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The Foul Truth

2023-10-06T02:55:13Z

HarmanBajwa: -- Draft creation using the BP:Article wizard --

{{Short description|The Foul Truth is 2019 Manipuri film directed by Priyakanta Laishram based on male rape}}
{{italic title}}
{{Infobox film
| italic_title = The Foul Truth - Amakpa Achumba
| image = The Foul Truth (Amakpa Achumba) - Poster.jpg
| caption = The Foul Truth (Amakpa Achumba) - Poster
| director = [[Priyakanta Laishram]]
| producer = [[Priyakanta Laishram]]
| starring = [[Priyakanta Laishram]]
Rojesh Saikhom<br/>Harry Tourangbam
| cinematography = Baldev Yambem<br/>Satish Moirangcha
| music = Whitesand Music
| studio = Priyakanta Productions
| released = 02 June 2019
| country = [[India]]
| language = [[Meitei language]] (officially called [[Manipuri language]])
}}
'''''The Foul Truth''''' ([[Manipuri (Meiteilon Language)|Manipuri]]: ''Amakpa Achumba'') is a 2019 [[Cinema of Manipur|Manipuri film]] written, produced and directed by [[Priyakanta Laishram]] under the production banner, Priyakanta Productions. It is the first film from [[Northeast India]] to tackle the issue of [[male rape]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |date=17 August 2023 |title=Manipuri film ‘The Foul Truth’ talks about hidden truth of male rape |work=Northeast Now |url=https://nenow.in/north-east-news/manipur/manipuri-film-the-foul-truth-talks-about-hidden-truth-of-male-rape.html |access-date=18 August 2023}}</ref> The film tells the story of a boy named Thoithoiba, who is a survivor of [[child sexual abuse]] and [[Rape of males|male rape]]. The film stars [[Priyakanta Laishram]], Harry Tourangbam and Rojesh Saikhom. The film was released on 2 June 2019.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news |date=17 August 2023 |title=‘The Foul Truth’: A Wake-Up Call For The Patriarch Society. |work=Borok Times |url=https://boroktimes.com/the-foul-truth-a-wake-up-call-for-the-patriarch-society/ |access-date=18 August 2023}}</ref> The film was screened at 33 international [[Film festival|film festivals]] and won several awards, including Best Actor in a Leading Role, Best Film on Other Social Issues, and Best Screenplay awards.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news |date=3 October 2023 |title=Manipuri film ‘The Foul Truth’ to be screened at Chiang Mai University, Thailand. |work=Borok Times |url=https://boroktimes.com/manipuri-film-the-foul-truth-to-be-screened-at-chiang-mai-university-thailand/ |access-date=3 October 2023}}</ref>

== Plot ==
Thoithoiba ([[Priyakanta Laishram]]), a shy and introverted college student, faces daily ridicule for his anti-social behaviors. Even his family complains about his lack of socialization and masculinity. Thoithoiba feels deeply disturbed and traumatised, but no one acknowledges or understands his feelings. One day after college, while he waits for his father (Harendra Laishram) to pick him up, he calls his mother (Sophia Sapam) to ask where his father is. When his younger sister answered the phone, she informed him that their uncle (Rojesh Saikhom) had left to pick him up. This triggers upsetting childhood memories, causing Thoithoiba to hang up the phone and become rattled.

His classmates notice and start mocking him, which leads to a confrontation and a fight. Thoithoiba's uncle arrives and accuses him in front of the bullies. Disheartened, Thoithoiba returns home to a family that blames him for the college brawl without showing any remorse. Unable to bear it any longer, he confronts them and reveals his long-buried trauma of being regularly raped by his uncle. Thoithoiba cries uncontrollably, accusing each member of his family of being responsible for his life of horror, fury, shame, and guilt, and criticizing toxic masculinity and unfavorable norms that led to his abuse.

As the film ends, Thoithoiba sees a younger version of himself (Harry Tourangbam) and finds solace in their connection. They share a triumphant moment before the younger self disappears, leaving Thoithoiba with a sigh.

== Cast ==

* [[Priyakanta Laishram]] as Thoithoiba.<ref name=":3" />
* Rojesh Saikhom as Thoithoiba's uncle.
* Harry Tourangbam as Young Thoithoiba.
* Harendra Laishram as Thoithoiba's father.
* Sophia Sapam as Thoithoiba's mother.
* Indira Khaidem as Thoithoiba's distant relative.
* Caroline Laishram as College professor.
* Terina Ningombam as Thoithoiba's younger sister.
* Bhani Khamnam as College student.
* Bronson Mutum as College student.
* Nongpoknganba Khoirom as College student.
* Jackson Naoroibam as College student.
* Yaiphabi Toijam as College student.
* Eshika Luwang as College student.

== Production ==
=== Development ===
In an interview with ''[[Scroll.in]]'', [[Priyakanta Laishram]] stated that while attending senior secondary school in [[Chandigarh]], he was sexually assaulted by two men. The trauma he faced as a result of the assault gave him the courage to speak out through this film.<ref>{{Cite news |date=24 June 2023 |title=‘I knew I wasn’t transgender but I had no idea who I was’: Manipuri filmmaker Priyakanta Laishram |work=Scroll.in |url=https://scroll.in/article/1051143/i-knew-i-wasnt-transgender-but-i-had-no-idea-who-i-was-manipuri-filmmaker-priyakanta-laishram |access-date=18 August 2023}}</ref>

Regarding the funding, Laishram said that due to the subject matter of the film, none of the other producers were willing to invest, and he had to produce it himself.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news |date=18 August 2023 |title=Priyakanta Laishram’s ‘The Foul Truth’ Is The Gruesome Reality Of Society. |work=Signpost News |url=https://signpostnews.com/priyakanta-laishrams-the-foul-truth-is-the-gruesome-reality-of-society/ |access-date=18 August 2023}}</ref> It was also revealed that Laishram would play the role of a sexual assault survivor in the film.<ref>{{Cite news |date=10 December 2021 |title=Priyakanta Laishram "ONENESS" is all set to reveal the invisible crime of Gay Honor Killing (Manipur’s first Gay themed movie) |work=India Today NE |url=https://www.indiatodayne.in/breaking-news/story/priyakanta-laishram-oneness-all-set-reveal-invisible-crime-gay-honor-killing-manipurs-first-gay-themed-movie-411189-2021-12-10 |access-date=18 August 2023}}</ref>

In 2018, when the film was announced, Laishram received backlash from a group of people who didn't understand the problem of male rape.<ref name=":1" /> In an interview with ''[[The Indian Express]],'' Laishram said he received threatening calls from different [[Insurgent groups in North-East India|insurgent groups]] regarding the film.<ref>{{Cite news |date=25 April 2022 |title=A Manipur film tackles sexual identity for first time |work=The Indian Express |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/a-manipur-film-tackles-sexual-identity-for-first-time-7885549/ |access-date=18 August 2023}}</ref>

=== Filming ===
The [[principal photography]] of the film commenced on 22 May 2018. After a 4-day schedule, the film wrapped up its shoot on 26 May 2018.<ref name=":1" />

Talking about the film, Laishram said, ''"It is hard for the male survivors to tell someone that they have experienced sexual abuse because of the stereotypes about masculinity. Those thousands of tortured individuals whose voices and cries have been silenced by society were brought to light through this film.” ''<ref name=":2" />

=== Post Production & Release ===
''The Foul Truth'' was edited by Priyakanta Laishram and the music was composed by Whitesand Music. It was released on 02 June 2019.<ref name=":3" />

== Reception ==
''The Foul Truth'' received rave reviews from critics. Sangita Atom of [[The Sangai Express|''The Sangai Express'']] wrote, "''The Foul Truth - Amakpa Achumba, is a very sad and jarring film about some of the most atrocious behavior of humankind. It stands out from the rest with a non-dramatized version of reality. Overall, it is an excellent cinema with top-notch direction, dialogue, performances, and sound design".''<ref>{{Cite news |date=6 October 2023 |title=The Foul Truth captures and taps into the evil truth of mankind |work=The Sangai Express |url=https://www.thesangaiexpress.com/Encyc/2023/10/6/Sangita-AtomThe-Foul-Truth-Amakpa-Achumba-directed-by-Priyakanta-Laishram-is-every-bit-a-game-changer-Af.html |access-date=6 October 2023}}</ref>

''Northeast Now'' wrote, ''"The film delves deeply into the patriarchy that predominantly exists in our society and how the culture of victim blaming and shaming has resulted in numerous unintended consequences."'' <ref name=":2" />

Praising Priyakanta Laishram's performance, ''Borok Times'' wrote'', "As an actor, he convincingly portrays his character’s underlying resiliency. One can truly empathize with the character, demonstrating how much heart and soul Laishram poured into the film'.''<ref name=":3" />

== Accolades ==

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Award
!Category
!Winner's name
!Result
!Reference
|-
|rowspan="2"| World Freedom Film Festival 2018
| Best Best Actor in a Leading Role
|[[Priyakanta Laishram]]
| {{won}}
|-
| Best Sound Design
| [[Priyakanta Laishram]]
| {{won}}
|<ref name=":4" />
|-
|rowspan="1"|St. Leuven International Short Film Festival 2019
| Best Film on Other Social Issues
| [[Priyakanta Laishram]] (Producer and Director)
| {{won}}
|<ref name=":1" />
|-
|Symbiosis Allied Media Awards 2019
|Best Actor in a Leading Role
| [[Priyakanta Laishram]]
| {{won}}
|<ref name=":1" />
|-
| Indian Independent Film Festival 2018
| Best Background Score
| Whitesand Music
| {{won}}
|<ref name=":4" />
|-
|rowspan="2"| Short Motion Pictures Wave National Festival 2019
|Best Actor Award—Critics
|[[Priyakanta Laishram]]
|{{won}}
|-
| Best Screenplay
| [[Priyakanta Laishram]]
| {{won}}
|<ref name=":1" />
|-
|rowspan="1"| Human Rights Asian Film Festival 2019
| Unconventional Film Award
| [[Priyakanta Laishram]] (Producer and Director)
| {{won}}
|<ref name=":4" />
|-
|rowspan="1"| Jalandhar National Short Film Festival 2019
| Best Actor in a Motion Picture—Drama
| [[Priyakanta Laishram]]
| {{won}}
|<ref name=":4" />
|}
== References ==

{{reflist}}
== External links ==
*{{imdb title|15382170|The Foul Truth}}
[[Category:2019 films]]
[[Category:2019 drama films]]
[[Category:Manipur]]
[[Category:Indian drama films]]
[[Category:2010s Meitei-language films]]
[[Category:Films about rape in India]]
[[Category:Meitei-language films]]
[[Category:Films about social issues in India]]
[[Category:Cinema of Manipur]]
[[Category:Rape of males| ]]
[[Category:Rape]]
[[Category:Misandry]]
[[Category:Social inequality]]
[[Category:Violence against men]]

Ravi Shastri

2023-09-25T21:36:53Z

HarmanBajwa: removed Category:Tulu people; added Category:Tulu sportspeople

{{Short description|India cricket player, coach and commentator (born 1962)}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{Infobox cricketer
| name = Ravi Shastri
| image = Ravi Shastri (1).jpg
| caption = Shastri in May 2019
| country = India
| fullname = Ravishankar Jayadritha Shastri
|birth_place = [[Mumbai]], [[Maharashtra]], India
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1962|05|27|df=yes}}
| batting = Right-handed
| bowling = [[Slow left-arm orthodox]]
| role = All-rounder
| height = 1.91 m
| international = true

| internationalspan = 1981–1992
| testdebutdate = 21 February
| testdebutyear = 1981
| testdebutagainst = New Zealand
| testcap = 151
| lasttestdate = 26 December
| lasttestyear = 1992
| lasttestagainst = South Africa
| odidebutdate = 25 November
| odidebutyear = 1981
| odidebutagainst = England
| odicap = 36
| lastodidate = 17 December
| lastodiyear = 1992
| lastodiagainst = South Africa
| club1 = [[Mumbai cricket team|Bombay]]
| year1 = 1979–1993
| club2 = [[Glamorgan County Cricket Club|Glamorgan]]
| year2 = 1987–1991
| columns = 4
| column1 = [[Test cricket|Test]]
| matches1 = 80
| runs1 = 3,830
| bat avg1 = 35.79
| 100s/50s1 = 11/12
| top score1 = 206
| deliveries1 = 15,751
| wickets1 = 151
| bowl avg1 = 40.96
| fivefor1 = 2
| tenfor1 = 0
| best bowling1 = 5/75
| catches/stumpings1 = 36/–
| column2 = [[One Day International|ODI]]
| matches2 = 150
| runs2 = 3,108
| bat avg2 = 29.04
| 100s/50s2 = 4/18
| top score2 = 109
| deliveries2 = 6,613
| wickets2 = 129
| bowl avg2 = 36.04
| fivefor2 = 1
| tenfor2 = 0
| best bowling2 = 5/15
| catches/stumpings2 = 40/–
| column3 = [[First-class cricket|FC]]
| matches3 = 245
| runs3 = 13,202
| bat avg3 = 44.00
| 100s/50s3 = 34/66
| top score3 = 217
| deliveries3 = 42,425
| wickets3 = 509
| bowl avg3 = 44.00
| fivefor3 = 18
| tenfor3 = 3
| best bowling3 = 9/101
| catches/stumpings3 = 141/–
| column4 = [[List A cricket|LA]]
| matches4 = 278
| runs4 = 6,383
| bat avg4 = 31.12
| 100s/50s4 = 6/38
| top score4 = 138[[not out|*]]
| deliveries4 = 11,966
| wickets4 = 254
| bowl avg4 = 32.18
| fivefor4 = 5
| tenfor4 = 0
| best bowling4 = 5/13
| catches/stumpings4 = 84/–
| date = 6 September
| year = 2008
| source = http://www.espncricinfo.com/india/content/player/33975.html Cricinfo
}}
'''Ravishankar Jayadritha Shastri''' (born 27 May 1962) is the former head coach of the India national cricket team, a cricket commentator. As a player, he played for the [[India national cricket team]] between 1981 and 1992 in both [[Test cricket|Test matches]] and [[One Day International]]s. Although he started his career as a [[Left-arm orthodox spin|left arm spin bowler]], he later transformed into a batting [[all-rounder]]. Shastri was a member of the Indian team that won the [[1983 Cricket World Cup]].

