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25 kV AC railway electrification

2023-09-21T04:56:43Z

Haabha: 25 kV AC railway electrification

{{Short description|Standard current and voltage settings for most high-speed rail}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{More citations needed|article|date=July 2009}}
{{Unfocused|date=September 2022}}
}}
[[File:Europe rail electrification en.svg|thumb|300px|[[Railway electrification|Railway electrification system]]s used in Europe:
{{legend|#cdcfd0|Non-electrified}}
{{legend|#eea631|750{{nbsp}}V DC}}
{{legend|#eda1a0|1.5{{nbsp}}kV DC}}
{{legend|#f5f0bb|3{{nbsp}}kV DC}}
{{legend|#a3a5ce|15{{nbsp}}kV AC}}
{{legend|#94af2e|'''25{{nbsp}}kV AC'''}}
High-speed lines in France, Spain, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium and Turkey operate under '''25{{nbsp}}kV''', as do high power lines in the former Soviet Union.]]
[[Railway electrification|Railway electrification system]]s using [[alternating current]] (AC) at {{nowrap|25 [[kilovolt]]s (kV)}} are used worldwide, especially for [[high-speed rail]]. It is usually supplied at the standard [[utility frequency]] (typically 50 or 60{{nbsp}}Hz), which simplifies traction substations. The development of 25{{nbsp}}kV AC electrification is closely connected with that of successfully using utility frequency.

[[File:East coast main line. - geograph.org.uk - 103409.jpg|thumbnail|The [[East Coast Main Line]] in the United Kingdom is electrified using 25 kV 50 Hz [[overhead lines]]]]
This electrification is ideal for railways that cover long distances or carry heavy traffic. After some experimentation before [[World War II]] in [[Rail transport in Hungary|Hungary]] and in the [[Black Forest]] in [[Rail transport in Germany|Germany]], it came into widespread use in the 1950s.

One of the reasons why it was not introduced earlier was the lack of suitable small and lightweight control and rectification equipment before the development of solid-state [[rectifier]]s and related technology. Another reason was the increased clearance distances required where it ran under bridges and in tunnels, which would have required major [[civil engineering]] in order to provide the increased [[Engineering tolerance|clearance]] to live parts.

Railways using older, lower-capacity [[direct current]] systems have introduced or are introducing {{nowrap|25 kV}} AC instead of {{nowrap|3 kV}} DC/{{nowrap|1.5 kV}} DC for their new high-speed lines.

==History==
The first successful operational and regular use of a utility frequency system dates back to 1931, tests having run since 1922. It was developed by [[Kálmán Kandó]] in Hungary, who used {{nowrap|16 kV}} AC at {{nowrap|50 Hz}}, asynchronous traction, and an adjustable number of (motor) poles. The first electrified line for testing was Budapest–Dunakeszi–Alag. The first fully electrified line was Budapest–Győr–Hegyeshalom (part of the Budapest–Vienna line).<ref name="Hollingsworth Cook p. ">{{cite book | last1=Hollingsworth | first1=J. B. | last2=Cook | first2=Arthur F. | title=The great book of trains : featuring 310 locomotives shown in more than 160 full-colour illustrations and 500 photographs | publisher=Salamander Books | publication-place=London | date=1998 | isbn=0-86101-919-9 | oclc=60209873 | pages=254–255}}</ref> Although Kandó's solution showed a way for the future, railway operators outside of Hungary showed a lack of interest in the design.

The first railway to use this system was completed in 1936 by the [[Deutsche Reichsbahn]] who electrified part of the [[Höllentalbahn (Black Forest)|Höllentalbahn]] between Freiburg and Neustadt installing a 20{{nbsp}}[[Volt|kV]]{{nbsp}}50 [[Hertz|Hz]] [[alternating current|AC]] system. This part of Germany was in the French zone of occupation after 1945. As a result of examining the German system in 1951 the [[SNCF]] electrified the line between [[Aix-les-Bains]] and [[La Roche-sur-Foron]] in southern France, initially at the same 20{{nbsp}}kV but converted to 25{{nbsp}}kV in 1953. The 25{{nbsp}}kV system was then adopted as standard in France, but since substantial amounts of mileage south of Paris had already been electrified at 1.5{{nbsp}}kV [[Direct current|DC]], SNCF also continued some major new DC electrification projects, until dual-voltage locomotives were developed in the 1960s.<ref>Haydock, David (1991). ''SNCF''. "Modern Railways" special. London: Ian Allan. {{ISBN|978-0-7110-1980-5}}</ref><ref>Cuynet, Jean (2005). ''La traction électrique en France 1900–2005''. Paris: La Vie du Rail. {{ISBN|2-915034-38-9}}</ref>

The main reason why electrification using utility frequency had not been widely adopted before was the lack of reliability of [[Mercury arc rectifier]]s that could fit on the train. This in turn related to the requirement to use [[Traction motor|DC series motors]], which required the current to be converted from AC to DC and for that a [[rectifier]] is needed. Until the early 1950s, mercury-arc rectifiers were difficult to operate even in ideal conditions and were therefore unsuitable for use in railway locomotives.

It was possible to use AC motors (and some railways did, with varying success), but they have had less than ideal characteristics for traction purposes. This is because control of speed is difficult without varying the frequency and reliance on voltage to control speed gives a torque at any given speed that is not ideal. This is why DC series motors were the most common choice for traction purposes until the 1990s, as they can be controlled by voltage, and have an almost ideal torque vs speed characteristic.

In the 1990s, high-speed trains began to use lighter, lower-maintenance [[three-phase]] AC induction motors. The [[N700 Series Shinkansen|N700 Shinkansen]] uses a three-level converter to convert {{nowrap|25 kV}} single-phase AC to {{nowrap|1,520 V}} AC (via transformer) to {{nowrap|3 kV}} DC (via phase-controlled rectifier with thyristor) to a maximum {{nowrap|2,300 V}} three-phase AC (via a [[VVVF|variable voltage, variable frequency]] inverter using [[Insulated-gate bipolar transistor|IGBTs]] with [[pulse-width modulation]]) to run the motors. The system works in reverse for [[Regenerative brake|regenerative braking]].

The choice of {{nowrap|25 kV}} was related to the efficiency of power transmission as a function of voltage and cost, not based on a neat and tidy ratio of the supply voltage. For a given power level, a higher voltage allows for a lower current and usually better efficiency at the greater cost for high-voltage equipment. It was found that {{nowrap|25 kV}} was an optimal point, where a higher voltage would still improve efficiency but not by a significant amount in relation to the higher costs incurred by the need for larger insulators and greater clearance from structures.

To avoid [[short circuit]]s, the high voltage must be protected from moisture. Weather events, such as "[[the wrong type of snow]]", have caused failures in the past. An example of atmospheric causes occurred in December 2009, when [[Eurostar#2009|four Eurostar trains broke down inside the Channel Tunnel]].

==Distribution==
Electric power for {{nowrap|25 kV}} AC electrification is usually taken directly from the three-phase [[Electric power transmission|transmission system]]. At the transmission substation, a step-down [[transformer]] is connected across two of the three phases of the high-voltage supply and lowers the voltage to {{nowrap|25 kV}}. This is then fed, sometimes several kilometres away, to a railway feeder station located beside the tracks. [[Switchgear]] at feeder stations, and at track sectioning cabins located halfway between feeder stations, provides switching to feed the overhead line from adjacent feeder stations if one feeder station loses grid supply.

Since only two phases of the high-voltage supply are used, phase imbalance is corrected by connecting each feeder station to a different combination of phases. To avoid the train pantograph bridging together two feeder stations which may be out-of-phase with each other, [[Overhead line#Neutral section (phase break)|neutral sections]] are provided at feeder stations and track sectioning cabins. [[Static VAR compensator|SVCs]] are used for load balancing and voltage control.<ref>''SVCs for load balancing and trackside voltage control'', ABB Power Technologies. [http://library.abb.com/global/scot/scot221.nsf/veritydisplay/c9f996d4f6c5c601c12570c9004b1754/$File/A02-0196E.pdf] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070206165307/http://library.abb.com/GLOBAL/SCOT/scot221.nsf/VerityDisplay/C9F996D4F6C5C601C12570C9004B1754/%24File/A02-0196E.pdf|date=2007-02-06}}</ref>

In some cases dedicated single-phase AC power lines were built to substations with single phase AC transformers. Such lines were built to supply the French [[TGV]].<ref>[http://www.justmystage.com/home/overheadtml/france1.html TGV power] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090504213517/http://www.justmystage.com/home/overheadtml/france1.html |date=May 4, 2009 }}</ref>

==Standardisation==
Railway electrification using {{nowrap|25 kV}}, {{nowrap|50 Hz}} AC has become an international standard. There are two main standards that define the voltages of the system:

*EN{{nbsp}}50163:2004+A1:2007 – "Railway applications. Supply voltages of traction systems"<ref>{{cite book|author1=British Standards Institution|title=BS EN 50163:2004+A1:2007 Railway Applications. Supply voltages of traction systems|date=January 2005|doi=10.3403/30103554}}</ref>
*IEC{{nbsp}}60850 – "Railway Applications. Supply voltages of traction systems"<ref>[http://webstore.iec.ch/webstore/webstore.nsf/mysearchajax?Openform&key=60850&sorting=&start=1&onglet=1/ IEC 60850] – "Railway Applications. Supply voltages of traction systems"</ref>

The permissible range of voltages allowed are as stated in the above standards and take into account the number of trains drawing current and their distance from the substation.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan=2 width=20% | Electrification system
! colspan=5 | Voltage
|-
! width=16% | Min. non-permanent
! width=16% | Min. permanent
! width=16% | Nominal
! width=16% | Max. permanent
! width=16% | Max. non-permanent
|-
| {{nowrap|{{val|25}} kV}} 50{{nbsp}}Hz
| {{nowrap|{{val|17.5}} kV}}
| {{nowrap|{{val|19}} kV}}
| {{nowrap|{{val|25}} kV}}
| {{nowrap|{{val|27.5}} kV}}
| {{nowrap|{{val|29}} kV}}
|}

This system is now part of the European Union's Trans-European railway interoperability standards (1996/48/EC "Interoperability of the Trans-European high-speed rail system" and 2001/16/EC "Interoperability of the Trans-European Conventional rail system").

==Variations==
Systems based on this standard but with some variations have been used.

===25 kV AC at 60 Hz===
{{See also|List of railway electrification systems#25 kV AC, 60 Hz|l1=List of railway electrification systems: 25 kV AC, 60 Hz}}
In countries where {{nowrap|60 Hz}} is the normal grid power frequency, {{nowrap|25 kV}} at {{nowrap|60 Hz}} is used for the railway electrification.
*In [[Canada]] on the [[Deux-Montagnes line]] of the [[Agence métropolitaine de transport|Montreal Metropolitan transportation Agency]].
*In [[Japan]] on the Tokaido, Sanyo and Kyushu [[Shinkansen]] lines (using {{Track gauge|1435mm|lk=on|disp=or}} gauge).
*In [[South Korea]] on the [[Korail]] network.
*In [[Taiwan]] on the [[Taiwan High Speed Rail]] line (using {{Track gauge|1435mm|disp=or}} gauge) and on [[Taiwan Railway Administration]]'s electrified lines (using {{Track gauge|1067mm|disp=or}} gauge).
*In the [[United States]] on newer electrified portions of the [[Northeast Corridor]] (i.e. the New Haven-Boston segment) intercity passenger lines, [[New Jersey Transit]] commuter lines, [[Denver]] [[RTD Commuter Rail]] and select isolated short lines. In the [[San Francisco Bay Area]], [[Caltrain]] is currently undergoing an [[Electrification of Caltrain|electrification project]], to be completed in the mid-2020s.

===20 kV AC at 50 or 60 Hz===
In Japan, this is used on existing railway lines in [[Tohoku Region]], [[Hokuriku Region]], [[Hokkaido]] and [[Kyushu]], of which Hokuriku and Kyushu are at 60{{nbsp}}[[Hz]].

===12.5 kV AC at 60 Hz===
Some lines in the United States have been electrified at {{nowrap|12.5 kV 60 Hz}} or converted from {{nowrap|11 kV 25 Hz}} to {{nowrap|12.5 kV 60 Hz}}. Use of {{nowrap|60 Hz}} allows direct supply from the 60{{nbsp}}Hz utility grid yet does not require the larger wire clearance for {{nowrap|25 kV 60 Hz}} or require dual-voltage capability for trains also operating on {{nowrap|11 kV 25 Hz}} lines. Examples are:
*[[Metro-North Railroad]]'s [[New Haven Line]] from Pelham, NY to New Haven, CT (Since 1985; previously 11{{nbsp}}kV 25{{nbsp}}Hz).

=== 12 kV at 25 Hz ===
{{Main|Amtrak's 25 Hz traction power system|SEPTA's 25 Hz traction power system}}
* [[New Jersey Transit|New Jersey Transit's]] [[North Jersey Coast Line]] from Matawan, NJ to Long Branch, NJ (1988–2002; changed to 25{{nbsp}}kV 60{{nbsp}}Hz).
* [[Amtrak's 25 Hz traction power system|Amtrak]]
*[[SEPTA Regional Rail|SEPTA]] – Both ex-[[Reading Company|Reading Rail]] and ex-[[Pennsylvania Railroad|Pennsylvania Rail]] sides.

===6.25 kV AC===
Early 50{{nbsp}}Hz AC railway electrification in the United Kingdom was planned to use sections at {{nowrap|6.25 kV AC}} where there was limited clearance under bridges and in tunnels. Rolling stock was dual-voltage with automatic switching between {{nowrap|25 kV}} and {{nowrap|6.25 kV}}. The {{nowrap|6.25 kV}} sections were converted to {{nowrap|25 kV AC}} as a result of research work that demonstrated that the distance between live and earthed equipment could be reduced from that originally thought to be necessary.

