiroshima]] which is renowned for its production of ''yama-yuri'' (''[[Lilium auratum|L. auratum]]'').<ref name=moriyasu/>{{Efn|group="lower-alpha"|And as discussed below, this yama-yuri was also called "hime-yuri" in earlier days.<ref name=dai-nihon-nokai/>}}

====Species used====

Current Japanese governmental sources ({{Circa|2005}}) list the following lily species as prominent in domestic consumption:{{Refn|Taira, Hirokazu et al. edd., (2006) ''Shokuhin zukan'', {{nihongo|[[Kagawa Nutrition University|KNU Publishing]] |女子栄養大学|Joshi Eiyō Daigaku}}. ''apud'' MAFF consumer bureau Q&A.<ref name=KNU-MAFF-Q&A/> Cf. KNU Prof. Gomyo's online encyclopedia.<ref name=KNU-gomyo />}}<ref>Ministry of Education (MEXT, 2005), {{interlanguage link|Standard Tables of Food Composition in Japan{{!}}''Standard Tables of Food Composition in Japan''|ja|日本食品標準成分表}}, 5th revised and expanded edition, {{URL|1=http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/shingi/gijyutu/gijyutu3/toushin/05031802/003/006.pdf |2=Appendix 1-6 to Chapter3}}</ref> the ''oni yuri'' or tiger lily ''[[Lilium lancifolium]]'', the ''kooni yuri'' [[Lilium leichtlinii var maximowiczii|''Lilium leichtlinii'' var. ''maximowiczii'']],{{efn|The {{nihongo|ko[[oni]] yuri|小鬼百合|extra="lesser ogre lily"}}.}} and the gold-banded white ''yama-yuri'' ''L. auratum''.

But Japanese sources c. 1895–1900,<ref name=dai-nihon-nokai/><ref>{{harvp|Shin shikunshi|1901}}, [https://dl.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/840167/73 p. 132] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200210013631/https://dl.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/840167/73 |date=2020-02-10 }}.</ref> give a top-three list which replaces ''kooni yuri'' with the {{nihongo|''sukashi-yuri''|透かし百合|extra=lit. "see-through lily", ''[[Lilium maculatum|L. maculatum]]''}} named from the gaps between the [[tepals]].<ref name=kojien-sukashiyuri/>{{Refn|This species was particularly sought after by high-end {{nihongo|kappo|割烹|}} restaurants, for braising it whole. {{harvp|Shin shikunshi|1901}}, [https://dl.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/840167/44 p. 75].}}

There is uncertainty regarding which species is meant by the ''hime-yuri'' used as food, because although this is usually the common name for ''[[Lilium concolor|L. concolor]]'' in most up-to-date literature,<ref name=WEP/> it used to ambiguously referred to the tiger lily as well, c. 1895–1900.<ref name=dai-nihon-nokai/> The non-tiger-lily ''himeyuri'' is certainly described as quite palatable in the literature at the time, but the extent of exploitation could not have been as significant.{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|That is, not in the top three of this period.<ref name=dai-nihon-nokai/>}}

===North America===
The flower buds and roots of ''[[Lilium columbianum]]'' are traditionally gathered and eaten by North American indigenous peoples.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.borealforest.org/world/herbs_shrubs/canada_lily.htm |title=Boreal Forest, Faculty of Natural Resources Management, Lakehead University, ''Lilium canadense'', Canada Lily |access-date=2017-08-19 |archive-date=2017-08-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170825192123/http://www.borealforest.org/world/herbs_shrubs/canada_lily.htm }}</ref> [[Coast Salish peoples|Coast Salish]], [[Nuu-chah-nulth]] and most western [[Washington (state)|Washington]] peoples steam, boil or pit-cook the bulbs of ''[[Lilium columbianum]]''. Bitter or peppery-tasting, they were mostly used as a flavoring, often in soup with meat or fish.<ref name="Pojar">{{cite book | last = Pojar | first = Jim | title = Plants of the Pacific Northwest Coast | publisher = Lone Pine Publishing | location = Edmonton | year = 2004 |isbn=978-1-55105-530-5}}</ref>

==Medicinal uses==
[[Traditional Chinese medicine]] list the use of the following: 野百合 ''[[Lilium brownii]]'', 百合 ''Lilium brownii'' var. ''viridulum'', 渥丹 ''[[Lilium concolor]]'', 毛百合 ''[[Lilium dauricum]]'', 卷丹 ''[[Lilium lancifolium]]'', 山丹 ''[[Lilium pumilum]]'', 南川百合 ''[[Lilium rosthornii]]'', 药百合''[[Lilium speciosum]]'' var. ''gloriosoides'', 淡黄花百合 ''[[Lilium sulphureum]]''.<ref>{{cite web|title=中国药用植物 (据《中国植物志》全书记载分析而得)|url=http://frps.eflora.cn/jingji/2?page=134|access-date=2014-01-25|archive-date=2014-02-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202103646/http://frps.eflora.cn/jingji/2?page=134|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=中国药用植物 (据《中国植物志》全书记载分析而得)|url=http://frps.eflora.cn/jingji/2?page=135|access-date=2014-01-25|archive-date=2014-02-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202103643/http://frps.eflora.cn/jingji/2?page=135|url-status=live}}</ref>

In Taiwan, governmental publications list ''[[Lilium lancifolium]]'' Thunb., [[Lilium brownii var. viridulum|''Lilium brownii'' var. ''viridulum'']] Baker, ''[[Lilium pumilum]]'' DC.<ref>[http://www.mohw.gov.tw/MOHW_Upload/doc/%E8%87%BA%E7%81%A3%E4%B8%AD%E8%97%A5%E5%85%B8%E7%AC%AC%E4%BA%8C%E7%89%88-%E9%9B%BB%E5%AD%90%E6%9B%B8%20%5B%20PDF%20%E6%AA%94%20%5D_0000454002.pdf Taiwan Herbal Pharmarcopeia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150128134249/http://www.mohw.gov.tw/MOHW_Upload/doc/%E8%87%BA%E7%81%A3%E4%B8%AD%E8%97%A5%E5%85%B8%E7%AC%AC%E4%BA%8C%E7%89%88-%E9%9B%BB%E5%AD%90%E6%9B%B8%20%5B%20PDF%20%E6%AA%94%20%5D_0000454002.pdf |date=2015-01-28 }} Ministry of Health and Welfare</ref>

In the ''[[kanpo|kanpō]]'' or Chinese medicine as practiced in Japan, the official Japanese governmental [[pharmacopeia]] {{nihongo|Nihon yakkyokuhō|日本薬局方}} includes the use of lily bulb (known as {{nihongo|''byakugō''|ビャクゴウ百合}} in traditional pharmacological circles), listing the use of the following species: ''[[Lilium lancifolium]]'', ''[[Lilium brownii]]'', [[Lilium brownii var. colchesteri|''Lilium brownii'' var. ''colchesteri'']], ''[[Lilium pumilum]]''<ref name=ja-pharmacopoeia-17ed>{{cite web |url=https://www.mhlw.go.jp/file/06-Seisakujouhou-11120000-Iyakushokuhinkyoku/JP17_REV_1.pdf |title=The Japanese Pharmacopoeia, 17th edition |script-title= |publisher=Japanese Ministry of Health |page=1906 |access-date=2020-01-13 |archive-date=2020-01-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200113082757/https://www.mhlw.go.jp/file/06-Seisakujouhou-11120000-Iyakushokuhinkyoku/JP17_REV_1.pdf }}; [http://www.mhlw.go.jp/topics/bukyoku/iyaku/yakkyoku/english.html index] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140723201211/http://www.mhlw.go.jp/topics/bukyoku/iyaku/yakkyoku/english.html |date=2014-07-23 }}</ref> The scales flaked off from the bulbs are used, usually steamed.<ref name=ja-pharmacopoeia-17ed/>

In South Korea, the lilium species which are officially listed for medicinal use are 참나리 ''[[Lilium lancifolium]]'' Thunberg; 당나리 [[Lilium brownii var. viridulum|''Lilium brownii'' var. ''viridulun'']] Baker.<ref>{{cite web|title=백합|url=http://www.mfds.go.kr/herbmed/index.do?nMenuCode=7&code=KHP-N131&includeUrl=/herbmed/view.jsp|access-date=2020-09-01|archive-date=2016-09-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160920053736/http://www.mfds.go.kr/herbmed/index.do?nMenuCode=7&code=KHP-N131&includeUrl=%2Fherbmed%2Fview.jsp|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Lilii Bulbus|url=http://www.mfds.go.kr/files/upload/herbmed/photo_data/KHP139.pdf|language=ko|access-date=2014-01-25|archive-date=2014-02-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203020028/http://www.mfds.go.kr/files/upload/herbmed/photo_data/KHP139.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

==In culture==
===Symbolism===
In the [[Victorian era|Victorian]] [[language of flowers]], lilies portray love, ardor, and affection for one's loved ones, while orange lilies stand for happiness, love, and warmth.<ref>{{Cite news |url= http://www.buzzle.com/articles/symbolism-of-the-lily.html |title= Symbolism of the Lily – The Flower That is a Part of History |newspaper= Buzzle |access-date= 2016-11-26 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20161126194300/http://www.buzzle.com/articles/symbolism-of-the-lily.html |archive-date= 2016-11-26 |url-status= usurped }}</ref>

White lilies have been used since the [[Romanticism|Romantic era]] of [[Japanese literature]] to symbolize beauty and purity in women, and are a ''de facto'' symbol of the [[Yuri (genre)|''yuri'' genre]] ({{Nihongo|''yuri''|百合}} translates literally to "lily"),<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Maser |first=Verena |title=Beautiful and Innocent: Female Same-Sex Intimacy in the Japanese Yuri Genre |date=2014-08-31 |degree=PhD |publisher=Universität Trier |url=https://ubt.opus.hbz-nrw.de/frontdoor/index/index/docId/695 |doi=10.25353/ubtr-xxxx-db7c-6ffc |pages=3–4 |access-date=2022-12-17 |archive-date=2018-11-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181102234925/https://ubt.opus.hbz-nrw.de/frontdoor/index/index/docId/695 |url-status=live }}</ref> which describes the portrayal of intimate love, sex, or emotional connections between women. The term {{nihongo|''Yurizoku''|百合族||{{lit}} "lily tribe"}} was coined in 1976 by [[Ito Bungaku]], editor of the gay men's magazine ''Barazoku'' (see above), to refer to his female readers.<ref name="heya-1">{{cite journal |date=November 1976 |title=Yurizoku no Heya |journal=Barazoku |pages=66–70 |language=ja}}</ref><ref name="WhatIsYuri">{{cite web |title=What is Yuri? |url=https://www.yuricon.com/what-is-yuricon/#whatisyuri |website=[[Yuricon]] |date=28 March 2011 |access-date=January 11, 2021 |archive-date=November 11, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111233755/https://www.yuricon.com/what-is-yuricon/#whatisyuri |url-status=live }}</ref> While not all those women were lesbians, and it is unclear whether this was the first instance of the term ''yuri'' in this context, an association of ''yuri'' with lesbianism subsequently developed.<ref>{{cite book|last=Welker|first=James |title=AsiaPacifQueer: Rethinking Genders and Sexualities|editor=Fran Martin |editor2=Peter Jackson |editor3=Audrey Yue|publisher=University of Illinois Press|year=2008|pages=46–66|chapter=Lilies of the Margin: Beautiful Boys and Queer Female Identities in Japan|isbn=978-0-252-07507-0}}</ref> In [[Korea]] and [[China]], "lily" is used as a [[semantic loan]] from the Japanese usage to describe female-female romance media, where each use the direct translation of the term – ''baekhap'' (백합) in Korea<ref>{{cite web | url=https://moneyfocus.tistory.com/290 | title=Gl/백합 만화 추천 10작품 | date=15 February 2021 | access-date=27 August 2022 | archive-date=6 April 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406185611/https://moneyfocus.tistory.com/290 | url-status=live }}</ref> and ''bǎihé'' (百合) in China.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.elle.com/tw/life/culture/g27068855/lesbian-japan-yuriten2019/ | title=這畫面太美我不敢看！女女戀不是禁忌，日本「百合展」呈現女孩間的真實愛戀！ | date=8 April 2019 | access-date=27 August 2022 | archive-date=8 April 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408071411/https://www.elle.com/tw/life/culture/g27068855/lesbian-japan-yuriten2019/ | url-status=live }}</ref>

Lilies are the flowers most commonly used at funerals, where they symbolically signify that the soul of the deceased has been restored to the state of innocence.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.teleflora.com/meaning-of-flowers/lily |title=Meaning & Symbolism of Lilies |access-date=2018-04-06 |archive-date=2018-04-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180406230715/https://www.teleflora.com/meaning-of-flowers/lily }}</ref>

[[File:12.09 副總統出席「『族語推動有成』成果展開幕式」 (49190829033).jpg|thumb|A Rukai lady adorned with Formosan lilies at a function in Taiwan]]''[[Lilium formosanum]]'', or Taiwanese lily, is called "the flower of broken bowl" ({{zh|t=打碗花}}) by the elderly members of the [[Hakka]] ethnic group. They believe that because this lily grows near bodies of clean water, harming the lily may damage the environment, just like breaking the bowls that people rely on.<ref name="生態指標">{{cite web |publisher=自由電子報 |script-title= zh:魯凱六角星，原民聖花客庄打碗花，生態指標 |url= http://www.libertytimes.com.tw/2010/new/jul/19/today-north7-2.htm |author= Liberty Times |date=2015 |language=zh |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131202232908/http://www.libertytimes.com.tw/2010/new/jul/19/today-north7-2.htm |archive-date=2013-12-02 }}</ref> A different viewpoint proposes that parents discourage kids from picking lilies by informing them of the possible repercussions, like their dinner bowls breaking if they harm the flower. The [[Taiwanese indigenous peoples|indigenous]] [[Rukai people]] who call this same species ''bariangalay'' consider it as a symbol of bravery and perseverance.<ref>{{cite book|title=Lawbubulu: 魯凱的珍寶|year=2023|trans-title=Lawbubulu: Treasures of the Rukai|pages=62–3|language=zh, en, dru|author=李子寧|publisher=[[National Taiwan Museum]]|isbn=978-986-532-817-7}}</ref>

In Western Christianity, Madonna lily or ''[[Lilium candidum]]'' has been associated with the [[Virgin Mary]] since at least the Medieval Era. Medieval and Renaissance depictions of the Virgin Mary, especially at the [[Annunciation]], often show her with these flowers. Madonna lilies are also commonly included in depictions of [[Resurrection of Jesus|Christ's resurrection]]. ''[[Lilium longiflorum]]'', the Easter lily, is a symbol of Easter, and ''[[Lilium candidum]]'', the Madonna lily, carries a great deal of symbolic value in many cultures. See the articles for more information.

In Ancient [[Minoan civilization|Minoan Crete]] and [[Cycladic culture|Cyclades]] cultures, lilies are depicted associated with an unknown religious meaning. The crown from the [[Prince of the Lilies|"Priest-King" fresco]] at Knossos is covered with [[Lilium candidum|white lilies]] while a depiction of a shrine in the Xesté 3 house [[Akrotiri (prehistoric city)|Akrotiri]] is covered in [[Lilium chalcedonicum|red lilies]].<ref>Nugent, M. (2008). Seasonal Flux - Three Flowers for Three Seasons: Seasonal Ritual at Akrotiri. Iris (Journal of the Classical Association of Victoria), 21, 6–7. https://classicsvic.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/nugentvol21.pdf</ref>

===Heraldry===
''[[Lilium bulbiferum]]'' has long been recognised as a symbol of the [[Orange Order]] in [[Northern Ireland]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://designresearchgroup.wordpress.com/2007/06/27/a-kinder-gentler-image-modernism-tradition-and-the-orange-order-redesign/ |title=A kinder gentler image? Modernism, Tradition and the new Orange Order logo. Reinventing the Orange Order: A superhero for the 21st century |author=Design Research Group |date=27 June 2007 |access-date=17 September 2016 |archive-date=3 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503041333/https://designresearchgroup.wordpress.com/2007/06/27/a-kinder-gentler-image-modernism-tradition-and-the-orange-order-redesign/ }}</ref>

''[[Lilium mackliniae]]'' is the state flower of [[Manipur]]. ''[[Lilium michauxii]]'', the Carolina lily, is the official state flower of [[North Carolina]]. [[Idyllwild, California]], hosts the Lemon Lily Festival, which celebrates ''[[Lilium parryi]]''.<ref name=fest>[http://www.lemonlilyfestival.com/index.html Lemon Lily Festival] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100726023005/http://www.lemonlilyfestival.com/index.html |date=2010-07-26 }}</ref> ''[[Lilium philadelphicum]]'' is the floral emblem of [[Saskatchewan]] province in Canada, and is on the [[flag of Saskatchewan]].<ref name=SKGH>{{cite web|title=Government House Gardens Showcase Western Red Lily |url=http://www.gov.sk.ca/news?newsId=864f93b3-c3ac-4043-92ed-a2e87bea2507 |publisher=Government of Saskatchewan |date=2005-07-21 |access-date=2008-07-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611012230/http://www.gov.sk.ca/news?newsId=864f93b3-c3ac-4043-92ed-a2e87bea2507 |archive-date=2011-06-11 }}</ref><ref name = "OPS">{{cite web |title=Saskatchewan's Provincial Flower |url=http://www.ops.gov.sk.ca/Default.aspx?DN=4265786e-9990-4a67-8dec-67cb3cc96849 |publisher=Government of Saskatchewan |access-date=2008-07-09 |archive-date=2011-07-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728070111/http://www.ops.gov.sk.ca/Default.aspx?DN=4265786e-9990-4a67-8dec-67cb3cc96849 }}, designated in 1941.</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Saskatchewan |publisher=Government of Canada |date=2013-08-20 |url=http://www.pch.gc.ca/eng/1363290315306 |access-date=2015-07-18 |archive-date=2015-07-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150721175749/http://www.pch.gc.ca/eng/1363290315306 }}</ref>

===Other plants referred to as lilies===
[[Lily of the valley]], [[Gloriosa (plant)|flame lilies]], [[daylilies]], [[Nymphaeaceae#Symbolism|water lilies]] and [[Spider lily|spider lilies]] are symbolically important flowers commonly referred to as lilies, but they are not in the genus ''Lilium''.

==See also==
* [[Lily seed germination types]]
* [[List of plants known as lily]]

==Explanatory notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
;Citations
{{Reflist|30em|refs=
<ref name=blasdale>{{cite book |last=Blasdale |first=Walter Charles |author-link= |title=A Description of Some Chinese Vegetable Food Materials and Their Nutritive and Economic Value |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |year=1899 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GjJJAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA19 |page=44 |access-date=2020-01-13 |archive-date=2020-09-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200901204920/https://books.google.com/books?id=GjJJAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA19 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name=dai-nihon-nokai>{{cite book |author=Dai Nihon Nōkai |author-link=:ja:大日本農会 |title=Useful Plants of Japan Described and Illustrated |publisher=Agricultural Society of Japan |year=1895 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g9dBAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA27 |page=27 |access-date=2020-01-16 |archive-date=2020-09-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200901204921/https://books.google.com/books?id=g9dBAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA27 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name=kawakami>{{cite book |last=Kawakami |first=Kōzō |author-link=:ja:川上行蔵 |title=Nihon ryōri jibutsu kigen |script-title=ja:日本料理事物起源 |publisher=[[Iwanami Shoten]] |year=2006 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IHgxAQAAIAAJ |pages=46–47 |series= |isbn=978-4-000-24240-0 |access-date=2020-01-16 |archive-date=2020-09-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200901204949/https://books.google.com/books?id=IHgxAQAAIAAJ&q= |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name=kingsbury>{{cite book |last=Kingsbury |first=Noel |author-link=Noel Kingsbury |title=Garden Flora: The Natural and Cultural History of the Plants In Your Garden |publisher=[[Timber Press]] |year=2016 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XSUADQAAQBAJ&pg=PA195 |page=195 |isbn=978-1-604-69565-6 |access-date=2020-01-16 |archive-date=2020-09-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200901204952/https://books.google.com/books?id=XSUADQAAQBAJ&pg=PA195 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name=KNU-gomyo>{{cite web|last=Gomyō |first=Toshiharu |author-link=:ja:五明紀春 |title=yuri-ne (lily bulb) |script-title=ja:ユリネ (百合根)|url=http://co-4gun.eiyo.ac.jp/food%20database/3gun/foods-dic-3-yurine.html|work= Shokuzai hyakka jiten, an encyclopedia of food ingredients |publisher=[[Kagawa Nutrition University]] |date=February 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304025449/http://co-4gun.eiyo.ac.jp/food%20database/3gun/foods-dic-3-yurine.html |archive-date=2016-03-04}}</ref>

<ref name=KNU-MAFF-Q&A>{{cite web|author=Food Safety and Consumer Affairs Bureau, MAFF |author-link=Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (Japan) |title=(Q&A) Shokuyō ni suru yurine ni tsuite oshiete kudasai |script-title=ja:食用にするユリネ（ゆり根）について教えてください |url=http://www.maff.go.jp/j/heya/sodan/0712/04.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130307004602/http://www.maff.go.jp/j/heya/sodan/0712/04.html |archive-date=2013-03-07}}, citing KNU Publishing Department, ''Shokuhin zukan''</ref>

<ref name=kojien-sukashiyuri>"[https://books.google.com/books?id=8rAPAAAAYAAJ&q=%20すかし%20+%20花被片%20 Sukashi-yuri すかし‐ゆり【透かし百合】・]", ''[[Kojien]]'', 4th ed., 1991. "下半各花被片の間に空隙があるところから命名。"</ref>

<ref name=kosaki&wagner>{{cite book |last1=Kosaki |first1=Takayuki |author-link= |last2=Wagner |first2=Walter |author-link2= |title=Authentic Recipes from Japan |year=2007 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TjfRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT269　 |page=108 |publisher=Tuttle |isbn=978-1-4629-0572-0 |access-date=2020-09-01 |archive-date=2020-09-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200901205001/https://books.google.com/books?id=TjfRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT269%E3%80%80 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name=moriyasu>{{cite book |last=Moriyasu |first=Tadashi |author-link= |title=Nihon meika jiten |script-title=ja:日本名菓辞典 |publisher=Tokyodo Shuppan |year=1971 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pmg9AQAAIAAJ&q=%20百合きんとん%20 |page=378 |access-date=2020-09-01 |archive-date=2020-09-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200901204926/https://books.google.com/books?id=Pmg9AQAAIAAJ&q=+%E7%99%BE%E5%90%88%E3%81%8D%E3%82%93%E3%81%A8%E3%82%93+ |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name=nihon-shokuhin-jiten>{{cite book |last=Inoue |first=Yoshiyuki (supervising ed.) |author-link= |others=Ono, Seishi; Sugita, Kōichi; Mori, Masao (edd.) |title=yuri-ne ゆり根 |work=Nihon shokuhin jiten |script-title=ja:日本食品事典 |publisher=Ishiyaku Shuppan |year=1969 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GdUZAAAAMAAJ&q=%20ゆり根%20 |pages=307–308 |access-date=2020-09-01 |archive-date=2020-09-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200901204926/https://books.google.com/books?id=GdUZAAAAMAAJ&q=+%E3%82%86%E3%82%8A%E6%A0%B9+ |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name=nipponia>{{cite journal |last= |title=Bon Appetit! Japanese Culture in the Kitchen / A Hot 'pudding', Japanese-Style Chawan-mushi |journal=Nipponia |number=15 |year=2000 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SR8OAQAAMAAJ&q=%22lily+bulb+%22+%22chawan-mushi%22 |page=30 |publisher=Heibonsha |access-date=2020-01-16 |archive-date=2020-09-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200901204950/https://books.google.com/books?id=SR8OAQAAMAAJ&q=%22lily+bulb+%22+%22chawan-mushi%22 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name=NDHZ-yuri>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Sawa |first=Fumio |author-link= |title=Yuri |script-title=ja:百合ゆり |encyclopedia=Nihon Dai-hyakka zensho  |volume=23 |publisher=[[Shogakukan]] |year=1994 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=82YxAQAAIAAJ&q=%20ヒメユリ%20 |page=436 |isbn=978-4-09-526001-3 |access-date=2020-09-01 |archive-date=2020-09-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200901204948/https://books.google.com/books?hl=ja&id=82YxAQAAIAAJ&q=+%E3%83%92%E3%83%A1%E3%83%A6%E3%83%AA+ |url-status=live }}; also [https://kotobank.jp/word/%E7%99%BE%E5%90%88%E7%BE%8A%E7%BE%B9-1603878 Yuri-yokan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200901204927/https://kotobank.jp/word/%E7%99%BE%E5%90%88%E7%BE%8A%E7%BE%B9-1603878 |date=2020-09-01 }} via kotobank.</ref>

<ref name=takekawa&iizuka>{{cite book |editor-last=Takekawa |editor-first=Masae |editor-link= |editor-last2=Iizuka |editor-first2=Keiko |editor-link2= |title=Saishin oishii yasai hyaku shu no jōzu na sodate-kata |script-title=ja:最新おいしい野菜１００種のじょうずな育て方 |publisher=[[:ja:主婦の友社|Shufunotomo]] |year=2016 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yr0PDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA146 |page=146 |isbn= 978-4-07-414500-3|access-date=2020-01-16 |archive-date=2020-09-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200901205000/https://books.google.com/books?id=yr0PDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA146 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name=tsuji>{{cite book |last=Tsuji |first=Shizuo |author-link=:ja:辻静雄 |title=Japanese Cooking: A Simple Art |publisher=[[Kodansha International]] |year=2007 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fby2Er0seMMC&pg=PA74 |page=74 |isbn=978-4-770-03049-8 |access-date=2020-01-16 |archive-date=2020-09-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200901204930/https://books.google.com/books?id=fby2Er0seMMC&pg=PA74 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name=WEP>{{cite book |last1=Wiersema |first1=John H. |author-link= |last2=León |first2=Blanca |author-link2= |title=World Economic Plants: A Standard Reference |publisher=CRC Press |year=1999 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AIrNBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA404 |pages=404–405 |isbn=978-0-849-32119-1 |access-date=2020-01-16 |archive-date=2020-09-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200901204930/https://books.google.com/books?id=AIrNBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA404 |url-status=live }}</ref>
}}

