Bharatpedia - User contributions [en]

18th IIFA Awards

2023-09-21T06:20:46Z

Iamsszn:

{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2019}}
{{Infobox award
| name = 18th IIFA Awards
| image =
| caption =
| date = {{Start date|2017|07|14|df=y}}–<br />{{End date|2017|07|15|df=y}}
| site = [[MetLife Stadium]]<br>[[East Rutherford, New Jersey]], [[United States|USA]]
| host = {{Plainlist|
* [[Karan Johar]]
* [[Saif Ali Khan]]
}}
| producer = Wizcraft International
| director =
| best_picture =
| best_direction =
| best_direction_film =
| best_actor =
| best_actor_film =
| best_actress =
| best_actress_film =
| most_wins =
| most_nominations =
| channel =
| network = [[Colors TV]]
| duration =
| ratings =
| previous = [[17th IIFA Awards|17th]]
| next = [[19th IIFA Awards|19th]]
| main = [[International Indian Film Academy|IIFA Awards]]
| type =
|acts = {{Plainlist|
* [[A.R. Rahman]]
* [[Salman Khan]]
* [[Katrina Kaif]]
* [[Shahid Kapoor]]
* [[Kriti Sanon]]
* [[Sushant Singh Rajput]]
* [[Diljit Dosanjh]]
* [[Alia Bhatt]]
* [[Varun Dhawan]]<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/saif-ali-khan-and-karan-johar-to-host-the-international-indian-film-academy-awards-1712365 | title=Saif Ali Khan And Karan Johar To Host The International Indian Film Academy Awards | date=14 June 2017 | publisher=NDTV | first=Tishya | last=Misra | access-date=3 February 2019 }}</ref>
}}}}

The '''2017 IIFA Awards''', officially known as the '''18th International Indian Film Academy Awards''' ceremony, presented by the International Indian Film Academy honouring the [[Bollywood films of 2016|best Hindi films of 2016]], occurred in [[MetLife Stadium]] in [[East Rutherford, New Jersey]] on 14–15 July 2017. It was the first time that the awards held there and also IIFA returned to [[United States]] after [[15th IIFA Awards|2014]].<ref>{{cite news|title=IIFA 2017: Awards return to US, New York hosted its 18th edition in July|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/iifa-2017-awards-return-to-us-new-york-to-host-its-18th-edition-in-july-see-pic-4610792/|access-date=26 May 2017|work=The Indian Express|date=12 April 2017}}</ref><ref name="Firstpost">{{cite web|title=IIFA returns to US: New York to host 18th edition of Bollywood award show|url=http://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/iifa-returns-to-us-new-york-to-host-18th-edition-of-bollywood-award-show-3381236.html|website=Firstpost|access-date=26 May 2017|date=12 April 2017}}</ref>

''[[Ae Dil Hai Mushkil]]'' led the ceremony with 12 nominations, followed by ''[[M.S. Dhoni: The Untold Story]]'', [[Pink (2016 film)|''Pink'']] and ''[[Udta Punjab]]'' with 7 nominations each.

''Ae Dil Hai Mushkil'' won 7 awards, including [[IIFA Award for Best Music Director|Best Music Director]] (for [[Pritam]]), [[IIFA Award for Best Lyricist|Best Lyricist]] (for [[Amitabh Bhattacharya]] – "[[Channa Mereya]]") and [[IIFA Award for Best Male Playback|Best Male Playback Singer]] (for [[Amit Mishra (singer)|Amit Mishra]] – "Bulleya"), thus becoming the most-awarded film at the ceremony.

[[Alia Bhatt]] received dual nominations for [[IIFA Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]] for her performances in ''[[Dear Zindagi]]'' and ''Udta Punjab'', winning for the latter.

==Winners and Nominees==
Winners are listed first and highlighted in '''boldface.'''

[[File:Shahid Kapoor promoting Haider.jpg|alt=|thumb|120px|[[Shahid Kapoor]] — Best Actor winner]]
[[File:Alia Bhatt promoting Badrinath Ki Dulhania.jpg|alt=|thumb|120px|[[Alia Bhatt]] — Best Actress winner]]
[[File:AnupamKher4.jpg|alt=|thumb|120px|[[Anupam Kher]] — Best Supporting Actor winner]]
[[File:Shabana Azmi SFU honorary degree (cropped).jpg|alt=|thumb|199x199px|[[Shabana Azmi]] — Best Supporting Actress winner]]
`
{| class=wikitable style="width=150%"
|-
! style="background:#FFC1CC;" ! style="width=50%" | [[IIFA Award for Best Movie|Best Film]]
! style="background:#FFC1CC;" ! style="width=50%" | [[IIFA Award for Best Director|Best Director]]
|-
| valign="top" |
* '''''[[Neerja]]'''''
* ''[[Ae Dil Hai Mushkil ]]''
* ''[[M.S. Dhoni: The Untold Story]]''
* ''[[Pink (2016 film)|Pink]]''
* ''[[Sultan (2016 film)|Sultan]]''
* ''[[Udta Punjab]]''
| valign="top" |
* '''[[Aniruddha Roy Chowdhury]] – ''[[Pink (2016 film)|Pink]]'''''
* [[Abhishek Chaubey]] – ''[[Udta Punjab]]''
* [[Ali Abbas Zafar]] – ''[[Sultan (2016 film)|Sultan]]''
* [[Karan Johar]] – ''[[Ae Dil Hai Mushkil]]''
* [[Neeraj Pandey]] – ''[[M.S. Dhoni: The Untold Story]]''
* [[Ram Madhvani]] – ''[[Neerja]]''
|-
! style="background:#FFC1CC;" ! style="width=50%" | [[IIFA Award for Best Actor|Best Actor In A Leading Role]]
! style="background:#FFC1CC;" ! style="width=50%" | [[IIFA Award for Best Actress|Best Actress In A Leading Role]]
|-
| valign="top" |
* '''[[Shahid Kapoor]] – ''[[Udta Punjab]]'''''
* [[Amitabh Bachchan]] – ''[[Pink (2016 film)|Pink]]''
* [[Ranbir Kapoor]] – ''[[Ae Dil Hai Mushkil]]''
* [[Salman Khan]] – ''[[Sultan (2016 film)|Sultan]]''
* [[Shah Rukh Khan]] – ''[[Fan (film)|Fan]]''
* [[Sushant Singh Rajput]] – ''[[M.S. Dhoni: The Untold Story]]''
|valign="top" |
* '''[[Alia Bhatt]] – ''[[Udta Punjab]]'''''
* Alia Bhatt – ''[[Dear Zindagi]]''
* [[Anushka Sharma]] – ''[[Ae Dil Hai Mushkil]]''
* [[Sonam Kapoor]] – ''[[Neerja]]''
* [[Taapsee Pannu]] – ''[[Pink (2016 film)|Pink]]''
|-
! style="background:#FFC1CC;" ! style="width=50%" | [[IIFA Award for Best Supporting Actor|Best Actor In A Supporting Role]]
! style="background:#FFC1CC;" ! style="width=50%" | [[IIFA Award for Best Supporting Actress|Best Actress In A Supporting Role]]
|-
| valign="top" |
* '''[[Anupam Kher]] – ''[[M.S. Dhoni: The Untold Story]]'''''
* [[Amitabh Bachchan]] – ''[[Wazir (film)|Wazir]]''
* [[Rajkummar Rao]] – ''[[Aligarh (film)|Aligarh]]''
* [[Rajat Kapoor]] – ''[[Kapoor & Sons]]''
* [[Rishi Kapoor]] – ''Kapoor & Sons''
|valign="top" |
* '''[[Shabana Azmi]] – ''[[Neerja]]'''''
* Andrea Tariang – ''[[Pink (2016 film)|Pink]]'' as Andrea Tariang
* [[Disha Patani]] – ''[[M.S. Dhoni: The Untold Story]]''
* [[Kirti Kulhari]] – ''Pink'' as Falak Ali
* [[Ratna Pathak|Ratna Pathak Shah]] – ''[[Kapoor & Sons]]''
* [[Richa Chadda]] – ''[[Sarbjit (film)|Sarbjit]]''
|-
! style="background:#FFC1CC;" ! style="width=50%" | [[IIFA Award for Best Performance in a Comic Role|Best Performance in a Comic Role]]
! style="background:#FFC1CC;" ! style="width=50%" | [[IIFA Award for Best Performance in a Negative Role|Best Performance in a Negative Role]]
|-
| valign="top" |
* '''[[Varun Dhawan]] – ''[[Dishoom]]'''''
* [[Jimmy Shergill]] – ''[[Happy Bhag Jayegi]]''
* [[Rishi Kapoor]] – ''[[Kapoor & Sons]]''
* [[Shahid Kapoor]] – ''[[Udta Punjab]]''
|valign="top" |
* '''[[Jim Sarbh]] – ''[[Neerja]]'''''
* [[Akshaye Khanna]] – ''[[Dishoom]]''
* [[Neil Nitin Mukesh]] – ''[[Wazir (film)|Wazir]]''
* [[Shah Rukh Khan]] – ''[[Fan (film)|Fan]]''
|-
! style="background:#FFC1CC;" ! style="width=50%" | [[IIFA Award for Star Debut of the Year - Male|Best Debut Actor]]
! style="background:#FFC1CC;" ! style="width=50%" | [[IIFA Award for Star Debut of the Year - Female|Best Debut Actress]]
|-
| valign="top" |
* '''[[Diljit Dosanjh]] – ''[[Udta Punjab]]'''''
* [[Rohit Suresh Saraf]] – ''[[Dear Zindagi]]''
|valign="top" |
* '''[[Disha Patani]] – ''[[M.S. Dhoni: The Untold Story]]'''''
* [[Sayyesha]] – ''[[Shivaay]]''
|}

===Musical awards===
{| class=wikitable style="width="150%"
|-
! style="background:#FFC1CC;" ! style="width=50%" | [[IIFA Award for Best Music Director|Best Music Direction]]
! style="background:#FFC1CC;" ! style="width=50%" | [[IIFA Award for Best Lyricist|Best Lyrics]]
|-
| valign="top" |
* '''''[[Ae Dil Hai Mushkil]]'' – [[Pritam Chakraborty]]'''
* ''[[M.S. Dhoni: The Untold Story]]'' – [[Amaal Mallik]]
* ''[[Udta Punjab]]'' – [[Amit Trivedi]]
| valign="top" |
* '''[[Amitabh Bhattacharya]] – "[[Channa Mereya]]" – ''[[Ae Dil Hai Mushkil]]'''''
* [[Gulzar]] – "Aave Re Hitchki" – ''[[Mirzya (film)|Mirzya]]''
* Tanveer Ghazi – "Tu Chal" – ''[[Pink (2016 film)|Pink]]''

|-
! style="background:#FFC1CC;" ! style="width=50%" | [[IIFA Award for Best Male Playback|Best Male Playback Singer]]
! style="background:#FFC1CC;" ! style="width=50%" | [[IIFA Award for Best Female Playback|Best Female Playback Singer]]
|-
| valign="top" |
* '''[[Amit Mishra (singer)|Amit Mishra]] – "Bulleya" – ''[[Ae Dil Hai Mushkil]]'''''
* [[Armaan Malik]] – "Besabriyaan" – ''[[M.S. Dhoni: The Untold Story]]''
* [[Arijit Singh]] – "[[Channa Mereya]]" – ''Ae Dil Hai Mushkil''
* [[Diljit Dosanjh]] – "Ikk Kudi" – ''[[Udta Punjab]]''
| valign="top" |
* '''[[Tulsi Kumar]] – "[[Soch Na Sake]]" – ''[[Airlift (film)|Airlift]] &''''' '''[[Kanika Kapoor]] – "Da Da Dasse" – ''[[Udta Punjab]] (tie)'''''
* [[Neha Bhasin]] – "[[Jag Ghoomeya]]" – ''[[Sultan (2016 film)|Sultan]]''
|-
! style="background:#FFC1CC;" ! style="width=50%" | Best Sound Design
! style="background:#FFC1CC;" ! style="width=50%" | [[IIFA Award for Best Background Score|Best Background Score]]
|-
| valign="top" |
* '''''Pranav Shukla''' – '''[[Mirzya (film)|Mirzya]]'''''
| valign="top" |
* '''''[[Pritam]]''' – '''[[Ae Dil Hai Mushkil]]'''''
|}

===Technical awards===
<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://bollyworm.com/technical-winners-nexa-iifa-awards-2017/|title = And the technical winners of the NEXA IIFA Awards 2017 are|date = 26 May 2017}}</ref>

{| class=wikitable style="width=150%"
|-
! style="background:#FFC1CC;" ! style="width=50%" | [[IIFA Award for Best Action|Best Action]]
! style="background:#FFC1CC;" ! style="width=50%" | [[IIFA Award for Best Special Effects|Best Special Effects]]
|-
| valign="top" |
* '''''Larnell Stovall, Parvez Shaikh, `ANL` Arasu''' – '''[[Sultan (2016 film)|Sultan]]'''''
| valign="top" |
* '''''[[Red Chillies VFX]]''' – '''[[Fan (film)|Fan]]'''''
|-
! style="background:#FFC1CC;" ! style="width=50%" | [[IIFA Award for Best Choreography|Best Choreography]]
! style="background:#FFC1CC;" ! style="width=50%" | [[IIFA Award for Best Cinematography|Best Cinematography]]
|-
| valign="top" |
* '''''Adil Shaikh''' – '''[[Kapoor & Sons]]'''''
| valign="top" |
* '''''[[Anil Mehta]], ISC & WICA''' – '''[[Ae Dil Hai Mushkil]]'''''
|-
! style="background:#FFC1CC;" ! style="width=50%" | [[IIFA Award for Best Costume Design|Best Costume Design]]
! style="background:#FFC1CC;" ! style="width=50%" | [[IIFA Award for Best Dialogue|Best Dialogue]]
|-
| valign="top" |
* '''''[[Manish Malhotra]]''' – '''[[Ae Dil Hai Mushkil]]'''''
| valign="top" |
* '''''Ritesh Shah''' – '''[[Pink (2016 film)|Pink]]'''''
|-
! style="background:#FFC1CC;" ! style="width=50%" | [[IIFA Award for Best Editing|Best Editing]]
! style="background:#FFC1CC;" ! style="width=50%" | [[IIFA Award for Best Makeup|Best Makeup]]
|-
| valign="top" |
* '''''Bodhaditya Bandyopadhyay''' – '''[[Pink (2016 film)|Pink]]'''''
| valign="top" |
* '''''[[Greg Cannom]]''' – '''[[Fan (film)|Fan]]'''''
|-
! style="background:#FFC1CC;" ! style="width=50%" | Best Production Design
! style="background:#FFC1CC;" ! style="width=50%" | [[IIFA Award for Best Screenplay|Best Screenplay]]
|-
| valign="top" |
* '''''Aparna Sud & Anna Ipe''' – '''[[Neerja (film)|Neerja]]'''''
| valign="top" |
* '''''Ritesh Shah''' – '''[[Pink (2016 film)|Pink]]'''''
|-
! style="background:#FFC1CC;" ! style="width=50%" | Best Sound Mixing
! style="background:#FFC1CC;" ! style="width=50%" | [[IIFA Award for Best Sound Recording|Best Sound Recording]]
|-
| valign="top" |
* '''''Anuj Mathur ''''' – '''[[Sultan (2016 film)|''Sultan'']]'''
| valign="top" |
* '''''Shadab Rayeen''' – '''[[Ae Dil Hai Mushkil]]'''''
|-
! style="background:#FFC1CC;" ! style="width=50%" | [[IIFA Award for Best Story|Best Story]]
|-
| valign="top" |
* '''''Ayesha Devitre, [[Shakun Batra]]''' – '''[[Kapoor & Sons]]'''''
|}

===Special Awards===
{| class=wikitable style="width=150%"
|-
! style="background:#FFC1CC;" ! style="width=50%" | Woman of the Year
! style="background:#FFC1CC;" ! style="width=50%" | [[IIFA Award for Style Icon of the Year|Style Icon]]
|-
| valign="top" |
* '''[[Taapsee Pannu]]'''
| valign="top" |
* '''[[Alia Bhatt]]'''
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{official|http://www.iifa.com}}

{{IIFA Awards}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:2017 Iifa Awards}}
[[Category:2017 Indian film awards|IIfa Awards]]
[[Category:International Indian Film Academy Awards|*]]

Satadhar

2023-09-15T14:03:38Z

Iamsszn: Initiated a new article.

{{Short description|Religious place in Gujarat}}

'''Satadhar''' is a holy place in Visavadar, [[Gujarat]] dedicated to Saint Appa Giga from [[Visavadar]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Satadhar :: Official Website of Shree Satadhar Temple Shree Aapagiga Ni Jagya, Satadhar, Suarashtra, Gujarat, India |url=http://www.satadhar.com/ |access-date=2023-09-14 |website=www.satadhar.com}}</ref> It is believed that Appa Giga came to this place to work in 1800 A.D for people's welfare.<ref>{{Cite web |title=સતાધાર |url=https://www.divyabhaskar.co.in/amp/news/DHMD-UTLT-history-of-satadhar-temple-gujarati-news-5914257-PHO.html |access-date= |website=Divya Bhaskar}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Pravase |title=Sathadhar, Saint Shree AapaGiga, Social Activities {{!}}Pravase |url=https://pravase.co.in/thingstododetail/161/india/gujarat/junagadh/satadhar |access-date=2023-09-14 |website=pravase.co.in |language=en}}</ref> Every year, a fair is held here and many devotees visit here to get blessing.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gujarat (India) |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NygbAAAAIAAJ&q=%C2%A0+%C2%A0satadhar+fair&dq=%C2%A0+%C2%A0satadhar+fair&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiM3pyT9amBAxVAREEAHd9zAzMQ6AF6BAgKEAM#%C2%A0%20%C2%A0satadhar%20fair |title=Gujarat State Gazetteers: Junagadh District |publisher=Directorate of Government Print., Stationery and Publications, Gujarat State |language=en}}</ref>

== History ==
Before, Appa Giga came to this place, there was no food for the people as it did not rain in the place for 3 years. In [[1800 AD|1800 A.D]], Appa Giga established this Satadhar for the people's [[welfare]] and social activities as Serving Unknown people, [[Goshala|Gaushala]] taking care of the [[Cattle|Cows]]. Free foods, Shelters and clothing are provided to devotee and unknown people without any charge or donation since it started.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Satadhar, Aapa Giga, Satadhar Temple, Satadhar no pado, Satadhar History, Travel & History |url=https://www.travel-history.com/2021/06/satadhar-aapa-giga-satadhar-temple.html |access-date=2023-09-14}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Satadhar}}
[[Category:Hindu pilgrimage sites in India]]

{{Gujarat-geo-stub}}

Deepika Kumari (field hockey)

2023-09-08T18:47:44Z

Iamsszn:

'''Deepika Kumari''' (6 December 2003<ref name="hockeyindia"/>) is an [[Indian people|Indian]] field hockey player and member of [[India women's national field hockey team|Indian women's hockey team]]. She hails from Hisar, Haryana. She plays for [[Indian Oil Corporation Limited]] in the domestic hockey tournaments. She has ten caps as a Senior India player.<ref name="hockeyindia">{{Cite web |title=Deepika Profile |url=https://www.hockeyindia.org/players/deepika-profile-1541 |access-date=2023-09-07 |website=Hockey India |language=en}}</ref> She plays as a forward and specialises in drag-flicks.

