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P. Amudha

2026-05-05T20:02:37Z

IZinePro:

{{short description|Indian civil servant}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = P. Amudha
| honorific_suffix =
| image = File:P. Amudha.jpg
| caption = P. Amudha in 2019
| birth_name = Amudha Periasamy
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|year=1970|month=7|day=19|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Madurai]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]]
| education =
| alma_mater =
| occupation = [[Indian civil servant]]
| spouse =
| awards =
| office1 = [[Secretary of state|Principal Secretary]] of [[<ref>https://www.deccanherald.com/india/tamil-nadu/tamil-nadu-home-secretary-others-transferred-in-bureaucratic-reshuffle-3107576</ref> Revenue and Disaster Management Department]], [[Government of Tamil Nadu]]
| 1blankname1 = Chief Minister
| 1namedata1 = [[M. K. Stalin]]
| 2blankname1 = Minister
| 2namedata1 = [[S. Muthusamy]]
}}

'''P. Amudha''' is an Indian civil servant, a 1994 batch [[Indian Administrative Service|IAS]] officer of [[Tamil Nadu]] cadre who is currently working as Home Secretary in the Tamilnadu government. Along with Home Affairs portfolio, she is looking after Prohibition and Excise department too.<ref>{{cite web |title=Contact Details of Departments |url=https://www.tn.gov.in/section}}</ref> Prior to this position, she was working as Principal Secretary, Rural development and Panchayat Raj.<ref>{{cite web |title=P Amudha IAS posted as Principal Secretary- Rural Development and Panchayat Raj, TN |url=https://www.indianbureaucracy.com/p-amudha-ias-posted-as-principal-secretary-rural-development-and-panchayat-raj-tn/}}</ref> She has been called back to her parent cadre from her duty as [[Additional secretary to the Government of India|Additional Secretary]] in [[Prime Minister's Office (India)|Prime Minister's Office]] (PMO) for a period of fourteen months. She was working as a professor of [[Public administration|Public Administration]] at the [[Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of Administration]] in [[Mussoorie]], [[Uttarakhand]] before her deputation in PMO.<ref>{{Cite news|first=Mahesh|last=Langa|date=2020-07-21|title=Amudha appointed Joint Secretary in PMO|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/amudha-appointed-joint-secretary-in-pmo/article32143814.ece|access-date=2020-07-22|issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Tamil Nadu IAS officer Amudha appointed as joint secretary in PMO|url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/tamil-nadu-ias-officer-amudha-appointed-joint-secretary-pmo-129139|access-date=2020-07-24|website=www.thenewsminute.com}}</ref> She was the executive director of the Tamil Nadu Corporation for Development of Women under [[Government of Tamil Nadu|Tamil Nadu Government]] and has worked as a program officer with the [[UNICEF|United Nations Children's Fund for Water and Sanitation]]. She has worked in fifteen different departments under Government of Tamil Nadu.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-03-08|title=Women's Day Special: Exclusive interview with P Amutha, IAS|url=https://www.dtnext.in/News/TopNews/2019/03/07224800/1109555/Womens-Day-special-Exclusive-interview-with-P-Amutha-.vpf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724164922/https://www.dtnext.in/News/TopNews/2019/03/07224800/1109555/Womens-Day-special-Exclusive-interview-with-P-Amutha-.vpf|url-status=dead|archive-date=24 July 2020|access-date=2020-07-22|website=dtNext.in|language=en}}</ref> She is known for her penchant for being on the field and taking bold decisions.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-08-10|title=Go-to officer heals wounds at Karunanidhi's funeral|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/politics/100818/go-to-officer-heals-wounds-at-karunanidhis-funeral.html|access-date=2020-07-24|website=Deccan Chronicle|language=en}}</ref>

== Career ==
[[File:The District Collector, Smt. P. Amudha inaugurating Bharat Nirman Public Information Campaign, at Dharmapuri, in Tamil Nadu on July 24, 2008.jpg|thumb|P. Amudha inaugurating [[Bharat Nirman]] Public Information Campaign at [[Dharmapuri district|Dharmapuri]] in Tamil Nadu in 2008.]]
P. Amudha started her career as an IAS officer from 4 September 1994 in Tamil Nadu cadre.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Civil List of IAS Officers|url=https://easy.nic.in/civillistias/yrcurr/AgeListCL.asp?Slab=6&Cadre=TN&AsOnDate=01/01/2019|access-date=2020-07-22|website=easy.nic.in}}</ref> Initially, she was appointed as [[District magistrate|collector]] of [[Dharmapuri district]] in Tamil Nadu. She was additional [[Chief Electoral Officer (Tamil Nadu)|chief electoral officer]] in the Public (Elections) Department in the Tamil Nadu Government. Prior to this position, she served in the [[Department of Health and Family Welfare (Tamil Nadu)|Health and Family Welfare Department]] of the Tamil Nadu Government as project director and member-secretary of the Tamil Nadu State [[HIV/AIDS|AIDS]] Control Society. She was the executive director for the Tamil Nadu Corporation for Development of Women in the Tamil Nadu Government, and has worked as program officer with the United Nations Children's Fund for Water and Sanitation. For many years, she was also the district collector with the [[Department of Revenue (Tamil Nadu)|Land Revenue Management and District Administration]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=P. Amudha {{!}} Everyday Leadership|url=http://everydayleadership.org/person/p-amudha|access-date=2020-07-22|website=everydayleadership.org|language=en|archive-date=26 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726132950/http://everydayleadership.org/person/p-amudha|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Das|first=Ria|date=2020-07-21|title=IAS Officer P Amudha Appointed Joint Secretary In Prime Minister's Office|url=https://www.shethepeople.tv/news/p-amudha-joins-pmo-joint-secretary/|access-date=2020-07-24|website=SheThePeople TV|language=en-US}}</ref>

On 11 March 2019, P. Amudha was appointed as professor of Public Administration at Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of Administration ''(LBSNAA).''<ref>{{Cite web|title=Witness in the Corridors|url=https://witnessinthecorridors.com/BureaDetails.aspx?id=14120|access-date=2020-07-25|website=witnessinthecorridors.com}}</ref>

== Sports ==
P. Amudha is a [[kabaddi]] player. She was a member of the kabbadi team that won the national championship thrice. She is also trained in [[karate]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Jesudasan|first=Dennis S.|date=2020-07-21|title=P. Amudha IAS: An officer known for overcoming obstacles on every terrain|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/an-officer-known-for-overcoming-obstacles-on-every-terrain/article32154842.ece|access-date=2020-07-24|issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
==External Links==
{{Commons}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Amudha, P.}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1970 births]]
[[Category:Indian Administrative Service officers]]
[[Category:People from Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:People from Madurai]]
[[Category:Prime Minister's Office (India)]]
[[Category:Indian government officials]]
[[Category:District magistrate]]

INS Surat

2026-05-05T16:58:54Z

IZinePro:

{{Short description|Visakhapatnam-class destroyer of the Indian Navy}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2021}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2021}}{{italic title|string=Surat}}
{{Infobox ship
|section1={{Infobox ship/image
| image = INS Surat, INS Nilgiri and INS Vaghsheer at the Naval Dockyard in Mumbai.jpg
| image_caption = INS Surat
}}

|section2={{Infobox ship/career
| hide_header =
| country = India
| flag = {{shipboxflag|India|naval}}
| name = ''Surat''
| namesake = [[Surat]]
| owner =
| operator = [[Indian Navy]]
| registry =
| route =
| ordered =
| awarded =
| builder = [[Mazagon Dock Limited]]
| yard_number =
| way_number =
| laid_down = 7 November 2019
| launched = 17 May 2022
| completed = 15 June 2024
| commissioned = 15 January 2025
| decommissioned =
| in_service =
| reinstated =
| homeport =
| identification = [[Pennant number]]: D69
| motto = सागरे प्रचंड।
"Fierce in the ocean" or "Mighty in the sea."
| honours =
| fate =
| status = In active service
| notes =
| badge = [[File:INS SURAT CREST.jpg|150px]]
}}

|section3={{Infobox ship/characteristics
| type = [[Guided missile destroyer]]
| displacement = {{convert|7400|t|abbr=on}}<ref name="Indian Navy Visakhapatnam">{{cite web|title=INS Visakhapatnam', First Ship of Project 15B launched|url=http://www.indiannavy.nic.in/news-events/ins-visakhapatnam-first-ship-project-15b-launched|website=indiannavy.nic.in|publisher=Indian Navy (News)|access-date=28 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924034817/http://www.indiannavy.nic.in/news-events/ins-visakhapatnam-first-ship-project-15b-launched|archive-date=24 September 2015|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
| length = {{convert|163|m|ft|abbr=on}}
| beam = {{convert|17.4|m|ft|abbr=on}}
| draft = {{convert|6.5|m|ft|abbr=on}}
| propulsion = *[[Combined gas and gas|COGAG]]<ref name="naval-technology.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.naval-technology.com/projects/project-15b-guided-missile-destroyers/|title = Project 15B Guided Missile Destroyers, Mazagon Dock Limited}}</ref>
*2 x [[Zorya-Mashproekt|Zorya M36E]] [[gas turbine]]s, with 4 × DT-59 reversible gas turbines and 2 × RG-54 [[Transmission (mechanics)|gearboxes]]
*2 × Bergen/[[Garden Reach Shipbuilders and Engineers|GRSE]] KVM-diesel engines, {{convert|9900|hp|kW|abbr=on}} each
*4 × 1 MWe [[Wärtsilä]] WCM-1000 generator sets driving [[Cummins]] KTA50G3 engines and [[Kirloskar Group|Kirloskar]] 1 MV AC generators
| sail_plan =
| speed = In excess of {{convert|30|kn|km/h|0}}
| range = {{convert|8000|nmi}} at {{convert|18|kn}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shukla |first=Ajay |date=21 April 2015 |title=INS Visakhapatnam shows growing Indian ability to build warships economically |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/ins-visakhapatnam-shows-growing-indian-ability-to-build-warships-economically-115042100011_1.html |access-date=28 July 2023 |website=Business Standard}}</ref>
| endurance = 45 days
| test_depth =
| boats = 4 x [[Rigid inflatable boat|RHIB]]
| capacity =
| troops =
| complement =
| crew = 300 (50 officers + 250 sailors)
| time_to_activate =
| sensors = *'''Radar :-'''
*[[Israeli Aircraft Industries|IAI]] [[EL/M-2248 MF-STAR]] [[S band|S-Band]] [[Active Electronically Scanned Array|AESA]] [[radar]]
*[[Bharat Electronics Limited|BEL]] RAWL-02/LW-08 [[L band|L-Band]] [[Secondary surveillance radar|air-search radar]]
*[[Terma A/S|Terma]]/[[Tata Advanced Systems|Tata]] Scanter-6002 [[X band|X-Band]] [[surface-search radar]]
*'''Sonar :-'''
*[[Bharat Electronics|BEL]] HUMSA-NG active/passive [[sonar]]
*[[Bharat Electronics|BEL]] "Nagin" [[Towed array sonar|active towed-array sonar]]
*'''Combat Suite :-'''
*"Combat Management System" (CMS)
| EW = *[[Defence Research and Development Organisation|DRDO]] "Shakti" [[Electronic warfare|EW suite]] (equipped with [[Electronic warfare support measures|ESM]]/[[Electronic countermeasure|ECM]] and "Radar Finger Printing System" (RFPS))
*[[Defence Research and Development Organisation|DRDO]] "Nayan" [[Signals intelligence|COMINT]] suite
*'''Decoys :-'''
*4 x [[Kavach (anti-missile system)|Kavach]] decoy launchers
*2 x [[Maareech ATDS|Maareech]] [[Torpedo defence|torpedo-countermeasure]] systems
| armament = *'''Anti-air warfare :-'''
*4 × 8-cell [[Vertical launching system|VLS]], for a total of 32 [[Barak 8]] [[surface-to-air missile]]s
*'''Anti-surface warfare :-'''
*2 x 8-cell VLS, for 16 [[BrahMos]] [[anti-ship missile]]s
*'''Anti-submarine warfare :-'''
*4 × {{cvt|533|mm|in|0}} [[torpedo tube]]s
*2 × [[RBU-6000]] [[Anti-submarine weapon|anti-submarine rocket launchers]]
*'''Guns :-'''
*1 × [[OTO Melara 76 mm]] [[Naval artillery|naval gun]]
*4 x [[AK-630|AK-630M]] [[Close-in weapon system|CIWS]]
*2 x [[Ordnance Factory Tiruchirappalli|OFT]] 12.7 mm M2 [[Remote controlled weapon station|Stabilized Remote Controlled Gun]]
| armour =
| armor =
| aircraft = 2 × [[HAL Dhruv]] (or) [[Westland Sea King|Sea King Mk. 42B]]
| aircraft_facilities = *Enclosed helicopter [[hangar]] and [[flight deck]] capable of accommodating two multi-role helicopters.
| notes = *Modified derivative of the [[Kolkata-class destroyer|''Kolkata''-class destroyer]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.naval-technology.com/projects/project-15b-guided-missile-destroyers/|title = Project 15B Guided Missile Destroyers}}</ref>
}}
}}

'''INS ''Surat''''' is the fourth ship of the {{sclass|Visakhapatnam|destroyer|0}} [[stealth ship|stealth]] [[guided-missile destroyer]]s of the [[Indian Navy]]. The ship is the last of the line of destroyers built under Project 15 which includes the {{sclass|Delhi|destroyer|0}} (P-15), the {{sclass|Kolkata|destroyer|0}} (P-15A) and the {{sclass|Visakhapatnam|destroyer|1}} (P-15B).<ref name=":0" /> The commissioning [[commanding officer]] of ''Surat'' is [[Captain (Indian Navy)|Captain]] Sandeep Shourie.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Pandit |first=Vinaya Deshpande |date=2025-01-15 |title=Red-letter day for the Navy, declare Captains of 3 frontline combatants |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/red-letter-day-for-the-navy-say-the-captains-of-three-frontline-combatants/article69101988.ece/ |access-date=2025-01-16 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

Initially, the ship was speculated to be named after port city Porbandar but later it was changed to Surat. The other warships of this class are {{INS|Visakhapatnam}}, {{INS|Mormugao}}, {{INS|Imphal}}.<ref name="p15b_surat">{{cite tweet|number=1460507800879075330|user=ANI|title=Defence Minister Rajnath Singh will formally Commission INS Vishakhapatnam on Nov 21 in Mumbai: Navy Vice Admiral SN Ghormade}}</ref> The ship has the distinction of being the first [[Artificial Intelligence]]-enabled warship of the Indian Navy.<ref name=":0" />

==Construction==
The keel of ''Surat'' was [[Keel laying|laid down]] in 2018. Built at two different geographical locations using the block construction methodology involving hull construction and joining at [[Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders|MDL]]. As the successor of [[Kolkata-class destroyer|P-15A destroyers]], the [[Visakhapatnam-class destroyer|P-15B destroyers]] are the next generation of stealth guided missile destroyers to be used by the Indian Navy.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Time to Make-for-World, Says Rajnath as Indian Navy Launches Indigenous Warships in Mumbai |url=https://www.msn.com/en-in/news/other/time-to-make-for-world-says-rajnath-as-indian-navy-launches-indigenous-warships-in-mumbai/ar-AAXmywS |access-date=2022-05-17 |website=MSN |language=en-IN}}</ref>

The keel for ''Surat'' was laid on 9 November 2019<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |date=2024-12-20 |title=YARD 12707 (SURAT) AND YARD 12651 (NILGIRI) DELIVERED TO INDIAN NAVY |url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2086668 |access-date=2024-12-21 |work=[[Press Information Bureau]] |agency=Ministry of Defence, Government of India.}}</ref> and was launched on 17 May 2022 by [[Mazagon Dock Limited]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 May 2022 |title=Raksha Mantri launches two indigenous frontline warships - Surat (Guided Missile Destroyer) & Udaygiri (Stealth Frigate) - in Mumbai |url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleseDetailm.aspx?PRID=1825981 |publisher=PIB}}</ref> On 15 June 2024, ''Surat'' begun her Contractor Sea Trials and completed her Final Machinery Trials on 25 November 2024 taking a time of record low of 6 months. The ship was delivered to the Indian Navy on 20 December 2024. The ship was delivered within 31 months from launch which made this the fastest destroyer to be built in India.<ref name=":0" /> The ship was initially scheduled to be commissioned in December 2024 but the timeline was later shifted.<ref name="X-2703242">{{cite twitter |number=1837104398679384228 |user=Sputnik_India |title=#Surat will be the next major combatant to join the #IndianNavy's arsenal. The ship commenced her maiden sea trials prior induction... |first=‼️EXCLUSIVE: 7 warships, one submarine to join 🇮🇳 Navy in next 4 months — defence sources to Sputnik India... |date=2024-09-20 |access-date=2024-09-20}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Indian Navy to commission four warships, submarines in a mth |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/indian-navy-set-to-introduce-four-warships-and-submarines-soon/articleshow/115945345.cms |access-date=2024-12-04 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

== Service history ==
The ship was commissioned on 15 January 2025 along with {{INS|Nilgiri|2019|6}} and [[INS Vagsheer (S26)|INS ''Vagsheer'']].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-01-15 |title=Navy gets 'hunter-killer' submarine, warships; PM says emerging as maritime power |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/pm-modi-in-maharashtra-ins-surat-ins-nilgiri-ins-vaghsheer-iskcon-temple-2664948-2025-01-15 |access-date=2025-01-15 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=PM Modi commissions INS Surat, INS Nilgiri, and INS Vaghsheer: Key points |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/pm-modi-departs-for-mumbai-to-dedicate-naval-combatants-inaugurate-iskcon-temple/articleshow/117251565.cms |access-date=2025-01-15 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

On 24 April 2025, INS ''Surat'' conducted a missile test of [[MRSAM]] which intercepted a [[sea-skimming]] target in the [[Arabian Sea]] through precision cooperative engagement.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-04-24 |title=Video: Navy warship conducts missile test in Arabian Sea |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/video-indian-navy-warship-conducts-destroyer-ins-surat-missile-test-in-arabian-sea-2713976-2025-04-24 |access-date=2025-04-24 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref>

The ship arrived at [[Hazira Port]] near [[Surat]] on the occasion of [[Gujarat Day]] on 1 May 2025.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-05-01 |title=INS Surat docks at Hazira on Gujarat Foundation Day |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/surat/ins-surat-docks-at-hazira-on-gujarat-foundation-day/articleshow/120799969.cms |access-date=2025-05-02 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> Surat was involved in the rescue operations of a container vessel that had caught fire off the coast of [[Beypore]] along with the [[Indian Coast Guard]] In early June 2025.<ref>https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/singaporeflagged-vessel-catches-fire-off-kerala-coast-navy-coast-guard-launch-rescue-operation-101749459261442.html</ref> The ship later took the 18 crew members injured in the fire to [[Mangaluru|Mangalore]] on June 9.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-06-10 |title=Indian Navy vessel with 18 crew members rescued from fire-struck ship arrives in Mangaluru |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Mangalore/indian-navy-vessel-ins-surat-carrying-18-crew-members-rescued-from-fire-struck-singapore-flagged-container-ship-arrives-in-mangaluru/article69677452.ece |access-date=2025-06-10 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

On 28 August 2025, ''Surat'' arrived in [[Jeddah Port]] of [[Saudi Arabia]] a day after {{INS|Tamal}}.

On 28 August 2025, INS ''Surat'' undertook her maiden overseas port call at [[Jeddah Port]] of [[Saudi Arabia]], a day after {{INS|Tamal}} called at the same port, i.e., on 27 August. The ships' crew will also interact with the [[Royal Saudi Navy]] and [[General Directorate of Border Guard|Border Guards]] as part of a goodwill visit along with diplomatic talks, sports fixture and exploring "avenues for further engagement".<ref>{{Cite press release |title=Indian Naval Ships Tamal and Surat arrived at Jeddah, Saudi Arabia |date=2025-08-29 |publisher=[[Press Information Bureau]] |url=https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2161817 |access-date=2025-08-30}}</ref> On 7 September 2025, ''Surat'' participated in a Passage Exercise (PASSEX) with [[Italian destroyer Caio Duilio|ITS ''Caio Duilio'']] (D554).<ref>{{Cite tweet |number=1965035238155071742 |user=IN_WNC |title=#INSSurat of @indiannavy participated in a #PASSEX with Andrea Doria Class Destroyer ITS Caio Duilio of @ItalianNavy on 07 Sep 25. |date=2025-09-08 |access-date=2025-09-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cite tweet |number=1965039782284902469 |user=alpha_defense |title=#INSSurat of @indiannavy participated in a #PASSEX with Andrea Doria-class Destroyer ITS Caio Duilio of @ItalianNavy on 07 Sep 25... |date=2025-09-08 |access-date=2025-09-09}}</ref>

=== Exercise Konkan 2025 ===
{{See also|UK Carrier Strike Group#Carrier Strike Group 25 (Operation Highmast)}}{{INS|Vikrant|2013|6}} (R11) and its [[Carrier battle group#India|Carrier Battle Group]] (CBG), including ''Surat'', took part in the biennial Exercise Konkan 2025 with the [[Royal Navy]]'s [[UK Carrier Strike Group#Carrier Strike Group 25 (Operation Highmast)|UK Carrier Strike Group 2025]] (UK CSG 25), a formation centred on {{HMS|Prince of Wales|R09}}, between 5 and 12 October 2025 off the Western Coast of India. This is the maiden instance of a dual carrier operation between the countries.<ref>{{Cite press release |title=Exercise Konkan - 2025 commences on the Western Seaboard |date=2025-10-05 |publisher=[[Press Information Bureau]] |url=https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2175054 |access-date=2025-10-05}}</ref><ref name=":03">{{Cite press release |title=UK Carrier Strike Group strengthens partnership with India |date=2025-10-06 |publisher=[[UK Government]] |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-carrier-strike-group-strengthens-partnership-with-india |access-date=2025-10-08}}</ref><ref name=":13">{{Cite news |last= |first= |date=2025-10-05 |title=U.K. and India launch historic Carrier Strike Group Exercise Konkan |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/uk-and-india-launch-historic-carrier-strike-group-exercise-konkan/article70127988.ece |access-date=2025-10-05 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> While the UK CSG included {{HMS|Richmond|F239}} and [[RFA Tidespring (A136)|RFA ''Tidespring'' (A136)]] along with {{HNoMS|Roald Amundsen|F311}} of the [[Royal Norwegian Navy]] and {{JS|Akebono|DD-108}} of the [[Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Redacción |date=2025-10-07 |title=For the first time, the aircraft carriers HMS Prince of Wales and INS Vikrant of the UK and Indian navies trained together in the Indian Ocean |url=https://www.zona-militar.com/en/2025/10/07/for-the-first-time-the-aircraft-carriers-hms-prince-of-wales-and-ins-vikrant-of-the-uk-and-indian-navies-trained-together-in-the-indian-ocean/ |access-date=2025-10-08 |website=Zona Militar |language=en-US}}</ref> the Indian Navy's CBG included {{INS|Kolkata|D63}}, {{INS|Mormugao|D67}}, {{INS|Tabar|F44}}, {{INS|Teg|F45}} and {{INS|Deepak|A50}}.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mahadzir |first=Dzirhan |date=2025-10-07 |title=U.K., Indian Navy Carrier Strike Groups Conduct First Ever Dual Carrier Operations |url=https://news.usni.org/2025/10/07/u-k-indian-navy-carrier-strike-groups-conduct-first-ever-dual-carrier-operations |access-date=2025-10-08 |website=USNI News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-10-06 |title=The UK's Carrier Strike Group forms up with the Indian Navy and Japanese ship Akebono |url=https://www.defenceimagery.mod.uk/Home/www.defenceimagery.mod.uk/Home/Search?Query=FLEET-20251006-XL0002-005.jpg&Type=Filename |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251008162658/https://www.defenceimagery.mod.uk/Home/Search?Query=FLEET-20251006-XL0002-005.jpg&Type=Filename |archive-date=2025-10-08 |access-date=2025-10-08 |website=Defence Imagery |language=en}}</ref> The 2021 edition, named Konkan Shakti, was the largest exercise in the series in which all three services of both countries participated. On 8 October, the [[Indian Air Force]] deployed its [[Su-30MKI]] and [[SEPECAT Jaguar|Jaguar]] aircraft for a one-day exercise with the group.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=2025-10-08 |title=Royal Navy Carrier Strike Group leaves the Pacific and begins exercise with Indian Navy |url=https://www.navylookout.com/royal-navy-carrier-strike-group-leaves-the-pacific-and-begins-exercise-with-indian-navy/ |access-date=2025-10-08 |website=Navy Lookout |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":03" /><ref name=":13" />

=== 2026 ===
On 16 February, INS Surat made a port visit to [[Bahrain]], on the bylines of [[International Fleet Review 2026]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=INS Surat's Bahrain visit reinforces India's commitment to maritime security |url=https://www.aninews.in/news/world/middle-east/ins-surats-bahrain-visit-reinforces-indias-commitment-to-maritime-security20260216150711 |access-date=2026-02-16 |website=www.aninews.in |language=en}}</ref> She hosted a Staff Enhancement Training of the Combined Task Force (CTF) 154 for 23 participants on 10 nations.<ref>{{Cite press release |title=Indian Navy-led CTF 154 conducts staff training aboard INS Surat |date=22 February 2026 |publisher=[[Combined Maritime Forces]] |url=https://combinedmaritimeforces.com/2026/02/22/indian-navy-led-ctf-154-conducts-staff-training-aboard-ins-surat/ |access-date=26 February 2026}}</ref>

Amid the [[2026 Iran War|Iran War]], the destroyer and an Indian Navy frigate was kept deployed in the [[Gulf of Oman]] and the [[Gulf of Aden]] under [[Operation Sankalp]]. As on 2 March, India was "closely monitoring" the situation and the warships could be immediately diverted for HADR operations, as per a senior defence official. A day earlier the [[Prime Minister of India|Prime Minister]]-chaired [[Cabinet Committee on Security]], the country's highest decision-making body on security and strategic affairs, had convened a meeting to review the West Asia conflict and its implications for India.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Trivedi |first=Saurabh |date=2026-03-02 |title=Indian warships in the Gulf on standby for humanitarian operations |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/indian-warships-in-the-gulf-on-standby-for-humanitarian-operations/article70696250.ece |access-date=2026-03-03 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> During the subsequent [[Operation Urja Suraksha]], INS ''Surat'' rescued six Pakistani fishermen on 15th March who were stranded 170 nautical miles east of Oman’s [[Duqm Port|Port of Duqm]] after their fishing vessel ''Islami'' had a fire accident.<ref>{{Cite web |title=MSN |url=https://www.msn.com/en-in/news/India/indian-navy-rescues-8-pakistani-fishermen-in-arabian-sea-exclusive/ar-AA1YO6ed?gemSnapshotKey=GM694261B1-snapshot-1&uxmode=ruby&cvid=69d372b7868844db98ac79077fe5f6c4&ei=41 |access-date=2026-04-06 |website=www.msn.com}}</ref>

== Ship badge ==
On 6 November 2023, [[List of chief ministers of Gujarat|Chief Minister of Gujarat]], [[Bhupendrabhai Patel|Bhupendra Patel]], unveiled the crest of the ship in [[Surat]].<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=5 November 2023 |title=Crest of Navy warship 'Surat' to be unveiled in city it's named after |url=https://www.business-standard.com/india-news/crest-of-navy-warship-surat-to-be-unveiled-in-city-it-s-named-after-123110500780_1.html |website=Business Standard}}</ref> The crest depicts the lighthouse at [[Hazira]] of Surat which is situated at the southern entrance of the [[Gulf of Khambhat]] and was built in 1836 as one of the first lighthouses in India. The state animal of [[Gujarat]], the [[Asiatic lion|Asiatic Lion]] is also depicted in the crest of the ship.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-11-06 |title=CREST UNVEILING CEREMONY SURAT INDIAN NAVY'S PROJECT 15B WARSHIP |url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1975179 |access-date=2024-06-18 |website=pib.gov.in}}</ref>

== Gallery ==
<gallery>
File:INS Surat maiden trial.jpg|''Surat'' during sea trials
File:Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders Limited delivers INS Mormugao to the Indian Navy 01.jpg|Delivery ceremony of the ship at [[Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders]]
File:INS Surat firing rocket.png|INS ''Surat'' firing one of its [[RBU-6000]] rockets
File:INS Surat.png|INS ''Surat'' silhouette
</gallery>

==See also==
*{{sclass|Delhi|destroyer|1}}
*[[List of active Indian Navy ships]]
*[[List of destroyers of India]]
*[[Future of the Indian Navy]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

{{Visakhapatnam-class destroyers}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Surat}}
[[Category:Visakhapatnam-class destroyers]]
[[Category:Destroyers of the Indian Navy]]
[[Category:Ships built in India]]
[[Category:2022 ships]]

Birsing Jarua Assembly constituency

2026-05-04T17:16:45Z

IZinePro: Created New Post!

{{short description|Assembly constituency of Assam}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2021}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2021}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Birsing Jarua
| type = SLA
| constituency_no = 9
| map_image = Birsing Jarua Assembly constituency map.svg
| map_caption =
| state = [[Assam]]
| division = [[Lower Assam]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Dhubri Lok Sabha constituency|Dhubri]]
| district = [[Dhubri district|Dhubri]] and [[South Salmara-Mankachar district|South Salmara-Mankachar]]
| established = 2023<ref>https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/assembly-elections/assam/constituency-show/birsing-jarua</ref>
| reservation = None
| mla =
| party =
| alliance =
| latest_election_year =
| electors =
}}
'''Birsing Jarua Assembly constituency''' is one of the 126 assembly constituencies of [[Assam]] a north east state of India. Birsing Jarua is also part of [[Dhubri Lok Sabha constituency]]. It was previously '''Mankachar''' before 2023.<ref>https://www.eci.gov.in/Documents/Delimitation/DELIMITATIONASSAM_UPDATED.pdf{{Dead link | date=April 2026 | fix-attempted=yes}}</ref>

==Details==
===After 2023===
Area includes South Salmara and Jamadarhat Development blocks, and parts of Bilasipara, Birsing Jarua, and Chapar Salkocha development blocks.

==Members of Legislative Assembly==
{| class="wikitable"
! Year
! Election
! Member
!colspan=2| Political Party
! From
! To
! Duration
|-
|2026
|[[2026 Assam Legislative Assembly election|First Assembly]]
|[[Wazed Ali Choudhury]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|4 May 2026
|''[[Incumbent]]''
|{{Age in years and days|2026|5|04|||}}
|}

== Election results ==
Source:<ref>{{Cite web|title=Mankachar Assembly constituency Election Result - Legislative Assembly constituency|url=https://resultuniversity.com/election/mankachar-assam-assembly-constituency|access-date=2021-06-14|website=resultuniversity.com}}</ref>

=== 2026 ===

{{Election box begin|title= [[2026 Assam Legislative Assembly election]]: Birsing Jarua}}

{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Wazed Ali Choudhury
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = 113901
|percentage = 41.53
|change =
}}

{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Ali Akbar Miah
|party = All India United Democratic Front
|votes = 78016
|percentage = 28.45
|change =
}}

{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Reza Amin
|party = Independent
|votes = 68556
|percentage = 25.00
|change =
}}

{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Madhabi Das
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = 8083
|percentage = 2.95
|change =
}}

{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Akbar Ali Mondal
|party = The National Road Map Party of India
|votes = 1384
|percentage = 0.50
|change =
}}

{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Abdus Sobur Miah
|party = Socialist Unity Centre Of India (Communist)
|votes = 541
|percentage = 0.20
|change =
}}

{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Mohar Uddin Mondal
|party = Vikas India Party
|votes = 314
|percentage = 0.11
|change =
}}

{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Shahinoor Islam
|party = Apni Janta Party
|votes = 468
|percentage = 0.17
|change =
}}

{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Rafiqul Islam
|party = Independent
|votes = 775
|percentage = 0.28
|change =
}}

{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = NOTA
|party = None of the above
|votes = 2225
|percentage = 0.81
|change =
}}

{{Election box margin of victory
|votes = 35885
|percentage = 13.08
|change =
}}

{{Election box turnout
|votes = 274263
|percentage =
|change =
}}

{{Election box gain with party link
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser = All India United Democratic Front
|swing =
}}

{{Election box end}}

<ref>{{Cite web|title=Assam Assembly General Election Result 2026 |date=May 4, 2026 |work=ECINET |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenMay2026/ConstituencywiseS039.htm |publisher=ECINET}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Mankachar]]
* [[Hatsingimari]]
* [[South Salmara-Mankachar District]]
* [[Dhubri district]]
* [[List of constituencies of Assam Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Government of Assam]]
* [[Government of India]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{cite web |title=Results of all Assam Assembly elections |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/67-assam/ |website=eci.gov.in |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=15 March 2022}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Assam}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Assam]]
[[Category:South Salmara-Mankachar district]]
[[Category:Politics of Assam]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1951]]
[[Category:1951 establishments in Assam]]

Jagjit Singh Bedi

2026-05-04T02:56:49Z

IZinePro: new a bio.

{{Short description|Vice Admiral in Indian Navy}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2025}}
{{Infobox military person
| honorific_prefix = [[Vice Admiral (India)|Vice Admiral]]
| name = Jagjit Singh Bedi
| honorific_suffix = [[PVSM]], [[UYSM]], [[AVSM]], [[Vishisht Seva Medal|VSM]]
| birth_date =
| death_date =
| birth_place =
| death_place =
| burial_place =
| image = File:VAdm Jagjit Singh Bedi.jpg
| caption =
| nickname = Jaggi
| allegiance = {{flag|India}}
| branch = {{flagicon image|Naval Ensign of India.svg}} [[Indian Navy]]
| service_years = 1969 - 2009
| rank = [[File:British_Royal_Navy_(sleeves)_OF-8.svg|23px]] [[File:13-Indian_Navy-VADM.svg|23px]] [[Vice Admiral (India)|Vice Admiral]]
| commands = [[Western Naval Command]]<br/>[[Southern Naval Command]]<br/>[[Western Fleet (India)|Western Fleet]]<br/>{{ship|INS|Viraat|R22}}<br/>{{ship|INS|Ranjit|D53}}<br/>[[Indian Naval Academy]]<br/>{{ship|INS|Udaygiri|F35}}<br/>''[[Pondicherry-class minesweeper|INS Bedi]]<br/>[[Ajay-class patrol vessel|INS Atul]]''
| unit =
| battles = [[Operation Parakram]]
| awards = [[File:Param_Vishisht_Seva_Medal_ribbon.svg|20px]] [[Param Vishisht Seva Medal]]<br/>[[File:Uttam_Yudh_Seva_Medal_ribbon.svg|20px]] [[Uttam Yudh Seva Medal]]<br/>[[File:Ati_Vishisht_Seva_Medal_ribbon.svg|20px]] [[Ati Vishisht Seva Medal]]<br/>[[File:Vishisht_Seva_Medal_ribbon.svg|20px]] [[Vishisht Seva Medal]]
| relations =
| other_work =
}}
[[Vice Admiral (India)|Vice Admiral]] '''Jagjit Singh 'Jaggi' Bedi''', [[PVSM]], [[UYSM]], [[AVSM]], [[Vishisht Seva Medal|VSM]] is a former Flag officer in the [[Indian Navy]]. He last served as the [[Flag Officer Commanding-in-Chief Western Naval Command]], from 2007 to 2009. He earlier commanded the [[Southern Naval Command]] and the [[Western Fleet (India)|Western Fleet]].

==Early life and education==
Bedi was born in [[Nabha]] on 25 April 1949. His father and grandfather both served the [[Nabha State]]. His grandfather was the Revenue Minister of the state. His father was a commissioned officer in the Nabha Akal Regiment of the Nabha States Forces. After the [[Independence of India]], the regiment became the 14th battalion, [[Punjab Regiment (India)|Punjab Regiment]].<ref name="PPS ONA newsletter">{{cite web |title=THE EAGLE |url=https://www.ppsona.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/The-Eagle-August-2002.pdf |website=ppsona.com |access-date=31 May 2024}}</ref>

Bedi attended the [[Delhi Public School, Mathura Road]], New Delhi. When the Punjab Public School, Nabha was established in 1960, he joined the first batch of the school. He subsequently joined the [[National Defence Academy (India)|National Defence Academy]], Khadakwasla in 1965.<ref name="PPS ONA newsletter" />

==Naval career==
Bedi was commissioned into the Indian Navy on 1 July 1969. After a few sea tenures, he opted to specialise in Signal communication and electronic warfare. As a young Lieutenant, he commanded the [[Ajay-class patrol vessel|Ajay-class Seaward Defence Boat]] ''INS Atul''. He also commanded the [[Pondicherry-class minesweeper]] ''INS Bedi''. He was selected to attend the [[Royal Naval College, Greenwich]], where he completed his staff course.<ref name="DCNS">{{cite web |title=New Deputy Chief for the Navy |url=https://pib.gov.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=12271 |website=pib.gov.in |access-date=31 May 2024}}</ref> He served as the Staff Officer to the Deputy and Vice Chief of the Naval Staff. As a commander, he commanded the [[Nilgiri-class frigate (1972)|Nilgiri-class frigate]] {{ship|INS|Udaygiri|F35}}. He also served as the deputy director (Electronic Warfare) at naval headquarters. In the late 80s, he was appointed Chief Instructor and Officer-in-Charge of the Signals School, his alma-mater, in Kochi. In 1990, he attended the [[Naval War College]] in Rhode Island.

In December 1991, Bedi took over as the Commanding Officer of the naval base in Goa, INS Mandovi. He concurrently served as the [[Commandant of Indian Naval Academy]]. The academy moved to its present location, Ezhimala, in 2008.<ref name="CO Mandovi">{{cite web |title=AIR CHIEF REVIEWS PASSING OUT PARADE AT NAVAL ACADEMY |url=https://archive.pib.gov.in/archive/ArchiveSecondPhase/DEFENCE/1993-JAN-DEC-DEFENCE/PDF/DEF-1993-05-29_120.pdf |website=archive.pib.gov.in |access-date=31 May 2024}}</ref> In the rank of [[Captain (Indian Navy)|Captain]], Bedi served as the Directing Staff at the [[College of Naval Warfare]] and as the Director of Naval Plans at NHQ. He also commanded the [[Rajput-class destroyer|Rajput-class]] [[guided missile destroyer]] {{ship|INS|Ranjit|D53}}. On 26 January 1994, he was awarded the [[Vishisht Seva Medal]].<ref name="VSM">{{cite web |last1=Directorate of Printing |first1=Government of India |title=Gazette of India, 1994, No. 12 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gazette.1994.12/page/n15/mode/2up?q=bedi |website=archive.org |access-date=31 May 2024 |date=19 March 1994}}</ref> Later that year, in September, Bedi took command of the aircraft carrier {{ship|INS|Viraat|R22}}. He was the 6th Commanding Officer of ''Viraat''.<ref name="CO RANJIT">{{cite web |title=NAVAL SHIPS ON GOODWILL VISIT TO KUWAIT, BAHRAIN AND QATAR |url=https://archive.pib.gov.in/archive/ArchiveSecondPhase/DEFENCE/1993-JAN-DEC-DEFENCE/PDF/DEF-1993-12-13_323.pdf |website=archive.pib.gov.in |access-date=31 May 2024}}</ref>

===Flag rank===
[[File:Vice Admiral Sangram Singh Byce welcoming the new Commander-in-Chief Western Naval Command, Vice Admiral Jagjit Singh Bedi at INS Kunjali, in Mumbai on July 31, 2007.jpg|right|thumb|VAdm Bedi (left) taking command of [[Western Naval Command]] from Vadm SS Byce.]]
[[File:The_Flag_Officer_Commanding%E2%80%93in-_Chief,_Western_Naval_Command,_Vice_Admiral_J.S._Bedi_shaking_hands_with_the_Chairman,_Defence_Committee_of_Parliament_of_Finland,_Mr._Juha_Korkeoja,_at_Mumbai_on_February_27,_2009.jpg|right|thumb|VAdm Bedi (right) as [[Flag Officer Commanding-in-Chief Western Naval Command|FOC-in-C WNC]] with the chairman, Defence Committee of Parliament of Finland, [[Juha Korkeaoja]].]]

In 1996, Bedi was promoted to the rank of acting [[Rear admiral (India)|Rear Admiral]] and appointed [[Assistant Chief of the Naval Staff (India)|Assistant Chief of the Naval Staff]] (Plans & Policy) at NHQ. He subsequently took over as the Chief of Staff (COS), [[Western Naval Command]]. He served in this appointment during Operation Rainbow. He was awarded the [[Ati Vishisht Seva Medal]] on 26 January 1999.<ref name="AVSM">{{cite web |title=PRESIDENT CONFERS GALLANTRY AND MERITORIOUS SERVICE AWARDS |url=https://archive.pib.gov.in/archive/ArchiveSecondPhase/DEFENCE/1999-JULY-DEC-MIN-OF-DEFENCE/PDF/DEF-1999-10-28_174.pdf |website=archive.pib.gov.in |access-date=31 May 2024}}</ref>

On 10 September 2001, Bedi was appointed [[Flag Officer Commanding Western Fleet]] (FOCWF). He took command of the [[Western Fleet (India)|Western Fleet]], from Rear Admiral Sangram Singh Byce. In December 2001, after the [[2001 Indian Parliament attack|attack on Indian Parliament]], the armed forces were put on high alert as part of [[Operation Parakram]]. The Western Fleet ships were deployed. During the operation, Karachi harbour was virtually blocked and entire Makran coast was under constant surveillance. For his command of the Western Fleet during the hostilities, Bedi was awarded the [[Uttam Yudh Seva Medal]]. In January 2003, he relinquished command of the fleet.<ref name="UYSM">{{cite web |last1=Directorate of Printing |first1=Government of India |title=Gazette of India, 2004, No. 477 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gazette.2004.477/page/n29/mode/2up?q=bedi |website=archive.org |access-date=31 May 2024 |date=24 April 2004}}</ref>

Bedi was promoted to the rank of [[Vice Admiral (India)|Vice Admiral]] and moved to NHQ as the Controller Warship Production and Acquisition (CWP&A). The CWP&A integrates and coordinates the various activities of shipbuilding and ship acquisition at NHQ.<ref>{{cite web |title=Vice Admiral JS Bedi to head S Naval Command |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/vice-admiral-js-bedi-to-head-s-naval-command/story-KSEeKN6gaOltkvywm9JjEL.html |website=hindustantimes.com |access-date=31 May 2024}}</ref>{{sfn|Hiranandani|2005}}

On 27 December 2005, Bedi was appointed [[Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff (India)|Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff]]. After a short stint as DCNS, he was promoted to Commander-in-Chief grade and appointed [[Flag Officer Commanding-in-Chief Southern Naval Command]] (FOC-in-C SNC), succeeding Vice Admiral S. C. S. Bangara in July 2006.<ref name="FOCINC SNC">{{cite web |title=Vice Admiral J S Bedi new Commander-in-Chief of SNC |url=https://www.oneindia.com/2006/07/31/vice-admiral-j-s-bedi-new-commander-in-chief-of-snc-1154340453.html |website=oneindia.com |access-date=31 May 2024}}</ref> He was awarded the [[Param Vishisht Seva Medal]] on 26 January 2007.<ref>{{cite web |title=Republic Day Gallantry and other Defence Decorations |url=https://pib.gov.in/newsite/erelcontent.aspx?relid=24335 |website=pib.gov.in |access-date=31 May 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Directorate of Printing |first1=Government of India |title=Gazette of India, 2007, No. 116 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gazette.2007.116/page/n31/mode/2up?q=bedi |website=archive.org |access-date=31 May 2024 |date=17 March 2007}}</ref> He served as FOC-in-C SNC for a year. On 1 August 2007, he took over the [[Western Naval Command]] (WNC) as the Commander-in-Chief. He was at the helm of WNC for close to two years. He superannuated on 30 April 2009, after 40 years of service, and handed over command to Vice Admiral [[Sanjeev Bhasin]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Amphibious Landing Exercise off Gujarat Coast |url=https://pib.gov.in/newsite/erelcontent.aspx?relid=47351 |website=pib.gov.in |access-date=31 May 2024}}</ref><ref name="FOCINC WNC">{{cite web |title=Bedi takes charge of Western Naval Command |url=https://www.oneindia.com/2007/07/31/vice-admiral-bedi-takes-charge-of-western-naval-command-1185869091.html |website=oneindia.com |access-date=31 May 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Vice Admiral Bhasin is new Western Naval Commander |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/mumbai/vice-admiral-bhasin-is-new-western-naval-commander/ |website=The Indian Express |access-date=31 May 2024 |language=en |date=1 May 2009}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Bedi married Kanwal Bedi in 1975. The couple has two daughters who in turn are married with the oldest having two children, a son and a daughter<ref>Relative</ref>.<ref name="PPS ONA newsletter" />

==Awards and decorations==

{| style="margin:1em auto; text-align:center;"
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=Param Vishisht Seva Medal ribbon.svg|width=106}}
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=Uttam_Yudh_Seva_Medal_ribbon.svg|width=106}}
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=Ati Vishisht Seva Medal ribbon.svg|width=106}}
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=Vishisht_Seva_Medal_ribbon.svg|width=106}}
|-
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=IND_Special_Service_Medal_Ribbon.svg|width=106}}
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=IND_Poorvi_Star_Ribbon.svg|width=106}}
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=IND_Paschimi_Star_Ribbon.svg|width=106}}
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=IND_Sangram_Medal_Ribbon.svg|width=106}}
|-
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=IND Operation Vijay medal.svg|width=106}}
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=IND_Operation_Parakram_medal.svg|width=106}}
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=IND_Videsh_Seva_Medal_Ribbon.svg|width=106}}
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=IND 50th Anniversary Independence medal.svg|width=106}}
|-
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=IND_25th_Anniversary_Independence_medal.svg|width=106}}
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=IND_30_Years_Long_Service_Ribbon.svg|width=106}}
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=IND 20YearsServiceMedalRibbon.svg|width=106}}
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=IND 9YearsServiceMedalRibbon.svg|width=106}}
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto; text-align:center;"
|-
|[[Param Vishisht Seva Medal]]
|[[Uttam Yudh Seva Medal]]
|[[Ati Vishisht Seva Medal]]
|[[Vishisht Seva Medal]]
|-
|[[Special Service Medal (India)|Special Service Medal]]
|[[Poorvi Star]]
|[[Paschimi Star]]
|[[Sangram Medal]]
|-
|[[Operation Vijay Medal]]
|[[Operation Parakram Medal]]
|[[Videsh Seva Medal]]
|[[50th Independence Anniversary Medal]]
|-
|[[25th Independence Anniversary Medal]]
|[[Indian military decorations#Long service awards|30 Years Long Service Medal]]
|[[Indian military decorations#Long service awards|20 Years Long Service Medal]]
|[[Indian military decorations#Long service awards|9 Years Long Service Medal]]
|}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
*{{citation|first1=G M|last1=Hiranandani|title=Transition to eminence : the Indian navy 1976-1990|year=2005|isbn=978-8170622666|publisher=Lancer Publishers}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-mil}}
{{s-bef|before=K. P. Mathew}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Commandant of Indian Naval Academy]]|years=1991 - 1993}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Nirmal Kumar Verma]]}}
{{s-bef|before=Yashwant Prasad}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[INS Viraat#Commanding officers|Commanding Officer INS Viraat]]|years=1994 - 1995}}
{{s-aft|rows=2|after=[[Vijay Shankar (admiral)|Vijay Shankar]]}}
{{s-bef|before=Sangram Singh Byce}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Flag Officer Commanding Western Fleet]]|years=2001 - 2003}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Sureesh Mehta]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff (India)|Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff]]|years=2005 - 2006}}
{{s-aft|after=R. P. Suthan}}
{{s-bef|before=S. C. S. Bangara}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Flag Officer Commanding-in-Chief Southern Naval Command]]|years=2006 - 2007}}
{{s-aft|after=S. K. Damle}}
{{s-bef|before=Sangram Singh Byce}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Flag Officer Commanding-in-Chief Western Naval Command]]|years=2007 - 2009}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Sanjeev Bhasin]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bedi, Jagjit Singh}}
[[Category:Indian Navy vice admirals]]
[[Category:Deputy chiefs of Naval Staff (India)]]
[[Category:Flag Officers Commanding Western Fleet]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Param Vishisht Seva Medal]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Uttam Yudh Seva Medal]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Ati Vishisht Seva Medal]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Vishisht Seva Medal]]
[[Category:Graduates of the Royal College of Defence Studies]]
[[Category:National Defence Academy (India) alumni]]
[[Category:Graduates of the Royal Naval College, Greenwich]]
[[Category:Naval War College alumni]]
[[Category:1949 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]

Meghalaya

2026-04-30T09:35:03Z

IZinePro: adjust section for consistency

{{Short description|State in northeastern India}}
{{for|the geological stage|Meghalayan}}
{{More citations needed|date=July 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}
{{Infobox Indian state or territory
| name = Meghalaya
| official_name = State of Meghalaya
| type = State
| image_seal = Emblem of Meghalaya.svg
| etymology = "Abode of Clouds"
| image_skyline = {{Photomontage
| photo1a = Dawki River, Meghalaya, India.jpg
| photo2a = Khrangsuri waterfall, Meghalaya 01 (edit).jpg
| photo2b =Tawny-Breasted Wren-Babbler (Spelaeornis longicaudatus).jpg
| photo3a = Noakalikai falls 1480244029215.jpg
| size = 280
| spacing = 2
| position = centre
| border = 0
| color = white
}}
| image_caption = Clockwise from top: [[Umngot River]], Tawny Breasted Wren, [[Nohkalikai Falls]], Khrangsuri waterfalls
| motto = [[Satyameva Jayate]] ([[Sanskrit]])<br/>"Truth alone triumphs"{{force singular}}
| anthem = [[Ri Khasi, Ri Pnar, Ri Garo]] ([[Khasi language|Khasi]], [[Pnar language|Pnar]] and [[Garo language|Garo]])<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1998146|title=Meghalaya gets State Anthem|website=PIB|date=20 January 2024}}</ref><br/>"Meghalaya, My Land"
| image_map = IN-ML.svg
| coordinates = {{coord|25.57|91.88|region:IN-AS|display=inline,title}}
| region = Northeast India
| before_was = Part of [[Assam]]
| formation_date2 = formation1
| formation_date4 = 21 January 1972
| capital = Shillong
| largestcity = capital
| districts = [[List of districts of Meghalaya|12]]
| Governor = [[C. H. Vijayashankar]]<ref name="Governor_2024"/>
| Chief_Minister = [[Conrad Sangma]]
| party = [[National People's Party (India)|NPP]]
| judiciary = [[Meghalaya High Court]]
| legislature_type = Unicameral
| assembly = [[Meghalaya Legislative Assembly]]
| assembly_seats = 60 seats
| rajya_sabha_seats = 1 seat
| lok_sabha_seats = 2 seats
| area_total_km2 = 22429
| area_rank = 24th
| length_km = 300
| width_km = 100
| elevation_m =
| elevation_max_m = 1,965
| elevation_max_point = Shillong Peak
| elevation_min_m = 150
| elevation_min_point = [[Brahmaputra River]]
| population_footnotes = <ref name="census2011Abstract">{{cite web |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/pca/DDW_PCA0000_2011_Indiastatedist.xlsx |title=Primary Census Abstract Data Tables (India & States/UTs - District Level) |publisher=Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India |access-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408052329/https://censusindia.gov.in/pca/DDW_PCA0000_2011_Indiastatedist.xlsx |archive-date=8 April 2022 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="CensusIndia2011PCA12018">{{cite report|chapter-url=https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/PCA/PCA_Highlights/pca_highlights_file/India/Chapter-1.pdf|chapter=Population, Size and Decadal Change|date=2018|title=Primary Census Abstract Data Highlights, Census of India, 2011|access-date=16 June 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191019035341/https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/PCA/PCA_Highlights/pca_highlights_file/India/Chapter-1.pdf|archive-date=19 October 2019|publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref>
| population_total = {{Increase}} 2,966,889
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank = 22nd
| population_urban = 20.07%
| population_rural = 79.93%
| population_density = 130
| population_demonym = Meghalayans
| 0fficial_Langs = [[English language|English]],<ref name="OfficialLang">{{cite web |url=https://meghalaya.gov.in/sites/default/files/acts/act_4may2005.pdf |title=The Meghalaya State Language Act, 2005 |publisher=meghalaya.gov.in |access-date=22 April 2026 }}</ref>
[[Khasi language|Khasi]], [[Garo language|Garo]]<ref name=KhasiGaro_Official>{{Cite news |title=Meghalaya declares Khasi and Garo as official languages alongside English |url=https://www.newsonair.gov.in/meghalaya-declares-khasi-and-garo-as-official-languages-alongside-english/ |work=newsonair.gov.in |date=29 April 2026 }}</ref>
| official_script = [[Latin script]]
| GDP_total = {{Increase}}{{INRConvert|0.763|lc|lk=r}}
| GDP_year = 2026-27
| GDP_rank = 27th
| GDP_per_capita = {{IncreaseNeutral}}{{INRConvert|174090|lk=r}}
| GDP_per_capita_rank = 29th
| HDI = {{Increase}}0.690 {{color|orange|medium}}<ref>{{cite web |title=India: Subnational HDI |url=https://globaldatalab.org/shdi/table/shdi/IND/ |website=Global Data Labs |access-date=13 May 2025}}</ref>
| HDI_year = 2023
| HDI_rank = 24th
| literacy = 94.2%<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.mospi.gov.in/sites/default/files/publication_reports/AnnualReport_PLFS2023-24L2.pdf |title=Annual Report, Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) (July 2023 – June 2024) |date=23 September 2024 |publisher=National Sample Survey Office, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India |pages=A-10 |chapter=Appendix-A: Detailed tables, Table (7): Literacy rate (in per cent) of persons of different age groups for each State/UT (persons, age-group (years): 7 & above, rural+urban (column 6))}}</ref>
| literacy_year = 2024
| literacy_rank = 5th
| sex_ratio = 989[[female|♀]]/1000 [[male|♂]]
| sexratio_year = 2011
| sexratio_rank = 3rd
| iso_code = IN-ML
| registration_plate = ML
| website = meghalaya.gov.in
| mammal = [[Clouded leopard]]
| bird = [[Hill myna]]
| flower = [[Paphiopedilum insigne|Lady's Slipper Orchid]]
| tree = [[Gmelina arborea|Gamhar]]
| image_highway = SH IN-ML.png
}}

'''Meghalaya''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|m|eɪ|g|ə|ˈ|l|eɪ|ə|,_|m|eɪ|ˈ|g|ɑː|l|ə|j|ə}};<ref>{{MW|Meghalaya}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/Meghalaya|title=Definition of Meghalaya in English from the Oxford Dictionaries|work=[[Oxford Dictionaries (website)|Oxford Dictionaries]]|access-date=1 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402101655/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/Meghalaya|archive-date=2 April 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> {{lit.}} "the abode of clouds"<ref name="Etymology"/>) is a [[states and union territories of India|state]] in [[northeast India]]. Its capital is [[Shillong]]. Meghalaya was formed on 21 January 1972 by carving out two districts from the state of [[Assam]]: the united [[Khasi Hills]] and [[Jaintia Hills]], and the [[Garo Hills]].<ref name="meghis">[http://megassembly.gov.in/origin_and_growth.htm History of Meghalaya State] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130924232301/http://megassembly.gov.in/origin_and_growth.htm|date=24 September 2013}} Government of India</ref> The estimated population of Meghalaya in 2014 was 3,211,474.<ref>{{cite web|date=10 March 2014|title=Fact sheet on meghalaya|url=http://pib.nic.in/archieve/others/2014/mar/d2014031002.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304024544/http://pib.nic.in/archieve/others/2014/mar/d2014031002.pdf|archive-date=4 March 2016|access-date=12 September 2014}}</ref> Meghalaya covers an area of approximately 22,429 square kilometres, with a length-to-breadth ratio of about 3:1.<ref name="ibef">[http://www.ibef.org/download/Meghalaya-110313.pdf Meghalaya] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130903215532/http://www.ibef.org/download/Meghalaya-110313.pdf|date=3 September 2013}} IBEF, India (2013)</ref> The state is bound to the south by the [[Bangladesh]]i divisions of [[Mymensingh Division|Mymensingh]] and [[Sylhet Division|Sylhet]], to the west by the Bangladeshi division of [[Rangpur Division|Rangpur]], and to the north and east by India's Assam.

During the [[British Raj|British rule of India]], the British authorities nicknamed it the "Scotland of the East".<ref name=akrl>Arnold P. Kaminsky and Roger D. Long (2011), ''India Today: An Encyclopedia of Life in the Republic'', {{ISBN|978-0313374623}}, pp. 455–459</ref> English is the official language of Meghalaya. Unlike many Indian states, Meghalaya has historically [[Matrilineal society of Meghalaya|followed a matrilineal system]] where the lineage and inheritance are traced through women; the youngest daughter inherits all wealth and she also takes care of her parents.<ref name=akrl/>

The state is the wettest region of India, with the wettest areas in the southern Khasi Hills recording an average of {{convert|12000|mm|abbr=on}} of rain a year.<ref name="ibef"/> About 70 per cent of the state is forested.<ref name="Meghalaya and Its Forests">[http://www.megforest.gov.in/megfor_extent_forest.htm Meghalaya and Its Forests] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140822010308/http://www.megforest.gov.in/megfor_extent_forest.htm |date=22 August 2014 }} Government of Meghalaya (2012); Quote – total forest area is 69.5%</ref> The [[Meghalaya subtropical forests]] [[ecoregion]] encompasses the state; its mountain forests are distinct from the lowland tropical forests to the north and south. The forests are notable for their [[biodiversity]] of mammals, birds and plants.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Inside Meghalaya's Subtropical Forests & Biodiversity Guide |url=https://www.zentrail.in/blogs/meghalaya-subtropical-forests-ecoregion |access-date=17 December 2025 |website=www.zentrail.in |language=en}}</ref>

Meghalaya has a predominantly [[agrarian economy]] with a significant commercial forestry industry. The important crops are potatoes, rice, maize, [[pineapple]]s, bananas, papayas and spices. The service sector is made up of real estate and [[insurance companies]]. Meghalaya's gross state domestic product for 2012 was estimated at {{INRConvert|16173|c}} in current prices.<ref name=pcindia/> The state is geologically rich in minerals, but it has no significant industries.<ref name=akrl/> The state has about {{convert|1,170|km|abbr=on}} of national highways. It is also a major logistical centre for trade with Bangladesh.<ref name="ibef"/>

In July 2018, the [[International Commission on Stratigraphy]] divided the [[Holocene]] epoch into three,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stratigraphy.org/index.php/ics-news-and-meetings/119-collapse-of-civilizations-worldwide-defines-youngest-unit-of-the-geologic-time-scale|title=Collapse of civilizations worldwide defines youngest unit of the Geologic Time Scale|access-date=18 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180718214052/http://stratigraphy.org/index.php/ics-news-and-meetings/119-collapse-of-civilizations-worldwide-defines-youngest-unit-of-the-geologic-time-scale|archive-date=18 July 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/meghalaya-ecstatic-after-being-etched-in-geological-history-permanently/story-jmw6vPPuuNAg2ctBbyTztO.html|title=Meghalaya ecstatic after being etched in geological history permanently|access-date=21 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719204920/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/meghalaya-ecstatic-after-being-etched-in-geological-history-permanently/story-jmw6vPPuuNAg2ctBbyTztO.html|archive-date=19 July 2018|url-status=live|date=19 July 2018}}</ref> with the late Holocene epoch being called the ''[[Meghalayan]] stage/age'',<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-44868527|title=Welcome to the Meghalayan Age a new phase in history|access-date=18 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180718211344/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-44868527|archive-date=18 July 2018|url-status=live|work=BBC News|date=18 July 2018|last1=Amos|first1=Jonathan}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/science/newest-phase-in-earths-history-named-after-meghalaya-rock/articleshow/65046837.cms|title=Newest phase in Earth's history named after Meghalaya rock|website=[[The Times of India]]|date=19 July 2018 |access-date=19 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802183333/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/science/newest-phase-in-earths-history-named-after-meghalaya-rock/articleshow/65046837.cms|archive-date=2 August 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> since a [[speleothem]] in [[Caves of Meghalaya#List of twenty longest caves in Meghalaya|Mawmluh cave]] indicating a dramatic [[4.2-kiloyear event|worldwide climate event around 2250 BCE]] had been chosen as the boundary [[stratotype]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.qpg.geog.cam.ac.uk/news/formalsubdivisionoftheholoceneseriesgeogr18.pdf |title=Formal subdivision of the Holocene Series/Epoch |access-date=10 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180710194916/https://www.qpg.geog.cam.ac.uk/news/formalsubdivisionoftheholoceneseriesgeogr18.pdf |archive-date=10 July 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

One of the biggest [[List of institutes funded by the government of India|Central Institutes]], the [[North Eastern Council]] Secretariat, is also situated in Shillong.

==Etymology==
The word ''Meghālaya'' means "the abode of clouds"; the name derives from a compound of the [[Sanskrit]] words ''megha'' ("cloud", मेघ) and ''alaya'' ("abode", आलय).<ref name="Etymology">{{cite book |last1=Sharma |first1=Suresh Kant |last2=Sharma |first2=Usha |title=Discovery of North-East India |date=2015 |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=978-81-8324-034-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JUozqyA2e90C&q=meghalaya |access-date=30 October 2023 |archive-date=11 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231111115903/https://books.google.com/books?id=JUozqyA2e90C&q=meghalaya |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=BHARAT DARSHAN - Embassy of India, Luanda |date=2023 |url=https://indembangola.gov.in/pdf/Newsletter/26_July_Bharat_Darshan.pdf |access-date=9 October 2023 |archive-date=11 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231111115908/https://indembangola.gov.in/pdf/Newsletter/26_July_Bharat_Darshan.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

== History ==
{{Further|Meitei people in Meghalaya#History{{!}}Meghalayan Manipuri history}}
Meghalaya, alongside the neighbouring Indian states, has been of archaeological interest. People have lived in Meghalaya since the [[Neolithic period]]. Neolithic sites discovered so far are located in areas of high elevation in [[Khasi Hills]], [[Garo Hills]] and in neighbouring states, where Neolithic style [[jhum|Jhum]] or shifting cultivation is practised even today. The [[highland]] plateaus fed by abundant rains provided safety from floods and a rich soil.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hazarika |first=Manjil |year=2006 |title=Neolithic Culture of Northeast India: A Recent Perspective on the Origins of Pottery and Agriculture |journal=Ancient Asia |volume=1 |pages=25–44 |doi=10.5334/aa.06104 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The importance of Meghalaya is its possible role in human history via domestication of rice. A theory for the origin of rice is by Ian Glover while states, "India is the center of greatest diversity of domesticated rice with over 20,000 identified species and Northeast India is the most favorable single area of the origin of domesticated rice."<ref>Glover, Ian C. (1985), Some Problem Relating to the Domestication of Rice in Asia, In Recent Advances in Indo-Pacific Prehistory (Misra, VN. and P. Bellwood Eds.), {{ISBN|978-8120400153}}, Oxford Publishing, pp 265-274</ref> The limited archaeology done in the hills of Meghalaya suggest human settlement since ancient times.<ref name=skr>SANKAR KUMAR ROY, Aspects of Neolithic Agriculture and Shifting Cultivation, Garo Hills, Meghalaya, Asian Perspectives, XXIV (2), 1981, pp 193-221</ref>

After the [[Conquest of Taraf]] in 1304, Shah Arifin Rafiuddin, a disciple of [[Shah Jalal]], migrated and settled in the [[Khasi and Jaintia Hills]] where he preached [[Islamic monotheism]] to the local people. His [[khanqah]] remains in Sarping / Laurergarh on the [[Bangladesh]]i border but the part containing his [[mazar (mausoleum)|mazar]] is in Meghalaya on top of Laur Hill.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tahirpur.sunamganj.gov.bd/site/page/4e170264-0757-11e7-a6c5-286ed488c766/%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%20%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF|title=Upazila background|website=Tahirpur Upazila|access-date=28 October 2019|archive-date=21 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210521040714/http://www.tahirpur.sunamganj.gov.bd/site/page/4e170264-0757-11e7-a6c5-286ed488c766/%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%20%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Bhaitbari is an archaeological site first discovered and excavated by A. K. Sharma in 1993, a fortification of burnt brick with mud core was discovered at Meghalaya - Assam border and is dated to 4th-8th century AD, the city has been speculated to have been one of the capital cities of [[Kamarupa]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Archaeology: Department of Arts and Culture, Government of Meghalaya|url=http://megartsculture.gov.in/arch.htm|access-date=14 August 2021|website=megartsculture.gov.in|archive-date=8 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220208111332/http://megartsculture.gov.in/arch.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

The British discovered ''[[Camellia sinensis]]'' (tea shrub) in 1834 in [[Assam]] and later companies started renting land from 1839 onwards.<ref>{{Cite web |title=India Tea |url=https://www.indiatea.org/application/event/assam-tea-200.html |access-date=17 December 2025 |website=www.indiatea.org}}</ref>

The Khasi, Garo, and Jaintia tribes had their own kingdoms until they came under British administration in the 19th century. Later, the British incorporated Meghalaya into Assam in 1835.<ref name="akrl" /> The region enjoyed semi-independent status by virtue of a treaty relationship with the British Crown. When Bengal was [[1905 Partition of Bengal|partitioned on 16 October 1905]] by [[George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston|Lord Curzon]], Meghalaya became a part of the new province of [[Eastern Bengal and Assam]]. When the partition was reversed in 1912, Meghalaya became a part of the province of Assam. On 3 January 1921 in pursuance of Section 52A of the [[Government of India Act 1919]], the governor-general-in-council declared the areas now in Meghalaya, other than the Khasi states, as "backward tracts." Subsequently, the British administration enacted the [[Government of India Act 1935]], which regrouped the backward tracts into two categories: "excluded" and "partially excluded" areas.{{citation needed|date= September 2022}}

At the time of Indian independence in 1947, present-day Meghalaya constituted two districts of Assam and enjoyed limited autonomy within the state of Assam. A movement for a separate hill state began in 1960.<ref name="meghis" /> On 11 September 1968, the Government of India announced a scheme for constituting an autonomous state within the state of Assam comprising certain areas specified in Part A of the table appended to paragraph 20 of the Sixth Schedule to the Constitution.<ref>{{cite web|title=High Court of Meghalaya: History|url=http://meghalayahighcourt.nic.in/history|access-date=23 December 2020|archive-date=20 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120025420/http://meghalayahighcourt.nic.in/history|url-status=live}}</ref> Accordingly, the Assam Reorganisation (Meghalaya) Act of 1969 was enacted for the formation of an autonomous state.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Assam Reorganisation (Meghalaya) Act, 1969|url=http://legislative.gov.in/sites/default/files/A1969-55_0.pdf|access-date=23 December 2020|archive-date=13 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813135852/https://legislative.gov.in/sites/default/files/A1969-55_0.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Meghalaya was formed by carving out two districts from the state of Assam: the United [[Khasi Hills]] and [[Jaintia Hills]], and the [[Garo Hills]].<ref name="meghis" /> The name 'Meghalaya' coined by geographer [[Shiba P. Chatterjee|S.P. Chatterjee]] in 1936 was proposed and accepted for the new state.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bareh|first=H.M.|title=Encyclopaedia of North-East India: Vol IV|year=2001|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=81-7099-791-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Press Releases: Lecture on Emerging Challenges in Mapping|url=http://megipr.gov.in/pr/pr.asp?dt=10-10-2007&prno=750/07|access-date=23 December 2020|archive-date=15 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240615030056/https://megipr.gov.in/pr/pr.asp?dt=10-10-2007&prno=750/07|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Act came into effect on 2 April 1970, with the autonomous state having a 37-member legislature in accordance with the Sixth Schedule to the Indian constitution.

