Bharatpedia - User contributions [en]

User:Hembram Bakhul

2021-09-08T11:04:15Z

Hembram Bakhul:

{{People
|Name=Bidu Hembram
|Nationality=Indian
|Occupation=Activist , Writer
|citizenship=Indian people
}}
{{autoconfirmed topicon}}
{{Administrator topicon}}
{{Interface administrator topicon}}
{{Checkuser topicon}}
{{Bureaucrat topicon}}
[[File:Spinning Ashoka Chakra.gif|right|200px]]
[[File:Dwarf by BrokenMachine86.jpg|thumb|250px|A WikiDwarf, ready to repair any damage made by a WikiGoblin|right]]
 
''A useful thing to consider:''
<div style="font-size: xx-large; font-weight: bold; text-align: center; margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%">Most people don’t know English.</div>
----
''Another useful thing to consider:''

{{Quote|“Ask him to point to where he thinks the monkey is going to go.”

“[[Pirahã people|They]] don’t point,” [[Daniel Everett|Everett]] said. Nor, he added, do they have words for [[Relative direction#Left-right confusion|right and left]]. Instead, they give directions in absolute terms, telling others to head “upriver” or “downriver,” or “to the forest” or “away from the forest.” Everett told the man to say whether the monkey was going upriver or downriver. The man said something in reply.

“What did he say?” [[Tecumseh Fitch|Fitch]] asked.

“He said, ‘Monkeys go to the jungle.’ ”|[[John Colapinto]]|''[http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2007/04/16/070416fa_fact_colapinto The Interpreter - Has a remote Amazonian tribe upended our understanding of language?]'', The New Yorker, April 16, 2007}}

<hr>

MediaWiki has been installed.

Consult the [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Help:Contents User's Guide] for information on using the wiki software.

== Getting started ==
* [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Configuration_settings Configuration settings list]
* [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Manual:FAQ MediaWiki FAQ]
* [https://lists.wikimedia.org/mailman/listinfo/mediawiki-announce MediaWiki release mailing list]
* [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Localisation#Translation_resources Localise MediaWiki for your language]
* [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Combating_spam Learn how to combat spam on your wiki]

I am Hembram Bakhul . I working Wikipedia.

__NOTOC____NOEDITSECTION__
<div style="background-color: #E0FFFF; border: solid 1px #00a5ff; padding: 1em;">
<div class="usermessage">''' ᱛᱮᱦᱮᱧ [[{{CURRENTDAY}}]] [[{{CURRENTMONTHNAME}}]] ([[{{CURRENTDAYNAME}}]]), [[{{CURRENTYEAR}}]]'''</div>
{{userbox
| image = File:Raghunath Murmu.JPG
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| id = [[Image:India flag-XL-anim.gif|60x43px]]
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| info = ᱱᱩᱭ [[:m:Wikimedian|ᱣᱤᱠᱤᱯᱤᱰᱤᱭᱟᱱ]] ᱫᱚ '''[[ᱥᱤᱧᱚᱛ|ᱥᱤᱧᱚᱛ ᱨᱮᱱᱟᱜ ᱟᱹᱯᱱᱟᱹᱛ]]''' ᱨᱮᱱ ᱱᱟᱜᱚᱨᱤᱠ ᱠᱟᱱᱟᱭ ᱾
| info-c = ivory
| usercategory =
| nocat = {{{nocat|}}}
}}

ᱤᱧ ᱵᱤᱫᱩ ᱦᱮᱢᱵᱨᱚᱢ( BIDU HEMBRAM) ᱤᱧ "Hembram Bakhul" ᱧᱩᱛᱩᱢ ᱛᱮ ᱣᱤᱠᱤᱯᱤᱰᱤᱭᱟ ᱥᱟᱞᱟᱜ ᱡᱚᱯᱨᱟᱣ ᱢᱮᱱᱟᱧᱟ,

ᱤᱧᱟᱝ

ᱟᱹᱛᱩ ᱧᱩᱛᱩᱢ= ᱮᱛᱚᱢ ᱵᱷᱩᱨᱩᱨᱵᱚᱱᱤ

ᱯ.ᱳ = ᱵᱟᱞᱤᱜᱮᱨᱤᱭᱟ

ᱛᱷᱟᱱᱟ = ᱱᱟᱭᱟᱜᱨᱟᱢ

ᱡᱮᱞᱟ = ᱡᱷᱟᱲᱜᱨᱟᱢ

ᱯᱚᱱᱚᱛ= ᱯᱚᱪᱷᱤᱢ ᱵᱟᱸᱜᱽᱞᱟ

ᱫᱤᱥᱚᱢ= ᱥᱤᱧᱚᱛ[[Image:Vortex-street-animation.gif|100px]][[File:Animalibrí.gif|40px]]

</div>

Bharatpedia:Requests for permissions/Template editor

2021-09-08T10:58:34Z

Hembram Bakhul:

==={{anchor|rperm-templateeditor}}Template editor===
{{Bharatpedia:Requests for permissions/Subpage|shortcut=TE|subpage=Template_editor|preload=yes|notice=<noinclude>
'''See [[Bharatpedia:Template editor#Guidelines for granting|Bharatpedia:Template editor]] for the granting guidelines.'''
*Applicants should show some evidence that they generally meet the guidelines outlined there, and have a demonstrated need for the right.
*Please note, most templates are not protected and can be edited without this access.
*If a template you frequently edit had its protection level recently changed, ask the protecting admin if lowering the protection level is an option.
</noinclude>}}


GIVE NE PERMISSION I have made around 590 edits and created over 400 articles and planning to create more articles related to Indian politicians, YouTubers, and famous people. None of my articles has been tagged with anything thus far. Due to that, I want autopatrolled to help decrease the backlog for NPP reviewers by getting the user right. [[User:Hembram Bakhul|Hembram Bakhul]] ([[User talk:Hembram Bakhul|talk]]) 16:28, 8 September 2021 (IST) Hembram Bakhul

Bharatpedia:Requests for permissions/Rollback

2021-09-08T10:57:04Z

Hembram Bakhul:

===Rollback===
{{Bharatpedia:Requests for permissions/Subpage|shortcut=R|subpage=Rollback|notice=<noinclude>
Please review '''[[Bharatpedia:Rollback]]''' before making a request. Applicants with fewer than '''{{Bharatpedia:Rollback/Mainspace count}} [[Bharatpedia:What is an article?#Namespace|mainspace]] edits''' are unlikely to be granted this right. More importantly, applicants must have a '''measurable track record''' of counter-vandalism and no recent history of edit warring. The [[Bharatpedia:Counter-Vandalism Unit/Academy|counter-vandalism training program]] is available if you wish to gain experience in handling vandalism.
</noinclude>}}


====[[User:Hembram Bakhul]]====
* {{rfplinks|1=Hembram Bakhul}}
:Reason for requesting rollback rights [[User:Hembram Bakhul|Hembram Bakhul]] ([[User talk:Hembram Bakhul|talk]]) 16:27, 8 September 2021 (IST)
I have made around 590 edits and created over 400 articles and planning to create more articles related to Indian politicians, YouTubers, and famous people. None of my articles has been tagged with anything thus far. Due to that, I want autopatrolled to help decrease the backlog for NPP reviewers by getting the user right. [[User:Hembram Bakhul|Hembram Bakhul]] ([[User talk:Hembram Bakhul|talk]]) 16:27, 8 September 2021 (IST) Hembram Bakhul

Bharatpedia:Requests for permissions/Administrator instructions

2021-09-08T10:51:07Z

Hembram Bakhul: Created page with "I have made around 590 edits and created over 400 articles and planning to create more articles related to Indian politicians, YouTubers, and famous people. None of my article..."

I have made around 590 edits and created over 400 articles and planning to create more articles related to Indian politicians, YouTubers, and famous people. None of my articles has been tagged with anything thus far. Due to that, I want autopatrolled to help decrease the backlog for NPP reviewers by getting .

[[User:Hembram Bakhul|Hembram Bakhul]] ([[User talk:Hembram Bakhul|talk]]) 16:20, 8 September 2021 (IST) Hembram Bakhul

User:Hembram Bakhul

2021-09-08T10:42:02Z

Hembram Bakhul:

{{People
|Name=Bidu Hembram
|Nationality=Indian
|Occupation=Activist , Writer
|citizenship=Indian people
}}
{{Administrator topicon}}
{{Interface administrator topicon}}
{{Checkuser topicon}}
{{Bureaucrat topicon}}
[[File:Spinning Ashoka Chakra.gif|right|200px]]
[[File:Dwarf by BrokenMachine86.jpg|thumb|250px|A WikiDwarf, ready to repair any damage made by a WikiGoblin|right]]
 
''A useful thing to consider:''
<div style="font-size: xx-large; font-weight: bold; text-align: center; margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%">Most people don’t know English.</div>
----
''Another useful thing to consider:''

{{Quote|“Ask him to point to where he thinks the monkey is going to go.”

“[[Pirahã people|They]] don’t point,” [[Daniel Everett|Everett]] said. Nor, he added, do they have words for [[Relative direction#Left-right confusion|right and left]]. Instead, they give directions in absolute terms, telling others to head “upriver” or “downriver,” or “to the forest” or “away from the forest.” Everett told the man to say whether the monkey was going upriver or downriver. The man said something in reply.

“What did he say?” [[Tecumseh Fitch|Fitch]] asked.

“He said, ‘Monkeys go to the jungle.’ ”|[[John Colapinto]]|''[http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2007/04/16/070416fa_fact_colapinto The Interpreter - Has a remote Amazonian tribe upended our understanding of language?]'', The New Yorker, April 16, 2007}}

<hr>

MediaWiki has been installed.

Consult the [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Help:Contents User's Guide] for information on using the wiki software.

== Getting started ==
* [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Configuration_settings Configuration settings list]
* [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Manual:FAQ MediaWiki FAQ]
* [https://lists.wikimedia.org/mailman/listinfo/mediawiki-announce MediaWiki release mailing list]
* [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Localisation#Translation_resources Localise MediaWiki for your language]
* [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Combating_spam Learn how to combat spam on your wiki]

I am Hembram Bakhul . I working Wikipedia.

__NOTOC____NOEDITSECTION__
<div style="background-color: #E0FFFF; border: solid 1px #00a5ff; padding: 1em;">
<div class="usermessage">''' ᱛᱮᱦᱮᱧ [[{{CURRENTDAY}}]] [[{{CURRENTMONTHNAME}}]] ([[{{CURRENTDAYNAME}}]]), [[{{CURRENTYEAR}}]]'''</div>
{{userbox
| image = File:Raghunath Murmu.JPG
| border-c = orange
| id = [[Image:India flag-XL-anim.gif|60x43px]]
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| info = ᱱᱩᱭ [[:m:Wikimedian|ᱣᱤᱠᱤᱯᱤᱰᱤᱭᱟᱱ]] ᱫᱚ '''[[ᱥᱤᱧᱚᱛ|ᱥᱤᱧᱚᱛ ᱨᱮᱱᱟᱜ ᱟᱹᱯᱱᱟᱹᱛ]]''' ᱨᱮᱱ ᱱᱟᱜᱚᱨᱤᱠ ᱠᱟᱱᱟᱭ ᱾
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ᱤᱧ ᱵᱤᱫᱩ ᱦᱮᱢᱵᱨᱚᱢ( BIDU HEMBRAM) ᱤᱧ "Hembram Bakhul" ᱧᱩᱛᱩᱢ ᱛᱮ ᱣᱤᱠᱤᱯᱤᱰᱤᱭᱟ ᱥᱟᱞᱟᱜ ᱡᱚᱯᱨᱟᱣ ᱢᱮᱱᱟᱧᱟ,

ᱤᱧᱟᱝ

ᱟᱹᱛᱩ ᱧᱩᱛᱩᱢ= ᱮᱛᱚᱢ ᱵᱷᱩᱨᱩᱨᱵᱚᱱᱤ

ᱯ.ᱳ = ᱵᱟᱞᱤᱜᱮᱨᱤᱭᱟ

ᱛᱷᱟᱱᱟ = ᱱᱟᱭᱟᱜᱨᱟᱢ

ᱡᱮᱞᱟ = ᱡᱷᱟᱲᱜᱨᱟᱢ

ᱯᱚᱱᱚᱛ= ᱯᱚᱪᱷᱤᱢ ᱵᱟᱸᱜᱽᱞᱟ

ᱫᱤᱥᱚᱢ= ᱥᱤᱧᱚᱛ[[Image:Vortex-street-animation.gif|100px]][[File:Animalibrí.gif|40px]]

</div>

User:Hembram Bakhul

2021-09-08T10:39:12Z

Hembram Bakhul:

{{Administrator topicon}}
{{Interface administrator topicon}}
{{Checkuser topicon}}
{{Bureaucrat topicon}}
[[File:Spinning Ashoka Chakra.gif|right|200px]]
[[File:Dwarf by BrokenMachine86.jpg|thumb|250px|A WikiDwarf, ready to repair any damage made by a WikiGoblin|right]]
 
''A useful thing to consider:''
<div style="font-size: xx-large; font-weight: bold; text-align: center; margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%">Most people don’t know English.</div>
----
''Another useful thing to consider:''

{{Quote|“Ask him to point to where he thinks the monkey is going to go.”

“[[Pirahã people|They]] don’t point,” [[Daniel Everett|Everett]] said. Nor, he added, do they have words for [[Relative direction#Left-right confusion|right and left]]. Instead, they give directions in absolute terms, telling others to head “upriver” or “downriver,” or “to the forest” or “away from the forest.” Everett told the man to say whether the monkey was going upriver or downriver. The man said something in reply.

“What did he say?” [[Tecumseh Fitch|Fitch]] asked.

“He said, ‘Monkeys go to the jungle.’ ”|[[John Colapinto]]|''[http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2007/04/16/070416fa_fact_colapinto The Interpreter - Has a remote Amazonian tribe upended our understanding of language?]'', The New Yorker, April 16, 2007}}

<hr>

MediaWiki has been installed.

Consult the [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Help:Contents User's Guide] for information on using the wiki software.

== Getting started ==
* [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Configuration_settings Configuration settings list]
* [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Manual:FAQ MediaWiki FAQ]
* [https://lists.wikimedia.org/mailman/listinfo/mediawiki-announce MediaWiki release mailing list]
* [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Localisation#Translation_resources Localise MediaWiki for your language]
* [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Combating_spam Learn how to combat spam on your wiki]

I am Hembram Bakhul . I working Wikipedia.

__NOTOC____NOEDITSECTION__
<div style="background-color: #E0FFFF; border: solid 1px #00a5ff; padding: 1em;">
<div class="usermessage">''' ᱛᱮᱦᱮᱧ [[{{CURRENTDAY}}]] [[{{CURRENTMONTHNAME}}]] ([[{{CURRENTDAYNAME}}]]), [[{{CURRENTYEAR}}]]'''</div>
{{userbox
| image = File:Raghunath Murmu.JPG
| border-c = orange
| id = [[Image:India flag-XL-anim.gif|60x43px]]
| id-c = ivory
| id-w = 60
| info = ᱱᱩᱭ [[:m:Wikimedian|ᱣᱤᱠᱤᱯᱤᱰᱤᱭᱟᱱ]] ᱫᱚ '''[[ᱥᱤᱧᱚᱛ|ᱥᱤᱧᱚᱛ ᱨᱮᱱᱟᱜ ᱟᱹᱯᱱᱟᱹᱛ]]''' ᱨᱮᱱ ᱱᱟᱜᱚᱨᱤᱠ ᱠᱟᱱᱟᱭ ᱾
| info-c = ivory
| usercategory =
| nocat = {{{nocat|}}}
}}

ᱤᱧ ᱵᱤᱫᱩ ᱦᱮᱢᱵᱨᱚᱢ( BIDU HEMBRAM) ᱤᱧ "Hembram Bakhul" ᱧᱩᱛᱩᱢ ᱛᱮ ᱣᱤᱠᱤᱯᱤᱰᱤᱭᱟ ᱥᱟᱞᱟᱜ ᱡᱚᱯᱨᱟᱣ ᱢᱮᱱᱟᱧᱟ,

ᱤᱧᱟᱝ

ᱟᱹᱛᱩ ᱧᱩᱛᱩᱢ= ᱮᱛᱚᱢ ᱵᱷᱩᱨᱩᱨᱵᱚᱱᱤ

ᱯ.ᱳ = ᱵᱟᱞᱤᱜᱮᱨᱤᱭᱟ

ᱛᱷᱟᱱᱟ = ᱱᱟᱭᱟᱜᱨᱟᱢ

ᱡᱮᱞᱟ = ᱡᱷᱟᱲᱜᱨᱟᱢ

ᱯᱚᱱᱚᱛ= ᱯᱚᱪᱷᱤᱢ ᱵᱟᱸᱜᱽᱞᱟ

ᱫᱤᱥᱚᱢ= ᱥᱤᱧᱚᱛ[[Image:Vortex-street-animation.gif|100px]][[File:Animalibrí.gif|40px]]

</div>

User:Hembram Bakhul

2021-09-04T15:11:02Z

Hembram Bakhul:

[[File:Spinning Ashoka Chakra.gif|right|200px]]
[[File:Dwarf by BrokenMachine86.jpg|thumb|250px|A WikiDwarf, ready to repair any damage made by a WikiGoblin|right]]
 
''A useful thing to consider:''
<div style="font-size: xx-large; font-weight: bold; text-align: center; margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%">Most people don’t know English.</div>
----
''Another useful thing to consider:''

{{Quote|“Ask him to point to where he thinks the monkey is going to go.”

“[[Pirahã people|They]] don’t point,” [[Daniel Everett|Everett]] said. Nor, he added, do they have words for [[Relative direction#Left-right confusion|right and left]]. Instead, they give directions in absolute terms, telling others to head “upriver” or “downriver,” or “to the forest” or “away from the forest.” Everett told the man to say whether the monkey was going upriver or downriver. The man said something in reply.

“What did he say?” [[Tecumseh Fitch|Fitch]] asked.

“He said, ‘Monkeys go to the jungle.’ ”|[[John Colapinto]]|''[http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2007/04/16/070416fa_fact_colapinto The Interpreter - Has a remote Amazonian tribe upended our understanding of language?]'', The New Yorker, April 16, 2007}}

<hr>

MediaWiki has been installed.

Consult the [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Help:Contents User's Guide] for information on using the wiki software.

== Getting started ==
* [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Configuration_settings Configuration settings list]
* [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Manual:FAQ MediaWiki FAQ]
* [https://lists.wikimedia.org/mailman/listinfo/mediawiki-announce MediaWiki release mailing list]
* [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Localisation#Translation_resources Localise MediaWiki for your language]
* [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Combating_spam Learn how to combat spam on your wiki]

I am Hembram Bakhul . I working Wikipedia.

__NOTOC____NOEDITSECTION__
<div style="background-color: #E0FFFF; border: solid 1px #00a5ff; padding: 1em;">
<div class="usermessage">''' ᱛᱮᱦᱮᱧ [[{{CURRENTDAY}}]] [[{{CURRENTMONTHNAME}}]] ([[{{CURRENTDAYNAME}}]]), [[{{CURRENTYEAR}}]]'''</div>
{{userbox
| image = File:Raghunath Murmu.JPG
| border-c = orange
| id = [[Image:India flag-XL-anim.gif|60x43px]]
| id-c = ivory
| id-w = 60
| info = ᱱᱩᱭ [[:m:Wikimedian|ᱣᱤᱠᱤᱯᱤᱰᱤᱭᱟᱱ]] ᱫᱚ '''[[ᱥᱤᱧᱚᱛ|ᱥᱤᱧᱚᱛ ᱨᱮᱱᱟᱜ ᱟᱹᱯᱱᱟᱹᱛ]]''' ᱨᱮᱱ ᱱᱟᱜᱚᱨᱤᱠ ᱠᱟᱱᱟᱭ ᱾
| info-c = ivory
| usercategory =
| nocat = {{{nocat|}}}
}}

ᱤᱧ ᱵᱤᱫᱩ ᱦᱮᱢᱵᱨᱚᱢ( BIDU HEMBRAM) ᱤᱧ "Hembram Bakhul" ᱧᱩᱛᱩᱢ ᱛᱮ ᱣᱤᱠᱤᱯᱤᱰᱤᱭᱟ ᱥᱟᱞᱟᱜ ᱡᱚᱯᱨᱟᱣ ᱢᱮᱱᱟᱧᱟ,

ᱤᱧᱟᱝ

ᱟᱹᱛᱩ ᱧᱩᱛᱩᱢ= ᱮᱛᱚᱢ ᱵᱷᱩᱨᱩᱨᱵᱚᱱᱤ

ᱯ.ᱳ = ᱵᱟᱞᱤᱜᱮᱨᱤᱭᱟ

ᱛᱷᱟᱱᱟ = ᱱᱟᱭᱟᱜᱨᱟᱢ

ᱡᱮᱞᱟ = ᱡᱷᱟᱲᱜᱨᱟᱢ

ᱯᱚᱱᱚᱛ= ᱯᱚᱪᱷᱤᱢ ᱵᱟᱸᱜᱽᱞᱟ

ᱫᱤᱥᱚᱢ= ᱥᱤᱧᱚᱛ[[Image:Vortex-street-animation.gif|100px]][[File:Animalibrí.gif|40px]]

</div>

User talk:Kishanukarmakar

2021-08-27T13:28:00Z

Hembram Bakhul: /* Your article is self promotional */ new section

{{Template:Welcome|realName=|name=Kishanukarmakar}}

-- [[User:ShoutWiki|ShoutWiki]] ([[User talk:ShoutWiki|talk]]) 12:33, 29 June 2021 (IST)

== India edit-a-thon: Write for glory ==

[[File:Spinning Ashoka Chakra.gif|right|200px]]
Hello, {{NAME}}, and welcome to Bharatpedia! Thank you for [[Special:Contributions/{{PAGENAME}}|your contributions]]. Bharatpedia is going to organize an edit-a-thon. The aim of this edit-a-thon is to create and improve articles related to India.

We welcome all of you to join this edit-a-thon and get a chance to win exciting prizes. Please see the event and add your name as a participant: '''[[Bharatpedia:WikiProject India/Events/Edit-a-thon]]'''.

If you have any questions, no matter what they are, leave me a message on [[User talk:{{ {{{|safesubst:}}}REVISIONUSER}}|my talk page]], or ask a question on [[Bharatpedia talk:WikiProject India/Events/Edit-a-thon]]. Oh, and please [[Bharatpedia:Signatures|sign your name]] on talk pages using four tildes (<nowiki>~~~~</nowiki>); this will automatically produce your username and the date. Again, welcome! {{{{{|safesubst:}}}#if:{{{border|}}}|}}
Feel free to ask if you have a question(s).
Regards,


== Your article is self promotional ==

I tolking this about the article. Your article is self promotional. Please delete this article. Self promotional article is not approved or not allowed in Wikipedia.

Ruby Hembrom

2021-08-20T16:19:27Z

Hembram Bakhul:

{{short description|Indian politician}}
{{use dmy dates|date=May 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date = May 2019}}

{{Infobox person
| name = Ruby Hembrom
| citizenship = Indian
| partner = Birbaha Hansda
| occupation = Activist,author
| signature = [[File:Ruby Signature.png|thumb|]]
| nationality = [[Indian people|Indian]]
| image = [[File:Ruby Hembrom.png|thumb|Adivaani Founder]]
| birth_place = [[Jhargram]], [[West Bengal]]
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|2003|06|29|df=y}}
| caption =
}}
'''Ruby Hembrom''' <ref>{{Cite web|title=Lending a Voice - Indian Express|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/lending-a-voice/1107153/0|access-date=2021-08-17|website=archive.indianexpress.com}}</ref>is (born 29 June 2003, '''Birmal Hembrom'''<ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-02-12|title=Women of Worth: About the Nominee - Ruby Hembrom|url=https://sites.ndtv.com/women-of-worth/nominee-ruby-hembrom/|access-date=2021-08-17|website=Women Of Worth|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-07-24|title=adivaani: Documenting The Spirit Of The Adivasis {{!}} TCR|url=https://www.thecuriousreader.in/essays/adivaani/|access-date=2021-08-17|website=The Curious Reader|language=en-GB}}</ref>''';''') an engineer studies turned Indian parliamentarian and the founder of Adivaani Organisations.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Dec 31|first=Sumati Yengkhom / TNN /|last2=2013|last3=Ist|first3=02:48|title=Ruby Hembrom: Voice of the santhals {{!}} Kolkata News - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/voice-of-the-santhals/articleshow/28157778.cms|access-date=2021-08-17|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Stories of the Santhals, by the Santhals|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/culture/stories-of-the-santhals-by-the-santhals/cid/1692518|access-date=2021-08-17|website=www.telegraphindia.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Ruby|first=Hembrom|title=Adivaani word|url=http://old.tehelka.com/in-their-own-words/|url-status=live}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

Ruby Hembrom

2021-08-18T02:03:36Z

Hembram Bakhul: Created page with "{{short description|Indian politician}} {{use dmy dates|date=May 2019}} {{Use Indian English|date = May 2019}} {{Infobox officeholder | name = Ruby Hembrom | s..."

{{short description|Indian politician}}
{{use dmy dates|date=May 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date = May 2019}}

{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Ruby Hembrom
| successor1 =
| pronunciation = Ruby Hembrom
| citizenship = Indian
| partner = Birbaha Hansda
| native_name = Birmal Hembrom
| occupation = Activist, Politician
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| nationality = [[Indian people|Indian]]
| predecessor1 = [[Uma Saren]]
| image = [[File:Ruby Hembrom.png|thumb|Adivaani Founder]]
| term_end1 =
| term_start1 = 23 May 2019
| constituency1 = [[Jhargram (Lok Sabha constituency)|Jhargram]]
| office1 = [[Member of Parliament (India)|Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha]]
| birth_place = [[Jhargram]], [[West Bengal]]
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|2003|06|29|df=y}}
| caption =
| nickname = Birmal Hembrom
}}
'''Ruby Hembrom''' <ref>{{Cite web|title=Lending a Voice - Indian Express|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/lending-a-voice/1107153/0|access-date=2021-08-17|website=archive.indianexpress.com}}</ref>is (born 29 June 2003, '''Birmal Hembrom'''<ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-02-12|title=Women of Worth: About the Nominee - Ruby Hembrom|url=https://sites.ndtv.com/women-of-worth/nominee-ruby-hembrom/|access-date=2021-08-17|website=Women Of Worth|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-07-24|title=adivaani: Documenting The Spirit Of The Adivasis {{!}} TCR|url=https://www.thecuriousreader.in/essays/adivaani/|access-date=2021-08-17|website=The Curious Reader|language=en-GB}}</ref>''';''') an engineer studies turned Indian parliamentarian and Adivaani Organisations founder and ,director . He was elected to the [[Lok Sabha]] (the lower house of the [[Parliament of India]]) from [[Jhargram (Lok Sabha constituency)|Jhargram]], [[West Bengal]] in the [[2019 Indian general election]] as a famous Santal people.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Dec 31|first=Sumati Yengkhom / TNN /|last2=2013|last3=Ist|first3=02:48|title=Ruby Hembrom: Voice of the santhals {{!}} Kolkata News - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/voice-of-the-santhals/articleshow/28157778.cms|access-date=2021-08-17|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Stories of the Santhals, by the Santhals|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/culture/stories-of-the-santhals-by-the-santhals/cid/1692518|access-date=2021-08-17|website=www.telegraphindia.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Ruby|first=Hembrom|title=Adivaani word|url=http://old.tehelka.com/in-their-own-words/|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Biography ==
Hembrom's is nickname Birmal . She is founder and Director of Adivaani organisation. Adivaani organisation is " voice of Santal people's<ref>{{Cite news|last=Bhattacharya|first=Budhaditya|date=2013-08-30|title=A new voice|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/books/a-new-voice/article5075641.ece|access-date=2021-08-18|issn=0971-751X}}</ref>". Hembrom is born [[kolkata]] , <ref>{{Cite web|title=Its time Adivasis wrote, spoke about their anguish- Indian Express|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/-it-s-time-adivasis-wrote-spoke-about-their-anguish-/1071161|url-status=live|access-date=2021-08-18|website=archive.indianexpress.com}}</ref>native village is Bhururbani in Jhargram in west bengal state, in india .

== References ==
{{reflist}}

Adivaani

2021-08-08T05:10:43Z

Hembram Bakhul: Because this person is co-founder but not have news source about to adivaani.

{{short description|Indian fact-checking website}}
{{Infobox website
| name = Adivaani
| logo = Adivaani.png
| logo_size = 100px
| screenshot =
| foundation = 2012
| founder = Ruby Hembrom, Birmal Hembrom
| location_city = [[Kolkata]]
| location_country = India
| products = Web portal
| owner = Adivasi Tribe Foundation
| homepage = {{URL|https:adivaani.org/}}
}}
'''adivaani''' is a platform that aims to support indigenous expression and assertion, based in [[Kolkata]], India. It is a publishing, archiving and chronicling outfit of and by [[Indigenous peoples|indigenous people]] of [[India]]'s [[Adivasi]] Tribes.

== History ==
In April 2012, Birmal Hembrom and Ruby Hembrom attended a four month publishing course,<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Nominee NDTV L’Oreal Paris Women of Worth Awards. 2016.|url=https://sites.ndtv.com/women-of-worth/nominee-ruby-hembrom/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=NDTV}}</ref> and on being confronted by the absence, invisibility and erasure of Adivasi representation in the curriculum and discourse, a common feature in many spaces she had been at, the idea began there.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Chakrabarti|first=Ajachi|date=March 21, 2013|title=In their own words|url=http://old.tehelka.com/in-their-own-words/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=October 16, 2020|website=Tehelka}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=July 24, 2019|title=adivaani: Documenting The Spirit Of The Adivasis|url=https://www.thecuriousreader.in/essays/adivaani/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=October 16, 2020|website=The Curious Reader}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Mishra|first=Garima|date=April 27, 2013|title=Lending a Voice|work=The Indian Express|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/lending-a-voice/1107153/0|url-status=live|access-date=October 16, 2020}}</ref>

adivaani was registered as a [[non-governmental organization]] on 19 July 2012,<ref>{{Cite news|last=Bhattacharya|first=Budhaditya|date=August 30, 2013|title=A new voice|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/books/a-new-voice/article5075641.ece|url-status=live|access-date=October 16, 2020}}</ref> and became operational, and have produced 19 books thus far, including to anthologies.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Shah|first=Manasi|date=June 15, 2013|title=Stories of the Santhals, by the Santhals|work=The Telegraph|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/culture/stories-of-the-santhals-by-the-santhals/cid/1692518?ref=culture_home-template|url-status=live|access-date=October 16, 2020}}</ref>

adivaani is the first publishing outfit of and by [[Indigenous peoples|indigenous people]] of [[India]] to publish in the English language,<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|last=Yengkhom|first=Sumati|date=December 31, 2013|title=Voice of the Santhals|work=The Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/Voice-of-the-santhals/articleshow/28157778.cms|url-status=live|access-date=October 16, 2020}}</ref> Hembrom co-opted two others to collaborate with,<ref>{{Cite news|last=Sircar|first=Sushovan|date=May 18, 2013|title=Adivasi imprints get into print|work=The Telegraph|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/adivasi-imprints-get-into-print-three-amateurs-launch-publishing-house-adivaani/cid/1287206|url-status=live|access-date=October 16, 2020}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> one of whom still remains with adivaani as a [[Volunteering|volunteer]].

== Meaning of adivaani ==
adivaani is a combination of Sanskrit word 'adi' meaning 'first', 'original', 'ancient' or 'earliest', and 'vaani' meaning 'voice'. adivaani translates to the 'first voices'.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Mitra|first=Ipshita|date=September 6, 2019|title=Ruby Hembrom: ‘We never needed to write because we were living documents’|work=The Hindu BusinessLine|url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/blink/know/ruby-hembrom-we-never-needed-to-write-because-we-were-living-documents/article29350425.ece|url-status=live|access-date=October 16, 2020}}</ref>

== Work ==
adivaani aims to document and disseminate knowledge systems, tangible and intangible cultural facets of Adivasis in English and bi-lingual, creating a database of the authentic Adivasi voice, as recounted by them, using diverse [[multimedia]] channels, which can be accessible to indigenous people themselves.

adivaani has made a [[Documentary film|documentary]] film on the making and playing of the Santhal lute and fiddle, the Banam.

adivaani's first two bboks were released at the [[New Delhi World Book Fair]], 2013: [[Gladson Dungdung]]'s 'Whose Country is it anyway?' and, Ruby Hembrom and Boski Jain's 'We Come from the Geese'.

The theme of the book fair was 'Indigenous Voices: Mapping India's [[Folklore|Folk]] and Tribal Literature'.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Kotamraju|first=Priyanka|date=February 8, 2013|title=It’s time Adivasis spoke about their anguish|work=The Indian Express|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/-it-s-time-adivasis-wrote-spoke-about-their-anguish-/1071161|url-status=live|access-date=October 16, 2020}}</ref>

== References ==
<references />

== External links ==
* https://adivaani.org/
* Wessler, Heinz Werner. (June 3, 2020). [http://uu.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1438478/FULLTEXT02.pdf From marginalisation to rediscovery of identity: Dalit and Adivasi voices in Hindi literature.] Studia Neophilologica. Argington; Routledge, [[Taylor & Francis|Taylor and Francis]] Group.
* Dungdung, Gladson. (February 5, 2020). [https://www.iwgia.org/en/india/3536-nrc-impact-adivasis.html Indian citizenship laws have deep impact on Adivasis] . IWGIA.
* Dasgupta, Sangeeta. (September, 2018). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327595137_Adivasi_studies_From_a_historian%27s_perspective Adivasi studies: From a historian's perspective]. History Compass. Wiley.

[[Category:Adivasi]]

Adivaani

2021-08-07T15:09:09Z

Hembram Bakhul: Fix infobox

{{short description|Indian fact-checking website}}
{{Infobox website
| name = Adivaani
| logo = [[File:Adivaani.png|thumb|adivaani]]
| logo_size = 100px
| screenshot =
| foundation = 2012
| founder = Ruby Hembrom, Birmal Hembrom
| location_city = [[Kolkata]]
| location_country = India
| products = Web portal
| owner = Adivasi Tribe Foundation
| homepage = {{URL|https:adivaani.org/}}
}}
'''adivaani''' is a platform that aims to support indigenous expression and assertion, based in [[Kolkata]], India. It is a publishing, archiving and chronicling outfit of and by [[Indigenous peoples|indigenous people]] of [[India]]'s [[Adivasi]] Tribes.

== History ==
In April 2012, Birmal Hembrom and Ruby Hembrom attended a four month publishing course,<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Nominee NDTV L’Oreal Paris Women of Worth Awards. 2016.|url=https://sites.ndtv.com/women-of-worth/nominee-ruby-hembrom/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=NDTV}}</ref> and on being confronted by the absence, invisibility and erasure of Adivasi representation in the curriculum and discourse, a common feature in many spaces she had been at, the idea began there.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Chakrabarti|first=Ajachi|date=March 21, 2013|title=In their own words|url=http://old.tehelka.com/in-their-own-words/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=October 16, 2020|website=Tehelka}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=July 24, 2019|title=adivaani: Documenting The Spirit Of The Adivasis|url=https://www.thecuriousreader.in/essays/adivaani/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=October 16, 2020|website=The Curious Reader}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Mishra|first=Garima|date=April 27, 2013|title=Lending a Voice|work=The Indian Express|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/lending-a-voice/1107153/0|url-status=live|access-date=October 16, 2020}}</ref>

adivaani was registered as a [[non-governmental organization]] on 19 July 2012,<ref>{{Cite news|last=Bhattacharya|first=Budhaditya|date=August 30, 2013|title=A new voice|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/books/a-new-voice/article5075641.ece|url-status=live|access-date=October 16, 2020}}</ref> and became operational, and have produced 19 books thus far, including to anthologies.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Shah|first=Manasi|date=June 15, 2013|title=Stories of the Santhals, by the Santhals|work=The Telegraph|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/culture/stories-of-the-santhals-by-the-santhals/cid/1692518?ref=culture_home-template|url-status=live|access-date=October 16, 2020}}</ref>

adivaani is the first publishing outfit of and by [[Indigenous peoples|indigenous people]] of [[India]] to publish in the English language,<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|last=Yengkhom|first=Sumati|date=December 31, 2013|title=Voice of the Santhals|work=The Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/Voice-of-the-santhals/articleshow/28157778.cms|url-status=live|access-date=October 16, 2020}}</ref> Hembrom co-opted two others to collaborate with,<ref>{{Cite news|last=Sircar|first=Sushovan|date=May 18, 2013|title=Adivasi imprints get into print|work=The Telegraph|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/adivasi-imprints-get-into-print-three-amateurs-launch-publishing-house-adivaani/cid/1287206|url-status=live|access-date=October 16, 2020}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> one of whom still remains with adivaani as a [[Volunteering|volunteer]].

== Meaning of adivaani ==
adivaani is a combination of Sanskrit word 'adi' meaning 'first', 'original', 'ancient' or 'earliest', and 'vaani' meaning 'voice'. adivaani translates to the 'first voices'.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Mitra|first=Ipshita|date=September 6, 2019|title=Ruby Hembrom: ‘We never needed to write because we were living documents’|work=The Hindu BusinessLine|url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/blink/know/ruby-hembrom-we-never-needed-to-write-because-we-were-living-documents/article29350425.ece|url-status=live|access-date=October 16, 2020}}</ref>

== Work ==
adivaani aims to document and disseminate knowledge systems, tangible and intangible cultural facets of Adivasis in English and bi-lingual, creating a database of the authentic Adivasi voice, as recounted by them, using diverse [[multimedia]] channels, which can be accessible to indigenous people themselves.

adivaani has made a [[Documentary film|documentary]] film on the making and playing of the Santhal lute and fiddle, the Banam.

adivaani's first two bboks were released at the [[New Delhi World Book Fair]], 2013: [[Gladson Dungdung]]'s 'Whose Country is it anyway?' and, Ruby Hembrom and Boski Jain's 'We Come from the Geese'.

The theme of the book fair was 'Indigenous Voices: Mapping India's [[Folklore|Folk]] and Tribal Literature'.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Kotamraju|first=Priyanka|date=February 8, 2013|title=It’s time Adivasis spoke about their anguish|work=The Indian Express|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/-it-s-time-adivasis-wrote-spoke-about-their-anguish-/1071161|url-status=live|access-date=October 16, 2020}}</ref>

== References ==
<references />

== External links ==
* https://adivaani.org/
* Wessler, Heinz Werner. (June 3, 2020). [http://uu.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1438478/FULLTEXT02.pdf From marginalisation to rediscovery of identity: Dalit and Adivasi voices in Hindi literature.] Studia Neophilologica. Argington; Routledge, [[Taylor & Francis|Taylor and Francis]] Group.
* Dungdung, Gladson. (February 5, 2020). [https://www.iwgia.org/en/india/3536-nrc-impact-adivasis.html Indian citizenship laws have deep impact on Adivasis] . IWGIA.
* Dasgupta, Sangeeta. (September, 2018). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327595137_Adivasi_studies_From_a_historian%27s_perspective Adivasi studies: From a historian's perspective]. History Compass. Wiley.

[[Category:Adivasi]]

R. Siva Kumar

2021-08-03T05:00:17Z

Hembram Bakhul: Created page with "{{short description|Contemporary Indian art historian art-critic and curator}} {{EngvarB|date=August 2014}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2014}} {{Infobox person | name..."

{{short description|Contemporary Indian art historian art-critic and curator}}
{{EngvarB|date=August 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2014}}

{{Infobox person
| name = R. Siva Kumar
| image = Art Historian R. Siva Kumar.jpg
| caption = R . Siva Kumar lecturing at the opening of [[The Last Harvest : Paintings of Rabindranath Tagore]], [[Museum of Asian Art]], Berlin (2012).
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1956|12|3}}
| birth_place = [[Kerala]], India
| occupation = [[Art historian]], [[art critic]] and [[curator]]; [[Principal (academia)|principal]] of [[Kala Bhavana]]
| nationality = {{Ind}}n
| notable_works = ''[[Rabindra Chitravali]]'' (2011), [[The Last Harvest : Paintings of Rabindranath Tagore]] (2012)
| education =[[Kendriya Vidyalaya Pattom]] [[Visva-Bharati University]]
| alma_mater = [[Kendriya Vidyalaya Pattom]] [[Visva-Bharati University]]
|other_names = Raman Siva Kumar
| movement = [[Bengal school of art]] [[Contextual Modernism]]
| spouse = [[Mini Sivakumar]]
| children = [[Siddharth Sivakumar]] (Son)
| awards =
| influences =
| influenced =
| signature =
| website =
| portaldisp =
}}

'''Raman Siva Kumar''' (born 3 December 1956), well known as '''R. Siva Kumar''', is an Indian contemporary [[art historian]], [[art critic]], and [[curator]]. R. Siva Kumar's major research has been in the area of early Indian modernism with special focus on the [[Santiniketan School]]. He has written several important books, lectured widely on modern [[Indian art]] and contributed articles to prestigious international projects such as the ''[[Art Journal (CAA)|Art Journal]]'',<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=777856|title=Modern Indian Art: A Brief Overview|first=R. Siva|last=Kumar|date=1 January 1999|journal=Art Journal|volume=58|issue=3|pages=14–21|doi=10.2307/777856}}</ref> [[Grove Art Online]] or ''[[The Dictionary of Art]]'', [[Oxford University Press]].<ref>http://museumstudies.si.edu/tagore_schedule_final.pdf</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iaac.us/erasing_borders2008/marg.htm |title=Erasing Borders:Passport to Contemporary Indian Art Feb–June 2008 |publisher=Iaac.us |access-date=9 January 2014}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aaa.org.hk/Diaaalogue/Details/928 |title=The Curatorial Imperative Mohd Ahmad Sabih, Researcher for India | Asia Art Archive |publisher=Aaa.org.hk |access-date=9 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/fr/2009/01/23/stories/2009012350830400.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140109063500/http://www.hindu.com/fr/2009/01/23/stories/2009012350830400.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=9 January 2014 |title=Friday Review Thiruvananthapuram / Interview : Insightful views |date=23 January 2009 |access-date=9 January 2014 |work=[[The Hindu]] |location=Chennai, India}}</ref>

He was awarded the Kesari puraskaram for art writing by the [[Lalit Kala Akademi]], Kerala in 2010.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://hindu.com/thehindu/thscrip/print.pl?file=2010020752120300.htm&date=2010/02/07/&prd=th& | location=Chennai, India | work=The Hindu | title=Lalithakala Akademi awards}}</ref><ref>http://www.guildindia.com/News/StateawardsofLalitKalaAkademi,Kerala2010.pdf</ref>
He has also curated major exhibitions like [[Santiniketan: The Making of a Contextual Modernism]], and [[The Last Harvest : Paintings of Rabindranath Tagore]] and retrospectives of important Indian artists, such as [[Rabindranath Tagore]], [[Benode Behari Mukherjee]](co-curated with [[Ghulam Mohammed Sheikh]]), [[K. G. Subramanyan]].
He also has co-curated an exhibition titled "Tryst with Destiny" for the Singapore Art Museum to mark the 50 years of Indian Independence and served as a curatorial adviser for Rhythms of India: The Art of [[Nandalal Bose]] curated by Sonia Rhie Quintanilla for the [[San Diego Museum of Art]].

== Early life and education ==
R. Siva Kumar was born in [[Kerala]]. After completing his early education in [[Pune]] and [[Kerala]] he moved to [[Santiniketan]], where he joined [[Kala Bhavan]] and completed his MFA in [[history of art]].

== Career ==
Since 1981, Professor Siva Kumar, who is often considered to be "the most erudite and self-effacing art historian"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bangaloremirror.com/columns/others/What-you-see-when-you-see-Freedom-through-the-eyes-of-artists/articleshow/48485757.cms|title=What you see when you see: Freedom through the eyes of artists – Bangalore Mirror -}}</ref> of his time, has been teaching [[art history]] at [[Kala Bhavana]], where he has held several offices, including that of the Principal.<ref>{{cite news |title=ADVENTURES IN ARCADIA- Experiments with the life of the mind|author=Ananya Vajpeyi |url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1130303/jsp/opinion/story_16620913.jsp#.UUH2_hdTCHg |publisher=The Telegraph|date=3 March 2013 |access-date=14 March 2013 |location=Calcutta, India}}</ref> His writings on [[Abanindranath Tagore]] and the [[Santiniketan]] artists have contributed a new perspective on them by shifting the critical focus from nationalist revivalism to a context sensitive modernism. Among his curated exhibitions [[Santiniketan: The Making of a Contextual Modernism]] commissioned to mark the fifty years of Indian independence, ''Benodebehari: A Centenary Retrospective'' (co-curated with [[Ghulam Mohammed Sheikh]]) and ''[[The Last Harvest : Paintings of Rabindranath Tagore]]'' commissioned to mark the 150th birth anniversary of Tagore are considered landmark exhibitions. The reputed Indian Magazine, [[Frontline (magazine)|Frontline]] reported, "The best show was the one (celebrating 50 years of Indian Independence) curated by R. Siva Kumar of Santiniketan, 'The Making of a Contextual Modernism', exhibiting about a hundred works each of [[Nandalal Bose]], [[Rabindranath Tagore]], [[Ram Kinker Baij]] and [[Benode Behari Mukherjee]]".<ref>[http://www.frontlineonnet.com/fl1418/14180690.htm] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071017195415/http://www.frontlineonnet.com/fl1418/14180690.htm |date=17 October 2007 }}</ref> While [[The Last Harvest : Paintings of Rabindranath Tagore]] was shown at ten major museums of the world including the [[Museum of Asian Art]], Berlin; [[Asia Society]], New York; [[National Museum of Korea]], [[Seoul]]; [[Victoria and Albert Museum]], London; [[The Art Institute of Chicago]], Chicago; [[Petit Palais]], Paris; [[National Gallery of Modern Art]], Rome; [[National Visual Arts Gallery (Malaysia)|National Visual Arts Gallery]], Kuala Lumpur; [[McMichael Canadian Art Collection]], Ontario; and [[National Gallery of Modern Art]], [[Delhi]].

In a review of [[Rabindra Chitravali]] in ''[[The Statesman (India)|The Statesman]]'', German scholar [[Martin Kämpchen]] ([[:de:Martin Kämpchen|de]]) writes, "It collects excellently faithful reproductions of Rabindranath's paintings in large format. The editor, [[Kala Bhavan]]'s art historian, Prof R . Siva Kumar, has spent his entire working life researching the Bengal School of Art, especially the [[Santiniketan]] crop of painters. This is the crowning achievement in this hard-working and self-effacing scholar's career."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.martin-kaempchen.de/?page_id=258|title=Three Crown Jewels I. The Entire Pictorial Oeuvre Of Tagore|publisher=The Statesman (Calcutta) (Reproduced on www.martin-kaempchen.de)|date=4 September 2011}}</ref>

For the [[Royal Asiatic Society]], [[Cambridge Journals]], [[W. Andrew Robinson]] wrote, "The unparalleled quality of the volumes' reproductions, made from new scans of the original works
kept in [[Santiniketan]], in New Delhi and elsewhere, and printed by India's leading art printer, Pragati
Offset, based in Hyderabad, is thrillingly good. [[Rabindra Chitravali]]: Paintings of [[Rabindranath Tagore]] is
surely one of the finest art books to have been produced in [[India]].<ref name="andrew-robinson1">http://andrew-robinson.org/uploads/REVIEW_OF_PAINTINGS_OF_TAGORE.pdf</ref>

Closely associated with the critical traditions of the [[Santiniketan]] his writings on [[Abanindranath]] and the [[Santiniketan]] artists have been recognised as making an important contribution to the reassessment and critical reception of these artists. Reviewing his book ''[[Paintings of Abanindranath Tagore]]'' Tapati Guha Takurta wrote: ‘With this magnum opus on [[Abanindranath Tagore]], Siva Kumar can be seen to have traversed full circle within this particular lineage of art practice and art writing in Bengal. An art historical journey that began with and has continuously returned to the work of [[K. G. Subramanyan]], has tracked its course backwards in time to mark out its significant inheritance, not just of the [[Santiniketan]] masters ([[Nandalal Bose]], [[Rabindranath Tagore]], [[Benode Behari Mukherjee]] and [[Ramkinkar Baij]]), but also in the little-known oeuvre of the later [[Abanindranath]].'<ref>Bengal Art: New Perspectives, Pratiksha, Kolkata 2010, {{ISBN|978-81-89323-11-0}}, p .29</ref>

In 2013 he was awarded by the [[Paschimbanga Bangla Akademi]] for his book ''Ram Kinkar Baij – A Retrospective''.

R. Siva Kumar also received a special award from the [[University of Dhaka]] for his contribution to the Indian art scene.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eprothomalo.com/index.php?opt=view&page=1&date=2013-01-13# |title=eProthomAlo |publisher=eProthomAlo |date=13 January 2013 |access-date=9 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.banglanews24.com/detailsnews.php?nssl=cbf67e2c6401cba2bf3d5483cae4c9d7&nttl=165458|title=banglanews24.com news and entertainment 24x7}}</ref>

== Contextual Modernism ==
In ''[[Santiniketan: The Making of a Contextual Modernism]]'' Siva Kumar introduced the term [[Contextual Modernism]] which later emerged as a [[postcolonial]] critical tool in the understanding of [[Indian art]], specifically the works of [[Nandalal Bose]], [[Rabindranath Tagore]], [[Ram Kinker Baij]] and [[Benode Behari Mukherjee]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl1418/14180690.htm|title=Finding an expression of its own}}</ref>

{{Quotation|The brief survey of the individual works of the core Santiniketan artists and the thought perspectives they open up makes clear that though there were various contact points in the work they were not bound by a continuity of style but buy a community of ideas. Which they not only shared but also interpreted and carried forward. Thus they do not represent a school but a movement.|''Santiniketan: The Making of a Contextual Modernism, 1997''}}

Several terms including [[Paul Gilroy]]’s ''counter culture of modernity'' and [[Tani Barlow]]'s ''Colonial modernity'' have been used to describe the kind of alternative modernity that emerged in non-European contexts. Professor Gall argues that ‘Contextual Modernism’ is a more suited term because “the colonial in ''colonial modernity'' does not accommodate the refusal of many in colonized situations to internalize inferiority. Santiniketan’s artist teachers’ refusal of subordination incorporated a counter vision of modernity, which sought to correct the racial and cultural essentialism that drove and characterized imperial Western modernity and modernism. Those European modernities, projected through a triumphant British colonial power, provoked nationalist responses, equally problematic when they incorporated similar essentialisms.”<ref>http://www.huichawaii.org/assets/gall,-david---overcoming-polarized-modernities.pdf</ref>

== Role in preventing Tagore fakes ==
[[File:R. Siva Kumar being interviewed by a journalist in Dhaka, 2013.jpg|left|350px|thumb|R. Siva Kumar being interviewed by a journalist in Dhaka, 2013]]

R. Siva Kumar, being an authority on [[Tagore]]'s paintings, curator of his largest Exhibition and the author/editor of the most comprehensive reference work on Rabindranath's paintings has played an important role in preventing Tagore-fakes.

In 2011 the [[Government College of Art and Craft]] in Kolkata, under principal Dipali Bhattacharya, had organised an exhibition of 23 Tagore paintings. And later 20 were found to be fake. Siva Kumar, who had already seen digital images of the paintings and, convinced that they were all fakes, had warned the college principal, Dipali Bhattacharya, against holding the exhibition. But Bhattacharya went ahead with the claim that the paintings were "genuine".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.openthemagazine.com/article/arts-letters/we-are-blind-to-beauty|title=We Are Blind to Beauty – OPEN Magazine}}</ref>

“There’s a great market for [[Tagore]]'s paintings and his works are of a rare kind. I had seen the reproductions and I knew they were fake. It's unfortunate because it completely destroys the oeuvre of the artist. But the problem of fakes is larger than what is made out of it." R. Siva kumar had revealed to the [[Indian Express]].<ref>http://expressindia.indianexpress.com/story_print.php?storyId=1038299</ref> According to Siva Kumar the fakes were "by an academically trained artist — not old Santiniketan. Elements have been taken from different prints and then collaged together...This (Tagore-faking) needs to be nipped in the bud. The other day, I came upon a notice about an exhibition of [[Nandalal]] (Bose) and [[Abanindranath]] (Tagore), the medium being acrylic and canvas. Acrylic paints were not invented then. They are totally uninformed. The art world should wake up if it wants credibility. Institutions should be more careful. They have a certain responsibility to their heritage and legacy. The academic part of it should be more professional."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1110302/jsp/calcutta/story_13655903.jsp|title=The Telegraph – Calcutta (Kolkata) – Metro – Fakes in the time of Tagore frenzy: finger of fraud at art college show}}</ref>

In 2014, Siva Kumar called for the formation of an investigation unit to track theft, copies and forgery of art. ''[[Times of India]]'' quoted him,"A national-level investigation agency should set up a team of specialists who follow only such cases so that they can see pattern or notice the involvement of same people or part of the same network. One can then consider putting an embargo on galleries and collectors whose names figure in such reports." He also urged that supportive legal measures should also be drafted. Explaining the rise in fakes originating from Bengal, he pointed to the revival of interest in art of early 20th century. "Bengal masters figured prominently in art history. Their works were few in circulation. Hence, when demand went up, it spawned fakes."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/Call-for-expert-panel-to-scan-masters-art/articleshow/37414063.cms|title=Call for expert panel to scan masters' art – Times of India}}</ref>

== Memberships and associations ==

* Member Advisory Committee, [[National Gallery of Modern Art]] for two terms
* Member of the Board of Studies of the School of Art and Aesthetics, [[Jawaharlal Nehru University]]
* Principal, Kala Bhavana(2008–2010)
* Nominated as "Eminent Art Historian" to the General Council of the [[Lalit Kala Akademi]]
* Member of the committee appointed by the [[Government of Kerala]] for the improvement of art education in Kerala
* Member Advisory Committee [[Lalit Kala Akademi]]
* Member Executive Council [[Visva Bharati]](2008–2009)
* Vice-President SVAAD (Santiniketan Visual Artists and Designers Association)
* Nominated member of the [[Lalit Kala Akademi]] (2008–2011)
* Trustee of the Foundation for Indian Art and Education
* Governor's Nominee [[Rabindra Bharati University]] (2014)
* [[Mario Miranda]] Chair Professor in Art, Painting and Illustrative Art and Cartooning [[Goa University]] (2016-)
* [[ICCR]] Chair of Indian Studies at [[Carleton University]], [[Canada]] (2018-)

== Awards and recognitions ==
* 'Kesari Puraskaram'for contribution to art writing, [[Kerala]] [[Lalit Kala Akademi]], 2010.
* 'Manojmohan Smarak Puraskar' for book on Ramkinkar Baij, [[Paschimbanga Bangla Akademi]], 2013.
* Felicitated with a plaque of special Honour by the [[Dhaka University]], 2013.
* Awarded the title 'Rabindra Tattwacharya' by the Tagore Research Institute, Kolkata, 2015.
* Awarded 'Lifetime Achievement Award for Art History and Art Criticism' by the [[Government of West Bengal]], 2018.

== Curated exhibitions ==
* An Exhibition of [[Abanindranath]]'s Paintings, Kala Bhavana, Santiniketan,1985.
* ''Tryst with Destiny'', [[Singapore Art Museum]], Singapore, 1997.<ref name="visva-bharati1">{{cite web|url=http://www.visva-bharati.ac.in/Faculty/faculties/kala_bhavana/history%20of%20art/r_siva_kumar.htm |title=R. Siva Kumar |publisher=Visva-bharati.ac.in |date=3 December 1956 |access-date=9 January 2014}}</ref>
* [[Santiniketan: The Making of a Contextual Modernism]], [[National Gallery of Modern Art]], New Delhi, 1997.<ref name="visva-bharati1" /><ref name="indiaclub1">{{cite web |url=http://www.indiaclub.com/shop/SearchResults.asp?ProdStock=1457 |title=Santiniketan – The Making of a Contextual Modernism by R Siva Kumar |publisher=Indiaclub.com |access-date=9 January 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140109063154/http://www.indiaclub.com/shop/SearchResults.asp?ProdStock=1457 |archive-date=9 January 2014 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
* ''[[K.G. Subramanyan]]: A Retrospective'', [[National Gallery of Modern Art]], New Delhi, 2002.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.osians.com/ecatalogue/Creative_india_series3/HTML/files/assets/seo/page162.html |title=Osians-The Auction House |publisher=Osians.com |access-date=9 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dkagencies.com/doc/from/1063/to/1123/bkId/DK9163217162761093071331273321/details.html |title=K.G. Subramanyan : a retrospective / |publisher=Dkagencies.com |access-date=9 January 2014}}</ref>
* ''Benodebehari: A Centenary Retrospective, [[National Gallery of Modern Art]], New Delhi, 2006 (with [[Ghulam Mohammed Sheikh]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ngmaindia.gov.in/benodebehari.asp |title=National Gallery of Modern Art, New Delhi |publisher=Ngmaindia.gov.in |access-date=9 January 2014}}</ref>
* ''[[The Last Harvest : Paintings of Rabindranath Tagore]]'', [[Museum of Asian Art]], Berlin ,<ref>{{cite web |author=Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Generaldirektion |url=http://www.smb.museum/smb/kalender/details.php?objID=31839&n=0&datum=02.09.2011 |title=Staatliche Museen zu Berlin: Kalender |publisher=Smb.museum |access-date=9 January 2014 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121216001957/http://www.smb.museum/smb/kalender/details.php?objID=31839&n=0&datum=02.09.2011 |archive-date=16 December 2012 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref> [[Asia Society]], New York,<ref>{{cite web|author=Current Exhibitions Upcoming Exhibitions Past Exhibitions |url=http://asiasociety.org/new-york/exhibitions/rabindranath-tagore-last-harvest |title=Rabindranath Tagore: The Last Harvest | New York |publisher=Asia Society |access-date=9 January 2014}}</ref> [[National Museum of Korea]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.museum.go.kr/program/show/showDetailEng.jsp?menuID=002002002&searchSelect=A.SHOWKOR&showCategory1Con=SC1&showCategory2Con=SC1_1&pageSize=10&langCodeCon=LC2&showID=5371 |title=Permanent Exhibitions | Exhibitions & Events | 국립중앙박물관 |publisher=Museum.go.kr |access-date=9 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508110825/http://www.museum.go.kr/program/show/showDetailEng.jsp?menuID=002002002&searchSelect=A.SHOWKOR&showCategory1Con=SC1&showCategory2Con=SC1_1&pageSize=10&langCodeCon=LC2&showID=5371 |archive-date=8 May 2013 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Seoul, [[Victoria and Albert Museum]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/r/rabindranath-tagore-poet-and-painter/ |title=Rabindranath Tagore: Poet and Painter – Victoria and Albert Museum |publisher=Vam.ac.uk |access-date=9 January 2014}}</ref> London, [[The Art Institute of Chicago]],<ref>http://www.artic.edu/sites/default/files/press_pdf/Tagore.pdf</ref> Chicago, [[Petit Palais]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.petitpalais.paris.fr/en/expositions/rabindranath-tagore-1861-1941 |title=Le Petit Palais – Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941) |publisher=petitpalais.paris.fr |date=11 March 2012 |access-date=9 January 2014}}</ref> Paris, [[Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Moderna]], Rome, [[National Visual Arts Gallery (Malaysia)|National Visual Arts Gallery]],<ref>[http://www.indianhighcommission.com.my/tagore.php] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130114000212/http://www.indianhighcommission.com.my/tagore.php |date=14 January 2013 }}</ref> Kuala Lumpur, [[McMichael Canadian Art Collection]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mcmichael.com/exhibitions/tagore/info.cfm |title=McMichael Canadian Art Collection > The Last Harvest: Paintings by Rabindranath Tagore |publisher=Mcmichael.com |date=15 July 2012 |access-date=9 January 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213163139/http://mcmichael.com/exhibitions/tagore/info.cfm |archive-date=13 December 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Ontario, [[National Gallery of Modern Art]],<ref>http://www.ngmaindia.gov.in/pdf/The-Last-Harvest-e-INVITE.pdf</ref> New Delhi, [[National Gallery of Modern Art, Mumbai]].,<ref>[https://archive.today/20130616150812/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-04-18/people/38646057_1_rabindranath-tagore-paintings-exhibition]</ref> [[National Gallery of Modern Art, Bangalore]]
*''Selected Works of Ramachandran: from 1964–2013''<ref>{{cite news|author=Ashoke Nag |url=http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2013-08-08/news/41202021_1_ramachandran-exhibition-vadehra-art-gallery |title=A. Ramachandran to exhibit his works in Lalithkala Academy Kochi – Economic Times |publisher=Intida Times |date=8 August 2013 |access-date=9 January 2014}}</ref>

== Major publications ==
* R. Siva Kumar. ''The Santiniketan Murals'', Seagull Books.{{ISBN|8170461162}}.<ref name="visva-bharati1" /><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-xfVWByz1ssC |title=The Santiniketan Murals – Jayanta Chakrabarti, R. Siva Kumar, Arun Kumar Nag – Google Books |date= 1995-01-01|access-date=9 January 2014|isbn=9788170461166 |last1=Chakrabarti |first1=Jayanta |last2=Siva Kumar |first2=R. |last3=Nag |first3=Arun Kumar |author4=Visva-Bharati }}</ref>
* R. Siva Kumar. [[Santiniketan: The Making of a Contextual Modernism]], National Gallery of Modern Art, New Delhi, 1997.<ref name="frontlineonnet1">{{cite web|url=http://www.frontlineonnet.com/fl1418/14180690.htm |title=Finding an expression of its own |access-date=4 February 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071017195415/http://frontlineonnet.com/fl1418/14180690.htm |archive-date=17 October 2007 }}</ref><ref name="indiaclub1" />
* R. Siva Kumar. ''[[K.G. Subramanyan]]: A Retrospective'', National Gallery of Modern Art, New Delhi, 2003. {{ISBN|8187902132}}.<ref>{{cite book|title=K.G. Subramanyan, a retrospective (Book, 2003) |publisher=[WorldCat.org] |oclc = 53896839}}</ref>
* R. Siva Kumar, ''[[A Ramachandran: A Retrospective]], National Gallery of Modern Art, New Delhi, 2004. {{ISBN|9788187737049}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aaa.org.hk/Collection/Details/29741 |title=Ramachandran: A Retrospective (Volume I & II) Ella DATTA | Asia Art Archive |publisher=Aaa.org.hk |date=5 June 2012 |access-date=9 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.swb.co.in/store/book/ramachandran-retrospective |title=Ramachandran, A Retrospective| Book| Store |SWB | Scholars without Borders, an online academic bookstore in India |publisher=SWB |access-date=9 January 2014}}</ref>
* R. Siva Kumar, ''K.S. Radhakrisnan'', Art Alive Gallery, New Delhi, 2004.{{ISBN|8190184407}}.<ref>[https://archive.today/20130118184057/http://www.buybooksindia.com/getProductDetail.action?id=145045]</ref>
* R. Siva Kumar. ''My Pictures: A Collection of Paintings by [[Rabindranath Tagore]]'', Visva Bharati and Viva Books, New Delhi, 2005. {{ISBN|8130901595}}.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DJjrAAAAMAAJ|title=My Pictures: A Collection of Paintings|first1=Rabindranath|last1=Tagore|first2=R. Siva|last2=Kumar|date=1 January 2005|publisher=Viva Books, in association with, Visva-Bharati Pub. Department, Kolkata|isbn=9788130901596|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bookfinder.com/author/r-siva-kumar/ |title=R Siva Kumar: new books, used books, rare books by R. Siva Kumar @ |publisher=Bookfinder.com |access-date=9 January 2014}}</ref>
* R. Siva Kumar, ''The Khoai'', Gallery Espace, New Delhi, 2007.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://galleryespace.com/publications/07_khoi.htm |title=Contemporary india art | india art gallery | online Indian art gallery delhi | contemporary art india | online gallery art india |publisher=Gallery espace |access-date=9 January 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140518095302/http://galleryespace.com/publications/07_khoi.htm |archive-date=18 May 2014 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
* R. Siva Kumar with [[Ghulam Mohammed Sheikh]], ''[[Benode Behari Mukherjee|Benodebehari Mukherjee]]: A Centenary Retrospective'', [[National Gallery of Modern Art]], New Delhi, 2007.{{ISBN|9788187737247}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://trove.nla.gov.au/work/32334659?q=isbn%3A9788187737247&c=book&versionId=39295591 |title=Benodebehari Mukherjee (1904–1980) : Centenary Retrospective / curated by Gulammohammed Sheikh and R. Siva Kumar. – Version details – Trove |publisher=Trove.nla.gov.au |access-date=9 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DpMdeyh2j5gC |title=Benodebehari Mukherjee (1904–1980): Centenary Retrospective – Gulam Mohammed Sheikh, Binode Behari Mukherjee, R. Siva Kumar – Google Books |date=April 2010|access-date=9 January 2014|isbn=9788187737247 |last1=Mukherjee |first1=Binode Behari |last2=Siva Kumar |first2=R. }}</ref>
* R. Siva Kumar, ''[[K. G. Subramanyan]]: The Painted Platters'', The Guild, Mumbai, 2007.{{ISBN|8190328336}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guildindia.com/KGSubramanyan/Index.htm |title=K.G.Subramanyan |publisher=Guildindia.com |access-date=9 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=K.G. Subramanyan : the painted platters (Book, 2009) |publisher=[WorldCat.org] |oclc = 502454989}}</ref>
* R. Siva Kumar, ''[[Paintings of Abanindranath Tagore]]'', Pratikshan Books, Kolkata, 2008.{{ISBN|81-89323-09-1}}.<ref>{{Cite book|isbn=9788189323097 |title=Paintings of Abanindranath Tagore |publisher=Pratikshan |date=1 January 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pratikshanbooks.com/booksonart/index.html |title=Pratikshan :: Books in Books on Art |publisher=Pratikshanbooks.com |access-date=9 January 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140302123621/http://www.pratikshanbooks.com/booksonart/index.html |archive-date=2 March 2014 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
* R. Siva Kumar, ''Sensibility Objectified: The Sculptures of [[Sarbari Roy Choudhury]]'', Akar Prakar, Lalit Kala Akademi and Mapin, Kolkata, 2009.{{ISBN|1890206032}}. {{ISBN|978-1-890206-03-1}}.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tyIVZEgBjg4C |title=Sensibility Objectified: The Sculptures of Sarbari Roy Choudhury – Sarbari Roy Choudhury, R. Siva Kumar – Google Books |access-date=9 January 2014|isbn=9788189995270 |year=2009 |last1=Choudhury |first1=Sarbari Roy }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Sensibility Objectified: The Sculptures of Sarbari Roy Choudhury: Amazon.co.uk: R. Siva Kumar: Books |publisher=Amazon.co.uk |id= {{ASIN|1890206032|country=uk}} }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://lalitkala.gov.in/book/book/1-lka/5--sensibility-objectified-the-sculptures-of-sarbari-roy-choudhury.html |title=Recent Publications – Recent Publications – Sensibility Objectified: The Sculptures of Sarbari Roy Choudhury |publisher=Lalitkala.gov.in |date=13 April 2011 |access-date=9 January 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140327205453/http://lalitkala.gov.in/book/book/1-lka/5--sensibility-objectified-the-sculptures-of-sarbari-roy-choudhury.html |archive-date=27 March 2014 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
* R. Siva Kumar, ''[[K. G. Subramanyan]]: Drawings'', The Guild, Mumbai, 2010. {{ISBN|8187902132}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guildindia.com/TheDrawingpfK.G.Subramanyan-BookRelease.htm |title=K.G.Subramanyan |publisher=Guildindia.com |access-date=9 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aaa.org.hk/Collection/Details/42688 |title=K.G. Subramanyan: Drawings | Asia Art Archive |publisher=Aaa.org.hk |date=5 June 2012 |access-date=9 January 2014}}</ref>
* R. Siva Kumar, ''[[Rabindra Chitravali]]: Paintings of Rabindranath'', Pratikshan Books, Kolkata, 2011. ISBN Vol1: 978-81-89323-30-1 Vol2: 978-81-89323-31-1 Vol3: 978-81-89323-32-1 Vol4: 978-81-89323-33-1 Set: 978-81-89323-34-1 Catalogue: 978-81-89323-40-0.<ref name="andrew-robinson1" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://rabindranathtagore-150.gov.in/chitravali.html |title=Commemoration of 150th Birth Anniversary of, Shri Rabindranath Tagore |publisher=Rabindranathtagore-150.gov.in |access-date=9 January 2014}}</ref>
* R. Siva Kumar, ''The Last Harvest: Paintings of Rabindranath'', Mapin, Ahamedabad, 2011.(with contributions from [[William Radice]], [[Uma Das Gupta]], [[Kris Manjapra]], [[Martin Kämpchen]] ([[:de:Martin Kämpchen|de]]), etc.) {{ISBN|9788189995614}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mapinpub.in/bookinfo.php?id=162 |title=The Last Harvest | Mapin Publishing |publisher=Mapinpub.in |date=26 December 2013 |access-date=9 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|author=Siva Kumar |isbn=9788189995614 |title=The Last Harvest: Paintings of Rabindranath Tagore |year=2011 |publisher=Mapin Publishing Gp Pty Ltd }}</ref>
* R. Siva Kumar, ''[[Ramkinkar Baij (book)]],Delhi Art Gallery, New Delhi, 2012. {{ISBN|9381217246}}.
* R. Siva Kumar,''Enchantment and Engagement: Murals of K.G. Subramanyan'', [[Seagull Books]], Kolkata, 2015.

== Selected articles ==
*‘K.C.S. Paniker: A Retrospect’, ''Nandan'', 1979.
*Catalogue article for the Sudhir Khastgir retrospective exhibition, ''Kala-Bhavan'', March 1980.
*‘Ramkinkar’, ''Kala Kaumaudi'', August 1980.
*‘A Room Between Rooms’ (being an essay on the art of Ramkinkar), ''Nandan'', vol. 3, December 1980.
*‘Sudhir Khastgir: A Critique’, ''Lalita Kala Contemporary'', vol. 31, April 1981.
*‘….. And the Theme is Destiny’, (being an essay on the murals of Benodebehari Mukherjee), ''Nandan'', vol. 4, December 1981.
*‘Faces of a Master’, (being an essay on the art of K.G. Subramanyan), ''Deccan Herald'', December 1981.
*‘Rembrandt and the Image as Parable’, ''The Visva-Bharati Quarterly'', Vol. 46, 1982
*‘Painting, Creativity and Communication’, Silpa O Samaj, ''Midnapur Silpi Chakra'', 1983.
*‘Sudhir Khastgir’, ''Indian Sculpture Today'', Jehangir Art Gallery, Bombay, 1983.
*‘K.G. Subramanyan: A Case for Versatility’, K.G. Subramanyan, Samyojita, Bangalore, 1983.
*‘Art Treatises and Art Education’, (being a study of the nature and function of the art writings of Nandalal, Leonardo and Klee), ''Nandan'', vol. 7, 1984.
*‘Benodebehari’s Self-Portrait as an Artist’, ''Nandan'', vol. 8, 1985.
*Translations of letters by Ravi Varma, Rabindranath and Abanindranath, ''Nandan'', vol. 9, 1986.
*Catalogue article for K.G. Subramanyan’s exhibition of paintings by Kala Yatra at Bangalore, 1987.
*Catalogue article for the exhibition of sculptures by Somnath Hore at Kala Yatra, Bangalore, 1987.
*‘Reba Hore : Reality in a Tender Light’, ''Art Heritage'', vol. 8, New Delhi, 1989.
*‘Versatile Expression’, ''The India Magazine'', vol. 9, no. 10, New Delhi, 1989.
*‘Ramkinkarer Jalaranger Chabbi’, Ramkinkar, ed. ''Prakash Das'', 1989.
*‘Ramkinkar’s Sculptures and Paintings’, (towards a catalogue raisonne) with J.J. Narzary, Ramkinkar, ed. ''Prakash Das'', 1989.
*‘Of Myth and Fairy Tale’, conversation with K.G. Subramanyan, Of Myth and Fairy Tale: Recent Works, Birla Academy of Art and Culture and The Seagull Foundation of the Arts, Calcutta, 1989.
*‘The recent Works’, Of Myth and Fairy Tale: Recent Works, Birla Academy of Art and Culture and The Seagull Foundation of the Arts, Calcutta, 1989.
*‘Remembering Ramkinkar’, Conversation with K.G. Subramanyan, ''Art Heritage'', vol. 9, New Delhi, 1990.
*‘Binodini and Other Portraits of Ramkinkar’, ''Nandan'', vol. 10, 1990.
*‘Nandalal’s Concept of the Artist: An Overview’, ''Nandan'', vol. 11, 1991.
*‘Nandalal Bose: Landscape Drawings’, catalogue article for exhibition of Nandalal’s landscape drawings, Nandan Art Gallery, ''Kala Bhavan'', August 1992.
*Magazine Symposium on Modern Art, Prajavani, 1992.
*Catalogue Article for exhibition of K.G. Subramanyan’s paintings, Sakshi Gallery, Madras, 1992.
*‘The Home and the World in Ravi Varma’, Ravi Varma: New Perspectives, National Museum, New Delhi, 1993.
*‘The Bengal School and the Modern Art Scene in Bengal: Some Observations’, Trends and Images, CIMA, Calcutta, 1993.
*‘Homage to Stella Kramrisch’, catalogue article to exhibition at Nandan Gallery, Kala Bhavan, September 1993.
*‘Li Gotami Govinda’, catalogue article to exhibition at Nandan, Kala Bhavan, November 1994.
*‘Chittaprosad’, catalogue article to exhibition at Nandan Gallery, Kala-Bhavan, November 1994.
*‘Pilgrims Progress’, K.G. Subramanyan: Recent Works, CIMA, Calcutta, December 1994.
*‘Abanindranath’s Paintings based on the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, Lavanya, August 1995.
*‘Contemporary Indian Sculpture: The Madras Metaphor’, review article, Marg, September 1995.
*‘Somnath Hore: Images of Discontent’, Somnath Hore: Bronzes, CIMA, Calcutta, November 1995.
*‘Images of Experience’, Jogen: Oils and Drawings, CIMA, Calcutta, February 1996.
*‘Abanindranath Tagore: Beyond Nationalism’, The Visva-Bharati News, May–August 1996.
*‘Abanindranath Tagore’, catalogue article 125th Birth Anniversary exhibition, Nandan Gallery, Kala Bhavan, September 1996.
* Entries on 9 Contemporary Indian Artists, ''The Dictionary of Art'', Macmillan, London 1996.
*‘Post-modernism, New – Internationalism, Pluralism’, in Art Objects in A Post-modern Age. (conference proceedings) Mohile Parikh Centre for the Visual Arts, Mumbai, 1997.
*‘Image and Imagination: Five Contemporary Artists in India’, review article, ''Marg'', vol. 48, no. 4, 1997.
*‘Contemporary Indian Art: The Last Fifty years’, Tryst with Destiny, Singapore Art Museum, Singapore, 1997.
*‘Early Abanindranath and Modern Western Art’, ''Nandan'', vol. 17, December 1997.
*‘On the Drawings and the Recent Paintings of K.G. Subramanyan’, exhibition catalogue, K.G. Subramanyan: Paintings and Drawings, Seagull, December 1998.
*‘Ganesh Pyne: His Life and Times’, review article, ''Marg'', vol. 50, no. 4, January 1999.
*‘Modern Indian Art: An Overview’, ''Art Journal'' vol. 58, no. 3, Fall 1999, College Art Association, New York.
*‘Santiniketan: Its Ideals and Its Masters’, Prabaha, An Exhibition of the Art of Bengal 1850–1999, Biswa Banga Sammalen, January 2000, Calcutta.
*‘Of Roots and Differences’ Exile and Longing: Emerging Art Practices From Kerala, Lakeeran Art Gallery, Mumbai November 2000.
*‘Abanindranath’s Arabian Nights: Native Flanerie and Anti-colonial Narration’, Nandan (Essays in Honour of K.G.Subramanyan), vol. 19, 1999, (published in December 2000).
*‘Re-figuring Art, Re-articulating Figure: Indian Art 1870 – 1950’, Celebration of the Human Figure, Thinking Eye, New Delhi 2000.
*‘Abanindranath and His Legacies’, ''Art of Bengal: Past and Present'', C I M A, Kolkatta 2001.
*‘Among Viewers and Images: A Triptych’, ''Nandan'' vol. 21, Santiniketan 2001.
*‘Abanindranath and His Legacies’, ''Art of Bengal: Past and Present'', CIMA, Kolkata 2001.
*‘Jogen Choudhury’, Sidewinder (an exhibition of Contemporary Indian and British Artists, Kolkata/Delhi/Mumbai), CIMA, Kolkata, February 2002.
*‘Ravinder Reddy’, Sidewinder (an exhibition of Contemporary Indian and British Artists, Kolkata/Delhi/Mumbai), CIMA, Kolkata, February 2002.
*‘Culture specificity, Art Language and the Practice of Modernism: An Indian Perspective’, ''Contemporary Indian Art: Other Realities'', Marg Publications, Mumbai, March 2002. {{ISBN|8185026556}}
*‘When was Modernism’, (Riview of Geeta Kapur’s book ''When was Modernism and Other Essays''), Marg vol.53, no.3, March 2002.
*‘Sanat Kar: Musings without Angst’, Sanat Kar: A Retrospective of Bronzes and Prints, Birla Academy of Art and Culture, Kolkata September 2002.
*‘Modern Indian Art: Circa 1850 to 2000’, ''Art Ways'' 2002, South Eastern Railway, Kolkata 2002.
*‘Jogen Choudhury’, exhibition catalogue, Gallery Bose Pacia Modern, New York, October 2002.
*‘An Image From the Hinterland’, ''Nandan'', vol.22, December 2002
*‘Aban-takurer Arabya-rajani: Deshi Flanerie evam’, Evam Musaira’,vol.9, no.4, January- March 2003.
*Catalogue text, Exhibition of Silkscreen prints by Kala Bhavana Teachers, Karzan Gallery, Vadodara, August 2004.
*‘Remembering Bhupen’, A Tribute to Bhupen Khakhar, Tao Art Gallery, Mumbai August 2004.
*‘Nandalal’s Drawings’, Searching Lines, No. 2, Kala Bhavana, Santiniketan, December 2004.
*‘Benodebehari Mukhopadhyaya: Ekti Samiksha’, Bangadarshan 8–9, January–December 2004.
*‘The Bhuddha and the Labyrinth of Bodies: Viewing the Ramp Obliquely’, The Ramp: a sculpture by K.S. Radhakrishnan, Art Alive Gallery, New Delhi, October 2204, Uttarayan Baroda, Vadodara, December 2004, Tao Art Gallery, Mumbai January 2005 and Galerie Sara Arakkal, Bangalore April 2005.
*‘Jogen Choudhury: Lyric and Enigmatic Visions’, in Jogen Choudhury: Enigmatic Visions, Glenbara Art Museum, Japan, January 2005.
*‘Blindness, Self, World and Art: Some Ruminations on Benodebehari, Chabi-lekha, Kolkata Vol. 2, 2005.
*‘Indigenous Modernism in Bengal: A Few Facets’, Catalogue introduction to an exhibition early modern art from Bengal in the collection of the Birla Academy, Birla Academy of Art and Culture, Kolkata, 21 to 5 February March 2006.
*‘Benodebehari Muhkopadhyay: Ekti Samiksha’, Bangadarshan, vol. 8–9 Magh- Poush 1410–11 (January – December 2004), Pub. February 2006, pp. 33– 70.
*'Notes on Benode Behari, Ram Kinkar, K. G. Subramanyan, Somnath Hore, Sarbari Roy Choudhuri, and [[Gulam Mohammed Sheikh]], Faces of Indian Art: Through the Lens of Nemai Ghosh', Art Alive Gallery, New Delhi, September 2007.
*‘Intra Asian Transactions in Art’, Nandan, Ramkinkar Baij Centenary Number, Santiniketan, December 2007, pp. 23–28.
*‘Colonialism, Cross Cultural Contact and Modernism’, ''Nandan'' vol.27, Santiniketan, December 2008.
*‘Nandalal: His Vision of Art and Art Education’, ''Rhythms of India: The Art of Nandalal Bose'', San Diego Museum of Art, California, February 2008. {{ISBN|0-937108-43-X}}, pp. 80–91
*‘Ramkinkar Baij and Modernism’s Dual Commitments’, Santal Family Positions around an Indian Sculpture, Museum van Hedendaagse Kunst, Antwerp 2008.
*‘Sara Abraham: Connoisseur and Collector’, Celebrating Sara: Sara Abraham's Collection of Art Over Fifty Years, TnQ Books and Journals, Chennai, February 2008.
*‘Images of an Enchanting Journey’, An Enchanting Journey: Paresh Maity's Kerala, Art Alive Gallery, New Delhi 2008.
*‘Remembering a Friend as Printmaker’, Suranjan Basu 1957–2002: A Retrospective, Seagull Foundation for the Arts, Kolkata November 2008, pp. 81–88.
*‘Travels into Liminality with Musui’, K.S. Radhakrishnan: Liminal Figures Liminal Space, Birla Academy of Art and Culture, Kolkata, November 2008.
*‘Santiniketan:una comunidad de artistas e ideas’, India Moderna, Casa Asia –Institut Valencia d’Art Moderna, (authors: Juan Guardiola, John Falconer, K G Subramanyan, Deepak Ananth, Geeta Kapur and R Siva Kumar), Valencia – Spain, 2008, {{ISBN|9788448251048}}
*‘Santiniketan: Its Ideals and its Masters,’ From the Everyday to the Imagined: An Exhibition of Indian Art, (Authors: Jan Wee and R Siva Kumar), Singapore Art Museum, Singapore and Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea, 2008. ISBN / {{ISBN|9789810594428}}
*‘Representing the Nation: Two paintings by Abanindranath’, ''Art and Deal'' Vol. 6, No.1, January 2009, pp. 24–27.
*‘Globalism, Rabindranath and Some Thoughts on Location’, ''Assam University Journal: Humanities and Social Sciences'', Vol. 4, No.1, January 2009.
*‘Santiniketan: A Development in Three Movements’, Gayatri Singha Ed. ''Art and Visual Culture in India 1857–2007'', Marg Publications, Mumbai, January 2009, pp. 104–117. {{ISBN|9788185026923}}
*‘A Priliminary Note on Khuddur Jatra’, Khuddur Jatra, Prarikshan, Kolkata, 2009
*‘Somnath Hore:A Reclusive Socialist and Modernist’, ''Bengal Art: New Perspectives, Praikshan Essays in the Arts'' 1, Kolkatta 2010, pp. 55–78.
*‘Somnath Hore: A Socialist and Modernist Artist’, Somnath Hore, ''Prints, Drawings, Posters, Kala Bhavan and Seagull'', February 2011, pp. 44–96
*‘Catalogue Introduction’, ''Arun Pal: Paintings and Drawings'', Nandan Gallery, Santiniketan, March 2011.
*‘Rabindranath Tagore como Pintor y Catalizador del Arte Indio Moderno’ Redescubriendo a Tagore, Amaranta, Indo-Latin American Cultural Initiative, Bombay in Collaboration with Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi, 2011. {{ISBN|978-81-921843-1-9}}, pp. 155–169.
*‘The Arabian Nights and the Web of Stories’, Art Etc., Kolkata June 2012, pp. 26–29.
*‘Mural Shilpy Subramanyan’, Anustup, Vol 47, No. 1, Autumn 2012, pp. 851–864.
*‘An Extraordinary Cohesiveness’, Sudhir Patrwardhan The Guild, November 2012.
*'Preface to Between Darkness and Magic: Examining the Kerala Metaphor', CIMA Gallery, Kolkata, 7 December 2012 to 5 January 2013
*‘A Celebration of this Oddly Mixed-up Scene’, introduction to K G Subramanyan exhibition at the Focus Gallery, Chennai, January 2013.
*‘Ramkinkar Baij and Modern Indian Sculpture’, ''Take on Art'', Vol. 3, No. 10, January 2013 {{issn|0976-4011}}, pp. 32–35
*‘Jogen Choudhury: Lyric and Enigmatic Visions’, Jogen Choudhury Retrospective, Nandan Kala Bhavana, Santiniketan 11–28 February 2013, pp. 4–8.
*‘Santiniketan. Eine Welt-Universität, Raman Siva Kumar in Gespräch mit Regina Bittner und Kathrin Rhomberg’, Das Bauhaus in Kalkutta. Eine Begegnung kosmopolitischer Avantgarden, Bauhaus Edition 36, Hatje Cantz Verlag, Ostfildern 2013, pp. 111–118. {{ISBN|978-3-7757-3656-5}}
*‘Lord, let each day of mine be a festival, a celebration: A conversation between R. Siva Kumar and K. G. Subramanyan,’ K. G. Subramanyan: New Works, Seagull Foundation for the Arts, Kolkata 2014.

== See also ==
* [[Rabindra Chitravali]]
* [[Paintings of Abanindranath Tagore]]
* [[Kala Bhavana]]
* [[The Last Harvest : Paintings of Rabindranath Tagore (Book)|''The Last Harvest : Paintings of Rabindranath Tagore'' (book)]]
* [[The Last Harvest: Paintings of Rabindranath Tagore]]
* [[Stella Kramrisch]]
* [[Ananda Coomaraswamy]]
* ''[[Santiniketan: The Making of a Contextual Modernism]]''
* [[Ernest Binfield Havell]]

== References ==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

== External links ==
*[http://video.webindia123.com/p_interviews/Literary%20Stalwarts/rshivakumar/index.htm "Interview with R. Siva Kumar"]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140109063500/http://www.hindu.com/fr/2009/01/23/stories/2009012350830400.htm "R. Siva Kumar says that values and sensitivity to art comes with continued exposure to works of art"- ''The Hindu'']
* [http://humanitiesunderground.org/all-the-shared-experiences-of-the-lived-world/ "ALL THE SHARED EXPERIENCES OF THE LIVED WORLD, part-I"]
* [http://humanitiesunderground.org/all-the-shared-experiences-of-the-lived-world-ii/ "ALL THE SHARED EXPERIENCES OF THE LIVED WORLD, part-II"]
*[http://vimeo.com/71419022 "R.Siva Kumar speaking on the Paintings of Rabindranath Tagore, at Smithsonian American Art Museum, Part-I"]
*[http://vimeo.com/71419023 "R.Siva Kumar speaking on the Paintings of Rabindranath Tagore, at Smithsonian American Art Museum, Part-II"]

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kumar, R. Siva}}
[[Category:1956 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian art historians]]
[[Category:Scholars from Kerala]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian educational theorists]]
[[Category:Indian art curators]]
[[Category:Indian art critics]]
[[Category:Indian art educators]]
[[Category:Visva-Bharati University alumni]]
[[Category:Visva-Bharati University faculty]]
[[Category:Indian curators]]
[[Category:Indian arts administrators]]
[[Category:Historians of Asia|South Asia]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian historians]]
[[Category:Historians of Indian art]]

D. P. Roy Choudhury

2021-08-03T04:57:04Z

Hembram Bakhul: Created page with "{{EngvarB|date=September 2017}} {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2017}} {{Infobox person | name = D. P. Roy Choudhury | image = D P ROY.jpg..."

{{EngvarB|date=September 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2017}}
{{Infobox person
| name = D. P. Roy Choudhury
| image = D P ROY.jpg
| image_size = 200px
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1899|06|15}}
| birth_place = Tejhat, [[Rangpur district]], British India
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|1975|10|15|1899|06|14}}
| occupation = Painter sculptor
| known for = Bronze sculptures [[Triumph of Labour]] [[Martyrs' Memorial Patna]]
| spouse = Dolly
| awards = [[Padma Bhushan]] Member of the [[Order of the British Empire]] (MBE) [[Lalit Kala Akademy]] Ratna
}}
'''Debi Prasad Roy Choudhury''' [[Order of the British Empire|MBE]] (1899–1975) was an Indian sculptor, painter and the founder chairman of the [[Lalit Kala Akademi]].<ref name="An Artist of Many Colours">{{cite web | url=http://www.slideshare.net/dipaksingh56481/devi-prasad-roy-chowdhury-32343193 | title=An Artist of Many Colours | work=Presentation | publisher=Slide Share |year=2016 | access-date=3 March 2016}}</ref> He was known for his bronze sculptures, including [[Triumph of Labour]] and [[Martyr's Memorial Patna|Martyr's Memorial]], and is rated by many as one among the major artists of modern Indian art.<ref name="Tribute to the King">{{cite web | url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/society/devi-prasad-roy-chowdhurys-artistic-contributions/article8168206.ece | title=Tribute to the King | work=The Hindu | date=29 January 2016 | access-date=3 March 2016}}</ref> He was a fellow of the [[Lalit Kala Akademi]], selected in 1962. The Government of India awarded him the third highest civilian honour of the [[Padma Bhushan]], in 1958, for his contributions to Art.<ref name="Padma Awards">{{cite web |url=http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/LST-PDAWD-2013.pdf |title=Padma Awards |publisher=Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India |year=2016 |access-date=3 January 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6U68ulwpb?url=http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/LST-PDAWD-2013.pdf |archive-date=15 November 2014 }}</ref>

== Biography ==
Roy Choudhury was born on 15 June 1899 at Tejhat, in [[Rangpur District|Rangpur]] in the undivided Bengal of the [[British India]] (presently in Bangladesh), and did his academic studies from home.<ref name="Artist Profile">{{cite web | url=http://goaartgallery.com/roychowdhary_d_p.htm | title=Artist Profile | publisher=Goa Art Gallery |year=2016 | access-date=3 March 2016}}</ref> He learnt painting from [[Abanindranath Tagore]], the renowned Bengali painter, and his earlier paintings showed influence of his teacher.<ref name="D.P Roy Chowdhury">{{cite web | url=http://www.gktoday.in/d-p-roy-chowdhury/ | title=D.P Roy Chowdhury | publisher=GK Today |year=2016 | access-date=3 March 2016}}</ref> Turning to sculpting, he initially trained under Hiromony Choudhury, and later, moved to Italy for further training.<ref name="An Artist of Many Colours" /> It was during this period, his works started to gather western influences. Returning to India, he joined the [[Bengal School of Art]] for further studies. In 1928, he moved to [[Chennai]] to join the [[Government College of Fine Arts, Chennai|Government College of Fine Arts]], first as a student and then worked there as the Head of the Department, vice principal and the principal till his retirement in 1958. While Principal at the Chennai College, he was honoured by the British Government as an [[Order of the British Empire|MBE]] in 1937.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=34396|supp=y|page=3098|date=11 May 1937}}</ref><ref name="An Artist of Many Colours" /> When [[Lalit Kala Akademi]] was founded in 1954, he was appointed as the founder chairman.<ref name="Encyclopaedia of Indian Events & Dates">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oGVSvXuCsyUC&q=Lalit+Kala+Akademi,+debi+prasad+roy+choudhury&pg=SL1-PA222 | title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Events & Dates | publisher=Sterling Publishers | author=S. B. Bhattacherje | year=2009 | pages=222 of 613 | isbn=9788120740747}}</ref> He also served as president of the [[UNESCO]] Art Seminar conducted in 1955 at Tokyo and the ''Nikhil Bharat Bangiya Sahitya Sammilani'' of 1956 staged at Chennai.<ref name="Artist Profile" />

Roy Choudhury, reported to be influenced by the works of the French sculptor, [[Auguste Rodin]],<ref name="Virtual Galleries — Modern Sculptures">{{cite web | url=http://ngmaindia.gov.in/sh-modern-sculpture.asp | title=Virtual Galleries – Modern Sculptures | publisher=National Gallery of Modern Art, New Delhi |year=2016 | access-date=3 March 2016}}</ref> had his first solo exhibition in [[Kolkata]] in 1993 after which had several exhibitions in India, including Birla Academy of Art and Culture, Kolkata, [[Jehangir Art Gallery]], Mumbai, [[National Gallery of Modern Art]], Delhi and [[Lalit Kala Akademi]], New Delhi, among others.<ref name="An Artist of Many Colours" /> He is known for large size outdoor sculptures, such as [[Triumph of Labour]], and the statue of [[Mahatma Gandhi]], both at [[Marina Beach]], Chennai,<ref name="A stroll could be a learning experience too">{{cite web | url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-downtown/article2581222.ece | title=A stroll could be a learning experience too | work=The Hindu | date=30 October 2011 | access-date=3 March 2016}}</ref> [[Martyrs' Memorial Patna|Martyrs' Memorial]] in Patna, ''When Winter Comes'' and ''Victims of Hunger'', both bronze statues,<ref name="When winter comes">{{cite web | url=http://www.chennaimuseum.org/draft/gallery/03/03/modp7.htm | title=When winter comes | publisher=Chennai Museum |year=2016 | access-date=3 March 2016}}</ref> [[Dandi March]] statue in Delhi<ref name="Photographer's Note">{{cite web | url=http://www.trekearth.com/gallery/Asia/India/North/Delhi/New_Delhi/photo446816.htm | title=Photographer's Note | publisher=Trek Earth |year=2016 | access-date=3 March 2016}}</ref> and ''The [[Temple Entry Proclamation]] by [[Chithira Thirunal Balarama Varma]]'' at [[Thiruvananthapuram]].<ref name="Tribute to the King" /> ''An Inmate of Harem'', ''Ras Leela'', ''A Dramatic Pose of a Man in a Large Cloak and Hat'' and ''The Tribune'' are some of his notable paintings.<ref name="An Artist of Many Colours" /> His works are displayed at [[Government Museum, Chennai]], [[National Gallery of Modern Art, New Delhi]], ''Srichitralayam'' at [[Jaganmohan Palace]], [[Salar Jung Museum]], Hyderabad and Travancore Art Gallery, [[Kerala]]<ref name="Tribute to the King" /> and are featured in many books, ''Indian Masters, Volume I'',<ref name="Indian Masters, Volume I">{{cite book | title=Indian Masters, Volume I | publisher=Lakshmibilas Press, Calcutta | author=Bijoy Krishna Das (Editor) | year=1920 | pages=76 | asin=B00GZZK5RM}}</ref> ''The Two Great Indian Artists''<ref name="The Two Great Indian Artists">{{cite book | title=The Two Great Indian Artists | publisher=Firma KLM | author=Prasanta Daw | year=1978 | pages=114 | oclc=4389232}}</ref> and ''Art and Aesthetics of Deviprasad'' being some of them.<ref name="Art and aesthetics of Deviprasad">{{cite book | title=Art and aesthetics of Deviprasad | publisher=Indian Society of Oriental Art | author=Prasanta Daw | year=1998 | pages=16 | oclc=39130016}}</ref> He also published a book, ''Devi Prosad Roy Chowdhury'', co-written by Jaya Appasamy,<ref name="Devi Prosad Roy Chowdhury">{{cite book | title=Devi Prosad Roy Chowdhury | publisher=Lalit Kalā Akademi | author=Devi Prosad Roy Chowdhury, Jaya Appasamy | year=1973 | pages=40 | oclc=2439345}}</ref> and some of his students such as [[Nirode Mazumdar]] and [[Paritosh Sen]] later became known artists in their own rights.<ref name="An Artist of Many Colours" />

In 1958, the Government of India awarded him the [[Padma Bhushan]], the third highest Indian civilian honour.<ref name="Padma Awards" /> He received the [[Lalit Kala Akademi]] Fellowship in 1962 and, six years later, [[Rabindra Bharati University]], Kolkata, honoured him with DLitt (honoris causa), in 1968.<ref name="Artist Profile" /> Choudhury, who was married to Dolly,<ref name="Manik and I: My Life with Satyajit Ray">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E7YadsNfe3QC&q=Debi+Prasad+Roy+Choudhury&pg=PT28 | title=Manik and I: My Life with Satyajit Ray | publisher=Penguin UK | author=Bijoya Ray | year=2012 | pages=624 | isbn=9788184757507}}</ref> died on 15 October 1975, aged 76.<ref name="Artist Profile" />
==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Chennai LabourStatue Closeup.jpg|[[Triumph of Labour]] by Roy Choudhury at [[Marina Beach]], Chennai
File:Sahid Smarak.JPG|[[Martyrs' Memorial Patna]]
File:Malabar.jpg|Scene of a Malabar Village painting by Roy Choudhury
File:Youvanasree.jpg| Paint of a young lady
</gallery>

== See also ==
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[List of Lalit Kala Akademi fellows]]
* [[Abanindranath Tagore]]
* [[Bengal School of Art]]
* [[Martyrs' Memorial Patna]]
{{div col end}}
{{portal|India|Arts}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
* {{cite web | url=http://www.invaluable.com/auction-lot/indian-painting-by-chowdhury:-man-348-c-622d32b42c | title=A Dramatic Pose of a Man in a Large Cloak and Hat | work=A Painting by Debi Prasad Roy Choudhury | publisher=Invaluable |year=2016}}

{{Authority control}}
{{PadmaBhushanAwardRecipients 1954–59}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Choudhury, D. P. Roy}}
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Bhushan in arts]]
[[Category:1899 births]]
[[Category:1975 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Rangpur District]]
[[Category:Bengali male artists]]
[[Category:Indian male sculptors]]
[[Category:Indian male painters]]
[[Category:Government College of Fine Arts, Chennai alumni]]
[[Category:Lalit Kala Akademi]]
[[Category:Members of the Order of the British Empire]]
[[Category:Indian art educators]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian sculptors]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian painters]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian educators]]

Bikash Bhattacharjee

2021-08-03T04:55:27Z

Hembram Bakhul:

{{Infobox artist
| name = Bikash Bhattacharjee
| image = Bikash.jpg
| caption = Bikash Bhattacharjee
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=yes|1940|06|21}}
| birth_place = Kolkata
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|2006|12|18|1940|06|21}}
| death_place = [[Kolkata]]
| nationality = Indian
| field = Painting
| training = Indian College of Art and Draftsmanship
| movement = [[Realism (arts)|Realism]], [[surrealism]]
| awards = [[Padma Shri]] (1988) National Award, (1971)
| works = ''Fantasy Show'' ''Doll Series'' ''Cupboard'' ''The Visitor'' ''The Trap''
}}

'''Bikash Bhattacharjee''' (21 June 1940 – 18 December 2006) was an Indian painter from [[Kolkata]] in West Bengal. Through his paintings, he depicted the life of the average middle-class Bengali – their aspirations, superstitions, hypocrisy and corruption, and even the violence that is endemic to Kolkata. He worked in oils, acrylics, water-colours, [[conté]] and collage. In 2003, he was awarded the highest award of [[Lalit Kala Akademi]], India's National Academy of Arts, the [[List of Lalit Kala Akademi fellows|Lalit Kala Akademi Fellowship]].

==Early life==
Bhattacharjee was born in Kolkata 1940. At a very early age he lost his father. The consequent struggle for survival left him with a deep sense of insecurity as well as an empathy for the under-privileged, who often feature in his works.

In 1963, he graduated with a Diploma in Fine Arts from Indian College of Art and Draftsmanship.<ref>''Forty Masterpieces: The Masterpieces and Museum-Quality Series'', by [[Neville Tuli]]. Publisher, Osian's, 2006. {{ISBN|81-8174-015-7}}, Page 197''.</ref>

Bikash lived in Kolkata all his life.

==Teaching career==
Bhattacharjee taught at Indian College of Art and Draftsmanship from 1968 to 1972. He taught at the [[Government College of Art & Craft, Kolkata]] from 1973 to 1982. In 1964, he became a member of the Society of Contemporary Artists.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20121024084918/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2006-12-19/india/27795771_1_paintings-lalit-kala-akademi-ganesh-pyne Like Bikash, his paintings had no pretensions] [[The Times of India]], TNN 19 December 2006.</ref>

==Painting career==
His first solo exhibition was at Kolkata in 1965. His paintings were exhibited outside India; he had shows in 1969 at Paris; between 1970 and 72 in Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Romania and Hungary; in London in 1982; and in New York in 1985.

He achieved commercial success early in life with his Doll Series in the 1960s, which was later followed by the Durga Series. In the 1980s, Bhttacharjee painted illustrations for a novel on the life of [[Ram Kinker Baij]], a great artist of the past. The novel, written by Bengali novelist [[Samaresh Basu]], was never completed because of the death of the author, but Bhttacharjee's works for the book were some of his best.

Bhttacharjee often painted in a realistic style. He painted portraits of [[Rabindranath Tagore|Tagore]], [[Satyajit Ray]], and [[Samaresh Basu]]. His portrait of [[Indira Gandhi]], with a blurred and white face, was painted after her murder. He produced a series of works about the [[Naxalite|Naxal movement]] and a group of paintings of prostitutes.

Bikash had inspired a host of painters in India including [[Sanjay Bhattacharya]], a realistic painter from Bengal.

==Style==
Bikash Bhattacharya is credited with bringing realism back to Indian art at a time when artists in India were leaning more towards distortion of figures and abstraction.


Besides painting the city and its people that he knew so well, Bhattacharjee was an accomplished portrait painter. Realism was Bhattacharjee's forte; his oil paintings could depict the exact quality of drapery or the skin tone of a woman. He achieved mastery in capturing the quality of light.

Bhattacharjee achieved an enigmatic quality in his paintings that works on many levels from the visual to the subconscious. Subject matter included depictions of the female form, and people of all ages and situations—old men and women, children, domestic help. He had the ability to create an authentic milieu as a background to the characters to heighten the drama.

Bikash had been deeply influenced by the surrealists, and stated that [[Salvador Dalí]] was his favourite painter.

==Personal life==


In 2000, Bhattacharjee suffered a paralytic stroke that left him paralysed and unable to paint. He died in a Kolkata nursing home on 18 December 2006 following a prolonged illness. He was survived by his wife Parbati, a son, and a daughter.<ref>[http://cities.expressindia.com/fullstory.php?newsid=214550 Bikash Bhattacharjee fought all odds to leave behind a legacy of art ]{{Dead link|date=October 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} [[Indian Express]], 25 December 2006.</ref>

==Galleries==
His paintings can be found in the following galleries:
* [[National Gallery of Modern Art, New Delhi]]
* [[Lalit Kala Akademi]], New Delhi
* [[Ministry of Human Resource Development (India)|Ministry of Education]], New Delhi
* Chandigarh University Museum, Chandigarh
* [[Bharat Bhavan]], Bhopal

==Awards and honours==
* Academy of Fine Arts Award, Calcutta (1962)
* National Award, [[Lalit Kala Akademi]], New Delhi (1971)
* Birla Academy of Art and Culture, Calcutta, National Award, [[Lalit Kala Akademi]], New Delhi (1972)
* Banga Ratna (1987)
* [[Padma Shri]] (1988)
* Shiromani Purashkar (1989)
* Nivedita Purashkar, Ramkrishna Vivekananda Ashram (1990)
* [[List of Lalit Kala Akademi fellows|Lalit Kala Akademi Fellowship]] (2003)

==References==
{{reflist|2}}
* Majumadāra, Manasija. ''Close to Events: Works of Bikash Bhattacharjee''. Niyogi Books, 2007. {{ISBN|81-89738-24-0}}.

==External links and references==
* https://web.archive.org/web/20080924195417/http://www.contemporaryindianart.com/bikash_bhattacharjee.htm
* http://www.artofbengal.com/Bikash.htm
* https://web.archive.org/web/20081104062053/http://www.21stcenturyindianart.com/Realism.htm
* http://www.abasar.net/ArtBikash.htm

{{Padma Shri Award Recipients in Art}}
{{Fellows of the Lalit Kala Akademi}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bhattacharjee, Bikash}}
[[Category:Indian male painters]]

[[Category:Realist painters]]
[[Category:1940 births]]
[[Category:2006 deaths]]
[[Category:Artists from Kolkata]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Shri in arts]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Lalit Kala Akademi]]
[[Category:University of Calcutta faculty]]
[[Category:Indian portrait painters]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian painters]]
[[Category:Painters from West Bengal]]

Hiran Mitra

2021-08-03T04:53:44Z

Hembram Bakhul: Created page with "'''Hiran Mitra''' (born 1945) is an artist based in Kolkata (West Bengal, India). He left his ancestral country home in Kharagpur to study Fine Art in the Govern..."

'''Hiran Mitra''' (born 1945) is an artist based in [[Kolkata]] ([[West Bengal, India]]). He left his ancestral country home in [[Kharagpur]] to study Fine Art in the [[Government College of Art & Craft, Kolkata]] at the age of 14. His paintings are energetic abstract gestural paintings with the choreography of the human body observed from folk dance having influenced his recent calligraphic forms.<ref>{{YouTube|3EX7Gd48h4c|Florence Biennale 2007 Video on Artist}}</ref> He has contributed significantly to the visual stimulus in eastern Indian films,<ref>[http://www.bfjaawards.com/legacy/pastwin/200568.htm 68th Annual BFJA Awards 2005, Art Direction] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100108155453/http://www.bfjaawards.com/legacy/pastwin/200568.htm |date=2010-01-08 }}</ref> television, theatre<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://ias.berkeley.edu/SouthAsia/teesta.html |title=Teesta Barer Brittanto |access-date=25 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080828223035/http://www.ias.berkeley.edu/southasia/teesta.html |archive-date=28 August 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and literature since in the 1980s. He is also known to have defined a benchmark for book cover design for contemporary Bengali literature.<ref>[http://boipara.blogspot.com/2007/09/portraits-and-writings-by-hiran-mitra.html Portraits and writings by Hiran Mitra in Bengali Little Magazine]</ref> His paintings are statements on the human condition and the twilight zones of reality and time. Bold brush strokes, layered washes and sprays and unconventional use of acrylic and industrial paints characterize his paintings. He is part of the Open Window Artist group and has been part of the Painters 80 Artist group in Kolkata.

==Works==
===Selected exhibitions===
{{example farm|date=January 2011}}

====Solo exhibitions====
*'''2007''' Written Image–Paintings & Installation–Oct 2007. Gallery Yapanchitra, India
Form and Color–Paintings of Hiran Mitra–Gallery Thuillier, Paris, Oct 2007 
Paper Landscapes, Works on paper, at Gallery 27, London, Mar 2007 
Book Launch: Shadows–monography (Ed. FDW France, Gerard Xuriguera)
*'''2006''' Inner Sensation, recent paintings by Hiran Mitra, Gallery 27, London
*'''2003''' Works of Movement in Dance, Theatre, Rabindra Sadan, Kolkata
*'''2002''' "Journey with Rang Number", Academy of Fine Arts Kolkata, Performance, Installation.
*'''2000''' Right line Gallery, Bangalore
*'''1997''' Gaganendra Chitrashala, Calcutta
*'''1995''' Graphics on film, Nandan Film & Cultural centre, Calcutta
*'''1995''' Retrospective of two decades 70s–80s, Birla Academy of Art and Culture, Calcutta
*'''1991''' Paintings inspired by Voices of Baul Music, Calcutta School of Music
*'''1980''' Paintings, Academy of Fine Arts, Calcutta
*'''1969''' Paintings & Drawings, Birla Academy of Arts & Culture, Calcutta
*'''1966''' Paintings & Drawings, Academy of Fine Arts, Calcutta

====Group shows (selection) / International Art Bi-annuals====
*'''2008''' Art Full of Bag—An installation concerning the Indian Art Market, Indian Society of Contemporary Artists at Birla Academy, *''June 2008'' Fusion III, Art Mosaic Gallery, ''August 2008''
*'''2007''' Biennale dell Arte Contemporane di Firenze, Florence Italy 1 Open Window group–Art Context gallery, Singapore
*'''2006''' Who Do you think I am ? Gallery in Cork Street, London Gallery La Mere, Annual group Show, Kolkata
*'''2005''' "Color Palette" Habitat Centre, New Delhi Special artists show, CIMA Kolkata Visual Art Gallery–New Delhi
*'''2004''' "Contemporary Forms", Cima Gallery, Kolkata Indian Contemporary Art–Eleven Artists, Hart Gallery, Beijing
*'''2003''' Birla Acandemy of Art & Culture Art of Bengal, CIMA Gallery, Mumbai
*'''2001''' "Collections d’Hiver", Galerie Jacob, Paris
*'''2000''' "Art & Bread, Kunst au Indien", Curated by Hannalore Christ, Hamburg "Contemporary Indian Artists", Birla Academy of Fine Arts, Bangalore Painters 80, Academy of Fine Arts, Calcutta "Art for Heart", Indian National Museum, Calcutta Artists of the Millennium, Townhall Museum, Calcutta
*'''1999''' The Contemporary Indian Art Show, Birla Academy, New Delhi & Mumbai Abstract Trends International, curated Dr Archana Roy,– Birla Academy, Calcutta
Painters 80, Jehangir Art Gallery Mumbai
*'''1998''' "All India Show", Birla Academy New Delhi, Bombay, Bangalore, Calcutta Bengal Artists, Birla Academy of Arts & culture, Calcutta
*'''1997''' Eisenstein in the eyes on Artists, graphic sketches, Gorky Sadan, Calcutta
*'''1996''' "All India Show"—Guest Artist, Birla Academy New Delhi, Bombay, Bangalore.
*'''1969''' Emerging Artists of Bengal, French Cultural Centre, Calcutta

====Public collections====
*Indian National Museum, Nimai Chatterji collection in [[Tate Modern]],
*Museum of Contemporary Art Dunkerque.

====Publications and media / editions====
*"Shadows"–Monograph of three decades of works on paper, foreword Gerard Xuriguera, Edition FDW France
*Painter of the Month: Guest, BBC World Service, hosted by Aminul Haque May 1997.
*"International Art ?", by Arun Ghosh, (art critic) Calcutta Metropolitan Festival of Art, Edition1997.
*"Film & Art", by Pralay Sur (Film critic) Nandan Film Institute.
*"Modern Art in traditional Rural Painting of Bengal"
*"Poetry in Paintings: Four Eminent Poets of Bengal", Volume 1 & 2, Illustrated with paintings of Hiran Mitra.
*"Art & Society", by Hiran Mitra, Abaad publications, 1996.
*1980–99 Essays on Art, Film & Social Behaviour in major daily newspapers.

==Art projects (selection)==
*Art Full of Bag, Installation/Workshop, Birla Academy of Fine Arts, Kolkata 2008
*Scene design with 10m x 6m Canvas, for the Modern drama Tista paarer brithantho
*Journey with Rang Number, 2002, http://www.[[Suman Mukhopadhyay]].com/html/rangnumber.asp
*Visual Vibrations, live painting with contemporary music performance
*The Chau Dancers of Purulia: study on movement and body language from Dance theatre to Painting
*Various Workshops exploring Visual Arts relationship to Body Language–Naya Theatre, with [[Habib Tanvir]] Dance Company
*[[Padatik (Indian theatre group)|Padatik]] Troupe, Chetna Jalan Show, Nabonittya, Chetana Theatre Group
*Art Workshop with various Indian artists–Lalit Kala Academy, Manipur

==Film and theatre art direction==

===Film===
*Necklace (released 2011), Shekhar Das
*Mohanagar@Kolkata (Released 2010): Suman Mukhophadyay [http://www.sumanmukhopadhyay.com/html/mahanagar_credits.asp]
*Chaturanga (Released: 2008)Suman Mukhophadyay [[Chaturanga (film);|http://www.chaturangathefilm.in/html/crew.asp]]
*Herbert (released 2005): Suman Mukhophadyay [http://www.sumanmukhopadhyay.com/html/herbert.asp]
*Moholboner Sereng (released 2005):
*Shomoy (released 1986): Goutom Chatterjee
*Nagbotee (released 1981): Goutom Chatterjee
*Letter to Mom (released 1988): Gutom Chaterjee
*Protee Bimbo (released 1971): Shoron Dey

===Theatre===
*Shunno Thekey (premiered 2011): Suman Mukhopadhyay
*Shesher Kobita (premiered 2011): Suman Mukhopadhyay
*Debi Shorpo-mastha (premiered 2011): Debesh Chattyapadhay
*Tota Kahini (released 2011): Abhishek Basu
*Chena Sukh Chena Dukhho (premiered 2011): Debesh Chattyapadhay
*Bikeley Bhorey Shorshey Phool (Premiered 2011): Debesh Chattyapadhay
*Dream Dream (Premiered 2010): Debesh Chattyapadhay
*King Lear (Premiered 2010): Suman Mukhopadhyay
*Maan Bhonjon (Premieredd 2010): Shohon Natya goshtee
*Dhorai Chorith Manosh (premiered 2010): Abhishek Basu
*Dibaratreer Kabyo (Premiered 2009): Arun Mukherjee
*Nirnoy (Premiered 2008): Arun Mukherjee
*Meyeti (premiered 2008): by Kishore Sengupta, Featuring [[Goutam Halder]] & Bindhya Ghosh, [http://www.telegraphindia.com/1080105/jsp/calcutta/story_8729275.jsp]
*Kalanthok Lal Phithey (premiered 2005): Suman Mukhpadhyay
*Phalguni (Premiered 2004): Suman Mukhapadhyay
*Baborer Prarthona (premiered 2007): Kishore Sengupta
*Hariey Jaey Manoosh (premiered 2005): Kishore Sengupta
*Shomoy Ashomoyer Brittyanta (Premiered 2002): Suman Mukhapadhyay
*Tista Barer Brittyanta (Premiered 2000): Suman Mukhapadhyay [http://www.sumanmukhopadhyay.com/html/teestapaarerbrittanto.asp]
*Anamni Angana (Premiered 1976): Neela Sen/Konica Sarkar
*Shajahan (Premiered 1964): Jochchon Dastidar

===Album cover designs===
* ''[[Aabaar Bochhor Kuri Pore]]'' (1995)
* ''[[Jhora Somoyer Gaan]]'' (1996)

==Awards==
*Residency, Lalit Kala Academy, New Delhi, Government of India
*1969, 70, 71 Gold Medal, Academy of Fine Arts, All India Emerging Artist

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.saatchi-gallery.co.uk/ More information and images on www.SaatchiGallery.com]
*[http://www.namesanart.com/artist.asp?cboartist=A00121 More Images on Kolkata Gallery]
*[http://www.saffronart.com/fixed/ItemDetails.aspx?iid=21857&a=Hiran%20%20Mitra More images on Saffronart.com]
*[http://www.artborderline.com/hiran_mitra/ Further images and artist biography from www.artborderline.com]
* Article in ''India Today'', Sarbani Sen [http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/Centre%20stage/0/12304.html]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mitra, Hiran}}
[[Category:Artists from Kolkata]]
[[Category:Indian calligraphers]]
[[Category:1945 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Government College of Art & Craft alumni]]
[[Category:University of Calcutta alumni]]
[[Category:Indian male artists]]

Gopal Ghose

2021-08-03T04:52:04Z

Hembram Bakhul:

{{short description|Indian painter (1913-1980)}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2018}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Gopal Ghose
| birth_date =5 December 1913
| birth_place = [[Calcutta]], [[British India]]
| death_date = 30 July 1980
}}

'''Gopal Ghose''' (5 December 1913 – 30 July 1980) was an Indian painter from West Bengal. In 1943, he was one of the founders of the [[Calcutta Group]], perhaps the first group of modernist painters in India.

==Life and career==
Ghose was born in Calcutta, West Bengal on 5 December 1913. After obtaining a diploma in painting from the [[Government College of Arts and Crafts, Jaipur]] in 1935, he trained in sculpture at the [[Government College of Art and Crafts, Chennai]] in 1938, where he studied under [[Debi Prasad Roy Choudhuri]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Gopal Ghose: Profile|url=http://www.saffronart.com/artist/artistprofile.aspx?artistid=91|publisher=Saffron Art}}</ref>

Initially influenced by the [[Bengal School]], Ghose was drawn to the pictorial vocabulary developed by European Expressionists and Cubists to depict nature. Ghose reworked the genre of landscape painting, investing it with expressionistic qualities. He travelled extensively within India to paint his landscapes. Ghose was adept with several mediums, and known especially for his ingenious handling of watercolour. He also worked with tempera, pen and ink, and brush and pastel.

He was one of the founder members of the well-known Calcutta Group (1943). Ghose taught at the Indian Society of Oriental Art, in Kolkata from 1940–45 and then joined the faculty of the Bengal Engineering College, Shibpur (then affiliated with the [[University of Calcutta]]), where he taught architectural drawing. He was also the joint secretary of the Academy of Fine Arts in Kolkata.

Ghose died on 30 July 1980. His works can be seen at the [[Birla Academy of Art & Culture]], Kolkata, and the [[National Gallery of Modern Art]], New Delhi.

==Further reading==
* Moitra, Dwijendra. ''Gopal Ghose'', Lalit Kala Akademi, Contemporary Indian Art Series, New Delhi, 1966.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ghose, Gopal}}
[[Category:1913 births]]
[[Category:1980 deaths]]
[[Category:Artists from Kolkata]]
[[Category:University of Calcutta faculty]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian painters]]
[[Category:Bengali male artists]]
[[Category:Indian male painters]]
[[Category:Painters from West Bengal]]

{{India-artist-stub}}

Sudip Roy

2021-08-03T04:49:39Z

Hembram Bakhul:

{{Infobox artist
| name = Sudip Roy
| image = Sudip Roy at his studio.jpg
| imagesize =
| caption = Roy in his studio
| birth_name =
| birth_date = October,1960
| birth_place = [[Baharampur]], West Bengal
| death_date =
| death_place =
| nationality = Indian
| field = [[Visual arts]]
| training = [[Government College of Art & Craft]]
| works = Charulata, Benaras, Krishna, Time series(Abstract), Durga, Sadhu, Monkey
| influenced by =
| influenced =
| awards =The 'Lorenzo il Magnifico' Award<ref>{{cite news| url=http://blogs.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/plumage/florence-biennale-sudip-roy-s-wins-award-for-for-christ-gandhi-teresa-trilogy/ | work=The Times of India | title=Florence Biennale: Sudip Roy wins award for Christ, Gandhi, Teresa-Trilogy | date=27 December 2011}}</ref>
}}

'''Sudip Roy''' ({{lang-bn|সুদীপ রায়}})(Born 1960) is an Indian artist, pursuing arts in the [[Government College of Art & Craft]], Kolkata. Works of Sudip Roy includes pencil sketches and water colours, charcoals and a heady series of landscape done in limped line drawing. Roy over the years mastered the art of watercolor and moved from landscapes to studies of architectural facades and association of people in historic temples and monuments. He moved to the capital city of Delhi in the mid 1990s.

His subjects remained architectural and figurative for most part of his life, until he shifted to moody momentousness. He started doing large abstracted works which reflected times of the day.

Voluminous sweeps of colour, drawing concurrently on still perceptions, with a light hand and the melodious design of colour's vapid vacuous tonality, these works are, as if, Sudip's encounter with history of realism, abandoning and reconciling into the magic of Abstract Expressionism.

His work of art overlaps maximal instincts as well expressionist paintings. He discards an insistent flatness in favour of three-dimensionality, turning from the canvas to a series of densely coloured fragments delineated by strong contours.

==Life and career==

===Early life===

Sudip Roy was born in [[Baharampur]], West Bengal and came to study at the [[Government College of Art & Craft]], Kolkata. At college, he was known for attracting the attention of early collectors for his stylistic distinction in watercolours and expressionist drawings. He began his career as a young artist painting portraits and bold impressionistic landscapes, and architectural studies.

===Career in contemporary art===

Drawing upon those influences, he eventually forged the style of modern painting for which he is best known, a successful reinterpretation of traditional lean lithe iconography by way of crisp, clean, modernist lines. He went on to become one of the most celebrated modernists in the history of Indian painting because he had gone through myriad methods including the wash paintings that called for more than a thousand sweeps of wash effect.

He had his first solo show at Delhi in 1996 at Art Today, the exemplare gallery space for artists in Delhi, hit headlines in media because he sold out within a few hours. At Art Today were a few architectural watercolours and a few panoramic drawings done from his early college days.<ref>{{cite news |title=Calendar art, big name not enough to appeal-buyers |author=Suneet Chopra|url=http://expressindia.indianexpress.com/fe/daily/19980501/12155254.html |publisher=The Indian Express |date=1 May 1998 |accessdate=7 March 2006}}</ref>

===Personal life===

He is married to Mitra Roy, and has two sons, named Sujat Roy and Sumit Roy. He lives and works between New Delhi, Baroda and Kolkata.

==Works over the years==

===Monkey (Langur) series===

Sitting in Behrampore and watching the world around him, he was deeply fascinated by the agile and languorous movements of the langur and their deep primate-like antics-his first series were a host of drawings that were studies of the monkeys. These drawings were clean and crisp sketches that spoke of the beauty of the contour as well as the magic of abstraction that happens when you want to keep lines short and sprightly and sometimes let spaces play within the contours of an impish moment.
He also led this theme to his wash paintings, where he depicted a lot of social commentary.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/events/delhi/Javed-Akhtar-inaugurates-Sudip-Roys-solo-exhibition/articleshow/17692931.cms | work=The Times Of India | title=Javed Akhtar inaugurates Sudip Roy's solo exhibition | date= 21 December 2014}}</ref>

===Charulata===

The Charulata series was a series that was born out of the story by [[Rabindranath Tagore]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Once criticised, painter Tagore now aesthetic icon |author=Madhusree Chatterjee|url=https://in.news.yahoo.com/once-criticised-painter-tagore-now-aesthetic-icon-041918011.html |publisher=Yahoo News! |date=5 March 2013 |accessdate=7 March 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title =Exhibition brings Gurgaon closer to Tagore |publisher=Times Of India| url = http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/gurgaon/Exhibition-brings-Gurgaon-closer-to-Tagore/articleshow/8137901.cms|date=2 May 2011|accessdate = 26 January 2014}}</ref> but one that went beyond because the modern-day woman is one who doesn’t care about the stranger who rings the bell or knocks at her door. She is depicted as the graceful feminine being who throws her pallu in careless grace and stands with vegetable stained hands at the doorway. The Charulata is a woman signified by Sudip as someone who is secretive and shy-'lajja' as the adjective described by the artist, in their being but deeply attractive for their sinuous curves and their loosely folded saris draped in dream-like intensities-bringing back the verve and stylized grace of [[Satyajit Ray]]’s<ref>[http://unboxedwriters.com/2012/01/ray%E2%80%99s-charulata-roy%E2%80%99s-canvas/#.VowZkJN96V5 Ray’s Charulata, Roy’s Canvas. Written by Poonam Goel.]</ref> film of the same name. Sudip added an elegant twist to his Charulata series with the addition of the mirror that echoed the classic studies of Hemen Majumdar.<ref>[http://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/hindi/Disintegrating-India-Bangladesh-Border-Through-Art/2015/11/27/article3149773.ece Disintegrating' India-Bangladesh Border Through Art | Indian Express]</ref>

===Wash Paintings===

Sudip did wash paintings during his college days and though it spells great labour and time he has continued to do a number of washes that have caught the attention of collectors and art lovers alike all over the world.<ref>{{cite news |title=Time Past is Present - An Exhibition of paintings by Sudip Roy|author=Abhishek Mondal|url=http://www.artnewsnviews.com/show-news.php?news=time-past-is-present---an-exhibition-of-paintings-by-sudip-roy&newscode=68 |publisher=art etc. |date=7 February 2012 |access-date=6 January 2015}}</ref> His wash paintings included a series of Christs that were done with the quasi abstract feel and the romance of realism born of the vignettes of Da Vinci and Renoir and Reubens. The wispy softness and the strength of the subject is what has always set him apart-this is why his Christ was among the award-winning works at the Florence Biennale.

===Abstract===

He began on a series of abstractions that were created listening to music. His understanding of the abstract expressionist movement in the West and his deep feeling for the flowing notes of a raga is what made him create a series of abstracts that looked more like billowing colours blowing in the wind with tiny formations of ideations and imageries that seemed to float in his retinue of rhythms.<ref>{{cite news |title=Bright, bold and bewildering|author=Geetha Jayaraman|url=http://www.asianage.com/ideas/bright-bold-and-bewildering-263 |publisher=The Asian Age |date=12 December 2015 |accessdate=6 January 2015}}</ref> He went beyond abstraction when he melded polished metallic surfaces with his abstractions in two important shows in the new millennium.<ref>{{cite news |title=A controlled playfulness with colours|author=Alka Raghuvanshi|url=http://www.asianage.com/arts/controlled-playfulness-colours-478 |publisher=The Asian Age |date=25 December 2015 |accessdate=6 January 2015}}</ref>

==Charitable Work==

Sudip supported CRY aiming to restore children's rights. He worked with major designers for a fund raiser for a NGO, Sahan with FDCI.

Kapil Dev’s foundation Khushii organised an auction with Christie’s in which Roy had participated for charity causes including a hospital at Nimrana in Rajasthan and tsunami-hit people in southern India.

His work was also part of the auction that helped raise money<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/news/sunday-special/columns/for-the-one-who-shall-forever-stand-tall/15213.html | work=The Tribune | title=For the one who shall forever stand tall | date= 6 December 2014}}</ref> for the sculpture of Mahatma Gandhi<ref>[http://gandhistatue.org/gandhi-art-sold-to-generous-donors/ Gandhi Art sold to generous donors.]</ref> in London’s Parliament.

==Promotional Work==

He is the first Indian artist who created and painted the BMW for the German company. Blended as a moody spring of contour and colour the BMW became an enduring symbol of a BMW art car.

Sudip has collaborated with Audi.

Roy painted live to promote Tanishq Jewellery in the year 2002.

During CWG XIX (India), an exhibition was curated by Rupika Chawla to welcome the guests. A print of that work is at Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium Metro. Even Taj Hotel,<ref>{{cite news| url=http://photogallery.indiatimes.com/events/delhi/sudip-roy-art-show/articleshow/6711220.cms | work=The Times Of India | title=Celebration of Commonwealth Games' at Taj Mansingh Hotel | date= 7 October 2010}}</ref> Delhi showcased his works to promote CWG.

==Awards==

*1979 Gold Medal from Sahitya Parishad, Calcutta
*1981 Govt. College of Arts & Crafts
*1982 Gold Medal in All India Fine Art Exhibition of Fine Arts, Calcutta.
*1982 Govt. College of Arts & Crafts
*1984 Indian Society of Oriental Art
*1985 Indian Society of Oriental Art
*1986 Indian Society of Oriental Art
*1991 AIFACS, Delhi
*2011 Lorenzo il Magnifico, Florence

==Collections==

*Museum of Sacred Art, Belgium
*Birla Academy of Art and Culture, Kolkata
*Indian Embassy, USA
*Hero Honda Motors Limited
*Bharti Tele-Ventures LTD (BTVL)
*Delhi Art College
*Government College of Art and Craft
*Tata Group
*HCL Technologies
*Tractors India Ltd.
*Jindal Steel and Power Limited
*Indian Parliament
*Doon School
*Dabur India Limited
*Tulip Telecom
*Kerala Museum, Kochi

Represented in several private and public collections all over the world.

==Artworks==
{{BLP unsourced section|date=January 2016}}
His works include:

*Victoria Memorial, the colonial classic architecture of the Victoria Memorial and its beauty of the sky and its soft lingering majesty is shown in this study.
*Venice, the beauty of Venice lay in the romance of the canals and the gondolas other than the colours of the sunset seeping through his senses.
*Benares, the holy city of Benares came alive not just in its people but in the cross cultures of holy mantras and the little umbrellas and the ghats that stand like a silent sentinel.
*Dhaba, the little boy at the dhaba or the coal glowing and the tea pot or the lanterns that light up the darkness was a series of watercolours done in elegant abstractions.
*Christ - Studies of Christ have moved in leaps and bounds with mediums and different compositions that brought the pathos and gravitas of the world’s greatly loved figure.
*Mother Teresa - The Saint of the Gutters became an important part of his oeuvre because he believed she gave us a lesson in humanism. Her blue bordered sari and her compassion is what he strove to capture.
*CWG series, a special series done to showcase beauty of India and love for sport.
*Krishna, the popular god of the Hindu pantheon was a subject of his watercolours as well as oils. The Krishna was not just a blue being but a deity of great humility and simple charisma and charm as she bordered his countenance with petals and lotuses.
*Forts - Haunts of history were his mettle as he sketched and painted a series of facades and facets of forts that stood testimony to the ravages of time.
*Temples - The inner sanctorum and the quiet incense of the temple always presented a wafting memory to him and he created a series of works that were fragments of the little details of the sojourn that is spiritual.
*Sadhu - In the past he has spent time with many sadhus in the city of Benares and his proximity gave him gleanings that invited many a composition in the hard life of the ascetic.
*Kettle-The humble kettle which is used to make tea in the dhabas of little villages and towns was an important part of his still life studies as he captured the tint and the alloyed reality of the kettle with its smoky stains.
*Hookah - The symbolism of the hookah and the puffs of smoke that filled the atmosphere is a composition that sometimes held its own.
*Lantern - The quaint and humble lantern with its ashen glass and its little rusty nuances made a still life that spoke of the beauty of simplicity.
*Calcutta - The City of Joy has held many secrets and tableaux to his sheets of paper or canvasses in the past. Calcutta has had its richness as a classic colonial city that offered many things to many people.
*Bombay - The city of Bombay had its own charm and charisma with its British colonial insets and architectural detailings that spoke differently in the shades of the setting sun or the sunrise-even as the waves of the sea whispered its own entity.
*Durga - The magnificence of Durga is the story of good and evil-the story of the power of victory and the essence of the triumph of worship.

== References ==
<references />

==External links==
* [http://www.sudiproy.com/ Official website]

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Roy, Sudip}}
[[Category:1960 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian contemporary painters]]
[[Category:Indian male painters]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian painters]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian painters]]
[[Category:Indian portrait painters]]
[[Category:Indian watercolourists]]
[[Category:Mixed-media artists]]
[[Category:Indian multimedia artists]]
[[Category:Modern artists]]
[[Category:Abstract painters]]
[[Category:Government College of Art & Craft alumni]]
[[Category:Bengali male artists]]
[[Category:Painters from West Bengal]]

Sudip Roy

2021-08-03T04:48:42Z

Hembram Bakhul: Created page with "{{Use Indian English|date=May 2018}} {{advert|date=June 2020}} {{Infobox artist | name = Sudip Roy | image = Sudip Roy at his studio.jpg | imagesize = | c..."

{{Use Indian English|date=May 2018}}
{{advert|date=June 2020}}
{{Infobox artist
| name = Sudip Roy
| image = Sudip Roy at his studio.jpg
| imagesize =
| caption = Roy in his studio
| birth_name =
| birth_date = October,1960
| birth_place = [[Baharampur]], West Bengal
| death_date =
| death_place =
| nationality = Indian
| field = [[Visual arts]]
| training = [[Government College of Art & Craft]]
| works = Charulata, Benaras, Krishna, Time series(Abstract), Durga, Sadhu, Monkey
| influenced by =
| influenced =
| awards =The 'Lorenzo il Magnifico' Award<ref>{{cite news| url=http://blogs.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/plumage/florence-biennale-sudip-roy-s-wins-award-for-for-christ-gandhi-teresa-trilogy/ | work=The Times of India | title=Florence Biennale: Sudip Roy wins award for Christ, Gandhi, Teresa-Trilogy | date=27 December 2011}}</ref>
}}

'''Sudip Roy''' ({{lang-bn|সুদীপ রায়}})(Born 1960) is an Indian artist, pursuing arts in the [[Government College of Art & Craft]], Kolkata. Works of Sudip Roy includes pencil sketches and water colours, charcoals and a heady series of landscape done in limped line drawing. Roy over the years mastered the art of watercolor and moved from landscapes to studies of architectural facades and association of people in historic temples and monuments. He moved to the capital city of Delhi in the mid 1990s.

His subjects remained architectural and figurative for most part of his life, until he shifted to moody momentousness. He started doing large abstracted works which reflected times of the day.

Voluminous sweeps of colour, drawing concurrently on still perceptions, with a light hand and the melodious design of colour's vapid vacuous tonality, these works are, as if, Sudip's encounter with history of realism, abandoning and reconciling into the magic of Abstract Expressionism.

His work of art overlaps maximal instincts as well expressionist paintings. He discards an insistent flatness in favour of three-dimensionality, turning from the canvas to a series of densely coloured fragments delineated by strong contours.

==Life and career==

===Early life===

Sudip Roy was born in [[Baharampur]], West Bengal and came to study at the [[Government College of Art & Craft]], Kolkata. At college, he was known for attracting the attention of early collectors for his stylistic distinction in watercolours and expressionist drawings. He began his career as a young artist painting portraits and bold impressionistic landscapes, and architectural studies.

===Career in contemporary art===

Drawing upon those influences, he eventually forged the style of modern painting for which he is best known, a successful reinterpretation of traditional lean lithe iconography by way of crisp, clean, modernist lines. He went on to become one of the most celebrated modernists in the history of Indian painting because he had gone through myriad methods including the wash paintings that called for more than a thousand sweeps of wash effect.

He had his first solo show at Delhi in 1996 at Art Today, the exemplare gallery space for artists in Delhi, hit headlines in media because he sold out within a few hours. At Art Today were a few architectural watercolours and a few panoramic drawings done from his early college days.<ref>{{cite news |title=Calendar art, big name not enough to appeal-buyers |author=Suneet Chopra|url=http://expressindia.indianexpress.com/fe/daily/19980501/12155254.html |publisher=The Indian Express |date=1 May 1998 |accessdate=7 March 2006}}</ref>

===Personal life===

He is married to Mitra Roy, and has two sons, named Sujat Roy and Sumit Roy. He lives and works between New Delhi, Baroda and Kolkata.

==Works over the years==

===Monkey (Langur) series===

Sitting in Behrampore and watching the world around him, he was deeply fascinated by the agile and languorous movements of the langur and their deep primate-like antics-his first series were a host of drawings that were studies of the monkeys. These drawings were clean and crisp sketches that spoke of the beauty of the contour as well as the magic of abstraction that happens when you want to keep lines short and sprightly and sometimes let spaces play within the contours of an impish moment.
He also led this theme to his wash paintings, where he depicted a lot of social commentary.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/events/delhi/Javed-Akhtar-inaugurates-Sudip-Roys-solo-exhibition/articleshow/17692931.cms | work=The Times Of India | title=Javed Akhtar inaugurates Sudip Roy's solo exhibition | date= 21 December 2014}}</ref>

===Charulata===

The Charulata series was a series that was born out of the story by [[Rabindranath Tagore]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Once criticised, painter Tagore now aesthetic icon |author=Madhusree Chatterjee|url=https://in.news.yahoo.com/once-criticised-painter-tagore-now-aesthetic-icon-041918011.html |publisher=Yahoo News! |date=5 March 2013 |accessdate=7 March 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title =Exhibition brings Gurgaon closer to Tagore |publisher=Times Of India| url = http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/gurgaon/Exhibition-brings-Gurgaon-closer-to-Tagore/articleshow/8137901.cms|date=2 May 2011|accessdate = 26 January 2014}}</ref> but one that went beyond because the modern-day woman is one who doesn’t care about the stranger who rings the bell or knocks at her door. She is depicted as the graceful feminine being who throws her pallu in careless grace and stands with vegetable stained hands at the doorway. The Charulata is a woman signified by Sudip as someone who is secretive and shy-'lajja' as the adjective described by the artist, in their being but deeply attractive for their sinuous curves and their loosely folded saris draped in dream-like intensities-bringing back the verve and stylized grace of [[Satyajit Ray]]’s<ref>[http://unboxedwriters.com/2012/01/ray%E2%80%99s-charulata-roy%E2%80%99s-canvas/#.VowZkJN96V5 Ray’s Charulata, Roy’s Canvas. Written by Poonam Goel.]</ref> film of the same name. Sudip added an elegant twist to his Charulata series with the addition of the mirror that echoed the classic studies of Hemen Majumdar.<ref>[http://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/hindi/Disintegrating-India-Bangladesh-Border-Through-Art/2015/11/27/article3149773.ece Disintegrating' India-Bangladesh Border Through Art | Indian Express]</ref>

===Wash Paintings===

Sudip did wash paintings during his college days and though it spells great labour and time he has continued to do a number of washes that have caught the attention of collectors and art lovers alike all over the world.<ref>{{cite news |title=Time Past is Present - An Exhibition of paintings by Sudip Roy|author=Abhishek Mondal|url=http://www.artnewsnviews.com/show-news.php?news=time-past-is-present---an-exhibition-of-paintings-by-sudip-roy&newscode=68 |publisher=art etc. |date=7 February 2012 |access-date=6 January 2015}}</ref> His wash paintings included a series of Christs that were done with the quasi abstract feel and the romance of realism born of the vignettes of Da Vinci and Renoir and Reubens. The wispy softness and the strength of the subject is what has always set him apart-this is why his Christ was among the award-winning works at the Florence Biennale.

===Abstract===

He began on a series of abstractions that were created listening to music. His understanding of the abstract expressionist movement in the West and his deep feeling for the flowing notes of a raga is what made him create a series of abstracts that looked more like billowing colours blowing in the wind with tiny formations of ideations and imageries that seemed to float in his retinue of rhythms.<ref>{{cite news |title=Bright, bold and bewildering|author=Geetha Jayaraman|url=http://www.asianage.com/ideas/bright-bold-and-bewildering-263 |publisher=The Asian Age |date=12 December 2015 |accessdate=6 January 2015}}</ref> He went beyond abstraction when he melded polished metallic surfaces with his abstractions in two important shows in the new millennium.<ref>{{cite news |title=A controlled playfulness with colours|author=Alka Raghuvanshi|url=http://www.asianage.com/arts/controlled-playfulness-colours-478 |publisher=The Asian Age |date=25 December 2015 |accessdate=6 January 2015}}</ref>

==Charitable Work==

Sudip supported CRY aiming to restore children's rights. He worked with major designers for a fund raiser for a NGO, Sahan with FDCI.

Kapil Dev’s foundation Khushii organised an auction with Christie’s in which Roy had participated for charity causes including a hospital at Nimrana in Rajasthan and tsunami-hit people in southern India.

His work was also part of the auction that helped raise money<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/news/sunday-special/columns/for-the-one-who-shall-forever-stand-tall/15213.html | work=The Tribune | title=For the one who shall forever stand tall | date= 6 December 2014}}</ref> for the sculpture of Mahatma Gandhi<ref>[http://gandhistatue.org/gandhi-art-sold-to-generous-donors/ Gandhi Art sold to generous donors.]</ref> in London’s Parliament.

==Promotional Work==

He is the first Indian artist who created and painted the BMW for the German company. Blended as a moody spring of contour and colour the BMW became an enduring symbol of a BMW art car.

Sudip has collaborated with Audi.

Roy painted live to promote Tanishq Jewellery in the year 2002.

During CWG XIX (India), an exhibition was curated by Rupika Chawla to welcome the guests. A print of that work is at Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium Metro. Even Taj Hotel,<ref>{{cite news| url=http://photogallery.indiatimes.com/events/delhi/sudip-roy-art-show/articleshow/6711220.cms | work=The Times Of India | title=Celebration of Commonwealth Games' at Taj Mansingh Hotel | date= 7 October 2010}}</ref> Delhi showcased his works to promote CWG.

==Awards==

*1979 Gold Medal from Sahitya Parishad, Calcutta
*1981 Govt. College of Arts & Crafts
*1982 Gold Medal in All India Fine Art Exhibition of Fine Arts, Calcutta.
*1982 Govt. College of Arts & Crafts
*1984 Indian Society of Oriental Art
*1985 Indian Society of Oriental Art
*1986 Indian Society of Oriental Art
*1991 AIFACS, Delhi
*2011 Lorenzo il Magnifico, Florence

==Collections==

*Museum of Sacred Art, Belgium
*Birla Academy of Art and Culture, Kolkata
*Indian Embassy, USA
*Hero Honda Motors Limited
*Bharti Tele-Ventures LTD (BTVL)
*Delhi Art College
*Government College of Art and Craft
*Tata Group
*HCL Technologies
*Tractors India Ltd.
*Jindal Steel and Power Limited
*Indian Parliament
*Doon School
*Dabur India Limited
*Tulip Telecom
*Kerala Museum, Kochi

Represented in several private and public collections all over the world.

==Artworks==
{{BLP unsourced section|date=January 2016}}
His works include:

*Victoria Memorial, the colonial classic architecture of the Victoria Memorial and its beauty of the sky and its soft lingering majesty is shown in this study.
*Venice, the beauty of Venice lay in the romance of the canals and the gondolas other than the colours of the sunset seeping through his senses.
*Benares, the holy city of Benares came alive not just in its people but in the cross cultures of holy mantras and the little umbrellas and the ghats that stand like a silent sentinel.
*Dhaba, the little boy at the dhaba or the coal glowing and the tea pot or the lanterns that light up the darkness was a series of watercolours done in elegant abstractions.
*Christ - Studies of Christ have moved in leaps and bounds with mediums and different compositions that brought the pathos and gravitas of the world’s greatly loved figure.
*Mother Teresa - The Saint of the Gutters became an important part of his oeuvre because he believed she gave us a lesson in humanism. Her blue bordered sari and her compassion is what he strove to capture.
*CWG series, a special series done to showcase beauty of India and love for sport.
*Krishna, the popular god of the Hindu pantheon was a subject of his watercolours as well as oils. The Krishna was not just a blue being but a deity of great humility and simple charisma and charm as she bordered his countenance with petals and lotuses.
*Forts - Haunts of history were his mettle as he sketched and painted a series of facades and facets of forts that stood testimony to the ravages of time.
*Temples - The inner sanctorum and the quiet incense of the temple always presented a wafting memory to him and he created a series of works that were fragments of the little details of the sojourn that is spiritual.
*Sadhu - In the past he has spent time with many sadhus in the city of Benares and his proximity gave him gleanings that invited many a composition in the hard life of the ascetic.
*Kettle-The humble kettle which is used to make tea in the dhabas of little villages and towns was an important part of his still life studies as he captured the tint and the alloyed reality of the kettle with its smoky stains.
*Hookah - The symbolism of the hookah and the puffs of smoke that filled the atmosphere is a composition that sometimes held its own.
*Lantern - The quaint and humble lantern with its ashen glass and its little rusty nuances made a still life that spoke of the beauty of simplicity.
*Calcutta - The City of Joy has held many secrets and tableaux to his sheets of paper or canvasses in the past. Calcutta has had its richness as a classic colonial city that offered many things to many people.
*Bombay - The city of Bombay had its own charm and charisma with its British colonial insets and architectural detailings that spoke differently in the shades of the setting sun or the sunrise-even as the waves of the sea whispered its own entity.
*Durga - The magnificence of Durga is the story of good and evil-the story of the power of victory and the essence of the triumph of worship.

== References ==
<references />

==External links==
* [http://www.sudiproy.com/ Official website]

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Roy, Sudip}}
[[Category:1960 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian contemporary painters]]
[[Category:Indian male painters]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian painters]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian painters]]
[[Category:Indian portrait painters]]
[[Category:Indian watercolourists]]
[[Category:Mixed-media artists]]
[[Category:Indian multimedia artists]]
[[Category:Modern artists]]
[[Category:Abstract painters]]
[[Category:Government College of Art & Craft alumni]]
[[Category:Bengali male artists]]
[[Category:Painters from West Bengal]]

Talk:Kunar Hembram

2021-08-02T19:36:00Z

Hembram Bakhul: Created page with "Kunar Hembram have already page created. Please delete this page Kunar Hembhram page .~~~Hembram Bakhul"

Kunar Hembram have already page created. Please delete this page Kunar Hembhram page .[[User:Hembram Bakhul|Hembram Bakhul]] ([[User talk:Hembram Bakhul|talk]])Hembram Bakhul

Bharatpedia:Requested moves

2021-08-02T19:33:27Z

Hembram Bakhul: Created page with "Kunar Hembram page have already. Kunar Hembram and Kunar Hembhram is similar page . Please delete this page Kunar Hembhram page ."