== Early life ==
Deepika Kumari started as wrestler and used to practice along with her brother. One day in 2012, on way to wrestling practice she picked up a hockey stick for fun and soon it became her mainstay.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sportstar |first=Team |title=Deepika: Training under Rupinder at national camp will help me during Asian Games 2023 |url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/hockey/asian-games-2022-deepika-training-under-rupinder-national-camp-fih-junior-world-cup-india-gold-asia-cup-hangzhou/article67280339.ece |access-date=2023-09-07 |website=Sportstar |language=en}}</ref>

== Hockey career ==
Deepika made her Junior debut for the country in 2018 at the Youth Olympic Qualifiers in March 2018. Later she also took part in the Hockey women's Junior World Cup 2021 in Potchefstroom, South Africa and was part of the Indian team that won gold at the Women's Junior Asia Cup.<ref>{{Cite web |last=New |first=IANS |title=‘My father has had a few sleepless nights…’: Deepika opens up about her journey following selection in Indian squad for Asiad |url=https://bhaskarlive.in/my-father-has-had-a-few-sleepless-nights-deepika-opens-up-about-her-journey-following-selection-in-indian-squad-for-asiad/ |access-date=2023-09-07 |website=Bhaskar Live |language=en-US}}</ref> Deepika first came to limelight with a stellar performance in the 2018 Sub-Junior National Championships in her hometown Hisar, where she scored 16 goals for Haryana. Haryana went to win the Sun-Junior Nationals and Deepika was adjudged as the 'Best Player' of the tournament.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Staff |first=Scroll |title=Hockey Women’s Junior World Cup: All you need to know about the Indian team |url=https://scroll.in/field/1020894/hockey-womens-junior-world-cup-all-you-need-to-know-about-the-indian-team |access-date=2023-09-07 |website=Scroll.in |language=en-US}}</ref> Then she was called for the National camp and was selected for the Indian team for the Youth Olympic qualifier. She made her debut for Senior India in the FIH Pro League 2021-2022 held in Bhubaneswar, Odisha. In 2020, she was part of the Junior India women's tour of Chile where she played a key role in the Indian team's unbeaten run.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Indian hockey star Deepika: "We will do well in the Junior Asia Cup" |url=https://stick2hockey.com/indian-field-hockey-star-deepika-we-will-do-well-in-the-junior-asia-cup/ |access-date=2023-09-07 |website=Stick2Hockey |language=en-US}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kumari, Deepika}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:2003 births]]
[[Category:Indian field hockey players]]
[[Category:Field hockey players from Haryana]]

India at the World Para Athletics Championships 2023

2023-07-17T16:58:58Z

Iamsszn: Added a new entry to the collection.

#REDIRECT [[India at the 2023 World Para Athletics Championships]]

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Malvi Malhotra (Actor)

2023-07-12T11:47:55Z

Iamsszn: SabyasachiNag moved page Malvi Malhotra (Actor) to Malvi Malhotra: Make shorter (WP:CONCISE, WP:PRECISE)

#REDIRECT [[Malvi Malhotra]]

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Economic sanctions

2023-04-17T12:45:18Z

Iamsszn: Established an original page.

{{Short description|Financial penalties applied by nations}}
{{redirect|Embargo|other uses|Embargo (disambiguation)}}
{{trade bloc}}

'''Economic sanctions''' are [[Commerce|commercial]] and [[Finance|financial]] penalties applied by states or institutions against states, groups, or individuals.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news |last=Drezner |first=Daniel W. |title=The United States of Sanctions |language=en-US |work=Foreign Affairs |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/united-states/2021-08-24/united-states-sanctions |issn=0015-7120}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Citation |last=Biersteker |first=Thomas J. |title=The effectiveness of United Nations targeted sanctions |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/targeted-sanctions/effectiveness-of-united-nations-targeted-sanctions/553973997BF1A56B75D00FD4893ECD58 |work=Targeted Sanctions: The Impacts and Effectiveness of United Nations Action |pages=220–247 |editor-last=Tourinho |editor-first=Marcos |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-13421-8 |last2=Tourinho |first2=Marcos |last3=Eckert |first3=Sue E. |editor2-last=Eckert |editor2-first=Sue E. |editor3-last=Biersteker |editor3-first=Thomas J.}}</ref> Economic sanctions are a form of [[Coercion (international relations)|coercion]] that attempts to get an actor to change its behavior through disruption in economic exchange. Sanctions can be intended to [[Compellence|compel]] (an attempt to change an actor's behavior) or [[Deterrence theory|deterrence]] (an attempt to stop an actor from certain actions).<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Drezner |first=Daniel W. |title=The Hidden Hand of Economic Coercion |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3594840 |journal=International Organization |volume=57 |issue=3 |pages=643–659 |issn=0020-8183}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last=Pape |first=Robert A. |title=Why Economic Sanctions Do Not Work |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2539368 |journal=International Security |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=90–136 |doi=10.2307/2539368 |issn=0162-2889}}</ref>

Sanctions can target an entire country or they can be more narrowly targeted at individuals or groups; this latter form of sanctions are sometimes called "smart sanctions".<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |last=Drezner |first=Daniel W. |title=Sanctions Sometimes Smart: Targeted Sanctions in Theory and Practice |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23016144 |journal=International Studies Review |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=96–108 |issn=1521-9488}}</ref> Prominent forms of economic sanctions include [[trade barriers]], [[Asset freezing|asset freezes]], [[Travel ban|travel bans]], [[Arms embargo|arms embargoes]], and restrictions on [[financial transactions]].<ref>Haidar, J.I., 2015."[http://www.parisschoolofeconomics.eu/docs/haidar-jamal-ibrahim/sanctions.pdf Sanctions and Exports Deflection: Evidence from Iran]," Paris School of Economics, University of Paris 1 Pantheon Sorbonne, Mimeo</ref>

The efficacy of sanctions in achieving intended goals is the subject of debate.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":9" /> The humanitarian impact of country-wide sanctions have been a subject of controversy.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal |last=Drezner |first=Daniel W. |title=How not to sanction |url=https://academic.oup.com/ia/article/98/5/1533/6686647 |journal=International Affairs |language=en |volume=98 |issue=5 |pages=1533–1552 |doi=10.1093/ia/iiac065 |issn=0020-5850 |archive-url=https://humanrightscommission.house.gov/sites/humanrightscommission.house.gov/files/documents/How%20not%20to%20sanction%20Daniel%20Drezner.pdf |archive-date=2023}}</ref> As a consequence, since the mid-1990s, [[United Nations Security Council]] (UNSC) sanctions have tended to target individuals and entities, in contrast to the country-wide sanctions of earlier decades.<ref name="Giumelli 2015" />

== History of sanctions ==
One of the most comprehensive attempts at an embargo occurred during the [[Napoleonic Wars]] of 1803–1815. Aiming to cripple the [[United Kingdom]] economically, Emperor [[Napoleon I of France]] in 1806 promulgated the [[Continental System]]—which forbade [[European nations]] from trading with the UK. In practice the French Empire could not completely enforce the embargo, which proved as harmful (if not more so) to the continental nations involved as to the British.<ref>{{cite web |title=Continental System Napoleon British Embargo Napoleon's 1812 |url=http://www.economicexpert.com/a/Continental:policy.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710165750/http://www.economicexpert.com/a/Continental%3Apolicy.htm |archive-date=2011-07-10}}</ref>

=== World War I and the Interwar period ===
Sanctions in the form of blockades were prominent during [[World War I]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Mulder|first=Nicholas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kMhQEAAAQBAJ|title=The Economic Weapon: The Rise of Sanctions as a Tool of Modern War|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-26252-0|language=en}}</ref> Debates about implementing sanctions through international organizations, such as the [[League of Nations]], became prominent after the end of World War I.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Potter|first=Pitman B.|title=Sanctions and Guaranties in International Organization|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S000305540001950X/type/journal_article|journal=American Political Science Review|language=en|volume=16|issue=2|pages=297–303|doi=10.2307/1943965|issn=0003-0554|jstor=1943965|s2cid=143600305 }}</ref> Leaders saw sanctions as a viable alternative to war.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal |last=Morgan |first=T. Clifton |last2=Syropoulos |first2=Constantinos |last3=Yotov |first3=Yoto V. |title=Economic Sanctions: Evolution, Consequences, and Challenges |url=https://pubs.aeaweb.org/doi/10.1257/jep.37.1.3 |journal=Journal of Economic Perspectives |language=en |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=3–29 |doi=10.1257/jep.37.1.3 |issn=0895-3309}}</ref>

The League Covenant permitted the use of sanctions in five cases:<ref>{{Cite book |last=Buell |first=Raymond Leslie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PcBAAAAAIAAJ |title=International Relations |publisher=H. Holt |pages=564–565 |language=en}}</ref>

# When Article 10 of the League Covenant is violated
# In case of war or threat of war (Article 11)
# When a League member does not pay an [[arbitration award]] (Article 12)
# When a League member goes to war without submitting the dispute to the League Council or League Assembly (Articles 12–15)
# When a non-member goes to war against a League member (Article 17)

The [[Abyssinia Crisis]] in 1935 resulted in League sanctions against Mussolini's Italy under Article 16 of the Covenant. Oil supplies, however, were not stopped, nor the [[Suez Canal]] closed to Italy, and the conquest proceeded. The sanctions were lifted in 1936 and Italy left the League in 1937.<ref>Richard Pankhurst, "The Italo-Ethiopian War and League of Nations Sanctions, 1935-1936." ''Genève-Afrique/Geneva-Africa 13.2'' (1974): 5+.</ref><ref>George W. Baer, ''Test Case: Italy, Ethiopia, and the League of Nations'' (Hoover Institution Press, 1976).</ref><ref>Gaines Post, Jr, "The Machinery of British Policy in the Ethiopian Crisis." ''International History Review'' 1#4 (1979): 522–541.</ref><ref>G. Bruce Strang, "'The Worst of all Worlds:' Oil Sanctions and Italy's Invasion of Abyssinia, 1935–1936." ''Diplomacy and Statecraft'' 19.2 (2008): 210–235.</ref>

In the lead-up to the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the United States imposed severe trade restrictions on Japan to discourage further Japanese conquests in East Asia.<ref name=":11" />

=== From World War II onwards ===
After [[World War II]], the League was replaced by the more expansive [[United Nations]] (UN) in 1945. Throughout the Cold War, the use of sanctions increased gradually.<ref name=":11" /> After the end of the [[Cold War]], there was a major increase in economic sanctions.<ref name=":10" />

According to the Global Sanctions Data Base, there have been 1,325 sanctions in the period 1950–2022.<ref name=":11" />

== Politics of sanctions ==
Economic sanctions are used as a tool of [[foreign policy]] by many governments. Economic sanctions are usually imposed by a larger country upon a smaller country for one of two reasons: either the latter is a perceived threat to the security of the former nation or that country treats its citizens unfairly. They can be used as a coercive measure for achieving particular policy goals related to trade or for humanitarian violations. Economic sanctions are used as an alternative weapon instead of going to war to achieve desired outcomes.

The Global Sanctions Data Base categorizes nine objectives of sanctions: "changing policy, destabilizing regimes, resolving territorial conflicts, fighting terrorism, preventing war, ending war, restoring and promoting human rights, restoring and promoting democracy, and other objectives."<ref name=":11" />

===Effectiveness of economic sanctions===
According to a study by Neuenkirch and Neumeier, UN economic sanctions had a [[Statistical significance|statistically significant]] impact on targeted states by reducing their GDP growth by an average of 2.3%-3.5% per year—and more than 5% per year in the case of comprehensive UN embargoes—with the negative effects typically persisting for a period of ten years. By contrast, unilateral US sanctions had a considerably smaller impact on GDP growth, restricting it by 0.5%-0.9% per year, with an average duration of seven years.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Neuenkirch|first1=Matthias|last2=Neumeier|first2=Florian|title=The impact of UN and US economic sanctions on GDP growth|journal=European Journal of Political Economy|volume=40|pages=110–125|doi=10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2015.09.001|issn=0176-2680|url=http://www.fiw.ac.at/fileadmin/Documents/Publikationen/Working_Paper/N_138_NeuenkirchNeumeier.pdf}}</ref>

Imposing sanctions on an opponent also affects the economy of the imposing country to a degree. If import restrictions are promulgated, consumers in the imposing country may have restricted choices of goods. If export restrictions are imposed or if sanctions prohibit companies in the imposing country from trading with the target country, the imposing country may lose markets and investment opportunities to competing countries.<ref>{{cite web |last= Griswold |first= Daniel |url= http://www.cato.org/pub_display.php?pub_id=10888 |title= Going Alone on Economic Sanctions Hurts U.S. More than Foes |publisher= Cato.org |access-date= 2015-03-30 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110923164257/http://www.cato.org/pub_display.php?pub_id=10888 |archive-date= 2011-09-23 |url-status= dead }}</ref>

Hufbauer, Schott, and Elliot (2008) argue that [[regime change]] is the most frequent foreign-policy objective of economic sanctions, accounting for just over 39 percent of cases of their imposition.<ref>
{{cite book| last1 = Hufbauer| first1 = Gary Clyde| last2 = Schott| first2 = Jeffrey J.| last3 = Elliott| first3 = Kimberly Ann| last4 = Oegg| first4 = Barbara| title = Economic Sanctions Reconsidered| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=crSxDQAAQBAJ
| edition = 3| location = Washington, DC| publisher = Columbia University Press| date = 2008| page = 67| isbn = 9780881324822| access-date = 2018-05-10| quote = By far, regime change is the most frequent foreign policy objective of economic sanctions, accounting for 80 out of the 204 observations.}}</ref> Hufbauer ''et al.'' found that 34 percent of the cases studied were successful.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hufbauer |first1=Gary Clyde |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g-uzlJDD7DwC |title=Economic Sanctions Reconsidered |last2=Schott |first2=Jeffrey J. |last3=Elliott |first3=Kimberly Ann |last4=Oegg |first4=Barbara |publisher=Peterson Institute |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-88132-536-2 |pages=158 |language=en}}</ref> When [[Robert A. Pape]] examined their study, he found that only 5 of their reported 40 successes were actually effective,<ref>
{{cite journal| last1= Pape| first1 = Robert A| title= Why Economic Sanctions Still Do Not Work| jstor = 2539263| journal= International Security| date= Summer 1998| volume= 23| issue= 1| pages = 66–77| doi= 10.1162/isec.23.1.66| s2cid = 57565095| quote= I examined the 40 claimed successes and found that only 5 stand up. Eighteen were actually settled by either direct or indirect use of force; in 8 cases there is no evidence that the target state made the demanded concessions; 6 do not qualify as instances of economic sanctions, and 3 are indeterminate. If I am right, then sanctions have succeeded in only 5 of 115 attempts, and thus there is no sound basis for even qualified optimism about the effects of sanctions.}}</ref> reducing the success rate to 4%. In either case, the difficulty and unexpected nuances of measuring the actual success of sanctions in relation to their goals are both increasingly apparent and still under debate. In other words, it is difficult to determine ''why'' a regime or country changes (i.e., if it was the sanction or inherent instability) and doubly so to measure the full political effect of a given action.<ref>''A Strategic Understanding of UN Economic Sanctions: International Relations, Law, and Development'', Golnoosh Hakimdavar, p. 105</ref>

Offering an explanation as to why sanctions are still imposed even when they may be marginally effective, British diplomat [[Jeremy Greenstock]] suggests sanctions are popular not because they are known to be effective, but because "there is nothing else [to do] between words and military action if you want to bring pressure upon a government".<ref name="greenstock">
{{cite news|last= Marcus |first= Jonathan|url= https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-10742109|title= Analysis: Do economic sanctions work?|work= BBC News|access-date= 2015-03-30}}</ref> Critics of sanctions like Belgian jurist [[Marc Bossuyt]] argue that in nondemocratic regimes, the extent to which this affects political outcomes is contested, because by definition such regimes do not respond as strongly to the popular will.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Capdevila |first1=Gustavo |title=United Nations: US Riled by Economic Sanctions Report |url=https://www.iatp.org/news/united-nations-us-riled-by-economic-sanctions-report |publisher=Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy |access-date=20 June 2020 }}</ref>

A strong connection has been found between the effectiveness of sanctions and the size of veto players in a government. Veto players represent individual or collective actors whose agreement is required for a change of the status quo, for example parties in a coalition, or the legislature's check on presidential powers. When sanctions are imposed on a country, it can try to mitigate them by adjusting its economic policy. The size of the veto players determines how many constraints the government will face when trying to change status quo policies, and the larger the size of the veto players, the more difficult it is to find support for new policies, thus making the sanctions more effective.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Peksen|first1=Dursun|last2=Jeong|first2=Jin Mun|title=Domestic Institutional Constraints, Veto Players, and Sanction Effectiveness|journal=Journal of Conflict Resolution|volume=63|pages=194–217|doi=10.1177/0022002717728105|s2cid=158050636|via=Sage Journals}}</ref>

Francesco Giumelli writes that the "set of sanctions ... that many observers would be likely to consider the most persuasive (and effective)," namely UN sanctions against "[[central bank]] assets and [[sovereign wealth fund]]s," are "of all the types of measures applied ... the one least frequently used."<ref name="Giumelli 2015"/> Giumelli also distinguishes between sanctions against international terrorists, in which "the nature of the request is not as important as the constraining aspect," and sanctions imposed in connection with "post-conflict scenarios", which should "include flexible demands and the potential for adaptation if the situation changes".<ref name="Giumelli 2015"/>

Economic sanctions can be used for achieving domestic and international purposes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Whang |first1=Taehee |title=Playing to the Home Crowd? Symbolic Use of Economic Sanctions in ... |url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/bpl/isqu/2011/00000055/00000003/art00011 |journal=International Studies Quarterly |publisher=Ingentaconnect.com |volume=55 |issue=3 |pages=787–801 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2478.2011.00668.x |access-date=2015-03-30}}</ref>

===Criticism===
Sanctions have been criticized on humanitarian grounds, as they negatively impact a nation's economy and can also cause collateral damage on ordinary citizens. Peksen implies that sanctions can degenerate human rights in the target country.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Peksen|first=Dursen|title="Better or Worse?": The Effect of Economic Sanctions on Human Rights."|journal=Journal of Peace Research|volume= 46|pages=59–77|doi=10.1177/0022343308098404|s2cid=110505923}}</ref> Some [[Policy analysis|policy analysts]] believe imposing trade restrictions only serves to hurt ordinary people as opposed to government elites,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Habibzadeh |first1=Farrokh |title=Economic sanction: a weapon of mass destruction |journal=The Lancet |volume=392 |issue=10150 |pages=816–817 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31944-5 |pmid=30139528 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | url=https://philpapers.org/rec/MUESOM | title=Sanctions of Mass Destruction| journal=Foreign Affairs| year=1999| volume=78| issue=3| pages=43–53| last1=Mueller| first1=John| last2=Mueller| first2=Karl| doi=10.2307/20049279| jstor=20049279}}</ref><ref>[http://the-libertarian.co.uk/video-economic-sanctions-dont-work/] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227102536/http://the-libertarian.co.uk/video-economic-sanctions-dont-work/}}</ref><ref>[[Hans Köchler]] (ed.), [https://books.google.com/books?id=7lJbn-Lh1vIC Economic Sanctions and Development]. Vienna: International Progress Organization, 1997. {{ISBN|3-900704-17-1}}</ref> and others have likened the practice to [[siege]] warfare.<ref>{{cite journal| last1= Gordon| first1= Joy| title= Sanctions as siege warfare| journal= The Nation| date= 1999-04-04| volume= 268| issue= 11| pages= 18–22| issn= 0027-8378| url= https://www.thenation.com/article/sanctions-siege-warfare/ }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| last1= Vengeyi| first1= Obvious| title= Sanctions against Zimbabwe: A Comparison with Ancient Near Eastern Sieges| journal= Journal of Gleanings from Academic Outliers| date= 2015| volume= 4| issue= 1| pages= 69–87| url= https://www.academia.edu/28310267}}</ref> The [[United Nations Security Council]] (UNSC) has generally refrained from imposing comprehensive sanctions since the mid-1990s, in part due to the controversy over the efficacy and civilian harms attributed to the [[Sanctions against Iraq]].<ref name="Giumelli 2015"/>

Sanctions can have [[unintended consequences]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Yong Suk |year=2018 |title=Lee, Yong Suk, 2018. "International isolation and regional inequality: Evidence from sanctions on North Korea," Journal of Urban Economics |url=https://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/juecon/v103y2018icp34-51.html |journal=Journal of Urban Economics |volume=103 |issue=C |pages=34–51 |doi=10.1016/j.jue.2017.11.002 |s2cid=158561662}}</ref>

