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Bardish Chagger

2023-09-26T05:44:08Z

Icecreamand: Created page with '{{Infobox CanadianMP | honorific-prefix = | name = Bardish Chagger | honorific-suffix = | image = | imagesize = 200px | riding...'

{{Use Canadian English}}
{{Short description|Canadian politician (born 1980)}}
{{Infobox CanadianMP
| honorific-prefix = [[The Honourable]]
| name = Bardish Chagger
| honorific-suffix ={{post-nominals|country=CAN|PC|MP|size=100%}}
| image = Waterloo MP 2017.jpg
| imagesize =
| office = [[Minister of Diversity, Inclusion and Persons with Disabilities|Minister of Diversity and Inclusion and Youth]]
| primeminister = [[Justin Trudeau]]
| term_start = November 20, 2019
| term_end = October 26, 2021
| predecessor = ''Position created''
| successor = [[Ahmed Hussen]] (Diversity and Inclusion) [[Marci Ien]] (Youth)
| office1 = [[Leader of the Government in the House of Commons (Canada)|Leader of the Government in the House of Commons]]
| primeminister1 = [[Justin Trudeau]]
| term_start1 = August 19, 2016
| term_end1 = November 20, 2019
| predecessor1 = [[Dominic LeBlanc]]
| successor1 = [[Pablo Rodríguez (Canadian politician)|Pablo Rodríguez]]
| office2 = [[Minister of Small Business and Tourism]]
| primeminister2 = [[Justin Trudeau]]
| term_start2 = November 4, 2015
| term_end2 = July 18, 2018
| predecessor2 = [[Maxime Bernier]]
| successor2 = [[Melanie Joly]] (Tourism) [[Mary Ng]] (Small Business)
| riding3 = [[Waterloo (federal electoral district)|Waterloo]]
| parliament3 = Canadian
| term_start3 = October 19, 2015
| term_end3 =
| predecessor3 = ''Riding established''
| successor3 =
| birth_date ={{birth date and age|mf=yes|1980|4|6}}
| birth_place =[[Waterloo, Ontario|Waterloo]], [[Ontario]], Canada
| death_date =
| death_place =
| profession = [[Community organizing|Community organizer]]
| party = [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberal]]
| residence = [[Waterloo, Ontario]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.elections.ca/res/rep/off/ovr2019app/51/table12E.html|title=Official Voting Results|publisher=Elections Canada|access-date=January 23, 2021}}</ref>
| website = {{url|http://bardishchaggermp.ca/|bardishchaggermp.ca}}
| footnotes =
| spouse =
| children=
| alma_mater = [[University of Waterloo]]
|}}

'''Bardish Chagger''' {{post-nominals|country=CAN|PC|MP}} (born April 6, 1980) is a Canadian politician who served as a Cabinet minister from 2015 to 2021. A member of the [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberal Party]], Chagger has sat in the [[House of Commons of Canada|House of Commons]] as the [[Member of Parliament (Canada)|Member of Parliament]] for the [[electoral district (Canada)|riding]] of [[Waterloo (federal electoral district)|Waterloo]] since the [[2015 Canadian federal election|2015 federal election]].<ref>"[http://www.therecord.com/news-story/5968087-liberal-chagger-takes-waterloo/ Liberal Chagger takes Waterloo]", ''[[Waterloo Region Record]]'', 20 October 2015.</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=20 October 2015|title=19 Indian-Canadians elected to Canadian parliament|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/nri/nris-in-news/19-indian-canadians-elected-to-canadian-parliament/articleshow/49464520.cms|access-date=20 October 2015|publisher=[[The Economic Times]]|archive-date=11 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151111145903/http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/nri/nris-in-news/19-indian-canadians-elected-to-canadian-parliament/articleshow/49464520.cms|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Chagger previously held the portfolios of [[Leader of the Government in the House of Commons]] and [[Minister of Small Business and Tourism]].<ref name="CBC News">{{cite web|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/cabinet-shuffle-house-learder-1.3728243|title=Bardish Chagger adds government House leader to small business, tourism duties|date=19 August 2016|publisher=CBC News}}</ref> Chagger was the first female [[Leader of the Government in the House of Commons]] in the history of Canada.

==Early life and education==
Chagger's parents immigrated to [[Waterloo, Ontario|Waterloo]] from [[Punjab, India]] in the 1970s. Her family is Sikh.<ref>{{cite news |last1=D'Amato |first1=Luisa |title=Bardish Chagger's politics are always local, and her office rarely locked |url=https://www.therecord.com/opinion-story/7998838-d-amato-bardish-chagger-s-politics-are-always-local-and-her-office-rarely-locked/ |access-date=26 June 2018 |publisher=Waterloo Region Record |date=15 December 2017}}</ref> Her father, Gurminder "Gogi" Chagger, was active in the Liberal Party and an admirer of [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]] [[Pierre Trudeau]]. Chagger's first involvement in politics came in the [[1993 Canadian federal election|1993 federal election]] as a 13-year-old volunteer for [[Andrew Telegdi]]'s successful campaign in Waterloo.<ref name="Loves political life" />

She attended the [[University of Waterloo]], with aspirations to become a nurse, but she subsequently became an executive assistant to Telegdi, who represented Waterloo in the House of Commons for the Liberals from 1993 to 2008.<ref name="Loves political life">{{cite web | url=http://www.therecord.com/news-story/6047089-newly-elected-waterloo-mp-bardish-chagger-loves-the-political-life/ | title=Newly elected Waterloo MP Bardish Chagger loves the political life | publisher=[[The Waterloo Region Record]] | date=27 October 2015 | access-date=4 November 2015 | author=Mercer, Greg}}</ref>

Chagger graduated from the University of Waterloo with a bachelor of science degree.<ref name="Named to Cabinet">{{cite web | url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/kitchener-waterloo/waterloo-mp-bardish-chagger-named-to-justin-trudeau-s-cabinet-1.3303633 | title=Waterloo MP Bardish Chagger named to Justin Trudeau's cabinet | publisher=[[CBC News]] | date=4 November 2015 | access-date=4 November 2015}}</ref> After Telegedi's defeat in 2008, Chagger became a director of special events for the Kitchener-Waterloo Multicultural Centre.<ref name="Named to Cabinet" />

==Federal politics==
Chagger volunteered for [[Justin Trudeau]]'s [[2013 Liberal Party of Canada leadership election|2013 party leadership bid]], and subsequently became the Liberal Party's candidate in the newly reconstituted [[Waterloo (federal electoral district)|Waterloo]] riding. She took 49.7% of the vote and defeated two-term [[Conservative Party of Canada|Conservative]] incumbent [[Peter Braid]], who had earlier ousted her former employer Andrew Telegdi.<ref name="Loves political life" /><ref name="Named to Cabinet" />

===Minister for Small Business and Tourism===
On November 4, 2015, Chagger was sworn in as [[Minister of Small Business and Tourism]].<ref>Record Staff, [http://www.therecord.com/news-story/6080283-waterloo-mp-chagger-named-to-federal-cabinet/ Waterloo MP Chagger named to federal cabinet], ''The Waterloo Region Record'', November 4, 2015</ref>

As a result of the July 18, 2018 cabinet shuffle, Chagger's responsibilities for Small Business were given to [[Mary Ng]], and [[Mélanie Joly]] took on the responsibilities of Tourism.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/trudeau-cabinet-shuffle-2018-1.4749976 |title=Trudeau cabinet shuffle brings new faces, several changes for run-up to 2019 campaign |work=CBC News |last=Harris |first=Kathleen |date=July 18, 2018 |access-date=July 28, 2018}}</ref>

===Leader of the Government in the House of Commons===
On August 19, 2016, Chagger was sworn in as [[Leader of the Government in the House of Commons]] replacing [[Dominic Leblanc]] in the position. She retained her responsibilities as [[Minister of Small Business and Tourism]] until the July 18, 2018 cabinet shuffle.<ref name="CBC News"/>

On March 10, 2017, Chagger in her role as Government House Leader released a discussion paper titled ''Modernization of the Standing Orders of the House of Commons''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.canada.ca/en/leader-government-house-commons/services/reform-standing-orders-house-commons/2017/march.html|title=Reforming the Standing Orders of the House of Commons|last=Office|first=Privy Council|date=2017-03-10|website=aem|access-date=2019-04-08}}</ref> which sought to implement different ways that House of Commons procedure and practice could be improved to be more accountable, predictable and available to all Members of Parliament, and the public. The modernization paper suggested reforms to the House of Commons such as the implementation of electronic voting, the curtailment of Friday sittings, the reformation of Question Period, including a Prime Minister's Question Period, changes to the process of prorogation, greater powers for the Speaker to separate votes and committee studies on omnibus bills and legislative programming.

Opposition members of Parliament were concerned with the reforms proposed in the discussion paper, in particular with proposals to implement legislative programming and the elimination or change of Friday sittings in the House of Commons. In late April 2017, Chagger sent a letter to her counterparts, then New Democratic Party House Leader Murray Rankin and Conservative House Leader Candice Bergen, to inform them that the government would be abandoning several of the key proposals that were part of the modernization paper, such as changes to the Friday sitting, legislative programming, and electronic voting.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.scribd.com/document/346845163/Government-House-Leader-Bardish-Chagger-s-letter-to-her-opposition-counterparts|title=Government House Leader Bardish Chagger's letter to her opposition counterparts {{!}} Government|website=Scribd|language=en|access-date=2019-04-08}}</ref> They would continue however with proposals that were explicitly part of the 2015 Liberal election platform, including the decision to have a Prime Minister’s Question Period, requiring the government to issue a report following the use of prorogation, and allowing the [[Speaker of the House of Commons (Canada)|speaker of the House of Commons]] to separate votes or committee studies on different parts of a bill that he or she deems to be omnibus.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://globalnews.ca/news/3415895/house-of-commons-rules-reform-dropped/|title=Liberals shelve House of Commons reform plans after opposition criticism - National {{!}} Globalnews.ca|date=2017-04-30|website=globalnews.ca|language=en|access-date=2019-04-08}}</ref>

===WE Charity Ethics Investigation===
{{see also|WE Charity controversy}}
In July 2020, Chagger was the first witness who testified in front of a parliamentary committee investigating awarding of a sole-sourced contract to run Canada Student Service Grant (CSSG) to [[We Charity|WE Charity]], an organization with ties to Prime Minister [[Justin Trudeau]] and [[Minister of Finance (Canada)|Finance Minister]] [[Bill Morneau]]. Chagger was the one who signed the contracts with WE Charity, and had met with WE Charity days before student program was announced by Trudeau.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-07-20|title=Liberal minister Bardish Chagger met with WE Charity days before student program was announced by Trudeau|url=https://www.thestar.com/politics/federal/2020/07/20/liberal-minister-bardish-chagger-met-with-we-charity-days-before-student-program-was-announced-by-trudeau.html|access-date=2020-08-02|website=thestar.com|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=Jul 21, 2020|title=Waterloo MP Chagger says she won't resign over WE Charity scandal|work=CBC News|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/kitchener-waterloo/waterloo-mp-minister-bardish-chagger-we-charity-1.5657204|access-date=Aug 2, 2020}}</ref> Originally it was reported that WE charity would get a payment of at least $19.5 million, later it was disclosed that the contract was paying them up to $43.5 million to run student volunteer grant program. Chagger testified that it was the public service that recommended the grant program be outsourced to a third party via a contribution agreement, specifically it was Assistant Deputy Minister of Employment and Social Development Rachel Wernick.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Trudeau government was willing to pay WE Charity up to $43.5M to run student volunteer grant program|url=https://nationalpost.com/news/politics/trudeau-government-was-willing-to-pay-we-charity-up-to-43-5m-to-run-student-volunteer-grant-program|access-date=2020-07-17|website=National Post|language=en-CA}}</ref>

==Electoral record==
{{Canadian election result/top|CA|2021|Waterloo (federal electoral district)|Waterloo|percent=yes|change=yes|expenditures=yes}}
{{CANelec|CA|Liberal|Bardish Chagger|26,926|45.1|-3.7}}
{{CANelec|CA|Conservative|Meghan Shannon|16,528|27.7|+3.2}}
{{CANelec|CA|NDP|Jonathan Cassels|11,360|19.0|+3.8}}
{{CANelec|CA|PPC|Patrick Doucette|2,802|4.7|+3.0}}
{{CANelec|CA|Green|Karla Villagomez Fajardo|2,038|3.4|-6.3}}
{{Canadian election result/total|Total valid votes|59,654|99.4}}
{{Canadian election result/total|Total rejected ballots|353|0.6}}
{{Canadian election result/total|Turnout|60,007|69.4}}
{{Canadian election result/total|Eligible voters|86,456}}
{{CANelec/hold|CA|Liberal|-3.5}}
{{CANelec/source|Source: [[Elections Canada]]<ref>{{cite web |title=List of confirmed candidates – September 20, 2021 Federal Election |url=https://www.elections.ca/content2.aspx?section=can&dir=cand/lst&document=index&lang=e |website=[[Elections Canada]] |access-date=2 September 2021}}</ref>|}}
{{end}}

{{2019 Canadian federal election/Waterloo}}
{{2015 Canadian federal election/Waterloo}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* {{official website|http://bardishchaggermp.ca/}}
* [https://pm.gc.ca/en/cabinet/honourable-bardish-chagger Bio & mandate from the Prime Minister] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201210013004/https://pm.gc.ca/en/cabinet/honourable-bardish-chagger |date=2020-12-10 }}
* {{Canadian Parliament links|ID=18546}}

{{s-start}}
{{Canadian federal ministry navigational box header |ministry=29}}
{{ministry box cabinet posts
| post3preceded = ''Position established''
| post3 = [[Minister of Diversity and Inclusion and Youth]]
| post3years = November 20, 2019 – October 26, 2021
| post3note =
| post3followed = [[Ahmed Hussen]] (Diversity and Inclusion) [[Marci Ien]] (Youth)
| post2preceded = [[Dominic LeBlanc]]
| post2 = [[Leader of the Government in the House of Commons (Canada)|Leader of the Government in the House of Commons]]
| post2years = August 19, 2016 – November 20, 2019
| post2note =
| post2followed = [[Pablo Rodríguez (Canadian politician)|Pablo Rodriguez]]
| post1preceded = [[Maxime Bernier]]
| post1 = [[Minister of Small Business and Tourism]]
| post1years = November 4, 2015 – July 18, 2018
| post1note =
| post1followed = [[Mary Ng]] (Small Business) [[Melanie Joly]] (Tourism)
}}
{{s-end}}
{{Justin Trudeau Ministry}}
{{CanCabinet}}
{{Current Members of the Canadian House of Commons}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chagger, Bardish}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Canadian people of Indian descent]]
[[Category:Women members of the House of Commons of Canada]]
[[Category:Liberal Party of Canada MPs]]
[[Category:Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Ontario]]
[[Category:Members of the King's Privy Council for Canada]]
[[Category:Politicians from Waterloo, Ontario]]
[[Category:University of Waterloo alumni]]
[[Category:Women in Ontario politics]]
[[Category:Members of the 29th Canadian Ministry]]
[[Category:Canadian Sikhs]]
[[Category:Women government ministers of Canada]]
[[Category:1980 births]]
[[Category:21st-century Canadian women politicians]]
[[Category:Canadian people of Punjabi descent]]
[[Category:Punjabi people]]

Single-elimination tournament

2023-09-19T15:41:45Z

Icecreamand: /* Classification */ The example given is about 3rd place, not the losers of qfs

{{Short description|Tournament format in which the loser of each match-up is immediately eliminated}}
A '''single-elimination, knockout''', or '''sudden-death tournament''' is a type of [[elimination tournament]] where the loser of each match-up is immediately eliminated from the tournament. Each winner will play another in the next round, until the final match-up, whose winner becomes the tournament champion. Each match-up may be a single match or several, for example [[two-legged tie]]s in European sports or [[best-of series]] in North American pro sports. Defeated competitors may play no further part after losing, or may participate in "consolation" or "classification" matches against other losers to determine the lower final rankings; for example, a [[third place playoff]] between losing semi-finalists. In a shootout [[poker tournament]], there are more than two players competing at each table, and sometimes more than one progresses to the next round. Some competitions are held with a pure single-elimination tournament system. Others have many phases, with the last being a single-elimination final stage, often called [[playoffs]].<ref name="SportScienceCenter">{{cite web|title=Knock-Out tournament|url=https://sportsciencecorner.blogspot.com/2023/08/knock-out-tournament.html|website=Sport Science Corner|access-date=31 August 2023}}</ref>

==Nomenclature==
{{Anchor|Round of 8|Round of 4|Round of 2}}
{{Redirect|Final round||Final Round (disambiguation){{!}}Final Round}}
In [[English language|English]], the round in which only eight competitors remain is generally called (with or without hyphenation) the ''quarter-final'' round; this is followed by the ''semi-final'' round, in which only four are left, the two winners of which then meet in the ''final'' or ''championship round''.

{{Anchor|Round of 16}}
The round before the quarterfinals has multiple designations. Often it is called the ''round of sixteen'', ''last sixteen'', or (in South Asia) ''pre-quarterfinals''. In many other languages the term for these eight matches translates to ''eighth-final'' (e.g., in these European languages: "huitième de finale" in [[French language|French]], ''octavos de final'' in [[Spanish language|Spanish]], ''Achtelfinale'' in [[German language|German]], ''ottavi di finale'' in [[Italian language|Italian]], ''oitavos-de-final'' in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], ''optimi de finală'' in [[Romanian language|Romanian]] ''osmifinále'' in [[Czech language|Czech]], ''osemfinále'' in [[Slovak language|Slovak]], and ''osmina finala'' in [[Serbo-Croatian]]), though this term is rare in English itself.

{{Anchor|Round of 32}}
The round before the round of sixteen is sometimes called ''round of thirty-two'' in English. Terms for this in other languages generally translate as "sixteenth final".

{{Anchor|Round of 64|Round of 128}}
Earlier rounds are typically numbered counting forwards from the first round, or by the number of remaining competitors. If some competitors get a [[bye (sports)|bye]], the round at which they enter may be named the ''first round'', with the earlier matches called a ''preliminary round'', ''qualifying round'', ''opening round'', or the ''play-in games''.