As a cricketer, Shastri was essentially defensive with his trademark "chapati shot"<ref name="chapati1">{{cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/2001/07/14/stories/07140288.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030819050823/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/2001/07/14/stories/07140288.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=19 August 2003 |work=[[The Hindu]] |title=Some interesting trademark shots |access-date=2007-05-02 |location=Chennai, India |date=14 July 2001}}</ref><ref name="chapati2">{{cite web|url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/tss/tss2535/25350240.htm |work=[[The Hindu]] |title=Restraint is the essence |access-date=2007-05-02 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050111100537/http://www.hinduonnet.com/tss/tss2535/25350240.htm |archive-date=11 January 2005 }}</ref> (a [[Cricket terminology#F|flick]] off the pads), but he could raise his [[strike rate]] when required. Due to his above-average height (he stood 6' 3" tall) and an upright stance, he had a limited number of shots against [[fast bowlers|fast bowling]], but was able to put the lofted shot to good use against [[spin bowling]]. Ravi played either as an opening batsman or in the middle order.

The highlight of his career was when he was elected Champion of Champions in the [[World Championship of Cricket]] in Australia in 1985. In the same season, on 10 January 1985,<ref>[https://www.news18.com/cricketnext/news/10th-january-1985-ravi-shastri-hits-six-sixes-in-an-over-1628315.html "10th January 1985: Ravi Shastri Hits-Six-Sixes-in-an-Over"]</ref> he equaled [[West Indies cricket team|West Indian]] [[Garry Sobers]]'s record of hitting six [[Six (cricket)|sixes]] in an [[Over (cricket)|over]] in [[First-class cricket|first class cricket]]. He was regarded as a potential captain, but his image outside cricket,<ref name="ic02">Raju Bharatan, "Ravi Shastri : Always 'on the ball'", Special Portrait, ''Indian Cricket 2002''.</ref> injuries and tendency to lose form at crucial times meant that he captained India in only one Test match.

In domestic cricket, he played for [[Mumbai cricket team|Bombay]] and led them to the [[Ranji Trophy]] title in his final year of playing. He also played four seasons of [[county cricket]] for [[Glamorgan County Cricket Club|Glamorgan]]. He was forced to retire aged 31 due to a recurring knee injury. He has done commentary on behalf of BCCI in the matches that India play.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ravi .Shastri|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/33975.html}}</ref> In 2014, he became the director of Indian cricket team for a period of eight months from India's tour of England until the [[2015 Cricket World Cup|2015 World Cup]]. On 13 July 2017, he was appointed as the head coach of Indian cricket team.<ref>{{cite news|title=Ravi Shastri appointed Head Coach|url=http://www.bcci.tv/news/2017/bcci-news/16160/ravi-shastri-appointed-head-coach|access-date=12 July 2017|work=BCCI|date=11 July 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170714023626/http://www.bcci.tv/news/2017/bcci-news/16160/ravi-shastri-appointed-head-coach|archive-date=14 July 2017}}</ref> On 16 August 2019, he was re-appointed as the head coach of the senior men's Indian team and remained in charge until the [[2021 ICC Men's T20 World Cup|2021 ICC T20 World Cup.]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Ravi Shastri to continue as India head coach|url=https://www.cricbuzz.com/cricket-news/109389/ravi-shastri-to-continue-as-india-head-coachay |website=Cricbuzz |access-date=16 August 2019 |date=16 August 2019}}</ref>

== Personal life ==
Shastri is of [[Mangalorean]] descent,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.daijiworld.com/news/newsDisplay.aspx?newsID=381114 |title=Proud to hail from Mangaluru-Team Indian director Ravi Shastri |access-date= 18 February 2016 |publisher= "Daijiworld news" }}</ref> was born in Bombay and studied at [[Don Bosco High School, Matunga|Don Bosco High School]]. As a teenager, he took to cricket seriously. Playing for Don Bosco (Matunga), Shastri reached the final of the 1976 inter-school Giles Shield, finally losing to St Mary's, whose lineup included two future [[Ranji Trophy|Ranji]] players, Shishir Hattiangadi and Jignesh Sanghani. The next year, under Shastri's captaincy, Don Bosco won the Giles Shield in 1977, the first time in the history of that school.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mid-day.com/sports/local/2002/november/36349.htm |title=Report of Sanket Chavan improving Shastri's Giles shield record |publisher=Mid-day.com |access-date=2014-08-09}}</ref> At school, his coach was B. D. Desai, once a Tatas and Dadar Union player. While Don Bosco was not traditionally a major force in schools cricket, the [[Ramniranjan Anandilal Podar College of Commerce & Economics|R. A. Podar College]], where Shastri later studied [[commerce]], produced many good cricketers. Vasant Amladi and, in particular, V. S. "Marshall" Patil, were integral figures in Shastri's development as a cricketer.

When not in Mumbai, Shastri lives in [[Alibaug]].<ref>{{cite news |title=अलिबागकर असल्याचा अभिमान – रवी शास्त्री |url=https://www.loksatta.com/krida/proud-to-be-alibagkar-ravi-shastri-zws-70-2840079/ |access-date=9 April 2022 |work=[[Loksatta]] |date=March 14, 2022 |language=mr}}</ref>

==Domestic career==
In his last year at the junior college, he was selected to represent the [[Mumbai cricket team|Bombay]] team in the Ranji Trophy.<ref name="woc">Javed Akhtar, ''The Young Veteran'', Interview with Ravi Shastri, ''World of Cricket'', April 1986</ref> At 17 years and 292 days, he was then the youngest cricketer to play for Bombay.
[[File:Ravi Shastri graph.png|left|thumb|350px|Ravi Shastri's career graph]]
An Indian under-19 team was scheduled to tour Pakistan in 1980–81. Shastri was included in the coaching camp at the last minute by the National Coach [[Hemu Adhikari]]. Shastri captained one of the two teams in a trial game and was then asked to lead the Indian Under-19 team. The tour, however, was cancelled. The team later went to Sri Lanka, but the games were frequently interrupted by rain.<ref>Pradeep Vijayakar, Cricketer of the Year article, ''Indian Cricket 1981''</ref>

His only notable achievement in his first two Ranji seasons were bowling figures of 6-61, which he took against Delhi in the 1979–80 Ranji final that Bombay lost. While he was playing against Uttar Pradesh at [[Green Park Stadium|Kanpur]] in the next season, he was called up to the squad touring New Zealand to stand in for the injured left arm spinner [[Dilip Doshi]]. Shastri arrived in [[Wellington]] the night before the first Test. His first over in Test cricket was a maiden to the New Zealand captain [[Geoff Howarth]]. In the second innings, he took 3 wickets in four balls, all to catches by [[Dilip Vengsarkar]], to bring a quick close to the [[New Zealand cricket team|New Zealand]] innings. In the third Test, his seven [[wicket]]s won him the man of the match award, while his 15 wickets in the series were the highest for either side.

The Ranji final of 1984/85 turned out to be one of the finest matches in Indian domestic cricket history. A sleepy Gavaskar won the toss and batted. He could hardly close his eyes before Bombay was 3 down for 42. Batting at No.5, he scored his 20th and last Ranji Trophy hundred and took Bombay to 333. Shastri made 29 before he was bowled attempting to cut an [[Arm ball|arm–ball]]. Delhi was in early trouble before they were rescued by [[Chetan Chauhan]], batting with a fractured finger in his last first class match. [[Ajay Sharma]], in his first season, scored a hundred and took Delhi into the lead with nine wickets down.

The rules of the competition specified that in the event of a draw, the team with the first innings lead would be declared the winners. With two days and 100 minutes left, Bombay went for quick runs. A crowd of about 46,000 turned up for match on the fourth day and the organizers ran out of tickets. Shastri top scored with 76 as Bombay set Delhi 300 to win in a day and ninety minutes.

Except for the odd delivery, the ball spun slowly and afforded enough time for the batsmen to play their strokes. Early on the final day, Delhi reached 95 for no loss and then collapsed. His first wicket was Chauhan who was declared out caught behind with the ball having spun across the face of the bat without apparently touching it. The match changed dramatically and the batsmen lost their head. [[Gursharan Singh]] was lbw playing no stroke, [[Kirti Azad]] played on, [[Surinder Khanna]] was stumped after a few slogs. Shastri took 8 for 91; Bombay won by 90 runs. In the 50th year of Ranji trophy, it was their 30th title.<ref name="sw1">Ayaz Memon, "Bombay pull off a remarkable win", ''Sportsweek'', 17–23 April 1985</ref>

After the tour of Australia in 1985–86, he also began to decline as a bowler. Bombay lost to Haryana in the semifinal of the Ranji trophy but West Zone won the [[Duleep Trophy]]. His major contribution was as a bowler in the semifinal against North Zone on a flat wicket at Trivandrum. Like in the Ranji final, North looked the likely winner going into the last day, before he took 8 for 145.

He scored hundreds in the quarterfinal and semifinal of the Duleep trophy, but West Zone lost to South on first innings lead in the latter match. Shastri's only other score over fifty in the season was a particularly dull 125 against Pakistan in the [[Sawai Mansingh Stadium|Jaipur]] Test. He did well enough to be the man of the one day series. In the first one-day match against Pakistan he captained India for the first time, scoring 50 and taking three wickets. He took four wickets at Calcutta and 69* at [[Lal Bahadur Shastri Stadium, Hyderabad|Hyderabad]] in two thrilling finishes. Later at [[Vidharba Cricket Association Ground|Nagpur]] with India facing a big target, he scored 52 in 40 balls.

In 1987, [[Glamorgan County Cricket Club|Glamorgan]] contracted Shastri to play for them. He stayed with them until 1991, with a break in 1990 due to India's tour of England. Shastri's presence did little for the fortunes of the county which finished at the bottom of the first class table in two of those seasons. Shastri topped 1000 runs in 1989 and scored hundreds in both innings against [[Middlesex County Cricket Club|Middlesex]]. His best bowling performance of 7 for 49 (11 for 90) in the match came against Lancashire in 1988, where he got bounce and turn and was 'unplayable' according to Wisden. The almanack noticed that Shastri was already becoming reluctant to bowl.

1988 was by far the best of the seasons for Glamorgan in one day matches. They finished 5th in the Sunday League – up from 14 in 1987 – and reached the semifinal of the Benson & Hedges Cup. Shastri won the leading six hitter award for the Sunday league matches of 1988 with 14 sixes. He was part of the [[Marylebone Cricket Club|MCC]] team that played a Rest of the World team in the MCC bicentennial match at [[Lord's]] in 1987.