==Implications for businesses==
There is an importance, especially with relation to financial loss, for companies to be aware of embargoes that apply to their intended export or import destinations.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Do I need an export licence?|url=https://www.gov.uk/guidance/beginners-guide-to-export-controls|access-date=2021-03-05|website=GOV.UK|language=en}}</ref> Properly preparing products for trade, sometimes referred to as an embargo check, is a difficult and timely process for both importers and exporters.<ref>{{Cite web|title=SAP Help Portal|url=https://help.sap.com/viewer/bdb1d2fb216941a69f6300006343e977/11.0.16/en-US/4addab208f6f23aee10000000a42189c.html|access-date=2021-03-05|website=help.sap.com}}</ref>

There are many steps that must be taken to ensure that a [[List of legal entity types by country|business entity]] does not accrue unwanted fines, taxes, or other punitive measures.<ref>{{Cite web|title=US Trade Sanctions Are a Trap for the Unwary {{!}} Norton Rose Fulbright|url=https://www.projectfinance.law/publications/us-trade-sanctions-are-a-trap-for-the-unwary|access-date=2021-03-05|website=www.projectfinance.law|language=en}}</ref> Common examples of embargo checks include referencing embargo lists,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Office of Foreign Assets Control - Sanctions Programs and Information {{!}} U.S. Department of the Treasury|url=https://home.treasury.gov/policy-issues/office-of-foreign-assets-control-sanctions-programs-and-information|access-date=2021-03-05|website=home.treasury.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Perform Sanction, PEPs and Watchlist Verification w/ Lexis Diligence|url=https://www.lexisnexis.com/en-us/products/lexis-diligence/sanction-peps-and-watch-list-verification.page|access-date=2021-03-05|website=www.lexisnexis.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=SAP Help Portal|url=https://help.sap.com/viewer/5424e112323f4f8fa760fe742cde1a1c/6.17.17/en-US/f6eed353ca9f4408e10000000a174cb4.html|access-date=2021-03-05|website=help.sap.com}}</ref> cancelling transactions, and ensuring the validity of a trade entity.<ref>{{Cite web|title=World-Check KYC Screening & Due Diligence|url=https://www.refinitiv.com/en/products/world-check-kyc-screening|access-date=2021-03-05|website=www.refinitiv.com|language=en}}</ref>

This process can become very complicated, especially for countries with changing embargoes. Before better tools became available, many companies relied on spreadsheets and manual processes to keep track of compliance issues. Today, there are software based solutions that automatically handle sanctions and other complications with trade.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Export Control and Sanctions Compliance {{!}} About SAP|url=https://www.sap.com/about/agreements/export-statements.html|access-date=2021-03-05|website=SAP|language=English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Embargo Check|url=https://www.anasys.com/en/embargo-check/|access-date=2021-03-05|website=AnaSys a Bottomline Company|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Embargo Check|url=https://www.uniserv.com/en/solutions/data-quality-tools/embargo-check/|access-date=2021-03-05|website=Uniserv GmbH - Customer Data Experts.|language=en}}</ref>

==Examples==
[[File:GASOLINE SHORTAGE HIT THE STATE OF OREGON IN THE FALL OF 1973 BY MIDDAY GASOLINE WAS BECOMING UNAVAILABLE ALONG... - NARA - 555405.jpg|thumb|An undersupplied US gasoline station, closed during the oil embargo in 1973]]

===United States sanctions===
{{Main|United States sanctions}}

====US Embargo Act of 1807====
{{Main|Embargo Act of 1807}}
The United States [[Embargo of 1807]] involved a series of laws passed by the [[United States Congress|US Congress]] (1806–1808) during the second term of President [[Thomas Jefferson]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=2&psid=2986 | title = The Embargo of 1807 | author = University of Houston | publisher = digitalhistory.uh.edu | year = 2013 | author-link = University of Houston }}</ref> [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]] and [[First French Empire|France]] were engaged in the [[War of the Fourth Coalition]]; the US wanted to remain [[Neutral country|neutral]] and to trade with both sides, but both countries objected to American trade with the other.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www2.gcc.edu/dept/econ/ASSC/Papers2005/Embargo1807_Snyder.pdf | title= The Embargo of 1807 Grove City College Grove City, Pennsylvania | publisher= [[Grove City College]] | author1= Aaron Snyder | author2= Jeffrey Herbener | website= gcc.edu | date= December 15, 2004 | url-status= dead | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130517115213/http://www2.gcc.edu/dept/econ/ASSC/Papers2005/Embargo1807_Snyder.pdf | archive-date= 2013-05-17 }}</ref> American policy aimed to use the new laws to avoid war and to force both France and Britain to respect American rights.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.monticello.org/site/research-and-collections/embargo-1807 | title = Embargo of 1807 | publisher = monticello.org | date = April 8, 2013}}</ref> The embargo failed to achieve its aims, and Jefferson repealed the legislation in March 1809.

====US embargo of Cuba====
{{Main|United States embargo against Cuba}}
The United States embargo against Cuba began on March 14, 1958, during the overthrow of dictator [[Fulgencio Batista]] by [[Fidel Castro]] during the [[Cuban Revolution]]. At first, the embargo applied only to arms sales; however, it later expanded to include other imports, eventually extending to almost all trade on February 7, 1962.<ref>{{cite web | url= https://www.archives.gov/federal-register/codification/proclamations/03447.html | title = Proclamation 3447--Embargo on all trade with Cuba | author = National Archives and Records Administration | date = 15 August 2016 | publisher = archives.gov | author-link = National Archives and Records Administration }}</ref> Referred to by Cuba as ''"el bloqueo"'' (the blockade),<ref>{{cite news | url= https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/blogpost/post/cuba-trade-embargo-turns-50-still-no-rum-or-cigars-though-some-freedom-in-travel/2012/02/07/gIQAKaYfwQ_blog.html | title = Cuba trade embargo turns 50: Still no rum or cigars, though some freedom in travel | author = Elizabeth Flock | newspaper = washingtonpost.com | date = February 7, 2012}}</ref> the US embargo on Cuba remains {{asof|2022|lc=on}} one of the longest-standing embargoes in modern history.<ref>{{cite web | url= https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=15634914 | title = Officially Sanctioned: A Guide to the U.S. Blacklist | author = Eric Weiner | publisher = npr.org | date = October 15, 2007}}</ref> Few of the United States' allies embraced the embargo, and many have argued it has been ineffective in changing Cuban government behavior.<ref>{{cite magazine | url = https://www.forbes.com/sites/realspin/2013/01/16/its-time-for-the-u-s-to-end-its-senseless-embargo-of-cuba/ | title = It's Time For The U.S. To End Its Senseless Embargo Of Cuba | author1= Daniel Hanson | author2= Dayne Batten | author3= Harrison Ealey | magazine = forbes.com | date = January 16, 2013}}</ref> While taking some steps to allow limited economic exchanges with Cuba, American President [[Barack Obama]] nevertheless reaffirmed the policy in 2011, stating that without the granting of improved human rights and freedoms by Cuba's current government, the embargo remains "in the national interest of the United States".<ref>{{cite magazine | url = http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/09/obama-quietly-renews-us-embargo-cuba/42430/ | title = Obama Quietly Renews U.S. Embargo on Cuba | author = Uri Friedman | magazine = [[The Atlantic]] | date = September 13, 2011 | access-date = August 23, 2017 | archive-date = November 13, 2013 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131113220230/http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2011/09/obama-quietly-renews-us-embargo-cuba/42430/ | url-status = dead }}</ref>

==== Other countries ====
{{Main|United States sanctions against Iran|Humanitarian impacts of U.S. sanctions against Iran}}

=== Russian sanctions ===
[[Russia]] has been known to utilize economic sanctions to achieve its political goals. Russia's focus has been primarily on implementing sanctions against the pro-Western governments of [[Post-Soviet states|former Soviet Union states]]. The Kremlin's aim is particularly on states that aspire to join the [[European Union]] and [[NATO]], such as [[Ukraine]], [[Moldova]], and [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]].<ref name=":7">{{Cite book|title=The Kremlin Playbook: Understanding Russian influence in Central and Eastern Europe : a report of the CSIS Europe Program and the CSD Economics Program|last=A.|first=Conley, Heather|others=Mina, James, Stefanov, Ruslan, Vladimirov, Martin, [[Center for Strategic and International Studies]] (Washington, D.C.), Center for the Study of Democracy (Bulgaria)|isbn=9781442279582|location=Washington, DC|oclc=969727837|year = 2016}}</ref> Russia has enacted a law, the [[Dima Yakovlev Law]], that defines sanctions against US citizens involved in "violations of the human rights and freedoms of Russian citizens". It lists US citizens who are banned from entering Russia.<ref name="kremlin_law_descr">[http://eng.kremlin.ru/acts/4810 A law on sanctions for individuals violating fundamental human rights and freedoms of Russian citizens has been signed] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130102005952/http://eng.kremlin.ru/acts/4810}} // Kremlin.ru, 28 December 2012.</ref>

==== Russia sanctions on Ukraine ====
{{Main|Russian sanctions against Ukraine}}
[[Viktor Yushchenko]], the third president of Ukraine who was elected in 2004, lobbied during his term to gain admission to NATO and the [[Ukraine–European Union relations|EU]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Newnham|first=Randall|title=Pipeline Politics: Russian Energy Sanctions and the 2010 Ukrainian Elections|journal=[[Journal of Eurasian Studies]]|volume=4|issue=2|pages=115–122|doi=10.1016/j.euras.2013.03.001|doi-access=free}}</ref> Soon after Yushchenko entered office, Russia demanded [[Kyiv]] pay the same rate that it charged [[Western Europe]]an states. This quadrupled Ukraine's energy bill overnight.<ref name=":2" /> Russia subsequently cut off the supply of [[Natural gas in Russia|natural gas]] in 2006, causing significant harm to the [[Economy of Ukraine|Ukrainian]] and [[Economy of Russia|Russian economies]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.worldpress.org/Europe/3307.cfm|title=Russia-Ukraine 'Gas War' Damages Both Economies - Worldpress.org|website=www.worldpress.org|language=en|access-date=2017-10-27}}</ref> As the Ukrainian economy began to struggle, Yushchenko's approval ratings dropped significantly; reaching the single digits by the [[2010 Ukrainian presidential election|2010 election]]; [[Viktor Yanukovych]], who was more supportive of Moscow won the election in 2010 to become the fourth president of Ukraine. After his election, gas prices were reduced substantially.<ref name=":2" />

==== Russian sanctions on Georgia ====
The [[Rose Revolution]] in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] brought [[Mikheil Saakashvili]] to power as the third president of the country. Saakashvili wanted to bring Georgia into NATO and the EU and was a strong supporter of the US-led war in [[Iraq]] and [[Afghanistan]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Newnham|first=Randall E.|title=Georgia on my mind? Russian sanctions and the end of the 'Rose Revolution'|journal=Journal of Eurasian Studies|volume=6|issue=2|pages=161–170|doi=10.1016/j.euras.2015.03.008|year=2015|doi-access=free}}</ref> Russia would soon implement a number of different sanctions on Georgia, including natural gas price raises through [[Gazprom]] and wider trade sanctions that impacted the Georgian economy, particularly Georgian exports of wine, citrus fruits, and mineral water. In 2006, Russia banned all imports from Georgia which was able to deal a significant blow to the [[Economy of Georgia (country)|Georgian economy]].<ref name=":3" /> Russia also expelled nearly 2,300 Georgians who worked within its borders.<ref name=":3"/>

===United Nations sanctions===
The United Nations issues sanctions by consent of the [[United Nations Security Council]] (UNSC) and/or [[United Nations General Assembly|General Assembly]] in response to major international events, receiving authority to do so under Article 41 of Chapter VII of the [[United Nations Charter]].<ref name="UN Sanctions">{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=53850#.WfNxURNSyRt|title=UN News - UN sanctions: what they are, how they work, and who uses them|last=Section|first=United Nations News Service|website=UN News Service Section|language=en|access-date=2017-10-27}}</ref> The nature of these sanctions may vary, and include financial, trade, or weaponry restrictions. Motivations can also vary, ranging from humanitarian and environmental concerns<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=37755#.WfNxyxNSyRt|title=UN News - New UN project uses financial incentives to try to save the dugong|last=Section|first=United Nations News Service|website=UN News Service Section|language=en|access-date=2017-10-27}}</ref> to efforts to halt [[nuclear proliferation]]. Over two dozen sanctions measures have been implemented by the United Nations since its founding in 1945.<ref name ="UN Sanctions"/>

Most UNSC sanctions since the mid-1990s have targeted individuals and entities rather than entire governments, a change from the comprehensive trade sanctions of earlier decades. For example, the UNSC maintains lists of individuals indicted for crimes or linked to international terrorism, which raises novel legal questions regarding [[due process]]. According to a dataset covering the years 1991 to 2013, 95% of UNSC sanction regimes included "sectoral bans" on aviation and/or the import (or export) of arms or raw materials, 75% included "individual/group" sanctions such as [[Asset freezing|asset freezes]] or restrictions on travel, and just 10% targeted national finances or included measures against [[central bank]]s, [[sovereign wealth fund]]s, or foreign investment. The most frequently used UNSC sanction documented in the dataset is an embargo against imported weapons, which applied in 87% of all cases and was directed against non-state actors more often than against governments. Targeted sanctions regimes may contain hundreds of names, a handful, or none at all.<ref name="Giumelli 2015">{{cite journal|last=Giumelli|first=Francesco|title=Understanding United Nations targeted sanctions: an empirical analysis|journal=[[International Affairs (journal)|International Affairs]]|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|volume=91|issue=6|pages=1351–1368|doi=10.1111/1468-2346.12448|url=https://research.rug.nl/en/publications/f97592f6-c863-44ac-b416-822e339f296e}}</ref>

==== Sanctions on Somalia, 1992 ====
{{Main|United Nations arms embargo on Somalia}}
The UN implemented sanctions against Somalia beginning in April 1992, after the overthrow of the [[Siad Barre]] regime in 1991 during the [[Somali Civil War]]. UNSC [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 751|Resolution 751]] forbade members to sell, finance, or transfer any military equipment to Somalia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/sc/suborg/en/sanctions/751|title=Security Council Committee pursuant to resolutions 751 (1992) and 1907 (2009) concerning Somalia and Eritrea|website=www.un.org|language=en|access-date=2017-10-27}}</ref>

==== Sanctions on North Korea, 2006 ====
{{Main|Sanctions against North Korea}}
The UNSC passed Resolution 1718 in 2006 in response to a nuclear test that the [[North Korea|Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK)]] conducted in violation of the Treaty on Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons. The resolution banned the sale of military and luxury goods and froze government assets.<ref>{{Cite web |url= http://www.nti.org/learn/countries/north-korea/nuclear/ |title= North Korea {{!}} Countries |website= www.nti.org |access-date= 2017-10-27}}</ref> Since then, the UN has passed multiple resolutions subsequently expanding sanctions on North Korea. Resolution 2270 from 2016 placed restrictions on transport personnel and vehicles employed by North Korea while also restricting the sale of natural resources and fuel for aircraft.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/press/en/2016/sc12267.doc.htm|title=Security Council Imposes Fresh Sanctions on Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Unanimously Adopting Resolution 2270 (2016) {{!}} Meetings Coverage and Press Releases|website=www.un.org|language=en|access-date=2017-10-27}}</ref>

The efficacy of such sanctions has been questioned in light of continued nuclear tests by North Korea in the decade following the 2006 resolution. Professor William Brown of [[Georgetown University]] argued that "sanctions don't have much of an impact on an economy that has been essentially bankrupt for a generation".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2016/09/09/why-did-sanctions-fail-against-north-korea/|title=Why Did Sanctions Fail Against North Korea?|website=Foreign Policy|access-date=2017-10-27}}</ref>

==== Sanctions on Libya ====
On February 26, 2011, the UNSC issued an arms embargo against the Libya through [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973|Security Council Resolution 1970]] in response to humanitarian abuses occurring in the [[Libyan Civil War (2011)|First Libyan Civil War]].<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=https://www.sipri.org/databases/embargoes/un_arms_embargoes/libya/libya_2011|title=UN Arms embargo on Libya |website=www.sipri.org|language=en|access-date=2017-12-06}}</ref> The embargo was later extended to mid-2018. Under the embargo, Libya has suffered severe inflation because of increased dependence on the private sector to import goods.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:5OWm-M45pHgJ:graduateinstitute.ch/files/live/sites/iheid/files/sites/internationalgovernance/shared/PSIG_images/Sanctions/Templates/Libya%2520I%2520Template.doc+&cd=5&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us&client=safari|title=Evaluating the Impacts and Effectiveness of Targeted Sanctions|website=webcache.googleusercontent.com|access-date=2017-12-07}}</ref> The sanctions caused large cuts to health and education, which caused social conditions to decrease. Even though the sanctions were in response to human rights, their effects were limited.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.unicefinemergencies.com/downloads/eresource/docs/Sanctions/2011-06-21%20Literature%20Review%20on%20the%20Effects%20of%20Targeted%20Sanctions.docx|title=webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:Cw9j0nFWr-8J:www.unicefinemergencies.com/downloads/eresource/docs/Sanctions/2011-06-21%2520Literature%2520Review%2520on%2520the%2520Effects%2520of%2520Targeted%2520Sanctions.docx+&cd=5&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us&client=safari|last=UNICEF|website=webcache.googleusercontent.com|access-date=2017-12-07|archive-date=2019-05-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190504113351/http://www.unicefinemergencies.com/downloads/eresource/docs/Sanctions/2011-06-21%20Literature%20Review%20on%20the%20Effects%20of%20Targeted%20Sanctions.docx|url-status=dead}}</ref>

====Sanctions on apartheid South Africa====
{{Main|International sanctions during apartheid}}
In effort to punish [[South Africa]] for its policies of [[apartheid]], the [[United Nations General Assembly]] adopted a voluntary international oil-embargo against South Africa on November 20, 1987; that embargo had the support of 130 countries.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://richardknight.homestead.com/files/oilembargo.htm|title= Oil Embargo against Apartheid South Africa on richardknight.com}}</ref> South Africa, in response, expanded its [[Sasol]] production of [[synthetic crude]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Murphy|first=Caryle|title=To Cope With Embargoes, S. Africa Converts Coal Into Oil|language=en-US|newspaper=Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1979/04/27/to-cope-with-embargoes-s-africa-converts-coal-into-oil/cd39adab-5084-4e46-a28f-79de2896f75e/|access-date=2020-12-12|issn=0190-8286}}</ref>

All United Nations sanctions on South Africa ended over the [[Negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa|Negotiations to end Apartheid]], [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 919|Resolution 919]] and the [[1994 South African election]]s, in which [[Nelson Mandela]] was elected as the first post-Apartheid president.

===Other multilateral sanctions===
The United States, [[Great Britain|Britain]], the [[Republic of China (1912-49)|Republic of China]] and the [[Netherlands]] imposed [[sanctions against Japan]] in 1940–1941 in response to its [[expansionism]]. Deprived of access to vital oil, iron-ore and steel supplies, Japan started planning for military action to [[Dutch East Indies campaign|seize the resource-rich Dutch East Indies]], which required a preemptive [[attack on Pearl Harbor]], triggering the American entry into the [[Pacific War]].<ref>
{{cite web|url= http://history.navy.mil/photos/events/wwii-pac/pearlhbr/pearlhbr.htm|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20001206155000/http://history.navy.mil/photos/events/wwii-pac/pearlhbr/pearlhbr.htm|url-status= dead|archive-date= 6 December 2000|title= Pearl Harbor Raid, 7 December 1941|publisher= Department of the Navy -- Naval Historical Center|access-date= 20 July 2019|location= Washington|quote= The 7 December 1941 Japanese raid on Pearl Harbor was one of the great defining moments in history. A single carefully-planned and well-executed stroke removed the United States Navy's battleship force as a possible threat to the Japanese Empire's southward expansion. [...] The Japanese military, deeply engaged in the seemingly endless war it had started against China in mid-1937, badly needed oil and other raw materials. Commercial access to these was gradually curtailed as the conquests continued. In July 1941 the Western powers effectively halted trade with Japan. From then on, as the desperate Japanese schemed to seize the oil and mineral-rich East Indies and Southeast Asia, a Pacific war was virtually inevitable.}}</ref>

In 1973–1974, [[OAPEC]] instigated the [[1973 oil crisis]] through its [[oil embargo]] against the United States and other industrialized nations that supported [[Israel]] in the [[Yom Kippur War]]. The results included a sharp rise in [[Price of oil|oil prices]] and in [[OPEC]] revenues, an emergency period of [[energy rationing]], a [[1973–75 recession|global economic recession]], large-scale [[Energy conservation|conservation]] efforts, and long-lasting shifts toward [[natural gas]], [[ethanol fuel|ethanol]], [[nuclear power|nuclear]] and other [[alternative energy]] sources.<ref>{{cite book | first= Leonardo | last= Maugeri | title= The Age of Oil | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=JWmx5uKA6gIC | date= 2006 | publisher= Greenwood Publishing Group | pages= 112–116 |isbn= 9780275990084 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url= http://www.history.com/topics/energy-crisis | title= Energy Crisis (1970s) | publisher= [[The History Channel]] | date= 2010}}</ref> Israel continued to receive Western support, however.