In 1971, the Parliament passed the [[North-Eastern Areas (Reorganisation) Act, 1971]], which conferred full statehood on the autonomous state of Meghalaya. Meghalaya attained statehood on 21 January 1972, with a [[Meghalaya Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]] of its own.<ref name="meghis" />

== Geography ==
[[File:Meghalaya Abode of the Clouds India Nature in Laitmawsiang Landscape.jpg|thumb|left|Laitmawsiang landscape, wrapped in fog. Meghalaya is mountainous, and it is the rainiest state of India. The word Meghalaya means, "abode of the clouds".]]
Meghalaya is one of the [[Seven Sister States]] of northeast India. The state of Meghalaya is mountainous, with stretches of valley and highland plateaus, and it is geologically rich. It consists mainly of [[Archean]] rock formations. These rock formations contain rich deposits of valuable minerals like coal, [[limestone]], [[uranium]] and [[sillimanite]].<ref>{{cite web| title=Meghalaya| work=indiawris.gov.in| url=https://indiawris.gov.in/wiki/doku.php?id=meghalaya#:~:text=January%2021st%201972.-,Geography,grassland%2C%20hills%20and%20river%20valley |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315074304/https://indiawris.gov.in/wiki/doku.php?id=meghalaya#:~:text=January%2021st%201972.-,Geography,grassland%2C%20hills%20and%20river%20valley |archive-date=15 March 2023| access-date=3 September 2023}}</ref> The name Meghalaya was given by [[Shiba P. Chatterjee]], a geography professor at the [[University of Calcutta]].<ref>{{Cite journal| date=20 March 1937| title=Le plateau de Meghalaya (Garo-Khasi-Jaintia)| url=https://www.nature.com/articles/139489b0| journal=Nature| language=en| volume=139|issue=3516| pages=489| doi=10.1038/139489b0|bibcode=1937Natur.139Q.489.| s2cid=26835789|issn=1476-4687| access-date=15 March 2023|archive-date=15 March 2023| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315074032/https://www.nature.com/articles/139489b0| url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:India Meghalaya relief map.svg|thumb|left|Relief map of Meghalaya]]
Meghalaya has many rivers. Most of these are rainfed and seasonal. The important rivers in the Garo Hills region are Ganol, Daring, Sanda, Bandra, Bugai, Dareng, [[Simsang River|Simsang]], Nitai and the Bhupai. In the central and eastern sections of the plateau, the important rivers are Khri, Umtrew, Digaru, Umiam or Barapani, Kynshi (Jadukata), Umngi, Mawpa, Umiam Khwan, Umngot, Umkhen, Myntdu and Myntang. In the southern Khasi Hills region, these rivers have created deep gorges and several waterfalls.<ref>{{Cite web |last=rawan239 |date=24 December 2024 |title=Rivers of Meghalaya |url=https://meghalaya.pscnotes.com/meghalaya-geography/rivers-of-meghalaya/ |access-date=17 December 2025 |website=Meghalaya PCS Free Notes |language=en-US}}</ref>

[[File:Tea Plantation Agriculture in Meghalaya India on the way to Shillong.jpg|thumb|Farming on hilly terrain (tea plantation).]]
The elevation of the plateau ranges between {{convert|150|m|abbr=on}} to {{convert|1961|m|abbr=on}}. The central part of the plateau comprising the [[Khasi Hills]] has the highest elevations, followed by the eastern section comprising the [[Jaintia Hills]] region. The highest point in Meghalaya is Shillong Peak, which is a prominent [[Indian Air Force|IAF]] station in the Khasi Hills overlooking the city of Shillong. It has an altitude of 1961 m. The [[Garo Hills]] region in the western section of the plateau is nearly plain. The highest point in the Garo Hills is Nokrek Peak with an altitude of 1515 m.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Nokrek |url=https://www.unesco.org/en/mab/nokrek |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241114003300/https://www.unesco.org/en/mab/nokrek |archive-date=14 November 2024 |access-date=17 December 2025 |language=en |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Climate ===
With the average annual rainfall as high as {{convert|12000|mm|abbr=on}} in some areas, Meghalaya is the wettest place on Earth.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/07/30/wettest-place-on-earth-india-mawsynram_n_3675254.html|title=The Wettest Place On Earth: Indian Town Of Mawsynram Holds Guinness Record For Highest Average Annual Rainfall|author=Ammu Kannampilly|publisher=Huffington Post|date=31 July 2013|access-date=16 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130823215636/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/07/30/wettest-place-on-earth-india-mawsynram_n_3675254.html|archive-date=23 August 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> The western part of the plateau, comprising the Garo Hills region with lower elevations, experiences high temperatures for most of the year. The Shillong area, with the highest elevations, experiences generally low temperatures. The maximum temperature in this region rarely goes beyond {{convert|28|C|F}},<ref>{{cite web | url=http://megipr.gov.in/basic_facts.htm | title=Basic facts of Meghalaya | access-date=13 January 2012 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120120204955/http://megipr.gov.in/basic_facts.htm | archive-date=20 January 2012 | df=dmy-all }}</ref> whereas sub-zero winter temperatures are common.

[[File:Cherrapunji.jpg|thumb|170px|left|A sign board in Cherrapunji]]
The town of [[Cherrapunji]] in the Khasi Hills south of capital Shillong holds the world record for most rain in a calendar month, while the village of [[Mawsynram]], near Cherrapunji, holds the record for the most rain in a year.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kuttippurath|first1=J|last2=Murasingh|first2=S|last3=Stott|first3=P A|last4=Sarojini|first4=B Balan|last5=Jha|first5=Madan K|last6=Kumar|first6=P|last7=Nair|first7=P J|last8=Varikoden|first8=H|last9=Raj|first9=S|last10=Francis|first10=P A|last11=Pandey|first11=P C|date=22 January 2021|title=Observed rainfall changes in the past century (1901–2019) over the wettest place on Earth|journal=Environmental Research Letters|volume=16|issue=2|page=024018|doi=10.1088/1748-9326/abcf78|bibcode=2021ERL....16b4018K|issn=1748-9326|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://wmo.asu.edu|title=Global Weather & Climate Extremes|publisher=[[World Meteorological Organisation]]|access-date=25 September 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213113854/http://wmo.asu.edu/|archive-date=13 December 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Flora and fauna ===
{{See also|Meghalaya subtropical forests}}
{{multiple image
| direction = vertical
| align = right
| width = 170
| footer = Meghalaya's forests host 660 species of birds<ref name=avibase/> and numerous species of other wildlife. Peacock pheasant (top) and hoolock gibbon (bottom) are found in Meghalaya.<ref>[http://megtourism.gov.in/wildlife.html Wildlife in Meghalaya] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140301163028/http://megtourism.gov.in/wildlife.html |date=1 March 2014 }} Government of Meghalaya</ref>
| image1 =Grey Peacock-Pheasant.jpg
| image2 =Female Hoolock Gibbon.jpg
}}
About 70% of the state is forested, of which {{convert|9496|km2|abbr=on}} is dense primary subtropical forest.<ref name="Meghalaya and Its Forests"/> The Meghalayan forests are considered to be among the richest botanical habitats of Asia. These forests receive abundant rainfall and support a vast variety of floral and faunal biodiversity. A small portion of the forest area in Meghalaya is under what are known as "[[sacred grove]]s" (see [[Sacred groves of India]]). These are small pockets of an ancient forest that have been preserved by the communities for hundreds of years due to religious and cultural beliefs. These forests are reserved for religious rituals and generally remain protected from any exploitation. These sacred groves harbour many rare plant and animal species. The [[Nokrek Biosphere Reserve]] in the West Garo Hills and the [[Balpakram National Park]] in the South Garo Hills are considered to be the most biodiversity-rich sites in Meghalaya.{{citation needed|date=August 2020}} In addition, Meghalaya has four wildlife sanctuaries. These are the [[Nongkhyllem Wildlife Sanctuary]], the [[Siju Wildlife Sanctuary]], the [[Narpuh Wildlife Sanctuary]] and the [[Baghmara Pitcher Plant Wildlife Sanctuary]], which is also the home of the only insect-eating [[pitcher plant]] in India called ''[[Nepenthes khasiana]]'' also called "Me'mang Koksi" in the Garo language.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Captivating carnivores: Saving India's only pitcher plant|url=https://india.mongabay.com/2020/08/captivating-carnivores-saving-indias-only-pitcher-plant/|website=Mongabay-India|date=7 August 2020|access-date=2 December 2025|language=en-US|first=Sandhya|last=Sekar}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Protected Areas {{!}} Official website of Meghalaya Biodiversity Board,Government of Meghalaya, India|url=https://megbiodiversity.nic.in/protected-areas|website=megbiodiversity.nic.in|access-date=2 December 2025}}</ref>

Due to diverse climatic and topographic conditions, Meghalaya forests support a vast floral diversity, including a large variety of [[parasite]]s, [[epiphyte]]s, [[succulent plant]]s and [[shrub]]s. Two of the most important tree varieties are ''[[Shorea robusta]]'' (sal tree) and ''[[Tectona grandis]]'' (teak). Meghalaya is also the home to a large variety of fruits, vegetables, spices, and medicinal plants. Meghalaya is also famous for its large variety of orchids — nearly 325 of them. Of these, the largest variety is found in the Mawsmai, Mawmluh and Sohrarim forests in the Khasi hills.

[[File:Nepenthes khasiana.jpg|170px|thumb|left|''[[Nepenthes khasiana]]'']]
Meghalaya also has a large variety of [[mammal]]s, birds, [[reptile]]s and insects.<ref>Choudhury, A. U. (2003) "Meghalaya's vanishing wilderness". ''Sanctuary Asia'' 23(5): 30–35</ref> The important mammal species include elephants, bear, [[red panda]]s,<ref>Choudhury, A. U. (1996) "Red panda in Garo Hills". ''Environ'' IV(I): 21</ref> [[small Indian civet]]s, [[mongooses]], [[weasel]]s, [[rodent]]s, [[gaur]], [[Wild Asian water buffalo|wild buffalo]],<ref>Choudhury, A. U. (2010) ''The Vanishing Herds: the wild water buffalo''. Gibbon Books, Rhino Foundation, CEPF & COA, Taiwan, Guwahati, India</ref> [[deer]], [[wild boar]] and a number of [[primate]]s. Meghalaya also has a large variety of [[bat]]s. The limestone caves in Meghalaya such as the [[Siju Cave]] are home to some of the nation's rarest bat species. The [[hoolock gibbon]] is found in all districts of Meghalaya.<ref>Choudhury, A. U. (2006) "The distribution and status of hoolock gibbon, Hoolock hoolock, in Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland in Northeast India". ''Primate Conservation'' 20: 79–87</ref>

Common reptiles in Meghalaya are [[lizard]]s, [[crocodile]]s and [[tortoise]]s. Meghalaya also has a number of snakes including the [[Pythonidae|python]], [[Radiated ratsnake|copperhead]], green tree racer, [[Indian cobra]], [[king cobra]], [[coral snake]] and [[Viperidae|viper]]s.<ref>Zoological Survey of India, Fauna of Meghalaya: Vertebrates, Part 1 of Fauna of Meghalaya, Issue 4, Government of India (1995)</ref>

Meghalaya's forests host 660 species of birds, many of which are endemic to Himalayan foothills, [[Tibet]] and [[Southeast Asia]]. Of the birds found in Meghalaya forests, 34 are on worldwide threatened species list and 9 are on the critically endangered list.<ref name=avibase>[http://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/checklist.jsp?region=INneml&list=howardmoore Birds of Meghalaya] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150122054357/http://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/checklist.jsp?region=INneml&list=howardmoore |date=22 January 2015 }} Avibase (2013)</ref> Prominent birds spotted in Meghalaya include those from the families of [[Phasianidae]], Anatidae, Podicipedidae, Ciconiidae, Threskiornithidae, Ardeidae, Pelecanidae, Phalacrocoracidae, Anhingidae, Falconidae, Accipitridae, Otididae, Rallidae, Heliornithidae, Gruidae, Turnicidae, Burhinidae, Charadriidae, Glareolidae, Scolopacidae, Jacanidae, Columbidae, Psittacidae, Cuculidae, Strigidae, Caprimulgidae, Apodidae, Alcedinidae, Bucerotidae, Ramphastidae, Picidae, Campephagidae, Dicruridae, Corvidae, Hirundinidae, Cisticolidae, Pycnonotidae, Sylviidae, Timaliidae, Sittidae, Sturnidae, Turdidae, Nectariniidae and Muscicapidae.<ref name=avibase/> Each of these families have many species. The [[great Indian hornbill]] is the largest bird in Meghalaya. Other regional birds found include the grey [[peacock pheasant]], the large Indian parakeet and the common [[green pigeon]].<ref>Choudhury, A.U. (1998) ''Birds of Nongkhyllem Wildlife Sanctuary & adjacent areas''. The Rhino Foundation for Nature in North East India, Guwahati, India. 31pp.</ref> Meghalaya is also home to over 250 species of butterflies, nearly a quarter of all butterfly species found in India.

In 2020, scientists have discovered the largest known subterranean fish in Meghalaya's [[Khasi and Jaintia Hills|Jaintia Hills]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2020/02/worlds-largest-cave-fish-found-in-india/|title=World's largest cave fish discovered in India|date=12 February 2020|website=Animals|language=en|access-date=29 March 2020|archive-date=29 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200329200355/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2020/02/worlds-largest-cave-fish-found-in-india/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Byrnihat has been ranked 38th best “National Clean Air City” under (Category 3 population under 3 lakhs cities) in India.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 September 2024 |title=Swachh Vayu Sarvekshan 2024 |url=https://prana.cpcb.gov.in/ncapServices/robust/fetchFilesFromDrive/Swachh_Vayu_Survekshan_2024_Result.pdf |website=Swachh Vayu Sarvekshan 2024 |access-date=25 September 2024 |archive-date=14 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240914164336/https://prana.cpcb.gov.in/ncapServices/robust/fetchFilesFromDrive/Swachh_Vayu_Survekshan_2024_Result.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2025, The World Air Quality Report 2024 by Swiss air quality technology company IQAir ranked Byrnihat as the most polluted city in the world.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Meghalaya's Byrnihat tops global pollution list; Delhi most polluted capital |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/delhi/meghalayas-byrnihat-tops-global-pollution-list-delhi-most-polluted-capital/ |work=The Tribune |agency=PTI |date=11 March 2025 |access-date=11 March 2025}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Byrnihat tops global pollution list; Delhi most polluted capital: Report |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/byrnihat-tops-global-pollution-list-delhi-most-polluted-capital-report-3441107 |work=Deccan Herald |agency=PTI |date=11 March 2025 |access-date=11 March 2025}}</ref>

== Demographics ==
=== Population ===
{{Further|Meghalayan Manipuri people}}
{{Historical population
| 1901 | 340524
| 1911 | 394005
| 1921 | 422404
| 1931 | 480820
| 1941 | 555820
| 1951 | 605674
| 1961 | 769380
| 1971 | 1011699
| 1981 | 1335819
| 1991 | 1774778
| 2001 | 2318822
| 2011 | 2966889
| source = [[Census of India]]<ref name="Census Population">{{cite web |url=https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/PCA/A-2_Data_Tables/00%20A%202-India.pdf |title=A - 2 Decadal Variation in Population Since 1901 |publisher=Office of the Registrar General and Census Commission of India |access-date=25 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225050543/https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/PCA/A-2_Data_Tables/00%20A%202-India.pdf |archive-date=25 February 2021 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
}}
Tribal people make up the majority of Meghalaya's population. The [[Khasi people|Khasi]]s are the largest group, followed by the [[Garo (tribe)|Garos]] then the [[Pnar people|Jaintias]]. These were among those known to the British as "[[Hill people#South-East Asia|hill tribe]]s." Other groups include the Bengali, [[Hajong people|Hajong]]s, the [[Biate people|Biate]]s, the [[Koch people|Koch]]es and related [[Rajbongshi people|Rajbongshi]]s, the [[Bodo people|Boro]]s, [[Dimasa people|Dimasa]], [[Kuki people|Kuki]], Lakhar, [[Tiwa (Lalung)]], [[Karbi people|Karbi]], [[Rabha]] and [[People of Nepal|Nepali]].{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}

Meghalaya recorded the highest decennial population growth of 27.82% among all the seven north-eastern states, as per the provisional report of census 2011. The population of Meghalaya as of 2011 has been estimated at 2,964,007 of which females constitute 1,492,668 and males 1,471,339. As per the census of India 2011, the [[human sex ratio|sex ratio]] in the state was 986 females per 1,000 males which was far higher than the national average of 940. The urban female sex ratio of 985 was higher than the rural sex ratio of 972.<ref name="census2011.co.in">{{cite web |url=http://www.census2011.co.in/states.php |title=List of states with Population, Sex Ratio and Literacy Census 2011 |publisher=Census2011.co.in |access-date=9 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140214170814/http://www.census2011.co.in/states.php |archive-date=14 February 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Religion===
{{more citations needed section|date=August 2019}}
{{See also|Christianity in Meghalaya|Hinduism in Meghalaya|Niamtre}}
{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption = Religion in Meghalaya (2011)<ref name="census2011">{{cite web|title=Population by religion community – 2011|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW00C-01%20MDDS.XLS|website=Census of India, 2011|publisher=The Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150825155850/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW00C-01%20MDDS.XLS|archive-date=25 August 2015}}</ref>
|label1 = [[Christianity]]
|color1 = Dodgerblue
|value1 = 74.59
|label2 = [[Hinduism]]
|color2 = orange
|value2 = 11.52
|label3= [[Tribal religions in India|Tribal religions]]
|color3 = lightgreen
|value3 = 8.70
|label4 = [[Islam]]
|color4 = Green
|value4 = 4.39
|label5 = [[Buddhism]]
|color5 = Gold
|value5 = 0.33
|label6 = [[Jainism]]
|color6 = magenta
|value6 = 0.02
|label7 = [[Sikhism]]
|color7 = Yellow
|value7 = 0.10
|label8 = Others
|color8 = Gray
|value8 = 0.35
}}

Meghalaya is one of three states in India to have a Christian majority. About 75% of the population practices Christianity, with [[Catholicism|Catholics]], [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterians]], [[Baptist]]s, and [[Church of God (Anderson, Indiana)|Church of God]] the more common denominations.<ref name="census2011"/> The religion of the people in Meghalaya is closely related to their ethnicity. Close to 90% of the [[Garo people|Garo]] and nearly 80% of the [[Khasi people|Khasi]] are Christian, while more than 97% of the [[Hajong people|Hajong]], 98.53% of the [[Koch people|Koch]], and 94.60% of the [[Rabha people|Rabha tribes]] are Hindus. A minority of Garo and Khasi are also Hindus mainly because of the influence of Hindu populations in Hindu majority villages.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://blog.cpsindia.org/2016/10/religion-data-of-census-2011-xxx-st.html?m=1 | title=Religion Data of Census 2011: XXX ST Meghalaya | access-date=27 January 2023 | archive-date=25 October 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221025174848/https://blog.cpsindia.org/2016/10/religion-data-of-census-2011-xxx-st.html?m=1 | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Christianity among the Scheduled Tribes of the Northeast: Meghalaya |url=https://blog.cpsindia.org/2016/10/religion-data-of-census-2011-xxx-st.html |website=Centre for Policy Studies |access-date=20 September 2023 |archive-date=21 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921155751/http://blog.cpsindia.org/2016/10/religion-data-of-census-2011-xxx-st.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Hindus are the largest religious minority in Meghalaya with 11.52% of the total state's population as of 2011 census<ref name="census2011"/> Hindus are concentrated mainly in [[West Garo Hills]], [[East Khasi Hills]] and [[Ri-Bhoi]] with 19.11 per cent, 17.55 per cent and 11.96 per cent respectively. The [[Nartiang Durga Temple]] is a major Hindu temple in Meghalaya and it is one of the 51 [[Shakta pithas]] on Earth.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Das|first=Manosh|date=15 October 2010|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Lofty-Himalayas-notwithstanding-the-tribal-people-of-Nartiang-in-the-Jaintia-Hills-of-Meghalaya-truly-believe-that-their-scenic-little-hamlet-is-the-permanent-abode-of-Goddess-Durga-Perched-atop-a-hillock-is-the-more-than-600-year-old-and-ancient-Durgabari-a-simple-house-made-of-stones-and-wood-complete-with-tin-roofing-Revered-as-one-of-the-51-Shakti-Peethas-the-temple-has-been-drawing-a-large-number-of-pilgrims-from-all-over-the-country-on-occasion-of-Durga-Puja-/articleshow/6754889.cms|title=Lofty Himalayas notwithstanding, the tribal people of Nartiang in the Jaintia Hills of Meghalaya truly believe that their scenic little hamlet is the "permanent abode" of Goddess Durga. Perched atop a hillock is the more than 600-year old and ancient Durgabari - a simple house made of stones and wood complete with tin roofing. Revered as one of the 51 Shakta pithas, the temple has been drawing a large number of pilgrims from all over the country on occasion of Durga Puja. - Times of India|website=The Times of India|access-date=20 December 2019|archive-date=28 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200228134358/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Lofty-Himalayas-notwithstanding-the-tribal-people-of-Nartiang-in-the-Jaintia-Hills-of-Meghalaya-truly-believe-that-their-scenic-little-hamlet-is-the-permanent-abode-of-Goddess-Durga-Perched-atop-a-hillock-is-the-more-than-600-year-old-and-ancient-Durgabari-a-simple-house-made-of-stones-and-wood-complete-with-tin-roofing-Revered-as-one-of-the-51-Shakti-Peethas-the-temple-has-been-drawing-a-large-number-of-pilgrims-from-all-over-the-country-on-occasion-of-Durga-Puja-/articleshow/6754889.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>

Indigenous Faiths is followed by 8.7% of population. The indigenous faiths of Meghalaya are [[Niamtre]], followed by Jaintia people,<ref>[1] Singh, K. (2010). "Niamtre: The Indigenous Religion of Meghalaya." *Journal of Tribal Studies*, 5(2), 45-56.</ref> ''Niam Khasi'' and ''Niam Tynrai'', followed by Khasi tribe and [[Songsarek religion|Songsarek]] followed by the Garo people.<ref>[2] Syiem, D. (2015). "Understanding Khasi Indigenous Religion." *Meghalaya Research Journal*, 8(1), 27-39.</ref><ref>[3] Kharshiing, L. (2012). "Niam Tynrai and Its Cultural Significance." *Cultural Studies in Meghalaya*, 10(4), 101-110.</ref>

[[Muslims]] constitute 4.39% of the population<ref name="census2011"/> and are concentrated mainly in [[West Garo Hills]], where they make up 16.60% of the population.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://thenortheasttoday.com/archive/hindu-population-comes-down-in-meghalaya/ |title=Hindu population comes down in Meghalaya - TNT-The NorthEast Today |website=thenortheasttoday.com |access-date=15 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190831091207/https://thenortheasttoday.com/archive/hindu-population-comes-down-in-meghalaya/ |archive-date=31 August 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref> And there is also very small community of Khasi Muslims, mostly residing in [[Shillong]] and adjoining areas of the city,<ref>{{cite news|title=Everyday pleasures|author=Pariat, Janice|date=31 July 2010|work=[[Business Standard]]|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/beyond-business/everyday-pleasures-110073100015_1.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151025125905/https://www.business-standard.com/article/beyond-business/everyday-pleasures-110073100015_1.html|archive-date=25 October 2015}}</ref> who accepted [[Sunni Islam]] as a result of historic Muslim traders in the region.<ref name="muslims">{{Cite journal |last=Langstieh |first=Banrida Theresa |date=March 2001 |title=Demographic structure of the Khasi-Muslims of Shillong, Meghalaya |url=https://www.academia.edu/64041300 |journal=Journal of Human Ecology |language=en |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=121–125 |doi=10.1080/09709274.2001.11907591 |issn=0970-9274 |s2cid=134712439 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151227204243/krepublishers.com/02-Journals/JHE/JHE-12-0-000-000-2001-Web/JHE-12-2-081-01-Abst-PDF/JHE-12-02-121-01.pdf |archive-date=27 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |first1=N. K. |last1=Singh |first2=A. P. |last2=Mishra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H8HT5OMWVssC&q=Mirasi&pg=PA563 |title=Global Encyclopaedic Enthnography Of Indian Muslim (3 vol. set) |date=August 2008 |publisher=Global Vision Publishing House |isbn=978-81-8220-297-9 |pages=405–407 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=North-East India: Land, People and Economy|author1=Dikshit, K. R.|author2=Dikshit, Jutta K.|page=361|chapter=The People of Meghalaya|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media]]|date=21 October 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=History, Religion and Culture of India|volume=6|chapter=History, Religion and Culture of North-East India|page=32|year=2004|publisher=Gyan Publishing House|author=Gajrani, S.}}</ref><ref name="ANM 2012">{{cite journal |last=Ali |first=A.N.M. Irshad |date=January 2012 |title=Islam in the Hill Areas of Northeast India |journal=The NEHU Journal |volume=X |issue=1 |pages=2–12 |publisher=[[North-Eastern Hill University]] |postscript=. "Second Lecture, XV Dr. Verrier Elwin Endowment Lectures, Department of Anthropology, North-Eastern Hill University, March 29-30, 2011" .|url=https://dspace.nehu.ac.in/server/api/core/bitstreams/93fbbce6-b591-48c4-8666-875102b3ee40/content |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260329194009/https://dspace.nehu.ac.in/server/api/core/bitstreams/93fbbce6-b591-48c4-8666-875102b3ee40/content |via=dspace.nehu.ac.in|archive-date=29 March 2026 |access-date=29 March 2026 |quote=|s2cid=211665820}}</ref> On 3 February 2019, [[Quran]], Islamic Holy Book, was released in the [[Khasi language]]. The translation of 1251 pre-pages and pages of Quran, was done by a Khasi Muslim leader Mubarak Lyngdoh, to propagates Islam among the local Khasis.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Qur'an released in Khasi language {{!}} The Shillong Times |url=https://theshillongtimes.com/2019/02/03/quran-released-in-khasi-language/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240929190036/https://theshillongtimes.com/2019/02/03/quran-released-in-khasi-language/ |archive-date=29 September 2024 |access-date=8 March 2025 |website=theshillongtimes.com |date=3 February 2019 |language=en-US |url-status=live }}</ref> The translation was done at the initiative of the Seng Bhalang Islam (A local Islamic organisation of Shillong, Meghalaya).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mubarak |first=Lyngdoh |date=15 September 2010 |title=Koran translated into Khasi |url=https://assamtribune.com/koran-translated-into-khasi |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250125125504/https://assamtribune.com/koran-translated-into-khasi |archive-date=25 January 2025 |access-date=8 March 2025 |website=assamtribune.com}}</ref> Khasi Muslims numbers around 1,689 in Meghalaya as per 2011 census other found in neighbouring states also.

Conversion from indigenous to Christianity began in the 19th century during the [[British Raj|British colonial]] era. In the 1830s, [[American Baptist International Ministries|American Baptist Foreign Missionary Society]] had become active in Northeast India to convert indigenous tribes to Christianity.<ref>{{cite book |last=Johnson |first=R. E. |year=2010 |title=A Global Introduction to Baptist Churches |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521877817}}</ref> Later, they were offered to expand and reach into Cherrapunji Meghalaya, but they declined out of the lack of resources. Taking up the offer, the Welsh Presbyterian Mission began work at the Cherrapunji mission field. By the early 1900s, other Protestant denominations of Christianity were active in Meghalaya. The outbreak of World Wars forced the preachers to return home to Europe and America. It is during this period that [[Catholicism]] took root in Meghalaya and neighbouring regions. In the 20th century, Union Christian College started operations at Umiam, Shillong. Currently, Presbyterians and Catholics are two most common Christian denominations found in Meghalaya.<ref>Amrit Kumar Goldsmith, ''The Christians In The North East India: A Historical Perspective'', Regional Organizer of Churches' Auxiliary of Social Action, Regional Headquarters at Mission Compound, Satribari, Guwahati</ref>

=== Languages ===
{{Further|Manipuri language in Meghalaya}}
{{Pie chart
| thumb = right
| caption = Languages of Meghalaya in 2011
<ref name="Census2011">{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-16.html|title=C-16: Population by Mother Tongue|publisher=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India|last=ORGI|website=www.censusindia.gov.in|access-date=10 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180815035759/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-16.html|archive-date=15 August 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
| label1 = [[Khasi language|Khasi]]
| value1 = 33.82
| color1 = darkblue
| label2 = [[Garo language|Garo]]
| value2 = 31.60
| color2 = limegreen
| label3 = [[Pnar language|Pnar]]
| value3 = 10.69
| color3 = teal
| label4 = [[Bengali language|Bengali]]
| value4 = 6.44
| color4 = gold
| label5 = [[Nepali language|Nepali]]
| value5 = 1.85
| color5 = maroon
| label6 = [[War language|War]]
| value6 = 1.73
| color6 = deepskyblue
| label7 = [[Hindi]]
| value7 = 1.62
| color7 = orange
| label8 = [[Hajong language|Hajong]]
| value8 = 1.40
| color8 = khaki
| label9 = [[Assamese language|Assamese]]
| value9 = 1.34
| color9 = salmon
| label10 = Others
| value10 = 9.51
| color10 = Gray
}}

English is the official language of the state,<ref name=langoff>{{cite web |url=http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM47thReport.pdf |title=Report of the Commissioner for linguistic minorities: 47th report (July 2008 to June 2010) |pages=84–89 |publisher=Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities, Ministry of Minority Affairs, Government of India |access-date=16 February 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120513161847/http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM47thReport.pdf |archive-date=13 May 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://megtourism.gov.in/aboutmeghalaya.html | title = Department of Tourism Government of Meghalaya -About Meghalaya | publisher = Megtourism.gov.in | date = 21 January 1972 | access-date = 18 July 2010 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090515025823/http://megtourism.gov.in/aboutmeghalaya.html | archive-date = 15 May 2009 | url-status = dead | df = dmy-all }}</ref> while [[Khasi language|Khasi]] and [[Garo language|Garo]] were accorded full official status in 2026.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Meghalaya approves Khasi, Garo as official state languages alongside English |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/meghalaya-official-languages-khasi-garo-ordinance-10640456/ |work=The Indian Express |date=16 April 2026 |access-date=21 April 2026}}</ref> The most spoken languages in Meghalaya are [[Khasi language|Khasi]] (33.82%) and [[Garo language|Garo]] (31.60%) followed by [[Pnar language|Pnar]] (10.69%), [[Bengali language|Bengali]] (6.44%), [[Nepali language|Nepali]] (1.85%), [[War language|War]] (1.73%), [[Hindi]] (1.62%), [[Hajong language|Hajong]] (1.40%) and [[Assamese language|Assamese]] (1.34%).<ref name="Census2011"/>

Khasi (also spelled Khasia, Khassee, Cossyah, and Kyi) is a branch of the [[Mon–Khmer]] family of the [[Austroasiatic]] stock and according to 2001 census, Khasi is spoken by about 1,128,575 people residing in Meghalaya. Many words in the Khasi language have been borrowed from [[Indo-Aryan languages]] such as [[Assamese language|Assamese]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]] and [[Nepali language|Nepali]]. Moreover, the Khasi language originally had no script of its own. The Khasi language is one of the very few surviving [[Mon–Khmer languages]] in India today.{{citation needed|date= September 2022}}

The [[Garo language]] has a close affinity with the [[Bodo language]]s, a small family of [[Tibeto-Burman languages]]. Garo, spoken by the majority of the population, is spoken in many dialects such as Abeng or Ambeng,<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.westgarohills.gov.in/people.htm | title = The People | publisher = Westgarohills.gov.in | access-date = 18 July 2010 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100528205013/http://westgarohills.gov.in/people.htm | archive-date = 28 May 2010 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> Atong, Akawe (or Awe), Matchi Dual, Chibok, Chisak Megam or Lyngngam, Ruga, Gara-Ganching and Matabeng.

[[Pnar language|Pnar]] is spoken by many people of [[Jaintia Hills district|both the West and East Jaintia Hills]]. The language is related to the Khasi language. Apart from the main languages, various local dialect are being spoken by the War Jaintia (West Jaintia Hills), Maram and Lynngam (West Khasi Hills), War Pynursla (East Khasi Hills), [[Tiwa (Lalung)|Tiwa language]] by Tiwa peoples of Ri-Bhoi district. Another example is the [[Biate language]] spoken by many people inhabiting the south-eastern part of Meghalaya bordering Assam.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}

[[Indo-Aryan languages]] like [[Assamese language|Assamese]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Hajong language|Hajong]], [[Hindi]] and [[Nepali language|Nepali]] are spoken by many people residing mostly in the [[East Khasi Hills district]] and the [[West Garo Hills district]].<ref name="Census2011"/>

English is spoken as a common language across the diverse ethnic and demographic groups. In urban centres most of the people can speak English; rural residents vary in their ability.{{citation needed|date= September 2022}}

== Districts ==
{{Main|List of districts of Meghalaya}}

[[File:Aerial view of Shillong Meghalaya India.jpg|230px|thumb|An aerial view of the state capital, Shillong.]]
Meghalaya currently has 12 districts.<ref>[http://meghalaya.gov.in:8080/megportal/district_details Districts of Meghalaya] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140607034735/http://meghalaya.gov.in:8080/megportal/district_details |date=7 June 2014 }} Government of Meghalaya</ref>

'''Jaintia Hills Division:'''
* [[West Jaintia Hills district|West Jaintia Hills]] ([[Jowai]])
* [[East Jaintia Hills district|East Jaintia Hills]] ([[Khliehriat]])

'''Khasi Hills Division:'''
* [[East Khasi Hills]] ([[Shillong]])
* [[West Khasi Hills]] ([[Nongstoin]])
* [[South West Khasi Hills]] ([[Mawkyrwat]])
* [[Ri-Bhoi]] ([[Nongpoh]])
* [[Eastern West Khasi Hills]] ([[Mairang]])

'''Garo Hills Division:'''
* [[North Garo Hills]] ([[Resubelpara]])
* [[East Garo Hills]] ([[Williamnagar]])
* [[South Garo Hills]] ([[Baghmara, India|Baghmara]])
* [[West Garo Hills]] ([[Tura, India|Tura]])
* [[South West Garo Hills]] ([[Ampati]])

The '''Jaintia Hills''' district was created on 22 February 1972. It has a total geographical area of {{convert|3819|km2}} and a population of 295,692 as per the 2001 census. The district headquarters is in [[Jowai]]. [[Jaintia Hills]] district is the largest producer of coal in the state. Coal mines can be seen all over the district. [[Limestone]] production in the state is increasing, as there is high demand from cement industries.
Recently, the one big district was divided into two: West Jaintia Hills and East Jaintia Hills

The '''East Khasi Hills''' district was carved out of the Khasi Hills on 28 October 1976. The district has covered an area of {{convert|2748|km2}} and has a population of 660,923 as per the 2001 census. The headquarters of East Khasi Hills is located in Shillong.

The '''Ri-Bhoi''' district was formed by the further division of East Khasi Hills district on 4 June 1992. It has an area of {{convert|2448|km2}}. The total population of the district was 192,795 in the 2001 census. The district headquarters is at [[Nongpoh]]. It has a hilly terrain, and a large part of the area is covered with forests. The Ri-Bhoi district is known for its pineapples and is the largest producer of pineapples in the state.

The '''West Khasi Hills''' district is the largest district in the state with a geographical area of {{convert|5247|km2}}. The district was carved out of Khasi Hills District on 28 October 1976. The district headquarters are located at [[Nongstoin]].

The '''East Garo Hills''' district was formed in 1976 and has a population of 247,555 as per the 2001 census. It covers an area of {{convert|2603|km2}}. The District Headquarters are at [[Williamnagar]], earlier known as Simsangiri. [[Nongalbibra]], a town in this district, has many coal mines. The coal is transported to [[Goalpara]] and [[Jogighopa]] via [[National Highway 62 (India, old numbering)|NH62]].

The '''West Garo Hills''' district lies in the western part of the state and covers a geographical area of {{convert|3714|km2}}. The population of the district is 515,813 as per the 2001 census. The district headquarters are located at [[Tura, Meghalaya|Tura]].

The '''South Garo Hills''' district came into existence on 18 June 1992 after the division of the West Garo Hills district. The total geographical area of the district is {{convert|1850|km2}}. As per the 2001 census the district has a population of 99,100. The district headquarters are at [[Baghmara, India|Baghmara]].

In 2012, there were 11 districts, 16 towns and an estimated 6,026 villages in Meghalaya.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite web |url=https://meghalaya.gov.in:8443/megportal/department/38 |title=Meghalaya State Portal |publisher=Meghalaya.gov.in:8443 |date=31 March 2011 |access-date=9 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121218171849/https://meghalaya.gov.in:8443/megportal/department/38 |archive-date=18 December 2012 }}</ref> A 12th district, Eastern West Khasi Hills, was created in 2021.<ref>{{cite web |last=Rashir |first=Princess Giri |date=10 November 2021 |url=https://www.eastmojo.com/meghalaya/2021/11/10/meghalaya-mairang-civil-sub-division-announced-as-eastern-west-khasi-hills-district/ |title=Meghalaya Mairang Civil Sub-Division announced as Eastern West Khasi Hills District |newspaper=EastMojo |accessdate=28 December 2021 |archive-date=29 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211229061252/https://www.eastmojo.com/meghalaya/2021/11/10/meghalaya-mairang-civil-sub-division-announced-as-eastern-west-khasi-hills-district/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

The table below shows the [[human development index]] of various districts of Meghalaya, as of 2021.<ref name="OGD">{{cite web |title=Open Government Data (OGD) Platform India - Meghalaya |url=https://data.gov.in/resource/district-wise-human-development-index-hdi-ranking-meghalaya-reply-unstarred-question-25 |website=data.gov.in |access-date=12 August 2023 |language=en |date=21 January 2022 |archive-date=12 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230812082937/https://data.gov.in/resource/district-wise-human-development-index-hdi-ranking-meghalaya-reply-unstarred-question-25 |url-status=live }}</ref>

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+Human development index (HDI) of various districts of Meghalaya, as of 2021<ref name="OGD"/>
!Rank!!District!!HDI score
|-
|1||East Khasi Hills||0.676
|-
|2||West Garo Hills||0.571
|-
|3||Ri Bhoi||0.496
|-
|4||South Garo Hills||0.484
|-
|5||Jaintia Hills||0.469
|-
|6||West Khasi Hills||0.405
|-
|7||East Garo Hills||0.396
|-
| ||Meghalaya||0.550
|}

==Education==
{{Main|Education in Meghalaya}}

[[File:Indian Institute of Management, main gate, Shillong.jpg|alt=|thumb|[[Indian Institute of Management, Shillong]] Campus]]
Meghalaya schools are run by the state government or by private organisations, including religious institutions. Instruction is only in English. Other [[Languages of India|Indian languages]] like Assamese, Bengali, Garo, Hindi, Khasi, Mizo, Nepali and Urdu are taught as optional subjects. The secondary schools are affiliated with the council for the [[Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations|Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE)]], the [[Central Board for Secondary Education]] (CBSE), the [[National Institute of Open Schooling|National Institute of Open School (NIOS)]] or the [[Meghalaya Board of School Education]].

Under the 10+2+3 plan, after completing secondary school, students typically enroll for two years in a junior college, also known as pre-university, or in schools with a higher secondary facility affiliated with the [[Meghalaya Board of School Education]] or any central board. Students choose from one of three streams: liberal arts, commerce or science. Upon completing the required coursework, students may enroll in general or professional degree programs.

=== Colleges ===
[[File:NEHU campus, Mawlai, Shillong.jpg|thumb|[[North-Eastern Hill University]] Campus, Mawlai, Shillong]]


{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Don Bosco College, Tura]]
* [[Indian Institute of Management, Shillong]]
* [[Kiang Nangbah Government College]], [[Jowai]]
* [[Lady Keane College]], Shillong
* [[National Institute of Technology, Meghalaya]],
* [[National Institute of Fashion Technology]],
* [[Northeast Adventist College]], Thadlaskien
* [[North Eastern Indira Gandhi Regional Institute of Health and Medical Sciences]]
* [[North Eastern Institute of Ayurveda and Homeopathy]]
* [[Nongtalang College]], [[Nongtalang]]
* [[Regional Institute of Science and Technology]]
* [[Ri-Bhoi College]], [[Nongpoh]]
* [[St. Edmund's College, Shillong]]
* [[Sankardev College]], Shillong
* [[Seng Khasi College]], Shillong
* [[Shillong College]], Shillong
* [[Shillong Law College]], Shillong
* [[Synod College]], Shillong
* [[Tikrikilla College]], Tikrikilla W.Garo Hills
* [[Tura Government College]], [[Tura, India|Tura]]
* [[Tura Law College]], Tura
* [[Union Christian College, Meghalaya]]
* [[Women's College, Shillong]]
{{div col end}}

===Universities===


{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[The English and Foreign Languages University]], Shillong Campus<ref>{{cite web | url=https://eflushc.ac.in/ | title=The English & Foreign Languages University, Shillong Campus – Shillong Campus | access-date=3 May 2019 | archive-date=3 May 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190503043706/https://eflushc.ac.in/ | url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Martin Luther Christian University]], Meghalaya
* [[North Eastern Hill University]] ([[North Eastern Hill University|NEHU]]), [[Shillong]]
* [[University of Technology and Management]], Meghalaya
* [[University of Science and Technology, Meghalaya]] ([[University of Science and Technology Meghalaya|USTM]]), Meghalaya
* [[William Carey University, Meghalaya]], Shillong
* [[CMJ University]], [[Jorabat]]
* [[National Institute of Technology, Meghalaya]]
{{div col end}}

== Government and politics ==
{{Main|Government of Meghalaya|Meghalaya Legislative Assembly}}

Meghalaya's Governor is [[C. H. Vijayashankar]] since July 2024.<ref name="Governor_2024">{{cite news |title=C.H. Vijayashankar appointed Meghalaya Governor |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/ch-vijayashankar-appointed-meghalaya-governor/article68456452.ece |work=The Hindu |date=28 July 2024 |access-date=28 July 2024}}</ref>

=== State government ===
The [[Meghalaya Legislative Assembly]] has 60 members at present. Meghalaya has two representatives in the [[Lok Sabha]], one each from Shillong and Tura. It also has one representative in the [[Rajya Sabha]].

Since the creation of the state the [[Gauhati High Court]] has jurisdiction in Meghalaya. A Circuit Bench of the Guwahati High Court has been functioning at Shillong since 1974. In March 2013, the [[Meghalaya High Court]] was separated from the Gauhati High Court and now the state has its own High Court.

=== Local self-government ===
[[File:NE Autonomous divisions of India.svg|thumb|Autonomous District Councils in Northeast India]]
To provide local self-governance machinery to the rural population of the country, provisions were made in the [[Constitution of India]]; accordingly, the [[Panchayati Raj]] institutions were set up. Because of distinct customs and traditions prevalent in the northeast region, it was felt necessary to have a separate political and administrative structure in the region.{{citation needed|date=June 2014}} Some of the tribal communities in the region had their own traditional political systems, and it was felt that Panchayati Raj institutions may come into conflict with these traditional systems. The Sixth Schedule was appended to the Constitution on the recommendations of a subcommittee formed under the leadership of [[Gopinath Bordoloi]], and the constitution of [[Autonomous regions of India|Autonomous District Councils]] is provided in certain rural areas of the northeast including areas in Meghalaya.
The ADCs in Meghalaya are the following:
* [[Garo Hills Autonomous District Council]]
* [[Khasi Hills Autonomous District Council]]
* [[Jaintia Hills Autonomous District Council]]

== Economy ==
Meghalaya is predominantly an [[agrarian economy]]. Agriculture and allied activities engage nearly two-thirds of the total workforce in Meghalaya. This sector's contribution to the state's NSDP is about one-third. Agriculture in the state is characterised by low productivity and unsustainable farm practices. Despite the large percentage of the population engaged in agriculture, the state imports food from other Indian states.{{citation needed|date=June 2014}} Infrastructural constraints have also prevented the economy of the state from creating high-income jobs at a pace commensurate with that of the rest of India.

Meghalaya's gross state domestic product for 2012 was estimated at {{INRConvert|16173|c}} in current prices.<ref name=pcindia>[http://planningcommission.nic.in/plans/finres/fr_2013_14/fr_meghalaya1314.pdf Meghalaya] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140716065506/http://planningcommission.nic.in/plans/finres/fr_2013_14/fr_meghalaya1314.pdf |date=16 July 2014 }} Planning Commission, Govt of India (May 2014)</ref> As of 2012, according to the [[Reserve Bank of India]], about 12% of total state population is below the poverty line, with 12.5% of the rural Meghalaya population is below the poverty line; while in urban areas, 9.3% are below the poverty line.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/PublicationsView.aspx?id=15283 |title=See 3rd table set for 2012 in Table 162, Number and Percentage of Population Below Poverty Line |publisher=Reserve Bank of India, Government of India |year=2013 |access-date=20 April 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407102043/http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/PublicationsView.aspx?id=15283 |archive-date=7 April 2014 }}</ref>

=== Agriculture ===
[[File:Tea Plantation Agriculture in Meghalaya India on the way to Shillong.jpg|thumb|Tea Plantation in Meghalaya, on the way to Shillong]]
Meghalaya is basically an agricultural state with about 80% of its population depending entirely on agriculture for their livelihood. Nearly 10% of the geographical area of Meghalaya is under cultivation. Agriculture in the state is characterised by limited use of modern techniques, low yields, and low productivity. As a result, despite the vast majority of the population being engaged in agriculture, the contribution of agricultural production to the state's GDP is low, and most of the population engaged in agriculture remain poor. A portion of the cultivated area is under the traditional [[shifting cultivation|shifting agriculture]] known locally as {{transliteration|INC|[[jhum]]}}.

Meghalaya produced 230,000 tonnes of food grains in 2001. Rice is the dominant food grain crop accounting for over 80% of the food grain production in the state. Other important food grain crops are maize, wheat, and a few other cereals and pulses. Besides these, potato, [[ginger]], [[turmeric]], [[black pepper]], [[areca nut]], [[Bay leaf]] ([[Cinnamomum tamala]]), betel, short-staple cotton, [[jute]], [[mesta]], [[mustard plant|mustard]] and [[rapeseed]] etc. are some of the important cash crops. Besides the major food crops of rice and maize, the state is renowned for its horticultural crops like orange, lemon, pineapple, guava, litchi, banana, jack fruits and fruits such as plum, pear, and peach.<ref name="Horticulture Crops">[http://megagriculture.gov.in/PUBLIC/crops/horticulture_crops.aspx Horticulture Crops] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141119223536/http://megagriculture.gov.in/PUBLIC/crops/horticulture_crops.aspx |date=19 November 2014 }} Department of Agriculture, Govt of Meghalaya (2009)</ref>

[[File:Agriculture in Kukon Meghalaya India.jpg|thumb|Agriculture in Kukon, Meghalaya]]
Grains and staples production covers about 60% of the land area dedicated to crops. With the introduction of different crops of high yielding varieties in the mid-1970s, a remarkable increase in food grain production has been made. A major breakthrough was achieved when high yielding varieties of paddy<ref>[http://megagriculture.gov.in/PUBLIC/crops/rice.aspx Rice] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221115007/http://megagriculture.gov.in/public/crops/rice.aspx |date=21 December 2016 }} Department of Agriculture, Govt of Meghalaya (2009)</ref> such as Masuri, Pankaj IR 8, RCPL and other improved varieties series – especially IR 36 which is suitable for Rabi season – allowing three crops to be grown every year. Another milestone was reached when Megha I and Megha II, which are cold tolerant rice varieties developed by the [[Indian Council of Agricultural Research|ICAR]] North East Region at Umroi near Shillong, was released in 1991–92 for the higher altitude regions where there was no high yielding rice varieties earlier. Today the state can claim that about 42% area under paddy has been covered with high yielding varieties with the average productivity of {{convert|2300|kg/ha|abbr=on}}. As is the case with maize and wheat where the productivity has increased tremendously with the introduction of HYV from {{convert|534|kg/ha|abbr=on}} during 1971–72 to {{convert|1218|kg/ha|abbr=on}} of maize and from {{convert|611|kg/ha|abbr=on}} to {{convert|1490|kg/ha|abbr=on}} of wheat.<ref>[http://megagriculture.gov.in/PUBLIC/crops/food_grains.aspx Food grains] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140301011048/http://megagriculture.gov.in/PUBLIC/crops/food_grains.aspx |date=1 March 2014 }} Department of Agriculture, Govt of Meghalaya (2009)</ref>

Oilseeds such as rapeseed, mustard, linseed, soybean, castor, and sesame are grown on nearly {{convert|100|km2|abbr=on}}. Rape and mustard are the most important oilseeds<ref>[http://megagriculture.gov.in/PUBLIC/crops/oil_seeds.aspx Oil Seeds] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131010052401/http://megagriculture.gov.in/PUBLIC/crops/oil_seeds.aspx |date=10 October 2013 }} Department of Agriculture, Govt of Meghalaya (2009)</ref> accounting for well over two-thirds of the oilseed production of nearly 6.5 thousand tonnes. Fiber crops such as cotton, jute, and ''mesta'' are among the only cash crops in Meghalaya, grown in Garo Hills.<ref>[http://megagriculture.gov.in/PUBLIC/crops/fibre_crops.aspx Fibre Crops] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131009002901/http://megagriculture.gov.in/PUBLIC/crops/fibre_crops.aspx |date=9 October 2013 }} Department of Agriculture, Govt of Meghalaya (2009)</ref> These have been losing popularity in recent years as indicated by their declining yield and area under cultivation.

Climatic conditions in Meghalaya permit a large variety of horticulture crops including fruits, vegetables, flowers, spices, mushrooms, and medicinal plants.<ref name="Horticulture Crops"/> These are considered to be higher value crops, but home food security concerns have prevented farmers at large from embracing them. The important fruits grown include citrus fruits, pineapples, papayas, and bananas. In addition to this, a large variety of vegetables are grown in the state, including cauliflower, cabbages, and radishes.

Areca nut plantations can be seen all over the state, especially around the road from [[Guwahati]] to [[Shillong]]. Other plantation crops like tea, coffee and [[cashews]] have been introduced lately and are becoming common. A large variety of spices, flowers, [[medicinal plants]] and [[mushrooms]] are grown in the state.

===Industry===
[[File:Cement Plant MCL.jpg|thumb|View of MCL Cement plant, Thangskai, P.O. Lumshnong, Jaintia Hills]]
Meghalaya has a rich base of [[natural resource]]s. These include minerals such as coal, [[limestone]], [[sillimanite]], [[Kaolin]] and [[granite]] among others. Meghalaya has a large forest cover, rich biodiversity, and numerous water bodies. The low level of industrialisation and the relatively poor infrastructure base acts as an impediment to the exploitation of these natural resources in the interest of the state's economy. In recent years two large cement manufacturing plants with production capacity more than 900 MTD have come up in Jaintia Hills district and several more are in pipeline to use the rich deposit of very high-quality limestone available in this district.

===Electricity infrastructure===
[[File:Mawphlang Dam Reservoir Meghalaya India.jpg|thumb|Meghalaya has abundant but undeveloped hydroelectric resources. Above is Mawphlang hydroelectric dam reservoir.]]
Meghalaya, with its high mountains, deep gorges, and abundant rains has a large, unused hydroelectric potential. The assessed generation capacity exceeds 3000 MW. The current installed capacity in the state is 185 MW, but the state itself consumes 610 MW. In other words, it imports electricity.<ref>[http://meecl.nic.in/demand.htm Demand for power in Meghalaya] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140713120902/http://meecl.nic.in/demand.htm |date=13 July 2014 }} Meghalaya Energy Corporation Limited</ref> The economic growth of the state suggests rising demand for electricity. The state has the potential to export net hydroelectric-generated electricity and earn income for its internal development plans. The state also has large deposits of coal, thus being a candidate for thermal power plants.

Several projects are under works. The proposed Garo Hills thermal project at Nangalbibra is expected to generate an additional 751 MW of power. There is a proposal for setting up a 250 MW thermal power plant in West Khasi Hills. The State Government aims to increase its power generation output by about 2000-2500 MW, of which 700-980 MW will be thermal based while 1400-1520 MW will be hydroelectricity. The State Government has outlined a cost-shared public-private partnership model to accelerate private sector investments in its power sector.<ref>[http://megplanning.gov.in/MSDR/infastructural_development.pdf State Planning] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304001713/http://megplanning.gov.in/MSDR/infastructural_development.pdf |date=4 March 2016 }} Govt of Meghalaya, pp 129-130</ref> The generation transmission, transformation and distribution of electricity is entrusted to the Meghalaya Energy Corporation Limited which was constituted under the Electricity Supply Act, 1948. At present, there are five hydel power stations and one mini hydel including Umiam Hydel Project, Umtrew Hydel Project, Myntdu-Leshka-I Hydel Project, and the Sunapani Micro Hydel (SESU) Project.

For the 12th five-year plan of India, there is a proposal to set up more hydel power projects in the state: Kynshi (450 MW), Umngi −1 (54 MW), Umiam-Umtru -V (36 MW), Ganol (25 MW), Mawphu (120 MW), Nongkolait (120 MW), Nongnaw (50 MW), Rangmaw (65 MW), Umngot (260 MW), Umduna (57 MW), Myntdu-Leshka-II (60 MW), Selim (170 MW) and Mawblei (140 MW).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cea.nic.in |title=Central Electricity Authority |website=Cea.nic.in |access-date=27 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190309115717/http://cea.nic.in/ |archive-date=9 March 2019 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Of these, Jaypee Group has committed itself to building the Kynshi and Umngot projects in Khasi hills.<ref>[http://www.jalindia.com/hydropower.htm Hydro Power] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140408042645/http://jalindia.com/hydropower.htm |date=8 April 2014 }} Jaypee Group (2010)</ref>

===Education infrastructure===
[[File:St edmunds school.jpg|thumb|St. Edmund's School, Shillong]]
{{Main|Education in Meghalaya}}

Meghalaya had a literacy rate of 62.56 as per the 2001 census and is the 27th most literate state in India. This increased to 75.5 in 2011. As of 2006, the state had 5851 primary schools, 1759 middle schools, and 655 higher secondary schools respectively. In 2008, 518,000 students were enrolled in its primary schools, and 232,000 in upper primary schools. The state monitors its school for quality, access, infrastructure and teachers training.<ref>[http://megplanning.gov.in/MSDR/infastructural_development.pdf State Planning] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304001713/http://megplanning.gov.in/MSDR/infastructural_development.pdf |date=4 March 2016 }} Govt of Meghalaya, pp 154-155 (2010)</ref>

Institution for higher studies like [[Indian Institute of Management Shillong|Indian Institute of Management]], the [[University of Science and Technology, Meghalaya|University of Technology and Management]] (USTM) which is in Shillong is the first Indian university to introduce [[cloud computing]] engineering as a field of study, in collaboration with IBM and the University of Petroleum and Energy Studies. IIM Shillong is one of the top ranked management institutes in the country.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.theshillongtimes.com/2017/04/06/iim-shillong-ranked-21st-among-management-institutes/|title=IIM Shillong Ranked 21st Among Management Institutes|date=6 April 2017|work=The Shillong Times|access-date=1 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180801064407/http://www.theshillongtimes.com/2017/04/06/iim-shillong-ranked-21st-among-management-institutes/|archive-date=1 August 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Health infrastructure===
The state has 13 state government dispensaries, 22 community health centres, 93 primary health centres, 408 sub-centres. There were 378 doctors, 81 pharmacists, 337 staff nurses and 77 lab technicians as of 2012. A special program has been launched by the state government for the treatment of [[tuberculosis]], [[leprosy]], cancer and [[mental disorder|mental diseases]]. Though there has been a steady decline in the death rate, improvement in life expectancy and an increase in health infrastructure, about 42.3% of the state's population is still uncovered by health care, according to the status paper prepared by the Health Department. There are numerous hospitals being set up, both private and government, some of them are Civil Hospital, Ganesh Das Hospital, K.J.P. Synod Hospital, [[NEIGRIHMS]], North Eastern Institute of [[Ayurveda]] & [[Homoeopathy]] (NEIAH), R P Chest Hospital, Wood Land Hospital, Nazareth Hospital, Christian Hospital etc.

== Urban areas ==
* '''Municipalities:''' [[Shillong]], [[Tura, India|Tura]], [[Jowai]]
* '''Municipal boards:''' [[Williamnagar]], [[Resubelpara]], [[Baghmara, India|Baghmara]]
* '''Cantonment board:''' [[Shillong Cantonment]] (Umroi)
* '''Town committees:''' [[Nongstoin]], [[Nongpoh]], [[Mairang]]
* '''Census towns:''' [[Mawlai]], [[Madanrting]], [[Nongthymmai]], [[Nongmynsong]], [[Pynthorumkhrah]], [[Cherrapunji]], Pynursla
* '''Minor towns:''' [[Khliehriat]], [[Mawkyrwat]], [[Ampati]]
* '''Areas under Shillong Urban Agglomeration:''' [[Shillong]], [[Shillong Cantonment]]/Umroi, [[Mawlai]], [[Madanrting]], [[Nongthymmai]], [[Nongmynsong]], [[Pynthorumkhrah]]

=== New proposal for urban areas ===
* '''Municipal corporations: ''' [[Shillong]] (including [[Shillong Cantonment]]/Umroi, [[Mawlai]], [[Madanrting]], [[Nongthymmai]], [[Nongmynsong]], [[Pynthorumkhrah]])
* '''Municipalities: ''' [[Tura, India|Tura]], [[Jowai]], [[Williamnagar]]
* '''Municipal boards: ''' [[Resubelpara]], [[Baghmara, India|Baghmara]], [[Nongstoin]], [[Nongpoh]], [[Mairang]], [[Khliehriat]], [[Mawkyrwat]], [[Ampati]], [[Cherrapunji]]
* '''Town committees: ''' Pynursla

== Culture and society ==
The main tribes in Meghalaya are the [[Khasi people|Khasi]]s, the [[Garo (tribe)|Garos]], and the [[Synteng|Jaintias]]. Each tribe has its own culture, traditions, dress and language.

===Social institutions===
[[File:GARO TRADITIONAL DRESS-9.jpg|thumb|[[Garo people|Garo]] Couple in traditional dress.]]
{{see also|Matrilineal society of Meghalaya}}
The majority of the population and the major tribal groups in Meghalaya follow a [[matrilineal]] system where lineage and inheritance are traced through women. The youngest daughter inherits all the property and she is the caretaker of aged parents and any unmarried siblings.<ref name=akrl/> In some cases, such as when there is no daughter in the family or other reasons, the parents may nominate another girl such as a daughter in law as the heir of the house and all other property they may own.

The Khasi and Jaintia tribesmen follow the traditional matrilineal norm, wherein the ''Khun Khatduh'' (or the youngest daughter) inherits all the property and responsibilities for the family. The male line, particularly the mother's brother, may indirectly control the ancestral property since he may be involved in important decisions relating to property including its sale and disposal. In case a family has no daughters, the Khasi and Jaintia (also called Syntengs) have the custom of ''ia rap iing'', where the family adopts a girl from another family, perform religious ceremonies with the community, and she then becomes ''ka trai iing'' (head of the house).<ref>Philip Richard Thornhagh Gurdon (1914), {{Google books|Jys1AQAAIAAJ|The Khasis}}, McMillan & Co., 2nd Edition, pp 85-87</ref>

In the Garo lineage system, the youngest daughter inherits the family property by default, unless another daughter is so named by the parents. She then becomes designated as ''nokna'' meaning 'for the house or home'. If there are no daughters, a chosen daughter-in-law (''bohari'') or an adopted child (''deragata'') comes to stay in the house and inherit the property. This adopted girl child is then the head of the house.{{citation needed|date=January 2022}}

Meghalaya has one of the world's last surviving matrilineal cultures.

=== Civil society ===
Meghalaya's [[civil society]] considers the people of the state as a collective community that exists through [[civil society organisation]]s (CSOs), and serves the general interests of the public.<ref name=":1">Gupta, Susmita Sen (2018), Ethnicity and Development – A Civil Society Perspective from North-East India. In: Journal of Social and Political Sciences, Vol.1, No.2, 297-305. DOI: 10.31014/aior.1991.01.02.20</ref> These organisations include a wide spectrum of [[Non-governmental organization|non-government organisations (NGOs)]], other community associations, and foundations. The current status of Meghalaya's civil society and the effectiveness of the many programs is debated by scholars.

There are currently over 181 NGOs within Meghalaya that vary from charities to volunteer services and social empowerment groups.<ref>"List of NGOs in Meghalaya" ''www.giveindia.org''. Retrieved 20 November 2019.</ref><ref name=":2">"NGO Darpan". ''ngodarpan.gov.in''. Retrieved 20 November 2019.</ref> Most civil society organisations are also ethnically affiliated as the interests of different groups are championed between each organisation . This in turn causes them to become representatives of ethnic communities around the state since the same individuals from such communities also participate in corresponding organisations that protect their ethnic interests. Three student organisations that represent the major ethnic groups of Meghalaya: [[Seng Khasi Movement|Khasi Students' Union]] (KSU), Jantia Students' Union (JSU), and Garo Students' Union (GSU) embody this example into their overall functions as CSOs by applying pressure to local government in order to ensure that certain rights are being met.<ref name=":1" />

There also exists many forms of community associations that revolve around the idea of community building. This includes examples such as sports, religious, educational, and other clubs that aim to establish individuals into different social circles based on their interests.<ref name=":2" />

Philanthropic foundations in Meghalaya's civil society strive for the overall well-being of its citizens. The [[Public Health Foundation of India|Public Health Foundation of India (PHFI)]] has recently partnered with the government of Meghalaya to improve public health in many rural parts of the state by first strengthening the abilities of non-government organisations to perform such services.<ref>"Enhancing Rural Public Health Capacity in Northeast India". ''Clinton Foundation''. Retrieved 20 November 2019.</ref>

Scholars are divided on the effectiveness Meghalaya's civil society. Some argue for its important role in state development through CSOs, while others point out that their impact is not only limited from above by the central government and its military, but also from below by insurgent groups.<ref name=":3">McDuie-Ra, Duncan (19 January 2007). "Civil society organisations and human security: transcending constricted space in Meghalaya". ''Contemporary South Asia''. [[Digital object identifier|doi]]:10.1080/09584930600938040.</ref>

Concerns over national security, such as the unification of neighbouring hostile countries and local insurgent groups for a possible attack on the Indian state, has served as the longstanding point of emphasis on how the Indian Central Government operates in the Northeast. Different administrative programs have been created to establish peace and stability in this region through economic development.<ref>Sachdeva, Gulshan. "India's Northeast: rejuvenating a conflict-riven economy", Faultines. Vol 6, 2000. http://www.satp.org/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103143002/http://www.satp.org/ |date=3 January 2014 }} satporgtp/publication/faultlines/volume6/Fault6-GSach-F.htm</ref> The [[Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act|Armed Forces Special Powers Act (AFSPA)]] that was passed in 1958 by the Indian Government granted the Indian Army exclusive powers to maintain order in this area. Many insurgent organisations were also developed alongside cultural and political movements, making it very difficult to distinguish them from what constitutes a civil society.<ref name=":3" /> These two factors have combined to enable CSOs to be easily deemed as insurgencies and grouped with other insurgent organisations that were banned by the government, thus restricting Meghalaya's civil society as a whole.<ref name=":3" /><ref>Baruah, Apurba K. (2003) ''Tribal traditions and crises of governance in north east India, with special reference to Meghalaya.'' Crisis States Research Centre working papers series 1 (22). Crisis States Research Centre, London School of Economics and Political Science, London, UK</ref>

=== Traditional political institutions ===
All the three major ethnic tribal groups, namely, the Khasis, Jaintias and the Garos also have their own traditional political institutions that have existed for hundreds of years. These political institutions were fairly well developed and functioned at various tiers, such as the village level, clan level, and state level.<ref name=prtg66/>

In the traditional political system of the Khasis, each clan has its own council known as the ''Dorbar Kur'' which is presided over by the clan headman. The council or the Dorbar managed the internal affairs of the clan. Similarly, every village has a local assembly known as the ''Dorbar Shnong'', i.e. village Durbar or council, which is presided over by the village headman. The inter-village issues were dealt with through a political unit comprising adjacent Khasi Villages. The local political units are known as the raids, under by the supreme political authority is known as the ''Syiemship''. The Syiemship is the congregation of several raids and is headed an elected chief known as the ''Syiem'' or ''Siem'' (the king).<ref name=prtg66>Philip Richard Thornhagh Gurdon (1914), {{Google books|Jys1AQAAIAAJ|The Khasis}}, McMillan & Co., 2nd Edition, pp 66-75</ref> The Siem rules the Khasi state through an elected State Assembly, known as the Durbar Hima. The Siem also has his ''mantris'' (ministers) whose counsel he would use in exercising executive responsibilities. Taxes were called ''pynsuk'', and tolls were called ''khrong'', the latter being the primary source of state income. In the early 20th century, Raja Dakhor Singh was the Siem of Khymir.<ref name=prtg66/>

{| class="wikitable floatright" style="text-align: center;"
|-
!Meghalaya<br />festival<ref name=dacmegh/>
! Local<br />calendar month
! Vedic<br />calendar month
! Gregorian<br />calendar month
|-
| Den'bilsia
| Polgin
| Phalgun
| February
|-
|A'siroka
| Chuet
| Chaitra
| March
|-
|A' galmaka
| Pasak
| Vaisakha
| April
|-
|Miamua
| Asal
| Asharha
| June
|-
|Rongchugala
| Bado
| Bhadra
| August
|-
|Ahaia
|Asin
| Ashwin
| September
|-
|Wangala
| Gate
| Kartika
| October
|-
|Christmas
| Posi
| Pausha
| December
|}
The Jaintias also have a three-tier political system somewhat similar to the Khasis, including the Raids and the Syiem.<ref>Philip Richard Thornhagh Gurdon (1914), {{Google books|Jys1AQAAIAAJ|The Khasis}}, McMillan & Co., 2nd Edition</ref> The raids are headed by ''Dolois'', who are responsible for performing the executive and ceremonial functions at the Raid level. At the lowest level are the village headmen. Each administrative tier has its own elected councils or durbars.

In the traditional political system of the Garos, a group of Garo villages form the A·king. The A·king functions under the supervision of the ''Nokmas'', which is perhaps the only political and administrative authority in the political institution of the Garos. The Nokma performs both judicial and legislative functions. The Nokmas also congregates to address inter-A·king issues. There are no well-organised councils or durbars among the Garos.{{citation needed|date=June 2014}}

===Festivals===
[[File:Mary Help of Christians Cathedral, Shillong – Front Side (2).jpg|200 px|thumb|Mary Help of Christians Cathedral, Shillong]]

;[[Christmas]]
Being a Christian majority state, Christmas is one of the biggest festivals of Meghalaya, celebrated in almost all of the parts of the state—villages, towns with great fervour and enthusiasm by native Christian Tribes.<ref>{{cite news |title=Christmas in a Meghalaya village |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/blink/shoot/christmas-in-a-meghalaya-village/article33418116.ece/photo/1/ |access-date=11 August 2022 |work=Business Line |date=25 December 2020 |archive-date=11 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220811093022/https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/blink/shoot/christmas-in-a-meghalaya-village/article33418116.ece/photo/1/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/shillong/meghalaya-celebrates-christmas/articleshow/50332634.cms?from=mdr |title=Meghalaya celebrates Christmas |work=The Times of India |date=26 December 2015 |access-date=10 August 2022 |archive-date=11 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220811093023/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/shillong/meghalaya-celebrates-christmas/articleshow/50332634.cms?from=mdr |url-status=live }}</ref> The entire state comes alive with Christmas trees, carols and lights during 25 December. Shillong and Cherrapunji are best destination for tourists who want to see and celebrate Christmas.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.hotelpolotowers.com/m/blogs/christmas-in-meghalaya.html | title=Christmas in Meghalaya | Hotel Polo Towers | Christmas in Cherrapunji | access-date=25 October 2022 | archive-date=25 October 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221025070829/https://www.hotelpolotowers.com/m/blogs/christmas-in-meghalaya.html | url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Dance of Meghalaya.jpg|thumb|Dance of Meghalaya]]
;Khasis
Dance is central to the culture of Khasi life, and a part of the [[rites of passage]]. Dances are performed in ''Shnong'' (village), a ''Raid'' (group of villages), and a ''Hima'' (conglomeration of Raids). Some festivals includes Ka Shad Suk Mynsiem, Ka Pom-Blang Nongkrem, Ka-Shad Shyngwiang-Thangiap, Ka-Shad-Kynjoh Khaskain, Ka Bam Khana Shnong, Umsan Nongkharai, Shad Beh Sier.<ref name=dacmegh/>

;Jaintias
Festivals of the Jaintia Hills, like others, is integral to the culture of people of Jaintia Hills. It celebrates nature, balance and solidarity among its people. Festivals of Jaintias includes Behdienkhlam, Laho Dance, Sowing Ritual Ceremony.<ref name=dacmegh/>

;Garos
For Garos, festivals sustain their cultural heritage. They were often dedicated to religious events, nature and seasons as well as community events such as stages of ''jhum'' cultivation. The main festivals of Garos are Den Bilsia, Wangala, Rongchu gala, Mi Amua, Mangona, Grengdik BaA, Jamang Sia, Ja Megapa, Sa Sat Ra Chaka, Ajeaor Ahaoea, Dore Rata Dance, Chambil Mesara, Do'KruSua, Saram Cha'A, A Se Mania or Tata.<ref name=dacmegh>[http://megartsculture.gov.in/festivals.htm Festivals of Meghalaya] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140527105851/http://megartsculture.gov.in/festivals.htm |date=27 May 2014 }} The Department of Arts and Culture, Govt of Meghalaya (2010)</ref>

;Hajongs
Hajongs celebrate traditional festivals and Hindu festivals. The entire plain belt of Garo Hills is inhabited by the Hajongs, they are an agrarian tribe. Major traditional festivals include [[Pusnâ|Pusne']], Biswe', Kati Gasa, Bastu Puje' and Chor Maga.