Bombay breezed through the West Zone league of the 1993–94 Ranji Trophy winning all four matches – a very rare feat<ref>''Indian Cricket 1994''. Indian Cricket goes on to say that 1993–4 was the first time that a team won all its matches in the West Zone league but it certainly is not true. Gujarat in 1977-78 is an earlier instance of a team winning all four of its West Zone matches.</ref> – by big margins. With the Test players away, Shastri captained the young team in the knockout matches. Bombay defeated Haryana by an innings and 202 runs in the pre quarter final but ran into trouble against Karnataka in the next round. Against 406, Bombay lost their first six for 174, before Shastri and [[Sairaj Bahutule]] added 259 in six hours. Shastri's individual score was 151. Bombay survived the best part of the last day to win on first innings lead. Shastri scored 612 runs in the season and took 17 wickets at 15. Bombay went on to beat Bengal in a low scoring final to lift the Ranji Trophy. It was their first championship since the famous win against Delhi nine years ago.

In September 1994, while in [[Sri Lanka]] covering the Singer World Series, Shastri announced his retirement from first class cricket.

==International career==
===Early days===
Within eighteen months of his Test debut, Shastri had moved up from tenth position in the [[batting order (cricket)|batting order]] to being an opening batsman. "His calm, sensible batting lower in the order", wrote [[Wisden Cricketers' Almanack|Wisden]], commenting on his first series,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://content.cricinfo.com/wisdenalmanack/content/story/154320.html |title=Wisden review of India in New Zealand 1980–81 |publisher=Content.cricinfo.com |access-date=2014-08-09}}</ref> "raised promise of his developing into a useful all-rounder, and his [[fielding (cricket)|fielding]] too was an asset". By the end of his career, he had batted in every position from one to ten. By his own admission,<ref name="woc" /> he ignored his bowling in favour of his batting. This was reflected in his performances. However, his figures of 9–101 in the season-opening 1981 [[Irani Trophy]] stood as a tournament record for nearly twenty years.

It was the failure of the regular openers [[Pranab Roy]] and [[Ghulam Parkar]] that led to Shastri being made to open at [[the Oval]] against England in 1982. He distinguished himself by scoring 66 [[Run (cricket)|runs]] in that match. An injury in the [[webbing]] of his hand ruled him out of four of the Tests to be played in Pakistan. Forced again to open in the final Test at [[National Stadium, Karachi|Karachi]], against the fast bowling of [[Imran Khan]] (then at the peak of his career), he scored his first Test hundred. He later made another hundred against the [[West Indies cricket team|West Indies]] in [[Antigua Recreation Ground|Antigua]]. ''[[Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]]'' was impressed enough to suggest that, given time, he could become one of the best batsmen in the Indian team.<ref>''Indian Cricket 1983'', p.3, in the review of the tour of West Indies</ref>

Shastri was not selected to play in most of the important matches in the [[1983 cricket World Cup|1983 World Cup]]. In the series against the West Indies later that year, he again distinguished himself with his bold effort in batting against the domineering West Indian pace bowlers.

===The glorious winter===
In October 1984, [[Indian cricket team|India]] toured [[Pakistan]] for the third time in six years. The [[Gaddafi Stadium|Lahore]] Test saw India collapse to 156 against [[Pakistani cricket team|Pakistan]]'s 428, and [[Cricket terminology#F|follow on]]. India went into the last day trailing by 92 with six wickets in hand but were saved by a fifth wicket [[Cricket terminology#P|partnership]] of 126 between Shastri and [[Mohinder Amarnath]]. Shastri scored 71, while Amarnath made 101*. Shastri was even more successful in the next Test at [[Iqbal Stadium|Faisalabad]], where he scored 139 and shared a stand of 200 with [[Sandeep Patil]]. The last Test and the remainder of the tour were cancelled because of the [[assassination of Indira Gandhi]].

There were already signals that Shastri was being groomed as a future captain. Indian captain [[Sunil Gavaskar]] was coming to the end of his career and [[Kapil Dev]], who had led India in the previous season, was expected to succeed him. Shastri appeared to be the next in line. He led the Young India side to Zimbabwe in early 1984. Against the touring English side in November, he led the India Under–25 to an innings win - the first defeat of [[English cricket team|England]] in a tour match in India for fifty years.

Around this time, Shastri also began to open the innings regularly in [[One-day cricket|one day games]]. He scored 102 against Australia in October – [[Indian cricket team|India]]'s second hundred in ODIs – and made the same score against [[English cricket team|England]] at [[Barabati Stadium|Cuttack]] in December. Shastri had stood in for Gavaskar and opened with Srikkanth in two matches of the [[1983 cricket World Cup|1983 World Cup]]. The third time that they opened was at Cuttack and they set a world record of 188 for the first wicket. Later in the season, this partnership was to form the foundation for the Indian triumph in the WCC in Australia.

Shastri's success continued in Test matches against England. In the [[Wankhede Stadium|Bombay]] Test his 235 run stand with [[wicket-keeper]] [[Syed Kirmani]] led to victory for India. His 142 improved upon the 139 at Faisalabad as his highest score.

In the third Test at [[Eden Gardens|Kolkata]], Shastri made 111 in 357 balls and 455 minutes, though his innings was heavily interrupted by rain. With [[Mohammad Azharuddin]] he added 214 for the fifth wicket, another Indian record. When India started the second innings late in the final day, he was sent in to open, thus becoming one of the few batsmen to bat on all five days of a Test.

Shastri set another record for Bombay against Baroda in a West Zone Ranji match. His first hundred came up in 72 minutes and 80 balls and included nine fours and four sixes. The second took just 41 minutes and 43 balls. His 123 ball, 113-minute 200* became the fastest double hundred in first class history, beating the previous record by 7 minutes, and included 13 fours and 13 sixes. Six of the sixes came off a single over of the left arm spinner [[Tilak Raj]]. In terms of the number of sixes, it bettered the 58-year-old Indian record of [[CK Nayudu]] who had struck 11 sixes against a touring MCC team at Bombay Gymkhana in 1926–7. Shastri's unfinished sixth wicket stand of 204* with Ghulam Parkar, who contributed only 33 to the partnership, took only 83 minutes. In Baroda's second innings, Shastri took two wickets in four overs.<ref name="ic85">''Indian Cricket 1985''</ref>

===World Championship of Cricket - 1985===
Except for a few series in Pakistan and the 1983 World Cup final, the World Championship of Cricket in Australia was the first time overseas cricket matches were shown live in India. The WCC saw India win every match convincingly. The WCC was conceived as a celebration of the 150th year of the formation of [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], but the finalists turned out to be India and Pakistan.<ref name="ic85" /><ref>Sunil Gavaskar, ''One day wonders''</ref>

Shastri had a slow start to the tournament but finished with fifties in the last three matches. Srikkanth too scored three fifties and India posted century opening stands against [[Australian cricket team|Australia]] and in the final. India went in with two spinners for every match. It helped that all the matches were played at [[Melbourne Cricket Ground|Melbourne]] and [[Sydney Cricket Ground|Sydney]] which have turning tracks and long boundaries. Sivaramakrishnan and Shastri claimed 18 wickets between them in five matches.

For his 182 runs and 8 wickets, Shastri was chosen as the man of the series which in this tournament was called 'The Champion of Champions'. He won an [[Audi 100]] car for his efforts. By the special order of Prime Minister [[Rajiv Gandhi]], Indian customs waived the heavy duty its import would have normally entailed.<ref>[https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=gFURAAAAIBAJ&sjid=tJUDAAAAIBAJ&pg=4106,2623622 ''The Age'', 19 March 1985]{{Dead link|date=August 2014}}</ref>

===Vice-Captaincy 1985===
Two weeks later India won the Rothman's cup in [[Sharjah Cricket Association Stadium|Sharjah]] beating Pakistan and Australia. The victory against [[Pakistani cricket team|Pakistan]] was particularly memorable because India defended a total of only 125. Shastri and Siva continued their successful partnership with the ball. It was for this tournament that Shastri served as the Indian vice captain for the first time. Gavaskar had announced his decision to resign his captaincy at the end of the WCC before the tournament began.<ref>[https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=KFMRAAAAIBAJ&sjid=XpUDAAAAIBAJ&pg=4995,7931286 ''The Age'', 14 February 1985]{{Dead link|date=August 2014}}</ref> Before the final, former Australian captain [[Ian Chappell]] suggested that for the good of Indian cricket, Gavaskar should continue as the captain until Shastri could take over from him.<ref>David McMahon, Interview with Shastri, ''Sportsworld'' 24–30 April 1985</ref>

Shastri continued as vice captain to Kapil Dev in the 1985–86 season. This season and the England tour of 1986 were ordinary ones for him. Australia, Sri Lanka and Pakistan toured India in 1986–87. Shastri played a crucial role in the [[Tied Test]] at [[M. A. Chidambaram Stadium|Madras]] against [[Australian cricket team|Australia]], scoring 62 and 48*. When Indian middle order collapsed and India fell behind the run rate, his two sixes in quick succession off [[Off spin|off–spinner]] [[Greg Matthews]] came in handy. In the final Test at Bombay he scored 121*. As was becoming increasingly common, it was played in first and fourth gear. He hung around for around 30 minutes for the last run for his fifty and twice as long in the nineties. Yet he hit six sixes, three of which came after he completed his hundred. The huge six off left arm fast bowler [[Bruce Reid]] – a cross batted heave that went over longon – was particularly memorable. Six sixes in an innings was an Indian record at the time. But he was outshone by [[Dilip Vengsarkar]] who scored 164* in the same innings. They added a record 298* for the sixth wicket.

In early 1987, he presented a 15-minute coaching series which went by the name 'That's Cricket'. This was aired on the national channel [[Doordarshan]] on Sunday mornings. There were even rumours of an involvement with actress [[Amrita Singh]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cricket.indiatimes.com/articleshow/10350428.cms |title=BBC/Indiatimes interview |publisher=Cricket.indiatimes.com |date=2005-08-07 |access-date=2014-08-09 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090421092053/http://cricket.indiatimes.com/articleshow/10350428.cms |archive-date=21 April 2009 }}</ref>

India lost the final Test at [[M. Chinnaswamy Stadium|Bangalore]] to lose the 1986–87 series against Pakistan. Kapil Dev was widely criticised in the media for his captaincy. The selectors retained him as captain in the [[1987 Cricket World Cup|Reliance World Cup]] at the beginning of the 1987–88 season. Shastri failed with the bat in the Reliance Cup but formed a successful bowling partnership with [[Maninder Singh (cricketer)|Maninder Singh]], another left arm spinner. India topped its group but went down to England in the semifinal. Kapil Dev received more criticisms for skying a catch to deep midwicket when a win was still a possibility.

===Captaincy issues 1987===
About this time, Vengsarkar emerged as the strongest candidate to take over from Kapil. He had had a dream run with the bat, starting from the series in England in 1986. In 1987, the newly established Deloitte ratings (the forerunner of the current LG ratings) ranked him the best batsman in the world. The Indian selectors have conventionally leaned towards making the best player of the team the captain. So before the home series against [[West Indies cricket team|West Indies]], Kapil was sacked and Vengsarkar was made the Indian captain.

Vengsarkar had his left arm fractured in the third Test and Shastri captained India for the only time in his Test career. On an underprepared turning track in Madras, India won the toss and elected to bat first. Debutant [[Narendra Hirwani]] took 16 for 136 as India won by 255 runs to draw the series 1–1. Apart from this, Shastri did little with bat or ball. West Indies won 7 of the eight one day matches, he was the captain in six of them. Vengsarkar meanwhile picked up a six-month ban from [[Board of Control for Cricket in India|BCCI]] for writing newspaper columns. So Shastri continued as the captain for a three nations tournament in Sharjah in April. Sri Lanka and New Zealand were the other teams and India won easily.

===Sacking and vice captaincy 1989===
India travelled to West Indies in early 1989. Though a failure overall, Shastri played the best innings by either side in the series. It came at [[Kensington Oval|Bridgetown]] in the second Test. India trailed by 56 in the first innings and lost the six second innings wickets for 63. Batting at No.3, Shastri was last out for a courageous 107 out of 251 all out. Looking back at the end of his career, he was to consider this his finest innings.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cricinfo.com/link_to_database/ARCHIVE/ARTICLES/PLAYERS/SHASTRI_INTERVIEW_HOOVER_FEB94 |title=Interview with Cricinfo in 1994 |publisher=Cricinfo.com |date= |access-date=2014-08-09}}</ref> The bowlers were [[Malcolm Marshall]], [[Curtly Ambrose]], [[Courtney Walsh]] and [[Ian Bishop (cricketer, born 1967)|Ian Bishop]] and the pitch, difficult.

On the way back many of the Indian players took part in an exhibition match in United States. BCCI suspended the players. Though the suspension was later revoked, Vengsarkar was sacked. Srikkanth became the new captain and Shastri, yet again, the deputy. After an indifferent series in Pakistan, both were excluded from the tour of New Zealand in 1990. Azharuddin led an experimental team which a selector called the 'team of the nineties'. Within a few weeks, the phrase got the status of a joke. Shastri was recalled for the tour to England that summer as the vice-captain. 