==Current sanctions==
{{incomplete list}}

===By targeted country===
List of sanctioned countries (the below is not an exhaustive list):<ref>{{cite web | url=https://sanctio.com/en | title=Sanctions risk by countries }}</ref>
*[[Sanctions against Afghanistan|Afghanistan sanctions]] by the US<ref>{{cite news |title=Biden administration freezes billions of dollars in Afghan reserves, depriving Taliban of cash |newspaper=The Washington Post |url=http://washingtonpost.com/us-policy/2021/08/17/treasury-taliban-money-afghanistan/}}</ref>
*China by the EU and the US. Sanctions made on [[arms embargo]], enacted in response to the [[Tiananmen Square protests of 1989]]<ref>{{cite magazine | url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1961947,00.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100213160426/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1961947,00.html | url-status=dead | archive-date=February 13, 2010 | title =Should Europe Lift Its Arms Embargo on China? | author =Leo Cendrowicz | magazine =[[Time (magazine)|Time]] | date =February 10, 2010}}</ref>
**[[European Union arms embargo on the People's Republic of China]]
** [[Executive Order 13936|Hong Kong]], enacted in response to the [[National Security Law of the People's Republic of China|National Security Law]]
*[[United States embargo against Cuba|Cuban embargoes by the US]]. It covers arms, consumer goods and financial assets, enacted in 1958<ref>{{Cite web |title=United States embargo against Cuba - History |url=https://worldbulletin.dunyabulteni.net/history/united-states-embargo-against-cuba-history-h184385.html |url-status=live |access-date=2022-06-16 |website= |language=}}</ref>
*EU, US, Australia, Canada and Norway by Russia since August 2014 on beef, pork, fruit and vegetable produce, poultry, fish, cheese, milk and dairy items.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.dw.de/russia-announces-full-embargo-on-most-food-from-us-eu/a-17838717 | work=Deutsche Welle | title=Russia announces 'full embargo' on most food from US, EU | date=7 August 2014}}</ref> On August 13, 2015, the embargo was expanded to include [[Albania]], [[Montenegro]], [[Iceland]], and [[Liechtenstein]]<ref name="Russian embargo expansion">{{cite news|title=Russia expands food imports embargo to non-EU states|url=http://english.irib.ir/news/world/europe/item/214154-russia-expands-food-imports-embargo-to-non-eu-states|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210228155419/http://english.irib.ir/news/world/europe/item/214154-russia-expands-food-imports-embargo-to-non-eu-states|url-status=dead|archive-date=28 February 2021|access-date=10 November 2015|work=English Radio}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-33905340|title=Russia expands food import ban|work=BBC News|access-date=2018-06-17}}</ref>
*Gaza Strip by Israel since 2001, under arms blockade since 2007 due to the large number of illicit arms traffic used to wage war
*Indonesia by Australia on live cattle due to the alleged cruel slaughter methods in Indonesia<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-13692211|title=Australia bans all live cattle exports to Indonesia|work=BBC News|access-date=2 January 2016}}</ref>{{Clarify|reason=is this still in force? cant find any source on it yet}}
* [[Sanctions against Iran|Iran sanctions]] by the US and its allies, notably by barring nuclear, missile and many military exports to Iran and target investments in: oil, gas and petrochemicals, exports of refined petroleum products, banks, insurance, financial institutions, and shipping.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/sanctions/Programs/Documents/iran.pdf | title =What You Need To Know About U.S. Economic Sanctions | author =United States Department of the Treasury | publisher =treasury.gov| author-link =United States Department of the Treasury }}</ref> Enacted 1979, increased through the following years and reached its tightest point in 2010.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.cnn.com/2012/01/23/world/meast/iran-sanctions-facts | title =A summary of sanctions against Iran | author =Josh Levs | publisher =cnn.com | date =January 23, 2012}}</ref> In April 2019 the US threatened to sanction countries that continued to [[List of countries by proven oil reserves|buy oil from Iran]] after an initial six-month waiver announced in November 2018 had expired.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-iran-oil/u-s-to-end-all-waivers-on-imports-of-iranian-oil-crude-price-jumps-idUSKCN1RX0R1|title=U.S. to end all waivers on imports of Iranian oil, crude price jumps|last1=Wroughton|first1=Lesley|work=Reuters}}</ref> According to the BBC, [[United States sanctions against Iran|US sanctions against Iran]] "have led to a sharp downturn in Iran's economy, pushing the value of its currency to record lows, quadrupling its annual inflation rate, driving away foreign investors, and triggering protests".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-48011496|title=Iran oil: US to end sanctions exemptions for major importers|work=BBC News}}</ref> These sanctions have taken a toll on [[Humanitarian impacts of U.S. sanctions against Iran|humanitarian concerns]].
* Mali by the [[United Nations Security Council|UNSC]] in relation to the spiraling security situation and hostilities in breach of the Agreement on Peace and Reconciliation in 2017<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mali sanctions regime |url=https://www.dfat.gov.au/international-relations/security/sanctions/sanctions-regimes/Pages/mali-sanctions-regime |access-date=2022-06-16 |website=Australian Government Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Sanctions against Burma|Myanmar sanctions]] by the EU. Sanctions were imposed against Myanmar due to the worsening state of [[democracy]] and [[Human rights in Burma|human rights infringements]]<ref>Howse, Robert L. and Genser, Jared M. (2008) [http://students.law.umich.edu/mjil/article-pdfs/v29n2-howse-genser.pdf "Are EU Trade Oh hell no on Burma Compatible with WTO Law?"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100607153959/http://students.law.umich.edu/mjil/article-pdfs/v29n2-howse-genser.pdf }} ''Michigan Journal of International Law'' 29(2): pp. 165–96</ref>
* Nicaragua by the UK. Sanctions imposed in 2020 to push the government to respect democratic principles and legal institutions<ref>{{Cite web |title=Financial sanctions, Nicaragua |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/financial-sanctions-nicaragua |access-date=2022-06-16 |website=GOV.UK |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Sanctions against North Korea|North Korean sanctions]]:
**international sanctions imposed on North Korea since the [[Korean War]] of 1950–1953 eased under the [[Sunshine Policy]] of [[President of South Korea|South Korean President]] [[Kim Dae Jung]] and of [[President of the United States|US President]] [[Bill Clinton]].<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/202/42450.html |title= Clinton Ends Most N. Korea Sanctions |publisher= Globalpolicy.org |access-date= 2015-03-30}}</ref> but tightened again in 2010<ref>[http://www.nguoi-viet.com/absolutenm/anmviewer.asp?a=116316&z=5] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100723132200/http://www.nguoi-viet.com/absolutenm/anmviewer.asp?a=116316&z=5}}</ref>
**by the UN, US and EU on luxury goods (and arms) enacted 2006<ref>{{cite web |title=Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea) |url=http://www.berr.gov.uk/whatwedo/europeandtrade/strategic-export-control/sanctions-embargoes/by-country/democratic%20people%20republic%20of%20korea/index.html |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20090609003228/http://www.berr.gov.uk/whatwedo/europeandtrade/strategic-export-control/sanctions-embargoes/by-country/democratic%20people%20republic%20of%20korea/index.html |archive-date=9 June 2009 |access-date=8 March 2016 |publisher=Department for Business Innovation and Skills}}</ref>
**[[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1718]] (2006) – a reaction to the DPRK's claim of a nuclear test
*[[Sanctions against Russia|Russian sanctions]]:
** by the US. On 2 August 2017, President [[Donald Trump]] signed into law the [[Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act]] that grouped together sanctions against [[Russia]], [[Iran]] and [[North Korea]]<ref>"[https://www.washingtonpost.com/powerpost/senate-overwhelmingly-passes-new-russia-and-iran-sanctions/2017/06/15/df9afc2a-51d8-11e7-91eb-9611861a988f_story.html Senate overwhelmingly passes new Russia and Iran sanctions]". ''The Washington Post''. 15 June 2017.</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-iran-nuclear-usa-sanctions-idUSKBN1AI2N0|title=Iran says new U.S. sanctions violate nuclear deal, vows 'proportional reaction' |first=Reuters|last=Editorial|newspaper=Reuters }}</ref>
** by the EU. In March 2021, [[Reuters]] reported that the EU has placed immediate sanctions on both [[Chechnya]] and [[Russia]]—due to ongoing government sponsored and backed violence against [[LGBT community|LGBTIQ+]] individuals<ref>{{Cite news |title=EU sanctions Russians over rights abuses in Chechnya |newspaper=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-eu-russia-rights-idUSKBN2BE20O}}</ref>
** [[International sanctions during the Russo-Ukrainian War|international sanctions]] were also implemented in response to the [[Russo-Ukrainian War]] that started in 2014
** [[International sanctions during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine|international sanctions]] during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine
* [[United Nations arms embargo on Somalia|Somalian arms embargo]] by the UN<ref name="SIPRI">{{cite web |title=UN arms embargo on Somalia |url=https://www.sipri.org/databases/embargoes/un_arms_embargoes/somalia |publisher=SIPRI}}</ref> and sanctions by the UK<ref>{{Cite web |title=UK sanctions relating to Somalia |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/uk-sanctions-on-somalia |access-date=2022-06-27 |website=GOV.UK |language=en}}</ref>
*Sudan by the US in 1997<ref>{{Cite web |title=U.S. Imposes New Sanctions on Sudan - Sudan {{!}} ReliefWeb |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/sudan/us-imposes-new-sanctions-sudan |access-date=2022-06-07 |website=reliefweb.int |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Treasury Department's Office of Foreign Asset Control (OFAC) |url=https://www.wm.edu/offices/techtransfer/ExportControls/Regulations/OFAC/index.php#:~:text=Currently,%20sanctioned%20countries%20include%20the,Sudan,%20Syria,%20and%20Zimbabwe. |access-date=2022-06-27 |website=William & Mary |language=en}}</ref>
*[[Sanctions against Syria|Syrian sanctions]] by the EU and the US on arms and imports of oil<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-15753975 | work=BBC News | title=Syria sanctions | date=27 November 2011}}</ref>
*[[Embargo against Northern Cyprus|Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus embargo]] by the UN on consumer goods, enacted since 1994<ref name="talmon">{{cite journal |last1=Talmon |first1=Stefan |title=The Cyprus Question before the European Court of Justice |url=http://ejil.oxfordjournals.org/content/12/4/727.short |journal=European Journal of International Law |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=727–750 |doi=10.1093/ejil/12.4.727 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
*[[International sanctions during the Venezuelan crisis|Venezuelan sanctions]] by the US and its allies since 2015.<ref name="TIME">{{cite magazine|author=Rhodan, Maya|title= White House sanctions seven officials in Venezuela|url= http://time.com/3737536/barack-obama-venezuela-sanctions/|access-date= 2 April 2019|magazine= [[Time (magazine)|Time]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-venezuela-idUSKBN0M51NS20150310 |title= U.S. declares Venezuela a national security threat, sanctions top officials |work=Reuters |access-date=2 April 2019}}</ref> An arms embargo and the selling of assets were banned due to human rights violations, high government corruption, links with drug cartels and electoral rigging in the [[2018 Venezuelan presidential election]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2018/05/22/613250814/president-trump-approves-new-sanctions-on-venezuela|title=President Trump Approves New Sanctions On Venezuela|website=[[NPR]]| date=22 May 2018 | last1=Neuman | first1=Scott }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-venezuela-politics-eu/eu-readies-sanctions-on-venezuela-approves-arms-embargo-idUSKBN1DD0UN?il=0|title=EU readies sanctions on Venezuela, approves arms embargo|first=Robin|last=Emmott|newspaper=Reuters}}</ref> Sanctions imposed by Canada since 2017,<ref name="CBCCanadaSanc">{{cite news |url= https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/canada-venezuela-sanctions-1.4303663 |work= CBC Canada |publisher= Thomson Reuters |access-date= 3 April 2019 |title= Canada imposes sanctions on key Venezuelan officials}}</ref><ref name="CanadaSanc">{{cite news |url= https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/canada-sanctions-40-venezuelans-with-links-to-political-economic-crisis/article36367074/ |work= The Globe and Mail |title= Canada sanctions 40 Venezuelans with links to political, economic crisis |author= Zilio, Michelle |access-date= 3 April 2019}} Also at [http://puntodecorte.com/esta-la-lista-los-funcionarios-venezolanos-sancionados-canada/ Punto de Corte] and [http://www.el-nacional.com/noticias/mundo/canada-sanciona-nicolas-maduro-funcionarios-venezolanos_204786 El Nacional]</ref><ref name="VOACanadaSanc">{{cite news |url= https://www.voanews.com/a/canada-to-impose-sanctions-on-more-venezuelan-officials/4416647.html |work= VOA News |title= Canada to impose sanctions on more Venezuelan officials |date = 30 May 2018 |publisher= Reuters |access-date= 4 April 2019}}</ref> and since 2018 by Mexico,<ref name="MexicoSanc">{{cite news|work= Sumarium group|title= México rechaza elecciones en Venezuela y sanciona a siete funcionarios|url= http://sumarium.com/mexico-rechaza-elecciones-en-venezuela-y-sanciona-a-siete-funcionarios/|access-date= 21 April 2018|language= es}}{{Dead link|bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Also at [https://www.vpitv.com/venezuela/senado-mexicano-aprueba-acuerdo-en-rechazo-a-las-elecciones-en-venezuela/ VPITV]</ref> Panama<ref name="PanamaSanctions">{{cite news |url= http://www.laht.com/article.asp?ArticleId=2453678&CategoryId=10717 |work= Latin American Herald Tribune |access-date= 3 April 2019 |title= Panama sanctions Venezuela, including Maduro & 1st Lady family companies |author= Camacho, Carlos |archive-date= 24 February 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210224235201/http://www.laht.com/article.asp?ArticleId=2453678&CategoryId=10717 |url-status= dead }}</ref> and Switzerland<ref name="SwitzerlandReuters">{{cite news |url= https://www.reuters.com/article/us-swiss-venezuela/swiss-impose-sanctions-on-seven-senior-venezuelan-officials-idUSKBN1H42KP |work= Reuters |access-date= 3 April 2019 |title= Swiss impose sanctions on seven senior Venezuelan officials}} Also at [https://www.diariolasamericas.com/america-latina/suiza-impone-sanciones-venezuela-y-congela-bienes-siete-altos-cargos-n4146916 Diario Las Americas]</ref>

===By targeted individuals===
* [[International sanctions during the Venezuelan crisis|List of individuals sanctioned during the Venezuelan crisis]]
* [[List of people and organizations sanctioned during the Russo-Ukrainian War]]
* [[List of people and organizations sanctioned in relation to human rights violations in Belarus]]
* [[Sanctions against Afghanistan|United Nations sanction]] imposed by [[UN Security Council Resolution 1267]] in 1999 against all [[Al-Qaida]]- and [[Taliban]]-associated individuals. The cornerstone of the sanction is a consolidated list of persons maintained by the Security Council. All nations are obliged to freeze bank accounts and other financial instruments controlled by or used for the benefit of anyone on the list.

===By sanctioning country or organization===
* Australia currently sanctions 9 countries<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sanctions Regimes |url=https://www.dfat.gov.au/international-relations/security/sanctions/sanctions-regimes |url-status=live |access-date=28 June 2022 |website=www.dfat.gov.au}}</ref>
* [[India sanctions]]
* United Kingdom currently has sanctions on 27 countries<ref>{{Cite web |title=UK sanctions regimes |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/uk-sanctions-regimes-under-the-sanctions-act |access-date=2022-06-28 |website=GOV.UK |language=en}}</ref>
* United Nations has since 1966 established 30 sanctions regimes to countries (such as [[Southern Rhodesia]], [[South Africa]], [[Yugoslavia]] and more) and to organizations (such as [[Islamic State|ISIL]], [[Al-Qaeda|al-Qaida]] and the [[Taliban]])<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sanctions {{!}} United Nations Security Council |url=https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/sanctions/information |access-date=2022-06-28 |website=www.un.org}}</ref>
* [[United States sanctions]] and [[United States embargoes]]
** [[2002 United States steel tariff]] was placed by the United States on steel to protect its industry from foreign producers such as [[China]] and [[Russia]]. The [[World Trade Organization]] ruled that the tariffs were illegal. The [[European Union]] threatened retaliatory tariffs on a range of US goods that would mainly affect [[swing states]]. The US government then removed the steel tariffs in early 2004.

===By targeted activity===
* In response to cyber-attacks on April 1, 2015, President Obama issued an Executive Order establishing the first-ever economic sanctions. The Executive Order was intended to impact individuals and entities ("designees") responsible for cyber-attacks that threaten the national security, foreign policy, economic health, or financial stability of the US. Specifically, the Executive Order authorized the Treasury Department to freeze designees— assets.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pwc.com/en_US/us/financial-services/regulatory-services/publications/assets/sanctions-cyber-crime.pdf|title=Sanctions: U.S. action on cyber crime|website=pwc|publisher=PwC Financial Services Regulatory Practice, April, 2015}}</ref> The European Union implemented their first targeted financial sanctions regarding cyber activity in 2020.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thompson|first=Natalie|title=Countering Malicious Cyber Activity: Targeted Financial Sanctions|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=3770816|journal=|language=en|volume=|pages=|ssrn=3770816|via=}}</ref>
* In response to intelligence analysis alleging Russian hacking and interference with the 2016 US elections, President Obama expanded presidential authority to sanction in response to cyber activity that threatens democratic elections.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thehill.com/policy/cybersecurity/274594-obama-extends-cyber-sanctions-powers|title=Obama extends cyber sanctions power|first=Cory|last=Bennett}}</ref> Given that the original order was intended to protect critical infrastructure, it can be argued that the election process should have been included in the original order.

