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Kuldeep Yadav

2023-10-12T06:18:45Z

Guru44: Removing Kuldeepyadav1.jpg; it has been deleted from Commons by Fitindia because: No permission since 4 October 2023.

{{Short description|Indian cricketer (born 1994)}}
{{distinguish|Kuldip Yadav}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2017}}
{{Infobox cricketer
| name = Kuldeep Yadav
| image =
| caption = Kuldeep Yadav at the [[2023 Asia Cup]]
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1994|12|14|df=yes 28}}
| birth_place = [[Kanpur]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[India]]
| height = 5 ft 6 in<ref>[https://www.sportskeeda.com/player/kuldeep-yadav Kuldeep Yadav's profile] on [[Sportskeeda]]</ref>
| batting = Left-handed
| bowling = [[Left-arm unorthodox spin]]
| role = [[bowler (cricket)|bowler]]
| international = true
| internationalspan = 2017–present
| country = India
| testdebutdate = 25 March
| testdebutyear = 2017
| testdebutagainst = Australia
| lasttestdate = 14 December
| lasttestyear = 2022
| lasttestagainst = Bangladesh
| testcap = 288

| odidebutdate = 23 June
| odidebutyear = 2017
| odidebutagainst = West Indies
| lastodidate = 11 October
| lastodiyear = 2023
| lastodiagainst = Afghanistan
| odicap = 218
| odishirt = 23

| T20Idebutdate = 9 July
| T20Idebutyear = 2017
| T20Idebutagainst = West Indies
| lastT20Idate = 13 August
| lastT20Iyear = 2023
| lastT20Iagainst = West Indies
| T20Icap = 69
| T20Ishirt = 23

| club1 = [[Mumbai Indians]]
| year1 = 2012
| clubnumber1 =
| club2 = [[Kolkata Knight Riders]]
| year2 = 2014–2021
| clubnumber2 = 23
| club3 = [[Uttar Pradesh cricket team|Uttar Pradesh]]
| year3 = 2009–present
| clubnumber3 = 3
| club4 = [[Delhi Capitals]]
| year4 = 2022-present
| columns = 4
| column1 = [[Test cricket|Test]]
| column2 = [[One Day International|ODI]]
| column4 = [[List A cricket|LA]]
| column3 = [[First-class cricket|FC]]
| matches1 = 8
| matches2 = 91
| matches4 = 94
| matches3 = 35
| runs1 = 94
| runs2 = 168
| runs4 = 210
| runs3 = 914
| bat avg1 = 10.44
| bat avg2 = 11.20
| bat avg4 = 11.05
| bat avg3 = 22.85
| 100s/50s1 = 0/0
| 100s/50s2 = 0/0
| 100s/50s4 = 0/0
| 100s/50s3 = 1/6
| top score1 = 40
| top score2 = 19
| top score4 = 25
| top score3 = 117
| deliveries1 = 1165
| deliveries2 = 4519
| deliveries4 = 4894
| deliveries3 = 6670
| wickets1 = 34
| wickets2 = 152
| wickets4 = 155
| wickets3 = 134
| bowl avg1 = 21.55
| bowl avg2 = 25.64
| bowl avg4 = 26.85
| bowl avg3 = 29.76
| fivefor1 = 3
| fivefor2 = 2
| fivefor4 = 2
| fivefor3 = 7
| tenfor1 = 0
| tenfor2 = 0
| tenfor4 = 0
| tenfor3 = 0
| best bowling1 = 5/40
| best bowling2 = 6/25
| best bowling4 = 6/25
| best bowling3 = 6/79
| catches/stumpings1 = 3/–
| catches/stumpings2 = 13/–
| catches/stumpings4 = 14/–
| catches/stumpings3 = 14/–
| source = https://www.espncricinfo.com/cricketers/kuldeep-yadav-559235 ESPNcricinfo
| date = 25 September 2023
|medaltemplates=
{{MedalSport|Men's [[Cricket]]}}
{{MedalCountry|{{IND}}}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[Asia Cup]]}}
{{Medal|W|[[2018 Asia Cup|2018 United Arab Emirates]]|}}
{{Medal|W|[[2023 Asia Cup|2023 Pakistan - Srilanka]]|}}
}}

'''Kuldeep Yadav''' (born 14 December 1994) is an Indian international [[cricket]]er. He is a bowling allrounder who bowls Left-arm Chinaman spin and is a capable lower order batter who plays for [[India national cricket team|India]] and for [[Uttar Pradesh cricket team|Uttar Pradesh]] in domestic cricket. He was signed by the [[Delhi Capitals]] for the [[2022 Indian Premier League|Indian Premier League]].<ref>{{Cite magazine|date=January 31, 2021 |title=Kuldeep Yadav reflects on his need to perform consistently for Kolkata Knight Riders ahead of IPL 2021|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sports/cricket/story/kuldeep-yadav-chinman-performance-consistency-kkr-ipl-cricket-1764510-2021-01-31|access-date=2021-08-29|magazine=India Today|language=en}}</ref> He has played for the [[India Under-19 cricket team|Indian Under-19 cricket team]] and played in the [[2014 Under-19 Cricket World Cup]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://m.sportskeeda.com/player/kuldeep-yadav|title=Kuldeep Yadav biography|work=Sportskeeda|access-date=12 February 2019}}</ref> On 18 December 2019, against the West Indies, he became the first bowler for India to take two hat-tricks in international cricket.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/_/id/28324821/stats-rohit-sharma-second-only-sachin-tendulkar |title=Stats - Rohit Sharma second only to Sachin Tendulkar |work=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=18 December 2019}}</ref> On 17 January 2020, in the second ODI [[Australian cricket team in India in 2019–20|against Australia]], Yadav became the fastest [[spin bowling|spin bowler]] for India, in terms of innings, to take 100 wickets in ODI cricket, in his 58th innings.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.news18.com/cricketnext/news/india-vs-australia-kuldeep-yadav-becomes-fastest-indian-spinner-to-get-100-odi-wickets-2462661.html |title=India vs Australia: Kuldeep Yadav Becomes Fastest Indian Spinner to Get 100 ODI Wickets |work=Network18 Media and Investments Ltd |access-date=17 January 2020}}</ref> He helped his national side to win the [[2018 Asia Cup]] as he took the most wickets during the tournament at 10 along with [[Rashid Khan]] and [[Mustafizur Rahman]], and being the highest wicket taker for India.

==Early and domestic career==

Yadav was born in [[Unnao]] but raised in [[Kanpur]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], the son of a brick kiln owner.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-03-25 |title=Kuldeep Yadav: Son of brick kiln owner makes his family proud vs Australia |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cricket/kuldeep-yadav-son-of-brick-kiln-owner-makes-his-family-proud/story-xm3ghT00qpmx21VCb4DahL.html |access-date=2023-09-24 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> In an interview, he revealed that it was his father who wanted him to continue playing cricket and even took him to a coach (Kapil Pandey). Inspired by bowling greats [[Wasim Akram]] and [[Zaheer Khan]], he wanted to become a left-arm seamer. However, given his slight build, his coach insisted on him becoming a wrist-spin bowler as he was impressed with the turn and variations he was providing unknowingly at the trials. Since then, he started following and watching videos of [[Shane Warne]]'s bowling and made him his role model.

{{Quotation|"I keep watching videos of [[Shane Warne|Warne]]. His grip of the ball, length of deliveries and use of the crease are unbeatable. I try to learn from the footage"|Kuldeep Yadav in an interview|}}

Yadav also revealed that earlier in his life, there was a dark phase in his life when he thought of giving up cricket and committing suicide, when he was not selected in the [[Uttar Pradesh cricket team|Uttar Pradesh]]’s under-15 team.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://xtratime.in/kuldeep-wanted-to-become-a-pacer-says-his-coach-kapil-dev-pandey/|title=Kuldeep wanted to become a pacer, says his coach Kapil Dev Pandey|work=xtratime.in|date=25 March 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.mid-day.com/articles/kuldeep-yadav-wasim-akram-dharamsala-test-coach-kapil-pandey-chinaman-cricket/18108156|title=Kuldeep wanted to be an Akram; nothing doing said coach Kapil Pandey|work=Mid Day|date=26 March 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cricket/when-a-young-kuldeep-yadav-thought-of-suicide-after-cricket-selection-snub/story-12gSKqjTkxXAtIT43PST5M.html|title=When a young Kuldeep Yadav thought of suicide after cricket selection snub|work=HindustanTimes|date=12 November 2017}}</ref>

Yadav was a member of the [[Mumbai Indians]] squad in 2012 and signed up by the [[Kolkata Knight Riders]] in 2014, whom he represented at the [[2014 Champions League Twenty20]].

In January 2018, Yadav was bought back by [[Kolkata Knight Riders|KKR]] in the [[List of 2018 Indian Premier League personnel changes|2018 IPL auction]].<ref name="IPL2018">{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/story/_/id/22218394/ipl-2018-player-auction-list-sold-unsold-players |title=List of sold and unsold players |access-date=27 January 2018 |work=ESPN Cricinfo}}</ref> Four yearslater, he was bought by [[Delhi Capitals]] in the [[List of 2022 Indian Premier League personnel changes|auction]] for the [[2022 Indian Premier League|2022 season]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/ipl-2022-auction-the-list-of-sold-and-unsold-players-1300689 |title=IPL 2022 auction: The list of sold and unsold players |work=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=13 February 2022}}</ref> Yadav won the player-of-the-match award four times, most by any player that season.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bandarupalli |first1=Sampath |title=IPL 2022 - The wristspinners' domination and middle-overs acceleration |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/ipl-2022-the-domination-of-wristspinners-and-middle-overs-acceleration-1317683 |website=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=16 September 2023 |language=en |date=31 May 2022}}</ref>

==International career==
Yadav was selected in the [[Indian cricket team]] to play against [[West Indies cricket team|West Indies]] in October 2014 but did not appear in any match.<ref>{{cite web|title=Kuldeep Yadav selected in India's squad for West Indies ODIs|url=http://www.cricbuzz.com/cricket-news/65976/kuldeep-yadav-selected-in-indias-squad-for-west-indies-odis|publisher=Cricbuzz|access-date=26 August 2016}}</ref> In February 2017, he was added to India's [[Test cricket|Test]] squad for their one-off match [[Bangladeshi cricket team in India in 2016–17|against Bangladesh]].<ref name="Kuldeep">{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/india-v-bangladesh-2016-17/content/story/1081393.html |title=Kuldeep Yadav replaces injured Mishra |access-date=7 February 2017 |work=ESPN Cricinfo}}</ref> He made his Test debut for India [[Australian cricket team in India in 2016–17|against Australia]] on 25 March 2017, at the [[Dharamshala Cricket Stadium]], taking four wickets in the first innings.<ref name="Test">{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1062576.html |title=Australia tour of India, 4th Test: India v Australia at Dharamsala, Mar 25-29, 2017 |access-date=25 March 2017 |work=ESPN Cricinfo}}</ref> Yadav is the first left-arm wrist spin bowler to represent [[India national cricket team]] in Test cricket. He is also only the third such bowler in [[Test cricket]] to take four wickets on debut.

In June 2017, Yadav was named in India's squad for a [[limited overs cricket|limited overs]] tour to the [[Indian cricket team in the West Indies in 2017|West Indies]].<ref name="IndSquad">{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/west-indies-v-india-2017/content/story/1103944.html |title=Pant, Kuldeep picked for West Indies tour |access-date=15 June 2017 |work=ESPN Cricinfo}}</ref> He made his [[One Day International]] (ODI) debut for [[India cricket team|India]] against the [[West Indies cricket team|West Indies]] on 23 June 2017.<ref name="ODI">{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1098206.html |title=India tour of West Indies, 1st ODI: West Indies v India at Port of Spain, Jun 23, 2017 |access-date=23 June 2017 |work=ESPN Cricinfo}}</ref> However, during this game, he was unable to bowl a single delivery as the game ended with no result due to rain during the first innings while India was batting. He was ultimately able to bowl in the next match of the series, where he took three wickets.<ref name="3wkts">{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1098207.html |title=India tour of West Indies, 2nd ODI: West Indies v India at Port of Spain, Jun 25, 2017 |access-date=28 June 2017 |work=ESPN Cricinfo}}</ref> He made his [[Twenty20 International]] (T20I) debut for India against the West Indies on 9 July 2017.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/series/11124/scorecard/1098211/west-indies-vs-india-only-t20i-wi-v-ind-2017/|title=Only T20I, India tour of West Indies at Kingston, Jul 9 2017 {{!}} Match Summary {{!}} ESPNCricinfo|website=ESPNcricinfo|access-date=10 July 2018}}</ref>

On 21 September 2017, Yadav became the third bowler for India to take a [[List of One Day International cricket hat-tricks|hat-trick]] in an [[One Day International|ODI]] after [[Chetan Sharma]] and [[Kapil Dev]]. He took the [[List of One Day International cricket hat-tricks|hat-trick]] at [[Eden Gardens]], [[Kolkata]], [[Australian cricket team in India in 2017–18|against Australia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/series/17974/scorecard/1119497/India-vs-Australia-2nd-ODI-aus-in-ind-2017-18-2017-18|title=2nd ODI (D/N), Australia tour of India at Kolkata, Sep 21 2017|publisher=ESPNcricinfo|access-date=21 September 2017}}</ref><ref name="YadavHT">{{Cite news|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/sports/cricket/kuldeep-yadav-becomes-third-indian-bowler-to-pick-up-a-hat-trick-in-odi-cricket-india-vs-australia-4854947/|title=Kuldeep Yadav becomes third Indian bowler to pick up an ODI hat-trick|date=21 September 2017|work=The Indian Express|access-date=21 September 2017}}</ref>

On 3 July 2018, Yadav took his first five-for in a T20I and also became the first left-arm wrist-spin bowler to take five wickets in a T20I during the [[Indian cricket team in England in 2018|first T20I against England]], in fact he also became only the third Indian after [[Yuzvendra Chahal]] and [[Bhuvneshwar Kumar]] to take a five-wicket haul in a T20I.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/cricket/india-in-england/kuldeep-yadavs-hunger-for-wickets-impresses-mohinder-amarnath/articleshow/64863660.cms|title=Kuldeep Yadav's hunger for wickets impresses Mohinder Amarnath - Times of India|work=The Times of India|access-date=6 July 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/series/18018/report/1119543/england-vs-india-1st-t20i-ind-eng-2018|title=Brilliant Kuldeep and KL Rahul give India a perfect start|website=ESPNcricinfo|access-date=13 July 2018}}</ref>

On 12 July 2018, during the first ODI against [[England cricket team|England]], Yadav grabbed his maiden five-wicket haul in an [[One Day International|ODI]] and also set a new record for registering the best bowling figures by a left-arm spin bowler of any kind in an ODI (6/25).<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/story/_/id/24079498/stats-kuldeep-yadav-scales-new-record-left-arm-wristspin|title=Kuldeep scales new record for left-arm wristspin|work=ESPNcricinfo|access-date=13 July 2018}}</ref> He also shattered the record of [[Shahid Afridi]] for registering the best bowling figures by a spinner against England in ODIs and also broke Afridi's record for recording the best ever bowling figures by a spinner in an ODI in England.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/cricket/india-in-england/india-vs-england-1st-odi-records-galore-for-kuldeep-yadav/articleshow/64966031.cms|title=India vs England 1st ODI: Records galore for Kuldeep Yadav - Times of India|work=The Times of India|access-date=13 July 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/sport/cricket/44815364|title=England v India: Record-breaking Kuldeep Yadav bamboozles hosts|date=2018-07-12|work=BBC Sport|access-date=13 July 2018|language=en-GB}}</ref>

On 6 October 2018, in the [[West Indian cricket team in India in 2018–19#1st Test|first test against West Indies]], Yadav took his first five-wicket haul in [[Test cricket|Tests]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sports/cricket/story/kuldeep-yadav-maiden-test-5-wicket-haul-india-vs-west-indies-rajkot-test-1357220-2018-10-06 |title=Kuldeep Yadav spins a web around West Indies to grab maiden 5-wicket haul in Tests |work=India Today |access-date=6 October 2018}}</ref>

After an impressive outing against [[Australia national cricket team|Australia]], in the T20I series of [[Indian cricket team in Australia in 2018–19|India tour of Australia 2018/19]], Kuldeep jumped 20 places to claim a career-best third position in the [[ICC Player Rankings#T20I rankings|MRF ICC T20I Bowlers Rankings]], updated on 26 November 2018.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/media-releases/922089|title=Yadav and Zampa break into top-five among T20I bowlers|work=ICC|access-date=26 November 2018}}</ref>

On 6 January 2019, in the [[Indian cricket team in Australia in 2018–19#4th Test|fourth Test against Australia]] at the [[Sydney Cricket Ground|SCG]] and in Yadav's first Test match on Australian soil, he took his second five-wicket haul (5/99) in Tests, in Australia's first innings.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://sports.ndtv.com/australia-vs-india-2018-19/india-vs-australia-4th-test-day-4-kuldeep-yadav-stars-as-india-force-australia-to-follow-on-1973334|title=4th Test, Day 4: Kuldeep Yadav Stars As India Force Australia To Follow-On|work=NDTV sports|date=6 January 2019}}</ref>

On 11 February 2019, Yadav moved to second position in the T20I Bowlers Rankings.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://espncricinfo.com/_/id/25970200/kuldeep-slots-behind-Rashid-in-T20Is |title=Kuldeep moves to 2nd place |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=2019-02-11}}</ref> In April 2019, he was named in [[2019 Cricket World Cup squads#India|India's squad]] for the [[2019 Cricket World Cup]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/story/_/id/26528278/rahul-karthik-pant-rayudu-india-world-cup-squad |title=Rahul and Karthik in, Pant and Rayudu out of India's World Cup squad |work=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=15 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/news/1179330 |title=Dinesh Karthik, Vijay Shankar in India's World Cup squad |work=International Cricket Council |access-date=15 April 2019}}</ref> On 30 June 2019, in the match against [[England cricket team|England]], Kuldeep played in his 50th ODI.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://cricketaddictor.com/cricket/icc-cricket-world-cup-2019-match-38-england-vs-india-stats-preview/ |title=ICC Cricket World Cup 2019 (Match 38): England vs India – Stats Preview |work=Cricket Addictor |date=29 June 2019 |access-date=30 June 2019}}</ref> On 18 December 2019, against [[West Indies Cricket Team|West Indies]] he became the first bowler for India to take [[List of One Day International cricket hat-tricks|two hat-tricks in ODIs]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/cricket/west-indies-in-india/india-vs-west-indies-kuldeep-yadav-becomes-first-indian-to-take-2nd-international-hat-trick/articleshow/72873857.cms |title=India vs West Indies: Kuldeep Yadav becomes first Indian to take 2nd international hat-trick |work=Times of India |access-date=18 December 2019}}</ref>

Yadav was included in India's ODI squad for the [[Indian cricket team in the West Indies and the United States in 2023|2023 tour of the Caribbean]]. He had a good series coming after poor form following the 2019 World Cup. He picked seven wickets at 8.71,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Agarwal |first1=Naman |title=Marks Out Of 10: India Player Ratings For The West Indies ODI Series |url=https://wisden.com/series-stories/west-indies-v-india-2023/marks-out-of-10-india-player-ratings-for-the-west-indies-odi-series |website=Wisden |access-date=16 September 2023 |date=2 August 2023}}</ref> and was retained in the squad for the [[2023 Asia Cup|Asia Cup that year]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Rahul, Shreyas and Tilak make it to India's Asia Cup squad |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/india-asia-cup-squad-rahul-shreyas-and-bumrah-make-the-cut-1392042 |access-date=16 September 2023 |work=ESPNcricinfo |date=21 August 2023 |language=en}}</ref> In India's first match, against Pakistan, Yadav returned figures of 5/25, becoming the only the fifth bowler for his country to claim a five-wicket haul against Pakistan, and helped his team win by 228 runs.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Chowdhury |first1=Sabyasachi |title=India vs Pakistan: Kuldeep Yadav joins Sachin Tendulkar, Sourav Ganguly in elite list after 5-wicket haul |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sports/cricket/story/india-vs-pakistan-kuldeep-yadav-joins-sachin-tendulkar-sourav-ganguly-in-elite-list-after-5-wicket-haul-2434418-2023-09-11 |access-date=16 September 2023 |work=India Today |date=11 September 2023 |language=en}}</ref> In the following match against Sri Lanka, he delivered another match-winning performance, claiming 4/43, and in the process, became the quickest Indian spinner to reach 150 ODI wickets in terms of matches played (88), going past [[Anil Kumble]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Kuldeep Yadav Breaks Anil Kumble's Record As He Reaches 150 Wickets Mark In ODIs |url=https://sports.ndtv.com/asia-cup-2023/kuldeep-yadav-breaks-anil-kumbles-record-as-he-surpasses-150-wickets-mark-in-odis-4385061 |access-date=16 September 2023 |work=NDTVSports.com |date=13 September 2023 |language=en}}</ref> He finished with nine wickets; India won the tournament, and Yadav was named player of the tournament.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kumar |first1=Devesh |title=Asia Cup 2023 Final: Player of tournament, runner up award. Check full list |url=https://www.livemint.com/sports/cricket-news/india-vs-sri-lanka-asia-cup-2023-final-player-of-tournament-runner-up-award-check-full-list-of-awards-11694959183584.html |access-date=17 September 2023 |work=Mint |date=17 September 2023 |language=en}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cricinfo|id=559235}}
* [http://www.wisdenindia.com/player/India/Kuldeep-Yadav/52941.html Kuldeep Yadav]'s profile page on Wisden

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Yadav, Kuldeep}}
[[Category:1994 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian cricketers]]
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Shaheed Veer Narayan Singh International Cricket Stadium

2023-10-11T20:59:06Z

Guru44: Removing Raipur_International_Cricket_Stadium.jpg; it has been deleted from Commons by Infrogmation because: per :c:Commons:Deletion requests/Files uploaded by Sharpmind09|.

{{Short description|Cricket stadium}}
{{Tone|date=October 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2018}}
{{Infobox cricket ground
| ground_name = Shaheed Veer Narayan Singh International Cricket Stadium, Raipur
| image =
| caption = The Shaheed Veer Narayan Singh International Cricket Stadium
| country = India
| location = Sector-3 [[Naya Raipur]], [[Raipur]], [[Chhattisgarh]], [[India]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|21|12|15|N|81|49|24|E|display=inline,title}}
| establishment = 11 September 2008
| seating_capacity = 65,000.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sportycious.com/biggest-cricket-stadiums-92046|title=Raipur Stadium}}</ref>
| owner = [[Government of Chhattisgarh]]
| operator = [[Chhattisgarh State Cricket Sangh]]
| tenants =
| end1 = North End
| end2 = South End
| international = yes
| firsttestdate =
| firsttestyear =
| firsttesthome =
| firsttestaway =
| lasttestdate =
| lasttestyear =
| lasttesthome =
| lasttestaway =
| onlyodidate = 21 January
| onlyodiyear = 2023
| onlyodihome = India
| onlyodiaway = New Zealand
| lastodidate =
| lastodiyear =
| lastodihome =
| lastodiaway =
| year2 = 2013–present
| club2 = [[Delhi Capitals]]
| year1 = 2009–present
| club1 = [[Chhattisgarh cricket team]]
| date = 21 January
| year = 2023
| source = http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/ground/601879.html Shaheed Veer Narayan Singh International Stadium, Cricinfo
|logo_image=Coat of arms of Chhattisgarh.svg|logo_size=60}}

The '''Shaheed Veer Narayan Singh International Cricket Stadium Raipur''', also known as '''Nava Raipur International Cricket Stadium''', is a cricket arena in the city of [[Naya Raipur]], [[Chhattisgarh]], [[India]].
The Cricket Stadium is India's [[List of international cricket grounds in India|50th international cricket venue]].<ref>https://www.cricketcountry.com/news/ind-vs-nz-2nd-odi-raipur-stadium-becomes-50th-venue-to-host-an-odi-in-india-1064770</ref> First International cricket match played here was an ODI between India and New Zealand in 2023, which was won by India. This state-of-the-art cricket stadium hosts domestic and international cricket matches.<ref>https://www.espncricinfo.com/india/content/ground/601879.html</ref>
It is the largest sports stadium in [[Central India]].

It is [[List of cricket grounds by capacity|the third largest cricket stadium]] in India and fourth-largest cricket stadium in the world. The stadium has a seating capacity of 65,000 approx.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/india/content/ground/601879.html|title=Raipur Stadium - Cricinfo}}</ref> Inaugurated in 2008, this ground hosted its first ever match in 2010, when the [[Canada national cricket team]] arrived in India and played a practice match against the Chhattisgarh state team. In 2013, the stadium was declared as a second home venue for the [[Delhi Daredevils]] in the [[Indian Premier League]] (IPL) and has since hosted many of the team's matches.<ref name=NDTV>{{cite web |title=International Cricket Stadium, Raipur |url=http://sports.ndtv.com/cricket/grounds/2110-international-cricket-stadium-raipur-groundprofile |publisher=[[NDTV]] |archiveurl=https://archive.today/20140913140814/http://sports.ndtv.com/cricket/grounds/2110-international-cricket-stadium-raipur-groundprofile |archivedate=13 September 2014 |url-status=live |accessdate=7 October 2016 }}</ref><ref name="Infozshop.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.infozshop.com/ipl/venue |title=IPL Venues 2013 - Indian Premier League | IPL T20 Venues | IPL Season 6 Venues on |publisher=Infozshop.com |date= |accessdate=2013-04-28}}</ref><ref name="intoday1">{{cite web|url=http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/delhi-daredevils-vs-pune-warriors-india-raipur-ipl-6/1/268119.html |title=Raipur hosts its first IPL match between Delhi Daredevils and Pune Warriors India today|publisher=India Today|date= |accessdate=2013-04-28}}</ref><ref name=IPL>{{cite web|title=Chhattisgarh International Cricket Stadium - Home of the Delhi Daredevils|url=http://www.iplt20.com/venues/59/chhattisgarh-international-cricket-stadium|publisher=BCCI - IPL|accessdate=27 April 2013}}</ref> The stadium has state of the art facility.

[[File:Shaheed Veer Narayan Singh International Cricket stadium Raipur Drone view 2.png|thumb|250px|Shaheed Veer Narayan Singh International Cricket stadium Raipur Drone view]]

The stadium is named after [[Veer Narayan Singh|Veer Narayan Singh Binjhwar]], a landlord from Sonakhan who spearheaded the [[Sepoy Mutiny|1857 war]] Indian independence in Chhattisgarh.<ref>[http://www.indianpost.com/viewstamp.php/Color/Dark%20Brown/EXECUTION%20OF%20VEER%20NARAYAN%20SINGHEX ECUTION OF VEER NARAYAN SINGH]</ref>

==Location==

Stadium is situated in sector-3 of Naya Raipur, close to the [[Swami Vivekananda Airport]] in [[Naya Raipur]] and is 21 km away from [[Raipur]] main city.<ref name=espn1 /><ref name=HT1>{{cite news|last=Deep|first=Sharad|title=Cricket has Raipur in a frenzy|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/Specials/Cricket/T20/chunk-ht-ui-t20-dontmiss/Cricket-has-Raipur-in-a-frenzy/SP-Article10-1051038.aspx|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130427233325/http://www.hindustantimes.com/Specials/Cricket/T20/Chunk-HT-UI-T20-DontMiss/Cricket-has-Raipur-in-a-frenzy/SP-Article10-1051038.aspx|url-status=dead|archive-date=27 April 2013|accessdate=27 April 2013|newspaper=Hindustan Times|date=27 April 2013}}</ref>

==Construction and arrangements==
[[File:Raipur Stadium.JPG|thumb|The stadium in 2012]]

The construction of the stadium began in the year 2006 and it was completed in 2008 at the cost of Rs 145 Crore. It was built and owned by the [[Government of Chhattisgarh]].<ref name=Wisden-14>{{cite news|last1=Dasgupta|first1=Shamya|title=Chhattisgarh's tale of hope|url=http://www.wisdenindia.com/cricket-article/chhattisgarhs-tale-hope/126903|accessdate=26 September 2014|work=[[Wisden]]|date=16 September 2014}}</ref> The stadium has been built with a modern sports arena. The media facilities as well as the corporate boxes have been renovated and roofs cover the rest of the ground to provide comfort during heat periods.<ref name=espn1 />

== Gallery ==

{{Gallery
|title= Shaheed Veer Narayan Singh International Cricket Stadium, Raipur
|width=260 | height=160
|align=center
|File:SVNS stadium, Raipur Entrance.png| Entrance main building
||Ground view from Pavilion area
|File:SVNS stadium Raipur, Interior seat box.jpg| Interior and seat boxes
|File:SVNS stadium Raipur, view from concourse building.png| Stadium view from VIP lobby
||Stadium view from upper stand
||
Panoramic view||Laser show
||Stadium view from upper stand during ODI Match
|File:SVNS stadium Raipur, 6474748.png|During Road safety world series 2021 Final
|File:Raipur international Cricket stadium 2.png| View from lower stand
|
}}

==Pitch==

The 22-yards strip usually offers a good balance between the bat and the ball. Three IPL , one CLT20 and [[2020–21 Road Safety World Series]] games have been played at this venue and twice a team has crossed 200 here in two of Road safety world series matches. Apart from that, from time to time, the pitch offers some assistance to the pacers as well as the spinners. In all, it is a good sporting wicket, with something there for everyone to exploit.

[[Board of Control for Cricket in India|BCCI]] had adjudged the pitch and ground of Shaheed Veer Narayan International Cricket Stadium as Best pitch and Best ground of Central Zone of the year 2017-18. It is notable that Naya Raipur Cricket Ground had been adjudged best during [[Indian Premier League|IPL]] 2013, Pitch curator Shamim Mirza and ground staff had been congratulated for the above achievement.

==Initial game hostings==

The First International Standard cricket match was played between [[Canada national cricket team]] and the [[Chhattisgarh cricket team]], the game was a One Day match, played on 21 November 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://daily.bhaskar.com/article/canadian-cricket-team-arrives-in-raipur-1567658.html |title=daily.bhaskar.com |publisher=daily.bhaskar.com |date=1970-01-01 |accessdate=2013-04-28}}</ref>

Stadium hosted a [[Half-Marathon]], with the theme "Let us run" on 16 December 2012 to mark [[Vijay Diwas (India)|Vijay Diwas]].<ref>{{cite web|author=TNN 27 Nov 2012, 12.00PM IST |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-11-27/raipur/35409677_1_half-marathon-international-cricket-stadium-capital-city |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130216063340/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-11-27/raipur/35409677_1_half-marathon-international-cricket-stadium-capital-city |url-status=dead |archive-date=2013-02-16 |title=Half marathon in Naya Raipur - TOI |date=2012-11-27 |work=[[The Times of India]] |accessdate=2013-04-28}}</ref> [[Sunil Gavaskar]] had rated this stadium to as one of the best stadiums in the country and had proposed to utilize it for all types of matches.<ref name="indiatimes1">[https://archive.today/20130216063801/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-11-23/raipur/35410624_1_cricket-stadium-sunil-gavaskar-world-class-stadium Naya Raipur’s cricket stadium gets Gavaskar's thumbs up] - Times of India</ref> [[Irfan Pathan]] who was in awe of the facilities in the stadium noted that "When opportunities are created, and such facilities are in place, there is the hope that cricketers will emerge."<ref name="wisdenindia1">{{cite news|url=http://www.wisdenindia.com/cricket-article/cricketing-dream-true-raipur/60332|title=A cricketing dream comes true for Raipur|publisher=Wisden India|date= 28 April 2013}}</ref>

==Hosting of Road Safety World Series==

[[2020-21 Road Safety World Series]] was postponed on 24 March 2020 after four matches due to [[COVID-19]] lockdown in India. After almost a year, the tournament resumed with the announcement of all the matches to be played in Raipur with all [[COVID-19]] guidelines being followed allowing only 50% audience capacity of the stadium. The tournament hosted matches between 5 March to 21 March 2021.
[[File:Shaheed Veer Narayan Singh International Stadium Raipur.jpg|thumb|SVNS International Stadium during Road Safety World Series 2020-2021]]

[[2022 Road Safety World Series]] whose Five matches with two league matches and two semifinals and Final match was held in [[Raipur]]

==Hosting of Celebrity Cricket League==

Four matches of [[Celebrity Cricket League|Celebrity Cricket League 2023]] were played in Raipur between February 18 and February 19 at Shaheed Veer Narayan Singh Cricket Stadium in Raipur. First match of the cricketing event was be played between Telugu Warriors and Kerala Strikers on February 18 while in the second match, Chennai Rhinos was faced by Karnataka Bulldozers. On February 19, the first match was played between Bengal Tiger Vs Bhojpuri Dabanggs while the second match was played between Mumbai Heroes and Punjab De Sher.<ref>https://theprint.in/india/chhattisgarh-four-matches-of-celebrity-cricket-league-to-be-held-in-raipur/1377407/</ref>

==Hosting of IPL, and CL T-20 matches==

===IPL matches===

[[File:Shaheed Veer Narayan Singh International Cricket Stadium, Raipur.jpg|thumb|SVNS Stadium, Raipur during IPL]]
In January 2013, [[Board of Control for Cricket in India]] announced that [[Delhi Daredevils]]' Indian Premier League team shall be hosting two of their home matches in IPL - 6 at this stadium.<ref>[https://archive.today/20130216065931/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-01-23/news/36505050_1_pune-warriors-ipl-chairman-rajiv-shukla-sahara-group Delhi Daredevils to play two home matches in Raipur: Shukla - Times of India]; Retrieved on 28 January 2013</ref>

Raipur was allotted two [[Indian Premier League|IPL]] games in January after the chief minister invited [[GMR Group|GMR]], the owners of the Daredevils franchise, to host some of their home matches there. Following inspections and a few meetings, the approvals came in, and in February the state's public works department swung into action to spruce up the ground in time; they completed work on the interior in less than two months.<ref name=espn1>{{cite news|last=Shetty|first=Rachna|title=Raipur joins the carnival|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/indian-premier-league-2013/content/current/story/632673.html|accessdate=27 April 2013|newspaper=ESPN Cricino|date=27 April 2013}}</ref>

On 28 April 2013, the first IPL match between [[Delhi Daredevils]] and [[Pune Warriors]] was played, in which Daredevils beat Warriors by 15 runs.<ref name=First-IPL>{{cite news|title=Indian Premier League, 2013 / Delhi Daredevils v Pune Warriors -Scorecard|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/indian-premier-league-2013/engine/current/match/598035.html|accessdate=13 September 2014|work=ESPN-Cricinfo|date=28 April 2013}}</ref> With this it became the 19th venue to host any IPL match.<ref name=FP1>{{cite news|last=Magotra|first=Ashish|title=As it happened: Delhi have their second win of IPL 6|url=http://www.firstpost.com/sports/ipl/as-it-happened-delhi-have-their-second-win-of-ipl-6-735429.html|accessdate=28 April 2013|newspaper=First Post|date=28 April 2013}}</ref> The second match was played on 1 May 2013, between Delhi Daredevils and [[Kolkata Knight Riders]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/india/content/ground/601879.html |title=Shaheed Veer Narayan Singh International Stadium | India | Cricket Grounds |publisher=ESPN Cricinfo |date= |accessdate=2013-04-28}}</ref> To ensure a greater success, [[Chhattisgarh]] State government had waived the entertainment tax on the tickets.<ref name=toi1>{{cite news|last=Jaiswal|first=Anuja|title=Raipur all set to host IPL matches; tickets sold out|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Raipur-all-set-to-host-IPL-matches-tickets-sold-out/articleshow_dc/19711195.cms|accessdate=27 April 2013|newspaper=The Times of India|date=24 April 2013}}</ref>

Few matches of the [[2014 Indian Premier League]] had to take place at the stadium but could not take place due to rescheduling of the matches due to [[2014 Indian general election|general elections]].<ref name=Wisden-14 />

In [[2015 Indian Premier League]], again Raipur was allotted two IPL games with [[Delhi Daredevils]] being the host team. On 9 May 2015, 1st match was played between [[Delhi Daredevils]] and [[Sunrisers Hyderabad]], in which Sunrisers beat Daredevils by 6 runs and [[Moises Henriques]] was the Man of the Match for his 74 runs of 46 balls. The second match was played on 12 May 2015, between Delhi Daredevils and [[Chennai Super Kings]], in which Daredevils comfortably beat Super Kings by 6 wickets with [[Zaheer Khan]] emerging as the Man of the Match due to his economical bowling.

Raipur was again announced as a 2nd Home Ground for [[Delhi Daredevils]] for [[2016 Indian Premier League]]. On 20 May 2016, 1st match was played between Delhi Daredevils and [[Sunrisers Hyderabad]]. This was the 2nd Match in which both teams played each other in this stadium again. While in 2015, Sunrisers beat Daredevils in a close game, this time again it came down to the last ball and this time it was Daredevils who won by beating Sunrisers by 6 wickets on the very last ball of the Match due to [[Karun Nair]]'s 83 runs knock for which he was chosen Man of the Match. On 22 May 2016, second match was played between Delhi Daredevils and [[Royal Challengers Bangalore]], which was also the last league game of 2016 IPL and was a must win game for both teams to qualify for playoffs. Royal Challengers emerged as the winners by defeating Daredevils by 6 wickets and qualified for the playoffs. Delhi Daredevils were knocked out and failed to qualify.

