Bharatpedia - User contributions [en]

Tatanagar–SMVT Bengaluru Weekly Superfast Express

2026-04-30T22:51:02Z

Husayn: added new entry

{{Short description|Train in the South Eastern Railway zone, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2019}}
{{Infobox rail service
| name = Tatanagar–SMVT Bangaluru Weekly Superfast Express
| image = Yesvantpur bound Express from Tatanagar enters Annavaram with a WAP4 Locomotive.jpg
| image_width = 290px
| caption = Then {{stnlnk|Yesvantpur Junction}} bound Weekly Superfast Express from Tatanagar with old [[ICF coach]] at {{stnlnk|Annavaram}} in [[Andhra Pradesh]] with a [[WAP-4]] from [[Electric Loco Shed, Vijayawada]]
| type = [[Superfast Express trains in India|Superfast]]
| locale =
| first =
| last =
| operator = [[South Eastern Railway zone]]
| ridership =
| start = {{stnlnk|Tatanagar Junction}} (TATA)
| stops = 22
| end = {{stnlnk|Sir M. Visvesvaraya Terminal, Bengaluru}} (SMVB)
| distance = {{convert|1883|km|0|abbr=on}}
| journeytime = 33h 30m as 12889 33h 20m as 12890
| frequency = Weekly {{efn|Runs one day in a week for every direction.}}
| class = AC 2 tier, AC 3 tier, AC 3 Economy, Sleeper class, General Unreserved
| seating = No
| sleeping = Yes
| autorack =
| catering = Pantry car On-board catering E-catering
| observation = [[LHB coach]]
| entertainment = No
| baggage = No
| other facilities= Below the seats
| stock = 2
| gauge = {{track gauge|1676mm|al=on|allk=on}}
| electrification =
| trainnumber = 12889/12890
| speed = {{convert|58|km/h|0|abbr=on}}, including halts
| map = [[File:(Tatanagar - Yesvantpur) Express (via Tirupathi) route map.png|280px]]
| map_state =
}}

The 12889 / 12890 '''Tatanagar–SMVT Bengaluru Weekly Superfast Express''' is a [[Superfast Express trains in India|Superfast Express]] train belonging to [[South Eastern Railway zone]] that runs between {{stnlnk|Tatanagar Junction}} and {{stnlnk|Sir M. Visvesvaraya Terminal, Bengaluru}} in India. It is currently being operated on a weekly basis.<ref>[http://www.swr.indianrailways.gov.in/view_detail.jsp?lang=0&id=0,4,268&dcd=1832&did=1501480869167CEBD40B0B10F3CE00BE82C2DBE5F4FA8.web91 DIVERSION OF TRAINS]</ref><ref>[http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Visakhapatnam/trains-cancelled-diverted-for-restoration-works/article19404685.ece Trains cancelled, diverted for restoration works]</ref><ref>[http://www.eastcoastrail.indianrailways.gov.in/view_detail.jsp?lang=0&dcd=2523&id=0,4,268 TRAIN SERVICES RESUMED IN TITLAGARH-RAYAGADA RAILWAY SECTION]</ref>

== Service==

The 12889 Tatanagar – SMVT Bengaluru Superfast Express has an average speed of {{convert|55|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} per hr and covers {{convert|1884|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} in 34h 25m. The 12890 SMVT Bengaluru – Tatanagar Superfast Express has an average speed of {{convert|55|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} per hr and covers {{convert|1748|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} in 34h 30m.
It received New LHB coach from 11 April 2019. The Train 12889 Tatanagar – SMVT Bengaluru Superfast Express started to Terminate at the new [[Sir M. Visvesvaraya Terminal|Sir. M. Visvesvaraya Terminal, Bengaluru]] from 15 July 2022 instead of earlier [[Yesvantpur Junction railway station|Yesvantpur Junction]]. Similarly, Train 12890 SMVT Bengaluru – Tatanagar Superfast Express started its journey from the new [[Sir M. Visvesvaraya Terminal|Sir. M. Visvesvaraya Terminal, Bengaluru]] instead of earlier [[Yesvantpur Junction railway station|Yesvantpur Junction]] with effective from 18 July 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |title=South Western Railway |url=https://swr.indianrailways.gov.in/view_detail.jsp?lang=0&id=0,4,268&dcd=5796&did=165667510856156721A5F5871984533509356755F2316 |access-date=2022-07-05 |website=swr.indianrailways.gov.in}}</ref>

== Route and halts ==

The important halts of the train are:

* {{stnlnk|Tatanagar Junction}}
* {{stnlnk|Chakradharpur}}
* {{stnlnk|Rourkela Junction}}
* {{stnlnk|Jharsuguda Junction}}
* {{stnlnk|Visakhapatnam Junction}}
* [[Samalkot]]
* [[Rajahmundry]]
* [[Eluru]]
* {{stnlnk|Vijayawada Junction}}
* {{stnlnk|Ongole}}
* {{stnlnk|Nellore}}
* {{stnlnk|Gudur Junction}}
* {{stnlnk|Renigunta Junction}}
* {{stnlnk|Tirupati}}
* {{stnlnk|Katpadi Junction}}
* {{stnlnk|Sir M. Visvesvaraya Terminal}}

==Coach composition==

The train has modern [[LHB coach|LHB rakes]] with a max speed of 110 kmph. The train consists of 21 coaches:

* 3 AC II Tier
* 5 AC III Tier
* 3 AC III Economy
* Pantry Car
* 6 Sleeper coaches
* 2 Second Class
* 2 EOG (End on Generation)

== Traction==

From Tatanagar to [[Visakhapatnam Junction]], it is hauled by [[Tatanagar]] Based [[WAP 7]] And from [[Visakhapatnam Junction]] To [[Sir M. Visvesvaraya Terminal]] by [[Lallaguda]] based [[WAP 7]] .

==Rake sharing==

The train shared its rake with 18103/18104 [[Tatanagar–Amritsar Jallianwalla Bagh Express]]

== Timing ==

*12889 – starts from Tatanagar Junction every Friday at 5:45 PM and reaches Sir M. Visvesvaraya Terminal on 3rd day at 3:15 AM IST
*12890 – starts from Sir M. Visvesvaraya Terminal every Monday at 8:50 AM and reaches Tatanagar Junction on 2nd day at 6:10 PM IST

== See also ==

* [[Tatanagar Junction railway station|Tatanagar Junction Railway Station]]
* [[Sir M. Visvesvaraya Terminal|Sir M. Visvesvaraya Terminal Railway Station]]
*
* [[Jallianwalla Bagh Express]]
* [[Tatanagar–Amritsar Jallianwalla Bagh Express]]

== References ==
;Notes
{{notelist}}
;Sources
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://indiarailinfo.com/train/1770 12889/Tatanagar - Yesvantpur Superfast Express] India Rail Info
* [https://indiarailinfo.com/train/1781 12890/Yesvantpur - Tatanagar Superfast Express] India Rail Info

{{Railways in Eastern India}}
{{Railways in Southern India}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tatanagar-Yesvantpur Superfast Express}}
[[Category:Transport in Jamshedpur]]
[[Category:Transport in Bengaluru]]
[[Category:Superfast Express trains]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Jharkhand]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Odisha]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Karnataka]]
[[Category:Railway services introduced in 2003]]

{{India-express-train-stub}}

Abhilash Babu

2026-04-27T13:57:46Z

Husayn:

{{Short description|Indian film director}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Abhilash Babu
| native_name =
| image =
| imagesize =
| caption =
| birth_name =
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [[Thiruvananthapuram]], [[Kerala]]
| death_place =
| death_date =
| alma_mater =
| citizenship = India
| occupation =Film Director Poet
| parents =
| spouse =
| children =
| awards =
| signature =
}}

'''Abhilash Babu''' is an Indian film director, screenwriter and lyricist who predominantly works in Malayalam cinema. ''[[Krishnashtami: the book of dry leaves]]'', India's first [[still image film]] is Babu's third directorial.<ref name=still>{{cite web |title="കവിതയുടെ സിനിമാ രൂപാന്തരങ്ങൾ; അഭിലാഷ് ബാബുവിൻ്റെ 'ആലോകം' മുതൽ 'കൃഷ്ണാഷ്ടമി' വരെ" |url=https://www.mediaoneonline.com/entertainment/abhilash-babu-interview-306556 |publisher=[[Media One]] |access-date=7 December 2025 |date=17 November 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=സിനിമയെന്ന നേരിന്റെ വഴി |url=https://www.deshabhimani.com/entertainment/tvott/the-path-of-cinema-50012 |publisher=[[Deshabhimani]] |access-date=7 December 2025 |date=29 July 2025}}</ref> The film had its international premiere at [[Moscow International Film Festival|48th Moscow International Film Festival]].<ref>{{cite web |title=കൃഷ്ണാഷ്ടമിയുടെ ഇന്റർനാഷണൽ പ്രീമിയർ 48-ാമത് മോസ്‌കോ അന്താരാഷ്ട്ര ചലച്ചിത്രോത്സവത്തിൽ |url=https://keralakaumudi.com/news/news.php?id=1722469&u=krishnashtami-has-been-selected-to-the-48th-mosco-international-film-festival |publisher=[[Kerala Kaumudi]] |access-date=28 March 2026 |date=27 March 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=കൃഷ്ണാഷ്ടമിയുടെ ഇൻറർനാഷണൽ പ്രീമിയർ മോസ്കോയിൽ |url=https://www.kairalinewsonline.com/film-based-on-vyloppillis-poem-heads-to-moscow-international-film-festival-sbn1?fbclid=IwY2xjawQyw7dleHRuA2FlbQIxMQBzcnRjBmFwcF9pZAwzNTA2ODU1MzE3MjgAAR6PPeMzi77u5OPNMhQvqw3_f0RwXLUZyPKXpB6bqHtir00VymgqhMCYkKkuWg_aem_zVjo-Iqwn0KNvb-tozGXUg#google_vignette |publisher=[[Kairali TV |Kairali News Online]] |access-date=28 March 2026 |date=27 March 2026}}</ref>

==Career==
Abhilash Babu was born to and brought up by Babu and Omana Amma in Thiruvananthapuram. He had his degree, PG, and PhD in English Language and Literature from [[University College Thiruvananthapuram]].<ref>{{cite web |title='നല്ല സിനിമകൾ നിർമ്മിക്കാതെ കാഴ്ചക്കാരെ കിട്ടുന്നില്ല എന്ന വിലാപത്തിന് അർത്ഥമില്ല, ജിയോ ബേബിയെ മുഖ്യവേഷത്തിൽ തെരെഞ്ഞെടുക്കാനുള്ള കാരണം |url=https://keralakaumudi.com/news/news.php?id=1576447&u=abhilash-babu-shares-film-making-experience-interview |publisher=[[Kerala Kaumudi]] |access-date=7 December 2025 |date=22 July 2025}}</ref><ref name=ababu>{{cite web |title='എന്റെ രാഷ്‍ട്രീയ കാഴ്‍ചപ്പാടാണ് എന്റെ സിനിമ'- ഡോ. അഭിലാഷ് ബാബു അഭിമുഖം |url=https://www.asianetnews.com/celebrity-interviews/iffk-2024-dust-art-redrawn-in-respiration-director-dr-abhilash-babu-interview-hrk-soisix |publisher=[[Asianet News]] |access-date=7 December 2025 |date=15 December 2024}}</ref>

Babu made his debut as a feature film director with ''Aalokam: Ranges of Vision'' (2023), followed by ''[[Maayunnu, Maarivarayunnu, Nisvaasangalil...]]'' (2024), a mocumentary premiered at the 29th IFFK, both crowd funded independent films. [[Jeo Baby]], the director of [[Mammootty]] starrer ''[[Kaathal – The Core]]'', played the lead role in Babu's third film, ''[[Krishnashtami: the book of dry leaves]]'' (2025), touted as India's first [[still image film]].<ref name=still/><ref>{{cite web |title='നമ്മൾ ചെയ്യുന്നത് പുണ്ണ് മാന്തലാണ് അത് വലിയ മുറിവുകൾ ഉണ്ടാക്കും, അടൂർ പറയുന്ന കാര്യങ്ങളിൽ കഴമ്പുണ്ടോ എന്ന് അന്വേഷിക്കുക' |url=https://keralakaumudi.com/news/news.php?id=1587882&fbclid=IwdGRjcAOgtmxjbGNrA6C2SWV4dG4DYWVtAjExAHNydGMGYXBwX2lkDDM1MDY4NTUzMTcyOAABHvOzeqZjPDDpbAS2SFWCXJfcpdNlQeO4vIPDkNPqAzBulbbKezi338486aeY_aem_2Bqos5p0yKKaMlGdEPTyyA |publisher=[[Kerala Kaumudi]] |access-date=7 December 2025 |date=9 August 2025}}</ref><ref name="jeo"/>

== Filmography ==

=== Films ===
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
! Year
! Title
! Cast
!{{Tooltip|Notes|Additional notes & references}}
|-
! scope="row" | 2025
| ''[[Krishnashtami: the book of dry leaves]]''
| [[Jeo Baby]]
| Based on the poem 'Krishnashtami' by [[Vyloppilli Sreedhara Menon]]<ref name=jeo>{{cite web |title=Jeo Baby to headline film based on Vyloppilli's poem 'Krishnashtami' |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2025/Mar/09/jeo-baby-to-headline-film-based-on-vyloppillis-poem-krishnashtami |publisher=[[Cinema Express]] |access-date=7 December 2025 |date=9 March 2025}}</ref><ref name=Ous>{{cite web |title=Director Jeo Baby turns actor again for a film based on a poem |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/director-jeo-baby-turns-actor-again-for-a-film-based-on-a-poem/articleshow/119556824.cms |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=7 December 2025 |date=27 March 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=കവിത കടഞ്ഞെടുത്ത സിനിമ |url=https://www.madhyamam.com/weekly/culture/film-and-theatre/krishna-ashtami-directed-by-abhilash-babu-is-based-on-the-poem-1479005 |publisher=[[Madhyamam]] |access-date=3 March 2026 |date=22 December 2025}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | 2024
| ''[[Maayunnu, Maarivarayunnu, Nisvaasangalil...]]''
| Pradeep Kumar
| Premiered at the 29th [[International Film Festival of Kerala|IFFK]].<ref name=iffk>{{cite web |title=IFFK 2024 - അന്താരാഷ്ട്ര മത്സര വിഭാഗത്തിൽ മലയാളത്തിൽ നിന്ന് ഫെമിനിച്ചി ഫാത്തിമ, അപ്പുറം |url=https://www.mathrubhumi.com/movies-music/news/iffk-2024-malayalam-cinema-today-1.9988301 |publisher=[[Mathrubhumi]] |access-date=7 December 2025 |date=15 October 2024}}</ref><ref name=ababu/><ref>{{cite web |title='പുരോഗമന' മലയാളിയും ഒരു സിനിമാറ്റിക് വിചാരണയും |url=https://www.madhyamam.com/weekly/culture/film-and-theatre/weekly-culture-film-and-theatre-1345817 |publisher=[[Madhyamam]] |access-date=7 December 2025 |date=4 November 2024}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | 2023
|''Aalokam: Ranges of Vision''
| Abhijith Chithrakumar
| Based on the poems by [[Robert Browning]]<ref>{{cite web |title=സിനിമയ്ക്കുള്ളിലെ സിനിമയുമായി ”ആലോകം” യൂട്യൂബിൽ റിലീസ് ചെയ്തു |url=https://www.twentyfournews.com/2025/03/28/alokam-was-released-on-youtube-as-a-film-within-a-film.html |publisher=[[24 News]] |access-date=7 December 2025 |date=28 March 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title='ആലോകം' സിനിമ യൂട്യൂബ് റിലീസ് ചെയ്തു |url=https://janayugomonline.com/alokam-movie-released-on-youtube/ |publisher=[[Janayugam]] |access-date=7 December 2025 |date=2 April 2025}}</ref>
|-
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb name|15023032|name=Abhilash Babu}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Babu Abhilash}}
[[Category:Writers from Thiruvananthapuram]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Malayalam film directors]]
[[Category:Film directors from Thiruvananthapuram]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

Golaghati Assembly constituency

2026-04-16T04:49:40Z

Husayn: Creating entry...

{{short description|Legislative Assembly constituency in Tripura State, India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2018}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Golaghat
| constituency_no = 17
| state = [[Tripura]]
| district = [[Sipahijala district|Sipahijala]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Tripura West Lok Sabha constituency|Tripura West]]
| established = 1977
| reservation = ST
| incumbent_image = Manav Debbarma.jpg
| type = SLA
| map_image = Golaghati Assembly constituency map.svg
| mla = [[Manav Debbarma]]
| party = {{Party index link|Tipra Motha Party}}
| alliance = {{Party index link|National Democratic Alliance}}
| latest_election_year = [[2023 Tripura Legislative Assembly election|2023]]
| electors = {{formatnum:42531}}<ref name=election2023>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/14875-tripura-general-legislative-election-2023/ |title=Tripura General Legislative Election 2023 - Tripura - Election Commission of India |website=eci.gov.in|access-date=20 April 2023}}</ref>{{update after|2028|5}}
}}
'''Golaghati''' is one of the 60 [[Tripura Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]] constituencies of [[Tripura]] state in [[India]].<ref name=delimitation>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/7249-tripura/ |title=Delimitation Commission of India - Notification |website=eci.gov.in |date=12 May 2005 |author=Shangara Ram |accessdate= 25 January 2021}}</ref><ref name=district-AC-Map>{{cite web |url=http://ceotripura.nic.in/Map.asp |title=District/AC Map - Chief Electoral Officer, Tripura |website=ceotripura.nic.in |access-date= 23 January 2021 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140405133941/http://ceotripura.nic.in/Map.asp |archive-date=5 April 2014}}</ref> It is in [[Sipahijala district]] and is reserved for candidates belonging to the [[Scheduled Tribes]]. It is also part of [[Tripura West (Lok Sabha constituency)|West Tripura Lok Sabha constituency]].<ref>[http://www.elections.in/tripura/assembly-constituencies/golaghati.html Sitting and Previous MLAs from Golaghati Assembly Constituency]</ref><ref>[http://eci.nic.in/ECI_Main/StatisticalReports/AE2013/TRP2013_Reports.pdf STATISTICAL REPORT ON GENERAL ELECTION, 2013 TO THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY OF TRIPURA]</ref><ref>[http://infoelections.com/infoelection/index.php/ne/6133-list-of-assembly-constituency-of-tripura.html List of assembly constituency of Tripura]</ref>

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Election
! Member
! colspan=2|Party
|-
| [[1977 Tripura Legislative Assembly election|1977]] || [[Niranjan Debbarma]] || {{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|-
| [[1983 Tripura Legislative Assembly election|1983]] || rowspan=2 | [[Budha Debbarma]] || {{Full party name with color|Tripura Upajati Juba Samiti|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[1988 Tripura Legislative Assembly election|1988]]
|-
| [[1993 Tripura Legislative Assembly election|1993]] || rowspan=2 | [[Niranjan Debbarma]] || {{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[1998 Tripura Legislative Assembly election|1998]]
|-
| [[2003 Tripura Legislative Assembly election|2003]] || [[Ashok Debbarma]] || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[2008 Tripura Legislative Assembly election|2008]] || rowspan=2 | [[Kesab Debbarma]] || {{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[2013 Tripura Legislative Assembly election|2013]]
|-
| [[2018 Tripura Legislative Assembly election|2018]] || [[Birendra Kishore Debbarma]] || {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
| [[2023 Tripura Legislative Assembly election|2023]] || [[Manav Debbarma]] || {{Full party name with color|Tipra Motha Party}}
|}

== Election results ==
=== 2023 Assembly election ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2023 Tripura Legislative Assembly election]]: Golaghati<ref>{{cite news |date=2 March 2023 |title=Tripura Assembly election results 2023: Check full list of winners |language=en |work=The Indian Express |url=https://indianexpress.com/elections/tripura-election-results-2023-constituency-winners-list-8473554/ |access-date=20 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231220141112/https://indianexpress.com/elections/tripura-election-results-2023-constituency-winners-list-8473554/ |archive-date=20 December 2023}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Manav Debbarma]] |party=Tipra Motha Party |votes=19,800 |percentage=50.79% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Himani Debbarma |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=10,602 |percentage=27.20% |change={{decrease}}25.42 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Brinda Rani Debbarma |party=Communist Party of India (Marxist) |votes=7,606 |percentage=19.51% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=None of the Above |party=None of the above |votes=524 |percentage=1.34% |change={{increase}}0.13 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Amit Kumar Debbarma |party=Republican Party of India (Athawale) |votes=449 |percentage=1.15% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=9,198 |percentage=23.60% |change= {{increase}}14.02 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=38,981 |percentage=92.02% |change= {{decrease}}1.91 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 42,531 |ref = |change= {{increase}}8.91 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Tipra Motha Party |loser=Bharatiya Janata Party |swing= {{decrease}}1.83 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2018 Assembly election ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2018 Tripura Legislative Assembly election]]: Golaghati<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Chief Electoral Officer, Tripura|title=Form 20 {{!}} Final Result Sheet {{!}} General Election to the Tripura Legislative Assembly - 2018 |url=http://ceotripura.nic.in/sites/default/files/2024-01/Form20_2018.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240228163855/http://ceotripura.nic.in/sites/default/files/2024-01/Form20_2018.pdf|archive-date=28 February 2024 |access-date = 20 June 2020}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Birendra Kishore Debbarma]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=19,228 |percentage=52.62% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Kesab Debbarma]] |party=Communist Party of India (Marxist) |votes=15,730 |percentage=43.05% |change={{decrease}}12.50 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Nishi Kanta Debbarma |party=Indian National Congress |votes=472 |percentage=1.29% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=None of the Above |party=None of the above |votes=445 |percentage=1.22% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Manab Debbarma |party=Indigenous Nationalist Party of Twipra |votes=426 |percentage=1.17% |change={{decrease}}41.25 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=3,498 |percentage=9.57% |change= {{decrease}}3.55 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=36,540 |percentage=93.46% |change= {{decrease}}0.06 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 39,052 |ref = |change= {{increase}}5.88 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Bharatiya Janata Party |loser=Communist Party of India (Marxist) |swing= {{decrease}}2.92 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2013 Assembly election ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2013 Tripura Legislative Assembly election]]: Golaghati<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Chief Electoral Officer, Tripura|title=Form 20 {{!}} Final Result Sheet {{!}} General Election to the Tripura Legislative Assembly - 2013 |url=http://ceotripura.nic.in/sites/default/files/2024-01/Form20_2013.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240228165655/http://ceotripura.nic.in/sites/default/files/2024-01/Form20_2013.pdf|archive-date=28 February 2024 |access-date = 20 June 2020}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Kesab Debbarma]] |party=Communist Party of India (Marxist) |votes=19,181 |percentage=55.55% |change={{increase}}1.50 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Manab Debbarma |party=Indigenous Nationalist Party of Twipra |votes=14,648 |percentage=42.42% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Budhu Kumar Debbarma |party=Indigenous People's Front of Tripura |votes=703 |percentage=2.04% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=4,533 |percentage=13.13% |change= {{increase}}1.59 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=34,532 |percentage=94.08% |change= {{increase}}0.56 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 36,883 |ref = |change= }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Communist Party of India (Marxist) |loser=Communist Party of India (Marxist) |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2008 Assembly election ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2008 Tripura Legislative Assembly election]]: Golaghati<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2008 to the Legislative Assembly of Tripura |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1998/StatisticalReport-TRI98.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006160344/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1998/StatisticalReport-TRI98.pdf|archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Kesab Debbarma]] |party=Communist Party of India (Marxist) |votes=13,990 |percentage=54.04% |change={{increase}}5.50 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Ashok Debbarma]] |party=Indian National Congress |votes=11,003 |percentage=42.51% |change={{decrease}}6.04 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Santi Kumar Debbarma |party=Independent politician |votes=356 |percentage=1.38% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Suchitra Debbarma |party=All India Trinamool Congress |votes=315 |percentage=1.22% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Kartik Kanya Debbarma |party=Independent politician |votes=222 |percentage=0.86% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=2,987 |percentage=11.54% |change= {{increase}}11.53 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=25,886 |percentage=93.29% |change= {{increase}}21.30 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 27,815 |ref = |change= }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Communist Party of India (Marxist) |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= {{increase}}5.50 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2003 Assembly election ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2003 Tripura Legislative Assembly election]]: Golaghati<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Chief Electoral Officer, Tripura|title=Form 20 {{!}} Final Result Sheet {{!}} General Election to the Tripura Legislative Assembly - 2003 |url=http://ceotripura.nic.in/sites/default/files/2024-01/Form20_2003.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240228165918/http://ceotripura.nic.in/sites/default/files/2024-01/Form20_2003.pdf|archive-date=28 February 2024 |access-date = 20 June 2020}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Ashok Debbarma]] |party=Indian National Congress |votes=10,080 |percentage=48.55% |change={{increase}}3.14 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Niranjan Debbarma]] |party=Communist Party of India (Marxist) |votes=10,079 |percentage=48.54% |change={{decrease}}1.14 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Gopal Debbarma |party=Lok Jan Shakti Party |votes=605 |percentage=2.91% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=1 |percentage=0.00% |change= {{decrease}}4.27 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=20,764 |percentage=71.86% |change= {{decrease}}6.87 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 28,933 |ref = |change= {{increase}}2.50 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Communist Party of India (Marxist) |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

=== 1998 Assembly election ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1998 Tripura Legislative Assembly election]]: Golaghati<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1998 to the Legislative Assembly of Tripura |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1998/StatisticalReport-TRI98.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006160344/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1998/StatisticalReport-TRI98.pdf|archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Niranjan Debbarma]] |party=Communist Party of India (Marxist) |votes=11,028 |percentage=49.68% |change={{decrease}}0.61 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Ashok Debbarma]] |party=Indian National Congress |votes=10,079 |percentage=45.41% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Budha Debbarma]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=858 |percentage=3.87% |change={{increase}}2.43 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Sridam Debbarma |party=Independent politician |votes=232 |percentage=1.05% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=949 |percentage=4.28% |change= {{decrease}}11.17 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=22,197 |percentage=80.39% |change= {{increase}}2.30 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 28,228 |ref = |change= {{increase}}3.55 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Communist Party of India (Marxist) |loser=Communist Party of India (Marxist) |swing= {{decrease}}0.61 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== 1993 Assembly election ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1993 Tripura Legislative Assembly election]]: Golaghati<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1993 to the Legislative Assembly of Tripura |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1993/Statistical%20Report%201993%20Tripura.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006065326/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1993/Statistical%20Report%201993%20Tripura.pdf |archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Niranjan Debbarma]] |party=Communist Party of India (Marxist) |votes=10,465 |percentage=50.29% |change={{increase}}1.76 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Budha Debbarma]] |party=Tripura Upajati Juba Samiti |votes=7,251 |percentage=34.85% |change={{decrease}}13.73 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Bijoy Kumar Hrangkhal |party=Independent politician |votes=2,555 |percentage=12.28% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Bishu Kumar Debbarma |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=299 |percentage=1.44% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=3,214 |percentage=15.45% |change= {{increase}}15.40 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=20,809 |percentage=77.87% |change= {{decrease}}6.11 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 27,260 |ref = |change= {{increase}}19.43 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Communist Party of India (Marxist) |loser=Tripura Upajati Juba Samiti |swing= {{increase}}1.71 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== 1988 Assembly election ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1988 Tripura Legislative Assembly election]]: Golaghati<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1988 to the Legislative Assembly of Tripura |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1988/Statistical%20Report%20Tripura%201988.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006100546/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1988/Statistical%20Report%20Tripura%201988.pdf |archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Budha Debbarma]] |party=Tripura Upajati Juba Samiti |votes=9,141 |percentage=48.58% |change={{decrease}}1.61 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Niranjan Debbarma]] |party=Communist Party of India (Marxist) |votes=9,132 |percentage=48.53% |change={{increase}}3.44 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Rati Rajan Das |party=Independent politician |votes=470 |percentage=2.50% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=9 |percentage=0.05% |change= {{decrease}}5.05 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=18,817 |percentage=83.65% |change= {{increase}}1.86 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 22,825 |ref = |change= {{increase}}15.22 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Tripura Upajati Juba Samiti |loser=Tripura Upajati Juba Samiti |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

=== 1983 Assembly election ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1983 Tripura Legislative Assembly election]]: Golaghati<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1983 to the Legislative Assembly of Tripura |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1983/StatisticalReport%20Tripura%201983.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006044341/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1983/StatisticalReport%20Tripura%201983.pdf|archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Budha Debbarma]] |party=Tripura Upajati Juba Samiti |votes=8,011 |percentage=50.18% |change={{increase}}26.44 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Niranjan Debbarma]] |party=Communist Party of India (Marxist) |votes=7,198 |percentage=45.09% |change={{increase}}13.24 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Promode Behari Majumder |party=Independent politician |votes=754 |percentage=4.72% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=813 |percentage=5.09% |change= {{decrease}}3.02 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=15,963 |percentage=81.76% |change= {{increase}}1.33 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 19,810 |ref = |change= {{increase}}17.55 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Tripura Upajati Juba Samiti |loser=Communist Party of India (Marxist) |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

=== 1977 Assembly election ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1977 Tripura Legislative Assembly election]]: Golaghati<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1977 to the Legislative Assembly of Tripura |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1977/StatisticalReport%201977%20Tripura.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613130016/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1977/StatisticalReport%201977%20Tripura.pdf|archive-date=13 June 2018|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Niranjan Debbarma]] |party=Communist Party of India (Marxist) |votes=4,254 |percentage=31.85% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Budha Debbarma]] |party=Tripura Upajati Juba Samiti |votes=3,171 |percentage=23.74% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Ashok Debbarma]] |party=Indian National Congress |votes=2,146 |percentage=16.07% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Anil Kishore Debbarma |party=Tripura Pradesh Congress Committee |votes=1,767 |percentage=13.23% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Narendra Debbarma |party=Janata Party |votes=1,542 |percentage=11.55% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Aghore Debbarma |party=Communist Party of India |votes=446 |percentage=3.34% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=1,083 |percentage=8.11% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=13,355 |percentage=80.92% |change= }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 16,852 |ref = |change= }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner=Communist Party of India (Marxist) |loser= |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
*[[List of constituencies of the Tripura Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Sipahijala district]]
* [[Tripura West (Lok Sabha constituency)]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Tripura}}

{{coord|23.69|91.36|display=title}}

[[Category:Sipahijala district]]
[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Tripura]]
[[Category:Politics of Tripura]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1977]]
[[Category:1977 establishments in Tripura]]

Ammu Abhirami

2026-04-16T02:50:38Z

Husayn: started some article initial version

{{short description|Indian actress (born 2000)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2025}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Ammu Abhirami
| image = [[File:Ammu Abhirami (cropped).png|250px]]
| image_upright = yes
| birth_name = Abhirami
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|2000|3|16}}
| birth_place = [[Chennai]], [[Tamil Nadu]]
| other_names = Abhirami,Ammu
| occupation = [[Actress]]
| yearsactive = 2016–present
| known_for = ''[[Ratsasan]]'' ''[[Asuran (2019 film)|Asuran]]''
}}

'''Abhirami ''' (born 16 March 2000), widely known as '''Ammu Abhirami''', is an Indian actress who has appeared in [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]] and [[Malayalam]] cinema.

Ammu debuted as an child artist in 2017 and rose to fame with [[Ratsasan]] (2018) and [[Asuran (2019 film)|Asuran]] (2019). She latter became Lead actress in Adavi (2020).

==Early life and family==
Abhirami was born on 16 March 2000, to a [[Tamils|Tamil]] speaking Brahmin family in [[Chennai]], [[Tamil Nadu]]

==Career==

Even though Bhairava (2016) was her first on screen appearance, Ammu Abhirami's first debut movie was Ratsasan which was released (2018), ''[[Theeran Adhigaaram Ondru]]'' (2017). Later she reprised the same role in the film's Telugu remake, ''[[Rakshasudu (2019 film)|Rakshasudu]]'' (2019). She appeared in ''[[Thuppakki Munai]]'' (2018), playing a teenage girl who was raped and murdered.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/thuppakki-munai-movie-review-vikram-prabhu-shines-as-a-no-nonsense-cop-in-this-largely-watchable-film-5728851.html |title=Thuppakki Munai movie review: Vikram Prabhu shines as a no-nonsense cop in this largely watchable film |date=14 December 2018 |website=Firstpost |access-date=28 September 2019 |archive-date=28 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190928233455/https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/thuppakki-munai-movie-review-vikram-prabhu-shines-as-a-no-nonsense-cop-in-this-largely-watchable-film-5728851.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2019, she appeared in [[Vetrimaaran]]'s drama ''[[Asuran (2019 film)|Asuran]]'' (2019), where she featured in a leading role opposite [[Dhanush]]. Ammu was selected after being recommended by producer [[S. Thanu]], who she had earlier worked with on ''[[Thuppakki Munai]]'' (2018). She portrayed the role of Maariyammal, a schoolgirl in rural Tamil Nadu during the 1960s.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/ammu-abhirrami-has-an-update-on-dhanushs-asuran/articleshow/71271131.cms |title=Ammu Abhirrami has an update on Dhanush's Asuran |website=The Times of India |date=24 September 2019 |access-date=28 September 2019 |archive-date=26 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190926215815/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/ammu-abhirrami-has-an-update-on-dhanushs-asuran/articleshow/71271131.cms |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.in.com/entertainment/regional/ammu-abhiramis-next-after-rakshasudu-is-dhanushs-asuran-500311.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190928233452/https://www.in.com/entertainment/regional/ammu-abhiramis-next-after-rakshasudu-is-dhanushs-asuran-500311.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=28 September 2019 |title=Ammu Abhirami's next after Rakshasudu is Dhanush's Asuran! |website=in.com}}</ref>

==Filmography==
===Films===
*''All films are in Tamil otherwise noted''
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Film
! Role
! Language
!class=unsortable|Notes
!class=unsortable| Ref.
|-
| rowspan="3"|2017
| ''[[Bairavaa]]''
| Medical College Student
| Rowspan="6"| [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
| rowspan="2" |Uncredited Role
|
|-
| ''[[En Aaloda Seruppa Kaanom]]'' || Sandhya's Friend
|
|-
| ''[[Theeran Adhigaaram Ondru]]'' || Theeran's Sister ||
|
|-
| rowspan="3"|2018 || ''[[Thaanaa Serndha Koottam]]'' || Azhagu Mathi ||
|
|-
|''[[Ratsasan]]'' || Ammu ||
|
|-
| ''[[Thuppakki Munai]]''|| Manjal Nayaki ||
|
|-
| rowspan="3"|2019 || ''[[Rakshasudu (2019 film)|Rakshasudu]]'' || Siri
| [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
| Telugu Debut
|
|-
| ''[[Asuran (2019 film)|Asuran]]'' || Maariammal (Maari)
| Rowspan="3"| Tamil
|
|
|-
| ''[[Thambi (2019 film)|Thambi]]'' || Young Parvathy ||
|
|-
| rowspan="1"|2020 || ''[[Adavi (film)|Adavi]]'' || Valli || Debut as lead actress in Tamil
|<ref name="D">{{Cite web |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/movie-reviews/080220/adavi-review-what-happens-when-a-great-dop-becomes-a-dir.html |title=Adavi review: What happens when a great DOP becomes a DIR |first=Anupama |last=Subramanian |date=8 February 2020 |website=Deccan Chronicle |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=28 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201228090053/http://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/movie-reviews/080220/adavi-review-what-happens-when-a-great-dop-becomes-a-dir.html |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" |2021
|''[[FCUK: Father Chitti Umaa Kaarthik]]''
|Umaa
|rowspan="2"|Telugu
| Debut as lead actress in Telugu
|<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/ammu-abhirami-s-first-look-telugu-film-fcuk-released-140470 |title=Ammu Abhirami's first look from Telugu film 'FCUK' released |date=29 December 2020 |website=The News Minute |access-date=20 April 2022 |archive-date=15 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115075359/https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/ammu-abhirami-s-first-look-telugu-film-fcuk-released-140470 |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|''[[Narappa]]''
|Kannamma
| Remake of [[Asuran (2019 film)|Asuran]]
|
|-
|rowspan="4" |2022
|''[[Yaanai]]''
|Selvi (Pappa)
|rowspan="3"| Tamil
|
|
|-
|''[[Battery (film)|Battery]]''
|Asha
|
|
|-
| ''[[Kaari (film)|Kaari]]''
|Sethu’s Friend
|
|
|-
|''[[Ranasthali (film)|Ranasthali]]''
|Eshwari
|Telugu
|
|
|-
| rowspan="5" |2023
|''[[Thandatti]]''
|Young Thangaponnu
|rowspan="4"| Tamil
|
|
|-
|''[[Baba Black Sheep (2023 film)|Baba Black Sheep]]''
|Nila
|
|
|-
|''[[Vaan Moondru]]''
|Swathi
|
|
|-
|[[Kannagi (2023 film)|''Kannagi'']]
|Kalai
|
|
|-
|''[[Devil: The British Secret Agent]]''
|Vijaya
|Telugu
|
|
|-
| rowspan="5" | 2024 || ''[[Hot Spot (2024 film)|Hot Spot]]''
|Anitha
| rowspan="4" | Tamil
|segment: "Golden Rules"
|
|-
|''[[Jama (film)|Jama]]''
|Jegathambiga
|
|
|-
|''[[Adharma Kadhaigal]]''
|Nandhini
|
|<ref>{{Cite news|date=9 August 2024|title='Enathuyire Neeyadi' from Adharma Kadhaigal out
|url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2024/Aug/09/enathuyire-neeyadi-from-adharma-kadhaigal-out|newspaper=[[Cinema Express]]|language=en|url-status=live|access-date=10 August 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240810015149/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2024/Aug/09/enathuyire-neeyadi-from-adharma-kadhaigal-out|archive-date=10 August 2024}}</ref>
|-
|''[[Nirangal Moondru]]''
|Parvathy
|
|
|-
|''[[Bhale Unnade]]''
|Young Gowri
| rowspan="2" |Telugu
|
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-09-28 |title= Raj Tarun's Bhale Unnade Set for OTT Release |url= https://www.deccanchronicle.com/amp/entertainment/ott/raj-taruns-bhale-unnade-set-for-ott-release-1826694 |access-date=2026-04-15 |website=Deccan Chronicle |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|rowspan = '2' | 2026 || ''[[The RajaSaab]]''
|Young Ganga Devi
|
|
|-
|''[[Jockey (2026 film)|Jockey]]''
| Meenu
| rowspan="2" |Tamil
|
|<ref>{{Cite web |author=Cinema Express Desk |date=2026-01-20 |title=Jockey gets a new release date |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2026/Jan/20/jockey-gets-a-new-release-date |access-date=2026-01-21 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|{{TBA}}
|{{pending film|Yaar Ivargal}}
|{{TBA}}
|Delayed
|
|}

===Television===
{| class="wikitable"
! Year !! Title !! Role!! Platform!!Notes
|-
| 2022
|''[[Cooku with Comali (season 3)|Cooku with Comali season 3]]''
| Contestant
|[[Star Vijay]]
|Style="background:#7FFFD4;";"|'''2nd Runner Up'''
|}

===Music videos===
{| class="wikitable"
! Year !! Title !! Composer!! Language!! Platform
!Notes
|-
| rowspan="2" |2022
|''Karakki''
| Ady Kriz
| rowspan="3" |Tamil
|Think Music India
|
|}

===Web series===
{| class="wikitable"
! Year !! Title !! Role!! Language!! Platform
!Notes !! ref
|-
| 2021
|''[[Navarasa (TV series)|Navarasa]]'' || Young Waheeda
| Tamil
| [[Netflix]]
|Web debut; Segment: ''Inimai''
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Netflix's Navarasa: Tamil Cinema comes together for Mani Ratnam's 'thank you' to the industry |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/stories/news/2020/oct/28/netflixnavarasa-tamil-cinema-comes-together-for-mani-ratnams-thank-you-to-the-industry-21005.html |access-date=29 October 2020 |website=[[Cinema Express]] |date=28 October 2020 |archive-date=1 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101004914/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/stories/news/2020/oct/28/netflixnavarasa-tamil-cinema-comes-together-for-mani-ratnams-thank-you-to-the-industry-21005.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=28 October 2020 |title=Mani Ratnam and Jayendra Panchapakesan bankroll Navarasa to support Kollywood |work=[[The Indian Express]] |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/tamil/mani-ratnam-netflix-anthology-navarasa-tamil-film-industry-6906505/ |access-date=29 October 2020 |archive-date=31 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031002225/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/tamil/mani-ratnam-netflix-anthology-navarasa-tamil-film-industry-6906505/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" |2024
|''[[Nagendran's Honeymoons]]''
| Mozhi
| [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]]
| rowspan="2 | [[Disney + Hotstar]]
| Malayalam debut
|
|-
|''[[Goli Soda Rising ]]''
| 3D
| Tamil
|
|
|}

==Awards and nominations==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Year !! Award !! Category !! Film !! Result !!Ref.
|-
|rowspan="2"|2020 || JFW- Just For Women Movie Awards || Best Actress in a Supporting Role – Tamil || rowspan="7"|''[[Asuran (2019 film)|Asuran]]'' || {{won}}||<ref>{{Cite web |title=Jyothika, Aishwarya Rajesh, Manju Warrier and More! Here is The Complete Winners List of JFW Movie Awards 2020! |url=https://jfwonline.com/article/jyothika-aishwarya-rajesh-manju-warrier-and-more-here-is-the-complete-winners-list-of-jfw-movie-awards-2020/4/ |date=19 April 2020 |website=jfwonline.com |access-date=4 March 2022 |archive-date=4 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220304215820/https://jfwonline.com/article/jyothika-aishwarya-rajesh-manju-warrier-and-more-here-is-the-complete-winners-list-of-jfw-movie-awards-2020/4/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb name|id=9103143|name=Abhirami}}
{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Abhirami, Ammu}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Actresses in Tamil cinema]]
[[Category:Actresses in Telugu cinema]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian actresses]]
[[Category:Indian film actresses]]
[[Category:Actresses from Chennai]]
[[Category:Tamil actresses]]
[[Category:Cooku with Comali contestants]]
[[Category:2000 births]]

Surajgarh Assembly constituency

2026-04-15T23:26:21Z

Husayn: added new info

{{Short description|Constituency of the Rajasthan legislative assembly in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2018}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = [[Surajgarh]]
| map_image = Assembly constituencies of Rajasthan-26-Surajgarh.svg
| mla = [[Sharwan Kumar]]
| party = [[Indian National Congress]]
| latest_election_year = [[2023 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|2023]]
| state = [[Rajasthan]]
| district = [[Jhunjhunu district]]
| established = 1962
| type = SLA
| reservation = None
| constituency_no = 26
}}

'''Surajgarh Assembly constituency''' is one of [[List of constituencies of Rajasthan Vidhan Sabha|constituencies]] of [[Rajasthan Legislative Assembly]] in the [[Jhunjhunu Lok Sabha constituency]].

Surajgarh constituency covers all voters from [[Buhana|Buhana tehsil]] and parts of Chirawa, which include Surajgarh Municipal Board, [[Badbar, Rajasthan|Badbar]] Baloda, Berla, Bhaothari, Dheengariya, Jakhod, [[Kakoda]], Kidwana, Lakhoo, Lotiya and Mahpalwas of [[Surajgarh|ILRC Surajgarh]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order 2008 |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf |website=Election Commission of India |accessdate=14 December 2018 |language=en-IN |format=pdf}}</ref>

==Members of the Legislative Assembly==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
!Name
!colspan=2|Party
! class="unsortable" | Ref.
|-
| [[1962 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|1962]] ||Shiv Narain Chhachhia || {{Full party name with color|Swatantra Party|rowspan=2}} || <ref>{{cite web |title=1962 Rajasthan Assembly results |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1962/StatRep_Rajasthan_1962.pdf |website=Election Commission of India |accessdate=14 December 2018 |language=en-IN |format=pdf}}</ref>
|-
| [[1967 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|1967]] || Surajmal || <ref>{{cite web |title=1967 Rajasthan Assembly results |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report%20Rajasthan%201967.pdf |website=Election Commission of India |accessdate=14 December 2018 |language=en-IN |format=pdf}}</ref>
|-
| [[1972 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|1972]] || [[Sunder Lal Kaka|Sunder Lal]]|| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}} || <ref>{{cite web |title=1972 Rajasthan Assembly results |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1972/StatReport_RJ_72.pdf |website=Election Commission of India |accessdate=14 December 2018 |language=en-IN |format=pdf}}</ref>
|-
| [[1977 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|1977]] || Subhash Chand Arya|| {{Full party name with color|Janata Party}} || <ref>{{cite web |title=1977 Rajasthan Assembly results |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1977/Statistical%20Report%201977%20Rajasthan.pdf |website=Election Commission of India |accessdate=14 December 2018 |language=en-IN |format=pdf}}</ref>
|-
| [[1980 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|1980]] ||rowspan=2| [[Sunder Lal Kaka|Sunder Lal]] || {{Full party name with color|Independent (politician)}} || <ref>{{cite web |title=1980 Rajasthan Assembly results |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1980/Statistical%20Report%201980%20Rajasthan.pdf |website=Election Commission of India |accessdate=14 December 2018 |language=en-IN |format=pdf}}</ref>
|-
| [[1985 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|1985]] ||{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}} || <ref>{{cite web |title=1985 Rajasthan Assembly results |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1985/Statistical%20Report%201985%20Rajasthan.pdf |website=Election Commission of India |accessdate=14 December 2018 |language=en-IN |format=pdf}}</ref>
|-
| [[1990 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|1990]] || Babu Lal Khanda|| {{Full party name with color|Janata Dal}} || <ref>{{cite web |title=1990 Rajasthan Assembly results |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1990/StatRep_RJ_90.pdf |website=Election Commission of India |accessdate=14 December 2018 |language=en-IN |format=pdf}}</ref>
|-
| [[1993 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|1993]] || [[Sunder Lal Kaka|Sunder Lal]] || {{Full party name with color|Independent (politician)}} || <ref>{{cite web |title=1993 Rajasthan Assembly results |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1993/StatRep_RJ_93.pdf |website=Election Commission of India |accessdate=14 December 2018 |language=en-IN |format=pdf}}</ref>
|-
| [[1998 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|1998]] || [[Hanuman Prasad]] || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}} || <ref>{{cite web |title=1998 Rajasthan Assembly results |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1998/StatisticalReport-RAJ98.pdf |website=Election Commission of India |accessdate=14 December 2018 |language=en-IN |format=pdf}}</ref>
|-
| [[2003 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|2003]] || [[Sunder Lal Kaka|Sunder Lal]] || {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} || <ref>{{cite web |title=2003 Rajasthan Assembly results |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_NOV_2003/StatisticalReports_RAJ_Nov2003.pdf |website=Election Commission of India |accessdate=14 December 2018 |language=en-IN |format=pdf}}</ref>
|-
| [[2008 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|2008]] || [[Sharwan Kumar]] || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}} || <ref>{{cite web |title=2008 Rajasthan Assembly results |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/AE2008/Stats_report_RJ2008.pdf |website=Election Commission of India |accessdate=14 December 2018 |language=en-IN |format=pdf}}</ref>
|-
| [[2013 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|2013]] || [[Santosh Ahlawat]] || {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} || <ref>{{cite web |title=2013 Rajasthan Assembly results |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3411-rajasthan-2013/ |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]}}</ref>
|-
| [[2014 elections in India#Rajasthan|2014]] || [[Sharwan Kumar]] || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}} || <ref>{{cite web |title=Bye Election 2014: Rajasthan (Surajgarh-26) |url=https://hindi.eci.gov.in/files/file/2752-bye-election-result-2014-rajasthan-surajgarh-26-weir-75-nasirabad-102-kota-south-190/ |website=भारत निर्वाचन आयोग |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |language=hi-IN}}</ref>
|-
| [[2018 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|2018]] || [[Subhash Poonia]] || {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} || <ref>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/9645-statistical-data-of-rajasthan-la-2018/ |title=2018 Rajasthan Assembly results |website=[[Election Commission of India]]}}</ref>
|-
|[[2023 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|2023]]
|[[Sharwan Kumar]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}} || <ref>{{cite web |title=2023 Rajasthan Assembly results |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/AcResultGenDecNew2023/partywiseresult-S20.htm |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|}

''2014'': By-election due to resignation of Mrs. Santosh Ahlawat after being elected to Lok Sabha.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bye Election 2014: Rajasthan (Surajgarh-26) |url=https://hindi.eci.gov.in/files/file/2752-bye-election-result-2014-rajasthan-surajgarh-26-weir-75-nasirabad-102-kota-south-190/ |website=भारत निर्वाचन आयोग |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |language=hi-IN}}</ref>

== Results ==

=== 2023 ===
{{Election box begin
|title = [[2023 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election]]: Surajgarh
}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Sharwan Kumar S/O Gokal Ram
|votes = 115684
|percentage = 57.74
|change = 18.25
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Santosh Ahalawat
|votes = 78270
|percentage = 39.07
|change = -2.19
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = None of the Above
|votes = 1024
|percentage = 0.51
|change = 0.31
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = 37414
|percentage = 18.67
|change = 16.9
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = 200348
|percentage = 68.74
|change = -3.27
}}
{{Election box end
}}

=== 2018 ===
{{Election box begin
|title = [[2018 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election]]: Surajgarh
}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Subhash Poonia S/O Lokram Poonia
|votes = 79913
|percentage = 41.26
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Sharwan Kumar S/O Gokal Ram
|votes = 76488
|percentage = 39.49
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Karmveer Yadav
|votes = 30948
|percentage = 15.98
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = None of the Above
|votes = 392
|percentage = 0.2
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = 3425
|percentage = 1.77
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = 193681
|percentage = 72.01
|change =
}}
{{Election box end
}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

== See also ==
* [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)]]

{{Assembly constituencies of Rajasthan}}

{{coord|28.31|75.73|display=title}}

[[Category:Jhunjhunu district]]
[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Rajasthan]]
[[Category:Politics of Rajasthan]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1962]]
[[Category:1962 establishments in Rajasthan]]

Shart

2026-04-04T02:49:14Z

Husayn: added post

{{wiktionary}}
'''Shart''' may refer to:

* [[Shart (1954 film)|''Shart'' (1954 film)]], a Bollywood film starring Shashikala
* [[Shart (1986 film)|''Shart'' (1986 film)]], a Bollywood film starring Shabana Azmi
* [[Shart (1969 film)|''Shart'' (1969 film)]], a Bollywood film starring [[Sanjay Khan]]
* ''[[Shart: The Challenge]]'', a 2004 Bollywood film starring Tusshar Kapoor
* "Shart", a song by Sonu Nigam from the [[Milan Talkies#Soundtrack|''Milan Talkies'' film soundtrack]], 2019
* [[Raffy Shart]], French-Armenian director and writer
* Melissa Shart, a fictional character in the TV series [[The Last Man on Earth (TV series)|''The Last Man on Earth'']]
* Slang for accidental [[fecal incontinence]]

==See also==
* [[Sharts (disambiguation)]]

{{disambiguation}}

Paris

2026-03-27T22:40:14Z

Husayn: small correct references also and improved wording

{{Short description|Capital and largest city of France}}
{{About|the capital city of France}}
{{Redirect|Parisien}}
{{protection padlock|small=yes}}

{{Use British English|date=July 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox French commune
|name = Paris
|commune status = [[Capital city]], [[Communes of France|commune]], [[Arrondissements of France|arrondissement]] and [[Departments of France|department]]
|image = {{multiple image
|border = infobox
|perrow = 1/3/2/1
|total_width = 290
|caption_align = center
|image1 = La Tour Eiffel vue de la Tour Saint-Jacques, Paris août 2014 (2).jpg
|caption1 = [[Eiffel Tower]] and the [[Seine]] from [[Tour Saint-Jacques]]
|image2 = Notre-Dame de Paris 2013-07-24.jpg
|caption2 = [[Notre-Dame de Paris|Notre-Dame]]
|image3 = Basilique du Sacré-Cœur de Montmartre, Paris 18e 140223 2.jpg
|caption3 = [[Sacré-Cœur, Paris|Sacré-Cœur]]
|image4 = Facade of the Panthéon, Paris 24 January 2016.jpg
|caption4 = [[Panthéon]]
|image5 = Arc de Triomphe HDR 2007.jpg
|caption5 = [[Arc de Triomphe]]
|image6 = Paris Opera full frontal architecture, May 2009 sky.JPG
|caption6 = {{lang|fr|[[Palais Garnier]]|italic=no}}
|image7 = Louvre Courtyard, Looking West.jpg
|caption7 = The [[Louvre]]
}}
|image coat of arms = Armoiries de la ville de Paris (1949).svg
|image flag = Drapeau des armes de la ville de Paris.svg
|city motto = {{lang|la|[[Fluctuat nec mergitur]]}} "Tossed by the waves but never sunk"
|arrondissement = Paris
|canton =
|subdivisions entry = [[Administrative division|Subdivisions]]
|subdivisions = 20 [[Arrondissements of Paris|arrondissements]]
|INSEE = 75056
|postal code = 75001–75020, 75116
|demonym = Parisian(s) ([[English language|en]]) ''Parisien(s)'' (masc.), ''Parisienne(s)'' (fem.) ([[French language|fr]]), ''Parigot(s)'' (masc.), "Parigote(s)" (fem.) (fr, colloquial)
|mayor = [[Anne Hidalgo]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Répertoire national des élus: les maires |url=https://www.data.gouv.fr/datasets/repertoire-national-des-elus-1/ |website=data.gouv.fr |date=16 December 2022 |language=fr |archive-date=27 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227222303/https://static.data.gouv.fr/resources/repertoire-national-des-elus-1/20221216-172042/rne-maire.csv |url-status=live }}</ref>
|term = 2020–2026
|party = [[Socialist Party (France)|PS]]
|intercommunality = [[Grand Paris|Métropole du Grand Paris]]
|coordinates = {{Coord|type:city(2,100,000)_region:FR-75C|format=dms|display=it}}
|elevation m = 78
|elevation min m = 28
|elevation max m = 131
|area km2 = 105.4
|area footnotes = <ref name="Comparateur de territoires.INSEE">{{Cite web |url=https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/1405599?geo=REG-11+AAV2020-001+UU2020-00851+DEP-75 |title=Département: Paris (75); Unité urbaine: Paris (00851); Région: Île-de-France (11); Aire d'attraction des villes: Paris (001) |website=insee.fr |publisher=[[Institut national de la statistique et des études économiques|INSEE]] |date=2 September 2025 |access-date=8 February 2026}}</ref>
|population = 2047602
|population ranking = [[List of European cities by population within city limits|9th]] in Europe [[List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants|1st]] in France
|population date = Jan 2026<ref name="Pop.Paris">{{Cite web |url=https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/8721456 |title=Estimation de la population au 1ᵉʳ Janvier 2026 - Séries par région, département, sexe et âge |website=insee.fr |publisher=[[Institut national de la statistique et des études économiques|INSEE]] |date=13 January 2026 |access-date=8 February 2026}}</ref>
|urban area km2 = 2824.2
|urban area date =<ref name="Comparateur de territoires.INSEE"/>
|urban pop = 10944094<ref name="Comparateur de territoires.INSEE"/>
|urban pop date = 2022
|metro area km2 = 18940.7
|metro area date =<ref name="Comparateur de territoires.INSEE"/>
|metro area pop = 13239090<ref name="Comparateur de territoires.INSEE"/>
|metro area pop date = 2022
| demographics_type2 = GDP
| demographics2_footnotes = <ref>{{cite web |title=Gross domestic product (GDP) at current market prices by NUTS 3 region [nama_10r_3gdp] |url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/bookmark/7a2120f6-c128-4704-9d1a-7e5f6b912e8a?lang=en&createdAt=2026-02-24T10:29:08Z |website=ec.europa.eu}}</ref>
| demographics2_title1 = Capital City
| demographics2_info1 = €279.938 billion (2024)
| demographics2_title2 = Metro
| demographics2_info2 = €865.652 billion (2024)
| blank_name_sec2 = Climate
| blank_info_sec2 = [[Temperate oceanic climate]] (Cfb)
|website = {{URL|https://paris.fr}}
|pushpin_relief = yes
}}

'''Paris'''{{efn|{{IPA|en|ˈpærɪs|lang}}, {{respell|PARR|iss}};<ref>{{cite web |title=Paris |url=https://www.ldoceonline.com/dictionary/paris |website=Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English Online |access-date=31 October 2025}}</ref> {{IPA|fr|paʁi|lang|audio=Paris Pronunciation in French by James Tamim.ogg}}}} is the [[Capital city|capital]] and [[List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants|largest city]] of [[France]], with an estimated city population of 2.04 million in an area of {{convert|105.4|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}, and a metropolitan population of 13.2 million as of {{as of|bare=y|2026|January}}.<ref name="Pop.Paris"/> Located on the river [[Seine]] in the centre of the [[Île-de-France]] region, it is the [[List of metropolitan areas in Europe|largest metropolitan area]] and [[List of cities in the European Union by population within city limits|fourth-most populous city]] in the [[European Union]] (EU). Nicknamed the "City of Light", partly because of its role in the [[Age of Enlightenment]], Paris has been one of the world's major centres of [[finance]], [[diplomacy]], [[commerce]], [[culture]], [[Fashion capital|fashion]], and [[gastronomy]] since the 17th century.

Administratively, Paris is divided into [[Arrondissements of Paris|twenty arrondissements]] (districts), each having their own cultural identity. [[Georges-Eugène Haussmann|Haussmann]]'s [[Haussmann's renovation of Paris|renovation]] of Paris, which created new boulevards, parks, and public works, gave birth to a modern city known as the "[[Paris, Capital of the 19th Century|capital of the 19th century]]". Paris is a major railway, motorway, and air-transport hub; in 2024 [[Charles de Gaulle Airport]] was the EU's [[List of the busiest airports in Europe|busiest airport]]. Paris has one of the most [[sustainable transportation]] systems in the world and is one of only two cities that have received the [[Sustainable Transport Award]] twice.<ref name=ICLEI/> Its [[Art Nouveau]]-decorated [[Paris Métro|Métro]] has become a symbol of the city. Paris is known for its museums and architectural landmarks: the [[Musée d'Orsay]], [[Musée Marmottan Monet]], and [[Musée de l'Orangerie]] are noted for their collections of French [[Impressionism|Impressionist]] art, while the {{lang|fr|[[Musée National d'Art Moderne]]|italic=no}}, [[Musée Rodin]], and [[Musée Picasso]] are noted for their collections of [[Modern art|modern]] and [[contemporary art]]. Parts of the city along the [[Seine]] have been designated as a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]] {{as of|since=y|1991|lc=y}}.

The [[president of France]] and both houses of the [[French Parliament]] sit in Paris. Paris is home to several [[United Nations]] organisations, including [[UNESCO]], as well as other international organisations such as the [[OECD]], the [[International Bureau of Weights and Measures]] (in neighbouring [[Saint-Cloud]]), the [[International Energy Agency]], the [[Organisation internationale de la Francophonie]], the [[International Federation for Human Rights]], and the [[Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile|Fédération internationale de l'Automobile]], along with European bodies such as the [[European Space Agency]], the [[European Banking Authority]], and the [[European Securities and Markets Authority]]. The city [[Sport in Paris|hosts many sporting events]], such as the [[French Open]], and is the home of the [[association football]] club [[Paris Saint-Germain FC|Paris Saint-Germain]] and the [[rugby union]] club [[Stade Français]]. Paris has also hosted the [[Summer Olympics]] three times.

==Etymology==
The ancient [[oppidum]] that corresponds to the modern city of Paris was first mentioned in the mid-1st century BC by [[Julius Caesar]] as ''Lutetia Parisiorum'' ('[[Lutetia]] of the [[Parisii (France)|Parisii]]') and is later attested as ''Parision'' in the 5th century AD, then as ''Paris'' in 1265.{{Sfn|Nègre|1990|p=155}}<ref name="Falileyev" /> During the Roman period, it was commonly known as {{Lang|la|Lutetia}} in Latin, which is interpreted as either stemming from the [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] root ''*lukot-'' ('mouse'), or from *''luto-'' ('marsh, swamp').{{Sfn|Lambert|1994|p=38}}{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=211}}<ref name="Falileyev" />

The name ''Paris'' is derived from its early inhabitants, the [[Parisii (France)|Parisii]], a [[Gauls|Gallic]] tribe from the [[La Tène culture|Iron Age]] and the [[Roman period]].{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=247}} The meaning of the Gaulish [[ethnonym]] remains debated. According to [[Xavier Delamarre]], it may derive from the Celtic root ''pario-'' ('cauldron').{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=247}} [[Alfred Holder]] interpreted the name as 'the makers' or 'the commanders', by comparing it to the [[Welsh language|Welsh]] ''peryff'' ('lord, commander'), both possibly descending from a [[Proto-Celtic]] form reconstructed as *''kwar-is-io''-.{{Sfn|Busse|2006|p=199}} Alternatively, [[Pierre-Yves Lambert]] proposed to translate ''Parisii'' as the 'spear people', by connecting the first element to the [[Old Irish]] ''carr'' ('spear'), derived from an earlier *''kwar-sā''.<ref name="Falileyev">{{harvnb|Falileyev|2010}}, s.v. ''Parisii'' and ''Lutetia''.</ref>

Residents of the city are known in English as Parisians and in French as ''Parisiens'' ({{IPA|fr|paʁizjɛ̃||Parisien2.ogg}}). They are also pejoratively called ''Parigots'' ({{IPA|fr|paʁiɡo||Parigot.ogg}}).{{sfn|Dottin|2018|p=535}}

==History==
{{Main|History of Paris}}
{{For timeline}}

===Origins===
{{main|Lutetia}}
The ''[[Parisii (Gaul)|Parisii]]'' people inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC.{{sfn|Cunliffe|2004|p=201}} One of the area's major north–south trade routes crossed the [[Seine]] on the [[Île de la Cité]], which gradually became an important trading centre.{{sfn|Lawrence|Gondrand|2010|p=25}} The Parisii traded with many river towns (some as far away as the Iberian Peninsula) and minted their own coins.{{sfn|Schmidt|2009|pp=65–70}}
[[File:ParisiiCoins.jpg|thumb|Gold coins minted by the [[Parisii (Gaul)|Parisii]], 1st century BC]]

[[Julius Caesar]] [[Gallic Wars|conquered]] the [[Paris Basin]] for the [[Roman Republic]] in 52 BC and began the Roman settlement on Paris's [[Rive Gauche|Left Bank]].{{sfn|Schmidt|2009|pp=88–104}} The Roman town was originally called [[Lutetia]] (more fully, ''Lutetia Parisiorum'', "Lutetia of the Parisii", modern French ''Lutèce''). It became a prosperous city with a forum, baths, temples, theatres, and an [[amphitheatre]].{{sfn|Schmidt|2009|pp=154–167}}

By the end of the [[Western Roman Empire]], the town was known as ''Parisius'', a [[Latin language|Latin]] name that would later become ''Paris'' in French.{{Sfn|Meunier|2014|p=12}} [[Christianity]] was introduced in the middle of the 3rd century AD by Saint [[Saint Denis of Paris|Denis]], the first Bishop of Paris: according to legend, when he refused to renounce his faith before the Roman occupiers, he was beheaded on the hill which became known as ''Mons Martyrum'' (Latin "Hill of Martyrs"), later "[[Montmartre]]", from where he walked headless to the north of the city; the place where he fell and was buried became an important religious shrine, the [[Basilica of Saint-Denis]], and many French kings are buried there.{{sfn|Schmidt|2009|pp=210–211}}

[[File:FranceEnglandCard2_052.jpg|thumb|250x250px|The [[Wall of Philip II Augustus|Wall of Philippe Auguste]], oldest city wall in Paris ]]
[[Clovis I|Clovis the Frank]], the first king of the [[Merovingian dynasty]], made the city his capital from 508.<ref>Patrick Boucheron, et al., eds. ''France in the World: A New Global History'' (2019) pp 81–86.</ref> As the Frankish domination of Gaul began, there was a gradual immigration by the [[Franks]] to Paris, and the Parisian [[Francien language|Francien]] dialects were born. Fortification of the [[Île de la Cité]] failed to avert [[Siege of Paris (845)|sacking by Vikings in 845]]. Still, Paris's strategic importance—with its bridges preventing ships from passing—was established by successful defence in the [[Siege of Paris (885–886)]], for which the then [[Count of Paris]] (''comte de Paris''), [[Odo of France]], was elected king of [[West Francia]].{{sfn|Jones|1994|p=48}} From the [[House of Capet|Capetian]] dynasty that began with the 987 election of [[Hugh Capet]], Count of Paris and [[Duke of the Franks]] (''duc des Francs''), as king of a unified West Francia, Paris gradually became the largest and most prosperous city in France.{{sfn|Schmidt|2009|pp=210–211}}

===High and Late Middle Ages to Louis XIV===
{{See also|Paris in the Middle Ages|Paris in the 16th century|Paris in the 17th century}}
[[File:Palais de la Cite.jpg|alt=The Palais de la Cité and Sainte-Chapelle, viewed from the Left Bank, from the Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry (month of June) (1410)|thumb|The [[Palais de la Cité]] and [[Sainte-Chapelle]], viewed from the Left Bank, from the [[Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry]] (month of June) (1410)]]

By the end of the 12th century, Paris had become the political, economic, religious, and cultural capital of France.{{sfn|Lawrence|Gondrand|2010|p=27}} [[Maurice de Sully]], bishop of Paris, started the construction of the [[Notre Dame de Paris|Notre Dame Cathedral]] in 1163, and was completed after 182 years.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Fourny |first=Marc |date=12 December 2012 |title=Les dix secrets de Notre-Dame de Paris |trans-title=The ten secrets of the Notre Dame Cathedral |url=https://www.lepoint.fr/culture/les-dix-secrets-de-notre-dame-de-paris-12-12-2012-1561105_3.php |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180809181752/http://www.lepoint.fr/culture/les-dix-secrets-de-notre-dame-de-paris-12-12-2012-1561105_3.php |archive-date=9 August 2018 |access-date=27 August 2025 |work=Le Point |language=fr}}</ref> After the marshland between the river Seine and {{clarify|text=its slower 'dead arm' to its north was filled in|date=August 2025}} from around the 10th century,{{sfn|Bussmann|1985|p=22}} Paris's cultural centre began to move to the Right Bank. In 1137, a new city marketplace (today's [[Les Halles]]) replaced the two smaller ones on the Île de la Cité and [[Place de l'Hôtel-de-Ville – Esplanade de la Libération|Place de Grève (Place de l'Hôtel de Ville)]].{{sfn|de Vitriaco|Hinnebusch|1972|p=262}} The latter location housed the headquarters of Paris's river trade corporation. This organisation later became, unofficially (although formally in later years), Paris's first municipal government.