Examples of the diverse names given to concurrent rounds in various select disciplines:
{|class="wikitable" style="font-size:90%"
|-
! By competitors
! Fraction of final
! [[Grand Slam tennis]]<ref>In singles only (the other disciplines have fewer rounds)</ref>
! [[FA Cup]] football
![[Coupe de France]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fff.fr/competitions/php/coupe/coupe_resultat_cfra.php?cp_no=264761&ph_no=2&sa_no=2011&gp_no=1&pj_no=2|title=Coupe de France : football, résultats, calendrier, reportage, photos|publisher=[[French Football Federation]]|language=fr|access-date=16 July 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120719133732/http://www.fff.fr/competitions/php/coupe/coupe_resultat_cfra.php?cp_no=264761&ph_no=2&sa_no=2011&gp_no=1&pj_no=2|archive-date=19 July 2012}}</ref>
! [[NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament|NCAA Men's Basketball]]
![[North American Debating Championship|North American Debating Ch'ship]]
![[Snooker]]
|-
! Round of 2
! [[Final (competition)|Final]]
| Final
| [[FA Cup Final|Final]]
| Final
| National Championship
| Final
| Final
|-
! Round of 4
! Semifinals
| Semifinals
| Semi-finals
| Semifinals
| [[final four]] (National semifinals){{refn|group=t|The NCAA also uses the "final four" terminology in the [[NCAA Division I women's basketball tournament|Division I women's tournament]], as well as the [[NCAA Division III|Division III]] tournaments for both [[NCAA Division III men's basketball tournament|men]] and [[NCAA Division III women's basketball tournament|women]]. In [[NCAA Division II|Division II]] for both sexes, this round is called the "semifinals"; both championship events in that division consist of eight teams instead of four.}}
| Semifinals
| Semi-finals
|-
! Round of 8
! Quarterfinals
| Quarterfinals
| quarter-finals{{refn|The quarter-finals were called the "sixth round" until [[2016–17 FA Cup|2016–17]], the first in which replays were discontinued for this round.<ref>{{cite web |title=Premier League clubs want the FA Cup moved to midweek and replays scrapped |url=https://talksport.com/football/fa-cup/245292/fa-cup-be-moved-midweek-and-replays-scrapped-shake-football-calendar-170615243113/ |website=talkSPORT |access-date=31 March 2019 |date=31 May 2018 |orig-year=2017}}; {{cite web |author1=Emirates FA Cup |title=We do now! The sixth round has been renamed as the quarter-finals from this season. |url=https://twitter.com/EmiratesFACup/status/832564905060495361 |website=@EmiratesFACup |publisher=Twitter |access-date=31 March 2019 |language=en |date=17 February 2017}}</ref>|group="t"}}
| Quarterfinals
| [[Elite Eight]] (Regional finals){{refn|group=t|In the Division II [[NCAA Division II men's basketball tournament|men's]] and [[NCAA Division III women's basketball tournament|women's]] tournaments, the Elite Eight is the championship event, with all qualifying teams participating at a single site. The NCAA does not use "Elite Eight" in Division III, simply calling this round the "regional finals".}}
| Quarterfinals
| Quarter-finals
|-
! Round of 16
! Eighth-finals
| 4th round ([[The Championships, Wimbledon|Wimbledon]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wimbledon.com/en_GB/scores/draws/ms/index.html|title=Gentlemen's Singles – 2012 Official Site by IBM|publisher=Wimbledon Championships Website|access-date=16 July 2012}}</ref>) Round of 16 ([[US Open (tennis)|US Open]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usopen.org/schedule/2012_tournament_schedule/|title=2012 Tournament Schedule|work=US Open|access-date=16 July 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120717030544/http://www.usopen.org/schedule/2012_tournament_schedule/|archive-date=17 July 2012}}</ref>)
| 5th round<ref group="t" name="proper" />
| 8th-finals
| Sweet Sixteen (Regional semifinals){{refn|group=t|The NCAA only uses the term "Sweet Sixteen" in the Division I tournaments.}}
| Round 7
| Last 16 4th Round
|-
! Round of 32
! 16th-finals
| 3rd round
| 4th round<ref group="t" name="proper" />
| 16th-finals
| 3rd/2nd round<ref group="t" name="ncaabb" />{{refn|group=t|name=NCAAW|Since the NCAA Division I women's tournament expanded beyond 32 teams in 1986, the round of 32 has always been called the "second round", and the preceding round the "first round". The women's tournament involved 64 teams from 1994-2021 before expanding to 68 in 2022.}}
| Round 6
| Last 32 3rd Round
|-
! Round of 64
! 32nd-finals
| 2nd round
| 3rd round<ref group="t" name="proper" />
| 32nd-finals
| 2nd/1st round<ref group="t" name="ncaabb" />{{refn|group=t|name=NCAAW}}
| Round 5
| Last 64 2nd Round
|-
! Round of 128
! 64th-finals
| 1st round
| 2nd round<ref group="t">The FA Cup 2nd round involves 40 teams, of which 20 qualify for the 3rd round, to which the top 44 teams will have received byes.</ref><ref group="t" name="proper">The first to fifth rounds are often called the "first/second/etc. round proper", to distinguish them from the "first/second/etc. [[:Category:FA Cup qualifying rounds|qualifying round]]".</ref>
| 8th qualifying round<ref group="t">The 8th qualifying round involves 88 teams, of which 44 qualify for the 32nd-finals, to which the top 20 teams will have received byes.</ref>
| [[First Four]]{{refn|Starting in [[2011 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament|2011]], 68 teams played in the Championship, with four play-in games, nicknamed the [[First Four]], before the top 60 teams enter at the round of 64. (From [[2001 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament|2001]] to [[2010 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament|2010]], there was a single [[NCAA men's Division I basketball opening round|"opening round" game]] before the round of 64.) The NCAA originally called the First Four the first round, making the rounds of 64 and 32 the second and third rounds respectively; in 2014 it announced that from [[2016 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament|2016]] it would revert to calling the rounds of 64 and 32 the first and second rounds.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cheatsheet.com/sports/whats-in-a-name-march-madness-first-round-is-the-first-round-again.html/?a=viewall|title=What's in a Name? March Madness First Round Is the 'First Round' Again|last=Cary|first=Tim|date=21 November 2014|work=The Cheat Sheet|access-date=6 June 2015}}</ref>|group="t"|name="ncaabb"}}
| Round 4<ref group="t">The number of eligible teams is typically less than 128, but more than 64, so not all teams play this round.</ref>
| Last 128 1st Round
|}
Notes:
{{reflist|group="t"}}

==Example==
The final three rounds of the [[2002–03 UEFA Champions League]] tournament:

{{8TeamBracket
| seeds=n
| sets=2/2/1
| aggregate=y
| RD1=Quarter-finals
| RD2=Semi-finals
| RD3=Final
| team-width=180px
| leg-width=24px
| score-width=32px
| RD1-team1={{flagicon|ESP}} '''[[Real Madrid C.F.|Real Madrid]]'''
| RD1-score1-1=3
| RD1-score1-2=3
| RD1-score1-agg=6
| RD1-team2={{flagicon|ENG}} [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]]
| RD1-score2-1=1
| RD1-score2-2=4
| RD1-score2-agg=5
| RD1-team3={{flagicon|ITA|2003}} '''[[Juventus F.C.|Juventus]]''' ([[Overtime (sports)#Association football|aet]])
| RD1-score3-1=1
| RD1-score3-2=2
| RD1-score3-agg=3
| RD1-team4={{flagicon|ESP}} [[FC Barcelona|Barcelona]]
| RD1-score4-1=1
| RD1-score4-2=1
| RD1-score4-agg=2
| RD1-team5={{flagicon|NED}} [[AFC Ajax|Ajax]]
| RD1-score5-1=0
| RD1-score5-2=2
| RD1-score5-agg=2
| RD1-team6={{flagicon|ITA|2003}} '''[[A.C. Milan|Milan]]'''
| RD1-score6-1=0
| RD1-score6-2=3
| RD1-score6-agg=3
| RD1-team7={{flagicon|ITA|2003}} '''[[F.C. Internazionale Milano|Internazionale]]''' ([[Away goals rule|a]])
| RD1-score7-1=1
| RD1-score7-2=1
| RD1-score7-agg=2
| RD1-team8={{flagicon|ESP}} [[Valencia CF|Valencia]]
| RD1-score8-1=0
| RD1-score8-2=2
| RD1-score8-agg=2
| RD2-team1={{flagicon|ESP}} [[Real Madrid C.F.|Real Madrid]]
| RD2-score1-1=2
| RD2-score1-2=1
| RD2-score1-agg=3
| RD2-team2={{flagicon|ITA|2003}} '''[[Juventus F.C.|Juventus]]'''
| RD2-score2-1=1
| RD2-score2-2=3
| RD2-score2-agg=4
| RD2-team3={{flagicon|ITA|2003}} '''[[A.C. Milan|Milan]]''' ([[Away goals rule|a]])
| RD2-score3-1=0
| RD2-score3-2=1
| RD2-score3-agg=1
| RD2-team4={{flagicon|ITA|2003}} [[F.C. Internazionale Milano|Internazionale]]
| RD2-score4-1=0
| RD2-score4-2=1
| RD2-score4-agg=1
| RD3-team1={{flagicon|ITA|2003}} [[Juventus F.C.|Juventus]]
| RD3-score1=0 (2)
| RD3-team2={{flagicon|ITA|2003}} '''[[A.C. Milan|Milan]]''' ([[Penalty shootout (football)|p]])
| RD3-score2=0 (3)
}}

===Quarter-finals===
{{TwoLegStart}}
{{TwoLegResult|'''[[Real Madrid C.F.|Real Madrid]]'''|ESP|6–5|[[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]]|ENG|[[2002–03 UEFA Champions League knockout stage#First leg|3–1]]|[[2002–03 UEFA Champions League knockout stage#Second leg|3–4]]}}
{{TwoLegResult|[[AFC Ajax|Ajax]]|NED|2–3|'''[[A.C. Milan|Milan]]'''|ITA|var2=2003|[[2002–03 UEFA Champions League knockout stage#First leg|0–0]]|[[2002–03 UEFA Champions League knockout stage#Second leg|2–3]]}}
{{TwoLegResult|''' [[F.C. Internazionale Milano|Internazionale]]'''|ITA|var1=2003|([[Away goals rule|a]]) 2–2 |[[Valencia CF|Valencia]]|ESP|[[2002–03 UEFA Champions League knockout stage#First leg|1–0]]|[[2002–03 UEFA Champions League knockout stage#Second leg|1–2]]}}
{{TwoLegResult|'''[[Juventus F.C.|Juventus]]'''|ITA|var1=2003|3–2|[[FC Barcelona|Barcelona]]|ESP|[[2002–03 UEFA Champions League knockout stage#First leg|1–1]]|[[2002–03 UEFA Champions League knockout stage#Second leg|2–1]] ([[Overtime (sports)#Association football|aet]])}}
{{end}}

===Semi-finals===
{{TwoLegStart}}
{{TwoLegResult|[[Real Madrid C.F.|Real Madrid]]|ESP|3–4|'''[[Juventus F.C.|Juventus]]'''|ITA|var2=2003|[[2002–03 UEFA Champions League knockout stage#First leg 2|2–1]]|[[2002–03 UEFA Champions League knockout stage#Second leg 2|1–3]]}}
{{TwoLegResult|''' [[A.C. Milan|Milan]]'''|ITA|([[Away goals rule|a]]) 1–1 |[[F.C. Internazionale Milano|Internazionale]]|var2=2003|ITA|[[2002–03 UEFA Champions League knockout stage#First leg 2|0–0]]|[[2002–03 UEFA Champions League knockout stage#Second leg 2|1–1]]*}}
{{end}}

<nowiki>*</nowiki>Both clubs played their home leg in the same stadium (the [[San Siro]]), but Milan were the designated away side in the second leg, and thus won on "away" goals.

===Final===
{{Main|2003 UEFA Champions League Final}}
{{footballbox
|date=28 May 2003
|time=20:48
|team1=[[Juventus F.C.|Juventus]] {{flagicon|ITA|2003}}
|score=0–0
|aet=yes
|report=[http://www.uefa.com/uefachampionsleague/season=2002/matches/round=1640/match=1045288/postmatch/report/index.html Report]
|team2={{flagicon|ITA|2003}} [[A.C. Milan|Milan]]
|goals1=
|goals2=
|stadium=[[Old Trafford]], [[Manchester]]
|attendance=62,315
|referee=[[Markus Merk]] ([[German Football Association|Germany]])
|penalties1=[[David Trezeguet|Trezeguet]] {{penmiss}} [[Alessandro Birindelli|Birindelli]] {{pengoal}} [[Marcelo Zalayeta|Zalayeta]] {{penmiss}} [[Paolo Montero|Montero]] {{penmiss}} [[Alessandro Del Piero|Del Piero]] {{pengoal}}
|penaltyscore=2–3
|penalties2={{pengoal}} [[Sergio Claudio dos Santos|Serginho]] {{penmiss}} [[Clarence Seedorf|Seedorf]] {{penmiss}} [[Kakha Kaladze|Kaladze]] {{pengoal}} [[Alessandro Nesta|Nesta]] {{pengoal}} [[Andriy Shevchenko|Shevchenko]]
}}

==Classification==
Without any additional matches, the only position a single-elimination tournament can reliably determine is first - for example, if sorting the numbers 1-4 ascending, if 4 and 3 meet in the first round, 3 and 1 will lose in the first round and 2 will lose in the second, selecting 4 as the largest number in the set, but insufficient comparisons have been performed to determine which is greater, 2 or 3. Despite this, the candidate that loses in the final round is commonly considered to have taken second place (in this case, 2). When matches are held to determine places or prizes lower than first and second, these typically include a match between the losers of the semifinal matches called [[third place playoff]]s, the winner therein placing third and the loser fourth. Many Olympic single-elimination tournaments feature the bronze medal match if they do not award bronze medals to both losing semifinalists. The [[FIFA World Cup]] has long featured the third place match (since [[1934 FIFA World Cup|1934]]), though the [[UEFA Euro]] has not held one since the [[Euro 1980|1980 edition]].

Sometimes, contests are also held among the losers of the quarterfinal matches to determine fifth to eighth places. In one scenario, two "consolation semifinal" matches may be conducted, with the winners of these then facing off to determine fifth and sixth places and the losers playing for seventh and eighth; those are used often in qualifying tournaments where only the top five teams advance to the next round; or some method of ranking the four quarterfinal losers might be employed, in which case only one round of additional matches would be held among them, the two highest-ranked therein then playing for fifth and sixth places and the two lowest for seventh and eighth.

The number of distinct ways of arranging a single-elimination tournament (as an abstract structure, prior to seeding the players into the tournament) is given by the [[Wedderburn–Etherington number]]s.<ref>{{citation
| last = Maurer | first = Willi
| journal = The Annals of Statistics
| jstor = 2958441
| mr = 0371712
| pages = 717–727
| title = On most effective tournament plans with fewer games than competitors
| volume = 3
| year = 1975
| issue = 3
| doi = 10.1214/aos/1176343135| doi-access = free
}}.</ref> Thus, for instance, there are three different arrangements for five players:
* The players may be divided into brackets of two and three players, the winners of which meet in the final game
* The bottom four players may play a two-round tournament, the winner of which plays the top player
* The bottom two players may meet, after which each subsequent game pairs the winner of the previous game with the next player
However, the number of arrangements grows quickly for larger numbers of players and not all of them are commonly used.

==Seeding==
{{main|Seed (sports)}}

Opponents may be allocated randomly (such as in the FA Cup); however, since the "luck of the draw" may result in the highest-rated competitors being scheduled to face each other early in the competition, ''seeding'' is often used to prevent this. Brackets are set up so that the top two seeds could not possibly meet until the final round (should both advance that far), none of the top four can meet prior to the semifinals, and so on. If no seeding is used, the tournament is called a random knockout tournament.

Standard seeding pairs the highest and lowest, then second highest and second lowest and so on, for an 8 seed tournament this is 1 v 8, 2 v 7, 3 v 6 and 4 v 5, for example this is used for 16 seeds in the [[World Snooker Championship]] and 32 seeds in the [[PDC World Darts Championship|World Darts Championship]]. Some tournaments stray from this, for example it is not the procedure that is followed in most tennis tournaments, where the 1 and 2 seeds are placed in separate brackets, but then the 3 and 4 seeds are assigned to their brackets randomly, and so too are seeds 5 through 8, and so on. This may result in some brackets consisting of stronger players than other brackets, and since only the top 32 players of 128 are seeded in [[Grand Slam (tennis)|Tennis Grand Slam]] tournaments, it can happen that the 33rd-best player in a 128-player field could end up playing the top seed in the first round. An example of this occurring was when World No. 33 [[Florian Mayer]] was drawn against, and defeated by, World No. 1 [[Novak Djokovic]] in the first round of the [[2013 Wimbledon Championships – Men's Singles|2013 Wimbledon Championships]],<ref>[http://novakdjokovic.com/en/news/tennis/wimbledon-novak-vs-mayer-in-r1-andy-roger-and-rafa-all-in-bottom-half/ Wimbledon: Novak vs Mayer in R1; Andy, Roger, Rafa all in bottom half], ''[[Novak Djokovic]] official website'', 21 June 2013</ref> in what was also a rematch of a quarter-final from the [[2012 Wimbledon Championships – Gentlemen's Singles#Finals| previous year]].<ref>[http://www.theroar.com.au/2013/06/22/wimbledon-2013-possible-mens-matches-to-watch-out-for/ Wimbledon 2013: Men's matches to watch out for], ''The Roar'', 22 June 2013</ref>

Sometimes the remaining competitors in a single-elimination tournament will be "re-seeded" so that the highest surviving seed is made to play the lowest surviving seed in the next round, the second-highest plays the second-lowest, etc. This may be done after each round, or only at selected intervals. In American team sports, for example, the [[NFL]] employs this tactic, but [[MLS Cup Playoffs|MLS]], [[NHL]] and the [[NBA playoffs|NBA]] do not (and neither does the [[NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament|NCAA college basketball tournament]]). Although [[Major League Baseball|MLB]] does have enough teams (12) in its playoff tournament where re-seeding would have made a large difference in the matchups; only the WNBA's at the minimum, which is at least four from each conference for a total of 8. The NBA's format calls for the winner of the first-round series between the first and eighth seeds (within each of the two conferences the league has) to face the winner of the first-round series between the fourth and fifth seeds in the next round, even if one or more of the top three seeds had been upset in their first-round series; critics have claimed that this gives a team fighting for the fifth and sixth seeding positions near the end of the regular season an incentive to [[match fixing|tank]] (deliberately lose) games, so as to finish sixth and thus avoid a possible match-up with the top seed until one round later. MLS' format is identical, except that the conference quarterfinals is a best-of-three series.

In some situations, a seeding restriction may be implemented; from 1975 until 1989 in the [[National Football League|NFL]], and from 1994 until 2011 in [[Major League Baseball|MLB]] there was a rule where at the conference or league semifinal, should the top seed and last seed (wild card) be from the same division, they cannot play each other; in that case, the top seed plays the worst division champion; the second-best division champion plays the wild card team. This is due to the scheduling employed for the regular season, in which a team faces any given divisional opponent more often than any given non-divisional opponent – the tournament favors match-ups that took place fewer times in the regular season (or did not take place, in some cases).<ref name="SportScienceCenter" />

In international [[fencing]] competitions, it is common to have a [[group stage]]. Participants are divided in groups of 6–7 fencers who play a round-robin tournament, and a ranking is calculated from the consolidated group results. Single elimination is seeded from this ranking.

==Evaluation==
The single-elimination format enables a relatively large number of competitors to participate. There are no "dead" matches (perhaps excluding "classification" matches), and no matches where one competitor has more to play for than the other.

The format is less suited to games where [[tie (draw)|draws]] are frequent. In [[chess]], each fixture in a single-elimination tournament must be played over multiple matches, because [[draw (chess)|draws are common]], and because white has an advantage over black. In [[association football]], games ending in a draw may be settled in extra time and eventually by a [[penalty shootout (football)|penalty shootout]] or by replaying the fixture.

Another perceived disadvantage is that most competitors are eliminated after relatively few games. Variations such as the [[double-elimination tournament]] allow competitors a single loss while remaining eligible for overall victory. However, losing one game requires the competitor to win more games in order to win the tournament.

In a random knockout tournament (single-elimination without any seeding), awarding the second place to the loser of the final is unjustified: any of the competitors knocked out by the tournament winner might have been the second strongest one, but they never got the chance to play against the losing finalist. In general, it is only fair to use a single-elimination tournament to determine first place. To fairly determine lower places requires some form of [[round-robin tournament|round-robin]] in which each player/team gets the opportunity to face every other player/team.

Also, if the competitors' performance is variable, that is, it depends on a small, varying factor in addition to the actual strength of the competitors, then not only will it become less likely that the strongest competitor actually wins the tournament, in addition the seeding done by the tournament organizers will play a major part in deciding the winner.<ref name="ryv">{{cite web|url=https://www.cerge-ei.cz/pdf/wp/Wp252.pdf|title=The Predictive Power of Noisy Elimination Tournaments|last=Ryvkin|first=Dmitry|date=March 2005|publisher=CERGE-EI|access-date=21 October 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071022001026/https://www.cerge-ei.cz/pdf/wp/Wp252.pdf|archive-date=22 October 2007|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="kim">{{cite journal|url=http://epubs.siam.org/doi/abs/10.1137/16M1061783|title=Who Can Win a Single-Elimination Tournament?|last1=Kim|first1=Michael P.|last2=Suksompong|first2=Warut|last3=Vassilevska Williams|first3=Virginia|author3-link= Virginia Vassilevska Williams |year=2017|journal=SIAM Journal on Discrete Mathematics|volume=31|issue=3|pages=1751–1764|doi=10.1137/16M1061783|arxiv=1511.08416|hdl=1721.1/125608|s2cid=1251470}}</ref> As a random factor is always present in a real-world competition, this might easily cause accusations of unfairness.

==Other tournament systems==
Variations of the single-elimination tournament include:
* [[Double-elimination tournament]]
* [[McIntyre system]], a group of tournament formats that combine features of single- and double-elimination tournaments. Varieties of this system include:
** [[Page playoff system]] (four teams)
** [[Top five play-offs]]
** [[Top six play-offs]]
** [[McIntyre final eight system]]
** [[Super League play-offs]], which formerly used a McIntyre final eight variant
** [[AFL final eight system]], another variant of the McIntyre final eight, currently used by the Australian Football League
Other common tournament types include:
* [[Round-robin tournament]]
* [[Swiss-system tournament]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Tournament systems]]

[[ja:トーナメント方式#勝ち残り式トーナメント]]

Roshan Kushwaha

2023-09-14T18:46:24Z

Icecreamand: Added a new addition to the platform.