Kunar Hembram page have already. Kunar Hembram and Kunar Hembhram is similar page . Please delete this page Kunar Hembhram page .

Rathin Kisku

2021-08-01T10:37:46Z

Hembram Bakhul: Approved for livespace for further review.

{{short description|Indian singer}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Rathin Kisku ᱨᱚᱛᱷᱤᱱ ᱠᱤᱥᱠᱩ

| caption = (Rathin Kisku)
| image = ᱨᱚᱛᱷᱤᱱ ᱠᱤᱥᱠᱩ (Rathin Kisku).jpg
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=y|1984|03|22}}
| birth_place = [[Gopalnagar]], [[Birbhum]], West Bengal, India
| occupation = {{hlist|Singer|lyricist|composer}}
| nationality = Indian
| awards = * Lal Sukra Award 2008, West Bengal Government
* Birbhum District Baul Award 2009
* Santali Film Fair Award 2010
}}

'''Rathin Kisku''' ([[Santali language|Santhali]] : ᱨᱚᱛᱷᱤᱱ ᱠᱤᱥᱠᱩ) is an [[India]]n singer. His style of music is between [[Baul]] and traditional [[Santal]] music, which earned him the nickname "''adivasi Baul"''.<ref name=TG>{{cite news|title=Baul international|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/states/west-bengal/baul-international/cid/1006346|accessdate=28 November 2018|website=The Telegraph|location=Kolkota}}</ref>

==Life and work==
Kisku was born in a [[Santal people|Santal]] family<ref name=TG/> in a small village near [[Shantiniketan|Santiniketan]]. The area is influenced by [[Rabindranath Tagore]], who lived in Santiniketan. His former home is now a museum and attraction for tourists. Santinitekan is also considered one of the centers of Baul. During his school years, Kisku frequently participated in local cultural events. He dropped out of school without a degree, but was able to get vocal training in [[Hindustani classical music|classical Hindustani]]. Kisku eventually pursued graduation from school. Kisku published his first CD in 2007 at the [[Goethe-Institut]] in Calcutta.{{Citation needed|date=February 2019}} Previously, he was the lead singer on the ''Ghosaldanga Bishnubati Adibasi Trust''. Kisku has released more CDs with music publisher [[Saregama]] in India.

In Europe, he became known in 2005 due to a performance at ARTE. In 2005 and 2008, he undertook concert tours through (Germany) and [[Austria]] with the support of Martin Kämpchen. During the first of these trips, he also appeared on the Swiss radio [[Radio SRF 2 Kultur|DRS 2]]. In 2007, Kisku undertook a concert tour to [[Bangladesh]], where he appeared in [[Dhaka]] together with Anusheh.{{Who|date=February 2019}} This concert tour was again supported by the Goethe-Institut. In 2008, he was the main performer for the ceremony of the Santhali Filmfare Awards. Kisku has appeared repeatedly in Indian radio and television programs. The singer is married and lives in [[Bolpur]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Dorfentwicklung Indien: Baul-Sänger Rathin Kisku|url=http://www.dorfentwicklung-indien.de/santal-kultur/kuenstler-in-der-dorfarbeit/baul-saenger-rathin-kisku/|accessdate=28 November 2018|language=de}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Career of Rathin Kisku|publisher=Dorfentwicklung Indien|url=http://www.dorfentwicklung-indien.de/fileadmin/Infos/Mitglied_werden/Rathin_Kisku-Daten_Laufbahn.pdf|format=PDF|accessdate=28 November 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Awards function lacks sheen|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/states/jharkhand/awards-function-lacks-sheen/cid/582281|accessdate=28 November 2018|website=The Telegraph|location=Kolkota}}</ref>

With his fusion of traditional Santal music with more mainstream Indian music styles, Kisku is considered to be an example of a modern young Santal man balancing tradition with the demands of today.<ref>{{citation|periodical=D+C|title=The young generation of India's Adivasis struggles with tough problems other youth do not have|language=German|url=https://www.dandc.eu/en/article/young-generation-indias-adivasis-struggles-tough-problems-other-youth-do-not-have|access-date=28 November 2018
}}</ref>

Recently he performed in New Delhi in front of 10,000 people on 6 January 2019.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kisku, Rathin}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian male singers]]
[[Category:1984 births]]
[[Category:Santali people]]
[[Category:Santali-language singers]]
[[Category:Indian people]]
[[Category:Bengali music]]

User talk:Pradip89

2021-08-01T10:12:59Z

Hembram Bakhul: Hembram Bakhul moved page User talk:Pradip89 to User talk:Pradip: This user not following guidelines.

{{Template:Welcome|realName=|name=Pradip89}}

-- [[User:ShoutWiki|ShoutWiki]] ([[User talk:ShoutWiki|talk]]) 23:21, 11 May 2021 (IST)

== Tikri border gang rape, has been created. ==

{{AfC talk|Tikri border gang rape|sig=yes}}

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User:Pradip89

2021-08-01T10:12:55Z

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User:Pradip

2021-08-01T10:12:51Z

Hembram Bakhul: Hembram Bakhul moved page User:Pradip89 to User:Pradip: This user not following guidelines.

[[File:India flag-XL-anim.gif|center]]

Kunar Hembram

2021-08-01T10:05:00Z

Hembram Bakhul:

{{short description|Indian politician}}
{{use dmy dates|date=May 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2019}}
{{Infobox officeholder
|honorific-prefix =
| name = Birmal Hembram
| image =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|2003|06|29|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Jhargram]], [[West Bengal]]
| office1 = [[Member of Parliament (India)|Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha]]
| constituency1 = [[Jhargram (Lok Sabha constituency)|Jhargram]]
| term_start1 = 23 May 2019
| term_end1 =
| predecessor1 = [[Birbaha Hansda]]
| successor1 =
| nationality = [[Indian people|Indian]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| source = http://loksabhaph.nic.in/Members/MemberBioprofile.aspx?mpsno=5047
}}
'''Birmal Hembram''',(others name kunar) is an Engineer turned Indian parliamentarian. He was elected to the [[Lok Sabha]] (the lower house of the [[Parliament of India]]) from [[Jhargram (Lok Sabha constituency)|Jhargram]], [[West Bengal]] in the [[2019 Indian general election]] as a member of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://indianexpress.com/elections/jhargram-lok-sabha-election-results-2019-live-winner-runner-up/ | title=Jhargram Lok Sabha Election Results 2019 LIVE Updates: Winner, Runner-up| publisher=The Indian Express| date=24 May 2019 | accessdate=24 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-jhargram-lok-sabha-election-results-2019-west-bengal-bjp-s-kunar-hembram-defeats-tmc-s-beerbaha-soren-2751200 | title=Jhargram Lok Sabha election results 2019 West Bengal: BJP's Kunar Hembhram defeats TMC's Beerbaha Soren | publisher=DNA | date=24 May 2019 | accessdate=27 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.timesnownews.com/elections/article/jhargram-west-bengal-election-2019-jhargram-election-results-candidates-voter-population-polling-percentage/413996 | title=Jhargram Election Results 2019 | publisher=Times Now | date=23 May 2019 | accessdate=27 May 2020}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://loksabhaph.nic.in/Members/MemberBioprofile.aspx?mpsno=5047 Official biographical sketch in Parliament of India website]
{{17th Lok Sabha members from all states}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hembram, Kunar}}
[[Category:17th Lok Sabha members]]
[[Category:Lok Sabha members from West Bengal]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from West Bengal]]
[[Category:santali writer]]
[[Category:People from Jhargram district]]

Girinath Reddy

2021-08-01T10:01:56Z

Hembram Bakhul:

{{short description|Indian cricketer}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2016}}
{{Infobox cricketer
|
| country = India
| fullname = Girinath Reddy
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1998|10|8|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Anantapur]], India
| death_date =
| death_place =
| nickname =
| batting =
| bowling =
| role =

| club1 =
| year1 =
| clubnumber1 =
| club2 =
| year2 =
| clubnumber2 =

| date = 20 November 2016
| source = [http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/956033.html ESPNcricinfo]
}}

'''Girinath Reddy''' (born 8 October 1998) is an Indian [[cricket]]er.<ref name="Bio">{{Cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/956033.html |title=Girinath Reddy |accessdate=20 November 2016 |work=ESPN Cricinfo}}</ref> He made his [[Twenty20]] debut for [[Andhra cricket team|Andhra]] in the [[2015–16 Syed Mushtaq Ali Trophy]] on 4 January 2016.<ref name="T20">{{Cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/902151.html |title=Syed Mushtaq Ali Trophy, Group C: Andhra v Railways at Vadodara, Jan 4, 2016 |accessdate=20 November 2016 |work=ESPN Cricinfo}}</ref> He made his [[List A cricket|List A]] debut for Andhra in the [[2016–17 Vijay Hazare Trophy]] on 4 March 2017.<ref name="LA">{{Cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1053843.html |title=Vijay Hazare Trophy, Group C: Andhra v Mumbai at Chennai, Mar 4, 2017 |accessdate=4 March 2017 |work=ESPN Cricinfo}}</ref>

He made his [[first-class cricket|first-class]] debut for Andhra in the [[2018–19 Ranji Trophy]] on 20 November 2018.<ref name="FC">{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1156979.html |title=Elite, Group B, Ranji Trophy at Ongole, Nov 20-23 2018 |accessdate=20 November 2018 |work=ESPN Cricinfo}}</ref> In January 2019, in the match against [[Andhra cricket team|Andhra]], he took his maiden five-wicket haul in first-class cricket.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cricbuzz.com/cricket-news/106029/ranji-highlights-rajasthan-qualify-maharashtra-relegated |title=Ranji highlights: Vidarbha qualify, Maharashtra relegated |work=CricBuzz |accessdate=8 January 2019}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{ESPNcricinfo|id=956033}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Reddy, Girinath}}
[[Category:1998 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian cricketers]]
[[Category:Andhra Pradesh cricketers]]
[[Category:People from Anantapur district]]

Girinath Reddy

2021-08-01T09:57:55Z

Hembram Bakhul: /* External links */

{{short description|Indian cricketer}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2016}}
{{Infobox cricketer
| Reddy
| =
| country =
| fullname =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1998|10|8|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Anantapur]], India
| death_date =
| death_place =
| nickname =
| batting =
| bowling =
| role =

| club1 =
| year1 =
| clubnumber1 =
| club2 =
| year2 =
| clubnumber2 =

| date = 20 November 2016
| source = [http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/956033.html ESPNcricinfo]
}}

'''Girinath Reddy''' (born 8 October 1998) is an Indian [[cricket]]er.<ref name="Bio">{{Cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/956033.html |title=Girinath Reddy |accessdate=20 November 2016 |work=ESPN Cricinfo}}</ref> He made his [[Twenty20]] debut for [[Andhra cricket team|Andhra]] in the [[2015–16 Syed Mushtaq Ali Trophy]] on 4 January 2016.<ref name="T20">{{Cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/902151.html |title=Syed Mushtaq Ali Trophy, Group C: Andhra v Railways at Vadodara, Jan 4, 2016 |accessdate=20 November 2016 |work=ESPN Cricinfo}}</ref> He made his [[List A cricket|List A]] debut for Andhra in the [[2016–17 Vijay Hazare Trophy]] on 4 March 2017.<ref name="LA">{{Cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1053843.html |title=Vijay Hazare Trophy, Group C: Andhra v Mumbai at Chennai, Mar 4, 2017 |accessdate=4 March 2017 |work=ESPN Cricinfo}}</ref>

He made his [[first-class cricket|first-class]] debut for Andhra in the [[2018–19 Ranji Trophy]] on 20 November 2018.<ref name="FC">{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1156979.html |title=Elite, Group B, Ranji Trophy at Ongole, Nov 20-23 2018 |accessdate=20 November 2018 |work=ESPN Cricinfo}}</ref> In January 2019, in the match against [[Andhra cricket team|Andhra]], he took his maiden five-wicket haul in first-class cricket.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cricbuzz.com/cricket-news/106029/ranji-highlights-rajasthan-qualify-maharashtra-relegated |title=Ranji highlights: Vidarbha qualify, Maharashtra relegated |work=CricBuzz |accessdate=8 January 2019}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{ESPNcricinfo|id=956033}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Reddy, Girinath}}
[[Category:1998 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian cricketers]]
[[Category:Andhra Pradesh cricketers]]
[[Category:People from Anantapur district]]

User:Alekhkumarr

2021-08-01T01:42:59Z

Hembram Bakhul: Created page with "Alekh kumar is new bharatpedia contributor. User name : Alekhkumarr"

Alekh kumar is new bharatpedia contributor.

User name : Alekhkumarr

Kunar Hembram

2021-07-30T12:22:50Z

Hembram Bakhul:

{{short description|Indian politician}}
{{use dmy dates|date=May 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2019}}
{{Infobox officeholder
|honorific-prefix =
| name = Birmal Hembram
| image =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|2003|06|29|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Jhargram]], [[West Bengal]]
| office1 = [[Member of Parliament (India)|Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha]]
| constituency1 = [[Jhargram (Lok Sabha constituency)|Jhargram]]
| term_start1 = 23 May 2019
| term_end1 =
| predecessor1 = [[Birbaha Hansda]]
| successor1 =
| nationality = [[Indian people|Indian]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| source = http://loksabhaph.nic.in/Members/MemberBioprofile.aspx?mpsno=5047
}}
'''Birmal Hembhram''',(others name kunar) is an Engineer turned Indian parliamentarian. He was elected to the [[Lok Sabha]] (the lower house of the [[Parliament of India]]) from [[Jhargram (Lok Sabha constituency)|Jhargram]], [[West Bengal]] in the [[2019 Indian general election]] as a member of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://indianexpress.com/elections/jhargram-lok-sabha-election-results-2019-live-winner-runner-up/ | title=Jhargram Lok Sabha Election Results 2019 LIVE Updates: Winner, Runner-up| publisher=The Indian Express| date=24 May 2019 | accessdate=24 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-jhargram-lok-sabha-election-results-2019-west-bengal-bjp-s-kunar-hembram-defeats-tmc-s-beerbaha-soren-2751200 | title=Jhargram Lok Sabha election results 2019 West Bengal: BJP's Kunar Hembhram defeats TMC's Beerbaha Soren | publisher=DNA | date=24 May 2019 | accessdate=27 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.timesnownews.com/elections/article/jhargram-west-bengal-election-2019-jhargram-election-results-candidates-voter-population-polling-percentage/413996 | title=Jhargram Election Results 2019 | publisher=Times Now | date=23 May 2019 | accessdate=27 May 2020}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://loksabhaph.nic.in/Members/MemberBioprofile.aspx?mpsno=5047 Official biographical sketch in Parliament of India website]
{{17th Lok Sabha members from all states}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hembram, Kunar}}
[[Category:17th Lok Sabha members]]
[[Category:Lok Sabha members from West Bengal]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from West Bengal]]
[[Category:santali writer]]
[[Category:People from Jhargram district]]

Kunar Hembram

2021-07-30T12:21:35Z

Hembram Bakhul:

{{short description|Indian politician}}
{{use dmy dates|date=May 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2019}}
{{Infobox officeholder
|honorific-prefix =
| name = Birmal Hembhram
| image =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|2003|06|29|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Jhargram]], [[West Bengal]]
| office1 = [[Member of Parliament (India)|Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha]]
| constituency1 = [[Jhargram (Lok Sabha constituency)|Jhargram]]
| term_start1 = 23 May 2019
| term_end1 =
| predecessor1 = [[Birbaha Hansda]]
| successor1 =
| nationality = [[Indian people|Indian]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| source = http://loksabhaph.nic.in/Members/MemberBioprofile.aspx?mpsno=5047
}}
'''Birmal Hembhram''',(others name kunar) is an Engineer turned Indian parliamentarian. He was elected to the [[Lok Sabha]] (the lower house of the [[Parliament of India]]) from [[Jhargram (Lok Sabha constituency)|Jhargram]], [[West Bengal]] in the [[2019 Indian general election]] as a member of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://indianexpress.com/elections/jhargram-lok-sabha-election-results-2019-live-winner-runner-up/ | title=Jhargram Lok Sabha Election Results 2019 LIVE Updates: Winner, Runner-up| publisher=The Indian Express| date=24 May 2019 | accessdate=24 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-jhargram-lok-sabha-election-results-2019-west-bengal-bjp-s-kunar-hembram-defeats-tmc-s-beerbaha-soren-2751200 | title=Jhargram Lok Sabha election results 2019 West Bengal: BJP's Kunar Hembhram defeats TMC's Beerbaha Soren | publisher=DNA | date=24 May 2019 | accessdate=27 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.timesnownews.com/elections/article/jhargram-west-bengal-election-2019-jhargram-election-results-candidates-voter-population-polling-percentage/413996 | title=Jhargram Election Results 2019 | publisher=Times Now | date=23 May 2019 | accessdate=27 May 2020}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://loksabhaph.nic.in/Members/MemberBioprofile.aspx?mpsno=5047 Official biographical sketch in Parliament of India website]
{{17th Lok Sabha members from all states}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hembram, Kunar}}
[[Category:17th Lok Sabha members]]
[[Category:Lok Sabha members from West Bengal]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from West Bengal]]
[[Category:santali writer]]
[[Category:People from Jhargram district]]

Bosen Murmu

2021-07-30T04:03:35Z

Hembram Bakhul: Created page with "{{short description|Indian singer}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}} {{Infobox person | name = Basen Murmu | caption = | image = ᱵᱚ..."

{{short description|Indian singer}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Basen Murmu
| caption =
| image = ᱵᱚᱥᱮᱱ ᱢᱩᱨᱢᱩ.jpg
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1987|04|09|df=y}}
| birth_place = Barhajian, [[Mayurbhanj, Odisha]], India
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|2020|06|08|1987|04|09}}
| death_place = [[Rairangpur]]
| occupation = {{hlist|Singer, Lyricist}}
| awards =
}}

'''Basen Murmu''' (9 April 1987 – 8 June 2020<ref>{{cite news |title=संताली सिंगर बोसेन मुर्मु नहीं रहे |url=https://epaper.prabhatkhabar.com/c/52606096?fbclid=IwAR0MlUv_oWo38nzWxGpnTvTiUGvqG-_4CfbXli8vFTuDeYZkNMO_y6kiH_U |accessdate=9 June 2020 |agency=Prabhat Khabar |publisher=Neutral Publishing House Ltd. |date=2020|language=Hindi}}</ref>) was an Indian singer in the [[Santali language|Santali]] film and music industries.

== Biography ==
Basen Murmu lent his voice to more than five hundred songs during his life. These included "Kulmi Dare Leka Kudim Harayen", "Chhemek Chhemek", "Jiwi Rani Tiseem Hijug", and "Alak jadi nadi leka"<ref>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q4lo4Jonhak</ref><ref name="The Prameya daily newspaper" /><ref>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vOUDh1yZ-f8</ref>

Murmu was born in Barhajian village of Bijtala block in [[Mayurbhanj district]] of Odisha (India). His father's name is Naran Murmu and his mother's name is Maina Murmu. His widow's name is Mamta Murmu. Bhagyalakshmi Murmu is his daughter.<ref name="ᱰᱤᱡᱤᱴᱟᱞᱤ ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ ᱠᱷᱚᱵᱚᱨ • 2020">{{cite web | title=ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ ᱥᱮᱨᱮᱧ ᱨᱩᱥᱤᱠᱟ ᱵᱟᱥᱮᱱ ᱢᱩᱨᱢᱩ ᱫᱚᱭ ᱵᱟ.ᱜᱤᱭᱟᱫ ᱵᱚᱱᱟ | website=ᱰᱤᱡᱤᱴᱟᱞᱤ ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ ᱠᱷᱚᱵᱚᱨ • | date=8 June 2020 | url=https://santalinews.com/kulmi-dare-singer-basen-murmu-has-passed-away/ | language=qu | access-date=8 June 2020}}</ref>

Murmu died on 8 June 2020. He was only 33 at the time of his death.<ref name="The Prameya daily newspaper">{{cite news |title=ଯୁବ ସାନ୍ତାଳୀ ଗାୟକ ବସେନ ମୁର୍ମୁଙ୍କ ପରଲୋକ |url=http://epaper.prameyanews.com/edition/5747/mayurbhanj/page/4 |accessdate=9 June 2020 |issue=39 |publisher=Summa real Media Pvt.Ltd |date=9 June 2020 |page=4 |language=Odia}}</ref> He had no prior symptoms of any disease. On 8 June, he suddenly collapsed and was taken to Rairangpur Government Hospital for treatment, where doctors declared him dead.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==

* https://kalingatv.com/state/odisha-based-santhali-singer-basen-murmu-passes-away-at-33/

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Murmu, Basen}}
[[Category:Santali people]]
[[Category:1987 births]]
[[Category:2020 deaths]]
[[Category:Santali-language singers]]
[[Category:People from Mayurbhanj district]]

Kunar Hembram

2021-07-30T03:42:58Z

Hembram Bakhul:

{{short description|Indian politician}}
{{use dmy dates|date=May 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2019}}
{{Infobox officeholder
|honorific-prefix =
| name = Birmal Hembhram
| image =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|2003|06|29|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Jhargram]], [[West Bengal]]
| office1 = [[Member of Parliament (India)|Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha]]
| constituency1 = [[Jhargram (Lok Sabha constituency)|Jhargram]]
| term_start1 = 23 May 2019
| term_end1 =
| predecessor1 = [[Birbaha Hansda]]
| successor1 =
| nationality = [[Indian people|Indian]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| source = http://loksabhaph.nic.in/Members/MemberBioprofile.aspx?mpsno=5047
}}
'''Birmal Hembhram''',(others name kunar) is an Engineer turned Indian parliamentarian. He was elected to the [[Lok Sabha]] (the lower house of the [[Parliament of India]]) from [[Jhargram (Lok Sabha constituency)|Jhargram]], [[West Bengal]] in the [[2019 Indian general election]] as a member of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://indianexpress.com/elections/jhargram-lok-sabha-election-results-2019-live-winner-runner-up/ | title=Jhargram Lok Sabha Election Results 2019 LIVE Updates: Winner, Runner-up| publisher=The Indian Express| date=24 May 2019 | accessdate=24 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-jhargram-lok-sabha-election-results-2019-west-bengal-bjp-s-kunar-hembram-defeats-tmc-s-beerbaha-soren-2751200 | title=Jhargram Lok Sabha election results 2019 West Bengal: BJP's Kunar Hembhram defeats TMC's Beerbaha Soren | publisher=DNA | date=24 May 2019 | accessdate=27 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.timesnownews.com/elections/article/jhargram-west-bengal-election-2019-jhargram-election-results-candidates-voter-population-polling-percentage/413996 | title=Jhargram Election Results 2019 | publisher=Times Now | date=23 May 2019 | accessdate=27 May 2020}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://loksabhaph.nic.in/Members/MemberBioprofile.aspx?mpsno=5047 Official biographical sketch in Parliament of India website]
{{17th Lok Sabha members from all states}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hembram, Kunar}}
[[Category:17th Lok Sabha members]]
[[Category:Lok Sabha members from West Bengal]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from West Bengal]]
[[Category:santali writer]]
[[Category:People from Jhargram district]]

Kunar Hembram

2021-07-30T03:39:52Z

Hembram Bakhul: Hembram Bakhul moved page Kunar Hembhram to Birmal Hembram: revert

{{short description|Indian politician}}
{{use dmy dates|date=May 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2019}}
{{Infobox officeholder
|honorific-prefix =
| name = Kunar Hembhram
| image =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|2003|06|29|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Jhargram]], [[West Bengal]]
| office1 = [[Member of Parliament (India)|Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha]]
| constituency1 = [[Jhargram (Lok Sabha constituency)|Jhargram]]
| term_start1 = 23 May 2019
| term_end1 =
| predecessor1 = [[Uma Saren]]
| successor1 =
| nationality = [[Indian people|Indian]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| source = http://loksabhaph.nic.in/Members/MemberBioprofile.aspx?mpsno=5047
}}
'''Kunar Hembhram''', is an Engineer turned Indian parliamentarian. He was elected to the [[Lok Sabha]] (the lower house of the [[Parliament of India]]) from [[Jhargram (Lok Sabha constituency)|Jhargram]], [[West Bengal]] in the [[2019 Indian general election]] as a member of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://indianexpress.com/elections/jhargram-lok-sabha-election-results-2019-live-winner-runner-up/ | title=Jhargram Lok Sabha Election Results 2019 LIVE Updates: Winner, Runner-up| publisher=The Indian Express| date=24 May 2019 | accessdate=24 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-jhargram-lok-sabha-election-results-2019-west-bengal-bjp-s-kunar-hembram-defeats-tmc-s-beerbaha-soren-2751200 | title=Jhargram Lok Sabha election results 2019 West Bengal: BJP's Kunar Hembhram defeats TMC's Beerbaha Soren | publisher=DNA | date=24 May 2019 | accessdate=27 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.timesnownews.com/elections/article/jhargram-west-bengal-election-2019-jhargram-election-results-candidates-voter-population-polling-percentage/413996 | title=Jhargram Election Results 2019 | publisher=Times Now | date=23 May 2019 | accessdate=27 May 2020}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://loksabhaph.nic.in/Members/MemberBioprofile.aspx?mpsno=5047 Official biographical sketch in Parliament of India website]
{{17th Lok Sabha members from all states}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hembram, Kunar}}
[[Category:17th Lok Sabha members]]
[[Category:Lok Sabha members from West Bengal]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from West Bengal]]
[[Category:santali writer]]
[[Category:People from Jhargram district]]

Odia Script

2021-07-27T12:36:53Z

Hembram Bakhul: Created page with "{{short description|Script primarily used to write the Odia language}} {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2019}} {{Use Indian English|date=January 2019}} {{Infobox Writing system |nam..."

{{short description|Script primarily used to write the Odia language}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2019}}
{{Infobox Writing system
|name = Odia script
|altname = Oṛiā akṣara {{lang|as|ଓଡ଼ିଆ ଅକ୍ଷର}}
|type = [[Abugida]]
|languages = [[Odia language|Odia]], [[Sanskrit]], [[Kui language (India)|Kui]], [[Sora language|Sora]], [[Kuvi language|Kuvi]], [[Santali language|Santali]], [[Chhattisgarhi language|Chattisgarhi]], [[Halbi language|Halbi]]
|time = c. 14th century – present<ref>{{cite book |last1=Salomon |first1=Richard |title=Indian Epigraphy |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Indian_Epigraphy.html?id=XYrG07qQDxkC |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=1998 |page=41}}</ref>
|fam1 = [[Proto-Sinaitic script]][a]
|fam2 = [[Phoenician alphabet]][a]
|fam3 = [[Aramaic alphabet]][a]
|fam4 = [[Brahmi script]]
|fam5 = [[Gupta script]]
|fam6 = [[Siddhaṃ script]]<ref name="Akshara Orthography 2019 p.27">{{cite book |last1=McBride |first1=Catherine |last2=Joshi|first2=R. Malatesha |title=Handbook of Literacy in Akshara Orthography |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Handbook_of_Literacy_in_Akshara_Orthogra/n_ecDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Handbook+of+Literacy+in+Akshara+Orthography,+R.+Malatesha+Joshi,+Catherine+McBride(2019&printsec=frontcover |publisher=Springer |date=2019 |page=27}}</ref><ref name="academia.edu"/>
|fam7 = [[Gaudi script]]<ref name="Cardona">{{cite book |last1=Cardona |first1=George |last2=Jain |first2=Dhanesh |title=The Indo-Aryan Languages |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/The_Indo_Aryan_Languages.html?id=iUHfBQAAQBAJ&redir_esc=y |page=487 |publisher=Routledge |place=London |year=2003 |series=Routledge language family series |isbn=0-7007-1130-9 }}</ref><ref name="salomon">{{cite book |last1=Salomon |first1=Richard |title=Indian Epigraphy |date=1998 |page=101}}</ref>
|sisters = [[Bengali–Assamese script|Bengali–Assamese]], [[Tirhuta script|Tirhuta]], [[Nāgarī script|Nāgarī]], [[Nepalese scripts|Nepalese]]<ref name="Akshara Orthography 2019 p.27" /><ref name="salomon"/><ref name="masica">{{cite book |last1=Masica |first1=Colin |title=The Indo-Aryan languages |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/The_Indo_Aryan_Languages.html?id=J3RSHWePhXwC&redir_esc=y |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1993 |page=143}}</ref>
|unicode = [https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0B00.pdf U+0B00–U+0B7F]
|iso15924 = Orya
|sample = File:Odia script.png
|imagesize = 200px
|footnotes = [a] The Semitic origin of the Brahmic scripts is not universally agreed upon.
}}
{{Contains special characters
| special = [[Odia language|Odia]] text
| fix = Help:Multilingual support#Odia
| characters = Odia script
}}
{{brahmic}}

The '''Odia script''' ({{lang-or|'''ଓଡ଼ିଆ ଅକ୍ଷର'''}}) is a [[Brahmic script]] used to write primarily [[Odia language]] and others including [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] and other regional languages. The script has developed over more than 1000 years from a variant of [[Siddhaṃ script]] which was used in Eastern India, where the characteristic top line transformed into a distinct round umbrella shape due to the influence of [[Palm-leaf manuscript|palm leaf manuscripts]] and also being influenced by the neighbouring scripts from the Western and Southern regions.

Odia is a syllabic alphabet or an [[abugida]] wherein all consonants have an [[inherent vowel]] embedded within. [[Diacritic|Diacritics]] (which can appear above, below, before, or after the consonant they belong to) are used to change the form of the inherent vowel. When vowels appear at the beginning of a syllable, they are written as independent letters. Also, when certain consonants occur together, special conjunct symbols are used to combine the essential parts of each consonant symbol.

An important feature of the Odia language seen in the script is the retention of inherent vowel in consonants, also known as [[schwa]], at both medial and final positions. This absence of [[Schwa deletion in Indo-Aryan languages|schwa]] deletion which is also seen in Sanskrit, marks it from the rest of modern [[Indo-Aryan languages]] and their equivalent usage in related [[Brahmic scripts]]. The absence of the inherent vowel in the consonant is marked by a [[virama]] or halanta sign below the consonant.

== History ==
In Eastern India, a derivative of [[Siddhaṃ script]] yielded a group of scripts that eventually became [[Bengali-Assamese script]]s, [[Tirhuta script]] and the Odia script, with the latter turning the hook into a characteristic umbrella.<ref name="Akshara Orthography 2019 p.27" /> The earliest known example of [[Odia language]], in the [[Kalinga script]], dates from 1051.<ref name="Linguistic Society of India 2014 p.96 ">{{cite book | author=Linguistic Society of India | title=Indian Linguistics | publisher=Linguistic Society of India. | issue=v. 75, nos. 3-4 | year=2014 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NaYJvFu4jOwC | language=et | access-date=2020-03-27 | page=96}}</ref><ref name="Tripāṭhī 1962 p. ">{{cite book | last=Tripāṭhī | first=Kunjabihari | title=The Evolution of Oriya Language and Script | publisher=Utkal University | year=1962 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b8MKAQAAIAAJ | access-date=2020-03-27 }}</ref>

[[File:Odia script in Dohakosa by Sarahapada.svg|thumb|300px|Sample of the Odia alphabet from a Buddhist text from around 1060 AD, written by Sarahapada]]
[[File:Ananta Basudeba Temple, Bhubaneswar 19.jpg|thumb|300px|Temple inscription showing 13th century [[Siddhaṃ script]] variant ancestor of modern Odia script at [[Ananta Vasudeva Temple]]]]
[[File:Oriya land grant.jpg|thumb|300px|15th century copper plate grant of [[Gajapati Kingdom|Gajapati]] emperor [[Purushottama Deva]], showing the distinct formation of the shape of the modern Odia script]]

The curved appearance of the Odia script is a result of the practice of writing on palm leaves, which have a tendency to tear with the use of too many straight lines.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.omniglot.com/writing/oriya.htm |title=Odia alphabet, pronunciation and language |publisher=Omniglot.com |access-date=14 June 2012}}</ref>

As with all the Brahmic scripts in the region, the Odia script developed through four stages which can be seen from the stone inscriptions, copper-plates and the manuscripts. The periods of development are in the following order,

# Proto-Odia: ca 7th- 9th CE
# Medieval Odia: ca 10th- 12th CE
# Transitional Odia: ca 12th- 14th CE
# Modern(current) Odia: ca 14th- 16th CE

The archaic and medieval forms of Odia are more influenced by the calligraphy of the scripts of neighbouring regions, such as,

# In Northern Odisha-where the letters are written in Odia, mixed in with [[Siddhaṃ script|Siddham]]-derived Gaudi style(that is the right vertical part of the letter is slightly bent inwards).
# In southern Odisha-where it is mixed with [[Telugu-Kannada alphabet|Telugu-Kannada]] round, cursive form.
# In Western Odisha. Where it is mixed with [[Nāgarī script|Nagari]] and [[Siddhaṃ script|Siddham]](squarish shape in upper-part).

With regards to the epigraphical sources, the antiquities which display the various historical forms of writing in Odia script include rock-edicts, temple inscriptions, stone-slabs, pillar inscriptions, sculptures, copper-plates, coins and palm-leaf manuscripts, illustrated manuscripts, ivory plates and allied materials. Numerous instances of the items depicting all the respective stages of the development of the Odia script during the illustrious dynasties of [[Eastern Ganga dynasty|Eastern Ganga]], [[Somavamshi dynasty|Somavanshi]], Bhanja, [[Bhauma-Kara dynasty|Bhauma-kara]], [[Shailodbhava dynasty|Sailodbhava]] dynasties.

Some of them belonging to different centuries are as follows-

# One of the earliest specimens of the Odia script is that of the Urjam inscription dating from the 11th CE (1051 CE). The language used in the inscriptions is a dialect spoken on the border regions of Odisha and Madhya Pradesh. The same applies to a bilingual and biscriptual stone inscription (Odia and Tamil) from the reign of [[Narasingha Deva I|Narasimhadeva]] (13th CE), found at Bhubaneswar. Odia language in old Odia script is seen on the right side while Tamil in Grantha on the left side.
# The Gumsur copper-plate grant of Netribhanjadeva (11th CE) depicts the medieval phase of this script in square and round variety.
# The stone inscription of the Pottesvara temple, Ganjam district (137 CE), is a notable example of Odia script influenced by Telugu-Kannada variety.
# The Antirigam plate of Yashabhanjadeva (12th CE) depicts Odia calligraphy influenced by northern Nagari. The differences in letters script seems to indicate of the script being in a transitional phase.
# Khilor inscription of [[Anantavarman Chodaganga|Anantavarman]] (12th CE) shows the [[Gaudi script|Gaudi]] or Proto-Oriya script<ref name="Cardona" /> round shape on the upper part, almost developed like the modern ones.
# The early epigraphical records of the Puri inscriptions of [[Anangabhima Deva III|Anangabhima III]](1211-1238 CE), which is considered to be as one of the earliest Odia inscriptions showing the Gaudi characters, not only shows the stage of the proto, early and medieval phase if the evolution of the Odia script, but also the numericals in early proto-Oriya type while others to be that of the Telugu-Kannada type. The earlier inscription of [[Anantavarman Chodaganga|Chodagangadeva]] (1114-1115 CE) shows the Late [[Siddhaṃ script|Siddhaṃ]] variety where the pristhamatra style of vowel diacritics is quite prominent.
# In the records of Kenduapatna copper-plates in Sanskrit of the Eastern Ganga King Narasimhadeva II(1278-1305 CE), a transitional variety is seen depicting the development of Odia from Gaudi (showing squarish with round headlines in a ductus that is quite commonly seen on copper-plates and stone inscriptions).
# The copper-plate land-grant record of the [[Gajapati Kingdom|Gajapati]] King [[Purushottama Deva|Purushottamadeva]] (15th CE), inscribed on a copper axe-head, shows the distinct early version of the modern Odia script which are also seen on the palm-leaves manuscripts belonging to the 15th CE.

With regards to the manuscript sources, the full-fledged script of Odia acquires its classical umbrella hook shape through the development, modification as well as simplification between the 14th and 15th CE, when the palm-leaf manuscript culture becomes dominant in this region. Since the palm-leaves are perishable in nature, no manuscripts are currently available pre-15th CE. Hence, recent works are also important as they show the rare and ancient text as well as artistic illustrations. One of the earliest dated palm-leaf manuscripts is that of Abhinava Gita-Govinda kept in Odisha State Museum. The date of completion of the manuscript is estimated to be that of 1494 CE. Among other manuscripts present at the museum, includes historical works like manuscripts of [[Jayadeva]]’s [[Gita Govinda|Gita-Govinda]] (16th CE) to the relatively recent works of 18th,19th and 20th century.<ref name="academia.edu">{{cite journal |last1=Rath |first1=Saraju |title=The Oriya Script: Origin, Development and Sources |date=2012 |url=https://www.academia.edu/9999923}}</ref>

Overwhelmingly, the Odia script was used to write the Odia language. However, it has been used as a regional writing-system for [[Sanskrit Language|Sanskrit]]. Furthermore, Grierson<ref name="dsal">{{cite web |title=LSI Vol-6 |publisher=dsal |page=33 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/books/lsi/lsi.php?volume=6&pages=286#page/33/mode/1up}}</ref> in his famed ''[[Linguistic Survey of India]]'' mentioned that the Odia script is sometimes used for [[Chhattisgarhi language|Chhattisgarhi]], an [[Eastern Hindi language]], in the eastern border regions of [[Chhattisgarh]]. However it appears to have been replaced with the [[Devanagari script]].

== Alphabet ==
[[File:Development of Orissan scripts.jpg|thumb|400px|Development of Odia scripts]]
{{Listen|filename=Odia phonology.webm||title=Odia alphabet|description=The names of the letters and numericals in spoken Standard Modern Odia|format=[[Ogg]]}}
Odia is a alphasyllabic alphabet or an [[abugida]] wherein all [[consonant]]s have an inherent [[vowel]] embedded within. [[Diacritic]]s (which can appear above, below, before or after the consonant they belong to) are used to change the form of the inherent vowel. When vowels appear at the beginning of a [[syllable]], they are written as independent letters. Also, when certain consonants occur together, special conjunct symbols are used to combine the essential parts of each consonant symbol. The list of vowels and consonants(both structured and unstructured) are as follows:<ref name="academia.edu"/><ref name="archive.org">{{cite web |title=Chabila Madhu Barnobodha |url=https://archive.org/details/ChabilaMadhuBarnobodha/page/n1/mode/2up }}</ref>

=== Independent vowels ===

The following are the list of Odia vowels.

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:60%"
|-
|+ '''Odia vowels ({{lang|or|ସ୍ୱର ବର୍ଣ୍ଣ}} śwara barṇṇa)'''
|-
!
! colspan=4 | {{lang|or|ହ୍ରସ୍ୱ Hraswa}} (Short vowel)
!
! colspan=4 | {{lang|or|ଦୀର୍ଘ Dirgha}} (Long vowel)
|-
!
!colspan=2|{{lang|or|ସ୍ୱର}} Vowel, Phoneme
!colspan=2|{{lang|or|କାର(ମାତ୍ରା)}} Diacritic, with କ୍(k)
!
!colspan=2|{{lang|or|ସ୍ୱର}} Vowel, Phoneme
!colspan=2|{{lang|or|କାର(ମାତ୍ରା)}} Diacritic, with କ୍(k)
|-
!{{lang|or|କଣ୍ଠ୍ୟ}} (Guttural)
| {{lang|or|ଅ}}
| a(ɔ)
| -
| {{lang|or|କ}}
!
| {{lang|or|ଆ}}
| ā(a)
| {{lang|or|ା}}
| {{lang|or|କା}}
|-
!{{lang|or|ତାଲବ୍ୟ}} (Palatal)
| {{lang|or|ଇ}}
| i(i)
| {{lang|or|ି}}
| {{lang|or|କି}}
!
| {{lang|or|ଈ}}
| ī(i)
| {{lang|or|ୀ}}
| {{lang|or|କୀ}}
|-
!{{lang|or|ଓଷ୍ଠ୍ୟ}} (Labial)
| {{lang|or|ଉ}}
| u(u)
| {{lang|or|ୁ}}
| {{lang|or|କୁ}}
!
| {{lang|or|ଊ}}
| ū(u)
| {{lang|or|ୂ}}
| {{lang|or|କୂ}}
|-
!{{lang|or|ମୂର୍ଦ୍ଧନ୍ୟ}} (Retroflex)
| {{lang|or|ଋ}}
| r̥(ru)
| {{lang|or|ୃ}}
| {{lang|or|କୃ}}
!
| {{lang|or|ୠ}}
| r̥̄(ru)
| {{lang|or|ୄ}}
| {{lang|or|କୄ}}
|-
!{{lang|or|ଦନ୍ତ୍ୟ}} (Retroflex)
| {{lang|or|ଌ}}
| l̥(lu)
| {{lang|or|ୢ}}
| {{lang|or|କୢ}}
!
| {{lang|or|ୡ}}
| l̥̄(lu)
| {{lang|or|ୣ}}
| {{lang|or|କୣ}}
|-
! colspan=10 | Other Vowels
|-
!{{lang|or|କଣ୍ଠ୍ୟତାଲବ୍ୟ}} (Palatoguttural)
| {{lang|or|ଏ}}
| e(e)
| {{lang|or|େ}}
| {{lang|or|କେ}}
!
| {{lang|or|ଐ}}
| ai(ɔi)
| {{lang|or|ୈ}}
| {{lang|or|କୈ}}
|-
!{{lang|or|କଣ୍ଠୌଷ୍ଠ୍ୟ}} (Labioguttural)
| {{lang|or|ଓ}}
| o(o)
| {{lang|or|ୋ}}
| {{lang|or|କୋ}}
!
| {{lang|or|ଔ}}
| au(ɔu)
| {{lang|or|ୌ}}
| {{lang|or|କୌ}}
|}

There is no significant difference in the pronunciation of both short and long vowels ({{lang|or|ଇ}}, {{lang|or|ଈ}} & {{lang|or|ଉ}}, {{lang|or|ଊ}}). Also, the vowels {{lang|or|ୠ}}, {{lang|or|ଌ}}, {{lang|or|ୡ}} and their diacritics are only required while writing Sanskrit in Odia script and not used significantly in modern Odia, hence they are not always mentioned in the Odia alphabet.

{|class="wikitable"
|+ Other forms of vowel diacritics
! Vowel Letter
! Diacritic forms
|-
| For the vowel {{lang|or|ଇ}}(i), there exists another diacritic form for these consonants- {{lang|or|ଖ}} (kha), {{lang|or|ଥ}} (tha), {{lang|or|ଧ}} (dha). This diacritic is a remnant from the Odia cursive style variant Karani script (କରଣୀ ଅକ୍ଷର).
(Not to be confused with ତ୍କ,ତ୍ନ,ତ୍ପ,ତ୍ମ,ତ୍ସ, where this underside hook represents the ତ୍(t) ligature preceding the consonants କ,ନ,ପ,ମ,ସ)
| {{lang|or|ଖି}} (khi) {{lang|or|ଥି}} (thi) {{lang|or|ଧି}} (dhi)
|}

=== Consonants ===
[[File:Evolution of Oriya Language.jpg|thumb|A detailed chart depicting evolution of the Odia script as displayed in a museum at [[Ratnagiri, Odisha]]]]
Two categories of consonant letters (ବ୍ୟଞ୍ଜନ byan̄jana) are defined in Odia: the structured consonants (ବର୍ଗ୍ୟ ବ୍ୟଞ୍ଜନ bargya byan̄jana) and the unstructured consonants (ଅବର୍ଗ୍ୟ ବ୍ୟଞ୍ଜନ abargya byan̄jana).

The first standardised Odia alphabet book was compiled by [[Madhusudan Rao]] named Barnabodha in 1895. As seen from the alphabet list, the phonemes ''Ba'', ''Va'' and ''Wa'' were represented by the same letter ବ, with the sound ''Va'' & ''Wa'' being represented by the name '''abargya ba''' (ଅବର୍ଗ୍ୟ ବ). This can be seen in Barnabodha in 1896. This was because the phonemes ''Ba'' and ''Va'' merged in the Eastern Indo-Aryan languages and was represented by the same letter, in case of Odia- ବ. While the phoneme ''Wa'' existed through the consonant ligature symbol, which it shared with ''Ba''- ୍ୱ (ସ୍ୱାଧୀନ- swādhīna). [[Gopala Chandra Praharaj]], who compiled and published the first comprehensive Odia dictionary, Purnachandra Odia Bhashakosha(1931-40), introduced a new letter ୱ to the script inventory to represent the phonetic sound of ''Wa'' in order to distinguish it from the same symbol which it earlier shared with ''Ba''. While an alternate letter for ''Wa'' was represented by ଵ, but has not gained full acceptance and instead Praharaj's letter has remained the widely used and recognised letter.<ref name="archive">{{cite web |title=Purnachandra Odia Bhasakosha |url=https://archive.org/stream/Purnachandra.Odia.Bhashakosha.Complete/Purnachandra.Odia.Bhashakosha-Volume.6-Consonants-Ja.to.Sha#page/n725/mode/2up |page=725 }}</ref><ref name="dsal.uchicago.edu">{{cite web |title=Praharaj, Purnachandra Odia Bhasakosha |publisher=dsal |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/praharaj/}}</ref><ref name="odiabibhaba">{{cite web |title=Purnachandra Odia Bhasakosha |publisher=Srujanika |url=https://odiabibhaba.in/en/showcase/bhasakosha-e-2/}}</ref>

=== Structured consonants ===
The structured consonants(ବର୍ଗ୍ୟ ବ୍ୟଞ୍ଜନ) are classified according to where the tongue touches the palate of the mouth and are classified accordingly into five structured groups. These consonants are shown here with their [[ISO 15919|ISO]] transliteration.

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:70%"
|+ Odia structured consonants 
({{lang|or|ବର୍ଗ୍ୟ ବ୍ୟଞ୍ଜନ ବର୍ଣ୍ଣ bargya byan̄jana barṇṇa}})
|-
! [[Phonetic]]s →
! colspan=8 | [[Plosive consonant|Plosive]] {{lang|or|ସ୍ପର୍ଶ}} {{IAST|sparśa}}
! colspan=2 | [[Nasal stop|Nasal]] {{lang|or|ଅନୁନାସିକ}} {{IAST|anunāsika}}
|-
! [[Voice (phonetics)|Voicing]] →
| colspan="4" style="background:beige;" | Voiceless {{lang|or|ଅଘୋଷ}} {{IAST|aghoṣa}}
| colspan="6" style="background:#ccf;" | Voiced {{lang|or|ଘୋଷ}} {{IAST|ghoṣa}}
|-
! [[Aspiration (phonetics)|Aspiration]] →
| colspan=2 style="background:beige;" | Unaspirated {{lang|or|ଅଳ୍ପପ୍ରାଣ}} {{IAST|aḻpaprāṇa}}
| colspan=2 style="background:#ccf;" | Aspirated {{lang|or|ମହାପ୍ରାଣ}} {{IAST|mahāprāṇa}}
| colspan=2 style="background:beige;" | Unaspirated {{lang|or|ଅଳ୍ପପ୍ରାଣ}} {{IAST|aḻpaprāṇa}}
| colspan=2 style="background:#ccf;" | Aspirated {{lang|or|ମହାପ୍ରାଣ}} {{IAST|mahāprāṇa}}
| colspan=2 style="background:beige;" | Unaspirated {{lang|or|ଅଳ୍ପପ୍ରାଣ}} {{IAST|aḻpaprāṇa}}
|-
!{{lang|or|କଣ୍ଠ୍ୟ}} [[Velar]]
| {{lang|or|କ}}||{{transl|or|ka}} (kɔ)
| {{lang|or|ଖ}}||{{transl|or|kha}} (kʰɔ)
| {{lang|or|ଗ}}||{{transl|or|ga}} (gɔ)
| {{lang|or|ଘ}}||{{transl|or|gha}} (ɡʱɔ)
| {{lang|or|ଙ}}||{{transl|or|ṅa}} (ŋɔ)
|-
!{{lang|or|ତାଲବ୍ୟ}} [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
| {{lang|or|ଚ}}||{{transl|or|ca}} (tʃɔ)
| {{lang|or|ଛ}}||{{transl|or|cha}} (tʃʰɔ)
| {{lang|or|ଜ}}||{{transl|or|ja}} (dʒɔ)
| {{lang|or|ଝ}}||{{transl|or|jha}} (dʒʱɔ)
| {{lang|or|ଞ}}||{{transl|or|ña}} (ɲɔ)
|-
!{{lang|or|ମୂର୍ଦ୍ଧନ୍ୟ}} [[Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]]
| {{lang|or|ଟ}}||{{transl|or|ṭa}} (ʈɔ)
| {{lang|or|ଠ}}||{{transl|or|ṭha}} (ʈʰɔ)
| {{lang|or|ଡ}}||{{transl|or|ḍa}} (ɖɔ)
| {{lang|or|ଢ}}||{{transl|or|ḍha}} (ɖʱɔ)
| {{lang|or|ଣ}}||{{transl|or|ṇa}} (ɳɔ)
|-
!{{lang|or|ଦନ୍ତ୍ୟ}} [[Dental consonant|Dental]]
| {{lang|or|ତ}}||{{transl|or|ta}} (tɔ)
| {{lang|or|ଥ}}||{{transl|or|tha}} (tʰɔ)
| {{lang|or|ଦ}}||{{transl|or|da}} (dɔ)
| {{lang|or|ଧ}}||{{transl|or|dha}} (dʱɔ)
| {{lang|or|ନ}}||{{transl|or|na}} (nɔ)
|-
!{{lang|or|ଓଷ୍ଠ୍ୟ}} [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
| {{lang|or|ପ}}||{{transl|or|pa}} (pɔ)
| {{lang|or|ଫ}}||{{transl|or|pha}} (pʰɔ)
| {{lang|or|ବ}}||{{transl|or|ba}} (bɔ)
| {{lang|or|ଭ}}||{{transl|or|bha}} (bʱɔ)
| {{lang|or|ମ}}||{{transl|or|ma}} (mɔ)
|}

===Unstructured consonants===
The unstructured consonants (ଅବର୍ଗ୍ୟ ବ୍ୟଞ୍ଜନ) are consonants that do not fall into any of the above structures:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Odia unstructured consonants 
({{lang|or|ଅବର୍ଗ୍ୟ ବ୍ୟଞ୍ଜନ ବର୍ଣ୍ଣ abargya byan̄jana barṇṇa}})
|-
! Characteristics !! Consonants !! colspan=3|Phonetics
|-
| Voiced unaspirated Palatal used as [[Voiced postalveolar affricate]] [[Approximants|Approximant]] (ଅନ୍ତଃସ୍ଥ antaḥstha) || {{lang|or|ଯ}} || {{transl|or|ẏa}} (dʒɔ) || antaḥstha ja
|-
| Voiced unaspirated Palatal [[Approximants|Approximant]] (ଅନ୍ତଃସ୍ଥ antaḥstha) || {{lang|or|ୟ}} || {{transl|or|ya}} (jɔ) || ya
|-
| Voiced unaspirated Retroflex [[Approximants|Approximant]] (ଅନ୍ତଃସ୍ଥ antaḥstha) || {{lang|or|ର}} || {{transl|or|ra}} (ɾɔ) || ra
|-
| [[Voiced retroflex lateral approximant]] || {{lang|or|ଳ}} || {{transl|or|ḷa}} (ɭɔ) || ḷa
|-
| Voiced unaspirated Dental [[Approximants|Approximant]] (ଅନ୍ତଃସ୍ଥ antaḥstha) || {{lang|or|ଲ}} || {{transl|or|la}} (lɔ) || la
|-
| Voiced unaspirated Labial [[Approximants|Approximant]] (ଅନ୍ତଃସ୍ଥ antaḥstha) || {{lang|or|ୱ}} || {{transl|or|wa}} (wɔ) || wa (also ଅବର୍ଗ୍ୟ ବ abargya ba)<ref name="abargya ba" group="nc">Introduced by [[Gopala Chandra Praharaj|G.C. Praharaj]], while working on the first comprehensive Odia dictionary, Purnachandra Odia Bhasakosha(1931-40)</ref>
|-
| Voiced unaspirated Palatal [[Sibilant]] [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]] (ଊଷ୍ମ ūṣma) || {{lang|or|ଶ}} || {{transl|or|śa}} (sɔ) || talabya sa (ତାଲବ୍ୟ)
|-
| Voiced unaspirated Retroflex [[Sibilant]] [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]] (ଊଷ୍ମ ūṣma) || {{lang|or|ଷ}} || {{transl|or|ṣa}} (sɔ) || murddhanya sa (ମୂର୍ଦ୍ଧନ୍ୟ)
|-
| Voiced unaspirated Dental [[Sibilant]] [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]] (ଊଷ୍ମ ūṣma) || {{lang|or|ସ}} || {{transl|or|sa}} (sɔ) || dantya sa (ଦନ୍ତ୍ୟ)
|-
| Voiced aspirated Guttural [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]] (ଊଷ୍ମ ūṣma) || {{lang|or|ହ}} || {{transl|or|ha}} (ɦɔ) || ha
|-
| [[Voiced retroflex flap]] || {{lang|or|ଡ଼}} || {{transl|or|ṛa}} (ɽɔ) || ḍa
|-
| [[Voiced retroflex flap]] || {{lang|or|ଢ଼}} || {{transl|or|ṛha}} (ɽʰɔ) || ḍha
|-
| Conjunct of କ & ଷ || {{lang|or|କ୍ଷ}} || {{transl|or|kṣa}} || kha/khya
|}

Although the sibilants {{lang|or|ଶ}}, {{lang|or|ଷ}}, {{lang|or|ସ}} have their independent orthography, in modern spoken Odia all three of them are pronounced the same as {{lang|or|ସ}}(sa).

{{lang|or|ଵ}} - This letter is used sporadically for the phonetic ''Va''/''Wa'' as an alternative for the officially recognised letter {{lang|or|ୱ}}, but has not gained widespread acceptance.

====Notes====
{{reflist|group="nc"}}

== Vowel diacritics ==

The following table shows the list of vowel diacritics on consonants.

{|class=wikitable style="font-size:10pt"
|+ '''Vowel diacritics on Consonants'''
|-
!
! {{lang|or|ଅ}} '''a'''
! {{lang|or|ଆ}} '''ā'''
! {{lang|or|ଇ}} '''i'''
! {{lang|or|ଈ}} '''ī'''
! {{lang|or|ଉ}} '''u'''
! {{lang|or|ଊ}} '''ū'''
! {{lang|or|ଋ}} '''r̥'''
! {{lang|or|ୠ}} '''r̥̄'''
! {{lang|or|ଌ}} '''l̥'''
! {{lang|or|ୡ}} '''l̥̄'''
! {{lang|or|ଏ}} '''e'''
! {{lang|or|ଐ}} '''ai'''
! {{lang|or|ଓ}} '''o'''
! {{lang|or|ଔ}} '''au'''
|-
! {{lang|or|କ୍}} '''k'''
|| {{lang|or|କ}}
|| {{lang|or|କା}}
|| {{lang|or|କି}}
|| {{lang|or|କୀ}}
|| {{lang|or|କୁ}}
|| {{lang|or|କୂ}}
|| {{lang|or|କୃ}}
|| {{lang|or|କୄ}}
|| {{lang|or|କୢ}}
|| {{lang|or|କୣ}}
|| {{lang|or|କେ}}
|| {{lang|or|କୈ}}
|| {{lang|or|କୋ}}
|| {{lang|or|କୌ}}
|-
! {{lang|or|ଖ୍}} '''kh'''
|| {{lang|or|ଖ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଖା}}
|| {{lang|or|ଖି}}
|| {{lang|or|ଖୀ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଖୁ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଖୂ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଖୃ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଖୄ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଖୢ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଖୣ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଖେ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଖୈ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଖୋ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଖୌ}}
|-
! {{lang|or|ଗ୍}} '''g'''
|| {{lang|or|ଗ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଗା}}
|| {{lang|or|ଗି}}
|| {{lang|or|ଗୀ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଗୁ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଗୂ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଗୃ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଗୄ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଗୢ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଗୣ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଗେ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଗୈ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଗୋ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଗୌ}}
|-
! {{lang|or|ଘ୍}} '''gh'''
|| {{lang|or|ଘ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଘା}}
|| {{lang|or|ଘି}}
|| {{lang|or|ଘୀ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଘୁ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଘୂ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଘୃ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଘୄ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଘୢ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଘୣ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଘେ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଘୈ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଘୋ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଘୌ}}
|-
! {{lang|or|ଙ୍}} '''ṅ'''
|| {{lang|or|ଙ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଙା}}
|| {{lang|or|ଙି}}
|| {{lang|or|ଙୀ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଙୁ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଙୂ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଙୃ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଙୄ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଙୢ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଙୣ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଙେ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଙୈ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଙୋ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଙୌ}}
|-
! {{lang|or|ଚ୍}} '''c'''
|| {{lang|or|ଚ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଚା}}
|| {{lang|or|ଚି}}
|| {{lang|or|ଚୀ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଚୁ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଚୂ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଚୃ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଚୄ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଚୢ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଚୣ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଚେ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଚୈ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଚୋ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଚୌ}}
|-
! {{lang|or|ଛ୍}} '''ch'''
|| {{lang|or|ଛ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଛା}}
|| {{lang|or|ଛି}}
|| {{lang|or|ଛୀ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଛୁ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଛୂ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଛୃ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଛୄ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଛୢ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଛୣ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଛେ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଛୈ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଛୋ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଛୌ}}
|-
! {{lang|or|ଜ୍}} '''j'''
|| {{lang|or|ଜ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଜା}}
|| {{lang|or|ଜି}}
|| {{lang|or|ଜୀ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଜୁ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଜୂ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଜୃ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଜୄ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଜୢ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଜୣ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଜେ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଜୈ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଜୋ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଜୌ}}
|-
! {{lang|or|ଝ୍}} '''jh'''
|| {{lang|or|ଝ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଝା}}
|| {{lang|or|ଝି}}
|| {{lang|or|ଝୀ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଝୁ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଝୂ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଝୃ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଝୄ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଝୢ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଝୣ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଝେ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଝୈ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଝୋ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଝୌ}}
|-
! {{lang|or|ଞ୍}} '''ñ'''
|| {{lang|or|ଞ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଞା}}
|| {{lang|or|ଞି}}
|| {{lang|or|ଞୀ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଞୁ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଞୂ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଞୃ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଞୄ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଞୢ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଞୣ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଞେ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଞୈ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଞୋ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଞୌ}}
|-
! {{lang|or|ଟ୍}} '''ṭ'''
|| {{lang|or|ଟ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଟା}}
|| {{lang|or|ଟି}}
|| {{lang|or|ଟୀ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଟୁ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଟୂ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଟୃ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଟୄ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଟୢ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଟୣ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଟେ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଟୈ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଟୋ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଟୌ}}
|-
! {{lang|or|ଠ୍}} '''ṭh'''
|| {{lang|or|ଠ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଠା}}
|| {{lang|or|ଠି}}
|| {{lang|or|ଠୀ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଠୁ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଠୂ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଠୃ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଠୄ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଠୢ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଠୣ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଠେ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଠୈ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଠୋ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଠୌ}}
|-
! {{lang|or|ଡ୍}} '''ḍ'''
|| {{lang|or|ଡ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଡା}}
|| {{lang|or|ଡି}}
|| {{lang|or|ଡୀ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଡୁ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଡୂ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଡୃ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଡୄ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଡୢ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଡୣ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଡେ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଡୈ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଡୋ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଡୌ}}
|-
! {{lang|or|ଢ୍}} '''ḍh'''
|| {{lang|or|ଢ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଢା}}
|| {{lang|or|ଢି}}
|| {{lang|or|ଢୀ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଢୁ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଢୂ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଢୃ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଢୄ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଢୢ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଢୣ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଢେ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଢୈ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଢୋ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଢୌ}}
|-
! {{lang|or|ଣ୍}} '''ṇ'''
|| {{lang|or|ଣ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଣା}}
|| {{lang|or|ଣି}}
|| {{lang|or|ଣୀ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଣୁ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଣୂ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଣୃ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଣୄ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଣୢ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଣୣ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଣେ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଣୈ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଣୋ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଣୌ}}
|-
! {{lang|or|ତ୍}} '''t'''
|| {{lang|or|ତ}}
|| {{lang|or|ତା}}
|| {{lang|or|ତି}}
|| {{lang|or|ତୀ}}
|| {{lang|or|ତୁ}}
|| {{lang|or|ତୂ}}
|| {{lang|or|ତୃ}}
|| {{lang|or|ତୄ}}
|| {{lang|or|ତୢ}}
|| {{lang|or|ତୣ}}
|| {{lang|or|ତେ}}
|| {{lang|or|ତୈ}}
|| {{lang|or|ତୋ}}
|| {{lang|or|ତୌ}}
|-
! {{lang|or|ଥ୍}} '''th'''
|| {{lang|or|ଥ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଥା}}
|| {{lang|or|ଥି}}
|| {{lang|or|ଥୀ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଥୁ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଥୂ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଥୃ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଥୄ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଥୢ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଥୣ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଥେ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଥୈ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଥୋ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଥୌ}}
|-
! {{lang|or|ଦ୍}} '''d'''
|| {{lang|or|ଦ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଦା}}
|| {{lang|or|ଦି}}
|| {{lang|or|ଦୀ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଦୁ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଦୂ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଦୃ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଦୄ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଦୢ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଦୣ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଦେ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଦୈ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଦୋ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଦୌ}}
|-
! {{lang|or|ଧ୍}} '''dh'''
|| {{lang|or|ଧ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଧା}}
|| {{lang|or|ଧି}}
|| {{lang|or|ଧୀ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଧୁ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଧୂ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଧୃ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଧୄ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଧୢ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଧୣ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଧେ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଧୈ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଧୋ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଧୌ}}
|-
! {{lang|or|ନ୍}} '''n'''
|| {{lang|or|ନ}}
|| {{lang|or|ନା}}
|| {{lang|or|ନି}}
|| {{lang|or|ନୀ}}
|| {{lang|or|ନୁ}}
|| {{lang|or|ନୂ}}
|| {{lang|or|ନୃ}}
|| {{lang|or|ନୄ}}
|| {{lang|or|ନୢ}}
|| {{lang|or|ନୣ}}
|| {{lang|or|ନେ}}
|| {{lang|or|ନୈ}}
|| {{lang|or|ନୋ}}
|| {{lang|or|ନୌ}}
|-
! {{lang|or|ପ୍}} '''p'''
|| {{lang|or|ପ}}
|| {{lang|or|ପା}}
|| {{lang|or|ପି}}
|| {{lang|or|ପୀ}}
|| {{lang|or|ପୁ}}
|| {{lang|or|ପୂ}}
|| {{lang|or|ପୃ}}
|| {{lang|or|ପୄ}}
|| {{lang|or|ପୢ}}
|| {{lang|or|ପୣ}}
|| {{lang|or|ପେ}}
|| {{lang|or|ପୈ}}
|| {{lang|or|ପୋ}}
|| {{lang|or|ପୌ}}
|-
! {{lang|or|ଫ୍}} '''ph'''
|| {{lang|or|ଫ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଫା}}
|| {{lang|or|ଫି}}
|| {{lang|or|ଫୀ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଫୁ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଫୂ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଫୃ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଫୄ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଫୢ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଫୣ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଫେ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଫୈ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଫୋ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଫୌ}}
|-
! {{lang|or|ବ୍}} '''b'''
|| {{lang|or|ବ}}
|| {{lang|or|ବା}}
|| {{lang|or|ବି}}
|| {{lang|or|ବୀ}}
|| {{lang|or|ବୁ}}
|| {{lang|or|ବୂ}}
|| {{lang|or|ବୃ}}
|| {{lang|or|ବୄ}}
|| {{lang|or|ବୢ}}
|| {{lang|or|ବୣ}}
|| {{lang|or|ବେ}}
|| {{lang|or|ବୈ}}
|| {{lang|or|ବୋ}}
|| {{lang|or|ବୌ}}
|-
! {{lang|or|ଭ୍}} '''bh'''
|| {{lang|or|ଭ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଭା}}
|| {{lang|or|ଭି}}
|| {{lang|or|ଭୀ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଭୁ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଭୂ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଭୃ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଭୄ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଭୢ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଭୣ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଭେ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଭୈ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଭୋ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଭୌ}}
|-
! {{lang|or|ମ୍}} '''m'''
|| {{lang|or|ମ}}
|| {{lang|or|ମା}}
|| {{lang|or|ମି}}
|| {{lang|or|ମୀ}}
|| {{lang|or|ମୁ}}
|| {{lang|or|ମୂ}}
|| {{lang|or|ମୃ}}
|| {{lang|or|ମୄ}}
|| {{lang|or|ମୢ}}
|| {{lang|or|ମୣ}}
|| {{lang|or|ମେ}}
|| {{lang|or|ମୈ}}
|| {{lang|or|ମୋ}}
|| {{lang|or|ମୌ}}
|-
! {{lang|or|ଯ୍}} '''ẏ(j)'''
|| {{lang|or|ଯ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଯା}}
|| {{lang|or|ଯି}}
|| {{lang|or|ଯୀ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଯୁ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଯୂ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଯୃ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଯୄ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଯୢ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଯୣ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଯେ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଯୈ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଯୋ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଯୌ}}
|-
! {{lang|or|ୟ୍}} '''y'''
|| {{lang|or|ୟ}}
|| {{lang|or|ୟା}}
|| {{lang|or|ୟି}}
|| {{lang|or|ୟୀ}}
|| {{lang|or|ୟୁ}}
|| {{lang|or|ୟୂ}}
|| {{lang|or|ୟୃ}}
|| {{lang|or|ୟୄ}}
|| {{lang|or|ୟୢ}}
|| {{lang|or|ୟୣ}}
|| {{lang|or|ୟେ}}
|| {{lang|or|ୟୈ}}
|| {{lang|or|ୟୋ}}
|| {{lang|or|ୟୌ}}
|-
! {{lang|or|ର୍}} '''r'''
|| {{lang|or|ର}}
|| {{lang|or|ରା}}
|| {{lang|or|ରି}}
|| {{lang|or|ରୀ}}
|| {{lang|or|ରୁ}}
|| {{lang|or|ରୂ}}
|| {{lang|or|ରୃ}}
|| {{lang|or|ରୄ}}
|| {{lang|or|ରୢ}}
|| {{lang|or|ରୣ}}
|| {{lang|or|ରେ}}
|| {{lang|or|ରୈ}}
|| {{lang|or|ରୋ}}
|| {{lang|or|ରୌ}}
|-
! {{lang|or|ଳ୍}} '''ḷ'''
|| {{lang|or|ଳ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଳା}}
|| {{lang|or|ଳି}}
|| {{lang|or|ଳୀ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଳୁ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଳୂ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଳୃ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଳୄ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଳୢ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଳୣ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଳେ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଳୈ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଳୋ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଳୌ}}
|-
! {{lang|or|ଲ୍}} '''l'''
|| {{lang|or|ଲ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଲା}}
|| {{lang|or|ଲି}}
|| {{lang|or|ଲୀ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଲୁ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଲୂ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଲୃ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଲୄ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଲୢ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଲୣ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଲେ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଲୈ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଲୋ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଲୌ}}
|-
! {{lang|or|ୱ୍}} '''w'''
|| {{lang|or|ୱ}}
|| {{lang|or|ୱା}}
|| {{lang|or|ୱି}}
|| {{lang|or|ୱୀ}}
|| {{lang|or|ୱୁ}}
|| {{lang|or|ୱୂ}}
|| {{lang|or|ୱୃ}}
|| {{lang|or|ୱୄ}}
|| {{lang|or|ୱୢ}}
|| {{lang|or|ୱୣ}}
|| {{lang|or|ୱେ}}
|| {{lang|or|ୱୈ}}
|| {{lang|or|ୱୋ}}
|| {{lang|or|ୱୌ}}
|-
! {{lang|or|ଶ୍}} '''ś'''
|| {{lang|or|ଶ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଶା}}
|| {{lang|or|ଶି}}
|| {{lang|or|ଶୀ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଶୁ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଶୂ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଶୃ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଶୄ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଶୢ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଶୣ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଶେ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଶୈ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଶୋ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଶୌ}}
|-
! {{lang|or|ଷ୍}} '''ṣ'''
|| {{lang|or|ଷ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଷା}}
|| {{lang|or|ଷି}}
|| {{lang|or|ଷୀ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଷୁ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଷୂ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଷୃ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଷୄ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଷୢ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଷୣ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଷେ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଷୈ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଷୋ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଷୌ}}
|-
! {{lang|or|ସ୍}} '''s'''
|| {{lang|or|ସ}}
|| {{lang|or|ସା}}
|| {{lang|or|ସି}}
|| {{lang|or|ସୀ}}
|| {{lang|or|ସୁ}}
|| {{lang|or|ସୂ}}
|| {{lang|or|ସୃ}}
|| {{lang|or|ସୄ}}
|| {{lang|or|ସୢ}}
|| {{lang|or|ସୣ}}
|| {{lang|or|ସେ}}
|| {{lang|or|ସୈ}}
|| {{lang|or|ସୋ}}
|| {{lang|or|ସୌ}}
|-
! {{lang|or|ହ୍}} '''h'''
|| {{lang|or|ହ}}
|| {{lang|or|ହା}}
|| {{lang|or|ହି}}
|| {{lang|or|ହୀ}}
|| {{lang|or|ହୁ}}
|| {{lang|or|ହୂ}}
|| {{lang|or|ହୃ}}
|| {{lang|or|ହୄ}}
|| {{lang|or|ହୢ}}
|| {{lang|or|ହୣ}}
|| {{lang|or|ହେ}}
|| {{lang|or|ହୈ}}
|| {{lang|or|ହୋ}}
|| {{lang|or|ହୌ}}
|}

== Signs and punctuation ==
[[File:Odia Om symbol.png|thumb|100px|Om symbol {{efn|ଓଁ (U+0B13 & U+0B01)}}]]
[[File:Odia Om sign.png|thumb|100px|Om symbol (joint variant) {{efn|ଓ‍ଁ (U+0B13 & U+200D & U+0B01)}}]]

List of diacritic signs and punctuation marks present in languages with Brahmi-derived scripts.<ref name="archive.org"/><ref name="unicode">{{citation |title=Oriya(Odia) |publisher=Unicode |url=https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0B00.pdf}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
|+ Signs and punctuation
|-
! Symbol !! Name !! Function !! [[Romanization]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]
|-
| style="font-size:14pt;" align=center | {{lang|or|ଂ}}
| {{lang|or|ଅନୁସ୍ୱାର}} [[Anusvara]] || Nasal Diacritic. E.g.- ଅଂ ''aṃ'', କଂ ''kaṃ'', ହଂସ ''haṃsa'' Also occurs as Final [[velar nasal]] [ŋ]. E.g.- ଏବଂ ''ebaṅ'' (ebɔŋ) || ṃ, {{IPA|/ɔ̃/}} ṅ, {{IPA|/ŋ/}}
|-
| style="font-size:14pt;" align=center | {{lang|or|ଃ}}
| {{lang|or|ବିସର୍ଗ}} [[Visarga]] || Represents post-vocalic voiceless glottal fricative [h]. Doubles the next consonant sound without the vowel,"h" sound at end. E.g.- ଅଃ ''aḥ'', କଃ ''kaḥ'', ଦୁଃଖ ''duḥkha'' || ḥ, {{IPA|/hɔ̆/}}
|-
| style="font-size:14pt;" align=center | {{lang|or|‍ଁ}} 
| {{lang|or|ଚନ୍ଦ୍ରବିନ୍ଦୁ}} [[Chandrabindu]] || Nasal Diacritic. E.g.- ଅଁ ''ã'', କଁ ''kã'', ନିଆଁ ''niā̃'' || ã, {{IPA|/ɔ̃/}}
|-
| style="font-size:14pt;" align=center | {{lang|or|‍୍}} 
| {{lang|or|ହଳନ୍ତ}} [[Virama|Halanta]] || Suppresses the inherent vowel ''a''{{IPA|[ɔ]}}. E.g.- କ୍ ''k'', ହଠାତ୍ ''haṭhāt'' || -
|-
|style="font-size:14pt;" align=center | {{lang|or|‍଼}} 
| {{lang|or|ବିନ୍ଦୁ}} (bindu) [[Nukta]] || Dot used below the letter to extend to new alphabets || -
|-
|style="font-size:14pt;" align=center | {{lang|or|‍।}} 
| {{lang|or|ପୂର୍ଣ୍ଣଛେଦ}} Purnachheda || Full stop || -
|-
|style="font-size:14pt;" align=center | {{lang|or|‍॥}} 
| Double Purnachheda|| End of Full Stanza || -
|-
|style="font-size:14pt;" align=center | {{lang|or|‍ଽ}} 
| {{lang|or|ଅବଗ୍ରହ}} [[Avagraha]] || Symbol used to indicate [[prodelision]] of ଅ (''a'') vowel in sandhi and also for prolonging vowel sounds E.g.- ଦ୍ୱିତୀୟୋ‍ଽଧ୍ୟାୟଃ ''dwitīyo'dhyāyaḥ'' || -
|-
|style="font-size:14pt;" align=center | {{lang|or|‍ଓ‍ଁ}}|| {{lang|or|ॐ}} [[Om]] || Om sign || -
|-
|style="font-size:14pt;" align=center | {{lang|or|‍୰}}|| {{lang|or|ଈଶ୍ୱର}} Iswara || Symbol written before the name of a deceased person(late) || -
|}

== Consonant ligatures ==

Clusters of two or more consonants form a [[Typographical ligature|ligature]]. Basically Odia has two types of such consonant ligatures. The "northern" type is formed by fusion of two or more consonants as in northern scripts like [[Devanāgarī]] (but to a lesser extent also in the [[Malayalam script]] in the south). In some instances the components can be easily identified, but sometimes completely new glyphs are formed. With the "southern" type the second component is reduced in size and put under the first as in the southern scripts used for [[Kannada script|{{IAST|Kannaḍa}}]] and [[Telugu script|Telugu]] (and to some extent also for [[Malayalam script]]).

List of diacritic signs and punctuation marks present in languages with Brahmi-derived scripts.<ref name="archive.org"/>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
|+ Consonant Ligatures
|-
! Symbol !! Name !! Function !! [[Romanization]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]
|-
| style="font-size:14pt;" align=center | {{lang|or|୍ୟ}}
| {{lang|or|ୟ ଫଳା}} ya phaḷā || Ligature [y] pronounced following a consonant phoneme. E.g.- କ୍ୟ- kya, ସଭ୍ୟ- sabhya || -ya {{IPA|/-yɔ/}}
|-
| style="font-size:14pt;" align=center | {{lang|or|୍ର}}
| {{lang|or|ର ଫଳା}} ra phaḷā || Ligature [r] pronounced following a consonant phoneme. E.g.- କ୍ର- kra, ଗ୍ରାମ- grama || -ra {{IPA|/-rɔ/}}
|-
| style="font-size:14pt;" align=center | {{lang|or|ର୍କ}}
| {{lang|or|ରେଫ୍}} reph || Ligature [r] pronounced preceding a consonant phoneme. E.g.- ର୍କ- rka, ଗର୍ବ- garba || r- {{IPA|/r-/}}
|-
| style="font-size:14pt;" align=center | {{lang|or|୍ଳ}}
| {{lang|or|ଳ ଫଳା}} ḷa phaḷā || Ligature [ḷ] pronounced following a consonant phoneme. E.g- କ୍ଳ- kḷa, ଶୁକ୍ଳ- śukḷa || -ḷa {{IPA|/-ḷɔ/}}
|-
| style="font-size:14pt;" align=center | {{lang|or|୍ଲ}}
| {{lang|or|ଲ ଫଳା}} la phaḷā || Ligature [l] pronounced following a consonant phoneme. E.g.- କ୍ଲ- kla, ପଲ୍ଲବ- pallaba || -la {{IPA|/-lɔ/}}
|-
| style="font-size:14pt;" align=center | {{lang|or|୍ୱ}}
| {{lang|or|ୱ ଫଳା/ବ ଫଳା}} wa phaḷā/ba phaḷā || 1. Ligature [w] pronounced following a consonant phoneme. E.g.- କ୍ୱ- kwa, ଦ୍ୱାର- dwāra 2. For ମ୍(m) consonant, the ligature takes the form of [b]. E.g.- ମ୍ବ- mba, ଆମ୍ବ= āmba || -wa, -ba {{IPA| /-wɔ/, /-bɔ/}}
|-
| style="font-size:14pt;" align=center | {{lang|or|୍ମ}}
| {{lang|or|ମ ଫଳା}} ma phaḷā || Ligature [m] pronounced following a consonant phoneme. E.g.- କ୍ମ- kma, ପଦ୍ମ- padma || -ma {{IPA|/-mɔ/}}
|-
| style="font-size:14pt;" align=center | {{lang|or|୍ନ}}
| {{lang|or|ନ ଫଳା}} na phaḷā || Ligature [n] pronounced following a consonant phoneme. E.g.- କ୍ନ- kna, ପ୍ରଶ୍ନ- praśna || -na {{IPA|/-nɔ/}}
|}

The following table lists all conjunct forms. (Different [[Typeface|fonts]] may use different ligatures.)<ref name="archive.org"/>
<div style="overflow:auto">
{| class=wikitable style="font-size:16pt"
|-
|+ Conjunct Consonants ଯୁକ୍ତାକ୍ଷର (juktakhyara)
|-
! !! କ !! ଖ !! ଗ !! ଘ !! ଙ !! ଚ !! ଛ !! ଜ !! ଝ !! ଞ !! ଟ !! ଠ !! ଡ !! ଢ !! ଣ !! ତ !! ଥ !! ଦ !! ଧ !! ନ !! ପ !! ଫ !! ବ !! ଭ !! ମ !! ଯ !! ୟ !! ର !! ଲ !! ଳ !! ୱ !! ଶ !! ଷ !! ସ !! ହ
|-
! କ
| କ୍କ || କ୍ଖ || କ୍ଗ || କ୍ଘ || କ୍ଙ || କ୍ଚ || କ୍ଛ || କ୍ଜ || କ୍ଝ || କ୍ଞ || କ୍ଟ || କ୍ଠ || କ୍ଡ || କ୍ଢ || କ୍ଣ || କ୍ତ || କ୍ଥ || କ୍ଦ || କ୍ଧ || କ୍ନ || କ୍ପ || କ୍ଫ || କ୍ବ || କ୍ଭ || କ୍ମ || କ୍ଯ || କ୍ୟ || କ୍ର || କ୍ଲ || କ୍ଳ || କ୍ୱ || କ୍ଶ || କ୍ଷ || କ୍ସ || କ୍ହ
|-
! ଖ
| ଖ୍କ || ଖ୍ଖ || ଖ୍ଗ || ଖ୍ଘ || ଖ୍ଙ || ଖ୍ଚ || ଖ୍ଛ || ଖ୍ଜ || ଖ୍ଝ || ଖ୍ଞ || ଖ୍ଟ || ଖ୍ଠ ||ଖ୍ଡ || ଖ୍ଢ || ଖ୍ଣ || ଖ୍ତ || ଖ୍ଥ || ଖ୍ଦ || ଖ୍ଧ || ଖ୍ନ || ଖ୍ପ || ଖ୍ଫ || ଖ୍ବ || ଖ୍ଭ || ଖ୍ମ || ଖ୍ଯ || ଖ୍ୟ || ଖ୍ର || ଖ୍ଲ || ଖ୍ଳ || ଖ୍ୱ || ଖ୍ଶ || ଖ୍ଷ || ଖ୍ସ || ଖ୍ହ
|-
! ଗ
| ଗ୍କ || ଗ୍ଖ || ଗ୍ଗ || ଗ୍ଘ || ଗ୍ଙ || ଗ୍ଚ || ଗ୍ଛ || ଗ୍ଜ || ଗ୍ଝ || ଗ୍ଞ || ଗ୍ଟ || ଗ୍ଠ || ଗ୍ଡ || ଗ୍ଢ || ଗ୍ଣ || ଗ୍ତ || ଗ୍ଥ || ଗ୍ଦ || ଗ୍ଧ || ଗ୍ନ || ଗ୍ପ || ଗ୍ଫ || ଗ୍ବ || ଗ୍ଭ || ଗ୍ମ || ଗ୍ଯ || ଗ୍ୟ || ଗ୍ର || ଗ୍ଲ || ଗ୍ଳ || ଗ୍ୱ || ଗ୍ଶ || ଗ୍ଷ || ଗ୍ସ || ଗ୍ହ
|-
! ଘ
| ଘ୍କ || ଘ୍ଖ || ଘ୍ଗ || ଘ୍ଘ || ଘ୍ଙ || ଘ୍ଚ || ଘ୍ଛ || ଘ୍ଜ || ଘ୍ଝ || ଘ୍ଞ || ଘ୍ଟ || ଘ୍ଠ || ଘ୍ଡ || ଘ୍ଢ || ଘ୍ଣ || ଘ୍ତ || ଘ୍ଥ || ଘ୍ଦ || ଘ୍ଧ || ଘ୍ନ || ଘ୍ପ || ଘ୍ଫ || ଘ୍ବ || ଘ୍ଭ || ଘ୍ମ || ଘ୍ଯ || ଘ୍ୟ || ଘ୍ର || ଘ୍ଲ || ଘ୍ଳ || ଘ୍ୱ || ଘ୍ଶ || ଘ୍ଷ || ଘ୍ସ || ଘ୍ହ
|-
! ଙ
| ଙ୍କ || ଙ୍ଖ || ଙ୍ଗ || ଙ୍ଘ || ଙ୍ଙ || ଙ୍ଚ || ଙ୍ଛ || ଙ୍ଜ || ଙ୍ଝ || ଙ୍ଞ || ଙ୍ଟ || ଙ୍ଠ || ଙ୍ଡ || ଙ୍ଢ || ଙ୍ଣ || ଙ୍ତ || ଙ୍ଥ || ଙ୍ଦ || ଙ୍ଧ || ଙ୍ନ || ଙ୍ପ || ଙ୍ଫ || ଙ୍ବ || ଙ୍ଭ || ଙ୍ମ || ଙ୍ଯ || ଙ୍ୟ || ଙ୍ର || ଙ୍ଲ || ଙ୍ଳ || ଙ୍ୱ || ଙ୍ଶ || ଙ୍ଷ || ଙ୍ସ || ଙ୍ହ
|-
! ଚ
| ଚ୍କ || ଚ୍ଖ || ଚ୍ଗ || ଚ୍ଘ || ଚ୍ଙ || ଚ୍ଚ || ଚ୍ଛ || ଚ୍ଜ || ଚ୍ଝ || ଚ୍ଞ || ଚ୍ଟ || ଚ୍ଠ || ଚ୍ଡ || ଚ୍ଢ || ଚ୍ଣ || ଚ୍ତ || ଚ୍ଥ || ଚ୍ଦ || ଚ୍ଧ || ଚ୍ନ || ଚ୍ପ || ଚ୍ଫ || ଚ୍ବ || ଚ୍ଭ || ଚ୍ମ || ଚ୍ଯ || ଚ୍ୟ || ଚ୍ର || ଚ୍ଲ || ଚ୍ଳ || ଚ୍ୱ || ଚ୍ଶ || ଚ୍ଷ || ଚ୍ସ || ଚ୍ହ
|-
! ଛ
| ଛ୍କ || ଛ୍ଖ || ଛ୍ଗ || ଛ୍ଘ || ଛ୍ଙ || ଛ୍ଚ || ଛ୍ଛ || ଛ୍ଜ || ଛ୍ଝ || ଛ୍ଞ || ଛ୍ଟ || ଛ୍ଠ || ଛ୍ଡ || ଛ୍ଢ || ଛ୍ଣ || ଛ୍ତ || ଛ୍ଥ || ଛ୍ଦ || ଛ୍ଧ || ଛ୍ନ || ଛ୍ପ || ଛ୍ଫ || ଛ୍ବ || ଛ୍ଭ || ଛ୍ମ || ଛ୍ଯ || ଛ୍ୟ || ଛ୍ର || ଛ୍ଲ || ଛ୍ଳ || ଛ୍ୱ || ଛ୍ଶ || ଛ୍ଷ || ଛ୍ସ || ଛ୍ହ
|-
! ଜ
| ଜ୍କ || ଜ୍ଖ || ଜ୍ଗ || ଜ୍ଘ || ଜ୍ଙ || ଜ୍ଚ || ଜ୍ଛ || ଜ୍ଜ || ଜ୍ଝ || ଜ୍ଞ || ଜ୍ଟ || ଜ୍ଠ || ଜ୍ଡ || ଜ୍ଢ || ଜ୍ଣ || ଜ୍ତ || ଜ୍ଥ || ଜ୍ଦ || ଜ୍ଧ || ଜ୍ନ || ଜ୍ପ || ଜ୍ଫ || ଜ୍ବ || ଜ୍ଭ || ଜ୍ମ || ଜ୍ଯ || ଜ୍ୟ || ଜ୍ର || ଜ୍ଲ || ଜ୍ଳ || ଜ୍ୱ || ଜ୍ଶ || ଜ୍ଷ || ଜ୍ସ || ଜ୍ହ
|-
! ଝ
| ଝ୍କ || ଝ୍ଖ || ଝ୍ଗ || ଝ୍ଘ || ଝ୍ଙ || ଝ୍ଚ || ଝ୍ଛ || ଝ୍ଜ || ଝ୍ଝ || ଝ୍ଞ || ଝ୍ଟ || ଝ୍ଠ || ଝ୍ଡ || ଝ୍ଢ || ଝ୍ଣ || ଝ୍ତ || ଝ୍ଥ || ଝ୍ଦ || ଝ୍ଧ || ଝ୍ନ || ଝ୍ପ || ଝ୍ଫ || ଝ୍ବ || ଝ୍ଭ || ଝ୍ମ || ଝ୍ଯ || ଝ୍ୟ || ଝ୍ର || ଝ୍ଲ || ଝ୍ଳ || ଝ୍ୱ || ଝ୍ଶ || ଝ୍ଷ || ଝ୍ସ || ଝ୍ହ
|-
! ଞ
| ଞ୍କ || ଞ୍ଖ || ଞ୍ଗ || ଞ୍ଘ || ଞ୍ଙ || ଞ୍ଚ || ଞ୍ଛ || ଞ୍ଜ || ଞ୍ଝ || ଞ୍ଞ || ଞ୍ଟ || ଞ୍ଠ || ଞ୍ଡ || ଞ୍ଢ || ଞ୍ଣ || ଞ୍ତ || ଞ୍ଥ || ଞ୍ଦ || ଞ୍ଧ || ଞ୍ନ || ଞ୍ପ || ଞ୍ଫ || ଞ୍ବ || ଞ୍ଭ || ଞ୍ମ || ଞ୍ଯ || ଞ୍ୟ || ଞ୍ର || ଞ୍ଲ || ଞ୍ଳ || ଞ୍ୱ || ଞ୍ଶ || ଞ୍ଷ || ଞ୍ସ || ଞ୍ହ
|-
! ଟ
| ଟ୍କ || ଟ୍ଖ || ଟ୍ଗ || ଟ୍ଘ || ଟ୍ଙ || ଟ୍ଚ || ଟ୍ଛ || ଟ୍ଜ || ଟ୍ଝ || ଟ୍ଞ || ଟ୍ଟ || ଟ୍ଠ || ଟ୍ଡ || ଟ୍ଢ || ଟ୍ଣ || ଟ୍ତ || ଟ୍ଥ || ଟ୍ଦ || ଟ୍ଧ || ଟ୍ନ || ଟ୍ପ || ଟ୍ଫ || ଟ୍ବ || ଟ୍ଭ || ଟ୍ମ || ଟ୍ଯ || ଟ୍ୟ || ଟ୍ର || ଟ୍ଲ || ଟ୍ଳ || ଟ୍ୱ || ଟ୍ଶ || ଟ୍ଷ || ଟ୍ସ || ଟ୍ହ
|-
! ଠ
| ଠ୍କ || ଠ୍ଖ || ଠ୍ଗ || ଠ୍ଘ || ଠ୍ଙ || ଠ୍ଚ || ଠ୍ଛ || ଠ୍ଜ || ଠ୍ଝ || ଠ୍ଞ || ଠ୍ଟ || ଠ୍ଠ || ଠ୍ଡ || ଠ୍ଢ || ଠ୍ଣ || ଠ୍ତ || ଠ୍ଥ || ଠ୍ଦ || ଠ୍ଧ || ଠ୍ନ || ଠ୍ପ || ଠ୍ଫ || ଠ୍ବ || ଠ୍ଭ || ଠ୍ମ || ଠ୍ଯ || ଠ୍ୟ || ଠ୍ର || ଠ୍ଲ || ଠ୍ଳ || ଠ୍ୱ || ଠ୍ଶ || ଠ୍ଷ || ଠ୍ସ || ଠ୍ହ
|-
! ଡ
| ଡ୍କ || ଡ୍ଖ || ଡ୍ଗ || ଡ୍ଘ || ଡ୍ଙ || ଡ୍ଚ || ଡ୍ଛ || ଡ୍ଜ || ଡ୍ଝ || ଡ୍ଞ || ଡ୍ଟ || ଡ୍ଠ || ଡ୍ଡ || ଡ୍ଢ || ଡ୍ଣ || ଡ୍ତ || ଡ୍ଥ || ଡ୍ଦ || ଡ୍ଧ || ଡ୍ନ || ଡ୍ପ || ଡ୍ଫ || ଡ୍ବ || ଡ୍ଭ || ଡ୍ମ || ଡ୍ଯ || ଡ୍ୟ || ଡ୍ର || ଡ୍ଲ || ଡ୍ଳ || ଡ୍ୱ || ଡ୍ଶ || ଡ୍ଷ || ଡ୍ସ || ଡ୍ହ
|-
! ଢ
| ଢ୍କ || ଢ୍ଖ || ଢ୍ଗ || ଢ୍ଘ || ଢ୍ଙ || ଢ୍ଚ || ଢ୍ଛ || ଢ୍ଜ || ଢ୍ଝ || ଢ୍ଞ || ଢ୍ଟ || ଢ୍ଠ || ଢ୍ଡ || ଢ୍ଢ || ଢ୍ଣ || ଢ୍ତ || ଢ୍ଥ || ଢ୍ଦ || ଢ୍ଧ || ଢ୍ନ || ଢ୍ପ || ଢ୍ଫ || ଢ୍ବ || ଢ୍ଭ || ଢ୍ମ || ଢ୍ଯ || ଢ୍ୟ || ଢ୍ର || ଢ୍ଲ || ଢ୍ଳ || ଢ୍ୱ || ଢ୍ଶ || ଢ୍ଷ || ଢ୍ସ || ଢ୍ହ
|-
! ଣ
| ଣ୍କ || ଣ୍ଖ || ଣ୍ଗ || ଣ୍ଘ || ଣ୍ଙ || ଣ୍ଚ || ଣ୍ଛ || ଣ୍ଜ || ଣ୍ଝ || ଣ୍ଞ || ଣ୍ଟ || ଣ୍ଠ || ଣ୍ଡ || ଣ୍ଢ || ଣ୍ଣ || ଣ୍ତ || ଣ୍ଥ || ଣ୍ଦ || ଣ୍ଧ || ଣ୍ନ || ଣ୍ପ || ଣ୍ଫ || ଣ୍ବ || ଣ୍ଭ || ଣ୍ମ || ଣ୍ଯ || ଣ୍ୟ || ଣ୍ର || ଣ୍ଲ || ଣ୍ଳ || ଣ୍ୱ || ଣ୍ଶ || ଣ୍ଷ || ଣ୍ସ || ଣ୍ହ
|-
! ତ
| ତ୍କ || ତ୍ଖ || ତ୍ଗ || ତ୍ଘ || ତ୍ଙ || ତ୍ଚ || ତ୍ଛ || ତ୍ଜ || ତ୍ଝ || ତ୍ଞ || ତ୍ଟ || ତ୍ଠ || ତ୍ଡ || ତ୍ଢ || ତ୍ଣ || ତ୍ତ || ତ୍ଥ || ତ୍ଦ || ତ୍ଧ || ତ୍ନ || ତ୍ପ || ତ୍ଫ || ତ୍ବ || ତ୍ଭ || ତ୍ମ || ତ୍ଯ || ତ୍ୟ || ତ୍ର || ତ୍ଲ || ତ୍ଳ || ତ୍ୱ || ତ୍ଶ || ତ୍ଷ || ତ୍ସ || ତ୍ହ
|-
! ଥ
| ଥ୍କ || ଥ୍ଖ || ଥ୍ଗ || ଥ୍ଘ || ଥ୍ଙ || ଥ୍ଚ || ଥ୍ଛ || ଥ୍ଜ || ଥ୍ଝ || ଥ୍ଞ || ଥ୍ଟ || ଥ୍ଠ || ଥ୍ଡ || ଥ୍ଢ || ଥ୍ଣ || ଥ୍ତ || ଥ୍ଥ || ଥ୍ଦ || ଥ୍ଧ || ଥ୍ନ || ଥ୍ପ || ଥ୍ଫ || ଥ୍ବ || ଥ୍ଭ || ଥ୍ମ || ଥ୍ଯ || ଥ୍ୟ || ଥ୍ର || ଥ୍ଲ || ଥ୍ଳ || ଥ୍ୱ || ଥ୍ଶ || ଥ୍ଷ || ଥ୍ସ || ଥ୍ହ
|-
! ଦ
| ଦ୍କ || ଦ୍ଖ || ଦ୍ଗ || ଦ୍ଘ || ଦ୍ଙ || ଦ୍ଚ || ଦ୍ଛ || ଦ୍ଜ || ଦ୍ଝ || ଦ୍ଞ || ଦ୍ଟ || ଦ୍ଠ || ଦ୍ଡ || ଦ୍ଢ || ଦ୍ଣ || ଦ୍ତ || ଦ୍ଥ || ଦ୍ଦ || ଦ୍ଧ || ଦ୍ନ || ଦ୍ପ || ଦ୍ଫ || ଦ୍ବ || ଦ୍ଭ || ଦ୍ମ || ଦ୍ଯ || ଦ୍ୟ || ଦ୍ର || ଦ୍ଲ || ଦ୍ଳ || ଦ୍ୱ || ଦ୍ଶ || ଦ୍ଷ || ଦ୍ସ || ଦ୍ହ
|-
! ଧ
| ଧ୍କ || ଧ୍ଖ || ଧ୍ଗ || ଧ୍ଘ || ଧ୍ଙ || ଧ୍ଚ || ଧ୍ଛ || ଧ୍ଜ || ଧ୍ଝ || ଧ୍ଞ || ଧ୍ଟ || ଧ୍ଠ || ଧ୍ଡ || ଧ୍ଢ || ଧ୍ଣ || ଧ୍ତ || ଧ୍ଥ || ଧ୍ଦ || ଧ୍ଧ || ଧ୍ନ || ଧ୍ପ || ଧ୍ଫ || ଧ୍ବ || ଧ୍ଭ || ଧ୍ମ || ଧ୍ଯ || ଧ୍ୟ || ଧ୍ର || ଧ୍ଲ || ଧ୍ଳ || ଧ୍ୱ || ଧ୍ଶ || ଧ୍ଷ || ଧ୍ସ || ଧ୍ହ
|-
! ନ
| ନ୍କ || ନ୍ଖ || ନ୍ଗ || ନ୍ଘ || ନ୍ଙ || ନ୍ଚ || ନ୍ଛ || ନ୍ଜ || ନ୍ଝ || ନ୍ଞ || ନ୍ଟ || ନ୍ଠ || ନ୍ଡ || ନ୍ଢ || ନ୍ଣ || ନ୍ତ || ନ୍ଥ || ନ୍ଦ || ନ୍ଧ || ନ୍ନ || ନ୍ପ || ନ୍ଫ || ନ୍ବ || ନ୍ଭ || ନ୍ମ || ନ୍ଯ || ନ୍ୟ || ନ୍ର || ନ୍ଲ || ନ୍ଳ || ନ୍ୱ || ନ୍ଶ || ନ୍ଷ || ନ୍ସ || ନ୍ହ
|-
! ପ
| ପ୍କ || ପ୍ଖ || ପ୍ଗ || ପ୍ଘ || ପ୍ଙ || ପ୍ଚ || ପ୍ଛ || ପ୍ଜ || ପ୍ଝ || ପ୍ଞ || ପ୍ଟ || ପ୍ଠ || ପ୍ଡ || ପ୍ଢ || ପ୍ଣ || ପ୍ତ || ପ୍ଥ || ପ୍ଦ || ପ୍ଧ || ପ୍ନ || ପ୍ପ || ପ୍ଫ || ପ୍ବ || ପ୍ଭ || ପ୍ମ || ପ୍ଯ || ପ୍ୟ || ପ୍ର || ପ୍ଲ || ପ୍ଳ || ପ୍ୱ || ପ୍ଶ || ପ୍ଷ || ପ୍ସ || ପ୍ହ
|-
! ଫ
| ଫ୍କ || ଫ୍ଖ || ଫ୍ଗ || ଫ୍ଘ || ଫ୍ଙ || ଫ୍ଚ || ଫ୍ଛ || ଫ୍ଜ || ଫ୍ଝ || ଫ୍ଞ || ଫ୍ଟ || ଫ୍ଠ || ଫ୍ଡ || ଫ୍ଢ || ଫ୍ଣ || ଫ୍ତ || ଫ୍ଥ || ଫ୍ଦ || ଫ୍ଧ || ଫ୍ନ || ଫ୍ପ || ଫ୍ଫ || ଫ୍ବ || ଫ୍ଭ || ଫ୍ମ || ଫ୍ଯ || ଫ୍ୟ || ଫ୍ର || ଫ୍ଲ || ଫ୍ଳ || ଫ୍ୱ || ଫ୍ଶ || ଫ୍ଷ || ଫ୍ସ || ଫ୍ହ
|-
! ବ
| ବ୍କ || ବ୍ଖ || ବ୍ଗ || ବ୍ଘ || ବ୍ଙ || ବ୍ଚ || ବ୍ଛ || ବ୍ଜ || ବ୍ଝ || ବ୍ଞ || ବ୍ଟ || ବ୍ଠ || ବ୍ଡ || ବ୍ଢ || ବ୍ଣ || ବ୍ତ || ବ୍ଥ || ବ୍ଦ || ବ୍ଧ || ବ୍ନ || ବ୍ପ || ବ୍ଫ || ବ୍ବ || ବ୍ଭ || ବ୍ମ || ବ୍ଯ || ବ୍ୟ || ବ୍ର || ବ୍ଲ || ବ୍ଳ || ବ୍ୱ || ବ୍ଶ || ବ୍ଷ || ବ୍ସ || ବ୍ହ
|-
! ଭ
| ଭ୍କ || ଭ୍ଖ || ଭ୍ଗ || ଭ୍ଘ || ଭ୍ଙ || ଭ୍ଚ || ଭ୍ଛ || ଭ୍ଜ || ଭ୍ଝ || ଭ୍ଞ || ଭ୍ଟ || ଭ୍ଠ || ଭ୍ଡ || ଭ୍ଢ || ଭ୍ଣ || ଭ୍ତ || ଭ୍ଥ || ଭ୍ଦ || ଭ୍ଧ || ଭ୍ନ || ଭ୍ପ || ଭ୍ଫ || ଭ୍ବ || ଭ୍ଭ || ଭ୍ମ || ଭ୍ଯ || ଭ୍ୟ || ଭ୍ର || ଭ୍ଲ || ଭ୍ଳ || ଭ୍ୱ || ଭ୍ଶ || ଭ୍ଷ || ଭ୍ସ || ଭ୍ହ
|-
! ମ
| ମ୍କ || ମ୍ଖ || ମ୍ଗ || ମ୍ଘ || ମ୍ଙ || ମ୍ଚ || ମ୍ଛ || ମ୍ଜ || ମ୍ଝ || ମ୍ଞ || ମ୍ଟ || ମ୍ଠ || ମ୍ଡ || ମ୍ଢ || ମ୍ଣ || ମ୍ତ || ମ୍ଥ || ମ୍ଦ || ମ୍ଧ || ମ୍ନ || ମ୍ପ || ମ୍ଫ || ମ୍ବ || ମ୍ଭ || ମ୍ମ || ମ୍ଯ || ମ୍ୟ || ମ୍ର || ମ୍ଲ || ମ୍ଳ || ମ୍ୱ || ମ୍ଶ || ମ୍ଷ || ମ୍ସ || ମ୍ହ
|-
! ଯ
| ଯ୍କ || ଯ୍ଖ || ଯ୍ଗ || ଯ୍ଘ || ଯ୍ଙ || ଯ୍ଚ || ଯ୍ଛ || ଯ୍ଜ || ଯ୍ଝ || ଯ୍ଞ || ଯ୍ଟ || ଯ୍ଠ || ଯ୍ଡ || ଯ୍ଢ || ଯ୍ଣ || ଯ୍ତ || ଯ୍ଥ || ଯ୍ଦ || ଯ୍ଧ || ଯ୍ନ || ଯ୍ପ || ଯ୍ଫ || ଯ୍ବ || ଯ୍ଭ || ଯ୍ମ || ଯ୍ଯ || ଯ୍ୟ || ଯ୍ର || ଯ୍ଲ || ଯ୍ଳ || ଯ୍ୱ || ଯ୍ଶ || ଯ୍ଷ || ଯ୍ସ || ଯ୍ହ
|-
! ୟ
| ୟ୍କ || ୟ୍ଖ || ୟ୍ଗ || ୟ୍ଘ || ୟ୍ଙ || ୟ୍ଚ || ୟ୍ଛ || ୟ୍ଜ || ୟ୍ଝ || ୟ୍ଞ || ୟ୍ଟ || ୟ୍ଠ || ୟ୍ଡ || ୟ୍ଢ || ୟ୍ଣ || ୟ୍ତ || ୟ୍ଥ || ୟ୍ଦ || ୟ୍ଧ || ୟ୍ନ || ୟ୍ପ || ୟ୍ଫ || ୟ୍ବ || ୟ୍ଭ || ୟ୍ମ || ୟ୍ଯ || ୟ୍ୟ || ୟ୍ର || ୟ୍ଲ || ୟ୍ଳ || ୟ୍ୱ || ୟ୍ଶ || ୟ୍ଷ || ୟ୍ସ || ୟ୍ହ
|-
! ର
| ର୍କ || ର୍ଖ || ର୍ଗ || ର୍ଘ || ର୍ଙ || ର୍ଚ || ର୍ଛ || ର୍ଜ || ର୍ଝ || ର୍ଞ || ର୍ଟ || ର୍ଠ || ର୍ଡ || ର୍ଢ || ର୍ଣ || ର୍ତ || ର୍ଥ || ର୍ଦ || ର୍ଧ || ର୍ନ || ର୍ପ || ର୍ଫ || ର୍ବ || ର୍ଭ || ର୍ମ || ର୍ଯ || ର୍ୟ || ର୍ର || ର୍ଲ || ର୍ଳ || ର୍ୱ || ର୍ଶ || ର୍ଷ || ର୍ସ || ର୍ହ
|-
! ଲ
| ଲ୍କ || ଲ୍ଖ || ଲ୍ଗ || ଲ୍ଘ || ଲ୍ଙ || ଲ୍ଚ || ଲ୍ଛ || ଲ୍ଜ || ଲ୍ଝ || ଲ୍ଞ || ଲ୍ଟ || ଲ୍ଠ || ଲ୍ଡ || ଲ୍ଢ || ଲ୍ଣ || ଲ୍ତ || ଲ୍ଥ || ଲ୍ଦ || ଲ୍ଧ || ଲ୍ନ || ଲ୍ପ || ଲ୍ଫ || ଲ୍ବ || ଲ୍ଭ || ଲ୍ମ || ଲ୍ଯ || ଲ୍ୟ || ଲ୍ର || ଲ୍ଲ || ଲ୍ଳ || ଲ୍ୱ || ଲ୍ଶ || ଲ୍ଷ || ଲ୍ସ || ଲ୍ହ
|-
! ଳ
| ଳ୍କ || ଳ୍ଖ || ଳ୍ଗ || ଳ୍ଘ || ଳ୍ଙ || ଳ୍ଚ || ଳ୍ଛ || ଳ୍ଜ || ଳ୍ଝ || ଳ୍ଞ || ଳ୍ଟ || ଳ୍ଠ || ଳ୍ଡ || ଳ୍ଢ || ଳ୍ଣ || ଳ୍ତ || ଳ୍ଥ || ଳ୍ଦ || ଳ୍ଧ || ଳ୍ନ || ଳ୍ପ || ଳ୍ଫ || ଳ୍ବ || ଳ୍ଭ || ଳ୍ମ || ଳ୍ଯ || ଳ୍ୟ || ଳ୍ର || ଳ୍ଲ || ଳ୍ଳ || ଳ୍ୱ || ଳ୍ଶ || ଳ୍ଷ || ଳ୍ସ || ଳ୍ହ
|-
! ୱ
| ୱ୍କ || ୱ୍ଖ || ୱ୍ଗ || ୱ୍ଘ || ୱ୍ଙ || ୱ୍ଚ || ୱ୍ଛ || ୱ୍ଜ || ୱ୍ଝ || ୱ୍ଞ || ୱ୍ଟ || ୱ୍ଠ || ୱ୍ଡ || ୱ୍ଢ || ୱ୍ଣ || ୱ୍ତ || ୱ୍ଥ || ୱ୍ଦ || ୱ୍ଧ || ୱ୍ନ || ୱ୍ପ || ୱ୍ଫ || ୱ୍ବ || ୱ୍ଭ || ୱ୍ମ || ୱ୍ଯ || ୱ୍ୟ || ୱ୍ର || ୱ୍ଲ || ୱ୍ଳ || ୱ୍ୱ || ୱ୍ଶ || ୱ୍ଷ || ୱ୍ସ || ୱ୍ହ
|-
! ଶ
| ଶ୍କ || ଶ୍ଖ || ଶ୍ଗ || ଶ୍ଘ || ଶ୍ଙ || ଶ୍ଚ || ଶ୍ଛ || ଶ୍ଜ || ଶ୍ଝ || ଶ୍ଞ || ଶ୍ଟ || ଶ୍ଠ || ଶ୍ଡ || ଶ୍ଢ || ଶ୍ଣ || ଶ୍ତ || ଶ୍ଥ || ଶ୍ଦ || ଶ୍ଧ || ଶ୍ନ || ଶ୍ପ || ଶ୍ଫ || ଶ୍ବ || ଶ୍ଭ || ଶ୍ମ || ଶ୍ଯ || ଶ୍ୟ || ଶ୍ର || ଶ୍ଲ || ଶ୍ଳ || ଶ୍ୱ || ଶ୍ଶ || ଶ୍ଷ || ଶ୍ସ || ଶ୍ହ
|-
! ଷ
| ଷ୍କ || ଷ୍ଖ || ଷ୍ଗ || ଷ୍ଘ || ଷ୍ଙ || ଷ୍ଚ || ଷ୍ଛ || ଷ୍ଜ || ଷ୍ଝ || ଷ୍ଞ || ଷ୍ଟ || ଷ୍ଠ || ଷ୍ଡ || ଷ୍ଢ || ଷ୍ଣ || ଷ୍ତ || ଷ୍ଥ || ଷ୍ଦ || ଷ୍ଧ || ଷ୍ନ || ଷ୍ପ || ଷ୍ଫ || ଷ୍ବ || ଷ୍ଭ || ଷ୍ମ || ଷ୍ଯ || ଷ୍ୟ || ଷ୍ର || ଷ୍ଲ || ଷ୍ଳ || ଷ୍ୱ || ଷ୍ଶ || ଷ୍ଷ || ଷ୍ସ || ଷ୍ହ
|-
! ସ
| ସ୍କ || ସ୍ଖ || ସ୍ଗ || ସ୍ଘ || ସ୍ଙ || ସ୍ଚ || ସ୍ଛ || ସ୍ଜ || ସ୍ଝ || ସ୍ଞ || ସ୍ଟ || ସ୍ଠ || ସ୍ଡ || ସ୍ଢ || ସ୍ଣ || ସ୍ତ || ସ୍ଥ || ସ୍ଦ || ସ୍ଧ || ସ୍ନ || ସ୍ପ || ସ୍ଫ || ସ୍ବ || ସ୍ଭ || ସ୍ମ || ସ୍ଯ || ସ୍ୟ || ସ୍ର || ସ୍ଲ || ସ୍ଳ || ସ୍ୱ || ସ୍ଶ || ସ୍ଷ || ସ୍ସ || ସ୍ହ
|-
! ହ
| ହ୍କ || ହ୍ଖ || ହ୍ଗ || ହ୍ଘ || ହ୍ଙ || ହ୍ଚ || ହ୍ଛ || ହ୍ଜ || ହ୍ଝ || ହ୍ଞ || ହ୍ଟ || ହ୍ଠ || ହ୍ଡ || ହ୍ଢ || ହ୍ଣ || ହ୍ତ || ହ୍ଥ || ହ୍ଦ || ହ୍ଧ || ହ୍ନ || ହ୍ପ || ହ୍ଫ || ହ୍ବ || ହ୍ଭ || ହ୍ମ || ହ୍ଯ || ହ୍ୟ || ହ୍ର || ହ୍ଲ || ହ୍ଳ || ହ୍ୱ || ହ୍ଶ || ହ୍ଷ || ହ୍ସ || ହ୍ହ
|}
</div>

===Ambiguities===
The subjoined form of ଛ ''cha'' is also used for subjoined ଥ ''tha'':
* for ଛ ''cha'': ଚ୍ଛ ''ccha'', ଞ୍ଛ ''ñcha'', ଶ୍ଛ ''ścha''
* for ଥ ''tha'': ନ୍ଥ ''ntha'', ସ୍ଥ ''stha''
The sign for the nasal ଂ ''ṃ'' looks similar to the right side of the glyph used for ଫ ''pha'' and ଙ ''ṅa'':
* ଫ ''pha'' (versus ପଂ ''paṃ'')
* ଙ ''ṅa'' (versus ଡଂ ''ḍaṃ'' or ଉଂ ''uṃ'')
* ମ୍ଫ ''mpha'' (versus ମ୍ପଂ ''mpaṃ'')

== Karani script or Odia cursive/calligraphic style ==
{{main|Karani script}}
[[File:Koroni or Chata script sample.jpg|thumb|250px|Karani script sample from Purnachandra Odia Bhashakosha]]
Karani script (କରଣୀ ଅକ୍ଷର) (also Chata script ଛଟା ଅକ୍ଷର) was a cursive/calligraphic style variant of the Odia script<ref name="Shodhganga">{{cite web|url=http://14.139.116.20:8080/jspui/bitstream/10603/282609/9/09_chapter%204.pdf|date=2012|title=ପ୍ରାଚୀନ ସାହିତ୍ୟଗ୍ରନ୍ଥ ସଂପାଦନା-୧ |publisher=Utkal University |author=Chitararijan Behera |website=Shodhganga |access-date=25 December 2020 }}</ref> developed by the [[Karan (caste)|Karana]] (କରଣ) community, the scribes (professional writer-class) of the Odia royal courts. It was used in the pre-Independence Orissa ([[Odisha]]) region in South Asia and was primarily used by the Karana community who were working for administrative purposes, documentation and keeping records in the royal courts of the Odia princely states ([[Orissa Tributary States]]). The name Karani is derived from the metal stylus, Karani that was used for writing on palm leaf.<ref name="academia.edu"/><ref name="inflibnet">{{cite web|url=http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/jspui/bitstream/10603/118610/11/11_chapter%204.pdf|date=27 September 2016|title=CHAPTER - IV: DEVELOPMENT OF ORIYA SCRIPT, LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE |website=Shodhganga |access-date=30 September 2020}}</ref>

== Numerals ==
{{Main|Odia numerals}}
[[File:Development of ancient numerals in oriya.jpg|thumb|500px|Development of ancient numerals in Odia]]

{| class="wikitable"
|-
|+ '''Digits''' {{lang|or|ସଂଖ୍ୟା}}
|-
! [[Hindu-Arabic numerals]]
| 0
| 1
| 2
| 3
| 4
| 5
| 6
| 7
| 8
| 9
|-
! Odia numerals
| {{lang|or|୦}}
| {{lang|or|୧}}
| {{lang|or|୨}}
| {{lang|or|୩}}
| {{lang|or|୪}}
| {{lang|or|୫}}
| {{lang|or|୬}}
| {{lang|or|୭}}
| {{lang|or|୮}}
| {{lang|or|୯}}
|-
! Names
| {{lang|or|ଶୂନ୍ୟ}} śūnya
| {{lang|or|ଏକ}} eka
| {{lang|or|ଦୁଇ}} dui
| {{lang|or|ତିନି}} tini
| {{lang|or|ଚାରି}} cāri
| {{lang|or|ପାଞ୍ଚ}} pāñca
| {{lang|or|ଛଅ}} cha'a
| {{lang|or|ସାତ}} sāta
| {{lang|or|ଆଠ}} āṭha
| {{lang|or|ନଅ}} na'a
|}

{|class=wikitable
|+ '''Fraction symbols''' {{lang|or|ଭଗ୍ନାଂଶ ଚିହ୍ନ}}
|-
! Fraction symbols
|| {{lang|or|୵}}
|| {{lang|or|୶}}
|| {{lang|or|୷}}
|| {{lang|or|୲}}
|| {{lang|or|୳}}
|| {{lang|or|୴}}
|-
! Fractions
|| {{lang|or|¹⁄₁₆}}
|| {{lang|or|⅛}}
|| {{lang|or|³⁄₁₆}}
|| {{lang|or|¼}}
|| {{lang|or|½}}
|| {{lang|or|¾}}
|}

Fraction symbols are obsolete post [[decimalisation]] on 1 April 1957.

== Comparison of Odia script with ancestral and related scripts ==

Odia letters are mostly round shaped whereas [[Devanagari]] and Bengali have horizontal lines. So in most cases the reader of Odia will find the related distinctive parts of the letter only below the curved hoop.

=== Vowels ===

{|class=wikitable
|+
|-
!
! a
! ā
! i
! ī
! u
! ū
! ṛ
! ṝ
! ḷ
! ḹ
! e
! ai
! o
! au
|-
! Odia
|| {{lang|or|ଅ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଆ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଇ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଈ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଉ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଊ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଋ}}
|| {{lang|or|ୠ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଌ}}
|| {{lang|or|ୡ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଏ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଐ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଓ}}
|| {{lang|or|ଔ}}
|-
! Bengali
|| {{lang|bn|অ}}
|| {{lang|bn|আ}}
|| {{lang|bn|ই}}
|| {{lang|bn|ঈ}}
|| {{lang|bn|উ}}
|| {{lang|bn|ঊ}}
|| {{lang|bn|ঋ}}
|| {{lang|bn|ৠ}}
|| {{lang|bn|ঌ}}
|| {{lang|bn|ৡ}}
|| {{lang|bn|এ}}
|| {{lang|bn|ঐ}}
|| {{lang|bn|ও}}
|| {{lang|bn|ঔ}}
|-
! Siddham
|| [[File:siddham a.svg|18px]]
|| [[File:siddham aa.svg|18px]]
|| [[File:siddham i.svg|18px]]
|| [[File:siddham ii.svg|18px]]
|| [[File:siddham u.svg|18px]]
|| [[File:siddham uu.svg|18px]]
|| [[File:siddham ri.svg|18px]]
|| [[File:siddham rii.svg|18px]]
|| [[File:siddham li.svg|18px]]
|| [[File:siddham lii.svg|18px]]
|| [[File:siddham e.svg|18px]]
|| [[File:siddham ai.svg|18px]]
|| [[File:siddham o.svg|18px]]
|| [[File:siddham au.svg|18px]]
|-
! Devanagari
|| {{lang|dv|अ}}
|| {{lang|dv|आ}}
|| {{lang|dv|इ}}
|| {{lang|dv|ई}}
|| {{lang|dv|उ}}
|| {{lang|dv|ऊ}}
|| {{lang|dv|ऋ}}
|| {{lang|dv|ॠ}}
|| {{lang|dv|ऌ}}
|| {{lang|dv|ॡ}}
|| {{lang|dv|ए}}
|| {{lang|dv|ऐ}}
|| {{lang|dv|ओ}}
|| {{lang|dv|औ}}
|}

=== Consonants ===

{|class=wikitable
|+
|-
!
!k
!kh
!g
!gh
!ṅ
!c
!ch
!j
!jh
!ñ
!ṭ
!ṭh
!ḍ
!ḍh
!ṇ
!t
!th
!d
!dh
!n
!p
!ph
!b
!bh
!m
!ẏ,y
!r
!l,ḷ
!w
!ś
!ṣ
!s
!h
|-
!Odia
||{{lang|or|କ}}
||{{lang|or|ଖ}}
||{{lang|or|ଗ}}
||{{lang|or|ଘ}}
||{{lang|or|ଙ}}
||{{lang|or|ଚ}}
||{{lang|or|ଛ}}
||{{lang|or|ଜ}}
||{{lang|or|ଝ}}
||{{lang|or|ଞ}}
||{{lang|or|ଟ}}
||{{lang|or|ଠ}}
||{{lang|or|ଡ}}
||{{lang|or|ଢ}}
||{{lang|or|ଣ}}
||{{lang|or|ତ}}
||{{lang|or|ଥ}}
||{{lang|or|ଦ}}
||{{lang|or|ଧ}}
||{{lang|or|ନ}}
||{{lang|or|ପ}}
||{{lang|or|ଫ}}
||{{lang|or|ବ}}
||{{lang|or|ଭ}}
||{{lang|or|ମ}}
||{{lang|or|ଯ,ୟ}}
||{{lang|or|ର}}
||{{lang|or|ଲ,ଳ}}
||{{lang|or|ୱ}}
||{{lang|or|ଶ}}
||{{lang|or|ଷ}}
||{{lang|or|ସ}}
||{{lang|or|ହ}}
|-
!Bengali
||{{lang|bn|ক}}
||{{lang|bn|খ}}
||{{lang|bn|গ}}
||{{lang|bn|ঘ}}
||{{lang|bn|ঙ}}
||{{lang|bn|চ}}
||{{lang|bn|ছ}}
||{{lang|bn|জ}}
||{{lang|bn|ঝ}}
||{{lang|bn|ঞ}}
||{{lang|bn|ট}}
||{{lang|bn|ঠ}}
||{{lang|bn|ড}}
||{{lang|bn|ঢ}}
||{{lang|bn|ণ}}
||{{lang|bn|ত}}
||{{lang|bn|থ}}
||{{lang|bn|দ}}
||{{lang|bn|ধ}}
||{{lang|bn|ন}}
||{{lang|bn|প}}
||{{lang|bn|ফ}}
||{{lang|bn|ব}}
||{{lang|bn|ভ}}
||{{lang|bn|ম}}
||{{lang|bn|য,য়}}
||{{lang|bn|র}}
||{{lang|bn|ল}}
||-
||{{lang|bn|শ}}
||{{lang|bn|ষ}}
||{{lang|bn|স}}
||{{lang|bn|হ}}
|-
! Siddham
||[[File:siddham k.svg|15px]]
||[[File:siddham kh.svg|15px]]
||[[File:siddham g.svg|15px]]
||[[File:siddham gh.svg|15px]]
||[[File:siddham ng.svg|15px]]
||[[File:siddham c.svg|15px]]
||[[File:siddham ch.svg|15px]]
||[[File:siddham j.svg|15px]]
||[[File:siddham jh.svg|15px]]
||[[File:siddham ny2.svg|15px]]
||[[File:siddham tt.svg|15px]]
||[[File:siddham tth.svg|15px]]
||[[File:siddham dd.svg|15px]]
||[[File:siddham ddh.svg|15px]]
||[[File:siddham nn.svg|15px]]
||[[File:siddham t.svg|15px]]
||[[File:siddham th.svg|15px]]
||[[File:siddham d.svg|15px]]
||[[File:siddham dh2.svg|15px]]
||[[File:siddham n.svg|15px]]
||[[File:siddham p.svg|15px]]
||[[File:siddham ph.svg|15px]]
||[[File:siddham b.svg|15px]]
||[[File:siddham bh.svg|15px]]
||[[File:siddham m.svg|15px]]
||[[File:siddham y.svg|15px]]
||[[File:siddham r.svg|15px]]
||[[File:siddham l.svg|15px]]
||[[File:siddham v3.svg|15px]]
||[[File:siddham sh1.svg|15px]]
||[[File:siddham ss.svg|15px]]
||[[File:siddham s.svg|15px]]
||[[File:siddham h.svg|15px]]
|-
!Devanagari
||{{lang|dv|क}}
||{{lang|dv|ख}}
||{{lang|dv|ग}}
||{{lang|dv|घ}}
||{{lang|dv|ङ}}
||{{lang|dv|च}}
||{{lang|dv|छ}}
||{{lang|dv|ज}}
||{{lang|dv|झ}}
||{{lang|dv|ञ}}
||{{lang|dv|ट}}
||{{lang|dv|ठ}}
||{{lang|dv|ड}}
||{{lang|dv|ढ}}
||{{lang|dv|ण}}
||{{lang|dv|त}}
||{{lang|dv|थ}}
||{{lang|dv|द}}
||{{lang|dv|ध}}
||{{lang|dv|न}}
||{{lang|dv|प}}
||{{lang|dv|फ}}
||{{lang|dv|ब}}
||{{lang|dv|भ}}
||{{lang|dv|म}}
||{{lang|dv|य}}
||{{lang|dv|र}}
||{{lang|dv|ल,ळ}}
||{{lang|dv|व}}
||{{lang|dv|श}}
||{{lang|dv|ष}}
||{{lang|dv|स}}
||{{lang|dv|ह}}
|}

=== Vowel diacritics ===

{|class=wikitable
|+
|-
!
! ka
! kā
! ki
! kī
! ku
! kū
! kṛ
! kṝ
! kḷ
! kḹ
! ke
! kai
! ko
! kau
|-
! Odia
|| {{lang|or|କ}}
|| {{lang|or|କା}}
|| {{lang|or|କି}}
|| {{lang|or|କୀ}}
|| {{lang|or|କୁ}}
|| {{lang|or|କୂ}}
|| {{lang|or|କୃ}}
|| {{lang|or|କୄ}}
|| {{lang|or|କୢ}}
|| {{lang|or|କୣ}}
|| {{lang|or|କେ}}
|| {{lang|or|କୈ}}
|| {{lang|or|କୋ}}
|| {{lang|or|କୌ}}
|-
! Bengali
|| {{lang|bn|ক}}
|| {{lang|bn|কা}}
|| {{lang|bn|কি}}
|| {{lang|bn|কী}}
|| {{lang|bn|কু}}
|| {{lang|bn|কূ}}
|| {{lang|bn|কৃ}}
|| {{lang|bn|কৄ}}
|| {{lang|bn|কৢ}}
|| {{lang|bn|কৣ}}
|| {{lang|bn|কে}}
|| {{lang|bn|কৈ}}
|| {{lang|bn|কো}}
|| {{lang|bn|কৌ}}
|-
! Devanagari
|| {{lang|dv|क}}
|| {{lang|dv|का}}
|| {{lang|dv|कि}}
|| {{lang|dv|की}}
|| {{lang|dv|कु}}
|| {{lang|dv|कू}}
|| {{lang|dv|कृ}}
|| {{lang|dv|कॄ}}
|| {{lang|dv|कॢ}}
|| {{lang|dv|कॣ}}
|| {{lang|dv|के}}
|| {{lang|dv|कै}}
|| {{lang|dv|को}}
|| {{lang|dv|कौ}}
|}

The vowel diacritics observed in Odia is similar to that of Bengali-Assamese as inherited from the Siddham pristhmatra style, differing from the diacritic symbols inherited by the scripts related to [[Devanagari]] line.

== Sample text ==
The following is a sample text in Odia of Article 1 of the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] ({{lang|or|ମାନବିକ ଅଧିକାରର ସାର୍ବଜନୀନ ଘୋଷଣା}}):

'''Odia in the Odia script'''

:{{lang|or|'''ଅନୁଚ୍ଛେଦ ୧:''' ସମସ୍ତ ମଣିଷ ଜନ୍ମକାଳରୁ ସ୍ୱାଧୀନ ଏବଂ ମର୍ଯ୍ୟାଦା ଆଉ ଅଧିକାରରେ ସମାନ । ସେମାନଙ୍କଠାରେ ବୁଦ୍ଧି ଆଉ ବିବେକ ନିହିତ ଅଛି ଏବଂ ସେମାନଙ୍କୁ ପରସ୍ପର ପ୍ରତି ଭ୍ରାତୃତ୍ୱ ମନୋଭାବରେ ବ୍ୟବହାର କରିବା ଉଚିତ୍ ।}}

'''Odia in [[International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration|IAST]]'''

:'''Anuccheda eka:''' Samasta maṇiṣa janmakāl̤aru swādhīna ebaṅ marẏyādā āu adhikārare samāna. Semānaṅkaṭhāre buuddhi āu bibeka nihita achi ebaṅ semānaṅku paraspara prati bhrātr̥twa manobhābare byabahāra karibā ucit.

'''Odia in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]'''

:{{IPA|ɔnut͡ʃt͡ʃʰed̪ɔ ekɔ}}: {{IPA|sɔmɔst̪ɔ mɔɳisɔ d͡ʒɔnmɔkäɭɔɾu swäd̪ʱinɔ ebɔŋ mɔɾd͡ʒjäːd̪ä o ɔd̪ʱikäɾɔɾe sɔmänɔ. semän̪ɔŋkɔʈʰäɾe bud̪d̪ʱi o bibekɔ n̪iɦit̪ɔ ɔt͡ʃʰi ebɔŋ semänɔŋku pɔɾɔspɔɾɔ pɾɔt̪i bʱɾät̪ɾut̪wɔ mɔnobʱäbɔɾe bjɔbɔɦäɾɔ kɔɾibä ut͡ʃit̪}}

'''Gloss'''

:'''Article 1:''' All human beings from birth are free and dignity and rights are equal. Their reason and intelligence endowed with and they towards one another in a brotherhood spirit behaviour to do should.

'''Translation'''

:'''Article 1:''' All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

== Unicode ==
{{Main|Oriya (Unicode block)}}

Odia script was added to the [[Unicode]] Standard in October 1991 with the release of version 1.0.

The Unicode block for Odia is U+0B00–U+0B7F:

{{Unicode chart Oriya}}

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Odia palm leaf manuscipt.JPG|Palm leaf manuscript written in Odia language
File:Odia palm leaf manuscript.JPG|Palm leaf manuscript written in Odia language
File:Palm leaf -jatak ତାଳ ପତ୍ର ଜାତକ.jpg|Palm leaf-jatak manuscript
File:Jataka.jpg|Jataka
File:Palm leaf manuscript of Draupadi Lakhabindha in Odia.jpg|Palm leaf manuscript of Draupadi Lakhabindha in Odia
File:14th-century Adhyatma Ramayana manuscript, Sanskrit, Oriya script.jpg|14th-century Adhyatma Ramayana manuscript written in Sanskrit, Odia script
File:Dahuka boli.jpeg|Dahuka boli
File:Guru Gita, Skanda Purana, Sanskrit, Oriya script.jpg|Guru Gita, Skanda Purana, Sanskrit, Odia script
File:OriyaBK1 001.jpg|Odia manuscript
File:OriyaBK1 004.jpg|Odia manuscript
File:OriyaBK1 005.jpg|Odia manuscript
File:Odia calligraphy esabada Odia magazine eodissa.jpg|Odia calligraphy
File:Seal of Odisha.png|State Emblem of Odisha
File:Odisha State map.svg|Odisha state map
File:Barnabodha (1896).pdf|Barnabodha by [[Madhusudan Rao]],1896
</gallery>

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}
{{notelist}}

==See also==
* [[Karani script]]
* [[Odia Braille]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode13.0.0/ch09.pdf The Unicode Standard: Chapter 9] – South and Southeast Asian Scripts (PDF)
* [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/oriya.htm Odia alphabet] – From Omniglot

{{Odia language}}
{{Odisha}}
{{list of writing systems}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Odia alphabet}}
[[Category:Odia culture]]
[[Category:Odia language]]
[[Category:Brahmic scripts]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Linguistic history of India]]

Devanagari

2021-07-27T12:33:03Z

Hembram Bakhul: Created page with "{{Short description|Writing script for many Indian and Nepalese languages}} {{Use Indian English|date=June 2016}} {{Use dmy dates|date=May 2016}} {{Infobox writing system |nam..."

{{Short description|Writing script for many Indian and Nepalese languages}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2016}}
{{Infobox writing system
|name=Devanagari
|altname = {{lang|und-Deva|देवनागरी}}
|sample=Chandas typeface specimen.svg
|caption=Devanagari script (vowels top, consonants bottom) in [[Chandas font]]{{better source needed|reason=This Infobox needs a better image; the font name is too prominent and has nothing to do with Devanagari per se.|date=February 2021}}
|type=[[Abugida]]
|languages=[[Apabhramsha]], [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]], [[Bhili language|Bhili]], [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]], [[Bodo language|Bodo]], [[Braj Bhasha]], [[Chhattisgarhi language|Chhattisgarhi]], [[Dogri language|Dogri]], [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[Garhwali language|Garhwali]] [[Haryanvi language|Haryanvi]], [[Hindi]], [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]], [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]], [[Konkani language|Konkani]], [[Kumaoni language|Kumaoni]] [[Magahi language|Magahi]], [[Maithili language|Maithili]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Marwari language|Marwari]], [[Mundari language|Mundari]], [[Newar language|Newari]], [[Nepali language|Nepali]], [[Pali|Pāḷi]], [[Pahari languages|Pahari]], [[Prakrit]], [[Rajasthani language|Rajasthani]], [[Sadri language|Sadri]], [[Sanskrit]], [[Santali language|Santali]], [[Saraiki language|Saraiki]], [[Sherpa language|Sherpa]] and [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], [[Surjapuri language|Surjapuri]], and many more
|time='''Early form''': 1st century CE<ref name=gazett/> '''Modern form''': 7th century CE to present<ref name="taylor2003">{{Citation | title=History of the Alphabet: Aryan Alphabets, Part 2 | author=Isaac Taylor | year=1883 | isbn=978-0-7661-5847-4 |publisher= Kegan Paul, Trench & Co | url=https://archive.org/stream/alphabet00unkngoog#page/n348/mode/2up/|page=333 | quote=''... In the Kutila this develops into a short horizontal bar, which, in the Devanagari, becomes a continuous horizontal line ... three cardinal inscriptions of this epoch, namely, the Kutila or Bareli inscription of 992, the [[Chalukya]] or Kistna inscription of 945, and a Kawi inscription of 919 ... the Kutila inscription is of great importance in Indian epigraphy, not only from its precise date, but from its offering a definite early form of the standard Indian alphabet, the Devanagari ...''}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book| publisher = Oxford University Press| isbn = 978-0-19-509984-3| last = Salomon| first = Richard| title = Indian epigraphy: a guide to the study of inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan languages| location = Oxford| series = South Asia research| date = 1998|pages=39–41}}</ref>
|region={{flag|India}} 120+ languages use Devanagari Script 
{{flag|Fiji}} as script for [[Fiji Hindi]] 
{{flag|South Africa}} as protected language (script)<ref>http://www.gov.za/documents/constitution/chapter-1-founding-provisions|Reference{{Dead link|date=May 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> 
{{flag|Nepal}}
|fam1=[[Proto-Sinaitic script|Proto-Sinaitic]][a]
|footnotes=[a] The Semitic origin of the Brahmic scripts is not universally agreed upon.
|fam2=[[Phoenician alphabet]]
|fam3=[[Aramaic alphabet]]{{sfn|Salomon|1996|p=378}}<ref name="Salomon 1995">{{Citation | last=Salomon | first=Richard | title=On The Origin Of The Early Indian Scripts: A Review Article. ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'' 115.2 (1995), 271–279 | url=http://indology.info/papers/salomon/ | access-date=27 March 2021 | archive-date=22 May 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190522210705/http://www.indology.info/papers/salomon/ | url-status=dead }}</ref>
|fam4=[[Brāhmī script|Brāhmī]]
|fam5=[[Gupta script|Gupta]]
|fam6=[[Siddhaṃ script|Siddhaṃ]]<ref name=daniels>{{cite journal |last1=Daniels |first1=P.T. |title=Writing systems of major and minor languages |date=January 2008}}</ref><ref name="masica">{{cite book |last1=Masica |first1=Colin |title=The Indo-Aryan languages |date=1993 |page=143}}</ref>
|fam7=[[Nāgarī script|Nāgarī]]
|sisters=[[Nandinagari]] [[Kaithi script|Kaithi]] [[Gujarāti script|Gujarati]] [[Moḍī script|Moḍī]]
|children=
|unicode=[https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0900.pdf U+0900–U+097F] Devanagari, [https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/UA8E0.pdf U+A8E0–U+A8FF] Devanagari Extended, [https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1CD0.pdf U+1CD0–U+1CFF] Vedic Extensions
|iso15924=Deva
}}
{{Devanagari abugida sidebar}}
{{brahmic}}

'''Devanagari''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|d|eɪ|v|ə|ˈ|n|ɑː|ɡ|ər|i}} {{respell|DAY|və|NAH|gər|ee}}; {{lang|sa|देवनागरी}}, {{IAST3|Devanāgarī}}, Sanskrit pronunciation: {{IPA-sa|d̪eːʋɐˈn̪ɑːɡɐɾiː|}}), also called '''Nagari''' (''Nāgarī'', {{lang|sa|नागरी}}),<ref name=kathleen>Kathleen Kuiper (2010), The Culture of India, New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, {{ISBN|978-1615301492}}, page 83</ref> is a left-to-right [[abugida]] writing system,<ref name="georgec"/> based on the ancient [[Brahmi script|''Brāhmī'' script]],<ref name=gazett/> used in the [[Indian subcontinent]]. It was developed in ancient India from the 1st to the 4th century CE<ref name=gazett/> and was in regular use by the 7th century CE.<ref name=kathleen/><ref name=salomon1000/> The Devanagari script, composed of 47 primary characters including 14 vowels and 33 consonants, is the fourth most widely [[List of writing systems by adoption|adopted writing system]] in the world,<ref name=mostused1>{{cite web|url=http://www.omniglot.com/language/articles/devanagari.htm|title=Devanagari script|work=omniglot.com|author=David Templin|access-date=5 April 2015}}</ref> being used for over 120 languages.<ref name=devasilusa>[http://scriptsource.org/cms/scripts/page.php?item_id=script_detail&key=Deva Devanagari (Nagari)], Script Features and Description, [[SIL International]] (2013), United States</ref>

The [[orthography]] of this script reflects the pronunciation of the language.<ref name=devasilusa/> Unlike the Latin alphabet, the script has no concept of [[letter case]].<ref>Akira Nakanishi, Writing systems of the World, {{ISBN|978-0804816540}}, page 48</ref> It is written from left to right, has a strong preference for symmetrical rounded shapes within squared outlines, and is recognisable by a horizontal line, known as a ''shirorekhā'', that runs along the top of full letters.<ref name=georgec/> In a cursory look, the Devanagari script appears different from other [[Indic scripts]] such as [[Bengali–Assamese script|Bengali-Assamese]], [[Odia script|Odia]] or [[Gurmukhi]], but a closer examination reveals they are very similar except for angles and structural emphasis.<ref name="georgec">{{cite book|author1=Danesh Jain|author2=George Cardona|title=The Indo-Aryan Languages|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iUHfBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT115|date=26 July 2007|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-79710-2|page=115|quote=Nagari has a strong preference for symmetrical shapes, especially squared outlines and right angles [7 lines above the character grid]}}</ref>

Among the languages using it – as either their only script or one of their scripts – are [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Pali|Pāḷi]], [[Sanskrit]] (the ancient Nagari script for Sanskrit had two additional consonantal characters),<ref name=george/> [[Hindi]],<ref>[http://www.omniglot.com/writing/hindi.htm Hindi], Omniglot Encyclopedia of Writing Systems and Languages</ref> [[Boro language (India)|Boro]], [[Nepali language|Nepali]], [[Sherpa language|Sherpa]], [[Prakrit]], [[Apabhramsha]], [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]], [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]], [[Braj Bhasha]],<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Hindi classical tradition : a Braj Bhāṣā reader|last=Snell, Rupert.|date=1991|publisher=School of Oriental and African studies|isbn=0-7286-0175-3|location=London|oclc=24794163}}</ref> [[Chhattisgarhi language|Chhattisgarhi]], [[Haryanvi language|Haryanvi]], [[Magahi language|Magahi]], [[Sadri language|Nagpuri]], [[Rajasthani language|Rajasthani]], [[Bhili language|Bhili]], [[Dogri language|Dogri]], [[Maithili language|Maithili]], [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]], [[Konkani language|Konkani]], [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], [[Newar language|Nepalbhasa]], [[Mundari language|Mundari]] and [[Santali language|Santali]].<ref name=devasilusa/> The Devanagari script is closely related to the [[Nandinagari]] script commonly found in numerous ancient manuscripts of [[South India]],<ref>George Cardona and Danesh Jain (2003), The Indo-Aryan Languages, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415772945}}, page 75</ref><ref>Reinhold Grünendahl (2001), South Indian Scripts in Sanskrit Manuscripts and Prints, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|978-3447045049}}, pages xxii, 201–210</ref> and it is distantly related to a number of southeast Asian scripts.<ref name=devasilusa/>

== Etymology ==
''Devanagari'' is a compound of "[[Deva (Hinduism)|''deva'']]" {{lang|sa|देव}} and "[[Nāgarī script|''nāgarī'']]" {{lang|sa|नागरी}}.<ref name=kathleen/> ''Deva'' means "heavenly or divine" and is also one of the terms for a [[deity]] in [[Hinduism]].<ref name="monier">Monier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary” Etymologically and Philologically Arranged to cognate Indo-European Languages, Motilal Banarsidass, page 492</ref> ''[[Nāgarī script#Etymology|Nagari]]'' comes from नगरम् (''nagaram''), which means abode or city. Hence, ''Devanagari'' denotes ''from the abode of divinity or deities''.

''{{IAST|Nāgarī}}'' is the Sanskrit [[Grammatical gender|feminine]] of ''{{IAST|Nāgara}}'' "relating or belonging to a town or city, urban". It is a phrasing with ''lipi'' ("script") as ''{{IAST|nāgarī lipi}}'' "script relating to a city", or "spoken in city".<ref>Monier Williams Online Dictionary, [http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/tamil/index.html nagara], Cologne Sanskrit Digital Lexicon, Germany</ref>

Devanagari Script known as 'Script of the divine city' came from devanagara or the 'city of the god'. And hence interpret it as "[script] of the city of the gods".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Maurer|first=Walter H.|date=1976|title=On the Name Devanāgarī|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/599893|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|volume=96|issue=1|pages=101–104|doi=10.2307/599893|issn=0003-0279}}</ref>

The use of the name ''{{IAST|devanāgarī}}'' emerged from the older term ''{{IAST|nāgarī}}''.<ref name="fischer2004" /> According to Fischer, Nagari emerged in the northwest Indian subcontinent around 633 CE, was fully developed by the 11th-century, and was one of the major scripts used for the Sanskrit literature.<ref name="fischer2004" />

== History ==
Devanagari is part of the [[Brahmic family]] of scripts of [[India]], [[Nepal]], [[Tibet]], and [[Southeast Asia]].<ref>George Cardona and Danesh Jain (2003), The Indo-Aryan Languages, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415772945}}, pages 68–69</ref><ref name="fischer2004">{{Citation | title=A history of writing | author=Steven Roger Fischer | year=2004 | isbn=978-1-86189-167-9 |publisher=Reaktion Books | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ywo0M9OpbXoC | quote= (p. 110) "... an early branch of this, as of the fourth century CE, was the Gupta script, Brahmi's first main daughter. [...] The Gupta alphabet became the ancestor of most Indic scripts (usually through later Devanagari). [...] Beginning around AD 600, Gupta inspired the important Nagari, Sarada, Tibetan and Pāḷi scripts. Nagari, of India's northwest, first appeared around AD 633. Once fully developed in the eleventh century, Nagari had become Devanagari, or "heavenly Nagari", since it was now the main vehicle, out of several, for Sanskrit literature."}}</ref> It is a descendant of the 3rd century BCE [[Brahmi script]], which evolved into the [[Nagari script]] which in turn gave birth to Devanagari and [[Nandinagari]]. Devanagari has been widely adopted across India and Nepal to write Sanskrit, [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Hindi]], [[Hindi dialects]], [[Konkani]],[[Boro language (India)|Boro]] and [[Nepali language|Nepali]].

