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List of Things Considered Haram in Islam

2026-09-11T20:35:48Z

Hazoor:

{{Short description|Overview of acts and matters treated as prohibited in Islamic law}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2026}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=September 2026}}
{{Usul al-fiqh}}
{{Islam}}
{{Islamic jurisprudence}}
{{For|the legal category itself|Haram}}

A number of acts, practices, foods, transactions and other matters are treated as '''[[haram]]''' ({{langx|ar|حَرَام|ḥarām}}, "prohibited" or "forbidden") in [[Islam]]. In [[Islamic jurisprudence]] (''[[fiqh]]''), ''haram'' is one of the [[Ahkam|five legal rulings]] (''al-ahkam al-khamsa'') traditionally used to classify human actions, the others being obligatory (''[[wajib]]'' or ''[[fard]]''), recommended (''[[mustahabb]]'' or ''mandub''), permissible (''[[mubah]]'') and discouraged (''[[makruh]]'').<ref name="Kamali2008">{{cite book |last=Kamali |first=Mohammad Hashim |author-link=Mohammad Hashim Kamali |title=Shari'ah Law: An Introduction |publisher=Oneworld Publications |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-85168-565-3}}</ref><ref name="Iranica">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Ḥalāl o Ḥarām |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia Iranica]] |url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/halal-o-haram/ |access-date=11 September 2026}}</ref>

The [[Quran]] and the [[sunnah]] are the principal textual sources used in determining prohibited acts. In the Quran the verb ''harrama'' is used with God as subject to declare specified foods, usury, homicide and other matters impermissible.<ref name="HallaqEQ">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Hallaq |first=Wael B. |author-link=Wael Hallaq |title=Forbidden |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān |publisher=Brill |url=https://referenceworks.brill.com/display/entries/EQO/EQSIM-00159.xml |access-date=12 September 2026}}</ref> The Quran contains explicit prohibitions concerning, among other matters, certain foods, intoxicants, gambling, unlawful sexual intercourse, [[riba]], theft, unjust consumption of wealth, false accusation, backbiting and [[shirk]]. Reports attributed to [[Muhammad]] in the [[hadith]] literature supply further prohibitions and details, including rules on clothing, adornment, conduct and transactions.<ref name="Kamali2008"/><ref name="Qaradawi">{{cite book |last=Qaradawi |first=Yusuf |author-link=Yusuf al-Qaradawi |title=The Lawful and the Prohibited in Islam |publisher=American Trust Publications |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-89259-016-2 |orig-year=1960}}</ref><ref name="Schacht">{{cite book |last=Schacht |first=Joseph |author-link=Joseph Schacht |title=An Introduction to Islamic Law |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1966 |isbn=978-0-19-825473-7}}</ref>

Whether a particular act is classified as ''haram'' can differ among [[Madhhab|legal schools]] and scholars. Some prohibitions rest on explicit Quranic verses or widely transmitted hadith; others are derived through juristic reasoning (''[[ijtihad]]'') and the principles of [[usul al-fiqh]]. Lists of prohibited matters are therefore not uniform across legal traditions, and some practices remain disputed.<ref name="Iranica"/><ref name="Kamali2008"/>

This article summarises matters commonly treated as prohibited in the Quran, hadith and classical jurisprudence. It is not an exhaustive catalogue, and it does not state a single binding list for all Muslims.

== General principles ==
In Islamic legal theory, an act classified as ''haram'' is forbidden by the [[sharia]]. The ruling is part of the fivefold classification of actions developed by jurists.<ref name="Kamali2008"/> Writers on the subject often distinguish inherent prohibition (''al-haram li-dhatihi''), where the act is treated as forbidden in itself (for example murder or [[zina]]), from contingent prohibition (''al-haram li-ghayrihi''), where an otherwise lawful act becomes forbidden because of an external factor (for example property acquired by theft).<ref name="Kamali2008"/>

The Quran warns against declaring things lawful or unlawful without a textual basis. {{Cite Quran|16|116|s=y}} instructs believers not to invent false claims that one thing is lawful and another unlawful. {{Cite Quran|5|87|s=y}} instructs believers not to prohibit good things that God has made lawful, while {{Cite Quran|5|88|s=y}} commands them to eat what is lawful and good.

Classical theory also employs a presumption of permissibility (''asalat al-ibaha'') for worldly matters: things are treated as lawful until a reliable prohibition is established. The presumption is commonly linked to verses such as {{Cite Quran|2|29|s=y}} and {{Cite Quran|5|87|s=y}}.<ref name="Iranica"/>

Prohibitions are generally treated as suspended in cases of necessity (''[[darura]]''). {{Cite Quran|2|173|s=y}} and {{Cite Quran|5|3|s=y}} provide that a person compelled to consume otherwise prohibited food, without desire and without exceeding what is necessary, is not regarded as sinful. Later jurists extended the necessity principle more broadly, while differing on its limits.<ref name="Iranica"/><ref name="Kamali2008"/>

== Summary table ==
The following table lists representative matters commonly treated as ''haram'' in Sunni and Shia legal literature. It is illustrative rather than complete. Where schools or modern scholars differ, that is noted.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Representative matters commonly treated as haram
|-
! Matter
! Principal textual basis
! Notes
|-
| [[Shirk (Islam)|Associating partners with God]] (''shirk'')
| Quran, including {{Cite Quran|4|48|s=n}} and {{Cite Quran|7|33|s=n}}
| Often described as the gravest sin; listed among the "destructive sins" in {{Cite hadith|Muslim|89|s=n}}
|-
| Magic or sorcery (''sihr'')
| Quran {{Cite Quran|2|102|s=n}}; {{Cite hadith|Muslim|89|s=n}}
| Scope of the term and the reality of magical effect have been debated
|-
| Unlawful killing
| Quran {{Cite Quran|17|33|s=n}}; {{Cite hadith|Muslim|89|s=n}}
| Killing with legally recognised justification is treated separately
|-
| [[Zina]] (unlawful sexual intercourse)
| Quran {{Cite Quran|17|32|s=n}}, {{Cite Quran|24|2|s=n}}
| Classical law distinguished the status of married and unmarried offenders and imposed strict evidentiary rules
|-
| Theft
| Quran {{Cite Quran|5|38|s=n}}
| Classical ''[[hudud]]'' rules required defined conditions before the prescribed penalty applied
|-
| [[Riba]]
| Quran {{Cite Quran|2|275|s=n}}–{{Cite Quran|2|279|s=n}}; {{Cite hadith|Muslim|89|s=n}}
| Application to modern banking and finance is disputed among contemporary jurists
|-
| Consuming an orphan's property
| Quran {{Cite Quran|4|10|s=n}}; {{Cite hadith|Muslim|89|s=n}}
| Also listed among the destructive sins
|-
| False accusation of unchastity (''qadhf'')
| Quran {{Cite Quran|24|4|s=n}}; {{Cite hadith|Muslim|89|s=n}}
| Quran prescribes a penalty where four witnesses are not produced
|-
| Fleeing the battlefield without justification
| {{Cite hadith|Muslim|89|s=n}}
| Listed among the destructive sins
|-
| Carrion, flowing blood, pork, and animals dedicated to other than God
| Quran {{Cite Quran|2|173|s=n}}, {{Cite Quran|5|3|s=n}}
| Necessity exception in the same verses
|-
| Animals killed by strangulation, blow, fall, goring, or wild beasts (unless slaughtered before death)
| Quran {{Cite Quran|5|3|s=n}}
| Part of the dietary list in al-Ma'ida
|-
| Intoxicants (''[[khamr]]'')
| Quran {{Cite Quran|2|219|s=n}}, {{Cite Quran|5|90|s=n}}–{{Cite Quran|5|91|s=n}}
| Classical majority extended the ruling from wine to intoxicants generally; some Hanafi discussions distinguished grape wine from other drinks
|-
| Gambling (''maysir'', ''qimar'')
| Quran {{Cite Quran|2|219|s=n}}, {{Cite Quran|5|90|s=n}}–{{Cite Quran|5|91|s=n}}
| —
|-
| Unjust consumption of wealth; bribery
| Quran {{Cite Quran|2|188|s=n}}, {{Cite Quran|4|29|s=n}}
| Basis for later rulings on corruption and fraudulent trade
|-
| Backbiting, excessive suspicion, and spying
| Quran {{Cite Quran|49|12|s=n}}
| —
|-
| Mockery and insulting nicknames
| Quran {{Cite Quran|49|11|s=n}}
| —
|-
| Marriage within prohibited degrees
| Quran {{Cite Quran|4|23|s=n}}
| Includes specified blood, affinal and foster relations
|-
| Marriage during the waiting period (''[[iddah]]'')
| Quran {{Cite Quran|2|228|s=n}}, {{Cite Quran|2|234|s=n}}
| —
|-
| Hunting land game while in [[ihram]]
| Quran {{Cite Quran|5|95|s=n}}
| Circumstantial prohibition during pilgrimage
|-
| Gold jewellery and pure silk for men
| {{Cite hadith|Tirmidhi|1720|s=n}} and parallel reports
| Generally permitted for women in classical law
|-
| Tattooing and specified forms of altering creation
| {{Cite hadith|Bukhari|5931|s=n}}; {{Cite hadith|Muslim|2125|s=n}}
| Includes tattooing, filing the teeth, and specified plucking; application to modern surgery is disputed
|-
| Display of women's adornment (''tabarruj'') before non-mahram men
| Quran {{Cite Quran|24|31|s=n}}, {{Cite Quran|33|33|s=n}}
| Classical and modern jurists differ on whether face makeup, perfume and nail polish fall under the prohibition when a woman goes out
|-
| Woman wearing perfume so that non-mahram men smell it
| {{Cite hadith|Nasa'i|5126|s=n}}; {{Cite hadith|Muslim|444|s=n}}
| Reports condemn passing by people so that they smell a woman's fragrance
|-
| Travel of a woman without a mahram (classical majority)
| Hadith reports on travel with a mahram
| Some modern scholars relax the rule where the route is safe; others retain it
|-
| Seclusion (''khulwah'') of an unrelated man and woman
| Hadith reports on seclusion
| Standard rule in classical manuals
|-
| Magic, astrology and soothsaying
| Quran {{Cite Quran|2|102|s=n}}; {{Cite hadith|Muslim|89|s=n}}
| Listed by Iranica among social customs treated as haram
|-
| Occupations built on a prohibited object (wine trade, prostitution, usury)
| Derived from the prohibition of the underlying act
| Income from a forbidden thing is itself treated as forbidden in classical law
|-
| Gold and silver utensils
| Hadith reports used in classical manuals
| Discussed in Qaradawi's treatment of household items
|-
| Keeping dogs without a recognised purpose
| Hadith reports on dogs
| Hunting, herding and guard dogs commonly excepted
|-
| Music and musical instruments
| Hadith reports of contested interpretation
| Status ranges from prohibited to permissible with conditions; see [[Islam and music]]
|-
| Tobacco and smoking
| No explicit Quranic or early hadith text
| Modern fatwas range from discouraged to prohibited; see [[Islamic views on smoking]]
|}

== Prohibitions mentioned in the Quran ==
The Quran does not present a single consolidated list of prohibited acts. Prohibitions and condemnations appear in different passages. Matters commonly identified from the text include:<ref name="Qaradawi"/><ref name="Iranica"/>

* associating partners with God (''shirk'');
* unlawful killing;
* ''zina'';
* theft;
* ''riba'';
* intoxicants and gambling;
* specified foods and methods of killing animals;
* unjust consumption of wealth;
* using wealth to influence judgment wrongly;
* false accusation of unchastity;
* backbiting, spying and excessive suspicion;
* mockery and insult;
* oppression and transgression;
* hunting land game during ''ihram'';
* marriage within specified prohibited relationships.

{{Cite Quran|7|33|s=y}} groups several of these themes, stating that God has forbidden "immorality", sin, unjust aggression, associating partners with God, and speaking about God without knowledge.

== Food and drink ==
{{Main|Islamic dietary laws}}

=== Animals and animal products ===
{{Cite Quran|2|173|s=y}} prohibits carrion, blood, the flesh of swine and animals dedicated to other than God, while providing an exception in cases of necessity. {{Cite Quran|5|3|s=y}} gives a more detailed list. Items specified there include:

* dead animals (carrion);
* blood;
* the flesh of swine;
* animals dedicated to other than God;
* animals killed by strangulation;
* animals killed by a violent blow;
* animals killed by a fall;
* animals killed by goring;
* animals partly eaten by wild animals, except where they are slaughtered before death;
* animals sacrificed on stone altars;
* animals associated with divining practices.

{{Cite Quran|5|4|s=y}}–{{Cite Quran|5|5|s=n}} set out rules concerning lawful food, including, subject to the conditions in the verses, food of the [[People of the Book]].

Jurists developed further rules from the sunnah and analogical reasoning, including restrictions on predators with fangs and birds with talons. The status of horse, mule and donkey meat has been discussed, with differences among schools.<ref name="Qaradawi"/><ref name="Iranica"/>

=== Intoxicants ===
Intoxicants are addressed in several Quranic passages. {{Cite Quran|2|219|s=y}} states that intoxicants and gambling contain some benefit but that their sin is greater than their benefit. {{Cite Quran|4|43|s=y}} forbids approaching prayer while intoxicated. {{Cite Quran|5|90|s=y}}–{{Cite Quran|5|91|s=n}} describe intoxicants, gambling, stone altars and divining arrows as "defilement from the work of Satan" and command believers to avoid them.

The prohibition of ''khamr'' was applied in most schools to intoxicating substances generally. Some Hanafi discussions historically distinguished wine made from grapes or dates from other fermented drinks, though later Hanafi practice commonly treated intoxication itself as prohibited. Contemporary discussions extend the category to other intoxicating drugs by analogy.<ref name="Qaradawi"/>

=== Gambling ===
Gambling (''maysir'', later also ''qimar'') is prohibited in the same passages as intoxicants, notably {{Cite Quran|2|219|s=y}} and {{Cite Quran|5|90|s=y}}–{{Cite Quran|5|91|s=n}}. The latter verses associate it with hostility and with diversion from remembrance of God and from prayer.

== Sexual conduct ==
=== Zina ===
''[[Zina]]'' is the classical legal term for unlawful sexual intercourse, including fornication and adultery. {{Cite Quran|17|32|s=y}} states: "And do not approach unlawful sexual intercourse. Indeed, it is ever an immorality and is evil as a way." {{Cite Quran|24|2|s=y}} prescribes a punishment for fornication under conditions established in Islamic criminal procedure. Classical jurists treated the wording "do not approach" as covering both the act and means leading to it.<ref name="Qaradawi"/>

Islamic jurisprudence distinguished legal consequences for married and unmarried offenders and required stringent proof, typically four eyewitnesses to the act or a repeated confession. Those evidentiary rules limited application of the prescribed penalty in practice.

=== Same-sex sexual activity ===
The Quran recounts the story of the people of [[Lot in Islam|Lot]] in several passages, including {{Cite Quran|7|80|s=y}}–{{Cite Quran|7|81|s=n}}, {{Cite Quran|26|165|s=y}}–{{Cite Quran|26|166|s=n}} and {{Cite Quran|27|54|s=y}}–{{Cite Quran|27|55|s=n}}. Classical jurists generally treated male same-sex penetrative intercourse as prohibited. Classification of other same-sex acts, and the applicable penalty, varied among schools; some treated non-penetrative acts as discretionary offences (''[[ta'zir]]'') rather than as ''hadd'' offences.<ref>{{cite book |last=Peters |first=Rudolph |title=Crime and Punishment in Islamic Law |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-521-79670-5}}</ref>

Modern Muslim views on homosexuality are diverse and are treated separately in [[LGBT people and Islam]].

== Marriage and family ==
{{Main|Islamic marital jurisprudence}}

=== Prohibited degrees ===
{{Cite Quran|4|23|s=y}} lists people whom a Muslim may not marry. The verse includes mothers, daughters, sisters, paternal and maternal aunts, nieces, foster mothers and foster sisters, mothers-in-law, specified stepdaughters, and daughters-in-law, and it forbids combining two sisters in marriage. Foster relations created by breastfeeding (''rada'') are treated as creating the same bars as corresponding blood relations.

=== Interfaith marriage ===
{{Cite Quran|2|221|s=y}} prohibits marriage with polytheists until they believe. {{Cite Quran|5|5|s=y}} permits Muslim men to marry chaste women from the People of the Book. Classical jurisprudence generally did not permit a Muslim woman to marry a non-Muslim man. Application of these rules has differed by school and by modern statutory systems.<ref name="Qaradawi"/>

=== Waiting period ===
Islamic law recognises an ''[[iddah]]'' after certain forms of divorce and after widowhood. A woman observing an applicable waiting period may not enter a new marriage during that period. Waiting periods are specified in {{Cite Quran|2|228|s=y}} and {{Cite Quran|2|234|s=y}}.

=== Polygyny and polyandry ===
{{Cite Quran|4|3|s=y}} permits a man to marry up to four wives provided he deals justly among them; if he fears he cannot do so, the verse directs him to marry only one. Classical jurisprudence did not permit a woman to have more than one husband at the same time.

=== Inheritance ===
{{Cite Quran|4|7|s=y}}–{{Cite Quran|4|14|s=n}} prescribe shares of inheritance for specified relatives. Deliberately depriving an heir of a prescribed share, or manipulating bequests in order to defeat those shares, is treated as prohibited in classical law. {{Cite Quran|4|11|s=y}}–{{Cite Quran|4|12|s=n}} also limit testamentary disposition relative to the fixed shares.

== Financial and commercial prohibitions ==
=== Riba ===
''[[Riba]]'' is prohibited in several Quranic passages. {{Cite Quran|2|275|s=y}} states that God has permitted trade and forbidden ''riba''. {{Cite Quran|2|278|s=y}}–{{Cite Quran|2|279|s=n}} instruct believers to give up outstanding ''riba'' and warn of consequences for continuing to take it. {{Cite Quran|3|130|s=y}} forbids consuming ''riba'' "doubled and multiplied".

Jurists differed over the precise definition of ''riba'' and over the application of the prohibition to particular contracts. Contemporary debates concern bank interest, inflation-adjusted loans and modern financial instruments; some scholars treat conventional interest as ''riba'', while others distinguish commercial interest from exploitative usury.<ref name="Kamali2008"/><ref name="Qaradawi"/>

=== Unjust consumption of wealth and bribery ===
{{Cite Quran|4|29|s=y}} prohibits believers from consuming one another's wealth unjustly and permits trade by mutual consent. {{Cite Quran|2|188|s=y}} prohibits consuming wealth wrongfully and condemns using wealth to influence authorities in order to take property unjustly. These verses form a principal Quranic basis for later rulings against bribery, embezzlement and corruption.

=== Fraud, deception and unlawful sale ===
Fraudulent and deceptive commercial practices are prohibited in jurisprudence on the basis of Quranic injunctions to fulfil contracts and to acquire wealth lawfully, together with hadith reports condemning deception in sale (''ghash'') and excessive uncertainty (''[[gharar]]''). Classical manuals also prohibit sale of certain forbidden objects, such as wine, carrion and idols, when the intended use is itself prohibited.<ref name="Qaradawi"/>

== Theft ==
Theft is prohibited, and {{Cite Quran|5|38|s=y}} prescribes a penalty within the framework of Islamic criminal law. Classical jurists confined the prescribed penalty to cases meeting defined conditions, including a minimum value (''nisab''), taking from a secure place, and the absence of certain doubts or necessities. Other forms of misappropriation were often treated under discretionary punishment.

== Violence, injustice and related offences ==
=== Unlawful killing ===
{{Cite Quran|17|33|s=y}} states that a life made sacred should not be killed except by way of justice. Unlawful killing is also included among the seven destructive sins in a report in {{Cite hadith|Muslim|89|s=y}}.<ref name="Muslim89">{{Cite hadith|Muslim|89}}</ref>

=== Oppression ===
The Quran repeatedly condemns ''zulm'' (wrongdoing or oppression) and transgression. {{Cite Quran|7|33|s=y}} includes unjust aggression among matters forbidden by God.

== Speech and interpersonal conduct ==
=== False accusation ===
{{Cite Quran|24|4|s=y}} prescribes a punishment for those who accuse chaste women of unchastity without producing four witnesses. False accusation of chaste believing women is also listed among the seven destructive sins in {{Cite hadith|Muslim|89|s=n}}.<ref name="Muslim89"/>

=== Backbiting, suspicion and spying ===
{{Cite Quran|49|12|s=y}} instructs believers to avoid much suspicion, forbids spying, and prohibits backbiting, comparing it to eating the flesh of one's dead brother.

=== Mockery and insult ===
{{Cite Quran|49|11|s=y}} prohibits one group from mocking another and prohibits offensive nicknames.

== Parents, orphans and vulnerable people ==
=== Parents ===
{{Cite Quran|17|23|s=y}}–{{Cite Quran|17|24|s=n}} command kindness to parents and forbid even an expression of contempt toward them. Jurists treated undutifulness to parents (''uquq al-walidayn'') as a major sin.

=== Property of orphans ===
{{Cite Quran|4|10|s=y}} warns those who consume the property of orphans unjustly. The same act is listed among the destructive sins in {{Cite hadith|Muslim|89|s=n}}.<ref name="Muslim89"/>

== Clothing, adornment and bodily alteration ==
{{Main|Islamic clothing}}

=== Modesty ===
{{Cite Quran|24|30|s=y}} instructs believing men to lower their gaze and guard their chastity. {{Cite Quran|24|31|s=y}} instructs believing women to lower their gaze, guard their chastity, not display their adornment (''zinah'') except what is apparent of it, and to draw their coverings over their chests. {{Cite Quran|33|33|s=y}} addresses the wives of Muhammad and tells them not to display themselves as in the former times of ignorance (''tabarruj al-jahiliyyah''). {{Cite Quran|33|59|s=y}} instructs the wives of Muhammad, his daughters and believing women to draw their outer garments around themselves.

Early exegetes disagreed on the phrase "except what is apparent of it" in 24:31. One line, associated with Ibn Abbas, Anas, Sa'id ibn Jubayr, Ata and al-Awza'i, took it to include the face and hands and ordinary items such as kohl and a ring. Another line, associated with Ibn Mas'ud, restricted "what is apparent" to the outer garment.<ref name="Qaradawi"/> Yusuf al-Qaradawi followed the first reading for the face and hands, but wrote that modern cheek, lip and nail cosmetics used when going out in order to attract men fall outside that exception and are prohibited in that setting.<ref name="Qaradawi"/>

The precise requirements of covering (''[[awrah]]'') differ by school. Many jurists required women to cover the body except the face and hands in public; others required covering the face as well. There is no single Quranic mandate for a particular garment such as the burqa.<ref name="Iranica"/>

=== Makeup, perfume and nail polish ===
Ordinary cosmetics are not named in the Quran. Jurists discuss them under adornment (''zinah'') and ''tabarruj''.

The basic position in much of the later literature is that adornment is permitted in principle, and that the issue is where and for whom it is shown. Qaradawi treated kohl and a ring as part of the "apparent" adornment allowed by 24:31, and treated heavy modern face, lip and nail cosmetics worn in public to attract non-mahram men as prohibited.<ref name="Qaradawi"/> The Malaysian Federal Territories Mufti's Department stated that neutral, non-excessive lipstick or powder worn without the intention of ''tabarruj'' and without causing ''fitnah'' is permissible, while thick makeup worn to attract unrelated men is prohibited.<ref name="MuftiWP">{{cite web |title=Irsyad al-Fatwa Series 400: The Ruling of Women Wearing Lipstick and Makeup |url=https://muftiwp.gov.my/en/artikel/irsyad-fatwa/irsyad-fatwa-umum-cat/4109-irsyad-al-fatwa-series-400-the-ruling-of-women-wearing-lipstick-and-makeup |publisher=Federal Territories Mufti's Department |date=5 February 2020 |access-date=12 September 2026}}</ref> Salafi fatwa sites such as IslamQA treat face cosmetics worn when going out with the face uncovered as a form of prohibited adornment, while permitting their use before mahrams and other women.<ref name="IslamQA466518">{{cite web |title=Ruling on eyebrow gel, curling eyelashes, lip moisturiser and alternatives for perfumes |url=https://islamqa.info/en/answers/466518 |publisher=IslamQA |date=18 May 2024 |access-date=12 September 2026}}</ref>

A report in {{Cite hadith|Nasa'i|5126|s=y}}, graded ''hasan'' by al-Albani, states that a woman who puts on perfume and then passes by people so that they smell her fragrance is described with the term ''zaniyah''. {{Cite hadith|Muslim|444|s=y}} reports that a woman who perfumes herself with incense should not attend the night prayer with the congregation. On that basis many jurists prohibit a woman from going out wearing perfume that non-mahram men can smell, while permitting unscented cleanliness products.<ref name="IslamQA466518"/>

Nail polish is a modern product. It is generally classified as adornment. A separate issue is [[wudu]]: a widespread contemporary view is that an impermeable layer on the nails prevents water from reaching them, so ablution performed over ordinary nail polish is invalid, following {{Cite Quran|5|6|s=n}}.<ref name="IslamOnlineNP">{{cite web |title=The Ruling of Nail Polish and Drinking |url=https://fiqh.islamonline.net/en/the-ruling-of-nail-polish-and-drinking/ |publisher=IslamOnline |access-date=12 September 2026}}</ref> Some writers analogise nail coatings to henna and treat ablution as valid; that view is a minority in published fatwas.

Alcohol as an ingredient in cosmetics is a further modern dispute. Many Hanafi fatwas distinguish wine-derived alcohol from synthetic or non-grape alcohol and permit topical use of the latter; other scholars treat all intoxicating alcohol as prohibited in any quantity. International fiqh and medical-ethics discussions have also addressed alcohol in medicines and sanitizers separately from drinking ''khamr''.

=== Gold and silk for men ===
A report recorded in {{Cite hadith|Tirmidhi|1720|s=y}}, classified in that collection as ''hasan sahih'', states that silk and gold were made unlawful for the men of the community and lawful for its women.<ref name="Tirmidhi1720">{{Cite hadith|Tirmidhi|1720}}</ref> Classical jurisprudence generally prohibited men from wearing gold jewellery and pure silk clothing while permitting both to women, with some exceptions (for example silk used for medical reasons).

=== Tattoos and related practices ===
Reports in {{Cite hadith|Bukhari|5931|s=y}} and {{Cite hadith|Muslim|2125|s=y}} condemn tattooing, requesting tattoos, removing facial hair for beautification in specified ways, and filing the teeth for beautification. The application of these reports to contemporary cosmetic surgery, hair removal and body art is discussed by modern jurists and is not uniform.

=== Cross-gender imitation ===
Hadith collections contain reports in which Muhammad condemns men who imitate women and women who imitate men, including {{Cite hadith|Tirmidhi|2784|s=y}}. Jurists differed on whether the prohibition concerned clothing, mannerisms, or both, and on how it applies to later social conditions.

=== Seclusion and women's travel ===
Classical manuals prohibit ''khulwah'', the seclusion of an adult man and an unrelated adult woman. They also commonly required a woman travelling beyond a defined distance to be accompanied by a mahram. Modern fatwas split: some retain the mahram condition; others permit travel without one when the route is safe and the purpose is lawful, while still requiring hijab and forbidding perfume and public adornment on the journey.<ref name="IslamQA6742">{{cite web |title=Are Women Allowed to Go out in Islam? |url=https://islamqa.info/en/answers/6742 |publisher=IslamQA |access-date=12 September 2026}}</ref>

=== Occupations, images and household items ===
''Encyclopaedia Iranica'' lists as generally haram any occupation or transaction whose object is itself prohibited, including dealing in wine, prostitution and usury.<ref name="Iranica"/> Qaradawi's manual, the main modern work in the ''halal wa haram'' genre, also treats gold and silver utensils, statues, and keeping dogs without a recognised purpose (hunting, herding or guarding) as prohibited on the basis of hadith reports, while recording exemptions and school differences for children's toys, incomplete figures and photographs.<ref name="Qaradawi"/>

== Circumstantial prohibitions ==
Some acts that are otherwise lawful become prohibited in particular states. {{Cite Quran|5|95|s=y}} prohibits hunting land game while a person is in ''ihram'' during pilgrimage. Food that is ordinarily lawful may become prohibited if it falls under a specified forbidden category or if another legal bar applies (for example, eating during the fasting hours of [[Ramadan]] for one who is obliged to fast).

== Major sins and the legal category of haram ==
The concept of major sins (''[[Islamic views on sin#Major sins|kaba'ir]]'') overlaps with, but is not identical to, the legal category of ''haram''. A well-known report in {{Cite hadith|Muslim|89|s=n}} lists seven destructive sins (''al-sab' al-mubiqat''):<ref name="Muslim89"/>

# associating anything with God;
# magic;
# killing a person whom God has declared inviolable, except with just cause;
# consuming the property of an orphan;
# consuming ''riba'';
# turning back when the army advances;
# slandering chaste, unwary believing women.

A parallel report appears in {{Cite hadith|Bukhari|6857|s=y}}. Other acts are classified as major sins in the Quran, in additional hadith, and in later moral and legal literature. Al-Dhahabi's ''Kitab al-Kaba'ir'' compiled a much longer list, often presented in later popular works as "seventy major sins," including abandonment of prayer, zakat, fasting and hajj, disrespect to parents, cutting kinship ties, lying about God and the Messenger, and homosexual intercourse. Ibn Abbas is reported to have said that the major sins are closer to seventy than to seven. The lists are moral compilations; they are not a closed legal code, and not every ''haram'' act is classed as a major sin.<ref name="Dhahabi">{{cite book |last=al-Dhahabi |first=Muhammad ibn Ahmad |author-link=Al-Dhahabi |title=The Major Sins (al-Kaba'ir) |translator=Mohammad Moinuddin Siddiqui |language=en}}</ref>

== Gender-specific rulings ==
Most prohibitions in Islamic law are stated as applying to men and women alike unless a source establishes a distinction. The following table summarises distinctions commonly drawn in classical jurisprudence.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Gender-specific rulings commonly cited in classical jurisprudence
|-
! Matter
! Men
! Women
|-
| Gold adornment
| Generally prohibited according to relevant hadith
| Generally permitted according to relevant hadith
|-
| Pure silk clothing
| Generally prohibited according to relevant hadith
| Generally permitted according to relevant hadith
|-
| Lowering the gaze
| Required by {{Cite Quran|24|30|s=n}}
| Required by {{Cite Quran|24|31|s=n}}
|-
| Guarding chastity
| Required by {{Cite Quran|24|30|s=n}}
| Required by {{Cite Quran|24|31|s=n}}
|-
| Dress and covering
| Subject to Quranic verses and juristic rules on male ''awrah''
| Subject to Quranic verses and juristic rules on female ''awrah''; interpretations differ
|-
| Plural marriage
| Polygyny permitted under conditions in {{Cite Quran|4|3|s=n}}
| Polyandry not permitted in classical law
|-
| Interfaith marriage (classical rules)
| Marriage to chaste women among the People of the Book generally permitted
| Marriage to a non-Muslim man generally not permitted
|-
| Makeup and visible adornment in public
| Not the subject of a parallel public-adornment ban in the same terms
| Restricted or prohibited before non-mahram men under rules on ''zinah'' and ''tabarruj''; details differ
|-
| Perfume detectable by non-mahram men
| No equivalent widely cited ban
| Prohibited in reports used by later jurists
|-
| Long-distance travel
| No mahram requirement
| Classical majority required a mahram; some modern scholars accept a safe route without one
|-
| Seclusion with an unrelated adult of the opposite sex
| Prohibited
| Prohibited
|}

The gold and silk distinction is stated in {{Cite hadith|Tirmidhi|1720|s=n}} and parallel reports.<ref name="Tirmidhi1720"/>

== Matters subject to differing interpretations ==
Some practices are described as ''haram'' by certain scholars or schools and disputed by others. Disagreement may concern the authenticity or interpretation of a hadith, the scope of a general Quranic principle, or the classification of a new practice.

Subjects on which well-known differences exist include:

* [[Islam and music|music and musical instruments]];
* masturbation;
* [[Islamic views on smoking|smoking and tobacco]];
* certain forms of visual representation and sculpture;
* particular cosmetic procedures;
* contemporary financial instruments and insurance;
* some forms of dress;
* some forms of entertainment;
* particular foods or ingredients whose status depends on transformation (''istihalah''), contamination, or method of preparation;
* chess and some other games.

Such matters are generally distinguished in jurisprudence from prohibitions for which there is explicit and widely accepted textual evidence.<ref name="Iranica"/><ref name="Qaradawi"/>

== Necessity and repentance ==
The Quran recognises necessity in relation to some prohibitions. {{Cite Quran|2|173|s=y}} and {{Cite Quran|5|3|s=y}} state that a person compelled by necessity to consume otherwise prohibited food is not considered sinful if the person does not desire the prohibited act and does not exceed what is necessary. Later legal theory discussed necessity, hardship (''mashaqqa'') and public interest (''[[maslaha]]'') as grounds for exception or mitigation.<ref name="Kamali2008"/>

Islamic scripture also contains numerous references to repentance (''[[tawba]]'') and forgiveness. {{Cite Quran|39|53|s=y}} states that God forgives sins for those who turn in repentance. Jurisprudence distinguishes repentance for rights due to God from cases involving the rights of other people, in which restitution may also be required.