{{Short description|Indian civil servant}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Roshan Kushwaha
| order = [[Indian Administrative Service]]
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| image = File:Roshan Kushwaha.jpg
|caption=Kushwaha during his training period in LBSNAA
| imagesize =
| predecessor =
| successor =
| birth_date =
| birth_place =
| nationality = Indian
| profession =Former [[District Magistrate]] of Bhojpur
 District Magistrate of [[Begusarai district]]
| term_start =
| term_end =
| Political party =
}}
'''Roshan Kushwaha''' is an [[Indian Administrative Service]] officer, who served as 35th [[District Magistrate]] of [[Begusarai district]] of Bihar. Kushwaha was appointed by [[Government of Bihar]] in the district in the year 2022, replacing the incumbent District Magistrate, Arvind Kumar Verma. He is primarily known for his role in implementing the developmental intiatives of the [[Nitish Kumar]] government under the ambitious [[Economy of Bihar#Policies|Saat Nishchay Yojna]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bhaskar.com/local/bihar/begusarai/news/roshan-kushwaha-became-the-35th-dm-of-the-district-129799176.html|title=Roshan Kushwaha became the 35th DM of Begusarai|language=Hindi|website=[[Dainik Bhaskar]]|accessdate=12 September 2023|archive-date=13 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230913094054/https://www.bhaskar.com/local/bihar/begusarai/news/roshan-kushwaha-became-the-35th-dm-of-the-district-129799176.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://begusarai.nic.in/whoswho/dm-begusarai/|title=Collectorate Begusarai district|website=Government of Bihar|accessdate=12 September 2023|archive-date=8 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230608030100/https://begusarai.nic.in/whoswho/dm-begusarai/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.livehindustan.com/bihar/begusarai/story-new-dm-roshan-kushwaha-took-charge-6479103.html|title=Roshan Kushwaha assumed charges as District Magistrate of Begusarai|website=livehindustan|accessdate=13 September 2023|archive-date=13 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230913094103/https://www.livehindustan.com/bihar/begusarai/story-bihat-shri-krishna-janmotsav-fair-concluded-8702510.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Previously, he also served as the District Magistrate of [[Bhojpur district, India|Bhojpur district]], the position to which he was appointed after replacing incumbent DM, Sanjiv Kumar. Before being appointed as DM of Bhojpur, Kushwaha was serving as DDC of [[Vaishali district]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bhaskar.com/bihar/ara/news/raushan-kushwaha-kia-got-bhojpur-command-sushil-will-be-the-new-police-captain-061505-4650109.html|title=रौशन कुशवाहा काे मिली भोजपुर की कमान, सुशील होंगे नए पुलिस कप्तान|website=Dainik Bhaskar|accessdate=13 September 2023|archive-date=13 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230913094127/https://www.bhaskar.com/bihar/ara/news/raushan-kushwaha-kia-got-bhojpur-command-sushil-will-be-the-new-police-captain-061505-4650109.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Career==
During his tenure as the District Magistrate of Begusarai, Kushwaha worked for improving the medical facilities in the district. The steps such as establishment of [[In vitro fertilisation]] centres were taken to convert the district into a hub of medical facilities.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bhaskar.com/local/bihar/begusarai/news/dm-roshan-kushwaha-said-gusrai-has-become-a-medical-hub-the-people-around-are-also-getting-benefits-131284228.html|title=DM Roshan Kushwaha said Begusarai has been converted into a medical hub|website=Dainik Bhaskar|accessdate=13 September 2023|archive-date=15 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230515184619/https://www.bhaskar.com/local/bihar/begusarai/news/dm-roshan-kushwaha-said-gusrai-has-become-a-medical-hub-the-people-around-are-also-getting-benefits-131284228.html|url-status=live}}</ref> He also participated in drive to make people aware of the importance of Golden Hour, after an accident. In his capacity as District Magistrate of Begusarai, he awarded those good samaritans, who helped a victim of accident without waiting for the authorities to arrive on the scene.<ref>{{cite web|title=Begusarai News: सड़क दुर्घटना में घायल व्यक्ति की मदद करने पर डीएम ने दो लोगों को किया सम्मानित|url=https://hindi.news18.com/news/bihar/begusarai-dm-roshan-kushwaha-honored-two-people-who-helped-injured-person-in-road-accident-5206075.html|website=News18|accessdate=13 September 2023|archive-date=25 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230125175813/https://hindi.news18.com/news/bihar/begusarai-dm-roshan-kushwaha-honored-two-people-who-helped-injured-person-in-road-accident-5206075.html|url-status=live}}</ref> During his stint as DM of Begusarai, a protest by students of ANM Nursing School took place. The trainees were protesting against lack of trainers in their institute, which was hindering their training. As per news reports, they protested twice, and earlier DM Kushwaha had ensured them of action on his part to fulfill their demands. However, when the demands were not fulfilled within four days, protests restarted once again. In this incident, the anguished trainees were reported to be involved in stone pelting at the convoy of DM.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.etvbharat.com/hindi/bihar/state/begusarai/begusarai-dm-roshan-kushwaha-got-angry-on-nursing-students/bh20220923180041560560824|title=प्रदर्शनकारी नर्सिंग छात्राओं पर भड़के बेगूसराय DM...कहा.. सबको कर देंगे सस्पेंड|website=etvbihar|accessdate=13 September 2023|archive-date=24 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220924191806/https://www.etvbharat.com/hindi/bihar/state/begusarai/begusarai-dm-roshan-kushwaha-got-angry-on-nursing-students/bh20220923180041560560824|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2022, a major bridge collapse accident took place in Sahebpur Kamal block of the Begusarai district. The bridge was yet to be inaugurated, but was in use by pedestrians, and small vehicles were also allowed on it. Although, no one was harmed in this incident, the collapse resulted in inconvenience to the locals in commuting from one side of the Burhi Gandak river to other. Kushwaha ordered a probe into the incident, to find out the causes behind the accident, acting in his capacity as head of the district.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/bridge-constructed-over-river-in-bihar-collapses-probe-ordered-8334847/|title=Bridge constructed over river in Bihar collapses, probe ordered|website=Indian express|accessdate=13 September 2023|archive-date=5 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230105032844/https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/bridge-constructed-over-river-in-bihar-collapses-probe-ordered-8334847/|url-status=live}}</ref>

He stared working for proper implementation of ambitious 'Saat Nishchay Yojna' of Government of Bihar in 2019, while he was working as District Magistrate of Bhojpur. In the same year, he initiated a [[panchayat]] level connectivity program in [[Piro, Bihar|Piro block]] of Bhojpur district to ensure that the targets under the program are delivered to the people at ground level. He instructed the local officials and stressed upon the two pillars out of seven primary components of scheme. These included, availability of clean drinking water for all and pavement of rural roads for swift connectivity.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jagran.com/bihar/bhojpur-bring-fast-in-the-seven-decision-plan-19758924.html|title=सात निश्चय योजना में लाएं तेजी|website=[[Dainik Jagran]]|accessdate=13 September 2023|archive-date=13 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230913094055/https://www.jagran.com/bihar/bhojpur-bring-fast-in-the-seven-decision-plan-19758924.html|url-status=live}}</ref> His thrust on proper implementation of 'Saat Nishchay Yojna' continued during his stint as Begusarai DM. In this district, he primarily worked in the area of skill development, urban [[solid waste management]] and ensuring irrigation facility for each crop field in the district. To avoid flooding during rainy season, he also worked with
[[Bihar Urban Infrastructure Development Corporation|Bihar Urban Infrastructure Development Corporation Ltd (BUIDCO)]] to develop [[Storm drain|storm water drainage system]] for the cities.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bhaskar.com/local/bihar/begusarai/news/dm-said-develop-storm-water-drainage-system-to-deal-with-the-problem-of-water-logging-129972964.html|title=सात निश्चय योजना:डीएम ने कहा- जल जमाव की समस्या से निपटने के लिए स्टॉर्म वाटर ड्रेनेज सिस्टम को विकसित करें|website=Dainik Bhaskar|accessdate=13 September 2023|language=Hindi|archive-date=24 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220624184226/https://www.bhaskar.com/local/bihar/begusarai/news/dm-said-develop-storm-water-drainage-system-to-deal-with-the-problem-of-water-logging-129972964.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.livehindustan.com/bihar/begusarai/story-campaign-started-for-awareness-about-waste-management-7086457.html|title=Campaign started for awareness about waste management by DM Roshan Kushwaha|accessdate=13 September 2023|archive-date=13 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230913172751/https://www.livehindustan.com/bihar/begusarai/story-campaign-started-for-awareness-about-waste-management-7086457.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Previously, during his stint as Bhojpur DM, a [[New Koilwar Bridge|new bridge over Koilwar river]] was inaugurated for the ease of communication.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://m.timesofindia.com/city/patna/new-koilwar-bridge-likely-to-open-on-dec-10/articleshow/79552978.cms|title=Bihar: New Koilwar Bridge Likely To Open On December 10|website=Times of India|accessdate=13 September 2023|archive-date=6 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201206073811/https://m.timesofindia.com/city/patna/new-koilwar-bridge-likely-to-open-on-dec-10/articleshow/79552978.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Lipi Singh]]
*[[Bijaya Kumar Maurya]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kushwaha, Roshan}}
[[Category:Indian civil servants]]
[[Category:Indian Administrative Service officers]]
[[Category:People from Bihar]]
[[Category:Indian government officials]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Begusarai]]

Jus Reign

2023-08-16T18:08:29Z

Icecreamand: Indian-Canadian comedian and actor page

{{short description|Indian-Canadian comedian and actor}}
{{BLP sources|date=July 2023}}
{{Infobox YouTube personality
| name = JusReign
| image = JusReign at Punjabi International Film Festival (cropped).jpg
| caption = Singh at the 2015 Punjabi International Film Festival
| birth_name = Jasmeet Singh Raina
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1989|11|4}}
| birth_place = [[Guelph]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]]
| nationality = [[Canadian nationality law|Canadian]]
| signature = JusReign signature.tif
| pseudonym = Jus Reign
*[https://www.youtube.com/user/JusReign JusReign] (Main)
*[https://www.youtube.com/user/JusVlogs JusReignToo] (Vlogs)
*[https://www.youtube.com/SnapReign SnapReign]
*[https://www.youtube.com/Just2Boyz Just2Boyz] (Podcast)
| years_active = 2009–2018
| genre = [[Comedy]]
| silver_button = Yes
}}
'''Jasmeet Singh Raina''' (born November 4, 1989), professionally known as '''Jus Reign''', is a [[Canadians|Canadian]] comedian and music artist of [[Indian people|Indian]] descent. He is most prominently known as a [[List of YouTubers|YouTube personality]], and one of Much Digital Studios' original creators.<ref name="auto">{{cite web|last1=Cummins|first1=Julianna|title=Jus Reign selected for Sundance-YouTube program|url=http://playbackonline.ca/2016/01/19/jus-reign-selected-for-sundance-youtube-program/|website=Playback Magazine|accessdate=20 July 2016}}</ref>

==Early life==
Jasmeet Singh Raina was raised in [[Guelph]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]] into an [[Immigration to Canada#Contemporary immigration, 1970s–present|immigrant]] [[Indo-Canadians|Punjabi]] [[Kashmiri diaspora#Canada|Kashmiri]] [[Sikhism in Canada|Sikh]] family.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Dart|first1=Chris|title=How three local comics found global fame|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/toronto/how-three-local-comics-found-global-fame/article4107501/|website=The Globe and Mail|accessdate=8 August 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Carrington|first1=Julian|title=The comedy ceiling: Toronto's comics of colour are ready for their close-up|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/toronto/the-comedy-ceiling-torontos-comics-of-colour-are-ready-for-their-close-up/article26551629/|website=The Globe and Mail|accessdate=8 August 2016}}</ref> When he was 5 years old, his father started paying a maestro to teach Jasmeet and his younger brother, Anmol, in [[Indian classical music|Punjabi classical music]]. Jasmeet played the [[Tabla]]. He started to dislike playing it and as he has stated in his "Draw My Life" on YouTube, he argued with his teacher to the point where he got a tabla thrown at his face. He studied at the [[University of Guelph]], where he originally studied to become a doctor to appease his parents' wishes.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Bhandari|first1=Aparita|title=From University of Guelph YouTube sensations to Punjabi movie stars|url=http://www.guelphmercury.com/news-story/4526178-from-university-of-guelph-youtube-sensations-to-punjabi-movie-stars/#|website=Guelph Mercury Tribune|date=16 May 2014 |accessdate=8 August 2016}}</ref> Eventually, the sketches Raina was creating on the side went viral and his parents accepted that their son had found success and have since been supportive of his YouTube career.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Sufrin|first1=Jon|title=Q&A: Jasmeet Raina, the biggest GTA celebrity you've never heard of (unless you've heard f Jus Reign)|url=http://torontolife.com/city/qa-jasmeet-singh-jus-reign-youtube-vine/|website=Toronto Life|date=28 January 2015|accessdate=13 May 2016}}</ref>

==Career==
Singh’s upbringing and his [[Punjabi people|Punjabi]] roots have provided material for his viral videos (his most popular being ''THE SWAG SONG''). Most of his work contains pop culture parodies, while others provide commentary on race and his struggles with racism.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Sufrin|first1=Jon|title=Q&A: Jasmeet Singh, the biggest GTA celebrity you've never heard of (unless you've heard of Jus Reign)|url=http://torontolife.com/city/qa-jasmeet-singh-jus-reign-youtube-vine/|website=Toronto Life|date=28 January 2015|accessdate=13 May 2016}}</ref>

While attending the University of Guelph, Singh first met Rupan Bal and invited him to be in his YouTube video 'A-1 Shopping Cart Driving School'. Singh was impressed by Bal's natural comedic skills and decided to incorporate Bal further into his YouTube videos, creating the fictional character of Jus Reign's stereotypical Indian mother. The two worked together in a number of YouTube videos and later co-starred together in the Punjabi film 22g Tussi Ghaint Ho.<ref>{{Citation|title=Exclusive RUPAN BAL Interview {{!}} On Jus Reign, Stardom, & Future Plans {{!}} Amin Dhillon (Ep. 11)|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dXb6IowNXOc|language=en|access-date=2021-04-08}}</ref> This was Singh's only acting credit in the Punjabi film industry.

Singh is also one of Much Digital Studios' original creators, among a roster of various other online influencers.<ref name="auto"/>

In 2015, he was the red carpet correspondent for the [[IHeartRadio Much Music Video Awards|Much Music Video Awards]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Yeung|first=Lisa|title=Just A Few Of The Times Jus Reign Owned The 2015 MMVA Red Carpet|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.ca/2015/06/22/jus-reign-mmva-2015_n_7633872.html|publisher=Huffington Post}}</ref> Singh also starred in the web series Dhaliwal '15<ref>{{cite web |title=Dhaliwal '15 |url=http://www.Dhaliwal2015.com |website=Dhaliwal '15 |accessdate=July 12, 2019}}</ref> where he played Bobby Dhaliwal, the first candidate of colour to run for prime minister in the 2015 Canadian federal election.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bobby Dhaliwal Wants To Be Prime Minister. Here's Our Exclusive Interview With Him |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.ca/2015/08/18/bobby-dhaliwal-interview_n_8000370.html |website=Huffington Post Canada |date=18 August 2015 |accessdate=July 12, 2019}}</ref> The series was created and directed by Canadian filmmaker Amita Zamaan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.imdb.com/name/nm3727604/|title=Amita Zamaan|website=IMDb|access-date=2019-08-26}}</ref>

In June 2016 Raina was featured as a guest writer in [[24 Hours (newspaper)|24 Hours Toronto]]'s daily city snapshot "The Six in Toronto", highlighting hot spots to eat and hang out in Toronto.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Reign|first1=Jus|title=THE SIX: Jus Reign makes his pix|url=http://www.toronto24hours.ca/2016/06/15/the-six-jus-reign-makes-his-pix|website=24 Hours Toronto|access-date=2016-07-07|archive-date=2016-06-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160616181608/http://www.toronto24hours.ca/2016/06/15/the-six-jus-reign-makes-his-pix|url-status=dead}}</ref> In summer 2016 Raina was included in The Bay St. Bull's "Power 50" list of most influential Canadians for his entrepreneurial skills and online notoriety.<ref>{{cite web|title=Bay St. Bull Power 50-Jus Reign: Youtuber, Comedian, Much Music Digital Studios creator|url=http://www.baystbull.com/home/2016/7/19/nh9gscmbb8wcz7wkb59yu8sm1ly5nu?rq=jus%20reign|accessdate=8 August 2016|archive-date=26 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126051831/http://www.baystbull.com/home/2016/7/19/nh9gscmbb8wcz7wkb59yu8sm1ly5nu?rq=jus%20reign|url-status=dead}}</ref> On June 19, 2016, he co-hosted the [[iHeartRadio Much Music Video Awards]] red carpet, speaking to stars like [[Shemar Moore]] and [[Tyler Posey]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Stevenson|first1=Jane|title=MMVAs: The best sound bites from the red carpet|url=http://www.torontosun.com/2016/06/19/mmvas-the-best-sound-bites-from-the-red-carpet|newspaper=Toronto Sun}}</ref>
In 2016, Raina was featured in [[Playback Magazine]]'s ''Top 5 to Watch''. Also in 2016, he had co-hosted the [[Scotiabank Giller Prize]].

Jus Reign made an appearance on ''[[Jimmy Kimmel Live!]]'', in a creator edition of the show's [[Jimmy Kimmel Live!#Mean Tweets|Mean Tweets]] segment in June 2016.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Kimmel|first1=Jimmy|title=Mean Tweets - Creator Edition|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4t5tzDxgwQY|website=YouTube}}</ref>

In 2017, he and fellow comedian Wahlid Mohammad had started a podcast called ''Just 2 Boyz''.

In December 2018, Raina took an indefinite hiatus from social media, including [[YouTube]]. Reasons for his departure are unknown.

In October 2019, Raina (along with other Canadian actors) starred in an interactive web-documentary by the [[National Film Board of Canada]] called ''Supreme Law''. Raina plays the role of former Canadian Prime Minister, [[Pierre Elliott Trudeau]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://supremelaw.nfb.ca/|title=Supreme Law|website=supremelaw.nfb.ca}}</ref>

In 2020, it was announced that ''Late Bloomer'', a comedy series produced by fellow [[Indo-Canadians|Indo-Canadian]] comedian [[Russell Peters]], about Raina's rise to fame, was in development.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://variety.com/2020/tv/global/russell-peters-jus-reign-late-bloomer-1234830005/|title=Comedy Star Russell Peters to Executive Produce YouTuber Jus Reign's 'Late Bloomer'|date=12 November 2020}}</ref> In 2023, it was announced that the show will premiere on [[Crave (streaming service)|Crave]] and it is currently filming in [[Hamilton, Ontario]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://variety.com/2023/global/news/jus-reign-late-bloomer-crave-pier-21-1235590610/amp/ | title=Canadian Comedian Jasmeet Singh Raina Sets 'Late Bloomer' Series with Crave, Pier 21 Films (EXCLUSIVE) | date=21 April 2023 }}</ref>

==Personal life==
Raina has developed a strong connection with his [[Sikh art and culture|Sikh heritage]], during his visits to [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], [[India]] with his family and friends (as he portrays in his videos).