===CL T20===

Stadium has also hosted eight T20 matches of the [[2014 Champions League Twenty20]]. These consisted of two Group Stage games, plus all six Qualifier matches. The Qualifier matches were double-headers. For the first time in the history of CLT20 the qualifiers were sold out.<ref name=CL-T20-14>{{cite news|title=Box-office sales start at Raipur, Mohali and Hyderabad|url=http://www.clt20.com/news/2014/press-releases/1939/box-office-sales-start-at-raipur-mohali-and-hyderabad|accessdate=13 September 2014|work=Champions League Twenty20|date=11 September 2014}}</ref>

[[File:CLT20 match at Naya Raipur Stadium.jpg|thumb|SVNS International Stadium Raipur, during 2014 Champions League Twenty20]]

==Praise for the stadium==


* [[Sunil Gavaskar]] had rated this stadium to as '''one of the best stadiums in the country''' and had proposed to utilize it for all types of matches.<ref name="indiatimes1"/>
* [[Irfan Pathan]] who was in awe of the facilities in the stadium noted that "When opportunities are created, and such facilities are in place, there is the hope that cricketers will emerge. I hope to play again at this wonderful venue"<ref name="wisdenindia1"/>
* [[Viv Richards]] We cannot even imagine that Chhattisgarh has such a big Cricket Stadium. This is one of the world's best Cricket Stadium.
* [[Yuvraj Singh]] It's a huge and magnificent Stadium, It's great opportunity for Chhattisgarh to shape future players from state by utilising the wonderful Infrastructure this Stadium has.
* Many Cricket personalities like [[Kapil Dev]], [[Ravi Shastri]] and [[Anil Kumble]] have praised the beauty, Infrastructure and Location of the Stadium during their visit to Raipur.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.worldstadiums.com/stadium_pictures/asia/india/raipur_stadium.shtml Picture of stadium]
* [http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/ground/601879.html Cricinfo Website - Ground Page]
* [https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Grounds/14/7742.html cricketarchive Website - Ground Page]
* [More About [http://progressivechhattisgarh.in/ Chhattisgarh progress]]
{{Chhattisgarh}}
{{List of cricket grounds in India}}
{{Indian Premier League}}

[[Category:Naya Raipur]]
[[Category:Sports venues in Raipur, Chhattisgarh]]
[[Category:Cricket grounds in Chhattisgarh]]
[[Category:2008 establishments in Chhattisgarh]]
[[Category:Sports venues completed in 2008]]
[[Category:Cricket in Chhattisgarh]]

Vedic religion in Ancient Tamilakam

2023-09-16T02:33:31Z

Guru44: Added content creation.

{{short description|Religion in Tamil Nadu}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Use Indian English}}
[[File:Yajna by Brahmanas.gif|thumb|400px|[[Yajna|Yagyam]] performed by Brahmanas according to the [[Vedas]], [[Shastra]]s and [[Upanishads]]. These sacrifices are also mentioned in the Sangam Literature. [[Perumpāṇāṟṟuppaṭai]]{{sfn|JV Chelliah|1946|pp=98–99}}, [[Purananuru]]<ref>https://www.poetrynook.com/poem/purananuru-part-15</ref><ref>https://www.tamilvu.org/ta/tdb-titles-cont-lite-html-pandiyan-palkalasalai-280879</ref> [[Patiṟṟuppattu]] <ref> Patiṟṟuppattu, poem 64</ref> and many other texts.{{sfn|R Parthasarathy (Translator)|2004|pp=25-27}}<ref>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=HWPg7EvPirgC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false</ref>]]

'''Vedic religion in Ancient Tamilakam''' finds its earliest literary mention in the Sangam literature dated to the 5th century BCE. The Vedas were read by almost every caste in ancient [[Tamil Nadu]]. [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic Religion]] is a major part of [[Hinduism]] and also called as '''Early Hinduism'''. The '''[[Vedas]]''' ({{IAST3|veda}}, {{Lang-ta|வேதம்}} {{Lang-sa|वेदः|lit=knowledge}}) are a large body of [[religious texts]] originated in [[ancient India]] around {{circa|1500}}–1200 BCE{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=37}}{{refn|group=note|name="dating"|It is certain that the hymns of the Rig Veda post-date [[Proto-Indo-Iranian|Indo-Iranian]] separation of ca. 2000 BCE and probably that of the relevant Mitanni documents of {{circa}} 1400 BCE. The oldest available text is estimated to be from 1200 BCE. Philological estimates tend to date the bulk of the text to the second half of the second millennium:
* [[Max Müller]]: "the hymns of the Rig-Veda are said to date from 1500 B.C."{{sfn|Müller|1892}}
* The [[Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture|EIEC]] (s.v. [[Indo-Iranian languages]], p. 306) gives 1500–1000 BCE.
* Flood and Witzel both mention {{circa}} 1500–1200 BCE.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=37}}{{sfn|Witzel|1995|p=4}}
* Anthony mentions {{circa}} 1500–1300 BCE.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=454}}
* Thomas Oberlies (''Die Religion des Rgveda'', 1998, p. 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets a wide range of 1700–1100 BCE.{{sfn|Oberlies|1998|p=158}} {{harvnb|Oberlies|1998|p=155}} gives an estimate of 1100 BCE for the youngest hymns in book 10.{{sfn|Oberlies|1998|p=155}}
* {{harvnb|Witzel|1995|p=4}} mentions {{circa}} 1500–1200 BCE. According to {{harvnb|Witzel|1997|p=263}}, the whole Rig Vedic period may have lasted from c. 1900 BCE to c. 1200 BCE: "the bulk of the RV represents only 5 or 6 generations of kings (and of the contemporary poets)24 of the Pūru and Bharata tribes. It contains little else before and after this “snapshot” view of contemporary Rgvedic history, as reported by these contemporary “tape recordings.” On the other hand, the whole Rgvedic period may have lasted even up to 700 years, from the infiltration of the Indo-Aryans into the subcontinent, c. 1900 B.C. (at the utmost, the time of collapse of the Indus civilization), up to c. 1200 B.C., the time of the introduction of iron which is first mentioned in the clearly post-vedic hymns of the Atharvaveda."}} Composed in [[Vedic Sanskrit]], the texts constitute the oldest layer of [[Sanskrit literature]] and the oldest [[Hindu texts|scriptures]] of [[Hinduism]].<ref>see e.g. {{Harvnb|Radhakrishnan|Moore|1957|p=3}}; {{Harvnb|Witzel|2003|p=68}}; {{Harvnb|MacDonell|2004|pp=29–39}}.</ref><ref>''Sanskrit literature'' (2003) in Philip's Encyclopedia. Accessed 2007-08-09</ref><ref>Sanujit Ghose (2011). "[http://www.worldhistory.org/article/230/ Religious Developments in Ancient India]" in ''World History Encyclopedia''.</ref> An Indian [[historian]], [[archaeologist]] and [[epigraphist]] named [[R. Nagaswamy|Ramachandran Nagaswamy]] mentions that Tamil Nadu was a land of Vedas and a place where everyone knew the Vedas.<ref>https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/Vedic-route-to-the-past/article14397101.ece</ref> The Vedas are also considered as a text filled with deep meaning which can be understood only by scholars.<ref name=kz49>{{cite book|author=Kamil Zvelebil|title=Tamil Literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OQ33i496MsIC&pg=PA48 |year=1974| publisher =Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-01582-0|page=49}}</ref> The [[Purananuru]] mentions that the ancestors of Velir kings where born from the [[Yajna|Sacred fire]] of a Northern sage<ref name="sangamtranslationsbyvaidehi.com">https://sangamtranslationsbyvaidehi.com/ettuthokai-purananuru-201-400/</ref> and the [[Paṭṭiṉappālai]] mentions that the [[Vedas|four Vedas]] were chanted by the priests of Ancient Tamilakam, {{sfn|JV Chelliah|1946|p=41}} this shows chanting of Vedas and growing sacred fires are part of the Tamil culture. There were many separate temples built for teaching the Vedas, Upanishads, and sutras by various kings of various periods, one of the best examples is the [[Varadharajaperumal temple, Thirubuvanai|Vardharajaperumal temple]] located at [[Thirubuvanai]]. An inscription of the temple dated to the 30th regnal year of [[Rajadhiraja I]] (c. 1048 CE), mentions teaching [[Rig Veda]], [[Yajur Veda]], Chandogasama, Talavakrasama, Apurva, Vajnasaneya, Bodhayaniya Sathashatandha Sutra and explanations of [[sastras]] and epics like ''[[Ramayana]]'' .<ref name="Ayyar 1982 182">{{cite book|title=South Indian Shrines: Illustrated|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NLSGFW1uZboC&dq=varadaraja+perumal+pondicherry&pg=PA182|page=182|last=Ayyar|first=P. V. Jagadisa|publisher=Asian Educational Services|year=1982|isbn=9788120601512}}</ref> There are many other temples like [[Parthasarathy temple, Parthivapuram]], [[Vaikunda Perumal Temple, Uthiramerur]], [[Kattu Narasimhaperumal Temple, Srirangam]], [[Brihadisvara Temple]], and many Mutts like [[Kanchi Kamakoti Peetham]], [[Ahobila Matha]].

==Mentions in Sangam Literature==
=== Tolkāppiyam ===
[[File:Patañjali11.JPG|220px|thumb|Patanjali Maharishi is the Author of ''Mahābhāṣya'']]

'''''[[Tolkāppiyam]]''''' ({{lang-ta|தொல்காப்பியம்}}{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1973|p=131}}) is the most ancient extant Tamil [[grammar]] text and the oldest extant long work of [[Tamil literature]].{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1973|pp=131–133}}{{sfn|David Shulman|2016|p=28}} The word ''Tolkāppiyam'' is an attribute-based composite word with 2 words of 2 different languages, with ''tol'' meaning "ancient" in Tamil, and ''kappiyam'' derived from a [[Sanskrit]] word ''[[Kāvya]]'' which means "book, text, poem"; together, the title has been translated as "ancient book",{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1973|pp=131–132 with footnote 1}} "ancient poem",<ref name="Ziegenbalg2010p1">{{cite book|author=Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg|title=Tamil Language for Europeans: Ziegenbalg's Grammatica Damulica |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G1HKzGXIUIUC&pg=PA1 |year=2010|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-06236-7|pages=1–2}}</ref> or "old poem".<ref name="ReijenWeststeijn1999p321">{{cite book|author1=Willem van Reijen|author2=Willem G. Weststeijn|title=Subjectivity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8F6_FJmaC20C&pg=PA321|year=1999|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=90-420-0728-1|pages=321–322}}</ref> The word 'kappiyam' is from the [[Sanskrit]] word ''[[Kāvya]]''.<ref>Sir Ralph Lilley Turner - A comparative dictionary to the Indo-Aryan languages, Entry 3110 kāˊvya https://dsalsrv04.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/soas_query.py?qs=kāvikā&searchhws=yes</ref> According to Kamil Zvelebil, the earliest ''sutras'' of the ''Tolkappiyam'' were composed by author(s) who lived before the "majority of extant" [[Sangam literature]], who clearly knew [[Pāṇini]] and followed [[Patanjali]] works on Sanskrit grammar because some verses of Tolkappiyam – such as ''T-Col 419'' and''T-Elutt 83'' – seem to be borrowed and exact translation of verses of Patanjali's [[Mahabhashya|''Mahābhāṣya'']] and ideas credited to more ancient [[Pāṇini]]. Further, the author(s) lived after Patanjali, because various sections of ''Tolkappiyam'' show the same ideas for grammatically structuring a language and it uses borrowed Indo-European words found in Panini and Patanjali works to explain its ideas.{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1973|pp=142–146 with footnotes}} According to Hartmut Scharfe and other scholars, the phonetic and phonemic sections of the ''Tolkappiyam'' shows considerable influence of ''[[Vedas|Vedic]] [[Pratishakhyas]]'', while its rules for nominal compounds follow those in Patanjali's ''[[Mahabhashya]]'', though there is also evidence of innovations. The author(s) had access and expertise of the ancient Sanskrit works on grammar and language.{{sfn|Hartmut Scharfe|1977|pp=180–182}} The literary theory of ''Tolkappiyam'', according to Peter Scharf, borrows from Sanskrit literary theory texts.<ref name="books.google.co.in">https://books.google.co.in/books?id=n2DxBwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false</ref> The phonetic and phonemic sections of the first book show the influence of Vedic Pratisakhyas, states Hartmut Scharfe, but with some differences. For example, unlike the Pratisakhyas and the later Tamil, the first book of ''Tolkappiyam'' does not treat /ṭ/ and /ṇ/ as retroflex.{{sfn|Hartmut Scharfe|1977|pp=180–181}} According to Peter Scharf, the ''sutras'' here are inspired by the work on Sanskrit grammar by Panini, but it uses Tamil terminology and adds technical innovations which shows that the author must have learned Sanskrit too.<ref name="books.google.co.in"/> Verb forms and the classification of nominal compounds in the second book show the influence of Patanjali's ''[[Mahabhashya]]''.{{sfn|Hartmut Scharfe|1977|pp=180–181}} The author of Tolkāppiyam mentions the [[Rigvedic deities]] in his book who as [[Vishnu|Maha Vishnu]], [[Murugan|Skandha]], [[Indra]], [[Varuna]] and [[Durga]] or [[Lakshmi]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZjoRAAAAYAAJ&q=tolkappiyam+varuna |title=Journal of Tamil Studies, Volume 1 |publisher=International Institute of Tamil Studies |page=131 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171113060321/https://books.google.no/books?id=ZjoRAAAAYAAJ&q=tolkappiyam+varuna&dq=tolkappiyam+varuna&hl=no&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiloMXV6bnXAhXiDZoKHXyuDMAQ6AEILTAB |archive-date=13 November 2017 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

===Texts which explain Vedic Practices and Vedic Mythology===
[[File:Yajna1.jpg|thumb|right|220px|Yajna practised by South Indian [[Nambudiri|Nambudiri brahmin]] according to the Vedas and Sutras. Such Vedic sacrifices are also mentioned in [[Paṭṭiṉappālai]], [[Maturaikkāñci]], [[Perumpāṇāṟṟuppaṭai]], [[Cilappatikaram|Silappathikaram]].<ref name="ReferenceB">https://archive.org/details/pattupattutentamilidyllschelliahj.v._108_Q/page/20/mode/2up</ref><ref name="ReferenceD">https://archive.org/details/pattupattutentamilidyllschelliahj.v._108_Q/page/99/mode/2up</ref>]]

====Perumpāṇāṟṟuppaṭai====

[[File:Brahma born from Vishnus navel.png|thumb|220px|Several Puranas mention [[Brahma]] born from [[Vishnu|Vishnu's]] navel and [[Shiva]] born from Brahma's Wrath.<ref>{{cite book|author=S. M. Srinivasa Chari |title=Vaiṣṇavism: Its Philosophy, Theology, and Religious Discipline|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=evmiLInyxBMC |year=1994|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1098-3 |page=147 }}</ref><ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Brahma-Hindu-god Brahma: Hindu god] Encyclopædia Britannica.</ref> This legend is mentioned in the Sangam text '''Perumpāṇāṟṟuppaṭai'''.{{sfn|JV Chelliah|1946|pp=98–99}}]]

'''''[[Perumpāṇāṟṟuppaṭai]]''''' ({{lang-ta|பெரும்பாணாற்றுப்படை}}) is an ancient [[Tamil language|Tamil]] poem in the ''Pattuppattu'' anthology of the [[Sangam literature]].{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1973|pp=29, 56–57}} It contains 500 lines in the ''akaval'' meter.{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1973|pp=56–57}} It is one of five ''arruppatai'' genre poems and was a guide to other bards seeking a patron for their art. Set as a praise for chieftain Tonataiman [[Ilandiraiyan|Ilantiraiyan]] of the [[Kanchipuram|Kanchi]] territory, it was composed by Uruttirankannanar sometime around 100–200 CE. The poem has several mentions of Vedas and brahmins of the village in Kanchipuram. The poem mentions a ''yupa'' post (a form of Vedic altar) in the [[Brahmin]] village.{{sfn|JV Chelliah|1946|pp=98–99}} [[Vedas]] are recited by these Brahmins, and even their parrots are mentioned in the poem as those who sing the Vedic hymns. People in these Vedic villages did not eat meat, nor raise fowls. They ate rice, salad leaves boiled in ghee, pickles and vegetables.{{sfn|JV Chelliah|1946|pp=98–100}} Elsewhere, the hunters are described as meat-eaters, herdsmen relied on milk, yoghurt and ghee, fishermen ate a variety of fish, while farmers ate beans, fruits and farm produce. Rice was a staple in all landscapes.{{sfn|JV Chelliah|1946|pp=99–100}} Rice was also a major part of any offerings to the gods in temples and on festivals, according to several lines in the poem, such as over lines 267–269.<ref>{{cite journal|author= Monica Smith| year=2006| title= The Archaeology of Food Preference|journal = American Anthropologist| volume=108| issue=3| pp=480–493}}</ref> Various Vedic rituals were practised by the people of Tamilakam. The Text mentions the [[Yathothkari Perumal Temple|Thiruvekka Sonavanam seiytha Perumal Temple]] dedicated to Maha Vishnu who is in a Reclining posture.<ref name="archive.org">https://archive.org/details/pattupattutentamilidyllschelliahj.v._108_Q/page/97/mode/2up</ref> The Vedic mythology of [[Brahma|Lord Brahma]] born from [[Maha Vishnu]]'s navel is explained. The King [[Ilandiraiyan]] is considered to born from the Vedic god [[Brahma]] which explains the concept of the [[Mānasaputra|Mind born sons]] of Brahma followed even in Ancient Tamilakam.<ref name="archive.org"/><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tEgwAAAAYAAJ&dq=manasaputra&pg=RA15-PA12 |title=Theosophical Siftings |publisher=Theosophical Pub. Society |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sheshadri |first=Dr T. V. Satyanarayana, Dr A. S. Venugopala Rao, Smt T. N. Saraswati, Prof N. Nanjunda Sastry, Dr K. L. Shankaranarayana Jois, Sri Hari, M. N. Lakshminarasimha Bhatta and S. L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xHOODwAAQBAJ&dq=manasaputra+brahma&pg=PT177 |title=Maharshis of Ancient India |publisher=Bharatha Samskruthi Prakashana |isbn=978-93-89028-73-7 |language=en}}</ref> the poem mentions Rishis, who perform Vedic and yogic rights, Brahmins and many others reciting the Vedas, Rishis performing tapas and various Vedic sacrifices.<ref name="ReferenceD"/> Worship of [[Murugan|Skandha]] or Lord Murugan is found in several texts of sangam literature and is worshiped as per the Vedas. There are ancient references which can be interpreted to be Kartikeya in the [[Vedas|Vedic texts]], in the works of [[Pāṇini]] (~500 BCE), in the Mahabhasya of [[Patanjali]] and in Kautilya's ''Arthashastra''.{{sfn|Clothey|1978|pp=49-53}} For example, the term ''Kumara'' appears in hymn 5,2 of the ''[[Rig Veda]]''.{{sfn|Clothey|1978|pp=49-51}}{{refn|group=note|'''कुमारं''' माता युवतिः समुब्धं गुहा बिभर्ति न ददाति पित्रे । अनीकमस्य न मिनज्जनासः पुरः पश्यन्ति निहितमरतौ ॥१॥ कमेतं त्वं युवते कुमारं पेषी बिभर्षि महिषी जजान । पूर्वीर्हि गर्भः शरदो ववर्धापश्यं जातं यदसूत माता ॥२॥ हिरण्यदन्तं शुचिवर्णमारात्क्षेत्रादपश्यमायुधा मिमानम् । ददानो अस्मा अमृतं विपृक्वत्किं मामनिन्द्राः कृणवन्ननुक्थाः ॥३॥ क्षेत्रादपश्यं सनुतश्चरन्तं सुमद्यूथं न पुरु शोभमानम् । न ता अगृभ्रन्नजनिष्ट हि षः पलिक्नीरिद्युवतयो भवन्ति ॥४॥ (...) [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_५.२ Hymn 5.2, Wikisource]; English: "The youthful Mother keeps the Boy in secret pressed to her close, nor yields him to the Father. But, when he lies upon the arm, the people see his unfading countenance before them. [5.2.1] What child is this thou carriest as handmaid, O Youthful One? The Consort-Queen hath bome him. The Babe unborn increased through many autumns. I saw him born what time his Mother bare him. [5.2.2] I saw him from afar gold-toothed, bright-coloured, hurling his weapons from his habitation, What time I gave him Amrta free from mixture. How can the Indraless, the hymnless harm me? [5.2.3] I saw him moving from the place he dwells in, even as with a herd, brilliantly shining. These seized him not: he had been born already. They who were grey with age again grow youthful. [5.2.4] – Translated by Ralph T.H. Griffith, [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Rig_Veda/Mandala_5/Hymn_2 Wikisource]}} The ''Kumara'' (Familiar name of Murugan) of verse 5.2.1 can be interpreted as Skanda, or just any "boy". However, the rest of the verses depict the "boy" as bright-colored, hurling weapons and other motifs that later have been associated with Skanda.{{sfn|Clothey|1978|pp=46-51}}

The Skanda-like motifs found in ''Rig Veda'' are found in other Vedic texts, such as section 6.1-3 of the ''Shatapatha Brahmana''.{{sfn|Clothey|1978|pp=48-50}} In these, the mythology is very different for ''Kumara'', as Agni is described to be the ''Kumara'' whose mother is [[Ushas]] (goddess Dawn) and whose father is Purusha.{{sfn|Clothey|1978|pp=49-51}} The section 10.1 of the ''Taittiriya Aranyaka'' mentions ''Sanmukha'' (six faced one), while the ''Baudhayana Dharmasutra'' mentions a householder's rite of passage that involves prayers to Skanda with his brother Ganapati (Ganesha) together.{{sfn|Clothey|1978|pp=50-51}}{{refn|group=note|Verse 7.26.2 states Kumara is Skanda, but there are stylistic differences between this verse and the rest of the chapter. This may be because this verse was interpolated into the text at a later date.<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n283/mode/2up/search/skanda The Thirteen Principal Upanishads] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525171448/https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n283/mode/2up/search/skanda |date=25 May 2017 }}, Robert Hume, Oxford University Press, page 262 with footnote 3</ref>}}

==== Purananuru ====

[[Purananuru]] ({{indic|lang=ta|indic=புறநானூறு|trans=Puṟanāṉūṟu}}, is a classical [[Tamil literature|Tamil poetic]] work and traditionally the last of the [[Eight Anthologies]] (''Ettuthokai'') in the [[Sangam literature]].{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1973|pp=54-55}} Purananuru mentions several Vedic rituals and practices practised by kings and people of ancient Tamilakam. The text dedicates invocatory poem to [[Lord Shiva]] which mentions the [[Brahmins]] reciting the [[Vedas]] to please [[Lord Shiva]]. The ''Purananuru'' poems also use words, phrases, and metaphors, including references to the [[Himalayas]] of "immeasurable heights", [[Vishnu|Maha Vishnu]], [[Mahalakshmi]], [[Balarama]], [[Vedas|The Four Vedas known as Rig, Yajur, Sama, and Atharvana]], the [[Ramayana]], various rivers, and other aspects.{{sfn|George Hart|Hank Heifetz|2001|pp=xxi, 3–4, 28–32, 41, 139–140, 206, 220}}<ref name="Columbia University Press">{{cite book |last1=Hart |first1=George L |last2=Heifetz |first2=Hank |title=The four hundred songs of war and wisdom : an anthology of poems from classical Tamil : the Puṟanāṉūṟu |url=https://archive.org/details/fourhundredsongs00 |url-access=registration |publisher=Columbia University Press|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fourhundredsongs00/page/219 219]-220 |isbn=9780231115629 }}</ref><ref name="Purananuru">{{cite book |editor1-last=Kalakam |editor1-first=Turaicămip Pillai |title=Purananuru |location=Madras}}</ref> The earliest reference to the Epic Ramayana in Tamil literature is found in the Purananuru 378, attributed to the poet ''UnPodiPasunKudaiyar'', written in praise of the [[Chola]] king [[Ilamchetchenni|IIamchetchenni]]. The poem makes the analogy of a poet receiving royal gifts and that worn by the relatives of the poet, to the event in the Ramayana, where [[Sita]] the Wife of The invincible (unconquerable) [[Rama]], drops her jewels when abducted by the Demon King [[Ravana]] and these jewels being picked up red-faced monkeys who delightfully wore the ornaments.<ref name="Columbia University Press"/><ref name="Purananuru"/> Purananuru mentions several kings doing several Vedic sacrifices, Poem 9 and 15 written by poet ''Nettimaiyār''' sings the greatnes of '''Palyākasālai Muthukudumi Peruvazhuthi''' who performed several [[Vedas|Vedic]] practises like [[Indian rituals after death|Anthima Samskaram]] for poor people and performing Vedic sacrifices like [[Yajna|Yagyam or Homam]] and planting ''Yupa sthambam'' <ref>https://www.poetrynook.com/poem/purananuru-part-15</ref><ref>https://www.poetrynook.com/poem/purananuru-part-9</ref><ref>https://sangamtranslationsbyvaidehi.com/ettuthokai-purananuru-1-200/</ref> The poet questions the King in the Poem 15, "Which of these is greater in number" the number of victory flags planted or the number of Yupa sthamba planted after performing many sacrifices ([[Yajna|Yagam]]) prescribed by the [[Vedas|Four Vedas]] and the books of ritual ([[Śrauta|Śrauta shastras]]), fine sacrifices of an excellence that will not die away and charged with a fame that is difficult to achieve, oblations that rose rich in ghee and all the other elements of the sacrifice? For you, which is greater, O greatness! The king is named as '''Palyākasālai Muthukudumi Peruvazhuthi Pandiyan''' and he got his epithet name '''Palyākasālai''' because he performed several [[Yajna|Yagams (Vedic Sacrifice)]].<ref>https://www.poetrynook.com/poem/purananuru-part-15</ref><ref>https://www.tamilvu.org/ta/tdb-titles-cont-lite-html-pandiyan-palkalasalai-280879</ref> Another important king is '''[[Perunarkilli|Rāsasooyam Vētta Perunarkilli Chozhan]]''', a Chozha king who performed the [[Rajasuya|Rajasooya yagyam]].<ref>https://sangamtranslationsbyvaidehi.com/ettuthokai-purananuru-201-400/</ref>

Purananuru poem 166, mentions a Brahmin king '''Poonchātrūr Pārpān Kouniyan Vinnanthāyan''' Who performs all the 21 Vedic Rituals and wearing a '''Sacred thread''' ([[Yagnopaveetham]] also referred to as Poonal<ref>https://www.thehindu.com/society/faith/importance-of-avani-avittam/article67243831.ece</ref>, Janeu, Jandhyam, Munja, Janivara and Yonya) over his shoulders and dose so many Vedic sacrifices.<ref>Purananuru poem 166</ref><ref>https://www.poetrynook.com/poem/purananuru-part-166</ref>
[[File:Oppiliapan temple yajana.png|thumb|320px|Seven types of Yagam out of 21 performed in the Oppiliappan temple.]]
[[File:Vishnu Yagna Kunda.jpg|thumb|320px|Yagasalai of [[Gunja Narasimha Swamy Temple, Tirumakudal Narasipura|Gunja Narasimhaswamy temple]] during Kumbabishekam.]]

<poem>
You who are descended from men renowned
for their superb learning, men who
performed to perfection all twenty-one
kinds of [[Yajna|sacrifice]], who confirmed
the truth, never thinking it false,
who understood lies that resembled truth,
thus defeating those who would contend
with the one ancient work of six sections ([[Sastras]])
and four divisions ([[Vedas]]), focused on Righteousness,
never swerving from the well-chosen words
of the Primal Being with his long, matted hair!
You glow in your black antelope skin
from dry forest land, needed for the ritual,
worn over the [[Yagnopaveetham|Thread]] around your shoulder!
Your beloved wives, worthy of your high
station, flawlessly faithful, free of harshness,
renowned for their virtue, donning the sacred ornaments,
their foreheads small, their hips and thighs large and wide,
of few words and rich abundant hair, request their ritual responsibilities!
Whether in settled land or jungle, omitting
none of the fourteen sites, you pour out
more ghee than there is water, sacrifice
more times than there are numbers, spread
your fame wider than the earth, and at
the great moment when a difficult sacrifice is completed,
may we always see you in your high and perfect state, offering hospitality!

''Purananuru poem 166 translated by [[George L. Hart]]''
<ref>https://sangamtranslationsbyvaidehi.com/ettuthokai-purananuru-1-200/</ref>
</poem>

[[Purananuru]] mentions 21 rituals in the poem 166, which is explained in the [[Vedas]] in detail, the [[Vedas]] split the 21 Rituals ([[Yajna|Yagams]]) into 3 main [[Yajna|Yagams]] with 7 [[Yajna|Yagams]] within each of the 3 Main [[Yajna|Yagams]].

The [[Kalpasutra (Vedanga)|Kalpa Sutras]] list the following [[Yajna|Yagams]] types:<ref>Prasoon, Ch.2, Vedang, Kalp.</ref>
1st main Yagam is the Pāka-Yagams: — Aṣtaka, sthālipāka, parvana, srāvaṇi, āgrahayani, caitri, and āsvīyuji. These Yagams involve consecrating cooked items. These Yagams are the first 7 Yagams.

2nd Main Yagam is the [[Somayaga|Soma-Yagams]]: — [[Agnistoma]], atyajnistoma, uktya, shodasi, vājapeya, atirātra, and aptoryama are the seven soma-Yagams. These Yagams are the next 7 Yagams.

3rd main Yagam is the Havir-Yagams: — Agniyādhāna, [[agnihotra]], darśa-pūrṇamāsa, āgrayana, cāturmāsya, niruudha paśu bandha,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://kamakoti.org/hindudharma/part5/chap23.htm|title=Is Sacrificial Killing Justified? from the Chapter "The Vedas", in Hindu Dharma|website=kamakoti.org|access-date=2019-03-09}}</ref> sautrāmaṇi. These involve offering havis or oblations. These are the last 7 Yagams.

All these 3 main yagams of 7 each together make 21. Purananuru poem 224 written by the well known poet [[Avvaiyar (Sangam poet)|Avvaiyar]] also mentions about the 3 main fires.[[Avvaiyar (Sangam poet)|Avvaiyar]] compares the King [[Perunarkilli|Rāsasooyam Vētta Perunarkilli Chozhan's]] beauty with the 3 main fires which are performed by the Twice-born Brahmins.<ref>https://www.poetrynook.com/poem/purananuru-part-367</ref>

====Paṭṭiṉappālai====

'''''[[Paṭṭiṉappālai]]''''' ({{lang-ta|பட்டினப் பாலை}}) is a [[Tamil language|Tamil]] poem in the ancient [[Sangam literature]].{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1973|pp=29, 57}} There are mentions of the [[Rigvedic deities]] like [[Varuna]] worshiped as sea god by fishermen and [[Mahalakshmi]] painted on the fort walls, She is called as the good and worthy goddess who protects the city from Evil and [[Jyestha (goddess)|Moodevi]].<ref name="ReferenceB"/> The text claims that the people and the priest perform the Vedic duties which were given by the gods. They tend care for the Bulls and cows and the priests of the city chant the [[Vedas|four Vedas]].<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Words like ''amaras'', ''avuthi'' and ''nanmariyor'' refer to Gods, [[Yajna|Yagam]] and Priests who chant the [[Vedas|Four Vedas]] with a pig tail or a "hermits with matted lock". The Priests offer cooked and uncooked food to the guests who come for the Vedic Sacrifice and They always speak the truth and deem it shame To lie.{{sfn|JV Chelliah|1946|p=41}} People of the city worships gods in the form of pillars (Likely considered to be [[Lord Vishnu]])<ref name=dinamalar>[http://temple.dinamalar.com/en/new_en.php?id=1132, Dinamalar Temples, Kaliyuga Varadaraja Perumal Temple]</ref><ref>https://archive.org/details/pattupattutentamilidyllschelliahj.v._108_Q/page/n81/mode/2up</ref> the text mentions, worship of [[Vishnu|Maha Vishnu]], [[Lakshmi|Mahalakshmi]] and [[Murugan|Skandha]].{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1973|pp=57–58}}{{sfn|JV Chelliah|1946|pp=17–20}}{{sfn|JV Chelliah|1946|p=33}} [[Muruga|Skandha]] was worshiped as the red god and the god of war.<ref>https://archive.org/details/pattupattutentamilidyllschelliahj.v._108_Q/page/38/mode/2up</ref>

====Maturaikkāñci====
'''''[[Maturaikkāñci]]''''' ({{Lang-ta|மதுரைக் காஞ்சி}}), {{sfn|JV Chelliah|1946|p=221}} is an ancient [[Tamil language|Tamil]] poem in the [[Sangam literature]].{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1974|pp=60–61}} It is a didactic poem and its title connotes the "poetic counsel addressed to the king of Madurai".{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1973|pp=58–59}}

The text mentions that the people Take bath on Krishna Paksha Sapthami to clean their sins, The Vedas were chanted by the priests and they follow the prescribed rights correctly as per the Vedas. The priest performed [[Yajna]] and other Karmas for the peoples wellness. The author of the text also tells the Pandyan King to relies the some Vedic principles like the unity of soul and universe.<ref name="ReferenceA">https://archive.org/details/pattupattutentamilidyllschelliahj.v._108_Q/page/n257/mode/2up</ref> It also mentions the ability of Rishis to leave their body and the soul reaching heaven during the process of Yoga which is called as ''Jivan muktas''.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> The people of thcity believied in superstions and Vampieres or ghosts roaming at midnight in the streets.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> People Worshiped Vishnu, Shiva, Lakshmi and Muruga.<ref>https://archive.org/details/pattupattutentamilidyllschelliahj.v._108_Q/page/n255/mode/2up</ref> There are mentions of a Pandiyan king named '''Mutukudumi''' performing Vedic Sacrifices and Sacrificial rights which gives him praises and learning Truths (Dharma) from Sages.<ref name="ReferenceG">https://archive.org/details/pattupattutentamilidyllschelliahj.v._108_Q/page/n303/mode/2up</ref> According to J. V. Chelliah The verse "holy practises that teach like Nediyon"<ref name="ReferenceG"/> refer to the Bhagavath Gita taught by Krishna (Nediyon is a name dedicated to Lord Vishnu<ref name="Tieken 186">{{Cite book |last=Tieken |first=Herman |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XyNXEAAAQBAJ&dq=Tirum%C4%81l&pg=PA186 |title=Kāvya in South India: Old Tamil Caṅkam Poetry |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-48609-6 |pages=186 |language=en}}</ref>).<ref name="ReferenceH">https://archive.org/details/pattupattutentamilidyllschelliahj.v._108_Q/page/n309/mode/2up</ref> The Pandyan king also gets a name "Palyagasalay" which means the king who performed several [[Yajna|Yagams]] (Vedic Sacrifices).<ref name="ReferenceH"/>

====Silappatikaram====

[[Cilappatikaram|Silappatikaram]], Which is the earliest Tamil epic mentions [[Kannagi]] and [[Kovalan]] marry according to the [[Vedas]] and go around the [[Homa (ritual)|ceremonial fire]] and perform the Holy rights as per the '''Vedas and sutras''' with a priest completing the holy wedding rites.{{sfn|R Parthasarathy (Translator)|2004|pp=25-27}}<ref>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=HWPg7EvPirgC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false</ref> Lines 1.27–29 of the epic introduces [[Kannagi]] with allusions to the [[Rigvedic deities|Rig Vedic Deity]] [[Mahalakshmi]] and the Vedic mythology of ''Samudra Mathan''.{{sfn|R Parthasarathy (Translator)|2004|pp=25-26}} Where as kovalan is introduced as the god of love himself, the incomparable [[Murugan|Skanda]]".{{sfn|R Parthasarathy (Translator)|2004|pp=25-27}}
{{Quote box
|title = Introduction of Kannagi
|quote=<poem>
"She is Lakshmi herself, goddess of peerless beauty that rose from the lotus, and chaste as the immaculate Arundhati".{{sfn|R Parthasarathy (Translator)|2004|pp=25-26}}
</poem>
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The Tamil epic has many references and allusions to the [[Sanskrit]] epics and puranic legends. For example, it describes the fate of [[Poompuhar]] suffering the same agony as experienced by [[Ayodhya]] when Rama leaves for exile to the forest as instructed by his father.<ref name="VRRDikshitar"/> The ''Aycciyarkuravai'' section (canto 27), makes mention of the Lord who could measure the three worlds, going to the forest with his brother, waging a war against Lanka and destroying it with fire.<ref name="VRRDikshitar"/> These references indicate that the ''Ramayana'' was known to the ''Cilappatikaram'' audience many centuries before the [[Ramavataram|Kamba Ramayanam]] of the 12 Century CE.<ref name="VRRDikshitar">{{harvnb|V R Ramachandra Dikshitar|1939|pp=193, 237}}</ref>

According to Zvelebil, the ''Cilappatikaram'' mentions the ''Mahabharata'' and calls it the "great war", just like the story was familiar to the Sangam era poets too as evidenced in Puram 2 and Akam 233.{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1974|p=130}} One of the poets is nicknamed as "The Peruntevanar who sang the Bharatam [Mahabharatam]", once again confirming that the Tamil poets by the time ''Cilappatikaram'' was composed were intimately aware of the Sanskrit epics, the literary structure and significance of ''Mahakavyas'' genre.{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1974|pp=130-132}}

There mentions of 2 great Vaishnavite temples dedicated to Lord Vishnu. One is [[Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam]] and other one is [[Venkateswara Temple, Tirumala]] which are the most famous South Indian temples of Lord Vishnu.{{sfn|Silappadikaram}}<ref name="google.co.in">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=egH2CwAAQBAJ&q=Tamil+Geographies | isbn=9780791472453 | title=Tamil Geographies: Cultural Constructions of Space and Place in South India | date=22 May 2008 | publisher=SUNY Press }}</ref>

Mention of [[Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam]]:- ''[[Silappatikaram|Silapadikaram]]'' (book 11, lines 35–40):{{sfn|Silappadikaram}}
<blockquote>
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[[Tamil script|Tamil]] 
ஆயிரம் விரித்தெழு தலையுடை அருந்திறற்
பாயற் பள்ளிப் பலர்தொழு தேத்த
விரிதிரைக் காவிரி வியன்பெருந் துருத்தித்
திருவமர் மார்பன் கிடந்த வண்ணமும் 
}}
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[[Transliteration]] 
''āyiram viritteḻu talaiyuṭai aruntiṟaṟ''
''pāyaṟ paḷḷip palartoḻu tētta''
''viritiraik kāviri viyaṉperu turuttit''
''tiruvamar mārpaṉ kiṭanta vaṇṇamum''
}}
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{{Cquote| On a magnificent cot having a thousand heads spread out, worshipped and praised by many, in an islet surrounded by Kaveri with billowing waves, is the lying posture of the one who has Lakshmi sitting in his chest.{{sfn|Silappadikaram}}}}
</blockquote>
Mention of [[Venkateswara Temple, Tirumala]][[Silappatikaram]], '''Kāṭukāṇ kātai: 41–51'''
<blockquote>
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[[Translation]] 
vīṅkunī raruvi vēṅkaṭa meṉṉum
ōṅkuyar malaiyat tucci mīmicai
virikatir ñāyiṟun tiṅkaḷum viḷaṅki
irumaruṅ kōṅkiya iṭainilait tāṉattu
miṉṉukkōṭi yuṭuttu viḷaṅkuviṟ pūṇṭu
naṉṉiṟa mēkam niṉṟatu pōlap
pakaiyaṇaṅ kāḻiyum pālveṇ caṅkamum
takaipeṟu tāmaraik kaiyi ṉēnti
nalaṅkiḷar āram mārpiṟ pūṇṭu
polampū vāṭaiyiṟ polintu tōṉṟiya
ceṅkaṇ neṭiyōṉ niṉṟa vaṇṇamum.<ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite web | url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.201802/page/n187/mode/2up?view=theater | title=The Silappadikaram | date=26 August 2023 }}</ref>
</div>
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[[Meaning]] 
(I also came to see) the beauty of the red-eyed Lord,
holding in His beautiful lotus-hands
the discus which is death to His enemies,
and also the milk-white conch;
(to see Him) wearing a garland of tender flowers
on His chest, and draped in golden flowers;
and dwelling on the topmost crest
of the tall and lofty hill named vēṅkaṭam.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
</div>
{{col-end}}
</blockquote>

Netiyon is another name dedicated to [[Maha Vishnu]] in Ancient [[Tamil Nadu|Tamilakam]].<ref name="Tieken 186"/> '''ceṅkaṇ neṭiyōṉ''' means “Red-eyed [[Vishnu]]” and '''Vēṅkaṭam''' refers to [[Venkateswara Temple, Tirumala]]. [[Maha Vishnu]] is being referenced as the '''Red eyed lord''' even in the sacred book [[Vishnu Sahasranama]] which is featured in the [[Anushasana Parva]] of [[Mahabharatha]].<ref name="D. Kinsley 1974 pp. 270">D. Kinsley (1974), ''Through the Looking Glass, History of Religions'', 13(4), pp. 270–305</ref><ref>"58th name in the [[Vishnu Sahasranama]] is लोहिताक्षः - lohitākṣaḥ - Red-eyed"</ref> Which shows that [[Ilango Adigal]] and Ancient [[Tamils]] were aware of the [[Vishnu Sahasranama]] which is much older than the [[Silappatikaram]].<ref name="D. Kinsley 1974 pp. 270"/>

There are several other mentions of Various gods like [[Vishnu|Maha Vishnu]], [[Mahalakshmi]], [[Murugan|Skanda]], [[Shiva]], [[Parvati|Uma]], [[Rama]], [[Krishna]], [[Balarama]], [[Jayanta]], [[Brahma]], [[Indra]], [[Kamadeva]], [[Rati]], [[Arundhati (Hinduism)|Arundhathi]], [[Rohini (goddess)|Rohini]], [[Chandra]], [[Agastya]], [[Narada]] and many more gods. There mentions of [[Mahabharatha]], [[Ramayana]], and Various [[Puranas]].