;Biates
The Biates had many kinds of festivals, including Nûlding Kût, Pamchar Kût, Lebang Kût and Favang Kût, for different occasions. They no longer practise or observe most, except Nûlding Kût ("renewal of life") every January, with singing, dancing and traditional games. A priest (thiampu) prays to Chung Pathian to bless Biates in every sphere of life.

=== Spirituality ===
In southern Meghalaya, located in [[Mawsynram]], is the Mawjymbuin cave. Here a massive stalagmite has been shaped by nature into a [[Shivalinga]]. According to legend, from the 13th century, this Shivalinga (called ''Hatakeswarat'') has existed in the [[Jaintia Hills]] under the reign of Ranee Singa.{{sfn|Roy|1981|p=139}} Tens of thousands of the Jaintia tribe members participate over the Hindu festival of [[Shivratri]] (''Night of Lord Shiva'') every year.{{sfn|Roy|1981|p=132}}<ref>Sudhansu R. Das, [http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/todays-paper/tp-opinion/vibrant-meghalaya/article1644477.ece Vibrant Meghalaya] The Hindu (2008)</ref>

=== Living root bridges ===
[[File:Living root bridges, Nongriat village, Meghalaya2.jpg|right|thumb|278x278px|Double-Decker Living root bridge, Nongriat village.]]
The practice of creating [[living root bridges]] can be found in Meghalaya. Here, functional, living, architecture is created by slowly training the [[aerial root]]s of the [[Ficus elastica]] (rubber tree). Examples of these structures can be found as far west as the valley east of [[Mawsynram]],<ref name="The Living Root Bridge Project">{{Cite news|url=https://livingrootbridges.com/root-bridges-of-the-umiam-river-basin/|title=Root Bridges of the Umiam River Basin|date=27 April 2017|work=The Living Root Bridge Project|access-date=11 September 2017|language=en-US|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170908021631/https://livingrootbridges.com/root-bridges-of-the-umiam-river-basin/|archive-date=8 September 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> and as far east as the East Jaintia Hills District,<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.riluk.com/living-root-bridge-symbol-benevolence/|title=The Living-Root Bridge: The Symbol Of Benevolence|date=10 October 2016|work=Riluk|access-date=11 September 2017|language=en-US|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170908021245/https://www.riluk.com/living-root-bridge-symbol-benevolence/|archive-date=8 September 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> meaning that they are made by both Khasis and Jaintias. Large numbers<ref>{{cite web|url=https://livingrootbridges.com/|title=The Living Root Bridge Project|website=The Living Root Bridge Project|language=en-US|access-date=11 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170905001717/https://livingrootbridges.com/|archive-date=5 September 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> of these man-made living structures exist in the mountainous terrain along the southern border of the [[Shillong Plateau]], though as a cultural practice they are fading, with many individual examples having disappeared recently, either falling in landslides or floods or being replaced with more standard steel bridges.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://livingrootbridges.com/threats-to-meghalayas-botanical-architecture/|title=Why is Meghalaya's Botanical Architecture Disappearing?|date=6 April 2017|work=The Living Root Bridge Project|access-date=11 September 2017|language=en-US|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911204634/https://livingrootbridges.com/threats-to-meghalayas-botanical-architecture/|archive-date=11 September 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>

== Transport ==
The [[Partition of India|partition of the country]] in 1947 created severe infrastructural constraints for the [[Northeast India|Northeastern region]], with merely 2% of the perimeter of the region adjoining the rest of the country. A narrow strip of land often called the [[Siliguri Corridor]] or the Chicken's Neck, connects the region with the state of [[West Bengal]]. Meghalaya is a landlocked state with many small settlements in remote areas. The road is the only means of transport. While the capital [[Shillong]] is relatively well connected, road connectivity in most other parts is relatively poor. A significant portion of the roads in the state is still unpaved. Most of the arrivals into the Meghalaya take place through [[Guwahati]] in neighbouring Assam, which is nearly 103 km away. Assam has a major railhead as well as an airport with regular train and air services to the rest of the country.

When Meghalaya was carved out of Assam as an autonomous state in 1972, it inherited a total road length of 2786.68 km including 174 km of National Highways with road density of 12.42 km per 100 square kilometre. By 2004, total road length has reached up to 9,350 km out of which 5,857 km were surfaced. The road density had increased to 41.69 km per 100 square kilometre by March 2011. Meghalaya is far below the national average of 75 km per 100 km<sup>2</sup>. To provide better services to the people of the state, the Meghalaya Public Works Department is taking steps for improvement and up-gradation of the existing roads and bridges in phased manner.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
<gallery mode="packed" heights="134">
File:State Highway 5 Cherapunjee Meghalaya India.jpg|State Highway 5 near Cherrapunji, Meghalaya
File:Shillong Bypass road.jpg|Shillong Bypass road
File:Shillong Airport terminal building 4.jpg|[[Shillong Airport]]
File:National_Highway_6_to_Guwahati.jpg|National Highway 6
File:National_Highway_6_Toll_Plaza.jpg|National Highway 6 Toll Plaza
</gallery>

=== Road network ===
Meghalaya has a road network of around 7,633 km, out of which 3,691 km is black-topped and the remaining 3942 km is gravelled. Meghalaya is also connected to Silchar in Assam, Aizawl in Mizoram, and Agartala in Tripura through national highways. Many private buses and taxi operators carry passengers from Guwahati to Shillong. The journey takes from 3 to 4 hours. Day and night bus services are available from Shillong to all major towns of Meghalaya and also other capitals and important towns of Assam and the northeastern states.

=== Railway ===
Meghalaya has a railhead at {{rws|Mendipathar}} and regular train service connecting [[Dudhnoi - Mendipathar Rail Line|Mendipathar]] in Meghalaya and [[Guwahati]] in [[Assam]], has started on 30 November 2014.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1141130/jsp/frontpage/story_19105595.jsp#.VIEWp8lBFd4|title=Meghalaya rail dream on track|publisher=telegrapfindia.com|date=30 November 2014|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141208050935/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1141130/jsp/frontpage/story_19105595.jsp#.VIEWp8lBFd4|archive-date=8 December 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[The Cherra Companyganj State Railways]] was a former mountain railway through the state.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://zeenews.india.com/news/north-east/a-mountain-railway-that-existed-125-years-ago_763894.html |title=A mountain railway that existed 125 years ago |publisher=Zeenews.india.com |date=15 March 2012 |access-date=9 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319053844/http://zeenews.india.com/news/north-east/a-mountain-railway-that-existed-125-years-ago_763894.html |archive-date=19 March 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> Guwahati ({{convert|103|km}} from Shillong) is the nearest major railway station connecting the north-east region with the rest of the country through a broad gauge track network. There is a plan for extending the rail link from Guwahati to [[Byrnihat]] ({{convert|20|km}} from Guwahati) within Meghalaya and further extending it up to state capital [[Shillong]].

=== Aviation ===
State capital Shillong has an airport at [[Shillong Airport|Umroi]] {{convert|30|km}} from Shillong on the Guwahati-Shillong highway. A new terminal building was built at a cost of {{INRConvert|30|c}} and inaugurated in June 2011.<ref>{{cite news |title=Shillong airport's new terminal to open on Saturday |url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/news-by-industry/transportation/airlines-/-aviation/shillong-airports-new-terminal-to-open-on-saturday/articleshow/8948403.cms |publisher=[[The Economic Times]] |date=22 June 2011 |access-date=20 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120412000151/http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/news-by-industry/transportation/airlines-/-aviation/shillong-airports-new-terminal-to-open-on-saturday/articleshow/8948403.cms |archive-date=12 April 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Air India Regional]] operates flights to Kolkata from this airport. There is also a helicopter service connecting Shillong to Guwahati and Tura. [[Baljek Airport]] near [[Tura, Meghalaya|Tura]] became operational in 2008.<ref>[http://megplanning.gov.in/MSDR/infastructural_development.pdf State Planning] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304001713/http://megplanning.gov.in/MSDR/infastructural_development.pdf |date=4 March 2016 }} Govt of Meghalaya, pp 153-154 (2010)</ref> The [[Airports Authority of India]] (AAI) is developing the airport for operation of [[ATR 42]]/[[ATR 72]] type of aircraft.<ref>{{cite news |title=Better Air Connectivity for NE Region |url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=95050 |publisher=[[Press Information Bureau]] |date=25 April 2013 |access-date=13 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140114054503/http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=95050 |archive-date=14 January 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> Other nearby airports are in Assam, with [[Lokpriya Gopinath Bordoloi International Airport|Borjhar, Guwahati]] airport (IATA: GAU), about {{convert|124|km}} from Shillong.

== Tourism ==
{{more citations needed section|date=August 2019}}
{{main|Tourism in North East India}}

[[File:Elephanta Falls.JPG|thumb|Elephant Falls]]
[[File:Near Krang Suri Waterfall.jpg|thumb|right|Krang Suri Waterfall]]
[[File:Umiam Lake, Shillong, Meghalaya, India.jpg|thumb|Umiam Lake, Shillong, Meghalaya, India]]
Until 1955, foreign tourists required special permits to enter the areas that now constitute the state of Meghalaya, which is sometimes compared to Scotland for its highlands, fog and scenery.<ref name=akrl/> Meghalaya has some of the thickest primary forests in the country and therefore constitutes one of the most important ecotourism circuits in India. The Meghalaya subtropical forests support a vast variety of flora and fauna. The state has two national parks and three wildlife sanctuaries.

Meghalaya also offers many adventure tourism opportunities in the form of mountaineering, rock climbing, trekking, and hiking, [[caving]] (spelunking) and water sports. The state offers several trekking routes, some of which also afford an opportunity to encounter rare animals. The [[Umiam Lake]] has a water sports complex with facilities such as rowboats, paddleboats, sailing boats, cruise-boats, water-scooters, and speedboats.

[[Cherrapunji]] is a tourist destination in north-east India. It lies to the south of the capital Shillong. A rather scenic 50-kilometre long road connects Cherrapunji with Shillong.

[[Living root bridges]] are also a tourist draw, with many examples located near Cherrapunji.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.cherrapunjee.com/living-root-bridges/|title=Living Root Bridges|work=Cherrapunjee|access-date=11 September 2017|language=en-US|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140609231150/http://cherrapunjee.com/living-root-bridges/|archive-date=9 June 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Double-Decker root bridge, along with several others, is found in the village of [[Nongriat]], which is tourist friendly. Many other root bridges can be found nearby, in the villages of Nongthymmai, Mynteng, and Tynrong.<ref name="The Living Root Bridge Project"/> Other areas with root bridges include Riwai village, near the tourist village of [[Mawlynnong]], Pynursla, especially the villages of Rangthyllaing and Mawkyrnot, and the area around [[Dawki]], in the [[West Jaintia Hills district]], where there are many living root bridges scattered throughout the nearby villages.<ref name=":0" />

;Waterfalls and rivers
{{multiple image
| align = left
| caption_align = center
| image1 = Nohkalikai Falls Cherrapunji.JPG
| width1 = 300
| caption1 = Multiple drops of Nohkalikai Falls
| image2 = The Elegant Nohkalikai Falls during a summer sunset.jpg
| width2 = 150
| caption2 = Main drop of Nohkalikai Falls
| footer = [[Nohkalikai Falls]] is one of the tallest plunge type waterfalls in India and on Earth.<ref name=database>{{cite web|title=Showing all Waterfalls in India |url=http://www.world-waterfalls.com/database.php?s=T&t=G&category=country&search=India&orderby=height%20DESC |publisher=World Waterfalls Database |access-date=20 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090901164803/http://www.world-waterfalls.com/database.php?s=T&t=G&category=country&search=India&orderby=height%20DESC |archive-date=1 September 2009 }}</ref>
| footer_align = center
}}

The most visited waterfalls in the state include the [[Elephant Falls]], Shadthum Falls, Weinia Falls, Bishop Falls, [[Nohkalikai Falls]], Langshiang Falls and Sweet Falls.{{citation needed|date=August 2020}} The hot springs at Jakrem near [[Mawsynram]] are believed to have curative and medicinal properties.

Nongkhnum Island located in the West Khasi Hills district is the biggest river island in Meghalaya and the second biggest in Asia. It is 14 kilometres from Nongstoin. The island is formed by the bifurcation of Kynshi River into the Phanliang River and the Namliang River. Adjacent to the sandy beach the Phanliang River forms a lake. The river then moves along and before reaching a deep gorge, forms a waterfall about 60 meters high called Shadthum Fall.

;Sacred groves
Meghalaya is also known for its "sacred groves". They are small or large areas of forests or natural vegetation that are usually dedicated to local folk deities or tree spirits or some religious symbolism over many generations, often since ancient times. These spaces are found all over India, are protected by local communities, and in some cases, the locals would neither touch leaves or fruits or in other ways damage the forest, flora or fauna taking refuge in them. This guardianship creates a sacred area where nature and wildlife thrive. The Mawphlang sacred forest, also known as "Law Lyngdoh," is one of the most famous sacred forests in Meghalaya. It's located about 25 kilometres from Shillong. It's a scenic nature destination, and one can find the sacred [[Rudraksha]] tree here.<ref>[http://ecoheritage.cpreec.org/viewsacdetail.php?$mFJyBfK$MOIb-B5vugEjzLdzxFAXZ List of Sacred Groves in Meghalaya] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150602134727/http://ecoheritage.cpreec.org/viewsacdetail.php?$mFJyBfK$MOIb-B5vugEjzLdzxFAXZ |date=2 June 2015 }} Government of Meghalaya (2011)</ref>

;Rural areas
Meghalaya rural life and villages offer a glimpse in northeast mountain life.{{tone inline|date=August 2020}} The [[Mawlynnong]] village located near the India-Bangladesh border is one such village. It has been featured by travel magazine ''Discover India''.<ref name="megtourism_eco">[http://megtourism.gov.in/ecodestination.html Eco Destination] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111209012830/http://megtourism.gov.in/ecodestination.html |date=9 December 2011 }}, Department of Tourism, Government of Meghalaya</ref> The village is geared for tourism and has a [[Simple suspension bridge|Living Root Bridges]], hiking trails and rock formations.

{{multiple image
| direction = vertical
| align = right
| width =
| footer = Umaim lake (top & bottom) and scenery near Shillong.
| image1 = Umiam Lake - by Vikramjit Kakati.png
| image2 = Near Shillong Meghalaya India.jpg
| image3 = Umiam Lake, Shillong, Meghalaya.jpg
}}

;Lakes
Meghalaya also has many natural and manmade lakes. The Umiam Lake (popularly known as Bara Pani meaning Big water) on the Guwahati-Shillong road is a major tourism attraction for tourist. Meghalaya has several parks; Thangkharang Park, the Eco-park, the Botanical Garden and Lady Hydari Park to name a few. [[Dawki]], which is located at about 96 Kilometres from Shillong is the gateway to Bangladesh and affords a scenic view of some of the tallest mountain ranges in Meghalaya and the Bangladesh borderlands.

[[Thadlaskein Lake]] also ''Pung Sajar Nangli'' is the only historical Lake of Meghalaya. It is located besides National Highway 6 by the side of a small village called Mukhla village which falls under [[West Jaintia Hills district]] [[Jowai]]. It is about 35 mile from the city of Shillong

Balpakram National Park with its pristine habitat and scenery is a major attraction.<ref>Choudhury, A.U. (2008) Balpakram –Meghalaya's heritage IBA. ''Mistnet'' 10 (4): 11–13</ref> The Nokrek National Park, also in Garo Hills has its own charm with a lot of wildlife.<ref>Choudhury, A.U. (2010) Nokrek national park – an IBA in Meghalaya. ''Mistnet'' 11 (1): 7–8</ref>

;Caves
Meghalaya has an estimated 500 natural limestone and sandstone caves spread over the entire state including most of the longest and deepest caves in the sub-continent. [[Krem Liat Prah]] is the longest cave, and Synrang Pamiang is the deepest cave. Both are located in the Jaintia Hills. Cavers from the United Kingdom, Germany, Austria, Ireland, and the United States have been visiting Meghalaya for over a decade exploring these caves. Few have been developed or promoted adequately as major tourist destinations.

;Living root bridges
Meghalaya is famous for its living root bridges, a kind of [[Simple suspension bridge|suspension bridge]] made over rivers using intertwined roots of ''Ficus elastica'' trees planted on opposite banks of the river or hill slopes. These bridges can be seen around Cherrapunji, [[Nongtalang]], Kudeng Rim and Kudeng Thymmai villages (War Jaintia). A double-decker bridge exists in Nongriat village.

<gallery mode="packed" heights="134">
File:Shillong golf course2.jpg|Shillong Golf Course, one of the oldest golf courses of India
File:Nohkalikai Falls.JPG|[[Nohkalikai Falls]]
File:Expedition is in progress in Meghalayan Caves.jpg|Meghalaya has many limestone caves. Above are in Jaintia Hills
File:Single_Decker_Living_Root_Bridge_at_Riwai.jpg|Single Decker Living Root Bridge at Riwai
</gallery>

Other important places of tourism interest Meghalaya include:
* '''Jakrem''': 64 km from Shillong, a potential health resort having gushing hot-spring of sulphur water, believed to have curative medicinal properties.
* '''Ranikor''': 140 km from Shillong, is one of Meghalaya's most popular spots for angling, with an abundance of carp and other freshwater fish.
* '''[[Dawki]]''': 96 km from Shillong, is a border town, where one can have a glimpse of the neighbouring country of Bangladesh. The colourful annual boat race during spring at the [[Umngot River|Umngot river]] is an added attraction.
* '''Kshaid Dain Thlen Falls''': Located near Cherrapunji, meaning the falls where the mythical monster of Khasi legend was finally [[butchered]]. The axe-marks made on the rocks where Thlen was butchered are stillintact and visible.
* '''Diengiei Peak''': Located to the west of the Shillong plateau, Diengiei Peak is just 200 feet lower than Shillong peak. On the top of Diengiei, there is a huge hollow, shaped like a cup, believed to be the crater of an extinct pre-historic [[volcano]].
* '''Dwarksuid''': A scenic pool with wide, rocky sandbanks located on a stream alongside the Umroi-Bhoilymbong Road is known as Dwarksuid or Devil's doorway.{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}
* '''Kyllang Rock''': Located about 11 kilometres off Mairang, is a several million years old steep dome of red granite rising to an elevation of about 5400 feet above sea level.
* '''Sacred Forest [[Mawphlang]]''': One of the most celebrated sacred-groves of the State is the grove at Mawphlang about 25 kilometres off Shillong. Preserved since time immemorial, these sacred groves have wide range of [[flora]], thick cushion of humus on the grounds accumulated over the centuries, and trees heavily loaded with epiphytic growth of [[araceae|aroids]], [[Piper (genus)|pipers]], [[fern]]s, fern-allies and [[orchids]].

==Major issues==
The significant issues in the state include illegal migrants from Bangladesh, incidences of violence, political instability, and deforestation from traditional cut-and-burn shift farming practices. There have been several clashes between Khasi people and Bangladeshi in Meghalaya.

===Illegal immigration===
Illegal immigration has become a major issue in Indian states that surround Bangladesh – West Bengal to the west, Meghalaya and Assam to the north, and Tripura, Mizoram, and Manipur to the east.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tripathi |first1=Sanjeev |title=Illegal Immigration From Bangladesh to India: Toward a Comprehensive Solution |url=https://carnegieindia.org/2016/06/29/illegal-immigration-from-bangladesh-to-india-toward-comprehensive-solution-pub-63931 |access-date=20 June 2023 |journal=Carnegie India |date=29 June 2016 |archive-date=18 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230518042253/https://carnegieindia.org/2016/06/29/illegal-immigration-from-bangladesh-to-india-toward-comprehensive-solution-pub-63931 |url-status=live }}</ref> Dozens of political and civic groups have demanded that this migration be stopped or controlled to manageable levels.<ref>Palash Ghosh, [http://www.ibtimes.com/indias-2014-elections-narendra-modi-says-some-illegal-immigrants-bangladesh-are-better-others India's 2014 Elections: Narendra Modi Says Some Illegal Immigrants From Bangladesh Are Better Than Others] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140715001456/http://www.ibtimes.com/indias-2014-elections-narendra-modi-says-some-illegal-immigrants-bangladesh-are-better-others |date=15 July 2014 }} International Business Times, NY Times, (2014)</ref> The border between Meghalaya and Bangladesh is about 440 kilometres long, of which some 350 is fenced; but the border is not continuously patrolled and is porous. Efforts are underway to fence it completely and introduce means to issue ID cards.<ref>V Singh, [http://indianexpress.com/article/india/politics/mha-asks-meghalaya-to-speed-up-border-fencing-work/ MHA asks Meghalaya to speed up border fencing work] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150428000439/http://indianexpress.com/article/india/politics/mha-asks-meghalaya-to-speed-up-border-fencing-work/ |date=28 April 2015 }} Indian Express (16 April 2014)</ref>

Chief Minister [[Mukul Sangma]], in August 2012, called upon Government of India to take corrective measures to stop the illegal immigration of Bangladeshis into the northeast of the country before the situation goes out of hand.<ref>{{cite news|url= http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics/nation/meghalayas-congress-cm-mukul-sangma-too-rings-alarm-on-influx-of-illegal-migrants/articleshow/15432673.cms|title= Meghalaya's Congress CM Mukul Sangma too rings alarm on influx of illegal migrants|date= 10 August 2012|access-date= 10 August 2012|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120812064704/http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics/nation/Meghalayas-Congress-CM-Mukul-Sangma-too-rings-alarm-on-influx-of-illegal-migrants/articleshow/15432673.cms|archive-date= 12 August 2012|url-status= live|df= dmy-all|newspaper= The Economic Times}}</ref>

===Violence===
Between 2006 and 2013, between 0 and 28 civilians have died per year in Meghalaya (or about 0 to 1 per 100,000 people), which the state authorities have classified as terror-related intentional violence.<ref>[http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/database/index.html Meghalaya Violence Statistics, India Fatalities 1994-2014] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110529084134/http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/database/index.html |date=29 May 2011 }} SATP (2014)</ref> The world's average annual death rate from intentional violence, in recent years, has been 7.9 per 100,000 people.<ref name=gede>[http://www.genevadeclaration.org/fileadmin/docs/GBAV2/GBAV2011-Ch2-Summary.pdf Global Burden of Armed Violence] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924021451/http://www.genevadeclaration.org/fileadmin/docs/GBAV2/GBAV2011-Ch2-Summary.pdf |date=24 September 2015 }} Chapter 2, Geneva Declaration, Switzerland (2011)</ref> The terror-related deaths are from conflicts primarily between different tribal groups and against migrants from Bangladesh. Along with political resolution and dialogue, various Christian organisations have taken the initiative to prevent violence and help the process of discussion between groups.<ref>SNAITANG, R. (2009), Christianity and Change among the Hill Tribes of Northeast India, Christianity and Change in Northeast India (Editors: Subba et al.), {{ISBN|978-8180694479}}, Chapter 10</ref>

There have been repeated clashes with [[Assam]] e.g. Mukroh.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/guwahati/5-meghalaya-villagers-killed-in-border-firing-by-assam-cops/articleshow/95697806.cms | title=Assam Meghalaya Border News: Six killed as Assam cops and armed Meghalaya mob clash along border | Guwahati News - Times of India | website=[[The Times of India]] | date=23 November 2022 | access-date=27 November 2022 | archive-date=27 November 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221127114317/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/guwahati/5-meghalaya-villagers-killed-in-border-firing-by-assam-cops/articleshow/95697806.cms | url-status=live }}</ref>

===Political instability===
The state has had 23 state governments since its inception in 1972, with a median life span of less than 18 months. Only three governments have survived more than three years. Political instability has affected the state's economy in the past.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://megplanning.gov.in/report/vision2030/chapter2.pdf |title=Participatory Planning and Inclusive Governance |website=Megplannnig.gov.in|access-date=27 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110911004507/http://megplanning.gov.in/report/vision2030/chapter2.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Over recent years, there has been increasing political stability. The last state assembly elections were held in 2013, after a five-year government that was elected in 2008.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ceomeghalaya.nic.in/electionconducted/mla2013/mla-election-2013.htm |title=Official Website of the Election Department, Government of Meghalaya, India |website=Ceomeghalaya.nic.in |access-date=27 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130122045103/http://ceomeghalaya.nic.in/electionconducted/mla2013/mla-election-2013.htm |archive-date=22 January 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Jhum farming===
[[File:Jhum cultivation in Nokrek Biosphere Reserve Meghalaya India Northeast India 2004.jpg|thumb|Jhum cultivation, or cut-and-burn shift farming, in Nokrek Biosphere Reserve of Meghalaya.]]
Jhum farming, or cut-and-burn shift cultivation, is an ancient practice in Meghalaya.<ref name=skr/> It is culturally engrained through folklores. One legend states the god of wind with the god of hail and storm shook off seeds from the celestial tree, which were picked up and sown by a bird known as ''do' amik''. These were the seeds of rice. The god gave the human beings some of those celestial seeds, provided instruction on shift agriculture and proper rice cultivation practice, with the demand that at every harvest a portion of the first harvest must be dedicated to him. Another folktale is from the Garo Hills of Meghalaya where a man named ''Bone-Neripa-Jane-Nitepa'' harvested rice and millet from a patch of land he cleared and cultivated near the rock named ''misi-Kokdok''. He then shared this knowledge with others, and named the different months of the year, each of which is a stage of shifting cultivation.<ref>Mazumdar, Culture Change in Two Garo Villages, Calcutta: Anthropological Survey of India (1978)</ref>

In modern times, shift cultivation is a significant threat to the biodiversity of Meghalaya.<ref>Ramakrishnan, P. S. (1992), Shifting agriculture and sustainable development: an interdisciplinary study from north-eastern India, Parthenon Publishing Group, {{ISBN|1-85070-383-3}}</ref> A 2001 satellite imaging study showed that shift cultivation practice continues and patches of primary dense forests are lost even from areas protected as biosphere.<ref>Roy, P. S., & Tomar, S. (2001), Landscape cover dynamics pattern in Meghalaya, International Journal of Remote Sensing, 22(18), pp 3813-3825</ref> ''Jhum'' farming is a threat not only for natural biodiversity, it is also a low yield unproductive method of agriculture. It is a significant issue in Meghalaya, given majority of its people rely on agriculture to make a living.<ref>Saha, R., Mishra, V. K., & Khan, S. K. (2011), Soil erodibility characteristics under modified land-use systems as against shifting cultivation in hilly ecosystems of Meghalaya India, Journal of Sustainable Forestry, 30(4), 301-312</ref><ref>Pakrasi, K., Arya, V. S., & Sudhakar, S. (2014), Biodiversity hot-spot modeling and temporal analysis of Meghalaya using Remote sensing technique, International Journal of Environmental Sciences, Vol 4, Number 5, pp 772-785</ref> Shift farming is a practice that is not unique to northeastern Indian states such as Meghalaya, but the issue is found throughout southeast Asia.<ref>Spencer, J. E. (1966), Shifting cultivation in southeastern Asia (Vol. 19), University of California Press, {{ISBN|978-0520035171}}</ref>

==Media==
Some major media outlets in the state are:{{citation needed|date=June 2014}}
* ''Meghalaya Times'': Meghalaya Times is one of the new entrants in the market and the fastest growing English newspaper in the state. In a short period of time, it has already established large readership across the state.
* ''[[Salantini Janera]]'': Salantini Janera is the first [[Garo language]] Daily of the state
* ''Shillong Samay'': Shillong Samay is the first Hindi Daily of the State.
* ''[[Shillong Times]]'': Shillong Times is one of the oldest English newspapers of the region.
* ''The Meghalaya Guardian'': The Meghalaya Guardian is one of the oldest newspapers of the state.

Over the years there have been several weeklies and Dailies that have come up. To name a few:
* ''The Tura Times'': The Tura Times is the first English Daily which is published out from Tura.
* ''Salantini Ku'rang'': Salantini Ku'rang is the Garo edition of The Tura Times, Pringprangni Aski being the most recent [[Garo language]] newspaper to circulate.
* ''U Nongsaiñ Hima'': U Nongsaiñ Hima is the oldest circulating Khasi newspaper in Meghalaya. Established in December 1960, it is now the highest circulated Khasi daily (ABC July – December 2013).
* 'Mawphor': It is one of the daily newspaper circulating in Jowai, Meghalaya.

Weekly Employment Newsletter which is distributed throughout the state:
* ''Shillong Weekly Express'': Weekly Newsletter that was started in 2010.
* Eclectic northeast

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Bibliography===
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book | last = Roy | first = Hira Lal Deb | year = 1981 | title = A Tribe in Transition | publisher = Cosmo }}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{Wikivoyage}}

* {{official website}}
* {{osmrelation-inline|2027521}}

{{Navboxes|list=
{{Geographic location
| Centre = Meghalaya
| North = [[Assam]]
| Northeast =
| East = [[Assam]]
| Southeast = {{flagicon|Bangladesh}} [[Sylhet Division]]
| South = {{flagicon|Bangladesh}} [[Dhaka Division]]
| Southwest =
| West = {{flagicon|Bangladesh}} [[Rangpur Division]]
| Northwest =
}}
{{Meghalaya}}
{{Educational Institutes in Meghalaya}}
{{North East India}}
{{States and territories of India}}
}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Meghalaya| ]]
[[Category:Northeast India]]
[[Category:Countries and territories where English is an official language]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1972]]
[[Category:1972 establishments in India]]
[[Category:Tourism in Northeast India]]
[[Category:States and union territories of India]]

Mohammed Nias C. P

2026-04-24T20:44:36Z

IZinePro: creating the info initial version...

{{Short description|Indian judge}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2022}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Mohammed Nias C. P
| honorific_prefix = '''Justice'''
| image =
| caption =
| office = [[Kerala High Court|Judge of the Kerala High Court]]
| term_start = 13 August 2021
| term_end =
| appointer = [[Ram Nath Kovind]]
| nominator = [[Sharad Arvind Bobde]]
| predecessor =
| office2 =
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| office8 =
| term_start8 =
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| education =
| alma_mater = [[Government Law College, Kozhikode]]
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1970|4|16|df=y}}
| birth_place =
| father =
| mother =
| spouse =
| children =
| website = {{URL|https://hckerala.gov.in/judges.php|High Court of Kerala}}
| signature =
}}
'''Mohammed Nias Chovvakkaran Puthiyapurayil''' is an Indian judge serving on the [[Kerala High Court]]. The High Court of Kerala is the highest court in the [[Indian state]] of [[Kerala]] and in the [[Union Territory]] of [[Lakshadweep]]. The High Court of Kerala is headquartered at [[Ernakulam district|Ernakulam]], [[Kochi]].<ref name="HC">{{cite web|url=https://hckerala.gov.in/judges.php|title=Official|via=Official website High Court of Kerala|access-date=12 Oct 2022}}</ref><ref name="PIB">{{cite web|url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1744805|title=Appointment Notification|via=PRESS COMMUNIQUE, Ministry of Law and Justice, Government of India|work=pib.gov.in|date=11 Aug 2021|access-date=12 Oct 2022}}</ref><ref name="TOI1">{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/kerala-high-court-gets-two-new-judges/articleshow/85242163.cms|title=Kerala high court gets two new judges|via=Times of India News|work=timesofindia.indiatimes.com|date=11 Aug 2021|access-date=12 Oct 2022}}</ref><ref name="MAT1">{{cite web|url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/news/kerala/sc-collegium-reiterates-recommendation-to-elevate-3-including-viju-abraham-as-judges-in-kerala-hc-1.5491395|title=SC collegium reiterates recommendation to elevate 3 including Viju Abraham as judges in Kerala HC|via=Mathrubhumi Online News|work=mathrubhumi.com|date=5 Mar 2021|access-date=12 Oct 2022}}</ref>

==Education and career==
Mohammed Nias graduated in law from [[Government Law College, Kozhikode]], was admitted to the bar in 1995 and started independent practice in 2003. He served as Standing Counsel for [[University of Calicut|Calicut University]], State Co-operative Union, Kerala State Rubber Co-operative Union (RUBCO) and [[Greater Cochin Development Authority]] during his practice. He was appointed as Additional Judge of High Court of Kerala on 11 August 2021 and assumed office on 13 August 2021.<ref name="HC"/>

==Notable rulings==
Pointing out various Articles in the [[Constitution of India]], the bench consisting of [[A. K. Jayasankaran Nambiar|Justice A.K. Jayasankaran Nambiar]] and Justice Mohammed Nias initiated ''suo motu'' contempt of court proceedings against [[Popular Front of India]] for calling strike on 23 September 2022 without seven days notice in connection with the nationwide raids on [[Popular Front of India]] offices and arrests of its leaders by the [[National Investigation Agency]] and causing damages to public properties and [[Kerala State Road Transport Corporation]]. The bench directed the organisation and its officials to deposit an initial compensation of Rs. 5.2  crores (Rs. 52 million) with the State Government, towards the damages caused in the illegal strike.<ref name="PFI1">{{cite web|url=https://newsable.asianetnews.com/india/nia-raids-ksrtc-moves-kerala-hc-seeks-recovery-of-rs-5-crores-from-pfi-for-damage-to-buses-gcw-rivb9x|title=NIA raids aftermath: moves Kerala HC, seeks recovery of Rs 5 crores from PFI for damage to buses|via=Asianet News|work=newsable.asianetnews.com|date=27 Sep 2022|access-date=12 Oct 2022}}</ref><ref name="PFI2">{{cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Kochi/citizens-cannot-be-made-to-live-in-fear-by-hartal-holders-hc/article65950443.ece|title=Citizens cannot be made to live in fear by hartal holders: HC|via=The Hindu News|work=thehindu.com|date=29 Sep 2022|access-date=12 Oct 2022}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://highcourtofkerala.nic.in High Court of Kerala]

[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Judges of the Kerala High Court]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian judges]]
[[Category:1970 births]]

House of Ganesha

2026-04-21T15:21:11Z

IZinePro: creating some details more to come

{{short description|Bengali dynasty (1414–1436)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{Infobox family
| name = House of Ganesha<br>Gôṇēś Rājpôribār<br>Bani Ganeš
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| other_names =
| type = [[Royal house]]
| coat_of_arms =
| coat_of_arms_size =
| alt =
| coat_of_arms_caption =
| image =
| image_size =
| alt2 =
| image_caption =
| parent_family =
| country = [[Bengal Sultanate]]
| region = [[Bengal]]
| early_forms =
| etymology = [[Raja Ganesha]]
| origin = [[North Bengal]]
| founded = {{Start date|1414}}
| founder = Raja Ganesha
| deposition = {{End date|1436}}
| dissolution =
| cadet branches =
| final_ruler = [[Shamsuddin Ahmad Shah]]
| titles = [[Raja]] (1414-15; 1416-18)<br>[[Sultan]] (1415; 1418–36)
| styles =
| members = [[Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah]]
| connected_members =
| other_families =
| distinctions =
| traditions = [[Sunni Islam]]<br>[[Hinduism]] (under Raja Ganesha)
| motto =
| motto_lang =
| motto_trans =
| heirlooms =
| estate =
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
The '''House of Ganesha''' ({{langx|bn|গণেশ রাজপরিবার}}, {{langx|fa|{{Nastaliq|بنی کنس}}}}) was the second [[royal house]] of the late medieval [[Sultanate of Bengal]]. It is named after its founder [[Raja Ganesha]], a wealthy Hindu nobleman, who succeeded the former [[Ilyas Shahi dynasty]]. His son embraced [[Islam]] and ruled as [[Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah]], and was succeeded by his son [[Shamsuddin Ahmad Shah]].

==History==
The Ganesha dynasty began with [[Raja Ganesha]] in 1414, from the [[Bengal]] region of the [[Indian subcontinent]]. After Raja Ganesha seized control over Bengal, he faced an imminent threat of invasion. Ganesha appealed to a powerful Muslim holy man named Qutb al Alam to stop the threat. The saint agreed on the condition that Raja Ganesha's son, Jadu, would convert to Islam and rule in his place. Raja Ganesha agreed and Jadu started ruling Bengal as [[Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah]] in 1415.

Qutb al Alam died in 1416 and Raja Ganesha was emboldened to depose his son and return to the throne as Danujamarddana Deva. Jalaluddin was reconverted to Hinduism by the ''Golden Cow'' ritual. After the death of his father, Jalaluddin once again converted to Islam and started ruling again.<ref>Biographical encyclopedia of Sufis By N. Hanif, pg.320</ref> Jalaluddin's son, [[Shamsuddin Ahmad Shah]] ruled for only 3 years due to chaos and anarchy. Two ephemeral rulers: Qutbuddin Azam Shah and Ghiyasuddin Nusrat Shah ruled Eastern Bengal for a brief period and struck coins in AH 837 (1434 CE). Another ruler, Siraj-al Din Sikandar Shah is only known from his undated coins. It is not known if any of them were related to Shamsuddin Ahmad Shah.<ref>Nasir N, Islam MS (2014) Siraj al-Din ‘Sikandar’ (?) Shah – a new ruler of the Bengal Sultanate. J Orient Numismat Soc 220:39–40</ref> The dynasty is known for its liberal policies as well as its focus on justice and charity.

<gallery widths="200" heights="200">
File:Eklakhi Mausoleum.jpg|Mausoleum of [[Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah]], the 2nd ruler of the Ganesha dynasty, in [[Gauda (city)|Gaur, West Bengal]], [[India]].
File:মহজমপুর শাহী মসজিদ.jpg|Firuz Khan and Ali Musa established Muazzampur Shahi Mosque in [[Sonargaon]] during [[Shamsuddin Ahmad Shah]]'s reign.
</gallery>

==List of rulers==
{| width=100% class="wikitable"
! style="background-color:#F0DC88" width=20% | Titular Name(s)
! style="background-color:#F0DC88" width=17% | Personal Name
! style="background-color:#F0DC88" width=7% | Reign
|-
|align="center"|''Raja Fandu''<br><small>{{Nastaliq|راجا فندو}}</small><br><small>{{langx|bn|রাজা ফন্দু}}</small>
|align="center"| [[Raja Ganesha|Ganesha]]<br><small>{{Nastaliq|کاس/کنس}}</small><br><small>{{langx|bn|গণেশ}}</small>
|align="center"|1414-1415, 1416-1418
|-
|align="center"|''Sultan Jalal ad-Din''<br><small>{{Nastaliq|سلطان جلال الدين}}</small><br><small>{{langx|bn|সুলতান জালালউদ্দীন}}</small>
|align="center"| [[Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah|Muhammad Shah]]<br><small>{{Nastaliq|محمد شاه}}</small><br><small>{{langx|bn|মুহাম্মদ শাহ}}</small>
|align="center"|1415-1416, 1418-1433
|-
|align="center"|''Sultan Shams ad-Din''<br><small>{{Nastaliq|سلطان شمس الدين}}</small><br><small>{{langx|bn|সুলতান শামসুদ্দীন}}</small>
|align="center"| [[Shamsuddin Ahmad Shah|Ahmad Shah]]<br><small>{{Nastaliq|احمد شاه}}</small><br><small>{{langx|bn|আহমদ শাহ}}</small>
|align="center"|1433-1436
|}

{{S-start}}
{{Succession box|
before=[[Ilyas Shahi dynasty]]|
title=[[Bengal Sultanate|Sultans of Bengal]]|
years=1414-1436|
after=[[Ilyas Shahi dynasty]]}}
{{S-end}}

== Family tree ==
{{Chart top|width=60%|collapsed=yes|Ganesha Dynasty}}
{{Tree chart/start|align=center|style=font-size:90%}}
{{Tree chart|border=1| | A01 | |A01='''[[Raja Ganesha|Ganesha]]''' <br>?–1418 <br>'''Raja of Bengal''' <br>R.1414–1415, <br>1416–1418 |boxstyle_ A01=border-color:#FFD700}}
{{Tree chart|border=1| | |!| | |}}
{{Tree chart|border=1| | A01 | |A01='''[[Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah|Muhammad Shah II]]''' <br>?–1433 <br>'''Sultan of Bengal''' <br>R.1415–1416, <br>1418–1433 |boxstyle_ A01=border-color:#FFD700}}
{{Tree chart|border=1| | |!| | |}}
{{Tree chart|border=1| | A01 | |A01='''[[Shamsuddin Ahmad Shah|Ahmad Shah]]''' <br>1419–1436 <br>'''Sultan of Bengal''' <br>R.1433–1436 |boxstyle_ A01=border-color:#FFD700}}
{{Tree chart/end}}
{{Chart bottom}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Medieval Bengal]]
[[Category:Sultans of Bengal]]
[[Category:15th-century Indian monarchs]]

{{India-royal-stub}}

Osama Shahab

2026-04-20T06:46:55Z

IZinePro: started new info...

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Osama Shahab
| image =
| caption =
| birth_date =
| birth_place = Siwan, Bihar, India
| party = [[Rashtriya Janata Dal]] (RJD)
| spouse = Dr. Ayesha Sabih
| children = 1 son
| father = [[Mohammad Shahabuddin (Indian politician)|Mohammad Shahabuddin]]
| mother = Hena Shahab
| occupation = Politician
| term_start = 14 November 2025
| term_end =
| office = [[Bihar Legislative Assembly|Member of Bihar Legislative Assembly]]
| constituency = [[Raghunathpur, Bihar Assembly constituency|Raghunathpur]]
| predecessor = [[Hari Shankar Yadav]]
}}

''' Osama Shahab ''' is an Indian politician from the [[state of Bihar]], and he is the Member of [[Bihar Legislative Assembly]] from [[Raghunathpur, Bihar Assembly constituency|Raghunathpur Assembly constituency]].<ref>{{cite web
|title=Assembly Constituency 108 - RAGHUNATHPUR (Bihar)
|url=https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenNov2025/candidateswise-S04108.htm
|website=General Election to Assembly Constituencies: Trends & Results November-2025
|publisher=Election Commission of India
|date=14 November 2025
|access-date=20 November 2025
}}</ref> He is also a member of the [[Rashtriya Janata Dal]] (RJD) and is known for being the son of the controversial and influential late politician, [[Mohammad Shahabuddin (Indian politician)|Mohammad Shahabuddin]], a former [[Member of Parliament]] and [[Member of the Legislative Assembly]] from [[Siwan district|Siwan]]. Osama formally entered active politics in 2024 and won the [[2025 Bihar Legislative Assembly election]].<ref name="Oneindia - Elections 2025 - 6 November 2025 - Osama Shahab">{{cite web |title=Oneindia - Elections 2025 - 6 November 2025 - Osama Shahab |url=https://www.oneindia.com/politicians/osama-shahab-77312.html |website=[[Oneindia]] |access-date=6 November 2025 |date=6 November 2025}}</ref><ref name="Bihar Assembly Election Results 2025: Raghunathpur2">{{cite news |date=14 November 2025 |title=Bihar Assembly Election Results 2025: Raghunathpur |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenNov2025/candidateswise-S04108.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20251114145742/https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenNov2025/candidateswise-S04108.htm |archivedate=14 November 2025 |accessdate=14 November 2025 |work= |publisher=Election Commission of India |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Bureau |first=The Hindu |date=2025-11-14 |title=Osama Shahab, son of late gangster-turned-neta Mohd Shahabuddin, set to retain Raghunathpur for RJD |url=https://www.thehindu.com/elections/bihar-assembly/osama-shahab-son-oflate-gangster-turned-netamohd-shahabuddin-set-to-retain-raghunathpur-for-rjd/article70279115.ece |access-date=2025-11-21 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

== Early life and background ==
Osama Shahab was born in [[Siwan district|Siwan]], Bihar. His father was Mohammad Shahabuddin, a prominent gangster figure in Bihar. His mother, Hena Shahab, is also politically active and has contested elections, keeping the family's political legacy alive. Following his father's death in 2021, Osama and his mother decided to formally enter active politics to continue the family's influence.<ref name="Oneindia - Elections 2025 - 6 November 2025 - Osama Shahab"/>

== Political career ==
Osama Shahab officially entered the political arena in 2024 when he joined the [[Rashtriya Janata Dal]] (RJD).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.abplive.com/states/bihar/shahabuddin-brother-gayasuddin-said-osama-shahab-is-youth-also-responded-to-opposition-bihar-chunav-3039359 |title=Shahabuddin's brother says Osama Shahab is a youth leader |work=ABP Live |date=6 Nov 2025}}</ref> This move was seen as a strategic continuation of the Shahabuddin family's political presence in the Siwan region.<ref name="Oneindia - Elections 2025 - 6 November 2025 - Osama Shahab"/>
Osama Shahab is contesting for the first time from the Raghunathpur constituency in Siwan, Bihar, as a candidate of the Rashtriya Janata Dal in the 17th Bihar Legislative Assembly election.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.abplive.com/states/bihar/shahabuddin-brother-gayasuddin-said-osama-shahab-is-youth-also-responded-to-opposition-bihar-chunav-3039359|title=“Watch: Shahabuddin's brother says Osama Shahab is a youth leader, hits back at opposition”|work=ABP Live|date=6 Nov 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Staff|title=“Shahabuddin's son, Osama, gets RJD ticket”|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/shahabuddin-son-osama-gets-rjd-ticket/articleshow/124592560.cms|newspaper=The Times of India|date=16 Oct 2025}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Bihar Legislative Assembly]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

Nongthymmai Assembly constituency

2026-04-16T04:35:12Z

IZinePro: started details

{{short description|Legislative Assembly constituency in Meghalaya State, India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Nongthymmai
| state = [[Meghalaya]]
| type= SLA
| map_image = Nongthymmai Assembly constituency map.svg
| constituency_no = 21
| district = [[East Khasi Hills district|East Khasi Hills]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Shillong (Lok Sabha constituency)|Shillong]]
| established = 1972
| reservation = ST
| mla = [[Charles Pyngrope]]
| party = [[All India Trinamool Congress]]
| electors = {{formatnum:36602}}<ref name=election2023>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/14873-meghalayaexcluding-ac-23/ |title=Meghalaya General Legislative Election 2023 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |website=eci.gov.in|access-date=11 April 2023}}</ref>{{update after|2028|05}}
| latest_election_year = 2023
}}
'''Nongthymmai''' is one of the 60 [[Meghalaya Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]] constituencies of [[Meghalaya]] state in [[India]].<ref name=ceomap>{{cite web |url=http://www.ceomeghalaya.nic.in/gis-map/00-pc-map-meghalaya.pdf |title=Map of Meghalaya Parliamentary Constituencies |website=ceomeghalaya.nic.in |accessdate= 30 January 2021}}</ref>

It is part of [[East Khasi Hills district|East Khasi Hills]] district and is reserved for candidates belonging to the [[Scheduled Tribes]].

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Year
!Member
!colspan="2"|Party
|-
| [[1972 Meghalaya Legislative Assembly election|1972]] || Brington Buhai Lyngdoh || {{Full party name with color|All Party Hill Leaders Conference}}
|-
| [[2013 Meghalaya Legislative Assembly election|2013]] || Jemino Mawthoh || {{Full party name with color|United Democratic Party (Meghalaya)}}
|-
| [[2018 Meghalaya Legislative Assembly election|2018]] || rowspan=2 | [[Charles Pyngrope]] || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[2023 Meghalaya Legislative Assembly election|2023]] || {{Full party name with color|All India Trinamool Congress}}
|}

== Election results ==
===Assembly Election 2023===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2023 Meghalaya Legislative Assembly election]]: Nongthymmai<ref>{{Cite web |publisher=[[Chief Electoral Officer (India)|Chief Electoral Officer]] |title=General Election to Vidhna Sabha Trends & Result MArch - 2023 |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenMar2023/ConstituencywiseS157.htm?ac=7 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230302144159/https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenMar2023/ConstituencywiseS157.htm?ac=7 |archive-date=2 March 2023 |access-date=4 January 2025 |website=results.eci.gov.in}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Charles Pyngrope]] |party=All India Trinamool Congress |votes=7,452 |percentage=30.22% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Jemino Mawthoh |party=United Democratic Party (Meghalaya) |votes=6,253 |percentage=25.36% |change={{decrease}}12.05 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Winston Tony Lyngdoh |party=Voice of the People Party (Meghalaya) |votes=4,473 |percentage=18.14% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=David Kharsati |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=3,274 |percentage=13.28% |change={{increase}}0.90 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Jasmine Mary Lyngdoh |party=National People's Party (India) |votes=2,054 |percentage=8.33% |change={{increase}}6.91 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Banida Shisha Kharkongor |party=Indian National Congress |votes=1,045 |percentage=4.24% |change={{decrease}}37.04 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=None of the Above |party=None of the above |votes=364 |percentage=1.48% |change={{increase}}0.33 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=1,199 |percentage=4.86% |change= {{increase}}1.00 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=24,659 |percentage=67.37% |change= {{decrease}}5.71 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 36,602 |ref = |change= {{increase}}7.98 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=All India Trinamool Congress |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= {{decrease}}11.05 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 2018===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2018 Meghalaya Legislative Assembly election]]: Nongthymmai<ref>{{Cite web |publisher=[[Chief Electoral Officer (India)|Chief Electoral Officer]], [[Meghalaya]] |title=Form 20 - Polling Station Wise Result Sheet of General Election 2018 to the Meghalaya Legislative Assembly |url=https://ceomeghalaya.nic.in/electionconducted/mla2018/form20.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240208162439/https://ceomeghalaya.nic.in/electionconducted/mla2018/form20.html |archive-date=8 February 2024 |access-date=4 January 2025 |website=ceomeghalaya.nic.in}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Charles Pyngrope]] |party=Indian National Congress |votes=10,225 |percentage=41.27% |change={{increase}}1.79 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Dr. Jemino Mawthoh |party=United Democratic Party (Meghalaya) |votes=9,268 |percentage=37.41% |change={{decrease}}7.54 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ernest Mawrie |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=3,065 |percentage=12.37% |change={{increase}}2.74 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Latiplang Kharkongor |party=People's Democratic Front (Meghalaya) |votes=655 |percentage=2.64% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ehkupar Nongrum |party=National People's Party (India) |votes=352 |percentage=1.42% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ronaldson Dkhar |party=Nationalist Congress Party |votes=292 |percentage=1.18% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=None of the Above |party=None of the above |votes=285 |percentage=1.15% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=957 |percentage=3.86% |change= {{decrease}}1.61 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=24,773 |percentage=73.08% |change= {{decrease}}0.26 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 33,897 |ref = |change= {{increase}}19.57 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=United Democratic Party (Meghalaya) |swing= {{decrease}}3.68 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 2013===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2013 Meghalaya Legislative Assembly election]]: Nongthymmai<ref>{{cite web|website=ceomeghalaya.nic.in |publisher=[[Chief Electoral Officer (India)|Chief Electoral Officer]], [[Meghalaya]]|title=Election Commission of India- State Election, 2013 to the Legislative Assembly of Meghalaya |url=https://ceomeghalaya.nic.in/electionconducted/mla2013/10-Reports/10-detailed-results.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250104021738/https://ceomeghalaya.nic.in/electionconducted/mla2013/10-Reports/10-detailed-results.pdf |archive-date=4 January 2025|access-date=4 January 2025|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Jemino Mawthoh |party=United Democratic Party (Meghalaya) |votes=9,347 |percentage=44.95% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Charles Pyngrope]] |party=Indian National Congress |votes=8,210 |percentage=39.48% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ehkupar Nongrum |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=2,002 |percentage=9.63% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Bhabok Blaze Syiem |party=Hill State People's Democratic Party |votes=1,027 |percentage=4.94% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Manosha Warjri |party=Khun Hynniewtrep National Awakening Movement |votes=207 |percentage=1.00% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=1,137 |percentage=5.47% |change= {{increase}}0.60 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=20,793 |percentage=73.34% |change= {{increase}}24.90 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 28,350 |ref = |change= {{increase}}235.82 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=United Democratic Party (Meghalaya) |loser=All Party Hill Leaders Conference |swing= {{increase}}13.93 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1972===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1972 Meghalaya Legislative Assembly election]]: Nongthymmai<ref>{{cite web|website=eci.gov.in |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1972 to the Legislative Assembly of Meghalaya |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1972/StatReport_MG_72.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180324143519/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1972/StatReport_MG_72.pdf |archive-date=24 March 2018|access-date=15 February 2024|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Brington Buhai Lyngdoh |party=All Party Hill Leaders Conference |votes=1,269 |percentage=31.03% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Goilas Marbaniang |party=Independent politician |votes=1,070 |percentage=26.16% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Emlyn M. Roy |party=Independent politician |votes=820 |percentage=20.05% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Plissibon Marbaniang |party=Independent politician |votes=514 |percentage=12.57% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ekestiemshan Kharkongor |party=Independent politician |votes=417 |percentage=10.20% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=199 |percentage=4.87% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=4,090 |percentage=50.40% |change= }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 8,442 |ref = |change= }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner=All Party Hill Leaders Conference |loser= |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[List of constituencies of the Meghalaya Legislative Assembly]]
* [[East Khasi Hills district]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Meghalaya}}

{{coord|25.56|91.9|display=title}}

[[Category:East Khasi Hills district]]
[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Meghalaya]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1972]]
[[Category:Politics of Meghalaya]]
[[Category:1972 establishments in Meghalaya]]

Lahar Assembly constituency

2026-04-15T02:13:11Z

IZinePro: new post.

{{Short description|Constituency of the Madhya Pradesh legislative assembly in India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2024}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Lahar
| type= SLA
| constituency_no = 11
| map_image = 11-Lahar.svg
| incumbent_image = Ambrish-Sharma-Guddu.jpg
| mla = [[Ambrish Sharma]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janta Party]]
| state = [[Madhya Pradesh]]
| district = [[Bhind district|Bhind]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Bhind (Lok Sabha constituency)|Bhind]]
| established = 1951
| reservation = None
| latest_election_year = [[2023 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2023]]
| preceded_by = [[Govind Singh]]
}}
'''Lahar Assembly constituency''' is one of the 230 [[Madhya Pradesh Vidhan Sabha|Vidhan Sabha]] (Legislative Assembly) constituencies of [[Madhya Pradesh]] state in central India.<ref name=eci1>{{cite web|url=http://ceomadhyapradesh.nic.in/DACList.aspx|title=District/Assembly List|publisher=Chief Electoral Officer, Madhya Pradesh website|access-date=3 February 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151201083311/http://ceomadhyapradesh.nic.in/(S(4ftawu55w1soru45gswzuz55))/DACList.aspx|archive-date=1 December 2015}}</ref> This constituency came into existence in 1951, as one of the 79 Vidhan Sabha constituencies of the erstwhile [[Madhya Bharat]] state.<ref name=eci2>{{cite web|url=http://eci.gov.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/StatRep_51_MB.pdf|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1951 to the Legislative Assembly of Madhya Bharat|page=6|publisher=Election Commission of India website|access-date=2011-02-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721155640/http://eci.gov.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/StatRep_51_MB.pdf|archive-date=2011-07-21|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Overview==
Lahar (constituency number 11) is one of the 5 Vidhan Sabha constituencies located in [[Bhind district]]. This constituency covers the entire Mihona and Lahar [[tehsil]]s and part of Raun tehsil.<ref name="ceo">{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf|title=Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008|publisher=The Election Commission of India|pages=227, 250}}</ref>

Lahar is part of [[Bhind (Lok Sabha constituency)|Bhind Lok Sabha constituency]] along with seven other Vidhan Sabha segments, namely, [[Ater Assembly constituency|Ater]], [[Bhind Assembly constituency|Bhind]], [[Mehgaon Assembly constituency|Mehgaon]] and [[Gohad Assembly constituency|Gohad]] in this district and [[Sewda Assembly constituency|Sewda]], [[Bhander Assembly constituency|Bhander]] and [[Datia Assembly constituency|Datia]] in [[Datia district]].<ref name="ceo"/>

==Members of Legislative Assembly==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[Madhya Bharat]]
!Election
!Member
!colspan=2|Party
|-
| [[1952 Madhya Bharat Legislative Assembly election|1951]]
| Har Sevak Gokul Prasad
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|}

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
|-
!Election
!Member
!colspan=2|Party
|-
|[[1957 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1957]]
| Premkumari Ranvijay Singh
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[1962 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1962]]
| Prabhudayal
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[1967 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
| Saryu Prasad Tripathi
| {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Jana Sangh}}
|-
|[[1972 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1972]]
| Raghavram Chaudhary
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[1977 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1977]]
| Rama Shankar Singh
| {{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|-
| [[1980 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1980]]
|Rama Shankar Chowdhary
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress (I)}}
|-
| [[1985 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
| Mathura Prasad Mahant
| {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
| [[1990 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1990]]
|rowspan="7" | [[Govind Singh]]
| {{Full party name with color|Janata Dal}}
|-
| [[1993 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1993]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=6}}
|-
| [[1998 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1998]]
|-
| [[2003 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2003]]
|-
| [[2008 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2008]]
|-
| [[2013 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2013]]
|-
| [[2018 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2018]]
|-
| [[2023 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2023]]<ref name="Madhya Pradesh Assembly Elections Results 2023: Check full and final list of winners here">{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bhopal/madhya-pradesh-assembly-election-results-2023-full-list-of-leading-candidates-from-bjp-congress/articleshow/105701279.cms|title=Madhya Pradesh Assembly Elections Results 2023: Check full and final list of winners here|last1=The Times of India|date=4 December 2023|accessdate=13 December 2023|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20231213082108/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bhopal/madhya-pradesh-assembly-election-results-2023-full-list-of-leading-candidates-from-bjp-congress/articleshow/105701279.cms|archivedate=13 December 2023}}</ref><ref name="Madhya Pradesh Assembly Election Results 2023: Full list of the winners constituency wise and seat wise">{{cite news|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/madhya-pradesh-assembly-elections-results-2023-live-updates-winning-candidates-full-list-how-many-seats-bjp-congress-won-101701564801639.html|title=Madhya Pradesh Assembly Election Results 2023: Full list of the winners constituency wise and seat wise|last1=Hindustan Times|date=3 December 2023|accessdate=13 December 2023|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20231213082157/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/madhya-pradesh-assembly-elections-results-2023-live-updates-winning-candidates-full-list-how-many-seats-bjp-congress-won-101701564801639.html|archivedate=13 December 2023|language=en}}</ref>
| [[Ambrish Sharma]]
| {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|}

==Election results==
=== 2023 ===
{{Election box begin | title= [[2023 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Lahar<ref name="Madhya Pradesh Assembly Elections Results 2023: Check full and final list of winners here"/>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|candidate = [[Ambrish Sharma]]
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = {{formatnum:75347}}
|percentage = 42.87
|change = +8.62
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = [[Govind Singh]]
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = {{formatnum:62950}}
|percentage = 35.82
|change = -4.29
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Rasal Singh
|votes = {{formatnum:31348}}
|percentage = 17.84
|change = -2.42
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:1556}}
|percentage = 0.89
|change = +0.67
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:12397}}
|percentage = 7.05
|change = +1.19
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:175747}}
|percentage = 67.58
|change = +4.15
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
|winner = BJP
|loser = Indian National Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2018 ===
{{Election box begin | title= [[2018 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Lahar<ref name=election2018>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/9685-madhya-pradesh-legislative-election-2018-statistical-report/ |title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2018 to the Legislative Assembly of Madhya Pradesh |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=30 September 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|candidate = [[Govind Singh]]
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = {{formatnum:62113}}
|percentage = 40.11
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Rasal Singh
|votes = {{formatnum:53040}}
|percentage = 34.25
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = [[Ambrish Sharma]]
|votes = {{formatnum:31367}}
|percentage = 20.26
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Ramkumar
|votes = {{formatnum:1565}}
|percentage = 1.01
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:345}}
|percentage = 0.22
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:9073}}
|percentage = 5.86
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:154845}}
|percentage = 63.43
|change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|winner = Indian National Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[Lahar, India|Lahar]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Madhya Pradesh}}
{{coords|26.19|78.94|display=title}}

[[Category:Bhind district]]
[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Politics of Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1951]]

Sultanganj Assembly constituency

2026-04-14T03:35:58Z

IZinePro: started post

{{Use Indian English|date=January 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Sultanganj Assembly constituency
| type = SLA
| map_image = 157-Sultanganj constituency.svg
| map_caption =
| map_alt =
| mla = [[Lalit Narayan Mandal]] 
| party = {{Party index link|Janata Dal (United)}}
| alliance = {{Party index link|National Democratic Alliance}}
| latest_election_year = [[2025 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2025]] 
| region =
| state = [[Bihar]]
| district = [[Bhagalpur district|Bhagalpur]]
| division =
| loksabha_cons = 
| constituency_no = [[List of constituencies of the Bihar Legislative Assembly|157]]
| established = 1951
| electors = 319,989
| reservation = None 
| abolished = 
}}
''' Sultanganj Assembly constituency''' is one of 243 constituencies of [[Bihar Legislative Assembly|legislative assembly of Bihar]]. It is a part of [[Banka (Lok Sabha constituency)|Banka]] Lok Sabha constituency along with other assembly constituencies viz. Amarpur, Dhoraiya, Banka, Katoria and Belhar.<ref name="election2014">{{cite web | url=http://www.elections.in/bihar/parliamentary-constituencies/banka.html | title=Banka Parliamentary Constituencies | publisher=elections.in | access-date=10 March 2014}}</ref>

==Overview==
Sultanganj comprises CD Blocks Sultanganj & Shahkund.<ref name=commission>{{cite web|url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf |title = Schedule – XIII of Constituencies Order, 2008 of Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly constituencies Order, 2008 of the Election Commission of India|work= Schedule VI Bihar, Part A – Assembly constituencies, Part B – Parliamentary constituencies |access-date = 2013-12-20 }}</ref>

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Year
!Name<ref name="election2018">{{Cite web |title=Sultanganj Election and Results 2018, Candidate list, Winner, Runner-up, Current MLA and Previous MLAs |url=https://www.elections.in/bihar/assembly-constituencies/sultanganj.html |access-date= |website=Elections in India}}</ref>
! colspan="2" |Party
|-
|[[1952 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1952]]
| Rash Bihari Lal
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=3}}
|-
|[[1957 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1957]]
| Sarswati Devi
|-
|[[1962 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1962]]
| Deviprasad Mahto
|-
|[[1967 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
| Banarsi Prasad Sharma
|{{Full party name with color|Praja Socialist Party}}
|-
|[[1969 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1969]]
| rowspan="2" | Ram Raksha Prasad Yadav
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[1972 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1972]]
|-
|[[1977 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1977]]
| Jageshwar Mandal
|{{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|-
|[[1980 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1980]]
| Nand Kumar Manjhi
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress (I)}}
|-
|[[1985 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
| Umesh Chandras Das
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1990 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1990]]
| rowspan="2" | Fanindra Choudhary
| {{Full party name with color|Janata Dal|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[1995 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1995]]
|-
|[[2000 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2000]]
| Ganesh Paswan
|{{Full party name with color|Samata Party}}
|-
|[[February 2005 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2005]]
| rowspan="2" | Sudhanshu Shekhar Bhaskar
| {{Full party name with color|Janata Dal (United)|dab=y|rowspan=6}}
|-
|[[October 2005 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2005]]
|-
|[[2010 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2010]]|| rowspan="2" | [[Subodh Roy (politician)|Subodh Roy]]
|-
|[[2015 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2015]]
|-
|[[2020 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2020]]
| rowspan="2" | [[Lalit Narayan Mandal]]
|-
|[[2025 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2025]]
|}

==Election results==
=== 2025 ===
{{Election box begin |title=[[2025 Bihar Legislative Assembly election]]: Sultanganj<ref name="2025 Bihar Legislative Assembly Election Results: Sultanganj">{{cite news |title=2025 Bihar Legislative Assembly Election Results: Sultanganj |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenNov2025/candidateswise-S04157.htm |accessdate=16 December 2025 |work= |publisher=Election Commission of India |date=14 November 2025 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20251216060734/https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenNov2025/candidateswise-S04157.htm |archivedate=16 December 2025 |language=en}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|party = Janata Dal (United)
|candidate = [[Lalit Narayan Mandal]]
|votes = {{formatnum:108712}}
|percentage = 51.81
|change = +9.23
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Rashtriya Janata Dal
|candidate = Chandan Kumar Sinha
|votes = {{formatnum:77576}}
|percentage = 36.97
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Jan Suraaj Party
|candidate = Rakesh Kumar
|votes = {{formatnum:4402}}
|percentage = 2.1
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Ajit Kumar
|votes = {{formatnum:4286}}
|percentage = 2.04
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Lalan Kumar
|votes = {{formatnum:2754}}
|percentage = 1.31
|change = -34.51
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:4108}}
|percentage = 1.96
|change = -0.8
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:31136}}
|percentage = 14.84
|change = +8.08
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:209814}}
|percentage = 65.57
|change = +13.47
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|winner = Janata Dal (United)
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2020 ===
{{Election box begin |title=[[2020 Bihar Legislative Assembly election]]: Sultanganj<ref name="election2020">{{Cite web |date=2021-01-13 |title=Bihar General Legislative Election 2020 |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/12787-bihar-legislative-election-2020/ |website=[[Election Commission of India]]}}</ref>
}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|party = Janata Dal (United)
|candidate = [[Lalit Narayan Mandal]]
|votes = {{formatnum:72823}}
|percentage = 42.58
|change = +1.64
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Lalan Kumar
|votes = {{formatnum:61258}}
|percentage = 35.82
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Lok Janshakti Party
|candidate = [[Nilam Devi]]
|votes = {{formatnum:10222}}
|percentage = 5.98
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Rashtriya Lok Samta Party
|candidate = [[Himanshu Prasad]]
|votes = {{formatnum:5713}}
|percentage = 3.34
|change = -28.53
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bhartiya Sablog Party
|candidate = Ravi Suman Kumar @ Arun Mandal
|votes = {{formatnum:4692}}
|percentage = 2.74
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Ramanand Paswan
|votes = {{formatnum:2860}}
|percentage = 1.67
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Rajan Kumar
|votes = {{formatnum:2389}}
|percentage = 1.4
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:4719}}
|percentage = 2.76
|change = -2.52
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:11565}}
|percentage = 6.76
|change = -2.31
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:171037}}
|percentage = 52.1
|change = +2.05
}}
{{Election box hold with party link no swing
|winner = Janata Dal (United)
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2015 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2015 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|Bihar Assembly election, 2015]]: Sultanganj<ref name="Sultanganj Constituency Election Results 2015 - 2025">{{cite news |title=Sultanganj Constituency Election Results 2015 - 2025 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/assembly-elections/bihar/constituency-show/sultanganj |accessdate=16 December 2025 |publisher=The Times of India |date=14 November 2025 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20251216060529/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/assembly-elections/bihar/constituency-show/sultanganj |archivedate=16 December 2025 |language=en}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|candidate = Subodh Roy
|party = Janata Dal (United)
|votes = {{formatnum:63345}}
|percentage = 40.94
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Rashtriya Lok Samta Party
|candidate = Himanshu Prasad
|votes = {{formatnum:49312}}
|percentage = 31.87
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Lalan Kumar
|votes = {{formatnum:14073}}
|percentage = 9.1
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Rakesh Kumar Sah
|votes = {{formatnum:4041}}
|percentage = 2.61
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Jan Adhikar Party (Loktantrik)
|candidate = Chakrapani Himanshu
|votes = {{formatnum:3186}}
|percentage = 2.06
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Communist Party of India
|candidate = Dr. Dinesh Chandra Diwakar
|votes = {{formatnum:2732}}
|percentage = 1.77
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Gobind Bhaiya
|votes = {{formatnum:2140}}
|percentage = 1.38
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Samajwadi Party
|candidate = Amar Jeet Kumar Singh
|votes = {{formatnum:1914}}
|percentage = 1.24
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Kiran Mishra
|votes = {{formatnum:1884}}
|percentage = 1.22
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Arun Kumar Singh
|votes = {{formatnum:1843}}
|percentage = 1.19
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:8165}}
|percentage = 5.28
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:14033}}
|percentage = 9.07
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:154726}}
|percentage = 50.05
|change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link no swing
|winner = Janata Dal (United)
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2010===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2010 Bihar legislative assembly election|Bihar assembly elections, 2010]]: Sultanganj<ref name="election2010">[http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/AE2010/stat_BR_Nov2010.pdf Bihar Assembly Election 2010]</ref>}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|candidate = Subodh Rai
|party = Janata Dal (United)
|votes = 34652
|percentage = 28.05
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|candidate = Ramavatar Mandal
|party = Rashtriya Janata Dal
|votes = 29807
|percentage = 24.12
|change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link no swing
|winner = Janata Dal (United)
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cite web |title=Results of all Bihar Assembly elections |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/68-bihar/ |website=eci.gov.in |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=15 March 2022}}

{{Vidhan Sabha constituencies of Bihar}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Politics of Bhagalpur district]]
[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Bihar]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1951]]
[[Category:1951 establishments in Bihar]]

Ramakesh Nishad

2026-04-11T23:13:09Z

IZinePro: started new data...