===Turban controversy===
On February 22, 2016, Raina was forced to remove his [[Turban]] at [[San Francisco International Airport]], an hour before boarding a flight to [[Toronto]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Krishnan|first1= Manisha|title=Toronto YouTube Star Jus Reign Was Forced to Remove His Turban at a California Airport|url=https://www.vice.com/en_ca/read/toronto-youtube-star-jus-reign-was-forced-to-remove-his-turban-at-a-california-airport|website=Vice News|date= 23 February 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Kilkenny|first1=Carmel|title=Jus Reign forced to remove his turban at airport|url=http://www.rcinet.ca/en/2016/02/23/jus-reign-asked-to-remove-his-turban-at-san-francisco-airport/|website=CBC Radio Canada International|date=23 February 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Green|first1=Jason|title=No mirror available for Sikh comedian Jasmeet Raina, aka Jus Reign, during private airport screening|url=http://www.mercurynews.com/san-francisco/ci_29570568/no-laughing-matter-2008-recommendation-called-tsa-put|website=Mercury News San Francisco|date=27 February 2016}}</ref> Raina, who has a Sikh background, wears a turban for religious reasons.<ref>{{cite web|title=Canadian comedian asked to remove turban at U.S. airport|url=http://www.ctvnews.ca/canada/canadian-comedian-asked-to-remove-turban-at-u-s-airport-1.2789642|website=CTV News|date=23 February 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Varagur|first1=Krithika|title=Why Are Airports Still So Clueless About Respecting Sikhs?|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/sikh-discrimination-airports_us_56cf8199e4b0871f60eaca42|website=The Huffington Post|date=8 March 2016}}</ref> After being told to either remove his turban or book another flight, Raina complied, removing his turban in a private room.<ref>{{cite web|title=Canadian YouTube star Jus Reign forced to remove turban to board flight|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/programs/metromorning/jus-reign-turban-1.3460092|website=CBC News}}</ref>

After completing the security check, Raina asked if security officials could provide him with a mirror so he could re-tie his turban in private. But [[Transportation Security Administration|TSA]] agents refused, suggesting he walk across the terminal to a public restroom — his head still uncovered — and use a mirror there.<ref>{{cite web|last1=KAI-HWA WANG|first1=FRANCES|title=Sikh-Canadian Comedian Says He Was Forced to Remove Turban at San Francisco Airport|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/sikh-canadian-comedian-says-he-was-forced-remove-turban-san-n524511|website=NBC News|date=24 February 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Joshi|first1=Sonam|title=Sikh YouTube star JusReign asked to remove his turban at San Francisco airport|url=http://mashable.com/2016/02/23/jusreign-turban-sikh-usa/#EwHUnfiG_EqU|website=Mashable|date=23 February 2016}}</ref> Raina noted the experience was an embarrassing and sensitive ordeal, and that a simple fix, like adding a mirror to the private screening area or providing him with a handheld mirror, would have been more respectful.<ref>{{cite web|title=TSA Agents Force Sikh Man To Remove Turban, Make Him Walk Across The Terminal To Put It Back On|url=https://thinkprogress.org/tsa-agents-force-sikh-man-to-remove-turban-make-him-walk-across-the-terminal-to-put-it-back-on-f0d9eb3bceeb#.twvzhp6d0|website=ThinkProgress}}</ref>

The incident led to backlash on [[Twitter]] and garnered international headlines in ''Cosmopolitan India'',<ref>{{cite web|last1=Mubarak|first1=Salva|title=Indian-Canadian YouTuber JusReign was Asked to Walk Across the Airport Without His Turban After a Security Check|url=http://www.cosmopolitan.in/celebrity/news/a4582/youtuber-jusreign-was-asked-to/|website=Cosmopolitan India}}</ref> ''[[Seventeen (American magazine)|Seventeen]]'',<ref>{{cite web|last1=Devoe|first1=Noelle|title=Youtube Star JusReign Calls Out TSA After Being Forced to Remove His Turban at the Airport|url=http://www.seventeen.com/celebrity/news/a38393/massive-youtube-star-jusreign-forced-to-remove-his-turban-at-airport/|website=Seventeen|date=25 February 2016}}</ref> ''[[New York Daily News]]'',<ref>{{cite news|last1=Good|first1=Dan|title=Sikh comedian Jasmeet Raina says airport security made him take off his turban|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/sikh-comedian-airport-security-made-turban-article-1.2540164|publisher=NY Daily News}}</ref> and BBC Asia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p03kl4ml|title=BBC Asian Network - Nihal, JusReign talks about being asked to remove his turban|date=February 24, 2016|website=BBC}}</ref> While a TSA spokesperson made a statement explaining the screening processes for religious garments, they did not apologize directly for the incident with Raina. After the incident, Raina took his frustration over the issue over social media, which sparked a media outrage over TSA racial profiling in general.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Jenkins|first1=Jack|title=TSA Agents Force Sikh Man To Remove Turban, Make Him Walk Across The Terminal To Put It Back On|url=http://thinkprogress.org/justice/2016/02/23/3752807/sikh-turban-tsa/|website=Think Progress}}</ref>

==Filmography==
===Film===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Title
! Role
! Notes
|- Won Most Fudu newcomer
| 2015
| ''[[22g Tussi Ghaint Ho]]''
| Jus
|
|-
|}

===Television===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Title
! Role
! Notes
|-
| 2016
| ''[[Jimmy Kimmel Live!]]''
| Himself
|
|-
| TBA
| ''Late Bloomer''
|
|
|}

===Web===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Title
! Role
! Notes
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2015
| ''Anarkali''
| Shaan
|
|-
| ''Dhaliwal '15''
| Bobby Dhaliwal
|
|-
| 2017
| ''Robot Bullies''
| Robot 2
| Short Film
|-
| 2018
| ''Ultimate Expedition''
| Himself
|
|-
| 2019
| ''Supreme Law''
| Pierre Trudeau/ Himself
|
|-
|}

==Awards and nominations==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Award Show
! Category
! Result
|-
| 2015
| [[Shorty Awards]]
| YouTube Comedian
| {{nom}}
|-
| rowspan="3” | 2016
| [[Streamy Awards]]
| Best Collaboration
| {{nom}}
|-
| The Digi Awards
| YouTuber of the Year
| {{win}}
|-
| Sikh Heritage Awards
| Awarded Outstanding Member of Sikh
| {{won}}
|}

==See also==
* [[South Asian Canadians in the Greater Toronto Area]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb name|9566950}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Reign, Jus}}
[[Category:1989 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Kashmiri people]]
[[Category:Canadian people of Indian descent]]
[[Category:Canadian people of Kashmiri descent]]
[[Category:Canadian Sikhs]]
[[Category:People from Guelph]]
[[Category:Comedians from Ontario]]
[[Category:Canadian male comedians]]
[[Category:Canadian musicians of Indian descent]]
[[Category:Canadian YouTubers]]
[[Category:Video bloggers]]
[[Category:Canadian male bloggers]]

Eileen Niedfield

2023-07-20T05:29:41Z

Icecreamand: Added a new release to the collection.

{{Short description|American physician, medical missionary, and Roman Catholic nun.}}
{{Infobox religious biography
| religion = Roman Catholic
| name = M. Frederic Niedfield
| image = Sister M. Frederic Niedfield, MMS, MD.jpg
| pre-nominals = Alihaiderhusain
| honorific suffix = MD, MMS
| post-nominals =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1920|6|16}}
| birth_place = [[Brooklyn]], New York
| nationality = American
| death_date = {{Death date and age|2007|3|19|1920|6|16}}
| death_place = Orange, California
}}

'''Eileen Rae Niedfield''' (1920-2007), in religious life '''Sr. Mary Frederic Niedfield, MMS, MD, FACS''' was a medical missionary in India for nearly 40 years, two in Bhutan. She was notable for being in the first cohort of [[Georgetown University Medical School]] graduates that included women. She was valedictorian, and received the highest national board grades in pathology in the United States.<ref>{{cite journal |title=News and Personals |journal=Medical Annals of the District of Columbia |volume=XX |issue=8 |page=453 |url=https://archive.org/details/medicalannalsofd2019medi/page/452/mode/2up?q=niedfield |publisher=Medical Society of the District of Columbia |location=Washington, DC}}</ref> Some students have called for the university to name a medical pavilion after her.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Borzilleri |first1=C. C. |title=Viewpoint: Name MedStar Pavilion for Eileen Niedfield |url=https://thehoya.com/viewpoint-name-medstar-pavilion-eileen-niedfield/ |work=The Hoya (Georgetown University student newspaper) }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=McBride |first1=Harrison |title=Student Petition Calls for GU To Name MedStar Building in Honor of Nun |url=https://thehoya.com/student-petition-calls-for-gu-to-rename-medstar-building/?fbclid=IwAR1HCdQN2d5dF8EYraxFshAaUvOc1DTqLlHDWBN8NUQgj6zZ1LlMju3gZrU |work=The Hoya (Georgetown University student newspaper) }}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
She was born in Manhattan, New York, on 16 June 1920, the eldest daughter of Alma Marie Thor (1891-1971) and Joseph Henry Niedfield (1893-1952). The family briefly lived in Bedford and Flatbush before settling in the Park Slope neighborhood of Brooklyn.<ref>{{cite book |title=United States, Social Security Numerical Identification Files (NUMIDENT), 1936-2007 |url=https://www.familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:6K46-RT46}}</ref> Her mother Alma Marie (Thor) Niedfield was descended from German and Irish immigrants and worked as a model and stage actor during her childhood, including with [[James Montgomery Flagg]]. Sr. Niedfield's maternal grandmother, Margaret Fagan (1869-1942), immigrated to New York during the [[Great Famine (Ireland)|Great Famine of Ireland]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Enumeration District 0608 |first1=Image 774.0 |title=US Federal Census, Brooklyn, Kings, New York |page=4B |url=http://www.ances_try.com |format=FHL Microfilm 2341250, roll 1515}}</ref> As an adult, she worked as a bookkeeper for a lace import company. Sr./Dr. Niedfield's father, Joseph Niedfield, was descended from German immigrants and converted from Lutheranism to Catholicism as a young man.<ref>{{cite book |title=United States, Social Security Numerical Identification Files (NUMIDENT), 1936-2007 |publisher=US Government Printing Office |location=Washington, DC |url=https://www.familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:6K46-RT4X}}</ref> As an adult, he served in the New York 27th Infantry Division when it was called up to national service in Mexico (1916-1917) and France (1917-1918). After the war, he worked as a career firefighter in the FDNY, retiring as a lieutenant.<ref>{{cite book |title=The City Record, Fire Department |page=321 |url=http://cityrecord.engineering.nyu.edu/data/1921/1921-01-31_supp_part2%20part%200004.pdf |chapter=Engine Company No. 6-113 Liberty St., Manhattan |quote=Firemen: Jos. H. Niedfield, 468 Central Park West, Man[hattan]}}</ref>
[[File:Sr. Niedfield, MD, Georgetown University School of Medicine Graduation.jpg|thumb|left|Graduation day as valedictorian, June 11, 1951, Georgetown University School of Medicine.]]
Her younger sister, Marjorie Alma Niedfield (1922-2011), earned a Bachelor’s of Science in Nursing and worked as a Registered Nurse for many years.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Cheney |editor1-first=Ralph H. |title=Brooklyn Botanic Garden Record Volumes 26-27 |page=72 |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Brooklyn_Botanic_Garden_Record/73I-2ljw37UC?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=%22marjorie+niedfield%22&dq=%22marjorie+niedfield%22&printsec=frontcover}}</ref> She married Daniel Joseph Kiernan (1918-1984) and together they had four children. They worked to raise funds and awareness throughout Sr./Dr. Niedfield's years of missionary work.<ref>{{cite news |title=Marjorie N. Kiernan, 1922-2011 |work=Chicago Daily Herald }}</ref>

Niedfield attended St. Savior Parish Elementary School of Brooklyn, graduating in 1933.<ref>{{cite news |title=Jayesh Kumar Das-nun star graduate of her grade-school class |url=https://issuu.com/the_anchor/docs/01.14.94/13 |work=Catholic News Service }}</ref> She then continued in its middle and high school, and founded the ''Skyline'' newspaper in 1938 with Sister M. Rachael, S. S. N. D. They also worked together on the first sodality (a group founded to promote the [[spiritual works of mercy]] and [[corporal works of mercy]]) at St. Savior, and Niedfield was elected its first prefect.<ref>{{cite news |title='Skyline' Has Anniversary; Outlines Ancestry and Goals |url=https://archive.org/details/skyline19611117/mode/2up?q=%22eileen+niedfield%22 |work=Skyline (newspaper of St. Savior High School, Brooklyn, New York) |issue=25:2 }}</ref> She graduated in May, 1938.

In 1938 she began university study at [[Manhattanville College]], run by the [[Society of the Sacred Heart|Society of the Sacred Heart/RSCJ]]. She played field hockey, and co-wrote a play that was presented in November.<ref>{{cite book |title=Manhattanville College Tower Yearbook |publisher=Manhattanville College |location=New York, NY |pages=112, 149}}</ref> During her first semester of college, she attended a speech by Mother [[Anna Maria Dengel]], also an MD, who had founded the [[Medical Mission Sisters|Medical Mission Sisters of Philadelphia]] in 1925. Niedfield was so impressed she left college after her first semester to enter the MMS as a postulant on February 11, 1939.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Profession and Reception |journal=The Medical Missionary |volume=13 |issue=3 |url=https://archive.org/details/medical-missionary-vol-13.3/page/n1/mode/2up?q=niedfield |publisher=The Society of Catholic Medical Missionaries |location=Brookland, Washington, DC}}</ref> She took the habit and became Sister Mary Frederic, making her first public vows on August 15, 1941.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Reception and Profession at the Motherhouse |journal=The Medical Missionary |volume=15 |issue=7 |url=https://archive.org/details/medical-missionary-vol-15.7/page/n7/mode/2up?q=niedfield}}</ref> At the time, nuns were asked to take the name of a male saint or family member, so she chose Saint Frédéric in honor of her uncle and godfather, Frederick Thor (1900-1985).

She then transferred to Trinity College in Washington, DC (now [[Trinity Washington University]]), graduating with a bachelor of science degree in Chemistry, ''magna cum laude'', in 1945. Niedfield took her perpetual vows on August 15, 1945 and her final vows a year later on August 15, 1946. In the two years between college and medical school she studied X-ray techniques for a year, and spent six months at a Catholic clinic in Atlanta that served Black patients (all medical facilities were segregated in those years).<ref>{{cite news |title=Surgeon to Quit Her Arlington Hospital Post To Join Nuns With Medical Mission in India |url=https://archive.org/details/per_washington-post_1952-12-23_27949/page/n27/mode/2up?q=niedfield |newspaper=The Washington Post }}</ref> It was then known as the Catholic Colored Clinic in Atlanta, and later as [[Southwest_Atlanta_Hospital]], now closed. She then continued to Georgetown University Medical School, enrolling in 1947.<ref>{{cite news |title=First Editor's Career as Medical Missionary Spans Globe from Washington to Patna, India |url=https://archive.org/details/skyline19611117/mode/2up?q=%22eileen+niedfield%22 |work=Skyline (newspaper of St. Savior High School, Brooklyn, New York) |issue=25:2 }}</ref> She graduated from the Georgetown University School of Medicine on June 11, 1951, as class valedictorian alongside four other women who together were the first to graduate in the program's 101-year history.<ref>{{cite journal |title=News and Personals |journal=Medical Annals of the District of Columbia |volume=|issue=|page=|url=https://archive.org/details/medicalannalsofd2019medi/page/452/mode/2up?q=niedfield }}</ref> She graduated summa cum laude, and received a gold medal for highest achievement in bacteriology.<ref>{{cite news |last1=North |first1=Patti |title=Women in Medicine: Georgetown University Medical Center's Trailblazing Women |url=https://today.advancement.georgetown.edu/health-magazine/2017/gumc-trailblazing-women/ |work=Health Magazine }}</ref> She then qualified as a surgeon with her residency at [[MedStar Georgetown University Hospital|Georgetown University Hospital]] (now part of MedStar).<ref>{{cite news |last1=Cessato |first1=Bill |title=Nuns & Sisters in Georgetown's History: Leaders & Learners |url=https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/46f2a41c55cc47fb98184160504a55cb |work=Storymaps, Georgetown University}}</ref>

During 1951 she interned for one year at St. Michael's Hospital in Newark, New Jersey. Then on October 1, 1952, she began work as a junior resident surgeon at Arlington Hospital in Northern Virginia, near Washington, DC, becoming the first member of a religious community to serve as a resident at that hospital.<ref>{{cite news |title=Surgeon to Quit Her Arlington Hospital Post To Join Nuns With Medical Mission in India |url=https://archive.org/details/per_washington-post_1952-12-23_27949/page/n27/mode/2up?q=niedfield |newspaper=The Washington Post }}</ref>

After an internship and residency, she returned to Georgetown University for a Master of Science in Surgery degree, which she received in 1954.<ref>{{cite journal |title=News of Women in Medicine: General |journal=Journal of the American Medical Women's Association |volume=10 |issue=7 |page=258 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-american-medical-womens-association_1955-07_10_7/page/258/mode/2up?q=niedfield}}</ref> Niedfield served as the Chief Resident for Surgery at Georgetown University Hospital from 1954-1955.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Niedfield, MMS, MD |first1=Sr. M. Frederic |title=My Personal Context |publisher=Medical Mission Sisters Archives |location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania}}</ref>

== Missionary service in India and Bhutan ==
[[File:Sister Niedfield MD with tiger cub.jpg|thumb|right|With a tiger cub in India.]]
She studied the [[Hindustani language]] in Washington, DC, earned a master's in surgery (see last paragraph, above), and then sailed for South Asia in 1955. The MMS operated seven hospitals in South Asia, four in India and three in Pakistan, eventually expanding to eleven. She joined Dr. Ruth Taggart, a graduate of the [[Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania]], who was the hospital superintendent. Cumulatively she spent nearly 40 years working in a variety of roles including Surgeon, Chief of Surgery, and Hospital Superintendent, at Kurji Holy Family Hospital, Village of Mandar, Rachi District, State of Bihar, with four years (1960–64) in [[Patna, India]], serving many Muslim women whose husbands and fathers would not allow them to be treated by male doctors.<ref>{{cite news |title=Department of Health, Order, New Delhi, November 7, 1969 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gazette.1969.364/page/n31/mode/2up?q=%22eileen+niedfield%22 |work=Gazette of India |publisher=Directorate of Printing, Government of India }}</ref> The hospital had 130 beds, averaged 600 major surgical cases per year, and had 3,000 total inpatients annually.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Correspondence |journal=Medical Annals of the District of Columbia |volume=XXVII |issue=11 |page=620 |url=https://archive.org/details/medicalannalsofd2719medi/page/620/mode/2up?q=niedfield |publisher=Medical Society of the District of Columbia}}</ref> The hospital included general care, surgery, obstetrics-gynecology, pediatrics, a pharmacy, a substance abuse detox center, and a nursing school all of which she oversaw while serving as Hospital Superintendent (1987-1992).<ref>{{cite journal |title=It's always wise to check the program |journal=Clinical Congress News |page=2 |publisher=American College of Surgeons |location=Chicago, Illinois}}</ref>

Her congregation and [[Mother Teresa|Mother Teresa's]] were connected, as Mother worked briefly at one of the [[Medical Mission Sisters|Medical Mission Sisters']] hospitals, and they and the [[Missionaries of Charity]] periodically trained one another's nurses. She was a bi-monthly columnist for the MMS, contributing a column titled "The Doctor's Diary."<ref>{{cite news |title=First Editor's Career as Medical Missionary Spans Globe from Washington to Patna, India |url=https://archive.org/details/skyline19611117/mode/2up?q=%22eileen+niedfield%22 |work=Skyline (newspaper of St. Savior High School, Brooklyn, New York) |issue=25:2 }}</ref> On April 24, 1967, the work of the MMS was honored by Representative [[Joshua Eilberg]] (D-Pennsylvania) when he read a citation including her name into ''The Congressional Record.''<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eilberg |first1=Joshua |title=Medical Mission Sisters, Extension of Remarks of Hon. Joshua Eilberg of Pennsylvania in the House of Representatives |journal=Congressional Record, March 01-April 28, 1967 |volume=113 |page=A1988}}</ref> In the book ''The Hills Around Me,'' Imtiaz Fiona Griffiths describes how Dr. Niedfield saved her husband's life in India by performing emergency surgery.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Griffiths |first1=Imtiaz Fiona |title=The Hills Around Me |publisher=FriesenPress |location=Victoria, British Columbia, Canada |pages=241–2 |isbn=9781525590740 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5SMwEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22eileen++niedfield%22&pg=PA241}}</ref>

== A season in Bhutan ==
Niedfield also spent two years (1979-1981) in [[Bhutan]], a kingdom on the border between Tibet and India.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Barry |first1=Patricia |title=Surgeons at Georgetown: Surgery and Medical Education in the Nation's Capital, 1849-1969 |publisher=Hillsboro Press |location=Franklin, Tennessee |isbn=9781577362364 |page=276 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CTogAQAAMAAJ&q=niedfield+bhutan}}</ref> There she served as the Zonal Medical Officer and as the Chief Medical Officer at the 60-bed Tashigang Civil Hospital in eastern Bhutan near the Chinese border. Patients suffering from leprosy and tuberculosis were common. Some of the health centers in the zone were only accessible on horseback.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Niedfield, MMS, MD |first1=Sr. M. Frederic |title=A Bhutan Experience |publisher=Medical Mission Sisters Archives |location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |quote=Date uncertain, I put 1 January 1981 as a placeholder}}</ref> Creating and conducting short courses on basic medical care, and issuing standing orders for simple medical conditions, were vital, as it was impossible to get to each center across the large zone more than four times each year.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Niedfield |title=A Bhutan Experience}}</ref>

The archivist for the Medical Mission Sisters said went at the request of government officials who wanted to improve their health system.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Hall |first1=Lucy |title=E.mail }}</ref> She was stationed in [[Trashigang|Tashigang]] and worked as the Medical Superintendent of the hospital there. She was also a Zonal Medical Officer for northeast Bhutan. A family member wrote on Ancestry, "She... [trained] local schoolteachers and agricultural workers in basic medicine and health care. She even trained a border post radio operator working in an area so remote that no professionals could reach it during the winter. She was known, if needed, to suspend an operation in order to draw a unit of her own type 0 blood to transfuse the patient before continuing with the surgery."<ref>{{cite news |last1=WmThos |title=Public Member Photos and Scanned Documents |website=Ancest.ry }}</ref>

== Return to India ==
In 1966 she returned to the United States to complete some requirements of the [[American Board of Surgery]] that had recently been augmented, become a Fellow of the [[American College of Surgeons]], and be listed as a board-certified surgeon.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eilberg |title=Medical Mission Sisters |journal=Congressional Record |volume=|page=}}</ref> She also took the opportunity to stuff a suitcase with IV glucose mixture because of a sugar shortage in India during a famine. "It's only enough for four or five operations," she told a correspondent for the College of Physicians of Philadelphia, "but it might well save a life."<ref>{{cite journal |title=American Province |journal=Transactions & Studies of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia |volume=35 |page=21 |url=https://archive.org/details/transactionsstud4351coll/page/n5/mode/2up?q=niedfield}}</ref> Supplies were a constant worry. While in India she started a charity, "Sr. Niedfield's Brothers," to collect funds for surgical instruments and medical supplies. Dr. George Ware in Washington, DC, collected the money and sent it to her.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ware, MD |first=George William |title=Correspondence, to Dr. Yater |journal=Medical Annals of the District of Columbia |volume=XXVII |issue=11 |page=620 |url=https://archive.org/details/medicalannalsofd2719medi/page/620/mode/2up?q=niedfield |publisher=Medical Society of the District of Columbia}}</ref>

== Other medical service and legacy ==
During her time as a missionary, she was brought back to the US for "renewal" including training, time with family, and relaxation. Niedfield dedicated one of these trips (1976-1977) in service as a staff physician with the American Medical Association’s “Project USA” program in support of the US Department of Health, Education, & Welfare. Her time was spent at the Aberdeen Area Indian Health Service (South Dakota), Omaha-Winnebago Service Unit (South Dakota), & Ft. Defiance Indian Hospital (Arizona).