In the late 12th century, [[Philip II of France|Philip Augustus]] extended the [[Louvre]] fortress to defend the city against river invasions from the west, gave the city its first walls between 1190 and 1215, rebuilt its bridges to either side of its central island, and paved its main thoroughfares.{{sfn|Sarmant|2012|pp=36–40}} In 1190, he transformed Paris's former cathedral school into a student-teacher corporation that would become the [[University of Paris]] and would draw students from all of Europe.{{sfn|Sarmant|2012|pp=28–29}}{{sfn|Lawrence|Gondrand|2010|p=27}}

With 200,000 inhabitants in 1328, Paris, then already the capital of France, was the most populous city of Europe. By comparison, London in 1300 had 80,000 inhabitants.<ref name=ParisDigest>{{Cite web |url=https://www.parisdigest.com/history/paris_history.htm |title=Paris history facts |date=2018 |publisher=Paris Digest |access-date=6 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180906195637/https://www.parisdigest.com/history/paris_history.htm |archive-date=6 September 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> By the early fourteenth century, so much filth had collected inside urban Europe that French and Italian cities were naming streets after human waste. In medieval Paris, several street names were inspired by {{Lang|fr|merde}}, the French word for "shit".<ref>John Kelly, ''"The Great Mortality"'' (2005). pp 42</ref>
[[File:P1030887 Paris IV hôtel de Sens rwk.JPG|alt=|thumb|The [[Hôtel de Sens]] ({{Circa}} 15th–16th), former residence of the Archbishop of Sens]]
During the [[Hundred Years' War]], Paris was occupied by England-friendly [[Burgundian State|Burgundian forces]] from [[Paris coup d'état and massacres of 1418|1418]], before being occupied outright by the English when [[Henry V of England]] entered the French capital in 1420;<ref>Du Fresne de Beaucourt, G., ''Histoire de Charles VII'', Tome I: ''Le Dauphin'' (1403–1422), Librairie de la Société bibliographiqque, 35 Rue de Grenelle, Paris, 1881, pp. 32 & 48</ref> despite a 1429 effort by [[Joan of Arc]] to liberate the city,{{sfn|Fierro|1996|pages=52–53}} it would remain under English occupation until 1436.

In the late 16th century [[French Wars of Religion]], Paris was a stronghold of the [[Catholic League (French)|Catholic League]], the organisers of 24 August 1572 [[St. Bartholomew's Day massacre]] in which thousands of French Protestants were killed.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/516821/Massacre-of-Saint-Bartholomews-Day |title=Massacre of Saint Bartholomew's Day |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |access-date=23 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150504150458/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/516821/Massacre-of-Saint-Bartholomews-Day |archive-date=4 May 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Bayrou|1994|pp=121–130}} The conflicts ended when pretender to the throne [[Henry IV of France|Henry IV]], after converting to Catholicism to gain entry to the capital, entered the city in 1594 to claim the crown of France. This king made several improvements to the capital during his reign: he completed the construction of Paris's first uncovered, sidewalk-lined bridge, the [[Pont Neuf]], built a Louvre extension connecting it to the [[Tuileries Palace]], and created the first Paris residential square, the Place Royale, now [[Place des Vosges]]. Despite Henry IV's efforts to improve city circulation, the narrowness of Paris's streets was a contributing factor in his assassination near [[Les Halles]] marketplace in 1610.{{sfn|Fierro|1996|p=577}}

During the 17th century, [[Cardinal Richelieu]], chief minister of [[Louis XIII]], was determined to make Paris the most beautiful city in Europe. He built five new bridges, a new chapel for the [[College of Sorbonne]], and a palace for himself, the [[Palais-Royal|Palais-Cardinal]]. After Richelieu died in 1642, it was renamed the [[Palais-Royal]].{{sfn|Fierro|1996|p=582}}

[[File:Plan de Paris en 1657.JPG|thumb|Lutetia Parisiorum vulgo Paris, Plan de Paris en 1657, [[Jan Janssonius]]]]
Due to the Parisian uprisings during the [[Fronde]] civil war, [[Louis XIV]] moved his court to a new palace, [[Palace of Versailles|Versailles]], in 1682. Although no longer the capital of France, arts and sciences in the city flourished with the [[Comédie-Française]], the Academy of Painting, and the [[French Academy of Sciences]]. To demonstrate that the city was safe from attack, the king had the [[City walls of Paris|city walls]] demolished and replaced with tree-lined boulevards that would become the ''[[Boulevards of Paris#The grands boulevards|Grands Boulevards]]''.{{Sfn|Combeau|2003|pp=42–43}} Other marks of his reign were the [[Collège des Quatre-Nations]], the [[Place Vendôme]], the [[Place des Victoires]], and [[Les Invalides]].{{sfn|Fierro|1996|pp=590–591}}

===18th and 19th centuries===
{{See also|Paris in the 18th century|Paris during the Second Empire|Haussmann's renovation of Paris}}
Paris grew in population from about 400,000 in 1640 to 650,000 in 1780.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yKsYAAAAYAAJ |last1=Durant |first1=Will |last2=Durant |first2=Ariel |title=The Story of Civilization XI The Age of Napoleon |date=1975 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |page=3 |access-date=11 February 2016 |isbn=978-0-671-21988-8 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161229054200/https://books.google.com/books/about/The_Story_of_Civilization_The_age_of_Nap.html?id=yKsYAAAAYAAJ |archive-date=29 December 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> A new boulevard named the [[Champs-Élysées]] extended the city west to [[Place Charles de Gaulle|Étoile]],{{Sfn|Combeau|2003|pp=45–47}} while the working-class neighbourhood of the [[Faubourg Saint-Antoine]] on the eastern side of the city grew increasingly crowded with poor migrant workers from other regions of France.{{sfn|Sarmant|2012|pp=129–133}} Paris's role in [[Education in France|education]] and [[Science and technology in France|sciences]] led Paris to be known as the City of Light during the [[age of Enlightenment]] in the 18th century.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Paris |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Paris |access-date=8 August 2022 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |archive-date=27 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220827145809/https://www.britannica.com/place/Paris |url-status=live }}</ref>{{efn|{{langx|fr|la Ville Lumière}}}}

[[File:Prise de la Bastille.jpg|alt=|thumb|The storming of the [[Bastille]] on 14 July 1789, by [[Jean-Pierre Houël]]]]
In the summer of 1789, Paris became the centre stage of the [[French Revolution]]. On 14 July, a mob seized the arsenal at the [[Les Invalides|Invalides]], acquiring thousands of guns, with which it [[Storming of the Bastille|stormed the Bastille]], a principal symbol of royal authority. The first independent [[Paris Commune (1789–1795)|Paris Commune]], or city council, met in the ''Hôtel de Ville'' and elected a [[Mayor (France)|Mayor]], the astronomer [[Jean Sylvain Bailly]], on 15 July.{{sfn|Paine|1998|p=453}}

[[Louis XVI]] and the royal family were [[Women's march on Versailles|brought to Paris]] and incarcerated in the Tuileries Palace. In 1793, as the revolution turned increasingly radical, the king, queen, and mayor were beheaded by [[guillotine]] in the [[Reign of Terror]], along with more than 16,000 others throughout France.{{sfn|Fierro|1996|p=674}} The property of the aristocracy and the church was [[Biens nationaux|nationalised]], and the city's churches were closed, sold, or demolished.{{sfn|Sarmant|2012|p=144}} A succession of revolutionary factions ruled Paris until [[Coup of 18 Brumaire|9 November 1799]] (''coup d'état du 18 brumaire''), when [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] seized power as First Consul.{{sfn|Sarmant|2012|p=147}}

The population of Paris had dropped by 100,000 during the Revolution, but after 1799 it surged with 160,000 new residents, reaching 660,000 by 1815.{{sfn|Sarmant|2012|p=148}} Napoleon replaced the elected government of Paris with a prefect who reported directly to him. He began erecting monuments to military glory, including the [[Arc de Triomphe]], and improved the neglected infrastructure of the city with new fountains, the [[Canal de l'Ourcq]], [[Père Lachaise Cemetery]] and the city's first metal bridge, the [[Pont des Arts]]. The [[Arc de Triomphe]] was eventually completed in 1836.{{sfn|Sarmant|2012|p=148}}

[[File:Louis-Emile Durandelle, The Eiffel Tower - State of the Construction, 1888.jpg|thumb|The [[Eiffel Tower]], under construction in November 1888, startled Parisians—and the world—with its modernity.]]
During the [[Bourbon Restoration in France|Restoration]], the bridges and squares of Paris were returned to their pre-Revolution names; the [[July Revolution]] in 1830 (commemorated by the [[July Column]] on the [[Place de la Bastille]]) brought to power a constitutional monarch, [[Louis Philippe I]]. The first railway line to Paris opened in 1837, beginning a new period of massive migration from the [[Provinces of France|provinces]] to the city.{{sfn|Sarmant|2012|p=148}} In 1848, Louis-Philippe was overthrown by a [[French Revolution of 1848|popular uprising]] in the streets of Paris. His successor, [[Napoleon III]], alongside the newly appointed prefect of the Seine, [[Georges-Eugène Haussmann]], launched a huge public works project to build wide new boulevards, a new opera house, a central market, new aqueducts, sewers and parks, including the [[Bois de Boulogne]] and [[Bois de Vincennes]].{{sfn|De Moncan|2012|pp=7–35}} In 1860, Napoleon III annexed the surrounding towns and created eight new arrondissements, expanding Paris to its current limits.{{sfn|De Moncan|2012|pp=7–35}}

During the [[Franco-Prussian War]] (1870–1871), Paris was besieged by the [[Prussian Army]]. Following several months of blockade, hunger, and then bombardment by the Prussians, the city was forced to surrender on 28 January 1871. After seizing power in Paris on 28 March, a revolutionary government known as the [[Paris Commune]] held power for two months, before being harshly suppressed by the French army during the "[[Semaine sanglante|Bloody Week]]" at the end of May 1871.{{sfn|Rougerie|2014|p=118}}

In the late 19th century, Paris hosted two major international expositions: the [[Exposition Universelle (1889)|1889 Universal Exposition]], which featured the new Eiffel Tower, was held to mark the centennial of the French Revolution; and the [[Exposition Universelle (1900)|1900 Universal Exposition]] gave Paris the [[Pont Alexandre III]], the [[Grand Palais]], the {{Lang|fr|[[Petit Palais]]|italic=no}} and the first [[Paris Métro]] line.{{sfn|Fraser|Spalding|2011|p=117}} Paris became the laboratory of [[naturalism (literature)|Naturalism]] ([[Émile Zola]]) and [[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolism]] ([[Charles Baudelaire]] and [[Paul Verlaine]]), and of [[Impressionism]] in art ([[Courbet]], [[Manet]], [[Claude Monet|Monet]], [[Renoir]]).{{sfn|Fierro|1996|pp=490–491}}

===20th and 21st centuries===
{{See also|Paris in the Belle Époque|Paris during the First World War|Paris between the Wars (1919–1939)|Paris in World War II|History of Paris (1946–2000)}}
By 1901, the population of Paris had grown to about 2,715,000.{{sfn|Combeau|2003|p=61}} At the beginning of the century, artists from around the world, including [[Pablo Picasso]], [[Amedeo Modigliani|Modigliani]], and [[Henri Matisse]] made Paris their home. It was the birthplace of [[Fauvism]], [[Cubism]] and [[abstract art]],{{sfn|Fierro|1996|p=497}}<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3hYBzRzZ0kcC |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151118065327/https://books.google.com/books/about/Bohemian_Paris.html?id=3hYBzRzZ0kcC |url-status=dead |title=Bohemian Paris: Picasso, Modigliani, Matisse, and the Birth of Modern Art |first=Dan |last=Franck |date=1 December 2007 |archive-date=18 November 2015 |publisher=Open Road + Grove/Atlantic |via=Google Books |isbn=978-0-8021-9740-5}}</ref> and authors such as [[Marcel Proust]] were exploring new approaches to literature.{{sfn|Fierro|1996|p=491}}

During the [[First World War]], Paris sometimes found itself on the front line; 600 to 1,000 Paris taxis played a small but highly important symbolic role in transporting 6,000 soldiers to the front line at the [[First Battle of the Marne]]. The city was also bombed by [[Zeppelin]]s and shelled by German [[Paris Gun|long-range guns]].{{sfn|Fierro|1996|p=750}} In the years after the war, known as ''[[Paris between the Wars (1919–1939)|Les Années Folles]]'', Paris continued to be a mecca for writers, musicians and artists from around the world, including [[Ernest Hemingway]], [[Igor Stravinsky]], [[James Joyce]], [[Josephine Baker]], [[Eva Kotchever]], [[Henry Miller]], [[Anaïs Nin]], [[Sidney Bechet]]<ref>William A. Shack, ''Harlem in Montmartre, A Paris Jazz Story between the Great Wars'', University of California Press, 2001. {{ISBN|978-0-520-22537-4}},</ref> and [[Salvador Dalí]].<ref name=Meisler>{{cite web |last1=Meisler |first1=Stanley |title=The Surreal World of Salvador Dalí |url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/the-surreal-world-of-salvador-dali-78993324/ |website=Smithsonian.com |publisher=Smithsonian Magazine |access-date=12 July 2014 |date=April 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140518170614/http://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/the-surreal-world-of-salvador-dali-78993324/ |archive-date=18 May 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In the years after the [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919|peace conference]], the city was also home to growing numbers of students and activists from [[French colonial empire|French colonies]] and other Asian and African countries, who later became leaders of their countries, such as [[Ho Chi Minh]], [[Zhou Enlai]] and [[Léopold Sédar Senghor]].<ref>Goebel, [http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/history/twentieth-century-european-history/anti-imperial-metropolis-interwar-paris-and-seeds-third-world-nationalism?format=HB#contentsTabAnchor ''Anti-Imperial Metropolis''] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904011013/http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/history/twentieth-century-european-history/anti-imperial-metropolis-interwar-paris-and-seeds-third-world-nationalism?format=HB#contentsTabAnchor |date=4 September 2015 }}.</ref>

[[File:The Liberation of Paris, 25 - 26 August 1944 HU66477.jpg|thumb|General [[Charles de Gaulle]] on the Champs-Élysées celebrating the liberation of Paris, 26 August 1944]]
On 14 June 1940, the German army marched into Paris, which had been declared an "[[open city]]".{{sfn|Sarmant|2012|p=217}} On 16–17 July 1942, following German orders, the French police and gendarmes arrested 12,884 Jews, including 4,115 children, and confined them during five days at the [[Vel' d'Hiv Roundup|''Vel d'Hiv'']], from which they were transported by train to the extermination camp at [[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz]]. None of the children came back.{{sfn|Fierro|1996|p=637}}{{sfn|Sarmant|2012|p=218}} On 25 August 1944, the city was liberated by the [[2nd Armored Division (France)|French 2nd Armoured Division]] and the [[4th Infantry Division (United States)|4th Infantry Division]] of the [[United States Army]]. General [[Charles de Gaulle]] led a huge and emotional crowd down the Champs Élysées towards Notre Dame de Paris and made a rousing speech from the [[Hôtel de Ville, Paris|Hôtel de Ville]].{{sfn|Fierro|1996|pp=242–243}}

Paris became involved in the [[Algerian War]] for independence, which occurred in the 1950s and 1960s; in August 1961, the pro-independence [[National Liberation Front (Algeria)|FLN]], targeted and killed 11 Paris policemen, leading to the imposition of a curfew on Muslims of Algeria (who, at that time, were French citizens). On 17 October 1961, an unauthorised but peaceful protest demonstration of Algerians against the curfew led to [[1961 Paris massacre|violent confrontations]] between the police and demonstrators, in which at least 40 people were killed. The anti-independence [[Organisation armée secrète]] (OAS) carried out a series of bombings in Paris throughout 1961 and 1962.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/oct/17/france-remembers-algerian-massacre |title=France remembers Algerian massacre 50 years on |author=Kim Willsher |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=26 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141026114936/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/oct/17/france-remembers-algerian-massacre |archive-date=26 October 2014 |url-status=live |date=17 October 2011}}</ref>{{sfn|Fierro|1996|p=658}}

In May 1968, protesting students occupied the [[Sorbonne (building)|Sorbonne]] and put up barricades in the [[Latin Quarter, Paris|Latin Quarter]]. Thousands of Parisian blue-collar workers joined the students, and the movement grew into a two-week general strike. Supporters of the government won the June elections by a large majority. The [[May 1968 events in France]] resulted in the break-up of the University of Paris into 13 independent campuses.{{sfn|Sarmant|2012|p=226}} In 1975, the National Assembly changed the status of Paris to that of other French cities and, on 25 March 1977, [[Jacques Chirac]] became the first elected mayor of Paris since 1793.{{sfn|Fierro|1996|p=260}} The [[Tour Montparnasse|Tour Maine-Montparnasse]], the tallest building in the city at 57 storeys and {{cvt|210|m|ft|0|abbr=off}} high, was built between 1969 and 1973. It was highly controversial, and it remains the only building in the centre of the city over 32 storeys high.{{sfn|Sarmant|2012|p=222}} The population of Paris dropped from 2,850,000 in 1954 to 2,152,000 in 1990, as middle-class families moved to the suburbs.{{sfn|Combeau|2003|pp=107–108}} A suburban railway network, the [[Réseau Express Régional|RER]] (Réseau Express Régional), was built to complement the Métro; the [[Périphérique (Paris)|Périphérique]] expressway encircling the city was completed in 1973.{{sfn|Bell|de-Shalit|2011|p=247}} The bank of the [[Seine]] in the city centre, which includes the [[Louvre]] and the Eiffel Tower was classified as a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]] in 1991.<ref name = "unesco">{{cite web |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/600 |title=Paris, Banks of the Seine |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization |access-date = 17 October 2021 |archive-date = 9 May 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190509014712/http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/600/ |url-status = live}}</ref>

Most of the postwar presidents of the [[French Fifth Republic|Fifth Republic]] wanted to leave their own monuments in Paris; President [[Georges Pompidou]] started the [[Centre Georges Pompidou]] (1977), [[Valéry Giscard d'Estaing]] began the [[Musée d'Orsay]] (1986); President [[François Mitterrand]] had the [[Opéra Bastille]] built (1985–1989), the new site of the ''[[Bibliothèque nationale de France]]'' (1996), the [[Arche de la Défense]] (1985–1989) in [[La Défense]], as well as the [[Louvre Pyramid]] with its underground courtyard (1983–1989); [[Jacques Chirac]] (2006), the [[Musée du Quai Branly – Jacques Chirac|Musée du quai Branly]].{{sfn|Sarmant|2012|pp=226–230}}

In the early 21st century, the population of Paris began to increase slowly again, as more young people moved into the city. It reached 2.25 million in 2011. In March 2001, [[Bertrand Delanoë]] became the first socialist mayor; he was re-elected in March 2008.<ref>{{cite web |title=City Mayors: Bertrand Delanoe – Mayor of Paris |url=http://www.citymayors.com/mayors/paris_mayor.html |website=www.citymayors.com |access-date=16 August 2023 |archive-date=7 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207082344/http://www.citymayors.com/mayors/paris_mayor.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Bertrand Delanoë also transformed a section of the highway along the Left Bank of the Seine into an urban promenade and park, the [[Promenade des Berges de la Seine]], which he inaugurated in June 2013.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.lemoniteur.fr/133-amenagement/article/actualite/21534070-les-berges-de-seine-rendues-aux-parisiens |title=Les berges de Seine rendues aux Parisiens |journal=Le Moniteur |date=19 June 2013 |access-date=2 December 2014 |language=fr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141220195103/http://www.lemoniteur.fr/133-amenagement/article/actualite/21534070-les-berges-de-seine-rendues-aux-parisiens |archive-date=20 December 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
[[File:Marche hommage Charlie hebdo et aux victimes des attentats de janvier 2015 (17).jpg|thumb|Demonstrators at the [[Place de la République]], Paris, 11 January 2015, during the [[Republican marches]] after the [[Charlie Hebdo shooting|''Charlie Hebdo'' shooting]]]]

In 2007, President [[Nicolas Sarkozy]] launched the [[Grand Paris]] project to integrate Paris more closely with the towns in the region around it. After many modifications, the new area, named the [[Grand Paris|Metropolis of Grand Paris]], with a population of 6.7 million, was created on 1 January 2016.<ref name="Lichfield">{{cite news |title=Sarko's €35bn rail plan for a 'Greater Paris' |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/sarkos-euro35bn-rail-plan-for-a-greater-paris-1676196.html |date=29 April 2009 |newspaper=[[The Independent]] |access-date=12 June 2009 |location=London |first=John |last=Lichfield |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090502102151/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/sarkos-euro35bn-rail-plan-for-a-greater-paris-1676196.html |archive-date=2 May 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref> The City of Paris and the national government approved the plans for the [[Grand Paris Express]] four years later, totalling {{cvt|205|km|mi|abbr=off}} of automated metro lines to connect Paris, the innermost three departments around Paris, airports and [[TGV|high-speed rail (TGV)]] stations, at an estimated cost of €35 billion.<ref name=metro>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/single-view/view/EUR265bn-grand-paris-metro-expansion-programme-confirmed.html |title=€26.5bn Grand Paris metro expansion programme confirmed |date=12 March 2013 |access-date=24 April 2013 |magazine=Railway Gazette International |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130318205908/http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/single-view/view/EUR265bn-grand-paris-metro-expansion-programme-confirmed.html |archive-date=18 March 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> The system is scheduled to be completed by 2030.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.societedugrandparis.fr/#projet |title=Le Metro du Grand Paris |publisher=Site of Grand Paris Express |language=fr |access-date=27 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714020412/http://www.societedugrandparis.fr/#projet |archive-date=14 July 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{update after|2030}}

A [[January 2015 Île-de-France attacks|series of attacks]] occurred in the Paris region, especially in Paris, in January 2015, the most serious being the [[Charlie Hebdo shooting|shooting at the offices]] of [[Charlie Hebdo]]. 17 people died in the attacks, which [[Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula]] claimed responsibility.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.cnn.com/2015/01/21/europe/2015-paris-terror-attacks-fast-facts/index.html |title=2015 Charlie Hebdo Attacks Fast Facts |last=Library |first=C.N.N. |website=CNN |date=21 January 2015 |access-date=20 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170623154608/http://www.cnn.com/2015/01/21/europe/2015-paris-terror-attacks-fast-facts/index.html |archive-date=23 June 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.lemonde.fr/les-decodeurs/article/2015/01/14/attentats-terroristes-les-questions-que-vous-nous-avez-le-plus-posees_4554653_4355770.html |work=Le Monde |date=15 January 2015 |access-date=15 January 2015 |title=Attentats terroristes : les questions que vous nous avez le plus posées |language=fr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150114153341/http://www.lemonde.fr/les-decodeurs/article/2015/01/14/attentats-terroristes-les-questions-que-vous-nous-avez-le-plus-posees_4554653_4355770.html |archive-date=14 January 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Republican marches|1.5 million people marched in Paris]] in a show of solidarity against terrorism and in support of freedom of speech.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lefigaro.fr/politique/le-scan/citations/2015/01/11/25002-20150111ARTFIG00086-les-politiques-s-affichent-a-la-marche-republicaine.php |title=Les politiques s'affichent à la marche républicaine |work=Le Figaro |date=11 January 2015 |access-date=11 January 2015 |language=fr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150111213532/http://www.lefigaro.fr/politique/le-scan/citations/2015/01/11/25002-20150111ARTFIG00086-les-politiques-s-affichent-a-la-marche-republicaine.php |archive-date=11 January 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[November 2015 Paris attacks|Terrorist attacks]], claimed by ISIL,<ref>{{Cite news |title=Islamic State claims Paris attacks that killed 127 |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-france-shooting-idUSKCN0T22IU20151114 |newspaper=Reuters |date=14 November 2015 |access-date=14 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151114014250/http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/11/14/us-france-shooting-idUSKCN0T22IU20151114 |archive-date=14 November 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> occurred again in November, which killed 130 people and injured more than 350.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 November 2015 |title=Paris attacks death toll rises to 130 |website=[[RTÉ.ie]] |url=https://www.rte.ie/news/2015/1120/747897-paris/ |language=en |access-date=8 November 2021 |archive-date=23 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190423123908/https://www.rte.ie/news/2015/1120/747897-paris/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

In an aim to limit the [[effects of climate change]] below 2 °C, the [[Paris Agreement]] was signed by 196 nations of the [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]] on 22 April 2016 in Paris.<ref>{{cite web|date=22 April 2016|title='Today is an historic day,' says Ban, as 175 countries sign Paris climate accord|url=https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=53756#.VxqAYGNpr-Y|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629105154/http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=53756#.VxqAYGNpr-Y|archive-date=29 June 2017|access-date=26 June 2023|work=United Nations}}</ref> The following year, billionaire [[François Pinault]] received a 50‑year lease to convert the historic [[Bourse de commerce (Paris)|Bourse de Commerce]] into a contemporary art museum, overseen by [[Japanese people|Japanese]] architect [[Tadao Ando]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=designboom |first=philip stevens I. |date=2017-06-30 |title=tadao ando to transform paris' historic stock exchange into art museum for françois pinault |url=https://www.designboom.com/architecture/tadao-ando-paris-pinault-collection-bourse-de-commerce-museum-06-29-2017/ |access-date=2025-07-08 |website=designboom {{!}} architecture & design magazine |language=en}}</ref> Construction was delayed by the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], reopening in May 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rees |first=Lucy |date=2021-05-10 |title=François Pinault's Major Contemporary Art Museum Finally Opens in Paris |url=https://galeriemagazine.com/francois-pinault-bourse-de-commerce/ |access-date=2025-07-08 |website=Galerie Magazine |language=en-US}}</ref> The [[Notre-Dame fire|Notre Dame Cathedral caught fire]] on 15 April 2019, beginning in the eaves of its roof,<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2022-04-13 |title=Notre-Dame Cathedral Fire {{!}} Before & After the Fire |url=https://www.friendsofnotredamedeparis.org/notre-dame-cathedral/fire/ |access-date=2025-07-08 |website=www.friendsofnotredamedeparis.org |language=en-US}}</ref> engulfing the [[spire]] and most of the roof. Firefighters were able to control the blaze, saving the main structure including the [[bell tower]]s and [[rose window]]s, and there were no injuries;<ref name=":0" /> [[Reopening of Notre-Dame de Paris|it was reopened]] on 7 December 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How the Iconic Notre Dame Cathedral Was Rebuilt After the Devastating 2019 Fire |url=https://people.com/how-notre-dame-cathedral-was-rebuilt-after-2019-fire-8757844 |access-date=2025-07-08 |website=People.com |language=en}}</ref>

In terms of international connectedness, as of 2024, Paris was one of eight cities worldwide that was classified as an "Alpha+" city by the [[Globalization and World Cities Research Network]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=World Cities 2024 |url=https://gawc.lboro.ac.uk/gawc-worlds/the-world-according-to-gawc/world-cities-2024/ |access-date=2025-07-08 |website=GaWC |language=en-US}}</ref>{{relevance inline|date=August 2025|reason=What does that mean to the reader? Doesn't sound very important.}}

==Geography==
{{Main|Geography of Paris|Climate of Paris}}
[[File:Paris,_France_ESA24382977.jpeg|thumb|A 2022 satellite image of Paris, by ESA's [[Sentinel-2]] mission]]
Paris is located in northern central France, in a north-bending arc of the river [[Seine]], whose crest includes two islands, the [[Île Saint-Louis]] and the larger [[Île de la Cité]], which form the oldest part of Paris. The river's mouth on the [[English Channel]] (''La Manche'') is about {{cvt|233|mi}} downstream from Paris. Paris is spread widely on both banks of the river.<ref name=City>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/443621/Paris |title=Paris |access-date=4 July 2013 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130707083834/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/443621/Paris |archive-date=7 July 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> Overall, Paris is relatively flat, and the lowest point is {{cvt|35|m}} [[Above mean sea level|above sea level]]. Paris has several prominent hills, the highest of which is [[Montmartre]] at {{cvt|130|m|ft|0}}.{{sfn|Blackmore|McConnachie|2004|p=153}}

Excluding the outlying parks of [[Bois de Boulogne]] and [[Bois de Vincennes]], Paris covers an oval measuring about {{cvt|87|km2}} in area, enclosed by the {{cvt|35|km|adj=on}} ring road, the [[Boulevard Périphérique]].{{sfn|Lawrence|Gondrand|2010|p=69}} Paris's last major annexation of outlying territories in 1860 gave it its modern form, and created the 20 clockwise-spiralling arrondissements (municipal boroughs). From the 1860 area of {{cvt|78|km2}}, the city limits were expanded marginally to {{cvt|86.9|km2}} in the 1920s. In 1929, the Bois de Boulogne and Bois de Vincennes forest parks were annexed to the city, bringing its area to about {{cvt|105|km2}}.<ref>{{cite web |website=Mairie de Paris |url=http://www.paris.fr/portail/english/Portal.lut?page_id=8125&document_type_id=5&document_id=29918&portlet_id=18748 |title=Key figures for Paris |publisher=Paris.fr |date=15 November 2007 |access-date=5 May 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090306220509/http://www.paris.fr/portail/english/Portal.lut?page_id=8125&document_type_id=5&document_id=29918&portlet_id=18748 |archive-date=6 March 2009}}</ref> The metropolitan area is {{cvt|2300|km2}}.<ref name=City/>

=== Climate ===
[[File:Paris raining autumn cityscape (8252181936).jpg|thumb|Autumn in {{interlanguage link|Avenue Raphaël|fr}}, Paris]]

Paris has a [[Köppen climate classification]] of Cfb, or an [[oceanic climate]],<ref>{{Cite report |title=Undulating patterns of Hysteresis loops in diurnal seasonality of air temperature in Urban Heat Island effect: Insights from Paris and Madrid |last1=Dharmasthala |first1=Suman |last2=Hari |first2=Vittal |last3=Kumar |first3=Rohini |date=17 July 2025 |eprint=2507.13075}}</ref> typical of western Europe.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brimblecombe |first1=Peter |last2=Richards |first2=Jenny |date=20 July 2023 |title=Köppen climates and Scheffer index as indicators of timber risk in Europe (1901–2020) |journal=Heritage Science |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=150 |doi=10.1186/s40494-023-00992-7 |issn=2050-7445 |doi-access=free}}</ref> This climate type features cool winters and warm summers, with average temperatures between {{cvt|15|and|25|°C|°F}} in July.{{sfn|Lawrence|Gondrand|2010|p=309}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=JetStream Max: Addition Köppen-Geiger Climate Subdivisions |url=https://www.noaa.gov/jetstream/global/climate-zones/jetstream-max-addition-k-ppen-geiger-climate-subdivisions |access-date=26 August 2025 |website=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |language=en}}</ref> Each year there are a few days when the temperature rises above {{cvt|32|C}}. Longer periods of more intense heat sometimes occur, such as the [[2003 European heat wave|heat wave of 2003]], when temperatures exceeded {{cvt|30|°C}} for weeks, reached {{cvt|40|°C}} on some days, and rarely cooled down at night.{{sfn|Goldstein|2005|p=8}}

The weather in [[Spring (season)|spring]] and [[autumn]] is generally mild during the day and cool at night, but is unstable.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://en.parisinfo.com/practical-paris/useful-info/climate |title=Climate in Paris |publisher=Paris Convention and Visitors Bureau |website=ParisInfo |access-date=29 June 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141205162747/http://en.parisinfo.com/practical-paris/useful-info/climate |archive-date=5 December 2014}}</ref> In [[winter]], sunshine is scarce, days are cool, and nights are cold but generally above freezing, with low temperatures around {{cvt|3|°C}}.<ref>{{cite web |author=Courtney Traub |date=31 January 2018 |url=https://www.tripsavvy.com/visiting-paris-in-the-winter-1618789 |title=Visiting Paris in the Winter: A Complete Guide |website=tripsavvy |access-date=27 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011030400/https://www.tripsavvy.com/visiting-paris-in-the-winter-1618789 |archive-date=11 October 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> Light night frosts are quite common, but the temperature seldom dips below {{cvt|-5|°C}}. Paris sometimes sees light snow or flurries with or without accumulation.<ref>{{cite web |author=Kelby Carr |date=30 November 2017 |url=https://www.tripsavvy.com/weather-in-france-1517972#step4 |title=Weather in France – Climate and Temperatures of French Cities |website=tripsavvy |access-date=27 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180228100742/https://www.tripsavvy.com/weather-in-france-1517972#step4 |archive-date=28 February 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> In [[summer]], the weather is warm, averaging {{cvt|22|°C}}, and there is 8 hours of sunshine on average per day.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Paris weather |url=https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/weather/travel/holiday-weather/europe/france/paris |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250414203219/https://weather.metoffice.gov.uk/travel/holiday-weather/europe/france/paris |archive-date=14 April 2025 |access-date=27 August 2025 |website=Met Office |language=en}}</ref>

Paris has an average annual precipitation of {{cvt|641|mm|in|1}}, and experiences light rainfall distributed evenly throughout the year. {{as of|2025|post=,}} the highest recorded temperature was {{cvt|42.6|°C}}, on 25 July 2019.<ref>{{cite web |title=42.6 °C à Paris : record absolu de chaleur battu ! |url=http://www.meteofrance.fr/actualites/74506889-42-4-c-a-paris-record-absolu-de-chaleur-battu |website=meteofrance.fr |publisher=Météo France |access-date=25 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725135102/http://www.meteofrance.fr/actualites/74506889-42-4-c-a-paris-record-absolu-de-chaleur-battu |archive-date=25 July 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> The lowest was {{cvt|-23.9|°C}}, on 10 December 1879.<ref name="climate">{{cite web |url=http://www.paris.fr/portail/accueil/Portal.lut?page_id=4946&document_type_id=5&document_id=3076&portlet_id=10579 |title=Géographie de la capitale – Le climat |publisher=Institut National de la Statistique et des Études Économiques |via=Paris.fr |access-date=24 May 2006 |language=fr |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061003225432/http://www.paris.fr/portail/accueil/Portal.lut?page_id=4946&document_type_id=5&document_id=3076&portlet_id=10579 |archive-date=3 October 2006}}</ref>
{{Paris weatherbox}}

==Administration==
{{Main|Administration of Paris}}

===City government===
{{Further|Arrondissements of Paris}}
{{See also||Mayor of Paris}}

[[File:Paris plan jms.png|thumb|A map of the [[arrondissements of Paris]]]]

For almost all of its long history, except for a few brief periods, Paris was governed directly by representatives of the king, emperor, or president of France. In 1974, Paris was granted municipal autonomy by the National Assembly.{{sfn|Fierro|1996|p=334}} The first modern elected mayor of Paris was [[Jacques Chirac]], elected in March 1977, becoming the city's first mayor since 1871 and only the fourth since 1794. The current mayor is [[Anne Hidalgo]], a member of the [[Socialist Party (France)|Socialist Party]], who was first elected in [[2014 Paris municipal election|2014]].<ref name="auto2">{{cite web |url=http://www.paris.fr/english/english/anne-hidalgo-paris-s-new-mayor/rub_8118_actu_142533_port_19237 |title=Anne Hidalgo is new Mayor of Paris |publisher=City of Paris |access-date=29 November 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141220194454/http://www.paris.fr/english/english/anne-hidalgo-paris-s-new-mayor/rub_8118_actu_142533_port_19237 |archive-date=20 December 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Willsher |first=Kim |date=28 June 2020 |title=Greens surge in French local elections as Anne Hidalgo holds Paris |language=en-GB |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jun/28/voters-stay-away-from-second-round-french-local-elections |access-date=1 July 2020 |issn=0261-3077 |archive-date=30 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200630223850/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jun/28/voters-stay-away-from-second-round-french-local-elections |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Paris, Hôtel de Ville -- 2014 -- 1714.jpg|thumb|The [[Hôtel de Ville, Paris|Hôtel de Ville]], or city hall]]

The mayor of Paris is [[indirect election|elected indirectly]] by Paris voters. The voters of each of the city's 20 arrondissements elect members to the ''[[Conseil de Paris]]'' (Council of Paris), which elects the mayor. The council is composed of 163 members. Each arrondissement is allocated many seats, dependent upon its population, from 10 members for each of the least-populated arrondissements to 34 members for the most populated. The council is elected using [[closed list]] [[proportional representation]] in a [[two-round system]].<ref name="Election Code – Article L260">{{cite web |url=http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichCodeArticle.do?cidTexte=LEGITEXT000006070239&idArticle=LEGIARTI000006353607&dateTexte=20141108 |title=Code électoral – Article L260 |language=fr |trans-title=Election Code – Article L260 |date=13 March 1983 |publisher=Legifrance |access-date=7 November 2014 |archive-date=25 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141225102129/http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichCodeArticle.do?cidTexte=LEGITEXT000006070239&idArticle=LEGIARTI000006353607&dateTexte=20141108 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Party lists winning an absolute [[majority]] in the first round – or at least a [[plurality (voting)|plurality]] in the second round – automatically win half the seats of an arrondissement. The remaining half of the seats are distributed proportionally to all lists which win at least 5% of the vote, using the [[highest averages method]].<ref name="Election Code – Article L260"/> This ensures that the winning party or coalition always wins a majority of the seats, even if they do not win an absolute majority of the vote.<ref name="Pariscouncil">{{cite web |title=Election Preview: France Municipal Elections 2014 – Part I |url=https://welections.wordpress.com/2014/03/22/election-preview-france-municipal-elections-2014-part-i/ |website=World Elections |date=22 March 2014 |access-date=4 January 2017 |archive-date=11 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161011211513/https://welections.wordpress.com/2014/03/22/election-preview-france-municipal-elections-2014-part-i/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

Before the [[2020 Paris municipal election]], each of Paris's 20 arrondissements had its own town hall and a directly elected council ({{Lang|fr|[[conseil d'arrondissement]]}}), which elects an arrondissement mayor.{{sfn|Shales|2007|p=16}} The council of each arrondissement is composed of members of the Conseil de Paris, and members who serve only on the council of the arrondissement. The number of deputy mayors in each arrondissement varies depending on its population. As of 1996, there were 20 arrondissement mayors and 120 deputy mayors.{{sfn|Fierro|1996|p=334}} The creation of [[Paris Centre]], a unified administrative division with a single mayor covering the first four arrondissements, took effect with the said 2020 election. The other 16 arrondissements continue to have their own mayors.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.paris.fr/pages/regroupement-des-4-premiers-arrondissements-le-secteur-paris-centre-sera-cree-le-6-avril-7384|title=Regroupement des 4 premiers arrondissements : le secteur Paris Centre sera créé le 11 juillet|work=Paris.fr|date=12 June 2020|access-date=15 November 2023|archive-date=14 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231114161037/https://www.paris.fr/pages/regroupement-des-4-premiers-arrondissements-le-secteur-paris-centre-sera-cree-le-6-avril-7384|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Métropole du Grand Paris===
[[File:Établissements publics territoriaux du Grand Paris et trois départements.svg|thumb|A map of the Greater Paris Metropolis and its governing territories]]
In January 2016, the [[Grand Paris|Métropole du Grand Paris]] came into existence.<ref name="MGP"/> It is an administrative structure for co-operation between the City of Paris and its nearest suburbs. It includes the City of Paris, plus the communes of the three departments of the inner suburbs, [[Hauts-de-Seine]], [[Seine-Saint-Denis]] and [[Val-de-Marne]], plus seven communes in the outer suburbs, including [[Argenteuil]] in [[Val d'Oise]] and [[Paray-Vieille-Poste]] in [[Essonne]], which were added to include the major airports of Paris. The Metropole covers {{cvt|814|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=off}}. In 2015, it had a population of 6.945 million people.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/eli/decret/2015/9/30/RDFB1519847D/jo/texte |title=Décret n° 2015-1212 du 30 septembre 2015 constatant le périmètre fixant le siège et désignant le comptable public de la métropole du Grand Paris |access-date=27 February 2018 |publisher=Legifrance |language=fr |trans-title=Decree n° 2015-1212 of 30 September 2015 noting the perimeter fixing the seat and designating the public accountant of the metropolis of Greater Paris |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180228100706/https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/eli/decret/2015/9/30/RDFB1519847D/jo/texte |archive-date=28 February 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="lemoniteur1">{{cite journal |author=Nathalie Moutarde |url=http://www.lemoniteur.fr/article/la-metropole-du-grand-paris-verra-le-jour-le-1er-janvier-2016-29110917 |journal=Le Moniteur |date=17 July 2015 |title=La métropole du Grand Paris verra le jour le 1er janvier 2016 |trans-title=The metropolis of Greater Paris will be born 1 January 2016 |language=fr |access-date=3 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208162156/http://www.lemoniteur.fr/article/la-metropole-du-grand-paris-verra-le-jour-le-1er-janvier-2016-29110917 |archive-date=8 December 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The new structure is administered by a Metropolitan Council of 210 members, not directly elected, but chosen by the councils of the member Communes. By 2020, its basic competencies will include urban planning, housing, and protection of the environment.<ref name="MGP"/><ref name="lemoniteur1"/> In January 2016, [[Patrick Ollier]] was elected the first president of the metropolitan council. Though the Metropole has a population of nearly seven million people and accounts for 25 percent of the GDP of France, it has a very small budget: just 65 million Euros, compared with eight billion Euros for the City of Paris.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lemonde.fr/politique/article/2016/01/22/du-grand-paris-a-la-metropole-du-grand-paris_4851596_823448.html?xtmc=du_grand_paris_a_la_metropole_du_grand_paris&xtcr=1 |author=Manon Rescan |date=22 January 2016 |trans-title=From Greater Paris to Greater Paris Metropolis |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20171010075732/http://www.lemonde.fr/politique/article/2016/01/22/du-grand-paris-a-la-metropole-du-grand-paris_4851596_823448.html?xtmc=du_grand_paris_a_la_metropole_du_grand_paris&xtcr=1 |url-status=dead |archive-date=10 October 2017 |title=Du Grand Paris à la Métropole du Grand Paris |access-date=30 January 2016 |work=Le Monde |language=fr}}</ref>

===Regional government===
The [[Region]] of [[Île de France]], including Paris and its surrounding communities, is governed by the [[Regional Council of Île-de-France|Regional Council]], composed of 209 members representing its different communes. In December 2015, a list of candidates of the Union of the Right, a coalition of centrist and right-wing parties, led by [[Valérie Pécresse]], narrowly won the regional election, defeating a coalition of Socialists and ecologists. The Socialists had governed the region for seventeen years. The regional council has 121 members from the Union of the Right, 66 from the Union of the Left and 22 from the extreme right National Front.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iledefrance.fr/fil-actus-region/regionales-2015-chiffres-cles-du-scrutin |title=Régionales 2015 : les chiffres clés du scrutin |language=fr |trans-title=Results of 2015 Regional Elections |publisher=Regional Council of Île-de-France |date=15 December 2015 |access-date=16 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151219075856/http://www.iledefrance.fr/fil-actus-region/regionales-2015-chiffres-cles-du-scrutin |archive-date=19 December 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>

===National government===
[[File:Secretary Pompeo Arrives to Meet with French Foreign Minister Le Drian in Paris (50610423656).jpg|thumb|The [[Élysée Palace]], official residence of the [[President of France]]]]
As the capital of France, Paris is the seat of France's [[Government of France|national government]]. For the executive, the two chief officers each have their own official residences, which also serve as their offices. The [[President of France|President of the French Republic]] resides at the [[Élysée Palace]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.elysee.fr/la-presidence/le-palais-de-l-elysee-et-son-histoire-2/ |title=Le Palais de L'Élysée et son histoire |language=fr |trans-title=The Elysée Palace and its history |publisher=Elysee.fr |access-date=16 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170519171226/http://www.elysee.fr/la-presidence/le-palais-de-l-elysee-et-son-histoire-2 |archive-date=19 May 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Prime Minister of France|Prime Minister]]'s seat is at the [[Hôtel Matignon]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://franceintheus.org/spip.php?article633 |publisher=Embassy of France, Washington |title=Matignon Hotel |date=1 December 2007 |access-date=19 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405081105/http://franceintheus.org/spip.php?article633 |archive-date=5 April 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Knapp|Wright|2006|pp=93–94}} Government ministries are located in various parts of the city, many near the Hôtel Matignon.{{sfn|Borrus|2012|p=288}}

Both houses of the [[French Parliament]] are located on the Rive Gauche. The upper house, the [[Senate (France)|Senate]], meets in the [[Palais du Luxembourg]]. The more important lower house, the [[National Assembly (France)|National Assembly]], meets in the [[Palais Bourbon]]. The [[List of presidents of the Senate of France|President of the Senate]], the second-highest public official in France, with the President of the Republic being the sole superior, resides in the [[Petit Luxembourg]], a smaller palace annexe to the Palais du Luxembourg.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.senat.fr/presidence/hotel.html |title=A la découverte du Petit Luxembourg |language=fr |trans-title=Discovering Petit Luxembourg |publisher=Senat.fr |access-date=3 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130617015850/http://www.senat.fr/presidence/hotel.html |archive-date=17 June 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Conseil d'Etat Paris WA.jpg|thumb|The Palais-Royal, residence of the [[Conseil d'État (France)|Conseil d'État]]]]

France's highest courts are located in Paris. The [[Court of Cassation (France)|Court of Cassation]], the highest court in the judicial order, which reviews criminal and civil cases, is located in the [[Palais de Justice, Paris|Palais de Justice]] on the ''Île de la Cité''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.courdecassation.fr/institution_1/visite_cour_11/introduction_74.html |language=fr |title=Introduction |work=Cour de Cassation [Court of Cassation] |access-date=27 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515150732/http://courdecassation.fr/institution_1/visite_cour_11/introduction_74.html |archive-date=15 May 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Council of State (France)|Conseil d'État]], which provides legal advice to the executive and acts as the highest court in the administrative order, judging litigation against public bodies, is located in the [[Palais-Royal]] in the [[1st arrondissement of Paris|1st arrondissement]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.conseil-etat.fr/fr/histoire-patrimoine-1/ |language=fr |publisher=Conseil d'Etat |title=Histoire & Patrimoine |trans-title=History & Heritage |access-date=27 April 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130410103133/http://www.conseil-etat.fr/fr/histoire-patrimoine-1 |archive-date=10 April 2013}}</ref> The [[Constitutional Council of France|Constitutional Council]], an advisory body with ultimate authority on the constitutionality of laws and government decrees, meets in the Montpensier wing of the Palais Royal.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.conseil-constitutionnel.fr/conseil-constitutionnel/root/bank/pdf/conseil-constitutionnel-5206.pdf |title=Le siège du Conseil constitutionnel |publisher=Conseil Constitutionnel |trans-title=The seat of the Constitutional Council |language=fr |date=16 September 2011 |access-date=26 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140323125504/http://www.conseil-constitutionnel.fr/conseil-constitutionnel/root/bank/pdf/conseil-constitutionnel-5206.pdf |archive-date=23 March 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Paris and its region host the headquarters of several international organisations, including [[UNESCO]], the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]], the [[International Chamber of Commerce]], the [[Paris Club]], the [[European Space Agency]], the [[International Energy Agency]], the ''[[Organisation internationale de la Francophonie]]'', the [[European Union Institute for Security Studies]], the [[International Bureau of Weights and Measures]], the [[Bureau of International Expositions|International Exhibition Bureau]], and the [[International Federation for Human Rights]].

===Police force===
[[File:Gendarmerie BMW R1100RT.jpg|thumb|[[National Gendarmerie|Gendarmerie]] motorcyclists]]
The security of Paris is mainly the responsibility of the [[Prefecture of Police of Paris]], a subdivision of the [[Minister of the Interior (France)|Ministry of the Interior]]. It supervises the units of the [[National Police (France)|National Police]] who patrol the city and the three neighbouring departments. It is also responsible for providing emergency services, including the [[Paris Fire Brigade]]. Its headquarters is on [[Place Louis Lépine]] on the [[Île de la Cité]].<ref name="Presentation Generale">{{cite web |url=http://www.police-nationale.interieur.gouv.fr/Presentation-generale |title=Présentation générale |trans-title=General Presentation |publisher=Police nationale — Ministère de l'intèrieur [National Police — Ministry of the Interior] |language=fr |access-date=22 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130308061047/http://www.police-nationale.interieur.gouv.fr/Presentation-generale |archive-date=8 March 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>

There are 43,800 officers under the prefecture, and a fleet of more than 6,000 vehicles, including police cars, motorcycles, fire trucks, boats, and helicopters.<ref name="Presentation Generale"/> The national police has its own special unit for riot control and crowd control, and security of public buildings, called the [[Compagnies Républicaines de Sécurité]] (CRS). Vans of CRS agents are frequently seen in the centre of Paris when there are demonstrations and public events. The police are supported by the [[National Gendarmerie]], a branch of the [[French Armed Forces]]. Their police operations are supervised by the Ministry of the Interior.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gendarmerie.interieur.gouv.fr |title=Accueil |language=fr |trans-title=Home |publisher=Gendarmerie nationale — Ministère de l'intèrieur [National Gendarmerie — Ministry of the Interior] |access-date=22 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101226055256/http://www.gendarmerie.interieur.gouv.fr/ |archive-date=26 December 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Crime in Paris is similar to that in most large cities. Violent crime is relatively rare in the city centre. Political violence is uncommon, though very large demonstrations may occur in Paris and other French cities simultaneously. These demonstrations, usually managed by a strong police presence, can turn confrontational and escalate into violence.<ref>{{cite web |title=France |website=Travel.State.Gov |publisher=U.S. Department of State |url=https://travel.state.gov/content/passports/en/country/france.html |access-date=4 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170404010203/https://travel.state.gov/content/passports/en/country/france.html |archive-date=4 April 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==Cityscape==
{{wide image|Tour Eiffel 360 Panorama.jpg|1600px|align-cap=center|A panorama of Paris from the Eiffel Tower, in a 360-degree view. The [[Seine]] river flows from the north-east to the south-west, right to left|dir=rtl}}

===Urbanism and architecture===
{{See also|Architecture of Paris|Haussmann's renovation of Paris|Religious buildings in Paris|List of tallest buildings and structures in the Paris region}}
[[File:Rue de Rivoli at night, Paris August 2013.jpg|thumb|The [[Rue de Rivoli]]]]
[[File:Paris Place des Vosges 02.jpg|thumb|The [[Place des Vosges]], the oldest planned square in Paris]]
Paris is one of the few world capitals that has rarely seen destruction by catastrophe or war. As a result, even its earliest history is visible in its street map, and centuries of rulers adding their respective architectural marks on the capital have resulted in an accumulated wealth of history-rich monuments and buildings whose beauty plays a large part in giving Paris the reputation it has today.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Paris Street Evolution |journal=Scientific Reports |date=8 July 2013 |volume=3 |issue=1 |page=2153 |doi=10.1038/srep02153 |last1=Barthelemy |first1=Marc |last2=Bordin |first2=Patricia |last3=Berestycki |first3=Henri |last4=Gribaudi |first4=Maurizio |pmid=23835429 |s2cid=11824030 |pmc=3703887 |issn = 2045-2322}}</ref> At its origin, before the Middle Ages, Paris was composed of several islands and sandbanks in a bend of the [[Seine]]. Of those, two remain today: [[Île Saint-Louis]] and the [[Île de la Cité]]. A third one is the 1827 artificially created [[Île aux Cygnes]].

Modern Paris owes much of its downtown plan and architectural harmony to [[Napoleon III]] and his Prefect of the Seine, [[Georges-Eugène Haussmann|Baron Haussmann]]. Between [[Haussmann's renovation of Paris|1853 and 1870 they rebuilt the city centre]], created the wide downtown boulevards and squares where the boulevards intersected, imposed standard facades along the boulevards, and required that the facades be built of the distinctive cream-grey "[[Paris stone]]". They built the major parks around central Paris.<ref>De Moncan, Patrice, ''Le Paris de Haussmann'', Les Éditions de Mecene, Paris, {{ISBN|978-2-907970-98-3}}</ref> The high residential population of the city centre makes Paris much different from most other major western cities.{{sfn|Braimoh|Vlek|2008|p=12}}

Paris's urbanism laws have been under strict control since the early 17th century,<ref name="plan hauteurs">{{cite web |url=http://www.paris.fr/viewmultimediadocument?multimediadocument-id=21647 |title=Plan des hauteurs |access-date=1 November 2014 |language=fr |publisher=Paris.fr |website=Mairie de Paris |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140410225515/http://www.paris.fr/viewmultimediadocument?multimediadocument-id=21647 |archive-date=10 April 2014}}</ref> particularly where street-front alignment, building height and building distribution is concerned.<ref name="plan hauteurs"/> The {{cvt|210|m}} [[Tour Montparnasse]] was both Paris's and France's tallest building from 1973 until 2011,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://paris-a-la-carte-version-pl.paris.fr/carto/mapping/ |title=Plan Local d'Urbanisme – Règlement à la parcelle |website=Mairie de Paris |access-date=31 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100822194654/http://paris-a-la-carte-version-pl.paris.fr/carto/mapping |archive-date=22 August 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> when the record was taken by the [[La Défense]] district's [[Tour First]] in the commune of [[Courbevoie]].

===Housing===
[[File:Front_de_Seine_-_Paris_15.jpg|thumb|[[Front de Seine]] development along the river [[Seine]]]]

In 2018, the most expensive residential street in Paris by average price per square metre was [[Avenue Montaigne]], at 22,372 euros per square metre.<ref>''Challenges'', www. Challenges.fr, 3 July 2018.</ref> In 2011, the number of residences in the City of Paris was {{formatnum:1356074}}. Among these, {{formatnum:1165541}} (85.9 percent) were main residences, {{formatnum:91835}} (6.8 percent) were secondary residences, and the remaining 7.3 percent were empty.<ref name="insee_logement">{{cite web |url=http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau_local.asp?ref_id=LOG&millesime=2011&typgeo=DEP&search=75 |title=Chiffres Cléfs Logements (2011) – Département de Paris (75) |publisher=INSEE |date=2011 |access-date=1 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904011013/http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau_local.asp?ref_id=LOG&millesime=2011&typgeo=DEP&search=75 |archive-date=4 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Sixty-two percent of buildings date from 1949 and before, with 20 percent built between 1949 and 1974. 18 percent of Paris buildings were built after 1974.<ref name="notaires_idf">{{cite web |url=http://www.notaires.paris-idf.fr/sites/default/files/deux_decennies_dimmobilier_final.pdf |title=Un territoire ancien et de petite taille |publisher=www.notaires.paris-idf.fr |date=February 2012 |access-date=1 November 2014 |language=fr |page=11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141101214159/http://www.notaires.paris-idf.fr/sites/default/files/deux_decennies_dimmobilier_final.pdf |archive-date=1 November 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Two-thirds of the city's 1.3 million residences are studio and two-room apartments. Paris averages 1.9 people per residence, a number that has remained constant since the 1980s, which is less than Île-de-France's 2.33 people-per-residence average. Only 33 percent of Parisian principal residents own their habitation, against 47 percent for the wider Île-de-France region. Most of Paris's population rents their residence.<ref name="notaires_idf"/> In 2017, social or public housing was 19.9 percent of Paris's residences. Its distribution varies widely throughout Paris, from 2.6 percent of the housing in the wealthy 7th arrondissement to 39.9 percent in the 19th arrondissement.<ref>''Le Logement Parisien en Chiffres'', Agence Departmentale de l'information sur le lodgment de Paris, October 2017.</ref>
[[File:Paris 19th Arrondissement Residential Area.jpg|thumb|left|225px|19th Arrondissement Residential Area]]

In February 2019, a Paris NGO conducted its annual citywide count of homeless persons. They counted 3,641 homeless persons in Paris, of whom twelve percent were women. More than half had been homeless for more than a year. 2,885 were living in the streets or parks, 298 in train and metro stations, and 756 in other forms of temporary shelter. This was an increase of 588 persons since 2018.<ref>''Le Monde'', 18 March 2019.</ref>

===Suburbs===
[[File:Paris,_France,_September_24,_2016_SkySat.jpg|thumb|Western Paris in 2016, photographed by a [[SkySat]] satellite]]
[[File:West of Paris seen from Tour Montparnasse - 2019-09-18.jpg|thumb|West of Paris seen from [[Tour Montparnasse]], 2019]]
Aside from the 20th-century addition of the Bois de Boulogne, the Bois de Vincennes, and the Paris heliport, Paris's administrative limits have remained unchanged since 1860. A greater administrative [[Seine (department)|Seine]] department had been governing Paris and its suburbs since its creation in 1790, but the rising suburban population had made it difficult to maintain as a unique entity. To address this problem, the parent "District de la région parisienne" ('district of the Paris region') was reorganised into several new departments from 1968: Paris became a department in itself, and the administration of its suburbs was divided between the three new departments surrounding it. The district of the Paris region was renamed "[[Île-de-France]]" in 1977, but this abbreviated "Paris region" name is still commonly used today to describe the Île-de-France, and as a vague reference to the entire Paris agglomeration.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.driea.ile-de-france.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/Chapitre5_de_Breve_histoire_de_amenagement_de_Paris_DREIF_Auteur_Claude_Cottour_cle0344bc.pdf |title=Une brève histoire de l'aménagement de Paris et sa région Du District à la Région Île-de-France |access-date=26 November 2014 |publisher=DRIEA Île-de-France |language=fr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170101005621/http://www.driea.ile-de-france.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/Chapitre5_de_Breve_histoire_de_amenagement_de_Paris_DREIF_Auteur_Claude_Cottour_cle0344bc.pdf |archive-date=1 January 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> Long-intended measures to unite Paris with its suburbs began in January 2016, when the Métropole du [[Grand Paris]] came into existence.<ref name=MGP>{{cite web |url=http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichCodeArticle.do?cidTexte=LEGITEXT000006070633&idArticle=LEGIARTI000028528695&dateTexte=vig |title=Code général des collectivités territoriales – Article L5219-1 |access-date=29 November 2015 |publisher=Legifrance |language=fr |trans-title=General Code of Territorial Communities – Article L5219-1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichCodeArticle.do?cidTexte=LEGITEXT000006070633&idArticle=LEGIARTI000028528695&dateTexte=vig |archive-date=1 January 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Paris's disconnect with its suburbs, its lack of suburban transportation, in particular, became all too apparent with the Paris agglomeration's growth. [[Paul Delouvrier]] promised to resolve the Paris-suburbs ''mésentente'' when he became head of the Paris region in 1961.{{sfn|Masson|1984|p=536}} Two of his most ambitious projects for the Region were the construction of five suburban "villes nouvelles" ("new cities"){{sfn|Yarri|2008|p=407}} and the [[Réseau Express Régional|RER]] commuter train network.{{sfn|Gordon|2006|pp=46–47}}

Many other suburban residential districts (''grands ensembles'') were built between the 1960s and 1970s to provide a low-cost solution for a rapidly expanding population.{{sfn|Castells|1983|p=75}} These districts were socially mixed at first,{{sfn|Tomas|Blanc|Bonilla|IERP|2003|p=237}} but few residents actually owned their homes. The growing economy made these accessible to the middle classes only from the 1970s.<ref name="villes nouvelles">{{cite web |url=http://www.laburba.fr/app/download/7815645/Article+villes+nouvelles.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160326035711/http://www.laburba.fr/app/download/7815645/Article%2Bvilles%2Bnouvelles.pdf |archive-date=26 March 2016 |title=Les Politiques Nationales du Logement et le Logement dans les Villes Nouvelles |publisher=Laburba.fr |access-date=25 November 2014 |page=6 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Their poor construction quality and their haphazard insertion into existing urban growth contributed to their desertion by those able to move elsewhere, and their repopulation by those with more limited resources.<ref name="villes nouvelles"/>

These areas, ''quartiers sensibles'' ("sensitive quarters"), are in northern and eastern Paris, namely around its [[Goutte d'Or]] and [[Belleville, Paris|Belleville]] neighbourhoods. To the north of Paris, they are grouped mainly in the [[Seine-Saint-Denis]] [[department (France)|department]], and to a lesser extent, to the east in the [[Val-d'Oise]] [[department (France)|department]]. Other difficult areas are located in the [[Seine]] valley, in [[Évry (Essonne)|Évry]] et [[Corbeil-Essonnes]] ([[Essonne (département)|Essonne]]), in [[Les Mureaux|Mureaux]], [[Mantes-la-Jolie]] ([[Yvelines]]), and scattered among social housing districts created by Delouvrier's 1961 "ville nouvelle" political initiative.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sig.ville.gouv.fr/atlas/ZUS/ |title=Atlas des Zones urbaines sensibles (Zus) |access-date = 10 November 2014 |website=SIG du secretariat générale du SIV |publisher=Ministère de l'Egalité des Territoires et du Logement |language=fr |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170816133325/http://sig.ville.gouv.fr/atlas/ZUS/ |archive-date = 16 August 2017 |url-status = dead}}</ref>

The Paris agglomeration's [[urban sociology]] is basically that of 19th-century Paris: the wealthy live in the west and southwest, and the middle-to-working classes are in the north and east. The remaining areas are mostly middle-class, dotted with wealthy islands in areas of historical importance, namely [[Saint-Maur-des-Fossés]] to the east and [[Enghien-les-Bains]] to the north of Paris.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/document.asp?reg_id=20&ref_id=20529&page=alapage/alap414/alap414_carte.htm#carte1 |title=Une forte hétérogénéité des revenus en Île-de-France |publisher=INSEE |access-date=26 November 2014 |language=fr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141229014922/http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/document.asp?reg_id=20&ref_id=20529&page=alapage%2Falap414%2Falap414_carte.htm#carte1 |archive-date=29 December 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==Demographics==
{{Main|Demographics of Paris}}
[[File:Paris population pyramid.svg|thumb|City of Paris population pyramid in 2022]]
{{Collapsible Table Paris Region top countries & territories of birth}}
The population of the City of Paris was 2,102,650 in January 2023, down from 2,165,423 in January 2022, according to the [[Institut national de la statistique et des études économiques|INSEE]], the French statistical agency. Between 2013 and 2023, the population fell by 122,919, or about five percent. The Mayor of Paris, [[Anne Hidalgo]], declared that this illustrated the "de-densification" of the city, creating more green space and less crowding.<ref>"Paris Population Shrank By 122,000 Over Past Decade","Forbes Magazine", 24 February 2023</ref><ref>"Le Parisien, "Paris n'attire plus comme autrefois: année apres année, Paris perd des habitants": Le Parisien, 30 December 2021</ref> Despite the drop, Paris remains the most densely populated city in Europe, with 252 residents per hectare, not counting parks.<ref name="Le Monde, 22 January 2019">''Le Monde'', 22 January 2019</ref> This drop was attributed partly to a lower birth rate, the departure of middle-class residents, and the possible loss of housing in Paris, due to short-term rentals for tourism.<ref name="ReferenceA">"Paris perd ses habitants, la faute à la démographie et aux... meublés touristiques pour la Ville." ''Le Parisien'', 28 December 2017</ref>

Paris is the fourth largest municipality in the European Union, after [[Berlin]], [[Madrid]] and [[Rome]], and is the [[List of cities proper by population density|34th most densely populated city in the world]] {{as of|2020|lc=y}}.<ref name="worldatlas-pop">{{Cite web |date=4 October 2020 |title=The World's Most Densely Populated Cities |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-world-s-most-densely-populated-cities.html |access-date=4 March 2022 |website=WorldAtlas |archive-date=19 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319082523/https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-world-s-most-densely-populated-cities.html |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Eurostat]] places Paris (6.5 million people) behind London (8 million) and ahead of Berlin (3.5 million), based on the 2012 populations of what Eurostat calls "urban audit core cities".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/cache/RCI/#?vis=nuts2.labourmarket&lang=en |title=Statistics on European cities |publisher=Eurostat |access-date=28 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141114142816/http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/index.php/Statistics_on_European_cities |archive-date=14 November 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>
The population of Paris today is lower than its historical peak of 2.9 million in 1921.<ref>{{Cassini-Ehess|26207|Paris}}</ref> The principal reasons are a significant decline in household size and a dramatic migration of residents to the suburbs between 1962 and 1975. Factors in the migration included [[de-industrialisation]], high rent, the [[gentrification]] of many inner quarters, the transformation of living space into offices, and greater affluence among working families. Paris's population loss came to a temporary halt at the beginning of the 21st century. The population increased from 2,125,246 in 1999 to 2,240,621 in 2012, before declining again slightly in 2017, 2018, and again in 2021.<ref>"Le Parisien", "Paris n'attire plus comme autrefois: année apres année, Paris perd des habitants": Le Parisien, 30 December 2021</ref><ref name="pophis">{{cite web |url=https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/4515315?geo=COM-75056 |title=Population en historique depuis 1968: Commune de Paris (75056) |author=Institut National de la Statistique et des Études Économiques |access-date=11 September 2020 |language=fr |author-link=INSEE |archive-date=15 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210215061844/https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/4515315?geo=COM-75056 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Paris is the core of a built-up area that extends well beyond its limits: commonly referred to as the ''agglomération Parisienne'', and statistically as a ''[[unité urbaine]]'' (a measure of [[urban area]]), the Paris agglomeration's population of 10,785,092 in 2017 made it the [[List of urban areas in the European Union|largest urban area in the European Union]].<ref name=pop_UU>{{cite web |url=https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/4515315?geo=UU2020-00851 |title=Évolution et structure de la population en 2017: Unité urbaine 2020 de Paris (00851) |author=INSEE |access-date=17 June 2022 |language=fr |author-link=INSEE |archive-date=17 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220617121211/https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/4515315?geo=UU2020-00851 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=urbaneurope>{{cite web |url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/en/web/products-statistical-books/-/KS-01-16-691 |title=Urban Europe — Statistics on cities, towns and suburbs |date=2016 |access-date=11 September 2020 |archive-date=12 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201012194422/https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/en/web/products-statistical-books/-/KS-01-16-691 |url-status=live}}</ref> City-influenced commuter activity reaches further, in a statistical [[Paris Metropolitan Area|''aire d'attraction'' de Paris]], "functional area", a statistical method comparable to a [[metropolitan area]],<ref name=FU>{{cite web |url=https://www.insee.fr/en/metadonnees/definition/c2173 |title=Functional areas – Definition |publisher=[[INSEE]] |access-date=17 June 2022 |archive-date=9 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409035813/https://www.insee.fr/en/metadonnees/definition/c2173 |url-status=live }}</ref>), that had a population of 13,024,518 in 2017,<ref name=pop_AU>{{cite web |url=https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/4515315?geo=AAV2020-001 |title=Évolution et structure de la population en 2017: Aire d'attraction des villes 2020 de Paris (001) |author=INSEE |access-date=17 June 2022 |language=fr |author-link=INSEE |archive-date=17 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220617120814/https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/4515315?geo=AAV2020-001 |url-status=live }}</ref> 19.6% of the population of France,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/4515315?geo=FE-1 |title=Évolution et structure de la population en 2017: France entière |author=INSEE |access-date=11 September 2020 |language=fr |author-link=INSEE |archive-date=17 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210117195634/https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/4515315?geo=FE-1 |url-status=live}}</ref> and the [[List of metropolitan areas in Europe|largest metropolitan area]] in the [[Eurozone]].<ref name=urbaneurope/>

In 2012, according to [[Eurostat]], the EU statistical agency, 2012 the Commune of Paris was the most densely populated city in the European Union. There were 21,616 people per square kilometre within the city limits, the NUTS-3 statistical area, ahead of Inner London West, which had 10,374 people per square kilometre. In the same census, three departments bordering Paris, [[Hauts-de-Seine]], [[Seine-Saint-Denis]] and [[Val-de-Marne]], had population densities of over 10,000 people per square kilometre, ranking among the 10 most densely populated areas of the EU.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Population_statistics_at_regional_level |title=Population statistics at regional level |publisher=Eurostat |date=25 March 2015 |access-date=3 April 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407164439/http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Population_statistics_at_regional_level |archive-date=7 April 2015}}</ref>{{verify source|date=June 2019 |reason=Old data, 2012 does not match with report date (March 2014). The current report could be different.}}

===Migration===
Under French law, people born in foreign countries with no French citizenship at birth are defined as immigrants. In the 2012 census, 135,853 residents of the City of Paris were immigrants from [[Europe]], 112,369 were immigrants from the [[Maghreb]], 70,852 from [[sub-Saharan Africa]] and [[Egypt]], 5,059 from [[Turkey]], 91,297 from [[Asia]] outside Turkey, 38,858 from the [[Americas]], and 1,365 from the [[Oceania|South Pacific]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau_local.asp?ref_id=IMG1B&millesime=2012&niveau=2&nivgeo=DEP&codgeo=75 |title=Les immigrés par sexe, âge et pays de naissance – Département de Paris (75) |trans-title=Immigrants by sex, age and country of birth – Department of Paris (75)|work=[[Insee]] |access-date=19 November 2015 |language=fr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau_local.asp?ref_id=IMG1B&millesime=2012&niveau=2&nivgeo=DEP&codgeo=75 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

In the Paris Region, 590,504 residents were immigrants from Europe, 627,078 were immigrants from the Maghreb, 435,339 from sub-Saharan Africa and Egypt, 69,338 from Turkey, 322,330 from Asia outside Turkey, 113,363 from the Americas, and 2,261 from the South Pacific.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau_local.asp?ref_id=IMG1B&millesime=2012&niveau=2&nivgeo=REG&codgeo=11 |title=Les immigrés par sexe, âge et pays de naissance – Région d'Île-de-France (11) |trans-title=Immigrants by sex, age and country of birth – Île-de-France region (11) |work=[[Insee]] |access-date=19 November 2015 |language=fr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau_local.asp?ref_id=IMG1B&millesime=2012&niveau=2&nivgeo=REG&codgeo=11 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 2012, there were 8,810 British citizens and 10,019 United States citizens living in the City of Paris (Ville de Paris), and 20,466 British citizens and 16,408 United States citizens living in the entire Paris Region ([[Île-de-France]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau_local.asp?ref_id=NAT1&millesime=2012&niveau=3&nivgeo=REG&codgeo=11 |title=Population par sexe, âge et nationalité – Région d'Île-de-France (11) |trans-title=Population by sex, age and nationality – Île-de-France region (11) |work=[[Insee]] |access-date=20 November 2015 |language=fr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau_local.asp?ref_id=NAT1&millesime=2012&niveau=3&nivgeo=REG&codgeo=11 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau_local.asp?ref_id=NAT1&millesime=2012&niveau=3&nivgeo=DEP&codgeo=75 |title=Population par sexe, âge et nationalité – Département de Paris (75) |trans-title=Population by sex, age and nationality – Department of Paris (75) |work=[[Insee]] |access-date=20 November 2015 |language=fr |author-link=INSEE |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau_local.asp?ref_id=NAT1&millesime=2012&niveau=3&nivgeo=DEP&codgeo=75 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 2020–2021, about 6 million people, or 41% of the population of the Paris Region, were either immigrants (21%) or had at least one immigrant parent (20%). These figures do not include French people born in Overseas France and their direct descendants.<ref>{{cite web |title=Localisation des immigrés et des descendants d'immigrés |trans-title=Location of immigrants and descendants of immigrants |language=fr |url=https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/6793282?sommaire=6793391 |work=[[Insee]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231012045430/https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/6793282?sommaire=6793391 |archive-date=12 October 2023 |url-status=live |access-date=28 September 2023}}</ref>

===Religion===
{{See also|Religious buildings in Paris}}
[[File:Le_sacre_coeur.jpg|thumb|[[Sacré-Cœur, Paris|Sacré-Cœur]] in [[Montmartre]]]]

At the beginning of the twentieth century, Paris was the largest [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] city in the world.<ref>{{cite book |title=Catholicism and Politics in Argentina, 1810–1960 |first=Austen |last=Ivereigh |date=2016 |isbn=978-1-349-13618-6 |page=76 |publisher=Springer |quote=Buenos Aires was the second largest Catholic city in the world (after Paris)}}</ref> French census data does not contain information about religious affiliation.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mPibBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA188 |title=After Integration: Islam, Conviviality and Contentious Politics in Europe |last1=Burchardt |first1=Marian |last2=Michalowski |first2=Ines |date=26 November 2014 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-658-02594-6 |language=en |access-date=30 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171001032126/https://books.google.fr/books?id=mPibBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA188 |archive-date=1 October 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> In a 2011 survey by the [[Institut français d'opinion publique]] (IFOP), a French public opinion research organisation, 61 percent of residents of the Paris Region (Île-de-France) identified themselves as [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]]. In the same survey, 7 percent of residents identified themselves as Muslims, 4 percent as Protestants, 2 percent as Jewish, and 25 percent as without religion.