====Manimekalai====

[[File:Devi Kanyakumari - Laminated Poster.jpg|thumb|220px|Devi Kanyakumari is a Yajur Vedic Deity who is worshiped by Tamilians of Ancient Tamilakam.]]

'''''Maṇimēkalai''''' ({{lang-ta|மணிமேகலை}}, {{lit|jewelled belt, girdle of gems}}), also spelled '''''Manimekhalai''''' or '''''Manimekalai''''', is a [[Tamil language|Tamil epic]]<ref>{{cite book|title=A Social History of Early India|editor=Brajadulal Chattopadhyaya|publisher=Jointly published by CSC and Pearson Education for the Project of History of Indian Science, Philosophy and Culture|page=238|year=2009}}</ref> composed by [[Chithalai Chathanar|Kulavāṇikaṉ Seethalai Sataṉar]] probably somewhere between the 2nd century.{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1974|pp=140–143}}The epic has several references to Vedic practices and Puranas all around Tamilakam and other parts of India. Manimekalai's beauty is rivaled that of the goddess of fortune, [[Mahalakshmi]].{{sfn|Alain Danielou (Translator)|1993|pp=18-23}} The Canto 1 starts with a festival in the chola city Dedicated to [[Indra]]. {{sfn|Alain Danielou (Translator)|1993|pp=1-4}} Later Canto 3 mentions "Kalamukhas (a subtradition of [[Shaivism]]) wearing oleander flower garlands and Rudraksha mala, body smeared with ashes, acting madly".{{sfn|Alain Danielou (Translator)|1993|pp=7-13}} Sudhamati (Friend of Manimekalai) describes she is from Bengal, her father who is a Brahmin named Kaushika who performs [[Yajna|Vedic Sacrifices]], and they came to the south on a [Hindu] pilgrimage towards Kanyakumari. [[Kanyakumari]] is one of the sacred places in [[Tamil Nadu]] which is mentioned in the [[Upanishads]] of the [[Vedas]]. [[Devi Kanya Kumari]] has been mentioned in [[Ramayana]], [[Mahabharata]], and the Sangam works [[Manimekalai]], [[Purananuru]] and the [[Mahanarayana Upanishad]], a Vaishnava Upanishad in the [[Taittiriya Shakha|Taittiriya Samhita]] of Krishna [[Yajur Veda|Krishna Yajur Veda]].<ref name="Legends of Kanya Kumari Temple">{{cite web |url= http://www.kanyakumari-info.com/kumari_amman_temple.html |title= Kanya Kumari Temple |publisher= Kanyakumari info |year=2012 |access-date= 2013-07-24}}</ref> She related her journey to the journey of [[Rama]] in the ''[[Ramayana]]''.{{sfn|Alain Danielou (Translator)|1993|pp=18-23}} The epic talks abought a Vessel called "cow of abundence" They mention the story of first possessor Aputra. The canto starts with a Brahmin named Abhanjika [[Varanasi|Kassi]] (Hindu holy city) who taught the [[Vedas]].<ref name="ReferenceE">https://books.google.co.in/books?id=wl7T45yhh1sC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false</ref> It explains customs like ladies who are pregnant should not take a dip in oceans or holy rivers. The Text mentions the [[Upanayana]] ceremony (Sacred thread ceremony) done by Brahmins and teaching of Vedas.<ref name="ReferenceE"/> It mentions that Aputra who is a Brahimin fights against a set of Brahmins who performs animal sacrifices and tells them "You Brahmins Know the Vedas properly, heed my words and forgo any action which makes other living beings suffer. The other brahmins says do not twist the meaning of Vedas which were born from the mouth of Brahma who emerged from the navel of [[Lord Vishnu]]. Vishnu the Great god who has Chakra as his weapon.<ref name="ReferenceE"/> Aputra mentioned a list of Rishis who were born from animals and said these Rishis too gave you the Veda mantras. Aputra also mentions that the vedas do not see birth of Human.<ref name="ReferenceE"/> These lines show that Some Vedic Practitioners were Vegetarians<ref>{{harvnb|Bryant|2006|pp=195–196}}: "At the same time, preliminary signs of tension or unease with such slaughter are occasionally encountered even in the earlier Vedic period. As early as the Ṛgveda, sensitivity is shown toward the slaughtered beasts; for example, one hymn notes that mantras are chanted so that the animal will not feel pain and will go to heaven when sacrificed. The Sāmaveda says: "we use no sacrificial stake, we slay no victims, we worship entirely by the repetition of sacred verses." In the Taittiriīya Āraṇyaka, although prescriptions for offering a cow at a funeral procession are outlined in one place, this is contradicted a little further in the same text where it is specifically advised to release the cow in this same context, rather than kill her. Such passages hint, perhaps, at proto-tensions with the gory brutality of sacrificial butchery, and fore-run the transition between animals as objects and animals as subjects."</ref> were as some were Non Vegetarians.<ref>{{harvnb|Rosen|2020|pp=409–410}}: "Nonetheless, it is likely that even if flesh eating was widespread, and indulged in by certain sages, it occurred solely within the sacrificial context, or, beyond that, only by hunters and warriors in the forest, who also used it in sacrifice. In fact, this is what is indicated by the vast majority of Vedic texts on the subject, and it is certainly the version that has been passed down in later Hindu traditions. For further proof that meat eating occurred in Vedic culture only within the confines of sacrifice, see {{harvnb|Schmidt|2010}}."</ref> However many other sangam texts shows that Brahmins of south India followed Vegetarianism.{{sfn|JV Chelliah|1946|pp=98–100}}

===Texts which explain Vedic Mythology and Vedic principals===

[[File:Taittiriya Samhita Vedas, Devanagari script, Sanskrit pliv.jpg|700px|centre|thumb|The Vedas which have influenced the Tamil literature.]]

====Paripāṭal====
The '''''Paripādal''''' ({{lang-ta|பரிபாடல்}}, meaning ''the paripadal-metre anthology'') is a classical [[Tamil language|Tamil]] poetic work and traditionally the fifth of the [[Eight Anthologies]] (''Ettuthokai'') in the [[Sangam literature]].{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1973|pp=123–124}} Kamil Zvelebil states that the hymns dedicated to [[Lord Vishnu]] and [[Murugan|Lord Skandha]] has branded the paripadal as a Sanskrit plagiat within the so-called Sangam texts.<ref>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=OQ33i496MsIC&pg=PA48&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false</ref>
[[Paripāṭal]] explains several concepts of the [[Vedas]], Vedanta and many Puranic stories (Especially Vishnu and Skanda).<ref name=kz49/> It explains the brahmins chanting the vedas in which Vishnu is the great god mentioned in the Vedas.<ref>Your feet are greater than you! You have very great
godly attributes! The precious Vēdās, chanted by the
Brahmins resembling you, reveal your attributes!</ref> The text also explains conceptes of Chaturvyuhas mentioned in the [[Viṣṇudharmottara purāṇa]], and can be interpreted as an architectural representation of the ''[[Caturvyuha]]'' concept and the [[Pancaratra]] doctrine, centering on the depictions of the four main emanations of [[Vishnu]]: [[Vāsudeva]], [[Samkarshana]], [[Pradyumna]] and [[Aniruddha]].<ref name="AL">{{cite journal |last1=Lubotsky |first1=Alexander |title=The Iconography of the Viṣṇu Temple at Deogarh and the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa |journal=Ars Orientalis |volume=26 |pages=65–80 |jstor=4629500 |issn=0571-1371}}</ref> According to Lubotsky, it is likely that the entrance is dedicated to the [[Vāsudeva]] aspect of Vishnu; the Anantashayana side is his role as the creator ([[Aniruddha]]); the sage form of Nara-Narayana side symbolizes his preservation and maintainer role in cosmic existence ([[Pradyumna]]); and the Gajendramoksha side represents his role as the destroyer ([[Samkarsana]]).<ref name="AL"/>

<blockquote>
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[[Translation]] 
செங்கண் காரி! கருங்கண் வெள்ளை!
பொன்கண் பச்சை! பைங்கண் மாஅல்! 
}}
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[[Meaning]] 
O Vasudeven with red eyes and black complexion!
O Sangarudanan with black eyes and white complexion!
O Prathyumnan of red golden hue! O Aniruthan of
green complexion!
<ref name="ReferenceF">https://sangamtranslationsbyvaidehi.com/ettuthokai-paripadal/</ref>}}
{{col-end}}
</blockquote>
Paripāṭal also explains various legends of Vishnu Like [[Narasimha]] and [[Varaha]] which were mentioned in the Vedas way earlier. The Legend of Varaha is stated in the ''[[Taittiriya Aranyaka]]''. The ''[[Taittiriya Aranyaka]]'' (10.1.8) states the earth is lifted by a "black boar with hundred arms".<ref name="Daniélou">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/mythsgodsofindia00dani|url-access=registration|title=The Myths and Gods of India: The Classic Work on Hindu Polytheism from the Princeton Bollingen Series|last=Daniélou|first=Alain|publisher=Inner Traditions / Bear & Co|isbn=978-0-89281-354-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/mythsgodsofindia00dani/page/n201 168]|language=en}}</ref> The ''[[Taittiriya Brahmana]]'' (1.1.3.6) expands the ''Taittiriya Samhita'' narrative.<ref name="macdonell">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/vedicmythology00macd_0|title=... Vedic mythology|last=Macdonell|first=Arthur Anthony|publisher=Strassburg : Karl J. Trübner|others=Princeton Theological Seminary Library|pages=[https://archive.org/details/vedicmythology00macd_0/page/41 41]}}</ref><ref name=":11">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.283974|title=Vedic Index Of Names And Subjects Vol.ii|last=Arthur Anthony Macdonell|pages=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.283974/page/n248 245]}}</ref><ref name=":11"/> The "Lord of creation" was pondering on how the universe should be. He saw a lotus leaf and took the form of a boar to explore under it. He found mud and outstretched it on the leaf, rising above the waters. It was called the earth – [[Bhūmi|Bhumi]], literally "that which became (spread)".<ref name="Daniélou"/><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_8sBtAEACAAJ|title=Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa: Text in Devanāgari and Translation|publisher=Sri Aurobindo Kapāli Sāstry Institute of Vedic Culture|isbn=978-81-7994-166-9|page = 107 (Volume 1)|language=en}}</ref> and The legend of Narasimha which are found in the Vedic texts like Vajaseneyi Samhita 10.34, Pancavimsa Brahmana 12.6.8 and Taittiriya Brahmana 1.7.1.6.,{{sfn|Soifer|1991|pp=37–39}} is also found in the Paripāṭal poem 4 verse 10 to 21.<ref name="ReferenceF">https://sangamtranslationsbyvaidehi.com/ettuthokai-paripadal/</ref>{{sfn|Soifer|1991|pp=37–39}}

[[File:God Narasimha.jpg|thumb|370px|Narasimhaswamy killing Hiranyakashipu]]

'''Legend of Narasimha according to Paripāṭal'''
<poem>
O Lord with faultless red eyes! With
burning hatred in his heart and drying up the
sandal paste on his chest, [[Hiranyakashipu|Hiranyan]] the evil king
tortured his son [[Prahlada|Prahalathan]] for singing your
praises, inflicting on him great sorrow. The young
man was not disrespectful to his father who deserved
disrespect. You embraced Prahalathan’s fine chest
because of your love for him. You attacked and ruined
[[Hiranyakashipu|Hiranyan]] with great strength, leaping upon his
mountain-like chest as drums roared like thunder.
You tore him apart with your split claws and scattered
his flesh, along with broken pieces of pillar which you
split and came out, in your [[Narasimha]]n form.

''Paripāṭal, poem 4, Verses 10 - 21''<ref name="ReferenceF">https://sangamtranslationsbyvaidehi.com/ettuthokai-paripadal/</ref>
</poem>

====Mullaippāṭṭu====
[[File:Rock Cut Varaha Temple Containing Varaha And Vamana Incarnation Of Vishnu - 3.jpg|220px|thumb|Sculpture of Vamana in Mahabalipuram dating around 600 CE.<ref name="RingSalkin1995">{{cite book|author1=Trudy Ring|author2=Robert M. Salkin|author3=Sharon La Boda|title=Asia and Oceania: International Dictionary of Historic Places|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vWLRxJEU49EC&pg=PA912|access-date=7 February 2013|year=1995|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-884964-04-6|pages=912–}}</ref> It is the earliest known monument in Mahabalipuram though not the most visited due its hidden location.<ref name=Mantap>{{Cite web|url=http://puratattva.in/2010/08/04/mahabalipuram-the-workshop-of-pallavas-part-ii-44.html|title=Mahabalipuram – The Workshop of Pallavas – Part II|work=Adi-Varaha Perumal Cave Temple|access-date=23 February 2013|publisher=Puratatva.in|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421061449/http://puratattva.in/2010/08/04/mahabalipuram-the-workshop-of-pallavas-part-ii-44.html|archive-date=21 April 2012|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref>]]

[[Mullaippāṭṭu]] {{lang-ta|முல்லைப்பாட்டு}} is an ancient [[Tamil language|Tamil]] poem in the [[Sangam literature]] likely dated around 230 CE.{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1973|p=61}}{{sfn|Kamil Zvelebil|1974|p=25}} The first 7 lines of the '''Mullaippāṭṭu''' explains the [[Vamana|Vamana Avataram]] of [[Vishnu|Maha Vishnu]] as mentioned in the [[Rig Veda]], Book 1, Hymn 22, Verses 16–18.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv01022.htm|title=RigVeda Book I XXI 'Aśvins and Others' (Sanskrit and Transliteration)|website=www.sacred-texts.com|access-date=2020-01-19}}</ref> Lines 46–47 of ''Mullaippattu'' mentions to [[Vaishnava]] Brahmin yogis in ochre-colored clothes carrying three staves (Tridanda) and chanting the [[Vedas]] who were prominent during the period .{{sfn|JV Chelliah|1946|pp=84, 91, 94}}<ref>https://archive.org/details/pattupattutentamilidyllschelliahj.v._108_Q/page/n119/mode/2up</ref> There many other mentions of Vamana even other texts of [[Sangam literature]]<ref name=rosen1>{{Cite journal |title=REVIEW: Prince ILango Adigal, ''Shilappadikaram (The anklet Bracelet)'', translated by Alain Damelou |journal=Artibus Asiae |volume=37 |issue=1/2 |first=Elizabeth |last=Rosen |jstor=3250226 |page=149}}</ref> and other Vedas.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sv.htm|title=Hymns of the Samaveda|website=www.sacred-texts.com|access-date=2020-01-22}}</ref>

First 7 lines which explain Vamana measuring this world.
{{Blockquote|
<poem>
It's a short and a gloomy eve. The showers fall
From the clouds that travel fast with water drunk
from the cold, resounding sea, and rise from hills
With a turn to the right, as [[Vishnu|Maha Vishnu]]- he who bears
In mighty hands the [[Sudarshana Chakra|disc]] and [[Panchajanya|right-whorled chank]]
and [[Lakshmi]] clasps-once measured universes expanse
And rose with water dripping from his hands.
</poem>
– ''JV Chelliah: Mullaippāṭṭu 1 – 7'' <ref>https://archive.org/details/pattupattutentamilidyllschelliahj.v._108_Q/page/n123/mode/2up</ref>
}}

====Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai====
[[File:Murugan by Raja Ravi Varma.jpg|thumb|220px|right|The ''Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai '' poem is dedicated to Murugan.]]

'''''Tirumurukātṟuppadai''''' ({{lang-ta|திருமுருகாற்றுப்படை}}, meaning ''Guide to Lord Murugan'') is an ancient intensely devotional [[Tamil language|Tamil]] poem in the [[Sangam literature]] genre entirely dedicated to the god [[Murugan]]. Murugan is described as the nephew of the god [[Vishnu]], who is called [[Perumal (deity)|Mayon]] or the ruler of the worlds.{{sfn|Zvelebil|1973|pp=125–126}} Authored by [[Nakkiranar]], it is the first poem in the [[Ten Idylls]] (''Pattuppāṭṭu'') anthology.{{sfn|Zvelebil|1973|pp=125–126}} The poem is generally dated to the late classical period (2nd to 4th century CE),{{sfn|Zvelebil|1973|pp=119–126}} with some scholars suggesting it may have been composed a few centuries later.{{sfn|Zvelebil|1973|p=130}}

The ''Tirumurukarruppatai'' has 312 akaval meter verses, states Zvelebil.{{sfn|Zvelebil|1973|pp=125–127 with footnotes}} According to Francis, the critical editor has 317 verses.<ref name=ef2>{{cite book|author=Emmanuel Francis|year=2017|chapter=The Other Way Round: From Print to Manuscript|doi=10.1515/9783110543100|editor=Vincenzo Vergiani|editor2=Daniele Cuneo|editor3=Camillo Alessio Formigatti|title=Indic Manuscript Cultures through the Ages: Material, Textual, and Historical Investigations|publisher=De Gruyter|pages=321–322|isbn=978-3-11-054312-4|chapter-url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01946663/file/Francis_2017_the_other_way_round.pdf}}</ref> It describes the beauty and the warrior nature of Murugan, six sacred shrine regions of Murugan, legends such as the killing of Surapadma, his six faces and the twelve arms along with their functions. The Hindu god is described as a gentle erotic lover of goddesses as well as a gruesome bloody warrior on the battlefield.{{sfn|Zvelebil|1973|pp=125–127 with footnotes}}<ref name=ef2/> This elaboration includes 30 verses on the beauty of every body part of heavenly maidens.<ref>{{cite book|author=Abraham Mariaselvam|title=The Song of Songs and Ancient Tamil Love Poems: Poetry and Symbolism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9TULZX3SY18C |year=1988|publisher=Gregorian |isbn=978-88-7653-118-7|page=245}}</ref> Metaphors refer to [[Indra]], kantal flowers, emerald sea and others to paint "magnificent natural scenes", states Zvelebil. The poem highlights the peacock and his war banner flag. Both his first wife [[Devasena|Deyvayanai]] – the daughter of the Vedic god of rain, thunder and war Indra, and his second wife Valli – the daughter of a hunter, are included in the poem. It also mentions the [[Vedas]] and has numerous loanwords from the classical [[Sanskrit]] literature.{{sfn|Zvelebil|1973|pp=129–131 with footnotes}}

===Thirukkuṟaḷ===

[[File:Kazheesirama Vinnagaram2.jpg|220px|thumb|The [[Kazheesirama Vinnagaram|Thirivikrama Perumal Temple, Sirkazhi]] is said to be mentioned by [[Thiruvalluvar|Valluvar]] in his ''610th'' [[Kural|Thirukural]]. [[V. V. S. Aiyar]] quotes that the 610th ''[[Tirukkural]]'' mentions about the temple [[Kazheesirama Vinnagaram|Thirivikrama Perumal, Sirkazhi]].<ref>R., Dr. Vijayalakshmy (2001). An introduction to religion and Philosophy - Tévarám and Tivviyappirapantam (1st ed.). Chennai: International Institute of Tamil Studies. pp. 471–2.</ref>]]

The '''''Tirukkuṟaḷ''''' ({{lang-ta|திருக்குறள்|lit=sacred verses}}), is a classic Tamil language text consisting of 1,330 short couplets, or [[Kural (poetic form)|kural]]s, of seven words each.{{sfn|Pillai, 1994}} The text is divided into three books with aphoristic teachings on virtue ([[Aram (Kural book)|''aram'']]), wealth ([[Porul (Kural book)|''porul'']]) and love ([[Inbam (Kural book)|''inbam'']]), respectively.{{sfn|Sundaram|1990|pp=7–16}}{{sfn|Blackburn|2000|pp=449–482}}{{sfn|Zvelebil|1973|pp=157–158}} Considered one of the greatest works ever written on [[ethics]] and [[morality]], it is widely acknowledged for its universality and [[secularity|secular]] nature.{{sfn|Lal|1992|pp=4333–4334, 4341}}{{sfn|Holmström, Krishnaswamy, and Srilata, 2009|p=5}} Its authorship is traditionally attributed to [[Thiruvalluvar|Valluvar]], also known in full as Thiruvalluvar. The text has been dated variously from 300 BCE to 5th century CE. The traditional accounts describe it as the last work of the third [[Sangam literature|Sangam]], but linguistic analysis suggests a later date of 450 to 500 CE and that it was composed after the Sangam period.{{sfn|Zvelebil|1975|p=124}}

According to Many scholars, Valluvar's writings suggest that he belonged to [[Hinduism]]. Hindu teachers have mapped his teachings in ''{{transliteration|ta|ISO|Tirukkuṟaḷ}}'' to the teachings found in Hindu texts.{{sfn|Iraianban|1997|p=13}} Valluvar's treatment of the concept of [[ahimsa]] or [[non-violence]], which is the principal concept in both Hinduism<ref>{{cite book | last = Tähtinen | first = Unto | title = Ahimsa. Non-Violence in Indian Tradition | date = 1976 | location = London | pages = 2–3 (English translation: Schmidt p. 631) | isbn = 0-09-123340-2 }}</ref> and Jainism,{{sfn|Laidlaw|1995|pp=26–30}} bolsters this argument.{{sfn|Sundaram|1987|pp=xiii–xvii, Appendix note on verse 1103}} While the text extols the virtue of non-violence, it also dedicates many of 700 ''porul'' couplets to various aspects of statecraft and warfare in a manner similar to ''[[Arthashastra|Kautilya's Arthashastra]]''<ref name=Roy152/> "An army has a duty to kill in battle, and a king must execute criminals for justice."<ref>{{Cite journal |first=A.K. |last=Ananthanathan |year=1994 |title=Theory, and Functions of the State The Concept of aṟam (virtue) in Tirukkural |journal=East and West |volume=44 |jstor=29757156 |number=2/4 |page=325}}, Quote: "Non-killing is an absolute virtue (''Aram'') in the ''Arattuppal'' (the glory of virtue section), but the army's duty is to kill in battle and the king has to execute a number of criminals in the process of justice. In these cases, the violations of the ''Aram'' [in the earlier section] are justified [by Thiruvalluvar] in virtue of the special duties cast on the king and the justification is that 'a few wicked must be weeded out to save the general public' (TK 550)."</ref> This non-mystic realism and the readiness for just war teachings are similar to those found in Hinduism.<ref name="Roy152">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vRE3n1VwDTIC |title=Hinduism and the Ethics of Warfare in South Asia: From Antiquity to the Present |first=Kaushik |last=Roy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-01736-8 |pages=152–154, context: 144–154 (Chapter: Hinduism and the Ethics of Warfare in South Asia)}}</ref> According to M. S. Purnalingam Pillai, Valluvar has not condemned [[Saiva Siddhanta]] or its principles anywhere in the text,{{sfn|Pillai, 2015|p=75}} and instead hints at the [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnavite]] beliefs of Valluvar.

The three parts that the Kural literature is divided into, namely, ''aram'' (virtue), ''porul'' (wealth) and ''inbam'' (love), aiming at attaining ''vitu'' (ultimate salvation), follow, respectively, the four foundations of Hinduism, namely, [[Dharma]], [[Artha]], [[Kama]] and [[Moksha]].<ref name="Roy2012p152">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vRE3n1VwDTIC |title=Hinduism and the Ethics of Warfare in South Asia: From Antiquity to the Present |first=Kaushik |last=Roy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-01736-8 |pages=152–155}}</ref>{{sfn|Sundaram|1987|pp=xiii-xvii, Appendix note on verse 1103}} According to Norman Cutler, the prodigious 13th-century Tamil scholar Parimelalakar – who wrote the most influential commentary on ''{{transliteration|ta|ISO|Tirukkuṟaḷ}}'' – interprets the layout and focus on the Valluvar to be synonymous with the Sanskritic concept of [[Puruṣārtha]] (the objectives of human life).{{sfn|Cutler|1992|pp=553–554}} According to Parimelalakar, the Valluvar text covers primarily and directly the first three aspects, but not ''vitu'' (''moksha'', release). The text, however, does cover ''turavaram'' (renunciation) – the means to attain spiritual release. Thus, ''vitu'' is indirectly discussed.{{sfn|Cutler|1992|pp=554–555}}

In the introductory chapters of the Kural, Valluvar cites [[Indra]], the king of heaven, to exemplify the virtue of conquest over one's senses.{{sfn|Sundaram|1987|pp=21,159}} According to Tamil Hindu scholars such as Parimelalakar, other concepts and teachings found in Valluvar's text and also found in Hindu texts include [[Vedas]],<ref>{{Cite journal |first=A.K. |last=Ananthanathan |year=1994 |title=Theory and Functions of the State The Concept of aṟam (virtue) in Tirukkural |journal=East and West |volume=44 |jstor=29757156 |number=2/4 |page=321}}</ref> gods (''Trimurti''), sattva, [[guṇa]], munis and sadhus (renouncers), rebirth, affirmation of a primordial God, among others.{{sfn|Natarajan|2008|pp=1–6}}{{sfn|Cutler|1992|pp=555–558}}{{sfn|Kovaimani|Nagarajan|2013|pp=145–148}} According to Purnalingam Pillai, who is known for his critique of Brahminism, a rational analysis of the Valluvar's work suggests that he was a Hindu, and not a Jain.{{sfn|Blackburn|2000|pp=464–465}} Similarly, [[Yurij Yakovlevitch Glazov|J. J. Glazov]], a Tamil literature scholar and the translator of the Kural text into the [[Russian language]], sees "Thiruvalluvar as a Hindu by faith", according to a review by [[Kamil Zvelebil]].<ref>{{Cite journal |first=Kamil |last=Zvelebil |year=1984 |title=Tirukural, translated from Tamil into Russian by J. Glazov |journal=Archiv Orientální |volume=32 |pages=681–682}}</ref>

Valluvar's mentioning of God [[Vishnu|Maha Vishnu]] in couplets 610 and 1103 and [[Goddess Lakshmi]] in couplets 167, 408, 519, 565, 568, 616, and 617 hints at the [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnavite]] beliefs of Valluvar.{{sfn|Kovaimani|Nagarajan|2013|pp=145–148}} [[Shaivite]]s have characterised Valluvar as a devotee of [[Shiva]] and have installed his images in their temples.{{sfn|Pruthi|Sharma|1995|p=113}} According to Zvelebil, Valluvar sometimes uses epithets for God that are found in Hindu ''[[Dharmaśāstra]]s'' and not in Jaina texts.{{sfn|Zvelebil|1973|p=157}} Further, in some teachings about politics, economics, and love, Valluvar undoubtedly has translated into Tamil the verses found in [[Sanskrit]] texts such as ''[[Arthashastra|Kautilya's Arthashastra]]''.{{sfn|Zvelebil|1973|pp=170–171}}

==Tamil Vedic Literature after Sangam era==

====Naalayira Divya Prabandham====

The '''Naalayira Divya Prabandham''' ({{lang-ta|நாலாயிரத் திவ்வியப் பிரபந்தம்}}) is a collection of 4,000 [[Tamil language|Tamil]] verses composed<ref name="srivaishnavam">{{cite news|
title=''Divya Prabandham – An introduction''
| work=Srivaishnavam.com|
url=http://www.srivaishnavam.com/prabandham.htm|
access-date= 2007-06-20}}</ref> by the 12 [[Alvars]] who lived between '''5th century and 9th century CE'''.<ref>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=8TwHhuZrZ-wC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false</ref> It was compiled in its present form by [[Nathamuni]] during the 9th century. The work, an important liturgical compilation of the Tamil [[Alvars]], marks the beginning of the canonisation of 12 ''[[Vaishnava]]'' poet saints, and these hymns are still sung extensively today. The works were lost before they were collected and organised in the form of an anthology by Nathamuni.

[[File:Raja Ravi Varma, Lord Garuda.jpg|thumb|220px|Maha Vishnu with Sri Devi and Bhoodevi, who are glorified in this text and considered as the Supreme God of the universe.]]

The devotional outpourings of the Alvars, composed during the early medieval period of [[History of Tamil Nadu|Tamil history]], were the catalysts behind the [[Bhakti movement|Bhakti Movement]] through their hymns of worship to Vishnu and his avatars. They praised the [[Divya Desam]]s, the 108 divine realms of deities affiliated to Vaishnavism. The poetry of the Alvars echoes ''bhakti'' to God through love, and in the ecstasy of such devotions they sang hundreds of songs which embodied both depth of feeling and the felicity of expressions.<ref>{{cite web|title=Indian Literature Through the Ages |url=http://ccrtindia.gov.in/literaryarts.htm |publisher=Indian literature, Govt of India |access-date=2013-04-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515213735/http://ccrtindia.gov.in/literaryarts.htm |archive-date=15 May 2013 }}</ref> The collection of their hymns is known as the ''[[Divya Prabandha|Naalayira Divya Prabandham]]''. The ''bhakti'' literature that sprang from Alvars has contributed to the establishment and sustenance of a culture that deviated from the [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic religion]] and rooted itself in devotion as the only path for salvation. In addition, they contributed to Tamil devotional verses independent of a knowledge of [[Sanskrit]].<ref name="About Alvars">{{cite web
|title = ''About Alvars''
|publisher = divyadesamonline.com
|url = http://www.divyadesamonline.com/alwars.asp
|access-date = 2007-07-02
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070621230057/http://www.divyadesamonline.com/alwars.asp
|archive-date = 21 June 2007
|url-status = dead}}</ref> As a part of the legacy of the Alvars, five Vaishnavite philosophical traditions (''[[sampradaya]]s'') developed over a period of time.<ref name="Mittal2004">{{cite book
| last1= Mittal| first1=S. G. R.|last2= Thursby
| year = 2006
| title = Religions of South Asia: An Introduction
| publisher = Routledge
| isbn =9780203970027
|page=27
}}</ref>

The ''Divya Prabandham'' sings the praises of [[Narayana]] ([[Vishnu]]) and his many forms. The Alvars sang these songs at various sacred shrines known as the [[Divya Desams]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rajarajan|first=R.K.K.|year=2013|title=Historical sequence of the Vaiṣṇava Divyadeśas. Sacred venues of Viṣṇism|url=https://www.academia.edu/12405403|journal=Acta Orientalia, Societates Orientales Danica Fennica Norvegia Svecia|volume=74|pages=37–90}}</ref> The [[Tamil language|Tamil]] ''[[Vaishnavite]]s'' are also known as ''Ubhaya Vedanti'' (those that follow both Vedas, that is, the Sanskrit [[Rigveda]], [[Yajurveda]], [[Samaveda]], and [[Atharvaveda]], as well as the Tamil-language ''[[Tiruvaymoli]],'' a work which devotees of Sri Vaishnavism regard as the Tamil Veda).<ref name="tveda">{{cite book|last=Carman|first=John|title=The Tamil Veda: Pillan's Interpretation of the Tiruvaymoli|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|page=4}}</ref> In many temples — [[Srirangam]], for example — the chanting of the Divya Prabandham forms a major part of the daily service. It is also recited in some North Indian Vaishnavite temples, such as [[Badrinath Temple|Badrinath]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Prabhu|first=S.|title=Dance of Devotion|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/dance-of-devotion/article5003192.ece|access-date=2021-03-06|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> The Divya Prabandham is recited along with the Vedas,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ramesh|first=M. S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EgdJAQAAIAAJ|title=108 Vaishnavite Divya Desams: Divya desams in Chola Nadu|publisher=T.T. Devasthanams|pages=42|language=en}}</ref> and it is given equal status to the Vedas in the Tenkalai denomination of [[Sri Vaishnavism]], largely due to the efforts of [[Ramanuja]] who enshrined the Divya Prabandham on the same pedestal as the Vedas.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Gupta|first1=Sonika|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5ATgCgAAQBAJ|title=Politics and Cosmopolitanism in a Global Age|last2=Padmanabhan|first2=Sudarsan|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-34132-1|language=en}}</ref> The text promotes Vaishnavism and [[Vedic Religion|Vedism]] together in a ratio.<ref name="tveda"/>

====Tevaram====
[[File:Shiva-Parvati on Nandi.jpg|thumb|220px|Lord Shiva with his wife Devi Parvathi in ''Rishaba Vahana''.]]
The '''''[[Tevaram]]''''' ({{lang-ta|தேவாரம்}}, denotes the first seven volumes of the twelve-volume collection ''[[Tirumurai]]'', a [[Saivism|Śaiva]] narrative of [[Vedas|Vedic]] and [[Puranas|Puranic]] heroes, as well as a [[Hagiography|hagiographic]] account of early Saiva saints set in devotional poetry.{{sfn|Cort|1998|p=177}} The ''Tevaram'' volumes contain the works of the three most prominent Saiva Tamil poets of the 7th and 8th centuries: [[Sambandar]], [[Appar]], and [[Sundarar]].<ref>Ignatius Hirudayam, "Canonical Books of Saivism and Vaishnavism in Tamil and Sanskrit" in {{harvnb|Menachery|2010|loc=p. 16 {{abbr|1=ff.|2=and the following pages}}}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Cutler|1987|p=4}}</ref><ref name="Zvelebi92">{{harvnb|Zvelebil|1974|p=92}}</ref> The three poets were not only involved in portraying their personal devotion to [[Shiva]], but also engaged a community of believers through their songs. Their work is an important source for understanding the Śaiva [[Bhakti movement]] in the [[Middle kingdoms of India#The Deccan plateau and South|early medieval South India]].<ref>{{harvnb|Sabaratnam|2001|p=25}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Schüler|2009|p=32}}</ref> Tevaram text has been called as a Shaiva "Tamil-vētam" (a Tamil Veda) in Volume 4 of the Madras Tamil Lexicon. This equivalence with the ancient Hindu Vedas has been explained by the Tamil Shaiva scholars in that the Tevaram "resembles the Vedic hymns" by being poetry of the "highest order" that also systematically builds the philosophical foundations of Shaivism. It differs from the ancient Vedas in that it focuses on intense ''bhakti'' for Shiva.{{sfn|Kandiah|1973|pp=16–17}}