== See also ==
* [[Haram]]
* [[Halal]]
* [[Ahkam]]
* [[Sharia]]
* [[Islamic ethics]]
* [[Women in Islam]]
* [[Hijab]]
* [[Shirk (Islam)]]
* [[Islam and music]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |last=Kamali |first=Mohammad Hashim |title=Shari'ah Law: An Introduction |publisher=Oneworld Publications |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-85168-565-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Kamali |first=Mohammad Hashim |title=Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence |publisher=Islamic Texts Society |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-946621-81-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Qaradawi |first=Yusuf |title=The Lawful and the Prohibited in Islam |publisher=American Trust Publications |year=1994 |orig-year=1960 |isbn=978-0-89259-016-2}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Hallaq |first=Wael B. |title=Forbidden |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān |publisher=Brill}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Ḥalāl o Ḥarām |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica |url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/halal-o-haram/}}
* {{cite book |last=Schacht |first=Joseph |title=An Introduction to Islamic Law |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1966 |isbn=978-0-19-825473-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Hallaq |first=Wael B. |title=A History of Islamic Legal Theories |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-521-59986-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Reinhart |first=A. Kevin |title=Before Revelation: The Boundaries of Muslim Moral Thought |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-7914-2289-2}}
* {{cite journal |last=Faruki |first=Kemal |title=Al-Ahkam Al-Khamsah: The Five Values |journal=Islamic Studies |year=1966 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=43–98}}
* {{cite book |last=Peters |first=Rudolph |title=Crime and Punishment in Islamic Law |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-521-79670-5}}
* {{cite book |last=al-Dhahabi |first=Muhammad ibn Ahmad |title=The Major Sins (al-Kaba'ir)}}

{{Islam topics}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Haram, List of things considered}}
[[Category:Sharia]]
[[Category:Islamic jurisprudence]]
[[Category:Islamic terminology]]
[[Category:Sin in Islam]]
[[Category:Lists of Islam-related topics]]
[[Category:Religious law]]

List of Things Considered Haram in Islam

2026-09-11T20:35:02Z

Hazoor: Created page with "{{Short description|Overview of acts and matters treated as prohibited in Islamic law}} {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2026}} {{Use Oxford spelling|date=September 2026}} {{Usul al-fiqh}} {{Islam}} {{Islamic jurisprudence}} {{For|the legal category itself|Haram}} A number of acts, practices, foods, transactions and other matters are treated as '''haram''' ({{langx|ar|حَرَام|ḥarām}}, "prohibited" or "forbidden") in Islam. In Islamic jurisprudence (''[..."

{{Short description|Overview of acts and matters treated as prohibited in Islamic law}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2026}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=September 2026}}
{{Usul al-fiqh}}
{{Islam}}
{{Islamic jurisprudence}}
{{For|the legal category itself|Haram}}

A number of acts, practices, foods, transactions and other matters are treated as '''[[haram]]''' ({{langx|ar|حَرَام|ḥarām}}, "prohibited" or "forbidden") in [[Islam]]. In [[Islamic jurisprudence]] (''[[fiqh]]''), ''haram'' is one of the [[Ahkam|five legal rulings]] (''al-ahkam al-khamsa'') traditionally used to classify human actions, the others being obligatory (''[[wajib]]'' or ''[[fard]]''), recommended (''[[mustahabb]]'' or ''mandub''), permissible (''[[mubah]]'') and discouraged (''[[makruh]]'').<ref name="Kamali2008">{{cite book |last=Kamali |first=Mohammad Hashim |author-link=Mohammad Hashim Kamali |title=Shari'ah Law: An Introduction |publisher=Oneworld Publications |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-85168-565-3}}</ref><ref name="Iranica">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Ḥalāl o Ḥarām |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia Iranica]] |url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/halal-o-haram/ |access-date=11 September 2026}}</ref>

The [[Quran]] and the [[sunnah]] are the principal textual sources used in determining prohibited acts. In the Quran the verb ''harrama'' is used with God as subject to declare specified foods, usury, homicide and other matters impermissible.<ref name="HallaqEQ">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Hallaq |first=Wael B. |author-link=Wael Hallaq |title=Forbidden |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān |publisher=Brill |url=https://referenceworks.brill.com/display/entries/EQO/EQSIM-00159.xml |access-date=12 September 2026}}</ref> The Quran contains explicit prohibitions concerning, among other matters, certain foods, intoxicants, gambling, unlawful sexual intercourse, [[riba]], theft, unjust consumption of wealth, false accusation, backbiting and [[shirk]]. Reports attributed to [[Muhammad]] in the [[hadith]] literature supply further prohibitions and details, including rules on clothing, adornment, conduct and transactions.<ref name="Kamali2008"/><ref name="Qaradawi">{{cite book |last=Qaradawi |first=Yusuf |author-link=Yusuf al-Qaradawi |title=The Lawful and the Prohibited in Islam |publisher=American Trust Publications |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-89259-016-2 |orig-year=1960}}</ref><ref name="Schacht">{{cite book |last=Schacht |first=Joseph |author-link=Joseph Schacht |title=An Introduction to Islamic Law |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1966 |isbn=978-0-19-825473-7}}</ref>

Whether a particular act is classified as ''haram'' can differ among [[Madhhab|legal schools]] and scholars. Some prohibitions rest on explicit Quranic verses or widely transmitted hadith; others are derived through juristic reasoning (''[[ijtihad]]'') and the principles of [[usul al-fiqh]]. Lists of prohibited matters are therefore not uniform across legal traditions, and some practices remain disputed.<ref name="Iranica"/><ref name="Kamali2008"/>

This article summarises matters commonly treated as prohibited in the Quran, hadith and classical jurisprudence. It is not an exhaustive catalogue, and it does not state a single binding list for all Muslims.

== General principles ==
In Islamic legal theory, an act classified as ''haram'' is forbidden by the [[sharia]]. The ruling is part of the fivefold classification of actions developed by jurists.<ref name="Kamali2008"/> Writers on the subject often distinguish inherent prohibition (''al-haram li-dhatihi''), where the act is treated as forbidden in itself (for example murder or [[zina]]), from contingent prohibition (''al-haram li-ghayrihi''), where an otherwise lawful act becomes forbidden because of an external factor (for example property acquired by theft).<ref name="Kamali2008"/>

The Quran warns against declaring things lawful or unlawful without a textual basis. {{Cite Quran|16|116|s=y}} instructs believers not to invent false claims that one thing is lawful and another unlawful. {{Cite Quran|5|87|s=y}} instructs believers not to prohibit good things that God has made lawful, while {{Cite Quran|5|88|s=y}} commands them to eat what is lawful and good.

Classical theory also employs a presumption of permissibility (''asalat al-ibaha'') for worldly matters: things are treated as lawful until a reliable prohibition is established. The presumption is commonly linked to verses such as {{Cite Quran|2|29|s=y}} and {{Cite Quran|5|87|s=y}}.<ref name="Iranica"/>

Prohibitions are generally treated as suspended in cases of necessity (''[[darura]]''). {{Cite Quran|2|173|s=y}} and {{Cite Quran|5|3|s=y}} provide that a person compelled to consume otherwise prohibited food, without desire and without exceeding what is necessary, is not regarded as sinful. Later jurists extended the necessity principle more broadly, while differing on its limits.<ref name="Iranica"/><ref name="Kamali2008"/>

== Summary table ==
The following table lists representative matters commonly treated as ''haram'' in Sunni and Shia legal literature. It is illustrative rather than complete. Where schools or modern scholars differ, that is noted.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Representative matters commonly treated as haram
|-
! Matter
! Principal textual basis
! Notes
|-
| [[Shirk (Islam)|Associating partners with God]] (''shirk'')
| Quran, including {{Cite Quran|4|48|s=n}} and {{Cite Quran|7|33|s=n}}
| Often described as the gravest sin; listed among the "destructive sins" in {{Cite hadith|Muslim|89|s=n}}
|-
| Magic or sorcery (''sihr'')
| Quran {{Cite Quran|2|102|s=n}}; {{Cite hadith|Muslim|89|s=n}}
| Scope of the term and the reality of magical effect have been debated
|-
| Unlawful killing
| Quran {{Cite Quran|17|33|s=n}}; {{Cite hadith|Muslim|89|s=n}}
| Killing with legally recognised justification is treated separately
|-
| [[Zina]] (unlawful sexual intercourse)
| Quran {{Cite Quran|17|32|s=n}}, {{Cite Quran|24|2|s=n}}
| Classical law distinguished the status of married and unmarried offenders and imposed strict evidentiary rules
|-
| Theft
| Quran {{Cite Quran|5|38|s=n}}
| Classical ''[[hudud]]'' rules required defined conditions before the prescribed penalty applied
|-
| [[Riba]]
| Quran {{Cite Quran|2|275|s=n}}–{{Cite Quran|2|279|s=n}}; {{Cite hadith|Muslim|89|s=n}}
| Application to modern banking and finance is disputed among contemporary jurists
|-
| Consuming an orphan's property
| Quran {{Cite Quran|4|10|s=n}}; {{Cite hadith|Muslim|89|s=n}}
| Also listed among the destructive sins
|-
| False accusation of unchastity (''qadhf'')
| Quran {{Cite Quran|24|4|s=n}}; {{Cite hadith|Muslim|89|s=n}}
| Quran prescribes a penalty where four witnesses are not produced
|-
| Fleeing the battlefield without justification
| {{Cite hadith|Muslim|89|s=n}}
| Listed among the destructive sins
|-
| Carrion, flowing blood, pork, and animals dedicated to other than God
| Quran {{Cite Quran|2|173|s=n}}, {{Cite Quran|5|3|s=n}}
| Necessity exception in the same verses
|-
| Animals killed by strangulation, blow, fall, goring, or wild beasts (unless slaughtered before death)
| Quran {{Cite Quran|5|3|s=n}}
| Part of the dietary list in al-Ma'ida
|-
| Intoxicants (''[[khamr]]'')
| Quran {{Cite Quran|2|219|s=n}}, {{Cite Quran|5|90|s=n}}–{{Cite Quran|5|91|s=n}}
| Classical majority extended the ruling from wine to intoxicants generally; some Hanafi discussions distinguished grape wine from other drinks
|-
| Gambling (''maysir'', ''qimar'')
| Quran {{Cite Quran|2|219|s=n}}, {{Cite Quran|5|90|s=n}}–{{Cite Quran|5|91|s=n}}
| —
|-
| Unjust consumption of wealth; bribery
| Quran {{Cite Quran|2|188|s=n}}, {{Cite Quran|4|29|s=n}}
| Basis for later rulings on corruption and fraudulent trade
|-
| Backbiting, excessive suspicion, and spying
| Quran {{Cite Quran|49|12|s=n}}
| —
|-
| Mockery and insulting nicknames
| Quran {{Cite Quran|49|11|s=n}}
| —
|-
| Marriage within prohibited degrees
| Quran {{Cite Quran|4|23|s=n}}
| Includes specified blood, affinal and foster relations
|-
| Marriage during the waiting period (''[[iddah]]'')
| Quran {{Cite Quran|2|228|s=n}}, {{Cite Quran|2|234|s=n}}
| —
|-
| Hunting land game while in [[ihram]]
| Quran {{Cite Quran|5|95|s=n}}
| Circumstantial prohibition during pilgrimage
|-
| Gold jewellery and pure silk for men
| {{Cite hadith|Tirmidhi|1720|s=n}} and parallel reports
| Generally permitted for women in classical law
|-
| Tattooing and specified forms of altering creation
| {{Cite hadith|Bukhari|5931|s=n}}; {{Cite hadith|Muslim|2125|s=n}}
| Includes tattooing, filing the teeth, and specified plucking; application to modern surgery is disputed
|-
| Display of women's adornment (''tabarruj'') before non-mahram men
| Quran {{Cite Quran|24|31|s=n}}, {{Cite Quran|33|33|s=n}}
| Classical and modern jurists differ on whether face makeup, perfume and nail polish fall under the prohibition when a woman goes out
|-
| Woman wearing perfume so that non-mahram men smell it
| {{Cite hadith|Nasa'i|5126|s=n}}; {{Cite hadith|Muslim|444|s=n}}
| Reports condemn passing by people so that they smell a woman's fragrance
|-
| Travel of a woman without a mahram (classical majority)
| Hadith reports on travel with a mahram
| Some modern scholars relax the rule where the route is safe; others retain it
|-
| Seclusion (''khulwah'') of an unrelated man and woman
| Hadith reports on seclusion
| Standard rule in classical manuals
|-
| Magic, astrology and soothsaying
| Quran {{Cite Quran|2|102|s=n}}; {{Cite hadith|Muslim|89|s=n}}
| Listed by Iranica among social customs treated as haram
|-
| Occupations built on a prohibited object (wine trade, prostitution, usury)
| Derived from the prohibition of the underlying act
| Income from a forbidden thing is itself treated as forbidden in classical law
|-
| Gold and silver utensils
| Hadith reports used in classical manuals
| Discussed in Qaradawi's treatment of household items
|-
| Keeping dogs without a recognised purpose
| Hadith reports on dogs
| Hunting, herding and guard dogs commonly excepted
|-
| Music and musical instruments
| Hadith reports of contested interpretation
| Status ranges from prohibited to permissible with conditions; see [[Islam and music]]
|-
| Tobacco and smoking
| No explicit Quranic or early hadith text
| Modern fatwas range from discouraged to prohibited; see [[Islamic views on smoking]]
|}

== Prohibitions mentioned in the Quran ==
The Quran does not present a single consolidated list of prohibited acts. Prohibitions and condemnations appear in different passages. Matters commonly identified from the text include:<ref name="Qaradawi"/><ref name="Iranica"/>

* associating partners with God (''shirk'');
* unlawful killing;
* ''zina'';
* theft;
* ''riba'';
* intoxicants and gambling;
* specified foods and methods of killing animals;
* unjust consumption of wealth;
* using wealth to influence judgment wrongly;
* false accusation of unchastity;
* backbiting, spying and excessive suspicion;
* mockery and insult;
* oppression and transgression;
* hunting land game during ''ihram'';
* marriage within specified prohibited relationships.

{{Cite Quran|7|33|s=y}} groups several of these themes, stating that God has forbidden "immorality", sin, unjust aggression, associating partners with God, and speaking about God without knowledge.

== Food and drink ==
{{Main|Islamic dietary laws}}

=== Animals and animal products ===
{{Cite Quran|2|173|s=y}} prohibits carrion, blood, the flesh of swine and animals dedicated to other than God, while providing an exception in cases of necessity. {{Cite Quran|5|3|s=y}} gives a more detailed list. Items specified there include:

* dead animals (carrion);
* blood;
* the flesh of swine;
* animals dedicated to other than God;
* animals killed by strangulation;
* animals killed by a violent blow;
* animals killed by a fall;
* animals killed by goring;
* animals partly eaten by wild animals, except where they are slaughtered before death;
* animals sacrificed on stone altars;
* animals associated with divining practices.

{{Cite Quran|5|4|s=y}}–{{Cite Quran|5|5|s=n}} set out rules concerning lawful food, including, subject to the conditions in the verses, food of the [[People of the Book]].

Jurists developed further rules from the sunnah and analogical reasoning, including restrictions on predators with fangs and birds with talons. The status of horse, mule and donkey meat has been discussed, with differences among schools.<ref name="Qaradawi"/><ref name="Iranica"/>

=== Intoxicants ===
Intoxicants are addressed in several Quranic passages. {{Cite Quran|2|219|s=y}} states that intoxicants and gambling contain some benefit but that their sin is greater than their benefit. {{Cite Quran|4|43|s=y}} forbids approaching prayer while intoxicated. {{Cite Quran|5|90|s=y}}–{{Cite Quran|5|91|s=n}} describe intoxicants, gambling, stone altars and divining arrows as "defilement from the work of Satan" and command believers to avoid them.

The prohibition of ''khamr'' was applied in most schools to intoxicating substances generally. Some Hanafi discussions historically distinguished wine made from grapes or dates from other fermented drinks, though later Hanafi practice commonly treated intoxication itself as prohibited. Contemporary discussions extend the category to other intoxicating drugs by analogy.<ref name="Qaradawi"/>

=== Gambling ===
Gambling (''maysir'', later also ''qimar'') is prohibited in the same passages as intoxicants, notably {{Cite Quran|2|219|s=y}} and {{Cite Quran|5|90|s=y}}–{{Cite Quran|5|91|s=n}}. The latter verses associate it with hostility and with diversion from remembrance of God and from prayer.

== Sexual conduct ==
=== Zina ===
''[[Zina]]'' is the classical legal term for unlawful sexual intercourse, including fornication and adultery. {{Cite Quran|17|32|s=y}} states: "And do not approach unlawful sexual intercourse. Indeed, it is ever an immorality and is evil as a way." {{Cite Quran|24|2|s=y}} prescribes a punishment for fornication under conditions established in Islamic criminal procedure. Classical jurists treated the wording "do not approach" as covering both the act and means leading to it.<ref name="Qaradawi"/>

Islamic jurisprudence distinguished legal consequences for married and unmarried offenders and required stringent proof, typically four eyewitnesses to the act or a repeated confession. Those evidentiary rules limited application of the prescribed penalty in practice.

=== Same-sex sexual activity ===
The Quran recounts the story of the people of [[Lot in Islam|Lot]] in several passages, including {{Cite Quran|7|80|s=y}}–{{Cite Quran|7|81|s=n}}, {{Cite Quran|26|165|s=y}}–{{Cite Quran|26|166|s=n}} and {{Cite Quran|27|54|s=y}}–{{Cite Quran|27|55|s=n}}. Classical jurists generally treated male same-sex penetrative intercourse as prohibited. Classification of other same-sex acts, and the applicable penalty, varied among schools; some treated non-penetrative acts as discretionary offences (''[[ta'zir]]'') rather than as ''hadd'' offences.<ref>{{cite book |last=Peters |first=Rudolph |title=Crime and Punishment in Islamic Law |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-521-79670-5}}</ref>

Modern Muslim views on homosexuality are diverse and are treated separately in [[LGBT people and Islam]].

== Marriage and family ==
{{Main|Islamic marital jurisprudence}}

=== Prohibited degrees ===
{{Cite Quran|4|23|s=y}} lists people whom a Muslim may not marry. The verse includes mothers, daughters, sisters, paternal and maternal aunts, nieces, foster mothers and foster sisters, mothers-in-law, specified stepdaughters, and daughters-in-law, and it forbids combining two sisters in marriage. Foster relations created by breastfeeding (''rada'') are treated as creating the same bars as corresponding blood relations.

=== Interfaith marriage ===
{{Cite Quran|2|221|s=y}} prohibits marriage with polytheists until they believe. {{Cite Quran|5|5|s=y}} permits Muslim men to marry chaste women from the People of the Book. Classical jurisprudence generally did not permit a Muslim woman to marry a non-Muslim man. Application of these rules has differed by school and by modern statutory systems.<ref name="Qaradawi"/>

=== Waiting period ===
Islamic law recognises an ''[[iddah]]'' after certain forms of divorce and after widowhood. A woman observing an applicable waiting period may not enter a new marriage during that period. Waiting periods are specified in {{Cite Quran|2|228|s=y}} and {{Cite Quran|2|234|s=y}}.

=== Polygyny and polyandry ===
{{Cite Quran|4|3|s=y}} permits a man to marry up to four wives provided he deals justly among them; if he fears he cannot do so, the verse directs him to marry only one. Classical jurisprudence did not permit a woman to have more than one husband at the same time.

=== Inheritance ===
{{Cite Quran|4|7|s=y}}–{{Cite Quran|4|14|s=n}} prescribe shares of inheritance for specified relatives. Deliberately depriving an heir of a prescribed share, or manipulating bequests in order to defeat those shares, is treated as prohibited in classical law. {{Cite Quran|4|11|s=y}}–{{Cite Quran|4|12|s=n}} also limit testamentary disposition relative to the fixed shares.

== Financial and commercial prohibitions ==
=== Riba ===
''[[Riba]]'' is prohibited in several Quranic passages. {{Cite Quran|2|275|s=y}} states that God has permitted trade and forbidden ''riba''. {{Cite Quran|2|278|s=y}}–{{Cite Quran|2|279|s=n}} instruct believers to give up outstanding ''riba'' and warn of consequences for continuing to take it. {{Cite Quran|3|130|s=y}} forbids consuming ''riba'' "doubled and multiplied".

Jurists differed over the precise definition of ''riba'' and over the application of the prohibition to particular contracts. Contemporary debates concern bank interest, inflation-adjusted loans and modern financial instruments; some scholars treat conventional interest as ''riba'', while others distinguish commercial interest from exploitative usury.<ref name="Kamali2008"/><ref name="Qaradawi"/>

=== Unjust consumption of wealth and bribery ===
{{Cite Quran|4|29|s=y}} prohibits believers from consuming one another's wealth unjustly and permits trade by mutual consent. {{Cite Quran|2|188|s=y}} prohibits consuming wealth wrongfully and condemns using wealth to influence authorities in order to take property unjustly. These verses form a principal Quranic basis for later rulings against bribery, embezzlement and corruption.

=== Fraud, deception and unlawful sale ===
Fraudulent and deceptive commercial practices are prohibited in jurisprudence on the basis of Quranic injunctions to fulfil contracts and to acquire wealth lawfully, together with hadith reports condemning deception in sale (''ghash'') and excessive uncertainty (''[[gharar]]''). Classical manuals also prohibit sale of certain forbidden objects, such as wine, carrion and idols, when the intended use is itself prohibited.<ref name="Qaradawi"/>

== Theft ==
Theft is prohibited, and {{Cite Quran|5|38|s=y}} prescribes a penalty within the framework of Islamic criminal law. Classical jurists confined the prescribed penalty to cases meeting defined conditions, including a minimum value (''nisab''), taking from a secure place, and the absence of certain doubts or necessities. Other forms of misappropriation were often treated under discretionary punishment.

== Violence, injustice and related offences ==
=== Unlawful killing ===
{{Cite Quran|17|33|s=y}} states that a life made sacred should not be killed except by way of justice. Unlawful killing is also included among the seven destructive sins in a report in {{Cite hadith|Muslim|89|s=y}}.<ref name="Muslim89">{{Cite hadith|Muslim|89}}</ref>

=== Oppression ===
The Quran repeatedly condemns ''zulm'' (wrongdoing or oppression) and transgression. {{Cite Quran|7|33|s=y}} includes unjust aggression among matters forbidden by God.

== Speech and interpersonal conduct ==
=== False accusation ===
{{Cite Quran|24|4|s=y}} prescribes a punishment for those who accuse chaste women of unchastity without producing four witnesses. False accusation of chaste believing women is also listed among the seven destructive sins in {{Cite hadith|Muslim|89|s=n}}.<ref name="Muslim89"/>

=== Backbiting, suspicion and spying ===
{{Cite Quran|49|12|s=y}} instructs believers to avoid much suspicion, forbids spying, and prohibits backbiting, comparing it to eating the flesh of one's dead brother.

=== Mockery and insult ===
{{Cite Quran|49|11|s=y}} prohibits one group from mocking another and prohibits offensive nicknames.

== Parents, orphans and vulnerable people ==
=== Parents ===
{{Cite Quran|17|23|s=y}}–{{Cite Quran|17|24|s=n}} command kindness to parents and forbid even an expression of contempt toward them. Jurists treated undutifulness to parents (''uquq al-walidayn'') as a major sin.

=== Property of orphans ===
{{Cite Quran|4|10|s=y}} warns those who consume the property of orphans unjustly. The same act is listed among the destructive sins in {{Cite hadith|Muslim|89|s=n}}.<ref name="Muslim89"/>

== Clothing, adornment and bodily alteration ==
{{Main|Islamic clothing}}

=== Modesty ===
{{Cite Quran|24|30|s=y}} instructs believing men to lower their gaze and guard their chastity. {{Cite Quran|24|31|s=y}} instructs believing women to lower their gaze, guard their chastity, not display their adornment (''zinah'') except what is apparent of it, and to draw their coverings over their chests. {{Cite Quran|33|33|s=y}} addresses the wives of Muhammad and tells them not to display themselves as in the former times of ignorance (''tabarruj al-jahiliyyah''). {{Cite Quran|33|59|s=y}} instructs the wives of Muhammad, his daughters and believing women to draw their outer garments around themselves.

Early exegetes disagreed on the phrase "except what is apparent of it" in 24:31. One line, associated with Ibn Abbas, Anas, Sa'id ibn Jubayr, Ata and al-Awza'i, took it to include the face and hands and ordinary items such as kohl and a ring. Another line, associated with Ibn Mas'ud, restricted "what is apparent" to the outer garment.<ref name="Qaradawi"/> Yusuf al-Qaradawi followed the first reading for the face and hands, but wrote that modern cheek, lip and nail cosmetics used when going out in order to attract men fall outside that exception and are prohibited in that setting.<ref name="Qaradawi"/>

The precise requirements of covering (''[[awrah]]'') differ by school. Many jurists required women to cover the body except the face and hands in public; others required covering the face as well. There is no single Quranic mandate for a particular garment such as the burqa.<ref name="Iranica"/>

=== Makeup, perfume and nail polish ===
Ordinary cosmetics are not named in the Quran. Jurists discuss them under adornment (''zinah'') and ''tabarruj''.

The basic position in much of the later literature is that adornment is permitted in principle, and that the issue is where and for whom it is shown. Qaradawi treated kohl and a ring as part of the "apparent" adornment allowed by 24:31, and treated heavy modern face, lip and nail cosmetics worn in public to attract non-mahram men as prohibited.<ref name="Qaradawi"/> The Malaysian Federal Territories Mufti's Department stated that neutral, non-excessive lipstick or powder worn without the intention of ''tabarruj'' and without causing ''fitnah'' is permissible, while thick makeup worn to attract unrelated men is prohibited.<ref name="MuftiWP">{{cite web |title=Irsyad al-Fatwa Series 400: The Ruling of Women Wearing Lipstick and Makeup |url=https://muftiwp.gov.my/en/artikel/irsyad-fatwa/irsyad-fatwa-umum-cat/4109-irsyad-al-fatwa-series-400-the-ruling-of-women-wearing-lipstick-and-makeup |publisher=Federal Territories Mufti's Department |date=5 February 2020 |access-date=12 September 2026}}</ref> Salafi fatwa sites such as IslamQA treat face cosmetics worn when going out with the face uncovered as a form of prohibited adornment, while permitting their use before mahrams and other women.<ref name="IslamQA466518">{{cite web |title=Ruling on eyebrow gel, curling eyelashes, lip moisturiser and alternatives for perfumes |url=https://islamqa.info/en/answers/466518 |publisher=IslamQA |date=18 May 2024 |access-date=12 September 2026}}</ref>

A report in {{Cite hadith|Nasa'i|5126|s=y}}, graded ''hasan'' by al-Albani, states that a woman who puts on perfume and then passes by people so that they smell her fragrance is described with the term ''zaniyah''. {{Cite hadith|Muslim|444|s=y}} reports that a woman who perfumes herself with incense should not attend the night prayer with the congregation. On that basis many jurists prohibit a woman from going out wearing perfume that non-mahram men can smell, while permitting unscented cleanliness products.<ref name="IslamQA466518"/>

Nail polish is a modern product. It is generally classified as adornment. A separate issue is [[wudu]]: a widespread contemporary view is that an impermeable layer on the nails prevents water from reaching them, so ablution performed over ordinary nail polish is invalid, following {{Cite Quran|5|6|s=n}}.<ref name="IslamOnlineNP">{{cite web |title=The Ruling of Nail Polish and Drinking |url=https://fiqh.islamonline.net/en/the-ruling-of-nail-polish-and-drinking/ |publisher=IslamOnline |access-date=12 September 2026}}</ref> Some writers analogise nail coatings to henna and treat ablution as valid; that view is a minority in published fatwas.

Alcohol as an ingredient in cosmetics is a further modern dispute. Many Hanafi fatwas distinguish wine-derived alcohol from synthetic or non-grape alcohol and permit topical use of the latter; other scholars treat all intoxicating alcohol as prohibited in any quantity. International fiqh and medical-ethics discussions have also addressed alcohol in medicines and sanitizers separately from drinking ''khamr''.

=== Gold and silk for men ===
A report recorded in {{Cite hadith|Tirmidhi|1720|s=y}}, classified in that collection as ''hasan sahih'', states that silk and gold were made unlawful for the men of the community and lawful for its women.<ref name="Tirmidhi1720">{{Cite hadith|Tirmidhi|1720}}</ref> Classical jurisprudence generally prohibited men from wearing gold jewellery and pure silk clothing while permitting both to women, with some exceptions (for example silk used for medical reasons).

=== Tattoos and related practices ===
Reports in {{Cite hadith|Bukhari|5931|s=y}} and {{Cite hadith|Muslim|2125|s=y}} condemn tattooing, requesting tattoos, removing facial hair for beautification in specified ways, and filing the teeth for beautification. The application of these reports to contemporary cosmetic surgery, hair removal and body art is discussed by modern jurists and is not uniform.

=== Cross-gender imitation ===
Hadith collections contain reports in which Muhammad condemns men who imitate women and women who imitate men, including {{Cite hadith|Tirmidhi|2784|s=y}}. Jurists differed on whether the prohibition concerned clothing, mannerisms, or both, and on how it applies to later social conditions.

=== Seclusion and women's travel ===
Classical manuals prohibit ''khulwah'', the seclusion of an adult man and an unrelated adult woman. They also commonly required a woman travelling beyond a defined distance to be accompanied by a mahram. Modern fatwas split: some retain the mahram condition; others permit travel without one when the route is safe and the purpose is lawful, while still requiring hijab and forbidding perfume and public adornment on the journey.<ref name="IslamQA6742">{{cite web |title=Are Women Allowed to Go out in Islam? |url=https://islamqa.info/en/answers/6742 |publisher=IslamQA |access-date=12 September 2026}}</ref>

=== Occupations, images and household items ===
''Encyclopaedia Iranica'' lists as generally haram any occupation or transaction whose object is itself prohibited, including dealing in wine, prostitution and usury.<ref name="Iranica"/> Qaradawi's manual, the main modern work in the ''halal wa haram'' genre, also treats gold and silver utensils, statues, and keeping dogs without a recognised purpose (hunting, herding or guarding) as prohibited on the basis of hadith reports, while recording exemptions and school differences for children's toys, incomplete figures and photographs.<ref name="Qaradawi"/>

== Circumstantial prohibitions ==
Some acts that are otherwise lawful become prohibited in particular states. {{Cite Quran|5|95|s=y}} prohibits hunting land game while a person is in ''ihram'' during pilgrimage. Food that is ordinarily lawful may become prohibited if it falls under a specified forbidden category or if another legal bar applies (for example, eating during the fasting hours of [[Ramadan]] for one who is obliged to fast).

== Major sins and the legal category of haram ==
The concept of major sins (''[[Islamic views on sin#Major sins|kaba'ir]]'') overlaps with, but is not identical to, the legal category of ''haram''. A well-known report in {{Cite hadith|Muslim|89|s=n}} lists seven destructive sins (''al-sab' al-mubiqat''):<ref name="Muslim89"/>

# associating anything with God;
# magic;
# killing a person whom God has declared inviolable, except with just cause;
# consuming the property of an orphan;
# consuming ''riba'';
# turning back when the army advances;
# slandering chaste, unwary believing women.

A parallel report appears in {{Cite hadith|Bukhari|6857|s=y}}. Other acts are classified as major sins in the Quran, in additional hadith, and in later moral and legal literature. Al-Dhahabi's ''Kitab al-Kaba'ir'' compiled a much longer list, often presented in later popular works as "seventy major sins," including abandonment of prayer, zakat, fasting and hajj, disrespect to parents, cutting kinship ties, lying about God and the Messenger, and homosexual intercourse. Ibn Abbas is reported to have said that the major sins are closer to seventy than to seven. The lists are moral compilations; they are not a closed legal code, and not every ''haram'' act is classed as a major sin.<ref name="Dhahabi">{{cite book |last=al-Dhahabi |first=Muhammad ibn Ahmad |author-link=Al-Dhahabi |title=The Major Sins (al-Kaba'ir) |translator=Mohammad Moinuddin Siddiqui |language=en}}</ref>

== Gender-specific rulings ==
Most prohibitions in Islamic law are stated as applying to men and women alike unless a source establishes a distinction. The following table summarises distinctions commonly drawn in classical jurisprudence.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Gender-specific rulings commonly cited in classical jurisprudence
|-
! Matter
! Men
! Women
|-
| Gold adornment
| Generally prohibited according to relevant hadith
| Generally permitted according to relevant hadith
|-
| Pure silk clothing
| Generally prohibited according to relevant hadith
| Generally permitted according to relevant hadith
|-
| Lowering the gaze
| Required by {{Cite Quran|24|30|s=n}}
| Required by {{Cite Quran|24|31|s=n}}
|-
| Guarding chastity
| Required by {{Cite Quran|24|30|s=n}}
| Required by {{Cite Quran|24|31|s=n}}
|-
| Dress and covering
| Subject to Quranic verses and juristic rules on male ''awrah''
| Subject to Quranic verses and juristic rules on female ''awrah''; interpretations differ
|-
| Plural marriage
| Polygyny permitted under conditions in {{Cite Quran|4|3|s=n}}
| Polyandry not permitted in classical law
|-
| Interfaith marriage (classical rules)
| Marriage to chaste women among the People of the Book generally permitted
| Marriage to a non-Muslim man generally not permitted
|-
| Makeup and visible adornment in public
| Not the subject of a parallel public-adornment ban in the same terms
| Restricted or prohibited before non-mahram men under rules on ''zinah'' and ''tabarruj''; details differ
|-
| Perfume detectable by non-mahram men
| No equivalent widely cited ban
| Prohibited in reports used by later jurists
|-
| Long-distance travel
| No mahram requirement
| Classical majority required a mahram; some modern scholars accept a safe route without one
|-
| Seclusion with an unrelated adult of the opposite sex
| Prohibited
| Prohibited
|}

The gold and silk distinction is stated in {{Cite hadith|Tirmidhi|1720|s=n}} and parallel reports.<ref name="Tirmidhi1720"/>

== Matters subject to differing interpretations ==
Some practices are described as ''haram'' by certain scholars or schools and disputed by others. Disagreement may concern the authenticity or interpretation of a hadith, the scope of a general Quranic principle, or the classification of a new practice.