===Bilateral trade disputes===
* Vietnam as a result of capitalist influences over the 1990s and having imposed sanctions against Cambodia, is accepting of sanctions disposed with accountability.{{clarify}}
* Brazil introduced sanctions against the US in March 2010. These sanctions were placed because the US government was paying cotton farmers for their products against World Trade Organization rules. The sanctions cover cotton, as well as cars, chewing gum, fruit, and vegetable products.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://content.usatoday.com/communities/ondeadline/post/2010/03/brazil-slaps-trade-sanctions-on-us--to-retaliate-for-subsidies-to-cotton-farmers/1 |title=Brazil slaps trade sanctions on U.S. to retaliate for subsidies to cotton farmers |publisher=Content.usatoday.com |access-date=2015-03-30}}</ref> The WTO is currently supervising talks between the states to remove the sanctions.{{citation needed}}

==Former sanctions==
* Comecon nations ([[Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls|CoCom]] export controls) by the [[Western Bloc|Western bloc]]
* [[2006 Russian ban of Moldovan and Georgian wines|Georgian and Moldovan import ban]] by Russia on agricultural products, wine and mineral water (2006–2013)<ref>{{cite news |title=Georgia Doubles Wine Exports as Russian Market Reopens |work=RIA Novosti |url=http://en.ria.ru/business/20131216/185616873/Georgia-Doubles-Wine-Exports-as-Russian-Market-Reopens.html}}</ref>
* [[Sanctions against Iraq|Iraqi sanctions]] by the US (1990–2003)<ref>{{cite web |title=Resolution 1483 - UN Security Council - Global Policy Forum |url=http://www.globalpolicy.org/security/issues/iraq/document/2003/0522resolution.htm |access-date=2009-05-30 |publisher=Globalpolicy.org}}</ref>
* [[Arab League boycott of Israel|Israeli boycott]] by Arab nations
* Italy by the [[League of Nations]] in 1935 after the [[Second Italo-Ethiopian War|Italian invasion of Abyssinia]]
* Japan ([[ABCD line]]) by the US, UK, China and the Netherlands in 1940 to discourage [[Japanese militarism|militarism]]
* Libya by the UN in 2011 due to mass killings of Libyan protesters/rebels. Ended in 2012 after the [[Death of Muammar Gaddafi|overthrow and execution of Gaddafi]]
*India by the UK due to nuclear exports restriction<ref name="UKnuclear">[http://www.berr.gov.uk/whatwedo/europeandtrade/strategic-export-control/sanctions-embargoes/by-country/india-pakistan/index.html Pakistan and India UK nuclear exports restrictions] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100218045356/http://www.berr.gov.uk/whatwedo/europeandtrade/strategic-export-control/sanctions-embargoes/by-country/india-pakistan/index.html}}</ref>
*Macedonia total trade embargo by Greece (1994–1995)
*Mali total embargo by [[ECOWAS]] in 2012 to force the junta to return power to the civilian government and re-install the National constitution<ref>{{cite news |author=Lydia Polgreen |title=Mali Coup Leaders Suffer Sanctions and Loss of Timbuktu |newspaper=nytimes.com |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/03/world/africa/rebels-take-timbuktu-in-mali.html}}</ref><ref>Callimachi, Rukmini (3 April 2012) [https://web.archive.org/web/20120404171138/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/post-coup-mali-hit-with-sanctions-by-african-neighbours/article2390504/ "Post-coup Mali hit with sanctions by African neighbours"]. ''Globe and Mail''. Retrieved 4 May 2012.</ref>
*[[United States embargo against Nicaragua|Nicaraguan embargo]] by the US
*[[North Vietnam]] (and then unified [[Vietnam]]) trade embargo by the US (1964–1994)<ref>{{cite news |last=Cockburn |first=Patrick |title=US finally ends Vietnam embargo |work=The Independent |location=London |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/us-finally-ends-vietnam-embargo-1391770.html}}</ref>
*Pakistan by the UK in 2002 on nuclear export restrictions<ref name="UKnuclear" />
* [[2006–2007 economic sanctions against the Palestinian National Authority|Palestinian National Authority sanctions]] by Israel, US and other countries (2006–2007)
* [[2017 Qatar diplomatic crisis|Qatar]] by [[Saudi Arabia]], [[United Arab Emirates]], [[Bahrain]], and [[Egypt]] due to Qatar's alleged support for terrorist organizations (2017–2021)<ref>{{Cite web |title=International: United Nations Welcomes Loosening of Sanctions in Gulf Region |url=https://www.loc.gov/item/global-legal-monitor/2021-02-17/international-united-nations-welcomes-loosening-of-sanctions-in-gulf-region/ |access-date=2022-06-16 |website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref>
* [[International sanctions during apartheid|South African sanctions]] by the international community during [[Apartheid]] (see also [[disinvestment from South Africa]])
*Serbia by Kosovo's unilaterally declared government in 2011<ref>{{cite news|url=http://sofiaecho.com/2011/07/21/1127258_kosovo-imposes-embargo-on-serbia|title=Kosovo imposes embargo on Serbia|work=The Sofia Echo|access-date=2 January 2016}}</ref>
*[[Sanctions against Yugoslavia|Yugoslavian sanctions]] by the UN in response to the [[Bosnian War]] (1992–2001)<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Mandala de Elegua (2005) by Sandra María Esteves. Personal archive of Sandra María Esteves. |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3998/mpub.6710954.cmp.21 |access-date=2022-06-27 |website=dx.doi.org|doi=10.3998/mpub.6710954.cmp.21 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Sukovic |first1=Danilo |last2=Jovanovic |first2=Predrag |title=A Decade Under Sanctions |url=https://www.transparentnost.org.rs/stari/dokumenti/d012.html |url-status=live |access-date=27 June 2022}}</ref>
*[[Embargo Act of 1807]]

==See also==
{{Portal|Economics}}
*[[Arms embargo]]
*[[Boycott]]
*[[Economic freedom]]
*[[Economic warfare]]
* [[Globalization]]
*[[International political economy]]
*[[International sanctions]]
*[[Magnitsky legislation]]
*[[Political economy]]
* [[Specially Designated National]]
*[[Trade war]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Ashouri, Mahan "The Role of transnational Private Actors in Ukrain International Flight 752 Crash in Iran Under Economic Sanctions Pressure" (2021) [https://jnslp.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/The_Role_of_Transnational_Private_Actors_in_Ukraine_International_Flight_752_2.pdf]
* Brzoska, Michael. "International sanctions before and beyond UN sanctions." ''International Affairs'' 91.6 (2015): 1339–1349.
* Caruso, Raul. "The impact of international economic sanctions on trade: An empirical analysis." ''Peace Economics, Peace Science and Public Policy'' 9.2 (2003) [https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/9310993.pdf online].
* Cortright, David, et al. ''The sanctions decade: Assessing UN strategies in the 1990s'' (Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2000).
* Doxey, Margaret P. ''International sanctions in contemporary perspective'' (1987) [https://archive.org/details/internationalsan0000doxe online]
** Doxey, Margaret. "International sanctions: a framework for analysis with special reference to the UN and Southern Africa." ''International organization'' 26.3 (1972): 527–550.
** Doxey, Margaret. "International sanctions in theory and practice." ''Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law'' 15 (1983): 273+. [http://scholarlycommons.law.case.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1806&context=jil online]
* Drezner, Daniel W. ''The Sanctions Paradox''. (Cambridge University Press, 1999)
* Escribà-Folch, Abel, and Joseph Wright. "Dealing with tyranny: International sanctions and the survival of authoritarian rulers." ''International studies quarterly'' 54.2 (2010): 335–359. [https://www.ucdc.edu/sites/default/files/uploads/documents/Academic/Courses/V12SB/sanctions%20and%20authoritarian%20rulers.pdf online]
* Farrall, Jeremy Matam. ''United Nations sanctions and the rule of law'' (Cambridge University Press, 2007). [https://www.michaelkirby.com.au/images/stories/speeches/2000s/vol65+/2008/2285-BOOK_REVIEW_UN_SANCTIONS_MAY_2008.doc online]
* Hufbauer, Gary C. ''Economic sanctions and American diplomacy'' (Council on Foreign Relations, 1998) [https://books.google.com/books?id=urvIo1FQWZwC&dq=International+Sanctions++Hufbauer,+Gary+C.&pg=PP9 online].
* Hufbauer, Gary C., Jeffrey J. Schott, and Kimberley Ann Elliott. '' Economic Sanctions Reconsidered: History and Current Policy'' (Washington DC: Peterson Institute for International Economics, 1990)
* Kaempfer, William H. ''International economic sanctions: a public choice perspective'' (1992) [https://archive.org/details/internationaleco0000kaem online]
* Köchler, Hans. ''The United Nations sanctions policy & international law'' (1995) [https://archive.org/details/unitednationssan0000koch online]
* Mulder, Nicholas. ''The Economic Weapon: The Rise of Sanctions as a Tool of Modern War'' (2022) [https://www.amazon.com/Economic-Weapon-Rise-Sanctions-Modern/dp/0300259360/ excerpt] also see [https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-economic-weapon-book-review-the-limits-of-sanctions-from-abyssinia-to-ukraine-11643302954?mod=djembooks online review]
* Nossal, Kim Richard. "International sanctions as international punishment." ''International Organization'' 43.2 (1989): 301–322.
* Royal Institute of International Affairs. ''International Sanctions'' (1935).
*{{cite book|last=Selden|first=Zachary|title=Economic Sanctions as Instruments of American Foreign Policy|publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-275-96387-3}}

==External links==
* [https://bscn.nl/en/sanctions-risk-list-countries Business and Sanctions Consulting Network: List of Countries]
* [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0014292120301914 The Global Sanctions Data Base (GSDB)]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Global Sanctions Database - GSDB|url=https://www.globalsanctionsdatabase.com/|access-date=2021-05-18|website=www.globalsanctionsdatabase.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last1=Felbermayr|first1=Gabriel|last2=Kirilakha|first2=Aleksandra|last3=Syropoulos|first3=Constantinos|last4=Yalcin|first4=Erdal|last5=Yotov|first5=Yoto|title=The 'Global Sanctions Data Base': Mapping international sanction policies from 1950-2019|url=https://voxeu.org/article/global-sanctions-data-base-mapping-international-sanction-policies-1950-2019|access-date=2021-05-18|website=VoxEU.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kirikakha|first1=Aleksandra|last2=Felbermayr|first2=Gabriel J.|last3=Syropoulos|first3=Constantinos|last4=Yalcin|first4=Erdal|last5=Yotov|first5=Yoto V.|title=The Global Sanctions Data Base (GSDB): an update that includes the years of the Trump presidency|url=https://www.elgaronline.com/view/edcoll/9781839102714/9781839102714.00010.xml|journal=Research Handbook on Economic Sanctions|pages=62–106|language=en-US|doi=10.4337/9781839102721.00010|isbn=9781839102721|s2cid=245356746}}</ref>
*[https://sanctions.web.unc.edu/ Threat and Imposition of Economic Sanctions (TIES) Dataset]<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Morgan|first1=T. Clifton|last2=Bapat|first2=Navin A.|last3=Kobayashi|first3=Yoshiharu|title=The Threat and Imposition of Economic Sanctions data project: a retrospective|url=https://www.elgaronline.com/view/edcoll/9781839102714/9781839102714.00009.xml|journal=Research Handbook on Economic Sanctions|pages=44–61|language=en-US|doi=10.4337/9781839102721.00009|isbn=9781839102721|s2cid=245374708}}</ref>
*[https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00223433221087080 The International Sanctions Termination (IST) dataset]
* [https://archive.org/search.php?query=title%3A%28%27%27International%20Sanctions%27%27.%20%29 Online Books]
{{Portal bar|India|United States|Israel|Pakistan|Japan}}

[[Category:International sanctions]]
[[Category:Non-tariff barriers to trade]]
[[Category:Embargoes]]

Indian People

2023-03-20T20:42:49Z

Iamsszn: Article created.

#REDIRECT [[Indian people]] {{R from other capitalisation}}

Indo-Asian News Service

2022-10-09T21:25:06Z

Iamsszn: /* Further reading */clean up

{{Short description|Largest private news agency in India}}
{{redirect|IANS}}
{{Infobox company
| type = [[News agency]]
| industry = [[Media (communication)|Media]], [[News media]]
| founder = [[Gopal Raju]]
| hq_location_city = [[New Delhi]]
| area_served = [[Asia]]
| owner = Sandeep Bamzai (Editor-in-Chief & CEO)
| former_name = Indian Abroad News Service
| founded = 1986
| website = {{URL|https://www.ians.in/}}
}}
'''Indo-Asian News Service''' or '''IANS''' is a private [[India]]n news agency. It was founded in 1986 by [[Indian American]] publisher [[Gopal Raju]] as the "India Abroad News Service" and later renamed.<ref>{{Cite news |date=April 12, 2008 |title=Gopal Raju, 80, publishing pioneer |work=[[Boston.com]], [[Associated Press]] |url=https://archive.boston.com/bostonglobe/obituaries/articles/2008/04/12/gopal_raju_80_publishing_pioneer/}}</ref> Their main offices are located in [[Noida]], [[Uttar Pradesh]]. The service reports news, views and analysis from the [[Indian subcontinent|subcontinent]] about the country, across a wide range of subjects, to subscribers via the Internet.{{Citation needed|date=December 2020}}

While IANS is primarily known as a wire service in [[Indian English|English]] and [[Hindi]], it also has a publishing division that currently produces newspapers and periodicals for other clients in the media industry. IANS also operates a mobile news service.<ref>{{cite book|last=Shrivastava|first=K. M.|title=News Agencies from Pigeon to Internet|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MHujEBLJcvIC&pg=PA65|year=2007|publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd|isbn=978-1-932705-67-6|pages=65–}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ians.in/index.php?param=common/about_us|title=About Us|publisher=IANS}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book|last=Shrivastava|first=K. M.|title=News Agencies from Pigeon to Internet|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MHujEBLJcvIC&pg=PA65|year=2007|publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd|isbn=978-1-932705-67-6|pages=65–}}

{{Media of India}}

[[Category:News agencies based in India]]
[[Category:Mass media companies established in 1986]]

{{publish-company-stub}}

Legislative session

2022-07-11T06:12:23Z

Iamsszn: Finished writing a new contribution.

{{Short description|Period in which a legislature is convened; subdivision of a legislative term}}
{{About|sessions in the context of a legislature|sessions in other deliberative assemblies|Meeting (parliamentary procedure)}}

A '''legislative session''' is the period of time in which a [[legislature]], in both [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary]] and [[presidential system]]s, is convened for purpose of [[law]]making, usually being one of two or more smaller divisions of the entire time between two elections. In each country the procedures for opening, ending, and in between sessions differs slightly. A session may last for the full term of the legislature or the term may consist of a number of sessions. These may be of fixed duration, such as a year, or may be used as a parliamentary procedural device. A session of the legislature is brought to an end by an official act of [[prorogation]]. In either event, the effect of prorogation is generally the clearing of all outstanding matters before the legislature.

==Common procedure==
Historically,{{when}}{{where}} each session of a parliament would last less than one year, ceasing with a prorogation during which legislators could return to their [[Constituency|constituencies]]. In more recent times, development in transportation technology has permitted these individuals to journey with greater ease and frequency from the legislative capital to their respective [[electoral district]]s (sometimes called [[Riding (country subdivision)|''ridings'']], electorate, division) for short periods, meaning that parliamentary sessions typically last for more than one year, though the length of sessions varies. Legislatures plan their business within a [[legislative calendar]], which lays out how [[Bill (proposed law)|bills]] will proceed before a session ceases, although related but unofficial affairs may be conducted by legislators outside a session or during a session on days in which parliament is not meeting.

While a parliament is prorogued, between two legislative sessions, the legislature is still constituted{{spaced ndash}}i.e. no [[general election]] takes place and all [[Member of Parliament|Members of Parliament]] thus retain their seats. In many legislatures, prorogation causes all orders of the body{{spaced ndash}}bills, [[Motion (parliamentary procedure)|motions]], etc.{{spaced ndash}}to be expunged.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.parl.gc.ca/MarleauMontpetit/DocumentViewer.aspx?Sec=Ch08&Seq=7&Lang=E |last1=Marleau |first1=Robert |last2=Montpetit |first2=Camille |title=House of Commons Procedure and Practice > 8. The Parliamentary Cycle |publisher=Queen's Printer for Canada |access-date=13 January 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081208120658/http://www2.parl.gc.ca/MarleauMontpetit/DocumentViewer.aspx?Sec=Ch08&Seq=7&Lang=E |archive-date= 8 December 2008 }}</ref> Prorogations should thus not be confused with recesses, adjournments, or holiday breaks from legislation, after which bills can resume exactly where they left off. In the United Kingdom, however, the practice of terminating all bills upon prorogation has slightly altered; [[public bill]]s may be re-introduced in the next legislative session, and fast-tracked directly to the stage they reached in the prorogued legislative session.

A new session will often begin on the same day that the previous session ended. In most cases, when parliament reconvenes for a new legislative session, the [[head of state]], or a representative thereof, will address the legislature in an [[State Opening of Parliament|opening ceremony]].

In both [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary]] and [[presidential system]]s, sessions are referred to by the name of the body and an [[ordinal number]]{{spaced ndash}}for example, the ''2nd Session of the [[39th Canadian Parliament]]'' or the ''1st Session of the [[109th United States Congress]]''.

===Purposes===
Governments today end sessions whenever it is most convenient, but a “good faith exercise of the power” to prorogue parliament does not include preventing it from frustrating the prime minister's agenda.<ref>Sam Fowles, ''Proroguing parliament: what does it mean and can it be used to push through Brexit?'', The Week, 5 luglio 2019.</ref> When the Parliament of the [[Kingdom of Italy]] conquered the power to decide on its recalling, the MP Modigliani spoke of a ''coup d'état'', if the right to prorogue or close the session was exercised immediately after Parliament had recalled itself.<ref>Even then closing the session had the effect not only of suspending, but of ending all pending matters, cancelling all work not completed; stopping all the offices including the Presidency. If a member of the opposition had succeeded in passing a proposal contrary to the Government views, or a project dissatisfied a part of the majority, the Cabinet should only close the session and the Ministry was removed from all embarrassment. For this reason, the Parliamentary power to recall itself was the frontier between the democratic evolution of the form of government and the Fascist reaction: {{in lang|it}} Domenico Argondizzo, Felice Besostri, Giampiero Buonomo, [http://www.giurcost.org/studi/argondizzobesostribuonomo.pdf ''Su alcune ragioni dell’evoluzione costituzionale nei Parlamenti operanti per sessioni'', Consulta online, 2019, fasc. III, p. 427-438].</ref>

During the [[electoral campaign]], this break takes place so as to prevent the [[upper house]] from sitting and to purge all upper chamber business before the start of the next legislative session. It is not uncommon for a session of parliament to be put into recess during holidays and then resumed a few weeks later exactly where it left off.

==Procedure in Commonwealth realms==
[[File:Medieval parliament edward.Jpg|thumb|right|A 16th-century depiction of the [[parliament of England]] in session, with [[Edward I of England|King Edward I]] presiding]]

In [[Commonwealth realm]]s, legislative sessions can last from a few weeks to over a year; between general elections; there are usually anywhere from one to six sessions of parliament before a dissolution by either the [[Queen-in-Council|Crown-in-Council]] or the expiry of a legally mandated term limit. Each session begins with a [[speech from the throne]], read to the members of both legislative chambers either by the reigning sovereign or a [[viceroy]] or other representative. Houses of parliament in some realms will, following this address, introduce a [[Pro forma#Legislation|''pro forma'' bill]] as a symbol of the right of parliament to give priority to matters other than the monarch's speech (always written by the [[Cabinet (government)|cabinet]] of the day).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parliament.uk/about/how/occasions/stateopening.cfm |last=Parliament of the United Kingdom |author-link=Parliament of the United Kingdom |title=About > How Parliament works > Parliamentary occasions > State Opening of Parliament |publisher=Queen's Printer |access-date=13 January 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071004121312/http://www.parliament.uk/about/how/occasions/stateopening.cfm |archive-date= 4 October 2007 }}</ref>

===United Kingdom===
{{main|Prorogation in the United Kingdom}}
In the [[parliament of the United Kingdom]], [[Prorogation in the United Kingdom|prorogation]] is immediately preceded by a speech to both legislative chambers, with procedures similar to the Throne Speech. The monarch usually approves the oration—which recalls the prior legislative session, noting major bills passed and other functions of the government<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.parliament.uk/about/how/occasions/prorogation.cfm| last=Parliament of the United Kingdom| author-link=Parliament of the United Kingdom| title=About > How Parliament works > Parliamentary occasions > Prorogation| publisher=Queen's Printer| access-date=13 January 2010}}</ref>—but rarely delivers it in person, [[Queen Victoria]] being the last to do so. Instead, the speech is presented by the [[Lords Commissioners]] and read by the [[Leader of the House of Lords]]. When [[Charles I of England|King Charles I]] dissolved the [[Parliament of England]] in 1628, after the [[Petition of Right]], he gave a prorogation speech that effectively cancelled all future meetings of the legislature, at least until he again required finances.