The Tevaram helped structure a devotional tradition with its own authoritative canon, and thereby negated the primacy of Vedic orthodoxy and [[Smartha]] tradition, states Champakalakshmi.<ref name="K2">{{harvnb|R. Champakalakshmi|2007|p=53}}</ref> Yet they extend rather than reject the Vedic tradition. The hymns, states Peterson, directly praise the four Vedas and Sanskrit, adding that devotion to Shiva is same as these. For example, in Appar VI.301.1, the Tevaram states "See him who is Sanskrit of the North, and southern Tamil, and the four Vedas". Such themes appear repeatedly in this text. Thus, Tevaram is not antagonistic to the Vedic tradition, it compliments and redirects the devotee to bhakti through songs and music, for the same spiritual pursuit.{{sfn|Peterson|1989|pp=69–74}}{{refn|group=note|For a few additional examples (Translator: V.M.Subramanya Ayyar), see: '''[https://www.ifpindia.org/digitaldb/site/digital_tevaram/U_TEV/VMS1_024.HTM Tevaram I.24.10]''': "the god in kāḻi who pressed down angrily by gently fixing his toe to crush the arakkaṉ who lifted (the mountain), the pure one who smears the ash which is dust, took pity (on him) as he began to praise god by singing Sama Veda (cāma vētam);" 
'''[https://www.ifpindia.org/digitaldb/site/digital_tevaram/U_TEV/VMS1_052.HTM Tevaram I.52.1]''': "one who dwells in Neṭuṅkaḷam, you who have the Vedas (Vetams) as your word! whose dress is a skin! who has on his long caṭai a prospering crescent! unless people praise you in the above mentioned manner; you do not mind the faults of people who have defects; weed out the affliction of those who have moral firmness and who are superior by their principles.;" 
'''[https://www.ifpindia.org/digitaldb/site/digital_tevaram/U_TEV/VMS5_030.HTM Tevaram V.30.6]''': "(My mind!) worship with folded hands sincerely early in life, Shiva (Civaṉ) who chants the four Vedas (Vētams) which contain good things, who receives alms in the teethless white skull, who is in tillai (citamparam), and the god who is in parāittuṟai in the south; 
'''[https://www.ifpindia.org/digitaldb/site/digital_tevaram/U_TEV/VMS7_069.HTM Tevaram VII.69.9]''': "God well-versed in Vedic love who destroyed the precious life of the Kālaṉ (God of death) who came without any regard, to bind by the noose Markaṇṭeyaṉ the bachelor who fell prostrate at the feet of Shiva (Civaṉ) with flowers from which fragrance was spreading, with the leg! the god in Tirumullaivāyil of great wealth! the spiritual preceptor who gave out the meanings of the Vedas (Vētams) which are eternal; root out the sufferings that I your slave have to undergo.
}}

In their structure and focus, the ''patikams'' (praise poem) of the Tevaram are "closely associated with early Sanskrit [[strota]]s" of the types found in ''Bhagavad Gita'', the ''Bharavi'', some compositions of Kalidasa and some chapters of the epic ''Mahabharata'', all dated between about the 2nd century BCE and the 5th century CE, states Peterson.{{sfn|Peterson|1989|pp=24–26}} The melodic prosody, structure and genre that the Tevaram exemplifies has roots and illustrations in the ''Satarudriya'' of the ''[[Yajurveda]]'', an ancient prototypical devotional hymn to Rudra-Shiva.{{sfn|Peterson|1989|pp=26–27}}

According to Sabaratnam, the Tevaram verses were more oriented towards the folk tradition. It used the [[Tamil language]] and thus set aside the primacy of Sanskrit liturgies in religious matters. Tevaram made the direct devotion to Shiva more easily accessible to the people.<ref name="Sabaratnam p26">{{harvnb|Sabaratnam|2001|p=26}}</ref>

====Ramavatharam====
[[File:Rama and Hanuman fighting Ravana, an album painting on paper, c1820.jpg|220px|thumb|Ramavatharam is the Tamil version of Ramayanam written by Kambar.]]
'''''Ramavataram''''', popularly referred to as '''''Kamba Ramayanam''''', is a [[Tamil language|Tamil]] [[Tamil mythology|epic]] that was written by the [[Tamil people|Tamil]] poet [[Kambar (poet)|Kambar]] during the 12th century. Based on [[Valmiki]]'s ''[[Ramayana]]'' (which is in [[Sanskrit]]), the story describes the life of King [[Rama]] of [[Ayodhya]]. However, ''Ramavatharam'' is different from the [[Sanskrit]] version in many aspects – both in spiritual concepts and in the specifics of the storyline.<ref name="Sundaram2002">{{cite book|author=P S Sundaram|title=Kamba Ramayana|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EPTcCd32pJIC&pg=PT18|publisher=Penguin Books Limited|isbn=978-93-5118-100-2|pages=18–}}</ref><ref name="Aiyar">{{cite book |last1=Aiyar |first1=V V S |title=Kamba Ramayanam - A Study with translations in verse or poetic prose of over four thousand of the original poems |publisher=Delhi Tamil Sangam |location=Parliament Street, New Delhi |url=https://archive.org/details/Kamba.Ramayanam-A.Study |access-date=18 June 2019}}</ref> This historic work is considered by both Tamil [[scholar]]s and the general public as one of the greatest literary works in [[Tamil literature]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/Focus-on-Kamban-poet-extraordinaire/article16302761.ece |title=Focus on Kamban, poet extraordinaire |work=The Hindu |access-date=8 February 2018}}</ref>

The original version of ''Ramayana'' was written by [[Valmiki]]. It is an epic of 24,000 verses which depicts the journey of [[Rama]], a prince of [[Ayodhya]] who belonged to [[Raghuvamsa (dynasty)|Raghuvamsa]] (Solar dynasty). In [[Hinduism]], Rama is the seventh [[Avatar|incarnation]] of [[Vishnu]](The supreme being of [[Vaishnavism]]). The entire life story of [[Rama]], [[Sita]] and their companions allegorically discusses duties, rights and social responsibilities of an individual. It illustrates [[Dharma]] and dharmic living through model characters.<ref name="Brackney2013p238">{{cite book|author=William H. Brackney |title=Human Rights and the World's Major Religions, 2nd Edition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KZRgAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA238 |year=2013|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-4408-2812-6|pages=238–239}}</ref><ref name="Hindery1978p95">{{cite book|author=Roderick Hindery|title=Comparative Ethics in Hindu and Buddhist Traditions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-FswBLvTkvQC&pg=PA95 |year=1978|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0866-9|pages=95–124}}</ref>

The book is divided into six chapters, called ''Kandam'' in Tamil. The Kandams are further divided into 113 sections called ''Padalam'' (படலம்) in Tamil. These 113 sections contain approximately 10569 verses of the epic.<ref name="Mukherjee1998">{{cite book|author=Sujit Mukherjee|title=A Dictionary of Indian Literature: Beginnings-1850|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YCJrUfVtZxoC&pg=PA162|year=1998|publisher=Orient Blackswan|isbn=978-81-250-1453-9|pages=162}}</ref>

* Bala Kandam (Chapter: Childhood)
* Ayodhya Kandam (Chapter: Ayodhya)
* Aranya Kandam (Chapter: Forest)
* Kishkindha Kandam (Chapter: Kishkindha)
* Sundara Kandam (Chapter: Beautiful)
* Yuddha Kandam (Chapter: War)<ref name="Mudaliyar">{{cite book |last1=Mudaliyar |first1=V S |title=Kamba Ramayanam - A condensed version in English verse and prose |publisher=Ministry of Education and Youth Services, Government of India |location=New Delhi |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.134960 |access-date=18 June 2019}}</ref><ref name="GLHart">{{cite book |last1=Hart |first1=George L |last2=Heifetz |first2=Hank |title=The Forest Book of the Ramayana of Kampan |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkerley, United States |isbn=9780520060883 }}</ref>

====Periya Puranam====
[[File:Somasi Maraa Nayanar.png|thumb|220px|Somasi Mara Nayanar is one of the sixty-three [[Nayanars]]. He performed Several [[Somayajna|Somayagams]] hence, got his epithet name Somasi.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.shaivam.org/english/sen_th12_somasi.htm | title=The Puranam of Somasi Maara Nayanar | accessdate=12 December 2014 | author=T N Ramachandran}}</ref>]]
The '''''Periya‌ purāṇa‌m''''' ([[Tamil language|Tamil]]: பெரிய‌ புராண‌ம்), that is, the ''great purana'' or epic, sometimes called ''Tiruttontarpuranam'' ("Tiru-Thondar-Puranam", the Purana of the Holy Devotees), is a [[Tamil language|Tamil]] poetic account depicting the lives of the sixty-three [[Nayanars]], the canonical poets of Tamil [[Shaivism]]. It was compiled during the 12th century by [[Sekkizhar]]. It provides evidence of trade with [[West Asia]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=11FYACaVySoC&dq=book+kader+mohideen&pg=PA6 Glimpses of life in 12th century South India]</ref> The ''Periya Puranam'' is part of the corpus of Shaiva canonical works. All the saints mentioned in this epic poem are historical persons and not mythical. Therefore, this is a recorded history of the 63 Saiva saints called as [[Nayanmars]] (devotees of Lord Siva), who attain salvation by their unflinching devotion to [[Shiva|Siva]]. The Nayanmars that he talks about belonged to different communities, different occupations and lived in different times.

Sekkilhar compiled and wrote the ''Periya Puranam'' or the ''Great Purana'' in [[Tamil language|Tamil]] about the life stories of the sixty-three [[Shaiva]] [[Nayanars]], poets of the God [[Shiva]] who composed the liturgical poems of the [[Tirumurai]], and was later himself canonised and the work became part of the sacred canon.<ref name="ADictionaryofIndianLiterature">A Dictionary of Indian Literature By Sujit Mukherjee.</ref> Among all the hagiographic ''Puranas'' in [[Tamil language|Tamil]], Sekkilhar's ''Tiruttondar Puranam'' or ''Periyapuranam'', composed during the rule of [[Kulothunga Chola II|Kulottunga II]] (1133–1150 CE) stands first.<ref name="MedievalIndianLiterature">Medieval Indian Literature By K. Ayyappapanicker, Sahitya Akademi.</ref>

==Inscriptions==

===Velvikudi inscription===
[[File:Velvikudi inscription (cropped 1.1).jpg|thumb|Velvikudi inscription, plate 1|406x406px]]

The '''Velvikudi inscription''' is an 8th-century bilingual [[Indian copper plate inscriptions|copper-plate grant]] from the [[Pandya dynasty|Pandya kingdom]] of [[southern India]]. Inscribed in [[Sanskrit]] and [[Tamil language|Tamil]] languages, it records the renewal of a [[brahmadeya|grant]] of the Velvikudi village to a [[brahmin|brahmana]] by the Pandya king Nedunjadaiyan Varaguna-varman I alias Jatila Parantaka (r. c. 768—815 CE) in c. 769-770 CE.

The inscription begins with a Sanskrit portion that invokes the God [[Shiva]], and describes the mythical lineage of the Pandya kings, naming the sage [[Agastya]] as their family priest. It also gives the following account of the dynasty's origin:{{sfn|H. K. Sastri|1983|p=305}} At the end of the previous ''[[kalpa (aeon)|kalpa]]'' (age), a king named Pandya ruled the coastal region. This king was reborn as [[Budha]], the son of the [[Chandra|Moon]].{{sfn|H. K. Sastri|1983|p=293}} Budha's son [[Pururavas]] introduced the dynasty's emblem - a pair of fish, and shared his throne and taxes with [[Indra]].{{sfn|Herman Tieken|2001|pp=135-136}} Pururavas' descendant [[Maravarman]] was a patron of the learned, who conquered several enemies and gave away heaps of gold.{{sfn|H. K. Sastri|1983|p=305}} These inscriptions shows the Vedic belief of the king, as the inscription mentions the [[Rigvedic deities]] such as [[Pururavas]], [[Budha]] [[Agastya]] and [[Indra]]<ref name=dandekar>Dandekar, R.N. (1962). ''Indian Mythology'' in S. Radhakrishnan ed. ''The Cultural Heritage of India'', Calcutta: The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture, {{ISBN|81-85843-03-1}}, pp.229–30, 230ff</ref> The inscription further mentions that the enemy of king Pallavamalla ran away from the battlefield when faced with Rajasimha, wondering if the Pandya king was [[Shiva]], [[Vishnu]], or [[Indra]].{{sfn|H. K. Sastri|1983|p=305}} Rajasimha generously distributed his wealth among the [[brahmin|brahmanas]], beggars and temples. He married the daughter of the Malava king, and their son was the next ruler, Jatila.{{sfn|H. K. Sastri|1983|p=305}} (Sastri identified Malava with modern [[Malenadu|Mala-nadu]].{{sfn|H. K. Sastri|1983|p=297}}) Jatila alias Parantaka was almost equal to [[Kartikeya|Skanda]], the son of Shiva.{{sfn|H. K. Sastri|1983|p=305}}

The Tamil version explains a [[Yajna|Vedic Sacrifice]] done by a [[Brahmin]] called Narkorran ([[Tamil Lexicon]]: Naṟkoṟṟan who knew the [[Vedas]] and a headman of [[Korkai]]. The Sacrifice took place at Velvikudi (Vēḷvikkuṭi), with support of the Pandya king Palyaga Mudukudimi Peurvaluti (Palyāka Mutukuṭumi Peruvaḻuti).{{sfn|H. K. Sastri|1983|p=293}} The inscription defines the boundaries of the Velvikudi village with reference to landmarks such as vegetation, ponds, mounds, and other villages such as Payal and Kulandai;{{sfn|S.C. Mishra|Manisha Agnihotri|2009|p=215}} It mentions that the king [[Arikesari Maravarman|Arikesari Asamasaman Maravarman]] defeated the king of [[Kerala Kingdom|Kerala]] several times at the strongly-fortified town of [[Puliyoor|Puliyur]] and performed the ''[[hiranyagarbha (donation)|hiranyagarbhavrtham]]'' (Which is mentioned in the [[Atharvaveda]]) and ''[[tulabhara]]'' gift-giving ceremonies, he protected the [[Brahmins|brahmanas]] and the infirm.{{sfn|H. K. Sastri|1983|p=307}} It also mentions [[Maravarman Rajasimha I]] reached [[Kodumudi|Pandi-Kodumudi]], and worshipped Pashupati ([[Shiva]]). He established a marital alliance with the Gangaraja.{{sfn|H. K. Sastri|1983|p=294}} He performed the gift-giving ceremonies ''[[gosahasra]]'' (gift of cows), ''hiranyagarbha'', and ''tulabhara''. He relieved the distress of those who studied the [[Vedas]], and repaired the fortifications at Kudal, [[Vanchi Muthur|Vanji]] and [[Uraiyur|Kozhi]].{{sfn|H. K. Sastri|1983|p=307}} The inscription ends with the Sanskrit portion with names Mangalaraja Madhuratara of Karavandapura as the executor (''ajnapti'') of the grant.{{sfn|S.C. Mishra|Manisha Agnihotri|2009|p=215}} It describes him as a ''[[vaidya]]ka'', a master of the [[shastra]]s, a poet and an orator. This portion ends with four [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnavite]] imprecatory verses (cursing those who violate the grant deed).{{sfn|H. K. Sastri|1983|p=294}} This is an important scripture which mentions [[Yajna|Vedic Sacrifices]].

===Other important Inscriptions===

There are several other inscriptions of Vedic sacrifices in Ancient Tamilakam, one of the earliest inscriptions are from the early 6th century by the Pallava king [[Simhavarman III]] According to the Sivan Vāyil inscription, he performed '''10 [[Ashvamedha|Aśvamedha yajña]]''' (Daśāśvamedha), Bahusuvarṇa & Kratu sacrifices.<ref>{{cite web |title=SIVANVĀYIL INSCRIPTION OF SIṂHAVARMĀ – EARLIEST EPIGRAPH IN GRANTHA SCRIPT |url=http://sarasvatam.in/en/2015/12/10/sivanvayil-inscription-of-si%e1%b9%83havarma-earliest-epigraph-in-grantha-script/}}</ref> Robert Lingat states that epigraphical evidence such as the Pallava inscriptions confirm that [[Apastamba Dharmasutra|Apastamba tradition]] existed in South India, in ancient times.{{Sfn|Robert Lingat|1973|p=22}}

Most of the Tamil country inscriptions were written in Tamil, but beginning in the 6th century, both stone and copper-plate inscriptions were written in Sanskrit as well, some being bilingual.<ref name="tamil">{{cite web
|url=https://www.vedamsbooks.com/no48436.htm
|title=History and Culture of Tamil Nadu : As Gleaned from the Sanskrit Inscriptions
|publisher=
|access-date=2007-03-14
}}</ref> Indian archaeologists have discovered hundreds of inscriptions during the last 120 years. Professor [[E. Hultzsch]] began collecting South Indian inscriptions systematically from the latter part of 1886 when he was appointed Epigraphist to the Government of Madras.

{{Quote box
|title = Vishnu [[Dashavatara]] inscription
|quote=<poem>
''[[Matsya]]h [[Kurma|Kurmo]] [[Varaha|Varahas-cha]] [[Narasimha]]s-cha [[Vamana]]''
''[[Parashurama|Ramo]] [[Rama|Ramas-cha]] [[Balarama|Ramas-cha]] [[Buddha]] [[Kalki]]-cha te dasa''

The Fish, the Tortoise, the Boar, the Man-lion, the Dwarf, Parasurama, Dasarathi Rama, Balarama, Buddha and Kalki – thy ten.<ref>Rao Bahadur H. Krishna Sastri (1926), ''Two Statues of Pallava Kings and Five Pallava Inscriptions in a Rock temple at Mahabalipuram'', Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India, Volume 26, pages 5-6</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=D. Kiran Kranth Choudary|author2=C. Udayalakshmi|title=Rāmāyaṇa in Indian Art and Epigraphy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZObVAAAAMAAJ |year=2006|publisher=Harman |isbn=978-81-86622-76-6|page=19}}</ref>
</poem>
|width=50%
|source = —Sanctum entrance, Adivaraha cave (7th century); earliest [[avatar]]-related epigraphy<ref name=krsrini166/><ref>{{cite book|author1=Michael Dan Rabe|author2=G. John Samuel|title=The Great penance at Māmallapuram: deciphering a visual text |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bCFuAAAAMAAJ |year=2001|publisher=Institute of Asian Studies|isbn=978-81-87892-00-7|page=124}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|This 7th century (or early 8th century) inscription is significant for several reasons. It is the earliest known stone inscription about the ten avatars of Vishnu, and prior to that, they are found in older texts. The stone inscription mentions the [[Buddha]] as an avatar of Vishnu in a Hindu temple. It also does not mention Krishna, but Balarama consistent with old Hindu and Jain texts of South India, the former equating Krishna to be identical to Vishnu.<ref name=krsrini166>K R Srinivasan (1964), [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.534008/2015.534008.architectural-survey#page/n179/mode/2up/ Cave temples of the Pallavas], Archaeology Survey of India, Government of India, pages 166-175</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Nagaswamy, R|title=Mahabalipuram (Mamallapuram) |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=UTNuAAAAMAAJ |year=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-569373-7|page=27}}</ref>}}
|bgcolor=#FFE0BB
|align = right
}}

[[File:Sasanam Huzur Plates of Kollam 42 Inscription, Tamil and Sanskrit, Parthasarathi temple and salai Parthivapuram India, 2 plates of 5.jpg|thumb|Two of five 9th-century inscription plates in Tamil and Sanskrit about the school of higher studies at Parthasarathi temple.]]

Inscriptions in A potsherd excavated from the Kodumanal Archeological site has the name '''Kannan Adhan''' inscribed in Tamil Brahmi. The period of this inscription is estimated to be 2-3 century BCE. Kannan is one of the Tamil names describing [[Lord Krishna]] and this is one of the earliest reference of His name found in Tamilakam. Thirukural is another example from the Sangam literature mentioning Krishna as '''Kannan''' in his couplet 1103.<ref>https://www.ytamizh.com/thirukural/kural-1103/</ref>

Many other Inscriptions of Pallavas on Vedas and puranas were made between 500 CE to 700 CE. Later many other chola and Pandyas had also made inscriptions. There are several inscriptions of Medival cholas donating and Building temples for teaching the Vedas. [[Parthasarathy temple, Parthivapuram|The Parthasarathy temple, Parthivapuram]] is one of the Vedic schools located in Kanyakumari built by the king Karunandadakkan of the [[Ay dynasty]] around 800 CE.<ref name="EI42">{{cite book |author=K.G. Krishnan, Mysore |chapter=Parthivapuram Inscription of (Kollam) Year 98+1 |editor=K.V. Ramesh |title=Epigraphia Indica |publisher=Archaeological Survey of India |volume=XLI |year=1989 |url=http://ignca.gov.in/Asi_data/79612.pdf |pages=1–6 }}</ref> A 923 CE inscription found in front of the temple records gifts to the temple, by Panchavan Brahmadhiraja alias Kumaran Narayanan.<ref name="EI42"/> Another 10th century inscription (dated before 940 CE) discovered at the temple, in Tamil language and Vatteluttu is dated to the reign of Para-kesari-varman Virasholap-perumangadigal, who is identified with [[Parantaka I]] alias Virachola.<ref name="EI42"/>

The fourth and fifth plates of the copper plates provide the Vedic and related studies focus and constitution for the school:<ref name="T.A. Gopinatha Rao 1910 pp. 1-14">T.A. Gopinatha Rao (1910), Travacore Archaeological Series, Volume 1, pp. 1-14</ref><ref name=rajakrishnankumar>SR Rajakrishnan and Ajit Kumar (2016), Heritage, Volume 4, University of Kerala, pp. 454-458</ref><ref>Justin Wilson (1998), ''Education in Medieval Tamilnadu: An Epigraphical Peep into its nature'', Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, Volume 59, pp. 1057-1064, {{JSTOR|44147081}}</ref>
*it will host 45 students for higher studies in Paviliya-Bahv-rc (Bhavisya) sakha studies{{refn|group=note|This is one of the Rigveda sakha.<ref>{{cite book|author=Hartmut Scharfe|title=Education in Ancient India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GMyiDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA175|year=2018|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=978-90-474-0147-6|page=175 footnote 62}}</ref>}}
*it will host 36 students for higher studies in [[Taittiriya Shakha|Taittiriya sakha]] studies{{refn|group=note|This is one of the Yajurveda sakha.<ref>{{cite book|author=Hartmut Scharfe|title=Education in Ancient India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GMyiDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA175|year=2018|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=978-90-474-0147-6|page=175 footnote 63}}</ref>}}
*it will host 14 students for higher studies in Talavakara sakha studies{{refn|group=note|This is one of the Samaveda sakha, the Jaiminiyas.<ref>{{cite book|author=Hartmut Scharfe|title=Education in Ancient India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GMyiDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA175|year=2018|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=978-90-474-0147-6|page=175 footnote 64}}</ref>}}
*the hostel and school expenses will be paid in part from the taxes collected from the following villages: Omayanadu, Singulunadu, Mudalanadu, Padaippanadu and Valluvanad
*it states that no visitor, no staff and no student will interfere in the daily operations of the temple and school
*it lists the rules of conduct for temple and school servants and teachers
*it lists the rules for selection and admission for students, and their behavior while at school; for example, it states that five senior students or teachers must test the candidate's ability to recite fluent Sanskrit and examples of Vedic passages;<ref>{{cite book|author=Hartmut Scharfe|title=Education in Ancient India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GMyiDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA175|year=2018|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=978-90-474-0147-6|page=175}}</ref> the students should not possess or carry weapons inside the school; the students should not keep female companions or concubines inside the school; minor infractions by the student would lead to fines and loss of meals in the school<ref name="T.A. Gopinatha Rao 1910 pp. 1-14"/>

[[Varadharajaperumal temple, Thirubuvanai]], built by [[Chola]] king [[Parantaka I]] (907-955 CE) was another school where Vedas were thought. An inscription dated to the 30th regnal year of [[Rajadhiraja I]] (c. 1048 CE), mentions teaching [[Rig Veda]], [[Yajur Veda]], Chandogasama, Talavakrasama, Apurva, Vajnasaneya, Bodhayaniya Sathashatandha Sutra and explanations of [[sastras]] and epics like ''[[Ramayana]]'' are also found in the temple.<ref name="Ayyar 1982 182"/> There is also mention of the remuneration to the teachers and students in the form of paddy.<ref name=Madhavan>{{cite book|title=Vishnu temples of South India, Volume 4, Tamil Nadu|isbn=978-81-908445-3-6|first=Chithra|last=Madhavan|publisher=Alpha Land Published Pvt. Limited|year=2014|edition=1st|pages=71–76}}</ref> There are inscriptions in the temple from the period of [[Rajadhiraja Chola]] indicating recital of [[Tiruvaymoli]], the famous works of the [[Azhwar|Alvar]] saint [[Nammazhwar|Nammalvar]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Imbibed In Faith|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=284AAwAAQBAJ&dq=varadaraja+perumal+pondicherry&pg=PT135|last=Pal|first=Susant |page=284|publisher=Partridge Publishing|year=2014|isbn=9781482812596}}</ref>

Several kings built temples for gods like and had intense faith in the Ramayana which is a part of the Vedic religion. Even the oldest Tamil texts '''[[Purananuru]]<ref name="Hart">{{cite book |last1=Hart |first1=George L |last2=Heifetz |first2=Hank |title=The four hundred songs of war and wisdom : an anthology of poems from classical Tamil : the Puṟanāṉūṟu |url=https://archive.org/details/fourhundredsongs00 |url-access=registration |publisher=Columbia University Press }}</ref><ref name="Purananuru"/> and [[Akanaṉūṟu]]<ref name="Akananuru: Neytal – Poem 70">{{cite web |last1=Dakshinamurthy |first1=A |title=Akananuru: Neytal – Poem 70 |url=https://adakshinamurthy.wordpress.com/2015/07/01/akananuru-neythal-poem-70/ |website=Akananuru |access-date=22 July 2019}}</ref>''' mention scenes of [[Ramayana]] in a way that [[Rama]] is filled in their hearts. The [[Chola]] king [[Parantaka I]] named himself "Sangrama Raghava" after his conquest of [[Sri Lanka]], while his son [[Aditya I]] was called Kothandarama. Some later [[Pandya]] kings also made contributions to the temple's of [[Rama]].<ref name="epic"/> A mutilated inscription in the [[Adi Jagannatha Perumal Temple]] (which was a temple as well as a Vedic school) was inscribed during the 37th year of [[Maravarman Sundara Pandyan]] in 1305 records order of a minister by name Arya Chakravarthi. Historians believe some portions of the [[Adi Jagannatha Perumal Temple]] tower might also have been built by [[Jaffna kingdom|Jaffna kings]], who were friends of [[Pandya Empire]] and also rulers of [[Rameswaram]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Ancient Jaffna|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k9DpMY206bMC&q=tirupullani&pg=PA346|page=346|last=C.|first= Rasanayagam|publisher=Asian Educational Services|year=1993|isbn=9788120602106}}</ref>

Another Famous temple cum Vedic school dedicated to [[Rama]] is [[Eri-Katha Ramar Temple]] was built during the [[Pallava]] era, and is estimated to be 1600 years old. The Moolavar (presiding deity) of the temple is [[Lord Rama]], thus making this one of the oldest temples of lord Rama in South India. The temple has inscriptions indicating generous gifts from [[Chola]] king [[Parantaka I]].<ref name="epic">{{cite book|title=Indian Epic Values: Rāmāyaṇa and Its Impact : Proceedings of the 8th International Rāmāyaạ Conference|page=85|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EVnK3q48dL0C&dq=veeraraghava+perumal+temple&pg=PA86|publisher=Peeters Publishers|last1=K.V.|first1=Raman|last2=T.|first2=Padmaja|isbn=9789068317015|ref=K.V.}}</ref> The place was once famous during the rule of [[Chola dynasty|Cholas]] who ruled this place as Maduranthaga Chaturvedi Mangalam after the Chola ruler Madurantaga Uttama Chola (973 -85 CE). It is believed that [[Gandaraditya]] donated the village to the Vedics (Chaturvedi - one who knows all four [[vedas]]) of the place and hence it came to be known as Chaturvedi Mangalam.

Uthiramerur was another Vedic school which originally existed as a [[Brahmin]] Village. The [[Pallava dynasty|Pallava]] king [[Nandivarman II]] (720–796 CE) formally established it as a [[brahmadeya|brahamdeya village]] around 750 CE.<ref name=TH_2008_constitution>{{cite news| url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-fridayreview/article1434867.ece | location=Chennai, India | work=The Hindu | title=Constitution 1,000 years ago | date=2008-07-11}}</ref> It is believed that he donated the village to Vedic Brahmins from Srivaishanva community.

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}

[[Category:Ancient Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Tamil-language literature]]
[[Category:Sangam literature]]
[[Category:Tamil Hindu literature]]
[[Category:Tamil history]]
[[Category:Religion in Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:History of religion in India]]
[[Category:Tamils and religion]]
[[Category:Vedas]]
[[Category:Hindu texts]]
[[Category:Sanskrit texts]]

Mujtaba Aziz Naza

2023-09-13T14:12:06Z

Guru44: Page initiated.

{{Use Indian English}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Mujtaba Naza
| image = Mujtaba Aziz Naza.jpg
| caption =
| birth_name = Mujtaba Aziz Naza
| birth_place = [[Mumbai]], [[Maharashtra]], India
| father = [[Aziz Naza]]
| module = {{Infobox musical artist|embed=yes
| genre = {{hlist|[[Sufi music|Sufi]]|[[Qawwali]]|[[Bollywood music|Bollywood]]}}
| instrument = [[Keyboard instrument|Keyboard]]
| years_active = 2000–present
| website = {{URL|mujtabanaza.com}}
}}
}}

'''Mujtaba Naza''' ({{lang-hi|मुजतबा नाज़ा}}, {{lang-ur| مجتبیٰ ناز}}) is an [[India|Indian]] singer and [[music composer]] from [[Mumbai]].<ref>{{cite news| url= https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/chadhta-sooraj-close-to-my-heart-mujtaba-aziz-naza-movie-snippets-117062900988_1.html |author=IANS| work=[[Business Standard]] | title= Chadhta sooraj' close to my heart: Mujtaba Aziz Naza (Movie Snippets) |access-date=29 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.jansatta.com/entertainment/madhur-bhandarkar-film-indu-sarkar-new-song-qawwali-in-news-voice-chadhta-sooraj-mujtaba-aziz-nazan-recreates-historic/360837/lite/ | title= Indu Sarkar: कव्वाली ‘चढ़ता सूरज’ को नए अंदाज और नई आवाज में लेकर आए मधुर भंडारकर, देखें वीडियो }}</ref> He is son of [[Aziz Naza]].

==Discography==

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! Song !! Film !! Music Director !! Co-Singer(s)
|-
|2015 || Bajirao Mastani ||''[[Bajirao Mastani]]'' || [[Sanjay Leela Bhansali]] ||
|-
|rowspan=|2015 || Chadhta Suraj Dheere Dheere<ref>{{Cite web |last=Standard |first=Business |title='Chadhta sooraj' close to my heart: Mujtaba Aziz Naza (Movie Snippets) |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/chadhta-sooraj-close-to-my-heart-mujtaba-aziz-naza-movie-snippets-117062900988_1.html |access-date=2023-06-21 |website=www.business-standard.com |language=en-US}}</ref>|| [[Indu Sarkar]]|| [[Anu Malik]]||
|-
|rowspan=|2017 || Dana Paani ||''[[Qarib Qarib Singlle]]''|| [[Anu Malik]] || [[Papon (singer)|Papon]], Anmol Malik
|-
|rowspan=|2018|| Ek Dil Ek Jaan || ''[[Padmaavat]]'' || [[Sanjay Leela Bhansali]] || [[Shivam Pathak]]
|-
|rowspan=|2019|| Hasbi Rabbi Naat || ''[[Marjaavaan]]'' || [[Sanjoy Chowdhury]] ||
|}

== Biography ==

He sings [[Qawwali|Qawaali]] and composes music. He sung in movies ''[[Bajirao Mastani]]'', [[Sniff (film)|''Sniff'']], ''[[Padmaavat]]'', ''[[Haemolymph: Invisible Blood]]'' and ''[[Indu Sarkar]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bajirao Mastani Fame Lyricist Nasir Faraaz Dies |url=https://www.news18.com/news/movies/bajirao-mastani-fame-lyricist-nasir-faraaz-dies-after-suffering-chest-pain-6845371.html |access-date=2023-06-18 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Madhur Bhandarkar shoots reloaded version of ‘Chadhta sooraj dheere dheere’ |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/madhur-bhandarkar-shoots-reloaded-version-of-chadhta-sooraj-dheere-dheere-4679330/ |access-date=2023-06-18 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Indu Sarkar: Check out the recreated version of popular Qawwali ‘Chadhta Sooraj Dheere Dheere’ |url=https://zeenews.india.com/music/indu-sarkar-check-out-the-recreated-version-of-popular-qawwali-chadhta-sooraj-dheere-dheere-2019459.html |access-date=2023-06-18 |website=Zee News |language=en}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Indian qawwali singers]]
[[Category:Performers of Sufi music]]
[[Category:Bollywood playback singers]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian singers]]
[[Category:Indian folk singers]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Filmi singers]]
[[Category:Indian male singers]]
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Nee Naan Kaadhal

2023-09-10T19:16:23Z

Guru44: Fresh page format.

{{Short description|Upcoming Tamil television series}}
{{Infobox television
| image =
| caption =
| alt_name =
| native_name = நீ நான் காதல்
| genre = [[Romance film|Romance]] [[Drama]]
| creator = Kamaal
| based_on = {{based on|[[Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon?]]}}
| developer =
| writer = RJ shivkanth
| director = Raja Sundaram
| starring = {{ubl|
* Prem Jacob
* Varshini Suresh
* Saai Gayathri
* Shankaresh Kumar
* Naveen Muralidhar
}}
| music =
| country = India
| language = Tamil
| num_episodes =
| executive_producer = Kavya
| producer =
| camera = [[Multi-camera]]
| runtime = approx. 22-25 mins per episode
| company = Thaai Creations
| network = [[Star Vijay]]
| first_aired = {{Start date|2023}}
| last_aired = 
}}

'''''Nee Naan Kaadhal''''' (நீ நான் காதல்) is an upcoming Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil-language]] [[Tamil television drama|television series]], starring Prem Jacob, Varshini Suresh, Saai Gayathri, Shankaresh Kumar and Naveen Muralidhar. This series was remake of [[Hindi]] serial ''[[Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon?]]'', which is aired on [[StarPlus]]. It was an essence remake of [[Telugu language|Telugu]] serial ''[[Nuvvu Nenu Prema]]''.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://india.postsen.com/celebrities/1018698.html| title=Important information about the new series on Vijay TV! | website=india.postsen.com| date=4 September 2023|language=en}}</ref>

The story about of a rich short-tempered businessman and a self-respected middle-class women. The series is directed by Raja Sundaram and produced by Kavya under the banner of Thaai Creations. It is scheduled to premiere in 2023 on [[Star Vijay]].

==Synopsis==
The story revolves around is a young short-tempered arrogant business man, He believes money is everything and everything is after it. A self-respected middle-class young Girl, who believes in emotions and who lives with her parents and sister. Some unfortunate circumstances they both get married. The story is about what happens next in their lives.

==Cast==
===Main===
* Prem Jacob
* Varshini Suresh
* Saai Gayathri
* Shankaresh Kumar
* Naveen Muralidhar

===Supporting===
* Shravan
* Sheela
* Tamil Selvi
* Sangeetha Balan
* Girish

==Production==
===Development===
[[StarPlus]]'s fiction ''[[Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon?]]'' was remade on [[Star Maa]] on 2022 the title name as ''[[Nuvvu Nenu Prema]]''. Due to the success of the series in Telugu language, Thaai Creations company decided to produce it in Tamil as well. It was announced on Friday 1 September 2023 that the series will be released on [[Star Vijay]]. Raja Sundaram of ''[[Eeramana Rojave (TV series)|Eeramana Rojave 2]]'' fame, has directed the series that deals with the romantic story.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://kalakkalcinema.com/nee-naan-kadhal-serial-in-vijay-tv/234066/| title=விஜய் டிவியில் ஒளிபரப்பாக போகும் புத்தம் புதிய சீரியல்.. இணையத்தில் வெளியான ஹாட் அப்டேட், டைட்டில் இதுதான்.!!| website=kalakkalcinema.com| date=3 September 2023|language=ta}}</ref>

===Casting===
Newcomer Prem Jacob and Varshini Suresh was cast in the main role in the serial.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/television-actors-prem-jacob-and-varshini-suresh-join-the-cast-of-nee-naan-kaadhal/articleshow/103463275.cms| title=Television actors Prem Jacob and Varshini Suresh join the cast of ‘Nee Naan Kaadhal’| website=timesofindia.indiatimes.com| date=7 September 2023|language=en}}</ref> Saai Gayathri was cast in the second lead role in the serial,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/popular-actress-saai-gayathri-to-play-the-titular-role-in-upcoming-show-nee-naan-kadhal/articleshow/103382743.cms| title=Popular actress Saai Gayathri to play the titular role in upcoming show 'Nee Naan Kadhal'| website=timesofindia.indiatimes.com| date=5 September 2023|language=en}}</ref> returning to after ''[[Pandian Stores]]'' nearly one years. Shankaresh Kumar who plays the lead alongside her. Naveen Muralidhar was cast as Negative role,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/paavam-ganesan-actor-naveen-muralidhar-to-play-the-negative-role-in-upcoming-show-nee-naan-kadhal/articleshow/103422125.cms| title=Paavam Ganesan actor Naveen Muralidhar to play the negative role in upcoming show 'Nee Naan Kadhal'| website=timesofindia.indiatimes.com| date=6 September 2023|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://cinema.dinamalar.com/tamil-tv-serials/116099/Chinna-thirai-Television-News/Naveen-will-enter-as-a-villain-in-the-new-serial.htm| title=புதிய தொடரில் வில்லனாக நடிக்கும் நவீன்| website=cinema.dinamalar.com| date=9 September 2023|language=ta}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://cineulagam.com/article/naveen-muralidhar-as-villain-in-vijay-tv-serial-1694000554| title=வில்லனாக மாறும் நடிகர் நவீன்.. முக்கிய சீரியல் பற்றிய அப்டேட்| website=cineulagam.com| date=6 September 2023|language=ta}}</ref> marking his return after ''[[Paavam Ganesan]]''.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.dinamani.com/cinema/cinema-news/2023/sep/07/tamil-serial-news-actor-naveen-villian-in-vijay-tv-new-serial-nee-naan-kadhal-4068650.html| title=வில்லனாக நடிக்கும் 'பாவம் கணேசன்' தொடரின் நவீன்| website=www.dinamani.com| date=7 September 2023|language=ta}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

{{STAR Vijay TV shows}}
[[Category:Star Vijay original programming]]
[[Category:Tamil-language romance television series]]
[[Category:2023 Tamil-language television series debuts]]
[[Category:Tamil-language television shows]]
[[Category:Television shows set in Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Tamil-language television soap operas]]
[[Category:Tamil-language television series based on Hindi-language television series]]

Small government

2022-11-30T18:43:29Z

Guru44: Wrote an inspiring article.