;Bibliography

{{refbegin}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Gao|first1=Yun-Dong|last2=Hohenegger|first2=Markus|last3=Harris|first3=AJ|last4=Zhou|first4=Song-Dong|last5=He|first5=Xing-Jin|last6=Wan|first6=Juan|title=A new species in the genus ''Nomocharis'' Franchet (Liliaceae): evidence that brings the genus ''Nomocharis'' into ''Lilium''|journal=Plant Systematics and Evolution|volume=298|issue=1|year=2012|pages=69–85|issn=0378-2697|doi=10.1007/s00606-011-0524-1|bibcode=2012PSyEv.298...69G |s2cid=16912824|ref={{harvid|Gao et al|2011}}}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Rønsted|first1=N. |first2=S.|last2=Law |first3=H. |last3=Thornton |first4=M. F. |last4=Fay |first5=M. W. |last5=Chase|title=Molecular phylogenetic evidence for the monophyly of ''Fritillaria'' and ''Lilium'' (Liliaceae; Liliales) and the infrageneric classification of ''Fritillaria''|journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|year=2005|volume=35|pages=509–527|pmid=15878122|doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2004.12.023|issue=3|bibcode=2005MolPE..35..509R |ref={{harvid|Rønsted et al|2005}}}}
* {{Citation |contribution=Nomocharis |title=World Checklist of Selected Plant Families |publisher=[[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]] |contribution-url=https://apps.kew.org/wcsp/qsearch.do?plantName=Nomocharis |ref={{harvid|WCLSPF|2014}} |title-link=World Checklist of Selected Plant Families |access-date=2015-09-14 |archive-date=2020-09-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200901205004/https://wcsp.science.kew.org/prepareChecklist.do;jsessionid=552917A8422F2BF0C6A93BCC00DF33CF.kppapp05-wcsp?checklist=selected_families%40%40245010920202150008 |url-status=live }}
* "yuri ユリ", in {{cite dictionary |ref={{SfnRef|NSJ|1908}} |title=Nihon shakai jii |script-title=ja:日本社會事彙 |volume=2 |publisher=[[:ja:経済雑誌社|Keizai zasshi-sha]] |year=1908 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=30g4AQAAMAAJ&pg=PP2116 |pages=2077–2083 |lang=ja |access-date=2020-01-16 |archive-date=2020-09-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200901204935/https://books.google.com/books?id=30g4AQAAMAAJ&pg=PP2116 |url-status=live }}, digested from ''Shin shikunshi''.
** Seika-en Sanjin 精花園山人 "Hana-yuri 花百合", in {{citation |ref={{SfnRef|Shin shikunshi|1901}} |author=Shōkadō Shujin  |author-link= |title=Shin shikunshi |script-title=ja:新四君子 |publisher=Tokyo Mita Ikushujyo |year=1901 |url=https://dl.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/840167/73 |pages=63–140 |language=ja |access-date=2020-01-16 |archive-date=2020-02-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200210013631/https://dl.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/840167/73 }}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
{{Wikiquote|Lilies}}
{{Commons}}
{{Wikispecies}}
* [http://www.theplantlist.org/1.1/browse/A/Liliaceae/Lilium/ The Plant List]
* [https://www.lilies.org/ North American Lily Society]
* [https://rhslilygroup.org/ Royal Horticultural Society Lily Group]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tb4UFJ_zd_o 1] [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBzFX7kiYrA 2] [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AQNPHFi5HCw 3] Time-lapse videos
* [http://www.the-genus-lilium.com/ THE GENUS LILIUM]
* {{EOL}}
* [https://hort.cornell.edu/bulb/landscape/lily_peren/index.htm Lily perenialization, Flower Bulb Research Program, Department of Horticulture, Cornell University]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130605062624/http://www.liliumbreeding.nl/polygon.htm Crossing polygon of the genus Lilium].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121020060601/http://www.bulbsonline.org/ibc-jsp/en/education/beroepsonderwijs/introduction/Lilies.xml Bulb flower production; Lilies, International Flower Bulb Centre]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140203154952/http://www.bulbsonline.org/ibc-jsp/en/education/beroepsonderwijs/photos/Lily-book.xml Lily Picture Book, International Flower Bulb Centre]

===Flora===
* [http://rbg-web2.rbge.org.uk/cgi-bin/nph-readbtree.pl/feout?FAMILY_XREF=&GENUS_XREF=Lilium&SPECIES_XREF=&TAXON_NAME_XREF=&RANK= Flora Europaea: ''Lilium'']
* [http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=118558 Flora of China: ''Lilium'']
* [http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=110&taxon_id=118558 Flora of Nepal: ''Lilium'' species list]
* [http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=118558 Flora of North America: ''Lilium'']

{{Taxonbar|from=Q5194627}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Lilium| ]]
[[Category:Bulbous plants]]
[[Category:Garden plants]]
[[Category:Liliaceae genera]]
[[Category:Root vegetables]]
[[Category:Botanical taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]

Sandra Samuel

2026-03-10T07:43:38Z

IgnacioElem3:

{{short description|Indian nanny}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
{{infobox person
|name = Sandra Samuel
|image = Sandra Samul in Nariman House.jpg
|caption = Sandra Samuel sits for an interview in [[Nariman House]] in 2018
|known_for = Saving Moshe Holtzberg from [[Nariman House]] during the [[2008 Mumbai attacks|2008 Mumbai terrorist attacks]]

}}
'''Sandra Samuel''' (born {{circa|1964}}) is an Indian [[nanny]] who gained international recognition for rescuing a two-year-old [[Jews|Jewish]] boy named Moshe Holtzberg in [[Mumbai]], [[India]], during the [[2008 Mumbai attacks|2008 Mumbai terrorist attacks]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Nanny credited with tot's daring rescue - CNN.com|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/12/02/moshe.mumbai/index.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206052006/http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/12/02/moshe.mumbai/index.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=6 December 2008|access-date=2021-07-14|website=CNN}}</ref> Samuel was employed as a caretaker at a [[Chabad house|Jewish outreach centre]] known as the [[Nariman House]], which was targeted by [[Lashkar-e-Taiba]] (LeT). Both of Holtzberg's parents were killed by LeT terrorist murderers during the attack on the building.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Esther Crispe|first=Sara|date=30 November 2008|title=Sandra Samuel: A Heroine in Mumbai|url=https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/775350/jewish/Sandra-Samuel-A-Heroine-in-Mumbai.htm|access-date=14 July 2021|website=[[Chabad.org]]}}</ref> Following the incident, Samuel relocated to [[Israel]] with Holtzberg and was accorded permanent residency and honorary [[Israeli citizenship law|Israeli citizenship]] in 2010.<ref>{{Cite web|agency=PTI|date=Nov 26, 2018|title=Moshe's nanny: Sandra Samuels wants 26/11 'scars' wiped from Nariman House - Remembering Mumbai Terror attacks|url=https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/26-11-lest-we-forget/moshes-nanny-sandra-samuel-wants-26/11-scars-wiped-from-nariman-house/articleshow/66803387.cms|access-date=2021-07-14|website=Mumbai Mirror|language=en}}</ref> Samuel resides in [[West Jerusalem]] and works at the local centre of [[ALEH]], an Israeli foundation that provides rehabilitation services for [[Disability|disabled]] children and adults.<ref>{{cite news|last=Oster|first=Marcy|title=Decade after Mumbai massacre, murdered Chabad couple's son flourishes in Israel|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/decade-after-mumbai-massacre-murdered-chabad-couples-son-flourishes-in-israel/|access-date=2021-07-14|website=[[The Times of Israel]]|language=en-US |issn=0040-7909}}</ref>

==Background==
Samuel had been living in the [[Nariman House|Mumbai Chabad House]] and working for Rabbi [[Gavriel Holtzberg]] and his wife, [[Rivka Holtzberg|Rivka]], since 2003. The Holtzbergs were the [[Israel]]-born directors of the house run by the global [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox Jewish]] [[Chabad]] movement. Samuel had been the nanny caring for the Holtzbergs' son Moshe since his birth.<ref>[http://www.nydailynews.com/news/us_world/2008/12/04/2008-12-04_inside_hero_nannys_dash_to_save_young_bo.html Inside hero nanny's dash to save young boy during Mumbai massacre] by Aimee Ginsburg, New York Daily News, 5 December 2008.</ref> Samuel stated that she called them "my rabbi" and "my Rivki." When she started working there in 2003, it was expected to be a temporary job but she stated that she was "so captivated by their generous, courageous spirits" that she stayed on. When Moshe was born, she took the role of nanny.<ref>[http://www.foxnews.com/wires/2008Dec08/0,4670,MLMumbaiOrphanapossNanny,00.html Nanny moves to Israel with boy orphaned in Mumbai] by Amy Teibel, Associated Press (reprinted by the Fox News), 8 December 2008.</ref>

In June 2008, her husband, John, a [[Syrian Malabar Nasrani|Keralite]] who worked as a mechanic, died suddenly in his sleep of an undiagnosed illness. She has two sons, Martin and Jackson, who were aged 18 and 25 at the time of the attack. She is a Christian. Samuel's family was originally from [[Goa]] but she lived most of her life in Mumbai.<ref>"[http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,25197,24776746-2703,00.html Israel welcomes selfless Mumbai nanny Sandra Samuel] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081212165756/http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,25197,24776746-2703,00.html |date=12 December 2008 }}". ''The Australian''. 10 December 2008.</ref><ref>[https://www.thestar.com/printArticle/550578 Nanny recalls rescue of Jewish toddler] by Amy Teibel, [[Associated Press]] (reprinted by the [[Toronto Star]]), 9 December 2008.</ref><ref>[http://news.rediff.com/slide-show/2009/nov/23/slide-show-1-anniversary-26-11-exclusive-encounter-with-sandra-samuel.htm Sandra Samuel one year after 26/11: 'I could have saved the mother'] by Vaihayasi P Daniel, Rediff.com, 23 November 2009.</ref>

==Attack on the Nariman House==
On 26 November 2008, as the [[November 2008 Mumbai terrorist attacks|Mumbai attacks]] began, [[Nariman House#2008 Mumbai Attacks|a group of attackers entered the Chabad house]] and began shooting at everyone inside. Samuel heard gunshots and locked herself in a laundry room as she heard Rivka screaming. Later, she heard Moshe calling out her name and crying. After emerging from the room and running upstairs, she found Gavriel and Rivka motionless and covered in blood with Moshe crying beside them, his pants drenched in blood. With the attackers still inside, Samuel said she grabbed Moshe and ran from the building along with Qazi Zakir Hussain, an employee of Nariman House.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.financialexpress.com/india-news/baby-moshes-braveheart-cook-in-mumbai-has-this-big-fear-now-finds-solace-in-watching-boy-on-tv/1021403/|title=Baby Moshe's braveheart cook in Mumbai has this big fear; now finds solace in watching boy on TV|date=19 January 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theyeshivaworld.com/news/general/41814/indian-cook-who-saved-moshe-holtzberg-speaks-with-press.html|title=Indian Cook WHo Saved Moshe Holtzberg Speaks with Press|date=9 November 2009}}</ref> Later, when Indian commando teams stormed the house, it was confirmed that Gavriel and Rivka were among the 173 people killed in the attacks, and that Moshe was now an orphan.<ref name=Sandra1>[http://www.canadaeast.com/rss/article/498264 Young orphan of slain rabbi, wife arrives in Israel after Mumbai nightmare] by [[Mark Lavie]], Associated Press (reprinted by ''CanadaEast''), 1 December 2008.</ref>

==After the attack==
The [[Chabad movement]]'s leaders decided Moshe should not stay in [[India]] and that he would be relocated to [[Israel]] where he has family. However, the movement insisted that Samuel be allowed to come with him, because, as a Chabad spokesperson stated: "At this point she's the only one the boy is responding to."<ref>[http://news.indiainfo.com/2008/12/01/0812011439_terror-nanny.html Israeli immigration permit to Indian nanny] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110617035245/http://news.indiainfo.com/2008/12/01/0812011439_terror-nanny.html |date=17 June 2011 }}, Indiainfo.com, 1 December 2008.</ref> Although Samuel had no [[passport]], Moshe's grand uncle, Rabbi [[Yitzchak Dovid Grossman]], helped arrange for her to get a [[Visa (document)|visa]] to come to Israel with Holtzberg to help him start his new life. The Israeli government under [[Foreign Affairs Minister of Israel|Foreign Minister]] [[Tzipi Livni]] granted Samuel a special visa offering immigration status. They left India for Israel shortly after attending Moshe's parents' funeral.<ref name=Sandra1/><ref>[http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3630653,00.html Chabad: Allow Indian nanny to immigrate to Israel], [[Ynet]] News, 30 November 2008.</ref>

On 4 December 2008, Samuel gave an interview with [[CNN]] in which she said she sees no heroism in her actions and that she wishes she could have been able to help more people, especially Moshe's parents. She stated that she continued to have nightmares of the attacks. Samuel told an interviewer, "They said it is important I am here [in Israel]. Me, I just take care of the baby." When asked about her plans for the future, Samuel said she would stay in Israel for as long as Moshe needs her.<ref name=CNN>[http://www.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/12/04/nanny.mumbai.interview/index.html In her own words, nanny's brave escape in Mumbai], CNN, 4 December 2008.</ref> She stated that "No one knows how much Moshe saw, or how much he knows. His back is bruised where terrorists hit him. Now I want to see that this baby who has been given in my care, he grows big, brave like his [dad]."<ref>[http://wcbstv.com/local/mumbai.moshe.holtzberg.2.880923.html Nanny Saves Jewish Toddler From Mumbai Attacks]{{dead link|date=May 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} by Kristine Johnson, Wcbstv.com, 6 December 2008.</ref> Samuel says she wants to be with Moshe until he "grows big" and that "By God's grace I hope I am there to see it. That's it. All my blessings to my Moshe baby."<ref>[http://www.newkerala.com/topstory-fullnews-57175.html Nanny of Israeli boy recalls horror of Mumbai terror attack], Newkerala.com, 6 December 2008.</ref>

Samuel later revealed that she was not supposed to be at the Chabad house that evening because she usually visited one of her sons on Wednesday evenings. She stated that "God kept me there because God already knew what would happen."<ref name=Orphansafe>{{cite news |url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/world/news/article.cfm?c_id=2&objectid=10547662 |title=Orphan safe in arms of nanny rescuer after Mumbai attacks |author=Lynfield, Ben |date=12 December 2008 |agency=[[The Independent]] |work=[[The New Zealand Herald]] |accessdate=7 November 2011}}</ref>

In a subsequent interview, Samuel stated that Moshe Holtzberg is happy again, and that he "is like a normal kid, just enjoying himself. He has gotten used to other people surrounding him. He loves it here. He is in very good condition, just like normal. He is having his breakfast, lunch and snacks and he sleeps very well now." She added that he no longer cries out for his parents: "He is not even asking for them now because he is too happy. He loves it here. He has swings, a garden, a see-saw."<ref name=Orphansafe/>

Samuel and Holtzberg initially stayed with Rabbi Grossman after arriving in Israel. However, they later moved to [[Afula]] to live with his maternal grandparents.<ref name=Orphansafe/>

In early December 2008, fifth-graders at Solomon Schecter Day School in [[Jericho, New York]], wrote individual letters to Samuel to thank her for saving Holtzberg's life. The students cited Samuel's heroism based on the Jewish tradition that "one who saves one person is like one who saves the whole world."<ref>[http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3637426,00.html New York students thank Indian nanny for saving Chabad orphan], [[Ynet]] News, 12 December 2008.</ref><ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V6UAYE8gQz8 5th Graders thank Sandra Samuel, Mumbai Heroine], Youtube.com.</ref><ref>[http://www.indianexpress.com/news/fifth-graders-thank-moshes-nanny-sandra/397616/ Fifth graders thank Moshe's nanny Sandra], Indianexpress.com, 12 December 2008.</ref>

==Awards==

===Esfira Maiman Women Rescuers Medal===
On 30 November 2008, the [[International Raoul Wallenberg Foundation]], at a special session, unanimously voted to grant Sandra Samuel the Esfira Maiman Women Rescuers Medal in recognition of her bravery. The foundation stated that "Sandra has taught us two lessons of cardinal importance. The first one is that human solidarity is agnostic to race and religion. The second lesson, not less important, is that rescuers are still very much relevant nowadays, as they were more than six decades ago."<ref>[http://www.raoulwallenberg.net/?en/news/international-raoul-wallenberg.5242.htm The International Raoul Wallenberg Foundation to honor Mumbai rescuer]{{dead link|date=May 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, [[International Raoul Wallenberg Foundation]], 2 December 2008.</ref>

===Citizenship===
Samuel was awarded permanent resident status and honorary Israeli citizenship on 13 September 2010.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C04E3DA123BF937A2575AC0A9669D8B63|title=Boy's Rescuer Is Granted Honorary Citizenship|agency=[[Associated Press]]|date=14 September 2010 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=30 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="TET"/>

=== Righteous Among the Nations ===
Samuel was honored by the [[government of Israel]] with the title of ''[[Righteous among the Nations]]'', the highest award given to non-jews.<ref name="TET">{{cite web|title=Moshe Holtzberg: The Israeli boy who survived 2008 Mumbai attack| url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/moshe-holtzberg-the-israeli-boy-who-survived-2008-mumbai-attack/pm-narendra-modi-hugs-moshe-holtzberg/slideshow/62520636.cms|date=2018-01-16|work=[[The Economic Times]]|accessdate=2024-11-25}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20081206033517/http://www.ndtv.com/convergence/ndtv/mumbaiterrorstrike/Story.aspx?ID=NEWEN20080075117&type=News Real-life hero: When nanny turned saviour]
*[https://nationalpost.com/most_popular/story.html?id=1007815 A Mumbai miracle turns tragic]{{dead link|date=October 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}

{{2008 Mumbai attacks}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Samuel, Sandra}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Survivors of the 2008 Mumbai attacks]]
[[Category:1960s births]]
[[Category:Indian Christians]]
[[Category:Nannies]]
[[Category:Israeli people of Indian descent]]
[[Category:Indian emigrants to Israel]]
[[Category:Israeli Christians]]
[[Category:Naturalized citizens of Israel]]
[[Category:Indian domestic workers]]
[[Category:People from Mumbai]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian people]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian women]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

Annaiyin Aanai

2026-03-09T20:51:52Z

IgnacioElem3: updated page

{{short description|1958 film by Ch. Narayana Murthy}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2021}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2021}}
{{Infobox film
| image = Annaiyin Aanai.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[Chitrapu Narayana Rao|Ch. Narayana Murthy]]
| writer = [[Murasoli Maran]] (dialogues)
| story = Ch. Narayana Murthy
| producer = A. M. M. Issmayil
| starring = {{ubl|[[Sivaji Ganesan]]|[[Savitri (actress)|Savitri]]}}
| cinematography = J. G. Vijayam
| editing = M. A. Perumal
| music = [[S. M. Subbaiah Naidu]]
| studio = Paragon Pictures
| distributor = Subbu<ref>{{Cite news |date=3 July 1958 |title=Annayin Anai |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=P9oYG7HA76QC&dat=19580703&printsec=frontpage&hl=en |access-date=18 September 2022 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |pages=3 |via=[[Google News Archive]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
| released = {{film date|1958|7|4|df=y}}
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}
'''''Annaiyin Aanai''''' ({{translation|Mother's order}}) is a 1958 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language film directed by [[Chitrapu Narayana Rao|Ch. Narayana Murthy]], starring [[Sivaji Ganesan]] and [[Savitri (actress)|Savitri]]. The film was released on 4 July 1958,<ref>{{Cite news |date=4 July 1958 |title=Annayin Anai |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=P9oYG7HA76QC&dat=19580704&printsec=frontpage&hl=en |access-date=15 March 2018 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |pages=10 |via=[[Google News Archive]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref> and won the [[National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Tamil]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 April 1959 |title=State Awards for Films |url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm6thNFAAward.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020054317/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm6thNFAAward.aspx |archive-date=20 October 2012 |access-date=3 September 2011 |publisher=[[Directorate of Film Festivals]]}}</ref>

== Plot ==
{{No plot|date=August 2021}}

== Cast ==
{{cast listing|
*[[Sivaji Ganesan]] as Shankar and Ganesh (dual role)
*[[Savitri (actress)|Savitri]] as Prema
*[[M. N. Nambiar]] as Balu
*[[S. V. Ranga Rao]] as Parobakaram
*[[Kuladeivam Rajagopal|V. R. Rajagopal]] as Sundari's brother
*[[M. R. Santhanam]] as Karunakaran
*[[O. A. K. Thevar]] as Public prosecutor
*K. V. Srinivasan as the [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] monk<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rangarajan |first=Malathi |date=12 April 2012 |title=Over to the 'voice' |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/over-to-the-voice/article3306963.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814100507/https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/over-to-the-voice/article3306963.ece |archive-date=14 August 2021 |access-date=7 August 2021 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref>
*[[M. N. Rajam]] as Sundari
*[[Pandari Bai|M. Pandari Bai]] as Gowri
*[[T. P. Muthulakshmi]] as Ganesh's servant
}}

== Production ==
''Annaiyin Aanai'' was produced by A. M. M. Issmayil under Paragon Pictures. [[Chitrapu Narayana Rao|Ch. Narayana Murthy]] directed the film besides writing the story and screenplay, while [[Murasoli Maran]] wrote the dialogues. C. Raghavan was the art director, M. A. Perumal was the editor, B. Hiralal was the choreographer, and J. G. Vijayam was the cinematographer.<ref name="nadigarthilagam.com">{{Cite web |title=41-50 |url=http://nadigarthilagam.com/filmographyp5.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714151951/http://nadigarthilagam.com/filmographyp5.htm |archive-date=14 July 2011 |access-date=7 August 2021 |website=nadigarthilagam.com}}</ref> One scene in the film required Savitri's character to become emotional, grab Ganesan's character by the shirt and shake him excessively. Savitri tore Ganesan's shirt and clawed his chest, resulting in him bleeding heavily. Afterwards when he pretended to hit her with a towel, she controlled her emotions and stopped.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ganesan |first=Sivaji |author-link=Sivaji Ganesan |title=Autobiography of an Actor: Sivaji Ganesan, October 1928 – July 2001 |title-link=Autobiography of an Actor |last2=Narayana Swamy |first2=T. S. |publisher=Sivaji Prabhu Charities Trust |year=2007 |pages=103 |oclc=297212002 |orig-date=2002}}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
The music composed by [[S. M. Subbaiah Naidu]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 July 1958 |title=Annaiyin Aanai |url=https://www.jiosaavn.com/album/annaiyin-aanai/95QJXpihvug_ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200926013810/https://www.jiosaavn.com/album/annaiyin-aanai/95QJXpihvug_ |archive-date=26 September 2020 |access-date=7 August 2021 |website=[[JioSaavn]]}}</ref> The song "Neeyegadhi Eswari" is set in [[Charukesi]] raga.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Swaminathan |first=G. |date=5 August 2021 |title=Gurucharan's 'Akhilam Madhuram' was more a blend of songs and ragas |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/music/sikkil-gurucharans-akhilam-madhuram-blend-of-songs-and-ragas/article35743565.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210807055928/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/music/sikkil-gurucharans-akhilam-madhuram-blend-of-songs-and-ragas/article35743565.ece |archive-date=7 August 2021 |access-date=7 August 2021 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
! Song !! Singers !! Lyrics !! Length
|-
| "Patthu Maadham Sumandhu...Annaiyai Pol Oru" || [[T. M. Soundararajan]] || [[Ka. Mu. Sheriff]]|| 04:16
|-
| "Kanavin Maayaa Logathile" || T. M. Soundararajan & [[P. Susheela]] || [[Ku. Ma. Balasubramaniam]]|| 03:30
|-
| "Neeyegadhi Eswari" || [[P. Leela]] || rowspan=3|[[A. Maruthakasi]]|| 03:08
|-
| "Kollaadhe Idhupole Pollaadha Ulagame" || [[C. S. Jayaraman]] & [[A. P. Komala]] || 03:20
|-
| "Enna Saami Ennai appadi Paarkire" || [[A. G. Rathnamala]], [[Seergazhi Govindarajan]] & [[S. C. Krishnan]] ||
|-
| "Puriyadha Inbam Ariyaadha Pudhumai" || P. Susheela || Va. Somanathan || 03:30
|-
| "Samrat Ashokan" (Drama) || [[Sivaji Ganesan]], [[M. N. Nambiar]] || [[Murasoli Maran]] || 08:42
|-
| "Thandhaana Thaana Thaanaa.... Senthaazham Poo" || [[Jikki]] & A. G. Rathnamala || [[K. S. Gopalakrishnan]] || 04:28
|-
| "Vaanga Vaanga Maappile" || P. Leela & P. Susheela || A. Maruthakasi || 03:29
|}

== Critical reception ==
{{empty section|date=September 2024}}
<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=காந்தன் |date=3 August 1958 |title=அன்னையின் ஆணை |url=https://archive.org/details/kalki1958-08-03/page/n91/mode/2up |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240923085956/https://archive.org/details/kalki1958-08-03/page/n91/mode/2up |archive-date=23 September 2024 |access-date=18 September 2022 |magazine=[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]] |pages=90–91 |language=ta |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |last=சந்தர் |last2=சேகர் |date=20 July 1958 |title=அன்னையின் ஆணை |url=https://awardakodukkaranga.wordpress.com/2009/03/13/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%86%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%88/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240923090321/https://awardakodukkaranga.wordpress.com/2009/03/13/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%86%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%88/ |archive-date=23 September 2024 |access-date=23 September 2024 |magazine=[[Ananda Vikatan]] |language=ta}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=12 July 1958 |title=அன்னையின் ஆணை |url=https://images.eap.bl.uk/EAP372/EAP372_9_14_187/6.jp2/full/1000%2C1574/0/default.jpg |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250228150606/https://images.eap.bl.uk/EAP372/EAP372_9_14_187/6.jp2/full/1000,1574/0/default.jpg |archive-date=28 February 2025 |access-date=28 February 2025 |work=Janasakthi |pages=6 |language=ta |via=[[Endangered Archives Programme]]}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb title}}
*{{Rotten Tomatoes}}

{{NationalFilmAwardBestFeatureFilmTamil}}

[[Category:1958 Indian films]]
[[Category:1958 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:1958 films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Chitrapu Narayana Rao]]
[[Category:Films scored by S. M. Subbaiah Naidu]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]
[[Category:Indian crime drama films]]
[[Category:1958 crime drama films]]
[[Category:Indian black-and-white films]]

Vennela 1½

2026-03-03T21:53:32Z

IgnacioElem3: added first entry basic info

{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Vennela {{frac|1|1|2}}
| caption = Theatrical Release Poster
| image = Vennela 1 1-2 Poster.jpeg
| director = [[Vennela Kishore]]
| producer = Vasu Varma
| writer = Vennela Kishore
| screenplay =
| starring = [[Chaitanya Krishna]] [[Monal Gajjar]] [[Bramhanandam]] [[Vennela Kishore]]
| music = [[Sunil Kashyap]]
| cinematography = Suresh Bhargav
| editing =
| studio = GR8 Films
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|2012|09|21|df=y}}
| country = India
| language = Telugu
| budget =
| gross =
}}

'''''Vennela {{frac|1|1|2}}''''' is a 2012 [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language romantic drama film directed by [[Vennela Kishore]]. It is a sequel to the 2005 film ''[[Vennela]]'' by Deva Katta. It stars [[Chaitanya Krishna]], [[Monal Gajjar]], [[Bramhanandam]] and Vennela Kishore in the lead. [[Sunil Kashyap]] provided the music. It was released on 21 September 2012.

==Plot==

The story is set in Bangkok. Krishna is a happy go lucky man who falls for Vennela in first sight. However, he learns that she was engaged to someone else, but tries his luck. Vennela too loves him, but realizes that he is a fraud. Rest of the story is about how they work out their differences.