The research was done using a steam engine beneath a bridge at [[Crewe railway station|Crewe]]. A section of {{nowrap|25 kV}} overhead line was gradually brought closer to the earthed metalwork of the bridge whilst being subjected to steam from the locomotive's chimney. The distance at which a flashover occurred was measured and this was used as a basis from which new clearances between overhead equipment and structures were derived.{{citation needed|date=July 2011}}

===50 kV AC===
Occasionally {{nowrap|25 kV}} is doubled to {{nowrap|50 kV}} to obtain greater power and increase the distance between substations. Such lines are usually isolated from other lines to avoid complications from interrunning. Examples are:
*The [[Sishen–Saldanha railway line|Sishen–Saldanha]] iron ore railway ({{nowrap|50 Hz}}).
*The [[Deseret Power Railway]] which was an isolated coal railway ({{nowrap|60 Hz}}).<ref name=":0">{{cite web|title=Railroad Coordination Manual Of Instruction, Section 2.1.5 Deseret Power Railway |url=http://shrp2.transportation.org/Documents/RailroadCoordination_MOI.pdf| publisher =Utah Department of Transportation |date=May 2015|access-date=8 November 2016|page=102}}</ref>
*The now closed [[Black Mesa and Lake Powell Railroad]] which was also an isolated coal railway ({{nowrap|60 Hz}}).
*The [[Aurizon]] Goonyella and Blackwater coal rail systems in Queenslad, Australia ({{nowrap|50 Hz}}).
*The now closed [[Tumbler Ridge]] Subdivision of [[BC Rail]] ({{nowrap|60 Hz}}).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wcra.org/railwaynews/may2004.htm |title=GF6C #6001 PRESERVED |publisher=West Coast Railway Association, BC |date=May 2004 |access-date=2011-01-09 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090218102742/http://www.wcra.org/railwaynews/may2004.htm |archive-date=February 18, 2009 }}</ref>

===2 × 25 kV autotransformer system===
[[File:Onderdel spoorwegnet.gif|thumb|500px|{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|
1. Supply transformer 
2. Power supply 
3. Overhead line 
4. Running rail 
5. Feeder line 
6. Pantograph 
7. Locomotive transformer 
8. Overhead line 
9. Autotransformer 
10. Running rail
}}]]
The 2 × 25{{nbsp}}kV [[autotransformer]] system is a [[split-phase electric power]] system which supplies 25{{nbsp}}kV power to the trains, but transmits power at 50{{nbsp}}kV to reduce energy losses. It should not be confused with the 50{{nbsp}}kV system. In this system, the current is mainly carried between the overhead line and a feeder transmission line instead of the rail. The overhead line (3) and feeder (5) are on opposite phases so the voltage between them is 50{{nbsp}}kV, while the voltage between the overhead line (3) and the running rails (4) remains at 25{{nbsp}}kV. Periodic autotransformers (9) divert the return current from the neutral rail, step it up, and send it along the feeder line. This system being initially deployed, in 1981, on France's then new [[LGV Sud-Est|Paris-Lyon High speed rail line]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Courtois |first=C. |date=1993 |title=Why the 2*25 kV alternative? (autotransformer traction supply) |url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/274637 |journal=IEE Colloquium on 50kV Autotransformer Traction Supply Systems - the French Experience |pages=1/1–1/4}}</ref> and has gone on to be used by [[Central Organization for Railway Electrification#2 x 25 KV System|Indian Railways]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ministry of Railways (Railway Board) |url=https://indianrailways.gov.in/railwayboard/view_section.jsp?lang=0&id=0,1,304,366,532,565 |access-date=2023-07-05 |website=indianrailways.gov.in}}</ref> [[Russian Railways]], Italian High Speed Railways, UK High Speed 1, most of the West Coast Main Line and Crossrail,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Balfour Beatty gets £16m Crossrail substation contract |url=https://www.theconstructionindex.co.uk/news/view/balfour-beatty-gets-16m-crossrail-substation-contract |access-date=2023-07-05 |website=www.theconstructionindex.co.uk |language=en}}</ref> with some parts of older lines being gradually converted,{{citation needed|date=September 2018}} French lines (LGV lines and some other lines<ref>The remainder of the French lines use 1 × 25 kV booster-transformer system.</ref>), most Spanish high-speed rail lines,<ref>{{cite report |title=Comparative Study of the Electrification Systems 1×25 kV and 2×25 kV |location=Madrid |date=June 2011 |publisher=[[ENAIRE#Ineco|Ineco]] |url=http://www.bane.dk/db/filarkiv/14202/INECO%20Comparative%20Study%201x25%20-%202x25.pdf |access-date=2017-03-30}}</ref> [[Amtrak's 60 Hz traction power system|Amtrak]] and some of the Finnish and Hungarian lines.

===Boosted voltage===
For [[TGV world speed record]] runs in France the voltage was temporarily boosted, to 29.5{{nbsp}}kV<ref>{{Cite web
|title=The Test Tracks: an Overview
|url=http://www.railfaneurope.net/tgv/rec-track.html
}}</ref> and 31{{nbsp}}kV at different times.<ref>{{Cite news
|title=French Train Hits 357 MPH Breaking World Speed Record
|date=4 April 2007
|url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/2007/04/04/french-train-hits-357-mph-breaking-world-speed-record.html
}}</ref>

=== 25 kV on broad gauge lines ===
*In [[Argentina]] on the [[Roca Line]] (using {{Track gauge|1676mm|lk=on|disp=or}} gauge).
*In [[Australia]]:
**[[Adelaide]]: part of the suburban network ({{nowrap|50 Hz}}).
*[[Commonwealth of Independent States]]: parts of the network ({{nowrap|50 Hz}}).
*In [[Finland]]: see [[rail transport in Finland]] ({{nowrap|50 Hz}}).
*In [[India]]: see [[rail transport in India]] and [[Central Organisation for Railway Electrification]] ({{nowrap|50 Hz}}).
*In [[Portugal]]: see [[list of railway lines in Portugal]] ({{nowrap|50 Hz}}).

=== 25 kV on narrow gauge lines ===
*In [[Australia]]:
**[[Perth]]: entire suburban network, see [[railways in Perth]] ({{nowrap|50 Hz}}).
**[[Queensland]]: see [[rail electrification in Queensland]] ({{nowrap|50 Hz}}).
*In [[Malaysia]]: see [[rail transport in Malaysia]] ({{nowrap|50 Hz}}).
*In [[New Zealand]]: see [[North Island Main Trunk]] and [[Auckland railway electrification]] ({{nowrap|50 Hz}}).
*In [[South Africa]]: see [[rail transport in South Africa]] (25 and {{nowrap|50 kV}} {{nowrap|50 Hz}}).
*In [[Taiwan]]: see [[rail transport in Taiwan]] ({{nowrap|60 Hz}}).
*In [[Thailand]]: see [[SRT Dark Red Line|SRT Dark Red line]] and [[SRT Light Red Line|SRT Light Red line]] ({{nowrap|50 Hz}}).
*In [[Tunisia]]: see [[rail transport in Tunisia]] ({{nowrap|50 Hz}}).

===Other voltages on 50 Hz electrification===
*In [[France]], [[Mont Blanc Tramway]] and [[Chemin de fer du Montenvers]]: {{nowrap|11 kV}}
*In [[Germany]], [[:de:Hambachbahn|Hambachbahn]] and [[:de:Nord-Süd-Bahn (Garzweiler)|Nord-Süd-Bahn]]: {{nowrap|6.6 kV}}

== Multi-system locomotives and trains ==
{{main|Multi-system (rail)}}

Trains that can operate on more than one voltage, say 3{{nbsp}}kV/25{{nbsp}}kV, are established technologies. Some locomotives in Europe are capable of using four different voltage standards.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.railwaygazette.com/in-depth/traxx-locomotive-family-meets-european-needs/32588.article| title=Traxx locomotive family meets European needs |quote=Traxx MS (multi-system) for operation on both AC (15 and 25 kV) and DC (1·5 and 3 kV) networks| date=2008-01-07|access-date=2019-09-27|publisher=[[Railway Gazette International]] }}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[15 kV AC railway electrification]]
* [[List of railway electrification systems]]
* [[Rotary phase converter#Electric railways|Rotary phase converter]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* Keenor, Garry. Overhead line electrification for railways.
* {{cite book | last=Boocock | first=Colin | title=East Coast Electrification | publisher=Ian Allan | year=1991| isbn=0-7110-1979-7}}
* {{cite book | last=Gillham | first=J.C. | title=The Age of the Electric Train – Electric Trains in Britain since 1883 | publisher=Ian Allan | year=1988| isbn=0-7110-1392-6}}
* {{cite book | last=Glover | first=John | title=Eastern Electric | publisher=Ian Allan | year=2003 | isbn=0-7110-2934-2}}
* {{cite book | last1=Machefert-Tassin | first1=Yves |last2=Nouvion | first2=Fernand | last3=Woimant | first3=Jean| title=Histoire de la Traction Electrique, vol.1 | publisher=La Vie du Rail | year=1980 | isbn=2-902808-05-4}}
* {{cite book | last=Nock | first=O.S.
| title= Britain's new railway: Electrification of the London-Midland main lines from Euston to Birmingham, Stoke-on-Trent, Crewe, Liverpool and Manchester
| publisher=Ian Allan | location = London
| year=1965|oclc=59003738}}
* {{cite book | last=Nock | first=O.S. | title=Electric Euston to Glasgow | publisher=Ian Allan | year=1974| isbn=0-7110-0530-3}}
* {{cite book | title=Proceedings of the British Railways Electrification Conference, London 1960 – Railway Electrification at Industrial Frequency | publisher=London: British Railways Board | year=1960}}
* {{cite book | last=Semmens | first=Peter | title=Electrifying the East Coast Route | publisher=Patrick Stephens Ltd.| year=1991| isbn=0-85059-929-6}}

{{Railway electrification}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:25 Kv Ac Railway Electrification}}
[[Category:25 kV AC railway electrification| ]]
[[Category:Electric rail transport]]

Broken Script

2023-09-17T14:25:39Z

Haabha:

{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Broken Script
| image =
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = Joe Giovanni Singh
| writer =
| producer = Joe Giovanni Singh
| starring = {{plainlist|
*Joe Giovanni Singh
*[[Rio Raj]]
*Moon Nila
*Gunalan Morgan
}}
| cinematography = Saleem Bilal Jitesh
| editing = Ram Manikandan
| music = Praveen Viswa Malik
| studio = Streetlight Pictures
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|df=y|2023|08|18}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}
'''''Broken Script''''' is a 2023 Indian Tamil-language film directed by Joe Giovanni Singh and starring [[Rio Raj]], Moon Nila and Gunalan Morgan in the lead roles. It was released on 18 August 2023.

== Cast ==
*Joe Giovanni Singh as Psycho
*[[Rio Raj]] as Thambidurai
*Jaineesh as Amaran
*Moon Nila as Maya
*Nabizah Jullaladin as DD
*Gunalan Morgan as Psycho

==Production==
The film - written, produced, directed and starring Singapore-based Joe Giovanni Singh - dealt with two themes – illicit trade of human organs and the exploitation of innocent travellers by unscrupulous employees working in travel agencies.<ref>{{Cite web |title=‘Broken Script’ daringly bares illicit organ trade & travails of travellers |url=https://navjeevanexpress.com/broken-script-daringly-bares-illicit-organ-trade-travails-of-travellers/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230917141019/https://navjeevanexpress.com/broken-script-daringly-bares-illicit-organ-trade-travails-of-travellers/ |archive-date=17 September 2023 |access-date=16 September 2023 |website=Navjeevan Express}}</ref>

== Reception ==
The film was released on 18 August 2023 across theatres in Tamil Nadu. A critic from ''[[Dina Thanthi]]'' gave the film a mixed review.<ref>{{Cite web |title=புரோக்கன் ஸ்கிரிப்ட்: சினிமா விமர்சனம் |url=https://www.dailythanthi.com/Cinema/Review/broken-script-cinema-review-1035012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230916232816/https://www.dailythanthi.com/Cinema/Review/broken-script-cinema-review-1035012 |archive-date=16 September 2023 |access-date=16 September 2023 |website=[[Dina Thanthi]] |language=Ta}}</ref> A reviewer rom ''[[Kumudam]]'' also criticised the film's making, while a reviewer from ''[[Virakesari]]'' gave the film 2 out of 5 stars.<ref>{{Cite web |title=சினிமா விமர்சனம்: ப்ரோக்கன் ஸ்கிரிப்ட் |url=https://www.kumudam.com/kumudam/cinema-review-broken-script |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230917141019/https://www.kumudam.com/kumudam/cinema-review-broken-script |archive-date=17 September 2023 |access-date=16 September 2023 |website=Kumudam |language=Ta}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=திரை விமர்சனம் - ப்ரோக்கன் ஸ்கிரிப்ட் |url=https://www.virakesari.lk/article/162721 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230917141021/https://www.virakesari.lk/article/162721 |archive-date=17 September 2023 |access-date=16 September 2023 |website=[[Virakesari]] |language=Ta}}</ref> A critic from ''[[Hindu Tamil Thisai]]'' rated the film 2.5 stars out of 5.<ref>{{Cite web |title=திரை விமர்சனம்: புரோக்கன் ஸ்கிரிப்ட் |url=https://www.hindutamil.in/news/cinema/tamil-cinema/1102968-broken-script-review.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.is/YlFck |archive-date=17 September 2023 |access-date=2023-09-17 |website=[[Hindu Tamil Thisai]] |language=ta}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb title}}

[[Category: 2023 films]]
[[Category: 2020s Tamil-language films]]

{{Film-stub}}

Index of Angami-related articles

2023-07-11T05:54:14Z

Haabha: Shared an engaging piece.

{{Short description|none}}
{{use dmy dates}}
The following is an '''list of articles relating to [[Angami Naga]]s of [[Nagaland]], India''', sorted in alphabetical order.