#REDIRECT [[Libertarian conservatism#Small government conservatism]]
[[Category:Conservatism]]
[[Category:Minarchism]]
[[Category:Political philosophy]]
{{Short description|Political princible}}

Jews

2022-08-22T03:27:04Z

Guru44: Just published an informative work.

{{Short description|Ethnoreligious group and nation from the Levant}}
{{Redirect|Jew|the word|Jew (word){{!}}''Jew'' (word)|other uses}}

{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Jews
| native_name = {{Script/Hebrew|יְהוּדִים{{popdf}}}} ({{lang|he-Latn|Yehudim}})
| native_name_lang = he
| rawimage = [[File:Star of David.svg|150px]]
| image =
| image_caption = The [[Star of David]], a common symbol of the Jewish people
| total = '''14.6–17.8 million''' 
'''Enlarged population (includes full or partial Jewish ancestry):''' 
'''20.7 million'''
| total_year = 2022
| total_source = estimate
| total_ref = <ref name="JDB">{{cite report |editor1-last=Dashefsky |editor1-first=Arnold |editor-link1=Arnold Dashefsky |editor2-last=Della Pergola |editor2-first=Sergio |editor-link2=Sergio Della Pergola |editor3-last=Sheskin |editor3-first=Ira |title=World Jewish Population|url=https://www.jewishdatabank.org/content/upload/bjdb/2018-World_Jewish_Population_(AJYB,_DellaPergola)_DB_Final.pdf|publisher=[[Berman Jewish DataBank]]|access-date=22 June 2019}}</ref>
[[File:Jewish people around the world.svg|center|frameless|260x260px]]
| region1 = Israel (including [[Israeli-occupied territories|occupied territories]])
| pop1 = 6,558,000–6,958,000
| ref1 = <ref name="JDB"/>
| region2 = United States
| pop2 = 5,700,000–10,000,000
| ref2 = <ref name="JDB"/>
| region3 = France
| pop3 = 453,000–600,000
| ref3 = <ref name="JDB"/>
| region4 = Canada
| pop4 = 391,000–550,000
| ref4 = <ref name="JDB"/>
| region5 = United Kingdom
| pop5 = 290,000–370,000
| ref5 = <ref name="JDB"/>
| region6 = Argentina
| pop6 = 180,000–330,000
| ref6 = <ref name="JDB"/>
| region7 = Russia
| pop7 = 172,000–440,000
| ref7 = <ref name="JDB"/>
| region8 = Germany
| pop8 = 116,000–225,000
| ref8 = <ref name="JDB"/>
| region9 = Australia
| pop9 = 113,000–140,000
| ref9 = <ref name="JDB"/>
| region10 = Brazil
| pop10 = 93,000–150,000
| ref10 = <ref name="JDB"/>
| region11 = South Africa
| pop11 = 69,000–80,000
| ref11 = <ref name="JDB"/>
| region12 = Ukraine
| pop12 = 50,000–140,000
| ref12 = <ref name="JDB"/>
| region13 = Hungary
| pop13 = 47,000–100,000
| ref13 = <ref name="JDB"/>
| region14 = Mexico
| pop14 = 40,000–50,000
| ref14 = <ref name="JDB"/>
| region15 = Netherlands
| pop15 = 30,000–52,000
| ref15 = <ref name="JDB"/>
| region16 = Belgium
| pop16 = 29,000–40,000
| ref16 = <ref name="JDB"/>
| region17 = Italy
| pop17 = 28,000–41,000
| ref17 = <ref name="JDB"/>
| region18 = Switzerland
| pop18 = 19,000–25,000
| ref18 = <ref name="JDB"/>
| region19 = Chile
| pop19 = 18,000–26,000
| ref19 = <ref name="JDB"/>
| region20 = Uruguay
| pop20 = 17,000–25,000
| ref20 = <ref name="JDB"/>
| region21 = Turkey
| pop21 = 15,000–21,000
| ref21 = <ref name="JDB"/>
| region22 = Sweden
| pop22 = 15,000–25,000
| ref22 = <ref name="JDB"/>
| languages = {{plainlist|
* '''Predominantly spoken:'''<ref name=Languages>{{cite web|url=http://www.bh.org.il/links.aspx |title=Links |access-date=2 April 2012 |publisher=[[Beth Hatefutsoth]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326102214/http://www.bh.org.il/links/jewishlangs.asp |archive-date=26 March 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
* {{hlist|[[Modern Hebrew]]|[[English language|English]]|[[Russian language|Russian]]|[[French language|French]]|[[Spanish language|Spanish]]}}
* '''Historical:'''
* {{hlist|[[Yiddish]]|[[Judaeo-Spanish|Ladino]]|[[Judeo-Arabic]]|[[Jewish languages|others]]}}
* '''Sacred:'''
* {{hlist|[[Biblical Hebrew]]|[[Biblical Aramaic]]|[[Talmudic Aramaic]]}}
}}
| religions = [[Judaism]]
| related_groups = {{plainlist|
* Jewish ethnic subdivisions
* ([[Ashkenazim]], [[Sephardim]] and [[Mizrahim]])
* [[Semitic people|Semitic-speaking people]]s such as [[Samaritans]],<ref>{{Cite book |title=Genes, Polymorphisms and the Making of Societies: How Genetic Behavioral Traits Influence Human Cultures |last=Kiaris|first= Hippokratis|publisher=Universal Publishers|year=2012 |isbn=978-1-61233-093-8 |page=21}}</ref><ref name="evolutsioon" /><ref name=DigitalSamaritans>{{Cite book |title=Digital Samaritans: Rhetorical Delivery and Engagement in the Digital Humanities |last=Ridolfo |first=Jim |publisher=University of Michigan Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-472-07280-4 |page=69}}</ref> [[Arabs]],<ref name="evolutsioon">{{cite journal |last1=Shen |first1=Peidong |last2=Lavi |first2=Tal |last3=Kivisild |first3=Toomas |last4=Chou |first4=Vivian |last5=Sengun |first5=Deniz |last6=Gefel |first6=Dov |last7=Shpirer |first7=Issac |last8=Woolf |first8=Eilon |last9=Hillel |first9=Jossi |last10=Feldman |first10=Marcus W. |last11=Oefner |first11=Peter J. |title=Reconstruction of patrilineages and matrilineages of Samaritans and other Israeli populations from Y-Chromosome and mitochondrial DNA sequence Variation |journal=Human Mutation |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=248–260 |doi=10.1002/humu.20077 |pmid=15300852 |s2cid=1571356 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Studies Show Jews' Genetic Similarity|first= Nicholas|last= Wade|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/10/science/10jews.html |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nebel |first1=Almut |last2=Filon |first2=Dvora |last3=Weiss |first3=Deborah A. |last4=Weale |first4=Michael |last5=Faerman |first5=Marina |last6=Oppenheim |first6=Ariella |last7=Thomas |first7=Mark G. |title=High-resolution Y chromosome haplotypes of Israeli and Palestinian Arabs reveal geographic substructure and substantial overlap with haplotypes of Jews |journal=Human Genetics |volume=107 |issue=6 |pages=630–641 |doi=10.1007/s004390000426 |pmid=11153918 |s2cid=8136092 }}</ref><ref name="sciencedaily">{{cite web |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2000/05/000509003653.htm |title=Jews Are the Genetic Brothers of Palestinians, Syrians, and Lebanese |publisher=Sciencedaily.com |access-date=12 April 2013}}</ref> [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]],<ref name="Abraham 2010">{{cite journal |last1=Atzmon |first1=Gil |last2=Hao |first2=Li |last3=Pe'er |first3=Itsik |last4=Velez |first4=Christopher |last5=Pearlman |first5=Alexander |last6=Palamara |first6=Pier Francesco |last7=Morrow |first7=Bernice |last8=Friedman |first8=Eitan |last9=Oddoux |first9=Carole |last10=Burns |first10=Edward |last11=Ostrer |first11=Harry |title=Abraham's Children in the Genome Era: Major Jewish Diaspora Populations Comprise Distinct Genetic Clusters with Shared Middle Eastern Ancestry |journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=86 |issue=6 |pages=850–859 |doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2010.04.015 |pmid=20560205 |pmc=3032072 }}</ref> and [[Levant]]ines<ref name="evolutsioon" /><ref name="sciencedaily" /><ref name=DigitalSamaritans/>
* [[Genetic studies on Jews|Others]]
}}
}}
{{Contains special characters|Hebrew}}
{{Jews and Judaism sidebar}}

'''Jews''' ({{lang-he|יְהוּדִים}}, {{small|[[ISO 259#ISO 259-2|ISO 259-2]]:}} {{transliteration|he|''Yehudim''}}, {{small|[[Modern Hebrew|Israeli pronunciation]]:}} {{IPA-he|jehuˈdim}}) or '''Jewish people''' are an [[ethnoreligious group]],<ref name="Jews-are-ethnoreligious-group"/> [[nation]] or [[ethnic group|ethnos]]<ref name="Nicholson2002" /><ref name="Dowty1998" /> originating from the ancient [[Israelites]]<ref name="Scheindlin1998">{{cite book|author=Raymond P. Scheindlin|title=A Short History of the Jewish People: From Legendary Times to Modern Statehood|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bfsuicMmrE0C&pg=PA1|year=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-513941-9|pages=1–}} Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites"</ref><ref name="Incorporated2009">{{cite book|author=Facts On File, Incorporated|title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=stl97FdyRswC&pg=PA337|year=2009|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-2676-0|pages=337–}}"The people of the Kingdom of Israel and the ethnic and religious group known as the Jewish people that descended from them have been subjected to a number of forced migrations in their history"</ref><ref name="MD2012">{{cite book|author=Harry Ostrer MD|title=Legacy: A Genetic History of the Jewish People|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RayZR3V1SFwC&pg=PT26|year=2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-997638-6|pages=26–}}</ref> and [[Hebrews]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Jew | History, Beliefs, & Facts | Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Jew-people|access-date=2022-08-20|website=www.britannica.com|language=en|quote=In the broader sense of the term, a Jew is any person belonging to the worldwide group that constitutes, through descent or conversion, a continuation of the ancient Jewish people, who were themselves descendants of the Hebrews of the Old Testament.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Hebrew | people | Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hebrew|access-date=2022-08-20|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite book |last=Cline |first=Eric H. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/54913803 |title=Jerusalem Besieged: From Ancient Canaan to Modern Israel |publisher=[[University of Michigan Press]] |year=2004 |isbn=0-472-11313-5 |location=Ann Arbor |pages=33 |oclc=54913803 |quote=Few would seriously challenge the belief that most modern Jews are descended from the ancient Hebrews |author-link=Eric H. Cline}}</ref> of historical [[History of ancient Israel and Judah|Israel and Judah]]. Jewish ethnicity, nationhood, and religion are strongly interrelated,<ref name="Lederhendler2001">{{cite book|author=Eli Lederhendler|title=Studies in Contemporary Jewry: Volume XVII: Who Owns Judaism? Public Religion and Private Faith in America and Israel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1wvahJv83AgC&pg=PA101|year=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-534896-5|pages=101–}} "Historically, the religious and ethnic dimensions of Jewish identity have been closely interwoven. In fact, so closely bound are they, that the traditional Jewish lexicon hardly distinguishes between the two concepts. Jewish religious practice, by definition, was observed exclusively by the Jewish people, and notions of Jewish peoplehood, nation, and community were suffused with faith in the Jewish God, the practice of Jewish (religious) law and the study of ancient religious texts"</ref><ref name="Yee2005">{{cite book|author=Tet-Lim N. Yee|title=Jews, Gentiles and Ethnic Reconciliation: Paul's Jewish identity and Ephesians|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x4OwXhMOn5cC&pg=PA102|year= 2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-44411-8|pages=102–}} "This identification in the Jewish attitude between the ethnic group and religious identity is so close that the reception into this religion of members not belonging to its ethnic group has become impossible."</ref> as [[Judaism]] is the [[ethnic religion]] of the Jewish people, although its observance varies from strict to none.<ref name="KrauszTulea">{{cite book|author1=Ernest Krausz|author2=Gitta Tulea|title=Jewish Survival: The Identity Problem at the Close of the Twentieth Century; [... International Workshop at Bar-Ilan University on the 18th and 19th of March, 1997]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dnxv-Mlz0JIC&pg=PA90|publisher=Transaction Publishers|year=1997|isbn=978-1-4128-2689-1|pages=90–}} "A person born Jewish who refutes Judaism may continue to assert a Jewish identity, and if he or she does not convert to another religion, even religious Jews will recognize the person as a Jew"</ref><ref name= Pew>{{cite web |url=https://www.pewforum.org/2013/10/01/jewish-american-beliefs-attitudes-culture-survey/ |title=A Portrait of Jewish Americans |author= |website=Pew Research Center |quote=But the survey also suggests that Jewish identity is changing in America, where one-in-five Jews (22%) now describe themselves as having no religion.}}</ref>

Jews originated as an ethnic and religious group in the [[Middle East]] during the second millennium BCE,<ref name="Abraham 2010"/> in a part of the [[Levant]] known as the [[Land of Israel]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/AboutIsrael/History/Pages/Facts%20about%20Israel-%20History.aspx|title=Facts About Israel: History|work=GxMSDev}}</ref> The [[Merneptah Stele]] of [[ancient Egypt]] appears to confirm the existence of a people of Israel somewhere in [[Canaan]] as far back as the 13th century BCE ([[Bronze Age|Late Bronze Age]]).<ref name=NollMerneptah>{{Cite book|last=Noll|first=K. L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hMeRK7B1EsMC&pg=PA139|title=Canaan and Israel in Antiquity: A Textbook on History and Religion: Second Edition|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-0-567-44117-1|language=en}}</ref><ref name=ThompsonMerneptah>{{Cite book|last=Thompson|first=Thomas L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RwrrUuHFb6UC&pg=PA275|title=Early History of the Israelite People: From the Written & Archaeological Sources|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-11943-7|language=en|quote=They are rather a very specific group among the population of Palestine which bears a name that occurs here for the first time that at a much later stage in Palestine's history bears a substantially different signification.|pages=137ff}}</ref> The Israelites, as an outgrowth of the Canaanite population,<ref name="John Day pp. 47">[[John Day (Old Testament scholar)|John Day]] (2005), ''In Search of Pre-Exilic Israel'', Bloomsbury Publishing, pp. 47.5 [48] 'In this sense, the emergence of ancient Israel is viewed not as the cause of the demise of Canaanite culture but as its upshot'.</ref> consolidated their hold in the region with the emergence of the kingdoms of Israel and [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]]. Some consider that these Canaan-sedentary Israelites melded with incoming nomadic groups known as the "Hebrews".<ref>Day, pp. 31–33, p. 57, n. 33.</ref> The experience of life in the [[Jewish diaspora]], from the [[Babylonian captivity|Babylonian captivity and exile]] (though few sources mention this period in detail<ref>{{Cite book|last=Albertz|first=Rainer|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xx9YzJq2B9wC&pg=PA45|title=Israel in Exile: The History and Literature of the Sixth Century B.C.E.|publisher=Society of Biblical Lit|isbn=978-1-58983-055-4|language=en|pages=45ff|quote=Since the exilic era constitutes a gaping hole in the historical narrative of the Bible, historical reconstruction of this era faces almost insurmountable difficulties. Like the premonarchic period and the late Persian period, the exilic period, though set in the bright light of Ancient Near Eastern history, remains historically obscure. Since there are very few Israelite sources, the only recourse is to try to cast some light on this darkness from the history of the surrounding empires under whose dominion Israel came in this period.}}</ref>) to the [[Judaea (Roman province)|Roman occupation and exile]], and the historical relations between Jews and their homeland in the Levant thereafter became a major feature of [[Jewish history]], [[Jewish identity|identity]], [[Jewish culture|culture]], and memory.<ref>
* {{cite book|author=Marvin Perry|title=Western Civilization: A Brief History, Volume I: To 1789|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U2pnv0Aoh2EC|year=2012|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-1-111-83720-4|page=87}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Botticini |first1=Maristella |last2=Eckstein |first2=Zvi |title=From Farmers to Merchants, Conversions and Diaspora: Human Capital and Jewish History |journal=Journal of the European Economic Association |volume=5 |issue=5 |pages=885–926 |doi=10.1162/JEEA.2007.5.5.885 }} "The death toll of the Great Revolt against the Roman empire amounted to about 600,000 Jews, whereas the Bar Kokhba revolt in 135 caused the death of about 500,000 Jews. Massacres account for roughly 40 percent of the decrease of the Jewish population in Palestine. Moreover, some Jews migrated to Babylon after these revolts because of the worse economic conditions. After accounting for massacres and migrations, there is an additional 30 to 40 percent of the decrease in the Jewish population in Palestine (about 1–1.3 million Jews) to be explained" (p. 19).
* [http://nes.berkeley.edu/Web_Boyarin/BoyarinArticles/69%20Diaspora%20(1993).pdf Boyarin, Daniel, and Jonathan Boyarin. 2003. Diaspora: Generation and the Ground of Jewish Diaspora. p. 714] "...it is crucial to recognize that the Jewish conception of the Land of Israel is similar to the discourse of the Land of many (if not nearly all) "indigenous" peoples of the world. Somehow the Jews have managed to retain a sense of being rooted somewhere in the world through twenty centuries of exile from that someplace (organic metaphors are not out of place in this discourse, for they are used within the tradition itself). It is profoundly disturbing to hear Jewish attachment to the Land decried as regressive in the same discursive situations in which the attachment of native Americans or Australians to their particular rocks, trees, and deserts is celebrated as an organic connection to the Earth that "we" have lost" p. 714.
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=OcY0Oy5VpGIC&q=greek&pg=PA24 Cohen, Robin (1997), Global Diasporas: An Introduction. p. 24 London: UCL Press.] "...although the word Babylon often connotes captivity and oppression, a rereading of the Babylonian period of exile can thus be shown to demonstrate the development of a new creative energy in a challenging, pluralistic context outside the natal homeland. When the Romans destroyed the Second Temple in AD 70, it was Babylon that remained as the nerve- and brain-centre for Jewish life and thought...the crushing of the revolt of the Judaeans against the Romans and the destruction of the Second Temple by the Roman general Titus in AD 70 precisely confirmed the catastrophic tradition. Once again, Jews had been unable to sustain a national homeland and were scattered to the far corners of the world" (p. 24).
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=YBarWAR2qVkC&pg=PA159 Johnson, Paul ''A History of the Jews'' "The Bar Kochba Revolt," (HarperPerennial, 1987) pp. 158–61]: Paul Johnson analyzes Cassius Dio's ''Roman History: Epitome of Book LXIX'' para. 13–14 (Dio's passage cited separately) among other sources: "Even if Dio's figures are somewhat exaggerated, the casualties amongst the population and the destruction inflicted on the country would have been considerable. According to Jerome, many Jews were also sold into slavery, so many, indeed, that the price of Jewish slaves at the slave market in Hebron sank drastically to a level no greater than that for a horse. The economic structure of the country was largely destroyed. The entire spiritual and economic life of the Palestinian Jews moved to Galilee. Jerusalem was now turned into a Roman colony with the official name ''Colonia Aelia Capitolina'' (''Aelia'' after Hadrian's family name: P. Aelius Hadrianus; ''Capitolina'' after Jupiter Capitolinus). The Jews were forbidden on pain of death to set foot in the new Roman city. Aelia thus became a completely pagan city, no doubt with the corresponding public buildings and temples... We can...be certain that a statue of Hadrian was erected in the centre of Aelia, and this was tantamount in itself to a desecration of Jewish Jerusalem." p. 159.
* [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/69*.html Cassius Dio's ''Roman History: Epitome of Book LXIX'' para. 13–14]: "13 At first the Romans took no account of them. Soon, however, all Judaea had been stirred up, and the Jews everywhere were showing signs of disturbance, were gathering together, and giving evidence of great hostility to the Romans, partly by secret and partly by overt acts; 2 many outside nations, too, were joining them through eagerness for gain, and the whole earth, one might almost say, was being stirred up over the matter. Then, indeed, Hadrian sent against them his best generals. First of these was Julius Severus, who was dispatched from Britain, where he was governor, against the Jews. 3 Severus did not venture to attack his opponents in the open at any one point, in view of their numbers and their desperation, but by intercepting small groups, thanks to the number of his soldiers and his under-officers, and by depriving them of food and shutting them up, he was able, rather slowly, to be sure, but with comparatively little danger, to crush, exhaust and exterminate them. Very few of them in fact survived. Fifty of their most important outposts and nine hundred and eighty-five of their most famous villages were razed to the ground. Five hundred and eighty thousand men were slain in the various raids and battles, and the number of those that perished by famine, disease and fire was past finding out. 2 Thus nearly the whole of Judaea was made desolate, a result of which the people had had forewarning before the war. For the tomb of Solomon, which the Jews regard as an object of veneration, fell to pieces of itself and collapsed, and many wolves and hyenas rushed howling into their cities. 3 Many Romans, moreover, perished in this war. Therefore Hadrian in writing to the senate did not employ the opening phrase commonly affected by the emperors, 'If you and our children are in health, it is well; I and the legions are in health'" (para. 13–14).
* {{cite journal |last1=Safran |first1=William |title=The Jewish Diaspora in a Comparative and Theoretical Perspective |journal=Israel Studies |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=36–60 |doi=10.2979/ISR.2005.10.1.36 |id={{Project MUSE|180371}} |jstor=30245753 |s2cid=144379115 }} "...diaspora referred to a very specific case—that of the exile of the Jews from the Holy Land and their dispersal throughout several parts of the globe. Diaspora [galut] connoted deracination, legal disabilities, oppression, and an often painful adjustment to a hostland whose hospitality was unreliable and ephemeral. It also connoted the existence on foreign soil of an expatriate community that considered its presence to be transitory. Meanwhile, it developed a set of institutions, social patterns, and ethnonational and/or religious symbols that held it together. These included the language, religion, values, social norms, and narratives of the homeland. Gradually, this community adjusted to the hostland environment and became itself a center of cultural creation. All the while, however, it continued to cultivate the idea of return to the homeland." (p. 36).
* {{cite journal |last1=Sheffer |first1=Gabriel |title=Is the Jewish Diaspora Unique? Reflections on the Diaspora's Current Situation |journal=Israel Studies |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=1–35 |doi=10.2979/ISR.2005.10.1.1 |id={{Project MUSE|180374}} |jstor=30245752 |s2cid=143958201 }} "...the Jewish nation, which from its very earliest days believed and claimed that it was the "chosen people," and hence unique. This attitude has further been buttressed by the equally traditional view, which is held not only by the Jews themselves, about the exceptional historical age of this diaspora, its singular traumatic experiences its singular ability to survive pogroms, exiles, and Holocaust, as well as its "special relations" with its ancient homeland, culminating in 1948 with the nation-state that the Jewish nation has established there... First, like many other members of established diasporas, the vast majority of Jews no longer regard themselves as being in ''Galut'' [exile] in their host countries.…Perceptually, as well as actually, Jews permanently reside in host countries of their own free will, as a result of inertia, or as a result of problematic conditions prevailing in other hostlands, or in Israel. It means that the basic perception of many Jews about their existential situation in their hostlands has changed. Consequently, there is both a much greater self- and collective-legitimatization to refrain from making serious plans concerning "return" or actually "making Aliyah" [to emigrate, or "go up"] to Israel. This is one of the results of their wider, yet still rather problematic and sometimes painful acceptance by the societies and political systems in their host countries. It means that they, and to an extent their hosts, do not regard Jewish life within the framework of diasporic formations in these hostlands as something that they should be ashamed of, hide from others, or alter by returning to the old homeland" (p. 4).
* {{Cite book|title = The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=BjtWLZhhMoYC|publisher = Cambridge University Press|year= 1984 |isbn=978-0-521-77248-8 |first1 = William David|last1 = Davies|first2 = Louis|last2 = Finkelstein|first3 = Steven T.|last3 = Katz|quote = Although Dio's figure of 985 as the number of villages destroyed during the war seems hyperbolic, all Judaean villages, without exception, excavated thus far were razed following the Bar Kochba Revolt. This evidence supports the impression of total regional destruction following the war. Historical sources note the vast number of captives sold into slavery in Palestine and shipped abroad. ... The Judaean Jewish community never recovered from the Bar Kochba war. In its wake, Jews no longer formed the majority in Palestine, and the Jewish center moved to the Galilee. Jews were also subjected to a series of religious edicts promulgated by Hadrian that were designed to uproot the nationalistic elements with the Judaean Jewish community, these proclamations remained in effect until Hadrian's death in 138. An additional, more lasting punitive measure taken by the Romans involved expunging Judaea from the provincial name, changing it from Provincia Judaea to Provincia Syria Palestina. Although such name changes occurred elsewhere, never before or after was a nation's name expunged as the result of rebellion.}}
* Dalit Rom-Shiloni, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ffE3AAAAQBAJ&pg=PR15 Exclusive Inclusivity: Identity Conflicts Between the Exiles and the People who Remained (6th–5th Centuries BCE)]'', A&C Black, 2013 p. xv n.3: 'it is argued that biblical texts of the Neo-Babylonian and the early Persian periods show a fierce adversarial relationship(s) between the Judean groups. We find no expressions of sympathy to the deported community for its dislocation, no empathic expressions towards the People Who Remained under Babylonian subjugation in Judah. The opposite is apparent: hostile, denigrating, and denunciating language characterizes the relationships between resident and exiled Judeans throughout the sixth and fifth centuries.' (p. xvii)</ref>

In the following millennia, Jewish diaspora communities [[Coalescent theory|coalesced]] into three major [[Jewish ethnic divisions|ethnic subdivisions]] according to where their ancestors settled: the ''[[Ashkenazi Jews|Ashkenazim]]'' ([[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern European Jewry|Eastern Europe]]), the ''[[Sephardi Jews|Sephardim]]'' (initially in the [[Spanish and Portuguese Jews|Iberian Peninsula]]), and the ''[[Mizrahi Jews|Mizrahim]]'' ([[History of the Jews under Muslim rule|Middle East]] and North Africa).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Eban|first=Abba Solomon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GkzdBDuhoRgC&pg=PA87|title=Heritage: Civilization and the Jews|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-0-671-44103-6|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Dosick">Dosick (2007), pp. 59, 60.</ref> Prior to [[World War II]], the [[Jewish population by country|global Jewish population]] reached a peak of 16.7 million,<ref name="JVIL2010">{{cite web|url = https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/jewpop.html|title = The Jewish Population of the World (2014)|work = [[Jewish Virtual Library]]|access-date = 30 June 2015}}, based on {{cite book|title = American Jewish Year Book|publisher = [[American Jewish Committee]]|url = http://www.ajcarchives.org/main.php?GroupingId=10142}}</ref> representing around 0.7 percent of the world population at that time. During World War II, approximately 6 million Jews throughout [[History of the Jews in Europe|Europe]] were systematically murdered by [[Nazi Germany]] during [[the Holocaust]].<ref>{{cite web|title = The Holocaust|url = http://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/the-holocaust|website = HISTORY.com|access-date = 10 November 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Mitchell |first1=Travis |title=What Americans Know About the Holocaust |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2020/01/22/what-americans-know-about-the-holocaust/ |work=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project |access-date=16 January 2023 }}</ref> Since then, the population has slowly risen again, and {{as of|2018|lc=y}}, was estimated to be at 14.6–17.8 million by the [[Berman Jewish DataBank]],<ref name="JDB" /> comprising less than 0.2 percent of the total world population.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4291987,00.html|title= Jews make up only 0.2% of mankind|newspaper=[[ynetnews]]|last1= Silverman|first1= Anav}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|The exact world Jewish population, however, is difficult to measure. In addition to issues with census methodology, disputes among proponents of ''[[halakhic]]'', secular, political, and ancestral identification factors regarding [[who is a Jew]] may affect the figure considerably depending on the source.<ref name="Pfeffer">{{cite news|url=http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/903585.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090319024731/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/903585.html |archive-date=19 March 2009 |title=Jewish Agency: 13.2 million Jews worldwide on eve of Rosh Hashanah, 5768 |access-date=24 January 2009 |last=Pfeffer |first=Anshel |date=12 September 2007 |newspaper=Haaretz |url-status=dead}}</ref>}} The modern [[Israel|State of Israel]] is the only country where Jews form a majority of the population.

Jews have significantly influenced and contributed to [[Progress|human progress]] in many fields, both historically and in modern times, including in [[Jewish culture#Science and technology|science and technology]],<ref name="Daly2013"/> [[Jewish philosophy|philosophy]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/maimonid/|title=Maimonides – Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|work=utm.edu|access-date=26 August 2015}}</ref> [[Jewish ethics|ethics]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sekine |first1=Seizo |title=A Comparative Study of the Origins of Ethical Thought: Hellenism and Hebraism |publisher=Sheed & Ward |isbn=978-1-4616-7459-7 }}{{page needed}}</ref> [[Jewish literature|literature]],<ref name="Daly2013">{{cite book|author=Jonathan Daly|title=The Rise of Western Power: A Comparative History of Western Civilization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9aZPAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA21|year= 2013|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-4411-1851-6|pages=21–}}"Upon the foundation of Judaism, two civilizations centered on monotheistic religion emerged, Christianity and Islam. To these civilizations, the Jews added a leaven of astonishing creativity in business, medicine, letters, science, the arts, and a variety of other leadership roles."</ref> [[Jewish political movements|politics]],<ref name="Daly2013"/> [[Jewish culture#Economic activity|business]],<ref name="Daly2013"/> [[Jewish art|art]], [[Jewish music|music]], [[Jewish humor|comedy]], [[Jewish theatre|theatre]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dctheatrescene.com/2013/06/25/broadway-musicals-a-jewish-legacy/|title=Broadway Musicals: A Jewish Legacy|work=DC Theatre Scene}}</ref> [[Jewish culture#Cinema|cinema]], [[Architecture of Israel|architecture]],<ref name="Daly2013" /> [[Jewish cuisine|food]], [[Jewish medicine|medicine]],<ref>{{Cite news|last=Rabin|first=Roni Caryn|title=Tracing the Path of Jewish Medical Pioneers|language=en-US|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/15/health/exhibition-traces-the-emergence-of-jews-as-medical-innovators.html|access-date=2022-08-20|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>Shatzmiller, Joseph. Doctors to Princes and Paupers: Jews, Medicine, and Medieval Society. Berkeley: U of California, 1995. Print.</ref> and [[Jewish religious movements|religion]]. Jews [[Authorship of the Bible|wrote the Bible]],<ref name="Dimont2004">{{cite book|author=[[Max I. Dimont]]|title=Jews, God, and History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lm5U0YSPmBUC&pg=PT102|year= 2004|publisher=Penguin Publishing Group|isbn=978-1-101-14225-7|pages=102–}} "During the subsequent five hundred years, under Persian, Greek and Roman domination, the Jews wrote, revised, admitted and canonized all the books now comprising the Jewish Old Testament"</ref><ref name="Galambush2011">{{cite book|author=Julie Galambush|title=The Reluctant Parting: How the New Testament's Jewish Writers Created a Christian Book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=52nkWb8GNMAC&pg=PA3|year=2011|publisher=HarperCollins|isbn=978-0-06-210475-5|pages=3–}}"The fact that Jesus and his followers who wrote the New Testament were first-century Jews, then, produces as many questions as it does answers concerning their experiences, beliefs, and practices"</ref> founded [[Christianity]],<ref name="BarclaySweet1996">{{cite book|author1=John M. G. Barclay|author2=John Philip McMurdo Sweet|title=Early Christian Thought in Its Jewish Context|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DN0t06-wVvoC&pg=PA20|year=1996|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-46285-3|pages=20–}}"Early Christianity began as a Jewish movement in first-century Palestine"</ref> and had [[Islamic–Jewish relations|an indirect but profound influence on Islam]].<ref name="Paterson2009">{{cite book|author=Dr. Andrea C. Paterson|title=Three Monotheistic Faiths – Judaism, Christianity, Islam: An Analysis and Brief History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tuuys4HxSzcC&pg=PA41|year=2009|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=978-1-4520-3049-4|pages=41–}} "Judaism also contributed to the religion of Islam for Islam derives its ideas of holy text, the Qur'an, ultimately from Judaism. The dietary and legal codes of Islam are based on those of Judaism. The basic design of the mosque, the Islamic house of worship, comes from that of the early synagogues. The communal prayer services of Islam and their devotional routines resembles those of Judaism."</ref> In these ways, Jews have also played a significant role in the development of [[Western culture]].<ref name="Cambridge University Historical Series">Cambridge University Historical Series, ''An Essay on Western Civilization in Its Economic Aspects'', p. 40: "Hebraism, like Hellenism, has been an all-important factor in the development of Western Civilization; Judaism, as the precursor of Christianity, has indirectly had much to do with shaping the ideals and morality of Western nations since the Christian era."</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Judaism - The Judaic tradition | Britannica|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Judaism/The-Judaic-tradition|access-date=2022-08-20|language=en|quote=Judaism has played a significant role in the development of Western culture because of its unique relationship with Christianity, the dominant religious force in the West}}</ref>

== Name and etymology ==
{{main|Jew (word)}}
{{main list|List of Jewish ethnonyms}}
The term Jew is derived from [[Biblical Hebrew|Hebrew]] {{lang|he|יְהוּדִי}} {{transliteration|he|Yehudi}}, originally the term for the people of the [[Israelites|Israelite]] [[kingdom of Judah]]. According to the [[Hebrew Bible]], the name of both the [[tribe of Judah]] and the kingdom of Judah derive from [[Judah (Bible)|Judah]], the fourth son of [[Jacob]].<ref name=":0">"Jew", ''Oxford English Dictionary''.</ref> Genesis 29:35 and 49:8 connect the name "Judah" with the verb {{transliteration|he|yada}}, meaning "praise", but scholars generally agree that the name of both the patriarch and the kingdom instead have a geographic origin—possibly referring to the gorges and ravines of the region.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pcAkKMECPKIC&pg=PA483 |title=Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament |publisher=William B. Eerdmans |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-8028-2329-8 |editor1-last=Botterweck |editor1-first=G. Johannes |editor1-link=G. Johannes Botterweck |volume=V |location=Grand Rapids, Mich. |pages=483–84 |translator-last=Green |translator-first=David E. |editor2-last=Ringgren |editor2-first=Helmer |editor2-link=Helmer Ringgren}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Julia Phillips Berger |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zese2C-fDTEC&q=when+was+the+term+jew+first+used&pg=PA41 |title=Teaching Jewish History |author2=Sue Parker Gerson |publisher=Behrman House, Inc |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-86705-183-4 |page=41}}</ref> The shift of [[ethnonym]] from "Israelites" to "Jews" (inhabitant of Judah), although not contained in the [[Torah]], is made explicit in the [[Book of Esther]] (4th century BCE),<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chouraqui |first=André |url=http://archive.org/details/peoplefaith00andr |title=The people and the faith of the Bible |publisher=Amherst : University of Massachusetts Press |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-87023-172-8 |page=43}}</ref> a book in the [[Ketuvim]], the third section of the Jewish [[Tanakh]].

The Hebrew word for "Jew" is {{lang|he|יְהוּדִי}} {{transliteration|he|Yehudi}}, with the [[plural]] {{lang|he|יְהוּדִים}} {{transliteration|he|Yehudim}}.<ref name="EJ253">{{cite EJ|last=Grintz|first=Yehoshua M.|title=Jew|volume=11|page=253}}</ref> [[Endonym]]s in other [[Jewish language]]s include the [[Ladino language|Ladino]] {{lang|lad|ג׳ודיו}} {{transliteration|lad|Djudio}} (plural {{lang|lad|ג׳ודיוס}}, {{transliteration|lad|Djudios}}) and the [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] {{lang|yi|ייִד}} {{transliteration|yi|Yid}} (plural {{lang|yi|ייִדן}} {{transliteration|yi|Yidn}}).