===Australia===
{{Main|Section 5 of the Constitution of Australia}}
Prior to 1977, it was common for the [[Parliament of Australia|federal Parliament]] to have up to three sessions, with Parliament being prorogued at the end of each session and recalled at the beginning of the next. This was not always the case, for instance the 10th Parliament (1926–1928) went full term without prorogation. The practice of having multiple sessions in the same parliament gradually fell into disuse, and all parliaments from 1978 to 2013 had a single session. (There were only four prorogations since 1961, twice to allow the visiting Queen to "open" Parliament, once after the [[Disappearance of Harold Holt|1967 death]] of Prime Minister [[Harold Holt]] and for political reasons in 2016.) Since 1990, it has been the practice for the parliament to be prorogued on the same day that the [[Dissolution of parliament#Parliament of Australia|House is dissolved]] so that the Senate will not be able to sit during the election period.<ref>{{cite book|title=House of Representatives Practice|url=http://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/House_of_Representatives/Powers_practice_and_procedure/Practice6/Practice6HTML?file=appendix15|edition=6th|publisher=Parliament of Australia|pages=808–812|chapter=Chronology of Parliaments}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://blogs.abc.net.au/antonygreen/2015/06/the-likely-political-consequences-of-changing-the-senates-electoral-system.html|title=The Likely Political Consequences of Proposed Changes to the Senate's Electoral System|last=Green|first=Antony|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|access-date=25 July 2015}}</ref>

However, on 21 March 2016, Prime Minister [[Malcolm Turnbull]] announced that the [[Parliament of Australia|44th Parliament]], elected in 2013, would be prorogued on 15 April and that a second session would begin on 18 April.<ref name=Karp /> Prorogation is now a procedural device, the effect of which is to call the Parliament back on a particular date (especially the Senate, which the government did not control), and to wipe clean all matters before each House, without triggering an election.<ref name=Karp>{{cite news|last1=Karp|first1=Paul|title=How the PM used an obscure part of the constitution to recall parliament|url=https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2016/mar/21/how-the-pm-used-an-obscure-part-of-the-constitution-to-recall-parliament|access-date=24 March 2016|work=The Guardian}}</ref>

===Canada===
{{main|Prorogation in Canada}}
In the [[Parliament of Canada]] and its provinces, the legislature is typically prorogued upon the completion of the agenda set forth in the Speech from the Throne (called the ''[[legislative programme]]'' in the UK). It remains in recess until the monarch, [[Governor-General|governor general]], or [[Lieutenant Governor (Canada)|lieutenant governor]] summons parliamentarians again. Historically, long prorogations allowed legislators to spend part of their year in the capital city and part in their home [[Electoral district (Canada)|ridings]].<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.worldissues360.com/index.php/what-is-prorogation-9838| last=Scott| first=Cameron| title=What is Prorogation?| date=October 17, 2010| publisher= Helium Inc.| access-date=November 10, 2013}}</ref> However, this reason has become less important with the advent of rapid transcontinental travel.

More recently, prorogations have triggered speculation that they were advised by the sitting [[Prime Minister of Canada|prime minister]] for political purposes: for example, in the [[40th Canadian Parliament|40th Parliament]], [[2008–2009 Canadian parliamentary dispute#Governor General prorogues parliament|the first prorogation]] occurred in the midst of [[2008–2009 Canadian parliamentary dispute|a parliamentary dispute]], in which the opposition parties expressed intent to defeat the minority government, and the [[40th Canadian Parliament#Second prorogation|second]] was suspected by opposition Members of Parliament to be a way to avoid investigations into [[Canadian Afghan detainee issue|the Afghan detainees affair]] and triggered [[2010 Canada anti-prorogation protests|citizen protests]].<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.cbc.ca/politics/story/2010/01/23/prorogue-protests.html| title=Thousands protest Parliament's suspension| publisher=CBC| date=23 January 2010| access-date=24 January 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/pm-shuts-down-parliament-until-march-1.829800| title=PM shuts down Parliament until March| publisher=CBC| date=31 December 2009| access-date=31 December 2009}}</ref> In October 2012, the provincial legislature of [[Ontario]] was prorogued under similar circumstances, allegedly to avoid scrutiny of the provincial Government on a number of issues.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.nationalpost.com/2012/10/16/dalton-mcguintys-prorogation-of-ontario-parliament-normal-but-cynical/| title=Dalton McGuinty's prorogation of Ontario parliament normal but 'cynical'| publisher=National Post| date=17 October 2012| access-date=11 November 2012}}</ref>

Bills are numbered within each session. For example, in the federal [[House of Commons of Canada|House of Commons]] each session's government bills are numbered from C-2 to C-200, and the numbering returns again to C-2 following a prorogation ([[Bill C-1]] is a ''pro-forma'' bill).

== Procedure in the United States ==
{{see also|Procedures of the United States Congress}}
In the [[United States]], some [[state legislature (United States)|state legislature]]s meet only part of the year. Depending upon limitations of the state's constitution, if business arises that must be addressed before the next regular session, the [[Governor (U.S.)|governor]] may call a [[special session]].

The US Congress is renewed every two years as required by the [[United States Constitution|US Constitution]], with all members of the House of Representatives up for reelection and one-third of the members of the US Senate up for reelection. (Senators serve a six-year term; House members serve a two-year term). Each Congress sits in two sessions lasting approximately one year. Thus, the 1st session of the 114th Congress commenced on January 3, 2015, and the 2nd session commenced on January 3, 2016, with the same members and no intervening election. All legislative business, however, is cleared at the end of each session. It is common for bills to be reintroduced in the second session that were not passed in the first session, and the restrictions on reconsideration only apply to a single session.

When the leaders of the majority party in each house have determined that no more business will be conducted by that house during that term of Congress, a motion is introduced to [[adjournment sine die|adjourn ''sine die'']], effectively dissolving that house. Typically, this is done at some point after the general congressional election in November of even-numbered years. If the party in power is retained, it may happen as early as mid-November and members return to their districts for the holiday season. However, when the party in power is ousted or if important business, such as approval of [[appropriation bill]]s, has not been completed, Congress will often meet in a [[lame-duck session]], adjourning as late as December 31, before the newly elected Congress takes office on January 3.

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/7755478.stm Video of Prorogation]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081203193712/http://www.parl.gc.ca/compendium/web-content/c_d_prorogationparliament-e.htm Canada. House of Commons. Procedure Online]

[[Category:Government]]
[[Category:Political terminology]]
[[Category:Westminster system]]
[[Category:Time in government]]

Indian maritime history

2022-04-02T01:39:55Z

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{{Short description|Aspect of Indian history}}
{{Use Indian English}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Reorg}}
[[Image:Gujarat Gulfs.jpg|right|thumb|300px|To the northwest of [[Lothal]] (2400 BCE) lies the [[Kutch]] peninsula. Proximity to the [[Gulf of Khambhat]] allowed direct access to sea routes. Lothal's topography and geology reflects its maritime past.]]
{{Science and technology in India}}

'''Indian maritime history''' begins during the 3rd millennium BCE when inhabitants of the [[Indus Valley]] initiated maritime trading contact with [[Mesopotamia]].<ref name=g&s12/> As per [[Vedic]] records, Indian traders and merchants traded with the [[far east]] and [[Arabia]]. During the [[Maurya Empire]] (3rd century BCE), there was a definite "naval department" to supervise the ships and trade.{{cn}} At the end of 1st century BCE Indian products reached the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] during the rule of [[Augustus]], and the Roman historian [[Strabo]] mentions an increase in [[Roman trade with India]] following the Roman annexation of [[Egypt]].<ref>Young, 20</ref> As trade between India and the [[Greco-Roman world]] increased, spices became the main import from India to the Western world,<ref>Ball, 131</ref> bypassing silk and other commodities.<ref>Ball, 137</ref> Indians were present in [[Alexandria]]<ref name=Lach2/> while Christian and Jewish settlers from Rome continued to live in India long after the fall of the [[Roman Empire]],<ref name=Curtin1/> which resulted in Rome's loss of the [[Red Sea]] ports,<ref name=Holl1/> previously used to secure trade with India by the [[Greco-Roman world]] since the [[Ptolemaic dynasty]].<ref name=Lindsay1/> The Indian commercial connection with [[Southeast Asia]] proved vital to the merchants of Arabia and [[Persia]] during the 7th–8th century.<ref name=Donkin1/> A study published in 2013 found that some 11 percent of Australian Aboriginal DNA is of Indian origin and suggests these immigrants arrived about 4,000 years ago, possibly at the same time [[dingoes]] first arrived in Australia.<ref>{{Cite journal | url=https://www.nature.com/news/genomes-link-aboriginal-australians-to-indians-1.12219 |doi = 10.1038/nature.2013.12219|title = Aboriginal Australian genomes reveal Indian ancestry|journal = Nature|year = 2013|last1 = Yong|first1 = Ed|s2cid = 87793562}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1038/493274c|title = Migration from India to Australia|journal = Nature|volume = 493|issue = 7432|pages = 274|year = 2013|doi-access = free}}</ref>

On orders of [[Manuel I of Portugal]], four vessels under the command of navigator [[Vasco da Gama]] rounded the [[Cape of Good Hope]], continuing to the eastern coast of Africa to [[Malindi]] to sail across the Indian Ocean to [[Kozhikode|Calicut]].<ref name=Columbia1/> The wealth of the [[Indies]] was now open for the Europeans to explore.<ref name=Columbia1/> The [[Portuguese Empire]] was the first European empire to grow from spice trade.<ref name=Columbia1/>

==National Maritime Day==
5 April is celebrated as National Maritime Day in India. On this day in 1919, {{cn}} navigation history was created when [[RMS Empress of India|SS ''Loyalty'']], the first ship of the [[Scindia Steam Navigation Company Ltd.]],{{cn}} journeyed to the [[United Kingdom]], a crucial step for India's shipping history when sea routes were controlled by the British.{{cn}}

==Prehistory==
{{further | Indus Valley Civilisation | Indus–Mesopotamia relations | Meluhha#Trade_with_Sumer | l3= Meluhha trade with Sumer | Lothal | Indo-Roman trade relations }}

The region around the Indus river began to show visible increase in both the length and the frequency of maritime voyages by 3000 BCE.<ref>Gosch & Stearns, 7</ref> Optimum conditions for viable long-distance voyages existed in this region by 2900 BCE.<ref>Gosch & Stearns, 9</ref> Mesopotamian inscriptions indicate that Indian traders from the Indus valley—carrying copper, hardwoods, ivory, pearls, carnelian, and gold—were active in Mesopotamia during the reign of [[Sargon of Akkad]] (c. 2300 BCE).<ref name=g&s12>Gosch & Stearns, 12</ref> Gosch & Stearns write on the Indus Valley's pre-modern maritime travel:<ref>Gosch & Stearns, 12–13</ref> Evidence exists that Harappans were bulk-shipping timber and special woods to [[Sumer]] on ships and luxury items such as [[lapis lazuli]]. The trade in lapis lazuli was carried out from northern Afghanistan over eastern Iran to Sumer but during the [[Periodisation of the Indus Valley Civilisation#Datings and alternative proposals|Mature Harappan]] period an Indus colony was established at Shortugai in Central Asia near the [[Badakhshan Province|Badakshan]] mines and the lapis stones were brought overland to [[Lothal]] in Gujarat and shipped to Oman, Bahrain and Mesopotamia.

[[File:Disha Kaka Boat with Direction Finding Birds, model of Mohenjo-Daro seal, 3000 BCE.jpg|thumb|[[Indus Valley Civilization|Indus valley seal]], Boat with direction-finding birds to find land.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kenoyer |first1=Jonathan M. |last2=Heuston |first2=Kimberley Burton |title=The Ancient South Asian World |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-522243-2 |page=66 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7CjvF88iEE8C&pg=PA66 |language=en|quote="The molded terra-cotta tablet shows a flat-bottomed Indus boat with a central cabin. Branches tied to the roof may have been used for protection from bad luck, and travelers took a pet bird along to help them guide them to land."}}</ref>]]

{{Quote|Archaeological research at sites in Mesopotamia, [[Bahrain]], and [[Oman]] has led to the recovery of artefacts traceable to the Indus Valley civilisation, confirming the information on the inscriptions. Among the most important of these objects are stamp seals carved in [[soapstone]], stone weights, and colourful [[carnelian|carnelian beads]]....Most of the trade between Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley was indirect. Shippers from both regions converged in [[Persian Gulf]] ports, especially on the island of [[Bahrain]] (known as Dilmun to the Sumerians). Numerous small Indus-style artefacts have been recovered at locations on Bahrain and further down the coast of the [[Arabian Peninsula]] in Oman. Stamp seals produced in Bahrain have been found at sites in Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley, strengthening the likelihood that the island may have acted as a redistribution point for goods coming from Mesopotamia and the Indus area....There are hints from the digs at [[Ur]], a major Sumerian city-state on the Euphrates, that some Indus Valley merchants and artisans (bead makers) may have established communities in Mesopotamia.}}

The world's first dock at [[Lothal]] (2400 BCE) was located away from the main current to avoid deposition of silt.<ref name="RaoQ"/> Modern oceanographers have observed that the Harappans must have possessed great knowledge relating to tides in order to build such a dock on the ever-shifting course of the [[Sabarmati]], as well as exemplary [[hydrography]] and maritime engineering.<ref name="RaoQ"/> This was the earliest known dock found in the world, equipped to berth and service ships.<ref name="RaoQ">Rao, 27–28</ref> It is speculated that Lothal engineers studied tidal movements, and their effects on brick-built structures, since the walls are of kiln-burnt bricks.<ref name="Rao2819"/> This knowledge also enabled them to select Lothal's location in the first place, as the [[Gulf of Khambhat]] has the highest tidal amplitude and ships can be sluiced through flow tides in the river estuary.<ref name="Rao2819"/> The engineers built a trapezoidal structure, with north–south arms of average 21.8 metres (71.5 ft), and east–west arms of 37 metres (121 ft).<ref name="Rao2819">Rao, 28–29</ref>

Excavations at [[Golbai Sasan]] in Odisha have shown a [[Neolithic]] culture [[Maritime history of Odisha#Early history|dating to as early as ca. 2300 BC]], followed by a [[Chalcolithic]] (copper age) culture and then an [[Iron Age]] culture starting around 900 BC. Tools found at this site indicate boat building, perhaps for coastal trade.<ref name=OHRJPatra>{{cite web
|url=http://orissa.gov.in/e-magazine/Journal/Journal2/pdf/ohrj-014.pdf
|title=ARCHAEOLOGY AND THE MARITIME HISTORY OF ANCIENT ORISSA
|author1=Sushanta Ku. Patra |author2=Benudhar Patra
|name-list-style=amp |work=OHRJ, Vol. XLVII, No. 2
|access-date=16 November 2010}}</ref> Fish bones, fishing hooks, barbed spears and harpoons show that fishing was an important part of the economy.<ref name=Tripati>{{cite web
|url=http://drs.nio.org/drs/bitstream/2264/127/3/Man_Environ_27_117.pdf
|title=Early Maritime Activities of Orissa on the East Coast of India: Linkages in Trade and Cultural Developments
|author=Sila Tripati
|publisher=Marine Archaeology Centre, National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa
|access-date=17 November 2010}}</ref> Some artefacts of the Chalcolithic period are similar to artefacts found in [[Vietnam]], indicating possible contact with Indochina at a very early period.<ref name=OHRJPatra/>

==Early kingdoms==
{{further|Indo-Roman trade relations|Spice trade}}
[[File:Ajanta_Cave_2_three-mast_sailship.jpg|thumb|right|Three-mast sailship, c. 5th century]]
[[Indian cartography]] locates the [[Pole star]], and other constellations of use in navigational charts.<ref name=Sircar3>Sircar, 330</ref> These charts may have been in use by the beginning of the [[Common Era]] for purposes of navigation.<ref name=Sircar3/> Detailed maps of considerable length describing the locations of settlements, sea shores, rivers, and mountains were also made.<ref name=Sircar1>Sircar, 327</ref> The ''[[Periplus Maris Erythraei]]'' mentions a time when sea trade between India and Egypt did not involve direct sailings.<ref name=Young1>Young, 19</ref> The cargo under these situations was shipped to [[Aden]]:<ref name=Young1/>

[[File:Periplous of the Erythraean Sea.svg|thumb|right|250px|Roman trade with India according to the ''Periplus Maris Erythraei'' (1st century CE).]]
{{Quote|Eudaimon Arabia was called fortunate, being once a city, when, because ships neither came from India to [[Egypt]] nor did those from Egypt dare to go further but only came as far as this place, it received the cargoes from both, just as [[Alexandria]] receives goods brought from outside and from Egypt.}}

Tamil [[Pandya]] embassies were received by [[Augustus Caesar]] and Roman historians mention a total of four embassies from the Tamil country. [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]] famously mentions the expenditure of one million [[sestertii]] every year on goods such as pepper, fine cloth and gems from the southern coasts of India. He also mentions 10,000 horses shipped to this region each year.{{cn}} Tamil inscriptions have been found in Luxor in Egypt. In turn Tamil literature from the Classical period mentions foreign ships arriving for trade and paying in gold for products.{{cn}}

[[File:Indian ship on lead coin of Vashishtiputra Shri Pulumavi.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Indian ship on lead coin of [[Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi]], testimony to the naval, seafaring and trading capabilities of the Satavahanas during the 1st–2nd century CE.]]
The first clear mention of a navy occurs in the mythological epic ''[[Mahabharata]]''.<ref name=Chakravarti>Chakravarti (1930)</ref> Historically, however, the first attested attempt to organise a navy in India, as described by [[Megasthenes]] (c. 350—290 BCE), is attributed to [[Chandragupta Maurya]] (reign 322—298 BCE).<ref name=Chakravarti/> The [[Maurya Empire]] (322–185 BCE) navy continued till the times of emperor [[Ashoka]] (reign 273—32 BCE), who used it to send massive diplomatic missions to Greece, [[Syria]], Egypt, [[Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene]], [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonia]] and [[Epirus]].<ref name=Chakravarti/> Following nomadic interference in [[Siberia]]—one of the sources for India's bullion—India diverted its attention to the [[Malay Peninsula]], which became its new source for gold and was soon exposed to the world via a series of maritime [[trade route]]s.<ref name=shaffer309/> The period under the Mauryan empire also witnessed various other regions of the world engage increasingly in the Indian Ocean maritime voyages.<ref name=shaffer309 />

[[Image:TabulaPeutingerianaMuziris.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Muziris]], as shown in the [[Tabula Peutingeriana]].]]
According to the historian [[Strabo]] (II.5.12.) the [[Roman trade with India]] trade initiated by [[Eudoxus of Cyzicus]] in 130 BCE kept increasing.<ref name=Strabo1>"At any rate, when [[Cornelius Gallus|Gallus]] was prefect of Egypt, I accompanied him and ascended the [[Nile]] as far as [[Aswan|Syene]] and the frontiers of [[Kingdom of Aksum]] ([[Ethiopia]]), and I learned that as many as one hundred and twenty vessels were sailing from [[Myos Hormos]] to India, whereas formerly, under the [[Ptolemaic Egypt|Ptolemies]], only a very few ventured to undertake the voyage and to carry on traffic in Indian merchandise." —{{cite web| title = The Geography of Strabo published in Vol. I of the Loeb Classical Library edition, 1917|url = http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/2E1*.html}}</ref> Indian ships sailed to Egypt as the thriving maritime routes of Southern Asia were not under the control of a single power.<ref name=Lach13>Lach, 13</ref> In India, the ports of [[Barbarikon|Barbaricum]] (modern [[Karachi]]), [[Bharuch|Barygaza]], [[Muziris]], [[Korkai]], [[Kaveripattinam]] and [[Arikamedu]] on the southern tip of India were the main centres of this trade.<ref name=Periplus1>{{cite web| last = Halsall | first = Paul | title = Ancient History Sourcebook: The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century| publisher = Fordham University| url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/periplus.html}}</ref> The ''Periplus Maris Erythraei'' describes Greco—Roman merchants selling in Barbaricum "thin clothing, figured linens, [[topaz]], [[coral]], [[storax]], [[frankincense]], vessels of glass, silver and gold plate, and a little wine" in exchange for "[[costus]], [[bdellium]], [[boxthorn|lycium]], [[spikenard|nard]], [[turquoise]], [[lapis lazuli]], Seric skins, cotton cloth, silk yarn, and [[indigo dye|indigo]]".<ref name=Periplus1/> In Barygaza, they would buy wheat, rice, sesame oil, cotton and cloth.<ref name=Periplus1/>