According to the INSEE, between 4 and 5 million French residents were born, or had at least one parent born, in a predominantly [[Islam in France|Muslim country]], particularly [[Algeria]], [[Morocco]], and [[Tunisia]]. An IFOP survey in 2008 reported that, of immigrants from these predominantly Muslim countries, 25 percent went to the mosque regularly. 41 percent practised the religion, and 34 percent were believers, but did not practice the religion.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.lemonde.fr/les-decodeurs/article/2015/01/21/que-pese-l-islam-en-france_4559859_4355770.html |title=que pese l'Islam en France |work=Le Monde |date=21 January 2015 |language=fr |access-date=13 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151127053220/http://www.lemonde.fr/les-decodeurs/article/2015/01/21/que-pese-l-islam-en-france_4559859_4355770.html |archive-date=27 November 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://plus.lefigaro.fr/note/how-does-france-count-its-muslim-population-20110407-435643 |title=How does France count its muslim population? |work=Le Figaro |access-date=30 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151105002152/http://plus.lefigaro.fr/note/how-does-france-count-its-muslim-population-20110407-435643 |archive-date=5 November 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2012 and 2013, it was estimated that there were almost 500,000 Muslims in the City of Paris, 1.5 million Muslims in the Île-de-France region and 4 to 5 million Muslims in France.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://archive.francesoir.fr/actualite/societe/dalil-boubakeur-%E2%80%9Cil-faut-doubler-nombre-mosquees-en-france%E2%80%9D-54083.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150128112504/http://archive.francesoir.fr/actualite/societe/dalil-boubakeur-%E2%80%9Cil-faut-doubler-nombre-mosquees-en-france%E2%80%9D-54083.html |url-status=live |archive-date=28 January 2015 |title=Interview with Dalil Boubakeur |work=Le Soir |language=fr |access-date=13 November 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Riou |first1=Mathilde |title=Le manque de mosquée en Ile-de-France |url=http://france3-regions.francetvinfo.fr/paris-ile-de-france/2013/04/29/le-manque-de-mosquee-en-ile-de-france-243225.html |access-date=17 November 2017 |work=France 3 |date=29 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171117174949/http://france3-regions.francetvinfo.fr/paris-ile-de-france/2013/04/29/le-manque-de-mosquee-en-ile-de-france-243225.html |archive-date=17 November 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2014, the Jewish population of the Paris Region was estimated to be 282,000, the largest concentration of Jews in the world outside of [[Israel]] and the United States.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jewishdatabank.org/Studies/details.cfm?StudyID=776 |title=World Jewish Population 2014 |author=Berman Jewish Databank |access-date=13 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151104100328/http://jewishdatabank.org/Studies/details.cfm?StudyID=776 |archive-date=4 November 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==Economy==
{{Main|Economy of Paris}}
[[File:La Défense depuis l'Arc de Triomphe Janvier 2023 (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[La Défense]], the largest dedicated business district in Europe, located to the west of Paris<ref name="France.fr">{{cite web |url=https://www.france.fr/en/paris/list/paris-what-to-do-what-to-see |title=La Défense, Europe's largest business district |publisher=France.fr |access-date = 8 January 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130530043643/http://www.france.fr/en/paris-capital-region/la-defense-europes-largest-business-district |archive-date = 30 May 2013}}</ref>]]
[[File:Italiens12.jpg|thumb|The [[headquarters]] of [[BNP Paribas]], the largest banking group in Europe, in the [[Boulevard des Italiens]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/269845/largest-banks-in-the-world-by-total-assets/|title=Largest banks worldwide as of December 2021, by assets|date=29 August 2022|website=statista.com|publisher=Statista|access-date=21 March 2023|archive-date=10 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190810163936/https://www.statista.com/statistics/269845/largest-banks-in-the-world-by-total-assets/|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
[[File:Hotel de la vaupaliere54.jpg|thumb|[[Axa]] headquarters at Hôtel de La Vaupalière]]
[[File:Campus Evergreen.jpg|thumb|The {{lang|fr|[[Crédit Agricole]]|italic=no}} headquarters in [[Montrouge]], south of Paris<ref name=sieges>{{cite web |website=Crédit Agricole |title=De Las Cases à Jean Jaurès : Crédit Agricole S.A. à travers ses sièges |date=2011 |url=https://www.credit-agricole.com/pdfPreview/189647 |access-date=25 July 2023 |archive-date=25 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230725035725/https://www.credit-agricole.com/pdfPreview/189647 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
The economy of the City of Paris is based largely on services and commerce. Of the 390,480 enterprises in Paris, 80.6 percent are engaged in commerce, transportation, and diverse services, 6.5 percent in construction, and 3.8 percent in industry.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/dossier_complet.asp?codgeo=COM-75056 |publisher=INSEE |title=Department of Paris; Complete Dossier |access-date=25 November 2015 |language=fr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307200924/http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/dossier_complet.asp?codgeo=COM-75056 |archive-date=7 March 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> The story is similar in the [[Paris Region]] (Île-de-France): 76.7 percent of enterprises are engaged in commerce and services, and 3.4 percent in industry.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/dossier_complet.asp?codgeo=REG-11 |publisher=INSEE |title=Île-de-France Region – Complete dossier |access-date=25 November 2015 |language=fr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316053531/http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/dossier_complet.asp?codgeo=REG-11 |archive-date=16 March 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>

At the 2012 census, 59.5% of jobs in the Paris Region were in market services (12.0% in wholesale and retail trade, 9.7% in professional, scientific, and technical services, 6.5% in information and communication, 6.5% in transportation and warehousing, 5.9% in finance and insurance, 5.8% in administrative and support services, 4.6% in accommodation and food services, and 8.5% in various other market services), 26.9% in non-market services (10.4% in human health and social work activities, 9.6% in public administration and defence, and 6.9% in education), 8.2% in manufacturing and utilities (6.6% in manufacturing and 1.5% in utilities), 5.2% in construction, and 0.2% in agriculture.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau_local.asp?ref_id=EMP2&millesime=2012&niveau=3&nivgeo=REG&codgeo=11 |publisher=INSEE |title=EMP2 – Emplois au lieu de travail par sexe, statut et secteur d'activité économique – Région d'Île-de-France (11) |access-date=26 November 2015 |language=fr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau_local.asp?ref_id=EMP2&millesime=2012&niveau=3&nivgeo=REG&codgeo=11 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.insee.fr/fr/methodes/default.asp?page=nomenclatures/agregatnaf2008/agregatnaf2008.htm |publisher=INSEE |title=La nomenclature agrégée – NA, 2008 |access-date = 26 November 2015 |language=fr |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151219154702/http://www.insee.fr/fr/methodes/default.asp?page=nomenclatures%2Fagregatnaf2008%2Fagregatnaf2008.htm |archive-date = 19 December 2015 |url-status = live}}</ref>

The Paris Region had 5.4 million salaried employees in 2010, of whom 2.2 million were concentrated in 39 ''pôles d'emplois'' or business districts. The largest of these by number of employees is known in French as the QCA, or ''quartier central des affaires''. In 2010, it was the workplace of 500,000 salaried employees, about 30 percent of the salaried employees in Paris and 10 percent of those in the Île-de-France. The largest sectors of activity in the central business district were finance and insurance (16 percent of employees in the district) and business services (15 percent). The district includes a large concentration of department stores, shopping areas, hotels and restaurants, as well a government offices and ministries.<ref name="INSEE">{{cite web |url=http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/document.asp?ref_id=20718 |title=En Île-de-France, 39 poles d'emploi structurent l'economie régionale |publisher=INSEE |access-date = 7 December 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/document.asp?ref_id=20718 |archive-date = 1 January 2016 |url-status = live}}</ref>

The second-largest business district in terms of employment is [[La Défense]], just west of the city. In 2010, it was the workplace of 144,600 employees, of whom 38 percent worked in finance and insurance, 16 percent in business support services. Two other important districts, [[Neuilly-sur-Seine]] and [[Levallois-Perret]], are extensions of the Paris business district and of La Défense. Another district, including [[Boulogne-Billancourt]], [[Issy-les-Moulineaux]] and the southern part of the 15th arrondissement, is a centre of activity for the media and information technology.<ref name="INSEE" />

In 2021, the top French companies listed in the [[Fortune Global 500]] all have their headquarters in the Paris Region. Six are in the central business district of the City of Paris, four are close to the city in the [[Hauts-de-Seine]] Department, three are in [[La Défense]], and one is in [[Boulogne-Billancourt]]. Some companies, like [[Société Générale]], have offices in both Paris and La Défense. The Paris Region is France's leading region for economic activity, with a [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] of [[euro|€]]865 billion, of which €280 billion was in Paris city.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/nama_10r_3gdp/default/table | title=Gross domestic product (GDP) at current market prices by NUTS 3 regions | website=ec.europa.eu | access-date=1 January 2024 | archive-date=1 January 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240101045308/https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/nama_10r_3gdp/default/table | url-status=live }}</ref> In 2021, its GDP ranked first among the metropolitan regions of the EU, and its per-capita GDP PPP was the 8th highest.<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 February 2023 |title=Regional gross domestic product (PPS per inhabitant) by NUTS 2 regions |url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/TGS00005/default/table?lang=en |access-date=13 June 2023 |website=ec.europa.eu |archive-date=13 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230613192346/https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/TGS00005/default/table?lang=en |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/document.asp?reg_id=20&ref_id=21341#trois |publisher=Insee |title=L'Île-de-France, une des régions les plus riches d'Europe |access-date=11 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904011013/http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/document.asp?reg_id=20&ref_id=21341#trois |archive-date=4 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="McKinsey">{{cite magazine |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/articles/2012/08/13/the_most_dynamic_cities_of_2025 |title=The Most Dynamic Cities of 2025 |magazine=Foreign Policy |access-date=2 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120828041241/http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2012/08/13/the_most_dynamic_cities_of_2025 |archive-date=28 August 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> While the Paris region's population accounted for 18.8 percent of metropolitan France in 2019,<ref name="Pop.Paris"/> the Paris region's GDP accounted for 32 percent of metropolitan France's GDP.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 February 2023 |title=GDP in value (current prices) – Metropolitan France |url=https://www.insee.fr/en/statistiques/serie/010751746 |access-date=13 June 2023 |website=www.insee.fr |archive-date=16 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230816202919/https://www.insee.fr/en/statistiques/serie/010751746 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=15 February 2023 |title=GDP in value (current prices) – Île-de-France |url=https://www.insee.fr/en/statistiques/serie/010751748 |access-date=13 June 2023 |website=www.insee.fr |archive-date=16 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230816222906/https://www.insee.fr/en/statistiques/serie/010751748 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Paris Region economy has gradually shifted from industry to high-value-added service industries ([[Financial services|finance]], IT services) and high-tech manufacturing (electronics, optics, aerospace, etc.).<ref name="INSEE 201210">{{cite web |url=http://www.ile-de-france.gouv.fr/content/download/5429/38877/file/L’industrie%20en%20Ile-de-France%20–%20Principaux%20indicateurs%20régionaux.pdf |title=L'Industrie en Île-de-France, Principaux Indicateurs Régionaux |publisher=INSEE |access-date = 24 November 2014 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150223184616/http://www.ile-de-france.gouv.fr/content/download/5429/38877/file/L%E2%80%99industrie%20en%20Ile-de-France%20%E2%80%93%20Principaux%20indicateurs%20r%C3%A9gionaux.pdf |archive-date = 23 February 2015 |url-status = live}}</ref> The Paris region's most intense economic activity through the central [[Hauts-de-Seine]] department and suburban La Défense business district places Paris's economic centre to the west of the city, in a triangle between the {{lang|fr|[[Palais Garnier|Opéra Garnier]]}}, ''La Défense'' and the ''[[Val de Seine]]''.<ref name="INSEE 201210" /> While the Paris economy is dominated by [[Service Sector|services]], and employment in manufacturing sector has declined sharply, the region remains an important manufacturing centre, particularly for aeronautics, automobiles, and eco industries.<ref name="INSEE 201210" />

In the 2017 worldwide cost of living survey by the [[Economist Intelligence Unit]], based on a survey made in September 2016, Paris ranked as the seventh most expensive city in the world, and the second most expensive in Europe.<ref>Economist Intelligence Unit Worldwide Cost of Living Survey, based in September 2016 data, retrieved July 2017.</ref> In 2018, Paris was the most expensive city in the world along with [[Singapore]] and [[Hong Kong]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Classement.Singapour, Hong Kong, Paris : le trio des villes les plus chères du monde |url=https://www.courrierinternational.com/article/classement-singapour-hong-kong-paris-le-trio-des-villes-les-plus-cheres-du-monde |website=courrierinternational.com |publisher=[[Courrier International]] |date=20 March 2019 |access-date=23 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327081301/https://www.courrierinternational.com/article/classement-singapour-hong-kong-paris-le-trio-des-villes-les-plus-cheres-du-monde |archive-date=27 March 2019 |url-status=live}}.</ref> [[Station F]] is a [[business incubator]] for startups, noted as the world's largest startup facility.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Medeiros |first1=João |title=Station F, the world's largest startup campus opens in Paris |url=https://www.wired.co.uk/article/station-f |access-date=21 August 2017 |magazine=Wired |date=29 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170821085053/http://www.wired.co.uk/article/station-f |archive-date=21 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2022, Paris was the city with the ninth-highest cost of living in the world.<ref>{{Cite news |title=The world's most, and least, expensive cities |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/graphic-detail/2022/11/30/the-worlds-most-and-least-expensive-cities |access-date=1 December 2022 |issn=0013-0613 |archive-date=1 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221201044121/https://www.economist.com/graphic-detail/2022/11/30/the-worlds-most-and-least-expensive-cities |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Employment and income===
[[File:Median income of Paris and inner ring (2018) named.svg|thumb|The median income in Paris and its nearest departments, 2018. High income in red, low income in yellow]]
In 2007, the majority of Paris's salaried employees filled 370,000 businesses services jobs, concentrated in the north-western 8th, 16th and 17th arrondissements.<ref name="AlapageINSEE">{{cite press release |url=http://www.insee.fr/fr/insee_regions/idf/themes/alapage/alap288/alapage288.pdf |title=Île-de-France – A la Page Nº288 – INSEE 2007 |date=November 2007 |access-date=24 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141229014929/http://www.insee.fr/fr/insee_regions/idf/themes/alapage/alap288/alapage288.pdf |archive-date=29 December 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> Paris's financial service companies are concentrated in the central-western 8th and 9th arrondissement banking and insurance district.<ref name="AlapageINSEE"/> Paris's department store district in the 1st, 6th, 8th, and 9th arrondissements employs ten percent of mostly female Paris workers, with 100,000 of these in the retail trade.<ref name="AlapageINSEE"/> Fourteen percent of Parisians worked in hotels and restaurants and other services to individuals.<ref name="AlapageINSEE"/>

Nineteen percent of Paris employees work for the State in either administration or education. The majority of Paris's healthcare and social workers work at the hospitals and social housing, concentrated in the peripheral 13th, 14th, 18th, 19th, and 20th arrondissements.<ref name="AlapageINSEE"/> Outside Paris, the western Hauts-de-Seine department [[La Défense]] district specialising in finance, insurance, and scientific research, employs 144,600.<ref name="INSEE 201210"/> The north-eastern Seine-Saint-Denis audiovisual sector has 200 media firms and 10 major film studios.<ref name="INSEE 201210"/>

Paris's manufacturing is mostly focused in its suburbs. Paris has around 75,000 manufacturing workers, most of whom are in the textile, clothing, leather goods, and shoe trades.<ref name="INSEE 201210"/> In 2015, the Paris region's 800 aerospace companies employed 100,000.<ref name="INSEE 201210"/> Four hundred automobile industry companies employ another 100,000 workers. Many of these are centred in the [[Yvelines]] department, around the Renault and PSA-Citroën plants. This department alone employs 33,000.<ref name="INSEE 201210"/> In 2014, the industry as a whole suffered a major loss, with the closing of a major [[Aulnay-sous-Bois]] Citroën assembly plant.<ref name="INSEE 201210"/>

The southern [[Essonne]] department specialises in science and technology.<ref name="INSEE 201210"/> The south-eastern [[Val-de-Marne]], with its wholesale [[Marché international de Rungis|Rungis food market]], specialises in food processing and beverages.<ref name="INSEE 201210"/> The Paris region's manufacturing decline is quickly being replaced by eco-industries. These employ about 100,000 workers.<ref name="INSEE 201210"/>

Incomes are higher in the Western part of Paris and in the western suburbs, than in the northern and eastern parts of the urban area.<ref name="wealth distribution">{{cite web |title=Structure et distribution des revenus, inégalité des niveaux de vie en 2013 |url=https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/2388413 |website=insee.fr |access-date=4 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170620170141/https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/2388413 |archive-date=20 June 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> While Paris has some of the richest neighbourhoods in France, it also has some of the poorest, mostly on the eastern side of the city. In 2012, 14 percent of households in Paris earned less than €977 per month, the official [[poverty line]]. Twenty-five percent of residents in the 19th arrondissement lived below the poverty line. In Paris's wealthiest neighbourhood, the 7th arrondissement, 7 percent lived below the poverty line.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.metronews.fr/paris/des-quartiers-de-paris-compteraient-plus-de-40-de-pauvres/mnaB!OVs3O27zkRe6/ |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140406124836/http://www.metronews.fr/paris/des-quartiers-de-paris-compteraient-plus-de-40-de-pauvres/mnaB!OVs3O27zkRe6/ |archive-date=6 April 2014 |title=Neighborhoods of Paris with more than 40 percent living below poverty line |publisher=Metronews |language=fr |access-date=28 November 2013}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> The unemployment rate in Paris in the 4th trimester of 2021 was six percent, compared with 7.4 percent in the whole of France. This was the lowest rate in thirteen years.<ref>Reuters, "France unemployment hits 13-year low", 18 February 2022</ref><ref>INSEE data published 1 April 2022</ref>

===Tourism===
{{Main|Tourism in Paris}}
{{Further|Landmarks in Paris|Historical quarters of Paris|List of tourist attractions in Paris}}
[[File:Visiter_le_Louvre_en_été_!_(4787187477).jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|The [[Louvre]], the [[List of most-visited art museums|most-visited art museum in the world]]]]

As of 2024, Paris was considered the most attractive city in the world for 4 years in a row by the [[Euromonitor]] Global Cities Destination Index. However, by the number of tourists coming from other countries, it was only in 9th place.<ref>{{cite web |title=Euromonitor International reveals world's Top 100 City Destinations for 2024 |url=https://www.euromonitor.com/press/press-releases/december-2024/euromonitor-international-reveals-worlds-top-100-city-destinations-for-2024 |website=Euromonitor International |date=4 December 2024 |access-date=4 April 2025}}</ref>

Tourism continued to recover in the Paris region in 2022, increasing to 44 million visitors, an increase of 95 percent over 2021, but still 13 percent lower than in 2019.<ref name="pro.visitparisregion.com">{{cite web|url=https://pro.visitparisregion.com/chiffres-du-tourisme/conjoncture/bilans/bilan-de-l-annee-touristique-2022-a-paris-ile-de-france-mars-2023 |title=Bilan de l'année touristique 2022 à Paris Île-de-France (mars 2023) |trans-title=Review of the 2022 tourist year in Paris Île-de-France (March 2023) |website=pro.visitparisregion.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230325170709/https://pro.visitparisregion.com/chiffres-du-tourisme/conjoncture/bilans/bilan-de-l-annee-touristique-2022-a-paris-ile-de-france-mars-2023|archive-date=25 March 2023 |url-status=live |date=20 March 2023}}</ref>

[[Grand Paris|Greater Paris]], comprising Paris and its three surrounding departments, received a record 38 million visitors in 2019, measured by hotel arrivals.<ref name=KeyFigures>{{cite web |url=https://press.parisinfo.com/key-figures |title=Tourism in Paris – Key Figures 2020 |publisher=Paris Convention and Visitors Bureau |website=press.parisinfo.com |access-date=10 September 2021 |archive-date=10 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210910112723/https://press.parisinfo.com/key-figures |url-status=dead}}</ref> These included 12.2 million French visitors. Of the foreign visitors, the greatest number came from the United States (2.6 million), the United Kingdom (1.2 million), Germany (981 thousand), and China (711 thousand).<ref name=KeyFigures/>

In 2018, measured by the [[Euromonitor]] Global Cities Destination Index, Paris was the second-busiest airline destination in the world, with 19.10 million visitors, behind Bangkok (22.78 million) but ahead of London (19.09 million).<ref>{{cite web |last=Rosen |first=Eric |title=The World's Most-Visited City Is Bangkok |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/ericrosen/2019/09/04/the-worlds-most-visited-city-is-bangkok/ |work=[[Forbes]] |date=4 September 2019 |access-date=21 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190914054101/https://www.forbes.com/sites/ericrosen/2019/09/04/the-worlds-most-visited-city-is-bangkok/ |archive-date=14 September 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2016, 393,008 workers in Greater Paris, or 12.4 percent of the total workforce, were engaged in tourism-related sectors such as hotels, catering, transport and leisure.<ref name=TIP2016/>

Paris's top cultural attractions in 2022 were the [[Louvre Museum]] (7.7 million visitors), the [[Eiffel Tower]] (5.8 million visitors), the [[Musée d'Orsay]] (3.27 million visitors) and the [[Centre Pompidou]] (3 million visitors).<ref name="pro.visitparisregion.com" />

In 2019, Greater Paris had 2,056 hotels, including 94 five-star hotels, with a total of 121,646 rooms.<ref name=KeyFigures/> In 2019, in addition to the hotels, Greater Paris had 60,000 homes registered with [[Airbnb]].<ref name=KeyFigures/> Under French law, renters of these units must pay the Paris tourism tax. The company paid the city government 7.3 million euros in 2016.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Vidalon |first=Dominique |date=5 July 2017 |title=Hoteliers welcome Paris decision forcing Airbnb hosts to register rentals |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/business/hoteliers-welcome-paris-decision-forcing-airbnb-hosts-to-register-rentals-idUSL8N1JW2DD/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250414215702/https://www.reuters.com/article/business/hoteliers-welcome-paris-decision-forcing-airbnb-hosts-to-register-rentals-idUSL8N1JW2DD/ |archive-date=14 April 2025 |work=Reuters |quote=It paid back to French authorities 7.3 million euros in tourist taxes in 2016.}}</ref>

A minuscule fraction of foreign visitors suffer from [[Paris syndrome]], when their experiences do not meet expectations.<ref>{{cite news|url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6197921.stm|title = 'Paris Syndrome' strikes Japanese|work = [[BBC News]]|access-date = 4 November 2009|last = Wyatt|first = Caroline|date = 20 December 2006|archive-date = 31 October 2009|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20091031110724/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6197921.stm|url-status = live}}</ref>

==Culture==
===Painting and sculpture===
{{Main|Art in Paris}}
[[File:Renoir, Pierre-Auguste - Dance at Le Moulin de la Galette, 1876.jpg|thumb|[[Auguste Renoir]], ''[[Bal du moulin de la Galette]]'', 1876, oil on canvas, {{cvt|131|x|175|cm|0}}, [[Musée d'Orsay]]]]
For centuries, Paris has attracted artists from around the world. As a result, Paris has acquired a reputation as the "City of Art".{{sfn|Montclos|2003}} Italian artists were a profound influence on the development of art in Paris in the 16th and 17th centuries, particularly in sculpture and reliefs. Painting and sculpture became the pride of the French monarchy, and the French royal family commissioned many Parisian artists to adorn their palaces during the [[French Baroque and Classicism]] era. Sculptors such as [[François Girardon|Girardon]], [[Antoine Coysevox|Coysevox]], and [[Nicolas Coustou|Coustou]] acquired reputations as the finest artists in the royal court in 17th-century France. [[Pierre Mignard]] became the first painter to King [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]] during this period. In 1648, the ''[[Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture]]'' (Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture) was established to accommodate the dramatic interest in art in the capital.{{sfn|Michelin|2011}}

Paris was in its artistic prime in the 19th century and early 20th century, when it had a colony of artists established in the city and in art schools associated with some of the finest painters of the times: [[Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec]], [[Édouard Manet]], [[Claude Monet]], [[Berthe Morisot]], [[Paul Gauguin]], [[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]] and others. Paris was central to the development of [[Romanticism]] in art, with painters such as [[Théodore Géricault|Géricault]].{{sfn|Michelin|2011}} [[Impressionism]], [[Art Nouveau]], [[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolism]], [[Fauvism]], [[Cubism]] and [[Art Deco]] movements all evolved in Paris.{{sfn|Michelin|2011}} In the late 19th century, many artists in the French provinces and worldwide flocked to Paris to exhibit their works in the numerous salons and expositions and make a name for themselves.{{sfn|Perry|1995|p=19}} Artists such as [[Pablo Picasso]], [[Henri Matisse]], [[Vincent van Gogh]], [[Paul Cézanne]], [[Jean Metzinger]], [[Albert Gleizes]], [[Henri Rousseau]], [[Marc Chagall]], [[Amedeo Modigliani]] became associated with Paris.

The most prestigious sculptors who made their reputation in Paris in the modern era are [[Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi]] ([[Statue of Liberty]]), [[Auguste Rodin]], [[Camille Claudel]], [[Antoine Bourdelle]], [[Paul Landowski]] ([[Christ the Redeemer (statue)|''Christ the Redeemer'']] in [[Rio de Janeiro]]) and [[Aristide Maillol]]. The [[Belle Époque|Golden Age]] of the [[School of Paris]] ended between the two world wars.

===Museums===
{{Main|List of museums in Paris}}
[[File:MuseeOrsay 20070324.jpg|thumb|[[Musée d'Orsay]]]]

The [[Louvre]] received 2.8 million visitors in 2021,<ref name="ReferenceC">"Visitor Figures 2021", "The Art Newspaper", 5 January 2022.</ref> holding its position as the [[List of most-visited museums|world's most-visited museum]]. Its treasures include the ''[[Mona Lisa]]'', the ''[[Venus de Milo]]'' statue, and ''[[Liberty Leading the People]]''. The second-most visited museum, with 1.5 million visitors in 2021, was the [[Centre Georges Pompidou]], also known as Beaubourg, which houses the {{lang|fr|[[Musée National d'Art Moderne]]|italic=no}} The [[National Museum of Natural History, France|National Museum of Natural History]] followed with 1.4 million visitors. It is famous for its dinosaur artefacts, mineral collections, and its Gallery of Evolution. The [[Musée d'Orsay]], featuring 19th-century art and the [[French Impressionists]], had one million visitors. Paris hosts one of the largest science museums in Europe, the [[Cité des sciences et de l'industrie]] (984,000 visitors in 2020), and one of the oldest, the [[Musée des Arts et Métiers]] (opened in 1794). The other most-visited museums in 2021 were the [[Fondation Louis Vuitton]] (691,000), the [[Musée du Quai Branly – Jacques Chirac]], featuring indigenous art and cultures of Africa, Asia, Oceania, and the Americas. (616,000); the [[Musée Carnavalet]] (History of Paris) (606,000), and the {{Lang|fr|[[Petit Palais]]|italic=no}}, the art museum of the City of Paris (518,000).<ref>"Le Tourisme a Paris – Chiffres Cles -Edition 2021,"the Office of Tourism and Congresses of the City of Paris.(published 2022)</ref>
[[File:Musée du quai Branly.jpg|thumb|[[Musée du Quai Branly – Jacques Chirac|Musée du quai Branly]]]]

The [[Musée de l'Orangerie]], near the Louvre and the Orsay, also exhibits Impressionists and Post-Impressionists, including most of [[Claude Monet]]'s large ''[[Water Lilies (Monet series)|Water Lilies]]'' murals. The [[Musée national du Moyen Âge]], or Cluny Museum, presents [[Medieval art]]. The [[Guimet Museum]], or ''Musée national des arts asiatiques'', has one of the largest collections of Asian art in Europe. There are also notable museums devoted to individual artists, including the [[Musée Picasso]], the [[Musée Rodin]], and the [[Musée national Eugène Delacroix]].

The military history of France is presented by displays at the [[Musée de l'Armée]] at [[Les Invalides]]. In addition to the national museums, run by the [[Ministry of Culture (France)|Ministry of Culture]], the City of Paris operates 14 museums, including the [[Carnavalet Museum]] on the history of Paris, [[Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris]], [[Palais de Tokyo]], the [[Maison de Victor Hugo|House of Victor Hugo]], the [[Maison de Balzac|House of Balzac]] and the [[Catacombs of Paris]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.paris.fr/musees |title=Municipal museums |publisher=Maire de Paris |access-date=23 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141123165959/http://www.paris.fr/musees |archive-date=23 November 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> There are also notable private museums. The Contemporary Art museum of the [[Louis Vuitton Foundation]], designed by architect [[Frank Gehry]], opened in October 2014 in the [[Bois de Boulogne]].

===Theatre===
{{See also|Theatre of France}}
The largest opera houses of Paris are the 19th-century Opéra Garnier (historical [[Opéra National de Paris|Paris Opéra]]) and modern [[Opéra Bastille]]; the former tends toward the more classic ballets and operas, and the latter provides a mixed repertoire of classic and modern.{{sfn|Lawrence|Gondrand|2010|p=178}} In the mid-19th century, there were three other active and competing opera houses: the Opéra-Comique (which still exists), [[Théâtre-Italien]] and [[Théâtre Lyrique]] (now the [[Théâtre de la Ville]]).{{Sfn|Schumacher|1996|p=60}} [[Philharmonie de Paris]], the modern symphonic concert hall of Paris, opened in January 2015. Another musical landmark is the [[Théâtre des Champs-Élysées]], where the first performances of Diaghilev's [[Ballets Russes]] took place in 1913.
[[File:CFfacadePlacedelOpera.png|thumb|The [[Comédie Française]] (Salle Richelieu)]]

Theatre traditionally has occupied a large place in Parisian culture, and many of its most popular actors today are also stars of French television. The oldest and most famous Paris theatre is the [[Comédie-Française]], founded in 1680. Run by the Government of France, it performs mostly French classics at the Salle Richelieu in the [[Palais-Royal]].{{Sfn|Fierro|1996|page=1173}} Other famous theatres include the [[Odéon-Théâtre de l'Europe]], also a state institution and theatrical landmark; the Théâtre Mogador; and the [[Théâtre de la Gaîté-Montparnasse]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Who's Where |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tj4WAQAAIAAJ |access-date=2 July 2013 |date=1961 |page=304 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130907162159/http://books.google.com/books?id=Tj4WAQAAIAAJ |archive-date=7 September 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The music hall and [[cabaret]] are famous Paris institutions. The ''[[Moulin Rouge]]'' opened in 1889 and became the birthplace of the [[Cancan]] dance. It helped make famous the singers [[Mistinguett]] and [[Édith Piaf]] and the painter [[Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec|Toulouse-Lautrec]], who made posters for the venue. In 1911, the dance hall [[Olympia Paris]] invented the grand staircase as a setting for its shows, competing with its great rival, the ''[[Folies Bergère]]''.

The [[Casino de Paris]] presented many famous French singers, including [[Mistinguett]], [[Maurice Chevalier]] and [[Tino Rossi]]. Other famous Paris music halls include ''[[Le Lido]]'', on the Champs-Élysées, opened in 1946; and the [[Crazy Horse (cabaret)|Crazy Horse Saloon]], featuring strip-tease, dance, and magic, opened in 1951. A half dozen music halls exist today in Paris, attended mostly by visitors to the city.{{Sfn|Fierro|1996|pages=1005–1006}}

===Literature===
{{Main|Writers in Paris}}

[[File:Victor Hugo by Étienne Carjat 1876 - full.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.75|[[Victor Hugo]]]]
The first book printed in France, ''Epistolae'' ("Letters"), by [[Gasparinus de Bergamo]], was published in Paris in 1470 by the press established by [[Johann Heynlin]]. Paris has since been the centre of the French publishing industry, the home of some of the world's best-known writers and poets, and the setting for many classic works of French literature. Paris did not become the acknowledged capital of French literature until the 17th century, with authors such as [[Nicolas Boileau|Boileau]], [[Pierre Corneille|Corneille]], [[La Fontaine]], [[Molière]], [[Jean Racine|Racine]], [[Charles Perrault]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k108017c.r=Labyrinte+de+Versailles+Perrault.langEN |title=scan of the book at the Bibliothèque nationale de France |publisher=Gallica.bnf.fr |date=15 October 2007 |access-date=24 March 2014 |archive-date=12 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130612140924/http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k108017c.r=Labyrinte+de+Versailles+Perrault.langEN |url-status=live}}</ref> several coming from the provinces, as well as the foundation of the {{Lang|fr|[[Académie française]]|italic=no}}.{{sfn|Fierro|1996|p=488}} In the 18th century, the literary life of Paris revolved around the cafés and salons; it was dominated by [[Voltaire]], [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]], [[Pierre de Marivaux]], and [[Pierre Beaumarchais]].

During the 19th century, Paris was the home and subject for some of France's greatest writers, including [[Charles Baudelaire]], [[Stéphane Mallarmé]], [[Mérimée]], [[Alfred de Musset]], [[Marcel Proust]], [[Émile Zola]], [[Alexandre Dumas]], [[Gustave Flaubert]], [[Guy de Maupassant]] and [[Honoré de Balzac]]. Victor Hugo's ''[[The Hunchback of Notre-Dame]]'' inspired the renovation of its setting, the [[Notre-Dame de Paris]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.adoremus.org/1099-Rose.html |title=Notre Dame Renovations |access-date=4 July 2013 |publisher=Adoremus Organization |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130207134139/http://www.adoremus.org/1099-Rose.html |archive-date=7 February 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> Another of Hugo's works, ''[[Les Misérables]]'', described the social change and political turmoil in Paris in the early 1830s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/135/135-h/135-h.htm |title=Les Miserables |work=Preface |date=1862 |access-date= 4 July 2013 |publisher=Gutenberg Organization |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131011091018/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/135/135-h/135-h.htm |archive-date= 11 October 2013 |url-status= live}}</ref> One of the most popular of all French writers, [[Jules Verne]], worked at the Theatre Lyrique and the Paris stock exchange while he did research for his stories at the National Library.<ref>{{cite news |title=Jules Verne |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jules-Verne |access-date=18 April 2024 |work=Encyclopaedia Britannica}}</ref>

In the 20th century, the Paris literary community was dominated by figures such as [[Colette]], [[André Gide]], [[François Mauriac]], [[André Malraux]], [[Albert Camus]], and, after World War II, by [[Simone de Beauvoir]] and [[Jean-Paul Sartre]]. Between the wars, it was the home of many important expatriate writers, including [[Ernest Hemingway]], [[Samuel Beckett]], [[Miguel Ángel Asturias]], [[Alejo Carpentier]], and [[Arturo Uslar Pietri]]. The winner of the 2014 [[Nobel Prize in Literature]], [[Patrick Modiano]], based most of his literary work on the depiction of the city during World War II and the 1960s–1970s.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/2014/bio-bibl.html |title=Official site of the Nobel Prize |access-date=24 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216224108/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/2014/bio-bibl.html |archive-date=16 December 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In the 1970s, 80 percent of French-language publishing houses were found in Paris.{{sfn|Fierro|1996|p=840}} It is also a city of small bookstores. There are about 150 bookstores in the 5th arrondissement alone, plus another 250 book stalls along the Seine. Small Paris bookstores are protected against competition from discount booksellers by French law; books, even e-books, cannot be discounted more than five percent below their publisher's cover price.<ref>"The French Still Flock to Bookstores", ''New York Times'', 20 June 2012</ref>

===Music===
{{Main|Music in Paris|History of music in Paris}}

[[File:Olympia facade.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.75|[[Olympia (Paris)|Olympia]] music hall]]
In the late 12th century, a school of [[polyphony]] was established at Notre-Dame. Among the [[Trouvères]] of northern France, a group of Parisian aristocrats became known for their poetry and songs. [[Troubadours]], from the south of France, were also popular. During the reign of [[Francis I of France|François I]], in the [[Renaissance music|Renaissance era]], the [[lute]] became popular in the French court. The French royal family and courtiers "disported themselves in masques, ballets, allegorical dances, recitals, and opera and comedy", and a national musical printing house was established.{{sfn|Michelin|2011}} In the [[Baroque music|Baroque-era]], noted composers included [[Jean-Baptiste Lully]], [[Jean-Philippe Rameau]], and [[François Couperin]].{{sfn|Michelin|2011}} The [[Conservatoire de Paris|''Conservatoire de Musique de Paris'']] was founded in 1795.{{sfn|Damschroeder|Williams|1990|p=157}} By 1870, Paris had become an important centre for symphony, ballet, and operatic music.

[[Romantic music|Romantic-era]] composers include [[Hector Berlioz]], [[Charles Gounod]], [[Camille Saint-Saëns]], [[Léo Delibes]] and [[Jules Massenet]], among others.{{sfn|Michelin|2011}} [[Georges Bizet]]'s ''[[Carmen]]'' premiered in 1875 and has become one of the most popular operas in the classical [[Western canon|canon]].<ref name="McClary">[https://books.google.com/books?id=UNGaPmlHFzgC&pg=PA120 ''Georges Bizet: Carmen''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164803/https://books.google.com/books?id=UNGaPmlHFzgC&pg=PA120 |date=26 March 2023 }}, Susan McClary, p. 120</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p27gT7VcuNUC&pg=PA146 |title=The Essential Canon of Classical Music |first=David |last=Dubal |page=346 |date=2003 |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=978-1-4668-0726-6 |access-date=9 January 2016 |archive-date=1 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201223150/https://books.google.com/books?id=p27gT7VcuNUC&pg=PA146 |url-status=live }}</ref> Among the [[Impressionism in music|Impressionist]] composers who created new works for piano, orchestra, opera, chamber music and other musical forms, stand in particular [[Claude Debussy]], [[Erik Satie]] and [[Maurice Ravel]]. Several foreign-born composers, such as [[Frédéric Chopin]], [[Franz Liszt]], [[Jacques Offenbach]], [[Niccolò Paganini]], and [[Igor Stravinsky]], established themselves or made significant contributions both with their works and their influence in Paris.

[[Bal-musette]] is a style of French music and dance that first became popular in Paris in the 1870s; by 1880, Paris had some 150 dance halls.{{sfn|Dregni|2004|p=19}} Patrons danced the [[bourrée]] to the accompaniment of the [[cabrette]] (a [[bellows]]-blown [[bagpipe]] locally called a "musette") and the vielle à roue ([[hurdy-gurdy]]) in the cafés and bars of the city. Parisian and Italian musicians who played the [[accordion]] adopted the style and established themselves in Auvergnat bars,{{sfn|Dregni|2008|p=32}} and Paris became a major centre for [[jazz]] and still attracts jazz musicians from all around the world to its clubs and cafés.{{sfn|Mroue|2006|p=260}} Paris is the spiritual home of [[gypsy jazz]], and many of the Parisian jazzmen who developed in the first half of the 20th century began by playing Bal-musette in the city.{{Sfn|Dregni|2008|p=32}} [[Django Reinhardt]] rose to fame in Paris and performed with violinist [[Stéphane Grappelli]] and their [[Quintette du Hot Club de France]] in the 1930s and 1940s.<ref name="Gjazz">{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2010/mar/03/jazz-bars-paris-django-reinhardt |title=Best Gypsy jazz bars in Paris |work=The Guardian |date=3 March 2010 |access-date=3 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140320040950/http://www.theguardian.com/travel/2010/mar/03/jazz-bars-paris-django-reinhardt |archive-date=20 March 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Moulin Rouge, Paris April 2011.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Moulin Rouge]] has hosted many singers including Parisian [[Édith Piaf]]]]
Immediately after the war, the [[Saint-Germain-des-Prés]] quarter and the nearby Saint-Michel quarter became home to many small jazz clubs, including the Caveau des Lorientais, the Club Saint-Germain, the Rose Rouge, the Vieux-Colombier, and the most famous, [[Le Tabou]]. They introduced Parisians to the music of [[Claude Luter]], [[Boris Vian]], [[Sydney Bechet]], [[Mezz Mezzrow]], and [[Henri Salvador]]. Most of the clubs closed by the early 1960s, as musical tastes shifted toward rock and roll.{{Sfn|Bezbakh|2004|page=872}}

Some of the finest [[manouche]] musicians in the world are found here playing the cafés of the city at night.<ref name="Gjazz"/> Some of the more notable jazz venues include the New Morning, Le Sunset, La Chope des Puces and Bouquet du Nord.{{sfn|Mroue|2006|p=260}}<ref name="Gjazz"/> Several yearly festivals take place in Paris, including the [[Paris Jazz Festival]] and the rock festival [[Rock en Seine]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Rock en Seine '13 |url=http://www.efestivals.co.uk/festivals/rockenseine/2013/ |publisher=Efestivals.co.uk |access-date=23 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513220755/http://www.efestivals.co.uk/festivals/rockenseine/2013 |archive-date=13 May 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Orchestre de Paris]] was established in 1967.<ref name=andante>{{cite web |author=Andante |date=2004 |title=Orchestre de Paris |publisher=Andante.com |url=http://www.andante.com/article/article.cfm?id=23207 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070312035555/http://www.andante.com/article/article.cfm?id=23207 |archive-date=12 March 2007 |access-date=3 July 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Édith Piaf]] is widely regarded as France's national [[Chanson|chanteuse]] and one of France's greatest international stars.<ref name="yahoomusicbio">{{AllMusic|class=artist|id=mn0000150629|tab=biography|label=Édith Piaf biography|first=Steve|last=Huey |access-date=22 December 2015}}</ref>

Paris has a big [[French hip hop|hip hop]] scene. This music became popular during the 1980s.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2013/10/14/is-france-becoming-too-american/hip-hop-a-la-francaise-29 |title=Hip-Hop à la Française |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=15 October 2013 |access-date=28 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151209163816/http://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2013/10/14/is-france-becoming-too-american/hip-hop-a-la-francaise-29 |archive-date=9 December 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Cinema===
{{See also|List of films set in Paris}}
[[File:Cinématographe Lumière.jpg|thumb|right|Poster for the [[Auguste and Louis Lumière|Lumière brothers]] 1895 film ''[[L'Arroseur Arrosé]]'', the earliest comedy, and the first film to portray a fictional story.]]
The movie industry was born in Paris when [[Auguste and Louis Lumière]] projected the first motion picture for a paying audience at the Grand Café on 28 December 1895.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/presentation-du-cinematographe-lumiere/ |title=PRÉSENTATION DU CINÉMATOGRAPHE LUMIÈRE |first=Encyclopædia |last=Universalis |website=Encyclopædia Universalis |date=27 March 2002 |access-date=14 May 2022 |archive-date=11 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011041100/https://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/presentation-du-cinematographe-lumiere/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Many of Paris's concert/dance halls were transformed into cinemas when the media became popular beginning in the 1930s. Paris's largest cinema room today is in the [[Grand Rex]] theatre with 2,700 seats.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Grand Rex ... and its Etoiles |url=http://www.english.rfi.fr/visiting-france/20101024-grand-rex-and-its-etoiles |website=RFI |date=24 October 2010 |access-date = 5 October 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151007024417/http://www.english.rfi.fr/visiting-france/20101024-grand-rex-and-its-etoiles |archive-date = 7 October 2015 |url-status = live}}</ref> Big multiplex cinemas have been built since the 1990s. UGC Ciné Cité Les Halles, with 27 screens, MK2 Bibliothèque with 20 screens, and UGC Ciné Cité Bercy with 18 screens are among the largest.<ref>{{cite web |title=Le Cinéma à Paris |url=http://www.paris.fr/services-et-infos-pratiques/culture-et-patrimoine/cinema/le-cinema-a-paris-2347 |publisher=Paris.fr |access-date = 5 October 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151016022258/http://www.paris.fr/services-et-infos-pratiques/culture-et-patrimoine/cinema/le-cinema-a-paris-2347 |archive-date = 16 October 2015 |url-status = live}}</ref>

Parisians tend to share the same movie-going trends as many of the world's global cities, with cinemas primarily dominated by Hollywood-generated film entertainment. [[Cinema of France|French cinema]] comes a close second, with major directors (''réalisateurs'') such as [[Claude Lelouch]], [[Jean-Luc Godard]], and [[Luc Besson]], and the more slapstick/popular genre with director [[Claude Zidi]] as an example.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/tamil/news-interviews/2-Tamil-Films-in-1st-SAFF-in-Paris/articleshow/17781374.cms |title=2 Tamil Films in 1st SAFF in Paris |date=27 December 2012 |access-date=2 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131114061103/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-12-27/news-interviews/36021870_1_tamil-films-screen-films-south-asian-films |archive-date=14 November 2013 |work=[[The Times of India]] |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Restaurants and cuisine===
{{See also|French cuisine}}
[[File:Le Zimmer, restaurant in Paris.jpg|thumb|Le Zimmer, on the [[Place du Châtelet]]]]
Since the late 18th century, Paris has been famous for its restaurants and ''[[haute cuisine]]'', food meticulously prepared and artfully presented. La Taverne Anglaise, opened in 1786 in the arcades of the [[Palais-Royal]] by [[Antoine Beauvilliers]]; it became a model for future luxury Paris restaurants. The restaurant [[Le Grand Véfour]] in the Palais-Royal dates from the same period.{{sfn|Fierro|1996|pp=1136–1138}} The famous Paris restaurants of the 19th century, including the Café de Paris, the [[Au Rocher de Cancale|Rocher de Cancale]], the [[Café Anglais]], [[Maison dorée (Paris)|Maison Dorée]] and the Café Riche, were mostly located near the theatres on the [[Boulevard des Italiens]]. Several of the best-known restaurants in Paris today appeared during the ''[[Belle Époque]]'', including [[Maxim's Paris|Maxim's]] on Rue Royale, [[Ledoyen]] in the gardens of the [[Champs-Élysées]], and the [[Tour d'Argent]] on the Quai de la Tournelle.{{sfn|Fierro|1996|p=1137}}

Today, owing to Paris's cosmopolitan population, every French regional cuisine and almost every national cuisine in the world can be found there; the city has more than 9,000 restaurants.{{sfn|Dominé|2014}} The [[Michelin Guide]] has been a standard guide to French restaurants since 1900, awarding its highest award, three stars, to the best restaurants in France. In 2018, of the 27 Michelin three-star restaurants in France, ten are located in Paris. These include both restaurants that serve classical French cuisine, such as [[L'Ambroisie]], and those that serve non-traditional menus, such as [[L'Astrance]], which combines French and Asian cuisines. Several of France's most famous chefs, including [[Pierre Gagnaire]], [[Alain Ducasse]], [[Yannick Alléno]], and [[Alain Passard]], have three-star restaurants in Paris.<ref>''Le Monde'', 2 February 2015</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://restaurant.michelin.fr |title=Michelin Guide |publisher=[[Michelin Guide]] |access-date=23 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141125110232/http://restaurant.michelin.fr/ |archive-date=25 November 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Lesdeuxmagots.jpg|thumb|left|{{lang|fr|[[Les Deux Magots]]|italic=no}} café on Boulevard Saint-Germain]]
Paris has several other kinds of traditional eating places. The [[Coffeehouse|café]] arrived in Paris in the 17th century, and by the 18th century, Parisian cafés were centres of the city's political and cultural life. The [[Café Procope]] on the Left Bank dates from this period. In the 20th century, the cafés of the Left Bank, especially [[Café de la Rotonde]] and [[Le Dôme Café]] in Montparnasse and [[Café de Flore]] and {{lang|fr|[[Les Deux Magots]]|italic=no}} on Boulevard Saint Germain, all still in business, were important meeting places for painters, writers and philosophers.{{sfn|Fierro|1996|p=1137}} A [[bistro]] is a type of eating place loosely defined as a neighbourhood restaurant with a modest decor and prices and a regular clientele, and a congenial atmosphere. Real bistros are increasingly rare in Paris, due to rising costs, competition, and different eating habits of Parisian diners.{{sfn|Fierro|1996|p=715}} A [[brasserie]] originally was a tavern located next to a brewery, which served beer and food at any hour. Beginning with the [[Paris Exposition of 1867]], it became a popular kind of restaurant which featured beer and other beverages served by young women in the national costume associated with the beverage. Now, brasseries, like cafés, serve food and drinks throughout the day.{{sfn|Fierro|1996|p=773}}

===Fashion===
{{Main|Fashion in Paris}}

[[File:Magdalena Frackowiak.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.75|[[Magdalena Frackowiak]] at [[Paris Fashion Week]] (Autumn 2011)]]
Since the 19th century, Paris has been an international [[fashion capital]], particularly in the domain of [[haute couture]] (clothing hand-made to order for private clients).<ref>{{cite web |last1=Carr-Allinson |first1=Rowena |title=11 Ways to Look like a Local in Paris |url=http://www.iexplore.com/destinations/paris/how-to-look-like-a-local-in-paris |website=iExplore.com |publisher=Inside-Out Media |access-date=16 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160924211810/http://www.iexplore.com/destinations/paris/how-to-look-like-a-local-in-paris |archive-date=24 September 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> It is home to some of the largest fashion houses in the world, including [[Christian Dior S.A.|Dior]] and [[Chanel]], as well as many other well-known and more contemporary fashion designers, such as [[Karl Lagerfeld]], [[Jean-Paul Gaultier]], [[Yves Saint Laurent (designer)|Yves Saint Laurent]], [[Givenchy]], and [[Christian Lacroix]]. [[Paris Fashion Week]], held in January and July in the [[Carrousel du Louvre]] among other renowned city locations, is one of the top four events on the international fashion calendar.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bradford |first1=Julie |title=Fashion Journalism |publisher=[[Routledge]] |date=2014 |page=129 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H2xeBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA129 |isbn=978-1-136-47536-8 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=H2xeBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA129 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Susan |last=Dillon |title=The Fundamentals of Fashion Management |publisher=A&C Black |date=2011 |page=115 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3XFMAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA115 |isbn=978-2-940411-58-0 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=3XFMAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA115 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> Moreover, Paris is also the home of the world's largest [[cosmetics]] company, [[L'Oréal]], as well as three of the top five global makers of luxury fashion accessories: [[Louis Vuitton]], [[Hermés]], and [[Cartier (jeweler)|Cartier]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.insidermonkey.com/blog/top-8-luxury-brands-in-the-world-317665/7/ |publisher=Insidermonkey.com |title=Global ranking of manufacturers of luxury goods |access-date=16 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150119134339/http://www.insidermonkey.com/blog/top-8-luxury-brands-in-the-world-317665/7/ |archive-date=19 January 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> Most of the major fashion designers have their showrooms along the [[Avenue Montaigne]], between the [[Champs-Élysées]] and the Seine.

===Photography===
The inventor [[Nicéphore Niépce]] produced the first permanent photograph on a polished pewter plate in Paris in 1825. In 1839, [[Louis Daguerre]] patented the [[Daguerrotype]], which became the most common form of photography until the 1860s.{{sfn|Michelin|2011}} The work of [[Étienne-Jules Marey]] in the 1880s contributed considerably to the development of modern photography. Photography came to occupy a central role in Parisian Surrealist activity, in the works of [[Man Ray]] and [[Maurice Tabard]].<ref>[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/phsr/hd_phsr.htm Department of Photographs, ''Photography and Surrealism'', Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150213005005/http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/phsr/hd_phsr.htm |date=13 February 2015 }}, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 2000.</ref>{{sfn|Hazan|2011|p=362}} Numerous photographers achieved renown for their photography of Paris, including [[Eugène Atget]], noted for his depictions of street scenes; [[Robert Doisneau]], noted for his playful pictures of people and market scenes (among which ''Le baiser de l'hôtel de ville'' has become iconic of the romantic vision of Paris); [[Marcel Bovis]], noted for his night scenes; [[Jacques-Henri Lartigue]]; and [[Henri Cartier-Bresson]].{{sfn|Michelin|2011}} [[Poster art]] also became an important art form in Paris in the late nineteenth century, through the work of [[Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec]], [[Jules Chéret]], [[Eugène Grasset]], [[Adolphe Willette]], [[Pierre Bonnard]], [[Georges de Feure]], [[Henri-Gabriel Ibels]], [[Paul Gavarni]] and [[Alphonse Mucha]].{{sfn|Michelin|2011}}

===Media===
[[File:Siège_Figaro,_14_boulevard_Haussmann,_Paris_9e.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.75|Founded in 1826, ''[[Le Figaro]]'' is still considered a [[newspaper of record]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Le Figaro |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |date=2 October 2023 |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/206556/Le-Figaro |access-date=25 July 2023 |archive-date=13 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141113062553/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/206556/Le-Figaro |url-status=live }}</ref>]]

Paris and its close suburbs are home to numerous newspapers, magazines and publications including ''[[Le Monde]]'', ''[[Le Figaro]]'', ''[[Libération]]'', ''[[Le Nouvel Observateur]]'', ''[[Le Canard enchaîné]]'', ''[[La Croix (newspaper)|La Croix]]'', ''[[Le Parisien]]'' (in [[Saint-Ouen, Seine-Saint-Denis|Saint-Ouen]]), ''[[Les Échos (France)|Les Échos]]'', ''Paris Match ([[Neuilly-sur-Seine]])'', ''Réseaux & Télécoms'', [[Reuters]] France, ''[[l'Équipe]]'' ([[Boulogne-Billancourt]]) and ''L'Officiel des Spectacles''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://french.about.com/od/newspapers/French_and_Francophone_Newspapers_and_Magazines.htm |title=French and Francophone Publications |work=About.com French Language |publisher=French.about.com |access-date=3 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513093151/http://french.about.com/od/newspapers/French_and_Francophone_Newspapers_and_Magazines.htm |archive-date=13 May 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> France's two most prestigious newspapers, ''Le Monde'' and ''Le Figaro'', are the centrepieces of the Parisian publishing industry.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://about-france.com/french-newspapers.htm |title=Paris's Top Newspapers |publisher=About-France.com |access-date=3 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130628080310/http://about-france.com/french-newspapers.htm |archive-date=28 June 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Agence France-Presse]] is France's oldest continually operating news agency and is headquartered in Paris.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.afp.com/en/ |title=Agence France-Presse |date=16 January 2012 |publisher=Agence France-Presse website |access-date=3 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130708144823/http://www.afp.com/en |archive-date=8 July 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[France 24]] is a television news channel owned and operated by the French government.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.france24.com/en/ |title=France 24 |publisher=France24.com |access-date=3 July 2013 |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20141015174237/http://www.france24.com/en/ |archive-date=15 October 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> France Diplomatie, owned and operated by the [[Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs (France)|Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs]], pertains solely to diplomatic news and occurrences.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/ |title=France Diplomatie |publisher=Diplomatie.gouv.fr |access-date=3 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130629133112/http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/ |archive-date=29 June 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The most-viewed network in France, [[TF1]], is in nearby [[Boulogne-Billancourt]]. [[France 2]], [[France 3]], [[Canal+ (French TV channel)|Canal+]], [[France 5]], [[M6 (TV channel)|M6]] ([[Neuilly-sur-Seine]]), [[Arte]], [[D8 (TV channel)|D8]], [[W9 (TV channel)|W9]], [[NT1 (TV channel)|NT1]], [[NRJ 12]], [[La Chaîne parlementaire]], [[France 4]], [[BFM TV]], and [[Gulli]] are other stations located in and around the capital.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://french.about.com/od/tv/French_and_Francophone_Television_Stations_Watch_French_TV.htm |title=French and Francophone TV Stations |work=About.com French Language |publisher=French.about.com |access-date=3 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130520074251/http://french.about.com/od/tv/French_and_Francophone_Television_Stations_Watch_French_TV.htm |archive-date=20 May 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Radio France]], France's public radio broadcaster, and its various channels, is headquartered in Paris's [[16th arrondissement of Paris|16th arrondissement]]. [[Radio France Internationale]], another public broadcaster, is also based in the city.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.listenlive.eu/france.html |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20171010073101/http://www.listenlive.eu/france.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=10 October 2017 |title=France's Radio Stations |publisher=Listenlive.eu |access-date=3 July 2013}}</ref> Paris also holds the headquarters of the [[La Poste (France)|La Poste]], France's national postal carrier.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.laposte.com |title=La Poste |publisher=Laposte.com |access-date=3 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130712042008/http://www.laposte.com/ |archive-date=12 July 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Holidays and festivals===
[[Bastille Day]], a celebration of the storming of the Bastille in 1789, the biggest festival in the city, is a military parade taking place every year on 14 July on the [[Champs-Élysées]], from the [[Arc de Triomphe]] to [[Place de la Concorde]]. It includes a [[flypast]] over the Champs Élysées by the [[Patrouille de France]], a parade of military units and equipment, and a display of fireworks in the evening, the most spectacular being the one at the Eiffel Tower.{{sfn|BlackmoreMcConnachie|2004|p=204}}

Other yearly festivals include [[Paris-Plages]], a festive summertime event when the Right Bank of the Seine is converted into a temporary beach;{{sfn|BlackmoreMcConnachie|2004|p=204}} [[European Heritage Days|Journées du Patrimoine]], [[Fête de la Musique]], Techno Parade, [[Nuit Blanche]], Cinéma au clair de lune, Printemps des rues, Festival d'automne, and Fête des jardins. The [[Paris Carnival|Carnaval de Paris]], one of the oldest festivals in Paris, dates back to the Middle Ages.