In 1992 she moved to San Diego to serve HIV and AIDS patients. "I was interested in AIDS because I felt there was a great need not just medically but also socially and spiritually," she told a reporter.<ref>{{cite news |title=Doctor-nun star graduate of her grade-school class |url=https://issuu.com/the_anchor/docs/01.14.94/13 |work=Catholic News Service }}</ref> In those years she was also was a part-time volunteer at the St. Vincent de Paul Village-Joan Kroc Medical Clinic in San Diego, serving people experiencing homelessness. During her time in San Diego, Niedfield also worked part time as a Primary Care Physician in Internal Medicine at the San Diego Veterans Administration Outpatient Clinic (1993-2001), and as an Assistant Clinical Professor of Internal Medicine for UC San Diego.

== Inspiration, retirement, and death ==
Reflecting on her long career, she wrote about her experiences, challenges, friendships, and inspirations. She noted three specific things that she drew inspiration from. The first was based on Micah 6:8 and written as “What does the Lord ask of me – to do justice, to love tenderly, and to walk humbly before God.” The second was "The Sacrament of the Present Moment – to do the best that one can at this particular moment in time.” The third was “We must always have an open heart, a heart open to all suffering and pain.”

In 2001, largely due to failing eyesight, she retired from practicing medicine at the age of 81 and moved to a retirement home in Orange, California, run by the Sisters of St. Joseph. She died on 19 March 2007 and is buried at the Fox Chase Medical Mission Sisters center in Philadelphia.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Niedfield, Eileen}}
[[Category:1920 births]]
[[Category:2007 deaths]]
[[Category:American physicians]]
[[Category:Trinity Washington University alumni]]
[[Category:Georgetown University School of Medicine alumni]]
[[Category:American surgeons]]
[[Category:Fellows of the American College of Surgeons]]
[[Category:Medical missionaries]]
[[Category:HIV/AIDS activists]]
[[Category:20th-century American Roman Catholic nuns]]
[[Category:21st-century American Roman Catholic nuns]]
[[Category:American expatriates in India]]
[[Category:American people of German descent]]
[[Category:American people of Irish descent]]

Arjun Singh (former politician)

2023-05-21T20:50:37Z

Icecreamand: Just published a comprehensive guide.

#REDIRECT [[Arjun Singh (Madhya Pradesh politician)]]

{{R from move}}

The Crown

2022-03-16T01:43:30Z

Icecreamand: Wrote an informative guide.

{{Short description|States in the Commonwealth realms}}
{{About|the term referring to the state in some nations|the television series|The Crown (TV series){{!}}''The Crown'' (TV series)|other uses|Crown (disambiguation)}}
{{EngvarB}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
[[File:Coat of arms of New Zealand.svg|thumb|The image of a crown is included in the [[coat of arms of New Zealand]], and located atop the [[Escutcheon (heraldry)|escutcheon]], to symbolize the [[Monarchy of New Zealand|New Zealand Crown]] as the institution from which all state authority flows.]]

'''The Crown''' is the [[state (polity)|state]] in all its aspects within the [[jurisprudence]] of the [[Commonwealth realm]]s and their subdivisions (such as the [[Crown Dependencies]], [[British Overseas Territories|overseas territories]], [[Provinces and territories of Canada#Provinces|provinces]], or [[states and territories of Australia|states]]).<ref>{{Citation| last=Jackson| first=Michael D.| title=The Crown and Canadian Federalism| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZcIf46DzpfUC&pg=Pnto| year=2013| isbn=978-1-4597-0989-8}}</ref> The term can be used to refer to the office of the monarch or the monarchy as institutions, to the [[rule of law]], or to the functions of [[executive (government)|executive]] (the crown-[[King-in-Council|in-council]]), [[Legislature|legislative]] (the crown-in-[[parliament]]), and [[Judiciary|judicial]] (the crown on the bench) governance and the [[civil service]].<ref>{{Cite book| last=Carroll| first=Alex| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ihWjJR7m6SQC&pg=PA7 |title=Constitutional and Administrative Law| publisher=Pearson/Longman |year=2003| isbn=978-0-582-47343-0| page=7}}</ref>

The concept of the crown as a [[corporation sole]] developed first in [[Kingdom of England|England]] as a separation of the physical crown and property of the kingdom from the person and personal property of the monarch. It spread through English and later [[British Empire|British colonisation]] and is now rooted in the legal lexicon of all 15 Commonwealth realms, their various dependencies, and states in [[Associated state|free association]] with them. It is not to be confused with any physical crown, such as those of the [[Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom|British regalia]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=CharlotteDunn|title=Crown Dependencies|url=https://www.royal.uk/crown-dependencies|access-date=2021-09-01|website=The Royal Family|language=en}}</ref>

The term is also found in various expressions such as ''[[crown land]]'', which some countries refer to as ''public land'' or ''state land''; as well as in some offices, such as [[minister of the crown]], [[crown attorney]], and [[crown prosecutor]].

{{TOC limit|3}}

==Definition==
The term ''the crown'' does not have a single definition. Legal scholars Maurice Sunkin and Sebastian Payne opined, "the nature of the crown has been taken for granted, in part because it is fundamental and, in part, because many academics have no idea what the term ''the crown'' amounts to".<ref>{{citation| last1=Sunkin| first1=Maurice| last2=Payne| first2=Sebastian| title=The Nature of the Crown: A Legal and Political Analysis| publisher=Oxford University Press| location=Oxford| year=1999}}</ref> [[Nicholas Browne-Wilkinson]] theorised that the crown is "an amorphous, abstract concept" and, thus, "impossible to define",<ref name=TIvDE>{{cite court| litigants=Town Investments v Department for the Environment| opinion=Lord Morris of Borth-y-Gest, Lord Simon of Glaisdale, Lord Kilbrandon, Lord Edmund-Davies| pinpoint=359| court=House of Lords| date=1978| url=https://app.justis.com/case/town-investments-ltd-v-department-of-the-environment/overview/c4ytm5Cto3Wca| accessdate=2 March 2023}}</ref> while [[William Wade (legal scholar)|William Wade]] stated the crown "means simply the Queen".<ref>{{citation| last=Wade| first=William| chapter=The Crown, Ministers, and Officials: Legal Status and Liability| editor-last1=Sunkin| editor-first1=M.| editor-last2=Payne| editor-first2=S.| title=The Nature of the Crown| page=24}}</ref> Warren J. Newman described the Crown is "a useful and convenient means of conveying, in a word, the compendious formal, executive and administrative powers and apparatus attendant upon the modern constitutional and monarchical state."<ref>{{citation| url=https://www.constitutionalstudies.ca/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/22.1-Full-Issue.pdf| editor-last1=Lagassé| editor-first1=Philippe| editor-last2=MacDonald| editor-first2=Nicholas A.| title=The Crown in the 21st Century| last1=Newman| first1=Warren J.| series=Some Observations on the Queen, the Crown, the Constitution, and the Courts| journal=Review of Constitutional Studies| volume=22| issue=1| year=2017| page=56| publisher=Centre for Constitutional Studies| location=Edmonton| accessdate=5 June 2023}}</ref> [[Jack Simon, Baron Simon of Glaisdale|The Lord Simon of Glaisdale]] stated, "the crown is a piece of bejewelled headgear under guard at the [[Tower of London]]; but, one that symbolises the powers of government, which were formerly wielded by the wearer of the crown".<ref name=TIvDE/> [[Kenneth Diplock, Baron Diplock|The Lord Diplock]] suggested the crown means "the government [and] all of the ministers and parliamentary secretaries under whose direction the administrative work of the government is carried out by the civil servants employed in the various government departments."<ref name=TIvDE/> This interpretation was supported by Section 8 of the [[List of Acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, 1880–1899#1887 (50 & 51 Vict.)|Pensions (Colonial Service) Act 1887]], which set the terms "permanent civil service of the state", "permanent civil service of Her Majesty" and "permanent civil service of the Crown" as having the same meaning.<ref>{{harvnb| Torrance| 2023| pp=9-10}}</ref>

==Concept==
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The concept of the crown took form under the [[feudal system]].<ref>{{cite journal| title=The Crown as Corporation| author-link=Frederic William Maitland| last=Maitland| first=Frederic| journal=Law Quarterly Review| number=17| year=1901| pages=131–46| url=http://socserv2.socsci.mcmaster.ca/econ/ugcm/3ll3/maitland/crowncor.mai}}</ref> Though not used this way in all countries that had this system, in England, all rights and privileges were ultimately bestowed by the ruler. Land, for instance, was granted by the Crown to lords in exchange for feudal services and they, in turn, granted the land to lesser lords. One exception to this was common [[socage]]: owners of land held as socage held it subject only to the crown. When such lands become ownerless, they are said to [[escheat]]; i.e. return to direct ownership of the crown ([[crown land]]s). {{lang|la|[[Bona vacantia]]}} is the [[royal prerogative]] by which unowned property, primarily unclaimed inheritances, becomes the property of the crown.{{#tag:ref|Jurisdictions in which this prerogative does not apply include [[Cornwall]], where unowned property becomes the property of the [[duke of Cornwall]], and [[Lancashire]], where it becomes the property of the [[duke of Lancaster]].|group=n|name=Jurisdictions}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Nguyen|first=Nam H.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KPVRDwAAQBAJ&q=Bona+vacantia&pg=PT779|title=Essential 25000 English-Cebuano Law Dictionary|publisher=Nam H Nguyen|language=en}}</ref>

As such, the physical crown and the property belonging to successive monarchs in perpetuity came to be separated from the person of the monarch and his or her personal property. After several centuries of the monarch personally exercising supreme legislative, executive, and judicial power, these functions decreased as parliaments, ministries, and courts grew through the 13th century.<ref>{{citation| url=https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-8885/CBP-8885.pdf| last=Torrance| first=David| title=The Crown and the Constitution| date=11 January 2023| publisher=House of Commons Library| page=8| accessdate=1 March 2023}}</ref> The term ''the crown'' then developed into a means by which to differentiate the sovereign's official functions from his personal choices and actions.<ref name=Torrance7>{{harvnb| Torrance| 2023| p=7}}</ref> Even within mediaeval England, there was the [[doctrine of capacities]] separating the person of the King from his actions in the capacity of monarch, but this fell into disuse.

When the [[kingdom of England]] merged with those of [[kingdom of Scotland|Scotland]] and
[[Kingdom of Ireland|Ireland]], the concept extended into the legal lexicons of the United
Kingdom and its dependencies and overseas territories and, eventually, all of the independent [[Commonwealth realm]]s. There are, thus, now many distinct crowns, as a legal concept, "worn by"—or many different offices of monarch occupied by—one person as sovereign of each country.<ref name=Twomey34>{{citation| url=https://www.constitutionalstudies.ca/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/22.1-Full-Issue.pdf| title=The Role of Monarchy in Modern Democracy: European Monarchies Compared| editor-last1=Hazell| editor-first1=Robert| editor-last2=Morris| editor-first2=Bob| chapter=Royal Succession, Abdication, and Regency in the Realms| last=Twomey| first=Anne| date=17 September 2020| page=34| publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing| location=London| isbn=9781509931033| accessdate=2 May 2023}}</ref> However, ''the Crown'' can also mean the international institution shared by all 15 Commonwealth realms.<ref name=Torrance7/>
[[File:2019 Reunião Bilateral com o Príncipe Charles - 48948389972 (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|King [[Charles III]], the living embodiment of the crown in each of the [[Commonwealth realm]]s]]

Given that, in each realm, and at its broadest, ''the crown'' now means the [[government]] or the polity known as [[State (polity)|the state]] and the monarch, in all realms, is the living embodiment of the crown,<ref>{{Citation| last=Elizabeth II| author-link=Elizabeth II| publication-date=1 April 2005| title=Interpretation Act| section=46.1.b| location=Ottawa| publisher=Queen's Printer for Canada| url=http://www.canlii.org/en/ca/laws/stat/rsc-1985-c-i-21/latest/rsc-1985-c-i-21.html| accessdate=7 August 2009| year=2005}}</ref> the sovereign is regarded as the [[personification]] of the state.{{#tag:ref|In the Canadian context, the monarch has been described by [[Eugene Forsey]] as the "symbolic embodiment of the people—not a particular group or interest or party, but the people; the whole people";<ref name=Forsey>{{Cite journal| last=Forsey| first=Helen| title=As David Johnson Enters Rideau Hall...| journal=The Monitor| publisher=Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives| location=Ottawa| date=1 October 2010| url=http://www.policyalternatives.ca/publications/monitor/david-johnson-enters-rideau-hall| accessdate=23 January 2011}}</ref> his daughter, Helen Forsey, said of his opinion on the crown, "for him, the essence of the monarchy was its impartial representation of the common interests of the citizenry as a whole, as opposed to those of any particular government."<ref name=Forsey/> The [[Department of Canadian Heritage]] said the Crown serves as the "personal symbol of allegiance, unity, and authority for all Canadians,"<ref>{{citation| url=http://www.pch.gc.ca/pgm/ceem-cced/symbl/101/102-eng.cfm| author=Department of Canadian Heritage| title=Ceremonial and Canadian Symbols Promotion > The crown in Canada| publisher=Queen's Printer for Canada| accessdate=19 February 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Citation| author=Department of Canadian Heritage| author-link=Department of Canadian Heritage| title=Canada: Symbols of Canada| place=Ottawa| publisher=Queen's Printer for Canada| year=2010| url=http://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2011/pc-ch/CH4-130-2010-eng.pdf| page=3| accessdate=4 December 2016}}</ref> a concept akin to that expressed by [[King Louis XIV]]: "{{lang|fr|L'État, c'est moi}}", or, "I am the state".<ref>{{Citation| first=Shea| last=Derwyn| author-link=Derwyn Shea| contribution=Bill 22, Legislative Assembly Oath of Allegiance Act, 1995 > 1720| contribution-url=http://www.ontla.on.ca/web/committee-proceedings/committee_transcripts_details.do;jsessionid=c72d607830d68e75be455a5244a3950ae2235bd3f36e.e3eQbNaNa3eRe34KaN4RaNeRb310n6jAmljGr5XDqQLvpAe?locale=en&Date=1996-04-10&ParlCommID=45&BillID=&Business=Bill+22%2C+Legislative+Assembly+Oath+of+Allegiance+Act%2C+1995&DocumentID=19205| title=Committee Transcripts: Standing Committee on the Legislative Assembly| date=10 April 1996| place=Toronto| publisher=Queen's Printer for Ontario| url=http://www.ontla.on.ca/web/committee-proceedings/committee_transcripts_details.do?locale=en&Date=1996-04-10&ParlCommID=45&BillID=&Business=Bill+22%2C+Legislative+Assembly+Oath+of+Allegiance+Act%2C+1995| accessdate=16 May 2009| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611135306/https://www.ontla.on.ca/web/committee-proceedings/committee_transcripts_details.do?locale=en&Date=1996-04-10&ParlCommID=45&BillID=&Business=Bill+22,+Legislative+Assembly+Oath+of+Allegiance+Act,+1995| archive-date=11 June 2011| url-status=dead| df=dmy-all}}</ref> [[Robertson Davies]] stated in 1994, "the Crown is the consecrated spirit of Canada",<ref>{{Cite book| last=Davies| first=Robertson| author-link=Robertson Davies| title=Hunting Stuart and The Voice of the People| publisher=Simon & Pierre| date=8 August 1996| location=Toronto| isbn=978-0-88924-259-3| url=https://archive.org/details/huntingstuartvoi0000davi}}</ref> and past Ontario chairman of the [[Monarchist League of Canada]] Gary Toffoli opined, "the Queen is the legal embodiment of the state at both the national and the provincial levels [...] She is our sovereign and it is the role of the Queen, recognized by the constitutional law of Canada, to embody the state."<ref>{{Citation| first=Gary| last=Toffoli| contribution=Bill 22, Legislative Assembly Oath of Allegiance Act, 1995 > 1620| contribution-url=http://www.ontla.on.ca/web/committee-proceedings/committee_transcripts_details.do;jsessionid=c72d607930d600b4e9b4ead54d5496d1d6b94ab16cbc.e3eRb3iNcheNe34OaN4La3yRa3j0n6jAmljGr5XDqQLvpAe?locale=en&Date=1996-04-10&ParlCommID=45&BillID=&Business=Bill+22%2C+Legislative+Assembly+Oath+of+Allegiance+Act%2C+1995#P58_1620| title=Committee Transcripts: Standing Committee on the Legislative Assembly| date=10 April 1996| place=Toronto| publisher=Queen's Printer for Ontario| url=http://www.ontla.on.ca/web/committee-proceedings/committee_transcripts_details.do?locale=en&Date=1996-04-10&ParlCommID=45&BillID=&Business=Bill+22%2C+Legislative+Assembly+Oath+of+Allegiance+Act%2C+1995| accessdate=16 May 2009| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611135306/https://www.ontla.on.ca/web/committee-proceedings/committee_transcripts_details.do?locale=en&Date=1996-04-10&ParlCommID=45&BillID=&Business=Bill+22,+Legislative+Assembly+Oath+of+Allegiance+Act,+1995| archive-date=11 June 2011| url-status=dead| df=dmy-all}}</ref>|group=n|name=State}}{{refn|<ref name=Compendium>{{cite web| author=Table Research Branch of the House of Commons| author-link=House of Commons of Canada| title=Compendium of Procedure| publisher=Queen's Printer for Canada| date=March 2008| location=Ottawa| page=1| url=http://www.parl.gc.ca/compendium/web-content/pdf-e/parliamentaryframework-e/c_d_rolecrowngovernorgeneral-e.pdf |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121025024722/http://www.parl.gc.ca/compendium/web-content/pdf-e/parliamentaryframework-e/c_d_rolecrowngovernorgeneral-e.pdf |archive-date=25 October 2012| url-status=live| accessdate=14 October 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Citation| author=Cabinet Secretary and Clerk of the Executive Council| title=Executive Government Processes and Procedures in Saskatchewan: A Procedures Manual| location=Regina| publisher=Queen's Printer for Saskatchewan| date=April 2004| page=10| url=http://www.gov.sk.ca/adx/aspx/adxGetMedia.aspx?DocID=635,617,534,206,Documents&MediaID=752&Filename=2004Manual.pdf |accessdate=30 July 2009}}</ref><ref>{{citation| url=http://www.royal.gov.uk/MonarchAndCommonwealth/Canada/TheQueensroleinCanada.aspx| author=The Royal Household| title=The Queen and the Commonwealth > Queen and Canada > The Queen's role in Canada| publisher=Queen's Printer| accessdate=15 May 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Citation| last=MacLeod| first=Kevin S.| author-link=Kevin S. MacLeod| title=A Crown of Maples| page=51 |place=Ottawa| publisher=Queen's Printer for Canada| year=2012| edition=2| url=http://canadiancrown.gc.ca/DAMAssetPub/DAM-CRN-jblDmt-dmdJbl/STAGING/texte-text/crnMpls_1336157759317_eng.pdf?WT.contentAuthority=4.4.4 |isbn=978-0-662-46012-1| accessdate=28 November 2012| archive-date=4 February 2016| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160204231448/http://canadiancrown.gc.ca/DAMAssetPub/DAM-CRN-jblDmt-dmdJbl/STAGING/texte-text/crnMpls_1336157759317_eng.pdf?WT.contentAuthority=4.4.4| url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Citation| last=Marleau| first=Robert| author2=Montpetit, Camille| title=House of Commons Procedure and Practice| publisher=Queen's Printer for Canada |year=2000| location=Ottawa| section=1. Parliamentary Institutions > Institutional Framework > The Crown| url=http://www2.parl.gc.ca/MarleauMontpetit/DocumentViewer.aspx?DocId=1001&Sec=Ch01&Seq=3&Lang=E |isbn=2-89461-378-4| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121008170948/http://www.parl.gc.ca/MarleauMontpetit/DocumentViewer.aspx?DocId=1001&Lang=E&Sec=Ch01&Seq=3| archive-date=8 October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Citation| author=Citizenship and Immigration Canada| author-link=Citizenship and Immigration Canada| title=Discover Canada| location=Ottawa| publisher=Queen's Printer for Canada| year=2009| page=2| url=http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/pdf/pub/discover.pdf| isbn=978-1-100-12739-2| accessdate=3 December 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Citation| last=Tidridge| first=Nathan| title=Canada's Constitutional Monarchy: An Introduction to Our Form of Government| page=17| publisher=Dundurn Press| location=Toronto| year=2011| isbn=9781459700840| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JvGsvHsAtDgC}}</ref>}} The body of the reigning sovereign thus holds two distinct personas in constant coexistence, an ancient theory of the "King's two bodies"—the body natural (subject to infirmity and death) and the body politic (which never dies).<ref name=Twomey34/> The crown and the monarch are "conceptually divisible but legally indivisible [...] The office cannot exist without the office-holder".{{#tag:ref|As Peter Boyce put it, "the Crown as a concept cannot be disentangled from the person of the monarch, but standard reference to the Crown extends well beyond the Queen's person."<ref>{{Citation| last=Boyce| first=Peter John| title=The Queen's Other Realms: The Crown and Its Legacy in Australia, Canada and New Zealand| page=81| publisher=Federation Press| location=Sydney| year=2008a| isbn=978-1-86287-700-9}}</ref>|group=n|name=Boyce}}<ref>{{citation| url=https://ottawacitizen.com/opinion/op-ed/Succeeding+Canadian+throne/7651371/story.html| last1=Bowden| first1=James| last2=Philippe| first2=Lagassé| title=Succeeding to the Canadian throne| date=6 December 2012| work=Ottawa Citizen| accessdate=6 December 2012| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://archive.today/20130110062651/http://www.ottawacitizen.com/opinion/op-ed/Succeeding+Canadian+throne/7651371/story.html| archive-date=10 January 2013}}</ref>