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Ramkesh Nishad
| image =
| native_name = रामकेश निषाद
| native_name_lang = Hi
| office = [[Second Yogi Adityanath ministry#Minister of State|State Minister of Jal Shakti Government of Uttar Pradesh]]
| 1blankname = [[Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh|Chief Minister]]
| 1namedata = [[Yogi Adityanath]]
| minister = [[Swatantra Dev Singh]]
| term_start = {{start date|df=yes|2022|03|25}}
| term_end =
| office1 = Member of [[18th Uttar Pradesh Assembly]]
| predecessor1 = Brajesh Kumar Prajapati
| successor1 =
| term_start1 = 2022
| term_end1 =
| constituency1 = [[Tindwari Assembly constituency|Tindwari]]
| assembly1 = [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
| source =
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| birth_name =
| father =
| country = {{flag|India}}
| occupation = Politician
| profession =
}}

'''Ramkesh Nishad''' is an Indian politician and a member of the [[18th Uttar Pradesh Assembly]] for [[Uttar Pradesh]], India. He represents the [[Tindwari Assembly constituency|Tindwari]] constituency of Uttar Pradesh.
He is a member of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.abplive.com/elections/tindwari-election-2022-results-live-updates-constituency-vote-counting-winner-loser-tally-who-will-win-uttar-pradesh-assembly-election-2022-latest-news-1518381|title=Uttar PradeshElections 2022 vote counting LIVE Updates: For Tindwari Constituency|date=10 March 2022 |publisher=news.abplive.com|access-date=2023-12-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aajtak.in/elections/up-assembly-elections/story/banda-chunav-parinam-election-result-2022-tindwari-mla-bjp-to-sp-new-faces-congress-bsp-lcrd-1425227-2022-03-10|title=Tindwari Election Result 2022: BJP sounded the trumpet of victory, candidates won on all four seats by a large margin|date=10 March 2022 |publisher=[[Aaj Tak]]|access-date=2023-12-04}}</ref>

==Career==
Nishad, as a [[Bharatiya Janta Party]] candidate, won the [[2022 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]], defeating [[Samajwadi Party]] candidate Brajesh Kumar Prajapati by a margin of 28,425 votes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenMar2022/ConstituencywiseS24232.htm?ac=232|title=Assembly result 2022|website=Elections.in|access-date=2022-08-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/story/tindwari-uttar-pradesh-assembly-election-results-2022-live-updates-1923261-2022-03-09|title=
Tindwari, Uttar Pradesh Assembly Election Results 2022 LIVE Updates: BJP's Ramkesh Nishad wins Tindwari with 86812 votes|date=
10 March 2022|publisher=indiatoday.in|access-date=2023-12-04}}</ref>

On 25 March 2022, the [[List of chief ministers of Uttar Pradesh|Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh]], [[Yogi Adityanath]] and former minister of Jal Shakti [[Dinesh Khatik]], appointed Nishad as the State Minister of Jal Shakti in the [[Uttar Pradesh government]].<ref name="Minister">{{Cite news |date=2022-03-28 |title=Uttar Pradesh: Ministries allotted to ministers of Yogi government, know who got which department, this is the complete list|url=https://www.timesnowhindi.com/india/article/portfolio-allocated-to-ministers-of-yogi-government/396132 |work=[[Times Now]] Hindi |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/elections/uttar-pradesh-assembly-election/tindwari-1208258205|title=
UTTAR PRADESH ELECTION 2022: TINDWARI ASSEMBLY SEAT|publisher=[[Hindustan Times]]|access-date=2023-12-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://hindi.news18.com/assembly-elections/uttar-pradesh/tindwari-election-result-s24a232/|title=Tindwari election results|publisher=hindi.news18.com|access-date=2023-12-04}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nishad, Ramakesh}}
[[Category:Uttar Pradesh MLAs 2022–2027]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Uttar Pradesh]]

{{UttarPradesh-BJP-politician-stub}}

Sindhu Bhairavi (film)

2026-04-06T13:57:31Z

IZinePro: started new pg

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2021}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2021}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Sindhu Bhairavi
| image = Sindhu Bhairavi film poster.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[K. Balachander]]
| producer = Rajam Balachander<br />Pushpa Kandaswamy
| writer = K. Balachander
| starring = [[Sivakumar]]<br />[[Suhasini Maniratnam|Suhasini]]<br />[[Sulakshana (actress)|Sulakshana]]
| music = [[Ilaiyaraaja]]
| cinematography = R. Raghunatha Reddy
| editing = Ganesh–Kumar
| studio = [[Kavithalayaa Productions]]
| released = {{Film date|1985|11|11|df=y}}
| runtime = 159 minutes{{sfn|Rajadhyaksha|Willemen|1998|p=474}}
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}

'''''Sindhu Bhairavi''''' is a 1985 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language [[musical film|musical]] [[Drama (film and television)|drama film]] written and directed by [[K. Balachander]]. The film stars [[Sivakumar]], [[Suhasini Maniratnam|Suhasini]], and [[Sulakshana (actress)|Sulakshana]]. It revolves around the three lead characters: a [[Carnatic music|Carnatic]] singer, J. K. Balaganapathi (JKB), his wife, Bhairavi, and his girlfriend Sindhu. At the peak of his career, JKB gets addicted to alcohol following complications with his affair, and his career goes into a downward spiral.

''Sindhu Bhairavi'' was released worldwide on 11 November 1985, and opened to positive reviews from critics, and it was a blockbuster. The film won three [[National Film Awards|National Awards]] for [[National Film Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]] (Suhasini), [[National Film Award for Best Music Direction|Best Music Direction]] ([[Ilaiyaraaja]]) and [[National Film Award for Best Female Playback Singer|Best Female Playback Singer]] ([[K. S. Chithra]]), in addition to the [[Filmfare Award for Best Film – Tamil]]. The film has a sequel in the format of a television series named ''[[Sahana (TV series)|Sahana]]'' (2003), produced by Balachander, with Sulakshana reprising her role.

== Plot ==
J. K. Balaganapathi (JKB) is a gifted [[Carnatic music|Carnatic]] singer, but his wife Bhairavi, despite her love and loyalty, fails to satisfy or challenge him intellectually. For JKB, this and her inability to have children, is a problem. JKB's band includes the [[mridangam]] player Gurumoorthy, and the [[tanpura]] player Gajapathi, who is a compulsive liar.

JKB goes to a concert where he finds Gurumoorthy drunk. He instructs Gurumoorthy to leave the premises and performs in the concert without the use of the mridangam, which is considered a compulsory instrument to perform a Carnatic concert. When Gurumoorthy is asked to permanently leave the band, he promises not to drink again.

While Bhairavi's grandfather is going to receive his pension, which he does on the first of every month, Gajapathi lies to him that his pension has been cancelled. The old man starts crying, and JKB intervenes to confirm that his pension is not cancelled and that he can go and collect it. JKB then scolds Gajapathi for it and tells him the old man could have died on hearing such a lie as he is very particular about his pension. Following this, when JKB finds that Gajapathi has lied to him too and others causing problems, he asks him to promise to speak the truth.

Sindhu, a music teacher, attends one of the concerts of JKB, where he is performing a [[Tyagaraja]] [[Kirtan|keerthana]] which is in [[Telugu language|Telugu]]. She finds some in the audience speaking to each other instead of listening to the music. She asks JKB to translate the song he is singing into [[Tamil language|Tamil]], which everybody in the audience can understand. He then gets angry and challenges her to demonstrate. She successfully demonstrates it and is applauded by the audience, causing JKB to leave without completing the concert.

A few days later, Sindhu apologises to JKB, and he finds out that she is an intellectual equal and admires her knowledge of music. However, this intellectual attraction is misunderstood based on the cultural limitations. Gajapathi, who has promised not to lie, informs Bhairavi that her husband is going out with Sindhu. Meanwhile, Sindhu really has fallen for JKB, and both of them get intimate with each other.

One day, JKB is caught coming out of Sindhu's apartment by Bhairavi. Sindhu is seen as a home wrecker and is forced to end her association with JKB. He pines for her and leans on alcohol for support, which leads to his downward spiral, ending in an embarrassing barter of his musical knowledge for a drink. He even steals money from Bhairavi's grandfather, which leads to his death. Sindhu re-enters his life and brings him around; however, she has a secret of her own: her pregnancy. After Sindhu rehabilitates JKB, his friends pressurise her to leave town and never come back, which she does the next day. Bhairavi and JKB are distraught as Bhairavi had agreed to let JKB marry Sindhu.

Months later, during one of JKB's concerts, Sindhu is seen coming back and sitting down to listen to his music. However, she refuses to marry JKB, saying that she would not deny Bhairavi her rights. Instead she leaves them with a "present"; Sindhu gives up her child to be brought up by Bhairavi in a classic act of defiance to society's rules and leaves town to pursue and share her knowledge of music with the less fortunate.

== Cast ==
{{Cast listing|
* [[Sivakumar]] as J. K. Balaganapathi (JKB)<ref name="scroll" />
* [[Suhasini Maniratnam|Suhasini]] as Sindhu<ref name="scroll" />
* [[Sulakshana (actress)|Sulakshana]] as Bhairavi<ref name="scroll" />
* [[Manimala (actress)|Manimala]] as Sindhu's mother<ref name="moviefone" />
* [[Pratap Pothen|Pratap]] as Sanjeevi<ref name="moviefone" />
* [[Delhi Ganesh]] as Gurumoorthy<ref name="scroll" />
* [[Janagaraj]] as Gajapathi{{sfn|Dhananjayan|2014|p=286}}
* [[T. S. Raghavendra]] as Judge Bharathi Kannan<ref name="Vikatan">{{Cite web |last=கண்ணன் |first=சுரேஷ் |date=5 January 2023 |title=சிந்து பைரவி: வெகுஜன படத்தில் கர்னாடக சங்கீதம்; சிவகுமார், சுஹாசினி நடித்த பாலசந்தரின் மாஸ்டர்பீஸ்! |url=https://cinema.vikatan.com/kollywood/sindhu-bhairavi-a-classical-film-with-a-classical-music-that-needs-to-be-celebrated |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240118070723/https://cinema.vikatan.com/amp/story/kollywood/sindhu-bhairavi-a-classical-film-with-a-classical-music-that-needs-to-be-celebrated |archive-date=18 January 2024 |access-date=18 January 2024 |website=[[Ananda Vikatan]] |language=ta}}</ref>
* [[Kavithalayaa Krishnan|Krishnan]] as Bharathi Kannan's driver<ref name="hindutamil" />
* [[R. Sundaramoorthy|Sundaramoorthy]] as JKB's driver<ref name="hindutamil" />
}}

== Production ==
[[Sivakumar]] recalled the instance when he had to grapple with high tides when he sat on the rocks at the [[Visakhapatnam]] beach during the shoot. He recalled, "Nothing would deter [[K. Balachander|KB [Balachander]]] from extracting the best out of the actors. He would ask us to get ready for a retake even if he finds a slightest slip in our performance".<ref>{{Cite news |date=12 July 2010 |title=K. Balachander's contribution to Tamil cinema and theatre hailed |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-tamilnadu/K.-Balachanders-contribution-to-Tamil-cinema-and-theatre-hailed/article16193789.ece |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211026055517/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-tamilnadu/K.-Balachanders-contribution-to-Tamil-cinema-and-theatre-hailed/article16193789.ece |archive-date=26 October 2021 |access-date=7 March 2018 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> When offered to act in the film by Balachander, [[Suhasini Maniratnam|Suhasini]] agreed after knowing that he would enact and explain every scene.<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 April 2018 |title=சிந்து பைரவி ஒரு காவியம்: 3 தேசிய விருதுகளை பெற்றது |url=https://cinema.maalaimalar.com/cinema/cinehistory/2018/04/29220639/1159788/cinima-history-sindhu-bhairavi.vpf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423102909/https://cinema.maalaimalar.com/cinema/cinehistory/2018/04/29220639/1159788/cinima-history-sindhu-bhairavi.vpf |archive-date=23 April 2021 |access-date=30 November 2021 |website=[[Maalai Malar]] |language=Tamil}}</ref> Suhasini and [[Sulakshana (actress)|Sulakshana]]'s characters were named after the two parts of the name of the [[Carnatic raga]], [[Sindhu Bhairavi (raga)|Sindhu Bhairavi]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=13 February 2011 |title=Did You Know? |url=http://epaper.timesofindia.com/Repository/getFiles.asp?Style=OliveXLib:LowLevelEntityToPrintGifMSIE_PASTISSUES2&Type=text/html&Locale=english-skin-custom&Path=TOICH/2011/02/13&ChunkNum=0&ID=Ar03802 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180227043754/http://epaper.timesofindia.com/Repository/getFiles.asp?Style=OliveXLib%3ALowLevelEntityToPrintGifMSIE_PASTISSUES2&Type=text%2Fhtml&Locale=english-skin-custom&Path=TOICH%2F2011%2F02%2F13&ChunkNum=0&ID=Ar03802 |archive-date=27 February 2018 |access-date=12 July 2021 |work=[[Chennai Times]] |pages=38}}</ref> [[Delhi Ganesh]] was asked by Balachander to portray a mridangam player, and though he did not know how to play the instrument, he had a sense of rhythm and soon became "engrossed in the role".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Aravind |first=C. V. |date=20 March 1987 |title=A character actor |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=zINlAAAAIBAJ&sjid=gZ4NAAAAIBAJ&pg=1908%2C1111927 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240423035452/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=zINlAAAAIBAJ&sjid=gZ4NAAAAIBAJ&pg=1908%2C1111927 |archive-date=23 April 2024 |access-date=4 January 2023 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |pages=14 |via=[[Google News Archive]]}}</ref> [[Pratap Pothen]] shot for 15 days, but his scenes did not make the final cut.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Shiva Kumar |first=S. |date=3 July 1987 |title=Resurrection |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=P9oYG7HA76QC&dat=19870703&printsec=frontpage&hl=en |access-date=3 August 2024 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |pages=12 |via=[[Google News Archive]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref> While shooting for the film in Vishakapatnam, Balachander saw ''[[America Alludu]]'' (1985) and sought permission from [[K. Vasu]] to reuse a scene that [[Ananthu (screenwriter)|Ananthu]] had suggested.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sri |date=2 April 2010 |title=Retrospect : America Alludu (1985) |url=http://www.telugucinema.com/c/publish/movieretrospect/retro_americaalludu1985_3.php |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100406165010/http://www.telugucinema.com/c/publish/movieretrospect/retro_americaalludu1985_3.php|archive-date=6 April 2010 |access-date=21 May 2024 |work=[[Telugucinema.com]]|page = 3}}</ref>

== Themes and influences ==
The film's theme is based on extramarital affairs interwoven with Carnatic music.<ref>{{Cite web |title=KB's Classical Movie: Sindu Bhairavi |url=http://www.behindwoods.com/features/classicalmovie/sindubhairavi/article.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055105/http://www.behindwoods.com/features/classicalmovie/sindubhairavi/article.html |archive-date=4 March 2016 |access-date=7 March 2018 |website=Behindwoods}}</ref> [[Ajayan Bala]] stated: "most compatible minds in ''Sindhu Bhairavi'', the singer and his fan, were not allowed to live together, even after the wife reconciled herself to that".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kolappan |first=B. |date=22 June 2013 |title=The limits to on-screen affections |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/the-limits-to-onscreen-affections/article4841198.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130726014759/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/the-limits-to-onscreen-affections/article4841198.ece |archive-date=26 July 2013 |access-date=7 March 2018 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> Kandhasamy, Balachander's son-in-law, stated, "''Sindhu Bhairavi'' established the sanctity of the institution of marriage and the dignity of the concubine".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rao |first=Subha J |date=15 March 2005 |title=This is KB unplugged for you! |url=http://www.thehindu.com/lf/2005/03/15/stories/2005031501700200.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20150111215539/http://www.thehindu.com/lf/2005/03/15/stories/2005031501700200.htm |archive-date=11 January 2015 |access-date=7 March 2018 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> [[Sowmya Rajendran]] compared the film to another Sivakumar starrer ''[[Rosappu Ravikkaikari]]'' (1979) due to adultery being the mutual theme, the difference being that Sivakumar's character in ''Sindhu Bhairavi'' is the adulterous one, unlike ''Rosappu Ravikkaikari'' where it is [[Unni Mary|Deepa]]'s character who plays Sivakumar's wife.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rajendran |first=Sowmya |author-link=Sowmya Rajendran |date=27 April 2022 |title=Kannagi to Kaathuvaakula Rendu Kadhal: Adultery in Tamil cinema |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/kannagi-kaathuvaakula-rendu-kadhal-adultery-tamil-cinema-163331 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427113119/https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/kannagi-kaathuvaakula-rendu-kadhal-adultery-tamil-cinema-163331 |archive-date=27 April 2022 |access-date=9 May 2022 |website=[[The News Minute]]}}</ref>

== Popular culture ==
''Sindhu Bhairavi'' was parodied in the [[Star Vijay]] comedy series ''[[Lollu Sabha]]'', in an episode named "Sindhu By Ravi".<ref>{{Cite news |last=S |first=Srivatsan |date=8 April 2020 |title=The rise and fall of 'Lollu Sabha': Director Rambala on the untold story |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/the-story-behind-lollu-sabha/article31289313.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200719194832/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/the-story-behind-lollu-sabha/article31289313.ece |archive-date=19 July 2020 |access-date=19 August 2025 |work=[[The Hindu]] |language=en}}</ref> In one of the episodes of "Thirukkural with the Times," [[பாரதி பாஸ்கர்]] stated that she is reminded of the Tamil film Sindhu Bhairavi, one of K. Balachander's finest. In the film, JKB, a married man and a celebrated singer, has an affair with Sindhu, his admirer. After much turmoil and soul-searching, his family agrees to a second marriage. But Sindhu walks away. Her reason—she does not want to become the precedent for moral compromise. If a great artist like JKB bends the code of public probity, she fears others will use him as a license to do the same. She chooses obscurity over validation. The film's climax, like [[Valluvar]]'s couplet 137: "From propriety of conduct men attain greatness; from impropriety springs disgrace that none can bear," is a meditation on the burden of those in the public eye. Fame, power, and influence are not shields—they are mirrors that magnify every flaw.<ref>{{Cite news |date=26 June 2025 |title=Sixteen seconds of impropriety, a lifetime of regret |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/sixteen-seconds-of-impropriety-a-lifetime-of-regret/articleshow/122886788.cms |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref>

== Music ==
{{Further|Sindhu Bhairavi (soundtrack)}}
Sindhu Bhairavi's soundtrack featured nine songs composed by [[Ilaiyaraaja]] and written by [[Vairamuthu]] & [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sindhu Bhairavi Tamil Film LP Vinyl Record by Ilayaraaja |url=https://mossymart.com/product/sindhu-bhairavi-tamil-film-lp-vinyl-record-by-ilayaraaja/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028180701/https://mossymart.com/product/sindhu-bhairavi-tamil-film-lp-vinyl-record-by-ilayaraaja/ |archive-date=28 October 2021 |access-date=30 November 2021 |website=Mossymart}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Sindhu Bhairavi |url=https://gaana.com/album/sindhu-bhairavi-tamil |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211130081742/https://gaana.com/album/sindhu-bhairavi-tamil |archive-date=30 November 2021 |access-date=30 November 2021 |website=[[Gaana (music streaming service)|Gaana]]}}</ref> It is also Balachander's maiden collaboration with Ilaiyaraaja, forgoing his usual associations with [[M. S. Viswanathan]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kumar |first=S. R. Ashok |date=31 January 2012 |title=An occasion to cherish |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-metroplus/an-occasion-to-cherish/article13387496.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211026055507/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-metroplus/an-occasion-to-cherish/article13387496.ece |archive-date=26 October 2021 |access-date=7 March 2018 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref>{{Sfn|Dhananjayan|2014|page=287}} The soundtrack consisted of [[Folk music|folk]] and [[classical music]], with most of the songs are set in [[Carnatic raga]]s. The soundtrack also featured adaptations of works from [[Muthuswami Dikshitar]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Raman |first=Venkat |date=13 February 2020 |title=Young Mridangist impresses music aficionados in Chennai |url=https://indiannewslink.co.nz/young-mridangist-impresses-music-aficionados-in-chennai/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210223220732/https://www.indiannewslink.co.nz/young-mridangist-impresses-music-aficionados-in-chennai/ |archive-date=23 February 2021 |access-date=30 November 2021 |website=Indian Newslink |location=New Zealand}}</ref> [[Subramania Bharati]]<ref name="scroll" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=மாதேவன் |first=சந்தோஷ் |date=11 December 2019 |title='நேர்கொண்ட பார்வை', 'சூரரைப் போற்று', 'புதுமைப் பெண்'... தமிழ் சினிமாவும் பாரதியார் ரெஃபரென்ஸும்! |url=https://cinema.vikatan.com/tamil-cinema/bharathi-references-in-tamil-cinema |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200315113426/https://cinema.vikatan.com/tamil-cinema/bharathi-references-in-tamil-cinema |archive-date=15 March 2020 |access-date=30 November 2021 |website=[[Ananda Vikatan]] |language=ta}}</ref> and [[Tyagaraja]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=10 September 1993 |title=Master of melody |url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/other/master-of-melody/article6808064.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021143648/https://frontline.thehindu.com/other/master-of-melody/article6808064.ece |archive-date=21 October 2021 |access-date=26 October 2021 |work=[[Frontline (magazine)|Frontline]]}}</ref>

== Release and reception ==
''Sindhu Bhairavi'' was released on 11 November 1985, during [[Diwali]].<ref name="hindutamil" /> In a review dated, 24 November 1985, Tamil magazine ''[[Ananda Vikatan]]'' rated the film 55 out of 100.<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 November 1985 |title=சினிமா விமர்சனம்: சிந்து பைரவி |url=https://www.vikatan.com/arts/nostalgia/41869--2 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20210712063635/https://www.vikatan.com/arts/nostalgia/41869--2 |archive-date=12 July 2021 |access-date=12 July 2021 |website=[[Ananda Vikatan]] |language=ta}}</ref> [[Subha (writers)|Jayamanmadhan]] of ''[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]]'' wrote in the backdrop of sea waves, memorable locations many of the stories have been woven so densely and added it is the special touch of the director that the film is arranged seamlessly by adding threads to each other while calling Ilaiyaraaja and Yesudas as plus points.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=ஜெயமன்மதன் |author-link=Subha (writers) |date=17 November 1985 |title=சிந்து பைரவி |url=https://archive.org/details/kalki1985-11-17/page/n60/mode/2up |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230226025834/https://archive.org/details/kalki1985-11-17/page/n60/mode/2up |archive-date=26 February 2023 |access-date=26 February 2023 |magazine=[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]] |page=59 |language=Ta |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref> ''Anna'' praised acting, music, cinematography and direction and noted the first half of the film flows like a calm, clear stream. But in the last few reels of the film, the confusion rears your head as if makers felt people will accept this ending or not yet called it another diamond crown in Balachander's career.<ref>{{cite news|title=சிந்து பைரவி|access-date=5 July 2025|work=Anna|language=ta|url=https://eap.bl.uk/archive-file/EAP372-6-23-10-26|date=14 November 1985|page=4|via=[[Endangered Archives Programme]]}}</ref> The film was a major commercial success, running for over 175 days in theatres. The 175th day celebration was held at a theatre in [[Madurai]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 December 2020 |title=சித்திரச்சோலை 22: வழிப்பயணி |url=https://www.hindutamil.in/news/blogs/613013-chithira-solai.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416235527/https://www.hindutamil.in/news/blogs/613013-chithira-solai.html |archive-date=16 April 2021 |access-date=30 November 2021 |website=[[Hindu Tamil Thisai]] |language=ta}}</ref>

== Accolades ==
At the [[33rd National Film Awards]], ''Sindhu Bhairavi'' won in three categories: [[National Film Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]] (Suhasini), [[National Film Award for Best Music Direction|Best Music Direction]] (Ilaiyaraaja) and [[National Film Award for Best Female Playback Singer|Best Female Playback Singer]] (K. S. Chithra).<ref>{{Cite web |title=33rd National Film Festival |url=http://dff.nic.in/images/Documents/84_33rdNfacatalogue.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725171812/http://dff.nic.in/images/Documents/84_33rdNfacatalogue.pdf |archive-date=25 July 2020 |access-date=30 November 2021 |website=[[Directorate of Film Festivals]]}}</ref> The film also won the [[Filmfare Award for Best Film – Tamil]].{{sfn|Dhananjayan|2014|p=287}}

== Sequel ==
A sequel in the form of a TV series named ''[[Sahana (TV series)|Sahana]]'', also created by Balachander, premiered on [[Jaya TV]] on 24 February 2003.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Chandran |first=Rina |date=28 February 2003 |title=Jaya airs a movie sequel made for TV |url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/2003/02/28/stories/2003022802300600.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130203213221/http://www.thehindubusinessline.in/2003/02/28/stories/2003022802300600.htm |archive-date=3 February 2013 |access-date=1 November 2008 |work=[[Business Line]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Swaminathan |first=Chitra |date=12 March 2003 |title=From Sindhu Bhairavi to Sahana |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-metroplus/from-sindhu-bhairavi-to-sahana/article28402042.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712082327/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-metroplus/from-sindhu-bhairavi-to-sahana/article28402042.ece |archive-date=12 July 2021 |access-date=12 July 2021 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> While JKB and Sindhu were portrayed by [[Y. G. Mahendran]] and Anuradha Krishnamoorthy, Sulakshana was the only actor to return in the same role.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Warrier |first=Shobha |author-link=Shobha Warrier |date=6 March 2003 |title=Sindhu Bhairavi is back |url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/2003/mar/06sindhu.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712064923/https://www.rediff.com/movies/2003/mar/06sindhu.htm |archive-date=12 July 2021 |access-date=12 July 2021 |website=[[Rediff.com]]}}</ref>

== References ==
<references>
<ref name="scroll">{{Cite web |last=Nathan |first=Archana |date=31 January 2019 |title=Audio master: 'Sindhu Bhairavi' is an ode to the absence of boundaries in music |url=https://scroll.in/reel/907723/audio-master-sindhu-bhairavi-is-an-ode-to-the-absence-of-boundaries-in-music |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211026044354/https://scroll.in/reel/907723/audio-master-sindhu-bhairavi-is-an-ode-to-the-absence-of-boundaries-in-music |archive-date=26 October 2021 |access-date=29 November 2021 |website=[[Scroll.in]]}}</ref>
<ref name="moviefone">{{Cite web |title=Sindhu Bhairavi Cast and Crew |url=https://www.moviefone.com/movie/sindhu-bhairavi/ak3FfYraN5NhPD5Qc89wm6/credits/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211130081815/https://www.moviefone.com/movie/sindhu-bhairavi/ak3FfYraN5NhPD5Qc89wm6/credits/ |archive-date=30 November 2021 |access-date=29 November 2021 |website=[[Moviefone]]}}</ref>
<ref name="hindutamil">{{Cite web |last=ராம்ஜி |first=வி. |date=11 November 2020 |title=கே.பாலசந்தரும் இளையராஜாவும் இணைந்த முதல் படம்; ஜே.கே.பி., சிந்து, பைரவி, மிருதங்க டெல்லி கணேஷ், ஜனகராஜின் தலை; 'மரிமரி நின்னே', 'நானொரு சிந்து', 'பாடறியேன்' – 'சிந்துபைரவி' வெளியாகி 35 வருடங்கள் |url=https://www.hindutamil.in/news/cinema/tamil-cinema/600815-35-years-of-sindhu-bairavi.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111142127/https://www.hindutamil.in/news/cinema/tamil-cinema/600815-35-years-of-sindhu-bairavi.html |archive-date=11 November 2020 |access-date=30 November 2021 |website=[[Hindu Tamil Thisai]] |language=ta}}</ref>
</references>

== Bibliography ==
* {{Cite book |last=Dhananjayan |first=G. |author-link=G. Dhananjayan |title=Pride of Tamil Cinema: 1931–2013 |title-link=Pride of Tamil Cinema |publisher=Blue Ocean Publishers |year=2014 |oclc=898765509}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Rajadhyaksha |first1=Ashish |author-link=Ashish Rajadhyaksha |title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Cinema |last2=Willemen |first2=Paul |author-link2=Paul Willemen |publisher=[[British Film Institute]] and [[Oxford University Press]] |year=1998 |isbn=0-19-563579-5 |orig-date=1994}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|155180}}

{{K. Balachander}}
{{Kavithalaya Productions}}
{{Filmfare Award for Best Film – Tamil}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:1985 Indian films]]
[[Category:1980s musical drama films]]
[[Category:1985 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:1985 films]]
[[Category:Films about alcoholism]]
[[Category:Films about music and musicians]]
[[Category:Films directed by K. Balachander]]
[[Category:Films featuring a Best Actress National Award–winning performance]]
[[Category:Films scored by Ilaiyaraaja]]
[[Category:Films shot in Visakhapatnam]]
[[Category:Films with screenplays by K. Balachander]]
[[Category:Indian musical drama films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]
[[Category:1985 musical films]]

Ajay Pratap Singh (Madhya Pradesh politician)

2026-04-02T04:12:14Z

IZinePro: Adding some biography v1

{{Short description|Indian politician (born 1967)}}
{{BLP sources|date=April 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2019}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Ajay Pratap Singh
| image =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1967|4|28|df=y}}
| birth_place = Sidhi, [[Madhya Pradesh]]
| office = [[Member of Parliament, Rajya Sabha]]
| term_start = April 2018
| term_end = April 2024<ref name="BJP Rajya Sabha MP from Madhya Pradesh quits party; questions ticket distribution for Lok Sabha election">{{cite news |last1=The Hindu |first1= |title=BJP Rajya Sabha MP from Madhya Pradesh quits party; questions ticket distribution for Lok Sabha election |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/bjp-rajya-sabha-mp-from-madhya-pradesh-quits-party-questions-ticket-distribution-for-lok-sabha-election/article67957846.ece |access-date=30 September 2024 |date=16 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240930171428/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/bjp-rajya-sabha-mp-from-madhya-pradesh-quits-party-questions-ticket-distribution-for-lok-sabha-election/article67957846.ece |archive-date=30 September 2024 |language=en-IN}}</ref>
| constituency = [[Madhya Pradesh]]
| party =
| spouse = Anita Singh
| children = 1
| alma_mater = S.G.S. College, Sidhi
| education = Post Graduation
}}
'''Ajay Pratap Singh''' (born 28 April 1967) is an Indian politician and one of the senior most leader of Madhya pradesh BJP unit. He was elected to the [[Rajya Sabha]] from [[Madhya Pradesh]] on 15 March 2018.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.uniindia.com/rajya-sabha-polls-all-5-candidates-elected-unopposed-from-mp/states/news/1168944.html | title=Rajya Sabha polls: All 5 candidates elected unopposed from MP }}</ref> Earlier He also worked as State General Secretary, Vice president and Secretary of BJP Madhya Pradesh Organisation.
In 2011 he Also Worked as a chairman(Cabinet Minister Rank)of Vindhya Development Authority.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Singh, Ajay Pratap}}
[[Category:Rajya Sabha members from Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1967 births]]

Rajdeep Naik

2026-03-27T15:49:36Z

IZinePro:

{{Short description|Indian actor and director (born 1975)}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Rajdeep Naik
| image = Rajdeep Naik 2024.jpg
| caption = Naik during the play ''Ganv Zala Zantto'', 2024
| birth_name = Rajdeep Vasant Naik
| birth_place =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1975|3|30|df=y}}
| occupation = {{hlist|Actor|director|producer|singer}}
| alma_mater = {{ubl|
* [[Government College of Arts, Science and Commerce, Khandola|Government College of Arts, Science and Commerce]] ([[B.A.]])
* [[Shivaji University]] ([[Master of Performing Arts|M.P.A]])}}
| spouse = {{marriage|Suchita Naik Narvekar|2019}}
| years_active = 1986–present
| party = [[Aam Aadmi Party]] (2021–2026)
| children = 1
| known_for = {{ubl|
* ''[[Home Sweet Home (2014 film)|Home Sweet Home]]''
* ''[[Home Sweet Home 2]]''}}
| awards = [[Yuva Srujan Puraskar]]
| website = {{URL|facebook.com/kalachetanagoa}}
}}

'''Rajdeep Vasant Naik''' (born 30 March 1975) is an Indian actor, theatre director, [[theatrical producer]], and singer known for his work in [[Konkani cinema|Konkani films]], ''nataks'' ([[drama]]s), and ''[[tiatr]]'' ([[Konkani language|Konkani]] theatre) productions.

==Early life==
Rajdeep Vasant Naik was born on 30 March<ref>{{Cite web |last=Narvekar |first=Suchita |date=30 March 2021 |title=Happy Birthday Rajdeep Naik |url=https://www.facebook.com/share/p/pC8vQsL9WifP6Pgi/?mibextid=xfxF2i |access-date=2024-03-21 |website=www.facebook.com}}</ref> 1975.<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 May 2022 |title=Talk Show {{!}} Kalakaar {{!}} Rajdeep Naik |url=https://www.facebook.com/share/v/oaekTWLok3w587mQ/?mibextid=Oe8Rdp |access-date=13 March 2024 |website=InGoa 24x7}}</ref> He hails from the village of [[Volvoi]], [[Goa]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 January 2024 |title=GOVERNMENT OF GOA Office of the Sub Divisional Forest Officer |url=https://www.forest.goa.gov.in/sites/default/files/2024-01/Rajdeep%20V.%20Naik-%20%20Volvoi.pdf |access-date=13 March 2024 |website=Goa Forest Department}}</ref> During his schooling, Naik engaged in [[one-act play]]s from the [[sixth grade]] onwards and participated in several competitions. This pursuit continued through high school and into college.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=University's 'role' model |url=https://www.heraldgoa.in/Cafe/University%E2%80%99s-%E2%80%98role%E2%80%99-model/87091 |access-date=2024-03-13 |website=oHeraldo |date=31 August 2022 }}</ref> Naik's theatrical journey began at the age of 11 when he made his debut as a representative of KRS High School, Volvoi in a one-act play competition organized by [[Kala Academy]], under the guidance of Shashikant Anvekar. He maintained an active involvement in both drama and [[folk dance]] competitions within Goa. Throughout his academic career, he received several awards and recognition for his abilities, both while attending school and as a student at the [[Government College of Arts, Science and Commerce, Khandola]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite news |date=2016-12-11 |title='Mixer-fixer' eyes role on silver screen |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/mixer-fixer-eyes-role-on-silver-screen/articleshow/55917229.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220925215712/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/mixer-fixer-eyes-role-on-silver-screen/articleshow/55917229.cms |archive-date=2022-09-25 |access-date=2024-03-13 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

During his time as a university student, Naik held the position of president on the organizing committee for the inaugural student theater festival, 'Rangyatra'. In 1996, Naik completed a [[Bachelor of Arts]] degree. He later attempted to pursue a master's degree but had to leave the program after a year due to financial difficulties. Following this, he gained experience as a casual [[announcer]] for the Yuvavani programs at [[All India Radio|Akashwani]], [[Panaji]]. Also, as the head of the planning committee, Naik played a key role in arranging the first-ever all-Goa student [[dramatic convention|theatre convention]] for Konkani drama while in his final year of college.<ref name=":2" />

Despite his interest in pursuing a career in [[dramatics]] and receiving support at his academic level, he struggled to find a suitable course in Goa. His liking for arts, especially literature and drama, was not matched by available opportunities in his home state. Both his immediate family and extended relatives lacked experience in stage performances and held a [[pessimistic]] view regarding the future prospects of theater. However, having a neighbor like playwright and [[Sahitya Akademi Award|Sahitya Akademi]] awardee [[Pundalik Naik]] in Volvoi exposed him to the world of drama, as he would stay up night after night to watch [[rehearsal]]s. By December 2016, Naik received a [[Master of Arts]] in Konkani and was actively working towards a [[Master of Performing Arts]] at [[Shivaji University]].<ref name=":1" /> As of 2021, he has obtained two master's degrees.<ref name=":0" />

==Career==
Naik is known for his early entry into the industry and subsequent contributions as a producer of ''[[tiatrs]]''. His body of work includes several acclaimed dramas that have garnered him awards. Naik's works have been well received by the residents of [[Goa]], and he has partnered with the Department of Art & Culture, Goa to arrange the ''Natya Mahotsav'', a cultural event. Naik has strived to both promote and safeguard [[Culture of Goa|Goan culture]] and [[History of Goa|heritage]] through his artistic pursuits and performances. In July 2021, Naik became the focus of media scrutiny for speaking out against the [[Government of Goa|government]]'s decision to provide a one-time financial aid of {{INRConvert|10000|year=2021}} to artists, deeming it as a gesture that lacked respect for the artistic community.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Veteran actor and director Rajdeep Naik joins AAP |url=https://www.thegoan.net/goa-news/veteran-actor-and-director-rajdeep-naik-joins-aap/75650.html |access-date=2024-03-13 |website=The Goan EveryDay |language=en |archive-date=2021-10-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211016070120/https://www.thegoan.net/goa-news/veteran-actor-and-director-rajdeep-naik-joins-aap/75650.html |url-status=live }}</ref> He is also recognized as the chairman of Kala Chetna-[[Volvoi]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=What's all the confusion about 'Questao de Confusao' |url=https://www.heraldgoa.in/Cafe/What%E2%80%99s-all-the-confusion-about-%E2%80%98Questao-de-Confusao%E2%80%99/136391 |access-date=2024-03-13 |website=oHeraldo |date=31 August 2022 }}</ref>

Naik's involvement in the film industry includes his portrayal of a [[negative role|negative character]] in the [[Konkani cinema|Konkani]] film ''[[Home Sweet Home (2014 film)|Home Sweet Home]]'' in 2014. Due to its significant public demand, the film was re-released in 2016<ref>{{Cite web |title=Prequel of Home Sweet Home 2 to hit screens on public demand |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/pti-feed/story/prequel-of-home-sweet-home-2-to-hit-screens-on-public-demand-488807-2016-01-14 |access-date=2024-03-13 |website=India Today |date=14 January 2016 |language=en}}</ref> and sought to bring attention to the problem of unauthorized [[Land acquisition in India|land acquisition]] in Goa.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home-grown film to get a sequel |url=https://www.heraldgoa.in/Cafe/Homegrown-film-to-get-a-sequel/85889 |access-date=2024-03-13 |website=oHeraldo |date=31 August 2022 }}</ref> In 2015, Naik reprised his lead role in the sequel, ''[[Home Sweet Home 2]]'', which was widely released across Goa. The film sought to draw attention to the role of politicians in the deterioration of Goa.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-12-23 |title=Konkani film 'Home Sweet Home 2' to hit screens on Christmas |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/regional/konkani-film-home-sweet-home-2-to-hit-screens-on-christmas/ |access-date=2024-03-13 |website=The Indian Express |language=en |archive-date=2021-06-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210612231849/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/regional/konkani-film-home-sweet-home-2-to-hit-screens-on-christmas/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Another film appearance for Naik was in the Konkani film ''7 Dayz'' in 2016, directed by Joywin Fernandes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Beyond negative roles |url=https://www.heraldgoa.in/Cafe/Beyond-negative-roles/99768 |access-date=2024-03-13 |website=oHeraldo |date=31 August 2022 }}</ref> This [[adventure drama]], released two years later in 2018, examines the intersection of politics, crime, and corruption, showcasing their direct influence on the lives of individuals.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Times |first=Navhind |date=2018-06-06 |title=Konkani film '7 Dayz' to premier today – The Navhind Times |url=https://www.navhindtimes.in/2018/06/06/magazines/buzz/konkani-film-7-dayz-to-premier-today/ |access-date=2024-03-13 |language=en-US}}</ref>

In 2018, Naik assumed the role of Vasudev, a member of the [[Gaonkar]] family,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Taking 'Questão de Confusão' to the masses |url=https://www.heraldgoa.in/Cafe/Taking-%E2%80%98Quest%C3%A3o-de-Confus%C3%A3o%E2%80%99-to-the-masses/136761 |access-date=2024-03-13 |website=oHeraldo |date=31 August 2022 }}</ref> in the Konkani film ''Questão De Confusão''. The film made its debut in Goa during the same year and delved into the intricacies of [[Religious pluralism|coexisting religions]] and their societal significance. The production faced significant financial challenges, necessitating innovative approaches to secure funding. One such method involved soliciting contributions from individuals prior to the film's release, with the promise of either screening the film in their respective villages or providing complimentary tickets, depending on the amount donated. The filmmakers initially underestimated the project's expenses, but as filming progressed, costs escalated, according to Naik.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Times |first=Navhind |date=2018-10-14 |title=A story of confusion – The Navhind Times |url=https://www.navhindtimes.in/2018/10/14/magazines/buzz/a-story-of-confusion/ |access-date=2024-03-13 |language=en-US}}</ref>

The film was produced by Naik's spouse, Suchita, and he also made contributions by penning lyrics for three [[Promotional recording|promotional songs]] associated with the film.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Times |first=Navhind |date=2018-09-13 |title=Promotional songs of upcoming Konkani movie 'Questao De Confusao' released – The Navhind Times |url=https://www.navhindtimes.in/2018/09/13/magazines/buzz/promotional-songs-of-upcoming-konkani-movie-questao-de-confusao-released/ |access-date=2024-03-13 |language=en-US}}</ref> Naik invested effort in preparing for his role, particularly in comprehending the nuances of portraying a [[father figure]] to a young child, despite not having personal experience as a parent. To establish a convincing on-screen chemistry, Naik spent a week alongside a young actor who played his son in the film. However, Naik expressed no difficulty in assuming the role of a husband to Reshma, as their extensive 18-year collaboration in stage productions had fostered an understanding between them. Similarly, Naik had previously collaborated with Anil Pednekar, another actor in the film, which facilitated a seamless working dynamic. It is worth noting that Naik also contributed to the film's production team.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Konkani film debuts child protagonist |url=https://www.thegoan.net//konkani-film-debuts-child-protagonist/45690.html |access-date=2024-03-13 |website=The Goan EveryDay |language=en}}</ref>

===Political career===
In October 2021, Naik formally joined the [[Aam Aadmi Party]] (AAP) during a ceremony held in [[Delhi]], which was attended by [[Arvind Kejriwal]], the [[Chief Minister of Delhi]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-10-16 |title=AAP LEADER RAJDEEP NAIK RETURNS TO GOA AFTER JOINING AAP IN DELHI |url=https://rdxgoa.com/aap-leader-rajdeep-naik-returns-to-goa-after-joining-aap-in-delhi/ |access-date=2024-03-13 |website=RDX Goa |language=en-US}}</ref>

Naik's decision to join the AAP was driven by his genuine belief in the effectiveness of the Kejriwal model and his conviction that it presents the most viable alternative for the state of [[Goa]]. The AAP highlighted Naik's admiration for Kejriwal's initiatives, particularly in the areas of electricity provision and [[job security]], which left an impression on Naik. Naik's choice to align with the AAP was motivated by the pressing issue of heightened unemployment and the adverse socioeconomic impact of the [[COVID-19 pandemic|pandemic]] on the local population. Recognizing the AAP as the political party that had demonstrated the most concerted efforts to assist the people of Goa during the pandemic, Naik expressed his satisfaction in joining the AAP under the guidance of Kejriwal. He emphasized the party's commitment to supporting the welfare of ''Goenkars'' (residents of Goa) throughout the crisis.<ref name=":0" />

In March 2026, ahead of the [[Ponda Assembly constituency#Election results|Ponda by-election]], Naik quit the party, alleging that AAP fielded a candidate that would lead to a [[Spoiler effect|division]] of opposition votes.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-03-24 |title=Artist Rajdeep Naik Quits AAP, Alleges Party Divided Opposition Votes in Ponda By-Poll – 24 March 2026 {{!}} O Heraldo |url=https://www.heraldgoa.in/goa/artist-rajdeep-naik-quits-aap-alleges-party-divided-opposition-votes-in-ponda-by-poll/469193/ |access-date=2026-03-25 |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Personal life==
In 2019, Naik married Suchita Naik Narvekar ([[née]] Narvekar), an entrepreneur and playwright,<ref>{{Cite web |title=The busy-ness of being Suchi |url=https://www.heraldgoa.in/Cafe/The-busyness-of-being-Suchi/119006 |access-date=2024-03-13 |website=oHeraldo |date=31 August 2022 }}</ref> after dating for 18 years. They first met in 2000 when Narvekar joined Naik's production company. In 2020, the couple welcomed a daughter, Bhumee Naik Narvekar who is a child actor and performs in [[Konkani language|Konkani]] dramas.<ref>{{Cite web |title=New Education Policy |url=https://www.heraldgoa.in/Cafe/New-Education-Policy/195076 |access-date=2024-03-13 |website=oHeraldo |date=31 August 2022 |archive-date=2022-10-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221012204821/https://www.heraldgoa.in/Cafe/New-Education-Policy/195076 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2026-03-27 |title=Love, legacy and the stage: A theatre family across generations |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/events/goa/love-legacy-and-the-stage-a-theatre-family-across-generations/articleshow/129836911.cms |access-date=2026-03-27 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb name|id=6997776}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Naik, Rajdeep}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1975 births]]
[[Category:Tiatrists]]
[[Category:People from South Goa district]]
[[Category:Actors from Goa]]

Mohammad Israil Ansari

2026-03-24T20:16:59Z

IZinePro: creating basic stub v1...

{{Infobox academic
| name = Mohammad Israil Ansari
| image = Mohammad Israil Ansari.jpg
| caption = Ansari in 2000
| birth_date = June 7, 1969
| birth_place = Hardoi, Uttar Pradesh, India
| occupation = Professor at University of Lucknow, Lucknow, India
| awards = Academia Sinica Fellow by the Government of Taiwan
| alma_mater = Aligarh Muslim University
| workplaces = University of Lucknow, Lucknow, India
| main_interests = Plant Stress Physiology, Nanotechnology and Molecular Biology
| website = https://udrc.lkouniv.ac.in/department/ViewProfile?EId=45
}}

'''Mohammad Israil Ansari''' (born 7 June 1969) is a Biologist and Professor in the Department of Botany at the [[University of Lucknow]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lucknow University |url=https://udrc.lkouniv.ac.in/department/ViewProfile?EId=45 |access-date=2025-05-29 |website=udrc.lkouniv.ac.in}}</ref> [[Lucknow]], [[India]]. He is known for his research contribution in the field of plant [[nanotechnology]] and [[molecular biology]] of leaf senescence. He has been recognized as an [[Academia Sinica]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Academia Sinica {{!}} Home |url=https://www.sinica.edu.tw/en |access-date=2025-05-29 |website=www.sinica.edu.tw |language=en-US}}</ref> Fellow by the [[Government of the Republic of China|Government of Taiwan]] and is also a Fellow of the [[Indian Botanical Society]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home {{!}} Indian Botanical Sociaty |url=https://indianbotsoc.org/ |access-date=2025-05-29 |website=indianbotsoc.org}}</ref>

== Biography ==
Ansari was born in 1969 in [[Mallawan]], a town in the [[Hardoi district]] of [[Uttar Pradesh]], India. He completed his undergraduate and postgraduate studies at the Department of Botany, [[Aligarh Muslim University]], [[Aligarh]], India. He conducted his doctoral research at the [[Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research]], Lucknow, earning a PhD from [[Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia Avadh University]], [[Faizabad]], India. He has been associated with the Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology at Academia Sinica,<ref>{{Cite web |title=IPMB {{!}} 中央研究院植物暨微生物學研究所 |url=https://ipmb.sinica.edu.tw/en |access-date=2025-05-29 |website=ipmb.sinica.edu.tw |language=en}}</ref> [[Taiwan]], and the Graduate Institute of Plant Biology at National Taiwan University,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Institute of Plant Biology {{!}} NTUIPB {{!}} Taiwan {{!}} R.O.C. |url=https://www.ntuipb.info/eng |access-date=2025-05-29 |website=國立臺灣大學植物科學研究所 |language=zh}}</ref> Taiwan from 2000 to 2007. Prior to his current appointment as Professor in the Department of Botany at the University of Lucknow, Lucknow, he served as Professor at the Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University, Lucknow Campus,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Lucknow |url=https://www.amity.edu/lucknow/aib/ |access-date=2025-05-29 |website=www.amity.edu}}</ref> India from 2007 to 2016. He is an editorial board member of several international journals as well as an active member of various academic and research committees. He has research collaboration with several international groups and has delivered numerous keynote and invited lectures at national and international levels.

== Professional profile ==
Ansari’s research focuses on characterizing the [[GABA|gamma-aminobutyric acid]] (GABA) gene in relation to rice leaf senescence and developing bioengineered GABA-functionalized nanoparticles to enhance the nutritional composition and physiological resilience of leafy vegetable crops, thereby extending their shelf life. His work utilizes the stress-alleviating properties of GABA to improve nutrient uptake, stimulate plant growth, and strengthen tolerance to various abiotic stresses. By integrating nanotechnology with plant metabolic pathways, his studies aim to optimize crop development, nutrient density, and overall plant health under challenging environmental conditions. He has over 33 years of research experience and 22 years of teaching experience, with more than 120 publications listed on [[ResearchGate]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mohammad Israil ANSARI {{!}} Professor (Full) {{!}} Professor {{!}} University of Lucknow, Lucknow {{!}} Department of Botany {{!}} Research profile |url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Mohammad-Israil-Ansari |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230226191515/https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Mohammad-Israil-Ansari |archive-date=2023-02-26 |access-date=2025-05-29 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> an online repository of scientific articles. His high citation index and h-index reflect the quality and impact of his [[research]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mohammad Israil Ansari |url=https://scholar.google.co.in/citations?user=VgAWq9AAAAAJ&hl=en |access-date=2025-05-29 |website=scholar.google.co.in}}</ref>.Additionally, he has authored and edited several books published by [[Springer Nature]] and [[Elsevier]], and has completed multiple research projects funded by the [[Government of India]].

== Academic honors and fellowships ==
Ansari was awarded the National Science Council Fellowship in Taiwan in 2000 for a period of two years. In 2002, he received the Academia Sinica Fellowship, which he held for four years. Immediately following this, he was again granted the National Science Council Fellowship in 2004, this time for a period of three years. He has also received fellowships from the [[Indian Council of Agricultural Research|Indian Council for Agricultural Research]] (ICAR),<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home {{!}} Indian Council of Agricultural Research Krishi Bhavan |url=http://www.icar.org.in/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250509105936/http://www.icar.org.in/ |archive-date=2025-05-09 |access-date=2025-05-29 |website=icar.org.in |language=en}}</ref> [[New Delhi]], India, in 1997, and from the [[Department of Biotechnology]] (DBT),<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Department of Biotechnology (@DBTIndia) |url=https://dbtindia.gov.in/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250505222155/https://dbtindia.gov.in/ |archive-date=2025-05-05 |access-date=2025-05-29 |website=dbtindia.gov.in |language=en}}</ref> Government of India, in 1993. In 2022, he was elected as a Fellow of the Indian Botanical Society. He is also a recipient of the Excellence Award from the Indian Society of Agricultural Biochemists <ref>{{Cite web |title=:: Indian Society of Agricultural Biochemists :: |url=http://www.isabindia.org/ |access-date=2025-05-29 |website=www.isabindia.org}}</ref>in 2023 for his significant contributions in organizing the National Conference on Current Trends in Biological Sciences for [[Sustainable agriculture|Sustainable Agriculture]], Environment and Health under [[Climate change|Climate Change]], and the XV Convention of the Indian Society of Agricultural Biochemists at the University of Lucknow, India.

== Selected bibliography ==

=== Chapters ===

* Jalil, S. U., & Ansari, M. I. (2020). Stress implications and crop productivity. ''Plant ecophysiology and adaptation under climate change: mechanisms and perspectives I: general consequences and plant responses'', (pp. 73-86). Springer. [https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-15-2156-0_3 DOI:10.1007/978-981-15-2156-0_3].

=== Articles ===

* Ansari, M. I., Lee, R. H., & Chen, S. C. G. (2005). A novel senescence‐associated gene encoding γ‐aminobutyric acid (GABA): pyruvate transaminase is upregulated during rice leaf senescence. ''Physiologia Plantarum'', ''123''(1), 1-8. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1399-3054.2004.00430.x https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-3054.2004.00430.x.]
* Ansari, M. I., Jalil, S. U., Ansari, S. A., & Hasanuzzaman, M. (2021). GABA shunt: a key-player in mitigation of ROS during stress. ''Plant Growth Regulation'', ''94'', 131-149. [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10725-021-00710-y https://doi.org/10.1007/s10725-021-00710-y.]
* Ansari, M. I., Hasan, S., & Jalil, S. U. (2014). Leaf senescence and GABA shunt. ''Bioinformation'', ''10''(12), 734. [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4312365/ doi: 10.6026/97320630010734]
* Iqbal, Z., Iqbal, M. S., Hashem, A., Abd_Allah, E. F., & Ansari, M. I. (2021). Plant defense responses to biotic stress and its interplay with fluctuating dark/light conditions. ''Frontiers in Plant Science'', ''12'', 631810. [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/plant-science/articles/10.3389/fpls.2021.631810/full https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2021.631810].

== References==
<references />

== External links ==
* https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2162-7705
* https://loop.frontiersin.org/people/464025/overview
* https://www.adscientificindex.com/scientist/mohammad-israil-ansari/341294

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ansari, Mohammad Israil}}
[[Category:1969 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian biologists]]

R. Sundarrajan

2026-03-24T16:12:01Z

IZinePro:

{{Short description|Indian actor and director (born 1950)}}
{{for|the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly member|R. Sundarrajan (politician)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2016}}
{{Infobox person
| name = R. Sundarrajan
| image = R. Sundarrajan at Ennodu Vaa En Maname Movie Launch (cropped).jpg
| caption = Sundarrajan in 2015
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=y|1950|01|09}}
| birth_place = [[Dharapuram]], [[Coimbatore District|Coimbatore]], [[Tamil Nadu]], India
| occupation = Actor, director, writer
| years_active = 1982–present
| spouse = {{marriage|Rajeshwari|1974}}
| children = 3
}}

'''R. Sundarrajan''' is an Indian film director, actor, comedian and writer for [[Tamil language]] films. Active primarily in the 1980s and the 1990s as a filmmaker, he appeared more often as an actor thereafter.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Successive hits - Who gave the most in Tamil cinema? {{!}} R Sundarrajan |url=https://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies/slideshow/the-most-consistent-directors-of-tamil-cinema/r-sundarrajan.html |website=Behindwoods |access-date=1 October 2019 |archive-date=11 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190911014316/http://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies/slideshow/the-most-consistent-directors-of-tamil-cinema/r-sundarrajan.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=12 February 2018 |title=From Visu to Samuthirakani: Kollywood's director turned actors |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/visu-samuthirakani-kollywoods-director-turned-actors-76337 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210926210027/https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/visu-samuthirakani-kollywoods-director-turned-actors-76337 |archive-date=26 September 2021 |access-date=12 May 2023 |website=[[The News Minute]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=S |first=Bala |date=2023-08-21 |title=ஆர் சுந்தர்ராஜன் இத்தனை படங்கள் இயக்கியுள்ளாரா? அதில் ஒன்று ரஜினி படம்..! |url=https://tamilminutes.com/r-sundharrajan-direction-movies-in-tamil-cinema/ |access-date=2023-11-08 |website=Tamil Minutes |language=ta-IN}}</ref> Sundarajan is known for his silver jubilee films such as ''[[Payanangal Mudivathillai]]'' (1982), ''[[Vaidehi Kathirunthal]]'' (1984), ''[[Rajadhi Raja (1989 film)|Rajadhi Raja]]'' (1989) and ''[[Thirumathi Palanisamy]]'' (1992). He had directed over 25 films in his illustrious career and most of them became profitable ventures in the box office.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |date=2022-02-09 |title=#UnforgettableOnes: Multi-hyphenate R Sundarrajan |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/unforgettableones-multi-hyphenate-r-sundarrajan/articleshow/89447524.cms |access-date=2024-01-15 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

==Career==
He has served as an actor, filmmaker and a renowned director. He is very well appreciated and a name of honor in Tamil film industry.<ref>{{Cite web |title=R. Sundarrajan |url=https://nettv4u.com/celebrity/tamil/supporting-actor/r-sundarrajan |website=Nettv4u |access-date=23 May 2021 |archive-date=23 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210523194511/https://nettv4u.com/celebrity/tamil/supporting-actor/r-sundarrajan |url-status=live }}</ref> He began his career as an actor in 1981, but he subsequently made his directorial debut a year after making his acting debut, with ''[[Payanangal Mudivathillai]]'' (1982). He collaborated with actor [[Mohan (actor)|Mohan]] for his maiden directorial venture, ''Payanangal Mudivathillai'' and the film became a sleeper hit and ran for over 175 days in the box office.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Jayabalan |first=Suriyakumar |title=R.Sundarrajan: விடாமுயற்சியால் வெள்ளிவிழா படங்களை கொடுத்த நாயகன் |url=https://tamil.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/director-and-actor-r-sundarrajan-73rd-birthday-is-celebrated-today-131703791073879.html |access-date=2024-01-15 |website=Tamil Hindustan Times |language=ta}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=மலர் |first=மாலை |date=2016-06-01 |title=டைரக்டராக ஆர்.சுந்தர்ராஜன் அறிமுகம் |url=https://www.maalaimalar.com/cinema/cinehistory/2016/06/01215148/1015950/cinima-history-rsundararajan.vpf |access-date=2024-01-15 |website=www.maalaimalar.com |language=ta}}</ref> He furthered his collaboration with Mohan through films including ''[[Thoongatha Kannindru Ondru]]'' (1983), ''[[Saranalayam]]'' (1983), ''[[Naan Paadum Paadal]]'' (1984), ''[[Kunguma Chimil]]'' (1985) and ''[[Mella Thirandhathu Kadhavu]]'' (1986). Apart from ''Thoongatha Kannindru Ondru'', the other films were well received at the box office and became commercially successful.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cinemapettai.com/r-sundarrajans-five-successful-films-with-mohan/ | title=மைக் மோகனை வைத்து ஆர் சுந்தர்ராஜன் ஹிட் அடித்த 5 படங்கள்.. வெள்ளி விழா கண்ட பயணங்கள் முடிவதில்லை | date=March 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-09-13 |title=Tamil Film Mella Thirandhathu Kadhavu Completes 37 Years Of Its Release |url=https://www.news18.com/movies/tamil-film-mella-thirandhathu-kadhavu-completes-37-years-of-its-release-8576152.html |access-date=2024-01-15 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref>

[[Balu Anand]] served as Sundarrajan's assistant director for 35 years and there is a backstory of how Balu Anand became an assistant director of Sundarrajan. During the 1970s, Balu Anand who hailed from [[Coimbatore]] sought assistance by walking into R. Sundarrajan's office with the intention to secure a job for his livelihood. Sundarrajan initially hesitated to include Balu Anand with him as an assistant, but Balu Anand's determination literally impressed Sundarrajan. Balu Anand told Sundarrajan "Give me five rupees and I can eat for a day, give me a job in films and I can feed myself for a lifetime".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shenoy |first=Sonali |date=2016-06-04 |title=Hunger for good cinema was Balu's script for success |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2016/Jun/04/hunger-for-good-cinema-was-balus-script-for-success-936342.html |access-date=2024-01-15 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

He made his maiden collaboration with [[Vijayakanth]] through ''[[Vaidehi Kathirunthal]]'' (1984), which eventually became a turning point in Vijayakanth's acting career.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ramanujam |first=Srinivasa |date=2018-05-31 |title=The Ilayaraaja interview: the maestro narrates how his songs inspired the story of Vaidehi Kaathirunthaal |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/tamil-film-composer-ilayaraaja-interview-on-his-75th-birthday/article59851815.ece |access-date=2024-01-15 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> R. Sundarrajan convinced Vijayakanth to act in romantic film in a soft role and Vijayakanth agreed to play a "soft role" at a time when he starred in many action films and was branded an action hero.<ref>{{Cite web |last=கண்ணன் |first=சுரேஷ் |date=2023-05-04 |title=வைதேகி காத்திருந்தாள்: ஆக்ஷன் ஹீரோ விஜயகாந்த் 'வெள்ளைச்சாமி'யான கதை - ஒரு நாஸ்டால்ஜியா பார்வை! |url=https://cinema.vikatan.com/kollywood/vaidehi-kathirunthal-revisiting-this-emotional-movie-where-vijayakanth-scored-as-an-actor |access-date=2024-01-15 |website=Vikatan |language=ta}}</ref> It was through R. Sundarrajan, Vijayakanth changed his mind to commit to such a film genre, although it was not Vijayakanth's comfort zone. R. Sundarrajan then collaborated with his long-time assistant director Balu Anand to write screenplay for Balu Anand's debut directorial venture ''[[Naane Raja Naane Mandhiri]]'' (1985), which starred Vijayakanth in the main lead role.<ref>{{Citation |title=Exclusive Interview with Film Director And Actor Balu Ananth | date=19 September 2015 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=23PwpJv5fUM |access-date=2024-01-15 |language=en}}</ref>

He also join hands with Vijayakanth for his directorial venture ''[[Amman Kovil Kizhakale]]'' (1986) and the film also became a box office success. Vijayakanth also won the [[Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Tamil]] for his performances in ''Amman Kovil kizhakale'' and R. Sundarrajan once again brought out the soft lighter version of Vijayakanth through the film.<ref name=":1" />

His handshake scene with [[Vadivelu]] in the film ''[[Kaalam Maari Pochu (1996 film)|Kaalam Maari Pochu]]'' (1996), where Vadivelu was reportedly saying "kaiya kudu sagala" became a viral [[internet meme]] template and has been frequently used in social media platforms by users.<ref>{{Cite web |title=HBDVadivelu: Netizens soar social media with his memes |url=http://www.indiaherald.com/Movies/Read/994411316/HBDVadivelu-Netizens-soar-social-media-with-his-memes |access-date=2024-01-15 |website=indiaherald.com |language=en}}</ref> He is also known for his humorous dialogue deliveries in films. One of his notable hilarious comedy scenes came in ''[[Seethanam (1995 film)|Seethanam]]'' (1995), where he gives an empty paper to a trespasser and asks him to throw it as it is empty by saying there is nothing written on it.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Citation |title=Sundarrajan Comedy | date=7 September 2018 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L9mUpg7-8vw |access-date=2024-01-15 |language=en}}</ref>

He was also one of the 14 directors who helped to direct the film ''[[Suyamvaram]]'' (1999), which was shot and filmed within 24 hours. ''Suyamvaram'' set the [[Guinness World Records|Guinness World Record]] for casting the most stars in a film and also for being the quickest ever feature-length film made in the world. R. Sundarrajan has shared screenspace with prominent actors including [[Rajinikanth]], [[Kamal Haasan]], [[Vijayakanth]], [[Sathyaraj]], [[Ajith Kumar]], [[Vijay (actor)|Vijay]] and [[Suriya]].