===Libraries===
{{Main|Libraries in Paris}}

The ''[[Bibliothèque nationale de France]]'' (BnF) operates public libraries in Paris, among them the François Mitterrand Library, Richelieu Library, Louvois, Opéra Library, and [[Bibliothèque de l'Arsenal|Arsenal Library]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bnf.fr/pages/zNavigat/frame/version_anglaise.htm?ancre=english.htm |title=How to find us |work=[[Bibliothèque nationale de France]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051016135133/http://www.bnf.fr/pages/zNavigat/frame/version_anglaise.htm?ancre=english.htm |archive-date=16 October 2005}}</ref>
[[File:Salle de lecture Bibliotheque Sainte-Genevieve n01.jpg|thumb|left|[[Sainte-Geneviève Library]]]]

The [[Bibliothèque Forney]], in the Marais district, is dedicated to the decorative arts; the Arsenal Library occupies a former military building, and has a large collection on French literature; and the [[Bibliothèque historique de la ville de Paris]], also in Le Marais, contains the Paris historical research service. The [[Sainte-Geneviève Library]], designed by [[Henri Labrouste]] and built in the mid-1800s, contains a rare book and manuscript division.<ref name=Woodward2006>{{cite news |last=Woodward |first=Richard B. |title=At These Parisian Landmarks, Shhh Is the Word |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/05/travel/05journeys.html |access-date=4 July 2013 |newspaper=The New York Times |date=5 March 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141214124549/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/05/travel/05journeys.html |archive-date=14 December 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Bibliothèque Mazarine]] is the oldest public library in France. The [[Médiathèque Musicale Mahler]] opened in 1986 and contains collections related to music. The François Mitterrand Library (nicknamed ''Très Grande Bibliothèque'') was completed in 1994 to a design of [[Dominique Perrault]] and contains four glass towers.<ref name=Woodward2006/>

There are several academic libraries and archives in Paris. The [[Bibliothèque de la Sorbonne|Sorbonne Library]] is the largest university library in Paris. In addition to the [[Sorbonne (building)|Sorbonne]] location, there are branches in Malesherbes, Clignancourt-Championnet, Michelet-[[Institut d'Art et d'Archéologie]], Serpente-Maison de la Recherche, and Institut des Etudes Ibériques.<ref>{{cite web |title=Paris-Sorbonne libraries |url=http://www.english.paris-sorbonne.fr/libraries/ |publisher=Paris-Sorbonne University |access-date=4 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130703101116/http://www.english.paris-sorbonne.fr/libraries/ |archive-date=3 July 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> Other academic libraries include Interuniversity Pharmaceutical Library, Leonardo da Vinci University Library, Paris School of Mines Library, and the René Descartes University Library.<ref name=nd.edu>{{cite web |title=French Libraries and Archives |url=http://www.library.nd.edu/help/study-abroad/France.shtml |publisher=University of Notre Dame, Hesburgh Libraries |access-date=5 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017053726/http://library.nd.edu/help/study-abroad/France.shtml |archive-date=17 October 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==Sports==
{{see also|Football in Paris}}
[[File:Le Paris Saint-Germain reçoit l'AS Monaco au Parc en Coupe de France le 26 avril 2017.jpg|thumb|right|[[Parc des Princes]], the stadium of Paris Saint-Germain]]
Paris's major sports clubs are the [[association football]] club [[Paris Saint-Germain F.C.]] (PSG)<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cox |first=Michael |date=1 October 2024 |title=London has several major football clubs. Why does Paris only have one? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/athletic/5805559/2024/10/01/london-paris-football-clubs-comparison/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250827122114/https://www.nytimes.com/athletic/5805559/2024/10/01/london-paris-football-clubs-comparison/ |archive-date=27 August 2025 |access-date=27 August 2025 |website=The Athletic |language=en}}</ref> and the [[rugby union]] clubs [[Stade Français]] and [[Racing 92]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Henson |first=Mike |date=5 February 2025 |title=Rugby union in France: How Massy changed the game in Paris |url=https://www.bbc.com/sport/rugby-union/articles/cwyewly51n6o |access-date=27 August 2025 |website=BBC Sport |language=en-GB}}</ref> The 80,000-seat [[Stade de France]], built for the [[1998 FIFA World Cup]], is located just north of Paris in the commune of [[Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis|Saint-Denis]].{{sfn|Lawrence|Gondrand|2010|pp=300–301}} It is used for football, rugby union, and track and field athletics. It hosts the [[France national football team]] for friendlies and major tournaments qualifiers, the [[France national rugby union team|French national rugby team]]'s home matches of the [[Six Nations Championship]], and several important matches of the Stade Français rugby team.{{sfn|Lawrence|Gondrand|2010|pp=300–301}} The city and closer suburbs have several other professional and amateur football clubs, including [[Paris FC]] and [[Red Star FC]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 May 2025 |title=Paris FC join PSG in Ligue 1 for 1st time in 46 yrs |url=https://www.espn.com/soccer/story/_/id/44971242/paris-fc-promotion-psg-ligue-1-1st-1979-france |access-date=27 August 2025 |website=ESPN |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=3 May 2016 |title=The football club founded by Jules Rimet battles its way back |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-36195987 |access-date=27 August 2025 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref>

[[Rugby league]] is not as popular in Paris as in other areas of France. Despite this, the capital has hosted several major events in the sport's history since the country's first game, an exhibition match between the [[Australia national rugby league team|Australia national team]] and a [[Rugby Football League|British League]] Select XIII, in December 1933. The [[Rugby League World Cup]] was first held in [[1954 Rugby League World Cup|1954]] with the [[Parc des Princes#Second stadium (1932–1972)|Parc des Princes]] hosting the opening match and the [[1954 Rugby League World Cup final|final]] in which {{rlnt|France}} finished as runners-up to {{rlnt|Great Britain}}. The newly rebuilt [[Parc des Princes]] was later used for a group game of the [[1972 Rugby League World Cup]]. A [[Paris Saint-Germain Rugby League|rugby league department]] of PSG was created to participate in the [[Super League]].<ref>{{cite web |date= 25 March 2025 |title=Locations of League: Paris |url=https://www.totalrl.com/locations-of-league-paris/ |access-date=
24 April 2025 |publisher=TotalRugbyLeague}}</ref> In 2006, [[Catalans Dragons]] became the first French side to enter the [[British rugby league system]] following PSG's withdrawal.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.wigantoday.net/sport/rugby-league/wigan-warriors/wigan-warriors-and-catalans-dragons-progress-paris-plans-for-2026-5074136 |title=Wigan Warriors and Catalans Dragons progress Paris plans for 2026 |work=Wigan Today |last=Darbyshire |first=Drew |date=8 April 2025 |access-date=15 May 2025}}</ref>

Paris was the first city to host the [[Summer Olympic Games|Summer Olympics]] twice and the second to host three times, hosting in [[1900 Summer Olympics|1900]], [[1924 Summer Olympics|1924]] and [[2024 Summer Olympics|2024]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 July 2024 |title=From Paris to Tahiti: All to know about the Olympics 2024 venues |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/sports/2024/7/17/location-events-history-all-to-know-about-the-paris-2024-olympics-venues |access-date=26 August 2025 |website=Al Jazeera |language=en}}</ref> The city also hosted the finals of the [[1938 FIFA World Cup final|1938 FIFA World Cup]], [[1998 FIFA World Cup final|1998 FIFA World Cup]], [[2007 Rugby World Cup Final|2007 Rugby World Cup]] and [[2023 Rugby World Cup final|2023 Rugby World Cup]], at the Stade de France. Paris hosted the finals of the [[1960 European Nations' Cup final|1960]], [[UEFA Euro 1984 final|1984]] and [[UEFA Euro 2016 final|2016]] UEFA European Championships.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 January 2023 |title=EURO 2016: All you need to know |url=https://www.uefa.com/uefaeuro/history/news/025a-0ec0db63e375-e3d06be8c923-1000--euro-2016-all-you-need-to-know/ |access-date=6 June 2024 |publisher=[[UEFA]]}}</ref> Paris held six [[UEFA Champions League]] finals, including the [[2022 UEFA Champions League Final|2022]] edition.<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 June 2025 |title=UEFA Champions League Finals 1956-2025 |url=https://www.rsssf.org/ec/ec1stats.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250815010722/https://www.rsssf.org/ec/ec1stats.html |archive-date=15 August 2025 |access-date=27 August 2025 |website=[[RSSSF]]}}</ref>
[[File:Tour de france 2010 - Champs Elysées n10.jpg|thumb|left|2010 Tour de France, [[Champs Élysées]]]]

The final stage of the [[Tour de France]] finishes in Paris; since 1975, the race has [[Champs-Élysées stage in the Tour de France|finished on the Champs-Elysées]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.letour.fr/le-tour/2013/us/overall-route.html |title=2013 route |work=Le Tour |access-date=21 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130517063542/http://www.letour.fr/le-tour/2013/us/overall-route.html |archive-date=17 May 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Two annual [[tennis]] tournaments are held in Paris: the [[French Open]], held every year on the [[red clay]] of the [[Stade Roland Garros]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Roland-Garros |url=http://www.rolandgarros.com/en_FR/ |publisher=Roland Garros |access-date=21 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130415075857/http://www.rolandgarros.com/en_FR/ |archive-date=15 April 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> one of the four [[Grand Slam (tennis)|Grand Slam]] events of the world professional tennis tour, and the [[Paris Masters]], held in the [[AccorHotels Arena|Bercy Arena]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Schwager-Patel |first=Nischal |date=25 October 2024 |title=Paris Masters 2024: Preview, full schedule, and how to watch live men's tour action with crucial ATP Finals ranking points available |url=https://www.olympics.com/en/news/paris-masters-2024-preview-schedule-watch |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241108115447/https://olympics.com/en/news/paris-masters-2024-preview-schedule-watch |archive-date=8 November 2024 |access-date=27 August 2025 |website=Olympics |language=en }}</ref>

[[Basketball]] teams [[Levallois Sporting Club Basket|Levallois SCB]] and [[Paris Basket Racing]] merged in 2007 to create club [[Metropolitans 92]], which plays some of its games at the [[Stade Pierre de Coubertin (Paris)|Stade Pierre de Coubertin]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://equipement.paris.fr/stade-pierre-de-coubertin-3024 |title=Stade Pierre de Coubertin (Paris) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713191550/http://equipement.paris.fr/stade-pierre-de-coubertin-3024 |archive-date=13 July 2017 |publisher=Équipement-Paris |access-date=4 April 2017}}</ref> Paris also features [[Paris Basketball]] in Basketball,<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2025 |title=EuroCup |url=https://www.euroleaguebasketball.net/eurocup/teams/paris-basketball/prs/ |access-date=27 August 2025 |website=Euroleague Basketball |language=en-GB}}</ref> [[Paris Saint-Germain Handball|Paris Saint-Germain]] in [[handball]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Histoire {{!}} Club {{!}} PSG Handball |url=http://www.psghand.fr/fr/club/histoire-33.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160115142149/http://www.psghand.fr/fr/club/histoire-33.html |archive-date=15 January 2016 |access-date=27 August 2025 |website=www.psghand.fr |language=fr-FR}}</ref> and [[Paris Musketeers]] in [[American football]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Paris Football Team {{!}} The Paris Football Team is an American football franchise of the European League of Football, based in Paris, France. |url=https://www.parisfootballteam.com/ |access-date=23 September 2022 |language=en-US |archive-date=23 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220923203752/https://www.parisfootballteam.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Infrastructure==
===Transport===
{{Main|Transport in Paris}}

[[File:Eurostar_Paris_Gare_du_Nord_Station,_8_October_2011.jpg|thumb|The [[Gare du Nord]] railway station is the busiest in Europe.]]
Paris is a major rail, highway, and air transport hub. The [[Île-de-France Mobilités]] (IDFM) oversees the transit network in the region.<ref name="stif">{{cite web |url=http://www.stif-idf.fr |title=Le web des voyageurs franciliens |author=Syndicat des Transports d'Île-de-France (STIF) |access-date=10 April 2006 |language=fr |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060411124843/http://www.stif-idf.fr/ |archive-date=11 April 2006}}</ref> The syndicate coordinates public transport. The [[RATP Group|RATP]] operates 347 [[Bus (RATP)|bus]] lines, the [[Paris Métro|Métro]], eight tramway lines, and sections of the RER. The [[SNCF]] operates suburban rails, one tramway line, and other sections of the RER. The [[Optile]] consortium of private operators manages 1,176 bus lines.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.optile.com/notre-mission/ |title=Optile en bref |publisher=Optile |access-date=27 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208081030/http://www.optile.com/notre-mission/ |archive-date=8 December 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Paris has one of the most [[Sustainable transport|sustainable]] transportation systems in the world<ref name=ICLEI>{{cite web |last1=Zhang |first1=Yiqian |title=Paris leads the way for sustainable urban mobility |url=https://sustainablemobility.iclei.org/paris-leads-the-way-for-sustainable-mobility/ |website=ICLEI – Sustainable Mobility, 2024 |date=26 November 2019 |access-date=7 January 2024 |archive-date=7 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240107143059/https://sustainablemobility.iclei.org/paris-leads-the-way-for-sustainable-mobility/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and is one of only two cities that received the [[Sustainable Transport Award]] twice, in 2008 and 2023.<ref name=Award>{{cite web |title=Paris, France Honored with the 2023 Sustainable Transport Award |url=https://www.itdp.org/2023/01/10/paris-2023-sustainable-transport-award/ |website=Institute for Transportation & Development policy |date=10 January 2023 |access-date=7 January 2024 |archive-date=7 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240107142955/https://www.itdp.org/2023/01/10/paris-2023-sustainable-transport-award/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2022–2023, 53.3% of trips in Paris were made on foot, 30% on public transport, 11.2% on bicycles and 4.3% on cars.<ref>{{cite news |title=Bikes overtake cars as means of transport in Paris |url=https://www.thelocal.fr/20240412/bikes-overtake-cars-as-means-of-transport-in-paris |access-date=15 May 2024 |agency=[[The Local]]|publisher=AFP |date=12 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240515153251/https://www.thelocal.fr/20240412/bikes-overtake-cars-as-means-of-transport-in-paris |archive-date=15 May 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Frost |first1=Rosie |title=Cycling is now more popular than driving in the centre of Paris, study finds |url=https://www.euronews.com/green/2024/04/12/cycling-is-now-more-popular-than-driving-in-the-centre-of-paris-study-finds |access-date=15 May 2024 |agency=Euronews |date=12 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240619165308/https://www.euronews.com/green/2024/04/12/cycling-is-now-more-popular-than-driving-in-the-centre-of-paris-study-finds |archive-date=19 June 2024}}</ref> Paris has banned the most polluting automobiles from key districts<ref>{{Cite web |title=5 reasons the world looks to Europe's cities |url=https://www.eib.org/en/stories/future-european-cities |access-date=7 June 2021 |website=European Investment Bank |language=en |archive-date=7 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210607154103/https://www.eib.org/en/stories/future-european-cities |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=McMahon |first=Jeff |title=How Bike Lanes Are Transforming Paris |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/jeffmcmahon/2019/12/28/how-bike-lanes-are-transforming-paris/ |access-date=7 June 2021 |website=Forbes |language=en |archive-date=7 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210607154047/https://www.forbes.com/sites/jeffmcmahon/2019/12/28/how-bike-lanes-are-transforming-paris/ |url-status=live}}</ref> and is doubling bike lanes. The concept of the [[15-minute city]] was created by [[Carlos Moreno (urbanist)|Carlos Moreno]], a professor from Paris, and began to be implemented by its mayor [[Anne Hidalgo]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Maassen |first1=Anne |title=Paris' Vision for a '15-Minute City' Sparks a Global Movement |url=https://www.wri.org/insights/paris-15-minute-city |website=World Resource Institute |date=25 January 2023 |access-date=4 April 2025}}</ref>

==== Walking ====
Paris is a highly [[walkable]] city and tries to increase its mode share beyond<ref>{{cite news |last1=Limb |first1=Lottie |date=16 June 2024 |title=The time of the whole car city is over': How is Paris encouraging walking and cycling? |url=https://www.euronews.com/green/2024/06/16/the-time-of-the-whole-car-city-is-over-how-is-paris-encouraging-walking-and-cycling |access-date=4 April 2025 |agency=Euronews}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Peters |first1=Adele |date=9 May 2024 |title=How Paris became a 15-minute city |url=https://www.fastcompany.com/91119919/how-paris-became-a-15-minute-city |access-date=4 April 2025 |website=Fast Company}}</ref> 53% of all trips in 2024.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Walker |first1=Jim |title=Why walking and public transport must be integrated |url=https://www.uitp.org/news/why-walking-and-public-transport-must-be-integrated/ |website=The International Association for public transport. |access-date=4 April 2025}}</ref> The number of trips made by foot in the Grand Paris metropolis increased by 50% from 2000 to 2018.<ref>{{cite web |author1=Apur |title=Mobility changes in Greater Paris -Grand Paris- Historical trends, current and emerging developments |url=https://www.apur.org/en/our-works/mobility-changes-greater-paris-grand-paris-historical-trends-current-and-emerging-developments |website=Apur, the Paris Urbanism Agency |date=8 June 2021 |access-date=4 April 2025}}</ref>

====Railways====
{{See also|List of Paris railway stations}}
{{main|Paris Métro|Réseau Express Régional|Transilien|Tramways in Île-de-France}}

[[File:Paris - Station de métro Abbesses - PA00086748 - 001.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Paris Métro]] is the busiest subway network in the European Union.]]

A central hub of the national rail network, Paris's six major railway stations ([[Gare du Nord]], [[Gare de l'Est]], [[Gare de Lyon]], [[Gare d'Austerlitz]], [[Gare Montparnasse]], [[Gare Saint-Lazare]]) and a minor one ([[Gare de Bercy]]) are connected to three networks: [[high-speed rail]] lines ([[TGV|TGV inOui]], [[TGV Lyria]], [[Ouigo|TGV Ouigo]], [[Eurostar]], [[Intercity Express]], [[Frecciarossa]]), normal speed trains ([[Intercités]], [[Ouigo|Ouigo Train Classique]], [[Intercités de nuit]], [[European Sleeper]], [[Transport express régional|TER]]), and the suburban rails ([[Transilien]]). The Transilien is the [[commuter rail]] network serving [[Île-de-France|Paris region]], through 9 lines, 392 stations and {{cvt|1,294|km|mi|1}} of rails.

Since the inauguration of its first line in 1900, Paris's Métro network has grown to become the city's most widely used local transport system. In 2015, it carried about 5.23 million passengers daily.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ratp.fr/en/ratp/c_5043/metro/ |title=Métro2030, notre nouveau métro de Paris |publisher=RATP |access-date=27 November 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095822/http://www.ratp.fr/en/ratp/c_5043/metro/ |archive-date=1 January 2016}}</ref> There are 16 lines, 321 stations (405 stops) and {{cvt|245.6|km|mi|1}} of rails. Superimposed on this is a [[Réseau Express Régional|regional express network]], the RER, whose five lines, 257 stops, and {{cvt|602|km|mi|0}} of rails connect Paris to more distant parts of the urban area. With over 1.4 million passengers per day, [[RER A]] is the busiest metro line in Europe. The [[Île-de-France|Paris region]] is served by [[Tramways in Île-de-France|a light rail network, the tramway]]. Opened in 1992, fifteen lines are now operational, spanning {{convert|196.6|km|mi}} with 283 stations.

====Air====
[[File:CDG P1020431.JPG|thumb|In 2023, [[Charles de Gaulle Airport]] was the third-busiest airport in Europe and the eleventh-busiest airport in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.panynj.gov/content/dam/airports/statistics/statistics-general-info/annual-atr/ATR_2023.pdf|title=2023 Airport Traffic Report|work=Port Authority of New York and New Jersey|date=April 2024|page=32}}</ref>]]

Paris is served by three commercial international airports: [[Charles de Gaulle Airport]], the [[List of the busiest airports in Europe|third-busiest airport in Europe]] {{as of|2018|lc=y}},<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/travel/flights/todayinthesky/2018/04/09/list-worlds-20-busiest-airports-2017/498552002/ |title=List: The world's 20 busiest airports (2017) |work=USA Today |access-date=2 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180625213204/https://www.usatoday.com/story/travel/flights/todayinthesky/2018/04/09/list-worlds-20-busiest-airports-2017/498552002/ |archive-date=25 June 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.airport-world.com/news/general-news/6601-aci-figures-reveal-the-world-s-busiest-passenger-and-cargo-airports.html |title=ACI reveals the world's busiest passenger and cargo airports |date=9 April 2018 |work=Airport World |access-date=2 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180628125151/http://www.airport-world.com/news/general-news/6601-aci-figures-reveal-the-world-s-busiest-passenger-and-cargo-airports.html |archive-date=28 June 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Orly Airport]] and [[Beauvais–Tillé Airport]]. In 2019, these three airports recorded traffic of 112 million passengers,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/sites/default/files/Bulletin_Statistique_2014.pdf |title=Bulletin statistique, trafic aérien commercial – année 2014 |page=15 |publisher=Direction générale de l'Aviation civile |access-date=28 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170329083555/http://www.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/sites/default/files/Bulletin_Statistique_2014.pdf |archive-date=29 March 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> making them the [[World's busiest city airport systems by passenger traffic|5th busiest airport system in the world]]. There is also one [[general aviation]] airport, [[Paris–Le Bourget Airport]], historically the oldest Parisian airport and closest to the city centre, which is now used only for private business flights and air shows. Charles de Gaulle Airport, located on the edge of the northern suburbs of Paris, opened to commercial traffic in 1974 and became the busiest Parisian airport in 1993.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.side.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/EXPLOITATION/DEFAULT/doc/IFD/IFD_REFDOC_TEMIS_0077449/trafic-aeroportuaire-1986-2012-flux-de-trafic-commercial-1986-2012 |title=Trafic aéroportuaire 1986–2013 |pages=15–17 |publisher=Direction générale de l'Aviation civile |access-date=27 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405170444/http://www.side.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/EXPLOITATION/DEFAULT/doc/IFD/IFD_REFDOC_TEMIS_0077449/trafic-aeroportuaire-1986-2012-flux-de-trafic-commercial-1986-2012 |archive-date=5 April 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2023, it was the [[List of busiest airports by international passenger traffic|4th busiest airport in the world by international traffic]] and it is the hub for the nation's [[flag carrier]], [[Air France]].{{sfn|Lawrence|Gondrand|2010|pp=278–283}} Beauvais-Tillé Airport, located {{cvt|69|km|abbr=off}} north of Paris's city centre, is used by charter airlines and [[low-cost carriers]].

====Motorways====
[[File:Boulevard_Périphérique_vu_depuis_Boulevard_Auteuil_-_Paris_XVI_(FR75)_-_2021-08-11_-_3.jpg|thumb|The [[Boulevard Périphérique]]]]
Paris is the most important hub of France's [[motorway]] network, and is surrounded by three orbital freeways: the [[Périphérique (Paris)|Périphérique]],{{sfn|Lawrence|Gondrand|2010|p=69}} which follows the approximate path of 19th-century fortifications around Paris, the [[A86 autoroute|A86]] motorway in the inner suburbs, and the [[Francilienne]] motorway in the outer suburbs. Paris has an extensive road network with over {{cvt|2000|km|mi|0}} of highways and motorways.

====Waterways====
The Paris region is the most active water transport area in France. Most of the cargo is handled by the [[Autonomous Port of Paris|Ports of Paris]], in facilities located around Paris. The rivers [[Loire]], [[Rhine]], [[Rhône]], [[Meuse]], and [[Scheldt]] can be reached by canals connecting with the Seine, which include the [[Canal Saint-Martin]], [[Canal Saint-Denis]], and the Canal de l'Ourcq.{{sfn|Jefferson|2009|p=114}}

====Cycling====
[[File:Station Velib DSC 3497.JPG|thumb|[[Vélib']] at the [[Place de la Bastille]]]]
There are {{cvt|440|km}} of [[Cycling in Paris|cycle paths and routes in Paris]]. These include ''piste cyclable'', bike lanes separated from other traffic by physical barriers, and ''bande cyclable'', a bicycle lane denoted by a painted path on the road). Some {{cvt|29|km}} of specially marked bus lanes are free for use by cyclists, with a protective barrier against encroachments from vehicles.{{sfn|Hart|2004|p=355}} Cyclists have the right to ride in both directions on certain one-way streets. Paris has a [[community bicycle program|bike sharing]] system called [[Vélib']] with more than 20,000 public bicycles distributed at 1,800 parking stations.{{sfn|Rand|2010|p=165}}

===Electricity===
{{See also|Electricity sector in France}}
In 2012, around 50% of electricity generated in the [[Île-de-France]] came from cogeneration energy plants. Other energy sources included thermal power (35%), waste incineration (9% – with cogeneration plants, these provide the city with heat as well), methane gas (5%), hydraulics (1%), and solar power (0.1%).<ref name="prod_electrique_IDF">{{cite web |url=http://www.driee.ile-de-france.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/Seminaire_du_6_mars_2012_-_Presentations_Approvisionnement_electrique_du_Grand_Paris__cle2dcb2f-1.pdf |title=La production électrique en IdF |publisher=La DRIEE – Prefet de la région d'Île-de-France |access-date=11 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151007034916/http://www.driee.ile-de-france.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/Seminaire_du_6_mars_2012_-_Presentations_Approvisionnement_electrique_du_Grand_Paris__cle2dcb2f-1.pdf |archive-date=7 October 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> A quarter of the city's [[district heating]] is to come from a plant in [[Saint-Ouen-sur-Seine]], burning a 50/50-mix of coal and [[wood pellets]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.globalwoodmarketsinfo.com/paris-to-import-wood-pellets-from-the-us/ |title=Paris to be heated with US wood pellets |work=Global Wood Markets Info |access-date=11 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160312072201/http://www.globalwoodmarketsinfo.com/paris-to-import-wood-pellets-from-the-us/ |archive-date=12 March 2016 |url-status=live |date=11 March 2016}}</ref>

===Water and sanitation===
[[File:Ile de la Cite from Pont de la Tournelle.jpg|thumb|The Seine, the [[Île de la Cité]] and a [[Bateau Mouche]]]]
Paris in its early history had only the rivers Seine and [[Bièvre (river)|Bièvre]] for water. From 1809, the [[Canal de l'Ourcq]] provided Paris with water from less-polluted rivers to the north-east of the capital.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.paris.fr/pratique/musees-expos/musee-des-egouts/visite-publique-des-egouts-de-paris/rub_9691_stand_5943_port_23931 |title=Historique des égouts |access-date=18 June 2013 |language=fr |publisher=Paris.fr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140410232647/http://www.paris.fr/pratique/musees-expos/musee-des-egouts/visite-publique-des-egouts-de-paris/rub_9691_stand_5943_port_23931 |archive-date=10 April 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref> From 1857, the civil engineer [[Eugène Belgrand]], under [[Napoleon III]], oversaw the construction of a series of new aqueducts that brought water from locations all around the city to several reservoirs.{{sfn|Burchell|1971|p=93}}

From then on, the new reservoir system became Paris's principal source of drinking water. The remains of the old system, pumped into lower levels of the same reservoirs, were from then on used for the cleaning of Paris's streets. This system is still a major part of Paris's water-supply network. Today, Paris has more than {{cvt|2400|km|0}} of underground sewers.<ref name="sewers">{{cite web |url=http://www.paris.fr/portail/Environnement/Portal.lut?page_id=1313&document_type_id=5&document_id=2158&portlet_id=3139 |title=Les égouts parisiens |website=Mairie de Paris |access-date=15 May 2006 |language=fr |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061003225317/http://www.paris.fr/portail/Environnement/Portal.lut?page_id=1313&document_type_id=5&document_id=2158&portlet_id=3139 |archive-date=3 October 2006}}</ref>

[[Air pollution]] in Paris, from the point of view of [[Particulates|particulate matter]] (PM10), is the highest in France with 38 μg/m3.<ref>[http://www.linternaute.com/actualite/monde/classement-des-villes-selon-pollution-de-l-air/ Air pollution in Paris] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120924012702/http://www.linternaute.com/actualite/monde/classement-des-villes-selon-pollution-de-l-air/ |date=24 September 2012 }} according to L'internaute</ref> Paris has one of the highest levels of nitrogen dioxide pollution in the EU.<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 December 2021 |title=Air pollution in Europe: These are the worst-hit cities to live in |url=https://www.euronews.com/green/2021/12/24/air-pollution-new-report-shows-which-european-cities-have-the-worst-air-quality |access-date=1 April 2022 |website=euronews |language=en |archive-date=1 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401104131/https://www.euronews.com/green/2021/12/24/air-pollution-new-report-shows-which-european-cities-have-the-worst-air-quality |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Parks and gardens===
{{Main|List of parks and gardens in Paris|History of Parks and Gardens of Paris}}

[[File:Parc des Buttes-Chaumont, 22 April 2007.jpg|thumb|The lawns of the [[Parc des Buttes-Chaumont]] on a sunny day]]

Paris has more than 421 municipal parks and gardens, covering more than 3,000 hectares and containing more than 250,000 trees.{{Sfn|Jarrassé|2007|p=6}} Two of Paris's oldest and most famous gardens are the [[Tuileries Garden]], created in 1564 for the [[Tuileries Palace]] and redone by [[André Le Nôtre]] between 1664 and 1672,{{sfn|Lawrence|Gondrand|2010|p=125}} and the [[Luxembourg Garden]], for the [[Luxembourg Palace]], built for [[Marie de' Medici]] in 1612, which today houses the [[Senate (France)|Senate]].{{sfn|Lawrence|Gondrand|2010|p=208}} The ''[[Jardin des plantes]]'' was the first botanical garden in Paris, created in 1626.<ref>{{cite web |title=Le Jardin de Plantes |url=http://www.mnhn.fr/museum/foffice/tous/tous/guidePratique/lieuxVisiter/LieuxAVisiter/FLieuAVisiter.xsp?AE_ID=214&INFO_ID=21&LIEU_ID=158&MAN_ID=273&SITE_ID=10&i=1&idx=6&nav=liste |access-date=22 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130615203149/http://www.mnhn.fr/museum/foffice/tous/tous/guidePratique/lieuxVisiter/LieuxAVisiter/FLieuAVisiter.xsp?i=1&nav=liste&INFO_ID=21&SITE_ID=10&AE_ID=214&LIEU_ID=158&idx=6&MAN_ID=273 |archive-date=15 June 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Between 1853 and 1870, Emperor [[Napoleon III]] and the city's first director of parks and gardens, [[Jean-Charles Adolphe Alphand]], created the [[Bois de Boulogne]], [[Bois de Vincennes]], [[Parc Montsouris]] and [[Parc des Buttes-Chaumont]], located at the four compass points around Paris, as well as many smaller parks, squares and gardens in the Paris's quarters.{{Sfn|Jarrassé|2007|pp=122–161}} Since 1977, the city has created 166 new parks, most notably the [[Parc de la Villette]] (1987), [[Parc André Citroën]] (1992), [[Parc de Bercy]] (1997) and [[Parc Clichy-Batignolles – Martin-Luther-King|Parc Clichy-Batignolles]] (2007).{{Sfn|Jarrassé|2007|pp=242–256}} One of the newest parks, the [[Promenade des Berges de la Seine]] (2013), has floating gardens.

===Cemeteries===
[[File:Catacombes De Paris.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Catacombs of Paris|Paris Catacombs]] hold the remains of approximately 6 million people.]]
During the Roman era, Paris's main cemetery was located on the outskirts of the [[Rive Gauche|left bank]] settlement. This changed with the rise of Catholic Christianity, where almost every inner-city church had adjoining burial grounds for use by their parishes. With Paris's growth, many of these, particularly the city's largest cemetery, the [[Holy Innocents' Cemetery]], were filled to overflowing. When inner-city burials were condemned from 1786, the contents of all Paris's parish cemeteries were transferred to a renovated section of [[Mines of Paris|Paris's stone mines]], today [[place Denfert-Rochereau]] in the 14th arrondissement.{{sfn|Whaley|2012|p=101}}{{sfn|Broadwell|2007|p=92}}

After a tentative creation of several smaller suburban cemeteries, the Prefect Nicholas Frochot under [[Napoleon]] Bonaparte provided a more definitive solution in the creation of three massive Parisian cemeteries outside the city limits.{{sfn|Ayers|2004|p=271}} Open from 1804, these were the cemeteries of [[Père Lachaise Cemetery|Père Lachaise]], [[Montmartre Cemetery|Montmartre]], [[Montparnasse Cemetery|Montparnasse]], and later [[Passy Cemetery|Passy]]. New suburban cemeteries were created in the early 20th century: The largest of these are the [[Saint-Ouen Cemetery|Cimetière parisien de Saint-Ouen]], the [[Cimetière parisien de Pantin]], also known as Cimetière parisien de [[Pantin]]-[[Bobigny]], the Cimetière parisien d'[[Ivry-sur-Seine|Ivry]], and the Cimetière parisien de [[Bagneux, Hauts-de-Seine|Bagneux]].<ref name="Parisian Cemeteries">{{cite web |title=Les 20 cimetières Parisiens |url=http://www.paris.fr/cimetieres |publisher=Paris.fr |access-date=4 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405170430/http://www.paris.fr/cimetieres |archive-date=5 April 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> Famous people buried in Parisian cemeteries include [[Oscar Wilde]], [[Frédéric Chopin]], [[Jim Morrison]], [[Édith Piaf]] and [[Serge Gainsbourg]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Les célébrités du cimetière du Père Lachaise à Paris |url=https://www.oui.sncf/article/les-tombes-de-celebrites-au-cimetiere-du-pere-lachaise-106832 |website=www.oui.sncf |date=7 November 2018 |language=fr |access-date=20 April 2020 |archive-date=14 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200414034945/https://www.oui.sncf/article/les-tombes-de-celebrites-au-cimetiere-du-pere-lachaise-106832 |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Education===
{{Main|Education in Paris}}

[[File:Chapelle_Sainte-Ursule_de_la_Sorbonne,_Paris_001.jpg|upright=0.75|thumb|The [[Sorbonne University]]]]
In 2009, around 40 percent of Parisians held a ''[[Licence (France)|licence]]''-level diploma or higher, the highest proportion in France.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/detail.asp?reg_id=99&ref_id=base-indic-cc-dipl-form |title=Indicateurs départementaux et régionaux sur les diplômes et la formation en 2009 |publisher=INSEE |access-date=29 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130910144530/http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/detail.asp?reg_id=99&ref_id=base-indic-cc-dipl-form |archive-date=10 September 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> 13 percent have no diploma, the third-lowest percentage in France. Education in Paris and the Île-de-France region employs approximately 330,000 people, 170,000 of whom are teachers and professors, teaching approximately 2.9 million students in around 9,000 primary, secondary, and higher education schools and institutions.<ref name="idf_education">{{cite web |url=http://www.idf.pref.gouv.fr/donnees/enseignement.htm |author=La Préfecture de la Région d'Île-de-France |title=L'enseignement |access-date=9 October 2007 |archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20070824203147/http://www.idf.pref.gouv.fr/donnees/enseignement.htm |archive-date = 24 August 2007 |language=fr}}</ref>

The [[University of Paris]], founded in the 12th century, is often called the [[University of Paris|Sorbonne]] after one of its original medieval colleges. In 1970, it was broken up into [[List of universities and institutions in the Paris region|thirteen autonomous universities]] following the [[May 68|student demonstrations in 1968]]. Most of the campuses today are in the [[Latin Quarter, Paris|Latin Quarter]], where the old university was located, while others are scattered around the city and the suburbs.{{sfn|Combeau|2013|pages=213–214}}

The Paris region hosts France's highest concentration of the ''[[grandes écoles]]'' – 55 specialised centres of higher education outside or inside the public university structure. The prestigious public universities are usually considered ''[[grands établissements]]''. Most of the ''grandes écoles'' were relocated to the suburbs of Paris in the 1960s and 1970s, in new campuses much larger than the old campuses within the crowded City of Paris. The [[École Normale Supérieure]], [[Paris Sciences et Lettres University|PSL University]] has remained on rue d'Ulm in the [[5th arrondissement of Paris|5th arrondissement]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ens.fr/spip.php?article171&lang=en |title=Contact and Maps |access-date=18 June 2013 |language=fr |publisher=[[École Normale Supérieure]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130607052638/http://www.ens.fr/spip.php?article171&lang=en |archive-date=7 June 2013}}</ref>

Paris is the home of prestigious universities in science and technology ([[Conservatoire national des arts et métiers]], [[Polytechnic Institute of Paris]], [[Paris Cité University]], [[Paris-Saclay University]], [[Sorbonne University]]), political science ([[Sciences Po]]),<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.planetegrandesecoles.com/classement-qs-2024-politics |author=Planête grandes écoles |title=Classement QS 2024 : Sciences Po devient la 2ème meilleure université mondiale en "Politics" |date=16 April 2024 |access-date=8 May 2024 |language=fr}}</ref> management ([[HEC Paris]], [[ESSEC Business School]], [[ESCP Business School]], [[INSEAD]])<ref>{{cite web |url=https://rankings.ft.com/rankings/2954/european-business-school-rankings-2023 |author=[[Financial Times]] |title=European Business School Rankings 2023 |access-date=8 May 2024 |language=en}}</ref> as well as multidisciplinary universities ([[Paris Sciences et Lettres University]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.shanghairanking.com/rankings/arwu/2023 |author=[[Academic Ranking of World Universities|ARWU]] |title=2023 Academic Ranking of World Universities |access-date=8 May 2024 |language=en}}</ref>

===Healthcare===
[[File:Hôtel-Dieu de Paris, February 7, 2013.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|The [[Hôtel-Dieu de Paris]] is the oldest hospital in Paris.]]
Health care and emergency medical service in the City of Paris and its suburbs are provided by the [[Assistance publique – Hôpitaux de Paris]] (AP-HP), a public hospital system that employs more than 90,000 people, including practitioners, support personnel, and administrators, in 44 hospitals.<ref name="hospital"/> It is the largest hospital system in Europe. The hospitals receive more than 5.8 million annual patient visits.<ref name="hospital">{{cite web |url=http://rapport-activite.aphp.fr/activite_ambulatoire.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140327062949/http://rapport-activite.aphp.fr/activite_ambulatoire.php |archive-date=27 March 2014 |title=Rapport Annuel 2008 |publisher=Rapport Activite |access-date=21 April 2013 |language=fr |url-status=dead}}</ref>

One of the most notable hospitals is the [[Hôtel-Dieu de Paris|Hôtel-Dieu]], founded in 651, the oldest hospital in Paris and the oldest worldwide still operating,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/broughttolife/people/hoteldieu.aspx |title=Hotel Dieu |publisher=London Science Museum |access-date=21 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508100917/http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/broughttolife/people/hoteldieu.aspx |archive-date=8 May 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> although the current building is the product of a reconstruction of 1877. Other hospitals include [[Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital]], one of the largest in Europe, [[Hôpital Cochin]], [[Bichat–Claude Bernard Hospital]], [[Hôpital Européen Georges-Pompidou]], [[Bicêtre Hospital]], [[Beaujon Hospital]], the [[Curie Institute (Paris)|Curie Institute]], [[Lariboisière Hospital]], [[Necker–Enfants Malades Hospital]], [[Hôpital Saint-Louis]], [[Hôpital de la Charité]] and the [[American Hospital of Paris]].

==International relations==
===International organisations===
The [[UNESCO|United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization]] (UNESCO) has had its headquarters in Paris since November 1958. Paris is also the home of the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] (OECD).<ref>[https://www.oecd.org/en/careers/submit.htm |Where we are |publisher oecd.org |accessed on 30 August 2016].</ref> Paris hosts the headquarters of the [[European Space Agency]], the [[International Energy Agency]], [[European Securities and Markets Authority]] and the [[European Banking Authority]].

===Twin towns – sister cities===
{{See also|List of twin towns and sister cities in France}}
Since April 1956, Paris is exclusively and reciprocally [[Sister city|twinned]] with:<ref name=IR>{{cite web |title=Les pactes d'amitié et de coopération |url=https://api-site.paris.fr/images/74497 |publisher=Paris |language=fr |date=September 2015 |access-date=14 December 2021 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308095626/https://api-site.paris.fr/images/74497 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Twinning Rome – Paris |language=fr |url=http://www.comune.roma.it/PCR/resources/cms/documents/Gemellaggio_Roma_Parigi.pdf |date=30 January 1956 |access-date=28 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181113084709/https://www.comune.roma.it/PCR/resources/cms/documents/Gemellaggio_Roma_Parigi.pdf |archive-date=13 November 2018 |url-status=live}} {{cite web |title=Roma – Relazioni Internazionali Bilaterali |url=http://www.comune.roma.it/pcr/it/relaz_int_sadi.page |language=it |publisher=Commune Roma |access-date=10 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160709150804/http://www.comune.roma.it/pcr/it/relaz_int_sadi.page |archive-date=9 July 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>
*[[Rome]], Italy
: ''Seule Paris est digne de Rome; seule Rome est digne de Paris.'' {{in lang|fr}}
: ''Solo Parigi è degna di Roma; solo Roma è degna di Parigi.'' {{in lang|it}}
: "Only Paris is worthy of Rome; only Rome is worthy of Paris."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.comune.roma.it/pcr/it/relaz_int_sadi.page |title=Dichiarazione congiunta Roma – Parigi – (2014) |format=PDF |location=Rome |date=1 October 2014 |publisher=Commune Roma |language=fr |work=Roma – Relazioni Internazionali Bilaterali |access-date=10 September 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160709150804/http://www.comune.roma.it/pcr/it/relaz_int_sadi.page |archive-date=9 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.paris.fr/portail/english/Portal.lut?page_id=8139&document_type_id=5&document_id=29903&portlet_id=18784 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110608151440/http://www.paris.fr/english/paris-a-city-with-an-international-profile/international-action-cooperation/twinning-with-rome/rub_8139_stand_29903_port_18784 |url-status=dead |archive-date=8 June 2011 |title=Twinning with Rome |access-date=27 May 2010}}</ref><ref name="Paris1">{{cite web |url=http://www.paris.fr/portail/accueil/Portal.lut?page_id=6587&document_type_id=5&document_id=16468&portlet_id=14974 |work=Mairie de Paris |title=Les pactes d'amitié et de coopération |access-date=14 October 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011162140/http://paris.fr/portail/accueil/Portal.lut?page_id=6587&document_type_id=5&document_id=16468&portlet_id=14974 |archive-date=11 October 2007}}</ref><ref name="Paris2">*[https://web.archive.org/web/20081225090448/http://www.v1.paris.fr/EN/city_government/international/special_partners.asp Special partners]*{{cite web |url=https://www.paris.fr/pages/plan-du-site-7215 |work=Mairie de Paris |title=Plan du site |access-date=8 February 2026}}</ref>

===Other relationships===
Paris has agreements of friendship and co-operation with:<ref name=IR/>
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
*[[Algiers]], 2003
*[[Amman]], 1987
*[[Amsterdam]], 2013
*[[Athens]], 2000
*[[Beijing]], 1997
*[[Beirut]], 1992
*[[Berlin]], 1987
*[[Brazzaville]], 2015
*[[Buenos Aires]], 1999
*[[Cairo]], 1985
*[[Casablanca]], 2004
*[[Chicago]], 1996
*[[Copenhagen]], 2005
*[[Dakar]], 2011
*[[Doha]], 2010
*[[Geneva]], 2002
*[[Istanbul]], 2009
*[[Jakarta]], 1995
*[[Jericho]], 2009
*[[Kinshasa]], 2014
*[[Kyoto]], 1958
*[[Lisbon]], 1998
*[[London]], 2001
*[[Madrid]], 2000
*[[Mexico City]], 1999
*[[Montevideo]], 2013
*[[Montreal]], 2006
*[[Moscow]], 1992
*[[Phnom Penh]], 2007
*[[Porto Alegre]], 2001
*[[Prague]], 1997
*[[Quebec City]], 1996
*[[Rabat]], 2004
*[[Ramallah]], 2011
*[[Rio de Janeiro]], 2009
*[[Riyadh]], 1997
*[[Saint Petersburg]], 1997
*[[Sanaa]], 1987
*[[San Francisco]], 1996
*[[Santiago]], 1997
*[[São Paulo]], 2004
*[[Seoul]], 1991
*[[Sofia]], 1998
*[[Sydney]], 1998
*[[Tbilisi]], 1997
*[[Tel Aviv]], 2010
*[[Tokyo]], 1982
*[[Tunis]], 2004
*[[Warsaw]], 1999
*[[Washington, D.C.]], 2000
*[[Yerevan]], 1998
{{div col end}}

==See also==
{{Portal|France|Cities}}
*[[Art Nouveau in Paris]]
*[[Art Deco in Paris]]
*[[C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group]]
*[[International Exposition of Modern Industrial and Decorative Arts]] held in Paris in 1925
*[[Megacity]]
*[[Outline of France]]
*[[Outline of Paris]]
*[[Paris syndrome]]
*[[Parish and Civil Registers in Paris]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
===Citations===
{{Reflist
|refs =
<ref name="TIP2016">{{cite web |title=Tourism in Paris – Key Figures 2016 |url=https://press.parisinfo.com/key-figures/key-figures/Tourism-in-Paris-Key-Figures-2016 |date=9 August 2017 |publisher=Paris Convention and Visitors Bureau |access-date = 18 February 2018 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180219151215/https://press.parisinfo.com/key-figures/key-figures/Tourism-in-Paris-Key-Figures-2016 |archive-date = 19 February 2018 |url-status = live}}</ref>

}}

===Sources===
{{refbegin|40em}}
*{{cite book |last1=Andia |first1=Béatrice de |last2=Brialy |first2=Jean-Claude |title=Larousse Paris |language=fr |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5w0jAQAAIAAJ |date=2001 |publisher=Larousse |isbn=978-2-03-585012-6 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=5w0jAQAAIAAJ |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last1=Arbois de Jubainville |first1=Henry |last2=Dottin |first2=George |title=Les premiers habitants de l'Europe |language=fr |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QSIDAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA132 |date=1889 |publisher=E. Thorin |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=QSIDAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA132 |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last=Ayers |first=Andrew |title=The Architecture of Paris |date=2004 |publisher=Axel Mendes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0eJxj9Xos_UC |isbn=978-3-930698-96-7 |access-date=22 August 2020 |archive-date=23 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123205256/https://books.google.com/books?id=0eJxj9Xos_UC |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last=Bayrou |first=François |author-link=François Bayrou |title=Henri IV: le roi libre |language=fr |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bZVLPwAACAAJ |date=1994 |publisher=le Grand livre du mois |isbn=978-2-7028-3282-0 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=bZVLPwAACAAJ |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last1=Beevor |first1=Antony |last2=Cooper |first2=Artemis |title=Paris After the Liberation: 1944–1949: 1944–1949 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zoWtMt2hJIYC&pg=PT242 |date=2007 |publisher=Penguin Books Limited |isbn=978-0-14-191288-2 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=zoWtMt2hJIYC&pg=PT242 |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last1=Bell |first1=Daniel A. |last2=de-Shalit |first2=Avner |date=2011 |title=The Spirit of Cities: Why the Identity of a City Matters in a Global Age |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iRrglOH4kKkC&pg=PA247 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-3972-8 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=iRrglOH4kKkC&pg=PA247 |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last1=Berg |first1=Leo van den |last2=Braun |first2=Erik |title=National Policy Responses to Urban Challenges in Europe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3jU3Td7GI4oC&pg=PA85 |date=2012 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. |isbn=978-1-4094-8725-8 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=3jU3Td7GI4oC&pg=PA85 |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Bernard |first=Léon |title=The emerging city: Paris in the age of Louis XIV. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7vFnAAAAMAAJ |date=1970 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0-8223-0214-8 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=7vFnAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Bezbakh |first=Pierre |title=Petit Larousse de l'histoire de France |language=fr |date=2004 |publisher=Larousse |isbn=978-2-03-505369-5}}
*{{cite book |last1=Blackmore |first1=Ruth |last2=McConnachie |first2=James |title=Rough Guide to Paris |edition=9th |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-nEcC1zeg-MC&pg=PA394 |date=2003 |publisher=Rough Guides |isbn=978-1-84353-078-7 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=-nEcC1zeg-MC&pg=PA394 |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last1=Blackmore |first1=Ruth |last2=McConnachie |first2=James |title=Rough Guide Paris Directions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8ixR236aqQoC&pg=PA153 |date=2004 |publisher=Rough Guides |isbn=978-1-84353-317-7 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=8ixR236aqQoC&pg=PA153 |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last1=Blanchard |first1=Pascal |last2=Deroo |first2=Eric |last3=El Yazami |first3=Driss |last4=Fournié |first4=Pierre |last5=Manceron |first5=Gilles |title=Le Paris Arabe |language=fr |publisher=La Découverte |date=2003 |isbn=978-2-7071-3904-7 |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Blum |first=Carol |title=Strength in Numbers: Population, Reproduction, and Power in Eighteenth-Century France |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TgkaWS7yDl8C&pg=PA233 |date=2002 |publisher=JHU Press |isbn=978-0-8018-6810-8 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=TgkaWS7yDl8C&pg=PA233 |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Boogert |first=Kate van der |title=Frommer's Paris 2013 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PB5d0pRRn6IC&pg=PT43 |date=2012 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-118-33143-9 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=PB5d0pRRn6IC&pg=PT43 |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Borrus |first=Kathy |title=Five Hundred Buildings of Paris |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i8KuR2TxJY4C&pg=PA288 |date=2012 |publisher=Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers |isbn=978-1-60376-267-0 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=i8KuR2TxJY4C&pg=PA288 |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |editor-last1=Braimoh |editor-first1=Ademola K. |editor-last2=Vlek |editor-first2=Paul L. G. |title=Land Use and Soil Resources |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uV7Jp9Iz1hsC&pg=PA212 |date=2008 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-1-4020-6778-5 |pages=212– |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=uV7Jp9Iz1hsC&pg=PA212 |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last=Broadwell |first=Valerie |title=City of Light, City of Dark: Exploring Paris Below |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N9cPFcaOKBwC&pg=PA92 |date=2007 |publisher=Valerie Broadwell |isbn=978-1-4257-9022-6 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=N9cPFcaOKBwC&pg=PA92 |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last=Burchell |first=S.C. |title=Imperial Masquerade: The Paris of Napoleon III |url=https://archive.org/details/imperialmasquera00burc |url-access=registration |date=1971 |publisher=Atheneum}}
*{{Cite book |last=Busse |first=Peter E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f899xH_quaMC |title=Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia |date=2006 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-440-0 |editor-last=Koch |editor-first=John T. |pages=195–200 |language=en |chapter=Belgae |access-date=31 May 2020 |archive-date=19 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819063413/https://books.google.com/books?id=f899xH_quaMC |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |first=Klaus |last=Bussmann |title=Paris and the Ile de France |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1nYnAQAAMAAJ |date=1985 |publisher=Webb & Bower |isbn=978-0-86350-038-1 |access-date=6 July 2018 |archive-date=22 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200522201443/https://books.google.com/books?id=1nYnAQAAMAAJ |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last=Byrne |first=Jim |title=Conflict and Change: Europe 1870–1966 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HmemAAAAIAAJ |date=1987 |publisher=Educational Company |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=HmemAAAAIAAJ |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Byrne |first=Joseph P. |title=Encyclopedia of the Black Death |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AppsDAKOW3QC&pg=PA259 |date=2012 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-59884-254-8 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=AppsDAKOW3QC&pg=PA259 |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Castells |first=Manuel |title=The City and the Grassroots: A Cross-Cultural Theory of Urban Social Movements |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rUbZLcYsA_QC&pg=PA75 |date=1983 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-05617-6 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=rUbZLcYsA_QC&pg=PA75 |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last=Clark |first=Linda L. |title=Women and Achievement in Nineteenth-Century Europe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NtitRt1uUXMC&pg=PA101 |date=2008 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-65098-4 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=NtitRt1uUXMC&pg=PA101 |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Combeau |first=Yvan |title=Histoire de Paris |date=2013 |publisher=Presses Universitaires de France |isbn=978-2-13-060852-3 |language=fr |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/histoiredeparis0000comb}}
*{{cite book |last=Combeau |first=Yvan |title=Histoire de Paris |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uVmfGAAACAAJ |date=2003 |publisher=Presses universitaires de France |language=fr |isbn=978-2-13-053865-3 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=uVmfGAAACAAJ |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last=Compayré |first=Gabriel |title=Abelard And the Origin And Early History of Universities |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_bwH0j_EOtIC&pg=PA205 |date=2004 |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |isbn=978-1-4179-4646-4 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=_bwH0j_EOtIC&pg=PA205 |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Cunliffe |first=Barry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3lkEgdtOvGEC&q=Iron+Age+Communities+in+Britain&pg=PA201 |edition=4th |title=Iron Age communities in Britain : an account of England, Scotland and Wales from the seventh century BC until the Roman conquest |date=2004 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=978-0-415-34779-2 |access-date=18 November 2020 |archive-date=17 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417203913/https://books.google.com/books?id=3lkEgdtOvGEC&q=Iron+Age+Communities+in+Britain&pg=PA201 |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |author=Daniel Jay Grimminger Ph.D. |title=Paris |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PbNpLIZzFKoC&pg=PT95 |date=2010 |publisher=Arcadia Publishing |isbn=978-1-4396-4101-9 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=PbNpLIZzFKoC&pg=PT95 |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last1=Damschroeder |first1=David |last2=Williams |first2=David Russell |title=Music Theory from Zarlino to Schenker: A Bibliography and Guide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yAw3PBpdEw4C&pg=PA157 |date=1990 |publisher=Pendragon Press |isbn=978-0-918728-99-9 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=yAw3PBpdEw4C&pg=PA157 |url-status=live}}
*{{Cite book |last=Delamarre |first=Xavier |title=Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise: Une approche linguistique du vieux-celtique continental |date=2003 |publisher=Errance |isbn=978-2-87772-369-5 |language=fr |author-link=Xavier Delamarre}}
*{{cite book |last=De Moncan |first=Patrice |date=2007 |title=Les jardins du Baron Haussmann |publisher=Les Éditions du Mécène |location=Paris |isbn=978-2-907970-91-4 |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=De Moncan |first=Patrice |title=Le Paris d'Haussmann |language=fr |date=2012 |publisher=Les Editions du Mecene |location=Paris |isbn=978-2-907970-98-3}}
*{{cite book |last=Dominé |first=André |title=Culinaria France |publisher=Könemann Verlagsgesellschaft mbh |date=2014 |location=Cologne |isbn=978-3-8331-1129-7}}
*{{cite book |last=Dosch |first=Dee Davidson |title=A Summer in '69 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bcD41kgBYTMC&pg=PA16 |date=2010 |publisher=Strategic Book Publishing |isbn=978-1-60976-878-2 |access-date=12 October 2016 |archive-date=29 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161229020537/https://books.google.com/books?id=bcD41kgBYTMC&pg=PA16 |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Dottin |first=George |title=La Langue Gauloise : Grammaire, Textes et Glossaire |url=https://archive.org/details/lalanguegauloise00dottuoft |location=Paris |publisher=C. Klincksieck |year=2018 |orig-date=1920 |isbn=978-2-05-100208-0 |language=fr}}
*{{cite book |last=Dregni |first=Michael |title=Django : The Life and Music of a Gypsy Legend: The Life and Music of a Gypsy Legend |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3t8SLVloJjsC&pg=PA19 |date=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-803743-9 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=3t8SLVloJjsC&pg=PA19 |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last=Dregni |first=Michael |title=Gypsy Jazz : In Search of Django Reinhardt and the Soul of Gypsy Swing: In Search of Django Reinhardt and the Soul of Gypsy Swing |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=smcDVbulh1gC&pg=PA32 |date=2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-804262-4 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=smcDVbulh1gC&pg=PA32 |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last=Du Camp |first=Maxim |title=Paris: ses organes, ses fonctions et sa vie jusqu'en 1870 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5gJoAAAAMAAJ |orig-date=1875 |year=1993 |publisher=G. Rondeau |isbn=978-2-910305-02-4 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=5gJoAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Dutton |first=Paul Edward |title=The Politics of Dreaming in the Carolingian Empire |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UHQEP3oJDsoC&pg=PA142 |date=1994 |publisher=U of Nebraska Press |isbn=978-0-8032-1653-2 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=UHQEP3oJDsoC&pg=PA142 |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Evans |first=Graeme |title=Cultural Planning: An Urban Renaissance? |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LVpIIHrUOZEC&pg=PA68 |date=2002 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-203-45974-4 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=LVpIIHrUOZEC&pg=PA68 |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{Cite book |last=Falileyev |first=Alexander |title=Dictionary of Continental Celtic Place-names: A Celtic Companion to the Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World |publisher=CMCS |date=2010 |isbn=978-0-9557182-3-6}}
*{{cite book |last1=Fallon |first1=Steve |first2=Nicola |last2=Williams |edition=7 |title=Paris |publisher=Lonely Planet |date=2008 |isbn=978-1-74059-850-7 |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Fierro |first=Alfred |title=Histoire et dictionnaire de Paris |language=fr |publisher=Lafont |date=1996 |isbn=978-0-7859-9300-1}}
*{{cite book |last=Forsyth |first=David |title=Marie Antoinette in the Conciergerie, a lecture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I0KTnvvPwJ0C |date=1867 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=I0KTnvvPwJ0C |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Franck |first=Dan |title=Bohemian Paris: Picasso, Modigliani, Matisse, and the Birth of Modern Art |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3hYBzRzZ0kcC |date=2003 |publisher=Grove/Atlantic |isbn=978-0-8021-3997-9 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=3hYBzRzZ0kcC |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last1=Fraser |first1=Benjamin |last2=Spalding |first2=Steven D. |title=Trains, Culture, and Mobility: Riding the Rails |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fUOY8941RjMC&pg=PA117 |date=2011 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-0-7391-6749-6 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=fUOY8941RjMC&pg=PA117 |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |author=Frommer's |title=AARP Paris 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mTmRa1s1Z48C&pg=PA103 |date=2012 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-118-26621-2 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=mTmRa1s1Z48C&pg=PA103 |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Garrioch |first=David |title=The making of revolutionary Paris |type=electronic resource |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofrevoluti00davi |url-access=registration |date=2002 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-24327-9 |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Goebel |first=Michael |title=Anti-Imperial Metropolis: Interwar Paris and the Seeds of Third World Nationalism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LNMmCgAAQBAJ |date=2015 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-07305-0 |access-date=7 September 2017 |archive-date=22 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200522201207/https://books.google.com/books?id=LNMmCgAAQBAJ |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Goldstein |first=Natalie |title=Droughts And Heat Waves: A Practical Survival Guide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CPZuf6gxIBAC&pg=PP8 |date=2005 |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |isbn=978-1-4042-0536-9 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=CPZuf6gxIBAC&pg=PP8 |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last=Goodman |first=David C. |title=The European Cities and Technology Reader: Industrial to Post-industrial City |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G2xKjURYgHgC |date=1999 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-20082-0 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=G2xKjURYgHgC |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{Cite book |last=Gordon |first=David |title=Planning Twentieth Century Capital Cities |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-415-28061-7}}
*{{cite book |last=Haine |first=W. Scott |title=The World of the Paris Café: Sociability Among the French Working Class, 1789–1914 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=65r1hSAq-dQC&pg=PA144 |date=1998 |publisher=JHU Press |isbn=978-0-8018-6070-6 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=65r1hSAq-dQC&pg=PA144 |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last1=Hall |first1=Peter |last2=Pain |first2=Kathy |title=The Polycentric Metropolis: Learning from Mega-City Regions in Europe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vhelHHnagCsC&pg=PA83 |date=2012 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-54768-3 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=vhelHHnagCsC&pg=PA83 |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Harding |first=Vanessa |title=The Dead and the Living in Paris and London, 1500–1670 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JCPXfSUlUV8C&pg=PA25 |date=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-81126-2 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=JCPXfSUlUV8C&pg=PA25 |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Hart |first=Alan |title=Going to Live in Paris: How to Live and Work in France's Great Capital |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4pNBaIocHNUC&pg=PA355 |date=2004 |publisher=How To Books Ltd |isbn=978-1-85703-985-6 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=4pNBaIocHNUC&pg=PA355 |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last1=Hargreaves |first1=Alec Gordon |last2=Kelsay |first2=John |last3=Twiss |first3=Sumner B. |title=Politics and Religion in France and the United States |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=re2wIpEB310C |date=2007 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Pub Incorporated |isbn=978-0-7391-1930-3 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=re2wIpEB310C |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Hazan |first=Eric |title=The Invention of Paris: A History in Footsteps |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=og_RDdEdHz4C&pg=PA362 |date=2011 |publisher=Verso Books |isbn=978-1-84467-800-6 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=og_RDdEdHz4C&pg=PA362 |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last=Hervé |first=Peter |title=A Chronological Account of the History of France |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_L40DAAAAQAAJ |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_L40DAAAAQAAJ/page/n77 72] |date=1818 |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Higonnet |first=Patrice L. R. |title=Paris: Capital of the World |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X-E7P9dVSbgC&pg=PA432 |date=2009 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-03864-6 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=X-E7P9dVSbgC&pg=PA432 |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Horne |first=Alistair |date=2003 |title=Seven Ages of Paris |publisher=Knopf |isbn=978-0-679-45481-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/sevenagesofparis00alis |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=d'Istria |first=Robert Colonna |title=Paris and Versailles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VAn8tHE3zB4C&pg=PA6 |date=2002 |publisher=Editions Marcus |isbn=978-2-7131-0202-8 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=VAn8tHE3zB4C&pg=PA6 |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Jefferson |first=David |title=Through the French Canals |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0khM9JqazzUC |isbn=978-1-4081-0381-4 |date=2009 |publisher=A&C Black |edition=12th |access-date=22 August 2020 |archive-date=17 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417210028/https://books.google.com/books?id=0khM9JqazzUC |url-status=live}}
*{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgeillustr00jone |url-access=registration |quote=west francia kingdom. |title=The Cambridge Illustrated History of France |last=Jones |first=Colin |date=1994 |page=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgeillustr00jone/page/48 48] |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-66992-4 |language=en}}
*{{cite book |last=Jones |first=Colin |title=Paris: Biography of a City |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zwlQyQ_WAtYC |date=2006 |publisher=Penguin Adult |isbn=978-0-14-028292-4 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=zwlQyQ_WAtYC |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Jarrassé |first=Dominique |title=Grammaire des jardins parisiens: de l'héritage des rois aux créations contemporaines |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5HxGAQAAIAAJ |date=2007 |publisher=Parigramme |isbn=978-2-84096-476-6 |language=fr |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=5HxGAQAAIAAJ |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last1=Kaberry |first1=Rachel |last2=Brown |first2=Amy K. |title=Paris |url=https://archive.org/details/miniroughguideto00rach |url-access=registration |date=2001 |publisher=Rough Guides |isbn=978-1-85828-679-2 |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last1=Korgen |first1=Kathleen Odell |last2=White |first2=Jonathan Michael |title=The Engaged Sociologist: Connecting the Classroom to the Community |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_AADznCsgAsC&pg=PT177 |date=2008 |publisher=Pine Forge Press |isbn=978-1-4129-6900-0 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=_AADznCsgAsC&pg=PT177 |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last1=Knapp |first1=Andrew |last2=Wright |first2=Vincent |title=The Government and Politics of France |url=https://archive.org/details/governmentpoliti0000knap |url-access=registration |date=2006 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-35732-6}}
*{{cite book |last1=Krinsky |first1=Carol Herselle |title=Synagogues of Europe: Architecture, History, Meaning |publisher=[[Dover Publications]] |date=1996 |isbn=978-0-486-29078-2 |ref=none}}
*{{Cite book |last=Lambert |first=Pierre-Yves |title=La langue gauloise: description linguistique, commentaire d'inscriptions choisies |date=1994 |publisher=Errance |isbn=978-2-87772-089-2 |author-link=Pierre-Yves Lambert}}
*{{cite book |last1=Lawrence |first1=Rachel |last2=Gondrand |first2=Fabienne |title=Paris (City Guide) |publisher=Insight Guides |location=London |date=2010 |edition=12th |isbn=978-981-282-079-2 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/paris0000unse_b2o4}}
*{{cite book |last1=Madge |first1=Charles |last2=Willmott |first2=Peter |title=Inner City Poverty in Paris and London |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gFDIS847zl8C&pg=PA11 |date=2006 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-41762-4 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=gFDIS847zl8C&pg=PA11 |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{Cite book |last=Masson |first=Jean-Louis |title=Provinces, départements, régions: l'organisation administrative de la France |publisher=Fernand Lanore |date=1984}}
*{{cite book |last1=Mehra |first1=Ajay K. |last2=Levy |first2=Rene |title=The Police, State and Society: Perspectives from India and France |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0JJdEhSWS90C&pg=PA138 |date=2011 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-81-317-3145-1 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=0JJdEhSWS90C&pg=PA138 |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Metzelthin |first=Pearl Violette Newfield |title=Gourmet |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5XyAAAAMAAJ |date=1981 |publisher=Condé Nast Publications |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=6 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210206020104/https://books.google.com/books?id=h5XyAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Meunier |first=Florian |title=Le Paris du Moyen Âge |date=2014 |publisher=Éditions Ouest-France |isbn=978-2-7373-6217-0 |language=fr}}
*{{cite book |author=Michelin |title=Paris Green Guide Michelin 2012–2013 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P945gwAL-oAC&pg=PT105 |date=2011 |publisher=Michelin |isbn=978-2-06-718220-2 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=P945gwAL-oAC&pg=PT105 |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last=Montclos |first=Jean-Marie Perouse De |title=Paris, City of Art |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OCJ2QgAACAAJ |date=2003 |publisher=Harry N. Abrams |isbn=978-0-86565-226-2 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=OCJ2QgAACAAJ |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last1=Modood |first1=Tariq |last2=Triandafyllidou |first2=Anna |last3=Zapata-Barrero |first3=Ricard |title=Multiculturalism, Muslims and Citizenship: A European Approach |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1v45lM76wjsC&pg=PA64 |date=2012 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-25561-0 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=1v45lM76wjsC&pg=PA64 |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Mroue |first=Haas |title=Frommer's Memorable Walks in Paris |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-nUVnF1rPXoC&pg=PA8 |date=2006 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-03712-6 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=-nUVnF1rPXoC&pg=PA8 |url-status=live}}
*{{Cite book |last=Nègre |first=Ernest |title=Toponymie générale de la France |date=1990 |publisher=Librairie Droz |isbn=978-2-600-02883-7 |author-link=Ernest Nègre}}
*{{cite book |last=Nevez |first=Catherine Le |title=Paris Encounter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=db4TSjy-9X4C |date=2010 |publisher=Lonely Planet |isbn=978-1-74220-503-8 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=db4TSjy-9X4C |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last1=Newman |first1=Peter |last2=Thornley |first2=Andy |title=Urban Planning in Europe: International Competition, National Systems and Planning Projects |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LVpYlyaqfoQC&pg=PA185 |date=2002 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-203-42794-1 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=LVpYlyaqfoQC&pg=PA185 |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Oscherwitz |first=Dayna |title=Past Forward: French Cinema and the Post-Colonial Heritage |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j8n5iKE9gdcC&pg=PA135 |date=2010 |publisher=SIU Press |isbn=978-0-8093-8588-1 |page=135 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=j8n5iKE9gdcC&pg=PA135 |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Paine |first=Thomas |title=Rights of Man, Common Sense, and Other Political Writings |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YU_o6E572uIC&pg=PA453 |date=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-283557-4 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=YU_o6E572uIC&pg=PA453 |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last=Papayanis |first=Nicholas |title=Planning Paris Before Haussmann |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=umLmjHFZoT4C |date=2004 |publisher=JHU Press |isbn=978-0-8018-7930-2 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=umLmjHFZoT4C |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Perry |first=Gillian |title=Women Artists and the Parisian Avant-garde: Modernism and 'feminine Art' Art, 1900 to the Late 1920s |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wg4NAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA19 |date=1995 |publisher=Manchester University Press |isbn=978-0-7190-4165-5 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=wg4NAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA19 |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last1=Perry |first1=Marvin |last2=Chase |first2=Myrna |last3=Jacob |first3=James R. |last4=Jacob |first4=Margaret C. |last5=Von Laue |first5=Theodore H. |title=Western Civilization: Ideas, Politics, and Society: from 1600: Ideas, Politics, and Society: From the 1600s |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZFDKUW0z4bsC&pg=PA476 |date=2011 |publisher=Cengage Learning |edition=10th |isbn=978-1-111-83171-4 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZFDKUW0z4bsC&pg=PA476 |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Phillips |first=Betty Lou |date=2005 |url=https://archive.org/details/frenchconnection0000phil |url-access=registration |title=The French Connection |isbn=978-1-58685-529-1 |publisher=Gibbs Smith |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Rand |first=Tom |title=Kick the Fossil Fuel Habit: 10 Clean Technologies to Save Our World |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DCYf7F5erwYC&pg=PA165 |date=2010 |publisher=Greenleaf Book Group |isbn=978-0-9812952-0-6 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=DCYf7F5erwYC&pg=PA165 |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last=Robb |first=Graham |title=Parisians: An Adventure History of Paris |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QTaRv7lr7uoC&pg=PT646 |date=2010 |publisher=Pan Macmillan |isbn=978-0-330-52254-0 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=QTaRv7lr7uoC&pg=PT646 |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Robertson |first=Jamie Cox |title=A Literary Paris: Hemingway, Colette, Sedaris, and Others on the Uncommon Lure of the City of Light |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PNDki71jxYQC&pg=PA37 |date=2010 |publisher=Krause Publications |isbn=978-1-4405-0740-3 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=PNDki71jxYQC&pg=PA37 |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Rougerie |first=Jacques |title=La Commune de 1871 |language=fr |date=2014 |publisher=Presses universitaires de France |location=Paris |isbn=978-2-13-062078-5}}
*{{cite book |last=Rousseau |first=George Sebastian |title=Yourcenar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uDxlAAAAMAAJ |date=2004 |publisher=Haus Bublishing |isbn=978-1-904341-28-4 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=uDxlAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last1=Ryersson |first1=Scot D. |last2=Yaccarino |first2=Michael Orlando |title=Infinite variety: the life and legend of the Marchesa Casati |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9AAMEqfFtngC&pg=PA25 |date=2004 |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |isbn=978-0-8166-4520-6 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=5 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305041927/https://books.google.com/books?id=9AAMEqfFtngC&pg=PA25 |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Sarmant |first=Thierry |title=Histoire de Paris: politique, urbanisme, civilisation |language=fr |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZM4XNQEACAAJ |date=2012 |publisher=Editions Gisserot |isbn=978-2-7558-0330-3 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZM4XNQEACAAJ |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last=Schmidt |first=Joël |title=Lutèce: Paris, des origines à Clovis |language=fr |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Li5xQgAACAAJ |date=2009 |publisher=Perrin |isbn=978-2-262-03015-5 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=Li5xQgAACAAJ |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last=Schumacher |first=Claude |title=Naturalism and Symbolism in European Theatre 1850–1918 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tanPYs6ArLIC&pg=PA60 |date=1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-23014-8 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=tanPYs6ArLIC&pg=PA60 |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last=Shack |first=William A. |title=Harlem in Montmartre, A Paris Jazz Story between the Great Wars |publisher=University of California Press |date=2001 |isbn=978-0-520-22537-4 |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Shales |first=Melissa |title=Paris |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FYPU8V_oWz8C&pg=PA17 |date=2007 |publisher=New Holland Publishers |isbn=978-1-84537-661-1 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=FYPU8V_oWz8C&pg=PA17 |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last=Simmer |first=James |title=Innovation Networks and Learning Regions? |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MtOmZc-Vd_gC&pg=PA4 |date=1997 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-11-702360-4 |access-date = 25 October 2015 |archive-date = 1 January 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=MtOmZc-Vd_gC&pg=PA4 |url-status = live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Singleton |first=Esther |title=Paris as Seen and Described by Famous Writers ... |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BL1CAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA210 |date=1912 |publisher=Dodd, Mead & Company |access-date = 25 October 2015 |archive-date = 1 January 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=BL1CAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA210 |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Steele |first=Valerie |title=Paris Fashion: A Cultural History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vwhieeo_nfMC&pg=PR |date=1998 |publisher=Berg |isbn=978-1-85973-973-0 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=Vwhieeo_nfMC&pg=PR |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Sutherland |first=Cara |title=The Statue of Liberty |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rCnYe0cPTq4C&pg=PA37 |date=2003 |publisher=Barnes & Noble Publishing |isbn=978-0-7607-3890-0 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=rCnYe0cPTq4C&pg=PA37 |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last1=Tallett |first1=Frank |last2=Atkin |first2=Nicholas |title=Religion, Society and Politics in France Since 1789 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aL4lsWdd-rAC |date=1991 |publisher=Continuum |isbn=978-1-85285-057-9 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=aL4lsWdd-rAC |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Tellier |first=Luc-Normand |title=Urban World History: An Economic and Geographical Perspective |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cXuCjDbxC1YC&pg=PA281 |date=2009 |publisher=PUQ |isbn=978-2-7605-2209-1 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=cXuCjDbxC1YC&pg=PA281 |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last1=Tomas |first1=François |last2=Blanc |first2=Jean-Noël |last3=Bonilla |first3=Mario |author4=IERP |title=Les grands ensembles: une histoire qui continue |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CTX7h9H8DJEC&pg=PA237 |date=2003 |publisher=Université de Saint-Étienne |isbn=978-2-86272-260-3 |page=237 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=CTX7h9H8DJEC&pg=PA237 |url-status=live}}
*{{cite EB1911 |wstitle= Paris |volume=20 |pages=805–822 |last1=Truslove |first1=Roland |last2=de Blowitz |first2=Henri Georges Stephane Adolphe Opper |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |first1=Jacobus |last1=de Vitriaco |first2=John Frederick |last2=Hinnebusch |title=The Historia Occidentalis of Jacques de Vitry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rlua0N-AQNgC&pg=PA262 |date=1972 |publisher=Saint-Paul |id=GGKEY:R8CJPKJJK4D |access-date=10 April 2017 |archive-date=11 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170411065259/https://books.google.com/books?id=Rlua0N-AQNgC&pg=PA262 |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last=Weingardt |first=Richard |title=Circles in the Sky: The Life and Times of George Ferris |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uIFwg5LOnnoC&pg=PR15 |date=2009 |publisher=ASCE Publications |isbn=978-0-7844-1010-3 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=uIFwg5LOnnoC&pg=PR15 |url-status=live |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Whaley |first=Joachim |title=Mirrors of Mortality (Routledge Revivals): Social Studies in the History of Death |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JIksZtWqrd0C&pg=PT101 |date=2012 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-81060-2 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101095821/https://books.google.com/books?id=JIksZtWqrd0C&pg=PT101 |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last=Woolley |first=Reginald Maxwell |title=Coronation Rites |url=https://archive.org/details/coronationrites00wooluoft |page=[https://archive.org/details/coronationrites00wooluoft/page/106 106] |date=1915 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Yarri |first=Monique |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ce9VUj5pRMUC&q=delouvrier+%22villes+nouvelles%22 |title=Rethinking the French City: Architecture, Dwelling, and Display After 1968 |publisher=Editions Rodopi B.V. |location=Amsterdam, New York |date=2008 |isbn=978-90-420-2500-4 |access-date=18 November 2020 |archive-date=17 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417203904/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ce9VUj5pRMUC&q=delouvrier+%22villes+nouvelles%22 |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last1=Zarka |first1=Yves Charles |last2=Taussig |first2=Sylvie |last3=Fleury |first3=Cynthia |title=L'Islam en France |language=fr |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H8UiAQAAIAAJ |date=2004 |publisher=Presses universitaires de France |isbn=978-2-13-053723-6 |chapter=Les contours d'une population susceptible d'être musulmane d'après la filiation |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=28 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150928174957/https://books.google.com/books?id=H8UiAQAAIAAJ |url-status=live |ref=none}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Main list|Bibliography of Paris
}}
{{refbegin|40em}}
*{{cite book |first=Vincent |last=Cronin |title=Paris on the Eve, 1900–1914 |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |location=New York |date=1989 |isbn=978-0-312-04876-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/parisoneve19001900cron |author-link=Vincent Cronin}}
*{{cite book |first=Vincent |last=Cronin |title=Paris: City of Light, 1919–1939 |publisher=HarperCollins |location=New York |date=1994 |isbn=978-0-00-215191-7}}
*{{cite book |first=Jean |last=Favier |title=Paris |publisher=[[Fayard]] |date=1997 |isbn=978-2-213-59874-1 |language=fr}}
*{{cite book |first=Jacques |last=Hillairet |title=Connaissance du Vieux Paris |publisher=Rivages |date=2005 |isbn=978-2-86930-648-6 |language=fr}}
*{{cite book |first=Colin |last=Jones |title=Paris: The Biography of a City |publisher=[[Penguin Books|Penguin Viking]] |location=New York |date=2004 |isbn=978-0-670-03393-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/parisbiographyof00jone}}
*{{cite book |first=Bernard |last=Marchand |title=Paris, histoire d'une ville : XIXe-XXe siècle |publisher=Le Seuil |location=Paris |date=1993 |isbn=978-2-02-012864-3 |language=fr}}
*{{cite book |first=Rosemary |last=Wakeman |title=The Heroic City: Paris, 1945–1958 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |date=2009 |isbn=978-0-226-87023-6}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{EB1911 poster|Paris}}
*{{Official website}} {{in lang|fr}}