The English word "Jew" continues [[Middle English]] ''{{lang|enm|Gyw, Iewe}}''. These terms were loaned via the [[Old French]] ''{{lang|fro|giu}}'', which itself evolved from the earlier ''{{lang|fro|juieu}}'', which in turn derived from ''{{lang|fro|judieu/iudieu}}'' which through [[elision]] had dropped the letter "d" from the [[Medieval Latin]] ''Iudaeus'', which, like the [[New Testament]] [[Koine Greek|Greek]] term ''[[Ioudaios]]'', meant both "Jew" and "[[Judean]]" / "of [[Judea]]".<ref>Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East, Facts On File Inc., Infobase Publishing, 2009, p. 336</ref> The Greek term was a loan from [[Middle Aramaic|Aramaic]] ''{{transliteration|arc|*yahūdāy}}'', corresponding to Hebrew {{lang|he|יְהוּדִי}} {{transliteration|he|Yehudi}}.<ref name=":0" />

The etymological equivalent is in use in other languages, e.g., يَهُودِيّ ''yahūdī'' (sg.), ''al-yahūd'' (pl.), in [[Arabic]], "Jude" in [[German language|German]], "judeu" in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], "Juif" (m.)/"Juive" (f.) in [[French language|French]], "jøde" in [[Danish language|Danish]] and [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]], "judío/a" in [[Spanish language|Spanish]], "jood" in [[Dutch language|Dutch]], "żyd" in [[Polish language|Polish]] etc., but derivations of the word "Hebrew" are also in use to describe a Jew, e.g., in [[Italian language|Italian]] (''Ebreo''), in [[Persian language|Persian]] ("Ebri/Ebrani" ({{lang-fa|عبری/عبرانی}})) and [[Russian language|Russian]] (''Еврей, Yevrey'').<ref>{{cite book|last=Falk|first=Avner|author-link=Avner Falk|title=A Psychoanalytic History of the Jews|year=1996|publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson University Press|location=Madison, N.J.|isbn=0-8386-3660-8|page=131}}</ref> The German word "Jude" is pronounced {{IPA-de|ˈjuːdə}}, the corresponding [[adjective]] "jüdisch" {{IPA-de|ˈjyːdɪʃ}} (Jewish) is the origin of the word "Yiddish".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary|title=Yiddish|edition=11th|year=2004|publisher=Merriam-Webster|location=Springfield, Massachusetts|isbn=0-87779-809-5|page=[https://archive.org/details/merriamwebstersc00merr_6/page/1453 1453]|url=https://archive.org/details/merriamwebstersc00merr_6/page/1453}}</ref>

According to ''[[The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language]]'', fourth edition (2000),
<blockquote>It is widely recognized that the attributive use of the noun ''Jew'', in phrases such as ''Jew lawyer'' or ''Jew ethics'', is both vulgar and highly offensive. In such contexts ''Jewish'' is the only acceptable possibility. Some people, however, have become so wary of this construction that they have extended the stigma to any use of ''Jew'' as a noun, a practice that carries risks of its own. In a sentence such as ''There are now several Jews on the council'', which is unobjectionable, the substitution of a circumlocution like ''Jewish people'' or ''persons of Jewish background'' may in itself cause offense for seeming to imply that Jew has a negative connotation when used as a noun.<ref>{{cite book|title=The American Heritage Guide to Contemporary Usage and Style|at=Jew|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xb6ie6PqYhwC&pg=PA269|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company|year=2005|isbn=978-0-618-60499-9|editor1-last=Kleinedler|editor1-first=Steven|editor2-last=Spitz|editor2-first=Susan|display-editors=etal}}</ref></blockquote>

== Identity ==
{{main|Who is a Jew?|Jewish identity}}
[[File:A map of Canaan (8343807206).jpg|thumb|Map of [[Canaan]]]]
[[Judaism]] shares some of the characteristics of a [[nation]],<ref name="Nicholson2002">{{cite book|author=M. Nicholson|title=International Relations: A Concise Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HvI8DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA19|year=2002|publisher=NYU Press|isbn=978-0-8147-5822-9|pages=19–}} "The Jews are a nation and were so before there was a Jewish state of Israel"</ref><ref name="Neusner1991">{{cite book|author=Jacob Neusner|title=An Introduction to Judaism: A Textbook and Reader|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontoju0000neus|url-access=registration|year=1991|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|isbn=978-0-664-25348-6|pages=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontoju0000neus/page/375 375]–}} "That there is a Jewish nation can hardly be denied after the creation of the State of Israel"</ref><ref name="Dowty1998">{{cite book|author=Alan Dowty|title=The Jewish State: A Century Later, Updated With a New Preface|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vL8r4U1FKSQC&pg=PA3|year=1998|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-92706-3|pages=3–}} "Jews are a people, a nation (in the original sense of the word), an ethnos"</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://louisville.edu/law/library/special-collections/the-louis-d.-brandeis-collection/the-jewish-problem-how-to-solve-it-by-louis-d.-brandeis|title=The Jewish Problem: How To Solve It|first=Louis|last=Brandeis|author-link=Louis Brandeis|publisher=University of Louisville School of Law|access-date=2 April 2012|quote=Jews are a distinctive nationality of which every Jew, whatever his country, his station or shade of belief, is necessarily a member}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Palmer|first1=Edward Henry|author-link1=Edward Henry Palmer|title=A History of the Jewish Nation: From the Earliest Times to the Present Day|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishn00palm|access-date=2 April 2012|year= 2002|orig-year=First published 1874|publisher=Gorgias Press|isbn=978-1-931956-69-7|oclc=51578088}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://press.princeton.edu/einstein/materials/jewish_nationality.pdf|title=How I Became a Zionist|first=Albert|last=Einstein|author-link=Albert Einstein|work=[[Einstein Papers Project]]|quote=The Jewish nation is a living fact|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|access-date=5 April 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151105012335/http://press.princeton.edu/einstein/materials/jewish_nationality.pdf|archive-date=5 November 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> an [[ethnicity]],<ref name="Jews-are-ethnoreligious-group" /> a [[religion]], and a [[culture]],<ref name="GordisHeller2012">{{cite book|author1=David M. Gordis|author2=Zachary I. Heller|title=Jewish Secularity: The Search for Roots and the Challenges of Relevant Meaning|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QWrSy8Ckd5UC&pg=PA1|year=2012|publisher=University Press of America|isbn=978-0-7618-5793-8|pages=1–}}: "Judaism is a culture and a civilization which embraces the secular as well"</ref><ref name="Kunin2000">{{cite book|author=Seth Daniel Kunin|title=Themes and Issues in Judaism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=St_TAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|year= 2000|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-0-304-33758-3|pages=1–}}: Although culture - and Judaism is a culture (or cultures) as well as religion - can be subdivided into different analytical categories..."</ref><ref name="Mendes-Flohr1991">{{cite book|author=Paul R. Mendes-Flohr|title=Divided Passions: Jewish Intellectuals and the Experience of Modernity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VBuFygk2C-AC&pg=PA421|year=1991|publisher=Wayne State University Press|isbn=0-8143-2030-9|pages=421–}}: "Although Judaism is a culture - or rather has a culture - it is eminently more than a culture"</ref> making the definition of who is a Jew vary slightly depending on whether a religious or national approach to identity is used.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/whojew1.html|title=Who is a Jew?|access-date=6 October 2007|last=Weiner|first=Rebecca|year=2007|encyclopedia=[[Jewish Virtual Library]]}}</ref>{{better source needed}} Generally, in modern secular usage, Jews include three groups: people who were born to a Jewish family regardless of whether or not they follow the religion, those who have some Jewish ancestral background or lineage (sometimes including those who do not have strictly [[Matrilineality in Judaism|matrilineal descent]]), and people without any Jewish ancestral background or lineage who have formally [[Conversion to Judaism|converted to Judaism]] and therefore are followers of the religion.<ref>{{cite book|title=World Religions: An Introduction for Students|last=Fowler|first=Jeaneane D.|year=1997|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|isbn=1-898723-48-6|page=[https://archive.org/details/worldreligionsin0000unse/page/7 7]|url=https://archive.org/details/worldreligionsin0000unse/page/7}}</ref>

Historical definitions of [[Jewish identity]] have traditionally been based on ''[[halakha|halakhic]]'' definitions of matrilineal descent, and halakhic conversions. These definitions of who is a Jew date back to the codification of the [[Oral Torah]] into the [[Talmud|Babylonian Talmud]], around 200 [[Common Era|CE]]. Interpretations by Jewish sages of sections of the Tanakh – such as {{bibleref2|Deuteronomy|7:1-5}}, which forbade intermarriage between Jews' [[Israelites|Israelite ancestors]] and seven non-Israelite nations: "for that [i.e. giving your daughters to their sons or taking their daughters for your sons,] would turn away your children from following me, to serve other gods" <ref name="John Day pp. 47"/>{{Failed verification}} – are used as a warning against [[Interfaith marriage in Judaism|intermarriage]] between Jews and [[gentile]]s. {{bibleref2|Leviticus|24:10}} says that the son in a marriage between a Hebrew woman and an [[Egyptians|Egyptian]] man is "of the community of Israel." This is complemented by {{bibleref2|Ezra|10:2–3}}, where Israelites returning from Babylon vow to put aside their [[gentile]] wives and their children.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/faq/10-11.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19961018024300/http://shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/faq/10-11.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=18 October 1996|title=What is the origin of Matrilineal Descent?|access-date=9 January 2009|publisher=Shamash.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.torah.org/qanda/seequanda.php?id=318 |title=What is the source of the law that a child is Jewish only if its mother is Jewish? |access-date=9 January 2009 |publisher=Torah.org |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081224205847/http://www.torah.org/qanda/seequanda.php?id=318 |archive-date=24 December 2008}}</ref> A popular theory is that the rape of Jewish women in captivity brought about the law of Jewish identity being inherited through the maternal line, although scholars challenge this theory citing the Talmudic establishment of the law from the pre-exile period.<ref name="Klein2016" /> Another argument is that the rabbis changed the law of patrilineal descent to matrilineal descent due to the widespread rape of Jewish women by Roman soldiers.<ref name="Schott2010">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6iFx-wHhMJMC&pg=PA67|title=Birth, Death, and Femininity: Philosophies of Embodiment|author=Robin May Schott|year=2010|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-00482-6|pages=67–}}</ref> Since the anti-religious ''[[Haskalah]]'' movement of the late 18th and 19th centuries, ''halakhic'' interpretations of Jewish identity have been challenged.<ref>Dosick (2007), pp. 56–57.</ref>

According to historian [[Shaye J. D. Cohen]], the status of the offspring of mixed marriages was determined [[Patrilineality|patrilineally]] in the Bible. He brings two likely explanations for the change in [[Mishnah|Mishnaic]] times: first, the Mishnah may have been applying the same logic to mixed marriages as it had applied to other mixtures (''[[Kil'ayim (prohibition)|Kil'ayim]]''). Thus, a mixed marriage is forbidden as is the union of a [[horse]] and a [[donkey]], and in both unions the offspring are judged matrilineally.<ref name="J.D. Cohen">{{cite book|author=Shaye J.D. Cohen|year=1999|title=The Beginnings of Jewishness|publisher=U. California Press|pages=305–06|isbn=0-585-24643-2}}</ref> Second, the [[Tannaim]] may have been influenced by [[Roman law]], which dictated that when a parent could not contract a legal marriage, [[Mater semper certa est|offspring would follow the mother]].<ref name="J.D. Cohen" /> Rabbi Rivon Krygier follows a similar reasoning, arguing that Jewish descent had formerly passed through the patrilineal descent and the law of matrilineal descent had its roots in the Roman legal system.<ref name="Klein2016">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0BC_DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA6|title=Lost Jews: The Struggle for Identity Today|author=Emma Klein|year=2016|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-349-24319-8|pages=6–}}</ref>

== Origins ==
{{further|Canaan|Israelites| Yahwism|Origins of Judaism|History of ancient Israel and Judah}}
[[File:Procession of the Aamu, Tomb of Khnumhotep II (composite).jpg|thumb|upright=2|right|Egyptian depiction of the visit of Western Asiatics in colorful garments, labeled as ''[[Aamu]]''. The painting is from the tomb of a 12th dynasty official [[Khnumhotep II]] at [[Beni Hasan]], and dated to c. 1900 BCE. Their nearest Biblical contemporaries were the earliest of Hebrews, such as [[Abraham]] and [[Joseph (Genesis)|Joseph]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mieroop |first1=Marc Van De |title=A History of Ancient Egypt |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-6070-4 |page=131 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JADDYAZ9GIIC&pg=PA131 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bard |first1=Kathryn A. |title=An Introduction to the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-118-89611-2 |page=188 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lFscBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA188 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="archaeology.org">{{cite journal |last1=Curry |first1=Andrew |title=The Rulers of Foreign Lands – Archaeology Magazine |website=www.archaeology.org |url=https://www.archaeology.org/issues/309-1809/features/6855-egypt-hyksos-foreign-dynasty}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kamrin |first1=Janice |title=The Aamu of Shu in the Tomb of Khnumhotep II at Beni Hassan |journal=Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=22–36 |url=https://journals.uair.arizona.edu/index.php/jaei/article/view/28 |s2cid=199601200 }}</ref>]]
[[File:Jehu on the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III.jpg|thumb|upright|Depiction of King [[Jehu]], tenth [[king]] of the [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|northern Kingdom of Israel]], on the [[Black Obelisk]] of [[Shalmaneser III]], 841–840 BCE.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kuan |first1=Jeffrey Kah-Jin |title=Neo-Assyrian Historical Inscriptions and Syria-Palestine: Israelite/Judean-Tyrian-Damascene Political and Commercial Relations in the Ninth-Eighth Centuries BCE |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers |isbn=978-1-4982-8143-0 |pages=64–66 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zMOqCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA65 |language=en}}</ref> This is "the only portrayal we have in ancient Near Eastern art of an Israelite or Judaean monarch".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cohen |first1=Ada |last2=Kangas |first2=Steven E. |title=Assyrian Reliefs from the Palace of Ashurnasirpal II: A Cultural Biography |publisher=UPNE |isbn=978-1-58465-817-7 |page=127 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uRKU0YXBWtgC&pg=PA127 |language=en}}</ref> ]]
A factual reconstruction for the origin of the Jews is a difficult and complex endeavor. It requires examining at least 3,000 years of ancient human history using documents in vast quantities and variety, written in at least ten [[Ancient Near East|Near Eastern]] languages. As archaeological discovery relies upon researchers and scholars from diverse disciplines, the goal is to interpret all of the factual data, focusing on the most consistent theory. The prehistory and ethnogenesis of the Jews are closely intertwined with archaeology, biology, and historical textual records, as well as religious literature and mythology. The ethnic stock to which Jews originally trace their ancestry was a confederation of Iron Age [[Semitic languages|Semitic]]-speaking tribes known as the [[Israelites]] that inhabited a part of [[Canaan]] during the [[history of ancient Israel and Judah|tribal and monarchic periods]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Legacy: A Genetic History of the Jewish People |last=Ostrer |first=Harry |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-19-537961-7 |publication-date=8 May 2012}}</ref> Modern Jews are named after and also descended from the southern Israelite [[Kingdom of Judah]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Killebrew |first=Ann E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VtAmmwapfVAC |title=Biblical Peoples and Ethnicity: An Archaeological Study of Egyptians, Canaanite |publisher=Society of Biblical Lit |isbn=978-1-58983-097-4 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Schama2014">{{cite book |last=Schama |first=Simon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sHIpAgAAQBAJ |title=The Story of the Jews: Finding the Words 1000 BC–1492 AD |publisher=HarperCollins |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-06-233944-7 |author-link=Simon Schama}}</ref><ref>* "In the broader sense of the term, a Jew is any person belonging to the worldwide group that constitutes, through descent or conversion, a continuation of the ancient Jewish people, who were themselves the descendants of the Hebrews of the Old Testament."
* "The Jewish people as a whole, initially called Hebrews (ʿIvrim), were known as Israelites (Yisreʾelim) from the time of their entrance into the Holy Land to the end of the Babylonian Exile (538 BC)."
[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/303358/Jew Jew] at [https://www.britannica.com/ Encyclopædia Britannica]</ref><ref name="Ostrer2012">{{cite book |last=Ostrer |first=Harry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xIloAgAAQBAJ |title=Legacy: A Genetic History of the Jewish People |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-19-970205-3}}</ref><ref name="Brenner2010">{{cite book |last=Brenner |first=Michael |url=https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryofje00bren |title=A Short History of the Jews |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-691-14351-4 |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="Adams1840">{{cite book |last=Adams |first=Hannah |url=https://archive.org/details/historyjewsfrom00adamgoog |title=The History of the Jews: From the Destruction of Jerusalem to the Present Time |publisher=London Society House |year=1840}}</ref>

According to the [[Tanakh|Hebrew Bible]] narrative, Jewish ancestry is traced back to the [[Patriarchs (Bible)|Biblical patriarchs]] such as [[Abraham]], his son [[Isaac]], Isaac's son [[Jacob]], and the Biblical matriarchs [[Sarah]], [[Rebecca]], [[Leah]], and [[Rachel]], who lived in [[Canaan]]. The [[Twelve Tribes]] are described as descending from the twelve sons of Jacob. Jacob and his family migrated to [[Ancient Egypt]] after being invited to live with Jacob's son [[Joseph (son of Jacob)|Joseph]] by the [[Pharaohs in the Bible|Pharaoh]] himself. The patriarchs' descendants were later enslaved until the [[The Exodus|Exodus]] led by [[Moses]], after which the Israelites conquered Canaan under Moses' successor [[Joshua]], went through the period of the [[Biblical judges]] after the death of Joshua, then through the mediation of [[Samuel]] became subject to a king, [[Saul]], who was succeeded by [[David]] and then [[Solomon]], after whom the [[Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)|United Monarchy]] ended and was split into a separate [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Kingdom of Israel]] and a [[Kingdom of Judah]]. The Kingdom of Judah is described as comprising the tribes of [[Tribe of Judah|Judah]], [[Tribe of Benjamin|Benjamin]], partially [[Tribe of Levi|Levi]], and later adding remnants of other tribes who migrated there from the northern Kingdom of Israel.<ref name="Broshi 2001 174">{{cite book |last=Broshi |first=Maguen |title=Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=etTUEorS1zMC&pg=PA174|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |year=2001 |page=174 |isbn=1-84127-201-9}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Judah |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Judah-Hebrew-tribe |access-date=1 April 2018 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.haaretz.com/archaeology/MAGAZINE-israelite-refugees-found-high-office-in-judah-seals-found-in-jerusalem-show-1.5448092|title=Israelite refugees found high office in Kingdom of Judah, seals found in Jerusalem show|newspaper=Haaretz}}</ref>

Modern [[archaeology]] and the current historical view has largely discarded the historicity of this narrative.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dever |first=William |title=What Did the Biblical Writers Know, and When Did They Know It? |year=2001 |publisher=Eerdmans |isbn=3-927120-37-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6-VxwC5rQtwC |pages=98–99 |quote=After a century of exhaustive investigation, all respectable archaeologists have given up hope of recovering any context that would make Abraham, Isaac, or Jacob credible "historical figures" [...] archaeological investigation of Moses and the Exodus has similarly been discarded as a fruitless pursuit.}}</ref> It has been reframed as constituting the [[Israelites]]' inspiring [[national myth]] narrative. The Israelites and their culture, according to the modern archaeological and historical account, did not overtake the region by force, but instead branched out of the [[Canaanite languages|Canaanite peoples]] and culture through the development of a distinct [[monolatrism|monolatristic]]—and later [[monotheism|monotheistic]]—religion of [[Yahwism]] centered on [[Yahweh]], one of the gods of the Canaanite pantheon. The growth of Yahweh-centric belief, along with a number of cultic practices, gradually gave rise to a distinct Israelite [[ethnic group]], setting them apart from other Canaanites.<ref>Tubb, 1998. pp. 13–14{{full citation needed}}</ref><ref>Mark Smith in "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" states "Despite the long regnant model that the Canaanites and Israelites were people of fundamentally different culture, archaeological data now casts doubt on this view. The material culture of the region exhibits numerous common points between Israelites and Canaanites in the Iron I period (c. 1200–1000 BCE). The record would suggest that the Israelite culture largely overlapped with and derived from Canaanite culture... In short, Israelite culture was largely Canaanite in nature. Given the information available, one cannot maintain a radical cultural separation between Canaanites and Israelites for the Iron I period." (pp. 6–7). Smith, Mark (2002) "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" (Eerdman's)</ref><ref>Rendsberg, Gary (2008). "Israel without the Bible". In Frederick E. Greenspahn. The Hebrew Bible: New Insights and Scholarship. NYU Press, pp. 3–5</ref>

The Israelites become visible in the historical record as a people between 1200 and 1000 BCE.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Spielvogel |first1=Jackson J. |title=Western civilization |publisher=Wadsworth/Cengage Learning |isbn=978-0-495-91324-5 |edition=8th |location=Australia |page=33 |quote=What is generally agreed, however, is that between 1200 and 1000 B.C.E., the Israelites emerged as a distinct group of people, possibly united into tribes or a league of tribes}}</ref> There is well accepted archeological evidence referring to "Israel" in the [[Merneptah Stele]], which dates to about 1200 BCE.<ref name="NollMerneptah" /><ref name="ThompsonMerneptah" /> It is not certain if a period like that of the [[Biblical judges]] occurred<ref name="Yoder2015">{{Cite book |last=Yoder |first=John C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h7kFCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA5%257Cyear=2015%257Cpublisher=Fortress |title=Power and Politics in the Book of Judges: Men and Women of Valor |publisher=Augsburg Fortress Publishers |isbn=978-1-4514-9642-0 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Brettler2002">{{cite book |author=Marc Zvi Brettler |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9j9Jbcl6g38C&pg=PA107 |title=The Book of Judges |publisher=Psychology Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-415-16216-6 |page=107}}</ref><ref name="Thompson2000">{{cite book |author=Thomas L. Thompson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RwrrUuHFb6UC&pg=PA96 |title=Early History of the Israelite People: From the Written & Archaeological Sources |publisher=Brill |year=2000 |isbn=90-04-11943-4 |page=96}}</ref><ref name="HjelmThompson2016">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hmOaCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 |title=History, Archaeology and The Bible Forty Years After "Historicity": Changing Perspectives |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-317-42815-2 |editor-last=Hjelm |editor-first=Ingrid |page=4 |editor-last2=Thompson |editor-first2=Thomas L}}</ref><ref name="Davies1995">{{cite book |author=Philip R. Davies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5D5GNju1-ggC&pg=PA26 |title=In Search of "Ancient Israel": A Study in Biblical Origins |publisher=A&C Black |year=1995 |isbn=978-1-85075-737-5 |page=26}}</ref> nor if there was ever a [[Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)|United Monarchy]].<ref name="lipschits">{{cite book |last1=Lipschits |first1=Oded |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yErYBAAAQBAJ |title=The Jewish Study Bible |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-997846-5 |editor1-last=Berlin |editor1-first=Adele |edition=2nd |language=en |chapter=The History of Israel in the Biblical Period |editor2-last=Brettler |editor2-first=Marc Zvi}}</ref><ref name="Finkelstein">{{cite book |last1=Finkelstein |first1=Israel |title=The Bible unearthed : archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories |last2=Silberman |first2=Neil Asher |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=0-684-86912-8 |edition=1st Touchstone |location=New York}}</ref><ref name="Kuhrtp438">{{cite book |last=Kuhrt |first=Amiele |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientneareastc00akuh/page/438 |title=The Ancient Near East |publisher=Routledge |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-415-16762-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/ancientneareastc00akuh/page/438 438]}}</ref><ref name="Wright">{{cite web |last1=Wright |first1=Jacob L. |title=David, King of Judah (Not Israel) |url=http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/2014/07/wri388001.shtml |publisher=The Bible and Interpretation}}</ref> There is debate about the earliest existence of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah and their extent and power, but historians agree that a [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Kingdom of Israel]] existed by c. 900 BCE<ref name="Finkelstein" />{{rp|169–95}}<ref name="Kuhrtp438" /><ref name="Wright" /> and that a [[Kingdom of Judah]] existed by c. 700 BCE.<ref name="Pitcher">{{Cite book |last1=Holloway |first1=Steven W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&pg=PA229 |title=The Pitcher is Broken: Memorial Essays for Gösta W. Ahlström |last2=Handy |first2=Lowell K. |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-0-567-63671-3 |language=en |quote=For Israel, the description of the battle of Qarqar in the Kurkh Monolith of Shalmaneser III (mid-ninth century) and for Judah, a Tiglath-pileser III text mentioning (Jeho-) Ahaz of Judah (IIR67 = K. 3751), dated 734–733, are the earliest published to date.}}</ref> In 587 BCE [[Nebuchadnezzar II]], King of the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]], [[Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)|besieged Jerusalem]], destroyed the [[Solomon's Temple|First Temple]] and deported the most prominent citizens of Judah.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Baker |first1=Luke |title=Ancient tablets reveal life of Jews in Nebuchadnezzar's Babylon |newspaper=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-israel-archaeology-babylon-idUSKBN0L71EK20150203}}</ref>

[[Genetic studies on Jews]] show that most Jews worldwide bear a common genetic heritage which originates in the [[Middle East]], and that they share certain genetic traits with other Gentile peoples of the [[Fertile Crescent]].<ref name="WhoAreTheJews">{{cite web |author=Jared Diamond |year=1993 |title=Who are the Jews? |url=http://ftp.beitberl.ac.il/~bbsite/misc/ezer_anglit/klali/05_123.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721133548/http://ftp.beitberl.ac.il/~bbsite/misc/ezer_anglit/klali/05_123.pdf |archive-date=21 July 2011 |access-date=8 November 2010}} Natural History 102:11 (November 1993): 12–19.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hammer |first1=MF |last2=Redd |first2=AJ |last3=Wood |first3=ET |display-authors=etal |title=Jewish and Middle Eastern non-Jewish populations share a common pool of Y-chromosome biallelic haplotypes |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=97 |issue=12 |pages=6769–74 |bibcode=2000PNAS...97.6769H |doi=10.1073/pnas.100115997 |pmc=18733 |pmid=10801975 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Wade |first=Nicholas |title=Y Chromosome Bears Witness to Story of the Jewish Diaspora |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/05/09/science/y-chromosome-bears-witness-to-story-of-the-jewish-diaspora.html |access-date=10 October 2012}}</ref> The genetic composition of different Jewish groups shows that Jews share a common gene pool dating back four millennia, as a marker of their common ancestral origin.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Balter |first=Michael |title=Tracing the Roots of Jewishness |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/tracing-roots-jewishness-rev2 |access-date=4 October 2018 |website=[[Science (journal)|Science]]}}</ref> Despite their long-term separation, Jewish communities maintained their unique commonalities, propensities, and sensibilities in culture, tradition, and language.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gFtYAgAAQBAJ&q=the+importance+of+ancestral+origin+box+5-1&pg=PT116 |title=Genes, Behavior, and the Social Environment:: Moving Beyond the Nature ...By Committee on Assessing Interactions Among Social, Behavioral, and Genetic Factors in Health, Board on Health Sciences Policy, Institute of Medicine, Lyla M. Hernandez |publisher=National Academies Press |isbn=978-0-309-10196-7 |page=100 |language=en}}</ref>

== History ==
{{main|Jewish history}}
{{For timeline|Timeline of Jewish history}}

{{Tribes of Israel}}

=== Israel and Judah ===
{{further|History of ancient Israel and Judah}}
Since their inception, the two Israelite kingdoms—the northern [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Kingdom of Israel]] and the southern [[Kingdom of Judah]]—existed as neighbors and shared ethnic, cultural, [[Biblical Hebrew|linguistic]] and [[Yahwism|religious]] characteristics despite a complicated relationship. Israel, with its capital mostly in [[Samaria (ancient city)|Samaria]], was larger and wealthier, and soon developed into a regional power.{{sfn|Finkelstein|Silberman|2002|pp=146–7|ps=Put simply, while Judah was still economically marginal and backward, Israel was booming. [...] In the next chapter we will see how the northern kingdom suddenly appeared on the ancient Near Eastern stage as a major regional power}} In contrast, Judah, with its capital in [[Jerusalem]], was less prosperous and covered a smaller, mostly mountainous territory. However, while in Israel the royal succession was often decided by a military coup d'état, resulting in several dynasty changes, political stability in Judah was much greater, as it was ruled by the [[Davidic line|House of David]] for the whole four centuries of its existence.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lemaire |first=André |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1017604304 |title=The Oxford Illustrated History of the Holy Land |others=Robert G. Hoyland, H. G. M. Williamson |isbn=978-0-19-872439-1 |edition=1st |location=Oxford, United Kingdom |pages=61–85 |chapter=Israel and Judah |oclc=1017604304}}</ref>

Around 720 BCE, Kingdom of Israel was destroyed when it was conquered by the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]], which came to dominate the ancient Near East.<ref name="Broshi 2001 174" /> The Kingdom of Judah, now under Assyrian [[Vassal state|vassalage]], came into prosperity, and its population increased greatly in the 7th century BCE.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2kSovzudhFUC |title=A History of the Jewish People |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1976 |isbn=978-0674397316 |editor-last=Ben-Sasson |editor-first=Haim Hillel |editor-link=H.H. Ben-Sasson |page=142 |quote=Sargon's heir, Sennacherib (705–681), could not deal with Hezekiah's revolt until he gained control of Babylon in 702 BCE. |access-date=12 October 2018}}</ref> Later in the same century, the Assyrians were defeated by the rising [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]], and Judah became its vassal. In 587 BCE, following a [[Judah's revolts against Babylon|revolt in Judah]], the Babylonian king [[Nebuchadnezzar II]] [[Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)|besieged and destroyed Jerusalem]] and the [[Solomon's Temple|First Temple]], putting an end to the kingdom. The majority of Jerusalem's residents, including the kingdom's elite, were [[Babylonian captivity|exiled to Babylon]].{{sfn|Lipiński|2020|p=94}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lipschits |first=Oded |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5325/j.ctv1bxh5fd |title=The Fall and Rise of Jerusalem: Judah under Babylonian Rule |publisher=Penn State University Press |isbn=978-1-57506-297-6 |pages=367 |doi=10.5325/j.ctv1bxh5fd|jstor=10.5325/j.ctv1bxh5fd }}</ref>

=== Second Temple Period ===
{{further|Second Temple period|Jewish–Roman wars}}
According to the [[Book of Ezra]], the Persian [[Cyrus the Great]] ended the [[Babylonian exile]] in 538 BCE,<ref name="rennert">{{cite web|url=http://www.biu.ac.il/js/rennert/history_4.html |title=Second Temple Period (538 BCE. to 70 CE) Persian Rule |publisher=Biu.ac.il |access-date=15 March 2014}}</ref> the year after he captured Babylon.<ref>''Harper's Bible Dictionary'', ed. by Achtemeier, etc., Harper & Row, San Francisco, 1985, p. 103</ref> The exile ended with the return under [[Zerubbabel]] the Prince (so-called because he was a descendant of the royal line of [[David]]) and Joshua the Priest (a descendant of the line of the former High Priests of the Temple) and their construction of the [[Second Temple]] in the period 521–516 BCE.<ref name="rennert" /> As part of the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian Empire]], the former Kingdom of Judah became the province of Judah (''[[Yehud Medinata]]'')<ref>Yehud being the Aramaic equivalent of the Hebrew Yehuda, or "Judah", and "medinata" the word for province</ref> with different borders, covering a smaller territory.<ref name="Grabbe355">{{cite book |last=Grabbe |first=Lester L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-MnE5T_0RbMC&q=gave+the+Jews+permission+to+return+to+Yehud+province+and+to+rebuild+the&pg=PA355 |title=A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period: Yehud - A History of the Persian Province of Judah v. 1 |publisher=T & T Clark |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-567-08998-4 |page=355}}</ref> The population of the province was greatly reduced from that of the kingdom, archaeological surveys showing a population of around 30,000 people in the 5th to 4th centuries BCE.<ref name="Finkelstein" />{{rp|308}}

Judea was under control of the [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenids]] until the fall of their empire in c. 333 BCE to [[Alexander the Great]]. After several centuries under foreign imperial rule, the [[Maccabean Revolt]] against the [[Seleucid Empire]] resulted in an independent [[Hasmonean dynasty|Hasmonean kingdom]], under which the Jews once again enjoyed political independence for a period spanning from 110 to 63 BCE.<ref name="BangScheidel2013">{{cite book |author1=Peter Fibiger Bang |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GCj09AmtvvwC&pg=PAPA184 |title=The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean |author2=Walter Scheidel |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-518831-8 |pages=184–187 |access-date=January 16, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160404/https://books.google.com/books?id=GCj09AmtvvwC&pg=PAPA184 |archive-date=April 9, 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 63 BCE, Judea was conquered by the Romans. From 37 BCE to 6 CE, the Romans allowed the Jews to maintain some degree of independence under the vassal [[Herodian dynasty]]. However, Judea eventually came directly under Roman control and was incorporated into the [[Roman Empire]] as the [[Judaea (Roman province)|province of Judaea]].<ref>{{cite book |author1=Peter Fibiger Bang |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GCj09AmtvvwC&pg=PA184 |title=The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean |author2=Walter Scheidel |publisher=OUP USA |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-518831-8 |pages=184–87}}</ref><ref name="Malamat1976">{{cite book |author=Abraham Malamat |url={{Google books|2kSovzudhFUC|page=PA223|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |title=A History of the Jewish People |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1976 |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |pages=223–239}}</ref> The [[Jewish–Roman wars|Jewish-Roman wars]], a series of unsuccessful revolts against the Romans in the first and second centuries CE, had catastrophic results for the Jewish population of the region, with many Jews being killed, expelled or sold into slavery.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Zissu |first=Boaz |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/988856967 |title=Jews and Christians in the First and Second Centuries: The Interbellum 70‒132 CE |others=Joshua Schwartz, Peter J. Tomson |isbn=978-90-04-34986-5 |location=Leiden, The Netherlands |pages=19 |chapter=Interbellum Judea 70-132 CE: An Archaeological Perspective |oclc=988856967}}</ref><ref name="FahlbuschBromiley2005">{{cite book |author1=Erwin Fahlbusch |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C5V7oyy69zgC&pg=PAPA15 |title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity |author2=Geoffrey William Bromiley |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-8028-2416-5 |pages=15– |access-date=January 16, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160412/https://books.google.com/books?id=C5V7oyy69zgC&pg=PAPA15 |archive-date=April 9, 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[First Jewish–Roman War|First Jewish-Roman War]] (66–73 CE) resulted in the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple]], while in the aftermath of the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]] (132–136 CE), Judea was depopulated and the Jewish demographic center in the Land of Israel shifted to [[Galilee]].<ref name="Mor, M. 2016. P471">Mor, M. ''The Second Jewish Revolt: The Bar Kokhba War, 132-136 CE''. Brill, 2016. P471/</ref><ref name="raviv2021">{{Cite journal |last1=Raviv |first1=Dvir |last2=Ben David |first2=Chaim |title=Cassius Dio's figures for the demographic consequences of the Bar Kokhba War: Exaggeration or reliable account? |journal=Journal of Roman Archaeology |language=en |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=585–607 |doi=10.1017/S1047759421000271 |issn=1047-7594 |s2cid=236389017 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>Powell, ''The Bar Kokhba War AD 132-136'', Osprey Publishing, Oxford, ç2017, p.80</ref>
[[File:Iudaea_capta_reverse_of_Vespasian_sestertius.jpg|thumb|A Roman coin inscribed ''[[Judaea Capta coinage|Ivdaea Capta]],'' or "captive Judea" (71 CE), representing Judea as a seated mourning woman (right), and a Jewish captive with hands tied (left)]]
After the destruction of the Second Temple, Judaism lost much of its sectarian nature.<ref name="Magness">{{cite book |author=Jodi Magness |title=Was 70 CE a Watershed in Jewish History?: On Jews and Judaism before and after the Destruction of the Second Temple |publisher=Brill |year=2011 |isbn=978-90-04-21744-7 |editor1=Daniel R. Schwartz |chapter=Sectarianism before and after 70 CE |editor2=Zeev Weiss |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VecxAQAAQBAJ&q=diaspora+70+ce&pg=PA189}}</ref>{{rp|69}} Without a Temple, Greek-speaking Jews no longer looked to Jerusalem in the way they had before. Judaism separated into a linguistically Greek and a Hebrew / Aramaic sphere.<ref name="Ehrlich">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NoPZu79hqaEC&q=jewish+diaspora |title=Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora: Origins, Experiences, and Culture, Volume 1 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-85109-873-6 |editor=Mark Avrum Ehrlich}}</ref>{{rp|8–11}} The theology and religious texts of each community were distinctively different.<ref name="Ehrlich" />{{rp|11–13}} Hellenized Judaism never developed yeshivas to study the Oral Law. Rabbinic Judaism (centered in the Land of Israel and Babylon) almost entirely ignores the Hellenized Diaspora in its writings.<ref name="Ehrlich" />{{rp|13–14}} Hellenized Judaism eventually disappeared as its practitioners assimilated into Greco-Roman culture, leaving a strong Rabbinic eastern Diaspora with large centers of learning in Babylon.<ref name="Ehrlich" />{{rp|14–16}}

=== Babylon and Rome ===
{{further|History of the Jews in the Roman Empire|Talmudic academies in Babylonia}}

Long before the destruction of the Second Temple, there were several centuries of a Jewish diaspora, and their residence abroad was not necessarily due to forced migration.<ref>[[Erich S. Gruen]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=t1IR4WtFjGUC&pg=PA3 Diaspora: Jews Amidst Greeks and Romans] [[Harvard University Press]], 2009 pp. 3–4, 233–34: 'Compulsory dislocation, .…cannot have accounted for more than a fraction of the diaspora. … The vast bulk of Jews who dwelled abroad in the Second Temple Period did so voluntarily.' (2)' .Diaspora did not await the fall of Jerusalem to Roman power and destructiveness. The scattering of Jews had begun long before-occasionally through forced expulsion, much more frequently through voluntary migration.'</ref> Before the middle of the first century CE, large Jewish communities existed in the Roman provinces of [[Roman Egypt|Egypt]], [[Roman Syria|Syria]], [[Crete and Cyrenaica]], and in [[Rome]] itself, as well as in [[Mesopotamia]] ("[[History of the Jews in Iraq|Babylonia]]" in Jewish sources).<ref name="Smallwood">{{cite book |author=E. Mary Smallwood |title=The Cambridge History of Judaism: The early Roman period, Volume 3 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1984 |isbn=978-0521243773 |editor1=William David Davies |chapter=The Diaspora in the Roman period before AD 70 |editor2=Louis Finkelstein |editor3=William Horbury |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AW2BuWcalXIC&q=Diaspora+before+70&pg=PA168}}</ref> As a result of the [[Jewish–Roman wars|Jewish–Roman Wars]], hundreds of thousands of Jews were taken as slaves to [[Rome]] and other locations in the Roman Empire, and later immigrated to other European lands.