{{compact ToC|side=yes|num=yes|seealso=yes|nobreak=yes}}

== A ==
* [[Andrea Kevichüsa]]
* [[Angami Baptist Church Council]]
* [[Angami language]]
* [[Angami Naga]]
* [[Angami Naga Sign Language]]
* [[Angami–Pochuri languages]]
* [[Angami Public Organization]]
* [[Angami name]]
* [[Angami Women Organization]]

== B ==
* [[Bade, Chümoukedima District]]

== C ==
* [[Capi (newspaper)|''Capi'']]
* [[Chalie Kevichüsa]]
* [[Chathe]]
* [[Chiephobozou]]
* [[Chümoukedima]]

== D ==
* [[Dzüko Valley]]

== E ==
* [[Easterine Kire]]

== G ==
* ''[[Galho]]''
* [[George Keduolhou Angami]]

== H ==
* [[Holshe Khrie-o]]
* [[Hovithal Sothu]]

== J ==
* [[Jakhama]]
* [[John Bosco Jasokie]]
* [[Jonathan Yhome]]
* [[Jotsoma]]

== K ==
* [[Kene (Naga wrestling)|''Kene'' (Naga wrestling)]]
* [[Kevichüsa Angami]]
* ''[[Kewhira Dielie]]''
* [[Kezol–tsa Forest]]
* [[Khonoma]]
* [[Khrielie-ü Kire]]
* [[Khriehu Liezietsu]]
* [[Khuzama]]
* [[Kigwema]]
* [[Kirha]]
* [[Kiyanilie Peseyie]]
* [[Kohima Village]]
* [[Koso (Naga surname)]]
* [[Kropol Vitsü]]
* [[Kuda Village]]

== L ==
* [[List of people of Angami descent]]

== M ==
* [[Medziphema]]
* [[Mengu Suokhrie]]
* [[Methaneilie Solo]]
* [[Mezoma]]
* [[Mount Japfü]]
* [[Mount Tempü]]

== N ==
* [[Neidonuo Angami]]
* [[Neikezhakuo Kengurüse]]
* [[Neiliezhü Üsou]]
* [[Neiphiu Rio]]

== P ==
* ''[[Pcheda]]''
* [[Pulie Badze]]

== R ==
* [[Razhukhrielie Kevichüsa]]
* [[Reivilie Angami]]
* [[Rokonicha Kuotsü]]

== S ==
* [[Salhoutuonuo Kruse]]
* ''[[Sekrenyi]]''
* [[Sesino Yhoshü]]
* [[Shürhozelie Liezietsu]]
* ''[[Sopfünuo]]''
* [[Southern Angami]]
* [[Sovima]]
* [[Swe–ba]]

== T ==
* [[Tati (instrument)|''Tati'' (instrument)]]
* ''[[Te–l Khukhu]]''
* [[Tenyiphe I]]
* [[Tenyiphe II]]
* ''[[Terhüchü]]''
* [[Teyozwü Hill]]
* [[Theja Rio]]
* [[Thepfülo-u Nakhro]]
* ''[[Thuthse]]''
* [[Tseilhoutuo Rhütso]]
* [[Tubu Kevichüsa]]

== V ==
* [[Vikho-o Yhoshü]]
* [[Virazouma]]
* [[Viseyie Koso]]
* [[Viswema]]
* [[Viswesül Pusa]]
* [[Vizadel Sakhrie]]
* [[Vizol Koso]]

== Z ==
* [[Zaku Zachariah Tsükrü]]
* [[Zale Neikha]]
* [[Zapu Phizo]]
* [[Zhaleo Rio]]
* ''[[Zutho]]''

{{compact ToC|side=yes|top=yes|num=yes}}

{{Index footer}}

[[Category:Angami-related lists]]

Repeal

2022-11-30T18:47:02Z

Haabha: Published a valuable reference.

{{Short description|Removal or reversal of a law}}
{{Redirect|Repeal Bill|the specific UK bill previously known by that name|European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018}}
A '''repeal''' (O.F. ''rapel'', modern ''rappel'', from ''rapeler'', ''rappeler'', revoke, ''re'' and ''appeler'', appeal)<ref>{{EB1911|inline=1|wstitle=Repeal}}</ref> is the removal or reversal of a [[law]]. There are two basic types of repeal; a repeal with a re-enactment is used to replace the law with an updated, amended, or otherwise related law, or a repeal without replacement so as to abolish its provisions altogether.

Removal of [[primary and secondary legislation|secondary legislation]] is normally referred to as revocation rather than repeal in the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Ireland]]. Under the [[common law]] of [[England and Wales]], the effect of repealing a statute was "to obliterate it completely from the records of Parliament as though it had never been passed."<ref>Kay v. Goodwin (1830) 6 Bing. 576, per Tindal C.J.</ref> This, however, is now subject to savings provisions within the [[Interpretation Act 1978]].

In [[parliamentary procedure]], the [[Motion (parliamentary procedure)|motion]] to rescind, repeal, or annul is used to cancel or countermand an action or order previously adopted by the [[Deliberative assembly|assembly]].

==Partial or full repeals==

A '''partial repeal''' occurs when a specified part or provision of a previous Act is repealed but other provisions remain in force. For example, the [[Acts of Union 1800]], providing for the union between the formerly separate kingdoms of [[Great Britain]] and [[Ireland]] as the [[United Kingdom]], was partially repealed in 1922, when (as a consequence of the 1921 [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]]), twenty-six of the thirty-two counties of Ireland were constituted as the [[Irish Free State]], and ceased to form part of the United Kingdom.

A '''full repeal''' occurs where the entire Act in question is repealed.

=={{anchor|Reenactment}}Repeal with or without re-enactment==

A typical situation where an Act is '''repealed and re-enacted''' is where the law in the area is being updated but the law being repealed needs to be replaced with one suitable for the modern era. Re-enactment can be with or without amendment, although repeal and re-enactment without amendment normally occurs only in the context of a [[consolidation bill]] (a bill to consolidate the law in a particular area).

For example, the repeal of the [[Poor Law]]s in England in 1948 reflected their replacement by modern social welfare legislation.

A '''repeal without replacement''' is generally done when a law is no longer effective, or it is shown that a law is having far more negative consequences than were originally envisioned.

If a campaign for the repeal of a particular law gains particular momentum, an advocate of the repeal might become known as a "repealer". The [[Repeal Association]] in 19th-century Ireland advocated Irish independence through repeal of the [[Acts of Union 1800]].

Many repeals without replacement are the result of significant changes in [[society]]. Major examples include:
*The old [[Jim Crow law]]s or [[blue law]]s in the US
*The [[Corn Laws]] in [[England]], repealed in 1846 after a passionate campaign.
*[[Repeal of Prohibition in the United States]]. Enacted by the [[Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]], [[Prohibition in the United States|prohibition of alcoholic beverages]] was repealed by the [[Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twenty-first Amendment]]. This is the only [[constitutional amendment]] to have ever been repealed in the [[United States]].
*The massive [[Statute Law Revision Act 2007 (Ireland)|Statute Law Revision Act 2007]] in the [[Republic of Ireland]], through which 3,225 Acts were repealed, dating back over eight centuries to 1171 and the earliest laws enacted by [[England]] when it began its invasion of [[Ireland]]. The statutes repealed include a number of Acts of significant historical interest, including an Act of 1542 providing that the Kings of England shall be Kings of Ireland. This Act is the largest single repealing statute in the history of Ireland.

==Express or implied repeal==
The repeal of a [[statute]] may be either express or [[implied repeal|implied]].<ref name="ReferenceA">Vauxhall Estates, Ltd. v. Liverpool Corporation [1932] 1 KB 733</ref>

'''Express repeal''' occurs where express words are used in a statute to repeal an earlier statute. They are now usually included in a table in a schedule to the statute, for reasons of convenience.

In the United States, when a bill is passed by the House and Senate and signed by the president, or Congress overrides a presidential veto, the various provisions contained within the newly enacted law are rearranged according to their policy content and cataloged in the [[United States Code]]—a compilation of the general and permanent federal laws of the United States. To repeal any element of an enacted law, Congress must pass a new law containing repeal language and the codified statute's location in the U.S. Code (including the title, chapter, part, section, paragraph and clause). In this way, Congress (and the president) must follow the same rules and procedures for passing any law. When statutes are repealed, their text is simply deleted from the Code and replaced by a note summarizing what used to be there. Once deleted, the repealed statute no longer has the force of law. All repeals of parts of the US Code are, therefore, express repeals.

'''[[Implied repeal]]''' occurs where two statutes are mutually inconsistent. The effect is that the later statute repeals the earlier statute [[pro tanto]] (in so far as it is inconsistent).<ref name="ReferenceA" /> As past and future parliaments are equally sovereign, later parliaments can carry out implied repeal of earlier statute by passing an inconsistent statute, but inconsistency needs to be established before implied repeal can occur.<ref>Ellen Street Estates v. Minister of Health [1934] 1 KB 590</ref>

==Repeals with or without savings==

Repeals can be with or without savings.

A '''repeal without savings''' eliminates the repealed statute completely.

A '''repeal with savings''' preserves the effect of the repealed statute for limited purposes, such as preventing the reversal of any repeals contained within it, or ensuring that rights granted under its authority are retained. In England and Wales, sections 15 to 17 and 19(2) of the Interpretation Act 1978 set out general savings for all repeals. These re-enact similar provisions from the [[Interpretation Act 1889]], and before 1953 all [[Statute Law Revision Act|Statute Law Revision Acts]] contained a different general savings provision deemed the [[Westbury saving|''Westbury'' saving]], which has now fallen out of use. Similar provisions exist in the law of Ireland and other common law countries.

== Parliamentary procedure ==

===Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised (RONR)===
{{Infobox motion
| name = Rescind, repeal, or annul or Amend something previously adopted (RONR)
| class = B
| inorder = No
| seconded = Yes
| debatable = Yes
| amendable = Yes
| voterequired = Majority with notice; or two-thirds; or [[majority of entire membership]]
| reconsidered = Negative vote only
}}In [[Meeting (parliamentary procedure)|meetings]] of a deliberative assembly, the motions to '''rescind''' (or "repeal" or "annul") and '''amend something previously adopted''' are used to change action that was taken. They are two forms of the same [[incidental main motion]] and they follow the same rules.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised|last = Robert|first = Henry M.|publisher = Da Capo Press|year = 2011|isbn = 978-0-306-82020-5|location = Philadelphia, PA|pages = 305|edition = 11th|display-authors = et al.}}</ref> A motion to postpone an event or action previously scheduled is a particular case of the motion to amend something previously adopted.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Robert|2011|p = 180}}</ref>

Under [[Robert's Rules of Order]], the rules for this motion protect against instability arising from small variations in attendance from one meeting to the next. For this reason, the requirements for changing a previous action are greater than those for taking the action in the first place.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Robert|2011|p = li}}</ref> A motion to rescind, repeal, annul or amend something already adopted requires a [[two-thirds vote]], a [[majority vote]] with [[previous notice]], or a vote of a [[majority of the entire membership]], any one of which would suffice.<ref name=":0">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Robert|2011|pp = 306–307}}</ref> [[Demeter's Manual of Parliamentary Law and Procedure|Demeter's Manual]] imposes a similar requirement.<ref>{{cite parl|title=DEM|pages=165}}</ref>

When this motion is used in a [[committee]], RONR requires a two-thirds vote unless all committee members who voted for the motion to be rescinded or amended are present or have received ample notice; in which case a majority vote is required.<ref name=":0" />

===The Standard Code of Parliamentary Procedure (TSC)===
Under [[The Standard Code of Parliamentary Procedure]], a repeal or amendment of something already adopted requires only the same vote (usually a majority) and notice that was needed to adopt it in the first place.<ref name=":1">{{cite parl|title=TSC|pages=43}} (TSC)</ref> This book states, "As a general rule, fewer than a majority should not be authorized to decide anything, and more than a majority should not be required for most decisions"; the book further states that the problem with situations in which a supermajority is required is that "the minority, not the majority, controls."<ref>TSC, p. 130</ref>

===Legislative use===
In legislative bodies, the motion to rescind is used for much the same purpose as the motion to [[reconsider]]; many court decisions treat the two motions as one motion. However, in legislative contexts, it is not the same as a motion to repeal. The difference between rescind and reconsider is that the motion to rescind is ordinarily applied to actions that have been taken and are already in effect. It has been described as being in the nature of a motion to amend by striking out the entire proposal and leaving nothing remaining. It is not in order when the question can be reached by a motion to reconsider. Once legislation has been actually enacted, it is too late to rescind. The vote required to rescind is the same as would be required to repeal the act which it sought to rescind (usually a majority).<ref>{{cite parl|title=MAS|edition=2000|year=2000|pages=321–323}}</ref>

== Rescind and expunge from the minutes ==
The motion to '''rescind and expunge from the minutes''' is used to express the strongest disapproval about action previously taken by a deliberative assembly. Using [[Robert's Rules of Order|''Roberts Rules of Order Newly Revised'']], this motion requires a vote of a majority of the entire membership.<ref name=":2">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Robert|2011|p = 310}}</ref> Using ''The Standard Code of Parliamentary Procedure'', the motion to expunge requires a majority vote (of those voting). The secretary does not erase the expunged motion, but draws a line around it, marks it "expunged by order of this assembly," gives the date of the expunging, and signs the notation.<ref name=":2" /> The expunged motion is not included in any [[minutes]] published thereafter.<ref name=":1" />

== See also ==
* [[Reconsideration of a motion]]
* [[Obrogation]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{Parliamentary Procedure}}

[[Category:Statutory law]]
[[Category:Legislative legal terminology]]
[[Category:Repealed legislation|*Main]]

Śramaṇa

2022-09-06T21:35:59Z

Haabha: Added a new addition to the collection.