Some of the earliest epigraphical evidence attesting to the developing [[Sanskrit]] [[Nāgarī script|Nagari script]] in ancient India is from the 1st to 4th century CE inscriptions discovered in [[Gujarat]].<ref name=gazett>{{Google books|0bkMAAAAIAAJ|Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency}}, Rudradaman’s inscription from 1st through 4th century CE found in Gujarat, India, Stanford University Archives, pages 30–45, particularly Devanagari inscription on Jayadaman's coins pages 33–34</ref> Variants of script called ''Nāgarī'', recognisably close to Devanagari, are first attested from the 1st century CE [[Rudradaman I|Rudradaman]] inscriptions in Sanskrit, while the modern standardised form of Devanagari was in use by about 1000 CE.<ref name=salomon1000>Richard Salomon (2014), Indian Epigraphy, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195356663}}, pages 40–42</ref><ref>Krishna Chandra Sagar (1993), Foreign Influence on Ancient India, South Asia Books, {{ISBN|978-8172110284}}, page 137</ref> Medieval inscriptions suggest widespread diffusion of the Nagari-related scripts, with [[biscript]]s presenting local script along with the adoption of Nagari scripts. For example, the mid 8th-century [[Pattadakal|Pattadakal pillar]] in [[Karnataka]] has text in both [[Siddhamatrka|Siddha Matrika]] script, and an early [[Telugu-Kannada alphabet|Telugu-Kannada]] script; while, the [[Kangra, Himachal Pradesh|Kangra]] [[Jawalamukhi]] inscription in [[Himachal Pradesh]] is written in both [[Sharada script|Sharada]] and Devanagari scripts.<ref name=richardbiscript>Richard Salomon (2014), Indian Epigraphy, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195356663}}, page 71</ref>

The Nagari script was in regular use by the 7th century CE, and it was fully developed by about the end of first millennium.<ref name=kathleen/><ref name=salomon1000/> The use of Sanskrit in Nagari script in medieval India is attested by numerous pillar and cave temple inscriptions, including the 11th-century [[Udayagiri Caves|Udayagiri inscriptions]] in [[Madhya Pradesh]],<ref>Michael Willis (2001), Inscriptions from Udayagiri: locating domains of devotion, patronage and power in the eleventh century, South Asian Studies, 17(1), pages 41–53</ref> and an inscribed brick found in [[Uttar Pradesh]], dated to be from 1217 CE, which is now held at the [[British Museum]].<ref>[https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/asia/b/brick_with_sanskrit_inscriptio.aspx Brick with Sanskrit inscription in Nagari script], 1217 CE, found in Uttar Pradesh, India (British Museum)</ref> The script's proto- and related versions have been discovered in ancient relics outside of India, such as in [[Sri Lanka]], [[Myanmar]] and [[Indonesia]]; while in East Asia, ''Siddha Matrika'' script considered as the closest precursor to Nagari was in use by [[Buddhism|Buddhists]].<ref name=george/><ref>Wayan Ardika (2009), Form, Macht, Differenz: Motive und Felder ethnologischen Forschens (Editors: Elfriede Hermann et al.), Universitätsverlag Göttingen, {{ISBN|978-3940344809}}, pages 251–252; Quote: "Nagari script and Sanskrit language in the inscription at Blangjong suggests that Indian culture was already influencing Bali (Indonesia) by the 10th century CE."</ref> Nagari has been the ''[[primus inter pares]]'' of the Indic scripts.<ref name=george>George Cardona and Danesh Jain (2003), The Indo-Aryan Languages, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415772945}}, pages 75–77</ref> It has long been used traditionally by religiously educated people in [[South Asia]] to record and transmit information, existing throughout the land in parallel with a wide variety of local scripts (such as [[Modi alphabet|Modi]], [[Kaithi script|Kaithi]], and [[Mahajani script|Mahajani]]) used for administration, commerce, and other daily uses.

Sharada remained in parallel use in [[Kashmir]]. An early version of Devanagari is visible in the [[Kutila inscription of Bareilly]] dated to [[Vikram Samvat]] 1049 (i.e. 992 CE), which demonstrates the emergence of the horizontal bar to group letters belonging to a word.<ref name="taylor2003"/> One of the oldest surviving Sanskrit texts from the early post-[[Maurya Empire|Maurya]] period consists of 1,413 Nagari pages of a commentary by [[Patanjali]], with a composition date of about 150 BCE, the surviving copy transcribed about 14th century CE.<ref>[[Michael Witzel]] (2006), in Between the Empires : Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE (Editor: [[Patrick Olivelle]]), Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195305326}}, pages 477–480 with footnote 60; Original manuscript, dates in Saka Samvat, and uncertainties associated with it: [https://archive.org/stream/vykaraamahbhshy00kielgoog#page/n8/mode/2up Mahabhasya of Patanjali], F Kielhorn</ref>
{{clear}}
{{Brahmi-Gupta-Devanagari}}

=== East Asia ===
[[File:Falongsibeiye.png|right|thumb|400px| [[Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī Sūtra]] in [[Siddhaṃ script|Siddham]] on [[Arecaceae|palm]]-leaf in 609 CE. [[Hōryū-ji]], Japan. The last line is a complete Sanskrit [[syllabary]] in Siddhaṃ script.]]
Under the rule of [[Songtsen Gampo]] of the [[Tibetan Empire]], [[Thonmi Sambhota]] was sent to Nepal to open marriage negotiations with a [[Nepal]]i princess and to find a writing system suitable for the [[Classical Tibetan|Tibetan language]]. Thus he invented the [[Tibetan script]], based on the Nagari used in Kashmir. He added 6 new characters for sounds that did not exist in Sanskrit.<ref>William Woodville Rockhill, {{Google books|avFDAQAAMAAJ|Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution|page=671}}, United States National Museum, page 671</ref>

Other scripts closely related to Nagari such as Siddham Matrka were in use in Indonesia, Vietnam, Japan and other parts of East Asia by between 7th to 10th century.<ref>David Quinter (2015), From Outcasts to Emperors: Shingon Ritsu and the Mañjuśrī Cult in Medieval Japan, Brill, {{ISBN|978-9004293397}}, pages 63–65 with discussion on [[Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī Sūtra]]</ref><ref name="richard">Richard Salomon (2014), Indian Epigraphy, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195356663}}, pages 157–160</ref>

Most of the southeast Asian scripts have roots in the Dravidian scripts, except for a few found in south-central regions of Java and isolated parts of southeast Asia that resemble Devanagari or its prototype. The [[Kawi script]] in particular is similar to the Devanagari in many respects though the morphology of the script has local changes. The earliest inscriptions in the Devanagari-like scripts are from around the 10th-century, with many more between 11th and 14th century.<ref>{{cite book|author=Avenir S. Teselkin|title=Old Javanese (Kawi)|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=xJ1kAAAAMAAJ|year=1972|publisher=Cornell University Press|pages=9–14}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=J. G. de Casparis|title=Indonesian Palaeography: A History of Writing in Indonesia from the Beginnings to c. AD 1500|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=cLUfAAAAIAAJ |year=1975|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=90-04-04172-9|pages=35–43}}</ref> Some of the old-Devanagari inscriptions are found in Hindu temples of Java, such as the [[Prambanan]] temple.<ref>{{cite book|author=Mary S. Zurbuchen|title=Introduction to Old Javanese Language and Literature: A Kawi Prose Anthology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y4kOAAAAYAAJ|year=1976|publisher= Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan|isbn=978-0-89148-053-2|pages=xi–xii}}</ref> The Ligor and the Kalasan inscriptions of central Java, dated to the 8th-century, are also in the Nagari script of North India. According to the epigraphist and Asian Studies scholar Lawrence Briggs, these may be related to the 9th-century copper plate inscription of Devapaladeva (Bengal) which is also in early Devanagari script.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Briggs | first=Lawrence Palmer | title=The Origin of the Sailendra Dynasty: Present Status of the Question | journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society | publisher=JSTOR | volume=70 | issue=2 | year=1950 | issn=0003-0279 | doi=10.2307/595536 | pages=79–81| jstor=595536 }}</ref> The term Kawi in Kawi script is a loan word from ''Kavya'' (poetry). According to anthropologists and Asian Studies scholars John Norman Miksic and Goh Geok Yian, the 8th-century version of early Nagari or Devanagari script was adopted in Java, [[Bali|Bali (Indonesia)]], and Khmer ([[Cambodia]]) around 8th or 9th-century, as evidenced by the many inscriptions of this period.<ref name="MiksicYian2016p177">{{cite book|author1=John Norman Miksic|author2=Goh Geok Yian|title=Ancient Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zjklDwAAQBAJ |year=2016|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-317-27904-4|pages=177–179, 314–322}}</ref>

== Letters ==
The [[collating sequence|letter order]] of Devanagari, like nearly all Brahmic scripts, is based on [[phonetics|phonetic]] principles that consider both the [[manner of articulation|manner]] and [[place of articulation]] of the consonants and vowels they represent. This arrangement is usually referred to as the ''{{IAST|varṇamālā}}'' "[[garland]] of letters".<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Salomon|2003|p=71}}</ref> The format of Devanagari for Sanskrit serves as the prototype for its application, with minor variations or additions, to other languages.<ref name="Salomon 2003 75">{{Harvcoltxt|Salomon|2003|p=75}}</ref>

=== Vowels ===
The vowels and their arrangement are:<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Wikner|1996|pp=13, 14}}</ref>

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:60%"
|-
!
| rowspan="10" |
! Independent form
! [[IAST]]
! [[ISO 15919|ISO]]
! As diacritic with {{lang|und-Deva|प}} (Barakhadi)
| rowspan="10" |
! Independent form
! IAST
! ISO
! As diacritic with {{lang|und-Deva|प}} (Barakhadi)
|-
!''{{IAST|kaṇṭhya}}'' ([[Guttural]])
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|अ}}
| colspan="2" | {{IAST|a}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|प}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|आ}}
| colspan="2" | {{IAST|ā}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|पा}}
|-
!''{{IAST|tālavya}}'' ([[Palatal]])
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|इ}}
| colspan="2" | {{IAST|i}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|पि}}

| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|ई}}
| colspan="2" | {{IAST|ī}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|पी}}
|-
!''{{IAST|oṣṭhya}}'' ([[Labial consonant|Labial]])
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|उ}}
| colspan="2" | {{IAST|u}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|पु}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|ऊ}}
| colspan="2" | {{IAST|ū}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|पू}}
|-
!''{{IAST|mūrdhanya}}'' ([[Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]])
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|ऋ}}
| {{IAST|ṛ}}
| {{transl|sa|ISO|r̥}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|पृ}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|ॠ}}4
| {{IAST|ṝ}}
| {{transl|sa|ISO|r̥̄}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|पॄ}}
|-
!''{{IAST|dantya}}'' ([[Dental consonant|Dental]])
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|ऌ}}4
| {{IAST|ḷ}}
| {{transl|sa|ISO|l̥}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|पॢ}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|ॡ}}4, 5
| {{IAST|ḹ}}
| {{transl|sa|ISO|l̥̄}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|पॣ}}
|-
!''{{IAST|kaṇṭhatālavya}}'' (Palatoguttural)
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|ए}}
| {{IAST|e}}
| {{transl|sa|ISO|ē}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|पे}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|ऐ}}
| colspan="2" | {{IAST|ai}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|पै}}
|-
!''{{IAST|kaṇṭhoṣṭhya}}'' (Labioguttural)
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|ओ}}
| {{IAST|o}}
| {{transl|sa|ISO|ō}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|पो}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|औ}}
| colspan="2" | {{IAST|au}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|पौ}}
|-
!
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|अं}}1
| {{IAST|aṃ}}
| {{transl|sa|ISO|aṁ}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|पं}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|अः}}1
| colspan="2" | {{IAST|aḥ}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|पः}}
|-
!
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|ॲ / ऍ}} 7
|
| {{transl|sa|ISO|ê}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|पॅ}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|ऑ}}7
|
| {{transl|sa|ISO|ô}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|पॉ}}
|}

{{multiple image
| direction = vertical
| width = 220
| footer = Examples of Devanagari manuscripts created between 13th- and 19th-centuries
| image1 = Isha Upanishad Verses 1 to 3, Shukla Yajurveda, Sanskrit, Devanagari.jpg
| image2 = 13th-century Shatapatha Brahmana 14th Khanda Prapathaka 3-4, page 1 front, Sanskrit, Devanagari script.jpg
| image3 = Yajurveda 44.8, page 1 front and back, Sanskrit, Devanagari lipi (script).jpg
| image4 = 1593 CE, Adi Shankara bhasya Aitareya Upanishad, Varanasi Jain temple bhandara, Sanskrit, Devanagari, MS Add.2092.jpg
}}
# Arranged with the vowels are two consonantal [[diacritic]]s, the final [[nasal stop|nasal]] ''[[anusvāra]]'' {{lang|und-Deva|[[ं]]}} ''{{IAST|ṃ}}'' and the final [[fricative]] ''[[visarga]]'' {{lang|und-Deva|[[ः]]}} ''{{IAST|ḥ}}'' (called {{lang|und-Deva|[[अं]]}} ''{{IAST|aṃ}}'' and {{lang|und-Deva|[[अः]]}} ''{{IAST|aḥ}}).'' {{Harvcoltxt|Masica|1991|p=146}} notes of the ''anusvāra'' in Sanskrit that "there is some controversy as to whether it represents a homorganic [[nasal stop]] [...], a [[nasalized vowel|nasalised vowel]], a nasalised [[semivowel]], or all these according to context". The ''visarga'' represents post-vocalic [[voiceless glottal fricative]] {{IPA|[h]}}, in Sanskrit an [[allophone]] of ''{{IAST|s}},'' or less commonly ''{{IAST|r}},'' usually in word-final position. Some traditions of recitation append an echo of the [[vowel]] after the breath:<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Wikner|1996|p=6}}</ref> {{lang|und-Deva|इः}} {{IPA|[ihi]}}. {{Harvcoltxt|Masica|1991|p=146}} considers the ''visarga'' along with letters {{lang|und-Deva|ङ}} ''{{IAST|ṅa}}'' and {{lang|und-Deva|ञ}} ''{{IAST|ña}}'' for the "largely predictable" [[velar nasal|velar]] and [[palatal nasal]]s to be examples of "phonetic overkill in the system".
# Another diacritic is the ''[[Chandrabindu|candrabindu]]''/''[[anunāsika]]'' {{lang|und-Deva|[[ँ]]}} {{lang|und-Deva|[[अँ]]}}. {{Harvcoltxt|Salomon|2003|pp=76–77}} describes it as a "more emphatic form" of the ''{{IAST|anusvāra}},'' "sometimes [...] used to mark a true [vowel] nasalization". In a New Indo-Aryan language such as Hindi the distinction is formal: the ''{{IAST|candrabindu}}'' indicates [[nasalized vowel|vowel nasalisation]]<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Snell|2000|pp=44–45}}</ref> while the ''{{IAST|anusvār}}'' indicates a homorganic [[nasal stop|nasal]] preceding another consonant:<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Snell|2000|p=64}}</ref> e.g. {{lang|hi|हँसी}} {{IPA|[ɦə̃si]}} "[[laughter]]", {{lang|hi|गंगा}} {{IPA|[ɡəŋɡɑ]}} "the [[Ganges]]". When an ''akṣara'' has a vowel diacritic above the top line, that leaves no room for the ''candra'' ("moon") stroke ''candrabindu,'' which is dispensed with in favour of the lone dot:<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Snell|2000|p=45}}</ref> {{lang|hi|हूँ}} {{IPA|[ɦũ]}} "am", but {{lang|hi|हैं}} {{IPA|[ɦɛ̃]}} "are". Some writers and typesetters dispense with the "moon" stroke altogether, using only the dot in all situations.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Snell|2000|p=46}}</ref>
# The ''[[avagraha]]'' {{lang|und-Deva|[[ऽ]]}} {{lang|und-Deva|[[अऽ]]}} (usually [[transliteration|transliterated]] with an [[apostrophe]]) is a Sanskrit [[punctuation mark]] for the [[elision]] of a [[vowel]] in [[sandhi]]: {{lang|sa|एकोऽयम्}} ''{{IAST|eko'yam}}'' ( ← {{lang|sa|एकस्}} ''{{IAST|ekas}}'' + {{lang|sa|अयम्}} ''{{IAST|ayam}}'') "this one". An original [[long vowel]] lost to coalescence is sometimes marked with a double ''avagraha:'' {{lang|sa|सदाऽऽत्मा}} ''{{IAST|sadā'tmā}}'' ( ← सदा ''{{IAST|sadā}}'' + आत्मा ''{{IAST|ātmā}}'') "always, the self".<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Salomon|2003|p=77}}</ref> In Hindi, {{Harvcoltxt|Snell|2000|p=77}} states that its "main function is to show that a vowel is sustained in a cry or a shout": {{lang|hi|आईऽऽऽ!}} ''{{IAST|āīīī!}}''. In Madhyadeshi Languages like Bhojpuri, Awadhi, Maithili, etc. which have "quite a number of [[verb]]al forms [that] end in that inherent vowel",<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Verma|2003|p=501}}</ref> the ''avagraha'' is used to mark the ''non-''elision of word-final inherent ''a'', which otherwise is a modern [[Orthography|orthographic]] convention: {{lang|und-Deva|बइठऽ}} ''{{IAST|baiṭha}}'' "sit" versus {{lang|und-Deva|बइठ}} ''{{IAST|baiṭh}}''
# The syllabic vowels ''{{IAST|ṝ}}'' (ॠ), ''{{IAST|ḷ}},'' (ऌ) and ''{{IAST|ḹ}}'' (ॡ) are specific to Sanskrit and not included in the ''{{IAST|varṇamālā}}'' of other languages. The sound represented by ''{{IAST|ṛ}}'' has also been lost in the modern languages, and its pronunciation now ranges from {{IPA|[ɾɪ]}} (Hindi) to {{IPA|[ɾu]}} (Marathi).
# ''{{IAST|ḹ}}'' is not an actual [[phoneme]] of Sanskrit, but rather a graphic convention included among the vowels in order to maintain the symmetry of short–long pairs of letters.<ref name="Salomon 2003 75"/>
# There are non-regular formations of {{lang|und-Deva|रु}} ''ru'' and {{lang|und-Deva|रू}} ''rū''.
# There are two more vowels in [[Marathi language|Marathi]] as well as [[Konkani language|Konkani]], {{lang|und-Deva|ॲ}} and {{lang|und-Deva|ऑ}}, that respectively represent [{{IPA|æ}}], similar to the [[received pronunciation|RP]] English pronunciation of <a> in ‘'''a'''ct’, and [{{IPA|ɒ}}], similar to the RP pronunciation of {{angbr|o}} in ‘c'''o'''t’. These vowels are sometimes used in [[Hindi]] too, as in {{Lang-hi|डॉलर|label=none}} ''dôlar'', "dollar".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english-hindi/dollar|title=Hindi Translation of "dollar" {{!}} Collins English-Hindi Dictionary|website=www.collinsdictionary.com|language=en|access-date=2019-05-12}}</ref> IAST transliteration is not defined. In [[ISO 15919]], the transliteration is ê and ô, respectively.

=== Consonants ===
The table below shows the consonant letters (in combination with [[inherent vowel]] ''a'') and their arrangement. To the right of the Devanagari letter it shows the Latin script transliteration using [[International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration]],<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Wikner|1996|pp=73}}</ref> and the phonetic value ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]) in [[Hindi]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Stella Sandahl|title=A Hindi reference grammar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hm0aAQAAIAAJ|year=2000|publisher=Peeters|isbn=978-9042908802|pages=1–4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Tej K. Bhatia|title=A History of the Hindi Grammatical Tradition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jJOXzRXsSK0C |year=1987|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=90-04-07924-6|pages=51–63, 77–94}}</ref>
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:95%"
|-
! [[Phonetic]]s →
! colspan=8 | ''{{IAST|sparśa}}'' ([[Plosive consonant|Plosive]])
! colspan=2 | ''{{IAST|anunāsika}}'' ([[Nasal stop|Nasal]])
! colspan=2 | ''{{IAST|antastha}}'' ([[Approximant]])
! colspan=4 | ''{{IAST|ūṣman/saṃgharṣī}}'' ([[Fricative consonant|Fricative]])
|-
! [[Voice (phonetics)|Voicing]] →
| colspan="4"| ''{{IAST|aghoṣa}}''
| colspan="8" style="background:beige;"| ''{{IAST|saghoṣa}}''
| colspan="2"| ''{{IAST|aghoṣa}}''
| colspan="2" style="background:beige;"| ''{{IAST|saghoṣa}}''
|-
! [[Aspiration (phonetics)|Aspiration]] →
| colspan=2 | ''{{IAST|alpaprāṇa}}''
| colspan=2 style="background:beige;"| ''{{IAST|mahāprāṇa}}''
| colspan=2 | ''{{IAST|alpaprāṇa}}''
| colspan=2 style="background:beige;"| ''{{IAST|mahāprāṇa}}''
| colspan=4 | ''{{IAST|alpaprāṇa}}''
| colspan=4 style="background:beige;"| ''{{IAST|mahāprāṇa}}''
|-
!''{{IAST|kaṇṭhya}}'' ([[Guttural]])
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|क}}||{{IAST|ka}} {{IPAblink|k}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|ख}}||{{IAST|kha}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|ग}}||{{IAST|ga}} {{IPAblink|ɡ}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|घ}}||{{IAST|gha}} {{IPA|[ɡʱ]}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|ङ}}||{{IAST|ṅa}} {{IPAblink|ŋ}}
| colspan=4 |
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|ह}}||{{IAST|ha}} {{IPAblink|ɦ}}
|-
!''tālavya'' ([[Palatal consonant|Palatal]])
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|च}}||{{IAST|ca}} {{IPAblink|tʃ}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|छ}}||{{IAST|cha}} {{IPA|[tʃʰ]}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|ज}}||{{IAST|ja}} {{IPAblink|dʒ}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|झ}}||{{IAST|jha}} {{IPA|[dʒʱ]}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|ञ}}||{{IAST|ña}} {{IPAblink|ɲ}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|य}}||{{IAST|ya}} {{IPAblink|j}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|श}}||{{IAST|śa}} {{IPAblink|ʃ}}
| colspan=2 rowspan=4 |
|-
!''mūrdhanya'' ([[Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]])
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|ट}}||{{IAST|ṭa}} {{IPAblink|ʈ}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|ठ}}||{{IAST|ṭha}} {{IPA|[ʈʰ]}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|ड}}||{{IAST|ḍa}} {{IPAblink|ɖ}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|ढ}}||{{IAST|ḍha}} {{IPA|[ɖʱ]}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|ण}}||{{IAST|ṇa}} {{IPAblink|ɳ}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|र}}||{{IAST|[[Ra (Indic)|ra]]}} {{IPAblink|r}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|ष}}||{{IAST|ṣa}} {{IPAblink|ʂ}}
|-
!''dantya'' ([[Dental consonant|Dental]])
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|त}}||{{IAST|ta}} {{IPAblink|t̪}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|थ}}||{{IAST|tha}} {{IPA|[t̪ʰ]}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|द}}||{{IAST|da}} {{IPAblink|d̪}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|ध}}||{{IAST|dha}} {{IPA|[d̪ʱ]}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|न}}||{{IAST|na}} {{IPAblink|n}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|ल}}||{{IAST|la}} {{IPAblink|l}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|स}}||{{IAST|sa}} {{IPAblink|s}}
|-
!''{{IAST|oṣṭhya}}'' ([[Labial consonant|Labial]])
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|प}}||{{IAST|pa}} {{IPAblink|p}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|फ}}||{{IAST|pha}} {{IPA|[pʰ]}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|ब}}||{{IAST|ba}} {{IPAblink|b}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|भ}}||{{IAST|bha}} {{IPA|[bʱ]}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|म}}||{{IAST|ma}} {{IPAblink|m}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|und-Deva|व}}||{{IAST|va}} {{IPAblink|ʋ}}
| colspan="2"|
|}
* Additionally, there is {{lang|und-Deva|ळ}} ''{{IAST|ḷa}}'' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPAblink|ɭ}} or {{IPAblink|ɭ̆}}), the intervocalic [[retroflex lateral flap|lateral flap]] allophone of the [[voiced retroflex stop]] in [[Vedic Sanskrit]], which is a [[phoneme]] in languages such as [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Konkani language|Konkani]], [[Garhwali language|Garhwali]], and [[Rajasthani language|Rajasthani]].<ref>Masica (1991:97)</ref>
* Beyond the Sanskritic set, new shapes have rarely been formulated. {{Harvcoltxt|Masica|1991|p=146}} offers the following, "In any case, according to some, all possible sounds had already been described and provided for in this system, as Sanskrit was the original and perfect language. Hence it was difficult to provide for or even to conceive ''other'' sounds, unknown to the [[phonetician]]s of Sanskrit". Where foreign borrowings and internal developments did inevitably accrue and arise in New Indo-Aryan languages, they have been ignored in writing, or dealt through means such as [[diacritic]]s and [[Typographic ligature|ligatures]] (ignored in recitation).
** The most prolific diacritic has been the [[subscript]] dot (''[[Nukta|nuqtā]]'') {{lang|und-Deva|़}}. [[Hindi]] uses it for the [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and English sounds {{lang|hi|क़}} ''qa'' [[Voiceless uvular plosive|/q/]], {{lang|hi|ख़}} ''xa'' [[Voiceless velar fricative|/x/]], {{lang|hi|[[ग़]]}} ''ġa'' [[Voiced velar fricative|/ɣ/]], {{lang|hi|[[ज़]]}} ''za'' [[Voiced alveolar fricative|/z/]], {{lang|hi|[[झ़]]}} ''zha'' [[Voiced postalveolar fricative|/ʒ/]], and {{lang|hi|फ़}} ''fa'' [[Voiceless labiodental fricative|/f/]], and for the [[allophonic]] developments {{lang|hi|ड़}} ''{{IAST|ṛa}}'' [[Retroflex flap|/ɽ/]] and {{lang|hi|ढ़}} ''{{IAST|ṛha}}'' /ɽʱ/.<ref name=PandeyMondalAgrawalBangalore2013">{{cite journal |last1=Pandey |first1=Dipti |last2=Mondal |first2=Tapabrata |last3=Agrawal |first3=S. S. |last4=Bangalore |first4=Srinivas |title=Development and suitability of Indian languages speech database for building watson based ASR system |journal=2013 International Conference Oriental COCOSDA held jointly with 2013 Conference on Asian Spoken Language Research and Evaluation (O-COCOSDA/CASLRE) |date=2013 |page=3|doi=10.1109/ICSDA.2013.6709861|quote=Only in Hindi 10 Phonemes व /v/ क़ /q/ ञ /ɲ/ य /j/ ष /ʂ/ ख़ /x/ ग़ /ɣ/ ज़ /z/ झ़ /ʒ/ फ़ /f/}}</ref> (Although {{lang|inc-Deva|ऴ}} ''{{transl|inc|ISO|ḻa}}'' {{IPA|/ɻ/}} could also exist, it is not used in Hindi.)
** [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]]'s and [[Saraiki language|Saraiki]]'s [[implosive]]s are accommodated with a line attached below: {{lang|sd-Deva|[[Voiced velar implosive|ॻ]]}} {{IPA|[ɠə]}}, {{lang|sd-Deva|[[Voiced palatal implosive|ॼ]]}} {{IPA|[ʄə]}}, {{lang|sd-Deva|[[Voiced alveolar implosive|ॾ]]}} {{IPA|[ɗə]}}, {{lang|sd-Deva|[[Voiced bilabial implosive|ॿ]]}} {{IPA|[ɓə]}}.
** [[Aspiration (phonetics)|Aspirated]] [[sonorant]]s may be represented as conjuncts/[[Typographic ligature|ligatures]] with {{lang|und-Deva|ह}} ''ha'': {{lang|und-Deva|म्ह}} ''mha'', {{lang|und-Deva|न्ह}} ''nha'', {{lang|und-Deva|ण्ह}} ''{{IAST|ṇha}}'', {{lang|und-Deva|व्ह}} ''vha'', {{lang|und-Deva|ल्ह}} ''lha'', {{lang|und-Deva|ळ्ह}} ''{{IAST|ḷha}}'', {{lang|und-Deva|र्ह}} ''rha''.
** {{Harvcoltxt|Masica|1991|p=147}} notes [[Marwari language|Marwari]] as using {{lang|mwr-Deva|ॸ}} for ''{{IAST|ḍa}}'' {{IPA|[ɗə]}} (while {{lang|mwr-Deva|ड}} represents {{IPA|[ɽə]}}).
For a list of the 297 (33×9) possible Sanskrit consonant-(short) vowel [[syllable]]s see [[Āryabhaṭa numeration]].

=== Vowel diacritics ===
[[File:Devanagari matras.png|thumb|center|750px|Vowel [[diacritic]]s on क]]
Table: Consonants with vowel diacritics. Vowels in their independent form on the left and in their corresponding dependent form (vowel sign) combined with the consonant '{{transl|hi|ISO|k}}' on the right. '{{transl|hi|ISO|ka}}' is without any added vowel sign, where the vowel '{{transl|hi|ISO|a}}' is [[Inherent vowel|inherent]]. [[ISO 15919]]<ref>[[ISO 15919#Comparison with UNRSGN and IAST|Difference between ISO 15919 & IAST]]</ref> transliteration is on the top two rows.

{| class="wikitable Unicode" style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;width:100%"
|- style="font-size: 75%;"
! ISO !! colspan="2" class="unsortable"|a !! colspan="2" class="unsortable"|ā !! colspan="2" class="unsortable"|æ !! colspan="2" class="unsortable"|ɒ !! colspan="2" class="unsortable"|i !! colspan="2" class="unsortable"|ī !! colspan="2" class="unsortable"|u !! colspan="2" class="unsortable"|ū !! colspan="2" class="unsortable"|e !! colspan="2" class="unsortable"|ē !! colspan="2" class="unsortable"|ai !! colspan="2" class="unsortable"|o !! colspan="2" class="unsortable"|ō !! colspan="2" class="unsortable"|au !! colspan="2" class="unsortable"|r̥ !! colspan="2" class="unsortable"|r̥̄ !! colspan="2" class="unsortable"|l̥ !! colspan="2" class="unsortable"|l̥̄ !! colspan="2" class="unsortable"| ṁ !! colspan="2" class="unsortable"| ḥ
!
|-
!
!a
!ka
!ā
!kā
!æ
!kæ
!ɒ
!kɒ
!i
!ki
!ī
!kī
!u
!ku
!ū
!kū
!e
!ke
!ē
!kē
!ai
!kai
!o
!ko
!ō
!kō
!au
!kau
!r̥
!kr̥
!r̥̄
!kr̥̄
!l̥
!kl̥
!l̥̄
!kl̥̄
!ṁ
!kaṁ
!ḥ
!kaḥ
!k
|-
! style="font-size: 75%;" | Devanagari
| अ || क || आ || का || ॲ || कॅ || ऑ || कॉ || इ || कि || ई || की || उ || कु || ऊ || कू || ऎ || कॆ || ए || के || ऐ || कै || ऒ || कॊ || ओ || को || औ || कौ || ऋ || कृ || ॠ || कॄ || ऌ || कॢ || ॡ || कॣ || अं || कं || अः || कः
|क्
|}

A vowel combines with a consonant in their diacritic form. For example, the vowel {{lang|hi|आ}} ({{transl|hi|ISO|ā}}) combines with the consonant {{lang|hi|क्}} ({{transl|hi|ISO|k}}) to form the syllabic letter {{lang|hi|का}} ({{transl|hi|ISO|kā}}), with haland removed and added vowel sign which is indicated by [[diacritic]]s. The vowel {{lang|hi|अ}} ({{transl|hi|ISO|a}}) combines with the consonant {{lang|hi|क्}} ({{transl|hi|ISO|k}}) to form {{lang|hi|क}} ({{transl|hi|ISO|ka}}) with haland removed. But, the diacritic series of {{lang|hi|क, ख, ग, घ}} ... ({{transl|hi|ISO|ka, kha, ga, gha}}) is without any added vowel sign, as the vowel अ (a) is [[Inherent vowel|inherent]].

=== Conjunct consonants ===
{{main|Devanagari conjuncts}}
[[File:1765 Saka, 1843 CE, Jnanesvari Jnandeva Dnyaneshwar manuscript page 1 and 2, Devanagari Marathi.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25| The ''Jnanesvari'' is a commentary on the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', dated to 1290 CE. It is in written in [[Marathi language|Marathi]] using Devanagari script.]]
As mentioned, successive consonants lacking a vowel in between them may physically join together as a ''[[conjunct consonant]]'' or [[Ligature (typography)|ligature]]. When Devanagari is used for writing languages other than Sanskrit, conjuncts are used mostly with Sanskrit words and loan words. Native words typically use the basic consonant and native speakers know to suppress the vowel when it is conventional to do so. For example, the native Hindi word ''karnā'' is written {{lang|und-Deva|करना}} (''ka-ra-nā'').<ref>Saloman, Richard (2007) [https://www.ideals.illinois.edu/handle/2142/9640 “Typological Observations on the Indic Scripts”] in ''The Indic Scripts: Paleographic and Linguistic Perspecticves'' D.K. Printworld Ltd., New Delhi. {{ISBN|812460406-1}}. p. 33.</ref> The government of these clusters ranges from widely to narrowly applicable rules, with special exceptions within. While standardised for the most part, there are certain variations in clustering, of which the [[Unicode]] used on this page is just one scheme. The following are a number of rules:
* 24 out of the 36 consonants contain a vertical right stroke ({{lang|und-Deva|ख}} ''kha'', {{lang|und-Deva|घ}} ''gha'', {{lang|und-Deva|ण}} ''ṇa'' etc.). As first or middle fragments/members of a cluster, they lose that stroke. e.g. {{lang|und-Deva|त}} + {{lang|und-Deva|व}} = {{lang|und-Deva|त्व}} ''tva'', {{lang|und-Deva|ण}} + {{lang|und-Deva|ढ}} = {{lang|und-Deva|ण्ढ}} ''ṇḍha'', {{lang|und-Deva|स}} + {{lang|und-Deva|थ}} = {{lang|und-Deva|स्थ}} ''stha''. In Unicode, as in Hindi, these consonants without their vertical stems are called half forms.<ref name="Unicode ch. 9">{{cite web|title=The Unicode Standard, chapter 9, South Asian Scripts I|url=https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode6.0.0/ch09.pdf|work=The Unicode Standard, v. 6.0|publisher=Unicode, Inc|access-date=Feb 12, 2012}}</ref> {{lang|und-Deva|श}} ''ś(a)'' appears as a different, simple ribbon-shaped fragment preceding {{lang|und-Deva|व}} ''va'', {{lang|und-Deva|न}} ''na'', {{lang|und-Deva|च}} ''ca'', {{lang|und-Deva|ल}} ''la'', and {{lang|und-Deva|र}} ''ra'', causing these second members to be shifted down and reduced in size. Thus {{lang|und-Deva|श्व}} ''śva'', {{lang|und-Deva|श्न}} ''śna'', {{lang|und-Deva|श्च}} ''śca'' {{lang|und-Deva|श्ल}} ''śla'', and {{lang|und-Deva|श्र}} ''śra''.
* {{lang|und-Deva|र}} ''r(a)'' as a first member takes the form of a curved upward dash above the final character or its ''ā-''diacritic. e.g. {{lang|und-Deva|र्व}} ''rva'', {{lang|und-Deva|र्वा}} ''rvā'', {{lang|und-Deva|र्स्प}} ''rspa'', {{lang|und-Deva|र्स्पा}} ''rspā''. As a final member with {{lang|und-Deva|ट}} ''ṭa'', {{lang|und-Deva|ठ}} ''ṭha'', {{lang|und-Deva|ड}} ''ḍa'', {{lang|und-Deva|ढ}} ''ḍha'', {{lang|und-Deva|ड़}} ''ṛa'', {{lang|und-Deva|छ}} ''cha'', it is two lines together below the character pointed downwards. Thus {{lang|und-Deva|ट्र}} ''ṭra'', {{lang|und-Deva|ठ्र}} ''ṭhra'', {{lang|und-Deva|ड्र}} ''ḍra'', {{lang|und-Deva|ढ्र}} ''ḍhra'', {{lang|und-Deva|ड़्र}} ''ṛra'', {{lang|und-Deva|छ्र}} ''chra''. Elsewhere as a final member it is a diagonal stroke extending leftwards and down. e.g. {{lang|und-Deva|क्र ग्र भ्र ब्र}}. {{lang|und-Deva|त}} ''ta'' is shifted up to make the conjunct {{lang|und-Deva|त्र}} ''tra''.
* As first members, remaining characters lacking vertical strokes such as {{lang|und-Deva|द}} ''d(a)'' and {{lang|und-Deva|ह}} ''h(a)'' may have their second member, reduced in size and lacking its horizontal stroke, placed underneath. {{lang|und-Deva|क}} ''k(a)'', {{lang|und-Deva|छ}} ''ch(a)'', and {{lang|und-Deva|फ}} ''ph(a)'' shorten their right hooks and join them directly to the following member.
* The conjuncts for ''{{IAST|kṣ}}'' and ''{{IAST|jñ}}'' are not clearly derived from the letters making up their components. The conjunct for ''{{IAST|kṣ}}'' is {{lang|und-Deva|क्ष}} ({{lang|und-Deva|क्}} + {{lang|und-Deva|ष}}) and for ''{{IAST|jñ}}'' it is {{lang|und-Deva|ज्ञ}} ({{lang|und-Deva|ज्}} + {{lang|und-Deva|ञ}}).

=== Accent marks ===
{{Main|Vedic accent}}
The [[pitch accent]] of [[Vedic Sanskrit]] is written with various symbols depending on [[shakha]]. In the [[Rigveda]], ''anudātta'' is written with a bar below the line ({{lang|sa|◌॒}}), ''svarita'' with a stroke above the line ({{lang|sa|◌॑}}) while ''udātta'' is unmarked.

=== Punctuation ===
The end of a sentence or half-verse may be marked with the "{{lang|und-Deva|।}}" symbol (called a ''[[Danda|daṇḍa]]'', meaning "bar", or called a ''{{IAST|pūrṇa virām}}'', meaning "full stop/pause"). The end of a full verse may be marked with a double-''daṇḍa'', a "{{lang|und-Deva|॥}}" symbol. A comma (called an ''{{IAST|alpa virām}}'', meaning "short stop/pause") is used to denote a natural pause in speech.<ref>Unicode Consortium, The Unicode Standard, Version 3.0, Volume 1, {{ISBN|978-0201616330}}, Addison-Wesley, pages 221–223</ref><ref name=ijetr>[http://www.ijetr.org/finalpdf/1386305476.pdf Transliteration from Hindi Script to Meetei Mayek] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160206062848/http://www.ijetr.org/finalpdf/1386305476.pdf |date=6 February 2016 }} Watham and Vimal (2013), IJETR, page 550</ref> Punctuation marks of [[Western world|Western]] origin, such as the [[colon (punctuation)|colon]], [[semi-colon]], [[exclamation mark]], [[dash]], and [[question mark]] are in use in Devanagari script since at least the 1900s{{citation needed|date=May 2020}}, matching their use in European languages.<ref>Michael Shapiro (2014), The Devanagari Writing System in ''A Primer of Modern Standard Hindi'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120805088}}, page 26</ref>

=== Old forms ===
[[File:11th-century Shisyalekha palm leaf mauscript, 5th-century CE Buddhist epistolary text by Candragomin, Devanagari script, Nepal talapatra.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|A few palm leaves from the Buddhist Sanskrit text ''Shisyalekha'' composed in the 5th century by Candragomin. ''Shisyalekha'' was written in Devanagari script by a Nepalese scribe in 1084 CE (above). The manuscript is in the Cambridge University library.<ref>[https://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-ADD-01161/1 Śiṣyalekha (MS Add.1161)], University of Cambridge Digital Libraries</ref>]]
[[File:10th century college foundation grant Devanagari inscription in Sanskrit on stone, Kaladgi Karnataka.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|A mid 10th-century college land grant in Devanagari inscription (Sanskrit) discovered on a buried, damaged stone in north Karnataka. Parts of the inscription are in Canarese script.<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/TheIndianAntiquaryVol.1/The-Indian-Antiquary%2CVol.%201#page/n219/mode/2up Salotgi Inscription], ''The Indian Antiquary: A Journal of Oriental Research'', S.P. Pandit (1872), pp.205–211; Quote: "The inscription of which a translation is given below, is engraved on a stone pillar about 4 feet 10 inches in height, 1 foot 2 inches thick, and 1 foot 9 inches broad. It is cut in Devanagari characters on three of its four sides, and [...]"</ref>]]
The following letter variants are also in use, particularly in older texts.<ref>{{Harvsp|Bahri|2004|p=(xiii)}}{{full citation needed|date=August 2016}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; margin: 0; margin-left: 2em"
|+ Letter variants
|- style="font-size: small;"
! standard !! ancient
|-
| [[File:Devanagari a.svg|15px]] || [[File:Devanagari a old.svg|15px]]
|-
| [[File:Devanagari jh.svg|15px]] || [[File:Devanagari jh old.svg|15px]]
|-
| [[File:Devanagari nn.svg|15px]] || [[File:Devanagari Ṇ (old).svg|15px]]
|-
| [[File:Devanagari l old.svg|15px]] || [[File:Devanagari l.svg|15px]]
|}

=== Numerals ===
{{See also|Indian numerals|Brahmi numerals|Hindu-Arabic numeral system}}

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:auto;"
|-
|+ '''Devanagari digits'''
|- style="font-size:14pt;"
| {{lang|und-Deva|[[०]]}} || {{lang|und-Deva|[[१]]}} || {{lang|und-Deva|[[२]]}} || {{lang|und-Deva|[[३]]}} || {{lang|und-Deva|[[४]]}}
| {{lang|und-Deva|[[५]]}} || {{lang|und-Deva|[[६]]}} || {{lang|und-Deva|[[७]]}} || {{lang|und-Deva|[[८]]}} || {{lang|und-Deva|[[९]]}}
|-
| 0 || 1 || 2 || 3 || 4
| 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9
|}

=== Fonts ===
A variety of Unicode fonts are in use for Devanagari. These include Akshar,<ref>[http://salrc.uchicago.edu/resources/fonts/available/hindi/akshar.shtml Akshar Unicode] South Asia Language Resource, University of Chicago (2009)</ref> Annapurna,<ref>[http://software.sil.org/annapurna/ Annapurna SIL Unicode], SIL International (2013)</ref> [[Arial]],<ref>[http://salrc.uchicago.edu/resources/fonts/available/hindi/arialunicode.shtml Arial Unicode] South Asia Language Resource, University of Chicago (2009)</ref> CDAC-Gist Surekh,<ref name=surekhfont>[http://salrc.uchicago.edu/resources/fonts/available/hindi/surekh.shtml CDAC-GIST Surekh Unicode] South Asia Language Resource, University of Chicago (2009)</ref> CDAC-Gist Yogesh,<ref>[http://salrc.uchicago.edu/resources/fonts/available/hindi/yogesh.shtml CDAC-GIST Yogesh] South Asia Language Resource, University of Chicago (2009)</ref> Chandas,<ref name=hindimeguide>[https://hindimeguide.blogspot.com/keyword=k21214&pageid=icb.page104271 Sanskrit Devanagari Fonts]{{Dead link|date=January 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}|date=July 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Harvard University (2010); see [http://www.sanskritweb.net/cakram/ Chanda and Uttara ttf] 2010 archive (Accessed: July 8, 2015)</ref> Gargi,<ref>[http://salrc.uchicago.edu/resources/fonts/available/hindi/gargi.shtml Gargi] South Asia Language Resource, University of Chicago (2009)</ref> Gurumaa,<ref>[http://kde-look.org/content/show.php?content=16645 Gurumaa Unicode – a sans font] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150711005342/http://kde-look.org/content/show.php?content=16645 |date=11 July 2015 }} KDE (2012)</ref> Jaipur,<ref>[http://salrc.uchicago.edu/resources/fonts/available/hindi/jaipur.shtml Jaipur] South Asia Language Resource, University of Chicago (2009)</ref> Jana,<ref>[http://salrc.uchicago.edu/resources/fonts/available/hindi/janahindi.shtml Jana] South Asia Language Resource, University of Chicago (2009)</ref> Kalimati,<ref>[http://salrc.uchicago.edu/resources/fonts/available/hindi/kalimati.shtml Kalimati] South Asia Language Resource, University of Chicago (2009)</ref> Kanjirowa,<ref>[http://salrc.uchicago.edu/resources/fonts/available/hindi/kanjirowa.shtml Kanjirowa] South Asia Language Resource, University of Chicago (2009)</ref> Lohit Devanagari, Mangal,<ref>[http://salrc.uchicago.edu/resources/fonts/available/hindi/mangal.shtml Mangal] South Asia Language Resource, University of Chicago (2009)</ref> Kokila,<ref>{{Cite web|last=alib-ms|title=Kokila font family - Typography|url=https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/typography/font-list/kokila|access-date=2020-09-19|website=docs.microsoft.com|language=en-us}}</ref> Raghu,<ref>[http://salrc.uchicago.edu/resources/fonts/available/hindi/raghindi.shtml Raghu] South Asia Language Resource, University of Chicago (2009)</ref> Sanskrit2003,<ref>[http://salrc.uchicago.edu/resources/fonts/available/hindi/sanskrit2003.shtml Sanskrit Ashram] South Asia Language Resource, University of Chicago (2009)</ref> Santipur OT,<ref name=harvard>[http://isites.harvard.edu/icb/icb.do?keyword=k21214&pageid=icb.page104271 Sanskrit Devanagari Fonts]{{Dead link|date=July 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Harvard University (2010); see [http://www.sanskritweb.net/cakram/ Chanda and Uttara ttf] 2010 archive (Accessed: July 8, 2015)</ref> Siddhanta, and Thyaka.<ref>[http://salrc.uchicago.edu/resources/fonts/available/hindi/thyakarabison.shtml Thyaka] South Asia Language Resource, University of Chicago (2009)</ref>

The form of Devanagari fonts vary with function. According to Harvard College for Sanskrit studies:<ref name=harvard/> {{quote|text=Uttara [companion to [[Chandas (typeface)|Chandas]]] is the best in terms of ligatures but, because it is designed for Vedic as well, requires so much vertical space that it is not well suited for the "user interface font" (though an excellent choice for the "original field" font). Santipur OT is a beautiful font reflecting a very early [medieval era] typesetting style for Devanagari. Sanskrit 2003<ref>[https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0900.pdf Devanagari font] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141113210320/http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0900.pdf |date=13 November 2014 }} Unicode Standard 8.0 (2015)</ref> is a good all-around font and has more ligatures than most fonts, though students will probably find the spacing of the CDAC-Gist Surekh<ref name=surekhfont/> font makes for quicker comprehension and reading.}}

The Google Fonts project has a number of Unicode fonts for Devanagari in a variety of typefaces in serif, sans-serif, display and handwriting categories.

== Transliteration ==
{{Main|Devanagari transliteration}}
[[File:Examples of complex text rendering.png|thumb|upright=1.6|Indic scripts share common features, and along with Devanagari, all major Indic scripts have been historically used to preserve Vedic and post-Vedic Sanskrit texts.]]
There are several methods of [[Romanisation]] or [[transliteration]] from Devanagari to the [[Latin alphabet|Roman script]].<ref name="ref17yebif">{{Citation | title=Transliteration into Roman and Devanagari of the languages of the Indian group | author=Daya Nand Sharma | publisher=Survey of India, 1972 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HWJJAAAAYAAJ | quote=''... With the passage of time there has emerged a practically uniform system of transliteration of Devanagari and allied alphabets. Nevertheless, no single system of Romanisation has yet developed ...''| year=1972 }}</ref>

=== Hunterian system ===
{{Main|Hunterian transliteration}}
The [[Hunterian transliteration|Hunterian system]] is the "''national system of romanisation in [[India]]''" and the one officially adopted by the [[Government of India]].<ref name="ref04xufam">{{Citation | title=Technical reference manual for the standardisation of geographical names | author=United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names, United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs | publisher=United Nations Publications, 2007 | isbn=978-92-1-161500-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mh8u32ANQxAC | quote=''... ISO 15919 ... There is no evidence of the use of the system either in India or in international cartographic products ... The Hunterian system is the actually used national system of romanisation in India ...''| year=2007 }}</ref><ref name="ref48luvep">{{Citation | title=United Nations Regional Cartographic Conference for Asia and the Far East, Volume 2 | author=United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs | publisher=United Nations, 1955 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKsvAAAAYAAJ | quote=''... In India the Hunterian system is used, whereby every sound in the local language is uniformly represented by a certain letter in the Roman alphabet ...''| year=1955 }}</ref><ref name="ref65puqac">{{Citation | title=Indian scientific & technical publications, exhibition 1960: a bibliography | author=National Library (India) | publisher=Council of Scientific & Industrial Research, Government of India, 1960 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8VYEAQAAIAAJ | quote=''... The Hunterian system of transliteration, which has international acceptance, has been used ...''| year=1960 }}</ref>

=== ISO 15919 ===
{{Main|ISO 15919}}
A standard transliteration convention was codified in the ISO 15919 standard of 2001. It uses diacritics to map the much larger set of Brahmic graphemes to the Latin script. The Devanagari-specific portion is nearly identical to the academic standard for Sanskrit, [[IAST]].<ref name=scriptsource/>

=== IAST ===
The [[IAST|International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration (IAST)]] is the academic standard for the romanisation of Sanskrit. IAST is the de facto standard used in printed publications, like books, magazines, and electronic texts with Unicode fonts. It is based on a standard established by the ''Congress of Orientalists'' at [[Athens]] in 1912. The ISO 15919 standard of 2001 codified the transliteration convention to include an expanded standard for sister scripts of Devanagari.<ref name=scriptsource>[http://scriptsource.org/cms/scripts/page.php?item_id=script_detail_sort&key=Deva Devanagari IAST conventions] Script Source (2009), SIL International, United States</ref>

The [[National Library at Kolkata romanisation]], intended for the romanisation of all Indic scripts, is an extension of IAST.

=== Harvard-Kyoto ===
Compared to IAST, [[Harvard-Kyoto]] looks much simpler. It does not contain all the diacritic marks that IAST contains. It was designed to simplify the task of putting large amount of Sanskrit textual material into machine readable form, and the inventors stated that it reduces the effort needed in transliteration of Sanskrit texts on the keyboard.<ref name=translitwijastyk/> This makes typing in Harvard-Kyoto much easier than IAST. Harvard-Kyoto uses [[capital letters]] that can be difficult to read in the middle of words.

=== ITRANS ===
[[ITRANS]] is a lossless transliteration scheme of Devanagari into [[ASCII]] that is widely used on [[Usenet]]. It is an extension of the [[Harvard-Kyoto]] scheme. In ITRANS, the word ''devanāgarī'' is written "devanaagarii" or "devanAgarI". ITRANS is associated with an application of the same name that enables typesetting in [[Brahmic family|Indic scripts]]. The user inputs in Roman letters and the ITRANS pre-processor translates the Roman letters into Devanagari (or other Indic languages). The latest version of [[ITRANS]] is version 5.30 released in July, 2001. It is similar to Velthuis system and was created by Avinash Chopde to help print various Indic scripts with personal computers.<ref name=translitwijastyk>[http://indology.info/email/members/wujastyk/ Transliteration of Devanāgarī] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070606204758/http://indology.info/email/members/wujastyk/ |date=6 June 2007 }} D. Wujastyk (1996)</ref>

==== Velthuis ====
{{Main|Velthuis}}

The disadvantage of the above [[ASCII]] schemes is case-sensitivity, implying that transliterated names may not be capitalised. This difficulty is avoided with the system developed in 1996 by Frans Velthuis for [[TeX]], loosely based on IAST, in which case is irrelevant.

=== ALA-LC Romanisation ===
ALA-LC<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/roman.html |title=LOC.gov |publisher=LOC.gov |access-date=2011-06-13}}</ref> romanisation is a transliteration scheme approved by the Library of Congress and the American Library Association, and widely used in North American libraries. Transliteration tables are based on languages, so there is a table for Hindi,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/romanization/hindi.pdf |title=0001.eps |access-date=2011-06-13}}</ref> one for Sanskrit and Prakrit,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/romanization/sanskrit.pdf |title=LOC.gov |access-date=2011-06-13}}</ref> etc.

=== WX ===
{{main|WX notation}}
WX is a Roman transliteration scheme for Indian languages, widely used among the [[natural language processing]] community in India. It originated at [[IIT Kanpur]] for computational processing of Indian languages. The salient features of this transliteration scheme are as follows.
* Every consonant and every vowel has a single mapping into Roman. Hence it is a [[prefix code]], advantageous from computation point of view.
* Lower-case letters are used for unaspirated consonants and short vowels, while capital letters are used for aspirated consonants and long vowels. While the retroflex stops are mapped to 't, T, d, D, N', the dentals are mapped to 'w, W, x, X, n'. Hence the name 'WX', a reminder of this idiosyncratic mapping.

== Encodings ==

=== ISCII ===
[[ISCII]] is an 8-bit encoding. The lower 128 codepoints are plain [[ASCII]], the upper 128 codepoints are ISCII-specific.

It has been designed for representing not only Devanagari but also various other [[Indic scripts]] as well as a Latin-based script with diacritic marks used for transliteration of the Indic scripts.

ISCII has largely been superseded by Unicode, which has, however, attempted to preserve the ISCII layout for its Indic language blocks.

=== Unicode ===
{{Main|Devanagari (Unicode block)|Devanagari Extended|Vedic Extensions|l2=Devanagari Extended (Unicode block)|l3=Vedic Extensions (Unicode block)}}

The Unicode Standard defines three blocks for Devanagari: Devanagari (U+0900–U+097F), Devanagari Extended (U+A8E0–U+A8FF), and Vedic Extensions (U+1CD0–U+1CFF).

{{Unicode chart Devanagari}}
{{Unicode chart Devanagari Extended}}
{{Unicode chart Vedic Extensions}}

== Devanagari keyboard layouts ==

{{Hatnote|For a list of Devanagari input tools and fonts, please see [[Help:Multilingual support (Indic)]].}}
[[File:इन्स्क्रिप्ट कळपाटाची ओळख.ogg|200px|right|Introduction to Inscript Key board]]

=== InScript layout ===
[[InScript]] is the standard [[Keyboard (computing)|keyboard]] layout for Devanagari as standardized by the Government of India. It is inbuilt in all modern major [[operating system]]s. [[Microsoft Windows]] supports the InScript layout (using the Mangal font), which can be used to input unicode Devanagari characters. InScript is also available in some touchscreen mobile phones.
[[File:Devanagari INSCRIPT Keyboard.JPG|thumb|none|upright=4|Devanagari INSCRIPT bilingual keyboard layout]]

=== Typewriter ===
This layout was used on manual typewriters when computers were not available or were uncommon. For backward compatibility some typing tools like Indic IME still provide this layout.

=== Phonetic ===
[[File:AKphonetic.jpg|thumb|Devanagari Phonetic Keyboard Layout]]
[[File:Marathi Wikipedia ULS.webm|thumb|right|One can use [[:MW:Universal Language Selector|ULS]] {{lang|und-Deva|"अक्षरांतरण"}} ([[Transliteration]]) or {{lang|und-Deva|"मराठी लिपी"}} ([[InScript keyboard|Inscript]]) typing options to search or edit [[:mr:|Marathi Wikipedia]] articles as shown in this video clip; One can click on the '''cc'' to change the subtitle languages to Marathi, English, Sanskrit, Konkani, Ahirani languages.]]

Such tools work on phonetic transliteration. The user writes in Roman and the [[Input method editor|IME]] automatically converts it into Devanagari. Some popular phonetic typing tools are Akruti, [[Baraha]] IME and [[Google IME]].

The [[Mac OS X]] operating system includes two different [[keyboard layout]]s for Devanagari: one is much like INSCRIPT/KDE Linux, the other is a phonetic layout called "Devanagari QWERTY".

Any one of Unicode fonts input system is fine for Indic language Wikipedia and other wikiprojects, including Hindi, Bhojpuri, Marathi, Nepali Wikipedia. Some people use [[InScript keyboard|inscript]]. Majority uses either [[Google transliteration|Google phonetic transliteration]] or input facility [[:MW:Universal Language Selector|Universal Language Selector]] provided on Wikipedia. On Indic language wikiprojects Phonetic facility provided initially was java-based later supported by Narayam extension for phonetic input facility. Currently Indic language Wiki projects are supported by [[:MW:Universal Language Selector|Universal Language Selector (ULS)]], that offers both phonetic keyboard (Aksharantaran, Marathi: {{lang|und-Deva|अक्षरांतरण}}, Hindi: {{lang|und-Deva|लिप्यंतरण, बोलनागरी}}) and [[InScript keyboard]] (Marathi: {{lang|und-Deva|मराठी लिपी}}).


The [[Ubuntu Linux]] operating system supports several [[keyboard layouts]] for Devanagari, including Harvard-Kyoto, [[WX notation]], Bolanagari and phonetic. The 'remington' typing method in Ubuntu IBUS is similar to the Krutidev typing method, popular in Rajasthan. The 'itrans' method is useful for those who know English well (and the English keyboard) but not familiar with typing in Devanagari.
{{clear}}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Linguistics|Writing}}
{{col div|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Languages of India]]
* [[Clip font]]
* [[Devanagari transliteration]]
* [[Devanagari Braille]]
* [[ISCII]]
* [[Nagari Pracharini Sabha]]
* [[Nepali language|Nepali]]
* [[Schwa deletion in Indo-Aryan languages]]
* [[Shiksha]] – the [[Vedas|Vedic]] study of sound, focusing on the letters of the [[Sanskrit]] alphabet
{{colend}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|30em}}

=== General sources ===
* {{Citation
|last=Lambert
|first=Hester Marjorie
|year=1953
|title=Introduction to the Devanagari Script: For Students of Sanskrit, Hindi, Marathi, Gujarati and Bengali
|place=London
|publisher=Geoffrey Cumberlege (Oxford University Press)
}}.
* {{Citation
|last=Masica
|first=Colin
|author-link=Colin Masica
|year=1991
|title=The Indo-Aryan Languages
| place= Cambridge
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|isbn=978-0-521-29944-2
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J3RSHWePhXwC&q=indo-aryan+languages
}}.
* {{Citation
|last=Snell
|first=Rupert
|year=2000
|title=Teach Yourself Beginner's Hindi Script
|publisher=Hodder & Stoughton
|isbn=978-0-07-141984-0
}}.
* {{Citation
|last=Salomon
|first=Richard
|year=2003
|chapter=Writing Systems of the Indo-Aryan Languages
| editor1-last= Cardona
| editor1-first= George
| editor2-last= Jain
| editor2-first= Dhanesh
|title=The Indo-Aryan Languages
|publisher=Routledge
|isbn=978-0-415-77294-5
|pages=67–103
}}.
* {{Citation
|last=Verma
|first=Sheela
|year=2003
|chapter=Magahi
| editor1-last= Cardona
| editor1-first= George
| editor2-last= Jain
| editor2-first= Dhanesh
|title=The Indo-Aryan Languages
|publisher=Routledge
|isbn=978-0-415-77294-5
|pages=498–514
}}.
* {{Citation
|last=Wikner
|first=Charles
|year=1996
|title=A Practical Sanskrit Introductory
|url=http://sanskritdocuments.org/learning_tutorial_wikner/index.html
}}.

=== Census and catalogues of manuscripts in Devanagari ===
Thousands of manuscripts of ancient and medieval era Sanskrit texts in Devanagari have been discovered since the 19th century. Major catalogues and census include:

* {{Google books|JjxFAAAAYAAJ|A Catalogue of Sanskrit Manuscripts in Private Libraries}}, Medical Hall Press, Princeton University Archive
* {{Google books|QD-Qmb2XIr8C|A Descriptive Catalogue of the Sanskrit Manuscripts}}, Vol 1: Upanishads, Friedrich Otto Schrader (Compiler), University of Michigan Library Archives
* [https://archive.org/stream/preliminarylisto00adya#page/n3/mode/2up A preliminary list of the Sanskrit and Prakrit manuscripts], Vedas, Sastras, Sutras, Schools of Hindu Philosophies, Arts, Design, Music and other fields, Friedrich Otto Schrader (Compiler), (Devanagiri manuscripts are identified by Character code '''De.''')
* [https://archive.org/stream/p1a4catalogueofs01greauoft#page/n7/mode/2up Catalogue of the Sanskrit Manuscripts], Part 1: Vedic Manuscripts, Harvard University Archives (mostly Devanagari)
* [https://archive.org/stream/catalogueofsansk04wind#page/n15/mode/2up Catalogue of the Sanskrit Manuscripts], Part 4: Manuscripts of Hindu schools of Philosophy and Tantra, Harvard University Archives (mostly Devanagari)
* [https://archive.org/stream/catalogueofsansk04wind#page/n15/mode/2up Catalogue of the Sanskrit Manuscripts], Part 5: Manuscripts of Medicine, Astronomy and Mathematics, Architecture and Technical Science Literature, Julius Eggeling (Compiler), Harvard University Archives (mostly Devanagari)
* {{Google books|6nooAAAAYAAJ|Catalogue of the Sanskrit Manuscripts}}, Part 6: Poetic, Epic and Purana Literature, Harvard University Archives (mostly Devanagari)
* [[David Pingree]] (1970–1981), Census of the Exact Sciences in Sanskrit: Volumes 1 through 5, [http://www.dianepublishing.net/SearchResults.asp?Search=david+pingree&Search.x=0&Search.y=0 American Philosophical Society], Manuscripts in various Indic scripts including Devanagari

== External links ==
{{Wikibooks|Devanagari}}
{{Commons category multi|Devanagari stroke order|Devanagari pronunciation}}
{{Wikivoyage|Learning Devanagari}}
* [http://hindi-store.tipsadda.com/search/label/tools Devnagari Unicode Legacy Font Converters]
* [http://salrc.uchicago.edu/resources/fonts/ Digital Nagari fonts], University of Chicago
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090318134358/http://www.wazu.jp/gallery/Fonts_Devanagari.html Devanagari in different fonts], Wazu, Japan (Alternate collection: [http://luc.devroye.org/indic.html Luc Devroye's comprehensive Indic Fonts], McGill University)
* {{Google books|0bkMAAAAIAAJ|Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency|page=30}}, Rudradaman's inscription in Sanskrit Nagari script from 1st through 4th century CE (coins and epigraphy), found in Gujarat, India, pages 30–45
* [http://www.currentscience.ac.in/cs/Volumes/100/02/0150.pdf Numerals and Text in Devanagari], 9th century temple in Gwalior Madhya Pradesh, India, Current Science
* {{cite journal |last1=Maurer |first1=Walter H. |title=On the Name Devanāgarī |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |date=1976 |volume=96 |issue=1 |pages=101–104 |doi=10.2307/599893 |jstor=599893}}

{{Devanagari abugida}}
{{Hindi topics}}
{{Sanskrit language topics}}
{{Marathi language topics}}
{{list of writing systems}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Devanagari| ]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Brahmic scripts]]
[[Category:Hindi]]
[[Category:Hindustani orthography]]

Olchiki Script

2021-07-27T12:29:59Z

Hembram Bakhul: Created page with "{{short description|alphabetic script for santali people}} {{Infobox writing system | name = Ol Chiki | languages = Santali language | type = Alphabet | unico..."

{{short description|alphabetic script for santali people}}
{{Infobox writing system
| name = Ol Chiki
| languages = [[Santali language]]
| type = Alphabet
| unicode = [https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1C50.pdf U+1C50–U+1C7F]
| iso15924 = Olck
| sample = Ol Chiki.svg
| imagesize = 180px
}}
{{Contains special characters
| special = uncommon [[Unicode]] characters
| fix = Help:Multilingual support#Ol Chiki
| image = Replacement character.svg
| link = Specials (Unicode block)#Replacement character
| alt = <?>
| compact = yes
}}
The '''Ol Chiki''' ({{lang|sat|ᱚᱞ ᱪᱤᱠᱤ}}) script, also known as '''Ol Cemetʼ''' (Santali: ''ol'' 'writing', ''cemet{{'}}'' 'learning'), '''Ol Ciki''', '''Ol''', and sometimes as the '''Santali alphabet''', is the official writing system for [[Santali language|Santali]], an [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] language recognized as an official regional language in [[India]]. It has 30 letters, the forms of which are intended to evoke natural shapes. The script is written from left to right.

{{Quote|text=The shapes of the letters are not arbitrary, but reflect the names for the letters, which are words, usually the names of objects or actions representing conventionalized form in the pictorial shape of the characters.|sign=Norman Zide|source=<ref name="portal"/>}}

==History==
The Ol Chiki script was created in 1925 by [[Raghunath Murmu]] for the [[Santali language]], and publicized first in 1939 at a [[Mayurbhanj State]] exhibition.<ref name="Hembram">{{cite book|last1=Hembram|first1=Phatik Chandra|title=Santhali, a Natural Language|date=2002|publisher=U. Hembram|page=165|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XIlkAAAAMAAJ|language=en}}</ref>

Previously, Santali had been written with the [[Santali Latin alphabet|Latin script]]. However, Santali is not an [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] language and Indic scripts did not have letters for all of Santali's [[phonemes]], especially its [[stop consonant]]s and [[vowels]], which made writing the language accurately in an unmodified Indic script difficult. The detailed analysis was given by [[Byomkes Chakrabarti]] in his "Comparative Study of Santali and Bengali". Missionary and linguist [[Paul Olaf Bodding]], a Norwegian, introduced the Latin script, which is better<ref name="P. O Bodding book">{{cite book |last1=Bodding |first1=P. O |title=Materials for a Santali grammar. |date=1922 |publisher=Santal Mission of the Northern Churches |language=en|oclc=14036654 }}</ref>at representing Santali stops, phonemes and nasal sounds with the use of diacritical marks and accents. Unlike most Indic scripts, Ol Chiki is not an [[abugida]], with [[vowels]] given equal representation with [[consonants]]. Additionally, it was designed specifically for the language, but one letter could not be assigned to each phoneme because the sixth vowel in Ol Chiki is still problematic.

==Letters==
The values of the letters are as follows:


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! rowspan=2 | Letter !! rowspan=2 | Name !! rowspan=2 | [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]<ref name="WWS"/> !! colspan=5 | Transliteration !! rowspan=2 | Shape<ref name="portal">{{cite web | title = Ol Chiki Script | work = A portal for Santals | date = 2002 | url = http://wesanthals.tripod.com/id45.html | access-date = 2017-09-12}}</ref>
|-
! [[ALA-LC romanization|ALA-LC]]<ref name="ALALC">{{cite web | title = Santali (in Ol script) | work = [[ALA-LC romanization|ALA-LC]] Romanization Tables | publisher = [[Library of Congress]] | url = https://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/romanization/santali.pdf | access-date = 2017-09-12}}</ref> !! [[Norman Zide|Zide]]<ref name="WWS">{{cite book | title=The World's Writing Systems | year=1996 | editor1-first=Peter T. | editor1-last=Daniels | editor1-link=Peter T. Daniels | editor2-last=Bright | editor2-first=William | editor2-link=William Bright | author-first=Norman | author-last=Zide | author-link=Norman Zide | publisher=Oxford University Press, Inc | isbn=978-0195079937 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195079937/page/614 614-615] | url-access=registration | url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195079937/page/614 }}</ref> !! [[Devanagari|Deva.]]<ref name="L205243"/> !! [[Bengali alphabet|Beng.]]<ref name="L205243"/> !! [[Odia alphabet|Odia]]<ref name="L205243"/>
|-
| {{huge|ᱚ}} || la || /ɔ/ || a || ọ || {{large|अ}} || {{large|অ}} || {{large|ଅ}} || align=left | burning fire
|-
| {{huge|ᱛ}} || at || /t/ || t || t || {{large|त}} || {{large|ত}} || {{large|ତ୍}} || align=left | the Earth
|-
| {{huge|ᱜ}} || ag || /k’/, /g/ || g || k’ || {{large|ग}} || {{large|গ}} || {{large|ଗ୍}} || align=left | vomiting mouth which produces the same sound as the name of the letter
|-
| {{huge|ᱝ}} || ang || /ŋ/ || ṃ || ṅ || {{large|ं}} || {{large|ং}} || {{large|ଂ}} || align=left | blowing air
|-
| {{huge|ᱞ}} || al || /l/ || l || l || {{large|ल}} || {{large|ল}} || {{large|ଲ୍}} || align=left | writing
|-
| {{huge|ᱟ}} || laa || /a/ || ā || a || {{large|आ}} || {{large|আ}} || {{large|ଆ}} || align=left | working in the field with a spade
|-
| {{huge|ᱠ}} || aak || /k/ || k || k || {{large|क}} || {{large|ক}} || {{large|କ୍}} || align=left | bird (sound of a swan)
|-
| {{huge|ᱡ}} || aaj || /c’/, /j/ || j || c’ || {{large|ज}} || {{large|জ}} || {{large|ଜ୍}} || align=left | person pointing towards a third person with the right hand (saying he)
|-
| {{huge|ᱢ}} || aam || /m/ || m || m || {{large|म}} || {{large|ম}} || {{large|ମ୍}} || align=left | person pointing towards a second person with the left hand (saying you)
|-
| {{huge|ᱣ}} || aaw || /w/, /v/ || w || w || {{large|व}} || {{large|ওয়}} || {{large|ୱ୍}} || align=left | opening lips
|-
| {{huge|ᱤ}} || li || /i/ || i || i || {{large|इ}} || {{large|ই}} || {{large|ଇ}} || align=left | bending tree
|-
| {{huge|ᱥ}} || is || /s/ || s || s || {{large|स}} || {{large|স}} || {{large|ସ୍}} || align=left | plow
|-
| {{huge|ᱦ}} || ih || /ʔ/, /h/ || ẖ || h || {{large|ह}} || {{large|হ}} || {{large|ହ୍}} || align=left | hands up
|-
| {{huge|ᱧ}} || iny || /ɲ/ || ñ || ñ || {{large|ञ}} || {{large|ঞ}} || {{large|ଞ୍}} || align=left | person pointing towards himself/herself with the left hand
|-
| {{huge|ᱨ}} || ir || /r/ || r || r || {{large|र}} || {{large|র}} || {{large|ର୍}} || align=left | sickle used for cutting or reaping
|-
| {{huge|ᱩ}} || lu || /u/ || u || u || {{large|उ}} || {{large|উ}} || {{large|ଉ}} || align=left | vessel used for preparing food
|-
| {{huge|ᱪ}} || uch || /c/ || c || c || {{large|च}} || {{large|চ}} || {{large|ଚ୍}} || align=left | peak of a mountain which is usually high
|-
| {{huge|ᱫ}} || ud || /t’/, /d/ || d || t’ || {{large|द}} || {{large|দ}} || {{large|ଦ୍}} || align=left | mushroom
|-
| {{huge|ᱬ}} || unn || /ɳ/ || ṇ || ṇ || {{large|ण}} || {{large|ণ}} || {{large|ଣ୍}} || align=left | picture of a flying bee (which makes this sound)
|-
| {{huge|ᱭ}} || uy || /j/ || y || y || {{large|य}} || {{large|য়}} || {{large|ୟ୍}} || align=left | a man bending towards ground to cut something
|-
| {{huge|ᱮ}} || le || /e/ || e || e || {{large|ए}} || {{large|এ}} || {{large|ଏ}} || align=left | overflowing rivers changing course
|-
| {{huge|ᱯ}} || ep || /p/ || p || p || {{large|प}} || {{large|প}} || {{large|ପ୍}} || align=left | person receiving with both hands
|-
| {{huge|ᱰ}} || edd || /ɖ/ || ḍ || ḍ || {{large|ड}} || {{large|ড}} || {{large|ଡ୍}} || align=left | a man with two legs stretching towards his chest and mouth
|-
| {{huge|ᱱ}} || en || /n/ || n || n || {{large|न}} || {{large|ন}} || {{large|ନ୍}} || align=left | thrashing grains with two legs
|-
| {{huge|ᱲ}} || err || /ɽ/ || ṛ || ṛ || {{large|ड़}} || {{large|ড়}} || {{large|ଡ଼୍}} || align=left | a path that turns to avoid an obstruction or a danger
|-
| {{huge|ᱳ}} || lo || /o/ || o || o || {{large|ओ}} || {{large|ও}} || {{large|ଓ}} || align=left | a mouth when sounding this letter
|-
| {{huge|ᱴ}} || ott || /ʈ/ || ṭ || ṭ || {{large|ट}} || {{large|ট}} || {{large|ଟ୍}} || align=left | camel hump
|-
| {{huge|ᱵ}} || ob || /p’/, /b/ || b || p’ || {{large|ब}} || {{large|ব}} || {{large|ବ୍}} || align=left | curly hair
|-
| {{huge|ᱶ}} || ov || /w̃/ || ṅ || w̃ || {{large|ङ}} || {{large|ঙ}} || {{large|ଙ୍}} || align=left | nasalized
|-
| {{huge|ᱷ}} || oh || /ʰ/ || h || ([[Consonant|C]])h || {{large|ह}} || {{large|হ}} || {{large|ହ୍}} || align=left | a man throwing something with one hand
|}

Aspirated consonants are written as digraphs with the letter {{large|ᱷ}}:<ref name="TUS"/><ref name="L205243">{{cite web | url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2005/05243r-n2984-ol-chiki.pdf | title=L2/05-243R: Final proposal to encode the Ol Chiki script in the UCS | date=2005-09-05 | first=Michael | last=Everson | author-link=Michael Everson}}</ref> {{large|ᱛᱷ}} /tʰ/, {{large|ᱜᱷ}} /gʱ/, {{large|ᱠᱷ}} /kʰ/, {{large|ᱡᱷ}} /jʱ/, {{large|ᱪᱷ}} /cʰ/, {{large|ᱫᱷ}} /dʱ/, {{large|ᱯᱷ}} /pʰ/, {{large|ᱰᱷ}} /ɖʱ/, {{large|ᱲᱷ}} /ɽʱ/, {{large|ᱴᱷ}} /ʈʰ/, and {{large|ᱵᱷ}} /bʱ/.

== Other marks ==
Ol Chiki employs several marks which are placed after the letter they modify (there are no combining characters):

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Mark !! Name !! Description
|-
| align=center | {{huge|ᱹ}} || găhlă ṭuḍăg || This baseline dot is used to extend three vowel letters for the Santal Parganas dialect of Santali:<ref name="TUS">{{cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode13.0.0/ch13.pdf#G29195|title=The Unicode Standard, Chapter 13.10: Ol Chiki|publisher=Unicode Consortium|date=March 2020}}</ref> {{large|ᱚᱹ}} ŏ /ɔ/, {{large|ᱟᱹ}} ă /ə/, and {{large|ᱮᱹ}} ĕ /ɛ/. The phonetic difference between {{large|ᱚ}} and {{large|ᱚᱹ}} is not clearly defined and there may be only a marginal phonemic difference between the two. {{large|ᱚᱹ}} is rarely used. ALA-LC transliterates {{large|ᱚᱹ}} as "ạ̄".<ref name="ALALC"/>
|-
| align=center | {{huge|ᱸ}} || mũ ṭuḍăg || This raised dot indicates [[nasalization]] of the preceding vowel: {{large|ᱚᱸ}} /ɔ̃/, {{large|ᱟᱸ}} /ã/, {{large|ᱤᱸ}} /ĩ/, {{large|ᱩᱸ}} /ũ/, {{large|ᱮᱸ}} /ẽ/, and {{large|ᱳᱸ}} /õ/. ALA-LC transliteration uses "m̐" after the affected vowel.<ref name="ALALC"/>
|-
| align=center | {{huge|ᱺ}} || mũ găhlă ṭuḍăg || This colon-like mark is used to mark a nasalized extended vowel. It is a combination of ''mũ ṭuḍăg'' and ''găhlă ṭuḍăg'': {{large|ᱚᱺ}} /ɔ̃/, {{large|ᱟᱺ}} /ə̃/, and {{large|ᱮᱺ}} /ɛ̃/.
|-
| align=center | {{huge|ᱻ}} || relā || This tilde-like mark indicates the prolongation of any oral or nasalized vowel. Compare {{large|ᱮ}} /e/ with {{large|ᱮᱻ}} /eː/. It comes after the ''găhlă ṭuḍăg'' for extended vowels: {{large|ᱮᱹᱻ}} /ɛː/. It is omitted in ALA-LC transliteration.<ref name="ALALC"/>
|-
| align=center | {{huge|ᱽ}} || ahad || This special letter indicates the deglottalization of a consonant in the word-final position. It preserves the [[Morphophonology|morphophonemic]] relationship between the [[Glottalization|glottalized]] ([[Ejective consonant|ejective]]) and [[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]] equivalents of consonants.<ref name="TUS"/> For example, {{large|ᱜ}} represents a voiced /g/ when word initial but an ejective /k’/ when in the word-final position. A voiced /g/ in the word-final position is written as {{large|ᱜᱽ}}. The ''ahad'' is used with {{large|ᱜ}}, {{large|ᱡ}}, {{large|ᱦ}}, {{large|ᱫ}}, and {{large|ᱵ}} which can form cursive ligatures with {{large|ᱽ}} in handwriting (but not usually in printed text).<ref name="L205243"/> ALA-LC transliteration uses an apostrophe (’) to represent an ''ahad''.<ref name="ALALC"/>
|-
| align=center | {{huge|ᱼ}} || phārkā || This hyphen-like mark serves as a glottal protector (the opposite function as the ''ahad''.) It preserves the ejective sound, even in the word-initial position. Compare {{large|ᱜᱚ}} /gɔ/ with {{large|ᱜᱼᱚ}} /k’ɔ/. The ''phārkā'' is only used with {{large|ᱜ}}, {{large|ᱡ}}, {{large|ᱫ}}, and {{large|ᱵ}}. It is omitted in ALA-LC transliteration.<ref name="ALALC"/>
|}

== Digits ==
Ol Chiki has its own set of digits:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! Digit !! 0 !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9
|-
| '''Ol Chiki''' || {{large|᱐}} || {{large|᱑}} || {{large|᱒}} || {{large|᱓}} || {{large|᱔}} || {{large|᱕}} || {{large|᱖}} || {{large|᱗}} || {{large|᱘}} || {{large|᱙}}
|-
| '''Bengali''' || {{large|০}} || {{large|১}} || {{large|২}} || {{large|৩}} || {{large|৪}} || {{large|৫}} || {{large|৬}} || {{large|৭}} || {{large|৮}} || {{large|৯}}
|-
| '''Devanagari''' || {{large|०}} || {{large|१}} || {{large|२}} || {{large|३}} || {{large|४}} || {{large|५}} || {{large|६}} || {{large|७}} || {{large|८}} || {{large|९}}
|-
| '''Odia''' || {{large|୦}} || {{large|୧}} || {{large|୨}} || {{large|୩}} || {{large|୪}} || {{large|୫}} || {{large|୬}} || {{large|୭}} || {{large|୮}} || {{large|୯}}
|-
| '''Persian''' || {{large|۰}} || {{large|۱}} || {{large|۲}} || {{large|۳}} || {{large|۴}} || {{large|۵}} || {{large|۶}} || {{large|۷}} || {{large|۸}} || {{large|۹}}
|-
|}

== Punctuation ==
Some Western-style punctuation marks are used with Ol Chiki: comma (,), exclamation mark (!), question mark (?), and quotation marks (“ and ”).

Period (.) is not used because it is visually confusable with the găhlă ṭuḍăg mark (ᱹ).<ref name="L205243"/> Instead of periods the script uses two [[danda]]s:
* {{large|᱾}} (mucăd) marks a minor break
* {{large|᱿}} (double mucăd) marks a major break

==Computing==

=== Unicode ===

{{Main|Ol Chiki (Unicode block)}}

Ol Chiki script was added to the [[Unicode]] Standard in April, 2008 with the release of version 5.1.

The Unicode block for Ol Chiki is U+1C50–U+1C7F:
{{Unicode chart Ol Chiki}}

=== Fonts ===

* Google's [[Noto fonts | Noto ]] Sans Ol Chiki.<ref>{{cite web |title=Noto Sans Ol Chiki |url=https://www.google.com/get/noto/#sans-olck |website=Google Noto Fonts |access-date=5 June 2020}}</ref>

* [[Microsoft]]'s font family [[Nirmala UI]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Nirmala UI font family - Typography |url=https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/typography/font-list/nirmala-ui |website=docs.microsoft.com |access-date=5 June 2020 |language=en-us}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Byomkes Chakrabarti]] (a Bengali research worker on ethnic languages)
* [[Santali Latin alphabet]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{list of writing systems}}

[[Category:Alphabets]]
[[Category:Santhal]]
[[Category:Munda scripts]]
[[Category:1925 introductions]]
[[Category:Santali language]]

Kunar Hembram

2021-07-27T12:26:20Z

Hembram Bakhul: Approved for livespace for further review. and correct.

{{short description|Indian politician}}
{{use dmy dates|date=May 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2019}}
{{Infobox officeholder
|honorific-prefix =
| name = Birmal Hembram
| image =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|2003|06|29|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Jhargram]], [[West Bengal]]
| office1 = [[Member of Parliament (India)|Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha]]
| constituency1 = [[Jhargram (Lok Sabha constituency)|Jhargram]]
| term_start1 = 23 May 2019
| term_end1 =
| predecessor1 = [[Uma Saren]]
| successor1 =
| nationality = [[Indian people|Indian]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| source = http://loksabhaph.nic.in/Members/MemberBioprofile.aspx?mpsno=5047
}}
'''Birmal Hembram''', is an Engineer turned Indian parliamentarian. He was elected to the [[Lok Sabha]] (the lower house of the [[Parliament of India]]) from [[Jhargram (Lok Sabha constituency)|Jhargram]], [[West Bengal]] in the [[2019 Indian general election]] as a member of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://indianexpress.com/elections/jhargram-lok-sabha-election-results-2019-live-winner-runner-up/ | title=Jhargram Lok Sabha Election Results 2019 LIVE Updates: Winner, Runner-up| publisher=The Indian Express| date=24 May 2019 | accessdate=24 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-jhargram-lok-sabha-election-results-2019-west-bengal-bjp-s-kunar-hembram-defeats-tmc-s-beerbaha-soren-2751200 | title=Jhargram Lok Sabha election results 2019 West Bengal: BJP's Birmal Hembram defeats TMC's Beerbaha Soren | publisher=DNA | date=24 May 2019 | accessdate=27 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.timesnownews.com/elections/article/jhargram-west-bengal-election-2019-jhargram-election-results-candidates-voter-population-polling-percentage/413996 | title=Jhargram Election Results 2019 | publisher=Times Now | date=23 May 2019 | accessdate=27 May 2020}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://loksabhaph.nic.in/Members/MemberBioprofile.aspx?mpsno=5047 Official biographical sketch in Parliament of India website]
{{17th Lok Sabha members from all states}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hembram, Kunar}}
[[Category:17th Lok Sabha members]]
[[Category:Lok Sabha members from West Bengal]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from West Bengal]]
[[Category:santali writer]]
[[Category:People from Jhargram district]]

Santal music

2021-07-24T12:29:32Z

Hembram Bakhul: Hembram Bakhul moved page Santal music to Birmal Hembram Music

[[File:Tamak and Tumdak 01.jpg|thumb|Tamak (r.) and Tumdak (l.) - typical drums of the [[Santhal people]], photographed in a village in [[Dinajpur District, Bangladesh|Dinajpur district]], [[Bangladesh]].]]
The [[Santal]] people love music and dance. Like other Indian people groups, their culture has been influenced by mainstream Indian culture and by Western culture, but traditional music and dance still remain. '''Santal music''' differs from Hindustani classical music in significant ways. [[Onkar Prasad]] has done the most recent work on the music of the Santal but others preceded his work, notably [[W. G. Archer]] who collected and analyzed hundreds of Santal songs in the mid-twentieth century. The Santal traditionally accompany many of their dances with two drums: the Tamak' and the Tumdak'. The flute was considered the most important Santal traditional instrument and still evokes feelings of nostalgia for many Santal.

== Instruments ==
{{refimprove|date=May 2016}}
Traditionally the Santal used a variety of musical instruments, but the following are now the most prominent ones in use.

;Membranophones
The Santal have two primary [[membranophones]]: the [[Tamak']] and the [[Tumdak']]. These instruments are critical for most traditional Santal music because they provide the metric foundation for the music. The Tumdak' is a hand-struck two-headed drum. The body of the drums made from clay. Like most similar Indian drums, the left head is larger than the right. Leather straps zigzag from head to head to connect and keep them tight. The drum is usually suspended around the drummers neck by a leather strap. The Tamak' is a single-headed kettle drum. It is struck by the player with two sticks. The size of the head is usually 14-16 inches in diameter. The Tamak' is thought to have special spiritual meaning and power.

;Idiophones
[[Idiophones]] include the ankle bells of dancers are called Junko and like other such Indian instruments they sound as the dancers dance. The Santal frequently use a small pair of cymbals with their music as well. Metal rattles of various sorts are also found in many Santal musical contexts.

;Aerophones
[[Aerophones]] are well represented. The flute or [[Tiriwaw]] held a special place of importance. The Tirio is made from bamboo and has seven holes. The Santal flute, like the widespread [[Bansuri]], has open holes which permit the player to bend the pitch. The Santal flute is associated with love. Many Santal musicians also play the [[Pump organ|Harmonium]]. Introduced by the British, the harmonium is a small pump organ with a three-octave keyboard and hand bellows at the back. Although it was originally introduced by outsiders, Indian musicians have adapted it to Indian musical styles and it is now as ubiquitous in India as the guitar is in the West.

Chordophones
The [[Dhodro banam]] is a one-stringed bowed lute. The Dhodro banam often has anthropomorphic carved heads. The [[Phet banam]] is also a bowed lute but has three or four strings. Both are similar to the more widely known Indian [[Sarangi]]. Christian Santal musicians sometimes use a unique instrument called the [[kabkubi]]. This one-stringed plucked [[chordophone]] was developed by Christian Santal as a substitute for the Tamak'. Because the Tamak' had such strong associations with traditional religious ceremonies and was thought to invoke the presences of certain spirits, early missionaries and Christian converts began to use the kabkubi in its place.

== Tunes ==
Traditional Santal tunes can still be heard in many Santal villages, especially during [[Santal festivals]]. Most songs and tunes have direct associations with particular festivals. Tunes used for the [[Sohrae]] harvest festival, for example, are referred to by that name. Moreover, most tunes are related to the festival dances they accompany. As a consequence, the meters and rhythms of the tunes reflect those particular festival dances. Santal melodies usually stay within an octave and often utilize scales of five or six pitches. The cadence of many Santal tunes include a unique version of [[hemiola]]—a metric feature in which divisions of 2 and 3 are placed in contrast to each other.

== Bibliography ==
* Archer, W. G. The Hill of Flutes: Life, Love, and Poetry in Tribal India: A Portrait of the Santals. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1974.
* Bodding, P. O. Santal Folk Tales. Cambridge, Mass.: H. Aschehough; Harvard University Press, 1925.
* ———. Santal Riddles and Witchcraft among the Santals. Oslo: A. W. Brøggers, 1940.
* Bompas, Cecil Henry, and P. O. Bodding. Folklore of the Santal Parganas. London: D. Nutt, 1909.
* Culshaw, W. J. Tribal Heritage; a Study of the Santals. London: Lutterworth Press, 1949.
* Prasad, Onkar. Santal Music: A Study in Pattern and Process of Cultural Persistence, Tribal Studies of India Series; T 115. New Delhi: Inter-India Publications, 1985.
* Roy Chaudhury, Indu. Folk Tales of the Santals. 1st ed. Folk Tales of India Series, 13. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers, 1973.

== See also ==
* [[Santal]]

==External links==
* [http://www.aiswacs.org/ All India Santal Culture and Welfare Society]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061205015825/http://www.tribalarts.com/feature/santal/ Santal Arts]
* [http://wesanthals.tripod.com/ A Portal for Santals]
* [https://archive.is/20130102194147/http://www.frazadelic.com/Santhal.html Santal Dance]
* [http://www.daricha.org/sub_genre.aspx?ID=92&Tribes=Santals&Name=Banam Banam The bowed music instrument played by the Santals]

[[Category:Music of Indian subdivisions]]
[[Category:Culture of Jharkhand]]

Nelson Mandela

2021-07-18T22:44:50Z

Hembram Bakhul: /* External links */

{{short description|First President of South Africa and anti-apartheid activist}}
{{redirect|Mandela||Mandela (disambiguation)|and|Nelson Mandela (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-semi-indef|small=yes}}
{{pp-move-indef}}
{{featured article}}
{{EngvarB|date=March 2019}}
{{use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| honorific_prefix = [[His Excellency]]
| honorific_suffix = {{post-nominals|list=[[List of awards and honours received by Nelson Mandela|OMP SBG SBS CLS DMG MMS MMB]]|size=100%}}
| image = Nelson Mandela 1994.jpg
| alt = Portrait photograph of a 76-year-old President Mandela
| caption = Mandela in [[Washington, D.C.]], 1994
| order = 1st
| office = President of South Africa
| term_start = 10 May 1994
| term_end = 16 June 1999
| deputy = {{plainlist|
* [[Thabo Mbeki]]
* [[F. W. de Klerk]]
}}
| predecessor = F. W. de Klerk {{nowrap|(''[[State President of South Africa|State Pres.]]'')}}
| successor = Thabo Mbeki
| office1 = {{nowrap|11th President of the [[African National Congress]]}}
| deputy1 = {{plainlist|
* [[Walter Sisulu]]
* Thabo Mbeki
}}
| term_start1 = 7 July 1991
| term_end1 = 20 December 1997
| predecessor1 = [[Oliver Tambo]]
| successor1 = Thabo Mbeki
| office2 = 19th Secretary General of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]]
| term_start2 = 2 September 1998
| term_end2 = 16 June 1999
| predecessor2 = [[Andrés Pastrana Arango]]
| successor2 = Thabo Mbeki
| birth_name = Rolihlahla Mandela
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=y|1918|7|18}}
| birth_place = [[Mvezo]], [[Cape Province]], [[Union of South Africa]] (now [[Eastern Cape]])
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=y|2013|12|05|1918|7|18}}
| death_place = [[Johannesburg]], [[Gauteng]], [[South Africa|Republic of South Africa]]
| death_cause = 
| resting_place = Mandela Graveyard [[Qunu, Eastern Cape]], South Africa
| party = [[African National Congress]]
| otherparty = [[South African Communist Party|South African Communist]]
| spouse = {{plainlist|
* {{marriage|[[Evelyn Mase|Evelyn Ntoko Mase]]|5 October 1944|19 March 1958|reason=divorced}}
* {{marriage|[[Winnie Madikizela-Mandela|Winnie Madikizela]]|14 June 1958|19 March 1996|reason=divorced}}
* {{marriage|[[Graça Machel]]|18 July 1998}}
}}
| children = 7, including [[Makgatho Mandela|Makgatho]], [[Makaziwe Mandela|Makaziwe]], [[Zenani Mandela-Dlamini|Zenani]], [[Zindzi Mandela|Zindziswa]] and [[Josina Z. Machel|Josina]] (step-daughter)
| parents = {{plainlist|
* Nosekeni Fanny (mother)
* Gadla Henry Mphakanyiswa (father)
}}
| alma_mater = {{plainlist|
* [[University of Fort Hare]]
* [[University of London]]
* [[University of South Africa]]
* [[University of the Witwatersrand]]
}}
| occupation = {{flatlist|
* Activist
* {{lcfirst:Politician}}
* {{lcfirst:Philanthropist}}
* {{lcfirst:Lawyer}}
}}
| website = {{official website|nelsonmandela.org}}
| nickname = {{flatlist|
* Madiba
* Dalibunga
}}
| known_for = [[Internal resistance to apartheid]]
| awards = {{plainlist|
* [[Sakharov Prize]] (1988)
* [[Bharat Ratna]] (1990)
* [[Nishan-e-Pakistan]] (1992)
* [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (1993)
* [[Lenin Peace Prize]] (1990)
* [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]]
* ''([[List of awards and honours bestowed upon Nelson Mandela|more...]])''
}}
| module = {{Infobox writer | embed=yes
| notableworks = ''[[Long Walk to Freedom]]''
}}
}}


'''Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela''' ({{IPAc-en|m|æ|n|ˈ|d|ɛ|l|ə}};<ref>{{cite web| title=Mandela| url=http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/mandela| publisher=[[Collins English Dictionary]]| access-date=17 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160405011219/http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/mandela |archive-date=5 April 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> {{IPA-xh|xolíɬaɬa mandɛ̂ːla|lang}}; 18 July 1918 – 5 December 2013) was a South African [[Internal resistance to apartheid|anti-apartheid]] revolutionary, statesman and [[philanthropist]] who served as [[President of South Africa]] from 1994 to 1999. He was the country's first black head of state and the first elected in a [[Universal suffrage|fully representative]] democratic election. [[Presidency of Nelson Mandela|His government]] focused on dismantling the legacy of [[apartheid]] by tackling institutionalised racism and fostering racial [[Conflict resolution|reconciliation]]. Ideologically an [[African nationalist]] and [[socialist]], he served as the president of the [[African National Congress]] (ANC) party from 1991 to 1997.


A [[Xhosa language|Xhosa speaker]], Mandela was born into the [[Thembu]] royal family in [[Mvezo]], [[Union of South Africa]]. He studied law at the [[University of Fort Hare]] and the [[University of Witwatersrand]] before working as a lawyer in [[Johannesburg]]. There he became involved in [[anti-colonial]] and African nationalist politics, joining the ANC in 1943 and co-founding its [[African National Congress Youth League|Youth League]] in 1944. After the [[National Party (South Africa)|National Party]]'s [[Dominant minority|white-only government]] established apartheid, a system of [[racial segregation]] that privileged [[White South African|whites]], Mandela and the ANC committed themselves to its overthrow. He was appointed president of the ANC's [[Transvaal Province|Transvaal]] branch, rising to prominence for his involvement in the 1952 [[Defiance Campaign]] and the 1955 [[Congress of the People (1955)|Congress of the People]]. He was repeatedly arrested for [[seditious]] activities and was unsuccessfully prosecuted in the [[1956 Treason Trial]]. Influenced by [[Marxism]], he secretly joined the banned [[South African Communist Party]] (SACP). Although initially committed to non-violent protest, in association with the SACP he co-founded the militant [[Umkhonto we Sizwe]] in 1961 and led a [[sabotage]] campaign against the government. He was arrested and imprisoned in 1962, and subsequently sentenced to life imprisonment for conspiring to overthrow the state following the [[Rivonia Trial]].


Mandela served 27 years in prison, split between [[Robben Island]], [[Pollsmoor Prison]] and [[Victor Verster Prison]]. Amid growing domestic and international pressure and fears of racial civil war, President [[F. W. de Klerk]] released him in 1990. Mandela and de Klerk led efforts to negotiate an end to apartheid, which resulted in the [[1994 South African general election|1994 multiracial general election]] in which Mandela led the ANC to victory and became president. Leading a [[Government of National Unity (South Africa)|broad coalition government]] which promulgated a [[Constitution of South Africa|new constitution]], Mandela emphasised reconciliation between the country's racial groups and created the [[Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South Africa)|Truth and Reconciliation Commission]] to investigate past [[Human rights in South Africa|human rights]] abuses. Economically, his administration retained its predecessor's [[Economic liberalism|liberal framework]] despite his own socialist beliefs, also introducing measures to encourage [[land reform]], [[Poverty reduction|combat poverty]] and expand healthcare services. Internationally, Mandela acted as mediator in the [[Pan Am Flight 103 bombing trial]] and served as secretary-general of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] from 1998 to 1999. He declined a second presidential term and was succeeded by his deputy, [[Thabo Mbeki]]. Mandela became an elder statesman and focused on combating poverty and [[HIV/AIDS]] through the charitable [[Nelson Mandela Foundation]].


Mandela was a controversial figure for much of his life. Although critics on [[Right-wing politics|the right]] denounced him as a [[communist terrorist]] and those on the [[far left]] deemed him too eager to negotiate and reconcile with apartheid's supporters, he gained international acclaim for his activism. Widely regarded as an icon of democracy and [[social justice]], he received [[List of Nelson Mandela awards and honours|more than 250 honours]], including the [[Nobel Peace Prize]]. He is held in deep respect within South Africa, where he is often referred to by his [[Xhosa clan names|Thembu clan name]], [[Madiba]], and described as the "[[Father of the Nation]]".

==Early life==
===Childhood: 1918–1934===
Mandela was born on 18 July 1918 in the village of Mvezo in [[Umtata]], then part of South Africa's [[Cape Province]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=3|2a1=Boehmer|2y=2008|2p=21|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=17|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=3}} Given the forename Rolihlahla,<ref>Mandela used the spelling Rolihlahla, see for example [http://www.mandela.gov.za/ official website]. [[Peter Mtuze]] notes that the orthography of [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]] names has changed since the time of Mandela's schooling, and that it would now be written Rholihlahla. (''Mandela's Long Walk to Freedom: the isiXhosa translator's tall order. Southern African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies 2003, 21(3), 141–152.'')</ref> a [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]] term colloquially meaning "troublemaker",{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=16|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2p=3|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=17|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=2|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=3}} in later years he became known by his clan name, Madiba.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=4|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=2|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=16}} His patrilineal great-grandfather, [[Ngubengcuka]], was king of the [[Thembu]] people in the [[Transkei]]an Territories of South Africa's modern [[Eastern Cape]] province.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=3|2a1=Guiloineau|2a2=Rowe|2y=2002|2p=23|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=1}} One of Ngubengcuka's sons, named Mandela, was Nelson's grandfather and the source of his surname.{{sfnm|1a1=Guiloineau|1a2=Rowe|1y=2002|1p=26}} Because Mandela was the king's child by a wife of the Ixhiba clan, a so-called "Left-Hand House", the descendants of his [[cadet branch]] of the royal family were [[morganatic marriage|morganatic]], ineligible to inherit the throne but recognised as hereditary royal councillors.{{sfnm|1a1=Guiloineau|1a2=Rowe|1y=2002|1p=26|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=1|3a1=Mafela|3y=2008|3pp=102–103}}

Nelson Mandela's father, Gadla Henry Mphakanyiswa Mandela (1880–1928), was a local chief and councillor to the monarch; he was appointed to the position in 1915, after his predecessor was accused of corruption by a governing white magistrate.{{sfn|Smith|2010|p=19}} In 1926, Gadla was also sacked for corruption, but Nelson was told that his father had lost his job for standing up to the magistrate's unreasonable demands.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=8–9|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=21–22|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=4}} A devotee of the god [[Qamata]],{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=17|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=1}} Gadla was a polygamist with four wives, four sons and nine daughters, who lived in different villages. Nelson's mother was Gadla's third wife, Nosekeni Fanny, daughter of Nkedama of the Right Hand House and a member of the amaMpemvu clan of the Xhosa.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=15|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=7–8|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=16, 23–24|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=1, 3|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=4}}

{{Quote box|width=25em|align=left|quote=No one in my family had ever attended school ... On the first day of school my teacher, Miss Mdingane, gave each of us an English name. This was the custom among Africans in those days and was undoubtedly due to the British bias of our education. That day, Miss Mdingane told me that my new name was Nelson. Why this particular name, I have no idea.|salign=right |source=—Mandela, 1994{{sfn|Mandela|1994|p=19}} }}

Mandela later stated that his early life was dominated by traditional Thembu custom and taboo.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=15|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=3}} He grew up with two sisters in his mother's ''[[homestead (small African settlement)|kraal]]'' in the village of [[Qunu]], where he tended herds as a cattle-boy and spent much time outside with other boys.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=16|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2p=12|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=23–24|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=2, 4}} Both his parents were illiterate, but being a devout Christian, his mother sent him to a local [[Methodism|Methodist]] school when he was about seven. Baptised a Methodist, Mandela was given the English forename of "Nelson" by his teacher.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=18–19|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=3|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=24|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=2, 4–5|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=5,7|6a1=Forster|6y=2014|6pp=91–92}} When Mandela was about nine, his father came to stay at Qunu, where he died of an undiagnosed ailment which Mandela believed to be lung disease.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=20|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=3|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=25|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=5|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=7}} Feeling "cut adrift", he later said that he inherited his father's "proud rebelliousness" and "stubborn sense of fairness".{{sfn|Mandela|1994|pp=8, 20}}

Mandela's mother took him to the "Great Place" palace at Mqhekezweni, where he was entrusted to the guardianship of the Thembu [[Regency (government)|regent]], Chief Jongintaba Dalindyebo. Although he did not see his mother again for many years, Mandela felt that Jongintaba and his wife Noengland treated him as their own child, raising him alongside their son, Justice, and daughter, Nomafu.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=17|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=4|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=22–25|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=3|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=26–27|6a1=Meredith|6y=2010|6p=5|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=7–9}} As Mandela attended church services every Sunday with his guardians, Christianity became a significant part of his life.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=7|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=27–29|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=8–9}} He attended a Methodist mission school located next to the palace, where he studied English, Xhosa, history and geography.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=7|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2p=25|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=27|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=9}} He developed a love of [[African history]], listening to the tales told by elderly visitors to the palace, and was influenced by the [[Anti-imperialism|anti-imperialist]] rhetoric of a visiting chief, Joyi.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=11–12|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=31–34|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=3|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=18|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=8}} Nevertheless, at the time he considered the [[Scramble for Africa|European colonizers]] not as oppressors but as benefactors who had brought education and other benefits to southern Africa.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=43|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=11}} Aged 16, he, Justice and several other boys travelled to Tyhalarha to undergo the [[ulwaluko]] [[circumcision]] ritual that symbolically marked their transition from boys to men; afterwards he was given the name ''Dalibunga''.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=17|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=36–42|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=8|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=29–31|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=9–11|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6p=14}}

===Clarkebury, Healdtown, and Fort Hare: 1934–1940===

[[File:Young Mandela.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Photograph of Mandela, taken in Umtata in 1937]]

Intending to gain skills needed to become a [[privy council]]lor for the Thembu royal house, in 1933 Mandela began his secondary education at [[Clarkebury]] Methodist High School in [[Engcobo]], a Western-style institution that was the largest school for Black Africans in [[Thembuland]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=45–47|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=27, 31|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=12–13|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=15}} Made to socialise with other students on an equal basis, he claimed that he lost his "stuck up" attitude, becoming best friends with a girl for the first time; he began playing sports and developed his lifelong love of gardening.{{sfn|Mandela|1994|pp=48–50}} He completed his Junior Certificate in two years,{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=17}} and in 1937 moved to [[Healdtown Comprehensive School|Healdtown]], the Methodist college in [[Fort Beaufort]] attended by most Thembu royalty, including Justice.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=52|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=31–32|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=14|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=17–18}} The headmaster emphasised the superiority of [[Culture of Europe|European culture]] and [[government]], but Mandela became increasingly interested in native [[Culture of Africa|African culture]], making his first non-Xhosa friend, a speaker of [[Sotho language|Sotho]], and coming under the influence of one of his favourite teachers, a Xhosa who broke taboo by marrying a Sotho.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=53–54|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=32|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=14–15|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=18–21}} Mandela spent much of his spare time at Healdtown as a long-distance runner and boxer, and in his second year he became a [[prefect]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=56|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=32|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=15}}

With Jongintaba's backing, in 1939 Mandela began work on a [[Bachelor of Arts|BA degree]] at the [[University of Fort Hare]], an elite Black institution in [[Alice, Eastern Cape]], with around 150 students. There he studied English, [[anthropology]], politics, "native administration", and [[Roman Dutch law]] in his first year, desiring to become an interpreter or clerk in the [[INTAF|Native Affairs Department]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=62–65|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=9|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=33–34|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=15–18|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=21, 25}} Mandela stayed in the Wesley House dormitory, befriending his own kinsman, [[Kaiser Matanzima|K. D. Matanzima]], as well as [[Oliver Tambo]], who became a close friend and comrade for decades to come.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=62–63|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=33–34|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=17–19|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=24–25}} He took up ballroom dancing,{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=67–69|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=34|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=18|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=25}} performed in a drama society play about [[Abraham Lincoln]],{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=68|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=10|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=35|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=18|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=25}} and gave [[Bible]] classes in the local community as part of the Student Christian Association.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=68|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=10|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=18|4a1=Forster|4y=2014|4p=93}} Although he had friends who held connections to the [[African National Congress]] (ANC) who wanted South Africa to be independent of the [[British Empire]], Mandela avoided any involvement with the nascent movement,{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=25}} and became a vocal supporter of the [[British Empire in World War II|British war effort]] when the [[Second World War]] broke out.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=70–71|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=11|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=19|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=26}} He helped establish a first-year students' house committee which challenged the dominance of the second-years,{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=66|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=34}} and at the end of his first year became involved in a [[Students' Representative Council]] (SRC) boycott against the quality of food, for which he was suspended from the university; he never returned to complete his degree.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=21|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=78–86|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3pp=11–12|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=34–35|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=19–20|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=26–27}}

===Arriving in Johannesburg: 1941–1943===
Returning to Mqhekezweni in December 1940, Mandela found that Jongintaba had [[arranged marriage]]s for him and Justice; dismayed, they fled to [[Johannesburg]] via [[Queenstown, Eastern Cape|Queenstown]], arriving in April 1941.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=21|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=73–76|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=12|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=36–39|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=20–22|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=27–28}} Mandela found work as a night watchman at Crown Mines, his "first sight of South African capitalism in action", but was fired when the ''induna'' (headman) discovered that he was a runaway.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=23|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=25–26|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=89–94|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4pp=12–13|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5p=40|6a1=Meredith|6y=2010|6pp=27–28|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=29–30}} He stayed with a cousin in George Goch Township, who introduced Mandela to realtor and ANC activist [[Walter Sisulu]]. The latter secured Mandela a job as an [[articled clerk]] at the law firm of Witkin, Sidelsky and Eidelman, a company run by Lazar Sidelsky, a [[Liberalism|liberal]] Jew sympathetic to the ANC's cause.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=96–101|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=13, 19–21|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=41|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=28–30|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=30–31}} At the firm, Mandela befriended Gaur Radebe—a Hlubi member of the ANC and [[South African Communist Party|Communist Party]]—and Nat Bregman, a Jewish [[communism|communist]] who became his first white friend.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=104–105|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=22, 31–32|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=43, 48|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=31–32|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=32–33}} Mandela attended Communist Party gatherings, where he was impressed that [[White South Africans|Europeans]], [[Bantu peoples|Africans]], [[Asian South Africans|Indians]], and [[Coloured]]s mixed as equals. He later stated that he did not join the party because its [[atheism]] conflicted with his Christian faith, and because he saw the South African struggle as being racially based rather than as [[class conflict|class warfare]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=106|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=48–49}} To continue his higher education, Mandela signed up to a [[University of South Africa]] correspondence course, working on his bachelor's degree at night.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=100|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=44|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=33|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=34}}

Earning a small wage, Mandela rented a room in the house of the Xhoma family in the [[Alexandra, Gauteng|Alexandra]] township; despite being rife with poverty, crime and pollution, Alexandra always remained a special place for him.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=23|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=26|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=99, 108–110|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=44–45|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=33|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6p=33}} Although embarrassed by his poverty, he briefly dated a [[Swazi people|Swati]] woman before unsuccessfully courting his landlord's daughter.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=113–116|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=23|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=45–46|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=33}} To save money and be closer to downtown Johannesburg, Mandela moved into the compound of the [[Witwatersrand Native Labour Association]], living among miners of various tribes; as the compound was visited by various chiefs, he once met the [[Regent|Queen Regent]] of [[Basutoland]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=118–119|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=24|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=33|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=34}} In late 1941, Jongintaba visited Johannesburg—there forgiving Mandela for running away—before returning to Thembuland, where he died in the winter of 1942. Mandela and Justice arrived a day late for the funeral.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=116–117, 119–120|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=22|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=47|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=33–34|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=33}} After he passed his BA exams in early 1943, Mandela returned to Johannesburg to follow a political path as a lawyer rather than become a privy councillor in Thembuland.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=122, 126–27|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=49|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=34|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=34}} He later stated that he experienced no epiphany, but that he "simply found [himself] doing so, and could not do otherwise."{{sfn|Mandela|1994|p=135}}

==Revolutionary activity==
===Law studies and the ANC Youth League: 1943–1949===
Mandela began studying law at the [[University of the Witwatersrand]], where he was the only black African student and faced racism. There, he befriended liberal and communist European, Jewish, and Indian students, among them [[Joe Slovo]] and [[Ruth First]].{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=33–34|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=127–131|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=64–65|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=34–35|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=34–35}} Becoming increasingly politicised, in August 1943 Mandela marched in support of a successful bus boycott to reverse fare rises.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=122–123|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=27–28|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=48|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=44|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=37}} Joining the ANC, he was increasingly influenced by Sisulu, spending time with other activists at Sisulu's [[Orlando, Soweto|Orlando]] house, including his old friend Oliver Tambo.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=136|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=53|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=36, 43}} In 1943, Mandela met [[Anton Lembede]], an ANC member affiliated with the "Africanist" branch of [[African nationalism]], which was virulently opposed to a racially united front against colonialism and imperialism or to an alliance with the communists.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=137–139|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=33–34|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=53|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=42–43|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=38–39}} Despite his friendships with non-blacks and communists, Mandela embraced Lembede's views, believing that Black Africans should be entirely independent in their struggle for political self-determination.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=31|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=34–35|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=142–143|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=54}} Deciding on the need for a youth wing to mass-mobilise Africans in opposition to their subjugation, Mandela was among a delegation that approached ANC President [[Alfred Bitini Xuma]] on the subject at his home in [[Sophiatown]]; the [[African National Congress Youth League]] (ANCYL) was founded on Easter Sunday 1944 in the [[Bantu Men's Social Centre]], with Lembede as president and Mandela as a member of its executive committee.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=28–29|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=139–143|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=35|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=52–56|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=44–46|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=39–41}}

[[File:Mandela e Evelyn 1944.jpg|thumb|left|Mandela and Evelyn in July 1944, at Walter and Albertina Sisulu's wedding party in the Bantu Men's Social Centre.{{sfn|Smith|2010|p=inset photographs}}]]

At Sisulu's house, Mandela met [[Evelyn Mase]], a trainee nurse and ANC activist from [[Engcobo]], [[Transkei]]. Entering a relationship and marrying in October 1944, they initially lived with her relatives until moving into a rented house in the township of [[Orlando, Soweto|Orlando]] in early 1946.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=24|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=39–40|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=144, 148–149|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4pp=24, 25|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=59–62|6a1=Meredith|6y=2010|6p=47|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7p=36}} Their first child, Madiba "Thembi" Thembekile, was born in February 1945; a daughter, Makaziwe, was born in 1947 but died of [[meningitis]] nine months later.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=40–41|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=149, 152|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=29|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=60–64|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=48|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6p=36}} Mandela enjoyed home life, welcoming his mother and his sister, Leabie, to stay with him.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=40|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=150, 210|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=30|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=67|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=48|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6p=36}} In early 1947, his three years of articles ended at Witkin, Sidelsky and Eidelman, and he decided to become a full-time student, subsisting on loans from the Bantu Welfare Trust.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=151|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=64|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=48–49}}

In July 1947, Mandela rushed Lembede, who was ill, to hospital, where he died; he was succeeded as ANCYL president by the more moderate [[A.P. Mda|Peter Mda]], who agreed to co-operate with communists and non-blacks, appointing Mandela ANCYL secretary.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=36|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=43|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=153–154|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=66|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=48}} Mandela disagreed with Mda's approach, and in December 1947 supported an unsuccessful measure to expel communists from the ANCYL, considering their ideology un-African.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=154|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=42}} In 1947, Mandela was elected to the executive committee of the ANC's [[Transvaal Province]] branch, serving under regional president C. S. Ramohanoe. When Ramohanoe acted against the wishes of the committee by co-operating with Indians and communists, Mandela was one of those who forced his resignation.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=154–157|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=37|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=66|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=49}}

In the [[1948 South African general election|South African general election in 1948]], in which only whites were permitted to vote, the Afrikaner-dominated [[Herenigde Nasionale Party]] under [[Daniel François Malan]] took power, soon uniting with the [[Afrikaner Party]] to form the [[National Party (South Africa)|National Party]]. Openly [[Racialism (Racial categorization)|racialist]], the party codified and expanded racial segregation with new [[apartheid legislation]].{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=35|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=159–162|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3pp=41–42|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=70–72|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=76–78|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=51–52}} Gaining increasing influence in the ANC, Mandela and his party cadre allies began advocating [[direct action]] against apartheid, such as boycotts and strikes, influenced by the tactics already employed by South Africa's Indian community. Xuma did not support these measures and was removed from the presidency in a [[Motion of no confidence|vote of no confidence]], replaced by [[James Moroka]] and a more militant executive committee containing Sisulu, Mda, Tambo, and Godfrey Pitje.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=36–37|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=162–165|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=44|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=72–73|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=78–79|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=53–55}} Mandela later related that he and his colleagues had "guided the ANC to a more radical and revolutionary path."{{sfn|Mandela|1994|p=165}} Having devoted his time to politics, Mandela failed his final year at Witwatersrand three times; he was ultimately denied his degree in December 1949.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2010|1pp=68–70|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=35}}

===Defiance Campaign and Transvaal ANC Presidency: 1950–1954===

[[File:Flag of the African National Congress.svg|thumb|The ANC's tricolour flag; black for the people, green for the land, and gold for the resources of Africa{{sfn|Benson|1986|p=26}}]]

Mandela took Xuma's place on the ANC national executive in March 1950,{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=168|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=44|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=55–56}} and that same year was elected national president of the ANCYL.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=41|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2p=176|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=47|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=78|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=88|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=63–64}} In March, the Defend Free Speech Convention was held in Johannesburg, bringing together African, Indian, and communist activists to call a [[International Workers' Day|May Day]] [[general strike]] in protest against apartheid and white minority rule. Mandela opposed the strike because it was multi-racial and not ANC-led, but a majority of Black workers took part, resulting in increased police repression and the introduction of the [[Suppression of Communism Act, 1950]], affecting the actions of all protest groups.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=38–40|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=48–49|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=165–167|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=74–75|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=81–83|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=61–62}} At the ANC national conference of December 1951, he continued arguing against a racially united front, but was outvoted.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=176|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=78|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=63–64}}

Thereafter, Mandela rejected Lembede's Africanism and embraced the idea of a multi-racial front against apartheid.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=42|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=55|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=48|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=94}} Influenced by friends like [[Moses Kotane]] and by the [[Soviet Union]]'s support for [[wars of national liberation]], his mistrust of communism broke down and he began reading literature by [[Karl Marx]], [[Vladimir Lenin]], and [[Mao Zedong]], eventually embracing the [[Marxist philosophy]] of [[dialectical materialism]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=177–172|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=45, 47|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=75–76|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=87|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=64–65}} Commenting on communism, he later stated that he "found [himself] strongly drawn to the idea of a classless society which, to [his] mind, was similar to traditional African culture where life was shared and communal."{{sfn|Mandela|1994|p=172}} In April 1952, Mandela began work at the H.M. Basner law firm, which was owned by a communist,{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=165|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=53|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=77|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=92}} although his increasing commitment to work and activism meant he spent less time with his family.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=170|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=94|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=103}}

In 1952, the ANC began preparation for a joint [[Defiance Campaign]] against apartheid with Indian and communist groups, founding a National Voluntary Board to recruit volunteers. The campaign was designed to follow the path of [[nonviolent resistance]] influenced by [[Mahatma Gandhi]]; some supported this for ethical reasons, but Mandela instead considered it pragmatic.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=44–46|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=56–58|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=182–183|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=77, 80|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=88–89|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=66–67}} At a [[Durban]] rally on 22 June, Mandela addressed an assembled crowd of 10,000 people, initiating the campaign protests for which he was arrested and briefly interned in Marshall Square prison.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=183–188|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=52, 53|32a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=81–83|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=88–89|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=69}} These events established Mandela as one of the best-known Black political figures in South Africa.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=47}} With further protests, the ANC's membership grew from 20,000 to 100,000 members; the government responded with mass arrests and introduced the [[Public Safety Act, 1953]] to permit [[martial law]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=188–192|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=68}} In May, authorities banned Transvaal ANC President [[J. B. Marks]] from making public appearances; unable to maintain his position, he recommended Mandela as his successor. Although Africanists opposed his candidacy, Mandela was elected to be regional president in October.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=51|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=194–195|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=54|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=85|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=72–73}}

[[File:The Nelson Mandela House.jpg|thumb|left|[[Mandela House|Mandela's former home]] in the Johannesburg township of [[Soweto]]]]

In July 1952, Mandela was arrested under the [[Suppression of Communism Act]] and stood trial as one of the 21 accused—among them Moroka, Sisulu, and [[Yusuf Dadoo]]—in Johannesburg. Found guilty of "statutory communism", a term that the government used to describe most opposition to apartheid, their sentence of nine months' [[hard labour]] was [[Suspended sentence|suspended]] for two years.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=50–51|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=195–198|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=54|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=83–84|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=92|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=71–72}} In December, Mandela was given a six-month ban from attending meetings or talking to more than one individual at a time, making his Transvaal ANC presidency impractical, and during this period the Defiance Campaign petered out.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=64|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=199–200, 204|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=86|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=73}} In September 1953, Andrew Kunene read out Mandela's "No Easy Walk to Freedom" speech at a Transvaal ANC meeting; the title was taken from a quote by Indian independence leader [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], a seminal influence on Mandela's thought. The speech laid out a contingency plan for a scenario in which the ANC was banned. This Mandela Plan, or M-Plan, involved dividing the organisation into a [[Clandestine cell system|cell structure]] with a more centralised leadership.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=58–59|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=60|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=205–207, 231|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=58|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=107–108|6a1=Smith|6y=2010|6pp=116–117|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=81–82, 84–85}}

Mandela obtained work as an attorney for the firm Terblanche and Briggish, before moving to the liberal-run Helman and Michel, passing qualification exams to become a full-fledged attorney.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=209–210|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=87|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=95|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=7}} In August 1953, Mandela and Tambo opened their own law firm, [[Mandela and Tambo]], operating in downtown Johannesburg. The only African-run law firm in the country, it was popular with aggrieved Black people, often dealing with cases of [[police brutality]]. Disliked by the authorities, the firm was forced to relocate to a remote location after their office permit was removed under the [[Group Areas Act]]; as a result, their clientele dwindled.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=54–57|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=61|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=210–216|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=73|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=87–93|6a1=Meredith|6y=2010|6pp=95–101|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=77–80}} As a lawyer of aristocratic heritage, Mandela was part of Johannesburg's elite Black middle-class, and accorded much respect from the Black community.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|pp=28–29, 75}} Although a second daughter, [[Makaziwe Mandela|Makaziwe Phumia]], was born in May 1954, Mandela's relationship with Evelyn became strained, and she accused him of adultery. He may have had affairs with ANC member [[Lillian Ngoyi]] and secretary Ruth Mompati; various individuals close to Mandela in this period have stated that the latter bore him a child.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=103–104|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=95–99, 105–106}} Disgusted by her son's behaviour, Nosekeni returned to Transkei, while Evelyn embraced the [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] and rejected Mandela's preoccupation with politics.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=293–294|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=104–105|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=98–99, 105–106|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=76–77}}

===Congress of the People and the Treason Trial: 1955–1961===
{{Main|Treason Trial}}
{{Quote box
| width = 25em
| align = right
| quote = We, the people of South Africa, declare for all our country and the world to know: That South Africa belongs to all who live in it, Black and white, and that no government can justly claim authority unless it is based on the will of the people.
| salign = right
| source = —Opening words of the [[Freedom Charter]]{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=66|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=92}}
}}

After taking part in the unsuccessful protest to prevent the forced relocation of all Black people from the Sophiatown suburb of Johannesburg in February 1955, Mandela concluded that violent action would prove necessary to end apartheid and white minority rule.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=218–233, 234–236|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=59–60|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=114–117|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=120–123|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=82–84}} On his advice, Sisulu requested weaponry from the People's Republic of China, which was denied. Although the Chinese government supported the anti-apartheid struggle, they believed the movement insufficiently prepared for [[guerrilla warfare]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=226–227|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=60|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=108–109|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=118|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=84}} With the involvement of the [[South African Indian Congress]], the Coloured People's Congress, the [[South African Congress of Trade Unions]] and the [[South African Congress of Democrats|Congress of Democrats]], the ANC planned a [[Congress of the People (1955)|Congress of the People]], calling on all South Africans to send in proposals for a post-apartheid era. Based on the responses, a [[Freedom Charter]] was drafted by [[Rusty Bernstein]], calling for the creation of a democratic, non-racialist state with the [[nationalisation]] of major industry. The charter was adopted at a June 1955 conference in [[Kliptown]]; 3,000 delegates attended the event, which was forcibly closed down by police.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=64–67|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=71–75|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=243–249|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4pp=65–66|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=129–133|6a1=Smith|6y=2010|6pp=118–120, 125–128|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=87–95}} The tenets of the Freedom Charter remained important for Mandela, and in 1956 he described it as "an inspiration to the people of South Africa".{{sfn|Meredith|2010|p=134}}

Following the end of a second ban in September 1955, Mandela went on a working holiday to [[Transkei]] to discuss the implications of the [[Bantu Authorities Act, 1951]] with local tribal leaders, also visiting his mother and Noengland before proceeding to [[Cape Town]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=253–274|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=130–132|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=96–99}} In March 1956 he received his third ban on public appearances, restricting him to Johannesburg for five years, but he often defied it.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=275|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=147|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=101–102}} Mandela's marriage broke down and Evelyn left him, taking their children to live with her brother. Initiating divorce proceedings in May 1956, she claimed that Mandela had physically abused her; he denied the allegations, and fought for custody of their children.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=79–80|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=143–144|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=100–102|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=110}} She withdrew her petition of separation in November, but Mandela filed for divorce in January 1958; the divorce was finalised in March, with the children placed in Evelyn's care.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=79–80|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2p=296|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=102–104|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=110}} During the divorce proceedings, he began courting a social worker, [[Winnie Madikizela-Mandela|Winnie Madikizela]], whom he married in [[Bizana, Eastern Cape|Bizana]] in June 1958. She later became involved in ANC activities, spending several weeks in prison.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=74–76|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=93|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=306–311|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4pp=75–77|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=144–149|6a1=Smith|6y=2010|6pp=104, 132–145|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=110–113}} Together they had two children: [[Zenani Mandela-Dlamini|Zenani]], born in February 1959, and [[Zindzi Mandela-Hlongwane|Zindziswa]] (1960–2020).{{sfn|Meredith|2010|pp=165, 186}}

[[File:ApartheidSignEnglishAfrikaans.jpg|thumb|left|An apartheid sign; apartheid legislation impacted all areas of life]]

In December 1956, Mandela was arrested alongside most of the ANC national executive, and accused of "high treason" against the state. Held in Johannesburg Prison amid mass protests, they underwent a preparatory examination before being granted bail.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=68, 71–72|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=83|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=283–292|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=136–141|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=163–164|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=103–106}} The defence's refutation began in January 1957, overseen by defence lawyer [[Vernon Berrangé]], and continued until the case was adjourned in September. In January 1958, [[Oswald Pirow]] was appointed to prosecute the case, and in February the judge ruled that there was "sufficient reason" for the defendants to go on trial in the [[Gauteng Division|Transvaal Supreme Court]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=299–305|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=142|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=167–168|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=116–117}} The formal [[Treason Trial]] began in [[Pretoria]] in August 1958, with the defendants successfully applying to have the three judges—all linked to the governing National Party—replaced. In August, one charge was dropped, and in October the prosecution withdrew its indictment, submitting a reformulated version in November which argued that the ANC leadership committed high treason by advocating violent revolution, a charge the defendants denied.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=331–334|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=162, 165|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=167|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=122–123}}

In April 1959, Africanists dissatisfied with the ANC's united front approach founded the [[Pan-Africanist Congress]] (PAC); Mandela disagreed with the PAC's racially exclusionary views, describing them as "immature" and "naïve".{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=79|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=90–92, 141–143|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=327–330|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=167–168|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=171–173|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=117–122}} Both parties took part in an anti-pass campaign in early 1960, in which Africans burned [[Pass laws|the passes that they were legally obliged to carry]]. One of the PAC-organised demonstrations was fired upon by police, resulting in the deaths of 69 protesters in the [[Sharpeville massacre]]. The incident brought international condemnation of the government and resulted in rioting throughout South Africa, with Mandela publicly burning his pass in solidarity.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=83–84|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=144–147|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=342–346|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4pp=81–82|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=167–170|6a1=Smith|6y=2010|6pp=173–175|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=130–131}}

Responding to the unrest, the government implemented state of emergency measures, declaring [[martial law]] and banning the ANC and PAC; in March, they arrested Mandela and other activists, imprisoning them for five months without charge in the unsanitary conditions of the Pretoria Local prison.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=85–86|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=347–357|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=172–175|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=175|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=132–133}} Imprisonment caused problems for Mandela and his co-defendants in the Treason Trial; their lawyers could not reach them, and so it was decided that the lawyers would withdraw in protest until the accused were freed from prison when the state of emergency was lifted in late August 1960.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=357–364|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=176, 184|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=177|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=134–135}} Over the following months, Mandela used his free time to organise an All-In African Conference near [[Pietermaritzburg]], [[Natal Province|Natal]], in March 1961, at which 1,400 anti-apartheid delegates met, agreeing on a stay-at-home strike to mark 31 May, the day South Africa became a republic.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=98|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=373–374|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3pp=83–84|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=187–188|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=183–185|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=140–143}} On 29 March 1961, six years after the Treason Trial began, the judges produced a verdict of not guilty, ruling that there was insufficient evidence to convict the accused of "high treason", since they had advocated neither communism nor violent revolution; the outcome embarrassed the government.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=94|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=151|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=377–380|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=84|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=188–189|6a1=Smith|6y=2010|6p=178|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7p=143}}

===MK, the SACP, and African tour: 1961–62===
[[File:liliesleaf hut1.jpg|thumb|right|Thatched room at Liliesleaf Farm, where Mandela hid]]
Disguised as a chauffeur, Mandela travelled around the country incognito, organising the ANC's new cell structure and the planned mass stay-at-home strike. Referred to as the "Black Pimpernel" in the press—a reference to [[Emma Orczy]]'s 1905 novel ''[[The Scarlet Pimpernel]]''—a warrant for his arrest was put out by the police.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=99|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=283–287|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=192–193|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=186–188, 193|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=144–146, 154}} Mandela held secret meetings with reporters, and after the government failed to prevent the strike, he warned them that many anti-apartheid activists would soon resort to violence through groups like the PAC's [[Azanian People's Liberation Army|Poqo]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=289–291|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=188–189|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=147–149}} He believed that the ANC should form an armed group to channel some of this violence in a controlled direction, convincing both ANC leader [[Albert Luthuli]]—who was morally opposed to violence—and allied activist groups of its necessity.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=393–396|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=199–200|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=206–210|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=150–151}}

Inspired by the actions of [[Fidel Castro]]'s [[26th of July Movement]] in the [[Cuban Revolution]], in 1961 Mandela, Sisulu, and Slovo co-founded [[Umkhonto we Sizwe]] ("Spear of the Nation", abbreviated MK). Becoming chairman of the militant group, Mandela gained ideas from literature on guerrilla warfare by Marxist militants Mao and [[Che Guevara]] as well as from the military theorist [[Carl von Clausewitz]].{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=107|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=397–398|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=197–198, 200–201|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=209–214|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=151–154}} Although initially declared officially separate from the ANC so as not to taint the latter's reputation, MK was later widely recognised as the party's armed wing.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2010|1pp=209–210|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=151}} Most early MK members were white communists who were able to conceal Mandela in their homes; after hiding in communist Wolfie Kodesh's flat in [[Berea, Gauteng|Berea]], Mandela moved to the communist-owned [[Liliesleaf Farm]] in [[Rivonia]], there joined by [[Raymond Mhlaba]], Slovo, and Bernstein, who put together the MK constitution.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=107|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=397–409|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3pp=92–93|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=201–204|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=191, 222–229|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=154–156}} Although in later life Mandela denied, for political reasons, ever being a member of the Communist Party, historical research published in 2011 strongly suggested that he had joined in the late 1950s or early 1960s.{{sfn|Ellis|2011|pp=667–668}} This was confirmed by both the SACP and the ANC after Mandela's death. According to the SACP, he was not only a member of the party, but also served on its Central Committee.{{sfn|Ellis|2016|p=1}}<ref name="Mandela'sCommunism">{{cite web |url=http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=4151%20 |title=SACP statement on the passing away of Madiba |website=South African Communist Party |date=6 December 2013 |access-date=29 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303223354/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=4151%20 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |url-status=dead }}; {{cite news |last=Marrian |first=Natasha |title=SACP confirms Nelson Mandela was a member |url=http://www.bdlive.co.za/national/politics/2013/12/06/sacp-confirms-nelson-mandela-was-a-member |access-date=7 December 2013 |newspaper=Business Day |location=South Africa |date=6 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306232040/http://www.bdlive.co.za/national/politics/2013/12/06/sacp-confirms-nelson-mandela-was-a-member |archive-date=6 March 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

{{Quote box|width=25em|align=left|quote=We of Umkhonto have always sought to achieve liberation without bloodshed and civil clash. Even at this late hour, we hope that our first actions will awaken everyone to a realization of the dangerous situation to which Nationalist policy is leading. We hope that we will bring the Government and its supporters to their senses before it is too late so that both government and its policies can be changed before matters reach the desperate stage of civil war.|salign=right |source=—Statement released by MK to announce the start of their sabotage campaign{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=171|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=207}}}}

Operating through a cell structure, MK planned to carry out acts of sabotage that would exert maximum pressure on the government with minimum casualties; they sought to bomb military installations, power plants, telephone lines, and transport links at night, when civilians were not present. Mandela stated that they chose sabotage because it was the least harmful action, did not involve killing, and offered the best hope for racial reconciliation afterwards; he nevertheless acknowledged that should this have failed then guerrilla warfare might have been necessary.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=108|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=171|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=411–412|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=90|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=204}} Soon after ANC leader Luthuli was awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]], MK publicly announced its existence with 57 bombings on [[Day of the Vow|Dingane's Day]] (16 December) 1961, followed by further attacks on New Year's Eve.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=110|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=170|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=413–415|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=95|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=206|6a1=Smith|6y=2010|6pp=239–246|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=158–159}}

The ANC decided to send Mandela as a delegate to the February 1962 meeting of the Pan-African Freedom Movement for East, Central and Southern Africa (PAFMECSA) in [[Addis Ababa]], Ethiopia.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=111|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=171–172, 176|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=418–425|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=95|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=251–254|6a1=Benneyworth|6y=2011|6p=81|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=160–162}} Leaving South Africa in secret via [[Bechuanaland Protectorate|Bechuanaland]], on his way Mandela visited [[Tanganyika (1961–1964)|Tanganyika]] and met with its president, [[Julius Nyerere]].{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=173–175|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=97|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=209|4a1=Benneyworth|4y=2011|4pp=81, 84}} Arriving in Ethiopia, Mandela met with Emperor [[Haile Selassie I]], and gave his speech after Selassie's at the conference.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=176–177, 180|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=427–432|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=255–256|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=163–165}} After the symposium, he travelled to [[Cairo]], Egypt, admiring the political reforms of President [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]], and then went to [[Tunis]], Tunisia, where President [[Habib Bourguiba]] gave him £5,000 for weaponry. He proceeded to Morocco, Mali, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Senegal, receiving funds from Liberian President [[William Tubman]] and Guinean President [[Ahmed Sékou Touré]].{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=185–194|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=432–440|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=210|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=256–259|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=165–167}} He left Africa for London, England, where he met anti-apartheid activists, reporters, and prominent politicians.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=114|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=196–197|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=441–443|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=210–211|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=259–261|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=167–169}} Upon returning to Ethiopia, he began a six-month course in guerrilla warfare, but completed only two months before being recalled to South Africa by the ANC's leadership.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=443–445|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=100|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=211|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=261–262|5a1=Benneyworth|5y=2011|5pp=91–93|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=169–170}}

==Imprisonment==
===Arrest and Rivonia trial: 1962–1964===
{{main|Rivonia Trial}}

On 5 August 1962, police captured Mandela along with fellow activist [[Cecil Williams (anti-apartheid activist)|Cecil Williams]] near [[Howick, KwaZulu-Natal|Howick]].{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=116–117|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=201–202|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=435–435|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=215–216|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=275–276|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=170–172}} Many MK members suspected that the authorities had been tipped off with regard to Mandela's whereabouts, although Mandela himself gave these ideas little credence.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=278–279|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=216|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=172}} In later years, [[Donald Rickard]], a former American diplomat revealed that the [[Central Intelligence Agency]], who feared Mandela's associations with communists, had informed the South African police of his location.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=216–217|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=172}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Ex-CIA spy admits tip led to Nelson Mandela's long imprisonment |date=15 May 2016 |website=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/may/15/cia-operative-nelson-mandela-1962-arrest |access-date=20 May 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160516104658/http://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/may/15/cia-operative-nelson-mandela-1962-arrest |archive-date=16 May 2016 }}</ref> Jailed in Johannesburg's Marshall Square prison, Mandela was charged with inciting workers' strikes and leaving the country without permission. Representing himself with Slovo as legal advisor, Mandela intended to use the trial to showcase "the ANC's moral opposition to racism" while supporters demonstrated outside the court.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=456–459|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=172–173}} Moved to [[Pretoria]], where Winnie could visit him, he began correspondence studies for a [[Bachelor of Laws]] (LLB) degree from the [[University of London International Programmes]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=463–465|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=292–293|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=173–174}} His hearing began in October, but he disrupted proceedings by wearing a traditional ''[[kaross]]'', refusing to call any witnesses, and turning his plea of mitigation into a political speech. Found guilty, he was sentenced to five years' imprisonment; as he left the courtroom, supporters sang "[[Nkosi Sikelel iAfrika]]".{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=120–134|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=210–213|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=468–482|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4pp=104–106|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=218–426|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=174–176}}

{{Quote box
| width = 25em
| align = right
| quote = I have fought against white domination, and I have fought against Black domination. I have cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all persons will live together in harmony and with equal opportunities. It is an ideal which I hope to live for and to see realised. But if it needs be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die.
| salign = right
| source = —Mandela's [[I Am Prepared to Die|Rivonia Trial Speech]], 1964{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=159|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=258|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=265|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=302|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=193|6a1=Broun|6y=2012|6p=74}}<ref>{{cite web |author=Nelson Mandela |title=I am prepared to die |url=http://db.nelsonmandela.org/speeches/pub_view.asp?pg=item&ItemID=NMS010 |work=Nelson Mandela Centre of Memory |publisher=Nelson Mandela Foundation |access-date=16 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201092557/http://db.nelsonmandela.org/speeches/pub_view.asp?pg=item&ItemID=NMS010 |archive-date=1 February 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
}}

On 11 July 1963, police raided [[Liliesleaf Farm]], arresting those they found there and uncovering paperwork documenting MK's activities, some of which mentioned Mandela. The [[Rivonia Trial]] began at [[Supreme Court of South Africa|Pretoria Supreme Court]] in October, with Mandela and his comrades charged with four counts of sabotage and conspiracy to violently overthrow the government; their chief prosecutor was [[Percy Yutar]].{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=134–137|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=223–226|3a1=Mandela|3y=2004|3pp=27–32|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4pp=108–109|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=242–250|6a1=Smith|6y=2010|6pp=292–295|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=183–186|8a1=Broun|8y=2012|8pp=6–10, 19–20}} Judge [[Quartus de Wet]] soon threw out the prosecution's case for insufficient evidence, but Yutar reformulated the charges, presenting his new case from December 1963 until February 1964, calling 173 witnesses and bringing thousands of documents and photographs to the trial.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=138–139|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=226|3a1=Mandela|3y=2004|3pp=33–42|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=252–254, 256|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=186–190|6a1=Broun|6y=2012|6pp=43–49}}

Although four of the accused denied involvement with MK, Mandela and the other five accused admitted sabotage but denied that they had ever agreed to initiate guerrilla war against the government.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=160|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=232–233|3a1=Mandela|3y=2004|3pp=42–44|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=252, 259}} They used the trial to highlight their political cause; at the opening of the defence's proceedings, Mandela gave his three-hour "[[I Am Prepared to Die]]" speech. That speech—which was inspired by Castro's "[[History Will Absolve Me]]"—was widely reported in the press despite official censorship.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=140|2a1=Mandela|2y=2004|2pp=43–57|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=258–265|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=298–302|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=191–194|6a1=Broun|6y=2012|6pp=68–75}} The trial gained international attention; there were global calls for the release of the accused from the [[United Nations]] and [[World Peace Council]], while the [[University of London Union]] voted Mandela to its presidency.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=2004|1p=62|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=268|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=303|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=194–195|5a1=Broun|5y=2012|5pp=102–104, 107}} On 12 June 1964, justice De Wet found Mandela and two of his co-accused guilty on all four charges; although the prosecution had called for the [[death sentence]] to be applied, the judge instead condemned them to [[life imprisonment]].{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=161, 163|2a1=Mandela|2y=2004|2pp=63–68|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=268–272|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=306|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=196–197|6a1=Broun|6y=2012|6pp=116–128}}

===Robben Island: 1964–1982===

In 1964, Mandela and his co-accused were transferred from Pretoria to the prison on [[Robben Island]], remaining there for the next 18 years.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=165|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=262|3a1=Mandela|3y=2004|3pp=75–78|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=307–308|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=204}} Isolated from non-political prisoners in Section B, Mandela was imprisoned in a damp concrete cell measuring {{convert|8|ft|m}} by {{convert|7|ft|m}}, with a straw mat on which to sleep.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=2004|1pp=79–80|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=279|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=205}} Verbally and physically harassed by several white prison wardens, the Rivonia Trial prisoners spent their days breaking rocks into gravel, until being reassigned in January 1965 to work in a lime quarry. Mandela was initially forbidden to wear sunglasses, and the glare from the lime permanently damaged his eyesight.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=166, 182|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=266|3a1=Mandela|3y=2004|3pp=82–84, 108–116|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=281–283, 290–291|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=206–207}} At night, he worked on his LLB degree which he was obtaining from the [[University of London]] through a correspondence course with [[Wolsey Hall, Oxford]], but newspapers were forbidden, and he was locked in [[solitary confinement]] on several occasions for the possession of smuggled news clippings.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=174|2a1=Mandela|2y=2004|2p=126|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=299|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=205, 258}} He was initially classified as the lowest grade of prisoner, Class D, meaning that he was permitted one visit and one letter every six months, although all mail was heavily censored.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=169|2a1=Mandela|2y=2004|2pp=102–108|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=283|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=205}}

[[File:RobbenIslandSteinbruchA.JPG|thumb|left|Lime quarry on Robben Island where Mandela and other prisoners were forced to carry out hard labour]]

The political prisoners took part in work and [[hunger strike]]s—the latter considered largely ineffective by Mandela—to improve prison conditions, viewing this as a microcosm of the anti-apartheid struggle.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=175|2a1=Mandela|2y=2004|2pp=83, 90, 136–138|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=124|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=284, 296–298}} ANC prisoners elected him to their four-man "High Organ" along with Sisulu, [[Govan Mbeki]], and [[Raymond Mhlaba]], and he involved himself in a group representing all political prisoners (including [[Eddie Daniels (political activist)|Eddie Daniels]]) on the island, Ulundi, through which he forged links with PAC and [[Yu Chi Chan Club]] members.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=298–299|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=210–214}} Initiating the "University of Robben Island", whereby prisoners lectured on their own areas of expertise, he debated socio-political topics with his comrades.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=130–131|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=292–295|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=236–241, 288–294}}

Though attending Christian Sunday services, Mandela studied Islam.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=301, 313|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=232}} He also studied [[Afrikaans]], hoping to build a mutual respect with the warders and convert them to his cause.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=295, 299–301|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=229}} Various official visitors met with Mandela, most significantly the liberal parliamentary representative [[Helen Suzman]] of the [[Progressive Party (South Africa)|Progressive Party]], who championed Mandela's cause outside of prison.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=301–302|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=221}} In September 1970, he met British [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] politician [[Denis Healey]].{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=337|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=222}} South African Minister of Justice [[Jimmy Kruger]] visited in December 1974, but he and Mandela did not get along with each other.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=334|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=241}} His mother visited in 1968, dying shortly after, and his firstborn son Thembi died in a car accident the following year; Mandela was forbidden from attending either funeral.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=142, 145|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=303–304|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=246–247}} His wife was rarely able to see him, being regularly imprisoned for political activity, and his daughters first visited in December 1975. Winnie was released from prison in 1977 but was forcibly settled in [[Brandfort]] and remained unable to see him.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=192–194|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=306–307|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=287–288, 304–310|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=248–254, 302}}

From 1967 onwards, prison conditions improved. Black prisoners were given trousers rather than shorts, games were permitted, and the standard of their food was raised.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=301|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=222, 235}} In 1969, an escape plan for Mandela was developed by Gordon Bruce, but it was abandoned after the conspiracy was infiltrated by an agent of the [[South African Bureau of State Security]] (BOSS), who hoped to see Mandela shot during the escape.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=207–208|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=231}} In 1970, Commander Piet Badenhorst became commanding officer. Mandela, seeing an increase in the physical and mental abuse of prisoners, complained to visiting judges, who had Badenhorst reassigned.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=127–128|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=308–310|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=223–225}} He was replaced by Commander Willie Willemse, who developed a co-operative relationship with Mandela and was keen to improve prison standards.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=128–129|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=226–227}}

{{multiple image
| align = right
| image1 = Physiological needs.jpg
| width1 = 190
| alt1 =
| caption1 =
| image2 = Robben Island fængslet Sektion B.jpg
| width2 = 205
| alt2 =
| caption2 =
| footer = The inside of Mandela's prison cell as it was when he was imprisoned in 1964 and his open cell window facing the prison yard on Robben Island, now a [[National heritage sites (South Africa)|national]] and [[World Heritage Site]]. Mandela's cell later contained more furniture, including a bed from around 1973.{{sfn|Hutton|1994|p=60}}
}}

By 1975, Mandela had become a Class A prisoner,{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=228}} which allowed him greater numbers of visits and letters. He corresponded with anti-apartheid activists like [[Mangosuthu Buthelezi]] and [[Desmond Tutu]].{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=314–315}} That year, he began his autobiography, which was smuggled to London, but remained unpublished at the time; prison authorities discovered several pages, and his LLB study privileges were revoked for four years.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=268|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=139|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=317|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=242–243}} Instead, he devoted his spare time to gardening and reading until the authorities permitted him to resume his LLB degree studies in 1980.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=285–286}}

By the late 1960s, Mandela's fame had been eclipsed by [[Steve Biko]] and the [[Black Consciousness Movement]] (BCM). Seeing the ANC as ineffectual, the BCM called for militant action, but following the [[Soweto uprising]] of 1976, many BCM activists were imprisoned on Robben Island.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=186–188|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=304–306|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=324–327|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=259–276}} Mandela tried to build a relationship with these young radicals, although he was critical of their racialism and contempt for white anti-apartheid activists.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=135|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=327–328|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=277–283|4a1=Soudien|4y=2015|4pp=363–364}} Renewed international interest in his plight came in July 1978, when he celebrated his 60th birthday.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=296}} He was awarded an honorary doctorate in [[Lesotho]], the [[Jawaharlal Nehru Award|Jawaharlal Nehru Award for International Understanding]] in India in 1979, and the [[Freedom of the City]] of [[Glasgow]], Scotland in 1981.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=313, 314|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=315–316}} In March 1980, the slogan "Free Mandela!" was developed by journalist [[Percy Qoboza]], sparking an international campaign that led the [[UN Security Council]] to call for his release.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=155|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=338–339|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=319–320}} Despite increasing foreign pressure, the government refused, relying on its [[Cold War]] allies US President [[Ronald Reagan]] and UK Prime Minister [[Margaret Thatcher]]; both considered Mandela's ANC a terrorist organisation sympathetic to communism, and supported its suppression.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=24|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=321}}

===Pollsmoor Prison: 1982–1988===
In April 1982, Mandela was transferred to [[Pollsmoor Prison]] in [[Tokai, Cape Town]], along with senior ANC leaders Walter Sisulu, Andrew Mlangeni, [[Ahmed Kathrada]], and Raymond Mhlaba; they believed that they were being isolated to remove their influence on younger activists at Robben Island.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=218|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=147–149|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=340|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=324–325}} Conditions at Pollsmoor were better than at Robben Island, although Mandela missed the camaraderie and scenery of the island.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=148|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=346–347|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=324–325}} Getting on well with Pollsmoor's commanding officer, Brigadier Munro, Mandela was permitted to create a [[roof garden]];{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=347|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=326}} he also read voraciously and corresponded widely, now permitted 52 letters a year.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=329}} He was appointed patron of the multi-racial [[United Democratic Front (South Africa)|United Democratic Front]] (UDF), founded to combat [[South African Constitution of 1983|reforms]] implemented by South African President [[P. W. Botha]]. Botha's National Party government had permitted Coloured and Indian citizens to vote for their own parliaments, which had control over education, health, and housing. But, Black Africans were excluded from the system. Like Mandela, the UDF saw this as an attempt to divide the anti-apartheid movement on racial lines.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=224|2a1=Barber|2y=2004|2pp=20, 23, 26–27|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=341–346|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=335–336}}