Subjects on which well-known differences exist include:

* [[Islam and music|music and musical instruments]];
* masturbation;
* [[Islamic views on smoking|smoking and tobacco]];
* certain forms of visual representation and sculpture;
* particular cosmetic procedures;
* contemporary financial instruments and insurance;
* some forms of dress;
* some forms of entertainment;
* particular foods or ingredients whose status depends on transformation (''istihalah''), contamination, or method of preparation;
* chess and some other games.

Such matters are generally distinguished in jurisprudence from prohibitions for which there is explicit and widely accepted textual evidence.<ref name="Iranica"/><ref name="Qaradawi"/>

== Necessity and repentance ==
The Quran recognises necessity in relation to some prohibitions. {{Cite Quran|2|173|s=y}} and {{Cite Quran|5|3|s=y}} state that a person compelled by necessity to consume otherwise prohibited food is not considered sinful if the person does not desire the prohibited act and does not exceed what is necessary. Later legal theory discussed necessity, hardship (''mashaqqa'') and public interest (''[[maslaha]]'') as grounds for exception or mitigation.<ref name="Kamali2008"/>

Islamic scripture also contains numerous references to repentance (''[[tawba]]'') and forgiveness. {{Cite Quran|39|53|s=y}} states that God forgives sins for those who turn in repentance. Jurisprudence distinguishes repentance for rights due to God from cases involving the rights of other people, in which restitution may also be required.

== See also ==
* [[Haram]]
* [[Halal]]
* [[Ahkam]]
* [[Sharia]]
* [[Islamic ethics]]
* [[Women in Islam]]
* [[Hijab]]
* [[Shirk (Islam)]]
* [[Islam and music]]
}}

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |last=Kamali |first=Mohammad Hashim |title=Shari'ah Law: An Introduction |publisher=Oneworld Publications |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-85168-565-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Kamali |first=Mohammad Hashim |title=Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence |publisher=Islamic Texts Society |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-946621-81-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Qaradawi |first=Yusuf |title=The Lawful and the Prohibited in Islam |publisher=American Trust Publications |year=1994 |orig-year=1960 |isbn=978-0-89259-016-2}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Hallaq |first=Wael B. |title=Forbidden |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān |publisher=Brill}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Ḥalāl o Ḥarām |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica |url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/halal-o-haram/}}
* {{cite book |last=Schacht |first=Joseph |title=An Introduction to Islamic Law |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1966 |isbn=978-0-19-825473-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Hallaq |first=Wael B. |title=A History of Islamic Legal Theories |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-521-59986-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Reinhart |first=A. Kevin |title=Before Revelation: The Boundaries of Muslim Moral Thought |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-7914-2289-2}}
* {{cite journal |last=Faruki |first=Kemal |title=Al-Ahkam Al-Khamsah: The Five Values |journal=Islamic Studies |year=1966 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=43–98}}
* {{cite book |last=Peters |first=Rudolph |title=Crime and Punishment in Islamic Law |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-521-79670-5}}
* {{cite book |last=al-Dhahabi |first=Muhammad ibn Ahmad |title=The Major Sins (al-Kaba'ir)}}

{{Islam topics}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Haram, List of things considered}}
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Hazoor: Created page with "/* {{pp-template}} */ .script-arabic { font-family: 'Scheherazade New', Lateef, LateefGR, 'Noto Naskh Arabic', 'Noto Sans Arabic', 'Arabic Typesetting', Amiri, 'Sakkal Majalla', 'Harmattan', 'SF Arabic', 'Arabic Transparent', 'Times New Roman', Arial, Parastoo, Calibri, 'Segoe UI', 'Microsoft Sans Serif', 'Droid Arabic Naskh', serif, sans-serif; font-weight: normal; }"

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font-weight: normal;
}

Aisha bint Abi Bakr

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Hazoor: Page for Aisha

#REDIRECT [[Aisha]]
{{R from move}}

Template:Efn

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Hazoor: Edited to fix issue.

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Template:Forced labour

2026-09-09T08:17:22Z

Hazoor: Main template created.

{{Sidebar with collapsible lists
|name = Forced labour
|pretitle = Part of [[:Category:Slavery|a series]] on
|title = [[Forced labour|Forced labo{{#ifeq:{{{sp}}}|us||u}}r]] and [[slavery]]
|listtitlestyle = background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;
| expanded = {{{expanded|{{{1|}}}}}}
|class = hlist



|list1name = Contemporary
|list1title= [[Slavery in the 21st century|Contemporary]]
|list1 =
* [[Child labour|Child labo{{#ifeq:{{{sp}}}|us||u}}r]]
* [[Children in the military|Child soldiers]]
* [[Conscription]]
* [[Commercial sexual exploitation of children|CSEC]]
* [[Debt bondage]]
** [[Debt bondage in India|India]]
* [[Forced marriage]]
**[[Bride buying]]
**[[Child marriage]]
**[[Wife selling]]
* [[Forced prostitution]]
* [[Human trafficking]]
** [[Trafficking of children|Child]]
** [[Human trafficking in China|China]]
** [[Cybersex trafficking|Cybersex]]
** [[Human trafficking in Europe|Europe]]
** [[Fraud factory]]
** [[Human trafficking in India|India]]
** [[Human trafficking in the United States|United States]]
* [[Involuntary servitude]]
* [[Slavery in 21st-century jihadism|... in 21st-century jihadism]]
* [[Slavery in contemporary Africa|... in Africa]]
* [[Peon]]age
* [[Penal labour|Penal labo{{#ifeq:{{{sp}}}|us||u}}r]]
** [[Penal labor in the United States|United States]]
* [[Sex trafficking]]
** [[Sex trafficking in China|China]]
** [[Sex trafficking in Europe|Europe]]
** [[Sex trafficking in the United States|United States]]
* [[Sexual slavery]]
* [[Wage slavery]]



|list2name = Historical
|list2title= [[History of slavery|Historical]]
|list2 =
;[[Slavery in antiquity|Antiquity]]
* [[Babylonian law#Three classes|Babylonia]]
* [[Slavery in ancient Egypt|Egypt]]
* [[Slavery in ancient Greece|Greece]]
* [[Slavery in ancient Rome|Rome]]

;[[Slavery in medieval Europe|Medieval Europe]]
*[[Ancillae]]
*[[Black Sea slave trade]]
*[[Slavery in the Byzantine Empire|Byzantine Empire]]
*[[Genoese slave trade]]
*[[Kholop]]
*[[Prague slave trade]]
*[[Serfdom|Serfs]]
**[[History of serfdom|History]]
**[[Serfdom in Russia|In Russia]]
**[[Emancipation reform of 1861|Emancipation]]
*[[Thrall]]
*[[Venetian slave trade]]
**[[Balkan slave trade]]

; [[History of slavery in the Muslim world|Muslim world]]
*[[Baqt]]
*[[Slavery on the Barbary Coast|Barbary Coast]]
**[[Barbary slave trade|slave trade]]
**[[Barbary pirates|pirates]]
**[[Sack of Baltimore]]
**[[Slave raid of Suðuroy]]
**[[Turkish Abductions]]
*[[Bukhara slave trade]]
*[[Islamic views on concubinage|Concubinage]]
**[[History of concubinage in the Muslim world|history]]
**[[Ma malakat aymanukum]]
**[[Avret Pazarları]]
**[[Harem]]
**[[Abbasid harem]]
**[[Ottoman Imperial Harem]]
**[[Safavid imperial harem]]
**[[Qajar harem]]
**[[Jarya]]/[[Cariye]]
**[[Odalisque]]
**[[Qiyan]]
**[[Umm al-walad]]
**[[Circassian slave trade]]
*[[Mukataba|Contract of manumission]]
*[[Crimean slave trade]]
*[[Kafala system]]
*[[Kazakh raids into Russia]]
*[[Khazar slave trade]]
*[[Khivan slave trade]]
*[[Slavery in the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Empire]]
**[[Avret Pazarları]]
*[[Saqaliba]]
*[[Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate]]
*[[Slavery in al-Andalus]]
*[[Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate]]
*[[Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate]]
*[[Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate]]
*[[Slavery in the Mamluk Sultanate]]
*[[Volga Bulgarian slave trade]]
*[[Slavery in 21st-century jihadism|21st century]]

;[[Atlantic slave trade]]
*[[Atlantic slave trade to Brazil|Brazil]]
*[[Bristol slave trade|Bristol]]
*[[Voyages: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database|Database]]
*[[Dutch Slave Coast|Dutch]]
*[[Middle Passage]]
*[[Nantes slave trade|Nantes]]
*[[Slavery in New France|New France]]
*[[Panyarring]]
*[[Slavery in colonial Spanish America|Spanish Empire]]
*[[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]]
*[[Slavery in the colonial history of the United States|Thirteen colonies]]

;Topics and practice
* [[Blackbirding]]
* [[History of children in the military|Child soldiers]]
* [[Conscription]]
**[[Devshirme]]
**[[Ghilman]]
**[[Mamluk]]
* [[Coolie]]
* [[Corvée|Corvée labo{{#ifeq:{{{sp}}}|us||u}}r]]
* [[Drapetomania]]
* [[Dysaesthesia aethiopica]]
* [[Treatment of slaves in the United States|Treatment]]
* [[Gladiator]]
* [[Gladiatrix]]
* [[House slave]]s
* [[Planter class]]
* [[Proslavery thought]]
* [[Saqaliba]]
* [[Seasoning (slavery)|Seasoning]]
* [[Slave market]]
* [[Slave Power]]
* [[Slave raiding]]
* [[Slavocracy]]
* [[Voluntary slavery]]
* [[White slavery]]

;Naval
* [[Galley slave]]
* [[Impressment]]
* [[Barbary pirates|Pirates]]
* [[Shanghaiing]]
* [[Slave ship]]


|list3name = Region
|list3title=By country or region
|list3 =
;[[Slavery in Africa|Sub-Saharan Africa]]
*[[Slavery in contemporary Africa|Contemporary Africa]]
*[[Trans-Saharan slave trade]]
*[[Red Sea slave trade]]
*[[Indian Ocean slave trade]]
** [[Zanzibar slave trade]]
*[[Slavery in Angola|Angola]]
*[[Human trafficking in Chad|Chad]]
*[[Slavery in the Comoros|Comoros]]
*[[Slavery in Ethiopia|Ethiopia]]
*[[Slavery in Mali|Mali]]
*[[Slavery in Mauritania|Mauritania]]
*[[Slavery in Niger|Niger]]
*[[Slavery in Nigeria|Nigeria]]
*[[Slavery in Seychelles|Seychelles]]
*[[Slavery in Somalia|Somalia]]
*[[Slavery in Kenya]]
*[[Slavery in South Africa|South Africa]]
*[[Slavery in Sudan|Sudan]]
*[[Slavery in Zanzibar|Zanzibar]]
;[[Slavery in the Americas|North and South America]]
* [[Slavery in Pre-Columbian America|Pre-Columbian America]]
** [[Aztec slavery|Aztec]]
* [[Slavery among the Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Americas Indigenous]]
**[[Slavery among Native Americans in the United States|U.S. Natives]]
* [[Slavery in the United States|United States]]
**[[Female slavery in the United States|female]]
**[[Contemporary slavery in the United States|contemporary]]
**[[Slave states and free states|maps]]
**[[Partus sequitur ventrem|partus]]
**[[Penal labor in the United States|prison labo{{#ifeq:{{{sp}}}|us||u}}r]]
**[[slave codes]]
**[[Treatment of the enslaved in the United States|treatment]]
**[[Slave trade in the United States|interregional]]
**[[Pro-slavery ideology in the United States|proslavery]]
** [[History of sexual slavery in the United States|sexual slavery]]
* [[Slavery in the Bahamas|The Bahamas]]
* [[Slavery in Canada|Canada]]
* [[Slavery in the British and French Caribbean|Caribbean]]
**[[Barbados Slave Code|Barbados]]
**[[Slavery in the British Virgin Islands|British Virgin Islands]]
**[[Slavery in Trinidad|Trinidad]]
**[[Code Noir]]
* [[Slavery in Latin America|Latin America]]
* [[Slavery in Argentina|Argentina]]
* [[Slavery in Brazil|Brazil]]
**[[Lei Áurea]]
* [[Slavery in Colombia|Colombia]]
* [[Slavery in Cuba|Cuba]]
* [[Slavery in Haiti|Haiti]]
**[[Haitian Revolution|revolt]]
**[[Restavek]]
* ([[Encomienda]])
* [[Afro–Puerto Ricans|Puerto Rico]]
;[[Slavery in Asia|East, Southeast, and South Asia]]
* [[Haruwa-charuwa]]
*[[Human trafficking in Southeast Asia]]
*[[Slavery in Bhutan|Bhutan]]
*[[Slavery in Brunei|Brunei]]
* [[Slavery in China|China]]
**[[Booi Aha]]
** [[Eunuchs in China|Eunuchs]]
**[[Laogai]]
**[[Penal system in China|penal system]]
* [[Slavery in India|India]]
**[[Debt bondage in India|Debt bondage]]
** [[Chukri System]]
** [[Bawi system]]
*[[Slavery in Indonesia|Indonesia]]
* [[Slavery in Japan|Japan]]
**[[comfort women]]
** [[Karayuki-san]]
* [[Slavery in Korea|Korea]]
**[[Nobi]]
**[[Kwalliso]]
* [[Slavery in Malaysia|Malaysia]]
* [[Slavery in the Maldives|Maldives]]
* [[Slavery in the Mongol Empire|Mongol Empire]]
* [[Slavery in Thailand|Thailand]]
* [[Slavery in Vietnam|Vietnam]]
;[[Slavery in Oceania|Australia and Oceania]]
*[[Slavery in Australia|Australia]]
**[[Human trafficking in Australia|Human trafficking]]
*[[Blackbirding]]
*[[Slave raiding in Easter Island]]
*[[Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea]]
*[[Blackbirding in Polynesia]]
;Europe and North Asia
* [[Sex trafficking in Europe]]
* United Kingdom
** [[Penal labour in the United Kingdom|Penal Labo{{#ifeq:{{{sp}}}|us||u}}r]]
** [[Slavery in Britain|Slavery]]
* [[Slavery in Albania|Albania]]
* [[Slavery in Bulgaria|Bulgaria]]
* [[Danish slave trade|Denmark]]
* [[Dutch Slave Coast|Dutch Republic]]
* [[Slavery in Finland|Finland]]
* [[Slavery in France|France]]
* [[Slavery in Georgia (country)|Georgia]]
* [[Forced labour under German rule during World War II|Germany in World War II]]
* [[Slavery in Hungary|Hungary]]
* [[Slavery in Malta|Malta]]
* [[Thrall|Norway]]
* [[Slavery in Poland|Poland]]
* [[Slavery in Portugal|Portugal]]
* [[Slavery in Romania|Romania]]
* [[Slavery in Russia|Russia]]
* [[Slavery in Serbia|Serbia]]
* [[Slavery in Spain|Spain]]
* [[Swedish slave trade|Sweden]]
* [[Slavery in Switzerland|Switzerland]]
;North Africa and West Asia
* [[Slavery in Afghanistan|Afghanistan]]
** [[Bacha bazi]]
* [[Slavery in Algeria|Algeria]]
* [[Slavery in Bahrain|Bahrain]]
* [[Slavery in Egypt|Egypt]]
* [[Human trafficking in the Middle East]]
* [[Slavery in Iran|Iran]]
* [[Slavery in Iraq|Iraq]]
* [[Slavery in Jordan|Jordan]]
* [[Slavery in Kuwait|Kuwait]]
* [[Slavery in Lebanon|Lebanon]]
* [[Slavery in Libya|Libya]]
* [[Slavery in Morocco|Morocco]]
* [[Slavery in Oman|Oman]]
* [[Slavery in Palestine|Palestine]]
* [[Slavery in Saudi Arabia|Saudi Arabia]]
* [[Slavery in Syria|Syria]]
* [[Slavery in Tunisia|Tunisia]]
* [[Slavery in Qatar|Qatar]]
* [[Slavery in Yemen|Yemen]]
* [[Slavery in the United Arab Emirates|United Arab Emirates]]


|list4name = Religion
|list4title=[[Slavery and religion|Religion]]
|list4 =
* [[The Bible and slavery|Bible]]
* [[Christian views on slavery|Christianity]]
** [[Catholic Church and slavery|Catholicism]]
** [[Mormonism and slavery|Mormonism]]
* [[Islamic views on slavery|Islam]]
* [[Jewish views on slavery|Judaism]]
* [[Zoroastrianism and slavery|Zoroastrianism]]



|list5name = Opposition
|list5title=[[Abolitionism|Opposition and resistance]]
|list5 =
* [[Abolitionism]]
**[[Abolitionism in the United Kingdom|U.K.]]
**[[Abolitionism in the United States|U.S.]]
**[[Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90]]
**[[Temporary Slavery Commission]]
** [[1926 Slavery Convention]]
**[[Committee of Experts on Slavery]]
**[[Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery]]
**[[Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery]]
**[[Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery]]
** [[List of abolitionists|Abolitionists]]
* [[Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention]]
* [[Anti-Slavery International]]
* [[Blockade of Africa]]
**[[West Africa Squadron|U.K.]]
**[[African Slave Trade Patrol|U.S.]]
* [[American Colonization Society|Coloni{{#ifeq:{{{sp}}}|uk|s|z}}ation]]
** [[Liberia]]
** [[Sierra Leone]]
* [[Compensated emancipation]]
* [[Freedman]]
**[[Manumission]]
* [[Freedom suit]]
* [[Slave Power]]
* [[Underground Railroad]]
**[[Songs of the Underground Railroad|songs]]
* [[Slave rebellion]]
* [[Slave Trade Act]]s
* [[Slavery in international law|International law]]
* [[Third Servile War]]
* [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|13th Amendment to the United States Constitution]]
* [[Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom]]
* {{Interlanguage link|Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf|fa|ممنوعیت تجارت برده در خلیج فارس}}


|list6name = Related
|list6title=Related
|list6 =
* [[Black triangle (badge)]]
* [[Slavery at common law|Common law]]
* [[Critique of political economy]]
* [[Critique of work]]
* [[Extermination through labour]]
* [[Forced labour|Forced labo{{#ifeq:{{{sp}}}|us||u}}r]]
* [[Forced Labour Convention]]
* [[Fugitive slaves in the United States|Fugitive slaves]]
**[[Fugitive slave laws in the United States|laws]]
**[[Fugitive Slave Convention|convention]]
**[[Great Dismal Swamp maroons]]
* [[Indentured servitude]]
* [[Infinite workday]]
* [[List of slaves]]
** [[List of slave owners|owners]]
**[[List of last survivors of American slavery|last survivors of American slavery]]
* [[List of slavery-related memorials and museums]]
* [[Refusal of work]]
* [[Right to rest and leisure]]
* [[Slave catcher]]
* [[Slave marriages in the United States]]
* [[Slave narrative]]
**[[List of films featuring slavery|films]]
**[[Slave Songs of the United States|songs]]
* [[Slave name]]
* [[Slave patrol]]
* [[The Slave Route Project|Slave Route Project]]
**[[Slave breeding in the United States|breeding]]
**[[List of court cases in the United States involving slavery|court cases]]
**[[George Washington and slavery|Washington]]
**[[Thomas Jefferson and slavery|Jefferson]]
**[[John Quincy Adams and abolitionism|J.Q. Adams]]
**[[Abraham Lincoln and slavery|Lincoln]]
***[[Emancipation Proclamation]]
**[[Forty acres and a mule|40 acres]]
**[[Freedmen's Bureau]]
**[[Slave iron bit|Iron bit]]
* [[Emancipation Day]]
}}<noinclude>
{{documentation}}
</noinclude>

Template:Slavery

2026-09-09T08:16:41Z

Hazoor: Template created.

#REDIRECT [[Template:Forced labour]]

{{Redirect category shell|
{{R from related word}}
{{R from move}}
}}

Sexual slavery in Islam

2026-09-09T08:15:58Z

Hazoor: Sexual slavery in Islam article created

'''Sexual slavery in Islam'''
{{Short description|Historical sexual slavery and concubinage in Islamic societies, with emphasis on Qur'anic texts, Islamic law, and historical practice}}
{{Other uses|Islam and slavery (disambiguation)}}
{{Slavery}}
'''Sexual slavery in Islam''' is a historical topic concerning the enslavement and sexual exploitation of women in Muslim societies, particularly through the institution of [[Concubinage in Islam|concubinage]]. In classical Islamic jurisprudence, sexual relations between a male slave owner and a female slave he owned were generally treated as lawful outside marriage, subject to rules concerning ownership, lineage, manumission, and other matters.{{sfn|Ali|2017|p=148}}{{harvnb|Hain|2017|p=326}}

The [[Qur'an]] refers to enslaved people with expressions including "those whom your right hands possess" (''[[milk al-yamīn]]''). Verses including [[Qur'an 23:5–6]], [[Qur'an 70:29–30]], [[Qur'an 4:24]], and [[Qur'an 33:50]] were discussed by Muslim jurists in developing the law of concubinage. The Qur'an also encourages manumission and prohibits compelling slave girls into prostitution.{{sfn|Ali|2017}}{{sfn|Friedmann|2003|pp=107–108}}

Concubinage was practiced in a number of Muslim societies from the early Islamic period until the abolition of slavery. Its form and prevalence varied by period, region, social class, and political system. Concubines could be acquired through warfare, purchase, gifts, and other forms of transfer, and some acquired influence or higher social status within elite households.{{sfn|Myrne|2019|p=203}}{{sfn|Cortese|2013}} The institution declined during the 19th and 20th centuries as slavery was abolished in Muslim-majority countries.{{sfn|Clarence-Smith|2006|pp=219–221}}{{sfn|Brockopp|2006|p=60}}

The term "sexual slavery" is a modern descriptive term; the historical and juristic literature more commonly uses the term ''concubinage''.

==Qur'anic references==
The [[Qur'an]] does not use the modern expression "sexual slavery". It refers to enslaved persons and repeatedly uses the expression "those whom your right hands possess" (''[[milk al-yamīn]]''). [[Qur'an 23:5–6]] and [[Qur'an 70:29–30]] describe believers as guarding their sexual organs except with their wives or those whom their right hands possess. [[Qur'an 4:24]] prohibits married women while making an exception for "those whom your right hands possess"; classical jurists interpreted this as applying to female captives and slaves. [[Qur'an 33:50]] likewise lists those whom Muhammad's right hand possessed among the women made lawful to him. The conclusion that these passages establish a general legal permission for sexual relations with female slaves is an interpretation developed in the later legal tradition; the Qur'an itself does not use the modern category "sexual slavery".{{sfn|Ali|2017|p=148}}
These Qur'anic passages should be distinguished from later jurisprudence. The Qur'an also encourages manumission, including in [[Qur'an 90:13]], while [[Qur'an 24:33]] instructs owners to enter into emancipation contracts with slaves who seek them and forbids compelling slave girls into prostitution. Modern Muslim interpreters disagree about whether the Qur'anic passages themselves establish a continuing permission for sexual relations with female slaves. The classical Sunni and Shi'a legal traditions, however, developed detailed rules treating ownership of female slaves as a basis for lawful concubinage, as discussed below.{{sfn|Ali|2017}}{{sfn|Friedmann|2003|pp=107–108}}

==Concubinage==
[[File:Jules Laurens 14.jpg|thumb|''Women of the Harem'' by [[Jules Laurens]], {{Circa|1847}}|alt=Painting of seated women, with man standing]]

Classifications of concubinage often define practices in Islamic societies as a distinct variant. In one reading, there are three cultural patterns of concubinage: European, Islamic and Asian.{{sfn|Rodriguez|2011|p=203}} Concubinage has also been categorised in terms of form and function, which in the Islamic world varied between times and places. ''The International Encyclopedia of Anthropology'' gives four distinct forms of concubinage,{{sfn|The International Encyclopedia of Anthropology|1999}} three of which are applicable to the Muslim world: 'elite concubinage', where concubine ownership was primarily related to social status, such as under the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyads]]; royal concubinage, where concubines became consorts to the ruler and perpetuated the [[royal bloodline]] and politics and reproduction were deeply intertwined, including under the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasids]] and in the [[Ottoman Empire]]; and concubinage as a patriarchal function, where concubines were of low status and the children of concubines became permanently inferior to the children of wives, such as in [[Mughal Empire|Mughal India]].{{sfn|The International Encyclopedia of Anthropology|1999}}

The expansion of various Muslim dynasties resulted in the acquisitions of concubines, through purchase, gifts from other rulers, and captives of war. To have a large number of concubines became a symbol of status.<ref name=cor06/> While [[Muslims|Muslim]] soldiers in the [[Early Muslim conquests|early Islamic conquests]] were given female captives as a reward for military participation, they were later frequently purchased and men were permitted to have as many concubines as they could afford. As slaves for pleasure were expensive, they were typically the preserve of privileged elites.{{sfn|Myrne|2019|p=203}}

The concubines of Islamic rulers could achieve considerable power,<ref name=Klein>{{harvnb|Klein|2014|p=122}}</ref> and often enjoyed higher status than other slaves. [[Abu Hanifa]] and others argued for the extension of Islamic modesty practices to concubines, recommending that the concubine be established in the home and their chastity be protected from friends or kin.<ref name=Fleet>{{harvnb|Katz|1986}}</ref> Most Islamic schools of thought restricted concubinage to a relationship where the female slave was required to be monogamous to her master.{{sfn|Bloom|Blair|2002|p=48}} While scholars exhorted masters to treat their slaves equally, a master was allowed to show favoritism towards a concubine.<ref name=Fleet/> Some scholars recommended holding a banquet (''[[walima]]'') to celebrate the concubinage relationship, though this was not required by the teachings of Islam.<ref name=Fleet/>

In slave-owning societies, most, but not all, concubines were slaves.<ref name=Klein/> In the [[Muslim world]], as in about one-third of non-Islamic slave-holding societies, a concubine was typically freed after giving birth to her master's child.{{efn|Many societies in addition to those advocating Islam automatically freed the concubine, especially after she had had a child. About a third of all non-Islamic societies fall into this category.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}}} In Islamic culture, a slave who bore a child to a free man was known as an ''[[umm al-walad]]'', could not be sold, and, in most circumstances, at her owner's death, was freed.{{sfn|Gordon|Hain|2017|p=328}} The children of concubines in Islamic societies were generally declared as legitimate.<ref name=Fleet/> Among societies that did not legally require the manumission of concubines, it was often done anyway.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}

Almost all [[Abbasid caliph]]s were born to concubines and several [[Twelver Shi’ism|Twelver Shia]] imams were also born to concubines.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}} The Ottoman sultans also appeared to have preferred concubinage to marriage,{{sfn|Peirce|1993|p=30}} and for a time all royal children were born of concubines.{{sfn|Peirce|1993|p=39}} Over time, the concubines of the [[Imperial Harem]] came to exercise a considerable degree of influence over Ottoman politics.<ref name=cor06>{{harvnb|Cortese|Calderini|2006}}</ref> The consorts of Ottoman sultans were often neither Turkish, nor Muslim by birth, and it has been argued that this was intentional so as to limit the political leverage a concubine might possess as compared to a princess or a daughter of the local elite.{{sfn|Peirce|1993|p=37–39}} Ottoman sultans also appeared to have only one son with each concubine, and after a concubine gave birth to a son, would no longer have intercourse with them. This also limited the power of each concubine and son.{{sfn|Peirce|1993|p=42-43}} Even so, many concubines developed social networks, and accumulated personal wealth, both of which allowed them to rise in terms of social status.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}} The practice declined with the abolition of slavery, starting in the 19th century.<ref name=cor06/>

==Islamic jurisprudence==
[[File:Inspecting New Arrivals by Giulio Rosati 2.jpg|thumb|250px|right|[[Giulio Rosati]], ''Inspection of New Arrivals'', 1858–1917, [[Circassian beauties]] ]]
{{Main|Islamic views on concubinage}}

===Enslavement===
{{Main|Islamic views on slavery}}

[[File:The Sale of Circassian Captives to a Turkish Bashaw (Pacha) (1816).webp|thumb|right|The Sale of Circassian Captives to a Turkish Bashaw (Pacha) (1816)]]
The enslavement of other Muslims was expressly forbidden by Islamic jurists.{{sfn|Ali|2015a|p=53–54}} However, in times of war, non-Muslims who were captured in battle could be enslaved,{{sfn|Badawi|2019|p=17}} and the population of a conquered territory could also be enslaved, paving the way for concubinage.{{sfn|Clarence-Smith|2006|p=27–28}} During the early [[Early Muslim conquests|Muslim conquests]], capture in war was a major source of concubines, but this source declined to a very small proportion later on.<ref name=purchase/> Enslavement was intended both as a form of [[humiliation]] to the defeated for previous or continuing disbelief,{{sfn|McMahon|2013|p=18}} and as a debt.{{sfn|Clarence-Smith|2006|p=27–28}} However, non-Muslims could not be enslaved if they were either residents of a Muslim state (''dhimmis'') or protected foreign visitors (''mustamin'').{{sfn|Antunes|Trivellato|Halevi|2014|p=57}}{{sfn|Myrne|2019|p=203}} The sexual relationship between a concubine and her master was viewed as a debt upon the woman until she gave birth to her master's child and the master's later death.{{sfn|Willis|2014}} Some men purchased female slaves, whereas [[Muslims|Muslim]] soldiers in the [[Early Muslim conquests|early Islamic conquests]] were given female captives as a reward for military participation. Men were permitted to have as many concubines as they could afford, but as slaves for pleasure were expensive, they were typically an elite privilege.{{sfn|Myrne|2019|p=203}}

At the same time, the [[Qur'an]] and the [[hadith]] traditions hailed the [[manumission]] of slaves as a virtue that would be rewarded in the afterlife.{{efn|'Encouragement to manumit slaves, enshrined in the Qur'an and law, likely contributed to social mobility. Manumitting slaves earned their owner eternal rewards. The Qur'an advocated manumission of slaves as an act of a righteous person or as a religious boon...Key hadith also support manumission: "He who has a slave-girl and teaches her good manners and improves her education then manumits and marries her, will get a double reward." Concubines, however, sometimes had a surer route to manumission than their owners' desire for spiritual coinage; under certain conditions their wombs could provide escape from slavery. A slave who bore a child to a free man, known as an ''[[umm al-walad]]'', could not be sold, in most circumstances, and at her owner's death, she was to be freed {{harv|Hain|2017|p=328}}.}} Some jurists argued that prisoners were either to be enslaved or killed. Others maintained that a Muslim military commander could choose between unconditionally releasing, ransoming or enslaving these war captives.{{efn|'Other issues differentiating the classical doctrine and modernist approaches include the treatment of prisoners of war, with some of the early jurists allowing Muslim commanders a choice only between killing or enslaving them, and others – on the principle of serving the public interest (''maṣlaḥa'') – giving commanders more discretion to ransom prisoners (for example, in exchange for Muslim prisoners or for money) or even to release them unconditionally. Seizing on this principle of public interest, and pointing to the obsolescence of practices such as slavery, virtually all modernists by contrast narrow the options to those sanctioned by contemporary international norms: releasing prisoners upon the cessation of hostilities either unconditionally or as part of reciprocal exchanges.' {{harv|Mufti|2019|p=5}}.}} Later on in Muslim history, the purchase of slaves from outside the Muslim world became the most important source of concubines.<ref name=purchase>{{cite book|title=Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry|author=[[Bernard Lewis]]|year=1992|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|pages=9–10}}</ref> Hereditary slavery, though technically possible,{{sfn|Erdem|1996|p=52}} was rarely practiced in the Muslim world.<ref>{{cite book|title=Unveiling the Harem: Elite Women and the Paradox of Seclusion in Eighteenth-Century Cairo|author=Mary Ann Fay|quote=Without war captives or a system of slave breeding, which did not exist in the Middle East, slaves would have to be imported from outside as they were from Caucasus and Africa.|page=78|publisher=[[Syracuse University Press]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor1-first=Hettie V. |editor1-last=Williams |editor2-first=Julius O. |editor2-last=Adekunle|title=Color Struck: Essays on Race and Ethnicity in Global Perspective|publisher=[[University Press of America]]|quote=Not only was slavery not racialized under Islamic rule nor was it hereditary...|page=63}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=God's Shadow: Sultan Selim, His Ottoman Empire, and the Making of the Modern World|author=Alan Mikhail|year=2020|quote=In Islam, slavery was temporary, not hereditary|page=137}}</ref> Slave-girls by descent are those that are born to slave mothers.{{sfn|Clarence-Smith|2006|p=22}} Although a slave girl bearing children to her master bore free children, a slave owner marrying off his female slave to someone else would remain the master of any children born from that marriage.{{sfn|Ali|2015a|p=57}}