==Cast==
{{Cast listing|
* [[Chaitanya Krishna]] as Krishna Krishna
* [[Monal Gajjar]] as Vennela
* [[Bramhanandam]] as Papachand
* [[Vennela Kishore]] as Khadar Basha
* Sravan as Sravan
* Madhu as Sunil
* Harish as Yuvak
* [[Raghu Babu]]
* [[Venu Yeldandi]]
* [[Dhanraj Koranani|Dhanraj]]
* [[Shankar Melkote]] as Managing director
* [[Prudhvi Raj]]
* [[Sivannarayana Naripeddi]]
* [[Master Bharath]] as Bharath
* [[Thagubothu Ramesh]]
* Vajja Venkata Giridhar
}}

== Production ==
While shooting for ''[[Orange (2010 film)|Orange]]'' (2010) in Australia, Vennela Kishore came up with the idea for this film.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/playing-it-safe/article2684413.ece|title=Playing it safe|work=The Hindu|date=3 December 201|author=Y. Sunitha Chowdhary|access-date=17 May 2022|archive-date=17 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220517023914/https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/playing-it-safe/article2684413.ece|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Soundtrack==
{{Infobox album
| name = Vennela {{frac|1|1|2}}
| type = Soundtrack
| longtype = to ''Vennela {{frac|1|1|2}}''
| artist = Sunil Kashyap
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 5 February 2012
| recorded = 2011–2012
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Film soundtrack|Feature film soundtrack]]
| length =
| language = [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
| label = [[Aditya Music]]
| producer = Sunil Kashyap
| prev_title =
| prev_year =
| next_title =
| next_year =
}}
{{Tracklist
| collapsed =
| headline = Tracklist
| extra_column = Artist(s)
| total_length =
| title1 = Rimpochi Rimpochi
| note1 = Hero Introduction
| lyrics1 = Krishna Chaitanya
| extra1 = [[Vedala Hemachandra|Hemachandra]]
| length1 =
| title2 = Dhin Chik
| note2 = Hero Following Heroine
| lyrics2 = Sri Mani
| extra2 = [[Vedala Hemachandra|Hemachandra]]
| length2 =
| title3 = Prema Gola Gola
| note3 = Love In A Mess
| lyrics3 = Sri Mani
| extra3 = Sunil Kashyap
| length3 =
| title4 = Anane Ananu
| note4 = Break Up
| lyrics4 = Krishna Chaitanya
| extra4 = Sunil Kashyap
| length4 =
| title5 = Vennela Vennela
| note5 = Love Journey
| lyrics5 = Sira Sri
| extra5 = [[Ranjith (singer)|Ranjith]]
| length5 =
| title6 = Rape Chay
| note6 = Villian's First Love Song
| lyrics6 = Vennela Team
| extra6 = [[Vennela Kishore]], Sunil Kashyap
| length6 =
| title7 = Hip Hop Song
| note7 = Dance Competition
| lyrics7 = Krishna Chaitanya
| extra7 = [[Vedala Hemachandra|Hemachandra]]
| length7 =
| title8 = Monalisa Monalisa
| note8 = Hero's Quest For Heroine
| lyrics8 = Sri Mani
| extra8 = Sunil Kashyap
| length8 =
}}

==Reception==
The movie opened to negative reviews. Haricharan Pudupeddi of ''DNA India'' gave a review stating "''Vennela {{frac|1|1|2}}'' is loathsome with the senseless 'bathroom humour' that runs throughout the film. ''Vennela {{frac|1|1|2}}'' is one of the worst comedy films of recent times."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/review_review-vennela-1-1-2-telugu-is-loathsome_1744027|title=Review: ''Vennela 1 1/2'' (Telugu) is loathsome|publisher=DNA India|access-date=22 September 2012|archive-date=25 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120925061256/http://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/review_review-vennela-1-1-2-telugu-is-loathsome_1744027|url-status=live}}</ref> IBN Live stated "After watching the trailers, most of us did not expect anything more from ''Vennela {{frac|1|1|2}}'' than low brow comedy. What came as a surprise was that the film did not pack a sensible story that might have made us sit through the haranguing second half."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/telugu-review-vennela-1-12-is-disappointing/293860-71-218.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120924032544/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/telugu-review-vennela-1-12-is-disappointing/293860-71-218.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=24 September 2012|title=Telugu Review: ''Vennela 1 1/2'' is disappointing|publisher=ibnlive.in|access-date=21 September 2012  }}</ref> ''The Times Of India'' gave a review stating "The performances vary from loony to queer. It would be unfair to call it acting. What the characters just indulge in is absolute tom-foolery of degenerated variety. Chaitanya has a presence, but really has nothing much to do as does Monal. Let's just say, the other departments are in tune with the rest of the film."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articlelist/movie-review/16489204.cms|title=''Vennela 1 1/2'' movie review: Wallpaper, Story, Trailer at Times of India|work=The Times Of India|access-date=21 September 2012|archive-date=16 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316043809/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articlelist/movie-review/16489204.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> ''The Hindu'' gave a review stating "From the Kya Kool Hai Hum clan of film-making, it tries to be like ''American Pie'', but fails miserably. It's just a mindless excuse for a film, filling up the 70 mm. The film is not for those looking for cinema, but for those with raging hormones, looking for a cheap laugh."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/arts/cinema/vennela-one-and-half-for-cheap-thrills/article3926372.ece|title=''Vennela One and Half'': For cheap thrills|work=The Hindu|access-date=22 September 2012|archive-date=26 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120926020146/http://www.thehindu.com/arts/cinema/vennela-one-and-half-for-cheap-thrills/article3926372.ece|url-status=live}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:2012 Telugu-language films]]
[[Category:2012 Indian films]]
[[Category:Indian romantic drama films]]
[[Category:Films set in Bangkok]]

Aavesham (1979 film)

2026-03-03T20:59:37Z

IgnacioElem3: Added new stub

{{short description|1979 film directed by Vijayanand}}
{{For|the 2024 film|Aavesham (2024 film)}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{No plot|date=April 2024}}
{{More citations needed|date=April 2024}}
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Aavesham
| image = Aavesham 1979 poster.jpg
| caption = Poster
| director = Vijayanand
| producer =
| writer =
| screenplay = Manih Mohamed
| story =
| based_on =
| starring = [[Jayan]] [[Sheela]] [[K. P. Ummer]] [[M. N. Nambiar]] [[Ceylon Manohar]] [[Jayamalini]]
| narrator =
| music ='''Songs:''' [[A. T. Ummer]] '''Score:''' Guna Singh
| cinematography = [[Anandakuttan]]
| editing =
| studio = Sree Sabitha Films
| released = {{Film date|1979|11|19|df=y}}
| country = India
| language = Malayalam
| budget =
| gross =
}}

'''''Aavesham''''' is a 1979 Indian [[Malayalam]]-language film directed by Vijayanand. The film stars [[Jayan]], [[Sheela]], [[M. N. Nambiar]], [[Ceylon Manohar]] and [[Jayamalini]] in the lead roles. The film has musical score by Guma Singh and songs by [[A. T. Ummer]]. The movie was rich with action scenes and Jayan played double role. This film was one of Jayan's popular and hit films.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/jayans-birth-anniversary-looking-back-at-his-spectacular-life/photostory/84723697.cms|title=Jayan's birth anniversary: Looking back at his spectacular life|work=The Times of India|date=15 November 2021 |access-date=9 April 2024|archive-date=9 April 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240409044625/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/jayans-birth-anniversary-looking-back-at-his-spectacular-life/photostory/84723697.cms|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=12 March 2018 |title=Movie on Jayan, on its way |url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/movie-on-jayan-on-its-way-malayalam-movie-news-malayalam-news-208908 |website=IndiaGlitz.com |access-date=9 April 2024 |archive-date=9 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240409044625/https://www.indiaglitz.com/movie-on-jayan-on-its-way-malayalam-movie-news-malayalam-news-208908 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=ജയൻ: തോൽക്കാൻ എനിക്കു മനസ്സില്ല എന്ന് മരണത്തെ വെല്ലുവിളിച്ച നടൻ |url=https://www.manoramaonline.com/global-malayali/my-creatives/2021/11/15/article-remembering-movie-actor-jayan.html |website=[[Malayala Manorama]] |language=ml |access-date=9 April 2024 |archive-date=9 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240409045053/https://www.manoramaonline.com/global-malayali/my-creatives/2021/11/15/article-remembering-movie-actor-jayan.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Cast==
{{cast listing|
*[[Jayan]] as Gopi/Ravi (Double Role)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.etvbharat.com/malayalam/kerala/sitara/tv-and-theater/malayalam-movie-first-action-hero-jayan-death-anniversary/kerala20201116101133214|title=ജയന്‍ എന്ന നിറയ്യൗവനം; ഓര്‍മകള്‍ക്ക് 40 വയസ്|first=E. T. V.|last=Bharat|date=16 November 2020|website=ETV Bharat News|access-date=9 April 2024|archive-date=9 April 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240409053723/https://www.etvbharat.com/malayalam/kerala/sitara/tv-and-theater/malayalam-movie-first-action-hero-jayan-death-anniversary/kerala20201116101133214|url-status=live}}</ref>
*[[Sheela]] as Susheela
*[[Ceylon Manohar]]
*[[Jayamalini]] as Rathi
*[[K. P. Ummer]] as Raghavan
*[[Kunchan (actor)|Kunchan]]
*[[M. N. Nambiar]] as Shekhar
*[[P. K. Abraham]] as Ammavan
* [[Mala Aravindan]] as Thirumeni
*[[Meena (Malayalam Actress)|Meena]]
* [[Cochin Haneefa]]
* [[T. P. Madhavan]]
* Thodupuzha Radhakrishnan as Thankappan
* [[N. Govindankutty]] as Moopan
* [[C. I. D. Sakunthala]]
* Master Kabeer
}}

==Soundtrack==
The [[film score]] was composed by Guna Singh while the songs were composed by [[A. T. Ummer]] with the lyrics were written by [[Bichu Thirumala]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=ആവേശം (1979) |url=https://malayalasangeetham.info/m.php?4660 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927022248/https://malayalasangeetham.info/m.php?4660 |archive-date=27 September 2023 |access-date=2024-04-10 |website=malayalasangeetham.info |language=ml}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%;"
! Song !! Singers
|-
| "Maan Maan Maan Nalla" || [[S. Janaki]]
|-
| "Mangalamuhoortham" || [[Vani Jairam]]
|-
| "Nambiyaambathimalanira" || [[K. J. Yesudas]], Chorus
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|0333051|Aavesham}}

[[Category:1979 films]]
[[Category:1979 Malayalam-language films]]
[[Category:Films shot in Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Films scored by A. T. Ummer]]

Travancore Labour Association

2026-03-03T17:25:40Z

IgnacioElem3: added the info basic info

{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2017}}

The '''Travancore Labour Association''', which was established in 1922,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kamalasanan |first1=N.K |title=Kuttanadum Karshakathozhilali Prasthanavum |date=2019 |publisher=Sahithya Pravarthaka Co-operative Society Ltd |location=Kottayam |isbn=9789388992855 |page=71}}</ref> was the first [[labour organisation]] formed in the [[princely state]] of [[Travancore]], which now forms a part of the state of [[Kerala]], India. Centred on the [[coir]] industry in the town of [[Alleppey]], it grew from being a body intended to serve the needs of one particular factory to one which represented many workers in what was a substantial business sector in the town. It became notable for its involvement in affairs during the [[Great Depression]] and for its politicisation by communist activists.

==Alleppey coir industry==
A facility for the manufacture of woven coir products in Alleppey, a coastal town and the centre for the industry in Travancore,{{sfn|Heller|1999|p=171|ps=}} was established by an American, James Darragh, in 1859. Such operations were mostly in the hands of local entrepreneurs of the famous [[Ezhava]] [[Caste system in India|caste]], who are held in myth to have brought [[coconut palm]]s to the region from [[Sri Lanka]] when they migrated and for whom the tending of those palms was a traditional caste occupation, or ''avakasam''. Export of products, however, was controlled by traders from Europe.{{sfn|Osella|Osella|2000|pp=50–51|ps=}} The industry grew significantly in the years immediately after [[World War I]], leading to what [[Robin Jeffrey]] has described as "a unique dilemma in twentieth-century Kerala: a ''shortage'' of labour" and to a significant recruitment campaign.{{sfn|Jeffrey|1984|p=1159}} Those who came to work in the industry, which was largely financed by the [[United Kingdom|British]]{{sfn|Heller|1999|p=171|ps=}} and relied more on [[Cottage industry|cottage worker]]s than factory employment,{{sfn|Jeffrey|1984|p=1159}}

Those circumstances became poor when financial promises made by those who had recruited them were abandoned from 1931 onwards, with the onset of the Great Depression causing a plummet in the price of coir flooring products and the wages paid to produce them. The economic irony was that employment in the industry grew during this period because demand for simple, cheap floorcoverings increased.{{sfn|Jeffrey|1984|p=1159}}{{efn|The output of coir mats and matting grew by 80 per cent and 47 percent, respectively, during the Depression era but the value grew only by 28 per cent. [[Real wage]]s fell but it is not possible to quantify the extent.{{sfn|Jeffrey|1984|p=1159}}}} Changes in census definitions may affect the enumeration but it seems clear that there had been a disproportionate increase in the number employed in the coir factories of Travancore around this time, with the figure rising from around 7,000 in 1931 to 32,000 a decade later, whilst the cottage worker element grew from 120,000 to 133,000.{{sfn|Jeffrey|1984|p=1159}} Although demand for labour increased, the turnover of employees was high and there was a surplus of people looking for work both in the 40 factories of Alleppey and in the numerous small, often short-lived factories that were set up in rural areas around the town. Jeffrey estimates that as many as 50,000 people had been exposed to factory employment by 1939 and {{blockquote|... the fact that many of them moved back and forth between their villages and the factories meant that the number of people exposed to ideas of class struggle were larger than they would have been if the labour force had been static. ... And when a youth came to a coir factory for the first time, talk of unions, strikes, and capitalists, need not have been totally new to him: he may have heard it all in his village ... Since ideas of class-consciousness did not have to be learned completely in the factories, more people could learn them.{{sfn|Jeffrey|1984|p=1160}}}}

==Origins==
The coir workers became dis-satisfied with the ability of their communal associations – most notably, the [[Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana]] – to address their changed circumstances a decade or more before the Depression.{{sfn|Mathew|1989|pp=137–138}}Joseph Tharamangalam states that it was created by "a yard superintendent and foreman in 1922 named P.K Bava or popularly known as Vadappuram Bava.{{sfn|Tharamangalam|2011|pp=67–68|ps=}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://aituc.blogspot.com/2011/|title = About Us|date = 18 May 2011}}</ref> during the boom years, as an association of workers employed by the Empire Coir Works in Alleppey. The Travancore Labour Association (TLA) was established and Before long, it had expanded its influence to represent coir workers elsewhere in the town.{{sfn|Tharamangalam|2011|pp=67–68|ps=}} It was at first primarily more a caste association than a trade union: its efforts were less focussed on employment matters than on the well-being of its membership in a wider social sense. It promoted welfare by encouraging various educational facilities and an [[Ayurveda|ayurvedic]] hospital; its members were active in caste-related affairs such as those that gave rise to the [[Temple Entry Proclamation]] and campaigns aimed at ending the practice of [[Untouchability]]. A call in the early 1920s for representation in the [[legislative assembly]] of Travancore was an early sign of the trend that was to develop. The TLA became an increasingly militant body and did much to encourage the growth of trade unionism in other industries throughout the [[Alleppey district]]. By the mid-1930s, it was campaigning for employment legislation to protect workers in all industries and had taken part in the All-Kerala Workers Conference of 1935.{{sfn|Tharamangalam|2011|pp=67–68|ps=}}{{sfn|Heller|1999|p=171|ps=}}

==Politicisation==
The TLA developed close connections at first with the [[Congress Socialist Party]] (CSP), which organised that conference,{{sfn|Heller|1999|p=171|ps=}} and later with the [[Communist Party of India]] (CPI).{{sfn|Tharamangalam|2011|pp=67–68|ps=}} The influence of the CSP became apparent from 1934 when it began to radicalise the organisation, simultaneously using it as a political vehicle to support demands for "[[responsible government]]"{{efn|The campaign for "[[responsible government]]" was led by the Travancore section of the [[Indian National Congress]].{{sfn|Heller|1999|p=172|ps=}}}} in a campaign that favoured [[Indian independence movement|Indian nationalism]] and challenged the authority of the princely state, the role of the higher castes and the influence of [[British Raj|colonial]] business investment.{{efn|Although troubled by the effects of colonial capital, the TLA was central to the organisation of a large gathering to express grief when [[George V]], the British king and Indian emperor, died in 1936. Attitudes to imperial rule among workers in Travancore changed dramatically over the subsequent decade, exemplified by the [[Punnapra-Vayalar uprising]].{{sfn|Heller|1999|p=73|ps=}}}} [[Manali Desai]] says that it used the travails of the Depression era "to justify demands for a halt to cuts in wages, provision of unemployment, old-age and sickness benefits, regulation of wages, elimination of sub-contracting of work, and an end to petty exactions and retrenchment".{{sfn|Desai|2006|pp=85–86|ps=}}

The first [[Strike action|strike]] of workers in Alleppey had been organised by the TLA around 1925–1926,{{sfn|Tharamangalam|2011|pp=67–68|ps=}} some time after the demand for legislative representation had been made.{{sfn|Heller|1999|p=171|ps=}} A later [[general strike]], when under the influence of the CSP in 1938, lasted more than three weeks, involving many thousands of workers{{efn|The number of workers involved in the 1938 strike is variously reported. Desai notes an estimate of 200,000 people, while Heller puts the figure at 40,000.{{sfn|Desai|2006|pp=85–86|ps=}}{{sfn|Heller|1999|p=172|ps=}}}} as well as numerous CSP activists who had moved from the neighbouring area of [[Malabar District|Malabar]]. The strike had protested the autocracy of Travancore's [[maharajah]], then [[Chithira Thirunal Balarama Varma]], and a decision to ban the state's [[Indian National Congress]] (INC) party,{{sfn|Desai|2006|pp=85–86|ps=}}{{sfn|Heller|1999|p=172|ps=}} The strike ended due to the negotiations by the INC and the Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana (SNDP). This effort by these relatively moderate organisations did not enamour them to [[Socialism|socialists]] and led to the CSP gaining control of the union. [[Patrick Heller]] notes that this in turn led to trade unionism's "... [emergence] as the dominant force in the nationalist and democratic movement in Travancore" and to the spread of unionism to the agrarian sector, the latter being encouraged by workers from the coir factories who visited rural areas to spread the word.{{sfn|Heller|1999|p=172|ps=}} It was the CSP leaders of the 1938 action who caused the TLA to come under the influence of the CPI, to which they had transferred their allegiance by 1940.{{sfn|Desai|2006|pp=85–86|ps=}}

Robin Jeffrey has said that {{blockquote|Two things stand out about the organisation of workers in the coir industry centred around Alleppey in the 1930s. First, in contradiction to one strand of conventional wisdom about labour, the coir workers' union grew in strength and militancy during Depression. Second, the union successfully sublimated the deep caste and religious antagonisms of Kerala society – similar communal fissures elsewhere in India ripped unions apart – such that by the 1940s it could fairly describe itself as a class-conscious organisation.{{sfn|Jeffrey|1984|p=1159}}}}

Membership of the TLA grew from around 3,000 to over 7,000 during the Depression era, although this has to be placed in context with the growth in the number of people employed in the industry.{{sfn|Jeffrey|1984|p=1159}} In 1938, when the Travancore Trade Union Act became law, the Association was the first to register itself under the terms of the Act and did so using the name of the '''Travancore Coir Factory Workers Union'''.{{sfn|Tharamangalam|2011|pp=67–68|ps=}}

==References==
'''Notes'''
{{notelist}}
'''Citations'''
{{reflist}}

'''Bibliography'''
*{{citation |title=State Formation and Radical Democracy in India |first=Manali |last=Desai |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-203-96774-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=60m9znJQmmkC}}
*{{citation |title=The Labor of Development: Workers and the Transformation of Capitalism in Kerala, India |first=Patrick |last=Heller |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-8014-8624-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h2sBzup4yR8C}}
*{{citation |title='Destroy Capitalism!': Growing Solidarity of Alleppey's Coir Workers, 1930–40 |first=Robin |last=Jeffrey |authorlink=Robin Jeffrey |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |volume=19 |issue=29 |date=21 July 1984 |pages=1159–1165 |jstor=4373437}} {{subscription required}}
*{{citation |title=Communal Road to a Secular Kerala |first=George |last=Mathew |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |year=1989 |isbn=978-81-7022-282-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1TuPeXFP0WgC}}
*{{citation |title=Social Mobility in Kerala: Modernity and Identity in Conflict |first1=Filippo |last1=Osella |first2=Caroline |last2=Osella |publisher=Pluto Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-7453-1693-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rMRw0gTZSJwC}}
*{{citation |title=Agrarian Class Conflict |first=Joseph |last=Tharamangalam |publisher=UBC Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-7748-4447-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=538cKfVv8ygC}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite journal |title=From Caste Consciousness to Class Consciousness Alleppey Coir Workers during Inter-War Period |first=T. M. Thomas |last=Isaac |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |volume=20 |issue=4 |date=26 January 1985 |pages=PE5–PE18 |jstor=4374008 |authorlink=Thomas Isaac}} {{subscription required}}

[[Category:Defunct trade unions of India]]
[[Category:Trade unions in Kerala]]
[[Category:Ezhava]]
[[Category:Social history of Kerala]]
[[Category:Kingdom of Travancore]]
[[Category:Political history of Kerala]]
[[Category:Trade unions established in 1922]]
[[Category:1922 establishments in British India]]

Bloody Mary (2022 film)

2026-03-03T09:16:05Z

IgnacioElem3: added new data...

{{short description|2022 film by Chandoo Mondeti}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2022}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Bloody Mary
| image = Bloody Mary 2022 poster.jpeg
| alt =
| caption = Promotional poster
| director = [[Chandoo Mondeti]]
| writer = Prashanth Kumar Dimmala
| producer = T. G. Vishwa Prasad
| starring = {{Ubl| [[Nivetha Pethuraj]] | [[Brahmaji]] |[[Ajay (actor)|Ajay]]|[[Kireeti Damaraju]]}}
| cinematography = [[Karthik Gattamneni]]
| editing = Viplav Nyshadam
| music = [[Kaala Bhairava]]
| studio = People Media Factory
| distributor = [[Aha (streaming service)|Aha]]
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2022|04|14}}
| runtime = 91 minutes
| country = India
| language = Telugu
}}

'''''Bloody Mary''''' is a 2022 Indian [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language [[crime drama]] film directed by [[Chandoo Mondeti]], written by Prasanth Kumar Dimmala and produced by People Media Factory. It stars [[Nivetha Pethuraj]], [[Brahmaji]], [[Ajay (actor)|Ajay]], and [[Kireeti Damaraju]]. Set in [[Visakhapatnam]], the plot follows three orphaned childhood friends—Mary, Raju, and Basha who find themselves embroiled in a murder case.

The film began its production in September 2020 in [[Hyderabad]]. It features music composed by [[Kaala Bhairava]] and cinematography by [[Karthik Ghattamneni]]. ''Bloody Mary'' is digitally released on 14 April 2022 on the streaming platform [[Aha (streaming service)|Aha]].

== Plot ==
One night in 1993, in [[Vizag]], an orphanage is attacked by a group of human traffickers. The director of the orphanage is killed and all the kids from the orphanage are abducted, except for three kids with physical impairments - Mary, Basha, and Raju. Mary is the daughter of the orphanage's director, and she overhears her mother's death. Since she did not actually see the crime, the police do not register her witness statement.

A few years later, Mary is working at a hospital while taking care of Basha and Raju. Basha, who is mute, has aspirations of becoming an actor. Raju, who is deaf, dreams of becoming a photographer. One day, Kantha Rao, a doctor working at the same hospital Mary is, calls Mary for an opportunity she has been looking for. When she reaches the place he told her about, he makes improper sexual advances toward her which she resists. In the ensuing scuffle, Mary pushes him, causing his death. Meanwhile, the same day, Basha witnesses a similar death when he goes to a film director's office to audition for a role. The director tries to sexually assault Kala, an aspiring actress, who retaliates by hitting him over the head until he dies. A little later, Raju finds a camera that he brings home. There, the three of them find a video of the death Basha witnessed earlier. They also find out that the director was killed by Kala's husband, Prabhakar, who followed her out of suspicion that she was cheating on their marriage.

Prabhakar, who is a local [[Circle Inspector]] (CI), starts investigating the death of Kantha Rao. He is suspicious of Mary and interrogates her, Basha and Raju. Mary sketches a plan and together with Bash and Raju, anonymously blackmails Prabhakar for money in exchange for the video of him killing the film director. But he tracks down the blackmail call to the three and destroys the evidence. He also learns that Mary is partially blind. But Mary bluffs and convinces Prabhakar that she has transferred the video onto another computer. Knowing that Prabhakar is at loggerheads with Sekhar Babu, a powerful local businessman in the fishing industry, Mary reaches out to Sekhar Babu and offers him the evidence in exchange for their safety. She meets Kala and gets her to confess to the truth on camera by bluffing she has evidence against her. Mary also realises that Sekhar Babu is a human trafficker, was the one who killed her mother, and is now planning on trafficking her, Basha and Raju's organs. She calls Prabhakar and cleverly pits him against Sekhar Babu. In the ensuing fight, Prabhakar kills most of Sekhar Babu's henchmen, while Mary kills Sekhar Babu.

Eight years later, Mary, under a new alias Devi, heads a very powerful social welfare organisation in Mumbai, with many unproven allegations of crime. The government appoints Prabhakar, who was awarded a [[President's Police Medal]] for ending Sekhar Babu's trafficking ring, to investigate the organisation. The film ends with Prabhakar meeting Mary, who details her rise and threatens him not to interfere in her business. Which shows she interests on politics hints towards a sequel titles "The rise of Bloody Devi".

== Cast ==
{{cast listing|
* [[Nivetha Pethuraj]] as Mary AKA Devi.
* [[Brahmaji]] as Sekhar Babu
* [[Ajay (actor)|Ajay]] as [[Circle Inspector|CI]] Prabhakar
* [[Kireeti Damaraju]] as Basha
* [[Rajkumar Kasireddy]] as Raju
* Pammi Sai as Appi
* Naveena Reddy as Kala
}}

== Production and release ==
The film began its production in September 2020 in [[Hyderabad]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nivetha Pethuraj Commences Shoot Of Her Film With Chandoo Mondeti Today |url=http://www.idlebrain.com/news/today/nivethapethuraj-chandoomondeti.html |access-date=2022-04-17 |website=[[Idlebrain.com]] |archive-date=15 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230515044330/https://www.idlebrain.com/news/today/nivethapethuraj-chandoomondeti.html |url-status=live }}</ref> ''Blood Mary'' is director [[Chandoo Mondeti]]'s first foray into the digital medium.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nivetha Pethuraj's first-look poster as 'Bloody Mary' out |url=https://www.dtnext.in/News/Cinema/2022/02/07171240/1342574/Nivetha-Pethurajs-firstlook-poster-as-Bloody-Mary-.vpf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220207133554/https://www.dtnext.in/News/Cinema/2022/02/07171240/1342574/Nivetha-Pethurajs-firstlook-poster-as-Bloody-Mary-.vpf |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 February 2022 |website=[[DT Next]] |date=6 February 2022}}</ref> It is released digitally on 14 April 2022 on the streaming platform [[Aha (streaming service)|Aha]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-04 |title=Bloody Mary: డేట్ ఫిక్స్ చేసుకున్న బ్లడీ మేరీ.. ఎప్పుడంటే..? {{!}} Bloody Mary Locks OTT Release Date |url=https://10tv.in/latest/bloody-mary-locks-ott-release-date-403395.html |website=[[10TV]] |language=TE |access-date=17 April 2022 |archive-date=20 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220420044232/https://10tv.in/latest/bloody-mary-locks-ott-release-date-403395.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Reception ==
''[[The Times of India]]'' critic Neeshita Nyayapati called it a "passable thriller" writing, "''Bloody Mary'' falls short of being a complex and grey film because it doesn't go the extra mile to tell a novel story." She appreciated the performances of Pethuraj and Ajay, in addition to the technical aspects of the film.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-15 |title=BLOODY MARY REVIEW : NIVETHA PETHURAJ AND AJAY SHINE IN THIS PASSABLE THRILLER |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/web-series/reviews/telugu/bloody-mary/ottmoviereview/90850271.cms |website=The Times of India |access-date=17 April 2022 |archive-date=17 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220417072501/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/web-series/reviews/telugu/bloody-mary/ottmoviereview/90850271.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> Reviewing the film for ''[[The Hindu]]'', Sangeetha Devi called it "sketchy," criticising the narration and weak characterization.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Devi |first=Sangeetha |date=2022-04-16 |title='Bloody Mary' movie review: The Nivetha Pethuraj starrer is a sketchy crime drama |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/reviews/bloody-mary-movie-review-a-sketchy-crime-drama/article65326144.ece |issn=0971-751X |access-date=17 April 2022 |archive-date=17 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220417070820/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/reviews/bloody-mary-movie-review-a-sketchy-crime-drama/article65326144.ece |url-status=live }}</ref>

Subbarao N of [[NTV (Indian TV channel)|''NTV'']] criticized the story and screenplay while being appreciative of the performances, score and camerawork.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-15 |title=Bloody Mary Movie Review {{!}} Nivetha Pethuraj {{!}} Aha |url=https://ntvtelugu.com/reviews/bloody-mary-movie-review-in-telugu-156318.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220417064631/https://ntvtelugu.com/reviews/bloody-mary-movie-review-in-telugu-156318.html |archive-date=2022-04-17 |access-date= |website=NTV |language=te-IN}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.aha.video/movie/bloody-mary ''Blood Mary''] on [[Aha (streaming service)|Aha]]
* {{IMDb title|18377936}}
{{Chandoo Mondeti}}
[[Category:2022 films]]
[[Category:2022 Telugu-language films]]
[[Category:2022 Indian films]]
[[Category:Films shot in Hyderabad, India]]
[[Category:Films scored by Kaala Bhairava]]
[[Category:Aha (streaming service) original films]]
[[Category:Indian crime drama films]]
[[Category:2022 crime drama films]]
[[Category:Films set in Visakhapatnam]]
[[Category:Films set in Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Fictional portrayals of the Andhra Pradesh Police]]
[[Category:Films set in 1993]]
[[Category:Films about orphans]]
[[Category:Films about human trafficking in India]]
[[Category:Films about murder]]
[[Category:People Media Factory films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Chandoo Mondeti]]

Baapu

2026-03-03T09:10:11Z

IgnacioElem3: Added a pg

{{Short description|2025 Indian Telugu-language film by Daya}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2025}}
{{Infobox film
| image = Baapu poster.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = Daya
| writer = Daya
| screenplay =
| story =
| producer = {{plain list|
* Raju
* Ch Bhanu Prasad Reddy
}}
| starring = {{plain list|
* [[Brahmaji]]
* [[Aamani]]
* Kethiri Sudhakar Reddy
* [[Dhanya Balakrishna]]
}}
| cinematography = Vasu Pendem
| editing = Aalayam Anil
| music = RR Dhruvan
| studio = {{plain list|
* Comrade Film Factory
* Atheera Productions
}}
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|2025|2|21|df=y}}
| runtime = 120 minutes
| country = India
| language = Telugu
| budget =
| gross =
}}

'''''Baapu''''' is a 2025 Indian [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language [[comedy drama]] film written and directed by Daya. The film features [[Brahmaji]], [[Aamani]], Kethiri Sudhakar Reddy and [[Dhanya Balakrishna]] in important roles.<ref>{{Cite web |title=బాపు అరుదైన సినిమా: రానా దగ్గుబాటి {{!}} Baapu Movie Trailer Launch Event {{!}} Sakshi |url=https://www.sakshi.com/telugu-news/movies/baapu-movie-trailer-launch-event-2362033 |access-date=2025-02-23 |website=www.sakshi.com |language=te |archive-date=16 February 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250216102850/https://www.sakshi.com/telugu-news/movies/baapu-movie-trailer-launch-event-2362033 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The film was released on 21 February 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sistu |first=Suhas |date=2025-01-28 |title=Rashmika unveils 'Baapu' teaser; a dark comedy-drama with Brahmaji's comeback |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/cinema/tollywood/rashmika-unveils-baapu-teaser-a-dark-comedy-drama-with-brahmajis-comeback-940397 |access-date=2025-02-23 |website=www.thehansindia.com |language=en}}</ref>

== Plot ==
Mallanna ([[Brahmaji]]) is a marginal farmer with neck-deep debt after his cotton crop gets damaged, leaving him with no other go to repay his debt. His wife Saroja suggests him to kill his old father for the insurance amount deposited on his name. Will he take the unimaginable step and what happens at the end, is the story.