The Jewish community in the Land of Israel made numerous attempts to recover from the disastrous effects of the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]], with varying degrees of success. However, they never truly recovered,<ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last=Ehrlich |first=Michael |title=The Islamization of the Holy Land, 634–1800 |publisher=Arc Humanities Press |year=2022 |isbn=978-1-64189-222-3 |location=Leeds, UK |pages=3–4 |oclc=1302180905 |quote=The Jewish community strove to recover from the catastrophic results of the Bar Kokhva revolt (132–135 CE). Although some of these attempts were relatively successful, the Jews never fully recovered. During the Late Roman and Byzantine periods, many Jews emigrated to thriving centres in the diaspora, especially Iraq, whereas some converted to Christianity and others continued to live in the Holy Land, especially in Galilee and the coastal plain. During the Byzantine period, the three provinces of Palestine included more than thirty cities, namely, settlements with a bishop see. After the Muslim conquest in the 630s, most of these cities declined and eventually disappeared. As a result, in many cases the local ecclesiastical administration weakened, while in others it simply ceased to exist. Consequently, many local Christians converted to Islam. Thus, almost twelve centuries later, when the army led by Napoleon Bonaparte arrived in the Holy Land, most of the local population was Muslim.}}</ref> and Jewish presence in the region significantly dwindled.<ref>Oppenheimer, A'haron and Oppenheimer, Nili. ''Between Rome and Babylon: Studies in Jewish Leadership and Society''. Mohr Siebeck, 2005, p. 2.</ref> The Jewish community in [[Galilee]], which became the center of Jewish life in the Land of Israel after the revolt, reached a cultural apex during the [[Syria Palaestina|late Roman period]] and two major rabbinic texts, the [[Mishnah]] and the [[Jerusalem Talmud]], were composed there in the second to fourth centuries CE.<ref name=":03">{{Cite book |last=Leibner |first=Uzi |url=https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/43969 |title=Settlement and History in Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine Galilee: An Archaeological Survey of the Eastern Galilee |publisher=Mohr Siebeck |isbn=978-3-16-151460-9 |pages=321-324; 362-371; 396-400; 414-416 |language=English}}</ref> But as the Roman Empire was replaced by the [[Historiography of Christianization of the Roman Empire|Christianized]] [[Byzantine Empire]] under [[Constantine the Great|Constantine]], Jews came to be persecuted by the church and the authorities, and many immigrated to communities in the diaspora. In the fourth century CE, Jews are believed to have lost their position as the majority in the Land of Israel.<ref name="Kessler20102">{{cite book |author=Edward Kessler |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=87Woe7kkPM4C&pg=PA72 |title=An Introduction to Jewish-Christian Relations |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-521-70562-2 |page=72 |quote=Jews probably remained in the majority in Palestine until some time after the conversion of Constantine in the fourth century. [...] In Babylonia, there had been for many centuries a Jewish community which would have been further strengthened by those fleeing the aftermath of the Roman revolts.}}</ref><ref name=":12" />

The long-established Jewish community of Mesopotamia, which had been living under [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] and later [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian]] rule, beyond the confines of the Roman Empire, became an important center of Jewish study as Judea's Jewish population declined.<ref name="Kessler20102" /><ref name=":12" /> Under the political leadership of the [[exilarch]], who was regarded as a royal heir of the House of David, this community had an autonomous status and acted as a place of refuge for the Jews of the Land of Israel. A number of significant [[Talmudic academies in Babylonia|Talmudic academies]], such as the [[Nehardea Academy|Nehardea]], [[Pumbedita Academy|Pumbedita]], and [[Sura Academy|Sura]] academies, were established in Mesopotamia, and many important ''[[Amoraim]]'' were active there. The [[Babylonian Talmud]], a centerpiece of Jewish religious law, was compiled in Babylonia in the 3rd to 6th centuries.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2008 |title=Talmud and Midrash (Judaism) :: The making of the Talmuds: 3rd–6th century |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/581644/Talmud-and-Midrash/34869/The-making-of-the-Talmuds-3rd-6th-century#ref=ref24372 |access-date=28 October 2013}}</ref>

=== Middle Ages ===
{{further|History of the Jews in Europe|History of European Jews in the Middle Ages|Mizrahi Jews|Sephardi Jews}}
[[File:Jewish people around the world.svg|thumb|Map of the Jewish diaspora: 
{{Legend|#000000|Israel}}
{{Legend|#00216bff|+ 1,000,000}}
{{Legend|#0038b8ff|+ 100,000}}
{{Legend|#578bffff|+ 10,000}}
{{Legend|#b3cbffff|+ 1,000}}|301x301px]]
In the early Middle Ages, the Jewish diaspora communities [[Coalescent theory|coalesced]] into three major [[Jewish ethnic divisions|ethnic subdivisions]] according to where their ancestors settled: the ''[[Ashkenazi Jews|Ashkenazim]]'' (initially in the Rhineland and France), the ''[[Sephardi Jews|Sephardim]]'' (initially in the [[Spanish and Portuguese Jews|Iberian Peninsula]]), and the ''[[Mizrahi Jews|Mizrahim]]'' ([[History of the Jews under Muslim rule|Middle East]] and [[North Africa]]).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ben-Sasson, Haim Hillel |title=Jewish society through the ages |publisher=Schocken Books |year=1972 |editor=Ettinger, Samuel |oclc=581911264 |orig-year=1969}}</ref>

In [[Francia]], Jews like [[Isaac the Jew|Isaac Judaeus]] and [[Armentarius (moneylender)|Armentarius]] occupied prominent social and economic positions, as opposed to in Spain, where Jews were persecuted under [[Visigothic Kingdom|Visigoth]] rule. In Babylon, from the 7th to 11th centuries the [[Pumbedita Academy|Pumbedita]] and [[Sura Academy|Sura]] academies lead the Arab and to an extant the entire Jewish world. The deans and students of said academies defined the [[Geonim|Geonic period]] in Jewish history.<ref>{{Cite web|title=GAON – JewishEncyclopedia.com|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6511-gaon|access-date=23 June 2020|website=www.jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> Following this period were the [[Rishonim]] who lived from the 11th to 15th centuries, it was during this time that the Ashkenazi Jews began experiencing extreme persecution in France and especially the Rhineland, which resulted in mass immigration to [[History of the Jews in Poland|Poland]] and [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania|Lithuania]]. Meanwhile, Sephardic Jews experienced a golden age under Muslim rule, however following the [[Reconquista]] and subsequent [[Alhambra Decree|Alhambra decree]] in 1492, most of the Spanish Jewish population immigrated to North Africa and the [[Ottoman Empire]]. However some Jews chose to remain and pretended to practice Catholicism. These Jews would form the members of [[Crypto-Judaism]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Schloss|first=Chaim|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OV9jKGJzg3QC|title=2000 Years of Jewish History: From the Destruction of the Second Bais Hamikdash Until the Twentieth Century|publisher=Feldheim Publishers|isbn=978-1-58330-214-9|language=en}}</ref>

=== Modern period ===
{{further|Zionism|The Holocaust|History of Israel (1948–present)}}
In the 19th century, when Jews in [[Western Europe]] were increasingly granted [[Jewish emancipation|equality before the law]], Jews in the [[Pale of Settlement]] faced growing persecution, legal restrictions and widespread [[Pogrom|pogroms]]. Zionism emerged in the late 19th century in [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern Europe]] as a national revival movement, aiming to re-establish a Jewish polity in the Land of Israel, an endeavor to restore the Jewish people back to their ancestral homeland in order to stop the exoduses and persecutions that have plagued their history. This led to waves of Jewish migration to [[Ottoman Syria|Ottoman-controlled Palestine]]. [[Theodor Herzl]], who is considered the father of political Zionism,<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Kornberg|1993}} "How did Theodor Herzl, an assimilated German nationalist in the 1880s, suddenly in the 1890s become the founder of Zionism?"</ref> offered his vision of a future Jewish state in his 1896 book ''[[Der Judenstaat]]'' (''The Jewish State''); a year later, he presided over the [[First Zionist Congress]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Chapter One |url=http://www.jewishagency.org/israel/content/23396 |access-date=21 September 2015 |website=The Jewish Agency for Israel1}}</ref>

The antisemitism that inflicted Jewish communities in Europe also triggered a mass exodus of more than two million Jews to the [[United States]] between 1881 and 1924.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lewin |first=Rhoda G. |title=Stereotype and reality in the Jewish immigrant experience in Minneapolis |url=http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/46/v46i07p258-273.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Minnesota History |volume=46 |issue=7 |page=259 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200721002023/http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/46/v46i07p258-273.pdf |archive-date=July 21, 2020 |access-date=August 10, 2020}}</ref> The Jews of Europe and the United States gained success in the fields of science, culture and the economy. Among those generally considered the most famous were [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]]. Many [[Nobel Prize]] winners at this time were Jewish, as is still the case.<ref name="Jewish Nobel Prize Winners">{{cite web |title=Jewish Nobel Prize Winners |url=http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224211039/http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html |archive-date=December 24, 2018 |access-date=October 7, 2011 |publisher=jinfo.org}}</ref>

When [[Adolf Hitler]] and the [[Nazism|Nazis]] came to power in [[Nazi Germany|Germany]] in 1933, the situation for Jews deteriorated rapidly. Many Jews fled from Europe to [[Mandatory Palestine]], the United States, and the [[Soviet Union]] as a result of racial anti-Semitic laws, economic difficulties, and the fear of an impending war. [[World War II]] started in 1939, and by 1941, Hitler occupied almost all of Europe. Following the [[Operation Barbarossa|German invasion of the Soviet Union]] in 1941, the [[Final Solution]]—an extensive, organized effort with an unprecedented scope intended to annihilate the Jewish people—began, and resulted in the persecution and murder of Jews in Europe and [[North Africa]]. In Poland, three million were murdered in [[gas chambers]] in all concentration camps combined, with one million at the [[Auschwitz]] camp complex alone. The [[The Holocaust|Holocaust]] is the name given to this genocide, in which six million Jews were systematically murdered.

Before and during the Holocaust, enormous numbers of Jews immigrated to Mandatory Palestine. On May 14, 1948, upon the termination of the mandate, [[David Ben-Gurion]] declared the creation of the [[Israel|State of Israel]], a [[Jewish and democratic state]] in the Land of Israel. Immediately afterwards, all neighboring Arab states invaded, yet the newly formed [[Israel Defense Forces|IDF]] resisted. In 1949, the war ended and Israel started building the state and absorbing massive waves of [[Aliyah]] from all over the world.

== Culture ==
{{Main|Jewish culture}}

=== Religion ===
{{Main|Judaism}}
{{See also|Jewish atheism|Jewish secularism|Jewish Christians}}
{{Judaism}}
The Jewish [[ethnicity|people]] and the [[religion]] of [[Judaism]] are strongly interrelated. [[Conversion to Judaism|Converts to Judaism]] typically have a status within the Jewish ''ethnos'' equal to those born into it.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/judaism/beliefs/conversion.shtml |title=BBC Religions/Converting to Judaism: "A person who converts to Judaism becomes a Jew in every sense of the word, and is just as Jewish as someone born into Judaism." |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |access-date=2 October 2013}}</ref> However, several converts to Judaism, as well as ex-Jews, have claimed that converts are treated as second-class Jews by many born Jews.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.interfaithfamily.com/spirituality/conversion/Are_Converts_Treated_as_Second_Class.shtml |title=Are Converts Treated as Second Class? |work=InterfaithFamily}}</ref>
Conversion is not encouraged by mainstream Judaism, and it is considered a difficult task. A significant portion of conversions are undertaken by children of mixed marriages, or would-be or current spouses of Jews.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/paul-golin/the-complicated-relations_b_842806.html |title=Paul Golin: The Complicated Relationship Between Intermarriage and Jewish Conversion |publisher=Huffingtonpost.com |access-date=2 October 2013}}</ref>

The [[Hebrew Bible]], a religious interpretation of the traditions and early history of the Jews, established the first of the [[Abrahamic religions]], which are now practiced by 54 percent of the world. [[Judaism]] guides its adherents in both practice and belief, and has been called not only a religion, but also a "way of life,"<ref>Neusner (1991) p. 64</ref> which has made drawing a clear distinction between Judaism, [[Jewish culture]], and [[Jewish identity]] rather difficult. Throughout history, in eras and places as diverse as the ancient [[Ancient Greece|Hellenic]] world,<ref>{{cite book|last=Patai|first=Raphael|author-link=Raphael Patai|title=[[The Jewish Mind]]|year=1996|orig-year=1977|publisher=Wayne State University Press|location=Detroit|isbn=0-8143-2651-X|page=7}}</ref> in Europe before and after [[The Age of Enlightenment]] (see [[Haskalah]]),<ref>{{cite book|last=Johnson|first=Lonnie R.|title=Central Europe: Enemies, Neighbors, Friends|year=1996|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=0-19-510071-9|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195100716/page/145 145]|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195100716/page/145}}</ref> in [[Al-Andalus|Islamic Spain and Portugal]],<ref name=Sharot2930>Sharot (1997), pp. 29–30.</ref> in [[North Africa]] and the [[Middle East]],<ref name=Sharot2930 /> [[Indian Jews|India]],<ref>Sharot (1997), pp. 42–43.</ref> [[History of the Jews in China|China]],<ref>Sharot (1997), p. 42.</ref> or the contemporary [[American Jews|United States]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Fishman|first=Sylvia Barack|title=Jewish Life and American Culture|url=https://archive.org/details/jewishlifeameric0000fish|url-access=registration|year=2000|publisher=State University of New York Press|location=Albany, N.Y.|isbn=0-7914-4546-1|page=[https://archive.org/details/jewishlifeameric0000fish/page/38 38]}}</ref> and [[Israel]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Kimmerling|first=Baruch|title=The Israeli State and Society: Boundaries and Frontiers|url=https://archive.org/details/israelistatesoci00kimm|url-access=limited|year=1996|publisher=State University of New York Press|location=Albany, N.Y.|isbn=0-88706-849-9|page=[https://archive.org/details/israelistatesoci00kimm/page/n178 169]}}</ref> cultural phenomena have developed that are in some sense characteristically Jewish without being at all specifically religious. Some factors in this come from within Judaism, others from the interaction of Jews or specific communities of Jews with their surroundings, and still others from the inner social and cultural dynamics of the community, as opposed to from the religion itself. This phenomenon has led to considerably different [[Jewish culture]]s unique to their own communities.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lowenstein|first=Steven M.|title=The Jewish Cultural Tapestry: International Jewish Folk Traditions|year=2000|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=0-19-513425-7|page=228}}</ref>

=== Languages ===
{{main|Jewish languages}}

[[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] is the [[liturgical language]] of Judaism (termed ''lashon ha-kodesh'', "the holy tongue"), the language in which most of the Hebrew scriptures ([[Tanakh]]) were composed, and the daily speech of the Jewish people for centuries. By the 5th century BCE, [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]], a closely related tongue, joined Hebrew as the spoken language in [[Judea]].<ref name=Grintz>{{cite journal|doi=10.2307/3264497|title=Hebrew as the Spoken and Written Language in the Last Days of the Second Temple|first=Jehoshua M.|last=Grintz|journal=Journal of Biblical Literature|volume=79|issue=1|pages=32–47|publisher=The Society of Biblical Literature|jstor=3264497}}</ref> By the 3rd century BCE, some Jews of the diaspora were speaking [[Koine Greek|Greek]].<ref>Feldman (2006), p. 54.</ref> Others, such as in the Jewish communities of [[Asoristan]], known to Jews as Babylonia, were speaking Hebrew and [[Jewish Babylonian Aramaic|Aramaic]], the languages of the [[Babylonian Talmud]]. Dialects of these same languages were also used by the Jews of [[Syria Palaestina]] at that time.{{Citation needed}}

For centuries, Jews worldwide have spoken the local or dominant languages of the regions they migrated to, often developing distinctive [[dialect]]al forms or branches that became independent languages. [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] is the Judaeo-German language developed by [[Ashkenazi Jews]] who migrated to [[Central Europe]]. [[Judaeo-Spanish|Ladino]] is the Judaeo-Spanish language developed by [[Sephardi Jews|Sephardic]] Jews who migrated to the [[Iberian peninsula]]. Due to many factors, including the impact of [[the Holocaust]] on European Jewry, the [[Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries]], and widespread emigration from other Jewish communities around the world, ancient and distinct [[Jewish languages]] of several communities, including [[Judaeo-Georgian]], [[Judeo-Arabic languages|Judaeo-Arabic]], [[Judeo-Berber language|Judaeo-Berber]], [[Krymchak language|Krymchak]], [[Judaeo-Malayalam]] and many others, have largely fallen out of use.<ref name=Languages />

[[File:Loew-rabin-tombstone.jpg|thumb|upright|Tombstone of the [[Judah Loew ben Bezalel|Maharal]] in the [[Old Jewish Cemetery, Prague]]. The tombstones are inscribed in Hebrew.]]

For over sixteen centuries Hebrew was used almost exclusively as a liturgical language, and as the language in which most books had been written on Judaism, with a few speaking only Hebrew on the [[Shabbat|Sabbath]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Parfitt |first1=T. V. |title=The Use Of Hebrew In Palestine 1800–1822 |journal=Journal of Semitic Studies |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=237–252 |doi=10.1093/jss/17.2.237 }}</ref> Hebrew was revived as a spoken language by [[Eliezer ben Yehuda]], who arrived in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] in 1881. It had not been used as a [[mother tongue]] since [[Tannaim|Tannaic]] times.<ref name=Grintz /> [[Modern Hebrew]] is designated as the "State language" of Israel.<ref>{{cite web |title=Basic Law: Israel - The Nation State Of The Jewish People |url=https://knesset.gov.il/laws/special/eng/BasicLawNationState.pdf |website=The Knesset |publisher=[[Knesset]] of the State of Israel |access-date=3 September 2020 |archive-date=10 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210410191721/http://knesset.gov.il/laws/special/eng/basiclawnationstate.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Despite efforts to revive Hebrew as the national language of the Jewish people, knowledge of the language is not commonly possessed by Jews worldwide and [[English language|English]] has emerged as the [[lingua franca]] of the Jewish diaspora.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0VnB2Jq3fW4C&pg=PA428|title=International Handbook of Jewish Education|author=Nava Nevo|publisher=Springer|year=2001|page=428|quote=In contrast to other peoples who are masters of their national languages, Hebrew is not the 'common possession' of all Jewish people, and it mainly—if not exclusively—lives and breathes in Israel.... Although there are oases of Hebrew in certain schools, it has not become the Jewish lingua franca and English is rapidly taking its place as the Jewish people's language of communication. Even Hebrew-speaking Israeli representatives tend to use English in their public appearances at international Jewish conventions. |isbn=978-94-007-0354-4 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hEHCW7KnuG8C&pg=PA121|title=Prophets and Profits: Managerialism and the Restructuring of Jewish Schools in South Africa|author=Chaya Herman|publisher=HSRC Press|year=2006|page=121|quote=It is English rather than Hebrew that emerged as the ''lingua franca'' of the Jews towards the late 20th century.... This phenomenon occurred despite efforts to make Hebrew a language of communication, and despite the fact that the teaching of Hebrew was considered the ''raison d'être'' of the Jewish day schools and the 'nerve center' of Jewish learning.|isbn=978-0-7969-2114-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bWmMAgAAQBAJ&q=%22english+as+a+lingua+franca+for+jews+worldwide%22&pg=PA185|title=Negotiating Language Policy in Schools: Educators as Policymakers|author=Elana Shohamy|publisher=Routledge|year=2010|page=185|quote=This priority given to English is related to the special relationship between Israel and the United States, and the current status of English as a ''lingua franca'' for Jews worldwide.|isbn=978-1-135-14621-4 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rUpFAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA214|title=Dynamic Belonging: Contemporary Jewish Collective Identities|author=Elan Ezrachi|publisher=Bergahn Books|year=2012|page=214|quote=As Stephen P. Cohen observes: 'English is the language of Jewish universal discourse.'|isbn=978-0-85745-258-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jafi.org.il/JewishAgency/English/Jewish+Education/Compelling+Content/Worldwide+Community/Connecting+to+Community/Jewish+Languages.htm |title=Jewish Languages – How Do We Talk To Each Other? |publisher=[[Jewish Agency]] |access-date=5 April 2014 |quote=Only a minority of the Jewish people today can actually speak Hebrew. In order for a Jew from one country to talk to another who speaks a different language, it is more common to use English than Hebrew. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140307172019/http://www.jafi.org.il/JewishAgency/English/Jewish%2BEducation/Compelling%2BContent/Worldwide%2BCommunity/Connecting%2Bto%2BCommunity/Jewish%2BLanguages.htm |archive-date=7 March 2014}}</ref> Although many Jews once had sufficient knowledge of Hebrew to study the classic literature, and [[Jewish languages]] like [[Yiddish]] and [[Judaeo-Spanish|Ladino]] were commonly used as recently as the early 20th century, most Jews lack such knowledge today and English has by and large superseded most Jewish vernaculars.
The three most commonly spoken languages among Jews today are Hebrew, English, and [[Russian language|Russian]]. Some [[Romance languages]], particularly [[French language|French]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]], are also widely used.<ref name=Languages /> Yiddish has been spoken by more Jews in history than any other language,<ref>Hebrew, Aramaic and the rise of Yiddish. D. Katz. (1985) ''Readings in the sociology of Jewish languages'</ref> but it is far less used today following [[the Holocaust]] and the adoption of [[Modern Hebrew]] by the [[Zionism|Zionist movement]] and the [[Israel|State of Israel]].
In some places, the mother language of the Jewish community differs from that of the general population or the dominant group. For example, in [[Quebec]], the Ashkenazic majority has adopted English, while the Sephardic minority uses French as its primary language.<ref name="forward">{{cite web|url=http://forward.com/articles/5434/quebec-sephardim-make-breakthroughs/|title=Quebec Sephardim Make Breakthroughs |publisher=forward.com|access-date=12 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NYyiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PR22|title=Contemporary Sephardic Identity in the Americas: An Interdisciplinary Approach|author=Edna Aizenberg|year=2012|page=xxii|isbn=978-0-8156-5165-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fIZ6wftL3oQC&pg=PA449|title=Canada's Jews: A People's Journey|author=Gerald Tulchinsky|pages=447–49|isbn=978-0-8020-9386-8|year=2008}}</ref> Similarly, [[History of the Jews in South Africa|South African Jews]] adopted English rather than [[Afrikaans]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gbTFAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA51|title=Institutions, Ethnicity, and Political Mobilization in South Africa|author=Jessica Piombo|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|page=51|isbn=978-0-230-62382-8|year= 2009}}</ref> Due to both Czarist and Soviet policies,<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TIMoQbjAmhgC&pg=PA31|title=World War I and the Remaking of Jewish Vilna, 1914–1918|author=Andrew Noble Koss (dissertation)|publisher=Stanford University|year=2010|pages=30–31}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ic5Kth7aiusC&pg=PA781|title=Jewish and Non-Jewish Creators of "Jewish Languages"|author=Paul Wexler|chapter=Chapter 38: Evaluating Soviet Yiddish Language Policy Between 1917–1950|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|year=2006|page=780|isbn=978-3-447-05404-1}}</ref> Russian has superseded Yiddish as the language of [[History of the Jews in Russia|Russian Jews]], but these policies have also affected neighboring communities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jewish-languages.org/jewish-russian.html|title=Jewish Russian|author=Anna Verschik|publisher=Jewish Languages Research Website|access-date=1 April 2014|archive-date=16 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016171323/http://www.jewish-languages.org/jewish-russian.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Today, Russian is the first language for many Jewish communities in a number of [[Post-Soviet states]], such as [[Ukraine]]<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NoPZu79hqaEC&pg=PA1007|title=Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora: Origins, Experiences, and Culture, Volume 1|page=1007|isbn=978-1-85109-873-6|last1=Ehrlich|first1=Mark Avrum|year=2009}}</ref><ref name="google">{{cite book|title=Ukraine: A History, 4th Edition|author=Subtelny, O.|publisher=University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division|isbn=978-1-4426-9728-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ktyM07I9HXwC|access-date=12 March 2015}}</ref><ref name="google2">{{cite book|title=Multicultural Perspectives in Working with Families|author1=Congress, E.P.|author2=Gonzalez, M.J.|publisher=Springer Publishing Company|isbn=978-0-8261-3146-1|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780826131454|url-access=registration|access-date=12 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.haaretz.com/weekend/jerusalem-babylon/.premium-1.579733 |title=The Jews who said 'no' to Putin |author=Anshel Pfeffer |newspaper=Haaretz |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140326082731/http://www.haaretz.com/weekend/jerusalem-babylon/.premium-1.579733 |archive-date=26 March 2014}}</ref> and [[Uzbekistan]],<ref name="jewishvirtuallibrary2">{{cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/Bukharan_Jews.html|title=Bukharan Jews | Jewish Virtual Library|publisher=jewishvirtuallibrary.org|access-date=12 March 2015}}</ref>{{better source needed}} as well as for Ashkenazic Jews in [[Azerbaijan]],<ref name="Maoz">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W_AR3BksrUcC&pg=PA135|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140704020626/http://books.google.com/books?id=W_AR3BksrUcC&pg=PA135|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 July 2014|title=Muslim Attitudes towards Jews and Israel|author=Moshe Ma'oz|pages=135, 160|isbn=978-1-84519-527-4|year=2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.worldjewishcongress.org/en/about/communities/AZ |title=Azerbaijan |quote=Like many immigrant communities of the Czarist and Soviet eras in Azerbaijan, Ashkenazi Jews appear to be linguistically Russified. Most Ashkenazi Jews speak Russian as their first language with Azeri being spoken as the second.}}</ref> Georgia,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UNczHm67tjIC&pg=PA72|title=DNA & Tradition: The Genetic Link to the Ancient Hebrews|author=Yaakov Kleiman|publisher=Devora Publishing|year=2004|page=72|quote=The community is divided between 'native' Georgian Jews and Russian-speaking Ashkenazim who began migrating there at the beginning of the 19th century, and especially during World War II.|isbn=978-1-930143-89-0}}</ref> and [[Tajikistan]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AgkVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA165|title=Readings in the Sociology of Jewish Languages|author=Joshua A. Fishman|year=1985|pages=165, 169–74|quote=Jews in [[Tadzhikistan]] have adopted [[Tajik language|Tadzhik]] as their first language. The number of Yiddish-speaking Ashkenazic Jews in that region is comparatively low (cf. 2,905 in 1979). Both Ashkenazic and Oriental Jews have assimilated to Russian, the number of Jews speaking Russian as their first language amounting to a total of 6,564. It is reasonable to assume that the percentage of assimilated Ashkenazim is much higher than the portion of Oriental Jews.|isbn=90-04-07237-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=idAfAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA72|title=Language in Ethnicity: A View of Basic Ecological Relations|author=Harald Haarmann|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year=1986|pages=70–73, 79–82|isbn=978-3-11-086280-5}}</ref> Although communities in [[North Africa]] today are small and dwindling, Jews there had shifted from a multilingual group to a monolingual one (or nearly so), speaking French in [[Algeria]],<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f4Mp4qy8lbUC&pg=PA234|title=Transnational Spaces and Identities in the Francophone World|page=234|isbn=978-0-8032-2465-0|last1=Gafaiti|first1=Hafid|year=2009}}</ref> [[Morocco]],<ref name="Maoz" /> and the city of [[Tunis]],<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=45exFa6wDIIC&pg=PA258|title=Jewish Culture and Society in North Africa|pages=258, 270|isbn=978-0-253-00146-7|last1=Gottreich|first1=Emily Benichou|last2=Schroeter|first2=Daniel J|year= 2011}}</ref><ref name="jdc">{{cite web|url=http://www.jdc.org/where-we-work/africa/tunisia.html|title=Tunisia|publisher=jdc.org|access-date=12 March 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016211752/http://www.jdc.org/where-we-work/africa/tunisia.html|archive-date=16 October 2013}}</ref> while most North Africans continue to use [[Arabic]] or Berber as their mother tongue.{{Citation needed}}

=== Leadership ===
{{main|Jewish leadership}}

There is no single governing body for the Jewish community, nor a single authority with responsibility for religious doctrine.<ref>{{cite book|last=Eisenstadt|first=S.N.|title=Explorations in Jewish Historical Experience: The Civilizational Dimension|url=https://archive.org/details/explorationsjewi00eise|url-access=limited|year=2004|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden, The Netherlands|isbn=90-04-13693-2|page=[https://archive.org/details/explorationsjewi00eise/page/n89 75]}}</ref> Instead, a variety of secular and religious institutions at the local, national, and international levels lead various parts of the Jewish community on a variety of issues.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lewis|first=Hal M.|title=From Sanctuary to Boardroom: A Jewish Approach to Leadership|year=2006|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|location=Lanham, Md.|isbn=0-7425-5229-2|page=1}}</ref> Today, many countries have a [[Chief Rabbi]] who serves as a representative of that country's Jewry. Although many [[Hasidic Judaism|Hassidic Jews]] follow a certain hereditary [[List of Hasidic dynasties|Hasidic dynasty]], there is no one commonly accepted leader of all Hasidic Jews. Many Jews believe that the [[Messiah in Judaism|Messiah]] will act a unifying leader for Jews and the entire world.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Messiah - Key beliefs in Judaism - GCSE Religious Studies Revision - Eduqas|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zjbyb82/revision/5|access-date=2022-08-20|website=BBC Bitesize|language=en-GB}}</ref>

===Theories on ancient Jewish national identity===
[[File:Hebrew Bible MET DP-15507-001.jpg|thumb|Bible manuscript in Hebrew, 14th century. Hebrew language and alphabet were the cornerstones of the Jewish national identity in antiquity.]]

A number of modern scholars of nationalism support the existence of Jewish national identity in antiquity. One of them is David Goodblatt,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://history.ucsd.edu/people/faculty/goodblatt.html|title=David Goodblatt|website=history.ucsd.edu}}</ref> who generally believes in the existence of nationalism before the modern period. In his view, the Bible, the parabiblical literature and the Jewish national history provide the base for a Jewish collective identity. Although many of the ancient Jews were illiterate (as were their neighbors), their national narrative was reinforced through public readings. The Hebrew language also constructed and preserved national identity. Although it was not widely spoken after the 5th century BCE, Goodblatt states:<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2007/2007.10.56/|title=Elements of Ancient Jewish Nationalism|journal=Bryn Mawr Classical Review}}</ref><ref>[http://www.jhsonline.org/reviews/reviews_new/review357.htm Adam L. Porter, Illinois College, review of Goodblatt, David M., Elements of ancient Jewish nationalism, 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200209082632/http://jhsonline.org/reviews/reviews_new/review357.htm }}, in Journal of Hebrew Scriptures – Volume 9 (2009)</ref>

{{Blockquote|the mere presence of the language in spoken or written form could invoke the concept of a Jewish national identity. Even if one knew no Hebrew or was illiterate, one could recognize that a group of signs was in Hebrew script. … It was the language of the Israelite ancestors, the national literature, and the national religion. As such it was inseparable from the national identity. Indeed its mere presence in visual or aural medium could invoke that identity.}}

It is believed that Jewish nationalist sentiment in antiquity was encouraged because under foreign rule (Persians, Greeks, Romans) Jews were able to claim that they were an ancient nation. This claim was based on the preservation and reverence of their scriptures, the Hebrew language, the Temple and priesthood, and other traditions of their ancestors.<ref>{{cite journal|author-link1=Steven P. Weitzman | last1 = Weitzman | first1 = Steven | year = 2008| title = On the Political Relevance of Antiquity: A Response to David Goodblatt's Elements of Ancient Jewish Nationalism | journal = Jewish Social Studies | volume = 14 | issue = 3| page = 168 | jstor = 40207028 }}</ref>

== Demographics ==
{{further|Jewish population by country}}

=== Ethnic divisions ===
{{main|Jewish ethnic divisions}}
[[File:Maurycy Gottlieb - Jews Praying in the Synagogue on Yom Kippur.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Ashkenazi Jews]] of late-19th-century [[Eastern Europe]] portrayed in ''[[Jews Praying in the Synagogue on Yom Kippur]]'' (1878), by [[Maurycy Gottlieb]]]]
[[File:1900 photo of a Sephardi couple from Sarajevo.png|thumb|upright|[[Sephardi]] Jewish couple from [[Sarajevo]] in traditional clothing. Photo taken in 1900.]]
[[File:Yemenite Elder Blowing Shofat, February 1, 1949.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Yemenite Jews|Yemenite]] Jew blows [[shofar]], 1947]]

Within the world's [[Jewish population]] there are distinct ethnic divisions, most of which are primarily the result of geographic branching from an originating [[Israelite]] population, and subsequent independent evolutions. An array of Jewish communities was established by Jewish settlers in various places around the [[Old World]], often at great distances from one another, resulting in effective and often long-term isolation. During the [[millennia]] of the [[Jewish diaspora]] the communities would develop under the influence of their local environments: [[politics|political]], [[culture|cultural]], [[nature|natural]], and populational. Today, manifestations of these differences among the Jews can be observed in [[Jewish culture|Jewish cultural expressions]] of each community, including [[Jewish languages|Jewish linguistic diversity]], culinary preferences, liturgical practices, religious interpretations, as well as degrees and sources of [[genetic admixture]].<ref>Dosick (2007), p. 60.</ref>

Jews are often identified as belonging to one of two major groups: the ''[[Ashkenazi Jews|Ashkenazim]]'' and the ''[[Sephardi Jews|Sephardim]]''. Ashkenazim, or "Germanics" ([[Ashkenaz]] meaning "[[Germany]]" in Hebrew), are so named denoting their [[History of the Jews in Germany|German Jewish]] cultural and geographical origins, while Sephardim, or "[[Hispanics]]" ([[Sefarad]] meaning "[[Spain]]/[[Hispania]]" or "[[Iberian peninsula|Iberia]]" in Hebrew), are so named denoting their Spanish/Portuguese Jewish cultural and geographic origins. The more common term in [[Israel]] for many of those broadly called Sephardim, is ''[[Mizrahi Jews|Mizrahim]]'' (lit. "Easterners", Mizrach being "East" in Hebrew), that is, in reference to the diverse collection of Middle Eastern and North African Jews who are often, as a group, referred to collectively as ''Sephardim'' (together with Sephardim proper) for liturgical reasons, although Mizrahi Jewish groups and Sephardi Jews proper are ethnically distinct.<ref>Dosick (2007), p. 59.</ref>

Smaller groups include, but are not restricted to, [[Jews in India|Indian Jews]] such as the [[Bene Israel]], [[Bnei Menashe]], [[Cochin Jews]], and [[Bene Ephraim]]; the [[Romaniote Jews|Romaniotes]] of Greece; the [[Italian rite Jews|Italian Jews]] ("Italkim" or "Bené Roma"); the [[Teimanim]] from [[Yemen]]; various [[Jews and Judaism in Africa|African Jews]], including most numerously the [[Beta Israel]] of [[Ethiopia]]; and [[History of the Jews in China|Chinese Jews]], most notably the [[Kaifeng Jews]], as well as various other distinct but now almost extinct communities.<ref name=EJ571>{{cite EJ|last=Schmelz|first=Usiel Oscar |first2=Sergio|last2=Della Pergola|title=Demography|volume=5|page=571–572}}</ref>

The divisions between all these groups are approximate and their boundaries are not always clear. The Mizrahim for example, are a heterogeneous collection of [[North Africa]]n, [[Central Asia]]n, [[Caucasus (geographic region)|Caucasian]], and Middle Eastern Jewish communities that are no closer related to each other than they are to any of the earlier mentioned Jewish groups. In modern usage, however, the Mizrahim are sometimes termed ''Sephardi'' due to similar styles of liturgy, despite independent development from Sephardim proper. Thus, among Mizrahim there are [[Egyptian Jews]], [[Iraqi Jews]], [[Lebanese Jews]], [[Kurdish Jews]], [[Moroccan Jews]], [[Libyan Jews]], [[Syrian Jews]], [[Bukharian Jews]], [[Mountain Jews]], [[Georgian Jews]], [[Iranian Jews]], [[Afghan Jews]], and various others. The [[Teimanim]] from [[Yemen]] are sometimes included, although their style of liturgy is unique and they differ in respect to the admixture found among them to that found in Mizrahim. In addition, there is a differentiation made between Sephardi migrants who established themselves in the [[Middle East]] and [[North Africa]] after the expulsion of the Jews from Spain and Portugal in the 1490s and the pre-existing Jewish communities in those regions.<ref name=EJ571 />