{{Paris}}
{{Cities in France}}
{{Visitor attractions in Paris}}
{{Paris transport network}}
{{Navboxes
|title = Administrative structures
|list =
{{Paris Metropolitan Area}}
{{Administrative division of Île-de-France}}
{{Prefectures of departments of France}}
{{Prefectures of regions of France}}
{{Departments of France}}
}}
{{Subject bar|
|b=Special:Search/Paris
|commons=Paris
|d=Special:Search/Paris
|n=Category:Paris
|q=Paris
|s=Paris
|v=Special:Search/Paris
|voy=Paris
|wikt=Paris
|auto=1
}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Paris| ]]
[[Category:Capital cities in Europe]]
[[Category:Catholic pilgrimage sites]]
[[Category:Cities in France]]
[[Category:Cities in Île-de-France]]
[[Category:Companions of the Liberation]]
[[Category:Departments of Île-de-France]]
[[Category:Culture of Europe]]
[[Category:Culture of France]]
[[Category:Gallia Lugdunensis]]
[[Category:Populated places established in the 3rd century BC]]
[[Category:Prefectures in France]]

K. S. Chithra

2026-03-17T04:54:24Z

Husayn: Article enhanced with better details

{{Short description|Indian playback singer}}
{{Redirect|Chithra||Chitra (disambiguation){{!}}Chitra}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2026}}
{{Infobox person
| name = K. S. Chithra
| image = Melody Queen of Indian Cinema Dr. K S Chithra (cropped).jpg
| caption = Chithra in 2022
| birth_name = Krishnan Nair Shantakumari Chithra
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=y|1963|07|27}}
| birth_place = [[Trivandrum]], [[Kerala]], [[India]]
| alma_mater = [[University of Kerala]]
| occupation = {{hlist|Singer|music producer|Judge}}
| spouse = {{Marriage|Vijayashankar|1987}}
| children = 1
| years_active = 1979–present
| module = {{Infobox musical artist|embed=yes
| background = solo_singer
| genre = {{flat list|
* [[Indian classical music]]
* [[playback singer|Playback singing]]
* [[Filmi]]
}}
| instrument = [[Vocals]]
| label = [https://www.facebook.com/Audiotracs Audiotracs]
}}
| honours = ''[[List of awards and nominations received by K. S. Chithra|See list]]''
| website = {{URL|www.kschithra.com}}
}}

'''Krishnan Nair Shantakumari Chithra''' (born 27 July 1963) is an Indian [[playback singer]] and [[Carnatic music]]ian.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=27 July 2023 |title=KS Chithra turns 60: Transcending language barriers through music |url=https://thefederal.com/entertainment/ks-chithra-turns-60-transcending-language-barriers-through-music |access-date=16 January 2026 |website=The Federal |language=en}}</ref> In a career spanning around five [[Decade|decades]], she has recorded over 25,000 songs<ref name="outlookindia.com">{{Cite web |title=From KS Chithra To Chinmayi Sripada: Top Five Female Playback Singers In South |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/art-entertainment/the-melody-down-south-top-five-female-playback-singers-in-south-industries-news-121655 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209082534/https://www.outlookindia.com/art-entertainment/the-melody-down-south-top-five-female-playback-singers-in-south-industries-news-121655 |archive-date=9 February 2022 |access-date=9 February 2022 |website=[[Outlook (Indian magazine)|Outlook]]|date=9 February 2022 }}</ref><ref name="gulfnews.com">{{Cite web |title=South Indian singer KS Chithra to perform live in Dubai |url= https://gulfnews.com/entertainment/music/south-indian-singer-ks-chithra-to-perform-live-in-dubai-1.83173373|access-date=24 October 2021 |website=[[Gulf News]]|date= 24 October 2021}}</ref> in various [[Languages of India|Indian languages]] such as [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Kannada]], [[Hindi]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]], [[Malayalam]], [[Odia language|Odia]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Rajasthani languages|Rajasthani]], [[Awadhi language |Awadhi]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Tulu language|Tulu]], [[Badaga language|Badaga]], [[Braj language| Braj]], [[Banjara]], [[Urdu]], [[Assamese language|Assamese]], [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[Manipuri language|Manipuri]] and [[Sanskrit]],<ref name="auto3">{{Cite news |last=Pradeep |first=K. |date=22 August 2019 |title=Celebrating 40 years of singer KS Chithra, the queen of melody |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/music/ks-chithra-walks-through-her-40-years-in-the-music-industry/article29221662.ece |url-status=live |access-date=13 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210717230014/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/music/ks-chithra-walks-through-her-40-years-in-the-music-industry/article29221662.ece |archive-date=17 July 2021 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref name="outlookindia.com">{{Cite web |title=From KS Chithra To Chinmayi Sripada: Top Five Female Playback Singers In South |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/art-entertainment/the-melody-down-south-top-five-female-playback-singers-in-south-industries-news-121655 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209082534/https://www.outlookindia.com/art-entertainment/the-melody-down-south-top-five-female-playback-singers-in-south-industries-news-121655 |archive-date=9 February 2022 |access-date=9 February 2022 |website=[[Outlook (Indian magazine)|Outlook]]|date=9 February 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=K.S Chithra Odia Songs |url=https://gaana.com/artist/chitra/odia-songs |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210909175234/https://gaana.com/artist/chitra/odia-songs |archive-date=9 September 2021 |access-date=9 September 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=K.S Chitra Odia Song-Mani Nageswari(1995) |url=https://odiakhati.com/category/837/Mani_Nageswari_(1995).html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210909175235/https://odiakhati.com/category/837/Mani_Nageswari_(1995).html |archive-date=9 September 2021 |access-date=9 September 2021}}</ref> as well as foreign languages such as [[Malay language|Malay]], [[Latin]], [[Arabic]], [[Sinhala language|Sinhalese]], [[English language|English]] and [[French language|French]].<ref name="The Hindu">{{Cite news|last=Article |date=5 March 2016 |title=Chithra in concert and workshop |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-metroplus/chithra-in-concert-and-workshop/article8315215.ece |url-status=live |access-date=14 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200215075330/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-metroplus/chithra-in-concert-and-workshop/article8315215.ece |archive-date=15 February 2020}}</ref><ref name="ipanewspack.com">{{cite web |title= kschithra is melody queen of south India recording more than 25000 songs |date= 21 April 2021|url= https://ipanewspack.com/k-s-chithra-is-melody-queen-of-south-india-recording-more-than-25000-songs/|access-date=27 July 2024}}</ref>

Chithra, renowned for her vocal talent, is widely recognised as the ''Golden Voice'' of [[India]], a title bestowed upon her by the [[Royal Albert Hall]], [[London]] in 2001.<ref name="timeline">{{cite magazine |title=KS Chithra- The Nightingale Of South India's 47 Years Of Melodious Journey |url= https://timelinedaily.com/entertainment/ks-chitra-the-nightingale-of-south-india-47-years-of-melodious-journey|magazine=timeline|access-date=27 July 2024}}</ref><ref name="asianetnewsable">{{cite web |title=Happy Birthday, K.S. Chithra: 'Melody Queen' of Indian cinema speaks to Asianet News |url= https://newsable.asianetnews.com/entertainment/happy-birthday-k-s-chithra-melody-queen-of-indian-cinema-speaks-to-asianet-news-anr-ryg4tr|access-date=27 July 2023}}</ref><ref name="Golden Voice Chitra Hits">{{Cite web |title=Golden Voice Chitra Hits |url=https://music.apple.com/us/album/golden-voice-chitra/1417461004 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230618092637/https://music.apple.com/us/album/golden-voice-chitra/1417461004 |archive-date=18 June 2023 |access-date=18 June 2023}}</ref> [[The Times Group]] has honoured her as the ''Melody Queen'' of [[Indian Cinema]] in 2016,<ref name="outlookindia.com"/><ref name="Melody Queen K.S. Chitra Hits - EP">{{Cite web |title=Melody Queen K.S. Chitra Hits - EP |url=https://music.apple.com/kw/album/melody-queen-k-s-chitra-hits-ep/1507577527 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230618092638/https://music.apple.com/kw/album/melody-queen-k-s-chitra-hits-ep/1507577527 |archive-date=18 June 2023 |access-date=18 June 2023}}</ref><ref name="Melody Queen K.S. Chitra Hits">{{Cite web |title=Melody Queen K.S. Chitra Hits |url=https://open.spotify.com/album/1FQianc7N98I3YLS4rb4tp |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230618092638/https://open.spotify.com/album/1FQianc7N98I3YLS4rb4tp |archive-date=18 June 2023 |access-date=18 June 2023 |website=[[Spotify]]}}</ref><ref name="asianetnewsable"/> reflecting her immense contribution to the industry. She is also celebrated as the ''Little Nightingale'' of [[Indian Cinema]],<ref>{{cite web |title="You are Born to Sing" K S Chithra Satsang from Prasanthi Nilayam |url= https://www.sssmediacentre.org/watch/662c5eeab16fde16be49dafc/|access-date=27 April 2024}}</ref> ''Nightingale'' of [[South India]],<ref name="India Today">{{cite web |title= Singer KS Chithra honoured with Padma Bhushan |date= 26 January 2021|url= https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/singer-ks-chithra-honoured-with-padma-bhushan-1762739-2021-01-26|access-date=26 January 2021}}</ref><ref name="timeline"/> and in different regions, she is known by various affectionate titles: ''Piya Basanti'' in [[North India]],<ref name="India Today"/> ''Vanambadi'' in [[Kerala]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Happy birthday to the Vanambadi of Malayalam: KS Chithra@57 |website= [[The Times of India]] |date= 27 July 2020 |url= https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/happy-birthday-to-the-vanambadi-of-malayalam-ks-chithra57/amp_etphotostory/77196133.cms |access-date=27 July 2020}}</ref> ''Chinna Kuyil'' in [[Tamil Nadu]],<ref>{{cite web |title= K S Chithra: Velvety voice that lingers |date= November 2023|url= https://oneindiaonepeople.com/k-s-chithra-velvety-voice-that-lingers/|access-date=1 November 2023}}</ref><ref name="Hindustan Times">{{cite web |title= Republic Day: Singer KS Chithra honoured with Padma Bhushan |date= 26 January 2021 |url= https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/republic-day-singer-ks-chithra-honoured-with-padma-bhushan-101611638300822.html |access-date=26 January 2021}}</ref> ''Kannada Kogile'' in [[Karnataka]]<ref name="ipanewspack.com"/> and ''Sangeeta Saraswathi'' in [[Andhra Pradesh]] and [[Telangana]] states.<ref name="India Today"/> She is also known for her history of collaboration with music composers like [[A. R. Rahman]], [[Ilaiyaraja]], [[M. M. Keeravani]], [[Hamsalekha]],<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bhumika K. |date=29 March 2016 |title=Music has helped me live |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/Music-has-helped-me-live/article14181621.ece |url-status=live |access-date=15 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210515050559/https://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/Music-has-helped-me-live/article14181621.ece/amp/#aoh=16210546752876&referrer=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com&amp_tf=From%20%251%24s |archive-date=15 May 2021}}</ref> and with the playback singers [[K. J. Yesudas]] and [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]] over the years.

Chithra is a recipient of 6 [[National Film Awards]], 10 [[Filmfare Awards South]]<ref name="Filmfare_Aug2024">{{cite magazine |title=Full list of Winners of the 69th SOBHA Filmfare Awards South (Malayalam) 2024 |url=https://www.filmfare.com/news/bollywood/full-list-of-winners-of-the-69th-sobha-filmfare-awards-south-malayalam-2024_-67629.html |magazine=Filmfare |date=4 August 2024 |access-date=4 August 2024}}</ref> and 43 [[State Government]] awards from 8 [[States and union territories of India|states of India]] including 18 from [[Kerala]], 12 from [[Andhra Pradesh]], 5 from [[Tamil Nadu]], 4 from [[Karnataka]], and 1 each from [[Odisha]], [[West Bengal]], [[Madhya Pradesh]]<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web | title=K S Chithra and Uttam Singh to receive Lata Mangeshkar Award |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/music/story/uttam-singh-and-k-s-chithra-to-receive-lata-mangeshkar-award-2585370-2024-08-20 |access-date=20 August 2024 |website=[[India Today]] |date=20 August 2024 }}</ref> and [[Maharashtra]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=K. S. Chitra and Sadhana Sargam to be Awarded 'Kala Gaurav Puraskar' |url=https://www.thebridgechronicle.com/news/k-s-chitra-and-sadhana-sargam-to-be-awarded-kala-gaurav-puraskar |website=The Bridge Chronicle |date=10 November 2024 |access-date=12 December 2024}}</ref> governments.<ref name="auto">{{cite web |url=http://www.news.manatelugumovies.net/2011/09/sunitachitrashankar-receive-lata.html |title=Sunita, Chitra, Shankar receive Lata Mangeshkar award |publisher=News.manatelugumovies.net |date=29 September 2011 |accessdate=22 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425020644/http://www.news.manatelugumovies.net/2011/09/sunitachitrashankar-receive-lata.html |archivedate=25 April 2012 }}</ref><ref name="auto2">{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/music/K-S-Chithra-wins-Vanitharatnam-award/articleshow/36933552.cms|title=K S Chithra wins Vanitharatnam award|date=21 June 2014|work=[[Times of India]]}}</ref><ref name="Filmfare">{{Cite web |last=Filmfare |date=16 June 2018 |title=Winners of the 65th Jio Filmfare Awards (South) 2018 |url=https://www.filmfare.com/features/winners-of-the-65th-jio-filmfare-awards-south-2018_-28887.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620082346/https://www.filmfare.com/features/winners-of-the-65th-jio-filmfare-awards-south-2018_-28887.html |archive-date=20 June 2018 |access-date=14 July 2018 |publisher=Filmfare.com}}</ref> She was awarded India's third-highest civilian honours [[Padma Bhushan]] in 2021 and [[Padma Shri Awards (2000–2009)|Padma Shri]] in 2005 for her valuable contributions towards the Indian musical fraternity.<ref name="padmaawards">{{Cite web |title=Padma Awards 2021 announced |url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1692337 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125161945/https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1692337 |archive-date=25 January 2021 |access-date=26 January 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Home Affairs}}</ref><ref name="The Times of India">{{Cite news |date=25 January 2021 |title=Shinzo Abe, Tarun Gogoi, Ram Vilas Paswan among Padma Award winners: Complete list |work=[[The Times of India]] |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/shinzo-abe-tarun-gogoi-ram-vilas-paswan-among-padma-award-winners-complete-list/articleshow/80453596.cms |url-status=live |access-date=25 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128190946/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/shinzo-abe-tarun-gogoi-ram-vilas-paswan-among-padma-award-winners-complete-list/articleshow/80453596.cms |archive-date=28 January 2021}}</ref>

She is honoured with the title ''First Ladies'' by the [[President of India]] in 2018 for being the first Indian woman to be honoured by [[British Parliament]] at [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]], [[United Kingdom]] in 2003.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The President of India to felicitate exceptional women achievers at Rashtrapati Bhawan tomorrow | url= https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1517173 |access-date=19 January 2018}}</ref><ref name="thenewsminute.com">{{Cite web |date=22 January 2018 |title=India's 'first ladies': Rousing stories of 20 women who were pioneers in their fields |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/indias-first-ladies-rousing-stories-20-women-who-were-pioneers-their-fields-75167 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109022903/https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/indias-first-ladies-rousing-stories-20-women-who-were-pioneers-their-fields-75167 |archive-date=9 November 2020 |access-date=29 October 2020 |website=[[The News Minute]]}}</ref><ref name="etimes.in">{{Cite web |date=7 January 2022 |title=EXCLUSIVE! KS Chithra: I believe in the magic of music |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/exclusive-ks-chithra-i-believe-in-the-magic-of-music/articleshow/88755835.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531104339/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/exclusive-ks-chithra-i-believe-in-the-magic-of-music/articleshow/88755835.cms |archive-date=31 May 2022 |access-date=7 January 2022 |website=[[Time of India]]}}</ref> In 2009, she became the first Indian artist to be honoured by [[Government of China]] while performing live at the [[Qinghai]] International river festival.<ref name="Passion Vista" /><ref name="outlookindia.com"/> On 20 March 2025, She was formally honoured by the [[Parliament of South Australia]] in recognition of her outstanding contributions to [[Indian music]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Hansard Search – Parliament of South Australia |url=https://hansardsearch.parliament.sa.gov.au/search
|website=Parliament of South Australia |access-date=4 November 2025}}</ref> She was honoured by the [[Texas House of Representatives]], [[Government of Texas]], [[United States of America]], for her lasting contributions to music and the arts.<ref>{{cite web
|title=K. S. Chitra Musical Night: Dallas Frisco Fans Thrilled at Timeless Telugu Music Event |url=https://www.andhrajyothy.com/2025/nri/ks-chitra-musical-night-dallas-frisco-fans-thrilled-at-timeless-telugu-music-event-vvnp-1458291.html|website=Andhra Jyothy|publisher=Andhra Jyothy (NRI Edition)|date=2025|access-date=9 November 2025|language=en}}</ref> In 2025, she was honoured in the [[United States]] with a Joint Legislative Resolution from the [[State of New Jersey]] and a Mayoral Proclamation from the Township of Edison for her outstanding contributions to music and philanthropy.<ref>{{cite web |title=New Jersey honours K. S. Chithra with state and municipal proclamations |url=https://oktelugu.com/nri/chitra-ganalahari-tana-kalavedika-goodvibes-newjersey-success-582868.html
|website=OkTelugu |access-date=4 November 2025}}</ref> On 19 October 2025, the K. S. Chithra Day was proclaimed by the Shelby County Government in [[Memphis, Tennessee|Memphis]], [[Tennessee]] via a mayoral proclamation from the Office of the Mayor.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mayor’s Office – Shelby County, Tennessee |url=https://www.shelbycountytn.gov/78/Mayors-Office
|website=Shelby County Government |access-date=4 November 2025}}</ref> She was honoured by the [[Government of Sharjah]], [[United Arab Emirates]], with a [[Lifetime Achievement Award]] in recognition of her distinguished contributions to [[Indian music]] and her five-decade-long career.<ref>{{cite web |title=K S Chithra to belt out fan favourites at Expo Centre Sharjah |url=https://www.khaleejtimes.com/entertainment/k-s-chithra-2025-sharjah-show
|website=Khaleej Times |access-date=4 November 2025}}</ref> Barring [[Lata Mangeshkar]], she also remains the second female playback singer from [[India]] to have performed at the prestigious Royal Albert Hall in London in 2001 and her Performance was applauded with much appreciation by a roomful of an international audience.<ref name="gulfnews.com">{{Cite web |title=South Indian singer KS Chithra to perform live in Dubai |url= https://gulfnews.com/entertainment/music/south-indian-singer-ks-chithra-to-perform-live-in-dubai-1.83173373|access-date=24 October 2021 |website=[[Gulf News]]|date= 24 October 2021}}</ref><ref name="Passion Vista"/> Her song "[[Bombay (soundtrack)|Kannalane/Kehna Hi Kya]]" from the film ''[[Bombay (1995 film)|Bombay]]'' (1995) was included in United Kingdom ''[[The Guardian]]''{{'s}} "1000 Songs Everyone Must Hear Before You Die" list.<ref name="Part one: Love">{{Cite web |title=Part one: Love |url= https://www.theguardian.com/music/table/2009/mar/14/love-1000-songs-everyone-must-hear|access-date=14 March 2009 |website=[[The Guardian]]|date= 14 March 2009}}</ref>

==Early life==
Chithra was born 27 July 1963<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kameshwari |first=A |date=27 July 2020 |title=KS Chithra turns 57: Mohanlal, Priyadarshan, Aju Varghese and others wish ace singer |language=en |work=The Indian Express |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/music/singer-ks-chithra-57th-birthday-wishes-6525548/ |url-status=live |access-date=27 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220527103702/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/music/singer-ks-chithra-57th-birthday-wishes-6525548/ |archive-date=27 May 2022}}</ref> in the city of [[Trivandrum]] (now Thiruvananthapuram) of the [[Kerala]] state. Her father, Krishnan Nair was a school teacher and a music enthusiast who taught basics of music to all his three children.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Soman |first=Deepa |date=23 January 2001 |title=Nightingale of the south |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/music/k-s-chithra-shares-some-lovely-words-about-her-father/articleshow/77033214.cms |work=The Times of India |access-date=18 July 2020}}</ref> He died after a long battle with cancer on 18 July 1986. Her mother Shanthakumari was also a music teacher. She has an elder sister, K. S. Beena who is a former singer and younger brother K. S. Mahesh who is a musician.<ref>{{cite news |title='Chithralayam', Malayalees pride K S Chithra turns 60 |url=https://keralakaumudi.com/en/news/news.php?id=1113716&u=chithralayam-malayalees-pride-k-s-chithra-turns-60-1113716 |access-date=29 November 2023 |work=Keralakaumudi Daily |date=23 July 2023}}</ref> Chithra completed her schooling at the Cotton Hill Government Girls High School in Thiruvananthapuram. She acknowledges that it was the teachers of the school who spotted her talent in music.<ref>{{cite news |title=K S Chithra gets a unique birthday surprise |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/malayalam/k-s-chithra-birthday-surprise-5279435/ |access-date=29 November 2023 |work=The Indian Express |date=27 July 2018}}</ref>

Chithra received her training in [[Carnatic music]] from [[K. Omanakutty]] for seven years. She graduated in [[Bachelor of Arts|B.A. in music]] with first class and third rank from the [[University of Kerala]].<ref name="herself" /> She was selected for the [[National Talent Search Examination|National Talent Search Scholarship]] from the [[Government of India]] during the period 1978 - 1984.<ref name="night">{{Cite news |last=Nair |first=Sulekha |date=23 January 2001 |title=Nightingale of the south |work=Express India |url=http://www.expressindia.com/fe/daily/20010123/fsm21016.html |url-status=dead |access-date=11 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011030043/http://www.expressindia.com/fe/daily/20010123/fsm21016.html |archive-date=11 October 2012}}</ref>

==Playback singing==

=== Malayalam cinema ===
[[File:K.S.Chithra Jan 2015 05.jpg|thumb|right|Chithra performing at a concert in 2015]]
K. S. Chithra was introduced to [[Malayalam]] playback by [[M. G. Radhakrishnan]] in 1979 who recorded her voice for films and private albums.<ref name="herself">{{Cite news |last=S.R. Ashok Kumar |date=21 July 2005 |title=One more feather in her cap |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=http://www.hindu.com/2005/07/21/stories/2005072113740200.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050722034447/http://www.hindu.com/2005/07/21/stories/2005072113740200.htm |archive-date=22 July 2005}}</ref> ''Attahasam'', ''Snehapoorvam''<ref>{{Citation |last=Harikumar |title=Snehapoorvam Meera |url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0318699/ |access-date=18 February 2025 |others=Adoor Bhasi, Bharat Gopy, Janardanan}}</ref> ''Meera'' and ''[[Njan Ekananu]]'' were the first few films in which she recorded her voice. She also performed live concerts with [[K. J. Yesudas]] in India and abroad.<ref name="herself" /> The song "Manjal Prasadavum" from the film ''[[Nakhakshathangal]]'' (1986) composed by [[Bombay Ravi]] got her the second [[National Film Award for Best Female Playback Singer]]. For the same composer, she sang the song "Indupushpam Choodi Nilkum" for the film ''[[Vaisali (film)|Vaishali]]'' (1989) and won her third National Film Award. Her first [[Kerala State Film Award for Best Singer]] was for the song ''"Poomaname"'' from the film ''[[Nirakkoottu]]'' (1985) composed by [[Shyam (composer)|Shyam]]. Since then, she has earned wide recognition by singing popular songs under the compositions of [[Raveendran]], [[Shyam (composer)|Shyam]], [[S. P. Venkitesh]], [[Mohan Sithara]], [[Salil Chowdhury]], [[Kannur Rajan]], [[Ilaiyaraaja]], [[Johnson (composer)|Johnson]], [[Ouseppachan]], [[M. K. Arjunan]], [[A. T. Ummer]], [[Berny Ignatius]], [[M. B. Sreenivasan]], [[Mohan Sithara]], [[Vidyasagar (composer)|Vidyasagar]], [[Ramesh Narayan]], [[Sharreth]], [[M. Jayachandran]] and [[Deepak Dev]].<ref name="herself" /> She is regarded as ''"Nightingale of Kerala (Vanambadi)"'' and recorded many successful songs in Malayalam. She recorded a number of songs for the composer [[S. P. Venkitesh]] and her maximum duet songs in Malayalam are with [[K. J. Yesudas]] and [[M. G. Sreekumar]]. As of 2017, she has won the Kerala State Awards for the record 16 times. Her latest song ''"Theerame"'' from the movie ''[[Malik (film)|Malik]]'' (2021) became another awesome hit in Malayalam Music Industry.<ref>{{Cite web |date=31 May 2019 |title=Of love and longing: 15 Malayalam songs that you must listen to now |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/love-and-longing-15-malayalam-songs-you-must-listen-now-102774 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922020835/https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/love-and-longing-15-malayalam-songs-you-must-listen-now-102774 |archive-date=22 September 2022 |access-date=22 September 2022 |website=The News Minute}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=29 April 2019 |title=K S Chithra celebrates 40 years of her musical journey |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/music/k-s-chithra-celebrates-40-years-of-her-musical-journey/articleshow/69097073.cms |url-status=live |access-date=22 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922022338/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/music/k-s-chithra-celebrates-40-years-of-her-musical-journey/articleshow/69097073.cms |archive-date=22 September 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Celebrities wish KS Chithra on her big day |url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/movies-music/movie-news/celebrities-wish-ks-chithra-on-her-big-day-1.3008325 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190624171733/https://english.mathrubhumi.com/movies-music/movie-news/celebrities-wish-ks-chithra-on-her-big-day-1.3008325 |archive-date=24 June 2019 |access-date=22 September 2022 |website=Mathrubhumi |date=27 July 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Why singer Chithra feels a void? |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/entertainment/music/2019/04/16/singer-ks-chithra-remembering-daughter-nandana.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922020836/https://www.onmanorama.com/entertainment/music/2019/04/16/singer-ks-chithra-remembering-daughter-nandana.html |archive-date=22 September 2022 |access-date=22 September 2022 |website=OnManorama}}</ref>

=== Telugu cinema ===
[[File:S P Balasubrahmanyam K S Chithra.jpg|thumb|left|Chithra performing with [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]]]]
Chithra's first Telugu song was "Paadalenu Pallavaina" from the dubbed version of Tamil film [[Sindhu Bhairavi (film)|''Sindhu Bhairavi'']] (1985) composed by [[Ilaiyaraaja]], later sang a humming in a song sung by [[K. J. Yesudas]] composed by [[K. V. Mahadevan]] for the picture Pralayam (1985). Her first song in a Telugu film is "Gelupu Maade" from ''Vijrumbhana'' (1986), composed by [[K. Chakravarthy]]. Later went on to sing songs to many Telugu composers like [[Satyam (composer)|Sathyam]], [[Raj-Koti]], Ilaiyaraja, K. V. Mahadevan & K. Chakravarthy for the years 1986–88, but she gained initial recognition/break-through for compositions by Ilaiyaraja like "Jallanta Kavvinta" from [[Geethanjali (1989 film)|''Geethanjali'']] (1989) & "Ninnukori Varnam" from Gharshana( 1988) and then went onto sing several songs to many composers in Telugu. It was from then onwards that she became a notable singer in Telugu and went on to record every other song in each album being the solo card female singer for almost all the films in the 90s. It was the moment where she established herself as a well recognised singer and strengthening her position in Telugu films by almost taking the place of [[S. Janaki]] from 1990.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Prakash |first=P. V. D. S |title=సరిగమ స్వరాల కోయిల...చిత్ర |url=https://www.sitara.net/patala-pallaki/gaayakulu/k-s-chithra-krishnan-nair/13736 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127070710/https://www.sitara.net/patala-pallaki/gaayakulu/k-s-chithra-krishnan-nair/13736 |archive-date=27 January 2021 |access-date=27 September 2020 |website=[[Eenadu|Sitara]] |language=te}}</ref> Chithra received her first [[Nandi Awards|Nandi Award]], presented by [[Government of Andhra Pradesh]] for "Kalika Chilakala Koliki" from ''[[Seetharamayya Gari Manavaralu]]'' (1991). She won a total of 11 Nandi Awards as [[Nandi Award for Best Female Playback Singer|Best Female Playback Singer]] for various Telugu songs.<ref>{{Cite web |title=నంది అవార్డు విజేతల పరంపర (1964 - 2008) |trans-title=A series of Nandi Award Winners (1964 - 2008) |url=http://ipr.ap.nic.in/New_Links/Film.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150223135739/http://ipr.ap.nic.in/New_Links/Film.pdf |archive-date=23 February 2015 |access-date=27 September 2020 |publisher=[[Andhra Pradesh (magazine)|Information & Public Relations of Andhra Pradesh]]}}(in [[Telugu language|Telugu]])</ref> As the years passed by Chithra was recognised as a legendary singer in Telugu whose era or legacy was considered to be the golden era standing next to [[P. Susheela]] and [[S. Janaki]]. As of today Chithra is considered as one of the finest singers of the Telugu film industry whose charisma is remarkable. She sang maximum songs in Telugu to [[M. M. Keeravani]] and also worked with almost every notable composer from then to till date.

=== Hindi cinema ===

{{Main|List of Hindi songs recorded by K. S. Chithra}}

Chithra was introduced to Hindi film music in 1985; she recorded her first Hindi song composed by [[S. P. Venkitesh]], which was not commercially released. For the 1991 Hindi film ''[[Love (1991 Indian film)|Love]]'', composers [[Anand–Milind]], called upon her to sing duets song along with [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]] and since then, Chithra has recorded for around 200 Bollywood songs.<ref>{{Cite web |title=KS Chithra's best Hindi numbers |url=https://www.cinestaan.com/listicles/2016/jul/27/1514/ks-chithra-s-best-hindi-numbers |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190530144858/https://www.cinestaan.com/listicles/2016/jul/27/1514/ks-chithra-s-best-hindi-numbers |archive-date=30 May 2019 |access-date=24 November 2020 |website=Cinestaan.com}}</ref>

Apart from film songs, Chithra recorded for many private albums of which ''[[Piya Basanti]]'' and ''Sunset Point'' became hugely popular and went on to win several laurels including the MTV Music Video Awards. The popularity of the former album made her known among the Northern part of Indians identify her as "Piya Basanti" Chitra.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Revisiting Piya Basanti |url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/revisiting-piya-basanti/987487/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190503090208/http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/revisiting-piya-basanti/987487 |archive-date=3 May 2019 |access-date=24 November 2020 |website=The Indian Express}}</ref>

=== Other Indian languages ===
{{Main|List of songs recorded by K. S. Chithra}}

== Television ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Year
!Name of Television Show
!Role
!Network
!Language
!Country
|-
|2006-2007
|''[[Star Singer|Star Singer (season 1)]]''
|[[Judge]]
|[[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]]
|[[Malayalam]]
|rowspan="19" |{{flagicon image|Flag of India.svg|size=35px}} [[India]]
|-
|2007
|''[[Super Singer Junior|Super Singer Junior (season 1)]]''
|[[Judge]]
|[[Star Vijay]]
|[[Tamil language|Tamil]]
|-
| 2008||''Apple Mega Star''||[[Judge]]||[[Jeevan TV]]||[[Malayalam]]
|-
|2009-2010
|''[[Super Singer Junior (season 2)]]''
|[[Judge]]
|[[Star Vijay]]
|[[Tamil language|Tamil]]
|-
|2009-2010
|''[[Star Singer|Star Singer (season 4)]]''
|[[Judge]]
|[[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]]
|[[Malayalam]]
|-
|2010-2011
|''[[Star Singer|Star Singer (season 5)]]''
|[[Judge]]
|[[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]]
|[[Malayalam]]
|-
|2011-2012
|''[[Star Singer|Star Singer (season 6)]]''
|[[Judge]]
|[[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]]
|[[Malayalam]]
|-
|2011-2012
|''[[Super Singer Junior (season 3)]]''
|[[Judge]]
|[[Star Vijay]]
|[[Tamil language|Tamil]]
|-
|2012
|''[[Ningalkkum Aakaam Kodeeshwaran|Ningalkkum Aakaam Kodeeshwaran (season 1)]]''
|Contestant
|[[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]]
|[[Malayalam]]
|-
|2013||''Indian Voice Junior''||[[Judge]]||[[Mazhavil Manorama]]||[[Malayalam]]
|-
|2014
|''[[Super Singer Junior|Super Singer Junior (season 4)]]''
|[[Judge]]
|[[Star Vijay]]
|[[Tamil language|Tamil]]
|-
|2014-2015
|''[[Star Maa]] Super Singer 8'' <ref>{{Cite web |title= Maa TV Super Singer Season 8 starting from 18th August|url=https://www.medianews4u.com/maa-tv-super-singer-season-8-starting-today/| access-date=18 August 2014 |website= MN4U Bureau|date=18 August 2014 }}</ref>
|[[Judge]]
|[[Star Maa]]
|[[Telugu language|Telugu]]
|-
|2015||''Indian Music League''||[[Judge]]||[[Flowers TV]]||[[Malayalam]]
|-
|2016-2017
|''[[Super Singer Junior|Super Singer Junior (season 5)]]''
|[[Judge]]
|[[Star Vijay]]
|[[Tamil language|Tamil]]
|-
|2016||Super Star junior 5||Judge||[[Amrita TV]]||[[Malayalam]]
|-
|2018-2019
|''[[Super Singer Junior|Super Singer Junior (season 6)]]''
|[[Judge]]
|[[Star Vijay]]
|[[Tamil language|Tamil]]
|-
|2018
|''[[Padutha theeyaga]]''
|Guest [[Judge]]
|[[ETV Network|ETV]]
|[[Telugu language|Telugu]]
|-
|2019-2020||''Paadam Namuk Paadam''||[[Judge]]||[[Mazhavil Manorama]]||[[Malayalam]]
|-
|2020
|''[[Super Singer Junior|Super Singer Junior (season 7)]]''
|[[Judge]]
|[[Star Vijay]]
|[[Tamil language|Tamil]]
|-
|2020
|''Yaar Antha Star (season 7)''
|[[Judge]]
|[[Vasantham (TV channel)|Vasantham]]
|[[Tamil language|Tamil]]
|{{flagicon image|Flag of Singapore.svg|size=35px}} [[Singapore]]
|-
|2020-2022
|''[[Star Singer|Star Singer (season 8)]]''
|[[Judge]]
|[[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]]
|[[Malayalam]]
|rowspan="7" |{{flagicon image|Flag of India.svg|size=35px}} [[India]]
|-
|2021-2022
|''[[Super Singer Junior|Super Singer Junior (season 8)]]''
|[[Judge]]
|[[Star Vijay]]
|[[Tamil language|Tamil]]
|-
|2022
|''[[Star Maa]] Super Singer junior (Season 2)'' {{Citation needed|date=August 2024}}
|[[Judge]]
|[[Star Maa]]
|[[Telugu language|Telugu]]
|-
|2022-2023
|''[[Star Singer|Star Singer Junior (season 3)]]''
|Guest Jury
|[[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]]
|[[Malayalam]]
|-
|2023
|''Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Li'l Champs (Season 19)'' <ref>{{Cite news |title= Renowned singer K S Chithra to grace Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Li'l Champs |url= https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/kannada/renowned-singer-k-s-chitra-to-grace-sa-re-ga-ma-pa-lil-champs/articleshow/97393325.cms| access-date=28 January 2023 |website= [[Time of India]]|date= 28 January 2023}}</ref>
|Guest [[Judge]]
|[[Zee Kannada]]
|[[Kannada language|Kannada]]
|-
|2023
|''[[Super Singer Junior (season 9)]]''
|[[Judge]]
|[[Star Vijay]]
|[[Tamil language|Tamil]]
|-
|2023-2024
|''[[Star Singer|Star Singer (season 9)]]''<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/malayalam/exclusive-k-s-chithra-on-star-singer-ive-never-seen-such-incredible-talents-in-a-single-show-before/articleshow/114252210.cms|title=Exclusive! K S Chithra on Star Singer: I've never seen such incredible talents in a single show before|work=The Times Of India}}</ref>
|[[Judge]]
|[[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]]
|[[Malayalam]]
|-
|2023 – present
|''Yaar Antha Star (season 8)''
|[[Judge]]
|[[Vasantham (TV channel)|Vasantham]]
|[[Tamil language|Tamil]]
|{{flagicon image|Flag of Singapore.svg|size=35px}} [[Singapore]]
|-
|2024
|''[[Super Singer 10]]''
|Guest
| rowspan="2" |[[Star Vijay]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Tamil language|Tamil]]
| rowspan="3" |{{flagicon image|Flag of India.svg|size=35px}} [[India]]
|-
|2024-present
|[[Super Singer Junior season 10]]
|[[Judge]]
|-
|2025-present
|''[[Star Singer|Star Singer (season 10)]]''<ref>{{cite news |title=പൂക്കുടയുമായി സൈക്കിളിൽ ഭാവനയുടെ എൻട്രി; നിറചിരിയോടെ സ്വാഗതം ചെയ്ത് മഞ്ജു വാര്യർ |url=https://malayalam.indianexpress.com/entertainment/asianet-star-singer-season-10-grand-launch-2025-manju-warrier-bhavana-8865359 |work=Indian Express |date=18 March 2025 |language=ml |access-date=19 March 2025}}</ref>
|[[Judge]]
|[[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]]
|[[Malayalam]]
|}

==Performances==

===Work and association with music directors===

Chithra has sung over 25,000 songs.<ref name="auto3" />

===Concerts===
[[File:KSChithra.jpg|thumb|right|Chithra performing at a concert]]
Apart from playback singing, she also appeared among the panel of judges in the singing [[reality television]] shows at [[Kerala]] (''[[Idea Star Singer]]'' and ''Josco Indian Voice''),<ref>[http://www.josco-indianvoice.com] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140423145208/http://www.josco-indianvoice.com/|date=23 April 2014}}</ref> at [[Tamil Nadu]] (''[[Airtel Super Singer Junior]]''),<ref>{{Cite web |title=Airtel Super Singer Junior 2 |url=http://www.chennaionline.com/city360/events/20092603042654/airtel-super-singer-junior-2.col |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100131072409/http://www.chennaionline.com/city360/events/20092603042654/airtel-super-singer-junior-2.col |archive-date=31 January 2010 |access-date=3 February 2010}}</ref> where she also won the award for Best Female Judge and at [[Andhra Pradesh]] ([[MAA TV]]) ''Super Singer''. Apart from this judgement panel she has appeared in music-shows like Swarabhishekam, Super Masti, Jhumandi Nadam. She is a regular singer in [[Ilayaraja]]'s, [[A.R. Rahman]]'s and [[S.P. Balasubrahmanyam]]'s concerts.{{citation needed|date=December 2014}} She has performed all over the world in [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam|SPB]]'s concerts along with [[S. P. Sailaja]], [[S. P. Charan]]. She has been a regular singer participating in all the concerts of SPB50-The World Tour, she has performed almost all around the world with [[S. P. B. Charan]], [[S. P. Sailaja]], [[Sunitha Upadrashta]] [[Karthik (singer)|Karthik]] & [[Shweta Mohan]].{{citation needed|date=May 2022}}

She had performed at the Royal Albert Hall<ref name="kschitra.info">{{Cite web |title=K S Chithra |url=http://www.kschitra.info/?page_id=164 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130712051024/http://www.kschitra.info/?page_id=164 |archive-date=12 July 2013 |website=Facebook}}</ref> and House of Commons{{citation needed|date=June 2014}} in London. On 6 June 2009, she performed in Qinghai International Musical Journey on Water and Life concert with a rendition of "Tunga Tarange Gange" alongside other singers from nations located around various major rivers such as the [[Ganges]], [[Volga]], [[Rhine]], [[Danube]], [[Mississippi River|Mississippi]], and [[Amazon River|Amazon]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=2009青海国际水与生命音乐之旅--世界防治荒漠化和干旱日主题音乐会_艺术中国 |url=http://art.china.cn/huodong/qhsysm/node_514800.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220527174033/http://art.china.cn/huodong/qhsysm/node_514800.htm |archive-date=27 May 2022 |access-date=27 May 2022 |website=art.china.cn}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=青海国际水与生命音乐之旅 2008, 2009合集 2 DVD_孔夫子旧书网 |url=http://book.kongfz.com/item_pic.do?shopId=242215&itemId=1444555608&imgId=5 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220527174630/http://book.kongfz.com/item_pic.do?shopId=242215&itemId=1444555608&imgId=5 |archive-date=27 May 2022 |access-date=27 May 2022 |website=book.kongfz.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=印度歌唱家K.S.奇西拉夫人演唱《奔流到恒河》_现场图片_艺术中国 |url=http://art.china.cn/huodong/qhsysm/2009-06/15/content_2963446.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220527175342/http://art.china.cn/huodong/qhsysm/2009-06/15/content_2963446.htm |archive-date=27 May 2022 |access-date=27 May 2022 |website=art.china.cn}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=青海国际水与生命音乐之旅——2009世界防治荒漠化与干旱日主题音乐会举行_新闻中心_新浪网 |url=http://news.sina.com.cn/o/2009-06-16/063315795534s.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220527172744/http://news.sina.com.cn/o/2009-06-16/063315795534s.shtml |archive-date=27 May 2022 |access-date=27 May 2022 |website=news.sina.com.cn}}</ref>

In 2024, K. S. Chithra headlined the [[Chithra Varnam]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Chithra Varnam 2024 |url=https://www.iccofutah.org/chithravarnam2024 |website=ICC of Utah |access-date=18 October 2024 |language=en}}</ref> concert on 11 May at the Chabot Performing Arts Center, Hayward, California. Organised by Kalalaya sponsored by Nambiar Builders, the event featured her signature melodies across multiple Indian languages, with support from musicians such as [[Sharreth]] and [[K. K. Nishad]]. The concert celebrated Mother's Day, adding a sentimental note to the evening.<ref>{{cite web |title=Brace Yourself for Chithra Varnam 2024: A Mesmerizing Musical Journey in the Bay Area – Sulekha Blogs |url=https://events.sulekha.com/buzz/blog/brace-yourself-for-chithra-varnam-2024-a-mesmerizing-musical-journey-in-the-bay-area |work=Sulekha |access-date=18 October 2024}}</ref>

===Studio albums===
Chithra recorded her first studio album with Voodoo Rapper for the album called ''Ragga Raaga'' in 1993.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Katiyar |first=Arun |date=15 October 1993 |title=Indian rap: It's silly and it's trite, but we all dig it, right? |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/society-and-the-arts/story/19931015-indian-rap-it-silly-and-it-trite-but-we-all-dig-it-right-811632-1993-10-14https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/society-and-the-arts/story/19931015-indian-rap-it-silly-and-it-trite-but-we-all-dig-it-right-811632-1993-10-14 |magazine=[[India Today]] |access-date=4 January 2026}}</ref> She recorded the albums in Hindi, ''[[Piya Basanti]]'' (2000) and ''Sunset Point''. She associated with [[Ustad Sultan Khan]] for ''Piya Basanti'' which was certified [[Music recording sales certification|Gold]].<ref name="Musically Yours">{{Cite news |last=Subha J Rao |date=28 October 2004 |title=Musically yours |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=http://www.hindu.com/mp/2004/10/28/stories/2004102800810100.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050223010713/http://www.hindu.com/mp/2004/10/28/stories/2004102800810100.htm |archive-date=23 February 2005}}</ref> ''Sunset Point'' had eight songs written and narrated by [[Gulzar]] and sung by Chithra and Bhupinder.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gulzar's Sunset Point |url=http://www.gulzaronline.com/gulsunset.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130614035834/http://www.gulzaronline.com/gulsunset.htm |archive-date=14 June 2013 |access-date=28 June 2013 |publisher=Gulzaronline.com}}</ref> In 2006, she released an album in dedication to [[M. S. Subbulakshmi]] named ''My Tribute''. It is a collection of ''[[Kritis]]'' and ''[[bhajans]]'' dedicated to Subbulakshmi.<ref name="My Tribute">{{Cite news |last=K. Jeshi |date=8 December 2006 |title=Song all the way |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=http://www.hindu.com/fr/2006/12/08/stories/2006120800010200.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061210053546/http://www.hindu.com/fr/2006/12/08/stories/2006120800010200.htm |archive-date=10 December 2006}}</ref> In 2009 she released ''Nightingale: A Salute to Lataji'', a musical tribute to [[Lata Mangeshkar]] on her 80th birthday.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2 July 2009 |title=CHORDS AND NOTES |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=http://www.hindu.com/mp/2009/07/02/stories/2009070251360400.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140204005408/http://www.hindu.com/mp/2009/07/02/stories/2009070251360400.htm |archive-date=4 February 2014}}</ref> She also recorded many Malayalam albums for [[K. J. Yesudas]], [[M. Jayachandran]] and [[Sharreth]] compositions. She also planned a [[ghazal]] album with [[Ghulam Ali (Ghazal singer)|Ghulam Ali]] and [[Asha Bhosle]].<ref name="My Tribute" />

===International projects===
* Recorded with the Arab singer Jawad Ali for his album ''Amar Ul Hob''<ref name="kschitra.info" />
* Recorded a song for the jazz pianist [[Herbie Hancock]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=John Kelman |date=21 June 2010 |title=Herbie Hancock: The Imagine Project |url=https://www.allaboutjazz.com/the-imagine-project-herbie-hancock-herbie-hancock-music-review-by-john-kelman |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220527131557/https://www.allaboutjazz.com/the-imagine-project-herbie-hancock-herbie-hancock-music-review-by-john-kelman |archive-date=27 May 2022 |access-date=27 May 2022 |website=All About Jazz}}</ref>

==Public profile==
===Philanthropy===
Chithra, along with a Kerala-based satellite channel, Asianet Cable Vision (ACV), jointly launched a fundraising organisation, Sneha Nandana, to raise funds for the welfare of retired musicians who have lost their careers due to changes in the music industry.{{citation needed|date=December 2014}} She launched this organisation on the occasion of her completion of three decades in the music playback industry. She said that the fund would provide help to the musicians with financial impediments and those suffering from health problems.{{citation needed|date=December 2014}} A cultural event called Chithra Pournami was held on 15 February 2011 at [[Thiruvananthapuram]] to celebrate the 30th year of her career and also to launch this organisation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chitra launches fund for unemployed musicians |url=http://www.24dunia.com/english-news/shownews/0/Chitra-launches-fund-for-unemployed-musicians/8979679.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110902220021/http://www.24dunia.com/english-news/shownews/0/Chitra-launches-fund-for-unemployed-musicians/8979679.html |archive-date=2 September 2011 |access-date=22 December 2011 |publisher=24dunia.com}}</ref>

===Awards, honours, and recognition===
{{See also|List of awards and nominations received by K. S. Chithra}}
She is honoured with the title ''First Ladies'' by the [[President of India]] in 2018 for being the first Indian woman to be honoured by [[British Parliament]] at [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]], [[United Kingdom]] in 2003.<ref name="thenewsminute.com"/><ref name="etimes.in"/> In 2024, she was again honoured by the British Parliament, United Kingdom, with the title ''The Greatest Indian Singer of All Times''.<ref name="timeline"/> In 2009, She became the first Indian artist to be honoured by [[Government of China]] while performing live at the [[Qinghai]] International river festival.<ref name="Passion Vista" /><ref name="outlookindia.com"/> On 20 March 2025, She was formally honoured by the [[Parliament of South Australia]] in recognition of her outstanding contributions to [[Indian music]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Hansard Search – Parliament of South Australia |url=https://hansardsearch.parliament.sa.gov.au/search
|website=Parliament of South Australia |access-date=4 November 2025}}</ref> She was honoured by the [[Texas House of Representatives]], [[Government of Texas]], [[United States of America]], for her lasting contributions to music and the arts.<ref>{{cite web
|title=K. S. Chitra Musical Night: Dallas Frisco Fans Thrilled at Timeless Telugu Music Event |url=https://www.andhrajyothy.com/2025/nri/ks-chitra-musical-night-dallas-frisco-fans-thrilled-at-timeless-telugu-music-event-vvnp-1458291.html|website=Andhra Jyothy|publisher=Andhra Jyothy (NRI Edition)|date=2025|access-date=9 November 2025|language=en}}</ref> In 2025, she was honoured in the [[United States]] with a Joint Legislative Resolution from the [[State of New Jersey]] and a Mayoral Proclamation from the Township of Edison for her outstanding contributions to music and philanthropy.<ref>{{cite web |title=New Jersey honours K. S. Chithra with state and municipal proclamations |url=https://oktelugu.com/nri/chitra-ganalahari-tana-kalavedika-goodvibes-newjersey-success-582868.html
|website=OkTelugu |access-date=4 November 2025}}</ref> On 19 October 2025, the K. S. Chithra Day was proclaimed by the Shelby County Government in [[Memphis, Tennessee|Memphis]], [[Tennessee]] via a mayoral proclamation from the Office of the Mayor.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mayor’s Office – Shelby County, Tennessee |url=https://www.shelbycountytn.gov/78/Mayors-Office
|website=Shelby County Government |access-date=4 November 2025}}</ref> She was honoured by the [[Government of Sharjah]], [[United Arab Emirates]], with a [[Lifetime Achievement Award]] in recognition of her distinguished contributions to [[Indian music]] and her five-decade-long career.<ref>{{cite web |title=K S Chithra to belt out fan favourites at Expo Centre Sharjah |url=https://www.khaleejtimes.com/entertainment/k-s-chithra-2025-sharjah-show
|website=Khaleej Times |access-date=4 November 2025}}</ref> Chithra is a recipient of 6 [[National Film Awards]], 10 [[Filmfare Awards South]]<ref name="Filmfare_Aug2024"/> and 43 [[State Government]] awards from 8 [[States and union territories of India|states of India]] including 18 from [[Kerala]], 12 from [[United Andhra Pradesh]], 5 from [[Tamil Nadu]], 4 from [[Karnataka]], and 1 each from [[Odisha]], [[West Bengal]], [[Madhya Pradesh]] and [[Maharashtra]] governments <ref name="auto"/><ref name="auto2"/><ref name="auto1"/><ref name="Filmfare"/> She was awarded India's third-highest civilian honours [[Padma Bhushan]] in 2021 and [[Padma Shri Awards (2000–2009)|Padma Shri]] in 2005 for her valuable contributions towards the Indian musical fraternity.<ref name="padmaawards"/><ref name="The Times of India"/>

Barring [[Lata Mangeshkar]], she also remains the second female playback singer from India to have performed at the prestigious Royal Albert Hall in London in 2001 and her Performance was applauded with much appreciation by a roomful of an international audience.<ref name="gulfnews.com"/><ref name="Passion Vista">{{Cite news |date=25 January 2022 |title=The Delightful Synonym of Symphony |work=Passion Vista |url=https://www.passionvista.com/dr-k-s-chithra/ |url-status=live |access-date=25 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220520034430/https://www.passionvista.com/dr-k-s-chithra/ |archive-date=20 May 2022}}</ref> Her song "[[Bombay (soundtrack)|Kannalane/Kehna Hi Kya]]" from the film ''[[Bombay (1995 film)|Bombay]]'' (1995) was included in United Kingdom ''[[The Guardian]]''{{'s}} "1000 Songs Everyone Must Hear Before You Die" list.<ref name="Part one: Love"/>

==Personal life==
Chithra is married to Vijayashankar, an engineer and businessman.<ref>{{Cite news |last=K. Pradeep |date=23 August 2019 |title=Celebrating 40 years of singer KS Chithra, the queen of melody |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/music/ks-chithra-walks-through-her-40-years-in-the-music-industry/article29221662.ece |url-status=live |access-date=27 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220601144350/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/music/ks-chithra-walks-through-her-40-years-in-the-music-industry/article29221662.ece |archive-date=1 June 2022}}</ref> They had a daughter who was born with [[Down syndrome]], and drowned in a pool in [[Dubai]] in 2011 when Chithra was about to perform at an [[A. R. Rahman]] concert.<ref>[http://www.emirates247.com/news/ks-chitra-s-daughter-reportedly-drowned-in-emirates-hills-pool-2011-04-14-1.381037 "KS Chithra's daughter reportedly drowned and died in Emirates Hills pool"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906084901/https://www.emirates247.com/news/ks-chitra-s-daughter-reportedly-drowned-in-emirates-hills-pool-2011-04-14-1.381037 |date=6 September 2023 }}. Emirates247.com. 14 April 2011. Retrieved 14 April 2011.</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=14 April 2011 |title=Singer Chithra's daughter drowns in dubai |work=[[Khaleej Times]] |url=http://www.khaleejtimes.com/DisplayArticle09.asp?xfile=data/theuae/2011/April/theuae_April392.xml&section=theuae |url-status=dead |access-date=14 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110417065603/http://www.khaleejtimes.com/DisplayArticle09.asp?xfile=data%2Ftheuae%2F2011%2FApril%2Ftheuae_April392.xml&section=theuae |archive-date=17 April 2011}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category-inline}}
* {{IMDb name|id=0433889}}

{{K S Chithra|state=expanded}}
{{Navboxes
|title = Articles related to K. S. Chithra
|list1=
{{PadmaBhushanAwardRecipients 2020–2029}}
{{Padma Shri Award Recipients in Art}}
{{National Film Award Best Female Playback Singer}}
{{Filmfare Award for Best Female Playback Singer – Telugu}}
{{SIIMA Award for Best Female Playback Singer – Telugu}}
{{Screen Award for Best Female Playback Singer}}
}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chithra, K. S.}}
[[Category:1963 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Assamese-language playback singers]]
[[Category:Singers from Kerala]]
[[Category:Hindi-language playback singers]]
[[Category:Indian women playback singers]]
[[Category:Indian women classical singers]]
[[Category:Kannada-language playback singers]]
[[Category:Kerala State Film Award winners]]
[[Category:Tamil-language playback singers]]
[[Category:Malayalam-language playback singers]]
[[Category:Singers from Thiruvananthapuram]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Shri in arts]]
[[Category:Telugu-language playback singers]]
[[Category:Tamil Nadu State Film Awards winners]]
[[Category:Karnataka State Film Award winners]]
[[Category:Filmfare Awards South winners]]
[[Category:Nandi Award winners]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Kalaimamani Award]]
[[Category:Women Carnatic singers]]
[[Category:Carnatic singers]]
[[Category:Film musicians from Kerala]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian women singers]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian women singers]]
[[Category:Women musicians from Kerala]]
[[Category:Best Female Playback Singer National Film Award winners]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Bhushan in arts]]
[[Category:Sanskrit-language singers]]
[[Category:Screen Awards winners]]
[[Category:South Indian International Movie Awards winners]]

K. S. Chithra

2026-03-17T04:54:24Z

Husayn: Article enhanced with better details

Sita Bhateja

2026-03-15T04:44:01Z

Husayn: added a stub

{{short description|Indian gynecologist and obstetrician}}

{{Infobox person
| name = Sita Bhateja
| birth_date = 1930
| birth_place = Multan, British India (present-day Pakistan)
| death_date = 2018 <ref name="thehindu.com">{{cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/popular-gynaecologist-sita-bhateja-passes-away/article25775830.ece|title=Popular gynaecologist Sita Bhateja passes away|website=The Hindu|date=18 December 2018 |access-date=10 August 2025}}</ref>
| death_place = Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
| spouse = Amrit Bhateja
| occupation = Gynecologist, obstetrician
| known_for = Founder of Sita Bhateja Specialty Hospital, Bengaluru <ref name="thehindu.com">{{cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/popular-gynaecologist-sita-bhateja-passes-away/article25775830.ece|title=Popular gynaecologist Sita Bhateja passes away|website=The Hindu|date=18 December 2018 |access-date=10 August 2025}}</ref>
| education = MBBS, King Edward Memorial Hospital and Seth Gordhandas Sunderdas Medical College (1970)
}}

'''Sita Bhateja''' was an Indian [[gynecologist]] and [[obstetrician]] who founded and led the Sita Bhateja Specialty Hospital in [[Bengaluru]], [[Karnataka]]. She practiced medicine for over five decades and was respected for her humanitarian approach and dedication to women's healthcare.<ref name="timesofindia">{{cite web|url=https://timescontent.timesofindia.com/photo/feature/Dr-Sita-Bhateja/571642|website=timescontent.timesofindia.com|title=Dr Sita Bhateja Feature Photo Dr Sita Bhateja, 90 years...|access-date=10 August 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1=Unnithan-Kumar | first1=Maya | title=Reproductive Agency, Medicine and the State: Cultural Transformations in Childbearing | date=November 2005 | publisher=Berghahn Books | isbn=978-1-78238-862-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HBLdCwAAQBAJ&dq=dr+sita+bhateja&pg=PA140 }}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Sita Bhateja was born in a Jat family in Multan, in British India (present-day Pakistan). She spent her childhood moving between different cities due to her father and grandfather's employment as jailers. Inspired by [[Marie Curie]], she decided to pursue medicine to achieve independence and contribute to society.

She graduated with an MBBS from the [[King Edward Memorial Hospital and Seth Gordhandas Sunderdas Medical College]] in Mumbai in 1970.<ref name="practo">{{cite web |title=Dr. Seetha Bhateja |url=https://www.practo.com/bangalore/doctor/dr-seetha-bheteja-gynecologist-obstetrician |website=Practo |access-date=10 August 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title=Tiny Treasures: The Science and History Behind the World of Stamps | date=February 2025 | publisher=Notion Press | isbn=979-8-89673-791-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qpVIEQAAQBAJ&dq=dr+sita+bhateja&pg=PT28 }}</ref>

== Medical career ==
After completing her degree, Bhateja worked in refugee camps in Kurukshetra and Jammu, where she provided gynecological care and delivered babies for displaced populations.<ref name="givingback.co.in">{{cite web|url=https://www.givingback.co.in/who-we-are/|title=Who we are – Giving back to getting back|website=givingback.co.in|access-date=10 August 2025}}</ref>

She later moved to Bengaluru in 1957, where she worked at CSI Hospital and St. Martha's Hospital, sometimes without pay. In 1965, she established her own clinic, which grew into the Sita Bhateja Nursing Home and eventually into the multi-specialty Sita Bhateja Specialty Hospital.<ref name="practo-hosp">{{cite web |title=Sita Bhateja Specialty Hospital |url=https://www.practo.com/bangalore/hospital/sita-bhateja-specialty-hospital-langford-road |website=Practo |access-date=10 August 2025}}</ref>

== Sita Bhateja Specialty Hospital ==
Initially focused on obstetrics and gynecology, the hospital later expanded under her son, neurosurgeon Arvind Bhateja, to include neurosurgery, orthopedics, plastic surgery, intensive care, urology, and other specializations. The facility gained a reputation as one of Bengaluru's most respected private hospitals.<ref name="toi">{{cite news |title=Sita Bhateja Hosp to close after 55 years |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/sita-bhateja-hosp-to-close-after-55-years/articleshow/76432787.cms |work=The Times of India |date=18 June 2020 |access-date=10 August 2025}}</ref>

== Later years and death ==
Bhateja continued to work into her late 80s, sometimes delivering multiple babies in a single day.
<ref name="givingback.co.in"/> She was also an avid stamp collector, with a significant collection of pre-Independence Indian stamps, admired by Presidents [[K. R. Narayanan]] and [[Pratibha Patil]].<ref name="newindianexpress">{{cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/bengaluru/2018/Dec/19/dr-sita-bhateja-was-a-role-modelgeneration-ahead-of-her-times-1913507.html|website=newindianexpress.com|title=Dr Sita Bhateja was a role model, generation ahead of her times|date=19 December 2018 |access-date=10 August 2025}}</ref>

She died in December 2018 in Bengaluru.<ref name="toi" />

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Bhateja, Sita}}
[[Category:Indian obstetricians]]
[[Category:People from Bengaluru]]
[[Category:1930 births]]
[[Category:2018 deaths]]
[[Category:Gynaecologists]]
[[Category:Indian gynaecologists]]
[[Category:Indian businesswomen by state or union territory]]

Hemidactylus chikhaldaraensis

2026-03-13T17:04:57Z

Husayn: Adding initial post v1

{{Short description|Species of lizard}}
{{Speciesbox
| status =
| genus = Hemidactylus
| species = chikhaldaraensis
| authority = Agarwal, [[Aaron Matthew Bauer|Bauer]], Giri, & Khandekar, 2019
| synonyms =
}}

'''''Hemidactylus chikhaldaraensis''''', the '''Chikhaldara brookiish gecko ''' is a species of [[gecko]]. It is [[endemic]] to [[India]].<ref name=RDB>{{NRDB species|genus=Hemidactylus|species=chikhaldaraensis}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q85766200}}

[[Category:Hemidactylus]]
[[Category:Reptiles described in 2019]]
[[Category:Endemic reptiles of India]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Aaron M. Bauer]]
{{Hemidactylus-stub}}

Sayed Muhammed Ali Shihab Thangal

2026-03-05T18:28:55Z

Husayn: added bio

{{Short description|Indian Islamic scholar (1936–2009)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2018}}
{{Infobox person
| honorific_prefix = Sayyid
| name = Mohammed Ali Shihab Thangal
| image = Shihab_Thangal_in_July_2008.jpg
| caption = Mohammed Ali Shihab Thangal in July 2008
| birthname =
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=yes|1936|05|04}}
| birth_place = [[Malappuram]], [[Malabar District]], [[British India]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|2009|08|01|1936|05|04}}
| death_place = Malappuram, [[Kerala]] (India)
| alma_mater = [[Al-Azhar University]] [[Cairo University]]
| spouse = * Shareefa Fatima Beevi (died 2006)
* Aysha Beevi (married 2006)
| parents = * [[PMSA Pookkoya Thangal|P. M. S. A. Pookkoya Thangal]] (father)
| children = * Munavvar Ali Shihab Thangal
* Basheer Ali Shihab Thangal
| relatives = * Sayed Umerali Shihab Thangal (brother)
* [[Sayed Hyderali Shihab Thangal]] (brother)
* [[Sayyid Sadiq Ali Shihab Thangal|Syed Sadiq Ali Shihab Thangal]] (brother)
* [[Sayed_Abbas_Ali_Shihab_Thangal|Syed Abbas Ali Shihab Thangal]] (brother)
| website =
| occupation = * Community leader
* Islamic scholar
* Politician<ref name="NM-C4">{{Cite book |last=Misiriya |first=P. V. Nafeesathul |url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/19658 |title=Emigration and Educational Development of Muslim Community in Kerala |publisher=Mahatma Gandhi University |year=2013 |editor-last=Rajan |editor-first=K. |location=Kottayam |pages=17 |chapter=Review of the Economic and Educational Status of the Muslim Community in Kerala |hdl=10603/19658 |chapter-url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/19658/12/12_chapter4.pdf}}</ref>
}}
'''Sayed Muhammad Ali Shihab Thangal''' ([[Malayalam]]: സയ്യിദ് മുഹമ്മദലി ഷിഹാബ് തങ്ങൾ) (4 May 1936 – 1 August 2009) was an Indian Islamic scholar, community leader, and politician from [[Kerala]].<ref name="The Times of India">{{cite news |last=Press Trust of India |date=2 August 2009 |title=President, PM, Sonia Pay Homage to IUML Leader Thangal |work=[[The Times of India]] |publication-place= |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/President-PM-Sonia-pay-homage-to-IUML-leader-Thangal/articleshow/4848046.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120612045904/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-08-02/india/28200612_1_iuml-indian-union-muslim-league-homage |archive-date=12 June 2012}}</ref><ref name="hindu1">{{cite news |date=2 August 2009 |title=IUML Leader Shihab Thangal Dead |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |location= |publication-place= |url=http://www.hindu.com/2009/08/02/stories/2009080256930100.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090805105737/http://www.hindu.com/2009/08/02/stories/2009080256930100.htm |archive-date=5 August 2009 |accessdate=2 August 2009}}</ref> He is sometimes regarded as "the most important Mappila leader" of modern Kerala.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Miller |first=Roland E. |title=Mappila Muslim Culture |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=2015 |pages=103, 240–42}}</ref>

Born in the [[Hadharem|Hadhrami]]-origin ''[[Thangal]]'' [[Pukkoya family of Panakkad|Pukkoya family]] of Panakkad.<ref name=":0">Miller, Roland E., ''Mappila Muslim Culture''. New York, State University of New York Press, 2015. pp. 115, 268-69.</ref> Shihab Thangal also functioned as the president of the Kerala state committee of the [[Indian Union Muslim League]] (1975 - 2009).<ref>{{cite news |date=1 May 2006 |title=Syed Families Hold Get-together |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |location= |url=http://www.hindu.com/2006/05/01/stories/2006050100420200.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070524103201/http://www.hindu.com/2006/05/01/stories/2006050100420200.htm |archive-date=24 May 2007 |accessdate=2 August 2009}}</ref><ref name="The Times of India" />

According to historian Roland Miller, "wisely and sensitively, he led Muslims through the landmines of state politics for over three decades. He also led the way into cordial relationships with members of other religious communities".<ref name=":1" />

==Early life and education==
Sayed Muhammad Ali Shihab Thangal was born as the eldest son of [[Pukkoya Tangal|P. M. S. A. Ali Shihab Ba Alawi]], of the Puthiya Maliyekkal family of Panakkad, on 4 May 1936.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Usman |first=M. |url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/35141 |title=The Role of Voluntary Agencies in Human Resource Development: A Case Study of Orphanages in Malappuram District |publisher=University of Calicut |year=2005 |editor-last=Prakash |editor-first=B. Alwin |pages=112 |chapter=IV |hdl=10603/35141 |chapter-url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/35141/13/13_chapter%204.pdf}}</ref><ref name="hindu1" /> His siblings were Umerali Shihab Ba Alawi, [[Sayed Hyderali Shihab Thangal|Hyderali Shihab Ba Alawi]], [[Sayyid Sadiq Ali Shihab Thangal|Sadiq Ali Shihab Ba Alawi]], Abbasali Shihab Ba Alawi.<ref>{{Cite news |date=6 March 2022 |title=IUML Leader Panakkad Sayyid Hyder Ali Shihab Thangal Laid to Rest |work=Malayala Manorama |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/news/kerala/2022/03/06/iuml-state-president-panakkad-sayed-hyderali-thangal-dies.html}}</ref>

Shihab Thangal had his primary education at Panakkad and at M. M. High School, [[Kozhikode]] (matriculation).<ref name=":1" /><ref name="hindu1" /> He also had his initial Islamic education at the traditional 'dars' at Tirur and Kananchery.<ref name="hindu1" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Indo-Asian News Service |date=12 August 2009 |title=Kerala Bids Farewell to Panakkad Shihab Thangal |url=http://news.in.msn.com/national/article.aspx?cp-documentid=3131276 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312090109/http://news.in.msn.com/national/article.aspx?cp-documentid=3131276 |archive-date=12 March 2012 |work=MSN}}</ref>

=== Higher education in Egypt ===
In 1958, Shihab Thangal left for [[Egypt]] for further studies and obtained his master's degree in [[Arabic literature|Arabic Literature]] from [[Al Azhar University|Al-Azhar University]] in 1961.<ref name=":2" /> He continued his studies in [[Cairo University]] and pursued a Doctorate in [[Arabic Literature]] and [[Philosophy]] in 1966.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite news |date=1 August 2009 |title=I. U. M. L. Chief Panakkad Thangal Dead |work=The New Indian Express |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2009/aug/01/iuml-chief-panakkad-thangal-dead-73869.html}}</ref>

Shihab Thangal was well versed in English and French.<ref name=":3" /> He was also known for his enthusiasm for Sufi-poetry.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Radhakrishnan |first=M. G . |date=27 August 2012 |title=Kerala in a League of its Own |work=India Today |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/nation/story/20120827-growing-clout-of-muslim-league-udf-mobilisation-of-hindu-christian-groups-759456-2012-08-17}}</ref> On return to Kerala, the thangal married Sharifa Fatima Beevi, daughter of Sayed Ba Faqih Thangal.<ref name=":1" />

==Public life==
Shihab Thangal became the president of the Kerala state committee of Indian Union Muslim League after his father [[Pukkoya Tangal|Pukkoya Thangal]]'s death in 1975.<ref name="Rahim79">{{cite book |author1=M. Rahim |title=Changing Identity and Politics of Muslims in Malappuram District Kerala |publisher=Keral University-Shodhganga |page=79 |url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/95128/10/10_chapter%203.pdf#page=9 |accessdate=6 April 2020}}</ref><ref name="The Times of India" /> He remained president until his own death in 2009.<ref name=":1" /> Shihab Thangal is distinctly remembered for his role in preserving communal harmony in [[Kerala]] (at the most tense times like demolition of [[Babri Masjid|Babur's Mosque]] in 1992).<ref name="The Times of India" /><ref name=":3" />

Shihab Thangal was also [[qadi]] to hundreds of 'mahals' in Kerala.<ref name="hindu1" /> He was the president of numerous educational institutions such as [[Jami'a Nooriyya Arabic College|Jamia Nooriya]], which were managed by [[Samastha Kerala Jem-iyyathul Ulama (1926–1989)|the Samastha]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Indo-Asian News Service |date=2 August 2009 |title=Kerala Mourns Passing away of Panakkad Thangal |work=Gulf News |url=http://gulfnews.com/news/asia/india/kerala-mourns-passing-away-of-panakkad-thangal-1.533879 |access-date=5 December 2017}}</ref> He was behind the proposal to start another campus of [[Aligarh Muslim University]] in Kerala.<ref name=":2" />[[File:Panakkad Shihab Thangal 2010 stamp of India.jpg|thumb|Mohammed Ali Shihab Thangal on a 2010 Indian postage stamp.]]
Shihab Thangal died on 1 August 2009 following a [[cardiac arrest]].<ref name=":2" />

==See also==
*[[Sayyid Sadiq Ali Shihab Thangal|Sadiq Ali Shihab Thangal]]
*[[Indian Union Muslim League]]
*[[Shihab Thangal Charity Trust]]
*[[Shihab Thangal Hospital]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Panakkad Muhammedali Shihab Thangal}}
*[http://www.manoramaonline.com/cgi-bin/MMOnline.dll/portal/ep/malayalamContentView.do?contentId=944640&programId=7940924&channelId=-1073881580&BV_ID=@@@&tabId=9 Biography - Shihab Thangal (Malayala Manorama)]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shihab Thangal, Panakkad Sayed Mohammedali}}
[[Category:1936 births]]
[[Category:2009 deaths]]
[[Category:Malayali politicians]]
[[Category:Malabar Muslims]]
[[Category:People from Malappuram]]
[[Category:Cairo University alumni]]
[[Category:Islam in Kerala]]
[[Category:Al-Azhar University alumni]]
[[Category:Indian Union Muslim League politicians]]
[[Category:Kerala Sunni-Shafi'i scholars]]
[[Category:Indian Sunni Muslims]]
[[Category:Indian people of Arab descent]]
[[Category:Ba' Alawi Tribe]]

Tarakaasura

2026-03-03T21:35:32Z

Husayn: added a entry

{{short description|2018 film by Chandrashekar Bandiyappa}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Tarakaasura
| image =
| caption =
| director = [[Chandrashekar Bandiyappa]]
| producer = Narasimhulu
| writer = Chandrashekar Bandiyappa
| screenplay = Chandrashekar Bandiyappa
| starring = Vybhav [[Danny Sapani]] [[Manvitha (actress)|Manvitha]] [[Sadhu Kokila]]
| narrator =
| music = [[Dharma Vish]]
| cinematography = Kumar Gowda
| editing = K. M. Prakash
| studio = Om Balaji Enterprises
| distributor = R.S.Production
| released = {{film date|2018|11|23|df=yes}}
| runtime = 138 minutes
| country = India
| language = Kannada
| budget = 
| gross = 
}}

'''''Tarakaasura''''' ({{Translation|Demon Protector}}) is a 2018 Indian [[Kannada]]-language [[action thriller]] film written and directed by [[Chandrashekar Bandiyappa]] and produced by Narasimhulu.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shwetha |first=Aravind |date=2018-11-23 |title='Taarakaasura' review: An interesting docu-drama on the Budbudke community |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/flix/taarakaasura-review-interesting-docu-drama-budbudke-community-92095 |access-date=2024-01-02 |website=The News Minute |language=en}}</ref> It stars Vybhav and [[Manvitha (actress)|Manvitha]]. The film also marked Kannada debut of [[Danny Sapani]] who plays the lead villain. The film got a huge response for its making and story based on a tribe called "Budbudke", also known as [[Halakki Vokkaliga]] which is on the verge of extinction.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movie-reviews/taarakaasura/movie-review/66765167.cms | title=Taarakaasura Movie Review | newspaper=The Times of India }}</ref>

The film was shot in [[Mysore|Mysuru]], [[Mandya]], [[Chamrajnagar|Chamarajanagara]] in [[Karnataka]].