Sundarrajan's last movie as director came in 2013 with ''[[Chithirayil Nilachoru]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 February 2020 |title=Shocking rumour about R. Sundarrajan clarified |url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/director-r-sundarjan-rumour-clarified--tamil-news-254498 |website=IndiaGlitz |access-date=23 May 2021 |archive-date=23 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210523194511/https://www.indiaglitz.com/director-r-sundarjan-rumour-clarified--tamil-news-254498 |url-status=live }}</ref> He also regularly attends meetings of T. Nagar Humour Club which was launched in 2008.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Swaminathan |first=T. S. Atul |date=2017-07-21 |title=The roots go deeper |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/the-roots-go-deeper/article19325097.ece |access-date=2024-01-15 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Sundarrajan is married to his wife Rajeshwari in 1974. He has three sons: Ashok, Karthik and Deepak. Karthik died in 2004 in a road accident.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 March 2004 |title=Film director's son killed in accident |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-tamilnadu/film-directors-son-killed-in-accident/article27572997.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230512042323/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-tamilnadu/film-directors-son-killed-in-accident/article27572997.ece |archive-date=12 May 2023 |access-date=1 October 2019 |website=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=6 March 2004 |title=Director's son dies in a road accident |url=http://www.cinesouth.com/masala/hotnews/new/06032004-1.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040308065423/http://www.cinesouth.com/masala/hotnews/new/06032004-1.shtml |archive-date=8 March 2004 |access-date=5 September 2023 |website=Cinesouth}}</ref> Deepak made his directorial debut in 2021 with ''[[Annabelle Sethupathi]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 September 2021 |title=Entertainment for everyone: 'Annabelle Sethupathi' director Deepak Sundarrajan's vision for future films |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2021/sep/23/entertainment-for-everyone-annabelle-sethupathi-director-deepak-sundarrajans-vision-for-future-films-2362412.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211006191524/https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2021/sep/23/entertainment-for-everyone-annabelle-sethupathi-director-deepak-sundarrajans-vision-for-future-films-2362412.html |archive-date=6 October 2021 |access-date=12 May 2023 |website=[[The New Indian Express]]}}</ref> Ashok acted in his father's directorial ''Chithirayil Nilachoru''.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Chithirayil Nilachoru Movie Review |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movie-reviews/chithirayil-nilachoru/movie-review/24467135.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190406082514/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movie-reviews/Chithirayil-Nilachoru/movie-review/24467135.cms |archive-date=6 April 2019 |access-date=1 October 2019 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref>

==Filmography==
===As director===

{| class="wikitable sortable "
|-
! scope="col"|Year
! scope="col"|Film
! scope="col"|Notes
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1982 || ''[[Payanangal Mudivathillai]]'' ||
|-
| ''[[Antha Rathirikku Satchi Illai]]'' ||
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1983 || ''[[Saranalayam]]'' ||
|-
| ''[[Thoongatha Kannindru Ondru]]'' ||
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1984 || ''[[Naan Paadum Paadal]]'' ||
|-
| ''[[Vaidehi Kathirunthal]]'' ||
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1985 || ''[[Sugamana Raagangal]]'' ||
|-
| ''[[Kunguma Chimil]]'' ||
|-
| rowspan="3" | 1986 || ''[[Amman Kovil Kizhakale]]'' ||
|-
| ''[[Mella Thirandhathu Kadhavu]]'' ||
|-
| ''[[Thazhuvatha Kaigal]]'' ||
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1988 || ''[[Kaalaiyum Neeye Maalaiyum Neeye]]'' ||
|-
| ''[[En Jeevan Paduthu]]'' ||
|-
| 1989 || ''[[Rajadhi Raja (1989 film)|Rajadhi Raja]]'' ||
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1990 || ''[[Thalattu Padava]]'' ||
|-
| ''[[Engitta Mothathay]]'' ||
|-
| 1991 || ''[[Sami Potta Mudichu]]'' ||
|-
| 1991 || ''[[Oyilattam (film)|Oyilattam]]'' ||
|-
| 1992 || ''[[Thirumathi Palanisamy]]'' ||
|-
| 1994 || ''[[En Aasai Machan]]'' ||
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1995 || ''[[Gandhi Pirantha Mann]]'' ||
|-
| ''[[Seethanam]]'' ||
|-
| 1997 || ''[[Kaalamellam Kaathiruppen]]'' ||
|-
| 1999 || ''[[Suyamvaram]]'' ||
|-
| 2013 || ''[[Chithirayil Nilachoru]]'' ||
|}

===As actor===
====Films====
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Year !! style="width:200px;"|Film !! Role !! class="unsortable" |Notes
|-
| 1981 || ''Oruthi Mattum Karaiyinile'' || ||
|-
| rowspan="2"| 1991 || ''[[Sami Potta Mudichu]]'' || || Also Director
|-
| ''[[Oyilattam (film)|Oyilattam]]'' ||Aarumuga Udayar || Also Director
|-
| rowspan="5"| 1992 || ''[[Therku Theru Machan]]'' || Paramasivan ||
|-
| ''[[Bharathan (1992 film)|Bharathan]]'' || Gangadharan's man ||
|-
|''[[Pattathu Raani]]'' || Guest appearance ||
|-
| ''[[Pondatti Rajyam]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Thirumathi Palanisamy]]'' || Kunju Gounder || Also Director
|-
| rowspan="11"| 1993 || ''[[Suriyan Chandiran]]'' || ||
|-
| ''Madhumathi'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Rajadhi Raja Raja Kulothunga Raja Marthanda Raja Gambeera Kathavaraya Krishna Kamarajan]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Kattalai (film)|Kattalai]]'' || Natarajan ||
|-
| ''[[Naan Pesa Ninaipathellam]]'' || Sandhya's father ||
|-
| ''[[Sakkarai Devan]]'' || Appu ||
|-
| ''[[Udan Pirappu]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Poranthalum Ambalaiya Porakka Koodathu]]'' || Veerapaandi ||
|-
| ''[[Rajadurai (film)|Rajadurai]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Enga Muthalali]]'' || Narayana Reddy ||
|-
| ''[[Purusha Lakshanam]]'' || Rajgopal ||
|-
| rowspan="9"| 1994 || ''[[Amaidhi Padai]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Subramaniya Swamy]]'' || Rathnasamy ||
|-
| ''[[Rasa Magan]]'' || Appachi ||
|-
| ''[[Namma Annachi]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[En Aasai Machan]]'' || || Also Director
|-
| ''[[May Madham]]'' || All in All ||
|-
| ''[[Sathyavan]]'' || Anjaneya ||
|-
| ''[[Karuththamma]]'' || Soosai || Uncredited role
|-
| ''[[Veera Padhakkam]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan="13"| 1995 || ''[[Engirundho Vandhan]]'' || Sundaram ||
|-
| ''[[Karuppu Nila]]'' || Sundaram ||
|-
| ''[[Ellame En Rasathan]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Thirumoorthy]]'' || Geetha's brother ||
|-
| ''[[Chellakannu]]'' || Nagarajan ||
|-
| ''Anbu Magan'' || ||
|-
|''[[Marumagan]]'' || Muniyandi ||
|-
| ''[[Gandhi Pirantha Mann]]'' || || Also Director
|-
| ''[[Raasaiyya]]'' || Kili's cousin ||
|-
| ''[[Mr. Madras]]'' || Aruna's son ||
|-
| ''[[Thaikulame Thaikulame]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Makkal Aatchi]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Seethanam]]'' || Govindan || Also Director
|-
| rowspan="4"| 1996 || ''[[Amman Kovil Vaasalile]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Kaalam Maari Pochu (1996 film)|Kaalam Maari Pochu]]'' || Murugesan ||
|-
| ''Veetukkulle Thiruvizha'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Enakkoru Magan Pirappan]]'' || Ranganayaki's husband ||
|-
| rowspan="9"| 1997 || ''[[Dharma Chakkaram]]'' || Kannukku Pillai ||
|-
| ''[[Kaalamellam Kaathiruppen]]'' || Govinda || Also Director
|-
| ''[[Gopura Deepam]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Kaalamellam Kadhal Vaazhga]]'' || Principal Venkatraman ||
|-
| ''[[Mannava (film)|Mannava]]'' || Eashwar's father ||
|-
| ''[[Suryavamsam (1997 film)|Suryavamsam]]'' || Sadhasivam ||
|-
| ''[[Periya Idathu Mappillai]]'' || Gopalakrishnan's father ||
|-
| ''[[Kalyana Vaibhogam]]'' || Ganesan ||
|-
| ''[[Janakiraman]]'' ||Janakiraman's uncle ||
|-
| rowspan="12"| 1998 || ''[[Maru Malarchi|Marumalarchi]]'' ||Rasu Padayachi's uncle||
|-
| ''[[Kondattam]]'' || Bhaskaran ||
|-
| ''[[Ini Ellam Sugame]]'' || Mani ||
|-
| ''[[Santhosham (1998 film)|Santhosham]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Veera Thalattu]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Ninaithen Vandhai]]'' || Savithri's uncle ||
|-
| ''[[Ponnu Velayira Bhoomi]]'' || Arumugam ||
|-
| ''[[Natpukkaga]]'' || Kannukku Pillai ||
|-
| ''[[Kalyana Galatta]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[En Aasai Rasave]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Senthooram]]'' || Sadayappan ||
|-
| ''[[Ponmaanai Thedi]]'' || Chinna Paiyan ||
|-
| rowspan="8"| 1999 || ''[[Mannavaru Chinnavaru]]'' || Minor Rajamani ||
|-
| ''[[Chinna Durai (1999 film)|Chinna Durai]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Annan (film)|Annan]]'' || Sundari’s father ||
|-
| ''[[Periyanna]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Simmarasi]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Minsara Kanna]]'' || Inspector Shiva Kumar ||
|-
| ''[[Thirupathi Ezhumalai Venkatesa]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Paattali]]'' || Kaalaiyan ||
|-
| rowspan="3"| 2000 || ''[[Vallarasu]]'' || Raheem's brother ||
|-
| ''[[Simmasanam]]'' || Kannamma's father ||
|-
| ''[[Unnai Kann Theduthey]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan="4"| 2001 || ''[[En Purushan Kuzhandhai Maadhiri]]'' || Maheswari's father||
|-
| ''[[Sigamani Ramamani]]'' || Neelakandan, Sigamani's father ||
|-
| ''[[Viswanathan Ramamoorthy (film)|Viswanathan Ramamoorthy]]'' || Ramamoorthy's father ||
|-
| ''[[Kabadi Kabadi (2001 film)|Kabadi Kabadi]]'' || Arumugam ||
|-
| rowspan="3"| 2002 || ''[[Unnai Ninaithu]]'' || Chittoor Chinnamani ||
|-
| ''[[Namma Veetu Kalyanam]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Game (2002 film)|Game]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan="4"| 2003 || ''[[Anbu Thollai]]''|| Devarajan||
|-
|''[[Priyamaana Thozhi ]]'' ||Ashok's father ||
|-
| ''Vani Mahal'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Enakku 20 Unakku 18]]'' || Train Passenger (Guest Appearance) ||
|-
| rowspan="2"| 2005 || ''[[Kaatrullavarai]]'' || Kannukku Pillai ||
|-
| ''[[Chidambarathil Oru Appasamy]]'' || Elangovan's father-in-law ||
|-
| 2006 || ''[[Thirupathi (2006 Tamil film)|Thirupathi]]'' || Thirupathi's father ||
|-
| 2007 || ''[[Ennai Paar Yogam Varum]]'' || Anandaraman ||
|-
| rowspan="4"| 2008 || ''[[Thodakkam]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Kuselan]]'' || Srinivasan ||
|-
| ''[[Kathanayakudu (2008 film)|Kathanayakudu]]'' || || Telugu film
|-
| ''[[Dasavathaaram]]'' || Member of Legislative Assembly ||
|-
| 2009 || ''[[Oru Kadhalan Oru Kadhali]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan="3"| 2010 || ''[[Ambasamudram Ambani]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Kaadhal Solla Vandhen]]'' || Nanu Prabhu's father ||
|-
| ''[[Aattanayagann]]'' || Lingam ||
|-
| 2011 || ''En Ullam Unnai Theduthey'' || ||
|-
| 2012 || ''[[Kandathum Kanathathum]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan="2"| 2013 || ''[[Chandhamama]]'' ||Chief Editor ||
|-
| ''[[Chithirayil Nilachoru]]'' || Sundaram || Also Director
|-
| rowspan="2"| 2014 || ''[[Poojai]]'' || Temple Trustee||
|-
| ''[[Lingaa]]'' || Sambandham ||
|-
| rowspan="2"| 2015 || ''[[Naanum Rowdydhaan]]'' || Ghilli's advisor ||
|-
| ''[[Oru Naal Iravil]]'' || Film director ||
|-
| 2017 || ''Saaya'' || ||
|-
| rowspan="3"| 2018 || ''Kilambitaangayaa Kilambitaangayaa'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Tamizh Padam 2]]'' || Bharath ||
|-
| ''[[Pattinapakkam]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan="2"| 2019 || ''[[Pettikadai]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Perazhagi ISO]]'' || ||
|-
| 2020 || ''Ooratchi Ondriyam'' || ||
|-
| rowspan="5"| 2021 || ''[[Calls (film)|Calls]]'' || Security Alagar ||
|-
| ''Boom Boom Kaalai'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Michaelpatty Raja]]'' || Raja's father ||
|-
| ''[[Namma Oorukku Ennadhan Achu]]'' || ||
|-
| ''Chinna Pannai Periya Pannai'' || ||
|-
| 2022 || ''Paruva Kadhal'' || ||
|-
| rowspan="3"| 2023 || ''[[Unnaal Ennaal]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[80s Buildup]]'' || Kathir’s grandfather ||
|-
| ''Moothakudi'' || ||
|-
| rowspan="2"| 2024 || ''Vaa Pagandaya'' || ||
|-
| ''Vidinja Enakku Kalyanam'' || ||
|-
| ''Vadakkupatti Ramasamy'' || ||
|-
| rowspan="4"| 2025 || ''[[Madha Gaja Raja]]'' || Inspector Srinivasan ||
|-
| ''[[Kudumbasthan]]'' || Palanichamy ||
|-
| ''Yaman Kattalai'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Others (film)|Others]]'' || Kasinathan ||
|-
|}

====Television====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Title
! Role
! Channel
|-
|2018–2019||''[[Kalyanamam Kalyanam (TV series)|Kalyanamam Kalyanam]]''||Kamali's grandfather||[[Star Vijay]]
|-
|2018–2020||''[[Kalyana Veedu]]''||Kathiresan||[[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]]
|-
|2023–Present||''[[Siragadikka Aasai (TV series)|Siragadikka Aasai]]''|| Annamalai ||[[Star Vijay]]
|}

===As writer only===
{| class="wikitable sortable "
|-
! scope="col"|Year
! scope="col"|Film
! scope="col"|Notes
|-
|1985 ||''[[Naane Raja Naane Mandhiri]]'' ||
|-
|1986 ||''Poove Ilam Poove'' ||
|-
|1987 ||''[[Idhu Oru Thodar Kathai]]'' ||
|-
|}

===As lyricist===
{| class="wikitable sortable "
|-
! scope="col"|Year
! scope="col"|Film
! scope="col"|Songs
! scope="col"|Notes
|-
|1995||''Gandhi Pirandhha Mann'' ||"Aalamarathula", "Gandhi Endru", "Ottagathil Nee", "Thalaiva Naan" ||
|-
|1995 ||''Seethanam'' ||all songs ||
|-
|1997 ||''Kaalamellam Kaathiruppen'' || all songs ||
|-
|}

===As singer===
{| class="wikitable sortable "
|-
! scope="col"|Year
! scope="col"|Film
! scope="col"|Songs
! scope="col"|Composer
! scope="col"|Notes
|-
|1998||''[[Senthooram]]''||"Adi Unna Kaanama"||Ilayaraja||
|-
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb name|1182564}}

{{R. Sundarrajan}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sundarrajan, R.}}
[[Category:1955 births]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:Indian film directors]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Male actors in Tamil cinema]]
[[Category:Tamil comedians]]
[[Category:Tamil film directors]]
[[Category:Tamil-language film directors]]

Raj TV

2026-03-24T06:08:49Z

IZinePro:

{{short description|Indian television channel}}
{{one source|date=May 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}
{{Infobox television channel
| name = Raj TV<br>ராஜ் TV
| logo = [[File:Raj TV Tamil.png|250px]]
| logo_alt = Logo of Raj TV HD Channel
| launch_date = {{Start date and age|df=y|1994|10|14}}
| country = India
| picture_format = 1080i ([[HDTV]])
| language = [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
| headquarters = [[Chennai]], Tamil Nadu, India
| area = {{Collapsible list
| list_style = text-align:left;
|1 =India, [[Sri Lanka]], [[Singapore]], [[Vietnam]], [[Canada]], [[Hong Kong]], [[Europe]], [[Mauritius]], [[South Africa]], [[Thailand]].
}}
| sister_channels = {{Collapsible list
| list_style = text-align:left;
|1 = [[Raj TV US]]<br />[[Raj Musix]]<br />[[Raj Digital Plus]]<br />Raj News 24X7<br />Vissa<br />[[Raj digital Plus]]<br />Raj News<br />[[Raj Musix Telugu]]<br />[[Raj News Kannada]]<br />[[Raj Music Karnataka]]<br />[[Raj Musix Malayalam]]<br />[[Tamil Entertainment Television|TET]]
}}
| website = [http://www.rajtv.tv RajTV.tv] [https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=rajnexas.app Raj Nexas]
| online_chan_1 = NexG TV, Yupp TV
}}

'''Raj TV''' is a [[Tamil language]] Indian general entertainment channel based in [[Chennai]], India, which was launched on 14 October 1994. Rajtv became as the second most popular channel in Tamil.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/raj-television-network-ltd/infocompanyhistory/companyid-15767.cms|title=The Economic Times|work=indiatimes.com}}</ref>

It is available through digital and mobile entertainment platform, [[Raj Digital TV App]]. {{citation needed|date=February 2022}}

The channel features a variety of [[soap operas]], game shows, newscasts, films and shows of general entertainment. It airs serials such as ''[[Ganga Yamunaa (TV series)|Ganga Yamunaa]]'', ''[[Mann Vasanai (TV Series)|Mann Vasanai]]'', ''[[Poovizhi Vasalile (TV series)|Poovizhi Vasalile]]'', ''[[Kanchana (2015 TV series)|Kanchana]]'' and ''[[Indira (TV series)|Indira-Puthumai Penn]]''. It airs ''[[Rajageetham]]'' (a reality show), ''[[Koppiyam]]'' (an anthology series), and ''Agada Vigadam'' (a debate show).

==Soaps ranking==

{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Rank
!Show
!Status

|-
| 1 || ''[[Mann Vasanai (TV series)|Mann Vasanai]]'' ||{{won|On-air}}
|-
| 2 || ''[[Poovizhi Vasalile (TV series)|Poovizvhi Vasalile]]'' ||{{won|On-air}}
|-
|}

==Programming==
{{Main|List of programs broadcast by Raj TV}}

==Films produced==
*''[[Chinna Chinna Kannile]]'' (2000)
*''[[Athey Manithan]]'' (2000)
*''[[Sigamani Ramamani]]'' (2001)
*''[[Kadhalna Summa Illai]]'' (2009)
*''[[Mariyadhai]]'' (2009)
*''[[Magane En Marumagane]]'' (2010)

==International==

Raj TV started broadcasting in the US as [[Raj TV US]]. Raj TV US is an American [[Category B services|Category B]] [[specialty channel]]. It broadcasts programs from Raj TV as well as local American content.{{Citation needed|date=July 2021}}

Raj TV US was licensed by the [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] on 1 January 2014 as Tamil People's TV. It officially launched on 1 January 2014 as Raj TV US, via [[Cable One]], [[DISH Network]], [[Cablevision]]. Raj TV US was scheduled to be broadcast on the [[Comcast]] cable network.{{Citation needed|date=July 2021}}

==Partnership==

Raj TV has joined a mutual partnership with [[Colors TV]] to dub its [[soap opera|soap operas]] in [[Tamil language|Tamil]]. The agreement was signed in June 2015 at [[Chennai]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2021}} Under the partnership serials of Colors such as ''[[Balika Vadhu]]'', [[Udaan (2014 TV series)|''Udaan'']], ''[[Shastri Sisters]]'', ''[[Thapki Pyaar Ki]]'' and ''[[Swaragini]]'' were dubbed in Tamil as [[Mann Vasanai (TV series)|Mann ''Vasanai'']], [[Poovizhi Vasalile (TV series)|''Poovizhi Vasalile'']],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tvnews4u.com/raj-tv-to-launch-new-fiction-show-poovizhi-vaasalile-on-13th-july/|title=Raj TV to launch new fiction show Poovizhi Vaasalile on 13th July|date=7 July 2015|work=tvnews4u.com}}</ref> ''[[Kanchana (2015 TV series)|Kanchana]]'', [[Indira (TV series)|''Indira'']]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tvnews4u.com/raj-tv-set-to-launch-new-fiction-show-indira-on-15th-february/|title=Raj TV set to launch new fiction show Indira on 15th February|date=1 February 2016|work=tvnews4u.com|access-date=2 July 2016|archive-date=9 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170209175343/http://tvnews4u.com/raj-tv-set-to-launch-new-fiction-show-indira-on-15th-february/|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Ganga Yamunaa (TV series)|''Ganga Yamunaa'']]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tvnews4u.com/raj-tv-set-replace-sindhu-bhairavi-ganga-yamunaa-6th-june/|title=Raj TV set to replace Sindhu Bhairavi with Ganga Yamunaa from 6th June|date=3 June 2016|work=tvnews4u.com}}</ref> excluding the previously dubbed Colors serials like [[Alaipayuthey (TV Series)|''Alaipayuthey'']], ''[[Azhagiya Laila]]'', [[Sindhu Bhairavi (TV series)|''Sindhu Bhairavi'']], [[Karuthamma (TV series)|''Karuthamma'']], [[Gouravam (TV series)|''Gouravam'']], [[Jai Shri Krishna (TV series)|''Jai Shri Krishna'']].

==See also==
* [[List of television stations in India]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.rajtv.tv Raj TV official site]

{{Tamil-language media}}
{{Television news in India}}
{{Raj TV shows}}
{{Network 18}}

[[Category:Television channels and stations established in 1994]]
[[Category:1994 establishments in Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Tamil-language television channels]]
[[Category:Television stations in Chennai]]

D/o Prasad Rao: Kanabadutaledu

2026-03-24T03:28:51Z

IZinePro: Created A Biography!

{{AI-generated|date=March 2026}}{{Infobox television
| image = Do Prasad Rao Kanabadutaledu.jpg
| genre = Suspense thriller
| writer = Poluru Krishna
| screenplay = Poluru Krishna
| director = Poluru Krishna
| starring = Rajeev Kanakala<br>Udaya Bhanu<br>Vasanthika
| music = Sriram Maddury
| country = India
| language = Telugu
| producer = K.V.SRIRAM
| cinematography = K. Mahesh Kumar
| editor = G. V. Chandrashekar
| company = South Indian Screens
| network = [[ZEE5]]
| released = 
}}

'''D/o Prasad Rao: Kanabadutaledu''' is a 2025 Indian [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language suspense thriller streaming television series. Directed by Poluru Krishna and produced by South Indian Screens, the series stars [[Rajeev Kanakala]] as Prasad Rao, [[Udaya Bhanu (actress)|Udaya Bhanu]] in a key role, and Vasanthika as Swathi.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-10-08 |title=D/o Prasad Rao: Kanabadutaledu OTT release announced: When and where to watch Rajeev Kanakala, Udaya Bhanu's Telugu thriller series |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/d/o-prasad-rao-kanabadutaledu-ott-release-announced-when-and-where-to-watch-rajeev-kanakala-udaya-bhanus-telugu-thriller-series/articleshow/124374572.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2025-10-20 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-10-07 |title=Telugu web series D/o Prasad Rao: Kanabadutaledu to premiere on OTT in October |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/zee5-telugu-series-do-prasad-rao-kanabadutaledu-premiere-family-suspense-2799238-2025-10-07 |access-date=2025-10-20 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=D/o Prasad Rao: Kanabadutaledu OTT release date: When, where to stream Udaya Bhanu's new series |url=https://www.ottplay.com/news/d-o-prasad-rao-kanabadutaledu-ott-release-date-when-where-to-stream-udaya-bhanus-new-series/34edd833be175 |access-date=2025-10-20 |website=OTTPlay |language=en}}</ref>

== Story ==
The series follows Prasad Rao, a father driven to uncover the truth behind his daughter Swathi's sudden disappearance. His search leads him into a maze of buried secrets and personal betrayals that shake the foundations of family and friendship.

== Cast ==

* [[Rajeev Kanakala]] as Prasad Rao
* [[Udaya Bhanu (actress)|Udaya Bhanu]] as Rebecca Joseph
* Vasanthika Macha as Swathi
* Gayathri Bhargavi as Bhavani
* Sujatha
* Hima Bindhu

== Marketing ==
The trailer for the series was released on 27 February 2026.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-10-10 |title=When are where to watch Rajeev Kanakala and Udaya Bhanu's ‘D/o Prasad Rao: Kanabadutaledu |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/web-series/when-are-where-to-watch-rajeev-kanakala-and-udaya-bhanus-d/o-prasad-rao-kanabadutaledu/articleshow/124448303.cms |access-date=2025-10-20 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-10-07 |title=D/o Prasad Rao: Kanabadutaledu gets premiere date |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/telugu/news/2025/Oct/07/do-prasad-rao-kanabadutaledu-gets-premiere-date |access-date=2025-10-20 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref>

== Reception ==
Writing for ''[[The Hindu]]'', Srivathsan Nadadhur gave a critical review, stating that "''D/O Prasad Rao Kanabadutaledu'' is a needless addition to the worryingly growing list of vigilante sagas with reductive tropes. It appears slick because it does not want to let viewers think; it does not have much to say either".<ref name="TheHindu">{{cite news |last1=Dundoo |first1=Sangeetha Devi |date=27 February 2026 |title='D/O Prasad Rao Kanabadutaledu' series review: This vigilante thriller confuses pace with nuance |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/do-prasad-rao-kanabadutaledu-series-review-the-telugu-web-series-streams-on-zee5/article70679402.ece |access-date=March 6, 2026 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref>

''[[OTTPlay]]'' also awarded the show a 2.5/5 rating, describing it as a "sensible message wrapped in familiar drama" where the core suspense occasionally went missing when most needed.<ref name="OTTPlay">{{cite web |date=27 February 2026 |title=D/O Prasad Rao Kanabadutaledhu Review: A sensible message wrapped in familiar drama |url=https://www.ottplay.com/review/d-o-prasad-rao-kanabadutaledhu-review-a-sensible-message-wrapped-in-familiar-drama/6d2bf2a9a0118 |access-date=March 6, 2026 |website=OTTPlay}}</ref> On the other hand, ''[[NTV (India)|NTV Telugu]]'' gave a more positive rating of 2.75/5, highlighting Rajeev Kanakala as the "main strength" of the series and noting that despite some logical misses, the director managed to keep the audience engaged through its six-episode run.<ref name="NTV">{{cite web |date=27 February 2026 |title=D/O Prasad Rao Kanabadutaledu Review |url=https://ntvtelugu.com/reviews/d-o-prasad-rao-kanabadutaledu-zee5-web-series-review-940651.html |access-date=March 6, 2026 |website=NTV Telugu |language=te}}</ref>

''[[The Hans India]]'' characterized the series as a "family-friendly drama" with a meaningful message about parental responsibility, praising Udaya Bhanu’s subtle yet impactful portrayal of a police officer.<ref name="HansIndia">{{cite news |date=1 March 2026 |title='D/O Prasad Rao Kanabadutaledhu' review: Father-daughter drama with a strong message |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/cinema/do-prasad-rao-kanabadutaledhu-review-father-daughter-drama-with-a-strong-message-1052709 |access-date=March 6, 2026 |work=[[The Hans India]]}}</ref> ''Sakshi Post'' wrote "Focus leans more toward emotional drama than investigative detailing".<ref name="Sakshi">{{cite web |date=27 February 2026 |title=D/O Prasad Rao Kanabadutaledu Review |url=https://www.sakshipost.com/news/entertainment/do-prasad-rao-kanabadutaledu-review-477684 |access-date=March 6, 2026 |website=Sakshi Post}}</ref>

== References ==
<references />

== External links ==

* {{IMDb title|id=38628863}}

[[Category:Telugu-language web series]]
[[Category:Indian thriller television series]]
[[Category:ZEE5 original programming]]
[[Category:2025 Indian television series debuts]]
[[Category:Indian drama television series]]
[[Category:Indian web series]]

Green Girl

2026-03-20T23:46:53Z

IZinePro: Created Article!

{{short description|Indian Kannada-language short romantic drama film}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2026}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Green Girl
| image = Green Girl.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| native_name = 
| director = Sarthak Hegde
| writer = Sarthak Hegde<br /> Triko<br /> Manish Kumar
| screenplay =
| story =
| based_on = 
| producer = Sarthak Hegde
| starring = Mayur Gowda<br/>Sucharitha Haritas<br/> Sudarshan Acharya Yekkar
| narrator =
| cinematography = Abhinay Pandit
| editing = Bhuvanesh Manivannan
| music = Surya Srini
| studio = Sarthak Hegde Film
| distributor = [[KRG Studios]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/kannada/2025/Aug/16/kannadanews2025aug15krg-studios-to-present-green-girl-a-50-minute-featurette|title=KRG Studios to present Green Girl, a 50-minute featurette|date=16 August 2025|website=The New Indian Express}}</ref>
| released = {{Film date|2025|9|12|df=yes}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Kannada
| budget =
| gross =
}}

'''''Green Girl''''' is a 2025 Indian [[Kannada]]-language short [[romantic drama film]] directed by Sarthak Hegde and starring Mayur Gowda, Sucharitha Haritas, and Sudarshan Acharya Yekkar.

==Plot==
Set in [[Mangaluru]], the film follows the interfaith romance between Jeevan and Ameena.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/entertainment/film-about-interfaith-love-and-revolution-set-in-mangaluru-3479003|title=Film about interfaith love and revolution set in Mangaluru|newspaper=Deccan Herald|date=4 April 2025|accessdate=20 March 2026}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/green-girl-sarthak-hegde-interview-kannada-movie-coastal-karnataka-hindu-muslim-love-story/article70037278.ece|title=‘Green Girl’ is a glorious canvas for people in love: Sarthak Hegde on his interfaith Kannada romance|first=Vivek|last=M.V|date=11 September 2025|via=www.thehindu.com}}</ref>

==Cast==
*Mayur Gowda as Jeevan Acharya
*Sucharitha Haritas as Ameena, the titular character who wears a green hijab
* Sudarshan Acharya Yekkar as Prem Anna

== Reception ==
Kavya Christopher of ''[[The Times of India]]'' rated the film 2/5 stars and wrote, "''Green Girl'' has moments of tenderness and authenticity, but it ultimately fails to rise above its clichés or deliver the emotional resonance its subject demands".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/a-tender-love-story-caught-in-communal-conflict-but-one-that-struggles-to-move-you/movie-review/123864544.cms|title=Green Girl Movie Review: a tender love story caught in communal conflict, but one that struggles to move you|newspaper=The Times of India|first=Kavya|last=Christopher|date=13 September 2025|accessdate=20 March 2026}}</ref> Sruthi Ganapathy Raman of ''[[The Hollywood Reporter]] India'' wrote, " While the film could’ve done with a lot more nuance with the addition of just a few more minutes, ''Green Girl'' is still a film that shakes you up".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hollywoodreporterindia.com/reviews/theatrical/green-girl-movie-review-an-exquisite-take-on-love-and-hate-in-todays-india|title=‘Green Girl’ Movie Review: An Exquisite Take On Love And Hate In Today’s India|website=The Hollywood Reporter India}}</ref> Shivani Kava of ''[[The News Minute]]'' wrote, "Sometimes, it feels like a radical film made by accident, and some other times, like a liberal love story with a sharp bite".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/flix/green-girl-review-a-tender-yet-uneven-love-story-in-the-shadow-of-communal-tensions|title=Green Girl review: A tender yet uneven love story in the shadow of communal tensions|first=Shivani|last=Kava|date=12 September 2025|website=The News Minute}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb title|33808546}}

[[Category:2025 Kannada-language films]]
[[Category:Indian short films]]
[[Category:Indian interfaith romance films]]

Balawaristan

2026-03-20T17:57:38Z

IZinePro: added references

{{Short description|Historic region of Pakistan}}

'''Balawaristan''' ({{langx|ur|{{nq|بلاورستان}}}}, {{lit|Land of heights}}), is a term coined by [[Nawaz Khan Naji]], founder of the Pakistani political party [[Balawaristan National Front (Naji)|Balawaristan National Front]] (BNF), for a proposed autonomous province or a sovereign state consisting of [[Gilgit-Baltistan]], [[Chitral District|Chitral]] and [[Kohistan region, Pakistan|Kohistan]] regions in Pakistan as well as Indian-controlled [[Ladakh]]. Although the name, first used in 1989, does not have any historical basis, it sounds similar to '''Baloristan''', which has been documented in [[China|Chinese]] sources to describe [[Baltistan]] and [[Gilgit Valley]] from the 8th century CE.{{sfnp|Dad|2016|pages=10–11}}{{sfnp|Bodla|2014|pages=125–139}}<ref name="qaidiazamuniversity"/>

BNF activists affirm that Balawaristan is not a part of [[Kashmir]] and has a unique identity. They also consider the people of Gilgit Baltistan to be the fourth party in the [[Kashmir dispute]], the other three being Pakistan, India and Kashmir.{{sfnp|Bodla|2014|pages=125–139}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Contested status |author=Yusufzai, Arshad |url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/tns/detail/567226-contested-status|access-date=April 30, 2021|website=The News on Sunday|language=en|date=February 10, 2019}}</ref>

==Etymology==
[[Image:Balawaristan.jpg|thumb|A map of Balawaristan, and its three regions]]
Historically, the Baltistan region was called "Great Bolor" and Dardistan and parts of Brooshal (e.g. Gilgit Valley) were called "Little Bolor.<ref name="qaidiazamuniversity">{{cite journal|author=Jettmar, Karl|title=Bolor: A Contribution to the Political and Ethnic Geography of North Pakistan|date=1977|publisher=[[University of Heidelberg]]|pages=1–37|oclc=236125728|journal=Zentralasiatische Studien|quote=The eastern half, Great Bolor, could afford to send several embassies to the Chinese court during the first half of the 8th century}}</ref>
Great Boloristan is known to have sent ambassadors to the Chinese court in the 8th century.<ref name="qaidiazamuniversity" /> The Mons, an Indo-Aryan group, made the region as a hub of Buddhism.

Chinese historian [[Faxian]] mentioned it as ''Pololo'' or ''Palolo'', Tibetans called it Nang-khod, where Arab historians mentioned it as ''Baloristan''.
The people of this region though belonging to various ethnicities, have historically been referred to as Balors, which means the highlanders or [[mountain people]], a reference to the high-altitudes prevalent in this area. An alternative theory links the name to a mythic ancient king called Bolor Shah, who had first united the region and from whom local rulers in turn often claimed descent.

==Political status movements==
{{Main|Balawaristan National Front}}
In more recent times, the name Balawaristan is found used by Gilgiti political party like [[Balawaristan National Front]] led by Nawaz Khan Naji. The party is seeking to declare [[Gilgit-Baltistan]] as the fifth province of Pakistan.<ref>{{cite web|last=Ali |first=Manzoor |url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/159772/gilgit-baltistan-shocker-nationalist-candidate-wins-ghizer-by-poll/ |title=Gilgit-Baltistan shocker: Nationalist candidate wins Ghizer by-poll |date=29 April 2011 |website=The Express Tribune |access-date=May 31, 2012|quote=Naji said that the federal government should declare Gilgit-Baltistan a province of Pakistan, give its people representation in the National Assembly and Senate, and extend the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court to the region}}</ref> The party has been represented in the [[Gilgit-Baltistan Legislative Assembly]] by a single member, the aforementioned Nawaz Khan Naji, since 2011.<ref name="2009-2">{{cite web|date=29 April 2011|title=Nawaz Khan Naji wins G-B by-elections|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/159111/nawaz-khan-naji-wins-g-b-by-elections|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322172815/http://tribune.com.pk/story/159111/nawaz-khan-naji-wins-g-b-by-elections/|archive-date=22 March 2016|access-date=18 November 2020|website=The Express Tribune|publisher=|quote="Nawaz Khan Naji from the Balawarastan National Front won the Gilgit-Baltistan Legislative Assembly by-elections in the L-A 19 constituency of Ghazar on Friday."}}</ref>

The Balawaristan National Students Organisation, in April 2008, raised a demand for Balawaristan to be constituted into the fifth province of Pakistan.<ref name="bnsodailydawn">{{Cite web| title=Provincial status sought for Gilgit, Baltistan| website=Daily Dawn| date = May 1, 2008| access-date = January 24, 2009| url=http://www.dawn.com/2008/05/01/nat12.htm| quote=Historically, geographically and politically, Gilgit-Baltistan deserves to be a province. The people of the region should have the right to send their representatives to the National Assembly and Senate of Pakistan, of which they have been deprived for the last 60 years, said speakers at a seminar organised by the Balawaristan National Students Organisation here.}}</ref>

== Proposed flags ==
[[File:Flag of Balawaristan.svg|thumb|304x304px]]
[[File:Pk balawaristan.gif|left|thumb|317x317px]]
[[File:Flag of Balawaristan.jpg|center|thumb|332x332px]]

==See also==
* [[Bolor-Tagh]]
* [[Gilgit Agency]]
* [[Gilgit-Baltistan United Movement]]
* [[Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir]]
* [[Karakoram Province]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Bibliography==
* {{Cite book |last=Sökefeld |first=Martin |url= |title=Ladakh: Culture, History, and Development Between Himalaya and Karakoram |date=1999 |publisher=Aarhus University Press |isbn=978-81207-2210-1 |editor-last=van Beek |editor-first=Martijn |location=Aarhus |pages=350–368 |chapter=Balawaristan and Other Imaginations: A Nationalist Discourse in the Northern Areas of Pakistan |editor-last2=Bertelsen |editor-first2=Kristoffer Brix |editor-last3=Pedersen |editor-first3=Poul |chapter-url=https://ladakhstudies.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/rrol8_25_soekefeld_ocred_compressed.pdf}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Bodla |first=Sohaib |date=2014 |title=Making a Nation in High Mountains: Balawars and Balawaristan Nationalism in Ghizer District of Gilgit Baltistan |url=https://journals.sub.uni-hamburg.de/ethnoscripts/article/view/777/780.pdf |journal=Ethnoscripts |language= |publisher=University of Hamburg |volume=16 |issue=1 |issn=2199-7942|pages=125–139}}
* {{Cite journal |url=https://bonndoc.ulb.uni-bonn.de/xmlui/bitstream/handle/20.500.11811/169/Crossroads_Asia_Working_Paper_Dad_No._34_.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |title=Boundaries and Identities: The Case of Gilgit-Baltistan |last=Dad |first=Aziz Ali |date=2016 |publisher=Department of Political and Cultural Change, University of Bonn|journal=Crossroads Asia Working Papers Series|editor1=Baldauf, Ingeborg|editor2=Conermann, Stephan|editor3=Kreutzmann, Hermann|editor4=Nadjmabadi, Shahnaz|editor5=Reetz, Dietrich|editor6=Schetter, Conrad|editor7=Sökefeld, Martin|editor8=Bech Hansen, Claus Erik|editor9=Hornidge, Anna-Katharina|editor10=Mielke, Katja|editor11=Nokkala, Nelli|issue=34|issn=2192-6034|oclc=1186074593}}
* {{cite book |last=Sökefeld |first=Martin |chapter=Secularism and the Kashmir dispute |editor1=Nils Ole Bubandt |editor2=Martijn Van Beek |title=Varieties of Secularism in Asia: Anthropological Explorations of Religion, Politics and the Spiritual |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9tKoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA111 |year=2012 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-66864-7 |pages=101–120 |ref={{sfnref|Sökefeld, Secularism and the Kashmir dispute|2012}}}}

{{Regions and administrative territories of Kashmir}}
{{Ethnic nationalism}}
{{Stateless nationalism in Asia}}

{{coord|35|35|N|75|9|E|source:fawiki_type:adm1st_region:PK|display=title}}

[[Category:Politics of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Regions of Gilgit-Baltistan]]
[[Category:History of Gilgit-Baltistan]]
[[Category:Proposed provinces and territories of Pakistan]]

Gogaji

2026-03-18T02:39:48Z

IZinePro: Improved article clarity and structure

{{short description|Indian folk deity}}
{{about|the Hindu deity||Goga (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2022}}
{{Infobox deity
| type = Hindu
| image = Gogga.jpg
| caption = Depiction of Gogaji Maharaj riding his blue horse
| name = Goga Ji
| other_names = Jaharpeer Chauhan <br/>
Jaharveer Chauhan
| birth_place = [[Dadrewa]], [[Churu district]], Rajasthan
| affiliation =
| deity_of =
| mantra =
| weapon = [[Spear]]
| consort =
| abode = [[Dadrewa]] <br/>
[[Gogamedi]]
| cult_center = [[Rajasthan]], [[Punjab Region]], parts of [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Haryana]], [[Himachal Pradesh]], [[Jammu Division|Jammu]], [[Gujarat]]
| mount = Blue horse
| texts =
| temples = [[Gogaji Temple]]
| birth_date = 1003 AD
| father = Raja Jewar Singh
| mother = Rani Bachal De
| death_place = [[Gogamedi]], [[Hanumangarh district]], Rajasthan
| festivals = Goga Navami (observed on the ninth day of the Krishna Paksha (waning phase of the moon) in the Hindu month of [[Bhadrapada]])
}}

'''Gogaji''', also known and '''Gugga Pir''', '''Jahirpeer''' or '''Jaharveer Chauhan''' and '''Bagad Wala''', is a [[Folk religion|folk]] [[Hinduism|Hindu]] deity in the northern India.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ayyappappanikkar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KYLpvaKJIMEC&dq=goga+ji+chauhan&pg=PA463 |title=Medieval Indian Literature: Surveys and selections |date=1997 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |isbn=978-81-260-0365-5 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Complete_Guide_for_Rajasthan_Computer_In/8upCEQAAQBAJ?hl=en |title=Complete Guide for Rajasthan Computer Instructor Basic/ Senior Paper 1 & 2 conducted by RSMSSB |publisher=Disha Publication Inc |isbn=978-93-5564-240-0 |pages=12-13 |language=en}}</ref> He is worshipped in the northern states of India especially in [[Rajasthan]], [[Himachal Pradesh]], [[Haryana]], [[Punjab region]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Jammu Division|Jammu]] and [[Gujarat]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Experts |first=EduGorilla Prep |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f4D-EAAAQBAJ&dq=goga+ji+chauhan&pg=PA190 |title=Rajasthan PTET 2024 : Pre-Teacher Education Test (Pre B.Ed Entrance Exam) {{!}} 10 Full Mock Tests (2500+ Solved MCQs) |publisher=EduGorilla Community Pvt. Ltd. |isbn=978-93-5880-564-2 |language=en}}</ref> He is a warrior-hero of the region, venerated as a saint and a protector against snake bites. Although there are references to him in the folklore of [[Rajasthan]], little historical knowledge of Gugga exists other than that he ruled the small kingdom of [[Dadrewa]] (in present day Rajasthan) and was a contemporary of [[Prithviraj Chauhan]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Naga Cults and Traditions in the Western Himalaya |first=Omacanda |last=Hāṇḍā |publisher=Indus Publishing |location=New Delhi |year=2004 |isbn=9788173871610 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xd50t19YpJEC&pg=PA317 |page=330 |access-date=17 October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-09-09 |title=Watch: Devotees dance with snakes at Jahar Veer Gogaji fair in Rajasthan's Churu |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/video/watch-devotees-dance-with-snakes-at-jahar-veer-gogaji-fair-in-rajasthans-churu-2433381-2023-09-09 |access-date=2024-08-21 |website=India Today |language=en}} “ ''In Churu, Rajasthan, the traditional Jaharveer Gogaji fair came alive, drawing devoted crowds who displayed their reverence by dancing with snakes. This festival holds significant importance in Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, and Rajasthan. Gogaji, revered as a peer by both Hindus and Muslims, is seen as a guardian of children. Numerous legends surround his divine birth and his reputed ability to heal snakebite victims''.”</ref>

==Etymology==
According to legend, Gogaji was born in [[Chauhan dynasty|Chauhan clan]] to Chauhan Vacha and queen Bachhal and were rulers of this area during that period – around 900 AD. His desandants adopted the name [[Rajput|Bachal Rajput]] after name of Gogaji’s mother.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-12-05 |title=History |url=https://gugajaharvir.wordpress.com/history/ |access-date=2024-12-08 |website=Jai Guga Jahar Veer |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kumar |first=Satendra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZHmHEAAAQBAJ&dq=goga+ji+chauhan&pg=PT77 |title=Popular Democracy and the Politics of Caste: Rise of the Other Backward Classes in India |date=2022-09-21 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-000-68431-5 |language=en}}</ref> Another legend says his father is Jewar and mother is Bachhal from Tuar Clan. His wife is Shreeyal Roz.<ref name=":1" />

According to one belief, Goga was born with the blessings of Guru Gorakhnath, who gave 'Gugal' fruit ''([[Commiphora wightii]])'' to Goga's mother Bachhal which was used to name him. Another belief is that he was called Goga because of his remarkable service to cows. (Gou in [[Sanskrit]])<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Dalmia |first1=Vasudha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0mO3vgEACAAJ |title=Representing Hinduism: The Construction of Religious Traditions and National Identity |last2=Stietencron |first2=H. von |date=1995-10-31 |publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-0-8039-9195-8 |language=en}}</ref>

== Accounts ==
[[File:Illustration of Gogaji, based on a rock sculpture at Mandore, published in 'Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan' (vol. II).jpg|thumb|Illustration of Gogaji, based on a rock sculpture at Mandore, published in 'Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan' (vol. II)]]
Recorded accounts on Goga vary considerably.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Shekha |first=Chander |date=2022 |title=A historical and legendary profile of Gogaji, a popular folk deity of medieval Rajasthan |url=https://www.allresearchjournal.com/archives/2022/vol8issue12/PartB/9-1-84-866.pdf |journal=International Journal of Applied Research |volume=8 |issue=12 |pages=141–145}}</ref> The sources do not agree on the time period or who his contemporaries were but he can be placed as living anywhere between the 11th and 14th centuries.<ref name=":0" /> According to James Tod, Goga was the chief of the [[Jangladesh|Jangaldesh]] region and lived during the time of Mahmud of Ghazni in the 10th–11th centuries and was from Bhatinda, who fought with the invader on the bank of the Sutlej.<ref name=":0" /> Dashrath Sharma, using Jain sources, such as the ''Shrawak-Viatudi-Atichar'', and the ''Kyamkhan Rasau'', sources from the 15th century, also placed Goga as a contemporary of Mahmud of Ghazni.<ref name=":0" /> Pemaram agreed with Sharma and also places him in the same period after evaluating the poetical accounts ''Gogaji Pirra Chand'', ''Gugapedi'', and ''Gogaji Chauhan ri Nisani''.<ref name=":0" /> R. C. Temple places him at the time period of Mahmud of Ghazni.<ref name=":0" /> William Crooke believed Goga lived in the 13th century and was killed fighting against Firoj Shah of Delhi at the end of the century.<ref name=":0" /> Another account states that Goga fought again Ruknuddin Firuz Shah, Sultan of Delhi.<ref name=":0" /> Yet another account posits that Goga was a contemporary of Firuz Tughlaq (1351–1388) and fought against Abu Baquer.<ref name=":0" /> Most Rajasthani scholars agree with Tod's assessment of placing Goga in the same period of Mahmud of Ghazni century.<ref name=":0" />

According to Chander Shekha, Goga was the Chauhan chief of the region of Dadarewa (present-day Churu district, Rajasthan).<ref name=":0" /> He was likely one of the local rulers of northwestern Rajasthan who opposed invaders, similar to Prithviraj Chauhan and Hammirdev, and warred with other north Indian rulers.<ref name=":0" /> According to Bankidas, Goga was born to a father named Wacchag while his mother was named Jeevaraj.<ref name=":0" /> In western U.P., there is a unique Bijnor version of Goga, which claims he was the son of Prithviraj Chauhan during the Ghurid invasions of the 12th century.<ref name=":0" />

== Worship ==
He developed into becoming one of the earliest folk-deities in western Rajasthan and preceded [[Pabuji]] and [[Ramdev Pir|Ramdevj]].<ref name=":0" /> Worship of Goga can be traced to the early 15th century, as a Jain source known as the ''Sravukavratadi-atichar'' warns against his worship and other folk-deities by shravaks.<ref name=":0" /> The cult of Goga had many shrines, known as ''thans'', with the principal one (''gugaji ri medi'') being located at Dadarewa, where a celebration dedicated to Goga is held on Bhadrapada (August–September).<ref name=":0" /> Another shrine is located at Gogamedi and there are further ones across Marwar.<ref name=":0" /> His shrines are associated with the Khejari tree in Marwar.<ref name=":0" />
[[File:Gugga Peer, Raipur Mandlan.jpg|thumb|Gugga Peer, Raipur Mandlan, Patiala district, Punjab, India]]
As a folk-deity, he is worshipped in many forms, such as a snake-god, a cow-protector, a Muslim ''pir'', and as a Nathpandhi Jogi.<ref name=":0" /> The ''Gogaji ra Rasawvala'', written in the later part of the 16th century by Vithu Meha, depict Goga as a protector of cows with his relatives Arjan and Sarjan, with him feuding with these relatives over land.<ref name=":0" /> Goga developed as a snake-god as the western region of Rajasthan is inhabited by many snakes, with pastoralist and agricultural people fearing being bitten and poisoned by them or their livestock.<ref name=":0" /> Thus, Goga came to be seen as a protector against snakes, whose name was chanted by these people to protect against snakes.<ref name=":0" /> Depictions of Goga often include snakes in his company, some even depict Goga as a snake.<ref name=":0" /> There are religiously syncretic interpretations of Goga, with him being viewed as a Muslim pir or a Nathpanthi Jogi.<ref name=":0" /> In the jogi accounts, he is associated with Gorakhnath.<ref name=":0" /> Certain Rajputs who converted to Islam, known as Gogawats, viewed him as ''Zahra Pir'', seeing Goga as their ancestor.<ref name=":0" /> The cult of Goga and similar saints, such as Ramdevji, had followers from both Hindu and Muslim backgrounds, with them also being connected to [[Ismailism]].<ref name=":0" /> Whilst initially Goga was a figure associated with the downtrodden sections of society, namely pastoralists and peasants, after the 18th century his image underwent a process of [[Rajputization]] and his legacy was adopted by the ruling-classes, reimagining him as a Rajput hero.<ref name=":0" /> He became one of the ''[[Panj peer|panch peer]]'' quintet.<ref name=":0" /> His image also underwent Hinduization until he went from a folk-hero to a Hindu deity that is worshipped across caste and communal lines, especially by lower-castes.<ref name=":0" /> Goga had a mount named Javadia, which also became venerated and many horses kept in the places he is worshipped are named after this famous horse.<ref name=":0" /> Outside of Rajasthan, Goga is worshipped in Punjab, the Gangetic Plains (western Uttar Pradesh), and Madhya Pradesh.<ref name=":0" /> The cult of Goga was [[Punjabi folk religion|prevalent in 19th century Punjab]], where he was particular worshipped as a snake-god by Muslims, Hindus, and Sikhs alike.<ref name=":0" />

== Kingdom ==
Goga had a kingdom called [[Dadrewa|Bagad Dedga]] that spanned over to Hansi near [[Hisar (city)|Hisar]] in [[Haryana]].<ref>Rajasthan [district Gazetteers].: Ganganagar (1972) [https://books.google.com/books?id=DCpuAAAAMAAJ&q=guga+hansi+satluj]</ref> It is believed that Goga lived during the 12th Century AD<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=G0Z457ZOR44C&dq=guga+sirsa+kingdom&pg=PA29] Gupta, Jugal Kishore: History of Sirsa Town</ref> In the past, the river [[Sutlej]] flowed through the district of [[Bathinda]] in present-day [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] in India.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mcbathinda.com/physiography-and-climate.asp |title=Welcome to the official website of the Municipal Corporation Bathinda |publisher=Mcbathinda.com |access-date=2014-02-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222142700/http://www.mcbathinda.com/physiography-and-climate.asp |archive-date=2014-02-22 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The capital was at [[Dadrewa]] near [[Ganganagar]].

==Legends ==
{{More citations needed section|date=July 2025}}

===Family===
Goga ({{langx|hi|गोगा}}) ([[Rajasthani language|Rajasthani]]: (Gugo) गुग्गो) was born in c. 900 [[Anno Domini|AD]] to queen Bachchal (the daughter of a ruler, Kanwarpala who in 1173 AD ruled over [[Sirsa district|Sirsa]] in present-day [[Haryana]]) and king Zewar belonging to Chauhan family in the village name [[Dadrewa]] in [[Churu district]] of [[Rajasthan]].<ref name="ElliotBeames1869">{{cite book|author1=Sir Henry Miers Elliot|author2=John Beames|title=Memoirs on the History, Folk-lore, and Distribution of the Races of the North Western Provinces of India: Being an Amplified Edition of the Original Supplemental Glossary of Indian Terms|url=https://archive.org/details/memoirsonhistor00elligoog|year=1869|publisher=Trübner & Company|pages=[https://archive.org/details/memoirsonhistor00elligoog/page/n268 256]–}}</ref> The earliest parts of Goga's life were spent in the village of Dadrewa, situated on [[Hisar, India|Hissar]]—[[Bikaner]] highway in Sadulpur tehsil of [[Churu district]] in [[Rajasthan]]. According to other legends, his father was Vachha Chauhan, the Raja of Jangal Desh, which stretched from the Sutlej to Haryana.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=L9gcAQAAMAAJ&q=bachhal++gugga+haryana Census of India, 1961: India, Volume 1, Issue 4; Volume 1, Issue 19]</ref>

===Birth===
When Bachal was worshipping [[Gorakhnath]], her twin-sister decided to usurp the blessings from the Gorakhnath. In the middle of the night, she wore her sister's clothes and deceived Gorakhnath into giving her the blessing fruit. When Bachal realised it, she rushed to Gorakhnath and said that she had not received anything. To this, Gorakhnath replied that he had already given his blessings and said that her sister was attempting to deceive her. After repeated requests by Bachal, Gorakhnath relented and gave her two Gugal candies. She distributed these candies to ladies having no child, including the 'blue mare' who was pregnant at that time. When the Guru gave the blessing to Bachal, he foretold that her son would become very powerful and would rule over the other two sons of their aunt, Kachal.

===Marriage===
1) Goga was married to Kelam de who was daughter of Buda singh ji rathore King of kolu, Rajasthan.

2) Rani Siriyal

===Other===
Another story is that Arjan and Sarjan were against Goga and was a part of conspiracy with king [[Anangpal Tomar]] of Delhi. King Anganpal attacked [[Bagar tract#Bagri region|bagad region]] with Arjan and Sarjan. Both of them were killed by Goga. Goga spared the king after his miserere. In a quarrel about land he killed his two brothers on which account he drew upon himself the anger of his mother.<ref name="ElliotBeames1869"/>

==Celebration and fairs==
The history of Goga falls within [[folk religion]] and therefore his followers include people from all faiths. Goga is popular as a [[Devata|Devta]] who protects his followers from snakes and other evils. He has been deified as a snake demigod and is a prominent figure among those who follow the [[Nāga]] cult in what is now [[Rajasthan]] and since the seventeenth century has been worshipped in the [[Western Himalaya]]s also, possibly as a consequence of migration there from Rajasthan.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Xd50t19YpJEC&dq=the+cult+of+gugga&pg=PA330 Naga Cults and Traditions in the Western Himalaya: Omacanda Hāṇḍā]</ref>

He is particularly popular among those engaged in agrarian pursuits, for whom the fear of snakebite is common. Although a Hindu, he has many Muslim devotees and is chiefly considered to be a saint (''[[Pir (Sufism)|pir]]'') who had the power to cure the effects of poison (''jahar'').<ref>{{cite book |title=Naga Cults and Traditions in the Western Himalaya |first=Omacanda |last=Hāṇḍā |publisher=Indus Publishing |location=New Delhi |year=2004 |isbn=9788173871610 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xd50t19YpJEC&pg=PA317 |pages=317–320, 330 |access-date=17 October 2012}}</ref>

He was reputed to be a disciple of Guru [[Gorakhnath]]. According to Muslim [[oral tradition]] prevalent in [[Punjab]], he learnt the way of entering and leaving solid earth by a [[Pir (Sufism)|Muslim Pir]] Hazi Rattan of [[Bathinda]].<ref name="autogenerated1"/><ref>[http://kafila.org/2013/01/18/lets-meet-on-ajay-bharadwajs-milange-babey-ratan-de-mele-te-virinder-s-kalra/ Shivam Vij 18/01/2013]</ref> Goga is also believed to have lived for some time in [[Bathinda]].<ref>James Todd (1920) Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan: Or The Central and Western Rajput States of India, Volume 2 [https://archive.org/details/annalsantiquitie02todj ]</ref>

The cult is prevalent in [[Rajasthan]] and other states of northern India, including [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], [[Haryana]], [[Himachal Pradesh]] and the north western districts of [[Uttar Pradesh]]. His followers can also be found in [[Gujarat]] and [[Madhya Pradesh]]. He also has a number of followers in the [[Jammu district]] of J&K state.

===Rajasthan===
His shrine, referred as [[Samādhi|madi]] (shortened colloquial term for [[Samādhi]]), consists of a one-room building with a minaret on each corner and a Hindu grave inside, marked by a Nishan (a symbol or sign), which is made up of a long bamboo with peacock plumes, a coconut, some colored threads and some handpankhas with a blue flag on the top.

Worship of Goga starts in [[Bhaadra]] month of [[Hindu]] calendar. On the 9th of Bhadra, the people worship his symbol, a black snake painted on a wall. Worshippers take a fly-flap, known as chhari, round the village. Devotees pay their respect to it and offer [[churma]]. The Savayians sing devotional songs known as ‘Pir ke Solle’ in his honour to the accompaniment of [[Damaru|deroos]]. Beating of deroos is the exclusive privilege of the Savayian community; others may sing, dance or offer [[Bhog#In Hinduism|charhawa]]. It is believed that the spirit of Gugga temporarily takes abode in the devotee dancer who lashes himself with a bunch of iron chains. People also open their rakhis on this day(bhadra krishna paksh navmi) and offer them to him. They also offer sweet [[Puri (food)|puri]] (a type of sweet chappati) and other sweets and take his blessing.

Grand fairs are held at [[samadhi]] sathal [[Gogamedi]]. Gogamedi is 359 km from [[Jaipur]], in [[Hanumangarh]] district of Rajasthan. It is believed that Goga went into [[samādhi]] at Gogamedi. Thousands of devotees gather to pay homage at this memorial annually in the month of [[Bhadrapada]] during the Goga [[fair]], which lasts for three days. The fair is held from the ninth day of the dark half of Bhadrapada (Goga Navami) to the eleventh day of the dark half of the same month. People sing and dance to the beats of drums with multicoloured flags called ''nishans'' in their hands. The songs and [[bhajan]]s on the life history of Gogaji are recited accompanied by music played with traditional instruments like [[Damru]], [[Chimta]], etc. At his birthplace [[Dadrewa]], the fair goes on over a month. Devotees from far eastern places of Dadrewa start arriving from the beginning of the auspicious month of [[Bhaadra]]. These devotees are commonly known as purbia (those who belong to east). It is a common sight to see people with snakes lying around their necks. According to a folklore in and around his birthplace [[Dadrewa]] it is believed that if someone picks up even a stick from [[johad|johra]] (a barren land which has a sacred pond in [[Dadrewa]]), it would turn into a snake. Devotees of Gogaji worship him when they get a snake bite and apply sacred ash ([[Vibhuti|bhabhoot]]) on the bite as an immediate remedy.

===Himachal Pradesh===
In [[Thaneek Pura]], [[Himachal Pradesh]], a very large scale festival and fair is organized on Gugga Navami. The tale of Gugga Ji is recited, from Raksha Bandhan to Gugga Naumi, by the followers who visit every house in the region. These followers while singing the tales of Gugga Ji carry a [[Chatra (umbrella)|Chhat]] (a wooden umbrella) and people offer them grains and other stuff. They bring all the collected offerings to the temple and then the grand festival of Gugga Navami is celebrated for three days. Apart from various pujas and rituals, the wrestling competition ([[Malla-yuddha|Mall]] or [[Akhara#Dangal|Dangal]]) is organized for three days where participants from all over the region compete. The annual three-day fair is also a part of these festivities where people come and enjoy great food, and shop for decorative items, handicrafts, clothes, cosmetics, household goods, and toys for children.

===Punjab===
{{See also|Folk practices in Punjab}}
[[File:Gugga Jahar peer, Dera Bakarpur, Mohali, Punjab,India.jpg|thumb|Gugga Jahar peer, Dera Bakarpur, Mohali, Punjab, India]]
{{Punjabi folk religion sidebar}}
Goga is known as Gugga in the [[Punjab]] who has a significant following. Although Gugga is a deity of [[Hinduism]], he is revered by many [[Sikhs]] in the Punjab also. Many Punjabi villages have a shrine dedicated to Gugga Jaharveer known as Medi. A fair is organised annually in many parts of punjab like the village of [[Hariana]] in [[Hoshiarpur district|Hoshiarpur]] district and the village of [[Chhapar]] (known as the [[Chhapar Mela]]). Gugga's legacy in [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] can be seen in towns such as [[Bareta|Bareta Mandi]], which is situated at a distance of 51 km from [[Mansa, Punjab|Mansa]] in [[Punjab, India|Punjab]]. "The town is predominantly inhabited by Chauhans who trace their origin from Gugga, ‘Lord of Snakes’. It is said that nobody has ever died here on account of [[snakebite]] because of the blessings of Gugga."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://punjabrevenue.nic.in/Ga/MANSA-19.htm |title=Punjab Revenue |publisher=Punjabrevenue.nic.in |date=1992-04-13 |access-date=2014-02-04 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304063746/http://punjabrevenue.nic.in/Ga/MANSA-19.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In the [[Punjab region]], it is traditional to offer sweet [[Vermicelli]] to the shrines of Gugga Ji<ref name="autogenerated2">Alop ho riha Punjabi virsa – bhag dooja by Harkesh Singh Kehal Unistar Book PVT Ltd {{ISBN|978-93-5017-532-3}}</ref> and sweet fried bread or mathya ({{langx|pa|ਮੱਥੀਆ}}). He is worshiped in the month of [[Bhadon]] especially on the ninth day of that month. Gugga is meant to protect against snake bites and he is venerated in shrines known as marris. The shrines do not conform to any religion and can range from antholes to structures that resemble a Sikh Gurdwara or a Mosque. When worshipping Gugga, people bring vermicelli (sewai) as offerings and also leave them in places where snakes reside.<ref name="autogenerated1">Bhatti, H.S Folk Religion Change and Continuity Rawat Publications</ref> People perform a devotional dance while dancing on the legendary songs of bravery sung in his praise.<ref name=harcu3>{{cite web|url=http://www.global.ucsb.edu/punjab/journalfall04.html|title=Journal of Punjab Studies – Center for Sikh and Punjab Studies – UC Santa Barbara|website=www.global.ucsb.edu|access-date=4 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303213237/http://www.global.ucsb.edu/punjab/journalfall04.html|archive-date=3 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>

On the day of Gugga Naumi, when offering the sweet dish, songs are sung which include:

[[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]:
<blockquote>
''ਪੱਲੇ ਮੇਰੇ ਮਥੀਆਂ''<br>
''ਨੀ ਮੈਂ ਗੁੱਗਾ ਮਨਾਓੁਣ ਚੱਲੀਆਂ''<br>
''ਨੀ ਮੈਂ ਬਾਰੀ ਗੁੱਗਾ ਜੀ''<br><ref name="autogenerated2"/>
</blockquote>

<blockquote>
''Palle mere mathyaa''<br>
''ni mein Guggaji di puja karn challyaa''<br>
''ni mein bari Gugga ji''<br>
</blockquote>

Translation
<blockquote>
''I have got mathya''<br>
''I am going to worship Gugga ji''<br>
''Oh Gugga ji''<br>
</blockquote>

== See also ==
*[[Ramdev Pir]]
*[[Pabuji|Pabuji Rathore]]
*[[Chauhan dynasty]]
*[[Thaneek Pura]]

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

==Bibliography==
*{{cite book|first=George Weston |last=Briggs|title=Gorakhnāth and the Kānphaṭa Yogīs|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DXPa3jZDQZUC&pg=PA192|access-date=11 January 2011|date=1 January 2001|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0564-4|page=192}}

{{Punjab, India}}
{{Punjabi folk religion}}

[[Category:Folk deities of Rajasthan]]
[[Category:Regional Hindu gods]]
[[Category:Hindu folk deities]]
[[Category:Punjabi folklore]]
[[Category:Punjabi folk religion]]
[[Category:Punjabi culture]]

Horticulture

2026-03-17T09:57:06Z

IZinePro: improved article

{{Short description|Small-scale cultivation of plants}}
[[File:Horticulturist Amy Boul by Lance Cheung.jpg|thumb|A horticulture student tending to plants in a [[Market garden|garden]] in [[Lawrenceville, Georgia]], March 2015]]
[[File:Shrub, Topiary Garden.jpg|thumb|The Rock Garden, [[Leonardslee Gardens]]]]
'''Horticulture''' (from {{langx|la|[[wikt:hortus|horti]] + culture}}) is the science and art of growing fruits, vegetables, flowers, or ornamental plants. Horticulture is different from general agriculture, agronomy, and gardening in that it involves specialization and controlled cultivation and management of plants and their ecosystems. It can be distinguished by its subfields and or unique botanical expressions. There are various divisions of horticulture because plants are grown for a variety of purposes.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Rice |first=Laura W. |title=Practical Horticulture; A Guide to Growing Indoor and Outdoor Plants |publisher=Reston |year=1980 |location=USA}}</ref> These divisions include, but are not limited to: [[Plant propagation|propagation]], [[arboriculture]], [[landscaping]], [[floriculture]] and [[Sod|turf]] maintenance. For each of these, there are various professions, aspects, tools used and associated challenges -- each requiring highly specialized skills and knowledge on the part of the horticulturist.

Typically, horticulture is characterized as the ornamental, small-scale and non-industrial cultivation of plants; horticulture is distinct from gardening by its emphasis on scientific methods, plant breeding, and technical cultivation practices, while gardening, even at a professional level, tends to focus more on the aesthetic care and maintenance of plants in gardens or landscapes. However, some aspects of horticulture are industrialized or commercial such as greenhouse production or CEA.

Horticulture began with the [[Domestication|domestication of plants]] {{Circa|10,000|20,000}} years ago.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |date=October 19, 2023 |title=Domestication |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/domestication/ |access-date=April 3, 2023 |website=National Geographic}}</ref><ref name=":3" />{{Better source needed|reason=The current source is insufficiently reliable ([[BP:NOTRS]]).|date=April 2025}} At first, only plants for sustenance were grown and maintained, but as humanity became increasingly sedentary, plants were grown for their ornamental value.{{Citation needed|date=April 2025}} Horticulture emerged as a distinct field from [[agriculture]] when humans sought to cultivate plants for pleasure on a smaller scale rather than exclusively for sustenance.{{Citation needed|date=April 2025}}

Emerging technologies are moving the industry forward, especially in the alteration of plants to be more resistant to parasites, disease and drought. Modifying technologies such as [[CRISPR]] are also improving the nutrition, taste and yield of crops.

Many horticultural organizations and societies around the world have been formed by horticulturists and those within the industry. These include the [[Royal Horticultural Society]], the [[International Society for Horticultural Science]],<ref name=":6" /> and the [[American Society of Horticultural Science]].<ref name=":7" />

==Divisions of horticulture and types of horticulturists==
There are divisions and sub-divisions within horticulture because plants are grown for many different reasons. Some of the divisions in horticulture include:
* [[gardening]]
* [[plant propagation|plant production and propagation]]
* [[arboriculture]]
* [[landscaping]]
* [[floriculture]]
* [[garden design]] and maintenance
* [[turf]] maintenance
* [[Conservation biology|plant conservation]] and landscape restoration.<ref name="Preece-Biology-2005">{{Cite book |last1=Preece |first1=John E. |title=The biology of horticulture: an introductory textbook |last2=Read |first2=Paul E. |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2005 |isbn=0-471-46579-8 |edition=2 |pages=4–6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Arteca |first1=Richard N. |title=Introduction to Horticultural Science |publisher=Cengage Learning |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-111-31279-4 |edition=2 |location=Stamford, Connecticut |page=584}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Why Horticulture? |url=https://horticulture.umn.edu/students/why-horticulture |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190502082101/https://horticulture.umn.edu/students/why-horticulture |archive-date=2019-05-02 |access-date=2 May 2019 |website=Department of Horticultural Science |publisher=University of Minnesota}}</ref>

It includes the cultivation of all plants including, but not limited to: [[ornamental plant]]s, [[fruit]]s, [[vegetable]]s, [[flower]]s, [[Sod|turf]], [[Nut (fruit)|nut]]s, [[seed]]s, [[herb]]s and other [[Medicinal plants|medicinal/edible plants.]] This cultivation may occur in [[garden]] spaces, [[Plant nursery|nurseries]], [[greenhouse]]s, [[vineyard]]s, [[orchard]]s, [[park]]s, recreation areas, etc. {{cn|date=February 2025}}[[File:027 Flowers at Algemene warenmarkt - market in Grote Markt, Breda, Netherlands.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Flower seedlings at a market in [[Breda]], Netherlands]]

Horticulturists study and practice the cultivation of plant material professionally. There are many different types of horticulturists with different job titles, including: [[gardener]], grower, [[farmer]], [[arborist]], [[Floriculture|floriculturist]], [[Landscaping|landscaper]], agronomist, designer, landscape architect, lawn-care specialist, nursery manager, botanical garden curator, horticulture therapist, and much more.<ref>{{Cite web |date=February 2, 2024 |title=22 Jobs in Horticulture (With Salaries and Primary Duties) |url=https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/finding-a-job/careers-in-horticulture |access-date=February 14, 2024 |website=Indeed}}</ref> They may be hired by a variety of companies/institutions including, but not limited to: botanical gardens, private/public gardens, parks, cemeteries, greenhouses, golf courses, vineyards, estates, landscaping companies, nurseries, educational institutions, etc. They may also be self-employed.{{cn|date=February 2025}}

== History ==
Horticulture began with the domestication of plants 10,000–20,000 years ago and has since been deeply integrated into human history.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":3" /> The domestication of plants occurred independently within various civilizations across the globe. The history of horticulture overlaps with the [[history of agriculture]] and [[history of botany]], as all three originated with the domestication of various plants for food.<ref name=":3">{{cite book |editor-last=Carey |editor-first=John |chapter=Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind |date=2022-11-15 |title=Sunday Best |pages=283–286 |publisher=Yale University Press |doi=10.12987/yale/9780300266689.003.0077 |isbn=978-0-300-26668-9}}</ref> In Europe, agriculture and horticulture diverged at some point during the Middle Ages.<ref name=":4">Baeyer, E. "[https://www.eolss.net/sample-chapters/c09/e6-156-07-00.pdf The development and history of horticulture]". ''World Environmental History''. Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS).</ref>

=== Early practices in horticulture ===

Early practices in horticulture include various tools and methods of land management, with different methods and plant types used for different uses. Methods, tools and plants grown have always depended on the culture and climate.{{cn|date=February 2025}}

==== Pre-colonized North and Central America ====
Many traditional horticultural practices are known, such as the Indigenous peoples of pre-colonized North America using [[biochar]] to enhance soil productivity by smoldering plant waste<ref>Solomon, Dawit, Johannes Lehmann, Janice Thies, Thorsten Schafer, Biqing Liang, James Kinyangi, Eduardo Neves, James Petersen, Flio Luizao, and Jan Skjemstad, ''Molecular signature and sources of biochemical recalcitrance of organic carbone in Amazonian Dark Earths'', Geochemica et cosmochemica ACTA 71.9 2285–2286 (2007) ("Amazonian Dark Earths (ADE) are a unique type of soils apparently developed between 500 and 9000 years B.P. through intense anthropogenic activities such as biomass-burning and high-intensity nutrient depositions on pre-Columbian Amerindian settlements that transformed the original soils into Fimic Anthrosols throughout the Brazilian Amazon Basin.") (internal citations omitted)</ref>{{snd}}European settlers called this soil ''[[Terra Preta de Indio]]''.<ref>Glaser, Bruno, Johannes Lehmann, and Wolfgang Zech,'' Ameliorating physical and chemical properties of highly weathered soils in the tropics with charcoal – a review'', Biology and Fertility of Soils 35.4 219–220 (2002) ("These so called Terra Preta do Indio (Terra Preta) characterize the settlements of pre-Columbian Indios. In Terra Preta soils, large amounts of black C indicate a high and prolonged input of carbonized organic matter probably due to the production of charcoal in hearths, whereas only low amounts of charcoal are added to soils as a result of forest fires and slash-and-burn techniques.") (internal citations omitted)</ref> In North America, Indigenous people grew maize, squash, and sunflower, among other crops. [[Mesoamerican]] cultures focused on cultivating crops on a small scale, such as the [[milpa]] or maize field, around their dwellings or in specialized plots which were visited occasionally during migrations from one area to the next.<ref name="Hagen, V.W. 19572">von Hagen, V.W. (1957) The Ancient Sun Kingdoms Of The Americas. Ohio: The World Publishing Company</ref> In Central America, the [[Maya people|Maya]] involved augmentation of the forest with useful trees such as [[papaya]], [[avocado]], [[Theobroma cacao|cacao]], [[ceiba]] and [[sapodilla]]. In the fields, multiple crops such as beans, squash, pumpkins and chili peppers were grown. The first ''horticulturists'' in many cultures were mainly or exclusively women.<ref>Thompson, S.I. (1977) Women, Horticulture, and Society in Tropical America. American Anthropologist, N.S., 79: 908–10</ref>

=== Historical uses for plants in horticulture ===
In addition to plants' medicinal and nutritional value, plants have also been grown for their beauty, to impress and to demonstrate power, knowledge, status and even wealth of those in control of the cultivated plant material. This symbolic power that plants hold has existed even before the beginnings of their cultivation.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pollan |first=Michael |title=The Botany of Desire |publisher=Random House |isbn=0-375-50129-0 |date=2001 |language=en}}</ref>

There is evidence that various gardens maintained by the [[Aztecs]] were sacred, as they grew plants that held religious value. Plants were grown for their metaphorical relation to gods and goddesses.<ref name=":4" /> Flowers held symbolic power in religious rites, as they were offered to the gods and given in ceremonies to leaders to demonstrate their connection to the gods.<ref name=":4" />

== Aspects of horticulture ==
=== Propagation ===
{{main|Plant propagation}}

Plant propagation in horticulture is the process by which the number of individual plants is increased. Propagation involves both sexual and [[Asexual reproduction|asexual]] methods.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Arteca |first=Richard N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=84XAAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA109 |title=Introduction to Horticultural Science |date=2014-02-14 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-1-305-17780-2 |language=en |access-date=2022-12-07 |archive-date=2023-01-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119181036/https://books.google.com/books?id=84XAAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA109 |url-status=live }}</ref> Sexual propagation uses seeds, while asexual propagation involves the division of plants, separation of tubers, corms, and bulbs using techniques such as cutting, layering, grafting.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Peter |first=K. V. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NWMa741kG_gC&pg=PA338 |title=Basics Of Horticulture |date=2009-02-05 |publisher=New India Publishing |isbn=978-81-89422-55-4 |language=en |access-date=2022-12-07 |archive-date=2023-01-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119181048/https://books.google.com/books?id=NWMa741kG_gC&pg=PA338 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Plant selection ===
When selecting plants to cultivate, a horticulturist may consider aspects based on the plant's intended use, including plant morphology, rarity, and utility.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Horticultural Practices |url=https://www.saanich.ca/EN/main/parks-recreation-community/parks/horticulture/horticultural-practices.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221206230537/https://www.saanich.ca/EN/main/parks-recreation-community/parks/horticulture/horticultural-practices.html |archive-date=2022-12-06 |access-date=2022-12-06 |website=District of Saanich |language=en}}</ref> When selecting plants for the landscape, observations of the location must be made first. Soil type, temperature, climate, light, moisture, and pre-existing plants are considered when selecting plant material for the location. Plant selection may be for annual displays, or they may be for more permanent plantings. Characteristics of the plant{{snd}}such as mature height and size, colour, growth habit, ornamental value, flowering time and invasive potential{{snd}}finalize the plant selection process.{{cn|date=February 2025}}

=== Controlling environmental/growing variables ===
Environmental factors affecting plant development include temperature, light, water, [[soil pH]], nutrient availability, weather, humidity, elevation, terrain, and micro-climate.<ref name=":5" /> In horticulture, these environmental variables may be avoided, controlled or manipulated in an indoor growing environment.