The terms ''the state'', ''the Crown'',<ref>{{citation| url=http://laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/F-11/FullText.html| author=Elizabeth II| title=Financial Administration Act| date=9 October 2012| section= 83.1| publisher=Queen's Printer for Canada| accessdate=6 December 2012}}</ref> ''the Crown in Right of [jurisdiction]'', ''His Majesty the King in Right of [jurisdiction]'',<ref>{{cite web| author=Elizabeth II| author-link=Elizabeth II| title=Memorandum for Understanding of Cooperation on Addressing Climate Change| date=21 May 2004| page=1| location=Toronto| publisher=Queen's Printer for Canada| url=http://arizonaenergy.org/images/ontario_mou_e.pdf| accessdate=16 May 2009}}</ref> and similar, are all synonymous and the monarch's [[legal personality]] is sometimes referred to simply as the relevant jurisdiction's name.<ref name=Compendium/><ref>{{Cite web| author=Elizabeth II| author-link=Elizabeth II| title=A First Nations–Federal Crown Political Accord| url=http://www.afn.ca/cmslib/general/PolAcc.pdf| series=1| year=2004| page=3| place=Ottawa| publisher=Assembly of First Nations| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051006193757/http://afn.ca/cmslib/general/PolAcc.pdf| archive-date=6 October 2005| url-status=dead| accessdate=29 September 2009}}</ref> (In countries using systems of government derived from Roman [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]], the state is the equivalent concept to the crown.<ref>{{citation| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZcIf46DzpfUC&pg=PA20| last=Jackson| first=Michael D.| title=The Crown and Canadian Federalism| page=20| publisher=Dundurn Press| location=Toronto| year=2013| isbn=978-1-4597-0989-8}}</ref>) However, the terms ''the sovereign'' or ''monarch'' and ''the crown'', though related, have different meanings: ''The crown'' includes both the monarch and the government. The institution and powers of the crown are vested in the king, but, generally, its functions are exercised in the sovereign's name by [[Minister of the Crown|ministers of the crown]] drawn from and [[responsible government|responsible to]] the elected chamber of [[parliament]].<ref name=Torrance7/>

Still, the king or queen is the employer of all government officials and staff (including the viceroys, judges, members of the armed forces, police officers, and parliamentarians),{{#tag:ref|The [[Supreme Court of Canada|Supreme Court]] found in the 1980 case ''[[Attorney General of Quebec v. Labrecque]]'' that [[civil servant]]s in Canada are not contracted by an abstraction called ''the state'', but, rather, they are employed by the monarch, who "enjoys a general capacity to contract in accordance with the rule of ordinary law."<ref>{{Citation| last=Smith| first=David E.| title=The Invisible Crown| publisher=University of Toronto Press| year=1995| location=Toronto| isbn=0-8020-7793-5| page=79}}</ref>|group=n|name=Court}} the guardian of foster children (''[[crown ward]]s''), as well as the owner of all state lands (''crown land''), buildings and equipment (''crown-held property''),<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca/dgcb-dgras/pd/fs-se/gm-mg/2009/414-011759Z-eng.asp |last=Department of National Defence| title=DCBA 414 011759Z Apr 09 MFSI Annual Rates for the Fiscal Year 2009/2010| publisher=Queen's Printer for Canada| accessdate=16 May 2009| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090828111747/http://www.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca/dgcb-dgras/pd/fs-se/gm-mg/2009/414-011759Z-eng.asp| archive-date=28 August 2009}}</ref> state-owned companies (''[[crown corporation]]s''), and the [[copyright]] for government publications (''[[crown copyright]]'').<ref>{{cite map| publisher=Queen's Printer for Canada| title=Canada| url=http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/reference/national/can_political_e/map.pdf| format=PDF| year=2006| accessdate=16 May 2009| archive-date=26 March 2009| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326043231/http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/reference/national/can_political_e/map.pdf| url-status=dead}}</ref> This is all in his or her position as sovereign, not as an individual; all such property is held by the crown in perpetuity and cannot be sold by the sovereign without the proper [[advice and consent]] of his or her relevant ministers.
[[File:Ceremonial Mace of the Queensland Parliament.jpg|thumb|The mace of the [[Parliament of Queensland]], symbolising the power of the [[Australian Crown]]-[[King-in-Parliament|in-Parliament]]]]

The crown also represents the legal embodiment of executive, [[Legislature|legislative]], and [[Judiciary|judicial]] governance. While the crown's legal personality is usually regarded as a [[corporation sole]],<ref>{{citation| url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Geo5/15-16/20| author=George V| title=Law of Property Act 1925| location=London| publisher=King's Printer| date=9 April 1925| section=s. 180}}</ref> it can, at least for some purposes, be described as a [[corporation aggregate]] headed by the monarch.<ref>{{citation| title=The Crown as Corporation| first=Frederic| last=Maitland| author-link=Frederic William Maitland| journal=Law Quarterly Review| issue=17| year=1901| pages=131–46| url=http://socserv2.socsci.mcmaster.ca/econ/ugcm/3ll3/maitland/crowncor.mai}}</ref><ref>{{Citation| author=The Law Commission| type=Affidavit| date=November 1996| location=Lincoln County, Nevada| title=Paper 143: The execution of deeds and documents by or on behalf of bodies corporate| journal=Halsbury's Laws of England| publication-date=1974| volume=9| edition=4| id=1206| url=http://www.lawcom.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/cp143_Execution_of_Deeds_and_Documents_Consultation.pdf}}</ref> [[Frederic William Maitland]] argued the crown in the UK is a corporation aggregate embracing the government and the "whole political community".<ref>{{citation| last=Maitland| first=Frederic William| title=The Constitutional History of England| publisher=Cambridge University Press| location=Cambridge| year=1908| page=418}}</ref> J.G. Allen preferred to view the crown as a corporation sole; one office occupied by a single person, enduring "through generations of incumbents and, historically, lends coherence to a network of other institutions of a similar nature."<ref>{{citation| last=Allen| first=J.G.| title=The Office of the Crown| journal=Cambridge Law Journal| location=Cambridge| volume=77| issue=2| date=July 2018| page=300| doi=10.1017/S0008197318000338| s2cid=149843556| url=http://edoc.hu-berlin.de/18452/22408}}</ref> Canadian academic Philippe Lagassé found the crown "acts in various capacities, as such: crown-in-council (executive); crown-in-parliament (legislative); crown-in-court (judicial). It is also an artificial person and office as a corporation sole. At its most basic, 'the crown' is in the UK what is most other countries is 'the state'."<Ref>{{citation| last=Lagassé| first=Philippe| title=The State, The Crown, and Parliament, lecture given at Carleton University| location=Ottawa| date=2 November 2021}}</ref>

{{anchor|Divisible}}

==Divisibility of the crown==
{{further|Commonwealth realm#The Crown in the Commonwealth realms}}
{{further|Monarchy in the Canadian provinces}}

Historically, the crown was considered to be indivisible.<ref>{{cite journal| title=The Concept of the Crown| last=Saunders| first=Cheryl| journal=Melbourne University Law Review |volume=38| page=883| year=2015}}</ref> Two judgments—''[[Ex parte Indian Association of Alberta]]'' ([[Court of Appeal (England and Wales)|EWCA]], 1982) and ''[[Ex parte Quark]]'' ([[Lords of Appeal in Ordinary|House of Lords]], 2005)—challenged that view. Today, the crown is considered separate in every country, province, state, or territory, regardless of its degree of independence, that has the shared monarch as part of the respective country's government; though, limitations on the power of the monarch in right of each territory vary according to relevant laws, thus making the difference between full sovereignty, semi-sovereignty, dependency, etc. The Lords of Appeal wrote, "the Queen is as much the Queen of New South Wales and Mauritius and other territories acknowledging her as head of state as she is of England and Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland, or the United Kingdom."<ref>Lords of Appeal, [https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld200506/ldjudgmt/jd051013/quark-1.htm ''Ex parte Quark'', 2005]</ref>

The crown in each of the [[Commonwealth realm]]s is a similar, but separate, legal concept. To distinguish the institution's role in one jurisdiction from its place in another, Commonwealth law employs the expression ''the Crown in Right of [place]''; for example, the Crown in Right of the United Kingdom,{{refn|<ref>{{Cite book| last1=Lauterpacht| first1=E.| last2=Greenwood| first2=C. J.| title=International Law Reports| publisher=Cambridge University Press| year=1992| location=Cambridge| pages=286, 713| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cyEP1rc4P3UC| volume=87| isbn=978-0-949009-99-9}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book| author=Royal Institute of International Affairs| others=British Institute of International Affairs| title=The British Year Book of International Law| volume=53| publisher=[[H. Frowde]]| date=1983| location=Oxford| pages=253, 257, 258| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yFgzAAAAIAAJ&q=%22crown+in+right+of+the+united+kingdom%22}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book| last=Bourne| first=C.B.| title=Canadian Yearbook of International Law| volume=23| publisher=UBC Press| year=1986| location=Vancouver| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KIoTqgSdDTwC| isbn=978-0-7748-0259-8}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book| title=The Australian law journal| volume=52| publisher=Law Book Co. of Australasia Ltd.| year=1978| location=North Ryde| pages=58, 203, 207| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KLYtAQAAIAAJ&q=%22crown+in+right+of+the+united+kingdom%22| id=3910867}}</ref>}} the Crown in Right of Canada, the Crown in Right of the Commonwealth of Australia, etc. Because both Canada and Australia are federations, there are also crowns in right of each [[Provinces and territories of Canada|Canadian province]] and each [[States and territories of Australia|Australian state]].<ref>{{Citation| author=Ministry of Natural Resources| title=Disposition of Public Land to Other Governments and Agencies| place=Toronto| publisher=Queen's Printer for Ontario| date=24 January 2006| page=2, at 3.2.B| url=http://files.ontario.ca/environment-and-energy/crown-land/mnr_e000096.pdf| accessdate=25 April 2010| quote=When public land is required by the federal government or one of its departments, or any provincial ministry, the land itself is not transferred. What is transferred is the responsibility to manage the lands on behalf of Her Majesty the Queen (HMQ). This is accomplished by an Order-in-Council or a Minister's Order that transfers management of land either from HMQ in right of Ontario to HMQ in right of Canada as represented by a department or to HMQ in right of Ontario as represented by another ministry. The Crown does not transfer ownership to itself.}}</ref> When referring to the Crown in multiple jurisdictions, wording is typically akin to "the Crown in right of [place], and all its other capacities".<ref name="clayton-utz-retail-leases">{{cite web |author1=Clayton Utz |author1-link=Clayton Utz |title=Retail Leases Comparative Analysis - The Act Binds the Crown |url=https://www.claytonutz.com/document/retail-leases-comparative-analysis/what-s-covered-by-the-act-/the-act-binds-the-crown |website=Clayton Utz |access-date=14 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220714175739/https://www.claytonutz.com/document/retail-leases-comparative-analysis/what-s-covered-by-the-act-/the-act-binds-the-crown |archive-date=14 July 2022 }}</ref>

The powers of a realm's crown are exercised either by the monarch, personally, or by his or her representative on the [[advice (constitutional)|advice]] of the appropriate local [[ministers of the Crown|ministers]], legislature, or judges, none of which may advise the crown in any other realm.
{{multiple image
| align = center
| total_width = 700
| perrow =
| image1 = Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II and her Canadian Ministers at Rideau Hall 1 July 1967.jpg
| caption1 = [[Elizabeth II]], [[Monarchy of Canada|Queen of Canada]], with her [[Cabinet of Canada|Cabinet]] in [[Rideau Hall]], 1 July 1967
| image2 = New Zealand Cabinet, 1981.jpg
| caption2 = Elizabeth II, [[Monarchy of New Zealand|Queen of New Zealand]], with her [[Cabinet of New Zealand|Cabinet]], 1981
| image3 = Second Keating Cabinet 1994.jpg
| caption3 = [[Governor-General of Australia|Governor-General]] [[Bill Hayden]], representing Elizabeth II, [[Monarchy of Australia|Queen of Australia]], with [[Cabinet of Australia|Cabinet]] outside [[Government House, Canberra|Government House]], 25 March 1994
| image4 = The Queen attending Cabinet to mark her Diamond Jubilee.jpg
| caption4 = Elizabeth II, [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|Queen of the United Kingdom]], with her [[Cabinet of the United Kingdom|Cabinet]] at [[10 Downing Street]], 18 December 2012
| footer = Queen [[Elizabeth II]] in her various capacities as sovereign of different countries, demonstrating the divisibility of the crown
}}

===New Zealand===
In New Zealand, the term ''the Crown'' ({{lang-mi|te Karauna}}<ref>{{cite web| title=Karauna| url=https://maoridictionary.co.nz/search?idiom=&phrase=&proverb=&loan=&histLoanWords=&keywords=Karauna| publisher=Te Aka Māori Dictionary| accessdate=20 January 2023| language=en}}</ref>) is used to mostly mean the authority of government; its meaning changes in different contexts.<ref>{{Cite journal| last1=Shore| first1=Cris| last2=Kawharu| first2=Margaret| date=17 June 2014| title=Thr Crown in New Zealand: Anthropological Perspectives on an Imagined Sovereign| url=https://sites.otago.ac.nz/Sites/article/view/267|journal=Sites: A Journal of Social Anthropology and Cultural Studies| language=en| volume=11| issue=1| pages=17–38| doi=10.11157/sites-vol11iss1id267| issn=1179-0237| doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web| date=15 November 2019| title=Definition of 'the Crown' a difficult matter| url=https://www.lawsociety.org.nz/news/lawtalk/issue-819/definition-of-the-crown-a-difficult-matter/| accessdate=12 May 2021| publisher=New Zealand Law Society {{!}} Te Kāhui Ture o Aotearoa| language=en}}</ref> In the context of people considering [[Treaty of Waitangi claims and settlements|Treaty of Waitangi claims]], professor of history Alan Ward defines the Crown as "the people of New Zealand—including [[Māori people|Māori]] themselves—acted through elected parliament and government."<ref>{{Cite book| title=The Waitangi Tribunal–Te Roopu Whakamana i te Tiriti o Waitangi| date=2004| publisher=Bridget Williams Books| others=Janine Hayward, Nicola R. Wheen| isbn=1-877242-32-2| location=Wellington, N.Z.| oclc=60361482}}</ref>

===Crown Dependencies===
In the [[Bailiwick of Guernsey]], legislation refers to ''the Crown in Right of the Bailiwick of Guernsey''<ref>{{cite web| title=Review of the Roles of the Jersey Crown officers| url=http://www.guernsey-press.com/pdf/JsyCrownOfficers.pdf| accessdate=7 November 2011| archive-date=22 November 2011| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111122163301/http://www.guernsey-press.com/pdf/JsyCrownOfficers.pdf| url-status=dead}}</ref> or ''the Crown in Right of the Bailiwick''<ref>{{cite web| title=The Unregistered Design Rights (Bailiwick of Guernsey) Ordinance, 2005| url=http://www.guernseylegalresources.gg/ccm/legal-resources/ordinances/intellectual-property/unregistered-design-rights-bailiwick-of-guernsey-ordinance-2005.en| accessdate=7 November 2011| archive-date=21 July 2011| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721031210/http://www.guernseylegalresources.gg/ccm/legal-resources/ordinances/intellectual-property/unregistered-design-rights-bailiwick-of-guernsey-ordinance-2005.en| url-status=dead}}</ref> and the law officers of the Crown of Guernsey submitted that, "the Crown in this context ordinarily means the Crown in right of the ''république'' of the Bailiwick of Guernsey"<ref>{{cite web| title=Review of the Roles of the Jersey Crown officers| url=http://www.gov.je/SiteCollectionDocuments/Government%20and%20administration/R%20Guernsey%20LOs%20Submission%2020100330%20HR%20v1.pdf| accessdate=7 November 2011}}</ref> and that this comprises "the collective governmental and civic institutions, established by and under the authority of the monarch, for the governance of these islands, including the states of Guernsey and legislatures in the other islands, the royal court and other courts, the lieutenant governor, parish authorities, and the Crown acting in and through the Privy Council".<ref>{{cite news| title=It's a power thing… |url=http://www.thisisguernsey.com/2010/06/21/its-a-power-thing/| date=21 June 2010 |work=Guernsey Press| accessdate=7 November 2011| archive-date=10 June 2011| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610140928/http://www.thisisguernsey.com/2010/06/21/its-a-power-thing/| url-status=dead}}</ref>
[[File:Flag of Jersey.svg|thumb|left|The [[flag of Jersey]], displaying the [[Coat of arms of Jersey|badge of Jersey]] surmounted by a [[Plantagenet]] [[crown (heraldry)|crown]]]]

In the [[Jersey|Bailiwick of Jersey]], statements by the [[law officers of the Crown]] define the Crown's operation in that jurisdiction as ''the Crown in Right of Jersey'',<ref>{{cite web| title=Review of the Roles of the Crown Officers| url=http://www5.gov.je/SiteCollectionDocuments/Government%20and%20administration/R%20Attorney%20General%20Transcript%2020100702%20WM.pdf| accessdate=7 November 2011}}</ref> with all Crown land in the Bailiwick of Jersey belonging to the Crown in Right of Jersey and not to the [[Crown Estate]] of the United Kingdom.<ref>{{cite web| title=Written Question to H.M. Attorney General| url=http://www.statesassembly.gov.je/documents/questions/23532-33785-2262010.htm| accessdate=7 November 2011| archive-date=27 September 2011| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927015030/http://www.statesassembly.gov.je/documents/questions/23532-33785-2262010.htm| url-status=dead}}</ref> The Succession to the Crown (Jersey) Law 2013 defined the Crown, for the purposes of implementing the [[Perth Agreement]] in Jersey law, as the ''Crown in Right of the Bailiwick of Jersey''.<ref>{{cite web| title=Succession to the Crown (Jersey) Law 2013| url=https://www.jerseylaw.je/laws/current/Pages/15.730.aspx| publisher=States of Jersey| accessdate=6 October 2021}}</ref>

Legislation in the [[Isle of Man]] also defines the Crown in Right of the Isle of Man as being separate from the Crown in Right of the United Kingdom.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.statutelaw.gov.uk/content.aspx?LegType=All+Legislation&PageNumber=1&NavFrom=3&parentActiveTextDocId=3312343&ActiveTextDocId=3312364&filesize=13636| title=The Air Navigation (Isle of Man) Order 2007 (No. 1115) | accessdate=7 November 2011}}</ref>

===British Overseas Territories===
Following the [[Judicial functions of the House of Lords|Lords' decision]] in ''[[Ex parte Quark]]'', 2005, it is held that the King, in exercising his authority over [[British Overseas Territories]], does not act on the advice of the [[Cabinet of the United Kingdom]], but, in his role as king of each territory, with the exception of fulfilling the UK's international responsibilities for its territories. To comply with the court's decision, the territorial governors now act on the advice of each territory's executive and the UK government can no longer disallow legislation passed by territorial legislatures.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=HhsZSMEH5DoC&pg=PA49 ''Overseas Territories: Seventh Report of Session 2007–08, Vol. 2: Oral and Written Evidence'']. London, UK: The Stationery Office, 6 July 2008, pp. 49, 296–297</ref>

==In the courts==
{{more citations needed}}

In [[criminal law|criminal proceedings]], the state is the prosecuting party; the case is usually designated as ''R v <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[defendant]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>'',<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.courtsofnz.govt.nz/assets/cases/r-v-tarrant/R-v-Tarrant-20200713.pdf| title=The Queen v Brenton Harrison Tarrant| publisher=In the High Court of New Zealand Christchurch Registry| accessdate=22 July 2022}}</ref> where ''R'' can stand for either ''rex'' (if the current monarch is male) or ''regina'' (if the monarch is female). For example, a criminal case against Smith might be referred to as ''R v Smith'' and verbally read as "the crown against Smith".
[[File:Royal coat of arms, Westminster Magistrates' Court - geograph.org.uk - 2844500.jpg|thumb|The [[Coat of arms of the United Kingdom|coat of arms of the sovereign of the United Kingdom]] on the [[Westminster Magistrates' Court]] building in [[London]], England]]

The crown is, in general, [[Sovereign immunity|immune to prosecution and civil lawsuits]]. So, ''R'' is rarely (albeit sometimes{{#tag:ref|For exceptions in the United Kingdom, see [[Crown Proceedings Act 1947]].|group=n|name=Exceptions}}) seen on the right hand side of the 'v' in the first instance. To pursue a case against alleged unlawful activity by the government, a case in [[Judicial review in English law|judicial review]] is brought by the crown against a [[Minister of the Crown|minister]] on the application of a [[plaintiff|claimant]]. The titles of these cases now follow the pattern of ''R (on the application of [X]) v [Y]'', notated as ''R ([X]) v [Y]'', for short. Thus, ''[[R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union]]'' is ''R (on the application of Miller and other) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union'', where "Miller" is [[Gina Miller]], a citizen. Until the end of the 20th century, such case titles used the pattern ''R v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union, [[ex parte]] Miller''. Either form may be abbreviated ''R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union''.