[[File:Mandela Bust at Southbank.jpg|thumb|left|Bust of Mandela erected on London's [[South Bank]] by the [[Greater London Council]] administration of [[Ken Livingstone]] in 1985]]

The early 1980s witnessed an escalation of violence across the country, and many predicted civil war. This was accompanied by economic stagnation as various multinational banks—under pressure from an international lobby—had stopped investing in South Africa. Numerous banks and Thatcher asked Botha to release Mandela—then at the height of his international fame—to defuse the volatile situation.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=247–248|2a1=Barber|2y=2004|2p=30|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3pp=152–153, 156|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=249–256|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=338–342}} Although considering Mandela a dangerous "arch-Marxist",{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=210|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=340}} in February 1985 Botha offered him a release from prison if he "unconditionally rejected violence as a political weapon". Mandela spurned the offer, releasing a statement through his daughter Zindzi stating, "What freedom am I being offered while the organisation of the people [ANC] remains banned? Only free men can negotiate. A prisoner cannot enter into contracts."{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=237–238|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=315–318|3a1=Barber|3y=2004|3p=36|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=157|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=351–352|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=330–332}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/history/mandela/64-90/jabulani.html|title=Mandela's response to being offered freedom|publisher=ANC|access-date=28 October 2008 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080622004124/http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/history/mandela/64-90/jabulani.html  |archive-date = 22 June 2008}}</ref>

In 1985, Mandela underwent surgery on an enlarged prostate gland, before being given new solitary quarters on the ground floor.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=254|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=157–158|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=358|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=343–345}} He was met by "seven eminent persons", an international delegation sent to negotiate a settlement, but Botha's government refused to co-operate, calling a state of emergency in June and initiating a police crackdown on unrest.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=359–360|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=347–355}} The anti-apartheid resistance fought back, with the ANC committing 231 attacks in 1986 and 235 in 1987.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=355}} The violence escalated as the government used the army and police to combat the resistance and provided covert support for vigilante groups and the [[Zulu people|Zulu]] nationalist movement [[Inkatha Freedom Party|Inkatha]], which was involved in an increasingly violent struggle with the ANC.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=354–357}} Mandela requested talks with Botha but was denied, instead secretly meeting with Minister of Justice [[Kobie Coetsee]] in 1987, and having a further 11 meetings over the next three years. Coetsee organised negotiations between Mandela and a team of four government figures starting in May 1988; the team agreed to the release of political prisoners and the legalisation of the ANC on the condition that they permanently renounce violence, break links with the Communist Party, and not insist on [[majority rule]]. Mandela rejected these conditions, insisting that the ANC would end its armed activities only when the government renounced violence.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=160|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=362–368|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=363–378}}

Mandela's 70th birthday in July 1988 attracted international attention, including [[Nelson Mandela 70th Birthday Tribute|a tribute concert]] at London's [[Wembley Stadium (1923)|Wembley Stadium]] that was televised and watched by an estimated 200 million viewers.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=35|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=368}} Although presented globally as a heroic figure, he faced personal problems when ANC leaders informed him that Winnie had set herself up as head of a gang, the "Mandela United Football Club," which had been responsible for torturing and killing opponents—including children—in Soweto. Though some encouraged him to divorce her, he decided to remain loyal until she was found guilty by trial.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=20–23|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=183–184|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=371–383|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=373–380}}

===Victor Verster Prison and release: 1988–1990===

[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-1986-0920-016, Berlin, Weltgewerkschaftskongress, Probe des Festprogramms.jpg|thumb|right|"Free Mandela" protest in [[East Berlin]], 1986]]

Recovering from [[tuberculosis]] exacerbated by the damp conditions in his cell,{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=318–319|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=160|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=369|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=369–370}} in December 1988, Mandela was moved to [[Victor Verster Prison]] near [[Paarl]]. He was housed in the relative comfort of a warder's house with a personal cook, and he used the time to complete his LLB degree.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=320|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=160|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=369–370|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=381}} While there, he was permitted many visitors and organised secret communications with exiled ANC leader Oliver Tambo.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=384–385, 392–393}}<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/12/08/world/mandela-moved-to-house-at-prison-farm.html |title=Mandela Moved to House at Prison Farm |author=Christopher S. Wren |date=8 December 1988 |work=The New York Times |access-date=13 February 2013 |archive-date=14 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EQXYZIzp?url=http://www.nytimes.com/1988/12/08/world/mandela-moved-to-house-at-prison-farm.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 1989, Botha suffered a stroke; although he would retain the state presidency, he stepped down as leader of the National Party, to be replaced by [[F. W. de Klerk]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=41|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=62|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=388|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=386}} In a surprise move, Botha invited Mandela to a meeting over tea in July 1989, an invitation Mandela considered genial.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=161–162|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=387–388|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=390–392}} Botha was replaced as state president by de Klerk six weeks later; the new president believed that apartheid was unsustainable and released a number of ANC prisoners.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=41–42|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=392–397}} Following the fall of the [[Berlin Wall]] in November 1989, de Klerk called his cabinet together to debate legalising the ANC and freeing Mandela. Although some were deeply opposed to his plans, de Klerk met with Mandela in December to discuss the situation, a meeting both men considered friendly, before legalising all formerly banned political parties in February 1990 and announcing Mandela's unconditional release.{{sfnm|1a1=Glad|1a2=Blanton|1y=1997|1p=567|2a1=Barber|2y=2004|2p=1|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3pp=165–166|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=369–397|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=399–402}}<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/11/newsid_2539000/2539947.stm |title=1990: Freedom for Nelson Mandela |date=11 February 1990 |publisher=BBC |access-date=28 October 2008 |archive-date=26 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EilzLNPU?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/11/newsid_2539000/2539947.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> Shortly thereafter, for the first time in 20 years, photographs of Mandela were allowed to be published in South Africa.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=403}}

Leaving Victor Verster Prison on 11 February, Mandela held Winnie's hand in front of amassed crowds and the press; the event was broadcast live across the world.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=167|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=399–402|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=407}}<ref>{{cite news |url=http://century.guardian.co.uk/1990-1999/Story/0,,112389,00.html |title=Mandela free after 27 years |last=Ormond |first=Roger |date=12 February 1990 |work=The Guardian |access-date=28 October 2008 |location=London |archive-date=26 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EilzkcH7?url=http://century.guardian.co.uk/1990-1999/Story/0,,112389,00.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Driven to [[Cape Town City Hall|Cape Town's City Hall]] through crowds, he gave a speech declaring his commitment to peace and reconciliation with the white minority, but he made it clear that the ANC's armed struggle was not over and would continue as "a purely defensive action against the violence of apartheid". He expressed hope that the government would agree to negotiations, so that "there may no longer be the need for the armed struggle", and insisted that his main focus was to bring peace to the Black majority and give them the right to vote in national and local elections.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=2|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=400–402|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=408–409}}<ref>The text of Mandela's speech can be found at {{cite web|url=http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/history/mandela/1990/release.html|title=Nelson Mandela's address to Rally in Cape Town on his Release from Prison|date=11 February 1990|publisher=ANC|access-date=28 October 2008 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080728021713/http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/history/mandela/1990/release.html  |archive-date = 28 July 2008}}</ref> Staying at Tutu's home, in the following days Mandela met with friends, activists, and press, giving a speech to an estimated 100,000 people at Johannesburg's [[FNB Stadium]].{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=171|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=403–405|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=409–410}}

==End of apartheid==
{{Main|Negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa}}

===Early negotiations: 1990–91===
[[File:Luthuli House.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Luthuli House]] in Johannesburg, which became the ANC headquarters in 1991]]
Mandela proceeded on an African tour, meeting supporters and politicians in Zambia, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Libya and Algeria, and continuing to Sweden, where he was reunited with Tambo, and London, where he appeared at the [[Nelson Mandela: An International Tribute for a Free South Africa]] concert at [[Wembley Stadium (1923)|Wembley Stadium]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=57|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=172|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=409–410|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=412–414}} Encouraging foreign countries to support sanctions against the apartheid government, he met President [[François Mitterrand]] in France, [[Pope John Paul II]] in the Vatican, and Thatcher in the United Kingdom. In the United States, he met President [[George H.W. Bush]], addressed both Houses of Congress and visited eight cities, being particularly popular among the [[African American|African-American]] community.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=58–59|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=415–418}} In Cuba, he became friends with President Castro, whom he had long admired.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=60|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=410|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=420}} He met President [[R. Venkataraman]] in India, President [[Suharto]] in Indonesia, Prime Minister [[Mahathir Mohamad]] in Malaysia, and Prime Minister [[Bob Hawke]] in Australia. He visited Japan, but not the [[Soviet Union]], a longtime ANC supporter.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=60|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=418–420}}

In May 1990, Mandela led a multiracial ANC delegation into preliminary negotiations with a government delegation of 11 Afrikaner men. Mandela impressed them with his discussions of Afrikaner history, and the negotiations led to the [[Groote Schuur Minute|Groot Schuur Minute]], in which the government lifted the state of emergency.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=412–413|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=424–427}} In August, Mandela—recognising the ANC's severe military disadvantage—offered a ceasefire, the Pretoria Minute, for which he was widely criticised by MK activists.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=412–413|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=424–427}} He spent much time trying to unify and build the ANC, appearing at a Johannesburg conference in December attended by 1600 delegates, many of whom found him more moderate than expected.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=439|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=428–429}} At the ANC's July 1991 national conference in Durban, Mandela admitted that the party had faults and announced his aim to build a "strong and well-oiled task force" for securing majority rule.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=47|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=173|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=439–440|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=429–430}} At the conference, he was elected ANC President, replacing the ailing Tambo, and a 50-strong multiracial, mixed gendered national executive was elected.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=47|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=173|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=439–440|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=429–430}}

Mandela was given an office in the newly purchased ANC headquarters at [[Shell House (Johannesburg)|Shell House]], Johannesburg, and moved into Winnie's large Soweto home.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=409|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=431, 448}} Their marriage was increasingly strained as he learned of her affair with Dali Mpofu, but he supported her during her trial for kidnapping and assault. He gained funding for her defence from the International Defence and Aid Fund for Southern Africa and from Libyan leader [[Muammar Gaddafi]], but in June 1991, she was found guilty and sentenced to six years in prison, reduced to two on appeal. On 13 April 1992, Mandela publicly announced his separation from Winnie. The ANC forced her to step down from the national executive for misappropriating ANC funds; Mandela moved into the mostly white Johannesburg suburb of [[Houghton Estate|Houghton]].{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=429–436, 435–460|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=431, 448}} Mandela's prospects for a peaceful transition were further damaged by an increase in "Black-on-Black" violence, particularly between ANC and Inkatha supporters in [[KwaZulu-Natal]], which resulted in thousands of deaths. Mandela met with Inkatha leader Buthelezi, but the ANC prevented further negotiations on the issue. Mandela argued that there was a "[[Third Force (South Africa)|third force]]" within the state intelligence services fuelling the "slaughter of the people" and openly blamed de Klerk—whom he increasingly distrusted—for the [[Sebokeng]] massacre.{{sfnm|1a1=Tomaselli|1a2=Tomaselli|1y=2003|1p=6|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=174|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=418–424|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=436–442}} In September 1991, a national peace conference was held in Johannesburg at which Mandela, Buthelezi and de Klerk signed a peace accord, though the violence continued.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=425–426|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=444}}

===CODESA talks: 1991–92===
The [[Convention for a Democratic South Africa]] (CODESA) began in December 1991 at the Johannesburg World Trade Centre, attended by 228 delegates from 19 political parties. Although [[Cyril Ramaphosa]] led the ANC's delegation, Mandela remained a key figure. After de Klerk used the closing speech to condemn the ANC's violence, he took to the stage to denounce de Klerk as the "head of an illegitimate, discredited minority regime". Dominated by the National Party and ANC, little negotiation was achieved.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=45, 69|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=174–175|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=443–446|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=456–459}} CODESA 2 was held in May 1992, at which de Klerk insisted that post-apartheid South Africa must use a [[federalism|federal system]] with a rotating presidency to ensure the protection of ethnic minorities; Mandela opposed this, demanding a [[unitary state|unitary system]] governed by majority rule.<ref>{{harvnb|Sampson|2011|p=460}}; {{harvnb|Meredith|2010|pp=448, 452}}.</ref> Following the [[Boipatong massacre]] of ANC activists by government-aided Inkatha militants, Mandela called off the negotiations, before attending a meeting of the [[Organisation of African Unity]] in Senegal, at which he called for a special session of the UN Security Council and proposed that a [[United Nations peacekeeping|UN peacekeeping force]] be stationed in South Africa to prevent "[[state terrorism]]".{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=72–73|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=177|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=462–463|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=461–462}} Calling for domestic mass action, in August the ANC organised the largest-ever strike in South African history, and supporters marched on Pretoria.<ref>{{harvnb|Sampson|2011|pp=462–463}}; {{harvnb|Meredith|2010|pp=466–467}}.</ref>

[[File:Frederik de Klerk with Nelson Mandela - World Economic Forum Annual Meeting Davos 1992.jpg|left|thumb|[[F. W. de Klerk|De Klerk]] and Mandela at the [[World Economic Forum]], 1992]]

Following the [[Bisho massacre]], in which 28 ANC supporters and one soldier were shot dead by the [[Ciskei Defence Force]] during a protest march, Mandela realised that mass action was leading to further violence and resumed negotiations in September. He agreed to do so on the conditions that all political prisoners be released, that Zulu traditional weapons be banned, and that Zulu hostels would be fenced off, the latter two measures intended to prevent further Inkatha attacks; de Klerk reluctantly agreed.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=177–178|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=467–471|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=463–466}} The negotiations agreed that a multiracial general election would be held, resulting in a five-year [[National unity government|coalition government of national unity]] and a constitutional assembly that gave the National Party continuing influence. The ANC also conceded to safeguarding the jobs of white civil servants; such concessions brought fierce internal criticism.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=79|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=180|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=467–468}} The duo agreed on [[South African Constitution of 1993|an interim constitution]] based on a [[liberal democracy|liberal democratic]] model, guaranteeing separation of powers, creating a constitutional court, and including a US-style [[bill of rights]]; it also divided the country into nine provinces, each with its own [[premier]] and civil service, a concession between de Klerk's desire for [[federalism]] and Mandela's for unitary government.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=80|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=489–491|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=472}}

The democratic process was threatened by the Concerned South Africans Group (COSAG), an alliance of Black ethnic-secessionist groups like Inkatha and far-right Afrikaner parties; in June 1993, one of the latter—the [[Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging]] (AWB)—[[Storming of Kempton Park World Trade Centre|attacked the Kempton Park World Trade Centre]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=46|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=449–450, 488|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=466, 470–471}} Following the murder of ANC activist [[Chris Hani]], Mandela made a publicised speech to calm rioting, soon after appearing at a mass funeral in Soweto for Tambo, who had died of a stroke.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=180–181|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=476–480|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=468–469}} In July 1993, both Mandela and de Klerk visited the US, independently meeting President [[Bill Clinton]] and each receiving the [[Liberty Medal]].{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=471}} Soon after, Mandela and de Klerk were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in Norway.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=68|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=182|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=494|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=474}} Influenced by [[Thabo Mbeki]], Mandela began meeting with big business figures, and played down his support for nationalisation, fearing that he would scare away much-needed foreign investment. Although criticised by socialist ANC members, he had been encouraged to embrace private enterprise by members of the Chinese and Vietnamese Communist parties at the January 1992 [[World Economic Forum]] in Switzerland.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=182|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=497|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=434–445, 473}}

===General election: 1994===

{{Main|1994 South African general election}}

[[File:Mandela voting in 1994.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Mandela casting his vote in the [[1994 South African general election|1994 election]]]]

With the election set for 27 April 1994, the ANC began campaigning, opening 100 election offices and orchestrating People's Forums across the country at which Mandela could appear, as a popular figure with great status among Black South Africans.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=495|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=467–477}} The ANC campaigned on a [[Reconstruction and Development Programme]] (RDP) to build a million houses in five years, introduce universal free education and extend access to water and electricity. The party's slogan was "a better life for all", although it was not explained how this development would be funded.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=76–77|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=495–496|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=478}} With the exception of the ''[[Weekly Mail]]'' and the ''[[New Nation]]'', South Africa's press opposed Mandela's election, fearing continued ethnic strife, instead supporting the National or [[Democratic Party (South Africa)|Democratic Party]].{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=479}} Mandela devoted much time to fundraising for the ANC, touring North America, Europe and Asia to meet wealthy donors, including former supporters of the apartheid regime.{{sfnm|Sampson|2011|pp=479–480}} He also urged a reduction in the voting age from 18 to 14; rejected by the ANC, this policy became the subject of ridicule.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=188|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=477–478|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=484}}

Concerned that COSAG would undermine the election, particularly in the wake of the [[Bophuthatswana conflict (1994)|conflict in Bophuthatswana]] and the [[Shell House massacre]]—incidents of violence involving the AWB and Inkatha, respectively—Mandela met with Afrikaner politicians and generals, including P. W. Botha, [[Pik Botha]] and [[Constand Viljoen]], persuading many to work within the democratic system. With de Klerk, he also convinced Inkatha's Buthelezi to enter the elections rather than launch a war of secession.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=488–489, 504–510|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=480–489}} As leaders of the two major parties, de Klerk and Mandela appeared on a televised debate; although de Klerk was widely considered the better speaker at the event, Mandela's offer to shake his hand surprised him, leading some commentators to deem it a victory for Mandela.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=500–501|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=488}} The election went ahead with little violence, although an AWB cell killed 20 with car bombs. As widely expected, the ANC won a sweeping victory, taking 63% of the vote, just short of the two-thirds majority needed to unilaterally change the constitution. The ANC was also victorious in seven provinces, with Inkatha and the National Party each taking one.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=82|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=512|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=491}}<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2024558_2024522_2024462,00.html |title=Top 10 Political Prisoners |first=Glen |last=Levy |date=15 November 2010 |work=Time |access-date=25 March 2013 |archive-date=25 March 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6FNwiR3bn?url=http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2024558_2024522_2024462,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Mandela voted at the [[Ohlange High School]] in Durban, and though the ANC's victory assured his election as president, he publicly accepted that the election had been marred by instances of fraud and sabotage.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=510–512|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=490}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/south-africa-holds-first-multiracial-elections |title=This Day in History: April 27, 1994: South Africa holds first multiracial elections |publisher=History |access-date=26 February 2013 |archive-date=26 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EimSsBID?url=http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/south-africa-holds-first-multiracial-elections |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Presidency of South Africa: 1994–1999==
{{main|Presidency of Nelson Mandela}}
The newly elected National Assembly's first act was to formally elect Mandela as South Africa's first Black chief executive. His inauguration took place in Pretoria on 10 May 1994, televised to a billion viewers globally. The event was attended by four thousand guests, including world leaders from a wide range of geographic and ideological backgrounds.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=514|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=492–493}} Mandela headed a [[Government of National Unity (South Africa)|Government of National Unity]] dominated by the ANC—which had no experience of governing by itself—but containing representatives from the National Party and Inkatha. Under the Interim Constitution, Inkatha and the National Party were entitled to seats in the government by virtue of winning at least 20 seats. In keeping with earlier agreements, both de Klerk and Thabo Mbeki were given the position of [[Deputy President of South Africa|Deputy President]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=3|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=491–492}}<ref>{{cite news|title=Mandela becomes SA's first black president |publisher=BBC |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/10/newsid_2661000/2661503.stm |access-date=26 May 2008 |date=10 May 1994 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhlKsRKm?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/10/newsid_2661000/2661503.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> Although Mbeki had not been his first choice for the job, Mandela grew to rely heavily on him throughout his presidency, allowing him to shape policy details.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=87|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=210|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=566|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=508–511}} Moving into the presidential office at [[Tuynhuys]] in Cape Town, Mandela allowed de Klerk to retain the presidential residence in the [[Groote Schuur]] estate, instead settling into the nearby Westbrooke manor, which he renamed "[[Genadendal Residence|Genadendal]]", meaning "Valley of Mercy" in Afrikaans.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=523, 543|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=496–497}} Retaining his Houghton home, he also had a house built in his home village of Qunu, which he visited regularly, walking around the area, meeting with locals, and judging tribal disputes.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=502}}

Aged 76, he faced various ailments, and although exhibiting continued energy, he felt isolated and lonely.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=497–499, 510}} He often entertained celebrities, such as [[Michael Jackson]], [[Whoopi Goldberg]], and the [[Spice Girls]], and befriended ultra-rich businessmen, like [[Harry Oppenheimer]] of [[Anglo American plc|Anglo-American]]. He also met with [[Elizabeth II|Queen Elizabeth II]] on her March 1995 [[state visit]] to South Africa, which earned him strong criticism from ANC anti-capitalists.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=501, 504}} Despite his opulent surroundings, Mandela lived simply, donating a third of his [[South African rand|R]] 552,000 annual income to the [[Nelson Mandela Children's Fund]], which he had founded in 1995.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=209|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=543|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=517}} Although dismantling press censorship, speaking out in favour of [[freedom of the press]], and befriending many journalists, Mandela was critical of much of the country's media, noting that it was overwhelmingly owned and run by middle-class whites and believing that it focused too heavily on scaremongering about crime.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=208–209|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=547–548|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=525–527}}

In December 1994, Mandela published ''[[Long Walk to Freedom]]'', an autobiography based around a manuscript he had written in prison, augmented by interviews conducted with American journalist [[Richard Stengel]].{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=186|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=517}} In late 1994, he attended the 49th conference of the ANC in [[Bloemfontein]], at which a more militant national executive was elected, among them Winnie Mandela; although she expressed an interest in reconciling, Nelson initiated divorce proceedings in August 1995.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=539–542|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=500, 507}} By 1995, he had entered into a relationship with [[Graça Machel]], a Mozambican political activist 27 years his junior who was the widow of former president [[Samora Machel]]. They had first met in July 1990 when she was still in mourning, but their friendship grew into a partnership, with Machel accompanying him on many of his foreign visits. She turned down Mandela's first marriage proposal, wanting to retain some independence and dividing her time between Mozambique and Johannesburg.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=222–223|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=574–575|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=546–549}}

===National reconciliation===
{{Quote box|width=25em|align=right|quote=Gracious but steely, [Mandela] steered a country in turmoil toward a negotiated settlement: a country that days before its first democratic election remained violent, riven by divisive views and personalities. He endorsed national reconciliation, an idea he did not merely foster in the abstract, but performed with panache and conviction in reaching out to former adversaries. He initiated an era of hope that, while not long-lasting, was nevertheless decisive, and he garnered the highest international recognition and affection.|salign=right |source=—Rita Barnard, ''The Cambridge Companion to Nelson Mandela''{{sfn|Barnard|2014|p=1}} }}

Presiding over the transition from apartheid minority rule to a multicultural democracy, Mandela saw national reconciliation as the primary task of his presidency.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=524}} Having seen other post-colonial African economies damaged by the departure of white elites, Mandela worked to reassure South Africa's white population that they were protected and represented in "the [[Rainbow Nation]]".{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=213|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=517|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=495–496}} Although his Government of National Unity would be dominated by the ANC,{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=88|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=204}} he attempted to create a broad coalition by appointing de Klerk as Deputy President and appointing other National Party officials as ministers for Agriculture, Environment, and Minerals and Energy, as well as naming Buthelezi as Minister for Home Affairs.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=507–511}} The other cabinet positions were taken by ANC members, many of whom—like [[Joe Modise]], [[Alfred Nzo]], Joe Slovo, [[Mac Maharaj]] and [[Dullah Omar]]—had long been comrades of Mandela, although others, such as [[Tito Mboweni]] and [[Jeff Radebe]], were far younger.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=508}} Mandela's relationship with de Klerk was strained; Mandela thought that de Klerk was intentionally provocative, and de Klerk felt that he was being intentionally humiliated by the president.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=204–205|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=528|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=511, 534}} In January 1995, Mandela heavily chastised him for awarding amnesty to 3,500 police officers just before the election, and later criticised him for defending former Minister of Defence [[Magnus Malan]] when the latter was charged with murder.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=204–205|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=528|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=511, 534}}

Mandela personally met with senior figures of the apartheid regime, including [[Hendrik Verwoerd]]'s widow, [[Betsie Schoombie]], and lawyer [[Percy Yutar]], also laying a wreath by the statue of Afrikaner hero [[Daniel Theron]].{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=212|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=523–524|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=520, 522–523}} Emphasising personal forgiveness and reconciliation, he announced that "courageous people do not fear forgiving, for the sake of peace."{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=523–524|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=520, 522–523}} He encouraged Black South Africans to get behind the previously hated national rugby team, the [[South African national rugby union team|Springboks]], as South Africa hosted the [[1995 Rugby World Cup]]. Mandela wore a Springbok shirt at the [[1995 Rugby World Cup Final|final]] against New Zealand, and after the Springboks won the match, Mandela presented the trophy to captain [[Francois Pienaar]], an Afrikaner. This was widely seen as a major step in the reconciliation of white and Black South Africans; as de Klerk later put it, "Mandela won the hearts of millions of white rugby fans."{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=212|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=525–527|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=516, 524}}<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby_union/rugby_world_cup/team_pages/south_africa/3167692.stm |title=Mandela rallies Springboks |date=6 October 2003 |publisher=BBC Sport |access-date=28 October 2008 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhlM6rLh?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/rugby_union/rugby_world_cup/team_pages/south_africa/3167692.stm |url-status=live }}; {{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/portal/main.jhtml?view=DETAILS&grid=&xml=/portal/2007/10/19/ftmandela119.xml |title=How Nelson Mandela won the rugby World Cup |date=19 October 2007 |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London |access-date=28 October 2008 |first=John |last=Carlin |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhlMWoPg?url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/features/3634426/How-Nelson-Mandela-won-the-rugby-World-Cup.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Mandela's efforts at reconciliation assuaged the fears of white people, but also drew criticism from more militant Black people.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=213|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=517, 536|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=491, 496, 524}} Among the latter was his estranged wife, Winnie, who accused the ANC of being more interested in appeasing the white community than in helping the Black majority.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=517, 536|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=491, 496, 524}}

Mandela oversaw the formation of a [[Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South Africa)|Truth and Reconciliation Commission]] to investigate crimes committed under apartheid by both the government and the ANC, appointing Tutu as its chair. To prevent the creation of martyrs, the commission granted individual amnesties in exchange for testimony of crimes committed during the apartheid era. Dedicated in February 1996, it held two years of hearings detailing rapes, torture, bombings, and assassinations, before issuing its final report in October 1998. Both de Klerk and Mbeki appealed to have parts of the report suppressed, though only de Klerk's appeal was successful.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=527, 551–564|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=528–532}} Mandela praised the commission's work, stating that it "had helped us move away from the past to concentrate on the present and the future".{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=563|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=532}}

===Domestic programmes===
[[File:Rdphouses.jpg|thumb|left|Houses in Soweto constructed under the RDP program]]

Mandela's administration inherited a country with a huge disparity in wealth and services between white and black communities. Of a population of 40 million, around 23 million lacked electricity or adequate sanitation, and 12 million lacked clean water supplies, with 2 million children not in school and a third of the population illiterate. There was 33% unemployment, and just under half of the population lived below the poverty line.{{sfn|Meredith|2010|pp=518–520}} Government financial reserves were nearly depleted, with a fifth of the national budget being spent on debt repayment, meaning that the extent of the promised Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) was scaled back, with none of the proposed nationalisation or job creation.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=519|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=514–515}} In 1996, the RDP was replaced with a new policy, Growth, Employment and Redistribution (GEAR), which maintained South Africa's [[mixed economy]] but placed an emphasis on economic growth through a framework of [[market economics]] and the encouragement of foreign investment; many in the ANC derided it as a [[neo-liberalism|neo-liberal]] policy that did not address social inequality, no matter how Mandela defended it.{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=122–124, 162}} In adopting this approach, Mandela's government adhered to the "[[Washington consensus]]" advocated by the [[World Bank]] and [[International Monetary Fund]].{{sfnm|1a1=Muthien|1a2=Khosa|1a3=Magubane|1y=2000|1pp=369–370|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=520–521}}

[[File:Nelson Mandela 1998.JPG|thumb|right|Mandela on a visit to Brazil in 1998]]

Under Mandela's presidency, welfare spending increased by 13% in 1996/97, 13% in 1997/98, and 7% in 1998/99.{{sfn|Houston|Muthien|2000|p=62}} The government introduced parity in grants for communities, including disability grants, child maintenance grants, and old-age pensions, which had previously been set at different levels for South Africa's different racial groups.{{sfn|Houston|Muthien|2000|p=62}} In 1994, free healthcare was introduced for children under six and pregnant women, a provision extended to all those using primary level public sector health care services in 1996.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=205|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=521}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ci.org.za/depts/ci/pubs/pdf/general/gauge2006/gauge2006_healing.pdf |title=Healing inequalities: The free health care policy |publisher=Children's Institute |access-date=15 May 2011 |author1=Leatt, Annie |author2=Shung-King, Maylene |author3=Monson, Jo |name-list-style=amp |archive-date=26 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EiCq5xbh?url=http://www.ci.org.za/depts/ci/pubs/pdf/general/gauge2006/gauge2006_healing.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> By the 1999 election, the ANC could boast that due to their policies, 3 million people were connected to telephone lines, 1.5 million children were brought into the education system, 500 clinics were upgraded or constructed, 2 million people were connected to the electricity grid, water access was extended to 3 million people, and 750,000 houses were constructed, housing nearly 3 million people.{{sfn|Herbst|2003|p=312}}

The Land Reform Act 3 of 1996 safeguarded the rights of labour tenants living on farms where they grew crops or grazed livestock. This legislation ensured that such tenants could not be evicted without a court order or if they were over the age of 65.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nmmu.ac.za/documents/theses/AAFabbriciani.pdf |title=Land Reform Policies in South Africa Compare To Human Rights Internationally |access-date=11 February 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331101705/http://www.nmmu.ac.za/documents/theses/AAFabbriciani.pdf |archive-date=31 March 2012 }}; {{cite web |url=http://www.info.gov.za/gazette/acts/1996/a3-96.htm |title=No. 3 of 1996: Land Reform (Labour Tenants) Act, 1996 |date=22 March 1996 |publisher=South African Government Online |access-date=26 February 2013 |archive-date=26 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EiD8JvCc?url=http://www.info.gov.za/gazette/acts/1996/a3-96.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Recognising that arms manufacturing was a key industry for the South African economy, Mandela endorsed the trade in weapons but brought in tighter regulations surrounding [[Armscor (South Africa)|Armscor]] to ensure that South African weaponry was not sold to authoritarian regimes.{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=102–194}} Under Mandela's administration, tourism was increasingly promoted, becoming a major sector of the South African economy.{{sfn|Barber|2004|p=130}}

Critics like [[Edwin Cameron]] accused Mandela's government of doing little to stem the [[HIV/AIDS]] pandemic in the country; by 1999, 10% of South Africa's population were HIV positive. Mandela later admitted that he had personally neglected the issue, in part due to public reticence in discussing issues surrounding sex in South Africa, and that he had instead left the issue for Mbeki to deal with.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=135–137|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=219|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=571–573}}<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/jul/06/nelsonmandela.southafrica |title=Mandela at 85 |work=The Observer |location=London |first=Anthony |last=Sampson |author-link=Anthony Sampson |date=6 July 2003 |access-date=26 May 2008 |archive-date=26 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EiCWnTJS?url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2003/jul/06/nelsonmandela.southafrica |url-status=live }}; {{cite web|title=Can Mandela's AIDS Message Pierce the Walls of Shame? |publisher=Peninsula Peace and Justice Center |date=9 January 2005 |url=http://peaceandjustice.org/article.php?story=20050109125126110&mode=print |access-date=26 May 2008 |archive-date=26 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EiCWr1mK?url=http://peaceandjustice.org/article.php?story=20050109125126110&mode=print |url-status=dead }}; {{cite news|title=South Africa: Mandela Deluged With Tributes as He Turns 85 |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/200307190001.html |work=[[AllAfrica]] |first=Ofeibea |last=Quist-Arcton |author-link=Ofeibea Quist-Arcton|date=19 July 2003 |access-date=26 May 2008 |archive-date=26 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6Eile2xQ7?url=http://allafrica.com/stories/200307190001.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Mandela also received criticism for failing to sufficiently combat crime; South Africa had one of the world's highest crime rates,{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=573|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=510, 565–68}} and the activities of international crime syndicates in the country grew significantly throughout the decade.{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=137–138}} Mandela's administration was also perceived as having failed to deal with the problem of corruption.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=544–547|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=510}}

Further problems were caused by the exodus of thousands of skilled white South Africans from the country, who were escaping the increasing crime rates, higher taxes, and the impact of [[positive discrimination]] toward Black people in employment. This exodus resulted in a [[brain drain]], and Mandela criticised those who left.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=131|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=573|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=510, 565–68}} At the same time, South Africa experienced an influx of millions of [[Illegal immigration|illegal migrants]] from poorer parts of Africa; although public opinion toward these illegal immigrants was generally unfavourable, characterising them as disease-spreading criminals who were a drain on resources, Mandela called on South Africans to embrace them as "brothers and sisters".{{sfn|Barber|2004|p=133}}

===Foreign affairs===
Mandela expressed the view that "South Africa's future foreign relations [should] be based on our belief that human rights should be the core of international relations".{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=89|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=214}} Following the South African example, Mandela encouraged other nations to resolve conflicts through diplomacy and reconciliation.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=555}} In September 1998, Mandela was appointed secretary-general of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], who held their annual conference in Durban. He used the event to criticise the "narrow, chauvinistic interests" of the Israeli government in stalling negotiations to end the [[Israeli–Palestinian conflict]] and urged India and Pakistan to negotiate to end the [[Kashmir conflict]], for which he was criticised by both Israel and India.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=559}} Inspired by the region's economic boom, Mandela sought greater economic relations with East Asia, in particular with Malaysia, although this was prevented by the [[1997 Asian financial crisis]].<ref>{{harvnb|Sampson|2011|pp=560–561}}.</ref> He extended diplomatic recognition to the People's Republic of China (PRC), who were growing as an economic force, and initially also to [[Taiwan]], who were already longstanding investors in the South African economy. However, under pressure from the PRC, in November 1996 he cut recognition of Taiwan, and in May 1999 paid an official visit to Beijing.{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=107–108}}

[[File:President Bill Clinton with Nelson Mandela.jpg|thumb|left|Mandela with US President [[Bill Clinton]]. Despite publicly criticising him on several occasions, Mandela liked Clinton, and personally supported him during [[Impeachment of Bill Clinton|his impeachment proceedings]].{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=216|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=561–567}}]]

Mandela attracted controversy for his close relationship with Indonesian president [[Suharto]], whose regime was responsible for mass human rights abuses, although on a July 1997 visit to Indonesia he privately urged Suharto to withdraw from the [[Indonesian occupation of East Timor|occupation of East Timor]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=104–105|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=560}} He also faced similar criticism from the West for his government's trade links to Syria, Cuba, and Libya,{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=214}} and for his personal friendships with Castro and Gaddafi.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=562–563}} Castro visited in 1998 to widespread popular acclaim, and Mandela met Gaddafi in Libya to award him the [[Order of Good Hope]].{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=562–563}} When Western governments and media criticised these visits, Mandela lambasted such criticism as having racist undertones,{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=564}} and stated that "the enemies of countries in the West are not our enemies."{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=214}} Mandela hoped to resolve the long-running dispute between Libya and the US and Britain over bringing to trial the two Libyans, [[Abdelbaset al-Megrahi]] and [[Lamin Khalifah Fhimah]], who were indicted in November 1991 and accused of sabotaging [[Pan Am Flight 103]]. Mandela proposed that they be tried in a third country, which was agreed to by all parties; governed by [[Scots law]], the trial was held at [[Camp Zeist, Netherlands|Camp Zeist]] in the Netherlands in April 1999, and found one of the two men guilty.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=144|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=215–216|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=563–564}}<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/1144147.stm |title=Analysis: Lockerbie's long road |publisher=BBC |access-date=26 May 2008 |date=31 January 2001 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6Ehl149mt?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/1144147.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>

Mandela echoed Mbeki's calls for an "[[African Renaissance]]", and was greatly concerned with issues on the continent.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=124–125|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=556–557}} He took a [[soft power|soft diplomatic]] approach to removing [[Sani Abacha]]'s military junta in Nigeria but later became a leading figure in calling for sanctions when Abacha's regime increased human rights violations.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=108–110|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=215|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=556–557}} In 1996, he was appointed chairman of the [[Southern African Development Community]] (SADC) and initiated unsuccessful negotiations to end the [[First Congo War]] in [[Zaire]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=176–177|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=216|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=558}} He also played a key role as a mediator in the ethnic conflict between [[Tutsi]] and [[Hutu]] political groups in the [[Burundian Civil War]], helping to initiate a settlement which brought increased stability to the country but did not end the ethnic violence.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|pp=217–218}} In [[South African intervention in Lesotho|South Africa's first post-apartheid military operation]], troops were ordered in September 1998 into Lesotho to protect the government of Prime Minister [[Pakalitha Mosisili]] after a disputed election prompted opposition uprisings. The action was not authorised by Mandela himself, who was out of the country at the time, but by Buthelezi, who was serving as acting president during Mandela's absence.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=111–113|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=558–559}}

===Withdrawing from politics===
[[File:Thabo-mbeki-district-six.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|right|In the latter part of his presidency, Mandela increasingly relied on his Deputy President, Thabo Mbeki (pictured)]]
The new [[Constitution of South Africa]] was agreed upon by parliament in May 1996, enshrining a series of institutions to place checks on political and administrative authority within a constitutional democracy.{{sfn|Muthien|Khosa|Magubane|2000|p=366}} De Klerk opposed the implementation of this constitution, and that month he and the National Party withdrew from the coalition government in protest, claiming that the ANC were not treating them as equals.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=128–129|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=204|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=529–530|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=534}} The ANC took over the cabinet positions formerly held by the Nationalists, with Mbeki becoming sole Deputy President.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=535}} Inkatha remained part of the coalition,{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=128–129}} and when both Mandela and Mbeki were out of the country in September 1998, Buthelezi was appointed "Acting President", marking an improvement in his relationship with Mandela.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=207|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=536}} Although Mandela had often governed decisively in his first two years as president,{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=211}} he had subsequently increasingly delegated duties to Mbeki, retaining only a close personal supervision of intelligence and security measures.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=130|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=211}} During a 1997 visit to London, he said that "the ruler of South Africa, the ''de facto'' ruler, is Thabo Mbeki" and that he was "shifting everything to him".{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=211}}

Mandela stepped down as ANC President at the party's December 1997 conference. He hoped that Ramaphosa would succeed him, believing Mbeki to be too inflexible and intolerant of criticism, but the ANC elected Mbeki regardless.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=211|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=568|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=537–543}} Mandela and the Executive supported [[Jacob Zuma]], a Zulu who had been imprisoned on Robben Island, as Mbeki's replacement for Deputy President. Zuma's candidacy was challenged by Winnie, whose populist rhetoric had gained her a strong following within the party, although Zuma defeated her in a landslide victory vote at the election.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=568|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=537–543}}

Mandela's relationship with Machel had intensified; in February 1998, he publicly stated that he was "in love with a remarkable lady", and under pressure from Tutu, who urged him to set an example for young people, he organised a wedding for his 80th birthday, in July that year.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=576|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=549–551}} The following day, he held a grand party with many foreign dignitaries.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=551–552}} Although the 1996 constitution allowed the president to serve two consecutive five-year terms, Mandela had never planned to stand for a second term in office. He gave his farewell speech to Parliament on 29 March 1999 when it adjourned prior to the 1999 general elections, after which he retired.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=578}} Although opinion polls in South Africa showed wavering support for both the ANC and the government, Mandela himself remained highly popular, with 80% of South Africans polled in 1999 expressing satisfaction with his performance as president.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=219}}

==Retirement==
===Continued activism and philanthropy: 1999–2004===

[[File:Nelson Mandela, 2000 (4).jpg|thumb|right|Mandela visiting the [[London School of Economics]] in 2000]]

Retiring in June 1999, Mandela aimed to lead a quiet family life, divided between Johannesburg and Qunu. Although he set about authoring a sequel to his first autobiography, to be titled ''The Presidential Years'', it was abandoned before publication.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=576|2a1=Battersby|2y=2011|2pp=587–588}} Mandela found such seclusion difficult and reverted to a busy public life involving daily programme of tasks, meetings with world leaders and celebrities, and—when in Johannesburg—working with the Nelson Mandela Foundation, founded in 1999 to focus on rural development, school construction, and combating HIV/AIDS.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=576|2a1=Battersby|2y=2011|2pp=588–589}} Although he had been heavily criticised for failing to do enough to fight the HIV/AIDS pandemic during his presidency, he devoted much of his time to the issue following his retirement, describing it as "a war" that had killed more than "all previous wars"; affiliating himself with the [[Treatment Action Campaign]], he urged Mbeki's government to ensure that HIV-positive South Africans had access to [[anti-retrovirals]].{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=219–220|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=584–586|3a1=Battersby|3y=2011|3pp=590–591}} Meanwhile, Mandela was successfully treated for [[prostate cancer]] in July 2001.{{sfn|Battersby|2011|p=598}}<ref>{{cite news|work=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1492865.stm |title=Mandela 'responding well to treatment' |date=15 August 2001 |access-date=26 May 2008 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhSMPxao?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1492865.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2002, Mandela inaugurated the Nelson Mandela Annual Lecture, and in 2003 the [[Mandela Rhodes Foundation]] was created at [[Rhodes House]], [[University of Oxford]], to provide postgraduate scholarships to African students. These projects were followed by the Nelson Mandela Centre of Memory and the [[46664 (concerts)|46664 campaign]] against HIV/AIDS.{{sfn|Battersby|2011|pp=589–590}} He gave the closing address at the [[XIII International AIDS Conference, 2000|XIII International AIDS Conference]] in Durban in 2000,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thebody.com/content/art16140.html |title=Closing Ceremony |first=Pablo |last=Tebas |date=13 July 2000 |publisher=The Body |access-date=25 February 2013 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhRW0hQl?url=http://www.thebody.com/content/art16140.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> and in 2004, spoke at the [[XV International AIDS Conference, 2004|XV International AIDS Conference]] in [[Bangkok]], Thailand, calling for greater measures to tackle tuberculosis as well as HIV/AIDS.<ref>{{cite news |first=Chris |last=Hogg |title=Mandela urges action to fight TB |work=BBC News|date=15 July 2004 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/3895525.stm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040718030822/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/3895525.stm |archive-date=18 July 2004 |url-status=live }}</ref> Mandela publicised AIDS as the cause of his son [[Makgatho Mandela|Makgatho]]'s death in January 2005, to defy the stigma about discussing the disease.<ref>{{cite news |last=Nolen |first=Stephanie |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/nelson-mandela/mandela-arrived-late-to-the-fight-against-hiv-aids/article548193/ |work=The Globe and Mail |location=Toronto |date=5 December 2013 |title=Mandela arrived late to the fight against HIV-AIDS |access-date=11 May 2017 }}</ref>

Publicly, Mandela became more vocal in criticising Western powers. He strongly opposed the 1999 [[War in Kosovo|NATO intervention in Kosovo]] and called it an attempt by the world's powerful nations to police the entire world.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.derechos.org/nizkor/iraq/doc/mandela1.html |title=Equipo Nizkor – Mandela slams Western action in Kosovo, Iraq |agency=Reuters |last=Weir |first=Keith |date=13 April 2003 |publisher=Derechos.org |access-date=3 October 2010 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhQi33OL?url=http://www.derechos.org/nizkor/iraq/doc/mandela1.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2003, he spoke out against the plans for the United States to launch a [[war in Iraq]], describing it as "a tragedy" and lambasting US President [[George W. Bush]] and UK Prime Minister [[Tony Blair]] (whom he referred to as an "American foreign minister") for undermining the UN, saying, "All that (Mr. Bush) wants is [[Iraqi oil]]".<ref>{{cite news |first=Jarrett |last=Murphy |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/mandela-slams-bush-on-iraq |title=Mandela Slams Bush on Iraq |work=CBS News |date=30 January 2003 |access-date=13 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160115202751/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/mandela-slams-bush-on-iraq/ |archive-date=15 January 2016}}</ref> He attacked the US more generally, asserting that "If there is a country that has committed unspeakable atrocities in the world, it is the United States of America", citing the [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|atomic bombing of Japan]]; this attracted international controversy, although he later improved his relationship with Bush.{{sfn|Battersby|2011|pp=591–592}}<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/2228971.stm |title=Mandela warns Bush over Iraq |date=1 September 2002 |publisher=BBC |access-date=27 October 2008 |first=John |last=Pienaar |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhQjsYTq?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2228971.stm |url-status=live }}; {{cite news|last=Fenton |first=Tom |publisher=CBS |title=Mandela Slams Bush on Iraq |date=30 January 2003 |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/01/30/iraq/main538607.shtml |access-date=26 May 2008 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhQr4N5U?url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/01/30/iraq/main538607.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> Retaining an interest in the Lockerbie suspect, he visited Megrahi in [[Barlinnie prison]] and spoke out against the conditions of his treatment, referring to them as "psychological persecution".{{sfn|Battersby|2011|p=593}}

==="Retiring from retirement": 2004–2013===
{{anchor|"Retiring from retirement": 2004–2013}}

[[File:George W. Bush and Nelson Mandela - walking - Oval Office - May 17 2005.jpg|thumb|right|Nelson Mandela and President [[George W. Bush]] in the [[Oval Office]], May 2005]]
In June 2004, aged 85 and amid failing health, Mandela announced that he was "retiring from retirement" and retreating from public life, remarking, "Don't call me, I will call you."{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=593|2a1=Battersby|2y=2011|2p=598}} Although continuing to meet with close friends and family, the foundation discouraged invitations for him to appear at public events and denied most interview requests.{{sfn|Battersby|2011|p=598}}

He retained some involvement in international affairs. In 2005, he founded the Nelson Mandela Legacy Trust,<ref name=NPR>{{cite news|title=Mandela, Bush Discuss Education, AIDS in Africa |first=Allison |last=Keyes |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4654914 |publisher=NPR |date=17 May 2005 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6HeUQkPps?url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4654914 |archive-date=26 June 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> travelling to the US to speak before the [[Brookings Institution]] and the [[NAACP]] on the need for economic assistance to Africa.<ref name=NPR/><ref name=LAT>{{cite news |title=The Obama-Mandela dynamic, reflected in a photo |first=Kathleen |last=Hennessey |url=http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-na-obama-mandela-20130625,0,6170889,full.story |website=Los Angeles Times |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6HeUdFS94?url=http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-na-obama-mandela-20130625,0,6170889,full.story |archive-date=26 June 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> He spoke with US Senator [[Hillary Clinton]] and President George W. Bush and first met the then-Senator [[Barack Obama]].<ref name=LAT/> Mandela also encouraged Zimbabwean President [[Robert Mugabe]] to resign over growing [[Human rights in Zimbabwe|human rights]] abuses in the country. When this proved ineffective, he spoke out publicly against Mugabe in 2007, asking him to step down "with residual respect and a modicum of dignity."{{sfn|Battersby|2011|p=594}} That year, Mandela, Machel, and Desmond Tutu convened a group of world leaders in Johannesburg to contribute their wisdom and independent leadership to some of the world's toughest problems. Mandela announced the formation of this new group, [[The Elders (organization)|The Elders]], in a speech delivered on his 89th birthday.<ref>{{harvnb|Battersby|2011|p=600}}; {{cite news |url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/19836050 |title=Mandela joins 'Elders' on turning 89 |work=[[NBC News]] |agency=Associated Press |access-date=26 May 2008 |date=20 July 2007 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhRqC1M4?url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/19836050 |url-status=live }}; {{cite web |url=http://www.southafrica.info/mandela/theelders.htm |title=Mandela launches The Elders |date=19 July 2007 |publisher=SAinfo |access-date=27 October 2008 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhRpoERW?url=http://www.southafrica.info/mandela/theelders.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

[[File: Nelson Mandela - full (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|Mandela receiving the freedom of the city of [[Tshwane]], 2008]]

Mandela's 90th birthday was marked across the country on 18 July 2008, with the main celebrations held at Qunu,<ref name="FOXNews">{{cite news |url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,385561,00.html |title=Nelson Mandela Celebrates 90th Birthday by Urging Rich to Help Poor |date=18 July 2008 |publisher=Fox News Channel |access-date=27 October 2008 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhSkmQUE?url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,385561,00.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> and a [[Nelson Mandela 90th Birthday Tribute|concert in his honour]] in [[Hyde Park, London|Hyde Park]], London.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/hyde-park-concert-to-mark--mandelas-90th-821776.html |title=Hyde Park concert to mark Mandela's 90th |last=Bingham |first=John |date=6 May 2008 |website=The Independent |access-date=27 October 2008 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhSlCa27?url=http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/hyde-park-concert-to-mark--mandelas-90th-821776.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In a speech marking the event, Mandela called for the rich to help the poor across the world.<ref name="FOXNews"/> Throughout Mbeki's presidency, Mandela continued to support the ANC, usually overshadowing Mbeki at any public events that the two attended. Mandela was more at ease with Mbeki's successor, Zuma,{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=598|2a1=Battersby|2y=2011|2pp=594–597}} although the Nelson Mandela Foundation was upset when his grandson, [[Mandla Mandela]], flew him out to the Eastern Cape to attend a pro-Zuma rally in the midst of a storm in 2009.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=598|2a1=Battersby|2y=2011|2pp=594–597}}

In 2004, Mandela successfully campaigned for South Africa to host the [[2010 FIFA World Cup]], declaring that there would be "few better gifts for us" in the year marking a decade since the fall of apartheid.<ref>{{cite news |title=World Cup 'perfect gift for SA' |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3703261.stm |date=11 May 2004 |work=BBC News|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316182537/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3703261.stm |archive-date=16 March 2016 |url-status=live |access-date=13 September 2016}}</ref> Despite maintaining a low profile during the event due to ill-health, Mandela made his final public appearance during the World Cup closing ceremony, where he received much applause.{{sfn|Battersby|2011|p=600}}<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/jul/11/nelson-mandela-world-cup-final |website=The Guardian |title=Nelson Mandela attends World Cup closing ceremony |date=11 July 2010 |first=David |last=Batty |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhSlkRAr?url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/jul/11/nelson-mandela-world-cup-final |url-status=live }}</ref> Between 2005 and 2013, Mandela, and later his family, were embroiled in a series of legal disputes regarding money held in family trusts for the benefit of his descendants.<ref>{{cite news |last=Polgreen |first=Lydia |title=Messy Fight Over Mandela Trust Goes Public |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/25/world/africa/messy-legal-fight-over-mandela-trust-goes-public.html |website=The New York Times |date=24 May 2013 |access-date=13 September 2016 }}</ref> In mid-2013, as Mandela was hospitalised for a lung infection in Pretoria, his descendants were involved in an intra-family legal dispute relating to the burial place of Mandela's children, and ultimately Mandela himself.<ref>{{cite news |first=David |last=Smith |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/03/south-african-courts-mandela-burial |title=South African courts step in over Mandela family burial row |website=The Guardian |access-date=13 September 2016 |date=3 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130709230415/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2013/jul/03/south-african-courts-mandela-burial |archive-date=9 July 2013}}; {{cite news |last=Moreton |first=Cole |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/nelson-mandela/10155807/Nelson-Mandelas-grandson-Mandla-accused-of-grave-tampering.html |title=Nelson Mandela's grandson Mandla accused of grave tampering |website=The Telegraph |access-date=13 September 2016 |date=2 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127022518/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/nelson-mandela/10155807/Nelson-Mandelas-grandson-Mandla-accused-of-grave-tampering.html |archive-date=27 January 2016 }}</ref>

===Illness and death: 2011–2013===
{{anchor|Death}}
{{main|Death of Nelson Mandela}}
[[File:Madiba's house 3.jpg|thumb|right|Members of the public paying their respects outside Mandela's Houghton home]]

In February 2011, Mandela was briefly hospitalised with a [[respiratory infection]], attracting international attention,{{sfn|Battersby|2011|p=607}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/Nelson-Mandela-breathing-on-his-own-20110128 |title=Nelson Mandela 'breathing on his own' |date=18 January 2011 |website=News 24 |access-date=30 January 2011 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhSmCBmZ?url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/Nelson-Mandela-breathing-on-his-own-20110128 |url-status=dead }}</ref> before being re-admitted for a lung infection and [[gallstone]] removal in December 2012.<ref>{{cite news|title=Nelson Mandela has lung infection|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-20677168|access-date=16 December 2017|work=BBC News|date=11 December 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Mandela Has Surgery for Gallstones |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/16/world/africa/mandela-has-surgery-to-remove-gallstones.html?partner=rss&emc=rss&smid=tw-nytimes&_r=0 |website=The New York Times |access-date=15 December 2012 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhSuaglG?url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/16/world/africa/mandela-has-surgery-to-remove-gallstones.html?partner=rss&emc=rss&smid=tw-nytimes&_r=1& |url-status=live |date=15 December 2012 }}</ref> After a successful medical procedure in early March 2013,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ctvnews.ca/world/nelson-mandela-94-responding-positively-to-treatment-in-hospital-1.1214585 |title=Nelson Mandela, 94, responding positively to treatment in hospital |website=CTV News |date=28 March 2013 |access-date=10 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160419135607/http://www.ctvnews.ca/world/nelson-mandela-94-responding-positively-to-treatment-in-hospital-1.1214585 |archive-date=19 April 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> his lung infection recurred and he was briefly hospitalised in Pretoria.<ref>{{cite news|title=Nelson Mandela arrives home in ambulance|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/nelson-mandela/9976102/Nelson-Mandela-arrives-home-in-ambulance.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408004826/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/nelson-mandela/9976102/Nelson-Mandela-arrives-home-in-ambulance.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=8 April 2013|work=The Telegraph|access-date=6 April 2013|location=London|date=6 April 2013}}</ref> In June 2013, his lung infection worsened and he was readmitted to a Pretoria hospital in serious condition.<ref>{{cite news|title=Nelson Mandela hospitalized in serious condition|url=http://www.cnn.com/2013/06/08/world/africa/south-africa-mandela-sick/index.html|publisher=CNN|access-date=8 June 2013|date=8 June 2013}}</ref> The [[Anglican Diocese of Cape Town|Archbishop of Cape Town]] [[Thabo Makgoba]] visited Mandela at the hospital and prayed with Machel,<ref>{{cite news |author=AFP 2|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/nelson-mandela/10142863/Nelson-Mandela-wished-a-peaceful-end.html |title=Mandela wished a 'peaceful end' by Cape Town Archbishop |website=The Telegraph |date=26 June 2013 |access-date=5 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127022518/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/nelson-mandela/10142863/Nelson-Mandela-wished-a-peaceful-end.html |archive-date=27 January 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> while Zuma cancelled a trip to Mozambique to visit him the following day.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Nelson Mandela condition worsens as Zuma cancels trip |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-23076057 |work=BBC News|access-date=27 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140126133047/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-23076057 |archive-date=26 January 2014 |url-status=live|date=27 June 2013 }}</ref> In September 2013, Mandela was discharged from hospital,<ref>{{cite news|title=Nelson Mandela released from hospital |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2013/09/01/world/africa/nelson-mandela-hospital-release/ |access-date=1 September 2013 |publisher=CNN| date=1 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304094240/http://edition.cnn.com/2013/09/01/world/africa/nelson-mandela-hospital-release/ |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> although his condition remained unstable.<ref>{{cite news |title=Mandela discharged from South Africa hospital |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2013/09/20139185614590114.html |access-date=1 September 2013 |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=1 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304114444/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2013/09/20139185614590114.html |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>

After suffering from a prolonged respiratory infection, Mandela died on 5 December 2013 at the age of 95, at around 20:50 [[South African Standard Time|local time]] at his home in Houghton, surrounded by his family.<ref name="BBCD">{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-25249520 |title=South Africa's Nelson Mandela dies in Johannesburg |date=5 December 2013 |work=BBC News|access-date=5 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160415152143/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-25249520 |archive-date=15 April 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Nelson Mandela dies|url=https://mg.co.za/article/2013-12-05-nelson-mandela-dies|work=Mail & Guardian|date=5 December 2013}}</ref> Zuma publicly announced his death on television,<ref name="BBCD"/><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/12/06/world/africa/nelson-mandela.html|title=Mandela's Death Leaves South Africa Without Its Moral Center |website=The New York Times |last=Polgreen |first=Lydia |date=5 December 2013 |access-date=5 December 2013}}</ref> proclaiming ten days of national mourning, a memorial service held at Johannesburg's [[FNB Stadium]] on 10 December 2013, and 8 December as a national day of prayer and reflection. Mandela's body [[Lying in state|lay in state]] from 11 to 13 December at the [[Union Buildings]] in Pretoria and a [[state funeral]] was held on 15 December in Qunu.<ref>{{cite news|last=Pillay|first=Verashni|title=Mandela's memorial service to be held on December 10|url=http://mg.co.za/article/2013-12-06-mandelas-memorial-service-to-be-held-on-december-10|access-date=6 December 2013|newspaper=Mail & Guardian|date=6 December 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Vecchiatto|first1=Paul|last2=Stone|first2=Setumo|last3=Magubane|first3=Khulekani|title=Nelson Mandela to be laid to rest on December 15|url=http://www.bdlive.co.za/national/2013/12/06/nelson-mandela-to-be-laid-to-rest-on-december-15|access-date=6 December 2013|newspaper=Business Day|location=South Africa|date=6 December 2013}}</ref> Approximately 90 representatives of foreign states travelled to South Africa to attend memorial events.<ref>{{cite news|last=Mount|first=Harry|title=Nelson Mandela: the long goodbye|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/nelson-mandela/10506010/Nelson-Mandela-the-long-goodbye.html|access-date=11 December 2013|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=9 December 2013|location=London}}</ref> It was later revealed that 300 million rand originally earmarked for humanitarian development projects had been redirected to finance the funeral.<ref>{{cite news|title=Nelson Mandela funeral: 'Millions misspent'|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-42224937|work=BBC News|date=4 December 2017|access-date=4 December 2017}}</ref> The media was awash with tributes and reminiscences,{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|p=917}} while images of tributes to Mandela proliferated across [[social media]].{{sfn|Nelson|2014|p=130}} His US$4.1 million estate was left to his widow, other family members, staff, and educational institutions.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.latimes.com/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-nelson-mandela-will-20140203,0,4680742.story |title=Nelson Mandela leaves $4.1-million estate to family, staff, schools |first=Robyn |last=Dixon |website=Los Angeles Times |date=3 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127022523/http://www.latimes.com/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-nelson-mandela-will-20140203-story.html |archive-date=27 January 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==Political ideology==
{{Quote box|width=25em|align=right|quote=A friend once asked me how I could reconcile my creed of African nationalism with a belief in dialectical materialism. For me, there was no contradiction. I was first and foremost an African nationalist fighting for our emancipation from minority rule and the right to control our own destiny. But at the same time, South Africa and the African continent were part of the larger world. Our problems, while distinctive and special, were not unique, and a philosophy that placed those problems in an international and historical context of the greater world and the course of history was valuable. I was prepared to use whatever means necessary to speed up the erasure of human prejudice and the end of chauvinistic and violent nationalism.|salign=right |source=—Nelson Mandela, 1994{{sfn|Mandela|1994|p=173}} }}

Mandela identified as both an [[African nationalism|African nationalist]], an ideological position he held since joining the ANC,{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=25, 232|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=220|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=241|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=37, 584}} and as a socialist.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=231–232|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=231}} He was a practical politician, rather than an intellectual scholar or political theorist.{{sfnm|1a1=Boehmer|1y=2008|1p=13|2a1=Barnard|2y=2014|2p=14}} According to biographer Tom Lodge, "for Mandela, politics has always been primarily about enacting stories, about making narratives, primarily about morally exemplary conduct, and only secondarily about ideological vision, more about means rather than ends."{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=ix}}

The historian Sabelo J. Ndlovu-Gatsheni described Mandela as a "liberal African nationalist–decolonial humanist",{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|p=907}} while political analyst [[Raymond Suttner]] cautioned against labelling Mandela a liberal and stated that Mandela displayed a "hybrid socio-political make-up".{{sfn|Suttner|2007|p=122}} Mandela adopted some of his political ideas from other thinkers—among them Indian independence leaders like Gandhi and Nehru, African-American civil rights activists, and African nationalists like [[Kwame Nkrumah|Nkrumah]]—and applied them to the South African situation. At the same time he rejected other aspects of their thought, such as the anti-white sentiment of many African nationalists.{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=109}} In doing so he synthesised both counter-cultural and hegemonic views, for instance by drawing upon ideas from the then-dominant [[Afrikaner nationalism]] in promoting his anti-apartheid vision.{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=102}}

His political development was strongly influenced by his legal training and practice, in particular his hope to achieve change not through violence but through "legal revolution".{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=viii}} Over the course of his life, he began by advocating a path of non-violence, later embracing violence, and then adopting a non-violent approach to negotiation and reconciliation.{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=107}} When endorsing violence, he did so because he saw no alternative, and was always pragmatic about it, perceiving it as a means to get his opponent to the negotiating table.{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|pp=105, 108}} He sought to target symbols of white supremacy and racist oppression rather than white people as individuals, and was anxious not to inaugurate a race war in South Africa.{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|p=914}} This willingness to use violence distinguishes Mandela from the ideology of [[Gandhism]], with which some commentators have sought to associate him.{{sfn|Suttner|2007|pp=119–120}}

===Democracy===

Although he presented himself in an autocratic manner in several speeches, Mandela was a devout believer in democracy and abided by majority decisions even when deeply disagreeing with them.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=433}} He had exhibited a commitment to the values of democracy and human rights since at least the 1960s.{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|pp=906–907}} He held a conviction that "inclusivity, accountability and freedom of speech" were the fundamentals of democracy,{{sfn|Battersby|2011|p=605}} and was driven by a belief in [[natural and legal rights|natural]] and human rights.{{sfn|Kalumba|1995|p=162}} Suttner argued that there were "two modes of leadership" that Mandela adopted. On one side he adhered to ideas about collective leadership, although on the other believed that there were scenarios in which a leader had to be decisive and act without consultation to achieve a particular objective.{{sfn|Suttner|2007|pp=113–114}}

According to Lodge, Mandela's political thought reflected tensions between his support for [[liberal democracy]] and pre-colonial African forms of consensus decision making.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=xi}} He was an admirer of British-style [[parliamentary democracy]],{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|p=907}} stating that "I regard the British Parliament as the most democratic institution in the world, and the independence and impartiality of its judiciary never fail to arouse my admiration."{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|p=907}} In this he has been described as being committed to "the Euro-North American modernist project of emancipation", something which distinguishes him from other African nationalist and socialist leaders like Nyerere who were concerned about embracing styles of democratic governance that were Western, rather than African, in origin.{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|p=907}} Mandela nevertheless also expressed admiration for what he deemed to be indigenous forms of democracy, describing Xhosa traditional society's mode of governance as "democracy in its purest form".{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|p=907}} He also spoke of an influential African ethical tenet, [[Ubuntu (philosophy)|Ubuntu]], which is a [[Nguni languages|Ngnuni term]] meaning "A person is a person through other persons" or "I am because we are."{{sfn|Oppenheim|2012|pp=369–370}}

===Socialism and Marxism===

[[File:The Soviet Union 1988 CPA 5971 stamp (70th birth anniversary of Nelson Mandela, South African anti-apartheid revolutionary, political leader and philanthropist).jpg|thumb|upright|1988 Soviet commemorative stamp, captioned "The fighter for freedom of South Africa Nelson Mandela" in Russian]]

Mandela advocated the ultimate establishment of a classless society,{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=231, 232|2a1=Ellis|2y=2016|2p=7}} with Sampson describing him as being "openly opposed to capitalism, private land-ownership and the power of big money".{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=298}} Mandela was influenced by [[Marxism]], and during the revolution he advocated [[scientific socialism]].{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=282}} He denied being a communist at the Treason Trial,{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=365|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=135–138}} and maintained this stance both when later talking to journalists,{{sfn|Benson|1986|p=232}} and in his autobiography.{{sfn|Ellis|2016|p=18}} According to the sociologist Craig Soudien, "sympathetic as Mandela was to socialism, a communist he was not."{{sfn|Soudien|2015|p=361}} Conversely, the biographer David Jones Smith stated that Mandela "embraced communism and communists" in the late 1950s and early 1960s,{{sfn|Smith|2010|pp=217–218}} while the historian Stephen Ellis commented that Mandela had assimilated much of the [[Marxism–Leninism|Marxist–Leninist]] ideology by 1960.{{sfn|Ellis|2016|p=7}}

Ellis also found evidence that Mandela had been an active member of the South African Communist Party during the late 1950s and early 1960s,{{sfn|Ellis|2011|pp=667–668}} something that was confirmed after his death by both the ANC and the SACP, the latter of which claimed that he was not only a member of the party, but also served on its Central Committee.<ref name="Mandela'sCommunism"/> His membership had been hidden by the ANC, aware that knowledge of Mandela's former SACP involvement might have been detrimental to his attempts to attract support from Western countries.{{sfn|Ellis|2016|p=17}} Mandela's view of these Western governments differed from those of Marxist–Leninists, for he did not believe that they were anti-democratic or reactionary and remained committed to democratic systems of governance.{{sfn|Smith|2010|p=231}}

The 1955 Freedom Charter, which Mandela had helped create, called for the nationalisation of banks, gold mines and land, to ensure equal distribution of wealth.{{sfn|Kalumba|1995|pp=164–165}} Despite these beliefs, Mandela initiated a programme of privatisation during his presidency in line with trends in other countries of the time.{{sfn|Freund|2014|p=294}} It has been repeatedly suggested that Mandela would have preferred to develop a [[social democracy|social democratic]] economy in South Africa but that this was not feasible as a result of the international political and economic situation during the early 1990s.{{sfn|Freund|2014|p=294}} This decision was in part influenced by the fall of the [[socialist states]] in the Soviet Union and [[Eastern Bloc]] during the early 1990s.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=433–435}}

==Personality and personal life==
[[File:Nelson Mandela (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|Mandela on a visit to Australia in 2009; he is wearing one of the brightly coloured garments that became known as "Madiba shirts"]]

Mandela was widely considered a [[charismatic leader]],{{sfnm|1a1=Glad|1a2=Blanton|1y=1997|1p=570|2a1=Read|2y=2010|2p=326}} described by biographer [[Mary Benson (campaigner)|Mary Benson]] as "a born mass leader who could not help magnetizing people".{{sfn|Benson|1986|p=51}} He was highly image conscious and throughout his life always sought out fine quality clothes, with many commentators believing that he carried himself in a regal manner.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=432, 554}} His aristocratic heritage was repeatedly emphasised by supporters, thus contributing to his "charismatic power".{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=2}} While living in Johannesburg in the 1950s, he cultivated the image of the "African gentleman", having "the pressed clothes, correct manners, and modulated public speech" associated with such a position.{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=111}} In doing so, Lodge argued that Mandela became "one of the first media politicians ... embodying a glamour and a style that projected ''visually'' a brave new African world of modernity and freedom".{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=ix}} Mandela was known to change his clothes several times a day, and he became so associated with highly coloured [[Batik]] shirts after assuming the presidency that they came to be known as "[[Madiba shirt]]s".{{sfnm|1a1=Boehmer|1y=2008|1p=133|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=495|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=503}}<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3532916.stm |title=How Mandela changed SA fashion |last=Khumalo |first=Fred |date=5 August 2004 |publisher=BBC |access-date=28 October 2008 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhlMxe4g?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3532916.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>

For political scientists [[Betty Glad]] and Robert Blanton, Mandela was an "exceptionally intelligent, shrewd, and loyal leader".{{sfn|Glad|Blanton|1997|p=577}} His official biographer, [[Anthony Sampson]], commented that he was a "master of imagery and performance", excelling at presenting himself well in press photographs and producing sound bites.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=582–583}} His public speeches were presented in a formal, stiff manner, and often consisted of clichéd set phrases.{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|pp=128, 134}} He typically spoke slowly, and carefully chose his words.{{sfn|Glad|Blanton|1997|p=576}} Although he was not considered a great orator, his speeches conveyed "his personal commitment, charm and humour".{{sfn|Barber|2004|p=87}}

Mandela was a private person who often concealed his emotions and confided in very few people.{{sfnm|1a1=Suttner|1y=2007|1p=119|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=xv–xvi}} Privately, he lived an austere life, refusing to drink alcohol or smoke, and even as president made his own bed.{{sfn|Meredith|2010|p=xvi}} Renowned for his mischievous sense of humour,{{sfn|Battersby|2011|p=599}} he was known for being both stubborn and loyal,{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=xvi|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=583}} and at times exhibited a quick temper.{{sfnm|1a1=Glad|1a2=Blanton|1y=1997|1p=582|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=xvi}} He was typically friendly and welcoming, and appeared relaxed in conversation with everyone, including his opponents.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=411, 498}} A self-described [[Anglophile]], he claimed to have lived by the "trappings of British style and manners".{{sfnm|1a1=Glad|1a2=Blanton|1y=1997|1p=581|2a1=Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2y=2014|2p=907}} Constantly polite and courteous, he was attentive to all, irrespective of their age or status, and often talked to children or servants.{{sfn|Meredith|2010|pp=xvi, 482–483}} He was known for his ability to find common ground with very different communities.{{sfn|Barnard|2014|pp=5–6}} In later life, he always looked for the best in people, even defending political opponents to his allies, who sometimes thought him too trusting of others.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=431, 582}} He was fond of [[Indian cuisine]],{{sfn|Meredith|2010|p=164}} and had a lifelong interest in archaeology{{sfn|Meer|1988|p=189}} and boxing.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=29}}

{{Quote box|width=25em|align=left|quote=The significance of Mandela can be considered in two related ways. First, he has provided through his personal presence as a benign and honest conviction politician, skilled at exerting power but not obsessed with it to the point of view of excluding principles, a man who struggled to display respect to all ... Second, in so doing he was able to be a hero and a symbol to an array of otherwise unlikely mates through his ability, like all brilliant nationalist politicians, to speak to very different audiences effectively at once.|salign=right |source=—[[Bill Freund (historian)|Bill Freund]], academic{{sfn|Freund|2014|p=295}} }}

He was raised in the Methodist denomination of Christianity; the [[Methodist Church of Southern Africa]] claimed that he retained his allegiance to them throughout his life.{{sfn|Forster|2014|p=89}} On analysing Mandela's writings, the theologian [[Dion Forster]] described him as a [[Christian humanist]], although added that his thought relied to a greater extent on the Southern African concept of [[Ubuntu philosophy|Ubuntu]] than on [[Christian theology]].{{sfn|Forster|2014|pp=106–107}} According to Sampson, Mandela never had "a strong religious faith" however,{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=65}} while Boehmer stated that Mandela's religious belief was "never robust".{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=86}}

Mandela was very self-conscious about being a man and regularly made references to [[manhood]].{{sfn|Suttner|2014|p=342}} He was [[heterosexual]],{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=142}} and biographer [[Fatima Meer]] said that he was "easily tempted" by women.{{sfn|Meer|1988|p=78}} Another biographer, [[Martin Meredith]], characterised him as being "by nature a romantic", highlighting that he had relationships with various women.{{sfn|Meredith|2010|p=21}} Mandela was married three times, fathered six children, and had seventeen grandchildren and at least seventeen great-grandchildren.<ref name="genealogy">{{cite web|publisher=Nelson Mandela Foundation|title=The Life and Times of Nelson Mandela: Genealogy |url=http://www.nelsonmandela.org/content/page/genealogy |access-date=13 July 2016 |archive-date=16 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160116020637/https://www.nelsonmandela.org/content/page/genealogy }}</ref> He could be stern and demanding of his children, although he was more affectionate with his grandchildren.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=481|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=147|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=246}} His first marriage was to Evelyn Ntoko Mase in October 1944;{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=144, 148–149|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=59–62|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=36}} they divorced in March 1958 under the multiple strains of his adultery and constant absences, devotion to revolutionary agitation, and the fact that she was a Jehovah's Witness, a religion requiring political neutrality.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=296|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=102–104|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=110}} Mandela's second wife was the social worker Winnie Madikizela-Mandela, whom he married in June 1958.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=74–76|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=93|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=306–311|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=144–149|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=104, 132–145|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=110–113}} They divorced in March 1996.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=539–542|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=500}} Mandela married his third wife, Graça Machel, on his 80th birthday in July 1998.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=xvii, 576|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=549–551}}

==Reception and legacy==
[[File:Nelson Mandela tributes in Parliament Square - London - DSCF0404.jpg|thumb|Flowers left at the [[Statue of Nelson Mandela, Parliament Square|Mandela statue]] in London's Parliament Square following his death]]
By the time of his death, within South Africa Mandela was widely considered both "the father of the nation"<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-20839504 |title=Nelson Mandela to spend Christmas in S Africa hospital |date=24 December 2012 |work=BBC News|access-date=13 July 2016 |archive-date= 3 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EAEkVVsN?url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-20839504 |url-status=live }}</ref> and "the founding father of democracy".{{sfn|Meredith|2010|p=565}} Outside of South Africa, he was a "global icon",{{sfnm|1a1=Barnard|1y=2014|1pp=1, 2|2a1=Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2y=2014|2p=906}} with the scholar of South African studies Rita Barnard describing him as "one of the most revered figures of our time".{{sfn|Barnard|2014|pp=1, 2}} One biographer considered him "a modern democratic hero".{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=225}} Some have portrayed Mandela in messianic terms,{{sfn|Suttner|2007|pp=125–126}} in contrast to his own statement that "I was not a messiah, but an ordinary man who had become a leader because of extraordinary circumstances."{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=599|2a1=Barnard|2y=2014|2p=4}} He is often cited alongside [[Mahatma Gandhi]] and [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] as one of the 20th century's exemplary anti-racist and anti-colonial leaders.{{sfnm|1a1=Boehmer|1y=2008|1p=82|2a1=Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2y=2014|2p=918}} Boehmer described him as "a totem of the totemic values of our age: toleration and liberal democracy"{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=16}} and "a universal symbol of social justice".{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=1}}

Mandela's international fame had emerged during his incarceration in the 1980s, when he became the world's most famous prisoner, a symbol of the anti-apartheid cause, and an icon for millions who embraced the ideal of human equality.{{sfn|Barnard|2014|p=1}} In the years since been described as world's most famous [[political prisoner]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hooper|first=Simon|title=The world's most famous political prisoner|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2013/12/6/the-worlds-most-famous-political-prisoner|access-date=2021-06-29|website=www.aljazeera.com|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|last2=|last3=|first3=|last4=|last5=|last6=|last7=|last8=|first8=|last9=|date=2018-07-13|title=Nelson Mandela's letters detail his 27 years as the world's most famous political prisoner|url=https://www.latimes.com/books/la-ca-jc-prison-letters-mandela-20180713-story.html|access-date=2021-06-29|website=Los Angeles Times|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=2013-12-07|title=Mandela death: How a prisoner became a legend|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-25256818|access-date=2021-06-29}}</ref> In 1986, Mandela's biographer characterised him as "the embodiment of the struggle for liberation" in South Africa.{{sfn|Benson|1986|p=13}} Meredith stated that in becoming "a potent symbol of resistance" to apartheid during the 1980s, he had gained "mythical status" internationally.{{sfn|Meredith|2010|p=xv}} Sampson commented that even during his life, this myth had become "so powerful that it blurs the realities", converting Mandela into "a secular saint".{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=xxvi}} Within a decade of the end of his presidency, Mandela's era was being widely thought of as "a golden age of hope and harmony",{{sfn|Meredith|2010|p=599}} with much [[nostalgia]] being expressed for it.{{sfn|Freund|2014|p=296}} His name was often invoked by those criticising his successors like Mbeki and Zuma.{{sfn|Mangcu|2013|p=101}} Across the world, Mandela earned international acclaim for his activism in overcoming apartheid and fostering racial reconciliation,{{sfn|Meredith|2010|p=xvi}} coming to be viewed as "a moral authority" with a great "concern for truth".{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=582}} Mandela's iconic status has been blamed for concealing the complexities of his life.{{sfn|Suttner|2016|p=17}}

Mandela generated controversy throughout his career as an activist and politician,{{sfn|Barnard|2014|p=2}} having detractors on both the right and the radical left.{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=173}} During the 1980s, Mandela was widely labelled a terrorist by prominent political figures in the Western world for his embrace of political violence.{{sfn|Boehmer|2005|p=46}} According to Thatcher, for instance, the ANC was "a typical terrorist organisation".{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=360}} The US government's [[United States Department of State|State]] and [[United States Department of Defense|Defense]] departments officially designated the ANC as a terrorist organisation, resulting in Mandela remaining on their terrorism watch-list until 2008.<ref>{{cite news |title=US government considered Nelson Mandela a terrorist until 2008 |date=7 December 2013 |work=NBC News |last=Windrem |first=Robert |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/other/us-government-considered-nelson-mandela-terrorist-until-2008-f2D11708787 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303200951/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/other/us-government-considered-nelson-mandela-terrorist-until-2008-f2D11708787 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> On the left, some voices in the ANC—among them [[Frank B. Wilderson III]]—accused him of [[selling out]] for agreeing to enter negotiations with the apartheid government and for not implementing the reforms of the Freedom Charter during his presidency.{{sfnm|1a1=Barnard|1y=2014|1p=2|2a1=Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2y=2014|2p=918}} According to Barnard, "there is also a sense in which his chiefly bearing and mode of conduct, the very respect and authority he accrued in representing his nation in his own person, went against the spirit of democracy",{{sfn|Barnard|2014|p=2}} and concerns were similarly expressed that he placed his own status and celebrity above the transformation of his country.{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|p=918}} His government would be criticised for its failure to deal with both the HIV/AIDS pandemic and the high levels of poverty in South Africa.{{sfn|Barnard|2014|p=2}} Mandela was also criticised for his friendship with political leaders such as Castro, Gaddafi, and Suharto—deemed [[dictators]] by critics—as well as his refusal to condemn their governments' human rights violations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibtimes.com/mandela-dictators-freedom-fighter-complicated-past-725667 |title=Mandela and the Dictators: A Freedom Fighter With A Complicated Past |first=Jacey |last=Fortin |website=International Business Times |date=18 July 2012 |access-date=13 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160419032439/http://www.ibtimes.com/mandela-dictators-freedom-fighter-complicated-past-725667 |archive-date=19 April 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Orders, decorations, monuments, and honours===
{{Main|List of awards and honours bestowed upon Nelson Mandela}}
Over the course of his life, Mandela was given over 250 awards, accolades, prizes, honorary degrees and citizenships in recognition of his political achievements.<ref name=CT12>{{Cite news |url=https://www.questia.com/read/1G1-296964849 |title=How the awards have just kept flooding in |date=18 July 2012 |work=The Cape Times |via=[[Questia Online Library]] |url-status=dead|access-date=14 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190207130510/https://www.questia.com/read/1G1-296964849/how-the-awards-have-just-kept-flooding-in|archive-date=7 February 2019}}</ref>
Among his awards were the Nobel Peace Prize,{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=68|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=182|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=494|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=474}} the US [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2002/07/20020709-8.html |title=President Honors Recipients of the Presidential Medal of Freedom |date=9 July 2002 |publisher=The White House |access-date=26 October 2008 |archive-date=14 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EQa6Gnu1?url=http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2002/07/20020709-8.html |url-status=live }}</ref> the Soviet Union's [[Lenin Peace Prize]],<ref name=CT12/> and the Libyan [[Al-Gaddafi International Prize for Human Rights]].<ref name="TimeGadafiPrize">{{cite news|title=Prizes: And the Winner Is ...|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,957634,00.html|work=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|date=8 May 1989|access-date=24 October 2012}}</ref> In 1990, India awarded him the [[Bharat Ratna]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/list-of-all-bharat-ratna-award-winners-81336 |title=List of all Bharat Ratna award winners |date=21 January 2011 |publisher=NDTV |access-date=14 February 2013 |archive-date=14 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EQat3ntQ?url=http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/list-of-all-bharat-ratna-award-winners-81336 |url-status=live }}</ref> and in 1992 Pakistan gave him their [[Nishan-e-Pakistan]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=Mandela in Pakistan |newspaper=The Independent |publisher=Independent Print Limited |date=3 October 1992 |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/mandela-in-pakistan-1555096.html |access-date=7 June 2010 |archive-date=14 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EQa80Py9?url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/mandela-in-pakistan-1555096.html |url-status=live |location=London }}</ref> The same year, he was awarded the Atatürk Peace Award by Turkey; he at first refused the award, citing human rights violations committed by Turkey at the time,<ref name=ataturk>{{cite web |url=http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/pr/1992/pr0412a.html |title=Statement on the Ataturk Award given to Nelson Mandela |date=12 April 1992 |publisher=African National Congress |access-date=2 January 2007 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061001161737/http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/pr/1992/pr0412a.html  |archive-date = 1 October 2006}}</ref> but later accepted the award in 1999.<ref name=CT12/> He was appointed to the [[Order of Isabella the Catholic]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://boe.es/diario_boe/txt.php?id=BOE-A-1999-3755 |title=Royal Decree 270/1999, 12th February 1999 |date=13 February 1999 |work=Spanish Official State Gazette|access-date=13 September 2017 }}</ref> and the [[Order of Canada]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.canadainternational.gc.ca/southafrica-afriquedusud/eyes_abroad-coupdoeil/NelsonMandelaDJ.aspx?lang=eng&view=d |title=Canada presents Nelson Mandela with the Queen Elizabeth II Diamond Jubilee medal |date=23 August 2012 |publisher=Queen's Printer for Canada |access-date=14 February 2013 |archive-date=14 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EQaTXONi?url=http://www.canadainternational.gc.ca/southafrica-afriquedusud/eyes_abroad-coupdoeil/NelsonMandelaDJ.aspx?lang=eng&view=d |url-status=dead}}</ref> and was the first living person to be made an [[Honorary Citizenship of Canada|honorary Canadian citizen]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2001/11/19/mandela_011119.html |title=Mandela to be honoured with Canadian citizenship |date=19 November 2001 |publisher=CBC News |access-date=26 October 2008 |archive-date=14 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EQa6zuKU?url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/story/2001/11/19/mandela_011119.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Queen Elizabeth II appointed him as a Bailiff Grand Cross of the [[Order of Saint John (chartered 1888)|Order of St. John]] and granted him membership in the [[Order of Merit]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/Page1880.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050105152154/http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/Page1880.asp |archive-date=5 January 2005 |title=The Order of Merit |date = November 2002|publisher=Royal Insight |access-date=26 October 2008}}</ref>

In 2004, Johannesburg granted Mandela the [[Freedom of the City]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gpg.gov.za/docs/nz/2004/nz0727.html |title=Madiba conferred freedom of Johannesburg |date=27 July 2004 |publisher=Gauteng Provincial Government |access-date=26 October 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080621081749/http://www.gpg.gov.za/docs/nz/2004/nz0727.html|archive-date=21 June 2008}}</ref> and in 2008 a Mandela statue was unveiled at the spot where Mandela was released from prison.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mediaclubsouthafrica.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=703:mandelastatue270808&catid=42:land_news&Itemid=110 |title=Long walk immortalised in bronze |last=Stern |first=Jennifer |date=27 August 2008 |publisher=Media Club South Africa |access-date=30 November 2009 |archive-date=14 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EQY5DhSw?url=http://www.mediaclubsouthafrica.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=703:mandelastatue270808&catid=42:land_news&Itemid=110 |url-status=dead }}</ref> On the [[Day of Reconciliation]] 2013, a bronze statue of Mandela was unveiled at Pretoria's Union Buildings.<ref>{{cite news|title=Nelson Mandela statue unveiled in Pretoria by Zuma|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-25399709|work=BBC News|access-date=23 December 2013|date=16 December 2013}}</ref>
In November 2009, the [[United Nations General Assembly]] proclaimed Mandela's birthday, 18 July, as "[[Mandela Day]]", marking his contribution to the anti-apartheid struggle. It called on individuals to donate 67 minutes to doing something for others, commemorating the 67 years that Mandela had been a part of the movement.<ref>{{harvnb|Battersby|2011|p=601}}; {{cite news
|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/8353853.stm
|title=UN gives backing to 'Mandela Day'
|work=BBC News|access-date=11 November 2009
|date=11 November 2009
|archive-date=14 February 2013
|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EQbCaUWz?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8353853.stm
|url-status=live
}}</ref> In 2015 the UN General Assembly named the amended [[Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners]] as "the Mandela Rules" to honour his legacy.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.un.org/ga/search/viewm_doc.asp?symbol=A/C.3/70/L.3 |title=Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners from the United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |date=29 September 2015 |page=6}}</ref>


===Biographies and popular media===

The first biography of Mandela was authored by [[Mary Benson (campaigner)|Mary Benson]], based on brief interviews with him that she had conducted in the 1960s.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=8}} Two authorised biographies were later produced by friends of Mandela.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=vii}} The first was Fatima Meer's ''Higher Than Hope'', which was heavily influenced by Winnie and thus placed great emphasis on Mandela's family.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|pp=vii, 13–14}} The second was Anthony Sampson's ''Mandela'', published in 1999.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=vii}} Other biographies included Martin Meredith's ''Mandela'', first published in 1997, and Tom Lodge's ''Mandela'', brought out in 2006.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=vii}}

Since the late 1980s, Mandela's image began to appear on a proliferation of items, among them "photographs, paintings, drawings, statues, public murals, buttons, t-shirts, refrigerator magnets, and more",{{sfn|Nelson|2014|p=130}} items that have been characterised as "Mandela kitsch".{{sfn|Nelson|2014|p=138}} In the 1980s he was the subject of several songs, such as [[The Specials]]' "[[Free Nelson Mandela]]", [[Hugh Masekela]]'s "[[Bring Him Back Home (Nelson Mandela)]]", and [[Johnny Clegg]]'s "[[Asimbonanga|Asimbonanga (Mandela)]]", which helped to bring awareness of his imprisonment to an international audience.<ref>{{cite news |first=Dorian |last=Lynskey |date=6 December 2013 |title=Nelson Mandela: The Triumph of the Protest Song |website=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2013/dec/06/nelson-mandela-protest-song-special-aka |access-date=23 January 2017 }}</ref>

Following his death, many [[internet meme]]s appeared featuring images of Mandela with his inspirational quotes superimposed onto them.{{sfn|Nelson|2014|p=130}} Mandela has also been depicted in films on multiple occasions.{{sfn|Bromley|2014|p=41}} Some of these, such as the 2013 feature film ''[[Mandela: Long Walk to Freedom]]'' and the 1996 documentary ''Mandela'', have focused on covering his long life, whereas others, such as the 2009 feature film ''[[Invictus (film)|Invictus]]'' and the 2010 documentary ''[[The 16th Man]]'', have focused on specific events in his life.{{sfn|Bromley|2014|p=41}} It has been argued that in ''Invictus'' and other films, "the America film industry" has played a significant part in "the crafting of Mandela's global image".{{sfn|Lukhele|2012|p=289}}

==See also==
* [[List of peace activists]]

==References==
===Footnotes===
{{Reflist|25em}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links
|wikt=no
|commons=Nelson Mandela
|b=no
|n=Category:Nelson Mandela
|q=Nelson Mandela
|s=Author:Nelson Mandela
|v=no
|species=no
|d=Q8023
}}
* [http://archive.nelsonmandela.org/ Nelson Mandela Centre of Memory]
* [http://www.nelsonmandelachildrensfund.com/ Nelson Mandela Children's Fund]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130707224033/http://www.nelsonmandela.org/ Nelson Mandela Foundation]
* [http://www.mandelarhodes.org/ Mandela Rhodes Foundation]
* [http://www.theelders.org/ The Elders]
* [http://www.nelsonmandelamuseum.org.za/ Nelson Mandela Museum]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120305110400/http://www.mandeladay.com/ Nelson Mandela Day]
* [https://southafrica-info.com/history/nelson-mandela-genealogy-family-tree/ Nelson Mandela's family tree]
* {{Worldcat id|lccn-n85-153068}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mandela, Nelson}}
[[Category:Nelson Mandela| ]]
[[Category:1918 births]]
[[Category:2013 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century Methodists]]
[[Category:20th-century philanthropists]]
[[Category:20th-century South African lawyers]]
[[Category:20th-century South African male writers]]
[[Category:20th-century South African politicians]]
[[Category:21st-century Methodists]]
[[Category:21st-century philanthropists]]
[[Category:21st-century South African politicians]]
[[Category:African and Black nationalists]]
[[Category:Alumni of the University of London]]
[[Category:Alumni of University of London Worldwide]]
[[Category:Anti-apartheid activists]]
[[Category:Bailiffs Grand Cross of the Order of St John]]
[[Category:Burials in South Africa]]
[[Category:Collars of the Order of Isabella the Catholic]]
[[Category:Congressional Gold Medal recipients]]
[[Category:Deaths from lung disease]]
[[Category:Grand Commanders of the Order of the Federal Republic]]
[[Category:Honorary Companions of the Order of Australia]]
[[Category:Honorary Companions of the Order of Canada]]
[[Category:Honorary Companions of the Order of the Star of Ghana]]
[[Category:Honorary members of the Order of Merit]]
[[Category:Honorary Queen's Counsel]]
[[Category:Inmates of Robben Island]]
[[Category:Lenin Peace Prize recipients]]
[[Category:Marxist writers]]
[[Category:Members of the National Assembly of South Africa]]

Nelson Mandela

2021-07-18T22:42:48Z

Hembram Bakhul: /* External links */

{{short description|First President of South Africa and anti-apartheid activist}}
{{redirect|Mandela||Mandela (disambiguation)|and|Nelson Mandela (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-semi-indef|small=yes}}
{{pp-move-indef}}
{{featured article}}
{{EngvarB|date=March 2019}}
{{use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| honorific_prefix = [[His Excellency]]
| honorific_suffix = {{post-nominals|list=[[List of awards and honours received by Nelson Mandela|OMP SBG SBS CLS DMG MMS MMB]]|size=100%}}
| image = Nelson Mandela 1994.jpg
| alt = Portrait photograph of a 76-year-old President Mandela
| caption = Mandela in [[Washington, D.C.]], 1994
| order = 1st
| office = President of South Africa
| term_start = 10 May 1994
| term_end = 16 June 1999
| deputy = {{plainlist|
* [[Thabo Mbeki]]
* [[F. W. de Klerk]]
}}
| predecessor = F. W. de Klerk {{nowrap|(''[[State President of South Africa|State Pres.]]'')}}
| successor = Thabo Mbeki
| office1 = {{nowrap|11th President of the [[African National Congress]]}}
| deputy1 = {{plainlist|
* [[Walter Sisulu]]
* Thabo Mbeki
}}
| term_start1 = 7 July 1991
| term_end1 = 20 December 1997
| predecessor1 = [[Oliver Tambo]]
| successor1 = Thabo Mbeki
| office2 = 19th Secretary General of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]]
| term_start2 = 2 September 1998
| term_end2 = 16 June 1999
| predecessor2 = [[Andrés Pastrana Arango]]
| successor2 = Thabo Mbeki
| birth_name = Rolihlahla Mandela
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=y|1918|7|18}}
| birth_place = [[Mvezo]], [[Cape Province]], [[Union of South Africa]] (now [[Eastern Cape]])
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=y|2013|12|05|1918|7|18}}
| death_place = [[Johannesburg]], [[Gauteng]], [[South Africa|Republic of South Africa]]
| death_cause = 
| resting_place = Mandela Graveyard [[Qunu, Eastern Cape]], South Africa
| party = [[African National Congress]]
| otherparty = [[South African Communist Party|South African Communist]]
| spouse = {{plainlist|
* {{marriage|[[Evelyn Mase|Evelyn Ntoko Mase]]|5 October 1944|19 March 1958|reason=divorced}}
* {{marriage|[[Winnie Madikizela-Mandela|Winnie Madikizela]]|14 June 1958|19 March 1996|reason=divorced}}
* {{marriage|[[Graça Machel]]|18 July 1998}}
}}
| children = 7, including [[Makgatho Mandela|Makgatho]], [[Makaziwe Mandela|Makaziwe]], [[Zenani Mandela-Dlamini|Zenani]], [[Zindzi Mandela|Zindziswa]] and [[Josina Z. Machel|Josina]] (step-daughter)
| parents = {{plainlist|
* Nosekeni Fanny (mother)
* Gadla Henry Mphakanyiswa (father)
}}
| alma_mater = {{plainlist|
* [[University of Fort Hare]]
* [[University of London]]
* [[University of South Africa]]
* [[University of the Witwatersrand]]
}}
| occupation = {{flatlist|
* Activist
* {{lcfirst:Politician}}
* {{lcfirst:Philanthropist}}
* {{lcfirst:Lawyer}}
}}
| website = {{official website|nelsonmandela.org}}
| nickname = {{flatlist|
* Madiba
* Dalibunga
}}
| known_for = [[Internal resistance to apartheid]]
| awards = {{plainlist|
* [[Sakharov Prize]] (1988)
* [[Bharat Ratna]] (1990)
* [[Nishan-e-Pakistan]] (1992)
* [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (1993)
* [[Lenin Peace Prize]] (1990)
* [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]]
* ''([[List of awards and honours bestowed upon Nelson Mandela|more...]])''
}}
| module = {{Infobox writer | embed=yes
| notableworks = ''[[Long Walk to Freedom]]''
}}
}}


'''Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela''' ({{IPAc-en|m|æ|n|ˈ|d|ɛ|l|ə}};<ref>{{cite web| title=Mandela| url=http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/mandela| publisher=[[Collins English Dictionary]]| access-date=17 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160405011219/http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/mandela |archive-date=5 April 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> {{IPA-xh|xolíɬaɬa mandɛ̂ːla|lang}}; 18 July 1918 – 5 December 2013) was a South African [[Internal resistance to apartheid|anti-apartheid]] revolutionary, statesman and [[philanthropist]] who served as [[President of South Africa]] from 1994 to 1999. He was the country's first black head of state and the first elected in a [[Universal suffrage|fully representative]] democratic election. [[Presidency of Nelson Mandela|His government]] focused on dismantling the legacy of [[apartheid]] by tackling institutionalised racism and fostering racial [[Conflict resolution|reconciliation]]. Ideologically an [[African nationalist]] and [[socialist]], he served as the president of the [[African National Congress]] (ANC) party from 1991 to 1997.


A [[Xhosa language|Xhosa speaker]], Mandela was born into the [[Thembu]] royal family in [[Mvezo]], [[Union of South Africa]]. He studied law at the [[University of Fort Hare]] and the [[University of Witwatersrand]] before working as a lawyer in [[Johannesburg]]. There he became involved in [[anti-colonial]] and African nationalist politics, joining the ANC in 1943 and co-founding its [[African National Congress Youth League|Youth League]] in 1944. After the [[National Party (South Africa)|National Party]]'s [[Dominant minority|white-only government]] established apartheid, a system of [[racial segregation]] that privileged [[White South African|whites]], Mandela and the ANC committed themselves to its overthrow. He was appointed president of the ANC's [[Transvaal Province|Transvaal]] branch, rising to prominence for his involvement in the 1952 [[Defiance Campaign]] and the 1955 [[Congress of the People (1955)|Congress of the People]]. He was repeatedly arrested for [[seditious]] activities and was unsuccessfully prosecuted in the [[1956 Treason Trial]]. Influenced by [[Marxism]], he secretly joined the banned [[South African Communist Party]] (SACP). Although initially committed to non-violent protest, in association with the SACP he co-founded the militant [[Umkhonto we Sizwe]] in 1961 and led a [[sabotage]] campaign against the government. He was arrested and imprisoned in 1962, and subsequently sentenced to life imprisonment for conspiring to overthrow the state following the [[Rivonia Trial]].


Mandela served 27 years in prison, split between [[Robben Island]], [[Pollsmoor Prison]] and [[Victor Verster Prison]]. Amid growing domestic and international pressure and fears of racial civil war, President [[F. W. de Klerk]] released him in 1990. Mandela and de Klerk led efforts to negotiate an end to apartheid, which resulted in the [[1994 South African general election|1994 multiracial general election]] in which Mandela led the ANC to victory and became president. Leading a [[Government of National Unity (South Africa)|broad coalition government]] which promulgated a [[Constitution of South Africa|new constitution]], Mandela emphasised reconciliation between the country's racial groups and created the [[Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South Africa)|Truth and Reconciliation Commission]] to investigate past [[Human rights in South Africa|human rights]] abuses. Economically, his administration retained its predecessor's [[Economic liberalism|liberal framework]] despite his own socialist beliefs, also introducing measures to encourage [[land reform]], [[Poverty reduction|combat poverty]] and expand healthcare services. Internationally, Mandela acted as mediator in the [[Pan Am Flight 103 bombing trial]] and served as secretary-general of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] from 1998 to 1999. He declined a second presidential term and was succeeded by his deputy, [[Thabo Mbeki]]. Mandela became an elder statesman and focused on combating poverty and [[HIV/AIDS]] through the charitable [[Nelson Mandela Foundation]].


Mandela was a controversial figure for much of his life. Although critics on [[Right-wing politics|the right]] denounced him as a [[communist terrorist]] and those on the [[far left]] deemed him too eager to negotiate and reconcile with apartheid's supporters, he gained international acclaim for his activism. Widely regarded as an icon of democracy and [[social justice]], he received [[List of Nelson Mandela awards and honours|more than 250 honours]], including the [[Nobel Peace Prize]]. He is held in deep respect within South Africa, where he is often referred to by his [[Xhosa clan names|Thembu clan name]], [[Madiba]], and described as the "[[Father of the Nation]]".

==Early life==
===Childhood: 1918–1934===
Mandela was born on 18 July 1918 in the village of Mvezo in [[Umtata]], then part of South Africa's [[Cape Province]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=3|2a1=Boehmer|2y=2008|2p=21|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=17|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=3}} Given the forename Rolihlahla,<ref>Mandela used the spelling Rolihlahla, see for example [http://www.mandela.gov.za/ official website]. [[Peter Mtuze]] notes that the orthography of [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]] names has changed since the time of Mandela's schooling, and that it would now be written Rholihlahla. (''Mandela's Long Walk to Freedom: the isiXhosa translator's tall order. Southern African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies 2003, 21(3), 141–152.'')</ref> a [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]] term colloquially meaning "troublemaker",{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=16|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2p=3|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=17|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=2|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=3}} in later years he became known by his clan name, Madiba.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=4|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=2|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=16}} His patrilineal great-grandfather, [[Ngubengcuka]], was king of the [[Thembu]] people in the [[Transkei]]an Territories of South Africa's modern [[Eastern Cape]] province.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=3|2a1=Guiloineau|2a2=Rowe|2y=2002|2p=23|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=1}} One of Ngubengcuka's sons, named Mandela, was Nelson's grandfather and the source of his surname.{{sfnm|1a1=Guiloineau|1a2=Rowe|1y=2002|1p=26}} Because Mandela was the king's child by a wife of the Ixhiba clan, a so-called "Left-Hand House", the descendants of his [[cadet branch]] of the royal family were [[morganatic marriage|morganatic]], ineligible to inherit the throne but recognised as hereditary royal councillors.{{sfnm|1a1=Guiloineau|1a2=Rowe|1y=2002|1p=26|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=1|3a1=Mafela|3y=2008|3pp=102–103}}

Nelson Mandela's father, Gadla Henry Mphakanyiswa Mandela (1880–1928), was a local chief and councillor to the monarch; he was appointed to the position in 1915, after his predecessor was accused of corruption by a governing white magistrate.{{sfn|Smith|2010|p=19}} In 1926, Gadla was also sacked for corruption, but Nelson was told that his father had lost his job for standing up to the magistrate's unreasonable demands.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=8–9|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=21–22|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=4}} A devotee of the god [[Qamata]],{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=17|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=1}} Gadla was a polygamist with four wives, four sons and nine daughters, who lived in different villages. Nelson's mother was Gadla's third wife, Nosekeni Fanny, daughter of Nkedama of the Right Hand House and a member of the amaMpemvu clan of the Xhosa.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=15|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=7–8|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=16, 23–24|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=1, 3|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=4}}

{{Quote box|width=25em|align=left|quote=No one in my family had ever attended school ... On the first day of school my teacher, Miss Mdingane, gave each of us an English name. This was the custom among Africans in those days and was undoubtedly due to the British bias of our education. That day, Miss Mdingane told me that my new name was Nelson. Why this particular name, I have no idea.|salign=right |source=—Mandela, 1994{{sfn|Mandela|1994|p=19}} }}

Mandela later stated that his early life was dominated by traditional Thembu custom and taboo.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=15|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=3}} He grew up with two sisters in his mother's ''[[homestead (small African settlement)|kraal]]'' in the village of [[Qunu]], where he tended herds as a cattle-boy and spent much time outside with other boys.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=16|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2p=12|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=23–24|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=2, 4}} Both his parents were illiterate, but being a devout Christian, his mother sent him to a local [[Methodism|Methodist]] school when he was about seven. Baptised a Methodist, Mandela was given the English forename of "Nelson" by his teacher.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=18–19|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=3|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=24|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=2, 4–5|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=5,7|6a1=Forster|6y=2014|6pp=91–92}} When Mandela was about nine, his father came to stay at Qunu, where he died of an undiagnosed ailment which Mandela believed to be lung disease.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=20|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=3|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=25|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=5|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=7}} Feeling "cut adrift", he later said that he inherited his father's "proud rebelliousness" and "stubborn sense of fairness".{{sfn|Mandela|1994|pp=8, 20}}

Mandela's mother took him to the "Great Place" palace at Mqhekezweni, where he was entrusted to the guardianship of the Thembu [[Regency (government)|regent]], Chief Jongintaba Dalindyebo. Although he did not see his mother again for many years, Mandela felt that Jongintaba and his wife Noengland treated him as their own child, raising him alongside their son, Justice, and daughter, Nomafu.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=17|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=4|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=22–25|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=3|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=26–27|6a1=Meredith|6y=2010|6p=5|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=7–9}} As Mandela attended church services every Sunday with his guardians, Christianity became a significant part of his life.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=7|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=27–29|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=8–9}} He attended a Methodist mission school located next to the palace, where he studied English, Xhosa, history and geography.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=7|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2p=25|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=27|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=9}} He developed a love of [[African history]], listening to the tales told by elderly visitors to the palace, and was influenced by the [[Anti-imperialism|anti-imperialist]] rhetoric of a visiting chief, Joyi.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=11–12|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=31–34|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=3|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=18|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=8}} Nevertheless, at the time he considered the [[Scramble for Africa|European colonizers]] not as oppressors but as benefactors who had brought education and other benefits to southern Africa.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=43|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=11}} Aged 16, he, Justice and several other boys travelled to Tyhalarha to undergo the [[ulwaluko]] [[circumcision]] ritual that symbolically marked their transition from boys to men; afterwards he was given the name ''Dalibunga''.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=17|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=36–42|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=8|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=29–31|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=9–11|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6p=14}}

===Clarkebury, Healdtown, and Fort Hare: 1934–1940===

[[File:Young Mandela.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Photograph of Mandela, taken in Umtata in 1937]]

Intending to gain skills needed to become a [[privy council]]lor for the Thembu royal house, in 1933 Mandela began his secondary education at [[Clarkebury]] Methodist High School in [[Engcobo]], a Western-style institution that was the largest school for Black Africans in [[Thembuland]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=45–47|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=27, 31|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=12–13|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=15}} Made to socialise with other students on an equal basis, he claimed that he lost his "stuck up" attitude, becoming best friends with a girl for the first time; he began playing sports and developed his lifelong love of gardening.{{sfn|Mandela|1994|pp=48–50}} He completed his Junior Certificate in two years,{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=17}} and in 1937 moved to [[Healdtown Comprehensive School|Healdtown]], the Methodist college in [[Fort Beaufort]] attended by most Thembu royalty, including Justice.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=52|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=31–32|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=14|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=17–18}} The headmaster emphasised the superiority of [[Culture of Europe|European culture]] and [[government]], but Mandela became increasingly interested in native [[Culture of Africa|African culture]], making his first non-Xhosa friend, a speaker of [[Sotho language|Sotho]], and coming under the influence of one of his favourite teachers, a Xhosa who broke taboo by marrying a Sotho.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=53–54|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=32|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=14–15|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=18–21}} Mandela spent much of his spare time at Healdtown as a long-distance runner and boxer, and in his second year he became a [[prefect]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=56|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=32|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=15}}

With Jongintaba's backing, in 1939 Mandela began work on a [[Bachelor of Arts|BA degree]] at the [[University of Fort Hare]], an elite Black institution in [[Alice, Eastern Cape]], with around 150 students. There he studied English, [[anthropology]], politics, "native administration", and [[Roman Dutch law]] in his first year, desiring to become an interpreter or clerk in the [[INTAF|Native Affairs Department]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=62–65|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=9|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=33–34|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=15–18|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=21, 25}} Mandela stayed in the Wesley House dormitory, befriending his own kinsman, [[Kaiser Matanzima|K. D. Matanzima]], as well as [[Oliver Tambo]], who became a close friend and comrade for decades to come.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=62–63|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=33–34|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=17–19|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=24–25}} He took up ballroom dancing,{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=67–69|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=34|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=18|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=25}} performed in a drama society play about [[Abraham Lincoln]],{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=68|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=10|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=35|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=18|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=25}} and gave [[Bible]] classes in the local community as part of the Student Christian Association.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=68|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=10|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=18|4a1=Forster|4y=2014|4p=93}} Although he had friends who held connections to the [[African National Congress]] (ANC) who wanted South Africa to be independent of the [[British Empire]], Mandela avoided any involvement with the nascent movement,{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=25}} and became a vocal supporter of the [[British Empire in World War II|British war effort]] when the [[Second World War]] broke out.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=70–71|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=11|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=19|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=26}} He helped establish a first-year students' house committee which challenged the dominance of the second-years,{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=66|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=34}} and at the end of his first year became involved in a [[Students' Representative Council]] (SRC) boycott against the quality of food, for which he was suspended from the university; he never returned to complete his degree.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=21|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=78–86|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3pp=11–12|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=34–35|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=19–20|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=26–27}}

===Arriving in Johannesburg: 1941–1943===
Returning to Mqhekezweni in December 1940, Mandela found that Jongintaba had [[arranged marriage]]s for him and Justice; dismayed, they fled to [[Johannesburg]] via [[Queenstown, Eastern Cape|Queenstown]], arriving in April 1941.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=21|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=73–76|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=12|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=36–39|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=20–22|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=27–28}} Mandela found work as a night watchman at Crown Mines, his "first sight of South African capitalism in action", but was fired when the ''induna'' (headman) discovered that he was a runaway.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=23|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=25–26|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=89–94|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4pp=12–13|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5p=40|6a1=Meredith|6y=2010|6pp=27–28|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=29–30}} He stayed with a cousin in George Goch Township, who introduced Mandela to realtor and ANC activist [[Walter Sisulu]]. The latter secured Mandela a job as an [[articled clerk]] at the law firm of Witkin, Sidelsky and Eidelman, a company run by Lazar Sidelsky, a [[Liberalism|liberal]] Jew sympathetic to the ANC's cause.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=96–101|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=13, 19–21|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=41|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=28–30|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=30–31}} At the firm, Mandela befriended Gaur Radebe—a Hlubi member of the ANC and [[South African Communist Party|Communist Party]]—and Nat Bregman, a Jewish [[communism|communist]] who became his first white friend.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=104–105|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=22, 31–32|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=43, 48|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=31–32|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=32–33}} Mandela attended Communist Party gatherings, where he was impressed that [[White South Africans|Europeans]], [[Bantu peoples|Africans]], [[Asian South Africans|Indians]], and [[Coloured]]s mixed as equals. He later stated that he did not join the party because its [[atheism]] conflicted with his Christian faith, and because he saw the South African struggle as being racially based rather than as [[class conflict|class warfare]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=106|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=48–49}} To continue his higher education, Mandela signed up to a [[University of South Africa]] correspondence course, working on his bachelor's degree at night.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=100|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=44|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=33|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=34}}

Earning a small wage, Mandela rented a room in the house of the Xhoma family in the [[Alexandra, Gauteng|Alexandra]] township; despite being rife with poverty, crime and pollution, Alexandra always remained a special place for him.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=23|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=26|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=99, 108–110|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=44–45|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=33|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6p=33}} Although embarrassed by his poverty, he briefly dated a [[Swazi people|Swati]] woman before unsuccessfully courting his landlord's daughter.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=113–116|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=23|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=45–46|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=33}} To save money and be closer to downtown Johannesburg, Mandela moved into the compound of the [[Witwatersrand Native Labour Association]], living among miners of various tribes; as the compound was visited by various chiefs, he once met the [[Regent|Queen Regent]] of [[Basutoland]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=118–119|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=24|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=33|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=34}} In late 1941, Jongintaba visited Johannesburg—there forgiving Mandela for running away—before returning to Thembuland, where he died in the winter of 1942. Mandela and Justice arrived a day late for the funeral.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=116–117, 119–120|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=22|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=47|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=33–34|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=33}} After he passed his BA exams in early 1943, Mandela returned to Johannesburg to follow a political path as a lawyer rather than become a privy councillor in Thembuland.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=122, 126–27|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=49|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=34|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=34}} He later stated that he experienced no epiphany, but that he "simply found [himself] doing so, and could not do otherwise."{{sfn|Mandela|1994|p=135}}

==Revolutionary activity==
===Law studies and the ANC Youth League: 1943–1949===
Mandela began studying law at the [[University of the Witwatersrand]], where he was the only black African student and faced racism. There, he befriended liberal and communist European, Jewish, and Indian students, among them [[Joe Slovo]] and [[Ruth First]].{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=33–34|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=127–131|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=64–65|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=34–35|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=34–35}} Becoming increasingly politicised, in August 1943 Mandela marched in support of a successful bus boycott to reverse fare rises.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=122–123|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=27–28|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=48|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=44|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=37}} Joining the ANC, he was increasingly influenced by Sisulu, spending time with other activists at Sisulu's [[Orlando, Soweto|Orlando]] house, including his old friend Oliver Tambo.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=136|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=53|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=36, 43}} In 1943, Mandela met [[Anton Lembede]], an ANC member affiliated with the "Africanist" branch of [[African nationalism]], which was virulently opposed to a racially united front against colonialism and imperialism or to an alliance with the communists.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=137–139|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=33–34|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=53|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=42–43|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=38–39}} Despite his friendships with non-blacks and communists, Mandela embraced Lembede's views, believing that Black Africans should be entirely independent in their struggle for political self-determination.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=31|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=34–35|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=142–143|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=54}} Deciding on the need for a youth wing to mass-mobilise Africans in opposition to their subjugation, Mandela was among a delegation that approached ANC President [[Alfred Bitini Xuma]] on the subject at his home in [[Sophiatown]]; the [[African National Congress Youth League]] (ANCYL) was founded on Easter Sunday 1944 in the [[Bantu Men's Social Centre]], with Lembede as president and Mandela as a member of its executive committee.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=28–29|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=139–143|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=35|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=52–56|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=44–46|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=39–41}}

[[File:Mandela e Evelyn 1944.jpg|thumb|left|Mandela and Evelyn in July 1944, at Walter and Albertina Sisulu's wedding party in the Bantu Men's Social Centre.{{sfn|Smith|2010|p=inset photographs}}]]

At Sisulu's house, Mandela met [[Evelyn Mase]], a trainee nurse and ANC activist from [[Engcobo]], [[Transkei]]. Entering a relationship and marrying in October 1944, they initially lived with her relatives until moving into a rented house in the township of [[Orlando, Soweto|Orlando]] in early 1946.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=24|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=39–40|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=144, 148–149|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4pp=24, 25|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=59–62|6a1=Meredith|6y=2010|6p=47|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7p=36}} Their first child, Madiba "Thembi" Thembekile, was born in February 1945; a daughter, Makaziwe, was born in 1947 but died of [[meningitis]] nine months later.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=40–41|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=149, 152|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=29|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=60–64|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=48|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6p=36}} Mandela enjoyed home life, welcoming his mother and his sister, Leabie, to stay with him.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=40|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=150, 210|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=30|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=67|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=48|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6p=36}} In early 1947, his three years of articles ended at Witkin, Sidelsky and Eidelman, and he decided to become a full-time student, subsisting on loans from the Bantu Welfare Trust.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=151|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=64|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=48–49}}

In July 1947, Mandela rushed Lembede, who was ill, to hospital, where he died; he was succeeded as ANCYL president by the more moderate [[A.P. Mda|Peter Mda]], who agreed to co-operate with communists and non-blacks, appointing Mandela ANCYL secretary.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=36|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=43|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=153–154|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=66|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=48}} Mandela disagreed with Mda's approach, and in December 1947 supported an unsuccessful measure to expel communists from the ANCYL, considering their ideology un-African.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=154|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=42}} In 1947, Mandela was elected to the executive committee of the ANC's [[Transvaal Province]] branch, serving under regional president C. S. Ramohanoe. When Ramohanoe acted against the wishes of the committee by co-operating with Indians and communists, Mandela was one of those who forced his resignation.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=154–157|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=37|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=66|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=49}}

In the [[1948 South African general election|South African general election in 1948]], in which only whites were permitted to vote, the Afrikaner-dominated [[Herenigde Nasionale Party]] under [[Daniel François Malan]] took power, soon uniting with the [[Afrikaner Party]] to form the [[National Party (South Africa)|National Party]]. Openly [[Racialism (Racial categorization)|racialist]], the party codified and expanded racial segregation with new [[apartheid legislation]].{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=35|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=159–162|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3pp=41–42|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=70–72|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=76–78|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=51–52}} Gaining increasing influence in the ANC, Mandela and his party cadre allies began advocating [[direct action]] against apartheid, such as boycotts and strikes, influenced by the tactics already employed by South Africa's Indian community. Xuma did not support these measures and was removed from the presidency in a [[Motion of no confidence|vote of no confidence]], replaced by [[James Moroka]] and a more militant executive committee containing Sisulu, Mda, Tambo, and Godfrey Pitje.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=36–37|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=162–165|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=44|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=72–73|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=78–79|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=53–55}} Mandela later related that he and his colleagues had "guided the ANC to a more radical and revolutionary path."{{sfn|Mandela|1994|p=165}} Having devoted his time to politics, Mandela failed his final year at Witwatersrand three times; he was ultimately denied his degree in December 1949.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2010|1pp=68–70|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=35}}

===Defiance Campaign and Transvaal ANC Presidency: 1950–1954===

[[File:Flag of the African National Congress.svg|thumb|The ANC's tricolour flag; black for the people, green for the land, and gold for the resources of Africa{{sfn|Benson|1986|p=26}}]]

Mandela took Xuma's place on the ANC national executive in March 1950,{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=168|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=44|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=55–56}} and that same year was elected national president of the ANCYL.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=41|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2p=176|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=47|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=78|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=88|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=63–64}} In March, the Defend Free Speech Convention was held in Johannesburg, bringing together African, Indian, and communist activists to call a [[International Workers' Day|May Day]] [[general strike]] in protest against apartheid and white minority rule. Mandela opposed the strike because it was multi-racial and not ANC-led, but a majority of Black workers took part, resulting in increased police repression and the introduction of the [[Suppression of Communism Act, 1950]], affecting the actions of all protest groups.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=38–40|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=48–49|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=165–167|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=74–75|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=81–83|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=61–62}} At the ANC national conference of December 1951, he continued arguing against a racially united front, but was outvoted.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=176|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=78|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=63–64}}

Thereafter, Mandela rejected Lembede's Africanism and embraced the idea of a multi-racial front against apartheid.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=42|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=55|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=48|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=94}} Influenced by friends like [[Moses Kotane]] and by the [[Soviet Union]]'s support for [[wars of national liberation]], his mistrust of communism broke down and he began reading literature by [[Karl Marx]], [[Vladimir Lenin]], and [[Mao Zedong]], eventually embracing the [[Marxist philosophy]] of [[dialectical materialism]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=177–172|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=45, 47|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=75–76|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=87|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=64–65}} Commenting on communism, he later stated that he "found [himself] strongly drawn to the idea of a classless society which, to [his] mind, was similar to traditional African culture where life was shared and communal."{{sfn|Mandela|1994|p=172}} In April 1952, Mandela began work at the H.M. Basner law firm, which was owned by a communist,{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=165|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=53|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=77|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=92}} although his increasing commitment to work and activism meant he spent less time with his family.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=170|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=94|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=103}}

In 1952, the ANC began preparation for a joint [[Defiance Campaign]] against apartheid with Indian and communist groups, founding a National Voluntary Board to recruit volunteers. The campaign was designed to follow the path of [[nonviolent resistance]] influenced by [[Mahatma Gandhi]]; some supported this for ethical reasons, but Mandela instead considered it pragmatic.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=44–46|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=56–58|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=182–183|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=77, 80|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=88–89|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=66–67}} At a [[Durban]] rally on 22 June, Mandela addressed an assembled crowd of 10,000 people, initiating the campaign protests for which he was arrested and briefly interned in Marshall Square prison.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=183–188|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=52, 53|32a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=81–83|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=88–89|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=69}} These events established Mandela as one of the best-known Black political figures in South Africa.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=47}} With further protests, the ANC's membership grew from 20,000 to 100,000 members; the government responded with mass arrests and introduced the [[Public Safety Act, 1953]] to permit [[martial law]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=188–192|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=68}} In May, authorities banned Transvaal ANC President [[J. B. Marks]] from making public appearances; unable to maintain his position, he recommended Mandela as his successor. Although Africanists opposed his candidacy, Mandela was elected to be regional president in October.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=51|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=194–195|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=54|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=85|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=72–73}}

[[File:The Nelson Mandela House.jpg|thumb|left|[[Mandela House|Mandela's former home]] in the Johannesburg township of [[Soweto]]]]

In July 1952, Mandela was arrested under the [[Suppression of Communism Act]] and stood trial as one of the 21 accused—among them Moroka, Sisulu, and [[Yusuf Dadoo]]—in Johannesburg. Found guilty of "statutory communism", a term that the government used to describe most opposition to apartheid, their sentence of nine months' [[hard labour]] was [[Suspended sentence|suspended]] for two years.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=50–51|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=195–198|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=54|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=83–84|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=92|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=71–72}} In December, Mandela was given a six-month ban from attending meetings or talking to more than one individual at a time, making his Transvaal ANC presidency impractical, and during this period the Defiance Campaign petered out.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=64|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=199–200, 204|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=86|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=73}} In September 1953, Andrew Kunene read out Mandela's "No Easy Walk to Freedom" speech at a Transvaal ANC meeting; the title was taken from a quote by Indian independence leader [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], a seminal influence on Mandela's thought. The speech laid out a contingency plan for a scenario in which the ANC was banned. This Mandela Plan, or M-Plan, involved dividing the organisation into a [[Clandestine cell system|cell structure]] with a more centralised leadership.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=58–59|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=60|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=205–207, 231|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=58|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=107–108|6a1=Smith|6y=2010|6pp=116–117|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=81–82, 84–85}}

Mandela obtained work as an attorney for the firm Terblanche and Briggish, before moving to the liberal-run Helman and Michel, passing qualification exams to become a full-fledged attorney.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=209–210|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=87|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=95|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=7}} In August 1953, Mandela and Tambo opened their own law firm, [[Mandela and Tambo]], operating in downtown Johannesburg. The only African-run law firm in the country, it was popular with aggrieved Black people, often dealing with cases of [[police brutality]]. Disliked by the authorities, the firm was forced to relocate to a remote location after their office permit was removed under the [[Group Areas Act]]; as a result, their clientele dwindled.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=54–57|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=61|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=210–216|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=73|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=87–93|6a1=Meredith|6y=2010|6pp=95–101|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=77–80}} As a lawyer of aristocratic heritage, Mandela was part of Johannesburg's elite Black middle-class, and accorded much respect from the Black community.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|pp=28–29, 75}} Although a second daughter, [[Makaziwe Mandela|Makaziwe Phumia]], was born in May 1954, Mandela's relationship with Evelyn became strained, and she accused him of adultery. He may have had affairs with ANC member [[Lillian Ngoyi]] and secretary Ruth Mompati; various individuals close to Mandela in this period have stated that the latter bore him a child.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=103–104|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=95–99, 105–106}} Disgusted by her son's behaviour, Nosekeni returned to Transkei, while Evelyn embraced the [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] and rejected Mandela's preoccupation with politics.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=293–294|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=104–105|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=98–99, 105–106|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=76–77}}

===Congress of the People and the Treason Trial: 1955–1961===
{{Main|Treason Trial}}
{{Quote box
| width = 25em
| align = right
| quote = We, the people of South Africa, declare for all our country and the world to know: That South Africa belongs to all who live in it, Black and white, and that no government can justly claim authority unless it is based on the will of the people.
| salign = right
| source = —Opening words of the [[Freedom Charter]]{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=66|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=92}}
}}

After taking part in the unsuccessful protest to prevent the forced relocation of all Black people from the Sophiatown suburb of Johannesburg in February 1955, Mandela concluded that violent action would prove necessary to end apartheid and white minority rule.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=218–233, 234–236|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=59–60|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=114–117|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=120–123|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=82–84}} On his advice, Sisulu requested weaponry from the People's Republic of China, which was denied. Although the Chinese government supported the anti-apartheid struggle, they believed the movement insufficiently prepared for [[guerrilla warfare]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=226–227|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=60|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=108–109|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=118|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=84}} With the involvement of the [[South African Indian Congress]], the Coloured People's Congress, the [[South African Congress of Trade Unions]] and the [[South African Congress of Democrats|Congress of Democrats]], the ANC planned a [[Congress of the People (1955)|Congress of the People]], calling on all South Africans to send in proposals for a post-apartheid era. Based on the responses, a [[Freedom Charter]] was drafted by [[Rusty Bernstein]], calling for the creation of a democratic, non-racialist state with the [[nationalisation]] of major industry. The charter was adopted at a June 1955 conference in [[Kliptown]]; 3,000 delegates attended the event, which was forcibly closed down by police.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=64–67|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=71–75|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=243–249|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4pp=65–66|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=129–133|6a1=Smith|6y=2010|6pp=118–120, 125–128|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=87–95}} The tenets of the Freedom Charter remained important for Mandela, and in 1956 he described it as "an inspiration to the people of South Africa".{{sfn|Meredith|2010|p=134}}

Following the end of a second ban in September 1955, Mandela went on a working holiday to [[Transkei]] to discuss the implications of the [[Bantu Authorities Act, 1951]] with local tribal leaders, also visiting his mother and Noengland before proceeding to [[Cape Town]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=253–274|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=130–132|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=96–99}} In March 1956 he received his third ban on public appearances, restricting him to Johannesburg for five years, but he often defied it.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=275|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=147|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=101–102}} Mandela's marriage broke down and Evelyn left him, taking their children to live with her brother. Initiating divorce proceedings in May 1956, she claimed that Mandela had physically abused her; he denied the allegations, and fought for custody of their children.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=79–80|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=143–144|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=100–102|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=110}} She withdrew her petition of separation in November, but Mandela filed for divorce in January 1958; the divorce was finalised in March, with the children placed in Evelyn's care.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=79–80|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2p=296|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=102–104|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=110}} During the divorce proceedings, he began courting a social worker, [[Winnie Madikizela-Mandela|Winnie Madikizela]], whom he married in [[Bizana, Eastern Cape|Bizana]] in June 1958. She later became involved in ANC activities, spending several weeks in prison.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=74–76|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=93|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=306–311|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4pp=75–77|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=144–149|6a1=Smith|6y=2010|6pp=104, 132–145|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=110–113}} Together they had two children: [[Zenani Mandela-Dlamini|Zenani]], born in February 1959, and [[Zindzi Mandela-Hlongwane|Zindziswa]] (1960–2020).{{sfn|Meredith|2010|pp=165, 186}}

[[File:ApartheidSignEnglishAfrikaans.jpg|thumb|left|An apartheid sign; apartheid legislation impacted all areas of life]]

In December 1956, Mandela was arrested alongside most of the ANC national executive, and accused of "high treason" against the state. Held in Johannesburg Prison amid mass protests, they underwent a preparatory examination before being granted bail.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=68, 71–72|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=83|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=283–292|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=136–141|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=163–164|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=103–106}} The defence's refutation began in January 1957, overseen by defence lawyer [[Vernon Berrangé]], and continued until the case was adjourned in September. In January 1958, [[Oswald Pirow]] was appointed to prosecute the case, and in February the judge ruled that there was "sufficient reason" for the defendants to go on trial in the [[Gauteng Division|Transvaal Supreme Court]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=299–305|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=142|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=167–168|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=116–117}} The formal [[Treason Trial]] began in [[Pretoria]] in August 1958, with the defendants successfully applying to have the three judges—all linked to the governing National Party—replaced. In August, one charge was dropped, and in October the prosecution withdrew its indictment, submitting a reformulated version in November which argued that the ANC leadership committed high treason by advocating violent revolution, a charge the defendants denied.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=331–334|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=162, 165|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=167|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=122–123}}

In April 1959, Africanists dissatisfied with the ANC's united front approach founded the [[Pan-Africanist Congress]] (PAC); Mandela disagreed with the PAC's racially exclusionary views, describing them as "immature" and "naïve".{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=79|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=90–92, 141–143|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=327–330|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=167–168|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=171–173|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=117–122}} Both parties took part in an anti-pass campaign in early 1960, in which Africans burned [[Pass laws|the passes that they were legally obliged to carry]]. One of the PAC-organised demonstrations was fired upon by police, resulting in the deaths of 69 protesters in the [[Sharpeville massacre]]. The incident brought international condemnation of the government and resulted in rioting throughout South Africa, with Mandela publicly burning his pass in solidarity.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=83–84|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=144–147|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=342–346|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4pp=81–82|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=167–170|6a1=Smith|6y=2010|6pp=173–175|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=130–131}}

Responding to the unrest, the government implemented state of emergency measures, declaring [[martial law]] and banning the ANC and PAC; in March, they arrested Mandela and other activists, imprisoning them for five months without charge in the unsanitary conditions of the Pretoria Local prison.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=85–86|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=347–357|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=172–175|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=175|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=132–133}} Imprisonment caused problems for Mandela and his co-defendants in the Treason Trial; their lawyers could not reach them, and so it was decided that the lawyers would withdraw in protest until the accused were freed from prison when the state of emergency was lifted in late August 1960.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=357–364|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=176, 184|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=177|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=134–135}} Over the following months, Mandela used his free time to organise an All-In African Conference near [[Pietermaritzburg]], [[Natal Province|Natal]], in March 1961, at which 1,400 anti-apartheid delegates met, agreeing on a stay-at-home strike to mark 31 May, the day South Africa became a republic.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=98|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=373–374|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3pp=83–84|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=187–188|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=183–185|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=140–143}} On 29 March 1961, six years after the Treason Trial began, the judges produced a verdict of not guilty, ruling that there was insufficient evidence to convict the accused of "high treason", since they had advocated neither communism nor violent revolution; the outcome embarrassed the government.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=94|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=151|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=377–380|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=84|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=188–189|6a1=Smith|6y=2010|6p=178|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7p=143}}

===MK, the SACP, and African tour: 1961–62===
[[File:liliesleaf hut1.jpg|thumb|right|Thatched room at Liliesleaf Farm, where Mandela hid]]
Disguised as a chauffeur, Mandela travelled around the country incognito, organising the ANC's new cell structure and the planned mass stay-at-home strike. Referred to as the "Black Pimpernel" in the press—a reference to [[Emma Orczy]]'s 1905 novel ''[[The Scarlet Pimpernel]]''—a warrant for his arrest was put out by the police.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=99|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=283–287|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=192–193|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=186–188, 193|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=144–146, 154}} Mandela held secret meetings with reporters, and after the government failed to prevent the strike, he warned them that many anti-apartheid activists would soon resort to violence through groups like the PAC's [[Azanian People's Liberation Army|Poqo]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=289–291|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=188–189|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=147–149}} He believed that the ANC should form an armed group to channel some of this violence in a controlled direction, convincing both ANC leader [[Albert Luthuli]]—who was morally opposed to violence—and allied activist groups of its necessity.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=393–396|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=199–200|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=206–210|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=150–151}}

Inspired by the actions of [[Fidel Castro]]'s [[26th of July Movement]] in the [[Cuban Revolution]], in 1961 Mandela, Sisulu, and Slovo co-founded [[Umkhonto we Sizwe]] ("Spear of the Nation", abbreviated MK). Becoming chairman of the militant group, Mandela gained ideas from literature on guerrilla warfare by Marxist militants Mao and [[Che Guevara]] as well as from the military theorist [[Carl von Clausewitz]].{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=107|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=397–398|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=197–198, 200–201|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=209–214|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=151–154}} Although initially declared officially separate from the ANC so as not to taint the latter's reputation, MK was later widely recognised as the party's armed wing.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2010|1pp=209–210|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=151}} Most early MK members were white communists who were able to conceal Mandela in their homes; after hiding in communist Wolfie Kodesh's flat in [[Berea, Gauteng|Berea]], Mandela moved to the communist-owned [[Liliesleaf Farm]] in [[Rivonia]], there joined by [[Raymond Mhlaba]], Slovo, and Bernstein, who put together the MK constitution.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=107|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=397–409|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3pp=92–93|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=201–204|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=191, 222–229|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=154–156}} Although in later life Mandela denied, for political reasons, ever being a member of the Communist Party, historical research published in 2011 strongly suggested that he had joined in the late 1950s or early 1960s.{{sfn|Ellis|2011|pp=667–668}} This was confirmed by both the SACP and the ANC after Mandela's death. According to the SACP, he was not only a member of the party, but also served on its Central Committee.{{sfn|Ellis|2016|p=1}}<ref name="Mandela'sCommunism">{{cite web |url=http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=4151%20 |title=SACP statement on the passing away of Madiba |website=South African Communist Party |date=6 December 2013 |access-date=29 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303223354/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=4151%20 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |url-status=dead }}; {{cite news |last=Marrian |first=Natasha |title=SACP confirms Nelson Mandela was a member |url=http://www.bdlive.co.za/national/politics/2013/12/06/sacp-confirms-nelson-mandela-was-a-member |access-date=7 December 2013 |newspaper=Business Day |location=South Africa |date=6 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306232040/http://www.bdlive.co.za/national/politics/2013/12/06/sacp-confirms-nelson-mandela-was-a-member |archive-date=6 March 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

{{Quote box|width=25em|align=left|quote=We of Umkhonto have always sought to achieve liberation without bloodshed and civil clash. Even at this late hour, we hope that our first actions will awaken everyone to a realization of the dangerous situation to which Nationalist policy is leading. We hope that we will bring the Government and its supporters to their senses before it is too late so that both government and its policies can be changed before matters reach the desperate stage of civil war.|salign=right |source=—Statement released by MK to announce the start of their sabotage campaign{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=171|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=207}}}}

Operating through a cell structure, MK planned to carry out acts of sabotage that would exert maximum pressure on the government with minimum casualties; they sought to bomb military installations, power plants, telephone lines, and transport links at night, when civilians were not present. Mandela stated that they chose sabotage because it was the least harmful action, did not involve killing, and offered the best hope for racial reconciliation afterwards; he nevertheless acknowledged that should this have failed then guerrilla warfare might have been necessary.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=108|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=171|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=411–412|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=90|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=204}} Soon after ANC leader Luthuli was awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]], MK publicly announced its existence with 57 bombings on [[Day of the Vow|Dingane's Day]] (16 December) 1961, followed by further attacks on New Year's Eve.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=110|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=170|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=413–415|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=95|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=206|6a1=Smith|6y=2010|6pp=239–246|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=158–159}}

The ANC decided to send Mandela as a delegate to the February 1962 meeting of the Pan-African Freedom Movement for East, Central and Southern Africa (PAFMECSA) in [[Addis Ababa]], Ethiopia.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=111|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=171–172, 176|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=418–425|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=95|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=251–254|6a1=Benneyworth|6y=2011|6p=81|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=160–162}} Leaving South Africa in secret via [[Bechuanaland Protectorate|Bechuanaland]], on his way Mandela visited [[Tanganyika (1961–1964)|Tanganyika]] and met with its president, [[Julius Nyerere]].{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=173–175|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=97|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=209|4a1=Benneyworth|4y=2011|4pp=81, 84}} Arriving in Ethiopia, Mandela met with Emperor [[Haile Selassie I]], and gave his speech after Selassie's at the conference.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=176–177, 180|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=427–432|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=255–256|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=163–165}} After the symposium, he travelled to [[Cairo]], Egypt, admiring the political reforms of President [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]], and then went to [[Tunis]], Tunisia, where President [[Habib Bourguiba]] gave him £5,000 for weaponry. He proceeded to Morocco, Mali, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Senegal, receiving funds from Liberian President [[William Tubman]] and Guinean President [[Ahmed Sékou Touré]].{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=185–194|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=432–440|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=210|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=256–259|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=165–167}} He left Africa for London, England, where he met anti-apartheid activists, reporters, and prominent politicians.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=114|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=196–197|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=441–443|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=210–211|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=259–261|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=167–169}} Upon returning to Ethiopia, he began a six-month course in guerrilla warfare, but completed only two months before being recalled to South Africa by the ANC's leadership.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=443–445|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=100|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=211|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=261–262|5a1=Benneyworth|5y=2011|5pp=91–93|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=169–170}}

==Imprisonment==
===Arrest and Rivonia trial: 1962–1964===
{{main|Rivonia Trial}}

On 5 August 1962, police captured Mandela along with fellow activist [[Cecil Williams (anti-apartheid activist)|Cecil Williams]] near [[Howick, KwaZulu-Natal|Howick]].{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=116–117|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=201–202|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=435–435|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=215–216|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=275–276|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=170–172}} Many MK members suspected that the authorities had been tipped off with regard to Mandela's whereabouts, although Mandela himself gave these ideas little credence.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=278–279|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=216|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=172}} In later years, [[Donald Rickard]], a former American diplomat revealed that the [[Central Intelligence Agency]], who feared Mandela's associations with communists, had informed the South African police of his location.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=216–217|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=172}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Ex-CIA spy admits tip led to Nelson Mandela's long imprisonment |date=15 May 2016 |website=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/may/15/cia-operative-nelson-mandela-1962-arrest |access-date=20 May 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160516104658/http://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/may/15/cia-operative-nelson-mandela-1962-arrest |archive-date=16 May 2016 }}</ref> Jailed in Johannesburg's Marshall Square prison, Mandela was charged with inciting workers' strikes and leaving the country without permission. Representing himself with Slovo as legal advisor, Mandela intended to use the trial to showcase "the ANC's moral opposition to racism" while supporters demonstrated outside the court.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=456–459|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=172–173}} Moved to [[Pretoria]], where Winnie could visit him, he began correspondence studies for a [[Bachelor of Laws]] (LLB) degree from the [[University of London International Programmes]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=463–465|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=292–293|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=173–174}} His hearing began in October, but he disrupted proceedings by wearing a traditional ''[[kaross]]'', refusing to call any witnesses, and turning his plea of mitigation into a political speech. Found guilty, he was sentenced to five years' imprisonment; as he left the courtroom, supporters sang "[[Nkosi Sikelel iAfrika]]".{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=120–134|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=210–213|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=468–482|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4pp=104–106|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=218–426|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=174–176}}

{{Quote box
| width = 25em
| align = right
| quote = I have fought against white domination, and I have fought against Black domination. I have cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all persons will live together in harmony and with equal opportunities. It is an ideal which I hope to live for and to see realised. But if it needs be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die.
| salign = right
| source = —Mandela's [[I Am Prepared to Die|Rivonia Trial Speech]], 1964{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=159|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=258|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=265|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=302|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=193|6a1=Broun|6y=2012|6p=74}}<ref>{{cite web |author=Nelson Mandela |title=I am prepared to die |url=http://db.nelsonmandela.org/speeches/pub_view.asp?pg=item&ItemID=NMS010 |work=Nelson Mandela Centre of Memory |publisher=Nelson Mandela Foundation |access-date=16 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201092557/http://db.nelsonmandela.org/speeches/pub_view.asp?pg=item&ItemID=NMS010 |archive-date=1 February 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
}}

On 11 July 1963, police raided [[Liliesleaf Farm]], arresting those they found there and uncovering paperwork documenting MK's activities, some of which mentioned Mandela. The [[Rivonia Trial]] began at [[Supreme Court of South Africa|Pretoria Supreme Court]] in October, with Mandela and his comrades charged with four counts of sabotage and conspiracy to violently overthrow the government; their chief prosecutor was [[Percy Yutar]].{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=134–137|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=223–226|3a1=Mandela|3y=2004|3pp=27–32|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4pp=108–109|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=242–250|6a1=Smith|6y=2010|6pp=292–295|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=183–186|8a1=Broun|8y=2012|8pp=6–10, 19–20}} Judge [[Quartus de Wet]] soon threw out the prosecution's case for insufficient evidence, but Yutar reformulated the charges, presenting his new case from December 1963 until February 1964, calling 173 witnesses and bringing thousands of documents and photographs to the trial.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=138–139|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=226|3a1=Mandela|3y=2004|3pp=33–42|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=252–254, 256|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=186–190|6a1=Broun|6y=2012|6pp=43–49}}

Although four of the accused denied involvement with MK, Mandela and the other five accused admitted sabotage but denied that they had ever agreed to initiate guerrilla war against the government.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=160|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=232–233|3a1=Mandela|3y=2004|3pp=42–44|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=252, 259}} They used the trial to highlight their political cause; at the opening of the defence's proceedings, Mandela gave his three-hour "[[I Am Prepared to Die]]" speech. That speech—which was inspired by Castro's "[[History Will Absolve Me]]"—was widely reported in the press despite official censorship.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=140|2a1=Mandela|2y=2004|2pp=43–57|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=258–265|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=298–302|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=191–194|6a1=Broun|6y=2012|6pp=68–75}} The trial gained international attention; there were global calls for the release of the accused from the [[United Nations]] and [[World Peace Council]], while the [[University of London Union]] voted Mandela to its presidency.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=2004|1p=62|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=268|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=303|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=194–195|5a1=Broun|5y=2012|5pp=102–104, 107}} On 12 June 1964, justice De Wet found Mandela and two of his co-accused guilty on all four charges; although the prosecution had called for the [[death sentence]] to be applied, the judge instead condemned them to [[life imprisonment]].{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=161, 163|2a1=Mandela|2y=2004|2pp=63–68|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=268–272|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=306|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=196–197|6a1=Broun|6y=2012|6pp=116–128}}

===Robben Island: 1964–1982===

In 1964, Mandela and his co-accused were transferred from Pretoria to the prison on [[Robben Island]], remaining there for the next 18 years.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=165|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=262|3a1=Mandela|3y=2004|3pp=75–78|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=307–308|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=204}} Isolated from non-political prisoners in Section B, Mandela was imprisoned in a damp concrete cell measuring {{convert|8|ft|m}} by {{convert|7|ft|m}}, with a straw mat on which to sleep.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=2004|1pp=79–80|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=279|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=205}} Verbally and physically harassed by several white prison wardens, the Rivonia Trial prisoners spent their days breaking rocks into gravel, until being reassigned in January 1965 to work in a lime quarry. Mandela was initially forbidden to wear sunglasses, and the glare from the lime permanently damaged his eyesight.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=166, 182|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=266|3a1=Mandela|3y=2004|3pp=82–84, 108–116|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=281–283, 290–291|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=206–207}} At night, he worked on his LLB degree which he was obtaining from the [[University of London]] through a correspondence course with [[Wolsey Hall, Oxford]], but newspapers were forbidden, and he was locked in [[solitary confinement]] on several occasions for the possession of smuggled news clippings.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=174|2a1=Mandela|2y=2004|2p=126|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=299|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=205, 258}} He was initially classified as the lowest grade of prisoner, Class D, meaning that he was permitted one visit and one letter every six months, although all mail was heavily censored.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=169|2a1=Mandela|2y=2004|2pp=102–108|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=283|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=205}}

[[File:RobbenIslandSteinbruchA.JPG|thumb|left|Lime quarry on Robben Island where Mandela and other prisoners were forced to carry out hard labour]]

The political prisoners took part in work and [[hunger strike]]s—the latter considered largely ineffective by Mandela—to improve prison conditions, viewing this as a microcosm of the anti-apartheid struggle.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=175|2a1=Mandela|2y=2004|2pp=83, 90, 136–138|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=124|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=284, 296–298}} ANC prisoners elected him to their four-man "High Organ" along with Sisulu, [[Govan Mbeki]], and [[Raymond Mhlaba]], and he involved himself in a group representing all political prisoners (including [[Eddie Daniels (political activist)|Eddie Daniels]]) on the island, Ulundi, through which he forged links with PAC and [[Yu Chi Chan Club]] members.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=298–299|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=210–214}} Initiating the "University of Robben Island", whereby prisoners lectured on their own areas of expertise, he debated socio-political topics with his comrades.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=130–131|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=292–295|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=236–241, 288–294}}

Though attending Christian Sunday services, Mandela studied Islam.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=301, 313|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=232}} He also studied [[Afrikaans]], hoping to build a mutual respect with the warders and convert them to his cause.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=295, 299–301|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=229}} Various official visitors met with Mandela, most significantly the liberal parliamentary representative [[Helen Suzman]] of the [[Progressive Party (South Africa)|Progressive Party]], who championed Mandela's cause outside of prison.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=301–302|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=221}} In September 1970, he met British [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] politician [[Denis Healey]].{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=337|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=222}} South African Minister of Justice [[Jimmy Kruger]] visited in December 1974, but he and Mandela did not get along with each other.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=334|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=241}} His mother visited in 1968, dying shortly after, and his firstborn son Thembi died in a car accident the following year; Mandela was forbidden from attending either funeral.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=142, 145|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=303–304|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=246–247}} His wife was rarely able to see him, being regularly imprisoned for political activity, and his daughters first visited in December 1975. Winnie was released from prison in 1977 but was forcibly settled in [[Brandfort]] and remained unable to see him.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=192–194|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=306–307|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=287–288, 304–310|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=248–254, 302}}

From 1967 onwards, prison conditions improved. Black prisoners were given trousers rather than shorts, games were permitted, and the standard of their food was raised.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=301|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=222, 235}} In 1969, an escape plan for Mandela was developed by Gordon Bruce, but it was abandoned after the conspiracy was infiltrated by an agent of the [[South African Bureau of State Security]] (BOSS), who hoped to see Mandela shot during the escape.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=207–208|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=231}} In 1970, Commander Piet Badenhorst became commanding officer. Mandela, seeing an increase in the physical and mental abuse of prisoners, complained to visiting judges, who had Badenhorst reassigned.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=127–128|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=308–310|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=223–225}} He was replaced by Commander Willie Willemse, who developed a co-operative relationship with Mandela and was keen to improve prison standards.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=128–129|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=226–227}}