==Cast==
* [[Brahmaji]] as Mallanna
* [[Aamani]] as Saroja
* Kethiri Sudhakar Reddy as Rajayya
* [[Dhanya Balakrishna]] as Varalakshmi
* Racha Ravi as Chanti
* [[Srinivas Avasarala]]
* Mani Aegurla

== Music ==
{{Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| all_music = RR Dhruvan
| title1 = Allo Neredallo Pilla
| length1 = 3:20
| lyrics1 = Raghuram
| extra1 = [[Ram Miriyala]]
| title2 = Re Rela
| length2 = 3:15
| lyrics2 = [[Kasarla Shyam]]
| extra2 = [[Madhu Priya]]
| title3 = Kangaree Padaku Ra
| length3 = 4:08
| lyrics3 = Ala Raju
| extra3 = [[Anurag Kulkarni]]
| title4 = Saami Soodaraa
| length4 = 3:16
| lyrics4 = Poorna Chary
| extra4 = [[Mangli]]
| title5 = Baapu Oggu Katha
| length5 = 3:39
| lyrics5 = Raviteja Gara
| extra5 = Narra Sathish Yadav
}}

== Release and reception ==
''Baapu'' was released on 21 February 2025.{{Citation needed|date=September 2025}} It was released on [[JioHotstar]] on 7 March 2025.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-03-03 |title='Baapu' all set to debut on OTT: When and where to watch Telugu family drama |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/baapu-all-set-to-debut-on-ott-when-and-where-to-watch-telugu-family-drama/articleshow/118687803.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2025-03-26 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref>

Sangeetha Devi Dundoo of ''[[The Hindu]]'' was positive towards lead cast performances, while stating that "lacklustre writing squanders the film’s potential".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Dundoo |first=Sangeetha Devi |date=2025-02-21 |title='Baapu' movie review: Brahmaji shines in a tepid narrative that sparkles occasionally |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/baapu-movie-review-a-tepid-narrative-that-sparkles-occasionally/article69245802.ece |access-date=2025-02-23 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X |archive-date=21 February 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250221103353/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/baapu-movie-review-a-tepid-narrative-that-sparkles-occasionally/article69245802.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> Aditya Devulapally of ''[[The New Indian Express]]'' wrote, "''Baapu'' is a film that could have been extraordinary had it trusted its own cynicism. Daya constructs a world that is primed for a ruthless, pitch-black satire, but then hesitates, afraid of alienating our audiences with the film’s ambitious surgical grim".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Devulapally |first=Aditya |date=2025-02-22 |title='Baapu' Movie Review: A sinister dark comedy muddled by sentimentality |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/review/2025/Feb/22/baapu-movie-review-a-sinister-dark-comedy-muddled-by-sentimentality-2 |access-date=2025-02-23 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb title|id=35229809|title=Baapu}}
[[Category:2025 Telugu-language films]]
[[Category:2025 Indian films]]
[[Category:2025 films]]
[[Category:2025 comedy-drama films]]
[[Category:Indian comedy-drama films]]
[[Category:Films set in Telangana]]
[[Category:Films shot in Hyderabad, India]]

Jama Mosque, Kalaburagi

2026-02-24T21:27:30Z

IgnacioElem3: started new stub!

{{Short description|Mosque in Kalaburagi, Karnataka, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2017}}
{{for|similarly named mosques|List of grand mosques}}
{{Infobox religious building
| name = Jama Masjid
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| image = Great Mosque in Gulbarga Fort..jpg
| image_upright = 1.4
| alt =
| caption = The mosque, in 1880
| religious_affiliation = [[Islam]]
| tradition =
| sect =
| district =
| prefecture =
| province =
| region =
| deity =
| rite =
| festival = 
| organisational_status = [[Mosque]]
| ownership =
| governing_body =
| leadership =
| bhattaraka =
| patron =
| consecration_year =
| functional_status = Active
| religious_features_label =
| religious_features =
| location = [[Gulbarga Fort]], [[Kalaburagi]] (formerly known as ''Gulbarga''), [[Karnataka]]
| locale =
| municipality =
| cercle =
| state =
| country = [[India]]
| map_type = India Karnataka
| map_size = 250
| map_alt =
| map_relief = 1
| map_caption = Location of the mosque in [[Karnataka]]
| grid_name =
| grid_position =
| sector =
| territory =
| administration =
| coordinates = {{coord|17|20|26|N|76|49|52|E|region:IN-KA_type:landmark|format=dms|display=it}}
| coordinates_footnotes =
| heritage_designation =
| architect =
| architecture_type = {{nowrap|[[Mosque architecture]]}}
| architecture_style = [[Architecture of the Deccan sultanates|Bahmani]]
| founded_by =
| creator =
| funded_by =
| general_contractor =
| established =
| groundbreaking =
| year_completed = 1367 [[Common Era|CE]]
| construction_cost =
| date_demolished = 
| facade_direction =
| capacity = 2,000 worshippers
| length = {{cvt|216|ft|m|order=flip}}
| width = {{cvt|177|ft|m|order=flip}}
| width_nave =
| interior_area =
| height_max =
| dome_quantity = 67 {{small|(estimate)}}
| dome_height_outer =
| dome_height_inner =
| dome_dia_outer =
| dome_dia_inner =
| minaret_quantity =
| minaret_height =
| spire_quantity =
| spire_height =
| site_area =
| temple_quantity =
| monument_quantity =
| shrine_quantity =
| inscriptions =
| materials = Lime bricks
| elevation_m = 
| elevation_footnotes =
| nrhp =
| designated =
| added =
| refnum =
| delisted1_date =
| website =
| module = 
| footnotes =
}}
The '''Jama Masjid''', also known as the '''Friday Mosque of Gulbarga''', the '''Great Mosque of Gulbarga Fort''', and formally as the '''Jamia Masjid - Qila-e-Hasham''', is a [[congregational mosque|Friday mosque]] located in [[Kalaburagi]] (formerly known as ''Gulbarga''), in the state of [[Karnataka]], India.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.106468 |title=Historic Landmarks Of The Deccan |last=Haig |first=Major Thomas Wolseley |year=1907 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.106468/page/n97 85]-86}}</ref> The mosque is located within the [[Gulbarga Fort]] complex, in Kalaburagi.

In 2014, [[UNESCO]] placed the building on its "tentative list" to become a [[World Heritage Site]], under the name [[Monuments and Forts of the Deccan Sultanate]].{{efn|The singular use of "Sultanate" by UNESCO implies the existence of just one Sultanate. However, there were a number of different Sultanates.}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5887/ |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |title=World Heritage tentative list |date= |access-date= }}</ref>

== History ==
The mosque was built in 1367 by [[Bahmani Sultanate|Bahmani Sultan]] [[Mohammed Shah I]] to commemorate the establishment of the capital in Gulbarga following the defeat [[Musunuri Nayakas#Kapaya Nayaka|Kapaya Nayaka]] of [[Warangal]]. The mosque was designed by a Persian architect, Rafi, and built within the Kalaburagi Fort complex.<ref name="Karnakarta Department of Tourism">{{cite web |url=https://karnatakatourism.org/tour-item/jama-masjid-gulbarga/ |title=Jama Masjid, Gulbarga |access-date=18 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240418223116/https://karnatakatourism.org/tour-item/jama-masjid-gulbarga/ |archive-date=18 April 2024 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> It is one of the earliest Friday mosques in South India.<ref name="archnet.org">{{cite web |url=http://archnet.org/library/sites/one-site.jsp?site_id=7608 |title=Jama Masjid, Gulbarga |work=Archnet.org |date= |access-date=28 April 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101120081854/http://archnet.org/library/sites/one-site.jsp?site_id=7608 |archive-date=20 November 2010 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

==Architecture==
The Kalaburagi Friday Mosque is notable for its divergence from typical mosque architecture of the time.<ref name="archnet.org"/> The basic layout is similar to that of a courtyard mosque, except that the central courtyard is covered by sixty-three small domes. The mosque also lacks [[Minaret|minarets]], instead having four larger domes at each corner of the mosque. Three of the four outer walls are also open to sunlight, while the [[qibla]] is solid.

==Gallery==
<gallery>
Archs@Jama Masjid.jpg|Arches inside the mosque
Arches@Jama Masjid.jpg|Arches inside the mosque
Gulbarga Jami Masjid interior 2.jpg|Arches inside the mosque
Gulbarga Jami Masjid interior.jpg|Another view of arches inside the mosque
Gulbarga Jama Masjid 2.jpg|Entrance of the mosque, constructed in the [[Moorish architecture|Moorish]] style
Gulbarga Jama Masjid.jpg|View of the mosque, in [[monsoon]], covered with seasonal grass
Gulbarga Jama Mosque in Kalaburgi, Karnataka 13.jpg|Gulbarga Jama Mosque
Gulbarga Jama Mosque in Kalaburgi, Karnataka 04.jpg|Horse-drawn carriage infront of Gulbarga Jama Mosque
</gallery>

== See also ==
{{stack|{{portal|India|Islam}}}}
* [[Islam in India]]
* [[List of mosques in India]]

== Notes ==
{{noteslist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Gulbarga Jama Masjid}}
* {{cite news |author= |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-metroplus/article1700499.ece |title=City of tombs and domes |work=[[The Hindu]] |date= |access-date= }}

{{Bahmani Sultanate}}
{{Gulbarga topics}}
{{Mosques in India}}

[[Category:14th-century mosques in India]]
[[Category:Bahmani architecture]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures completed in 1367]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Kalaburagi district]]
[[Category:Grand mosques|Gulbarga]]
[[Category:Kalaburagi]]
[[Category:Mosque buildings with domes in India]]
[[Category:Mosques completed in the 1360s]]
[[Category:Mosques in Karnataka]]

Modinagar South RRTS station

2026-02-22T15:20:13Z

IgnacioElem3:

{{Short description|RapidX's Delhi–Meerut RRTS station}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2024}}
{{Infobox station
| name = [[File:A8 Modinagar South RRTS station.svg|40px]] Modinagar South
| type = {{RapidX Infobox station line|line=Delhi–Meerut}}
| style = RapidX
| image = Modinagar South RRTS station.jpg
| image_size = Modinagar South RRTS station
| image_caption =
| address = NH 34, Modinagar, Uttar Pradesh 201204
| country = {{flagu|India}}
| coordinates = {{coord|28.81754|N|77.55660|E|display=inline}}
| elevation =
| line = {{rcb|RapidX|Delhi–Meerut|croute}} RRTS
| connections =
| structure = [[Elevated]], [[Double-track railway|Double track]]
| platform = [[Side platform]] Platform-1 → {{stl|RapidX|Modipuram}} Platform-2 → {{stl|RapidX|Sarai Kale Khan}}
| levels = 2
| tracks = 2
| parking = {{parking symbol}} Four-Wheeler Parking
| opened = {{start date and age|07 March 2024|df=yes}}
| opening =
| closed =
| rebuilt =
| electrified = {{25 kV 50 Hz}} through [[overhead catenary]]
| accessible = Yes {{access icon}}
| code =
| owned = [[National Capital Region Transport Corporation|NCRTC]]
| operator = [[National Capital Region Transport Corporation|NCRTC]]
| status = Operational
| former =
| passengers =
| pass_year =
| pass_percent =
| services = {{Adjacent stations|system=RapidX|line1=Delhi–Meerut|left1=Murad Nagar|to-left1=|right1=Modinagar North|to-right1=}}
| pass_system =
| route_map = {{Delhi–Meerut Regional Rapid Transit System}}
| map_state = collapsed
| mapframe = yes
| mapframe-marker = rail
| mapframe-marker-color = #FFFA4A
| mapframe-zoom = 14
}}

'''Modinagar South RRTS station'''<ref>{{cite web |title=DELHI-Ghaziabad-Meerut MAP |url=https://ncrtc.in/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/RevisedDELHI-Ghaziabad-Meerut-MAP.jpg |access-date=1 May 2023 |website=ncrtc.in}}</ref> is an elevated RRTS station in the [[Modinagar]] town of [[Ghaziabad district, India|Ghaziabad]] district in [[Uttar Pradesh]], India. This serves as a RRTS station for higher-speed trains on the [[Delhi–Meerut Regional Rapid Transit System]] that can reach speeds of up to 180 km/h.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Staff Reporter |date=2024-03-07 |title=Hon'ble Prime Minister Inaugurates and Flags Off 17 Km Long Duhai to Modi Nagar North RRTS Stretch |url=https://www.metrorailnews.in/honble-prime-minister-inaugurates-and-flags-off-17-km-long-duhai-to-modi-nagar-north-rrts-stretch/ |access-date=2024-03-13 |website=Metro Rail News |language=en-US}}</ref>

After the trial run of Duhai - Meerut South RRTS stretch was commissioned successfully, this RRTS station was inaugurated by Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi]] on March 6, 2024<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-03-04 |title=RRTS: PM likely to virtually open 17km stretch to Modinagar on March 6 |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/noida-news/rrts-pm-likely-to-virtually-open-17km-stretch-to-modinagar-on-march-6-101709572179161.html |access-date=2024-03-05 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> via [[Videotelephony|video conferencing]] from [[Kolkata]], and began its operations along with the existing 17-km Sahibabad-Duhai stretch of the [[Delhi–Meerut Regional Rapid Transit System|Delhi–Meerut RRTS]] from March 7, 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-03-06 |title=PM opens 17km RRTS stretch to Modinagar (north) virtually from Kolkata |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/noida-news/pm-opens-17km-rrts-stretch-to-modinagar-north-virtually-from-kolkata-101709749349299.html |access-date=2024-03-13 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-03-06 |title=PM Modi inaugurates 17-km-long Duhai to Modi Nagar North RRTS section |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/delhi/pm-inaugurates-duhai-modi-nagar-north-9199598/ |access-date=2024-03-13 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-03-08 |title=Passenger operations begin on 34km RRTS section in Ghaziabad |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/noida-news/passenger-operations-begin-on-34km-rrts-section-in-ghaziabad-101709919188113.html |access-date=2024-03-13 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref>

== History ==
The [[National Capital Region Transport Corporation]] (NCRTC) had invited tenders for the construction of the Modinagar South RRTS station along with the 21.5 km long Murad Nagar–Meerut South section of the 82.15 km Delhi-Meerut RRTS line. [[Larsen and Toubro|L&T Heavy Civil Infrastructure]] emerged as the lowest bidder for construction work. Under the agreement, companies started construction of Modinagar South RRTS station.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-02-29 |title=17km of RRTS line from Duhai to Modinagar to be ready for operations soon |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/noida-news/17km-of-rrts-line-from-duhai-to-modinagar-to-be-ready-for-operations-soon-101709230358129.html |access-date=2024-03-05 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-03-01 |title=RRTS: Train Services Likely To Begin On 17km Stretch From Duhai to Modinagar Soon |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/city/ghaziabad/rrts-train-services-likely-to-begin-on-17km-stretch-from-duhai-to-modinagar-soon-article-108121517 |access-date=2024-03-05 |website=TimesNow |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=NCRTC completes 25-km viaduct of new section of Delhi-Meerut RRTS Corridor {{!}} Metro Rail Today |url=https://metrorailtoday.com/news/ncrtc-completes-25-km-viaduct-of-new-section-of-delhi-meerut-rrts-corridor |access-date=2024-01-06 |website=Metro Rail Today: Gateway to Rail & Metro Industry}}</ref>

== Station layout ==
The Modinagar South RRTS station has three levels - platform, concourse and street level. Modinagar South RRTS station will be 215 meters long and 26 meters wide. The rail tracks will be constructed at a height of 24 meters above the ground level.
{{stack|{{Routemap
| title = [[File:A8 Modinagar South RRTS station.svg|frameless|20px]] Modinagar South track layout
| title-bg = #{{rail color|RapidX|Delhi–Meerut}}
| legend = track
| collapsible = no
| map = vCONTgfa
cPLT\vSTR\cPLT ~~ ~~ ~~ to [[File:A09 Modinagar North RRTS station.svg|frameless|20px]] {{stl|RapidX|Modinagar North}}
*'''P1'''\cPLT\vSTR\cPLT\*'''P2'''
cPLT\vSTR\cPLT ~~ ~~ ~~ to [[File:A07 Murad Nagar RRTS station.svg|frameless|20px]] {{stl|RapidX|Murad Nagar}}
vCONTgfe
| bottom = <div style="width:23.5em;text-align:center">Station with two tracks and two side platforms</div>
}}}}
{| border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"
| style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;border-top:solid 1px gray;" width="50" valign="top" |'''G'''
| style="border-top:solid 1px gray;border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width="100" valign="top" |Street level
| style="border-top:solid 1px gray;border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width="500" valign="top" |Exit/Entrance
|-
| valign="top" |'''L1'''
| valign="top" |Mezzanine
| valign="top" |Fare control, Station agent, Token vending machines, Crossover
|-
| rowspan="4" style="border-top:solid 1px gray;border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width="50" valign="top" |'''L2'''
| colspan="2" style="border-top:solid 1px gray;border-right:solid 2px black;border-left:solid 2px black;border-bottom:solid 2px black;text-align:center;" |[[Side platform]]<nowiki> | Doors will open on the left </nowiki>{{access icon}}
|-
| style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width="100" |'''Platform 1''' '''Eastbound'''
| style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width="500" |Towards → [[File:A10 Meerut South RRTS station.svg|frameless|20x20px]] {{stl|RapidX|Meerut South}} '''Next Station:''' [[File:A09 Modinagar North RRTS station.svg|frameless|20x20px]] {{stl|RapidX|Modinagar North}}
|-
|'''Platform 2''' '''Westbound'''
|Towards ← [[File:A01 New Ashok Nagar RRTS station.svg|frameless|20x20px]] {{stl|RapidX|New Ashok Nagar}} '''Next Station:''' [[File:A07 Murad Nagar RRTS station.svg|frameless|20x20px]] {{stl|RapidX|Murad Nagar}}
|-
| colspan="2" style="border-top:solid 2px black;border-right:solid 2px black;border-left:solid 2px black;border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" align="center" |[[Side platform]]<nowiki> | Doors will open on the left </nowiki>{{access icon}}
|-
| rowspan="2" style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width="50" valign="top" |'''L2'''
| style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width="100" |
| style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width="500" |
|-
|}
There are 2 Gate points – 1 and 2. Commuters can use either of the points for their travel:-

* Gate 1 - Towards Meerut Side
* Gate 2 - Towards Delhi Side

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{RapidX|Delhi–Meerut=yes}}

[[Category:National Capital Region (India)]]

Hevea brasiliensis

2026-02-03T20:48:55Z

IgnacioElem3: cleanup

{{short description|Most common rubber tree}}
{{Redirect2|Rubber tree|para rubber|the ornamental plant also known as "rubber tree"|Ficus elastica{{!}}''Ficus elastica''|the New Zealand brand Para Rubber|Skellerup}}
{{speciesbox
|name = Rubber tree
|image =Hevea_brasiliensis_-_Köhler–s_Medizinal-Pflanzen-071.jpg
|genus = Hevea
|species = brasiliensis
|status = LC
|status_system = IUCN3.1
|status_ref = <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fabriani |first1=F. |last2=Hills |first2=R. |title=''Hevea brasiliensis'' |journal=The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species |date=2020 |page=e.T62003521A62003529 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T62003521A62003529.en }}</ref>
|authority = [[Johannes Müller Argoviensis|Müll.Arg.]]
|range_map = Distribution of Hevea sp.jpg
|range_map_caption = Range of the genus ''Hevea''.
}}

'''''Hevea brasiliensis''''', the '''Pará rubber tree''', '''''sharinga'' tree''', '''seringueira''', or, most commonly, '''rubber tree''' or '''rubber plant''', is a [[flowering plant]] belonging to the spurge family, [[Euphorbiaceae]]. It is originally native to the [[Amazon basin]], but is now [[pantropical]] in distribution due to [[introduced species|introductions]]. It is the most economically important member of the genus ''[[Hevea]]'', because the milky [[latex]] extracted from the tree is the primary source of [[natural rubber]].

==Description==
[[Image:Koh Chang, Thailand, Rubber tree.jpg|thumb|right|Canopy and trunk, Thailand]]
''Hevea brasiliensis'' is a tall [[deciduous]] tree growing to a height of up to {{convert|43|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} in the wild. Cultivated trees are usually much smaller because drawing off the latex restricts their growth. The trunk is cylindrical and may have a swollen, bottle-shaped base. The bark is some shade of brown, and the inner bark oozes [[latex]] when damaged. The leaves have three [[Leaflet (botany)|leaflets]] and are spirally arranged. The [[inflorescence]]s include separate male and female flowers. The flowers are pungent, creamy-yellow and have no petals. The fruit is a capsule that contains three large seeds; it opens explosively when ripe.<ref>{{cite POWO |id=349913-1 |title=''Hevea brasiliensis'' (Willd. ex A.Juss.) Müll.Arg. |access-date=31 March 2017}}</ref>

==Rubber tree plantation==
[[File:Hevea semillas2.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Seeds]]
[[File:Sprouting rubber tree seed.jpg|thumb|150px|right|A sprouting seed in a house backyard in [[Malaysia]]]]

In the wild the tree can reach a height of up to {{convert|43|m|ft}}. The white or yellow latex occurs in latex vessels in the [[Bark (botany)|bark]], mostly outside the [[phloem]]. These vessels spiral up the tree in a right-handed [[helix]] which forms an [[angle]] of about 30 degrees with the horizontal, and can grow as high as {{convert|15|m}}.<ref name=FAO/>

In plantations the trees are generally smaller for two reasons: 1) trees grow more slowly when they are tapped for latex, and 2) trees are generally cut down after only 30 years, because latex production declines as trees age, and they are no longer economically productive. The tree requires a [[Tropical climate|tropical]] or [[subtropical climate]] with a minimum of about {{Convert|1,200|mm|in|abbr=on|sp=us|sigfig=1}} per year of rainfall, and no frost.<ref name=eb/> If frost does occur, the results can be disastrous for production. One frost can cause the rubber from an entire plantation to become brittle and break once it has been refined.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/AD221E/AD221E01.htm |title=The rubber tree |publisher=UN [[FAO]]|access-date=29 May 2017}}</ref>

===Latex tapping===
{{Main|Rubber tapping}}
[[File:The face of rubber tree's trunk.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Trunk crosssection]]
[[File:Tapped rubber tree.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Latex being collected from an incised rubber tree and a bucket of collected latex]]
[[File:“Spiral tapping of Hevea Brasiliensis”.jpg|thumb|right|200px|"Spiral tapping of ''Hevea brasiliensis''." Photograph circa 1911, taken in Brazil.]]
The rubber tree takes between seven and ten years to deliver the first harvest.<ref>{{cite web |last=Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft |date=8 June 2015 |title=Natural rubber from dandelions |url=https://phys.org/news/2015-06-natural-rubber-dandelions.html |website=Phys.org}}</ref> Harvesters make incisions across the latex vessels, just deep enough to tap the vessels without harming the tree's growth, and the latex is collected in small buckets. This process is known as [[rubber tapping]]. Latex production is highly variable from tree to tree and across clone types.<ref name=FAO>{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/AD221E/AD221E06.htm |title=Rubber tapping |publisher=UN [[FAO]]|access-date=29 May 2017}}</ref>

===Wood harvesting===
{{Main|Rubberwood}}
{{see also|Wood harvesting}}
As latex production declines with age, rubber trees are generally [[Felling|felled]] when they reach the age of 25 to 30 years. The earlier practice was to burn the trees, but in recent decades, the wood has been harvested for furniture making.<ref name=FAO/>

==History==
The South American rubber tree grew only in the [[Amazon rainforest]], and increasing demand and the discovery of the [[vulcanization]] procedure in 1839 led to the rubber boom in that region, enriching the cities of [[Belém do Pará|Belém]], [[Santarém, Pará|Santarém]], and [[Manaus]] in Brazil and [[Iquitos]], Peru, from 1840 to 1913. In Brazil, before the name was changed to 'Seringueira' the initial name of the plant was 'pará rubber tree', derived from the name of the province of [[State of Grão-Pará and Rio Negro|Grão-Pará]]. In Peru, the tree was called 'árbol del caucho', and the latex extracted from it was called 'caucho'. The tree was used to obtain rubber by the natives who inhabited its geographical distribution. The [[Olmec]] people of [[Mesoamerica]] extracted and produced similar forms of rubber from analogous latex-producing trees such as ''[[Castilla elastica]]'' as early as 3,600 years ago. The rubber was used, among other things, to make the balls used in the [[Mesoamerican ballgame]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.maya-archaeology.org/Mayan_anthropology_ethnography_archaeology_art_history_iconography_epigraphy_ethnobotany/rubber_hule_Castilla_elastica_incense_idols_ball_game_balls_Guatemala_Chiapas_Mexico_Belize_Hevea_brasiliensis.php |title=Introduction to Rubber Usage among the Maya |author=Langenheim, J.H. |date=13 January 2010 |publisher=Maya Archaeology|access-date=29 May 2017}}</ref> Early attempts were made in 1873 to grow ''H. brasiliensis'' outside [[Brazil]]. After some effort, 12 seedlings were germinated at the [[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]]. These were sent to [[India]] for cultivation, but died. A second attempt was then made, some 70,000 seeds being smuggled to Kew in 1875, by [[Henry Wickham (explorer)|Henry Wickham]], in the service of the British Empire.<ref name=df>"The Brazilian Armed Forces: Current changes, new challenges", ''Dreifuss, R. Armand''. International Seminar Research Committee Armed Forces and Society, Romania, 2002. Retrieved August 19, 2009 from {{cite web |url=http://www.nestbrasil.com/rest/page8/files/rested1-dreyfus.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2009-08-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090731102816/http://www.nestbrasil.com/rest/page8/files/rested1-dreyfus.pdf |archive-date=2009-07-31 }}</ref>{{RP|55}}<ref name=gp>"Amazon - The Animation", ''Greepeace Digital''. Artificial Environments, n/d. Retrieved August 19, 2009 from {{cite web |url=http://www.ae-pro.com/preview.php?preid=31&pro=Amazon |title=The Animation |access-date=2009-08-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707090719/http://www.ae-pro.com/preview.php?preid=31&pro=Amazon |archive-date=2011-07-07 }}</ref><ref name=mag>"Acre: História e etnologia", ''Marco António Gonçalves (Org.)''. Núcleo de Etnologia Indígena Laboratório de Pesquisa Social/IFCS - UFRJ, n/d. Retrieved August 19, 2009 from https://eduardoeginacarli.blogspot.com/2007_07_01_archive.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180901113528/http://eduardoeginacarli.blogspot.com/2007_07_01_archive.html |date=2018-09-01 }}</ref> About four percent of these germinated, and in 1876, about 2,000 seedlings were sent, in [[Wardian case]]s, to [[Ceylon]] (modern day Sri Lanka) and 22 were sent to the botanic gardens in [[Singapore]].