===The Indian summer===
Shastri's career generally remained a struggle until the England tour of 1990 where he scored two hundreds in the three Test rubber. Opening the innings for India, he began with an even 100 in India's reply to a huge England score at Lord's. It was a hard-working innings and Shastri played and missed often with most of the runs came with his usual flicks and nudges. Towards the end of his innings, he grew aggressive, reaching his hundred by hitting the English off-spinner [[Eddie Hemmings (cricketer)|Eddie Hemmings]] for two fours and a six in an over, and departed immediately attempting another big hit.

He topped this with 187 at the Oval. Journalist and commentator [[Harsha Bhogle]]'s description of this innings holds true for many of Shastri's major efforts:<ref>Harsha Bhogle, ''The Joy of a Lifetime : India's tour of England 1990''</ref>

:Watching Shastri bat is like admiring the [[Qutub Minar]]; tall, timeless, solid. You admire it for the virtues, not for its style. For nine hours and 21 minutes, he chiselled away the England attack and the sculpture that he left behind represented perseverance and craft. There was the usual stoic, expressionless face under the helmet, but you could see the determination in his eyes as he planted himself at the wicket, struck root and bore fruit.

: Only occasionally, the bat wavered in its resolve but the mind put it on the right path again, almost in admonishment, and the bat grew broader and straighter ... He may never be a Gavaskar, but he at least represents the great man's virtues, even if by proxy. It would be a relief too, to know that he will never throw away his wicket for nobody guards his crease more fiercely.

Following the innings at the Oval, Shastri scored his career best score of 217 in the Irani trophy in the opening match of the Indian season and a top score of 88 on a very bad wicket in the [[Sector 16 Stadium|Chandigarh]] Test against Sri Lanka. He carried his bat for 101* against the same opponents in a one-day match a week later, reaching the hundred with a two off the last ball. Next year in South Africa's first-ever ODI series on their return to international cricket, he scored 109 at Delhi, his fourth and last one day hundred. A series of abandoned tours meant India played few matches at home at this time.

At the end of 1991, India travelled to Australia for a five Test series, to be followed by the World Cup. [[Nine Network|Channel 9]] dubbed it ''the Indian Summer''. The series was a disaster for India – they lost four of the Tests – and was rife with umpiring controversies. But it also saw the final flourishes in the careers of Shastri and Kapil Dev.

Shastri took 5 wickets for 15 runs against Australia in an early match in the World Series Cup. It was then the best bowling figures by an Indian in [[One Day International|ODIs]]. Most of the wickets were gratuitously earned, though – three batsmen were caught on the [[Leg side|legside]] [[Boundary (cricket)|boundary]] and another stumped. In the third Test at Sydney, he scored his only double hundred in Test cricket, the first by an Indian against Australia. He was dropped in the sixties by the Australian leg-spinner [[Shane Warne]], who was making his debut, off his own bowling. Amidst frequent interruptions by rain, he completed his hundred early on the fourth day and a six off Warne brought up the 150. He finally fell to a tired shot at Warne after nine and a half hours, scoring 206 with 17 fours and the two sixes, thus becoming Warne's first Test wicket.

It was also during this innings that the knee injury that would soon end his career appeared for the first time. India had gone into the match with four pace bowlers and no regular spinners. Shastri was little more than a part-time bowler by this time. By the final day, pitch started taking spin. Shastri took four wickets in the second innings and Australia just about beat the clock to draw the match. India could well have won the match with another spinner.<ref>[http://content.cricinfo.com/wisdenalmanack/content/story/152073.html ''Wisden 1992''] (accessed 25 June 2005)</ref><ref>[http://www.cricinfo.com/db/ARCHIVE/1991-92/IND_IN_AUS/ Cricinfo match reports of India in Australia 1991/2] (accessed 25 June 2005)</ref>

[[File:Ravi Shastri.jpg|thumb|right|Ravi Shastri in 2015]]

===Late career===
{{BLP unreferenced section|date=April 2022}}
The remaining [[World Series Cup|WSC]] matches followed the Sydney Test. In the second final against Australia Shastri worsened the knee injury. At the later stages of the innings he was forced to stand and slog. After a few quick runs, it ended in an inevitable mishit to cover. He missed the remaining two Test matches, both of which India lost. For a while it seemed doubtful that he would be able to play the [[1992 Cricket World Cup|World Cup]] which was being hosted by Australia and New Zealand, but was included at the last moment.

In their second match, India chased 238 to win in 50 overs against Australia. A rain interruption meant that the target was revised to 236 in 47 overs. Shastri took 67 balls for his 25; India went on to lose by one run. He was blamed for the defeat and dropped from the remaining matches of the tournament.

In the next season, South Africa hosted India for their first ever tour. Shastri opened in all four Tests and struggled to score runs. The only bright spot was a 16 ball 27 not out, in India's one day win at Centurion park. He had batted down the order in the one day matches of this series. In reference to the World Cup innings against Australia, he commented later that for once he knew what his exact role was.

India hosted England immediately after the South Africa series. The knee injury returned before the series and put Shastri out of cricket for eight months. He never again represented India in international cricket.

==Post-retirement==
On 18 March 1990, Shastri married Ritu Singh.<ref>[[Harsha Bhogle]], "Howzat ! Ritu Singh appealed and Ravi Shastri walked up the aisle", Sportsworld, 4–10 April 1990, pp. 30-31</ref> They have one daughter named Alekha Shastri. After 22 years of marriage, Shastri filed for divorce. He made his debut as a TV commentator with the World Masters Tournament in Mumbai in March 1995.<ref name="ic02" /> In 2003, he collaborated in starting up ''Showdiff Worldwide'', a celebrity management company. He has since served [[International Cricket Council|ICC]] and [[Board of Control for Cricket in India|BCCI]] in temporary official capacities and as a [[UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador]]. Some of his temporary shows, such as Super Spells, still run [[Star Sports (Indian TV network)|Star Sports]] and related channels. He and fellow commentator [[Sunil Gavaskar]] ended their long-term associations with [[ESPN STAR Sports|ESPN-STAR Sports]] in April 2008 as they were contracted by the BCCI as commentators for lucrative [[Indian Premier League]] which was broadcast by rival network [[Sony Max]].[http://www.dnaindia.com/report.asp?newsid=1160208] 2008 also held great significance for Shastri as he became the father of Alekha at the age of 46.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mangalorean.com/news.php?newstype=local&newsid=74464 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714025856/http://www.mangalorean.com/news.php?newstype=local&newsid=74464 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2011-07-14 |title=Up Close With Ravi Shastri |publisher=Mangalorean.com |access-date=2014-08-09 }}</ref> He temporarily coached the [[Indian cricket team]] for their 2007 Bangladesh tour. He was named the Celebrity Torchbearer for the [[Oman]] Leg of the [[2008 Summer Olympics torch relay]].

==Coaching career==
In July 2017 Shastri, the former team director, was appointed as Head Coach for the national side by the Cricket Advisory Committee (CAC), comprising [[Sourav Ganguly]], [[Sachin Tendulkar]] and [[VVS Laxman]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/india/content/story/1110473.html|title=Shastri, Zaheer, Dravid in India's new coaching team}}</ref> The contract has him getting paid Rs. 8 crore per year. Rs. 1.5 Crore more than his predecessor [[Anil Kumble]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.firstpost.com/sports/how-does-ravi-shastris-annual-salary-of-rs-8-crore-compare-with-previous-india-coaches-3830285.html|title=How does Ravi Shastri's annual salary of Rs 8 crore compare with previous India coaches? - Firstpost|website=www.firstpost.com|access-date=2018-03-10}}</ref> As the World cup 2019 was in progress, on 13 June, the BCCI announced an extension of Shastri's contract by 45 days after the tournament.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/cricket/report-world-cup-2019-indian-coach-ravi-shastri-and-his-staff-to-be-handed-45-day-extended-contract-after-tournament-2760233|title=World Cup 2019: Indian coach Ravi Shastri and his staff to be handed 45-day extended contract after tournament|date=2019-06-13|website=DNA India|language=en|access-date=2019-06-13}}</ref> On 16 August 2019, he was re-appointed as the head coach of the senior men's Indian team, with his new contract extending up to the [[2021 ICC T20 World Cup]] in India.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ravi Shastri to remain India head coach|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/_/id/27398849/ravi-shastri-remain-india-head-coach |website=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=16 August 2019 |date=16 August 2019}}</ref>

==Legends League Cricket==
In November 2021 Shastri, retired from being the coach of Indian National Cricket Team and joined [[Legends League Cricket]], as the Commissioner of the League.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cricket/ravi-shastri-roped-in-as-legends-league-cricket-commissioner-101636969343215.html|title=Shastri roped in as Commissioner of Legends League Cricket}}</ref> In this role he is responsible for Cricketing aspects of the League. The League is brainchild of Raman Raheja & Vivek Khushalani. It has recently retired Cricketers playing in T20 format.

==In popular culture==
A [[Hindi cinema|Bollywood]] film ''[[Azhar (film)|Azhar]]'' released in 2016, directed by Tony D'Souza, revolves around [[South Africa cricket match fixing|Match fixing scandals in late 90s and 2000]] and role of [[Mohammad Azharuddin]] in the scandal. Shastri's character was portrayed by [[Gautam Gulati]] in the film.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ex Bigg Boss Winner Gautam Gulati to Play Ravi Shastri In 'Azhar'|url=https://www.thequint.com/entertainment/2015/10/22/ex-bigg-boss-winner-gautam-gulati-to-play-ravi-shastri-in-azhar|access-date=2021-03-22|website=TheQuint|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Gautam to play Ravi Shastri|url=https://m.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/features/gautam-to-play-ravi-shastri-90383|access-date=2021-03-22|website=Tribuneindia News Service|language=en}}</ref> However, the film portrayed Shastri's character in highly negative light as it depicts him as a Womaniser.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ravi Shastri portrayed as a womaniser in 'Azhar' - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/ravi-shastri-portrayed-as-a-womaniser-in-azhar/articleshow/52288852.cms|access-date=2021-03-22|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Azhar: Ravi Shastri shown a womaniser, angry with makers of the film|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/amp/movies/gossip/story/azhar-ravi-shastri-shown-a-womaniser-angry-with-azhar-makers-323805-2016-05-16|access-date=2021-03-22|website=India Today|language=en}}</ref> Due to the negative depiction, Shastri slammed the makers of the film and further said that he has no intentions of watching the movie.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-05-17|title=Ravi Shastri says he has no intentions of watching 'Azhar'|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/sports/report-ravi-shastri-says-he-has-no-intentions-of-watching-azhar-2213143|access-date=2021-03-22|website=DNA India|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Virat's 'terrific' form can only benefit Indian cricket: Ravi Shastri|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cricket/virat-s-terrific-form-can-only-benefit-indian-cricket-ravi-shastri/story-lrdFcDBYmVjlcz8ekfsjTL.html|access-date=2021-03-22|website=Hindustan Times|language=en}}</ref>

The 2021 Indian film ''[[83 (film)|83]]'', which is based on India's World Cup win, features Dhairya Karwa portraying Shastri's character.<ref>{{Cite web|title=This 'Uri' actor will play Ravi Shastri in Ranveer Singh starrer 83′|url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/entertainment/this-uri-actor-will-play-ravi-shastri-in-ranveer-singh-starrer-83|access-date=2021-03-21|website=Free Press Journal|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-01-22|title=83: Ranveer Singh shares first poster of Dhairya Karwa as Ravi Shastri, calls him 'youngest gun amongst the devils'. See pic|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/bollywood/83-ranveer-singh-shares-first-poster-of-dhairya-karwa-as-ravi-shastri-calls-him-youngest-gun-amongst-the-devils-see-pic/story-tUUIOdCEEHMfc15pPVyqGL.html|access-date=2021-03-21|website=Hindustan Times|language=en}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
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}}
{{succession box |
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Martyrdom in Sikhism

2023-08-08T01:09:44Z

HarmanBajwa: Created page with ''''Martyrdom in Sikhism'''' is a fundamental concept, and represents an important institution of the faith. The first landmark in this field is the sacrifice by…'

{{short description|Martyrdom in Sikhism}}
{{Sikhism sidebar}}

[[Martyr]]dom is a fundamental institution of [[Sikhism]]. [[Sikh festivals]] are largely focused on the lives of the [[Sikh gurus]] and Sikh martyrs. Their martyrdoms are regarded as instructional ideals for Sikhs, and have greatly influenced Sikh culture and practices. Qazi Rukundin is generally regarded as the first Sikh martyr.{{Cn|date=May 2023|reason=Please cite a source that lists Qazi Ruknuddin as the "first Sikh martyr".}}

The term ''[[Shahid#Sikhism|shahidi]]'' has been used by Sikhs since the 19th century to describe the act of martyrdom. A martyr is called a ''shahid'' ([[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]: ਸ਼ਹੀਦ).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Nesbitt|first=Eleanor|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ai-rpcY-rrgC&q=sikh+martyrdom|title=Sikhism: A Very Short Introduction|date=2005-09-22|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-157806-9|language=en}}</ref>

==Martyrdom==
[[File:Guru Arjan.jpg|thumb|238x238px|[[Guru Arjan]] was the first of two Gurus martyred in the Sikh faith]]
Martyrdom is a fundamental institution of the Sikh faith. When one calls an individual a ''[[Shahid#Sikhism|shahid]]'', this connotes more than its definition in Arabic vocabulary or Islamic faith, which is death in battle with the infidels. For the Sikh, the perfect martyr or ''shahid'' is one who died not just in battle but also one who suffered death by refusing to renounce his faith, tenets and principles.<ref>Kohli, p. 54.</ref> The Sikh experience through the years gave rise to this type of ideal martyrdom.