{{multiple image
| align = right
| image1 = Physiological needs.jpg
| width1 = 190
| alt1 =
| caption1 =
| image2 = Robben Island fængslet Sektion B.jpg
| width2 = 205
| alt2 =
| caption2 =
| footer = The inside of Mandela's prison cell as it was when he was imprisoned in 1964 and his open cell window facing the prison yard on Robben Island, now a [[National heritage sites (South Africa)|national]] and [[World Heritage Site]]. Mandela's cell later contained more furniture, including a bed from around 1973.{{sfn|Hutton|1994|p=60}}
}}

By 1975, Mandela had become a Class A prisoner,{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=228}} which allowed him greater numbers of visits and letters. He corresponded with anti-apartheid activists like [[Mangosuthu Buthelezi]] and [[Desmond Tutu]].{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=314–315}} That year, he began his autobiography, which was smuggled to London, but remained unpublished at the time; prison authorities discovered several pages, and his LLB study privileges were revoked for four years.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=268|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=139|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=317|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=242–243}} Instead, he devoted his spare time to gardening and reading until the authorities permitted him to resume his LLB degree studies in 1980.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=285–286}}

By the late 1960s, Mandela's fame had been eclipsed by [[Steve Biko]] and the [[Black Consciousness Movement]] (BCM). Seeing the ANC as ineffectual, the BCM called for militant action, but following the [[Soweto uprising]] of 1976, many BCM activists were imprisoned on Robben Island.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=186–188|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=304–306|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=324–327|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=259–276}} Mandela tried to build a relationship with these young radicals, although he was critical of their racialism and contempt for white anti-apartheid activists.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=135|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=327–328|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=277–283|4a1=Soudien|4y=2015|4pp=363–364}} Renewed international interest in his plight came in July 1978, when he celebrated his 60th birthday.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=296}} He was awarded an honorary doctorate in [[Lesotho]], the [[Jawaharlal Nehru Award|Jawaharlal Nehru Award for International Understanding]] in India in 1979, and the [[Freedom of the City]] of [[Glasgow]], Scotland in 1981.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=313, 314|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=315–316}} In March 1980, the slogan "Free Mandela!" was developed by journalist [[Percy Qoboza]], sparking an international campaign that led the [[UN Security Council]] to call for his release.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=155|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=338–339|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=319–320}} Despite increasing foreign pressure, the government refused, relying on its [[Cold War]] allies US President [[Ronald Reagan]] and UK Prime Minister [[Margaret Thatcher]]; both considered Mandela's ANC a terrorist organisation sympathetic to communism, and supported its suppression.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=24|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=321}}

===Pollsmoor Prison: 1982–1988===
In April 1982, Mandela was transferred to [[Pollsmoor Prison]] in [[Tokai, Cape Town]], along with senior ANC leaders Walter Sisulu, Andrew Mlangeni, [[Ahmed Kathrada]], and Raymond Mhlaba; they believed that they were being isolated to remove their influence on younger activists at Robben Island.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=218|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=147–149|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=340|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=324–325}} Conditions at Pollsmoor were better than at Robben Island, although Mandela missed the camaraderie and scenery of the island.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=148|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=346–347|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=324–325}} Getting on well with Pollsmoor's commanding officer, Brigadier Munro, Mandela was permitted to create a [[roof garden]];{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=347|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=326}} he also read voraciously and corresponded widely, now permitted 52 letters a year.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=329}} He was appointed patron of the multi-racial [[United Democratic Front (South Africa)|United Democratic Front]] (UDF), founded to combat [[South African Constitution of 1983|reforms]] implemented by South African President [[P. W. Botha]]. Botha's National Party government had permitted Coloured and Indian citizens to vote for their own parliaments, which had control over education, health, and housing. But, Black Africans were excluded from the system. Like Mandela, the UDF saw this as an attempt to divide the anti-apartheid movement on racial lines.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=224|2a1=Barber|2y=2004|2pp=20, 23, 26–27|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=341–346|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=335–336}}

[[File:Mandela Bust at Southbank.jpg|thumb|left|Bust of Mandela erected on London's [[South Bank]] by the [[Greater London Council]] administration of [[Ken Livingstone]] in 1985]]

The early 1980s witnessed an escalation of violence across the country, and many predicted civil war. This was accompanied by economic stagnation as various multinational banks—under pressure from an international lobby—had stopped investing in South Africa. Numerous banks and Thatcher asked Botha to release Mandela—then at the height of his international fame—to defuse the volatile situation.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=247–248|2a1=Barber|2y=2004|2p=30|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3pp=152–153, 156|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=249–256|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=338–342}} Although considering Mandela a dangerous "arch-Marxist",{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=210|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=340}} in February 1985 Botha offered him a release from prison if he "unconditionally rejected violence as a political weapon". Mandela spurned the offer, releasing a statement through his daughter Zindzi stating, "What freedom am I being offered while the organisation of the people [ANC] remains banned? Only free men can negotiate. A prisoner cannot enter into contracts."{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=237–238|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=315–318|3a1=Barber|3y=2004|3p=36|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=157|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=351–352|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=330–332}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/history/mandela/64-90/jabulani.html|title=Mandela's response to being offered freedom|publisher=ANC|access-date=28 October 2008 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080622004124/http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/history/mandela/64-90/jabulani.html  |archive-date = 22 June 2008}}</ref>

In 1985, Mandela underwent surgery on an enlarged prostate gland, before being given new solitary quarters on the ground floor.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=254|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=157–158|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=358|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=343–345}} He was met by "seven eminent persons", an international delegation sent to negotiate a settlement, but Botha's government refused to co-operate, calling a state of emergency in June and initiating a police crackdown on unrest.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=359–360|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=347–355}} The anti-apartheid resistance fought back, with the ANC committing 231 attacks in 1986 and 235 in 1987.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=355}} The violence escalated as the government used the army and police to combat the resistance and provided covert support for vigilante groups and the [[Zulu people|Zulu]] nationalist movement [[Inkatha Freedom Party|Inkatha]], which was involved in an increasingly violent struggle with the ANC.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=354–357}} Mandela requested talks with Botha but was denied, instead secretly meeting with Minister of Justice [[Kobie Coetsee]] in 1987, and having a further 11 meetings over the next three years. Coetsee organised negotiations between Mandela and a team of four government figures starting in May 1988; the team agreed to the release of political prisoners and the legalisation of the ANC on the condition that they permanently renounce violence, break links with the Communist Party, and not insist on [[majority rule]]. Mandela rejected these conditions, insisting that the ANC would end its armed activities only when the government renounced violence.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=160|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=362–368|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=363–378}}

Mandela's 70th birthday in July 1988 attracted international attention, including [[Nelson Mandela 70th Birthday Tribute|a tribute concert]] at London's [[Wembley Stadium (1923)|Wembley Stadium]] that was televised and watched by an estimated 200 million viewers.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=35|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=368}} Although presented globally as a heroic figure, he faced personal problems when ANC leaders informed him that Winnie had set herself up as head of a gang, the "Mandela United Football Club," which had been responsible for torturing and killing opponents—including children—in Soweto. Though some encouraged him to divorce her, he decided to remain loyal until she was found guilty by trial.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=20–23|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=183–184|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=371–383|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=373–380}}

===Victor Verster Prison and release: 1988–1990===

[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-1986-0920-016, Berlin, Weltgewerkschaftskongress, Probe des Festprogramms.jpg|thumb|right|"Free Mandela" protest in [[East Berlin]], 1986]]

Recovering from [[tuberculosis]] exacerbated by the damp conditions in his cell,{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=318–319|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=160|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=369|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=369–370}} in December 1988, Mandela was moved to [[Victor Verster Prison]] near [[Paarl]]. He was housed in the relative comfort of a warder's house with a personal cook, and he used the time to complete his LLB degree.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=320|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=160|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=369–370|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=381}} While there, he was permitted many visitors and organised secret communications with exiled ANC leader Oliver Tambo.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=384–385, 392–393}}<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/12/08/world/mandela-moved-to-house-at-prison-farm.html |title=Mandela Moved to House at Prison Farm |author=Christopher S. Wren |date=8 December 1988 |work=The New York Times |access-date=13 February 2013 |archive-date=14 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EQXYZIzp?url=http://www.nytimes.com/1988/12/08/world/mandela-moved-to-house-at-prison-farm.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 1989, Botha suffered a stroke; although he would retain the state presidency, he stepped down as leader of the National Party, to be replaced by [[F. W. de Klerk]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=41|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=62|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=388|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=386}} In a surprise move, Botha invited Mandela to a meeting over tea in July 1989, an invitation Mandela considered genial.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=161–162|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=387–388|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=390–392}} Botha was replaced as state president by de Klerk six weeks later; the new president believed that apartheid was unsustainable and released a number of ANC prisoners.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=41–42|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=392–397}} Following the fall of the [[Berlin Wall]] in November 1989, de Klerk called his cabinet together to debate legalising the ANC and freeing Mandela. Although some were deeply opposed to his plans, de Klerk met with Mandela in December to discuss the situation, a meeting both men considered friendly, before legalising all formerly banned political parties in February 1990 and announcing Mandela's unconditional release.{{sfnm|1a1=Glad|1a2=Blanton|1y=1997|1p=567|2a1=Barber|2y=2004|2p=1|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3pp=165–166|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=369–397|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=399–402}}<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/11/newsid_2539000/2539947.stm |title=1990: Freedom for Nelson Mandela |date=11 February 1990 |publisher=BBC |access-date=28 October 2008 |archive-date=26 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EilzLNPU?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/11/newsid_2539000/2539947.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> Shortly thereafter, for the first time in 20 years, photographs of Mandela were allowed to be published in South Africa.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=403}}

Leaving Victor Verster Prison on 11 February, Mandela held Winnie's hand in front of amassed crowds and the press; the event was broadcast live across the world.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=167|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=399–402|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=407}}<ref>{{cite news |url=http://century.guardian.co.uk/1990-1999/Story/0,,112389,00.html |title=Mandela free after 27 years |last=Ormond |first=Roger |date=12 February 1990 |work=The Guardian |access-date=28 October 2008 |location=London |archive-date=26 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EilzkcH7?url=http://century.guardian.co.uk/1990-1999/Story/0,,112389,00.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Driven to [[Cape Town City Hall|Cape Town's City Hall]] through crowds, he gave a speech declaring his commitment to peace and reconciliation with the white minority, but he made it clear that the ANC's armed struggle was not over and would continue as "a purely defensive action against the violence of apartheid". He expressed hope that the government would agree to negotiations, so that "there may no longer be the need for the armed struggle", and insisted that his main focus was to bring peace to the Black majority and give them the right to vote in national and local elections.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=2|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=400–402|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=408–409}}<ref>The text of Mandela's speech can be found at {{cite web|url=http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/history/mandela/1990/release.html|title=Nelson Mandela's address to Rally in Cape Town on his Release from Prison|date=11 February 1990|publisher=ANC|access-date=28 October 2008 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080728021713/http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/history/mandela/1990/release.html  |archive-date = 28 July 2008}}</ref> Staying at Tutu's home, in the following days Mandela met with friends, activists, and press, giving a speech to an estimated 100,000 people at Johannesburg's [[FNB Stadium]].{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=171|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=403–405|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=409–410}}

==End of apartheid==
{{Main|Negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa}}

===Early negotiations: 1990–91===
[[File:Luthuli House.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Luthuli House]] in Johannesburg, which became the ANC headquarters in 1991]]
Mandela proceeded on an African tour, meeting supporters and politicians in Zambia, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Libya and Algeria, and continuing to Sweden, where he was reunited with Tambo, and London, where he appeared at the [[Nelson Mandela: An International Tribute for a Free South Africa]] concert at [[Wembley Stadium (1923)|Wembley Stadium]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=57|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=172|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=409–410|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=412–414}} Encouraging foreign countries to support sanctions against the apartheid government, he met President [[François Mitterrand]] in France, [[Pope John Paul II]] in the Vatican, and Thatcher in the United Kingdom. In the United States, he met President [[George H.W. Bush]], addressed both Houses of Congress and visited eight cities, being particularly popular among the [[African American|African-American]] community.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=58–59|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=415–418}} In Cuba, he became friends with President Castro, whom he had long admired.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=60|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=410|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=420}} He met President [[R. Venkataraman]] in India, President [[Suharto]] in Indonesia, Prime Minister [[Mahathir Mohamad]] in Malaysia, and Prime Minister [[Bob Hawke]] in Australia. He visited Japan, but not the [[Soviet Union]], a longtime ANC supporter.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=60|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=418–420}}

In May 1990, Mandela led a multiracial ANC delegation into preliminary negotiations with a government delegation of 11 Afrikaner men. Mandela impressed them with his discussions of Afrikaner history, and the negotiations led to the [[Groote Schuur Minute|Groot Schuur Minute]], in which the government lifted the state of emergency.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=412–413|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=424–427}} In August, Mandela—recognising the ANC's severe military disadvantage—offered a ceasefire, the Pretoria Minute, for which he was widely criticised by MK activists.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=412–413|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=424–427}} He spent much time trying to unify and build the ANC, appearing at a Johannesburg conference in December attended by 1600 delegates, many of whom found him more moderate than expected.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=439|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=428–429}} At the ANC's July 1991 national conference in Durban, Mandela admitted that the party had faults and announced his aim to build a "strong and well-oiled task force" for securing majority rule.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=47|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=173|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=439–440|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=429–430}} At the conference, he was elected ANC President, replacing the ailing Tambo, and a 50-strong multiracial, mixed gendered national executive was elected.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=47|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=173|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=439–440|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=429–430}}

Mandela was given an office in the newly purchased ANC headquarters at [[Shell House (Johannesburg)|Shell House]], Johannesburg, and moved into Winnie's large Soweto home.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=409|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=431, 448}} Their marriage was increasingly strained as he learned of her affair with Dali Mpofu, but he supported her during her trial for kidnapping and assault. He gained funding for her defence from the International Defence and Aid Fund for Southern Africa and from Libyan leader [[Muammar Gaddafi]], but in June 1991, she was found guilty and sentenced to six years in prison, reduced to two on appeal. On 13 April 1992, Mandela publicly announced his separation from Winnie. The ANC forced her to step down from the national executive for misappropriating ANC funds; Mandela moved into the mostly white Johannesburg suburb of [[Houghton Estate|Houghton]].{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=429–436, 435–460|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=431, 448}} Mandela's prospects for a peaceful transition were further damaged by an increase in "Black-on-Black" violence, particularly between ANC and Inkatha supporters in [[KwaZulu-Natal]], which resulted in thousands of deaths. Mandela met with Inkatha leader Buthelezi, but the ANC prevented further negotiations on the issue. Mandela argued that there was a "[[Third Force (South Africa)|third force]]" within the state intelligence services fuelling the "slaughter of the people" and openly blamed de Klerk—whom he increasingly distrusted—for the [[Sebokeng]] massacre.{{sfnm|1a1=Tomaselli|1a2=Tomaselli|1y=2003|1p=6|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=174|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=418–424|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=436–442}} In September 1991, a national peace conference was held in Johannesburg at which Mandela, Buthelezi and de Klerk signed a peace accord, though the violence continued.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=425–426|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=444}}

===CODESA talks: 1991–92===
The [[Convention for a Democratic South Africa]] (CODESA) began in December 1991 at the Johannesburg World Trade Centre, attended by 228 delegates from 19 political parties. Although [[Cyril Ramaphosa]] led the ANC's delegation, Mandela remained a key figure. After de Klerk used the closing speech to condemn the ANC's violence, he took to the stage to denounce de Klerk as the "head of an illegitimate, discredited minority regime". Dominated by the National Party and ANC, little negotiation was achieved.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=45, 69|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=174–175|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=443–446|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=456–459}} CODESA 2 was held in May 1992, at which de Klerk insisted that post-apartheid South Africa must use a [[federalism|federal system]] with a rotating presidency to ensure the protection of ethnic minorities; Mandela opposed this, demanding a [[unitary state|unitary system]] governed by majority rule.<ref>{{harvnb|Sampson|2011|p=460}}; {{harvnb|Meredith|2010|pp=448, 452}}.</ref> Following the [[Boipatong massacre]] of ANC activists by government-aided Inkatha militants, Mandela called off the negotiations, before attending a meeting of the [[Organisation of African Unity]] in Senegal, at which he called for a special session of the UN Security Council and proposed that a [[United Nations peacekeeping|UN peacekeeping force]] be stationed in South Africa to prevent "[[state terrorism]]".{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=72–73|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=177|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=462–463|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=461–462}} Calling for domestic mass action, in August the ANC organised the largest-ever strike in South African history, and supporters marched on Pretoria.<ref>{{harvnb|Sampson|2011|pp=462–463}}; {{harvnb|Meredith|2010|pp=466–467}}.</ref>

[[File:Frederik de Klerk with Nelson Mandela - World Economic Forum Annual Meeting Davos 1992.jpg|left|thumb|[[F. W. de Klerk|De Klerk]] and Mandela at the [[World Economic Forum]], 1992]]

Following the [[Bisho massacre]], in which 28 ANC supporters and one soldier were shot dead by the [[Ciskei Defence Force]] during a protest march, Mandela realised that mass action was leading to further violence and resumed negotiations in September. He agreed to do so on the conditions that all political prisoners be released, that Zulu traditional weapons be banned, and that Zulu hostels would be fenced off, the latter two measures intended to prevent further Inkatha attacks; de Klerk reluctantly agreed.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=177–178|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=467–471|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=463–466}} The negotiations agreed that a multiracial general election would be held, resulting in a five-year [[National unity government|coalition government of national unity]] and a constitutional assembly that gave the National Party continuing influence. The ANC also conceded to safeguarding the jobs of white civil servants; such concessions brought fierce internal criticism.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=79|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=180|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=467–468}} The duo agreed on [[South African Constitution of 1993|an interim constitution]] based on a [[liberal democracy|liberal democratic]] model, guaranteeing separation of powers, creating a constitutional court, and including a US-style [[bill of rights]]; it also divided the country into nine provinces, each with its own [[premier]] and civil service, a concession between de Klerk's desire for [[federalism]] and Mandela's for unitary government.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=80|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=489–491|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=472}}

The democratic process was threatened by the Concerned South Africans Group (COSAG), an alliance of Black ethnic-secessionist groups like Inkatha and far-right Afrikaner parties; in June 1993, one of the latter—the [[Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging]] (AWB)—[[Storming of Kempton Park World Trade Centre|attacked the Kempton Park World Trade Centre]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=46|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=449–450, 488|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=466, 470–471}} Following the murder of ANC activist [[Chris Hani]], Mandela made a publicised speech to calm rioting, soon after appearing at a mass funeral in Soweto for Tambo, who had died of a stroke.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=180–181|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=476–480|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=468–469}} In July 1993, both Mandela and de Klerk visited the US, independently meeting President [[Bill Clinton]] and each receiving the [[Liberty Medal]].{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=471}} Soon after, Mandela and de Klerk were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in Norway.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=68|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=182|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=494|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=474}} Influenced by [[Thabo Mbeki]], Mandela began meeting with big business figures, and played down his support for nationalisation, fearing that he would scare away much-needed foreign investment. Although criticised by socialist ANC members, he had been encouraged to embrace private enterprise by members of the Chinese and Vietnamese Communist parties at the January 1992 [[World Economic Forum]] in Switzerland.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=182|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=497|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=434–445, 473}}

===General election: 1994===

{{Main|1994 South African general election}}

[[File:Mandela voting in 1994.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Mandela casting his vote in the [[1994 South African general election|1994 election]]]]

With the election set for 27 April 1994, the ANC began campaigning, opening 100 election offices and orchestrating People's Forums across the country at which Mandela could appear, as a popular figure with great status among Black South Africans.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=495|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=467–477}} The ANC campaigned on a [[Reconstruction and Development Programme]] (RDP) to build a million houses in five years, introduce universal free education and extend access to water and electricity. The party's slogan was "a better life for all", although it was not explained how this development would be funded.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=76–77|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=495–496|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=478}} With the exception of the ''[[Weekly Mail]]'' and the ''[[New Nation]]'', South Africa's press opposed Mandela's election, fearing continued ethnic strife, instead supporting the National or [[Democratic Party (South Africa)|Democratic Party]].{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=479}} Mandela devoted much time to fundraising for the ANC, touring North America, Europe and Asia to meet wealthy donors, including former supporters of the apartheid regime.{{sfnm|Sampson|2011|pp=479–480}} He also urged a reduction in the voting age from 18 to 14; rejected by the ANC, this policy became the subject of ridicule.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=188|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=477–478|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=484}}

Concerned that COSAG would undermine the election, particularly in the wake of the [[Bophuthatswana conflict (1994)|conflict in Bophuthatswana]] and the [[Shell House massacre]]—incidents of violence involving the AWB and Inkatha, respectively—Mandela met with Afrikaner politicians and generals, including P. W. Botha, [[Pik Botha]] and [[Constand Viljoen]], persuading many to work within the democratic system. With de Klerk, he also convinced Inkatha's Buthelezi to enter the elections rather than launch a war of secession.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=488–489, 504–510|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=480–489}} As leaders of the two major parties, de Klerk and Mandela appeared on a televised debate; although de Klerk was widely considered the better speaker at the event, Mandela's offer to shake his hand surprised him, leading some commentators to deem it a victory for Mandela.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=500–501|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=488}} The election went ahead with little violence, although an AWB cell killed 20 with car bombs. As widely expected, the ANC won a sweeping victory, taking 63% of the vote, just short of the two-thirds majority needed to unilaterally change the constitution. The ANC was also victorious in seven provinces, with Inkatha and the National Party each taking one.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=82|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=512|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=491}}<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2024558_2024522_2024462,00.html |title=Top 10 Political Prisoners |first=Glen |last=Levy |date=15 November 2010 |work=Time |access-date=25 March 2013 |archive-date=25 March 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6FNwiR3bn?url=http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2024558_2024522_2024462,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Mandela voted at the [[Ohlange High School]] in Durban, and though the ANC's victory assured his election as president, he publicly accepted that the election had been marred by instances of fraud and sabotage.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=510–512|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=490}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/south-africa-holds-first-multiracial-elections |title=This Day in History: April 27, 1994: South Africa holds first multiracial elections |publisher=History |access-date=26 February 2013 |archive-date=26 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EimSsBID?url=http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/south-africa-holds-first-multiracial-elections |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Presidency of South Africa: 1994–1999==
{{main|Presidency of Nelson Mandela}}
The newly elected National Assembly's first act was to formally elect Mandela as South Africa's first Black chief executive. His inauguration took place in Pretoria on 10 May 1994, televised to a billion viewers globally. The event was attended by four thousand guests, including world leaders from a wide range of geographic and ideological backgrounds.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=514|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=492–493}} Mandela headed a [[Government of National Unity (South Africa)|Government of National Unity]] dominated by the ANC—which had no experience of governing by itself—but containing representatives from the National Party and Inkatha. Under the Interim Constitution, Inkatha and the National Party were entitled to seats in the government by virtue of winning at least 20 seats. In keeping with earlier agreements, both de Klerk and Thabo Mbeki were given the position of [[Deputy President of South Africa|Deputy President]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=3|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=491–492}}<ref>{{cite news|title=Mandela becomes SA's first black president |publisher=BBC |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/10/newsid_2661000/2661503.stm |access-date=26 May 2008 |date=10 May 1994 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhlKsRKm?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/10/newsid_2661000/2661503.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> Although Mbeki had not been his first choice for the job, Mandela grew to rely heavily on him throughout his presidency, allowing him to shape policy details.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=87|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=210|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=566|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=508–511}} Moving into the presidential office at [[Tuynhuys]] in Cape Town, Mandela allowed de Klerk to retain the presidential residence in the [[Groote Schuur]] estate, instead settling into the nearby Westbrooke manor, which he renamed "[[Genadendal Residence|Genadendal]]", meaning "Valley of Mercy" in Afrikaans.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=523, 543|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=496–497}} Retaining his Houghton home, he also had a house built in his home village of Qunu, which he visited regularly, walking around the area, meeting with locals, and judging tribal disputes.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=502}}

Aged 76, he faced various ailments, and although exhibiting continued energy, he felt isolated and lonely.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=497–499, 510}} He often entertained celebrities, such as [[Michael Jackson]], [[Whoopi Goldberg]], and the [[Spice Girls]], and befriended ultra-rich businessmen, like [[Harry Oppenheimer]] of [[Anglo American plc|Anglo-American]]. He also met with [[Elizabeth II|Queen Elizabeth II]] on her March 1995 [[state visit]] to South Africa, which earned him strong criticism from ANC anti-capitalists.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=501, 504}} Despite his opulent surroundings, Mandela lived simply, donating a third of his [[South African rand|R]] 552,000 annual income to the [[Nelson Mandela Children's Fund]], which he had founded in 1995.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=209|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=543|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=517}} Although dismantling press censorship, speaking out in favour of [[freedom of the press]], and befriending many journalists, Mandela was critical of much of the country's media, noting that it was overwhelmingly owned and run by middle-class whites and believing that it focused too heavily on scaremongering about crime.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=208–209|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=547–548|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=525–527}}

In December 1994, Mandela published ''[[Long Walk to Freedom]]'', an autobiography based around a manuscript he had written in prison, augmented by interviews conducted with American journalist [[Richard Stengel]].{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=186|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=517}} In late 1994, he attended the 49th conference of the ANC in [[Bloemfontein]], at which a more militant national executive was elected, among them Winnie Mandela; although she expressed an interest in reconciling, Nelson initiated divorce proceedings in August 1995.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=539–542|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=500, 507}} By 1995, he had entered into a relationship with [[Graça Machel]], a Mozambican political activist 27 years his junior who was the widow of former president [[Samora Machel]]. They had first met in July 1990 when she was still in mourning, but their friendship grew into a partnership, with Machel accompanying him on many of his foreign visits. She turned down Mandela's first marriage proposal, wanting to retain some independence and dividing her time between Mozambique and Johannesburg.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=222–223|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=574–575|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=546–549}}

===National reconciliation===
{{Quote box|width=25em|align=right|quote=Gracious but steely, [Mandela] steered a country in turmoil toward a negotiated settlement: a country that days before its first democratic election remained violent, riven by divisive views and personalities. He endorsed national reconciliation, an idea he did not merely foster in the abstract, but performed with panache and conviction in reaching out to former adversaries. He initiated an era of hope that, while not long-lasting, was nevertheless decisive, and he garnered the highest international recognition and affection.|salign=right |source=—Rita Barnard, ''The Cambridge Companion to Nelson Mandela''{{sfn|Barnard|2014|p=1}} }}

Presiding over the transition from apartheid minority rule to a multicultural democracy, Mandela saw national reconciliation as the primary task of his presidency.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=524}} Having seen other post-colonial African economies damaged by the departure of white elites, Mandela worked to reassure South Africa's white population that they were protected and represented in "the [[Rainbow Nation]]".{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=213|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=517|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=495–496}} Although his Government of National Unity would be dominated by the ANC,{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=88|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=204}} he attempted to create a broad coalition by appointing de Klerk as Deputy President and appointing other National Party officials as ministers for Agriculture, Environment, and Minerals and Energy, as well as naming Buthelezi as Minister for Home Affairs.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=507–511}} The other cabinet positions were taken by ANC members, many of whom—like [[Joe Modise]], [[Alfred Nzo]], Joe Slovo, [[Mac Maharaj]] and [[Dullah Omar]]—had long been comrades of Mandela, although others, such as [[Tito Mboweni]] and [[Jeff Radebe]], were far younger.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=508}} Mandela's relationship with de Klerk was strained; Mandela thought that de Klerk was intentionally provocative, and de Klerk felt that he was being intentionally humiliated by the president.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=204–205|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=528|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=511, 534}} In January 1995, Mandela heavily chastised him for awarding amnesty to 3,500 police officers just before the election, and later criticised him for defending former Minister of Defence [[Magnus Malan]] when the latter was charged with murder.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=204–205|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=528|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=511, 534}}

Mandela personally met with senior figures of the apartheid regime, including [[Hendrik Verwoerd]]'s widow, [[Betsie Schoombie]], and lawyer [[Percy Yutar]], also laying a wreath by the statue of Afrikaner hero [[Daniel Theron]].{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=212|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=523–524|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=520, 522–523}} Emphasising personal forgiveness and reconciliation, he announced that "courageous people do not fear forgiving, for the sake of peace."{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=523–524|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=520, 522–523}} He encouraged Black South Africans to get behind the previously hated national rugby team, the [[South African national rugby union team|Springboks]], as South Africa hosted the [[1995 Rugby World Cup]]. Mandela wore a Springbok shirt at the [[1995 Rugby World Cup Final|final]] against New Zealand, and after the Springboks won the match, Mandela presented the trophy to captain [[Francois Pienaar]], an Afrikaner. This was widely seen as a major step in the reconciliation of white and Black South Africans; as de Klerk later put it, "Mandela won the hearts of millions of white rugby fans."{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=212|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=525–527|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=516, 524}}<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby_union/rugby_world_cup/team_pages/south_africa/3167692.stm |title=Mandela rallies Springboks |date=6 October 2003 |publisher=BBC Sport |access-date=28 October 2008 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhlM6rLh?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/rugby_union/rugby_world_cup/team_pages/south_africa/3167692.stm |url-status=live }}; {{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/portal/main.jhtml?view=DETAILS&grid=&xml=/portal/2007/10/19/ftmandela119.xml |title=How Nelson Mandela won the rugby World Cup |date=19 October 2007 |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London |access-date=28 October 2008 |first=John |last=Carlin |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhlMWoPg?url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/features/3634426/How-Nelson-Mandela-won-the-rugby-World-Cup.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Mandela's efforts at reconciliation assuaged the fears of white people, but also drew criticism from more militant Black people.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=213|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=517, 536|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=491, 496, 524}} Among the latter was his estranged wife, Winnie, who accused the ANC of being more interested in appeasing the white community than in helping the Black majority.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=517, 536|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=491, 496, 524}}

Mandela oversaw the formation of a [[Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South Africa)|Truth and Reconciliation Commission]] to investigate crimes committed under apartheid by both the government and the ANC, appointing Tutu as its chair. To prevent the creation of martyrs, the commission granted individual amnesties in exchange for testimony of crimes committed during the apartheid era. Dedicated in February 1996, it held two years of hearings detailing rapes, torture, bombings, and assassinations, before issuing its final report in October 1998. Both de Klerk and Mbeki appealed to have parts of the report suppressed, though only de Klerk's appeal was successful.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=527, 551–564|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=528–532}} Mandela praised the commission's work, stating that it "had helped us move away from the past to concentrate on the present and the future".{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=563|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=532}}

===Domestic programmes===
[[File:Rdphouses.jpg|thumb|left|Houses in Soweto constructed under the RDP program]]

Mandela's administration inherited a country with a huge disparity in wealth and services between white and black communities. Of a population of 40 million, around 23 million lacked electricity or adequate sanitation, and 12 million lacked clean water supplies, with 2 million children not in school and a third of the population illiterate. There was 33% unemployment, and just under half of the population lived below the poverty line.{{sfn|Meredith|2010|pp=518–520}} Government financial reserves were nearly depleted, with a fifth of the national budget being spent on debt repayment, meaning that the extent of the promised Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) was scaled back, with none of the proposed nationalisation or job creation.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=519|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=514–515}} In 1996, the RDP was replaced with a new policy, Growth, Employment and Redistribution (GEAR), which maintained South Africa's [[mixed economy]] but placed an emphasis on economic growth through a framework of [[market economics]] and the encouragement of foreign investment; many in the ANC derided it as a [[neo-liberalism|neo-liberal]] policy that did not address social inequality, no matter how Mandela defended it.{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=122–124, 162}} In adopting this approach, Mandela's government adhered to the "[[Washington consensus]]" advocated by the [[World Bank]] and [[International Monetary Fund]].{{sfnm|1a1=Muthien|1a2=Khosa|1a3=Magubane|1y=2000|1pp=369–370|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=520–521}}

[[File:Nelson Mandela 1998.JPG|thumb|right|Mandela on a visit to Brazil in 1998]]

Under Mandela's presidency, welfare spending increased by 13% in 1996/97, 13% in 1997/98, and 7% in 1998/99.{{sfn|Houston|Muthien|2000|p=62}} The government introduced parity in grants for communities, including disability grants, child maintenance grants, and old-age pensions, which had previously been set at different levels for South Africa's different racial groups.{{sfn|Houston|Muthien|2000|p=62}} In 1994, free healthcare was introduced for children under six and pregnant women, a provision extended to all those using primary level public sector health care services in 1996.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=205|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=521}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ci.org.za/depts/ci/pubs/pdf/general/gauge2006/gauge2006_healing.pdf |title=Healing inequalities: The free health care policy |publisher=Children's Institute |access-date=15 May 2011 |author1=Leatt, Annie |author2=Shung-King, Maylene |author3=Monson, Jo |name-list-style=amp |archive-date=26 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EiCq5xbh?url=http://www.ci.org.za/depts/ci/pubs/pdf/general/gauge2006/gauge2006_healing.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> By the 1999 election, the ANC could boast that due to their policies, 3 million people were connected to telephone lines, 1.5 million children were brought into the education system, 500 clinics were upgraded or constructed, 2 million people were connected to the electricity grid, water access was extended to 3 million people, and 750,000 houses were constructed, housing nearly 3 million people.{{sfn|Herbst|2003|p=312}}

The Land Reform Act 3 of 1996 safeguarded the rights of labour tenants living on farms where they grew crops or grazed livestock. This legislation ensured that such tenants could not be evicted without a court order or if they were over the age of 65.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nmmu.ac.za/documents/theses/AAFabbriciani.pdf |title=Land Reform Policies in South Africa Compare To Human Rights Internationally |access-date=11 February 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331101705/http://www.nmmu.ac.za/documents/theses/AAFabbriciani.pdf |archive-date=31 March 2012 }}; {{cite web |url=http://www.info.gov.za/gazette/acts/1996/a3-96.htm |title=No. 3 of 1996: Land Reform (Labour Tenants) Act, 1996 |date=22 March 1996 |publisher=South African Government Online |access-date=26 February 2013 |archive-date=26 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EiD8JvCc?url=http://www.info.gov.za/gazette/acts/1996/a3-96.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Recognising that arms manufacturing was a key industry for the South African economy, Mandela endorsed the trade in weapons but brought in tighter regulations surrounding [[Armscor (South Africa)|Armscor]] to ensure that South African weaponry was not sold to authoritarian regimes.{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=102–194}} Under Mandela's administration, tourism was increasingly promoted, becoming a major sector of the South African economy.{{sfn|Barber|2004|p=130}}

Critics like [[Edwin Cameron]] accused Mandela's government of doing little to stem the [[HIV/AIDS]] pandemic in the country; by 1999, 10% of South Africa's population were HIV positive. Mandela later admitted that he had personally neglected the issue, in part due to public reticence in discussing issues surrounding sex in South Africa, and that he had instead left the issue for Mbeki to deal with.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=135–137|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=219|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=571–573}}<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/jul/06/nelsonmandela.southafrica |title=Mandela at 85 |work=The Observer |location=London |first=Anthony |last=Sampson |author-link=Anthony Sampson |date=6 July 2003 |access-date=26 May 2008 |archive-date=26 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EiCWnTJS?url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2003/jul/06/nelsonmandela.southafrica |url-status=live }}; {{cite web|title=Can Mandela's AIDS Message Pierce the Walls of Shame? |publisher=Peninsula Peace and Justice Center |date=9 January 2005 |url=http://peaceandjustice.org/article.php?story=20050109125126110&mode=print |access-date=26 May 2008 |archive-date=26 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EiCWr1mK?url=http://peaceandjustice.org/article.php?story=20050109125126110&mode=print |url-status=dead }}; {{cite news|title=South Africa: Mandela Deluged With Tributes as He Turns 85 |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/200307190001.html |work=[[AllAfrica]] |first=Ofeibea |last=Quist-Arcton |author-link=Ofeibea Quist-Arcton|date=19 July 2003 |access-date=26 May 2008 |archive-date=26 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6Eile2xQ7?url=http://allafrica.com/stories/200307190001.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Mandela also received criticism for failing to sufficiently combat crime; South Africa had one of the world's highest crime rates,{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=573|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=510, 565–68}} and the activities of international crime syndicates in the country grew significantly throughout the decade.{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=137–138}} Mandela's administration was also perceived as having failed to deal with the problem of corruption.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=544–547|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=510}}

Further problems were caused by the exodus of thousands of skilled white South Africans from the country, who were escaping the increasing crime rates, higher taxes, and the impact of [[positive discrimination]] toward Black people in employment. This exodus resulted in a [[brain drain]], and Mandela criticised those who left.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=131|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=573|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=510, 565–68}} At the same time, South Africa experienced an influx of millions of [[Illegal immigration|illegal migrants]] from poorer parts of Africa; although public opinion toward these illegal immigrants was generally unfavourable, characterising them as disease-spreading criminals who were a drain on resources, Mandela called on South Africans to embrace them as "brothers and sisters".{{sfn|Barber|2004|p=133}}

===Foreign affairs===
Mandela expressed the view that "South Africa's future foreign relations [should] be based on our belief that human rights should be the core of international relations".{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=89|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=214}} Following the South African example, Mandela encouraged other nations to resolve conflicts through diplomacy and reconciliation.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=555}} In September 1998, Mandela was appointed secretary-general of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], who held their annual conference in Durban. He used the event to criticise the "narrow, chauvinistic interests" of the Israeli government in stalling negotiations to end the [[Israeli–Palestinian conflict]] and urged India and Pakistan to negotiate to end the [[Kashmir conflict]], for which he was criticised by both Israel and India.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=559}} Inspired by the region's economic boom, Mandela sought greater economic relations with East Asia, in particular with Malaysia, although this was prevented by the [[1997 Asian financial crisis]].<ref>{{harvnb|Sampson|2011|pp=560–561}}.</ref> He extended diplomatic recognition to the People's Republic of China (PRC), who were growing as an economic force, and initially also to [[Taiwan]], who were already longstanding investors in the South African economy. However, under pressure from the PRC, in November 1996 he cut recognition of Taiwan, and in May 1999 paid an official visit to Beijing.{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=107–108}}

[[File:President Bill Clinton with Nelson Mandela.jpg|thumb|left|Mandela with US President [[Bill Clinton]]. Despite publicly criticising him on several occasions, Mandela liked Clinton, and personally supported him during [[Impeachment of Bill Clinton|his impeachment proceedings]].{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=216|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=561–567}}]]

Mandela attracted controversy for his close relationship with Indonesian president [[Suharto]], whose regime was responsible for mass human rights abuses, although on a July 1997 visit to Indonesia he privately urged Suharto to withdraw from the [[Indonesian occupation of East Timor|occupation of East Timor]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=104–105|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=560}} He also faced similar criticism from the West for his government's trade links to Syria, Cuba, and Libya,{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=214}} and for his personal friendships with Castro and Gaddafi.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=562–563}} Castro visited in 1998 to widespread popular acclaim, and Mandela met Gaddafi in Libya to award him the [[Order of Good Hope]].{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=562–563}} When Western governments and media criticised these visits, Mandela lambasted such criticism as having racist undertones,{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=564}} and stated that "the enemies of countries in the West are not our enemies."{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=214}} Mandela hoped to resolve the long-running dispute between Libya and the US and Britain over bringing to trial the two Libyans, [[Abdelbaset al-Megrahi]] and [[Lamin Khalifah Fhimah]], who were indicted in November 1991 and accused of sabotaging [[Pan Am Flight 103]]. Mandela proposed that they be tried in a third country, which was agreed to by all parties; governed by [[Scots law]], the trial was held at [[Camp Zeist, Netherlands|Camp Zeist]] in the Netherlands in April 1999, and found one of the two men guilty.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=144|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=215–216|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=563–564}}<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/1144147.stm |title=Analysis: Lockerbie's long road |publisher=BBC |access-date=26 May 2008 |date=31 January 2001 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6Ehl149mt?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/1144147.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>

Mandela echoed Mbeki's calls for an "[[African Renaissance]]", and was greatly concerned with issues on the continent.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=124–125|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=556–557}} He took a [[soft power|soft diplomatic]] approach to removing [[Sani Abacha]]'s military junta in Nigeria but later became a leading figure in calling for sanctions when Abacha's regime increased human rights violations.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=108–110|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=215|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=556–557}} In 1996, he was appointed chairman of the [[Southern African Development Community]] (SADC) and initiated unsuccessful negotiations to end the [[First Congo War]] in [[Zaire]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=176–177|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=216|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=558}} He also played a key role as a mediator in the ethnic conflict between [[Tutsi]] and [[Hutu]] political groups in the [[Burundian Civil War]], helping to initiate a settlement which brought increased stability to the country but did not end the ethnic violence.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|pp=217–218}} In [[South African intervention in Lesotho|South Africa's first post-apartheid military operation]], troops were ordered in September 1998 into Lesotho to protect the government of Prime Minister [[Pakalitha Mosisili]] after a disputed election prompted opposition uprisings. The action was not authorised by Mandela himself, who was out of the country at the time, but by Buthelezi, who was serving as acting president during Mandela's absence.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=111–113|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=558–559}}

===Withdrawing from politics===
[[File:Thabo-mbeki-district-six.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|right|In the latter part of his presidency, Mandela increasingly relied on his Deputy President, Thabo Mbeki (pictured)]]
The new [[Constitution of South Africa]] was agreed upon by parliament in May 1996, enshrining a series of institutions to place checks on political and administrative authority within a constitutional democracy.{{sfn|Muthien|Khosa|Magubane|2000|p=366}} De Klerk opposed the implementation of this constitution, and that month he and the National Party withdrew from the coalition government in protest, claiming that the ANC were not treating them as equals.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=128–129|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=204|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=529–530|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=534}} The ANC took over the cabinet positions formerly held by the Nationalists, with Mbeki becoming sole Deputy President.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=535}} Inkatha remained part of the coalition,{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=128–129}} and when both Mandela and Mbeki were out of the country in September 1998, Buthelezi was appointed "Acting President", marking an improvement in his relationship with Mandela.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=207|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=536}} Although Mandela had often governed decisively in his first two years as president,{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=211}} he had subsequently increasingly delegated duties to Mbeki, retaining only a close personal supervision of intelligence and security measures.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=130|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=211}} During a 1997 visit to London, he said that "the ruler of South Africa, the ''de facto'' ruler, is Thabo Mbeki" and that he was "shifting everything to him".{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=211}}

Mandela stepped down as ANC President at the party's December 1997 conference. He hoped that Ramaphosa would succeed him, believing Mbeki to be too inflexible and intolerant of criticism, but the ANC elected Mbeki regardless.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=211|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=568|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=537–543}} Mandela and the Executive supported [[Jacob Zuma]], a Zulu who had been imprisoned on Robben Island, as Mbeki's replacement for Deputy President. Zuma's candidacy was challenged by Winnie, whose populist rhetoric had gained her a strong following within the party, although Zuma defeated her in a landslide victory vote at the election.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=568|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=537–543}}

Mandela's relationship with Machel had intensified; in February 1998, he publicly stated that he was "in love with a remarkable lady", and under pressure from Tutu, who urged him to set an example for young people, he organised a wedding for his 80th birthday, in July that year.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=576|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=549–551}} The following day, he held a grand party with many foreign dignitaries.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=551–552}} Although the 1996 constitution allowed the president to serve two consecutive five-year terms, Mandela had never planned to stand for a second term in office. He gave his farewell speech to Parliament on 29 March 1999 when it adjourned prior to the 1999 general elections, after which he retired.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=578}} Although opinion polls in South Africa showed wavering support for both the ANC and the government, Mandela himself remained highly popular, with 80% of South Africans polled in 1999 expressing satisfaction with his performance as president.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=219}}

==Retirement==
===Continued activism and philanthropy: 1999–2004===

[[File:Nelson Mandela, 2000 (4).jpg|thumb|right|Mandela visiting the [[London School of Economics]] in 2000]]

Retiring in June 1999, Mandela aimed to lead a quiet family life, divided between Johannesburg and Qunu. Although he set about authoring a sequel to his first autobiography, to be titled ''The Presidential Years'', it was abandoned before publication.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=576|2a1=Battersby|2y=2011|2pp=587–588}} Mandela found such seclusion difficult and reverted to a busy public life involving daily programme of tasks, meetings with world leaders and celebrities, and—when in Johannesburg—working with the Nelson Mandela Foundation, founded in 1999 to focus on rural development, school construction, and combating HIV/AIDS.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=576|2a1=Battersby|2y=2011|2pp=588–589}} Although he had been heavily criticised for failing to do enough to fight the HIV/AIDS pandemic during his presidency, he devoted much of his time to the issue following his retirement, describing it as "a war" that had killed more than "all previous wars"; affiliating himself with the [[Treatment Action Campaign]], he urged Mbeki's government to ensure that HIV-positive South Africans had access to [[anti-retrovirals]].{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=219–220|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=584–586|3a1=Battersby|3y=2011|3pp=590–591}} Meanwhile, Mandela was successfully treated for [[prostate cancer]] in July 2001.{{sfn|Battersby|2011|p=598}}<ref>{{cite news|work=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1492865.stm |title=Mandela 'responding well to treatment' |date=15 August 2001 |access-date=26 May 2008 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhSMPxao?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1492865.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2002, Mandela inaugurated the Nelson Mandela Annual Lecture, and in 2003 the [[Mandela Rhodes Foundation]] was created at [[Rhodes House]], [[University of Oxford]], to provide postgraduate scholarships to African students. These projects were followed by the Nelson Mandela Centre of Memory and the [[46664 (concerts)|46664 campaign]] against HIV/AIDS.{{sfn|Battersby|2011|pp=589–590}} He gave the closing address at the [[XIII International AIDS Conference, 2000|XIII International AIDS Conference]] in Durban in 2000,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thebody.com/content/art16140.html |title=Closing Ceremony |first=Pablo |last=Tebas |date=13 July 2000 |publisher=The Body |access-date=25 February 2013 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhRW0hQl?url=http://www.thebody.com/content/art16140.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> and in 2004, spoke at the [[XV International AIDS Conference, 2004|XV International AIDS Conference]] in [[Bangkok]], Thailand, calling for greater measures to tackle tuberculosis as well as HIV/AIDS.<ref>{{cite news |first=Chris |last=Hogg |title=Mandela urges action to fight TB |work=BBC News|date=15 July 2004 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/3895525.stm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040718030822/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/3895525.stm |archive-date=18 July 2004 |url-status=live }}</ref> Mandela publicised AIDS as the cause of his son [[Makgatho Mandela|Makgatho]]'s death in January 2005, to defy the stigma about discussing the disease.<ref>{{cite news |last=Nolen |first=Stephanie |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/nelson-mandela/mandela-arrived-late-to-the-fight-against-hiv-aids/article548193/ |work=The Globe and Mail |location=Toronto |date=5 December 2013 |title=Mandela arrived late to the fight against HIV-AIDS |access-date=11 May 2017 }}</ref>

Publicly, Mandela became more vocal in criticising Western powers. He strongly opposed the 1999 [[War in Kosovo|NATO intervention in Kosovo]] and called it an attempt by the world's powerful nations to police the entire world.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.derechos.org/nizkor/iraq/doc/mandela1.html |title=Equipo Nizkor – Mandela slams Western action in Kosovo, Iraq |agency=Reuters |last=Weir |first=Keith |date=13 April 2003 |publisher=Derechos.org |access-date=3 October 2010 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhQi33OL?url=http://www.derechos.org/nizkor/iraq/doc/mandela1.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2003, he spoke out against the plans for the United States to launch a [[war in Iraq]], describing it as "a tragedy" and lambasting US President [[George W. Bush]] and UK Prime Minister [[Tony Blair]] (whom he referred to as an "American foreign minister") for undermining the UN, saying, "All that (Mr. Bush) wants is [[Iraqi oil]]".<ref>{{cite news |first=Jarrett |last=Murphy |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/mandela-slams-bush-on-iraq |title=Mandela Slams Bush on Iraq |work=CBS News |date=30 January 2003 |access-date=13 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160115202751/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/mandela-slams-bush-on-iraq/ |archive-date=15 January 2016}}</ref> He attacked the US more generally, asserting that "If there is a country that has committed unspeakable atrocities in the world, it is the United States of America", citing the [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|atomic bombing of Japan]]; this attracted international controversy, although he later improved his relationship with Bush.{{sfn|Battersby|2011|pp=591–592}}<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/2228971.stm |title=Mandela warns Bush over Iraq |date=1 September 2002 |publisher=BBC |access-date=27 October 2008 |first=John |last=Pienaar |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhQjsYTq?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2228971.stm |url-status=live }}; {{cite news|last=Fenton |first=Tom |publisher=CBS |title=Mandela Slams Bush on Iraq |date=30 January 2003 |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/01/30/iraq/main538607.shtml |access-date=26 May 2008 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhQr4N5U?url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/01/30/iraq/main538607.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> Retaining an interest in the Lockerbie suspect, he visited Megrahi in [[Barlinnie prison]] and spoke out against the conditions of his treatment, referring to them as "psychological persecution".{{sfn|Battersby|2011|p=593}}

==="Retiring from retirement": 2004–2013===
{{anchor|"Retiring from retirement": 2004–2013}}

[[File:George W. Bush and Nelson Mandela - walking - Oval Office - May 17 2005.jpg|thumb|right|Nelson Mandela and President [[George W. Bush]] in the [[Oval Office]], May 2005]]
In June 2004, aged 85 and amid failing health, Mandela announced that he was "retiring from retirement" and retreating from public life, remarking, "Don't call me, I will call you."{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=593|2a1=Battersby|2y=2011|2p=598}} Although continuing to meet with close friends and family, the foundation discouraged invitations for him to appear at public events and denied most interview requests.{{sfn|Battersby|2011|p=598}}

He retained some involvement in international affairs. In 2005, he founded the Nelson Mandela Legacy Trust,<ref name=NPR>{{cite news|title=Mandela, Bush Discuss Education, AIDS in Africa |first=Allison |last=Keyes |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4654914 |publisher=NPR |date=17 May 2005 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6HeUQkPps?url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4654914 |archive-date=26 June 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> travelling to the US to speak before the [[Brookings Institution]] and the [[NAACP]] on the need for economic assistance to Africa.<ref name=NPR/><ref name=LAT>{{cite news |title=The Obama-Mandela dynamic, reflected in a photo |first=Kathleen |last=Hennessey |url=http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-na-obama-mandela-20130625,0,6170889,full.story |website=Los Angeles Times |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6HeUdFS94?url=http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-na-obama-mandela-20130625,0,6170889,full.story |archive-date=26 June 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> He spoke with US Senator [[Hillary Clinton]] and President George W. Bush and first met the then-Senator [[Barack Obama]].<ref name=LAT/> Mandela also encouraged Zimbabwean President [[Robert Mugabe]] to resign over growing [[Human rights in Zimbabwe|human rights]] abuses in the country. When this proved ineffective, he spoke out publicly against Mugabe in 2007, asking him to step down "with residual respect and a modicum of dignity."{{sfn|Battersby|2011|p=594}} That year, Mandela, Machel, and Desmond Tutu convened a group of world leaders in Johannesburg to contribute their wisdom and independent leadership to some of the world's toughest problems. Mandela announced the formation of this new group, [[The Elders (organization)|The Elders]], in a speech delivered on his 89th birthday.<ref>{{harvnb|Battersby|2011|p=600}}; {{cite news |url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/19836050 |title=Mandela joins 'Elders' on turning 89 |work=[[NBC News]] |agency=Associated Press |access-date=26 May 2008 |date=20 July 2007 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhRqC1M4?url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/19836050 |url-status=live }}; {{cite web |url=http://www.southafrica.info/mandela/theelders.htm |title=Mandela launches The Elders |date=19 July 2007 |publisher=SAinfo |access-date=27 October 2008 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhRpoERW?url=http://www.southafrica.info/mandela/theelders.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

[[File: Nelson Mandela - full (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|Mandela receiving the freedom of the city of [[Tshwane]], 2008]]

Mandela's 90th birthday was marked across the country on 18 July 2008, with the main celebrations held at Qunu,<ref name="FOXNews">{{cite news |url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,385561,00.html |title=Nelson Mandela Celebrates 90th Birthday by Urging Rich to Help Poor |date=18 July 2008 |publisher=Fox News Channel |access-date=27 October 2008 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhSkmQUE?url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,385561,00.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> and a [[Nelson Mandela 90th Birthday Tribute|concert in his honour]] in [[Hyde Park, London|Hyde Park]], London.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/hyde-park-concert-to-mark--mandelas-90th-821776.html |title=Hyde Park concert to mark Mandela's 90th |last=Bingham |first=John |date=6 May 2008 |website=The Independent |access-date=27 October 2008 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhSlCa27?url=http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/hyde-park-concert-to-mark--mandelas-90th-821776.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In a speech marking the event, Mandela called for the rich to help the poor across the world.<ref name="FOXNews"/> Throughout Mbeki's presidency, Mandela continued to support the ANC, usually overshadowing Mbeki at any public events that the two attended. Mandela was more at ease with Mbeki's successor, Zuma,{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=598|2a1=Battersby|2y=2011|2pp=594–597}} although the Nelson Mandela Foundation was upset when his grandson, [[Mandla Mandela]], flew him out to the Eastern Cape to attend a pro-Zuma rally in the midst of a storm in 2009.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=598|2a1=Battersby|2y=2011|2pp=594–597}}

In 2004, Mandela successfully campaigned for South Africa to host the [[2010 FIFA World Cup]], declaring that there would be "few better gifts for us" in the year marking a decade since the fall of apartheid.<ref>{{cite news |title=World Cup 'perfect gift for SA' |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3703261.stm |date=11 May 2004 |work=BBC News|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316182537/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3703261.stm |archive-date=16 March 2016 |url-status=live |access-date=13 September 2016}}</ref> Despite maintaining a low profile during the event due to ill-health, Mandela made his final public appearance during the World Cup closing ceremony, where he received much applause.{{sfn|Battersby|2011|p=600}}<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/jul/11/nelson-mandela-world-cup-final |website=The Guardian |title=Nelson Mandela attends World Cup closing ceremony |date=11 July 2010 |first=David |last=Batty |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhSlkRAr?url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/jul/11/nelson-mandela-world-cup-final |url-status=live }}</ref> Between 2005 and 2013, Mandela, and later his family, were embroiled in a series of legal disputes regarding money held in family trusts for the benefit of his descendants.<ref>{{cite news |last=Polgreen |first=Lydia |title=Messy Fight Over Mandela Trust Goes Public |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/25/world/africa/messy-legal-fight-over-mandela-trust-goes-public.html |website=The New York Times |date=24 May 2013 |access-date=13 September 2016 }}</ref> In mid-2013, as Mandela was hospitalised for a lung infection in Pretoria, his descendants were involved in an intra-family legal dispute relating to the burial place of Mandela's children, and ultimately Mandela himself.<ref>{{cite news |first=David |last=Smith |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/03/south-african-courts-mandela-burial |title=South African courts step in over Mandela family burial row |website=The Guardian |access-date=13 September 2016 |date=3 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130709230415/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2013/jul/03/south-african-courts-mandela-burial |archive-date=9 July 2013}}; {{cite news |last=Moreton |first=Cole |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/nelson-mandela/10155807/Nelson-Mandelas-grandson-Mandla-accused-of-grave-tampering.html |title=Nelson Mandela's grandson Mandla accused of grave tampering |website=The Telegraph |access-date=13 September 2016 |date=2 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127022518/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/nelson-mandela/10155807/Nelson-Mandelas-grandson-Mandla-accused-of-grave-tampering.html |archive-date=27 January 2016 }}</ref>

===Illness and death: 2011–2013===
{{anchor|Death}}
{{main|Death of Nelson Mandela}}
[[File:Madiba's house 3.jpg|thumb|right|Members of the public paying their respects outside Mandela's Houghton home]]

In February 2011, Mandela was briefly hospitalised with a [[respiratory infection]], attracting international attention,{{sfn|Battersby|2011|p=607}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/Nelson-Mandela-breathing-on-his-own-20110128 |title=Nelson Mandela 'breathing on his own' |date=18 January 2011 |website=News 24 |access-date=30 January 2011 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhSmCBmZ?url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/Nelson-Mandela-breathing-on-his-own-20110128 |url-status=dead }}</ref> before being re-admitted for a lung infection and [[gallstone]] removal in December 2012.<ref>{{cite news|title=Nelson Mandela has lung infection|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-20677168|access-date=16 December 2017|work=BBC News|date=11 December 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Mandela Has Surgery for Gallstones |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/16/world/africa/mandela-has-surgery-to-remove-gallstones.html?partner=rss&emc=rss&smid=tw-nytimes&_r=0 |website=The New York Times |access-date=15 December 2012 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhSuaglG?url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/16/world/africa/mandela-has-surgery-to-remove-gallstones.html?partner=rss&emc=rss&smid=tw-nytimes&_r=1& |url-status=live |date=15 December 2012 }}</ref> After a successful medical procedure in early March 2013,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ctvnews.ca/world/nelson-mandela-94-responding-positively-to-treatment-in-hospital-1.1214585 |title=Nelson Mandela, 94, responding positively to treatment in hospital |website=CTV News |date=28 March 2013 |access-date=10 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160419135607/http://www.ctvnews.ca/world/nelson-mandela-94-responding-positively-to-treatment-in-hospital-1.1214585 |archive-date=19 April 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> his lung infection recurred and he was briefly hospitalised in Pretoria.<ref>{{cite news|title=Nelson Mandela arrives home in ambulance|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/nelson-mandela/9976102/Nelson-Mandela-arrives-home-in-ambulance.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408004826/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/nelson-mandela/9976102/Nelson-Mandela-arrives-home-in-ambulance.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=8 April 2013|work=The Telegraph|access-date=6 April 2013|location=London|date=6 April 2013}}</ref> In June 2013, his lung infection worsened and he was readmitted to a Pretoria hospital in serious condition.<ref>{{cite news|title=Nelson Mandela hospitalized in serious condition|url=http://www.cnn.com/2013/06/08/world/africa/south-africa-mandela-sick/index.html|publisher=CNN|access-date=8 June 2013|date=8 June 2013}}</ref> The [[Anglican Diocese of Cape Town|Archbishop of Cape Town]] [[Thabo Makgoba]] visited Mandela at the hospital and prayed with Machel,<ref>{{cite news |author=AFP 2|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/nelson-mandela/10142863/Nelson-Mandela-wished-a-peaceful-end.html |title=Mandela wished a 'peaceful end' by Cape Town Archbishop |website=The Telegraph |date=26 June 2013 |access-date=5 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127022518/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/nelson-mandela/10142863/Nelson-Mandela-wished-a-peaceful-end.html |archive-date=27 January 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> while Zuma cancelled a trip to Mozambique to visit him the following day.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Nelson Mandela condition worsens as Zuma cancels trip |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-23076057 |work=BBC News|access-date=27 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140126133047/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-23076057 |archive-date=26 January 2014 |url-status=live|date=27 June 2013 }}</ref> In September 2013, Mandela was discharged from hospital,<ref>{{cite news|title=Nelson Mandela released from hospital |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2013/09/01/world/africa/nelson-mandela-hospital-release/ |access-date=1 September 2013 |publisher=CNN| date=1 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304094240/http://edition.cnn.com/2013/09/01/world/africa/nelson-mandela-hospital-release/ |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> although his condition remained unstable.<ref>{{cite news |title=Mandela discharged from South Africa hospital |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2013/09/20139185614590114.html |access-date=1 September 2013 |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=1 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304114444/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2013/09/20139185614590114.html |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>

After suffering from a prolonged respiratory infection, Mandela died on 5 December 2013 at the age of 95, at around 20:50 [[South African Standard Time|local time]] at his home in Houghton, surrounded by his family.<ref name="BBCD">{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-25249520 |title=South Africa's Nelson Mandela dies in Johannesburg |date=5 December 2013 |work=BBC News|access-date=5 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160415152143/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-25249520 |archive-date=15 April 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Nelson Mandela dies|url=https://mg.co.za/article/2013-12-05-nelson-mandela-dies|work=Mail & Guardian|date=5 December 2013}}</ref> Zuma publicly announced his death on television,<ref name="BBCD"/><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/12/06/world/africa/nelson-mandela.html|title=Mandela's Death Leaves South Africa Without Its Moral Center |website=The New York Times |last=Polgreen |first=Lydia |date=5 December 2013 |access-date=5 December 2013}}</ref> proclaiming ten days of national mourning, a memorial service held at Johannesburg's [[FNB Stadium]] on 10 December 2013, and 8 December as a national day of prayer and reflection. Mandela's body [[Lying in state|lay in state]] from 11 to 13 December at the [[Union Buildings]] in Pretoria and a [[state funeral]] was held on 15 December in Qunu.<ref>{{cite news|last=Pillay|first=Verashni|title=Mandela's memorial service to be held on December 10|url=http://mg.co.za/article/2013-12-06-mandelas-memorial-service-to-be-held-on-december-10|access-date=6 December 2013|newspaper=Mail & Guardian|date=6 December 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Vecchiatto|first1=Paul|last2=Stone|first2=Setumo|last3=Magubane|first3=Khulekani|title=Nelson Mandela to be laid to rest on December 15|url=http://www.bdlive.co.za/national/2013/12/06/nelson-mandela-to-be-laid-to-rest-on-december-15|access-date=6 December 2013|newspaper=Business Day|location=South Africa|date=6 December 2013}}</ref> Approximately 90 representatives of foreign states travelled to South Africa to attend memorial events.<ref>{{cite news|last=Mount|first=Harry|title=Nelson Mandela: the long goodbye|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/nelson-mandela/10506010/Nelson-Mandela-the-long-goodbye.html|access-date=11 December 2013|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=9 December 2013|location=London}}</ref> It was later revealed that 300 million rand originally earmarked for humanitarian development projects had been redirected to finance the funeral.<ref>{{cite news|title=Nelson Mandela funeral: 'Millions misspent'|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-42224937|work=BBC News|date=4 December 2017|access-date=4 December 2017}}</ref> The media was awash with tributes and reminiscences,{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|p=917}} while images of tributes to Mandela proliferated across [[social media]].{{sfn|Nelson|2014|p=130}} His US$4.1 million estate was left to his widow, other family members, staff, and educational institutions.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.latimes.com/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-nelson-mandela-will-20140203,0,4680742.story |title=Nelson Mandela leaves $4.1-million estate to family, staff, schools |first=Robyn |last=Dixon |website=Los Angeles Times |date=3 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127022523/http://www.latimes.com/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-nelson-mandela-will-20140203-story.html |archive-date=27 January 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==Political ideology==
{{Quote box|width=25em|align=right|quote=A friend once asked me how I could reconcile my creed of African nationalism with a belief in dialectical materialism. For me, there was no contradiction. I was first and foremost an African nationalist fighting for our emancipation from minority rule and the right to control our own destiny. But at the same time, South Africa and the African continent were part of the larger world. Our problems, while distinctive and special, were not unique, and a philosophy that placed those problems in an international and historical context of the greater world and the course of history was valuable. I was prepared to use whatever means necessary to speed up the erasure of human prejudice and the end of chauvinistic and violent nationalism.|salign=right |source=—Nelson Mandela, 1994{{sfn|Mandela|1994|p=173}} }}

Mandela identified as both an [[African nationalism|African nationalist]], an ideological position he held since joining the ANC,{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=25, 232|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=220|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=241|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=37, 584}} and as a socialist.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=231–232|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=231}} He was a practical politician, rather than an intellectual scholar or political theorist.{{sfnm|1a1=Boehmer|1y=2008|1p=13|2a1=Barnard|2y=2014|2p=14}} According to biographer Tom Lodge, "for Mandela, politics has always been primarily about enacting stories, about making narratives, primarily about morally exemplary conduct, and only secondarily about ideological vision, more about means rather than ends."{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=ix}}

The historian Sabelo J. Ndlovu-Gatsheni described Mandela as a "liberal African nationalist–decolonial humanist",{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|p=907}} while political analyst [[Raymond Suttner]] cautioned against labelling Mandela a liberal and stated that Mandela displayed a "hybrid socio-political make-up".{{sfn|Suttner|2007|p=122}} Mandela adopted some of his political ideas from other thinkers—among them Indian independence leaders like Gandhi and Nehru, African-American civil rights activists, and African nationalists like [[Kwame Nkrumah|Nkrumah]]—and applied them to the South African situation. At the same time he rejected other aspects of their thought, such as the anti-white sentiment of many African nationalists.{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=109}} In doing so he synthesised both counter-cultural and hegemonic views, for instance by drawing upon ideas from the then-dominant [[Afrikaner nationalism]] in promoting his anti-apartheid vision.{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=102}}

His political development was strongly influenced by his legal training and practice, in particular his hope to achieve change not through violence but through "legal revolution".{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=viii}} Over the course of his life, he began by advocating a path of non-violence, later embracing violence, and then adopting a non-violent approach to negotiation and reconciliation.{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=107}} When endorsing violence, he did so because he saw no alternative, and was always pragmatic about it, perceiving it as a means to get his opponent to the negotiating table.{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|pp=105, 108}} He sought to target symbols of white supremacy and racist oppression rather than white people as individuals, and was anxious not to inaugurate a race war in South Africa.{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|p=914}} This willingness to use violence distinguishes Mandela from the ideology of [[Gandhism]], with which some commentators have sought to associate him.{{sfn|Suttner|2007|pp=119–120}}

===Democracy===

Although he presented himself in an autocratic manner in several speeches, Mandela was a devout believer in democracy and abided by majority decisions even when deeply disagreeing with them.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=433}} He had exhibited a commitment to the values of democracy and human rights since at least the 1960s.{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|pp=906–907}} He held a conviction that "inclusivity, accountability and freedom of speech" were the fundamentals of democracy,{{sfn|Battersby|2011|p=605}} and was driven by a belief in [[natural and legal rights|natural]] and human rights.{{sfn|Kalumba|1995|p=162}} Suttner argued that there were "two modes of leadership" that Mandela adopted. On one side he adhered to ideas about collective leadership, although on the other believed that there were scenarios in which a leader had to be decisive and act without consultation to achieve a particular objective.{{sfn|Suttner|2007|pp=113–114}}

According to Lodge, Mandela's political thought reflected tensions between his support for [[liberal democracy]] and pre-colonial African forms of consensus decision making.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=xi}} He was an admirer of British-style [[parliamentary democracy]],{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|p=907}} stating that "I regard the British Parliament as the most democratic institution in the world, and the independence and impartiality of its judiciary never fail to arouse my admiration."{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|p=907}} In this he has been described as being committed to "the Euro-North American modernist project of emancipation", something which distinguishes him from other African nationalist and socialist leaders like Nyerere who were concerned about embracing styles of democratic governance that were Western, rather than African, in origin.{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|p=907}} Mandela nevertheless also expressed admiration for what he deemed to be indigenous forms of democracy, describing Xhosa traditional society's mode of governance as "democracy in its purest form".{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|p=907}} He also spoke of an influential African ethical tenet, [[Ubuntu (philosophy)|Ubuntu]], which is a [[Nguni languages|Ngnuni term]] meaning "A person is a person through other persons" or "I am because we are."{{sfn|Oppenheim|2012|pp=369–370}}

===Socialism and Marxism===

[[File:The Soviet Union 1988 CPA 5971 stamp (70th birth anniversary of Nelson Mandela, South African anti-apartheid revolutionary, political leader and philanthropist).jpg|thumb|upright|1988 Soviet commemorative stamp, captioned "The fighter for freedom of South Africa Nelson Mandela" in Russian]]

Mandela advocated the ultimate establishment of a classless society,{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=231, 232|2a1=Ellis|2y=2016|2p=7}} with Sampson describing him as being "openly opposed to capitalism, private land-ownership and the power of big money".{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=298}} Mandela was influenced by [[Marxism]], and during the revolution he advocated [[scientific socialism]].{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=282}} He denied being a communist at the Treason Trial,{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=365|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=135–138}} and maintained this stance both when later talking to journalists,{{sfn|Benson|1986|p=232}} and in his autobiography.{{sfn|Ellis|2016|p=18}} According to the sociologist Craig Soudien, "sympathetic as Mandela was to socialism, a communist he was not."{{sfn|Soudien|2015|p=361}} Conversely, the biographer David Jones Smith stated that Mandela "embraced communism and communists" in the late 1950s and early 1960s,{{sfn|Smith|2010|pp=217–218}} while the historian Stephen Ellis commented that Mandela had assimilated much of the [[Marxism–Leninism|Marxist–Leninist]] ideology by 1960.{{sfn|Ellis|2016|p=7}}

Ellis also found evidence that Mandela had been an active member of the South African Communist Party during the late 1950s and early 1960s,{{sfn|Ellis|2011|pp=667–668}} something that was confirmed after his death by both the ANC and the SACP, the latter of which claimed that he was not only a member of the party, but also served on its Central Committee.<ref name="Mandela'sCommunism"/> His membership had been hidden by the ANC, aware that knowledge of Mandela's former SACP involvement might have been detrimental to his attempts to attract support from Western countries.{{sfn|Ellis|2016|p=17}} Mandela's view of these Western governments differed from those of Marxist–Leninists, for he did not believe that they were anti-democratic or reactionary and remained committed to democratic systems of governance.{{sfn|Smith|2010|p=231}}

The 1955 Freedom Charter, which Mandela had helped create, called for the nationalisation of banks, gold mines and land, to ensure equal distribution of wealth.{{sfn|Kalumba|1995|pp=164–165}} Despite these beliefs, Mandela initiated a programme of privatisation during his presidency in line with trends in other countries of the time.{{sfn|Freund|2014|p=294}} It has been repeatedly suggested that Mandela would have preferred to develop a [[social democracy|social democratic]] economy in South Africa but that this was not feasible as a result of the international political and economic situation during the early 1990s.{{sfn|Freund|2014|p=294}} This decision was in part influenced by the fall of the [[socialist states]] in the Soviet Union and [[Eastern Bloc]] during the early 1990s.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=433–435}}

==Personality and personal life==
[[File:Nelson Mandela (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|Mandela on a visit to Australia in 2009; he is wearing one of the brightly coloured garments that became known as "Madiba shirts"]]

Mandela was widely considered a [[charismatic leader]],{{sfnm|1a1=Glad|1a2=Blanton|1y=1997|1p=570|2a1=Read|2y=2010|2p=326}} described by biographer [[Mary Benson (campaigner)|Mary Benson]] as "a born mass leader who could not help magnetizing people".{{sfn|Benson|1986|p=51}} He was highly image conscious and throughout his life always sought out fine quality clothes, with many commentators believing that he carried himself in a regal manner.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=432, 554}} His aristocratic heritage was repeatedly emphasised by supporters, thus contributing to his "charismatic power".{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=2}} While living in Johannesburg in the 1950s, he cultivated the image of the "African gentleman", having "the pressed clothes, correct manners, and modulated public speech" associated with such a position.{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=111}} In doing so, Lodge argued that Mandela became "one of the first media politicians ... embodying a glamour and a style that projected ''visually'' a brave new African world of modernity and freedom".{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=ix}} Mandela was known to change his clothes several times a day, and he became so associated with highly coloured [[Batik]] shirts after assuming the presidency that they came to be known as "[[Madiba shirt]]s".{{sfnm|1a1=Boehmer|1y=2008|1p=133|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=495|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=503}}<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3532916.stm |title=How Mandela changed SA fashion |last=Khumalo |first=Fred |date=5 August 2004 |publisher=BBC |access-date=28 October 2008 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhlMxe4g?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3532916.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>

For political scientists [[Betty Glad]] and Robert Blanton, Mandela was an "exceptionally intelligent, shrewd, and loyal leader".{{sfn|Glad|Blanton|1997|p=577}} His official biographer, [[Anthony Sampson]], commented that he was a "master of imagery and performance", excelling at presenting himself well in press photographs and producing sound bites.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=582–583}} His public speeches were presented in a formal, stiff manner, and often consisted of clichéd set phrases.{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|pp=128, 134}} He typically spoke slowly, and carefully chose his words.{{sfn|Glad|Blanton|1997|p=576}} Although he was not considered a great orator, his speeches conveyed "his personal commitment, charm and humour".{{sfn|Barber|2004|p=87}}

Mandela was a private person who often concealed his emotions and confided in very few people.{{sfnm|1a1=Suttner|1y=2007|1p=119|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=xv–xvi}} Privately, he lived an austere life, refusing to drink alcohol or smoke, and even as president made his own bed.{{sfn|Meredith|2010|p=xvi}} Renowned for his mischievous sense of humour,{{sfn|Battersby|2011|p=599}} he was known for being both stubborn and loyal,{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=xvi|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=583}} and at times exhibited a quick temper.{{sfnm|1a1=Glad|1a2=Blanton|1y=1997|1p=582|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=xvi}} He was typically friendly and welcoming, and appeared relaxed in conversation with everyone, including his opponents.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=411, 498}} A self-described [[Anglophile]], he claimed to have lived by the "trappings of British style and manners".{{sfnm|1a1=Glad|1a2=Blanton|1y=1997|1p=581|2a1=Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2y=2014|2p=907}} Constantly polite and courteous, he was attentive to all, irrespective of their age or status, and often talked to children or servants.{{sfn|Meredith|2010|pp=xvi, 482–483}} He was known for his ability to find common ground with very different communities.{{sfn|Barnard|2014|pp=5–6}} In later life, he always looked for the best in people, even defending political opponents to his allies, who sometimes thought him too trusting of others.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=431, 582}} He was fond of [[Indian cuisine]],{{sfn|Meredith|2010|p=164}} and had a lifelong interest in archaeology{{sfn|Meer|1988|p=189}} and boxing.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=29}}

{{Quote box|width=25em|align=left|quote=The significance of Mandela can be considered in two related ways. First, he has provided through his personal presence as a benign and honest conviction politician, skilled at exerting power but not obsessed with it to the point of view of excluding principles, a man who struggled to display respect to all ... Second, in so doing he was able to be a hero and a symbol to an array of otherwise unlikely mates through his ability, like all brilliant nationalist politicians, to speak to very different audiences effectively at once.|salign=right |source=—[[Bill Freund (historian)|Bill Freund]], academic{{sfn|Freund|2014|p=295}} }}

He was raised in the Methodist denomination of Christianity; the [[Methodist Church of Southern Africa]] claimed that he retained his allegiance to them throughout his life.{{sfn|Forster|2014|p=89}} On analysing Mandela's writings, the theologian [[Dion Forster]] described him as a [[Christian humanist]], although added that his thought relied to a greater extent on the Southern African concept of [[Ubuntu philosophy|Ubuntu]] than on [[Christian theology]].{{sfn|Forster|2014|pp=106–107}} According to Sampson, Mandela never had "a strong religious faith" however,{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=65}} while Boehmer stated that Mandela's religious belief was "never robust".{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=86}}

Mandela was very self-conscious about being a man and regularly made references to [[manhood]].{{sfn|Suttner|2014|p=342}} He was [[heterosexual]],{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=142}} and biographer [[Fatima Meer]] said that he was "easily tempted" by women.{{sfn|Meer|1988|p=78}} Another biographer, [[Martin Meredith]], characterised him as being "by nature a romantic", highlighting that he had relationships with various women.{{sfn|Meredith|2010|p=21}} Mandela was married three times, fathered six children, and had seventeen grandchildren and at least seventeen great-grandchildren.<ref name="genealogy">{{cite web|publisher=Nelson Mandela Foundation|title=The Life and Times of Nelson Mandela: Genealogy |url=http://www.nelsonmandela.org/content/page/genealogy |access-date=13 July 2016 |archive-date=16 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160116020637/https://www.nelsonmandela.org/content/page/genealogy }}</ref> He could be stern and demanding of his children, although he was more affectionate with his grandchildren.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=481|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=147|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=246}} His first marriage was to Evelyn Ntoko Mase in October 1944;{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=144, 148–149|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=59–62|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=36}} they divorced in March 1958 under the multiple strains of his adultery and constant absences, devotion to revolutionary agitation, and the fact that she was a Jehovah's Witness, a religion requiring political neutrality.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=296|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=102–104|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=110}} Mandela's second wife was the social worker Winnie Madikizela-Mandela, whom he married in June 1958.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=74–76|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=93|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=306–311|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=144–149|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=104, 132–145|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=110–113}} They divorced in March 1996.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=539–542|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=500}} Mandela married his third wife, Graça Machel, on his 80th birthday in July 1998.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=xvii, 576|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=549–551}}

==Reception and legacy==
[[File:Nelson Mandela tributes in Parliament Square - London - DSCF0404.jpg|thumb|Flowers left at the [[Statue of Nelson Mandela, Parliament Square|Mandela statue]] in London's Parliament Square following his death]]
By the time of his death, within South Africa Mandela was widely considered both "the father of the nation"<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-20839504 |title=Nelson Mandela to spend Christmas in S Africa hospital |date=24 December 2012 |work=BBC News|access-date=13 July 2016 |archive-date= 3 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EAEkVVsN?url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-20839504 |url-status=live }}</ref> and "the founding father of democracy".{{sfn|Meredith|2010|p=565}} Outside of South Africa, he was a "global icon",{{sfnm|1a1=Barnard|1y=2014|1pp=1, 2|2a1=Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2y=2014|2p=906}} with the scholar of South African studies Rita Barnard describing him as "one of the most revered figures of our time".{{sfn|Barnard|2014|pp=1, 2}} One biographer considered him "a modern democratic hero".{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=225}} Some have portrayed Mandela in messianic terms,{{sfn|Suttner|2007|pp=125–126}} in contrast to his own statement that "I was not a messiah, but an ordinary man who had become a leader because of extraordinary circumstances."{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=599|2a1=Barnard|2y=2014|2p=4}} He is often cited alongside [[Mahatma Gandhi]] and [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] as one of the 20th century's exemplary anti-racist and anti-colonial leaders.{{sfnm|1a1=Boehmer|1y=2008|1p=82|2a1=Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2y=2014|2p=918}} Boehmer described him as "a totem of the totemic values of our age: toleration and liberal democracy"{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=16}} and "a universal symbol of social justice".{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=1}}

Mandela's international fame had emerged during his incarceration in the 1980s, when he became the world's most famous prisoner, a symbol of the anti-apartheid cause, and an icon for millions who embraced the ideal of human equality.{{sfn|Barnard|2014|p=1}} In the years since been described as world's most famous [[political prisoner]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hooper|first=Simon|title=The world's most famous political prisoner|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2013/12/6/the-worlds-most-famous-political-prisoner|access-date=2021-06-29|website=www.aljazeera.com|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|last2=|last3=|first3=|last4=|last5=|last6=|last7=|last8=|first8=|last9=|date=2018-07-13|title=Nelson Mandela's letters detail his 27 years as the world's most famous political prisoner|url=https://www.latimes.com/books/la-ca-jc-prison-letters-mandela-20180713-story.html|access-date=2021-06-29|website=Los Angeles Times|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=2013-12-07|title=Mandela death: How a prisoner became a legend|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-25256818|access-date=2021-06-29}}</ref> In 1986, Mandela's biographer characterised him as "the embodiment of the struggle for liberation" in South Africa.{{sfn|Benson|1986|p=13}} Meredith stated that in becoming "a potent symbol of resistance" to apartheid during the 1980s, he had gained "mythical status" internationally.{{sfn|Meredith|2010|p=xv}} Sampson commented that even during his life, this myth had become "so powerful that it blurs the realities", converting Mandela into "a secular saint".{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=xxvi}} Within a decade of the end of his presidency, Mandela's era was being widely thought of as "a golden age of hope and harmony",{{sfn|Meredith|2010|p=599}} with much [[nostalgia]] being expressed for it.{{sfn|Freund|2014|p=296}} His name was often invoked by those criticising his successors like Mbeki and Zuma.{{sfn|Mangcu|2013|p=101}} Across the world, Mandela earned international acclaim for his activism in overcoming apartheid and fostering racial reconciliation,{{sfn|Meredith|2010|p=xvi}} coming to be viewed as "a moral authority" with a great "concern for truth".{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=582}} Mandela's iconic status has been blamed for concealing the complexities of his life.{{sfn|Suttner|2016|p=17}}

Mandela generated controversy throughout his career as an activist and politician,{{sfn|Barnard|2014|p=2}} having detractors on both the right and the radical left.{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=173}} During the 1980s, Mandela was widely labelled a terrorist by prominent political figures in the Western world for his embrace of political violence.{{sfn|Boehmer|2005|p=46}} According to Thatcher, for instance, the ANC was "a typical terrorist organisation".{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=360}} The US government's [[United States Department of State|State]] and [[United States Department of Defense|Defense]] departments officially designated the ANC as a terrorist organisation, resulting in Mandela remaining on their terrorism watch-list until 2008.<ref>{{cite news |title=US government considered Nelson Mandela a terrorist until 2008 |date=7 December 2013 |work=NBC News |last=Windrem |first=Robert |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/other/us-government-considered-nelson-mandela-terrorist-until-2008-f2D11708787 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303200951/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/other/us-government-considered-nelson-mandela-terrorist-until-2008-f2D11708787 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> On the left, some voices in the ANC—among them [[Frank B. Wilderson III]]—accused him of [[selling out]] for agreeing to enter negotiations with the apartheid government and for not implementing the reforms of the Freedom Charter during his presidency.{{sfnm|1a1=Barnard|1y=2014|1p=2|2a1=Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2y=2014|2p=918}} According to Barnard, "there is also a sense in which his chiefly bearing and mode of conduct, the very respect and authority he accrued in representing his nation in his own person, went against the spirit of democracy",{{sfn|Barnard|2014|p=2}} and concerns were similarly expressed that he placed his own status and celebrity above the transformation of his country.{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|p=918}} His government would be criticised for its failure to deal with both the HIV/AIDS pandemic and the high levels of poverty in South Africa.{{sfn|Barnard|2014|p=2}} Mandela was also criticised for his friendship with political leaders such as Castro, Gaddafi, and Suharto—deemed [[dictators]] by critics—as well as his refusal to condemn their governments' human rights violations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibtimes.com/mandela-dictators-freedom-fighter-complicated-past-725667 |title=Mandela and the Dictators: A Freedom Fighter With A Complicated Past |first=Jacey |last=Fortin |website=International Business Times |date=18 July 2012 |access-date=13 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160419032439/http://www.ibtimes.com/mandela-dictators-freedom-fighter-complicated-past-725667 |archive-date=19 April 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Orders, decorations, monuments, and honours===
{{Main|List of awards and honours bestowed upon Nelson Mandela}}
Over the course of his life, Mandela was given over 250 awards, accolades, prizes, honorary degrees and citizenships in recognition of his political achievements.<ref name=CT12>{{Cite news |url=https://www.questia.com/read/1G1-296964849 |title=How the awards have just kept flooding in |date=18 July 2012 |work=The Cape Times |via=[[Questia Online Library]] |url-status=dead|access-date=14 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190207130510/https://www.questia.com/read/1G1-296964849/how-the-awards-have-just-kept-flooding-in|archive-date=7 February 2019}}</ref>
Among his awards were the Nobel Peace Prize,{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=68|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=182|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=494|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=474}} the US [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2002/07/20020709-8.html |title=President Honors Recipients of the Presidential Medal of Freedom |date=9 July 2002 |publisher=The White House |access-date=26 October 2008 |archive-date=14 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EQa6Gnu1?url=http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2002/07/20020709-8.html |url-status=live }}</ref> the Soviet Union's [[Lenin Peace Prize]],<ref name=CT12/> and the Libyan [[Al-Gaddafi International Prize for Human Rights]].<ref name="TimeGadafiPrize">{{cite news|title=Prizes: And the Winner Is ...|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,957634,00.html|work=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|date=8 May 1989|access-date=24 October 2012}}</ref> In 1990, India awarded him the [[Bharat Ratna]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/list-of-all-bharat-ratna-award-winners-81336 |title=List of all Bharat Ratna award winners |date=21 January 2011 |publisher=NDTV |access-date=14 February 2013 |archive-date=14 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EQat3ntQ?url=http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/list-of-all-bharat-ratna-award-winners-81336 |url-status=live }}</ref> and in 1992 Pakistan gave him their [[Nishan-e-Pakistan]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=Mandela in Pakistan |newspaper=The Independent |publisher=Independent Print Limited |date=3 October 1992 |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/mandela-in-pakistan-1555096.html |access-date=7 June 2010 |archive-date=14 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EQa80Py9?url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/mandela-in-pakistan-1555096.html |url-status=live |location=London }}</ref> The same year, he was awarded the Atatürk Peace Award by Turkey; he at first refused the award, citing human rights violations committed by Turkey at the time,<ref name=ataturk>{{cite web |url=http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/pr/1992/pr0412a.html |title=Statement on the Ataturk Award given to Nelson Mandela |date=12 April 1992 |publisher=African National Congress |access-date=2 January 2007 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061001161737/http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/pr/1992/pr0412a.html  |archive-date = 1 October 2006}}</ref> but later accepted the award in 1999.<ref name=CT12/> He was appointed to the [[Order of Isabella the Catholic]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://boe.es/diario_boe/txt.php?id=BOE-A-1999-3755 |title=Royal Decree 270/1999, 12th February 1999 |date=13 February 1999 |work=Spanish Official State Gazette|access-date=13 September 2017 }}</ref> and the [[Order of Canada]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.canadainternational.gc.ca/southafrica-afriquedusud/eyes_abroad-coupdoeil/NelsonMandelaDJ.aspx?lang=eng&view=d |title=Canada presents Nelson Mandela with the Queen Elizabeth II Diamond Jubilee medal |date=23 August 2012 |publisher=Queen's Printer for Canada |access-date=14 February 2013 |archive-date=14 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EQaTXONi?url=http://www.canadainternational.gc.ca/southafrica-afriquedusud/eyes_abroad-coupdoeil/NelsonMandelaDJ.aspx?lang=eng&view=d |url-status=dead}}</ref> and was the first living person to be made an [[Honorary Citizenship of Canada|honorary Canadian citizen]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2001/11/19/mandela_011119.html |title=Mandela to be honoured with Canadian citizenship |date=19 November 2001 |publisher=CBC News |access-date=26 October 2008 |archive-date=14 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EQa6zuKU?url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/story/2001/11/19/mandela_011119.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Queen Elizabeth II appointed him as a Bailiff Grand Cross of the [[Order of Saint John (chartered 1888)|Order of St. John]] and granted him membership in the [[Order of Merit]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/Page1880.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050105152154/http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/Page1880.asp |archive-date=5 January 2005 |title=The Order of Merit |date = November 2002|publisher=Royal Insight |access-date=26 October 2008}}</ref>

In 2004, Johannesburg granted Mandela the [[Freedom of the City]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gpg.gov.za/docs/nz/2004/nz0727.html |title=Madiba conferred freedom of Johannesburg |date=27 July 2004 |publisher=Gauteng Provincial Government |access-date=26 October 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080621081749/http://www.gpg.gov.za/docs/nz/2004/nz0727.html|archive-date=21 June 2008}}</ref> and in 2008 a Mandela statue was unveiled at the spot where Mandela was released from prison.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mediaclubsouthafrica.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=703:mandelastatue270808&catid=42:land_news&Itemid=110 |title=Long walk immortalised in bronze |last=Stern |first=Jennifer |date=27 August 2008 |publisher=Media Club South Africa |access-date=30 November 2009 |archive-date=14 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EQY5DhSw?url=http://www.mediaclubsouthafrica.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=703:mandelastatue270808&catid=42:land_news&Itemid=110 |url-status=dead }}</ref> On the [[Day of Reconciliation]] 2013, a bronze statue of Mandela was unveiled at Pretoria's Union Buildings.<ref>{{cite news|title=Nelson Mandela statue unveiled in Pretoria by Zuma|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-25399709|work=BBC News|access-date=23 December 2013|date=16 December 2013}}</ref>
In November 2009, the [[United Nations General Assembly]] proclaimed Mandela's birthday, 18 July, as "[[Mandela Day]]", marking his contribution to the anti-apartheid struggle. It called on individuals to donate 67 minutes to doing something for others, commemorating the 67 years that Mandela had been a part of the movement.<ref>{{harvnb|Battersby|2011|p=601}}; {{cite news
|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/8353853.stm
|title=UN gives backing to 'Mandela Day'
|work=BBC News|access-date=11 November 2009
|date=11 November 2009
|archive-date=14 February 2013
|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EQbCaUWz?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8353853.stm
|url-status=live
}}</ref> In 2015 the UN General Assembly named the amended [[Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners]] as "the Mandela Rules" to honour his legacy.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.un.org/ga/search/viewm_doc.asp?symbol=A/C.3/70/L.3 |title=Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners from the United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |date=29 September 2015 |page=6}}</ref>


===Biographies and popular media===

The first biography of Mandela was authored by [[Mary Benson (campaigner)|Mary Benson]], based on brief interviews with him that she had conducted in the 1960s.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=8}} Two authorised biographies were later produced by friends of Mandela.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=vii}} The first was Fatima Meer's ''Higher Than Hope'', which was heavily influenced by Winnie and thus placed great emphasis on Mandela's family.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|pp=vii, 13–14}} The second was Anthony Sampson's ''Mandela'', published in 1999.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=vii}} Other biographies included Martin Meredith's ''Mandela'', first published in 1997, and Tom Lodge's ''Mandela'', brought out in 2006.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=vii}}

Since the late 1980s, Mandela's image began to appear on a proliferation of items, among them "photographs, paintings, drawings, statues, public murals, buttons, t-shirts, refrigerator magnets, and more",{{sfn|Nelson|2014|p=130}} items that have been characterised as "Mandela kitsch".{{sfn|Nelson|2014|p=138}} In the 1980s he was the subject of several songs, such as [[The Specials]]' "[[Free Nelson Mandela]]", [[Hugh Masekela]]'s "[[Bring Him Back Home (Nelson Mandela)]]", and [[Johnny Clegg]]'s "[[Asimbonanga|Asimbonanga (Mandela)]]", which helped to bring awareness of his imprisonment to an international audience.<ref>{{cite news |first=Dorian |last=Lynskey |date=6 December 2013 |title=Nelson Mandela: The Triumph of the Protest Song |website=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2013/dec/06/nelson-mandela-protest-song-special-aka |access-date=23 January 2017 }}</ref>

Following his death, many [[internet meme]]s appeared featuring images of Mandela with his inspirational quotes superimposed onto them.{{sfn|Nelson|2014|p=130}} Mandela has also been depicted in films on multiple occasions.{{sfn|Bromley|2014|p=41}} Some of these, such as the 2013 feature film ''[[Mandela: Long Walk to Freedom]]'' and the 1996 documentary ''Mandela'', have focused on covering his long life, whereas others, such as the 2009 feature film ''[[Invictus (film)|Invictus]]'' and the 2010 documentary ''[[The 16th Man]]'', have focused on specific events in his life.{{sfn|Bromley|2014|p=41}} It has been argued that in ''Invictus'' and other films, "the America film industry" has played a significant part in "the crafting of Mandela's global image".{{sfn|Lukhele|2012|p=289}}

==See also==
* [[List of peace activists]]

==References==
===Footnotes===
{{Reflist|25em}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links
|wikt=no
|commons=Nelson Mandela
|b=no
|n=Category:Nelson Mandela
|q=Nelson Mandela
|s=Author:Nelson Mandela
|v=no
|species=no
|d=Q8023
}}
* [http://archive.nelsonmandela.org/ Nelson Mandela Centre of Memory]
* [http://www.nelsonmandelachildrensfund.com/ Nelson Mandela Children's Fund]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130707224033/http://www.nelsonmandela.org/ Nelson Mandela Foundation]
* [http://www.mandelarhodes.org/ Mandela Rhodes Foundation]
* [http://www.theelders.org/ The Elders]
* [http://www.nelsonmandelamuseum.org.za/ Nelson Mandela Museum]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120305110400/http://www.mandeladay.com/ Nelson Mandela Day]
* [https://southafrica-info.com/history/nelson-mandela-genealogy-family-tree/ Nelson Mandela's family tree]
* {{Worldcat id|lccn-n85-153068}}
* {{Curlie|Regional/Africa/South_Africa/Society_and_Culture/History/Nelson_Mandela}}
* {{IMDb name|0541691}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mandela, Nelson}}
[[Category:Nelson Mandela| ]]
[[Category:1918 births]]
[[Category:2013 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century Methodists]]
[[Category:20th-century philanthropists]]
[[Category:20th-century South African lawyers]]
[[Category:20th-century South African male writers]]
[[Category:20th-century South African politicians]]
[[Category:21st-century Methodists]]
[[Category:21st-century philanthropists]]
[[Category:21st-century South African politicians]]
[[Category:African and Black nationalists]]
[[Category:Alumni of the University of London]]
[[Category:Alumni of University of London Worldwide]]
[[Category:Anti-apartheid activists]]
[[Category:Bailiffs Grand Cross of the Order of St John]]
[[Category:Burials in South Africa]]
[[Category:Collars of the Order of Isabella the Catholic]]
[[Category:Congressional Gold Medal recipients]]
[[Category:Deaths from lung disease]]
[[Category:Grand Commanders of the Order of the Federal Republic]]
[[Category:Honorary Companions of the Order of Australia]]
[[Category:Honorary Companions of the Order of Canada]]
[[Category:Honorary Companions of the Order of the Star of Ghana]]
[[Category:Honorary members of the Order of Merit]]
[[Category:Honorary Queen's Counsel]]
[[Category:Inmates of Robben Island]]
[[Category:Lenin Peace Prize recipients]]
[[Category:Marxist writers]]
[[Category:Members of the National Assembly of South Africa]]

Nelson Mandela

2021-07-18T22:40:29Z

Hembram Bakhul: /* External links */

{{short description|First President of South Africa and anti-apartheid activist}}
{{redirect|Mandela||Mandela (disambiguation)|and|Nelson Mandela (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-semi-indef|small=yes}}
{{pp-move-indef}}
{{featured article}}
{{EngvarB|date=March 2019}}
{{use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| honorific_prefix = [[His Excellency]]
| honorific_suffix = {{post-nominals|list=[[List of awards and honours received by Nelson Mandela|OMP SBG SBS CLS DMG MMS MMB]]|size=100%}}
| image = Nelson Mandela 1994.jpg
| alt = Portrait photograph of a 76-year-old President Mandela
| caption = Mandela in [[Washington, D.C.]], 1994
| order = 1st
| office = President of South Africa
| term_start = 10 May 1994
| term_end = 16 June 1999
| deputy = {{plainlist|
* [[Thabo Mbeki]]
* [[F. W. de Klerk]]
}}
| predecessor = F. W. de Klerk {{nowrap|(''[[State President of South Africa|State Pres.]]'')}}
| successor = Thabo Mbeki
| office1 = {{nowrap|11th President of the [[African National Congress]]}}
| deputy1 = {{plainlist|
* [[Walter Sisulu]]
* Thabo Mbeki
}}
| term_start1 = 7 July 1991
| term_end1 = 20 December 1997
| predecessor1 = [[Oliver Tambo]]
| successor1 = Thabo Mbeki
| office2 = 19th Secretary General of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]]
| term_start2 = 2 September 1998
| term_end2 = 16 June 1999
| predecessor2 = [[Andrés Pastrana Arango]]
| successor2 = Thabo Mbeki
| birth_name = Rolihlahla Mandela
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=y|1918|7|18}}
| birth_place = [[Mvezo]], [[Cape Province]], [[Union of South Africa]] (now [[Eastern Cape]])
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=y|2013|12|05|1918|7|18}}
| death_place = [[Johannesburg]], [[Gauteng]], [[South Africa|Republic of South Africa]]
| death_cause = 
| resting_place = Mandela Graveyard [[Qunu, Eastern Cape]], South Africa
| party = [[African National Congress]]
| otherparty = [[South African Communist Party|South African Communist]]
| spouse = {{plainlist|
* {{marriage|[[Evelyn Mase|Evelyn Ntoko Mase]]|5 October 1944|19 March 1958|reason=divorced}}
* {{marriage|[[Winnie Madikizela-Mandela|Winnie Madikizela]]|14 June 1958|19 March 1996|reason=divorced}}
* {{marriage|[[Graça Machel]]|18 July 1998}}
}}
| children = 7, including [[Makgatho Mandela|Makgatho]], [[Makaziwe Mandela|Makaziwe]], [[Zenani Mandela-Dlamini|Zenani]], [[Zindzi Mandela|Zindziswa]] and [[Josina Z. Machel|Josina]] (step-daughter)
| parents = {{plainlist|
* Nosekeni Fanny (mother)
* Gadla Henry Mphakanyiswa (father)
}}
| alma_mater = {{plainlist|
* [[University of Fort Hare]]
* [[University of London]]
* [[University of South Africa]]
* [[University of the Witwatersrand]]
}}
| occupation = {{flatlist|
* Activist
* {{lcfirst:Politician}}
* {{lcfirst:Philanthropist}}
* {{lcfirst:Lawyer}}
}}
| website = {{official website|nelsonmandela.org}}
| nickname = {{flatlist|
* Madiba
* Dalibunga
}}
| known_for = [[Internal resistance to apartheid]]
| awards = {{plainlist|
* [[Sakharov Prize]] (1988)
* [[Bharat Ratna]] (1990)
* [[Nishan-e-Pakistan]] (1992)
* [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (1993)
* [[Lenin Peace Prize]] (1990)
* [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]]
* ''([[List of awards and honours bestowed upon Nelson Mandela|more...]])''
}}
| module = {{Infobox writer | embed=yes
| notableworks = ''[[Long Walk to Freedom]]''
}}
}}


'''Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela''' ({{IPAc-en|m|æ|n|ˈ|d|ɛ|l|ə}};<ref>{{cite web| title=Mandela| url=http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/mandela| publisher=[[Collins English Dictionary]]| access-date=17 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160405011219/http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/mandela |archive-date=5 April 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> {{IPA-xh|xolíɬaɬa mandɛ̂ːla|lang}}; 18 July 1918 – 5 December 2013) was a South African [[Internal resistance to apartheid|anti-apartheid]] revolutionary, statesman and [[philanthropist]] who served as [[President of South Africa]] from 1994 to 1999. He was the country's first black head of state and the first elected in a [[Universal suffrage|fully representative]] democratic election. [[Presidency of Nelson Mandela|His government]] focused on dismantling the legacy of [[apartheid]] by tackling institutionalised racism and fostering racial [[Conflict resolution|reconciliation]]. Ideologically an [[African nationalist]] and [[socialist]], he served as the president of the [[African National Congress]] (ANC) party from 1991 to 1997.


A [[Xhosa language|Xhosa speaker]], Mandela was born into the [[Thembu]] royal family in [[Mvezo]], [[Union of South Africa]]. He studied law at the [[University of Fort Hare]] and the [[University of Witwatersrand]] before working as a lawyer in [[Johannesburg]]. There he became involved in [[anti-colonial]] and African nationalist politics, joining the ANC in 1943 and co-founding its [[African National Congress Youth League|Youth League]] in 1944. After the [[National Party (South Africa)|National Party]]'s [[Dominant minority|white-only government]] established apartheid, a system of [[racial segregation]] that privileged [[White South African|whites]], Mandela and the ANC committed themselves to its overthrow. He was appointed president of the ANC's [[Transvaal Province|Transvaal]] branch, rising to prominence for his involvement in the 1952 [[Defiance Campaign]] and the 1955 [[Congress of the People (1955)|Congress of the People]]. He was repeatedly arrested for [[seditious]] activities and was unsuccessfully prosecuted in the [[1956 Treason Trial]]. Influenced by [[Marxism]], he secretly joined the banned [[South African Communist Party]] (SACP). Although initially committed to non-violent protest, in association with the SACP he co-founded the militant [[Umkhonto we Sizwe]] in 1961 and led a [[sabotage]] campaign against the government. He was arrested and imprisoned in 1962, and subsequently sentenced to life imprisonment for conspiring to overthrow the state following the [[Rivonia Trial]].


Mandela served 27 years in prison, split between [[Robben Island]], [[Pollsmoor Prison]] and [[Victor Verster Prison]]. Amid growing domestic and international pressure and fears of racial civil war, President [[F. W. de Klerk]] released him in 1990. Mandela and de Klerk led efforts to negotiate an end to apartheid, which resulted in the [[1994 South African general election|1994 multiracial general election]] in which Mandela led the ANC to victory and became president. Leading a [[Government of National Unity (South Africa)|broad coalition government]] which promulgated a [[Constitution of South Africa|new constitution]], Mandela emphasised reconciliation between the country's racial groups and created the [[Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South Africa)|Truth and Reconciliation Commission]] to investigate past [[Human rights in South Africa|human rights]] abuses. Economically, his administration retained its predecessor's [[Economic liberalism|liberal framework]] despite his own socialist beliefs, also introducing measures to encourage [[land reform]], [[Poverty reduction|combat poverty]] and expand healthcare services. Internationally, Mandela acted as mediator in the [[Pan Am Flight 103 bombing trial]] and served as secretary-general of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] from 1998 to 1999. He declined a second presidential term and was succeeded by his deputy, [[Thabo Mbeki]]. Mandela became an elder statesman and focused on combating poverty and [[HIV/AIDS]] through the charitable [[Nelson Mandela Foundation]].


Mandela was a controversial figure for much of his life. Although critics on [[Right-wing politics|the right]] denounced him as a [[communist terrorist]] and those on the [[far left]] deemed him too eager to negotiate and reconcile with apartheid's supporters, he gained international acclaim for his activism. Widely regarded as an icon of democracy and [[social justice]], he received [[List of Nelson Mandela awards and honours|more than 250 honours]], including the [[Nobel Peace Prize]]. He is held in deep respect within South Africa, where he is often referred to by his [[Xhosa clan names|Thembu clan name]], [[Madiba]], and described as the "[[Father of the Nation]]".

==Early life==
===Childhood: 1918–1934===
Mandela was born on 18 July 1918 in the village of Mvezo in [[Umtata]], then part of South Africa's [[Cape Province]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=3|2a1=Boehmer|2y=2008|2p=21|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=17|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=3}} Given the forename Rolihlahla,<ref>Mandela used the spelling Rolihlahla, see for example [http://www.mandela.gov.za/ official website]. [[Peter Mtuze]] notes that the orthography of [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]] names has changed since the time of Mandela's schooling, and that it would now be written Rholihlahla. (''Mandela's Long Walk to Freedom: the isiXhosa translator's tall order. Southern African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies 2003, 21(3), 141–152.'')</ref> a [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]] term colloquially meaning "troublemaker",{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=16|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2p=3|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=17|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=2|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=3}} in later years he became known by his clan name, Madiba.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=4|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=2|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=16}} His patrilineal great-grandfather, [[Ngubengcuka]], was king of the [[Thembu]] people in the [[Transkei]]an Territories of South Africa's modern [[Eastern Cape]] province.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=3|2a1=Guiloineau|2a2=Rowe|2y=2002|2p=23|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=1}} One of Ngubengcuka's sons, named Mandela, was Nelson's grandfather and the source of his surname.{{sfnm|1a1=Guiloineau|1a2=Rowe|1y=2002|1p=26}} Because Mandela was the king's child by a wife of the Ixhiba clan, a so-called "Left-Hand House", the descendants of his [[cadet branch]] of the royal family were [[morganatic marriage|morganatic]], ineligible to inherit the throne but recognised as hereditary royal councillors.{{sfnm|1a1=Guiloineau|1a2=Rowe|1y=2002|1p=26|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=1|3a1=Mafela|3y=2008|3pp=102–103}}

Nelson Mandela's father, Gadla Henry Mphakanyiswa Mandela (1880–1928), was a local chief and councillor to the monarch; he was appointed to the position in 1915, after his predecessor was accused of corruption by a governing white magistrate.{{sfn|Smith|2010|p=19}} In 1926, Gadla was also sacked for corruption, but Nelson was told that his father had lost his job for standing up to the magistrate's unreasonable demands.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=8–9|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=21–22|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=4}} A devotee of the god [[Qamata]],{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=17|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=1}} Gadla was a polygamist with four wives, four sons and nine daughters, who lived in different villages. Nelson's mother was Gadla's third wife, Nosekeni Fanny, daughter of Nkedama of the Right Hand House and a member of the amaMpemvu clan of the Xhosa.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=15|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=7–8|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=16, 23–24|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=1, 3|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=4}}

{{Quote box|width=25em|align=left|quote=No one in my family had ever attended school ... On the first day of school my teacher, Miss Mdingane, gave each of us an English name. This was the custom among Africans in those days and was undoubtedly due to the British bias of our education. That day, Miss Mdingane told me that my new name was Nelson. Why this particular name, I have no idea.|salign=right |source=—Mandela, 1994{{sfn|Mandela|1994|p=19}} }}

Mandela later stated that his early life was dominated by traditional Thembu custom and taboo.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=15|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=3}} He grew up with two sisters in his mother's ''[[homestead (small African settlement)|kraal]]'' in the village of [[Qunu]], where he tended herds as a cattle-boy and spent much time outside with other boys.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=16|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2p=12|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=23–24|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=2, 4}} Both his parents were illiterate, but being a devout Christian, his mother sent him to a local [[Methodism|Methodist]] school when he was about seven. Baptised a Methodist, Mandela was given the English forename of "Nelson" by his teacher.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=18–19|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=3|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=24|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=2, 4–5|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=5,7|6a1=Forster|6y=2014|6pp=91–92}} When Mandela was about nine, his father came to stay at Qunu, where he died of an undiagnosed ailment which Mandela believed to be lung disease.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=20|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=3|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=25|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=5|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=7}} Feeling "cut adrift", he later said that he inherited his father's "proud rebelliousness" and "stubborn sense of fairness".{{sfn|Mandela|1994|pp=8, 20}}

Mandela's mother took him to the "Great Place" palace at Mqhekezweni, where he was entrusted to the guardianship of the Thembu [[Regency (government)|regent]], Chief Jongintaba Dalindyebo. Although he did not see his mother again for many years, Mandela felt that Jongintaba and his wife Noengland treated him as their own child, raising him alongside their son, Justice, and daughter, Nomafu.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=17|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=4|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=22–25|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=3|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=26–27|6a1=Meredith|6y=2010|6p=5|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=7–9}} As Mandela attended church services every Sunday with his guardians, Christianity became a significant part of his life.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=7|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=27–29|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=8–9}} He attended a Methodist mission school located next to the palace, where he studied English, Xhosa, history and geography.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=7|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2p=25|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=27|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=9}} He developed a love of [[African history]], listening to the tales told by elderly visitors to the palace, and was influenced by the [[Anti-imperialism|anti-imperialist]] rhetoric of a visiting chief, Joyi.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=11–12|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=31–34|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=3|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=18|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=8}} Nevertheless, at the time he considered the [[Scramble for Africa|European colonizers]] not as oppressors but as benefactors who had brought education and other benefits to southern Africa.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=43|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=11}} Aged 16, he, Justice and several other boys travelled to Tyhalarha to undergo the [[ulwaluko]] [[circumcision]] ritual that symbolically marked their transition from boys to men; afterwards he was given the name ''Dalibunga''.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=17|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=36–42|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=8|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=29–31|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=9–11|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6p=14}}

===Clarkebury, Healdtown, and Fort Hare: 1934–1940===

[[File:Young Mandela.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Photograph of Mandela, taken in Umtata in 1937]]

Intending to gain skills needed to become a [[privy council]]lor for the Thembu royal house, in 1933 Mandela began his secondary education at [[Clarkebury]] Methodist High School in [[Engcobo]], a Western-style institution that was the largest school for Black Africans in [[Thembuland]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=45–47|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=27, 31|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=12–13|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=15}} Made to socialise with other students on an equal basis, he claimed that he lost his "stuck up" attitude, becoming best friends with a girl for the first time; he began playing sports and developed his lifelong love of gardening.{{sfn|Mandela|1994|pp=48–50}} He completed his Junior Certificate in two years,{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=17}} and in 1937 moved to [[Healdtown Comprehensive School|Healdtown]], the Methodist college in [[Fort Beaufort]] attended by most Thembu royalty, including Justice.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=52|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=31–32|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=14|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=17–18}} The headmaster emphasised the superiority of [[Culture of Europe|European culture]] and [[government]], but Mandela became increasingly interested in native [[Culture of Africa|African culture]], making his first non-Xhosa friend, a speaker of [[Sotho language|Sotho]], and coming under the influence of one of his favourite teachers, a Xhosa who broke taboo by marrying a Sotho.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=53–54|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=32|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=14–15|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=18–21}} Mandela spent much of his spare time at Healdtown as a long-distance runner and boxer, and in his second year he became a [[prefect]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=56|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=32|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=15}}

With Jongintaba's backing, in 1939 Mandela began work on a [[Bachelor of Arts|BA degree]] at the [[University of Fort Hare]], an elite Black institution in [[Alice, Eastern Cape]], with around 150 students. There he studied English, [[anthropology]], politics, "native administration", and [[Roman Dutch law]] in his first year, desiring to become an interpreter or clerk in the [[INTAF|Native Affairs Department]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=62–65|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=9|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=33–34|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=15–18|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=21, 25}} Mandela stayed in the Wesley House dormitory, befriending his own kinsman, [[Kaiser Matanzima|K. D. Matanzima]], as well as [[Oliver Tambo]], who became a close friend and comrade for decades to come.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=62–63|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=33–34|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=17–19|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=24–25}} He took up ballroom dancing,{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=67–69|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=34|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=18|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=25}} performed in a drama society play about [[Abraham Lincoln]],{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=68|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=10|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=35|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=18|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=25}} and gave [[Bible]] classes in the local community as part of the Student Christian Association.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=68|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=10|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=18|4a1=Forster|4y=2014|4p=93}} Although he had friends who held connections to the [[African National Congress]] (ANC) who wanted South Africa to be independent of the [[British Empire]], Mandela avoided any involvement with the nascent movement,{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=25}} and became a vocal supporter of the [[British Empire in World War II|British war effort]] when the [[Second World War]] broke out.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=70–71|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=11|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=19|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=26}} He helped establish a first-year students' house committee which challenged the dominance of the second-years,{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=66|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=34}} and at the end of his first year became involved in a [[Students' Representative Council]] (SRC) boycott against the quality of food, for which he was suspended from the university; he never returned to complete his degree.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=21|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=78–86|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3pp=11–12|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=34–35|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=19–20|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=26–27}}

===Arriving in Johannesburg: 1941–1943===
Returning to Mqhekezweni in December 1940, Mandela found that Jongintaba had [[arranged marriage]]s for him and Justice; dismayed, they fled to [[Johannesburg]] via [[Queenstown, Eastern Cape|Queenstown]], arriving in April 1941.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=21|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=73–76|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=12|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=36–39|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=20–22|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=27–28}} Mandela found work as a night watchman at Crown Mines, his "first sight of South African capitalism in action", but was fired when the ''induna'' (headman) discovered that he was a runaway.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=23|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=25–26|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=89–94|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4pp=12–13|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5p=40|6a1=Meredith|6y=2010|6pp=27–28|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=29–30}} He stayed with a cousin in George Goch Township, who introduced Mandela to realtor and ANC activist [[Walter Sisulu]]. The latter secured Mandela a job as an [[articled clerk]] at the law firm of Witkin, Sidelsky and Eidelman, a company run by Lazar Sidelsky, a [[Liberalism|liberal]] Jew sympathetic to the ANC's cause.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=96–101|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=13, 19–21|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=41|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=28–30|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=30–31}} At the firm, Mandela befriended Gaur Radebe—a Hlubi member of the ANC and [[South African Communist Party|Communist Party]]—and Nat Bregman, a Jewish [[communism|communist]] who became his first white friend.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=104–105|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=22, 31–32|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=43, 48|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=31–32|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=32–33}} Mandela attended Communist Party gatherings, where he was impressed that [[White South Africans|Europeans]], [[Bantu peoples|Africans]], [[Asian South Africans|Indians]], and [[Coloured]]s mixed as equals. He later stated that he did not join the party because its [[atheism]] conflicted with his Christian faith, and because he saw the South African struggle as being racially based rather than as [[class conflict|class warfare]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=106|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=48–49}} To continue his higher education, Mandela signed up to a [[University of South Africa]] correspondence course, working on his bachelor's degree at night.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=100|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=44|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=33|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=34}}

Earning a small wage, Mandela rented a room in the house of the Xhoma family in the [[Alexandra, Gauteng|Alexandra]] township; despite being rife with poverty, crime and pollution, Alexandra always remained a special place for him.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=23|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=26|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=99, 108–110|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=44–45|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=33|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6p=33}} Although embarrassed by his poverty, he briefly dated a [[Swazi people|Swati]] woman before unsuccessfully courting his landlord's daughter.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=113–116|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=23|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=45–46|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=33}} To save money and be closer to downtown Johannesburg, Mandela moved into the compound of the [[Witwatersrand Native Labour Association]], living among miners of various tribes; as the compound was visited by various chiefs, he once met the [[Regent|Queen Regent]] of [[Basutoland]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=118–119|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=24|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=33|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=34}} In late 1941, Jongintaba visited Johannesburg—there forgiving Mandela for running away—before returning to Thembuland, where he died in the winter of 1942. Mandela and Justice arrived a day late for the funeral.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=116–117, 119–120|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=22|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=47|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=33–34|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=33}} After he passed his BA exams in early 1943, Mandela returned to Johannesburg to follow a political path as a lawyer rather than become a privy councillor in Thembuland.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=122, 126–27|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=49|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=34|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=34}} He later stated that he experienced no epiphany, but that he "simply found [himself] doing so, and could not do otherwise."{{sfn|Mandela|1994|p=135}}

==Revolutionary activity==
===Law studies and the ANC Youth League: 1943–1949===
Mandela began studying law at the [[University of the Witwatersrand]], where he was the only black African student and faced racism. There, he befriended liberal and communist European, Jewish, and Indian students, among them [[Joe Slovo]] and [[Ruth First]].{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=33–34|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=127–131|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=64–65|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=34–35|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=34–35}} Becoming increasingly politicised, in August 1943 Mandela marched in support of a successful bus boycott to reverse fare rises.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=122–123|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=27–28|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=48|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=44|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=37}} Joining the ANC, he was increasingly influenced by Sisulu, spending time with other activists at Sisulu's [[Orlando, Soweto|Orlando]] house, including his old friend Oliver Tambo.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=136|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=53|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=36, 43}} In 1943, Mandela met [[Anton Lembede]], an ANC member affiliated with the "Africanist" branch of [[African nationalism]], which was virulently opposed to a racially united front against colonialism and imperialism or to an alliance with the communists.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=137–139|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=33–34|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=53|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=42–43|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=38–39}} Despite his friendships with non-blacks and communists, Mandela embraced Lembede's views, believing that Black Africans should be entirely independent in their struggle for political self-determination.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=31|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=34–35|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=142–143|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=54}} Deciding on the need for a youth wing to mass-mobilise Africans in opposition to their subjugation, Mandela was among a delegation that approached ANC President [[Alfred Bitini Xuma]] on the subject at his home in [[Sophiatown]]; the [[African National Congress Youth League]] (ANCYL) was founded on Easter Sunday 1944 in the [[Bantu Men's Social Centre]], with Lembede as president and Mandela as a member of its executive committee.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=28–29|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=139–143|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=35|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=52–56|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=44–46|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=39–41}}

[[File:Mandela e Evelyn 1944.jpg|thumb|left|Mandela and Evelyn in July 1944, at Walter and Albertina Sisulu's wedding party in the Bantu Men's Social Centre.{{sfn|Smith|2010|p=inset photographs}}]]

At Sisulu's house, Mandela met [[Evelyn Mase]], a trainee nurse and ANC activist from [[Engcobo]], [[Transkei]]. Entering a relationship and marrying in October 1944, they initially lived with her relatives until moving into a rented house in the township of [[Orlando, Soweto|Orlando]] in early 1946.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=24|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=39–40|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=144, 148–149|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4pp=24, 25|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=59–62|6a1=Meredith|6y=2010|6p=47|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7p=36}} Their first child, Madiba "Thembi" Thembekile, was born in February 1945; a daughter, Makaziwe, was born in 1947 but died of [[meningitis]] nine months later.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=40–41|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=149, 152|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=29|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=60–64|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=48|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6p=36}} Mandela enjoyed home life, welcoming his mother and his sister, Leabie, to stay with him.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=40|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=150, 210|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=30|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=67|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=48|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6p=36}} In early 1947, his three years of articles ended at Witkin, Sidelsky and Eidelman, and he decided to become a full-time student, subsisting on loans from the Bantu Welfare Trust.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=151|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=64|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=48–49}}

In July 1947, Mandela rushed Lembede, who was ill, to hospital, where he died; he was succeeded as ANCYL president by the more moderate [[A.P. Mda|Peter Mda]], who agreed to co-operate with communists and non-blacks, appointing Mandela ANCYL secretary.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=36|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=43|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=153–154|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=66|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=48}} Mandela disagreed with Mda's approach, and in December 1947 supported an unsuccessful measure to expel communists from the ANCYL, considering their ideology un-African.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=154|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=42}} In 1947, Mandela was elected to the executive committee of the ANC's [[Transvaal Province]] branch, serving under regional president C. S. Ramohanoe. When Ramohanoe acted against the wishes of the committee by co-operating with Indians and communists, Mandela was one of those who forced his resignation.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=154–157|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=37|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=66|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=49}}

In the [[1948 South African general election|South African general election in 1948]], in which only whites were permitted to vote, the Afrikaner-dominated [[Herenigde Nasionale Party]] under [[Daniel François Malan]] took power, soon uniting with the [[Afrikaner Party]] to form the [[National Party (South Africa)|National Party]]. Openly [[Racialism (Racial categorization)|racialist]], the party codified and expanded racial segregation with new [[apartheid legislation]].{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=35|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=159–162|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3pp=41–42|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=70–72|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=76–78|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=51–52}} Gaining increasing influence in the ANC, Mandela and his party cadre allies began advocating [[direct action]] against apartheid, such as boycotts and strikes, influenced by the tactics already employed by South Africa's Indian community. Xuma did not support these measures and was removed from the presidency in a [[Motion of no confidence|vote of no confidence]], replaced by [[James Moroka]] and a more militant executive committee containing Sisulu, Mda, Tambo, and Godfrey Pitje.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=36–37|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=162–165|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=44|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=72–73|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=78–79|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=53–55}} Mandela later related that he and his colleagues had "guided the ANC to a more radical and revolutionary path."{{sfn|Mandela|1994|p=165}} Having devoted his time to politics, Mandela failed his final year at Witwatersrand three times; he was ultimately denied his degree in December 1949.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2010|1pp=68–70|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=35}}

===Defiance Campaign and Transvaal ANC Presidency: 1950–1954===

[[File:Flag of the African National Congress.svg|thumb|The ANC's tricolour flag; black for the people, green for the land, and gold for the resources of Africa{{sfn|Benson|1986|p=26}}]]

Mandela took Xuma's place on the ANC national executive in March 1950,{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=168|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=44|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=55–56}} and that same year was elected national president of the ANCYL.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=41|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2p=176|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=47|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=78|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=88|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=63–64}} In March, the Defend Free Speech Convention was held in Johannesburg, bringing together African, Indian, and communist activists to call a [[International Workers' Day|May Day]] [[general strike]] in protest against apartheid and white minority rule. Mandela opposed the strike because it was multi-racial and not ANC-led, but a majority of Black workers took part, resulting in increased police repression and the introduction of the [[Suppression of Communism Act, 1950]], affecting the actions of all protest groups.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=38–40|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=48–49|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=165–167|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=74–75|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=81–83|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=61–62}} At the ANC national conference of December 1951, he continued arguing against a racially united front, but was outvoted.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=176|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=78|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=63–64}}

Thereafter, Mandela rejected Lembede's Africanism and embraced the idea of a multi-racial front against apartheid.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=42|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=55|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=48|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=94}} Influenced by friends like [[Moses Kotane]] and by the [[Soviet Union]]'s support for [[wars of national liberation]], his mistrust of communism broke down and he began reading literature by [[Karl Marx]], [[Vladimir Lenin]], and [[Mao Zedong]], eventually embracing the [[Marxist philosophy]] of [[dialectical materialism]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=177–172|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=45, 47|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=75–76|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=87|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=64–65}} Commenting on communism, he later stated that he "found [himself] strongly drawn to the idea of a classless society which, to [his] mind, was similar to traditional African culture where life was shared and communal."{{sfn|Mandela|1994|p=172}} In April 1952, Mandela began work at the H.M. Basner law firm, which was owned by a communist,{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=165|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=53|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=77|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=92}} although his increasing commitment to work and activism meant he spent less time with his family.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=170|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=94|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=103}}

In 1952, the ANC began preparation for a joint [[Defiance Campaign]] against apartheid with Indian and communist groups, founding a National Voluntary Board to recruit volunteers. The campaign was designed to follow the path of [[nonviolent resistance]] influenced by [[Mahatma Gandhi]]; some supported this for ethical reasons, but Mandela instead considered it pragmatic.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=44–46|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=56–58|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=182–183|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=77, 80|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=88–89|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=66–67}} At a [[Durban]] rally on 22 June, Mandela addressed an assembled crowd of 10,000 people, initiating the campaign protests for which he was arrested and briefly interned in Marshall Square prison.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=183–188|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=52, 53|32a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=81–83|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=88–89|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=69}} These events established Mandela as one of the best-known Black political figures in South Africa.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=47}} With further protests, the ANC's membership grew from 20,000 to 100,000 members; the government responded with mass arrests and introduced the [[Public Safety Act, 1953]] to permit [[martial law]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=188–192|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=68}} In May, authorities banned Transvaal ANC President [[J. B. Marks]] from making public appearances; unable to maintain his position, he recommended Mandela as his successor. Although Africanists opposed his candidacy, Mandela was elected to be regional president in October.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=51|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=194–195|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=54|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=85|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=72–73}}

[[File:The Nelson Mandela House.jpg|thumb|left|[[Mandela House|Mandela's former home]] in the Johannesburg township of [[Soweto]]]]

In July 1952, Mandela was arrested under the [[Suppression of Communism Act]] and stood trial as one of the 21 accused—among them Moroka, Sisulu, and [[Yusuf Dadoo]]—in Johannesburg. Found guilty of "statutory communism", a term that the government used to describe most opposition to apartheid, their sentence of nine months' [[hard labour]] was [[Suspended sentence|suspended]] for two years.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=50–51|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=195–198|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=54|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=83–84|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=92|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=71–72}} In December, Mandela was given a six-month ban from attending meetings or talking to more than one individual at a time, making his Transvaal ANC presidency impractical, and during this period the Defiance Campaign petered out.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=64|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=199–200, 204|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=86|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=73}} In September 1953, Andrew Kunene read out Mandela's "No Easy Walk to Freedom" speech at a Transvaal ANC meeting; the title was taken from a quote by Indian independence leader [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], a seminal influence on Mandela's thought. The speech laid out a contingency plan for a scenario in which the ANC was banned. This Mandela Plan, or M-Plan, involved dividing the organisation into a [[Clandestine cell system|cell structure]] with a more centralised leadership.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=58–59|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=60|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=205–207, 231|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=58|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=107–108|6a1=Smith|6y=2010|6pp=116–117|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=81–82, 84–85}}

Mandela obtained work as an attorney for the firm Terblanche and Briggish, before moving to the liberal-run Helman and Michel, passing qualification exams to become a full-fledged attorney.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=209–210|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=87|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=95|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=7}} In August 1953, Mandela and Tambo opened their own law firm, [[Mandela and Tambo]], operating in downtown Johannesburg. The only African-run law firm in the country, it was popular with aggrieved Black people, often dealing with cases of [[police brutality]]. Disliked by the authorities, the firm was forced to relocate to a remote location after their office permit was removed under the [[Group Areas Act]]; as a result, their clientele dwindled.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=54–57|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=61|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=210–216|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=73|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=87–93|6a1=Meredith|6y=2010|6pp=95–101|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=77–80}} As a lawyer of aristocratic heritage, Mandela was part of Johannesburg's elite Black middle-class, and accorded much respect from the Black community.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|pp=28–29, 75}} Although a second daughter, [[Makaziwe Mandela|Makaziwe Phumia]], was born in May 1954, Mandela's relationship with Evelyn became strained, and she accused him of adultery. He may have had affairs with ANC member [[Lillian Ngoyi]] and secretary Ruth Mompati; various individuals close to Mandela in this period have stated that the latter bore him a child.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=103–104|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=95–99, 105–106}} Disgusted by her son's behaviour, Nosekeni returned to Transkei, while Evelyn embraced the [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] and rejected Mandela's preoccupation with politics.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=293–294|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=104–105|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=98–99, 105–106|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=76–77}}

===Congress of the People and the Treason Trial: 1955–1961===
{{Main|Treason Trial}}
{{Quote box
| width = 25em
| align = right
| quote = We, the people of South Africa, declare for all our country and the world to know: That South Africa belongs to all who live in it, Black and white, and that no government can justly claim authority unless it is based on the will of the people.
| salign = right
| source = —Opening words of the [[Freedom Charter]]{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=66|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=92}}
}}

After taking part in the unsuccessful protest to prevent the forced relocation of all Black people from the Sophiatown suburb of Johannesburg in February 1955, Mandela concluded that violent action would prove necessary to end apartheid and white minority rule.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=218–233, 234–236|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=59–60|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=114–117|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=120–123|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=82–84}} On his advice, Sisulu requested weaponry from the People's Republic of China, which was denied. Although the Chinese government supported the anti-apartheid struggle, they believed the movement insufficiently prepared for [[guerrilla warfare]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=226–227|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=60|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=108–109|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=118|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=84}} With the involvement of the [[South African Indian Congress]], the Coloured People's Congress, the [[South African Congress of Trade Unions]] and the [[South African Congress of Democrats|Congress of Democrats]], the ANC planned a [[Congress of the People (1955)|Congress of the People]], calling on all South Africans to send in proposals for a post-apartheid era. Based on the responses, a [[Freedom Charter]] was drafted by [[Rusty Bernstein]], calling for the creation of a democratic, non-racialist state with the [[nationalisation]] of major industry. The charter was adopted at a June 1955 conference in [[Kliptown]]; 3,000 delegates attended the event, which was forcibly closed down by police.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=64–67|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=71–75|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=243–249|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4pp=65–66|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=129–133|6a1=Smith|6y=2010|6pp=118–120, 125–128|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=87–95}} The tenets of the Freedom Charter remained important for Mandela, and in 1956 he described it as "an inspiration to the people of South Africa".{{sfn|Meredith|2010|p=134}}

Following the end of a second ban in September 1955, Mandela went on a working holiday to [[Transkei]] to discuss the implications of the [[Bantu Authorities Act, 1951]] with local tribal leaders, also visiting his mother and Noengland before proceeding to [[Cape Town]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=253–274|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=130–132|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=96–99}} In March 1956 he received his third ban on public appearances, restricting him to Johannesburg for five years, but he often defied it.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=275|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=147|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=101–102}} Mandela's marriage broke down and Evelyn left him, taking their children to live with her brother. Initiating divorce proceedings in May 1956, she claimed that Mandela had physically abused her; he denied the allegations, and fought for custody of their children.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=79–80|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=143–144|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=100–102|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=110}} She withdrew her petition of separation in November, but Mandela filed for divorce in January 1958; the divorce was finalised in March, with the children placed in Evelyn's care.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=79–80|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2p=296|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=102–104|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=110}} During the divorce proceedings, he began courting a social worker, [[Winnie Madikizela-Mandela|Winnie Madikizela]], whom he married in [[Bizana, Eastern Cape|Bizana]] in June 1958. She later became involved in ANC activities, spending several weeks in prison.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=74–76|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=93|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=306–311|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4pp=75–77|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=144–149|6a1=Smith|6y=2010|6pp=104, 132–145|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=110–113}} Together they had two children: [[Zenani Mandela-Dlamini|Zenani]], born in February 1959, and [[Zindzi Mandela-Hlongwane|Zindziswa]] (1960–2020).{{sfn|Meredith|2010|pp=165, 186}}

[[File:ApartheidSignEnglishAfrikaans.jpg|thumb|left|An apartheid sign; apartheid legislation impacted all areas of life]]

In December 1956, Mandela was arrested alongside most of the ANC national executive, and accused of "high treason" against the state. Held in Johannesburg Prison amid mass protests, they underwent a preparatory examination before being granted bail.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=68, 71–72|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=83|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=283–292|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=136–141|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=163–164|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=103–106}} The defence's refutation began in January 1957, overseen by defence lawyer [[Vernon Berrangé]], and continued until the case was adjourned in September. In January 1958, [[Oswald Pirow]] was appointed to prosecute the case, and in February the judge ruled that there was "sufficient reason" for the defendants to go on trial in the [[Gauteng Division|Transvaal Supreme Court]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=299–305|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=142|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=167–168|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=116–117}} The formal [[Treason Trial]] began in [[Pretoria]] in August 1958, with the defendants successfully applying to have the three judges—all linked to the governing National Party—replaced. In August, one charge was dropped, and in October the prosecution withdrew its indictment, submitting a reformulated version in November which argued that the ANC leadership committed high treason by advocating violent revolution, a charge the defendants denied.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=331–334|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=162, 165|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=167|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=122–123}}

In April 1959, Africanists dissatisfied with the ANC's united front approach founded the [[Pan-Africanist Congress]] (PAC); Mandela disagreed with the PAC's racially exclusionary views, describing them as "immature" and "naïve".{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=79|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=90–92, 141–143|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=327–330|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=167–168|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=171–173|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=117–122}} Both parties took part in an anti-pass campaign in early 1960, in which Africans burned [[Pass laws|the passes that they were legally obliged to carry]]. One of the PAC-organised demonstrations was fired upon by police, resulting in the deaths of 69 protesters in the [[Sharpeville massacre]]. The incident brought international condemnation of the government and resulted in rioting throughout South Africa, with Mandela publicly burning his pass in solidarity.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=83–84|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=144–147|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=342–346|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4pp=81–82|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=167–170|6a1=Smith|6y=2010|6pp=173–175|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=130–131}}

Responding to the unrest, the government implemented state of emergency measures, declaring [[martial law]] and banning the ANC and PAC; in March, they arrested Mandela and other activists, imprisoning them for five months without charge in the unsanitary conditions of the Pretoria Local prison.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=85–86|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=347–357|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=172–175|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=175|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=132–133}} Imprisonment caused problems for Mandela and his co-defendants in the Treason Trial; their lawyers could not reach them, and so it was decided that the lawyers would withdraw in protest until the accused were freed from prison when the state of emergency was lifted in late August 1960.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=357–364|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=176, 184|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=177|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=134–135}} Over the following months, Mandela used his free time to organise an All-In African Conference near [[Pietermaritzburg]], [[Natal Province|Natal]], in March 1961, at which 1,400 anti-apartheid delegates met, agreeing on a stay-at-home strike to mark 31 May, the day South Africa became a republic.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=98|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=373–374|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3pp=83–84|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=187–188|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=183–185|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=140–143}} On 29 March 1961, six years after the Treason Trial began, the judges produced a verdict of not guilty, ruling that there was insufficient evidence to convict the accused of "high treason", since they had advocated neither communism nor violent revolution; the outcome embarrassed the government.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=94|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=151|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=377–380|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=84|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=188–189|6a1=Smith|6y=2010|6p=178|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7p=143}}

===MK, the SACP, and African tour: 1961–62===
[[File:liliesleaf hut1.jpg|thumb|right|Thatched room at Liliesleaf Farm, where Mandela hid]]
Disguised as a chauffeur, Mandela travelled around the country incognito, organising the ANC's new cell structure and the planned mass stay-at-home strike. Referred to as the "Black Pimpernel" in the press—a reference to [[Emma Orczy]]'s 1905 novel ''[[The Scarlet Pimpernel]]''—a warrant for his arrest was put out by the police.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=99|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=283–287|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=192–193|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=186–188, 193|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=144–146, 154}} Mandela held secret meetings with reporters, and after the government failed to prevent the strike, he warned them that many anti-apartheid activists would soon resort to violence through groups like the PAC's [[Azanian People's Liberation Army|Poqo]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=289–291|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=188–189|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=147–149}} He believed that the ANC should form an armed group to channel some of this violence in a controlled direction, convincing both ANC leader [[Albert Luthuli]]—who was morally opposed to violence—and allied activist groups of its necessity.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=393–396|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=199–200|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=206–210|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=150–151}}

Inspired by the actions of [[Fidel Castro]]'s [[26th of July Movement]] in the [[Cuban Revolution]], in 1961 Mandela, Sisulu, and Slovo co-founded [[Umkhonto we Sizwe]] ("Spear of the Nation", abbreviated MK). Becoming chairman of the militant group, Mandela gained ideas from literature on guerrilla warfare by Marxist militants Mao and [[Che Guevara]] as well as from the military theorist [[Carl von Clausewitz]].{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=107|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=397–398|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=197–198, 200–201|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=209–214|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=151–154}} Although initially declared officially separate from the ANC so as not to taint the latter's reputation, MK was later widely recognised as the party's armed wing.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2010|1pp=209–210|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=151}} Most early MK members were white communists who were able to conceal Mandela in their homes; after hiding in communist Wolfie Kodesh's flat in [[Berea, Gauteng|Berea]], Mandela moved to the communist-owned [[Liliesleaf Farm]] in [[Rivonia]], there joined by [[Raymond Mhlaba]], Slovo, and Bernstein, who put together the MK constitution.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=107|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=397–409|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3pp=92–93|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=201–204|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=191, 222–229|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=154–156}} Although in later life Mandela denied, for political reasons, ever being a member of the Communist Party, historical research published in 2011 strongly suggested that he had joined in the late 1950s or early 1960s.{{sfn|Ellis|2011|pp=667–668}} This was confirmed by both the SACP and the ANC after Mandela's death. According to the SACP, he was not only a member of the party, but also served on its Central Committee.{{sfn|Ellis|2016|p=1}}<ref name="Mandela'sCommunism">{{cite web |url=http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=4151%20 |title=SACP statement on the passing away of Madiba |website=South African Communist Party |date=6 December 2013 |access-date=29 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303223354/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=4151%20 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |url-status=dead }}; {{cite news |last=Marrian |first=Natasha |title=SACP confirms Nelson Mandela was a member |url=http://www.bdlive.co.za/national/politics/2013/12/06/sacp-confirms-nelson-mandela-was-a-member |access-date=7 December 2013 |newspaper=Business Day |location=South Africa |date=6 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306232040/http://www.bdlive.co.za/national/politics/2013/12/06/sacp-confirms-nelson-mandela-was-a-member |archive-date=6 March 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

{{Quote box|width=25em|align=left|quote=We of Umkhonto have always sought to achieve liberation without bloodshed and civil clash. Even at this late hour, we hope that our first actions will awaken everyone to a realization of the dangerous situation to which Nationalist policy is leading. We hope that we will bring the Government and its supporters to their senses before it is too late so that both government and its policies can be changed before matters reach the desperate stage of civil war.|salign=right |source=—Statement released by MK to announce the start of their sabotage campaign{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=171|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=207}}}}

Operating through a cell structure, MK planned to carry out acts of sabotage that would exert maximum pressure on the government with minimum casualties; they sought to bomb military installations, power plants, telephone lines, and transport links at night, when civilians were not present. Mandela stated that they chose sabotage because it was the least harmful action, did not involve killing, and offered the best hope for racial reconciliation afterwards; he nevertheless acknowledged that should this have failed then guerrilla warfare might have been necessary.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=108|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=171|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=411–412|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=90|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=204}} Soon after ANC leader Luthuli was awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]], MK publicly announced its existence with 57 bombings on [[Day of the Vow|Dingane's Day]] (16 December) 1961, followed by further attacks on New Year's Eve.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=110|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=170|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=413–415|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=95|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=206|6a1=Smith|6y=2010|6pp=239–246|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=158–159}}

The ANC decided to send Mandela as a delegate to the February 1962 meeting of the Pan-African Freedom Movement for East, Central and Southern Africa (PAFMECSA) in [[Addis Ababa]], Ethiopia.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=111|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=171–172, 176|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=418–425|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=95|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=251–254|6a1=Benneyworth|6y=2011|6p=81|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=160–162}} Leaving South Africa in secret via [[Bechuanaland Protectorate|Bechuanaland]], on his way Mandela visited [[Tanganyika (1961–1964)|Tanganyika]] and met with its president, [[Julius Nyerere]].{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=173–175|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=97|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=209|4a1=Benneyworth|4y=2011|4pp=81, 84}} Arriving in Ethiopia, Mandela met with Emperor [[Haile Selassie I]], and gave his speech after Selassie's at the conference.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=176–177, 180|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=427–432|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=255–256|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=163–165}} After the symposium, he travelled to [[Cairo]], Egypt, admiring the political reforms of President [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]], and then went to [[Tunis]], Tunisia, where President [[Habib Bourguiba]] gave him £5,000 for weaponry. He proceeded to Morocco, Mali, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Senegal, receiving funds from Liberian President [[William Tubman]] and Guinean President [[Ahmed Sékou Touré]].{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=185–194|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=432–440|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=210|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=256–259|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=165–167}} He left Africa for London, England, where he met anti-apartheid activists, reporters, and prominent politicians.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=114|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=196–197|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=441–443|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=210–211|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=259–261|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=167–169}} Upon returning to Ethiopia, he began a six-month course in guerrilla warfare, but completed only two months before being recalled to South Africa by the ANC's leadership.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=443–445|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=100|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=211|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=261–262|5a1=Benneyworth|5y=2011|5pp=91–93|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=169–170}}

==Imprisonment==
===Arrest and Rivonia trial: 1962–1964===
{{main|Rivonia Trial}}

On 5 August 1962, police captured Mandela along with fellow activist [[Cecil Williams (anti-apartheid activist)|Cecil Williams]] near [[Howick, KwaZulu-Natal|Howick]].{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=116–117|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=201–202|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=435–435|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=215–216|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=275–276|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=170–172}} Many MK members suspected that the authorities had been tipped off with regard to Mandela's whereabouts, although Mandela himself gave these ideas little credence.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=278–279|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=216|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=172}} In later years, [[Donald Rickard]], a former American diplomat revealed that the [[Central Intelligence Agency]], who feared Mandela's associations with communists, had informed the South African police of his location.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=216–217|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=172}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Ex-CIA spy admits tip led to Nelson Mandela's long imprisonment |date=15 May 2016 |website=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/may/15/cia-operative-nelson-mandela-1962-arrest |access-date=20 May 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160516104658/http://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/may/15/cia-operative-nelson-mandela-1962-arrest |archive-date=16 May 2016 }}</ref> Jailed in Johannesburg's Marshall Square prison, Mandela was charged with inciting workers' strikes and leaving the country without permission. Representing himself with Slovo as legal advisor, Mandela intended to use the trial to showcase "the ANC's moral opposition to racism" while supporters demonstrated outside the court.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=456–459|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=172–173}} Moved to [[Pretoria]], where Winnie could visit him, he began correspondence studies for a [[Bachelor of Laws]] (LLB) degree from the [[University of London International Programmes]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=463–465|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=292–293|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=173–174}} His hearing began in October, but he disrupted proceedings by wearing a traditional ''[[kaross]]'', refusing to call any witnesses, and turning his plea of mitigation into a political speech. Found guilty, he was sentenced to five years' imprisonment; as he left the courtroom, supporters sang "[[Nkosi Sikelel iAfrika]]".{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=120–134|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=210–213|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=468–482|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4pp=104–106|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=218–426|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=174–176}}

{{Quote box
| width = 25em
| align = right
| quote = I have fought against white domination, and I have fought against Black domination. I have cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all persons will live together in harmony and with equal opportunities. It is an ideal which I hope to live for and to see realised. But if it needs be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die.
| salign = right
| source = —Mandela's [[I Am Prepared to Die|Rivonia Trial Speech]], 1964{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=159|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=258|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=265|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=302|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=193|6a1=Broun|6y=2012|6p=74}}<ref>{{cite web |author=Nelson Mandela |title=I am prepared to die |url=http://db.nelsonmandela.org/speeches/pub_view.asp?pg=item&ItemID=NMS010 |work=Nelson Mandela Centre of Memory |publisher=Nelson Mandela Foundation |access-date=16 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201092557/http://db.nelsonmandela.org/speeches/pub_view.asp?pg=item&ItemID=NMS010 |archive-date=1 February 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
}}

On 11 July 1963, police raided [[Liliesleaf Farm]], arresting those they found there and uncovering paperwork documenting MK's activities, some of which mentioned Mandela. The [[Rivonia Trial]] began at [[Supreme Court of South Africa|Pretoria Supreme Court]] in October, with Mandela and his comrades charged with four counts of sabotage and conspiracy to violently overthrow the government; their chief prosecutor was [[Percy Yutar]].{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=134–137|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=223–226|3a1=Mandela|3y=2004|3pp=27–32|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4pp=108–109|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=242–250|6a1=Smith|6y=2010|6pp=292–295|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=183–186|8a1=Broun|8y=2012|8pp=6–10, 19–20}} Judge [[Quartus de Wet]] soon threw out the prosecution's case for insufficient evidence, but Yutar reformulated the charges, presenting his new case from December 1963 until February 1964, calling 173 witnesses and bringing thousands of documents and photographs to the trial.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=138–139|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=226|3a1=Mandela|3y=2004|3pp=33–42|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=252–254, 256|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=186–190|6a1=Broun|6y=2012|6pp=43–49}}

Although four of the accused denied involvement with MK, Mandela and the other five accused admitted sabotage but denied that they had ever agreed to initiate guerrilla war against the government.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=160|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=232–233|3a1=Mandela|3y=2004|3pp=42–44|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=252, 259}} They used the trial to highlight their political cause; at the opening of the defence's proceedings, Mandela gave his three-hour "[[I Am Prepared to Die]]" speech. That speech—which was inspired by Castro's "[[History Will Absolve Me]]"—was widely reported in the press despite official censorship.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=140|2a1=Mandela|2y=2004|2pp=43–57|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=258–265|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=298–302|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=191–194|6a1=Broun|6y=2012|6pp=68–75}} The trial gained international attention; there were global calls for the release of the accused from the [[United Nations]] and [[World Peace Council]], while the [[University of London Union]] voted Mandela to its presidency.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=2004|1p=62|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=268|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=303|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=194–195|5a1=Broun|5y=2012|5pp=102–104, 107}} On 12 June 1964, justice De Wet found Mandela and two of his co-accused guilty on all four charges; although the prosecution had called for the [[death sentence]] to be applied, the judge instead condemned them to [[life imprisonment]].{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=161, 163|2a1=Mandela|2y=2004|2pp=63–68|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=268–272|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=306|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=196–197|6a1=Broun|6y=2012|6pp=116–128}}

===Robben Island: 1964–1982===

In 1964, Mandela and his co-accused were transferred from Pretoria to the prison on [[Robben Island]], remaining there for the next 18 years.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=165|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=262|3a1=Mandela|3y=2004|3pp=75–78|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=307–308|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=204}} Isolated from non-political prisoners in Section B, Mandela was imprisoned in a damp concrete cell measuring {{convert|8|ft|m}} by {{convert|7|ft|m}}, with a straw mat on which to sleep.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=2004|1pp=79–80|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=279|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=205}} Verbally and physically harassed by several white prison wardens, the Rivonia Trial prisoners spent their days breaking rocks into gravel, until being reassigned in January 1965 to work in a lime quarry. Mandela was initially forbidden to wear sunglasses, and the glare from the lime permanently damaged his eyesight.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=166, 182|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=266|3a1=Mandela|3y=2004|3pp=82–84, 108–116|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=281–283, 290–291|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=206–207}} At night, he worked on his LLB degree which he was obtaining from the [[University of London]] through a correspondence course with [[Wolsey Hall, Oxford]], but newspapers were forbidden, and he was locked in [[solitary confinement]] on several occasions for the possession of smuggled news clippings.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=174|2a1=Mandela|2y=2004|2p=126|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=299|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=205, 258}} He was initially classified as the lowest grade of prisoner, Class D, meaning that he was permitted one visit and one letter every six months, although all mail was heavily censored.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=169|2a1=Mandela|2y=2004|2pp=102–108|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=283|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=205}}