In [[Scotland]], criminal prosecutions are undertaken by the [[lord advocate]] (or the relevant [[procurator fiscal]]) in the name of the Crown. Accordingly, the abbreviation ''HMA'' is used in the [[High Court of Justiciary]] for ''His/Her Majesty's Advocate'', in place of ''rex'' or ''regina''; as in, ''[[Pan Am Flight 103 bombing trial|HMA v Al Megrahi and Fahima]]''.

Most jurisdictions in [[Australia]] use ''R'' or ''The King'' (or ''The Queen'') in criminal cases. If the Crown is the respondent to an appeal, the words ''The King'' will be spelled out, instead of using the abbreviation ''R'' (i.e. the case name at trial would be ''R v Smith''; if the defendant appeals against the Crown, the case name would be ''Smith v The King''). In [[Western Australia]] and [[Tasmania]], prosecutions will be brought in the name of the respective state instead of the Crown (e.g. ''The State of Western Australia v Smith''). [[Victoria (Australia)|Victorian]] trials in the original jurisdiction will be brought in the name of the [[Director of Public Prosecutions (Victoria)|director of public prosecutions]]. The [[Director of Public Prosecutions (Australia)|Commonwealth director of public prosecutions]] may choose which name to bring the proceeding in. Judges usually refer to the prosecuting party as simply "the prosecution" in the text of judgments. In civil cases where the Crown is a party, it is a customary to list the body politic (e.g. ''State of Queensland'' or ''Commonwealth of Australia'') or the appropriate government minister as the party, instead. When a case is announced in court, the clerk or bailiff may refer to the Crown orally as ''our sovereign lord the king'' (or ''our sovereign lady the queen'').

In reporting on court proceedings in [[New Zealand]], news reports will refer to the prosecuting lawyer (often called a Crown prosecutor, as in Canada and the United Kingdom) as representing the Crown; usages such as, "for the Crown, Joe Bloggs argued", being common.

The crown can also be a plaintiff or defendant in civil actions to which the government of the Commonwealth realm in question is a party. Such [[crown proceedings]] are often subject to specific rules and limitations, such as the enforcement of judgments against the crown. {{lang|la|[[Qui tam]]}} lawsuits on behalf of the crown were once common, but have been unusual since the [[Common Informers Act 1951]] ended the practice of allowing such suits by common informers.

== Crown forces ==
{{anchor|Crown forces}}The term ''crown forces'' has been applied by [[physical force Irish republicanism|militant Irish republicans]] to British-authorised [[security forces]] on the island of [[Ireland]], including the [[British Armed Forces]] and armed police such as the [[Royal Ulster Constabulary]], which are seen as [[enemy combatant]]s or an [[Military occupation|occupation]] force.{{Efn|In [[Danny Morrison (author)|Danny Morrison]]'s words, "[t]he term 'security forces' suggests [[Legitimacy (political)|legitimacy]], which is why republicans prefer terms like 'the Brits' or 'the Crown Forces', which undermines their authority."<ref>{{cite web |url =http://www.irlandinit-hd.de/sub_misc/bsands.htm#Analysis:%20Words%20of%20Freedom |title=Saving 'Bobby Sands Street' > Words of Freedom |last=Morrison |first=Danny |date=24–26 January 2004 |work=Irish History |publisher=Irlandinitiative Heidelberg |access-date=25 August 2015}}</ref>|name=Morrison}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Hawes-Bilger |first=Cordula |title = War Zone Language: Linguistic Aspects of the Conflict in Northern Ireland |year=2007 |publisher=Francke |isbn=9783772082009 |page=148}}; {{cite journal |last=O'Neill |first=Conor |year=2004 |title=Terrorism, insurgency and the military response from South Armagh to Falluja |journal=The RUSI Journal |volume=149 |issue=5 |pages=22–25 |issn=0307-1847 |doi = 10.1080/03071840408523120 |s2cid=152582870}}; {{cite journal |last=Tomaney |first=John |year=2000 |title=End of the Empire State? New Labour and Devolution in the United Kingdom |journal=International Journal of Urban and Regional Research |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=675–688 |issn=0309-1317 |doi = 10.1111/1468-2427.00271}}</ref> [[Irish nationalist]]s may apply ''crown forces'' to earlier forces raised by the [[Dublin Castle administration]] at intervals since the [[Tudor conquest of Ireland]] to suppress [[List of Irish uprisings|various Irish uprisings]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Ferriter |first=Diarmaid |title=Ambiguous Republic: Ireland in the 1970s |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=qN-jf5dN7QAC&pg=PT247 |access-date=21 August 2015 |publisher=Profile Books |quote=Because of the events of the War of Independence, the phrase 'Crown Forces' came to represent something abhorrent in the Republican narrative. |isbn=9781847658562 |page=247}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Monarchy}}
* [[Crown Court]]

==Further reading==
* {{Cite book|last1=|first=|last2=|first2=|title=The Nature of the Crown: A Legal and Political Analysis|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1999|isbn=9780198262732|editor-last=Sunkin|editor-first=Maurice|doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198262732.001.0001|editor-last2=Payne|editor-first2=Sebastian}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=n|30em}}
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Commonwealth realms}}
{{Monarchies}}
{{Property navbox}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Crown (Commonwealth Realms)}}

[[Category:British Overseas Territories]]
[[Category:Commonwealth of Nations]]
[[Category:Commonwealth realms]]
[[Category:Common law]]
[[Category:Monarchy]]
[[Category:Legal fictions]]

Religious law

2022-02-05T23:53:37Z

Icecreamand: Just completed a comprehensive guide.

{{short description|Ethical and moral codes taught by religious traditions}}
{{lead too short}}

'''Religious law''' includes [[ethical code|ethical]] and [[Morality#Moral codes|moral codes]] taught by [[religious tradition]]s. Different religious systems hold sacred law in a greater or lesser degree of importance to their belief systems, with some being explicitly [[Antinomianism|antinomian]] whereas others are [[Legalism (theology)|nomistic]] or "legalistic" in nature. In particular, religions such as [[Judaism]], [[Islam]] and the [[Baháʼí Faith]] teach the need for revealed positive law for both state and society, whereas other religions such as [[Christianity]] generally reject the idea that this is necessary or desirable<ref>"In history, systems of law have almost always been based on religion: decisions regarding what was to be lawful among men were taken with reference to the divinity. Unlike other great religions, Christianity has never proposed a revealed law to the State and to society, that is to say a juridical order derived from revelation. Instead, it has pointed to nature and reason as the true sources of law" ({{cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/content/benedict-xvi/en/speeches/2011/september/documents/hf_ben-xvi_spe_20110922_reichstag-berlin.html|title=Address of His Holiness Pope Benedict XVI to the Reichstag|access-date=2019-12-16}}).</ref> and instead emphasise the eternal moral precepts of divine law over the civil, ceremonial or judicial aspects, which may have been annulled<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/summa/2100.htm|title=SUMMA THEOLOGIAE: The moral precepts of the old law (Prima Secundae Partis, Q. 100)|website=www.newadvent.org|access-date=2020-03-19}}</ref> as in theologies of [[Sermon on Law and Grace|grace over law]].

Examples of religiously derived legal codes include [[Christianity|Christian]] [[canon law]] (applicable within a wider theological conception in the church, but in modern times distinct from secular state law<ref>Ladislas Orsy, "Towards a Theological Conception of Canon Law" (published in Jordan Hite, T.O.R., & Daniel J. Ward, O.S.B., "Readings, Cases, Materials in Canon Law: A Textbook for Ministerial Students, Revised Edition" (Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press, 1990), pg. 11</ref>), [[Judaism|Jewish]] ''[[halakha]]'', [[Islam|Islamic]] ''[[sharia]]'', and [[Hindu law]].<ref>Gad Barzilai, ''Law and Religion'', Ashgate, 2007</ref>

==Established religions and religious institutions==
A [[state religion]] (or [[established church]]) is a religious body officially endorsed by the [[State (polity)|state]]. A [[theocracy]] is a [[form of government]] in which a [[God]] or a [[deity]] is recognized as the supreme civil ruler.

In both theocracies and some religious jurisdictions, [[conscientious objector]]s may cause [[religious offense]]. The contrary legal systems are [[secular state]]s or [[multicultural]] societies in which the government does not formally adopt a particular religion, but may either repress all religious activity or enforce tolerance of religious diversity.

==Baháʼí Faith==
{{main|Baháʼí laws}}
[[Baháʼí laws]] are laws and ordinances used in the [[Baháʼí Faith]] and are a fundamental part of Baháʼí practice.<ref name="PSmith158">*{{cite book |last = Smith |first = Peter |title = An Introduction to the Baha'i Faith |publisher = Cambridge University Press |place = Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-86251-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z7zdDFTzNr0C |date = 2008 |page=158}}</ref> The laws are based on authenticated texts from [[Bahá'u'lláh]], the founder of the Baháʼí Faith, subsequent interpretations from [[`Abdu'l-Bahá]] and [[Shoghi Effendi]] and legislation by the [[Universal House of Justice]].<ref name="PSmith159">{{Harvnb|Smith|2008|pp=159}}{{Citation not found}}</ref> Baháʼí law is presented as a set of general principles and guidelines and individuals must apply them as they best seem fit.<ref name="PSmith159"/> While some of the social laws are enforced by Baháʼí institutions, the emphasis is placed on individuals following the laws based on their conscience, understanding and reasoning, and Baháʼís are expected to follow the laws for the love of Bahá'u'lláh.<ref name="PSmith159"/> The laws are seen as the method of the maintenance of order and security in the world.<ref name="PSmith158"/>

A few examples of laws and basic religious observances of the Kitáb-i-Aqdas which are considered obligatory for Baháʼís include:
* Recite an [[Obligatory Baháʼí prayers|obligatory prayer]] each day. There are three such prayers among which one can be chosen each day.
* Observe a [[Nineteen Day Fast]] from sunrise to sunset from March 2 through March 20. During this time Baháʼís in good health between the ages of 15 and 70 abstain from eating and drinking.
* [[Gossip]] and [[backbiting]] are prohibited and viewed as particularly damaging to the individual and their relationships.

==Buddhism==
{{Main|Pāṭimokkha}}
{{See also|Dhammasattha}}
{{Expand section}}

In [[Buddhism]], [[Pāṭimokkha|Patimokkha]] is a code of 227 rules and principles followed by [[Bhikkhu|Buddhist monks]] and [[Bhikkhunī|nuns]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pāṭimokkha {{!}} The Buddhist Monastic Code, Volumes I & II |url=https://www.dhammatalks.org/vinaya/bmc/Section0007.html |access-date=2022-04-15 |website=www.dhammatalks.org |language=en}}</ref>

==Christianity==
{{Further|Legalism (theology)|Letter and spirit of the law}}
{{See also|Antinomianism|Christian ethics|Render unto Caesar}}

[[File:Graverat titelblad till "Kanonisk rätt" - Skoklosters slott - 93238.tif|thumb|The ''[[Corpus Juris Canonici]]'', the fundamental collection of [[canon law of the Catholic Church|Catholic canon law]] for over 750 years.]]

Within the framework of [[Christianity]], there are several possible definitions for religious law. One is the [[Law of Moses|Mosaic Law]] (from what Christians consider to be the [[Old Testament]]), also called [[divine law]] or [[biblical law]]; the most famous example is the [[Ten commandments#Christianity|Ten Commandments]]. Another is the instructions of [[Jesus in Christianity|Jesus of Nazareth]] to his [[Disciple (Christianity)|disciples]] in the [[Gospel]] (often referred to as the [[Law of Christ]] or the [[New Commandment]] or the [[New Covenant]], in contrast to the [[Mosaic covenant#Christianity|Old Covenant]]). Another is the [[Apostolic Decree]] of Acts 15, which is still observed by the [[Greek Orthodox Church]].<ref>[[Karl Josef von Hefele]]'s [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf214.viii.v.iv.ii.html commentary on canon II of Gangra] notes: "We further see that, at the time of the Synod of [[Gangra]], the rule of the Apostolic Synod with regard to blood and things strangled was still in force. With the Greeks, indeed, it continued always in force as their Euchologies still show. [[Balsamon]] also, the well-known commentator on the canons of the Middle Ages, in his commentary on the sixty-third [[Canons of the Apostles|Apostolic Canon]], expressly blames the Latins because they had ceased to observe this command. What the Latin Church, however, thought on this subject about the year 400, is shown by [[Augustine of Hippo|St. Augustine]] in his work [[Contra Faustum]], where he states that the Apostles had given this command in order to unite the heathens and Jews in the one ark of Noah; but that then, when the barrier between Jewish and heathen converts had fallen, this command concerning things strangled and blood had lost its meaning, and was only observed by few. But still, as late as the eighth century, [[Pope Gregory III|Pope Gregory the Third]] (731) forbade the eating of blood or things strangled under threat of a penance of forty days. No one will pretend that the disciplinary enactments of any council, even though it be one of the undisputed [[Ecumenical council|Ecumenical Synods]], can be of greater and more unchanging force than the decree of that first council, held by the Holy Apostles at Jerusalem, and the fact that its decree has been obsolete for centuries in the West is proof that even Ecumenical canons may be of only temporary utility and may be repealed by disuse, like other laws."</ref> Another is [[canon law]] in the [[Catholic Church|Catholic]], [[Anglicanism|Anglican]], and [[Eastern Christianity|Orthodox]] churches.

In some [[Christian denomination]]s, law is often contrasted with [[divine grace|grace]] (see also [[Law and Gospel]] and [[Antithesis of the Law]]): the contrast here speaks to an attempt to gain [[salvation]] by [[legalism (theology)|obedience to a code of laws]] as opposed to seeking salvation through faith in the [[Atonement in Christianity|atonement]] made by [[Jesus]] on the cross. From the [[Gospel of John]]:

{{Quote|John 1:16-18|And of his fullness have all we received, and grace for grace. For the law was given by Moses, but grace and truth came by Jesus Christ.|KJV}}

===Biblical/Mosaic law===
{{Further|Biblical law#Christianity}}

Christian views of the [[Mosaic covenant#Christianity|Old Covenant]] vary and are to be distinguished from [[Christian theology]], [[Christian ethics|ethics]], and [[Orthopraxy#Christianity|practice]]. The term "Old Covenant", also referred to as the [[Mosaic covenant]] and the [[Law of Moses]], refers to the statements or principles of religious law and [[ethics in religion|religious ethics]] codified in the first five books or ''[[Pentateuch]]'' of the [[Old Testament]]. Views of the Old Covenant are expressed in the [[New Testament]], such as [[Jesus]]' [[Matthew 5#Antitheses|antitheses of the law]], the [[Circumcision controversy in early Christianity#Mosaic Law in Early Christianity|circumcision controversy in Early Christianity]], and the [[Incident at Antioch]] and position of [[Paul the Apostle and Judaism]]. Most Christians hold that [[Supersessionism|only parts are applicable]], while some [[Protestantism|Protestants]] have the view that [[Abrogation of Old Covenant laws|none is applicable]]. [[Dual-covenant theology|Dual-covenant theologians]] have the view that only [[Noahide Laws]] apply to [[Gentiles]]. The [[Jewish Christian]]ity movement is virtually extinct. According to the New Testament Christians are no longer regarded as Gentiles (Romans 8: 28–29)

===Canon law===
{{Main|Canon law}}

Canon law is the body of laws and regulations made by or adopted by ecclesiastical authority for the governance of the Christian organization and its members. It is the internal ecclesiastical law governing the [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic Church]], the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern]] and [[Oriental Orthodox Churches]], and the [[Anglican Communion]] of churches.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09056a.htm|title=Canon law|publisher=Catholic Encyclopedia|access-date=2008-05-26}}</ref> The way that such church law is [[legislature|legislated]], interpreted and at times [[court|adjudicated]] varies widely among these three bodies of churches. In all three traditions, a canon was initially a rule adopted by a [[church council]] (From [[Greek language|Greek]] ''kanon'' / κανών, [[Hebrew]] kaneh / קנה, for rule, standard, or measure); these canons formed the foundation of canon law.

====Canons of the Apostles====
{{Main|Apostolic Canons}}

The [[Canons of the Apostles]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03279a.htm|title=Catholic Encyclopedia: Apostolic Canons|publisher=New Advent|access-date=2008-05-26}}</ref> or ''Ecclesiastical Canons of the Same Holy Apostles''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/chr/ecf/007/0070471.htm|title=The Ecclesiastical Canons of the Same Holy Apostles|publisher=Ante-Nicene Fathers, Vol VII|access-date=2008-05-26}}</ref> is a collection of ancient ecclesiastical decrees (eighty-five in the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern]], fifty in the [[Roman Catholicism|Western]] Church) concerning the government and discipline of the [[Early Christian]] Church, incorporated with the [[Apostolic Constitutions]] which are part of the [[Ante-Nicene Fathers]]

====Catholic Church====
{{Canon Law}}

The [[canon law of the Catholic Church]] ({{Lang-la|jus canonicum}})<ref>Black's Law Dictionary, 5th Edition, pg. 771: "Jus canonicum"</ref> is the system of [[law]]s and legal principles made and enforced by the [[Hierarchy of the Catholic Church|hierarchical authorities]] of the Church to regulate its external organization and government and to order and direct the activities of Catholics toward the mission of the Church.<ref>Della Rocca, ''Manual of Canon Law'', pg. 3</ref> It was the first modern Western [[legal system]]<ref>Berman, Harold J. ''Law and Revolution'', pg. 86 & pg. 115</ref> and is the oldest continuously functioning legal system in the West,<ref>[[Dr. Edward N. Peters]], [http://canonlaw.info CanonLaw.info Home Page], accessed June-11-2013</ref> predating the European [[common law (legal system)|common law]] and [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]] traditions. What began with rules ("canons") adopted by the [[Twelve Apostles|Apostles]] at the [[Council of Jerusalem]] in the 1st century has blossomed into a highly complex and original legal system encapsulating not just norms of the [[New Testament]], but some elements of the [[Hebrews|Hebrew]] ([[Old Testament]]), [[Roman law|Roman]], [[Visigoths|Visigothic]], [[Saxon people|Saxon]], and [[Celt]]ic legal traditions spanning thousands of years of human experience. while the unique traditions of [[Eastern Catholic canon law]] govern the 23 [[Eastern Catholic Churches|Eastern Catholic]] [[particular church]]es ''[[sui iuris]].''

Positive ecclesiastical laws derive formal authority in the case of universal laws from [[Promulgation (Catholic canon law)|promulgation]] by the supreme legislator—the [[Supreme Pontiff]]—who possesses the totality of legislative, executive, and judicial power in his person,<ref>[https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/__P16.HTM Canon 331], [[1983 Code of Canon Law]]</ref> while particular laws derive formal authority from promulgation by a legislator inferior to the supreme legislator, whether an ordinary or a delegated legislator. The actual subject material of the canons is not just doctrinal or moral in nature, but all-encompassing of the human condition.