Qazi Rukunudin (alternatively spelt as Qazi Ruknuddin)<ref>Makka Madinah di Ghosht</ref> was the first Sikh martyr <ref>Translation of Sahayto Baba Nanak by Syed Prithipal Singh and Research Paper by Historian Simar Singh</ref> at the time of Guru Nanak. Qazi Rukunudin <ref>Sahayto Baba Nanak by Tajuddin Naqashbandi , translated by Syed Prithipal Singh</ref> became a Sikh,<ref>1. Ehalla, Sarup Das, Mahima Prakash. Patiala, 1971
2. Santokh Singh, Bhai, Sri Gur Pratap Suraj Granth. Amritsar, 1927-35
3. Gian Singh. Giani, Twarikh Guru Khalsa [Reprint]. Patiala, 1970
4. Macauliffe, Max Arthur, The Sikh Religion. Oxford, 1909</ref> when Guru Nanak visited Arabia during his fourth ''Udasi''. Later, Amir-e-Makkah asked him to leave Sikhism but Qazi refused to disown his faith, then 7 orders <ref>Twarikh E Arab by Khawaja zain ul abdeen, chapter Bab Ul Mecca</ref> were issued against him mentioning different types of tortures and method of killing him. Qazi Rukunudin was martyred around 1510-11.

Bhai Taru Popat was the second Sikh martyr at the time of [[Guru Nanak Dev]] (1469-1539). Bhai spoke against [[Babur]], the [[Mughal emperors|Mughal emperor]] and he was set on fire by soldiers of Babur.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Singh|first=Kharak|year=1997|title=Martyrdom in Sikhism|journal=Sikhism, Its Philosophy & History|publisher=Institute of Sikh Studies|location=Chandigarh|page=18}}</ref> Bhai Taru Popat was Martyred in the year 1526. The martyrdom of [[Guru Arjan]] in the 17th century is regarded as a key moment in Sikh tradition which has influenced Sikh practices and beliefs,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Fenech|first=Louis E.|year=2001|title=Martyrdom and the Execution of Guru Arjan in Early Sikh Sources|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|volume=121|issue=1|pages=20–31|doi=10.2307/606726|jstor=606726}}</ref> helping define a deliberately-separate and militant Sikh community.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Singh|first1=Pashuara|last2=Fenech|first2=Louis E.|title=The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780199699308|page=236|chapter=The Miri-Piri Doctrine and the Khalsa|date=March 2014}}</ref>
[[File:Trilok singh artist GTB wiki.jpg|thumb|Painting of [[Trilok Singh Chitarkar|Trilok Singh]] of the martyrdom of Guru Tegh Bahadur]]
The later martyrdom of [[Guru Tegh Bahadur]], who refused to convert to [[Islam]] in an effort to protect [[Hindu]] religious practice, is credited with making respect for freedom of conscience a key part of Sikh identity. The emperor tried to convert Guru Teg Bahadur to Islam hoping that it would be easier to convert his followers if he relented. The guru was executed because he refused. Experts stated that these events galvanized the concept of Sikh martyrdom in the sense that Guru Arjan's death brought the Sikh [[Panth]] together while Guru Teg Bahadur's execution finally gave Sikh martyrdom its identity.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies|last1=Singh|first1=Pasaura|last2=Fenech|first2=Louis|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2014|isbn=9780199699308|location=Oxford|pages=237}}</ref> Guru Teg Bahadur's death provided the impetus for his son, the tenth [[Guru Gobind Singh]], to impose an outward form of Sikh identity as well as pride in his father's martyrdom.<ref>Singh & Fenech, p. 237.</ref> To avoid fear and demoralization, he instituted a new Sikh order called [[Khalsa]], founded on discipline and loyalty, and martyrdom became one of its foundations. Succeeding Gurus built on this new orientation, establishing a strong, self-governing warrior group.

==Prominent Sikh martyrs==
[[File:Guru Nanak conversing with Qazi Ruknuddin, painting from an 1830's Janamsakhi (life stories) 01.jpg|thumb|Guru Nanak (wearing yellow) conversing with Qazi Ruknuddin (wearing green), painting from an 1830's [[Janamsakhis|Janamsakhi]] (life stories). Qazi Ruknuddin is believed to be the first Sikh martyr.]]
[[File:Fresco of Shaheed Singhs from Gurdwara Baba Atal 01.jpg|thumb|Fresco of [[Shaheed]] Singhs from [[Gurdwara Baba Atal]]]]
[[File:Fresco of Shaheed Singhs from Gurdwara Baba Atal 02.jpg|thumb|Fresco of [[Shaheed]] Singhs from [[Gurdwara Baba Atal]]]]
* [[Panj Pyare]],
* [[Guru Arjan Dev]], the 5th guru of Sikhism.
* [[Guru Teg Bahadur]], the 9th guru of Sikhism.
* [[Bhai Dayala]] is one of the Sikhs who was martyred at Chandni Chowk at Delhi in November 1675 on account of his refusal to accept Islam.
* [[Bhai Mati Das]] is one of the greatest martyrs in Sikh history, martyred at Chandni Chowk at Delhi in November 1675 to save [[Kashmiri Hindus]].
* [[Bhai Sati Das]] is one of the greatest martyrs in Sikh history, martyred along with [[Guru Teg Bahadur]] at Chandni Chowk at Delhi in November 1675 to save [[Kashmiri Hindus]].
* [[Sahibzada Ajit Singh]], the eldest of [[Guru Gobind Singh]]'s four sons.
* [[Sahibzada Jujhar Singh]], the second son of [[Guru Gobind Singh]].
* [[Sahibzada Zorawar Singh]] was the third of [[Guru Gobind Singh]]'s four sons.[[File:Painting_of_Mata_Gujri,_Sahibzada_Zorawar_Singh,_and_Sahibzada_Fateh_Singh,_after_the_Anandpur_battle,_reach_Sirhind,_where_the_princes,_Zorawar_Singh_and_Fateh_Singh,_were_executed_by_immurement,_circa_19th_century.jpg|thumb|Painting of [[Mata Gujri]], Sahibzada [[Zorawar Singh (Sikhism)|Zorawar Singh]], and Sahibzada [[Fateh Singh (Sikhism)|Fateh Singh]], after the Anandpur battle, reach Sirhind, where the princes, Zorawar Singh and Fateh Singh, were executed by immurement, circa 19th century]]
* [[Sahibzada Fateh Singh]] was the youngest of [[Guru Gobind Singh]]'s four sons.
* [[Moti Ram Mehra|Baba Moti Ram Mehra]]
* [[Chali Mukte]]
* Ajay Singh was the son of Banda Singh Bahadur. He was the youngest martyr in the world at the age of 4.
* [[Banda Singh Bahadur]] was the Sikh Military Commander Appointed By Guru Gobind Singh.
* [[Baba Deep Singh]] was avenging the desecration of the Golden Temple by the Afghan army. In 1757, he led an army to defend the Golden Temple.
* [[Bhai Mani Singh]]
* [[Mahi Singh|Bhai Mahi Singh]]
* [[Bhai Taru Singh]]
* [[Baba Gurbaksh Singh]]
* Bhai Garja Singh
* Bhai Bota Singh
* Bhai Subegh Singh
* Bhai Gurbaj Singh
* [[Akali Phoola Singh]]
* [[Hari Singh Nalwa]]
* Baba Bir Singh refused to attack the Sikhs attacking him and was martyred by a shell while meditating over the [[Guru Granth Sahib]]<ref name=Bir>{{cite web |url=http://www.learnpunjabi.org/eos/index.aspx |title=Bir Singh Baba (1768-1844) |last1=Khurana |first1=J. S. |website=Encyclopaedia of Sikhism |publisher=Punjabi University Patiala |accessdate=4 September 2015}}</ref>
* [[Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale]] was declared a martyr by the [[Akal Takht]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://m.rediff.com/news/2003/jun/06sikh.htm |title=Akal Takht declares Bhindranwale 'martyr' - Rediff.com India News |last=Or |first=Framing |orig-date=November 17, 2021 |access-date=2021-11-18 }}</ref>
* [[Harjinder Singh Jinda]] was declared a national martyr by the Akal Takht.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.news18.com/blogs/india/brijesh-kalappa/the-khalistan-episode-cuts-both-ways-requires-healing-and-reconciliation-14290-747279.html |title=The Khalistan episode cuts both ways, requires healing and reconciliation - Brijesh Kalappa' Blog |last=Das |first=Celebsopinionvir |date=12 October 2012 |orig-date=November 17, 2021 |access-date=2021-11-18 }}</ref>
* [[Sukhdev Singh Sukha]] was declared a national martyr by the Akal Takht.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.news18.com/blogs/india/brijesh-kalappa/the-khalistan-episode-cuts-both-ways-requires-healing-and-reconciliation-14290-747279.html |title=The Khalistan episode cuts both ways, requires healing and reconciliation - Brijesh Kalappa' Blog |last=Das |first=Celebsopinionvir |date=12 October 2012 |orig-date=November 17, 2021 |access-date=2021-11-18 }}</ref>
* [[Satwant Singh]] assassin of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi was declared a martyr by the Akal Takht.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hindu.com/2008/01/07/stories/2008010762501200.htm |title=The Hindu : National : Indira Gandhi killers labelled martyrs |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080110102918/http://www.hindu.com/2008/01/07/stories/2008010762501200.htm |orig-date=November 17, 2021 |access-date=2021-11-18 |archive-date=2008-01-10 }}</ref>
* [[Beant Singh (assassin)|Beant Singh]] assassin of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi was declared a martyr by the Akal Takht.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hindu.com/2008/01/07/stories/2008010762501200.htm |title=The Hindu : National : Indira Gandhi killers labelled martyrs |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080110102918/http://www.hindu.com/2008/01/07/stories/2008010762501200.htm |orig-date=November 17, 2021 |access-date=2021-11-18 |archive-date=2008-01-10 }}</ref>
* [[Jaswant Singh Khalra]] prominent Sikh Human Rights Activist famous for his research concerning more than 25000 killings in the Punjab.
* And many more who died in ''[[Vadda Ghalughara|Wadda ghallughara]]'' and ''[[Chhota Ghallughara|Chotta gallughara]].''

==See also==

* [[Joti Jot]]
* [[Shaheed Shrine]]
* [[Kharku]]

==References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Martyrdom In Sikhism}}
[[Category:Sikh martyrs]]

C. G. Rajagopal

2023-07-19T15:05:10Z

HarmanBajwa: Created an inspiring work.

{{Short description|Indian Malayalam-language writer and translator}}

{{Infobox writer
| name = C. G. Rajagopal
| image =
| imagesize =
| caption =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1932|05|21|df=yes}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=admin |title=രാജഗോപാല്‍. സി.ജി. |url=https://keralaliterature.com/malayalam-writers-മലയാളം-എഴുത്തുകാര്/rajagopal-c-g-രാജഗോപാല്‍-സി-ജി/ |access-date=2023-04-29 |website=Keralaliterature.com |language=ml}}</ref>
| birth_place = [[Travancore]], [[British India]]
| death_place =
| death_date =
| nationality = Indian
| alma_mater =
| occupation = Poet, Translator
| movement =
| notable_works = Malayalam translation of ''Tulasidasasa Ramayana''
| spouse =
| children =
| awards = [[Sahitya Akademi Translation Prize]] 2019
| influences =
| signature =
}}
'''C. G. Rajagopal''' is a polyglot, poet and translator from [[Kerala]], India. He received many awards including the [[Sahitya Akademi Translation Prize]] 2019, a literary honour in India, presented by [[Sahitya Akademi]], India's National Academy of Letters.