[[File:RobbenIslandSteinbruchA.JPG|thumb|left|Lime quarry on Robben Island where Mandela and other prisoners were forced to carry out hard labour]]

The political prisoners took part in work and [[hunger strike]]s—the latter considered largely ineffective by Mandela—to improve prison conditions, viewing this as a microcosm of the anti-apartheid struggle.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=175|2a1=Mandela|2y=2004|2pp=83, 90, 136–138|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=124|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=284, 296–298}} ANC prisoners elected him to their four-man "High Organ" along with Sisulu, [[Govan Mbeki]], and [[Raymond Mhlaba]], and he involved himself in a group representing all political prisoners (including [[Eddie Daniels (political activist)|Eddie Daniels]]) on the island, Ulundi, through which he forged links with PAC and [[Yu Chi Chan Club]] members.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=298–299|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=210–214}} Initiating the "University of Robben Island", whereby prisoners lectured on their own areas of expertise, he debated socio-political topics with his comrades.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=130–131|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=292–295|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=236–241, 288–294}}

Though attending Christian Sunday services, Mandela studied Islam.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=301, 313|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=232}} He also studied [[Afrikaans]], hoping to build a mutual respect with the warders and convert them to his cause.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=295, 299–301|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=229}} Various official visitors met with Mandela, most significantly the liberal parliamentary representative [[Helen Suzman]] of the [[Progressive Party (South Africa)|Progressive Party]], who championed Mandela's cause outside of prison.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=301–302|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=221}} In September 1970, he met British [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] politician [[Denis Healey]].{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=337|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=222}} South African Minister of Justice [[Jimmy Kruger]] visited in December 1974, but he and Mandela did not get along with each other.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=334|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=241}} His mother visited in 1968, dying shortly after, and his firstborn son Thembi died in a car accident the following year; Mandela was forbidden from attending either funeral.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=142, 145|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=303–304|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=246–247}} His wife was rarely able to see him, being regularly imprisoned for political activity, and his daughters first visited in December 1975. Winnie was released from prison in 1977 but was forcibly settled in [[Brandfort]] and remained unable to see him.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=192–194|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=306–307|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=287–288, 304–310|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=248–254, 302}}

From 1967 onwards, prison conditions improved. Black prisoners were given trousers rather than shorts, games were permitted, and the standard of their food was raised.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=301|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=222, 235}} In 1969, an escape plan for Mandela was developed by Gordon Bruce, but it was abandoned after the conspiracy was infiltrated by an agent of the [[South African Bureau of State Security]] (BOSS), who hoped to see Mandela shot during the escape.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=207–208|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=231}} In 1970, Commander Piet Badenhorst became commanding officer. Mandela, seeing an increase in the physical and mental abuse of prisoners, complained to visiting judges, who had Badenhorst reassigned.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=127–128|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=308–310|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=223–225}} He was replaced by Commander Willie Willemse, who developed a co-operative relationship with Mandela and was keen to improve prison standards.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=128–129|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=226–227}}

{{multiple image
| align = right
| image1 = Physiological needs.jpg
| width1 = 190
| alt1 =
| caption1 =
| image2 = Robben Island fængslet Sektion B.jpg
| width2 = 205
| alt2 =
| caption2 =
| footer = The inside of Mandela's prison cell as it was when he was imprisoned in 1964 and his open cell window facing the prison yard on Robben Island, now a [[National heritage sites (South Africa)|national]] and [[World Heritage Site]]. Mandela's cell later contained more furniture, including a bed from around 1973.{{sfn|Hutton|1994|p=60}}
}}

By 1975, Mandela had become a Class A prisoner,{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=228}} which allowed him greater numbers of visits and letters. He corresponded with anti-apartheid activists like [[Mangosuthu Buthelezi]] and [[Desmond Tutu]].{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=314–315}} That year, he began his autobiography, which was smuggled to London, but remained unpublished at the time; prison authorities discovered several pages, and his LLB study privileges were revoked for four years.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=268|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=139|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=317|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=242–243}} Instead, he devoted his spare time to gardening and reading until the authorities permitted him to resume his LLB degree studies in 1980.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=285–286}}

By the late 1960s, Mandela's fame had been eclipsed by [[Steve Biko]] and the [[Black Consciousness Movement]] (BCM). Seeing the ANC as ineffectual, the BCM called for militant action, but following the [[Soweto uprising]] of 1976, many BCM activists were imprisoned on Robben Island.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=186–188|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=304–306|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=324–327|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=259–276}} Mandela tried to build a relationship with these young radicals, although he was critical of their racialism and contempt for white anti-apartheid activists.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=135|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=327–328|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=277–283|4a1=Soudien|4y=2015|4pp=363–364}} Renewed international interest in his plight came in July 1978, when he celebrated his 60th birthday.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=296}} He was awarded an honorary doctorate in [[Lesotho]], the [[Jawaharlal Nehru Award|Jawaharlal Nehru Award for International Understanding]] in India in 1979, and the [[Freedom of the City]] of [[Glasgow]], Scotland in 1981.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=313, 314|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=315–316}} In March 1980, the slogan "Free Mandela!" was developed by journalist [[Percy Qoboza]], sparking an international campaign that led the [[UN Security Council]] to call for his release.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=155|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=338–339|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=319–320}} Despite increasing foreign pressure, the government refused, relying on its [[Cold War]] allies US President [[Ronald Reagan]] and UK Prime Minister [[Margaret Thatcher]]; both considered Mandela's ANC a terrorist organisation sympathetic to communism, and supported its suppression.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=24|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=321}}

===Pollsmoor Prison: 1982–1988===
In April 1982, Mandela was transferred to [[Pollsmoor Prison]] in [[Tokai, Cape Town]], along with senior ANC leaders Walter Sisulu, Andrew Mlangeni, [[Ahmed Kathrada]], and Raymond Mhlaba; they believed that they were being isolated to remove their influence on younger activists at Robben Island.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=218|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=147–149|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=340|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=324–325}} Conditions at Pollsmoor were better than at Robben Island, although Mandela missed the camaraderie and scenery of the island.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=148|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=346–347|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=324–325}} Getting on well with Pollsmoor's commanding officer, Brigadier Munro, Mandela was permitted to create a [[roof garden]];{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=347|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=326}} he also read voraciously and corresponded widely, now permitted 52 letters a year.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=329}} He was appointed patron of the multi-racial [[United Democratic Front (South Africa)|United Democratic Front]] (UDF), founded to combat [[South African Constitution of 1983|reforms]] implemented by South African President [[P. W. Botha]]. Botha's National Party government had permitted Coloured and Indian citizens to vote for their own parliaments, which had control over education, health, and housing. But, Black Africans were excluded from the system. Like Mandela, the UDF saw this as an attempt to divide the anti-apartheid movement on racial lines.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=224|2a1=Barber|2y=2004|2pp=20, 23, 26–27|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=341–346|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=335–336}}

[[File:Mandela Bust at Southbank.jpg|thumb|left|Bust of Mandela erected on London's [[South Bank]] by the [[Greater London Council]] administration of [[Ken Livingstone]] in 1985]]

The early 1980s witnessed an escalation of violence across the country, and many predicted civil war. This was accompanied by economic stagnation as various multinational banks—under pressure from an international lobby—had stopped investing in South Africa. Numerous banks and Thatcher asked Botha to release Mandela—then at the height of his international fame—to defuse the volatile situation.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=247–248|2a1=Barber|2y=2004|2p=30|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3pp=152–153, 156|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=249–256|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=338–342}} Although considering Mandela a dangerous "arch-Marxist",{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=210|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=340}} in February 1985 Botha offered him a release from prison if he "unconditionally rejected violence as a political weapon". Mandela spurned the offer, releasing a statement through his daughter Zindzi stating, "What freedom am I being offered while the organisation of the people [ANC] remains banned? Only free men can negotiate. A prisoner cannot enter into contracts."{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=237–238|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=315–318|3a1=Barber|3y=2004|3p=36|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=157|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=351–352|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=330–332}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/history/mandela/64-90/jabulani.html|title=Mandela's response to being offered freedom|publisher=ANC|access-date=28 October 2008 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080622004124/http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/history/mandela/64-90/jabulani.html  |archive-date = 22 June 2008}}</ref>

In 1985, Mandela underwent surgery on an enlarged prostate gland, before being given new solitary quarters on the ground floor.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=254|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=157–158|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=358|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=343–345}} He was met by "seven eminent persons", an international delegation sent to negotiate a settlement, but Botha's government refused to co-operate, calling a state of emergency in June and initiating a police crackdown on unrest.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=359–360|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=347–355}} The anti-apartheid resistance fought back, with the ANC committing 231 attacks in 1986 and 235 in 1987.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=355}} The violence escalated as the government used the army and police to combat the resistance and provided covert support for vigilante groups and the [[Zulu people|Zulu]] nationalist movement [[Inkatha Freedom Party|Inkatha]], which was involved in an increasingly violent struggle with the ANC.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=354–357}} Mandela requested talks with Botha but was denied, instead secretly meeting with Minister of Justice [[Kobie Coetsee]] in 1987, and having a further 11 meetings over the next three years. Coetsee organised negotiations between Mandela and a team of four government figures starting in May 1988; the team agreed to the release of political prisoners and the legalisation of the ANC on the condition that they permanently renounce violence, break links with the Communist Party, and not insist on [[majority rule]]. Mandela rejected these conditions, insisting that the ANC would end its armed activities only when the government renounced violence.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=160|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=362–368|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=363–378}}

Mandela's 70th birthday in July 1988 attracted international attention, including [[Nelson Mandela 70th Birthday Tribute|a tribute concert]] at London's [[Wembley Stadium (1923)|Wembley Stadium]] that was televised and watched by an estimated 200 million viewers.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=35|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=368}} Although presented globally as a heroic figure, he faced personal problems when ANC leaders informed him that Winnie had set herself up as head of a gang, the "Mandela United Football Club," which had been responsible for torturing and killing opponents—including children—in Soweto. Though some encouraged him to divorce her, he decided to remain loyal until she was found guilty by trial.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=20–23|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=183–184|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=371–383|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=373–380}}

===Victor Verster Prison and release: 1988–1990===

[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-1986-0920-016, Berlin, Weltgewerkschaftskongress, Probe des Festprogramms.jpg|thumb|right|"Free Mandela" protest in [[East Berlin]], 1986]]

Recovering from [[tuberculosis]] exacerbated by the damp conditions in his cell,{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=318–319|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=160|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=369|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=369–370}} in December 1988, Mandela was moved to [[Victor Verster Prison]] near [[Paarl]]. He was housed in the relative comfort of a warder's house with a personal cook, and he used the time to complete his LLB degree.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=320|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=160|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=369–370|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=381}} While there, he was permitted many visitors and organised secret communications with exiled ANC leader Oliver Tambo.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=384–385, 392–393}}<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/12/08/world/mandela-moved-to-house-at-prison-farm.html |title=Mandela Moved to House at Prison Farm |author=Christopher S. Wren |date=8 December 1988 |work=The New York Times |access-date=13 February 2013 |archive-date=14 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EQXYZIzp?url=http://www.nytimes.com/1988/12/08/world/mandela-moved-to-house-at-prison-farm.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 1989, Botha suffered a stroke; although he would retain the state presidency, he stepped down as leader of the National Party, to be replaced by [[F. W. de Klerk]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=41|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=62|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=388|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=386}} In a surprise move, Botha invited Mandela to a meeting over tea in July 1989, an invitation Mandela considered genial.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=161–162|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=387–388|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=390–392}} Botha was replaced as state president by de Klerk six weeks later; the new president believed that apartheid was unsustainable and released a number of ANC prisoners.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=41–42|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=392–397}} Following the fall of the [[Berlin Wall]] in November 1989, de Klerk called his cabinet together to debate legalising the ANC and freeing Mandela. Although some were deeply opposed to his plans, de Klerk met with Mandela in December to discuss the situation, a meeting both men considered friendly, before legalising all formerly banned political parties in February 1990 and announcing Mandela's unconditional release.{{sfnm|1a1=Glad|1a2=Blanton|1y=1997|1p=567|2a1=Barber|2y=2004|2p=1|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3pp=165–166|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=369–397|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=399–402}}<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/11/newsid_2539000/2539947.stm |title=1990: Freedom for Nelson Mandela |date=11 February 1990 |publisher=BBC |access-date=28 October 2008 |archive-date=26 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EilzLNPU?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/11/newsid_2539000/2539947.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> Shortly thereafter, for the first time in 20 years, photographs of Mandela were allowed to be published in South Africa.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=403}}

Leaving Victor Verster Prison on 11 February, Mandela held Winnie's hand in front of amassed crowds and the press; the event was broadcast live across the world.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=167|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=399–402|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=407}}<ref>{{cite news |url=http://century.guardian.co.uk/1990-1999/Story/0,,112389,00.html |title=Mandela free after 27 years |last=Ormond |first=Roger |date=12 February 1990 |work=The Guardian |access-date=28 October 2008 |location=London |archive-date=26 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EilzkcH7?url=http://century.guardian.co.uk/1990-1999/Story/0,,112389,00.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Driven to [[Cape Town City Hall|Cape Town's City Hall]] through crowds, he gave a speech declaring his commitment to peace and reconciliation with the white minority, but he made it clear that the ANC's armed struggle was not over and would continue as "a purely defensive action against the violence of apartheid". He expressed hope that the government would agree to negotiations, so that "there may no longer be the need for the armed struggle", and insisted that his main focus was to bring peace to the Black majority and give them the right to vote in national and local elections.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=2|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=400–402|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=408–409}}<ref>The text of Mandela's speech can be found at {{cite web|url=http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/history/mandela/1990/release.html|title=Nelson Mandela's address to Rally in Cape Town on his Release from Prison|date=11 February 1990|publisher=ANC|access-date=28 October 2008 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080728021713/http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/history/mandela/1990/release.html  |archive-date = 28 July 2008}}</ref> Staying at Tutu's home, in the following days Mandela met with friends, activists, and press, giving a speech to an estimated 100,000 people at Johannesburg's [[FNB Stadium]].{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=171|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=403–405|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=409–410}}

==End of apartheid==
{{Main|Negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa}}

===Early negotiations: 1990–91===
[[File:Luthuli House.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Luthuli House]] in Johannesburg, which became the ANC headquarters in 1991]]
Mandela proceeded on an African tour, meeting supporters and politicians in Zambia, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Libya and Algeria, and continuing to Sweden, where he was reunited with Tambo, and London, where he appeared at the [[Nelson Mandela: An International Tribute for a Free South Africa]] concert at [[Wembley Stadium (1923)|Wembley Stadium]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=57|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=172|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=409–410|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=412–414}} Encouraging foreign countries to support sanctions against the apartheid government, he met President [[François Mitterrand]] in France, [[Pope John Paul II]] in the Vatican, and Thatcher in the United Kingdom. In the United States, he met President [[George H.W. Bush]], addressed both Houses of Congress and visited eight cities, being particularly popular among the [[African American|African-American]] community.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=58–59|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=415–418}} In Cuba, he became friends with President Castro, whom he had long admired.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=60|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=410|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=420}} He met President [[R. Venkataraman]] in India, President [[Suharto]] in Indonesia, Prime Minister [[Mahathir Mohamad]] in Malaysia, and Prime Minister [[Bob Hawke]] in Australia. He visited Japan, but not the [[Soviet Union]], a longtime ANC supporter.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=60|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=418–420}}

In May 1990, Mandela led a multiracial ANC delegation into preliminary negotiations with a government delegation of 11 Afrikaner men. Mandela impressed them with his discussions of Afrikaner history, and the negotiations led to the [[Groote Schuur Minute|Groot Schuur Minute]], in which the government lifted the state of emergency.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=412–413|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=424–427}} In August, Mandela—recognising the ANC's severe military disadvantage—offered a ceasefire, the Pretoria Minute, for which he was widely criticised by MK activists.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=412–413|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=424–427}} He spent much time trying to unify and build the ANC, appearing at a Johannesburg conference in December attended by 1600 delegates, many of whom found him more moderate than expected.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=439|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=428–429}} At the ANC's July 1991 national conference in Durban, Mandela admitted that the party had faults and announced his aim to build a "strong and well-oiled task force" for securing majority rule.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=47|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=173|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=439–440|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=429–430}} At the conference, he was elected ANC President, replacing the ailing Tambo, and a 50-strong multiracial, mixed gendered national executive was elected.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=47|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=173|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=439–440|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=429–430}}

Mandela was given an office in the newly purchased ANC headquarters at [[Shell House (Johannesburg)|Shell House]], Johannesburg, and moved into Winnie's large Soweto home.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=409|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=431, 448}} Their marriage was increasingly strained as he learned of her affair with Dali Mpofu, but he supported her during her trial for kidnapping and assault. He gained funding for her defence from the International Defence and Aid Fund for Southern Africa and from Libyan leader [[Muammar Gaddafi]], but in June 1991, she was found guilty and sentenced to six years in prison, reduced to two on appeal. On 13 April 1992, Mandela publicly announced his separation from Winnie. The ANC forced her to step down from the national executive for misappropriating ANC funds; Mandela moved into the mostly white Johannesburg suburb of [[Houghton Estate|Houghton]].{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=429–436, 435–460|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=431, 448}} Mandela's prospects for a peaceful transition were further damaged by an increase in "Black-on-Black" violence, particularly between ANC and Inkatha supporters in [[KwaZulu-Natal]], which resulted in thousands of deaths. Mandela met with Inkatha leader Buthelezi, but the ANC prevented further negotiations on the issue. Mandela argued that there was a "[[Third Force (South Africa)|third force]]" within the state intelligence services fuelling the "slaughter of the people" and openly blamed de Klerk—whom he increasingly distrusted—for the [[Sebokeng]] massacre.{{sfnm|1a1=Tomaselli|1a2=Tomaselli|1y=2003|1p=6|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=174|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=418–424|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=436–442}} In September 1991, a national peace conference was held in Johannesburg at which Mandela, Buthelezi and de Klerk signed a peace accord, though the violence continued.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=425–426|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=444}}

===CODESA talks: 1991–92===
The [[Convention for a Democratic South Africa]] (CODESA) began in December 1991 at the Johannesburg World Trade Centre, attended by 228 delegates from 19 political parties. Although [[Cyril Ramaphosa]] led the ANC's delegation, Mandela remained a key figure. After de Klerk used the closing speech to condemn the ANC's violence, he took to the stage to denounce de Klerk as the "head of an illegitimate, discredited minority regime". Dominated by the National Party and ANC, little negotiation was achieved.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=45, 69|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=174–175|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=443–446|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=456–459}} CODESA 2 was held in May 1992, at which de Klerk insisted that post-apartheid South Africa must use a [[federalism|federal system]] with a rotating presidency to ensure the protection of ethnic minorities; Mandela opposed this, demanding a [[unitary state|unitary system]] governed by majority rule.<ref>{{harvnb|Sampson|2011|p=460}}; {{harvnb|Meredith|2010|pp=448, 452}}.</ref> Following the [[Boipatong massacre]] of ANC activists by government-aided Inkatha militants, Mandela called off the negotiations, before attending a meeting of the [[Organisation of African Unity]] in Senegal, at which he called for a special session of the UN Security Council and proposed that a [[United Nations peacekeeping|UN peacekeeping force]] be stationed in South Africa to prevent "[[state terrorism]]".{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=72–73|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=177|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=462–463|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=461–462}} Calling for domestic mass action, in August the ANC organised the largest-ever strike in South African history, and supporters marched on Pretoria.<ref>{{harvnb|Sampson|2011|pp=462–463}}; {{harvnb|Meredith|2010|pp=466–467}}.</ref>

[[File:Frederik de Klerk with Nelson Mandela - World Economic Forum Annual Meeting Davos 1992.jpg|left|thumb|[[F. W. de Klerk|De Klerk]] and Mandela at the [[World Economic Forum]], 1992]]

Following the [[Bisho massacre]], in which 28 ANC supporters and one soldier were shot dead by the [[Ciskei Defence Force]] during a protest march, Mandela realised that mass action was leading to further violence and resumed negotiations in September. He agreed to do so on the conditions that all political prisoners be released, that Zulu traditional weapons be banned, and that Zulu hostels would be fenced off, the latter two measures intended to prevent further Inkatha attacks; de Klerk reluctantly agreed.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=177–178|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=467–471|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=463–466}} The negotiations agreed that a multiracial general election would be held, resulting in a five-year [[National unity government|coalition government of national unity]] and a constitutional assembly that gave the National Party continuing influence. The ANC also conceded to safeguarding the jobs of white civil servants; such concessions brought fierce internal criticism.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=79|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=180|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=467–468}} The duo agreed on [[South African Constitution of 1993|an interim constitution]] based on a [[liberal democracy|liberal democratic]] model, guaranteeing separation of powers, creating a constitutional court, and including a US-style [[bill of rights]]; it also divided the country into nine provinces, each with its own [[premier]] and civil service, a concession between de Klerk's desire for [[federalism]] and Mandela's for unitary government.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=80|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=489–491|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=472}}

The democratic process was threatened by the Concerned South Africans Group (COSAG), an alliance of Black ethnic-secessionist groups like Inkatha and far-right Afrikaner parties; in June 1993, one of the latter—the [[Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging]] (AWB)—[[Storming of Kempton Park World Trade Centre|attacked the Kempton Park World Trade Centre]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=46|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=449–450, 488|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=466, 470–471}} Following the murder of ANC activist [[Chris Hani]], Mandela made a publicised speech to calm rioting, soon after appearing at a mass funeral in Soweto for Tambo, who had died of a stroke.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=180–181|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=476–480|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=468–469}} In July 1993, both Mandela and de Klerk visited the US, independently meeting President [[Bill Clinton]] and each receiving the [[Liberty Medal]].{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=471}} Soon after, Mandela and de Klerk were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in Norway.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=68|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=182|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=494|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=474}} Influenced by [[Thabo Mbeki]], Mandela began meeting with big business figures, and played down his support for nationalisation, fearing that he would scare away much-needed foreign investment. Although criticised by socialist ANC members, he had been encouraged to embrace private enterprise by members of the Chinese and Vietnamese Communist parties at the January 1992 [[World Economic Forum]] in Switzerland.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=182|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=497|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=434–445, 473}}

===General election: 1994===

{{Main|1994 South African general election}}

[[File:Mandela voting in 1994.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Mandela casting his vote in the [[1994 South African general election|1994 election]]]]

With the election set for 27 April 1994, the ANC began campaigning, opening 100 election offices and orchestrating People's Forums across the country at which Mandela could appear, as a popular figure with great status among Black South Africans.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=495|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=467–477}} The ANC campaigned on a [[Reconstruction and Development Programme]] (RDP) to build a million houses in five years, introduce universal free education and extend access to water and electricity. The party's slogan was "a better life for all", although it was not explained how this development would be funded.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=76–77|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=495–496|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=478}} With the exception of the ''[[Weekly Mail]]'' and the ''[[New Nation]]'', South Africa's press opposed Mandela's election, fearing continued ethnic strife, instead supporting the National or [[Democratic Party (South Africa)|Democratic Party]].{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=479}} Mandela devoted much time to fundraising for the ANC, touring North America, Europe and Asia to meet wealthy donors, including former supporters of the apartheid regime.{{sfnm|Sampson|2011|pp=479–480}} He also urged a reduction in the voting age from 18 to 14; rejected by the ANC, this policy became the subject of ridicule.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=188|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=477–478|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=484}}

Concerned that COSAG would undermine the election, particularly in the wake of the [[Bophuthatswana conflict (1994)|conflict in Bophuthatswana]] and the [[Shell House massacre]]—incidents of violence involving the AWB and Inkatha, respectively—Mandela met with Afrikaner politicians and generals, including P. W. Botha, [[Pik Botha]] and [[Constand Viljoen]], persuading many to work within the democratic system. With de Klerk, he also convinced Inkatha's Buthelezi to enter the elections rather than launch a war of secession.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=488–489, 504–510|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=480–489}} As leaders of the two major parties, de Klerk and Mandela appeared on a televised debate; although de Klerk was widely considered the better speaker at the event, Mandela's offer to shake his hand surprised him, leading some commentators to deem it a victory for Mandela.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=500–501|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=488}} The election went ahead with little violence, although an AWB cell killed 20 with car bombs. As widely expected, the ANC won a sweeping victory, taking 63% of the vote, just short of the two-thirds majority needed to unilaterally change the constitution. The ANC was also victorious in seven provinces, with Inkatha and the National Party each taking one.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=82|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=512|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=491}}<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2024558_2024522_2024462,00.html |title=Top 10 Political Prisoners |first=Glen |last=Levy |date=15 November 2010 |work=Time |access-date=25 March 2013 |archive-date=25 March 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6FNwiR3bn?url=http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2024558_2024522_2024462,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Mandela voted at the [[Ohlange High School]] in Durban, and though the ANC's victory assured his election as president, he publicly accepted that the election had been marred by instances of fraud and sabotage.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=510–512|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=490}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/south-africa-holds-first-multiracial-elections |title=This Day in History: April 27, 1994: South Africa holds first multiracial elections |publisher=History |access-date=26 February 2013 |archive-date=26 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EimSsBID?url=http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/south-africa-holds-first-multiracial-elections |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Presidency of South Africa: 1994–1999==
{{main|Presidency of Nelson Mandela}}
The newly elected National Assembly's first act was to formally elect Mandela as South Africa's first Black chief executive. His inauguration took place in Pretoria on 10 May 1994, televised to a billion viewers globally. The event was attended by four thousand guests, including world leaders from a wide range of geographic and ideological backgrounds.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=514|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=492–493}} Mandela headed a [[Government of National Unity (South Africa)|Government of National Unity]] dominated by the ANC—which had no experience of governing by itself—but containing representatives from the National Party and Inkatha. Under the Interim Constitution, Inkatha and the National Party were entitled to seats in the government by virtue of winning at least 20 seats. In keeping with earlier agreements, both de Klerk and Thabo Mbeki were given the position of [[Deputy President of South Africa|Deputy President]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=3|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=491–492}}<ref>{{cite news|title=Mandela becomes SA's first black president |publisher=BBC |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/10/newsid_2661000/2661503.stm |access-date=26 May 2008 |date=10 May 1994 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhlKsRKm?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/10/newsid_2661000/2661503.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> Although Mbeki had not been his first choice for the job, Mandela grew to rely heavily on him throughout his presidency, allowing him to shape policy details.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=87|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=210|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=566|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=508–511}} Moving into the presidential office at [[Tuynhuys]] in Cape Town, Mandela allowed de Klerk to retain the presidential residence in the [[Groote Schuur]] estate, instead settling into the nearby Westbrooke manor, which he renamed "[[Genadendal Residence|Genadendal]]", meaning "Valley of Mercy" in Afrikaans.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=523, 543|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=496–497}} Retaining his Houghton home, he also had a house built in his home village of Qunu, which he visited regularly, walking around the area, meeting with locals, and judging tribal disputes.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=502}}

Aged 76, he faced various ailments, and although exhibiting continued energy, he felt isolated and lonely.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=497–499, 510}} He often entertained celebrities, such as [[Michael Jackson]], [[Whoopi Goldberg]], and the [[Spice Girls]], and befriended ultra-rich businessmen, like [[Harry Oppenheimer]] of [[Anglo American plc|Anglo-American]]. He also met with [[Elizabeth II|Queen Elizabeth II]] on her March 1995 [[state visit]] to South Africa, which earned him strong criticism from ANC anti-capitalists.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=501, 504}} Despite his opulent surroundings, Mandela lived simply, donating a third of his [[South African rand|R]] 552,000 annual income to the [[Nelson Mandela Children's Fund]], which he had founded in 1995.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=209|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=543|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=517}} Although dismantling press censorship, speaking out in favour of [[freedom of the press]], and befriending many journalists, Mandela was critical of much of the country's media, noting that it was overwhelmingly owned and run by middle-class whites and believing that it focused too heavily on scaremongering about crime.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=208–209|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=547–548|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=525–527}}

In December 1994, Mandela published ''[[Long Walk to Freedom]]'', an autobiography based around a manuscript he had written in prison, augmented by interviews conducted with American journalist [[Richard Stengel]].{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=186|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=517}} In late 1994, he attended the 49th conference of the ANC in [[Bloemfontein]], at which a more militant national executive was elected, among them Winnie Mandela; although she expressed an interest in reconciling, Nelson initiated divorce proceedings in August 1995.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=539–542|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=500, 507}} By 1995, he had entered into a relationship with [[Graça Machel]], a Mozambican political activist 27 years his junior who was the widow of former president [[Samora Machel]]. They had first met in July 1990 when she was still in mourning, but their friendship grew into a partnership, with Machel accompanying him on many of his foreign visits. She turned down Mandela's first marriage proposal, wanting to retain some independence and dividing her time between Mozambique and Johannesburg.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=222–223|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=574–575|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=546–549}}

===National reconciliation===
{{Quote box|width=25em|align=right|quote=Gracious but steely, [Mandela] steered a country in turmoil toward a negotiated settlement: a country that days before its first democratic election remained violent, riven by divisive views and personalities. He endorsed national reconciliation, an idea he did not merely foster in the abstract, but performed with panache and conviction in reaching out to former adversaries. He initiated an era of hope that, while not long-lasting, was nevertheless decisive, and he garnered the highest international recognition and affection.|salign=right |source=—Rita Barnard, ''The Cambridge Companion to Nelson Mandela''{{sfn|Barnard|2014|p=1}} }}

Presiding over the transition from apartheid minority rule to a multicultural democracy, Mandela saw national reconciliation as the primary task of his presidency.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=524}} Having seen other post-colonial African economies damaged by the departure of white elites, Mandela worked to reassure South Africa's white population that they were protected and represented in "the [[Rainbow Nation]]".{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=213|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=517|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=495–496}} Although his Government of National Unity would be dominated by the ANC,{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=88|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=204}} he attempted to create a broad coalition by appointing de Klerk as Deputy President and appointing other National Party officials as ministers for Agriculture, Environment, and Minerals and Energy, as well as naming Buthelezi as Minister for Home Affairs.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=507–511}} The other cabinet positions were taken by ANC members, many of whom—like [[Joe Modise]], [[Alfred Nzo]], Joe Slovo, [[Mac Maharaj]] and [[Dullah Omar]]—had long been comrades of Mandela, although others, such as [[Tito Mboweni]] and [[Jeff Radebe]], were far younger.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=508}} Mandela's relationship with de Klerk was strained; Mandela thought that de Klerk was intentionally provocative, and de Klerk felt that he was being intentionally humiliated by the president.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=204–205|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=528|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=511, 534}} In January 1995, Mandela heavily chastised him for awarding amnesty to 3,500 police officers just before the election, and later criticised him for defending former Minister of Defence [[Magnus Malan]] when the latter was charged with murder.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=204–205|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=528|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=511, 534}}

Mandela personally met with senior figures of the apartheid regime, including [[Hendrik Verwoerd]]'s widow, [[Betsie Schoombie]], and lawyer [[Percy Yutar]], also laying a wreath by the statue of Afrikaner hero [[Daniel Theron]].{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=212|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=523–524|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=520, 522–523}} Emphasising personal forgiveness and reconciliation, he announced that "courageous people do not fear forgiving, for the sake of peace."{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=523–524|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=520, 522–523}} He encouraged Black South Africans to get behind the previously hated national rugby team, the [[South African national rugby union team|Springboks]], as South Africa hosted the [[1995 Rugby World Cup]]. Mandela wore a Springbok shirt at the [[1995 Rugby World Cup Final|final]] against New Zealand, and after the Springboks won the match, Mandela presented the trophy to captain [[Francois Pienaar]], an Afrikaner. This was widely seen as a major step in the reconciliation of white and Black South Africans; as de Klerk later put it, "Mandela won the hearts of millions of white rugby fans."{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=212|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=525–527|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=516, 524}}<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby_union/rugby_world_cup/team_pages/south_africa/3167692.stm |title=Mandela rallies Springboks |date=6 October 2003 |publisher=BBC Sport |access-date=28 October 2008 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhlM6rLh?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/rugby_union/rugby_world_cup/team_pages/south_africa/3167692.stm |url-status=live }}; {{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/portal/main.jhtml?view=DETAILS&grid=&xml=/portal/2007/10/19/ftmandela119.xml |title=How Nelson Mandela won the rugby World Cup |date=19 October 2007 |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London |access-date=28 October 2008 |first=John |last=Carlin |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhlMWoPg?url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/features/3634426/How-Nelson-Mandela-won-the-rugby-World-Cup.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Mandela's efforts at reconciliation assuaged the fears of white people, but also drew criticism from more militant Black people.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=213|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=517, 536|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=491, 496, 524}} Among the latter was his estranged wife, Winnie, who accused the ANC of being more interested in appeasing the white community than in helping the Black majority.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=517, 536|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=491, 496, 524}}

Mandela oversaw the formation of a [[Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South Africa)|Truth and Reconciliation Commission]] to investigate crimes committed under apartheid by both the government and the ANC, appointing Tutu as its chair. To prevent the creation of martyrs, the commission granted individual amnesties in exchange for testimony of crimes committed during the apartheid era. Dedicated in February 1996, it held two years of hearings detailing rapes, torture, bombings, and assassinations, before issuing its final report in October 1998. Both de Klerk and Mbeki appealed to have parts of the report suppressed, though only de Klerk's appeal was successful.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=527, 551–564|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=528–532}} Mandela praised the commission's work, stating that it "had helped us move away from the past to concentrate on the present and the future".{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=563|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=532}}

===Domestic programmes===
[[File:Rdphouses.jpg|thumb|left|Houses in Soweto constructed under the RDP program]]

Mandela's administration inherited a country with a huge disparity in wealth and services between white and black communities. Of a population of 40 million, around 23 million lacked electricity or adequate sanitation, and 12 million lacked clean water supplies, with 2 million children not in school and a third of the population illiterate. There was 33% unemployment, and just under half of the population lived below the poverty line.{{sfn|Meredith|2010|pp=518–520}} Government financial reserves were nearly depleted, with a fifth of the national budget being spent on debt repayment, meaning that the extent of the promised Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) was scaled back, with none of the proposed nationalisation or job creation.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=519|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=514–515}} In 1996, the RDP was replaced with a new policy, Growth, Employment and Redistribution (GEAR), which maintained South Africa's [[mixed economy]] but placed an emphasis on economic growth through a framework of [[market economics]] and the encouragement of foreign investment; many in the ANC derided it as a [[neo-liberalism|neo-liberal]] policy that did not address social inequality, no matter how Mandela defended it.{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=122–124, 162}} In adopting this approach, Mandela's government adhered to the "[[Washington consensus]]" advocated by the [[World Bank]] and [[International Monetary Fund]].{{sfnm|1a1=Muthien|1a2=Khosa|1a3=Magubane|1y=2000|1pp=369–370|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=520–521}}

[[File:Nelson Mandela 1998.JPG|thumb|right|Mandela on a visit to Brazil in 1998]]

Under Mandela's presidency, welfare spending increased by 13% in 1996/97, 13% in 1997/98, and 7% in 1998/99.{{sfn|Houston|Muthien|2000|p=62}} The government introduced parity in grants for communities, including disability grants, child maintenance grants, and old-age pensions, which had previously been set at different levels for South Africa's different racial groups.{{sfn|Houston|Muthien|2000|p=62}} In 1994, free healthcare was introduced for children under six and pregnant women, a provision extended to all those using primary level public sector health care services in 1996.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=205|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=521}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ci.org.za/depts/ci/pubs/pdf/general/gauge2006/gauge2006_healing.pdf |title=Healing inequalities: The free health care policy |publisher=Children's Institute |access-date=15 May 2011 |author1=Leatt, Annie |author2=Shung-King, Maylene |author3=Monson, Jo |name-list-style=amp |archive-date=26 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EiCq5xbh?url=http://www.ci.org.za/depts/ci/pubs/pdf/general/gauge2006/gauge2006_healing.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> By the 1999 election, the ANC could boast that due to their policies, 3 million people were connected to telephone lines, 1.5 million children were brought into the education system, 500 clinics were upgraded or constructed, 2 million people were connected to the electricity grid, water access was extended to 3 million people, and 750,000 houses were constructed, housing nearly 3 million people.{{sfn|Herbst|2003|p=312}}

The Land Reform Act 3 of 1996 safeguarded the rights of labour tenants living on farms where they grew crops or grazed livestock. This legislation ensured that such tenants could not be evicted without a court order or if they were over the age of 65.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nmmu.ac.za/documents/theses/AAFabbriciani.pdf |title=Land Reform Policies in South Africa Compare To Human Rights Internationally |access-date=11 February 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331101705/http://www.nmmu.ac.za/documents/theses/AAFabbriciani.pdf |archive-date=31 March 2012 }}; {{cite web |url=http://www.info.gov.za/gazette/acts/1996/a3-96.htm |title=No. 3 of 1996: Land Reform (Labour Tenants) Act, 1996 |date=22 March 1996 |publisher=South African Government Online |access-date=26 February 2013 |archive-date=26 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EiD8JvCc?url=http://www.info.gov.za/gazette/acts/1996/a3-96.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Recognising that arms manufacturing was a key industry for the South African economy, Mandela endorsed the trade in weapons but brought in tighter regulations surrounding [[Armscor (South Africa)|Armscor]] to ensure that South African weaponry was not sold to authoritarian regimes.{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=102–194}} Under Mandela's administration, tourism was increasingly promoted, becoming a major sector of the South African economy.{{sfn|Barber|2004|p=130}}

Critics like [[Edwin Cameron]] accused Mandela's government of doing little to stem the [[HIV/AIDS]] pandemic in the country; by 1999, 10% of South Africa's population were HIV positive. Mandela later admitted that he had personally neglected the issue, in part due to public reticence in discussing issues surrounding sex in South Africa, and that he had instead left the issue for Mbeki to deal with.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=135–137|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=219|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=571–573}}<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/jul/06/nelsonmandela.southafrica |title=Mandela at 85 |work=The Observer |location=London |first=Anthony |last=Sampson |author-link=Anthony Sampson |date=6 July 2003 |access-date=26 May 2008 |archive-date=26 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EiCWnTJS?url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2003/jul/06/nelsonmandela.southafrica |url-status=live }}; {{cite web|title=Can Mandela's AIDS Message Pierce the Walls of Shame? |publisher=Peninsula Peace and Justice Center |date=9 January 2005 |url=http://peaceandjustice.org/article.php?story=20050109125126110&mode=print |access-date=26 May 2008 |archive-date=26 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EiCWr1mK?url=http://peaceandjustice.org/article.php?story=20050109125126110&mode=print |url-status=dead }}; {{cite news|title=South Africa: Mandela Deluged With Tributes as He Turns 85 |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/200307190001.html |work=[[AllAfrica]] |first=Ofeibea |last=Quist-Arcton |author-link=Ofeibea Quist-Arcton|date=19 July 2003 |access-date=26 May 2008 |archive-date=26 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6Eile2xQ7?url=http://allafrica.com/stories/200307190001.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Mandela also received criticism for failing to sufficiently combat crime; South Africa had one of the world's highest crime rates,{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=573|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=510, 565–68}} and the activities of international crime syndicates in the country grew significantly throughout the decade.{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=137–138}} Mandela's administration was also perceived as having failed to deal with the problem of corruption.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=544–547|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=510}}

Further problems were caused by the exodus of thousands of skilled white South Africans from the country, who were escaping the increasing crime rates, higher taxes, and the impact of [[positive discrimination]] toward Black people in employment. This exodus resulted in a [[brain drain]], and Mandela criticised those who left.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=131|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=573|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=510, 565–68}} At the same time, South Africa experienced an influx of millions of [[Illegal immigration|illegal migrants]] from poorer parts of Africa; although public opinion toward these illegal immigrants was generally unfavourable, characterising them as disease-spreading criminals who were a drain on resources, Mandela called on South Africans to embrace them as "brothers and sisters".{{sfn|Barber|2004|p=133}}

===Foreign affairs===
Mandela expressed the view that "South Africa's future foreign relations [should] be based on our belief that human rights should be the core of international relations".{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=89|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=214}} Following the South African example, Mandela encouraged other nations to resolve conflicts through diplomacy and reconciliation.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=555}} In September 1998, Mandela was appointed secretary-general of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], who held their annual conference in Durban. He used the event to criticise the "narrow, chauvinistic interests" of the Israeli government in stalling negotiations to end the [[Israeli–Palestinian conflict]] and urged India and Pakistan to negotiate to end the [[Kashmir conflict]], for which he was criticised by both Israel and India.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=559}} Inspired by the region's economic boom, Mandela sought greater economic relations with East Asia, in particular with Malaysia, although this was prevented by the [[1997 Asian financial crisis]].<ref>{{harvnb|Sampson|2011|pp=560–561}}.</ref> He extended diplomatic recognition to the People's Republic of China (PRC), who were growing as an economic force, and initially also to [[Taiwan]], who were already longstanding investors in the South African economy. However, under pressure from the PRC, in November 1996 he cut recognition of Taiwan, and in May 1999 paid an official visit to Beijing.{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=107–108}}

[[File:President Bill Clinton with Nelson Mandela.jpg|thumb|left|Mandela with US President [[Bill Clinton]]. Despite publicly criticising him on several occasions, Mandela liked Clinton, and personally supported him during [[Impeachment of Bill Clinton|his impeachment proceedings]].{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=216|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=561–567}}]]

Mandela attracted controversy for his close relationship with Indonesian president [[Suharto]], whose regime was responsible for mass human rights abuses, although on a July 1997 visit to Indonesia he privately urged Suharto to withdraw from the [[Indonesian occupation of East Timor|occupation of East Timor]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=104–105|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=560}} He also faced similar criticism from the West for his government's trade links to Syria, Cuba, and Libya,{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=214}} and for his personal friendships with Castro and Gaddafi.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=562–563}} Castro visited in 1998 to widespread popular acclaim, and Mandela met Gaddafi in Libya to award him the [[Order of Good Hope]].{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=562–563}} When Western governments and media criticised these visits, Mandela lambasted such criticism as having racist undertones,{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=564}} and stated that "the enemies of countries in the West are not our enemies."{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=214}} Mandela hoped to resolve the long-running dispute between Libya and the US and Britain over bringing to trial the two Libyans, [[Abdelbaset al-Megrahi]] and [[Lamin Khalifah Fhimah]], who were indicted in November 1991 and accused of sabotaging [[Pan Am Flight 103]]. Mandela proposed that they be tried in a third country, which was agreed to by all parties; governed by [[Scots law]], the trial was held at [[Camp Zeist, Netherlands|Camp Zeist]] in the Netherlands in April 1999, and found one of the two men guilty.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=144|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=215–216|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=563–564}}<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/1144147.stm |title=Analysis: Lockerbie's long road |publisher=BBC |access-date=26 May 2008 |date=31 January 2001 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6Ehl149mt?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/1144147.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>

Mandela echoed Mbeki's calls for an "[[African Renaissance]]", and was greatly concerned with issues on the continent.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=124–125|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=556–557}} He took a [[soft power|soft diplomatic]] approach to removing [[Sani Abacha]]'s military junta in Nigeria but later became a leading figure in calling for sanctions when Abacha's regime increased human rights violations.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=108–110|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=215|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=556–557}} In 1996, he was appointed chairman of the [[Southern African Development Community]] (SADC) and initiated unsuccessful negotiations to end the [[First Congo War]] in [[Zaire]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=176–177|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=216|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=558}} He also played a key role as a mediator in the ethnic conflict between [[Tutsi]] and [[Hutu]] political groups in the [[Burundian Civil War]], helping to initiate a settlement which brought increased stability to the country but did not end the ethnic violence.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|pp=217–218}} In [[South African intervention in Lesotho|South Africa's first post-apartheid military operation]], troops were ordered in September 1998 into Lesotho to protect the government of Prime Minister [[Pakalitha Mosisili]] after a disputed election prompted opposition uprisings. The action was not authorised by Mandela himself, who was out of the country at the time, but by Buthelezi, who was serving as acting president during Mandela's absence.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=111–113|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=558–559}}

===Withdrawing from politics===
[[File:Thabo-mbeki-district-six.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|right|In the latter part of his presidency, Mandela increasingly relied on his Deputy President, Thabo Mbeki (pictured)]]
The new [[Constitution of South Africa]] was agreed upon by parliament in May 1996, enshrining a series of institutions to place checks on political and administrative authority within a constitutional democracy.{{sfn|Muthien|Khosa|Magubane|2000|p=366}} De Klerk opposed the implementation of this constitution, and that month he and the National Party withdrew from the coalition government in protest, claiming that the ANC were not treating them as equals.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=128–129|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=204|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=529–530|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=534}} The ANC took over the cabinet positions formerly held by the Nationalists, with Mbeki becoming sole Deputy President.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=535}} Inkatha remained part of the coalition,{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=128–129}} and when both Mandela and Mbeki were out of the country in September 1998, Buthelezi was appointed "Acting President", marking an improvement in his relationship with Mandela.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=207|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=536}} Although Mandela had often governed decisively in his first two years as president,{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=211}} he had subsequently increasingly delegated duties to Mbeki, retaining only a close personal supervision of intelligence and security measures.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=130|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=211}} During a 1997 visit to London, he said that "the ruler of South Africa, the ''de facto'' ruler, is Thabo Mbeki" and that he was "shifting everything to him".{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=211}}

Mandela stepped down as ANC President at the party's December 1997 conference. He hoped that Ramaphosa would succeed him, believing Mbeki to be too inflexible and intolerant of criticism, but the ANC elected Mbeki regardless.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=211|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=568|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=537–543}} Mandela and the Executive supported [[Jacob Zuma]], a Zulu who had been imprisoned on Robben Island, as Mbeki's replacement for Deputy President. Zuma's candidacy was challenged by Winnie, whose populist rhetoric had gained her a strong following within the party, although Zuma defeated her in a landslide victory vote at the election.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=568|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=537–543}}

Mandela's relationship with Machel had intensified; in February 1998, he publicly stated that he was "in love with a remarkable lady", and under pressure from Tutu, who urged him to set an example for young people, he organised a wedding for his 80th birthday, in July that year.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=576|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=549–551}} The following day, he held a grand party with many foreign dignitaries.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=551–552}} Although the 1996 constitution allowed the president to serve two consecutive five-year terms, Mandela had never planned to stand for a second term in office. He gave his farewell speech to Parliament on 29 March 1999 when it adjourned prior to the 1999 general elections, after which he retired.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=578}} Although opinion polls in South Africa showed wavering support for both the ANC and the government, Mandela himself remained highly popular, with 80% of South Africans polled in 1999 expressing satisfaction with his performance as president.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=219}}

==Retirement==
===Continued activism and philanthropy: 1999–2004===

[[File:Nelson Mandela, 2000 (4).jpg|thumb|right|Mandela visiting the [[London School of Economics]] in 2000]]

Retiring in June 1999, Mandela aimed to lead a quiet family life, divided between Johannesburg and Qunu. Although he set about authoring a sequel to his first autobiography, to be titled ''The Presidential Years'', it was abandoned before publication.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=576|2a1=Battersby|2y=2011|2pp=587–588}} Mandela found such seclusion difficult and reverted to a busy public life involving daily programme of tasks, meetings with world leaders and celebrities, and—when in Johannesburg—working with the Nelson Mandela Foundation, founded in 1999 to focus on rural development, school construction, and combating HIV/AIDS.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=576|2a1=Battersby|2y=2011|2pp=588–589}} Although he had been heavily criticised for failing to do enough to fight the HIV/AIDS pandemic during his presidency, he devoted much of his time to the issue following his retirement, describing it as "a war" that had killed more than "all previous wars"; affiliating himself with the [[Treatment Action Campaign]], he urged Mbeki's government to ensure that HIV-positive South Africans had access to [[anti-retrovirals]].{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=219–220|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=584–586|3a1=Battersby|3y=2011|3pp=590–591}} Meanwhile, Mandela was successfully treated for [[prostate cancer]] in July 2001.{{sfn|Battersby|2011|p=598}}<ref>{{cite news|work=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1492865.stm |title=Mandela 'responding well to treatment' |date=15 August 2001 |access-date=26 May 2008 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhSMPxao?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1492865.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2002, Mandela inaugurated the Nelson Mandela Annual Lecture, and in 2003 the [[Mandela Rhodes Foundation]] was created at [[Rhodes House]], [[University of Oxford]], to provide postgraduate scholarships to African students. These projects were followed by the Nelson Mandela Centre of Memory and the [[46664 (concerts)|46664 campaign]] against HIV/AIDS.{{sfn|Battersby|2011|pp=589–590}} He gave the closing address at the [[XIII International AIDS Conference, 2000|XIII International AIDS Conference]] in Durban in 2000,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thebody.com/content/art16140.html |title=Closing Ceremony |first=Pablo |last=Tebas |date=13 July 2000 |publisher=The Body |access-date=25 February 2013 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhRW0hQl?url=http://www.thebody.com/content/art16140.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> and in 2004, spoke at the [[XV International AIDS Conference, 2004|XV International AIDS Conference]] in [[Bangkok]], Thailand, calling for greater measures to tackle tuberculosis as well as HIV/AIDS.<ref>{{cite news |first=Chris |last=Hogg |title=Mandela urges action to fight TB |work=BBC News|date=15 July 2004 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/3895525.stm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040718030822/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/3895525.stm |archive-date=18 July 2004 |url-status=live }}</ref> Mandela publicised AIDS as the cause of his son [[Makgatho Mandela|Makgatho]]'s death in January 2005, to defy the stigma about discussing the disease.<ref>{{cite news |last=Nolen |first=Stephanie |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/nelson-mandela/mandela-arrived-late-to-the-fight-against-hiv-aids/article548193/ |work=The Globe and Mail |location=Toronto |date=5 December 2013 |title=Mandela arrived late to the fight against HIV-AIDS |access-date=11 May 2017 }}</ref>

Publicly, Mandela became more vocal in criticising Western powers. He strongly opposed the 1999 [[War in Kosovo|NATO intervention in Kosovo]] and called it an attempt by the world's powerful nations to police the entire world.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.derechos.org/nizkor/iraq/doc/mandela1.html |title=Equipo Nizkor – Mandela slams Western action in Kosovo, Iraq |agency=Reuters |last=Weir |first=Keith |date=13 April 2003 |publisher=Derechos.org |access-date=3 October 2010 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhQi33OL?url=http://www.derechos.org/nizkor/iraq/doc/mandela1.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2003, he spoke out against the plans for the United States to launch a [[war in Iraq]], describing it as "a tragedy" and lambasting US President [[George W. Bush]] and UK Prime Minister [[Tony Blair]] (whom he referred to as an "American foreign minister") for undermining the UN, saying, "All that (Mr. Bush) wants is [[Iraqi oil]]".<ref>{{cite news |first=Jarrett |last=Murphy |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/mandela-slams-bush-on-iraq |title=Mandela Slams Bush on Iraq |work=CBS News |date=30 January 2003 |access-date=13 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160115202751/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/mandela-slams-bush-on-iraq/ |archive-date=15 January 2016}}</ref> He attacked the US more generally, asserting that "If there is a country that has committed unspeakable atrocities in the world, it is the United States of America", citing the [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|atomic bombing of Japan]]; this attracted international controversy, although he later improved his relationship with Bush.{{sfn|Battersby|2011|pp=591–592}}<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/2228971.stm |title=Mandela warns Bush over Iraq |date=1 September 2002 |publisher=BBC |access-date=27 October 2008 |first=John |last=Pienaar |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhQjsYTq?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2228971.stm |url-status=live }}; {{cite news|last=Fenton |first=Tom |publisher=CBS |title=Mandela Slams Bush on Iraq |date=30 January 2003 |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/01/30/iraq/main538607.shtml |access-date=26 May 2008 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhQr4N5U?url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/01/30/iraq/main538607.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> Retaining an interest in the Lockerbie suspect, he visited Megrahi in [[Barlinnie prison]] and spoke out against the conditions of his treatment, referring to them as "psychological persecution".{{sfn|Battersby|2011|p=593}}

==="Retiring from retirement": 2004–2013===
{{anchor|"Retiring from retirement": 2004–2013}}

[[File:George W. Bush and Nelson Mandela - walking - Oval Office - May 17 2005.jpg|thumb|right|Nelson Mandela and President [[George W. Bush]] in the [[Oval Office]], May 2005]]
In June 2004, aged 85 and amid failing health, Mandela announced that he was "retiring from retirement" and retreating from public life, remarking, "Don't call me, I will call you."{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=593|2a1=Battersby|2y=2011|2p=598}} Although continuing to meet with close friends and family, the foundation discouraged invitations for him to appear at public events and denied most interview requests.{{sfn|Battersby|2011|p=598}}

He retained some involvement in international affairs. In 2005, he founded the Nelson Mandela Legacy Trust,<ref name=NPR>{{cite news|title=Mandela, Bush Discuss Education, AIDS in Africa |first=Allison |last=Keyes |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4654914 |publisher=NPR |date=17 May 2005 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6HeUQkPps?url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4654914 |archive-date=26 June 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> travelling to the US to speak before the [[Brookings Institution]] and the [[NAACP]] on the need for economic assistance to Africa.<ref name=NPR/><ref name=LAT>{{cite news |title=The Obama-Mandela dynamic, reflected in a photo |first=Kathleen |last=Hennessey |url=http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-na-obama-mandela-20130625,0,6170889,full.story |website=Los Angeles Times |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6HeUdFS94?url=http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-na-obama-mandela-20130625,0,6170889,full.story |archive-date=26 June 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> He spoke with US Senator [[Hillary Clinton]] and President George W. Bush and first met the then-Senator [[Barack Obama]].<ref name=LAT/> Mandela also encouraged Zimbabwean President [[Robert Mugabe]] to resign over growing [[Human rights in Zimbabwe|human rights]] abuses in the country. When this proved ineffective, he spoke out publicly against Mugabe in 2007, asking him to step down "with residual respect and a modicum of dignity."{{sfn|Battersby|2011|p=594}} That year, Mandela, Machel, and Desmond Tutu convened a group of world leaders in Johannesburg to contribute their wisdom and independent leadership to some of the world's toughest problems. Mandela announced the formation of this new group, [[The Elders (organization)|The Elders]], in a speech delivered on his 89th birthday.<ref>{{harvnb|Battersby|2011|p=600}}; {{cite news |url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/19836050 |title=Mandela joins 'Elders' on turning 89 |work=[[NBC News]] |agency=Associated Press |access-date=26 May 2008 |date=20 July 2007 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhRqC1M4?url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/19836050 |url-status=live }}; {{cite web |url=http://www.southafrica.info/mandela/theelders.htm |title=Mandela launches The Elders |date=19 July 2007 |publisher=SAinfo |access-date=27 October 2008 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhRpoERW?url=http://www.southafrica.info/mandela/theelders.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

[[File: Nelson Mandela - full (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|Mandela receiving the freedom of the city of [[Tshwane]], 2008]]

Mandela's 90th birthday was marked across the country on 18 July 2008, with the main celebrations held at Qunu,<ref name="FOXNews">{{cite news |url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,385561,00.html |title=Nelson Mandela Celebrates 90th Birthday by Urging Rich to Help Poor |date=18 July 2008 |publisher=Fox News Channel |access-date=27 October 2008 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhSkmQUE?url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,385561,00.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> and a [[Nelson Mandela 90th Birthday Tribute|concert in his honour]] in [[Hyde Park, London|Hyde Park]], London.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/hyde-park-concert-to-mark--mandelas-90th-821776.html |title=Hyde Park concert to mark Mandela's 90th |last=Bingham |first=John |date=6 May 2008 |website=The Independent |access-date=27 October 2008 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhSlCa27?url=http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/hyde-park-concert-to-mark--mandelas-90th-821776.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In a speech marking the event, Mandela called for the rich to help the poor across the world.<ref name="FOXNews"/> Throughout Mbeki's presidency, Mandela continued to support the ANC, usually overshadowing Mbeki at any public events that the two attended. Mandela was more at ease with Mbeki's successor, Zuma,{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=598|2a1=Battersby|2y=2011|2pp=594–597}} although the Nelson Mandela Foundation was upset when his grandson, [[Mandla Mandela]], flew him out to the Eastern Cape to attend a pro-Zuma rally in the midst of a storm in 2009.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=598|2a1=Battersby|2y=2011|2pp=594–597}}

In 2004, Mandela successfully campaigned for South Africa to host the [[2010 FIFA World Cup]], declaring that there would be "few better gifts for us" in the year marking a decade since the fall of apartheid.<ref>{{cite news |title=World Cup 'perfect gift for SA' |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3703261.stm |date=11 May 2004 |work=BBC News|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316182537/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3703261.stm |archive-date=16 March 2016 |url-status=live |access-date=13 September 2016}}</ref> Despite maintaining a low profile during the event due to ill-health, Mandela made his final public appearance during the World Cup closing ceremony, where he received much applause.{{sfn|Battersby|2011|p=600}}<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/jul/11/nelson-mandela-world-cup-final |website=The Guardian |title=Nelson Mandela attends World Cup closing ceremony |date=11 July 2010 |first=David |last=Batty |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhSlkRAr?url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/jul/11/nelson-mandela-world-cup-final |url-status=live }}</ref> Between 2005 and 2013, Mandela, and later his family, were embroiled in a series of legal disputes regarding money held in family trusts for the benefit of his descendants.<ref>{{cite news |last=Polgreen |first=Lydia |title=Messy Fight Over Mandela Trust Goes Public |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/25/world/africa/messy-legal-fight-over-mandela-trust-goes-public.html |website=The New York Times |date=24 May 2013 |access-date=13 September 2016 }}</ref> In mid-2013, as Mandela was hospitalised for a lung infection in Pretoria, his descendants were involved in an intra-family legal dispute relating to the burial place of Mandela's children, and ultimately Mandela himself.<ref>{{cite news |first=David |last=Smith |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/03/south-african-courts-mandela-burial |title=South African courts step in over Mandela family burial row |website=The Guardian |access-date=13 September 2016 |date=3 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130709230415/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2013/jul/03/south-african-courts-mandela-burial |archive-date=9 July 2013}}; {{cite news |last=Moreton |first=Cole |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/nelson-mandela/10155807/Nelson-Mandelas-grandson-Mandla-accused-of-grave-tampering.html |title=Nelson Mandela's grandson Mandla accused of grave tampering |website=The Telegraph |access-date=13 September 2016 |date=2 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127022518/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/nelson-mandela/10155807/Nelson-Mandelas-grandson-Mandla-accused-of-grave-tampering.html |archive-date=27 January 2016 }}</ref>

===Illness and death: 2011–2013===
{{anchor|Death}}
{{main|Death of Nelson Mandela}}
[[File:Madiba's house 3.jpg|thumb|right|Members of the public paying their respects outside Mandela's Houghton home]]

In February 2011, Mandela was briefly hospitalised with a [[respiratory infection]], attracting international attention,{{sfn|Battersby|2011|p=607}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/Nelson-Mandela-breathing-on-his-own-20110128 |title=Nelson Mandela 'breathing on his own' |date=18 January 2011 |website=News 24 |access-date=30 January 2011 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhSmCBmZ?url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/Nelson-Mandela-breathing-on-his-own-20110128 |url-status=dead }}</ref> before being re-admitted for a lung infection and [[gallstone]] removal in December 2012.<ref>{{cite news|title=Nelson Mandela has lung infection|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-20677168|access-date=16 December 2017|work=BBC News|date=11 December 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Mandela Has Surgery for Gallstones |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/16/world/africa/mandela-has-surgery-to-remove-gallstones.html?partner=rss&emc=rss&smid=tw-nytimes&_r=0 |website=The New York Times |access-date=15 December 2012 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhSuaglG?url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/16/world/africa/mandela-has-surgery-to-remove-gallstones.html?partner=rss&emc=rss&smid=tw-nytimes&_r=1& |url-status=live |date=15 December 2012 }}</ref> After a successful medical procedure in early March 2013,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ctvnews.ca/world/nelson-mandela-94-responding-positively-to-treatment-in-hospital-1.1214585 |title=Nelson Mandela, 94, responding positively to treatment in hospital |website=CTV News |date=28 March 2013 |access-date=10 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160419135607/http://www.ctvnews.ca/world/nelson-mandela-94-responding-positively-to-treatment-in-hospital-1.1214585 |archive-date=19 April 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> his lung infection recurred and he was briefly hospitalised in Pretoria.<ref>{{cite news|title=Nelson Mandela arrives home in ambulance|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/nelson-mandela/9976102/Nelson-Mandela-arrives-home-in-ambulance.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408004826/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/nelson-mandela/9976102/Nelson-Mandela-arrives-home-in-ambulance.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=8 April 2013|work=The Telegraph|access-date=6 April 2013|location=London|date=6 April 2013}}</ref> In June 2013, his lung infection worsened and he was readmitted to a Pretoria hospital in serious condition.<ref>{{cite news|title=Nelson Mandela hospitalized in serious condition|url=http://www.cnn.com/2013/06/08/world/africa/south-africa-mandela-sick/index.html|publisher=CNN|access-date=8 June 2013|date=8 June 2013}}</ref> The [[Anglican Diocese of Cape Town|Archbishop of Cape Town]] [[Thabo Makgoba]] visited Mandela at the hospital and prayed with Machel,<ref>{{cite news |author=AFP 2|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/nelson-mandela/10142863/Nelson-Mandela-wished-a-peaceful-end.html |title=Mandela wished a 'peaceful end' by Cape Town Archbishop |website=The Telegraph |date=26 June 2013 |access-date=5 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127022518/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/nelson-mandela/10142863/Nelson-Mandela-wished-a-peaceful-end.html |archive-date=27 January 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> while Zuma cancelled a trip to Mozambique to visit him the following day.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Nelson Mandela condition worsens as Zuma cancels trip |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-23076057 |work=BBC News|access-date=27 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140126133047/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-23076057 |archive-date=26 January 2014 |url-status=live|date=27 June 2013 }}</ref> In September 2013, Mandela was discharged from hospital,<ref>{{cite news|title=Nelson Mandela released from hospital |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2013/09/01/world/africa/nelson-mandela-hospital-release/ |access-date=1 September 2013 |publisher=CNN| date=1 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304094240/http://edition.cnn.com/2013/09/01/world/africa/nelson-mandela-hospital-release/ |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> although his condition remained unstable.<ref>{{cite news |title=Mandela discharged from South Africa hospital |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2013/09/20139185614590114.html |access-date=1 September 2013 |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=1 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304114444/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2013/09/20139185614590114.html |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>

After suffering from a prolonged respiratory infection, Mandela died on 5 December 2013 at the age of 95, at around 20:50 [[South African Standard Time|local time]] at his home in Houghton, surrounded by his family.<ref name="BBCD">{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-25249520 |title=South Africa's Nelson Mandela dies in Johannesburg |date=5 December 2013 |work=BBC News|access-date=5 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160415152143/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-25249520 |archive-date=15 April 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Nelson Mandela dies|url=https://mg.co.za/article/2013-12-05-nelson-mandela-dies|work=Mail & Guardian|date=5 December 2013}}</ref> Zuma publicly announced his death on television,<ref name="BBCD"/><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/12/06/world/africa/nelson-mandela.html|title=Mandela's Death Leaves South Africa Without Its Moral Center |website=The New York Times |last=Polgreen |first=Lydia |date=5 December 2013 |access-date=5 December 2013}}</ref> proclaiming ten days of national mourning, a memorial service held at Johannesburg's [[FNB Stadium]] on 10 December 2013, and 8 December as a national day of prayer and reflection. Mandela's body [[Lying in state|lay in state]] from 11 to 13 December at the [[Union Buildings]] in Pretoria and a [[state funeral]] was held on 15 December in Qunu.<ref>{{cite news|last=Pillay|first=Verashni|title=Mandela's memorial service to be held on December 10|url=http://mg.co.za/article/2013-12-06-mandelas-memorial-service-to-be-held-on-december-10|access-date=6 December 2013|newspaper=Mail & Guardian|date=6 December 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Vecchiatto|first1=Paul|last2=Stone|first2=Setumo|last3=Magubane|first3=Khulekani|title=Nelson Mandela to be laid to rest on December 15|url=http://www.bdlive.co.za/national/2013/12/06/nelson-mandela-to-be-laid-to-rest-on-december-15|access-date=6 December 2013|newspaper=Business Day|location=South Africa|date=6 December 2013}}</ref> Approximately 90 representatives of foreign states travelled to South Africa to attend memorial events.<ref>{{cite news|last=Mount|first=Harry|title=Nelson Mandela: the long goodbye|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/nelson-mandela/10506010/Nelson-Mandela-the-long-goodbye.html|access-date=11 December 2013|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=9 December 2013|location=London}}</ref> It was later revealed that 300 million rand originally earmarked for humanitarian development projects had been redirected to finance the funeral.<ref>{{cite news|title=Nelson Mandela funeral: 'Millions misspent'|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-42224937|work=BBC News|date=4 December 2017|access-date=4 December 2017}}</ref> The media was awash with tributes and reminiscences,{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|p=917}} while images of tributes to Mandela proliferated across [[social media]].{{sfn|Nelson|2014|p=130}} His US$4.1 million estate was left to his widow, other family members, staff, and educational institutions.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.latimes.com/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-nelson-mandela-will-20140203,0,4680742.story |title=Nelson Mandela leaves $4.1-million estate to family, staff, schools |first=Robyn |last=Dixon |website=Los Angeles Times |date=3 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127022523/http://www.latimes.com/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-nelson-mandela-will-20140203-story.html |archive-date=27 January 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==Political ideology==
{{Quote box|width=25em|align=right|quote=A friend once asked me how I could reconcile my creed of African nationalism with a belief in dialectical materialism. For me, there was no contradiction. I was first and foremost an African nationalist fighting for our emancipation from minority rule and the right to control our own destiny. But at the same time, South Africa and the African continent were part of the larger world. Our problems, while distinctive and special, were not unique, and a philosophy that placed those problems in an international and historical context of the greater world and the course of history was valuable. I was prepared to use whatever means necessary to speed up the erasure of human prejudice and the end of chauvinistic and violent nationalism.|salign=right |source=—Nelson Mandela, 1994{{sfn|Mandela|1994|p=173}} }}

Mandela identified as both an [[African nationalism|African nationalist]], an ideological position he held since joining the ANC,{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=25, 232|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=220|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=241|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=37, 584}} and as a socialist.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=231–232|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=231}} He was a practical politician, rather than an intellectual scholar or political theorist.{{sfnm|1a1=Boehmer|1y=2008|1p=13|2a1=Barnard|2y=2014|2p=14}} According to biographer Tom Lodge, "for Mandela, politics has always been primarily about enacting stories, about making narratives, primarily about morally exemplary conduct, and only secondarily about ideological vision, more about means rather than ends."{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=ix}}

The historian Sabelo J. Ndlovu-Gatsheni described Mandela as a "liberal African nationalist–decolonial humanist",{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|p=907}} while political analyst [[Raymond Suttner]] cautioned against labelling Mandela a liberal and stated that Mandela displayed a "hybrid socio-political make-up".{{sfn|Suttner|2007|p=122}} Mandela adopted some of his political ideas from other thinkers—among them Indian independence leaders like Gandhi and Nehru, African-American civil rights activists, and African nationalists like [[Kwame Nkrumah|Nkrumah]]—and applied them to the South African situation. At the same time he rejected other aspects of their thought, such as the anti-white sentiment of many African nationalists.{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=109}} In doing so he synthesised both counter-cultural and hegemonic views, for instance by drawing upon ideas from the then-dominant [[Afrikaner nationalism]] in promoting his anti-apartheid vision.{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=102}}

His political development was strongly influenced by his legal training and practice, in particular his hope to achieve change not through violence but through "legal revolution".{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=viii}} Over the course of his life, he began by advocating a path of non-violence, later embracing violence, and then adopting a non-violent approach to negotiation and reconciliation.{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=107}} When endorsing violence, he did so because he saw no alternative, and was always pragmatic about it, perceiving it as a means to get his opponent to the negotiating table.{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|pp=105, 108}} He sought to target symbols of white supremacy and racist oppression rather than white people as individuals, and was anxious not to inaugurate a race war in South Africa.{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|p=914}} This willingness to use violence distinguishes Mandela from the ideology of [[Gandhism]], with which some commentators have sought to associate him.{{sfn|Suttner|2007|pp=119–120}}

===Democracy===

Although he presented himself in an autocratic manner in several speeches, Mandela was a devout believer in democracy and abided by majority decisions even when deeply disagreeing with them.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=433}} He had exhibited a commitment to the values of democracy and human rights since at least the 1960s.{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|pp=906–907}} He held a conviction that "inclusivity, accountability and freedom of speech" were the fundamentals of democracy,{{sfn|Battersby|2011|p=605}} and was driven by a belief in [[natural and legal rights|natural]] and human rights.{{sfn|Kalumba|1995|p=162}} Suttner argued that there were "two modes of leadership" that Mandela adopted. On one side he adhered to ideas about collective leadership, although on the other believed that there were scenarios in which a leader had to be decisive and act without consultation to achieve a particular objective.{{sfn|Suttner|2007|pp=113–114}}

According to Lodge, Mandela's political thought reflected tensions between his support for [[liberal democracy]] and pre-colonial African forms of consensus decision making.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=xi}} He was an admirer of British-style [[parliamentary democracy]],{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|p=907}} stating that "I regard the British Parliament as the most democratic institution in the world, and the independence and impartiality of its judiciary never fail to arouse my admiration."{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|p=907}} In this he has been described as being committed to "the Euro-North American modernist project of emancipation", something which distinguishes him from other African nationalist and socialist leaders like Nyerere who were concerned about embracing styles of democratic governance that were Western, rather than African, in origin.{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|p=907}} Mandela nevertheless also expressed admiration for what he deemed to be indigenous forms of democracy, describing Xhosa traditional society's mode of governance as "democracy in its purest form".{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|p=907}} He also spoke of an influential African ethical tenet, [[Ubuntu (philosophy)|Ubuntu]], which is a [[Nguni languages|Ngnuni term]] meaning "A person is a person through other persons" or "I am because we are."{{sfn|Oppenheim|2012|pp=369–370}}

===Socialism and Marxism===

[[File:The Soviet Union 1988 CPA 5971 stamp (70th birth anniversary of Nelson Mandela, South African anti-apartheid revolutionary, political leader and philanthropist).jpg|thumb|upright|1988 Soviet commemorative stamp, captioned "The fighter for freedom of South Africa Nelson Mandela" in Russian]]

Mandela advocated the ultimate establishment of a classless society,{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=231, 232|2a1=Ellis|2y=2016|2p=7}} with Sampson describing him as being "openly opposed to capitalism, private land-ownership and the power of big money".{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=298}} Mandela was influenced by [[Marxism]], and during the revolution he advocated [[scientific socialism]].{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=282}} He denied being a communist at the Treason Trial,{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=365|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=135–138}} and maintained this stance both when later talking to journalists,{{sfn|Benson|1986|p=232}} and in his autobiography.{{sfn|Ellis|2016|p=18}} According to the sociologist Craig Soudien, "sympathetic as Mandela was to socialism, a communist he was not."{{sfn|Soudien|2015|p=361}} Conversely, the biographer David Jones Smith stated that Mandela "embraced communism and communists" in the late 1950s and early 1960s,{{sfn|Smith|2010|pp=217–218}} while the historian Stephen Ellis commented that Mandela had assimilated much of the [[Marxism–Leninism|Marxist–Leninist]] ideology by 1960.{{sfn|Ellis|2016|p=7}}

Ellis also found evidence that Mandela had been an active member of the South African Communist Party during the late 1950s and early 1960s,{{sfn|Ellis|2011|pp=667–668}} something that was confirmed after his death by both the ANC and the SACP, the latter of which claimed that he was not only a member of the party, but also served on its Central Committee.<ref name="Mandela'sCommunism"/> His membership had been hidden by the ANC, aware that knowledge of Mandela's former SACP involvement might have been detrimental to his attempts to attract support from Western countries.{{sfn|Ellis|2016|p=17}} Mandela's view of these Western governments differed from those of Marxist–Leninists, for he did not believe that they were anti-democratic or reactionary and remained committed to democratic systems of governance.{{sfn|Smith|2010|p=231}}

The 1955 Freedom Charter, which Mandela had helped create, called for the nationalisation of banks, gold mines and land, to ensure equal distribution of wealth.{{sfn|Kalumba|1995|pp=164–165}} Despite these beliefs, Mandela initiated a programme of privatisation during his presidency in line with trends in other countries of the time.{{sfn|Freund|2014|p=294}} It has been repeatedly suggested that Mandela would have preferred to develop a [[social democracy|social democratic]] economy in South Africa but that this was not feasible as a result of the international political and economic situation during the early 1990s.{{sfn|Freund|2014|p=294}} This decision was in part influenced by the fall of the [[socialist states]] in the Soviet Union and [[Eastern Bloc]] during the early 1990s.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=433–435}}

==Personality and personal life==
[[File:Nelson Mandela (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|Mandela on a visit to Australia in 2009; he is wearing one of the brightly coloured garments that became known as "Madiba shirts"]]

Mandela was widely considered a [[charismatic leader]],{{sfnm|1a1=Glad|1a2=Blanton|1y=1997|1p=570|2a1=Read|2y=2010|2p=326}} described by biographer [[Mary Benson (campaigner)|Mary Benson]] as "a born mass leader who could not help magnetizing people".{{sfn|Benson|1986|p=51}} He was highly image conscious and throughout his life always sought out fine quality clothes, with many commentators believing that he carried himself in a regal manner.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=432, 554}} His aristocratic heritage was repeatedly emphasised by supporters, thus contributing to his "charismatic power".{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=2}} While living in Johannesburg in the 1950s, he cultivated the image of the "African gentleman", having "the pressed clothes, correct manners, and modulated public speech" associated with such a position.{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=111}} In doing so, Lodge argued that Mandela became "one of the first media politicians ... embodying a glamour and a style that projected ''visually'' a brave new African world of modernity and freedom".{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=ix}} Mandela was known to change his clothes several times a day, and he became so associated with highly coloured [[Batik]] shirts after assuming the presidency that they came to be known as "[[Madiba shirt]]s".{{sfnm|1a1=Boehmer|1y=2008|1p=133|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=495|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=503}}<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3532916.stm |title=How Mandela changed SA fashion |last=Khumalo |first=Fred |date=5 August 2004 |publisher=BBC |access-date=28 October 2008 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhlMxe4g?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3532916.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>

For political scientists [[Betty Glad]] and Robert Blanton, Mandela was an "exceptionally intelligent, shrewd, and loyal leader".{{sfn|Glad|Blanton|1997|p=577}} His official biographer, [[Anthony Sampson]], commented that he was a "master of imagery and performance", excelling at presenting himself well in press photographs and producing sound bites.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=582–583}} His public speeches were presented in a formal, stiff manner, and often consisted of clichéd set phrases.{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|pp=128, 134}} He typically spoke slowly, and carefully chose his words.{{sfn|Glad|Blanton|1997|p=576}} Although he was not considered a great orator, his speeches conveyed "his personal commitment, charm and humour".{{sfn|Barber|2004|p=87}}

Mandela was a private person who often concealed his emotions and confided in very few people.{{sfnm|1a1=Suttner|1y=2007|1p=119|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=xv–xvi}} Privately, he lived an austere life, refusing to drink alcohol or smoke, and even as president made his own bed.{{sfn|Meredith|2010|p=xvi}} Renowned for his mischievous sense of humour,{{sfn|Battersby|2011|p=599}} he was known for being both stubborn and loyal,{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=xvi|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=583}} and at times exhibited a quick temper.{{sfnm|1a1=Glad|1a2=Blanton|1y=1997|1p=582|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=xvi}} He was typically friendly and welcoming, and appeared relaxed in conversation with everyone, including his opponents.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=411, 498}} A self-described [[Anglophile]], he claimed to have lived by the "trappings of British style and manners".{{sfnm|1a1=Glad|1a2=Blanton|1y=1997|1p=581|2a1=Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2y=2014|2p=907}} Constantly polite and courteous, he was attentive to all, irrespective of their age or status, and often talked to children or servants.{{sfn|Meredith|2010|pp=xvi, 482–483}} He was known for his ability to find common ground with very different communities.{{sfn|Barnard|2014|pp=5–6}} In later life, he always looked for the best in people, even defending political opponents to his allies, who sometimes thought him too trusting of others.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=431, 582}} He was fond of [[Indian cuisine]],{{sfn|Meredith|2010|p=164}} and had a lifelong interest in archaeology{{sfn|Meer|1988|p=189}} and boxing.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=29}}

{{Quote box|width=25em|align=left|quote=The significance of Mandela can be considered in two related ways. First, he has provided through his personal presence as a benign and honest conviction politician, skilled at exerting power but not obsessed with it to the point of view of excluding principles, a man who struggled to display respect to all ... Second, in so doing he was able to be a hero and a symbol to an array of otherwise unlikely mates through his ability, like all brilliant nationalist politicians, to speak to very different audiences effectively at once.|salign=right |source=—[[Bill Freund (historian)|Bill Freund]], academic{{sfn|Freund|2014|p=295}} }}

He was raised in the Methodist denomination of Christianity; the [[Methodist Church of Southern Africa]] claimed that he retained his allegiance to them throughout his life.{{sfn|Forster|2014|p=89}} On analysing Mandela's writings, the theologian [[Dion Forster]] described him as a [[Christian humanist]], although added that his thought relied to a greater extent on the Southern African concept of [[Ubuntu philosophy|Ubuntu]] than on [[Christian theology]].{{sfn|Forster|2014|pp=106–107}} According to Sampson, Mandela never had "a strong religious faith" however,{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=65}} while Boehmer stated that Mandela's religious belief was "never robust".{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=86}}

Mandela was very self-conscious about being a man and regularly made references to [[manhood]].{{sfn|Suttner|2014|p=342}} He was [[heterosexual]],{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=142}} and biographer [[Fatima Meer]] said that he was "easily tempted" by women.{{sfn|Meer|1988|p=78}} Another biographer, [[Martin Meredith]], characterised him as being "by nature a romantic", highlighting that he had relationships with various women.{{sfn|Meredith|2010|p=21}} Mandela was married three times, fathered six children, and had seventeen grandchildren and at least seventeen great-grandchildren.<ref name="genealogy">{{cite web|publisher=Nelson Mandela Foundation|title=The Life and Times of Nelson Mandela: Genealogy |url=http://www.nelsonmandela.org/content/page/genealogy |access-date=13 July 2016 |archive-date=16 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160116020637/https://www.nelsonmandela.org/content/page/genealogy }}</ref> He could be stern and demanding of his children, although he was more affectionate with his grandchildren.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=481|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=147|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=246}} His first marriage was to Evelyn Ntoko Mase in October 1944;{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=144, 148–149|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=59–62|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=36}} they divorced in March 1958 under the multiple strains of his adultery and constant absences, devotion to revolutionary agitation, and the fact that she was a Jehovah's Witness, a religion requiring political neutrality.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=296|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=102–104|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=110}} Mandela's second wife was the social worker Winnie Madikizela-Mandela, whom he married in June 1958.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=74–76|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=93|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=306–311|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=144–149|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=104, 132–145|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=110–113}} They divorced in March 1996.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=539–542|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=500}} Mandela married his third wife, Graça Machel, on his 80th birthday in July 1998.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=xvii, 576|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=549–551}}

==Reception and legacy==
[[File:Nelson Mandela tributes in Parliament Square - London - DSCF0404.jpg|thumb|Flowers left at the [[Statue of Nelson Mandela, Parliament Square|Mandela statue]] in London's Parliament Square following his death]]
By the time of his death, within South Africa Mandela was widely considered both "the father of the nation"<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-20839504 |title=Nelson Mandela to spend Christmas in S Africa hospital |date=24 December 2012 |work=BBC News|access-date=13 July 2016 |archive-date= 3 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EAEkVVsN?url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-20839504 |url-status=live }}</ref> and "the founding father of democracy".{{sfn|Meredith|2010|p=565}} Outside of South Africa, he was a "global icon",{{sfnm|1a1=Barnard|1y=2014|1pp=1, 2|2a1=Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2y=2014|2p=906}} with the scholar of South African studies Rita Barnard describing him as "one of the most revered figures of our time".{{sfn|Barnard|2014|pp=1, 2}} One biographer considered him "a modern democratic hero".{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=225}} Some have portrayed Mandela in messianic terms,{{sfn|Suttner|2007|pp=125–126}} in contrast to his own statement that "I was not a messiah, but an ordinary man who had become a leader because of extraordinary circumstances."{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=599|2a1=Barnard|2y=2014|2p=4}} He is often cited alongside [[Mahatma Gandhi]] and [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] as one of the 20th century's exemplary anti-racist and anti-colonial leaders.{{sfnm|1a1=Boehmer|1y=2008|1p=82|2a1=Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2y=2014|2p=918}} Boehmer described him as "a totem of the totemic values of our age: toleration and liberal democracy"{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=16}} and "a universal symbol of social justice".{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=1}}

Mandela's international fame had emerged during his incarceration in the 1980s, when he became the world's most famous prisoner, a symbol of the anti-apartheid cause, and an icon for millions who embraced the ideal of human equality.{{sfn|Barnard|2014|p=1}} In the years since been described as world's most famous [[political prisoner]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hooper|first=Simon|title=The world's most famous political prisoner|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2013/12/6/the-worlds-most-famous-political-prisoner|access-date=2021-06-29|website=www.aljazeera.com|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|last2=|last3=|first3=|last4=|last5=|last6=|last7=|last8=|first8=|last9=|date=2018-07-13|title=Nelson Mandela's letters detail his 27 years as the world's most famous political prisoner|url=https://www.latimes.com/books/la-ca-jc-prison-letters-mandela-20180713-story.html|access-date=2021-06-29|website=Los Angeles Times|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=2013-12-07|title=Mandela death: How a prisoner became a legend|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-25256818|access-date=2021-06-29}}</ref> In 1986, Mandela's biographer characterised him as "the embodiment of the struggle for liberation" in South Africa.{{sfn|Benson|1986|p=13}} Meredith stated that in becoming "a potent symbol of resistance" to apartheid during the 1980s, he had gained "mythical status" internationally.{{sfn|Meredith|2010|p=xv}} Sampson commented that even during his life, this myth had become "so powerful that it blurs the realities", converting Mandela into "a secular saint".{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=xxvi}} Within a decade of the end of his presidency, Mandela's era was being widely thought of as "a golden age of hope and harmony",{{sfn|Meredith|2010|p=599}} with much [[nostalgia]] being expressed for it.{{sfn|Freund|2014|p=296}} His name was often invoked by those criticising his successors like Mbeki and Zuma.{{sfn|Mangcu|2013|p=101}} Across the world, Mandela earned international acclaim for his activism in overcoming apartheid and fostering racial reconciliation,{{sfn|Meredith|2010|p=xvi}} coming to be viewed as "a moral authority" with a great "concern for truth".{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=582}} Mandela's iconic status has been blamed for concealing the complexities of his life.{{sfn|Suttner|2016|p=17}}

Mandela generated controversy throughout his career as an activist and politician,{{sfn|Barnard|2014|p=2}} having detractors on both the right and the radical left.{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=173}} During the 1980s, Mandela was widely labelled a terrorist by prominent political figures in the Western world for his embrace of political violence.{{sfn|Boehmer|2005|p=46}} According to Thatcher, for instance, the ANC was "a typical terrorist organisation".{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=360}} The US government's [[United States Department of State|State]] and [[United States Department of Defense|Defense]] departments officially designated the ANC as a terrorist organisation, resulting in Mandela remaining on their terrorism watch-list until 2008.<ref>{{cite news |title=US government considered Nelson Mandela a terrorist until 2008 |date=7 December 2013 |work=NBC News |last=Windrem |first=Robert |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/other/us-government-considered-nelson-mandela-terrorist-until-2008-f2D11708787 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303200951/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/other/us-government-considered-nelson-mandela-terrorist-until-2008-f2D11708787 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> On the left, some voices in the ANC—among them [[Frank B. Wilderson III]]—accused him of [[selling out]] for agreeing to enter negotiations with the apartheid government and for not implementing the reforms of the Freedom Charter during his presidency.{{sfnm|1a1=Barnard|1y=2014|1p=2|2a1=Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2y=2014|2p=918}} According to Barnard, "there is also a sense in which his chiefly bearing and mode of conduct, the very respect and authority he accrued in representing his nation in his own person, went against the spirit of democracy",{{sfn|Barnard|2014|p=2}} and concerns were similarly expressed that he placed his own status and celebrity above the transformation of his country.{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|p=918}} His government would be criticised for its failure to deal with both the HIV/AIDS pandemic and the high levels of poverty in South Africa.{{sfn|Barnard|2014|p=2}} Mandela was also criticised for his friendship with political leaders such as Castro, Gaddafi, and Suharto—deemed [[dictators]] by critics—as well as his refusal to condemn their governments' human rights violations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibtimes.com/mandela-dictators-freedom-fighter-complicated-past-725667 |title=Mandela and the Dictators: A Freedom Fighter With A Complicated Past |first=Jacey |last=Fortin |website=International Business Times |date=18 July 2012 |access-date=13 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160419032439/http://www.ibtimes.com/mandela-dictators-freedom-fighter-complicated-past-725667 |archive-date=19 April 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Orders, decorations, monuments, and honours===
{{Main|List of awards and honours bestowed upon Nelson Mandela}}
Over the course of his life, Mandela was given over 250 awards, accolades, prizes, honorary degrees and citizenships in recognition of his political achievements.<ref name=CT12>{{Cite news |url=https://www.questia.com/read/1G1-296964849 |title=How the awards have just kept flooding in |date=18 July 2012 |work=The Cape Times |via=[[Questia Online Library]] |url-status=dead|access-date=14 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190207130510/https://www.questia.com/read/1G1-296964849/how-the-awards-have-just-kept-flooding-in|archive-date=7 February 2019}}</ref>
Among his awards were the Nobel Peace Prize,{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=68|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=182|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=494|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=474}} the US [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2002/07/20020709-8.html |title=President Honors Recipients of the Presidential Medal of Freedom |date=9 July 2002 |publisher=The White House |access-date=26 October 2008 |archive-date=14 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EQa6Gnu1?url=http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2002/07/20020709-8.html |url-status=live }}</ref> the Soviet Union's [[Lenin Peace Prize]],<ref name=CT12/> and the Libyan [[Al-Gaddafi International Prize for Human Rights]].<ref name="TimeGadafiPrize">{{cite news|title=Prizes: And the Winner Is ...|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,957634,00.html|work=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|date=8 May 1989|access-date=24 October 2012}}</ref> In 1990, India awarded him the [[Bharat Ratna]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/list-of-all-bharat-ratna-award-winners-81336 |title=List of all Bharat Ratna award winners |date=21 January 2011 |publisher=NDTV |access-date=14 February 2013 |archive-date=14 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EQat3ntQ?url=http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/list-of-all-bharat-ratna-award-winners-81336 |url-status=live }}</ref> and in 1992 Pakistan gave him their [[Nishan-e-Pakistan]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=Mandela in Pakistan |newspaper=The Independent |publisher=Independent Print Limited |date=3 October 1992 |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/mandela-in-pakistan-1555096.html |access-date=7 June 2010 |archive-date=14 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EQa80Py9?url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/mandela-in-pakistan-1555096.html |url-status=live |location=London }}</ref> The same year, he was awarded the Atatürk Peace Award by Turkey; he at first refused the award, citing human rights violations committed by Turkey at the time,<ref name=ataturk>{{cite web |url=http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/pr/1992/pr0412a.html |title=Statement on the Ataturk Award given to Nelson Mandela |date=12 April 1992 |publisher=African National Congress |access-date=2 January 2007 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061001161737/http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/pr/1992/pr0412a.html  |archive-date = 1 October 2006}}</ref> but later accepted the award in 1999.<ref name=CT12/> He was appointed to the [[Order of Isabella the Catholic]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://boe.es/diario_boe/txt.php?id=BOE-A-1999-3755 |title=Royal Decree 270/1999, 12th February 1999 |date=13 February 1999 |work=Spanish Official State Gazette|access-date=13 September 2017 }}</ref> and the [[Order of Canada]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.canadainternational.gc.ca/southafrica-afriquedusud/eyes_abroad-coupdoeil/NelsonMandelaDJ.aspx?lang=eng&view=d |title=Canada presents Nelson Mandela with the Queen Elizabeth II Diamond Jubilee medal |date=23 August 2012 |publisher=Queen's Printer for Canada |access-date=14 February 2013 |archive-date=14 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EQaTXONi?url=http://www.canadainternational.gc.ca/southafrica-afriquedusud/eyes_abroad-coupdoeil/NelsonMandelaDJ.aspx?lang=eng&view=d |url-status=dead}}</ref> and was the first living person to be made an [[Honorary Citizenship of Canada|honorary Canadian citizen]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2001/11/19/mandela_011119.html |title=Mandela to be honoured with Canadian citizenship |date=19 November 2001 |publisher=CBC News |access-date=26 October 2008 |archive-date=14 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EQa6zuKU?url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/story/2001/11/19/mandela_011119.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Queen Elizabeth II appointed him as a Bailiff Grand Cross of the [[Order of Saint John (chartered 1888)|Order of St. John]] and granted him membership in the [[Order of Merit]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/Page1880.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050105152154/http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/Page1880.asp |archive-date=5 January 2005 |title=The Order of Merit |date = November 2002|publisher=Royal Insight |access-date=26 October 2008}}</ref>

In 2004, Johannesburg granted Mandela the [[Freedom of the City]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gpg.gov.za/docs/nz/2004/nz0727.html |title=Madiba conferred freedom of Johannesburg |date=27 July 2004 |publisher=Gauteng Provincial Government |access-date=26 October 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080621081749/http://www.gpg.gov.za/docs/nz/2004/nz0727.html|archive-date=21 June 2008}}</ref> and in 2008 a Mandela statue was unveiled at the spot where Mandela was released from prison.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mediaclubsouthafrica.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=703:mandelastatue270808&catid=42:land_news&Itemid=110 |title=Long walk immortalised in bronze |last=Stern |first=Jennifer |date=27 August 2008 |publisher=Media Club South Africa |access-date=30 November 2009 |archive-date=14 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EQY5DhSw?url=http://www.mediaclubsouthafrica.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=703:mandelastatue270808&catid=42:land_news&Itemid=110 |url-status=dead }}</ref> On the [[Day of Reconciliation]] 2013, a bronze statue of Mandela was unveiled at Pretoria's Union Buildings.<ref>{{cite news|title=Nelson Mandela statue unveiled in Pretoria by Zuma|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-25399709|work=BBC News|access-date=23 December 2013|date=16 December 2013}}</ref>
In November 2009, the [[United Nations General Assembly]] proclaimed Mandela's birthday, 18 July, as "[[Mandela Day]]", marking his contribution to the anti-apartheid struggle. It called on individuals to donate 67 minutes to doing something for others, commemorating the 67 years that Mandela had been a part of the movement.<ref>{{harvnb|Battersby|2011|p=601}}; {{cite news
|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/8353853.stm
|title=UN gives backing to 'Mandela Day'
|work=BBC News|access-date=11 November 2009
|date=11 November 2009
|archive-date=14 February 2013
|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EQbCaUWz?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8353853.stm
|url-status=live
}}</ref> In 2015 the UN General Assembly named the amended [[Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners]] as "the Mandela Rules" to honour his legacy.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.un.org/ga/search/viewm_doc.asp?symbol=A/C.3/70/L.3 |title=Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners from the United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |date=29 September 2015 |page=6}}</ref>


===Biographies and popular media===

The first biography of Mandela was authored by [[Mary Benson (campaigner)|Mary Benson]], based on brief interviews with him that she had conducted in the 1960s.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=8}} Two authorised biographies were later produced by friends of Mandela.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=vii}} The first was Fatima Meer's ''Higher Than Hope'', which was heavily influenced by Winnie and thus placed great emphasis on Mandela's family.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|pp=vii, 13–14}} The second was Anthony Sampson's ''Mandela'', published in 1999.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=vii}} Other biographies included Martin Meredith's ''Mandela'', first published in 1997, and Tom Lodge's ''Mandela'', brought out in 2006.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=vii}}

Since the late 1980s, Mandela's image began to appear on a proliferation of items, among them "photographs, paintings, drawings, statues, public murals, buttons, t-shirts, refrigerator magnets, and more",{{sfn|Nelson|2014|p=130}} items that have been characterised as "Mandela kitsch".{{sfn|Nelson|2014|p=138}} In the 1980s he was the subject of several songs, such as [[The Specials]]' "[[Free Nelson Mandela]]", [[Hugh Masekela]]'s "[[Bring Him Back Home (Nelson Mandela)]]", and [[Johnny Clegg]]'s "[[Asimbonanga|Asimbonanga (Mandela)]]", which helped to bring awareness of his imprisonment to an international audience.<ref>{{cite news |first=Dorian |last=Lynskey |date=6 December 2013 |title=Nelson Mandela: The Triumph of the Protest Song |website=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2013/dec/06/nelson-mandela-protest-song-special-aka |access-date=23 January 2017 }}</ref>

Following his death, many [[internet meme]]s appeared featuring images of Mandela with his inspirational quotes superimposed onto them.{{sfn|Nelson|2014|p=130}} Mandela has also been depicted in films on multiple occasions.{{sfn|Bromley|2014|p=41}} Some of these, such as the 2013 feature film ''[[Mandela: Long Walk to Freedom]]'' and the 1996 documentary ''Mandela'', have focused on covering his long life, whereas others, such as the 2009 feature film ''[[Invictus (film)|Invictus]]'' and the 2010 documentary ''[[The 16th Man]]'', have focused on specific events in his life.{{sfn|Bromley|2014|p=41}} It has been argued that in ''Invictus'' and other films, "the America film industry" has played a significant part in "the crafting of Mandela's global image".{{sfn|Lukhele|2012|p=289}}

==See also==
* [[List of peace activists]]

==References==
===Footnotes===
{{Reflist|25em}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links
|wikt=no
|commons=Nelson Mandela
|b=no
|n=Category:Nelson Mandela
|q=Nelson Mandela
|s=Author:Nelson Mandela
|v=no
|species=no
|d=Q8023
}}
* [http://archive.nelsonmandela.org/ Nelson Mandela Centre of Memory]
* [http://www.nelsonmandelachildrensfund.com/ Nelson Mandela Children's Fund]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130707224033/http://www.nelsonmandela.org/ Nelson Mandela Foundation]
* [http://www.mandelarhodes.org/ Mandela Rhodes Foundation]
* [http://www.theelders.org/ The Elders]
* [http://www.nelsonmandelamuseum.org.za/ Nelson Mandela Museum]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120305110400/http://www.mandeladay.com/ Nelson Mandela Day]
* [https://southafrica-info.com/history/nelson-mandela-genealogy-family-tree/ Nelson Mandela's family tree]
* {{Worldcat id|lccn-n85-153068}}
* {{Curlie|Regional/Africa/South_Africa/Society_and_Culture/History/Nelson_Mandela}}
* {{IMDb name|0541691}}

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{{Nelson Mandela|state=expanded}}
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[[Category:Members of the National Assembly of South Africa]]

Nelson Mandela

2021-07-18T22:35:59Z

Hembram Bakhul: /* Bibliography */

{{short description|First President of South Africa and anti-apartheid activist}}
{{redirect|Mandela||Mandela (disambiguation)|and|Nelson Mandela (disambiguation)}}
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{{featured article}}
{{EngvarB|date=March 2019}}
{{use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| honorific_prefix = [[His Excellency]]
| honorific_suffix = {{post-nominals|list=[[List of awards and honours received by Nelson Mandela|OMP SBG SBS CLS DMG MMS MMB]]|size=100%}}
| image = Nelson Mandela 1994.jpg
| alt = Portrait photograph of a 76-year-old President Mandela
| caption = Mandela in [[Washington, D.C.]], 1994
| order = 1st
| office = President of South Africa
| term_start = 10 May 1994
| term_end = 16 June 1999
| deputy = {{plainlist|
* [[Thabo Mbeki]]
* [[F. W. de Klerk]]
}}
| predecessor = F. W. de Klerk {{nowrap|(''[[State President of South Africa|State Pres.]]'')}}
| successor = Thabo Mbeki
| office1 = {{nowrap|11th President of the [[African National Congress]]}}
| deputy1 = {{plainlist|
* [[Walter Sisulu]]
* Thabo Mbeki
}}
| term_start1 = 7 July 1991
| term_end1 = 20 December 1997
| predecessor1 = [[Oliver Tambo]]
| successor1 = Thabo Mbeki
| office2 = 19th Secretary General of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]]
| term_start2 = 2 September 1998
| term_end2 = 16 June 1999
| predecessor2 = [[Andrés Pastrana Arango]]
| successor2 = Thabo Mbeki
| birth_name = Rolihlahla Mandela
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=y|1918|7|18}}
| birth_place = [[Mvezo]], [[Cape Province]], [[Union of South Africa]] (now [[Eastern Cape]])
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=y|2013|12|05|1918|7|18}}
| death_place = [[Johannesburg]], [[Gauteng]], [[South Africa|Republic of South Africa]]
| death_cause = 
| resting_place = Mandela Graveyard [[Qunu, Eastern Cape]], South Africa
| party = [[African National Congress]]
| otherparty = [[South African Communist Party|South African Communist]]
| spouse = {{plainlist|
* {{marriage|[[Evelyn Mase|Evelyn Ntoko Mase]]|5 October 1944|19 March 1958|reason=divorced}}
* {{marriage|[[Winnie Madikizela-Mandela|Winnie Madikizela]]|14 June 1958|19 March 1996|reason=divorced}}
* {{marriage|[[Graça Machel]]|18 July 1998}}
}}
| children = 7, including [[Makgatho Mandela|Makgatho]], [[Makaziwe Mandela|Makaziwe]], [[Zenani Mandela-Dlamini|Zenani]], [[Zindzi Mandela|Zindziswa]] and [[Josina Z. Machel|Josina]] (step-daughter)
| parents = {{plainlist|
* Nosekeni Fanny (mother)
* Gadla Henry Mphakanyiswa (father)
}}
| alma_mater = {{plainlist|
* [[University of Fort Hare]]
* [[University of London]]
* [[University of South Africa]]
* [[University of the Witwatersrand]]
}}
| occupation = {{flatlist|
* Activist
* {{lcfirst:Politician}}
* {{lcfirst:Philanthropist}}
* {{lcfirst:Lawyer}}
}}
| website = {{official website|nelsonmandela.org}}
| nickname = {{flatlist|
* Madiba
* Dalibunga
}}
| known_for = [[Internal resistance to apartheid]]
| awards = {{plainlist|
* [[Sakharov Prize]] (1988)
* [[Bharat Ratna]] (1990)
* [[Nishan-e-Pakistan]] (1992)
* [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (1993)
* [[Lenin Peace Prize]] (1990)
* [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]]
* ''([[List of awards and honours bestowed upon Nelson Mandela|more...]])''
}}
| module = {{Infobox writer | embed=yes
| notableworks = ''[[Long Walk to Freedom]]''
}}
}}


'''Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela''' ({{IPAc-en|m|æ|n|ˈ|d|ɛ|l|ə}};<ref>{{cite web| title=Mandela| url=http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/mandela| publisher=[[Collins English Dictionary]]| access-date=17 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160405011219/http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/mandela |archive-date=5 April 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> {{IPA-xh|xolíɬaɬa mandɛ̂ːla|lang}}; 18 July 1918 – 5 December 2013) was a South African [[Internal resistance to apartheid|anti-apartheid]] revolutionary, statesman and [[philanthropist]] who served as [[President of South Africa]] from 1994 to 1999. He was the country's first black head of state and the first elected in a [[Universal suffrage|fully representative]] democratic election. [[Presidency of Nelson Mandela|His government]] focused on dismantling the legacy of [[apartheid]] by tackling institutionalised racism and fostering racial [[Conflict resolution|reconciliation]]. Ideologically an [[African nationalist]] and [[socialist]], he served as the president of the [[African National Congress]] (ANC) party from 1991 to 1997.


A [[Xhosa language|Xhosa speaker]], Mandela was born into the [[Thembu]] royal family in [[Mvezo]], [[Union of South Africa]]. He studied law at the [[University of Fort Hare]] and the [[University of Witwatersrand]] before working as a lawyer in [[Johannesburg]]. There he became involved in [[anti-colonial]] and African nationalist politics, joining the ANC in 1943 and co-founding its [[African National Congress Youth League|Youth League]] in 1944. After the [[National Party (South Africa)|National Party]]'s [[Dominant minority|white-only government]] established apartheid, a system of [[racial segregation]] that privileged [[White South African|whites]], Mandela and the ANC committed themselves to its overthrow. He was appointed president of the ANC's [[Transvaal Province|Transvaal]] branch, rising to prominence for his involvement in the 1952 [[Defiance Campaign]] and the 1955 [[Congress of the People (1955)|Congress of the People]]. He was repeatedly arrested for [[seditious]] activities and was unsuccessfully prosecuted in the [[1956 Treason Trial]]. Influenced by [[Marxism]], he secretly joined the banned [[South African Communist Party]] (SACP). Although initially committed to non-violent protest, in association with the SACP he co-founded the militant [[Umkhonto we Sizwe]] in 1961 and led a [[sabotage]] campaign against the government. He was arrested and imprisoned in 1962, and subsequently sentenced to life imprisonment for conspiring to overthrow the state following the [[Rivonia Trial]].


Mandela served 27 years in prison, split between [[Robben Island]], [[Pollsmoor Prison]] and [[Victor Verster Prison]]. Amid growing domestic and international pressure and fears of racial civil war, President [[F. W. de Klerk]] released him in 1990. Mandela and de Klerk led efforts to negotiate an end to apartheid, which resulted in the [[1994 South African general election|1994 multiracial general election]] in which Mandela led the ANC to victory and became president. Leading a [[Government of National Unity (South Africa)|broad coalition government]] which promulgated a [[Constitution of South Africa|new constitution]], Mandela emphasised reconciliation between the country's racial groups and created the [[Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South Africa)|Truth and Reconciliation Commission]] to investigate past [[Human rights in South Africa|human rights]] abuses. Economically, his administration retained its predecessor's [[Economic liberalism|liberal framework]] despite his own socialist beliefs, also introducing measures to encourage [[land reform]], [[Poverty reduction|combat poverty]] and expand healthcare services. Internationally, Mandela acted as mediator in the [[Pan Am Flight 103 bombing trial]] and served as secretary-general of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] from 1998 to 1999. He declined a second presidential term and was succeeded by his deputy, [[Thabo Mbeki]]. Mandela became an elder statesman and focused on combating poverty and [[HIV/AIDS]] through the charitable [[Nelson Mandela Foundation]].


Mandela was a controversial figure for much of his life. Although critics on [[Right-wing politics|the right]] denounced him as a [[communist terrorist]] and those on the [[far left]] deemed him too eager to negotiate and reconcile with apartheid's supporters, he gained international acclaim for his activism. Widely regarded as an icon of democracy and [[social justice]], he received [[List of Nelson Mandela awards and honours|more than 250 honours]], including the [[Nobel Peace Prize]]. He is held in deep respect within South Africa, where he is often referred to by his [[Xhosa clan names|Thembu clan name]], [[Madiba]], and described as the "[[Father of the Nation]]".

==Early life==
===Childhood: 1918–1934===
Mandela was born on 18 July 1918 in the village of Mvezo in [[Umtata]], then part of South Africa's [[Cape Province]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=3|2a1=Boehmer|2y=2008|2p=21|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=17|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=3}} Given the forename Rolihlahla,<ref>Mandela used the spelling Rolihlahla, see for example [http://www.mandela.gov.za/ official website]. [[Peter Mtuze]] notes that the orthography of [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]] names has changed since the time of Mandela's schooling, and that it would now be written Rholihlahla. (''Mandela's Long Walk to Freedom: the isiXhosa translator's tall order. Southern African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies 2003, 21(3), 141–152.'')</ref> a [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]] term colloquially meaning "troublemaker",{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=16|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2p=3|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=17|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=2|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=3}} in later years he became known by his clan name, Madiba.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=4|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=2|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=16}} His patrilineal great-grandfather, [[Ngubengcuka]], was king of the [[Thembu]] people in the [[Transkei]]an Territories of South Africa's modern [[Eastern Cape]] province.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=3|2a1=Guiloineau|2a2=Rowe|2y=2002|2p=23|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=1}} One of Ngubengcuka's sons, named Mandela, was Nelson's grandfather and the source of his surname.{{sfnm|1a1=Guiloineau|1a2=Rowe|1y=2002|1p=26}} Because Mandela was the king's child by a wife of the Ixhiba clan, a so-called "Left-Hand House", the descendants of his [[cadet branch]] of the royal family were [[morganatic marriage|morganatic]], ineligible to inherit the throne but recognised as hereditary royal councillors.{{sfnm|1a1=Guiloineau|1a2=Rowe|1y=2002|1p=26|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=1|3a1=Mafela|3y=2008|3pp=102–103}}

Nelson Mandela's father, Gadla Henry Mphakanyiswa Mandela (1880–1928), was a local chief and councillor to the monarch; he was appointed to the position in 1915, after his predecessor was accused of corruption by a governing white magistrate.{{sfn|Smith|2010|p=19}} In 1926, Gadla was also sacked for corruption, but Nelson was told that his father had lost his job for standing up to the magistrate's unreasonable demands.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=8–9|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=21–22|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=4}} A devotee of the god [[Qamata]],{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=17|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=1}} Gadla was a polygamist with four wives, four sons and nine daughters, who lived in different villages. Nelson's mother was Gadla's third wife, Nosekeni Fanny, daughter of Nkedama of the Right Hand House and a member of the amaMpemvu clan of the Xhosa.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=15|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=7–8|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=16, 23–24|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=1, 3|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=4}}

{{Quote box|width=25em|align=left|quote=No one in my family had ever attended school ... On the first day of school my teacher, Miss Mdingane, gave each of us an English name. This was the custom among Africans in those days and was undoubtedly due to the British bias of our education. That day, Miss Mdingane told me that my new name was Nelson. Why this particular name, I have no idea.|salign=right |source=—Mandela, 1994{{sfn|Mandela|1994|p=19}} }}

Mandela later stated that his early life was dominated by traditional Thembu custom and taboo.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=15|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=3}} He grew up with two sisters in his mother's ''[[homestead (small African settlement)|kraal]]'' in the village of [[Qunu]], where he tended herds as a cattle-boy and spent much time outside with other boys.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=16|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2p=12|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=23–24|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=2, 4}} Both his parents were illiterate, but being a devout Christian, his mother sent him to a local [[Methodism|Methodist]] school when he was about seven. Baptised a Methodist, Mandela was given the English forename of "Nelson" by his teacher.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=18–19|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=3|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=24|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=2, 4–5|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=5,7|6a1=Forster|6y=2014|6pp=91–92}} When Mandela was about nine, his father came to stay at Qunu, where he died of an undiagnosed ailment which Mandela believed to be lung disease.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=20|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=3|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=25|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=5|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=7}} Feeling "cut adrift", he later said that he inherited his father's "proud rebelliousness" and "stubborn sense of fairness".{{sfn|Mandela|1994|pp=8, 20}}

Mandela's mother took him to the "Great Place" palace at Mqhekezweni, where he was entrusted to the guardianship of the Thembu [[Regency (government)|regent]], Chief Jongintaba Dalindyebo. Although he did not see his mother again for many years, Mandela felt that Jongintaba and his wife Noengland treated him as their own child, raising him alongside their son, Justice, and daughter, Nomafu.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=17|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=4|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=22–25|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=3|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=26–27|6a1=Meredith|6y=2010|6p=5|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=7–9}} As Mandela attended church services every Sunday with his guardians, Christianity became a significant part of his life.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=7|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=27–29|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=8–9}} He attended a Methodist mission school located next to the palace, where he studied English, Xhosa, history and geography.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=7|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2p=25|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=27|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=9}} He developed a love of [[African history]], listening to the tales told by elderly visitors to the palace, and was influenced by the [[Anti-imperialism|anti-imperialist]] rhetoric of a visiting chief, Joyi.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=11–12|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=31–34|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=3|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=18|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=8}} Nevertheless, at the time he considered the [[Scramble for Africa|European colonizers]] not as oppressors but as benefactors who had brought education and other benefits to southern Africa.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=43|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=11}} Aged 16, he, Justice and several other boys travelled to Tyhalarha to undergo the [[ulwaluko]] [[circumcision]] ritual that symbolically marked their transition from boys to men; afterwards he was given the name ''Dalibunga''.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=17|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=36–42|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=8|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=29–31|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=9–11|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6p=14}}

===Clarkebury, Healdtown, and Fort Hare: 1934–1940===

[[File:Young Mandela.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Photograph of Mandela, taken in Umtata in 1937]]

Intending to gain skills needed to become a [[privy council]]lor for the Thembu royal house, in 1933 Mandela began his secondary education at [[Clarkebury]] Methodist High School in [[Engcobo]], a Western-style institution that was the largest school for Black Africans in [[Thembuland]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=45–47|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=27, 31|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=12–13|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=15}} Made to socialise with other students on an equal basis, he claimed that he lost his "stuck up" attitude, becoming best friends with a girl for the first time; he began playing sports and developed his lifelong love of gardening.{{sfn|Mandela|1994|pp=48–50}} He completed his Junior Certificate in two years,{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=17}} and in 1937 moved to [[Healdtown Comprehensive School|Healdtown]], the Methodist college in [[Fort Beaufort]] attended by most Thembu royalty, including Justice.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=52|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=31–32|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=14|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=17–18}} The headmaster emphasised the superiority of [[Culture of Europe|European culture]] and [[government]], but Mandela became increasingly interested in native [[Culture of Africa|African culture]], making his first non-Xhosa friend, a speaker of [[Sotho language|Sotho]], and coming under the influence of one of his favourite teachers, a Xhosa who broke taboo by marrying a Sotho.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=53–54|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=32|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=14–15|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=18–21}} Mandela spent much of his spare time at Healdtown as a long-distance runner and boxer, and in his second year he became a [[prefect]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=56|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=32|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=15}}

With Jongintaba's backing, in 1939 Mandela began work on a [[Bachelor of Arts|BA degree]] at the [[University of Fort Hare]], an elite Black institution in [[Alice, Eastern Cape]], with around 150 students. There he studied English, [[anthropology]], politics, "native administration", and [[Roman Dutch law]] in his first year, desiring to become an interpreter or clerk in the [[INTAF|Native Affairs Department]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=62–65|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=9|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=33–34|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=15–18|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=21, 25}} Mandela stayed in the Wesley House dormitory, befriending his own kinsman, [[Kaiser Matanzima|K. D. Matanzima]], as well as [[Oliver Tambo]], who became a close friend and comrade for decades to come.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=62–63|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=33–34|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=17–19|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=24–25}} He took up ballroom dancing,{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=67–69|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=34|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=18|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=25}} performed in a drama society play about [[Abraham Lincoln]],{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=68|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=10|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=35|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=18|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=25}} and gave [[Bible]] classes in the local community as part of the Student Christian Association.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=68|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=10|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=18|4a1=Forster|4y=2014|4p=93}} Although he had friends who held connections to the [[African National Congress]] (ANC) who wanted South Africa to be independent of the [[British Empire]], Mandela avoided any involvement with the nascent movement,{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=25}} and became a vocal supporter of the [[British Empire in World War II|British war effort]] when the [[Second World War]] broke out.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=70–71|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=11|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=19|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=26}} He helped establish a first-year students' house committee which challenged the dominance of the second-years,{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=66|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=34}} and at the end of his first year became involved in a [[Students' Representative Council]] (SRC) boycott against the quality of food, for which he was suspended from the university; he never returned to complete his degree.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=21|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=78–86|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3pp=11–12|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=34–35|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=19–20|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=26–27}}

===Arriving in Johannesburg: 1941–1943===
Returning to Mqhekezweni in December 1940, Mandela found that Jongintaba had [[arranged marriage]]s for him and Justice; dismayed, they fled to [[Johannesburg]] via [[Queenstown, Eastern Cape|Queenstown]], arriving in April 1941.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=21|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=73–76|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=12|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=36–39|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=20–22|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=27–28}} Mandela found work as a night watchman at Crown Mines, his "first sight of South African capitalism in action", but was fired when the ''induna'' (headman) discovered that he was a runaway.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=23|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=25–26|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=89–94|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4pp=12–13|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5p=40|6a1=Meredith|6y=2010|6pp=27–28|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=29–30}} He stayed with a cousin in George Goch Township, who introduced Mandela to realtor and ANC activist [[Walter Sisulu]]. The latter secured Mandela a job as an [[articled clerk]] at the law firm of Witkin, Sidelsky and Eidelman, a company run by Lazar Sidelsky, a [[Liberalism|liberal]] Jew sympathetic to the ANC's cause.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=96–101|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=13, 19–21|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=41|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=28–30|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=30–31}} At the firm, Mandela befriended Gaur Radebe—a Hlubi member of the ANC and [[South African Communist Party|Communist Party]]—and Nat Bregman, a Jewish [[communism|communist]] who became his first white friend.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=104–105|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=22, 31–32|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=43, 48|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=31–32|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=32–33}} Mandela attended Communist Party gatherings, where he was impressed that [[White South Africans|Europeans]], [[Bantu peoples|Africans]], [[Asian South Africans|Indians]], and [[Coloured]]s mixed as equals. He later stated that he did not join the party because its [[atheism]] conflicted with his Christian faith, and because he saw the South African struggle as being racially based rather than as [[class conflict|class warfare]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=106|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=48–49}} To continue his higher education, Mandela signed up to a [[University of South Africa]] correspondence course, working on his bachelor's degree at night.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=100|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=44|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=33|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=34}}

Earning a small wage, Mandela rented a room in the house of the Xhoma family in the [[Alexandra, Gauteng|Alexandra]] township; despite being rife with poverty, crime and pollution, Alexandra always remained a special place for him.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=23|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=26|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=99, 108–110|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=44–45|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=33|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6p=33}} Although embarrassed by his poverty, he briefly dated a [[Swazi people|Swati]] woman before unsuccessfully courting his landlord's daughter.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=113–116|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=23|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=45–46|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=33}} To save money and be closer to downtown Johannesburg, Mandela moved into the compound of the [[Witwatersrand Native Labour Association]], living among miners of various tribes; as the compound was visited by various chiefs, he once met the [[Regent|Queen Regent]] of [[Basutoland]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=118–119|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=24|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=33|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=34}} In late 1941, Jongintaba visited Johannesburg—there forgiving Mandela for running away—before returning to Thembuland, where he died in the winter of 1942. Mandela and Justice arrived a day late for the funeral.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=116–117, 119–120|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=22|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=47|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=33–34|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=33}} After he passed his BA exams in early 1943, Mandela returned to Johannesburg to follow a political path as a lawyer rather than become a privy councillor in Thembuland.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=122, 126–27|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=49|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=34|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=34}} He later stated that he experienced no epiphany, but that he "simply found [himself] doing so, and could not do otherwise."{{sfn|Mandela|1994|p=135}}

==Revolutionary activity==
===Law studies and the ANC Youth League: 1943–1949===
Mandela began studying law at the [[University of the Witwatersrand]], where he was the only black African student and faced racism. There, he befriended liberal and communist European, Jewish, and Indian students, among them [[Joe Slovo]] and [[Ruth First]].{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=33–34|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=127–131|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=64–65|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=34–35|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=34–35}} Becoming increasingly politicised, in August 1943 Mandela marched in support of a successful bus boycott to reverse fare rises.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=122–123|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=27–28|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=48|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=44|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=37}} Joining the ANC, he was increasingly influenced by Sisulu, spending time with other activists at Sisulu's [[Orlando, Soweto|Orlando]] house, including his old friend Oliver Tambo.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=136|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=53|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=36, 43}} In 1943, Mandela met [[Anton Lembede]], an ANC member affiliated with the "Africanist" branch of [[African nationalism]], which was virulently opposed to a racially united front against colonialism and imperialism or to an alliance with the communists.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=137–139|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=33–34|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=53|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=42–43|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=38–39}} Despite his friendships with non-blacks and communists, Mandela embraced Lembede's views, believing that Black Africans should be entirely independent in their struggle for political self-determination.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=31|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=34–35|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=142–143|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=54}} Deciding on the need for a youth wing to mass-mobilise Africans in opposition to their subjugation, Mandela was among a delegation that approached ANC President [[Alfred Bitini Xuma]] on the subject at his home in [[Sophiatown]]; the [[African National Congress Youth League]] (ANCYL) was founded on Easter Sunday 1944 in the [[Bantu Men's Social Centre]], with Lembede as president and Mandela as a member of its executive committee.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=28–29|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=139–143|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=35|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=52–56|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=44–46|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=39–41}}

[[File:Mandela e Evelyn 1944.jpg|thumb|left|Mandela and Evelyn in July 1944, at Walter and Albertina Sisulu's wedding party in the Bantu Men's Social Centre.{{sfn|Smith|2010|p=inset photographs}}]]

At Sisulu's house, Mandela met [[Evelyn Mase]], a trainee nurse and ANC activist from [[Engcobo]], [[Transkei]]. Entering a relationship and marrying in October 1944, they initially lived with her relatives until moving into a rented house in the township of [[Orlando, Soweto|Orlando]] in early 1946.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=24|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=39–40|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=144, 148–149|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4pp=24, 25|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=59–62|6a1=Meredith|6y=2010|6p=47|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7p=36}} Their first child, Madiba "Thembi" Thembekile, was born in February 1945; a daughter, Makaziwe, was born in 1947 but died of [[meningitis]] nine months later.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=40–41|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=149, 152|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=29|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=60–64|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=48|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6p=36}} Mandela enjoyed home life, welcoming his mother and his sister, Leabie, to stay with him.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=40|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=150, 210|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=30|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=67|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=48|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6p=36}} In early 1947, his three years of articles ended at Witkin, Sidelsky and Eidelman, and he decided to become a full-time student, subsisting on loans from the Bantu Welfare Trust.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=151|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=64|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=48–49}}

In July 1947, Mandela rushed Lembede, who was ill, to hospital, where he died; he was succeeded as ANCYL president by the more moderate [[A.P. Mda|Peter Mda]], who agreed to co-operate with communists and non-blacks, appointing Mandela ANCYL secretary.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=36|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=43|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=153–154|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=66|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=48}} Mandela disagreed with Mda's approach, and in December 1947 supported an unsuccessful measure to expel communists from the ANCYL, considering their ideology un-African.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=154|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=42}} In 1947, Mandela was elected to the executive committee of the ANC's [[Transvaal Province]] branch, serving under regional president C. S. Ramohanoe. When Ramohanoe acted against the wishes of the committee by co-operating with Indians and communists, Mandela was one of those who forced his resignation.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=154–157|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=37|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=66|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=49}}

In the [[1948 South African general election|South African general election in 1948]], in which only whites were permitted to vote, the Afrikaner-dominated [[Herenigde Nasionale Party]] under [[Daniel François Malan]] took power, soon uniting with the [[Afrikaner Party]] to form the [[National Party (South Africa)|National Party]]. Openly [[Racialism (Racial categorization)|racialist]], the party codified and expanded racial segregation with new [[apartheid legislation]].{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=35|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=159–162|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3pp=41–42|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=70–72|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=76–78|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=51–52}} Gaining increasing influence in the ANC, Mandela and his party cadre allies began advocating [[direct action]] against apartheid, such as boycotts and strikes, influenced by the tactics already employed by South Africa's Indian community. Xuma did not support these measures and was removed from the presidency in a [[Motion of no confidence|vote of no confidence]], replaced by [[James Moroka]] and a more militant executive committee containing Sisulu, Mda, Tambo, and Godfrey Pitje.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=36–37|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=162–165|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=44|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=72–73|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=78–79|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=53–55}} Mandela later related that he and his colleagues had "guided the ANC to a more radical and revolutionary path."{{sfn|Mandela|1994|p=165}} Having devoted his time to politics, Mandela failed his final year at Witwatersrand three times; he was ultimately denied his degree in December 1949.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2010|1pp=68–70|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=35}}

===Defiance Campaign and Transvaal ANC Presidency: 1950–1954===

[[File:Flag of the African National Congress.svg|thumb|The ANC's tricolour flag; black for the people, green for the land, and gold for the resources of Africa{{sfn|Benson|1986|p=26}}]]

Mandela took Xuma's place on the ANC national executive in March 1950,{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=168|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=44|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=55–56}} and that same year was elected national president of the ANCYL.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=41|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2p=176|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=47|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=78|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=88|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=63–64}} In March, the Defend Free Speech Convention was held in Johannesburg, bringing together African, Indian, and communist activists to call a [[International Workers' Day|May Day]] [[general strike]] in protest against apartheid and white minority rule. Mandela opposed the strike because it was multi-racial and not ANC-led, but a majority of Black workers took part, resulting in increased police repression and the introduction of the [[Suppression of Communism Act, 1950]], affecting the actions of all protest groups.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=38–40|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=48–49|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=165–167|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=74–75|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=81–83|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=61–62}} At the ANC national conference of December 1951, he continued arguing against a racially united front, but was outvoted.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=176|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=78|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=63–64}}

Thereafter, Mandela rejected Lembede's Africanism and embraced the idea of a multi-racial front against apartheid.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=42|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=55|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=48|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=94}} Influenced by friends like [[Moses Kotane]] and by the [[Soviet Union]]'s support for [[wars of national liberation]], his mistrust of communism broke down and he began reading literature by [[Karl Marx]], [[Vladimir Lenin]], and [[Mao Zedong]], eventually embracing the [[Marxist philosophy]] of [[dialectical materialism]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=177–172|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=45, 47|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=75–76|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=87|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=64–65}} Commenting on communism, he later stated that he "found [himself] strongly drawn to the idea of a classless society which, to [his] mind, was similar to traditional African culture where life was shared and communal."{{sfn|Mandela|1994|p=172}} In April 1952, Mandela began work at the H.M. Basner law firm, which was owned by a communist,{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=165|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=53|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=77|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=92}} although his increasing commitment to work and activism meant he spent less time with his family.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=170|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=94|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=103}}

In 1952, the ANC began preparation for a joint [[Defiance Campaign]] against apartheid with Indian and communist groups, founding a National Voluntary Board to recruit volunteers. The campaign was designed to follow the path of [[nonviolent resistance]] influenced by [[Mahatma Gandhi]]; some supported this for ethical reasons, but Mandela instead considered it pragmatic.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=44–46|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=56–58|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=182–183|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=77, 80|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=88–89|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=66–67}} At a [[Durban]] rally on 22 June, Mandela addressed an assembled crowd of 10,000 people, initiating the campaign protests for which he was arrested and briefly interned in Marshall Square prison.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=183–188|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=52, 53|32a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=81–83|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=88–89|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=69}} These events established Mandela as one of the best-known Black political figures in South Africa.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=47}} With further protests, the ANC's membership grew from 20,000 to 100,000 members; the government responded with mass arrests and introduced the [[Public Safety Act, 1953]] to permit [[martial law]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=188–192|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=68}} In May, authorities banned Transvaal ANC President [[J. B. Marks]] from making public appearances; unable to maintain his position, he recommended Mandela as his successor. Although Africanists opposed his candidacy, Mandela was elected to be regional president in October.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=51|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=194–195|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=54|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=85|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=72–73}}

[[File:The Nelson Mandela House.jpg|thumb|left|[[Mandela House|Mandela's former home]] in the Johannesburg township of [[Soweto]]]]

In July 1952, Mandela was arrested under the [[Suppression of Communism Act]] and stood trial as one of the 21 accused—among them Moroka, Sisulu, and [[Yusuf Dadoo]]—in Johannesburg. Found guilty of "statutory communism", a term that the government used to describe most opposition to apartheid, their sentence of nine months' [[hard labour]] was [[Suspended sentence|suspended]] for two years.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=50–51|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=195–198|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=54|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=83–84|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=92|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=71–72}} In December, Mandela was given a six-month ban from attending meetings or talking to more than one individual at a time, making his Transvaal ANC presidency impractical, and during this period the Defiance Campaign petered out.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=64|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=199–200, 204|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=86|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=73}} In September 1953, Andrew Kunene read out Mandela's "No Easy Walk to Freedom" speech at a Transvaal ANC meeting; the title was taken from a quote by Indian independence leader [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], a seminal influence on Mandela's thought. The speech laid out a contingency plan for a scenario in which the ANC was banned. This Mandela Plan, or M-Plan, involved dividing the organisation into a [[Clandestine cell system|cell structure]] with a more centralised leadership.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=58–59|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=60|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=205–207, 231|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=58|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=107–108|6a1=Smith|6y=2010|6pp=116–117|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=81–82, 84–85}}

Mandela obtained work as an attorney for the firm Terblanche and Briggish, before moving to the liberal-run Helman and Michel, passing qualification exams to become a full-fledged attorney.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=209–210|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=87|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=95|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=7}} In August 1953, Mandela and Tambo opened their own law firm, [[Mandela and Tambo]], operating in downtown Johannesburg. The only African-run law firm in the country, it was popular with aggrieved Black people, often dealing with cases of [[police brutality]]. Disliked by the authorities, the firm was forced to relocate to a remote location after their office permit was removed under the [[Group Areas Act]]; as a result, their clientele dwindled.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=54–57|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=61|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=210–216|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=73|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=87–93|6a1=Meredith|6y=2010|6pp=95–101|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=77–80}} As a lawyer of aristocratic heritage, Mandela was part of Johannesburg's elite Black middle-class, and accorded much respect from the Black community.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|pp=28–29, 75}} Although a second daughter, [[Makaziwe Mandela|Makaziwe Phumia]], was born in May 1954, Mandela's relationship with Evelyn became strained, and she accused him of adultery. He may have had affairs with ANC member [[Lillian Ngoyi]] and secretary Ruth Mompati; various individuals close to Mandela in this period have stated that the latter bore him a child.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=103–104|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=95–99, 105–106}} Disgusted by her son's behaviour, Nosekeni returned to Transkei, while Evelyn embraced the [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] and rejected Mandela's preoccupation with politics.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=293–294|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=104–105|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=98–99, 105–106|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=76–77}}

===Congress of the People and the Treason Trial: 1955–1961===
{{Main|Treason Trial}}
{{Quote box
| width = 25em
| align = right
| quote = We, the people of South Africa, declare for all our country and the world to know: That South Africa belongs to all who live in it, Black and white, and that no government can justly claim authority unless it is based on the will of the people.
| salign = right
| source = —Opening words of the [[Freedom Charter]]{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=66|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=92}}
}}

After taking part in the unsuccessful protest to prevent the forced relocation of all Black people from the Sophiatown suburb of Johannesburg in February 1955, Mandela concluded that violent action would prove necessary to end apartheid and white minority rule.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=218–233, 234–236|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=59–60|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=114–117|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=120–123|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=82–84}} On his advice, Sisulu requested weaponry from the People's Republic of China, which was denied. Although the Chinese government supported the anti-apartheid struggle, they believed the movement insufficiently prepared for [[guerrilla warfare]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=226–227|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=60|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=108–109|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=118|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=84}} With the involvement of the [[South African Indian Congress]], the Coloured People's Congress, the [[South African Congress of Trade Unions]] and the [[South African Congress of Democrats|Congress of Democrats]], the ANC planned a [[Congress of the People (1955)|Congress of the People]], calling on all South Africans to send in proposals for a post-apartheid era. Based on the responses, a [[Freedom Charter]] was drafted by [[Rusty Bernstein]], calling for the creation of a democratic, non-racialist state with the [[nationalisation]] of major industry. The charter was adopted at a June 1955 conference in [[Kliptown]]; 3,000 delegates attended the event, which was forcibly closed down by police.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=64–67|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=71–75|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=243–249|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4pp=65–66|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=129–133|6a1=Smith|6y=2010|6pp=118–120, 125–128|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=87–95}} The tenets of the Freedom Charter remained important for Mandela, and in 1956 he described it as "an inspiration to the people of South Africa".{{sfn|Meredith|2010|p=134}}

Following the end of a second ban in September 1955, Mandela went on a working holiday to [[Transkei]] to discuss the implications of the [[Bantu Authorities Act, 1951]] with local tribal leaders, also visiting his mother and Noengland before proceeding to [[Cape Town]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=253–274|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=130–132|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=96–99}} In March 1956 he received his third ban on public appearances, restricting him to Johannesburg for five years, but he often defied it.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=275|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=147|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=101–102}} Mandela's marriage broke down and Evelyn left him, taking their children to live with her brother. Initiating divorce proceedings in May 1956, she claimed that Mandela had physically abused her; he denied the allegations, and fought for custody of their children.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=79–80|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=143–144|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=100–102|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=110}} She withdrew her petition of separation in November, but Mandela filed for divorce in January 1958; the divorce was finalised in March, with the children placed in Evelyn's care.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=79–80|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2p=296|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=102–104|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=110}} During the divorce proceedings, he began courting a social worker, [[Winnie Madikizela-Mandela|Winnie Madikizela]], whom he married in [[Bizana, Eastern Cape|Bizana]] in June 1958. She later became involved in ANC activities, spending several weeks in prison.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=74–76|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=93|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=306–311|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4pp=75–77|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=144–149|6a1=Smith|6y=2010|6pp=104, 132–145|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=110–113}} Together they had two children: [[Zenani Mandela-Dlamini|Zenani]], born in February 1959, and [[Zindzi Mandela-Hlongwane|Zindziswa]] (1960–2020).{{sfn|Meredith|2010|pp=165, 186}}

[[File:ApartheidSignEnglishAfrikaans.jpg|thumb|left|An apartheid sign; apartheid legislation impacted all areas of life]]

In December 1956, Mandela was arrested alongside most of the ANC national executive, and accused of "high treason" against the state. Held in Johannesburg Prison amid mass protests, they underwent a preparatory examination before being granted bail.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=68, 71–72|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=83|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=283–292|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=136–141|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=163–164|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=103–106}} The defence's refutation began in January 1957, overseen by defence lawyer [[Vernon Berrangé]], and continued until the case was adjourned in September. In January 1958, [[Oswald Pirow]] was appointed to prosecute the case, and in February the judge ruled that there was "sufficient reason" for the defendants to go on trial in the [[Gauteng Division|Transvaal Supreme Court]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=299–305|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=142|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=167–168|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=116–117}} The formal [[Treason Trial]] began in [[Pretoria]] in August 1958, with the defendants successfully applying to have the three judges—all linked to the governing National Party—replaced. In August, one charge was dropped, and in October the prosecution withdrew its indictment, submitting a reformulated version in November which argued that the ANC leadership committed high treason by advocating violent revolution, a charge the defendants denied.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=331–334|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=162, 165|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=167|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=122–123}}

In April 1959, Africanists dissatisfied with the ANC's united front approach founded the [[Pan-Africanist Congress]] (PAC); Mandela disagreed with the PAC's racially exclusionary views, describing them as "immature" and "naïve".{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=79|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=90–92, 141–143|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=327–330|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=167–168|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=171–173|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=117–122}} Both parties took part in an anti-pass campaign in early 1960, in which Africans burned [[Pass laws|the passes that they were legally obliged to carry]]. One of the PAC-organised demonstrations was fired upon by police, resulting in the deaths of 69 protesters in the [[Sharpeville massacre]]. The incident brought international condemnation of the government and resulted in rioting throughout South Africa, with Mandela publicly burning his pass in solidarity.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=83–84|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=144–147|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=342–346|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4pp=81–82|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=167–170|6a1=Smith|6y=2010|6pp=173–175|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=130–131}}

Responding to the unrest, the government implemented state of emergency measures, declaring [[martial law]] and banning the ANC and PAC; in March, they arrested Mandela and other activists, imprisoning them for five months without charge in the unsanitary conditions of the Pretoria Local prison.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=85–86|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=347–357|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=172–175|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=175|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=132–133}} Imprisonment caused problems for Mandela and his co-defendants in the Treason Trial; their lawyers could not reach them, and so it was decided that the lawyers would withdraw in protest until the accused were freed from prison when the state of emergency was lifted in late August 1960.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=357–364|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=176, 184|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=177|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=134–135}} Over the following months, Mandela used his free time to organise an All-In African Conference near [[Pietermaritzburg]], [[Natal Province|Natal]], in March 1961, at which 1,400 anti-apartheid delegates met, agreeing on a stay-at-home strike to mark 31 May, the day South Africa became a republic.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=98|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=373–374|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3pp=83–84|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=187–188|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=183–185|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=140–143}} On 29 March 1961, six years after the Treason Trial began, the judges produced a verdict of not guilty, ruling that there was insufficient evidence to convict the accused of "high treason", since they had advocated neither communism nor violent revolution; the outcome embarrassed the government.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=94|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=151|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=377–380|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=84|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=188–189|6a1=Smith|6y=2010|6p=178|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7p=143}}

===MK, the SACP, and African tour: 1961–62===
[[File:liliesleaf hut1.jpg|thumb|right|Thatched room at Liliesleaf Farm, where Mandela hid]]
Disguised as a chauffeur, Mandela travelled around the country incognito, organising the ANC's new cell structure and the planned mass stay-at-home strike. Referred to as the "Black Pimpernel" in the press—a reference to [[Emma Orczy]]'s 1905 novel ''[[The Scarlet Pimpernel]]''—a warrant for his arrest was put out by the police.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=99|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=283–287|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=192–193|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=186–188, 193|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=144–146, 154}} Mandela held secret meetings with reporters, and after the government failed to prevent the strike, he warned them that many anti-apartheid activists would soon resort to violence through groups like the PAC's [[Azanian People's Liberation Army|Poqo]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=289–291|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=188–189|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=147–149}} He believed that the ANC should form an armed group to channel some of this violence in a controlled direction, convincing both ANC leader [[Albert Luthuli]]—who was morally opposed to violence—and allied activist groups of its necessity.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=393–396|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=199–200|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=206–210|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=150–151}}

Inspired by the actions of [[Fidel Castro]]'s [[26th of July Movement]] in the [[Cuban Revolution]], in 1961 Mandela, Sisulu, and Slovo co-founded [[Umkhonto we Sizwe]] ("Spear of the Nation", abbreviated MK). Becoming chairman of the militant group, Mandela gained ideas from literature on guerrilla warfare by Marxist militants Mao and [[Che Guevara]] as well as from the military theorist [[Carl von Clausewitz]].{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=107|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=397–398|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=197–198, 200–201|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=209–214|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=151–154}} Although initially declared officially separate from the ANC so as not to taint the latter's reputation, MK was later widely recognised as the party's armed wing.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2010|1pp=209–210|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=151}} Most early MK members were white communists who were able to conceal Mandela in their homes; after hiding in communist Wolfie Kodesh's flat in [[Berea, Gauteng|Berea]], Mandela moved to the communist-owned [[Liliesleaf Farm]] in [[Rivonia]], there joined by [[Raymond Mhlaba]], Slovo, and Bernstein, who put together the MK constitution.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=107|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=397–409|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3pp=92–93|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=201–204|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=191, 222–229|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=154–156}} Although in later life Mandela denied, for political reasons, ever being a member of the Communist Party, historical research published in 2011 strongly suggested that he had joined in the late 1950s or early 1960s.{{sfn|Ellis|2011|pp=667–668}} This was confirmed by both the SACP and the ANC after Mandela's death. According to the SACP, he was not only a member of the party, but also served on its Central Committee.{{sfn|Ellis|2016|p=1}}<ref name="Mandela'sCommunism">{{cite web |url=http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=4151%20 |title=SACP statement on the passing away of Madiba |website=South African Communist Party |date=6 December 2013 |access-date=29 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303223354/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=4151%20 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |url-status=dead }}; {{cite news |last=Marrian |first=Natasha |title=SACP confirms Nelson Mandela was a member |url=http://www.bdlive.co.za/national/politics/2013/12/06/sacp-confirms-nelson-mandela-was-a-member |access-date=7 December 2013 |newspaper=Business Day |location=South Africa |date=6 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306232040/http://www.bdlive.co.za/national/politics/2013/12/06/sacp-confirms-nelson-mandela-was-a-member |archive-date=6 March 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

{{Quote box|width=25em|align=left|quote=We of Umkhonto have always sought to achieve liberation without bloodshed and civil clash. Even at this late hour, we hope that our first actions will awaken everyone to a realization of the dangerous situation to which Nationalist policy is leading. We hope that we will bring the Government and its supporters to their senses before it is too late so that both government and its policies can be changed before matters reach the desperate stage of civil war.|salign=right |source=—Statement released by MK to announce the start of their sabotage campaign{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=171|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=207}}}}

Operating through a cell structure, MK planned to carry out acts of sabotage that would exert maximum pressure on the government with minimum casualties; they sought to bomb military installations, power plants, telephone lines, and transport links at night, when civilians were not present. Mandela stated that they chose sabotage because it was the least harmful action, did not involve killing, and offered the best hope for racial reconciliation afterwards; he nevertheless acknowledged that should this have failed then guerrilla warfare might have been necessary.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=108|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=171|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=411–412|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=90|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=204}} Soon after ANC leader Luthuli was awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]], MK publicly announced its existence with 57 bombings on [[Day of the Vow|Dingane's Day]] (16 December) 1961, followed by further attacks on New Year's Eve.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=110|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=170|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=413–415|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=95|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=206|6a1=Smith|6y=2010|6pp=239–246|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=158–159}}

The ANC decided to send Mandela as a delegate to the February 1962 meeting of the Pan-African Freedom Movement for East, Central and Southern Africa (PAFMECSA) in [[Addis Ababa]], Ethiopia.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=111|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=171–172, 176|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=418–425|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=95|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=251–254|6a1=Benneyworth|6y=2011|6p=81|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=160–162}} Leaving South Africa in secret via [[Bechuanaland Protectorate|Bechuanaland]], on his way Mandela visited [[Tanganyika (1961–1964)|Tanganyika]] and met with its president, [[Julius Nyerere]].{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=173–175|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=97|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=209|4a1=Benneyworth|4y=2011|4pp=81, 84}} Arriving in Ethiopia, Mandela met with Emperor [[Haile Selassie I]], and gave his speech after Selassie's at the conference.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=176–177, 180|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=427–432|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=255–256|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=163–165}} After the symposium, he travelled to [[Cairo]], Egypt, admiring the political reforms of President [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]], and then went to [[Tunis]], Tunisia, where President [[Habib Bourguiba]] gave him £5,000 for weaponry. He proceeded to Morocco, Mali, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Senegal, receiving funds from Liberian President [[William Tubman]] and Guinean President [[Ahmed Sékou Touré]].{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=185–194|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=432–440|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=210|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=256–259|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=165–167}} He left Africa for London, England, where he met anti-apartheid activists, reporters, and prominent politicians.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=114|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=196–197|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=441–443|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=210–211|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=259–261|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=167–169}} Upon returning to Ethiopia, he began a six-month course in guerrilla warfare, but completed only two months before being recalled to South Africa by the ANC's leadership.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=443–445|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=100|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=211|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=261–262|5a1=Benneyworth|5y=2011|5pp=91–93|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=169–170}}

==Imprisonment==
===Arrest and Rivonia trial: 1962–1964===
{{main|Rivonia Trial}}

On 5 August 1962, police captured Mandela along with fellow activist [[Cecil Williams (anti-apartheid activist)|Cecil Williams]] near [[Howick, KwaZulu-Natal|Howick]].{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=116–117|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=201–202|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=435–435|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=215–216|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=275–276|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=170–172}} Many MK members suspected that the authorities had been tipped off with regard to Mandela's whereabouts, although Mandela himself gave these ideas little credence.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=278–279|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=216|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=172}} In later years, [[Donald Rickard]], a former American diplomat revealed that the [[Central Intelligence Agency]], who feared Mandela's associations with communists, had informed the South African police of his location.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=216–217|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=172}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Ex-CIA spy admits tip led to Nelson Mandela's long imprisonment |date=15 May 2016 |website=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/may/15/cia-operative-nelson-mandela-1962-arrest |access-date=20 May 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160516104658/http://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/may/15/cia-operative-nelson-mandela-1962-arrest |archive-date=16 May 2016 }}</ref> Jailed in Johannesburg's Marshall Square prison, Mandela was charged with inciting workers' strikes and leaving the country without permission. Representing himself with Slovo as legal advisor, Mandela intended to use the trial to showcase "the ANC's moral opposition to racism" while supporters demonstrated outside the court.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=456–459|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=172–173}} Moved to [[Pretoria]], where Winnie could visit him, he began correspondence studies for a [[Bachelor of Laws]] (LLB) degree from the [[University of London International Programmes]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=463–465|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=292–293|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=173–174}} His hearing began in October, but he disrupted proceedings by wearing a traditional ''[[kaross]]'', refusing to call any witnesses, and turning his plea of mitigation into a political speech. Found guilty, he was sentenced to five years' imprisonment; as he left the courtroom, supporters sang "[[Nkosi Sikelel iAfrika]]".{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=120–134|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=210–213|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=468–482|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4pp=104–106|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=218–426|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=174–176}}

{{Quote box
| width = 25em
| align = right
| quote = I have fought against white domination, and I have fought against Black domination. I have cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all persons will live together in harmony and with equal opportunities. It is an ideal which I hope to live for and to see realised. But if it needs be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die.
| salign = right
| source = —Mandela's [[I Am Prepared to Die|Rivonia Trial Speech]], 1964{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=159|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=258|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=265|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=302|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=193|6a1=Broun|6y=2012|6p=74}}<ref>{{cite web |author=Nelson Mandela |title=I am prepared to die |url=http://db.nelsonmandela.org/speeches/pub_view.asp?pg=item&ItemID=NMS010 |work=Nelson Mandela Centre of Memory |publisher=Nelson Mandela Foundation |access-date=16 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201092557/http://db.nelsonmandela.org/speeches/pub_view.asp?pg=item&ItemID=NMS010 |archive-date=1 February 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
}}

On 11 July 1963, police raided [[Liliesleaf Farm]], arresting those they found there and uncovering paperwork documenting MK's activities, some of which mentioned Mandela. The [[Rivonia Trial]] began at [[Supreme Court of South Africa|Pretoria Supreme Court]] in October, with Mandela and his comrades charged with four counts of sabotage and conspiracy to violently overthrow the government; their chief prosecutor was [[Percy Yutar]].{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=134–137|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=223–226|3a1=Mandela|3y=2004|3pp=27–32|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4pp=108–109|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=242–250|6a1=Smith|6y=2010|6pp=292–295|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=183–186|8a1=Broun|8y=2012|8pp=6–10, 19–20}} Judge [[Quartus de Wet]] soon threw out the prosecution's case for insufficient evidence, but Yutar reformulated the charges, presenting his new case from December 1963 until February 1964, calling 173 witnesses and bringing thousands of documents and photographs to the trial.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=138–139|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=226|3a1=Mandela|3y=2004|3pp=33–42|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=252–254, 256|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=186–190|6a1=Broun|6y=2012|6pp=43–49}}