==== Temperature ====
Plants require specific temperatures to grow and develop properly. Temperature can be controlled through a variety of methods. Covering plants with plastic in the form of cones called hot caps, or tunnels, can help to manipulate the surrounding temperature. Mulching is also an effective method to protect outdoor plants from frost during the winter. Inside, other frost prevention methods include wind machines, heaters, and sprinklers.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Horticulture {{!}} Definition, Types, Techniques, & Uses {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/horticulture |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207032531/https://www.britannica.com/science/horticulture |archive-date=2022-12-07 |access-date=2022-12-07 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

==== Light ====
Plants have evolved to require different amounts of light and lengths of daytime; their growth and development are determined by the amount of light they receive. Control of this may be achieved artificially with fluorescent lights in an indoor setting. Manipulating the amount of light also controls flowering. Lengthening the day encourages the flowering of long-day plants and discourages the flowering of short-day plants.<ref name=":0" />

==== Water ====
Water management methods involve employing irrigation and drainage systems and controlling soil moisture to the needs of the species. Irrigation methods include surface irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, sub-irrigation, and trickle irrigation. Watering volume, pressure, and frequency are changed to optimize the growing environment. On a small scale, watering can be done manually.<ref name=":0" />

==== Growing media and soil management ====
The choice of growing media and components to the media help support plant life. Within a greenhouse environment, growers may choose to grow their plants in an [[Aquaponics|aquaponic]] system where no soil is used. Growers within a greenhouse setting will often opt for a soilless mix which does not include any actual components of naturally occurring soil. These mixes are generally very available within the industry and offer advantages such as water absorption and sterility.{{cn|date=February 2025}}

Soil management methods are broad but include the applying fertilizers, planned crop rotation to prevent the soil degradation seen in monocultures, and soil analysis.<ref name=":0" />

{{Further|CULTAN Fertilization}}

==== Control by use of enclosed environments ====
Abiotic factors such as weather, light and temperature are all things that can be manipulated with enclosed environments such as cold frames, [[greenhouse]]s, [[Conservatory (greenhouse)|conservatories]], [[Polytunnel|poly houses]] and shade houses. Materials used in constructing these buildings are chosen based on the climate, purpose and budget.<ref>{{cite news |title=Greenhouse Farming Explained: Types, Benefits, Techniques, Costs, Crops & More - Agriplast Protected Cultivation |url=https://www.protectedcultivation.com/blog/greenhouse-farming-explained-types-benefits-techniques-costs-crops-more |work=www.protectedcultivation.com |language=English}}</ref>

Cold frames provide an enclosed environment; they are built close to the ground and with a top made of glass or plastic. The glass or plastic allows sunlight into the frame during the day and prevents heat loss that would have been lost as long-wave radiation at night. This allows plants to begin growing before the growing season starts. Greenhouses and conservatories are similar in function but are larger and heated with an external energy source. They can be built out of glass but are now primarily made from plastic sheets. More expensive and modern greenhouses can include temperature control through shade and light control or air-conditioning and automatic watering. Shade houses provide shading to limit water loss by evapotranspiration.<ref name=":0" />

== Challenges ==

=== Abiotic stresses ===
Commercial horticulture is required to support a rapidly growing population with demands for its products.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Stress tolerance in horticultural crops: challenges and mitigation strategies |date=2021 |publisher=Woodhead Publishing |editor=Avinash Chandra Rai |isbn=978-0-323-85363-7 |location=Cambridge |oclc=1251764903}}</ref> Due to global climate change, extremes in temperatures, strength of precipitation events, flood frequency, and drought length and frequency are increasing. Together with other abiotic stressors such as salinity, [[heavy metal toxicity]], UV damage, and air pollution, stressful environments are created for crop production. This is extrapolated as evapotranspiration is increased, soils are degraded of nutrients, and oxygen levels are depleted, resulting in up to a 70% loss in crop yield.{{cn|date=February 2025}}

=== Biotic stresses ===
Living organisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, insects, weeds and native plants are sources of biotic stresses and can deprive the host of nutrients.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Encyclopedia of food grains |date=2016 |editor=Colin W. Wrigley |editor2=Harold Corke |editor3=Koushik Seetharaman |editor4=Jonathan Faubion |isbn=978-0-12-394786-4 |edition=Second |location=Kidlington, Oxford, UK |publisher=Elsevier |oclc=939553708}}</ref> Plants respond to these stresses using defence mechanisms such as morphological and structural barriers, chemical compounds, proteins, enzymes and hormones.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Postharvest physiology and biochemistry of fruits and vegetables |date=2019 |editor=Elhadi M. Yahia |editor2=Armando Carrillo-Lopez |isbn=978-0-12-813279-1 |location=Duxford |publisher=Elsevier |oclc=1061148070}}</ref> The impact of biotic stresses can be prevented using practices such as incorporate tilling, spraying or Integrated Pest Management (IPM).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pantazi |first=Xanthoula-Eirini |title=Intelligent data mining and fusion systems in agriculture |date=2020 |author2=Dimitrios Moshou |author3=Dionysis Bochtis |isbn=978-0-12-814392-6 |location=London |publisher=Elsevier |oclc=1124761701}}</ref>

=== Harvest management ===
Care is required to reduce damages and losses to horticultural crops during harvest.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hussein |first1=Zaharan |last2=Fawole |first2=Olaniyi A. |last3=Opara |first3=Umezuruike Linus |date=2020-01-01 |title=Harvest and Postharvest Factors Affecting Bruise Damage of Fresh Fruits |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2468014119301943 |journal=Horticultural Plant Journal |language=en |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=1–13 |doi=10.1016/j.hpj.2019.07.006 |bibcode=2020HorPJ...6....1H |s2cid=202847840 |issn=2468-0141 |access-date=2022-12-07 |archive-date=2022-12-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207070417/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2468014119301943 |url-status=live |hdl=10019.1/125649 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Compression forces occur during harvesting, and horticultural goods can be hit in a series of impacts during transport and packhouse operations. Different techniques are used to minimize mechanical injuries and wounding to plants such as:<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |title=Postharvest technology of perishable horticultural commodities |date=2019 |editor=Elhadi M. Yahia |isbn=978-0-12-813277-7 |location=Duxford |publisher=Elsevier |oclc=1109725060}}</ref>
* Manual harvesting: This is the harvesting horticultural crops by hand. Fruits, such as apples, pears and peaches, can be harvested by clippers
* Sanitation: Harvest bags, crates, clippers and other equipment must be cleaned before harvest.<ref name=":2" />

== Emerging technology ==
[[CRISPR|Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR)]] has recently gained recognition as a highly efficient, simplified, precise, and low-cost method of altering the genomes of species.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Yang |last2=Zhang |first2=Chunling |last3=Wang |first3=Xiaofei |last4=Li |first4=Xiuming |last5=You |first5=Chunxiang |date=2022-07-01 |title=CRISPR/Cas9 technology and its application in horticultural crops |journal=Horticultural Plant Journal |language=en |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=395–407 |doi=10.1016/j.hpj.2022.04.007 |s2cid=248462799 |issn=2468-0141 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022HorPJ...8..395L }}</ref> Since 2013, CRISPR has been used to enhance a variety of species of grains, fruits, and vegetables. Crops are modified to increase their resistance to biotic and abiotic stressors such as parasites, disease, and drought as well as increase yield, nutrition, and flavour.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Tian |last2=Zhang |first2=Chunjiao |last3=Zhang |first3=Hongyan |last4=Zhu |first4=Hongliang |date=2021-11-17 |title=CRISPR/Cas9-Mediated Gene Editing Revolutionizes the Improvement of Horticulture Food Crops |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.jafc.1c00104 |journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry |language=en |volume=69 |issue=45 |pages=13260–13269 |doi=10.1021/acs.jafc.1c00104 |pmid=33734711 |bibcode=2021JAFC...6913260W |s2cid=232302738 |issn=0021-8561 |access-date=2022-12-07 |archive-date=2022-12-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207050322/https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.jafc.1c00104 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Additionally, CRISPR has been used to edit undesirable traits, for example, reducing the browning and production of toxic and bitter substances of potatoes. CRISPR has also been employed to solve issues of low pollination rates and low fruit yield common in greenhouses. As compared to [[genetically modified organism]]s (GMO), CRISPR does not add any alien DNA to the plant's genes.<ref>{{Cite web |first=Sonali |last=Mookerjee |date=2023-11-30 |title=Gene-editing primer: What's the difference between CRISPR crops and GMOs? |url=https://geneticliteracyproject.org/2023/11/30/gene-editing-primer-whats-the-difference-between-crispr-crops-and-gmos/ |access-date=2024-03-06 |website=Genetic Literacy Project |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Organizations==
Various organizations worldwide focus on promoting and encouraging research and education in all branches of horticultural science; such organizations include the [[International Society for Horticultural Science]]<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=ISHS |url=http://ishs.org/about |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120922225337/http://ishs.org/about |archive-date=September 22, 2012}}</ref> and the [[American Society of Horticultural Science]].<ref name=":7">{{cite web |title=ASHS |url=http://www.ashs.org/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170811103104/http://www.ashs.org/ |archive-date=2017-08-11 |access-date=2016-06-11 |publisher=ashs.org}}</ref>

In the United Kingdom, there are two main horticulture societies.{{Citation needed|date=December 2024}} The [[Ancient Society of York Florists]] is the oldest horticultural society in the world and was founded in 1768; this organization continues to host four horticultural shows annually in [[York]], England.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ancient society of York Florists,oldest horticultural society in world,longest running horticultural show in world established 1768, flower shows in york yorkshire uk,horticultural shows in york yorkshire uk, vegetable shows in york yorkshire uk, fruit shows in york yorkshire uk, floral art shows in york yorkshire uk,handicrafts and baking shows in york uk,dahlia shows in york yorkshire uk,gladioli shows in york yorkshire uk,chrysanthemum shows in york yorkshire uk, auricula shows in york yorkshire uk, sweet pea shows in york yorkshire uk |url=http://www.ancientsocietyofyorkflorists.co.uk/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181112171754/http://ancientsocietyofyorkflorists.co.uk/ |archive-date=2018-11-12 |access-date=2016-07-13 |website=www.ancientsocietyofyorkflorists.co.uk}}</ref> Additionally, [[Royal Horticultural Society|The Royal Horticultural Society]], established in 1804, is a charity in United Kingdom that leads on the encouragement and improvement of the science, art, and practice of horticulture in all its branches.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Royal Horticultural Society, UK charity focussed on the art, science and practice of horticulture. |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/science |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190526150441/https://www.rhs.org.uk/science |archive-date=2019-05-26 |access-date=2018-01-13 |website=The Royal Horticultural Society Website}}</ref> The organization shares the knowledge of horticulture through its community, learning programs, and world-class gardens and shows.{{Cn|date=August 2021}}

The [[Chartered Institute of Horticulture]] (CIH) is the Chartered professional body for horticulturists and horticultural scientists representing all sectors of the horticultural industry across Great Britain, Ireland and overseas. While horticulture is an unregulated profession in the United Kingdom, the title of Chartered Horticulturalist is regulated by the CIH.<ref>{{cite web |title=Chartered Horticulturist |url=https://www.regulated-professions.service.gov.uk/professions/chartered-horticulturist |website=[[GOV.UK]] |access-date=3 January 2025}}</ref> The [[Australian Institute of Horticulture]] and [[Australian Society of Horticultural Science]] were established in 1990 as a professional society to promote and enhance Australian horticultural science and industry.<ref>{{cite web |title=Australian Society of Horticultural Science – Australian Society of Horticultural Science |url=http://aushs.org.au/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119180941/http://aushs.org.au/ |archive-date=2023-01-19 |access-date=2016-06-11}}</ref> Finally, the New Zealand Horticulture Institute is another known horticultural organization.<ref>{{cite web |title=RNZIH – Royal New Zealand Institute of Horticulture – Home Page |url=https://www.rnzih.org.nz/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119180944/https://www.rnzih.org.nz/ |archive-date=2023-01-19 |access-date=2012-10-26}}</ref>

In India, the Horticultural Society of India (now the Indian Academy of Horticultural Sciences) is the oldest society; it was established in 1941 at [[Lyallpur]], Punjab (now in Pakistan) but was later shifted to [[Delhi]] in 1949.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Headquarters |url=https://www.iahs.org.in/headquarters/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819171137/https://www.iahs.org.in/headquarters/ |archive-date=2021-08-19 |access-date=2021-08-19 |website=IAHS |language=en-US}}</ref> The other notable organization in operation since 2005 is the Society for Promotion of Horticulture based at Bengaluru.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SPH |url=https://sph.iihr.res.in/about_us.php |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819171138/https://sph.iihr.res.in/about_us.php |archive-date=2021-08-19 |access-date=2021-08-19 |website=sph.iihr.res.in}}</ref> Both these societies publish scholarly journals – Indian Journal of Horticulture and [[Journal of Horticultural Sciences]] for the advancement of horticultural sciences.{{Cn|date=August 2021}} Horticulture in the Indian state of [[Kerala]] is led by [[Kerala State Horticulture Mission]].{{Citation needed|date=December 2024}}

The [[National Junior Horticultural Association]] (NJHA) was established in 1934 and was the first organization in the world dedicated solely to youth and horticulture. NJHA programs are designed to help young people obtain a basic understanding of horticulture and develop horticultural skills.<ref>{{cite web |title=Home – NJHA |url=http://www.njha.org/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119180942/https://www.njha.org/ |archive-date=2023-01-19 |access-date=2016-06-11}}</ref>

The Global Horticulture Initiative (GlobalHort) fosters partnerships and collective action among different stakeholders in horticulture. This organization focuses on horticulture for development (H4D), which involves using horticulture to reduce poverty and improve nutrition worldwide. GlobalHort is organized in a consortium of national and international organizations which collaborate in research, training, and technology-generating activities designed to meet mutually agreed-upon objectives. GlobalHort is a non-profit organization registered in Belgium.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Global Horticulture Initiative |url=http://www.globalhort.org/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180413061926/http://www.globalhort.org/ |archive-date=2018-04-13 |access-date=2016-06-11}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Agriculture and Agronomy|Gardening}}
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Agricultural science]]
* [[Cultivated plant taxonomy]]
* [[Forest gardening]]
* [[Genetically modified tree]]s
* [[Genomics of domestication]]
* [[Grow light]]
* [[Hoe-farming]]
* [[Horticultural flora]]
* [[Horticultural oil]]
* [[Horticultural therapy]]
* [[Indigenous horticulture]]
* [[Permaculture]]
* [[Photosynthetically active radiation]]
* [[Plant nutrition]]
* [[Plug (horticulture)]]
* [[Tropical horticulture]]
* [[Turf management]]
* [[Vertical farming]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* C.R. Adams, ''Principles of Horticulture''. Butterworth-Heinemann; 5th edition (11 Aug 2008), {{ISBN|0-7506-8694-4}}.

==External links==
{{Wikibooks|Horticulture}}
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150907015307/http://www.horticulture.org.uk/ The Institute of Horticulture] (archived 7 September 2015)
* [https://www.ishs.org/ ISHS – International Society for Horticultural Science]
* [http://www.rhs.org.uk/ The Royal Horticultural Society]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060626042637/http://www.bl.uk/collections/business/hortindu.html British Library] – information on the [[horticulture industry]] (archived 26 June 2006)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120910033023/http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/history/default.html History of Horticulture] (archived 10 September 2012)
* [https://www.fao.org/hortivar HORTIVAR – The FAO Horticulture Cultivars Performance Database]
* [http://www.globalhort.org/ Global Horticulture Initiative – GlobalHort]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20181004103903/http://www.hin.com.au/ Horticulture Information & Resource Library] (archived 4 October 2018)
* [https://passel.unl.edu/ Plant and Soil Sciences eLibrary]
{{div col end}}

{{Horticulture and Gardening}}
{{Forestry}}
{{botany}}
{{Types of societies}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Horticulture| ]]
[[Category:Agronomy]]
[[Category:Agriculture by type]]
[[Category:Plants in culture]]

Koch coinage

2026-03-17T09:05:00Z

IZinePro: new info.

{{Short description|Koch Kingdom (1555 to 1866)}}
[[File:1 Mohur, Cooch Behar, 1847 - 1863.jpg|thumb|Gold mohur of Koch king Narendra Narayan (1847–1863)]]
'''Koch coinage''' or '''Coins of Koch dynasty''', originally called '''Narayani Mudra''', were issued from 1555 to 1866 under the [[Kamata Kingdom|Koch Kingdom]]. It was first introduced by the Koch king [[Nara Narayan]] ({{reign|1544|1587}})<ref>"Gunabhiram Barua mentioned in 'Assam Burunji' that the Cooch Kingdom had no coin before Maharaja Biswa Singha. After the accession on the throne, Maharaja Biswa Singha printed 'Sikka Rupee'. But none of these have been discovered till now."{{harvcol|Haque|2019|p=632}}</ref> in the year of his accession in 1555 A.D or [[Saka Era|Saka]] 1477. Both gold and silver coins were impressed. These Narayani coins prevailed over other neighboring kingdoms of [[Northeast India|Northeast]] India and [[North Bengal]] during this period. Narayani coins were also the medium of trade in some northeastern kingdoms and tribal chiefdoms with [[Northeast Asia]]. From 1866, onwards the circulation of Narayani coins was ceased by the [[Colonial India|British government]]. However, on a few instances after 1866, commemorative coins were impressed for the Raja of [[Cooch Behar State|Cooch Behar]] on the day of his ascendancy.
[[File:Coin of King Nara Narayan.jpg|thumb|Koch Narayani]]
The term "Narayani coins" is derived from the name [[Nara Narayan]] (1554–1587) the last ruler of the undivided Koch dynasty but according to other sources, the term might be derived from Narayan, the royal deity of the Koch kings.<ref>{{harvcol|Haque|2019|pp=631–634}}</ref> Raghudeva, the son of [[Chilarai]] who assumed his full independence over the area between the [[Sankosh River]] and the [[Bhareli River]] that came to known as [[Koch Hajo]] struck his own coins. However, this independence was short lived but the area west of the [[Sankosh River]] known as [[Koch Bihar|Koch Behar]] remained in existence until 1949 and continued issuing coins till very late.<ref>{{harvcol|Shamoon||p=524}}</ref>

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

== References ==
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book |last1=Haque |first1=Md.Jahirul |url=https://www.academia.edu/39052010 |title=Origin, Expansion and Abolition of Narayani Coins of the Princely state of Cooch Behar |work=International Journal of Advanced Research (IJAR) |date=2019 |publisher=International Journal of Advanced Research |pages=631–634}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Shamoon |first1=Ahmad |title=Coins of the Kings of Koch Bihār in Koch Bihar Palace Museum |journal=Indian Journal of Archaeology}}
*{{cite book |last1=Dutta |first1=Debajit |title=Koch coinage a study in historical perspective |date=2015}}
{{refend}}

[[Category:Coins of India| ]]
[[Category:Ancient currencies]]
[[Category:Economic history of India]]
[[Category:History of Assam]]
[[Category:History of Bengal]]

Ministry of Minority Development and Aukaf (Maharashtra)

2026-03-07T10:47:37Z

IZinePro:

{{Short description|Maharashtra government ministry responsible for Minority Development and Aukaf}}{{Infobox government agency
| native_name_a =
| type = ministry
| name = Ministry of Minority Development and Aukaf [[Government of Maharashtra]]
| native_name = '''मंत्रालय अल्पसंख्याक विकास व औकाफ विभाग, महाराष्ट्र शासन'''
| seal = File:Seal of Maharashtra.svg
| seal_width = 200
| seal_caption = [[Emblem of Maharashtra|Seal of the state of Maharashtra]]
| logo =
| logo_width =
| logo_caption =
| picture = Mantralay of Mumbai, Administrative Headquarters 03.jpg
| picture_caption = Building of Administrative Headquarters of Mumbai
| picture_width =
| jurisdiction = {{flagicon|India}} [[Maharashtra]]
| headquarters = [[Mantralaya, Mumbai|Mantralay]], [[Mumbai]]
| minister1_name = '''[[Sunetra Pawar|Sunetra Ajit Pawar]]'''
| minister1_pfo = <br />[[Government of Maharashtra|Deputy Chief Minister of Maharashtra and also Minister of Minority Affairs]]
| deputyminister1_name = '''[[Madhuri Misal]]'''
|deputyminister1_pfo = <br />[[Government of Maharashtra|Minister of State]]
| child1_agency =
| child2_agency =
| website =
| formed =
| employees =
| budget =
| chief1_name = ([[Indian Administrative Service|IAS]])
| chief1_position =
| chief2_name =
| chief2_position =
| parent_department = [[Government of Maharashtra]]
}}

The '''Ministry of Minority Development and Aukaf''' is a Ministry of the [[Government of Maharashtra]]. It looks after the affairs of the developoment of minorities which include Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, Buddhists, Zoroastrians (Parsis) and Jains. These sections are notified as minority communities in the Gazette of India under Section 2(c) of the National Commission for Minorities Act, 1992. for the development of [[Maharashtra]] state.

The Ministry is headed by a [[Cabinet (government)|cabinet level]] Minister. '''[[Sunetra Pawar|Sunetra Ajit Pawar]]''' is Current Deputy Chief Minister and Minister of Minority Development and Aukaf [[Government of Maharashtra]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2026-02-10 |title=Maharashtra: Sunetra Pawar to take charge as first woman Deputy CM of state today |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/maharashtra/sunetra-pawar-take-charge-as-first-woman-deputy-cm-of-maharashtra-february-10-2026/article70613748.ece |access-date=2026-02-27 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=New Maha Deputy CM Sunetra Pawar gets excise, sports, minority affairs portfolios; CM Fadnavis holds finance, planning |url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/india/new-maha-deputy-cm-sunetra-pawar-gets-excise-sports-minority-affairs-portfolios-cm-fadnavis-holds-finance-planning-13801807.html |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20260219021117/https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/india/new-maha-deputy-cm-sunetra-pawar-gets-excise-sports-minority-affairs-portfolios-cm-fadnavis-holds-finance-planning-13801807.html |archive-date=2026-02-19 |access-date=2026-02-27 |website=Moneycontrol |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Head office==
{{Infobox political post
| insignia = Seal of Maharashtra (1).svg
| insigniasize = 150px
| insigniacaption = [[Emblem of India]]
| department = Ministry of Minority Development and Aukaf (Maharashtra)
| style = [[The Honourable]]
| post = {{big|Minister of Minority Development and Aukaf}}<br>'''मंत्री अल्पसंख्याक विकास व औकाफ विभाग '''
|image=
| incumbent = [[Sunetra Pawar|Sunetra Ajit Pawar]] <br>(Deputy Chief Minister)
| incumbentsince = 31 January 2026
| member_of = State Cabinet
| reports_to = '''[[Chief Minister of Maharashtra|Chief Minister]]''',<br> &
'''[[Maharashtra Legislature]]'''
| seat = [[Mantralaya, Mumbai]]
| appointer = '''[[Governor of Maharashtra|Governor]]''' on the advice of the <br>'''[[Chief Minister of Maharashtra|Chief Minister]]'''
| termlength = 5 years
| inaugural = '''[[Abdul Kader Salebhoy]]'''<br>
<small>(1960-1962)</small>
| precursor = '''[[Devendra Fadnavis]]''' <br>
<small>(2026-2026)</small>
| deputy =
* ''' [[Madhuri Misal]] '''
| formation = 1 May 1960
| body =
| flag = Flag of India.svg
| flagsize = 110px
| flagcaption = [[Flag of India]]
| flagborder = yes
| website =
| abbreviation = Cabinet Minister
}}

==Cabinet Ministers==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! rowspan="2" |No.
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" |Portrait
! rowspan="2" style="width:16em" |Minister<br>{{small|(Constituency)}}
! colspan="3" |Term of office
! rowspan="2" style="width:8em" |Political party
! rowspan="2"| Ministry
! rowspan="2" style="width:9em" |Chief Minister
|-
!style="width:6em"| From
!style="width:6em"| To
!Period
|-
!colspan="10"| Minister of Minority Development and Aukaf
|-
|01
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
|
|'''Sultan. G. Kazi''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Council|MLC]] for Elected by Local Authorities Constituency No. 14 - <br /> [[Ahmednagar District]]) <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Council|Legislative Council]])'''''}}
|{{small|01 May}}<br>1960
|{{small|07 March}}<br>1962
!{{ayd|1960|05|01|1962|03|07}}
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|bgcolor="#87CEEB"| [[First Yashwantrao Chavan ministry (Maharashtra)|'''Yashwantrao I''']]
|rowspan="2" |[[File:Yashwantrao Chavan 2010 stamp of India.jpg|75px]] <br>[[Yashwantrao Chavan]]
|-
|02
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
|
|'''[[Abdul Kader Salebhoy]]''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Mumbai South Central Constituency No. 180]]- <br />[[Mumbai City District]]) <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}
|{{small|08 March}}<br>1962
|{{small|19 November}}<br>1962
!{{ayd|1962|03|08|1962|11|19}}
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|bgcolor="#87CEEB"| [[Second Yashwantrao Chavan ministry|'''Yashwantrao II''']]
|-
|03
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
|
|'''[[Abdul Kader Salebhoy]]''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Mumbai South Central Constituency No. 180]]- <br />[[Mumbai City District]]) <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}
|{{small|20 November}}<br>1962
|{{small|24 November}}<br>1963
!{{ayd|1962|11|20|1963|11|24}}
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|bgcolor="#87CEEB"| [[Kannamwar ministry|'''Kannamwar l''']]
|[[Marotrao Kannamwar]]
|-
|04
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
|
|'''[[P. K. Sawant]]''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Chiplun Assembly constituency|Chiplun Constituency No. 265]]- <br />[[Ratnagiri District]]) <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}} <br />(Interim Chief Minister)
|{{small|25 November}}<br>1962
|{{small|04 December}}<br>1963
!{{ayd|1962|11|25|1962|12|04}}
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|bgcolor="#87CEEB"| [[P. K. Sawant ministry|'''Sawant''']]
|[[P. K. Sawant]]
|-
|05
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
|
| '''[[Balasaheb Desai]]''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Patan, Maharashtra Assembly constituency|Patan Constituency No. 261]]- <br />[[Satara District]]) <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}
|{{small|05 December}}<br>1963
|{{small|01 March}}<br>1967
!{{ayd|1963|12|05|1967|03|01}}
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|bgcolor="#87CEEB"| [[First Vasantrao Naik ministry|'''Vasantrao I''']]
|rowspan="6" |[[File:Vasantrao Naik portrait.jpg|75px]]<br />[[Vasantrao Naik]]
|-
|06
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
|[[File:Shankarrao Chavan 2007 stamp of India.jpg|80px]]
|'''[[Shankarrao Chavan]]''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Bhokar Assembly constituency|Bhokar Constituency No. 85]]- <br />[[Nanded District]]) <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}
|{{small|01 March}}<br>1967
|{{small|27 October}}<br>1969
!{{ayd|1967|03|01|1969|10|27}}
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|rowspan="2" bgcolor="#87CEEB"| [[Second Vasantrao Naik ministry|'''Vasantrao II''']]
|-
|07
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
|[[File:The President of India, Smt. Pratibha Patil.jpg|75px]]
|'''[[Pratibha Patil]]''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Jalgaon City Assembly constituency|Jalgaon City Constituency No. 13]]- <br />[[Jalgaon District]]) <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}
|{{small|27 October}}<br>1969
|{{small|13 March}}<br>1972
!{{ayd|1969|10|27|1972|03|13}}
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|-
|08
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
|[[File:A. R. Antulay with Shivraj Patil (cropped).jpg|80px]]
|'''[[A. R. Antulay|Abdul Rahman Antulay]]''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Shrivardhan Assembly constituency|Shrivardhan Constituency No. 193]]- <br />[[Raigad District]]) <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}
|{{small|13 March}}<br>1972
|{{small|04 April}}<br>1973
!{{ayd|1972|03|13|1973|04|14}}
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|rowspan="3" bgcolor="#87CEEB"| [[Third Vasantrao Naik ministry|'''Vasantrao III''']]
|-
|09
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
|
|'''[[Rafique Zakaria]]''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Council|MLC]] for Elected by MLAs Constituency No. 16 - <br /> [[Mumbai Suburban District]]) <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Council|Legislative Council]])'''''}}
|{{small|04 April}}<br>1973
|{{small|17 Match}}<br>1974
!{{ayd|1973|04|04|1974|03|17}}
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|-
|10
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
|[[File:A. R. Antulay with Shivraj Patil (cropped).jpg|80px]]
|'''[[A. R. Antulay|Abdul Rahman Antulay]]''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Shrivardhan Assembly constituency|Shrivardhan Constituency No. 193]]- <br />[[Raigad District]]) <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}
|{{small|17 Match}}<br>1974
|{{small|21 February}}<br>1975
!{{ayd|1974|03|17|1975|02|21}}
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|-
|11
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
|
|'''[[Rafiq Zakaria]]''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Council|MLC]] for Elected by MLAs Constituency No. 16 - <br /> [[Mumbai Suburban District]]) <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Council|Legislative Council]])'''''}}
|{{small|21 February}}<br>1975
|{{small|23 February}}<br>1976
!{{ayd|1975|02|21|1976|02|23}}
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|rowspan="2" bgcolor="#87CEEB"| [[First Shankarrao Chavan ministry|'''Shankarrao I''']]
|rowspan="2"| [[File:Shankarrao Chavan 2007 stamp of India.jpg|75px]]<br />[[Shankarrao Chavan]]
|-
|12
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
|[[File:Prabha Rau.jpg|80px]]
|'''[[Prabha Rau]]''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Pulgaon Assembly constituency|Pulgaon Constituency No. 41]]- <br />[[Wardha District]]) <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}
|{{small|23 February}}<br>1976
|{{small|16 April}}<br>1977
!{{ayd|1976|02|23|1977|04|16}}
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|-
|13
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
|[[File:The President of India, Smt. Pratibha Patil.jpg|75px]]
|'''[[Pratibha Patil]]''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Jalgaon City Assembly constituency|Jalgaon City Constituency No. 13]]- <br />[[Jalgaon District]]) <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}
|{{small|17 April }}<br>1977
|{{small|07 March}}<br>1978
!{{ayd|1977|04|17|1979|03|07}}
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|rowspan="1" bgcolor="#88CEEB"|[[First Vasantdada Patil ministry|'''Vasantdada I''']]
|rowspan="2" |[[File:Vasantdada Patil (1977).jpg|75px]]<br />[[Vasantdada Patil]]
|-
|14
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
|
|'''[[Baburao Kale]]''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Ghansavangi Jalna Constituency No. 190]]- <br />[[Jalna District]]) <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}
|{{small|07 March}}<br>1978
|{{small|18 July}}<br>1978
!{{ayd|1978|03|07|1978|07|18}}
|[[Indian National Congress]]
| bgcolor="#A3A3FF"|[[Second Vasantdada Patil ministry|'''Vasantdada II''']]
|-
|15
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Janata Party}}"|
|
|'''[[Nihal Ahmed Maulavi Mohammed Usman]]''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Malegaon Central Assembly constituency|Malegaon Central Constituency No. 114]]- <br />[[Nashik District]]) <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}
|{{small|18 July}}<br>1978
|{{small|17 February}}<br>1980
!{{ayd|1978|07|18|1980|02|17}}
|[[Janata Party]]
|rowspan="1" bgcolor="#66FF66"| [[First Pawar ministry|'''Pawar I''']]
|rowspan="1" |[[File:The Union Minister for Agriculture and Food Processing Industries, Shri Sharad Pawar addressing at the launch of the Sahana Group’s New Marathi Channel “Jai Maharashtra”, in Mumbai on April 27, 2013 (cropped).jpg|75px]]<br />[[Sharad Pawar]]
|-
|16
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
|[[File:A. R. Antulay with Shivraj Patil (cropped).jpg|80px]]
|'''[[A. R. Antulay|Abdul Rahman Antulay]]''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Shrivardhan Assembly constituency|Shrivardhan Constituency No. 193]]- <br />[[Raigad District]]) <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}<br /> (Chief Minister)
|{{small|09 June}}<br>1980
|{{small|21 January}}<br>1982
!{{ayd|1980|06|09|1982|01|21}}
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|rowspan="1" bgcolor="#87CEEB"| [[Antulay ministry|'''Antulay''']]
|rowspan="1" |[[File:A. R. Antulay with Shivraj Patil (cropped).jpg|75px]] <br>[[A. R. Antulay|Abdul Rahman Antulay]]
|-
|17
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
|
|'''S. M. I. Aseer''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Ahmednagar South Constituency No. 223]]- <br />[[Ahmednagar District]] <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}
|{{small|21 January}}<br>1982
|{{small|02 February}}<br>1983
!{{ayd|1982|01|21|1983|02|02}}
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|rowspan="1" bgcolor="#87CEEB"| [[Bhosale ministry|'''Bhosale''']]
|rowspan="1" |[[File:Babasaheb Bhosale.png|75px]] <br>[[Babasaheb Bhosale]]
|-
|18
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
|
|'''S. M. I. Aseer''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Ahmednagar South Constituency No. 223]]- <br />[[Ahmednagar District]] <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}
|{{small|07 February}}<br>1983
|{{small|05 March}}<br>1985
!{{ayd|1983|02|07|1985|03|05}}
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|bgcolor="#87CEEB"| [[Third Vasantdada Patil ministry|'''Vasantdada III''']]
|rowspan="2" |[[File:Vasantdada Patil (1977).jpg|75px]]<br />[[Vasantdada Patil]]
|-
|19
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
|
|'''Narendra Mahipati Tidke''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Savner Assembly constituency|Savner Constituency No. 49]]- <br />[[Nagpur District]]) <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}
|{{small|12 March}}<br>1985
|{{small|03 June}}<br>1985
!{{ayd|1985|03|12|1985|06|03}}
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|bgcolor="#87CEEB"| [[Fourth Vasantdada Patil ministry|'''Vasantdada IV''']]
|-
|20
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
|[[File:Shri Sushilkumar Shinde, in New Delhi on August 06, 2009 (cropped).jpg|75px]]
|'''[[Sushilkumar Shinde]]''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Solapur City Central Assembly constituency|Solapur City Central Constituency No. 249]]- <br />[[Solapur District]]) <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}
|{{small|03 June}}<br>1985
|{{small|12 March}}<br>1986
!{{ayd|1985|06|03|1986|03|12}}
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|bgcolor="#87CEEB"| [[Nilangekar ministry|'''Nilangekar''']]
|[[Shivajirao Patil Nilangekar]]
|-
|21
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
|
|'''[[V. Subramanian]]''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|South Mumbai Constituency No. 121]]- <br />[[Mumbai City District]]) <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}
|{{small|12 March}}<br>1986
|{{small|26 June}}<br>1988
!{{ayd|1986|03|12|1988|06|26}}
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|rowspan="1"bgcolor="#87CEEB"| [[Second Shankarrao Chavan ministry|'''Shankarrao II''']]
|rowspan="1" |[[File:Shankarrao Chavan 2007 stamp of India (cropped).jpg|75px]] <br>[[Shankarrao Chavan]]
|-
|22
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
|[[File:Dr._Jamkhanawala_conference.jpg|80px]]
|'''[[Ishaq Jamkhanawala]]''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Nagpada Constituency No. 188]]- <br />[[Mumbai City District]] <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}
|{{small|26 June}}<br>1988
|{{small|03 March}}<br>1990
!{{ayd|1988|06|26|1990|03|03}}
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|rowspan="1" bgcolor="#87CEEB"| [[Second Pawar ministry|'''Pawar II''']]
|rowspan="2" |[[File:Sharad Govindrao Pawar.jpg|75px]] <br>[[Sharad Pawar]]
|-
|23
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
|
|'''Javed Iqbal Khan''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Trombay Assembly constituency|Trombay Constituency No. 177]]- <br />[[Mumbai Suburban District]]) <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}
|{{small|04 March }}<br>1990
|{{small|25 June}}<br>1991
!{{ayd|1990|03|04|1991|06|25}}
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|rowspan="1" bgcolor="#87CEEB"| [[Third Pawar ministry|'''Pawar III''']]
|-
|24
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
|[[File:Padamsinh Bajirao Patil (dr- Saheb) 2014-05-17 06-38.jpg|80px]]
|'''[[Padamsinh Bajirao Patil]]''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Osmanabad Assembly constituency|Osmanabad Constituency No. 242]]- <br />[[Osmanabad District]] <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}
|{{small|25 June}}<br>1991
|{{small|22 February}}<br>1993
!{{ayd|1991|06|25|1993|02|22}}
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|rowspan="1" bgcolor="#87CEEB"| [[Sudhakarrao Naik ministry|'''Sudhakarrao''']]
|rowspan="1" | [[Sudhakarrao Naik]]
|-
|25
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
|
|'''Sarawan Parate''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Council|MLC]] for Elected by MLAs Constituency No. 14 - <br /> [[Kolhapur District]]) <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Council|Legislative Council]])'''''}}
|{{small|06 March}}<br>1993
|{{small|14 March}}<br>1995
!{{ayd|1993|03|06|1995|03|14}}
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|bgcolor="#87CEEB"| [[Fourth Pawar ministry|'''Pawar IV''']]
|[[File:Sharad Govindrao Pawar.jpg|75px]] <br>[[Sharad Pawar]]
|-
|26
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Shiv Sena}}"|
|
|'''[[Sabir Shaikh]]''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Ambarnath Assembly constituency|Ambarnath Constituency No. 140]]- <br />[[Thane District]]) <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}
|{{small|14 March}}<br>1995
|{{small|01 February}}<br>1999
!{{ayd|1995|03|14|1999|02|01}}
|[[Shiv Sena]]
|rowspan="1" bgcolor="{{party color|Shiv Sena}}"| [[Manohar Joshi ministry|'''Joshi''']]
|rowspan="1" | [[File:Manohar Joshi cropped.jpg|75px]] <br>[[Manohar Joshi]]
|-
|27
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Shiv Sena}}"|
|
|'''[[Sabir Shaikh]]''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Ambarnath Assembly constituency|Ambarnath Constituency No. 140]]- <br />[[Thane District]]) <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}
|{{small|01 February}}<br>1999
|{{small|17 October}}<br>1999
!{{ayd|1999|02|01|1999|10|17}}
|[[Shiv Sena]]
|rowspan="1" bgcolor="{{party color|Shiv Sena}}"| [[Narayan Rane ministry|'''Rane''']]
|rowspan="1" |[[File:Narayan Rane (cropped).jpg|75px]] <br>[[Narayan Rane]]
|-
|28
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
|
| '''[[Husain Dalwai]]''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Ratnagiri Khed Constituency No. 266]]- <br />[[Ratnagiri District]]) <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}
|{{small|19 October}}<br>1999
|{{small|16 January}}<br>2003
!{{ayd|1999|10|19|2003|01|16}}
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|rowspan="1" bgcolor="#87CEEB"| [[First Deshmukh ministry|'''Deshmukh I''']]
|rowspan="1" |[[File:Vilasrao_Deshmukh_at_Innovation_Partnerships_Event_May_8,_2012.jpg|75px]] <br/>[[Vilasrao Deshmukh]]
|-
|29
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
|
| '''[[Husain Dalwai]]''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Ratnagiri Khed Constituency No. 266]]- <br />[[Ratnagiri District]]) <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}
|{{small|18 January}}<br>2003
|{{small|01 November}}<br>2004
!{{ayd|2003|01|11|2004|11|01}}
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|rowspan="1" bgcolor="#87CEEB"| [[Sushilkumar Shinde ministry|'''Sushilkumar''']]
|rowspan="1" |[[File:Shri Sushilkumar Shinde, in New Delhi on August 06, 2009 (cropped).jpg|75px]] <br/>[[Sushilkumar Shinde]]
|-
|30
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
|[[File:Vilasrao_Deshmukh_at_Innovation_Partnerships_Event_May_8,_2012.jpg|75px]]
| '''[[Vilasrao Deshmukh]]''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Latur City Assembly constituency|Latur City Constituency No. 235]]- <br /> [[Latur District]]) <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}<br />(Chief Minister)
|{{small|01 November}}<br>2004
|{{small|09 November}}<br>2004
!{{ayd|2004|11|01|2004|11|09}}
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|rowspan="2" bgcolor="#87CEEB"| [[Second Deshmukh ministry|'''Deshmukh II''']]
|rowspan="2" |[[File:Vilasrao_Deshmukh_at_Innovation_Partnerships_Event_May_8,_2012.jpg|75px]] <br/>[[Vilasrao Deshmukh]]
|-
|31
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
|
| '''Anees Ahmed''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Nagpur Central Assembly constituency|Nagpur Central Constituency No. 55]]- <br />[[Nagpur District]] <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}
|{{small|09 November}}<br>2004
|{{small|01 December}}<br>2008
!{{ayd|2004|11|09|2008|12|01}}
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|-
|32
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
|
| '''Anees Ahmed''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Nagpur Central Assembly constituency|Nagpur Central Constituency No. 55]]- <br />[[Nagpur District]] <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}
|{{small|08 December}}<br>2008
|{{small|06 November}}<br>2009
!{{ayd|2008|12|08|2009|11|06}}
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|bgcolor="#87CEEB"| [[First Ashok Chavan ministry|'''Ashok I''']]
|rowspan="2"|[[File:Ashok Chavan With Coat.jpeg|80px]]<br>[[Ashok Chavan]]
|-
|33
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
|
| '''[[Naseem Khan (politician)|Mohammad Naseem Khan]]''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Chandivali Assembly constituency|Chandivali Constituency No. 168]]- <br />[[Mumbai Suburban District]]) <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}
|{{small|07 November}}<br>2009
|{{small|10 November}}<br>2010
!{{ayd|2009|11|07|2010|11|10}}
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|bgcolor="#87CEEB"| [[Second Ashok Chavan ministry|'''Ashok II''']]
|-
|34
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
|
| '''[[Naseem Khan (politician)|Mohammad Naseem Khan]]''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Chandivali Assembly constituency|Chandivali Constituency No. 168]]- <br />[[Mumbai Suburban District]]) <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}
|{{small|11 November}}<br>2010
|{{small|26 September}}<br>2014
!{{ayd|2010|11|11|2014|09|26}}
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|rowspan="1" bgcolor="#87CEEB"| [[Prithviraj Chavan ministry|'''Prithviraj''']]
|rowspan="1"| [[File:Prithviraj Chavan - India Economic Summit 2011.jpg|80px]]<br>[[Prithviraj Chavan]]
|-
|35
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}"|
|
|'''[[Eknath Khadse]]''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Muktainagar Assembly constituency|Muktainagar Constituency No. 20]]- <br />[[Jalgaon District]]) <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}
|{{small|31 October}}<br>2014
|{{small|04 June}}<br>2016
!{{ayd|2014|10|31|2016|06|04}}
|rowspan="1"|[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|rowspan="3" bgcolor="{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}"| [[First Fadnavis ministry|'''Fadnavis I''']]
|rowspan="4" |[[File:Eknath Shinde and Devendra Fadnavis with PM Narendra Modi Cropped(2).jpg|75px]] <br>[[Devendra Fadnavis]]
|-
|36
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}"|
| [[File:Devendra Fadnavis @Vidhan Sabha 04-03-2021.jpg|75px]]
|'''[[Devendra Fadnavis]]''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Nagpur South West Assembly constituency|Nagpur South West Constituency No. 52]]- <br /> [[Nagpur District]]) <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}<br />(Chief Minister)
|{{small|04 June}}<br>2016
|{{small|08 July}}<br>2016
!{{ayd|2016|06|04|2016|07|08}}
|rowspan="1"|[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|-
|37
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}"|
| [[File:Vinod Tawde in 2015.jpg|80px]]
|'''[[Vinod Tawde]]''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Borivali Assembly constituency|Borivali Constituency No. 152]]- <br />[[Mumbai Suburban District]] <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}
|{{small|08 July}}<br>2016
|{{small|12 November}}<br>2019
!{{ayd|2016|07|08|2019|11|12}}
|rowspan="1"|[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|-
|38
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}"|
| [[File:Devendra Fadnavis @Vidhan Sabha 04-03-2021.jpg|75px]]
|'''[[Devendra Fadnavis]]''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Nagpur South West Assembly constituency|Nagpur South West Constituency No. 52]]- <br /> [[Nagpur District]]) <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}<br />(Chief Minister) <br />''(In Charge)''
|{{small|23 November}}<br>2019
|{{small|28 November}}<br>2019
!{{ayd|2019|11|23|2019|11|28}}
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|rowspan="1" bgcolor="{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}"| [[Second Fadnavis ministry|'''Fadnavis II''']]
|-
|39
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Nationalist Congress Party}}"|
|
|'''[[Jayant Patil]]''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Islampur, Maharashtra Assembly constituency|Islampur Constituency No. 283]]- <br />[[Sangli District]]) <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}
|{{small|28 November}}<br>2019
|{{small|30 December}}<br>2019
!{{ayd|2019|11|28|2019|12|30}}
|[[Nationalist Congress Party]]
|rowspan="3" bgcolor="{{party color|Shiv Sena}}"| [[Thackeray ministry|'''Thackeray''']]
|rowspan="3" |[[File:The Chief Minister of Maharashtra, Shri Uddhav Thackeray calling on the Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi, in New Delhi on February 21, 2020 (Uddhav Thackeray) (cropped).jpg|75px]] <br>[[Uddhav Thackeray]]
|-
|40
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Nationalist Congress Party}}"|
| [[File:Hon. Nawab Malik 10th Oct 2019 Kurla Mumbai.jpg|80px]]
|'''[[Nawab Malik]]''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Anushakti Nagar Assembly constituency|Anushakti Nagar Constituency No. 172]]- <br />[[Mumbai Suburban District]]) <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}
|{{small|30 December}}<br>2019
|{{small|27 March}}<br>2022
!{{ayd|2019|12|30|2022|03|27}}
|[[Nationalist Congress Party]]
|-
|41
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Nationalist Congress Party}}"|
|
|'''[[Jitendra Awhad]]''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Mumbra-Kalwa Assembly constituency|Mumbra-Kalwa Constituency No. 149]]- <br />[[Thane District]] <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}
|{{small|27 March}}<br>2022
|{{small|29 June}}<br>2022
!{{ayd|2022|03|27|2022|06|29}}
|[[Nationalist Congress Party]]
|-
|42
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Shiv Sena (2022–present)}}"|
| [[File:Eknath Shinde with PM Narendra Modi Cropped.jpg|75px]]
|'''[[Eknath Shinde]]''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Kopri-Pachpakhadi Assembly constituency|Kopri-Pachpakhadi Constituency No. 147]]- <br /> [[Thane District]]) <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}<br />(Chief Minister) <br />''(In Charge)''
|{{small|30 June}}<br>2022
|{{small|14 August}}<br>2022
!{{ayd|2022|06|30|2022|08|14}}
|[[Shiv Sena (2022–present)]]
|rowspan="3" bgcolor="{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}"| [[Eknath Shinde ministry|'''Eknath''']]
|rowspan="3" |[[File:Eknath Shinde with PM Narendra Modi Cropped.jpg|75px]] <br>[[Eknath Shinde]]
|-
|43
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Shiv Sena (2022–present)}}"|
| [[File:Eknath Shinde with PM Narendra Modi Cropped.jpg|75px]]
|'''[[Eknath Shinde]]''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Kopri-Pachpakhadi Assembly constituency|Kopri-Pachpakhadi Constituency No. 147]]- <br /> [[Thane District]]) <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}<br />(Chief Minister)
|{{small|14 August}}<br>2022
|{{small|14 July}}<br>2023
!{{ayd|2022|08|14|2023|07|14}}
|[[Shiv Sena (2022–present)]]
|-
|44
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Shiv Sena (2022–present)}}"|
|
|'''[[Abdul Sattar (Maharashtra politician)|Abdul Sattar Abdul Nabi]]''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Sillod Assembly constituency|Sillod Constituency No. 104]]- <br />[[Aurangabad district, Maharashtra|Chhatrapati Sambhaji Nagar District]] Also Previously Known [[Aurangabad district, Maharashtra|Aurangabad District]] <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}
|{{small|14 July}}<br>2023
|{{small|26 November}}<br>2024
!{{ayd|2023|07|14|2024|11|26}}
|[[Shiv Sena (2022–present)]]
|-
|45
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}"|
|[[File:Devendra Fadnavis @Vidhan Sabha 04-03-2021.jpg|75px]]
|'''[[Devendra Fadnavis]]''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Nagpur South West Assembly constituency|Nagpur South West Constituency No. 52]]- <br /> [[Nagpur District]]) <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}<br />(Chief_Minister) <br />''In Charge''
|{{small|05 December}}<br>2024
|{{small|21 December}}<br>2024
!{{ayd|2024|12|05|2024|12|21}}
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|rowspan="6" bgcolor="{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}"| [[Third Fadnavis ministry|'''Fadnavis III''']]
|rowspan="6" |[[File:Eknath Shinde and Devendra Fadnavis with PM Narendra Modi Cropped(2).jpg|75px]] <br>[[Devendra Fadnavis]]
|-
|46
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Nationalist Congress Party}}"|
| [[File:Dattatray Bharane.jpg|75px]]
|'''[[Dattatray Vithoba Bharne]]''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Indapur Assembly constituency|Indapur Constituency No. 200]]- <br />[[Pune District]] <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}
|{{small|21 December}}<br>2024
|{{small|31 July}}<br>2025
!{{ayd|2024|12|21|2025|07|31}}
|[[Nationalist Congress Party]]
|-
|47
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Nationalist Congress Party}}"|
|
|'''[[Manikrao Kokate]]''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Sinnar Assembly constituency|Sinnar Constituency No. 120]]- <br />[[Nashik District]] <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}
|{{small|31 July}}<br>2025
|{{small|17 December}}<br>2025
!{{ayd|2025|07|31|2025|12|18}}
|[[Nationalist Congress Party]]
|-
|48
|bgcolor="{{party color|Nationalist Congress Party}}"|
| [[File:Ajit Pawar.jpg|70px]]
| '''[[Ajit Pawar]]''' <br>{{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Baramati Assembly constituency|Baramati Constituency No. 201]]- [[Pune District]] '''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}} <br>(Deputy Chief Minister) <br>Additional Charge
|{{small|17 December}}<br>2025
|{{small|28 January}}<br>2026
!{{ayd|2025|12|17|2026|01|28}}
|[[Nationalist Congress Party]]
|-
|49
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}"|
| [[File:Devendra Fadnavis @Vidhan Sabha 04-03-2021.jpg|75px]]
|'''[[Devendra Fadnavis]]''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Nagpur South West Assembly constituency|Nagpur South West Constituency No. 52]]- <br /> [[Nagpur District]]) <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}<br />(Chief Minister) <br />Additional Charge
|{{small|28 January}}<br>2026
|{{small|31 January}}<br>2026
!{{ayd|2026|01|28|2026|01|31}}
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|-
|50
|bgcolor="{{party color|Nationalist Congress Party}}"|
|
| '''[[Sunetra Pawar|Sunetra Ajit Pawar]]''' <br /> {{small|(Not Elected Any Constituency of Maharashtra Legislature- <br />[[Pune District]]) <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]] / [[Maharashtra Legislative Council|Legislative Council]])'''''}} <br />(Deputy Chief Minister)
|{{small|31 January}}<br>2026
|Incumbent
!{{ayd|2026|01|31}}
|[[Nationalist Congress Party]]
|-
|}

==Ministers of State ==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! rowspan="2" |No.
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" |Portrait
! rowspan="2" style="width:16em" |Deputy Minister<br>{{small|(Constituency)}}
! colspan="3" |Term of office
! rowspan="2" style="width:8em" |Political party
! rowspan="2"| Ministry
! rowspan="2" style="width:9em" |Minister
! rowspan="2" style="width:9em" |Chief Minister
|-
!style="width:6em"| From
!style="width:6em"| To
!Period
|-
!colspan="11"| Deputy Minister of Minority Development and Aukaf
|-
!colspan="04"| '''''Vacant'''''
|{{small|23 November}}<br>2019
|{{small|28 November}}<br>2019
!{{ayd|2019|11|23|2019|11|28}}
|NA
|rowspan="1" bgcolor="{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}"| [[Second Fadnavis ministry|'''Fadnavis II''']]
|[[Devendra Fadnavis]]
|rowspan="1" |[[File:Eknath Shinde and Devendra Fadnavis with PM Narendra Modi Cropped(2).jpg|75px]] <br>[[Devendra Fadnavis]]
|-
|01
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
|[[File:240916-vishwajeet-kadam.jpg|75px]]
|'''[[Vishwajeet Kadam]]''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Palus-Kadegaon Assembly constituency|Palus-Kadegaon Constituency No. 285]]- <br />[[Sangli District]]) <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}
|{{small|30 December}}<br>2019
|{{small|29 June}}<br>2022
!{{ayd|2019|12|30|2022|06|29}}
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|rowspan="1" bgcolor="{{party color|Shiv Sena}}"| [[Thackeray ministry|'''Thackeray''']]
|
*[[Nawab Malik]]<br>(2019 - 2021)
*[[Jitendra Awhad]]<br>(2021 - 2022)
|rowspan="1" |[[File:The Chief Minister of Maharashtra, Shri Uddhav Thackeray calling on the Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi, in New Delhi on February 21, 2020 (Uddhav Thackeray) (cropped).jpg|75px]] <br>[[Uddhav Thackeray]]
|-
!colspan="04"| '''''Vacant '''''
|{{small|30 June}}<br>2022
|{{small|26 November}}<br>2024
!{{ayd|2022|06|30|2024|11|26}}
|NA
|rowspan="1" bgcolor="{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}"| [[Eknath Shinde ministry|'''Eknath''']]
|
*[[Eknath Shinde]]<br>(2022 - 2023)
*[[Abdul Sattar (Maharashtra politician)|Abdul Sattar Abdul Nabi]]<br> (2023 - 2024)
|rowspan="1" |[[File:Eknath Shinde with PM Narendra Modi Cropped.jpg|75px]] <br>[[Eknath Shinde]]
|-
|02
|style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}"|
|
|'''[[Madhuri Misal]]''' <br /> {{small|([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]] for [[Parvati Assembly constituency|Parvati Constituency No. 212]]- <br />[[Pune District]]) <br />'''''([[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]])'''''}}
|{{small|21 December}}<br>2024
|''incumbent''
!{{ayd|2024|12|21}}
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|rowspan="2" bgcolor="{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}"| [[Third Fadnavis ministry|'''Fadnavis III''']]
| rowspan="1"|
*[[Dattatray Vithoba Bharne]] <br>(2024 – 2025)
*[[Manikrao Kokate]] <br>(2025 – 2025)
*[[Ajit Pawar]] Additional Charge<br>(2025 – 2026)
*[[Devendra Fadnavis]] Additional Charge<br>(2026 – 2026)
*[[Sunetra Pawar]] <br>(2026 – Present)
|rowspan="1" |[[File:Eknath Shinde and Devendra Fadnavis with PM Narendra Modi Cropped(2).jpg|75px]] <br>[[Devendra Fadnavis]]
|-
|}

==Sub department==
[[Maharashtra State Board of Waqfs]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{State agencies of Maharashtra}}

[[Category:Government of Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Government ministries of Maharashtra]]

Subba Shastry

2026-03-05T18:14:03Z

IZinePro: cleanup

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Subba Shastry
| image =
| caption =
| director = M. V. Krishnaswamy
| producer = M. V. Krishnaswamy
| story = [[A. N. Murthy Rao]]
| based_on = Drama ''Aashadabhoothi''
| writer = [[A. N. Murthy Rao]] (dialogues)
| screenplay = A. N. Murthy Rao<br>M. V. Krishnaswamy
| starring = [[Kalyan Kumar]]<br>[[K. S. Ashwath]]<br>Arunkumar<br>Shivaraj<br>[[Chandrakala]]<br>Harini
| music = [[Doreswamy Iyengar]]<br>S. Krishnamurthy
| cinematography = H. M. K. Murthy
| editing = S. Jayaram<br>A. Rameshan
| studio = Sriranga Productions
| distributor = Sriranga Productions
| released = {{Film date|1966|||df=y}}
| runtime = 133 minutes
| country = India
| language = Kannada
}}

'''''Subba Shastry''''' ({{audio|Kn-ಸುಬ್ಬಾಶಾಸ್ತ್ರಿ.ogg|pronunciation}}) is a 1966 Indian [[Kannada]]-language film, directed and produced by M. V. Krishnaswamy. The film is based on the play ''Aashadhabhoothi'' by [[A. N. Murthy Rao]]. It stars [[Kalyan Kumar]], [[K. S. Ashwath]], Arunkumar, [[Chandrakala]], [[Harini (Kannada actress)|Harini]], [[Mynavathi]] and G V Shivanand. The film has musical score by [[Doreswamy Iyengar]] and S. Krishnamurthy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://chiloka.com/movie/subba-shastry-1966|title=Subba Shastry|accessdate=2015-01-29|publisher=chiloka.com}}</ref>

==Cast==
{{cast listing|
*[[Kalyan Kumar]]
*[[K. S. Ashwath]]
*Arunkumar
*Shivaraj
*G. V. Shivanand
*M. S. Subbanna
*L. N. Swamy
*[[Harini (Kannada actress)|Harini]]
*[[Chandrakala]]
*Lakshmamma
*[[Mynavathi]] in a cameo
*K. B. Gopinath
*M. R. Subramanyam
*K. N. Shanthadevi
*Sharada
*Indira
*[[Bhargavi Narayan]]
}}

==Soundtrack==
The music was composed by [[Doreswamy Iyengar]] and S. Krishnamurthy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://play.raaga.com/kannada/album/Subbashastry-songs-K0001145|title=Subbashastry Songs|accessdate=2015-01-29|website=[[Raaga.com]]}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
! No. !! Song !! Singers !! Lyrics !! Length (m:ss)
|-
| 1 || "Kalabeda Kolabeda" ||rowspan=4|[[M. Balamuralikrishna]] || [[Basavanna]] || 1:27
|-
| 2 || "Karaarvindhena" || [[Purandaradasa]] || 1:57
|-
| 3 || "Lokanmudayan" || [[Kanakadasa]] || 4:29
|-
| 4 || "Sree Mathapay Onindhi" Purandaradasa || 4:20
|-
| 5 || "Krishnana Kolalina Kare" || [[Srirangam Gopalaratnam]] || [[P. T. Narasimhachar]] || 4:00
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{YouTube|id=LLB9OXICYBc|title=Subba Shastry}}

[[Category:1966 Kannada-language films]]
[[Category:1966 Indian films]]

{{1960s-Kannada-film-stub}}

Mukti Bahini

2026-02-28T05:35:46Z

IZinePro: minor edit

{{Short description|Bangladeshi guerrilla movement}}
{{EngvarB|date=April 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2017}}

{{Infobox war faction
| name = Mukti Bahini
| native_name = {{ubl|মুক্তিবাহিনী|{{literally|Liberation Army}}}}
| native_name_lang = bn
| war = [[Bangladesh Liberation War|Bangladeshi War of Independence]]
| image = [[File:Flag of the Mukti Bahini-DeFacto.svg|border|220px]]
| caption = Mukti Bahini Flag
| active = March–December 1971
| motives = [[Independence of Bangladesh]]
| ideology = [[Bengali nationalism]]<br>[[Republicanism]]<br>[[Separatism]] <br> '''Factions:''' <br>[[Socialism]]
| position = [[Big tent]]
| clans = [[Bangladesh Army]] <br /> ∟ [[K Force (Bangladesh)|K Force]]<br /> ∟ [[S Force (Bangladesh)|S Force]]<br /> ∟ [[Z Force (Bangladesh)|Z Force]]<br /> [[Bangladesh Navy]]<br /> [[Bangladesh Air Force]]<br /> [[Bangladesh Rifles]]<br />[[Bangladesh Ansar]]<br />[[Bangladesh Police]]<br />
Special Guerrilla Forces <br /> ∟ [[Gonobahini (Mukti Bahini)|Gono Bahini]]<br /> ∟ [[Mujib Bahini]]<br /> ∟ [[Kader Bahini]]<br /> ∟ [[Hemayet Bahini]]<br /> ∟ [[Afsar Bahini]]<br /> ∟ [[Baten Bahini]]<br /> ∟ [[Akbar Bahini]]<br /> ∟ [[Khalil Bahini]]<br /> ∟ [[Crack Platoon]]
| leaders = [[General (Bangladesh)|General]] [[M. A. G. Osmani]], {{small|''Commander-in-Chief''}}<br />[[Major general (Bangladesh)|Major General]] [[M. A. Rab]], {{small|''Chief of Staff''}}<br />Air Vice Marshal [[A K Khandker]], {{small|''Deputy Chief of Staff''}}
| headquarters = [[Mujibnagar]], [[Meherpur District|Meherpur]] (''[[de jure]]'')<br>[[Calcutta]], India (''[[de facto]]'')
| area = [[East Pakistan]]
| partof = {{flagicon image|Flag of Bangladesh (1971).svg}} [[Provisional Government of Bangladesh]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Lal |first=PC |author-link=Pratap Chandra Lal |title=My Years with the IAF |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eBszCSguEscC&pg=PT168 |year=1986 |publisher=Lancer International |page=153 |isbn=978-1-935501-75-6}}</ref>
| successor = [[Bangladesh Armed Forces]]
| allies = {{flagcountry|India}}<br />{{flagcountry|Soviet Union}}
| opponents = '''State opponents'''
*{{flag|Pakistan}}
'''Non-state opponents'''
*{{flagicon image|Jamaat-e-Islami Pakistan Flag.svg}} [[Jamaat-e-Islami Pakistan|Jamaat-e-Islami]]
*{{flagicon image|PJT.SINa.png}} [[Islami Jamiat-e-Talaba|Islami Chhatra Sangha]]
*[[East Pakistan Central Peace Committee]]
*[[Razakar (Pakistan)|Razakar]]
*[[Al-Badr (East Pakistan)|Al-Badr]]
*[[Al-Shams (East Pakistan)|Al-Shams]]
*{{flagicon image|PBSP-Flag.png}} [[Proletarian Party of East Bengal]]
*{{flagicon image|South Asian Communist Banner.svg}} [[Purbo Banglar Communist Party]]
| battles = [[Bangladesh Liberation War]]<br>[[Indo-Pakistani war of 1971]]<br>[[Battle of Gazipur]]<br />[[Battle of Goalhati]]<br />[[Battle of Garibpur]]<br />[[Battle of Kamalpur]]<br />[[Battle of Dhalai Outpost|Battle of Dhalai]]<br />[[Battle of Rangamati-Mahalchari waterway|Battle of Rangamati]]<br />[[Battle of Kushtia]]<br />[[Battle of Daruin]]<br />[[Operation Barisal]]<br />[[Operation Jackpot]]<br />[[Operation Hotel Intercontinental]] <small>(Conducted via [[Crack Platoon]])</small>
| identification_symbol_label = Ceremonial flag
| identification_symbol_2 = [[File:Flag of Bangladesh (1971).svg|centre|border|100px]]
| identification_symbol_2_label = {{nowrap|[[War flag]]}}
}}
{{Campaignbox Bangladesh Liberation War}}
The '''Mukti Bahini''',{{efn|{{langx|bn|মুক্তি বাহিনী|Mukti Bāhinī|Liberation Army/Force}}, Bangla pronunciation: {{IPA|bn|ˈmukt̪i ˈbaɦini|}}}} initially called the '''Mukti Fauj''',<ref>{{Cite Banglapedia|article=Mukti Bahini}}</ref> also known as the '''Bangladesh Forces''', was a [[big tent]] armed guerrilla [[resistance movement]] consisting of the [[East Pakistan]]i military personnel, paramilitary personnel and civilians during the [[Bangladesh Liberation War]] that turned East Pakistan into [[Bangladesh]] in 1971.<ref name="Alagappa2001p212">{{cite book |editor-last1=Alagappa |editor-first1=Muthiah |year=2001 |title=Coercion and governance : the declining political role of the military in Asia |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |pages=212 |isbn=0-8047-4227-8}}</ref>

On 7 March 1971, [[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]], the undisputed leader of then East Pakistan, issued [[7 March Speech of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman|a call]] to the people of East Pakistan to prepare themselves for an all-out struggle.<ref name=BanglapediaOS>{{Cite Banglapedia|article=Operation Searchlight}}</ref> Later that evening resistance demonstrations began,<ref name="BanglapediaOS" /> and the [[West Pakistan|West Pakistani]] military began a full-scale attack with [[Operation Searchlight]] killing thousands in the early hours of 26 March 1971, which continued through May 1971.<ref name=BanglapediaOS/><ref>{{cite book |last=Benvenisti |first=Eyal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f19hVb54_s8C&pg=PA189 |title=The International Law of Occupation |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-19-163957-9 |edition=2nd |page=189 |quote=Although India portrayed itself at that time as neutral, the Indian government in fact nurtured the Bangladeshi Mukti Bahini (liberation army) guerrillas and the Awami League. [[India]] supplied them with arms, ammunition, and logistical support, and permitted them to recruit and train volunteers, most of the refugees, on Indian soil. |author-link=Eyal Benvenisti |orig-year=First published 1992}}</ref><ref name="Jahan1973">{{cite journal |last=Jahan |first=Rounaq |author-link=Rounaq Jahan |date=February 1973 |title=Bangladesh in 1972: Nation Building in a New State |journal=[[Asian Survey]] |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=199–210 |doi=10.2307/2642736 |jstor=2642736}}</ref> Before his arrest on 26 March, East Pakistani leaders [[Proclamation of Bangladeshi Independence|declared]] the [[independence of Bangladesh]], and ordered the people to engage in all-out war.