{{italic title}}
{{short description|Monastic orders that were non-brahmanical and did not conform to Vedic religion}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Use Indian English}}
{{multiple image
| direction = horizontal
| width1 = 100
| width2 = 168
| footer = Jainism and Buddhism are two of many Indian philosophies considered as Śramaṇic traditions.
| image1 = Jain Prateek Chihna.svg
| image2 =Dharma Wheel.svg
}}
[[File:Jain Sthanakvasi monk.jpg|thumb|A [[Jain monasticism|Jain monk]]]]

A '''''śramaṇa''''' ({{lang-sa|श्रमण}}, {{IPA-sa|ʃrɐmɐɳɐ}}) or '''''samaṇa''''' ({{lang-pi|𑀲𑀫𑀡}}; {{lang-zh|{{linktext|沙門}}}} or {{lang|zh|{{linktext|沙门}}}}, ''shāmén'') is a person "who labours, toils, or exerts themselves for some higher or religious purpose"<ref>Dhirasekera, Jotiya. Buddhist monastic discipline. Buddhist Cultural Centre, 2007.</ref><ref>Shults, Brett. "A Note on Śramaṇa in Vedic Texts." Journal of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies 10 (2016).</ref> or "seeker, one who performs acts of austerity, ascetic".<ref name=mmw1096>Monier Monier-Williams, श्रमण śramaṇa, Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, p. 1096</ref> During its development, the term came to refer to several non-[[Historical_Vedic_religion#Brahmanism|Brahmanical]] [[Asceticism|ascetic]] religious movements parallel to but separate from the [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic religion]] (and its modern-day form [[Hinduism]]).{{sfn|Olivelle|1993|pp=[https://archive.org/details/asramasystemhist00oliv/page/n25 11], 12}}{{sfn|Jaini|2001|p=[https://archive.org/details/collectedpaperso00jain/page/n57 48]}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ghurye|first=G. S. |title=Ascetic Origins|journal=Sociological Bulletin|volume=1|issue=2|pages=162–184 |jstor=42864485|doi=10.1177/0038022919520206|s2cid=220049343}}</ref> The Śramaṇa tradition includes primarily [[Jainism]],{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|p=182-183}} [[Buddhism]],<ref>Svarghese, Alexander P. 2008. ''India : History, Religion, Vision And Contribution To The World.'' pp. 259–60.</ref> and others such as the [[Ājīvika]].{{sfn|Basham|1951|pp=94–103}}<ref name=Lochtefeld/>

The śramaṇa religions became popular in the same circles of [[mendicant]]s from [[greater Magadha]] that led to the development of spiritual practices,{{sfn|Samuel|2008|p=8; Quote: such (yogic) practices developed in the same ascetic circles as the early Sramana movements (Buddhists, Jainas and Ajivikas), probably in around the 9th BCE}} as well as the popular concepts in all major [[Indian religions]] such as ''[[saṃsāra]]'' (the cycle of birth and death) and ''[[moksha]]'' (liberation from that cycle).<ref name="Flood, Gavin 2003. pg. 273-4">Flood, Gavin. Olivelle, Patrick. 2003. ''The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism.'' Malden: Blackwell. pp. 273–274.</ref>{{refn|group=note|Flood & Olivelle: "The second half of the first millennium BCE was the period that created many of the ideological and institutional elements that characterize later Indian religions. The renouncer tradition played a central role during this formative period of Indian religious history....Some of the fundamental values and beliefs that we generally associate with Indian religions in general and Hinduism in particular were in part the creation of the renouncer tradition. These include the two pillars of Indian theologies: samsara – the belief that life in this world is one of suffering and subject to repeated deaths and births (rebirth); moksa/nirvana – the goal of human existence....."<ref name="Flood, Gavin 2003. pg. 273-4" />}}

The Śramaṇic traditions have a diverse range of beliefs, ranging from accepting or denying the concept of soul, fatalism to free will, idealization of extreme asceticism to that of family life, renunciation, strict [[ahimsa]] (non-violence) and vegetarianism to permissibility of violence and meat-eating.{{sfn|Jaini|2000|pp=3–14}}{{sfn|Jaini|2001|pp=57–77}}

==Etymology and origin==
[[File:Tirthankar Parshvanath Bhagwan.jpg|thumb|200px|upright|23rd Jain [[Tirthankar]], [[Parshwanatha]] re-organized the shraman sangha in 9th century BCE.]]
One of the earliest recorded uses of the word ''śramaṇa'', in the sense of a mendicant, is in verse 4.3.22 of the [[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]] composed by about the 6th century BCE.{{sfn|Jaini|2001|p=48}}<ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/168/mode/2up Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4.3.22] Oxford University Press, p. 169</ref> The concept of renunciation and monk-like lifestyle is found in Vedic literature, with terms such as [[yati]]s, [[rishi]]s, and śramaṇas.<ref name=gavinflood76/><ref>{{cite book|author1=École pratique des hautes études (France)|author2=Section des sciences économiques et sociales, University of Oxford|author3=Institute of Social Anthropology|author4=Institute of Economic Growth (India)|author5=Research Centre on Social and Economic Development in Asia|title=Contributions to Indian sociology, Volume 15|year=1981|publisher=Mouton|page=276}}</ref> The Vedic literature from pre-1000 BCE era, mentions ''[[Rishi|Muni]]'' (मुनि, monks, mendicants, holy man).<ref name=werner289>{{cite journal |first=Karel |last=Werner |title=Yoga and the Ṛg Veda: An Interpretation of the Keśin Hymn (RV 10, 136) |journal=Religious Studies |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=289–302|doi=10.1017/S0034412500010076 |s2cid=170592174 }}</ref> [[Rigveda|Rig Veda]], for example, in Book 10 Chapter 136, mentions mendicants as those with ''kēśin'' (केशिन्, long-haired) and ''mala'' clothes (मल, dirty, soil-colored, yellow, orange, saffron) engaged in the affairs of ''mananat'' (mind, meditation).<ref name=gsg>GS Ghurye (1952), Ascetic Origins, Sociological Bulletin, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 162–184; For Sanskrit original: [http://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१०.१३६ Rigveda] Wikisource; For English translation: [https://archive.org/stream/hymnsrigveda00unkngoog#page/n588/mode/2up Kesins] Rig Veda, Hymn CXXXVI, Ralph Griffith (Translator)</ref>

{{quote|
<poem>
केश्यग्निं केशी विषं केशी बिभर्ति रोदसी । केशी विश्वं स्वर्दृशे केशीदं ज्योतिरुच्यते <nowiki>॥१॥</nowiki>
'''मुनयो''' वातरशनाः पिशङ्गा वसते मला । वातस्यानु ध्राजिं यन्ति यद्देवासो अविक्षत <nowiki>॥२॥</nowiki>
He with the long loose locks (of hair) supports Agni, and moisture, heaven, and earth; He is all sky to look upon: he with long hair is called this light.
The '''Munis''', girdled with the wind, wear garments of soil hue; They, following the wind's swift course, go where the Gods have gone before.
</poem>
|Rig Veda|Hymn 10.136.1-2<ref name=gsg/><ref name=werner289/>}}

The hymn uses the term ''vātaraśana'' (वातरशन) which means "girdled with wind".<ref>Monier Williams, [http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?script=HK&beginning=0+&tinput=vAtarazana+&trans=Translate&direction=AU vAtarazana] Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany</ref>{{sfn|Olivelle|1993|p=12}} Some scholars have interpreted this to mean "sky-clad, naked monk" and therefore a synonym for ''[[Digambara]]'' (a Jainism sect). However, other scholars state that this could not be the correct interpretation because it is inconsistent with the words that immediately follow, "wearing soil-hued garments". The context likely means that the poet is describing the "munis" as moving like the wind, their garments pressed by the wind. According to Olivelle, it is unlikely that the ''vātaraśana'' implies a class within the Vedic context.{{sfn|Olivelle|1993|pp=12–13}}

The earliest known explicit use of the term śramaṇa is found in section 2.7 of the ''Taittiriya [[Aranyaka]]'', a layer within the ''[[Yajurveda]]'' (~1000 BCE, a scripture of Hinduism). It mentions ''śramaṇa [[Rishi]]s'' and celibate ''Rishis''.{{sfn|Olivelle|1993|p=12 with footnote 20}}<ref name=crangle30/>

Buddhist commentaries associate the word's etymology with the quieting (''{{lang|pi-Latn|samita}}'') of evil (''{{lang|pi-Latn|pāpa}}'') as in the following phrase from the 3rd century BCE ''[[Dhammapada]]'', verse 265: ''{{lang|pi-Latn|samitattā pāpānaŋ ʻsamaṇoʼ ti pavuccati}}'' ("someone who has pacified evil is called ''{{lang|pi-Latn|samaṇa}}''").{{refn|group=note|According to {{harvp|Rhys Davids|Stede|1921–1925|p=682|loc="Samaṇa"}}: 'an edifying etymology of the word [is at] DhA iii.84: "samita-pāpattā [samaṇa]," cp. Dh 265 "{{IAST|samitattā pāpānaŋ ʻsamaṇoʼ ti pavuccati}}"....' The English translation of Dh 265 is based on {{harvp|Fronsdal|2005|p=69}}.}}

The word śramaṇa is postulated to be derived from the verbal root ''{{IAST|śram}}'', meaning "to exert effort, labor or to perform austerity".<ref name=mmw1096/> The history of wandering monks in ancient India is partly untraceable. The term 'parivrajaka' was perhaps applicable to all the peripatetic monks of India, such as those found in Buddhism, Jainism and Brahmanism.<ref name=Jash>{{cite book|author1=Pranabananda Jash|title=History of the Parivrājaka, Issue 24 of Heritage of ancient India|year=1991|publisher=Ramanand Vidya Bhawan|page=1}}</ref>

The ''śramaṇa'' refers to a variety of [[sannyasa|renunciate]] ascetic traditions from the middle of the 1st millennium BCE.<ref name=Lochtefeld/> The śramaṇas were individual, experiential and free-form traditions.<ref name=Lochtefeld/> The term "śramaṇas" is used sometimes to contrast them with "Brahmins" in terms of their religious models.<ref name=Lochtefeld/> Part of the śramaṇa tradition retained their distinct identity from Hinduism by rejecting the [[pramana|epistemic]] authority of the [[Vedas]], while a part of the śramaṇa tradition became part of Hinduism as one stage in the [[Ashrama (stage)|Ashrama]] dharma, that is as renunciate [[sannyasa|sannyasin]]s.<ref name=Lochtefeld/><ref>P. Billimoria (1988), Śabdapramāṇa: Word and Knowledge, Studies of Classical India Volume 10, Springer, {{ISBN|978-94-010-7810-8}}, pp. 1–30</ref>

Pali ''samaṇa'' has been suggested as the ultimate origin of the word [[Evenki language|Evenki]] [[wikt:саман#Evenki|сама̄н]] (''samān'') "shaman", possibly via [[Middle Chinese]] or [[Tocharian languages|Tocharian B]]; however, the etymology of this word, which is also found in other [[Tungusic languages]], is controversial (see {{slink|Shamanism|Etymology}}).

==History==
{{PaliCanonSamanaViews}}
Several ''śramaṇa'' movements are known to have existed in India before the 6th century BCE (pre-Buddha, pre-Mahavira), and these influenced both the [[āstika and nāstika]] traditions of Indian philosophy.<ref name=reginaldray247>Reginald Ray (1999), Buddhist Saints in India, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195134834}}, pp. 237–240, 247–249</ref><ref name="andrew">Andrew J. Nicholson (2013), [[Unifying Hinduism|Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History]], Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0231149877}}, Chapter 9</ref>{{page needed}} Martin Wiltshire states that the Śramaṇa tradition evolved in India over two phases, namely Paccekabuddha and Savaka phases, the former being the tradition of individual ascetic and latter of disciples, and that Buddhism and Jainism ultimately emerged from these as sectarian manifestations.<ref name=wiltshire293>Martin Wiltshire (1990), Ascetic Figures Before and in Early Buddhism, De Gruyter, {{ISBN|978-3110098969}}, p. 293</ref> These traditions drew upon already established Brahmanical concepts, states Wiltshire, to communicate their own distinct doctrines.<ref name=wiltshire226>Martin Wiltshire (1990), Ascetic Figures Before and in Early Buddhism, De Gruyter, {{ISBN|978-3110098969}}, pp. 226–227</ref> Reginald Ray concurs that Śramaṇa movements already existed and were established traditions in pre-6th century BCE India, but disagrees with Wiltshire that they were nonsectarian before the arrival of Buddha.<ref name=reginaldray247/>

According to the [[Jain Agamas]] and the Buddhist [[Pāli Canon]], there were other śramaṇa leaders at the time of Buddha.{{sfn|Gethin|1998|p=11}}{{refn|group=note|Some terms are common between Jainism and Buddhism, including:    • Symbols: [[chaitya|caitya]], [[stupa|stūpa]], [[dharmacakra]]    • Terms: [[arihant (Jainism)]]/[[arhat (Buddhism)]], [[nirvana|{{IAST|nirvāṇa}}]], [[Sangha (Buddhism)|{{IAST|saṅgha}}]], [[acharya|ācārya]], Jina etc. The term ''pudgala'' is used by both but with completely different meanings.}} In the ''[[Mahaparinibbana Sutta|Mahāparinibbāna Sutta]]'' ([[Digha Nikaya|DN]] 16), a śramaṇa named Subhadda mentions:
{{quote|
...those ascetics, samaṇa and Brahmins who have orders and followings, who are teachers, well-known and famous as founders of schools, and popularly regarded as saints, like [[Purana Kassapa|Pūraṇa Kassapa]], [[Makkhali Gosala|Makkhali Gosāla]], [[Ajita Kesakambali|Ajita Kesakambalī]], [[Pakudha Kaccayana|Pakudha Kaccāyana]], [[Sanjaya Belatthiputta]] and Nigaṇṭha Nātaputta (Mahavira)...
|Digha Nikaya|16{{sfn|Walshe|1995|p=268}}}}

===Relationship with Vedism===
The traditional view of scholars in the field, represented for example by [[Govind Chandra Pande]] in his 1957 study on the origins of Buddhism, is that Śramaṇa began as a "distinct and separate cultural and religious" tradition from [[Vedas|Vedic religion]].{{sfn|Pande|1995|p=261}}

[[Patrick Olivelle]], a professor of Indology and known for his translations of major ancient Sanskrit works, states in his 1993 study that contrary to some representations, the original Śramaṇa tradition was a part of the Vedic one.{{sfn|Olivelle|1993|p=14}} He writes,