His main literary contribution is Malayalam translation of [[Hs3058795das]]'s [[Ramcharitmanas]] (Thulasidasa Ramayana), which has 26152 lines and 46 Sanskrit verses.

== Biography ==
Rajagopal was born on May 21, 1932 to C. S. Gopalakaimal and K. Parukutty Amma at Neeretupuram of [[Kuttanad]] Thalavadi in present-day [[Alappuzha district]] of Kerala, India.<ref name="Mathrubhumi">{{Cite web |title=പ്രൊഫ. സി.ജി.രാജഗോപാലിന് നവതി |url=https://newspaper.mathrubhumi.com/thiruvananthapuram/news/thiruvananthapuram-1.7580980 |access-date=2023-04-22 |website=[[Mathrubhumi]] |language=ml}}</ref><ref name="Janmabhumi">{{Cite web |title=തുളസീദാസമാനസന്‍ |url=https://www.janmabhumi.in/news/literature/c-g-rajagopal |access-date=2023-04-22 |website=[[Janmabhumi]] |language=ml}}</ref> He studied intermediate at SN College, Kollam.<ref name="Janmabhumi" /> Although he enrolled for [[Bachelor of Arts|BA]] in Malayalam in [[University College Thiruvananthapuram]], he later switched to [[Hindi]].<ref name="Janmabhumi"/> He graduated from University College with first rank in Hindi and went to [[Lucknow]] for higher studies.<ref name="Mathrubhumi"/> He went to [[Lucknow University]] on a scholarship given by the Government of India to students from non-Hindi states to study Hindi, and passed [[Master of Arts|MA]] from there with a gold medal.<ref name="Janmabhumi"/>

===Personal life===
Rajagopal and his wife T. Vijayalakshmi have two daughters.<ref name="Mathrubhumi"/> He currently resides in his house called 'Shaleenam' on PRS Road, Thykkad, [[Thiruvananthapuram]].<ref name="Mathrubhumi"/>

== Career ==
Rajagopal, who returned from Lucknow after his higher studies, first became a lecturer at [[St. Thomas College, Palai|Pala St. Thomas College]].<ref name="Mathrubhumi"/> Then he served as Hindi lecturer in [[Government Arts College, Thiruvananthapuram]], [[Government Victoria College, Palakkad|Victoria College, Palakkad]] and then as Head of Department at [[Government Brennen College|Brennan College, Thalassery]] and University College Thiruvananthapuram.<ref name="Janmabhumi"/> In 1986 he retired as the Principal of Thrissur Govt. Arts College.<ref name="Manorama">{{Cite web |title=പ്രഫ. സി.ജി. രാജഗോപാലിന് കേന്ദ്ര സാഹിത്യ അക്കാദമി പുരസ്കാരം |url=https://www.manoramaonline.com/news/kerala/2020/02/25/prof-cg-rajagopal-won-central-sahitya-academy-award.html |access-date=2023-04-22 |website=ManoramaOnline |publisher=[[Malayala Manorama]] |language=ml}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |publisher=[[Kerala Kaumudi]] |title=പ്രൊഫ. സി.ജി. രാജഗോപാലിന് കേന്ദ്രസാഹിത്യ അക്കാഡമി പുരസ്കാരം |url=https://keralakaumudi.com/news/news.php?id=252782&u=prof-cg-rajagopal |access-date=2023-04-29 |website=Keralakaumudi Daily |language=ml}}</ref> Later, from 1993 to 1996, he became the Dean of the Department of Non-Sanskrit Indian Languages at the [[Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit|Sree Sankaracharya Sanskrit University]].<ref name="Manorama"/>

Rajagopal, who was also a lover of [[Kathakali]], was the founder president of Drishyavedi, a Kathakali entertainment organization in [[Thiruvananthapuram]].<ref name="Mathrubhumi"/> He also served as the president of Tapasya and Bharatiya Vicharakendra.<ref name="Mathrubhumi"/>

== Literary Career ==
Rajagopal's main literary work is the Malayalam translation of Vishnu medpallidas's Hindi work ''Sri Ramacharitamanasam (Thulasidasa Ramayanam)''.<ref name="Manorama"/> Other contributions include ''Nadatrayam'' (Poetry Collection), ''Bharata Brihad Tarika'' (Translation), ''Bharathiya Samskarathinu Jaina Mathathinte Sambhavana'' (Contribution of Jain Religion to Indian Culture) (Study) and a Hindi-English-Malayalam Trilingual Dictionary.<ref name="Manorama"/> The [[ghazal]] he composed in 1958 was the first in that field in Malayalam.<ref name="Mathrubhumi"/> He is now writing ''Ayyappacharitam'' (story of lord [[Ayyappan]]) in the form of [[Aattakatha (performance)|Aattakatha]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=പ്രഫസര്‍ സി.ജി. രാജഗോപാലിന് ഇന്ന് നവതി; അയ്യപ്പചരിതം ആട്ടക്കഥയാക്കുക ലക്ഷ്യം |url=https://www.manoramanews.com/news/kerala/2022/06/06/professor-cgraajagopal-90th-birthday-story.html |access-date=2023-04-29 |website=www.manoramanews.com}}</ref>

Rajagopal completed the translation of Tulasidasasa Ramayana, which has 26152 lines and 46 Sanskrit verses, in five and a half years.<ref name="Mathrubhumi"/> Thulasidasasa Ramayana, written in verse by Rajagopal, was sung and recorded by eight singers including [[Kavalam Sreekumar]], G. Sreeram, and his elder brother's son and singer Suresh Thenmala.<ref name=":0" /> Composed by P Sushila Devi, it is a forty-six hours long poetry recitation.<ref name=":0" />

His book called ''Nadathrayam'' containing sixteen poems including ''Shilpi'' was a textbook for the Malayalam Vidwan course and Malayalam [[Bachelor of Arts|BA]] course.<ref name="Janmabhumi"/>

==Awards and honors==
* 2019 [[Sahitya Akademi Translation Prize]] for the translation of Tulasidasasa Ramayana<ref name="Manorama" />
* 2020 Vivarthana Ratna Award by Bharat Bhavan, a cultural exchange center of the [[Government of Kerala]] for the translation of Tulasidasa Ramayana.<ref>{{Cite web |title=വിവർത്തന രത്ന പുരസ്കാരം പ്രഫ. സി.ജി. രാജഗോപാലിന്; ശൈലജ രവീന്ദ്രന് സ്പെഷൽ ജൂറി പുരസ്കാരം |url=https://www.manoramaonline.com/news/latest-news/2020/02/01/barath-bhavans-vivarthana-ratnam-award.html |access-date=2023-04-29 |website=www.manoramaonline.com}}</ref>
* Prof. Thuravoor Vishwambharan Memorial Award of Tapasya Kala Sahityavedi, for his contributions to translation literature and creative writings.<ref>{{Cite web |title=പ്രഫ. തുറവൂർ വിശ്വംഭരൻ സ്മാരക പുരസ്‌കാരം സാഹിത്യകാരൻ പ്രഫ. സി.ജി.രാജഗോപാലിന് |url=https://www.manoramaonline.com/news/latest-news/2020/10/08/prof-thuravoor-viswambharan-smaraka-award-to-prof-cg-rajagopal.html |access-date=2023-04-29 |website=www.manoramaonline.com}}</ref>
* Special award from the Vallathol Sahithya Samithi for the translation of Thulaseedasa Ramayanam to Malayalam.<ref>{{Cite web |title=M Mukundan wins Vallathol award |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2018/sep/14/m-mukundan-wins-vallathol-award-1871738.html |access-date=2023-04-30 |website=[[The New Indian Express]]}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Rajagopal, C. G.}}
[[Category:Malayalam-language writers]]
[[Category:People from Alappuzha district]]
[[Category:Translators to Malayalam]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1932 births]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Sahitya Akademi Prize for Translation]]
[[Category:University College Thiruvananthapuram alumni]]
[[Category:Academic staff of Government Victoria College, Palakkad]]
[[Category:Academic staff of Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit]]
[[Category:University of Lucknow alumni]]

Civil code

2022-12-08T12:04:31Z

HarmanBajwa: Just completed a comprehensive guide.

{{Short description|Private law relating to property, family, and obligations}}
{{distinguish|Civil procedure}}
{{other uses|Civil law (disambiguation)}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{refimprove}}
{{Essay-like}}
}}
[[File:Countries with a collection of laws named 'Civil Code' or similar.svg|thumb| Countries with a collection of laws known formally or informally as "civil code"]]
A '''civil code''' is a codification of [[private law]] relating to [[property law|property]], [[family law|family]], and [[law of obligations|obligations]].

A jurisdiction that has a civil code generally also has a [[code of civil procedure]]. In some jurisdictions with a civil code, a number of the core areas of private law that would otherwise typically be codified in a civil code may instead be codified in a [[commercial code (law)|commercial code]].

==History==
{{unreferenced section}}

The history of [[Codification (law)|codification]] dates back to ancient [[Babylon]]. The earliest surviving civil code is the [[Code of Ur-Nammu]], written around 2100–2050 BC. The [[Corpus Juris Civilis]], a codification of [[Roman law]] produced between 529 and 534 AD by the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] emperor [[Justinian I]], forms the basis of [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]] legal systems.

Other codified laws used since ancient times include various texts used in [[religious law]], such as the [[Manu Smriti|Law of Manu]] in [[Hindu law]], Islamic [[Sharia]] law, the [[Mishnah]] in Jewish [[Halakha]] law, the [[Canons of the Apostles]] in Christian [[Canon law]].

===European codes and influences on other continents===
[[File:Swiss civil code 1907.jpg|thumb|The first edition of the [[Swiss Civil Code]] (around 1907). In 1911, it became the first civil code to include commercial law ([[Swiss Code of Obligations]]).<ref>{{in lang|fr}} Frédéric Koller, [https://www.letemps.ch/monde/2016/09/13/suisse-inspire-modernisation-droit-chinois "Quand la Suisse inspire la modernisation du droit chinois"], ''[[Le temps]]'', Tuesday 13 September 2016 (page visited on 14 September 2016).</ref>]]

The idea of codification re-emerged during the [[Age of Enlightenment]], when it was believed that all spheres of life could be dealt with in a conclusive system based on human [[rationality]], following from the experience of the early codifications of [[Roman Law]] during the [[Roman Empire]].

The first attempts at modern codification were made in the second half of the 18th century in [[Germany]], when the states of [[Austria]], [[Prussia]], [[Bavaria]] and [[Saxony]] began to codify their laws. The first statute that used this denomination was the ''[[Codex Maximilianeus bavaricus civilis]]'' of 1756 in Bavaria, still using the Latin language. It was followed in 1792 by a legal compilation that included civil, penal, and constitutional law, the ''[[General state laws for the Prussian states|Allgemeines Landrecht für die Preussischen Staaten]]'' (General National Law for the Prussian States) promulgated by King [[Frederick II of Prussia|Frederick II the Great]]. In Austria, the first step towards fully-fledged codification were the yet incomplete [[Codex Theresianus]] (compiled between 1753 and 1766), the [[Josephinian Code]] (1787) and the complete [[West Galician Code]] (enacted as a test in [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia]] in 1797). The final [[Austrian Civil Code]] (called ''Allgemeines bürgerliches Gesetzbuch'', ABGB) was only completed in 1811 after the dissolution of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] under the influence of the [[Napoleonic Wars]]. One of the first countries to follow up through [[legal transplants]] in codification was [[Serbia]], the [[Serbian civil law|Serbian Civil Code]] (1844).