A formal military leadership of the resistance was created in April 1971 under the [[Provisional Government of Bangladesh]]. The military council was headed by General [[M. A. G. Osmani]]<ref>''Unconventional Warfare in South Asia: Shadow Warriors and Counterinsurgency'', Gates and Roy, Routledge, 2016</ref> and eleven [[List of sectors in Bangladesh Liberation War|sector commanders]].<ref name="Tripathi2016">''The Colonel Who Would Not Repent: The Bangladesh War and Its Unquiet Legacy'', [[Salil Tripathi]], Yale University Press, 2016, p. 146.</ref> The [[Bangladesh Armed Forces]] were established on 4 April 1971. The most prominent divisions of the Mukti Bahini were the [[Z Force (Bangladesh)|Z Force]] led by Major [[Ziaur Rahman]], the [[K Force (Bangladesh)|K Force]] led by Major [[Khaled Mosharraf]] and the [[S Force (Bangladesh)|S Force]] led by Major [[K M Shafiullah]]. [[Awami League]] student leaders formed subgroups, including the [[Mujib Bahini]], the [[Kader Bahini]] and [[Hemayet Bahini]].<ref name="Tripathi2016"/> The [[Communist Party of Bangladesh]], led by Comrade [[Moni Singh]], and activists from the [[National Awami Party]] also operated several guerrilla battalions.<ref>''Communist and Marxist parties of the world'', Charles Hobday, Longman, 1986, p. 228</ref>

Using [[guerrilla warfare]] tactics, the Mukti Bahini secured control over large parts of the Bengali countryside. It conducted successful "[[ambush]] and [[sabotage]]" campaigns,<ref name="cdrb.org">{{cite journal |last=Jamal |first=Ahmed Abdullah |date=October–December 2008 |title=Mukti Bahini and the Liberation War of Bangladesh: A Review of Conflicting Views |url=http://www.cdrb.org/journal/2008/4/1.pdf |journal=Asian Affairs |publisher=Centre for Development Research, Bangladesh |volume=30 |issue=4 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103014904/http://www.cdrb.org/journal/2008/4/1.pdf |archive-date=3 January 2015}}</ref> and included the nascent [[Bangladesh Air Force]] and the [[Bangladesh Navy]]. The Mukti Bahini received training and weapons from [[India]],<ref name="Time Photo Gallery"/> where people in [[West Bengal]] shared a common Bengali ethnic and linguistic heritage with East Pakistan.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fraser |first=Bashabi |author1-link=Bashabi Fraser |year=2008 |title=Bengal Partition Stories: An Unclosed Chapter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zW30rV_UAskC |publisher=Anthem Press |page=7 |isbn=978-184331-299-4}}</ref>

During the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971]], the Mukti Bahini became part of the [[Mitro Bahini|Bangladesh-India Allied Forces]].<ref name="Stanton2012">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GtCL2OYsH6wC|title=Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia|last=Stanton|first=Andrea L.|year=2012|publisher=Sage|isbn=9781412981767|page=170|language=en|access-date=22 April 2016|archive-date=7 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307201327/https://books.google.com/books?id=GtCL2OYsH6wC|url-status=live}}</ref> It was instrumental in securing the [[Surrender of Pakistan]] and the liberation of [[Dhaka]] and other cities in December 1971.<ref name="Stanton2012" /><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thedailystar.net/news/the-battle-for-bangladesh|title=The battle for Bangladesh|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)]]|access-date=22 April 2016|date=16 December 2013|archive-date=10 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510123039/http://www.thedailystar.net/news/the-battle-for-bangladesh|url-status=live}}</ref>

==History==

===Background===

[[East Pakistan]] [[Bangla Language Movement|campaigned]] against the usage of [[Urdu]] as the sole [[official language]] of [[Pakistan]]. The [[Awami League]] had won the majority in the [[1970 Pakistani general election]]. [[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]], as the leader of the Awami League, was prevented from forming a government.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Jasbir |title=Combat diary |year=2010 |publisher=Lancer |location=New Delhi |isbn=9781935501183 |pages=225}}</ref> [[Bengali language|Bengali]] was the only language in Pakistan not written in the [[Arabic script|Persian-Arabic script]]. The [[merger (politics)|merger]] of the provinces of [[West Pakistan]] into one administrative "unit" caused great suspicion in East Pakistan.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Shafqat |first1=Sahar |editor1-last=DeRouen |editor1-first=Karl Jr |editor2-last=Heo |editor2-first=Uk |year=2007 |chapter=Pakistan (1971) |title=Civil wars of the world : major conflicts since World War II |volume=II |publisher=ABC-CLIO |page=594 |isbn=978-1-85109-919-1}}</ref> Pakistan's unwillingness to give autonomy to [[East Bengal]] and Bengali nationalism are both cited as reasons for the separation.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Shafqat |first1=Sahar |editor1-last=DeRouen |editor1-first=Karl Jr |editor2-last=Heo |editor2-first=Uk |year=2007 |chapter=Pakistan (1971) |title=Civil wars of the world : major conflicts since World War II |volume=II |publisher=ABC-CLIO |page=597 |isbn=978-1-85109-919-1}}</ref> The [[1970 Bhola Cyclone]] had caused the death of at least 200,000 and possibly as many as 500,000 people while the infrastructure, transport and other services were severely damaged. The central government of Pakistan was blamed for a slow relief response, which created resentment in the population of East Pakistan. The resentment helped the Awami League to win 167 of the 169 parliamentary seats allocated to East Pakistan which made the Awami League the majority party in the 313 seat parliament of Pakistan.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jalal |first1=Ayesha |author1-link=Ayesha Jalal |title=The struggle for Pakistan: a Muslim homeland and global politics |year=2014 |publisher=Belknap Press of Harvard Univ. Press |isbn=978-0-674-73585-9 |pages=140–141}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Datta |first1=Antara |title=Refugees and borders in South Asia : the great exodus of 1971 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NwIrQbgWigwC&pg=PA6 |access-date=13 February 2016 |year=2012 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-52472-8 |page=6}}</ref> After the 1970 elections, Yahya Khan hoped for a power sharing agreement between Mujib and Bhutto, though talks between them did not result in a solution. Mujib wanted full autonomy, Bhutto advised Yahya to break off talks. On 1 March 1971, General Yahya Khan suspended the [[National Assembly of Pakistan]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Oborne |first1=Peter |author1-link=Peter Oborne |title=Wounded Tiger: A History of Cricket in Pakistan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EXXGBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA207 |access-date=10 January 2016 |year=2014 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |page=207 |isbn=978-0-85720-075-4 |language=en |archive-date=16 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231116041206/https://books.google.com/books?id=EXXGBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA207 |url-status=live }}</ref> which was scheduled to be held on 3 March 1971.

On 7 March 1971, Sheikh Mujib made his now famous speech in Ramna Race course ([[Suhrawardy Udyan]]) where he declared "The struggle this time is for our freedom. The struggle this time is for our independence".<ref>{{cite news |last1=Qasmi |first1=Ali Usman |title=1971 war: Witness to history |url=http://herald.dawn.com/news/1153304 |work=Dawn |location=Pakistan |access-date=9 January 2016 |date=16 December 2015 |archive-date=24 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160124221240/http://herald.dawn.com/news/1153304 |url-status=live }}</ref> East Pakistan television broadcasters started broadcasting [[Rabindranath Tagore|Rabindranath]] songs, a taboo in Pakistan, while reducing the air-time of shows from West Pakistan. Civilian interaction with the Pakistan Army were decreased and they were increasingly seen as an occupying force, while local contractors stopped providing supplies to the Pakistan Army.<ref name="Gates2014">{{cite book |last1=Gates |first1=Scott |last2=Roy |first2=Kaushik |title=Unconventional warfare in South Asia : shadow warriors and counterinsurgency |year=2014 |publisher=Ashgate |location=Farnham |isbn=9781409437062 |pages=116}}</ref> The Pakistan Army also tried to disarm and dismiss personnel of [[Bengali people|Bengali]] origin in the [[East Pakistan Rifles]], the police and the regular army. The Bengali officers [[mutiny|mutinied]] against the Pakistan Army, and attacked officers from West Pakistan.<ref>{{cite book |last1=KrishnaRao |first1=K.V. |title=Prepare or perish : a study of national security |year=1991 |publisher=Lancer Publ. |location=New Delhi |isbn=9788172120016 |pages=168}}</ref> The Pakistan Army's crackdown on the civilian population contributed to the revolt of East Pakistani soldiers, who escaped to [[India]] and formed the main body of the Mukti Bahini.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=K. Kuldip |title=Indian Military Thought Kurushetra to Kargil and Future Perspectives |year=2013 |publisher=Lancer Publishers LLC |page=440 |isbn=978-1-935501-93-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rTG8AQAAQBAJ&q=Mukti+Bahini&pg=PT434 |access-date=9 January 2016 |language=en}}</ref> Sheikh Mujib on 26 March 1971 declared the independence of Bangladesh, while Pakistan's president Yahya Khan declared Mujib a traitor during a national broadcast on the same day.<ref>{{cite news |title=East Pakistan Secedes, Civil war breaks out |url=http://www.thedailystar.net/freedom-in-the-air/stories/58422 |work=Boston Globe |access-date=9 January 2016 |via=The Daily Star |archive-date=23 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223072652/http://www.thedailystar.net/freedom-in-the-air/stories/58422 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Civil war flares in East-Pakistan |url=http://www.thedailystar.net/freedom-in-the-air/stories/59515 |work=The Deseret News |access-date=9 January 2016 |via=The Daily Star |archive-date=23 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223072541/http://www.thedailystar.net/freedom-in-the-air/stories/59515 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Pakistan Army moved infantry and armoured units to East Pakistan in preparation for the coming conflicts.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sharaf |first1=Samson Simon |title=1971: The plight of the viceroys |url=http://nation.com.pk/columns/09-Jan-2016/1971-the-plight-of-the-viceroys |work=The Nation |access-date=9 January 2016 |date=9 January 2016 |archive-date=9 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160109130102/http://nation.com.pk/columns/09-Jan-2016/1971-the-plight-of-the-viceroys |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Early resistance===
[[File:Flag of Bangladesh (1971).svg|thumb|right|250px|[[Flag of Bangladesh]] in 1971, used during the [[Bangladesh Liberation War]].]]
On 25 March, [[martial law]] was declared, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was arrested and [[Operation Searchlight]] started in East Pakistan. Foreign journalists were expelled and the Awami League was banned. Members of the Awami league, the East Pakistan Rifles, the [[East Bengal Regiment]] and others thought to be disloyal to Pakistan were attacked by the Pakistan army. The survivors of the attack would form the backbone of the Mukti Bahini.<ref name="McDermott2014">{{cite book |last1=McDermott |first1=Rachel Fell |last2=Gordon |first2=Leonard A. |author2-link=Leonard A. Gordon |last3=T. Embree |first3=Ainslie |author3-link=Ainslie Embree |last4=Pritchett |first4=Frances W. |last5=Dalton |first5=Dennis |author5-link=Dennis Dalton |year=2014 |title=Sources of Indian Tradition: Modern India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w8qJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA851 |edition=Third |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-231-51092-9 |page=851}}</ref> When the Pakistan Army started the military crackdown on the Bengali population, they did not expect prolonged resistance.<ref>Pakistan Defence Journal, 1977, Vol 2, p2-3</ref> Five battalions of the East Bengal Regiment mutinied and initiated the war for liberation of Bangladesh.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y85KOHHVT5oC|title=War and Secession: Pakistan, India, and the Creation of Bangladesh|last1=Sisson|first1=Richard|last2=Rose|first2=Leo E.|year=1991|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=9780520076655|page=182|language=en}}</ref>

On 27 March, on behalf of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, [[Ziaur Rahman|Major Ziaur Rahman]] declared Bangladesh's independence from Pakistan and fought his way out of Chittagong City with his unit of Bengali soldiers.<ref name="Gates2014"/> In [[Dhaka]], West Pakistani forces began the [[1971 Bangladesh genocide]] with the [[1971 Dhaka University massacre|massacre at Dhaka University]]. Civilians took control of arms depots in various cities and began resisting Pakistani forces with the acquired weapons supply. [[Chittagong]] experienced heavy fighting between rebel Bengali military units and Pakistani forces.{{citation needed|date=October 2023}} The [[Bangladeshi Declaration of Independence]] was broadcast from [[Kalurghat]] Radio Station in Chittagong by Major Rahman on behalf of Sheikh Rahman.<ref name="McDermott2014"/>

Bengali forces took control of numerous districts in the initial months of the war, including [[Brahmanbaria]], [[Faridpur District|Faridpur]], [[Barisal]], [[Mymensingh]], [[Comilla]] and [[Kushtia]] among others. With the support of the local population, many towns remained under the control of Bengali forces until April and May 1971. Notable engagements during this period included the [[Battle of Kamalpur]], the [[Battle of Daruin]] and the [[Battle of Rangamati-Mahalchari waterway]] in the Chittagong Hill Tracts.<ref name="dt17Dec2013">{{cite news |date=17 December 2013 |title=Notable battles in the 11 Sectors |url=http://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2013/dec/17/notable-battles-11-sectors |newspaper=Dhaka Tribune |access-date=27 August 2015 |archive-date=23 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923214612/http://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2013/dec/17/notable-battles-11-sectors |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 18 April, the Deputy High Commission of Pakistan in [[Kolkata]] defected and hoisted the [[flag of Bangladesh]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Badrul Ahsan |first1=Syed |author-link=Syed Badrul Ahsan |date=20 April 2011 |title=Diplomats carrying the torch in 1971 |work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]] |url=http://archive.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details.php?nid=182294 |access-date=10 January 2016 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304102911/http://archive.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details.php?nid=182294 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 17 April, the [[Mujibnagar Government]] was formed.<ref>{{cite news|title=Govt formed in Mujibnagar was not temporary|url=http://www.thedailystar.net/city/govt-formed-mujibnagar-was-not-temporary-78023|work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|access-date=13 February 2016|date=19 April 2015|archive-date=15 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160215234609/http://www.thedailystar.net/city/govt-formed-mujibnagar-was-not-temporary-78023|url-status=live}}</ref>

During May, Foreign Minister [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto]] asked [[General Yahya Khan]] to hand over power in West Pakistan to his party. Khan refused on the grounds that doing so would support the view of Mukti Bahini and the Provisional Government of Bangladesh that East Pakistan was a colony of West Pakistan. Tensions were raised when Bhutto told his followers that "by November [he] would either be in power or in jail".<ref>{{cite news |title=Military Junta Dogs Pakistan |url=http://www.thedailystar.net/freedom-in-the-air/stories/58668 |work=The Daily Star |access-date=10 January 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201200133/http://www.thedailystar.net/freedom-in-the-air/stories/58668 |archive-date=1 February 2016 }}</ref>

On 9 June, Mukti Bahini members hijacked a car and launched a grenade attack on Dhaka Intercontinental Hotel, the office of the Pro-Junta Morning Post and the house of [[Golam Azam]].<ref name="ds6Dec2014">{{cite news |last=Alam |first=Habibul |title=Operation Hotel Intercontinental: "HIT & RUN" |url=http://www.thedailystar.net/operation-hotel-intercontinental-hit-run-53723 |work=The Daily Star |date=6 December 2014 |access-date=23 August 2016 |archive-date=26 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826112250/http://www.thedailystar.net/operation-hotel-intercontinental-hit-run-53723 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===July–November===

====July====
[[File:March71.PNG|thumb|right|upright=1.2|Location of West Pakistani (marked {{colour|green|green}}) and rebel Bangladeshi (marked {{colour|red|red}}) military units in March 1971.]]
The Mukti Bahini divided the war zone into [[List of sectors in Bangladesh Liberation War|eleven sectors]]. The war strategy included a huge guerrilla force operating inside Bangladesh that targeted Pakistani installations through raids, [[ambush]]es and [[sabotage|sabotaging]] West Pakistani-controlled shipping ports, power plants, industries, railways and warehouses. The wide dispersion of West Pakistani forces allowed Bengali guerrillas to target smaller groups of enemy soldiers. Groups ranging in size from five to ten guerrillas were assigned specific missions. Bridges, [[culvert]]s, fuel depots and ships were destroyed to decrease the mobility of the Pakistan Army.<ref name="Rahman1984p1"/>
However, the Mukti Bahini failed in its Monsoon Offensive after Pakistani reinforcements successfully countered Bengali engagements. Attacks on border outposts in Sylhet, Comilla and Mymensingh had limited success. The training period slowed the momentum of the Bangladesh Forces, which began to pick up after August.<ref>{{cite book |last=Roy |first=Mihir K. |year=1995 |title=War in the Indian Ocean |location=New Delhi |publisher=Lancer Publishers |page=154 |isbn=978-1-897829-11-0}}</ref> After the [[monsoon]], the Mukti Bahini became more effective while the Indian army created a number of bases inside East Pakistan for the Mukti Bahini.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Weisburd|first1=A. Mark|title=Use of force : the practice of states since World War II|year=1997|publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press|location=University Park, Pa.|isbn=978-0-271-01679-5}}</ref> The railways in East Pakistan were almost completely shut down due to the Mukti Bahini's sabotage. The provincial capital, Dhaka, had become a ghost town with gun-fire and explosions heard throughout the day.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hossain|first1=Mokerrom|title=From Protest to Freedom : The Birth of Bangladesh A Book for the New Generation|year=2010|publisher=Shahitya Prakash|isbn=9780615486956|pages=246}}</ref>

====August====
After a visit to East Pakistan refugee camps in India in August 1971, US Senator [[Ted Kennedy]] believed that Pakistan was committing a genocide.<ref name="smh18Aug1971"/> [[Golam Azam]] called for Pakistan to attack India and to [[Annexation|annexe]] [[Assam]] in retaliation for India providing help to the Mukti Bahini.<ref name="smh18Aug1971" /> Azam accused India of shelling East Pakistani border areas on a daily basis. [[Oxfam]] predicted the deaths of over one hundred thousand children in refugee camps and that more could die from food shortages in East Pakistan because of the conflict.<ref name="smh18Aug1971">{{cite news |url=http://www.thedailystar.net/pakistan-guilty-of-genocide-54148 |title=Pakistan 'Guilty of Genocide' |work=The Sydney Morning Herald |date=18 August 1971 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180224112926/http://www.thedailystar.net/pakistan-guilty-of-genocide-54148 |archive-date=24 February 2018 |access-date=10 January 2016 |via=The Daily Star}}</ref>

====September====
Regular Mukti Bahini battalions were formed in September 1971,<ref>{{cite news|last1=Mazumder|first1=Shahzaman|title=Songs of Freedom|url=http://www.thedailystar.net/literature/songs-freedom-185875|work=The Daily Star|access-date=9 January 2016|date=12 December 2015|archive-date=25 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151225130410/http://www.thedailystar.net/literature/songs-freedom-185875|url-status=live}}</ref> increasing the effectiveness of the Mukti Bahini. Sabotage and ambush missions continued to be carried out, demoralising the Pakistan army.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hiranandani|first1=G.M.|title=Transition to triumph : history of the Indian Navy, 1965–1975|year=2000|publisher=Lancer Publishers|location=New Delhi|isbn=9781897829721|pages=129}}</ref>

====October====
In October, conventional Bangladesh Forces mounted various successful offensives, capturing 90 of the 300 border outposts. The Mukti Bahini intensified [[guerrilla attacks]] inside Bangladesh while Pakistan increased reprisals on Bengali civilians,<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,878969-4,00.html |title=The World: Bangladesh: Out of War, a Nation Is Born |date=20 December 1971 |magazine=Time |url-access=subscription |access-date=27 August 2015 |archive-date=11 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151211023815/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,878969-4,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> though the movement of Mukti Bahini into, out of, and inside East Pakistan became easier and more common.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Zeitlin|first1=Arnold|title=East Pakistan Rebels Unafraid of Being Caught Or Identified|url=http://www.thedailystar.net/freedom-in-the-air/stories/59359|work=The Daily Star|access-date=10 January 2016|archive-date=23 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223072521/http://www.thedailystar.net/freedom-in-the-air/stories/59359|url-status=live}}</ref>

====November====
In November, Indian involvement increased, with the Indian [[artillery]] and [[Indian Air force]] providing direct cover for the Mukti Bahini in some offensives.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sission|first1=Richard|last2=Rose|first2=Leo E.|title=War and secession : Pakistan, India, and the creation of Bangladesh|year=1991|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|isbn=9780520076655|pages=212}}</ref> Attacks on infrastructure and the increase in the reach of the provisional government weakened the control of the Pakistan government.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Islam|first1=Asif|title=God was with me. But so were a lot of people|url=http://www.dhakatribune.com/feature/2014/dec/16/%E2%80%98god-was-me-so-were-lot-people%E2%80%99|work=Dhaka Tribune|access-date=9 January 2016|archive-date=6 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160106175419/http://www.dhakatribune.com/feature/2014/dec/16/%E2%80%98god-was-me-so-were-lot-people%E2%80%99|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Air operations===

The [[Bangladesh Air Force]] (BAF) was established on 28 September 1971 under the command of [[Air Commodore]] [[A. K. Khandker]]. It initially operated from a jungle airstrip near [[Dimapur]] in Nagaland, India. When taking over liberated territories, the Bangladesh Forces gained control of World War II airstrips in [[Lalmonirhat]], Shalutikar, [[Sylhet]] and [[Comilla]] in November and December. The BAF launched "[[Operation Kilo Flight|Kilo Flights]]" under the command of Squadron Leader Sultan Mahmud on 3 December 1971. [[Sortie]]s by Otter DHC-3 aircraft destroyed Pakistani fuel supplies in Narayanganj and Chittagong where targets included the Burmah Oil Refinery, numerous ships and oil depots.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.londoni.co/index.php/history-of-bangladesh?id=161|title=Muktijuddho (Bangladesh Liberation War 1971) part 37 – Bangladesh Biman Bahini (Bangladesh Air Force or BAF) – History of Bangladesh|work=Londoni|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151123093710/http://www.londoni.co/index.php/history-of-bangladesh?id=161|archive-date=23 November 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

===Naval operations===
The Bangladesh naval forces took shape in July. [[Operation Jackpot]] was launched by the Bangladesh Forces on 15 August 1971. [[Bangladesh Navy]] commandos sank vessels of the [[Pakistan Navy]] in [[Port of Mongla|Mongla]], Chittagong, [[Chandpur, Bangladesh|Chandpur]] and [[Narayanganj]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Hossain |first=Abu Md. Delwar |year=2012 |chapter=Operation Jackpot |chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Operation_Jackpot |editor1-last=Islam |editor1-first=Sirajul |editor1-link=Sirajul Islam |editor2-last=Jamal |editor2-first=Ahmed A. |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |edition=Second |publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]] |access-date=20 August 2015 |archive-date=23 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151123082200/http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Operation_Jackpot |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Naval Commandos in Operation Jackpot|url=http://www.thedailystar.net/supplements/independence-day-special-2015/submariners-heroism-and-the-first-military-response-france|work=The Daily Star|access-date=17 January 2016|date=26 March 2015|archive-date=27 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150327073557/http://www.thedailystar.net/supplements/independence-day-special-2015/submariners-heroism-and-the-first-military-response-france|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Zaman|first1=Imamuz|title=Bangladesh war of liberation|publisher=Columbia Prokashani|asin=B002G9R2YU|pages=102|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jacob|first1=J. F. R.|title=An Odyssey in War and Peace|publisher=Roli Books Private Limited|isbn=9788174369338|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=99BbBAAAQBAJ&q=Operation+Jackpot+bangladesh+naval+commandoes&pg=PT101|language=en|date=2012|access-date=19 October 2020|archive-date=15 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231015182227/https://books.google.com/books?id=99BbBAAAQBAJ&q=Operation+Jackpot+bangladesh+naval+commandoes&pg=PT101|url-status=live}}</ref> The operation was a major propaganda success for Bangladeshi forces, as it exposed to the international community the fragile hold of the West Pakistani occupation.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Yusuf|first1=Mostafa|title=Operation Jackpot, a glorious chapter of the 1971 Liberation War|url=http://bdnews24.com/bangladesh/2015/12/16/operation-jackpot-a-glorious-chapter-of-the-1971-liberation-war|work=bdnews24.com|access-date=9 January 2016|archive-date=28 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160128032614/http://bdnews24.com/bangladesh/2015/12/16/operation-jackpot-a-glorious-chapter-of-the-1971-liberation-war|url-status=live}}</ref> The Bangladesh Navy commandos targeted patrol craft and ships carrying ammunition and commodities. With Indian aid, the Mukti Bahini acquired two vessels, the Padma and Palash, which were retrofitted into gunboats with [[Mine (warfare)|mine]]-laying capabilities. The boat crews extensively mined the Passur River in the Sundarbans, reducing the ability of Pakistani forces to operate from the [[Port of Mongla]] but were mistakenly bombed by Indian Air Force troops that resulted in the loss of both vessels and some of the lives of the Mukti Bahini and Indian personnel on board.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Khan|first1=Tamanna|title=Indian war veterans relive '71 glory days|url=http://www.thedailystar.net/backpage/indian-war-veterans-relive-71-glory-days-189028|work=The Daily Star|access-date=9 January 2016|date=18 December 2015|archive-date=25 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160125230937/http://www.thedailystar.net/backpage/indian-war-veterans-relive-71-glory-days-189028|url-status=live}}</ref> The developing Bangladesh Navy carried out attacks on ships and used [[sea mines]] to prevent [[Auxiliary ship|supply ship]]s from docking in East Pakistani ports. [[Frogmen]] were deployed to damage and sabotage ships.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Roy|first1=Mihir K.|title=War in the Indian Ocean|year=1995|publisher=Lancer Publishers|location=New Delhi|isbn=9781897829110|pages=169}}</ref>

===Bangladesh-India Allied Forces===
[[File:1971 Instrument of Surrender WaPo.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Pakistan's Lt. Gen. [[A. A. K. Niazi]] signing the [[Pakistani Instrument of Surrender]] in [[Dhaka]] on 16 December 1971, in the presence of India's [[Jagjit Singh Aurora|Lt. Gen. Aurora]]. Standing behind them are various officers from India's Army, Navy and Air Force.]]

The launch of [[Operation Chengiz Khan]] by West Pakistan on [[North India]] finally drew India into the Bangladesh conflict and a joint [[command structure]] was established between the Bangladeshi and Indian forces. Three [[corps]] of the Indian Armed Forces were supported by three [[brigade]]s of the Mukti Bahini and the Bengali guerrilla army. The Mukti Bahini and its supporters guided the Indian army and provided them with information about Pakistani troop movements.<ref>{{cite magazine|last1=Sachar|first1=Rajindar|title=Letting Bygones Be Bygones|url=http://www.outlookindia.com/article/letting-bygones-be-bygones/296302|magazine=Outlook India|access-date=9 January 2016|archive-date=6 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160106100730/http://www.outlookindia.com/article/letting-bygones-be-bygones/296302|url-status=live}}</ref> The Indian and Mukti Bahini greatly outnumbered the three Pakistani army divisions of East Pakistan. The [[Battle of Sylhet]], the [[Battle of Garibpur]], the [[Battle of Boyra]], the [[Battle of Hilli]] and the [[Battle of Kushtia]] were major joint engagements for the Bangladeshi and Indian forces, who swiftly captured surrounding land by selectively engaging or bypassing heavily defended strongholds. For example, the [[Meghna Heli Bridge]] airlifted Bangladeshi and Indian forces from [[Brahmanbaria]] to [[Narsingdi]] over Pakistani defences in [[Ashuganj]]. The cities of [[Jessore (city)|Jessore]], [[Mymensingh]], [[Sylhet]], [[Kushtia]], [[Noakhali]] and [[Moulvibazar]] quickly fell to the Mukti Bahini-Indian joint forces. In Dhaka, the Pakistan Army and its supporting militias began the [[1971 killing of Bengali intellectuals|mass murder of Bengali intellectuals]] and professionals in a final attempt to eliminate the Bengali [[intelligentsia]].{{citation needed|date=June 2019}} Historian [[Yasmin Saikia]] writes that the Pakistani Army, and pro-Pakistani militias looted, raped, and killed civilians in East Pakistan.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Saikia|first1=Yasmin|year=2011|title=Women, War, and the Making of Bangladesh: Remembering 1971|publisher=Duke University Press|page=3|isbn=978-0-8223-5038-5}}</ref>
The Mukti Bahini liberated most of the [[Dhaka District]] by mid-December. In Western Pakistan, Indian forces advanced deep into Pakistani territory as the [[Port of Karachi]] was subjected to a [[naval blockade]] by the Indian Navy. Pakistani generals [[Surrender of Pakistan|surrendered]] to the Mukti Bahini-Indian forces in Dhaka on 16 December 1971.<ref>{{cite book |last=Jacob |first=JFR |year=2000 |title=Surrender at Dacca: Birth of a Nation |location=Dhaka |publisher=University Press Ltd |isbn=984-05-1395-8}}</ref>

==Gafur Bahini==

''Gafur Bahini''{{Efn|{{langx|bn|গফুর বাহিনী}}, romanized: Gaphura bāhinī}}<ref name="pa2Dec2021">{{Cite news |date=2 December 2021 |script-title=bn:গফুর বাহিনী |trans-title=Gafur Bahini |url=https://1971.prothomalo.com/sector-force/others-bahini/%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%80 |access-date=14 July 2024 |work=[[Prothom Alo]] |language=bn}}</ref><ref>{{Cite Banglapedia|article=War of Liberation, The}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.observerbd.com/news.php?id=251517|title=Crack Platoon of FF exchange fire with Pak army in Jinjira|last=Begum|first=Shahnaj|date=29 March 2020|language=en|access-date=3 October 2024|work=[[The Daily Observer (Bangladesh)|The Daily Observer]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Khokon |first=Salek |script-title=bn:সেপ্টেম্বর ১৯৭১ |url=https://www.dw.com/bn/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A7%A7%E0%A7%AF%E0%A7%AD%E0%A7%A7-%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%9E%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95-%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%80-%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%80-%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A3-%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B7-%E0%A6%93-%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7/a-66956806 |work=[[Deutsche Welle]] |date=29 March 2023 |language=bn}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sengupta |first=Nitish |title=Land of two rivers: a history of Bengal from the Mahabharata to Mujib |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kVSh_TyJ0YoC |year=2011 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-14-341678-4 |page=564 |quote=There were also several irregular forces ...; Latif Mirza Bahini of Sirajganj; Hemayat Bahini of Faridpur; Gafur Bahini of Barisal; and Aftab Bahini of Mymensingh. Taken together, these forces constituted the Mukti Fauj under the overall command of Colonel Osmani. They were later renamed 'Mukti Bahini'.}}</ref> was a militia that was formed in the beginning of the [[Bangladesh War of Independence]]. Abdul Gafur, Mohiuddin Manik and Benilal Das Gupta took an initiative to create a force, that would fight Pakistani troops in [[Barisal]], It later on merged with the Force of Captain Shahjahan.<ref name="ds26Mar2019" /><ref name="pa2Dec2021" /> Initially, this force was intended to resist Pakistani rule in southern Barisal. Later on, the militia became known as the ''Gafur Bahini''. The group's weapons and ammunition support was given by Abul Hasnat Abdullah and help from commanders of the Kodaldoa Camp which was situated in [[Agailjhara]], Barisal.<ref name="ds26Mar2019" />

Gafur Bahini conducted successful guerilla operations in [[Banaripara]], [[Jhalakathi]], [[Pirojpur]], Swarupkathi and other various areas in Barisal. Gafur Bahini had coordination with the Mujib Bahini and conducted several operations with the Mujib Bahini.<ref name="pa2Dec2021" /><ref name="ds26Mar2019">{{Cite news |last=Hossain |first=Major General Md Sarwar |date=26 March 2019 |title=The irregular forces of Bangladesh Liberation War |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/supplements/independence-day-special-2019/news/the-irregular-forces-bangladesh-liberation-war-1719757 |access-date=14 July 2024 |work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]] |language=en}}</ref> According to ''The Daily Star'', when Captain Shahjahan established his sub-sector in the southwestern area of Bangladesh, Gafur Bahini merged with his force. After the war, Abdul Gafur and Mohiuddin Manik were awarded [[Bir Protik]] for their contribution.<ref name="ds26Mar2019" />

==Organization==
[[File:Mukti Bahini posters.jpg|thumb|right|Mukti Bahini propaganda posters, one referencing Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's 7 March speech and calling all Bengali Muslims, Christians, Buddhists and Hindus to unite as one nation.]]
The "Mukti Bahini" was divided into two groups; the "Niomito Bahini" ({{lit.|regular forces}}) {{endash}} who came from the paramilitary, military and police forces of [[East Pakistan]], and the Gonnobahini ({{lit.|people's forces}}) {{endash}} who were civilians. These names were given and defined by the [[government of Bangladesh]]. The Indians referred to the Niomito Bahini as "Mukti Fauj", and the Gonnobahini were called "freedom fighters".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Islam|first1=M. Rafiqul|title=A Tale of Millions: Bangladesh Liberation War, 1971|year=1981|publisher=Bangladesh Books International|pages=82}}</ref><ref name="cdrb.org" />

[[M. A. G. Osmani]], a [[Bengalis|Bengali]] [[veteran]] of the [[British Raj]] forces in [[World War II]] and the Pakistan army, established the [[Bangladesh Armed Forces]] on 4 April 1971. The [[Provisional Government of Bangladesh]] placed all Bangladeshi forces under the command of Osmani, who was appointed as the [[defence minister]] with the rank of [[Commander-in-Chief]] as a [[four star general]]. Osmani designated the composition of the Mukti Bahini into several divisions. It included the regular armed forces which covered the Army, Navy and Air Forces; as well as special brigades including the [[Z Force (Bangladesh)|Z Force]]. Paramilitary forces, including the East Pakistan Rifles and police, were designated as the ''Niyomito Bahini'' (Regular Forces). They were divided between forward battalions and sector troops. Another civilian force was raised and known as the ''Gonobahini'' (People's Forces) consisting of lightly trained civilian brigades under military command; the Gonobahini also consisted of battalions created by political activists from the pro-Western [[Awami League]], the pro-Chinese and socialist [[National Awami Party]], led by [[Maulana Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani]], and the pro-Soviet [[Communist Party of East Pakistan]].<ref name="Rahman1984p1">{{cite book |last=Rahman |first=Hasan Hafizur |year=1984 |script-title=bn:বাংলাদেশের স্বাধীনতা যুদ্ধ, দলিলপত্রঃ দশম খণ্ড |trans-title=History of Bangladesh War of Independence Documents, Vol-10 |publisher=Hakkani Publishers |pages=1–3 |language=bn |isbn=984-433-091-2}}</ref>

The guerrilla movement was composed of three wings: well-armed Action Groups which took part in frontal attacks; [[military intelligence]] units; and guerrilla bases. The first conference of sector commanders was held during July 1971, starting on 11 July and ending 17 July. Prominent sector commanders included [[defector]] officers and soldiers from the Pakistan Armed Forces, including Major Ziaur Rahman, Major [[Khaled Mosharraf]], Major [[K M Shafiullah]], Captain [[A. N. M. Nuruzzaman]], Major [[Chitta Ranjan Dutta]], Wing Commander [[M Khademul Bashar]], Major [[Nazmul Huq]], Major [[Quazi Nuruzzaman]], Major [[Abu Osman Chowdhury]], Major [[Abul Manzoor]], Major [[M. A. Jalil]], Major [[Abu Taher]] and Squadron Leader [[M. Hamidullah Khan]].<ref>List of Liberation War Sectors and Sector Commanders of Bangladesh (Gazette Notification No.8/25/D-1/72-1378), Ministry of Defence, Government of Bangladesh, 15 December 1973</ref> The [[Mujib Bahini]] was led by Awami League youth leaders [[Serajul Alam Khan]], [[Sheikh Fazlul Huq Moni]], [[Tofael Ahmed]] and [[Abdur Razzaq (politician, born 1942)|Abdur Razzak]]. An Australian war veteran, [[William A. S. Ouderland]], organised guerrilla warfare in Dacca and provided vital intelligence to the Bangladesh Forces. He was awarded the [[Bir Protik]] for his actions by the government of Bangladesh.<ref>{{cite news|title=William AS Ouderland Bir Protik remembered|url=http://archive.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details.php?nid=260236|work=The Daily Star|access-date=17 January 2016|date=7 December 2012|archive-date=5 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160205162147/http://archive.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details.php?nid=260236|url-status=live}}</ref> Left-wing politicians [[Kader Siddique]], [[Hemayet Uddin]] and [[Moni Singh]] created several guerrilla units. Kader Siddique operated in the [[Tangail District]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Nair|first1=P. Sukumaran|title=Indo-Bangladesh Relations|publisher=APH Publishing|isbn=9788131304082|pages=93|language=en|year=2008}}</ref> Hemayet was a former soldier in East Pakistan and his Bahini was raised almost entirely on local supplies.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Zaman|first1=Imamuz|title=Bangladesh war of liberation|publisher=Columbia Prokashani|asin=B002G9R2YU|pages=90|language=en}}</ref>

The [[Swadhin Bangla Betar Kendra|Independent Bangladesh Radio Station]] was one of the cultural wings of the Mukti Bahini. The Mukti Bahini operated [[field hospital]]s, wireless stations, training camps and prisons.{{citation needed|date=September 2016}}

==Equipment==
[[File:Bangladesh Military Museum - 3.7 inch howitzer.jpg|thumb|Italian [[howitzer]]s used by the [[Mujib Battery]];<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thedailystar.net/news-detail-190997|title=Cannons used by Mujib Battery arrive|work=The Daily Star|access-date=22 April 2016|date=22 June 2011|archive-date=27 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170727122738/http://www.thedailystar.net/news-detail-190997|url-status=live}}</ref> now preserved at the Bangladesh Military Museum.]]
The Mukti Bahini benefited from the early control of Pakistani arms depots, which were overtaken by Bengali forces during March and April 1971. The Mukti Bahini purchased large quantities of military-grade equipment through the arms market in Calcutta, including Italian [[howitzers]], [[Aérospatiale Alouette III|Alouette III]] helicopters, [[List of Douglas DC-3 family variants|Douglas DC-3]] and [[de Havilland Canada DHC-3 Otter|Otter DHC-3]] aircraft.<ref>{{cite news|date=29 December 2017 |title=Arms for freedom|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/backpage/bangladesh-liberation-war-1971-muktijuddho-guerrilla-fighter-arms-freedom-1511812|work=The Daily Star|access-date=2019-08-31|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180407144902/http://www.thedailystar.net/backpage/bangladesh-liberation-war-1971-muktijuddho-guerrilla-fighter-arms-freedom-1511812|archive-date= April 7, 2018}}</ref> The Mukti Bahini also received a limited supply of equipment from the Indian military, as New Delhi allowed the Bangladeshi forces to operate an independent weapons supply through [[Calcutta Port]].<ref name="Raghavan2013">{{cite book |last=Raghavan |first=Srinath |year=2013 |title=1971: A Global History of the Creation of Bangladesh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2S-wAQAAQBAJ |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-73127-1}}</ref> The Mukti Bahini used [[Sten Gun]]s, [[Lee–Enfield]] rifles and Indian-made [[hand grenades]].<ref name="ds6Dec2014" /> Some of the arms and equipment used by Mukti Bahini are given below:
* [[Smith & Wesson Model 10]] Revolver
* [[SKS]] rifle
* British [[L1A1 SLR]] rifle (Mostly obtained from India)
* [[Sterling submachine gun]]
* [[Type 56 assault rifle]]
* [[Lee-Enfield]] .303 Rifle
* British [[Sten]] sub-machine gun
* [[Mills Bomb|HE-36]] Grenade
* [[MG 42]] Machinegun
* [[QF 3.7-inch mountain howitzer|QF 3.7-inch]] Mountain Howitzer
* [[Bren]] gun
* British [[Lewis gun|Lewis .303 Machine gun]]
* [[120-PM-43 mortar|120mm Heavy Mortar]]
* [[ZB-53]] Czechoslovak machine gun
* [[Heckler & Koch G3|G3]]
* [[SG-43 Goryunov|Type 53 machine gun]]
* [[M40 recoilless rifle|M40]] recoilless rifle
* [[ENERGA anti-tank rifle grenade]]
* [[M18 Recoilless Rifle]]
* Tula [[TT pistol|Tokarev 33]] Pistol,
* Italian 9mm 3842 [[Beretta Model 38]] Sub-machine gun
* [[MAS-49 rifle|SA 44 Rifle]]

==International reactions==
The [[1971 Bangladesh genocide|genocide by Pakistani forces]] caused widespread international outrage against West Pakistan.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Dummett|first1=Mark|title=Bangladesh war: The article that changed history|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-16207201|access-date=17 January 2016|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|date=16 December 2011|archive-date=8 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190508091712/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-16207201|url-status=live}}</ref> In the United States, [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] senator [[Ted Kennedy]] led a chorus of strong domestic criticism against the [[Nixon administration]] for ignoring the genocide of Bengalis in East Pakistan.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Ahmed|first1=Saeed|title=In Bangladesh, Ted Kennedy revered|url=http://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/08/27/bangladesh.kennedy.impact/|publisher=CNN|access-date=17 January 2016|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304063305/http://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/08/27/bangladesh.kennedy.impact/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=J. Bass|first1=Gary|title=What a senator can do|url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/opinion/2013/11/29/what-senator-can/dehi8mBCmm0iu4lGmxzKAL/story.html|work=The Boston Globe|type=Opinion|access-date=17 January 2016|archive-date=10 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221210033006/https://www.bostonglobe.com/opinion/2013/11/29/what-senator-can/dehi8mBCmm0iu4lGmxzKAL/story.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

The Mukti Bahini enjoyed significant international public support. The Bangladeshi provisional government considered setting up an "International Brigade" with European and North American students.<ref name="Raghavan2013"/> French Minister of Cultural Affairs [[André Malraux]] vowed to fight on the battlefield alongside the Bangladesh Forces.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/04/28/bernard-henri-levy-andre-malraux-s-bangladesh-before-the-radicals.html |title=Bernard-Henri Levy: Andre Malraux's Bangladesh, Before the Radicals |newspaper=The Daily Beast |date=28 April 2014 |last1=Lévy |first1=Bernard-Henri |access-date=27 August 2015 |archive-date=7 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407100546/http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/04/28/bernard-henri-levy-andre-malraux-s-bangladesh-before-the-radicals.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[Soviet Union]] threw its weight behind the Bangladesh Forces and India after being convinced of Pakistan's unwillingness for a political solution.<ref name="Raghavan2013" /> Separately, US efforts to woo China through Pakistan led to India signing a [[Indo-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation|friendship treaty]] with Moscow in August 1971. India increased support to Mukti Bahini after the signing of the treaty.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Jillani|first1=Shahzeb|title=Scars of Bangladesh independence war 40 years on|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-16111843|work=BBC News|access-date=15 February 2016|date=13 December 2011|archive-date=25 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160225225006/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-16111843|url-status=live}}</ref> For India, the treaty was an important insurance policy against a possible Chinese intervention on the side of Pakistan. China had fought a brief war with India in 1962. Both the US and China, however, ultimately failed to mobilise adequate support for Pakistan.<ref name="ds16Dec2012"/><ref name="ds15Dec2014"/>

===India===
Ten million Bengali refugees fled into neighbouring India because of famine and ravages of the Pakistan army,<ref name="Time Photo Gallery">{{Cite magazine|url=https://content.time.com/time/photogallery/0,29307,1844754,00.html|title=Bangladesh and Pakistan: The Forgotten War – Photo Essays|magazine=Time|access-date=31 March 2016|archive-date=1 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160401211942/http://content.time.com/time/photogallery/0,29307,1844754,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> where the regions of [[West Bengal]], Tripura and the [[Barak Valley]] shared strong [[Bengali people|ethnic]], [[Bengali language|linguistic]] and [[Bengali culture|cultural]] links with East Pakistan. The war sparked an unprecedented level of unity in the Bengali-speaking world. There was strong support for Bengalis and Mukti Bahini from the Indian media and public.<ref name="Datta2012p28">{{cite book |last1=Datta |first1=Antara |year=2012 |title=Refugees and borders in South Asia : the great exodus of 1971 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |pages=28 |isbn=978-0-415-52472-8}}</ref> India feared that if the movement for Bangladesh came to be dominated by communists then it would adversely affect its own fight with the left-wing [[Naxalites]]. It also did not want the millions of refugees to be permanently stranded in India.<ref name="Datta2012p28" />

Indian Prime Minister, [[Indira Gandhi]], authorised diplomatic, economic and military support to the Bangladesh Forces in April 1971.<ref>{{cite news |script-title=bn:বাংলাদেশের মুক্তিযুদ্ধে নিজেকে ওতপ্রোতভাবে জড়িয়ে ছিল ভারত, জেনে নিন ইতিহাস |url=https://thebengalichronicle.com/india-took-part-in-bangladesh-muktijuddho-by-leadership-of-indira-gandhi-prb/ |access-date=28 July 2022 |work=The Bengali Chronicle |date=16 December 2022 |archive-date=28 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220728110823/https://thebengalichronicle.com/india-took-part-in-bangladesh-muktijuddho-by-leadership-of-indira-gandhi-prb/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="dt17Dec2013"/> The Provisional Government of Bangladesh established its secretariat in exile in [[Calcutta]]. The [[Indian Armed Forces]] provided substantial training and the use of its bases for the Bangladesh Forces. The Bangladesh liberation guerrillas operated training camps in the Indian states of [[Bihar]], Arunachal Pradesh, [[Assam]], Nagaland, [[Mizoram]], Meghalaya, Tripura and West Bengal.<ref name="ds16Dec2012">{{cite news |last=Shelley |first=Mizanur Rahman |date=16 December 2012 |url=http://archive.thedailystar.net/suppliments/victory_day/2012/pg4.htm |title=Victory Day Special 2012 |work=The Daily Star |access-date=27 August 2015 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304101848/http://archive.thedailystar.net/suppliments/victory_day/2012/pg4.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="ds15Dec2014">{{cite news |last=Feroze |first=Shahriar |date=15 December 2014 |title=1971 – A Global History of the Creation of Bangladesh |url=http://www.thedailystar.net/1971-a-global-history-of-the-creation-of-bangladesh-55388 |newspaper=The Daily Star |access-date=27 August 2015 |archive-date=20 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151020213518/http://www.thedailystar.net/1971-a-global-history-of-the-creation-of-bangladesh-55388 |url-status=live }}</ref> Mukti Bahini were allowed by India to cross the border at will.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sagar|first1=Krishna Chandra|title=The war of the twins|year=1997|publisher=Northern Book Centre|location=New Delhi|isbn=9788172110826|pages=244}}</ref>

Some Mukti Bahini, especially those who served in the security services of Pakistan, were suspicious of Indian involvement and wished to minimise its role. They also resented the formation of the [[Mujib Bahini]] by India which was composed of [[Sheikh Mujib]]-loyalists but was not under the command of Mukti Bahini or the provisional government of Bangladesh.<ref name="Alagappa2001p212" />

On 6 December 1971, India officially recognised Bangladesh as an independent country only hours after Bhutan did the same.<ref>{{cite news|title=Bhutan, not India, was first to recognize Bangladesh|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/south-asia/Bhutan-not-India-was-first-to-recognize-Bangladesh/articleshow/45434808.cms|work=The Times of India|agency=Press Trust of India|access-date=14 January 2016|archive-date=22 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180822045725/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/south-asia/Bhutan-not-India-was-first-to-recognize-Bangladesh/articleshow/45434808.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Women==
Women had served in the Mukti Bahini during the [[Bangladesh Liberation War]]. The Mukti Bahini trained several female battalions for guerrilla warfare. [[Taramon Bibi]] is one of the two female war heroes of the Bangladesh Liberation War. Captain [[Sitara Begum]] is noted for setting up field hospitals for injured Mukti Bahini fighters.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://mukto-mona.com/Special_Event_/16December/courage161206.htm |title=The women in our liberation war: Tales of Endurance and Courage |last1=Amin |first1=Aasha Mehreen |last2=Ahmed |first2=Lavina Ambreen |last3=Ahsan |first3=Shamim |date=16 December 2006 |work=mukto-mona.com |access-date=27 August 2015 |archive-date=29 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150929121924/https://mukto-mona.com/Special_Event_/16December/courage161206.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Professor Nazma Shaheen, University of Dhaka, and her sister were female members in the Mukti Bahini.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gupta |first1=Jayanta |title=Women Mukti Joddhas recall guerrilla days |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/Women-Mukti-Joddhas-recall-guerrilla-days/articleshow/50212002.cms |work=The Times of India |date=17 December 2015 |access-date=10 January 2016 |archive-date=22 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222013028/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/Women-Mukti-Joddhas-recall-guerrilla-days/articleshow/50212002.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Post-war==
[[File:Aparajeyo Bangla - 1979 CE - Sculpture by Syed Abdullah Khalid - University of Dhaka Campus - Dhaka 2015-05-31 2369.JPG|thumb|''[[Aparajeyo Bangla]]'' (Unvanquished Bengal) was finished on 16 December 1978 by [[Syed Abdullah Khalid]] at [[University of Dhaka]] Campus, is a Monument to Mukti Bahini.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thedailystar.net/the-dossier-of-khalid-65532|title=The Dossier of Khalid|work=The Daily Star|access-date=22 April 2016|date=19 February 2015|archive-date=24 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150624040728/http://www.thedailystar.net/the-dossier-of-khalid-65532|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
The Mukti Bahini was succeeded by the Bangladesh Armed Forces, the [[Bangladesh Rifles]] and the [[Bangladesh Police]]. Civilian fighters were provided with numerous privileges, including reservations in government jobs and universities.<ref>{{cite web|title=Bangladesh reducing age limit for freedom fighters to below 13 |url=http://news.asiaone.com/news/asia/bangladesh-reducing-age-limit-freedom-fighters-below-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160217045242/http://news.asiaone.com/news/asia/bangladesh-reducing-age-limit-freedom-fighters-below-13 |url-status=dead |archive-date=17 February 2016 |website=AsiaOne |date=21 December 2015 |access-date=17 January 2016}}</ref> The Bangladesh Freedom Fighters Assembly was formed to represent former guerrillas. [[Ministry of Liberation War Affairs (Bangladesh)|Bangladesh Liberation War ministry]] is responsible for looking after the welfare of Mukti Bahini members.<ref>{{cite news |title=No extension on freedom fighters' retirement age |url=http://www.thedailystar.net/country/freedom-fighters%E2%80%99-retirement-age-raised-60-203566 |work=The Daily Star |date=18 January 2016 |access-date=18 January 2016 |archive-date=20 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160120221046/http://www.thedailystar.net/country/freedom-fighters%E2%80%99-retirement-age-raised-60-203566 |url-status=live }}</ref> The widespread availability of arms created serious law and order concerns for the Bangladesh government after the war. A few militia units are alleged to have taken part in reprisal attacks against the Urdu-speaking population following the Pakistani surrender.<ref name="tni17May2016">{{cite news|last1=Zia|first1=Kamran|title=Politics of genocide in Bangladesh|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/120457-Politics-of-genocide-in-Bangladesh|access-date=28 September 2016|work=The News International|date=17 May 2016|archive-date=27 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160927063538/https://www.thenews.com.pk//print/120457-Politics-of-genocide-in-Bangladesh|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Indemnity===
On 28 February 1973 the [[government of Bangladesh]] enacted the National Liberation Struggle (Indemnity) Order to provide indemnity "to those persons in respect of acts done in connection with the national liberation struggle, the maintenance or restoration of order" which was to be enforced retrospectively from 26 March 1972.<ref name="tni17May2016" />

==Criticism==

=== Human rights violations ===
The Mukti Bahini has been accused of human rights violations by historians on [[Pakistanis|West Pakistanis]] and [[Bihari Muslims|Biharis]].<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite news |last=Khan |first=Engr Imtiaz Alam |date=2019-12-15 |title=History: The Fall of Dhaka from Biharai Eyes |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1522385 |access-date=2022-03-20 |work=Dawn |language=en |archive-date=2 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230102052156/https://www.dawn.com/news/1522385 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>[[Dead Reckoning: Memories of the 1971 Bangladesh War]]</ref>

On 27 March 1971, members of the Mukti Bahini were alleged to have [[Santahar massacre|massacred]] 15000 [[Urdu-speaking Mohajir|Biharis]] in the town of [[Santahar Junction railway station|Santahar]] in the district of [[Naogaon District|Naogaon.]]<ref>{{Cite news |date=2017-12-15 |title=Fall of Dhaka: How Mukti Bahini 'cleansed' Santahar town of non-Bengalis |url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/1585095/1-mukti-bahini-cleansed-santahar-non-bengalis |access-date=2022-02-27 |work=The Express Tribune |language=en |archive-date=28 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220228044551/https://tribune.com.pk/story/1585095/1-mukti-bahini-cleansed-santahar-non-bengalis |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mukul |first=M.R. Akhtar |title=Ami Bijoy Dekhechi' (I have seen victory) |location=Dhaka}}</ref> They are also accused of raping [[Bihari Muslims|Bihari]] women during the war.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=The Untold Stories of the Independence War in Bangladesh |url=https://jacobinmag.com/2021/04/independence-war-bangladesh-pakistan-india |access-date=2022-03-20 |website=jacobinmag.com |language=en-US |archive-date=27 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220527065621/https://jacobinmag.com/2021/04/independence-war-bangladesh-pakistan-india |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Legacy==
===Cultural===
[[File:Sriti shoud.jpeg|thumb|The [[National Martyrs' Memorial]] in Bangladesh]]
{{See also|Artistic depictions of the Bangladesh Liberation War}}
The Mukti Bahini has been the subject of numerous [[artwork]], literature, films and television productions.

===Honours===
[[Bir Sreshtho]] (The Most Valiant Hero) is the highest military honour in Bangladesh and was awarded to seven Mukti Bahini fighters. They were [[Mohammad Ruhul Amin|Ruhul Amin]], [[Mohiuddin Jahangir]], [[Mostafa Kamal (Bir Sreshtho)|Mostafa Kamal]], [[Hamidur Rahman]], [[Munshi Abdur Rouf]], [[Nur Mohammad Sheikh]] and [[Matiur Rahman (military pilot)|Matiur Rahman]].<ref>{{cite news|title=War heroes honoured|url=http://archive.thedailystar.net/newDesign/story.php?nid=115066|work=The Daily Star|agency=UNB|access-date=17 January 2016|date=21 November 2009|archive-date=18 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150618131138/http://archive.thedailystar.net/newDesign/story.php?nid=115066|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The other three gallantry awards in decreasing order of importance are [[Bir Uttom]], [[Bir Bikrom]] and [[Bir Protik]].<ref>The Bangladesh Gazette, 15 December 1973.</ref>

In the Section 2(11) of the ''[[Bangladesh Freedom Fighter Welfare Trust|Bangladesh Freedom Fighters Welfare Trust]] Act, 2018 (Act No. 51 of 2018)'' everyone participated in the liberation war is defined as '''Bir Muktijoddha''' ([[Bengali language|Bengali]]: বীর মুক্তিযোদ্ধা).<ref>{{Cite web |script-title=bn:বাংলাদেশ মুক্তিযোদ্ধা কল্যাণ ট্রাস্ট আইন, ২০১৮ {{!}} ২। সংজ্ঞা |url=http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-1266/section-47807.html |access-date=2022-09-08 |website=bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd |archive-date=8 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220908202612/http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-1266/section-47807.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The government issued an order by gazette notification on 29 October 2020 saying that the word Bir (heroic) will have to be added to the term freedom fighter.<ref>{{Cite news |script-title=bn:মুক্তিযোদ্ধাদের নামের আগে 'বীর' লেখার বিধান করে গেজেট প্রকাশ |url=https://www.banglatribune.com/national/650058/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%87-%E2%80%98%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%B0%E2%80%99-%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%96%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8-%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%87 |access-date=2022-09-08 |work=Bangla Tribune |language=bn |archive-date=8 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220908202613/https://www.banglatribune.com/national/650058/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%87-%E2%80%98%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%B0%E2%80%99-%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%96%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8-%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%87 |url-status=live }}</ref> To compulsorily comply with the law, in the 13th meeting of the Standing Committee, the [[Ministry of Liberation War Affairs (Bangladesh)|Ministry of Liberation War Affairs]] of the [[2018 Bangladeshi general election|11th National Parliament]] issued another order by gazette notification on 18 December 2021 stating that the word Bir (heroic) must be used as an honorific prefix before the names of freedom fighters and the English synonym for Bir Muktijoddha will be '''Heroic Freedom Fighter'''.<ref>{{Cite news |script-title=bn:'বীর মুক্তিযোদ্ধা'র ইংরেজি প্রতিশব্দ নির্ধারণ করে গেজেট |url=https://www.jagonews24.com/national/news/724472 |access-date=2022-09-08 |work=jagonews24.com |language=bn |archive-date=8 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220908202610/https://www.jagonews24.com/national/news/724472 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==See also==

* [[Timeline of Bangladesh Liberation War]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |last=Ahmed |first=Helal Uddin |year=2012 |chapter=Mukti Bahini |chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Mukti_Bahini |editor1-last=Islam |editor1-first=Sirajul |editor1-link=Sirajul Islam |editor2-last=Jamal |editor2-first=Ahmed A. |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |edition=Second |publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]]}}
* {{cite book |last=Ayub |first=Muhammad |title=An Army, its Role and Rule: A History of the Pakistan Army from Independence to Kargil, 1947–1999 |location=Pittsburgh, PA |publisher=RoseDog Books |year=2005 |isbn=0-8059-9594-3}}

{{Bangladesh Liberation War}}

[[Category:Mukti Bahini| ]]
[[Category:National liberation armies]]
[[Category:National liberation movements]]
[[Category:Bangladesh Liberation War]]
[[Category:Military history of Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Resistance movements]]

Yordi Rabe Supse Wildlife Sanctuary

2026-02-25T04:30:46Z

IZinePro: started new data

{{Infobox protected area
| name = Yordi Rabe Supse Wildlife Sanctuary
| alt_name =
| iucn_category = IV
| iucn_ref =
| image =
| image_caption =
| map = India Arunachal Pradesh#India
| relief = 1
| mapframe = Yes
| coordinates = {{coord|29|0|59|N|95|12|31|E|display=inline,title}}
| coords_ref =
| established = 1996
| area_km2 = 397
| elevation = {{cvt|1500|m}}–{{cvt|2500|m}}
| nearest_city = [[Gelling, Arunachal Pradesh|Gelling]]
| governing_body =
| website =
| footnotes =
}}

'''Yordi Rabe Supse Wildlife Sanctuary''' is a [[Protected areas of India|protected area]] and [[List of wildlife sanctuaries of India|wildlife sanctuary]] located in [[West Siang district]] of the [[States and union territories of India|Indian state]] of [[Arunachal Pradesh]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://wii.gov.in/eia/wildlife_database/arunachal_pradesh|title=Wildlife sanctuaries in Arunachal Pradesh|work=[[Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change]], [[Government of India]]|access-date=1 June 2024}}</ref> The sanctuary covers an area of {{cvt|397|km2}} and was declared as a protected area in 1996.<ref name="Compendium">{{cite report|url=https://tourism.gov.in/sites/default/files/2023-04/9%20Compendium%20Book_2021_Low%20%281%29%20%282%29.pdf|title=National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries in India|work=[[Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change]], [[Government of India]]|date=November 2021|access-date=1 June 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite report|url=https://arunachaltourism.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/widlife.pdf|title=Wildlife of Arunachal Pradesh|work=[[Government of Arunachal Pradesh]]|access-date=1 June 2024|page=9}}</ref>

== Description ==
The protected area consists of a mixture of [[tropical forests|tropical]], [[Montane ecosystems|montane wet temperate]] and [[Temperate coniferous forest|pine forest]]s. Fauna found in the sanctuary include [[leopard]], [[alpine musk deer]], [[takin]], [[Himalayan goral]], [[Asiatic black bear]], [[Indian wild dog]], [[red panda]], [[leopard cat]], [[Himalayan serow]], [[clouded leopard]], [[spotted linsang]], [[Eurasian otter]], [[barking deer]], [[sambar deer]], [[Assamese macaque]], [[capped langur]], [[Hodgson's giant flying squirrel]], and [[rufous-necked hornbill]]. Reptiles include the [[king cobra]], [[Indian python]], and [[reticulated python]].<ref name="Compendium"/>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==

{{Protected Areas of India}}

[[Category:Wildlife sanctuaries in Arunachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:West Siang district]]
[[Category:1996 establishments in Arunachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:Protected areas established in 1996]]

Mettupalayam, Coimbatore

2026-02-18T14:24:25Z

IZinePro: creating initial details v1

{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2014}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2014}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Mettupalayam
| other_name =
| settlement_type = Municipality
| image_skyline = Metupalayam TN.jpg
| image_alt =
| image_caption = Mettupalayam Town seen from Ooty hills
| nickname =
| pushpin_map = India Tamil Nadu
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Tamil Nadu, India
| coordinates = {{coord|11|18|20|N|76|56|06|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[Region]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[City]]
| subdivision_type4 =
| subdivision_name1 = [[Tamil Nadu]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Mettupalayam taluk|Mettupalayam]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[Coimbatore]]
| established_date =
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| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_total_km2 =
| area_rank =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 325
| population_total = 66595
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_footnotes =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_rank =
| population_demonym =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info5 =
| demographics2_info1 =
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 641301
| area_code = 91-4254
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| registration_plate = '''TN-40'''
| website =
| footnotes =
| demographics1_info1 = [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
}}
'''Mettupalayam''' is a municipal town and headquarters of [[Mettupalayam taluk|Mettupalayam Taluk]] in the [[Coimbatore District]] of the [[India]]n [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[Tamil Nadu]]. It is the second largest town in the Coimbatore district after [[Pollachi]]. It is located to the north of [[Coimbatore]] city on the way to [[Ooty]], in the foothills of [[Nilgiri hills]]. As of 2011, the town had a population of 69,213. [[Mettupalayam railway station]] is the starting point of [[Nilgiri Mountain Railway]] and it operates the only [[rack railway]] in India connecting [[Ooty]] and Mettupalayam. It is a suburban area of Coimbatore City.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ooty toy train: All you need to know about the classy trip through enchating hills |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/travel/outside-kerala/2022/01/06/ooty-heritage-train-booking-stops-details.html |access-date=2023-01-24 |website=www.onmanorama.com}}</ref>

==Geography==
Mettupalayam is located at {{Coord|11.3056|N|76.9350|E|}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fallingrain.com/world/IN/25/Mettuppalaiyam2.html |title=Falling Rain Genomics, Inc - Mettuppalaiyam, India}}</ref> It has an average elevation of {{Convert|314|m|ft|abbr=on}}. Mettupalayam is situated on the bank of [[Bhavani River]] at the foot of the [[Nilgiris (mountains)|Nilgiri]] mountains.

==Demographics==
{{bar box|title=Religious census|titlebar=#ddd|left1=Religion|right1=Percent(%)|float=left|bars={{bar percent|[[Hinduism|Hindu]]|Orange|69.24}}{{bar percent|[[Islam|Muslim]]|Green|25.65}}{{bar percent|[[Christianity|Christian]]|purple|4.84}}{{bar percent|Other|grey|0.26}}}}

According to [[2011 census of India|2011 census]], Mettupalayam had a population of 69,213 with a sex-ratio of 1,022 females for every 1,000 males, much above the national average of 929.<ref name="dashboard">{{Cite report |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/1151 |title=Census of India 2011 - Tamil Nadu - Series 34 - Part XII B - District Census Handbook, Coimbatore |date=2014}}</ref> A total of 6,808 were under the age of six, constituting 3,543 males and 3,265 females. [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes]] accounted for 14.76% and 0.08% of the population respectively. The average literacy of the town was 77.11%, compared to the national average of 72.99%.<ref name="dashboard"/> The town had a total of 18,423 households. There were a total of 26,595 workers, comprising 147 cultivators, 437 main agricultural labourers, 704 in house hold industries, 23,870 other workers, 1,437 marginal workers, 8 marginal cultivators, 60 marginal agricultural labourers, 92 marginal workers in household industries and 1,277 other marginal workers.<ref name=2011census>{{cite web |title=Census Info 2011 Final population totals - Mettupalayam |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/pca/SearchDetails.aspx?Id=705785 |publisher=Office of The Registrar General and Census Commissioner, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India |year=2013|access-date=26 January 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924150558/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/pca/SearchDetails.aspx?Id=705785|archive-date=24 September 2015 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

As per the religious census of 2011, Mettupalayam had 69.24% [[Hindus]], 25.65% [[Muslims]], 4.84% [[Christians]], 0.02% [[Sikhs]], 0.15% [[Jainism|Jains]], 0.04% following other religions and 0.05% following no religion or did not indicate any religious preference.<ref name=religion2011>{{cite web |title=Population By Religious Community - Tamil Nadu |year=2011 |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01.html |format=XLS |publisher=Office of The Registrar General and Census Commissioner, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India|access-date=13 September 2015}}</ref>

==Politics==
[[Mettupalayam (State Assembly Constituency)]] is part of [[Nilgiris Lok Sabha constituency|Nilgiris]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://archive.eci.gov.in/se2001/background/S22/TN_ACPC.pdf |format=PDF |title=List of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies |access-date=2008-10-10 |publisher=Election Commission of India |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090304010951/http://archive.eci.gov.in/se2001/background/S22/TN_ACPC.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2009}}</ref>

==Transport==
[[File:Niltrain.JPG|thumb|250px|Nilgiri Mountain Railway]]
The [[Nilgiri Mountain Railway]], which connects [[Mettupalayam railway station]] with [[Udagamandalam]] (Ooty), is a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Mountain Railways of India |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/944/ |access-date=2024-05-09 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en}}</ref> [[Nilgiri Express]] connects Mettupalayam to the State capital, [[Chennai]], via [[Coimbatore]]. Mettupalayam is situated at the base of [[Nilgiri Hills]] and hence is the starting point for the [[Nilgiri Ghat Roads|Ghat Roads]]. [[MEMU]] express special trains are operated between [[Coimbatore Junction railway station|Coimbatore Junction]] and Mettupalayam daily. [[Coimbatore]] is 35 km by road from Mettupalayam, and the nearest airport is [[Coimbatore International Airport]]. There is a proposal for a bypass road from [[Sulur]] ([[Kangayampalayam]]) via [[Neelambur]] for Mettupalayam via [[Odanthurai, Tamil Nadu|Odanthurai]] to Ooty.

[[NH 181|National Highway 181 (India)]] connecting [[Gundlupet]] in [[Karnataka]] state to [[Nagapattinam]] passes through Mettupalyam. State highway SH15 from [[Erode]] to Ooty passes through [[Chithode]], [[Gobichettipalayam]], [[Sathyamangalam]], [[Sirumugai]], Mettupalayam and [[Kotagiri]]. State highway SH80 connects Mettupalayam to [[Avinashi]] via [[Annur]].

==Places of interest==
* [[Black Thunder (theme park)|Black Thunder]] Water Theme Park
* Shree Sadhguru Sai Baba Temple, Kuttaiyur
* Karamadai Ranganadar Temple
* Forest College and Research Institute, Kotagiri Road
* Idugampalayam Aanjaneyar Temple
* Kallaar Park at Ooty Road
* Kumaran Kundru Murugan Temple
* Kurunthamalai Murugan Temple
* Thekkampatti Elephant Camp
* Then Tirupathi Temple
* Vana Bathrakali Amman temple
* Mettupalayam View Point
* Sennamalai Murugan Temple
* Madeshwarar Temple, Kuttaiyur

== Entertainment ==

* '''Movie Theaters:''' Sri Sakthi, Sivam, and Abhirami.

* '''Shopping:''' Explore local shops and markets for a diverse retail experience.