It has all the ordinary elements of a mature legal system:<ref name=clinfocat/> laws, courts, lawyers, judges,<ref name="clinfocat">[[Edward N. Peters]], [http://www.canonlaw.info/a_catechistintro.htm "A Catechist's Introduction to Canon Law"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802095547/http://www.canonlaw.info/a_catechistintro.htm }}, CanonLaw.info, accessed June-11-2013</ref> a fully articulated [[1983 Code of Canon Law|legal code]] for the [[Latin Church]] as well as a [[Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches|code]] for the [[Eastern Catholic Churches]],<ref name="Manual of Canon Law, pg. 49">Manual of Canon Law, pg. 49</ref> principles of [[Interpretation (Catholic canon law)|legal interpretation]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.intratext.com/IXT/ENG0017/_P2.HTM|title=Code of Canon Law: text - IntraText CT|website=www.intratext.com|access-date=2020-03-19}}</ref> and coercive penalties.<ref>[https://stjosephcanonlaw.com/sites/default/files/newsletter-preview-pdfs/christifidelis30.7.pdf St. Joseph Foundation newsletter, Vol. 30 No. 7] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714200828/https://stjosephcanonlaw.com/sites/default/files/newsletter-preview-pdfs/christifidelis30.7.pdf }}, pg. 3</ref> It lacks civilly binding force in most secular jurisdictions. Those who are versed and skilled in canon law, and professors of canon law, are called canonists<ref>Black's Law Dictionary, 5th Edition, pg. 187: "Canonist"</ref> (or colloquially, canon lawyers).<ref>Berman, ''Law and Revolution'', pg. 288</ref> Canon law as a sacred science is called canonistics.


The [[jurisprudence of Catholic canon law]] is the complex of legal principles and traditions within which canon law operates, while the [[philosophy, theology, and fundamental theory of Catholic canon law]] are the areas of philosophical, theological, and legal scholarship dedicated to providing a theoretical basis for canon law as a legal system and as true law.

In the [[Early Christianity|early Church]], the first canons were decreed by [[bishop]]s united in "[[Ecumenical councils|Ecumenical]]" councils (the Emperor summoning all of the known world's bishops to attend with at least the acknowledgement of the [[Bishop]] of [[diocese of Rome|Rome]]) or "local" councils (bishops of a region or territory). Over time, these canons were supplemented with [[decretal]]s of the Bishops of Rome, which were responses to doubts or problems according to the maxim, ''Roma locuta est, causa finita est'' ("Rome has spoken, case is closed").

Later, they were gathered together into [[collections of ancient canons|collections]], both unofficial and official. The first truly systematic collection was assembled by the [[Camaldolese]] monk [[Gratian (jurist)|Gratian]] in the 11th century, commonly known as the ''[[Decretum Gratiani]]'' ("Gratian's Decree"). [[Pope]] [[Gregory IX]] is credited with promulgating the first official collection of canons called the ''Decretalia Gregorii Noni'' or ''Liber Extra'' (1234). This was followed by the ''Liber Sextus'' (1298) of [[Boniface VIII]], the ''Clementines'' (1317) of [[Clement V]], the ''[[Extravagantes Joannis XXII]]'' and the ''[[Extravagantes Communes]]'', all of which followed the same structure as the Liber Extra. All these collections, with the [[Decretum Gratiani]], are together referred to as the ''[[Corpus Juris Canonici]]''. After the completion of the ''Corpus Juris Canonici'', subsequent [[papal]] legislation was published in periodic volumes called ''[[Bullarium|Bullaria]]''.

By the 19th century, this body of legislation included some 10,000 norms, many difficult to reconcile with one another due to changes in circumstances and practice. This situation impelled [[Pope Pius X]] to order the creation of the first [[1917 Code of Canon Law|Code of Canon Law]], a single volume of clearly stated laws. Under the aegis of Cardinal [[Pietro Gasparri]], the Commission for the Codification of Canon Law was completed under [[Benedict XV]], who promulgated the Code, effective in 1918. The work having been begun by [[Pius X]], it was sometimes called the "Pio-Benedictine Code" but more often the 1917 Code. In its preparation, centuries of material was examined, scrutinized for authenticity by leading experts, and harmonized as much as possible with opposing canons and even other Codes, from the [[Corpus Juris Civilis|Codex of Justinian]] to the [[Napoleonic Code]].

[[Pope John XXIII]] initially called for a [[Synod]] of the Diocese of Rome, an [[Ecumenical Council]], and an updating to the 1917 Code. After the [[Second Vatican Council|Second Ecumenical Council]] of the Vatican (Vatican II) closed in 1965, it became apparent that the Code would need to be revised in light of the documents and theology of Vatican II. After multiple drafts and many years of discussion, [[Pope John Paul II]] promulgated the revised [[1983 Code of Canon Law|Code of Canon Law (CIC) in 1983]]. Containing 1752 canons, it is the law currently binding on the Latin (Western) Roman Church.

The canon law of the Eastern Catholic Churches, which had developed some different disciplines and practices, underwent its own process of codification, resulting in the [[Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches]] promulgated in 1990 by [[Pope John Paul II]].

The institutions and practices of canon law paralleled the legal development of much of Europe, and consequently both modern [[Civil law (legal system)|Civil law]] and [[Common law]] bear the influences of canon law. Edson Luiz Sampel, a Brazilian expert in canon law, says that canon law is contained in the genesis of various institutes of civil law, such as the law in continental Europe and Latin American countries. Sampel explains that canon law has significant influence in contemporary society.

Currently, all Latin rite Catholic seminary students are expected to take a course in canon law (c. 252.3). Some ecclesiastical officials are required to have the doctorate ([[Doctor of Canon Law|JCD]]) or at least the licentiate ([[Licentiate of Canon Law|JCL]]) in canon law in order to fulfill their functions: Judicial Vicars (c. 1419.1), Judges (c. 1421.3), Promoters of Justice (c. 1435), Defenders of the Bond (c. 1435). In addition, [[Vicars General]] and Episcopal Vicars are to be doctors or at least licensed in canon law or theology (c. 478.1), and canonical advocates must either have the doctorate or be truly expert in canon law (c. 1483). Ordinarily, bishops are to have advanced degrees in sacred scripture, theology, or canon law (c. 378.1.5). St. [[Raymond of Penyafort]] (1175–1275), a Spanish Dominican priest, is the patron saint of canonists, due to his important contributions to the science of Canon Law.

====Orthodox Churches====
The Greek-speaking Orthodox have collected canons and commentaries upon them in a work known as the ''Pēdálion'' (Greek: Πηδάλιον, "Rudder"), so named because it is meant to "steer" the Church. The Orthodox Christian tradition in general treats its canons more as guidelines than as laws, the [[economy (Eastern Orthodox Church)|bishops adjusting them]] to cultural and other local circumstances. Some Orthodox canon scholars point out that, had the [[Ecumenical Councils]] (which deliberated in Greek) meant for the canons to be used as laws, they would have called them ''nómoi/νόμοι'' (laws) rather than ''kanónes/κανόνες'' (rules), but almost all Orthodox conform to them. The dogmatic decisions of the Councils, though, are to be obeyed rather than to be treated as guidelines, since they are essential for the Church's unity.

====Anglican Communion====
{{main|Canon law (Anglican Communion)}}
In the [[Church of England]], the [[ecclesiastical court]]s that formerly decided many matters such as disputes relating to marriage, divorce, wills, and defamation, still have jurisdiction of certain church-related matters (e.g., discipline of clergy, alteration of church property, and issues related to churchyards). Their separate status dates back to the 11th century when the [[Normans]] split them off from the mixed secular/religious county and local courts used by the Saxons. In contrast to the other [[court]]s of England, the law used in ecclesiastical matters is at least partially a [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]] system, not [[common law]], although heavily governed by parliamentary statutes. Since the [[English Reformation|Reformation]], ecclesiastical courts in England have been royal courts. The teaching of canon law at the universities of Oxford and Cambridge was abrogated by [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]]; thereafter practitioners in the [[ecclesiastical courts]] were trained in [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]], receiving a [[Doctor of Civil Law]] (D.C.L.) degree from Oxford, or an [[Doctor of Laws|LL.D.]] from Cambridge. Such lawyers (called "doctors" and "civilians") were centred at "[[Doctors' Commons|Doctors Commons]]", a few streets south of [[St Paul's Cathedral]] in [[London]], where they monopolized [[probate]], matrimonial, and [[Admiralty law|admiralty]] cases until their jurisdiction was removed to the [[common law]] courts in the mid-19th century. (Admiralty law was also based on civil law instead of common law, thus was handled by the civilians too.)

[[Charles I of England|Charles I]] repealed Canon Law in [[Scotland]] in 1638 after uprisings of [[Covenanter]]s confronting the Bishops of Aberdeen following the convention at [[Muchalls Castle]] and other revolts across Scotland earlier that year.

Other churches in the [[Anglican Communion]] around the world (e.g., the [[Episcopal Church in the United States]] and the [[Anglican Church of Canada]]) still function under their own private systems of canon law.

====Presbyterian and Reformed Churches====
{{main|Presbyterian polity}}
In Presbyterian and Reformed Churches, canon law is known as "practice and procedure" or "church order," and includes the church's laws respecting its government, discipline, legal practice and worship.

====Lutheranism====
The [[Book of Concord]] is the historic [[doctrinal statement]] of the [[Lutheranism|Lutheran Church]], consisting of ten [[creed|credal]] documents recognized as authoritative in [[Lutheranism]] since the 16th century.<ref>F. Bente, ed. and trans., ''Concordia Triglotta'', (St. Louis: [[Concordia Publishing House]], 1921), p. i</ref> However, the Book of Concord is a confessional document (stating orthodox belief) rather than a book of ecclesiastical rules or discipline, like canon law. Each Lutheran national church establishes its own system of church order and discipline, though these are not referred to as "canons".

====The United Methodist Church====
The [[Book of Discipline (United Methodist)|Book of Discipline]] contains the laws, rules, policies and guidelines for The United Methodist Church. It is revised every four years by the General Conference, the law-making body of The United Methodist Church; the last edition was published in 2016.<ref>[[Book of Discipline (United Methodist)]]</ref>

==Hinduism==
{{main|Hindu law}}{{See also|Dharmaśāstra}}
[[Hindu law]] term is colonial origin.It is derived from Hindu texts such as Vedas, Upanishads, Dharmashastras, Puranas, Itihasas, Dharmasutras, Grihya Sutras, Arthashastra, Niti Shastras

==Islam==
{{Further|Sharia|Fiqh|Application of Sharia by country }}
[[Image:Ibnhanbal.jpg|thumb|A manuscript of [[Ahmad ibn Hanbal|Ibn Hanbal's]] legal writings, produced October 879.]]
''[[Sharia]]'', also known as Islamic law ({{lang|ar|قانون إسلامي}} ''{{transl|ar|DIN|qānūn ʾIslāmī}})'', is the [[moral code]] and religious law of [[Islam]]. Sharia is derived from two primary [[sources of Islamic law|sources]], the [[precept]]s set forth in the [[Quran]] and the example set by the Islamic prophet [[Muhammad]] in the ''[[sunnah]]''. Islamic jurisprudence (''[[fiqh]]'') interprets and extends the application of sharia to questions not directly addressed in the [[primary sources]] (the Quran and the sunnah) by including [[secondary sources]]. These secondary sources usually include the consensus of the sahabah (companions of the prophet) and ''[[ulama]]'' (religious scholars) embodied in ''[[ijma]]'', as well as [[analogy]] from the Quran and ''sunnah'' through ''[[qiyas]]''. In the [[Maliki|Maliki school of law]] also, ''<nowiki/>'amal ahlil madinah'' (the practices of the people of Medina) is also included.

Muslims believe the ''sharia'' is [[God's law|Allah's law]], but they differ as to what exactly it entails.<ref>Otto, Jan Michiel (2008). p. 7. "When people refer to ''the'' sharia, they are in fact referring to ''their'' sharia, in the name of ''the'' eternal will of the Almighty God."</ref> Modernists, traditionalists and fundamentalists all hold different views of sharia, as do adherents to different schools of Islamic thought and scholarship. Different countries, societies and cultures have varying interpretations of sharia as well.

Sharia deals with many topics addressed by secular law, including [[Islamic criminal jurisprudence|crime]], [[Political aspects of Islam|politics]] and [[Islamic economic jurisprudence|economics]], as well as personal matters such as [[Islamic sexual jurisprudence|sexual intercourse]], [[Islamic hygienical jurisprudence|hygiene]], [[Islamic dietary laws|diet]], [[salat|prayer]], [[Islamic inheritance jurisprudence|inheritance]] and [[Sawm|fasting]]. Where it has official status, sharia is applied by Islamic judges, or [[qadis]]. The [[imam]] has varying responsibilities depending on the interpretation of sharia; while the term is commonly used to refer to the leader of communal prayers, the imam may also be a scholar, religious leader, or political leader.

The reintroduction of sharia is a longstanding goal for [[Islamist]] movements in Muslim countries. Some Muslim minorities in Asia (''e.g.'', in [[Islam in India|India]]) have maintained institutional recognition of sharia to adjudicate their personal and community affairs. In Western countries, where Muslim immigration is more recent, Muslim minorities have introduced sharia family law for use in their own disputes with varying degrees of success, e.g., Britain's [[Muslim Arbitration Tribunal]]. Attempts by Muslims to impose sharia on non-Muslims in countries with large Muslim populations have been accompanied by controversy,<ref>Hamann, Katie (December 29, 2009). [http://www1.voanews.com/english/news/religion/Acehs-Sharia-Law-Still-Controversial-in-Indonesia-80257482.html "Aceh's Sharia Law Still Controversial in Indonesia"]. [[Voice of America]]. Retrieved September 19, 2011.</ref><ref>Iijima, Masako (January 13, 2010). [https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE60D07420100114 "Islamic Police Tighten Grip on Indonesia's Aceh"]. Reuters. Retrieved September 18, 2011.</ref><ref>[http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2010/02/08/aceh-sharia-police-loved-and-hated.html "Aceh Sharia Police Loved and Hated"]. ''[[The Jakarta Post]]''.</ref> violence,<ref>Staff (January 3, 2003). [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/2632939.stm "Analysis: Nigeria's Sharia Split"]. [[BBC News]]. Retrieved September 19, 2011. "Thousands of people have been killed in fighting between Christians and Muslims following the introduction of sharia punishments in northern Nigerian states over the past three years".</ref><ref>Harnischfeger, Johannes (2008) p. 16. "When the Governor of Kaduna announced the introduction of Sharia, although non-Muslims form almost half of the population, violence erupted, leaving more than 1,000 people dead" (p. 189). "When a violent confrontation loomed in February 200?, because the strong Christian minority in Kaduna was unwilling to accept the proposed sharia law, the sultan and his delegation of 18 emirs went to see the governor and insisted on the passage of the bill."</ref><ref>Mshelizza, Ibrahim (July 28, 2009). [https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/fight-for-sharia-leaves-dozens-dead-in-nigeria-1763253.html "Fight for Sharia Leaves Dozens Dead in Nigeria – Islamic Militants Resisting Western Education Extend Their Campaign of Violence"]. ''[[The Independent]]''. Retrieved September 19, 2011.</ref><ref>[https://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/africa/nigeria/religous_violence.html "Nigeria in Transition: Recent Religious Tensions and Violence"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105223207/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/africa/nigeria/religous_violence.html }}. PBS.</ref><ref>Staff (December 28, 2010). [http://english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2010/01/201012314018187505.html "Timeline: Tensions in Nigeria – A Look at the Country's Bouts of Inter-Religious and Ethnic Clashes and Terror Attacks"]. [[Al Jazeera English]]. Retrieved September 19, 2011. "Thousands of people are killed in northern Nigeria as non-Muslims opposed to the introduction of sharia, or Islamic law, fight Muslims who demand its implementation in the northern state of Kaduna.".</ref><ref>Ibrahimova, Roza (July 27, 2009). [http://english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2009/07/2009727182749635965.html "Dozens Killed in Violence in Northern Nigeria"] (video (requires [[Adobe Flash]]; 00:01:49)). [[Al Jazeera English]]. Retrieved September 19, 2011. "The group Boko Haram, which wants to impose sharia (Islamic law) across the country, has attacked police stations and churches."</ref> and even warfare (cf. [[Second Sudanese Civil War#Civil War|Second Sudanese Civil War]]).<ref>''[http://countrystudies.us/sudan/63.htm Library of Congress Country Studies: Sudan:]''. "The factors that provoked the military coup, primarily the closely intertwined issues of Islamic law and of the civil war in the south, remained unresolved in 1991. The September 1983 implementation of the sharia throughout the country had been controversial and provoked widespread resistance in the predominantly non-Muslim south. ...Opposition to the sharia, especially to the application of hudud (sing., hadd), or Islamic penalties, such as the public amputation of hands for theft, was not confined to the south and had been a principal factor leading to the popular uprising of April 1985 that overthrew the government of Jaafar an Nimeiri."</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/sudan/facts.html|title=FRONTLINE/WORLD . Sudan - The Quick and the Terrible . Facts and Stats {{!}} PBS|website=www.pbs.org|access-date=2020-03-19}}</ref>

==Jainism==
{{main|Jain law}}{{See also|Jain ethical code}}
[[Jain law]] or Jaina law refers to the modern interpretation of ancient Jain Law that consists of rules for adoption, marriage, succession and death for the followers of [[Jainism]].<ref>{{citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GN6UAAAAMAAJ|title=Selections from the Jaina law|last1=Jain|first1=Champat Rai|year=2004|author-link=Champat Rai Jain| publisher= Jaina Vidyā Saṁsthāna|isbn=9788188677016}}</ref>

==Judaism==
{{main|Halakha}}
{{See also|Sanhedrin}}
''[[Halakha]]'' ({{lang-he|הלכה}}; literally "walking") is the collective body of [[rabbinic Judaism|rabbinic Jewish]] religious laws derived from the [[Torah|Written]] and [[Oral Torah]], including the [[Mishnah]], the halakhic [[Midrash]], the [[Talmud]], and its commentaries. After the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70)#Destruction of Jerusalem|destruction]] of the [[Second Temple]] by the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] in the year 70 during the [[First Jewish-Roman War]], the Oral Law was developed through intensive and expansive interpretations of the written Torah.

The ''halakhah'' has developed gradually through a variety of legal and quasi-legal mechanisms, including [[Judiciary|judicial]] decisions, [[legislation|legislative]] enactments, and [[customary law]]. The literature of questions to rabbis, and their considered answers, are referred to as [[Responsa#In Judaism|Responsa]]. Over time, as practices develop, codes of Jewish law were written based on Talmudic literature and Responsa. The most influential code, the [[Shulchan Aruch]], guides the religious practice of most [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] and some [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative Jews]].

According to rabbinic tradition there are [[613 mitzvot]] in the written Torah. The ''mitzvot'' in the Torah (also called the [[Law of Moses]]) pertain to nearly every aspect of human life. Some of these laws are directed only to men or to women, some only to the ancient priestly groups (the [[Kohen|Kohanim]] and [[Levite|Leviyim]]) members of the tribe of [[Levi]], some only to farmers within the [[Land of Israel]]. Some laws are only applicable when there is a [[Temple in Jerusalem]] (see [[Third Temple]]).

==Wicca==
{{see also|Wiccan Rede}}
The Wiccan Rede is a statement that provides the key moral system in the [[neopagan]] religion of [[Wicca]] and certain other related [[witchcraft]]-based faiths. A common form of the Rede is "An it harm none, do what ye will".{{Cite quote}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Religion|Law}}
* [[Doctrine and Covenants]]
* [[Ethics in religion]]
* [[Law and religion]], the interdisciplinary study of religion and law
* [[Lawsuits against God]]
* [[Morality and religion]]
* [[List of national legal systems]]
* [[Religious police]]
* [[Rule according to higher law]]
* [[Rule of law]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Norman Doe. ''Comparative Religious Law: Judaism, Christianity, Islam''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018.
* Buddhism and Law: An Introduction. Edited by Rebecca Redwood French and Mark A. Nathan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014. Pp. 407.- Volume 31. Issue 1.
* Ulanov, M.S., Badmaev, V.N., Holland, E.C. Buddhism and Kalmyk Secular Law in the Seventeenth to Nineteenth Centuries. ''Inner Asia'', 2017, no.19, pp. 297–314.

==External links==
*[http://www.jewfaq.org/613.htm#/ Judaism 101: A List of the 613 Mitzvot (Commandments)]

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[[Category:Religious law| ]]

Amisha Patel

2022-01-15T23:17:32Z

Icecreamand: Added a new release to the platform.

#REDIRECT [[Ameesha Patel]]
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