;Exceptions
Despite the Islamic prohibition, there were historical instances where Muslims enslaved Muslims from other ethnic groups.{{sfn|Ali|2015a|p=53–54}} In the 12th century, amid internecine war in [[al-Andalus]], the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad caliph]] [[Muhammad II of Córdoba]] ordered that Berber women in [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]] be captured and sold. The Berber [[Almohad Caliphate|Almohads]] in turn captured and sold Umayyad women.{{sfn|Gleave|2015|p=166–168}} There are also reports of [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] generals enslaving [[Mamluk]] wives and girls in the [[Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–1517)]], and in 1786–87, in the region of modern-day [[Chad]], Muslim women and children from the [[Sultanate of Bagirmi]] were likewise enslaved by the [[List of rulers of Wadai|ruler of Wadai]] around 1800.{{sfn|Clarence-Smith|2006|p=43–44}}

===Social rights===
Islamic law obliged slave owners to provide their female slaves with food, clothing, and shelter, and gave female slaves protection from sexual exploitation by anyone who was not their owner.{{sfn|Myrne|2019|pp=222–223}} If she bore her master a child and if he accepted paternity, then she could obtain the position of an [[umm al-walad]]. Separately, if someone bought a woman with child, the two could not be separated until, according to [[Ibn Abi Zayd al-Qayrawani|Ibn Abi Zayd]], the child was six years old.{{sfn|Bellagamba|Greene|Klein|2016|p=24}} However, while slave concubines could rise to positions of influence, these positions did not legally protect them from forced labour, forced marriage and forced sexual activity, and even elite slaves were still traded as chattel.{{sfn|Myrne|2019|pp=222–223}}

As sexual commodities, female slaves were, in some historical periods, not allowed to cover themselves in the fashion of free women.{{sfn|Kamrava|2011|p=193}} The Caliph [[Umar]] prohibited slave girls from resembling free women and forbade them from covering their face.{{sfn|Abou El Fadl|2014|p=198}} Slave women were also not required to cover their arms, hair or legs below the knees.{{sfn|Abou El Fadl|2006|p=198}} By contrast, Myrne writes that Islamic jurists elsewhere required female slaves to cover their whole body (except face and hands).{{sfn|Myrne|2019|p=218}} There is disagreement over what Hanafi jurists allowed: according to [[Ibn Abidin]] most Hanafi scholars did not allow the exposure of a female slave's body (including chest or back),<ref>{{cite book|author=[[Khaled Abou El Fadl]]|date=1 October 2014|title=Speaking in God's Name: Islamic Law, Authority and Women|page=525}}</ref> but Myrne writes they allowed this in the case of potential male buyers.{{sfn|Myrne|2019|p=218}} [[Amira Bennison]] writes that, during the Abbasid period, male buyers could not in practice examine female slaves (except her face and hands), but could request her examination by other women.<ref>{{cite book|author=[[Amira Bennison]]|title=The Great Caliphs: The Golden Age of the 'Abbasid Empire|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|pages=146–147}}</ref>

In accordance with their lesser status, if a slave fornicated they received less punishment than a free woman. Female slaves could also be traded freely among many men, with few, if any, apparent restrictions.{{sfn|Afary|2009|p=81–82}} While bearing a master's child could lead to freedom for a slave-girl, the motive that this gave female slaves to have sex with their owners was a cause of regular opposition to concubinage from free wives, and early moral stories depicted wives as the victims of concubinage.{{sfn|Clarence-Smith|2006|p=81}} While a free Muslim woman was considered to be a man's honour, a slave-girl was merely property and not a man's honour.{{sfn|Bouachrine|2014|p=8}}

Medieval Muslim literature and legal documents show that those female slaves whose main use was for sexual purposes were distinguished in markets from those whose primary use was for domestic duties. The term ''suriyya'' was used for female slaves with whom masters enjoyed sexual relations. The Arabic term ''surriyya'' has been widely translated in Western scholarship as "concubine"{{sfn|Layish|p=331}}{{sfn|Brown|2019|p=70}}{{sfn|Robinson|p=90}}{{sfn|Reda|Amin|p=228}} or "slave concubine".{{sfn|Brown|2019|p=70}} In other texts they are referred to as "slaves for pleasure" or "slave-girls for sexual intercourse".{{sfn|Myrne|2019|pp=196–197}} It was not a secure status as the [[Concubinage|concubine]] could be traded as long as the master had not impregnated her.{{sfn|Ali|2015a|p=50–51}} Many female slaves became concubines to their owners and bore their children. Others were just used for sex before being transferred. The allowance for men to use contraception with female slaves assisted in thwarting unwanted pregnancies.{{sfn|Myrne|2019|pp=196–197}} Withdrawal before ejaculation ([[coitus interruptus|azl]]) did not require the consent of the slave.{{sfn|Ali|2017}} Islamic law and Sunni ulama historically recognised two categories of concubines.{{sfn|Clarence-Smith|2006|p=22}}

====Umm walad====
{{Main|Umm walad}}

''Umm walad'' ({{langx|ar|أم ولد||lit=mother of the child}}) was the title given to a slave-[[concubine]] in the Muslim world after she had born her master a child. She could not be sold, and became automatically free on her master's death.{{sfn|Bowen|1928|p=13}}<ref name="Oxford">{{cite web|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e2424|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924063148/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e2424|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 24, 2015|title=Umm al-Walad|work=Oxford Islamic Studies}}</ref> The offspring of an ''umm walad'' were free and considered legitimate children of their father, including full rights of name and inheritance.<ref name="Oxford"/> The Sunni law schools disagreements existed among some of the four major schools of Sunni law regarding the concubine's entitlement to this status. [[Hanafi|Hanafi jurists]] state that the ''umm walad'' status is contingent on the master acknowledging paternity of the child. If he does not accept that he is the father of the child then both the mother and child remain slaves. [[Maliki|Maliki jurists]] ruled that the concubine becomes entitled to the status of ''umm walad'' even if her master did not acknowledge that the child is his.{{sfn|Brockopp|2000|pp=195–196}} This is decidedly different from the case of enslaved women who bore children to their masters in Mediterranean Christian cultures: there the child retained the same slave status as his mother.{{efn|'Female slaves around the Mediterranean were subject to sexual and reproductive demands as well as demands on their physical labour. Focusing on the sexual and reproductive aspects of the shared culture of Mediterranean slavery reveals three things. First, though historians have paid more attention to the sexual exploitation of slave women in Islamic contexts, sexual exploitation was also common and well documented in Christian contexts. Second, the most important difference between Islamic and Christian practices of slavery had to do with the status of children. Under Christian and Roman law, children inherited the status of their mothers, so the child of a free man and a slave woman would be a slave. In contrast, under Islamic law, if a free man acknowledged paternity of a child by his slave woman, that child was born free and legitimate.' {{harv|Barker|2019|p=61}}}} The offspring of slave relationships could rise to great eminence, with no prejudice attached to their origins: most of the [[caliph]]s of the [[Abbasid Caliphate]] were born from relationships with enslaved concubines as were half of the [[Twelver Shi'ism|imams of Imami Shi'ism]].{{efn|'With the transition from the [[Umayyad]]s to the Abbasids, the upward swell of subaltern demographics thrust individual concubines unambiguously into the realm of elite politics. Whereas only the last three Umayyad caliphs were born to concubines, the great majority of the early Abbasid caliphs were sons of this heretofore nameless class of women.' {{harv|Hain|2017|p=328,4,246}}}}

===Sexual consent===
[[File:Gustave Léonard de Jonghe - The Afternoon Siesta.jpg|thumb|300px|''A Reclining Odalisque'', painted by [[Gustave Léonard de Jonghe]], c. 1870]]
Classical Islamic family law generally recognized marriage and the creation of a master–slave relationship as the two legal instruments rendering permissible sexual relations between people and classical Islamic jurists made an analogy between the marriage contract and sale of concubines. They state that the factor of male ownership in both is what makes sex lawful with both a wife and female slave.{{sfn|Quraishi-Landes|2016|p=178}}{{sfn|Ali|2017}} Hina Azam notes that in certain interpretations of Islamic law "coercion within marriage or concubinage may be repugnant, but it remained fundamentally legal".{{sfn|Azam|2015|p=69}} According to [[Kecia Ali]], the Qurʾanic passages on slavery differ strikingly in terms of their terminology and main preoccupations compared to the jurisprudential texts, that the text of the Qurʾan does not permit sexual access simply by the virtue of her being a ''milk al-yamīn'' or concubine while the "Jurists define ''zina'' as vaginal intercourse between a man and a woman who is neither his wife nor his slave. Though seldom discussed, forced sex with one's wife might (or, depending on the circumstances, might not) be an ethical infraction, and conceivably even a legal one like assault if physical violence is involved. One might speculate that the same is true of forced sex with a slave. This scenario is never, however, illicit in the jurists' conceptual world".{{sfn|Ali|2017}}

Responding to a query about whether a man can be forced to have intercourse or if it is obligatory for him to have intercourse with his wife or concubine, Imam [[Al-Shafiʽi]] stated "If he has only one wife or an additional concubine with whom he has intercourse, he is commanded to fear Allah Almighty and to not harm her in regards to intercourse, although nothing specific is obligated upon him. He is only obligated to provide what benefits her such as financial maintenance, residence, clothing, and spending the night with her. As for intercourse, its position is one of pleasure and no one can be forced into it."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Asy-Syafi'i R. A. |first1=Al-Imam |title=Al-Umm = Kitab induk |date=1989 |publisher=Victory Agencie |location=Kuala Lumpur |isbn=9789839581522 |volume=5 |page=203}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Ali|2010|p=[https://archive.org/details/KeciaAliMarriageAndSlaveryInEarlyIslam/page/n129/mode/1up 119]}}</ref> The statement is sometimes popularly misunderstood to concern the consent of enslaved women.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Muwatta Roundtable: The Handmaiden's Tale |url=https://islamiclaw.blog/2019/12/06/muwa%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADa%CA%BE-roundtable-the-handmaidens-tale/ |author=Kecia Ali |work=Islamic Law Blog |date=6 December 2019 |publisher=Islamiclaw.blog |quote="Some offer whole theories about the need for enslaved women's and girls’ consent to sex with their owners based on a decontextualized legal maxim or quotation—a purportedly pro-consent snippet from Shafiʿī has been making the rounds lately. (footnote 2) The phrase from the Umm is “فَأَمَّا الْجِمَاعُ فَمَوْضِعُ تَلَذُّذٍ وَلَا يُجْبَرُ أَحَدٌ عَلَيْهِ” (“However, intercourse is a matter of pleasure and no one is compelled to it”). ... However, this passage, understood in its context, doesn't speak to consent but rather asserts that men have no obligation to have sex equally with their wives."}}</ref>

Another viewpoint is of [[Intisar Rabb]], who argues that according to the Quran, sexual relations with a concubine were subject to both parties' consent.{{sfn|Intisar|p=152}} Similarly [[Tamara Sonn]] writes that consent of a concubine was necessary for sexual relations.{{sfn|Sonn|2015|p=18}} However, according to Kecia Ali, the Qurʾanic passages on slavery differ strikingly in terms of their terminology and main preoccupations compared to the jurisprudential texts, that the text of the Qurʾan does not permit sexual access simply by the virtue of her being a ''milk al-yamīn'' or concubine while among jurists notes that such views are not found in any pre-modern classical Islamic legal text between the 8th to 10th centuries, as there is no discussion about the topic of consent.{{sfn|Ali|2017|p=148}} [[Jonathan A. C. Brown|Jonathan Brown]] argues that the modern conception of sexual consent only came about since the 1970s, so it makes little sense to project it backwards onto classical Islamic law. Brown notes that premodern Muslim jurists rather applied the [[harm principle]] to judge sexual misconduct, including between a master and concubine.{{sfn|Brown|2019|p=282–283}} He further states that historically, concubines could complain to judges if they were being sexually abused and that scholars like [[al-Bahūtī]] require a master to set his concubine free if he injures her during sex.{{sfn|Brown|2019|p=96}}

All four law schools also have a consensus that the master can marry off his female slave to someone else without her consent. A master can also practice coitus interruptus during sex with his female slave without her permission.{{sfn|Ali|2017|p=149}} A man having sex with someone else's female slave constitutes [[zina|''zina'']].{{sfn|Ali|2017|p=150}}

According to [[Imam Shafi'i]], if someone other than the master coerces a slave-girl to have sex, the rapist will be required to pay compensation to her master.{{sfn|Ali|2011|p=76}} If a man marries off his own female slave and has sex with her, even though he is then no longer allowed to have sexual intercourse with her, that sex is still considered a lesser offence than ''zina'' and the jurists say he must not be punished. It is noteworthy that while formulating this ruling, it is the slave woman's marriage and not her consent which is an issue.{{sfn|Ali|2017|p=150}}

;Conversion of pagans
Islam prohibited sexual relations between Muslim men and pagan female captives.<ref name=Fri107>{{harvnb|Friedmann|2003|pp=107–108}}</ref> In the early Muslim period, this appeared to delegitimize Muslim captors who wished to form relationships with female captives. To resolve this, coercion into Islam was tacitly permitted. [[Ahmad ibn Hanbal|Ibn Hanbal]] noted that if idolatrous women could be coerced into becoming Muslim, sexual relations with them were permissible, while if they did not embrace Islam, they could be used as servants, but not for sexual relations.<ref name=Fri107/> [[Hasan al-Basri]] recalled that Muslims achieved this objective through various methods, including pointing a pagan slave-girl towards the [[Kaaba]], ordering them to recite the [[shahada]] and perform an [[Wudu|ablution]].<ref name=Fri107/> Other scholars specified that slave-girls must be taught to pray and perform ablutions by themselves before being considered eligible for sexual relations.<ref name=Fri107/> [[Ibn Qayyim]] argued that conversion of polytheist women to Islam was not necessary for sexual relations with her.{{sfn|Friedmann|2003|pp=176–178}}

==Historical practice==
[[File:V.M. Doroshevich-East and War-Harem enhaced.jpg|thumb|[[Harem]], by [[Vlas Doroshevich|Doroshevich]], c. 1905]]
While Muslim cultures acknowledged concubinage, as well as polygamy, as a man's legal right, in reality, these were usually practiced only by the royalty and elite sections of society.{{sfn|Rodriguez|2011|p=203}} The large-scale availability of women for sexual slavery had a strong influence on Muslim thought, even though the "[[harem]]" culture of the elite was not mirrored by most of the Muslim population.{{sfn|Ali|2015a|p=41}}

===Early Islamic period===
Concubinage was rare in Arabia in the period immediate preceding the advent of Islam. One analysis of the information found there were only a few cases of children being born from concubines in the time of Muhammad's father and grandfather.{{sfn|Majied|2017|p=16–17}} With the [[early Muslim conquests]], concubinage expanded rapidly as a practice due to the wealth and power they brought to the Quraysh tribes.{{efn|The conquests, however, had consequences that ultimately upset the pre-Islamic system. As the Umayyad dynasty matured, certain families within the Quraysh became significantly wealthier and more powerful than tribes that had once been equal to them...In this new order, the Muslim elites turned to the cheapest, safest, and most loyal women available to them: cousins and concubines.<ref name=Maj20>{{harvnb|Majied|2017|pp=20–21}}</ref>}} Due to these conquests, a large number of female slaves became available and births from concubines arose.<ref name=Maj11/> A study of the Arab genealogical text Nasab Quraysh records the maternity of 3,000 [[Quraysh|Quraishi]] tribesmen, most of whom lived in between 500 and 750 CE. The data shows that there was a massive increase in the number of children born to concubines with the emergence of Islam.<ref name=Maj11>{{harvnb|Majied|2017|pp=11–12}}</ref>

====Women of Hawazin====
The Banu [[Thaqif]] and Banu [[Hawazin]] tribes decided to go to war against Muhammad under the leadership of [[Malik ibn Awf]].<ref name=Mub259>{{harvnb|Mubarakpuri|1998|pp=259–264}}</ref> Malik had the unfortunate idea of bringing the women, children and livestock with his army.{{sfn|Saron|1986|p=266}} He believed that by bringing their women and children with the army, all his soldiers would fight more courageously to defend them.

The Muslim army defeated the Hawazin and captured their women and children and the pagan soldiers fled. The war booty which the Muslims obtained was 24,000 camels, more than 40,000 goats, 160,000 dirhams worth of silver and 6,000 women and children.<ref name=Mub259/> Muhammad waited for the Hawazin to come to him to reclaim their families and properties. However, none of them came. Finally, Muhammad distributed the war booty among the Muslim soldiers.<ref name=Mub259/> Anecdotes include those of one woman was given to [[Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf]] who resisted having sexual intercourse with her until her menses were over and then he had sex with her by virtue of her being his property. Jubayr bin Mu'tim also received a slave girl, who was not impregnated. [[Talhah|Talha ibn Ubaydullah]] had sexual intercourse with the female captive given to him. [[Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah|Abu Ubaydah ibn Jarrah]] impregnated the slave girl he was given.{{sfn|Faizer|2013|p=462}}

A delegation from the Hawazin tribe came to Muhammad and sought the return of their captured families and property.{{sfn|Ibn Rashid|2015|p=68}}

Muhammad returned their women and children and their properties to them.{{sfn|Ibn Rashid|2015|p=68}} The girl who had been given to Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf was given a choice to stay with him or return to her family. She chose her family. Likewise, the girls given to Talha, Uthman, [[Abd Allah ibn Umar ibn al-Khattab|Ibn Umar]] and Safwan bin Umayya were also returned to their families.{{sfn|Faizer|2013|p=466}} Zaynab chose to return to her husband and cousin.{{sfn|Ibn al-Athir|1998}} However, the girl who had been given to [[Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas|Saad ibn Abi Waqas]] chose to stay with him. Uyanya had taken an old woman. Her son approached him to ransom her for 100 camels. The old woman asked her son why would he pay 100 camels when Uyanya would leave her anyway without taking ransom. This angered Uyanya.{{sfn|Faizer|2013|p=466}} Uyaynah had earlier said at the [[Siege of Ta'if]] that he only came to fight for Muhammad so he could get a [[Banu Thaqif|Thaqif girl]] and impregnate her so that she might bear him a son because Thaqif are clever (or fortunate) people.{{sfn|Al-Tabari|1990|p=25}}{{sfn|Faizer|2013|p=459}} When Umar told Muhammad about Uyayna's comment, Muhammad smiled and said "[The man exhibits] an acceptable foolishness".{{sfn|Al-Tabari|1990|p=26}}{{sfn|Faizer|2013|p=459}}

===Muhammad and enslaved women===
The early Islamic historical and biographical literature describes Muhammad as having had relationships with women who were enslaved or whose status as slaves was later disputed. These accounts distinguish between women whom the sources describe as wives and women whom they describe as slave-concubines (''sarāri'' or ''imāʾ''). Modern historians have noted that the terminology and status assigned to some of these women vary between sources.{{sfn|Hidayatullah|2010|pp=221–243}}{{sfn|Lecker|2024|pp=585–604}}

====Māriyya al-Qibṭiyya====
The most extensively discussed example is [[Māriyya al-Qibṭiyya|Māriyya al-Qibṭiyya]], a Coptic woman traditionally said to have been sent to Muhammad from Egypt together with her sister Sīrīn as part of a diplomatic gift. The early biographical tradition reports that Muhammad retained Māriyya for himself and gave Sīrīn to his companion [[Hassan ibn Thabit|Ḥassān ibn Thābit]].{{sfn|Hidayatullah|2010|pp=221–243}} Hidayatullah describes Māriyya in the historical tradition as a slave who became Muhammad's ''umm walad'' after bearing his son [[Ibrahim ibn Muhammad|Ibrāhīm]]. She also notes that the sources differ in how they describe Māriyya's legal status and that later accounts sometimes portray her as a wife rather than a concubine.{{sfn|Hidayatullah|2010|pp=221–243}}

The tradition therefore provides evidence for two distinct aspects of Muhammad's relationship to slavery: he is reported to have '''received an enslaved woman as a gift and retained her for himself''', and he is reported to have '''transferred her sister to another man'''. The sources do not establish that Muhammad sold Māriyya, and claims that he sold his own concubines should not be stated as fact without a specific source. The same distinction applies to the broader question of whether every woman associated with Muhammad as a captive or slave remained enslaved: some were reportedly manumitted and married.{{sfn|Hidayatullah|2010|pp=221–243}}

The traditional accounts also describe Māriyya as the mother of Muhammad's son Ibrāhīm. As an ''umm walad'', she occupied a legally distinct position from an ordinary slave woman in later Islamic jurisprudence: the status was associated with bearing a child acknowledged by the owner and generally restricted her subsequent sale, with manumission occurring upon the owner's death in the classical legal tradition.{{sfn|Brockopp|2000|pp=195–196}}{{sfn|Gordon|Hain|2017|p=328}}

====Rayḥāna bint Zayd====
[[Rayḥāna bint Zayd]] is another woman whose status in the sources is disputed. Some early and classical traditions describe her as a Jewish captive from the [[Banu Qurayza]] who became Muhammad's slave-concubine, while other traditions state that Muhammad freed and married her. A recent study by Michael Lecker describes Rayḥāna explicitly as one of Muhammad's concubines, while noting her place in the historical tradition.{{sfn|Lecker|2024|pp=585–604}} Because the sources disagree over whether she remained enslaved or became a wife, her status cannot be stated with certainty.

The Rayḥāna tradition is nevertheless important to the history of sexual slavery because it connects the capture of a woman in war, her incorporation into Muhammad's household, and the later distinction between slave-concubinage and marriage. The competing accounts also show why the status of individual women in the early Islamic sources cannot always be reconstructed with certainty.{{sfn|Lecker|2024|pp=585–604}}

====Ṣafiyya and Juwayriya====
[[Safiyya bint Huyayy|Ṣafiyya bint Ḥuyayy]] and [[Juwayriya bint al-Harith|Juwayriya bint al-Ḥārith]] were also captured in warfare and initially entered the distribution of captives. The standard Muslim biographical tradition, however, describes Muhammad as freeing and marrying them rather than retaining them as slave-concubines. Their stories are relevant because they illustrate the legal and social distinction between a female captive who remained enslaved and one who was manumitted and incorporated into the household through marriage.{{sfn|Hidayatullah|2010|pp=221–243}}

====Captive women and distribution====
Muhammad's role was not limited to women who remained in his own household. Accounts of the early conquests and the distribution of war booty describe captive women being allocated among Muslim fighters. The Hawazin episode, for example, records that Muhammad distributed captured women and children among his followers and that some recipients subsequently had sexual relations with the women they received.{{sfn|Faizer|2013|p=462}} The same sources report that Muhammad later returned many of the women and children to the Hawazin delegation.{{sfn|Faizer|2013|p=466}}

The evidence therefore supports describing Muhammad as participating in a system in which enslaved women could be acquired as captives, retained as concubines, received as gifts, and transferred to other men. It does not, however, support the stronger blanket claim that Muhammad personally sold his female concubines. The distinction matters because the early sources describe several different transactions—capture, gift, allocation as booty, manumission, marriage, and transfer—and the status of individual women changed between them.{{sfn|Hidayatullah|2010|pp=221–243}}{{sfn|Lecker|2024|pp=585–604}}

The existence of these reports also needs to be distinguished from the later development of Islamic jurisprudence. Kecia Ali's study of early Islamic legal texts shows that jurists treated marriage and concubinage as separate legal institutions, with concubinage being the other recognized legal relationship that made sexual relations licit. The legal tradition subsequently developed detailed rules concerning ownership, sexual access, children, manumission, and the status of an ''umm walad''.{{sfn|Ali|2010}}{{sfn|Ali|2017}}

===Umayyad Caliphate===
{{See also|Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate}}
The expansion of concubinage [[slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate|under the Umayyad period]] was motivated mainly by the [[Umayyad]] tribal desire for sons rather than sanction for it in the Quran and Prophetic practice.{{sfn|Robinson|2020|p=107}} Concubinage was allowed among the Sassanian elites and the Mazdeans but the children from such unions were not necessarily regarded as legitimate.{{sfn|Robinson|2020|p=96–97}} The position of Jewish communities is unclear although slave concubinage is mentioned in Biblical texts. Apparently, the practice had declined long before Muhammad. Some Jewish scholars during Islamic rule would forbid Jews from having sex with their female slaves.{{sfn|Robinson|2020|p=96–97}} Leo III in his letter to Umar II accused Muslims of "debauchery" with their concubines who they would sell "like dumb cattle" after having tired of using them.{{sfn|Robinson|2020|p=96–97}} One Umayyad ruler, [[Abd al-Rahman III]], was known to have possessed more than 6000 concubines.{{sfn|Clarence-Smith|2006|p=89}}

The ''hajin'' half-Arab sons of Muslim Arab men and their slave concubines were viewed differently depending on the ethnicity of their mothers. Abduh Badawi noted that "there was a consensus that the most unfortunate of the hajins and the lowest in social status were those to whom blackness had passed from their mothers", since a son of African mother more visibly recognizable as non-Arab than the son of a white slave mother, and consequently "son of a black woman" was used as an insult, while "son of a white woman" was used as a praise and as boasting.<ref>Lewis, B. (1990). Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry. Storbritannien: Oxford University Press. p. 40</ref>

===Abbasid Caliphate===
{{See also|Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate}}
The royals and nobles during the [[Abbasid Caliphate]] kept [[slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate|large numbers of concubines]]. The Caliph [[Harun al-Rashid]] possessed hundreds of concubines [[Abbasid harem|in his harem]]. The Caliph [[al-Mutawakkil]] was reported to have owned four thousand concubines.{{sfn|Clarence-Smith|2006|p=89}} Slaves for pleasure were costly and were a luxury for wealthy men. In his sex manual, Ali ibn Nasr promoted experimental sex with female slaves on the basis that free wives were respectable and would feel humiliated by the use of the sex positions described in his book because they show low esteem and a lack of love from the man.{{sfn|Myrne|2019|p=203}} Women preferred that their husbands keep concubines instead of taking a second wife. This was because a co-wife represented a greater threat to their position. Owning many concubines was perhaps more common than having several wives.{{sfn|Myrne|2019|p=206}}

The legal status of children born to slave women varied with the recognition of paternity and the development of the doctrine of the ''[[umm al-walad]]''.{{sfn|Hain|2017|p=328}}{{cite book|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery: Volume 2, AD 500–AD 1420|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2021|page=199}}
During the preceding Umayyad dynasty, sons born of wives and sons born of female slaves where not treated as equals: while the Umayyad Caliphs could acknowledge their sons with slave concubines, slave sons where not considered suitable as heirs to the throne until during the Abbasid dynasty.<ref>The Cambridge World History of Slavery: Volume 2, AD 500-AD 1420. (2021). Storbritannien: Cambridge University Press. p. 197</ref>
A number of Abbasid caliphs were acknowledged sons of slave concubines.{{cite book|title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery: Volume 2, AD 500–AD 1420|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2021|page=198}}
During the Abbasid era, appointing the acknowledged sons of slave concubines as heirs became common, and from the 9th-century onward, acquiring male heirs through a slave concubine became a common custom for Abbasid citizens.<ref>The Cambridge World History of Slavery: Volume 2, AD 500–AD 1420. (2021). Storbritannien: Cambridge University Press. p. 198</ref>

If a man choose to acknowledge the child of a female slave as his, the slave mother became an [[umm walad]]. This meant that they could no longer sold and were to become manumitted upon the death of their enslaver; during the first centuries of Islam, umm walad-slaves where still bought and sold and rented out until the death of their enslaver, but during the Abbasid era this slowly stopped.<ref>The Cambridge World History of Slavery: Volume 2, AD 500–AD 1420. (2021). Storbritannien: Cambridge University Press. p. 199</ref>

Female slaves were graded sexually depending on their race by contemporary slave dealers and authors. [[Jabir ibn Hayyan|Jābir ibn Ḥayyān]] wrote in the 9th-century:
:"Byzantines have cleaner vaginas than other female slaves have. Andalusians […] are the most beautiful, sweet-smelling and receptive to learning […] Andalusians and Byzantines have the cleanest vaginas, whereas Alans (Lāniyyāt) and Turks have unclean vaginas and get pregnant easier. They have also the worst dispositions. Sindhis, Indians, and Slavs (Ṣaqāliba) and those similar to them are the most condemned. They have uglier faces, fouler odor, and are more spiteful. Besides, they are unintelligent and difficult to control, and have unclean vaginas. East Africans (Zanj) are the most heedless and coarse. If one finds a beautiful, sound and graceful woman among them, however, no their species can match her. […] Women from Mecca (Makkiyāt) are the most beautiful and pleasurable of all types."<ref name="doi.org">Myrne, P. (2019). Slaves for Pleasure in Arabic Sex and Slave Purchase Manuals from the Tenth to the Twelfth Centuries. Journal of Global Slavery, 4(2), 196–225. https://doi.org/10.1163/2405836X-00402004</ref>

===Al-Andalus empires===
{{See also|Slavery in al-Andalus}}

In [[al-Andalus]], the concubines of the [[Almoravid]] and [[Almohad]] Muslim elite were usually non-Muslim women from the Christian areas of the [[Iberian Peninsula]]. Many of these had been captured in raids or wars and were then gifted to the elite Muslim soldiers as war booty or were [[Slavery in al-Andalus|sold as slaves]] in Muslim markets.{{sfn|Bennison|2016|p=155–156}} In Muslim society in general, [[monogamy]] was common because keeping multiple wives and concubines was not affordable for many households. The practice of keeping concubines was common in the Muslim upper class. Muslim rulers preferred having children with concubines because it helped them avoid the social and political complexities arising from marriage and kept their lineages separate from the other lineages in society.{{sfn|Bennison|2016|p=155–156}}

In the 11th century, Christian forces in al-Andalus captured Muslim women in turn, and included eight-year-old Muslim virgins as part of their war booty.{{sfn|Gleave|2015|p=171}} and kept them as concubines.{{sfn|Schaus|2006|p=593}} When [[Granada]] passed from Muslim rule to Christian rule, thousands of Moorish women were enslaved and trafficked to Europe.{{sfn|Capern|2019|p=22}} Muslim families tried to ransom their daughters, mothers and wives who had been captured and enslaved.{{sfn|Salzmann|2013|p=397}} For both Christians and Muslims, the capture of women from the other religion was a show of power, while the capture and sexual use of their own women by men of the other religion was a cause of shame.{{sfn|Bennison|2016|p=155–156}}

The most famous of the Andalusian harems was perhaps the harem of the [[Caliph of Córdoba]]. Except for the female relatives of the Caliph, the harem women consisted of his slave concubines. The slaves of the Caliph were often European [[saqaliba]] slaves trafficked from Northern or Eastern Europe. While male saqaliba could be given work in a number offices such as: in the kitchen, falconry, mint, textile workshops, the administration or the royal guard (in the case of harem guards, they were castrated), but female saqaliba were placed in the harem.<ref>{{cite book |first=Peter C. |last=Scales |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m-Wvg__iHPAC&pg=PA66 |page=66 |title=The Fall of the Caliphate of Córdoba: Berbers and Andalusis in Conflict |publisher=Brill |year=1993 |isbn=9789004098688}}</ref>

The harem could contain thousands of slave concubines; the harem of [[Abd al-Rahman I]] consisted of 6,300 women.<ref>{{cite book |title=Atlas of the Year 1000 |last=Man |first=John |year=1999 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=9780674541870 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j-CgtWP38nsC&pg=PA72 |page=72}}</ref> The [[saqaliba]] concubines were appreciated for their light skin.<ref name="Reference0">{{cite book |last=Ruiz |first=Ana |year=2007 |title=Vibrant Andalusia: The Spice of Life in Southern Spain |publisher=Algora Publishing |isbn=9780875865416 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qMBlwWbxq3kC&pg=PA35 |page=35}}</ref> The concubines ([[jawaris]]) were educated in accomplishments to make them attractive and useful for their master, and many became known and respected for their knowledge in a variety of subjects from music to medicine.<ref name="Reference0" />
A jawaris concubine who gave birth to a child attained the status of an ''[[umm walad]]'', and a favorite concubine was given great luxury and honorary titles such as in the case of Marjan, who gave birth to [[al-Hakam II]], the heir of [[Abd al-Rahman III]]; he called her ''al-sayyida al-kubra'' (great lady).<ref>{{cite book |last=Barton |first=Simon |year=2015 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=9780812292114 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kNouBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |page=1 |title=Conquerors, Brides, and Concubines: Interfaith Relations and Social Power in Medieval Iberia}}</ref>
Several concubines are described in the historical literature as having acquired political or social influence through their masters or sons, including [[Subh of Córdoba|Subh]] during the Caliphate of Córdoba and [[Isabel de Solís]] during the [[Emirate of Granada]].{{cite book|last=Barton|first=Simon|year=2015|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|title=Conquerors, Brides, and Concubines: Interfaith Relations and Social Power in Medieval Iberia}}