==Cast==
* Vybhav as Carbon
* [[Danny Sapani]] as Kalinga
* [[Manvitha (actress)|Manvitha]] as Muttamma
* [[Sadhu Kokila]]
* Mata Koppala

== Soundtrack ==
{{Tracklist
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Kannada Kaliyo
| extra1 = [[Shiva Rajkumar]]
| length1 =
| title2 = Chanda Mama Kalide Kathe
| extra2 = [[Sadhu Kokila]], [[Naveen Sajju]]
| title3 = Bhairagi Ninge Boomthai Hasge
| extra3 = Sadhu Kokila
| length3 =
| title4 =
| extra4 = [[Kailash Kher]], Malavalli Nagendra, Disha Ramesh
}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Indian action thriller films]]
[[Category:2018 Kannada-language films]]
[[Category:2018 Indian films]]
[[Category:2018 action thriller films]]
[[Category:2018 films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Chandrashekar Bandiyappa]]

{{2010s-Kannada-film-stub}}
{{action-thriller-film-stub}}

Khwaja Habibullah

2026-02-26T15:45:25Z

Husayn: refined formatting as per guidelines

{{short description|Fifth and last Nawab of Dhaka (1895–1958) (r.1915–1958)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Nawab Khwaja Habibullah
| title = [[Nawab of Dhaka]]
| image = খাজা হাবিবুল্লাহ.jpg
| caption = Habibullah in 1947
| reign = 1915–1958
| coronation =
| predecessor = [[Khwaja Salimullah|Nawab Khwaja Salimullah]]
| successor = [[Khawja Hassan Askari]]
| spouse =
| issue =
| royal house = [[Nawab of Dhaka|Dhaka Nawab family]]
| father = [[Khwaja Salimullah|Nawab Khwaja Salimullah]]
| mother =
| religion = [[Sunni Islam]]
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1895|4|26|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Ahsan Manzil]], [[Dacca]], [[Bengal Presidency]], British India
| spouses = {{ubl|Ajmiri Begum|Shahryar Khanam|Khurshidi Begum|Amirun Bibi|Ayesha Begum}}
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1958|11|21|1895|4|26|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Shahbagh]], [[Dacca]], [[East Pakistan]], [[Dominion of Pakistan|Pakistan]]
| burial_place = Begum Bazar, Dhaka
| module = {{Infobox military person
| embed = yes
| allegiance = {{flag|British Empire}}
| branch = [[British Indian Army]]
| serviceyears= 1918–1920
| rank = [[File:British Army (1920–1953) OF-1a.svg|15px]] [[Jemadar]]
| servicenumber =
| unit = [[Bengali Regiment|49th Bengalee Regiment]]
| commands =
| battles = {{tree list}}
* [[World War I]]
** [[Mesopotamian campaign]]
{{tree list/end}}
| awards =
}}
}}
'''Nawab Khwaja Habibullah Bahadur''' ({{langx|bn|নবাব খাজা হাবিবুল্লাহ বাহাদুর}}; 26 April 1895 – 21 November 1958)<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8HjtAAAAMAAJ |title=Labour Movement in India: 1937-1939 |last1=Punekar |first1=S. D. |last2=Varickayil |first2=Robert |last3=Savur |first3=Manorama |last4=Dighe |first4=Sunil |last5=Ganesh |first5=Kamala |last6=Research |first6=Indian Council of Historical |year=1988 |publisher=Indian Council of Historical Research |volume=22 |isbn=9788173071065 |page=1117 |language=en}}</ref> was a politician from East Bengal, soldier, social worker, and the fifth [[Nawab of Dhaka]]. He was the son of Nawab Sir [[Khwaja Salimullah]] Bahadur. Under Habibullah's rule, the [[Dhaka Nawab Estate]] went into decline until its actual relinquishment in 1952 by the [[East Bengal State Acquisition and Tenancy Act of 1950|East Pakistan Estates Acquisition Act]].

==Biography==
Habibullah was born on 26 April 1895 in Dhaka.<ref name=bpedia>{{Cite Banglapedia |article=Habibullah, Khwaja}}</ref> His father was Nawab Sir [[Khwaja Salimullah]] Bahadur of the [[Nawab of Dhaka|Dhaka Nawab family]]. The family traced its ancestry to [[Kashmiris|Kashmiri]] merchants who settled in Bengal for trade during Mughal and British times.<ref name="Hundred">{{cite book |title=Hundred Years of Bangabhaban, 1905-2005 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rBFuAAAAMAAJ |year=2006 |publisher=Press Wing Bangabhaban |isbn=978-984-32-1583-3 |page=20 |quote=It was at this time that a recently settled Muslim trading family of the city of Dhaka, originally from Kashmir, gave up trade and invested their wealth in buying land from the auctions. The founder of this Kashmiri Muslim family in Dhaka was [[Khwaja Alimullah]].}}</ref> Habibullah went to school at [[St. Paul's School, Darjeeling|St. Paul's School]] in [[Darjeeling]], and later continued his education in England.<ref name=bpedia /> In 1915, at the death of his father, he succeeded as the Nawab of Dhaka.<ref name=bpedia />

In 1918, Habibullah joined the [[Bengali Platoon]] of the [[British Indian Army]]. He served in the British mandate of Mesopotamia as an honorary lieutenant.<ref name=bpedia /> He served in Dhaka district board and Dhaka municipality board. He took part in the [[Khilafat Movement]].<ref name=bpedia /> He was the representative of Dhaka in the Bengal legislative council from 1924 till 1932.<ref name=bpedia />

Habibullah had supported the 1932 [[Communal Award]] proposal of the British Raj. In 1935 he was the president of the Bengal Muslim League and member of the executive council of the All India Muslim league.<ref name=bpedia /> From 1937 to 1941 he was a minister in the cabinet of [[A. K. Fazlul Huq]].<ref name=bpedia /> He joined the second cabinet of Haq against the wishes of the Muslim League for which he was suspended from the league till 1946. In 1946, he stood in the assembly election of Bengal as an independent candidate but suffered a heavy defeat at the hands of his relative, [[Khwaja Khairuddin]] who was on a [[Muslim League (Pakistan)|Muslim League]] ticket.<ref name=bpedia />

Habibullah presided over the committee that organized the [[Independence Day (Pakistan)|Pakistan Independence Day]] celebrations in Dhaka, and, on 15 August 1947, raised the flag of Pakistan at [[Lalbagh Fort]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kudaisya |first1=Gyanesh |author-link1=Gyanesh Kudaisya |last2=Tan |first2=Tai Yong |author-link2=Tan Tai Yong |year=2005 |orig-year=First published 2000 |title=The Aftermath of Partition in South Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aPOBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA61 |publisher=Routledge |page=61 |isbn=0-415-28908-4}}</ref> After the partition of India he held the position of vice-president in East Pakistan Muslim League.<ref name=bpedia /> During his reign as the Nawab of Dhaka, the estate continued the decline that had begun under his father.<ref>{{cite book |last=Alamgir |first=Md. |year=2005 |title=A Short Note on Ahsan Manzil Museum and the Nawabs of Dhaka |location=Dhaka |publisher=Jhingephul |page=18 |quote=Nawab Sir Salimullah could not properly take care or direct the Estate due to his heavy involvement with politics. The revenue income of the estate decreased and the Nawab ran into large debts ... During the time of Nawab Habibullah, the Nawab Estate fell into very miserable conditions because of mismanagement.}}</ref>

==Personal life and death==
Habibullah was married to Ajmiri Begum, Shahriar Khanam (d. 1931), Khurshidi Begum, Amirun Bibi and Ayesha Begum (d. 2008).<ref name=family>{{Cite web |title=Family Tree |url=https://www1.tribalpages.com/tribe/browse?userid=gupshup1&view=0&pid=50&ver=3255 |access-date=2022-06-13 |website=www1.tribalpages.com}}</ref>{{Self-published inline|date=November 2025}}

He had a total of five sons and two daughters.<ref name=family/>{{Self-published inline|date=November 2025}} His cousin, [[Khawaja Nazimuddin|Khwaja Nazimuddin]], was the [[Prime Minister of Pakistan]] (1951–1953).<ref>{{Cite news |title=Special report: Parliament in Chaos 1951-1958 |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1353861 |date=2017-08-25 |access-date=2022-06-13 |work=Dawn |language=en}}</ref>

In later days, he retired from politics because of health related reasons. He left the [[Ahsan Manzil]] Palace and resided in another of the royal residences, Green House, in Dhaka's [[Paribagh]]. He died on 21 November 1958 and was buried alongside his father at the Nawab family graveyard in Begumbazar in Dhaka.<ref name=bpedia />

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Habibullah, Khwaja}}
[[Category:1895 births]]
[[Category:1958 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian Muslims]]
[[Category:Members of the Central Legislative Assembly of India]]
[[Category:Nawabs of Dhaka]]
[[Category:Pakistani people of Kashmiri descent]]
[[Category:All-India Muslim League politicians]]
[[Category:20th-century Bengali people]]
[[Category:British Indian Army personnel]]
[[Category:Indian independence activists from Bengal]]
[[Category:Bengal MLAs 1937–1945]]
[[Category:Military personnel from Dhaka]]
[[Category:20th-century Bangladeshi military personnel]]

India Stack

2026-02-26T10:12:06Z

Husayn:

{{Short description|Indian digital public infrastructure branding}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}
{{Infobox
| title = India Stack
| titlestyle = background:#1a1a2e;color:white;
| label1 = Type
| data1 = Marketing term / branding
| label2 = Coined by
| data2 = [[ISPIRT|iSPIRT]] (c. 2012-2013)
| label3 = Components
| data3 = [[Aadhaar]], [[Unified Payments Interface|UPI]], [[DigiLocker]], [[Ayushman Bharat Digital Mission|ABDM]], [[Open Network for Digital Commerce|ONDC]]
| label4 = Governing bodies
| data4 = [[Unique Identification Authority of India|UIDAI]], [[National Payments Corporation of India|NPCI]], [[National Health Authority|NHA]], [[Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology|MeitY]]
| label5 = Country
| data5 = {{flag|India}}
| label6 = Websites
| data6 = {{URL|indiastack.org}} (promotional) {{URL|indiastack.in}} (structural analysis)
}}

'''India Stack''' is a marketing term coined by [[ISPIRT|iSPIRT]] (Indian Software Product Industry Round Table) to brand a collection of government-operated digital infrastructure systems in [[India]] as a unified platform.<ref name="indiastack-watch">{{cite web|url=https://indiastack.in/|title=India Stack Watch|access-date=7 January 2025}}</ref> The term encompasses identity verification ([[Aadhaar]]), payments ([[Unified Payments Interface|UPI]]), document storage ([[DigiLocker]]), and data sharing layers--each governed by separate government bodies with distinct legal frameworks.

The systems have achieved significant scale, with UPI processing over 10{{nbsp}}billion monthly transactions and Aadhaar covering 1.4{{nbsp}}billion residents. However, the platform has faced sustained criticism regarding welfare exclusion linked to biometric authentication failures, privacy and surveillance concerns, and the gap between "open" branding and closed, proprietary governance.<ref name="indiastack-watch"/><ref name="hrw">{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2018/01/13/india-identification-project-threatens-rights|title=India: Identification Project Threatens Rights|publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]|date=13 January 2018|access-date=7 January 2025}}</ref>

== Origin of the term ==
The term "India Stack" was coined by [[ISPIRT|iSPIRT]], a technology industry think tank co-founded by Sharad Sharma in 2013. iSPIRT positioned the branding to describe separate government systems as a unified, exportable model of "[[digital public infrastructure]]" (DPI).<ref name="ft">{{cite news|url=https://www.ft.com/content/cf75a136-c6c7-49d0-8c1c-89e046b8a170|title=The India Stack: Opening the digital marketplace to the masses|newspaper=[[Financial Times]]|date=20 April 2023|access-date=7 January 2025}}</ref>

Critics characterise "India Stack" as a PR construct--branding separate closed systems as unified "open" infrastructure for international promotion. Each component ([[Aadhaar]] under [[Unique Identification Authority of India|UIDAI]], [[Unified Payments Interface|UPI]] under [[National Payments Corporation of India|NPCI]], [[DigiLocker]] under [[Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology|MeitY]], [[Ayushman Bharat Digital Mission|ABDM]] under [[National Health Authority|NHA]]) is closed-source and separately governed; the unified branding suggests cohesion and openness while the underlying systems remain proprietary and siloed.<ref name="indiastack-foss">{{cite web|url=https://indiastack.in/foss/|title=Is India Stack Open Source?|publisher=India Stack Watch|access-date=7 January 2025}}</ref>

== Components ==
{{Infobox
| title = India Stack Layers
| headerstyle = background:#1a1a2e;color:white;
| label1 = Identity
| data1 = [[Aadhaar]] ([[Unique Identification Authority of India|UIDAI]])
| label2 = Payments
| data2 = [[Unified Payments Interface|UPI]], [[Bharat Bill Payment System|BBPS]], AePS ([[National Payments Corporation of India|NPCI]])
| label3 = Documents
| data3 = [[DigiLocker]] ([[Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology|MeitY]])
| label4 = Health
| data4 = [[Ayushman Bharat Digital Mission|ABDM]] ([[National Health Authority|NHA]])
| label5 = Commerce
| data5 = [[Open Network for Digital Commerce|ONDC]] (ONDC Ltd)
}}

India Stack comprises several separately governed layers:<ref name="indiastack-layers">{{cite web|url=https://indiastack.in/layers/|title=India Stack Layers|publisher=India Stack Watch|access-date=7 January 2025}}</ref>

* '''Identity Layer''' ([[Aadhaar]]): Biometric identification system covering 1.4{{nbsp}}billion residents, governed by [[Unique Identification Authority of India]] (UIDAI)
* '''Payments Layer''' ([[Unified Payments Interface|UPI]], [[Bharat Bill Payment System|BBPS]], AePS): Digital payment infrastructure governed by [[National Payments Corporation of India]] (NPCI), a private [[Non-profit laws of India|Section 8 company]]
* '''Data Layer''' ([[DigiLocker]], Account Aggregator): Document storage governed by MeitY; financial data sharing governed by Sahamati (industry alliance)
* '''Health Layer''' ([[Ayushman Bharat Digital Mission|ABDM]]): Health records infrastructure governed by [[National Health Authority]] (NHA)
* '''Commerce Layer''' ([[Open Network for Digital Commerce|ONDC]]): E-commerce protocol governed by ONDC Ltd, a [[Non-profit laws of India|Section 8 company]]

{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|
* [[Aadhaar]]
* [[Unified Payments Interface]] (UPI)
* [[DigiLocker]]
* [[Ayushman Bharat Digital Mission]] (ABDM)
* [[Bharat Bill Payment System]] (BBPS)
* [[BharatQR]]
* [[Digi Yatra]]
* [[ESign (India)|eSign]]
* [[Government e Marketplace]] (GeM)
* [[Open Network for Digital Commerce]] (ONDC)
* [[FASTag]]
* Account Aggregator (AA/DEPA)
* Aadhaar Enabled Payment System (AePS)
* Open Credit Enablement Network (OCEN)
* [[UMANG]]
}}

== History ==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! Event
|-
| 2009 || Aadhaar pilot launched under UIDAI, led by [[Nandan Nilekani]]
|-
| 2013 || [[ISPIRT|iSPIRT]] founded; "India Stack" terminology emerges
|-
| 2016 || UPI launched by NPCI; [[2016 Indian banknote demonetisation]] accelerates digital adoption
|-
| 2017 || [[Supreme Court of India]] rules privacy a [[Fundamental rights in India|fundamental right]] ([[Justice K. S. Puttaswamy (Retd.) and Anr. vs Union of India and Ors.|Puttaswamy judgment]])
|-
| 2018 || Supreme Court upholds Aadhaar but strikes down Section 57 (private sector use)
|-
| 2019 || Government re-enables private sector Aadhaar use via ordinance
|-
| 2021 || Account Aggregator framework launches; [[CoWIN]] for COVID vaccination
|-
| 2023 || UIDAI expands facial authentication; 50{{nbsp}}million+ monthly facial auth transactions
|-
| 2024 || 100% e-KYC mandate for ration cards; Odisha suspends 20+ lakh beneficiaries
|-
| 2025 || [[Madras High Court]] rules Aadhaar correction a fundamental right
|}

== Governance structure ==
Despite "open" branding, India Stack components are governed by government bodies and private entities with restricted access:<ref name="indiastack-participate">{{cite web|url=https://indiastack.in/participate/|title=Can You Participate?|publisher=India Stack Watch|access-date=7 January 2025}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Component !! Governing Body !! Legal Status !! Access Model
|-
| [[Aadhaar]] || [[Unique Identification Authority of India|UIDAI]] || Statutory authority (exempt from [[Right to Information Act, 2005|RTI]] for certain categories) || Government licence required
|-
| [[Unified Payments Interface|UPI]]/[[Bharat Bill Payment System|BBPS]] || [[National Payments Corporation of India|NPCI]] || Private [[Non-profit laws of India|Section 8 company]] || Membership approval required
|-
| Account Aggregator || Sahamati || Industry alliance || Membership required
|-
| [[Ayushman Bharat Digital Mission|ABDM]] || [[National Health Authority|NHA]] || Government authority || Partnership required
|-
| [[Open Network for Digital Commerce|ONDC]] || ONDC Ltd || Private [[Non-profit laws of India|Section 8 company]] || Licensing required
|}

=== Participation model ===
Unlike open protocols such as [[HTTP]], [[email]], or [[TCP/IP]] where anyone can implement independently, India Stack requires permission at every layer. There is no public [[Request for Comments|RFC]] process, no citizen representation on technical committees, and no mechanism to challenge design decisions before deployment.<ref name="indiastack-participate"/>

Researchers note this differs fundamentally from both the [[IETF]] model of "rough consensus and running code" and [[Free and open-source software|FOSS]] contribution models where rejected proposals can still be implemented independently. In India Stack, if a proposal is rejected, there is no alternative--the gatekeeper's decision is final.<ref name="indiastack-foss"/>

== Scale and adoption ==
India Stack components have achieved significant transaction volumes:

* '''UPI''': Over 10{{nbsp}}billion monthly transactions by 2023<ref name="npci">{{cite web|url=https://www.npci.org.in/|title=NPCI - National Payments Corporation of India|access-date=7 January 2025}}</ref>
* '''Aadhaar''': 1.4{{nbsp}}billion enrolments
* '''DigiLocker''': Over 150{{nbsp}}million registered users

Proponents credit India Stack with expanding financial inclusion through [[Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana|Jan Dhan]] bank accounts, reducing subsidy leakage through [[Direct Benefit Transfer]], and enabling digital service delivery.

== Concerns and criticism ==

=== Welfare exclusion and documented denials ===
{{Main|Aadhaar#Threat of exclusion}}
Aadhaar-based biometric authentication for welfare distribution has been linked to documented exclusions and deaths. Research by economists including [[Reetika Khera]] of [[IIT Delhi]] has found significant exclusion of genuine beneficiaries.<ref name="indiastack-exclusion">{{cite web|url=https://indiastack.in/exclusion/|title=The Human Cost|publisher=India Stack Watch|access-date=7 January 2025}}</ref>

Key findings include:
* Between 2013-2021, 4.39{{nbsp}}crore (43.9{{nbsp}}million) ration cards were deleted nationally
* A 2020 [[Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab|J-PAL]] study found 88% of cancelled ration cards in [[Jharkhand]] belonged to genuine beneficiaries, not fraudulent "ghost" entries<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.povertyactionlab.org/|title=J-PAL Studies on Aadhaar and Welfare|access-date=7 January 2025}}</ref>
* The Right to Food Campaign documented 57 starvation deaths in nine Indian states from 2015 onwards, with at least 19 directly linked to Aadhaar-related denial<ref name="rtfc">{{cite web|url=https://www.righttofoodcampaign.in/|title=Right to Food Campaign|access-date=7 January 2025}}</ref>
* Of 42 hunger-related deaths documented between 2017-2019, 25 were linked to Aadhaar issues<ref name="wapo-khera">{{cite web|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/theworldpost/wp/2018/08/09/aadhaar/|title=Aadhaar, India's ID system, is a cautionary tale|first=Reetika|last=Khera|publisher=[[The Washington Post]]|date=9 August 2018|access-date=7 January 2025}}</ref>

Documented cases include Santoshi Kumari (11, Jharkhand, 2017), Arjun Hembram (11, Odisha, 2023), and others.<ref name="indiastack-exclusion"/>

[[Human Rights Watch]] documented 2.5{{nbsp}}million families in [[Rajasthan]] denied ration supplies between September 2016 and June 2017 due to Aadhaar issues. The report also found children without Aadhaar excluded from government schools and hospitals demanding Aadhaar enrolment before issuing birth certificates.<ref name="hrw"/>

=== Biometric authentication failures ===
Studies have documented significant biometric authentication failure rates:<ref name="cis">{{cite web|url=https://cis-india.org/internet-governance/blog/UID_Questions_without_Answers|title=UID: Questions without Answers|first=Usha|last=Ramanathan|publisher=[[Centre for Internet and Society (India)|Centre for Internet and Society]]|access-date=7 January 2025}}</ref>

* 6-12% fingerprint authentication failure rates among manual labourers, construction workers, and farmers
* Fingerprints degrade due to age, manual labour, and certain medical conditions
* Elderly people have degraded fingerprints; children's biometrics are unstable
* In 2023, UIDAI acknowledged 54+ hours of service downtime due to OTP delays and server issues

A 2018 analysis estimated that "two to five per cent of the Indian population would be excluded" due to biometric failures alone.<ref name="cis"/>

=== Facial authentication expansion (2023-2025) ===
Despite documented fingerprint exclusion, states began adding facial authentication requirements. [[Rajasthan]] mandated facial authentication for pensioners via the RAJSSP app in February 2023. Data from January-April 2025 showed:<ref name="wire-facial">{{cite web|url=https://thewire.in/rights/no-match-rajasthans-push-for-facial-authentication-on-pensioners-leaves-many-behind|title=No Match: Rajasthan's Push for Facial Authentication on Pensioners Leaves Many Behind|publisher=[[The Wire (India)|The Wire]]|date=2025|access-date=7 January 2025}}</ref>

* Facial authentication success rate: 69.11% (nearly 1 in 3 fail)
* Fingerprint authentication success rate: 76.27%
* OTP had 90%+ success rate but was deemed "unreliable" by authorities
* The system was tested on only 15-20 people before statewide rollout to 600,000+ pensioners in [[Jaipur]] district alone

Despite 30% failure rates, UIDAI reported 50{{nbsp}}million+ facial authentication transactions monthly since 2023.<ref name="wire-facial"/>

=== Consent issues ===
Critics argue that consent is structurally compromised when Aadhaar authentication is mandatory for essential services. UIDAI claims authentication requires "explicit consent," but researchers note consent is meaningless when refusal means exclusion from:<ref name="indiastack-exclusion"/><ref name="idr">{{cite web|url=https://idronline.org/article/rights/infrastructures-of-exclusion-how-e-kyc-impacts-access-to-food/|title=Infrastructures of Exclusion: How e-KYC Impacts Access to Food|publisher=IDR Online|access-date=7 January 2025}}</ref>

* Food rations under [[Public Distribution System (India)|Public Distribution System]]
* Pension disbursement
* Bank account access ([[Know your customer|KYC]] requirements)
* [[Liquefied petroleum gas|LPG]] subsidies
* Government employment wages ([[Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, 2005|MGNREGA]])
* Healthcare access (ABDM)
* Vehicle toll payment ([[FASTag]] - mandatory by law)

=== Privacy and surveillance ===
{{Main|Surveillance in India}}
The centralised nature of India Stack creates surveillance infrastructure concerns:<ref name="indiastack-surveillance">{{cite web|url=https://indiastack.in/surveillance/|title=Surveillance Architecture|publisher=India Stack Watch|access-date=7 January 2025}}</ref>

* Centralised biometric database of 1.4{{nbsp}}billion people
* Authentication logs enabling tracking of citizens' access to services
* Cross-linking of identity, financial, health, and location data
* Limited independent oversight and RTI exemptions

The [[Supreme Court of India]] ruled privacy a [[Fundamental rights in India|fundamental right]] in August 2017 ([[Justice K. S. Puttaswamy (Retd.) and Anr. vs Union of India and Ors.|Justice K.S. Puttaswamy v. Union of India]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thewire.in/law/supreme-court-aadhaar-right-to-privacy|title=Right to Privacy a Fundamental Right, Says Supreme Court in Unanimous Verdict|publisher=[[The Wire (India)|The Wire]]|date=24 August 2017|access-date=7 January 2025}}</ref>

In September 2018, the court upheld Aadhaar's constitutional validity but struck down Section 57 allowing private sector use. The government subsequently amended laws through ordinances to restore private sector access.<ref name="techcrunch">{{cite web|url=https://techcrunch.com/2025/02/02/india-expands-aadhaar-authentication-for-businesses-raising-privacy-concerns/|title=India expands Aadhaar authentication for businesses, raising privacy concerns|publisher=[[TechCrunch]]|date=2 February 2025|access-date=7 January 2025}}</ref>

=== Open source claims ===
While described as "open APIs," India Stack does not follow [[free and open-source software]] principles:<ref name="indiastack-foss"/>

* Source code is not publicly available
* No public contribution or proposal mechanism exists
* Alternative implementations are legally prohibited
* Governance is not participatory
* Cannot be [[Fork (software development)|forked]] or independently operated

The [[Financial Times]] noted these concerns in 2023, questioning claims of openness.<ref name="ft"/>

=== Accountability gaps ===
Several structural accountability issues have been identified:<ref name="indiastack-audit">{{cite web|url=https://indiastack.in/audit/|title=Can You Audit It?|publisher=India Stack Watch|access-date=7 January 2025}}</ref>

* UIDAI is exempt from [[Right to Information Act, 2005|RTI]] for certain categories of information
* Only UIDAI can sue for Aadhaar-related issues; individuals cannot sue UIDAI under Section 47
* Aadhaar deactivations occur without prior notice
* A 2022 [[Comptroller and Auditor General of India|CAG]] report found UIDAI takes no responsibility for deficient biometric capture
* No public auditing of authentication success/failure rates across welfare programs

=== Digital divide ===
The [[COVID-19 pandemic in India|COVID-19 vaccination]] rollout via [[CoWIN]] highlighted digital divide issues:<ref name="sflc">{{cite web|url=https://sflc.in/sflcin-writes-pmo-mohfw-nha-raising-concerns-related-cowin/|title=SFLC.in Raises Concerns Related to CoWIN|publisher=Software Freedom Law Centre, India|date=2021|access-date=7 January 2025}}</ref>

* CoWIN required smartphone, internet access, and digital literacy
* 200-280{{nbsp}}million Indians (33-45% of 18-44 age group) had no or poor internet access
* 25% of India's population had no smartphone
* No offline registration option initially
* Supreme Court (May 2021) noted "CoWIN not accessible to persons with disabilities"

== Court cases ==

=== Key judgments ===
* '''[[Justice K. S. Puttaswamy (Retd.) and Anr. vs Union of India and Ors.|Justice K.S. Puttaswamy v. Union of India]] (2017)''': Nine-judge bench unanimously ruled privacy a fundamental right
* '''Justice K.S. Puttaswamy v. Union of India (2018)''': Five-judge bench upheld Aadhaar's validity but struck down Section 57 (private sector use) and Section 33(2) (disclosure without judicial oversight)
* '''Koili Devi v. Union of India''': Petition filed by Santoshi Kumari's mother challenging deletion of ration cards
* '''Orissa High Court (May 2023)''': Ruled welfare schemes cannot exclude on grounds of lacking Aadhaar or mobile phone
* '''P. Pushpam v. UIDAI (Madras HC, 2025)''': Ruled Aadhaar correction is a fundamental right

== e-KYC mandate (2024) ==
In June 2024, the government directed 100% e-KYC compliance for all ration card holders. [[Odisha]] suspended rice distribution for 20+ lakh (2{{nbsp}}million+) eligible individuals for e-KYC non-compliance. The Right to Food Campaign urged the government to halt e-KYC and remove exclusionary digital measures from [[Public Distribution System (India)|PDS]].<ref name="idr"/>

== International adoption ==
Several countries have expressed interest in adopting India Stack components. [[Sri Lanka]], [[Morocco]], the [[Philippines]], [[Guinea]], [[Ethiopia]], and [[Togo]] have reportedly started using components.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://theprint.in/economy/world-rushes-to-adopt-the-india-stack-while-upi-goes-global/1373900/|title=World rushes to adopt the 'India Stack' while 'UPI' goes global|publisher=[[ThePrint]]|date=15 February 2023|access-date=7 January 2025}}</ref>

Critics note that countries adopting the model may also adopt its structural issues regarding exclusion, consent, and accountability.<ref name="indiastack-watch"/>

== See also ==
{{Portal|India}}
* [[Digital public infrastructure]]
* [[Aadhaar]]
* [[Unified Payments Interface]]
* [[National Payments Corporation of India]]
* [[Data protection in India]]
* [[Digital India]]
* [[Surveillance in India]]
* [[ISPIRT|iSPIRT]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

== Further reading ==

=== Critical views ===
* {{cite web|title=The Human Cost of India Stack|url=https://indiastack.in/exclusion/|publisher=India Stack Watch|access-date=7 January 2025}}
* {{cite web|last=Khera|first=Reetika|title=Aadhaar, India's ID system, is a cautionary tale|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/theworldpost/wp/2018/08/09/aadhaar/|publisher=[[The Washington Post]]|date=9 August 2018}}
* {{cite web|last=Ramanathan|first=Usha|title=UID: Questions without Answers|url=https://cis-india.org/internet-governance/blog/UID_Questions_without_Answers|publisher=[[Centre for Internet and Society (India)|Centre for Internet and Society]]}}

=== Other views ===
* {{cite news|title=The India Stack: Opening the digital marketplace to the masses|url=https://www.ft.com/content/cf75a136-c6c7-49d0-8c1c-89e046b8a170|newspaper=[[Financial Times]]|date=20 April 2023}}

== External links ==
* [https://indiastack.in/ India Stack Watch] - Structural analysis and documentation of concerns
* [https://indiastack.org/ IndiaStack.org] - Official promotional website
* [https://uidai.gov.in/ UIDAI] - Unique Identification Authority of India
* [https://www.npci.org.in/ NPCI] - National Payments Corporation of India
* [https://rethinkaadhaar.in/ Rethink Aadhaar] - Exclusion testimonials
* [https://www.righttofoodcampaign.in/ Right to Food Campaign]

{{Indian Identity Documents}}
{{Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (India)}}

[[Category:Application programming interfaces]]
[[Category:Public services of India]]
[[Category:Financial services in India]]
[[Category:E-government in India]]
[[Category:Privacy in India]]
[[Category:Welfare in India]]

Soniya Nityanand

2026-02-24T08:37:22Z

Husayn: added new details

{{Short description|Vice Chancellor of King George's Medical University, Lucknow}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2018}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name = Soniya Nityanand
| image =
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1962|09|06|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Lucknow]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[India]]
| fields = [[Immunology]], [[Hematology]]
| workplaces = * [[Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia Institute of Medical Sciences]]
* [[Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences]]
* [[King George's Medical University]]
| alma_mater = * [[King George's Medical University]]
* [[Karolinska Institute]]
| doctoral_advisor =
| known_for = Research in immuno-hematology
| awards =
* [[Padma Shri]] (2025)
* [[National Bioscience Award for Career Development]] (2003–04)
* [[Indian National Science Academy|INSA]] Young Scientist Award (1990)
* Dr. J.C. Patel and Dr. B.C. Mehta Award (2000)
}}

'''Soniya Nityanand''' (born 6 September 1962) is an Indian [[immunologist]] and [[hematologist]]. She is currently serving as the Vice Chancellor of the [[King George's Medical University]], Lucknow. In 2025, she was awarded the [[Padma Shri]],<ref>{{Cite web
|title=Padma Awards 2025 announced
|url=https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2096285
|website=Press Information Bureau
|publisher=Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India
|date=25 January 2025
|access-date=7 June 2025
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web
|title=Padma Awards 2025 – Notifications |url=https://www.padmaawards.gov.in/Document/pdf/notifications/PadmaAwards/2025.pdf
|website=Padma Awards (Official)
|publisher=Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India
|date=28 April 2025
|access-date=8 June 2025
}}</ref> India's fourth-highest civilian award, for her contributions to medicine.

== Early life and education ==
Nityanand completed her MBBS and MD from [[King George's Medical University|King George's Medical College]], Lucknow.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.sgpgi.ac.in/faculty.html|title=The Faculty|website=www.sgpgi.ac.in|access-date=2017-03-04}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.streeshakti.com/Sonia-Nityanand.aspx|title=StreeShakti - The Parallel Force|website=www.streeshakti.com|access-date=2017-03-04}}</ref> She later obtained a PhD in Immunology from the [[Karolinska Institute]] in Stockholm, [[Sweden]] in 1996.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web
|title=A legacy of medical excellence: Soniya Nityanand & her father
|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/lucknow/a-legacy-of-medical-excellence-soniya-nityanand-her-father/articleshow/117611970.cms
|website=Times of India
|date=28 January 2025
|access-date=8 June 2025
}}</ref>

== Career ==
Nityanand began her academic career as an Assistant Professor of Medicine at King George's Medical College from October 1991 to November 1993.<ref name=":1" /> She then joined the [[Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences]] (SGPGIMS), where she has served in the Departments of Immunology and Hematology since November 1993.<ref name=":1" />

She was also a visiting fellow in Immunology and Hematology at the Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, from 1991 to 1992.<ref>{{Cite web
|title=KGMU VC: पिता ने तैयार की थी पहली गर्भनिरोधक गोली, बेटी बनी लखनऊ मेडिकल कॉलेज की कुलपति
|url=https://zeenews.india.com/hindi/india/up-uttarakhand/uttar-pradesh/soniya-nityanand-appointed-vice-chancellor-of-medical-university-kgmu/1817566
|website=Zee News Hindi
|date=1 August 2023
|access-date=8 June 2025
}}</ref>

In 2021, she was appointed as the Director of the [[Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia Institute of Medical Sciences]].<ref>{{Cite web
|title=जानें कौन हैं Dr Soniya Nityanand, जिन्हें बनाया गया Dr Ram Manohar Lohia Ayurvigyan Sansthan का नया निदेशक
|url=https://www.patrika.com/lucknow-news/dr-soniya-nityanand-new-director-of-dr-ram-manohar-lohia-sansthan-6823925
|website=Patrika (Dainik Patrika)
|date=28 May 2025
|access-date=8 June 2025
}}</ref>

In August 2023, Nityanand was appointed as the Vice-Chancellor of [[King George's Medical University]], Lucknow, becoming only the second woman to hold the post.<ref>{{cite news |title=यूपी: सोनिया नित्यानंद बनीं KGMU की वाइस चांसलर, इंटरव्यू में पूछा गया क्या आप कुर्सी संभालने के लिए तैयार हैं? |url=https://zeenews.india.com/hindi/india/up-uttarakhand/uttar-pradesh/soniya-nityanand-appointed-vice-chancellor-of-medical-university-kgmu/1817566 |website=Zee News Hindi |date=3 August 2023 |access-date=8 June 2025 |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web
|title=पद्मश्री अवॉर्ड पाने वाली KGMU की कुलपति का इंटरव्यू: प्रो. सोनिया नित्यानंद बोलीं– नई टेक्नोलॉजी के साथ आगे बढ़ें, रिसर्च पर फोकस जरूरी
|url=https://www.bhaskar.com/local/uttar-pradesh/lucknow/news/up-lucknow-interview-of-kgmu-vice-chancellor-prof-soniya-nityanand-padma-shri-awardee-2025-said-got-lesson-for-working-in-nations-since-childhood-134375566.html
|website=Bhaskar (Dainik Bhaskar)
|date=May 2025
|access-date=8 June 2025
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web
|title=Lucknow KGMU Vice‑Chancellor Prof. Soniya Nityanand honored with Padma‑Shri; father has also achieved this
|url=https://www.amarujala.com/lucknow/lucknow-kgmu-vice-chancellor-prof-sonia-nityananda-honored-with-padmashree-father-has-also-achieved-this-di-2025-01-25
|website=Amar Ujala
|date=25 January 2025
|access-date=8 June 2025
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web
|title=KGMU turns 120 years – OPD में सालभर में आते हैं 19 लाख मरीज; कुलपति डॉ. सोनिया नित्यानंद का विशेष इंटरव्यू
|url=https://www.bhaskar.com/local/uttar-pradesh/lucknow/news/up-lucknow-bhaskar-interview-kgmu-turns-120-years-kgmu-dr-soniya-nityanand-exclusive-interview-134157758.html
|website=Bhaskar (Dainik Bhaskar)
|date=January 2025
|access-date=8 June 2025
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web
|title=KGMU alumna Soniya Nityanand is now its VC, to have three‑year term |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/lucknow/kgmu-alumna-soniya-nityanand-is-now-its-vc-to-have-three-year-term/articleshow/102331704.cms
|website=Times of India
|date=2 August 2023
|access-date=8 June 2025
}}</ref>

== Awards and honours ==
Nityanand has received several prestigious awards during her career:
* 2025: [[Padma Shri]] in Medicine<ref>{{cite web |title=Padma Award Winners 2025 Full List: Padma Vibhushan, Padma Bhushan, Padma Shri |url=https://www.brutimes.com/news/social/padma-awards-2025-arijit-singh-ajith-kumar-shekhar-kapur-and-late-pankaj-udhas-honored-for-excellence |website=Bru Times News |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Full list of Padma Awards 2025">{{cite news |title=Full list of Padma Awards 2025 |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/full-list-of-padma-awards-2025/article69141094.ece |access-date=25 January 2025 |publisher=The Hindu |date=25 January 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250125180026/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/full-list-of-padma-awards-2025/article69141094.ece |archive-date=25 January 2025 |language=en-IN}}</ref><ref name="Sadhvi Ritambhara, Prof Soniya Nityanand among 10 Padma awardees from UP">{{cite news |title=Sadhvi Ritambhara, Prof Soniya Nityanand among 10 Padma awardees from UP |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/lucknow/sadhvi-ritambhara-prof-soniya-nityanand-among-10-padma-awardees-from-up/articleshow/117563765.cms |access-date=26 January 2025 |newspaper=The Times of India |date=26 January 2025}}</ref>
* [[National Bioscience Award for Career Development]] (2003–04) by the [[Department of Biotechnology]]<ref name=":1" />
* Young Scientist Award (1990) by the [[Indian National Science Academy]]<ref name=":1" />
* Dr. J.C. Patel and Dr. B.C. Mehta Award by the Association of Physicians of India (2000)<ref name=":1" />
* Dr. N.N. Gupta Gold Medal<ref name=":1" />
* Chancellor's Medal for the Best Medical Student<ref name=":1" />

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Padma Shri Award Recipients in Medicine}}
{{N-BIOS Laureates 1999–2009}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nityanand, Soniya}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian women biologists]]
[[Category:Indian haematologists]]
[[Category:Indian immunologists]]
[[Category:Women scientists from Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Scientists from Lucknow]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian women scientists]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian biologists]]
[[Category:N-BIOS Prize recipients]]
[[Category:1962 births]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Shri in medicine]]

Pirzada Farooq Ahmed Shah

2026-02-16T20:34:04Z

Husayn: starting initial post added tags - done

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2025}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Pirzada Farooq Ahmed Shah
| image =
| caption =
| office = Member of the Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly
| constituency = Gulmarg
| term_start = 2024
| predecessor =
| party = Jammu & Kashmir National Conference
| birth_date = May 1961
| birth_place = Jammu and Kashmir, India
| alma_mater = National Institute of Technology, Srinagar
| profession = Politician; Former Indian Administrative Service officer
}}

'''Pirzada Farooq Ahmed Shah''' (born May 1961) is an Indian politician and former Indian Administrative Service (IAS) officer. He was elected as a Member of the Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly from the Gulmarg constituency in 2024.<ref name="ECI_Result">{{cite web |title=Gulmarg Assembly Election 2024 – Official Result |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/AcResultGenOct2024/candidateswise-U0811.htm |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=16 February 2026}}</ref>

Prior to entering electoral politics, he served as an officer of the Indian Administrative Service in the Jammu and Kashmir cadre and resigned from service in 2019.<ref name="IndiaToday_2019">{{cite news |title=Jammu and Kashmir senior IAS officer resigns, likely to join politics |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/jammu-and-kashmir-senior-ias-officer-resigns-likely-to-join-politics-1460923-2019-02-21 |work=India Today |date=21 February 2019 |access-date=16 February 2026}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==

Shah holds a Bachelor of Engineering (Civil Engineering) degree from the National Institute of Technology (NIT), Srinagar.<ref name="KashmirLife_Profile">{{cite news |title=Farooq Ahmad Shah |url=https://kashmirlife.net/farooq-ahmad-shah-issue-49-vol-10-203876/ |work=Kashmir Life |access-date=16 February 2026}}</ref>

== Civil service career ==

Shah joined government service in 1987 and later served as an IAS officer in Jammu and Kashmir.<ref name="KashmirLife_Profile" /> During his administrative career, he held senior positions including Secretary to the Government in departments such as Public Health Engineering, Irrigation and Flood Control, Disaster Management, School Education, and Tourism.<ref name="KashmirLife_Profile" />

He also served in district-level administrative roles including District Magistrate and District Development Commissioner in Srinagar and Anantnag.<ref name="KashmirLife_Profile" />

== Political career ==

After resigning from the IAS in 2019, Shah entered active politics.<ref name="IndiaToday_2019" /> In 2024, he was elected to the Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly from the Gulmarg constituency.<ref name="ECI_Result" />

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== See also ==
* [[2024 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election]]
* [[Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ahmed Shah, Pirzada Farooq}}
[[Category:Jammu & Kashmir National Conference politicians]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1961 births]]
[[Category:Jammu and Kashmir MLAs 2024–2029]]
[[Category:Indian Administrative Service officers]]
[[Category:People from Baramulla district]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

{{JammuKashmir-politician-stub}}

Zirapur tehsil

2026-02-06T13:58:14Z

Husayn: added new info

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Zirapur tehsil
|native_name =
|native_name_lang =
|settlement_type = [[Tehsil]]
|image_skyline =
|imagesize =
|image_alt =
|image_caption =
| image =

|pushpin_map = India Madhya Pradesh#India
|pushpin_label_position = right
|pushpin_map_alt =
|pushpin_mapsize =
|pushpin_map_caption = Location in [[Madhya Pradesh]]
|coordinates = {{coord|24.02|76.38|display=inline,title}}
|coordinates_footnotes = 
|subdivision_type = Country
|subdivision_name = {{flagcountry|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = Madhya Pradesh
| subdivision_type2 = [[Districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Rajgarh district]]
|government_type = [[Panchayat Samiti (Block)|Janpad Panchayat]]
|governing_body = [[Council]]

|area_footnotes = <ref name=distwebsite/>
| area_total_km2 = 845.36
|area_note =
|width_mi =
|elevation_min_rank =

|population_as_of = 2011
|population_footnotes = <ref name=distwebsite/>
|population_total = 199675

| population_density_km2 =
|population_density_sq_mi=
|population_urban_footnotes =
|population_urban =
| population_density_urban_km2 =
|population_density_urban_sq_mi =
|population_rural_footnotes =
|population_rural =
| population_density_rural_km2 =
|population_density_rural_sq_mi =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Hindi language|Hindi]]

| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30

|postal_code_type = Postal code (PIN)
|postal_code = 465691
|area_code_type = 
|area_code =
| geocode =
|registration_plate =

| blank_name_sec1 =
| blank_info_sec1 =
| blank1_name_sec1 =
| blank1_info_sec1 =

| blank_name_sec2 =
| blank_info_sec2 =

| website = 
|iso_code = [[ISO 3166-2:IN|MP-IN]]
| footnotes =
}}

'''Zirapur''' is a tehsil in [[Rajgarh district]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], India.<ref name=distwebsite>{{cite web |url=https://rajgarh.nic.in/en/tehsil/ |title=District Rajgarh - Tehsils |access-date= 11 May 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/pca/SearchDetails.aspx?Id=505974|title= Census of India 2011: Data from the 2011 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional)|publisher= Census Commission of India}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://rajgarh.nic.in/en/document-category/census-2011/|title= Census of India 2011|publisher= Census Commission of India}}</ref>

==Demographics==
As of the [[2011 census of India]], it had a population of {{formatnum:199675}} across 220 villages.<ref name=distwebsite/>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Tehsils of Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Rajgarh district]]

{{Bhopal-geo-stub}}

Kesli

2026-02-06T13:49:21Z

Husayn: Adding initial entry v1

{{Short description|Town in Sagar District of Madhya Pradesh in India}}

{{More citations needed|date=January 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2018}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Kesli
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = Town
| image_skyline = {{Photomontage
|size = 200
|photo1a = Bandevi mata Tada Kesli road.png
|photo1b = }}
| image_alt =
| image_caption = Bandevi Temple
| pushpin_map = India Madhya Pradesh#India
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Madhya Pradesh, India
| coordinates = {{coord|23|25|09|N|78|48|19|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Madhya Pradesh]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Sagar district|Sagar]]
| named_for =
| government_type = Janpad Panchyat
| governing_body = Gram panchyat
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 358
| population_total = 8,586
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Hindi language|Hindi]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type =  PIN code
| postal_code = 470235
| registration_plate = [[Vehicle registration plates of India|MP15]]
| website =
| iso_code = [[ISO 3166-2:IN|IN-MP]]
| footnotes =
}}

'''Kesli''' is a small town in the [[Sagar district]] of India, in [[Madhya Pradesh]]. Kesli is a [[tehsil]] headquarters and a [[Development Block]].

[[File:Kesli Reservoir.png|thumb|350px|kesli reservoir]]

[[File:Jain Mandir Tada, Kesli, Sagar, MP.png|thumb|350px|Jain Mandir Tada]]

==Geography ==
Kesli is situated at {{Coord|23.42|N|78.80|E}}, it is 65km from the district headquarters, [[Sagar, Madhya Pradesh|Sagar ]] and 35 km away from [[Deori, Sagar|Deori]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.fallingrain.com/world/IN/35/Kesli.html | title=Maps, Weather, and Airports for Kesli, India }}</ref>

Many forests are found here, among which [[teak]] and [[tendu leaves]] are prominent. [[Sunar River]] originates from here,

==Demographics ==
Kesali town has population of 8586 of which 4501 are males while 4085 are females as Census 2011. In 2011, literacy rate of Kesali town was 81.53 % compared to 69.32 % of Madhya Pradesh.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kesali Village Population - Kesli - Sagar, Madhya Pradesh |url=https://www.census2011.co.in/data/village/461295-kesali-madhya-pradesh.html |access-date=2023-12-18 |website=www.census2011.co.in}}</ref>

==Services==
All services are available. There is a [[Police Station]] and a [[Community Hospital]]. Many Bank Services are also available. A weekly market is also organized here. Which is held on Thursday.

==Places to Attraction==
* Shri Viddhyasagar Dam (kesli reservoir)
* Shri Vandevi Mata Temple
* Shri Digambar Jain Temple Tada
<ref>[https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=Hz9REsGtNgw Viwe of Vandevi]</ref>

==Transportation ==
Kesli is well connected by road to [[Sagar, Madhya Pradesh|Sagar]] and [[Deori, Sagar|Deori]], daily buses run from here. It is located on [[State Highway 30 (Madhya Pradesh)|MP SH 30]] {{jct|country=IND|SH|30}}.

==Economy ==
The region is predominantly [[Agrarian society|agrarian]].
[[Farming]] and [[dairy]] production is major source of economy. Forest procurement is another source of income. The major commercial crops are [[Wheat]], [[Paddy (unmilled rice)|Paddy]] and [[corn]], which is produced in large quantity and a major source of income.
<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.mandibhavkhabar.com/2022/03/Kesli-mandi-bhav-today-Sagar-Madhya-Pradesh-mandi-bazar-bhav-commodity-market-rates.html?m=1 | title=Kesli mandi bhav today : आज का मंडी (बाजार) भाव केसली, सागर, मध्य प्रदेश | Daily Market Rates Madhya Pradesh | Mandi rate Today }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.globalsuppliersonline.com/supplier/Deoshri-Farmers-Producer-Co?id=496213&txtsrch=Milk&match=HJHGgfjHKJhjht | title=Deoshri Farmers Producer Co | India }}</ref> Some Ston Crusher and Rice mill Available in this aria.

There are several small and big villages within the vicinity of Kesli. It is a regional hub for the buying of various daily-use products and the selling of grains.

==Education==
There are number of educational institutions in Kesli, such as Government College, Kesli, and a Government Boys and Government Girls schools.

There's some private school and college also in the town
===Schools===
#Saraswati Shishu Mandir
#Horizon convent education school<ref>https://www.justdial.com/Sagar/Horizon-Education-Convent-School-Kesli/9999P7582-7582-170927141813-V9D4_BZDET</ref>
#Aastha High School

===College===

#Pt. Mahadev College<ref>http://www.mahadevcollege.org/</ref>
#Dignity College<ref>http://www.dignitycollege.org/</ref>

==See also ==
* [[Gaurjhamar ]]
* [[Tada, Madhya Pradesh|Tada]]
* [[Bankori]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://prd.mp.gov.in/PanchParmeshwar/Public/GramPanchayatWiseSummary.aspx?lb_id=24085] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240109090323/https://prd.mp.gov.in/PanchParmeshwar/Public/GramPanchayatWiseSummary.aspx?lb_id=24085 |date=9 January 2024 }}
* [https://sagar.nic.in/en/tehsil/]

{{Sagar Division}}

[[Category:Sagar, Madhya Pradesh|Kesli]]
[[Category:Tehsils of Sagar district]]
[[Category:Cities and towns in Sagar district|Kesli]]

{{Sagar-geo-stub}}

Bala V. Balachandran

2026-02-06T05:56:05Z

Husayn: started some post v1 - done

{{Short description|Indian academic (1937–2021)}}
{{Use British English|date=September 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2021}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Bala V. Balachandran
| image = File:Prof. Bala.jpg
| caption = Prof. Bala V. Balachandran
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1937|7|5}}
| birth_place = [[Pudupatti, Virudhunagar|Pudupatti]], [[Pudukkottai State]], [[British India]], (present-day [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]])
| death_date = {{Death date and age|2021|9|27|1937|7|5|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Chicago, Illinois]], U.S.
| other_names = Bala, V. Balachandran
| known_for = Founder, Chairman & Dean Emeritus [[Great Lakes Institute of Management]]
| occupation = [[Academician]], [[Professor]], [[Entrepreneur]]
| spouse = Vasantha Balachandran

| honours = [[File:Padma Shri Ribbon.svg|border|23px]] [[Padma Shri]] (2001)
| signature =
}}

'''Bala V. Balachandran''' (5 July 1937 – 28 September 2021) was an Indian academic who was Professor Emeritus of Accounting Information & Management at the [[Kellogg School of Management]] at [[Northwestern University]]. He was also the founder, chairman and dean emeritus of [[Great Lakes Institute of Management]] in [[Chennai]], India.

He was a faculty member in Department of Statistics at [[Annamalai University]].

== Early life and education ==
Balachandran was born on 5 July 1937 in [[Pudupatti, Virudhunagar|Pudupatti]], [[Tamil Nadu]] (a small village near [[Pudukkottai|Pudukottai]]) into a [[Tamils|Tamil]] family. He was the oldest of six children of Jambakam and A. Venkataraman. His maternal uncle was [[S. Satyamurti]], a renowned Indian independence activist and accomplished leader of the [[Indian National Congress]] from the [[Madras Presidency]]. His school years were spent at the Kulapathi Balaiya School and the Christian Mission school at Pudukottai followed by the Intermediate education at the Pudukottai Raja's college. He pursued his graduate and post-graduate studies at the [[Annamalai University]].

While a student, he joined the NCC and obtained the rank of a Senior Under Officer and underwent training to become an Army Officer. Service to the nation in some form was what he wanted to do. However, on completing his graduation, the Department of Statistics in Annamalai University offered him a teaching position which he took up in 1959. When war broke out [[Sino-Indian War|between India and China in 1962]], he was enlisted to join the Army. After training he joined as a Commissioned Officer in the Indian Army through the Short Service Commission and was promoted as Captain by the end of the war. He was then posted to serve as Commander (NCC) at Chennai while he continued to teach at Annamalai University.

=== Early career ===
In 1966, Bala attended a month-long workshop conducted by Dr. Landis Gephart on Quality Control and Reliability Engineering organised under the aegis of USAID in Chennai. At the end of the workshop, he was offered a full scholarship to pursue his MS/PhD at the University of Dayton, Ohio. He completed his MSE (Engineering) course and was appointed an Assistant Professor of Industrial and Systems Engineering, [[University of Dayton]], in 1970. Later, he went on to pursue his MBA and PhD in Operations Research at the [[Carnegie Mellon University]] and joined the Graduate School of Management at Northwestern University (now [[Kellogg School of Management]]) in 1973. His work with Kellogg was recognised by the award of the J. L. Kellogg Distinguished Professorship in Accounting, Information and Management in 1984.