The [[Ethiopia]]n kingdom of [[Aksum]] was involved in the Indian Ocean trade network and was influenced by Roman culture and [[Indian architecture]].<ref name=Curtin1/> Traces of Indian influences are visible in Roman works of silver and ivory, or in Egyptian cotton and silk fabrics used for sale in Europe.<ref name=Lach2>Lach, 18</ref> The Indian presence in Alexandria may have influenced the culture but little is known about the manner of this influence.<ref name=Lach2/> [[Clement of Alexandria]] mentions the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] in his writings and other [[Indian religion]]s find mentions in other texts of the period.<ref name=Lach2/> The Indians were present in Alexandria<ref name="Lach2" /> and Christian and Jewish settlers from Rome continued to live in India long after the fall of the [[Roman Empire]],<ref name=Curtin1>Curtin, 100</ref> which resulted in Rome's loss of the [[Red Sea]] ports,<ref name=Holl1>Holl, 9</ref> previously used to secure trade with India by the Greco—Roman world since the time of the [[Ptolemaic dynasty]].<ref name=Lindsay1>Lindsay, 101</ref>

==Early Common Era—High Middle Ages==
{{main | Greater India | Indosphere | History of Indian influence on Southeast Asia | Chola invasion of Srivijaya | Maritime history of Odisha }}
{{See also | Sanskritisation |Chola dynasty|Chera dynasty|Pandya dynasty|Pallava dynasty}}

[[File:Indian_cultural_zone.svg|thumb|300px|right|Historic [[Indosphere]] cultural influence zone of [[Greater India]] for transmission of elements of Indian elements such as the [[Indian honorifics|honorific titles]], [[Indian name#Global Indian influence in names|naming of people]], [[Place names in India#Global Indian influence in place name|naming of places]], mottos of [[List of institutions with Sanskrit mottos|organisations]] and [[List of educational institutions with Sanskrit mottos|educational institutes]] as well as adoption of [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Hindu temple architecture#Southeast Asia as part of Greater India|Indian architecture]], [[Indian martial arts#Influence|martial arts]], [[Music of India#Globalization of Indian music|Indian music and dance]], [[Clothing in India|traditional Indian clothing]], and [[Indian cuisine#Outside India|Indian cuisine]], a process which has also been aided by the ongoing historic expansion of [[Indian diaspora]].<ref name=diasind1>{{Cite book|title=A history of India|first=Hermann|last=Kulke|publisher=Routledge|others=Rothermund, Dietmar, 1933–|isbn=0203391268|edition= 4th|location=New York|oclc=57054139}}</ref>]]
[[File:Austronesian maritime trade network in the Indian Ocean.png|thumb|left|[[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]] [[Spice trade|proto-historic]] and historic maritime trade network in the [[Indian Ocean]]<ref name="Manguin2016">{{cite book|first1=Pierre-Yves |last1=Manguin|editor1-first=Gwyn |editor1-last=Campbell|title =Early Exchange between Africa and the Wider Indian Ocean World |chapter =Austronesian Shipping in the Indian Ocean: From Outrigger Boats to Trading Ships|publisher =Palgrave Macmillan|year =2016|pages=51–76|isbn =9783319338224|chapter-url =https://books.google.com/books?id=XsvDDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA50}}</ref>]]

During this period, [[Hinduism in Southeast Asia|Hindu]] and [[Buddhism in Southeast Asia|Buddhist]] religious establishments of Southeast Asia came to be associated with [[Greater India|economic activity and commerce]] as patrons entrusted large funds which would later be used to benefit local economy by estate management, craftsmanship and promotion of trading activities.<ref name=Donkin67>Donkin, 67</ref> [[Buddhism]], in particular, travelled alongside the maritime trade, promoting coinage, art and literacy.<ref name=Donkin69>Donkin, 69</ref> This route caused the intermixing of many artistic and cultural influences, [[Hellenistic]], [[Persian art|Iranian]], [[Indian art|Indian]] and [[Chinese art|Chinese]], [[Greco-Buddhist art]] represents one such vivid examples of this interaction.<ref name=XinruLiu>Xinru, Liu,''The Silk Road in World History'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 21.</ref> Buddha was first depicted as human in the [[Kushan]] period with intermixing of Greek and Indian elements, and the influence of this Greco-Buddhist art can be found in later Buddhist art in China and throughout countries on the Silk Road.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foltz|first=Richard C.|title=Religions of the Silk Road: Overland Trade and Cultural Exchange from Antiquity to the Fifteenth Century|year=1999|publisher=St Martin's Press|location=New York|page=45}}</ref> Ashoka and after him his successors of Kalinga, Pallava and Chola empires along with their vassals Pandya and Chera dynasties, as well as Vijayanagara empire all played a vital role in expanding Indianisation, extending Indian maritime trade and growth of Hinduism and Buddhism. Port of Kollam is an example of important trade port in Maritime Silk Route.

[[Maritime Silk Route]], which flourished between the 2nd century BC and 15th century AD connected [[China]], [[Southeast Asia]], the [[Indian subcontinent]], [[Arabian peninsula]], [[Somalia]], [[Egypt]] and [[Europe]].<ref>{{cite web | title = Maritime Silk Road | work = SEAArch| url = https://www.southeastasianarchaeology.com/tag/maritime-silk-route/}}</ref> Despite its association with China in recent centuries, the Maritime Silk Route was primarily established and operated by [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]] sailors in Southeast Asia, [[Tamils|Tamil]] merchants in India and Southeast Asia, Greco-Roman merchants in [[East Africa]], [[India]], [[Ceylon]] and [[Indochina]], and by [[Persian people|Persian]] and [[Arab people|Arab]] traders in the [[Arabian Sea]] and beyond.<ref name="Guan"/> Prior to the 10th century, the route was primarily used by Southeast Asian traders, although [[Tamil people|Tamil]] and [[Persian people|Persian]] traders also sailed them.<ref name="Guan">{{cite journal |last1=Guan |first1=Kwa Chong |title=The Maritime Silk Road: History of an Idea |journal=NSC Working Paper |issue=23 |pages=1–30 |url=https://www.iseas.edu.sg/images/pdf/nscwps23.pdf}}</ref> For most of its history, Austronesian [[thalassocracies]] controlled the flow of the Maritime Silk Road, especially the [[polities]] around the [[straits]] of [[Malacca Strait|Malacca]] and [[Bangka Strait|Bangka]], the [[Malay Peninsula]], and the [[Mekong delta]]; although Chinese records misidentified these kingdoms as being "Indian" due to the [[Greater India|Indianization]] of these regions but its had inluenced the kingdoms and its culture.<ref name="Guan"/> The route was influential in the early spread of [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]] to the east.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sen |first1=Tansen |title=Maritime Southeast Asia Between South Asia and China to the Sixteenth Century |journal=TRaNS: Trans-Regional and -National Studies of Southeast Asia |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=31–59 |doi=10.1017/trn.2013.15|s2cid=140665305 }}</ref> The Maritime Silk Road developed from the earlier [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]] [[spice trade]] networks of [[Islander Southeast Asians]] with [[Sri Lanka]] and [[Southern India]] (established 1000 to 600 BCE).<ref name="Bellina">{{cite book|first1=Bérénice|last1= Bellina|editor1-first=John|editor1-last=Guy|title =Lost Kingdoms of Early Southeast Asia: Hindu-Buddhist Sculpture 5th to 8th century|chapter =Southeast Asia and the Early Maritime Silk Road|publisher =Yale University Press|year =2014|pages=22–25|isbn =9781588395245|url =https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263007720}}</ref><ref name="Mahdi1999">{{cite book|first1= Waruno|last1=Mahdi|editor1-last =Blench|editor1-first= Roger |editor2-last=Spriggs|editor2-first=Matthew|title =Archaeology and Language III: Artefacts languages, and texts|chapter =The Dispersal of Austronesian boat forms in the Indian Ocean|volume = 34|publisher =Routledge|series =One World Archaeology |year =1999|pages=144–179|isbn =978-0415100540}}</ref>

[[Kalinga (historical kingdom)|Kalinga]] (in 3rd century BCE was annexed by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka) and [[Vijaynagara|Vijayanagara Empire]] (1336-1646) also established footholds in Malaya, [[Sumatra]] and Western [[Java]].<ref name=indiannavy>[http://indiannavy.nic.in/ ''Early History'' (Indian Navy)], [[National Informatics Center]], [[Government of India]].</ref>
[[Maritime history of Odisha]], known as [[Kalinga (historical kingdom)|Kalinga]] in ancient times, started before 350 BC according to early sources. The people of this region of eastern [[India]] along the coast of the [[Bay of Bengal]] sailed up and down the [[Coastal India|Indian coast]], and travelled to [[Indo China]] and throughout [[Maritime Southeast Asia]], [[Indosphere|introducing elements]] of [[Hinduism in Southeast Asia|their culture]] to the [[Greater India|people with whom they traded]]. The old traditions are still celebrated in the annual [[Bali Jatra]], or [[Boita Bandana]] festival held for five days in October/November.<ref name=orissatourism>{{cite web
|url=http://www.orissatourism.in/Bali-Yatra.html
|title=Bali Yatra
|work=Orissa Tourism
|access-date=16 November 2010
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721180800/http://www.orissatourism.in/Bali-Yatra.html
|archive-date=21 July 2011
|url-status=dead
}}</ref>

Textiles from India were in demand in Egypt, East Africa, and the [[Mediterranean]] between the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, and these regions became overseas markets for [[Economic history of India#Ancient and medieval characteristics|Indian exports]].<ref name=shaffer309>Shaffer, 309</ref> In [[Java]] and [[Borneo]], the introduction of Indian culture created a demand for aromatics, and trading posts here later served Chinese and Arab markets.<ref name=Donkin1>Donkin, 59</ref> The ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea|Periplus Maris Erythraei]]'' names several Indian ports from where large ships sailed in an easterly direction to ''[[Chryse (placename)|Chryse]]''.<ref>Donkin, 64</ref> Products from the [[Maluku Islands]] that were shipped across the ports of Arabia to the [[Near East]] passed through the ports of India and Sri Lanka.<ref name=Donkin4>Donkin, 92</ref> After reaching either the Indian or the Sri Lankan ports, products were sometimes shipped to [[East Africa]], where they were used for a variety of purposes including burial rites.<ref name=Donkin4/>

Indian spice exports find mention in the works of Ibn Khurdadhbeh (850), al-Ghafiqi (1150 CE), Ishak bin Imaran (907) and Al Kalkashandi (14th century).<ref name=Donkin4/> Chinese traveler [[Xuanzang]] mentions the town of [[Puri]] where "merchants depart for distant countries."<ref name=Donkin2>Donkin, 65</ref> The [[Abbasid caliphate]] (750–1258 CE) used Alexandria, [[Damietta]], [[Aden]] and [[Siraf]] as entry ports to India and China.<ref name=Donkin3>Donkin, 91–92</ref> Merchants arriving from India in the port city of Aden paid tribute in form of [[musk]], [[camphor]], [[ambergris]] and [[sandalwood]] to [[Ziyadid dynasty|Ibn Ziyad]], the [[sultan]] of [[Yemen]].<ref name=Donkin3/>

[[Image:Rajendra map new.svg|thumb|right|300px|Chola territories during [[Rajendra Chola I]], c. 1030 CE.]]
The [[Chola dynasty]] (300BC—1279) reached the peak of its influence and power during the medieval period.<ref name=sastri5>Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, 5
</ref> Emperors [[Rajaraja Chola I]] (reigned 985–1014) and [[Rajendra Chola I]] (reigned 1012–1044) extended the Chola kingdom beyond the traditional limits.<ref name=kulke115>Kulke & Rothermund, 115</ref> At its peak, the [[Chola Empire]] stretched from the island of [[Sri Lanka]] in the south to the [[Godavari River|Godavari]] basin in the north.<ref name=sastric194>Rajendra Chola I completed the conquest of the island of Sri Lanka and captured the Sinhala king Mahinda V. Nilakanta Sastri, ''The CōĻas'' pp 194–210.</ref> The kingdoms along the east coast of India up to the river Ganges acknowledged Chola suzerainty.<ref name=majumdar407>Majumdar, 407</ref> Chola navies [[Chola invasion of Srivijaya|invaded and conquered Srivijaya]] and [[Srivijaya]] was the largest empire in [[Maritime Southeast Asia]].<ref>The kadaram campaign is first mentioned in Rajendra's inscriptions dating from his 14th year. The name of the Srivijaya king was Sangrama Vijayatungavarman—'''Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, 211–220'''.</ref> Goods and ideas from India began to play a major role in the "[[Greater India|Indianization]]" of the wider world from this period.<ref>
{{cite book
| last1 = Shaffer
| first1 = Lynda Noreen
| chapter = Southernization
| editor1-last = Adas
| editor1-first = Michael
| editor1-link = Michael Adas
| title = Agricultural and Pastoral Societies in Ancient and Classical History
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=qcSsoJ0IXawC
| series = Critical perspectives on the past
| others = American Historical Association
| publisher = Temple University Press
| date = 2001
| page = 308
| isbn = 9781566398329
| access-date = 2013-12-24
| quote = The term 'southernization' [...] is used [...] to refer to a multifaceted process that began in Southern Asia and spread from there [...]. The process included [...] many interrelated strands of development[:] [...] the metallurgical, the medical, [...] the literary [...] the development of mathematics; the production and marketing of subtropical or tropical spices; the pioneering of new trade routes; the cultivation, processing, and marketing of southern crops such as sugar and cotton; and the development of various related technologies. [...] Southernization was well under way in Southern Asia by the fifth century C.E.
}}</ref> The Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their influence overseas to China and Southeast Asia.<ref>Kulke & Rothermund, 116–117.</ref> Towards the end of the 9th century, southern India had developed extensive maritime and commercial activity.<ref>Kulke & Rothermund, 12</ref><ref name=kulke118>Kulke & Rothermund, 118</ref> The Cholas, being in possession of parts of both the west and the east coasts of peninsular India, were at the forefront of these ventures.<ref>Kulke & Rothermund, 124</ref><ref>Tripathi, 465</ref><ref>Tripathi, 477</ref> The [[Tang dynasty]] (618–907) of China, the [[Srivijaya]] empire in Maritime Southeast Asia under the Sailendras, and the [[Abbasid]] [[caliphate]] at [[Baghdad]] were the main trading partners.<ref name="trade">Nilakanta Sastri, ''The CōĻas'', 604</ref>

[[File:Borobudur ship.JPG|thumb|One of the [[Borobudur ship]]s from the 8th century, they were depictions of large Javanese outrigger trading vessels. Shown with the characteristic [[tanja sail]] of Southeast Asian [[Austronesians]].]]
[[Srivijaya empire]], an Indianised Hindu-Buddhist empire founded at Palembang in 682 CE as indicated in [[Tang China|Tang]] records, rose to dominate the trade in the region around the straits and the South China Sea [[emporium (antiquity)|emporium]] by controlling the trade in luxury aromatics and Buddhist artifacts from West Asia to a thriving Tang market.<ref name="Guan"/>{{rp|page=12}} Chinese records also indicate that the early Chinese Buddhist [[pilgrim]]s to South Asia booked passage with the Austronesian ships that traded in Chinese ports. Books written by Chinese monks like Wan Chen and Hui-Lin contain detailed accounts of the [[K'un-lun po|large trading vessels]] from Southeast Asia dating back to at least the 3rd century CE.<ref name="McGrail">{{cite book |last1=McGrail |first1=Seán |title=Boats of the World: From the Stone Age to the Medieval Times |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199271863 |pages=289–293 |url=https://www.academia.edu/39591350}}</ref>

One of the [[Pandya|Pandya empire]] (3rd century BCE to 14th century CE) ruler [[Parantaka Nedumjadaiyan]] (765–790) and the [[Chera dynasty]] (absorbed into the Pandya political system by 10th/11th century AD) were a close ally of the [[Pallavas]] (275 CE to 897 CE).<ref name=ahosi/> Pallavamalla Nadivarman defeated the Pandya Varaguna with the help of a Chera king.<ref name=ahosi/> Cultural contacts between the Pallava court and the Chera country were common.<ref name=ahosi>See ''A History of South India'' – pp 146 – 147</ref> Eventually, Cheras dynasty were subsumed by Pandya dynasty, which in turn was subsumed by the Pallava dynasty.

[[File:Kerala cities at time of Cabral (1500).gif|thumb|right|250px|[[Kollam Port|Port of Kollam]] (est. 825 CE) & [[Calicut]], map C.1500.]]
[[History of Kollam|Kollam]] (also called Quilon or Desinganadu's) in coastal [[Kerala]] become operational in AD.825,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=voerPYsAB5wC&q=Marco+polo+Quilon&pg=PA710 |title=Page No.710, International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania |isbn=9781136639791 |access-date=23 November 2016|last1=Ring |first1=Trudy |last2=Watson |first2=Noelle |last3=Schellinger |first3=Paul }}</ref> and has a high commercial reputation since the days of the Phoenicians and Romans,<ref>{{cite book |first=K. A. Nilakanta |last=Sastri |title=History of South India |edition=2nd |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1958 |orig-year=1935}}</ref> The ruler of Kollam (who were vassals of Pandya dynasty who in turn later became vassals of Chola dynasty) also used to exchange the embassies with Chinese rulers and there was flourishing Chinese settlement at Kollam.<ref name=kolla1/> The Indian commercial connection with [[Southeast Asia]] proved vital to the merchants of [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]] and [[Iran|Persia]] between the 7th and 8th centuries CE,<ref name=Donkin1/> and merchant Sulaiman of Siraf in [[Iran|Persia]] (9th Century) found Kollam to be the only port in India, touched by the huge Chinese junks, on his way from Carton of Persian Gulf.<ref name=kolla1/> [[Marco Polo]], the great Venetian traveller, who was in Chinese service under Kublakhan in 1275, visited [[Kollam]] and other towns on the west coast, in his capacity as a Chinese mandarin.<ref name=kolla1>{{Cite web |url=http://kollam.nic.in/history.html |title=Short History of Kollam |access-date=20 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518045229/http://kollam.nic.in/history.html |archive-date=18 May 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Fed by the Chinese trade, port of Kollam was also mentioned by [[Ibn Battuta]] in the 14th century as one of the five Indian ports he had seen in the course of his travels during twenty-four years.<ref>[http://www.mathrubhumi.com/travel/article/destination/kollam/1095/ Kollam - Mathrubhumi] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141009210850/http://www.mathrubhumi.com/travel/article/destination/kollam/1095/ }}</ref>

Growth and development of agriculture in [[Kerala]] hinterlands brought about plentiful availability of surplus. The excess agricultural crops and grains were bartered for other necessities in angadis or trading centres, turning the ports to cities. Traders used coins especially in foreign trade to export [[spices]], muslin, [[cotton]], [[pearls]] and precious stones to countries of the west and received the wine, olive oil, amphora and terracotta pots from there. Egyptian dinars and Venetian ducats (1284-1797) were in great demand in medieval Kerala's international trade.

The [[Arabs]] and the [[Chinese people|Chinese]] were important trade partners of medieval Kerala. Arab trade and navigation attained a new enthusiasm since the birth and spread of Islam. Four gold coins of [[Umayyad Caliphate]] (665-750 CE) found in [[Kothamangalam]] testifies the visit of Arab traders to Kerala in that period. With the formation of Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258 CE) the Golden Age of [[Islam]] began and trade flourished as the religion was favorably disposed towards trade. Ninth century on wards the Arab trade to [[Malabar Coast|Malabar]] was raised to new esteems and saw many outposts of Muslim merchants. This, later on, became a strong element of Kerala Maritime History.

The Trade with Malabar resulted in the drainage of Chinese gold in abundance that the [[Song dynasty]] (1127-1279) prohibited the use of gold, silver and bronze in foreign trade in 1219 and silk fabrics and porcelain was ordered to be bartered against foreign goods. Pepper, coconut, fish, betel nuts, etc. were exported from Malabar in exchange for gold, silver, colored satin, blue and white porcelain, musk, quicksilver and camphor from [[China]]

==Late Middle Ages==
{{further | Maratha Navy | Shivaji }}
[[Image:WorldShips1460. Indian ships..jpg|thumb|300px|right|Indian vessel as shown in the [[Fra Mauro map]] (1460).]]