However, concubines were always slaves subjected the will of their master. Caliph Abd al-Rahman III is known to have executed two concubines for reciting what he saw as inappropriate verses, and tortured another concubine with a burning candle in her face while she was held by two eunuchs after she refused sexual intercourse.<ref name="1GMzy">Barton, S. (2015). Conquerors, Brides, and Concubines: Interfaith Relations and Social Power in Medieval Iberia. USA: University of Pennsylvania Press, Incorporated. p. 38</ref>
The concubines of [[Abu Marwan al-Tubni]] (d. 1065) were reportedly so badly treated that they conspired to murder him; women of the harem were also known to have been subjected to rape when rivaling factions conquered different palaces.<ref name="1GMzy" />

The rulers of the [[Nasrid dynasty]] of the [[Emirate of Granada]] (1232–1492) customarily married their cousins, but also kept [[Islamic views on concubinage|slave concubines]] in accordance with Islamic custom. The identity of these concubines is unknown, but they were originally Christian women (''rūmiyyas'') bought or captured in expeditions in the Christian states of Northern Spain, and given a new name when they entered the royal harem.<ref>GALLARDO, BARBARA BOLOIX. “Beyond the Haram: Ibn Al-Khatib and His Privileged Knowledge of Royal Nasrid Women .” Praising the ‘Tongue of Religion’: Essays in Honor of the 700th Anniversary of Ibn al-Khaṭīb’s Birth (2014): n. pag. Print.</ref>

===Ottoman Empire===
[[File:William Allan (1782-1850) - The Slave Market, Constantinople - NG 2400 - National Galleries of Scotland.jpg|thumb|right|William Allan (1782–1850) – The Slave Market, Constantinople – NG 2400 – National Galleries of Scotland]]
[[File:Titian - Portrait of a Woman (La Sultana Rossa).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Hurrem Sultan]] (Roxalena) was the "favorite concubine" of [[Suleiman the Magnificent]] and later his wife.{{sfn|Smith|2008}} Suleiman became monogamous with her, breaking Ottoman custom.{{sfn|Peirce|1993|p=59}}]]
[[File:Jules Laurens 14.jpg|thumb|''Women of the Harem'' by [[Jules Laurens]], circa 1847|alt=Painting of seated women, with man standing]]
[[File:Rosati harem-dance.jpg|thumb|right|The Harem Dance]]
{{Main|Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire#Ottoman_sexual_slavery|l1 = Sexual slavery in the Ottoman Empire|Black Sea slave trade|Circassian slave trade|Cariye}}

The [[Ottoman Sultans|Ottoman rulers]] would keep hundreds, even thousands, of concubines in the [[Imperial harem]]. Most slaves in the Ottoman harem comprised women who had been kidnapped from Christian lands via the [[Barbary slave trade]] or the [[Crimean slave trade]]. Some had been abducted during raids by the [[Tatars]] while others had been captured by maritime pirates.{{sfn|Ard Boone|2018|p=58}} Female war captives were often turned into concubines for the Ottoman rulers. Ambitious slave families associated with the palace would also frequently offer their daughters up as concubines.{{sfn|Rodriguez|2011|pp=203–204}} The most highly desired slave-concubines in the Muslim world were not African women, but white girls, typically of Circassian or Georgian origin. However, they were very expensive.{{sfn|Miers|1975|p=56}} Both Circassian and [[Georgians|Georgian]] women were systematically trafficked to eastern harems. This practice lasted into the 1890s.{{sfn|Rodriguez|2011|pp=203–204}}{{sfn|Yelbasi|2019|p=14}} [[Fynes Moryson]] noted that some Muslim men would keep their wives in various cities while others would keep them in a single house and would keep adding as many women as their lusts permitted. He wrote that "They buy free women to be their wives, or they buy 'conquered women' at a lesser price to be their concubines."{{sfn|Witte|2015|p=283}} Ottoman society had provided avenues for men who wished to have extramarital sex. They could either marry more wives while wealthy men could possess slaves and use them for sex.{{sfn|Kia|2011|p=206}}

Since the late 1300s, Ottoman sultans would only permit heirs born from concubines to inherit their throne. Each concubine was only permitted to have one son. Once a concubine would bear a son she would spend the rest of her life plotting in favour of her son. If her son was to successfully become the next Sultan, she would become an unquestionable ruler. After the 1450s, the Sultans stopped marrying altogether. Because of this there was great surprise when Sultan Sulayman fell in love with his concubine and married her. An Ottoman Sultan would have sexual relationships with only some women from his large collection of slave girls. This meant that a lot of the concubines were not given a family life if they were not desired by the Sultan. This effectively meant these women would have to spend the rest of their lives in virtual imprisonment. Some of these women would break the sharia by having [[Lesbian|homosexual]] relations.{{sfn|Clarence-Smith|2006|p=89}}

Research into Ottoman records show that polygamy was absent or rare in the 16th and 17th centuries.{{sfn|Irwin|2010|p=531}} Concubinage and polygamy were quite uncommon outside the elite. [[Goitein]] says that monogamy was a feature of the "progressive middle class" Muslims.{{sfn|Ahmed|1992|pp=107–}} In Sudan "By the Turco-Egyptian period, slave-owners represented a broad range of the socio-economic spectrum, and slave-owning was no longer a confine of the rich. A man of average wealth may have enjoyed the comfort that a few slaves brought, but would not have had a harem of the type mentioned above. Instead, in this context, the slave woman who baked the bread or looked after the children also may have received the master's sexual advances. Thus the average slave woman probably played a double role as labourer and concubine."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sharkey |first=Heather Jane |date=21 December 1992 |title=Domestic Slavery in the Nineteenth- and Early Twentieth-Century Northern Sudan |url=https://etheses.dur.ac.uk/5741/1/5741_3157.PDF |journal=Centre for Middle Eastern & Islamic Studies |publisher=University of Durham |pages=136 |via=Durham E-Theses}}</ref> Elite men were required to leave their wives and concubines if they wished to marry an Ottoman princess.{{sfn|Kia|2011|p=199}} Enslaved European men also narrated accounts of women who "apostasised". The life stories of these women were similar to [[Hurrem Sultan|Roxelana]], who rose from being a Christian slave-girl into the chief advisor of her husband, [[Suleiman the Magnificent|Sultan Suleyman]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. There are several accounts of such women of humble birth who associated with powerful Muslim men. While the associations were initially forced, the captivity gave women a taste for access to power. Diplomats wrote with disappointment about apostate women who wielded political influence over their masters-turned-husbands. Christian male slaves also recorded the presence of authoritative convert women in Muslim families. [[Christians|Christian]] women who converted to Islam and then became politically assertive and tyrannical were regarded by Europeans as traitors to the faith.<ref name="Fos57">{{harvnb|Foster|2009|pp=57–60}}</ref>

The Islamic Law formally prohibited prostitution. However, "Slave girls most probably were a part of the sex trade in the Ottoman Empire. Dellals used to sell women and girls to the bazaars, dellals presented men the girls, but after 1–2 days or a short time, after spending a day with women or children, the man returned them due to dissatisfaction. In Sharia law, this type of transaction was not an illegal action. Thus, the authorities had to use specific codes prohibiting the slavery, in the theoretical framework."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=BELLİ |first=BURCU |date=September 2020 |title=REGISTERED FEMALE PROSTITUTION IN THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE (1876–1909) |url=https://etd.lib.metu.edu.tr/upload/12625661/index.pdf |journal=Graduate School of Social Sciences, Thesis |publisher=Middle East Technical University |pages=58 |via=OpenMETU}}</ref>

====Armenian genocide====
{{Main|Slavery in the Ottoman Empire#Sexual_slavery_in_the_Armenian_genocide|l1 = Sexual Slavery in the Armenian genocide}}

During the [[Armenian genocide]], which climaxed around 1915–16, numerous Armenian women were raped and subjected to sexual slavery, with women forced into prostitution or forcibly married to non-Armenians,{{sfn|Demirdjian|2016|p=126}} or sold as sex slaves to military officials.{{sfn|Crawford|2017|p=13}} International reports at the time testified to the imprisonment of Armenian women as sex slaves and the complicity of the authorities in the setting up of slave markets and sale of Armenians.{{sfn|Connellan|Fröhlich|2017|p=141–142}}

===Arabia===
In late-1800s and early-1900s Arabia, "In theory, under Islamic law, children of female concubines had a legally recognized status as free descendants of their fathers. In practice, however, this was often not the case. Masters regularly exchanged female concubines, often for periods as brief as seven to ten days. In a number of cases, when the woman was discovered to be pregnant, she was given in marriage to a male slave and her child treated as the child of slaves. In other cases, the pregnant concubine was sold far away, where the child would not interfere with the father’s personal life."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hopper |first=Matthew S. |url=https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/52811/1/external_content.pdf |title=Sex, Power, and Slavery |date=2014 |publisher=Ohio University Press |isbn=978-0-8214-4490-0 |editor-last=Campbell |editor-first=Gwyn |location=Athens, Ohio |pages=175 |language=en |chapter=Slavery, Family Life, and the African Diaspora in the Arabian Gulf, 1880–1940 |editor-last2=Elbourne |editor-first2=Elizabeth}}</ref>

===South Asia===
===Delhi Sultanate===
{{See also|Slavery in the Delhi Sultanate}}
The [[Delhi Sultanate|Muslim Sultanates]] in India before the Mughal Empire captured large numbers of non-Muslims from the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]]. The children of Muslim masters and non-Muslim concubines would be raised as Muslims.{{sfn|Hardy|1972|p=9}} When Muslims would surround [[Rajput]] citadels, the Rajput women would commit [[jauhar]] (collective suicide) to save themselves from being dishonoured by their enemies. In 1296 approximately 16,000 women committed jauhar to save themselves from [[Alauddin Khalji]]'s army.{{sfn|Roy|2012|p=182}} Rajput women would commit it when they saw that defeat and enslavement was imminent for their people. In 1533, in [[Chittorgarh]] nearly 13,000 women and children killed themselves instead of being taken captive by [[Bahadur Shah of Gujarat|Bahadur Shah]]'s army.{{sfn|Kitts|2018|p=143–144}} For them rape was the worst form of humiliation. Rajputs practised jauhar mainly when their opponents were Muslims.{{sfn|Naravane|1999|p=45}}

===Timurids===
Historical records show that numerous royal concubines of the [[Timurid harem]] were not slaves, but free women from prestigious Muslim families.{{sfn|Hamid|2017|p=190}} The reason for that is men were only allowed a maximum of four wives,{{sfn|Hamid|2017|p=192}} so instead they would secure additional marital alliances through concubinage instead. Likewise 15th-century texts from the region advise princes to seek marital alliances through unions with noble women as opposed to with a female slave.{{sfn|Hamid|2017|p=192}} Taking free women as concubines was condemned by some contemporaries.{{sfn|Hamid|2017|p=193}}

===Mughal Empire===
{{See also|Slavery in the Mughal Empire}}
[[File:Akbar_und_die_T%C3%A4nzerinnen_von_Baz_Bahadur.jpg|thumb|right|Women perform for the Mughal Emperor [[Akbar]]]]
Under the [[Mughal Empire]], the royalty and nobility kept concubines in addition to wives.{{sfn|Sharma|2016|p=57–59}} While concubines are often a feature of royal households, Mughal harems stood out for their elaborateness, size and pomp.{{sfn|Bano|1999|p=354}} [[Francisco Pelsaert|Francisco Pelseart]] describes that noblemen kept both wives and concubines, who lived in extravagant quarters.{{sfn|Lal|2005|p=40}} Early [[Mughal Harem|Mughal harem]]s were small, but [[Akbar]] had a harem of more than 5000 women and [[Aurangzeb]]'s harem was even larger.{{sfn|Bano|1999|p=354}} Mughals attempted to suppress slavery, with emperor Akbar forbidding enslavement of women and children in 1562, prohibiting slave trade, and freeing thousands of his own slaves.{{sfn|Clarence-Smith|2006|p=90}} However, Akbar was not always consistent and may have kept his own concubines.{{sfn|Clarence-Smith|2006|p=90}} After Akbar's death there was a return to older patterns, such as [[Jahangir]] taking the wives and daughters of a rebel into his harem and soldiers enslaving women from rebellious villages,{{sfn|Bano|1999|p=354}} but the sale of slaves remained banned.{{sfn|Clarence-Smith|2006|p=91}} [[Ahmad Shah Durrani|Ahmad Shah Abdali's]] army captured Maratha women to fill Afghan harems.{{sfn|Singh|2006|p=68}} The Sikhs attacked Abdali and rescued 2,000 Maratha girls.{{sfn|Singh|2015|p=78}} Ovington, a voyager who wrote about his journey to [[Surat]], stated that Muslim men had an "extraordinary liberty for women" and kept as many concubines as they could afford.{{sfn|Sharma|2016|p=57–59}} The nobles in India could possess as many concubines as they wanted.{{sfn|Bano|1999|p=357}} Ismail Quli Khan, a Mughal noble, possessed 1200 girls. Another nobleman, Said, had many wives and concubines from whom he fathered 60 sons in just four years.{{sfn|Bano|1999|p=361}}

Lower class Muslims were generally monogamous. Since they hardly had any rivals, women of the lower and middle class sections of society fared better than upper-class women who had to contend with their husbands' other wives, slave-girls and concubines.{{sfn|Sharma|2016|p=61}} A wife could enforce that her husband remain monogamous, by stipulating in the [[Islamic marriage contract]] that the husband was not allowed to take another wife or concubine. Such conditions were "commonplace" among middle-class Muslims in [[Surat]] in the 1650s.{{sfn|Faroqhi|2019|p=244}}

There is no evidence that concubinage was practiced in [[Kashmir]] where, unlike the rest of the medieval Muslim world, slavery was abhorred and not widespread. Except for the Sultans, there is no evidence that the [[Kashmiris|Kashmiri]] nobility or merchants kept slaves.{{sfn|Hasan|2005|p=244}} In medieval [[Punjab]] the Muslim peasants, artisans, small tradesmen, shopkeepers, clerks and minor officials could not afford concubines or slaves,{{sfn|Gandhi|2007|p=19}} but the Muslim nobility of medieval Punjab, such as the [[Khan (title)|Khans]] and Maliks, kept concubines and slaves. Female slaves were used for concubinage in many wealthy Muslim households of Punjab.{{sfn|Grewal|1998|p=11–12}}

Colonial court cases from 19th-century Punjab show that the courts recognised the legitimate status of children born to Muslim [[zamindar]]s (landlords) from their concubines.{{sfn|Tremlett|1869|pp=244–}} The Muslim rulers of Indian [[princely state]]s, such as the [[Nawab of Junagadh]], also kept slave girls.{{sfn|Chattopadhyay|1959|p=126}} The [[Sadeq Mohammad Khan V|Nawab of Bahawalpur]], according to a Pakistani journalist, kept 390 concubines. He only had sex with most of them once.{{sfn|Weiss|2004|p=190}} [[Maratha (caste)|Marathas]] captured during their wars with the Mughals had been given to the soldiers of the Mughal Army from the Baloch [[Bugti]] tribe. The descendants of these captives became known as "Mrattas" and their women were traditionally used as concubines by the Bugtis. They became equal citizens of [[Pakistan]] in 1947.{{sfn|Lieven|2012|p=362}}

==Abolition of slavery==
While classical [[Sharia|Islamic law]] permitted slavery, the abolition movement starting in the late 18th century in England and later in other Western countries influenced slavery in Muslim lands both in doctrine and in practice.{{sfn|Brunschvig|1960|p=26}} According to Smith "the majority of the faithful eventually accepted abolition as religiously legitimate and an Islamic consensus against slavery became dominant", though this continued to be disputed by some literalists.{{sfn|Clarence-Smith|2006|pp=219–221}}{{sfn|Brockopp|2006|p=60}}

During the 20th century, the issue of chattel slavery was addressed and investigated globally by international bodies created by the [[League of Nations]] and the United Nations, such as the [[Temporary Slavery Commission]] in 1924–1926, the [[Committee of Experts on Slavery]] in 1932, and the [[Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery]] in 1934–1939.<ref name="Miers, S. 2003">Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. USA: AltaMira Press.</ref>
By the time of the UN [[Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery]] in 1950–1951, legal chattel slavery still existed only in the Arabian Peninsula: [[Slavery in Oman|in Oman]], [[Slavery in Qatar|in Qatar]], [[Slavery in Saudi Arabia|in Saudi Arabia]], [[Slavery in the Trucial States|in the Trucial States]] and [[Slavery in Yemen|in Yemen]].<ref name="Miers, S. 2003" /> Legal chattel slavery was finally abolished in the Arabian Peninsula in the 1960s: Saudi Arabia and Yemen in 1962, in Dubai in 1963, and Oman as the last in 1970.<ref name="Miers, S. 2003" />

The big royal harems in the Muslim world begun to dissolve in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, often due to either abolition or modernization of the Muslim monarchies, where the royal women where given a public role and no longer lived in seclusion. The [[Ottoman Imperial Harem|Ottoman Imperial harem]], the [[harem of the Muhammad Ali dynasty]] of Egypt, as well as the [[Qajar harem]] of Persia where all dissolved in the early 20th century. In other cases, the custom lasted longer. Chattel slavery, and thus the existence of secluded harem concubines, lasted longer in some Islamic states. The report of the [[Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery]] (ACE) about [[Hadhramaut]] in Yemen in the 1930s described the existence of Chinese girls ([[Mui tsai]]) trafficked from Singapore for enslavement as concubines,<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. 270</ref> and the King and Imam of Yemen, [[Ahmad bin Yahya]] (r. 1948–1962), were reported to have had a harem of 100 slave women.<ref>LIFE – 19 February 1965 – page 98</ref>
Sultan [[Said bin Taimur]] of Oman (r. 1932–1970) reportedly owned around 500 slaves, an estimated 150 of whom were women, who were kept at his palace at Salalah.<ref>Cobain, Ian, The history thieves: secrets, lies and the shaping of a modern nation, Portobello Books, London, 2016</ref>

In the 20th century, women and girls for the harem market in the Arabian Peninsula were kidnapped not only from Africa and Baluchistan, but also from the Trucial States, the Nusayriyah Mountains in Syria, and the Aden Protectorate.<ref>Emancipating “The Unfortunates”: The Anti-slavery Society, the United States, the United Nations, and the Decades-Long Fight to Abolish the Saudi Arabian Slave Trade. DeAntonis, Nicholas J. Fordham University ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2021. 28499257. p. 1–3</ref>In 1943, it was reported that Baluchi girls were shipped via Oman to Mecca, where they were popular as concubines since Caucasian girls were no longer available, and were sold for $350–450.<ref>Miers, Suzanne (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Rowman Altamira. ISBN 978-0-7591-0340-5. p. 304–307</ref>
Harem concubines existed in Saudi Arabia until the very end of the abolition of [[slavery in Saudi Arabia]] in 1962. [[King Abdulaziz of Saudi Arabia]] (r. 1932–1953) are known to have had a harem of twenty-two women, many of them concubines.<ref>Illahi, M. (2018). Doctrine of Terror: Saudi Salafi Religion. Australien: FriesenPress. p.119–120</ref> Baraka Al Yamaniyah (died 22 August 2018), for example, was the [[concubinage in Islam|concubine]] of King Abdulaziz of Saudi Arabia (r. 1932–1953) and the mother of [[Muqrin bin Abdulaziz]] (born 1945), who was [[crown prince of Saudi Arabia]] in 2015.<ref>{{cite news|title=Proud of trust reposed in me by King: Muqrin|url=http://www.saudigazette.com.sa/index.cfm?method=home.regcon&contentid=20130202151557|accessdate=2 February 2013|newspaper=Saudi Gazette|date=2 February 2013|author=Abdullah Al Harthi|author2=Khaled Al Faris|location=Jeddah and Riyadh|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102140125/http://www.saudigazette.com.sa/index.cfm?method=home.regcon&contentid=20130202151557|archive-date=2 November 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=Simon Henderson|title=Who Will Be the Next King of Saudi Arabia?|url=https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/view/who-will-be-the-next-king-of-saudi-arabia|accessdate=2 April 2013|newspaper=The Washington Institute|date=13 February 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Riedel |first=Bruce |date=2013-02-03 |title=With Prince Muqrin's Appointment, Saudi Succession Crisis Looms |language=en |work=The Daily Beast |url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2013/02/03/with-prince-muqrin-s-appointment-saudi-succession-crisis-looms |access-date=2023-04-09}}</ref>
In August 1962, the king's son Prince Talal stated that he had decided to free his 32 slaves and fifty slave concubines.<ref>Suzanne Miers: Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem, p. 348–49</ref>

After the abolition of slavery in Saudi Arabia in 1962, the [[Anti-Slavery International]] and the [[Friends World Committee for Consultation|Friends World Committee]] expressed their appreciation over the emancipation edict of 1962, but did ask if any countries would be helped to find their own nationals in Saudi harems who might want to return home; this was a very sensitive issue, since there was an awareness that women were enslaved as [[concubinage in Islam|concubines (sex slaves)]] in the seclusion of the harems, and that there were no information as to whether the abolition of slavery had affected them.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. USA: AltaMira Press. p. 362</ref>

Colonial governments and independent [[Islamic state|Muslim states]] restricted slave raids and the slave trade in response to pressure from Western liberals and nascent Muslim abolitionist movements. Eliminating slavery was an even more difficult task. Many [[Muslims|Muslim]] governments had refused to sign the international treaties against slavery which the [[League of Nations]] was co-ordinating since 1926. This refusal was also an issue at the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights|1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] and at the [[Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery|1956 Anti-Slavery Convention]].{{sfn|Clarence-Smith|2006|p=11}} It was mostly because of the pressure from [[European colonial powers]] and economic changes that slavery was abolished. While the institution was eventually abolished, there was no internally well-developed Islamic narrative against slave-ownership.{{sfn|Ali|2015a|p=53–54}}

In the 1830s, a group of ''ulama'' led by Waji al-Din Saharanpuri issued a ''[[fatwa]]'' that it was lawful to enslave even those men and women "who sought refuge" after battle. [[Sayyid|Sayyed]] Imdad Ali Akbarabadi led ''ulama'' in publishing a lot of material in defence of traditional kinds of slavery. Sayyid Muhammad Askari condemned the idea of abolishing slavery.{{sfn|Clarence-Smith|2006|p=135}} In the 19th century, some ''ulama'' in [[Cairo]] refused to allow slave girls, who had been freed under secular law, to marry unless they had obtained permission from their owner. After 1882 the Egyptian ''ulama'' refused to prohibit slavery on the grounds that the [[Muhammad|Prophet]] had never forbidden it. In 1899 a scholar from [[Al-Azhar University|Al-Azhar]], Shaykh Muhammad Ahmad al-Bulayqi implicitly defended concubinage and refuted modernist arguments.<ref name="Cla138">{{harvnb|Clarence-Smith|2006|pp=138–141}}</ref> Most ''ulama'' in [[West Africa]] opposed abolition. They ruled that concubinage was still allowed with women of slave descent.<ref name="Cla144">{{harvnb|Clarence-Smith|2006|pp=144–147}}</ref>

{{quote box
| align = right
| width = 34%
| style = min-width:15em
| quote = Female slavery, being a condition necessary to the legality of this coveted indulgence [concubinage], will never be put down, with a willing or hearty co-operation by any Mussalman community.
| source = William Muir, ''Life of Mahomet''.{{sfn|Powell|2006|p=277–278}}
}}

[[Ehud R. Toledano]] states that abolitionist views were very rare in Muslim societies and that there was no indigenous abolitionist narrative in the Muslim world. According to Toledano, the first anti-slavery views came from [[Syed Ahmad Khan]] in the subcontinent. The next anti-slavery texts are to be found, from the 1920s onwards, in the works of non-''ulema'' who were writing outside the realm of Islamic tradition and ''[[Sharia]]h''. According to Amal Ghazal, the abolitionist stances of modernist ''[[Ulama|ulema]]'' in [[Egypt]] such as [[Muhammad Abduh|Muhammad 'Abduh]] and his disciples were strongly opposed by the majority of Islamic jurists. While 'Abduh took a stand in favour of abolition, he noted that only a gradualist approach, which encouraged manumission, would work because slavery itself was sanctioned in Islamic law.{{sfn|Toledano|2013|p=121–123}}

While in the late 19th century some [[India]]n [[Islamic modernism|Muslim modernists]] had rejected the legitimacy of [[slavery in Islam]], a reformist take on slavery was a part of regenerated Indian Muslim thinking in the 1860s and 1870s.{{sfn|Powell|2006|p=262–264}} Syed Ahmad Khan and [[Syed Ameer Ali]] were primarily concerned with refuting Western criticism of Islamic slavery. However, they did not directly refute the European criticism about female slavery and concubinage.{{sfn|Powell|2006|p=269}} According to Dilawar Husain Ahmad, [[Polygyny in Islam|polygamy]] and [[Concubinage in Islam|concubinage]] were responsible for "Muslim decline".<ref name="Pow275">{{harvnb|Powell|2006|p=275}}</ref> [[Chiragh Ali]] denied the [[Qur'anic]] permission for concubinage. However, he accepted [[William Muir]]'s view that Muslims would not abandon female slavery willingly, but he asserted that Islamic jurists did not allow concubinage with the female slaves being imported from Africa, [[Central Asia]] and Georgia in that time. However, he did not specify who these Islamic jurists were.{{sfn|Powell|2006|p=277–278}} Syed Ahmad Khan was opposed by the ''[[ulama]]'' on a number of issues, including his views on slavery.<ref name="Pow275" />

In 1911, one ''[[Qadi]]'' in [[Mombasa]] ruled that no government can free a slave without the owner's permission. [[J. Spencer Trimingham|Spencer Trimingham]] observed that in coastal Arab areas masters continued to take concubines from slave families because the descendants of slaves are still considered to be enslaved under religious law even if they had been freed according to secular law.<ref name="Cla144" /> The [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] ''ulama'' maintained the permissibility of slavery due to its Islamic legal sanction. They rejected demands by [[Young Ottomans]] for ''fatwas'' to ban slavery.<ref name="Cla138" />

In [[Pakistan]], where the [[Deobandi]] Islamic revivalist movement is prevalent, the ''ulama'' called for the revival of slavery in 1947. The wish to enslave enemies and take concubines was noted in the [[Punjab Disturbances Court of Inquiry|Munir Commission Report]]. When [[Zia ul Haq]] came to power in 1977 and started applying ''[[sharia]]'', some argued that the reward for freeing slaves meant that slavery should not be abolished "since to do so would be to deny future generations the opportunity to commit the virtuous deed of freeing slaves."{{sfn|Clarence-Smith|2006|p=189}} Similarly, many ''ulama'' in [[Mauritania]] did not recognise the legitimacy of abolishing slavery. In 1981 a group of ''ulama'' argued that only owners could free their slaves and that the Mauritanian government was breaking a fundamental religious rule. In 1997 one Mauritanian scholar stated that abolition:<ref name="Cla144" />

<blockquote>... is contrary to the teachings of the fundamental text of Islamic law, the Koran... [and] amounts to the expropriation from Muslims of their goods, goods that were acquired legally. The state, if it is Islamic, does not have the right to seize my house, my wife or my slave.</blockquote>

The translator of [[Ibn Kathir]]'s treatise on slaves, Umar ibn Sulayman Hafyan, felt obliged to explain why he published a slave treatise when [[slavery]] no longer exists. He states that just because slavery no longer exists does not mean that the laws about slavery have been abrogated. Moreover, slavery was only abolished half a century ago and could return in the future. His comments were a reflection of the predicament modern Muslims find themselves in.{{sfn|Majied|2017|p=304}}

===Africa===

===Islamic Egypt===
[[File:A_slave_market_in_Cairo-David_Roberts.jpg|thumb|right|A slave market in [[Cairo]], issued between 1845 and 1849, by [[David Roberts (painter)]] ]]
{{See also|Slavery in Egypt}}

The consorts of the Caliphs of the [[Fatimid Caliphate]] (909–1171) were originally slave-girls whom the Caliph either married or used as [[concubinage in Islam|concubines (sex slaves)]].<ref>Cortese, Delia; Calderini, Simonetta (2006). Women And the Fatimids in the World of Islam. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 0748617329.</ref> The concubines in the [[Fatimid harem]] were in most cases of Christian origin, described as beautiful singers, dancers and musicians; they were often the subject of love poems, but also frequently accused of manipulating the Caliph.{{sfn|Cortese|Calderini|2006|p=76}}

The consorts of the Sultans of the [[Bahri dynasty]] (1250–1382) were originally slave girls. The female slaves were supplied to the [[Bahri harem]] by the slave trade as children; they could be trained to perform as singers and dancers in the harem, and some were selected to serve as [[concubinage in Islam|concubines (sex slaves)]] of the Sultan, who in some cases chose to marry them.<ref name="Fu6kl">Levanoni, A. (2021). A Turning Point in Mamluk History: The Third Reign of Al-Nāsir Muḥammad Ibn Qalāwūn (1310-1341). Nederländerna: Brill. p. 184</ref>

During the [[Burji dynasty]] (1382–1517) the ruler of the Mamluk Sultanate often married free Muslim women of the Mamluk nobility. However, the Burji harem, as its predecessor, maintained the custom of slave concubinage, with [[Circassian slave trade|Circassian slave girls]] being popular as concubines in the [[Burji harem]].<ref name="dyntran.hypotheses.org">Albrecht Fuess, “How to marry right: Searching for a royal spouse at the Mamluk court of Cairo in the fifteenth century”, DYNTRAN Working Papers, n° 21, online edition, February 2017, available at: https://dyntran.hypotheses.org/1761</ref>
Sultan [[Qaitbay]] (r. 1468–1496) had a favorite Circassian slave concubine, [[Aṣalbāy]], who became the mother of Sultan [[Al-Nasir Muhammad]] (r. 1496–1498) and later married Sultan [[Al-Ashraf Janbalat]] (r. 1500–1501).<ref name="dyntran.hypotheses.org" />
Her daughter-in-law, Miṣirbāy (d. 1522), a former Circassian slave concubine, married in succession Sultan [[Al-Nasir Muhammad]] (r. 1496–1498), sultan [[Abu Sa'id Qansuh]] (r. 1498–1500), and in 1517 the Ottoman Governor [[Hayır Bey|Khā’ir Bek]].<ref name="dyntran.hypotheses.org" />

The Mamluk governor of [[Baghdad]], Umar Pasha, died childless because his wife prevented him from having a concubine.{{sfn|Clarence-Smith|2006|p=81}} Writing in the early 18th century, one visitor noted that from among the Ottoman courtiers, only the imperial treasurer kept female slaves for sex and others thought of him as a lustful person.{{sfn|Kia|2011|p=199}}

[[Edward William Lane|Edward Lane]], who visited Egypt in the 1830s, noted that very few Egyptian men were polygamous and most of the men with only one wife did not keep concubines, usually for the sake of domestic peace. However, some kept Abyssinian slaves who were less costly than maintaining a wife. While white slave-girls would be in the keep of wealthy Turks, the concubines kept by upper and middle class Egyptians were usually Abyssinians.{{sfn|Lewis|1992|p=74}}

The [[harem of the Muhammad Ali dynasty]] of the [[Khedivate of Egypt]] (1805–1914) was modelled after Ottoman example, the khedives being the Egyptian [[viceroy]]s of the Ottoman sultans. [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali]] was appointed vice roy of Egypt in 1805, and by Imperial Ottoman example assembled a harem of slave concubines in the Palace Citadel of Cairo.{{sfn|Cuno|2015|pp=31–32}}

Similar to the [[Ottoman Imperial Harem|Ottoman Imperial harem]], the harem of the khedive was modelled on a system of [[polygyny]] based on slave concubinage, in which each wife or concubine was limited to having one son.{{sfn|Cuno|2015|pp=20, 31}} The women harem slaves mostly came from [[Caucasus]] via the [[Circassian slave trade]] and were referred to as "white".{{sfn|Cuno|2015|pp=20, 25}}
A minority of the slave women were selected to become the personal servants (concubines) of the khedive, often selected by his mother:{{sfn|Cuno|2015|p=34}} they could become his wives, and would become free as an [[umm walad]] (or ''mustawlada'') if they had children with their enslaver.{{sfn|Cuno|2015|p=24}}
However, the majority of the slave women served as domestics to his mother and wives.{{sfn|Cuno|2015|pp=20, 42}}
The enslaved female servants of the khedivate harem were manumitted and married off with a trosseau in strategic marriages to the male freedmen or slaves (''kul'' or ''mamluk'') who were trained to become officers and civil servants as freedmen, in order to ensure the fidelity of their husband's to the khedive when they began their military or state official career.{{sfn|Cuno|2015|pp=20, 26–27}}
The Egyptian elite of bureaucrat families, who emulated the khedive, had similar harem customs, and it was noted that it was common for Egyptian upper-class families to have slave women in their harem, which they manumitted to marry off to male protegees.{{sfn|Cuno|2015|pp=20, 26–27}}