[[File:“Henry Wickham, who in 1876 directed an operation smuggling 70,000 rubber tree seeds”.jpg|thumb|"Henry Wickham, who in 1876 directed an operation smuggling 70,000 rubber tree seeds"]]

Once established outside its native country, rubber was extensively propagated in the British colonies. Rubber trees were brought to the botanical gardens at [[Bogor|Buitenzorg]], Java, in 1883.<ref name="winchester">{{cite book | last = Winchester | first = Simon | author-link = Simon Winchester | title = [[Krakatoa: The Day the World Exploded, August 27, 1883]] | pages = [https://archive.org/details/krakatoadaywo00winc/page/223 223–224] | publisher =[[HarperCollins]]| year = 2003 | isbn = 0-06-621285-5 }}</ref> By 1898, a rubber plantation had been established in [[British Malaya|Malaya]], with imported Chinese field workers being the dominant work force in rubber production in the early 20th-century.<ref>Harold A. Crouch, ''Economic Change, Social Structure, and the Political System in Southeast Asia'', Institute of Southeast Asian Studies: Singapore 1985, pp. 16–17 {{ISBN|9971-988-23-2}}</ref>

The cultivation of the tree in South America (Amazon) ended early in the 20th century because of indigenous [[blight]]s that targeted the rubber tree.<ref name=eb>"Elastomer-The rubber tree", ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 2008</ref> The blight, called South American leaf blight, is caused by the [[Ascomycota|ascomycete]] ''[[Pseudocercospora]] [[Pseudocercospora ulei|ulei]]'',<ref name="Guyot-Guen-2018">{{cite journal | last1=Guyot | first1=Jean | last2=Le Guen | first2=Vincent | title=A Review of a Century of Studies on South American Leaf Blight of the Rubber Tree | journal=[[Plant Disease (journal)|Plant Disease]] | publisher=[[American Phytopathological Society]] | volume=102 | issue=6 | year=2018 | issn=0191-2917 | doi=10.1094/pdis-04-17-0592-fe | pages=1052–1065| pmid=30673445 | bibcode=2018PlDis.102.1052G | doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="EPPO-GD">{{cite web | title=''Pseudocercospora ulei'' (MICCUL){{bracket|Overview}} | website=Global Database | publisher=EPPO ([[European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization]]) | date=2002-04-09 | url=http://gd.eppo.int/taxon/MICCUL | access-date=2021-08-28}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Júnior |first1=Braz Tavares da Hora |last2=Macedo |first2=Davi Mesquita de |last3=Barreto |first3=Robert Weingart |last4=Evans |first4=Harry C. |last5=Mattos |first5=Carlos Raimundo Reis |last6=Maffia |first6=Luiz Antonio |last7=Mizubuti |first7=Eduardo S. G. |date=2014-08-15 |title=Erasing the Past: A New Identity for the Damoclean Pathogen Causing South American Leaf Blight of Rubber |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=9 |issue=8 |article-number=e104750 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0104750 |doi-access=free |pmid=25126853 |pmc=4134235 |bibcode=2014PLoSO...9j4750H |issn=1932-6203}}</ref> also called ''Microcyclus ulei'',<ref>[http://www.plantwise.org/knowledgebank/datasheet.aspx?dsid=33893 South American Leaf Blight of rubber (''Microcyclus ulei'')], plantwise.org</ref> or ''Dothidella ulei'', which is endemic to the Amazon Basin. The blight was considered one of the five most aggressive diseases in commercial crops in South America.<ref name="Correa‑Pinilla2022">{{cite journal |last1=Correa‑Pinilla |first1=Diana Elisa |last2=Gutiérrez‑Vanegas |first2=Albert Julesmar |last3=Gil‑Restrepo |first3=Juan Pablo |last4=Martínez-Atencia |first4=Judith |last5=Córdoba‑Gaona |first5=Oscar de Jesús |title=Agroecological and South American leaf blight escape zones for rubber cultivation in Colombia |journal=Agronomy Journal |date=September–October 2022 |volume=114 |issue=5 |pages=2830–2844 |doi=10.1002/agj2.21068 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022AgrJ..114.2830C }}</ref> Rubber production then moved to parts of the world where it is not indigenous, and therefore not affected by local plant diseases.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last= Prance |editor1-first=Ghillean |editor2-last=Nesbitt |editor2-first=Mark |last1=Prance |first1=Ghillean |date=2005 |title=The Cultural History of Plants |publisher=Routledge |page=28 |isbn=0-415-92746-3}}</ref> Today, most rubber tree plantations are in [[South Asia|South]] and [[Southeast Asia]], the top rubber producing countries in 2011 being Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, India and Vietnam.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://top5ofanything.com/list/7738a992/Rubber-Producing-Countries |title=The Top 5 Rubber Producing Countries |publisher=Top 5 of Anything |access-date=29 May 2017 |archive-date=9 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210509015059/https://top5ofanything.com/list/7738a992/Rubber-Producing-Countries }}</ref>

==Environmental concerns==
The toxicity of arsenic to [[insect]]s, [[bacteria]], and [[fungi]] has led to the heavy use of [[arsenic trioxide]] on rubber plantations, especially in [[Malaysia]].<ref name=Ullmann>{{Ullmann | first1= Sabina C. |last1=Grund |first2=Kunibert |last2=Hanusch |first3=Hans Uwe |last3=Wolf | title = Arsenic and Arsenic Compounds | doi = 10.1002/14356007.a03_113.pub2}}</ref>

The majority of the rubber trees in Southeast Asia are clones of varieties highly susceptible to the South American leaf blight—''Pseudocercospora ulei''. For these reasons, environmental historian Charles C. Mann, in his 2011 book, ''1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created'', predicted that the Southeast Asian rubber plantations will be ravaged by the blight in the not-too-distant future, thus creating a potential calamity for international industry.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mann|first=Charles C.|title=1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created|year=2011|publisher=Knopf|location=New York|isbn=978-0-307-26572-2|url=https://archive.org/details/1493uncoveringne00mann}}</ref>

==Secondary metabolites==
''Hevea brasiliensis'' produces [[cyanogenic glycosides]] (CGs) as a defense, concentrated in the seeds. (Although effective against other attackers, cyanogenic glycosides are not very effective against [[fungal plant pathogen|fungal pathogens]]. In rare cases, they are even detrimental. This is the case for the rubber tree, which actually suffers ''worse'' from ''Pseudocercospora ulei'' when it produces more cyanogenic glycosides. This may be because cyanide inhibits the production of other defensive metabolites. This results in significantly divergent subpopulations with selection for or against cyanogenic glycosides, depending on local likelihoods of fungal or non-fungal pest pressure.) The carbon and nitrogen in CGs are recycled for growth and latex production if needed, and the ease of doing so makes them an attractive nitrogen store - especially if the plant is light-deprived and storage in photosynthesis proteins would thus be unhelpful. The [[α-hydroxynitrilase|α-hydroxynitrile]]s are likely contained in the [[cytoplasm]]. [[Linamarin]] is [[hydrolysis|hydrolyzed]] by an accompanying [[linamarase]], a [[β-glycosidase]]. ''Hevea brasiliensis'' linamarase ''does'' act upon linamarin because it is a [[monoglucoside]], while it does ''not'' for [[linustatin]] because it is a diglucoside - in fact, the production of lovastatin inhibits linamarase cleavage of linamarin. This allows intra-plant, post-synthesis transport of linustatin without risking premature cleavage.<ref name="Gleadow-Moller-2014">{{cite journal | last1=Gleadow | first1=Roslyn M. | last2=Møller | first2=Birger Lindberg | title=Cyanogenic Glycosides: Synthesis, Physiology, and Phenotypic Plasticity | journal=[[Annual Review of Plant Biology]] | publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] | volume=65 | issue=1 | date=2014-04-29 | issn=1543-5008 | doi=10.1146/annurev-arplant-050213-040027 | pages=155–185| pmid=24579992 | bibcode=2014AnRPB..65..155G | s2cid=207575721}}</ref>

==See also==
* ''[[Castilla elastica]]''—the principal source of latex rubber among the pre-Columbian [[Mesoamerica]]n peoples
* ''[[Landolphia owariensis]]''—a liana that was the primary source of Congo rubber
* [[List of plants of Amazon Rainforest vegetation of Brazil]]
* [[Congo Free State propaganda war|Red Rubber Scandal]]—was one of the first humanitarian global campaigns but concerned the rubber vine species
* [[Rubber seed oil]]
* [[Rubberwood]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
* Zhang, J., Huss, V.A.R., Sun, X., Chang, K. and Pan, D. 2008. Morphology and phylogenetic position of a trebouxiophycean green algae (Chlorophyta) growing on the rubber tree, ''Hevea brasiliensis'', with the description of a new genus and species. ''Eur. J. Phycol.'' '''43(2)''': 185–193.
*Charles C. Mann 2011. 1493. Uncovering the New World Columbus Created. Ch.7 Black Gold.
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Hevea brasiliensis}}
* {{YouTube|id=UPMJVnxZLgQ|title=Extraction of Rubber}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q156538}}

[[Category:Crotonoideae]]
[[Category:Rubber]]
[[Category:Crops originating from South America]]
[[Category:Trees of Bolivia]]
[[Category:Trees of Brazil]]
[[Category:Trees of Colombia]]
[[Category:Trees of Peru]]
[[Category:Trees of the Amazon rainforest]]

Korlai Fort

2026-01-11T16:52:41Z

IgnacioElem3: improve content per sources and updated info for consistency

{{Short description|Fort in Maharashtra, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2017}}
{{Infobox military installation
|name = Korlai Fort
|native_name = Morro de Chaul<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chaul a Portuguese town in India|url=https://www.colonialvoyage.com/portuguese-chaul/}}</ref>
|partof = Portuguese India
|location = [[Raigad district]], [[Maharashtra]]
|image = [[File:Portuguese church of Korlai fort.jpg|300px]]
|caption = Ruins of the Portuguese church in Korlai
|map_type=India Maharashtra#India
|map_size = 300
|map_caption = Location Of Korlai fort
|type = Island fort
|coordinates = {{coord|18|32|9|N|72|54|29|E}}
|built = 1521
|builder = Dom Filipe Mascarenhas
|materials = Stone
|height =
|used =
|demolished =1594
|condition = Ruins
|ownership = Government of India
|open_to_public = Yes
|controlledby = {{noflag}}[[Ahmadnagar Sultanate|Ahmadnagar]] (1521-1594) {{flagcountry|Portuguese Empire}} (1594-1739) {{flagcountry|Maratha Empire}} (1739-1818) {{flagcountry|United Kingdom}}
* {{flagicon image|Flag of the British East India Company (1801).svg}} [[East India Company]] (1818-1857)
* {{flagicon image|British Raj Red Ensign.svg}} [[British Raj]] (1857-1947)
{{flagcountry|India}} (1947-)
|garrison =
|current_commander =
|commanders =
|occupants =
|battles =
|events =
|image2 =
|caption2 =
}}
'''Korlai Fort''' is a [[List of Portuguese colonial forts|colonial fort]] in the [[Raigad district]] of [[Maharashtra, India|Maharashtra]], India.<ref name="Kapadia 2004 72">{{cite book|last=Kapadia |first=Harish|title=Trek the Sahyadris|publisher=Indus Publishing|year=2004|pages=72|isbn=81-7387-151-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oICZM5HKRbAC&q=korlai+fort&pg=PA72|access-date=2009-02-04}}</ref> Formerly a part of [[Chaul]] in [[Portuguese India]],<ref>{{cite journal|year=1889|title=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society|publisher=Bombay Natural History Society|volume=v4|pages=291|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5J9oyAsf0tEC&q=korlai+fort&pg=PA291|access-date=2009-02-04}}</ref> the structure is a specimen of [[Portuguese colonial architecture]].<ref name="Kapadia 2004 72"/> It was built as a companion to the fort at Chaul, at this strategic position the Portuguese could use it to defend their province which stretched from Korlai to the [[Fort Bassein]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Indica |publisher=Saint Xavier's College, Bombay Heras Institute of Indian History and Culture|year=2004|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L_htAAAAMAAJ&q=korlai+fort|access-date=2009-02-05}}</ref> Vestiges of the Portuguese occupation are manifested in the distinct dialect of the Korlai villages inhabitants which is a [[Luso-Indian]] creole called [[Korlai Portuguese Creole]].

== History ==
This fort was built in 1521 by the [[Portuguese India|Portuguese]] with the permission of the [[Ahmednagar Sultanate#Ahmadnagar sultanate|Ahmednagar sultanate]]. In 1521, taking advantage of the confusion in the aftermath of the death of the Burhan Nizam, the Portuguese tried to take over the fort.<ref name="bombay ">{{cite book|title=Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency|publisher=Govt. Central Press|year=1883|url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924070623776|page=[https://archive.org/details/cu31924070623776/page/n341 328]|quote=korlai fort.|access-date=2009-02-04}}</ref> However the sultan retaliated and sent some of his best men to reclaim the fort. Subsequently, a truce was reached in which the Ahmednagar sultanate occupied the island and no further fortification of the island took place. Only a wooden cross remained on the island as a sign of its former rulers.

However, in 1594, Abranches, a Portuguese captain with 1,500 soldiers and 1,500 natives took possession of the fort. The besieged soldiers of the Sultanate tried to block their way by putting a dead elephant at the main gate and a dead horse at the inner gate. But in the end they had to surrender.<ref name="konkan">{{cite book|last=Nairne|first=Alexander Kyd|title=History of the Konkan|publisher=Asian Educational Services|year=1988|pages=50|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nzPCcILP-XwC&q=korlai+fort&pg=PA50|access-date=2009-02-05 | isbn=978-81-206-0275-5}}</ref><ref name="bombay"/> The Portuguese won the fort but not having enough men to stand guard there chose to destroy it<ref name="bombay"/> leaving only the central tower and a battery intact.

Before its destruction, Korlai had been described by travelers as a "magnificent fortress as strong as any other in the world".<ref name="bombay"/> On the inland side - the only place where it was susceptible to be attacked - it was protected by a ditch and could only be accessed by a drawbridge. The main entrance was guarded by a bronze lion and the highest tower by a bronze eagle. It housed 7,000 horses and as much men.

Some parts of it were rebuilt later but now had a garrison of only 50 men.<ref name="bombay"/> The church within the fort was used for worship on Sundays and holidays. Korlai fort was also strategically very important as it guarded the mouth of the bay. [[Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj]], the son of [[Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj]], tried to take it over but failed<ref name="daiji"/> and had to withdraw his forces on 6 December 1687.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gokhala|first=Kamal Shri Krishna|title=Chhatrapati Sambhaji|publisher=Navakamal Publications|year=1978|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qvy1AAAAIAAJ&q=korlai+fort|access-date=2009-02-04}}</ref> The fort was taken by the Marathas who held it from 1739 to 1818.
== Last Commandant ==
The last commandant of the fort, belong to [[Vanjari caste| Vanjari]], who died a few years ago, must, like his predecessor, have wrought this nationalization of Portuguese names.”
<ref>{{cite book |last=Cunha |first=J. Gerson da |title=History and Antiquities of Chaul and Bassein |year=1882 |publisher=Government Central Press |location=Bombay |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.180735/page/n151/mode/2up?q=wanjari |page=151}}</ref>

== Major features ==

The fort is 2,828 feet long, and its average breadth is eighty-nine feet. The enclosing wall is 5' 3" high and has 305 battlements for guns. It is entered by eleven gates - four are outer and seven are inner. At the north point, within pistol-shot of the main battery, is the water cistern named Santa Cruz, major source of water. The area within the fort walls is divided into three enclosures by two lines of bastioned fortifications. Each of the seven bastions bears the name of a saint. The two westward bastions are named São Diego (after [[Didacus of Alcalá]]) and São Francisco (after [[Francis of Assisi]]).<ref name="daiji">{{cite web|url=http://www.daijiworld.com/chan/exclusive_arch.asp?ex_id=911|title=Korlai - The Lesser Known Portuguese Enclave on Konkan Coast |last=D’Souza|first=Eugene|date=23 June 2008|access-date=2009-02-05}}</ref> The others are São Pedro, São Inácio, and São Filipe.<ref name="bombay"/>

The top of the hill is bastioned as well and is surrounded by a parapet. It has a large rainwater cistern with three mouths, each one foot wide, and the ruins of the magazine and a church.<ref name="gunaji">{{cite book|last=Gunaji|first=Milind|title=Offbeat Tracks in Maharashtra|publisher=Popular Prakashan|year=2005|pages=24|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JIjmDLardesC&q=korlai&pg=PA29|access-date=2009-01-28 | isbn=978-81-7154-669-5}}</ref> The church was built in 1630 for the use of the army<ref name="daiji"/> and was functional until 1728.

There are three Portuguese inscriptions. One, over a doorway in the centre and highest part of the fort (see picture), reads as follows:

<blockquote>
This castle was commanded to be built by the Viceroy of India Dom Filipe Mascarenhas in November of the year 1646 and Fernão Miranda Henriques being Captain of Chaul, and was finished in May 1680, Cristóvão de Abreu de Azevedo being Captain of this fort.
</blockquote>

The inscription is surmounted by a cross with a coat of arms having the Portuguese stars in the centre and surrounded by seven castles. Other inscriptions over the main entrance and over an altar in the chapel are worn out and undecipherable.<ref name="bombay"/> During the brief Maratha rule, some of the names of the bastions were changed but now the only indication of their presence is some dismantled shrines.

==Forest==
The hill slopes surrounding the fort are in control of the [[Maharashtra]] [[Forest]] department. Originally trees of [[teak]] were planted on the eastern slopes. Later, in 1996, plantation of ''[[Casuarina]]'', [[cashew]] and ''[[Acacia auriculiformis]]'' was done to check erosion.

== Gallery ==
<gallery>
File:Korlai fort hall.jpg|alt=Korali fort main hall ruins|Main hall ruins
File:Korlai fort entrance.jpg|alt=Korlai fort entrance|Entrance
File:Korlai fort walkway.jpg|alt=Korlai fort walkway|Walkway
File:Korlai fort cross2.JPG|The Cross bateri
File:Korlai fort inscription.jpg|Inscription on top of the main entrance
File:Fortress of Chaul- Plans of Plazas and Forts of Portuguese Possessions in Asia and Africa WDL1057.png|Map of Chaul and environs
File:Korlai3.jpg|A canon
File:Korlai6.jpg|Section
</gallery>

== See also ==

* [[List of forts in Maharashtra]]

== References ==
{{commons category}}
{{reflist}}

{{Forts and fortresses of the Portuguese empire|state=collapsed}}
{{Forts in Maharashtra}}
{{Forts in India}}

[[Category:Forts in Raigad district]]
[[Category:Portuguese forts in India]]
[[Category:16th-century forts in India]]
[[Category:1521 in India]]
[[Category:1520s in Portuguese India]]
[[Category:1594 in India]]
[[Category:1590s in Portuguese India]]
[[Category:1520s establishments in Portuguese India]]
[[Category:1521 establishments in the Portuguese Empire]]

LeftWord Books

2026-01-10T10:59:02Z

IgnacioElem3: formatting fix

{{Short description|Indian publisher}}
{{Primary sources|date=December 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2022}}
{{Infobox publisher
| image = LeftWord Books Logo.png
| imagesize =
| parent =
| status = Active
| founded = {{start date and age|1999}}
| founder = [[Prakash Karat]]
| successor =
| country = [[India]]
| headquarters = [[New Delhi]]
| distribution =
| keypeople = [[Sudhanva Deshpande]], [[Vijay Prashad]]
| publications = [[book]]s
| topics = [[Left-wing politics|Leftist]] views, [[Marxist]] theory
| genre =
| imprints =
| revenue =
| numemployees =
| nasdaq =
| url = http://leftword.com/
|owner=[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]]}}

'''LeftWord Books''' is a [[New Delhi]]–based publisher that seeks to reflect the views of the [[left-wing politics|Left]] in India and South Asia. Its Managing Director is [[Prakash Karat]], the former General Secretary of the [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]], or CPI(M).
The Chief Editor is [[Vijay Prashad]] and the Managing Editor is the actor-publisher Sudhanva Deshpande.<ref name="aboutus">
{{cite web |title=LeftWord Books: About us |url=https://leftword.com/aboutus |access-date=15 January 2015}}
</ref><ref name=freemarket>
{{cite news |title=What's the 'Leftword' for free market? |first=Hasan |last=Suroor|date=15 May 2000 |url=http://www.thehindu.com/thehindu/2000/05/15/stories/0215000k.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20150106195924/http://www.thehindu.com/thehindu/2000/05/15/stories/0215000k.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=6 January 2015 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=6 January 2015}}
</ref>

== History ==
LeftWord Books was founded in 1999 as the publishing division of ''Naya Rasta Publishers Private Limited''. It was conceived by a group of Leftist intellectuals including [[Prabhat Patnaik]], [[Aijaz Ahmad]], [[Tulika Books|Indira Chandrasekhar]], [[Prakash Karat]], [[V. K. Ramachandran]] and [[N. Ram]] and sometimes regarded as "the English publishing arm of the [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]]".<ref name=raredouble/> It is managed by the Managing Editor Sudhanva Deshpande, who had earlier worked with [[Tulika Books]] during 1994 to 1998 and continues to be involved with the theatre group [[Jana Natya Manch]]. LeftWord differs from Tulika Books, according to Deshpande, by being explicitly Leftist.<ref name=Despande>{{cite web |title=Interview with Sudhanva Deshpande |url=http://notjustpublishing.in/interview/Sudhanva/Deshpande# |publisher=Not Just Publishing |access-date=5 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103183714/http://notjustpublishing.in/interview/Sudhanva/Deshpande |archive-date=3 November 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== May Day ==
[[File:May Day Bookstore.jpg|thumb|May Day Bookstore from the outside]]
The company runs the May Day [[Bookselling|bookstore]] and [[Coffeehouse|cafe]] in New Delhi which happens to the only left-leaning bookstore in the city, next to the [[Theatre|theater]] space, Studio Safdar. It lives in the vibrant neighborhood of [[Shadipur Depot|Shadipur]] in [[West Delhi district|West Delhi]], nearby the [[Shadipur metro station]].

== Internet Retail ==
It sells books via its website from various Leftist publishers including [[Tulika Books]]. It also has a membership-based book club, whose subscriptions served to form the seed capital of the publishing division. By mid-2000, the company established itself as a successful [[Publishing|publisher]] with several well-subscribed titles.<ref name="aboutus" /><ref name="freemarket" />

== Book series ==
* LeftWord Classics
* SIGNPOST: The Issues that Matter

== Selected titles ==
* [[Fidel Castro]], ''The Gigantic Casino: Reflections on the World Financial Crisis'', {{ISBN|8187496827}}.
* [[Hugo Chavez]], ''The South Also Exists'', {{ISBN|8187496568}}.
* Carlos Ferrer, ''Becoming Che'', {{ISBN|8187496800}}.
* Teo Ballve, [[Vijay Prashad]], ''Dispatches From Latin America- Experimenting Against Neoliberalism'', {{ISBN|8187496584}}.
* [[John Harriss]], ''Depoliticizing Development: The World Bank and Social Capital'', {{ISBN|184331049X}} (also issued by London: Anthem Press).
* [[E. M. S. Namboodiripad]], ''History, Society, and Land Relations: Selected Essays'', {{ISBN|8187496924}}.
* [[Thomas Isaac]], Richard W. Franke, ''Local Democracy and Development: The Kerala People's Campaign for Decentralized Planning'', {{ISBN|8187496126}} (also issued by Rowman & Littlefield, {{ISBN|0742516075}}<ref name=raredouble>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/a-rare-double-for-isaac/article1281999.ece |title=A rare double for Isaac|newspaper= The Hindu|date= 22 June 2008|first=Gouridasan |last=Nair}}</ref>
* [[Prakash Karat]], ''Subordinate Ally: The Nuclear Deal and India-US Strategic Relations'', {{ISBN|8187496738}}.
* [[Harkishan Singh Surjeet]], ''History of the Communist Movement in India, Vol. 1: The Formative Years, 1920-1933'', {{ISBN|8187496495}}.
* [[Richard Levins]], ''Talking about Trees: Science, Ecology, and Agriculture in Cuba'', {{ISBN|8187496630}}.
* [[Utsa Patnaik]], ''The Agrarian Question In Marx And His Successors'', {{ISBN|8187496606}}.
* [[Aijaz Ahmad]], [[Irfan Habib]], [[Prabhat Patnaik]], ''A World To Win: Essays on the Communist Manifesto'', {{ISBN|8187496010}}.
* [[A. G. Noorani]], ''The RSS and the BJP: A Division of Labour'', {{ISBN|8187496134}}.
* A. G. Noorani, ''Savarkar and Hindutva: The Godse Connection'', {{ISBN|8187496282}}.
* [[Dwijendra Narayan Jha]], ''The Many Careers of DD Kosambi'', {{ISBN|9380118066}}.<ref>[http://www.outlookindia.com/printarticle.aspx?279686 The Master Revisited, Outlook, 6 February 2012] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402121615/http://www.outlookindia.com/printarticle.aspx?279686 |date=2 April 2015 }}</ref>
* [[Vijay Prashad]], ''The Darker Nations- A Biography of the Short-Lived Third World'', {{ISBN|8187496665}}.
* Vijay Prashad, ''War Against the Planet: the fifth Afghan war, imperialism, and other assorted fundamentalisms'', {{ISBN|8187496193}}.
* Archana Prashad, ''Environmentalism and the left: contemporary debates and future agendas in tribal areas'', {{ISBN|8187496444}}.
* [[N. Ram]], ''Riding the Nuclear Tiger'', {{ISBN|8187496029}}.
* [[Praveen Swami]], ''The Kargil War'', {{ISBN|8187496045}}.
* Parvathi Menon, ''Breaking Barriers: Stories of Twelve Women'', {{ISBN|8187496479}}.
* [[Ninan Koshy]], ''Under the Empire: India's New Foreign Policy'', {{ISBN|8187496525}}.
* [[Govind Deshpande]], ''Selected Writings Of Jotirao Phule'', {{ISBN|8187496215}},.
* C. P. Chandrasekhar, [[Jayati Ghosh]], ''The market that failed: a decade of neoliberal economic reforms in India'', {{ISBN|8187496207}}.
* Prabir Purkayastha, Ninan Koshy, M. K. Bhadrakumar, ''Uncle Sam's Nuclear Cabin'', {{ISBN|8187496746}}.
* Madhura Swaminathan, ''Weakening welfare: the public distribution of food in India'', {{ISBN|8187496088}}.
* [[Githa Hariharan]], ''From India to Palestine — Essays in Solidarity'', {{ISBN|978-93-80118-20-8}}.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-bookreview/searching-for-palestine-in-indias-israel-policy/article6099332.ece |title=Searching for Palestine in India’s Israel policy|first=T. N. |last=Gopalan|newspaper= The Hindu|date= 10 June 2014}}</ref>
* [[K. Chandru]], ''Listen to My Case!'', {{ISBN|9788194475934}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==

* {{OpenStreetMap link|n|6763955887|May Day Bookstore}}

[[Category:1999 establishments in Delhi]]
[[Category:Book publishing companies of India]]
[[Category:Leftist organisations in India]]
[[Category:Publishing companies established in 1999]]