Although four of the accused denied involvement with MK, Mandela and the other five accused admitted sabotage but denied that they had ever agreed to initiate guerrilla war against the government.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=160|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=232–233|3a1=Mandela|3y=2004|3pp=42–44|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=252, 259}} They used the trial to highlight their political cause; at the opening of the defence's proceedings, Mandela gave his three-hour "[[I Am Prepared to Die]]" speech. That speech—which was inspired by Castro's "[[History Will Absolve Me]]"—was widely reported in the press despite official censorship.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=140|2a1=Mandela|2y=2004|2pp=43–57|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=258–265|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=298–302|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=191–194|6a1=Broun|6y=2012|6pp=68–75}} The trial gained international attention; there were global calls for the release of the accused from the [[United Nations]] and [[World Peace Council]], while the [[University of London Union]] voted Mandela to its presidency.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=2004|1p=62|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=268|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=303|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=194–195|5a1=Broun|5y=2012|5pp=102–104, 107}} On 12 June 1964, justice De Wet found Mandela and two of his co-accused guilty on all four charges; although the prosecution had called for the [[death sentence]] to be applied, the judge instead condemned them to [[life imprisonment]].{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=161, 163|2a1=Mandela|2y=2004|2pp=63–68|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=268–272|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=306|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=196–197|6a1=Broun|6y=2012|6pp=116–128}}

===Robben Island: 1964–1982===

In 1964, Mandela and his co-accused were transferred from Pretoria to the prison on [[Robben Island]], remaining there for the next 18 years.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=165|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=262|3a1=Mandela|3y=2004|3pp=75–78|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=307–308|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=204}} Isolated from non-political prisoners in Section B, Mandela was imprisoned in a damp concrete cell measuring {{convert|8|ft|m}} by {{convert|7|ft|m}}, with a straw mat on which to sleep.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=2004|1pp=79–80|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=279|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=205}} Verbally and physically harassed by several white prison wardens, the Rivonia Trial prisoners spent their days breaking rocks into gravel, until being reassigned in January 1965 to work in a lime quarry. Mandela was initially forbidden to wear sunglasses, and the glare from the lime permanently damaged his eyesight.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=166, 182|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=266|3a1=Mandela|3y=2004|3pp=82–84, 108–116|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=281–283, 290–291|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=206–207}} At night, he worked on his LLB degree which he was obtaining from the [[University of London]] through a correspondence course with [[Wolsey Hall, Oxford]], but newspapers were forbidden, and he was locked in [[solitary confinement]] on several occasions for the possession of smuggled news clippings.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=174|2a1=Mandela|2y=2004|2p=126|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=299|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=205, 258}} He was initially classified as the lowest grade of prisoner, Class D, meaning that he was permitted one visit and one letter every six months, although all mail was heavily censored.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=169|2a1=Mandela|2y=2004|2pp=102–108|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=283|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=205}}

[[File:RobbenIslandSteinbruchA.JPG|thumb|left|Lime quarry on Robben Island where Mandela and other prisoners were forced to carry out hard labour]]

The political prisoners took part in work and [[hunger strike]]s—the latter considered largely ineffective by Mandela—to improve prison conditions, viewing this as a microcosm of the anti-apartheid struggle.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=175|2a1=Mandela|2y=2004|2pp=83, 90, 136–138|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=124|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=284, 296–298}} ANC prisoners elected him to their four-man "High Organ" along with Sisulu, [[Govan Mbeki]], and [[Raymond Mhlaba]], and he involved himself in a group representing all political prisoners (including [[Eddie Daniels (political activist)|Eddie Daniels]]) on the island, Ulundi, through which he forged links with PAC and [[Yu Chi Chan Club]] members.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=298–299|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=210–214}} Initiating the "University of Robben Island", whereby prisoners lectured on their own areas of expertise, he debated socio-political topics with his comrades.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=130–131|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=292–295|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=236–241, 288–294}}

Though attending Christian Sunday services, Mandela studied Islam.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=301, 313|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=232}} He also studied [[Afrikaans]], hoping to build a mutual respect with the warders and convert them to his cause.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=295, 299–301|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=229}} Various official visitors met with Mandela, most significantly the liberal parliamentary representative [[Helen Suzman]] of the [[Progressive Party (South Africa)|Progressive Party]], who championed Mandela's cause outside of prison.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=301–302|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=221}} In September 1970, he met British [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] politician [[Denis Healey]].{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=337|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=222}} South African Minister of Justice [[Jimmy Kruger]] visited in December 1974, but he and Mandela did not get along with each other.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=334|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=241}} His mother visited in 1968, dying shortly after, and his firstborn son Thembi died in a car accident the following year; Mandela was forbidden from attending either funeral.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=142, 145|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=303–304|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=246–247}} His wife was rarely able to see him, being regularly imprisoned for political activity, and his daughters first visited in December 1975. Winnie was released from prison in 1977 but was forcibly settled in [[Brandfort]] and remained unable to see him.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=192–194|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=306–307|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=287–288, 304–310|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=248–254, 302}}

From 1967 onwards, prison conditions improved. Black prisoners were given trousers rather than shorts, games were permitted, and the standard of their food was raised.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=301|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=222, 235}} In 1969, an escape plan for Mandela was developed by Gordon Bruce, but it was abandoned after the conspiracy was infiltrated by an agent of the [[South African Bureau of State Security]] (BOSS), who hoped to see Mandela shot during the escape.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=207–208|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=231}} In 1970, Commander Piet Badenhorst became commanding officer. Mandela, seeing an increase in the physical and mental abuse of prisoners, complained to visiting judges, who had Badenhorst reassigned.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=127–128|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=308–310|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=223–225}} He was replaced by Commander Willie Willemse, who developed a co-operative relationship with Mandela and was keen to improve prison standards.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=128–129|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=226–227}}

{{multiple image
| align = right
| image1 = Physiological needs.jpg
| width1 = 190
| alt1 =
| caption1 =
| image2 = Robben Island fængslet Sektion B.jpg
| width2 = 205
| alt2 =
| caption2 =
| footer = The inside of Mandela's prison cell as it was when he was imprisoned in 1964 and his open cell window facing the prison yard on Robben Island, now a [[National heritage sites (South Africa)|national]] and [[World Heritage Site]]. Mandela's cell later contained more furniture, including a bed from around 1973.{{sfn|Hutton|1994|p=60}}
}}

By 1975, Mandela had become a Class A prisoner,{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=228}} which allowed him greater numbers of visits and letters. He corresponded with anti-apartheid activists like [[Mangosuthu Buthelezi]] and [[Desmond Tutu]].{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=314–315}} That year, he began his autobiography, which was smuggled to London, but remained unpublished at the time; prison authorities discovered several pages, and his LLB study privileges were revoked for four years.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=268|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=139|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=317|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=242–243}} Instead, he devoted his spare time to gardening and reading until the authorities permitted him to resume his LLB degree studies in 1980.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=285–286}}

By the late 1960s, Mandela's fame had been eclipsed by [[Steve Biko]] and the [[Black Consciousness Movement]] (BCM). Seeing the ANC as ineffectual, the BCM called for militant action, but following the [[Soweto uprising]] of 1976, many BCM activists were imprisoned on Robben Island.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=186–188|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=304–306|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=324–327|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=259–276}} Mandela tried to build a relationship with these young radicals, although he was critical of their racialism and contempt for white anti-apartheid activists.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=135|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=327–328|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=277–283|4a1=Soudien|4y=2015|4pp=363–364}} Renewed international interest in his plight came in July 1978, when he celebrated his 60th birthday.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=296}} He was awarded an honorary doctorate in [[Lesotho]], the [[Jawaharlal Nehru Award|Jawaharlal Nehru Award for International Understanding]] in India in 1979, and the [[Freedom of the City]] of [[Glasgow]], Scotland in 1981.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=313, 314|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=315–316}} In March 1980, the slogan "Free Mandela!" was developed by journalist [[Percy Qoboza]], sparking an international campaign that led the [[UN Security Council]] to call for his release.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=155|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=338–339|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=319–320}} Despite increasing foreign pressure, the government refused, relying on its [[Cold War]] allies US President [[Ronald Reagan]] and UK Prime Minister [[Margaret Thatcher]]; both considered Mandela's ANC a terrorist organisation sympathetic to communism, and supported its suppression.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=24|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=321}}

===Pollsmoor Prison: 1982–1988===
In April 1982, Mandela was transferred to [[Pollsmoor Prison]] in [[Tokai, Cape Town]], along with senior ANC leaders Walter Sisulu, Andrew Mlangeni, [[Ahmed Kathrada]], and Raymond Mhlaba; they believed that they were being isolated to remove their influence on younger activists at Robben Island.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=218|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=147–149|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=340|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=324–325}} Conditions at Pollsmoor were better than at Robben Island, although Mandela missed the camaraderie and scenery of the island.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=148|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=346–347|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=324–325}} Getting on well with Pollsmoor's commanding officer, Brigadier Munro, Mandela was permitted to create a [[roof garden]];{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=347|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=326}} he also read voraciously and corresponded widely, now permitted 52 letters a year.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=329}} He was appointed patron of the multi-racial [[United Democratic Front (South Africa)|United Democratic Front]] (UDF), founded to combat [[South African Constitution of 1983|reforms]] implemented by South African President [[P. W. Botha]]. Botha's National Party government had permitted Coloured and Indian citizens to vote for their own parliaments, which had control over education, health, and housing. But, Black Africans were excluded from the system. Like Mandela, the UDF saw this as an attempt to divide the anti-apartheid movement on racial lines.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=224|2a1=Barber|2y=2004|2pp=20, 23, 26–27|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=341–346|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=335–336}}

[[File:Mandela Bust at Southbank.jpg|thumb|left|Bust of Mandela erected on London's [[South Bank]] by the [[Greater London Council]] administration of [[Ken Livingstone]] in 1985]]

The early 1980s witnessed an escalation of violence across the country, and many predicted civil war. This was accompanied by economic stagnation as various multinational banks—under pressure from an international lobby—had stopped investing in South Africa. Numerous banks and Thatcher asked Botha to release Mandela—then at the height of his international fame—to defuse the volatile situation.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=247–248|2a1=Barber|2y=2004|2p=30|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3pp=152–153, 156|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=249–256|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=338–342}} Although considering Mandela a dangerous "arch-Marxist",{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=210|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=340}} in February 1985 Botha offered him a release from prison if he "unconditionally rejected violence as a political weapon". Mandela spurned the offer, releasing a statement through his daughter Zindzi stating, "What freedom am I being offered while the organisation of the people [ANC] remains banned? Only free men can negotiate. A prisoner cannot enter into contracts."{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=237–238|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=315–318|3a1=Barber|3y=2004|3p=36|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=157|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=351–352|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=330–332}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/history/mandela/64-90/jabulani.html|title=Mandela's response to being offered freedom|publisher=ANC|access-date=28 October 2008 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080622004124/http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/history/mandela/64-90/jabulani.html  |archive-date = 22 June 2008}}</ref>

In 1985, Mandela underwent surgery on an enlarged prostate gland, before being given new solitary quarters on the ground floor.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=254|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=157–158|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=358|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=343–345}} He was met by "seven eminent persons", an international delegation sent to negotiate a settlement, but Botha's government refused to co-operate, calling a state of emergency in June and initiating a police crackdown on unrest.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=359–360|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=347–355}} The anti-apartheid resistance fought back, with the ANC committing 231 attacks in 1986 and 235 in 1987.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=355}} The violence escalated as the government used the army and police to combat the resistance and provided covert support for vigilante groups and the [[Zulu people|Zulu]] nationalist movement [[Inkatha Freedom Party|Inkatha]], which was involved in an increasingly violent struggle with the ANC.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=354–357}} Mandela requested talks with Botha but was denied, instead secretly meeting with Minister of Justice [[Kobie Coetsee]] in 1987, and having a further 11 meetings over the next three years. Coetsee organised negotiations between Mandela and a team of four government figures starting in May 1988; the team agreed to the release of political prisoners and the legalisation of the ANC on the condition that they permanently renounce violence, break links with the Communist Party, and not insist on [[majority rule]]. Mandela rejected these conditions, insisting that the ANC would end its armed activities only when the government renounced violence.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=160|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=362–368|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=363–378}}

Mandela's 70th birthday in July 1988 attracted international attention, including [[Nelson Mandela 70th Birthday Tribute|a tribute concert]] at London's [[Wembley Stadium (1923)|Wembley Stadium]] that was televised and watched by an estimated 200 million viewers.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=35|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=368}} Although presented globally as a heroic figure, he faced personal problems when ANC leaders informed him that Winnie had set herself up as head of a gang, the "Mandela United Football Club," which had been responsible for torturing and killing opponents—including children—in Soweto. Though some encouraged him to divorce her, he decided to remain loyal until she was found guilty by trial.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=20–23|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=183–184|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=371–383|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=373–380}}

===Victor Verster Prison and release: 1988–1990===

[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-1986-0920-016, Berlin, Weltgewerkschaftskongress, Probe des Festprogramms.jpg|thumb|right|"Free Mandela" protest in [[East Berlin]], 1986]]

Recovering from [[tuberculosis]] exacerbated by the damp conditions in his cell,{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=318–319|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=160|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=369|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=369–370}} in December 1988, Mandela was moved to [[Victor Verster Prison]] near [[Paarl]]. He was housed in the relative comfort of a warder's house with a personal cook, and he used the time to complete his LLB degree.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=320|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=160|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=369–370|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=381}} While there, he was permitted many visitors and organised secret communications with exiled ANC leader Oliver Tambo.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=384–385, 392–393}}<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/12/08/world/mandela-moved-to-house-at-prison-farm.html |title=Mandela Moved to House at Prison Farm |author=Christopher S. Wren |date=8 December 1988 |work=The New York Times |access-date=13 February 2013 |archive-date=14 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EQXYZIzp?url=http://www.nytimes.com/1988/12/08/world/mandela-moved-to-house-at-prison-farm.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 1989, Botha suffered a stroke; although he would retain the state presidency, he stepped down as leader of the National Party, to be replaced by [[F. W. de Klerk]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=41|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=62|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=388|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=386}} In a surprise move, Botha invited Mandela to a meeting over tea in July 1989, an invitation Mandela considered genial.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=161–162|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=387–388|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=390–392}} Botha was replaced as state president by de Klerk six weeks later; the new president believed that apartheid was unsustainable and released a number of ANC prisoners.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=41–42|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=392–397}} Following the fall of the [[Berlin Wall]] in November 1989, de Klerk called his cabinet together to debate legalising the ANC and freeing Mandela. Although some were deeply opposed to his plans, de Klerk met with Mandela in December to discuss the situation, a meeting both men considered friendly, before legalising all formerly banned political parties in February 1990 and announcing Mandela's unconditional release.{{sfnm|1a1=Glad|1a2=Blanton|1y=1997|1p=567|2a1=Barber|2y=2004|2p=1|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3pp=165–166|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=369–397|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=399–402}}<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/11/newsid_2539000/2539947.stm |title=1990: Freedom for Nelson Mandela |date=11 February 1990 |publisher=BBC |access-date=28 October 2008 |archive-date=26 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EilzLNPU?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/11/newsid_2539000/2539947.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> Shortly thereafter, for the first time in 20 years, photographs of Mandela were allowed to be published in South Africa.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=403}}

Leaving Victor Verster Prison on 11 February, Mandela held Winnie's hand in front of amassed crowds and the press; the event was broadcast live across the world.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=167|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=399–402|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=407}}<ref>{{cite news |url=http://century.guardian.co.uk/1990-1999/Story/0,,112389,00.html |title=Mandela free after 27 years |last=Ormond |first=Roger |date=12 February 1990 |work=The Guardian |access-date=28 October 2008 |location=London |archive-date=26 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EilzkcH7?url=http://century.guardian.co.uk/1990-1999/Story/0,,112389,00.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Driven to [[Cape Town City Hall|Cape Town's City Hall]] through crowds, he gave a speech declaring his commitment to peace and reconciliation with the white minority, but he made it clear that the ANC's armed struggle was not over and would continue as "a purely defensive action against the violence of apartheid". He expressed hope that the government would agree to negotiations, so that "there may no longer be the need for the armed struggle", and insisted that his main focus was to bring peace to the Black majority and give them the right to vote in national and local elections.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=2|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=400–402|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=408–409}}<ref>The text of Mandela's speech can be found at {{cite web|url=http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/history/mandela/1990/release.html|title=Nelson Mandela's address to Rally in Cape Town on his Release from Prison|date=11 February 1990|publisher=ANC|access-date=28 October 2008 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080728021713/http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/history/mandela/1990/release.html  |archive-date = 28 July 2008}}</ref> Staying at Tutu's home, in the following days Mandela met with friends, activists, and press, giving a speech to an estimated 100,000 people at Johannesburg's [[FNB Stadium]].{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=171|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=403–405|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=409–410}}

==End of apartheid==
{{Main|Negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa}}

===Early negotiations: 1990–91===
[[File:Luthuli House.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Luthuli House]] in Johannesburg, which became the ANC headquarters in 1991]]
Mandela proceeded on an African tour, meeting supporters and politicians in Zambia, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Libya and Algeria, and continuing to Sweden, where he was reunited with Tambo, and London, where he appeared at the [[Nelson Mandela: An International Tribute for a Free South Africa]] concert at [[Wembley Stadium (1923)|Wembley Stadium]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=57|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=172|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=409–410|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=412–414}} Encouraging foreign countries to support sanctions against the apartheid government, he met President [[François Mitterrand]] in France, [[Pope John Paul II]] in the Vatican, and Thatcher in the United Kingdom. In the United States, he met President [[George H.W. Bush]], addressed both Houses of Congress and visited eight cities, being particularly popular among the [[African American|African-American]] community.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=58–59|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=415–418}} In Cuba, he became friends with President Castro, whom he had long admired.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=60|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=410|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=420}} He met President [[R. Venkataraman]] in India, President [[Suharto]] in Indonesia, Prime Minister [[Mahathir Mohamad]] in Malaysia, and Prime Minister [[Bob Hawke]] in Australia. He visited Japan, but not the [[Soviet Union]], a longtime ANC supporter.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=60|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=418–420}}

In May 1990, Mandela led a multiracial ANC delegation into preliminary negotiations with a government delegation of 11 Afrikaner men. Mandela impressed them with his discussions of Afrikaner history, and the negotiations led to the [[Groote Schuur Minute|Groot Schuur Minute]], in which the government lifted the state of emergency.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=412–413|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=424–427}} In August, Mandela—recognising the ANC's severe military disadvantage—offered a ceasefire, the Pretoria Minute, for which he was widely criticised by MK activists.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=412–413|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=424–427}} He spent much time trying to unify and build the ANC, appearing at a Johannesburg conference in December attended by 1600 delegates, many of whom found him more moderate than expected.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=439|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=428–429}} At the ANC's July 1991 national conference in Durban, Mandela admitted that the party had faults and announced his aim to build a "strong and well-oiled task force" for securing majority rule.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=47|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=173|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=439–440|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=429–430}} At the conference, he was elected ANC President, replacing the ailing Tambo, and a 50-strong multiracial, mixed gendered national executive was elected.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=47|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=173|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=439–440|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=429–430}}

Mandela was given an office in the newly purchased ANC headquarters at [[Shell House (Johannesburg)|Shell House]], Johannesburg, and moved into Winnie's large Soweto home.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=409|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=431, 448}} Their marriage was increasingly strained as he learned of her affair with Dali Mpofu, but he supported her during her trial for kidnapping and assault. He gained funding for her defence from the International Defence and Aid Fund for Southern Africa and from Libyan leader [[Muammar Gaddafi]], but in June 1991, she was found guilty and sentenced to six years in prison, reduced to two on appeal. On 13 April 1992, Mandela publicly announced his separation from Winnie. The ANC forced her to step down from the national executive for misappropriating ANC funds; Mandela moved into the mostly white Johannesburg suburb of [[Houghton Estate|Houghton]].{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=429–436, 435–460|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=431, 448}} Mandela's prospects for a peaceful transition were further damaged by an increase in "Black-on-Black" violence, particularly between ANC and Inkatha supporters in [[KwaZulu-Natal]], which resulted in thousands of deaths. Mandela met with Inkatha leader Buthelezi, but the ANC prevented further negotiations on the issue. Mandela argued that there was a "[[Third Force (South Africa)|third force]]" within the state intelligence services fuelling the "slaughter of the people" and openly blamed de Klerk—whom he increasingly distrusted—for the [[Sebokeng]] massacre.{{sfnm|1a1=Tomaselli|1a2=Tomaselli|1y=2003|1p=6|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=174|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=418–424|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=436–442}} In September 1991, a national peace conference was held in Johannesburg at which Mandela, Buthelezi and de Klerk signed a peace accord, though the violence continued.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=425–426|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=444}}

===CODESA talks: 1991–92===
The [[Convention for a Democratic South Africa]] (CODESA) began in December 1991 at the Johannesburg World Trade Centre, attended by 228 delegates from 19 political parties. Although [[Cyril Ramaphosa]] led the ANC's delegation, Mandela remained a key figure. After de Klerk used the closing speech to condemn the ANC's violence, he took to the stage to denounce de Klerk as the "head of an illegitimate, discredited minority regime". Dominated by the National Party and ANC, little negotiation was achieved.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=45, 69|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=174–175|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=443–446|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=456–459}} CODESA 2 was held in May 1992, at which de Klerk insisted that post-apartheid South Africa must use a [[federalism|federal system]] with a rotating presidency to ensure the protection of ethnic minorities; Mandela opposed this, demanding a [[unitary state|unitary system]] governed by majority rule.<ref>{{harvnb|Sampson|2011|p=460}}; {{harvnb|Meredith|2010|pp=448, 452}}.</ref> Following the [[Boipatong massacre]] of ANC activists by government-aided Inkatha militants, Mandela called off the negotiations, before attending a meeting of the [[Organisation of African Unity]] in Senegal, at which he called for a special session of the UN Security Council and proposed that a [[United Nations peacekeeping|UN peacekeeping force]] be stationed in South Africa to prevent "[[state terrorism]]".{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=72–73|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=177|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=462–463|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=461–462}} Calling for domestic mass action, in August the ANC organised the largest-ever strike in South African history, and supporters marched on Pretoria.<ref>{{harvnb|Sampson|2011|pp=462–463}}; {{harvnb|Meredith|2010|pp=466–467}}.</ref>

[[File:Frederik de Klerk with Nelson Mandela - World Economic Forum Annual Meeting Davos 1992.jpg|left|thumb|[[F. W. de Klerk|De Klerk]] and Mandela at the [[World Economic Forum]], 1992]]

Following the [[Bisho massacre]], in which 28 ANC supporters and one soldier were shot dead by the [[Ciskei Defence Force]] during a protest march, Mandela realised that mass action was leading to further violence and resumed negotiations in September. He agreed to do so on the conditions that all political prisoners be released, that Zulu traditional weapons be banned, and that Zulu hostels would be fenced off, the latter two measures intended to prevent further Inkatha attacks; de Klerk reluctantly agreed.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=177–178|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=467–471|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=463–466}} The negotiations agreed that a multiracial general election would be held, resulting in a five-year [[National unity government|coalition government of national unity]] and a constitutional assembly that gave the National Party continuing influence. The ANC also conceded to safeguarding the jobs of white civil servants; such concessions brought fierce internal criticism.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=79|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=180|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=467–468}} The duo agreed on [[South African Constitution of 1993|an interim constitution]] based on a [[liberal democracy|liberal democratic]] model, guaranteeing separation of powers, creating a constitutional court, and including a US-style [[bill of rights]]; it also divided the country into nine provinces, each with its own [[premier]] and civil service, a concession between de Klerk's desire for [[federalism]] and Mandela's for unitary government.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=80|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=489–491|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=472}}

The democratic process was threatened by the Concerned South Africans Group (COSAG), an alliance of Black ethnic-secessionist groups like Inkatha and far-right Afrikaner parties; in June 1993, one of the latter—the [[Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging]] (AWB)—[[Storming of Kempton Park World Trade Centre|attacked the Kempton Park World Trade Centre]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=46|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=449–450, 488|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=466, 470–471}} Following the murder of ANC activist [[Chris Hani]], Mandela made a publicised speech to calm rioting, soon after appearing at a mass funeral in Soweto for Tambo, who had died of a stroke.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=180–181|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=476–480|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=468–469}} In July 1993, both Mandela and de Klerk visited the US, independently meeting President [[Bill Clinton]] and each receiving the [[Liberty Medal]].{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=471}} Soon after, Mandela and de Klerk were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in Norway.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=68|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=182|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=494|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=474}} Influenced by [[Thabo Mbeki]], Mandela began meeting with big business figures, and played down his support for nationalisation, fearing that he would scare away much-needed foreign investment. Although criticised by socialist ANC members, he had been encouraged to embrace private enterprise by members of the Chinese and Vietnamese Communist parties at the January 1992 [[World Economic Forum]] in Switzerland.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=182|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=497|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=434–445, 473}}

===General election: 1994===

{{Main|1994 South African general election}}

[[File:Mandela voting in 1994.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Mandela casting his vote in the [[1994 South African general election|1994 election]]]]

With the election set for 27 April 1994, the ANC began campaigning, opening 100 election offices and orchestrating People's Forums across the country at which Mandela could appear, as a popular figure with great status among Black South Africans.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=495|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=467–477}} The ANC campaigned on a [[Reconstruction and Development Programme]] (RDP) to build a million houses in five years, introduce universal free education and extend access to water and electricity. The party's slogan was "a better life for all", although it was not explained how this development would be funded.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=76–77|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=495–496|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=478}} With the exception of the ''[[Weekly Mail]]'' and the ''[[New Nation]]'', South Africa's press opposed Mandela's election, fearing continued ethnic strife, instead supporting the National or [[Democratic Party (South Africa)|Democratic Party]].{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=479}} Mandela devoted much time to fundraising for the ANC, touring North America, Europe and Asia to meet wealthy donors, including former supporters of the apartheid regime.{{sfnm|Sampson|2011|pp=479–480}} He also urged a reduction in the voting age from 18 to 14; rejected by the ANC, this policy became the subject of ridicule.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=188|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=477–478|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=484}}

Concerned that COSAG would undermine the election, particularly in the wake of the [[Bophuthatswana conflict (1994)|conflict in Bophuthatswana]] and the [[Shell House massacre]]—incidents of violence involving the AWB and Inkatha, respectively—Mandela met with Afrikaner politicians and generals, including P. W. Botha, [[Pik Botha]] and [[Constand Viljoen]], persuading many to work within the democratic system. With de Klerk, he also convinced Inkatha's Buthelezi to enter the elections rather than launch a war of secession.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=488–489, 504–510|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=480–489}} As leaders of the two major parties, de Klerk and Mandela appeared on a televised debate; although de Klerk was widely considered the better speaker at the event, Mandela's offer to shake his hand surprised him, leading some commentators to deem it a victory for Mandela.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=500–501|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=488}} The election went ahead with little violence, although an AWB cell killed 20 with car bombs. As widely expected, the ANC won a sweeping victory, taking 63% of the vote, just short of the two-thirds majority needed to unilaterally change the constitution. The ANC was also victorious in seven provinces, with Inkatha and the National Party each taking one.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=82|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=512|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=491}}<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2024558_2024522_2024462,00.html |title=Top 10 Political Prisoners |first=Glen |last=Levy |date=15 November 2010 |work=Time |access-date=25 March 2013 |archive-date=25 March 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6FNwiR3bn?url=http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2024558_2024522_2024462,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Mandela voted at the [[Ohlange High School]] in Durban, and though the ANC's victory assured his election as president, he publicly accepted that the election had been marred by instances of fraud and sabotage.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=510–512|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=490}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/south-africa-holds-first-multiracial-elections |title=This Day in History: April 27, 1994: South Africa holds first multiracial elections |publisher=History |access-date=26 February 2013 |archive-date=26 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EimSsBID?url=http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/south-africa-holds-first-multiracial-elections |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Presidency of South Africa: 1994–1999==
{{main|Presidency of Nelson Mandela}}
The newly elected National Assembly's first act was to formally elect Mandela as South Africa's first Black chief executive. His inauguration took place in Pretoria on 10 May 1994, televised to a billion viewers globally. The event was attended by four thousand guests, including world leaders from a wide range of geographic and ideological backgrounds.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=514|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=492–493}} Mandela headed a [[Government of National Unity (South Africa)|Government of National Unity]] dominated by the ANC—which had no experience of governing by itself—but containing representatives from the National Party and Inkatha. Under the Interim Constitution, Inkatha and the National Party were entitled to seats in the government by virtue of winning at least 20 seats. In keeping with earlier agreements, both de Klerk and Thabo Mbeki were given the position of [[Deputy President of South Africa|Deputy President]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=3|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=491–492}}<ref>{{cite news|title=Mandela becomes SA's first black president |publisher=BBC |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/10/newsid_2661000/2661503.stm |access-date=26 May 2008 |date=10 May 1994 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhlKsRKm?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/10/newsid_2661000/2661503.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> Although Mbeki had not been his first choice for the job, Mandela grew to rely heavily on him throughout his presidency, allowing him to shape policy details.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=87|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=210|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=566|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=508–511}} Moving into the presidential office at [[Tuynhuys]] in Cape Town, Mandela allowed de Klerk to retain the presidential residence in the [[Groote Schuur]] estate, instead settling into the nearby Westbrooke manor, which he renamed "[[Genadendal Residence|Genadendal]]", meaning "Valley of Mercy" in Afrikaans.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=523, 543|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=496–497}} Retaining his Houghton home, he also had a house built in his home village of Qunu, which he visited regularly, walking around the area, meeting with locals, and judging tribal disputes.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=502}}

Aged 76, he faced various ailments, and although exhibiting continued energy, he felt isolated and lonely.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=497–499, 510}} He often entertained celebrities, such as [[Michael Jackson]], [[Whoopi Goldberg]], and the [[Spice Girls]], and befriended ultra-rich businessmen, like [[Harry Oppenheimer]] of [[Anglo American plc|Anglo-American]]. He also met with [[Elizabeth II|Queen Elizabeth II]] on her March 1995 [[state visit]] to South Africa, which earned him strong criticism from ANC anti-capitalists.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=501, 504}} Despite his opulent surroundings, Mandela lived simply, donating a third of his [[South African rand|R]] 552,000 annual income to the [[Nelson Mandela Children's Fund]], which he had founded in 1995.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=209|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=543|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=517}} Although dismantling press censorship, speaking out in favour of [[freedom of the press]], and befriending many journalists, Mandela was critical of much of the country's media, noting that it was overwhelmingly owned and run by middle-class whites and believing that it focused too heavily on scaremongering about crime.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=208–209|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=547–548|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=525–527}}

In December 1994, Mandela published ''[[Long Walk to Freedom]]'', an autobiography based around a manuscript he had written in prison, augmented by interviews conducted with American journalist [[Richard Stengel]].{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=186|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=517}} In late 1994, he attended the 49th conference of the ANC in [[Bloemfontein]], at which a more militant national executive was elected, among them Winnie Mandela; although she expressed an interest in reconciling, Nelson initiated divorce proceedings in August 1995.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=539–542|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=500, 507}} By 1995, he had entered into a relationship with [[Graça Machel]], a Mozambican political activist 27 years his junior who was the widow of former president [[Samora Machel]]. They had first met in July 1990 when she was still in mourning, but their friendship grew into a partnership, with Machel accompanying him on many of his foreign visits. She turned down Mandela's first marriage proposal, wanting to retain some independence and dividing her time between Mozambique and Johannesburg.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=222–223|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=574–575|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=546–549}}

===National reconciliation===
{{Quote box|width=25em|align=right|quote=Gracious but steely, [Mandela] steered a country in turmoil toward a negotiated settlement: a country that days before its first democratic election remained violent, riven by divisive views and personalities. He endorsed national reconciliation, an idea he did not merely foster in the abstract, but performed with panache and conviction in reaching out to former adversaries. He initiated an era of hope that, while not long-lasting, was nevertheless decisive, and he garnered the highest international recognition and affection.|salign=right |source=—Rita Barnard, ''The Cambridge Companion to Nelson Mandela''{{sfn|Barnard|2014|p=1}} }}

Presiding over the transition from apartheid minority rule to a multicultural democracy, Mandela saw national reconciliation as the primary task of his presidency.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=524}} Having seen other post-colonial African economies damaged by the departure of white elites, Mandela worked to reassure South Africa's white population that they were protected and represented in "the [[Rainbow Nation]]".{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=213|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=517|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=495–496}} Although his Government of National Unity would be dominated by the ANC,{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=88|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=204}} he attempted to create a broad coalition by appointing de Klerk as Deputy President and appointing other National Party officials as ministers for Agriculture, Environment, and Minerals and Energy, as well as naming Buthelezi as Minister for Home Affairs.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=507–511}} The other cabinet positions were taken by ANC members, many of whom—like [[Joe Modise]], [[Alfred Nzo]], Joe Slovo, [[Mac Maharaj]] and [[Dullah Omar]]—had long been comrades of Mandela, although others, such as [[Tito Mboweni]] and [[Jeff Radebe]], were far younger.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=508}} Mandela's relationship with de Klerk was strained; Mandela thought that de Klerk was intentionally provocative, and de Klerk felt that he was being intentionally humiliated by the president.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=204–205|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=528|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=511, 534}} In January 1995, Mandela heavily chastised him for awarding amnesty to 3,500 police officers just before the election, and later criticised him for defending former Minister of Defence [[Magnus Malan]] when the latter was charged with murder.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=204–205|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=528|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=511, 534}}

Mandela personally met with senior figures of the apartheid regime, including [[Hendrik Verwoerd]]'s widow, [[Betsie Schoombie]], and lawyer [[Percy Yutar]], also laying a wreath by the statue of Afrikaner hero [[Daniel Theron]].{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=212|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=523–524|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=520, 522–523}} Emphasising personal forgiveness and reconciliation, he announced that "courageous people do not fear forgiving, for the sake of peace."{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=523–524|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=520, 522–523}} He encouraged Black South Africans to get behind the previously hated national rugby team, the [[South African national rugby union team|Springboks]], as South Africa hosted the [[1995 Rugby World Cup]]. Mandela wore a Springbok shirt at the [[1995 Rugby World Cup Final|final]] against New Zealand, and after the Springboks won the match, Mandela presented the trophy to captain [[Francois Pienaar]], an Afrikaner. This was widely seen as a major step in the reconciliation of white and Black South Africans; as de Klerk later put it, "Mandela won the hearts of millions of white rugby fans."{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=212|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=525–527|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=516, 524}}<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby_union/rugby_world_cup/team_pages/south_africa/3167692.stm |title=Mandela rallies Springboks |date=6 October 2003 |publisher=BBC Sport |access-date=28 October 2008 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhlM6rLh?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/rugby_union/rugby_world_cup/team_pages/south_africa/3167692.stm |url-status=live }}; {{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/portal/main.jhtml?view=DETAILS&grid=&xml=/portal/2007/10/19/ftmandela119.xml |title=How Nelson Mandela won the rugby World Cup |date=19 October 2007 |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London |access-date=28 October 2008 |first=John |last=Carlin |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhlMWoPg?url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/features/3634426/How-Nelson-Mandela-won-the-rugby-World-Cup.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Mandela's efforts at reconciliation assuaged the fears of white people, but also drew criticism from more militant Black people.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=213|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=517, 536|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=491, 496, 524}} Among the latter was his estranged wife, Winnie, who accused the ANC of being more interested in appeasing the white community than in helping the Black majority.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=517, 536|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=491, 496, 524}}

Mandela oversaw the formation of a [[Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South Africa)|Truth and Reconciliation Commission]] to investigate crimes committed under apartheid by both the government and the ANC, appointing Tutu as its chair. To prevent the creation of martyrs, the commission granted individual amnesties in exchange for testimony of crimes committed during the apartheid era. Dedicated in February 1996, it held two years of hearings detailing rapes, torture, bombings, and assassinations, before issuing its final report in October 1998. Both de Klerk and Mbeki appealed to have parts of the report suppressed, though only de Klerk's appeal was successful.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=527, 551–564|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=528–532}} Mandela praised the commission's work, stating that it "had helped us move away from the past to concentrate on the present and the future".{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=563|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=532}}

===Domestic programmes===
[[File:Rdphouses.jpg|thumb|left|Houses in Soweto constructed under the RDP program]]

Mandela's administration inherited a country with a huge disparity in wealth and services between white and black communities. Of a population of 40 million, around 23 million lacked electricity or adequate sanitation, and 12 million lacked clean water supplies, with 2 million children not in school and a third of the population illiterate. There was 33% unemployment, and just under half of the population lived below the poverty line.{{sfn|Meredith|2010|pp=518–520}} Government financial reserves were nearly depleted, with a fifth of the national budget being spent on debt repayment, meaning that the extent of the promised Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) was scaled back, with none of the proposed nationalisation or job creation.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=519|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=514–515}} In 1996, the RDP was replaced with a new policy, Growth, Employment and Redistribution (GEAR), which maintained South Africa's [[mixed economy]] but placed an emphasis on economic growth through a framework of [[market economics]] and the encouragement of foreign investment; many in the ANC derided it as a [[neo-liberalism|neo-liberal]] policy that did not address social inequality, no matter how Mandela defended it.{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=122–124, 162}} In adopting this approach, Mandela's government adhered to the "[[Washington consensus]]" advocated by the [[World Bank]] and [[International Monetary Fund]].{{sfnm|1a1=Muthien|1a2=Khosa|1a3=Magubane|1y=2000|1pp=369–370|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=520–521}}

[[File:Nelson Mandela 1998.JPG|thumb|right|Mandela on a visit to Brazil in 1998]]

Under Mandela's presidency, welfare spending increased by 13% in 1996/97, 13% in 1997/98, and 7% in 1998/99.{{sfn|Houston|Muthien|2000|p=62}} The government introduced parity in grants for communities, including disability grants, child maintenance grants, and old-age pensions, which had previously been set at different levels for South Africa's different racial groups.{{sfn|Houston|Muthien|2000|p=62}} In 1994, free healthcare was introduced for children under six and pregnant women, a provision extended to all those using primary level public sector health care services in 1996.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=205|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=521}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ci.org.za/depts/ci/pubs/pdf/general/gauge2006/gauge2006_healing.pdf |title=Healing inequalities: The free health care policy |publisher=Children's Institute |access-date=15 May 2011 |author1=Leatt, Annie |author2=Shung-King, Maylene |author3=Monson, Jo |name-list-style=amp |archive-date=26 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EiCq5xbh?url=http://www.ci.org.za/depts/ci/pubs/pdf/general/gauge2006/gauge2006_healing.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> By the 1999 election, the ANC could boast that due to their policies, 3 million people were connected to telephone lines, 1.5 million children were brought into the education system, 500 clinics were upgraded or constructed, 2 million people were connected to the electricity grid, water access was extended to 3 million people, and 750,000 houses were constructed, housing nearly 3 million people.{{sfn|Herbst|2003|p=312}}

The Land Reform Act 3 of 1996 safeguarded the rights of labour tenants living on farms where they grew crops or grazed livestock. This legislation ensured that such tenants could not be evicted without a court order or if they were over the age of 65.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nmmu.ac.za/documents/theses/AAFabbriciani.pdf |title=Land Reform Policies in South Africa Compare To Human Rights Internationally |access-date=11 February 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331101705/http://www.nmmu.ac.za/documents/theses/AAFabbriciani.pdf |archive-date=31 March 2012 }}; {{cite web |url=http://www.info.gov.za/gazette/acts/1996/a3-96.htm |title=No. 3 of 1996: Land Reform (Labour Tenants) Act, 1996 |date=22 March 1996 |publisher=South African Government Online |access-date=26 February 2013 |archive-date=26 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EiD8JvCc?url=http://www.info.gov.za/gazette/acts/1996/a3-96.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Recognising that arms manufacturing was a key industry for the South African economy, Mandela endorsed the trade in weapons but brought in tighter regulations surrounding [[Armscor (South Africa)|Armscor]] to ensure that South African weaponry was not sold to authoritarian regimes.{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=102–194}} Under Mandela's administration, tourism was increasingly promoted, becoming a major sector of the South African economy.{{sfn|Barber|2004|p=130}}

Critics like [[Edwin Cameron]] accused Mandela's government of doing little to stem the [[HIV/AIDS]] pandemic in the country; by 1999, 10% of South Africa's population were HIV positive. Mandela later admitted that he had personally neglected the issue, in part due to public reticence in discussing issues surrounding sex in South Africa, and that he had instead left the issue for Mbeki to deal with.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=135–137|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=219|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=571–573}}<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/jul/06/nelsonmandela.southafrica |title=Mandela at 85 |work=The Observer |location=London |first=Anthony |last=Sampson |author-link=Anthony Sampson |date=6 July 2003 |access-date=26 May 2008 |archive-date=26 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EiCWnTJS?url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2003/jul/06/nelsonmandela.southafrica |url-status=live }}; {{cite web|title=Can Mandela's AIDS Message Pierce the Walls of Shame? |publisher=Peninsula Peace and Justice Center |date=9 January 2005 |url=http://peaceandjustice.org/article.php?story=20050109125126110&mode=print |access-date=26 May 2008 |archive-date=26 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EiCWr1mK?url=http://peaceandjustice.org/article.php?story=20050109125126110&mode=print |url-status=dead }}; {{cite news|title=South Africa: Mandela Deluged With Tributes as He Turns 85 |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/200307190001.html |work=[[AllAfrica]] |first=Ofeibea |last=Quist-Arcton |author-link=Ofeibea Quist-Arcton|date=19 July 2003 |access-date=26 May 2008 |archive-date=26 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6Eile2xQ7?url=http://allafrica.com/stories/200307190001.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Mandela also received criticism for failing to sufficiently combat crime; South Africa had one of the world's highest crime rates,{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=573|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=510, 565–68}} and the activities of international crime syndicates in the country grew significantly throughout the decade.{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=137–138}} Mandela's administration was also perceived as having failed to deal with the problem of corruption.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=544–547|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=510}}

Further problems were caused by the exodus of thousands of skilled white South Africans from the country, who were escaping the increasing crime rates, higher taxes, and the impact of [[positive discrimination]] toward Black people in employment. This exodus resulted in a [[brain drain]], and Mandela criticised those who left.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=131|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=573|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=510, 565–68}} At the same time, South Africa experienced an influx of millions of [[Illegal immigration|illegal migrants]] from poorer parts of Africa; although public opinion toward these illegal immigrants was generally unfavourable, characterising them as disease-spreading criminals who were a drain on resources, Mandela called on South Africans to embrace them as "brothers and sisters".{{sfn|Barber|2004|p=133}}

===Foreign affairs===
Mandela expressed the view that "South Africa's future foreign relations [should] be based on our belief that human rights should be the core of international relations".{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=89|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=214}} Following the South African example, Mandela encouraged other nations to resolve conflicts through diplomacy and reconciliation.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=555}} In September 1998, Mandela was appointed secretary-general of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], who held their annual conference in Durban. He used the event to criticise the "narrow, chauvinistic interests" of the Israeli government in stalling negotiations to end the [[Israeli–Palestinian conflict]] and urged India and Pakistan to negotiate to end the [[Kashmir conflict]], for which he was criticised by both Israel and India.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=559}} Inspired by the region's economic boom, Mandela sought greater economic relations with East Asia, in particular with Malaysia, although this was prevented by the [[1997 Asian financial crisis]].<ref>{{harvnb|Sampson|2011|pp=560–561}}.</ref> He extended diplomatic recognition to the People's Republic of China (PRC), who were growing as an economic force, and initially also to [[Taiwan]], who were already longstanding investors in the South African economy. However, under pressure from the PRC, in November 1996 he cut recognition of Taiwan, and in May 1999 paid an official visit to Beijing.{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=107–108}}

[[File:President Bill Clinton with Nelson Mandela.jpg|thumb|left|Mandela with US President [[Bill Clinton]]. Despite publicly criticising him on several occasions, Mandela liked Clinton, and personally supported him during [[Impeachment of Bill Clinton|his impeachment proceedings]].{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=216|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=561–567}}]]

Mandela attracted controversy for his close relationship with Indonesian president [[Suharto]], whose regime was responsible for mass human rights abuses, although on a July 1997 visit to Indonesia he privately urged Suharto to withdraw from the [[Indonesian occupation of East Timor|occupation of East Timor]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=104–105|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=560}} He also faced similar criticism from the West for his government's trade links to Syria, Cuba, and Libya,{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=214}} and for his personal friendships with Castro and Gaddafi.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=562–563}} Castro visited in 1998 to widespread popular acclaim, and Mandela met Gaddafi in Libya to award him the [[Order of Good Hope]].{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=562–563}} When Western governments and media criticised these visits, Mandela lambasted such criticism as having racist undertones,{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=564}} and stated that "the enemies of countries in the West are not our enemies."{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=214}} Mandela hoped to resolve the long-running dispute between Libya and the US and Britain over bringing to trial the two Libyans, [[Abdelbaset al-Megrahi]] and [[Lamin Khalifah Fhimah]], who were indicted in November 1991 and accused of sabotaging [[Pan Am Flight 103]]. Mandela proposed that they be tried in a third country, which was agreed to by all parties; governed by [[Scots law]], the trial was held at [[Camp Zeist, Netherlands|Camp Zeist]] in the Netherlands in April 1999, and found one of the two men guilty.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=144|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=215–216|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=563–564}}<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/1144147.stm |title=Analysis: Lockerbie's long road |publisher=BBC |access-date=26 May 2008 |date=31 January 2001 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6Ehl149mt?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/1144147.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>

Mandela echoed Mbeki's calls for an "[[African Renaissance]]", and was greatly concerned with issues on the continent.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=124–125|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=556–557}} He took a [[soft power|soft diplomatic]] approach to removing [[Sani Abacha]]'s military junta in Nigeria but later became a leading figure in calling for sanctions when Abacha's regime increased human rights violations.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=108–110|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=215|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=556–557}} In 1996, he was appointed chairman of the [[Southern African Development Community]] (SADC) and initiated unsuccessful negotiations to end the [[First Congo War]] in [[Zaire]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=176–177|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=216|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=558}} He also played a key role as a mediator in the ethnic conflict between [[Tutsi]] and [[Hutu]] political groups in the [[Burundian Civil War]], helping to initiate a settlement which brought increased stability to the country but did not end the ethnic violence.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|pp=217–218}} In [[South African intervention in Lesotho|South Africa's first post-apartheid military operation]], troops were ordered in September 1998 into Lesotho to protect the government of Prime Minister [[Pakalitha Mosisili]] after a disputed election prompted opposition uprisings. The action was not authorised by Mandela himself, who was out of the country at the time, but by Buthelezi, who was serving as acting president during Mandela's absence.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=111–113|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=558–559}}

===Withdrawing from politics===
[[File:Thabo-mbeki-district-six.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|right|In the latter part of his presidency, Mandela increasingly relied on his Deputy President, Thabo Mbeki (pictured)]]
The new [[Constitution of South Africa]] was agreed upon by parliament in May 1996, enshrining a series of institutions to place checks on political and administrative authority within a constitutional democracy.{{sfn|Muthien|Khosa|Magubane|2000|p=366}} De Klerk opposed the implementation of this constitution, and that month he and the National Party withdrew from the coalition government in protest, claiming that the ANC were not treating them as equals.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=128–129|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=204|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=529–530|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=534}} The ANC took over the cabinet positions formerly held by the Nationalists, with Mbeki becoming sole Deputy President.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=535}} Inkatha remained part of the coalition,{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=128–129}} and when both Mandela and Mbeki were out of the country in September 1998, Buthelezi was appointed "Acting President", marking an improvement in his relationship with Mandela.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=207|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=536}} Although Mandela had often governed decisively in his first two years as president,{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=211}} he had subsequently increasingly delegated duties to Mbeki, retaining only a close personal supervision of intelligence and security measures.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=130|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=211}} During a 1997 visit to London, he said that "the ruler of South Africa, the ''de facto'' ruler, is Thabo Mbeki" and that he was "shifting everything to him".{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=211}}

Mandela stepped down as ANC President at the party's December 1997 conference. He hoped that Ramaphosa would succeed him, believing Mbeki to be too inflexible and intolerant of criticism, but the ANC elected Mbeki regardless.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=211|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=568|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=537–543}} Mandela and the Executive supported [[Jacob Zuma]], a Zulu who had been imprisoned on Robben Island, as Mbeki's replacement for Deputy President. Zuma's candidacy was challenged by Winnie, whose populist rhetoric had gained her a strong following within the party, although Zuma defeated her in a landslide victory vote at the election.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=568|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=537–543}}

Mandela's relationship with Machel had intensified; in February 1998, he publicly stated that he was "in love with a remarkable lady", and under pressure from Tutu, who urged him to set an example for young people, he organised a wedding for his 80th birthday, in July that year.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=576|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=549–551}} The following day, he held a grand party with many foreign dignitaries.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=551–552}} Although the 1996 constitution allowed the president to serve two consecutive five-year terms, Mandela had never planned to stand for a second term in office. He gave his farewell speech to Parliament on 29 March 1999 when it adjourned prior to the 1999 general elections, after which he retired.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=578}} Although opinion polls in South Africa showed wavering support for both the ANC and the government, Mandela himself remained highly popular, with 80% of South Africans polled in 1999 expressing satisfaction with his performance as president.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=219}}

==Retirement==
===Continued activism and philanthropy: 1999–2004===

[[File:Nelson Mandela, 2000 (4).jpg|thumb|right|Mandela visiting the [[London School of Economics]] in 2000]]

Retiring in June 1999, Mandela aimed to lead a quiet family life, divided between Johannesburg and Qunu. Although he set about authoring a sequel to his first autobiography, to be titled ''The Presidential Years'', it was abandoned before publication.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=576|2a1=Battersby|2y=2011|2pp=587–588}} Mandela found such seclusion difficult and reverted to a busy public life involving daily programme of tasks, meetings with world leaders and celebrities, and—when in Johannesburg—working with the Nelson Mandela Foundation, founded in 1999 to focus on rural development, school construction, and combating HIV/AIDS.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=576|2a1=Battersby|2y=2011|2pp=588–589}} Although he had been heavily criticised for failing to do enough to fight the HIV/AIDS pandemic during his presidency, he devoted much of his time to the issue following his retirement, describing it as "a war" that had killed more than "all previous wars"; affiliating himself with the [[Treatment Action Campaign]], he urged Mbeki's government to ensure that HIV-positive South Africans had access to [[anti-retrovirals]].{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=219–220|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=584–586|3a1=Battersby|3y=2011|3pp=590–591}} Meanwhile, Mandela was successfully treated for [[prostate cancer]] in July 2001.{{sfn|Battersby|2011|p=598}}<ref>{{cite news|work=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1492865.stm |title=Mandela 'responding well to treatment' |date=15 August 2001 |access-date=26 May 2008 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhSMPxao?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1492865.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2002, Mandela inaugurated the Nelson Mandela Annual Lecture, and in 2003 the [[Mandela Rhodes Foundation]] was created at [[Rhodes House]], [[University of Oxford]], to provide postgraduate scholarships to African students. These projects were followed by the Nelson Mandela Centre of Memory and the [[46664 (concerts)|46664 campaign]] against HIV/AIDS.{{sfn|Battersby|2011|pp=589–590}} He gave the closing address at the [[XIII International AIDS Conference, 2000|XIII International AIDS Conference]] in Durban in 2000,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thebody.com/content/art16140.html |title=Closing Ceremony |first=Pablo |last=Tebas |date=13 July 2000 |publisher=The Body |access-date=25 February 2013 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhRW0hQl?url=http://www.thebody.com/content/art16140.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> and in 2004, spoke at the [[XV International AIDS Conference, 2004|XV International AIDS Conference]] in [[Bangkok]], Thailand, calling for greater measures to tackle tuberculosis as well as HIV/AIDS.<ref>{{cite news |first=Chris |last=Hogg |title=Mandela urges action to fight TB |work=BBC News|date=15 July 2004 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/3895525.stm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040718030822/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/3895525.stm |archive-date=18 July 2004 |url-status=live }}</ref> Mandela publicised AIDS as the cause of his son [[Makgatho Mandela|Makgatho]]'s death in January 2005, to defy the stigma about discussing the disease.<ref>{{cite news |last=Nolen |first=Stephanie |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/nelson-mandela/mandela-arrived-late-to-the-fight-against-hiv-aids/article548193/ |work=The Globe and Mail |location=Toronto |date=5 December 2013 |title=Mandela arrived late to the fight against HIV-AIDS |access-date=11 May 2017 }}</ref>

Publicly, Mandela became more vocal in criticising Western powers. He strongly opposed the 1999 [[War in Kosovo|NATO intervention in Kosovo]] and called it an attempt by the world's powerful nations to police the entire world.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.derechos.org/nizkor/iraq/doc/mandela1.html |title=Equipo Nizkor – Mandela slams Western action in Kosovo, Iraq |agency=Reuters |last=Weir |first=Keith |date=13 April 2003 |publisher=Derechos.org |access-date=3 October 2010 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhQi33OL?url=http://www.derechos.org/nizkor/iraq/doc/mandela1.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2003, he spoke out against the plans for the United States to launch a [[war in Iraq]], describing it as "a tragedy" and lambasting US President [[George W. Bush]] and UK Prime Minister [[Tony Blair]] (whom he referred to as an "American foreign minister") for undermining the UN, saying, "All that (Mr. Bush) wants is [[Iraqi oil]]".<ref>{{cite news |first=Jarrett |last=Murphy |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/mandela-slams-bush-on-iraq |title=Mandela Slams Bush on Iraq |work=CBS News |date=30 January 2003 |access-date=13 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160115202751/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/mandela-slams-bush-on-iraq/ |archive-date=15 January 2016}}</ref> He attacked the US more generally, asserting that "If there is a country that has committed unspeakable atrocities in the world, it is the United States of America", citing the [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|atomic bombing of Japan]]; this attracted international controversy, although he later improved his relationship with Bush.{{sfn|Battersby|2011|pp=591–592}}<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/2228971.stm |title=Mandela warns Bush over Iraq |date=1 September 2002 |publisher=BBC |access-date=27 October 2008 |first=John |last=Pienaar |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhQjsYTq?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2228971.stm |url-status=live }}; {{cite news|last=Fenton |first=Tom |publisher=CBS |title=Mandela Slams Bush on Iraq |date=30 January 2003 |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/01/30/iraq/main538607.shtml |access-date=26 May 2008 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhQr4N5U?url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/01/30/iraq/main538607.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> Retaining an interest in the Lockerbie suspect, he visited Megrahi in [[Barlinnie prison]] and spoke out against the conditions of his treatment, referring to them as "psychological persecution".{{sfn|Battersby|2011|p=593}}

==="Retiring from retirement": 2004–2013===
{{anchor|"Retiring from retirement": 2004–2013}}

[[File:George W. Bush and Nelson Mandela - walking - Oval Office - May 17 2005.jpg|thumb|right|Nelson Mandela and President [[George W. Bush]] in the [[Oval Office]], May 2005]]
In June 2004, aged 85 and amid failing health, Mandela announced that he was "retiring from retirement" and retreating from public life, remarking, "Don't call me, I will call you."{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=593|2a1=Battersby|2y=2011|2p=598}} Although continuing to meet with close friends and family, the foundation discouraged invitations for him to appear at public events and denied most interview requests.{{sfn|Battersby|2011|p=598}}

He retained some involvement in international affairs. In 2005, he founded the Nelson Mandela Legacy Trust,<ref name=NPR>{{cite news|title=Mandela, Bush Discuss Education, AIDS in Africa |first=Allison |last=Keyes |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4654914 |publisher=NPR |date=17 May 2005 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6HeUQkPps?url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4654914 |archive-date=26 June 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> travelling to the US to speak before the [[Brookings Institution]] and the [[NAACP]] on the need for economic assistance to Africa.<ref name=NPR/><ref name=LAT>{{cite news |title=The Obama-Mandela dynamic, reflected in a photo |first=Kathleen |last=Hennessey |url=http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-na-obama-mandela-20130625,0,6170889,full.story |website=Los Angeles Times |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6HeUdFS94?url=http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-na-obama-mandela-20130625,0,6170889,full.story |archive-date=26 June 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> He spoke with US Senator [[Hillary Clinton]] and President George W. Bush and first met the then-Senator [[Barack Obama]].<ref name=LAT/> Mandela also encouraged Zimbabwean President [[Robert Mugabe]] to resign over growing [[Human rights in Zimbabwe|human rights]] abuses in the country. When this proved ineffective, he spoke out publicly against Mugabe in 2007, asking him to step down "with residual respect and a modicum of dignity."{{sfn|Battersby|2011|p=594}} That year, Mandela, Machel, and Desmond Tutu convened a group of world leaders in Johannesburg to contribute their wisdom and independent leadership to some of the world's toughest problems. Mandela announced the formation of this new group, [[The Elders (organization)|The Elders]], in a speech delivered on his 89th birthday.<ref>{{harvnb|Battersby|2011|p=600}}; {{cite news |url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/19836050 |title=Mandela joins 'Elders' on turning 89 |work=[[NBC News]] |agency=Associated Press |access-date=26 May 2008 |date=20 July 2007 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhRqC1M4?url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/19836050 |url-status=live }}; {{cite web |url=http://www.southafrica.info/mandela/theelders.htm |title=Mandela launches The Elders |date=19 July 2007 |publisher=SAinfo |access-date=27 October 2008 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhRpoERW?url=http://www.southafrica.info/mandela/theelders.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

[[File: Nelson Mandela - full (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|Mandela receiving the freedom of the city of [[Tshwane]], 2008]]

Mandela's 90th birthday was marked across the country on 18 July 2008, with the main celebrations held at Qunu,<ref name="FOXNews">{{cite news |url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,385561,00.html |title=Nelson Mandela Celebrates 90th Birthday by Urging Rich to Help Poor |date=18 July 2008 |publisher=Fox News Channel |access-date=27 October 2008 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhSkmQUE?url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,385561,00.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> and a [[Nelson Mandela 90th Birthday Tribute|concert in his honour]] in [[Hyde Park, London|Hyde Park]], London.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/hyde-park-concert-to-mark--mandelas-90th-821776.html |title=Hyde Park concert to mark Mandela's 90th |last=Bingham |first=John |date=6 May 2008 |website=The Independent |access-date=27 October 2008 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhSlCa27?url=http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/hyde-park-concert-to-mark--mandelas-90th-821776.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In a speech marking the event, Mandela called for the rich to help the poor across the world.<ref name="FOXNews"/> Throughout Mbeki's presidency, Mandela continued to support the ANC, usually overshadowing Mbeki at any public events that the two attended. Mandela was more at ease with Mbeki's successor, Zuma,{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=598|2a1=Battersby|2y=2011|2pp=594–597}} although the Nelson Mandela Foundation was upset when his grandson, [[Mandla Mandela]], flew him out to the Eastern Cape to attend a pro-Zuma rally in the midst of a storm in 2009.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=598|2a1=Battersby|2y=2011|2pp=594–597}}

In 2004, Mandela successfully campaigned for South Africa to host the [[2010 FIFA World Cup]], declaring that there would be "few better gifts for us" in the year marking a decade since the fall of apartheid.<ref>{{cite news |title=World Cup 'perfect gift for SA' |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3703261.stm |date=11 May 2004 |work=BBC News|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316182537/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3703261.stm |archive-date=16 March 2016 |url-status=live |access-date=13 September 2016}}</ref> Despite maintaining a low profile during the event due to ill-health, Mandela made his final public appearance during the World Cup closing ceremony, where he received much applause.{{sfn|Battersby|2011|p=600}}<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/jul/11/nelson-mandela-world-cup-final |website=The Guardian |title=Nelson Mandela attends World Cup closing ceremony |date=11 July 2010 |first=David |last=Batty |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhSlkRAr?url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/jul/11/nelson-mandela-world-cup-final |url-status=live }}</ref> Between 2005 and 2013, Mandela, and later his family, were embroiled in a series of legal disputes regarding money held in family trusts for the benefit of his descendants.<ref>{{cite news |last=Polgreen |first=Lydia |title=Messy Fight Over Mandela Trust Goes Public |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/25/world/africa/messy-legal-fight-over-mandela-trust-goes-public.html |website=The New York Times |date=24 May 2013 |access-date=13 September 2016 }}</ref> In mid-2013, as Mandela was hospitalised for a lung infection in Pretoria, his descendants were involved in an intra-family legal dispute relating to the burial place of Mandela's children, and ultimately Mandela himself.<ref>{{cite news |first=David |last=Smith |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/03/south-african-courts-mandela-burial |title=South African courts step in over Mandela family burial row |website=The Guardian |access-date=13 September 2016 |date=3 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130709230415/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2013/jul/03/south-african-courts-mandela-burial |archive-date=9 July 2013}}; {{cite news |last=Moreton |first=Cole |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/nelson-mandela/10155807/Nelson-Mandelas-grandson-Mandla-accused-of-grave-tampering.html |title=Nelson Mandela's grandson Mandla accused of grave tampering |website=The Telegraph |access-date=13 September 2016 |date=2 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127022518/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/nelson-mandela/10155807/Nelson-Mandelas-grandson-Mandla-accused-of-grave-tampering.html |archive-date=27 January 2016 }}</ref>

===Illness and death: 2011–2013===
{{anchor|Death}}
{{main|Death of Nelson Mandela}}
[[File:Madiba's house 3.jpg|thumb|right|Members of the public paying their respects outside Mandela's Houghton home]]

In February 2011, Mandela was briefly hospitalised with a [[respiratory infection]], attracting international attention,{{sfn|Battersby|2011|p=607}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/Nelson-Mandela-breathing-on-his-own-20110128 |title=Nelson Mandela 'breathing on his own' |date=18 January 2011 |website=News 24 |access-date=30 January 2011 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhSmCBmZ?url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/Nelson-Mandela-breathing-on-his-own-20110128 |url-status=dead }}</ref> before being re-admitted for a lung infection and [[gallstone]] removal in December 2012.<ref>{{cite news|title=Nelson Mandela has lung infection|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-20677168|access-date=16 December 2017|work=BBC News|date=11 December 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Mandela Has Surgery for Gallstones |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/16/world/africa/mandela-has-surgery-to-remove-gallstones.html?partner=rss&emc=rss&smid=tw-nytimes&_r=0 |website=The New York Times |access-date=15 December 2012 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhSuaglG?url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/16/world/africa/mandela-has-surgery-to-remove-gallstones.html?partner=rss&emc=rss&smid=tw-nytimes&_r=1& |url-status=live |date=15 December 2012 }}</ref> After a successful medical procedure in early March 2013,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ctvnews.ca/world/nelson-mandela-94-responding-positively-to-treatment-in-hospital-1.1214585 |title=Nelson Mandela, 94, responding positively to treatment in hospital |website=CTV News |date=28 March 2013 |access-date=10 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160419135607/http://www.ctvnews.ca/world/nelson-mandela-94-responding-positively-to-treatment-in-hospital-1.1214585 |archive-date=19 April 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> his lung infection recurred and he was briefly hospitalised in Pretoria.<ref>{{cite news|title=Nelson Mandela arrives home in ambulance|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/nelson-mandela/9976102/Nelson-Mandela-arrives-home-in-ambulance.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408004826/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/nelson-mandela/9976102/Nelson-Mandela-arrives-home-in-ambulance.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=8 April 2013|work=The Telegraph|access-date=6 April 2013|location=London|date=6 April 2013}}</ref> In June 2013, his lung infection worsened and he was readmitted to a Pretoria hospital in serious condition.<ref>{{cite news|title=Nelson Mandela hospitalized in serious condition|url=http://www.cnn.com/2013/06/08/world/africa/south-africa-mandela-sick/index.html|publisher=CNN|access-date=8 June 2013|date=8 June 2013}}</ref> The [[Anglican Diocese of Cape Town|Archbishop of Cape Town]] [[Thabo Makgoba]] visited Mandela at the hospital and prayed with Machel,<ref>{{cite news |author=AFP 2|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/nelson-mandela/10142863/Nelson-Mandela-wished-a-peaceful-end.html |title=Mandela wished a 'peaceful end' by Cape Town Archbishop |website=The Telegraph |date=26 June 2013 |access-date=5 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127022518/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/nelson-mandela/10142863/Nelson-Mandela-wished-a-peaceful-end.html |archive-date=27 January 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> while Zuma cancelled a trip to Mozambique to visit him the following day.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Nelson Mandela condition worsens as Zuma cancels trip |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-23076057 |work=BBC News|access-date=27 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140126133047/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-23076057 |archive-date=26 January 2014 |url-status=live|date=27 June 2013 }}</ref> In September 2013, Mandela was discharged from hospital,<ref>{{cite news|title=Nelson Mandela released from hospital |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2013/09/01/world/africa/nelson-mandela-hospital-release/ |access-date=1 September 2013 |publisher=CNN| date=1 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304094240/http://edition.cnn.com/2013/09/01/world/africa/nelson-mandela-hospital-release/ |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> although his condition remained unstable.<ref>{{cite news |title=Mandela discharged from South Africa hospital |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2013/09/20139185614590114.html |access-date=1 September 2013 |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=1 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304114444/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2013/09/20139185614590114.html |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>

After suffering from a prolonged respiratory infection, Mandela died on 5 December 2013 at the age of 95, at around 20:50 [[South African Standard Time|local time]] at his home in Houghton, surrounded by his family.<ref name="BBCD">{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-25249520 |title=South Africa's Nelson Mandela dies in Johannesburg |date=5 December 2013 |work=BBC News|access-date=5 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160415152143/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-25249520 |archive-date=15 April 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Nelson Mandela dies|url=https://mg.co.za/article/2013-12-05-nelson-mandela-dies|work=Mail & Guardian|date=5 December 2013}}</ref> Zuma publicly announced his death on television,<ref name="BBCD"/><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/12/06/world/africa/nelson-mandela.html|title=Mandela's Death Leaves South Africa Without Its Moral Center |website=The New York Times |last=Polgreen |first=Lydia |date=5 December 2013 |access-date=5 December 2013}}</ref> proclaiming ten days of national mourning, a memorial service held at Johannesburg's [[FNB Stadium]] on 10 December 2013, and 8 December as a national day of prayer and reflection. Mandela's body [[Lying in state|lay in state]] from 11 to 13 December at the [[Union Buildings]] in Pretoria and a [[state funeral]] was held on 15 December in Qunu.<ref>{{cite news|last=Pillay|first=Verashni|title=Mandela's memorial service to be held on December 10|url=http://mg.co.za/article/2013-12-06-mandelas-memorial-service-to-be-held-on-december-10|access-date=6 December 2013|newspaper=Mail & Guardian|date=6 December 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Vecchiatto|first1=Paul|last2=Stone|first2=Setumo|last3=Magubane|first3=Khulekani|title=Nelson Mandela to be laid to rest on December 15|url=http://www.bdlive.co.za/national/2013/12/06/nelson-mandela-to-be-laid-to-rest-on-december-15|access-date=6 December 2013|newspaper=Business Day|location=South Africa|date=6 December 2013}}</ref> Approximately 90 representatives of foreign states travelled to South Africa to attend memorial events.<ref>{{cite news|last=Mount|first=Harry|title=Nelson Mandela: the long goodbye|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/nelson-mandela/10506010/Nelson-Mandela-the-long-goodbye.html|access-date=11 December 2013|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=9 December 2013|location=London}}</ref> It was later revealed that 300 million rand originally earmarked for humanitarian development projects had been redirected to finance the funeral.<ref>{{cite news|title=Nelson Mandela funeral: 'Millions misspent'|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-42224937|work=BBC News|date=4 December 2017|access-date=4 December 2017}}</ref> The media was awash with tributes and reminiscences,{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|p=917}} while images of tributes to Mandela proliferated across [[social media]].{{sfn|Nelson|2014|p=130}} His US$4.1 million estate was left to his widow, other family members, staff, and educational institutions.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.latimes.com/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-nelson-mandela-will-20140203,0,4680742.story |title=Nelson Mandela leaves $4.1-million estate to family, staff, schools |first=Robyn |last=Dixon |website=Los Angeles Times |date=3 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127022523/http://www.latimes.com/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-nelson-mandela-will-20140203-story.html |archive-date=27 January 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==Political ideology==
{{Quote box|width=25em|align=right|quote=A friend once asked me how I could reconcile my creed of African nationalism with a belief in dialectical materialism. For me, there was no contradiction. I was first and foremost an African nationalist fighting for our emancipation from minority rule and the right to control our own destiny. But at the same time, South Africa and the African continent were part of the larger world. Our problems, while distinctive and special, were not unique, and a philosophy that placed those problems in an international and historical context of the greater world and the course of history was valuable. I was prepared to use whatever means necessary to speed up the erasure of human prejudice and the end of chauvinistic and violent nationalism.|salign=right |source=—Nelson Mandela, 1994{{sfn|Mandela|1994|p=173}} }}

Mandela identified as both an [[African nationalism|African nationalist]], an ideological position he held since joining the ANC,{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=25, 232|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=220|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=241|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=37, 584}} and as a socialist.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=231–232|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=231}} He was a practical politician, rather than an intellectual scholar or political theorist.{{sfnm|1a1=Boehmer|1y=2008|1p=13|2a1=Barnard|2y=2014|2p=14}} According to biographer Tom Lodge, "for Mandela, politics has always been primarily about enacting stories, about making narratives, primarily about morally exemplary conduct, and only secondarily about ideological vision, more about means rather than ends."{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=ix}}

The historian Sabelo J. Ndlovu-Gatsheni described Mandela as a "liberal African nationalist–decolonial humanist",{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|p=907}} while political analyst [[Raymond Suttner]] cautioned against labelling Mandela a liberal and stated that Mandela displayed a "hybrid socio-political make-up".{{sfn|Suttner|2007|p=122}} Mandela adopted some of his political ideas from other thinkers—among them Indian independence leaders like Gandhi and Nehru, African-American civil rights activists, and African nationalists like [[Kwame Nkrumah|Nkrumah]]—and applied them to the South African situation. At the same time he rejected other aspects of their thought, such as the anti-white sentiment of many African nationalists.{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=109}} In doing so he synthesised both counter-cultural and hegemonic views, for instance by drawing upon ideas from the then-dominant [[Afrikaner nationalism]] in promoting his anti-apartheid vision.{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=102}}

His political development was strongly influenced by his legal training and practice, in particular his hope to achieve change not through violence but through "legal revolution".{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=viii}} Over the course of his life, he began by advocating a path of non-violence, later embracing violence, and then adopting a non-violent approach to negotiation and reconciliation.{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=107}} When endorsing violence, he did so because he saw no alternative, and was always pragmatic about it, perceiving it as a means to get his opponent to the negotiating table.{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|pp=105, 108}} He sought to target symbols of white supremacy and racist oppression rather than white people as individuals, and was anxious not to inaugurate a race war in South Africa.{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|p=914}} This willingness to use violence distinguishes Mandela from the ideology of [[Gandhism]], with which some commentators have sought to associate him.{{sfn|Suttner|2007|pp=119–120}}

===Democracy===

Although he presented himself in an autocratic manner in several speeches, Mandela was a devout believer in democracy and abided by majority decisions even when deeply disagreeing with them.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=433}} He had exhibited a commitment to the values of democracy and human rights since at least the 1960s.{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|pp=906–907}} He held a conviction that "inclusivity, accountability and freedom of speech" were the fundamentals of democracy,{{sfn|Battersby|2011|p=605}} and was driven by a belief in [[natural and legal rights|natural]] and human rights.{{sfn|Kalumba|1995|p=162}} Suttner argued that there were "two modes of leadership" that Mandela adopted. On one side he adhered to ideas about collective leadership, although on the other believed that there were scenarios in which a leader had to be decisive and act without consultation to achieve a particular objective.{{sfn|Suttner|2007|pp=113–114}}

According to Lodge, Mandela's political thought reflected tensions between his support for [[liberal democracy]] and pre-colonial African forms of consensus decision making.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=xi}} He was an admirer of British-style [[parliamentary democracy]],{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|p=907}} stating that "I regard the British Parliament as the most democratic institution in the world, and the independence and impartiality of its judiciary never fail to arouse my admiration."{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|p=907}} In this he has been described as being committed to "the Euro-North American modernist project of emancipation", something which distinguishes him from other African nationalist and socialist leaders like Nyerere who were concerned about embracing styles of democratic governance that were Western, rather than African, in origin.{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|p=907}} Mandela nevertheless also expressed admiration for what he deemed to be indigenous forms of democracy, describing Xhosa traditional society's mode of governance as "democracy in its purest form".{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|p=907}} He also spoke of an influential African ethical tenet, [[Ubuntu (philosophy)|Ubuntu]], which is a [[Nguni languages|Ngnuni term]] meaning "A person is a person through other persons" or "I am because we are."{{sfn|Oppenheim|2012|pp=369–370}}

===Socialism and Marxism===

[[File:The Soviet Union 1988 CPA 5971 stamp (70th birth anniversary of Nelson Mandela, South African anti-apartheid revolutionary, political leader and philanthropist).jpg|thumb|upright|1988 Soviet commemorative stamp, captioned "The fighter for freedom of South Africa Nelson Mandela" in Russian]]

Mandela advocated the ultimate establishment of a classless society,{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=231, 232|2a1=Ellis|2y=2016|2p=7}} with Sampson describing him as being "openly opposed to capitalism, private land-ownership and the power of big money".{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=298}} Mandela was influenced by [[Marxism]], and during the revolution he advocated [[scientific socialism]].{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=282}} He denied being a communist at the Treason Trial,{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=365|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=135–138}} and maintained this stance both when later talking to journalists,{{sfn|Benson|1986|p=232}} and in his autobiography.{{sfn|Ellis|2016|p=18}} According to the sociologist Craig Soudien, "sympathetic as Mandela was to socialism, a communist he was not."{{sfn|Soudien|2015|p=361}} Conversely, the biographer David Jones Smith stated that Mandela "embraced communism and communists" in the late 1950s and early 1960s,{{sfn|Smith|2010|pp=217–218}} while the historian Stephen Ellis commented that Mandela had assimilated much of the [[Marxism–Leninism|Marxist–Leninist]] ideology by 1960.{{sfn|Ellis|2016|p=7}}

Ellis also found evidence that Mandela had been an active member of the South African Communist Party during the late 1950s and early 1960s,{{sfn|Ellis|2011|pp=667–668}} something that was confirmed after his death by both the ANC and the SACP, the latter of which claimed that he was not only a member of the party, but also served on its Central Committee.<ref name="Mandela'sCommunism"/> His membership had been hidden by the ANC, aware that knowledge of Mandela's former SACP involvement might have been detrimental to his attempts to attract support from Western countries.{{sfn|Ellis|2016|p=17}} Mandela's view of these Western governments differed from those of Marxist–Leninists, for he did not believe that they were anti-democratic or reactionary and remained committed to democratic systems of governance.{{sfn|Smith|2010|p=231}}

The 1955 Freedom Charter, which Mandela had helped create, called for the nationalisation of banks, gold mines and land, to ensure equal distribution of wealth.{{sfn|Kalumba|1995|pp=164–165}} Despite these beliefs, Mandela initiated a programme of privatisation during his presidency in line with trends in other countries of the time.{{sfn|Freund|2014|p=294}} It has been repeatedly suggested that Mandela would have preferred to develop a [[social democracy|social democratic]] economy in South Africa but that this was not feasible as a result of the international political and economic situation during the early 1990s.{{sfn|Freund|2014|p=294}} This decision was in part influenced by the fall of the [[socialist states]] in the Soviet Union and [[Eastern Bloc]] during the early 1990s.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=433–435}}

==Personality and personal life==
[[File:Nelson Mandela (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|Mandela on a visit to Australia in 2009; he is wearing one of the brightly coloured garments that became known as "Madiba shirts"]]

Mandela was widely considered a [[charismatic leader]],{{sfnm|1a1=Glad|1a2=Blanton|1y=1997|1p=570|2a1=Read|2y=2010|2p=326}} described by biographer [[Mary Benson (campaigner)|Mary Benson]] as "a born mass leader who could not help magnetizing people".{{sfn|Benson|1986|p=51}} He was highly image conscious and throughout his life always sought out fine quality clothes, with many commentators believing that he carried himself in a regal manner.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=432, 554}} His aristocratic heritage was repeatedly emphasised by supporters, thus contributing to his "charismatic power".{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=2}} While living in Johannesburg in the 1950s, he cultivated the image of the "African gentleman", having "the pressed clothes, correct manners, and modulated public speech" associated with such a position.{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=111}} In doing so, Lodge argued that Mandela became "one of the first media politicians ... embodying a glamour and a style that projected ''visually'' a brave new African world of modernity and freedom".{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=ix}} Mandela was known to change his clothes several times a day, and he became so associated with highly coloured [[Batik]] shirts after assuming the presidency that they came to be known as "[[Madiba shirt]]s".{{sfnm|1a1=Boehmer|1y=2008|1p=133|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=495|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=503}}<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3532916.stm |title=How Mandela changed SA fashion |last=Khumalo |first=Fred |date=5 August 2004 |publisher=BBC |access-date=28 October 2008 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhlMxe4g?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3532916.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>

For political scientists [[Betty Glad]] and Robert Blanton, Mandela was an "exceptionally intelligent, shrewd, and loyal leader".{{sfn|Glad|Blanton|1997|p=577}} His official biographer, [[Anthony Sampson]], commented that he was a "master of imagery and performance", excelling at presenting himself well in press photographs and producing sound bites.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=582–583}} His public speeches were presented in a formal, stiff manner, and often consisted of clichéd set phrases.{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|pp=128, 134}} He typically spoke slowly, and carefully chose his words.{{sfn|Glad|Blanton|1997|p=576}} Although he was not considered a great orator, his speeches conveyed "his personal commitment, charm and humour".{{sfn|Barber|2004|p=87}}

Mandela was a private person who often concealed his emotions and confided in very few people.{{sfnm|1a1=Suttner|1y=2007|1p=119|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=xv–xvi}} Privately, he lived an austere life, refusing to drink alcohol or smoke, and even as president made his own bed.{{sfn|Meredith|2010|p=xvi}} Renowned for his mischievous sense of humour,{{sfn|Battersby|2011|p=599}} he was known for being both stubborn and loyal,{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=xvi|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=583}} and at times exhibited a quick temper.{{sfnm|1a1=Glad|1a2=Blanton|1y=1997|1p=582|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=xvi}} He was typically friendly and welcoming, and appeared relaxed in conversation with everyone, including his opponents.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=411, 498}} A self-described [[Anglophile]], he claimed to have lived by the "trappings of British style and manners".{{sfnm|1a1=Glad|1a2=Blanton|1y=1997|1p=581|2a1=Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2y=2014|2p=907}} Constantly polite and courteous, he was attentive to all, irrespective of their age or status, and often talked to children or servants.{{sfn|Meredith|2010|pp=xvi, 482–483}} He was known for his ability to find common ground with very different communities.{{sfn|Barnard|2014|pp=5–6}} In later life, he always looked for the best in people, even defending political opponents to his allies, who sometimes thought him too trusting of others.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=431, 582}} He was fond of [[Indian cuisine]],{{sfn|Meredith|2010|p=164}} and had a lifelong interest in archaeology{{sfn|Meer|1988|p=189}} and boxing.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=29}}

{{Quote box|width=25em|align=left|quote=The significance of Mandela can be considered in two related ways. First, he has provided through his personal presence as a benign and honest conviction politician, skilled at exerting power but not obsessed with it to the point of view of excluding principles, a man who struggled to display respect to all ... Second, in so doing he was able to be a hero and a symbol to an array of otherwise unlikely mates through his ability, like all brilliant nationalist politicians, to speak to very different audiences effectively at once.|salign=right |source=—[[Bill Freund (historian)|Bill Freund]], academic{{sfn|Freund|2014|p=295}} }}

He was raised in the Methodist denomination of Christianity; the [[Methodist Church of Southern Africa]] claimed that he retained his allegiance to them throughout his life.{{sfn|Forster|2014|p=89}} On analysing Mandela's writings, the theologian [[Dion Forster]] described him as a [[Christian humanist]], although added that his thought relied to a greater extent on the Southern African concept of [[Ubuntu philosophy|Ubuntu]] than on [[Christian theology]].{{sfn|Forster|2014|pp=106–107}} According to Sampson, Mandela never had "a strong religious faith" however,{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=65}} while Boehmer stated that Mandela's religious belief was "never robust".{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=86}}

Mandela was very self-conscious about being a man and regularly made references to [[manhood]].{{sfn|Suttner|2014|p=342}} He was [[heterosexual]],{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=142}} and biographer [[Fatima Meer]] said that he was "easily tempted" by women.{{sfn|Meer|1988|p=78}} Another biographer, [[Martin Meredith]], characterised him as being "by nature a romantic", highlighting that he had relationships with various women.{{sfn|Meredith|2010|p=21}} Mandela was married three times, fathered six children, and had seventeen grandchildren and at least seventeen great-grandchildren.<ref name="genealogy">{{cite web|publisher=Nelson Mandela Foundation|title=The Life and Times of Nelson Mandela: Genealogy |url=http://www.nelsonmandela.org/content/page/genealogy |access-date=13 July 2016 |archive-date=16 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160116020637/https://www.nelsonmandela.org/content/page/genealogy }}</ref> He could be stern and demanding of his children, although he was more affectionate with his grandchildren.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=481|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=147|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=246}} His first marriage was to Evelyn Ntoko Mase in October 1944;{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=144, 148–149|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=59–62|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=36}} they divorced in March 1958 under the multiple strains of his adultery and constant absences, devotion to revolutionary agitation, and the fact that she was a Jehovah's Witness, a religion requiring political neutrality.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=296|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=102–104|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=110}} Mandela's second wife was the social worker Winnie Madikizela-Mandela, whom he married in June 1958.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=74–76|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=93|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=306–311|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=144–149|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=104, 132–145|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=110–113}} They divorced in March 1996.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=539–542|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=500}} Mandela married his third wife, Graça Machel, on his 80th birthday in July 1998.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=xvii, 576|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=549–551}}

==Reception and legacy==
[[File:Nelson Mandela tributes in Parliament Square - London - DSCF0404.jpg|thumb|Flowers left at the [[Statue of Nelson Mandela, Parliament Square|Mandela statue]] in London's Parliament Square following his death]]
By the time of his death, within South Africa Mandela was widely considered both "the father of the nation"<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-20839504 |title=Nelson Mandela to spend Christmas in S Africa hospital |date=24 December 2012 |work=BBC News|access-date=13 July 2016 |archive-date= 3 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EAEkVVsN?url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-20839504 |url-status=live }}</ref> and "the founding father of democracy".{{sfn|Meredith|2010|p=565}} Outside of South Africa, he was a "global icon",{{sfnm|1a1=Barnard|1y=2014|1pp=1, 2|2a1=Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2y=2014|2p=906}} with the scholar of South African studies Rita Barnard describing him as "one of the most revered figures of our time".{{sfn|Barnard|2014|pp=1, 2}} One biographer considered him "a modern democratic hero".{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=225}} Some have portrayed Mandela in messianic terms,{{sfn|Suttner|2007|pp=125–126}} in contrast to his own statement that "I was not a messiah, but an ordinary man who had become a leader because of extraordinary circumstances."{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=599|2a1=Barnard|2y=2014|2p=4}} He is often cited alongside [[Mahatma Gandhi]] and [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] as one of the 20th century's exemplary anti-racist and anti-colonial leaders.{{sfnm|1a1=Boehmer|1y=2008|1p=82|2a1=Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2y=2014|2p=918}} Boehmer described him as "a totem of the totemic values of our age: toleration and liberal democracy"{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=16}} and "a universal symbol of social justice".{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=1}}

Mandela's international fame had emerged during his incarceration in the 1980s, when he became the world's most famous prisoner, a symbol of the anti-apartheid cause, and an icon for millions who embraced the ideal of human equality.{{sfn|Barnard|2014|p=1}} In the years since been described as world's most famous [[political prisoner]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hooper|first=Simon|title=The world's most famous political prisoner|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2013/12/6/the-worlds-most-famous-political-prisoner|access-date=2021-06-29|website=www.aljazeera.com|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|last2=|last3=|first3=|last4=|last5=|last6=|last7=|last8=|first8=|last9=|date=2018-07-13|title=Nelson Mandela's letters detail his 27 years as the world's most famous political prisoner|url=https://www.latimes.com/books/la-ca-jc-prison-letters-mandela-20180713-story.html|access-date=2021-06-29|website=Los Angeles Times|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=2013-12-07|title=Mandela death: How a prisoner became a legend|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-25256818|access-date=2021-06-29}}</ref> In 1986, Mandela's biographer characterised him as "the embodiment of the struggle for liberation" in South Africa.{{sfn|Benson|1986|p=13}} Meredith stated that in becoming "a potent symbol of resistance" to apartheid during the 1980s, he had gained "mythical status" internationally.{{sfn|Meredith|2010|p=xv}} Sampson commented that even during his life, this myth had become "so powerful that it blurs the realities", converting Mandela into "a secular saint".{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=xxvi}} Within a decade of the end of his presidency, Mandela's era was being widely thought of as "a golden age of hope and harmony",{{sfn|Meredith|2010|p=599}} with much [[nostalgia]] being expressed for it.{{sfn|Freund|2014|p=296}} His name was often invoked by those criticising his successors like Mbeki and Zuma.{{sfn|Mangcu|2013|p=101}} Across the world, Mandela earned international acclaim for his activism in overcoming apartheid and fostering racial reconciliation,{{sfn|Meredith|2010|p=xvi}} coming to be viewed as "a moral authority" with a great "concern for truth".{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=582}} Mandela's iconic status has been blamed for concealing the complexities of his life.{{sfn|Suttner|2016|p=17}}

Mandela generated controversy throughout his career as an activist and politician,{{sfn|Barnard|2014|p=2}} having detractors on both the right and the radical left.{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=173}} During the 1980s, Mandela was widely labelled a terrorist by prominent political figures in the Western world for his embrace of political violence.{{sfn|Boehmer|2005|p=46}} According to Thatcher, for instance, the ANC was "a typical terrorist organisation".{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=360}} The US government's [[United States Department of State|State]] and [[United States Department of Defense|Defense]] departments officially designated the ANC as a terrorist organisation, resulting in Mandela remaining on their terrorism watch-list until 2008.<ref>{{cite news |title=US government considered Nelson Mandela a terrorist until 2008 |date=7 December 2013 |work=NBC News |last=Windrem |first=Robert |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/other/us-government-considered-nelson-mandela-terrorist-until-2008-f2D11708787 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303200951/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/other/us-government-considered-nelson-mandela-terrorist-until-2008-f2D11708787 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> On the left, some voices in the ANC—among them [[Frank B. Wilderson III]]—accused him of [[selling out]] for agreeing to enter negotiations with the apartheid government and for not implementing the reforms of the Freedom Charter during his presidency.{{sfnm|1a1=Barnard|1y=2014|1p=2|2a1=Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2y=2014|2p=918}} According to Barnard, "there is also a sense in which his chiefly bearing and mode of conduct, the very respect and authority he accrued in representing his nation in his own person, went against the spirit of democracy",{{sfn|Barnard|2014|p=2}} and concerns were similarly expressed that he placed his own status and celebrity above the transformation of his country.{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|p=918}} His government would be criticised for its failure to deal with both the HIV/AIDS pandemic and the high levels of poverty in South Africa.{{sfn|Barnard|2014|p=2}} Mandela was also criticised for his friendship with political leaders such as Castro, Gaddafi, and Suharto—deemed [[dictators]] by critics—as well as his refusal to condemn their governments' human rights violations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibtimes.com/mandela-dictators-freedom-fighter-complicated-past-725667 |title=Mandela and the Dictators: A Freedom Fighter With A Complicated Past |first=Jacey |last=Fortin |website=International Business Times |date=18 July 2012 |access-date=13 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160419032439/http://www.ibtimes.com/mandela-dictators-freedom-fighter-complicated-past-725667 |archive-date=19 April 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Orders, decorations, monuments, and honours===
{{Main|List of awards and honours bestowed upon Nelson Mandela}}
Over the course of his life, Mandela was given over 250 awards, accolades, prizes, honorary degrees and citizenships in recognition of his political achievements.<ref name=CT12>{{Cite news |url=https://www.questia.com/read/1G1-296964849 |title=How the awards have just kept flooding in |date=18 July 2012 |work=The Cape Times |via=[[Questia Online Library]] |url-status=dead|access-date=14 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190207130510/https://www.questia.com/read/1G1-296964849/how-the-awards-have-just-kept-flooding-in|archive-date=7 February 2019}}</ref>
Among his awards were the Nobel Peace Prize,{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=68|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=182|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=494|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=474}} the US [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2002/07/20020709-8.html |title=President Honors Recipients of the Presidential Medal of Freedom |date=9 July 2002 |publisher=The White House |access-date=26 October 2008 |archive-date=14 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EQa6Gnu1?url=http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2002/07/20020709-8.html |url-status=live }}</ref> the Soviet Union's [[Lenin Peace Prize]],<ref name=CT12/> and the Libyan [[Al-Gaddafi International Prize for Human Rights]].<ref name="TimeGadafiPrize">{{cite news|title=Prizes: And the Winner Is ...|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,957634,00.html|work=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|date=8 May 1989|access-date=24 October 2012}}</ref> In 1990, India awarded him the [[Bharat Ratna]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/list-of-all-bharat-ratna-award-winners-81336 |title=List of all Bharat Ratna award winners |date=21 January 2011 |publisher=NDTV |access-date=14 February 2013 |archive-date=14 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EQat3ntQ?url=http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/list-of-all-bharat-ratna-award-winners-81336 |url-status=live }}</ref> and in 1992 Pakistan gave him their [[Nishan-e-Pakistan]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=Mandela in Pakistan |newspaper=The Independent |publisher=Independent Print Limited |date=3 October 1992 |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/mandela-in-pakistan-1555096.html |access-date=7 June 2010 |archive-date=14 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EQa80Py9?url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/mandela-in-pakistan-1555096.html |url-status=live |location=London }}</ref> The same year, he was awarded the Atatürk Peace Award by Turkey; he at first refused the award, citing human rights violations committed by Turkey at the time,<ref name=ataturk>{{cite web |url=http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/pr/1992/pr0412a.html |title=Statement on the Ataturk Award given to Nelson Mandela |date=12 April 1992 |publisher=African National Congress |access-date=2 January 2007 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061001161737/http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/pr/1992/pr0412a.html  |archive-date = 1 October 2006}}</ref> but later accepted the award in 1999.<ref name=CT12/> He was appointed to the [[Order of Isabella the Catholic]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://boe.es/diario_boe/txt.php?id=BOE-A-1999-3755 |title=Royal Decree 270/1999, 12th February 1999 |date=13 February 1999 |work=Spanish Official State Gazette|access-date=13 September 2017 }}</ref> and the [[Order of Canada]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.canadainternational.gc.ca/southafrica-afriquedusud/eyes_abroad-coupdoeil/NelsonMandelaDJ.aspx?lang=eng&view=d |title=Canada presents Nelson Mandela with the Queen Elizabeth II Diamond Jubilee medal |date=23 August 2012 |publisher=Queen's Printer for Canada |access-date=14 February 2013 |archive-date=14 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EQaTXONi?url=http://www.canadainternational.gc.ca/southafrica-afriquedusud/eyes_abroad-coupdoeil/NelsonMandelaDJ.aspx?lang=eng&view=d |url-status=dead}}</ref> and was the first living person to be made an [[Honorary Citizenship of Canada|honorary Canadian citizen]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2001/11/19/mandela_011119.html |title=Mandela to be honoured with Canadian citizenship |date=19 November 2001 |publisher=CBC News |access-date=26 October 2008 |archive-date=14 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EQa6zuKU?url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/story/2001/11/19/mandela_011119.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Queen Elizabeth II appointed him as a Bailiff Grand Cross of the [[Order of Saint John (chartered 1888)|Order of St. John]] and granted him membership in the [[Order of Merit]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/Page1880.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050105152154/http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/Page1880.asp |archive-date=5 January 2005 |title=The Order of Merit |date = November 2002|publisher=Royal Insight |access-date=26 October 2008}}</ref>

In 2004, Johannesburg granted Mandela the [[Freedom of the City]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gpg.gov.za/docs/nz/2004/nz0727.html |title=Madiba conferred freedom of Johannesburg |date=27 July 2004 |publisher=Gauteng Provincial Government |access-date=26 October 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080621081749/http://www.gpg.gov.za/docs/nz/2004/nz0727.html|archive-date=21 June 2008}}</ref> and in 2008 a Mandela statue was unveiled at the spot where Mandela was released from prison.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mediaclubsouthafrica.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=703:mandelastatue270808&catid=42:land_news&Itemid=110 |title=Long walk immortalised in bronze |last=Stern |first=Jennifer |date=27 August 2008 |publisher=Media Club South Africa |access-date=30 November 2009 |archive-date=14 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EQY5DhSw?url=http://www.mediaclubsouthafrica.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=703:mandelastatue270808&catid=42:land_news&Itemid=110 |url-status=dead }}</ref> On the [[Day of Reconciliation]] 2013, a bronze statue of Mandela was unveiled at Pretoria's Union Buildings.<ref>{{cite news|title=Nelson Mandela statue unveiled in Pretoria by Zuma|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-25399709|work=BBC News|access-date=23 December 2013|date=16 December 2013}}</ref>
In November 2009, the [[United Nations General Assembly]] proclaimed Mandela's birthday, 18 July, as "[[Mandela Day]]", marking his contribution to the anti-apartheid struggle. It called on individuals to donate 67 minutes to doing something for others, commemorating the 67 years that Mandela had been a part of the movement.<ref>{{harvnb|Battersby|2011|p=601}}; {{cite news
|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/8353853.stm
|title=UN gives backing to 'Mandela Day'
|work=BBC News|access-date=11 November 2009
|date=11 November 2009
|archive-date=14 February 2013
|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EQbCaUWz?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8353853.stm
|url-status=live
}}</ref> In 2015 the UN General Assembly named the amended [[Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners]] as "the Mandela Rules" to honour his legacy.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.un.org/ga/search/viewm_doc.asp?symbol=A/C.3/70/L.3 |title=Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners from the United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |date=29 September 2015 |page=6}}</ref>


===Biographies and popular media===

The first biography of Mandela was authored by [[Mary Benson (campaigner)|Mary Benson]], based on brief interviews with him that she had conducted in the 1960s.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=8}} Two authorised biographies were later produced by friends of Mandela.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=vii}} The first was Fatima Meer's ''Higher Than Hope'', which was heavily influenced by Winnie and thus placed great emphasis on Mandela's family.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|pp=vii, 13–14}} The second was Anthony Sampson's ''Mandela'', published in 1999.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=vii}} Other biographies included Martin Meredith's ''Mandela'', first published in 1997, and Tom Lodge's ''Mandela'', brought out in 2006.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=vii}}

Since the late 1980s, Mandela's image began to appear on a proliferation of items, among them "photographs, paintings, drawings, statues, public murals, buttons, t-shirts, refrigerator magnets, and more",{{sfn|Nelson|2014|p=130}} items that have been characterised as "Mandela kitsch".{{sfn|Nelson|2014|p=138}} In the 1980s he was the subject of several songs, such as [[The Specials]]' "[[Free Nelson Mandela]]", [[Hugh Masekela]]'s "[[Bring Him Back Home (Nelson Mandela)]]", and [[Johnny Clegg]]'s "[[Asimbonanga|Asimbonanga (Mandela)]]", which helped to bring awareness of his imprisonment to an international audience.<ref>{{cite news |first=Dorian |last=Lynskey |date=6 December 2013 |title=Nelson Mandela: The Triumph of the Protest Song |website=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2013/dec/06/nelson-mandela-protest-song-special-aka |access-date=23 January 2017 }}</ref>

Following his death, many [[internet meme]]s appeared featuring images of Mandela with his inspirational quotes superimposed onto them.{{sfn|Nelson|2014|p=130}} Mandela has also been depicted in films on multiple occasions.{{sfn|Bromley|2014|p=41}} Some of these, such as the 2013 feature film ''[[Mandela: Long Walk to Freedom]]'' and the 1996 documentary ''Mandela'', have focused on covering his long life, whereas others, such as the 2009 feature film ''[[Invictus (film)|Invictus]]'' and the 2010 documentary ''[[The 16th Man]]'', have focused on specific events in his life.{{sfn|Bromley|2014|p=41}} It has been argued that in ''Invictus'' and other films, "the America film industry" has played a significant part in "the crafting of Mandela's global image".{{sfn|Lukhele|2012|p=289}}

==See also==
* [[List of peace activists]]

==References==
===Footnotes===
{{Reflist|25em}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links
|wikt=no
|commons=Nelson Mandela
|b=no
|n=Category:Nelson Mandela
|q=Nelson Mandela
|s=Author:Nelson Mandela
|v=no
|species=no
|d=Q8023
}}
* [http://archive.nelsonmandela.org/ Nelson Mandela Centre of Memory]
* [http://www.nelsonmandelachildrensfund.com/ Nelson Mandela Children's Fund]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130707224033/http://www.nelsonmandela.org/ Nelson Mandela Foundation]
* [http://www.mandelarhodes.org/ Mandela Rhodes Foundation]
* [http://www.theelders.org/ The Elders]
* [http://www.nelsonmandelamuseum.org.za/ Nelson Mandela Museum]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120305110400/http://www.mandeladay.com/ Nelson Mandela Day]
* [https://southafrica-info.com/history/nelson-mandela-genealogy-family-tree/ Nelson Mandela's family tree]
* {{Worldcat id|lccn-n85-153068}}
* {{Curlie|Regional/Africa/South_Africa/Society_and_Culture/History/Nelson_Mandela}}
* {{IMDb name|0541691}}
* {{Find a Grave|121260035}}
* {{C-SPAN|Nelson Mandela}}
* {{Nobelprize}}

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{{S-bef|before=[[F. W. de Klerk]]|as=[[State President of South Africa]]}}
{{S-ttl|title=[[President of South Africa]]|years=1994–1999}}
{{S-aft|after=[[Thabo Mbeki]]}}
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Nelson Mandela

2021-07-18T22:27:13Z

Hembram Bakhul: Created page with "{{short description|First President of South Africa and anti-apartheid activist}} {{redirect|Mandela||Mandela (disambiguation)|and|Nelson Mandela (disambiguation)}} {{pp-semi-..."

{{short description|First President of South Africa and anti-apartheid activist}}
{{redirect|Mandela||Mandela (disambiguation)|and|Nelson Mandela (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-semi-indef|small=yes}}
{{pp-move-indef}}
{{featured article}}
{{EngvarB|date=March 2019}}
{{use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| honorific_prefix = [[His Excellency]]
| honorific_suffix = {{post-nominals|list=[[List of awards and honours received by Nelson Mandela|OMP SBG SBS CLS DMG MMS MMB]]|size=100%}}
| image = Nelson Mandela 1994.jpg
| alt = Portrait photograph of a 76-year-old President Mandela
| caption = Mandela in [[Washington, D.C.]], 1994
| order = 1st
| office = President of South Africa
| term_start = 10 May 1994
| term_end = 16 June 1999
| deputy = {{plainlist|
* [[Thabo Mbeki]]
* [[F. W. de Klerk]]
}}
| predecessor = F. W. de Klerk {{nowrap|(''[[State President of South Africa|State Pres.]]'')}}
| successor = Thabo Mbeki
| office1 = {{nowrap|11th President of the [[African National Congress]]}}
| deputy1 = {{plainlist|
* [[Walter Sisulu]]
* Thabo Mbeki
}}
| term_start1 = 7 July 1991
| term_end1 = 20 December 1997
| predecessor1 = [[Oliver Tambo]]
| successor1 = Thabo Mbeki
| office2 = 19th Secretary General of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]]
| term_start2 = 2 September 1998
| term_end2 = 16 June 1999
| predecessor2 = [[Andrés Pastrana Arango]]
| successor2 = Thabo Mbeki
| birth_name = Rolihlahla Mandela
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=y|1918|7|18}}
| birth_place = [[Mvezo]], [[Cape Province]], [[Union of South Africa]] (now [[Eastern Cape]])
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=y|2013|12|05|1918|7|18}}
| death_place = [[Johannesburg]], [[Gauteng]], [[South Africa|Republic of South Africa]]
| death_cause = 
| resting_place = Mandela Graveyard [[Qunu, Eastern Cape]], South Africa
| party = [[African National Congress]]
| otherparty = [[South African Communist Party|South African Communist]]
| spouse = {{plainlist|
* {{marriage|[[Evelyn Mase|Evelyn Ntoko Mase]]|5 October 1944|19 March 1958|reason=divorced}}
* {{marriage|[[Winnie Madikizela-Mandela|Winnie Madikizela]]|14 June 1958|19 March 1996|reason=divorced}}
* {{marriage|[[Graça Machel]]|18 July 1998}}
}}
| children = 7, including [[Makgatho Mandela|Makgatho]], [[Makaziwe Mandela|Makaziwe]], [[Zenani Mandela-Dlamini|Zenani]], [[Zindzi Mandela|Zindziswa]] and [[Josina Z. Machel|Josina]] (step-daughter)
| parents = {{plainlist|
* Nosekeni Fanny (mother)
* Gadla Henry Mphakanyiswa (father)
}}
| alma_mater = {{plainlist|
* [[University of Fort Hare]]
* [[University of London]]
* [[University of South Africa]]
* [[University of the Witwatersrand]]
}}
| occupation = {{flatlist|
* Activist
* {{lcfirst:Politician}}
* {{lcfirst:Philanthropist}}
* {{lcfirst:Lawyer}}
}}
| website = {{official website|nelsonmandela.org}}
| nickname = {{flatlist|
* Madiba
* Dalibunga
}}
| known_for = [[Internal resistance to apartheid]]
| awards = {{plainlist|
* [[Sakharov Prize]] (1988)
* [[Bharat Ratna]] (1990)
* [[Nishan-e-Pakistan]] (1992)
* [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (1993)
* [[Lenin Peace Prize]] (1990)
* [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]]
* ''([[List of awards and honours bestowed upon Nelson Mandela|more...]])''
}}
| module = {{Infobox writer | embed=yes
| notableworks = ''[[Long Walk to Freedom]]''
}}
}}


'''Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela''' ({{IPAc-en|m|æ|n|ˈ|d|ɛ|l|ə}};<ref>{{cite web| title=Mandela| url=http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/mandela| publisher=[[Collins English Dictionary]]| access-date=17 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160405011219/http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/mandela |archive-date=5 April 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> {{IPA-xh|xolíɬaɬa mandɛ̂ːla|lang}}; 18 July 1918 – 5 December 2013) was a South African [[Internal resistance to apartheid|anti-apartheid]] revolutionary, statesman and [[philanthropist]] who served as [[President of South Africa]] from 1994 to 1999. He was the country's first black head of state and the first elected in a [[Universal suffrage|fully representative]] democratic election. [[Presidency of Nelson Mandela|His government]] focused on dismantling the legacy of [[apartheid]] by tackling institutionalised racism and fostering racial [[Conflict resolution|reconciliation]]. Ideologically an [[African nationalist]] and [[socialist]], he served as the president of the [[African National Congress]] (ANC) party from 1991 to 1997.


A [[Xhosa language|Xhosa speaker]], Mandela was born into the [[Thembu]] royal family in [[Mvezo]], [[Union of South Africa]]. He studied law at the [[University of Fort Hare]] and the [[University of Witwatersrand]] before working as a lawyer in [[Johannesburg]]. There he became involved in [[anti-colonial]] and African nationalist politics, joining the ANC in 1943 and co-founding its [[African National Congress Youth League|Youth League]] in 1944. After the [[National Party (South Africa)|National Party]]'s [[Dominant minority|white-only government]] established apartheid, a system of [[racial segregation]] that privileged [[White South African|whites]], Mandela and the ANC committed themselves to its overthrow. He was appointed president of the ANC's [[Transvaal Province|Transvaal]] branch, rising to prominence for his involvement in the 1952 [[Defiance Campaign]] and the 1955 [[Congress of the People (1955)|Congress of the People]]. He was repeatedly arrested for [[seditious]] activities and was unsuccessfully prosecuted in the [[1956 Treason Trial]]. Influenced by [[Marxism]], he secretly joined the banned [[South African Communist Party]] (SACP). Although initially committed to non-violent protest, in association with the SACP he co-founded the militant [[Umkhonto we Sizwe]] in 1961 and led a [[sabotage]] campaign against the government. He was arrested and imprisoned in 1962, and subsequently sentenced to life imprisonment for conspiring to overthrow the state following the [[Rivonia Trial]].


Mandela served 27 years in prison, split between [[Robben Island]], [[Pollsmoor Prison]] and [[Victor Verster Prison]]. Amid growing domestic and international pressure and fears of racial civil war, President [[F. W. de Klerk]] released him in 1990. Mandela and de Klerk led efforts to negotiate an end to apartheid, which resulted in the [[1994 South African general election|1994 multiracial general election]] in which Mandela led the ANC to victory and became president. Leading a [[Government of National Unity (South Africa)|broad coalition government]] which promulgated a [[Constitution of South Africa|new constitution]], Mandela emphasised reconciliation between the country's racial groups and created the [[Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South Africa)|Truth and Reconciliation Commission]] to investigate past [[Human rights in South Africa|human rights]] abuses. Economically, his administration retained its predecessor's [[Economic liberalism|liberal framework]] despite his own socialist beliefs, also introducing measures to encourage [[land reform]], [[Poverty reduction|combat poverty]] and expand healthcare services. Internationally, Mandela acted as mediator in the [[Pan Am Flight 103 bombing trial]] and served as secretary-general of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] from 1998 to 1999. He declined a second presidential term and was succeeded by his deputy, [[Thabo Mbeki]]. Mandela became an elder statesman and focused on combating poverty and [[HIV/AIDS]] through the charitable [[Nelson Mandela Foundation]].


Mandela was a controversial figure for much of his life. Although critics on [[Right-wing politics|the right]] denounced him as a [[communist terrorist]] and those on the [[far left]] deemed him too eager to negotiate and reconcile with apartheid's supporters, he gained international acclaim for his activism. Widely regarded as an icon of democracy and [[social justice]], he received [[List of Nelson Mandela awards and honours|more than 250 honours]], including the [[Nobel Peace Prize]]. He is held in deep respect within South Africa, where he is often referred to by his [[Xhosa clan names|Thembu clan name]], [[Madiba]], and described as the "[[Father of the Nation]]".

==Early life==
===Childhood: 1918–1934===
Mandela was born on 18 July 1918 in the village of Mvezo in [[Umtata]], then part of South Africa's [[Cape Province]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=3|2a1=Boehmer|2y=2008|2p=21|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=17|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=3}} Given the forename Rolihlahla,<ref>Mandela used the spelling Rolihlahla, see for example [http://www.mandela.gov.za/ official website]. [[Peter Mtuze]] notes that the orthography of [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]] names has changed since the time of Mandela's schooling, and that it would now be written Rholihlahla. (''Mandela's Long Walk to Freedom: the isiXhosa translator's tall order. Southern African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies 2003, 21(3), 141–152.'')</ref> a [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]] term colloquially meaning "troublemaker",{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=16|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2p=3|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=17|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=2|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=3}} in later years he became known by his clan name, Madiba.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=4|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=2|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=16}} His patrilineal great-grandfather, [[Ngubengcuka]], was king of the [[Thembu]] people in the [[Transkei]]an Territories of South Africa's modern [[Eastern Cape]] province.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=3|2a1=Guiloineau|2a2=Rowe|2y=2002|2p=23|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=1}} One of Ngubengcuka's sons, named Mandela, was Nelson's grandfather and the source of his surname.{{sfnm|1a1=Guiloineau|1a2=Rowe|1y=2002|1p=26}} Because Mandela was the king's child by a wife of the Ixhiba clan, a so-called "Left-Hand House", the descendants of his [[cadet branch]] of the royal family were [[morganatic marriage|morganatic]], ineligible to inherit the throne but recognised as hereditary royal councillors.{{sfnm|1a1=Guiloineau|1a2=Rowe|1y=2002|1p=26|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=1|3a1=Mafela|3y=2008|3pp=102–103}}

Nelson Mandela's father, Gadla Henry Mphakanyiswa Mandela (1880–1928), was a local chief and councillor to the monarch; he was appointed to the position in 1915, after his predecessor was accused of corruption by a governing white magistrate.{{sfn|Smith|2010|p=19}} In 1926, Gadla was also sacked for corruption, but Nelson was told that his father had lost his job for standing up to the magistrate's unreasonable demands.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=8–9|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=21–22|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=4}} A devotee of the god [[Qamata]],{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=17|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=1}} Gadla was a polygamist with four wives, four sons and nine daughters, who lived in different villages. Nelson's mother was Gadla's third wife, Nosekeni Fanny, daughter of Nkedama of the Right Hand House and a member of the amaMpemvu clan of the Xhosa.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=15|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=7–8|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=16, 23–24|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=1, 3|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=4}}

{{Quote box|width=25em|align=left|quote=No one in my family had ever attended school ... On the first day of school my teacher, Miss Mdingane, gave each of us an English name. This was the custom among Africans in those days and was undoubtedly due to the British bias of our education. That day, Miss Mdingane told me that my new name was Nelson. Why this particular name, I have no idea.|salign=right |source=—Mandela, 1994{{sfn|Mandela|1994|p=19}} }}

Mandela later stated that his early life was dominated by traditional Thembu custom and taboo.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=15|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=3}} He grew up with two sisters in his mother's ''[[homestead (small African settlement)|kraal]]'' in the village of [[Qunu]], where he tended herds as a cattle-boy and spent much time outside with other boys.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=16|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2p=12|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=23–24|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=2, 4}} Both his parents were illiterate, but being a devout Christian, his mother sent him to a local [[Methodism|Methodist]] school when he was about seven. Baptised a Methodist, Mandela was given the English forename of "Nelson" by his teacher.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=18–19|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=3|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=24|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=2, 4–5|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=5,7|6a1=Forster|6y=2014|6pp=91–92}} When Mandela was about nine, his father came to stay at Qunu, where he died of an undiagnosed ailment which Mandela believed to be lung disease.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=20|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=3|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=25|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=5|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=7}} Feeling "cut adrift", he later said that he inherited his father's "proud rebelliousness" and "stubborn sense of fairness".{{sfn|Mandela|1994|pp=8, 20}}

Mandela's mother took him to the "Great Place" palace at Mqhekezweni, where he was entrusted to the guardianship of the Thembu [[Regency (government)|regent]], Chief Jongintaba Dalindyebo. Although he did not see his mother again for many years, Mandela felt that Jongintaba and his wife Noengland treated him as their own child, raising him alongside their son, Justice, and daughter, Nomafu.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=17|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=4|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=22–25|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=3|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=26–27|6a1=Meredith|6y=2010|6p=5|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=7–9}} As Mandela attended church services every Sunday with his guardians, Christianity became a significant part of his life.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=7|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=27–29|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=8–9}} He attended a Methodist mission school located next to the palace, where he studied English, Xhosa, history and geography.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=7|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2p=25|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=27|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=9}} He developed a love of [[African history]], listening to the tales told by elderly visitors to the palace, and was influenced by the [[Anti-imperialism|anti-imperialist]] rhetoric of a visiting chief, Joyi.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=11–12|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=31–34|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=3|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=18|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=8}} Nevertheless, at the time he considered the [[Scramble for Africa|European colonizers]] not as oppressors but as benefactors who had brought education and other benefits to southern Africa.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=43|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=11}} Aged 16, he, Justice and several other boys travelled to Tyhalarha to undergo the [[ulwaluko]] [[circumcision]] ritual that symbolically marked their transition from boys to men; afterwards he was given the name ''Dalibunga''.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=17|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=36–42|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=8|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=29–31|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=9–11|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6p=14}}

===Clarkebury, Healdtown, and Fort Hare: 1934–1940===

[[File:Young Mandela.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Photograph of Mandela, taken in Umtata in 1937]]

Intending to gain skills needed to become a [[privy council]]lor for the Thembu royal house, in 1933 Mandela began his secondary education at [[Clarkebury]] Methodist High School in [[Engcobo]], a Western-style institution that was the largest school for Black Africans in [[Thembuland]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=45–47|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=27, 31|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=12–13|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=15}} Made to socialise with other students on an equal basis, he claimed that he lost his "stuck up" attitude, becoming best friends with a girl for the first time; he began playing sports and developed his lifelong love of gardening.{{sfn|Mandela|1994|pp=48–50}} He completed his Junior Certificate in two years,{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=17}} and in 1937 moved to [[Healdtown Comprehensive School|Healdtown]], the Methodist college in [[Fort Beaufort]] attended by most Thembu royalty, including Justice.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=52|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=31–32|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=14|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=17–18}} The headmaster emphasised the superiority of [[Culture of Europe|European culture]] and [[government]], but Mandela became increasingly interested in native [[Culture of Africa|African culture]], making his first non-Xhosa friend, a speaker of [[Sotho language|Sotho]], and coming under the influence of one of his favourite teachers, a Xhosa who broke taboo by marrying a Sotho.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=53–54|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=32|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=14–15|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=18–21}} Mandela spent much of his spare time at Healdtown as a long-distance runner and boxer, and in his second year he became a [[prefect]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=56|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=32|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=15}}

With Jongintaba's backing, in 1939 Mandela began work on a [[Bachelor of Arts|BA degree]] at the [[University of Fort Hare]], an elite Black institution in [[Alice, Eastern Cape]], with around 150 students. There he studied English, [[anthropology]], politics, "native administration", and [[Roman Dutch law]] in his first year, desiring to become an interpreter or clerk in the [[INTAF|Native Affairs Department]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=62–65|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=9|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=33–34|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=15–18|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=21, 25}} Mandela stayed in the Wesley House dormitory, befriending his own kinsman, [[Kaiser Matanzima|K. D. Matanzima]], as well as [[Oliver Tambo]], who became a close friend and comrade for decades to come.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=62–63|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=33–34|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=17–19|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=24–25}} He took up ballroom dancing,{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=67–69|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=34|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=18|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=25}} performed in a drama society play about [[Abraham Lincoln]],{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=68|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=10|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=35|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=18|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=25}} and gave [[Bible]] classes in the local community as part of the Student Christian Association.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=68|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=10|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=18|4a1=Forster|4y=2014|4p=93}} Although he had friends who held connections to the [[African National Congress]] (ANC) who wanted South Africa to be independent of the [[British Empire]], Mandela avoided any involvement with the nascent movement,{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=25}} and became a vocal supporter of the [[British Empire in World War II|British war effort]] when the [[Second World War]] broke out.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=70–71|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=11|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=19|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=26}} He helped establish a first-year students' house committee which challenged the dominance of the second-years,{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=66|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=34}} and at the end of his first year became involved in a [[Students' Representative Council]] (SRC) boycott against the quality of food, for which he was suspended from the university; he never returned to complete his degree.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=21|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=78–86|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3pp=11–12|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=34–35|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=19–20|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=26–27}}

===Arriving in Johannesburg: 1941–1943===
Returning to Mqhekezweni in December 1940, Mandela found that Jongintaba had [[arranged marriage]]s for him and Justice; dismayed, they fled to [[Johannesburg]] via [[Queenstown, Eastern Cape|Queenstown]], arriving in April 1941.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=21|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=73–76|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=12|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=36–39|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=20–22|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=27–28}} Mandela found work as a night watchman at Crown Mines, his "first sight of South African capitalism in action", but was fired when the ''induna'' (headman) discovered that he was a runaway.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=23|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=25–26|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=89–94|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4pp=12–13|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5p=40|6a1=Meredith|6y=2010|6pp=27–28|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=29–30}} He stayed with a cousin in George Goch Township, who introduced Mandela to realtor and ANC activist [[Walter Sisulu]]. The latter secured Mandela a job as an [[articled clerk]] at the law firm of Witkin, Sidelsky and Eidelman, a company run by Lazar Sidelsky, a [[Liberalism|liberal]] Jew sympathetic to the ANC's cause.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=96–101|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=13, 19–21|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=41|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=28–30|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=30–31}} At the firm, Mandela befriended Gaur Radebe—a Hlubi member of the ANC and [[South African Communist Party|Communist Party]]—and Nat Bregman, a Jewish [[communism|communist]] who became his first white friend.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=104–105|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=22, 31–32|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=43, 48|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=31–32|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=32–33}} Mandela attended Communist Party gatherings, where he was impressed that [[White South Africans|Europeans]], [[Bantu peoples|Africans]], [[Asian South Africans|Indians]], and [[Coloured]]s mixed as equals. He later stated that he did not join the party because its [[atheism]] conflicted with his Christian faith, and because he saw the South African struggle as being racially based rather than as [[class conflict|class warfare]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=106|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=48–49}} To continue his higher education, Mandela signed up to a [[University of South Africa]] correspondence course, working on his bachelor's degree at night.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=100|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=44|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=33|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=34}}

Earning a small wage, Mandela rented a room in the house of the Xhoma family in the [[Alexandra, Gauteng|Alexandra]] township; despite being rife with poverty, crime and pollution, Alexandra always remained a special place for him.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=23|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=26|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=99, 108–110|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=44–45|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=33|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6p=33}} Although embarrassed by his poverty, he briefly dated a [[Swazi people|Swati]] woman before unsuccessfully courting his landlord's daughter.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=113–116|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=23|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=45–46|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=33}} To save money and be closer to downtown Johannesburg, Mandela moved into the compound of the [[Witwatersrand Native Labour Association]], living among miners of various tribes; as the compound was visited by various chiefs, he once met the [[Regent|Queen Regent]] of [[Basutoland]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=118–119|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=24|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=33|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=34}} In late 1941, Jongintaba visited Johannesburg—there forgiving Mandela for running away—before returning to Thembuland, where he died in the winter of 1942. Mandela and Justice arrived a day late for the funeral.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=116–117, 119–120|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=22|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=47|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=33–34|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=33}} After he passed his BA exams in early 1943, Mandela returned to Johannesburg to follow a political path as a lawyer rather than become a privy councillor in Thembuland.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=122, 126–27|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=49|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=34|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=34}} He later stated that he experienced no epiphany, but that he "simply found [himself] doing so, and could not do otherwise."{{sfn|Mandela|1994|p=135}}

==Revolutionary activity==
===Law studies and the ANC Youth League: 1943–1949===
Mandela began studying law at the [[University of the Witwatersrand]], where he was the only black African student and faced racism. There, he befriended liberal and communist European, Jewish, and Indian students, among them [[Joe Slovo]] and [[Ruth First]].{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=33–34|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=127–131|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=64–65|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=34–35|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=34–35}} Becoming increasingly politicised, in August 1943 Mandela marched in support of a successful bus boycott to reverse fare rises.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=122–123|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=27–28|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=48|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=44|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=37}} Joining the ANC, he was increasingly influenced by Sisulu, spending time with other activists at Sisulu's [[Orlando, Soweto|Orlando]] house, including his old friend Oliver Tambo.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=136|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=53|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=36, 43}} In 1943, Mandela met [[Anton Lembede]], an ANC member affiliated with the "Africanist" branch of [[African nationalism]], which was virulently opposed to a racially united front against colonialism and imperialism or to an alliance with the communists.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=137–139|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=33–34|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=53|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=42–43|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=38–39}} Despite his friendships with non-blacks and communists, Mandela embraced Lembede's views, believing that Black Africans should be entirely independent in their struggle for political self-determination.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=31|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=34–35|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=142–143|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=54}} Deciding on the need for a youth wing to mass-mobilise Africans in opposition to their subjugation, Mandela was among a delegation that approached ANC President [[Alfred Bitini Xuma]] on the subject at his home in [[Sophiatown]]; the [[African National Congress Youth League]] (ANCYL) was founded on Easter Sunday 1944 in the [[Bantu Men's Social Centre]], with Lembede as president and Mandela as a member of its executive committee.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=28–29|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=139–143|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=35|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=52–56|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=44–46|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=39–41}}

[[File:Mandela e Evelyn 1944.jpg|thumb|left|Mandela and Evelyn in July 1944, at Walter and Albertina Sisulu's wedding party in the Bantu Men's Social Centre.{{sfn|Smith|2010|p=inset photographs}}]]

At Sisulu's house, Mandela met [[Evelyn Mase]], a trainee nurse and ANC activist from [[Engcobo]], [[Transkei]]. Entering a relationship and marrying in October 1944, they initially lived with her relatives until moving into a rented house in the township of [[Orlando, Soweto|Orlando]] in early 1946.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=24|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=39–40|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=144, 148–149|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4pp=24, 25|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=59–62|6a1=Meredith|6y=2010|6p=47|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7p=36}} Their first child, Madiba "Thembi" Thembekile, was born in February 1945; a daughter, Makaziwe, was born in 1947 but died of [[meningitis]] nine months later.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=40–41|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=149, 152|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=29|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=60–64|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=48|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6p=36}} Mandela enjoyed home life, welcoming his mother and his sister, Leabie, to stay with him.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=40|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=150, 210|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=30|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=67|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=48|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6p=36}} In early 1947, his three years of articles ended at Witkin, Sidelsky and Eidelman, and he decided to become a full-time student, subsisting on loans from the Bantu Welfare Trust.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=151|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=64|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=48–49}}

In July 1947, Mandela rushed Lembede, who was ill, to hospital, where he died; he was succeeded as ANCYL president by the more moderate [[A.P. Mda|Peter Mda]], who agreed to co-operate with communists and non-blacks, appointing Mandela ANCYL secretary.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=36|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=43|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=153–154|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=66|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=48}} Mandela disagreed with Mda's approach, and in December 1947 supported an unsuccessful measure to expel communists from the ANCYL, considering their ideology un-African.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=154|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=42}} In 1947, Mandela was elected to the executive committee of the ANC's [[Transvaal Province]] branch, serving under regional president C. S. Ramohanoe. When Ramohanoe acted against the wishes of the committee by co-operating with Indians and communists, Mandela was one of those who forced his resignation.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=154–157|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=37|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=66|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=49}}

In the [[1948 South African general election|South African general election in 1948]], in which only whites were permitted to vote, the Afrikaner-dominated [[Herenigde Nasionale Party]] under [[Daniel François Malan]] took power, soon uniting with the [[Afrikaner Party]] to form the [[National Party (South Africa)|National Party]]. Openly [[Racialism (Racial categorization)|racialist]], the party codified and expanded racial segregation with new [[apartheid legislation]].{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=35|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=159–162|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3pp=41–42|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=70–72|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=76–78|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=51–52}} Gaining increasing influence in the ANC, Mandela and his party cadre allies began advocating [[direct action]] against apartheid, such as boycotts and strikes, influenced by the tactics already employed by South Africa's Indian community. Xuma did not support these measures and was removed from the presidency in a [[Motion of no confidence|vote of no confidence]], replaced by [[James Moroka]] and a more militant executive committee containing Sisulu, Mda, Tambo, and Godfrey Pitje.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=36–37|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=162–165|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=44|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=72–73|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=78–79|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=53–55}} Mandela later related that he and his colleagues had "guided the ANC to a more radical and revolutionary path."{{sfn|Mandela|1994|p=165}} Having devoted his time to politics, Mandela failed his final year at Witwatersrand three times; he was ultimately denied his degree in December 1949.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2010|1pp=68–70|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=35}}

===Defiance Campaign and Transvaal ANC Presidency: 1950–1954===

[[File:Flag of the African National Congress.svg|thumb|The ANC's tricolour flag; black for the people, green for the land, and gold for the resources of Africa{{sfn|Benson|1986|p=26}}]]

Mandela took Xuma's place on the ANC national executive in March 1950,{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=168|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=44|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=55–56}} and that same year was elected national president of the ANCYL.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=41|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2p=176|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=47|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=78|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=88|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=63–64}} In March, the Defend Free Speech Convention was held in Johannesburg, bringing together African, Indian, and communist activists to call a [[International Workers' Day|May Day]] [[general strike]] in protest against apartheid and white minority rule. Mandela opposed the strike because it was multi-racial and not ANC-led, but a majority of Black workers took part, resulting in increased police repression and the introduction of the [[Suppression of Communism Act, 1950]], affecting the actions of all protest groups.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=38–40|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=48–49|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=165–167|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=74–75|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=81–83|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=61–62}} At the ANC national conference of December 1951, he continued arguing against a racially united front, but was outvoted.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=176|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=78|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=63–64}}

Thereafter, Mandela rejected Lembede's Africanism and embraced the idea of a multi-racial front against apartheid.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=42|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=55|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=48|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=94}} Influenced by friends like [[Moses Kotane]] and by the [[Soviet Union]]'s support for [[wars of national liberation]], his mistrust of communism broke down and he began reading literature by [[Karl Marx]], [[Vladimir Lenin]], and [[Mao Zedong]], eventually embracing the [[Marxist philosophy]] of [[dialectical materialism]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=177–172|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=45, 47|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=75–76|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=87|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=64–65}} Commenting on communism, he later stated that he "found [himself] strongly drawn to the idea of a classless society which, to [his] mind, was similar to traditional African culture where life was shared and communal."{{sfn|Mandela|1994|p=172}} In April 1952, Mandela began work at the H.M. Basner law firm, which was owned by a communist,{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=165|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=53|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=77|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=92}} although his increasing commitment to work and activism meant he spent less time with his family.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=170|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=94|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=103}}

In 1952, the ANC began preparation for a joint [[Defiance Campaign]] against apartheid with Indian and communist groups, founding a National Voluntary Board to recruit volunteers. The campaign was designed to follow the path of [[nonviolent resistance]] influenced by [[Mahatma Gandhi]]; some supported this for ethical reasons, but Mandela instead considered it pragmatic.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=44–46|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=56–58|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=182–183|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=77, 80|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=88–89|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=66–67}} At a [[Durban]] rally on 22 June, Mandela addressed an assembled crowd of 10,000 people, initiating the campaign protests for which he was arrested and briefly interned in Marshall Square prison.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=183–188|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=52, 53|32a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=81–83|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=88–89|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=69}} These events established Mandela as one of the best-known Black political figures in South Africa.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=47}} With further protests, the ANC's membership grew from 20,000 to 100,000 members; the government responded with mass arrests and introduced the [[Public Safety Act, 1953]] to permit [[martial law]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=188–192|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=68}} In May, authorities banned Transvaal ANC President [[J. B. Marks]] from making public appearances; unable to maintain his position, he recommended Mandela as his successor. Although Africanists opposed his candidacy, Mandela was elected to be regional president in October.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=51|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=194–195|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=54|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=85|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=72–73}}

[[File:The Nelson Mandela House.jpg|thumb|left|[[Mandela House|Mandela's former home]] in the Johannesburg township of [[Soweto]]]]

In July 1952, Mandela was arrested under the [[Suppression of Communism Act]] and stood trial as one of the 21 accused—among them Moroka, Sisulu, and [[Yusuf Dadoo]]—in Johannesburg. Found guilty of "statutory communism", a term that the government used to describe most opposition to apartheid, their sentence of nine months' [[hard labour]] was [[Suspended sentence|suspended]] for two years.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=50–51|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=195–198|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=54|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=83–84|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=92|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=71–72}} In December, Mandela was given a six-month ban from attending meetings or talking to more than one individual at a time, making his Transvaal ANC presidency impractical, and during this period the Defiance Campaign petered out.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=64|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=199–200, 204|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=86|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=73}} In September 1953, Andrew Kunene read out Mandela's "No Easy Walk to Freedom" speech at a Transvaal ANC meeting; the title was taken from a quote by Indian independence leader [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], a seminal influence on Mandela's thought. The speech laid out a contingency plan for a scenario in which the ANC was banned. This Mandela Plan, or M-Plan, involved dividing the organisation into a [[Clandestine cell system|cell structure]] with a more centralised leadership.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=58–59|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=60|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=205–207, 231|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=58|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=107–108|6a1=Smith|6y=2010|6pp=116–117|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=81–82, 84–85}}

Mandela obtained work as an attorney for the firm Terblanche and Briggish, before moving to the liberal-run Helman and Michel, passing qualification exams to become a full-fledged attorney.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=209–210|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=87|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=95|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=7}} In August 1953, Mandela and Tambo opened their own law firm, [[Mandela and Tambo]], operating in downtown Johannesburg. The only African-run law firm in the country, it was popular with aggrieved Black people, often dealing with cases of [[police brutality]]. Disliked by the authorities, the firm was forced to relocate to a remote location after their office permit was removed under the [[Group Areas Act]]; as a result, their clientele dwindled.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=54–57|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=61|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=210–216|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=73|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=87–93|6a1=Meredith|6y=2010|6pp=95–101|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=77–80}} As a lawyer of aristocratic heritage, Mandela was part of Johannesburg's elite Black middle-class, and accorded much respect from the Black community.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|pp=28–29, 75}} Although a second daughter, [[Makaziwe Mandela|Makaziwe Phumia]], was born in May 1954, Mandela's relationship with Evelyn became strained, and she accused him of adultery. He may have had affairs with ANC member [[Lillian Ngoyi]] and secretary Ruth Mompati; various individuals close to Mandela in this period have stated that the latter bore him a child.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=103–104|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=95–99, 105–106}} Disgusted by her son's behaviour, Nosekeni returned to Transkei, while Evelyn embraced the [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] and rejected Mandela's preoccupation with politics.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=293–294|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=104–105|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=98–99, 105–106|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=76–77}}

===Congress of the People and the Treason Trial: 1955–1961===
{{Main|Treason Trial}}
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| quote = We, the people of South Africa, declare for all our country and the world to know: That South Africa belongs to all who live in it, Black and white, and that no government can justly claim authority unless it is based on the will of the people.
| salign = right
| source = —Opening words of the [[Freedom Charter]]{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=66|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=92}}
}}

After taking part in the unsuccessful protest to prevent the forced relocation of all Black people from the Sophiatown suburb of Johannesburg in February 1955, Mandela concluded that violent action would prove necessary to end apartheid and white minority rule.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=218–233, 234–236|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=59–60|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=114–117|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=120–123|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=82–84}} On his advice, Sisulu requested weaponry from the People's Republic of China, which was denied. Although the Chinese government supported the anti-apartheid struggle, they believed the movement insufficiently prepared for [[guerrilla warfare]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=226–227|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=60|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=108–109|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=118|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=84}} With the involvement of the [[South African Indian Congress]], the Coloured People's Congress, the [[South African Congress of Trade Unions]] and the [[South African Congress of Democrats|Congress of Democrats]], the ANC planned a [[Congress of the People (1955)|Congress of the People]], calling on all South Africans to send in proposals for a post-apartheid era. Based on the responses, a [[Freedom Charter]] was drafted by [[Rusty Bernstein]], calling for the creation of a democratic, non-racialist state with the [[nationalisation]] of major industry. The charter was adopted at a June 1955 conference in [[Kliptown]]; 3,000 delegates attended the event, which was forcibly closed down by police.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=64–67|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=71–75|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=243–249|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4pp=65–66|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=129–133|6a1=Smith|6y=2010|6pp=118–120, 125–128|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=87–95}} The tenets of the Freedom Charter remained important for Mandela, and in 1956 he described it as "an inspiration to the people of South Africa".{{sfn|Meredith|2010|p=134}}

Following the end of a second ban in September 1955, Mandela went on a working holiday to [[Transkei]] to discuss the implications of the [[Bantu Authorities Act, 1951]] with local tribal leaders, also visiting his mother and Noengland before proceeding to [[Cape Town]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=253–274|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=130–132|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=96–99}} In March 1956 he received his third ban on public appearances, restricting him to Johannesburg for five years, but he often defied it.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=275|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=147|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=101–102}} Mandela's marriage broke down and Evelyn left him, taking their children to live with her brother. Initiating divorce proceedings in May 1956, she claimed that Mandela had physically abused her; he denied the allegations, and fought for custody of their children.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=79–80|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=143–144|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=100–102|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=110}} She withdrew her petition of separation in November, but Mandela filed for divorce in January 1958; the divorce was finalised in March, with the children placed in Evelyn's care.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=79–80|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2p=296|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=102–104|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=110}} During the divorce proceedings, he began courting a social worker, [[Winnie Madikizela-Mandela|Winnie Madikizela]], whom he married in [[Bizana, Eastern Cape|Bizana]] in June 1958. She later became involved in ANC activities, spending several weeks in prison.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=74–76|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=93|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=306–311|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4pp=75–77|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=144–149|6a1=Smith|6y=2010|6pp=104, 132–145|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=110–113}} Together they had two children: [[Zenani Mandela-Dlamini|Zenani]], born in February 1959, and [[Zindzi Mandela-Hlongwane|Zindziswa]] (1960–2020).{{sfn|Meredith|2010|pp=165, 186}}

[[File:ApartheidSignEnglishAfrikaans.jpg|thumb|left|An apartheid sign; apartheid legislation impacted all areas of life]]

In December 1956, Mandela was arrested alongside most of the ANC national executive, and accused of "high treason" against the state. Held in Johannesburg Prison amid mass protests, they underwent a preparatory examination before being granted bail.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=68, 71–72|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=83|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=283–292|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=136–141|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=163–164|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=103–106}} The defence's refutation began in January 1957, overseen by defence lawyer [[Vernon Berrangé]], and continued until the case was adjourned in September. In January 1958, [[Oswald Pirow]] was appointed to prosecute the case, and in February the judge ruled that there was "sufficient reason" for the defendants to go on trial in the [[Gauteng Division|Transvaal Supreme Court]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=299–305|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=142|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=167–168|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=116–117}} The formal [[Treason Trial]] began in [[Pretoria]] in August 1958, with the defendants successfully applying to have the three judges—all linked to the governing National Party—replaced. In August, one charge was dropped, and in October the prosecution withdrew its indictment, submitting a reformulated version in November which argued that the ANC leadership committed high treason by advocating violent revolution, a charge the defendants denied.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=331–334|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=162, 165|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=167|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=122–123}}

In April 1959, Africanists dissatisfied with the ANC's united front approach founded the [[Pan-Africanist Congress]] (PAC); Mandela disagreed with the PAC's racially exclusionary views, describing them as "immature" and "naïve".{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=79|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=90–92, 141–143|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=327–330|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=167–168|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=171–173|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=117–122}} Both parties took part in an anti-pass campaign in early 1960, in which Africans burned [[Pass laws|the passes that they were legally obliged to carry]]. One of the PAC-organised demonstrations was fired upon by police, resulting in the deaths of 69 protesters in the [[Sharpeville massacre]]. The incident brought international condemnation of the government and resulted in rioting throughout South Africa, with Mandela publicly burning his pass in solidarity.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=83–84|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=144–147|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=342–346|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4pp=81–82|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=167–170|6a1=Smith|6y=2010|6pp=173–175|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=130–131}}

Responding to the unrest, the government implemented state of emergency measures, declaring [[martial law]] and banning the ANC and PAC; in March, they arrested Mandela and other activists, imprisoning them for five months without charge in the unsanitary conditions of the Pretoria Local prison.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=85–86|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=347–357|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=172–175|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=175|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=132–133}} Imprisonment caused problems for Mandela and his co-defendants in the Treason Trial; their lawyers could not reach them, and so it was decided that the lawyers would withdraw in protest until the accused were freed from prison when the state of emergency was lifted in late August 1960.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=357–364|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=176, 184|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=177|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=134–135}} Over the following months, Mandela used his free time to organise an All-In African Conference near [[Pietermaritzburg]], [[Natal Province|Natal]], in March 1961, at which 1,400 anti-apartheid delegates met, agreeing on a stay-at-home strike to mark 31 May, the day South Africa became a republic.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=98|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=373–374|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3pp=83–84|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=187–188|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=183–185|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=140–143}} On 29 March 1961, six years after the Treason Trial began, the judges produced a verdict of not guilty, ruling that there was insufficient evidence to convict the accused of "high treason", since they had advocated neither communism nor violent revolution; the outcome embarrassed the government.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=94|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=151|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=377–380|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=84|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=188–189|6a1=Smith|6y=2010|6p=178|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7p=143}}

===MK, the SACP, and African tour: 1961–62===
[[File:liliesleaf hut1.jpg|thumb|right|Thatched room at Liliesleaf Farm, where Mandela hid]]
Disguised as a chauffeur, Mandela travelled around the country incognito, organising the ANC's new cell structure and the planned mass stay-at-home strike. Referred to as the "Black Pimpernel" in the press—a reference to [[Emma Orczy]]'s 1905 novel ''[[The Scarlet Pimpernel]]''—a warrant for his arrest was put out by the police.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=99|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=283–287|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=192–193|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=186–188, 193|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=144–146, 154}} Mandela held secret meetings with reporters, and after the government failed to prevent the strike, he warned them that many anti-apartheid activists would soon resort to violence through groups like the PAC's [[Azanian People's Liberation Army|Poqo]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=289–291|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=188–189|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=147–149}} He believed that the ANC should form an armed group to channel some of this violence in a controlled direction, convincing both ANC leader [[Albert Luthuli]]—who was morally opposed to violence—and allied activist groups of its necessity.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=393–396|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=199–200|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=206–210|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=150–151}}

Inspired by the actions of [[Fidel Castro]]'s [[26th of July Movement]] in the [[Cuban Revolution]], in 1961 Mandela, Sisulu, and Slovo co-founded [[Umkhonto we Sizwe]] ("Spear of the Nation", abbreviated MK). Becoming chairman of the militant group, Mandela gained ideas from literature on guerrilla warfare by Marxist militants Mao and [[Che Guevara]] as well as from the military theorist [[Carl von Clausewitz]].{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=107|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=397–398|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=197–198, 200–201|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=209–214|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=151–154}} Although initially declared officially separate from the ANC so as not to taint the latter's reputation, MK was later widely recognised as the party's armed wing.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2010|1pp=209–210|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=151}} Most early MK members were white communists who were able to conceal Mandela in their homes; after hiding in communist Wolfie Kodesh's flat in [[Berea, Gauteng|Berea]], Mandela moved to the communist-owned [[Liliesleaf Farm]] in [[Rivonia]], there joined by [[Raymond Mhlaba]], Slovo, and Bernstein, who put together the MK constitution.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=107|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=397–409|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3pp=92–93|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=201–204|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=191, 222–229|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=154–156}} Although in later life Mandela denied, for political reasons, ever being a member of the Communist Party, historical research published in 2011 strongly suggested that he had joined in the late 1950s or early 1960s.{{sfn|Ellis|2011|pp=667–668}} This was confirmed by both the SACP and the ANC after Mandela's death. According to the SACP, he was not only a member of the party, but also served on its Central Committee.{{sfn|Ellis|2016|p=1}}<ref name="Mandela'sCommunism">{{cite web |url=http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=4151%20 |title=SACP statement on the passing away of Madiba |website=South African Communist Party |date=6 December 2013 |access-date=29 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303223354/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=4151%20 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |url-status=dead }}; {{cite news |last=Marrian |first=Natasha |title=SACP confirms Nelson Mandela was a member |url=http://www.bdlive.co.za/national/politics/2013/12/06/sacp-confirms-nelson-mandela-was-a-member |access-date=7 December 2013 |newspaper=Business Day |location=South Africa |date=6 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306232040/http://www.bdlive.co.za/national/politics/2013/12/06/sacp-confirms-nelson-mandela-was-a-member |archive-date=6 March 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

{{Quote box|width=25em|align=left|quote=We of Umkhonto have always sought to achieve liberation without bloodshed and civil clash. Even at this late hour, we hope that our first actions will awaken everyone to a realization of the dangerous situation to which Nationalist policy is leading. We hope that we will bring the Government and its supporters to their senses before it is too late so that both government and its policies can be changed before matters reach the desperate stage of civil war.|salign=right |source=—Statement released by MK to announce the start of their sabotage campaign{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=171|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=207}}}}

Operating through a cell structure, MK planned to carry out acts of sabotage that would exert maximum pressure on the government with minimum casualties; they sought to bomb military installations, power plants, telephone lines, and transport links at night, when civilians were not present. Mandela stated that they chose sabotage because it was the least harmful action, did not involve killing, and offered the best hope for racial reconciliation afterwards; he nevertheless acknowledged that should this have failed then guerrilla warfare might have been necessary.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=108|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=171|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=411–412|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=90|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=204}} Soon after ANC leader Luthuli was awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]], MK publicly announced its existence with 57 bombings on [[Day of the Vow|Dingane's Day]] (16 December) 1961, followed by further attacks on New Year's Eve.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=110|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=170|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=413–415|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=95|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=206|6a1=Smith|6y=2010|6pp=239–246|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=158–159}}

The ANC decided to send Mandela as a delegate to the February 1962 meeting of the Pan-African Freedom Movement for East, Central and Southern Africa (PAFMECSA) in [[Addis Ababa]], Ethiopia.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=111|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=171–172, 176|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=418–425|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=95|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=251–254|6a1=Benneyworth|6y=2011|6p=81|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=160–162}} Leaving South Africa in secret via [[Bechuanaland Protectorate|Bechuanaland]], on his way Mandela visited [[Tanganyika (1961–1964)|Tanganyika]] and met with its president, [[Julius Nyerere]].{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=173–175|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=97|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=209|4a1=Benneyworth|4y=2011|4pp=81, 84}} Arriving in Ethiopia, Mandela met with Emperor [[Haile Selassie I]], and gave his speech after Selassie's at the conference.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=176–177, 180|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=427–432|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=255–256|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=163–165}} After the symposium, he travelled to [[Cairo]], Egypt, admiring the political reforms of President [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]], and then went to [[Tunis]], Tunisia, where President [[Habib Bourguiba]] gave him £5,000 for weaponry. He proceeded to Morocco, Mali, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Senegal, receiving funds from Liberian President [[William Tubman]] and Guinean President [[Ahmed Sékou Touré]].{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=185–194|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=432–440|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=210|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=256–259|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=165–167}} He left Africa for London, England, where he met anti-apartheid activists, reporters, and prominent politicians.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=114|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=196–197|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=441–443|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=210–211|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=259–261|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=167–169}} Upon returning to Ethiopia, he began a six-month course in guerrilla warfare, but completed only two months before being recalled to South Africa by the ANC's leadership.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=443–445|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=100|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=211|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=261–262|5a1=Benneyworth|5y=2011|5pp=91–93|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=169–170}}

==Imprisonment==
===Arrest and Rivonia trial: 1962–1964===
{{main|Rivonia Trial}}

On 5 August 1962, police captured Mandela along with fellow activist [[Cecil Williams (anti-apartheid activist)|Cecil Williams]] near [[Howick, KwaZulu-Natal|Howick]].{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=116–117|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=201–202|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=435–435|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=215–216|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=275–276|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=170–172}} Many MK members suspected that the authorities had been tipped off with regard to Mandela's whereabouts, although Mandela himself gave these ideas little credence.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=278–279|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=216|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=172}} In later years, [[Donald Rickard]], a former American diplomat revealed that the [[Central Intelligence Agency]], who feared Mandela's associations with communists, had informed the South African police of his location.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=216–217|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=172}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Ex-CIA spy admits tip led to Nelson Mandela's long imprisonment |date=15 May 2016 |website=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/may/15/cia-operative-nelson-mandela-1962-arrest |access-date=20 May 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160516104658/http://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/may/15/cia-operative-nelson-mandela-1962-arrest |archive-date=16 May 2016 }}</ref> Jailed in Johannesburg's Marshall Square prison, Mandela was charged with inciting workers' strikes and leaving the country without permission. Representing himself with Slovo as legal advisor, Mandela intended to use the trial to showcase "the ANC's moral opposition to racism" while supporters demonstrated outside the court.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=456–459|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=172–173}} Moved to [[Pretoria]], where Winnie could visit him, he began correspondence studies for a [[Bachelor of Laws]] (LLB) degree from the [[University of London International Programmes]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=463–465|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=292–293|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=173–174}} His hearing began in October, but he disrupted proceedings by wearing a traditional ''[[kaross]]'', refusing to call any witnesses, and turning his plea of mitigation into a political speech. Found guilty, he was sentenced to five years' imprisonment; as he left the courtroom, supporters sang "[[Nkosi Sikelel iAfrika]]".{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=120–134|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=210–213|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=468–482|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4pp=104–106|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=218–426|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=174–176}}