===Barbary Coast===
{{See also|Barbary slave trade|Slavery in Morocco|Slavery in Algeria|Slavery in Tunisia|Slavery in Libya}}
During [[Barbary pirate]] raids, Muslims enslaved an estimated 50–75,000 Christian women from Europe. Muslims took the slaves of non-Muslims when they won in battle.{{sfn|Capern|2019|p=22}}<ref name="Fos57" /> Many such women were consigned to household service, with some European concubines achieved significant political power through their masters. For example, one 17th-century British diplomat reported that a European concubine had become the ''de facto'' ruler of the city state of Algiers.<ref name="Fos57" />{{vague|date=January 2022}}
This refer to [[Mohammed Trik]], the [[Dey]] of [[Regency of Algiers|Algiers]], who in an English report from 1676 is noted to have been married to his former slave concubine, described as a "cunning covetous English woman, who would sell her soule for a Bribe", with whom the English viewed it as "chargeable to bee kept in her favour... for Countrysake".<ref>Bekkaoui, Khalid., White women captives in North Africa. Narratives of enslavement, 1735–1830, Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, 2010, p. 172</ref>

European accounts typically condemned European concubines who converted to Islam as apostates, while praising women who bravely resisted the "depravity" of their Muslim masters.<ref name="Fos57" /> This kind of writing would later give rise to the "harem fantasy" in 19th-century [[orientalism]].<ref name="Fos57" /> French general [[Thomas Robert Bugeaud]] wrote that children of concubines in Algeria were treated the same as other children and slaves enjoyed the same lifestyle as their owners.<ref>{{cite book|title=Slavery and Colonial Rule in Africa|editor=Martin A. Klein, Suzanne Miers|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|page=39|year=2013|quote='They enjoy the same lifestyle; they are only rarely mistreated, the Arabs often marry black women, and children born of concubines are treated exactly as the others.'}}</ref>

In Morocco, most slaves were black,{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}} and the 19th-century American journalist [[Stephen Bonsal]] remarked that high ranking Moroccan officials were sons of black concubines.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}} Most Moroccan men remained monogamous as it was too expensive to have a concubine (or second wife),<ref>{{cite book|title=The Conquest of Morocco: A History|author=|page=34|publisher=[[Farrar, Straus and Giroux]]|year=2005}}</ref> while wealthy Moroccan men took concubines, and the sultans had large harems.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}

===Zanzibar===
{{See also|Slavery in Zanzibar}}
[[Richard Francis Burton]] wrote "Public prostitutes are here few, and the profession ranks low where the classes upon which it depends can always afford to gratify their propensities in the slave-market."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Burton |first=Richard Francis |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/69270/pg69270-images.html |title=ZANZIBAR: CITY, ISLAND, AND COAST. IN TWO VOLUMES. VOL. I. |date=1872 |publisher=TINSLEY BROTHERS |location=LONDON |pages=380 |language=en}}</ref> Abdul Sheriff writes that the foregoing suggests "the easy availability of slave secondary wives affected even the oldest profession."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sheriff |first=Abdul |url=https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/52811/1/external_content.pdf |title=Sex, Power, and Slavery |date=2014 |publisher=Ohio University Press |isbn=978-0-8214-4490-0 |editor-last=Campbell |editor-first=Gwyn |location=Athens, Ohio |pages=101 |language=en |chapter=Suria: Concubine or Secondary Slave Wife? The Case of Zanzibar in the Nineteenth Century |editor-last2=Elbourne |editor-first2=Elizabeth}}</ref>

In 1844 the British Consul noted that there were 400 free Arab women and 800 men in Zanzibar and "the puritanical first American consul, Richard Waters, recorded in his journal in 1837 that he lectured Zanzibaris that “they commit adultery and fornication by keeping three to four, and sometimes six and eight concubines,” and [[Said bin Sultan|Seyyid Said]] told the British consul, “Arabs won’t work; they must have slaves and concubines.”"<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sharif |first=Abdul |url=https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/52811/1/external_content.pdf |title=Sex, Power, and Slavery |date=2014 |publisher=Ohio University Press |isbn=978-0-8214-4490-0 |editor-last=Campbell |editor-first=Gwyn |location=Athens, Ohio |pages=103 |language=en |chapter=Suria: Concubine or Secondary Slave Wife? The Case of Zanzibar in the Nineteenth Century |editor-last2=Elbourne |editor-first2=Elizabeth}}</ref>

Additionally "It is widely believed that the only wife of [[Barghash bin Said of Zanzibar|Sultan Barghash of Zanzibar]] (r. 1870–88) had made a compact with her husband that he could enjoy as many sarari as he wished but that none of their offspring would be recognized as legitimate. And it is true that all his children issued from his only free wife, although he is known to have had dozens of sarari. According to one of them, a pregnant suria was thrown out of the palace as soon as she conceived, which was illegal according to Islamic law."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sheriff |first=Abdul |url=https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/52811/1/external_content.pdf |title=Sex, Power, and Slavery |date=2014 |publisher=Ohio University Press |isbn=978-0-8214-4490-0 |editor-last=Campbell |editor-first=Gwyn |location=Athens, Ohio |pages=103 |language=en |chapter=Suria: Concubine or Secondary Slave Wife? The Case of Zanzibar in the Nineteenth Century |editor-last2=Elbourne |editor-first2=Elizabeth}}</ref>

===Somalia===
{{Main|Slavery in Somalia}}
Concubinage in [[Somalia]] has been documented since the Middle Ages. The Somali port of [[Zeila]] was the site of an important slave market where enslaved Abyssinian Ethiopian women, including concubines, were sold.<ref name=":40">{{Cite book |last=Freamon|first=Bernard K.|title=Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures|date=2019-05-20|publisher=BRILL|pages=259–260|language=en}}</ref><ref>Vallet, Éric. « Chapitre 6. Entre mer rouge et golfe d’Aden, l’inégale mainmise des rasūlides sur les espaces et les échanges côtiers ». ''L’Arabie marchande'', Éditions de la Sorbonne, 2010,</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Harold D. Nelson|first=Library of Congress Federal Research Division|title=Somalia: A Country Study|date=1993|publisher=The Division|pages=5|language=en}}</ref><ref name="tegegne">{{cite journal |date=December 2016|at=Article 5|volume=2|number=2|last1=Tegegne|first1=Habtamu M.|title=The Edict of King Gälawdéwos Against the Illegal Slave Trade in Christians: Ethiopia, 1548|journal=The Medieval Globe|publisher=Western Michigan University|url=https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1025&context=tmg|access-date=12 June 2023}}</ref> Chinese [[Ming dynasty]] records also document the 15th-century Sultan of Mogadishu as having multiple concubines.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chin |first=Elizabeth Yee Yin |title=Geographical Aspects of Chinese Contacts with East Africa During the Medieval Period |date=1980 |publisher=University of London |pages=141 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Filesi |first=Teobaldo |url=https://www.google.be/books/edition/China_and_Africa_in_the_Middle_Ages/255OEQAAQBAJ?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=(the+Emperor)+ordered+(Cheng)+Ho+to+accompany+them+to+present+flowered+silk+to+the+king+and+to+his+concubines.&pg=PT50&printsec=frontcover |title=China and Africa in the Middle Ages |date=2025-05-08 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-040-33879-7 |language=en}}</ref>

In 19th century [[Somalia]], slave-raids were launched on the neighboring [[Oromo people]], with most men killed and women and children taken into slavery. Oromo women, valued for their beauty, were kept as concubines.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Besteman|first=Catherine|title=Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery|date=2014-01-27|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|pages=82|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ahmed|first=Ali Jimale|title=The Invention of Somalia|date=1995|publisher=The Red Sea Press|pages=46|language=en}}</ref> Young [[Oromo people|Oromo]] concubines were much sought after and were referred to as suriya/sorije.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.google.be/books/edition/Northeast_African_Studies/3ndMAQAAMAAJ?hl=fr&gbpv=1&bsq=oromo+girls+sorije&dq=oromo+girls+sorije&printsec=frontcover|title=Northeast African Studies|date=2003|publisher=African Studies Center, Michigan State University|pages=54|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Translocal Links and Women Slaves in Nineteenth-Century Somalia|url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789004365988/BP000005.xml?srsltid=AfmBOoqxIass4E9kFLK2EkjpblQaalaI3DIXOGICOKywIvtMDCglTu00|access-date=2026-02-13|website=brill.com}}</ref> Concubines of [[Oromo people|Oromo]] origin could more easily acquire important roles within a household after having borne children for the master. In plantations along the [[Shebelle River]], enslaved concubines (''suriya'') often occupied a key supervisory role within plantation households. Because of the sexual or marital bond with their owners, they were regarded as more trustworthy than other enslaved workers and were sometimes placed in charge of overseeing labour and production.<ref name=":5" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Declich|first=Francesca|date=2003|title=Dynamics of Intermingling Gender and Slavery in Somalia at the Turn of the Twentieth Century|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41931239|journal=Northeast African Studies|volume=10|issue=3|page=62|issn=0740-9133}}</ref> [[Oromo people|Oromo]] women captured by the [[Marehan]] Somalis could reportedly gain equal status to other wives if they became pregnant with their master's child.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Declich|first=Francesca|date=2000|title=Fostering Ethnic Reinvention: Gender Impact of Forced Migration on Bantu Somali Refugees in Kenya (Invention de l'ethnicité et modification des rapports de genre chez les réfugiés somali du Kénya)|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4393013|journal=Cahiers d'Études Africaines|volume=40|issue=157|pages=33|issn=0008-0055}}</ref>

Enslaved women in Somalia were generally valued more highly than enslaved men, and those considered attractive or beautiful were often bought as concubines and domestic servants.<ref name=":45">{{Cite book |last=Kusow |first=Abdi |title=Putting the Cart Before the Horse: Contested Nationalism and the Crisis of the Nation-state in Somalia |date=2004 |publisher=Red Sea Press |pages=142 |language=en}}</ref> Physical appearance was an important factor in both the selection and pricing of female slaves designated for concubinage in Somalia. The buyer's preferences also played a role, and where the interest was primarily erotic, female slaves were more likely to be acquired than male slaves. In Somali society, enslaved [[Oromo people|Oromo]] women were regarded as more sexually desirable than other enslaved African women, due to their perceived lighter skin and shared [[Cushitic-speaking peoples|Cushitic]] heritage, they were frequently selected for concubinage and were consequently more valued for reproductive and entertainment purposes.<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal |last=Javan Zaumambo Mokebo |date=June 2020 |title=Gender, Slavery and Slave Trade in the Horn of Africa, 1800-1935 |journal=International Journal for Innovative Research in Multidisciplinary Field |volume=6 |issue=6 |pages=168 |issn=2455-0620}}</ref><ref name=":5" /> [[Bob Allen (economic historian)|Robert C. Allen]] also writes that Oromo women were particularly valued in slave markets because of their perceived lighter skin and attractiveness.<ref name=":35">Robert C. Allen. Slavery in Arabia and east Africa, 1800-1913, Working Paper #0066 (June 2021), NYU Abu Dhabi</ref> During his travel to the coastal city of [[Barawa]] in Somalia, the German explorer [[:fr:Richard_Brenner|Richard Brenner]] was hosted by a man who lived with two [[Oromo people|Oromo]] concubines, which he described as "very cute."<ref name=":5" /><ref>{{Cite book |title=Translocal Connections across the Indian Ocean: Swahili Speaking Networks on the Move|date=2018-06-26|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-36598-8|pages=111|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Declich|first=Francesca|date=2003|title=Dynamics of Intermingling Gender and Slavery in Somalia at the Turn of the Twentieth Century|journal=Northeast African Studies|volume=10|issue=3|pages=61|issn=0740-9133}}</ref>

==Modern Muslim perspectives==
Today, most ordinary Muslims ignore the existence of slavery and concubinage in Islamic history and texts. Most also ignore the millennia-old consensus permitting it and a few writers even claim that those Islamic jurists who allowed sexual relations outside marriage with female slaves were mistaken.{{sfn|Hazelton|2010|p=106–108}} Ahmed Hassan, a 20th-century translator of Sahih Muslim, who prefaced the translated chapter on marriage by claiming that Islam only allows sex within marriage. This was despite the fact that the same chapter included many references to Muslim men having sex with slave-girls.{{sfn|Hazelton|2010|p=106–108}} [[Muhammad Asad]] also rejected the notion of any sexual relationship outside of marriage.{{sfn|Asad|1980|p=107}} Ali notes that one reason for this defensive attitude may lie with the desire to argue against the common Western media portrayal of "Islam as uniquely oppressive toward women" and "Muslim men as lascivious and wanton toward sexually controlled females".{{sfn|Hazelton|2010|p=106–108}}

[[Asifa Quraishi|Asifa Quraishi-Landes]] observes that most Muslims believe that sex is only permissible within marriage and they ignore the permission for keeping concubines in Islamic jurisprudence.{{sfn|Quraishi-Landes|2016|p=182}} Furthermore, the majority of modern Muslims are not aware that Islamic jurists had made an analogy between the marriage contract and sale of concubines and many modern Muslims would be offended by the idea that a husband owns his wife's private parts under Islamic law. She notes that "Muslims around the world nevertheless speak of marriage in terms of reciprocal and complementary rights and duties, mutual consent, and with respect for women's agency" and "many point to Muslim scripture and classical literature to support these ideals of mutuality – and there is significant material to work with. But formalizing these attitudes in enforceable rules is much more difficult."{{sfn|Quraishi-Landes|2016|p=182}} She personally concludes that she is "not convinced that sex with one's slave is approved by the Quran in the first place", claiming that reading the respective Quranic section has led her to "different conclusions than that held by the majority of classical Muslim jurists."{{sfn|Quraishi-Landes|2016|p=178}} She agrees "with Kecia Ali that the slavery framework and its resulting doctrine are not dictated by scripture".{{sfn|Quraishi-Landes|2016|p=174}}

Cognitive scientist [[Steven Pinker]] noted in ''[[The Better Angels of Our Nature]]'' that despite the ''[[de jure]]'' [[Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom|abolitions of slavery]] by [[Muslim world|Islamic countries]] in the 20th century,{{sfn|Pinker|2011|p=153}} the majority of the countries where [[human trafficking]] still occurs are Muslim-majority,{{sfn|Pinker|2011|p=363}} while political scientists [[Valerie M. Hudson]] and Bradley Thayer have noted that [[Polygyny in Islam|Islam is the only major religious tradition that still allows polygyny]].{{sfn|Hudson|Thayer|2010|pp=48–53}}

==20th and 21st centuries==
Since slavery existed in some states of the Muslim world until the mid-20th century, concubinage existed in some Muslim countries as late as the 1960s. For instance, a large number of women lower in the [[Baloch people|Baluch]] hierarchical nature ([[Baloch people|Afro-Baluchs]]<ref>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271573750_Baluchi_Experiences_Under_Slavery_and_the_Slave_Trade_of_the_Gulf_of_Oman_and_the_Persian_Gulf_1921-1950</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mirzai |first=Behnaz A. |title=A history of slavery and emancipation in Iran, 1800–1929 |date=2017 |publisher=University of Texas press |pages=83 |quote="Similarly, slave dealers from the Jask district and Jadgals from Bahu and Dashtyari kidnapped or  purchased enslaved Africans and low-class Baluchis in Bahu Kalat in Dasht, then sold them to the Omani merchants who had travel;ed there."}}</ref> and low class [[Baloch people|Baluchs]])<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mirzai |first=Behnaz A. |title=A history of slavery and emancipation in Iran, 1800–1929 |date=2017 |publisher=University of Texas Press |pages=83 |quote="The hierarchical nature of Baluchi communities meant that those enslaved generally came from the lower social and economic groups."}}</ref> were kidnapped in the first half of the 20th century by slave traders and sold for sex across the [[Persian Gulf]] in settlements such as [[Sharjah]],{{sfn|Suzuki|2013|p=214–219}} where [[slavery in the Trucial States]] was legal until 1963.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4284003 | jstor=4284003 | title=On the Road towards Unity: The Trucial States from a British Perspective, 1960-66 | last1=Joyce | first1=Miriam | journal=Middle Eastern Studies | date=1999 | volume=35 | issue=2 | pages=45–60 | doi=10.1080/00263209908701266 | url-access=subscription }}</ref>

After the abolition of slavery in most Muslim-majority states, the sources discuss several later cases in which slavery, concubinage, or slavery-like sexual exploitation reappeared or was alleged to have reappeared.{{sfn|Ali|2015a|p=53–54}}

During the partition of India, some of the [[Violence against women during the Partition of India|violence against women]] resembled concubinage with religious undertones,{{sfn|Collins|Lapierre|1975|p=336}} with some women being kept captives as forced wives and concubines.{{sfn|Khan|2007|p=135}}{{sfn|Khan|2007|p=39}} According to some accounts, non-Muslim women captured by the [[Pakistan Army]] would be forcibly converted to Islam to be "worthy" of their captors' harems.{{sfn|Collins|Lapierre|1975|p=336}} In Kashmir, [[Pashtuns|Pashtun]] tribesmen allegedly captured a large number of non-Muslim girls from Kashmir and sold them as slave-girls in [[West Punjab]].{{sfn|Major|1995|p=62}} The violence was paralleled on both sides of the conflict, with Muslim girls in [[East Punjab]] also being taken by and distributed among the Sikh [[jatha]]s, [[Indian Armed Forces|Indian military]] and police for sex and sold on multiple times.{{sfn|Major|1995|p=63}} The governments of India and Pakistan later agreed to restore Hindu and Sikh women to [[India]] and Muslim women to Pakistan.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2012|p=226}}

In [[Afghanistan]], reportedly one of the atrocities committed by the [[Taliban]] was the enslavement of women for use as concubines.{{sfn|Ali|2015a|p=53–54}}{{sfn|Claus|Diamond|Mills|2003|p=7}} In 1998, eyewitnesses in Afghanistan reported that hundreds of girls in Kabul and elsewhere had been abducted by Taliban fighters.{{sfn|Nojumi|2016|p=168}} One source suggests that up to 400 women were involved in the abductions across Afghanistan. However the Taliban vehemently denied all these claims as propaganda against them by their enemies in Afghanistan.{{sfn|Rashid|2010|pp=75–}}

During the 1983–2005 [[Second Sudanese Civil War]], the [[Sudanese army]] also revived the use of enslavement as a weapon against the South,{{sfn|Jok|2010|p=32}} particularly against black Christian prisoners of war,{{sfn|Islam's Black Slaves|2001|p=138}} on the purported basis that Islamic law allowed it.{{sfn|Ali|2015a|p=53–54}} In raids by [[Janjaweed]] militias on black Christian villages, thousands of women and children were taken captive,{{sfn|Jok|2010|p=26}} with some ([[Dinka]] girls) kept in Northern Sudanese households for use as sex slaves,{{sfn|Jok|2010|p=35}} while others sold in slave markets as far afield as Libya.{{sfn|Islam's Black Slaves|2001|p=138}}

In the 21st century, when [[ISIL]] fighters attacked the city of [[Sinjar]] in 2014, they kidnapped and raped local women.{{sfn|Winterton|2014}} ISIL's extremist agenda extended to women's bodies and that women living under their control, with fighters being told that they were theologically sanctioned to have sex with non-Muslim captive women.{{sfn|Susskind|2014}}

===Muslim community response===
The justifications for [[Slavery in 21st-century jihadism|modern reiterations of slavery]] and violence against women, most notably in the context of ISIL, have been vocally condemned by Islamic scholars from around the world at the time.{{sfn|Callimachi|2015}}{{sfn|Tharoor|2015}}{{sfn|El-Masri|2018|pp=1047–1066}}

In response to the Nigerian extremist group [[Boko Haram]]'s Quranic justification for kidnapping and enslaving people,{{sfn|Lister|2014}}{{sfn|Ferran|2014}} and [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|ISIL]]'s religious justification for enslaving [[Yazidi]] women as [[Wartime sexual violence|spoils of war]] as claimed in their digital magazine ''[[Dabiq (magazine)|Dabiq]]'',{{sfn|McDuffee|2014}}{{sfn|Abdelaziz|2014}}{{sfn|Spencer|2014}} 126 Islamic scholars from around the Muslim world signed an [[open letter]] in September 2014 to the Islamic State's leader [[Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi]] decrying his group's interpretations of the [[Quran|Qur'an]] and ''[[hadith]]''.{{sfn|Markoe|2013}}{{sfn|Smith|2014}} The letter also accused the group of committing sedition by re-instituting slavery under its rule in contravention of the [[Islamic views on slavery#Modern interpretations|anti-slavery consensus]] of the [[ulama|Islamic scholarly community]].{{sfn|Open Letter to Al-Baghdadi|2014}} According to Iraqi MP Vian Dakhil, herself a Yazidi from Sinjar, an estimated 6,383 Yazidis were enslaved and transported to Isis prisons, military training camps, and the homes of fighters across eastern Syria and western Iraq, where they were beaten, sold, and locked away. By mid-2016, 2,590 women and children had escaped or been smuggled out of the caliphate and 3,793 remained in captivity.<ref>https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/jul/25/slaves-of-isis-the-long-walk-of-the-yazidi-women</ref>

==In popular culture==
* ''[[Magnificent Century]]'', Turkish TV series about the Ottoman Harem and [[Hürrem Sultan]]
* ''[[Muhteşem Yüzyıl: Kösem]]'', Turkish TV series about the Ottoman Harem and [[Kösem Sultan]]
* [[Hayriye Melek Hunç]] was the first female author of [[Circassians|Circassian]] descent. Melek wrote an essay, "Dertlerimizden: Beylik-Kölelik" (One of our troubles: Seigniory-Slavery), to encourage Ottoman palace to do away with slavery. Through her story "Altun Zincir" (Golden Chain) Melek narrates the story of sorrow of Caucasian concubines of the harem for missing their Caucasus homeland and pointed out that in spite of elite life opportunities for some of these concubines, at the end of the day they remain slaves and their existence as a woman gets ruined.<ref>{{Cite thesis |title=Circassian nationalism in the writings of Hayriye Melek Hunç (Page 48) |url=https://risc01.sabanciuniv.edu/record=b2351397%20_%20(Table%20of%20contents) |date=2019-10-18 |degree=Thesis |first=Cemile |last=Atlı |publisher=Sabanci University |archive-date=2024-06-05 |access-date=2026-01-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240605172539/https://risc01.sabanciuniv.edu/record=b2351397%20_%20(Table%20of%20contents) |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Atli |first=Cemile |date=2021-05-31 |title=Hayriye Melek Hunç'un Yazılarında Çerkes Milliyetçiliği, Feminizm ve Kölelik [Circassian Nationalism, Feminism and Slavery in the Writings of Hayriye Melek Hunç] |journal=Kafkasya Çalışmaları |language=tr |volume=6 |issue=12 |pages=183–208 |doi=10.21488/jocas.931034 |s2cid=236422355 |issn=2149-9527|doi-access=free }}</ref>
* [[Leyla Achba]] was the first Ottoman court lady who wrote memoirs. Book name: {{Lang|tr|Bir Çerkes Prensesinin Harem Hatıratı}}. (Harem Memoirs of a Circassian Princess).
* [[Rumeysa Aredba]] was a lady-in-waiting to Nazikeda Kadın, wife of Mehmed VI, the last Sultan of the Ottoman Empire. She is known for writing memoirs, which give details of the exile, and personality of Sultan Mehmed at San Remo. Book name: ''Sultan Vahdeddin'in San Remo Günleri''. (San Remo Days of Sultan Vahdeddin).
* [[Leyla Saz]] was a poet in the Ottoman Harem. She wrote her memories in the book ''Haremde Yaşam – Saray ve Harem Hatıraları''. (Life in the Harem – Memories of the Palace and Harem).
* [[Melek Hanım]], as the wife of Mehmed Pasha of Cyprus, Melek Hanım is perhaps the first Ottoman woman to write her memoirs. Book name: ''Haremden Mahrem Hatıralar-Melek Hanım'' (Private Memories from the Harem-Melek Hanım).
* DOMENİCO'S İSTANBUL, memories of Domenico Herosolimitano, Ottoman court physician to Sultan Murad III.

==See also==
* ''[[That Most Precious Merchandise: The Mediterranean Trade in Black Sea Slaves, 1260–1500]]''
* [[Islamic sexual jurisprudence]]
* [[Rape in Islamic law]]
* [[Forced conversion#Islam|Forced conversions in Islam]]
* [[Islamic views on concubinage]]

==References==
===Notes===
{{notelist}}

===Citations===
{{Reflist|20em}}

===Sources===
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| encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia of Islam
| editor1-last = Bearman | editor1-first = P.
| editor2-last = Bianquis | editor2-first = Th.
| editor3-last = Bosworth | editor3-first = C. E.
| editor4-last = Heinrichs | editor4-first = W. P.
| publisher = Brill
| volume = 1 | page = 26
| doi = 10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0003
}}
* {{cite news
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| newspaper = [[The New York Times]]
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| date = 13 August 2015
| access-date = 15 September 2020
}}
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| publisher = Taylor & Francis
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| date = 30 October 2019
| isbn = 978-1-00-070959-9
}}
* {{cite book
| title = Slavery in India; with an introduction by Radha Kumud Mukherjee and with a foreword by Asim Kumar Datta
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| year = 1959
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| url = https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.105457/page/n165/mode/2up
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}}
* {{cite book
| title = Domestic Violence and the Islamic Tradition
| last = Chaudhry
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| publisher = Oxford University Press
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| date = 2013
| isbn = 978-0-19-166989-7
}}
* {{cite book
| title = Islam and the Abolition of Slavery
| last = Clarence-Smith
| first = William Gervase
| year = 2006
| author-link = William Gervase Clarence-Smith
| publisher = Oxford University Press
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| isbn = 9780195221510
}}
* {{cite book
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}}
* {{cite book
| title = Freedom at Midnight
| last1 = Collins
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| year = 1975
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}}
* {{cite book
| title = A Gendered Lens for Genocide Prevention
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| date = 15 August 2017
| isbn = 978-1-137-60117-9
}}
* {{cite book|last1=Cortese|first1=D.|last2=Calderini|first2=S.|date=2006|title=Women and the Fatimids in the World of slam|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=9780748626298}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Cortese |first=Delia |editor=Natana J. DeLong-Bas |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Women |entry=Concubinage |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013}}
* {{cite book
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| last = Crawford
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}}
* {{cite book |last1=Cuno |first1=Kenneth M. |title=Modernizing marriage: family, ideology, and law in nineteenth and early twentieth century Egypt |date=2015 |publisher=Syracuse University Press |location=Syracuse (N. Y.) |isbn=9780815633921}}
* {{cite book
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| last = D'Costa
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| year = 2010
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}}
* {{cite book
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| date = 4 April 2016
| isbn = 978-1-137-56163-3
}}
* {{cite journal | title = Prosecuting ISIS for the sexual slavery of the Yazidi women and girls
| last = El-Masri | first = Samar
| journal = The International Journal of Human Rights
| year = 2018 | volume = 22 | issue = 8 | pages = 1047–1066
| doi = 10.1080/13642987.2018.1495195
| s2cid = 149935720 | quote = Regardless of ISIS's interpretation of certain Quranic verses to justify their explicit practice of sexual slavery – which was publicly refuted by dozens of Islamic scholars – and regardless of the social, cultural and religious reasons that may clarify ISIS's disregard of girls' and women's rights, the victims deserve justice.
}}
* {{cite book
| title = Slavery in the Ottoman Empire and its Demise 1800–1909
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| date = 20 November 1996
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}}
* {{cite book
| title = The Life of Muhammad: Al-Waqidi's Kitab Al-Maghazi
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| publisher = Routledge
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| date = 5 September 2013
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}}
* {{cite book
| title = The Ottoman and Mughal Empires: Social History in the Early Modern World
| last = Faroqhi
| first = Suraiya
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| date = 8 August 2019
| isbn = 978-1-78831-873-0
}}
* {{cite news
| title = Boko Haram: Kidnappers, Slave-Owners, Terrorists, Killers
| last = Ferran
| first = Lee
| publisher = ABC News
| url = https://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/boko-haram-kidnappers-slave-owners-terrorists-killers/story?id=23598347
| url-status = live
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181104104804/https://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/boko-haram-kidnappers-slave-owners-terrorists-killers/story?id=23598347
| date = 5 May 2014
| access-date = 28 June 2020
| archive-date = 4 November 2018
}}
* {{cite book
| title = Gender, Mastery and Slavery: From European to Atlantic World Frontiers
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| publisher = Macmillan International Higher Education
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=aaAcBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA57
| date = 18 December 2009
| isbn = 978-0-230-31358-3
}}{{Dead link|date=August 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* {{cite book| title = Tolerance and Coercion in Islam: Interfaith Relations in the Muslim Tradition
| last = Friedmann | first = Yohanan | year = 2003
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}}
* {{cite book
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| last = Gandhi
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}}
* {{cite book
| title = Extremely Violent Societies: Mass Violence in the Twentieth-Century World
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}}
* {{cite book |last=Gibbon |first=Edward |author-link=Edward Gibbon |year=1994 |title=The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire |title-link=The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire |chapter=Fall in the East |orig-date=1781 |editor=David Womersley |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0140433937 |chapter-url=https://www.ccel.org/ccel/gibbon/decline/files/volume2/chap46.htm#Heraclius }}
* {{cite journal | title = Some Observations on Infanticide in Medieval Muslim Society
| last = Giladi | first = Avner
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| doi = 10.1017/S0020743800033377
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* {{cite book
| title = Slavery in Early Christianity
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| year = 2002
| publisher = Oxford University Press
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| isbn = 978-0-195-13609-8
}}
* {{cite book
| title = Violence in Islamic Thought from the Qur'an to the Mongols
| last = Gleave
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| publisher = Edinburgh University Press
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| date = 14 April 2015
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}}
* {{cite book |editor-first1=Matthew S. |editor-last1=Gordon |editor-first2=Kathryn A. |editor-last2=Hain |title=Concubines and Courtesans: Women and slavery in Islamic history |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2017}}
* {{cite book
| title = The Sikhs of the Punjab
| last = Grewal
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| url-access = registration
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| date = 8 October 1998
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}}
* {{cite book
| title = Forgotten Atrocities: Memoirs of a Survivor of the 1947 Partition of India
| last = Gupta
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| year = 2012
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| pages = 33–34
| publisher = Lulu.com
| isbn = 978-1-257-91419-7
}}
* {{cite book
| chapter = Epilogue: Avenues to Social Mobility Available to Courtesans and Concubines
| last = Hain
| first = Kathryn A.
| year = 2017
| title = Concubines and Courtesans: Women and Slavery in Islamic History
| editor1-last = Gordon
| editor1-first = Matthew S.
| editor2-last = Hain
| editor2-first = Kathryn A.
| publisher = [[Oxford University Press]]
| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ysQ2DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA328
| pages = 324–339
| isbn = 978-0-190-62219-0
}}
* {{cite book| chapter = Slaves in Name Only: Free Women as Royal Concubines in Late Timurid Iran and Central Asia
| last = Hamid | first = Usman | year = 2017
| title = Concubines and Courtesans: Women and Slavery in Islamic History
| editor1-last = Gordon | editor1-first = Matthew S.
| editor2-last = Hain | editor2-first = Kathryn A.
| publisher = [[Oxford University Press]]
| pages = 190–206
| isbn = 978-0-190-62219-0
}}
* {{cite book| title = The Muslims of British India
| last = Hardy | first = Peter | year = 1972
| author-link = Peter Hardy (historian)
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
}}
* {{cite book
| title = Kashmīr Under the Sultāns
| last = Hasan
| first = Mohibbul
| year = 2005
| author-link = Mohibbul Hasan
| publisher = Aakar Books
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| isbn = 978-81-87879-49-7
}}
* {{cite book
| title = Beyond Slavery: Overcoming Its Religious and Sexual Legacies
| last = Hazelton
| first = Jacqueline L.
| publisher = Springer
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| date = 25 October 2010
| isbn = 978-0-230-11389-3
}}
* {{cite book
| title = The [European] Other in Medieval Arabic Literature and Culture: Ninth-Twelfth Century AD
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| date = 9 April 2012
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}}
* {{cite book
| title = Religious Traditions in Modern South Asia
| last1 = Hirst
| first1 = Jacqueline Suthren
| last2 = Zavos
| first2 = John
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| publisher = Routledge
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=bBOpAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA152
| date = March 2013
| isbn = 978-1-136-62668-5
}}
* {{cite book
| title = Crusading and Masculinities
| last1 = Hodgson
| first1 = Natasha R.
| last2 = Lewis
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| last3 = Mesley
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| publisher = Taylor & Francis
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=tOOLDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT111
| date = 5 March 2019
| pages = 111–
| isbn = 978-1-351-68014-1
}}
* {{cite book
| title = The World of the Crusades: A Daily Life Encyclopedia [2 volumes]
| last = Holt
| first = Andrew
| publisher = ABC-CLIO
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=O8ubDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA755
| date = 5 June 2019
| isbn = 978-1-4408-5462-0
}}
* {{cite journal | title = Sex and the Shaheed: Insights from the Life Sciences on Islamic Suicide Terrorism
| last1 = Hudson | first1 = Valerie M.
| last2 = Thayer | first2 = Bradley
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| journal = [[International Security (journal)|International Security]]
| year = 2010 | volume = 34 | issue = 4 | pages = 48–53
| jstor = 40784561
}}
* {{Cite book
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}}
* {{cite book
| title = The Expeditions: An Early Biography of Muhammad
| last = Ibn Rashid
| first = Ma'mar
| author-link = Ma'mar ibn Rashid
| publisher = NYU Press
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| date = 15 October 2015
| isbn = 978-1-4798-0047-6
}}
* {{cite book| title = Doubt in Islamic Law
| last = Intisar | first = Rabb
| publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]
| page = 152
| quote = Put together these verses indicate that the master-slave relationship creates a status through which sexual relations ''may become licit'', provided both parties consent.
}}
* {{cite book
| title = The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 4, Islamic Cultures and Societies to the End of the Eighteenth Century
| last = Irwin
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| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=bNeaBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT531
| date = 4 November 2010
| isbn = 978-1-316-18431-8
}}
* {{cite book
| title = National Trials of International Crimes in Bangladesh: Transitional Justice as Reflected in Judgments
| last = Islam
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| publisher = Brill / Nijhof
| location = Leiden; Boston
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| date = 19 March 2019
| isbn = 978-90-04-38938-0
}}
* {{cite journal | title = Islam's Black Slaves: The Other Black Diaspora by Ronald Segal – Book Review
| journal = The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education
| year = 2001 | number = 31
| ref = {{sfnRef|Islam's Black Slaves|2001}}
}}
* {{cite book
| title = War and Slavery in Sudan
| last = Jok
| first = Jok Madut
| publisher = University of Pennsylvania Press
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=wqzvlWdxThwC
| date = 3 August 2010
| isbn = 978-0-8122-0058-4
}}
* {{cite book
| title = Woman in Islām: A Manual with Special Reference to Conditions in India
| last1 = Jones
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| last2 = Jones
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| year = 1981
| publisher = Hyperion Press
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=nlDaAAAAMAAJ
| isbn = 978-0-8305-0107-6
}}
* {{cite book
| title = Innovation in Islam: Traditions and Contributions
| last = Kamrava
| first = Mehran
| publisher = University of California Press
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=06gwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA193
| date = 18 April 2011
| isbn = 978-0-520-26695-7
}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |editor-first1=Kate |editor-last1=Fleet |editor-first2=Gudrun |editor-last2=Krämer |editor-first3=Denis |editor-last3=Matringe |editor-first4=John |editor-last4=Nawas |editor-first5=Everett |editor-last5=Rowson |title=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] |volume=3 |date=1986|entry=Concubinage in Islamic law |first1=Marion H. |last1=Katz}}
* {{cite book
| title = The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan
| last = Khan
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| year = 2007
| author-link = Yasmin Khan
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| isbn = 978-0-300-12078-3
}}
* {{cite book
| title = Daily Life in the Ottoman Empire
| last = Kia
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| year = 2011
| publisher = ABC-CLIO
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| isbn = 978-0-313-33692-8
}}
* {{cite book
| title = Martyrdom, Self-sacrifice, and Self-immolation: Religious Perspectives on Suicide
| last = Kitts
| first = Margo
| year = 2018
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=XHhUDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA143
| isbn = 978-0-19-065648-5
}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|last=Klein|first=Martin A. |author-link=Martin A. Klein |title=Historical Dictionary of Slavery and Abolition|date=2014|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=9780810875289}}
* {{cite book
| title = Domesticity and Power in the Early Mughal World
| last = Lal
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| publisher = Cambridge University Press
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| date = 22 September 2005
| isbn = 978-0-521-85022-3
}}
* {{cite book| title = Sharīʿa and the Islamic State in 19th-Century Sudan
| last = Layish | first = Aharon
| publisher = [[Brill Publishers|Brill]]
| page = 331
}}
* {{cite book
| title = The Political Language of Islam
| last = Lewis
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| author-link = Bernard Lewis
| publisher = University of Chicago Press
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=NXCTjv2oFtUC&pg=PA82
| date = 11 June 1991
| isbn = 978-0-226-47693-3
}}
* {{cite book
| title = Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry
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| year = 1992
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}}
* {{cite book
| title = Pakistan: A Hard Country
| last = Lieven
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| date = 6 March 2012
| isbn = 978-1-61039-162-7
}}
* {{cite news
| title = Boko Haram: The essence of terror
| last = Lister
| first = Tim
| publisher = CNN
| url = https://www.cnn.com/2014/05/06/world/africa/nigeria-boko-haram-analysis/
| url-status = live
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| date = 6 May 2014
| access-date = 13 May 2014
| archive-date = 2014-05-13
}}
* {{cite book| title = Concubines and Courtesans: Women and Slavery in Islamic History
| last = Majied | first = Robinson | year = 2017
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| isbn = 978-019062218-3
}}
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| journal = Journal of South Asian Studies
| year = 1995 | volume = 18 | issue = 1
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}}
* {{cite book
| title = Women, Islam, and Abbasid Identity
| last = Maria
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| publisher = Harvard University Press
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| date = 6 October 2015
| page = 82
| isbn = 978-0-674-49596-8
}}
* {{cite news
| title = Muslim Scholars Release Open Letter to Islamic State Meticulously Blasting Its Ideology
| last = Markoe
| first = Lauren
| agency = Religious News Service
| magazine = [[HuffPost]]
| url = https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/09/24/muslim-scholars-islamic-state_n_5878038.html
| url-status = live
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| date = 24 September 2013
| access-date = 25 September 2014
| archive-date = 2014-09-25
}}
* {{Cite magazine
| title = ISIS Is Now Bragging About Enslaving Women and Children
| last = McDuffee
| first = Allen
| magazine = [[The Atlantic]]
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| url-status = dead
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| date = October 13, 2014
| archive-date = 30 August 2017
}}
* {{cite book
| title = Slavery and Emancipation in Islamic East Africa: From Honor to Respectability
| last = McMahon
| first = Elisabeth
| year = 2013
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=-cwhAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA18
| page = 18
| isbn = 978-110732851-8
}}
* {{cite book
| title = Borders & Boundaries: Women in India's Partition
| last1 = Menon
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| author1-link = Ritu Menon
| year = 1998
| publisher = Rutgers University Press
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=yNN4SE7cL60C&pg=PA70
| isbn = 978-0-8135-2552-5
}}
* {{cite book
| title = A Concise History of Modern India
| last1 = Metcalf
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| author2-link = Thomas R. Metcalf
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=c7UgAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA226
| date = 24 September 2012
| isbn = 978-1-139-53705-6
}}
* {{cite book
| title = Britain and the Ending of the Slave Trade
| last = Miers
| first = Suzanne
| year = 1975
| publisher = Africana Publishing Corporation
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=kHTaAAAAMAAJ
| isbn = 978-084190187-2
}}
* {{cite book
| title = The Spectral Wound: Sexual Violence, Public Memories, and the Bangladesh War of 1971
| last = Mookherjee
| first = Nayanika
| publisher = Duke University Press
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=OtrDCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT158
| date = 23 October 2015a
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{{refend}}