[[Image: Guest House of Forestry College and Research Station.jpg|thumb|Forestry College and Research Institute, Guest House]]

==Nearby villages ==
* [[Marudur, Coimbatore|Marudur]]
* Kurumbanoor
* Athimathaiyanur
* Dhayanur
* Dimmampalayam
* Jadayampalayam
* Lingapuram
* Nellithurai
* [[Moolathurai]]
* [[Odanthurai, Tamil Nadu|Odanthurai]]
* Paapanur
* Palapatti
* Thekkampatti
* Tholampalayam
* [[Velliangadu]]
* Kemmarampalayam

==See also==
* [[Mountain Train in Ooty]]

==References==
{{commons category|Mettupalayam}}
{{Reflist}}

{{Coimbatore district}}

{{Municipalities of Tamil Nadu}}

[[Category:Cities and towns in Coimbatore district]]

Godse's Children: Hindutva Terror in India

2026-02-18T07:35:14Z

IZinePro: Created Page

{{short description|2011 Indian political history book by Subhash Gatade}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2025}}
{{Infobox book
| image = File:Godse's Children, Hindutva Terror in India.png
| editors = Subhash Gatade
| country = India
| language = English
| publisher = Pharos Media & Publishing
| pub_date = 2011
| isbn = 978-8172210526
}}

'''''Godse's Children: Hindutva Terror in India''''' is a 2011 Indian political history book by Indian journalist Subhash Gatade that focuses on the phenomenon of [[Hindutva terrorism]].<ref name=Hensman>{{cite journal |last=Hensman |first=R. |date=2012 |title=The Spectre of Fascism [Review of Godse's Children: Hindutva Terror in India; The Saffron Condition: Politics of Repression and Exclusion in Neoliberal India, by S. Gatade] |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |volume=47 |issue=9 |pages=34–36 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/23214471 |jstor=23214471}}</ref>

==Narrative==

In the 2011 book, which has been labelled "contentious", Gatade introduces [[Mahatma Gandhi]]'s murderer [[Nathuram Godse]] as "the first terrorist in independent India" and the [[assassination of Mahatma Gandhi]] "as the first terrorist activity".<ref name=Andrean>{{cite book |chapter=Nathuram Godse in Perspectives: The Cult of an Assassin in the Indian English Writings |last=Abdul Hameed |first=P. A. |pages=202–214 |title=Ruminations: The Andrean Journal of Literature 2013 |date=28 June 2018 |publisher=St Andrew's College of Arts, Science and Commerce |chapter-url=https://standrewscollege.ac.in/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/Nathuram-Godse-in-Perspectives-The-Cult-of-an-Assassin-in-the-Indian-English-Writings.pdf |url=https://standrewscollege.ac.in/ruminations-2013-2/}}</ref> In a 2012 review of Gatade's work, reviewer Rohini Hensman concurred that if terrorism is defined as violence in pursuit of a political goal, then the assassination of Gandhi "could indeed be seen as a terrorist act".<ref name=Hensman/>

Gatade depicts Godse as neither "just a representative of the Hindutva forces in whose hands he was a mere pawn", and focused not on the assassination itself by Godse as "a symbol of terrorism, a preamble of a wider politics of Hindu domination, a harbinger of Hindutva terrorism in India".<ref name=Andrean/>

In the book, Gatade also narrates how investigations into the [[2006 Mumbai train bombings]] in India had "progressively revealed a unified or coordinated network of conspirators, all implicated with the [[Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh|RSS]]", centered on [[Indore]].<ref name=Banaji>{{cite speech |last=Banaji |first=J. |title=Trajectories of Fascism: Extreme-Right Movements in India and Elsewhere |series=The Fifth Walter Sisulu Memorial Lecture |work=[[Jamia Millia Islamia]] |date=18 March 2013 |url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/16825/1/Jamia%20lecture%20(fascism).pdf}}</ref> He asserts that the RSS has a strategy of outsourcing tension, while publicly disowning it, but that this subterfuge is "not vastly more credible than its disowning of Godse himself".<ref name=Banaji/>

A further thrust of the work is about shortcomings in India's law enforcement agencies, which Gatade contests "entertain institutional bias against Muslims",{{sfn|Gatade|2013|p=285}} being "forthcoming in implicating innocent Muslim youths" and engaging "in communal witch-hunts and extra judicial killings".<ref name=Ansari>{{cite thesis |last=Ansari |first=K. |date=2016 |title=Hindu Nationalism in Theory and Practice |work=[[Duke University]] |url=https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/10161/12020/Khalid%20Ansari%20-%20Hindu%20Nationalism%20V2.1.pdf}}</ref> India's media is also chastised for "pushing forward the Muslim terrorist narrative"
and distorting events, including by notably giving little heed to stories where the innocent victims of wrongful arrests have been acquitted by the courts.<ref name=Ansari/>

Gatade asserts that "while full fledged fascism may by the preserve of the [[Sangh parivar|Sangh Parivar]]", the softer communalism of other parties, such as their hostility to religious conversion, also nurtures extremism.<ref name=Hensman/>

==Critical reception==

In his remarks on the author's delivery, Hensman notes that "Gatade belong[s] to the small section of left-wing writers and activists who take the task of combating the growth of fascism in India seriously".<ref name=Hensman/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

===Sources===
*{{cite book |title=Godse's Children: Hindutva Terror in India, 2nd edition |first=Subhash |last=Gatade |date=2013 |isbn=9788172210557 |page=41 |publisher=Pharos Media & Publishing |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eSjumAEACAAJ}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:2011 non-fiction books]]
[[Category:Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi]]
[[Category:Hindu terrorism]]
[[Category:Indian non-fiction books]]
[[Category:Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh]]
[[Category:Encounters in India]]
[[Category:Islamophobia in India]]
[[Category:Fascism in India]]
[[Category:English-language non-fiction books]]
[[Category:Books about Hindutva]]
[[Category:History books about India]]

Vellore G. Ramabhadran

2026-02-12T03:25:14Z

IZinePro: started new pg

{{Short description|Indian mridangam player (1929-2012)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox person
|name = Vellore G. Ramabhadran
|image = Vellore_g_ramabhadran_mridangam_artist.jpg
|imagesize =
|caption = Vellore Ramabhadran during a concert in Chennai
|birth_name = Gopalachari Ramabhadran
|birth_date ={{birth date|df=yes|1929|8|4}}
|birth_place = [[Salem District]]
|death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|2012|2|27|1929|8|4}}
|death_place = [[Chennai]]
|other_names =
|known_for = Mridangam Artiste
|education =
| occupation = Mridangam Artiste
| title =
| spouse=
|children=
|parents= [[Konnakol]] T. P.Gopalachari,
|relatives=
|signature =
|website=
}}
'''Vellore G. Ramabhadran''' (4 August 1929 – 27 February 2012) was a [[Mridangam]] artiste from [[Tamil Nadu]], India.<ref name=hindu>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/music/mridangam-maestro-no-more/article2937607.ece |publisher=thehindu.com|title=Mridangam maestro no more - The Hindu  |access-date=2016-09-25}}</ref> He was awarded the [[Madras Music Academy]]'s [[Sangeetha Kalanidhi]] in 2004.

==Early years==
Born in [[Vellore]], he showed interest in [[Carnatic music]] even at an early age. His father ''[[Konnakol]] T. P. Gopalachari'', a musician himself, was running a Music Sabha{{citation needed|date=July 2020}} in [[Vellore, Tamil Nadu|Vellore]]. This sabha conducted competitions in Carnatic music among children. Maestros like Kancheepuram [[Naina Pillai]], [[Palghat Mani Iyer]] and Pudukottai [[Dakshinamurthy Pillai]] judged competitors and awarded prizes. [[M. S. Subbulakshmi]] has given a concert in this Sabha in 1936<ref name=rama>[http://www.kutcheribuzz.com/features/interviews/ramabhadran.asp Ramabhadran Interview]</ref><br />
Young Ramabhadran was fascinated by the music concerts and started learning Mridangam from his father at the age of eight.<br />
During [[World War II]] people living in Madras (presently, [[Chennai]]) evacuated the city and moved to interior towns and villages. In 1942, Thiruparkadal Srinivasa Iyengar moved from Chennai to Salem. It gave an opportunity for Ramabhadran to learn vocal music from him.<ref name=rama/> <br />
Ramabhadran moved to Chennai in 1950
and took residence at [[Mylapore]].

==Performances==
In his first stage appearance, he accompanied [[Madurai Mani Iyer]] on the Mridangam. During the 1940s there were not many ''Sabha''s in Chennai. He accompanied Madurai Mani Iyer in concerts held at various temples throughout Tamil Nadu.<br />
Ramabhadran has performed as an accompanying Mridangam artiste to Carnatic music doyens [[Ariyakudi Ramanuja Iyengar]], [[Chembai Vaidyanatha Bhagavatar]], [[Maharajapuram Viswanatha Iyer]], [[Semmangudi Srinivasa Iyer]], [[Musiri Subramania Iyer]], [[G. N. Balasubramaniam]], [[K.V.Narayanaswamy]], [[M.Balamuralikrishna]], [[Maharajapuram Santhanam]], [[T. V. Sankaranarayanan]], [[T. N. Seshagopalan]], B. Rajam Iyer,{{citation needed|date=July 2020}} [[P. S. Narayanaswamy]] and to Illustrious Instrumentalists like [[T. R. Mahalingam (flautist)|T. R. Mahalingam]], [[N. Ramani]], [[Lalgudi Jayaraman]], [[U. Srinivas|U Shrinivas]] and [[T. N. Krishnan]].<ref name=hindu />
He has also performed with North Indian Music artistes [[Zakir Hussain (musician)|Zakir Hussein]], [[Alla Rakha]], [[Amjad Ali Khan]] and [[Hariprasad Chaurasia]].<ref name=rama/>

==Concerts abroad==
Ramabhadran went to United States for the first time in 1962 with [[Veena]] maestro [[S. Balachander]], N. Ramani, and Umayalapuram K Sivaraman. They performed in many cities and universities from coast to coast.<ref name=rama/><br />He performed in the Festivals of India held in the U.K., USA and U.S.S.R.<ref>[http://www.chennailivenews.com/news/newsitem.aspx?id=20122527112559&subcatid=chennai Mridangam Maestro Vellore Ramabhadran dead]</ref>

==Unforgettable experience==
Ramabhadran recalls performing a concert for the prisoners in the [[Palayamkottai Central Prison]] in 1948 is an unforgettable experience. He accompanied [[Dandapani Desikar|M. M. Dandapani Desikar]] in that concert.<br />
Likewise a remarkable experience for him was the receiving of '''Sangeetha Choodamani''' award from the top Mridandam Vidwan Palghat Mani Iyer in 1975. The award was accorded by the Krishna Gana Sabha, Chennai.<ref name=rama/>

==His thoughts==
Ramabhadran opines that Mridangam is an accompanying instrument and it should not interrupt the main artiste. The Mridangam artiste can show his skill during the few minutes he/she is given for "Thani Avarthanam" (Solo interludes).

==Performance in Tamil film==
Ramabhadran accompanied [[K. J. Yesudas]] on the mridangan for the song "Mari, mari, ninne" in the Tamil film ''[[Sindhu Bhairavi (film)|Sindhu Bhairavi]]'' produced by [[K. Balachandar]]. The film scene shows actor [[Sivakumar]] as the singer and [[Delhi Ganesh]] as the mridangam artiste.

==Awards and honours==
* [[Sangeetha Choodamani]], 1975 by Krishna Gana Sabha, Chennai<ref name=rama/>
* [[Sangeetha Kalanidhi]], 2004 by Music Academy, Chennai<ref>[http://www.musicacademymadras.in/fotemplate05.php?temp=ac1c9891-da71-11e2-b2c0-00167688e545&tc=acb9c3bc-f620-11e2-8d59-00304891133e&shid=acb9f4b8-f620-11e2-8d59-00304891133e Recipients of Sangita Kalanidhi] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304101059/http://www.musicacademymadras.in/fotemplate05.php?temp=ac1c9891-da71-11e2-b2c0-00167688e545&tc=acb9c3bc-f620-11e2-8d59-00304891133e&shid=acb9f4b8-f620-11e2-8d59-00304891133e |date=2016-03-04 }}</ref>
* [[Sangeet Natak Akademi Award]], 1991 by [[Sangeet Natak Akademi]]<ref>[http://sangeetnatak.gov.in/sna/awardeeslist.htm#CarnaticVeena Instrumental - Carnatic Mridangam] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150530204253/http://sangeetnatak.gov.in/sna/awardeeslist.htm |date=2015-05-30 }}</ref>
* [[Sangeetha Kalasikhamani]], 1998 by The Indian Fine Arts Society, Chennai<ref>[http://www.theindianfineartssociety.com/oldevents.html Awardees of Sangeetha Kalasikhamani]</ref>
* [[Sangeet Natak Akademi Tagore Ratna]], 2012 by [[Sangeet Natak Akademi]]

==Death==
Vellore G. Ramabhadran died on 27 February 2012, aged 82.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://news.webindia123.com/news/articles/India/20120227/1936083.html |title=Mridangam exponent dead |access-date=8 January 2014 |archive-date=15 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171215221325/https://news.webindia123.com/news/articles/India/20120227/1936083.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Disciples ==
Vellore Ramabhadran has trained many mridangam players.One of them being Babu Rajasekaran, who accompanies Udaiyalur Kalyanaram Bhagavathar

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
# {{YouTube|vckxvmjy30E|"Mari Mari Ninne" song video}}
# {{YouTube|YF5X5KxwX_I|Ramabhadran Solo}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ramabhadran, Vellore G.}}
[[Category:1929 births]]
[[Category:2012 deaths]]
[[Category:Mridangam players]]
[[Category:Sangeetha Kalanidhi recipients]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian drummers]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award]]

Atul Kumar Goel

2026-01-08T00:50:09Z

IZinePro: Adding first biography v1

{{Short description|Seasoned banker}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2022}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Atul Kumar Goel
| image =
| caption =
| birth_name =
| birth_date =
| birth_place =
| death_date =
| education = [[Institute of Chartered Accountants of India]]
| occupation = Banker
| known for =
| title = MD and CEO, [[Punjab National Bank]]
| term = January 2022 – December 2024
| predecessor =
| successor =
| spouse =
| website =
}}
'''Atul Kumar Goel''' is an Indian businessman. He was the Managing Director and Chief Executive Officer of [[Punjab National Bank]]. He is a former Chief Executive Officer and Managing Director of [[UCO Bank|UCO bank]]. He has also worked in [[Allahabad Bank]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=K.R.Srivats |date=2022-01-01 |title=Atul Kumar Goel joins Punjab National Bank |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/money-and-banking/atul-kumar-goel-joins-punjab-national-bank/article38088382.ece |access-date=2022-08-04 |website=www.thehindubusinessline.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title= Atul Kumar Goel, Punjab National Bank: Profile and Biography|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/profile/person/18279132 |access-date=2022-08-04 |website=www.bloomberg.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Rebello |first=Joel |title=UCO Bank CEO Atul Kumar Goel appointed chairman of Indian Banks' Association |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/banking/finance/banking/uco-bank-ceo-atul-kumar-goel-appointed-chairman-of-indian-banks-association/articleshow/87023287.cms |access-date=2022-08-04}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=PNB.IN Company Profile & Executives - Punjab National Bank - Wall Street Journal |url=https://www.wsj.com/market-data/quotes/IN/XNSE/PNB/company-people/executive-profile/176413249 |access-date=2022-08-04 |website=www.wsj.com}}</ref>

==Early life==
Goel got a degree from [[The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India]].<ref name=":0" />

==Career==
Goel started his career in 1992 as a Chartered Accountant in [[Allahabad Bank]]. In 2016, he joined Union bank as an executive director after which in 2018 he was appointed as the MD of UCO Bank. In 2021, he joined [[Punjab National Bank]] as the Managing Director and Chief Executive Officer. He is also the Chairman of the Indian Bank's Association (IBA). He is a Director on the Board of The [[New India Assurance]] Co. Ltd. He is also a member of Governing Council & Chairman of the Executive Committee of the Indian Institute of Banking & Finance (IIBF).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Banks Board Bureau recommends Atul Kumar Goel as MD, CEO of Punjab National Bank |url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/business/banks-board-bureau-recommends-atul-kumar-goel-as-md-ceo-of-punjab-national-bank-7418121.html |access-date=2022-08-04 |website=Moneycontrol |date=8 September 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Atul Kumar Goel to be MD and CEO of Punjab National Bank |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/business/2022/jan/01/atul-kumar-goel-to-be-md-and-ceo-of-punjab-national-bank-2402036.html |access-date=2022-08-04 |website=The New Indian Express}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Managing Director & Chief Executive Officer PNB CEO Profile{{!}} PNB CEO |url=https://www.pnbindia.in/md-ceo-profile.html#:~:text=Born%20on%20December%2026,%201964,Bank%20of%20India%20w.e.f.%2015.09 |access-date=2022-08-04 |website=www.pnbindia.in}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Goel, Atul Kumar}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian bankers]]
[[Category:Indian chief executives]]
[[Category:Indian businesspeople]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

Andhra and Telangana cuisine

2025-12-12T21:39:25Z

IZinePro: new redirect

#REDIRECT [[Andhra cuisine]]

East Bengal field hockey team

2025-11-28T16:23:08Z

IZinePro: Created A Page!

{{Short description|Indian professional field hockey club}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2023}}
{{Infobox field hockey club
| image = Official East Bengal FC Logo.svg
| caption =
| fullname = East Bengal Club
| nickname =
| short name = East Bengal
| founded = {{Start date and age|1947|||df=y}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Hockey |url=http://eastbengalclub.co.in/hockey.html |website=eastbengalclub.co.in |access-date=2 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181018025827/http://eastbengalclub.co.in/hockey.html |archive-date=18 October 2018 }}</ref>
| dissolved =
| color = Red and Gold
| ground = [[East Bengal Ground]]
| capacity = 23,500
| owner =
| chairman =
| manager =
| coach = Jagraj Singh
| tenure =
| assistcoach =
| captain =
| top =
| members =
| league = [[Calcutta Hockey League]]
| season = 2024
| position = [[Calcutta Hockey League|CHL]]: 1st
| website = [https://emamieastbengal.com/ Club website]
| kit_alt1 =
| pattern_la1 =
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{{East Bengal F.C. departments}}
'''East Bengal hockey team''' is an Indian professional [[field hockey]] team located in [[Kolkata]], West Bengal. It participates in various tournaments conducted by Hockey Bengal. The team plays its home matches mostly at the [[East Bengal Ground]] and also at the SAI Sports Complex at [[Salt Lake Stadium]].

The club participates in the [[Calcutta Hockey League]] and the [[Beighton Cup]]. The team have won fourteen major state titles as of the 2022 season,

==History==
East Bengal Club started their hockey section after the Indian Independence in 1947 and got affiliated with the Bengal Hockey Association (BHA). The Club participated in the [[Calcutta Hockey League]] and the [[Beighton Cup]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Hockey |url=http://eastbengalclub.co.in/hockey.html |website=eastbengalclub.co.in |access-date=2 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181018025827/http://eastbengalclub.co.in/hockey.html |archive-date=18 October 2018 }}</ref> and were the fourth Indian hockey team to win the Calcutta Hockey League in the 1960 season.<ref name="chl">{{cite web|url=https://www.hockeybengal.org/calcutta-hockey-league-history |title=BIRTH AND EVOLUTION OF CALCUTTA HOCKEY LEAGUE COMPETITION (1905) |date=2022 |access-date=24 October 2022|website=www.hockeybengal.org|publisher=Hockey Bengal |location=Kolkata |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221018155544/https://www.hockeybengal.org/calcutta-hockey-league-history |archive-date=18 October 2022 }}</ref>

The club disbanded their hockey section in 2000,<ref>{{cite web |title=As hockey regains its place in the sun, Bengal experts rue lack of basic infra |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/as-hockey-regains-its-place-in-the-sun-bengal-experts-rue-lack-of-basic-infra/articleshow/85121490.cms |date=7 August 2021 |last=Bhattacharya |first=Nilesh |website=The Times of India }}</ref> but was eventually revived after 21 years in 2021. In the next season in 2022, East Bengal won their tenth CHL title after 33 years.<ref>{{cite web |title=How East Bengal Won the Calcutta Premier Hockey League After 33 Years! |url=https://hockeypassion.in/indian-domestic-hockey-buzz/how-east-bengal-won-kolkata-premier-hockey-league-after-33-years/ |access-date=24 October 2022 |publisher=Hockey Passion |archive-date=24 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221024100541/https://hockeypassion.in/indian-domestic-hockey-buzz/how-east-bengal-won-kolkata-premier-hockey-league-after-33-years/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=East Bengal Club is the champion of Kolkata Hockey League 2022 |url=https://eastbengalclub.com/news/details/east-bengal-club-is-the-champion-of-kolkata-hockey-league-2022 |access-date=2 November 2022 |website=eastbengalclub.com }}</ref>

==Honours==
===League===
*'''[[Calcutta Hockey League]]'''
**Champions (10): 1960, 1961, 1964, 1968, 1973, 1976, 1979, 1989, 2022, 2024

===Cup===
*'''[[Beighton Cup]]'''
**Champions (4): 1957, 1962, 1964, 1967
**Runners-up (3): 1963, 1970, 1987

==Current squad==
The squad for the 2022 season:<ref>{{cite web |title=Hockey team of East Bengal Club of 2022 to play in Kolkata Hockey League |url=https://eastbengalclub.com/team/hockey-team |website=eastbengalclub.com |access-date=2 November 2022 }}</ref>

*[[Vikas Dahiya]]
*[[Pardeep Mor]]
*Anup Valmiki
*[[Yuvraj Valmiki]]
*Manpreet
*Ajit Pandey
*Roshan Kumar
*[[Harjeet Singh]]
*Chandan Singh
*Maninder Singh
*Prabhjot Singh
*Iqtidar Israt
*First Sharma
*Aditya Singh
*Nitish Neopane
*Rohit
*Balkar Singh
*Yograj Singh
*Raju Pal
*Atul Island
*Mohit
*Arjun Yadav
*Pawan Singh Chauhan
*Naresh Kumar Chowdhury

==Notable players==
Notable players who have represented East Bengal Club includes Olympians [[Gurbux Singh (field hockey)|Gurbux Singh]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/football/top-stories/east-bengal-seek-a-new-identity-on-foundation-day/articleshow/65237673.cms|title=East Bengal seek a 'new identity' on foundation day|work=The Times of India|access-date=19 December 2019|archive-date=2 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802092224/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/football/top-stories/east-bengal-seek-a-new-identity-on-foundation-day/articleshow/65237673.cms}}</ref> [[Joginder Singh (field hockey)|Joginder Singh]], [[B. P. Govinda]], [[Inam-ur Rahman]], [[Vece Paes]], [[Mohammed Shahid]].

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://emamieastbengal.com/ Club website]

{{East Bengal F.C.}}
{{West Bengal Sports}}

[[Category:East Bengal Club]]
[[Category:Field hockey in West Bengal]]
[[Category:Sports clubs and teams in Kolkata]]
[[Category:Field hockey clubs in India]]

Second Sayeed ministry

2025-11-28T02:04:17Z

IZinePro:

{{Short description|Jammu and Kashmir, India government (2015–2016)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2018}}
{{one source|date=October 2015}}
{{Infobox government cabinet
| cabinet_type = Ministry
| cabinet_number =
| jurisdiction = [[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|State of Jammu and Kashmir]]
| flag = Flag of Jammu and Kashmir (1952-2019).svg
| flag_border = true
| incumbent =
| image = File:Mufti Mohammad Sayeed.jpg
| image_size = 150px
| caption = [[Mufti Mohammad Sayeed]]<br />[[Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir|Hon'ble Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir]]
| date_formed = 1 March 2015
| date_dissolved = 7 January 2016
| government_head = [[Mufti Mohammad Sayeed]]
| government_head_history =
| state_head = Governor<br />[[N. N. Vohra]]
| members_number = 24
| former_members_number =
| total_number =
| political_parties = '''[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]'''<br />''' [[Jammu and Kashmir Peoples Democratic Party|Peoples Democratic Party]]'''
| opposition_cabinet =
| opposition_party = [[Jammu and Kashmir National Conference|JKNC]]
| opposition_leader = [[Omar Abdullah]] (assembly)
| election = [[2014 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election|2014]]
| last_election = [[2014 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election|2014]]
| legislature_term = 5 years
| previous = [[First Omar Abdullah ministry]]
| successor = [[Mehbooba Mufti ministry]]
}}

The '''Mufti Mohammad Sayeed ministry''' was formed on 1 March 2015, following the elections of [[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|Jammu and Kashmir]] Legislative Assembly in 2014, with [[Mufti Mohammad Sayeed]] as Chief Minister. The list of ministers:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://m.newshunt.com/india/english-newspapers/headlines-today/headlines/pdps-mufti-mohammad-sayeed-takes-oath-as-jammu-and-kashmir-chief-minister-along-with-24-ministers_36825573/c-in-l-english-n-headline-ncat-Headlines |title=PDP'S Mufti Mohammad Sayeed takes oath as Jammu and Kashmir chief minister along with 24 ministers | Headlines- INDIA TODAY TV |publisher=M.newshunt.com |date=2015-03-01 |accessdate=2015-10-31}}</ref>

==Cabinet ministers==
{{Cabinet table start|hiderefcol=y}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title = Chief Minister<br/>'''Other departments not allocated to any Minister'''
| minister1 = [[Mufti Mohammad Sayeed]]
| minister1_termstart = 1 March 2015
| minister1_termend = 7 January 2016
| minister1_party = Jammu and Kashmir People's Democratic Party
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title = Deputy Chief Minister<br/>Power Development and Housing & Urban Development
| minister1 = [[Nirmal Kumar Singh]]
| minister1_termstart = 1 March 2015
| minister1_termend = 7 January 2016
| minister1_party = Bharatiya Janata Party
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title = Public Works
| minister1 = [[Abdul Rehman Veeri]]
| minister1_termstart = 1 March 2015
| minister1_termend = 7 January 2016
| minister1_party = Jammu and Kashmir People's Democratic Party
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title = Finance
| minister1 = [[Haseeb Drabu]]
| minister1_termstart = 1 March 2015
| minister1_termend = 7 January 2016
| minister1_party = Jammu and Kashmir People's Democratic Party
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title = Health and Medical Education
| minister1 = [[Bali Bhagat]]
| minister1_termstart = 1 March 2015
| minister1_termend = 7 January 2016
| minister1_party = Bharatiya Janata Party
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title = Industries and Commerce
| minister1 = [[Chander Prakash Ganga]]
| minister1_termstart = 1 March 2015
| minister1_termend = 7 January 2016
| minister1_party = Bharatiya Janata Party
}}
{{Cabinet table end}}

==Ministers of state==
{{Cabinet table start|hiderefcol=y}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title = Housing & Urban Development, Social Welfare, Health & Medical Education
| minister1 = [[Asiya Naqash]]
| minister1_termstart = 1 March 2015
| minister1_termend = 7 January 2016
| minister1_party = Jammu and Kashmir People's Democratic Party
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title = Haj & Auqaf (Independent charge), PHE and Irrigation & Flood Control
| minister1 = [[Farooq Ahmad Andrabi]]
| minister1_termstart = 1 March 2015
| minister1_termend = 7 January 2016
| minister1_party = Jammu and Kashmir People's Democratic Party
}}
{{Cabinet table end}}

== See also ==
* [[First Mufti Mohammad Sayeed ministry]]
* [[Mehbooba Mufti ministry]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mufti Mohammad Sayeed ministry}}
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party]]
[[Category:2015 in Indian politics]]
[[Category:Jammu and Kashmir Peoples Democratic Party]]
[[Category:Jammu and Kashmir ministries|Sayeed II]]
[[Category:Jammu and Kashmir People's Conference]]
[[Category:2016 establishments in Jammu and Kashmir]]
[[Category:2016 disestablishments in India]]
[[Category:Indian ministries established in 2015|Sayeed II]]
[[Category:Indian ministries disestablished in 2016|Sayeed II]]

Rashtriya Congress

2025-08-18T15:01:27Z

IZinePro:

{{Short description|Indian political party}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2023}}{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
'''Rashtriya Congress''' was an Indian political party founded in December 1982 by [[Ratubhai Adani]] and functioned until October 1984.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ratubhai Adani forms breakaway Rashtriya Congress in Gujarat |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/indiascope/story/19830131-ratubhai-adani-forms-breakaway-rashtriya-congress-in-gujarat-770389-2013-07-26 |access-date=2023-02-15 |website=India Today |date=26 July 2013 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The western factor |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/indiascope/story/19830515-xyz-770681-2013-07-22 |access-date=2023-02-15 |website=India Today |date=22 July 2013 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-08-11 |title=Modi needn't fret on Keshubhai: Gujarat hates party-poopers |url=https://www.firstpost.com/politics/modi-neednt-fret-on-keshubhai-gujarat-hates-party-poopers-414783.html |access-date=2023-02-15 |website=Firstpost |language=en}}</ref> In 1983, Rashtriya Congress joined the United Front alliance, comprising [[Janata Party]], [[Congress (Secular)]] and Democratic Socialist Party.<ref>{{Cite web |title='In anticipation of elections, political alignments have begun to be formed' |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/guest-column/story/19830930-in-anticipation-of-elections-political-alignments-have-begun-to-be-formed-771070-2013-07-17 |access-date=2023-02-15 |website=India Today |date=17 July 2013 |language=en}}</ref>

On 21 October 1984, Rashtriya Congress merged into [[Dalit Mazdoor Kisan Party]], a new party formed by merging Rashtriya Congress, [[Lokdal|Lok Dal]], Democratic Socialist Party of [[Hemwati Nandan Bahuguna]] and some members of [[Janata Party]] like [[Devi Lal]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Formation of DMKP gives decent burial to Lok Dal-Janata merger talks |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/indiascope/story/19841115-formation-of-dmkp-gives-decent-burial-to-lok-dal-janata-merger-talks-803469-1984-11-14 |access-date=2023-02-15 |website=India Today |date=15 November 1984 |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
<references />{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Political parties in India]]
[[Category:Political parties established in 1982]]
[[Category:1982 establishments in India]]

{{India-party-stub}}

Srikakulam peasant uprising

2025-07-29T00:10:18Z

IZinePro: started data

{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Srikakulam peasant uprising
| partof = the [[Naxalite#Origins|origins]] of [[Naxalite–Maoist insurgency]]
| image =
| image_size =
| caption =
| date = 1967–1970
| place = [[Srikakulam]]
| result = Uprising suppressed
| territory =
| combatant1 = {{flag|India}}
| combatant2 = {{flagicon image|South Asian Communist Banner.svg}} [[Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist)|CPI (ML)]]
| commander1 =
| commander2 = {{flagicon image|South Asian Communist Banner.svg}} [[Vempatapu Satyanarayana]]{{KIA}}<br />{{flagicon image|South Asian Communist Banner.svg}} [[Adibhatla Kailasam]]{{KIA}}
| units1 = {{flagicon image|}} [[Central Reserve Police Force|CRPF]]
| units2 = Local peasantry
| strength1 =
| strength2 =
| casualties1 = 120 CRPF killed
| casualties2 = Unknown
| casualties3 =
| notes =
| campaignbox =
}}
{{Indcom}}

The '''Srikakulam peasant uprising''' occurred from 1967 to 1970, in [[Srikakulam district]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], India. The [[Naxalbari uprising]] at the beginning of the Naxalite movement during the 1960s inspired the upsurge.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=http://www.bannedthought.net/India/PeoplesMarch/PM1999-2006/publications/30%20years/part1.htm#31|title=The Naxalbari Uprising|website=www.bannedthought.net|access-date=17 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-andhrapradesh/%E2%80%98Literature-lends-voice-to-the-oppressed%E2%80%99/article14992974.ece|title=Literature lends voice to the oppressed |last=Rangarajan|first=A.D.|newspaper=The Hindu|access-date=17 December 2016}}</ref>

== Origin ==
The [[Telangana Rebellion]] that occurred between 1946 and 1947 left a deep impression on the communist movement going on in India. This ensued an internal debate and formulation of the "Andhra Thesis" where the communists from [[Andhra Pradesh]] urged that for the sake of Indian Revolution the communist movement must follow the style of communist movement in China. In June 1948, the "Andra Letter" was articulated that emphasised on the strategy of protracted people's war and new democracy based on [[Maoism]].<ref name="auto1">{{Cite news|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india/history-of-naxalism/story-4f1rZukARGYn3qHOqDMEbM.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160814222816/http://www.hindustantimes.com/india/history-of-naxalism/story-4f1rZukARGYn3qHOqDMEbM.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=14 August 2016|title=History of Naxalism|date=9 May 2003|newspaper=The Hindustan Times |access-date=17 December 2016}}</ref>

The communists had gained a prominent mass base in the tribal regions of Srikakulam since the early 1950s under leadership of two school teachers: [[Vempatapu Satyanarayana]] and [[Adibhatla Kailasam]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=JSTOR: Search Results|url=https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=Subbrao+Panigrahi&so=rel|access-date=2022-02-18|website=www.jstor.org}}</ref> The songs and verses of poet [[Subbarao Panigrahi]] also had a great involvement.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Frontier articles on Society & Politics|url=https://www.frontierweekly.com/articles/vol-51/51-22/51-22-Subbarao%20died%20a%20Martyrs%20Death.html|access-date=2022-02-17|website=www.frontierweekly.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eJJyDwAAQBAJ&dq=Subbarao+Panigrahi&pg=PA152|title=Media, Ideology and Hegemony|date=2018-09-11|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-36441-7|language=en}}</ref> With the deepening debate and crisis within the major communist parties and subsequent upheaval of naxalbari the leadership aligned themselves with the newly formed [[All India Coordination Committee of Communist Revolutionaries]] which later transformed into [[Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist)]].<ref name="auto"/>

== Uprising ==
On 31 October 1967, two persons associated with the communists, Koranna and Manganna were killed by landlords at Levidi village while the two were going to attend Girijan Samagam Conference. In retaliation the [[Girijan]]s started retaliating by land, property and food grain seizure from the landlords. This activities spread in different villages paralyzing the local police for six months until additional police forces were sent by the government. The tribals started facing severe offensive. The leadership started organizing the mass upheaval into an organized movement by forming peasant guerrilla squads and a more systemic resistance.<ref name="auto" /><ref name="auto1" />

=== Incidents ===
On 25 November 1968, 250 tribal peasants raided a land lords house snatching hoards of food grains, taking possession of belongings worth Rs.20,000 and burnt many documents.

On 20 December 1968, at Belereguda village guerrilla squads composed of 500 tribal peasants launched a surprise attack on 500 police officers, inflicting severe damage.<ref name="auto"/>

== Decline ==
By 1969 activities of the peasant squads increased along with there increasing actions. The government sent 12,000 CRF to tackle the uprising. Serious warfare continued from 6 months. The major conflict zone was spread throughout the regions of upper Aviri area, Bothili hills, Sanjuvai, Vegulavada, Ithamanugadda in Srikakulam. By January 1970, 120 CRPF were killed. But the uprising soon met a rapid decline. Their uprising faced with serious losses due to the casualties inflicted on the leadership. Youth leader Tamada Ganapathy, Panchadi Krishnamurthy from Boddapadu, Dr. Chaganti Bhaskar Rao from Parchoor, Prakasam district, [[Subbarao Panigrahi]] and six others killed by Andhra police between May 10 - Nov 3 1969. By 1970, 10 July, Vempatapu Satyanaraya, Adibhatla Kailasam and others like Panchadi Nirmala were also killed and the uprising soon disseminated.<ref name="auto"/><ref name="auto1"/>

The reminiscences of the uprising still have some influence on the [[Naxalite–Maoist insurgency]] and the splintered [[Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist)]] (CPI(ML)) factions that exist today.

== In popular culture ==
* Formation of VIRASAM (Viplava Rachayithala Sangam) or Revolutionary Writer's Association.<ref name="auto1"/>
* Formation of Jana Natya Mandali (JNM) group by artists comprising popular film producer like Narasinga Rao.
* Formation of Progressive Democratic Students Union in Hyderabad, Osmania University remembering George Reddy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://missiontelangana.com/keeping-the-dream-alive-in-memory-of-george-reddy/|title=Keeping the Dream Alive: In Memory of George Reddy {{!}} Mission Telangana|website=missiontelangana.com|date=14 April 2012|access-date=17 December 2016}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
*http://www.indiastudychannel.com/resources/150006-Armed-Struggle-Andhra-Pradesh-Greatest.aspx
*{{Cite web|last=Guruswamy|first=Mohan|date=2010|title=The Heart of our Darkness|url=http://indianstrategicknowledgeonline.com/web/Adivasis,%20Naxalites%20and%20Bad%20Govt.doc%20June%2016%20Copenhagen.pdf}}
[[Category:Land rights movements]]
[[Category:Naxalite–Maoist insurgency]]
[[Category:Peasant revolts]]
[[Category:Political uprisings in India]]
[[Category:Riots and civil disorder in India]]

E. N. Sudhir

2025-06-23T08:04:37Z

IZinePro: Created New Stub!

{{Short description|Indian football player (1948–2022)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}
{{Infobox football biography
|embed =
|name =
|image =
|image_size =
|alt =
|caption =
|fullname =
|birth_date = 1948
|birth_place = [[Kozhikode]]
|death_date = 3 July 2022
|death_place =
|height =
|position = [[Goalkeeper (association football)|Goalkeeper]]
|youthyears1 =
|youthclubs1 =
|collegeyears1 =
|college1 =
|collegecaps1 =
|collegegoals1 =
|years1 = 1971–1974
|clubs1 = [[Vasco SC|Vasco]]
|caps1 =
|goals1 =
|years2 = 1974–1976
|clubs2 = [[Mahindra United FC|Mahindra & Mahindra]]
|caps2 =
|goals2 =
|totalcaps =
|totalgoals =
|nationalyears1 = 1972–1974
|nationalteam1 = [[India national football team|India]]
|nationalcaps1 = 9
|nationalgoals1 = 0
|medaltemplates =
}}
'''E.N. Sudhir''' (1948 – 3 July 2022), was an Indian international [[association football|football]] player who played as a [[goalkeeper (association football)|goalkeeper]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-03 |title=Former India goalkeeper EN Sudhir passes away |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/sports/football/former-india-goalkeeper-en-sudhir-passes-away-1123545.html |access-date=2022-07-07 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en |archive-date=7 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707055250/https://www.deccanherald.com/sports/football/former-india-goalkeeper-en-sudhir-passes-away-1123545.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |author=Marcus Mergulhao |date=Jul 4, 2022 |title=Gutsy and acrobatic, former India keeper EN Sudhir no more {{!}} Goa News - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/gutsy-and-acrobatic-former-india-keeper-sudhir-no-more/articleshow/92639568.cms |access-date=2022-07-07 |website=The Times of India |language=en |archive-date=7 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707055214/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/gutsy-and-acrobatic-former-india-keeper-sudhir-no-more/articleshow/92639568.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> He represented Goa at the [[Santosh Trophy]] and made his debut at the tournament in 1972.<ref>{{Cite web|first=Novy|last=Kapadia|url=https://www.sportskeeda.com/football/memorable-moments-in-the-santosh-trophy-2|website=www.sportskeeda.com|publisher=Sportskeeda|date=27 May 2012|access-date=7 March 2021|title=Memorable moments in the Santosh Trophy|archive-date=12 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412140304/https://www.sportskeeda.com/football/memorable-moments-in-the-santosh-trophy-2}}</ref>

==Career==
Sudhir made his international debut against [[Indonesia national football team|Indonesia]] in [[Yangon|Rangoon]] (currently Yangon) in the Olympic qualifiers in 1972. He represented India in nine matches. Sudhir was a part of the Indian squad in the 1973 [[Pestabola Merdeka|Merdeka Cup]] and the [[1974 Asian Games]]. At the domestic level, he played for Kerala in the Santosh Trophy in 1969 and 1970.<ref>{{Cite web |title=EN Sudhir: Remembering the master of 'reverse flying kicks' |url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/sports/news/en-sudhir-remembering-the-master-of-reverse-flying-kicks-1.7662268 |access-date=2022-07-07 |website=English.Mathrubhumi |date=4 July 2022 |language=en |archive-date=7 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707060743/https://english.mathrubhumi.com/sports/news/en-sudhir-remembering-the-master-of-reverse-flying-kicks-1.7662268 |url-status=live }}</ref> He later switched to Goa and represented them in 1971, 1972, and 1973. He also played for Maharashtra in 1975. At the club level, Sudhir played for several clubs, including [[Vasco SC|Vasco Sports Club]] and [[Mahindra United FC|Mahindra & Mahindra]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ex-Indian goalkeeper Sudhir passes away |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/sports/football/2022/07/04/ex-indian-goalkeeper-sudhir-dies.html |date=4 July 2022 |access-date=2022-07-07 |website=OnManorama |archive-date=7 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707060304/https://www.onmanorama.com/sports/football/2022/07/04/ex-indian-goalkeeper-sudhir-dies.html |agency=[[Press Trust of India]] }}</ref>

==Personal life and death==
Sudhir suffered from gall bladder-related problems. He died on 3 July 2022.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sudhir, E.N}}
[[Category:1948 births]]
[[Category:2022 deaths]]
[[Category:Indian men's footballers]]
[[Category:India men's international footballers]]
[[Category:Malayali people]]
[[Category:Footballers from Kerala]]
[[Category:Sportspeople from Kozhikode]]
[[Category:Men's association football goalkeepers]]
[[Category:Footballers at the 1974 Asian Games]]
[[Category:Asian Games footballers for India]]

Amri, Sindh

2025-05-30T16:04:55Z

IZinePro: added citations per sources and corrected details

{{Short description|Ancient settlement in Sindh province of Pakistan}}
{{Infobox archaeological site
| name = Amri
| alternate_name = Amri, Sindh
| image = A mound of Amri.JPG
| alt =
| caption = A mound of Amri
| coordinates =
| location = [[Sindh]], [[Pakistan]]
| region =
| type = Ancient settlement
| length =
| width =
| area = 8 hectares
| height =
| builder =
| material =
| built = [[3600 BC]]
| abandoned =
| epochs = [[Pre-Harappan]], [[Indus Valley]], Jhukar, [[Jhangar]]
| condition = [[Archeological site]]
| ownership =
| public_access =
| website =
|map={{mapframe|frame=yes|type=point|{{Coord||}}|text=|zoom=SWITCH:5,7,13|switch=zoomed out, zoomed mid, zoomed in}}|native_name_lang=hi, pa, ur|native_name=[[:ur:آمری|آمری]]}}
'''Amri''' is an ancient settlement in modern-day [[Sindh, Pakistan]], that goes back to 3600 BCE. The site is located south of [[Mohenjo-daro|Mohenjo Daro]] on [[Hyderabad, Pakistan|Hyderabad]]-[[Dadu, Pakistan|Dadu]] Road more than 100 kilometres north of [[Hyderabad, Pakistan]].

==Cultural context ==
{{see also | Archaeological culture | Chronological dating | l2= Archaeological cultural dating | Phase (archaeology) | l3= Phases in archaeology | Pottery_in_the_Indian_subcontinent#Signifiance | l4= Tools and technology of archaeology | Pottery in the Indian subcontinent | l5= Pottery culture in Indian subcontinent }}

Amri is a [[type site]] for [[Amri culture]] which developed in Sindh during 4th millennium BCE. [[Kot Diji]] and Amri are close to each other in Sindh, they earlier developed indigenous culture which had common elements, later they came in contact with Harappan culture and fully developed into mature phase of [[Indus Valley Civilisation]].<ref name=dd1>Charles Keith Maisels, [https://books.google.com/books?id=I2dgI2ijww8C&pg=PA216 ''Early Civilizations of the Old World: The Formative Histories of Egypt, The Levant, Mesopotamia, India and China.''] Routledge, 2003 {{ISBN|1134837305}}</ref><ref name="Higham2009">{{cite book|first=Charles |last=Higham|title=Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=H1c1UIEVH9gC|page=9}}|date=1 January 2009|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-0996-1|pages=9–}}</ref><ref name=dd2>Sigfried J. de Laet, Ahmad Hasan Dani, eds. [https://books.google.com/books?id=BnY0KYbJC6wC&pg=PA674 ''History of Humanity: From the third millennium to the seventh century B.C.''] UNESCO, 1996 {{ISBN|9231028111}} p.674</ref><ref name=tej1>Tejas Garge (2010), [http://www.ancient-asia-journal.com/articles/10.5334/aa.10203/ Sothi-Siswal Ceramic Assemblage: A Reappraisal.] Ancient Asia. 2, pp.15–40. {{doi|10.5334/aa.10203|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Archaeology==
{{see also | Pottery#Archaeology | l1= Archaeological analysis of pottery | Pottery#Fabric | l2= Fabric analysis of pottery }}

Prehistoric [[Amri culture|Amri-Nal culture]] is attributed to the dual [[typesite]]s of Amri and [[Sohr Damb|Nal]]. This site had multi-level structures, although it was never a big city.<ref name="Higham2009"/>

===Pre-Harappan stage===
Situated near the foothills of [[Kirthar Mountains]], this was an important earlier urban center in Lower Sindh. Amri is close to [[Balochistan (Pakistan)|Balochistan]] where development of earlier farming communities from 6000 BC to 4000 BC ultimately led to urbanization. The ancient mounds of 8 hectares on the west bank of [[Indus River]] have been extensively excavated. The earliest phase was a fortified town that flourished from [[3600 BC|3600]] to [[3300 BC]], and belonged to the [[Pre-Harappan]] stage of the [[Indus Valley civilization]]. Amri is dated after [[Rehman Dheri]]. The pottery discovered here had its own characteristics and is known as ''Amri Ware''. [[Sohr Damb]] (Nal) is a related site in Balochistan to the west of Amri. Their pottery is sometimes collectively described as 'Amri-Nal ware'. Like other Pre Harappa towns, no writings were found at this site. Evidence indicates widespread fire at the town around 2500 BCE.

===Later phases===

* In period II (ca. 2750-2450 BC), more and more elements of Indus Valley culture appear.
* Period III (ca. 2450-1900 BC) belongs almost entirely to Indus Valley culture.
* Period IV (ca. 1900-1300 BC) is marked by the mingling of cultural traditions. Elements of the [[Jhukar phase|Jhukar culture]] appear, and co-exist with the last phase of the Indus Valley culture.<ref name="LaetDani1994">{{cite book|first1=Sigfried J. |last1=de Laet|first2=Ahmad Hasan |last2=Dani|title=History of Humanity: From the third millennium to the seventh century B.C.|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=BnY0KYbJC6wC|page=674}}|year=1994|publisher=UNESCO|isbn=978-92-3-102811-3|pages=674–}}</ref> Later, the elements of [[Jhangar culture]] appear.
* Period V is Muslim and dated much later.

Based on the evidence from this site, Indus culture was probably not developed directly from Amri culture. Also, at least at this location, rather than suddenly being replaced by the Amri culture, there was a co-existence of both cultures.

==See also==

* [[Indus Valley Civilization]]
* [[List of Indus Valley Civilization sites]]
** [[Bhirrana]], 4 phases of IVC with earliest dated to 8th-7th millennium BCE
** [[Harappa]]
** [[Kalibanga]], an IVC town and fort with several phases starting from Early harappan phase
** [[Kunal, Haryana]] pre harappan cultural ancestor of [[Rehman Dheri]]
** [[Mohenjo-daro|Mohenjo Daro]]
** [[Rakhigarhi]], one of the largest IVC city with 4 phases of IVC with earliest dated to 8th-7th millennium BCE
* [[List of inventions and discoveries of the Indus Valley Civilization]]
** [[Hydraulic engineering of the Indus Valley Civilization]]
** [[Sanitation of the Indus Valley Civilisation]]
* [[Periodisation of the Indus Valley Civilisation]]
* [[Pottery in the Indian subcontinent]]
** [[Bara culture]], subtype of Late-Harappan Phase
** [[Black and red ware]], belonging to [[Neolithic]] and Pre-Harappan phases
** [[#Culture|Kunal culture]], subtype of Pre-Harappan Phase
** [[Siswal#Sothi|Sothi-Siswal culture]], subtype of Pre-Harappan Phase
** [[Cemetery H culture]] (2000-1400 BC), early Indo-Aryan pottery at IVC sites later evolved into [[Painted Grey Ware culture]] of [[Vedic period]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* {{cite book|first1=George |last1=Dales|first2=Jonathan Mark |last2=Kenoyer|first3=Leslie |last3=Alcock|title=Excavations at Mohenjo Daro, Pakistan: The Pottery, With an Account of the Pottery from the 1950 Excavations of Sir Mortimer Wheeler|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=4iew_THp8foC|page=7}}|date=1 January 1986|publisher=UPenn Museum of Archaeology|isbn=978-0-934718-52-3|pages=7–}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130928100709/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/~agha20e/polit116/ancient.html Ancient History]
* J.M. Casal: ''Fouilles d’Amri'', Paris 1964

{{Indus Valley civilization}}
{{Coord|25|54|35|N|67|55|25|E|type:landmark_scale:2000_region:PK-SD|display=title}}

[[Category:Hyderabad District, Pakistan]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Sindh]]
[[Category:Indus Valley Civilisation sites]]
[[Category:Former populated places in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Pre-Indus Valley civilisation sites]]
[[Category:Amri-Nal culture]]

Mina (month)

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{{Short description|Month in Indian lunisolar calendars}}
'''Mīna''', or '''Meena''', is a month in the [[Hindu calendar|Indian solar calendar]].<ref name="Lochtefeld2002p497"/><ref name=sewell5>{{cite book|author1=Robert Sewell|author2=Śaṅkara Bālakr̥shṇa Dīkshita|title=The Indian Calendar |url=https://archive.org/details/indiancalendarwi00sewerich |year=1896|publisher=S. Sonnenschein & Company|pages=5–11, 23–29}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Vasudeva Rao|title=Living Traditions in Contemporary Contexts: The Madhva Matha of Udupi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-utNEpTZWUkC |year=2002|publisher=[[Orient Blackswan]]|isbn=978-81-250-2297-8|pages=48–53}}</ref> It corresponds to the zodiacal sign of [[Pisces (constellation)|Pisces]], and overlaps with about the later half of March and about the early half of April in the [[Gregorian calendar]].<ref name="Lochtefeld2002p497"/> First day of the Meena month, called as Meena Sankranti generally falls on March 14.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.timesnownews.com/spiritual/religion/article/meena-sankranti-2021-today-all-you-need-to-know-about-this-significant-day/732142|title = Meena Sankranti 2021 today: All you need to know about this significant day}}</ref>

In Vedic texts, the Mina month is called '''Tapasya''' (IAST: Tapasya), but in these ancient texts it has no zodiacal associations.<ref name="Dershowitz2008p123">{{cite book|author1=Nachum Dershowitz|author2=Edward M. Reingold|title=Calendrical Calculations|title-link= Calendrical Calculations |year= 2008|publisher= [[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-88540-9|pages=[https://archive.org/details/calendricalcalcu00ders/page/n155 123]–128}}</ref> The solar month of Mina overlaps with its lunar month [[Chaitra]], in Hindu lunisolar calendars.<ref>{{cite book|author=Christopher John Fuller|title=The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=To6XSeBUW3oC|year=2004|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|isbn=978-0-69112-04-85|pages=291–293}}</ref><ref name=sewell10/> The Mina marks the spring season for the Indian subcontinent. It is preceded by the solar month of [[Kumbha (month)|Kumbha]], and followed by the solar month of [[Meṣa]].<ref name=sewell5/>

The Mina month is called ''Panguni'' in the Tamil Hindu calendar, and is its last month in the traditional calendar.<ref name="Lochtefeld2002p497">{{cite book|author=James G. Lochtefeld|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M, N-Z (Vol 1 & 2)|year=2002|publisher=[[The Rosen Publishing Group]]|isbn=978-0-8239-3179-8|pages=[https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch/page/497 497]|url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch/page/497}}</ref> The ancient and medieval era Sanskrit texts of India vary in their calculations about the duration of Mina, just like they do with other months. For example, the ''Surya Siddhanta'' calculates the duration of Mina to be 30 days, 8 hours, 29 minutes and 1 second.<ref name=sewell10/> In contrast, the ''Arya Siddhanta'' calculates the duration of the Mina month to be 30 days, 8 hours, 7 minutes and 42 seconds.<ref name=sewell10>{{cite book|author1=Robert Sewell|author2=Śaṅkara Bālakr̥shṇa Dīkshita|title=The Indian Calendar |url=https://archive.org/details/indiancalendarwi00sewerich |year=1896|publisher=S. Sonnenschein & Company|pages=10–11}}</ref>

The Indian solar month names are significant in epigraphical studies of South Asia. For example, the ''Mina'' month, along with other solar months are found inscribed in medieval era temples. The ''Mina'' month is found inscribed in Chola Empire monuments.<ref>{{cite book|author=E Hultzsch|title=Epigraphia Indica|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=MxE9AAAAYAAJ |year= 1906|publisher=Education Society Press|pages=3, 264–267, 283 with footnotes}}</ref>

Mina (literally, fish) is also an astrological sign in Indian horoscope systems, corresponding to [[Pisces (astrology)]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Bangalore V. Raman|title=Studies in Jaimini Astrology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gW2DIFHrxfgC |year=2003|publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]]|isbn=978-81-208-1397-7|pages=10–19}}</ref>

Mina is also the eighth month in the [[Darian calendar]] for the planet [[Mars]], when the [[Sun]] traverses the central sector of the constellation Pisces as seen from Mars.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Hindu calendar}}
{{Nepali calendar}}

[[Category:Hindu solar months]]

Pastan Kangri

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#REDIRECT [[Karakoram#Highest_peaks]]
{{Redirect category shell|
{{R to list entry}}
}}

Paisakari

2024-11-13T02:57:41Z

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{{one source|date=February 2014}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2018}}
[[File:DEVAMATHA ARTS & SCIENCE COLLEGE PAISAKARY.jpg|thumb|Devamatha College]]
'''Paisakari''' is a village town located in the western ghats bordering [[Kerala]] and [[Karnataka]], in [[Payyavoor]] Panchayath. Atypical of places share the socio-economic and geographic similarities, Paisakari is home to many educational institutions natured under the [[Christian Church|Church]] centric educational board and attracts students from the various parts of Kannur district, where it belongs.

== History and overview ==

The name Paisakkary is thought to have evolved from Pazhassi Kari, a name associated with the [[Guerrilla]] freedom fighter, Kerala varma [[Pazhassi Raja]]. Before the Independence of India, Paisakari, mostly forest land then, was under the reign of the land lord Nayanar family and had a very small population indigenous to it. Post [[Second World War]], The [[Malabar migration]] of [[Saint Thomas Christians|Syrian Christians]] started and Paisakari became one of the early destinations for the [[Travancore]] bound migrants.
[[File:A panoramic view of the Devamatha church and St. Mary's U.P school onlooking the school ground and the stadium.JPG|thumb|left| Panoramic view of the Devamatha church and St. Mary's U.P school onlooking the school ground and the stadium.]]
As the population built up, more and more forest land surrounding the area was converted into fertile agricultural land for [[cash crops]] and because of the high density of Christians, Thalasseri [[diocese]] decided to set up a parish here in 1949.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.archdioceseoftellicherry.org/edu-institutions.php|title=The Archdiocese of Tellicherry|access-date=14 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130712070747/http://www.archdioceseoftellicherry.org/edu-institutions.php|archive-date=12 July 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> Since then, the church has been the epicentre of developments and educational establishments in the area. Currently it has elevated to a Forane church and has strength of more than 1000 families and the total population growing to the north of 6000.

Church
The main attraction of Paisakary is Devamatha church. People living in this village with peace and harmony.

== Educational Institutions ==
Paisakari has the following institutions/ establishments to its credit:

# St. Mary's L.P school
# St. Mary's U.P school
# Devamatha High school
# Devamatha Higher secondary school
# Devamatha Arts and Science College.
# Bhagavathpatha ITC

== Transportation ==

Paisakari is well connected to the other areas and en route to the famous muthappan pilgrimage centre, [[Kunnathoor Padi]]. Buses ply between Chandanakkampara and Talipparamba go through Paisakari and the mass population depend on them largely. It is also accessible from [[Chemperi]] via Ettupara, which forms an alternate route.
The national highway passes through [[Taliparamba]] town. [[Goa]] and [[Mumbai]] can be accessed on the northern side and [[Cochin]] and [[Thiruvananthapuram]] can be accessed on the southern side. Taliparamba has a good bus station and buses are easily available to all parts of Kannur district. The road to the east of [[Iritty]] connects to [[Mysore]] and [[Bangalore]]. But buses to these cities are available only from [[Kannur]], 22 km to the south. The nearest railway stations are [[Kannapuram]] and [[Kannur]] on [[Mangalore]]-[[Palakkad]] line.
Trains are available to almost all parts of India subject to advance booking over the internet. There are airports at [[Kannur International Airport|Kannur]], [[Mangalore Airport|Mangalore]] and [[Calicut International Airport|Calicut]]. All of them are small international airports with direct flights available only to Middle Eastern countries.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.psakerala.com/ Paisakari Sports Academy]

{{Kannur district}}

{{commons category}}

[[Category:Villages near Taliparamba]]

List of Punjabi films of the 1940s

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{{Short description|none}}
{{Punjabi film list}}
{{moresources|date=September 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2022}}
This is a list of [[Punjabi Cinema|Panjabi films]] of the 1940s. For a complete alphabetical list, see '''[[:Category:Punjabi films]]'''.

==1940s==

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! width=5% | Title !! width=5% |Director !!width=35% | Cast !! width=35% | Notes
|-
| {{Year header}} | '''1940'''
|-
|''[[Mera Punjab]]''||Krishna Dev Mehra||Haider Bandi||
|-
| {{Year header}} | '''1948'''
|-
|''[[Chaman (film)|Chaman]]''||Roop K. Shorey ||[[Meena Shorey]], [[Karan Dewan]], [[Kuldip Kaur]], [[Om Prakash]], Majnu, Gulab <ref name=CinePunjab>{{cite web|title=Chaman (1948)|url=http://www.cinepunjab.com/2013/07/chaman-1948.html|website=cinepunjab.com|publisher=Cine Punjab|accessdate=26 April 2015}}</ref> ||Chaman was the first [[Punjabi language|Panjabi]] film released in [[Punjab region|East Panjab]] following the [[History_of_the_Punjab#The_Punjab_of_Republic_of_India_and_Islamic_Republic_of_Pakistan|Partition of Panjab]].<ref name="GokulsingDissanayake2013">{{cite book|author1=K. Moti Gokulsing|author2=Wimal Dissanayake|title=Routledge Handbook of Indian Cinemas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=djUFmlFbzFkC|accessdate=26 April 2015|date=17 April 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-77284-9}}</ref>
|-
| {{Year header}} | '''1949'''
|-
|''[[Lachhi (1949 film)|Lachhi]]''||Ravindra Dave ||Wasti, Manorama, Majnu, Sophia, Baij Sharma, [[Om Prakash]] ||
|-
|''Mundri''||Daud Chand ||Ragni, [[Noor Mohammed Charlie]], Rani Kiran, Sheikh Iqbal, [[Ilyas Kashmiri (actor)|Ilyas Kashmiri]], Ghulam Mohammed ||Pakistan's largest film company '''Evernew Pictures''', owned by '''Agha G. A. Gul''' released its first Punjabi language film
|-
|''[[Pheray]]''||[[Nazir Ahmed Khan|Nazir]] ||[[Swaran Lata (actress)|Sawarn Lata]], [[Nazir Ahmed Khan|Nazir]], M. Ismael, Nazar, [[Zeenat Begum]], Maya Devi, Baba Alam Siaposh ||
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.imdb.com/search/title?title_type=feature&languages=pa&sort=moviemeter,asc&ref_=tt_dt_dt/ Punjabi films] at the [[Internet Movie Database]]

{{Cinema of Punjab}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Punjabi Films (1040-1949)}}
[[Category:Lists of Punjabi films by decade|1940s]]
[[Category:Lists of 1940s films]]
[[Category:1940s in East Punjab|Films]]

Nibaran

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'''Nibaran''' may refer to

*[[Nibaran Chandra Laskar]], Indian Politician
*[[Nibaran Chandra Mukherjee]], Indian reformer
*[[Dukhulal Nibaran Chandra College]], located in Murshidabad


{{Disambiguation}}
[[Category:Indian masculine given names]]
[[Category:Masculine given names]]

Ward No. 118, Kolkata Municipal Corporation

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{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2018}}
{{Infobox settlement



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|subdivision_name5 = [[Kolkata Dakshin (Lok Sabha constituency)|Kolkata Dakshin]]
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'''Ward No. 118, Kolkata Municipal Corporation''' is an administrative division of [[Kolkata Municipal Corporation]] in Borough No. 13, covering parts of Tollygunge Circular Road (Sahapur)-[[New Alipore]] neighbourhoods in the [[India]]n [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[West Bengal]].

==History==
The establishment and evolution of Kolkata Municipal Corporation followed a long process starting from around the middle of the 19th century. The Municipal Consolidation Act of 1888 and certain steps taken thereafter saw the addition of peripheral areas in the eastern and southern parts of the city to the corporation area. In 1888, there were 75 commissioners, 50 of whom were elected, 15 appointed by the government and 10 nominated from bodies like Chambers of Commerce, Trades Associations and the Port Commissioners. The Calcutta Municipal Act of 1923 brought about important changes. The adjacent municipalities of Cossipore, Chitpore, Manicktola and Garden Reach, as well as the New Dock Extension area, were amalgamated with Kolkata. Garden Reach was later taken out.<ref name= kmc1>{{cite web| url = https://www.kmcgov.in/KMCPortal/jsp/KMCAboutKolkataHome.jsp|title= A walk down memory lane | work= About Kolkata | publisher= KMC|access-date = 16 February 2018}}</ref><ref name=kmc2>{{cite web| url = https://www.kmcgov.in/KMCPortal/jsp/MunicipalHistoryHome.jsp|title= Kolkata Municipal Corporation | work= Kolkata - a municipal history | publisher= KMC|access-date = 16 February 2018}}</ref>

Post-independence developments saw the introduction of adult franchise in municipal elections in 1962. The number of wards increased from 75 to 100. Tollygunge was merged with Kolkata in 1953. The Calcutta Municipal Corporation Act 1980, which came into effect in 1984, extended the boundaries of Kolkata by including South Suburban, Garden Reach and Jadavpur municipalities in Kolkata. With the addition of Joka to Kolkata, the number of wards rose to 144.<ref name= kmc1/><ref name=kmc2/>

==Geography==
Ward No. 118 is bordered on the north by Sahapur Sitalatala Road, Rajani Mukherjee Road and S.N.Roy Road; on the east by Buroshibtala Main Road; on the south by Roy Bahadur A.C.Roy Road; and on the west by Buroshibtala Main Road.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.calcuttayellowpages.com/mwards.html |title= Municipal Wards| publisher= Yellow Pages.com|access-date = 4 June 2015}}</ref>
[[File:Ward no. 118 in Kolkata Municipal Corporation.svg|thumb|Location of Ward No. 118 in Kolkata Ward Map]]
[[File:Borough 13 Wards, Kolkata Municipal Corporation (en).svg|thumb|Ward 118 in Borough 13]]

The ward is served by [[Behala#Police district|Behala]] police station of [[Kolkata Police Force|Kolkata Police]].<ref name="police">{{cite web| url = http://www.kolkatapolice.gov.in/division.asp?ID=9&Division=B|title = Kolkata Police |work = South West Division | publisher= KP| access-date = 21 March 2018}}</ref><ref>Kolkata: Detail Maps of 141 Wards with Street Directory, Fourth Impression 2003, Map No. 88, D.P. Publication and Sales Concern, 66 College Street, Kolkata-700 073.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wbcensus.gov.in/DataTables/02/Table4_1.htm |title= Table 3 District Wise List of Statutory Towns (Municipal Corporation, Municipality, Notified Area and Cantonment Board), Census Towns and Outgrowths, West Bengal, 2001 |access-date= 12 February 2018 |work=Census of India 2001 |publisher=Census Commission of India |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110721163402/http://web.cmc.net.in/wbcensus/DataTables/01/Table-3.htm |archive-date=21 July 2011 }}</ref>

[[Behala#Police district|Behala Women police station]] covers all police districts under the jurisdiction of the [[Divisions of Kolkata Police|South West Division]], i.e. Sarsuna, Taratala, Behala, Parnasree, Thakurpukur and Haridevpur.<ref name="police"/>

==Demographics==
As per the [[2011 Census of India]], Ward No. 118, Kolkata Municipal Corporation, had a total population of 21,810, of which 10,897 (50%) were males and 10,913 (50%) were females. Population below 6 years was 1,468. The total number of literates in Ward No. 118 was 18,315 (90.04% of the population over 6 years).<ref name=census3-2011>{{cite web| url = http://censusindia.gov.in/pca/pcadata/Houselisting-housing-WB.html |title = 2011 Census – Primary Census Abstract Data Tables | work= West Bengal – District-wise |publisher= Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India | access-date = 12 February 2018 }}</ref>

Kolkata is the second most literate district in West Bengal.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/1916_PART_B_DCHB_KOLKATA.pdf |title = District Census Handbook Kolkata, Census of India 2011, Series 20, Part XII B |work = Page 25: District Highlights, 2011 Census | publisher= Directorate of Census Operations, West Bengal| access-date = 15 February 2018}}</ref> The literacy rate of Kolkata district has increased from 53.0% in 1951 to 86.3% in the 2011 census.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/19/1916_PART_A_DCHB_KOLKATA.pdf |title = District Census Handbook Kolkata, Census of India 2011, Series 20, Part XII A |work = Pages 63-64: Literacy Rate | publisher= Directorate of Census Operations, West Bengal| access-date = 15 February 2018}}</ref>

See also – [[List of West Bengal districts ranked by literacy rate]]

{{Literacy in KMC wards|collapsible=y}}
Census data about mother tongue and religion is not available at the ward level. For district level information see [[Kolkata district#Demographics|Kolkata district]].

According to the District Census Handbook Kolkata 2011, 141 wards of Kolkata Municipal Corporation formed Kolkata district. (3 wards were added later).<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/19/1916_PART_A_DCHB_KOLKATA.pdf |title = District Census Handbook Kolkata, Census of India 2011, Series 20, Part XII A |work = Map on third page plus demographic data about all the wards in the handbook | publisher= Directorate of Census Operations, West Bengal| access-date = 15 February 2018}}</ref>

==Election highlights==
The ward forms a city municipal corporation council electoral constituency and is a part of [[Behala Paschim (Vidhan Sabha constituency)]].<ref name=delimitation>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/delim/Final_Publications/WestBengal/FINAL%20ORDER%20NOTIFICATION_English.pdf| title = Delimitation Commission Order No. 18 dated 15 February 2006 | access-date= 4 June 2015|work = West Bengal| publisher= Election Commission}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"ìÍĦĤĠčw
|-
! Election<br /> year!!Constituency!!Name of councillor!!Party affililiation
|-
|2005||Ward No. 118||Ajay Adhikari||[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]]||<ref>Search the web for COUNCILLORS OF KOLKATA MUNICITIPAL CORPORATION. In the search list click on this. On clicking one gets an option for "List of KMC Councillors" at the bottom of the page. Press <Open> to get to Adobe Acrobat file.</ref>
|-
|2010||||Tarak Singh||[[All India Trinamool Congress]]||<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.wbsec.gov.in/(S(csnkqo55bqu3de55qcptl2ib))/Municipal/Detailed_Mun_KMC.aspx |title= Kolkata Municipal Corporation General Election Results 2010| publisher= Government of West Bengal |access-date = 4 June 2015}}</ref>
|-
|2015||||Tarak Singh||All India Trinamool Congress||<ref>Prabahat Khabar, Hindi newspaper, print edition, 29 April 2015</ref><ref>{{cite web| url =http://wbsec.gov.in/(S(knvrcje3wq5iuhzomlbppt55))/writereaddata/Orders/Municipal/1712-sec.pdf |title= Ward-wise winners| work= Gazette Notification | publisher= West Bengal State Election Commission|access-date = 4 June 2015}}</ref>
|}

==External links==
{{Wikivoyage-inline|Kolkata/Southern fringes}}

==References==
{{Portal|India}}
{{reflist}}

{{Kolkata Municipal Corporation wards}}

[[Category:Municipal wards of Kolkata]]

Valayar Paramasivam

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<div style="width: 35%; margin-left:5px; float: right;"><div align="center" style="background:#GGG; border: 2px solid #ACA3BF;">[[Image:WP Patna Logo Hindi 01.svg|border|100px|]] <BIG>'''[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Patna|WikiProject Patna]]'''</BIG>
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