{{Quote box
| width = 25em
| align = right
| quote = I have fought against white domination, and I have fought against Black domination. I have cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all persons will live together in harmony and with equal opportunities. It is an ideal which I hope to live for and to see realised. But if it needs be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die.
| salign = right
| source = —Mandela's [[I Am Prepared to Die|Rivonia Trial Speech]], 1964{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=159|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=258|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=265|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=302|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=193|6a1=Broun|6y=2012|6p=74}}<ref>{{cite web |author=Nelson Mandela |title=I am prepared to die |url=http://db.nelsonmandela.org/speeches/pub_view.asp?pg=item&ItemID=NMS010 |work=Nelson Mandela Centre of Memory |publisher=Nelson Mandela Foundation |access-date=16 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201092557/http://db.nelsonmandela.org/speeches/pub_view.asp?pg=item&ItemID=NMS010 |archive-date=1 February 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
}}

On 11 July 1963, police raided [[Liliesleaf Farm]], arresting those they found there and uncovering paperwork documenting MK's activities, some of which mentioned Mandela. The [[Rivonia Trial]] began at [[Supreme Court of South Africa|Pretoria Supreme Court]] in October, with Mandela and his comrades charged with four counts of sabotage and conspiracy to violently overthrow the government; their chief prosecutor was [[Percy Yutar]].{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=134–137|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=223–226|3a1=Mandela|3y=2004|3pp=27–32|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4pp=108–109|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=242–250|6a1=Smith|6y=2010|6pp=292–295|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=183–186|8a1=Broun|8y=2012|8pp=6–10, 19–20}} Judge [[Quartus de Wet]] soon threw out the prosecution's case for insufficient evidence, but Yutar reformulated the charges, presenting his new case from December 1963 until February 1964, calling 173 witnesses and bringing thousands of documents and photographs to the trial.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=138–139|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=226|3a1=Mandela|3y=2004|3pp=33–42|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=252–254, 256|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=186–190|6a1=Broun|6y=2012|6pp=43–49}}

Although four of the accused denied involvement with MK, Mandela and the other five accused admitted sabotage but denied that they had ever agreed to initiate guerrilla war against the government.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=160|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=232–233|3a1=Mandela|3y=2004|3pp=42–44|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=252, 259}} They used the trial to highlight their political cause; at the opening of the defence's proceedings, Mandela gave his three-hour "[[I Am Prepared to Die]]" speech. That speech—which was inspired by Castro's "[[History Will Absolve Me]]"—was widely reported in the press despite official censorship.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=140|2a1=Mandela|2y=2004|2pp=43–57|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=258–265|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=298–302|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=191–194|6a1=Broun|6y=2012|6pp=68–75}} The trial gained international attention; there were global calls for the release of the accused from the [[United Nations]] and [[World Peace Council]], while the [[University of London Union]] voted Mandela to its presidency.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=2004|1p=62|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=268|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=303|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=194–195|5a1=Broun|5y=2012|5pp=102–104, 107}} On 12 June 1964, justice De Wet found Mandela and two of his co-accused guilty on all four charges; although the prosecution had called for the [[death sentence]] to be applied, the judge instead condemned them to [[life imprisonment]].{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=161, 163|2a1=Mandela|2y=2004|2pp=63–68|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=268–272|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4p=306|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=196–197|6a1=Broun|6y=2012|6pp=116–128}}

===Robben Island: 1964–1982===

In 1964, Mandela and his co-accused were transferred from Pretoria to the prison on [[Robben Island]], remaining there for the next 18 years.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=165|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=262|3a1=Mandela|3y=2004|3pp=75–78|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=307–308|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=204}} Isolated from non-political prisoners in Section B, Mandela was imprisoned in a damp concrete cell measuring {{convert|8|ft|m}} by {{convert|7|ft|m}}, with a straw mat on which to sleep.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=2004|1pp=79–80|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=279|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=205}} Verbally and physically harassed by several white prison wardens, the Rivonia Trial prisoners spent their days breaking rocks into gravel, until being reassigned in January 1965 to work in a lime quarry. Mandela was initially forbidden to wear sunglasses, and the glare from the lime permanently damaged his eyesight.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=166, 182|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=266|3a1=Mandela|3y=2004|3pp=82–84, 108–116|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=281–283, 290–291|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=206–207}} At night, he worked on his LLB degree which he was obtaining from the [[University of London]] through a correspondence course with [[Wolsey Hall, Oxford]], but newspapers were forbidden, and he was locked in [[solitary confinement]] on several occasions for the possession of smuggled news clippings.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=174|2a1=Mandela|2y=2004|2p=126|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=299|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=205, 258}} He was initially classified as the lowest grade of prisoner, Class D, meaning that he was permitted one visit and one letter every six months, although all mail was heavily censored.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=169|2a1=Mandela|2y=2004|2pp=102–108|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=283|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=205}}

[[File:RobbenIslandSteinbruchA.JPG|thumb|left|Lime quarry on Robben Island where Mandela and other prisoners were forced to carry out hard labour]]

The political prisoners took part in work and [[hunger strike]]s—the latter considered largely ineffective by Mandela—to improve prison conditions, viewing this as a microcosm of the anti-apartheid struggle.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=175|2a1=Mandela|2y=2004|2pp=83, 90, 136–138|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=124|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=284, 296–298}} ANC prisoners elected him to their four-man "High Organ" along with Sisulu, [[Govan Mbeki]], and [[Raymond Mhlaba]], and he involved himself in a group representing all political prisoners (including [[Eddie Daniels (political activist)|Eddie Daniels]]) on the island, Ulundi, through which he forged links with PAC and [[Yu Chi Chan Club]] members.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=298–299|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=210–214}} Initiating the "University of Robben Island", whereby prisoners lectured on their own areas of expertise, he debated socio-political topics with his comrades.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=130–131|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=292–295|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=236–241, 288–294}}

Though attending Christian Sunday services, Mandela studied Islam.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=301, 313|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=232}} He also studied [[Afrikaans]], hoping to build a mutual respect with the warders and convert them to his cause.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=295, 299–301|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=229}} Various official visitors met with Mandela, most significantly the liberal parliamentary representative [[Helen Suzman]] of the [[Progressive Party (South Africa)|Progressive Party]], who championed Mandela's cause outside of prison.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=301–302|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=221}} In September 1970, he met British [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] politician [[Denis Healey]].{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=337|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=222}} South African Minister of Justice [[Jimmy Kruger]] visited in December 1974, but he and Mandela did not get along with each other.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=334|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=241}} His mother visited in 1968, dying shortly after, and his firstborn son Thembi died in a car accident the following year; Mandela was forbidden from attending either funeral.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=142, 145|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=303–304|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=246–247}} His wife was rarely able to see him, being regularly imprisoned for political activity, and his daughters first visited in December 1975. Winnie was released from prison in 1977 but was forcibly settled in [[Brandfort]] and remained unable to see him.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=192–194|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=306–307|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=287–288, 304–310|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=248–254, 302}}

From 1967 onwards, prison conditions improved. Black prisoners were given trousers rather than shorts, games were permitted, and the standard of their food was raised.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=301|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=222, 235}} In 1969, an escape plan for Mandela was developed by Gordon Bruce, but it was abandoned after the conspiracy was infiltrated by an agent of the [[South African Bureau of State Security]] (BOSS), who hoped to see Mandela shot during the escape.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=207–208|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=231}} In 1970, Commander Piet Badenhorst became commanding officer. Mandela, seeing an increase in the physical and mental abuse of prisoners, complained to visiting judges, who had Badenhorst reassigned.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=127–128|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=308–310|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=223–225}} He was replaced by Commander Willie Willemse, who developed a co-operative relationship with Mandela and was keen to improve prison standards.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=128–129|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=226–227}}

{{multiple image
| align = right
| image1 = Physiological needs.jpg
| width1 = 190
| alt1 =
| caption1 =
| image2 = Robben Island fængslet Sektion B.jpg
| width2 = 205
| alt2 =
| caption2 =
| footer = The inside of Mandela's prison cell as it was when he was imprisoned in 1964 and his open cell window facing the prison yard on Robben Island, now a [[National heritage sites (South Africa)|national]] and [[World Heritage Site]]. Mandela's cell later contained more furniture, including a bed from around 1973.{{sfn|Hutton|1994|p=60}}
}}

By 1975, Mandela had become a Class A prisoner,{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=228}} which allowed him greater numbers of visits and letters. He corresponded with anti-apartheid activists like [[Mangosuthu Buthelezi]] and [[Desmond Tutu]].{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=314–315}} That year, he began his autobiography, which was smuggled to London, but remained unpublished at the time; prison authorities discovered several pages, and his LLB study privileges were revoked for four years.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=268|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=139|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=317|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=242–243}} Instead, he devoted his spare time to gardening and reading until the authorities permitted him to resume his LLB degree studies in 1980.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=285–286}}

By the late 1960s, Mandela's fame had been eclipsed by [[Steve Biko]] and the [[Black Consciousness Movement]] (BCM). Seeing the ANC as ineffectual, the BCM called for militant action, but following the [[Soweto uprising]] of 1976, many BCM activists were imprisoned on Robben Island.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=186–188|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=304–306|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=324–327|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=259–276}} Mandela tried to build a relationship with these young radicals, although he was critical of their racialism and contempt for white anti-apartheid activists.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=135|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=327–328|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=277–283|4a1=Soudien|4y=2015|4pp=363–364}} Renewed international interest in his plight came in July 1978, when he celebrated his 60th birthday.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=296}} He was awarded an honorary doctorate in [[Lesotho]], the [[Jawaharlal Nehru Award|Jawaharlal Nehru Award for International Understanding]] in India in 1979, and the [[Freedom of the City]] of [[Glasgow]], Scotland in 1981.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=313, 314|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=315–316}} In March 1980, the slogan "Free Mandela!" was developed by journalist [[Percy Qoboza]], sparking an international campaign that led the [[UN Security Council]] to call for his release.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=155|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=338–339|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=319–320}} Despite increasing foreign pressure, the government refused, relying on its [[Cold War]] allies US President [[Ronald Reagan]] and UK Prime Minister [[Margaret Thatcher]]; both considered Mandela's ANC a terrorist organisation sympathetic to communism, and supported its suppression.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=24|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=321}}

===Pollsmoor Prison: 1982–1988===
In April 1982, Mandela was transferred to [[Pollsmoor Prison]] in [[Tokai, Cape Town]], along with senior ANC leaders Walter Sisulu, Andrew Mlangeni, [[Ahmed Kathrada]], and Raymond Mhlaba; they believed that they were being isolated to remove their influence on younger activists at Robben Island.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=218|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=147–149|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=340|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=324–325}} Conditions at Pollsmoor were better than at Robben Island, although Mandela missed the camaraderie and scenery of the island.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=148|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=346–347|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=324–325}} Getting on well with Pollsmoor's commanding officer, Brigadier Munro, Mandela was permitted to create a [[roof garden]];{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=347|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=326}} he also read voraciously and corresponded widely, now permitted 52 letters a year.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=329}} He was appointed patron of the multi-racial [[United Democratic Front (South Africa)|United Democratic Front]] (UDF), founded to combat [[South African Constitution of 1983|reforms]] implemented by South African President [[P. W. Botha]]. Botha's National Party government had permitted Coloured and Indian citizens to vote for their own parliaments, which had control over education, health, and housing. But, Black Africans were excluded from the system. Like Mandela, the UDF saw this as an attempt to divide the anti-apartheid movement on racial lines.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=224|2a1=Barber|2y=2004|2pp=20, 23, 26–27|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=341–346|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=335–336}}

[[File:Mandela Bust at Southbank.jpg|thumb|left|Bust of Mandela erected on London's [[South Bank]] by the [[Greater London Council]] administration of [[Ken Livingstone]] in 1985]]

The early 1980s witnessed an escalation of violence across the country, and many predicted civil war. This was accompanied by economic stagnation as various multinational banks—under pressure from an international lobby—had stopped investing in South Africa. Numerous banks and Thatcher asked Botha to release Mandela—then at the height of his international fame—to defuse the volatile situation.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=247–248|2a1=Barber|2y=2004|2p=30|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3pp=152–153, 156|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=249–256|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=338–342}} Although considering Mandela a dangerous "arch-Marxist",{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=210|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=340}} in February 1985 Botha offered him a release from prison if he "unconditionally rejected violence as a political weapon". Mandela spurned the offer, releasing a statement through his daughter Zindzi stating, "What freedom am I being offered while the organisation of the people [ANC] remains banned? Only free men can negotiate. A prisoner cannot enter into contracts."{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=237–238|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=315–318|3a1=Barber|3y=2004|3p=36|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=157|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=351–352|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=330–332}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/history/mandela/64-90/jabulani.html|title=Mandela's response to being offered freedom|publisher=ANC|access-date=28 October 2008 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080622004124/http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/history/mandela/64-90/jabulani.html  |archive-date = 22 June 2008}}</ref>

In 1985, Mandela underwent surgery on an enlarged prostate gland, before being given new solitary quarters on the ground floor.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=254|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=157–158|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=358|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=343–345}} He was met by "seven eminent persons", an international delegation sent to negotiate a settlement, but Botha's government refused to co-operate, calling a state of emergency in June and initiating a police crackdown on unrest.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=359–360|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=347–355}} The anti-apartheid resistance fought back, with the ANC committing 231 attacks in 1986 and 235 in 1987.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=355}} The violence escalated as the government used the army and police to combat the resistance and provided covert support for vigilante groups and the [[Zulu people|Zulu]] nationalist movement [[Inkatha Freedom Party|Inkatha]], which was involved in an increasingly violent struggle with the ANC.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=354–357}} Mandela requested talks with Botha but was denied, instead secretly meeting with Minister of Justice [[Kobie Coetsee]] in 1987, and having a further 11 meetings over the next three years. Coetsee organised negotiations between Mandela and a team of four government figures starting in May 1988; the team agreed to the release of political prisoners and the legalisation of the ANC on the condition that they permanently renounce violence, break links with the Communist Party, and not insist on [[majority rule]]. Mandela rejected these conditions, insisting that the ANC would end its armed activities only when the government renounced violence.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=160|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=362–368|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=363–378}}

Mandela's 70th birthday in July 1988 attracted international attention, including [[Nelson Mandela 70th Birthday Tribute|a tribute concert]] at London's [[Wembley Stadium (1923)|Wembley Stadium]] that was televised and watched by an estimated 200 million viewers.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=35|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=368}} Although presented globally as a heroic figure, he faced personal problems when ANC leaders informed him that Winnie had set herself up as head of a gang, the "Mandela United Football Club," which had been responsible for torturing and killing opponents—including children—in Soweto. Though some encouraged him to divorce her, he decided to remain loyal until she was found guilty by trial.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=20–23|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=183–184|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=371–383|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=373–380}}

===Victor Verster Prison and release: 1988–1990===

[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-1986-0920-016, Berlin, Weltgewerkschaftskongress, Probe des Festprogramms.jpg|thumb|right|"Free Mandela" protest in [[East Berlin]], 1986]]

Recovering from [[tuberculosis]] exacerbated by the damp conditions in his cell,{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=318–319|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=160|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=369|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=369–370}} in December 1988, Mandela was moved to [[Victor Verster Prison]] near [[Paarl]]. He was housed in the relative comfort of a warder's house with a personal cook, and he used the time to complete his LLB degree.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=320|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=160|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=369–370|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=381}} While there, he was permitted many visitors and organised secret communications with exiled ANC leader Oliver Tambo.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=384–385, 392–393}}<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/12/08/world/mandela-moved-to-house-at-prison-farm.html |title=Mandela Moved to House at Prison Farm |author=Christopher S. Wren |date=8 December 1988 |work=The New York Times |access-date=13 February 2013 |archive-date=14 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EQXYZIzp?url=http://www.nytimes.com/1988/12/08/world/mandela-moved-to-house-at-prison-farm.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 1989, Botha suffered a stroke; although he would retain the state presidency, he stepped down as leader of the National Party, to be replaced by [[F. W. de Klerk]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=41|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=62|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=388|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=386}} In a surprise move, Botha invited Mandela to a meeting over tea in July 1989, an invitation Mandela considered genial.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=161–162|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=387–388|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=390–392}} Botha was replaced as state president by de Klerk six weeks later; the new president believed that apartheid was unsustainable and released a number of ANC prisoners.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=41–42|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=392–397}} Following the fall of the [[Berlin Wall]] in November 1989, de Klerk called his cabinet together to debate legalising the ANC and freeing Mandela. Although some were deeply opposed to his plans, de Klerk met with Mandela in December to discuss the situation, a meeting both men considered friendly, before legalising all formerly banned political parties in February 1990 and announcing Mandela's unconditional release.{{sfnm|1a1=Glad|1a2=Blanton|1y=1997|1p=567|2a1=Barber|2y=2004|2p=1|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3pp=165–166|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=369–397|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=399–402}}<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/11/newsid_2539000/2539947.stm |title=1990: Freedom for Nelson Mandela |date=11 February 1990 |publisher=BBC |access-date=28 October 2008 |archive-date=26 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EilzLNPU?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/11/newsid_2539000/2539947.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> Shortly thereafter, for the first time in 20 years, photographs of Mandela were allowed to be published in South Africa.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=403}}

Leaving Victor Verster Prison on 11 February, Mandela held Winnie's hand in front of amassed crowds and the press; the event was broadcast live across the world.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=167|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=399–402|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=407}}<ref>{{cite news |url=http://century.guardian.co.uk/1990-1999/Story/0,,112389,00.html |title=Mandela free after 27 years |last=Ormond |first=Roger |date=12 February 1990 |work=The Guardian |access-date=28 October 2008 |location=London |archive-date=26 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EilzkcH7?url=http://century.guardian.co.uk/1990-1999/Story/0,,112389,00.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Driven to [[Cape Town City Hall|Cape Town's City Hall]] through crowds, he gave a speech declaring his commitment to peace and reconciliation with the white minority, but he made it clear that the ANC's armed struggle was not over and would continue as "a purely defensive action against the violence of apartheid". He expressed hope that the government would agree to negotiations, so that "there may no longer be the need for the armed struggle", and insisted that his main focus was to bring peace to the Black majority and give them the right to vote in national and local elections.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=2|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=400–402|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=408–409}}<ref>The text of Mandela's speech can be found at {{cite web|url=http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/history/mandela/1990/release.html|title=Nelson Mandela's address to Rally in Cape Town on his Release from Prison|date=11 February 1990|publisher=ANC|access-date=28 October 2008 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080728021713/http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/history/mandela/1990/release.html  |archive-date = 28 July 2008}}</ref> Staying at Tutu's home, in the following days Mandela met with friends, activists, and press, giving a speech to an estimated 100,000 people at Johannesburg's [[FNB Stadium]].{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=171|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=403–405|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=409–410}}

==End of apartheid==
{{Main|Negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa}}

===Early negotiations: 1990–91===
[[File:Luthuli House.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Luthuli House]] in Johannesburg, which became the ANC headquarters in 1991]]
Mandela proceeded on an African tour, meeting supporters and politicians in Zambia, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Libya and Algeria, and continuing to Sweden, where he was reunited with Tambo, and London, where he appeared at the [[Nelson Mandela: An International Tribute for a Free South Africa]] concert at [[Wembley Stadium (1923)|Wembley Stadium]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=57|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=172|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=409–410|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=412–414}} Encouraging foreign countries to support sanctions against the apartheid government, he met President [[François Mitterrand]] in France, [[Pope John Paul II]] in the Vatican, and Thatcher in the United Kingdom. In the United States, he met President [[George H.W. Bush]], addressed both Houses of Congress and visited eight cities, being particularly popular among the [[African American|African-American]] community.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=58–59|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=415–418}} In Cuba, he became friends with President Castro, whom he had long admired.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=60|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=410|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=420}} He met President [[R. Venkataraman]] in India, President [[Suharto]] in Indonesia, Prime Minister [[Mahathir Mohamad]] in Malaysia, and Prime Minister [[Bob Hawke]] in Australia. He visited Japan, but not the [[Soviet Union]], a longtime ANC supporter.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=60|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=418–420}}

In May 1990, Mandela led a multiracial ANC delegation into preliminary negotiations with a government delegation of 11 Afrikaner men. Mandela impressed them with his discussions of Afrikaner history, and the negotiations led to the [[Groote Schuur Minute|Groot Schuur Minute]], in which the government lifted the state of emergency.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=412–413|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=424–427}} In August, Mandela—recognising the ANC's severe military disadvantage—offered a ceasefire, the Pretoria Minute, for which he was widely criticised by MK activists.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=412–413|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=424–427}} He spent much time trying to unify and build the ANC, appearing at a Johannesburg conference in December attended by 1600 delegates, many of whom found him more moderate than expected.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=439|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=428–429}} At the ANC's July 1991 national conference in Durban, Mandela admitted that the party had faults and announced his aim to build a "strong and well-oiled task force" for securing majority rule.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=47|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=173|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=439–440|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=429–430}} At the conference, he was elected ANC President, replacing the ailing Tambo, and a 50-strong multiracial, mixed gendered national executive was elected.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=47|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=173|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=439–440|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=429–430}}

Mandela was given an office in the newly purchased ANC headquarters at [[Shell House (Johannesburg)|Shell House]], Johannesburg, and moved into Winnie's large Soweto home.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=409|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=431, 448}} Their marriage was increasingly strained as he learned of her affair with Dali Mpofu, but he supported her during her trial for kidnapping and assault. He gained funding for her defence from the International Defence and Aid Fund for Southern Africa and from Libyan leader [[Muammar Gaddafi]], but in June 1991, she was found guilty and sentenced to six years in prison, reduced to two on appeal. On 13 April 1992, Mandela publicly announced his separation from Winnie. The ANC forced her to step down from the national executive for misappropriating ANC funds; Mandela moved into the mostly white Johannesburg suburb of [[Houghton Estate|Houghton]].{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=429–436, 435–460|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=431, 448}} Mandela's prospects for a peaceful transition were further damaged by an increase in "Black-on-Black" violence, particularly between ANC and Inkatha supporters in [[KwaZulu-Natal]], which resulted in thousands of deaths. Mandela met with Inkatha leader Buthelezi, but the ANC prevented further negotiations on the issue. Mandela argued that there was a "[[Third Force (South Africa)|third force]]" within the state intelligence services fuelling the "slaughter of the people" and openly blamed de Klerk—whom he increasingly distrusted—for the [[Sebokeng]] massacre.{{sfnm|1a1=Tomaselli|1a2=Tomaselli|1y=2003|1p=6|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=174|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=418–424|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=436–442}} In September 1991, a national peace conference was held in Johannesburg at which Mandela, Buthelezi and de Klerk signed a peace accord, though the violence continued.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=425–426|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=444}}

===CODESA talks: 1991–92===
The [[Convention for a Democratic South Africa]] (CODESA) began in December 1991 at the Johannesburg World Trade Centre, attended by 228 delegates from 19 political parties. Although [[Cyril Ramaphosa]] led the ANC's delegation, Mandela remained a key figure. After de Klerk used the closing speech to condemn the ANC's violence, he took to the stage to denounce de Klerk as the "head of an illegitimate, discredited minority regime". Dominated by the National Party and ANC, little negotiation was achieved.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=45, 69|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=174–175|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=443–446|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=456–459}} CODESA 2 was held in May 1992, at which de Klerk insisted that post-apartheid South Africa must use a [[federalism|federal system]] with a rotating presidency to ensure the protection of ethnic minorities; Mandela opposed this, demanding a [[unitary state|unitary system]] governed by majority rule.<ref>{{harvnb|Sampson|2011|p=460}}; {{harvnb|Meredith|2010|pp=448, 452}}.</ref> Following the [[Boipatong massacre]] of ANC activists by government-aided Inkatha militants, Mandela called off the negotiations, before attending a meeting of the [[Organisation of African Unity]] in Senegal, at which he called for a special session of the UN Security Council and proposed that a [[United Nations peacekeeping|UN peacekeeping force]] be stationed in South Africa to prevent "[[state terrorism]]".{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=72–73|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=177|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=462–463|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=461–462}} Calling for domestic mass action, in August the ANC organised the largest-ever strike in South African history, and supporters marched on Pretoria.<ref>{{harvnb|Sampson|2011|pp=462–463}}; {{harvnb|Meredith|2010|pp=466–467}}.</ref>

[[File:Frederik de Klerk with Nelson Mandela - World Economic Forum Annual Meeting Davos 1992.jpg|left|thumb|[[F. W. de Klerk|De Klerk]] and Mandela at the [[World Economic Forum]], 1992]]

Following the [[Bisho massacre]], in which 28 ANC supporters and one soldier were shot dead by the [[Ciskei Defence Force]] during a protest march, Mandela realised that mass action was leading to further violence and resumed negotiations in September. He agreed to do so on the conditions that all political prisoners be released, that Zulu traditional weapons be banned, and that Zulu hostels would be fenced off, the latter two measures intended to prevent further Inkatha attacks; de Klerk reluctantly agreed.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=177–178|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=467–471|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=463–466}} The negotiations agreed that a multiracial general election would be held, resulting in a five-year [[National unity government|coalition government of national unity]] and a constitutional assembly that gave the National Party continuing influence. The ANC also conceded to safeguarding the jobs of white civil servants; such concessions brought fierce internal criticism.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=79|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=180|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=467–468}} The duo agreed on [[South African Constitution of 1993|an interim constitution]] based on a [[liberal democracy|liberal democratic]] model, guaranteeing separation of powers, creating a constitutional court, and including a US-style [[bill of rights]]; it also divided the country into nine provinces, each with its own [[premier]] and civil service, a concession between de Klerk's desire for [[federalism]] and Mandela's for unitary government.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=80|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=489–491|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=472}}

The democratic process was threatened by the Concerned South Africans Group (COSAG), an alliance of Black ethnic-secessionist groups like Inkatha and far-right Afrikaner parties; in June 1993, one of the latter—the [[Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging]] (AWB)—[[Storming of Kempton Park World Trade Centre|attacked the Kempton Park World Trade Centre]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=46|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=449–450, 488|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=466, 470–471}} Following the murder of ANC activist [[Chris Hani]], Mandela made a publicised speech to calm rioting, soon after appearing at a mass funeral in Soweto for Tambo, who had died of a stroke.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=180–181|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=476–480|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=468–469}} In July 1993, both Mandela and de Klerk visited the US, independently meeting President [[Bill Clinton]] and each receiving the [[Liberty Medal]].{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=471}} Soon after, Mandela and de Klerk were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in Norway.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=68|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=182|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=494|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=474}} Influenced by [[Thabo Mbeki]], Mandela began meeting with big business figures, and played down his support for nationalisation, fearing that he would scare away much-needed foreign investment. Although criticised by socialist ANC members, he had been encouraged to embrace private enterprise by members of the Chinese and Vietnamese Communist parties at the January 1992 [[World Economic Forum]] in Switzerland.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=182|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=497|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=434–445, 473}}

===General election: 1994===

{{Main|1994 South African general election}}

[[File:Mandela voting in 1994.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Mandela casting his vote in the [[1994 South African general election|1994 election]]]]

With the election set for 27 April 1994, the ANC began campaigning, opening 100 election offices and orchestrating People's Forums across the country at which Mandela could appear, as a popular figure with great status among Black South Africans.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=495|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=467–477}} The ANC campaigned on a [[Reconstruction and Development Programme]] (RDP) to build a million houses in five years, introduce universal free education and extend access to water and electricity. The party's slogan was "a better life for all", although it was not explained how this development would be funded.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=76–77|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=495–496|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=478}} With the exception of the ''[[Weekly Mail]]'' and the ''[[New Nation]]'', South Africa's press opposed Mandela's election, fearing continued ethnic strife, instead supporting the National or [[Democratic Party (South Africa)|Democratic Party]].{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=479}} Mandela devoted much time to fundraising for the ANC, touring North America, Europe and Asia to meet wealthy donors, including former supporters of the apartheid regime.{{sfnm|Sampson|2011|pp=479–480}} He also urged a reduction in the voting age from 18 to 14; rejected by the ANC, this policy became the subject of ridicule.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=188|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=477–478|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=484}}

Concerned that COSAG would undermine the election, particularly in the wake of the [[Bophuthatswana conflict (1994)|conflict in Bophuthatswana]] and the [[Shell House massacre]]—incidents of violence involving the AWB and Inkatha, respectively—Mandela met with Afrikaner politicians and generals, including P. W. Botha, [[Pik Botha]] and [[Constand Viljoen]], persuading many to work within the democratic system. With de Klerk, he also convinced Inkatha's Buthelezi to enter the elections rather than launch a war of secession.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=488–489, 504–510|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=480–489}} As leaders of the two major parties, de Klerk and Mandela appeared on a televised debate; although de Klerk was widely considered the better speaker at the event, Mandela's offer to shake his hand surprised him, leading some commentators to deem it a victory for Mandela.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=500–501|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=488}} The election went ahead with little violence, although an AWB cell killed 20 with car bombs. As widely expected, the ANC won a sweeping victory, taking 63% of the vote, just short of the two-thirds majority needed to unilaterally change the constitution. The ANC was also victorious in seven provinces, with Inkatha and the National Party each taking one.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=82|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=512|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=491}}<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2024558_2024522_2024462,00.html |title=Top 10 Political Prisoners |first=Glen |last=Levy |date=15 November 2010 |work=Time |access-date=25 March 2013 |archive-date=25 March 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6FNwiR3bn?url=http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2024558_2024522_2024462,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Mandela voted at the [[Ohlange High School]] in Durban, and though the ANC's victory assured his election as president, he publicly accepted that the election had been marred by instances of fraud and sabotage.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=510–512|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=490}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/south-africa-holds-first-multiracial-elections |title=This Day in History: April 27, 1994: South Africa holds first multiracial elections |publisher=History |access-date=26 February 2013 |archive-date=26 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EimSsBID?url=http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/south-africa-holds-first-multiracial-elections |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Presidency of South Africa: 1994–1999==
{{main|Presidency of Nelson Mandela}}
The newly elected National Assembly's first act was to formally elect Mandela as South Africa's first Black chief executive. His inauguration took place in Pretoria on 10 May 1994, televised to a billion viewers globally. The event was attended by four thousand guests, including world leaders from a wide range of geographic and ideological backgrounds.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=514|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=492–493}} Mandela headed a [[Government of National Unity (South Africa)|Government of National Unity]] dominated by the ANC—which had no experience of governing by itself—but containing representatives from the National Party and Inkatha. Under the Interim Constitution, Inkatha and the National Party were entitled to seats in the government by virtue of winning at least 20 seats. In keeping with earlier agreements, both de Klerk and Thabo Mbeki were given the position of [[Deputy President of South Africa|Deputy President]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=3|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=491–492}}<ref>{{cite news|title=Mandela becomes SA's first black president |publisher=BBC |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/10/newsid_2661000/2661503.stm |access-date=26 May 2008 |date=10 May 1994 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhlKsRKm?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/10/newsid_2661000/2661503.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> Although Mbeki had not been his first choice for the job, Mandela grew to rely heavily on him throughout his presidency, allowing him to shape policy details.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=87|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=210|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=566|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=508–511}} Moving into the presidential office at [[Tuynhuys]] in Cape Town, Mandela allowed de Klerk to retain the presidential residence in the [[Groote Schuur]] estate, instead settling into the nearby Westbrooke manor, which he renamed "[[Genadendal Residence|Genadendal]]", meaning "Valley of Mercy" in Afrikaans.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=523, 543|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=496–497}} Retaining his Houghton home, he also had a house built in his home village of Qunu, which he visited regularly, walking around the area, meeting with locals, and judging tribal disputes.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=502}}

Aged 76, he faced various ailments, and although exhibiting continued energy, he felt isolated and lonely.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=497–499, 510}} He often entertained celebrities, such as [[Michael Jackson]], [[Whoopi Goldberg]], and the [[Spice Girls]], and befriended ultra-rich businessmen, like [[Harry Oppenheimer]] of [[Anglo American plc|Anglo-American]]. He also met with [[Elizabeth II|Queen Elizabeth II]] on her March 1995 [[state visit]] to South Africa, which earned him strong criticism from ANC anti-capitalists.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=501, 504}} Despite his opulent surroundings, Mandela lived simply, donating a third of his [[South African rand|R]] 552,000 annual income to the [[Nelson Mandela Children's Fund]], which he had founded in 1995.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=209|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=543|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=517}} Although dismantling press censorship, speaking out in favour of [[freedom of the press]], and befriending many journalists, Mandela was critical of much of the country's media, noting that it was overwhelmingly owned and run by middle-class whites and believing that it focused too heavily on scaremongering about crime.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=208–209|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=547–548|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=525–527}}

In December 1994, Mandela published ''[[Long Walk to Freedom]]'', an autobiography based around a manuscript he had written in prison, augmented by interviews conducted with American journalist [[Richard Stengel]].{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=186|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=517}} In late 1994, he attended the 49th conference of the ANC in [[Bloemfontein]], at which a more militant national executive was elected, among them Winnie Mandela; although she expressed an interest in reconciling, Nelson initiated divorce proceedings in August 1995.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=539–542|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=500, 507}} By 1995, he had entered into a relationship with [[Graça Machel]], a Mozambican political activist 27 years his junior who was the widow of former president [[Samora Machel]]. They had first met in July 1990 when she was still in mourning, but their friendship grew into a partnership, with Machel accompanying him on many of his foreign visits. She turned down Mandela's first marriage proposal, wanting to retain some independence and dividing her time between Mozambique and Johannesburg.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=222–223|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=574–575|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=546–549}}

===National reconciliation===
{{Quote box|width=25em|align=right|quote=Gracious but steely, [Mandela] steered a country in turmoil toward a negotiated settlement: a country that days before its first democratic election remained violent, riven by divisive views and personalities. He endorsed national reconciliation, an idea he did not merely foster in the abstract, but performed with panache and conviction in reaching out to former adversaries. He initiated an era of hope that, while not long-lasting, was nevertheless decisive, and he garnered the highest international recognition and affection.|salign=right |source=—Rita Barnard, ''The Cambridge Companion to Nelson Mandela''{{sfn|Barnard|2014|p=1}} }}

Presiding over the transition from apartheid minority rule to a multicultural democracy, Mandela saw national reconciliation as the primary task of his presidency.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=524}} Having seen other post-colonial African economies damaged by the departure of white elites, Mandela worked to reassure South Africa's white population that they were protected and represented in "the [[Rainbow Nation]]".{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=213|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=517|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=495–496}} Although his Government of National Unity would be dominated by the ANC,{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=88|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=204}} he attempted to create a broad coalition by appointing de Klerk as Deputy President and appointing other National Party officials as ministers for Agriculture, Environment, and Minerals and Energy, as well as naming Buthelezi as Minister for Home Affairs.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=507–511}} The other cabinet positions were taken by ANC members, many of whom—like [[Joe Modise]], [[Alfred Nzo]], Joe Slovo, [[Mac Maharaj]] and [[Dullah Omar]]—had long been comrades of Mandela, although others, such as [[Tito Mboweni]] and [[Jeff Radebe]], were far younger.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=508}} Mandela's relationship with de Klerk was strained; Mandela thought that de Klerk was intentionally provocative, and de Klerk felt that he was being intentionally humiliated by the president.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=204–205|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=528|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=511, 534}} In January 1995, Mandela heavily chastised him for awarding amnesty to 3,500 police officers just before the election, and later criticised him for defending former Minister of Defence [[Magnus Malan]] when the latter was charged with murder.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=204–205|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=528|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=511, 534}}

Mandela personally met with senior figures of the apartheid regime, including [[Hendrik Verwoerd]]'s widow, [[Betsie Schoombie]], and lawyer [[Percy Yutar]], also laying a wreath by the statue of Afrikaner hero [[Daniel Theron]].{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=212|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=523–524|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=520, 522–523}} Emphasising personal forgiveness and reconciliation, he announced that "courageous people do not fear forgiving, for the sake of peace."{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=523–524|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=520, 522–523}} He encouraged Black South Africans to get behind the previously hated national rugby team, the [[South African national rugby union team|Springboks]], as South Africa hosted the [[1995 Rugby World Cup]]. Mandela wore a Springbok shirt at the [[1995 Rugby World Cup Final|final]] against New Zealand, and after the Springboks won the match, Mandela presented the trophy to captain [[Francois Pienaar]], an Afrikaner. This was widely seen as a major step in the reconciliation of white and Black South Africans; as de Klerk later put it, "Mandela won the hearts of millions of white rugby fans."{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=212|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=525–527|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=516, 524}}<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby_union/rugby_world_cup/team_pages/south_africa/3167692.stm |title=Mandela rallies Springboks |date=6 October 2003 |publisher=BBC Sport |access-date=28 October 2008 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhlM6rLh?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/rugby_union/rugby_world_cup/team_pages/south_africa/3167692.stm |url-status=live }}; {{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/portal/main.jhtml?view=DETAILS&grid=&xml=/portal/2007/10/19/ftmandela119.xml |title=How Nelson Mandela won the rugby World Cup |date=19 October 2007 |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London |access-date=28 October 2008 |first=John |last=Carlin |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhlMWoPg?url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/features/3634426/How-Nelson-Mandela-won-the-rugby-World-Cup.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Mandela's efforts at reconciliation assuaged the fears of white people, but also drew criticism from more militant Black people.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=213|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=517, 536|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=491, 496, 524}} Among the latter was his estranged wife, Winnie, who accused the ANC of being more interested in appeasing the white community than in helping the Black majority.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=517, 536|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=491, 496, 524}}

Mandela oversaw the formation of a [[Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South Africa)|Truth and Reconciliation Commission]] to investigate crimes committed under apartheid by both the government and the ANC, appointing Tutu as its chair. To prevent the creation of martyrs, the commission granted individual amnesties in exchange for testimony of crimes committed during the apartheid era. Dedicated in February 1996, it held two years of hearings detailing rapes, torture, bombings, and assassinations, before issuing its final report in October 1998. Both de Klerk and Mbeki appealed to have parts of the report suppressed, though only de Klerk's appeal was successful.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=527, 551–564|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=528–532}} Mandela praised the commission's work, stating that it "had helped us move away from the past to concentrate on the present and the future".{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=563|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=532}}

===Domestic programmes===
[[File:Rdphouses.jpg|thumb|left|Houses in Soweto constructed under the RDP program]]

Mandela's administration inherited a country with a huge disparity in wealth and services between white and black communities. Of a population of 40 million, around 23 million lacked electricity or adequate sanitation, and 12 million lacked clean water supplies, with 2 million children not in school and a third of the population illiterate. There was 33% unemployment, and just under half of the population lived below the poverty line.{{sfn|Meredith|2010|pp=518–520}} Government financial reserves were nearly depleted, with a fifth of the national budget being spent on debt repayment, meaning that the extent of the promised Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) was scaled back, with none of the proposed nationalisation or job creation.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=519|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=514–515}} In 1996, the RDP was replaced with a new policy, Growth, Employment and Redistribution (GEAR), which maintained South Africa's [[mixed economy]] but placed an emphasis on economic growth through a framework of [[market economics]] and the encouragement of foreign investment; many in the ANC derided it as a [[neo-liberalism|neo-liberal]] policy that did not address social inequality, no matter how Mandela defended it.{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=122–124, 162}} In adopting this approach, Mandela's government adhered to the "[[Washington consensus]]" advocated by the [[World Bank]] and [[International Monetary Fund]].{{sfnm|1a1=Muthien|1a2=Khosa|1a3=Magubane|1y=2000|1pp=369–370|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=520–521}}

[[File:Nelson Mandela 1998.JPG|thumb|right|Mandela on a visit to Brazil in 1998]]

Under Mandela's presidency, welfare spending increased by 13% in 1996/97, 13% in 1997/98, and 7% in 1998/99.{{sfn|Houston|Muthien|2000|p=62}} The government introduced parity in grants for communities, including disability grants, child maintenance grants, and old-age pensions, which had previously been set at different levels for South Africa's different racial groups.{{sfn|Houston|Muthien|2000|p=62}} In 1994, free healthcare was introduced for children under six and pregnant women, a provision extended to all those using primary level public sector health care services in 1996.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=205|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=521}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ci.org.za/depts/ci/pubs/pdf/general/gauge2006/gauge2006_healing.pdf |title=Healing inequalities: The free health care policy |publisher=Children's Institute |access-date=15 May 2011 |author1=Leatt, Annie |author2=Shung-King, Maylene |author3=Monson, Jo |name-list-style=amp |archive-date=26 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EiCq5xbh?url=http://www.ci.org.za/depts/ci/pubs/pdf/general/gauge2006/gauge2006_healing.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> By the 1999 election, the ANC could boast that due to their policies, 3 million people were connected to telephone lines, 1.5 million children were brought into the education system, 500 clinics were upgraded or constructed, 2 million people were connected to the electricity grid, water access was extended to 3 million people, and 750,000 houses were constructed, housing nearly 3 million people.{{sfn|Herbst|2003|p=312}}

The Land Reform Act 3 of 1996 safeguarded the rights of labour tenants living on farms where they grew crops or grazed livestock. This legislation ensured that such tenants could not be evicted without a court order or if they were over the age of 65.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nmmu.ac.za/documents/theses/AAFabbriciani.pdf |title=Land Reform Policies in South Africa Compare To Human Rights Internationally |access-date=11 February 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331101705/http://www.nmmu.ac.za/documents/theses/AAFabbriciani.pdf |archive-date=31 March 2012 }}; {{cite web |url=http://www.info.gov.za/gazette/acts/1996/a3-96.htm |title=No. 3 of 1996: Land Reform (Labour Tenants) Act, 1996 |date=22 March 1996 |publisher=South African Government Online |access-date=26 February 2013 |archive-date=26 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EiD8JvCc?url=http://www.info.gov.za/gazette/acts/1996/a3-96.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Recognising that arms manufacturing was a key industry for the South African economy, Mandela endorsed the trade in weapons but brought in tighter regulations surrounding [[Armscor (South Africa)|Armscor]] to ensure that South African weaponry was not sold to authoritarian regimes.{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=102–194}} Under Mandela's administration, tourism was increasingly promoted, becoming a major sector of the South African economy.{{sfn|Barber|2004|p=130}}

Critics like [[Edwin Cameron]] accused Mandela's government of doing little to stem the [[HIV/AIDS]] pandemic in the country; by 1999, 10% of South Africa's population were HIV positive. Mandela later admitted that he had personally neglected the issue, in part due to public reticence in discussing issues surrounding sex in South Africa, and that he had instead left the issue for Mbeki to deal with.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=135–137|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=219|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=571–573}}<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/jul/06/nelsonmandela.southafrica |title=Mandela at 85 |work=The Observer |location=London |first=Anthony |last=Sampson |author-link=Anthony Sampson |date=6 July 2003 |access-date=26 May 2008 |archive-date=26 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EiCWnTJS?url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2003/jul/06/nelsonmandela.southafrica |url-status=live }}; {{cite web|title=Can Mandela's AIDS Message Pierce the Walls of Shame? |publisher=Peninsula Peace and Justice Center |date=9 January 2005 |url=http://peaceandjustice.org/article.php?story=20050109125126110&mode=print |access-date=26 May 2008 |archive-date=26 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EiCWr1mK?url=http://peaceandjustice.org/article.php?story=20050109125126110&mode=print |url-status=dead }}; {{cite news|title=South Africa: Mandela Deluged With Tributes as He Turns 85 |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/200307190001.html |work=[[AllAfrica]] |first=Ofeibea |last=Quist-Arcton |author-link=Ofeibea Quist-Arcton|date=19 July 2003 |access-date=26 May 2008 |archive-date=26 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6Eile2xQ7?url=http://allafrica.com/stories/200307190001.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Mandela also received criticism for failing to sufficiently combat crime; South Africa had one of the world's highest crime rates,{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=573|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=510, 565–68}} and the activities of international crime syndicates in the country grew significantly throughout the decade.{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=137–138}} Mandela's administration was also perceived as having failed to deal with the problem of corruption.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=544–547|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=510}}

Further problems were caused by the exodus of thousands of skilled white South Africans from the country, who were escaping the increasing crime rates, higher taxes, and the impact of [[positive discrimination]] toward Black people in employment. This exodus resulted in a [[brain drain]], and Mandela criticised those who left.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=131|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=573|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=510, 565–68}} At the same time, South Africa experienced an influx of millions of [[Illegal immigration|illegal migrants]] from poorer parts of Africa; although public opinion toward these illegal immigrants was generally unfavourable, characterising them as disease-spreading criminals who were a drain on resources, Mandela called on South Africans to embrace them as "brothers and sisters".{{sfn|Barber|2004|p=133}}

===Foreign affairs===
Mandela expressed the view that "South Africa's future foreign relations [should] be based on our belief that human rights should be the core of international relations".{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=89|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=214}} Following the South African example, Mandela encouraged other nations to resolve conflicts through diplomacy and reconciliation.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=555}} In September 1998, Mandela was appointed secretary-general of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], who held their annual conference in Durban. He used the event to criticise the "narrow, chauvinistic interests" of the Israeli government in stalling negotiations to end the [[Israeli–Palestinian conflict]] and urged India and Pakistan to negotiate to end the [[Kashmir conflict]], for which he was criticised by both Israel and India.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=559}} Inspired by the region's economic boom, Mandela sought greater economic relations with East Asia, in particular with Malaysia, although this was prevented by the [[1997 Asian financial crisis]].<ref>{{harvnb|Sampson|2011|pp=560–561}}.</ref> He extended diplomatic recognition to the People's Republic of China (PRC), who were growing as an economic force, and initially also to [[Taiwan]], who were already longstanding investors in the South African economy. However, under pressure from the PRC, in November 1996 he cut recognition of Taiwan, and in May 1999 paid an official visit to Beijing.{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=107–108}}

[[File:President Bill Clinton with Nelson Mandela.jpg|thumb|left|Mandela with US President [[Bill Clinton]]. Despite publicly criticising him on several occasions, Mandela liked Clinton, and personally supported him during [[Impeachment of Bill Clinton|his impeachment proceedings]].{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=216|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=561–567}}]]

Mandela attracted controversy for his close relationship with Indonesian president [[Suharto]], whose regime was responsible for mass human rights abuses, although on a July 1997 visit to Indonesia he privately urged Suharto to withdraw from the [[Indonesian occupation of East Timor|occupation of East Timor]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=104–105|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=560}} He also faced similar criticism from the West for his government's trade links to Syria, Cuba, and Libya,{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=214}} and for his personal friendships with Castro and Gaddafi.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=562–563}} Castro visited in 1998 to widespread popular acclaim, and Mandela met Gaddafi in Libya to award him the [[Order of Good Hope]].{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=562–563}} When Western governments and media criticised these visits, Mandela lambasted such criticism as having racist undertones,{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=564}} and stated that "the enemies of countries in the West are not our enemies."{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=214}} Mandela hoped to resolve the long-running dispute between Libya and the US and Britain over bringing to trial the two Libyans, [[Abdelbaset al-Megrahi]] and [[Lamin Khalifah Fhimah]], who were indicted in November 1991 and accused of sabotaging [[Pan Am Flight 103]]. Mandela proposed that they be tried in a third country, which was agreed to by all parties; governed by [[Scots law]], the trial was held at [[Camp Zeist, Netherlands|Camp Zeist]] in the Netherlands in April 1999, and found one of the two men guilty.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=144|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=215–216|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=563–564}}<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/1144147.stm |title=Analysis: Lockerbie's long road |publisher=BBC |access-date=26 May 2008 |date=31 January 2001 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6Ehl149mt?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/1144147.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>

Mandela echoed Mbeki's calls for an "[[African Renaissance]]", and was greatly concerned with issues on the continent.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=124–125|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=556–557}} He took a [[soft power|soft diplomatic]] approach to removing [[Sani Abacha]]'s military junta in Nigeria but later became a leading figure in calling for sanctions when Abacha's regime increased human rights violations.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=108–110|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=215|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=556–557}} In 1996, he was appointed chairman of the [[Southern African Development Community]] (SADC) and initiated unsuccessful negotiations to end the [[First Congo War]] in [[Zaire]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=176–177|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=216|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=558}} He also played a key role as a mediator in the ethnic conflict between [[Tutsi]] and [[Hutu]] political groups in the [[Burundian Civil War]], helping to initiate a settlement which brought increased stability to the country but did not end the ethnic violence.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|pp=217–218}} In [[South African intervention in Lesotho|South Africa's first post-apartheid military operation]], troops were ordered in September 1998 into Lesotho to protect the government of Prime Minister [[Pakalitha Mosisili]] after a disputed election prompted opposition uprisings. The action was not authorised by Mandela himself, who was out of the country at the time, but by Buthelezi, who was serving as acting president during Mandela's absence.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=111–113|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=558–559}}

===Withdrawing from politics===
[[File:Thabo-mbeki-district-six.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|right|In the latter part of his presidency, Mandela increasingly relied on his Deputy President, Thabo Mbeki (pictured)]]
The new [[Constitution of South Africa]] was agreed upon by parliament in May 1996, enshrining a series of institutions to place checks on political and administrative authority within a constitutional democracy.{{sfn|Muthien|Khosa|Magubane|2000|p=366}} De Klerk opposed the implementation of this constitution, and that month he and the National Party withdrew from the coalition government in protest, claiming that the ANC were not treating them as equals.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=128–129|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=204|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=529–530|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=534}} The ANC took over the cabinet positions formerly held by the Nationalists, with Mbeki becoming sole Deputy President.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=535}} Inkatha remained part of the coalition,{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=128–129}} and when both Mandela and Mbeki were out of the country in September 1998, Buthelezi was appointed "Acting President", marking an improvement in his relationship with Mandela.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=207|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=536}} Although Mandela had often governed decisively in his first two years as president,{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=211}} he had subsequently increasingly delegated duties to Mbeki, retaining only a close personal supervision of intelligence and security measures.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=130|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=211}} During a 1997 visit to London, he said that "the ruler of South Africa, the ''de facto'' ruler, is Thabo Mbeki" and that he was "shifting everything to him".{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=211}}

Mandela stepped down as ANC President at the party's December 1997 conference. He hoped that Ramaphosa would succeed him, believing Mbeki to be too inflexible and intolerant of criticism, but the ANC elected Mbeki regardless.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=211|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=568|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=537–543}} Mandela and the Executive supported [[Jacob Zuma]], a Zulu who had been imprisoned on Robben Island, as Mbeki's replacement for Deputy President. Zuma's candidacy was challenged by Winnie, whose populist rhetoric had gained her a strong following within the party, although Zuma defeated her in a landslide victory vote at the election.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=568|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=537–543}}

Mandela's relationship with Machel had intensified; in February 1998, he publicly stated that he was "in love with a remarkable lady", and under pressure from Tutu, who urged him to set an example for young people, he organised a wedding for his 80th birthday, in July that year.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=576|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=549–551}} The following day, he held a grand party with many foreign dignitaries.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=551–552}} Although the 1996 constitution allowed the president to serve two consecutive five-year terms, Mandela had never planned to stand for a second term in office. He gave his farewell speech to Parliament on 29 March 1999 when it adjourned prior to the 1999 general elections, after which he retired.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=578}} Although opinion polls in South Africa showed wavering support for both the ANC and the government, Mandela himself remained highly popular, with 80% of South Africans polled in 1999 expressing satisfaction with his performance as president.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=219}}

==Retirement==
===Continued activism and philanthropy: 1999–2004===

[[File:Nelson Mandela, 2000 (4).jpg|thumb|right|Mandela visiting the [[London School of Economics]] in 2000]]

Retiring in June 1999, Mandela aimed to lead a quiet family life, divided between Johannesburg and Qunu. Although he set about authoring a sequel to his first autobiography, to be titled ''The Presidential Years'', it was abandoned before publication.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=576|2a1=Battersby|2y=2011|2pp=587–588}} Mandela found such seclusion difficult and reverted to a busy public life involving daily programme of tasks, meetings with world leaders and celebrities, and—when in Johannesburg—working with the Nelson Mandela Foundation, founded in 1999 to focus on rural development, school construction, and combating HIV/AIDS.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=576|2a1=Battersby|2y=2011|2pp=588–589}} Although he had been heavily criticised for failing to do enough to fight the HIV/AIDS pandemic during his presidency, he devoted much of his time to the issue following his retirement, describing it as "a war" that had killed more than "all previous wars"; affiliating himself with the [[Treatment Action Campaign]], he urged Mbeki's government to ensure that HIV-positive South Africans had access to [[anti-retrovirals]].{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=219–220|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=584–586|3a1=Battersby|3y=2011|3pp=590–591}} Meanwhile, Mandela was successfully treated for [[prostate cancer]] in July 2001.{{sfn|Battersby|2011|p=598}}<ref>{{cite news|work=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1492865.stm |title=Mandela 'responding well to treatment' |date=15 August 2001 |access-date=26 May 2008 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhSMPxao?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1492865.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2002, Mandela inaugurated the Nelson Mandela Annual Lecture, and in 2003 the [[Mandela Rhodes Foundation]] was created at [[Rhodes House]], [[University of Oxford]], to provide postgraduate scholarships to African students. These projects were followed by the Nelson Mandela Centre of Memory and the [[46664 (concerts)|46664 campaign]] against HIV/AIDS.{{sfn|Battersby|2011|pp=589–590}} He gave the closing address at the [[XIII International AIDS Conference, 2000|XIII International AIDS Conference]] in Durban in 2000,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thebody.com/content/art16140.html |title=Closing Ceremony |first=Pablo |last=Tebas |date=13 July 2000 |publisher=The Body |access-date=25 February 2013 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhRW0hQl?url=http://www.thebody.com/content/art16140.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> and in 2004, spoke at the [[XV International AIDS Conference, 2004|XV International AIDS Conference]] in [[Bangkok]], Thailand, calling for greater measures to tackle tuberculosis as well as HIV/AIDS.<ref>{{cite news |first=Chris |last=Hogg |title=Mandela urges action to fight TB |work=BBC News|date=15 July 2004 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/3895525.stm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040718030822/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/3895525.stm |archive-date=18 July 2004 |url-status=live }}</ref> Mandela publicised AIDS as the cause of his son [[Makgatho Mandela|Makgatho]]'s death in January 2005, to defy the stigma about discussing the disease.<ref>{{cite news |last=Nolen |first=Stephanie |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/nelson-mandela/mandela-arrived-late-to-the-fight-against-hiv-aids/article548193/ |work=The Globe and Mail |location=Toronto |date=5 December 2013 |title=Mandela arrived late to the fight against HIV-AIDS |access-date=11 May 2017 }}</ref>

Publicly, Mandela became more vocal in criticising Western powers. He strongly opposed the 1999 [[War in Kosovo|NATO intervention in Kosovo]] and called it an attempt by the world's powerful nations to police the entire world.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.derechos.org/nizkor/iraq/doc/mandela1.html |title=Equipo Nizkor – Mandela slams Western action in Kosovo, Iraq |agency=Reuters |last=Weir |first=Keith |date=13 April 2003 |publisher=Derechos.org |access-date=3 October 2010 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhQi33OL?url=http://www.derechos.org/nizkor/iraq/doc/mandela1.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2003, he spoke out against the plans for the United States to launch a [[war in Iraq]], describing it as "a tragedy" and lambasting US President [[George W. Bush]] and UK Prime Minister [[Tony Blair]] (whom he referred to as an "American foreign minister") for undermining the UN, saying, "All that (Mr. Bush) wants is [[Iraqi oil]]".<ref>{{cite news |first=Jarrett |last=Murphy |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/mandela-slams-bush-on-iraq |title=Mandela Slams Bush on Iraq |work=CBS News |date=30 January 2003 |access-date=13 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160115202751/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/mandela-slams-bush-on-iraq/ |archive-date=15 January 2016}}</ref> He attacked the US more generally, asserting that "If there is a country that has committed unspeakable atrocities in the world, it is the United States of America", citing the [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|atomic bombing of Japan]]; this attracted international controversy, although he later improved his relationship with Bush.{{sfn|Battersby|2011|pp=591–592}}<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/2228971.stm |title=Mandela warns Bush over Iraq |date=1 September 2002 |publisher=BBC |access-date=27 October 2008 |first=John |last=Pienaar |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhQjsYTq?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2228971.stm |url-status=live }}; {{cite news|last=Fenton |first=Tom |publisher=CBS |title=Mandela Slams Bush on Iraq |date=30 January 2003 |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/01/30/iraq/main538607.shtml |access-date=26 May 2008 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhQr4N5U?url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/01/30/iraq/main538607.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> Retaining an interest in the Lockerbie suspect, he visited Megrahi in [[Barlinnie prison]] and spoke out against the conditions of his treatment, referring to them as "psychological persecution".{{sfn|Battersby|2011|p=593}}

==="Retiring from retirement": 2004–2013===
{{anchor|"Retiring from retirement": 2004–2013}}

[[File:George W. Bush and Nelson Mandela - walking - Oval Office - May 17 2005.jpg|thumb|right|Nelson Mandela and President [[George W. Bush]] in the [[Oval Office]], May 2005]]
In June 2004, aged 85 and amid failing health, Mandela announced that he was "retiring from retirement" and retreating from public life, remarking, "Don't call me, I will call you."{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=593|2a1=Battersby|2y=2011|2p=598}} Although continuing to meet with close friends and family, the foundation discouraged invitations for him to appear at public events and denied most interview requests.{{sfn|Battersby|2011|p=598}}

He retained some involvement in international affairs. In 2005, he founded the Nelson Mandela Legacy Trust,<ref name=NPR>{{cite news|title=Mandela, Bush Discuss Education, AIDS in Africa |first=Allison |last=Keyes |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4654914 |publisher=NPR |date=17 May 2005 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6HeUQkPps?url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4654914 |archive-date=26 June 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> travelling to the US to speak before the [[Brookings Institution]] and the [[NAACP]] on the need for economic assistance to Africa.<ref name=NPR/><ref name=LAT>{{cite news |title=The Obama-Mandela dynamic, reflected in a photo |first=Kathleen |last=Hennessey |url=http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-na-obama-mandela-20130625,0,6170889,full.story |website=Los Angeles Times |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6HeUdFS94?url=http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-na-obama-mandela-20130625,0,6170889,full.story |archive-date=26 June 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> He spoke with US Senator [[Hillary Clinton]] and President George W. Bush and first met the then-Senator [[Barack Obama]].<ref name=LAT/> Mandela also encouraged Zimbabwean President [[Robert Mugabe]] to resign over growing [[Human rights in Zimbabwe|human rights]] abuses in the country. When this proved ineffective, he spoke out publicly against Mugabe in 2007, asking him to step down "with residual respect and a modicum of dignity."{{sfn|Battersby|2011|p=594}} That year, Mandela, Machel, and Desmond Tutu convened a group of world leaders in Johannesburg to contribute their wisdom and independent leadership to some of the world's toughest problems. Mandela announced the formation of this new group, [[The Elders (organization)|The Elders]], in a speech delivered on his 89th birthday.<ref>{{harvnb|Battersby|2011|p=600}}; {{cite news |url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/19836050 |title=Mandela joins 'Elders' on turning 89 |work=[[NBC News]] |agency=Associated Press |access-date=26 May 2008 |date=20 July 2007 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhRqC1M4?url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/19836050 |url-status=live }}; {{cite web |url=http://www.southafrica.info/mandela/theelders.htm |title=Mandela launches The Elders |date=19 July 2007 |publisher=SAinfo |access-date=27 October 2008 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhRpoERW?url=http://www.southafrica.info/mandela/theelders.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

[[File: Nelson Mandela - full (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|Mandela receiving the freedom of the city of [[Tshwane]], 2008]]

Mandela's 90th birthday was marked across the country on 18 July 2008, with the main celebrations held at Qunu,<ref name="FOXNews">{{cite news |url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,385561,00.html |title=Nelson Mandela Celebrates 90th Birthday by Urging Rich to Help Poor |date=18 July 2008 |publisher=Fox News Channel |access-date=27 October 2008 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhSkmQUE?url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,385561,00.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> and a [[Nelson Mandela 90th Birthday Tribute|concert in his honour]] in [[Hyde Park, London|Hyde Park]], London.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/hyde-park-concert-to-mark--mandelas-90th-821776.html |title=Hyde Park concert to mark Mandela's 90th |last=Bingham |first=John |date=6 May 2008 |website=The Independent |access-date=27 October 2008 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhSlCa27?url=http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/hyde-park-concert-to-mark--mandelas-90th-821776.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In a speech marking the event, Mandela called for the rich to help the poor across the world.<ref name="FOXNews"/> Throughout Mbeki's presidency, Mandela continued to support the ANC, usually overshadowing Mbeki at any public events that the two attended. Mandela was more at ease with Mbeki's successor, Zuma,{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=598|2a1=Battersby|2y=2011|2pp=594–597}} although the Nelson Mandela Foundation was upset when his grandson, [[Mandla Mandela]], flew him out to the Eastern Cape to attend a pro-Zuma rally in the midst of a storm in 2009.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=598|2a1=Battersby|2y=2011|2pp=594–597}}

In 2004, Mandela successfully campaigned for South Africa to host the [[2010 FIFA World Cup]], declaring that there would be "few better gifts for us" in the year marking a decade since the fall of apartheid.<ref>{{cite news |title=World Cup 'perfect gift for SA' |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3703261.stm |date=11 May 2004 |work=BBC News|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316182537/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3703261.stm |archive-date=16 March 2016 |url-status=live |access-date=13 September 2016}}</ref> Despite maintaining a low profile during the event due to ill-health, Mandela made his final public appearance during the World Cup closing ceremony, where he received much applause.{{sfn|Battersby|2011|p=600}}<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/jul/11/nelson-mandela-world-cup-final |website=The Guardian |title=Nelson Mandela attends World Cup closing ceremony |date=11 July 2010 |first=David |last=Batty |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhSlkRAr?url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/jul/11/nelson-mandela-world-cup-final |url-status=live }}</ref> Between 2005 and 2013, Mandela, and later his family, were embroiled in a series of legal disputes regarding money held in family trusts for the benefit of his descendants.<ref>{{cite news |last=Polgreen |first=Lydia |title=Messy Fight Over Mandela Trust Goes Public |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/25/world/africa/messy-legal-fight-over-mandela-trust-goes-public.html |website=The New York Times |date=24 May 2013 |access-date=13 September 2016 }}</ref> In mid-2013, as Mandela was hospitalised for a lung infection in Pretoria, his descendants were involved in an intra-family legal dispute relating to the burial place of Mandela's children, and ultimately Mandela himself.<ref>{{cite news |first=David |last=Smith |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/03/south-african-courts-mandela-burial |title=South African courts step in over Mandela family burial row |website=The Guardian |access-date=13 September 2016 |date=3 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130709230415/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2013/jul/03/south-african-courts-mandela-burial |archive-date=9 July 2013}}; {{cite news |last=Moreton |first=Cole |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/nelson-mandela/10155807/Nelson-Mandelas-grandson-Mandla-accused-of-grave-tampering.html |title=Nelson Mandela's grandson Mandla accused of grave tampering |website=The Telegraph |access-date=13 September 2016 |date=2 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127022518/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/nelson-mandela/10155807/Nelson-Mandelas-grandson-Mandla-accused-of-grave-tampering.html |archive-date=27 January 2016 }}</ref>

===Illness and death: 2011–2013===
{{anchor|Death}}
{{main|Death of Nelson Mandela}}
[[File:Madiba's house 3.jpg|thumb|right|Members of the public paying their respects outside Mandela's Houghton home]]

In February 2011, Mandela was briefly hospitalised with a [[respiratory infection]], attracting international attention,{{sfn|Battersby|2011|p=607}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/Nelson-Mandela-breathing-on-his-own-20110128 |title=Nelson Mandela 'breathing on his own' |date=18 January 2011 |website=News 24 |access-date=30 January 2011 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhSmCBmZ?url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/Nelson-Mandela-breathing-on-his-own-20110128 |url-status=dead }}</ref> before being re-admitted for a lung infection and [[gallstone]] removal in December 2012.<ref>{{cite news|title=Nelson Mandela has lung infection|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-20677168|access-date=16 December 2017|work=BBC News|date=11 December 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Mandela Has Surgery for Gallstones |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/16/world/africa/mandela-has-surgery-to-remove-gallstones.html?partner=rss&emc=rss&smid=tw-nytimes&_r=0 |website=The New York Times |access-date=15 December 2012 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhSuaglG?url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/16/world/africa/mandela-has-surgery-to-remove-gallstones.html?partner=rss&emc=rss&smid=tw-nytimes&_r=1& |url-status=live |date=15 December 2012 }}</ref> After a successful medical procedure in early March 2013,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ctvnews.ca/world/nelson-mandela-94-responding-positively-to-treatment-in-hospital-1.1214585 |title=Nelson Mandela, 94, responding positively to treatment in hospital |website=CTV News |date=28 March 2013 |access-date=10 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160419135607/http://www.ctvnews.ca/world/nelson-mandela-94-responding-positively-to-treatment-in-hospital-1.1214585 |archive-date=19 April 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> his lung infection recurred and he was briefly hospitalised in Pretoria.<ref>{{cite news|title=Nelson Mandela arrives home in ambulance|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/nelson-mandela/9976102/Nelson-Mandela-arrives-home-in-ambulance.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408004826/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/nelson-mandela/9976102/Nelson-Mandela-arrives-home-in-ambulance.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=8 April 2013|work=The Telegraph|access-date=6 April 2013|location=London|date=6 April 2013}}</ref> In June 2013, his lung infection worsened and he was readmitted to a Pretoria hospital in serious condition.<ref>{{cite news|title=Nelson Mandela hospitalized in serious condition|url=http://www.cnn.com/2013/06/08/world/africa/south-africa-mandela-sick/index.html|publisher=CNN|access-date=8 June 2013|date=8 June 2013}}</ref> The [[Anglican Diocese of Cape Town|Archbishop of Cape Town]] [[Thabo Makgoba]] visited Mandela at the hospital and prayed with Machel,<ref>{{cite news |author=AFP 2|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/nelson-mandela/10142863/Nelson-Mandela-wished-a-peaceful-end.html |title=Mandela wished a 'peaceful end' by Cape Town Archbishop |website=The Telegraph |date=26 June 2013 |access-date=5 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127022518/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/nelson-mandela/10142863/Nelson-Mandela-wished-a-peaceful-end.html |archive-date=27 January 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> while Zuma cancelled a trip to Mozambique to visit him the following day.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Nelson Mandela condition worsens as Zuma cancels trip |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-23076057 |work=BBC News|access-date=27 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140126133047/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-23076057 |archive-date=26 January 2014 |url-status=live|date=27 June 2013 }}</ref> In September 2013, Mandela was discharged from hospital,<ref>{{cite news|title=Nelson Mandela released from hospital |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2013/09/01/world/africa/nelson-mandela-hospital-release/ |access-date=1 September 2013 |publisher=CNN| date=1 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304094240/http://edition.cnn.com/2013/09/01/world/africa/nelson-mandela-hospital-release/ |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> although his condition remained unstable.<ref>{{cite news |title=Mandela discharged from South Africa hospital |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2013/09/20139185614590114.html |access-date=1 September 2013 |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=1 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304114444/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2013/09/20139185614590114.html |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>

After suffering from a prolonged respiratory infection, Mandela died on 5 December 2013 at the age of 95, at around 20:50 [[South African Standard Time|local time]] at his home in Houghton, surrounded by his family.<ref name="BBCD">{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-25249520 |title=South Africa's Nelson Mandela dies in Johannesburg |date=5 December 2013 |work=BBC News|access-date=5 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160415152143/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-25249520 |archive-date=15 April 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Nelson Mandela dies|url=https://mg.co.za/article/2013-12-05-nelson-mandela-dies|work=Mail & Guardian|date=5 December 2013}}</ref> Zuma publicly announced his death on television,<ref name="BBCD"/><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/12/06/world/africa/nelson-mandela.html|title=Mandela's Death Leaves South Africa Without Its Moral Center |website=The New York Times |last=Polgreen |first=Lydia |date=5 December 2013 |access-date=5 December 2013}}</ref> proclaiming ten days of national mourning, a memorial service held at Johannesburg's [[FNB Stadium]] on 10 December 2013, and 8 December as a national day of prayer and reflection. Mandela's body [[Lying in state|lay in state]] from 11 to 13 December at the [[Union Buildings]] in Pretoria and a [[state funeral]] was held on 15 December in Qunu.<ref>{{cite news|last=Pillay|first=Verashni|title=Mandela's memorial service to be held on December 10|url=http://mg.co.za/article/2013-12-06-mandelas-memorial-service-to-be-held-on-december-10|access-date=6 December 2013|newspaper=Mail & Guardian|date=6 December 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Vecchiatto|first1=Paul|last2=Stone|first2=Setumo|last3=Magubane|first3=Khulekani|title=Nelson Mandela to be laid to rest on December 15|url=http://www.bdlive.co.za/national/2013/12/06/nelson-mandela-to-be-laid-to-rest-on-december-15|access-date=6 December 2013|newspaper=Business Day|location=South Africa|date=6 December 2013}}</ref> Approximately 90 representatives of foreign states travelled to South Africa to attend memorial events.<ref>{{cite news|last=Mount|first=Harry|title=Nelson Mandela: the long goodbye|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/nelson-mandela/10506010/Nelson-Mandela-the-long-goodbye.html|access-date=11 December 2013|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=9 December 2013|location=London}}</ref> It was later revealed that 300 million rand originally earmarked for humanitarian development projects had been redirected to finance the funeral.<ref>{{cite news|title=Nelson Mandela funeral: 'Millions misspent'|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-42224937|work=BBC News|date=4 December 2017|access-date=4 December 2017}}</ref> The media was awash with tributes and reminiscences,{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|p=917}} while images of tributes to Mandela proliferated across [[social media]].{{sfn|Nelson|2014|p=130}} His US$4.1 million estate was left to his widow, other family members, staff, and educational institutions.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.latimes.com/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-nelson-mandela-will-20140203,0,4680742.story |title=Nelson Mandela leaves $4.1-million estate to family, staff, schools |first=Robyn |last=Dixon |website=Los Angeles Times |date=3 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127022523/http://www.latimes.com/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-nelson-mandela-will-20140203-story.html |archive-date=27 January 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==Political ideology==
{{Quote box|width=25em|align=right|quote=A friend once asked me how I could reconcile my creed of African nationalism with a belief in dialectical materialism. For me, there was no contradiction. I was first and foremost an African nationalist fighting for our emancipation from minority rule and the right to control our own destiny. But at the same time, South Africa and the African continent were part of the larger world. Our problems, while distinctive and special, were not unique, and a philosophy that placed those problems in an international and historical context of the greater world and the course of history was valuable. I was prepared to use whatever means necessary to speed up the erasure of human prejudice and the end of chauvinistic and violent nationalism.|salign=right |source=—Nelson Mandela, 1994{{sfn|Mandela|1994|p=173}} }}

Mandela identified as both an [[African nationalism|African nationalist]], an ideological position he held since joining the ANC,{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=25, 232|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=220|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=241|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=37, 584}} and as a socialist.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=231–232|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=231}} He was a practical politician, rather than an intellectual scholar or political theorist.{{sfnm|1a1=Boehmer|1y=2008|1p=13|2a1=Barnard|2y=2014|2p=14}} According to biographer Tom Lodge, "for Mandela, politics has always been primarily about enacting stories, about making narratives, primarily about morally exemplary conduct, and only secondarily about ideological vision, more about means rather than ends."{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=ix}}

The historian Sabelo J. Ndlovu-Gatsheni described Mandela as a "liberal African nationalist–decolonial humanist",{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|p=907}} while political analyst [[Raymond Suttner]] cautioned against labelling Mandela a liberal and stated that Mandela displayed a "hybrid socio-political make-up".{{sfn|Suttner|2007|p=122}} Mandela adopted some of his political ideas from other thinkers—among them Indian independence leaders like Gandhi and Nehru, African-American civil rights activists, and African nationalists like [[Kwame Nkrumah|Nkrumah]]—and applied them to the South African situation. At the same time he rejected other aspects of their thought, such as the anti-white sentiment of many African nationalists.{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=109}} In doing so he synthesised both counter-cultural and hegemonic views, for instance by drawing upon ideas from the then-dominant [[Afrikaner nationalism]] in promoting his anti-apartheid vision.{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=102}}

His political development was strongly influenced by his legal training and practice, in particular his hope to achieve change not through violence but through "legal revolution".{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=viii}} Over the course of his life, he began by advocating a path of non-violence, later embracing violence, and then adopting a non-violent approach to negotiation and reconciliation.{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=107}} When endorsing violence, he did so because he saw no alternative, and was always pragmatic about it, perceiving it as a means to get his opponent to the negotiating table.{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|pp=105, 108}} He sought to target symbols of white supremacy and racist oppression rather than white people as individuals, and was anxious not to inaugurate a race war in South Africa.{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|p=914}} This willingness to use violence distinguishes Mandela from the ideology of [[Gandhism]], with which some commentators have sought to associate him.{{sfn|Suttner|2007|pp=119–120}}

===Democracy===

Although he presented himself in an autocratic manner in several speeches, Mandela was a devout believer in democracy and abided by majority decisions even when deeply disagreeing with them.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=433}} He had exhibited a commitment to the values of democracy and human rights since at least the 1960s.{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|pp=906–907}} He held a conviction that "inclusivity, accountability and freedom of speech" were the fundamentals of democracy,{{sfn|Battersby|2011|p=605}} and was driven by a belief in [[natural and legal rights|natural]] and human rights.{{sfn|Kalumba|1995|p=162}} Suttner argued that there were "two modes of leadership" that Mandela adopted. On one side he adhered to ideas about collective leadership, although on the other believed that there were scenarios in which a leader had to be decisive and act without consultation to achieve a particular objective.{{sfn|Suttner|2007|pp=113–114}}

According to Lodge, Mandela's political thought reflected tensions between his support for [[liberal democracy]] and pre-colonial African forms of consensus decision making.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=xi}} He was an admirer of British-style [[parliamentary democracy]],{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|p=907}} stating that "I regard the British Parliament as the most democratic institution in the world, and the independence and impartiality of its judiciary never fail to arouse my admiration."{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|p=907}} In this he has been described as being committed to "the Euro-North American modernist project of emancipation", something which distinguishes him from other African nationalist and socialist leaders like Nyerere who were concerned about embracing styles of democratic governance that were Western, rather than African, in origin.{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|p=907}} Mandela nevertheless also expressed admiration for what he deemed to be indigenous forms of democracy, describing Xhosa traditional society's mode of governance as "democracy in its purest form".{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|p=907}} He also spoke of an influential African ethical tenet, [[Ubuntu (philosophy)|Ubuntu]], which is a [[Nguni languages|Ngnuni term]] meaning "A person is a person through other persons" or "I am because we are."{{sfn|Oppenheim|2012|pp=369–370}}

===Socialism and Marxism===

[[File:The Soviet Union 1988 CPA 5971 stamp (70th birth anniversary of Nelson Mandela, South African anti-apartheid revolutionary, political leader and philanthropist).jpg|thumb|upright|1988 Soviet commemorative stamp, captioned "The fighter for freedom of South Africa Nelson Mandela" in Russian]]

Mandela advocated the ultimate establishment of a classless society,{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=231, 232|2a1=Ellis|2y=2016|2p=7}} with Sampson describing him as being "openly opposed to capitalism, private land-ownership and the power of big money".{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=298}} Mandela was influenced by [[Marxism]], and during the revolution he advocated [[scientific socialism]].{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=282}} He denied being a communist at the Treason Trial,{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=365|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=135–138}} and maintained this stance both when later talking to journalists,{{sfn|Benson|1986|p=232}} and in his autobiography.{{sfn|Ellis|2016|p=18}} According to the sociologist Craig Soudien, "sympathetic as Mandela was to socialism, a communist he was not."{{sfn|Soudien|2015|p=361}} Conversely, the biographer David Jones Smith stated that Mandela "embraced communism and communists" in the late 1950s and early 1960s,{{sfn|Smith|2010|pp=217–218}} while the historian Stephen Ellis commented that Mandela had assimilated much of the [[Marxism–Leninism|Marxist–Leninist]] ideology by 1960.{{sfn|Ellis|2016|p=7}}

Ellis also found evidence that Mandela had been an active member of the South African Communist Party during the late 1950s and early 1960s,{{sfn|Ellis|2011|pp=667–668}} something that was confirmed after his death by both the ANC and the SACP, the latter of which claimed that he was not only a member of the party, but also served on its Central Committee.<ref name="Mandela'sCommunism"/> His membership had been hidden by the ANC, aware that knowledge of Mandela's former SACP involvement might have been detrimental to his attempts to attract support from Western countries.{{sfn|Ellis|2016|p=17}} Mandela's view of these Western governments differed from those of Marxist–Leninists, for he did not believe that they were anti-democratic or reactionary and remained committed to democratic systems of governance.{{sfn|Smith|2010|p=231}}

The 1955 Freedom Charter, which Mandela had helped create, called for the nationalisation of banks, gold mines and land, to ensure equal distribution of wealth.{{sfn|Kalumba|1995|pp=164–165}} Despite these beliefs, Mandela initiated a programme of privatisation during his presidency in line with trends in other countries of the time.{{sfn|Freund|2014|p=294}} It has been repeatedly suggested that Mandela would have preferred to develop a [[social democracy|social democratic]] economy in South Africa but that this was not feasible as a result of the international political and economic situation during the early 1990s.{{sfn|Freund|2014|p=294}} This decision was in part influenced by the fall of the [[socialist states]] in the Soviet Union and [[Eastern Bloc]] during the early 1990s.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=433–435}}

==Personality and personal life==
[[File:Nelson Mandela (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|Mandela on a visit to Australia in 2009; he is wearing one of the brightly coloured garments that became known as "Madiba shirts"]]

Mandela was widely considered a [[charismatic leader]],{{sfnm|1a1=Glad|1a2=Blanton|1y=1997|1p=570|2a1=Read|2y=2010|2p=326}} described by biographer [[Mary Benson (campaigner)|Mary Benson]] as "a born mass leader who could not help magnetizing people".{{sfn|Benson|1986|p=51}} He was highly image conscious and throughout his life always sought out fine quality clothes, with many commentators believing that he carried himself in a regal manner.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=432, 554}} His aristocratic heritage was repeatedly emphasised by supporters, thus contributing to his "charismatic power".{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=2}} While living in Johannesburg in the 1950s, he cultivated the image of the "African gentleman", having "the pressed clothes, correct manners, and modulated public speech" associated with such a position.{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=111}} In doing so, Lodge argued that Mandela became "one of the first media politicians ... embodying a glamour and a style that projected ''visually'' a brave new African world of modernity and freedom".{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=ix}} Mandela was known to change his clothes several times a day, and he became so associated with highly coloured [[Batik]] shirts after assuming the presidency that they came to be known as "[[Madiba shirt]]s".{{sfnm|1a1=Boehmer|1y=2008|1p=133|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=495|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=503}}<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3532916.stm |title=How Mandela changed SA fashion |last=Khumalo |first=Fred |date=5 August 2004 |publisher=BBC |access-date=28 October 2008 |archive-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EhlMxe4g?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3532916.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>

For political scientists [[Betty Glad]] and Robert Blanton, Mandela was an "exceptionally intelligent, shrewd, and loyal leader".{{sfn|Glad|Blanton|1997|p=577}} His official biographer, [[Anthony Sampson]], commented that he was a "master of imagery and performance", excelling at presenting himself well in press photographs and producing sound bites.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=582–583}} His public speeches were presented in a formal, stiff manner, and often consisted of clichéd set phrases.{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|pp=128, 134}} He typically spoke slowly, and carefully chose his words.{{sfn|Glad|Blanton|1997|p=576}} Although he was not considered a great orator, his speeches conveyed "his personal commitment, charm and humour".{{sfn|Barber|2004|p=87}}

Mandela was a private person who often concealed his emotions and confided in very few people.{{sfnm|1a1=Suttner|1y=2007|1p=119|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=xv–xvi}} Privately, he lived an austere life, refusing to drink alcohol or smoke, and even as president made his own bed.{{sfn|Meredith|2010|p=xvi}} Renowned for his mischievous sense of humour,{{sfn|Battersby|2011|p=599}} he was known for being both stubborn and loyal,{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=xvi|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=583}} and at times exhibited a quick temper.{{sfnm|1a1=Glad|1a2=Blanton|1y=1997|1p=582|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=xvi}} He was typically friendly and welcoming, and appeared relaxed in conversation with everyone, including his opponents.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=411, 498}} A self-described [[Anglophile]], he claimed to have lived by the "trappings of British style and manners".{{sfnm|1a1=Glad|1a2=Blanton|1y=1997|1p=581|2a1=Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2y=2014|2p=907}} Constantly polite and courteous, he was attentive to all, irrespective of their age or status, and often talked to children or servants.{{sfn|Meredith|2010|pp=xvi, 482–483}} He was known for his ability to find common ground with very different communities.{{sfn|Barnard|2014|pp=5–6}} In later life, he always looked for the best in people, even defending political opponents to his allies, who sometimes thought him too trusting of others.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=431, 582}} He was fond of [[Indian cuisine]],{{sfn|Meredith|2010|p=164}} and had a lifelong interest in archaeology{{sfn|Meer|1988|p=189}} and boxing.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=29}}

{{Quote box|width=25em|align=left|quote=The significance of Mandela can be considered in two related ways. First, he has provided through his personal presence as a benign and honest conviction politician, skilled at exerting power but not obsessed with it to the point of view of excluding principles, a man who struggled to display respect to all ... Second, in so doing he was able to be a hero and a symbol to an array of otherwise unlikely mates through his ability, like all brilliant nationalist politicians, to speak to very different audiences effectively at once.|salign=right |source=—[[Bill Freund (historian)|Bill Freund]], academic{{sfn|Freund|2014|p=295}} }}

He was raised in the Methodist denomination of Christianity; the [[Methodist Church of Southern Africa]] claimed that he retained his allegiance to them throughout his life.{{sfn|Forster|2014|p=89}} On analysing Mandela's writings, the theologian [[Dion Forster]] described him as a [[Christian humanist]], although added that his thought relied to a greater extent on the Southern African concept of [[Ubuntu philosophy|Ubuntu]] than on [[Christian theology]].{{sfn|Forster|2014|pp=106–107}} According to Sampson, Mandela never had "a strong religious faith" however,{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=65}} while Boehmer stated that Mandela's religious belief was "never robust".{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=86}}

Mandela was very self-conscious about being a man and regularly made references to [[manhood]].{{sfn|Suttner|2014|p=342}} He was [[heterosexual]],{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=142}} and biographer [[Fatima Meer]] said that he was "easily tempted" by women.{{sfn|Meer|1988|p=78}} Another biographer, [[Martin Meredith]], characterised him as being "by nature a romantic", highlighting that he had relationships with various women.{{sfn|Meredith|2010|p=21}} Mandela was married three times, fathered six children, and had seventeen grandchildren and at least seventeen great-grandchildren.<ref name="genealogy">{{cite web|publisher=Nelson Mandela Foundation|title=The Life and Times of Nelson Mandela: Genealogy |url=http://www.nelsonmandela.org/content/page/genealogy |access-date=13 July 2016 |archive-date=16 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160116020637/https://www.nelsonmandela.org/content/page/genealogy }}</ref> He could be stern and demanding of his children, although he was more affectionate with his grandchildren.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=481|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=147|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=246}} His first marriage was to Evelyn Ntoko Mase in October 1944;{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=144, 148–149|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=59–62|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=36}} they divorced in March 1958 under the multiple strains of his adultery and constant absences, devotion to revolutionary agitation, and the fact that she was a Jehovah's Witness, a religion requiring political neutrality.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=296|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=102–104|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=110}} Mandela's second wife was the social worker Winnie Madikizela-Mandela, whom he married in June 1958.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=74–76|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=93|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=306–311|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=144–149|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=104, 132–145|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=110–113}} They divorced in March 1996.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=539–542|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=500}} Mandela married his third wife, Graça Machel, on his 80th birthday in July 1998.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=xvii, 576|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=549–551}}

==Reception and legacy==
[[File:Nelson Mandela tributes in Parliament Square - London - DSCF0404.jpg|thumb|Flowers left at the [[Statue of Nelson Mandela, Parliament Square|Mandela statue]] in London's Parliament Square following his death]]
By the time of his death, within South Africa Mandela was widely considered both "the father of the nation"<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-20839504 |title=Nelson Mandela to spend Christmas in S Africa hospital |date=24 December 2012 |work=BBC News|access-date=13 July 2016 |archive-date= 3 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EAEkVVsN?url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-20839504 |url-status=live }}</ref> and "the founding father of democracy".{{sfn|Meredith|2010|p=565}} Outside of South Africa, he was a "global icon",{{sfnm|1a1=Barnard|1y=2014|1pp=1, 2|2a1=Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2y=2014|2p=906}} with the scholar of South African studies Rita Barnard describing him as "one of the most revered figures of our time".{{sfn|Barnard|2014|pp=1, 2}} One biographer considered him "a modern democratic hero".{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=225}} Some have portrayed Mandela in messianic terms,{{sfn|Suttner|2007|pp=125–126}} in contrast to his own statement that "I was not a messiah, but an ordinary man who had become a leader because of extraordinary circumstances."{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=599|2a1=Barnard|2y=2014|2p=4}} He is often cited alongside [[Mahatma Gandhi]] and [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] as one of the 20th century's exemplary anti-racist and anti-colonial leaders.{{sfnm|1a1=Boehmer|1y=2008|1p=82|2a1=Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2y=2014|2p=918}} Boehmer described him as "a totem of the totemic values of our age: toleration and liberal democracy"{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=16}} and "a universal symbol of social justice".{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=1}}

Mandela's international fame had emerged during his incarceration in the 1980s, when he became the world's most famous prisoner, a symbol of the anti-apartheid cause, and an icon for millions who embraced the ideal of human equality.{{sfn|Barnard|2014|p=1}} In the years since been described as world's most famous [[political prisoner]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hooper|first=Simon|title=The world's most famous political prisoner|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2013/12/6/the-worlds-most-famous-political-prisoner|access-date=2021-06-29|website=www.aljazeera.com|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|last2=|last3=|first3=|last4=|last5=|last6=|last7=|last8=|first8=|last9=|date=2018-07-13|title=Nelson Mandela's letters detail his 27 years as the world's most famous political prisoner|url=https://www.latimes.com/books/la-ca-jc-prison-letters-mandela-20180713-story.html|access-date=2021-06-29|website=Los Angeles Times|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=2013-12-07|title=Mandela death: How a prisoner became a legend|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-25256818|access-date=2021-06-29}}</ref> In 1986, Mandela's biographer characterised him as "the embodiment of the struggle for liberation" in South Africa.{{sfn|Benson|1986|p=13}} Meredith stated that in becoming "a potent symbol of resistance" to apartheid during the 1980s, he had gained "mythical status" internationally.{{sfn|Meredith|2010|p=xv}} Sampson commented that even during his life, this myth had become "so powerful that it blurs the realities", converting Mandela into "a secular saint".{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=xxvi}} Within a decade of the end of his presidency, Mandela's era was being widely thought of as "a golden age of hope and harmony",{{sfn|Meredith|2010|p=599}} with much [[nostalgia]] being expressed for it.{{sfn|Freund|2014|p=296}} His name was often invoked by those criticising his successors like Mbeki and Zuma.{{sfn|Mangcu|2013|p=101}} Across the world, Mandela earned international acclaim for his activism in overcoming apartheid and fostering racial reconciliation,{{sfn|Meredith|2010|p=xvi}} coming to be viewed as "a moral authority" with a great "concern for truth".{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=582}} Mandela's iconic status has been blamed for concealing the complexities of his life.{{sfn|Suttner|2016|p=17}}

Mandela generated controversy throughout his career as an activist and politician,{{sfn|Barnard|2014|p=2}} having detractors on both the right and the radical left.{{sfn|Boehmer|2008|p=173}} During the 1980s, Mandela was widely labelled a terrorist by prominent political figures in the Western world for his embrace of political violence.{{sfn|Boehmer|2005|p=46}} According to Thatcher, for instance, the ANC was "a typical terrorist organisation".{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=360}} The US government's [[United States Department of State|State]] and [[United States Department of Defense|Defense]] departments officially designated the ANC as a terrorist organisation, resulting in Mandela remaining on their terrorism watch-list until 2008.<ref>{{cite news |title=US government considered Nelson Mandela a terrorist until 2008 |date=7 December 2013 |work=NBC News |last=Windrem |first=Robert |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/other/us-government-considered-nelson-mandela-terrorist-until-2008-f2D11708787 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303200951/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/other/us-government-considered-nelson-mandela-terrorist-until-2008-f2D11708787 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> On the left, some voices in the ANC—among them [[Frank B. Wilderson III]]—accused him of [[selling out]] for agreeing to enter negotiations with the apartheid government and for not implementing the reforms of the Freedom Charter during his presidency.{{sfnm|1a1=Barnard|1y=2014|1p=2|2a1=Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2y=2014|2p=918}} According to Barnard, "there is also a sense in which his chiefly bearing and mode of conduct, the very respect and authority he accrued in representing his nation in his own person, went against the spirit of democracy",{{sfn|Barnard|2014|p=2}} and concerns were similarly expressed that he placed his own status and celebrity above the transformation of his country.{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2014|p=918}} His government would be criticised for its failure to deal with both the HIV/AIDS pandemic and the high levels of poverty in South Africa.{{sfn|Barnard|2014|p=2}} Mandela was also criticised for his friendship with political leaders such as Castro, Gaddafi, and Suharto—deemed [[dictators]] by critics—as well as his refusal to condemn their governments' human rights violations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibtimes.com/mandela-dictators-freedom-fighter-complicated-past-725667 |title=Mandela and the Dictators: A Freedom Fighter With A Complicated Past |first=Jacey |last=Fortin |website=International Business Times |date=18 July 2012 |access-date=13 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160419032439/http://www.ibtimes.com/mandela-dictators-freedom-fighter-complicated-past-725667 |archive-date=19 April 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Orders, decorations, monuments, and honours===
{{Main|List of awards and honours bestowed upon Nelson Mandela}}
Over the course of his life, Mandela was given over 250 awards, accolades, prizes, honorary degrees and citizenships in recognition of his political achievements.<ref name=CT12>{{Cite news |url=https://www.questia.com/read/1G1-296964849 |title=How the awards have just kept flooding in |date=18 July 2012 |work=The Cape Times |via=[[Questia Online Library]] |url-status=dead|access-date=14 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190207130510/https://www.questia.com/read/1G1-296964849/how-the-awards-have-just-kept-flooding-in|archive-date=7 February 2019}}</ref>
Among his awards were the Nobel Peace Prize,{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=68|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=182|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=494|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=474}} the US [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2002/07/20020709-8.html |title=President Honors Recipients of the Presidential Medal of Freedom |date=9 July 2002 |publisher=The White House |access-date=26 October 2008 |archive-date=14 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EQa6Gnu1?url=http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2002/07/20020709-8.html |url-status=live }}</ref> the Soviet Union's [[Lenin Peace Prize]],<ref name=CT12/> and the Libyan [[Al-Gaddafi International Prize for Human Rights]].<ref name="TimeGadafiPrize">{{cite news|title=Prizes: And the Winner Is ...|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,957634,00.html|work=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|date=8 May 1989|access-date=24 October 2012}}</ref> In 1990, India awarded him the [[Bharat Ratna]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/list-of-all-bharat-ratna-award-winners-81336 |title=List of all Bharat Ratna award winners |date=21 January 2011 |publisher=NDTV |access-date=14 February 2013 |archive-date=14 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EQat3ntQ?url=http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/list-of-all-bharat-ratna-award-winners-81336 |url-status=live }}</ref> and in 1992 Pakistan gave him their [[Nishan-e-Pakistan]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=Mandela in Pakistan |newspaper=The Independent |publisher=Independent Print Limited |date=3 October 1992 |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/mandela-in-pakistan-1555096.html |access-date=7 June 2010 |archive-date=14 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EQa80Py9?url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/mandela-in-pakistan-1555096.html |url-status=live |location=London }}</ref> The same year, he was awarded the Atatürk Peace Award by Turkey; he at first refused the award, citing human rights violations committed by Turkey at the time,<ref name=ataturk>{{cite web |url=http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/pr/1992/pr0412a.html |title=Statement on the Ataturk Award given to Nelson Mandela |date=12 April 1992 |publisher=African National Congress |access-date=2 January 2007 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061001161737/http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/pr/1992/pr0412a.html  |archive-date = 1 October 2006}}</ref> but later accepted the award in 1999.<ref name=CT12/> He was appointed to the [[Order of Isabella the Catholic]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://boe.es/diario_boe/txt.php?id=BOE-A-1999-3755 |title=Royal Decree 270/1999, 12th February 1999 |date=13 February 1999 |work=Spanish Official State Gazette|access-date=13 September 2017 }}</ref> and the [[Order of Canada]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.canadainternational.gc.ca/southafrica-afriquedusud/eyes_abroad-coupdoeil/NelsonMandelaDJ.aspx?lang=eng&view=d |title=Canada presents Nelson Mandela with the Queen Elizabeth II Diamond Jubilee medal |date=23 August 2012 |publisher=Queen's Printer for Canada |access-date=14 February 2013 |archive-date=14 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EQaTXONi?url=http://www.canadainternational.gc.ca/southafrica-afriquedusud/eyes_abroad-coupdoeil/NelsonMandelaDJ.aspx?lang=eng&view=d |url-status=dead}}</ref> and was the first living person to be made an [[Honorary Citizenship of Canada|honorary Canadian citizen]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2001/11/19/mandela_011119.html |title=Mandela to be honoured with Canadian citizenship |date=19 November 2001 |publisher=CBC News |access-date=26 October 2008 |archive-date=14 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EQa6zuKU?url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/story/2001/11/19/mandela_011119.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Queen Elizabeth II appointed him as a Bailiff Grand Cross of the [[Order of Saint John (chartered 1888)|Order of St. John]] and granted him membership in the [[Order of Merit]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/Page1880.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050105152154/http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/Page1880.asp |archive-date=5 January 2005 |title=The Order of Merit |date = November 2002|publisher=Royal Insight |access-date=26 October 2008}}</ref>

In 2004, Johannesburg granted Mandela the [[Freedom of the City]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gpg.gov.za/docs/nz/2004/nz0727.html |title=Madiba conferred freedom of Johannesburg |date=27 July 2004 |publisher=Gauteng Provincial Government |access-date=26 October 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080621081749/http://www.gpg.gov.za/docs/nz/2004/nz0727.html|archive-date=21 June 2008}}</ref> and in 2008 a Mandela statue was unveiled at the spot where Mandela was released from prison.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mediaclubsouthafrica.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=703:mandelastatue270808&catid=42:land_news&Itemid=110 |title=Long walk immortalised in bronze |last=Stern |first=Jennifer |date=27 August 2008 |publisher=Media Club South Africa |access-date=30 November 2009 |archive-date=14 February 2013 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EQY5DhSw?url=http://www.mediaclubsouthafrica.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=703:mandelastatue270808&catid=42:land_news&Itemid=110 |url-status=dead }}</ref> On the [[Day of Reconciliation]] 2013, a bronze statue of Mandela was unveiled at Pretoria's Union Buildings.<ref>{{cite news|title=Nelson Mandela statue unveiled in Pretoria by Zuma|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-25399709|work=BBC News|access-date=23 December 2013|date=16 December 2013}}</ref>
In November 2009, the [[United Nations General Assembly]] proclaimed Mandela's birthday, 18 July, as "[[Mandela Day]]", marking his contribution to the anti-apartheid struggle. It called on individuals to donate 67 minutes to doing something for others, commemorating the 67 years that Mandela had been a part of the movement.<ref>{{harvnb|Battersby|2011|p=601}}; {{cite news
|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/8353853.stm
|title=UN gives backing to 'Mandela Day'
|work=BBC News|access-date=11 November 2009
|date=11 November 2009
|archive-date=14 February 2013
|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6EQbCaUWz?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8353853.stm
|url-status=live
}}</ref> In 2015 the UN General Assembly named the amended [[Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners]] as "the Mandela Rules" to honour his legacy.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.un.org/ga/search/viewm_doc.asp?symbol=A/C.3/70/L.3 |title=Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners from the United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |date=29 September 2015 |page=6}}</ref>


===Biographies and popular media===

The first biography of Mandela was authored by [[Mary Benson (campaigner)|Mary Benson]], based on brief interviews with him that she had conducted in the 1960s.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=8}} Two authorised biographies were later produced by friends of Mandela.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=vii}} The first was Fatima Meer's ''Higher Than Hope'', which was heavily influenced by Winnie and thus placed great emphasis on Mandela's family.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|pp=vii, 13–14}} The second was Anthony Sampson's ''Mandela'', published in 1999.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=vii}} Other biographies included Martin Meredith's ''Mandela'', first published in 1997, and Tom Lodge's ''Mandela'', brought out in 2006.{{sfn|Lodge|2006|p=vii}}

Since the late 1980s, Mandela's image began to appear on a proliferation of items, among them "photographs, paintings, drawings, statues, public murals, buttons, t-shirts, refrigerator magnets, and more",{{sfn|Nelson|2014|p=130}} items that have been characterised as "Mandela kitsch".{{sfn|Nelson|2014|p=138}} In the 1980s he was the subject of several songs, such as [[The Specials]]' "[[Free Nelson Mandela]]", [[Hugh Masekela]]'s "[[Bring Him Back Home (Nelson Mandela)]]", and [[Johnny Clegg]]'s "[[Asimbonanga|Asimbonanga (Mandela)]]", which helped to bring awareness of his imprisonment to an international audience.<ref>{{cite news |first=Dorian |last=Lynskey |date=6 December 2013 |title=Nelson Mandela: The Triumph of the Protest Song |website=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2013/dec/06/nelson-mandela-protest-song-special-aka |access-date=23 January 2017 }}</ref>

Following his death, many [[internet meme]]s appeared featuring images of Mandela with his inspirational quotes superimposed onto them.{{sfn|Nelson|2014|p=130}} Mandela has also been depicted in films on multiple occasions.{{sfn|Bromley|2014|p=41}} Some of these, such as the 2013 feature film ''[[Mandela: Long Walk to Freedom]]'' and the 1996 documentary ''Mandela'', have focused on covering his long life, whereas others, such as the 2009 feature film ''[[Invictus (film)|Invictus]]'' and the 2010 documentary ''[[The 16th Man]]'', have focused on specific events in his life.{{sfn|Bromley|2014|p=41}} It has been argued that in ''Invictus'' and other films, "the America film industry" has played a significant part in "the crafting of Mandela's global image".{{sfn|Lukhele|2012|p=289}}

==See also==
* [[List of peace activists]]

==References==
===Footnotes===
{{Reflist|25em}}

===Bibliography===
{{Refbegin|33em|indent=yes}}
* {{cite book |last=Barber |first=James |title=Mandela's World: The International Dimension of South Africa's Political Revolution 1990–99 |year=2004 |location=Athens, OH |publisher=Ohio University Press |isbn=978-0-8214-1566-5 }}
* {{cite contribution |contribution=Introduction |last=Barnard |first=Rita |year=2014 |title=The Cambridge Companion to Nelson Mandela |pages=1–26 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-1-107-01311-7 |editor=Rita Barnard }}
* {{cite contribution |contribution=Afterword: Living Legend, Living Statue |last=Battersby |first=John |year=2011 |title=Mandela: The Authorised Biography |editor=Anthony Sampson |publisher=HarperCollins |location=London |pages=587–610 |isbn=978-0-00-743797-9 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Benneyworth |first=Garth |title=Armed and Trained: Nelson Mandela's 1962 Military Mission as Commander in Chief of Umkhonto we Sizwe and Provenance for his Buried Makarov Pistol |journal=South African Historical Journal |year=2011 |volume=63 |number=1 |pages=78–101 |doi=10.1080/02582473.2011.549375 |s2cid=144616007 }}
* {{cite book |title=Nelson Mandela |last=Benson |first=Mary |publisher=Penguin Books |location=Harmondsworth |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-14-008941-7 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Boehmer |first=Elleke |title=Postcolonial Terrorist: The Example of Nelson Mandela |journal=Parallax |volume=11 |issue=4 |year=2005 |doi=10.1080/13534640500331666 |pages=46–55 |s2cid=144267205 |url=https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:05d184cf-6b1f-4c40-a5ab-618d45b3f0cd }}
* {{cite book |last=Boehmer |first=Elleke |year=2008 |title=Nelson Mandela: A Very Short Introduction |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-280301-6 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Bromley |first=Roger |title='Magic Negro', Saint or Comrade: Representations of Nelson Mandela in Film |journal=Altre Modernità |year=2014 |number=12 |pages=40–58 }}
* {{cite book |last=Broun |first=Kenneth S. |year=2012 |title=Saving Nelson Mandela: The Rivonia Trial and the Fate of South Africa |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-974022-2 }}
* {{cite journal |title=The Genesis of the ANC's Armed Struggle in South Africa 1948–1961 |journal=Journal of Southern African Studies |last=Ellis |first=Stephen |volume=37 |pages=657–676 |year=2011 |issue=4 |doi=10.1080/03057070.2011.592659|hdl=2263/19620 |s2cid=144061623 |hdl-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last=Ellis |first=Stephen |title=Nelson Mandela, the South African Communist Party and the origins of Umkhonto we Sizwe |journal=Cold War History |volume=16 |number=1 |year=2016 |pages=1–18 |doi=10.1080/14682745.2015.1078315 |s2cid=155994044 }}
* {{cite journal |title=Mandela and the Methodists: Faith, Fallacy and Fact |last=Forster |first=Dion |journal=Studia Historiae Ecclesiasticae |year=2014 |volume=40 |pages=87–115 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Freund |first=Bill |title=The Shadow of Nelson Mandela, 1918–2013 |journal=African Political Economy |volume=41 |issue=140 |year=2014 |doi=10.1080/03056244.2014.883111 |pages=292–296 |s2cid=153570087 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Glad |first1=Betty |last2=Blanton |first2=Robert |title=F. W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela: A Study in Cooperative Transformational Leadership |journal=Presidential Studies Quarterly |year=1997 |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=565–590 |jstor=27551769 }}
* {{cite book| last1=Guiloineau |first1=Jean |last2=Rowe |first2=Joseph |year=2002 |title= Nelson Mandela: The Early Life of Rolihlahla Madiba | url=https://archive.org/details/nelsonmandelaear0000guil | url-access=registration |publisher=North Atlantic Books |location=Berkeley |pages=[https://archive.org/details/nelsonmandelaear0000guil/page/9 9–26] |isbn=978-1-55643-417-4 }}
* {{cite contribution|contribution=The Nature of South African Democracy: Political Dominance and Economic Inequality |last1=Herbst |first1=Jeffrey |year=2003 |title=The Making and Unmaking of Democracy: Lessons from History and World Politics |editor=Theodore K. Rabb |editor2=Ezra N. Suleiman |publisher=Routledge |location=London |pages=206–224 |isbn=978-0-415-93381-0 }}
* {{cite contribution|contribution=Democracy and Governance in Transition |last1=Houston |first1=Gregory |last2=Muthien |first2=Yvonne |year=2000 |title=Democracy and Governance Review: Mandela's Legacy 1994–1999 |editor=Yvonne Muthien |editor2=Meshack Khosa |editor3=Bernard Magubane |publisher=Human Sciences Research Council Press |location=Pretoria |pages=37–68 |isbn=978-0-7969-1970-0 }}
* {{cite book |last=Hutton |first=Barbara |title=Robben Island: Symbol of Resistance |year=1994 |publisher=Pearson South Africa |location=Bellville |isbn=978-0-86877-417-6 }}
* {{cite journal |title=The Political Philosophy of Nelson Mandela: A Primer |journal=Journal of Social Philosophy |last=Kalumba |first=Kibujjo M. |year=1995 |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=161–171 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9833.1995.tb00092.x}}
* {{cite book |title=Mandela: A Critical Life |last=Lodge |first=Tom |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-19-921935-3 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Lukhele |first=Francis |year=2012 |title=Post-Prison Nelson Mandela: A 'Made-in-America Hero' |journal=Canadian Journal of African Studies |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=289–301 |doi=10.1080/00083968.2012.702088 |s2cid=142631031 }}
* {{cite contribution |contribution=The Revelation of African Culture in ''Long Walk to Freedom'' |last1=Mafela |first1=Munzhedzi James |year=2008 |title=Indigenous Biography and Autobiography |editor=Anna Haebich |editor2=Frances Peters-Little |editor3=Peter Read |publisher=Humanities Research Centre, Australian National University |location=Sydney |url=http://epress.anu.edu.au/aborig_history/indigenous_biog/mobile_devices/ch08.html#d0e6318 |pages=99–107 |access-date=15 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724060728/http://epress.anu.edu.au/aborig_history/indigenous_biog/mobile_devices/ch08.html#d0e6318 |archive-date=24 July 2013 |url-status=dead}}
* {{Cite book|last=Mandela |first=Nelson |title=Long Walk to Freedom Volume I: 1918–1962 |year=1994 |publisher=Little, Brown and Company |isbn=978-0-7540-8723-6 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Mandela |first=Nelson |title=Long Walk to Freedom Volume II: 1962–1994 |edition=large print |year=2004 |orig-year=1994 |publisher=BBC AudioBooks and Time Warner Books Ltd |location=London |isbn=978-0-7540-8724-3 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Mangcu |first=Xolela |year=2013 |title=Retracing Nelson Mandela through the Lineage of Black Political Thought |journal=Transition |volume=112 |issue=112 |pages=101–116 |doi=10.2979/transition.112.101 |s2cid=150631478 }}
* {{cite book |last=Meer |first=Fatima |title=Higher than Hope: The Authorized Biography of Nelson Mandela |year=1988 |location=London |publisher=Hamish Hamilton |isbn=978-0-241-12787-2 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Meredith |first=Martin |author-link=Martin Meredith |title=Mandela: A Biography |publisher=PublicAffairs |location=New York |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-58648-832-1 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/mandelabiography0000mere }}
* {{cite contribution |contribution=Democracy and Governance in Transition |last1=Muthien |first1=Yvonne |last2=Khosa |first2=Meshack |last3=Magubane |first3=Bernard |year=2000 |title=Democracy and Governance Review: Mandela's Legacy 1994–1999 |editor=Yvonne Muthien |editor2=Meshack Khosa |editor3=Bernard Magubane |publisher=Human Sciences Research Council Press |location=Pretoria |pages=361–374 |isbn=978-0-7969-1970-0 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Ndlovu-Gatsheni |first=Sabelo J. |year=2014 |title=From a 'Terrorist' to Global Icon: A Critical Decolonial Ethical Tribute to Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela of South Africa |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=35 |number=6 |pages=905–921 |doi=10.1080/01436597.2014.907703 |s2cid=144338285 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Oppenheim |first=Claire E. |title=Nelson Mandela and the Power of Ubuntu |journal=Religions |year=2012 |volume=3 |number=2 |pages=369–388 |doi=10.3390/rel3020369 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last=Soudien |first=Crain |title=Nelson Mandela, Robben Island and the Imagination of a New South Africa |year=2015 |doi=10.1080/03057070.2015.1012915 |journal=Journal of Southern African Studies |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=353–366 |s2cid=143225875 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Suttner |first=Raymond |year=2007 |title=(Mis)Understanding Nelson Mandela |journal=African Historical Review |volume=39 |number=2 |pages=107–130 |doi=10.1080/17532520701786202 |s2cid=218645921 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Suttner |first=Raymond |title=Nelson Mandela's Masculinities |journal=African Identities |year=2014 |volume=12 |issue=3–4 |pages=342–356 |doi=10.1080/14725843.2015.1009623 |s2cid=145448829 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Suttner |first=Raymond |title='I Was Not Born With a Hunger to Be Free': Nelson Mandela's Early Journeys towards Political Awareness |year=2016 |journal=Journal of Asian and African Studies |volume=51 |issue=1 |pages=17–31 |doi=10.1177/0021909614541973 |s2cid=144447985 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Nelson |first=Steven |title=Nelson Mandela's Two Bodies |journal=Transition |volume=116 |issue=116 |year=2014 |pages=130–142 |doi=10.2979/transition.116.130 |s2cid=154241514 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Read |first=James H. |title=Leadership and power in Nelson Mandela's ''Long Walk to Freedom'' |journal=Journal of Power |volume=3 |number=3 |pages=317–339 |doi=10.1080/17540291.2010.524792 |year=2010 |s2cid=143804607 }}
* {{Cite book|last=Sampson |first=Anthony |author-link=Anthony Sampson |title=Mandela: The Authorised Biography |publisher=HarperCollins |location=London |year=2011 |orig-year=1999 |isbn=978-0-00-743797-9 }}
* {{Cite book|last=Smith |first=David James |author-link=David James Smith |title=Young Mandela |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |location=London |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-297-85524-8 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Tomaselli |first1=Keyan |last2=Tomaselli |first2=Ruth |year=2003 |title=The Media and Mandela |journal=Safundi: The Journal of South African and American Studies |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=1–10 |doi=10.1080/17533170300404204 |s2cid=144534323 }}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links
|wikt=no
|commons=Nelson Mandela
|b=no
|n=Category:Nelson Mandela
|q=Nelson Mandela
|s=Author:Nelson Mandela
|v=no
|species=no
|d=Q8023
}}
* [http://archive.nelsonmandela.org/ Nelson Mandela Centre of Memory]
* [http://www.nelsonmandelachildrensfund.com/ Nelson Mandela Children's Fund]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130707224033/http://www.nelsonmandela.org/ Nelson Mandela Foundation]
* [http://www.mandelarhodes.org/ Mandela Rhodes Foundation]
* [http://www.theelders.org/ The Elders]
* [http://www.nelsonmandelamuseum.org.za/ Nelson Mandela Museum]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120305110400/http://www.mandeladay.com/ Nelson Mandela Day]
* [https://southafrica-info.com/history/nelson-mandela-genealogy-family-tree/ Nelson Mandela's family tree]
* {{Worldcat id|lccn-n85-153068}}
* {{Curlie|Regional/Africa/South_Africa/Society_and_Culture/History/Nelson_Mandela}}
* {{IMDb name|0541691}}
* {{Find a Grave|121260035}}
* {{C-SPAN|Nelson Mandela}}
* {{Nobelprize}}

{{S-start}}
{{S-off}}
{{S-bef|before=[[F. W. de Klerk]]|as=[[State President of South Africa]]}}
{{S-ttl|title=[[President of South Africa]]|years=1994–1999}}
{{S-aft|after=[[Thabo Mbeki]]}}
|-
{{s-ppo}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Oliver Tambo]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[History of the African National Congress|President of the African National Congress]]|years=1991–1997}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Thabo Mbeki]]}}
|-
{{S-dip}}
{{S-bef|before=[[Andrés Pastrana Arango]]}}
{{S-ttl|title={{nowrap|[[Non-Aligned Movement|Secretary General of Non-Aligned Movement]]}}|years=1998–1999}}
{{S-aft|after=[[Thabo Mbeki]]}}
{{S-end}}

{{Nelson Mandela|state=expanded}}
{{Navboxes
|title = Articles related to Nelson Mandela
|list =
{{ANCpresidents}}
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{{Nelson Mandela cabinet 1}}
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{{Gandhi Peace Prize laureates}}
{{Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation}}
{{The Elders}}
{{Time Persons of the Year 1976-2000}}
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{{Order of Mapungubwe|state=collapsed}}
{{Ibrahim Prize}}
}}
{{Portalbar|Biography|Freedom of speech|Liberalism|Socialism|South Africa}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Mandela, Nelson}}
[[Category:Nelson Mandela| ]]
[[Category:1918 births]]
[[Category:2013 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century Methodists]]
[[Category:20th-century philanthropists]]
[[Category:20th-century South African lawyers]]
[[Category:20th-century South African male writers]]
[[Category:20th-century South African politicians]]
[[Category:21st-century Methodists]]
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[[Category:21st-century South African politicians]]
[[Category:African and Black nationalists]]
[[Category:Alumni of the University of London]]
[[Category:Alumni of University of London Worldwide]]
[[Category:Anti-apartheid activists]]
[[Category:Bailiffs Grand Cross of the Order of St John]]
[[Category:Burials in South Africa]]
[[Category:Collars of the Order of Isabella the Catholic]]
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[[Category:University of the Witwatersrand alumni]]
[[Category:World Rugby Hall of Fame inductees]]
[[Category:Xhosa people]]
[[Category:Political prisoners]]

Navin Param

2021-07-18T22:16:10Z

Hembram Bakhul: Created page with "{{short description|Singaporean cricketer}} {{Infobox cricketer | name = Navin Param | image = | full_name = Navin Michael S Param | birth..."

{{short description|Singaporean cricketer}}
{{Infobox cricketer
| name = Navin Param
| image =
| full_name = Navin Michael S Param
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1995|10|21|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Singapore]]
| batting = Right-handed
| bowling = Right-arm [[off break]]
| role =

| international = true
| country = Singapore
| internationalspan = 2014–present
| T20Idebutdate = 28 September
| T20Idebutyear = 2019
| T20Idebutagainst = Nepal
| T20Icap = 13
| lastT20Idate = 26 October
| lastT20Iyear = 2019
| lastT20Iagainst = Namibia
| T20Ishirt =

| columns = 3

| column1 = [[Twenty20 International|T20I]]
| matches1 = 4
| runs1 = 87
| bat avg1 = 87.00
| 100s/50s1 = 0/1
| top score1 = 72[[Not out|*]]
| deliveries1 = –
| wickets1 = –
| bowl avg1 = –
| fivefor1 = –
| tenfor1 = –
| best bowling1 = –
| catches/stumpings1 = 0/–

| column2 = [[List A cricket|LA]]
| matches2 = 4
| runs2 = 104
| bat avg2 = 34.66
| 100s/50s2 = 0/1
| top score2 = 66
| deliveries2 = 96
| wickets2 = 4
| bowl avg2 = 17.25
| fivefor2 = 0
| tenfor2 = 0
| best bowling2 = 3/30
| catches/stumpings2 = 1/–

| column3 = [[Twenty20|T20]]
| matches3 = 4
| runs3 = 87
| bat avg3 = 87.00
| 100s/50s3 = 0/1
| top score3 = 72[[Not out|*]]
| deliveries3 = –
| wickets3 = –
| bowl avg3 = –
| fivefor3 = –
| tenfor3 = –
| best bowling3 = –
| catches/stumpings3 = 0/–

| source = http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/452540.html ESPNcricinfo
| date = 26 October
| year = 2019
}}
'''Navin Michael S Param''' (born 21 October 1995) is a player for the [[Singapore national cricket team]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Navin Param |publisher=ESPN cricinfo |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/452540.html}}</ref>

In July 2019, he was named in Singapore's [[Twenty20 International]] (T20I) squad for the [[2018–19 ICC T20 World Cup Asia Qualifier#Regional Finals|Regional Finals]] of the [[2018–19 ICC T20 World Cup Asia Qualifier]] tournament.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://singaporecricket.org/mens-senior/ |title=The SCA have announced the 14-man squad for the ICC T20 World Cup Asia Final |work=Singapore Cricket Association |accessdate=15 July 2019}}</ref> In September 2019, he was named in Singapore's squad for the [[2019 Malaysia Cricket World Cup Challenge League A]] tournament.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://singaporecricket.org/the-sca-have-announced-the-14-man-squad-icc-mens-cwc-challenge-league-a-2019/ |title=The SCA have announced the 14-man squad – ICC Men's CWC Challenge League A – 2019 |accessdate=8 September 2019 |work=Singapore Cricket Association }}</ref> He made his [[List A cricket|List A]] debut for Singapore, against [[Denmark national cricket team|Denmark]], in the [[2019 Malaysia Cricket World Cup Challenge League A]] tournament on 19 September 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1200442.html |title=5th Match, CWC Challenge League Group A at Kuala Lumpur, Sep 19 2019 |work=ESPN Cricinfo |accessdate=19 September 2019}}</ref>

Later in September 2019, he was named in Singapore's [[Twenty20 International]] (T20I) squad for the [[2019–20 Singapore Tri-Nation Series]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.crictracker.com/singapore-tri-nation-series-2019-20-fixtures-schedule-venues-squads-match-timings-and-live-streaming-details/ |title=INSTAREM tri-series Singapore 2019-20 – Fixtures, Schedule, Venues, Squads, Match Timings and Live Streaming Details |work=CricTracker |accessdate=26 September 2019}}</ref> He made his T20I debut for Singapore, against [[Nepal national cricket team|Nepal]], in the Singapore Tri-Nation Series on 28 September 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1201681.html |title=2nd Match (N), Singapore Twenty20 Tri-Series at Singapore, Sep 28 2019 |work=ESPN Cricinfo |accessdate=28 September 2019}}</ref> In October 2019, he was named in Singapore's squad for the [[2019 ICC T20 World Cup Qualifier]] tournament in the United Arab Emirates.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://singaporecricket.org/icc-t20-world-cup-qualifier-2019-uae/ |title=ICC T20 World Cup Qualifier – UAE |work=Cricket Singapore |accessdate=10 October 2019}}</ref> He was the leading run-scorer for Singapore in the tournament, with 158 runs in six matches.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/averages/batting_bowling_by_team.html?id=13311;team=23;type=tournament |title=ICC Men's T20 World Cup Qualifier, 2019/20 - Singapore: Batting and bowling averages |work=ESPN Cricinfo |accessdate=26 October 2019}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Param, Navin}}
[[Category:1995 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Singaporean sportsmen]]
[[Category:Singaporean cricketers]]
[[Category:Singapore Twenty20 International cricketers]]
[[Category:Place of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Southeast Asian Games gold medalists for Singapore]]
[[Category:Southeast Asian Games silver medalists for Singapore]]
[[Category:Southeast Asian Games medalists in cricket]]
[[Category:Competitors at the 2017 Southeast Asian Games]]

Aryaman Sunil

2021-07-18T22:14:36Z

Hembram Bakhul: Created page with "{{short description|Singaporean cricketer}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}} {{Infobox cricketer | name = Aryaman Sunil | image = | c..."

{{short description|Singaporean cricketer}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
{{Infobox cricketer
| name = Aryaman Sunil
| image =
| country = Singapore
| fullname = Aryaman Sunil Uchil
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|2000|4|30|df=yes}}
| birth_place =
| heightft =
| heightinch =
| heightm =
| batting =
| role =

| international = true
| T20Idebutdate = 28 September
| T20Idebutyear = 2019
| T20Idebutagainst = Nepal
| T20Icap = 12
| lastT20Idate = 4 March
| lastT20Iyear = 2020
| lastT20Iagainst = Hong Kong

| date = 4 March 2020
| source = http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/1048891.html Cricinfo
}}
'''Aryaman Sunil Uchil''' (born 30 April 2000) is a Singaporean [[cricket]]er.<ref name="Bio">{{Cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/1048891.html |title=Aryaman Sunil |access-date=12 September 2019 |work=ESPN Cricinfo}}</ref> In August 2018, he was named in Singapore's squad for the [[2018 Asia Cup Qualifier]] tournament.<ref name="SinACQ">{{cite web|url=http://www.asiancricket.org/index.php/tournaments/acc-asia-cup-qualifier-2018/3275 |title=Singapore Team |work=Asian Cricket Council |access-date=23 August 2018}}</ref> In September 2019, he was named in Singapore's squad for the [[2019 Malaysia Cricket World Cup Challenge League A]] tournament.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://singaporecricket.org/the-sca-have-announced-the-14-man-squad-icc-mens-cwc-challenge-league-a-2019/ |title=The SCA have announced the 14-man squad – ICC Men's CWC Challenge League A – 2019 |access-date=8 September 2019 |work=Singapore Cricket Association }}</ref> He made his [[List A cricket|List A]] debut for Singapore, against [[Qatar national cricket team|Qatar]], in the Cricket World Cup Challenge League A tournament on 17 September 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1200439.html |title=2nd Match, CWC Challenge League Group A at Kuala Lumpur, Sep 17 2019 |work=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=17 September 2019}}</ref> Two days later, in the match against [[Denmark national cricket team|Demark]], he took six wickets for 46 runs in his nine overs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://singaporecricket.org/aryaman-uchil-bags-6-against-denmark/ |title=Aryaman Uchil bags 6 against Denmark |work=Singapore Cricket Association |access-date=21 September 2019}}</ref> He was the leading wicket-taker in the tournament, with fourteen dismissals in five matches.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/bowling/most_wickets_career.html?id=13343;type=tournament |title=CWC Challenge League Group A, 2019-2021/22: Most wickets |work=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=26 September 2019}}</ref>

Later in September 2019, he was named in Singapore's [[Twenty20 International]] (T20I) squad for the [[2019–20 Singapore Tri-Nation Series]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.crictracker.com/singapore-tri-nation-series-2019-20-fixtures-schedule-venues-squads-match-timings-and-live-streaming-details/ |title=INSTAREM tri-series Singapore 2019-20 – Fixtures, Schedule, Venues, Squads, Match Timings and Live Streaming Details |work=CricTracker |access-date=26 September 2019}}</ref> He made his T20I debut for Singapore, against [[Nepal national cricket team|Nepal]], in the Singapore Tri-Nation Series on 28 September 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1201681.html |title=2nd Match (N), Singapore Twenty20 Tri-Series at Singapore, Sep 28 2019 |work=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=28 September 2019}}</ref> In October 2019, he was named in Singapore's squad for the [[2019 ICC T20 World Cup Qualifier]] tournament in the United Arab Emirates.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://singaporecricket.org/icc-t20-world-cup-qualifier-2019-uae/ |title=ICC T20 World Cup Qualifier – UAE |work=Cricket Singapore |access-date=10 October 2019}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cricinfo|id=1048891}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sunil, Aryaman}}
[[Category:2000 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Singaporean cricketers]]
[[Category:Singapore Twenty20 International cricketers]]
[[Category:Place of birth missing (living people)]]

{{Singapore-cricket-bio-stub}}

Amjad Mahboob

2021-07-18T22:12:52Z

Hembram Bakhul: Created page with "{{Short description|Singaporean cricketer}} {{Use dmy dates|date=February 2015}} {{Infobox cricketer | name = Amjad Mahboob | image = |..."

{{Short description|Singaporean cricketer}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2015}}
{{Infobox cricketer
| name = Amjad Mahboob
| image =
| country = Singapore
| fullname =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1981|2|27|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Lahore]], Pakistan
| heightft =
| heightinch =
| heightm =
| batting = Right-handed
| bowling = Right-arm medium
| role = Bowler
| international = true

| T20Idebutdate = 22 July
| T20Idebutyear = 2019
| T20Idebutagainst = Qatar
| T20Icap = 1
| lastT20Idate = 4 March
| lastT20Iyear = 2020
| lastT20Iagainst = Hong Kong

| date = 4 March 2020
| source = http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/554068.html Cricinfo
}}
'''Amjad Mahboob''' (born 27 February 1981) is a Singaporean [[cricket]]er and the current captain of the [[Singapore national cricket team|Singapore cricket team]].<ref name="Cricinfo">{{Cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/554068.html |title=Amjad Mahboob |access-date=24 October 2014 |work=ESPN Cricinfo}}</ref>

==Career==
He played in the [[2014 ICC World Cricket League Division Three]] tournament. In August 2018, he was named in Singapore's squad for the [[2018 Asia Cup Qualifier]] tournament.<ref name="SinACQ">{{cite web|url=http://www.asiancricket.org/index.php/tournaments/acc-asia-cup-qualifier-2018/3275 |title=Singapore Team |work=Asian Cricket Council |access-date=23 August 2018}}</ref> He was the leading wicket-taker for Singapore in the tournament, with nine dismissals in three matches.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/averages/batting_bowling_by_team.html?class=15;id=12550;team=23;type=tournament |title=Asia Cup Qualifiers, 2018/19: Singapore / Minor cricket (one-day/limited overs) / Batting and bowling averages |work=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=4 September 2018}}</ref>

In October 2018, he was named in Singapore's squad in the Eastern sub-region group for the [[2018–19 ICC World Twenty20 Asia Qualifier]] tournament.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/media-releases/869213 |title=Exciting battle on the cards in the ICC World T20 Asia Qualifier B in Malaysia |work=International Cricket Council |access-date=2 October 2018}}</ref> Later the same month, he was named in Singapore's squad for the [[2018 ICC World Cricket League Division Three]] tournament in Oman.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/media-releases/894732 |title=Squads and match schedule announced for ICC World Cricket League Division 3 |work=International Cricket Council |access-date=31 October 2018}}</ref>

In July 2019, he was named as the captain of Singapore's [[Twenty20 International]] (T20I) squad for the [[2018–19 ICC T20 World Cup Asia Qualifier#Regional Finals|Regional Finals]] of the [[2018–19 ICC T20 World Cup Asia Qualifier]] tournament.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://singaporecricket.org/mens-senior/ |title=The SCA have announced the 14-man squad for the ICC T20 World Cup Asia Final |work=Singapore Cricket Association |access-date=15 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/media-releases/1290741 |title=Five teams set for Singapore showdown to move one step closer to T20 World Cup |work=International Cricket Council |access-date=21 July 2019}}</ref> He made his T20I debut for Singapore against [[Qatar national cricket team|Qatar]] on 22 July 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1190767.html |title=1st Match, ICC Men's T20 World Cup Asia Region Final at Singapore, Jul 22 2019 |work=ESPN cricinfo |access-date=22 July 2019}}</ref>

In September 2019, he was named as the captain of Singapore's squad for the [[2019 Malaysia Cricket World Cup Challenge League A]] tournament.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://singaporecricket.org/the-sca-have-announced-the-14-man-squad-icc-mens-cwc-challenge-league-a-2019/ |title=The SCA have announced the 14-man squad – ICC Men's CWC Challenge League A – 2019 |access-date=8 September 2019 |work=Singapore Cricket Association }}</ref> He made his [[List A cricket|List A]] debut for Singapore, against [[Qatar national cricket team|Qatar]], in the Cricket World Cup Challenge League A tournament on 17 September 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1200439.html |title=2nd Match, CWC Challenge League Group A at Kuala Lumpur, Sep 17 2019 |work=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=17 September 2019}}</ref> In October 2019, he was named as the captain of Singapore's squad for the [[2019 ICC T20 World Cup Qualifier]] tournament in the United Arab Emirates.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://singaporecricket.org/icc-t20-world-cup-qualifier-2019-uae/ |title=ICC T20 World Cup Qualifier – UAE |work=Cricket Singapore |access-date=10 October 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/media-releases/1451579 |title=Captains enthusiastic ahead of ICC Men's T20 World Cup Qualifier 2019 |work=International Cricket Council |access-date=12 October 2019}}</ref> He was the leading wicket-taker for Singapore in the tournament, with ten dismissals in six matches.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/averages/batting_bowling_by_team.html?id=13311;team=23;type=tournament |title=ICC Men's T20 World Cup Qualifier, 2019/20 - Singapore: Batting and bowling averages |work=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=26 October 2019}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cricinfo|id=554068}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mahboob, Amjad}}
[[Category:1981 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Singaporean cricketers]]
[[Category:Singapore Twenty20 International cricketers]]
[[Category:Pakistani emigrants to Singapore]]
[[Category:Cricketers from Lahore]]

Manpreet Singh

2021-07-18T22:10:52Z

Hembram Bakhul: Created page with "{{for|the Italian cricketer|Manpreet Singh (Italian cricketer)}} {{short description|Singaporean cricketer}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}} {{Infobox cricketer |..."

{{for|the Italian cricketer|Manpreet Singh (Italian cricketer)}}
{{short description|Singaporean cricketer}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
{{Infobox cricketer
| name = Manpreet Singh
| image =
| country = Singapore
| fullname =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1994|10|5|df=yes}}
| birth_place =
| heightft =
| heightinch =
| heightm =
| batting = Right-handed batsman
| bowling = Right-arm off break
| role = Wicket-keeper batsman
| hidedeliveries =
| international = true
| T20Idebutdate = 22 July
| T20Idebutyear = 2019
| T20Idebutagainst = Qatar
| T20Icap = 7
| lastT20Idate = 4 March
| lastT20Iyear = 2020
| lastT20Iagainst = Hong Kong

| columns = 2
| column1 = [[Twenty20 International|T20I]]
| matches1 = 15
| runs1 = 312
| bat avg1 = 26.00
| 100s/50s1 = 0/0
| top score1 = 42[[not out|*]]
| deliveries1 = -
| wickets1 = -
| bowl avg1 = -
| fivefor1 = -
| tenfor1 = -
| best bowling1 = -
| catches/stumpings1 = 7/6
| column2 = [[List A cricket|LA]]
| matches2 = 5
| runs2 = 56
| bat avg2 = 11.20
| 100s/50s2 = 0/0
| top score2 = 40
| deliveries2 = -
| wickets2 = -
| bowl avg2 = -
| fivefor2 = -
| tenfor2 = -
| best bowling2 = -
| catches/stumpings2 = 4/3
| date = 9 March 2020
| source = http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/1156688.html Cricinfo
}}
'''Manpreet Singh''' (born 5 October 1994) is a Singaporean [[cricket]]er.<ref name="Bio">{{Cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/1156688.html |title=Manpreet Singh |access-date=9 November 2018 |work=ESPN Cricinfo}}</ref> In October 2018, he was the leading wicket-taker for Singapore in the Eastern sub region group of the [[2018–19 ICC World Twenty20 Asia Qualifier]] tournament, with eleven dismissals in six matches.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/averages/batting_bowling_by_team.html?id=12672;team=23;type=tournament |title=ICC World Twenty20 Asia Region Qualifier B, 2018/19 - Singapore: Batting and bowling averages |work=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=10 November 2018}}</ref> Later the same month, he was named in Singapore's squad for the [[2018 ICC World Cricket League Division Three]] tournament in Oman.<ref name="ICC-release">{{cite web|url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/media-releases/894732 |title=Squads and match schedule announced for ICC World Cricket League Division 3 |work=International Cricket Council |access-date=31 October 2018}}</ref> He played in Singapore's opening fixture of the tournament, against [[Oman national cricket team|Oman]] on 10 November 2018.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1162848.html |title=4th Match, ICC World Cricket League Division Three at Al Amarat, Nov 10 2018 |access-date=10 November 2018 |work=ESPN Cricinfo}}</ref>

In July 2019, he was named in Singapore's [[Twenty20 International]] (T20I) squad for the [[2018–19 ICC T20 World Cup Asia Qualifier#Regional Finals|Regional Finals]] of the [[2018–19 ICC T20 World Cup Asia Qualifier]] tournament.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://singaporecricket.org/mens-senior/ |title=The SCA have announced the 14-man squad for the ICC T20 World Cup Asia Final |work=Singapore Cricket Association |access-date=15 July 2019}}</ref> He made his T20I debut for Singapore against [[Qatar national cricket team|Qatar]] on 22 July 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1190767.html |title=1st Match, ICC Men's T20 World Cup Asia Region Final at Singapore, Jul 22 2019 |work=ESPN cricinfo |access-date=22 July 2019}}</ref>

In September 2019, he was named in Singapore's squad for the [[2019 Malaysia Cricket World Cup Challenge League A]] tournament.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://singaporecricket.org/the-sca-have-announced-the-14-man-squad-icc-mens-cwc-challenge-league-a-2019/ |title=The SCA have announced the 14-man squad – ICC Men's CWC Challenge League A – 2019 |access-date=8 September 2019 |work=Singapore Cricket Association }}</ref> He made his [[List A cricket|List A]] debut for Singapore, against [[Qatar national cricket team|Qatar]], in the Cricket World Cup Challenge League A tournament on 17 September 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1200439.html |title=2nd Match, CWC Challenge League Group A at Kuala Lumpur, Sep 17 2019 |work=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=17 September 2019}}</ref> In October 2019, he was named in Singapore's squad for the [[2019 ICC T20 World Cup Qualifier]] tournament in the United Arab Emirates.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://singaporecricket.org/icc-t20-world-cup-qualifier-2019-uae/ |title=ICC T20 World Cup Qualifier – UAE |work=Cricket Singapore |access-date=10 October 2019}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cricinfo|id=1156688}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Singh, Manpreet}}
[[Category:1994 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Singaporean cricketers]]
[[Category:Singapore Twenty20 International cricketers]]
[[Category:Place of birth missing (living people)]]

Syed Aziz

2021-07-18T22:08:29Z

Hembram Bakhul: Created page with "{{short description|Malaysian cricketer}} {{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}} {{Infobox cricketer | name = Syed Aziz | image = | cou..."

{{short description|Malaysian cricketer}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
{{Infobox cricketer
| name = Syed Aziz
| image =
| country = Malaysia
| fullname =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1998|10|7|df=yes}}
| birth_place =
| death_date =
| death_place =
| batting =
| bowling =
| role =

| international = true
| T20Idebutdate = 24 June
| T20Idebutyear = 2019
| T20Idebutagainst = Thailand
| T20Icap = 10
| lastT20Idate = 22 April
| lastT20Iyear = 2021
| lastT20Iagainst = Nepal

| date = 22 April 2021
| source = http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/868003.html Cricinfo
}}
'''Syed Aziz''' (born 7 October 1998) is a Malaysian [[cricket]]er.<ref name="Bio">{{Cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/868003.html |title=Syed Aziz |access-date=23 May 2017 |work=ESPN Cricinfo}}</ref> He played for [[Malaysia national cricket team|Malaysia]] in the [[2017 ICC World Cricket League Division Three]] tournament in May 2017.<ref name="Div3">{{Cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1090938.html |title=ICC World Cricket League Division Three, Malaysia v Singapore at Kampala, May 23, 2017 |access-date=23 May 2017 |work=ESPN Cricinfo}}</ref> In April 2018, he was named in Malaysia's squad for the [[2018 ICC World Cricket League Division Four]] tournament, also in Malaysia.<ref name="MasSquad">{{cite web|url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/media-releases/673100 |title=Six teams travel to Malaysia on road to ICC Cricket World Cup 2023 |date=28 April 2018 |access-date=28 April 2018 |work=International Cricket Council}}</ref>

In August 2018, he was named in Malaysia's squad for the [[2018 Asia Cup Qualifier]] tournament.<ref name="MasACQ">{{cite web|url=http://www.asiancricket.org/index.php/tournaments/acc-asia-cup-qualifier-2018/3272 |title=Malaysia Team |work=Asian Cricket Council |access-date=23 August 2018}}</ref><ref name="MasSquad2">{{cite web|url=https://www.cricketmalaysia.com/malaysia-put-seasoned-players-forward-for-acc-asia-cup-qualifiers-2018/ |title=Malaysia put seasoned players forward for ACC Asia Cup Qualifiers 2018 |work=Cricket Malaysia |access-date=23 August 2018}}</ref> In October 2018, he was named in Malaysia's squad in the Eastern sub-region group for the [[2018–19 ICC World Twenty20 Asia Qualifier]] tournament.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/media-releases/869213 |title=Exciting battle on the cards in the ICC World T20 Asia Qualifier B in Malaysia |work=International Cricket Council |access-date=2 October 2018}}</ref>

In December 2018, he was one of two Malaysian cricketers signed to play a four-month stint of [[first-class cricket]] in Sri Lanka.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sportimes.my/malaysian-duo-set-for-first-class-cricket-in-sri-lanka/ |title=Malaysian duo set for first class cricket in Sri Lanka |work= Sportimes |access-date=12 February 2019}}</ref> He made his first-class debut for [[Sri Lanka Police Sports Club (cricket)|Sri Lanka Police Sports Club]] in Tier B of the [[2018–19 Premier League Tournament]] on 11 February 2019.<ref name="FC">{{Cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1173752.html |title=12th Match, Premier League Tournament Tier B at Colombo, Feb 11-13 2019 |access-date=12 February 2019 |work=ESPN Cricinfo}}</ref>

In June 2019, he was named in Malaysia's squad for the [[2019 Malaysia Tri-Nation Series]] tournament.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://api.cricclubs.com/MalaysianCricketAssociation/viewTeam.do?teamId=1766&clubId=10933 |title=Malaysia (MCA T20i Tri-Series 2019) |work=CricClubs |access-date=22 June 2019}}</ref> He made his [[Twenty20 International]] (T20I) debut for Malayasia, against [[Thailand national cricket team|Thailand]], on 24 June 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1186488.html |title=1st Match, Malaysia Tri-Nation T20I Series at Kuala Lumpur, Jun 24 2019 |work=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=24 June 2019}}</ref> In September 2019, he was named in Malaysia's squad for the [[2019 Malaysia Cricket World Cup Challenge League A]] tournament.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cricketmalaysia.com/MalaysianCricketAssociation/viewTeam.do?teamId=1926&clubId=10933 |title=ICC CWC Challenge League A 2019: Team List |work=Malaysian Cricket Association |access-date=12 September 2019}}</ref> He made his [[List A cricket|List A]] debut for Malaysia, against [[Denmark national cricket team|Denmark]], in the Cricket World Cup Challenge League A tournament on 16 September 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1200438.html |title=1st Match, CWC Challenge League Group A at Kuala Lumpur, Sep 16 2019 |work=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=16 September 2019}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cricinfo|id=868003}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Aziz, Syed}}
[[Category:1998 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Malaysian cricketers]]
[[Category:Malaysia Twenty20 International cricketers]]
[[Category:Sri Lanka Police Sports Club cricketers]]
[[Category:Place of birth missing (living people)]]

Shafiq Sharif

2021-07-18T22:03:13Z

Hembram Bakhul: Created page with "{{short description|Malaysian cricketer}} {{Use dmy dates|date=February 2015}} {{Infobox cricketer | name = Shafiq Sharif | image = |..."

{{short description|Malaysian cricketer}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2015}}
{{Infobox cricketer
| name = Shafiq Sharif
| image =
| country = Malaysia
| fullname =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1990|3|10|df=yes}}
| birth_place =
| heightft =
| heightinch =
| heightm =
| batting = Right-handed
| role =

| international = true
| T20Idebutdate = 24 June
| T20Idebutyear = 2019
| T20Idebutagainst = Thailand
| T20Icap = 9
| lastT20Idate = 21 April
| lastT20Iyear = 2021
| lastT20Iagainst = Netherlands

| date = 21 April 2021
| source = http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/307638.html Cricinfo
}}
'''Shafiq Sharif''' (born 10 March 1990) is a Malaysian [[cricket]]er.<ref name="Cricinfo">{{Cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/307638.html |title=Shafiq Sharif |access-date=24 October 2014 |work=ESPN Cricinfo}}</ref> He was part of Malaysia's squad for the [[2008 Under-19 Cricket World Cup]].<ref name="Mas">{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/u19wc2008/content/squad/332521.html |title=Malaysia Squad |access-date=28 September 2016 |work=ESPNcricinfo}}</ref> He played in the [[2014 ICC World Cricket League Division Three]] tournament.

{{MedalTableTop}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[Southeast Asian Games]]}}
{{MedalGold|[[Cricket at the 2017 Southeast Asian Games|2017]]|[[Cricket at the 2017 Southeast Asian Games – Men's 50 over tournament|Men's 50 over cricket]]}}
{{MedalBottom}}

He was a member of the [[Malaysia national cricket team|Malaysian cricket team]] which claimed gold medal in the [[Cricket at the 2017 Southeast Asian Games – Men's 50 over tournament|men's 50 overs tournament]] after defeating [[Singapore national cricket team|Singapore]] by 251 runs in the finals at the [[2017 Southeast Asian Games]].

In April 2018, he was named in [[Malaysia national cricket team|Malaysia]]'s squad for the [[2018 ICC World Cricket League Division Four]] tournament, also in Malaysia.<ref name="MasSquad">{{cite web|url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/media-releases/673100 |title=Six teams travel to Malaysia on road to ICC Cricket World Cup 2023 |date=28 April 2018 |access-date=28 April 2018 |work=International Cricket Council}}</ref> In August 2018, he was named in Malaysia's squad for the [[2018 Asia Cup Qualifier]] tournament.<ref name="MasACQ">{{cite web|url=http://www.asiancricket.org/index.php/tournaments/acc-asia-cup-qualifier-2018/3272 |title=Malaysia Team |work=Asian Cricket Council |access-date=23 August 2018}}</ref><ref name="MasSquad2">{{cite web|url=https://www.cricketmalaysia.com/malaysia-put-seasoned-players-forward-for-acc-asia-cup-qualifiers-2018/ |title=Malaysia put seasoned players forward for ACC Asia Cup Qualifiers 2018 |work=Cricket Malaysia |access-date=23 August 2018}}</ref> In October 2018, he was named in Malaysia's squad in the Eastern sub-region group for the [[2018–19 ICC World Twenty20 Asia Qualifier]] tournament.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/media-releases/869213 |title=Exciting battle on the cards in the ICC World T20 Asia Qualifier B in Malaysia |work=International Cricket Council |access-date=2 October 2018}}</ref> He was the leading run-scorer for Singapore in the tournament, with 129 runs in six matches.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/averages/batting_bowling_by_team.html?id=12672;team=16;type=tournament |title=ICC World Twenty20 Asia Region Qualifier B, 2018/19 - Malaysia: Batting and bowling averages |work=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=12 October 2018}}</ref>

In June 2019, he was named in Malaysia's squad for the [[2019 Malaysia Tri-Nation Series]] tournament.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://api.cricclubs.com/MalaysianCricketAssociation/viewTeam.do?teamId=1766&clubId=10933 |title=Malaysia (MCA T20i Tri-Series 2019) |work=CricClubs |access-date=22 June 2019}}</ref> He made his [[Twenty20 International]] (T20I) debut for Malayasia, against [[Thailand national cricket team|Thailand]], on 24 June 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1186488.html |title=1st Match, Malaysia Tri-Nation T20I Series at Kuala Lumpur, Jun 24 2019 |work=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=24 June 2019}}</ref> In September 2019, he was named in Malaysia's squad for the [[2019 Malaysia Cricket World Cup Challenge League A]] tournament.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cricketmalaysia.com/MalaysianCricketAssociation/viewTeam.do?teamId=1926&clubId=10933 |title=ICC CWC Challenge League A 2019: Team List |work=Malaysian Cricket Association |access-date=12 September 2019}}</ref> He made his [[List A cricket|List A]] debut for Malaysia, against [[Denmark national cricket team|Denmark]], in the Cricket World Cup Challenge League A tournament on 16 September 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1200438.html |title=1st Match, CWC Challenge League Group A at Kuala Lumpur, Sep 16 2019 |work=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=16 September 2019}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cricinfo|id=307638}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sharif, Shafiq}}
[[Category:1990 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Malaysian cricketers]]
[[Category:Malaysia Twenty20 International cricketers]]
[[Category:Place of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Cricketers at the 2010 Asian Games]]
[[Category:Cricketers at the 2014 Asian Games]]
[[Category:Southeast Asian Games gold medalists for Malaysia]]
[[Category:Southeast Asian Games silver medalists for Malaysia]]
[[Category:Southeast Asian Games medalists in cricket]]
[[Category:Competitors at the 2017 Southeast Asian Games]]
[[Category:Asian Games competitors for Malaysia]]