== Academic career ==
Balachandran founded the [[Great Lakes Institute of Management]], an independent business school in [[Chennai]], India.<ref name="great">{{Cite web |url=https://www.greatlakes.edu.in/faculty-research/faculty-profile-detail?pid=9 |title=Faculty Profile Detail | Great Lakes Institute of Management |access-date=9 March 2019 |archive-date=24 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160524105133/http://www.greatlakes.edu.in/faculty-research/faculty-profile-detail?pid=9 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/beyond-business/how-bala-swam-across-oceans-to-create-great-lakes-118032300462_1.html|title=How Bala swam across oceans to create Great Lakes|last=Bhargava|first=Anjuli|date=23 March 2018|work=Business Standard|access-date=19 November 2018|archive-date=19 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119093505/https://www.business-standard.com/article/beyond-business/how-bala-swam-across-oceans-to-create-great-lakes-118032300462_1.html|url-status=live}}</ref> He was also a professor emeritus at the Kellogg School of Business at Northwestern University, where he has been on the faculty since 1973. Prior to Kellogg, Balachandran has been on the faculty at the [[University of Dayton]], [[Carnegie Mellon University]], and [[Annamalai University]].<ref name="nw">{{Cite web |url=https://www.kellogg.northwestern.edu/faculty/directory/balachandran_bala.aspx |title=Bala Balachandran - Faculty - Kellogg School of Management |access-date=9 March 2019 |archive-date=17 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180717063900/http://www.kellogg.northwestern.edu/faculty/directory/balachandran_bala.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Personal life ==
Balachandran was married to Vasantha Balachandran. They had two sons, Sudhakar Balachandran (Director of MBA Graduate Studies & Associate Professor of Accounting at the [[University of Illinois at Chicago|University of Illinois]], [[Chicago]]) and Diwakar Balachandran (Professor, Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Division of Internal Medicine, [[University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center|The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center]]). Balachandran died on 28 September 2021 at the age of 84.<ref>{{cite news |date=28 September 2021 |title=Bala V Balachandran passes away at age 84 |work=The Hindu Business Line |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/education/bala-v-balachandran-passes-away-at-age-84/article36706482.ece |access-date=28 September 2021 |archive-date=28 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928103811/https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/education/bala-v-balachandran-passes-away-at-age-84/article36706482.ece |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-09-28|title=Management guru Bala Balachandran dead - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/management-guru-bala-balachandran-dead/articleshow/86574012.cms|url-status=live|access-date=2021-09-28|website=The Times of India|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928040745/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/management-guru-bala-balachandran-dead/articleshow/86574012.cms |archive-date=28 September 2021 }}</ref>

==Selected works==
=== Research ===
Balachandran's published research includes:<ref>{{cite web |title=Bala V Balachandaran publications, indexed |url=https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=EPBEVCIAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=sra |website=Google Scholar}}</ref>
* "The Customer Centricity Culture: Drivers for Sustainable Profitability". ''Journal of Cost Management''. 21 (6): 12–19. 2007.
'''Coauthored'''
* Sridharan, Swaminathan (first coauthor). (2018). "Efficiency-Promoting Aggregate Disclosures and Multiple Layers of Information Asymmetry". ''Journal of Accounting Research''.
* With: Ramji Balakrishnan; Konduru Sivaramakrishnan. (2007). "On the Relevance of Product Life Cycle for Cost-Based Pricing". (Working paper). [https://www.kellogg.northwestern.edu/faculty/research/researchdetail?guid=758d07df-d13b-497b-8bc8-710e00a11e09 Listing]
* With: Sudhakar Balachandran. (2005). "Cost Culture Through Cost Maturity Model". ''Journal of Cost Management''. '''19''': 15–27.
* With: Shyam Sunder. (2003). "Interface Between ABC/M Requirements and Multi-Dimensional Databases". ''Journal of Cost Management''. 17 (6): 33–39.
* With: David Barter. (2002). "Velocity Costing for A Manufacturing Environment". ''Journal of Cost Management''. 16 (1): 39–42.
* With: Hemang Desai; K. Ramesh; S.Ramu Thiagarajan. (2002). "An Investigation of the Informational Role of Short Interest in the Nasdaq Market". ''Journal of Finance''. 57 (5): 2263–2287.<ref>{{cite web |title=Research Details |url=https://www.kellogg.northwestern.edu/faculty/research/researchdetail?guid=accd24da-899d-4f87-9260-ef4769ce644c |website=Kellogg School of Management at Northwestern University}}</ref>

=== Books ===
* Balachandran, Bala V. (1999). ''Business Process Reengineering: Its History, Promises, and Problems''. Morristown, NJ (US): Financial Executive Research Foundation, Inc [https://www.kellogg.northwestern.edu/faculty/research/researchdetail?guid=30ef450d-9489-48ad-8421-ca0fc3cc60e2 Catalog listing] {{isbn|9781885065162}} {{oclc|42841838}}

==Awards==
* Kellogg Alumni Professor of the Year Award, Kellogg School of Management, 1997
* Sidney J. Levy Teaching Award, Kellogg School of Management, 1996–1997
* Padma Shri Award by the Government of India, 2001

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://www.greatlakes.edu.in/ Great Lakes Institute of Management]

{{Padma Shri Award Recipients in Literature & Education}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Balachandran, Bala V.}}
[[Category:1937 births]]
[[Category:2021 deaths]]
[[Category:Tepper School of Business alumni]]
[[Category:Indian Tamil academics]]
[[Category:People from Pudukkottai district]]
[[Category:Annamalai University alumni]]
[[Category:Kellogg School of Management faculty]]
[[Category:University of Dayton alumni]]
[[Category:Indian emigrants to the United States]]
[[Category:American people of Indian Tamil descent]]

Aaydan

2026-01-24T06:51:54Z

Husayn: started a entry and citations - done

{{Short description|Autobiographical novel by Urmila Pawar}}
{{Infobox book
| name = Aaydan
| image =
| caption =
| author = [[Urmila Pawar]]
| translator = Maya Pandit
| cover_artist =
| country = India
| language = [[Marathi language|Marathi]]
| series =
| genre = [[Autobiography]], [[Memoir]]
| publisher = Granthali (Marathi); [[Columbia University Press]] (English)
| pub_date = 2003 (Marathi)
| english_pub_date = 2009 (English)
| media_type = Print
| pages =
| isbn = 9780231520577
| oclc = 979776511
}}

'''''Aaydan''''' (lit. 'bamboo basketry' or 'things made of bamboo') is an autobiographical novel by Indian dalit writer and feminist [[Urmila Pawar]]. It was originally published in 2003 in [[Marathi language|Marathi]] language. The English language translation titled ''The Weave of My Life: A Dalit Woman's Memoirs'' by Maya Pandit was published in 2009 with a foreword by [[Wandana Sonalkar]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Gopurathingal |first=Cinzia |date=2024-02-19 |title='The Weave Of My Life' By Urmila Pawar: An Account Of A Dalit Woman Writer |url=https://feminisminindia.com/2024/02/19/the-weave-of-my-life-by-urmila-pawar-an-account-of-a-dalit-woman-writer/ |access-date=2025-02-15 |website=Feminism in India |language=en-GB}}</ref> The book is a significant work in [[Dalit literature]] and chronicles Pawar's life as a Dalit woman, detailing her experiences with caste discrimination, poverty, and gender-based oppression within both mainstream society and the Dalit community itself.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Rege |first=Sharmila |date=1998-10-31 |title=Dalit Women Talk Differently: A Critique of Difference and Towards a Dalit Feminist Standpoint Position {{!}} Economic and Political Weekly |url=https://www.epw.in/journal/1998/44/review-womens-studies-review-issues-specials/dalit-women-talk-differently-critique |access-date=2025-07-28 |website=www.epw.in |language=en}}</ref>

In her foreword to the English translation, [[Wandana Sonalkar]] writes that the title of the book ''The Weave'' is a metaphor of the writing technique employed by Pawar, "the lives of different members of her family, her husband's family, her neighbours and classmates, are woven together in a narrative that gradually reveals different aspects of the everyday life of Dalits, the manifold ways in which caste asserts itself and grinds them down"<ref name="Pavāra2009">{{cite book |author=Urmilā Pavāra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5EELAQAAMAAJ |title=The weave of my life: a Dalit woman's memoirs |date=June 2009 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-14900-6 |pages=xv–xviii |access-date=10 March 2012}}</ref>

== Synopsis ==
''Aaydan'' chronicles Urmila Pawar's life from her childhood in the Konkan region of [[Maharashtra]] to her life in Mumbai as a writer and government employee. The narrative begins with her early years in a poor Mahar Dalit family, where she experienced the harsh realities of untouchability and [[social exclusion]]. Pawar recounts the influence of [[B. R. Ambedkar]] on her community and family, particularly their conversion to [[Navayana Buddhism]], which was a pivotal moment of social and spiritual rebellion against the caste system.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Saini |first=Arpita |last2=Rathee |first2=Prof. Manjeet |date=2024 |title=Uncovering Dalit Women's Resilience: A Study Of Urmila Pawar's Autobiography The Weave Of My Life |url=https://kuey.net/index.php/kuey/article/view/4413 |journal=Educational Administration: Theory and Practice |doi=10.53555/kuey.v30i5.4413|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The autobiography details her struggles for education, which she saw as a means of emancipation. Pawar describes the dual discrimination she faced—as a Dalit in a caste-ridden society and as a woman in a patriarchal world. She writes about the challenges and humiliations of her school years, her family life, and her marriage. A significant portion of the book is dedicated to her experiences as a working woman in Mumbai and her growing involvement in the Dalit and feminist movements. Through personal anecdotes, Pawar illustrates the complexities of navigating her identity, highlighting moments of both personal triumph and systemic injustice.<ref name=":1" />

== Reception ==
''Aaydan'' was met with critical acclaim in both its original Marathi and its English translation.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Naikar |first=Basavaraj S. |date=2010 |title=The Weave of My Life: A Dalit Woman's Memoirs by Urmila Pawar, Maya Pandit |url=https://doi.org/10.1353/wlt.2010.0199 |journal=World Literature Today |volume=84 |issue=4 |pages=77–78 |doi=10.1353/wlt.2010.0199 |issn=1945-8134|url-access=subscription }}</ref> It is regarded as a landmark text in the canon of Dalit literature and a foundational work of Dalit feminism. Scholars have praised Pawar's unflinching honesty and her nuanced exploration of the complexities of identity.<ref name=":0" /> The book has been compared to other notable Dalit autobiographies like Bama's ''Karukku'' and [[Baby Kamble|Baby Kamble's]] ''[[The Prisons We Broke]]'', with critics noting its specific focus on the intersection of caste and gender from the perspective of an educated, urban Dalit woman.<ref>{{Citation |last=Pawar |first=Urmila |title=Weave of My Life: आयदान |date=2023-07-05 |work=Concealing Caste |pages=165–168 |editor-last=Satyanarayanan |editor-first=Kusuma |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/55915/chapter/439325917 |access-date=2025-07-28 |edition=1 |publisher=Oxford University PressOxford |language=en |doi=10.1093/oso/9780192865243.003.0017 |isbn=978-0-19-286524-3 |editor2-last=Lee |editor2-first=Joel|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

The English translation was lauded for its sensitivity and its ability to convey the cultural and linguistic nuances of the original text.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bhagavan |first=Manu |date=2012-12-01 |title=Book Review: Urmila Pawar, The Weave of My Life: A Dalit Woman's Memoirs and Ravikumar, Venomous Touch: Notes on Caste, Culture and Politics |url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0019464612463837 |journal=The Indian Economic and Social History Review |language=EN}}</ref> The translation made Pawar's story accessible to a wider international audience, contributing to global conversations about caste, feminism, and human rights. The autobiography is now a key text in academic courses on South Asian studies, women's studies, and [[world literature]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Thomas |first=Nancy |date=2010-10-01 |title=Book Review: The Weave of My Life: A Dalit Woman's Memoirs |url=https://doi.org/10.1177/009182961003800425 |journal=Missiology |language=EN |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=492–493 |doi=10.1177/009182961003800425 |issn=0091-8296|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Awards ===
''Aaydan'' received several major awards: Maharashtra Foundation, USA; Priyadarshini Academy; Padmashri Vikhe Patil; and the Matoshree Bheemabai Ambedkar Award.<ref name="j129">{{cite book |last=Pavāra |first=Urmilā |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Weave_of_My_Life/34i-AwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Aaydan&pg=PA282&printsec=frontcover |title=The Weave of My Life: A Dalit Woman's Memoirs |date=2009 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-14900-6 |page= |access-date=July 28, 2025}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Indian autobiographical novels]]
[[Category:Dalit literature]]
[[Category:Dalit feminists]]
[[Category:2003 Indian novels]]
[[Category:Marathi-language books]]

Bengali Regiment

2026-01-14T13:23:49Z

Husayn: Updated and refined page content

{{Short description|Military unit, 1917 to 1920}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Infobox military unit
| unit_name = The 49th Bengalee Regiment
| native_name = {{lang|bn|৪৯তম বেঙ্গলি রেজিমেন্ট}}
| image = 49th Bengal Infantry.jpg
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption = [[Cap badge]] of The 49th Bengalee Regiment
| start_date = 26 June 1917
| end_date =
| disbanded = 30 August 1920
| country = {{flag|British India}}
| allegiance = {{flag|British Empire}}
| branch = [[File:Purported flag of the Royal Indian Army.svg|20px]] [[British Indian Army]]
| type = [[Infantry]]
| role = 
| size = 2 companies; each consisting of 228 soldiers
| command_structure =
| garrison = [[Fort William, India]]
| garrison_label =
| nickname = {{hlist|Bengali Double Company|The 49th Bengalee|49th Bengal Infantry|Bengali Platoon|Bangali Paltan}}
| patron =
| motto =
| colors = 
| colors_label = 
| march =
| mascot =
| anniversaries = 26 June
| equipment = [[Lee–Enfield]]
| equipment_label =
| battles = {{tree list}}
* [[World War I]]
** [[Mesopotamian campaign]]
** [[Kurdish rebellions during World War I|Kurdish rebellions]]
{{tree list/end}}
| battles_label =
| decorations =
| battle_honours =
| battle_honours_label =
| flying_hours =
| website =

| current_commander =
| commander1 = [[Lieutenant|Lt.]] S. G. Taylor
| commander1_label = [[Commanding officer|Regiment Commander]]
| commander2 =
| commander2_label =
| commander3 =
| commander3_label =
| commander4 =
| commander4_label =
| commander5 =
| commander5_label =
| commander6 =
| commander6_label =
| commander7 =
| commander7_label =
| commander8 =
| commander8_label =
| commander9 =
| commander9_label =
| notable_commanders =
| identification_symbol =
| identification_symbol_label =
}}
[[File:Monument of bengali regiment.jpg|thumb|Monumental Plaque of The 49th Bengalee Regiment, [[College Street (Kolkata)|College Street, Kolkata]]]]
'''The 49th Bengalee Regiment''' ({{langx|bn|৪৯তম বেঙ্গলি রেজিমেন্ট}}), also known as '''The 49th Bengalee''', '''49th Bengal Infantry''', '''Bengali Double Company''', '''Bengali Platoon''' and '''Bangali Paltan''' ({{lang|bn|বাঙালি পল্টন}}), was a [[military unit]] of the [[British Indian Army]] raised during [[World War I]] with [[Lieutenant|Lt.]] S. G. Taylor as the [[Commanding officer|Regiment Commander]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Nath |first=Ashok |title=The British Indian Army: Virtue and Necessity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7ipJDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA65 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|year=2014|isbn=9781443853965|location=|pages=65–76}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Bangali_Paltan|title=Bangali Paltan - Banglapedia|website=en.banglapedia.org|language=en|access-date=2018-06-22}}</ref> In the beginning of the First World War, the army began to recruit many [[soldier]]s, [[non-combatant]]s, and skilled and unskilled laborers from [[Bengal]]. In middle 1916, the [[British government]] decided to create a regiment of [[Bengalis|Bengali]] soldiers. At first, it was called ''Bengali Double Company.''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/1090712/jsp/calcutta/story_11220903.jsp|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130411223825/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1090712/jsp/calcutta/story_11220903.jsp|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 April 2013|title=The Telegraph - Calcutta (Kolkata) {{!}} Metro {{!}} Tears for subaltern|website=www.telegraphindia.com|access-date=2018-06-22}}</ref> These double companies, each consisting of 228 soldiers, were integrated into the British Indian Army. The Bengali Double Company raised the first Bengali battalion on 26 June 1917. It was named ''The 49th Bengalee Regiment'' or briefly ''The 49th Bengalee''. It was disbanded in 1920.<ref name=":1" />

They fought in [[Mesopotamian campaign]], and were stationed in [[Baghdad]]. After the end of World War I, they were used to crush a [[Kurdish rebellions during World War I|Kurdish rebellion]] in the [[Middle East]]. 63 soldiers in the unit died. Most of the recruits came from middle-class Bengali families. Notable soldiers in the unit included [[Khwaja Habibullah]], [[Kazi Nazrul Islam]], [[Ranadaprasad Saha]], [[Mahbubul Alam (author)|Mahbubul Alam]], [[Mohit Kumar Munshi]] and [[Narendra Nath Dutta]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Huq|first1=Muhammad Lutful|title=Bangali Paltan|url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Bangali_Paltan|website=Banglapedia|access-date=8 December 2017|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |title=Nazrul Islam: Forerunner of Muslim Renaissance in Bengal |magazine=Illustrated Weekly of Pakistan |volume=20 |date=26 May 1968 |page=8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rXscAQAAMAAJ&q=Bangali+Paltan |quote=He [Kazi Nazrul Islam] joined ... the Bangali Paltan that was raised during the First World War.}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Mostakim |first=Golam |title=Kazi Nazrul Islam: His Life and Works (1899-1976) |magazine=Bangladesh Quarterly |volume=29 |issue=2 |date=October–December 2008 |publisher=Department of Films & Publications, Government of Bangladesh |page=66 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=স>{{cite book|title=সংসদ বাঙালী চরিতাভিধান|language=bn|page=244|publisher=Sahitya Sansad|year=1976}}</ref><ref name=b>{{Cite Banglapedia|article=Datta, Narendra Nath|author=Golam Kibria Bhuiyan}}</ref>

==Formation==
Governor of Bengal '''''Lord Carmichael''''' announced to form Bengali Army companies at the concluding session of the Legislative Council in [[Dhaka]] On 7 August 1916.<ref name=":1" /> That time the leaders of [[Bengal]] also decided to form a Bengali [[Regiment]] Committee to extend cooperation to the government in recruiting companies. 90% of Soldiers of Bengal regiment were [[Bengali Brahmans]] of [[Varendra]] clan and region too, And then the central office was established in [[Kolkata|Calcutta]] (now [[Kolkata]]) and many branch offices were formed at all districts and at some major subdivisions. The committee ran campaigns through public meetings, newspaper publicity, and other means to enthuse people to join the Bengali Double Companies where important leaders, [[zamindar]]s, and social leaders also attended these meetings. The government very earnestly solicited their cooperation. The programme to recruit Bengalis for the Double Companies began on 30 August 1916 at the Fort Williams Cantonment in Calcutta. The first ten soldiers of the Bengali Double Company left Calcutta on September 12 for [[Naushera, Punjab|Naushera]] for training. Subsequently, more groups of recruits left for [[Naushera, Punjab|Naushera]]. There the 46th Punjab Regiment was in charge of their training. The first regiment of 228 soldiers of the Bengali Double Company arrived in [[Karachi]] in January 1914 after four months of training at [[Naushera, Punjab|Naushera.]]{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}

This Bengali Battalion was not like an ordinary army unit. Basically, young men from educated middle-class families had joined as soldiers. Many of them were in jobs with good salaries before joining the army. Some had [[graduation]], masters or law degrees. Some young sons of [[nawab]]s and [[zamindar]]s and of rich families also joined the Bengali [[Battalion]]. Although Indian soldiers were not allowed to rise as commissioned officers, but £115 million was paid from the Indian exchequer.{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}

==In the war==
[[File:Monument of the 49th Bengalee Regiment (Bangali Platoon) in Kolkata.jpg|thumb|Monument in [[College Street (Kolkata)|College Square]]]]
The first battalion of the Bengali Regiment divided into three groups left [[Karachi]] in July 1917 to take part in the [[Mesopotamia]]n war and by mid-September reached [[Baghdad]].{{citation needed|date=August 2020}} But in [[Baghdad]] a good number of soldiers became sick and some of them died. So that the 49th Bengalis were transferred from [[Baghdad]] to the city of [[‘Aziziya|Azizia]] and by mid-March to [[Kut|Al Kut]]. Still, there was no significant improvement in their health in [[Kut|Al Kut]]. Then, towards the end of October, they were sent to [[Tanuma]] near [[Basra]]. While at [[Kut|Al Kut]], Tanuma and [[‘Aziziya|Azizia]], the Bengalis performed mainly security duties alongside receiving military training.

By November 1918 armistice was declared. At Tanuma the Bengalis performed the post-war rehabilitation duties. Some of the soldiers were engaged in [[Baghdad]] and elsewhere. After the [[Mesopotamia]]n war, there was a revolt in [[Kurdistan]] in April 1919. As many as 235 Bengalis were engaged in suppressing this rebellion. After coming back to Kolkata in August 1920, the Bengali Battalion got disbanded on 30 August 1920.<ref name=":1" />

After the first battalion of the 49th Bengali Regiment left for [[Baghdad]] in July 1917, its remaining soldiers stayed in [[Karachi]] and continued to receive military training. This group of the Bengalis was called Karachi Depot. A group of the Bengali Battalion that stayed in [[Kolkata|Calcutta]] was called Calcutta Depot where the new recruits stayed. The soldiers of the Karachi Depot also used to stay here while in transit from leave or on some duty. As a large number of soldiers from East Bengal were recruited in September 1918, a Depot was also opened in [[Dhaka]] called Dhaka Depot.<ref name=":0" />

===War diaries===
There are two war diaries for the 49th Bengalee regiment that have been digitalized by [[National Archives of India]].

● No 1: ◆ Date: 1 July 1917 to 30 April 1918 ◆ Trigris Defences and Communication, Aziziyeh ◆ References: WO95/5020/5 ◆ Notes:

==Monument in the memory of Bengalee Regiment==
{{multiple image|perrow = 2|total_width=300
| image1 = Monument of Bengali Regiment 4.jpg
| image2 = Monument of Bengali Regiment 3.jpg
| footer = Name of Soldiers inscribed in the three side of the monument at College square in [[Kolkata]]
}}
Sixty-three soldiers of the Bengali Battalion died of sickness and other causes. To honor their memory a commemorative statue was erected at Calcutta [[College Street (Kolkata)|College Square]] in August 1924.<ref>{{Cite web |last=OT Staff |title=5 Lesser-Known Monuments In Kolkata |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/outlooktraveller/explore/story/72481/5-lesser-known-monuments-in-kolkata-you-should-add-to-your-checklist |access-date=16 June 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Bengalis who fought in World War I and the first 'only Bengali' British regiment |url=https://www.getbengal.com/details/bengalis-who-fought-in-world-War-I-and-the-first-only-bengali-british-regiment |access-date=2023-06-16 |website=Get Bengal |language=en}}</ref> In one side of the monument, inscribed in the words:

{{Cquote
| quote =
In Memory of Members of The 49th Bengalee Regiment Who Died in the Great War 1914-1919. To the Glory of God, King, & Country.
}}

The other three sides of the memorial base contain the names of the 49 Bengalis killed in the Great War of 1914–1918. It also contains the following information of Reg. No., Rank, Date of Death, District from which come. The districts are [[Midnapore]], [[Mymensingh]], [[Murshidabad]], [[Nadia district|Nadia]], [[Kolkata|Calcutta]], [[Jessore District|Jessore]], [[Bardhaman|Burdwan]], [[Pabna]], [[Chittagong]], [[Khulna]], [[Barisal Division|Barisal]], [[Faridpur District|Faridpore]], [[Pabna]], 24-[[24 Parganas|Parganas]] and [[Tripura]] (Tipperah). Some Bengali soldiers and officers received awards and recognition for their meritorious services in [[Mesopotamia]]. These recognitions were published in the official gazette. In July 1919 a victory march (rally) and peace celebration were held in [[London]]. Soldiers and officers from different parts of the world took part in it. One British officer and one Indian officer and two soldiers represented the 49th Bengali Regiment at this celebration.<ref name=":0" />

==References==
;Citations
{{Reflist|30em}}

==See also==
* [[49th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry]]
* [[Bengal Native Infantry]]

[[Category:Bengal Native Infantry]]
[[Category:British Indian Army infantry regiments]]
[[Category:Indian World War I regiments]]
[[Category:Military units and formations established in 1917]]
[[Category:Military units and formations disestablished in 1920]]

Guru Kunchu Kurup

2025-12-08T16:36:40Z

Husayn: improved formatting after review and corrected details as per guidelines

#REDIRECT [[Guru Kunju Kurup]]

{{Redirect category shell|
{{R from move}}
}}

Vadodara–Kota Express

2025-12-01T11:53:45Z

Husayn:

{{short description|Train in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2018}}{{Use Indian English|date=September 2018}}
{{Infobox rail service
| name = Vadodara-Kota Express
| logo = Ministry of Railways India.svg
| type = [[Express trains in India|Express]]
| locale = [[Gujarat]], [[Madhya Pradesh]] & [[Rajasthan]]
| first =
| last =
| operator = [[West Central Railway Zone|Weste Central Railway]]
| ridership =
| start = {{rws|Vadodara}} (BRC)
| stops = 55
| end = {{rws|Kota Junction}} (KOTA)
| distance = {{convert|527|km|0|abbr=on}}
| journeytime = 14 hrs 20 mins
| frequency = Daily {{efn|Runs seven days in a week for every direction.}}
| class = General Unreserved
| seating = Yes
| sleeping = No
| autorack = Overhead racks
| catering = Not available
| observation = Large windows
| entertainment =
| baggage = No
| otherfacilities = Below the seats
| stock = [[ICF coach]]
| gauge = {{track gauge|Indian}}
| el =
| trainnumber = 19819 / 19820
| speed = {{convert|37|km/h|0|abbr=on}} average including halts.
| map =
| map_state =
}}
The 19819 / 19820 '''Vadodara–Kota Express''' is an express train of the Indian Railways, which runs between [[Kota Junction railway station|Kota Junction]] in [[Rajasthan]] and [[Vadodara Junction railway station|Vadodara Junction]] in [[Gujarat]]. It is currently being operated with 19819/19820 train numbers on a weekly basis.<ref>[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/vadodara/Repair-work-at-Vadodara-station-to-affect-rail-traffic/articleshow/47478986.cms Repair work at Vadodara station to affect rail traffic]</ref><ref>[http://www.wr.indianrailways.gov.in/view_detail.jsp?lang=0&dcd=2580&id=0,4,268 WR UNDERTAKES BLOCK FOR CC APRON REPAIR WORK AT VADODARA PF No.1 FROM 30.05.15 TO 01.06.15]</ref><ref>[http://wr.indianrailways.gov.in/view_detail.jsp?lang=0&id=0,4,268&dcd=2528&did=1431609103982E8404D74D618041E2D2ED25A57A571A8.web91 WR UNDERTAKES BLOCK FOR CC APRON REPAIR WORK AT VADODARA PF No.2 FROM 16.05.15 TO 18.05.15]</ref>

== Service ==

The 19819/Vadodara–Kota Express runs with an average speed of 37 km/h and completes 527 km in 14h 20m. The 19820/Kota-Vadodara Express runs with an average speed of 37 km/h and completes 527 km in 14h 20m.

== Route & Halts ==

The important halts of the train are:

* '''{{rws|Vadodara Junction}}'''
* {{rws|Chhayapuri}}
* {{rws|Samlaya Junction}}
* {{rws|Champaner Road}}
* {{rws|Derol}}
* {{rws|Godhra Junction}}
* {{rws|Piplod}}
* {{rws|Limkheda}}
* {{rws|Dahod}}
* {{rws|Anas}}
* {{rws|Meghnagar}}
* {{rws|Thandla Road}}
* {{rws|Ratlam Junction}}
* {{rws|Khachrod}}
* {{rws|Nagda Junction}}
* {{rws|Vikramgarh Alot}}
* {{rws|Bhawani Mandi}}
* {{rws|Jhalawar Road}}
* {{rws|Ramganj Mandi Junction}}
* '''{{rws|Kota Junction}}'''

== Coach composite ==

The train has standard ICF rakes with max speed of 110 kmph. The train consists of 11 coaches:

* 9 General Unreserved
* 2 Seating cum Luggage/parcel van.

==Traction==

Both trains are hauled by a [[Electric Loco Shed, Valsad|Valsad Loco Shed]] based [[WAP-4]] or [[Vadodara railway station|Vadodara Loco Shed]] based [[WAP-5]] electric locomotive from Kota to Vadodara and vice versa.

== See also ==

* [[Kota Junction railway station]]
* [[Vadodara Junction railway station]]
* [[Vadodara–Dahod MEMU]]
* [[Dahod–Ratlam MEMU]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==

* [http://indiarailinfo.com/train/timetable/vadodara-kota-passenger-59831/3679/63/891#st 19819/Vadodara - Kota Express]
* [http://indiarailinfo.com/train/kota-vadodara-passenger-59832/2812/891/63 19820/Kota - Vadodara Express]

{{Railways in Western India}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Vadodara - Kota Passenger}}
[[Category:Transport in Kota, Rajasthan]]
[[Category:Transport in Vadodara]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Gujarat]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Rajasthan]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Slow and fast passenger trains in India]]

{{India-passenger-train-stub}}

Temples of Bishnupur

2025-11-30T00:26:59Z

Husayn:

{{Short description|Indian group of temples in West Bengal}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2025}}
{{Infobox historic site
| name = Temples of Bishnupur
| native_language = [[Bengali]]
| image = Jod Bangla Terracotta Temple, Bishnupur, West Bengal.jpg
| image_size = 250px
| caption = Jor Bangla Temple
| designation1 =
| designation1_date =
| designation1_number =
| designation1_criteria =
| designation1_type = Cultural
| designation1_free1name = State Party
| designation1_free1value = {{IND}}
| designation1_free2name = Region
| designation1_free2value =
| location = [[Bishnupur (West Bengal)|Bishnupur]], [[West Bengal]], [[India]]
| elevation = 75 mtrs
| built =
| architect =
| architecture = [[Chala Style]]
| coordinates = {{coord|23.075|N|87.317|E|display=inline,title}}
| locmapin = India
| map_caption = Location in Bishnupur, West Bengal, India
| visitation_num =
| visitation_year =
| owner = [[Archeological Survey of India]]
| designation2 = Monuments of National Importance (India)
| designation2_offname = Temples at Bishnupur
| designation2_type = Cultural
}}

The '''Temples of Bishnupur''' are a group of temples located in the town of [[Bishnupur (West Bengal)|Bishnupur]], [[West Bengal]], [[India]]. These temples, built by the [[Mallabhum kingdom|Malla kings]] between the 17th and 18th centuries,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Marshall |first1=Peter James |title=Bengal: The British Bridgehead: Eastern India 1740-1828 |journal=Bengal |date=2 November 2006 |pages=150–161 |doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521253307 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lIZrfokYSY8C&q=1799 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |language=en|isbn=
9781139055659|url-access=subscription }}</ref> are renowned for their unique architectural style that blends traditional Bengali design with influences from other regions.<ref name="Biswas">{{cite book |last1=Biswas |first1=S. S. |title=Bishnupur |date=1992 |publisher=Director General, Archaeological Survey of India |pages=9, 10 |edition=University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Bishnupur/MypxFqTmRsgC?hl=en |access-date=10 September 2025 |language=en}}</ref> The temples are primarily constructed using [[terracotta]], a material that gives them a distinctive reddish hue and allows for intricate detailing in the artwork. Known for their elaborate terracotta panels that depict scenes from Hindu epics like the [[Mahabharata]] and [[Ramayana]], the temples are a testament to the artistic and cultural achievements of the [[Mallabhum kingdom|Malla dynasty]].<ref name="Biswas" /> Over the years, they have gained historical significance, drawing visitors and scholars alike. In recognition of their cultural value, the ''Temples of Bishnupur'' were added to [[UNESCO|UNESCO's]] [[List of World Heritage Sites in India|tentative list]] of [[World Heritage Site]]s in 1997.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Temples at Bishnupur, West Bengal |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1087/ |access-date=2024-09-11 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en}}</ref> The Temples are designated as [[List of Monuments of National Importance in West Bengal|Monuments of National importance]] by [[Archaeological Survey of India|ASI]].<ref>{{cite web |title=''ASI Kolkata Circle'' |url=https://www.asikolkata.in/bankura.aspx#Bahulara |website=www.asikolkata.in |access-date=10 September 2025}}</ref>

==List==
This is a '''list of temples in Bishnupur''', which are located in the town of [[Bishnupur (West Bengal)|Bishnupur]] in [[Bankura district]] of [[West Bengal, India]]. The town is famous for the unique [[terracotta]] temples made from the locally available [[laterite]] stones. The [[Bishnupur kingdom|Malla rulers]] were [[Vaishnavites]] and built the famous terracotta temples during the 17th and 18th centuries at this place. Since 1997, the temples of Bishnupur is on the [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site|World Heritage Site's]] [[List of World Heritage Sites in India|Tentative list]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Temples at Bishnupur, West Bengal |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1087/ |access-date=2024-09-03 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|- style="background:#FFC569"
| width="180pt" | '''Name of the temple'''
| width="100pt" | '''Deity'''
| width="100pt" | '''Picture'''
| width="100pt" | '''Date'''
| width="400pt" | '''Notes/Beliefs'''
|- align ="center"
|- style="background:#ffe;"
|-
| [[Rasmancha, Bishnupur|Rasmancha]]
| [[Radha Krishna]] (during Rasa festival)
| [[File:Rasmancha (eastern view) Arnab Dutta 2011.JPG|100px]][[File:Rasmancha (eastern veranda) Arnab Dutta 2011.JPG|100px]][[File:Rasmancha (inner terrece) Arnab Dutta 2011.JPG|100px]]
| 1600
| It is the oldest brick temple. Built by King Bir Hambir. The temple has an unusual elongated pyramidical tower, surrounded by hut-shaped turrets, which were very typical of Bengali roof structures of the time.
|-
| [[Keshto Ray Temple, Bishnupur|Jor-Bangla Temple]]
| Keshto Ray ([[Krishna]]) & [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu|Gouranga]]
| [[File:Jor Bangla Temple Arnab Dutta 2011.JPG|100px]][[File:Terracotta work on Jor Bangla temple, Bishnupur 3.JPG|100px]]
| 1655
| Built by King Raghunath Singha Dev II. The ornate terracotta carvings are set off by the roof in the classic ''chala'' style of Bengal architecture.
|-
|[[Shyam Ray Temple]]
|Shyam Ray (Krishna)
|[[File:Shyam Ray Temple in Bishnupur.jpg|100px]][[File:Terracotta work on Shyamrai Temple Bishnupur 8.JPG|100px]][[File:Shyam Ray Temple (Shikhar 1) Arnab Dutta 2011.JPG|100px]][[File:Terracotta work on Shyamrai Temple Bishnupur 7.JPG|100px]]
|1643
|Built by King Raghunath Singha. It stands on a low square plinth and consists of an ambulatory pathway with a porch opened by three arches on the four sides of the temple. The central [[shikhara]] is octagonal, while the rest four are square. The walls are richly decorated with terracotta carvings featuring aspects of Lord Krishna’s life. Pancha Ratna style.
|-
|[[Madan Mohan Temple, Bishnupur|Madanmohan Temple]]
|Madanmohan (Krishna)
|[[File:Madan Mohan Temple Arnab Dutta 2011.JPG|100px]]
|1694
|King Durjana Singha Deva built the temple in the ''ekaratna'' style, a square flat-roofed building with carved cornices, surmounted by a pinnacle. Impressive carvings on the walls depict scenes from the [[Ramayana]], [[Mahabharata]] and the [[Puranas]].
|-
|[[Lalji Temple]]
|Radha Krishna
|[[File:Lalji temple of Bishnupur 05.jpg|100x100px]]
|1658
|Built by Bir Singha II in ''ekaranta'' style. It is built on a square raised plinth, consisting of ornamental stucco decorations on low relief carvings.
|-
|[[Radha Shyam Temple|Radhya Shyam temple]]
|Radha Krishna
|[[File:Radha Shyam Temple.jpg|100x100px]]
|1758
|Built by Chaitanya Singha in ''ekaratna'' style. It was built in a square plan, consisting of a dome-shaped shikhara and stucco motifs depicting floral, geometric and depiction of the life from [[Puranas]].
|-
|[[Nandalal Temple]]
| Nandalal (Krishna)
|[[File:Nandalal Temple Bishnupur.JPG|100px]]
|17th Century
|Consisting of a square ground plan and a single tower resting on a curved roof. Very little motif work can be seen on the lower part of the temple.
|-
|[[Kalachand Temple]]
|
|[[File:Kalachand Temple (side view 2) Arnab Dutta 2011.JPG|100px]]
|1656.
|Built by King Raghunath Singha in ''ekratna'' style with laterite stone.
|-
|[[Radhabinod Temple]]
|
|[[File:Radhabinod temple of Bishnupur (50).jpg|100px]]
|1659
|Built by queen of Raghunath Singha I built the temple in brick.
|-
|[[Madan Gopal Temple]]
|
|[[File:Madan Gopal temple of Bishnupur in Bankura district. 01.jpg|100px]]
|1665
|A Pancharatna mandir built by Shiromani Devi, Queen of Veer Singha II.
|-
|[[Murali Mohan Temple|Muruli Mohan Temple]]
|
|[[File:Murali Mohan temple 03.jpg|100px]]
|1665
|Built by Shiromani Devi, Queen of Veer Singha II. It is an ''ekratna'' temple with floral designs and stucco works.
|-
|[[Radha Gobind Temple|Radha Govind Temple]]
|
|[[File:Radha-Gobinda Temple Arnab Dutta 2011.JPG|100px]]
|1729
|Built by Krishna Singha, son of Gopal Singha in ''ekratna'' style with laterite.
|-
|[[Radha Madhab Temple]]
|
|[[File:Radhamadhab Temple Arnab Dutta 2011.JPG|100px]]
|1737
|Built by the daughter-in-law of Mallaraj Gopal Singha, Churamoni Devi in ''ekratna'' style with brick and has bas relief carvings.
|-
|Chhinnamasta Temple
|[[Chhinnamasta]]
|[[File:Chinnamasta Temple Bishnupur.JPG|100px]]
|
|Built by the Guin family of Midnapore.
|-
|Sanreswar Temple
|[[Shiva|Lord Shiva]]
|[[File:Saileswar and Sareswar temple of Dihar in Bankura district (19).jpg|100px]]
|1346
|The temple is made of laterite stone, which possibly had a sikhara of the Nagara style presently missing.
|-
|[[Malleswar Temple]]
|
|[[File:Mallesvara temple of Bishnupur in Bankura district 05.jpg|100px]]
|1622
|Built by Mallaraj Bir Singha. It is an Ekratna temple built of laterite stone.
|-
|[[Mrinmoyee Temple|Mrinmayee Temple]]
|[[Durga|Maa Durga]]
|[[File:Mrinmoyee temple of Bishnupur in Bankura district 06.jpg|100px]][[File:Mrinmoyee temple of Bishnupur in Bankura district 01.jpg|100px]]
|Originally 997 CE
|Originally built by [[Jagat Malla]] in 997 CE. The Durga puja takes place for 15 days and all the other temples in Bishnupur does not start the puja until the cannon has been fired from the temple.
|-
|Krishna-Balaram Temple
|
|[[File:KRISHNA BALARAM DEUL TEMPLE BISHNUPUR WEST BENGAL 06.jpg|100px]]
|
|Deula style
|-
|Sarbamangala Temple
|
|
|
|
|-
|[[Jor Mandir]] (Twin Temples)
|
|[[File:Jor Mandir Complex.jpg|100px]]
|1726
|A complex of three temples known as the Jor Mandir. These temples were built by Malla King Krishna Singha in 1726.}
|}

==See also ==
*[[Mallabhum#Mallabhum temples|Mallabhum temples]]

== References ==

{{Reflist}}
==External links==
{{Commons category|Temples in Bishnupur, Bankura}}
{{Wikivoyage|Bishnupur (Rarh)}}
{{Hindu temples in West Bengal}}
{{Ancient-Medieval sites in Bengal}}

[[Category:Lists of Hindu temples in India|Bishnupur]]
[[Category:Mallabhum temples| ]]
[[Category:Hindu temples in West Bengal|Bishnupur]]
[[Category:Krishna temples|Bishnupur]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Bankura district|Hindu temples]]
[[Category:Lists of buildings and structures in West Bengal|Temples in Bishnupur]]
[[Category:Lists of tourist attractions in West Bengal]]
[[Category:Temples in Bishnupur, Bankura]]

Prasanna Venkata Dasa

2025-11-27T09:49:03Z

Husayn: starting some article nd citations - done

{{Short description|Hindu scholar and saint}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2025}}
{{Infobox Hindu leader
|name = Prasanna Venkata Dasa
|religion=[[Hinduism]]
|image =
|caption =
|image_size =
|birth_name = Venkanna
|birth_date = 1680 CE
|birth_place = [[Bagalkot]], [[Karnataka]])
|death_date = 1752 CE
|death_place = Present day [[Karnataka]], India
|guru =
|origin =
|occupation = Saint, Poet, philosopher, composer
|father =
|mother =
|spouse =
|years_active =
}}

{{DvaitaInfobox}}

'''Prasanna Venkata Dasa''' (Kannada: ಪ್ರಸನ್ನ ವೆಂಕಟ ದಾಸ; c. 1680 – c. 1752) was a revered saint, poet, and philosopher of the [[Haridasa|Haridasa movement]] in Karnataka during the 18th century. He belonged to the [[Dvaita Vedanta]] tradition founded by [[Madhvacharya]], and through his devotional works, he became one of the most influential figures in the spread of Madhva philosophy across South India.<ref>{{cite book|title=Karnataka Through the Ages:From Prehistoric Times to the Day of the Independence of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4L61AAAAIAAJ|page=871|publisher=Literary and Cultural Development Department] Government of Mysore|year=1968}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Vijaynagar Visions – Religious Experience and Cultural Creativity in a South Indian Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BP5jAAAAMAAJ|page=225|author=William J. Jackson|year=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780195683202}}</ref>

Prasanna Venkata Dasa was born in a [[Kannada]] [[Deshastha Madhva Brahmin]] family as Venkanna in 1680 in Bagalkot. He was a contemporary of other prominent Haridasa saints such as [[Vijaya Dasa]], [[Gopala Dasa]], and [[Jagannatha Dasa (Odia poet)|Jagannatha Dasa]], with whom he collectively shaped the devotional, cultural, and philosophical landscape of Karnataka. These saints emphasized the [[Bhakti|bhakti mārga]] (path of devotion), making spiritual knowledge accessible to common people through simple yet profound devaranamas (devotional songs in Kannada).<ref>{{cite book|title=A Comparative Study of Śaraṇa and Dāsa Literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yv4XAAAAIAAJ|author=P. S. Srinivasa|publisher=University of Madras|year=1981|page=44}}</ref>

Prasanna Venkata Dasa composed songs under the pen name (ankita) “Prasanna Venkata Vithala”, which was given by Lord [[Venkateshwara]] himself at [[Tirumala]]. His writings include "[[kīrtana]]s" (hymns of praise), "sulādis" (structured musical compositions), "[[ugābhoga]]s" (introductory free-flowing songs), and "padas" (lyrical poems). These songs were designed to be easy to sing and remember, often accompanied by musical instruments, thereby reaching a wide audience including those without formal education.<ref>{{cite book|title=Karnataka Through the Ages:From Prehistoric Times to the Day of the Independence of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4L61AAAAIAAJ|page=871|publisher=Literary and Cultural Development Department] Government of Mysore|year=1968}}</ref>

Thematically, his compositions focus on the supremacy of [[Vishnu]] as the ultimate reality, the ideals of [[bhakti]] (devotion), [[vairāgya]] (detachment from worldly desires), and righteous living and spiritual truths of Dvaita Vedānta expressed in simple Kannada, making complex philosophy accessible to the masses.<ref>{{cite book|title=My Contribution to Indology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kLhGAAAAMAAJ|page=14|author=Raghavendra Swamirayacharya Panchamukhi|year=1969|publisher=Karnatak Historical Research Society}}</ref>

Beyond his spiritual and philosophical content, his works had a deep impact on the development of [[Carnatic music]]. Prasanna Venkata Dasa, enriched the [[bhakti]] music tradition with melodies and lyrical forms that continue to be sung in devotional and classical music settings. Together with his contemporaries, Prasanna Venkata Dasa played a crucial role in cementing the [[Haridasa]] literary and musical legacy, which remains a cornerstone of Kannada Vaishnava devotional literature. His life and works exemplify the fusion of scholarship, devotion, and musical creativity in service of spreading [[Madhva philosophy]] and devotion to Lord [[Vishnu]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Vijaynagar Visions – Religious Experience and Cultural Creativity in a South Indian Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BP5jAAAAMAAJ|page=223|author=William J. Jackson|year=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780195683202}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Madhva Religious Figures}}

{{Karnataka topics}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Dasa, Prasanna Venkata}}
[[Category:18th-century Indian philosophers]]
[[Category:Madhva religious leaders]]
[[Category:Dvaita Vedanta]]
[[Category:Carnatic musicians]]
[[Category:Scholars from Karnataka]]
[[Category:Haridasa]]
[[Category:1680 births]]
[[Category:1752 deaths]]
[[Category:Dvaitin philosophers]]
[[Category:Bhakti movement]]
[[Category:People from Raichur district]]
[[Category:Musicians from Karnataka]]
[[Category:18th-century Indian male musicians]]
[[Category:18th-century Indian male writers]]

Attur, Somwarpet

2025-11-08T20:45:05Z

Husayn: started the entry first draft

{{other uses|Attur (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2018}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Attur Nallur
| native_name = Attur Forest
| native_name_lang =
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = village
| image_skyline = Kodagu in Karnataka (India).svg
| image_alt =
| image_caption = Atthur, Somwarpet is in Kodagu district
| pushpin_map = 
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Karnataka, India
| coordinates =
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Karnataka]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Kodagu]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| parts_type = [[Taluka]]s
| parts = [[Somwarpet]]
| government_type =
| governing_body = Village Panchayat
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total =
| population_as_of = 2001
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Kannada]], [[Kodava language|Kodava]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 571237
| registration_plate = KA-12
| blank1_name_sec1 = Nearest city
| blank1_info_sec1 = [[Madikeri]]
| blank2_name_sec1 = Civic agency
| blank2_info_sec1 = Village Panchayat
| website =
| footnotes =
}}

'''Attur Nallur''' is a small village in [[Somwarpet]] Taluk in [[Kodagu District]] of [[Karnataka]] State, [[India]]. It comes under Attur Nallur Panchayath. It belongs to Mysore Division. It is located 12 km to the east of District headquarters Madikeri. 28 km from [[Somvarpet]] and 234 km from state capital [[Bangalore]].

Kedakal (5km), Nanjarayapatna (6km), Valnur Thyagathur (8km), Kadagadalu (8km), Ibnivalvadi (9km) are the nearby villages to Attur Nallur. Attur Nallur is surrounded by Somvarpet Taluk towards North, [[Piriyapatna]] Taluk towards East, [[Virajpet]] Taluk towards South and [[Arkalgud]] Taluk towards north.

Madikeri, [[Sakleshpur]], [[Mangalore]], Mattannur and Taliparamba are the nearby cities to Attur Nallur.<ref name="Digital">{{cite web|url=http://nlrmp.nic.in/faces/masterReport/mastervillageReport.xhtml?distcodefromdistform=582|title=Digital India Land Records Modernization Programme - MIS 2.0|work=MoRD|accessdate=2017-10-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107030700/http://nlrmp.nic.in/faces/masterReport/mastervillageReport.xhtml?distcodefromdistform=582|archive-date=7 November 2017|url-status=dead}}Atthur</ref>

It is located in the [[Somwarpet]] [[taluk]] of [[Kodagu district]] in Karnataka.

==Schools==
* Jnanaganga Residential School<ref name="Jnanaganga">{{cite web|url=http://questionpaper.in/School5839-JNANAGANGA-RESIDENTIAL-SCHOOL-PANCHAVATI-ATTUR-HARANGI-REHEBILITION-AREA-HARANGI-POST-NEAR-KUSHALNAGAR-SOMAWARAPET-TQ-KUSHALI-NAGAR-KODAGU.aspx|accessdate=2017-10-31 |title=JNANAGANGA RESIDENTIAL SCHOOL}}questionpaper.in</ref>

==See also==
* [[Kodagu]]
* [[Districts of Karnataka]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* http://Kodagu.nic.in/

{{Settlements in Kodagu district}}

{{coord missing|Karnataka}}

[[Category:Villages in Kodagu district]]

{{Kodagu-geo-stub}}

Sources of Indo-Greek history

2025-10-26T10:44:10Z

Husayn: added new post

{{Indo-Greek articles}}
The '''sources''' which are used to reconstruct the history of the '''[[Indo-Greeks]]''' are few and disparate, leading to much uncertainty about the precise state of the Indo-Greek kingdom and its chronology. Sources related to the Indo-Greeks can be classified into various categories: ancient literary sources from both the West and the [[Indian subcontinent|Indian world]], archaeological sources from the general area of present day [[Pakistan]], [[Kashmir]] and North Indian states of [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], [[Haryana]], [[Himachal Pradesh]], [[Uttar Pradesh]] & [[Bihar]], and numismatical sources, which are abundant and well-preserved but often rather cryptic.

==Literary sources==

===Western literary sources===
Some narrative history has survived for most of the Hellenistic world, at least of the kings and the wars;<ref>See [[Polybius]], [[Arrian]], [[Livy]], [[Cassius Dio]], and [[Diodorus]]. Justin, who will be discussed shortly, provides a summary of the histories of Hellenistic Macedonia, Egypt, Asia, and Parthia.</ref> this is lacking for India. The main Greco-Roman source on the Indo-Greeks is [[Justin (historian)|Justin]], who wrote an anthology drawn from the Roman historian [[Pompeius Trogus]], who in turn wrote, from Greek sources, at the time of [[Augustus Caesar]].<ref>For the date of Trogus, see the ''OCD'' on "Trogus" and Yardley/Develin, p. 2; since Trogus' father was in charge of [[Julius Caesar]]'s diplomatic missions before the history was written (Justin 43.5.11), Senior's date in the following quotation is a ''[[terminus post quem]]'': "The Western sources for accounts of Bactrian and Indo-Greek history are: Polybius, a Greek born c.200 BC; Strabo, a Roman who drew on the lost history of Apollodoros of Artemita (c.130-87 BC), and Justin, who drew on Trogus, a post 87 BC writer", Senior, ''Indo-Scythian coins IV'', p.x; the extent to which Strabo is citing Apollodorus is disputed, beyond the three places he names Apollodorus (and he may have those through Eratosthenes). Polybius speaks of Bactria, not of India.</ref> Justin tells the parts of Trogus' history he finds particularly interesting at some length; he connects them by short and simplified summaries of the rest of the material. In the process he has left 85% to 90% of Trogus out; and his summaries are held together by phrases like "meanwhile" (''eodem tempore'') and "thereafter" (''deinde''), which he uses very loosely. Where Justin covers periods for which there are other and better sources, he has occasionally made provable mistakes. As Tarn and Develin both point out, Justin is not trying to write history in our sense of the word; he is collecting instructive moral anecdotes.<ref>Justin, ''Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus'' translated by J. C. Yardley, notes and introduction by Robert Develin. (Atlanta 1994). The source for these paragraphs, and the next insofar as it is not Justin, is the Introduction pp. 1-11. See also Tarn (1951) p.50.</ref> Justin does find the customs and growth of the [[Parthia]]ns, which were covered in Trogus' 41st book, quite interesting, and discusses them at length; in the process, he mentions four of the kings of Bactria and one Greek king of India, getting the names of two of them wrong.<ref>Justin, 41.4.5, 41.4.8-9, 41.6.1-5, ''ed. cit.''; Diodotus I and II, whom Justin calls Theodotus; Eucratides and his unnamed parricidal son; and "Demetrius, king of the Indians" (so Yardley: ''Indorum rex'', Develin's note implies this is Demetrius II, but suggests that Demetrius I and II may be the same person.) Theodotus, while unquestionably Justin's text, is an error; no coins support his existence, and Trogus' tables of contents (the so-called prologues) survive (Develin and Yardley, p.284) saying Diodotus; they also include ''Indicae quoque res additae, gestae per Apollodotum et Menandrum, reges eorum'' "some Indian matters, namely the achievements of the Indian kings, Apollodotus and Menander.", although Justin does not mention Apollodotus. Tarn, Narain, and Bopearchchi all correct to Diodotus.</ref>

[[File:MenanderCoin.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Menander I]] (155-130 BCE) is one of the few Indo-Greek kings mentioned in both Graeco-Roman and Indian sources.]]
In addition to these dozen sentences, the geographer [[Strabo]] mentions India a few times in the course of his long dispute with [[Eratosthenes]] about the shape of Eurasia. Most of these are purely geographical claims, but he does mention that Eratosthenes' sources say that some of the Greek kings conquered further than Alexander; Strabo does not believe them on this, but modern historians do; nor does he believe that [[Menander I|Menander]] and Demetrius son of Euthydemus conquered more tribes than Alexander<ref>Strabo, ''Geographia'' 11.11.1 p.516 ''Casaubon''. 15.1.2, p. 686 ''Casaubon'', "tribes" is Jones' version of ''ethne'' (Loeb)</ref> There is half a story about Bactria (only) in one of the books of [[Polybius]] which has not come down to us intact.<ref>For a list of classical testimonia, see Tarn's Index II; but this covers India, Bactria, and several sources for the Hellenistic East as a whole.</ref>

In the 1st century BCE, the geographer [[Isidorus of Charax]] mentions [[Parthian Empire|Parthians]] ruling over Greek populations and cities in [[Arachosia]]: "Beyond is Arachosia. And the Parthians call this White India; there are the city of Biyt and the city of Pharsana and the city of Chorochoad and the city of Demetrias; then Alexandropolis, the metropolis of Arachosia; it is Greek, and by it flows the river Arachotus. As far as this place the land is under the rule of the Parthians."<ref>"Parthians stations", 1st century BCE. Mentioned in Bopearachchi, "Monnaies Greco-Bactriennes et Indo-Grecques", p52. Original text in paragraph 19 of [http://www.parthia.com/parthian_stations.htm#PARTHIAN_STATIONS Parthian stations]</ref>

According to [[Strabo]], Greek advances temporarily went as far as the Shunga capital [[Pataliputra]] (today [[Patna, India|Patna]]) in eastern India:
{{quote|"Of the eastern parts of India, then, there have become known to us all those parts which lie this side of the [[Beas River|Hypanis]], and also any parts beyond the Hypanis of which an account has been added by those who, after Alexander, advanced beyond the Hypanis, to the [[Ganges]] and [[Pataliputra]]."|[[Strabo]], 15-1-27<ref>The word for "advance" is προελθοντες, literally "go forward", which can mean a military expedition. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0239&query=head%3D%23118 Strabo 15-1-27]; see [[LSJ]], προερχομαι. This has also been explained as the reports of emissaries, such as [[Megasthenes]].</ref>}}

[[File:Mappa di Eratostene.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The Hellenistic world view just before the Indo-Greek conquests. India appears fully formed, with the [[Ganges]] and Palibothra ([[Pataliputra]]) in the east. (19th-century reconstruction of an [[ancient world map]] of [[Eratosthenes]] (276-194 BCE).<ref>[http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/Ancient%20Web%20Pages/112.html Source]</ref>)]]
The 1st century BCE Greek historian [[Apollodorus of Artemita|Apollodorus]], quoted by Strabo, affirms that the [[Greco-Bactrians|Bactrian Greeks]], led by [[Demetrius I of Bactria|Demetrius I]] and [[Menander I|Menander]], conquered India and occupied a larger territory than the Macedonian Greeks under [[Alexander the Great]], going beyond the [[Beas River|Hypanis]] towards the [[Himalayas]]:<ref>Strabo quoting Apollodorus on the extent of Greek conquests:
:* "Apollodorus, for instance, author of the Parthian History, when he mentions the Greeks who occasioned the revolt of Bactriana from the Syrian kings, who were the successors of [[Seleucus Nicator]], says, that when they became powerful they invaded India. He adds no discoveries to what was previously known, and even asserts, in contradiction to others, that the Bactrians had subjected to their dominion a larger portion of India than the Macedonians; for [[Eucratides]] (one of these kings) had a thousand cities subject to his authority." Strabo 15-1-3 [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0239&query=head%3D%23118 Full text]
:* "The Greeks who caused Bactria to revolt grew so powerful on account of the fertility of the country that they became masters, not only of Ariana, but also of India, as [[Apollodorus of Artemita]] says: and more tribes were subdued by them than by [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]] — by [[Menander I|Menander]] in particular (at least if he actually crossed the [[Beas River|Hypanis]] towards the east and advanced as far as the [[Imaus|Imaüs]]), for some were subdued by him personally and others by [[Demetrius I of Bactria|Demetrius]], the son of [[Euthydemus I|Euthydemus]] the king of the Bactrians." (Strabo 11.11.1 [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Strab.+11.11.1 Full text])
</ref>

{{quote|"The Greeks became masters of India and more tribes were subdued by them than by [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]] — by [[Menander I|Menander]] in particular, for some were subdued by him personally and others by [[Demetrius I of Bactria|Demetrius]], the son of [[Euthydemus I|Euthydemus]] the king of the Bactrians."|Apollodorus, quoted in Strabo 11.11.1<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Strab.+11.11.1 Strabo 11.11.1]</ref>}}

The Roman historian [[Junianus Justinus|Justin]] also mentioned the Indo-Greek conquests, describing [[Demetrius I of Bactria|Demetrius]] as "King of the Indians" ("''Regis Indorum''"), and explaining that after vanquishing him [[Eucratides]] in turn "put India under his rule" ("''Indiam in potestatem redegit''")<ref>Justin on Demetrius "King of the Indians": "Multa tamen Eucratides bella magna uirtute gessit, quibus adtritus cum obsidionem ''Demetrii, regis Indorum'', pateretur, cum CCC militibus LX milia hostium adsiduis eruptionibus uicit. Quinto itaque mense liberatus Indiam in potestatem redegit." ("Eucratides led many wars with great courage, and, while weakened by them, was put under siege by Demetrius, king of the Indians. He made numerous sorties, and managed to vanquish 60,000 enemies with 300 soldiers, and thus liberated after four months, he put India under his rule") {{usurped|1=[https://archive.today/20120527042512/http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/justin/texte41.html Justin XLI,6]}}</ref> (since the time of the embassies of [[Megasthenes]] in the 3rd century BCE "India" was understood as the entire subcontinent, and was cartographed by geographers such as [[Eratosthenes]]). Justin also mentions Apollodotus and Menander as kings of the Indians.<ref>"Indicae quoque res additae, gestae per Apollodotum et Menandrum, reges eorum": "Also included are the exploits in India by Apollodotus and Menander, their kings" Justin, quoted in E.Seldeslachts, p284</ref>

Greek and Indian sources tend to indicate that the Greeks campaigned as far as Pataliputra until they were forced to retreat following the coup staged by [[Eucratides]] back in Bactria circa 170 BCE, suggesting an occupation period of about eight years.<ref>"Pataliputra fut occupée par les forces coalisées Grecques pendant presque huit ans" ("Pataliputra was occupied by the Greek coalition for about eight years"), Mario Bussagli, "L'Art du Gandhara", p100</ref> Alternatively, Menander may merely have joined a raid led by Indian Kings down the [[Ganges River|Ganges]] (A.K. Narain and Keay 2000), as Indo-Greek territory has only been confirmed from the [[Kabul]] Valley to the [[Punjab region|Punjab]].

[[File:IndoGreekNeptune.JPG|thumb|250px|An Indo-Greek [[stone palette]] showing [[Poseidon]] with attendants. He wears a [[Chiton (costume)|chiton]] tunic, a [[chlamys]] cape, and boots. 2nd-1st century BCE, [[Gandhara]], [[Ancient Orient Museum]].]]
To the south, the Greeks occupied the areas of the [[Sindh]] and [[Gujarat]] down to the region of [[Surat District|Surat]] (Greek: ''[[Saraostus]]'') near [[Mumbai]] (Bombay), including the strategic harbour of Barygaza ([[Bharuch]]),<ref>"Menander became the ruler of a kingdom extending along the coast of western India, including the whole of [[Saraostus|Saurashtra]] and the harbour [[Bharuch|Barukaccha]]. His territory also included Mathura, the Punjab, Gandhara and the Kabul Valley", Bussagli p101)</ref> as attested by several writers (Strabo 11; Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Chap. 41/47{{Failed verification|date=January 2009}}) and as evidenced by coins dating from the Indo-Greek ruler [[King Apollodotus I|Apollodotus I]]:

{{quote|"The Greeks... took possession, not only of Patalene, but also, on the rest of the coast, of what is called the kingdom of [[Saraostus]] and [[Sigerdis]]." |Strabo 11.11.1<ref>Strabo on the extent of the conquests of the Greco-Bactrians/Indo-Greeks: "They took possession, not only of [[Patalene|Patalena]], but also, on the rest of the coast, of what is called the kingdom of [[Saraostus]] and [[Sigerdis]]. In short, Apollodorus says that Bactriana is the ornament of [[Ariana]] as a whole; and, more than that, they extended their empire even as far as the [[Serica|Seres]] and the [[Phryni]]." Strabo 11.11.1 ([https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Strab.+11.11.1 Strabo 11.11.1])</ref>}}

The 1st century CE [[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]] describes numerous Greek buildings and fortifications in [[Bharuch|Barigaza]], although mistakenly attributing them to Alexander, and testifies to the circulation of Indo-Greek coinage in the region:
{{quote|"The metropolis of this country is Minnagara, from which much cotton cloth is brought down to Barygaza. In these places there remain even to the present time signs of the expedition of Alexander, such as ancient shrines, walls of forts and great wells."|Periplus, Chap. 41}}
{{quote|"To the present day ancient drachmae are current in Barygaza, coming from this country, bearing inscriptions in Greek letters, and the devices of those who reigned after Alexander, Apollodorus (sic) and Menander."|Periplus Chap. 47<ref>[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/periplus.html Periplus]</ref>}}

From ancient authors (Pliny, Arrian, Ptolemy and Strabo), a list of provinces, satrapies, or simple regional designations, and Greek cities from within the Indo-Greek Kingdom can be discerned (though others have been lost), ranging from the Indus basin to the upper valley of the Ganges.<ref>Greek provinces in India according to Classical sources:
*[[Patalene]] - the whole [[Indus River Delta|Indus delta]] region, with an apparent capital in "Demetrias-in-Patalene;" presumably founded by Demetrius (Ptolemy, Geographia, VII 1, 55/ Strabo 11.11.1)
*[[Abiria]] - North of the Indus delta and apparently named for the Ahbira peoples, presumably in residence of the region. (Ptolemy, Geographia, VII 1, 55).
*Prasiane - North of Abiria and East of the main Indus channel. (Pliny, Natural history, VI 71)
*Surastrene - Southeast of Patalene, comprising the [[Kathiawar]] peninsula and parts of [[Gujarat]] to [[Bharuch]] (modern [[Saurashtra (region)|Saurashtra]] and [[Surat]]), with the city of "Theophila". (Ptolemy, Geographia, VII 1, 55/ Strabo 11.11.1/ [[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea|Periplus]], Chap.41–47).
*[[Sigerdis]] - a coastal region beyond Patalene and Surastrene, thought to correspond to [[Sindh]]. (Strabo 11.11.1)
*Souastene - subdivision of [[Gandhara]], comprising the [[Swat (Pakistan)|Swat Valley]] (Ptolemy, Geographia, VII 1, 42).
*Goryaea - smaller district located between the lower Swat river and the Kunar ([[Bajaur]]), with the city of "Nagara, also called Dionysopolis". (Ptolemy, Geographia, VII 1, 42).
*Peucelaitas - denotes the immediate district around [[Pushkalavati]] (Greek: Peucela). (Arrian, On India, IV 11)
*Kaspeiria - comprising the upper valleys of the [[Chenab River|Chenab]], [[Ravi River|Ravi]], and [[Jhelum River|Jhelum]] (ie, southern [[Kashmir]]). (Ptolemy, Geographia, VII 1, 42).
*Pandouorum - Region of the Punjab along the [[Hydaspes]] river, with the "city of Sagala, also called Euthydemia" and another city named "Bucephala" (Ptolemy, Geographia, VII 1), or "Bucephalus Alexandria" (Periplus, 47).
*[[Kulindrene]] - as related by Ptolemy, a region comprising the upper valleys of the [[Sutlej]], [[Yamuna River|Jumna]], [[Beas River|Beas]], and [[Ganges]]. This report may be inaccurate, and the contents of the region somewhat smaller. (Ptolemy, Geographia, VII 1, 42).</ref>

===Indian literary sources===
There are Indian literary sources, ranging from the [[Milinda Panha]], a dialogue between a Buddhist sage Nagasena and King [[Menander I]], which includes some incidental information on Menander's biography and the geography and institutions of his kingdom, down to a sentence about Menander (presumably the same Menander) and his attack on [[Pataliputra]] which happens to have survived as a standard example in grammar texts; none is a narrative history. Names in these sources are consistently Indianized, and there is some dispute whether, for example, ''Dharmamitra'' represents "Demetrius" or is an Indian prince with that name. There was also a Chinese expedition to Bactria by [[Chang-k'ien]] under the [[Emperor Wu of Han]], recorded in the [[Records of the Grand Historian]] and [[Book of the Former Han]], additional evidence is in the [[Book of the Later Han]]; the identification of places and peoples behind transcriptions into Chinese is difficult, and several alternate interpretations have been proposed.<ref>Tarn, App. 20; Narain (1957) pp. 136, 156 ''et alii''.</ref>

Various Indian records describe ''[[Yavana]]'' attacks on [[Mathura, Uttar Pradesh|Mathura]], [[Panchala]], [[Saketa]], and [[Pataliputra]]. The term ''Yavana'' is thought to be a transliteration of "Ionians" and is known to have designated Hellenistic Greeks (starting with the [[Edicts of Ashoka]], where [[Ashoka]] writes about "the ''Yavana'' king [[Antiochus II Theos|Antiochus]]"), but may have sometimes referred to other foreigners as well, especially in later centuries.

[[Patanjali]], a grammarian and commentator on [[Pāṇini]] around 150 BCE, describes in the ''[[Mahābhāṣya|Mahābhāsya]]'',<ref>"Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian coins in the Smithsonian institution", [[Bopearachchi]], p16.</ref> the invasion in two examples using the imperfect tense of [[Sanskrit]], denoting a recent event:
* "''Arunad Yavanah Sāketam''" ("The [[Yavana]]s (Greeks) were besieging Saketa")
* "''Arunad Yavano Madhyamikām''" ("The Yavanas were besieging Madhyamika" (the "Middle country")).

The ''[[Anushasanaparava]]'' of the [[Mahabharata]] affirms that the country of Mathura, the heartland of India, was under the joint control of the Yavanas and the [[Kambojas]].<ref>"tatha Yavana Kamboja Mathuram.abhitash cha ye./ ete ashava.yuddha.kushaladasinatyasi charminah."//5 — (MBH 12/105/5, Kumbhakonam Ed)</ref> The ''Vayupurana'' asserts that Mathura was ruled by seven Greek kings over a period of 82 years.<ref>"Asui dve ca varsani bhoktaro Yavana mahim/ Mathuram ca purim ramyam Yauna bhoksyanti sapta vai" Vayupurana 99.362 and 383, quoted by Morton Smith 1973: 370. Morton Smith thinks occupation lasted from 175 to 93 BCE.</ref>

Accounts of battles between the Greeks and the Shunga in Central India are also found in the ''[[Mālavikāgnimitram]]'', a play by [[Kālidāsa]] which describes an encounter between Greek forces and Vasumitra, the grandson of [[Pushyamitra]], during the latter's reign.<ref>"Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian coins in the Smithsonian institution", [[Bopearachchi]], p16. Also: "Kalidasa recounts in his Mālavikāgnimitra (5.15.14–24) that [[Pushyamitra Shunga|Puspamitra]] appointed his grandson Vasumitra to guard his sacrificial horse, which wandered on the right bank of the Sindhu river and was seized by Yavana cavalrymen- the later being thereafter defeated by Vasumitra. The "Sindhu" referred to in this context may refer the river [[Indus River|Indus]]: but such an extension of Shunga power seems unlikely, and it is more probable that it denotes one of two rivers in central India -either the Sindhu river which is a tributary of the [[Yamuna]], or the Kali-Sindhu river which is a tributary of the [[Chambal River|Chambal]]." The Yuga Purana, Mitchener, 2002.</ref>

Also the Brahmanical text of the ''[[Yuga Purana]]'', which describes Indian historical events in the form of a prophecy,<ref>"For any scholar engaged in the study of the presence of the Indo-Greeks or Indo-Scythians before the Christian Era, the ''Yuga Purana'' is an important source material" Dilip Coomer Ghose, General Secretary, [[Asiatic Society|The Asiatic Society]], [[Kolkata]], 2002</ref> relates the attack of the Indo-Greeks on the capital Pataliputra, a magnificent fortified city with 570 towers and 64 gates according to [[Megasthenes]],<ref>"The greatest city in India is that which is called Palimbothra, in the dominions of the Prasians [...] Megasthenes informs us that this city stretched in the inhabited quarters to an extreme length on each side of eighty stadia, and that its breadth was fifteen stadia, and that a ditch encompassed it all round, which was six hundred feet in breadth and thirty cubits in depth, and that the wall was crowned with 570 towers and had four-and-sixty gates." Arr. Ind. 10. "Of Pataliputra and the Manners of the Indians.", quoting Megasthenes [http://www.mssu.edu/projectsouthasia/history/primarydocs/Foreign_Views/GreekRoman/Megasthenes-Indika.htm Text] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081210080315/http://www.mssu.edu/projectsouthasia/history/primarydocs/Foreign_Views/GreekRoman/Megasthenes-Indika.htm |date=2008-12-10 }}</ref> and describes the ultimate destruction of the city's walls:
{{quote|"Then, after having approached [[Saketa]] together with the [[Panchala]]s and the [[Mathura, Uttar Pradesh|Mathura]]s, the Yavanas, valiant in battle, will reach Kusumadhvaja ("The town of the flower-standard", [[Pataliputra]]). Then, once Puspapura (another name of Pataliputra) has been reached and its celebrated mud[-walls] cast down, all the realm will be in disorder."|''Yuga Purana'', Paragraph 47–48, 2002 edition.}}

According to the Yuga Purana a situation of complete social disorder follows, in which the Yavanas rule and mingle with the people, and the position of the [[Brahmin]]s and the [[Shudra|Sudra]]s is inverted:
{{quote|"[[Shudra|Sudra]]s will also be utterers of ''bho'' (a form of address used towards an equal or inferior), and Brahmins will be utterers of ''arya'' (a form of address used towards a superior), and the elders, most fearful of [[dharma]], will fearlessly exploit the people. And in the city the Yavanas, the princes, will make this people acquainted with them: but the Yavanas, infatuated by war, will not remain in Madhyadesa."|''Yuga Purana'', Paragraph 55–56, 2002 edition.}}

==Archaeological sources==
There is also significant archaeological evidence, including some epigraphic evidence, for the Indo-Greek kings, such as the mention of the "Yavana" embassy of king [[Antialcidas]] on the [[Heliodorus pillar]] in Vidisha,<ref>"The Besnagar Garuda pillar inscription witnesses to the presence of the Yavana Heliodorus son of Dion in Vidisa as an envoy from Taxila of king Antialkidas around 140 BC", Mitchener, ''The Yuga Purana'', p.64</ref> primarily in Indic languages, which has the same problems with names as the Indic literary evidence.

===Urban remains===
The city of [[Sirkap]], today in northwestern Pakistan near [[Taxila]], was built according to the "Hippodamian" grid-plan characteristic of Greek cities, and was a Hellenistic fortress of considerable proportions, with a 6,000 meter wall on the circumference, of a height of about 10 meters. The houses of the Indo-Greek level are "the best planned of all the six strata, and the rubble masonry of which its walls are built is also the most solid and compact".<ref>Marshall, "Sirkap Archeological Report", p 15–16</ref> It is thought that the city was built by Demetrius.

===Artifacts===
[[File:IndoGreekArtifactsDrawings.JPG|thumb|250px|Main archaeological artifacts from the Indo-Greek strata at [[Taxila]]. Source: [[John Marshall (archaeologist)|John Marshall]] "Taxila, Archaeological excavations".]]
Several Hellenistic artifacts have been found, in particular coins of Indo-Greek kings, stone palettes representing Greek mythological scenes, and small statuettes. Some of them are purely Hellenistic, others indicate an evolution of the [[Greco-Bactrian]] styles found at [[Ai-Khanoum]] towards more indianized styles.
For example, accessories such as Indian ankle bracelets can be found on some representations of Greek mythological figures such as [[Artemis]].

The excavations of the Greek levels at Sirkap were however very limited and made in peripheral areas, out of respect for the more recent archaeological strata (those of the [[Indo-Scythian]] and especially [[Indo-Parthian]] levels) and the remaining religious buildings, and due to the difficulty of excavating extensively to a depth of about 6 meters. The results, although interesting, are partial and cannot be considered as exhaustive.<ref>The excavations by [[John Marshall (archaeologist)|John Marshall]] at [[Taxila]] are the only significant excavations ever done, but only a small and peripheral portion of the city of [[Sirkap]] has been excavated to the Greek level ("The chief area in which digging has been carried down to the Greek strata is a little to the West of the main street near the northern gateway (...) Had it been practicable, I should have preferred to choose an area nearer to the city's center, where more interesting structures may be expected than in the outlying quarters near the city wall" ("Taxila", p 120). Overall, the Greek excavations only represented a small part of the excavations: "And let me say that seven-eighths of the digging in this area has been devoted to Saka-Parthian structures of the second stratum; one-eight only to the earlier Saka and Greek remains below" ("Taxila", p 119)</ref> Beyond this, no extensive archaeological excavation of an Indo-Greek city has ever really been done.