[[Ma Huan]] (1413–51) reached [[Cochin]] and noted that [[Indian coinage|Indian coins]], known as ''fanam'', were issued in Cochin and weighed a total of one ''fen'' and one ''li'' according to the Chinese standards.<ref name=Chaudhuri223>Chaudhuri, 223</ref> They were of fine quality and could be exchanged in China for 15 silver coins of four-''li'' weight each.<ref name=Chaudhuri223/>{{unreliable source?}}

[[Image:Calicut 1572.jpg|thumb|Image of [[Kozhikode|Calicut]], India from [[Georg Braun]] and Frans Hogenberg's atlas ''[[Civitates orbis terrarum]]'', 1572.]]

[[Image:Caminho maritimo para a India.png|thumb|This figure illustrates the path of [[Vasco da Gama]]'s course to India (black), the first to go around Africa. Voyages of [[Pêro da Covilhã]] (orange) and [[Afonso de Paiva]] (blue) are also shown with common routes marked in green.]]

On the orders of [[Manuel I of Portugal]], four vessels under the command of navigator [[Vasco da Gama]] rounded the [[Cape of Good Hope]] in 1497, continuing to [[Malindi]] on the eastern coast of Africa, from there to sail across the Indian Ocean to [[Kozhikode|Calicut]].<ref name=Columbia1>"Gama, Vasco da". ''The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition''. Columbia University Press.</ref> Christian missionaries traveling with trade, such as [[Saint Francis Xavier]], were instrumental in the spread of [[Christianity]] in the East.<ref>Corn 1999, pp 68-. "If the Portuguese had wrested the spice trade from the Arabs in those distant lands, then why shouldn't a people enslaved by a false doctrine be likewise freed? This rhetorical question became for Xavier his ultimate concern. It was Portugal's supremacy on the seas and in the spice trade that allowed it to flourish."</ref>

The first Dutch expedition left from [[Amsterdam]] (April 1595) for South East Asia.<ref name=Donkin7>Donkin, 169</ref> Another Dutch convoy sailed in 1598 and returned one year later with 600,000 pounds of spices and other Indian products.<ref name=Donkin7/> The [[United East India Company]] forged alliances with the principal producers of cloves and nutmeg.<ref name=Donkin7/>

[[Shivaji Bhonsle]] (reign 1664–1680) maintained a navy under the charge of general [[Kanhoji Angre]] (served 1698–1729).<ref name=sardesai53-56>Sardesai, 53–56, ''Shivaji Bhonsle and Heirs''</ref> The initial advances of the Portuguese were checked by this navy, which also effectively relieved the traffic and commerce in India's west coast of Portuguese threat.<ref name=sardesai53-56/> The [[Maratha]] navy also checked the [[British East India Company|English East India Company]], until the navy itself underwent a decline due to the policies of general [[Nanasaheb]] (reign 1740 – 1761).<ref>Sardesai, 293–296, ''Peshwai and Pentarchy''</ref>

[[Baba Makhan Shah Labana]], a noted [[Sikh]] of the 17th century is known for trade in sea route to Gulf and [[Mediterranean]] region.

During the [[Mughal Empire]], the province of [[Bengal Subah]] had a large shipbuilding industry. Economic historian Indrajit Ray estimates shipbuilding output of Bengal during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries at 223,250 tons annually, compared with 23,061 tons produced in nineteen colonies in North America from 1769 to 1771.<ref name="ray174">{{cite book |last=Ray |first=Indrajit |year=2011 |title=Bengal Industries and the British Industrial Revolution (1757-1857) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CHOrAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA174 |publisher=Routledge |pages=174 |isbn=978-1-136-82552-1}}</ref> He also assesses ship repairing as very advanced in Bengal.<ref name="ray174"/>

Bengali shipbuilding was advanced compared to European shipbuilding at the time. An important innovation in shipbuilding was the introduction of a [[Flush deck|flushed deck]] design in Bengal rice ships, resulting in [[Hull (watercraft)|hulls]] that were stronger and less prone to leak than the structurally weak hulls of traditional European ships built with a stepped [[Deck (ship)|deck]] design. The British [[East India Company]] later duplicated the flushed deck and hull designs of Bengal rice ships in the 1760s, leading to significant improvements in [[seaworthiness]] and navigation for European ships during the [[Industrial Revolution]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.ucd.ie/t4cms/WP17_11.pdf|title=Technological Dynamism in a Stagnant Sector: Safety at Sea during the Early Industrial Revolution}}</ref>

==British Raj – Modern Period==
{{further|British Raj}}
The [[British East India Company]] shipped substantial quantities of spices during the early 17th century.<ref name=Donkin7/> Rajesh Kadian (2006) examines the history of the British navy in as the [[British Raj]] was established in India:<ref name=kadian06/>

{{Quote|In 1830 ships of the British East India Company were designated as the Indian navy. However, in 1863, it was disbanded when Britain's [[Royal Navy]] took control of the Indian Ocean. About thirty years later, the few small Indian naval units were called the Royal Indian Marine (RIM). In the wake of [[World War I]], Britain, exhausted in manpower and resources, opted for expansion of the RIM. Consequently, on 2 October 1934, the RIM was reincarnated as the Royal Indian Navy (RIN).}}

[[File:The Signing of the Treaty of Nanking.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The [[Treaty of Nanking]] was signed in 1842 on board {{HMS|Cornwallis|1813|6}}, made by shipbuilders at the [[Bombay Dockyard]].<ref name=indiannavy/>]]

The Indian rulers weakened with the advent of the European powers.<ref name=indiannavy/> Shipbuilders, however, continued to build ships capable of carrying 800 to 1,000 tons.<ref name=indiannavy/> The shipbuilders at the [[Bombay Dockyard]] built ships like {{HMS|Hindostan|1795|6}} and {{HMS|Ceylon|1808|6}}, inducted into the Royal Navy.<ref name=indiannavy/> The historical ships made by Indian shipbuilders included {{HMS|Asia|1824|6}} (commanded by [[Edward Codrington]] during the [[Battle of Navarino]] in 1827), the frigate {{HMS|Cornwallis|1813|6}} (onboard which the [[Treaty of Nanking]] was signed in 1842), and {{HMS|Minden|1810|6}} (on which "[[The Star-Spangled Banner]]" was composed by [[Francis Scott Key]]).<ref name=indiannavy/> David Arnold examines the role of Indian shipbuilders during the British Raj:<ref name=Arnold101102>Arnold, 101–102</ref>

{{Quote|Shipbuilding was a well-established craft at numerous points along the Indian coastline long before the arrival of the Europeans and was a significant factor in the high level of Indian maritime activity in the Indian Ocean region....As with cotton textiles, European trade was initially a stimulus to Indian shipbuilding: vessels built in ports like Masulipatam and Surat from Indian hardwoods by local craftsmen were cheaper and tougher than their European counterparts.

Between the seventeenth and early nineteenth centuries Indian shipyards produced a series of vessels incorporating these hybrid features. A large proportion of them were built in Bombay, where the Company had established a small shipyard. In 1736 Parsi carpenters were brought in from Surat to work there and, when their European supervisor died, one of the carpenters, Lowji Nuserwanji Wadia, was appointed Master Builder in his place.

Wadia oversaw the construction of thirty-five ships, twenty-one of them for the Company. Following his death in 1774, his sons took charge of the shipyard and between them built a further thirty ships over the next sixteen years. The Britannia, a ship of 749 tons launched in 1778, so impressed the Court of Directors when it reached Britain that several new ships were commissioned from Bombay, some of which later passed into the hands of the Royal Navy. In all, between 1736 and 1821, 159 ships of over 100 tons were built at Bombay, including 15 of over 1,000 tons. Ships constructed at Bombay in its heyday were said to be 'vastly superior to anything built anywhere else in the world'.}}

==Contemporary Era (1947–present)==

{{further | Indian Navy | List of ports in India | Sagar Mala project }}

===Military===
In 1947, the [[Republic of India]]'s navy consisted of 33 ships, and 538 officers to secure a coastline of more than 4,660 miles (7,500 km) and 1,280 islands.<ref name=kadian06/> The Indian navy conducted annual Joint Exercises with other Commonwealth navies throughout the 1950s.<ref name=kadian06/> The navy saw action during various of the country's wars, including [[Indian integration of Junagadh]],<ref>The navy was used in national integration by ferrying troops and securing the coast during the Junagadh state operations—Rajesh Kadian (2006).</ref> the [[liberation of Goa]],<ref>the Indian navy, among other actions, sank the Portuguese frigate ''Afonso de Albuquerque''—Rajesh Kadian (2006).</ref> the [[1965 war]], and the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|1971 war]].<ref>The navy's fortunes were greatly restored in 1971. After East Pakistan ([[Bangladesh]]) seceded, leading to civil war between Pakistan's two wings, the Indian navy trained four task forces of riverine guerrillas. Those [[MARCOS (India)|frogmen]] sank or damaged over 100,000 tons of shipping in four months and disrupted ports and inland waterways, the lifeline of the country. In December, after the war formally started, an imaginative, daring raid by Osa missile boats on [[Karachi]] harbor sank two warships, damaged others, and ignited oil storage facilities. The Indian armed forces conducted amphibious landings for the first time toward the end of the war—Rajesh Kadian (2006).</ref> Following difficulty in obtaining spare parts from the [[Soviet Union]], India also embarked upon a massive indigenous naval designing and production programme aimed at manufacturing destroyers, frigates, corvettes, and submarines.<ref name=kadian06>Kadian (2006)</ref>

[[Image:Malabar 07-2 exercise.jpg|thumb|Ships participating in the ''[[Malabar 2007]]'' naval exercise from the navies of [[India]], United States, Japan, Australia and Singapore in the [[Bay of Bengal]].]]

India's Coast Guard Act was passed in August 1978.<ref name=kadian06/> The Indian Coast Guard participated in counter terrorism operations such as [[Operation Cactus]].<ref name=kadian06/> During contemporary times the Indian navy was commissioned in several [[List of United Nations peacekeeping missions|United Nations peacekeeping missions]].<ref name=kadian06/> The navy also repatriated Indian nationals from [[Kuwait]] during the [[first Gulf War]].<ref name=kadian06/> Rajesh Kadian (2006) holds that: "During the [[Kargil War]] (1999), the aggressive posture adopted by the navy played a role in convincing [[Islamabad]] and [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]] that a larger conflict loomed unless Pakistan withdrew from the heights.".<ref name=kadian06/>

As a result of the growing strategic ties with the western world the Indian navy has conducted joint exercises with its western counterparts, including the [[United States Navy]], and has obtained latest naval equipment from its western allies.<ref name=kadian06/> Better relations with the United States of America and [[Israel]] have led to joint patrolling of the [[Straits of Malacca]].<ref name=kadian06/>

===Civil===
{{update section}}
The following table gives the detailed data about the major ports of [[India]] for the financial year 2005–06 and percentage growth over 2004–05 ''(Source: [https://web.archive.org/web/20090410022515/http://ipa.nic.in/oper.htm Indian Ports Association)]'':

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|- bgcolor="#efefef"
!align="left"|Name !! Cargo Handled (06-07) '000 tonnes !! % Increase (over 05–06) !! Vessel Traffic (05-06) !! % Increase (over 04–05) !! Container Traffic (05-06) '000 TEUs !! % Increase (over 04–05)
|-
|[[Kolkata Port Trust|Kolkata]] ''(Kolkata Dock System & Haldia Dock Complex)'' || align="right" | 55,050 || align="right" | 3.59% || align="right" | 2,853 || align="right" | 07.50% || align="right" | 313 || align="right" | 09.06%
|-
|[[Paradip]] || align="right" | 38,517 || align="right" | 16.33% || align="right" | 1,330 || align="right" | 10.01% || align="right" | 3 || align="right" | 50.00%
|-
|[[Visakhapatnam]] || align="right" | 56,386 || align="right" | 1.05% || align="right" | 2,109 || align="right" | 14.43% || align="right" | 47 || align="right" | 04.44%
|-
|[[Chennai Port|Chennai]] || align="right" | 53,798 || align="right" | 13.05% || align="right" | 1,857 || align="right" | 11.26% || align="right" | 735 || align="right" | 19.12%
|-
|[[Thoothukudi|Tuticorin]] || align="right" | 18,001 || align="right" | 05.03% || align="right" | 1,576 || align="right" | 06.56% || align="right" | 321 || align="right" | 04.56%
|-
|[[Cochin Port|Cochin]] || align="right" | 15,314 || align="right" | 10.28% || align="right" | 1,225 || align="right" | 09.38% || align="right" | 203 || align="right" | 09.73%
|-
|[[New Mangalore Port]] || align="right" | 32,042 || align="right" | -06.99% || align="right" | 1,087 || align="right" | 01.87% || align="right" | 10 || align="right" | 11.11%
|-
|[[Mormugao]] || align="right" | 34,241 || align="right" | 08.06% || align="right" | 642 || align="right" | -03.31% || align="right" | 9 || align="right" | -10.00%
|-
|[[Mumbai Harbour|Mumbai]] || align="right" | 52,364 || align="right" | 18.50% || align="right" | 2,153 || align="right" | 14.34% || align="right" | 159 || align="right" | -27.40%
|-
|[[Jawaharlal Nehru Port|J.N.P.T]], [[Navi Mumbai]] || align="right" | 44,818 || align="right" | 18.45% || align="right" | 2,395 || align="right" | 03.06% || align="right" | 2,267 || align="right" | -04.39%
|-
|Ennore || align="right" | 10,714 || align="right" | 16.86% || align="right" | 173 || align="right" | 01.17% || align="right" | || align="right" |
|-
|[[Kandla]] || align="right" | 52,982 || align="right" | 15.41% || align="right" | 2,124 || align="right" | 09.48% || align="right" | 148 || align="right" | -18.23%
|-
|'''All Indian Ports''' || align="right" | '''463,843''' || align="right" | '''9.51%''' || align="right" | '''19,796''' || align="right" | '''08.64%''' || align="right" | '''4,744''' || align="right" | '''12.07%'''
|}

== See also ==
{{portal|India|Oceans}}
{{columnslist|colwidth=22em|
* Spread of Indian influence through maritime routes
** [[Greater India]]
** [[Indosphere]]
** [[Non-resident Indian and Overseas Citizen of India]]
** [[Buddhism in Southeast Asia]]
** [[Hinduism in Southeast Asia]]
** [[History of Indian influence on Southeast Asia]]
** [[Indianization of Southeast Asia]]
** [[Tamil loanwords in Biblical Hebrew]]

* Trading routes
** [[Indo-Roman trade relations]]
** [[Indian Ocean trade]]
** [[Indus–Mesopotamia relations]]
** [[Maritime history of Odisha]]
** [[Silk Road]]
** [[Ancient maritime history]]

* Economy
** [[Economic history of India]]
** [[List_of_regions_by_past_GDP_(PPP)#Indian|Historic GDP of India (1-1947 CE)]]
}}

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book |title=Indian Shipping - A history of the sea-borne trade and maritime activity of the Indians from the earliest times |author= Radhakumud Mookerji |publisher=Longmans, Green and Co., Bombay |year=1912|url=https://archive.org/stream/indianshippinghi00mookrich#page/n7/mode/2up }}
* {{cite book |title=Indian Shipping: A case study of the working of Imperialism|first=Asoka|last= Mehta|publisher= N.T.Shroff, Bombay|year=1940 |url=https://archive.org/stream/indianshipping032835mbp#page/n3/mode/2up }}

==References==
* Arnold, David (2004), ''[[The New Cambridge History of India]]: Science, Technology and Medicine in Colonial India'', Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|0-521-56319-4}}.
* Ball, Warwick (2000), ''Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire'', Routledge, {{ISBN|0-415-11376-8}}.
* Chakravarti, P. C. (1930), "Naval Warfare in ancient India", ''The Indian Historical Quarterly'', '''4''' (4): 645–664.
* [[Kirti N. Chaudhuri|Chaudhuri, K. N.]] (1985), ''Trade and Civilisation in the Indian Ocean'', Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|0-521-28542-9}}.
* Corn, Charles (1999) [First published 1998], ''The Scents of Eden: A History of the Spice Trade'', Kodansha, {{ISBN|1-56836-249-8}}.
* Curtin, Philip DeArmond etc. (1984), ''Cross-Cultural Trade in World History'', Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|0-521-26931-8}}.
* Donkin, Robin A. (2003), ''Between East and West: The Moluccas and the Traffic in Spices Up to the Arrival of Europeans'', Diane Publishing Company, {{ISBN|0-87169-248-1}}.
* Gosch, Stephen S. & Stearns, Peter N. (2007), ''Premodern Travel in World History'', Taylor & Francis, {{ISBN|0-203-92695-1}}.
* Hermann & Rothermund [2000] (2001), ''A History of India'', Routledge, {{ISBN|0-415-32920-5}}.
* Holl, Augustin F. C. (2003), ''Ethnoarchaeology of Shuwa-Arab Settlements'', Lexington Books, {{ISBN|0-7391-0407-1}}.
* Kadian, Rajesh (2006), "Armed Forces", ''[[Encyclopedia of India]] (vol. 1)'' edited by Stanley Wolpet, pp. 47–55.
* Kulke & Rothermund [2000] (2001), ''A History of India'', Routledge, {{ISBN|0-415-32920-5}}.
* Lach, Donald Frederick (1994), ''Asia in the Making of Europe: The Century of Discovery'', University of Chicago Press, {{ISBN|0-226-46731-7}}.
* Lindsay, W.S. (2006), ''History of Merchant Shipping and Ancient Commerce'', Adamant Media Corporation, {{ISBN|0-543-94253-8}}.
* Majumdar, R.C. (1987), ''Ancient India'', Motilal Banarsidass Publications, {{ISBN|81-208-0436-8}}.
* Nilakanta Sastri, K.A [1935] (1984), ''The CōĻas'', University of Madras.
* Nilakanta Sastri, K.A [1955] (2002), ''A History of South India'', Oxford University Press.
* K.M. Panikkar, 1945: India and the Indian Ocean: an essay on the influence of sea power on Indian history
* Rao, S. R. (1985), ''Lothal'', [[Archaeological Survey of India]].
* Rao, S. R. The Lost City of Dvaraka, National Institute of Oceanography, {{ISBN|81-86471-48-0}} (1999)
* Rao, S. R. Marine Archaeology in India, Delhi: Publications Division, {{ISBN|81-230-0785-X}} (2001)
* Sardesai, D.R. (2006), "Peshwai and Pentarchy", ''[[Encyclopedia of India]] (vol. 3)'' edited by Stanley Wolpet, pp. 293–296.
* Sardesai, D.R. (2006), "Shivaji Bhonsle and Heirs", ''Encyclopedia of India (vol. 4)'' edited by Stanley Wolpet, pp. 53–56.
* Shaffer, Lynda N. (2001), "Southernization", ''Agricultural and Pastoral Societies in Ancient and Classical History'' edited by Michael Adas, Temple University Press, {{ISBN|1-56639-832-0}}.
* Sircar, D.C. (1990), ''Studies in the Geography of Ancient and Medieval India'', Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, {{ISBN|81-208-0690-5}}.
* Tripathi, Rama Sankar (1967), ''History of Ancient India'', Motilal Banarsidass Publications, {{ISBN|81-208-0018-4}}.
* Young, Gary Keith (2001), ''Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy, 31 BC-AD 305'', Routledge, {{ISBN|0-415-24219-3}}.
* Medieval Kerala's Maritime trade history with ''Arabs and Chinese'' https://www.tyndisheritage.com/the-amazing-stories-of-kerala-maritime-history

{{India topics}}
{{Indianscience}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Indian Maritime History}}
[[Category:Maritime history of India]]
[[Category:Maritime history of Pakistan]]
[[Category:History of science and technology in India]]
[[Category:Economic history of Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Tamilakam]]
[[Category:Maritime history]]