Sarbarah

2026-01-09T06:17:23Z

IgnacioElem3:

{{Use British English|date=January 2026}}
{{Use DMY dates|date=January 2026}}
{{Short description|Manager role of the Golden Temple during British India}}
[[File:Photograph of Man Singh of Rariala presiding as Sarabrah of the Golden Temple complex at a meeting outside the Darshani Deohri, Amritsar, ca.1880–85.jpg|thumb|Photograph of Man Singh of Rariala presiding as Sarabrah of the Golden Temple complex at a meeting outside the Darshani Deohri, Amritsar, ca.1880–85]]
The '''Sarbarah''' was a custodianship position in [[Punjab Province (British India)|British Punjab]] where a person would oversee the affairs of the [[Golden Temple]] complex in [[Amritsar]] as a temple-manager. The person who fulfilled the role was appointed by the colonial-government.{{Efn|'Sarbarah is alternatively spelt as sarbrah, sarabarah, or sarabrah.|group=note}}<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Gopal |title=The Religion of the Sikhs |publisher=Allied Publishers |year=1971 |isbn=9780210222966 |pages=190 |chapter=Appendix}}</ref> The position was created by the [[British Raj|British]] after their annexation of the [[Punjab]] and it ended in 1920.<ref name=":0" />

== History ==

=== Formation ===
[[File:Photograph of the Golden Temple in Amritsar with caption "Golden Temple in which Grunth is kept. The 4 pinnacles cased with thin gold plates presented by Rajas of Patiala, Jheend (and) Nabha" by William Henry Baker, circa 1860's.jpg|thumb|Photograph of the Golden Temple in Amritsar, by William Henry Baker, circa 1860's]]
In the period after annexation in 1849 until 1859, the Golden Temple complex was managed by a series of ''[[mahant]]s'' under British-control.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Myrvold |first=Kristina |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BSs0EQAAQBAJ&dq=golden+temple+Sarbarah&pg=PA599 |title=Sikh News in India, 1864-1924: Colonial Reports on Vernacular Newspapers of Punjab |date=Dec 2, 2024 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789004707085 |volume=Two: Religious Places, Practices, and Relations |pages=599–600 |chapter=Overview}}</ref> The Extra-Assistant Commissioner, under the Chief Commissioner of Punjab, held the power to fine persons for misconduct and also the ability to bar their entry into the complex.<ref name=":1" /> After the Indian Mutiny, the pujari caretakers of the shrines of the Golden Temple, the Akal Takht, and auxiliary shrines started bickering over management of funds from daily offerings and the Sikh sardars supposed to manage the shrines failed to fulfill their duties, thus a meeting was held in 1859 headed by [[Tej Singh|Raja Teja Singh of Sheikhupura]] at his residence.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Nijjar |first=Bakhshish Singh |title=History of the United Panjab |publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Distributors |year=1996 |isbn=9788171565351 |volume=2 |pages=52–54}}</ref> The meeting was to resolve any disputes over the management of shrine and set-out the framework for managing them, with the meeting being attended also by Deputy Commissioner Cooper.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last1=Mirza |first1=Sarfaraz Hussain |title=The Sikh Question: From Constitutional Demands to Armed Conflict |last2=Hasnat |first2=Syed Farooq |last3=Mahmood |first3=Sohail |publisher=Centre for South Asian Studies |year=1985 |pages=162–165}}</ref> Thus through the ''dastur'' of 1859, the pujaris became servants of the Golden Temple and any parties that had rights over the shrine and its institutions, but the pujaris could still enjoy the temple's property and income.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |title=Journal of Regional History, Volume 3 |publisher=Department of History, Guru Nanak Dev University |year=1982 |pages=93–95}}</ref> Furthermore, in 1860 there was rivalry between Jodh Singh and Pardaman Singh over who should be appointed as the sarbarah.<ref name=":4" />

After the administrative regulations (''dastur-ul-amal'') were created by Sikh delegates, a committee (that the British had direct-control over) was created that could appoint a manager for the complex.<ref name=":1" /> The committee consisted of nine trustees (''[[sardar]]s''), who worked regularly regarding the finances, administration, and discipline regarding the complex whilst the sarbarah carried out the instructions of the nine sardars. The committee of trustees also acted as the Municipal Committee of the town of Amritsar.<ref name=":2" />

=== Controversies and opposition ===
In 1883, the committee structure was silently ended and the position of sarbarah became more powerful without a committee overseeing them, with the sarbarah now answering to the Deputy Commissioner.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> Thus, corruption began to increase in the role.<ref name=":2" />
[[File:Painting of native members of the Amritsar Municipal Committee discussing plans for the drainage of Amritsar, by Bishan Singh, 1868.jpg|thumb|Painting of native members of the Amritsar Municipal Committee discussing plans for the drainage of Amritsar, by Bishan Singh, 1868]]
The position of sarbarah was appointed by the Punjab government, specifically the Deputy Commissioner of Amritsar District and/or their Divisional Commissioner, whom were supported by the Lieutenant-Governors. The chosen Sikh for the role was characteristically pro-British (termed disparagingly as ''todis''<ref name=":02">{{Cite news |last=Bharti |first=Vishav |date=16 July 2022 |title=Simranjit Singh Mann defends grandfather who honoured General Reginald Dyer |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/punjab/simranjit-singh-mann-defends-grandfather-who-honoured-general-reginald-dyer-413061/ |access-date=9 November 2025 |work=The Tribune |quote=Mann’s comment has once again raked up a debate over “todis” (British loyalists) during the colonial rule and his grandfather’s “hurtful” act.}}</ref>) and well-known.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kerr |first=Ian J. |title=Golden Temple |publisher=Publication Bureau, Punjabi University |year=1999 |isbn=9788173805691 |pages=87 |chapter=Handle With Great Care: British Actions Towards the Sikhs and the Golden Temple in the Last Half of the 19th Century}}</ref> An example is Man Singh, who had served the British in the Indian Mutiny of 1857–58 as part of Hodson's Horse, later having the sarbarah role which he held until an old-age.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Sikh Review, Volume 49, Issues 565-576 |publisher=Sikh Cultural Centre |year=2001 |pages=69}}</ref>

The system was criticized in the local press for its inefficiency and malpractices.<ref name=":1" /> Two sarbarahs in-particular faced a lot of criticism: Jawala Singh and Arur Singh.<ref name=":1" /> It was alleged that ''[[Karah Parshad|karah parshad]]'' from the complex would be delivered to the houses of Magistrates and police-officers.<ref name=":2" /> The expensive scarves that were meant to wrap the Guru Granth Sahib were auctioned off by the sarbarah or their usage allowed for wives and children of priests of the complex.<ref name=":2" /> In 1896, there was a proposal to electrify the Golden Temple complex to beautify it and provide lighting, however this project would stall due to its controversy, as many Sikhs thought it would pose a danger to the shrine.<ref name=":1" /> Thus, the electrification project did not finalize until the Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee took over management of the complex in the 1920s.<ref name=":1" /> By the early 20th century, Sikh organizations, such as the Chief Khalsa Diwan, agitated for reform to end the British influence in the temple managerial position and permit the Sikhs to appoint their own manager.<ref name=":1" /> Jawala Singh was controversial due to claimed corruption, appropriation of funds, being a military-man, and his lack of education due to him being a supposed "illiterate Jat".<ref name=":1" /> In 1901, Jawala Singh claimed in court to be a representative of Guru Ram Das in his role, which sparked calls of blasphemy against him.<ref name=":1" />
[[File:Photograph of the Governor of Punjab at the Golden Temple, Amritsar, Punjab, ca.1910.jpg|thumb|Photograph of the Governor of Punjab at the Golden Temple alongside members of the temple management, Amritsar, Punjab, ca.1910]]
Arur Singh, Jawala's successor, was criticized for nepotism, his opium consumption, and neglecting his duties as caretaker since he was preoccupied with his work as Honorary Magistrate in Nowshera Nangli.<ref name=":1" /> Furthermore, there were concerns raised about nefarious activities taking places in the various hospices (''bungas'') that surrounded the complex, such as gambling and women of "doubtful character".<ref name=":1" /> On 1 May 1905, Arur Singh banned Brahmins from bringing in idols and worshipping them on the parikarma, washing their clothes in the ''[[Temple tank|sarovar]]'', and spitting into and rinsing their mouth with its waters. However, he continued to allow them to perform puja, bathe in the tank, and apply tilak.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Panjab University Research Journal: Arts, Volume 40 |publisher=Punjab University |year=2013 |pages=137}}</ref> Arur Singh stroked controversy when he arranged a Sikh ''diwan'' in-front of the [[Akal Takht]] for [[Reginald Dyer|General Dyer]] after the [[Jallianwala Bagh massacre]] to display loyalty to the British.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Kaur |first=Madanjit |title=The Golden Temple, Past and Present |publisher=Department of Guru Nanak Studies, Guru Nanak Dev University Press |year=1983 |isbn=9780836413250 |pages=62, 71–72}}</ref> Arur Singh also awarded a ''saropa'' (robe-of-honour) upon General Dyer, which led to further opposition to the institution.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sandhu |first=Devinder Pal |title=Sikhs in Indian Politics: Study of a Minority |publisher=Patriot Publishers |year=1992 |isbn=9788170501497 |pages=63}}</ref>

=== Dissolution ===
The British attempted to appoint a new sarbarah in 1920 but the Sikhs demanded that they be given full control over the management of the complex.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Ahluwalia |first=M. L. |title=Gurdwara Reform Movement, 1919-1925, an Era of Congress-Akali Collaboration: Select Documents |publisher=Ashoka International Publishers |year=1985 |pages=118}}</ref> The new sarbarah, Captain Bahadur Singh, would leave the position shortly after his appointment due to Sikh opposition.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=Tuteja |first=K. L. |title=Sikh Politics, 1920-40 |publisher=Vishal Publications |year=1984 |pages=46}}</ref> Sundar Singh Ramgarhia would become the caretaker of the complex as the new sarbarah, leading toward the start of management of the complex by the SGPC.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":6" /> After Sundar Singh Ramgarhia became manager, the "keys affair" (''morcha chabian'') would erupt in 1921, due to the British declining to handover the keys to the complex's treasury (''[[toshakhana]]'') to the new management.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Josh |first=Sohan Singh |title=My Tryst with Secularism: An Autobiography |publisher=Patriot Publishers |year=1991 |isbn=9788170501275 |pages=36}}</ref> On 29 October 1921, the SGPC demanded that the sarbarah Sundar Singh Ramgarhia hand-over the keys to them to guarantee their total control over the management affairs of the complex.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Grewal |first1=J. S. |title=History and Ideology: The Khalsa Over 300 Years |last2=Banga |first2=Indu |publisher=Tulika |year=1999 |isbn=9788185229126 |pages=179–181}}</ref> However, the colonial government opposed this move under the guise of claiming that the Sikh reformers would appropriate funds for radical, political agendas.<ref name=":7" />

== List of sarbarahs ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+List of sarbarahs
!Name
!Portrait
!Term
|-
|Jodh Singh
|
|1859–1862
|-
|[[Mangal Singh Ramgarhia]]
|[[File:Photograph of Mangal Singh Ramgarhia, he acted as the 'sarbarah' of all the Sikh shrines of Amritsar.jpg|227x227px]]
|1862–1879
|-
|Man Singh Waraich
|[[File:Photograph of Man Singh of Rariala after his retirement, ca.1877–92.jpg|240x240px]]
|1879–1890
|-
|[[Arjan Singh Chahal]]
|
|1890–1896
|-
|Jawala Singh
|
|1896–1902
|-
|[[Arur Singh Shergill]]
|[[File:Photograph of Arur Singh, sarbarah of the Golden Temple, ca.1902–20.png|244x244px]]
|1902–1920
|-
|Bahadur Singh
|
|1920
|-
|Sundar Singh Ramgarhia
|
|1920–1921
|}

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|group=note}}

== References ==
<references />

[[Category:Religious occupations]]
[[Category:Punjab Province (British India)]]

Kalanadi language

2026-01-01T11:20:46Z

IgnacioElem3: started new stub!

{{Short description|Southern Dravidian language of India}}
{{Infobox language
|name=Kalanadi
|nativename=
|states=[[India]]
|ethnicity=
|speakers=750
|date=2004 survey
|ref=e18
|familycolor=Dravidian
| fam2 = Southern
| fam3 = [[South Dravidian languages|Southern I]]
| fam4 = Tamil–[[Kannada dialects|Kannada]]
| fam5 = Tamil–[[Kota language (India)|Kota]]
| fam6 = Tamil–[[Toda language|Toda]]
| fam7 = Tamil–Irula
| fam8 = Tamil–[[Kodava language|Kodava]]–[[Urali language|Urali]]
| fam9 = [[Tamiloid languages|Tamil]]–[[Malayalamoid languages|Malayalam]]
| fam10 = [[Malayalamoid languages|Malayalamoid]]
| fam11 = Kalanadi–[[Kunduvadi language|Kunduvadi]]–[[Pathiya language|Pathiya]]
| ancestor = [[Old Tamil language|Old Tamil]]
| ancestor2 = [[Middle Tamil language|Middle Tamil]]
|iso3=wkl
|glotto=kala1255
|glottorefname=Kalanadi
}}
'''Kalanadi''' ({{ipa|wkl|kɐlɐnaɖi|ipa}}) is a [[Southern Dravidian languages|Southern Dravidian language]] of [[India]]. It is most similar to [[Pathiya language|Pathiya]] with which it shares 88% lexical similarity.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Dravidian languages |state=autocollapse}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Dravidian languages]]

{{Dravidian-lang-stub}}

FlyBig

2025-12-20T12:37:12Z

IgnacioElem3: fixed article additionally and fixed typos to improve readability

{{Short description|Defunct Indian regional airline}}
{{Unreliable sources|date=August 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2025}}
{{Infobox airline
| airline = flybig
| logo = FlyBig_Logo.svg
| logo_size = 250px
| fleet_size = 4
| destinations = 24
| IATA = S9<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.avcodes.co.uk/details.asp?ID=29431|title=The Aviation Codes Website - Airline Codes Full Details|website=www.avcodes.co.uk}}</ref>
| ICAO = FLG
| callsign = KRIS
| parent = Big Charter Private Limited
| founded = 2020
| commenced = {{start date and age|2020|12|21|df=yes}}
| ceased = {{start date and age|2025|12|13|df=yes}}
| headquarters = [[Gurugram]], [[Haryana]], [[India]]
| key_people = Captain Sanjay Mandavia (CMD) Chander Bahadur (Head Financial Intelligence and Strategies)
| founder = Captain Sanjay Mandavia
| aoc =
| hubs =
| secondary_hubs =
| focus_cities =
| frequent_flyer =
| lounge =
| alliance =
| num_employees = 500
| website = {{Official URL}}
}}

'''flybig''' was an [[India|Indian]] [[regional airline]] based in [[Gurgaon|Gurugram]], [[Haryana]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Airline and Location Code Search|url=https://www.iata.org/en/publications/directories/code-search/|access-date=2 January 2021|website=www.iata.org|language=en}}</ref> It was promoted by Gurugram-based Big Charter Private Limited. The airline began operations in December 2020 and focused on connecting [[Classification of Indian cities|tier-2 cities]] within India.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/78835806.cms |title=flyBig likely to start ops from Raja Bhoj by year-end |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=24 October 2020 |access-date= 25 October 2020}}</ref> Prior to ceasing operations the airline operated in north and northwest India.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 July 2023 |title=FlyBig has changed its order with De Havilland for a more economical option: Sanjay Mandavia |url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/business/flybig-has-changed-its-order-with-de-havilland-for-a-more-economical-option-sanjay-mandavia-10914771.html |access-date=16 August 2023 |website=Moneycontrol |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=3 June 2023 |title=FlyBig to launch Patna-Kol flight |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/flybig-to-launch-patna-kol-flight/articleshow/100715619.cms?from=mdr |access-date=16 August 2023 |website=The Times of India}}</ref><ref name="Network Expansion">{{cite news|last=Jain|first=Nitin|title=Ludhiana gets Dehradun, Delhi air link from this week|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/punjab/ludhiana-gets-dehradun-delhi-air-link-from-this-week-541310|work=[[The Tribune (India)|The Tribune]]|date=4 September 2023|access-date=6 September 2023|language=en}}</ref>

==History==
The airline received a [[No Objection Certificate]] (NOC) from the [[Ministry of Civil Aviation (India)|Ministry of Civil Aviation]] and received its [[Air Operator's Certificate]] (AoC) on 14 December 2020, both necessary for starting commercial operations. It began operations with a single [[ATR-72-500]].<ref name="BM1">{{cite web|url=https://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/bangalore/others/hals-dornier-is-all-set-to-get-new-wings-flybig-wings/articleshow/77839769.cms |title=HAL's Dornier is all set to get new wings, flybig wings |publisher=[[Bangalore Mirror]] |date=31 August 2020 |access-date= 23 October 2020}}</ref> The company's focus is to serve Tier-2 cities and it aims to build a fleet of more [[ATR-72]]s and Viking/ DHC Twin Otters, thus eventually expand to a fleet of 20 aircraft.<ref name="MC1">{{cite web|url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/business/starting-an-airline-during-covid-19-may-sound-like-a-bad-idea-but-for-flybig-its-a-perfect-flightplan-5757151.html |title=Starting an airline during COVID-19 may sound like a bad idea. But for flybig, it's a perfect flightplan|publisher=[[Moneycontrol.com]] |date=26 August 2020 |access-date= 23 October 2020}}</ref>

Before the airline began scheduled flights, it got its first route under a government tender to serve [[Shillong Airport|Shillong]] from [[Indira Gandhi International Airport|Delhi]]. The flights commenced on 21 December 2020 and to fulfil its obligations, the airline [[wet-lease]]d a [[De Havilland Canada Dash 8#Series 400|DHC-8 Q400]] aircraft from [[SpiceJet]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Direct Flight Services Between Shillong, Delhi Launched|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/direct-flight-services-between-shillong-delhi-launched-2341786|access-date=2 January 2021|website=NDTV.com}}</ref> The airline conducted proving flights on 4 December 2020,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Indore welcomes first Proving Flight of Fly Big Airlines, receives water cannon salute |url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/indore/indore-welcomes-first-proving-flight-of-fly-big-airlines-receives-water-cannon-salute|date=4 December 2020| access-date=5 January 2021|website=[[The Free Press Journal]] }}</ref> and operated its first scheduled flight on 3 January 2021 from [[Indore]] to [[Ahmedabad]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Desk|first=((India com Business))|date=1 January 2021|title= flybig to Start Operations From January 3: All You Need to Know About India's New Airline|url=https://www.india.com/business/flybig-to-start-operations-from-january-3-all-you-need-to-know-about-indias-new-airline-4303201/|access-date=2 January 2021|website=India News, Breaking News {{!}} India.com|language=en}}</ref> As of March 2024, it has [[#Destinations|11 destinations]] with a fleet of three aircraft covering 3 states.

In November 2023, FlyBig Airlines temporarily ceased operations in Arunachal Pradesh, citing supply chain challenges as the primary reason.<ref name="Singh 2023 t191">{{cite web | last=Singh | first=Bikash | title=FlyBig Airlines temporarily suspends operations in Arunachal Pradesh due to supply chain challenges | website=The Economic Times | date=17 November 2023 | url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/transportation/airlines-/-aviation/flybig-airlines-temporarily-suspends-operations-in-arunachal-pradesh-due-to-supply-chain-challenges/articleshow/105288552.cms | access-date=28 December 2023}}</ref>

In November 2025, it was reported that the Indian civil aviation authority had received an IDERA (Irrevocable Deregistration and Export Request Authorization) from AER Leasing Corp, the Japanese aircraft leasing company, which is the lessor of flybig's three Indian-registered [[DHC-6-400 Twin Otter]]s. The aircraft have not performed any flights since October 2025 and are currently parked at [[Bhopal Airport]]. An IDERA request is a legal document which enables an aircraft lessor to have its aircraft deregistered and exported from a country if an airline defaults on lease payments.<ref name="a694">{{cite web | last=Joshi | first=Ameya | title=DGCA gets IDERA request for deregistration of all three FlyBig aircraft | website=mint | date=7 November 2025 | url=https://www.livemint.com/companies/dgca-gets-idera-request-for-deregistration-of-all-three-flybig-aircraft-11762511072251.html | access-date=13 December 2025}}</ref><ref name="x025">{{cite web | last=Ash | first=Paul | title=Lessor requests Indian CAA to deregister flybig Twin Otters | website=ch-aviation | date=11 November 2025 | url=https://www.ch-aviation.com/news/160504-lessor-requests-indian-caa-to-deregister-flybig-twin-otters | access-date=13 December 2025}}</ref> On 8 December, it was then reported that [[Dubai Aerospace Enterprise]] (DAE Capital) had won a $1.1 million award from flybig due to the airline's failure to meet lease agreement obligations in relation to previously leased [[ATR 72]] aircraft.<ref name="i416">{{cite web | last=Sipinski | first=Dominik | title=DAE Capital wins $1.1mn award from India's flybig | website=ch-aviation | date=8 December 2025 | url=https://www.ch-aviation.com/news/161473-dae-capital-wins-11mn-award-from-indias-flybig | access-date=13 December 2025}}</ref> While flybig has not performed any flights since the aircraft were grounded in October, the company formally ceased operations on 13 December 2025, when its [[air operator's certificate]] (AOC) issued by India's [[Directorate General of Civil Aviation (India)|Directorate General of Civil Aviation]] (DGCA) expired.<ref name="y014">{{cite web | title=Directorate General of Civil Aviation | website=Government of India | date=15 January 2024 | url=https://www.dgca.gov.in/digigov-portal/?baseLocale=en_US?page=jsp/dgca/InventoryList/airOperation/certification/scheduled/sch-oper.pdf | access-date=13 December 2025}}</ref>

== Destinations ==
As of December 2024, FlyBig operates between the following destinations:
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! State
! City
! Airport
! Notes
! class="unsortable"|{{Abbr|Refs.|References}}
|-
|rowspan="2"|[[Punjab, India|Punjab]]
|[[Bathinda]]
|[[Bathinda Airport]]
|
|<ref>{{cite news|last=Jha|first=Abhijay|title=Two routes to Punjab from Hindon terminal now, but services to Dehradun suspended|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ghaziabad/two-routes-to-punjab-from-hindon-terminal-now-but-services-to-dehradun-suspended/articleshow/103648649.cms|quote=Punjab chief minister Bhagwant Mann will formally inaugurate the route on September 18, Ratan Laxmanro Ambhore, the head of ground operations at Flybig, told TOI.|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=14 September 2023|access-date=14 September 2023|language=en}}</ref>
|-
|[[Ludhiana]]
|[[Ludhiana Airport]]
|
|<ref name="Network Expansion"/>
|-
| rowspan="3" |[[Uttarakhand]]
|[[Dehradun]]
|[[Dehradun Airport]]
|
|<ref name="Network Expansion" />
|-
|[[Pithoragarh]]
|[[Pithoragarh Airport]]
|
|<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Flight Schedule - March 2024 |url=https://flybig.in/documents/Flight_Schedule_Mar_2024.pdf |website=FlyBig}}</ref>
|-
|[[Pantnagar]]
|[[Pantnagar Airport]]
|
|<ref name=":0" />
|-
| rowspan="7" |[[Uttar Pradesh]]
|[[Aligarh]]
|[[Aligarh Airport]]
|
|<ref name="FlyBig UP expansion">{{cite news |title=Now, direct flights from Lucknow to 6 UP cities |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/lucknow/direct-flights-from-lucknow-to-6-up-cities-flybig-airlines/articleshow/108093170.cms |accessdate=29 February 2024 |work=Times of India|date=29 February 2024 }}</ref>
|-
|[[Azamgarh]]
|[[Azamgarh Airport]]
|
|<ref name="FlyBig UP expansion" />
|-
|[[Chitrakoot Dham|Chitrakoot]]
|[[Chitrakoot Airport]]
|
|<ref name="FlyBig UP expansion" />
|-
|[[Lucknow]]
|{{nowrap|[[Chaudhary Charan Singh International Airport]]}}
|
|<ref name="FlyBig UP expansion" />
|-
|[[Shravasti]]
|[[Shravasti Airport]]
|
|<ref name="FlyBig UP expansion" />
|-
|[[Ghaziabad]]
|[[Hindon Airport]]
|
|<ref name="FlyBig UP expansion" />
|-
|[[Moradabad]]
|[[Moradabad Airport]]
|
|<ref name=":0" />
|-
| rowspan="4" |[[Madhya Pradesh]]
|[[Rewa, Madhya Pradesh| Rewa]]
|[[Rewa Airport]]
|
|<ref name="auto">{{cite news|title= First flight takes off: Now, new service connects Rewa to Bhopal & Khajuraho |url= https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bhopal/new-air-service-launches-rewa-now-connected-to-bhopal-and-khajuraho/articleshow/115671406.cms |website=www. timesofindia.indiatimes.com|date=26 November 2024}}</ref>
|-
|[[Bhopal]]
|[[Raja Bhoj International Airport]]
|
|<ref name="auto"/>
|-
|[[Khajuraho]]
|[[Khajuraho Airport]]
|
|<ref name="auto"/>
|-
|[[Datia]]
|[[Datia Airport]]
|
|<ref name="auto"/>
|-
| rowspan="3" |[[Chhattisgarh]]
|[[Raipur]]
|[[Swami Vivekananda Airport]]
|
|<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web |last=Sharma |first=Sheenu |title=flybig starts operation from raipur airport |date=19 December 2024 |url=https://www.indiatvnews.com/chhattisgarh/chhattisgarh-flight-service-launched-on-raipur-ambikapur-bilaspur-route-cm-vishnu-deo-sai-flybig-airlines-latest-updates-2024-12-19-967035}}</ref>
|-
|[[Ambikapur, India|Ambikapur]]
|[[Ambikapur Airport]]
|
|<ref name="auto1"/>
|-
|[[Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh|Bilaspur]]
|[[Bilaspur Airport]]
|
|<ref name="auto1"/>
|}

==Fleet==
The flybig fleet consists of the following aircraft as of December 2024:<ref>{{Cite web |title=We are elated to add another family member to our ever-expanding 𝗳𝗹𝘆𝗯𝗶𝗴 fleet family. We warmly 𝘄𝗲𝗹𝗰𝗼𝗺𝗲 our flying beauty 𝗧𝘄𝗶𝗻 𝗢𝘁𝘁𝗲𝗿 on Indian land. We are ready to make our 2 and 3 tier cities guests' journey easy & fast|url=https://twitter.com/flybigairlines/status/1674352173721993216?s=20 |date=29 June 2023|access-date=29 June 2023 |website=FlyBig |language=en}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto; border-collapse:collapse;text-align:center"
|+ flybig fleet
|-
!Aircraft
!In service
!Orders
!Passengers
!Notes
|-
|[[de Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter|DHC-6-400 Twin Otter]]
|4
|8
|19
| <ref>{{Cite web |title=India's flybig eyes green Twin Otter -400s |url=https://www.ch-aviation.com/portal/news/121752-indias-flybig-eyes-green-twin-otter-400s |access-date=27 April 2023 |website=ch-aviation |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://twitter.com/RaghavanO7/status/1761463849922740632?t=xwoBp8cE5Gj12CoQrxBkdQ&s=19|title=x.com}}</ref>
|-
!Total
!4
!8
!colspan=2|
|}

==See also==
* [[List of defunct airlines of India]]
* [[Transport in India]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links==
{{Commonscat|FlyBig}}
*{{Official website}}
{{airlines of India}}

[[Category:Defunct airlines of India]]
[[Category:2020 establishments in Haryana]]
[[Category:Airlines established in 2020]]
[[Category:Airlines disestablished in 2025]]
[[Category:Indian companies established in 2020]]
[[Category:2025 disestablishments in India]]
[[Category:Companies based in Haryana]]
[[Category:Transport in Haryana]]

Godhra

2025-12-04T22:08:24Z

IgnacioElem3:

{{For|the neighbourhood in Karachi|Godhra, Karachi}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2018}}
{{cleanup rewrite|date=April 2016}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Godhra
| settlement_type = City
| image_skyline = Ramsagar Lake Godhra.jpg
| image_caption = Ramsagar Lake near Bus Stand, Godhra
| nickname = Land of Cows
| pushpin_map = India Gujarat#India
| population_demonym = Godharian
| pushpin_label_position = right
| coordinates = {{coord|22|46|38|N|73|37|13|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Gujarat]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Panchmahal district|Panchmahal]]
| established_title = 
| named_for = [[Cow]]s
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_total_km2 = 20.16
| elevation_m = 73
| population_total = 143,644
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_density_km2 = auto
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Spoken
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 389001
| area_code = 02672
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| registration_plate = GJ-17
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Human sex ratio|Sex ratio]]
| blank1_info_sec1 = 935/1000 [[female|♀]]/[[male|♂]]
| website = {{URL|https://panchmahals.nic.in/}}
| demographics1_title2 = Official
| demographics1_info2 = [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[English language|English]]
| demographics1_info1 = [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]
| blank2_name = Literacy rate
| blank2_info = 93.51 %
}}
'''Godhra''' ({{IAST|Godhrā}}) is a [[municipality]] in [[Panchmahal]] district in [[Indian state]] of [[Gujarat]]. It is the administrative capital of the [[Panchmahal]] district. Originally, the name came from ''gou'' which means "cow", and "dhara", which has two meanings depending on how the word is pronounced. 'Dharaa' means a feminine thing or person that "holds" something, and it usually means "land", and the other pronunciation is 'dhaaraa' which means "flow". However, the second pronunciation is not widely used nor is it usually associated with this word.{{citation needed|date=October 2021}} Hence, 'Godhra or Godharaa' means the Land of the [[Cow]].