[[Category:Concubinage]]
[[Category:Groups practising sexual slavery]]
[[Category:Sexual slavery]]
[[Category:Slave concubines]]
[[Category:History of slavery]]
[[Category:Violence against women]]
[[Category:Wartime sexual violence]]
[[Category:Sexuality in the Middle East]]
[[Category:History of Islam|concubinage in the Muslim world]]
[[Category:Islam and women]]
[[Category:Islam and slavery]]
[[Category:History of slavery in the Muslim world]]
[[Category:Sexuality in Islam]]

File:Ex-Muslim Sahil.jpg

2026-08-06T12:34:57Z

Hazoor:

Ex-Muslim Sahil

2023-09-15T19:21:18Z

Hazoor: Information added in the box

{{Infobox person
| name = Ex-Muslim Sahil
| image = 
| alt = 
| caption =
| birth_name = Nisar Shaikh
| birth_date = 
| birth_place = [[Dharavi]], Mumbai
| nationality = India
| other_names =
| occupation = Author, social activist and Youtuber
| years_active = 2018-present
| known_for =
| notable_works =
}}

'''Ex-Muslim Sahil''' (born Nisar Shaikh) is an Indian activist, [[author]], and [[YouTuber]]. He is known for his critical analysis of [[Islam]] and his advocacy for the rights of [[ex-Muslims]].

==Early Life==
Sahil was born and brought up in a [[Muslim]] family in the [[Dharavi]] neighbourhood of [[Mumbai]]. He actively participated in [[Tablighi Jamaat]] programs and also engaged in Da'wah activities, which involve inviting non-Muslims to convert to Islam. However, in 2018, he decided to leave Islam after reading the [[Quran]], [[Hadith]], and other religious texts. In one of his videos, he expressed his belief that these religious texts promote division between Muslims and non-Muslims, which he found contradictory to the idea of a universal religion. He also pointed out that many clerics themselves struggle to interpret these texts, which raised questions about their clarity and validity.<ref name="IT">{{cite web |title=Ex-Muslims of India find the X factor online |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sunday-special/story/ex-muslims-find-the-x-factor-online-exmuslim-india-population-ex-muslim-movement-youtubers-2427185-2023-08-27 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref> In an attempt to change his mind, his family invited a religious scholar and expert from Deoband to engage in a discussion about atheism with him. They engaged in a conversation for approximately four to five hours, during which the scholar's responses to Sahil's questions did not provide satisfactory resolution and despite efforts by his family to persuade him to reconsider, Sahil remained firm in his decision, and eventually, his family accepted his choice.<ref name="Bhaskar">{{cite web |last1=कौशल |first1=पूनम |title=एक्स मुस्लिम साहिल का इंटरव्यू:मैं पक्का मुसलमान था, फिर इस्लाम छोड़ दिया क्योंकि कोई मौलवी मेरे सवालों का जवाब नहीं दे सका |url=https://www.bhaskar.com/db-original/news/nupur-sharma-controversy-ex-muslim-sahil-on-islam-quran-blasphemy-130064800.html |website=Bhaskar}}</ref>

==Activism==
After leaving Islam, Sahil established a YouTube channel to discuss various aspects of Islamic customs and beliefs, as well as topics related to science and human evolution.<ref>{{cite web |title=Who is Exmuslim Sahil, real name and why was his YouTube channel banned in India |url=https://thesportsgrail.com/who-is-exmuslim-sahil-real-name-and-why-was-his-youtube-channel-banned-in-india/ |website=The SportsGrail |language=en |date=7 July 2023}}</ref> His channel quickly gained popularity, amassing over 500,000 subscribers, and he also built a Twitter following of more than 33,000 users.<ref name="IT" /> Sahil, whose identity was initially concealed, engaged in debates with religious leaders and explored a wide range of subjects, including the role of the Waqf board in secular India. Through his platform, he aimed to stimulate conversations and address misconceptions.<ref>{{cite web |title='एक्स मुस्लिम साहिल' मुस्लिम समाज सुधारक या इस्लाम के कटु आलोचक |url=https://www.aytnews.com/2023/07/ex-muslim-sahil-muslim-social-reformer-or-bitter-critic-of-islam.html |website=Hindi News, Breaking News in Hindi, हिंदी न्यूज़, AYT News, Latest News - AYT News |language=en-gb |date=4 July 2023}}</ref> However, his anonymity was compromised when a Pakistani cleric exposed his personal information.<ref name="IT" />

He also expressed support for [[Nupur Sharma]]'s stance. He noted that Sharma's comments about [[2022 Muhammad remarks controversy|Muhammad]] were based on Islamic sources and questioned the controversy surrounding her remarks. He emphasized that if there is an issue, it should be directed towards the sources themselves and not individuals who reference them with proper citations.<ref name="Bhaskar" /><ref>{{cite web |last1=Team |first1=Delhi Magazine |title=Ex-Muslim Sahil: What Nupur Sharma Said Wasn't from Her Side, But From Islamic Sources |url=https://www.delhi-magazine.com/startup-inspirational-stories/il-what-nupur-sharma-said-wasnt-from-her-side-but-from-islamic-sources/ |website=Delhi Magazine |date=17 July 2022}}</ref>

On July 6, Sahil's YouTube channel was banned in India, sparking debates about the reasons behind the ban and the decision-makers involved. Sahil expressed his surprise and disappointment, likening the situation to censorship experienced in Pakistan. This ban led to the launch of a petition advocating for the reinstatement of his channel, supported by a Twitter campaign using the hashtag #UnblockExMuslimSahil. In addition, Sahil conducted live streams to voice his concerns and garner support for the restoration of his channel in India.<ref>{{cite web |last1=DESK |first1=WEB |title=Who is Ex-Muslim Sahil? Why is Unblock Ex-Muslim Sahil trending on Twitter–Read the details |url=https://organiser.org/2023/07/06/182428/bharat/who-is-ex-muslim-sahil-why-is-unblock-ex-muslim-sahil-trending-on-twitter-read-the-details/ |website=Organiser |date=6 July 2023}}</ref>

==Books==
Sahil has authored several books that recount his experiences as an ex-Muslim. His most renowned work is "Why I Left Islam," published in 2019. Other notable books by him include:

*2020, Islam: The Religion of Peace?
*2021, The Quran: A Critical Analysis
*2022, The Hadith: A Critical Analysis

==See also==
*[[2022 Muhammad remarks controversy]]
*[[List of former Muslims]]
*[[Ex-Muslims]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{YouTube channel|c=UCjk7V7Rw2jJSflLXYxBOY0g|text=ExMuslim Sahil}} on YouTube
*{{Twitter|ExmuslimSahil}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ex-Muslim, Sahil}}
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Living people]]

Ex-Muslim Sahil

2023-09-15T19:18:17Z

Hazoor: His name is widely published in source

'''Ex-Muslim Sahil''' (born Nisar Shaikh) is an Indian activist, [[author]], and [[YouTuber]]. He is known for his critical analysis of [[Islam]] and his advocacy for the rights of [[ex-Muslims]].

==Early Life==
Sahil was born and brought up in a [[Muslim]] family in the [[Dharavi]] neighbourhood of [[Mumbai]]. He actively participated in [[Tablighi Jamaat]] programs and also engaged in Da'wah activities, which involve inviting non-Muslims to convert to Islam. However, in 2018, he decided to leave Islam after reading the [[Quran]], [[Hadith]], and other religious texts. In one of his videos, he expressed his belief that these religious texts promote division between Muslims and non-Muslims, which he found contradictory to the idea of a universal religion. He also pointed out that many clerics themselves struggle to interpret these texts, which raised questions about their clarity and validity.<ref name="IT">{{cite web |title=Ex-Muslims of India find the X factor online |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sunday-special/story/ex-muslims-find-the-x-factor-online-exmuslim-india-population-ex-muslim-movement-youtubers-2427185-2023-08-27 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref> In an attempt to change his mind, his family invited a religious scholar and expert from Deoband to engage in a discussion about atheism with him. They engaged in a conversation for approximately four to five hours, during which the scholar's responses to Sahil's questions did not provide satisfactory resolution and despite efforts by his family to persuade him to reconsider, Sahil remained firm in his decision, and eventually, his family accepted his choice.<ref name="Bhaskar">{{cite web |last1=कौशल |first1=पूनम |title=एक्स मुस्लिम साहिल का इंटरव्यू:मैं पक्का मुसलमान था, फिर इस्लाम छोड़ दिया क्योंकि कोई मौलवी मेरे सवालों का जवाब नहीं दे सका |url=https://www.bhaskar.com/db-original/news/nupur-sharma-controversy-ex-muslim-sahil-on-islam-quran-blasphemy-130064800.html |website=Bhaskar}}</ref>

==Activism==
After leaving Islam, Sahil established a YouTube channel to discuss various aspects of Islamic customs and beliefs, as well as topics related to science and human evolution.<ref>{{cite web |title=Who is Exmuslim Sahil, real name and why was his YouTube channel banned in India |url=https://thesportsgrail.com/who-is-exmuslim-sahil-real-name-and-why-was-his-youtube-channel-banned-in-india/ |website=The SportsGrail |language=en |date=7 July 2023}}</ref> His channel quickly gained popularity, amassing over 500,000 subscribers, and he also built a Twitter following of more than 33,000 users.<ref name="IT" /> Sahil, whose identity was initially concealed, engaged in debates with religious leaders and explored a wide range of subjects, including the role of the Waqf board in secular India. Through his platform, he aimed to stimulate conversations and address misconceptions.<ref>{{cite web |title='एक्स मुस्लिम साहिल' मुस्लिम समाज सुधारक या इस्लाम के कटु आलोचक |url=https://www.aytnews.com/2023/07/ex-muslim-sahil-muslim-social-reformer-or-bitter-critic-of-islam.html |website=Hindi News, Breaking News in Hindi, हिंदी न्यूज़, AYT News, Latest News - AYT News |language=en-gb |date=4 July 2023}}</ref> However, his anonymity was compromised when a Pakistani cleric exposed his personal information.<ref name="IT" />

He also expressed support for [[Nupur Sharma]]'s stance. He noted that Sharma's comments about [[2022 Muhammad remarks controversy|Muhammad]] were based on Islamic sources and questioned the controversy surrounding her remarks. He emphasized that if there is an issue, it should be directed towards the sources themselves and not individuals who reference them with proper citations.<ref name="Bhaskar" /><ref>{{cite web |last1=Team |first1=Delhi Magazine |title=Ex-Muslim Sahil: What Nupur Sharma Said Wasn't from Her Side, But From Islamic Sources |url=https://www.delhi-magazine.com/startup-inspirational-stories/il-what-nupur-sharma-said-wasnt-from-her-side-but-from-islamic-sources/ |website=Delhi Magazine |date=17 July 2022}}</ref>

On July 6, Sahil's YouTube channel was banned in India, sparking debates about the reasons behind the ban and the decision-makers involved. Sahil expressed his surprise and disappointment, likening the situation to censorship experienced in Pakistan. This ban led to the launch of a petition advocating for the reinstatement of his channel, supported by a Twitter campaign using the hashtag #UnblockExMuslimSahil. In addition, Sahil conducted live streams to voice his concerns and garner support for the restoration of his channel in India.<ref>{{cite web |last1=DESK |first1=WEB |title=Who is Ex-Muslim Sahil? Why is Unblock Ex-Muslim Sahil trending on Twitter–Read the details |url=https://organiser.org/2023/07/06/182428/bharat/who-is-ex-muslim-sahil-why-is-unblock-ex-muslim-sahil-trending-on-twitter-read-the-details/ |website=Organiser |date=6 July 2023}}</ref>

==Books==
Sahil has authored several books that recount his experiences as an ex-Muslim. His most renowned work is "Why I Left Islam," published in 2019. Other notable books by him include:

*2020, Islam: The Religion of Peace?
*2021, The Quran: A Critical Analysis
*2022, The Hadith: A Critical Analysis

==See also==
*[[2022 Muhammad remarks controversy]]
*[[List of former Muslims]]
*[[Ex-Muslims]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{YouTube channel|c=UCjk7V7Rw2jJSflLXYxBOY0g|text=ExMuslim Sahil}} on YouTube
*{{Twitter|ExmuslimSahil}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ex-Muslim, Sahil}}
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Living people]]

Talk:Nisar Shaikh

2023-09-15T18:36:10Z

Hazoor: Hazoor moved page Talk:Nisar Shaikh to Talk:Ex-Muslim Sahil: Changed title for privacy

#REDIRECT [[Talk:Ex-Muslim Sahil]]

Talk:Ex-Muslim Sahil

2023-09-15T18:36:10Z

Hazoor: Hazoor moved page Talk:Nisar Shaikh to Talk:Ex-Muslim Sahil: Changed title for privacy

{{WikiProject Articles for creation|class=|ts=20230910223358|reviewer=Ajay Kumar|oldid=426620}}
{{WikiProject Biography|living=yes|class=|listas=Shaikh, Nisar}}

Nisar Shaikh

2023-09-15T18:36:10Z

Hazoor: Hazoor moved page Nisar Shaikh to Ex-Muslim Sahil: Changed title for privacy

#REDIRECT [[Ex-Muslim Sahil]]

Ex-Muslim Sahil

2023-09-15T18:36:09Z

Hazoor: Hazoor moved page Nisar Shaikh to Ex-Muslim Sahil: Changed title for privacy

'''Ex-Muslim Sahil''' is an Indian activist, [[author]], and [[YouTuber]]. He is known for his critical analysis of [[Islam]] and his advocacy for the rights of [[ex-Muslims]].

==Early Life==
Sahil was born and brought up in a [[Muslim]] family in the [[Dharavi]] neighbourhood of [[Mumbai]]. He actively participated in [[Tablighi Jamaat]] programs and also engaged in Da'wah activities, which involve inviting non-Muslims to convert to Islam. However, in 2018, he decided to leave Islam after reading the [[Quran]], [[Hadith]], and other religious texts. In one of his videos, he expressed his belief that these religious texts promote division between Muslims and non-Muslims, which he found contradictory to the idea of a universal religion. He also pointed out that many clerics themselves struggle to interpret these texts, which raised questions about their clarity and validity.<ref name="IT">{{cite web |title=Ex-Muslims of India find the X factor online |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sunday-special/story/ex-muslims-find-the-x-factor-online-exmuslim-india-population-ex-muslim-movement-youtubers-2427185-2023-08-27 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref> In an attempt to change his mind, his family invited a religious scholar and expert from Deoband to engage in a discussion about atheism with him. They engaged in a conversation for approximately four to five hours, during which the scholar's responses to Sahil's questions did not provide satisfactory resolution and despite efforts by his family to persuade him to reconsider, Sahil remained firm in his decision, and eventually, his family accepted his choice.<ref name="Bhaskar">{{cite web |last1=कौशल |first1=पूनम |title=एक्स मुस्लिम साहिल का इंटरव्यू:मैं पक्का मुसलमान था, फिर इस्लाम छोड़ दिया क्योंकि कोई मौलवी मेरे सवालों का जवाब नहीं दे सका |url=https://www.bhaskar.com/db-original/news/nupur-sharma-controversy-ex-muslim-sahil-on-islam-quran-blasphemy-130064800.html |website=Bhaskar}}</ref>

==Activism==
After leaving Islam, Sahil established a YouTube channel to discuss various aspects of Islamic customs and beliefs, as well as topics related to science and human evolution.<ref>{{cite web |title=Who is Exmuslim Sahil, real name and why was his YouTube channel banned in India |url=https://thesportsgrail.com/who-is-exmuslim-sahil-real-name-and-why-was-his-youtube-channel-banned-in-india/ |website=The SportsGrail |language=en |date=7 July 2023}}</ref> His channel quickly gained popularity, amassing over 500,000 subscribers, and he also built a Twitter following of more than 33,000 users.<ref name="IT" /> Sahil, whose identity was initially concealed, engaged in debates with religious leaders and explored a wide range of subjects, including the role of the Waqf board in secular India. Through his platform, he aimed to stimulate conversations and address misconceptions.<ref>{{cite web |title='एक्स मुस्लिम साहिल' मुस्लिम समाज सुधारक या इस्लाम के कटु आलोचक |url=https://www.aytnews.com/2023/07/ex-muslim-sahil-muslim-social-reformer-or-bitter-critic-of-islam.html |website=Hindi News, Breaking News in Hindi, हिंदी न्यूज़, AYT News, Latest News - AYT News |language=en-gb |date=4 July 2023}}</ref> However, his anonymity was compromised when a Pakistani cleric exposed his personal information.<ref name="IT" />

He also expressed support for [[Nupur Sharma]]'s stance. He noted that Sharma's comments about [[2022 Muhammad remarks controversy|Muhammad]] were based on Islamic sources and questioned the controversy surrounding her remarks. He emphasized that if there is an issue, it should be directed towards the sources themselves and not individuals who reference them with proper citations.<ref name="Bhaskar" /><ref>{{cite web |last1=Team |first1=Delhi Magazine |title=Ex-Muslim Sahil: What Nupur Sharma Said Wasn't from Her Side, But From Islamic Sources |url=https://www.delhi-magazine.com/startup-inspirational-stories/il-what-nupur-sharma-said-wasnt-from-her-side-but-from-islamic-sources/ |website=Delhi Magazine |date=17 July 2022}}</ref>

On July 6, Sahil's YouTube channel was banned in India, sparking debates about the reasons behind the ban and the decision-makers involved. Sahil expressed his surprise and disappointment, likening the situation to censorship experienced in Pakistan. This ban led to the launch of a petition advocating for the reinstatement of his channel, supported by a Twitter campaign using the hashtag #UnblockExMuslimSahil. In addition, Sahil conducted live streams to voice his concerns and garner support for the restoration of his channel in India.<ref>{{cite web |last1=DESK |first1=WEB |title=Who is Ex-Muslim Sahil? Why is Unblock Ex-Muslim Sahil trending on Twitter–Read the details |url=https://organiser.org/2023/07/06/182428/bharat/who-is-ex-muslim-sahil-why-is-unblock-ex-muslim-sahil-trending-on-twitter-read-the-details/ |website=Organiser |date=6 July 2023}}</ref>

==Books==
Sahil has authored several books that recount his experiences as an ex-Muslim. His most renowned work is "Why I Left Islam," published in 2019. Other notable books by him include:

*2020, Islam: The Religion of Peace?
*2021, The Quran: A Critical Analysis
*2022, The Hadith: A Critical Analysis

==See also==
*[[2022 Muhammad remarks controversy]]
*[[List of former Muslims]]
*[[Ex-Muslims]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{YouTube channel|c=UCjk7V7Rw2jJSflLXYxBOY0g|text=ExMuslim Sahil}} on YouTube
*{{Twitter|ExmuslimSahil}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ex-Muslim, Sahil}}
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Living people]]

Ex-Muslim Sahil

2023-09-15T18:35:13Z

Hazoor: Name fixed due to privacy

Ex-Muslim Sahil

2023-09-09T18:06:01Z

Hazoor: /* External links */ Social media link

{{AFC submission/draft}}

'''Nisar Shaikh''' popularly known as '''Ex-Muslim Sahil''' is an Indian activist, [[author]], and [[YouTuber]]. He is known for his critical analysis of [[Islam]] and his advocacy for the rights of [[ex-Muslims]].

==Early Life==
Sahil was born and brought up in a [[Muslim]] family in the [[Dharavi]] neighbourhood of [[Mumbai]]. He actively participated in [[Tablighi Jamaat]] programs and also engaged in Da'wah activities, which involve inviting non-Muslims to convert to Islam. However, in 2018, he decided to leave Islam after reading the [[Quran]], [[Hadith]], and other religious texts. In one of his videos, he expressed his belief that these religious texts promote division between Muslims and non-Muslims, which he found contradictory to the idea of a universal religion. He also pointed out that many clerics themselves struggle to interpret these texts, which raised questions about their clarity and validity.<ref name="IT">{{cite web |title=Ex-Muslims of India find the X factor online |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sunday-special/story/ex-muslims-find-the-x-factor-online-exmuslim-india-population-ex-muslim-movement-youtubers-2427185-2023-08-27 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref> In an attempt to change his mind, his family invited a religious scholar and expert from Deoband to engage in a discussion about atheism with him. They engaged in a conversation for approximately four to five hours, during which the scholar's responses to Sahil's questions did not provide satisfactory resolution and despite efforts by his family to persuade him to reconsider, Sahil remained firm in his decision, and eventually, his family accepted his choice.<ref name="Bhaskar">{{cite web |last1=कौशल |first1=पूनम |title=एक्स मुस्लिम साहिल का इंटरव्यू:मैं पक्का मुसलमान था, फिर इस्लाम छोड़ दिया क्योंकि कोई मौलवी मेरे सवालों का जवाब नहीं दे सका |url=https://www.bhaskar.com/db-original/news/nupur-sharma-controversy-ex-muslim-sahil-on-islam-quran-blasphemy-130064800.html |website=Bhaskar}}</ref>

==Activism==
After leaving Islam, Sahil established a YouTube channel to discuss various aspects of Islamic customs and beliefs, as well as topics related to science and human evolution.<ref>{{cite web |title=Who is Exmuslim Sahil, real name and why was his YouTube channel banned in India |url=https://thesportsgrail.com/who-is-exmuslim-sahil-real-name-and-why-was-his-youtube-channel-banned-in-india/ |website=The SportsGrail |language=en |date=7 July 2023}}</ref> His channel quickly gained popularity, amassing over 500,000 subscribers, and he also built a Twitter following of more than 33,000 users.<ref name="IT" /> Sahil, whose identity was initially concealed, engaged in debates with religious leaders and explored a wide range of subjects, including the role of the Waqf board in secular India. Through his platform, he aimed to stimulate conversations and address misconceptions.<ref>{{cite web |title='एक्स मुस्लिम साहिल' मुस्लिम समाज सुधारक या इस्लाम के कटु आलोचक |url=https://www.aytnews.com/2023/07/ex-muslim-sahil-muslim-social-reformer-or-bitter-critic-of-islam.html |website=Hindi News, Breaking News in Hindi, हिंदी न्यूज़, AYT News, Latest News - AYT News |language=en-gb |date=4 July 2023}}</ref> However, his anonymity was compromised when a Pakistani cleric exposed his personal information.<ref name="IT" />

He also expressed support for [[Nupur Sharma]]'s stance. He noted that Sharma's comments about [[2022 Muhammad remarks controversy|Muhammad]] were based on Islamic sources and questioned the controversy surrounding her remarks. He emphasized that if there is an issue, it should be directed towards the sources themselves and not individuals who reference them with proper citations.<ref name="Bhaskar" /><ref>{{cite web |last1=Team |first1=Delhi Magazine |title=Ex-Muslim Sahil: What Nupur Sharma Said Wasn't from Her Side, But From Islamic Sources |url=https://www.delhi-magazine.com/startup-inspirational-stories/il-what-nupur-sharma-said-wasnt-from-her-side-but-from-islamic-sources/ |website=Delhi Magazine |date=17 July 2022}}</ref>

On July 6, Sahil's YouTube channel was banned in India, sparking debates about the reasons behind the ban and the decision-makers involved. Sahil expressed his surprise and disappointment, likening the situation to censorship experienced in Pakistan. This ban led to the launch of a petition advocating for the reinstatement of his channel, supported by a Twitter campaign using the hashtag #UnblockExMuslimSahil. In addition, Sahil conducted live streams to voice his concerns and garner support for the restoration of his channel in India.<ref>{{cite web |last1=DESK |first1=WEB |title=Who is Ex-Muslim Sahil? Why is Unblock Ex-Muslim Sahil trending on Twitter–Read the details |url=https://organiser.org/2023/07/06/182428/bharat/who-is-ex-muslim-sahil-why-is-unblock-ex-muslim-sahil-trending-on-twitter-read-the-details/ |website=Organiser |date=6 July 2023}}</ref>

==Books==
Sahil has authored several books that recount his experiences as an ex-Muslim. His most renowned work is "Why I Left Islam," published in 2019. Other notable books by him include:

*2020, Islam: The Religion of Peace?
*2021, The Quran: A Critical Analysis
*2022, The Hadith: A Critical Analysis

==See also==
*[[2022 Muhammad remarks controversy]]
*[[List of former Muslims]]
*[[Ex-Muslims]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{YouTube channel|c=UCjk7V7Rw2jJSflLXYxBOY0g}}
*{{Twitter|ExmuslimSahil}}

{{AfC submission|||ts=20230909221107|u=Hazoor|ns=118}}

Ex-Muslim Sahil

2023-09-09T16:50:57Z

Hazoor: /* Early Life */ Added more information as per source

{{AFC submission/draft}}

'''Nisar Shaikh''' popularly known as '''Ex-Muslim Sahil''' is an Indian activist, [[author]], and [[YouTuber]]. He is known for his critical analysis of [[Islam]] and his advocacy for the rights of [[ex-Muslims]].