{{Quote|Sramana in that context obviously means a person who is in the habit of performing srama. Far from separating these seers from the vedic ritual tradition, therefore, śramaṇa places them right at the center of that tradition. Those who see them [Sramana seers] as non-Brahmanical, anti-Brahmanical, or even non-Aryan precursors of later sectarian ascetics are drawing conclusions that far outstrip the available evidence.
|Patrick Olivelle, ''The Ashrama System''{{sfn|Olivelle|1993|p=14}}}}

According to Olivelle, and other scholars such as Edward Crangle, the concept of Śramaṇa exists in the early [[Brahmanism|Brahmanical]] literature.{{sfn|Olivelle|1993|p=12 with footnote 20}}<ref name=crangle30>{{cite book |author=Edward Fitzpatrick Crangle|title=The Origin and Development of Early Indian Contemplative Practices|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HOzdcIxJy2sC&pg=PA30 |year=1994|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-03479-1|pages=30 with footnote 37}}</ref> The term is used in an adjectival sense for sages who lived a special way of life that the Vedic culture considered extraordinary. However, Vedic literature does not provide details of that life.{{sfn|Olivelle|1993|p=15}} The term did not imply any opposition to either Brahmins or householders. In all likelihood states Olivelle, during the Vedic era, neither did the Śramaṇa concept refer to an identifiable class, nor to ascetic groups as it does in later Indian literature.{{sfn|Olivelle|1993|pp=15–16}} Additionally, in the early texts, some pre-dating 3rd-century BCE ruler [[Ashoka]], the Brahmana and Śramaṇa are neither distinct nor opposed. The distinction, according to Olivelle, in later Indian literature "may have been a later semantic development possibly influenced by the appropriation of the latter term [Sramana] by Buddhism and Jainism".{{sfn|Olivelle|1993|p=12}}

The Vedic society, states Olivelle, contained many people whose roots were non-Aryan who must have influenced the Aryan classes. However, it is difficult to identify and isolate these influences,{{sfn|Olivelle|1993|p=68, Quote: "It is obvious that vedic society contained large numbers of people whose roots were non-Aryan and that their customs and beliefs must have influenced the dominant Aryan classes. It is quite a different matter, however, to attempt to isolate non-Aryan customs, beliefs, or traits at a period a millennium or more removed from the initial Aryan migration."}} in part because the vedic culture not only developed from influences but also from its inner dynamism and socio-economic developments.{{sfn|Olivelle|1993|p=68, Quote: "The Brahmanical religion. furthermore, like any other historical phenomenon, developed and changed over time not only through external influences but also by its own inner dynamism and because of socio-economic changes, the radical nature of which we have already discussed. New elements in a culture, therefore, need not always be of foreign origin."}}

According to Bronkhorst, the sramana culture arose in "[[Greater Magadha]]," which was Indo-Aryan, but not Vedic. In this culture, Kshatriyas were placed higher than Brahmins, and it rejected Vedic authority and rituals.{{sfn|Bronkhorst|2007}}{{sfn|Long|2013|loc=Chapter II}}

===Pre-Buddhist śrāmana schools in Buddhist texts===
Pande attributes the origin of Buddhism, not entirely to the Buddha, but to a "great religious ferment" towards the end of the Vedic period when the Brahmanic and Sramanic traditions intermingled.{{sfn|Pande|1995|p=261}}

The Buddhist text of the ''[[Samaññaphala Sutta]]'' identifies six pre-Buddhist śrāmana schools, identifying them by their leader. These six schools are represented in the text to have diverse philosophies, which according to Padmanabh Jaini, may be "a biased picture and does not give a true picture" of the Sramanic schools rivaling with Buddhism,{{sfn|Jaini|2001|pp=57–60}}{{sfn|Basham|2009|pp=18–26}}

#śrāmana movement of [[Purana Kassapa]] ([[Amoralism]]): believed in antinomian ethics. This ancient school asserted that there are no moral laws, nothing is moral or immoral, there is neither virtue nor sin.{{sfn|Jaini|2001|pp=57–60}}{{sfn|Basham|2009|pp=80–93}}
#śrāmana movement of [[Makkhali Gosala]] ([[Ajivika]]): believed in fatalism and determinism that everything is the consequence of nature and its laws. The school denied that there is free will, but believed that soul exists. Everything has its own individual nature, based on how one is constituted from elements. Karma and consequences are not due to free will, cannot be altered, everything is pre-determined, because of and including one's composition.{{sfn|Jaini|2001|pp=57–60}}<ref name="james22"/>
#śrāmana movement of [[Ajita Kesakambali]] ([[Lokayata]]-[[Charvaka]]): believed in materialism. Denied that there is an after-life, any samsara, any karma, or any fruit of good or evil deeds. Everything including humans are composed of elemental matter, and when one dies one returns to those elements.{{sfn|Jaini|2001|pp=57–60}}{{sfn|Basham|2009|pp=54–55}}
#śrāmana movement of [[Pakudha Kaccayana]]: believed in [[atomism]]. Denied that there is a creator, knower. Believed that everything is made of seven basic building blocks that are eternal, neither created nor caused to be created. The seven blocks included earth, water, fire, air, happiness, pain and soul. All actions, including death is mere re-arrangement and interpenetration of one set of substances into another set of substances.{{sfn|Jaini|2001|pp=57–60}}{{sfn|Basham|2009|pp=90–93}}
#śrāmana movement of [[Mahavira]] ([[Jainism]]): believed in fourfold restraint, avoid all evil (see more below).{{sfn|Jaini|2001|pp=57–60}}
#śrāmana movement of [[Sanjaya Belatthiputta]] ([[Ajñana]]): believed in absolute agnosticism. Refused to have any opinion either way about existence of or non-existence of after-life, karma, good, evil, free will, creator, soul, or other topics.{{sfn|Jaini|2001|pp=57–60}}

The pre-Buddhist śrāmana movements were organized ''[[Sangha]]gani'' (order of monks and ascetics), according to the Buddhist ''Samaññaphala Sutta''. The six leaders above are described as a ''Sanghi'' (head of the order), ''Ganacariyo'' (teacher), ''Cirapabbajito'' (recluse), ''Yasassi and Neto'' (of repute and well known).{{sfn|Jaini|2001|p=60}}

===Jainism===
{{Further|History of Jainism}}
Jain literature too mentions Pūraṇa Kassapa, Makkhali Gosāla and Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta.{{refn|group=note|The Pali Canon is the only source for Ajita Kesakambalī and Pakudha Kaccāyana.}} During the life of Buddha, Mahavira and the Buddha were leaders of their śramaṇa orders. Nigaṇṭha Nātaputta refers to Mahāvīra.{{refn|group=note|In the Buddhist Pāli literature, these non-Buddhist ascetic leaders – including Mahavira – are also referred to as Titthiyas of Tīrthakas.}}

According to Pande, Jainas were the same as the Niganthas mentioned in the Buddhist texts, and they were a well established sect when Buddha began preaching. He states, without identifying supporting evidence, that "[[Jainism|Jainas]]" appear to have belonged to the non-Vedic Munis and Sramanas who may have been ultimately connected with pre-Vedic civilization".{{sfn|Pande|1995|p=353}} The śramaṇa system is believed by a majority of Jaina scholars to have been of independent origin and not a protest movement of any kind, were led by Jaina thinkers, and were pre-Buddhist and pre-Vedic.<ref name=marwaha>{{cite book|author1=Sonali Bhatt Marwaha|title=Colors Of Truth: Religion, Self And Emotions: Perspectives Of Hinduism, Buddhism. Jainism, Zoroastrianism, Islam, Sikhism, And Contemporary Psychology|year=2006|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|pages=97–99|isbn=978-8180692680}}</ref>

Some scholars posit that the [[Indus Valley civilisation]] symbols may be related to later Jain statues, and the bull icon may have a connection to [[Rishabhanatha]].<ref name=indianethics>{{cite book|author1=Puruṣottama Bilimoria|author2=Joseph Prabhu|author3=Renuka M. Sharma|title=Indian Ethics: Classical traditions and contemporary challenges, Volume 1 of Indian Ethics|year=2007|publisher=Ashgate Publishing Ltd|page=315|isbn= 978-07546-330-13|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g78Cw4xQmsMC&pg=PA315}}</ref><ref name=kurukshetra>{{cite book|author1=Institute of Indic Studies, Kurukshetra University|title=Prāci-jyotī: digest of Indological studies, Volumes 14–15|year=1982|publisher=Kurukshetra University|pages=247–249}}</ref><ref name=scharlemanna>{{cite book|author1=Robert P. Scharlemann|title=Naming God God, the contemporary discussion series|year=1985|publisher=Paragon House|pages=[https://archive.org/details/naminggod0000unse/page/106 106–109]|isbn=978-0913757222|url=https://archive.org/details/naminggod0000unse/page/106}}</ref> According to Dundas, outside of the Jain tradition, historians date the Mahavira as about contemporaneous with the [[Buddha]] in the 5th-century BCE, and accordingly the historical [[Parshvanatha]], based on the c. 250-year gap, is placed in 8th or 7th century BCE.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=30–31}}

===Buddhism===
{{Further|History of Buddhism}}
{{peoplepalicanon}}
It was as a śramaṇa that the Buddha left his father's palace and practised austerities.<ref name=society>{{cite book|author1=Buddhist Society (London, England)|title=The Middle way, Volumes 75–76|year=2000|publisher=The Society|page=205}}</ref> [[Gautama Buddha]], after fasting nearly to death by starvation, regarded extreme austerities and self-mortification as useless or unnecessary in attaining enlightenment, recommending instead a "[[Middle Way]]" between the extremes of hedonism and self-mortification.<ref name=randallcollins204>Randall Collins (2000), The sociology of philosophies: a global theory of intellectual change, Harvard University Press, {{ISBN|978-0674001879}}, p. 204</ref> [[Devadatta]], a cousin of Gautama, caused a split in the Buddhist [[sangha]] by demanding more rigorous practices.<ref>{{cite book|last=Boucher|first=Daniel|title=Bodhisattvas of the Forest and the Formation of the Mahayana|url=https://archive.org/details/bodhisattvasfore00bouc|url-access=limited|publisher=[[University of Hawaii Press]]|year=2008|page=[https://archive.org/details/bodhisattvasfore00bouc/page/n71 47]|isbn=978-0824828813}}</ref>

The Buddhist movement chose a moderate ascetic lifestyle.<ref name=randallcollins204/> This was in contrast to Jains, who continued the tradition of stronger austerity, such as fasting and giving away all property including clothes and thus going naked, emphasizing that complete dedication to spirituality includes turning away from material possessions and any cause for evil [[karma]].<ref name=randallcollins204/> The moderate ascetic precepts, states Collins, likely appealed to more people and widened the base of people wanting to become Buddhists.<ref name=randallcollins204/> Buddhism also developed a code for interaction of world-pursuing [[Upāsaka and Upāsikā|lay people]] and world-denying [[Buddhist monasticism|Buddhist monastic communities]], which encouraged continued relationship between the two.<ref name=randallcollins204/> Collins states, for example, that two rules of the [[vinaya]] (monastic code) were that a person could not join a monastic community without parent's permission, and that at least one son remained with each family to care for that family.<ref name=randallcollins204/> Buddhism also combined the continuing interaction, such as giving alms to renunciants, in terms of merit gained for good rebirth and good karma by the lay people. This code played a historic role in its growth, and provided a means for reliable alms (food, clothing) and social support for Buddhism.<ref name=randallcollins204/>

[[Randall Collins]] states that Buddhism was more a reform movement within the educated religious classes, composed mostly of [[Brahmin|Brahmins]], rather than a rival movement from outside these classes.<ref name="collins2000p205"/> In early Buddhism, the largest number of monastics were originally brahmins, and virtually all were recruited from the two upper classes of society – brahmins and [[kshatriya]]s.<ref name="collins2000p205">Randall Collins (2000), The sociology of philosophies: a global theory of intellectual change, Harvard University Press, {{ISBN|978-0674001879}}, p. 205</ref>{{refn|group=note|Randall Collins: "Thus, although the Buddha himself was a kshatriya the largest number of monks in the early movement were of Brahman origin. In principle, the Sangha was open to any caste; and since it was outside the ordinary world, caste had no place in it. Nevertheless, virtually all monks were recruited from the upper two classes. The biggest source of lay support, however, the ordinary donor of alms, were the landowning farmers."<ref name="collins2000p205" />}}

===Ājīvika===
[[Ājīvika]] was founded in the 5th century BCE by [[Makkhali Gosala]], as a śramaṇa movement and a major rival of [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism|early Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]].<ref>Jeffrey D Long (2009), Jainism: An Introduction, Macmillan, {{ISBN|978-1845116255}}, p. 199</ref> Ājīvikas were organised renunciates who formed discrete communities.{{sfn|Basham|1951|pp=145–146}}

The Ājīvikas reached the height of their prominence in the late 1st millennium BCE, then declined, yet continued to exist in south India until the 14th Century CE, as evidenced by inscriptions found in southern India.<ref name=james22/><ref name=philtarajiv>[http://www.philtar.ac.uk/encyclopedia/hindu/ascetic/ajiv.html Ajivikas] World Religions Project, [[University of Cumbria]], United Kingdom</ref> Ancient texts of Buddhism and Jainism mention a city in the first millennium BCE named Savatthi (Sanskrit ''[[Shravasti|Śravasti]]'') as the hub of the Ājīvikas; it was located in what is now the [[North India]]n state of [[Uttar Pradesh]]. In later part of the common era, inscriptions suggests that the Ājīvikas had a significant presence in the [[South India]]n state of [[Karnataka]] and the Kolar district of [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref name=philtarajiv/>