Godhra is widely known in India and internationally for being the starting point of the [[2002 Gujarat riots]]. Statewide religious riots between [[Hindus]] and [[Muslims]] began after the [[Godhra train burning]] incident near the Godhra railway station on 27 February 2002, where about 59 train passengers were burnt alive.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article1513008.ece?homepage=true&sms_ss=email&at_xt=4d732c194ed160ba%2C0|title=It was not a random attack on S-6 but kar sevaks were targeted, says judge |first1=Manas|last1=Dasgupta|date=2011-03-06|access-date=2016-10-27|work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> It was in Godhra that [[Vallabhbhai Patel]] first met [[Mohandas Gandhi|Gandhi]] in 1917 and was subsequently drawn into the Indian freedom struggle.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gandhi|first1=Rajmohan|title=Patel a Life|date=1 January 2011|publisher=Navjivan trust|isbn=978-8172291389}}</ref>

Godhra is a road and rail junction and a commercial centre for timber and agricultural produce. Industries include oilseed pressing, flour milling, and glass manufacture.

Godhra has a science, commerce, arts, law, ITI, engineering and medical colleges.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}

==Etymology==
The name ''Godhrā'' is derived from earlier ''Godrahaka'', referring to a pond or lake where cattle or buffalo came (perhaps to bathe).<ref name="Sankalia 1949">{{cite book |last1=Sankalia |first1=Hasmukh Dhirajlal |author-link=Hasmukh Dhirajlal Sankalia |title=Studies in the Historical and Cultural Geography and Ethnography of Gujarat |date=1949 |publisher=Deccan College |location=Pune |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.16229 |access-date=14 July 2023}}</ref>{{rp|86}}

As per local folklore, cows used to come here from Pavagadh for grazing.{{citation needed|date=February 2022}}

Gujarati Historic Novel named ''Gujaratno Jay'' written by [[Zaverchand Meghani]] based on various Jain Prabandhas describes city as Godhpur(ગોધપુર).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meghani|first=Zaverchand|title=Gujaratno Jay|publisher=Gurjar Sahitya Bhavan|date=April 2011|isbn=978-81-8461-481-7|location=Ahmdabad|pages=65}}</ref>

== History ==
A bronze of Lord Rishabhanath from AD 975 was found at Akota, which mentions Gohadra kula, i.e., the school of Jain monks at Gohadra.<ref>Akota Bronzes, Umakant P. Shah, 1959, p. 57-58.</ref> The historical name of Godhra is "Godhrahk", which was established by [[Parmar (Rajput clan)|Parmar]] king named [[Dhudhul Mandalik]] in A.D. 1415.

==Demographics==
As of the 2011 India census, Godhra had a population of 143,644. Males constitute 63.68% of the population and females 36.32%. Godhra has an average [[literacy rate]] of 93.51%, higher than the national average of 74.04%. Male literacy is 96.25%, and female literacy is 85.44%

As of the 2001 India census,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040616075334/http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archive-date=2004-06-16|title= Census of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional)|access-date=2008-11-01|publisher= Census Commission of India}}</ref> Godhra had a [[population]] of 121,852. Males constitute 52% of the population and females 48%. Godhra has an average [[literacy rate]] of 73%, higher than the national average of 59.5%. Male literacy was 79.5%, and female literacy was 64.5%.

In 1901 the population was 20,915.<ref>{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Godhra |volume=12 |page=173}}</ref>

== Government and politics ==
Godhra city is governed by a municipality.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Public Utilities {{!}} Panchmahals, Gujarat, India {{!}} India|url=https://panchmahals.nic.in/public-utilities/|access-date=2020-09-17|language=en-US}}</ref> The city is divided into 12 wards for the purpose of administration, and each ward is represented by 3 councillors.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Naqvi|first=Jawed|date=2011-03-09|title=Godhra: fact and fiction|url=https://www.dawn.com/2011/03/09/godhra-fact-and-fiction/|access-date=2020-09-17|website=DAWN.COM|language=en}}</ref> The city is also represented by an MP elected from the [[Panchmahal (Lok Sabha constituency)|Panchmahal Lok Sabha]] constituency (erstwhile [[Godhra (Lok Sabha constituency)|Godhra Lok sabha constituency]]), [[Ratansinh Rathod|Ratansinh Rathore]] from the [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Panchmahal MP (Lok Sabha) Election Results 2019 Live: Candidate List, Constituency Map, Winner & Runner Up - Oneindia|url=https://www.oneindia.com/panchmahal-lok-sabha-election-result-123/|access-date=2020-09-17|website=www.oneindia.com|language=en}}</ref> and an MLA elected from the Godhra Assembly constituency, CK Raulji.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-03-19|title=No intention to vote for Cong in RS polls: BJP MLA from Godhra|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/no-intention-to-vote-for-cong-in-rs-polls-bjp-mla-from-godhra-6320963/|access-date=2020-09-17|website=The Indian Express|language=en}}</ref>

[[I. I. Chundrigar]], former [[Prime Minister of Pakistan]] was born in Godhra in 1897.

==Religious violence==
Several incidents of communal violence have taken place in Godhra before and after the independence of India. Notable acts of violence include:

*During 1947–48, riots broke out in Godhra between the [[Ghanchi (Muslim)|Ghanchi Muslim]] community and [[Sindhis]] who had emigrated from Pakistan after the [[Partition of India]]. About 3,500 properties were burnt down in the violence.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4370319 | jstor=4370319 | title=Communal Riots in Godhra: A Report | last1=Engineer | first1=Asghar Ali | journal=Economic and Political Weekly | date=1981 | volume=16 | issue=41 | pages=1638–1640 }}</ref>
*Between October 1980 and September 1981, six major communal riots, arson, and pillaging took place between the majority Muslim community and Sindhi people in Godhra. Five members of a Sindhi family were burnt alive in the Muslim majority area of Signalfalia.<ref name="express"/> As a result of the violence the town was placed under curfew for about 245 days during this period.<ref>{{cite news |title=Communal holocaust simmers dangerously over Godhra town in Gujarat |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/indiascope/story/19811215-communal-holocaust-simmers-dangerously-over-godhra-town-in-gujarat-773538-2013-10-28 |access-date=27 February 2021 |date=December 15, 1981| work=India Today}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Curfew Eased in West India |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1981/08/03/world/curfew-eased-in-west-india.html |access-date=27 February 2021 |date=August 3, 1981 |work=New York Times}}</ref>
*In 1990, four Hindu teachers were killed by a Muslim mob in Vorwad area of Godhra.<ref name="express">{{cite news |title=Gujarat election 2012: Deeply divided by religion, Godhra braces for second phase poll - Indian Express |url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/gujarat-election-2012-deeply-divided-by-religion-godhra-braces-for-2nd-phase-poll/1045242/0 |access-date=27 February 2021 |work=Indian Express |date=December 14, 2012}}</ref>
*[[Godhra train burning]] – In 2002, a Muslim mob was accused of setting fire to the [[Sabarmati Express]] near Godhra railway station. 59 Hindu pilgrims who were returning from Ayodhya were killed in the fire. This incident is perceived as the trigger for the [[2002 Gujarat riots]].<ref>{{cite news |title=What is the 2002 Godhra train burning case? |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/what-is/what-is-godhra-case-gujarat-riots-sabarmati-express-narendra-modi-4881537/ |access-date=27 February 2021 |work=Indian Express |date=9 October 2017 |language=en}}</ref>

==Transportation==
[[File:Godhra junction railway station.JPG|thumb|Godhra junction railway station]]
[[File:Godhra Bus Stand.jpg|thumb|Godhra GSRTC Bus Station]]
Godhra is connected to all major towns of Gujarat by public transport service operated by [[GSRTC]]. And Godhra is a Railway Junction that connects Godhra with different parts of the state and nation.

India's biggest national highway Delhi-Mumbai expressway pass through godhra.

== Culture ==

=== Religious importance ===
* Sat Kaival Temple at Bagaidol village of Godhra is a temple of sat kaival sampraday.
* Godhra is one of the religious places in India which has four [[bethak]]s ([[temple]]s) for [[Vaishnav]] [[Sampraday]]. There are two main seats of Lord [[Krishna|Gokulnathji]] and one each for Lord [[Gusainji|Gusaiji]] and Lord [[Hith Harivansh Mahaprabhu|Mahaprabhuji]]. Godhra is the only city in India that has all three seats (or ''bhaitaks'') of the Mahaprabhuji, [[Vitthalanatha|Gusianji]], and Gokulnathji
* Godhra has three [[Jain]] temples. The main idol (or ''Mul Nayak'') in the Jain Temple is of [[Shantinath]]. It also has a temple called the 'Trimandir', a non-sectarian temple founded by [[Dada Bhagwan]] in the Bhamaiya area (Ahmedabad Road).<ref>{{cite web|title=The Godhra Trimandir|url=http://www.trimandir.org/list-of-trimandirs/godhra-trimandir/|access-date=2018-04-20}}</ref>
* Godhra has BAPS and SMVS swaminarayan temple.
* Godhra has [[Sheikh Majhawar graveyard]], which is believed to be one of the biggest in Asia.{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}{{by whom|date=October 2021}}
*[[Makar Sakranti]], [[Maha Shivratri]], [[Holi]], [[diwali]], [[Eid al-Fitr]], [[Baisakhi]], [[Rakshabandhan]], [[Krishna Janmashtami]], [[Ganesh Chaturthi]], [[Eid al-Adha]], [[Muharram]], [[Christmas]], [[Dussehra]], [[Easter]] are celebrated.

===Landscape===
[[File:Nehru Park Godhra.jpg|thumb|Nehru Park Godhra located near bus station]]

Geographic and manmade features in the area include the Mesri River, Ramsagar Lake, Voharwad Masjid Tower, Polan Bazar, Methodist Church, Naheru Garden and, in the far east, Kanelav Lake.{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}

{{commons category}}
{{Portal|India}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Cities and towns in Panchmahal district]]

Prastuti Porasor

2025-11-04T17:56:16Z

IgnacioElem3: New new stub

{{Short description|Indian actress}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2016}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Prastuti Porasor
| native_name =
| image =
| imagesize =
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = 15 Dec 1980
| birth_place = [[Jorhat]], [[Assam]]
| othername =
| occupation = [[Actress]]
| years_active = 1999 - present
| spouse =
| domesticpartner =
| website =
}}
'''Prastuti Porasor''' is an Indian [[actress]]. She works in [[Cinema of Assam|Assamese cinema]] and stage dramas.<ref name="print"/> She has acted in critically acclaimed and commercially successful films, including [[Tumi Mor Matho Mor|''Tumi Mor Matho Mor'']] (2000), [[Suren Suror Putek|''Suren Suror Putek'']] (2005), ''[[Raamdhenu]]'' (2011), and [[Doordarshan Eti Jantra|''Doordarshan Eti Jantra'']] (2016).

==Early life ==
Prastuti Porasor was born at [[Malow Ali]] in [[Jorhat]], [[Assam]]. Her father Bijoy Chandra Sarma was the former principal of [[Jagannath Barooah College]].

==Career==
She started acting aged 5 through a serial named ''Barnali'' in Doordarshan Guwahati. Her debut in [[Assamese film]] was Bani Das's ''Maharathi'', which was released in 1999. She <ref name="print">{{cite web |url=https://theprint.in/feature/prastuti-porasor-is-assams-one-woman-cultural-powerhouse-and-a-hero-for-2-decades-now/1187250/|title=Prastuti Porasor is Assam's one-woman cultural powerhouse and a 'hero' for 2 decades now|publisher=theprint.in |date=30 October 2022 |access-date=22 June 2023}}</ref>

==Filmography==
===Feature films===
{|class="wikitable sortable"
! Year !! Film !! Director
|-
| 1999 || ''[[Maharathi]]'' || Bani Das
|-
| 2000 || ''[[Tumi Mur Mathu Mur]]'' || [[Zubeen Garg]]
|-
| 2000 || ''Asene Kunuba Hiyat'' || [[Baharul Islam (actor)|Baharul Islam]]
|-
| 2001 || ''Aai Maram Tumar Babe'' || Taufique Rahman
|-
| 2002 || ''Gun Gun Gane Gane'' || Bidyut Chakravarty
|-
| 2002 || ''Priya O Priya'' || Anjan Kalita
|-
| 2002 || ''Jakham'' || Munna Ahmed
|-
| 2002 || ''[[Prem Aru Prem]]'' || Sambhu Gupta
|-
| 2002 || ''Jiban Nabir Duti Par'' || Munna Ahmed
|-
| 2003 || ''Eyei Jonak Biheen Jivan'' || Munna Ahmed
|-
| 2003 || ''Jumon Sumon'' || Mohibul Haque
|-
| 2004 || ''[[Antaheen Jatra]]'' || Munna Ahmed
|-
| 2004 || ''Hridoy Kapowa Gaan'' || Jayanta Nath
|-
| 2004 || ''Barood'' || [[Munin Barua]]
|-
| 2004 || ''Rong'' || Munin Barua
|-
| 2004 || ''Dinabandhoo'' || Munin Barua
|-
| 2005 || ''[[Suren Suror Putek]]'' || Chandra Mudoi
|-
| 2011 || ''[[Raamdhenu]]'' || Munin Barua
|-
| 2012 || ''Me & My Sister'' || Rajesh Bhuyan
|-
| 2015 || ''[[Ahetuk]]'' || Bani Das
|-
| 2015 || ''Tez''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.assamtribune.com/scripts/detailsnew.asp?id=may0316/city051 |title=Assamese film Tez to be screened at Cannes |publisher=assamtribune.com |date=16 September 2016 |access-date=16 September 2016 |archive-date=16 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160916232629/http://www.assamtribune.com/scripts/detailsnew.asp?id=may0316%2Fcity051 |url-status=dead }}</ref> || Bhaskar Upadhyaya
|-
| 2016 || ''[[Doordarshan Eti Jantra]]'' || Rajesh Bhuyan
|-
| 2016 || ''[[Paglee]]'' || Rupjyoti Borah
|-
| 2017 || ''Mriganabhi'' || Hemen Das
|-
| 2022 || ''Ganga'' || Mani Sinha
|-
|-
| 2024 || ''Protishruti'' || Kishor Tahbildar
|-
| 2025 || ''Koka Deuta Hati Aaru Nati 2'' || Biswajeet Borah
|}

===Television===
*''Barnali''
*''Nisar Nayak''
*''Chakrabehu''
*''Mahanagar''
*''Major Sahab''
*''Jonakat Siharan''
*''Bindaas''
*''Sendur''
*''Saahu Buwari ( Anthology series:lead in a story)''
*''Prohelika (Anthology series: lead in a story)''
*''Yeh Dosti''
*''Rakhe Hori Mare Kune''

===Stage plays===
*''Rupalim''
*''Nimati Koina''
*''Aparahna''
*''Asankar Din Rati''

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb name|4974354}}
* [http://www.rupaliparda.com/english/who's-who/prastuti.htm Prastuti Parashar] at rupaliparda.com

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Parashar, Prastuti}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian film actresses]]
[[Category:Indian television actresses]]
[[Category:People from Jorhat district]]
[[Category:Actresses from Assam]]
[[Category:Actresses in Assamese cinema]]
[[Category:Actresses in Assamese television]]
[[Category:Indian stage actresses]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian actresses]]

{{India-film-actor-stub}}
{{India-stage-actor-stub}}

Mahi Banswara Atomic Power Plant

2025-09-26T03:37:59Z

IgnacioElem3: Starting New Article.

{{Short description|Planned nuclear power plant near Banswara, Rajasthan}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}
{{Infobox power station
| name = Mahi Banswara Rajasthan Atomic Power Plant (MBRAPP)
| name_official =
| image =
| image_size =
| image_caption = | image_alt =
| coordinates = {{coord|23|31|46|N|74|35|26|E|region:IN_type:landmark|display=inline,title}}<ref name="MB-coord"/>
| country = India
| location = Banswara, [[Rajasthan]]
| status =
| construction_began = Late 2025 (planned)
| commissioned =
| decommissioned =
| cost = {{INRConvert|50000|c||lk=on|year=2023}}
| owner = ASHVINI JV - Anushakti Vidhyut Nigam ([[Nuclear Power Corporation of India|NPCIL]] - 51% and [[National Thermal Power Corporation|NTPC]] - 49%)
| operator = ASHVINI
| ps_units_uc =
| ps_units_planned = 4 x 700 MW
| ps_units_decommissioned =
| np_reactor_type = [[IPHWR-700]]
| np_reactor_supplier = [[NPCIL]]/[[Bhabha Atomic Research Centre|BARC]]
| ps_cooling_source = [[Mahi Bajaj Sagar Dam]], [[Mahi River]]
| ps_units_manu_model =
| ps_electrical_capacity = 2800 MW
| ps_electrical_cap_fac =
| website =
| extra =
}}
The '''Mahi Banswara Rajasthan Atomic Power Plant (MBRAPP)''' is a planned [[nuclear power plant]] to be built on a {{convert|1366.49|acre|ha}} area, near [[Banswara district]] of [[Rajasthan]].<ref name="PIB-150318">{{cite press release|url=https://pib.gov.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=177519|title=Proposal for Nuclear Power Plants in States |work=PIB| date=2018-03-15}}</ref><ref name="MB-coord">{{cite web|url=https://forestsclearance.nic.in/writereaddata/Addinfo/0_0_12112121312181Annexure-1PR.pdf|title=Mahi Banswara Rajasthan Atomic Power Project|date=2016-02-12}}</ref>

The project will have an installed capacity of 2800 [[Megawatt]]s (MW). On 9 May 2025, the [[Atomic Energy Regulatory Board]] gave permission for the project.

Prime minister [[Narendra Modi]] laid the foundation stone for the plant on September the 25th, 2025 during his visit to Rajasthan. The first unit will commence construction soon thereafter and is expected to be operational in six and a half years according to sources.

==History==
Nestled in the tribal areas of [[Rajasthan]], the Mahi Banswara project aims to kick start the region by providing jobs and investment opportunity and alleviating the power shortage in the state. The plant construction was scheduled for 2024 and will be jointly developed by NTPC and NPCIL. Along with [[Chutka Nuclear Power Plant]], NTPC aims to generate 3500 MW of electricity from nuclear sources.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://rajasthan.ndtv.in/rajasthan-news/rajasthan-power-supply-lelectricity-crisis-banswara-nuclear-power-plant-first-reactor-january-2024-4361644|title=बांसवाड़ा परमाणु बिजलीघर में दूर होगा का बिजली संकट, जनवरी 2024 में शुरू होगा पहला रिएक्टर|work=NDTV|language=Hindi|date=2023-09-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.livemint.com/companies/news/ntpc-eyes-3-5-gw-n-power-by-2030-in-talks-for-smrs-11681837818650.html|title=NTPC eyes 3.5 GW n-power by 2030, in talks for SMRs|work=Live Mint|date=2023-04-18}}</ref>

On 9 May 2025 the [[Atomic Energy Regulatory Board]] of India published siting consent for the proposed plant.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://aerb.gov.in/storage/uploads/News/news2z80M.pdf |title=Consent for Siting of Mahi Banswara Rajasthan Atomic Power Project (MBRAPP - 1 to 4) |date=9 May 2025 | publisher=[[Atomic Energy Regulatory Board]] of India |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250521144432/https://aerb.gov.in/storage/uploads/News/news2z80M.pdf |archive-date=21 May 2025 |access-date=21 May 2025}}</ref>

On 25th September 2025, [[Prime Minister of India|Prime Minister]] [[Narendra Modi]] laid the foundation stone at the site, during his visit to Banswara district of Rajasthan. All the clearances have been granted, and the construction is expected to begin in late 2025.

==Design and specification==
The proposed 700 MW [[IPHWR-700]] [[Nuclear reactor|reactors]] are indigenous and similar to the ones in operation at [[Kakrapar Atomic Power Station]] (KAPP-3 &4) and Rajasthan unit 8 and the unit currently under construction in [[Rajasthan Atomic Power Station]] (RAPP-8).

==Cost and economics==
The plant is jointly built by the [[Nuclear Power Corporation of India]] and [[NTPC Limited|National Thermal Power Corporation Limited]], the project is estimated to cost {{INRConvert|50000|c||lk=on|year=2023}}. The project is a part of the fleet mode reactor program of the Government of India under which 10 indigenous [[IPHWR-700]] reactors are being built and the goal of 100 GWe nuclear capacity till 2047. The construction is to be started in 2025 and planned to be competed within 4-5 year.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/power/india-to-get-7000-mw-from-nuclear-power-by-2031-as-govt-grants-bulk-approval-to-reactors-10371401.html|title=India to get 7,000 MW from nuclear power by 2031 as govt grants bulk approval to reactors|work=Moneycontrol|date=6 April 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release|url=https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1913854|work=PIB|title= The Government today informed that it has given bulk approval for the installation of ten nuclear reactors. |date=5 April 2023}}</reF>

== Units ==
{{mw-datatable}}
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-datatable"
! rowspan="2" |Phase
! rowspan="2" |Unit No.
! colspan="2" |Reactor
! rowspan="2" |Status
! colspan="2" |Capacity in MWe
! rowspan="2" |Construction start
! rowspan="2" |First [[Criticality (status)|criticality]]
! rowspan="2" |Grid Connection
! rowspan="2" |Commercial operation
! rowspan="2" |Closure
! rowspan="2" |Notes
|-
! Type ||Model ||Net ||Gross
|-
|rowspan="4" |I
|1
| [[Pressurized heavy-water reactor|PHWR]] || [[IPHWR-700]]
| {{Planned}}
|630
|700
|{{N/A}}
|{{N/A}}
|{{N/A}}
|align="center" | 2031 (Planned)
|{{N/A}}
|
|-
|2
|[[Pressurized heavy-water reactor|PHWR]] || IPHWR-700
|{{Planned}}
|630
|700
|{{N/A}}
|{{N/A}}
|{{N/A}}
|{{N/A}}
|{{N/A}}
|
|-
|3
|[[Pressurized heavy-water reactor|PHWR]] || IPHWR-700
|{{Planned}}
|630
|700
|{{N/A}}
|{{N/A}}
|{{N/A}}
|{{N/A}}
|{{N/A}}
|
|-
|4
|[[Pressurized heavy-water reactor|PHWR]] || IPHWR-700
|{{Planned}}
|630
|700
|{{N/A}}
|{{N/A}}
|{{N/A}}
|{{N/A}}
|{{N/A}}
|
|}

== See also ==
* [[IPHWR-700]]
* [[Nuclear power in India]]
{{Portal|India|Nuclear technology|Energy}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Nuclear power in India}}

[[Category:Proposed nuclear power stations]]
[[Category:Proposed power stations in India]]
[[Category:Nuclear power stations in India]]

Shatadhanvan

2025-09-10T05:06:08Z

IgnacioElem3: basic add article as per guidelines additionally and added references

{{Short description|Mauryan emperor from 195 to 187 BCE}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2017}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Shatadhanvan
| title = [[Chakravartin]]
| reign = {{circa|195|187 BCE}}
| coronation = 195 BCE
| full name = [[Shatadhanvan Maurya]]
| religion =
| succession = [[List of Maurya emperors|Emperor of Magadha]]
| predecessor = [[Devavarman (Maurya)|Devavarman]]
| successor = [[Brihadratha Maurya]]
| dynasty = [[Maurya Dynasty|Maurya]]
| father = [[Devavarman (Maurya)|Devavarman]]
| mother =
| birth_date = {{circa|224 BCE}}
| birth_place = [[Thanesar]], [[Maurya Empire]] (Present-day [[Haryana]], [[India]])
| death_date = {{circa|187 BCE}}
| death_place = [[Patliputra]], [[Maurya Empire]] (Present-day [[Bihar]], [[India]])
| date of burial =
| place of burial =
}}
{{Maurya}}
'''Shatadhanvan''' ({{IAST3|Śatadhanvan}}) or '''Shatadhanus''' was the 8th Emperor of the [[Maurya dynasty]]. He ruled from 195–187 BCE. According to the [[Puranas]], he was the successor of [[Devavarman Maurya]] and reigned for eight years. He was succeeded by his son [[Brihadratha Maurya]].<ref name=thapar>{{cite book|last1=Thapar|first1=Romila|title=Aśoka and the decline of the Mauryas|date=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Delhi|isbn=0-19-564445-X|pages=182–183|edition=2nd}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Emperors of Magadha]]
[[Category:Mauryan dynasty]]
[[Category:2nd-century BC Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:2nd-century BC births]]
[[Category:180s BC deaths]]

{{India-royal-stub}}

Sajal Panja

2025-07-31T04:33:25Z

IgnacioElem3: added some data v1

{{Short description|Indian politician 1968–2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2025}}

'''Sajal Panja''' (1968 – 23 September 2016) was an Indian politician from [[West Bengal]]. He was a former member of the [[West Bengal Legislative Assembly]] from [[Monteswar Assembly constituency]] in [[Purba Bardhaman district]]. He was elected in the [[2016 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]] representing the [[All India Trinamool Congress]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Monteswar Assembly Constituency Election Result - Legislative Assembly Constituency |url=https://resultuniversity.com/election/monteswar-west-bengal-assembly-constituency |access-date=2025-05-17 |website=resultuniversity.com}}</ref> He died after getting elected necessitating a by election in November 2016.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-10-18 |title=West Bengal bypolls on November 19, TMC names candidates |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/kolkata/west-bengal-bypolls-on-november-19-tmc-names-candidates-lok-sabha-3088876/ |access-date=2025-05-17 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Chatterjee |first=Pradip |date=2025-05-17 |title=ECI scraps over 7K ‘fake voter cards’ in Bengal after TMC complaint |url=https://www.millenniumpost.in/bengal/eci-scraps-over-7k-fake-voter-cards-in-bengal-after-tmc-complaint-611068 |access-date=2025-05-17 |website=www.millenniumpost.in |language=en}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Panja was from [[Purbasthali Uttar Assembly constituency|Purbasthali Uttar]], Purba Bardhaman district, West Bengal. He was the son of late Prafulla Panja. He had two sons, who lived in Howrah along with their mother. His son, Saikat Panja, became an MLA after his death.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Will the TMC Be Badly Hit by Desertions to the BJP? |url=https://thewire.in/politics/will-the-tmc-be-badly-hit-by-desertions-to-the-bjp |access-date=2025-05-17 |website=The Wire |language=en}}</ref> He studied Class 12 and passed the higher secondary examinations conducted by the [[West Bengal Council of Higher Secondary Education]] in 1980. He was into cultivation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sajal Panja(All India Trinamool Congress(AITC)):Constituency- MONTESWAR(BARDHAMAN) - Affidavit Information of Candidate: |url=https://myneta.info/westbengal2016/candidate.php?candidate_id=872 |access-date=2025-05-17 |website=myneta.info}}</ref>