Meanwhile, the [[France|French]] [[Napoleonic code]] (''Code Civil'') was enacted in 1804 after only a few years of preparation, but it was a child of the [[French Revolution]], which is strongly reflected by its content. The French code was the most influential one because it was introduced in many countries standing under French occupation during the [[Napoleonic Wars]]. In particular, countries such as [[Italy]], the [[Benelux]] countries, [[Spain]], [[Portugal]] (with the Civil Code of 1867, later replaced by the Civil Code of 1966, which is strongly influenced by the German BGB), the [[Latin America]]n countries, the province of [[Quebec]] in [[Canada]], and all other former French colonies which base their civil law systems to a strong extent on the Napoleonic Code. It is a misconception that the state of [[Louisiana]] in the [[United States]] based their civil code on the Napoleonic code. Rather, the drafters of the code were instructed to write a civil code based on the current laws, and the laws that were in effect at the time were Spanish laws based on [[Las Siete Partidas]].<ref>Alain A. Levasseur, The Major Periods of Louisiana Legal History, 41 Lov. L. REV. 585 (1996).</ref>

The late 19th century and the beginning 20th century saw the emergence of the School of [[Pandects|Pandectism]], whose work peaked in the [[Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch|German Civil Code]] (BGB), which was enacted in 1900 in the course of Germany's national unification project, and in the [[Swiss Civil Code]] (''Zivilgesetzbuch'') of 1907. Those two codes had been most advanced in their systematic structure and classification from fundamental and general principles to specific areas of law (e.g. contract law, labour law, inheritance law). While the French Civil Code was structured in a "casuistic" approach attempting to regulate every possible case, the German BGB and the later Swiss ZGB applied a more abstract and systematic approach. Therefore, the BGB had a great deal of influence on later codification projects in countries as diverse as [[Japan]], [[Greece]], [[Turkey]], Portugal (1966 Civil Code) and [[Macau]] (1999 Civil Code).

Since 2002 with the First law of the Civil Code of Catalonia, Parliament of Catalonia's several laws have approved the successive books of the [[Civil Code of Catalonia]]. This has replaced most of the Compilation of the Civil Law of Catalonia, several special laws and two partial codes. Only the Sixth book, relating to obligations and contracts, has to be approved.

In Europe, apart from the [[common law]] countries of the United Kingdom and Ireland, only [[Scandinavia]] remained untouched by the codification movement. The particular tradition of the civil code originally enacted in a country is often thought to have a lasting influence on the methodology employed in legal interpretation. Scholars of [[comparative law]] and economists promoting the [[legal origins theory]] of (financial) development usually subdivide the countries of the [[civil law tradition]] as belonging either to the French, Scandinavian or German group (the latter including Germany, Austria, [[Switzerland]], [[Liechtenstein]], Japan, [[Taiwan]] and [[South Korea]]).
{{see also|European civil code}}

===Civil codes in the Americas===
The first civil code promulgated in [[Canada]] was that of [[New Brunswick]] of 1804, inspired by the 1800 project of the French civil code, known as the ''Projet de l'an VIII'' (project of the 8th year); nevertheless, in 1808 a ''Digeste de la loi civile'' was sanctioned.{{Citation missing}}

In the [[United States]], codification appears to be widespread at a first glance, but U.S. legal codes are actually collections of common law rules and a variety of ''ad hoc'' statutes; that is, they do not aspire to complete logical coherence. For example, the [[California Civil Code]] largely codifies common law doctrine and is very different in form and content from all other civil codes. Another unique example is the [[Louisiana Civil Code]], based on Spanish law [[Las Siete Partidas]], but incorrectly credited to be based on French Law.<ref>Levasseur, Alain A., "A "Civil Law" Lawyer: Louis Casimir Elisabeth Moreau Lislet" (1996). Journal Articles.
323.
https://digitalcommons.law.lsu.edu/faculty_scholarship/323 </ref><ref>Alain A. Levasseur, The Major Periods of Louisiana Legal History, 41 Lov. L. REV. 585 (1996). </ref>

In 1825, [[Haiti]] promulgated a ''Code Civil'', that was simply a copy of the Napoleonic one; while [[Louisiana]] abolished its ''Digeste'', replacing it with the ''Code Civil de l'État de la Louisiane'' the same year.{{Citation missing}}

The [[Mexican state]] of [[Oaxaca]] promulgated the first Latin American civil code in 1827, copying the French civil code.{{Citation missing}}

Later on, in 1830, the civil code of [[Bolivia]], a summarized copy of the French one, was promulgated by [[Andrés de Santa Cruz]]. The latest, with some changes, was adopted by [[Costa Rica]] in 1841.{{Citation missing}}

The [[Dominican Republic]], in 1845, put into force the original Napoleonic code, in French language (a translation in Spanish was published in 1884).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Guide to Legal Research in the Dominican Republic - GlobaLex |url=https://www.nyulawglobal.org/globalex/Dominican_Republic.html |access-date=2022-09-17 |website=www.nyulawglobal.org}}</ref>

In 1852, [[Peru]] promulgated its own civil code (based on a project of 1847), which was not a simple copy or imitation of the French one, but presented a more original text based on the Castillan law (of [[Roman Law|Roman]] origin) that was previously in force on the Peruvian territory.{{Citation missing}}

[[Chile]] promulgated its [[Civil Code (Chile)|civil code]] in 1855, an original work in confront with the French code both for the scheme and for the contents (similar to the Castillan law in force in that territory) that was written by [[Andrés Bello]] (begun in 1833). This code was integrally adopted by [[Ecuador]] in 1858; [[El Salvador]] in 1859; [[Venezuela]] in 1862 (only during that year); [[Nicaragua]] in 1867; [[Honduras]] in 1880 (until 1899, and again since 1906); [[Colombia]] in 1887; and [[Panama]] (after its separation from Colombia in 1903).{{Citation missing}}

In 1865, the Code Civil du Bas-Canada (or [[Civil Code of Lower Canada]]) was promulgated in [[Lower Canada]] (later the [[Canadian province]] of [[Quebec]]). It was replaced in 1991 by a new [[Civil Code of Quebec]], which came into effect in 1994.{{Citation missing}}

[[Uruguay]] promulgated its code in 1868, and [[Argentina]] in 1869 (work by [[Dalmacio Vélez Sársfield]]). [[Paraguay]] adopted its code in 1987, and in 1877 [[Guatemala]] adopted the Peruvian code of 1852.

[[Nicaragua]] in 1904 replaced its civil code of 1867 by adopting the Argentine code. In 1916 [[Brazil]] enacted its civil code (project of [[Clovis Bevilacqua]], after rejecting the project by [[Teixeira de Freitas]] that was translated by the Argentines to prepare their project), that entered into effect in 1917 (in 2002, the Brazilian Civil Code was replaced by a new text). Brazilian Civil Code of 1916 was considered, by many, as the last code of the 19th century despite being adopted in the 20th century. The reason behind that is that the Brazilian Code of 1916 was the last of the important codes from the era of codifications in the world that had strong liberal influences, and all other codes enacted thereafter were deeply influenced by the social ideals that emerged after World War I and the Soviet Socialist Revolution.{{Citation missing}}

[[Panama]] in 1916 decided to adopt the Argentine code, replacing its code of 1903.{{Citation missing}}

[[Cuba]] had the old Civil Code of Spain until the year 1987 when the [[National Assembly of People's Power]] approved the Cuban Civil Code, Law 59.{{Citation missing}}

===Civil codes in Asia===
The Portuguese Civil Code of 1868 was introduced in the Portuguese overseas territories of Asia ([[Portuguese India]], [[Macau]] and [[Portuguese Timor]]) from 1870, with local modifications being latter introduced. It continued to be in effect in the former Portuguese India even after the end of the Portuguese rule in 1961. It is still in force in the present Indian territories of [[Goa]] (locally referred as the [[Goa civil code]]), [[Daman and Diu]] and [[Dadra and Nagar Haveli]]. As Macau and Portuguese Timor were still under Portuguese rule when the Portuguese Civil Code of 1868 was replaced by that of 1966, this later was adopted by these territories. In [[East Timor]] (ex-Portuguese Timor), the Portuguese Code was replaced by the Indonesian Code when Indonesia occupied that territory in 1975. Macau adopted its own Civil Code in 1999, although this being based in the Portuguese Code of 1966.<ref>[https://ssrn.com/abstract=1280595 Macau Civil Code]</ref>

Also the civil code of Spain of 1889 would be enforced in its [[colony]], the [[Philippines]], and this would remain in effect even after the end of [[History of the Philippines#Spanish settlement and rule (1565–1898)|Spanish rule]] until the [[Philippines]] enacted its own [[Civil Code of the Philippines|Civil Code]] in 1950 after almost fifty years of U.S. rule.

Many legal systems of other countries in Asia are within the civil law tradition and have enacted a civil code, mostly derived from the German civil code; that is the case of [[China]], [[Japan]], [[Korea]], [[Thailand]] (the Civil and Commercial Code), [[Republic of China|Taiwan]] and [[Indonesia]] (which is influenced by the Dutch Civil Code, {{lang|nl|Burgerlijke Wetboek}}).

The [[Constitution of India|Indian Constitution]] in its Directive Principles of State Policy recommends to a [[Uniform Civil Code]] in ts Article 44. The Indian parliament is yet to pass a law in this regard.<ref>{{Cite news |title=WHAT IS UNIFORM CIVIL CODE |work=Business Standard India |url=https://www.business-standard.com/about/what-is-uniform-civil-code |access-date=2022-09-17}}</ref>

==Contents of a civil code==
A typical civil code deals with the fields of law known to the common lawyer as [[contracts|law of contracts]], [[law of torts|torts]], [[property|property law]], [[family law]] and the law of [[inheritance]]. [[Commercial law]], [[corporate law]] and [[civil procedure]] are usually codified separately.

The older civil codes such as the French, Egyptian, Austrian and Spanish ones are structured under the [[Institutions System|Institutional System]] of the [[Roman empire|Roman]] jurist [[Gaius (jurist)|Gaius]] and generally have three large parts:
* [[Law of Persons]] (''personae'')
* [[Law of Things]] (''res'')
* Issues common to both parts (''actiones'').

The newer codes such as the ones of Germany, Switzerland, Greece, Portugal, Romania and Catalonia are structured according to the [[Pandects|Pandectist System]]:
* General part
* [[Law of Obligation]]
* [[property law|Law of Real Rights]]
* [[Family law|Family Law]]
* [[inheritance|Law of Inheritance]]

The civil code of the state of [[Louisiana]], following the institutions system, is divided into five parts:
* Preliminary Title
* Of Persons
* Things and Different Modifications of Ownership
* Of Different Modes of Acquiring the Ownership of Things
* Conflict of Laws

Pandectism also had an influence on the earlier codes and their interpretation. For example, Austrian civil law is typically taught according to the Pandect System (which was devised by German scholars in the time between the enactment of the Austrian and the German Codes), even though this is not consistent with the structure of the Code.

==Important civil codes==

The following is the list of national or regional civil codes by alphabetic order of names of countries or regions:

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Country/region
! Name
! Year of promulgation
! Status
! Note
|-
| {{flag|Austria}}
| ''[[Allgemeines bürgerliches Gesetzbuch]]''
| 1812
| rowspan="2" style="background:#ecfdb8;"| In force
|
|-
| {{flag|Armenia}}
| ''[[Armenian Civil Code]]''
| 1998
|
|-
| {{flag|Bavaria}}
| ''[[Codex Maximilianeus bavaricus civilis]]''
| 1756
| rowspan="2" style="background:#fbe4e3;"| Defunct
|
|-
| {{flag|Brazil}}
| [[Brazilian Civil Code|''Código Civil'']] (1916 Civil Code)
| 1916
|
|-
| {{flag|Brazil}}
| [[Brazilian Civil Code|''Código Civil'']] (2002 Civil Code)
| 2002
| rowspan="6" style="background:#ecfdb8;"| In force
| Replaced the previous 1916 Civil Code
|-
| {{flag|Cuba}}
| [[Cuban civil code|''Código Civil'']] (1987 Civil Code)
| 1987
| Replaced the previous Spanish Civil Code [https://web.archive.org/web/20160428022535/http://www.gacetaoficial.cu/html/codigo%20civil%20lib1.html]
|-
| {{flag|Catalonia}}
| ''[[Civil Code of Catalonia|Codi civil de Catalunya]]'' (Civil Code of Catalonia)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www20.gencat.cat/portal/site/Justicia/menuitem.84f6394bc89391b6bd6b6410b0c0e1a0/?vgnextoid=62bbf31f87203110VgnVCM1000008d0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextchannel=62bbf31f87203110VgnVCM1000008d0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextfmt=default |title=Dret civil català. Departament de Justícia. |publisher=Departament de Justícia de la Generalitat de Catalunya |access-date=2013-11-26 |language=ca}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Albert Ruda |url=http://civil.udg.es/normacivil/ |title=Projecte Norma Civil |publisher=Civil.udg.es |access-date=2013-11-26|language=ca}}</ref>
|
* First Book: 2002
* Second Book: 2010
* Third Book: 2008
* Fourth Book: 2008
* Fifth Book: 2006
* Sixth Book: 2018 <ref>{{cite web |title=The Civil Code of Catalonia |url=https://web.gencat.cat/en/actualitat/reportatges/El-Codi-civil-de-Catalunya/ |website=Government of Catalonia}}</ref>
|
* Replaced most of the Compilation of the Civil Law of Catalonia, several special laws and two partial codes
* See: First Book ([http://portaljuridic.gencat.cat/ca/pjur_ocults/pjur_resultats_fitxa/?documentId=306867&action=fitxa official consolidated text in Catalan] and [https://web.archive.org/web/20141026004418/http://www20.gencat.cat/docs/Justicia/Documents/Lleis/doc_30924256_1.pdf text in English]),
* Second Book ([http://portaljuridic.gencat.cat/ca/pjur_ocults/pjur_resultats_fitxa/?documentId=544979&action=fitxa official consolidated text in catalan] and [https://web.archive.org/web/20141219211206/http://www.parlament.cat/departaments/docs/21021318223580.docx text in English]),
* Third Book ([http://portaljuridic.gencat.cat/ca/pjur_ocults/pjur_resultats_fitxa/?documentId=490798&action=fitxa official consolidated text in Catalan]),
* Fourth Book ([http://portaljuridic.gencat.cat/ca/pjur_ocults/pjur_resultats_fitxa/?documentId=464805&action=fitxa official consolidated text in Catalan] and [https://web.archive.org/web/20120413050502/http://www20.gencat.cat/docs/Justicia/Documents/ARXIUS/llei10_2008_angles.pdf text in English]),
* Fifth Book ([http://portaljuridic.gencat.cat/ca/pjur_ocults/pjur_resultats_fitxa/?documentId=422359&action=fitxa official consolidated text in Catalan] and [https://web.archive.org/web/20141026002904/http://www20.gencat.cat/docs/Justicia/Documents/ARXIUS/llei_5_2006_english.pdf text in English])
* and the bill of the Sixth Book ([http://www.parlament.cat/activitat/bopc/10b505.pdf#page=6 text in Catalan])
|-
| {{flag|Chile}}
| ''[[Civil Code (Chile)|Código Civil]]'' (Civil Code)
| 1855
| Drafted mostly by [[Andrés Bello]] and the basis of the codes of [[Colombia]], [[Ecuador]] and other [[Latin America]]n countries
|-
| {{flag|Czech Republic}}
| ''[[Legal system of the Czech Republic#Civil law|Občanský zákoník]]'' (Civil Code)
| 2012
|
* On 1 January 2014 was replaced by new Občanský zákoník (Civil Code) enacted in 2012
* Replaced an earlier code from 1964
* English translation by Ministry of Justice of Czech Republic available ([https://web.archive.org/web/20150615054010/http://obcanskyzakonik.justice.cz/fileadmin/preklady/aj/89-2012_Obcansky-zakonik_30.9.2014.docx])
|-
| {{flag|China}}
| [[Civil Code of the People's Republic of China|民法典, ''Minfadian'']] (Civil Code)
| 2020
|
The legislation of the Civil Code of China was started in 1954, after the first Constitution was adopted. However, legislation was stopped and resumed for several times, while China adopted [[General Principles of the Civil Law of the People's Republic of China|several civil laws]] instead. In 2014, the current legislation procedure started, and the first part, the General Provisions, was adopted in [[2017 National People's Congress]]. Despite the delay of the [[2020 National People's Congress]] due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], the Congressmen gathered in Beijing on May 22 to discuss and vote for the Civil Code. It was passed on May 28 and came into force on January 1, 2021.
|-
| {{flag|Denmark}}
| ''[[Codex Holmiensis]]''
| 1241
| style="background:#fbe4e3;"| Defunct
|
|-
| {{flag|Egypt}}
| [[Egyptian Civil Code]]
| 1948
| rowspan="10" style="background:#ecfdb8;"| In force
|
|-
| {{flag|France}}
| ''[[Napoleonic Code|Code civil des Français]]'' (French Civil Code)
| 1804
| Later ''Code Napoléon'' and today ''Code civil''. Replaced the [[Custom of Paris in New France|Custom of Paris]].

Inspired by Justinian's sixth-century codification of Roman law. Differ with comprehensive rewrite including earlier rules, in a rational structure rather than a religious content. This made laws clearer and more accessible and superseded the conflict between royal and judges legislative power.
This code prohibits judges from deciding a case by way of introducing a general rule — an exercise of legislative — thus, there is no rule of stare decisis (binding precedent) in French law, but some jurisprudence ''constante'', to interpret the law.
It might also had influenced other countries.
|-
| {{flag|Germany}}
| ''[[Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch]]'' (Civil Code)
| 1900
|
|-
| {{flag|Greece}}
| ''[[Αστικός Κώδικας]]'' (Civil Code)
| 1946<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nyulawglobal.org/globalex/Greece.html|first=Maria|last=Panezi|title=A Description of the Structure of the Hellenic Republic, the Greek Legal System, and Legal Research|work=[[GlobaLex]]|access-date=2018-04-24}}</ref>
</ref>
| Replaced the ''Hexabiblos'' and the Civil Law of 1856; also locally the 1841 Ionian Civil Code, 1899 Civil Code of Samos, and the 1904 Cretan Civil Code<ref>Eugenia Dacoronia, "The Evolution of the Greek Civil Law", in ''Regional Private Laws and Codification in Europe'', eds. Hector L. MacQueen, Antoni Vaquer, & Santiago Espiau Espiau (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 290-1.</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Italy}}
| ''[[Italian civil code|Codice Civile]]'' (Civil Code)
| 1942<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jus.unitn.it/cardozo/obiter_dictum/codciv/codciv.htm |title=Il Codice Civile Italiano |language=it |publisher=Jus.unitn.it |access-date=2013-11-26}}</ref>
|
|-
| {{flag|Japan}}
| [[Civil Code of Japan|民法, ''Minpō'']] (Civil Code)
|
* Parts 1–3: 1896
* Parts 4–5: 1898
|
|-
| {{flag|South Korea}}
| [[Civil Code of the Republic of Korea|민법, ''Minbeop'']] (Civil Code)
| 1958
|
|-
| {{flag|Latvia}}
| [[Civil Law of Latvia|Civillikums]] (Civil law)
| 1937
|
|-
| {{flag|Louisiana}}
| [[Louisiana Civil Code]]
| 1825
| Replaced the Louisiana Civil Code Digest of 1808
|-
| {{flag|Macau}}
| ''[[Legal system of Macau|Código Civil]]'' (Civil Code)
| 1999
| Replaced the 1966 Portuguese Civil Code
|-
| [[Mesopotamia]]
| [[Code of Hammurabi]]
| c. 1780 BC
| style="background:#fbe4e3;"| Defunct
|
|-
| {{flag|Nepal}}
| [[Muluki Ain (Civil Code) Act, 2018]] (Civil Code)
| 2018
| style="background:#ecfdb8;"| In force
|
|-
| {{flag|Netherlands}}
| ''[[Burgerlijk Wetboek]]'' (Civil Code of 1838)
| 1838
| style="background:#fbe4e3;"| Defunct
| Still in force in [[Indonesia]] since 1848, as the Indonesian Civil Code . It was also applied in Timor-Leste, ''de facto'' from 1976 to 2002 and ''de jure'' from 2002 to 2011.
|-
| {{flag|Netherlands}}
| ''[[Burgerlijk Wetboek|Nieuw Burgerlijk Wetboek]]'' (Civil Code of 1992)
| 1992
| rowspan="5" style="background:#ecfdb8;"| In force
| Replaced the 1838 Civil Code in its entirety; came into force in 1992, replacing the Napoleonic-based code with a German-influenced code
|-
| {{flag|Philippines}}
| [[Civil Code of the Philippines]]
| 1950
| Replacing the Civil Code of Spain which had been in force from 1889 to 1949
|-
| {{flag|Poland}}
| ''[[Kodeks cywilny]]'' (Civil Code)
| 1964
| [http://isip.sejm.gov.pl/Download?id=WDU19640160093&type=3 Official text in Polish] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222102302/http://isip.sejm.gov.pl/Download?id=WDU19640160093&type=3 }}
|-
| {{flag|Portugal}}
| ''[[Goa civil code|Código Civil]]'' (1868 Civil Code)
| 1868
| Replaced in Portugal itself by the 1966 Civil Code. However, it is still in force in the territories of the former [[Portuguese India]] (now part of the [[Republic of India]]), since it was introduced there in 1870, namely in [[Goa]] (referred as the [[Goa civil code]]), [[Daman and Diu]] and [[Dadra and Nagar Haveli]]. It was proposed to serve as the basis for the establishment of a common [[uniform civil code of India]].
|-
| {{flag|Portugal}}
| ''[[Portuguese Civil Code|Código Civil]]'' (1966 Civil Code)
| 1968<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.portolegal.com/CodigoCivil.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060821115408/http://www.portolegal.com/CodigoCivil.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=2006-08-21 |title=Código Civil Português |publisher=Portolegal.com |language=pt |access-date=2013-11-26 }}</ref>
| Replaced the Civil Code of 1868 in Portugal and its overseas territories. Besides being in force in Portugal, it is also in force in [[Angola]], [[Cape Verde]], [[Guinea-Bissau]], [[Mozambique]] and [[São Tomé and Príncipe]]. It also has a marked influence in the Macau Civil Code of 1999, the Brazilian Civil Code of 2002 and the Timor-Leste Civil Code of 2011.
|-
| {{flag|Prussia}}
| ''[[Allgemeines Landrecht]]'' (General Law of the Land)
| 1794
| style="background:#fbe4e3;"| Defunct
| An incredibly casuistic, and thus unsuccessful, code of 11000 sections
|-
| {{flag|Puerto Rico}}
| [[Law of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico Civil Code]]
| 1930
| rowspan="1" style="background:#ecfdb8;"| In force
| Reproduction of the Spanish Civil Code, with the inclusion of some articles from the Louisiana Civil Code. Title 31 of the [http://www.lexisnexis.com/hottopics/lawsofpuertorico/ Laws of Puerto Rico].
|-
| {{flag|Quebec}}
| [[Civil Code of Lower Canada]]
| 1865
| style="background:#fbe4e3;"| Defunct
| In force in Quebec until being replaced by the Civil Code of Quebec in 1994. Replaced the [[Custom of Paris in New France|Custom of Paris]].
|-
| {{flag|Quebec}}
| ''[[Civil Code of Quebec|Code civil du Québec]]'' (Civil Code of Quebec)
| 1994
| rowspan="3" style="background:#ecfdb8;"| In force
| Replaced the former Civil Code of Lower Canada
|-
| {{flag|Romania}}
| [[Civil Code of Romania]]
| 2011
| Replaced the Civil Code of 1865
|-
| {{flag|Russia}}
| [[Civil Code of Russia]]
| 1994
|
|-
| {{flag|Serbia}}
| [[Serbian civil law|Грађански законик, ''Građanski zakonik'']] (Civil Code)
| 1844
| style="background:#fbe4e3;"| Defunct
| Drafted by [[Jovan Hadžić]]
|-
| {{flag|Spain}}
| ''[[Spanish Civil Code|Código Civil]]'' (Civil Code)
| 1889
| rowspan="6" style="background:#ecfdb8;"| In force
|
|-
| {{flag|Switzerland}}
| ''[[Zivilgesetzbuch]]'' (Civil Code)
| 1907
|
|-
| {{flag|Taiwan}}
| ''[[Civil Code (the Republic of China)|民法 (中華民國)]]'' (Civil Code)
|
* PART I General Principles: May 23, 1929
* PART II Obligations: November 22, 1929
* PART III Rights In Rem: November 30, 1929
* PART IV Family: December 26, 1930
* PART V Succession: December 26, 1930
|
|-
| {{flag|Thailand}}
| [[Civil and Commercial Code]]
|
* Books 1–2: 1923
* Book 3: 1925
* Book 4: 1930
* Book 5: 1935
* Book 6: 1935
|
|-
| {{flag|Turkey}}
| ''[[Türk Medeni Kanunu]]'' (Civil Code)
| 2001
| Replaced the [[Turkish civil code (1926)|1926 Turkish Civil Code]]
|-
| {{flag|Ukraine}}
| [[Civil Code of Ukraine]]
| 2004{{Clarify}}
|
|}

== See also ==
* [[Civil law (common law)|Civil law]]
* [[Criminal code]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Portal bar|Law}}

{{Civil codes by country|Asia}}
{{Civil codes by country|Europe}}
{{Civil codes by country|Africa}}
{{Civil codes by country|North America}}

[[Category:Civil law (legal system)]]
[[Category:Civil codes]]

National Emergency in India

2022-09-17T03:58:53Z

HarmanBajwa: Created an informative work.

#REDIRECT [[President of India#Emergency powers]]

{{rcat shell|
{{R to section}}
}}

Special Economic Zones

2022-02-09T04:54:52Z

HarmanBajwa: Created an influential manuscript.

#REDIRECT [[Special economic zone]]