Original scriptures of the Ājīvika school of philosophy once existed, but these are unavailable and probably lost. Their theories are extracted from mentions of Ājīvikas in the secondary sources of ancient Indian literature.{{sfn|Basham|2009|loc=Chapter 1}} Scholars question whether Ājīvika philosophy has been fairly and completely summarized in these secondary sources, written by ancient Buddhist and Jaina scholars, who represented competing and adversarial philosophies to Ājīvikas.<ref name=dundas>Paul Dundas (2002), The Jains (The Library of Religious Beliefs and Practices), Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415266055}}, pp. 28–30</ref>

===Conflict between śramaṇa movements===
According to the 2nd century CE text ''[[Ashokavadana]]'', the Mauryan emperor [[Bindusara]] was a patron of the Ajivikas, and it reached its peak of popularity during this time. ''[[Ashokavadana]]'' also mentions that Bindusara's son [[Ashoka]] converted to Buddhism, became enraged at a picture that depicted Buddha in negative light, and issued an order to kill all the Ajivikas in [[Pundravardhana]]. Around 18,000 followers of the Ajivika sect were executed as a result of this order.<ref name="John1989">{{cite book | author=John S. Strong | author-link = John S. Strong | title=The Legend of King Aśoka: A Study and Translation of the Aśokāvadāna | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kp9uaQTQ8h8C&pg=PA232 | accessdate=30 October 2012 | year=1989 | publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. | isbn=978-81-208-0616-0 | pages=232}}</ref>{{sfn|Basham|2009|pp=147–148}}

Jaina texts mention separation and conflict between Mahavira and Gosala, accusation of contemptuous comments, and an occasion where the Jaina and Ajivika monastic orders "came to blows".<ref>John McKay et al, A History of World Societies, Combined Volume, 9th Edition, Macmillan, {{ISBN|978-0312666910}}, p. 76</ref> However, given the texts alleging conflict and portraying Ajivikas and Gosala in negative light were written centuries after the incident by their śramaṇa opponents, and given the versions in Buddhist and Jaina texts are different, the reliability of these stories, states Basham, is questionable.{{sfn|Basham|2009|pp=62–66, 88–89, 278}}

==Philosophy==

===Jain philosophy===
{{Jainism}}
{{Main|Jain philosophy}}
{{Further|Anekantavada|Syādvāda|Jainism and non-creationism}}
[[Jainism]] derives its philosophy from the teachings and lives of the twenty-four [[Tirthankara]]s, of whom [[Mahavira]] was the last. [[Acharya]]s [[Umaswati]], [[Kundakunda]], [[Haribhadra]], {{IAST|[[Yashovijaya|Yaśovijaya Gaṇi]]}} and others further developed and reorganized [[Jain philosophy]] in its present form. The distinguishing features of Jain philosophy are its belief in the independent existence of soul and matter, predominance of [[Karma in Jainism|karma]], [[Jainism and non-creationism|the denial of a creative and omnipotent God]], belief in an [[Jain cosmology|eternal and uncreated universe]], a strong emphasis on [[ahimsa in Jainism|nonviolence]], an accent on [[anekantavada]] and morality and ethics based on [[moksha (Jainism)|liberation of the soul]]. The Jain philosophy of anekantavada and [[syādvāda]], which posits that the truth or reality is perceived differently from different points of view, and that no single point of view is the complete truth, have made very important contributions to ancient [[Indian philosophy]], especially in the areas of skepticism and relativity.<ref>{{cite book | first=Thomas | last=McEvilley | title=The Shape of Ancient Thought | publisher=Allworth Communications | year=2002 | isbn=978-1-58115-203-6 | page=335 }}</ref>

===Usage in Jain texts===
[[Jain monasticism|Jain monastics]] are known as śramaṇas while lay practitioners are called [[śrāvaka]]s. The religion or code of conduct of the monks is known as the śramaṇa dharma. Jain canons like ''[[Acharanga Sutra|Ācāranga Sūtra]]''<ref>{{cite book | last =Jacobi | first =Hermann | title =Ācāranga Sūtra, Jain Sutras Part I, Sacred Books of the East, Vol. 22. | year =1884 | url =http://www.sacred-texts.com/jai/sbe22/index.htm}}</ref> and other later texts contain many references to Sramanas.

====''Ācāranga Sūtra''====
One verse of the ''Ācāranga sūtra'' defines a good śramaṇa:
{{quote|Disregarding (all calamities) he lives together with clever monks, insensitive to pain and pleasure, not hurting the movable and immovable (beings), not killing, bearing all: so is described the great sage, a good Sramana.<ref>''Ācāranga Sūtra''. 1097</ref>}}

The chapter on renunciation contains a śramaṇa vow of non-possession:
{{quote|I shall become a śramaṇa who owns no house, no property, no sons, no cattle, who eats what others give him; I shall commit no sinful action; Master, I renounce to accept anything that has not been given.' Having taken such vows, (a mendicant) should not, on entering a village or free town, take himself, or induce others to take, or allow others to take, what has not been given.<ref>''Ācāranga Sūtra'', 799</ref>}}

The ''Ācāranga Sūtra'' gives three names of Mahavira, the twenty fourth [[Tirthankara]], one of which was ''Śramaṇa'':

{{quote|The Venerable ascetic Mahavira belonged to the ''Kasyapa [[gotra]]''. His three names have thus been recorded by tradition: by his parents he was called ''Vardhamana'', because he is devoid of love and hate; (he is called) Sramana (i.e. ascetic), because he sustains dreadful dangers and fears, the noble nakedness, and the miseries of the world; the name Venerable Ascetic '''Mahavira''' has been given to him by the gods.<ref>''Ācāranga Sūtra'' 954</ref>}}

====Sūtrakrtanga====
Another Jain canon, ''[[Sutrakritanga|Sūtrakrtanga]]''<ref>{{cite book | last =Jacobi | first =Hermann | editor =Max Müller | title =Jaina Sutras, Part II : Sūtrakrtanga | publisher =The Clarendon Press | year =1895 | location =Oxford | url =http://www.sacred-texts.com/jai/sbe45/index.htm | series =Sacred Books of the East, Vol. 45 }}</ref> describes the śramaṇa as an ascetic who has taken [[Mahavrata]], the five great vows:

{{quote|He is a Śramaṇa for this reason that he is not hampered by any obstacles, that he is free from desires, (abstaining from) property, killing, telling lies, and sexual intercourse; (and from) wrath, pride, deceit, greed, love, and hate: thus giving up every passion that involves him in sin, (such as) killing of beings. (Such a man) deserves the name of a Śramaṇa, who subdues (moreover) his senses, is well qualified (for his task), and abandons his body.<ref>''Sūtrakrtanga'', Book 1: 16.3</ref>}}

The ''Sūtrakrtanga'' records that prince, [[Ardraka]], who became disciple to Mahavira, arguing with other heretical teachers, told [[Makkhali Gosala]] the qualities of śramaṇas:

{{quote|He who (teaches) the great vows (of monks) and the five small vows (of the laity 3), the five Âsravas and the stoppage of the Âsravas, and control, who avoids Karman in this blessed life of Śramaṇas, him I call a Śramaṇa.<ref>''Sūtrakrtanga'', Book 2: 6.6</ref>}}

===Buddhist philosophy===
{{Main|Buddhist philosophy}}
Buddha initially practiced severe austerities, fasting himself nearly to death of starvation. However, he later considered extreme austerities and self-mortification as unnecessary and recommended a "Middle Way" between the extremes of hedonism and self-mortification.<ref name=randallcollins204/><ref>Stephen J Laumakis (2008), An Introduction to Buddhist Philosophy, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0521689779}}, p. 4</ref>

The Brahmajāla Sutta mentions many śramaṇas with whom Buddha disagreed.<ref>{{cite book|author1=N. Venkata Ramanayya|title=An essay on the origin of the South Indian temple |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.201921|year=1930|publisher=Methodist Publishing House |page=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.201921/page/n73 47]}}</ref> For example, in contrast to Sramanic Jains whose philosophical premise includes the existence of an ''Atman'' (self, soul) in every being, Buddhist philosophy denies that there is any self or soul.<ref name=laumakis125>Stephen J Laumakis (2008), An Introduction to Buddhist Philosophy, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0521689779}}, pp. 125–134, 271–272</ref><ref name=5sources/> This concept called ''Anatta'' (or ''Anatman'') is a part of ''Three Marks of existence'' in Buddhist philosophy, the other two being ''Dukkha'' (suffering) and ''Anicca'' (impermanence).<ref name=laumakis125/> According to Buddha, states Laumakis, everything lacks inherent existence.<ref name=laumakis125/> [[Buddhism]] is a [[Transtheism#Buddhism_as_transtheistic|transtheistic]] philosophy, which is especially concerned with [[pratītyasamutpāda]] (dependent origination) and [[śūnyatā]] (emptiness or nothingness).<ref name=laumakis125/>

From rock edicts, it is found that both Brahmans as well as śramaṇas enjoyed equal sanctity.<ref name=jstor>{{cite book|author=Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland |title=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland|year=1850|publisher=Lyon Public Library|page=241|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-AQlfBOL5rgC&pg=PA241}}</ref>

===Ajivika philosophy===
The Ājīvika school is known for its ''Niyati'' doctrine of absolute determinism, the premise that there is no free will, that everything that has happened, is happening and will happen is entirely preordained and a function of cosmic principles.<ref name=james22/>{{sfn|Basham|2009|loc=Chapter 1}} Ājīvika considered the [[karma]] doctrine as a fallacy.<ref name=philtarajiv/> Ajivika [[metaphysics]] included a theory of atoms similar to the [[Vaisheshika]] school, where everything was composed of atoms, qualities emerged from aggregates of atoms, but the aggregation and nature of these atoms was predetermined by cosmic forces.{{sfn|Basham|2009|pp=262–270}} Ājīvikas were atheists<ref>Johannes Quack (2014), The Oxford Handbook of Atheism (Editors: Stephen Bullivant, Michael Ruse), Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0199644650}}, p. 654</ref> and rejected the epistemic authority of the [[Vedas]], but they believed that in every living being there is an ''[[Ātman (Hinduism)|ātman]]'' – a central premise of Hinduism and Jainism as well.<ref>Analayo (2004), Satipaṭṭhāna: The Direct Path to Realization, {{ISBN|978-1899579549}}, pp. 207–208</ref>{{sfn|Basham|1951|pp=240–261, 270–273}}

===Comparison of philosophies===
The ''śramaṇa'' traditions subscribed to diverse philosophies, significantly disagreeing with each other as well as orthodox [[Indian philosophy]] (six schools of [[Hindu philosophy]]). The differences ranged from a belief that every individual has a soul (self, atman) to asserting that there is no soul,<ref name=5sources/>{{sfn|Jaini|2001|p=119}} from axiological merit in a frugal ascetic life to that of a hedonistic life, from a belief in rebirth to asserting that there is no rebirth.<ref name=collins>{{cite book|author1=Randall Collins|title=The sociology of philosophies: a global theory of intellectual change|year=2000|publisher=Harvard University Press|pages=199–200|isbn=978-0674001879|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2HS1DOZ35EgC&pg=PA199}}</ref>

A denial of the epistemic authority of the Vedas and Upanishads was one of the several differences between Sramanic philosophies and orthodox Hinduism.{{sfn|Jaini|2001|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZlyDot9RyGcC&q=shramana+brahman+mongoose+and+cobra&pg=PA49 47–]}} Jaini states that while authority of vedas, belief in a creator, path of ritualism and social system of heredity ranks, made up the cornerstones of Brahminal schools, the path of ascetic self-mortification was the main characteristic of all the Sramanic schools.{{sfn|Jaini|2001|p={{pn}}}}{{refn|group=note|According to Rahul Sankrityayan, the 7th-century CE Buddhist scholar [[Dharmakirti]] wrote:{{sfn|Jaini|2001|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZlyDot9RyGcC&q=shramana+brahman+mongoose+and+cobra&pg=PA49 47–]}} 
''vedapramanyam kasyacit kartrvadah/ snane dharmeccha jativadavalepah// santaparambhah papahanaya ceti/ dhvastaprajnanam pancalirigani jadye'' 
The unquestioned authority of the vedas; the belief in a world-creator; the quest for purification through ritual bathings; the arrogant division into castes; the practice of mortification to atone for sin; - these five are the marks of the crass stupidity of witless men. Translated by Rahul Sankrityayan 
Belief in the authority of the Vedas, and in a creator, desiring merit from bathing, pride in caste, and practising self denial for the eradication of sins – these five are the marks of stupidity of one whose intelligence is damaged. Translated by Ramkrishna Bhattacharya<ref>Ramkrishna Bhattacharya (June 2015), Cārvāka Miscellany II, Journal of Indian Council of Philosophical Research, Volume 32, Issue 2, pp. 199–210</ref>{{underdiscussion-inline|talk=Philosophy_section}}}}