== Career ==
Panja was elected in the Monteswar Assembly constituency representing the All India Trinamool Congress in the 2016 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election. He polled 84,134 votes and defeated his nearest rival, Chaudhuri Md. Hedayatullah of the [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]], by a margin of 706 votes.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-04-04 |title=West Bengal Assembly election 2021, Manteswar profile: Sitting MLA Saikat Panja has crossed over from TMC to BJP |url=https://www.firstpost.com/politics/west-bengal-assembly-election-2021-manteswar-profile-sitting-mla-saikat-panja-has-crossed-over-from-tmc-to-bjp-9377511.html |access-date=2025-05-17 |website=Firstpost |language=en-us}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Monteswar Election Result 2021 Live Updates: Chowdhury Siddiqullah Of TMC Wins. |url=https://www.news18.com/news/politics/monteswar-election-result-2021-live-updates-monteswar-winner-loser-leading-trailing-mla-margin-3695123.html |access-date=2025-05-17 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref> He was on the Legislative Assembly's Petition Committee on Illegal Mining and [[Thalassemia]] Treatment.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |last=সংবাদদাতা |first=নিজস্ব |title=হৃদরোগে মৃত্যু বিধায়কের |url=https://www.anandabazar.com/west-bengal/bardhaman/mla-sajal-panja-died-of-a-massive-heart-attack-1.483057#goog_rewarded |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230108183840/https://www.anandabazar.com/west-bengal/bardhaman/mla-sajal-panja-died-of-a-massive-heart-attack-1.483057#goog_rewarded |archive-date=8 January 2023 |access-date=2025-05-17 |language=bn |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Death ===
Panja died of a massive heart attack on 23 September 2016 at the Digha State General Hospital during a tour to [[Digha]].<ref name=":0" />

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Panja. Sajal}}
[[Category:1968 births]]
[[Category:2016 deaths]]
[[Category:Trinamool Congress politicians from West Bengal]]
[[Category:Politicians from Purba Bardhaman district]]
[[Category:West Bengal MLAs 2016–2021]]

Palta, North 24 Parganas

2025-07-28T11:54:51Z

IgnacioElem3: content update

{{other uses|Palta (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Palta
| native_name = 
| native_name_lang =
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = Neighbourhood
| image_skyline = Ghosh Para Road - Palta Bus Stand - North 24 Parganas 2012-04-11 9546.JPG
| image_alt =
| image_caption = Palta bus stand on Ghoshpara Road
| pushpin_map = India West Bengal#India3
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in West Bengal, India
| coordinates = {{coord|22.7847|N|88.36491|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[West Bengal]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[Administrative divisions of West Bengal|Division]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Presidency division|Presidency]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[List of districts of West Bengal|District]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[North 24 Parganas district|North 24 Parganas]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type = [[Municipal Corporations in India|Municipality]]
| governing_body = [[North Barrackpur|North Barrackpur Municipality]]
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total =
| population_as_of =
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[English language|English]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 743122
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| area_code = +91 33
| registration_plate = WB
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha]] constituency
| blank1_info_sec1 = [[Barrackpore (Lok Sabha constituency)|Barrackpore]]
| blank2_name_sec1 = [[Vidhan Sabha]] constituency
| blank2_info_sec1 = [[Noapara (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Noapara]]
| website = {{URL|north24parganas.nic.in/}}
| footnotes =
}}

'''Palta''' is a neighbourhood in [[North Barrackpur]] of [[North 24 Parganas district]] in the [[India]]n [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[West Bengal]]. It is a part of the area covered by [[Kolkata Metropolitan Development Authority]] (KMDA).<ref>{{cite web| url =http://www.cmdaonline.com/kma.html| title =Base Map of Kolkata Metropolitan area| access-date =2007-09-03| publisher =Kolkata Metropolitan Development Authority| url-status =dead| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20070928000049/http://www.cmdaonline.com/kma.html| archive-date =2007-09-28}}</ref>

==Geography==
===Post Office===
Bengal Enamel Post Office at Palta is a delivery sub post office, with [[Postal Index Number|PIN]] 743122 in the North Presidency Division of North 24 Parganas district in Calcutta region. No other post office has the same PIN.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://pincodezip.in/pincode/west-bengal/north-24-parganas/north-presidency/bengal-enamel | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180711185220/http://pincodezip.in/pincode/west-bengal/north-24-parganas/north-presidency/bengal-enamel | url-status = usurped | archive-date = 11 July 2018 | title = Bengal Enamel PIN Code | publisher = pincodezip.in |access-date = 11 July 2018}}</ref>

==Economy==
===Indira Gandhi Water Works===
Palta Water Works, rechristened Indira Gandhi Water Treatment Plant, was the first intake point of water for Kolkata, established in 1864-1870 and spread over 480 acres. It was expanded in 1888–1893, 1905, 1920, 1936, 1952 and 1968. The total daily potable water supply is 1,350 million litres or 96 million gallons. It feeds 212,000 domestic connections plus commercial connections in Kolkata.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.kmcgov.in/KMCPortal/jsp/IndiraGandhi.jsp | title = Indira Gandhi Water Works | publisher = Kolkata Municipal Corporation | access-date = 7 July 2018}}</ref> The distance between Indira Gandhi Water Treatment Plant and the pumping station at [[Tala, Kolkata|Tala]] is 22 km.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.barrackpore.gov.in/HTM/sdobkp_OtherStateGovt_PALTA.htm | title = Palta Water Works | publisher = Barrackpore administration | access-date = 7 July 2018 | archive-date = 31 May 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160531132127/http://www.barrackpore.gov.in/HTM/sdobkp_OtherStateGovt_PALTA.htm | url-status = dead }}</ref>

===Industry===
[[File:Bengal Enamel Works Limited - Palta - North 24 Parganas 2012-04-11 9658.JPG|thumb|The old Bengal Enamel Works Limited factory]]
The '''Bengal Enamel Works''' Ltd, established in 1921, closed down by 2004 and the land is now used by housing promoters.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://corporatedir.com/company/bengal-enamel-works-limited | title = Bengal Enamel Works Limited | publisher = Corporate Dir | access-date = 7 July 2018}}</ref><ref name=telegraph>{{cite web| url = http://www.telegraphindia.com/1140512/jsp/nation/story_18332756.jsp#.U5rRPHayKt8 | archive-url = https://archive.today/20140613214544/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1140512/jsp/nation/story_18332756.jsp%23.U5rRPHayKt8 | url-status = dead | archive-date = 13 June 2014 |title = Lock-out Land| publisher = The Telegraph, 12 May 2014 |access-date = 7 July 2018 }}</ref> The modern use of [[vitreous enamel]] on metals was introduced to India only during the early 20th century, when a young engineer, Debendra Nath Bhattacharya sailed to Japan and worked as an apprentice in a Japanese enamel factory. On returning to India, he started a factory in 1921, called Bengal Enamel Works Limited, with his elder brother Dwijendra Nath Bhattacharjee as the financier, and himself as the chief technician. Other enamel factories started up within a few years, but Bengal Enamel kept growing and maintained a monopolistic control of the market up until the late '80s. Just before the 2nd world war, a Jewish engineer from Germany, Adams, took up employment with Bengal Enamel and greatly improved its technology. They began supplying enamelled mugs, water bottles and dinner plates to the Indian army, and later on, to many middle eastern armies.

Control of Bengal Enamel was handed over from Dwijendra Nath Bhattacharya to his son-in-law, Dr. Umapati Ganguli, who greatly expanded the company from domestic enamelware (plates, mugs, glasses, bowls, spoons, etc.) and water bottles for the army, to domestic and industrial sign boards, glass lined chemical reaction equipment and enamelled outdoor furniture. in 1962, when the Standard Vacuum Oil Company changed its name to ESSO, Bengal Enamel provided the sign boards for the entire South East Asian region. Up to 1980, Bengal Enamel controlled more than 50% of the Indian enamel market, and when it went into liquidation, in 2004, 10 years after the death of Dr. Umapati Ganguli, the entire domestic enamelware and army supplies in India collapsed.

Today, the enamelware industry in India is mostly glass lined chemical equipment and enamelled tank and silo manufacture. Though there are several cottage scale enamellers near Calcutta, mostly run by former employees of Sur Enamel, one of the larger former enamel factories in India.

Mahaluxmi Cotton Mill is also closed and the land is used by housing promoters.<ref name=telegraph/>

==Transport==
Palta is on [[State Highway 1 (West Bengal)|State Highway 1]] (locally known as Ghoshpara Road).<ref name=google>Google maps</ref>

[[Palta railway station]] on the [[Sealdah-Ranaghat line]] is 25 km from [[Sealdah Station]].<ref name=google/><ref>{{cite web | url = https://indiarailinfo.com/train/timetable/sealdah-kalyani-simanta-local-31311/16438/325/958#st | title = 31311 Sealdah-Kalyani Simanta Local | work = Time Table | publisher = indiarailinfo | access-date = 12 June 2018}}</ref> It is part of the [[Kolkata Suburban Railway]] system.

==Education==
[[P.N. Das College]] was established at PO Bengal Enamel, Palta in 1962. It has around 1,700 students.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://pndascollege.in/pndashome.php | title = P.N.Das College | publisher = PNDC | access-date = 8 May 2018 | archive-date = 10 May 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180510183949/http://pndascollege.in/pndashome.php | url-status = dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.collegeadmission.in/P.N.DasCollege/P._N._Das_College.shtml | title = PN Das College | publisher = College Admission | access-date = 8 May 2018 | archive-date = 10 May 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180510184645/http://www.collegeadmission.in/P.N.DasCollege/P._N._Das_College.shtml | url-status = dead }}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{North 24 Parganas District}}
{{North 24 Parganas topics}}
{{Kolkata neighbourhoods}}
{{Municipalities of West Bengal}}

[[Category:Neighbourhoods in North 24 Parganas district]]
[[Category:Neighbourhoods in Kolkata]]
[[Category:Kolkata Metropolitan Area]]

Palta, North 24 Parganas

2025-07-28T11:54:51Z

IgnacioElem3: content update

Rebati Das

2025-07-12T14:07:36Z

IgnacioElem3:

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{For|Tripura politician|Rebati Mohan Das}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| office = Member of [[Assam Legislative Assembly]]
| children = [[Ajanta Neog]]
| relatives = [[Nagen Neog]] (son in law)
| term = 1972 - 1978
| party = [[Indian National Congress]]
| spouse = Sasadhar Das
| constituency = [[Jalukbari (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Jalukbari]]
| predecessor = S. Medhi
| successor = [[Lakshyadhar Choudhury]]
}}

'''Rebati Das''' was an Indian National Congress politician from the state of Assam. She was a former Member of Assam Legislative Assembly for Jalukbari. She was the mother of finance minister [[Ajanta Neog]] and mother in law of ex-minister [[Nagen Neog]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Jalukbari Assembly Constituency Election Result - Legislative Assembly Constituency |url=https://resultuniversity.com/election/jalukbari-assam-assembly-constituency#1972 |access-date=2022-03-06 |website=resultuniversity.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-08-31 |title=Who's Who |url=http://assamassembly.gov.in/ajanta-neog.html |access-date=2022-03-06 |website= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831121959/http://assamassembly.gov.in/ajanta-neog.html |archive-date=31 August 2021 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Desk |first=Sentinel Digital |date=2021-03-22 |title=Ajanta Neog from Golaghat: Early Life, Controversy & Political Career - Sentinelassam |url=https://www.sentinelassam.com/assam-election-2021/candidates/phase1/ajanta-neog-from-golaghat-early-life-controversy-political-career-529886 |access-date=2022-03-06 |website=www.sentinelassam.com |language=en}}</ref>

== Political career ==
Das was the [[Indian National Congress]] candidate for [[Jalukbari (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Jalukbari]] in the [[1972 Assam Legislative Assembly election]]. She received 8809 votes, 38.35% of the total vote, defeating her nearest opponent by 3045 votes. She sought reelection in the [[1978 Assam Legislative Assembly election]]. She received 3550 votes, 8.67% of the total vote, placing third and was succeeded by [[Janata Party]] candidate [[Lakshyadhar Choudhury]].<ref name=":0" />

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Das, Rebati}}
[[Category:Assam MLAs 1972–1978]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing]]
[[Category:Place of birth missing]]
[[Category:Year of death missing]]
[[Category:Place of death missing]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Assam]]
[[Category:Women members of the Assam Legislative Assembly]]

{{Assam-INC-politician-stub}}

Article 320 of the Constitution of India

2025-06-28T07:53:14Z

IgnacioElem3: redirect

#REDIRECT [[Constitution of India#Structure]]
[[Category:Articles of Part XIV of the Constitution of India]]

This page is a redirect page at present. If you wish to expand this '''Article '''of [[Constitution of India|Indian Constitution]], do as follows:
* Remove the "'''REDIRECT'''" line
* Remove this message
and you may then proceed with your page.

Gulabsinh

2025-03-05T21:17:21Z

IgnacioElem3: added a info...

{{short description|1897 Gujarati novel by Manilal Dwivedi}}
{{Infobox book
| name = Gulabsinh
| image = Gulabsinh cover.jpg
| image_size =
| caption = cover page of first edition; 1897
| author = [[Manilal Dwivedi]]
| title_orig = ગુલાબસિંહ
| orig_lang_code = gu
| title_working =
| translator =
| cover_artist =
| country = [[India]]
| language = [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]
| release_number =
| subject =
| genre = [[Supernatural fiction]]
| set_in =
| publisher =
| publisher2 =
| pub_date = 1897
| english_pub_date =
| published =
| pages =
| awards =
| isbn =
| isbn_note =
| oclc =
| dewey = 891.473
| congress =
| notes =
| native_wikisource = ગુલાબસિંહ
}}

'''''Gulabsinh''''' ({{IPA|gu|ɡʊlabsɪnh|pron|}}) is an 1897 [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]] [[supernatural fiction|supernatural novel]] by [[Manilal Dwivedi]] (1858–1898), adapted from English writer [[Edward Bulwer-Lytton]]'s novel ''[[Zanoni]]''. It was serialised in ''[[Priyamvada (magazine)|Priyamvada]]'' (later ''[[Sudarshan (magazine)|Sudarshan]]'') from the magazine's first issue in August 1885 to June 1895. Adapted into two plays (''Pratap Lakshmi'' in 1914 and ''Siddha Satyendra'' in 1917), the novel – despite its flaws – is considered to have a significant place in [[Gujarati literature]].

==Background==
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction =
| total_width = 300
| caption_align = center

| image1 = Edward George Earle Lytton Bulwer Lytton, 1st Baron Lytton by Henry William Pickersgill.jpg
| caption1 = [[Edward Bulwer-Lytton]]
| alt1 = Painting of a smiling Edward Bulwer-Lytton

| image2 = Manilal Dwivedi.jpg
| caption2 = [[Manilal Dwivedi]]
| alt2 = Photograph of Manilal Dwivedi

| footer_align =
| footer =
}}

When Dwivedi was developing his new monthly magazine, ''Priyamvada'', he decided to include a novel which would provide a glimpse of spiritual life and pleasure to the reader. He selected [[Edward Bulwer-Lytton]]'s English mystical novel, ''[[Zanoni]]'' for adaptation,<ref name="Thaker1983">{{cite book|last=Thaker|first=Dhirubhai|author-link=Dhirubhai Thaker|title=Manilal Dwivedi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Wg4AAAAMAAJ|series=Makers of Indian Literature|year=1983|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|location=New Delhi|pages=68–70|oclc=10532609}}</ref> since its mysticism impressed him.<ref name="Jhaveri1978">{{cite book|last=Jhaveri|first=Mansukhlal Maganlal|author-link=Mansukhlal Jhaveri|title=History of Gujarati Literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DA0RAAAAMAAJ|year=1978|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|location=New Delhi|page=103|oclc=462837743}}</ref> Although Dwivedi was aware of better novels, he considered ''Zanoni'' best suited to his purpose.<ref name="Thaker1983"/>

He adapted ''Zanoni'' into Gujarati, and began publishing it in ''Priyamvada''{{'s}} first issue (August 1885) as ''Gulabsinh''. The series concluded in the June 1895 issue, and was published in book form in 1897.<ref name="Thaker1983"/>

=={{anchor|Theme}}Themes==
''Gulabsinh'' is based on the ideologies of Mejnoor and Zanoni, the original novel's two main characters: ascetics who have acquired [[superhuman power]] by drinking an [[herb]]al [[Elixir of life|elixir]] and are in constant communication with [[Heaven|heavenly]] beings; Dwivedi calls the characters Matsyendra and Gulabsinh, respectively. Matsyendra is an illuminated ascetic (''[[Jnana yoga|jnani]]'') who is immersed in passive contemplation; Gulabsinh moves in society, and his purity of heart uplifts all who encounter him.<ref name="Thaker1983"/>

==Characters==
The novel's principal characters are:
* Gulabsinh – the protagonist, who has supernatural power
* Matsyendra – an illuminated ascetic
* Rama – a dancer
* Lalaji – a painter, who loves Rama

==Plot==
[[File:Gulabsinh title page.jpg|thumb|Title page of first edition|180px]]
Gulabsinh attends a festival in [[Delhi]], where he saves the dancer Rama from the clutches of a wicked nobleman with his secret supernatural power. He advises Rama to marry Lalaji, a painter who loves Rama but is reluctant to marry a dancer. Rama loves Gulabsinh, who inspires awe in her. Lalaji is attracted to Gulabsinh for his supernatural powers. Gulabsinh directs him to Matsyendra, and marries Rama at the cost of his immortality to save her. Matsyendra laughs at Gulabsinh and advises him to return to the seclusion of spiritual practice; Gulabsinh does not return, however, and allows his supernatural powers to disappear.<ref name="Thaker1983"/>

The Great Spirit{{clarify|date=October 2024}} explains to Gulabsinh the unequal status of the love between him and Rama, whom Gulabsinh unsuccessfully tries to uplift with his spiritual power. When he decides to unite his and Rama's souls in a third (their child), the heavenly being admonishes him: "Did you become superhuman only to become human?" Gulabsinh replies, "Ah! Humanity is so sweet!"<ref name="Thaker1983"/>

==Reception==
''Gulabsinh'' was adapted into two plays: ''Pratap Lakshmi'' by [[Mulshankar Mulani]] in 1914 (with [[Jaishankar Bhojak]] as Rama),<ref name="Panchotia1987">{{cite book|last=Panchotia|first=Bhailal Bulakhidas|title=Jayashankar Sundari and Abhinayakala|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.220031|year=1987|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan|location=Bombay|page=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.220031/page/n80 52]|oclc=19214110}}</ref> and [[Chhotalal Rukhdev Sharma]]'s ''Siddha Satyendra'' (1917).<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=ગુજરાતી રંગભૂમિ: રિદ્ધિ અને રોનક (''Gujarati Rangbhoomi: Riddhi Ane Ronak'')|publisher=Gujarat Vishwakosh Trust|year=2004|editor-last=Choksi|editor-first=Mahesh|location=Ahmedabad|page=124|trans-title=Information on Gujarat Professional Theatre|editor-last2=Somani|editor-first2=Dhirendra|language=gu|oclc=55679037}}</ref> [[Navalram Trivedi]] criticized ''Gulabsinh''{{'s}} lack of readability due to its odd, metaphysical nature and its "literal translation" of Bulwer-Lytton's ''Zanoni'', calling it a "superfluous adaptation" of the original novel.<ref name="Trivedi1934">{{cite book |last=Trivedi |first=Navalram Jagannath |author-link=Navalram Trivedi |title=Ketlak Vivechano |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.537586/page/n15 |year=1934 |page=10 |oclc=1061861862}}</ref> According to [[Anandshankar Dhruv]], ''Gulabsinh'' is not a translation but a Gujarati adaptation of ''Zanoni''; Dwivedi asked in the novel's preface that it be read as an [[Imitation (art)|imitation]] (''{{langx|gu|anukaran}}''), rather than a translation.<ref name="Thaker1983"/> [[Dhirubhai Thaker]], Gujarati critic and biographer of Dwivedi, wrote that "''Gulabsinh'' occupies an important place in Gujarati literature as a unique adaptation of an English novel, as a novel of [[occult]] interest and a rare love-story of a human and a superhuman character."<ref name="Thaker1983"/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{wikisourcelang-inline|gu|ગુલાબસિંહ}}
* {{Internet Archive|in.ernet.dli.2015.259806}}
{{Manilal Nabhubhai Dwivedi}}

[[Category:Works by Manilal Dwivedi]]
[[Category:1897 novels]]
[[Category:Gujarati-language novels]]
[[Category:19th-century Indian novels]]
[[Category:Novels set in the 19th century]]
[[Category:Indian novels adapted into plays]]
[[Category:Adaptations of works by Edward Bulwer-Lytton]]
[[Category:Supernatural novels]]
[[Category:Novels first published in serial form]]
[[Category:Third-person narrative novels]]
[[Category:Works originally published in Indian magazines]]

Narendra Shivaji Patel

2025-02-28T16:28:59Z

IgnacioElem3: Starting A Page.

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2024}}

'''Narendra Shivaji Patel''' (born 1971)<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Narendra Shivaji Patel(Bharatiya Janata Party(BJP)):Constituency- UDAIPURA(RAISEN) - Affidavit Information of Candidate |url=https://www.myneta.info/MadhyaPradesh2023/candidate.php?candidate_id=1147 |access-date=2024-11-14 |website=www.myneta.info}}</ref> is an Indian politician from [[Madhya Pradesh]]. He is an MLA from [[Udaipura Assembly constituency]] in [[Raisen district|Raisen District]]. He won the [[2023 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]], representing the Bharatiya Janata Party.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Udaipura Election Result 2023 LIVE Updates and Highlights: Narendra Shivaji Patel of BJP wins |url=https://www.news18.com/elections/udaipura-election-result-2023-live-updates-and-highlights-winner-loser-leading-trailing-mla-margin-8687277.html |access-date=2024-11-14 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Patel is from [[Udaipura]], Raisen District, Madhya Pradesh. He is the son of Shivaji. He completed his bachelors in civil engineering in 1990 at Samrat Ashok Engineering College, [[Vidisha]].<ref name=":0" />

== Career ==
Patel won from Udaipura Assembly constituency in the 2023 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election representing [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]. He polled 124,279 votes and defeated his nearest rival and sitting MLA, Devendra Singh Gadarwa of the [[Indian National Congress]], by a margin of 42,823 votes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Udaipura Constituency Election Results 2023: Udaipura Assembly Seat Details, MLA Candidates & Winner |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/assembly-elections/madhya-pradesh/constituency-show/udaipura |access-date=2024-11-14 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Live |first=A. B. P. |date=2023-12-03 |title=Udaipura Election Result 2023 Live: Bjp Candidate Narendra Shivaji Patel Wins From Udaipura |url=https://news.abplive.com/elections/udaipura-election-result-2023-live-updates-constituency-vote-counting-winner-loser-bjp-congress-bsp-mp-assembly-election-results-news-1646919 |access-date=2024-11-14 |website=news.abplive.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-03 |title=Udaipura, Madhya Pradesh Assembly Election Results 2023 Highlights: Udaipura में BJP ने INC कोहराया |url=https://www.aajtak.in/elections/story/udaipura-madhya-pradesh-assembly-election-results-2023-live-1830285-2023-12-03 |access-date=2024-11-14 |website=आज तक |language=hi}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Patel, Narendra Shivaji}}
[[Category:1971 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Madhya Pradesh MLAs 2023–2028]]
[[Category:People from Raisen district]]

Engineer Rashid

2024-10-09T08:59:16Z

IgnacioElem3: updated intro additionally and cleaned formatting

#REDIRECT [[Sheikh Abdul Rashid]]

{{Redirect category shell|
{{R from move}}
}}

Dipper (brand)

2024-07-30T10:31:15Z

IgnacioElem3: expanded content as per guidelines

{{Short description|Indian condom brand}}
{{COI|date=October 2016}}

{{Infobox company
| name = Dipper Condoms
| logo =
| logo_size =
| logo_alt =
| logo_caption =
| logo_padding =
| trading_name =
| type = [[Private company|Private]]
| industry = [[Condoms]]
| founded = 2016
| founder =
| hq_location =
| hq_location_city =
| hq_location_country =
| area_served = India
| key_people =
| products =
| brands =
| production =
| production_year = 
| revenue =
| operating_income =
| net_income =
| assets =
| equity =
| num_employees =
| num_employees_year =
| website =
}}

'''Dipper''' is an Indian [[condom]] brand marketed by [[Tata Motors]] and Rediffusion Y&R to promote [[safe sex]] among truck drivers in India. Manufactured by HLL Lifecare, it is part of an award-winning [[AIDS]] awareness campaign that was initiated by Tata. The name, "Dipper", was inspired by the iconic message, "Use Dipper at Night" (meaning the recommended usage of dim headlights at night) - that are painted at the back of inter- as well as intrastate trucks in India.

==History==
It was a [[National AIDS Control Organisation|NACO]] idea, created in 2005.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/condom-called-dipper-was-a-naco-idea-that-failed-to-take-off-2979892/|title=Condom called Dipper was a NACO idea that failed to take off|date=17 August 2016}}</ref>

According to studies carried out by the [[Transport Corporation of India]] (TCI), out of the two million truck drivers in India who visit [[sex workers]], only about 11 percent of them use protection. It also found that AIDS awareness among the drivers was very low, with about 16 percent of them suffering from some [[venereal disease]].

In April 2016, [[Tata Motors]], one of India's largest truck manufacturers, launched a campaign called "Use Dipper at Night" which was intended to resonate amongst truck drivers who are clueless about unsafe sex and its consequences. In association with creative agency Rediffusion Y&R, latex condom manufacturer HLL Lifecare, and TCI, Tata launched "Khushi Clinics" which carried out distribution of condoms in and around prime locations of truck drivers such as [[Ludhiana]] ([[Punjab]]), [[Kanpur]] ([[Uttar Pradesh]]), and Vashi ([[Maharashtra]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.news18.com/news/buzz/a-condom-called-dipper-to-promote-safer-sex-among-truck-drivers-is-pure-genius-1280774.html|title=A Condom Called 'Dipper' to Promote Safer Sex Among Truck Drivers is Pure Genius!|date=12 August 2016|publisher=}}</ref>

==Production==
Dipper condoms are manufactured by Hindustan Latex Limited (HLL) Lifecare. For packaging, Rediffusion employed a colourful artwork style used by truck drivers and owners to decorate their trucks, in order to make them appealing to its targeted user base. Called 'truck art' in creative parlance, colourful patterns and pictures that reflected 'highway culture' was used while creating the packets.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.afaqs.com/news/story/48303_Tata-Motors-Dipper-Condoms-HULs-Lo-kar-lo-baat-win-Media-Lions|title=Tata Motors' 'Dipper Condoms', HUL's 'Lo kar lo baat' win Media Lions|date=23 June 2016 |publisher=}}</ref>

In April 2016, a total of 45,000 Dipper condoms were sold by the TCI Foundation in a window of 30 days. Birender Dubey, coordinator of the activity in Vashi, said, "The response was great. Normally, truckers feel shy about buying condoms. But Dipper appealed to their sensibilities. Everything worked in its favour - the price, the packaging, the quality, and most of all, the message 'Use Dipper At Night.' The stock is sold out and we've been getting request for more from drivers and our other clinics ever since."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/brand-equity/can-tata-motors-wordplay-on-use-dipper-at-night-catchphrase-help-drivers-curb-hiv-in-india/articleshow/52850640.cms|title=Can Tata Motors wordplay on 'Use dipper At Night' catchphrase help drivers curb HIV in India? - The Economic Times|newspaper=The Economic Times|publisher=|last1=Bhatt|first1=Shephali}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://blogs.wsj.com/indiarealtime/2016/08/09/in-india-truckers-get-their-own-condom-brand/|title=In India, Truckers Get Their Own Condom Brand|first=Corinne|last=Abrams|newspaper=Wall Street Journal |date=9 August 2016 |publisher=}}</ref>

==Honors==
In June 2016, Rediffusion Y&R won a Silver Medal Lion for the campaign in the 2016 edition of [[Cannes Lions International Festival of Creativity|Media Lions]].

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
*{{YouTube|0KY13ec-AGk|Watch Dipper condoms advert}}

[[Category:Indian brands]]
[[Category:Condom brands]]