==Early Life==
Sahil was born and brought up in a [[Muslim]] family in the [[Dharavi]] neighbourhood of [[Mumbai]]. He actively participated in [[Tablighi Jamaat]] programs and also engaged in Da'wah activities, which involve inviting non-Muslims to convert to Islam. However, in 2018, he decided to leave Islam after reading the [[Quran]], [[Hadith]], and other religious texts. In one of his videos, he expressed his belief that these religious texts promote division between Muslims and non-Muslims, which he found contradictory to the idea of a universal religion. He also pointed out that many clerics themselves struggle to interpret these texts, which raised questions about their clarity and validity.<ref name="IT">{{cite web |title=Ex-Muslims of India find the X factor online |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sunday-special/story/ex-muslims-find-the-x-factor-online-exmuslim-india-population-ex-muslim-movement-youtubers-2427185-2023-08-27 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref> In an attempt to change his mind, his family invited a religious scholar and expert from Deoband to engage in a discussion about atheism with him. They engaged in a conversation for approximately four to five hours, during which the scholar's responses to Sahil's questions did not provide satisfactory resolution and despite efforts by his family to persuade him to reconsider, Sahil remained firm in his decision, and eventually, his family accepted his choice.<ref name="Bhaskar">{{cite web |last1=कौशल |first1=पूनम |title=एक्स मुस्लिम साहिल का इंटरव्यू:मैं पक्का मुसलमान था, फिर इस्लाम छोड़ दिया क्योंकि कोई मौलवी मेरे सवालों का जवाब नहीं दे सका |url=https://www.bhaskar.com/db-original/news/nupur-sharma-controversy-ex-muslim-sahil-on-islam-quran-blasphemy-130064800.html |website=Bhaskar}}</ref>

==Activism==
After leaving Islam, Sahil established a YouTube channel to discuss various aspects of Islamic customs and beliefs, as well as topics related to science and human evolution.<ref>{{cite web |title=Who is Exmuslim Sahil, real name and why was his YouTube channel banned in India |url=https://thesportsgrail.com/who-is-exmuslim-sahil-real-name-and-why-was-his-youtube-channel-banned-in-india/ |website=The SportsGrail |language=en |date=7 July 2023}}</ref> His channel quickly gained popularity, amassing over 500,000 subscribers, and he also built a Twitter following of more than 33,000 users.<ref name="IT" /> Sahil, whose identity was initially concealed, engaged in debates with religious leaders and explored a wide range of subjects, including the role of the Waqf board in secular India. Through his platform, he aimed to stimulate conversations and address misconceptions.<ref>{{cite web |title='एक्स मुस्लिम साहिल' मुस्लिम समाज सुधारक या इस्लाम के कटु आलोचक |url=https://www.aytnews.com/2023/07/ex-muslim-sahil-muslim-social-reformer-or-bitter-critic-of-islam.html |website=Hindi News, Breaking News in Hindi, हिंदी न्यूज़, AYT News, Latest News - AYT News |language=en-gb |date=4 July 2023}}</ref> However, his anonymity was compromised when a Pakistani cleric exposed his personal information.<ref name="IT" />

He also expressed support for [[Nupur Sharma]]'s stance. He noted that Sharma's comments about [[2022 Muhammad remarks controversy|Muhammad]] were based on Islamic sources and questioned the controversy surrounding her remarks. He emphasized that if there is an issue, it should be directed towards the sources themselves and not individuals who reference them with proper citations.<ref name="Bhaskar" /><ref>{{cite web |last1=Team |first1=Delhi Magazine |title=Ex-Muslim Sahil: What Nupur Sharma Said Wasn't from Her Side, But From Islamic Sources |url=https://www.delhi-magazine.com/startup-inspirational-stories/il-what-nupur-sharma-said-wasnt-from-her-side-but-from-islamic-sources/ |website=Delhi Magazine |date=17 July 2022}}</ref>

On July 6, Sahil's YouTube channel was banned in India, sparking debates about the reasons behind the ban and the decision-makers involved. Sahil expressed his surprise and disappointment, likening the situation to censorship experienced in Pakistan. This ban led to the launch of a petition advocating for the reinstatement of his channel, supported by a Twitter campaign using the hashtag #UnblockExMuslimSahil. In addition, Sahil conducted live streams to voice his concerns and garner support for the restoration of his channel in India.<ref>{{cite web |last1=DESK |first1=WEB |title=Who is Ex-Muslim Sahil? Why is Unblock Ex-Muslim Sahil trending on Twitter–Read the details |url=https://organiser.org/2023/07/06/182428/bharat/who-is-ex-muslim-sahil-why-is-unblock-ex-muslim-sahil-trending-on-twitter-read-the-details/ |website=Organiser |date=6 July 2023}}</ref>

==Books==
Sahil has authored several books that recount his experiences as an ex-Muslim. His most renowned work is "Why I Left Islam," published in 2019. Other notable books by him include:

*2020, Islam: The Religion of Peace?
*2021, The Quran: A Critical Analysis
*2022, The Hadith: A Critical Analysis

==See also==
*[[2022 Muhammad remarks controversy]]
*[[List of former Muslims]]
*[[Ex-Muslims]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==

{{AfC submission|||ts=20230909221107|u=Hazoor|ns=118}}

Ex-Muslim Sahil

2023-09-09T16:46:55Z

Hazoor: /* Activism */ Link fixed

{{AFC submission/draft}}

'''Nisar Shaikh''' popularly known as '''Ex-Muslim Sahil''' is an Indian activist, [[author]], and [[YouTuber]]. He is known for his critical analysis of [[Islam]] and his advocacy for the rights of [[ex-Muslims]].

==Early Life==
Sahil was born and brought up in a [[Muslim]] family in the [[Dharavi]] neighbourhood of [[Mumbai]]. He actively participated in [[Tablighi Jamaat]] programs and also engaged in Da'wah activities, which involve inviting non-Muslims to convert to Islam. However, in 2018, he decided to leave Islam after reading the [[Quran]], [[Hadith]], and other religious texts. In one of his videos, he expressed his belief that these religious texts promote division between Muslims and non-Muslims, which he found contradictory to the idea of a universal religion. He also pointed out that many clerics themselves struggle to interpret these texts, which raised questions about their clarity and validity.<ref name="IT">{{cite web |title=Ex-Muslims of India find the X factor online |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sunday-special/story/ex-muslims-find-the-x-factor-online-exmuslim-india-population-ex-muslim-movement-youtubers-2427185-2023-08-27 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref> Despite efforts by his family to persuade him to reconsider, Sahil remained firm in his decision, and eventually, his family accepted his choice.<ref name="Bhaskar">{{cite web |last1=कौशल |first1=पूनम |title=एक्स मुस्लिम साहिल का इंटरव्यू:मैं पक्का मुसलमान था, फिर इस्लाम छोड़ दिया क्योंकि कोई मौलवी मेरे सवालों का जवाब नहीं दे सका |url=https://www.bhaskar.com/db-original/news/nupur-sharma-controversy-ex-muslim-sahil-on-islam-quran-blasphemy-130064800.html |website=Bhaskar}}</ref>

==Activism==
After leaving Islam, Sahil established a YouTube channel to discuss various aspects of Islamic customs and beliefs, as well as topics related to science and human evolution.<ref>{{cite web |title=Who is Exmuslim Sahil, real name and why was his YouTube channel banned in India |url=https://thesportsgrail.com/who-is-exmuslim-sahil-real-name-and-why-was-his-youtube-channel-banned-in-india/ |website=The SportsGrail |language=en |date=7 July 2023}}</ref> His channel quickly gained popularity, amassing over 500,000 subscribers, and he also built a Twitter following of more than 33,000 users.<ref name="IT" /> Sahil, whose identity was initially concealed, engaged in debates with religious leaders and explored a wide range of subjects, including the role of the Waqf board in secular India. Through his platform, he aimed to stimulate conversations and address misconceptions.<ref>{{cite web |title='एक्स मुस्लिम साहिल' मुस्लिम समाज सुधारक या इस्लाम के कटु आलोचक |url=https://www.aytnews.com/2023/07/ex-muslim-sahil-muslim-social-reformer-or-bitter-critic-of-islam.html |website=Hindi News, Breaking News in Hindi, हिंदी न्यूज़, AYT News, Latest News - AYT News |language=en-gb |date=4 July 2023}}</ref> However, his anonymity was compromised when a Pakistani cleric exposed his personal information.<ref name="IT" />

He also expressed support for [[Nupur Sharma]]'s stance. He noted that Sharma's comments about [[2022 Muhammad remarks controversy|Muhammad]] were based on Islamic sources and questioned the controversy surrounding her remarks. He emphasized that if there is an issue, it should be directed towards the sources themselves and not individuals who reference them with proper citations.<ref name="Bhaskar" /><ref>{{cite web |last1=Team |first1=Delhi Magazine |title=Ex-Muslim Sahil: What Nupur Sharma Said Wasn't from Her Side, But From Islamic Sources |url=https://www.delhi-magazine.com/startup-inspirational-stories/il-what-nupur-sharma-said-wasnt-from-her-side-but-from-islamic-sources/ |website=Delhi Magazine |date=17 July 2022}}</ref>

On July 6, Sahil's YouTube channel was banned in India, sparking debates about the reasons behind the ban and the decision-makers involved. Sahil expressed his surprise and disappointment, likening the situation to censorship experienced in Pakistan. This ban led to the launch of a petition advocating for the reinstatement of his channel, supported by a Twitter campaign using the hashtag #UnblockExMuslimSahil. In addition, Sahil conducted live streams to voice his concerns and garner support for the restoration of his channel in India.<ref>{{cite web |last1=DESK |first1=WEB |title=Who is Ex-Muslim Sahil? Why is Unblock Ex-Muslim Sahil trending on Twitter–Read the details |url=https://organiser.org/2023/07/06/182428/bharat/who-is-ex-muslim-sahil-why-is-unblock-ex-muslim-sahil-trending-on-twitter-read-the-details/ |website=Organiser |date=6 July 2023}}</ref>

==Books==
Sahil has authored several books that recount his experiences as an ex-Muslim. His most renowned work is "Why I Left Islam," published in 2019. Other notable books by him include:

*2020, Islam: The Religion of Peace?
*2021, The Quran: A Critical Analysis
*2022, The Hadith: A Critical Analysis

==See also==
*[[2022 Muhammad remarks controversy]]
*[[List of former Muslims]]
*[[Ex-Muslims]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==

{{AfC submission|||ts=20230909221107|u=Hazoor|ns=118}}

Ex-Muslim Sahil

2023-09-09T16:46:05Z

Hazoor: Links added

{{AFC submission/draft}}

'''Nisar Shaikh''' popularly known as '''Ex-Muslim Sahil''' is an Indian activist, [[author]], and [[YouTuber]]. He is known for his critical analysis of [[Islam]] and his advocacy for the rights of [[ex-Muslims]].

==Early Life==
Sahil was born and brought up in a [[Muslim]] family in the [[Dharavi]] neighbourhood of [[Mumbai]]. He actively participated in [[Tablighi Jamaat]] programs and also engaged in Da'wah activities, which involve inviting non-Muslims to convert to Islam. However, in 2018, he decided to leave Islam after reading the [[Quran]], [[Hadith]], and other religious texts. In one of his videos, he expressed his belief that these religious texts promote division between Muslims and non-Muslims, which he found contradictory to the idea of a universal religion. He also pointed out that many clerics themselves struggle to interpret these texts, which raised questions about their clarity and validity.<ref name="IT">{{cite web |title=Ex-Muslims of India find the X factor online |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sunday-special/story/ex-muslims-find-the-x-factor-online-exmuslim-india-population-ex-muslim-movement-youtubers-2427185-2023-08-27 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref> Despite efforts by his family to persuade him to reconsider, Sahil remained firm in his decision, and eventually, his family accepted his choice.<ref name="Bhaskar">{{cite web |last1=कौशल |first1=पूनम |title=एक्स मुस्लिम साहिल का इंटरव्यू:मैं पक्का मुसलमान था, फिर इस्लाम छोड़ दिया क्योंकि कोई मौलवी मेरे सवालों का जवाब नहीं दे सका |url=https://www.bhaskar.com/db-original/news/nupur-sharma-controversy-ex-muslim-sahil-on-islam-quran-blasphemy-130064800.html |website=Bhaskar}}</ref>

==Activism==
After leaving Islam, Sahil established a YouTube channel to discuss various aspects of Islamic customs and beliefs, as well as topics related to science and human evolution.<ref>{{cite web |title=Who is Exmuslim Sahil, real name and why was his YouTube channel banned in India |url=https://thesportsgrail.com/who-is-exmuslim-sahil-real-name-and-why-was-his-youtube-channel-banned-in-india/ |website=The SportsGrail |language=en |date=7 July 2023}}</ref> His channel quickly gained popularity, amassing over 500,000 subscribers, and he also built a Twitter following of more than 33,000 users.<ref name="IT" /> Sahil, whose identity was initially concealed, engaged in debates with religious leaders and explored a wide range of subjects, including the role of the Waqf board in secular India. Through his platform, he aimed to stimulate conversations and address misconceptions.<ref>{{cite web |title='एक्स मुस्लिम साहिल' मुस्लिम समाज सुधारक या इस्लाम के कटु आलोचक |url=https://www.aytnews.com/2023/07/ex-muslim-sahil-muslim-social-reformer-or-bitter-critic-of-islam.html |website=Hindi News, Breaking News in Hindi, हिंदी न्यूज़, AYT News, Latest News - AYT News |language=en-gb |date=4 July 2023}}</ref> However, his anonymity was compromised when a Pakistani cleric exposed his personal information.<ref name="IT" />

He also expressed support for [[Nupur Sharma]]'s stance. He noted that Sharma's comments about [[Muhammad|2022 Muhammad remarks controversy]] were based on Islamic sources and questioned the controversy surrounding her remarks. He emphasized that if there is an issue, it should be directed towards the sources themselves and not individuals who reference them with proper citations.<ref name="Bhaskar" /><ref>{{cite web |last1=Team |first1=Delhi Magazine |title=Ex-Muslim Sahil: What Nupur Sharma Said Wasn't from Her Side, But From Islamic Sources |url=https://www.delhi-magazine.com/startup-inspirational-stories/il-what-nupur-sharma-said-wasnt-from-her-side-but-from-islamic-sources/ |website=Delhi Magazine |date=17 July 2022}}</ref>

On July 6, Sahil's YouTube channel was banned in India, sparking debates about the reasons behind the ban and the decision-makers involved. Sahil expressed his surprise and disappointment, likening the situation to censorship experienced in Pakistan. This ban led to the launch of a petition advocating for the reinstatement of his channel, supported by a Twitter campaign using the hashtag #UnblockExMuslimSahil. In addition, Sahil conducted live streams to voice his concerns and garner support for the restoration of his channel in India.<ref>{{cite web |last1=DESK |first1=WEB |title=Who is Ex-Muslim Sahil? Why is Unblock Ex-Muslim Sahil trending on Twitter–Read the details |url=https://organiser.org/2023/07/06/182428/bharat/who-is-ex-muslim-sahil-why-is-unblock-ex-muslim-sahil-trending-on-twitter-read-the-details/ |website=Organiser |date=6 July 2023}}</ref>

==Books==
Sahil has authored several books that recount his experiences as an ex-Muslim. His most renowned work is "Why I Left Islam," published in 2019. Other notable books by him include:

*2020, Islam: The Religion of Peace?
*2021, The Quran: A Critical Analysis
*2022, The Hadith: A Critical Analysis

==See also==
*[[2022 Muhammad remarks controversy]]
*[[List of former Muslims]]
*[[Ex-Muslims]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==

{{AfC submission|||ts=20230909221107|u=Hazoor|ns=118}}

Ex-Muslim Sahil

2023-09-09T16:42:10Z

Hazoor: New section

{{AFC submission/draft}}

'''Nisar Shaikh''' popularly known as '''Ex-Muslim Sahil''' is an Indian activist, author, and YouTuber. He is known for his critical analysis of Islam and his advocacy for the rights of ex-Muslims.

==Early Life==
Sahil was born and brought up in a Muslim family in the Dharavi neighbourhood of Mumbai. He actively participated in Tablighi Jamaat programs and also engaged in Da'wah activities, which involve inviting non-Muslims to convert to Islam. However, in 2018, he decided to leave Islam after reading the Quran, Hadith, and other religious texts. In one of his videos, he expressed his belief that these religious texts promote division between Muslims and non-Muslims, which he found contradictory to the idea of a universal religion. He also pointed out that many clerics themselves struggle to interpret these texts, which raised questions about their clarity and validity.<ref name="IT">{{cite web |title=Ex-Muslims of India find the X factor online |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sunday-special/story/ex-muslims-find-the-x-factor-online-exmuslim-india-population-ex-muslim-movement-youtubers-2427185-2023-08-27 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref> Despite efforts by his family to persuade him to reconsider, Sahil remained firm in his decision, and eventually, his family accepted his choice.<ref name="Bhaskar">{{cite web |last1=कौशल |first1=पूनम |title=एक्स मुस्लिम साहिल का इंटरव्यू:मैं पक्का मुसलमान था, फिर इस्लाम छोड़ दिया क्योंकि कोई मौलवी मेरे सवालों का जवाब नहीं दे सका |url=https://www.bhaskar.com/db-original/news/nupur-sharma-controversy-ex-muslim-sahil-on-islam-quran-blasphemy-130064800.html |website=Bhaskar}}</ref>

==Activism==
After leaving Islam, Sahil established a YouTube channel to discuss various aspects of Islamic customs and beliefs, as well as topics related to science and human evolution.<ref>{{cite web |title=Who is Exmuslim Sahil, real name and why was his YouTube channel banned in India |url=https://thesportsgrail.com/who-is-exmuslim-sahil-real-name-and-why-was-his-youtube-channel-banned-in-india/ |website=The SportsGrail |language=en |date=7 July 2023}}</ref> His channel quickly gained popularity, amassing over 500,000 subscribers, and he also built a Twitter following of more than 33,000 users.<ref name="IT" /> Sahil, whose identity was initially concealed, engaged in debates with religious leaders and explored a wide range of subjects, including the role of the Waqf board in secular India. Through his platform, he aimed to stimulate conversations and address misconceptions.<ref>{{cite web |title='एक्स मुस्लिम साहिल' मुस्लिम समाज सुधारक या इस्लाम के कटु आलोचक |url=https://www.aytnews.com/2023/07/ex-muslim-sahil-muslim-social-reformer-or-bitter-critic-of-islam.html |website=Hindi News, Breaking News in Hindi, हिंदी न्यूज़, AYT News, Latest News - AYT News |language=en-gb |date=4 July 2023}}</ref> However, his anonymity was compromised when a Pakistani cleric exposed his personal information.<ref name="IT" />

He also expressed support for Nupur Sharma's stance. He noted that Sharma's comments about Mohammad were based on Islamic sources and questioned the controversy surrounding her remarks. He emphasized that if there is an issue, it should be directed towards the sources themselves and not individuals who reference them with proper citations.<ref name="Bhaskar" /><ref>{{cite web |last1=Team |first1=Delhi Magazine |title=Ex-Muslim Sahil: What Nupur Sharma Said Wasn't from Her Side, But From Islamic Sources |url=https://www.delhi-magazine.com/startup-inspirational-stories/il-what-nupur-sharma-said-wasnt-from-her-side-but-from-islamic-sources/ |website=Delhi Magazine |date=17 July 2022}}</ref>

On July 6, Sahil's YouTube channel was banned in India, sparking debates about the reasons behind the ban and the decision-makers involved. Sahil expressed his surprise and disappointment, likening the situation to censorship experienced in Pakistan. This ban led to the launch of a petition advocating for the reinstatement of his channel, supported by a Twitter campaign using the hashtag #UnblockExMuslimSahil. In addition, Sahil conducted live streams to voice his concerns and garner support for the restoration of his channel in India.<ref>{{cite web |last1=DESK |first1=WEB |title=Who is Ex-Muslim Sahil? Why is Unblock Ex-Muslim Sahil trending on Twitter–Read the details |url=https://organiser.org/2023/07/06/182428/bharat/who-is-ex-muslim-sahil-why-is-unblock-ex-muslim-sahil-trending-on-twitter-read-the-details/ |website=Organiser |date=6 July 2023}}</ref>

==Books==
Sahil has authored several books that recount his experiences as an ex-Muslim. His most renowned work is "Why I Left Islam," published in 2019. Other notable books by him include:

*2020, Islam: The Religion of Peace?
*2021, The Quran: A Critical Analysis
*2022, The Hadith: A Critical Analysis

==See also==
*[[List of former Muslims]]
*[[Ex-Muslims]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==

{{AfC submission|||ts=20230909221107|u=Hazoor|ns=118}}

Ex-Muslim Sahil

2023-09-09T16:41:07Z

Hazoor:

{{AFC submission/draft}}

'''Nisar Shaikh''' popularly known as '''Ex-Muslim Sahil''' is an Indian activist, author, and YouTuber. He is known for his critical analysis of Islam and his advocacy for the rights of ex-Muslims.

==Early Life==
Sahil was born and brought up in a Muslim family in the Dharavi neighbourhood of Mumbai. He actively participated in Tablighi Jamaat programs and also engaged in Da'wah activities, which involve inviting non-Muslims to convert to Islam. However, in 2018, he decided to leave Islam after reading the Quran, Hadith, and other religious texts. In one of his videos, he expressed his belief that these religious texts promote division between Muslims and non-Muslims, which he found contradictory to the idea of a universal religion. He also pointed out that many clerics themselves struggle to interpret these texts, which raised questions about their clarity and validity.<ref name="IT">{{cite web |title=Ex-Muslims of India find the X factor online |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sunday-special/story/ex-muslims-find-the-x-factor-online-exmuslim-india-population-ex-muslim-movement-youtubers-2427185-2023-08-27 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref> Despite efforts by his family to persuade him to reconsider, Sahil remained firm in his decision, and eventually, his family accepted his choice.<ref name="Bhaskar">{{cite web |last1=कौशल |first1=पूनम |title=एक्स मुस्लिम साहिल का इंटरव्यू:मैं पक्का मुसलमान था, फिर इस्लाम छोड़ दिया क्योंकि कोई मौलवी मेरे सवालों का जवाब नहीं दे सका |url=https://www.bhaskar.com/db-original/news/nupur-sharma-controversy-ex-muslim-sahil-on-islam-quran-blasphemy-130064800.html |website=Bhaskar}}</ref>

==Activism==
After leaving Islam, Sahil established a YouTube channel to discuss various aspects of Islamic customs and beliefs, as well as topics related to science and human evolution.<ref>{{cite web |title=Who is Exmuslim Sahil, real name and why was his YouTube channel banned in India |url=https://thesportsgrail.com/who-is-exmuslim-sahil-real-name-and-why-was-his-youtube-channel-banned-in-india/ |website=The SportsGrail |language=en |date=7 July 2023}}</ref> His channel quickly gained popularity, amassing over 500,000 subscribers, and he also built a Twitter following of more than 33,000 users.<ref name="IT" /> Sahil, whose identity was initially concealed, engaged in debates with religious leaders and explored a wide range of subjects, including the role of the Waqf board in secular India. Through his platform, he aimed to stimulate conversations and address misconceptions.<ref>{{cite web |title='एक्स मुस्लिम साहिल' मुस्लिम समाज सुधारक या इस्लाम के कटु आलोचक |url=https://www.aytnews.com/2023/07/ex-muslim-sahil-muslim-social-reformer-or-bitter-critic-of-islam.html |website=Hindi News, Breaking News in Hindi, हिंदी न्यूज़, AYT News, Latest News - AYT News |language=en-gb |date=4 July 2023}}</ref> However, his anonymity was compromised when a Pakistani cleric exposed his personal information.<ref name="IT" />

He also expressed support for Nupur Sharma's stance. He noted that Sharma's comments about Mohammad were based on Islamic sources and questioned the controversy surrounding her remarks. He emphasized that if there is an issue, it should be directed towards the sources themselves and not individuals who reference them with proper citations.<ref name="Bhaskar" /><ref>{{cite web |last1=Team |first1=Delhi Magazine |title=Ex-Muslim Sahil: What Nupur Sharma Said Wasn't from Her Side, But From Islamic Sources |url=https://www.delhi-magazine.com/startup-inspirational-stories/il-what-nupur-sharma-said-wasnt-from-her-side-but-from-islamic-sources/ |website=Delhi Magazine |date=17 July 2022}}</ref>

On July 6, Sahil's YouTube channel was banned in India, sparking debates about the reasons behind the ban and the decision-makers involved. Sahil expressed his surprise and disappointment, likening the situation to censorship experienced in Pakistan. This ban led to the launch of a petition advocating for the reinstatement of his channel, supported by a Twitter campaign using the hashtag #UnblockExMuslimSahil. In addition, Sahil conducted live streams to voice his concerns and garner support for the restoration of his channel in India.<ref>{{cite web |last1=DESK |first1=WEB |title=Who is Ex-Muslim Sahil? Why is Unblock Ex-Muslim Sahil trending on Twitter–Read the details |url=https://organiser.org/2023/07/06/182428/bharat/who-is-ex-muslim-sahil-why-is-unblock-ex-muslim-sahil-trending-on-twitter-read-the-details/ |website=Organiser |date=6 July 2023}}</ref>

==Books==
Sahil has authored several books that recount his experiences as an ex-Muslim. His most renowned work is "Why I Left Islam," published in 2019. Other notable books by him include:

*2020, Islam: The Religion of Peace?
*2021, The Quran: A Critical Analysis
*2022, The Hadith: A Critical Analysis

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==

{{AfC submission|||ts=20230909221107|u=Hazoor|ns=118}}

Ex-Muslim Sahil

2023-09-09T16:40:45Z

Hazoor: More sources added and photo removed

Ex-Muslim Sahil

2023-09-09T16:29:23Z

Hazoor: Source error

{{AFC submission/draft}}

[[File:Ex-Muslim_Sahil.jpg|thumb|right|220px]]
'''Nisar Shaikh''' popularly known as '''Ex-Muslim Sahil''' is an Indian activist, author, and YouTuber. He is known for his critical analysis of Islam and his advocacy for the rights of ex-Muslims.

==Early Life==
Sahil was born and brought up in a Muslim family in the Dharavi neighbourhood of Mumbai. He actively participated in Tablighi Jamaat programs and also engaged in Da'wah activities, which involve inviting non-Muslims to convert to Islam. However, in 2018, he decided to leave Islam after reading the Quran, Hadith, and other religious texts. In one of his videos, he expressed his belief that these religious texts promote division between Muslims and non-Muslims, which he found contradictory to the idea of a universal religion. He also pointed out that many clerics themselves struggle to interpret these texts, which raised questions about their clarity and validity.<ref name="IT">{{cite web |title=Ex-Muslims of India find the X factor online |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sunday-special/story/ex-muslims-find-the-x-factor-online-exmuslim-india-population-ex-muslim-movement-youtubers-2427185-2023-08-27 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref> Despite efforts by his family to persuade him to reconsider, Sahil remained firm in his decision, and eventually, his family accepted his choice.<ref name="Bhaskar">{{cite web |last1=कौशल |first1=पूनम |title=एक्स मुस्लिम साहिल का इंटरव्यू:मैं पक्का मुसलमान था, फिर इस्लाम छोड़ दिया क्योंकि कोई मौलवी मेरे सवालों का जवाब नहीं दे सका |url=https://www.bhaskar.com/db-original/news/nupur-sharma-controversy-ex-muslim-sahil-on-islam-quran-blasphemy-130064800.html |website=Bhaskar}}</ref>

==Activism==
After leaving Islam, Sahil established a YouTube channel to discuss various aspects of Islamic customs and beliefs, as well as topics related to science and human evolution.<ref>{{cite web |title=Who is Exmuslim Sahil, real name and why was his YouTube channel banned in India |url=https://thesportsgrail.com/who-is-exmuslim-sahil-real-name-and-why-was-his-youtube-channel-banned-in-india/ |website=The SportsGrail |language=en |date=7 July 2023}}</ref> His channel quickly gained popularity, amassing over 500,000 subscribers, and he also built a Twitter following of more than 33,000 users.<ref name="IT" /> Sahil, whose identity was initially concealed, engaged in debates with religious leaders and explored a wide range of subjects, including the role of the Waqf board in secular India. Through his platform, he aimed to stimulate conversations and address misconceptions. However, his anonymity was compromised when a Pakistani cleric exposed his personal information.<ref name="IT" />

He also expressed support for Nupur Sharma's stance. He noted that Sharma's comments about Mohammad were based on Islamic sources and questioned the controversy surrounding her remarks. He emphasized that if there is an issue, it should be directed towards the sources themselves and not individuals who reference them with proper citations.<ref name="Bhaskar" />

==Controversy==
On July 6, Sahil's YouTube channel was banned in India, sparking debates about the reasons behind the ban and the decision-makers involved. Sahil expressed his surprise and disappointment, likening the situation to censorship experienced in Pakistan. This ban led to the launch of a petition advocating for the reinstatement of his channel, supported by a Twitter campaign using the hashtag #UnblockExMuslimSahil. In addition, Sahil conducted live streams to voice his concerns and garner support for the restoration of his channel in India.<ref>{{cite web |last1=DESK |first1=WEB |title=Who is Ex-Muslim Sahil? Why is Unblock Ex-Muslim Sahil trending on Twitter–Read the details |url=https://organiser.org/2023/07/06/182428/bharat/who-is-ex-muslim-sahil-why-is-unblock-ex-muslim-sahil-trending-on-twitter-read-the-details/ |website=Organiser |date=6 July 2023}}</ref>

==Books==
Sahil has authored several books that recount his experiences as an ex-Muslim. His most renowned work is "Why I Left Islam," published in 2019. Other notable books by him include:

*2020, Islam: The Religion of Peace?
*2021, The Quran: A Critical Analysis
*2022, The Hadith: A Critical Analysis

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==

Ex-Muslim Sahil

2023-09-09T15:37:17Z

Hazoor: New draft started

{{AFC submission/draft}}

[[File:Ex-Muslim_Sahil.jpg|thumb|right|220px]]
'''Nisar Shaikh''' popularly known as '''Ex-Muslim Sahil''' is an Indian activist, author, and YouTuber. He is known for his critical analysis of Islam and his advocacy for the rights of ex-Muslims.

==Early Life==
Sahil was born and brought up in a Muslim family in the Dharavi neighbourhood of Mumbai. He actively participated in Tablighi Jamaat programs and also engaged in Da'wah activities, which involve inviting non-Muslims to convert to Islam. However, in 2018, he decided to leave Islam after reading the Quran, Hadith, and other religious texts. In one of his videos, he expressed his belief that these religious texts promote division between Muslims and non-Muslims, which he found contradictory to the idea of a universal religion. He also pointed out that many clerics themselves struggle to interpret these texts, which raised questions about their clarity and validity.<ref name="IT">{{cite web |title=Ex-Muslims of India find the X factor online |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sunday-special/story/ex-muslims-find-the-x-factor-online-exmuslim-india-population-ex-muslim-movement-youtubers-2427185-2023-08-27 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref> Despite efforts by his family to persuade him to reconsider, Sahil remained firm in his decision, and eventually, his family accepted his choice.<ref name="Bhaskar">{{cite web |last1=कौशल |first1=पूनम |title=एक्स मुस्लिम साहिल का इंटरव्यू:मैं पक्का मुसलमान था, फिर इस्लाम छोड़ दिया क्योंकि कोई मौलवी मेरे सवालों का जवाब नहीं दे सका |url=https://www.bhaskar.com/db-original/news/nupur-sharma-controversy-ex-muslim-sahil-on-islam-quran-blasphemy-130064800.html |website=Bhaskar}}</ref>

==Activism==
After leaving Islam, Sahil established a YouTube channel to discuss various aspects of Islamic customs and beliefs, as well as topics related to science and human evolution.<ref>{{cite web |title=Who is Exmuslim Sahil, real name and why was his YouTube channel banned in India |url=https://thesportsgrail.com/who-is-exmuslim-sahil-real-name-and-why-was-his-youtube-channel-banned-in-india/ |website=The SportsGrail |language=en |date=7 July 2023}}</ref> His channel quickly gained popularity, amassing over 500,000 subscribers, and he also built a Twitter following of more than 33,000 users.<ref name="IT" /> Sahil, whose identity was initially concealed, engaged in debates with religious leaders and explored a wide range of subjects, including the role of the Waqf board in secular India. Through his platform, he aimed to stimulate conversations and address misconceptions. However, his anonymity was compromised when a Pakistani cleric exposed his personal information.<ref name="IT">

He also expressed support for Nupur Sharma's stance. He noted that Sharma's comments about Mohammad were based on Islamic sources and questioned the controversy surrounding her remarks. He emphasized that if there is an issue, it should be directed towards the sources themselves and not individuals who reference them with proper citations.<ref name="Bhaskar" />

==Controversy==
On July 6, Sahil's YouTube channel was banned in India, sparking debates about the reasons behind the ban and the decision-makers involved. Sahil expressed his surprise and disappointment, likening the situation to censorship experienced in Pakistan. This ban led to the launch of a petition advocating for the reinstatement of his channel, supported by a Twitter campaign using the hashtag #UnblockExMuslimSahil. In addition, Sahil conducted live streams to voice his concerns and garner support for the restoration of his channel in India.<ref>{{cite web |last1=DESK |first1=WEB |title=Who is Ex-Muslim Sahil? Why is Unblock Ex-Muslim Sahil trending on Twitter–Read the details |url=https://organiser.org/2023/07/06/182428/bharat/who-is-ex-muslim-sahil-why-is-unblock-ex-muslim-sahil-trending-on-twitter-read-the-details/ |website=Organiser |date=6 July 2023}}</ref>

==Books==
Sahil has authored several books that recount his experiences as an ex-Muslim. His most renowned work is "Why I Left Islam," published in 2019. Other notable books by him include:

*2020, Islam: The Religion of Peace?
*2021, The Quran: A Critical Analysis
*2022, The Hadith: A Critical Analysis

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==