Quantities of Hellenistic artifacts and ceramics can also be found throughout Northern India.<ref>Narain "The Indo-Greeks"</ref> Clay seals depicting Greek deities, and the depiction of an Indo-Greek king thought to be Demetrius, were found at [[Benares]].<ref>"An ancient reference to Menander's invasion", ''The Indian Historical Quarterly XXIX/1'' Agrawala 1953, p 180–182.</ref>

===Stupas===
[[File:Indo-GreekStupa3.jpg|thumb|400px|Evolution of the [[Butkara stupa]] ([[Swat (Pakistan)|Swat]]) during the Indo-Greek period.<ref>Reference: Domenico Faccenna, "Butkara I, Swat Pakistan, 1956–1962), Part I, IsMEO, ROME 1980.</ref>]]
[[File:SirkapStupaAcanthus1stCenturyBCE.jpg|thumb|180px|Stupa decorated with [[acanthus (ornament)|acanthus]] leaves, Level III, [[Sirkap]], 1st century BCE. Diameter: 2.5 meters.<ref>Marshall, "Taxila", p.120</ref>]]
When the Indo-Greeks settled in the area of Taxila, large Buddhist structures were already present, such as the stupa of [[Dharmarajika]] built by [[Ashoka]] in the 3rd century BCE. These structures were reinforced in the following centuries, by building rings of smaller stupas and constructions around the original ones. Numerous coins of the Indo-Greek king [[Zoilos II]] were found under the foundation of a 1st-century BCE rectangular chapel near the Dharmarajika stupa.<ref>Chapel H, about 50 meters near the Dharmarajika stupa, in Marshall, "Excavations at Taxila", "The only minor antiquities of interest found in this building were twenty-five debased silver coins of the Greek king Zoilus II, which were brought to light beneath the foundations of the earliest chapel", p248</ref>

Also, various Buddhist structures, such as the [[Butkara Stupa]] in the area of [[Swat (Pakistan)|Swat]] were enlarged and decorated with Hellenistic architectural elements in the 2nd century BCE, especially during the rule of [[Menander I|Menander]].<ref>"From Butkara I we know that building activities never ceased. The stupa was enlarged in a second phase under Menander, and again when the coins of Azes II were in circulation." Harry Falk "Afghanistan, ancien carrefour entre l'Est et l'Ouest", p.347. "The diffusion, from the second century BCE, of Hellenistic influences in the architecture of Swat is also attested by the archaeological searches at the sanctuary of Butkara I, which saw its stupa "monumentalized" at that exact time by basal elements and decorative alcoves derived from Hellenistic architecture", in "De l'Indus a l'Oxus: archaeologie de l'Asie Centrale" 2003, Pierfrancesco Callieri, p212</ref> Stupas were just round mounds when the Indo-Greeks settled in India, possibly with some top decorations, but soon they added various structural and decorative elements, such as reinforcement belts, niches, architectural decorations such as [[plinth]]es, [[torus]]es and [[cavetto]]s, plaster painted with decorative scrolls. The niches were probably designed to place statues or friezes, an indication of early Buddhist descriptive art during the time of the Indo-Greeks.<ref>"They were intended to hold a figured panel, relief-work, or something of the kind" Domenico Facenna, "Butkara I"</ref> Coins of [[Menander I|Menander]] were found within these constructions dating them to around 150 BCE. By the end of Indo-Greek rule and during the [[Indo-Scythian]] period (1st century BCE), stupas were highly decorated with colonnaded flights of stairs and Hellenistic scrolls of [[Acanthus (ornament)|Acanthus]] leaves.

==Numismatical sources==
One of the key pieces of archaeological evidence about the Indo-Greeks is the coins. There are coin finds of several dozen Indo-Greek rulers in India; exactly how many is complicated to determine, because the Greeks did not number their kings, and the eastern Greeks did not date their coins. For example, there are a substantial number of coin finds for a King Demetrius, but authors have postulated one, two, or three Demetrii, and the same coins have been identified by different enquirers as describing Demetrius I, Demetrius II, or Demetrius III.<ref>Tarn and Narain postulate two Demetrii; the former thinks the ''Demetrius Anicetus'' coins describe Demetrius I, although actually made by Demetrius II; the latter that they are entirely by Demetrius II, and have nothing to do with Demetrius I. Bopearachchi ascribes one more recent find to Agathocles, but depicting Demetrius I; he postulates a much later Demetrius III for the previously known coins; this result is now fairly widely accepted by numismatists. The possibility of one Demetrius is attested by Develin and ''Brill's New Pauly'', "Demetrius [4]"</ref> The following deductions have been made from coins, in addition to mere existence:
*Kings who left many coins reigned long and prosperously.
*Hoards which contain many coins of the same king come from his realm.
*Kings who use the same iconography are friendly, and may well be from the same family,
*If a king overstrikes another king's coins, this is an important evidence to show that the overstriker reigned after the overstruck. Overstrikes may indicate that the two kings were enemies.
*Indo-Greek coins, like other Hellenistic coins, have monograms in addition to their inscriptions. These are generally held to indicate a mint official; therefore, if two kings issue coins with the same monogram, they reigned in the same area, and if not immediately following one another, have no long interval between them.
All of these arguments are arguments of probability, and have exceptions; one of Menander's coins was found in Wales.

{{Indo-Greek kings}}

==See also==
{{Portal|History}}
*[[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom]]
*[[Seleucid Empire]]
*[[Greco-Buddhism]]
*[[Indo-Scythians]]
*[[Indo-Parthian Kingdom]]
*[[Kushan Empire]]
*[[Roman commerce]]
*[[Timeline of Indo-Greek Kingdoms]]

==Footnotes==

{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book
| last = Avari
| first = Burjor
| title = India: The ancient past. A history of the Indian sub-continent from c. 7000 BC to AD 1200
| year = 2007
| publisher = Routledge
| isbn = 978-0415356169
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Banerjee
| first = Gauranga Nath
| title = Hellenism in ancient India
| year = 1961
| publisher = Munshi Ram Manohar Lal.
| location = Delhi
| id = OCLC 1837954
| isbn = 0-8364-2910-9
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Boardman
| first = John
| title = The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity
| year = 1994
| publisher = Princeton University Press
| location = Princeton, New Jersey
| isbn = 0-691-03680-2
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Bopearachchi
| first = Osmund
| author-link = Bopearachchi
| title = Monnaies Gréco-Bactriennes et Indo-Grecques, Catalogue Raisonné
| year = 1991
| language = fr
| publisher = Bibliothèque Nationale de France
| isbn = 2-7177-1825-7
}}[[File:Front page of Monnaies Greco-Bactriennes et Indo-Grecques by Osmund Bopearachchi.jpg|20px]]
*{{cite book
| last = Bopearachchi
| first = Osmund
| author-link = Bopearachchi
| title = SNG 9
| year = 1998
| publisher = American Numismatic Society
| location = New York
| isbn = 0-89722-273-3
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Bopearachchi
| first = Osmund
| author-link = Bopearachchi
| title = De l'Indus à l'Oxus, Archéologie de l'Asie Centrale
| year = 2003
| publisher = Association imago-musée de Lattes
| location = Lattes
| language = fr
| isbn = 2-9516679-2-2
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Bopearachchi
| first = Osmund
| author-link = Bopearachchi
| title = Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian coins in the Smithsonian Institution
| year = 1993
| publisher = National Numismatic Collection, [[Smithsonian Institution]]
| location = Washington
| id = OCLC 36240864
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Bussagli
| first = Mario
|author2=Francine Tissot |author3=Béatrice Arnal
| title = L'art du Gandhara
| year = 1996
| publisher = Librairie générale française
| location = Paris
| language = fr
| isbn = 2-253-13055-9
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Cambon
| first = Pierre
| title = Afghanistan, les trésors retrouvés
| year = 2007
| language = fr
| publisher = [[Musée Guimet]]
| isbn = 9782711852185
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Errington
| first = Elizabeth
|author2=Joe Cribb |author3=Maggie Claringbull |author4=Ancient India |author5=Iran Trust |author6=Fitzwilliam Museum
| title = The Crossroads of Asia : transformation in image and symbol in the art of ancient Afghanistan and Pakistan
| year = 1992
| publisher = [[Ancient India and Iran Trust]]
| location = Cambridge
| isbn = 0-9518399-1-8
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Faccenna
| first = Domenico
| title = Butkara I (Swāt, Pakistan) 1956–1962, Volume III 1
| year = 1980
| publisher = IsMEO (Istituto Italiano Per Il Medio Ed Estremo Oriente)
| location = Rome
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Foltz
| first = Richard
| author-link = Richard Foltz
| title = Religions of the Silk Road : overland trade and cultural exchange from antiquity to the fifteenth century
| year = 2000
| publisher = St. Martin's Griffin
| location = New York
| isbn = 0-312-23338-8
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Keown
| first = Damien
| title = A Dictionary of Buddhism
| year = 2003
| publisher = [[Oxford University Press]]
| location = New York
| isbn = 0-19-860560-9
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Lowenstein
| first = Tom
| title = The vision of the Buddha : Buddhism, the path to spiritual enlightenment
| year = 2002
| publisher = Duncan Baird
| location = London
| isbn = 1-903296-91-9
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Marshall
| first = Sir John Hubert
| author-link = John Marshall (archaeologist)
| title = The Buddhist art of Gandhara : the story of the early school, its birth, growth, and decline
| year = 2000
| publisher = Munshiram Manoharlal
| location = New Delhi
| isbn = 81-215-0967-X
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Marshall
| first = John
| author-link = John Marshall (archaeologist)
| title = Taxila. An illustrated account of archaeological excavations carried out at Taxila (3 volumes)
| year = 1956
| publisher = Motilal Banarsidass
| location = Delhi
}}
*{{cite book
| last = McEvilley
| first = Thomas
| title = [[The Shape of Ancient Thought|The Shape of Ancient Thought. Comparative studies in Greek and Indian Philosophies]]
| year = 2002
| publisher = Allworth Press and the School of Visual Arts
| isbn = 1-58115-203-5
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Mitchiner
| first = John E.
|author2=Garga
| title = The Yuga Purana : critically edited, with an English translation and a detailed introduction
| year = 1986
| publisher = Asiatic Society
| location = Calcutta, India
| id = OCLC 15211914
| isbn = 81-7236-124-6
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Narain
| first = A.K.
| author-link = Narain
| title = The Indo-Greeks
| url = https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.6278
| year = 1957
| publisher = Clarendon Press
| location = Oxford
}}
**reprinted by Oxford, 1962, 1967, 1980; reissued (2003), "revised and supplemented", by B. R. Publishing Corporation, New Delhi.
*{{cite book
| last = Narain
| first = A.K.
| author-link = Narain
| title = The coin types of the Indo-Greeks kings
| year = 1976
| publisher = Ares Publishing
| location = Chicago, USA
| isbn = 0-89005-109-7
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Puri
| first = Baij Nath
| title = Buddhism in Central Asia
| year = 2000
| publisher = Motilal Banarsidass
| location = Delhi
| isbn = 81-208-0372-8
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Rosenfield
| first = John
| title = The Dynastic art of the Kushans
| year = 1967
| publisher = University of California Press
| location = Berkeley, California
| isbn = 978-0520010918
}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Salomon |first1=Richard |title=The "Avaca" Inscription and the Origin of the Vikrama Era |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |date=1982 |volume=102 |issue=1 |pages=59–68 |doi=10.2307/601111 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/601111 |issn=0003-0279|url-access=subscription }}
*{{cite book
| last = Seldeslachts
| first = E.
| title = The end of the road for the Indo-Greeks?
| year = 2003
| publisher = Iranica Antica, Vol XXXIX, 2004
| location =
}} (Also available [http://poj.peeters-leuven.be/content.php?url=issue&journal_code=IA&issue=0&vol=39 online])
*{{cite book
| last = Senior
| first = R.C.
| title = Indo-Scythian coins and history. Volume IV.
| year = 2006
| publisher = Classical Numismatic Group, Inc.
| isbn = 0-9709268-6-3
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Tarn
| first = W. W.
| author-link = William Woodthorpe Tarn
| title = The Greeks in Bactria and India
| url = https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.73340
| year = 1938
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
}}
**Second edition, with addenda and corrigenda, (1951). Reissued, with updating preface by Frank Lee Holt (1985), Ares Press, Chicago {{ISBN|0-89005-524-6}}
*{{cite book
| title = Afghanistan, ancien carrefour entre l'est et l'ouest
| year = 2005
| language = fr, en
| publisher = Brepols
| location = Belgium
| isbn = 2503516815
| author = éd. par Osmund Bopearachchi ...
}}
*{{cite book
| last = 東京国立博物館 (Tokyo Kokuritsu Hakubutsukan); 兵庫県立美術館 (Hyogo Kenritsu Bijutsukan)
| title = Alexander the Great : East-West cultural contacts from Greece to Japan
| year = 2003
| publisher = 東京国立博物館 (Tokyo Kokuritsu Hakubutsukan)
| location = Tokyo
| id = OCLC 53886263
}}
{{refend}}
{{Middle kingdoms of India}}

==External links==
{{Commons category multi|Indo-Greeks|Coins of the Indo-Greeks}}
*[http://www.sparta.markoulakispublications.org.uk/index.php?id=100 News story of the latest archaeological discovery of artefacts dated back to Indo-Greek period]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20041205012100/http://www.med.unc.edu/~nupam/greek1.html Indo-Greek history and coins]
*[http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/greece/baktria/i.html Ancient coinage of the Greco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek kingdoms]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070610192252/http://www.gengo.l.u-tokyo.ac.jp/~hkum/bactrian.html Text of Prof. Nicholas Sims-Williams (University of London) mentioning the arrival of the Kushans and the replacement of Greek Language.]
*[http://www.dbaol.com/armies/army_50_figure_1.htm Wargame reconstitution of Indo-Greek armies]
*[https://groups.yahoo.com/group/Hellenistica/files/ Files dealing with Indo-Greeks & a genealogy of the Bactrian kings]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Indo-Greeks (Sources)}}
[[Category:Indo-Greeks|Sources]]

Puntius nangalensis

2025-10-03T21:00:27Z

Husayn: starting basic pg more to come

{{Short description|Species of fish}}
{{Speciesbox
| status = EN
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name = iucn>{{cite iucn |author=Dahanukar, N. |year=2023 |title=Puntius nangalensis |article-number=e.T201960A2731389 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2023-1.RLTS.T201960A2731389.en |access-date=13 January 2025}}</ref>
| taxon = Puntius nangalensis
| display_parents = 3
| authority = [[Kottore Chidambaram Jayaram|Jayaram]], 1990<ref name=FishBase>{{FishBase |genus=Puntius |species=nangalensis |month=April |year=2015}}</ref>
}}

'''''Puntius nangalensis''''' is a species of [[cyprinid]] fish [[endemic]] to [[India]]. It inhabits littoral areas of lakes.<ref name=FishBase/>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q1103831}}

[[Category:Puntius|nangalensis]]
[[Category:Freshwater fish of India]]
[[Category:Endemic fauna of India]]
[[Category:Fish described in 1990]]

{{puntius-stub}}

Indian Public Schools' Conference

2025-09-21T02:35:00Z

Husayn: basic improved structure for consistency

'''Indian Public Schools Conference''' was established in 1939. The Indian Public Schools are an independent and private institutions of [[secondary education]]. Top notch boarding and day-cum boarding and the [[Sainik school|Sainik]] and [[Military school|Military Schools]] form part of this school conference.<ref>{{cite web|title=IPSC Today|url=http://www.ipsc.co.in/IPSC_Pages/ipscToday.aspx|website=www.ipsc.co.in|accessdate=17 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819085519/http://www.ipsc.co.in/IPSC_Pages/ipscToday.aspx|archive-date=19 August 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> Therefore, these schools are considered [[private school]]s. These 77 schools have an independent [[board of governors]]. Their aim is to facilitate all around development of students through emphasis on both academics and extra-curricular activities.<ref>{{cite news|title=Daly College to host 74th IPSC principals' conclave|url=http://hindustantimes.newspaperdirect.com/epaper/viewer.aspx|accessdate=17 August 2014|agency=Hindustan Times|date=December 28, 2013}}</ref>

==Dr. Gaur Hari Singhania IPSC Life Time Achievement Award ==
The award carries cash prize of Rs. 51, 000/-, Silver plaque and a shawl. But the honour extended surpasses all the material accolades. The award is sponsored by J K White Cement Works and L K Singhania Education Centre, Gotan (https://www.lksec.org/).
* R.M. Saran (2004)
* Dr. S.D. Singh (2004)
* S.K. G
*Mrs. Jyotsna Brar ( 2013)
* Mr. Anubhav Saxena Entab Infotech (2018)

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
* http://www.ipsc.co.in/

[[Category:Educational organisations based in India]]
[[Category:1939 establishments in India]]
[[Category:Organizations established in 1939]]

Niwar (cotton tape)

2025-08-18T07:13:46Z

Husayn: starting new entry v1

{{Short description|South Asian narrow, thick, woven textile}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2023}}
[[File:A wooden chair with a cotton niwar webbed back.jpg|alt=A wooden chair with a cotton niwar webbed back|thumb|A wooden chair with a cotton niwar webbed back]]
'''Niwar''' (also known as ''newar'', ''niwar'', ''nivar'', ''navār'', or ''nuwār'')<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Shakespear |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5E5DAQAAMAAJ&dq=Niwar+is+a+tape&pg=PA2089 |title=A Dictionary, Hindūstānī and English, and English and Hindūstānī: The Latter Being Entirely New |date=1849 |publisher=P. Richardson |pages=2090 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gxcbAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22Niwar%22+cotton+tape+-wikipedia&pg=PA882 |title=A handy Urdu-English dictionary: based on Shakespear (sic) and the best modern authorities |date=1899 |publisher=S.P.C.K. Press |pages=882 |language=en}}</ref> is a coarse, narrow, thick tape that was initially made of cotton only. Niwar is a [[textile]] product produced on tape looms and classified as a [[Narrow cloth|narrow-width fabric]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Franck |first=Robert R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gPhxufVCjl4C&dq=narrow+fabrics+cotton+niwar&pg=PA48 |title=Bast and Other Plant Fibres |date=2005-04-07 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0-8493-2597-7 |pages=48 |language=en}}</ref> [[Baden Henry Powell]] referred to it as "broad coarse tape", a product of the [[Jail industry (India)|jail industry]]. In his book ''Handbook of the Manufactures and Arts of the Punjab'', Powell classified niwar under the category of "tape, string, and miscellaneous cotton products".<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Baden-Powell |first=Baden Henry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gg_JAAAAMAAJ |title=Hand-book of the Manufactures & Arts of the Punjab: With a Combined Glossary & Index of Vernacular Trades & Technical Terms ... Forming Vol. Ii to the "Hand-book of the Economic Products of the Punjab" Prepared Under the Orders of Government |date=1872 |publisher=Punjab printing Company |isbn= |location= |pages=12 |language=en}}</ref> A weaver of this tape is called a {{Lang|hi|niwar-baf}}.<ref name=":3" />

== Significance ==
In [[Guru Granth Sahib]], the central holy text of [[Sikhism]], the 15th-century saint [[Kabir]] lists "silks and satins and a niwar bed" as examples of luxury items.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Macauliffe |first=Max Arthur |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5B0JEN2ct94C&dq=%22Niwar%22+cotton+tape+-wikipedia&pg=PA204 |title=The Sikh Religion: Its Gurus, Sacred Writings and Authors |date=2013-03-28 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-05548-2 |pages=204 |language=en}}</ref> Only the rich could afford to have their beds bound with niwar, while the poor would use grass rope.<ref name=":2" /> [[Baden Henry Powell]], writing in the 19th century, also mentions the high price of niwar.<ref name=":0" />

Cotton niwar weaving was a source of employment for many female artisans, rural cottage industries,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kundu |first=Dipak Kumar |date=2017-12-30 |title=Origin And Development Of Cottage Industries In India : A Study In Pre-Independence Era |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=4289425 |language=en |location=Rochester, NY|ssrn=4289425 }}</ref> and work for inmates in jail industries.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Adwani |first=Nirmala H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Iu9RfBpMOgC&dq=Cotton+niwar+jail+work&pg=PA143 |title=Perspectives on Adult Crime and Correction: A Comparative Study of Adult Prisoners and Probationers |date=1978 |publisher=Abhinav Publications |isbn=978-81-7017-070-9 |pages=143 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dept |first=Punjab (India) Jail |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7bYfAQAAIAAJ&q=Cotton+niwar+jail+work |title=Annual Administration Report on the Working of Punjab Jail Dept |date=1961 |pages=63 |language=en}}</ref>
== Production ==
Though Powell mentioned it in the Punjab,<ref name=":0" /> the manufacture of Niwar was not limited to the state of Punjab. Gazetters from various states indicate the prevalence of niwar weaving in different parts of India.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":8" />

Niwar is also produced in [[Naserpur|Nasarpur]], [[Matiari]], [[Hala, Sindh|Hala]] and [[Gambat]] in [[Sindh]], and the person who makes such tapes are called Nawarbaf.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LeMnAAAAMAAJ |title=Pakistan Economist |date=1975 |publisher=S. Akhtar Ali |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Memon |first=Siddique G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=azxuAAAAMAAJ |title=Sukkur Then and Now |date=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-579069-6 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Small-scale and rural cottage industry ===
Towards the close of the 17th century, rural weavers in various regions of India produced an extensive assortment of cotton products, encompassing coverlets, rugs, ropes, bed tapes such as niwar, packing carpets, and furnishings, among others.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kumar |first1=Kundu Dipak |date=2017 |title=Origin and development of cottage industries in India: A study in pre-independence era |url=https://www.indianjournals.com/ijor.aspx?target=ijor:ijrss&volume=7&issue=12&article=021 |journal=International Journal of Research in Social Sciences |volume=7 |issue=12 |pages=244–246 |doi=10.2139/ssrn.4289425 |ssrn=4289425 |s2cid=254844884|url-access=subscription |doi-access=free }}</ref> The findings of a study titled "Durrie Weaving as Income Generation" showed that women in rural regions wove articles for survival, including "aasan," "foot mats," "bags," and "niwar," in addition to [[Dhurrie|durries]].<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Yadav |first1=Nirmal |last2=Sangwan |first2=Nisha |last3=Khambra |first3=Krishna |date=2008-09-01 |title=Durrie Weaving as Income Generation-An Exploratory Study |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/09709274.2008.11906097 |journal=Journal of Human Ecology |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=41–45 |doi=10.1080/09709274.2008.11906097 |s2cid=59521001 |issn=0970-9274|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Niwar was a widely used type of hand-spun fabric produced in rural communities during the 20th century. Both plain and dyed varieties of niwar were produced and sold in urban centers. It made use of coarser yarns, providing support to hand-spun yarn manufacturers.<ref name=":4" />{{Rp|page=129}}According to the 20th century "Cottage and Small-Scale Industries" report, cotton was a crucial resource in daily life, used for everything from clothing to other types of coverings. It was a fiber that could be used in all seasons, even winter, and was used to stuff beds and quilts. Coarse yarn was utilized to weave niwar, carpets, and durries, both at home and in small-scale and rural cottage industries.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Chowdhry Mukhtar Singh. |url=http://archive.org/details/cottageandsmalls029850mbp |title=Cottage And Small Scale Industries |date=1947 |publisher=Kitabistan. |others=Osmania University, Digital Library Of India |pages=}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=115, 129}}

According to [[Uttar Pradesh]] district gazetteers, there were 53 units making niwar in [[Mathura district|Mathura]] until 1950.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Pradesh (India) |first=Uttar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1AdDAAAAYAAJ&q=%22Niwar%22+cotton+tape+-wikipedia |title=Uttar Pradesh District Gazetteers: Mathura |date=1968 |publisher=Government of Uttar Pradesh |pages=137, 147 |language=en}}</ref> In 1956, 215 cottage industries in [[Bareilly]] employed 400 individuals and invested Rs 48,400. The industry was primarily conducted by women artisans in their homes. 780 [[maund (unit)|maund]]]s of [[yarn]] valued at Rs 85,000 were consumed, and 760 maunds of niwar valued at Rs 110,600 were produced. Sales of niwar reached Rs 93,500 in the local market. Additionally, prisoners at the [[Bareilly Central Jail]] were utilized in various enterprises, including spinning, weaving, tailoring, and the production of durries, carpets, niwar, hemp and ban twisting and weaving.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Radha Kamal Mukerjee |first1=Chairman |url=http://archive.org/details/dli.csl.2995 |title=Uttar Pradesh District Gazetteers: Bareilly |last2=J. K. Institute |first2=Member |last3=A. K. Narain |first3=Member |last4=A. N. Agarwal |first4=Member |last5=Baljit Singh |first5=Member |last6=B. G. Prasad |first6=Member |last7=Hira Lai Singh |first7=Member |last8=Mohd. Naseer Khan |first8=Member |last9=Nurul Hasan |first9=Member |date=1968 |publisher=Lucknow, Department of District Gazetteers |pages=147, 159}}</ref>

Gazetteers for [[Rajasthan]] and [[Jodhpur]] also mention niwar's production in the late 20th century. The region was well-known for its traditional industries, among which were tie-and-dye [[sari]]s. The textiles sector includes cloth, tents, niwar, ropes, namda, and ready-to-wear clothes.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=B.D. Agarwal |url=http://archive.org/details/dli.csl.3288 |title=Rajasthan, District Gazetteers: Jodhpur |date=1979 |publisher=Jaipur, Government Central Press |pages=158}}</ref>

As per [[Haryana]] state gazetteers, in 1990, the town of Sonipat was engaged in the weaving of niwar and tape.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book |last=Jeet Ram Ranga |url=http://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.08229 |title=Haryana District Gazetteers: Sonipat |date=1990 |publisher=Chandigarh, Revenue Department |pages=152}}</ref>

Adequate market access shortage hampered the enthusiasm of artisans who needed support in product design, understanding consumer preference, and staying updated with current product styles. Despite global recognition of some handloom products like Indian durries, the financial well-being of artisans and craftspeople didn't improve.<ref name=":5" /> Over time, niwar weaving grew and adapted to industrial developments.

== Applications ==
[[File:Niwar.jpg|alt=Niwar tape|thumb|Niwar]]
[[File:Folding bed made with Niwar.jpg|alt=<nowiki>[[Folding bed]]</nowiki>|thumb|Niwar-webbed folding bed]]
Niwar is a highly versatile material that can be used in a variety of applications due to its adaptability. It can be utilized for various purposes, ranging from household and decorative items to industrial and commercial applications.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=Cotton Niwar Roll |url=https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/cotton-niwar-roll-22573664473.html |access-date=2023-02-25 |website=indiamart.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Sturdy Design Flexible Multicolor Polypropylene Niwar For Making Folding Bed Soft at Best Price in Dhule {{!}} Madhav Enterprises |url=https://www.tradeindia.com/products/multicolor-polypropylene-pp-niwar-7800250.html |access-date=2023-02-25 |website=www.tradeindia.com}}</ref> These are summarized as follows:

=== Furniture material and in tents ===
Niwar is a [[bed base]] material for [[bed frame]] webbing.<ref>{{Cite book |first=D. G. |last=Tendulkar |url=http://archive.org/details/ABDULGAFFARKHANFAITHISABATTLED.G.TENDULKAR |title=Abdul Gaffar Khan - Faith Is a Battle |pages=533}}</ref> It is a kind of coarse cotton tape used to form the web of a [[charpai]] (a kind of [[rope bed]])<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tandon |first=Prakash |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p6zTk-ibjTwC&dq=niwar+cotton&pg=PA20 |title=Punjabi Century, 1857-1947 |date=1968 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-01253-0 |location= |pages=20 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Cot Knitting {{!}} Cot {{!}} How to make cot rope Knitting {{!}} Amazing Khatiya Bunai {{!}} How to make a Rope Bed | date=30 April 2021 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PMxRd9lYI2Q |language=en |access-date=2023-02-05}}</ref> and stools also called "{{Lang|pa|pirhi}}" or "{{Lang|pa|Peedi}}" in [[Punjabi language]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tandon |first=Prakash |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p6zTk-ibjTwC&dq=%22Niwar%22+cotton+tape+-wikipedia&pg=PA20 |title=Punjabi Century, 1857-1947 |date=1968 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-01253-0 |pages=20 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Pradesh (India) |first=Uttar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_1tuAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Niwar%22+cotton+tape+-wikipedia |title=Uttar Pradesh District Gazetteers: Aligarh |date=1988 |publisher=Government of Uttar Pradesh |pages=329 |language=en}}</ref>

Niwar helps in sewing canvas or cloth tents.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Unit |first=India (Republic) Occupational Information |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GT48AAAAMAAJ&q=niwar+used+for+tent |title=National Classification of Occupations: (NCO, 1968) |date=1972 |pages=117 |language=en}}</ref> During the [[Mughal Period]], military camps and tents were constructed utilizing ropes, and cotton niwar,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sarkar |first=Jagadish Narayan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nuPsAAAAMAAJ&q=Niwar+in+mughal |title=Mughal Economy: Organization and Working |date=1987 |publisher=Naya Prokash |isbn=978-81-85109-47-3 |pages=52 |language=en}}</ref> and cotton niwar was used for bedsteads during the princely reign.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rajasthan (India) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B7lPQFEUUwcC&q=Cotton+Niwar+in+mughal |title=Rajasthan District Gazetteers |date=1962 |publisher=Printed at Government Central Press |pages=592 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Belts ===
Niwar was also used in the production of belts and employed to carry the zinc water bottle, commonly referred to as "badla."<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O7fUAAAAMAAJ&q=Niwar+for+belts+and+badla |title=Census of India, 1961: Rajasthan |publisher=Manager of Publications |year=1966 |location=India |pages=6 |language=English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Rajasthan (India) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NQpTfoGGBx0C&q=badla+zinc+water+bottle+jodhpur |title=Rajasthan District Gazetteers: Jodphur |last2=Sehgal |first2=K. K. |date=1962 |pages=165 |language=en}}</ref> Niwar is also used in [[Belt (clothing)|school belts]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Niwar Tape Machine, School belt Machine,Cotton niwar,Plastic Niwar Tape Machine | date=25 January 2016 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XGPoUHpgE3Q |language=en |access-date=2023-02-05}}</ref>

=== Miscellaneous ===
Niwar products were used as a part of vocational training for skill development and entrepreneurship development. The prisoners in [[Udaipur]] jail were trained to produce a wide range of products, including bags, belts, mats ({{Lang|hi|asans}}), and magazine holders.<ref>BABEL, R., & SRIVASTAVA, M. Entrepreneurship development through niwar products among prisoners of Udaipur.</ref>

Niwar was utilized in the care of cattle, serving as a component in the application of bandages and cotton padding, with the aim of mitigating further harm to bones and soft tissues.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Clinical management of tibial fractures by using type II linear external skeletal fixator in cattle |url=https://www.thepharmajournal.com/archives/2022/vol11issue7S/PartZ/S-11-6-478-568.pdf |website=thepharmajournal.com}}</ref>

Niwar has its applications in military use. The [[Central Reserve Police Force]] has deemed niwar, with specific specifications of 65mm width, grey undyed shade, and conforming to the IS: 1995-1982 standard, as suitable for use.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Invitation to E-Tender Office of the DIGP, Group Centre, C R P F, Avadi, Chennai - 65 |url=https://crpf.gov.in/writereaddata/Portal/Tender/1907_2/1_20531216.pdf |access-date=14 January 2023 |website=Cotton Tape Niwar 65mm width, shade}}</ref> The Indian army frequently includes niwar in their tenders as a necessary item, along with other sports equipment and materials such as jute rope, footballs, volleyballs, table tennis balls, nets, cricket equipment, and reflector tape.<ref>{{cite news |date=13 January 2022 |title=Supply Of Jute Rope, Football, Volleyball, Table Tennis Ball, Football Net, Volleyball Net, Cricket Ball, Cricket Stump, Cricket Stump Bails, Cricket Bat, Table Tennis Racket, Niwar Tape, Fiber Sheet, Reflector Tape, Ms Pipe, Black Paint |location=London |id={{ProQuest|2619399012}} |work=MENA Report}}</ref>

=== Present ===
Indian government institutions provide educational programs in the arts of weaving, including hand weaving of niwar tape, durries, and carpets, as well as weaving of silk and woolen fabrics. Additionally, they offer courses in the techniques of bleaching, dyeing, and calico printing.<ref>KPMG Portrait Letter (2007 v1.1) (nqr.gov.in)

https://nqr.gov.in/sites/default/files/Annexur-2_8.pdf</ref>

In the 21st century niwar is produced by machines and is made from both cotton and synthetic materials such as polyester and nylon. Due to its durability and versatility, this material finds extensive application in the manufacturing of furniture such as beds with frames made of either wood or metal, as well as folding beds. It is also utilized in the binding of the edges of floor coverings such as durries, and in the fabrication of sporting goods like nets. It is commonly used in the creation of hanging materials and displays in exhibitions.<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Export Data and Price of Niwar |url=https://www.zauba.com/export-NIWAR-hs-code.html |access-date=2021-02-02 |website=www.zauba.com}}</ref>

=== Trade ===
India is the world's biggest exporter of cotton niwar, exporting the majority of niwar to the United States, United Arab Emirates, and Nepal. Currently, niwar is also being made from materials such as nylon, polypropylene, and polyester. Nylon niwar, in particular, is known for its strength and ability to withstand various weather conditions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Niwar – MILITARY |date=4 August 2020 |url=https://www.webbingntapes.in/niwar/ |access-date=2023-01-14 |language=en-US}}</ref>

Niwar is a [[Harmonized System]] coded commodity. Cotton niwar narrow-woven fabrics are assigned HS Code 58063120.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Niwar Export From India {{!}} Data, price & analysis of Niwar export |url=https://connect2india.com/global/Niwar-export-from-india/1 |access-date=2022-12-28 |website=connect2india.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=HS Code Tool Drip Capital |url=https://www.dripcapital.com/hsn-code/5806 |access-date=2022-12-28 |website=www.dripcapital.com}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Charpai]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Beds]]
[[Category:Culture of India]]
[[Category:Culture of Pakistan]]
[[Category:History of furniture]]
[[Category:Punjabi words and phrases]]
[[Category:Desi culture]]
[[Category:Indian furniture]]
[[Category:Portable furniture]]

Vidya Shankar

2025-08-17T17:32:07Z

Husayn: added new details

{{Short description|Indian musicologist and educationist}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2020}}
{{Infobox musical artist
|name = Vidya Shankar
|background =
|image = [[File:Pratibha_Devisingh_Patil_presenting_Sangeet_Natak_Akademi_Award_2007_to_Smt._Vidya_Shankar,_(Carnatic_Instrumental_-_Veena),_at_the_investiture_ceremony_of_Akademi_Fellowship_and_Akademi_Awards_2007,_in_New_Delhi.jpg|250px]]
| caption = President [[Pratibha Patil]] awarding Vidya Shankar the 2007 Sangeet Natak Akademi Award (Carnatic Instrumental - Veena)
| birth_place = Madras, Madras Presidency, British India (now [[Chennai]], [[Tamil Nadu]], India)
| death_place = [[Mylapore]], Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India<ref name="Mylapore"/>
| birth_date = {{birth date|1919|12|28|df=y}}<ref name="TTK_award">{{cite journal |date=1999 |title=TTK Memorial Award |journal=The Journal of the Music Academy (Madras) |volume=70 |pages=40 }}</ref>
| death_date = {{death date and age|2010|06|29|1919|12|28|df=y}}<ref name="Mylapore">{{cite news |date=30 June 2010 |title=Veena Vidushi passes away |url=http://www.mylaporetimes.com/2010/06/veena-vidushi-passes-away/ |work=Mylapore Times |access-date=3 December 2020}}</ref>
|origin =
|genre = [[Carnatic music]]
|label =
}}

'''Vidya Shankar''' (28 December 1919—29 June 2010) was a distinguished [[Indian people|Indian]] [[musicologist]], educationist and ''vainika'' (''[[veena]]'' musician).<ref name="bio">{{cite news |last=Krishnan |first=Lalithaa |date=1 July 2010 |title=Art and science converged here |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/music/Art-and-science-converged-here/article16181169.ece |work=The Hindu |access-date=3 December 2020}}</ref> She was a recipient of the [[Sangeet Natak Akademi Award]], the highest Indian award for practising artists.

==Career==
As a child, Shankar was homeschooled until high school. Although proficient in mathematics, her favourite subject, and intended to pursue a degree in the field, but was overruled by her father, who felt it "too strenuous a subject in college for a girl. He made me take up music instead."<ref name="vainika">{{cite news |date=30 June 2010 |title=Vainika Vidya Shankar no more |url=https://www.thehindu.com/arts/Vainika-Vidya-Shankar-no-more/article16204888.ece |work=The Hindu |access-date=3 December 2020}}</ref> After completing a teacher's training course, she did however teach mathematics at Kala Nilayam, the Children's Garden School and at the [[Kalakshetra Foundation]] in Chennai, later teaching [[Sanskrit]] and [[musicology]] at the Central College of Carnatic Music.<ref name="vainika"/>

Shankar received her early musical education under T. S. Sabesa Iyer, receiving her advanced training under Madras Sabapathi Iyer and musicologist [[T. L. Venkatarama Iyer]]. Owing to her proficiency in Sanskrit and English, she became an authority on the great Carnatic musician [[Shyama Shastri]], publishing numerous articles and books. In 2007, she was conferred with the [[Sangeet Natak Akademi Award]].<ref name="bio"/>

==Personal life==
A member of the distinguished [[Chandrasekhar family]] of intellectuals, Shankar was a younger sister of physics Nobel laureate [[Subramanyam Chandrashekhar]] and the niece of physics Nobel laureate [[C. V. Raman]].<ref name="bio"/> She was married to V. S. Iyer, an executive with Parry & Co.<ref name="bio"/> The couple had three sons, V. S. Shivakumar, V. S. Mahesh and Dr. V. S. Sundar, who survived her.<ref name="Mylapore"/>

Shankar died at her Mylapore residence in the morning of 29 June 2010, after a brief illness.<ref name="bio"/>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shankar, Vidya}}
[[Category:Chandrasekhar family]]
[[Category:1919 births]]
[[Category:2010 deaths]]
[[Category:Indian musicians]]
[[Category:Indian musicologists]]
[[Category:Tamil musicians]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian musicians]]
[[Category:Indian educators]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award]]

Santosh Thakur

2025-07-30T00:00:56Z

Husayn: added post

{{multiple issues|
{{no footnotes|date=October 2021}}
{{notability|Music|date=October 2021}}
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2025}}
{{Infobox musical artist 
| name = Santosh Thakur
| background = solo_singer
| image =
| imagesize =
| caption =
| birth_name = Santosh Thakur
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=yes|1922|09|17}}
| birth_place=[[Kolkata]], [[Bengal Presidency]], [[British India]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|2000|01|13|1922|09|17}}
| death_place=[[Kolkata]], [[West Bengal]], India
| genre = [[Rabindrasangeet]]
| occupations = Singer/Organizer
| years_active = 1958–2000
| label = Hindustan Records
}}

'''Santosh Thakur''' (1922–2000) was a [[Bengali people|Bengali]] singer from [[Kolkata]], [[India]]. He is primarily known as a [[Rabindrasangeet]] artist. He was the son of [[Sanskrit]] scholar Amareswar Thakur.

== Career ==
Santosh Thakur made an entry into the world of [[Rabindrasangeet]] in the early 1950s. He started taking regular Rabindrasangeet lessons under the tutelage of Sri. [[Subinoy Roy]], Sri. Anadi Dastidar and others.
Was a regular Artist of [[All India Radio]], he started performing as a Rabindrasangeet singer at [[All India Radio|Akashvani]], [[Kolkata]]. He recorded two Tagore’s songs, "Tomari Jhornatolar Nirjone" and "Amar Nishito Ratero" (1966) with Hindustan Records under the training of his Guru Sri [[Subinoy Roy]].

He founded a musical institution in [[Kolkata]] named 'Gandharvi' in the year 1963, where students learned [[Rabindrasangeet]] under his training also under the tutelage of Sri. [[Subinoy Roy]], Smt. Sumitra Sen Smt. Bani Thakur Smt. Swapna Ghoshal . 'Gandharvi' was a popular institution and was also known for its regular performance of various concerts and Dance Dramas of Tagore. In the year 1971 'Gandharvi' was invited by The Bengalee Association of Hyderabad to perform 3 dance dramas of Tagore namely 'Tasher Desh', 'Shapmochan' and 'Mayar Khyala'.

== References ==

{{reflist}}

== External links ==

* www.sensonmedia.net/information/re_name_road_kolkata.html
* www.nitaisundar.com/Main.html?pagename=HaribolKutir.html
* https://books.google.com/books?id=3MIsAAAAIAAJ 
* calcutta1940s.org/407streetatlast.html
* [https://books.google.com/books?isbn=1135192596 Women in the Hindu Tradition - Book]

{{Notable singers of Rabindra Sangeet}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Thakur, Santosh}}
[[Category:1922 births]]
[[Category:2000 deaths]]
[[Category:Rabindra Sangeet exponents]]
[[Category:Rabindranath Tagore]]
[[Category:Bengali singers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian singers]]
[[Category:Singers from West Bengal]]

Gambhir River (Rajasthan)

2025-07-26T23:38:07Z

Husayn: formatting fix

{{distinguish | Gambhir River (Madhya Pradesh)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2017}}
{{Infobox river
| name = Gambhir River
| other_name = Utangan River
| source1 = [[Karauli]], [[Rajasthan]]
| mouth = [[Yamuna]]
| mouth_coordinates = {{coord|26.9833|78.4469|format=dms|type:river_region:IN|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type1 = Country
| subdivision_name1 = [[India]]
| tributaries_left = [[Banganga River (Rajasthan)|Banganga]], [[Sesa river|Sesa]], [[Kher river|Kher]], [[Churaho River|Churaho]], [[Parbati River, Karoli|Parbati]]
| map = {{maplink
|frame=yes
|frame-align=left
|type=line
|id=Q132726
|text=Interactive Map
|stroke-color=#FFA500
|type2=line
|id2=Q5519613
|text2=Gambhir River
|stroke-color2=#FF0000
}}
| waterbodies = [[Khandip Dam]]
| map_caption = Yamuna River (shown in saffron) and Gambhir River (shown in red)
}}

The '''Gambhir River''', also known as the '''Utangan River''', is an [[Ephemerality|ephemeral]] (seasonal) [[river]] in [[India]] which originates in [[Rajasthan]] state and confluences with [[Yamuna]] near [[Jalalpur, Firozabad|Jalalpur]] in [[Uttar Pradesh]] state.<ref>"[https://www.rajras.in/index.php/gambhir-utangan-river-origin-tributaries-basin-dam/ Gambhir-Utangan River: Origin, Tributaries, Basin, Dam and Concerns] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190703191550/https://www.rajras.in/index.php/gambhir-utangan-river-origin-tributaries-basin-dam/ |date=3 July 2019 }}," Rajasthan Ras, 12 May 2017</ref> Important tributaries of the Gambhir are [[Banganga River (Rajasthan)|Banganga]], Sesa, Kher, Churaho and [[Parbati River, Karoli|Parbati]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chouhan |first=T. S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OGAsEAAAQBAJ&q=Gambhir+River+-wikipedia&pg=PA94 |title=Geography of Rajasthan |date=2020-02-12 |publisher=Scientific Publishers |isbn=978-93-89184-29-7 |pages=85 |language=en}}</ref>{{clarify|date=June 2018}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chouhan |first=T. S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OGAsEAAAQBAJ&q=Gambhir+River+-wikipedia&pg=PA94 |title=Geography of Rajasthan |date=2020-02-12 |publisher=Scientific Publishers |isbn=978-93-89184-29-7 |pages=94 |language=en}}</ref>

It originates near [[Karauli|Karoli]] in Rajasthan and flows around [[Hindaun City]], then through [[Bharatpur district]], and through [[Dholpur district]] where it forms the boundary between Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan states. It then enters [[Agra district]] of Uttar Pradesh to finally confluence with [[Yamuna]].

It supplies water to the [[Keoladeo National Park]] near Bharatpur in Rajasthan.

==Basin ==

===Origin ===

It originates from [[Karauli]] in Rajasthan and flows around [[Hindaun City]]. It flows from south to north up to Kanjoli-Katara Aziz village (Toda Bhim), then towards northeast up to village Mertha of Roopbas Block, before entering [[Uttar Pradesh]]. The river again enters Rajasthan near Catchapaura village in Dholpur District and forms the boundary between UP and Rajasthan. It then enters Mainpuri District in UP to finally joins River [[Yamuna]]. It flows between the city of [[Bayana]] and Brahmbad Village in the [[Bharatpur district]].

===Drainage ===

[[Banganga River (Rajasthan)|Banganga]]'s tributary [[Arvari River|Sanwan]] after converging with Tildah river then converges with Banganga River, Banganga then converges with the Gambhir river (also known as the Utang river). Gambhir enters the state of Uttar Pradesh and forms the border of Tehsils (Sub-divisions) of [[Bah]] and [[Fatehabad, Uttar Pradesh|Fatehabad]]. Gambhir then converges with the [[Yamuna]] in Agra district of Uttar Pradesh, Yamuna converges with [[Ganges]] at [[Triveni Sangam]] in [[Allahabad]].<ref name=rr1>{{Cite book|title=Arvari Sansad|last=Tiwari|first=Arun|publisher=Tarun Bharat Sangh (TBS)|year=2006}}</ref><ref name=rr2>{{Cite book|title=Sikhti Sikhati Arvari Nadi|last=Singh|first=Rajendra|publisher=TBS|year=2014}}</ref><ref name=rr3>{{Cite book|title=STORY OF RIVULET ARVARI (From DEATH TO REBIRTH)|last=Patel|first=Jashbhai|publisher=TBS|year=1997}}</ref>

==Issues and conservation ==

Previously a [[Perennial stream|perennial]] river, it has now become seasonal due to over-exploitation of water resources, lack of conservation actions and [[climate change]]. Since it is also the lifeline for the Keoladeo National Park, its conservation is urgently needed.

==Meghadootam==
[[Kalidasa]] in his poem "[[Meghadūta|Meghadootam]]" beautifully describes the river Gambhira. There the poet said to Megha, "She is eager to receive you, so do not look away from her.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Megha duta; or, Cloud messenger: a poem, in the Sanscrit language|publisher=Upendra Lal Das |year=1890|pages=Verse 40}}</ref> Don't pick up the rest of her watery clothes, which by default are skinny and like handcuffs that are like riverbanks." It can be read as a temporary river status.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Megha duta; or, Cloud messenger: a poem, in the Sanscrit language|publisher=Upendra Lal Das |year=1890|pages=Verse 41}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Sahibi River]]
* [[List of rivers of Rajasthan]]
* [[List of rivers of India]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051219220649/http://www.rajirrigation.gov.in/3bgambhir.htm Gabhir river], Rajasthan Irrigation Department.

{{Hydrography of Rajasthan}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Geography of Malwa]]
[[Category:Rivers of Rajasthan]]
[[Category:Geography of Ujjain]]
[[Category:Sawai Madhopur district]]

{{Bharatpurdivision-geo-stub}}
{{India-river-stub}}

Jammu Metro

2025-06-06T19:21:48Z

Husayn: Adding initial page w/ refs

{{short description|Rapid transit system in India}}
{{Rapid transit OSM map|display=title|text=Metro map}}
{{EngvarB|date=December 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}}{{Infobox Public transit
| name = Jammu Metro
| image =
| imagesize =
| locale = [[Jammu]], [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]], [[India]]
| transit_type = [[light rail transit]]
| began_operation = TBD
| system_length = {{convert|23|km|mi|adj=on|abbr=on}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Jammu Metro |url=https://www.greaterkashmir.com/amp/story/todays-paper/front-page/union-cabinet-likely-to-give-nod-to-srinagar-jammu-metrolite-projects-soon|access-date=2022-12-02 |website=www.greaterkashmir.com|date=21 June 2022 }}</ref>
| chief_executive =
| headquarters =
| lines = 2 (planned), 2 extensions in phase 2
| stations = 23 (phase 1)
| website = pdf [https://jkpwdrb.nic.in/pdfs/AAR_JAMMU_MRTS.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwju0byq2Nr7AhXY9nMBHSvcA3w4ChAWegQICRAB&usg=AOvVaw3W-6_Q79YhO7QxCtyZmHLp]
| ridership =
| train_length =
| track_gauge =
| el = {{25 kV 50 Hz}} [[Overhead line|overhead catenary]]
| average_speed =
| top_speed =
| owner =
| operator =
| map =
| alt =
| caption =
| area served = [[Jammu]]
| line_number =
| start =
| end =
| annual_ridership =
| character =
| vehicles =
| map_state =[[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]], [[India]]
| native_name =
}}The '''Jammu Metro''' is a proposed [[light rail transit]] system for the city of [[Jammu]] in the Indian Union Territory of [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]]. The project has been proposed by the Housing and Urban Development Department of the [[Government of Jammu and Kashmir]] and is estimated to cost Rs. 4825 crores in phase 1. The proposed system will have a total route length of 43.50 km, consisting of 4 lines and 22 stations, and will be completed in two phases. The expected completion date for the project is 2026.<ref>{{Cite web |last=SMSala |title=Work on Sgr, Jmu metrolite projects to begin soon: Officials |url=http://risingkashmir.com |access-date=2022-12-02 |website=Rising Kashmir}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Jammu Metro |url=https://themetrorailguy.com/jammu-metro-information-route-maps-fares-tenders-updates/#:~:text=Jammu%2520Light%2520Metro%2520(Metrolite)%2520with,Union%2520Territory%2520of%2520Jammu%2520%2526%2520Kashmir.&ved=2ahUKEwiVvIO0uNr7AhW8S2wGHb1CDGwQFnoECBMQBQ&usg=AOvVaw0VQctCH2W5WO2U-yDIlzYk |access-date=2022-12-02 |website=www.metrorailguy.com}}</ref>
The Jammu and Kashmir state government has announced plans to introduce a metro rail system in the city of Jammu. To conduct a traffic analysis, the government hired the services of the infrastructure development enterprise [[RITES]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.urbantransportnews.com/news/rites-submits-final-dpr-of-rs-10559-crore-jammu-and-srinagar-metro-projects|title=RITES submits final DPR of ₹10,559 crore Jammu and Srinagar metro projects|date=12 June 2021}}</ref> Additionally, the government approached the [[Delhi Metro Rail Corporation]] to prepare a detailed project report, including feasibility and financial viability.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-omar-abdullah-plans-metro-in-jammu-srinagar-1346641|title=Omar Abdullah plans metro in Jammu and Srinagar|publisher=DNA India}}</ref>

==History==
It was expected that the official plan for the Jammu Metro will be launched in 2022-23, with construction to follow thereafter. This will also coincide with the construction of the [[Srinagar Metro]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Jammu Metro likely to be rolled out in 2022-23 |url=https://www.greaterkashmir.com/business/metro-rail-projects-in-jk-likely-to-be-rolled-out-this-year&ved=2ahUKEwjdv8qp2Nr7AhUUFrcAHYe-C0wQFnoECAEQAQ&usg=AOvVaw3zveQEcm0PB5EqlNLR_dR8 |access-date=2022-12-02 |website=www.greaterkashmir.com}}</ref>

As of July 4, 2023, the Jammu and Kashmir administration has proposed the introduction of MetroLite lines in Srinagar and Jammu cities, as reported by [[The Indian Express]].<ref>{{cite web | last=Iqbal | first=Naveed | title=J&K: Administration proposes metro lines for Srinagar, Jammu | website=[[The Indian Express]] | date=4 July 2023 | url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/srinagar/jk-administration-proposes-metro-lines-for-srinagar-jammu-8699705/ | access-date=4 July 2023}}</ref> This development comes as a significant step towards enhancing the public transport system in the region. The proposal includes a 25 km metro line in Srinagar and a 23 km line in Jammu. With the aim of boosting connectivity and convenience for commuters, the J&K Lieutenant Governor, Manoj Sinha, has expressed the administration's focus on implementing the MetroLite system due to its cost-effectiveness and viability. This proposal has been sent to the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs for ministerial consultation.<ref>{{cite web | title=Jammu and Kashmir Administration Proposes Metro Lines for Srinagar and Jammu Cities | website=[[The Chenab Times]] | date=4 July 2023 | url=https://thechenabtimes.com/2023/07/04/jammu-and-kashmir-administration-proposes-metro-lines-for-srinagar-and-jammu-cities/ | access-date=4 July 2023}}</ref>

== Routes ==
The Jammu Metro project will be completed in two separate phases.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Jammu Metro – Information, Route Maps, Fares, Tenders & Updates |url=https://themetrorailguy.com/jammu-metro-information-route-maps-fares-tenders-updates/ |access-date=2022-12-02 |website=The Metro Rail Guy |language=en-US}}</ref>

===Phase 1===
The first phase will consist of two lines.
====Line 1 : Bantalab - Satwari - Greater Kailash====
* Length : 17 km
* Station : 17
* Type : Elevated
* Depot: Bantalab

====Line 2: Udheywala - Exhibition Ground====
* Length: 6 km
* Station: 6
* Type: Elevated
* Depot: Udheywala

==Present status==

* 2021 Aug: RITES submitted the Detailed Project Report (DPR) to the Ministry of Home and Urban Affairs for both Jammu and Srinagar metro projects simultaneously estimated to cost around ₹10,559 crores, the tendering will be initiated once the project is approved by PMO and Union Cabinet.<ref name="GKclearance">{{Cite web|url=https://www.greaterkashmir.com/todays-paper/front-page/metro-rail-project-to-get-union-cabinet-clearance-soon|title=Metro rail project to get union cabinet clearance soon|publisher=Greater Kashmir|date=29 August 2021}}</ref>

==See also==

* [[Srinagar Metro]]
* [[Future of rail transport in India#Geo|Strategic rail lines of India]]
* [[Jammu railway division#Future|Railway in Himachal, Jammu and Kashmir, and Ladakh]]
* [[Aerial lift in India]]
* [[Urban rail transit in India]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Proposed rapid transit in Jammu and Kashmir]]
[[Category:Light rail in India]]

DRDO Advanced Towed Artillery Gun System

2025-04-02T07:58:19Z

Husayn: general rework page based on references

#REDIRECT [[ATAGS (howitzer)]]

{{Redirect category shell|
{{R from move}}
}}

Mukul Sharma

2025-01-06T11:43:35Z

Husayn: made new bio w/ infobox

{{Short description|Indian writer and journalist (died 2019)}}
{{for|the engineering professor at University of Texas, Austin|Mukul Sharma (professor)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2019}}
{{Infobox writer
| name = Mukul Sharma
| image =
| image_size =
| image_upright =
| alt =
| caption =
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| pseudonym =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{Birth based on age at death|69|2019|3|1}}
| birth_place =
| death_date = {{Death date and given age|2019|3|1|69|df=y}}
| death_place = [[New Delhi]], India
| resting_place =
| occupation = Writer, Journalist
| language =
| residence =
| nationality = Indian
| citizenship =
| education =
| alma_mater = [[Asutosh College]]
| home_town =
| period =
| genre = 
| subject = 
| movement =
| notable_works =
| spouse = [[Aparna Sen]] (divorced) Binita Mohanty
| partner = 
| children = 2, including [[Konkona Sen Sharma]]
| relatives =
| awards =
| signature =
| signature_alt =
| years_active =
| module =
| website = {{URL|http://mukulsharma.org.in}}
| portaldisp = 
}}
'''Mukul Sharma''' (1949/1950 – 1 March 2019) was an Indian writer and journalist. He wrote columns and articles on subjects varying from science to films for various newspapers and journals. Some of his short stories are adapted into films. He had acted in few films.

== Biography ==
Sharma was born in a family of an army officer. He studied in six schools across India.<ref name=":0" /> He graduated in English literature from [[Asutosh College]] in [[Kolkata|Calcutta]] (now Kolkata).<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Nadkarni|first=Vithal|date=2019-03-01|title=Mukul Sharma, who straddled science and the arts, passes away|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/mukul-sharma-who-straddled-science-and-the-arts-passes-away/articleshow/68210557.cms|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-30|website=The Times of India}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|date=2019-03-01|title=Polymath and science writer Mukul Sharma passes away|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-polymath-and-science-writer-mukul-sharma-passes-away-2725245|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-30|website=DNA India}}</ref>

After completing studies, he developed an interest in science. He started writing columns and articles on subjects varying from science to films for various newspapers and journal.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{cite web|last=|first=|date=2019-03-01|title=Mukul Sharma, science writer, polymath, storyteller, passes away at 69|url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/mukul-sharma-science-writer-polymath-storyteller-passes-away-at-69-6176991.html|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Firstpost}}</ref> He moved to Mumbai in 1986 and served as an editor of ''Science Today.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" />'' At that time, it had been renamed as ''2001'', in celebration of the arrival of the new millennium. He wrote a column ''Mindsport'' which appeared first in ''[[The Illustrated Weekly of India]]'' and later in ''[[The Sunday Times (India)|The Sunday Times]]''. The column was published for 25 years before its end on 5 August 2007. It had gained a cult following.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> He wrote science fiction as well as supernatural fiction.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-07-28|title=In Good Spirit|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/lifestyle/books/in-good-spirit-mukul-sharma-promila-pradhan-4770403/|access-date=2020-08-30|website=The Indian Express|language=en}}</ref>

He also had a brief appearance in his first wife [[Aparna Sen]]'s 1981 film [[36 Chowringhee Lane]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-03-01|title=Mukul Sharma, science writer and father of Konkana Sen Sharma, passes away|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/mukul-sharma-father-konkana-sen-sharma-passes-away-1468053-2019-03-01|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-30|website=India Today}}</ref> In 1984, he debuted as an actor in Sen's film ''[[Parama (film)|Parama]]''. He played role of a young photographer named Rahul.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />

His several short stories are adapted in films. 2013 [[Supernatural film|supernatural]] [[Thriller (genre)|thriller film]] ''[[Ek Thi Daayan]],'' starring his daughter [[Konkona Sen Sharma]], is adapted from his short story ''Mobius Trips''.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bollywood movies based on Short stories|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/photo-features/bollywood-movies-based-on-short-stories/photostory/46581369.cms|access-date=2020-08-30|website=The Times of India}}</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> It was co-produced by [[Vishal Bhardwaj]] who also made two more films: ''Dream Sequence,'' about a woman who dreams about waking up but has not woken up, as well as ''Ghosts,'' a murder mystery.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> Konkona Sen Sharma directed 2016 film ''[[A Death in the Gunj]]'' was based on his short story which in turn was based on an incident during his visit to [[McCluskieganj]].<ref name=":1" />

Sharma died on 1 March 2019 in New Delhi.<ref name=":1" />

== Personal life ==
Sharma married Aparna Sen and had two daughters, Kamalini Chatterjee and [[Konkona Sen Sharma]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Bhatia|first=Vivek|date=3 May 2012|title=Mother's day out|newspaper=filmfare.com|url=http://www.filmfare.com/interviews/mothers-day-out-389.html|accessdate=2 October 2015}}</ref> They divorced and he later married Binita Mohanty.<ref name=":1" />

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb name}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sharma, Mukul}}
[[Category:2019 deaths]]
[[Category:Date of birth missing]]
[[Category:Writers from New Delhi]]
[[Category:Indian science writers]]
[[Category:Indian science fiction writers]]
[[Category:Indian short story writers]]
[[Category:Indian journalists]]

Vikram Buddhi

2024-12-29T10:50:51Z

Husayn: improve structure also and improved wording for accuracy

{{Short description|Indian criminal}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2018}}{{Use Indian English|date=June 2018}}
{{autobiography|date=September 2014}}

{{Infobox criminal
| name = Vikram Buddhi
| image_name =
| image_size =
| image_caption = Vikram S. Buddhi
| birth_date = {{birth year and age|1971}}
| birth_place = [[India]]
| death_date =
| death_place =
| charge = threatening the life of George W. Bush and Bush's family
| conviction_penalty = sentenced to 57 months of prison
| conviction_status = Released
| occupation = [[Student]] and [[teaching assistant]]
| spouse =
| parents = Captain Buddhi K Subbarao and Syamala Buddhi
| children =
}}

'''Vikram S. Buddhi''' (born May 10, 1971) is an Indian [[Ph.D.]] [[international student|student]] and [[teaching assistant]] at [[Purdue University]] who was convicted in 2007 for making death threats online against [[President of the United States|United States president]] [[George W. Bush]], and [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] [[Dick Cheney]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-03-25 |title=Student Convicted of Threatening to Kill President Bush, Faces Up to 35 Years in Prison |url=https://www.foxnews.com/story/student-convicted-of-threatening-to-kill-president-bush-faces-up-to-35-years-in-prison |access-date=2023-05-04 |website=Associated Press |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=buddhi>{{cite news|title=IIT teachers, students demand release of Vikram Buddhi|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report_iit-teachers-students-demand-release-of-vikram-buddhi_1296045|date=7 October 2009|author=PTI|newspaper=[[Daily News & Analysis]]|accessdate=2009-10-21}}</ref><ref name=jail>{{cite web|title=Will Clinton help free IIT alumnus from US jail?|url=http://www.ndtv.com/news/diaspora/iit_alumni_rally_for_vikram_buddhi.php|date=6 October 2009|author=NDTV Correspondent|publisher=[[NDTV]]|accessdate=2009-10-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Vikram Buddhi not giving up|url=http://www.timesnow.tv/articleshow/4330024.cms|date=19 October 2009|author=|publisher=[[Times Now]]|accessdate=2009-10-21}}</ref> He was imprisoned for 4 years and 9 months, and deported to India upon his release.<ref>{{citation |title=Newspaper Report |date=6 July 2011 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/Vikram-Buddhi-held-beyond-jail-term-father-seeks-PMs-intervention/articleshow/9117791.cms |work=[[The Times of India]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130329072359/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-07-06/mumbai/29742822_1_vikram-buddhi-jail-term-indian-diplomat |url-status=live |archive-date=29 March 2013}}.</ref>

==Biography==
Buddhi was born to Syamala Buddhi and Captain Buddhi K Subbarao in 1971.<ref>{{cite news|title=Free my son, make me happy: Mother's Day plea to Obama|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/Free-my-son-make-me-happy-Mothers-Day-plea-to-Obama/articleshow/4504366.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025053440/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-05-10/mumbai/28172842_1_vikram-buddhi-iranian-american-journalist-online-threat|url-status=live|archive-date=25 October 2012|date=10 May 2009|author=Singh, Vijay|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=2009-10-21}}</ref> His father was a senior [[defense (military)|defence]] [[scientist]] with the [[Indian navy]] who had been tried for [[news leak|leaking]] [[naval]] [[Secrecy|secrets]] in 1988. He was acquitted in 1993 after the alleged leaked secrets were revealed to be his own Ph.D. thesis, a publicly available document.<ref>{{cite news |author=Singh, Vijay |date=21 April 2006 |title=Vikram has been framed |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Vikram-has-been-framed/articleshow/1498403.cms |url-status=live |access-date=2009-10-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025053446/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2006-04-21/india/27823682_1_vikram-buddhi-indian-navy-capt-subbarao |archive-date=25 October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2009-12-21 |title=IndiaPost_12-25-2009 by Ghanshyam Bisht - Issuu |url=https://issuu.com/indiapost/docs/indiapost_12-25-2009 |access-date=2023-11-14 |website=issuu.com |language=en}}</ref>

==Trial==
Buddhi posted messages on a [[Yahoo]] business [[discussion forum]] in December 2005 and January 2006, calling upon the people of [[Iraq]] to [[retaliate]] against the Iraq [[war]] and kill President [[George W. Bush]], Vice President [[Dick Cheney]] and their spouses. Buddhi's lawyer [[Somnath Bharti]] alleged that the [[indictment]] did not mention any of the alleged charges and the [[prosecution]] failed to establish Buddhi as the author of the messages. Buddhi had hacked the Yahoo accounts of thousands of Purdue University Students, then used those hacked stolen IDs to spread anti-Bush and anti-war messages across Yahoo's Discussion Boards, using a [[Internet bot|bot]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Indian student languishes in US jail, alleges abuse |url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics/nation/Indian-student-languishes-in-US-jail-alleges-abuse/articleshow/5135042.cms |date=18 October 2009 |newspaper=[[The Economic Times]] |accessdate=2009-10-21 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091021070911/http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics/nation/Indian-student-languishes-in-US-jail-alleges-abuse/articleshow/5135042.cms |archivedate=21 October 2009 }}</ref>

Buddhi was sentenced in 2007 to 4 years, 9 months in prison.<ref>{{Cite web |title=IIT alumnus Vikram Buddhi sentenced to 4 years, 9 months in prison |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/world/report-iit-alumnus-vikram-buddhi-sentenced-to-4-years-9-months-in-prison-1322829 |access-date=2023-05-04 |website=DNA India |language=en}}</ref>

==Reaction==
Buddhi received support from the alumni and staff of several [[Indian Institutes of Technology|IITs]], who joined with his father and lobbied for his release. He also received support from [[External Affairs Minister]], [[SM Krishna]]<ref name=buddhi/> and former U.S. president [[Bill Clinton]].<ref name=jail/>

==See also==
* [[Freedom of speech in the United States]]

==External links==
*[http://www.countercurrents.org/kotasubbarao210409.htm] Dr. Buddhi Kotasubbarao, "Roxana Saberi And Vikram Buddhi – Compel A Comparison", 21 April 2009, countercurrents.org
* [http://dockets.justia.com/docket/indiana/inndce/2:2013cv00128/73669] ''Buddhi v. USA,'' Motion to Vacate / Correct Illegal Sentence, filed 15 April 2013, Indiana Northern District Court

==References==
<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Buddhi, Vikram}}
[[Category:IIT Bombay alumni]]
[[Category:Purdue University alumni]]
[[Category:1971 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Delhi]]

Mandal taluka

2023-11-06T17:43:59Z

Husayn: made a info w/ infobox

{{Short description|Mandal Taluka(sub-district) in Ahmedabad district, Gujarat, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2018}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Mandal
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = [[List of talukas of Gujarat|Taluka]] of [[Gujarat]]
| seat_type = Headquarters
| seat = [[Mandal]]
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = 
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Gujarat, India
| coordinates =
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Gujarat]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Ahmedabad district|Ahmedabad]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body = Mandal Taluka Panchayat
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total =
| population_as_of =
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[Hindi language|Hindi]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = 
| postal_code =
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| area_code = +91-079
| registration_plate =GJ
| footnotes =
}}

'''Mandal''' is a [[taluka]] of [[Ahmedabad District]], [[India]].<ref>{{cite web|title=My Taluka|url=http://ahmedabaddp.gujarat.gov.in/ahmedabad/english/my-village.htm|publisher=[[Government of Gujarat]]|accessdate=3 May 2012}}</ref>

==History==
Mandal is a historical town. When, in 1347, the Emperor [[Muhammad bin Tughluq]] came to restore order in Gujarat, the Rana of Mandal and Patri, helped him and was honoured with robes and rewards. Again in 1395 Mandal must have been a place of some strength, for Muzaffar Shah of [[Gujarat Sultanate]] besieged it and would have failed to make any impression on it had not a pestilence broke out among the defenders. A few years later Jhala Satarsalji of Mandal was one of the chiefs who joined in the revolt against Sultan [[Ahmed Shah I]] (1414). It was not until 1530, the Mandal estates were made a part of the crown domains. In 1741, the town was restored and fortified by a brother of the Viramgam Desai. In the latter part of the century it remained under the Marathas till its transfer in 1817 to the [[British East India Company]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency: Ahmedabad (Public Domain text)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EL4IAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA341|year=1879|publisher=Government Central Press|pages=345–346}} {{PD-notice}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Ahmedabad district}}

{{coord missing|Gujarat}}

[[Category:Ahmedabad district]]
[[Category:Talukas of Gujarat]]

{{Ahmedabad-geo-stub}}

My Fortune, Chennai

2023-10-02T20:42:53Z

Husayn: started new entry.

#REDIRECT [[Welcomhotel by ITC Hotels, Cathedral Road, Chennai]]

{{Redirect category shell|
{{R from move}}
}}

Bharatiya Vidya Bhavans Sardar Patel Institute of Technology

2023-01-11T10:53:59Z

Husayn: created redirect page

#REDIRECT [[Sardar Patel Institute of Technology]]

{{Redirect category shell|
{{R from long name}}
}}