In some cases when the Sramanic movements shared the same philosophical concepts, the details varied. In Jainism, for example, Karma is based on materialist element philosophy, where Karma is the fruit of one's action conceived as material particles which stick to a soul and keep it away from natural omniscience.<ref name=collins/> The Buddha conceived Karma as a chain of causality leading to attachment of the material world and hence to rebirth.<ref name=collins/> The Ajivikas were fatalists and elevated Karma as inescapable fate, where a person's life goes through a chain of consequences and rebirths until it reaches its end.<ref name=collins/> Other śramaṇa movements such as those led by Pakkudha Kaccayana and Purana Kashyapa, denied the existence of Karma.<ref name=collins/>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+Comparison of ancient Indian philosophies
|-
! !! Ajivika !! Buddhism !! Charvaka !! Jainism !! Orthodox schools of Indian philosophy (Non-Śramaṇic)
|-
|[[Karma]] || Denies<ref name=philtarajiv/><ref>Gananath Obeyesekere (2005), Karma and Rebirth: A Cross Cultural Study, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120826090}}, p. 106</ref> || Affirms<ref name=collins/> || Denies<ref name=collins/> || Affirms<ref name=collins/> || Affirms
|-
|[[Samsara]], Rebirth || Affirms || Affirms<ref>Damien Keown (2013), Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction, 2nd Edition, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0199663835}}, pp. 32–46</ref> || Denies<ref>Haribhadrasūri (Translator: M Jain, 1989), Saddarsanasamuccaya, Asiatic Society, {{oclc|255495691}}</ref> || Affirms<ref name=collins/> || Some school affirm, some not<ref>Halbfass, Wilhelm (2000), Karma und Wiedergeburt im indischen Denken, Diederichs, München, {{ISBN|978-3896313850}}</ref>
|-
|[[Asceticism|Ascetic]] life || Affirms || Affirms || Denies<ref name=collins/> || Affirms || Affirms only as [[Sannyasa]]<ref name=patrickolivelle278/>
|-
|Rituals, [[Bhakti]] || Affirms || Affirms, optional<ref>Karel Werner (1995), Love Divine: Studies in Bhakti and Devotional Mysticism, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0700702350}}, pp. 45–46</ref> (Pali: ''Bhatti'') || Denies || Affirms, optional<ref>John Cort (2001) ''Jains in the World: Religious Values and Ideology in India'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|9780195132342}}, pp. 64–68, 86–90, 100–112</ref> || Theistic school: Affirms, optional<ref>Christian Novetzke (2007), Bhakti and Its Public, International Journal of Hindu Studies, Vol. 11, No. 3, pp. 255–272</ref> Others: Deny<ref>'''[a]''' Knut Jacobsen (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga : 'Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120832329}}, pp. 15–16, 76–78; '''[b]''' Lloyd Pflueger, Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120832329}}, pp. 38–39</ref><ref>'''[a]''' Karl Potter (2008), Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies Vol. III, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120803107}}, pp. 16–18, 220; '''[b]''' Basant Pradhan (2014), Yoga and Mindfulness Based Cognitive Therapy, Springer Academic, {{ISBN|978-3319091044}}, p. 13 see A.4</ref>
|-
|[[Ahimsa]] and Vegetarianism || Affirms || Affirms Unclear on meat as food{{sfn|Tähtinen|1976|pp=75–78, 94–106}} || || Strongest proponent of non-violence; vegetarianism to avoid violence against animals{{sfn|Tähtinen|1976|pp=57–62, 109–111}} || Affirms as highest virtue, but [[Just war theory|Just War]] affirmed too; vegetarianism encouraged, but choice left to the Hindu{{sfn|Tähtinen|1976|pp=34–43, 89–97, 109–110}}<ref>Christopher Chapple (1993), Nonviolence to Animals, Earth, and Self in Asian Traditions, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|0-7914-1498-1}}, pp. 16–17</ref>
|-
|[[Free will]] || Denies<ref name="james22"/> || Affirms<ref>Karin Meyers (2013), Free Will, Agency, and Selfhood in Indian Philosophy (Editors: Matthew R. Dasti, Edwin F. Bryant), Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0199922758}}, pp. 41–61</ref> || Affirms || Affirms || Affirms<ref>Howard Coward (2008), The Perfectibility of Human Nature in Eastern and Western Thought, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791473368}}, pp. 103–114; Harold Coward (2003), Encyclopedia of Science and Religion, Macmillan Reference, see Karma, {{ISBN|978-0028657042}}</ref>
|-
|[[Maya (illusion)|Maya]] || Affirms{{sfn|Basham|1951|p=237}} || Affirms ([[prapañca]])<ref>Damien Keown (2004), A Dictionary of Buddhism, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0198605607}}, Entry for ''Prapañca'', Quote: "Term meaning ‘proliferation’, in the sense of the multiplication of erroneous concepts, ideas, and ideologies which obscure the true nature of reality".</ref> || Denies || Affirms || Affirms<ref>Lynn Foulston and Stuart Abbott (2009), Hindu Goddesses: Beliefs and Practices, Sussex Academic Press, {{ISBN|978-1902210438}}, pp. 14–16</ref><ref>Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1986), Dreams, Illusion, and Other Realities, University of Chicago Press, {{ISBN|978-0226618555}}, p. 119</ref>
|-
|[[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (Soul, Self) || Affirms || Denies<ref name=5sources>'''[a]''' Steven Collins (1994), Religion and Practical Reason (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David Tracy), State Univ of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791422175}}, p. 64; "Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not-self (Pali: anattā, Sanskrit: anātman, the opposed doctrine of ātman is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the [Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence."; '''[b]''' KN Jayatilleke (2010), Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, {{ISBN|978-8120806191}}, pp. 246–249, from note 385 onwards; '''[c]''' John C. Plott et al (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120801585}}, p. 63, Quote: "The Buddhist schools reject any Ātman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism"; '''[d]''' Katie Javanaud (2013), [https://philosophynow.org/issues/97/Is_The_Buddhist_No-Self_Doctrine_Compatible_With_Pursuing_Nirvana Is The Buddhist ‘No-Self’ Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana?], Philosophy Now; '''[e]''' [http://www.britannica.com/topic/anatta Anatta] Encyclopedia Britannica, Quote:"In Buddhism, the doctrine that there is in humans no permanent, underlying substance that can be called the soul. (...) The concept of anatta, or anatman, is a departure from the Hindu belief in atman (self)."</ref> || Denies<ref>Ramkrishna Bhattacharya (2011), Studies on the Carvaka/Lokayata, Anthem, {{ISBN|978-0857284334}}, p. 216</ref> || Affirms{{sfn|Jaini|2001|p=119}} || Affirms<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/topic/anatta Anatta] Encyclopedia Britannica, Quote:"In Buddhism, the doctrine that there is in humans no permanent, underlying substance that can be called the soul. (...) The concept of anatta, or anatman, is a departure from the Hindu belief in atman (self)."</ref>
|-
|Creator God || Denies || Denies || Denies || Denies || Theistic schools: Affirm<ref>Oliver Leaman (2000), Eastern Philosophy: Key Readings, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415173582}}, p. 251</ref> Others: Deny<ref>[[Mikel Burley]] (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga – An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415648875}}, p. 39</ref><ref>Paul Hacker (1978), Eigentumlichkeiten dr Lehre und Terminologie Sankara: Avidya, Namarupa, Maya, Isvara, in Kleine Schriften (Editor: L. Schmithausen), Franz Steiner Verlag, Weisbaden, pp. 101–109 (in German), also pp. 69–99</ref>
|-
|[[Epistemology]] ([[Pramana]]) || Pratyakṣa, Anumāṇa, Śabda || Pratyakṣa, Anumāṇa<ref name=johngrimes238/><ref>D Sharma (1966), Epistemological negative dialectics of Indian logic – Abhāva versus Anupalabdhi, Indo-Iranian Journal, 9(4): 291–300</ref> || Pratyakṣa<ref>MM Kamal (1998), The Epistemology of the Carvaka Philosophy, Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies, 46(2), pp. 13–16</ref> || Pratyakṣa, Anumāṇa, Śabda<ref name=johngrimes238/> || Various, Vaisheshika (two) to Vedanta (six):<ref name=johngrimes238>John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791430675}}, p. 238</ref><ref>Eliott Deutsche (2000), in Philosophy of Religion : Indian Philosophy Vol 4 (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0815336112}}, pp. 245–248</ref> Pratyakṣa (perception), Anumāṇa (inference), Upamāṇa (comparison and analogy), Arthāpatti (postulation, derivation), Anupalabdi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof), Śabda (Reliable testimony)
|-
|Epistemic authority||Denies: Vedas ||Affirms: Buddha [[Āgama (Buddhism)|text]]<ref name=bartley46>Christopher Bartley (2011), An Introduction to Indian Philosophy, Bloomsbury Academic, {{ISBN|978-1847064493}}, pp. 46, 120</ref> Denies: Vedas||Denies: Vedas ||Affirms: [[Jain Agamas]] Denies: Vedas||Affirm: [[Vedas]] and [[Upanishad]]s,{{refn|group=note|Elisa Freschi (2012): The Vedas are not deontic authorities and may be disobeyed, but still recognized as an epistemic authority by a Hindu;<ref>Elisa Freschi (2012), Duty, Language and Exegesis in Prabhakara Mimamsa, Brill, {{ISBN|978-9004222601}}, p. 62</ref> (Note: This differentiation between epistemic and deontic authority is true for all Indian religions)}} Denies: other texts<ref name=bartley46/><ref>Catherine Cornille (2009), Criteria of Discernment in Interreligious Dialogue, Wipf & Stock, {{ISBN|978-1606087848}}, pp. 185–186</ref>
|-
|Salvation ([[Soteriology]])|| Samsdrasuddhi{{sfn|Basham|1951|p=227}} || [[Nirvana]] (realize [[Śūnyatā]])<ref>Jerald Gort (1992), On Sharing Religious Experience: Possibilities of Interfaith Mutuality, Rodopi, {{ISBN|978-0802805058}}, pp. 209–210</ref> || || [[Siddha#Siddha in Jainism|Siddha]]<ref>John Cort (2010), Framing the Jina: Narratives of Icons and Idols in Jain History, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195385021}}, pp. 80, 188</ref> || [[Moksha]], Nirvana, Kaivalya Advaita, Yoga, others: [[Moksha#Mokṣha in this life|Jivanmukti]]<ref>Andrew Fort (1998), Jivanmukti in Transformation, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791439043}}</ref> Dvaita, theistic: [[Moksha|Videhamukti]]
|-
|[[Metaphysics]] (Ultimate Reality)|| || [[Śūnyatā]]<ref>Masao Abe and Steven Heine (1995), Buddhism and Interfaith Dialogue, University of Hawaii Press, {{ISBN|978-0824817527}}, pp. 105–106</ref><ref>Chad Meister (2009), Introducing Philosophy of Religion, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415403276}}, p. 60; Quote: "In this chapter, we looked at religious metaphysics and saw two different ways of understanding Ultimate Reality. On the one hand, it can be understood as an absolute state of being. Within Hindu absolutism, for example, it is Brahman, the undifferentiated Absolute. Within Buddhist metaphysics, fundamental reality is Sunyata, or the Void."</ref> || || [[Anekantavada|Anekāntavāda]]<ref>Christopher Key Chapple (2004), Jainism and Ecology: Nonviolence in the Web of Life, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120820456}}, p. 20</ref> || [[Brahman]]<ref>PT Raju (2006), Idealistic Thought of India, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-1406732627}}, p. 426 and Conclusion chapter part XII</ref><ref>Roy W Perrett (Editor, 2000), Indian Philosophy: Metaphysics, Volume 3, Taylor & Francis, {{ISBN|978-0815336082}}, p. xvii; AC Das (1952), Brahman and Māyā in Advaita Metaphysics, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 144–154</ref>
|}

==Influences on Indian culture==
The śramaṇa traditions influenced and were influenced by Hinduism and by each other.<ref name="Flood, Gavin 2003. pg. 273-4"/><ref name=gavinflood76>Gavin D. Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|0521438780}}, pp. 76–78</ref> According to some scholars,<ref name="Flood, Gavin 2003. pg. 273-4"/><ref>Gavin D. Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|0-521-43878-0}}, p. 86, Quote: "It is very possible that the karmas and reincarnation entered the mainstream brahaminical thought from the śramaṇa or the renouncer traditions."</ref> the concept of the cycle of birth and death, the concept of [[samsara]] and the concept of liberation may quite possibly be from śramaṇa or other [[Sannyasa|ascetic]] traditions. Obeyesekere<ref>G Obeyesekere (2002), Imagining Karma – Ethical Transformation in Amerindian, Buddhist, and Greek Rebirth, University of California Press, {{ISBN|978-0520232433}}</ref> suggests that tribal sages in the [[Ganges]] valley may instead have inspired the ideas of samsara and liberation, just like rebirth ideas that emerged in Africa and Greece. O'Flaherty states that there isn't enough objective evidence to support any of these theories.<ref>Wendy D O'Flaherty (1980), Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions, University of California Press, {{ISBN|978-0520039230}}, pp. xi–xxvi</ref>

It is in the Upanishadic period that Sramanic theories influence the Brahmanical theories.{{sfn|Jaini|2001|p=50}} While the concepts of [[Brahman]] and [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (Soul, Self) can be consistently traced back to pre-Upanishadic layers of Vedic literature, the heterogeneous nature of the Upanishads show infusions of both social and philosophical ideas, pointing to evolution of new doctrines, likely from the Sramanic movements.{{sfn|Jaini|2001|pp=49–56}}

Śramaṇa traditions brought concepts of Karma and Samsara as central themes of debate.<ref name=collins/> Śramaṇa views were influential to all schools of Indian philosophies.<ref>Gavin D. Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press {{ISBN|0-521-43878-0}} pp. 86–90</ref> Concepts, such as karma and reincarnation may have originated in the śramaṇa or the renunciant traditions, and then become mainstream.<ref>Gavin D. Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press {{ISBN|0-521-43878-0}} p. 86</ref> There are multiple theories of possible origins of concepts such as [[Ahimsa]], or non-violence.<ref name=indianethics/> The [[Chāndogya Upaniṣad]], dated to about the 7th century BCE, in verse 8.15.1, has the earliest evidence for the use of the word ''Ahimsa'' in the sense familiar in Hinduism (a code of conduct). It bars violence against "all creatures" (''sarvabhuta'') and the practitioner of Ahimsa is said to escape from the cycle of [[metempsychosis]] (CU 8.15.1).<ref name=indianethics/>{{sfn|Tähtinen|1976|pp=2–5}} According to some scholars, such as D. R. Bhandarkar, the Ahimsa dharma of the Sramanas made an impression on the followers of Brahamanism and their law books and practices.<ref>D. R. Bhandarkar, (1989) "Some Aspects of Ancient Indian Culture" Asian Educational Services {{ISBN|81-206-0457-1}} pp. 80–81</ref>

Theories on who influenced whom, in ancient India, remains a matter of scholarly debate, and it is likely that the different philosophies contributed to each other's development. Doniger summarizes the historic interaction between scholars of Vedic Hinduism and Sramanic Buddhism:

{{Quote|
There was such constant interaction between Vedism and Buddhism in the early period that it is fruitless to attempt to sort out the earlier source of many doctrines, they lived in one another's pockets, like Picasso and Braque (who, in later years, were unable to say which of them had painted certain paintings from their earlier, shared period).
|Wendy Doniger|<ref>Wendy D. O'Flaherty (1980), Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions, University of California Press, {{ISBN|978-0520039230}}, pp. xvii–xviii</ref>}}

===Hinduism===
[[Randall Collins]] states that "the basic cultural framework for lay society which eventually became Hinduism" was laid down by Buddhism.<ref name="collins2000p205"/>{{refn|group=note|Randall Collins: "Buddhism laid down the basic cultural framework for lay society which eventually became Hinduism. Buddhism cannot be understood as a reaction against the caste system, any more than it is simply an effort to escape from karma."<ref name="collins2000p205" />}}

Modern [[Hinduism]] can be regarded as a combination of Vedic and śramaṇa traditions as it is substantially influenced by both traditions. Among the [[Astika]] schools of Hinduism, [[Vedanta]], [[Samkhya]], and [[Yoga]] philosophies influenced and were influenced by the śramaṇa philosophy. As Geoffrey Samuel notes,
{{quote|Our best evidence to date suggests that [yogic practice] developed in the same ascetic circles as the early śramaṇa movements (Buddhists, Jainas and Ajivikas), probably in around the sixth and fifth centuries BCE.{{sfn|Samuel|2008|p=8}}}}

Some Brahmins joined the śramaṇa movement such as [[Chanakya|Cānakya]] and [[Sariputta|Sāriputta]].{{sfn|Gethin|1998|pp=10–11, 13}} Similarly, a group of eleven Brahmins accepted Jainism and become Mahavira's chief disciples or [[ganadhara]]s.{{sfn|Jaini|2001|p=64}}{{refn|group=note|"Mahavira, it is said, proceeded to a place in the neighbourhood where a big yagna was being organized by a brahman, Somilacharya, and preached his first sermon denouncing the sacrifice and converting eleven learned Brahmins assembled there who became his chief disciples called ganadharas."{{sfn|Jaini|2001|p={{pn}}}}}}

Patrick Olivelle suggests that the Hindu [[Ashrama (stage)|ashrama]] system of life, created probably around the 4th-century BCE, was an attempt to institutionalize renunciation within the Brahmanical social structure.<ref name=patrickolivelle278>Patrick Olivelle (2005), ''The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism'' (Editor: Flood, Gavin), Wiley-Blackwell, {{ISBN|978-1405132510}}, pp. 277–278</ref> This system gave complete freedom to adults to choose what they want to do, whether they want to be householders or [[sannyasa|sannyasins]] (ascetics), the monastic tradition was a voluntary institution.<ref name=patrickolivelle278/> This voluntary principle, states Olivelle, was the same principle found in Buddhist and Jain monastic orders at that time.<ref name=patrickolivelle278/>

==In Western literature==
Various possible references to "śramaṇas", with the name more or less distorted, have appeared in ancient Western literature.

===Clement of Alexandria (150–211)===
[[Clement of Alexandria]] makes several mentions of the śramaṇas, both in the context of the Bactrians and the Indians:
{{quote|Thus philosophy, a thing of the highest utility, flourished in antiquity among the barbarians, shedding its light over the nations. And afterwards it came to [[Greece]]. First in its ranks were the prophets of the [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptians]]; and the [[Magic_(supernatural)#Mesopotamia|Chaldeans]] among the [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]];<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Viglas |first1=Katelis |title=Chaldean and Neo-Platonic Theology |journal=Philosophia e-Journal of Philosophy and Culture |date=2016 |issue=14 |pages=171–189 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311924083|quote=The name “Chaldeans” refers generally to the [[Chaldea]]n people who lived in the land of [[Babylonia]], and especially to the Chaldean “magi” of Babylon......The “Chaldeans” were the guardians of the sacred science: the astrological knowledge and the divination mixed with religion and magic. They were considered the last representatives of the Babylonian sages......In Classical Antiquity, the name “Chaldeans” primarily stood for the priests of the Babylonian temples. In Hellenistic times, the term “Chaldeos” was synonymous with the words “mathematician” and “astrologer”......The [[Neoplatonism|Neo-Platonists]] connected the [[Chaldean Oracles]] with the ancient Chaldeans, obtaining a prestige coming from the East and legitimizing their existence as bearers and successors of an ancient tradition.}}</ref> and the [[Druids]] among the [[Gauls]]; and the '''Samanaeans''' among the [[Bactrians]] ("Σαμαναίοι Βάκτρων"); and the philosophers of the [[Celts]]; and the [[Magi]] of the [[Persia]]ns, who foretold the Saviour's birth, and came into the land of [[Judea|Judaea]] guided by a star. The Indian gymnosophists are also in the number, and the other barbarian philosophers. And of these there are two classes, some of them called ''Sarmanae'' ("Σαρμάναι"), and [[Brahmins|Brahmanae]] ("Βραχμαναι").<ref>Clement of Alexandria, "Strom." [Book 1, Ch 15]</ref>}}

===Porphyry (233–305)===
[[Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyry]] extensively describes the habits of the śramaṇas, whom he calls "Samanaeans", in his "On Abstinence from Animal Food" Book IV {{ref|Porphyry}}. He says his information was obtained from "the [[Babylonia]]n [[Bardesanes]], who lived in the times of our fathers, and was familiar with those [[India]]ns who, together with Damadamis, were sent to [[Caesar (title)|Caesar]]."{{citation needed}}

{{quote|For the polity of the [[India]]ns being distributed into many parts, there is one tribe among them of men divinely wise, whom the [[Greeks]] are accustomed to call [[Gymnosophists]]. But of these there are two sects, over one of which the [[Brahmins]] preside, but over the other the Samanaeans. The race of the [[Brahmins]], however, receive divine wisdom of this kind by succession, in the same manner as the priesthood. But the Samanaeans are elected, and consist of those who wish to possess divine knowledge.<ref name="ReferenceA">Porphyry, [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/porphyry_abstinence_04_book4.htm ''On abstinence from animal food''], Book IV.</ref>}}

;On entering the order:
{{quote|All the [[Brahmins|Bramins]] originate from one stock; for all of them are derived from one father and one mother. But the Samanaeans are not the offspring of one family, being, as we have said, collected from every nation of Indians. A Bramin, however, is not a subject of any government, nor does he contribute any thing together with others to government.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>}}

{{quote|The Samanaeans are, as we have said, elected. When, however, any one is desirous of being enrolled in their order, he proceeds to the rulers of the city; but abandons the city or village that he inhabited, and the wealth and all the other property that he possessed. Having likewise the superfluities of his body cut off, he receives a garment, and departs to the Samanaeans, but does not return either to his wife or children, if he happens to have any, nor does he pay any attention to them, or think that they at all pertain to him. And, with respect to his children indeed, the king provides what is necessary for them, and the relatives provide for the wife. And such is the life of the Samanaeans. But they live out of the city, and spend the whole day in conversation pertaining to divinity. They have also houses and temples, built by the king, in which they are stewards, who receive a certain emolument from the king, for the purpose of supplying those that dwell in them with nutriment. But their food consists of rice, bread, autumnal fruits, and pot-herbs. And when they enter into their house, the sound of a bell being the signal of their entrance, those that are not Samanaeans depart from it, and the Samanaeans begin immediately to pray.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>}}

;On food and living habits:
{{Quote|And with respect to those that are philosophers, among these some dwell on mountains, and others about the river Ganges. And those that live on mountains feed on autumnal fruits, and on cows' milk coagulated with herbs. But those that reside near the [[Ganges]], live also on autumnal fruits, which are produced in abundance about that river. The land likewise nearly always bears new fruit, together with much rice, which grows spontaneously, and which they use when there is a deficiency of autumnal fruits. But to taste of any other nutriment, or, in short, to touch animal food, is considered by them as equivalent to extreme impurity and impiety. And this is one of their dogmas. They also worship divinity with piety and purity. They spend the day, and the greater part of the night, in hymns and prayers to the Gods; each of them having a cottage to himself, and living, as much as possible, alone. For the Bramins cannot endure to remain with others, nor to speak much; but when this happens to take place, they afterwards withdraw themselves, and do not speak for many days. They likewise frequently fast.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>}}

;On life and death:
{{quote|They are so disposed with respect to death, that they unwillingly endure the whole time of the present life, as a certain servitude to nature, and therefore they hasten to liberate their souls from the bodies [with which they are connected]. Hence, frequently, when they are seen to be well, and are neither oppressed, nor driven to desperation by any evil, they depart from life.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>}}

==In contemporary Western culture==
German novelist [[Hermann Hesse]], long interested in Eastern, especially Indian, spirituality, wrote ''[[Siddhartha (novel)|Siddhartha]]'', in which the main character becomes a Samana upon leaving his home.

==See also==
* [[Bhikkhu]]
* [[Bhikkhuni]]
* [[Fakir]]
* [[Hermit]]
* [[Mahajanapadas]]
* [[Sadhu]]
* [[Śrāmaṇera]]
* [[Yogi]]
* [[Yogini]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note|30em}}

==References==
===Citations===
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name=james22>{{cite book |author=James G. Lochtefeld|year=2002 |chapter=Ajivika |title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |page=22 |isbn=978-0823931798}}</ref>
<ref name=Lochtefeld>{{cite book|author=James G. Lochtefeld|year=2002|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N–Z |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |page=639 |isbn=978-0823922871 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g6FsB3psOTIC&pg=PA639}}</ref>
}}

===Sources===
{{refbegin}}

* {{cite book |author-link=A.L. Basham|last=Basham |first=A. L. |year=1951 |title=History and Doctrines of the Ajivikas}}
* {{cite book |author-link=A.L. Basham|last=Basham |first=A. L. |year=2009 |title=History and Doctrines of the Ajivikas – a Vanished Indian Religion |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-8120812048}}
* Bhaskar, Bhagchandra Jain (1972). ''Jainism in Buddhist Literature''. Alok Prakashan: Nagpur. Available on-line at http://jainfriends.tripod.com/books/jiblcontents.html. [Note that the on-line version is misattributed to Dr. Hiralal Jain who solely wrote this text's foreword.]
* {{Citation | last =Bronkhorst | first =Johannes | year =2007 | title =Greater Magadha: Studies in the Culture of Early India | publisher =BRILL}}

* {{citation |last=Dundas |first=Paul |author-link=Paul Dundas |title=The Jains |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ |edition=Second |orig-year=1992 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-415-26605-5 }}

* {{cite book |author-link=Gil Fronsdal|last=Fronsdal |first=Gil |year=2005 |title=The Dhammapada: A New Translation of the Buddhist Classic with Annotations |place=Boston |publisher=Shambhala Publications |isbn=1-59030-380-6}}

* {{cite book |last=Gethin |first=Rupert |year=1998 |title=The Foundations of Buddhism |place=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-289223-1}}

* Hesse, Hermann (1992). [[Siddhartha (novel)|Siddhartha]] (Novel).

* {{cite book |last=Jaini |first=Padmanabh S. |year=2000 |title=Collected papers on Jaina Studies |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-8120816916}}
* {{cite book |last=Jaini |first=Padmanabh S. |year=2001 |title=Collected papers on Buddhist Studies |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-8120817760 |url=https://archive.org/details/collectedpaperso00jain |url-access=limited}}
* http://www.herenow4u.net/index.php?id=65998 Antiquity of Jainism : Professor Mahavir Saran Jain

* {{Citation | last =Long | first =Jeffrey D. | year =2013 | title =Jainism: An Introduction | publisher =I.B. Tauris}}

* {{IAST|Ñāṇamoli}}, Bhikkhu (trans.) and [[Bhikkhu Bodhi|Bodhi, Bhikkhu]] (ed.) (2001). ''The Middle-Length Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Majjhima Nikāya''. Boston: Wisdom Publications. {{ISBN|0-86171-072-X}}.

* {{Cite book|last=Olivelle|first=Patrick|year=1993|title=The Aśrama System: The History and Hermeneutics of a Religious Institution|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-534478-3 |url-access=limited |url=https://archive.org/details/asramasystemhist00oliv |via=Archive.org}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=RYkPtXiXRYcC Google Books]

* {{cite book|last=Pande|first=Govind|title=Studies in the Origins of Buddhism|year=1995|orig-year=1957 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |edition=Reprint |isbn=978-81-208-1016-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=__1kiAonBzIC}}

* {{cite book |author-link=T. W. Rhys Davids|editor-last1=Rhys Davids |editor-first1=T.W. |editor-first2=William |editor-last2=Stede |year=1921–1925 |title=The Pali Text Society's Pali–English Dictionary |place=Chipstead |publisher=Pali Text Society}} A general on-line search engine for the PED is available at [https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/pali/ dsal.uchicago.edu].

*{{Citation |last=Samuel |first=Geoffrey |title=The Origins of Yoga and Tantra |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-521-69534-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JAvrTGrbpf4C}}

* {{cite book |last=Tähtinen |first=Uno |year=1976 |title=Ahimsa: Non-Violence in Indian Tradition |place=London |isbn=0-09-123340-2}}
* [[Thanissaro Bhikkhu]] (trans.) (1997). ''Samaññaphala Sutta: The Fruits of the Contemplative Life'' ([[Digha Nikaya|DN]] 2). Available on-line at [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/dn/dn.02.0.than.html accesstoinsight.org].

* {{cite book |last=Walshe |translator=Maurice O'Connell |year=1995 |title=The Long Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Dīgha Nikāya |place=Somerville |publisher=Wisdom Publications |isbn=0-86171-103-3}}

* {{citation |last=Zimmer |first=Heinrich |author-link=Heinrich Zimmer |title=Philosophies Of India |orig-year=April 1952 |editor-first=Joseph |editor-last=Campbell |editor-link=Joseph Campbell |publisher=[[Routledge]] & Kegan Paul |location=London |isbn=978-81-208-0739-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/Philosophy.of.India.by.Heinrich.Zimmer |quote={{PD-notice}} }}
{{refend}}

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[[Category:Buddhist monasticism]]
[[Category:Jain religious occupations]]