Ashkenazi Jews represent the bulk of modern Jewry, with at least 70 percent of Jews worldwide (and up to 90 percent prior to [[World War II]] and [[the Holocaust]]). As a result of their [[emigration]] from [[Europe]], Ashkenazim also represent the overwhelming majority of Jews in the [[New World]] continents, in countries such as the [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[Argentina]], [[Australia]], and [[Brazil]]. In [[France]], the immigration of Jews from [[Algeria]] (Sephardim) has led them to outnumber the Ashkenazim.{{r|EJ571}} Only in [[Israel]] is the Jewish population representative of all groups, a [[melting pot]] independent of each group's proportion within the overall world Jewish population.<ref>Dosick (2007), p. 61.</ref>

=== Genetic studies ===
{{main|Genetic studies on Jews}}
[[Y chromosome|Y DNA]] studies tend to imply a small number of founders in an old population whose members parted and followed different migration paths.<ref name="hammer2000">{{cite journal |last1=Hammer |first1=M. F. |last2=Redd |first2=A. J. |last3=Wood |first3=E. T. |last4=Bonner |first4=M. R. |last5=Jarjanazi |first5=H. |last6=Karafet |first6=T. |last7=Santachiara-Benerecetti |first7=S. |last8=Oppenheim |first8=A. |last9=Jobling |first9=M. A. |last10=Jenkins |first10=T. |last11=Ostrer |first11=H. |last12=Bonne-Tamir |first12=B. |title=Jewish and Middle Eastern non-Jewish populations share a common pool of Y-chromosome biallelic haplotypes |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=97 |issue=12 |pages=6769–6774 |doi=10.1073/pnas.100115997 |pmid=10801975 |pmc=18733 |bibcode=2000PNAS...97.6769H |doi-access=free }}</ref> In most Jewish populations, these male line ancestors appear to have been mainly [[Middle East]]ern. For example, Ashkenazi Jews share more common paternal lineages with other Jewish and Middle Eastern groups than with non-Jewish populations in areas where Jews lived in [[Eastern Europe]], [[Germany]], and the French [[Rhine|Rhine Valley]]. This is consistent with Jewish traditions in placing most Jewish paternal origins in the region of the Middle East.<ref name="Nebel 2001">{{cite journal |last1=Nebel |first1=Almut |last2=Filon |first2=Dvora |last3=Brinkmann |first3=Bernd |last4=Majumder |first4=Partha P. |last5=Faerman |first5=Marina |last6=Oppenheim |first6=Ariella |title=The Y Chromosome Pool of Jews as Part of the Genetic Landscape of the Middle East |journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=69 |issue=5 |pages=1095–1112 |doi=10.1086/324070 |pmid=11573163 |pmc=1274378 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Frudakis |first1=Tony |chapter=Ashkezani Jews |page=383 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9vXeydpj7VkC&pg=PA383 |title=Molecular Photofitting: Predicting Ancestry and Phenotype Using DNA |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-055137-1 }}</ref>

Conversely, the maternal lineages of Jewish populations, studied by looking at [[mitochondrial DNA]], are generally more heterogeneous.<ref name="Behar2008b">{{cite journal |last1=Behar |first1=Doron M. |last2=Metspalu |first2=Ene |last3=Kivisild |first3=Toomas |last4=Rosset |first4=Saharon |last5=Tzur |first5=Shay |last6=Hadid |first6=Yarin |last7=Yudkovsky |first7=Guennady |last8=Rosengarten |first8=Dror |last9=Pereira |first9=Luisa |last10=Amorim |first10=Antonio |last11=Kutuev |first11=Ildus |last12=Gurwitz |first12=David |last13=Bonne-Tamir |first13=Batsheva |last14=Villems |first14=Richard |last15=Skorecki |first15=Karl |title=Counting the Founders: The Matrilineal Genetic Ancestry of the Jewish Diaspora |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=e2062 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0002062 |pmid=18446216 |pmc=2323359 |bibcode=2008PLoSO...3.2062B |doi-access=free }}</ref> Scholars such as [[Harry Ostrer]] and [[Raphael Falk (academic)|Raphael Falk]] believe this indicates that many Jewish males found new mates from European and other communities in the places where they migrated in the diaspora after fleeing ancient Israel.<ref name="Lewontin">{{Cite journal |last=Lewontin |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Lewontin |title=Is There a Jewish Gene? |url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/2012/12/06/is-there-a-jewish-gene/ |journal=New York Review of Books}}</ref> In contrast, Behar has found evidence that about 40 percent of Ashkenazi Jews originate maternally from just four female founders, who were of Middle Eastern origin. The populations of Sephardi and Mizrahi Jewish communities "showed no evidence for a narrow founder effect."<ref name="Behar2008b" /> Subsequent studies carried out by Feder et al. confirmed the large portion of non-local maternal origin among Ashkenazi Jews. Reflecting on their findings related to the maternal origin of Ashkenazi Jews, the authors conclude "Clearly, the differences between Jews and non-Jews are far larger than those observed among the Jewish communities. Hence, differences between the Jewish communities can be overlooked when non-Jews are included in the comparisons."<ref name="Abraham 2010"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Feder |first1=Jeanette |last2=Ovadia |first2=Ofer |last3=Glaser |first3=Benjamin |last4=Mishmar |first4=Dan |title=Ashkenazi Jewish mtDNA haplogroup distribution varies among distinct subpopulations: lessons of population substructure in a closed group |journal=European Journal of Human Genetics |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=498–500 |doi=10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201764 |pmid=17245410 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal |last1=Ostrer |first1=Harry |last2=Skorecki |first2=Karl |title=The population genetics of the Jewish people |journal=Human Genetics |volume=132 |issue=2 |pages=119–127 |doi=10.1007/s00439-012-1235-6 |pmid=23052947 |pmc=3543766 }}</ref> A study showed that 7% of Ashkenazi Jews have the haplogroup G2c, which is mainly found in [[Pashtuns]] and on lower scales all major Jewish groups, Palestinians, Syrians, and Lebanese.<ref>{{cite web | title=Sign In | website=Family Tree DNA | url=https://www.familytreedna.com/sign-in?ReturnUrl=%2Fpdf%2FBehar_contrasting.pdf | access-date=1 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hammer |first1=Michael F. |last2=Behar |first2=Doron M. |last3=Karafet |first3=Tatiana M. |last4=Mendez |first4=Fernando L. |last5=Hallmark |first5=Brian |last6=Erez |first6=Tamar |last7=Zhivotovsky |first7=Lev A. |last8=Rosset |first8=Saharon |last9=Skorecki |first9=Karl |title=Extended Y chromosome haplotypes resolve multiple and unique lineages of the Jewish priesthood |journal=Human Genetics |volume=126 |issue=5 |pages=707–17 |doi=10.1007/s00439-009-0727-5 |pmid=19669163 |pmc=2771134 }}</ref>

Studies of [[Autosome|autosomal DNA]], which look at the entire DNA mixture, have become increasingly important as the technology develops. They show that Jewish populations have tended to form relatively closely related groups in independent communities, with most in a community sharing significant ancestry in common.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Katsnelson |first1=Alla |title=Jews worldwide share genetic ties |journal=Nature |pages=news.2010.277 |doi=10.1038/news.2010.277 }}</ref> For Jewish populations of the diaspora, the genetic composition of [[Ashkenazi Jews|Ashkenazi]], [[Sephardic Jews|Sephardic]], and [[Mizrahi Jews|Mizrahi]] Jewish populations show a predominant amount of shared Middle Eastern ancestry. According to Behar, the most parsimonious explanation for this shared Middle Eastern ancestry is that it is "consistent with the historical formulation of the Jewish people as descending from ancient [[Hebrews|Hebrew]] and [[Israelites|Israelite]] residents of the [[Levant]]" and "the dispersion of the people of ancient Israel throughout the [[Old World]]".<ref name="discovermagazine">{{cite journal |last1=Behar |first1=Doron M. |last2=Yunusbayev |first2=Bayazit |last3=Metspalu |first3=Mait |last4=Metspalu |first4=Ene |last5=Rosset |first5=Saharon |last6=Parik |first6=Jüri |last7=Rootsi |first7=Siiri |last8=Chaubey |first8=Gyaneshwer |last9=Kutuev |first9=Ildus |last10=Yudkovsky |first10=Guennady |last11=Khusnutdinova |first11=Elza K. |last12=Balanovsky |first12=Oleg |last13=Semino |first13=Ornella |last14=Pereira |first14=Luisa |last15=Comas |first15=David |last16=Gurwitz |first16=David |last17=Bonne-Tamir |first17=Batsheva |last18=Parfitt |first18=Tudor |last19=Hammer |first19=Michael F. |last20=Skorecki |first20=Karl |last21=Villems |first21=Richard |title=The genome-wide structure of the Jewish people |journal=Nature |volume=466 |issue=7303 |pages=238–242 |doi=10.1038/nature09103 |pmid=20531471 |s2cid=4307824 |bibcode=2010Natur.466..238B }}</ref> [[North Africa]]n, [[Italian Peninsula|Italian]] and others of [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberian]] origin show variable frequencies of admixture with non-Jewish historical host populations among the maternal lines. In the case of Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews (in particular [[Moroccan Jews]]), who are closely related, the source of non-Jewish admixture is mainly [[Southern Europe]]an, while Mizrahi Jews show evidence of admixture with other Middle Eastern populations. Behar ''et al.'' have remarked on a close relationship between Ashkenazi Jews and modern [[Italians]].<ref name="discovermagazine"/><ref name=zooss>{{cite journal |last1=Zoossmann-Diskin |first1=Avshalom |title=The origin of Eastern European Jews revealed by autosomal, sex chromosomal and mtDNA polymorphisms |journal=Biology Direct |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=57 |doi=10.1186/1745-6150-5-57 |pmid=20925954 |pmc=2964539 |bibcode=2010Sci...328.1342B }}</ref> A 2001 study found that Jews were more closely related to groups of the Fertile Crescent (Kurds, Turks, and Armenians) than to their Arab neighbors, whose genetic signature was found in geographic patterns reflective of Islamic conquests.<ref name="Nebel 2001"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Haber |first1=Marc |last2=Gauguier |first2=Dominique |last3=Youhanna |first3=Sonia |last4=Patterson |first4=Nick |last5=Moorjani |first5=Priya |last6=Botigué |first6=Laura R. |last7=Platt |first7=Daniel E. |last8=Matisoo-Smith |first8=Elizabeth |last9=Soria-Hernanz |first9=David F. |last10=Wells |first10=R. Spencer |last11=Bertranpetit |first11=Jaume |last12=Tyler-Smith |first12=Chris |last13=Comas |first13=David |last14=Zalloua |first14=Pierre A. |title=Genome-Wide Diversity in the Levant Reveals Recent Structuring by Culture |journal=PLOS Genetics |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=e1003316 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1003316 |pmid=23468648 |pmc=3585000 }}</ref>

The studies also show that [[Sephardic Bnei Anusim]] (descendants of the "[[anusim]]" who were [[Forced conversion|forced to convert]] to [[Catholicism]]), which comprise up to 19.8 percent of the population of today's [[Iberia]] ([[Spain]] and [[Portugal]]) and at least 10 percent of the population of [[Ibero-America]] ([[Hispanic America]] and [[Brazil]]), have Sephardic Jewish ancestry within the last few centuries. The [[Bene Israel]] and [[Cochin Jews]] of [[India]], [[Beta Israel]] of [[Ethiopia]], and a portion of the [[Lemba people]] of [[Southern Africa]], despite more closely resembling the local populations of their native countries, have also been thought to have some more remote ancient Jewish ancestry.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://forward.com/articles/155742/jews-are-a-race-genes-reveal/?p=all |title=Jews Are a 'Race,' Genes Reveal |publisher=Forward.com |access-date=12 April 2013}}</ref><ref name=discovermagazine/><ref name="in.reuters.com">{{cite news |last1=Begley |first1=Sharon |title=Genetic study offers clues to history of North Africa's Jews |url=https://in.reuters.com/article/us-science-genetics-jews/genetic-study-offers-clues-to-history-of-north-africas-jews-idINBRE8751EI20120806 |work=Reuters }}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA"/> Views on the Lemba have changed and genetic [[Y-DNA]] analyses in the 2000s have established a partially Middle-Eastern origin for a portion of the male Lemba population but have been unable to narrow this down further.<ref name="SpurdleJenkins">{{Citation | title = The origins of the Lemba "Black Jews" of southern Africa: evidence from p12F2 and other Y-chromosome markers. | pmid = 8900243 | pmc=1914832 | volume=59 | issue = 5 | date=November 1996 | journal=Am. J. Hum. Genet. | pages=1126–33 | last1 = Spurdle | first1 = AB | last2 = Jenkins | first2 = T}}</ref><ref name="Soodyall">{{cite book|author1=Himla Soodyall|author2=Jennifer G. R Kromberg|editor1-last=Kumar|editor1-first=Dhavendra|editor2-last=Chadwick|editor2-first=Ruth|title=Genomics and Society: Ethical, Legal, Cultural and Socioeconomic Implications|publisher=Academic Press/Elsevier|isbn=978-0-12-420195-8|page=316|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E9icBAAAQBAJ&q=Cohen+Modal+Haplotype+Lemba&pg=PA309|chapter=Human Genetics and Genomics and Sociocultural Beliefs and Practices in South Africa}}</ref>

=== Population centers ===
{{main list|List of urban areas by Jewish population}}
[[File:Purim 2012 Williamsburg Brooklyn 01.jpg|thumb|[[New York City]] is home to 1.1 million Jews, making it the [[Jews in New York City|largest Jewish community]] outside of Israel.]]
Although historically, Jews have been found all over the world, in the decades since World War II and the establishment of Israel, they have increasingly concentrated in a small number of countries.<ref>Johnson (1987), pp. 529, 560–62.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-jew/|title=Jews}}</ref> In 2013, the United States and Israel were collectively home to more than 80 percent of the global Jewish population, each country having approximately 41 percent of the world's Jews.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2013/03/20/israel-and-the-us-are-home-to-more-than-fourfifths-of-the-worlds-jews/|title=Israel and the U.S. are Home to More Than Four-Fifths of the World's Jews}}</ref>

According to the [[Israel Central Bureau of Statistics]] there were 13,421,000 Jews worldwide in 2009, roughly 0.19 percent of the world's population at the time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbs.gov.il/shnaton61/st02_27.pdf|title=Jewish population in the world and in Israel|publisher=Israel Central Bureau of Statistics|access-date=18 July 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111026202909/http://www.cbs.gov.il/shnaton61/st02_27.pdf|archive-date=26 October 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>

According to the 2007 estimates of [[The Jewish People Policy Planning Institute]], the world's Jewish population is 13.2 million.<ref name="haaretz.com">{{cite news|title=Percent of world Jewry living in Israel climbed to 41% in 2007|first=Anshel|last=Pfeffer|url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/percent-of-world-jewry-living-in-israel-climbed-to-41-in-2007-1.236675|newspaper=Haaretz|access-date=10 October 2012}}</ref> Adherents.com cites figures ranging from 12 to 18 million.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_408.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031009075924/http://adherents.com/Na/Na_408.html|url-status=usurped|archive-date=9 October 2003|title=Judaism, continued...|work=adherents.com|access-date=26 August 2015}}</ref> These statistics incorporate both practicing Jews affiliated with [[synagogue]]s and the Jewish community, and approximately 4.5 million unaffiliated and [[Jewish secularism|secular Jews]].{{Citation needed}}

According to [[Sergio Della Pergola]], a demographer of the [[Jewish population]], in 2015 there were about 6.3 million Jews in [[Israel]], 5.7 million in the [[United States]], and 2.3 million in the rest of the world.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4702945,00.html|title=The Jewish people in 2050: 2 very different scenarios|work=ynet|last1=Dellapergola|first1=Prof Sergio}}</ref>

==== Israel ====
{{main|Israeli Jews}}
[[File:Mahane Yehuda Market P1020256.JPG|thumb|Jewish people in [[Jerusalem]], Israel]]
[[Israel]], the Jewish nation-state, is the only country in which Jews make up a majority of the citizens.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.jpost.com/IranianThreat/News/Article.aspx?id=257112|title=Iran must attack Israel by 2014|newspaper=The Jerusalem Post|access-date=3 April 2012}}</ref> Israel was established as an independent [[Parliamentary democracy|democratic]] and Jewish state on 14 May 1948.<ref name="cia">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/israel/|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|work=The World Factbook|access-date=20 July 2007|title=Israel}}</ref> Of the 120 members in its parliament, the [[Knesset]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.knesset.gov.il/description/eng/eng_mimshal_beh.htm|publisher=The Knesset|access-date=8 August 2007|title=The Electoral System in Israel}}</ref> {{as of|2016|lc=y}}, 14 members of the Knesset are [[Arab citizens of Israel]] (not including the Druze), most representing Arab political parties. One of Israel's [[Supreme Court of Israel|Supreme Court]] judges is also an Arab citizen of Israel.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2009/israel|title=Israel|work=Freedom in the World|publisher=Freedom House|year=2009|access-date=5 April 2012|archive-date=19 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120819061301/http://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2009/israel|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Between 1948 and 1958, the Jewish population rose from 800,000 to two million.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www1.cbs.gov.il/reader/shnaton/templ_shnaton_e.html?num_tab=st02_01&CYear=2006 |publisher=Israel Central Bureau of Statistics |access-date=7 August 2007 |year=2006 |title=Population, by Religion and Population Group |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930033403/http://www1.cbs.gov.il/reader/shnaton/templ_shnaton_e.html?num_tab=st02_01&CYear=2006 |archive-date=30 September 2007}}</ref> Currently, Jews account for 75.4 percent of the Israeli population, or 6 million people.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4280028,00.html |title=Jewish New Year: Israel's population nears 8M mark |newspaper=Ynetnews |publisher=Ynetnews.com |access-date=12 April 2013|last1=Drukman |first1=Yaron }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Harriet Sherwood in Jerusalem |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jan/01/israel-jewish-population-six-million |title=Israel's Jewish population passes 6 million mark |work=Guardian |access-date=12 April 2013}}</ref> The early years of the State of Israel were marked by the [[Aliyah|mass immigration]] of [[Holocaust survivors]] in the [[aftermath of the Holocaust]] and Jews [[Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries|fleeing Arab lands]].<ref name="persecution">{{harvnb|Dekmejian|1975|p=247}}. "And most [Oriental-Sephardic Jews] came... because of Arab persecution resulting from the very attempt to establish a Jewish state in Palestine."</ref> Israel also has a large population of [[Ethiopian Jews]], many of whom were airlifted to Israel in the late 1980s and early 1990s.<ref>{{cite web|title=airlifted tens of thousands of Ethiopian Jews|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/ejhist.html#operation1/|access-date=7 July 2005}}</ref>{{better source needed}} Between 1974 and 1979 nearly 227,258 immigrants arrived in Israel, about half being from the [[Soviet Union]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.memo.ru/history/diss/books/alexeewa/|script-title=ru:История инакомыслия в СССР|first=Lyudmila|last=Alexeyeva|author-link=Lyudmila Alexeyeva|location=Vilnius|year=1983|language=ru|trans-title=History of Dissident Movement in the USSR|access-date=5 April 2012|archive-date=9 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170309152800/http://www.memo.ru/history/diss/books/alexeewa/|url-status=dead}}</ref> This period also saw an increase in [[Aliyah|immigration to Israel]] from [[Western Europe]], [[Latin America]], and [[North America]].<ref>Goldstein (1995) p. 24</ref>

A trickle of immigrants from other communities has also arrived, including [[Indian Jews]] and others, as well as some descendants of [[Ashkenazi]] Holocaust survivors who had settled in countries such as the [[United States]], [[Argentina]], [[Australia]], [[Chile]], and [[South Africa]]. Some Jews have emigrated from Israel elsewhere, because of economic problems or disillusionment with political conditions and the continuing [[Arab–Israeli conflict]]. Jewish Israeli emigrants are known as [[Yerida|yordim]].<ref name="Dosick 2007, p. 340">Dosick (2007), p. 340.</ref>

==== Diaspora (outside Israel) ====
{{main|Jewish diaspora}}
[[File:Happynewyearcard.jpg|thumb|upright|In this [[Rosh Hashana]] greeting card from the early 1900s, Russian Jews, packs in hand, gaze at the American relatives beckoning them to the United States. Over two million Jews fled the [[pogroms]] of the [[Russian Empire]] to the safety of the U.S. between 1881 and 1924.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gurock|first=Jeffrey S.|title=East European Jews in America, 1880–1920: Immigration and Adaptation|year=1998|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|isbn=0-415-91924-X|page=54}}</ref>]]

[[File:Birobidjan mainsquare.jpg|thumb|upright|A [[Menorah (Temple)|menorah]] dominating the main square in [[Birobidzhan]]. An estimated 70,000 [[History of the Jews in Russia and the Soviet Union|Jews]] live in [[Siberia]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=136974 |title= Planting Jewish roots in Siberia |publisher= Fjc.ru |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090827113526/http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=136974 |archive-date= 27 August 2009 |df= dmy-all}}</ref>]]
The waves of [[immigration to the United States]] and elsewhere at the turn of the 19th century, the founding of [[Zionism]] and later events, including [[pogroms]] in Imperial Russia (mostly within the [[Pale of Settlement]] in present-day Ukraine, Moldova, Belarus and eastern Poland), the massacre of European Jewry during [[the Holocaust]], and the founding of the [[state of Israel]], with the subsequent [[Jewish exodus from Arab lands]], all resulted in substantial shifts in the population centers of world Jewry by the end of the 20th century.<ref>Gartner (2001), p. 213.</ref>

More than half of the Jews live in the Diaspora (see Population table). Currently, the largest Jewish community outside Israel, and either the largest or second-largest Jewish community in the world, is located in the United States, with 5.2 million to 6.4 million Jews by various estimates. Elsewhere in the Americas, there are also large Jewish populations in [[Canada]] (315,000), [[Argentina]] (180,000–300,000), and [[Brazil]] (196,000–600,000), and smaller populations in [[Mexico]], [[Uruguay]], [[Venezuela]], [[Chile]], [[Colombia]] and several other countries (see [[History of the Jews in Latin America]]).<ref name="JPPI2007">{{cite web|title=Annual Assessment|url=http://jppi.org.il/uploads/Annual%20Assessment%202007.pdf|year=2007|publisher=Jewish People Policy Planning Institute ([[Jewish Agency for Israel]])|page=15}}, based on {{cite book|title=Annual Assessment 2007|publisher=[[American Jewish Committee]]|url=http://www.ajcarchives.org/main.php?GroupingId=10142|volume=106|year=2006}}</ref> According to a 2010 [[Pew Research Center]] study, about 470,000 people of Jewish heritage live in [[Latin America|Latin-America]] and the [[Caribbean]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/jews/ |title= Jews - Pew Research Center|website= Pew Research Center|access-date= 28 March 2018}}</ref> Demographers disagree on whether the United States has a larger Jewish population than Israel, with many maintaining that Israel surpassed the United States in Jewish population during the 2000s, while others maintain that the United States still has the largest Jewish population in the world. Currently, a major national Jewish population survey is planned to ascertain whether or not Israel has overtaken the United States in Jewish population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jewishjournal.com/demographic_duo/item/israel_may_be_main_topic_in_next_national_jewish_population_survey_of_the_u |title=Israel May Be Main Topic In Next National Jewish Population Survey of the U.S. |publisher=Jewish Journal |access-date=12 April 2013}}</ref>

[[File:DAVID BEN GURION WITH MEMBERS OF JEWISH ZIONIST YOUTH MOVEMENT IN TALLIN IN ESTONIA. דוד בן גוריון וחברי תנועת הנוער הציונית, בטאלין, אסטוניה.D683-119.jpg|thumb|upright|The Jewish [[Zionism|Zionist]] Youth Movement in [[Tallinn]], [[Estonia]] on 1 September 1933]]
[[Western Europe]]'s largest Jewish community, and the third-largest Jewish community in the world, can be found in [[France]], home to between 483,000 and 500,000 Jews, the majority of whom are immigrants or refugees from North African countries such as [[Algeria]], [[Morocco]], and [[Tunisia]] (or their descendants).<ref>Gartner (2001), pp. 410–10.</ref> The [[United Kingdom]] has a Jewish community of 292,000. In [[East Europe|Eastern Europe]], the exact figures are difficult to establish. The number of Jews in Russia varies widely according to whether a source uses census data (which requires a person to choose a single nationality among choices that include "Russian" and "Jewish") or eligibility for immigration to Israel (which requires that a person have one or more Jewish grandparents). According to the latter criteria, the heads of the Russian Jewish community assert that up to 1.5 million Russians are eligible for [[aliyah]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mskagency.ru/materials/2716461 |title=Исследование: Около 1,5 млн людей с еврейскими корнями проживают в России |trans-title=Study: About 1.5 Million People with Jewish Roots Live in Russia |publisher=Moscow Urban News Agency |access-date=28 October 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.interfax-religion.ru/?act=news&div=57988 |title=В России проживает около миллиона иудеев |trans-title=In Russia, There Are About a Million Jews |publisher=[[Interfax]] |access-date=28 October 2017}}</ref> In [[Germany]], the 102,000 Jews registered with the Jewish community are a slowly declining population,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Mitgliederstatistik der jüdischen Gemeinden und Landesverbände: Zu und Abgänge 2012|url=http://www.zwst.org/cms/documents/178/de_DE/ZWST-Mitgliederstatistik-2012-web.pdf|access-date=2022-08-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131204213637/http://www.zwst.org/cms/documents/178/de_DE/ZWST-Mitgliederstatistik-2012-web.pdf |archive-date=4 December 2013 }}</ref> despite the immigration of tens of thousands of Jews from the former [[Soviet Union]] since the fall of the [[Berlin Wall]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jppi.org.il/uploads/Annual%20Assessment%202007.pdf|title=Annual Assessment 2007|access-date=3 July 2008|last=Waxman|first=Chaim I.|year=2007|publisher=Jewish People Policy Planning Institute ([[Jewish Agency for Israel]])|pages=40–42}}</ref> Thousands of [[Israelis]] also live in Germany, either permanently or temporarily, for economic reasons.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jg-berlin.org/en/service/israelis-in-berlin.html|title=Israelis in Berlin|publisher=Jewish Community of Berlin|access-date=11 October 2012}}</ref>

Prior to 1948, approximately 800,000 Jews were living in lands which now make up the [[Arab world]] (excluding Israel). Of these, just under two-thirds lived in the French-controlled [[Maghreb]] region, 15 to 20 percent in the [[Kingdom of Iraq]], approximately 10 percent in the [[Kingdom of Egypt]] and approximately 7 percent in the [[Kingdom of Yemen]]. A further 200,000 lived in [[Pahlavi Iran]] and the [[Republic of Turkey]]. Today, around 26,000 Jews live in Arab countries<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|first=Jerry M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bdAdAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA44|title=The Rebirth of the Middle East|publisher=Hamilton Books|isbn=978-0-7618-4846-2|language=en}}</ref> and around 30,000 in [[Iran]] and [[Turkey]]. A small-scale exodus had begun in many countries in the early decades of the 20th century, although the only substantial [[aliyah]] came from [[Yemen]] and [[Syria]].<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Simon |editor1-first=Reeva Spector |editor2-last=Laskier |editor2-first=Michael Menachem |editor3-last=Reguer |editor3-first=Sara |year=2003 |title=The Jews of the Middle East and North Africa in Modern Times |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-50759-2 |page=327 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VxEJrEY22egC&pg=PA327 |quote=Before the 1940s only two communities, Yemen and Syria, made substantial aliyah. }}</ref> The [[Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries|exodus from Arab and Muslim countries]] took place primarily from 1948. The first large-scale exoduses took place in the late 1940s and early 1950s, primarily in [[Iraq]], Yemen and [[Libya]], with up to 90 percent of these communities leaving within a few years. The peak of the exodus from [[Egypt]] occurred in 1956. The exodus in the Maghreb countries peaked in the 1960s. [[Lebanon]] was the only Arab country to see a temporary increase in its Jewish population during this period, due to an influx of refugees from other Arab countries, although by the mid-1970s the Jewish community of Lebanon had also dwindled. In the aftermath of the exodus wave from Arab states, an additional migration of [[Iranian Jews]] peaked in the 1980s when around 80 percent of Iranian Jews left the country.{{Citation needed}}

Outside [[Europe]], the [[Americas]], the [[Middle East]], and the rest of [[Asia]], there are significant Jewish populations in [[Australia]] (112,500) and [[Jewish population of South Africa|South Africa]] (70,000).<ref name="JVIL2010" /> There is also a 6,800-strong community in [[New Zealand]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Congress|first=World Jewish|title=World Jewish Congress|url=https://www.worldjewishcongress.org/en/about/communities/NZ|access-date=2022-08-20|website=World Jewish Congress|language=EN}}</ref>

=== Demographic changes ===
{{main|Historical Jewish population comparisons}}

==== Assimilation ====
{{main|Jewish assimilation|Interfaith marriage in Judaism}}
Since at least the time of the [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greeks]], a proportion of Jews have assimilated into the wider non-Jewish society around them, by either choice or force, ceasing to practice Judaism and losing their [[Jewish identity]].<ref name=Johnson171>Johnson (1987), p. 171.</ref> Assimilation took place in all areas, and during all time periods,<ref name=Johnson171 /> with some Jewish communities, for example the [[Kaifeng Jews]] of [[China]], disappearing entirely.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.shavei.org/communities/kaifeng_jews/articles-kaifeng_jews/chinese-jews-reverence-for-ancestors/ |title=Chinese Jews: Reverence for Ancestors |last=Edinger |first=Bernard |publisher=Shavei Israel |access-date=2 April 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121003094552/http://www.shavei.org/communities/kaifeng_jews/articles-kaifeng_jews/chinese-jews-reverence-for-ancestors/ |archive-date=3 October 2012}}</ref> The advent of the Jewish Enlightenment of the 18th century (see [[Haskalah]]) and the subsequent [[Jewish emancipation|emancipation of the Jewish populations]] of Europe and America in the 19th century, accelerated the situation, encouraging Jews to increasingly participate in, and become part of, [[Secularism|secular society]]. The result has been a growing trend of assimilation, as Jews marry non-Jewish spouses and stop participating in the Jewish community.<ref>Elazar (2003), p. 434.</ref>

Rates of [[Interfaith marriage|interreligious marriage]] vary widely: In the United States, it is just under 50 percent,<ref>{{cite web|title=NJPS: Defining and Calculating Intermarriage |url=http://www.jewishfederations.org/page.aspx?id=46252 |access-date=2 April 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110812024158/http://www.jewishfederations.org/page.aspx?id=46252 |archive-date=12 August 2011}}</ref> in the United Kingdom, around 53 percent; in France; around 30 percent,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-prod.akadem.org/medias/documents/Rapport-Erik-Cohen.pdf |title=Les juifs de France: La lente progression des mariages mixtes |trans-title=The Jews of France: The slow progression of mixed marriages |last=Cohen |first=Erik H. |publisher=Akadem |language=fr |access-date=12 October 2020 |archive-date=16 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416230622/http://www-prod.akadem.org/medias/documents/Rapport-Erik-Cohen.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> and in Australia and Mexico, as low as 10 percent.<ref>{{cite web|title=Australia|url=http://www.worldjewishcongress.org/en/communities/show/id/2|publisher=World Jewish Congress|access-date=2 April 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120521082932/http://www.worldjewishcongress.org/en/communities/show/id/2|archive-date=21 May 2012}}</ref> In the United States, only about a third of children from intermarriages affiliate with Jewish religious practice.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jppi.org.il/uploads/Annual%20Assessment%202007.pdf|title=Annual Assessment 2007|access-date=3 July 2008|last=Waxman|first=Chaim I.|year=2007|publisher=Jewish People Policy Planning Institute ([[Jewish Agency for Israel]])|page=61}}</ref> The result is that most countries in the [[Jewish diaspora|Diaspora]] have steady or slightly declining religiously Jewish populations as Jews continue to assimilate into the countries in which they live.{{Citation needed}}

==== War and persecution ====
{{further|Persecution of Jews|Antisemitism|Jewish military history}}
[[File:The Emperor sends Vespasian with an army to destroy the Jews (f. 177v) Cropped.jpg|thumb|upright|The Roman Emperor [[Nero]] sends [[Vespasian]] with an army to destroy the Jews, 69 CE.]]

The Jewish people and [[Judaism]] have experienced various [[persecution]]s throughout [[Jewish history]]. During [[Late Antiquity]] and the [[Early Middle Ages]] the [[Roman Empire]] (in its later phases known as the [[Byzantine Empire]]) repeatedly repressed the [[History of the Jews in the Roman Empire|Jewish population]], first by ejecting them from their homelands during the pagan [[Roman era]] and later by officially establishing them as [[Justinian I#Suppression of religions|second-class citizens]] during the Christian Roman era.<ref>Goldenberg (2007), pp. 131, 135–36.</ref><ref>Johnson (1987), pp. 164–65.</ref>

According to [[James P. Carroll|James Carroll]], "Jews accounted for 10% of the total population of the [[Roman Empire]]. By that ratio, if other factors had not intervened, there would be 200 million Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13 million."<ref>Carroll, James. ''[[Constantine's Sword]]'' (Houghton Mifflin, 2001) {{ISBN|0-395-77927-8}} p. 26</ref>

Later in [[Middle Ages|medieval]] [[Western Europe]], further persecutions of Jews by Christians occurred, notably during the [[Crusades]]—when Jews all over Germany [[Rhineland massacres|were massacred]]—and in a series of expulsions from the [[Edict of Expulsion|Kingdom of England]], Germany, and France. Then there occurred the [[Alhambra Decree|largest expulsion of all]], when Spain and Portugal, after the [[Reconquista]] (the Catholic Reconquest of the [[Iberian Peninsula]]), expelled both unbaptized Sephardic Jews and the ruling [[Muslim]] [[Moors]].<ref name="Johnson207-208" /><ref name="Johnson213plus" />

In the [[Papal States]], which existed until 1870, Jews were required to live only in specified neighborhoods called [[ghetto]]s.<ref>Johnson (1987), pp. 243–44.</ref>
[[File:The Jews the world over love liberty poster.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[World War I]] poster showing a soldier cutting the bonds from a Jewish man, who says, "You have cut my bonds and set me free—now let me help you set others free!"]]
[[Islam and Judaism]] have a complex relationship. Traditionally Jews and Christians living in Muslim lands, known as [[dhimmis]], were allowed to practice their religions and administer their internal affairs, but they were subject to certain conditions.<ref name="Bernard1020">Lewis (1984), pp. 10, 20</ref> They had to pay the [[jizya]] (a per capita tax imposed on free adult non-Muslim males) to the Islamic state.<ref name="Bernard1020" /> Dhimmis had an inferior status under Islamic rule. They had several social and legal [[Disabilities (Jewish)|disabilities]] such as prohibitions against bearing arms or giving testimony in courts in cases involving Muslims.<ref>Lewis (1987), pp. 9, 27</ref> Many of the disabilities were highly symbolic. The one described by [[Bernard Lewis]] as "most degrading"<ref name=Lewis131 /> was the requirement of [[Yellow badge|distinctive clothing]], not found in the [[Quran]] or [[hadith]] but invented in [[Early Middle Ages|early medieval]] [[Baghdad]]; its enforcement was highly erratic.<ref name=Lewis131>Lewis (1999), p.131</ref> On the other hand, Jews rarely faced martyrdom or exile, or forced compulsion to change their religion, and they were mostly free in their choice of residence and profession.<ref>Lewis (1999), p. 131; (1984), pp. 8, 62</ref>

Notable exceptions include the massacre of Jews and forcible conversion of some Jews by the rulers of the [[Almohad Caliphate|Almohad]] dynasty in [[Al-Andalus]] in the 12th century,<ref>Lewis (1984), p. 52; Stillman (1979), p. 77</ref> as well as in [[Islamic conquest of Persia|Islamic Persia]],<ref>Lewis (1984), pp. 17–18, 94–95; Stillman (1979), p. 27</ref> and the forced confinement of Moroccan Jews to walled quarters known as [[mellah]]s beginning from the 15th century and especially in the early 19th century.<ref>Lewis (1984), p. 28.</ref> In modern times, it has become commonplace for standard [[Anti-Zionism and antisemitism|antisemitic themes to be conflated with anti-Zionist]] publications and pronouncements of Islamic movements such as [[Hezbollah]] and [[Hamas]], in the pronouncements of various agencies of the [[Iran|Islamic Republic of Iran]], and even in the newspapers and other publications of Turkish [[Refah Partisi]]."<ref name=Lewis_MEQ>{{cite journal|url=http://www.meforum.org/396/muslim-anti-semitism|title=Muslim Anti-Semitism|first=Bernard|last=Lewis|author-link=Bernard Lewis|journal=Middle East Quarterly|publisher=Middle East Forum}}</ref>{{better source needed}}

Throughout history, many rulers, empires and nations have oppressed their Jewish populations or sought to eliminate them entirely. Methods employed ranged from [[Deportation|expulsion]] to outright [[genocide]]; within nations, often the threat of these extreme methods was sufficient to silence dissent. The [[history of antisemitism]] includes the [[First Crusade]] which resulted in the massacre of Jews;<ref name="Johnson207-208">Johnson (1987), pp. 207–08.</ref> the [[Spanish Inquisition]] (led by [[Tomás de Torquemada]]) and the [[Portuguese Inquisition]], with their persecution and ''[[Auto-da-fé|autos-da-fé]]'' against the [[New Christians]] and [[Marrano]] Jews;<ref>Johnson (1987), pp. 226–29.</ref> the [[Bohdan Chmielnicki]] [[Cossack]] massacres in [[Ukraine]];<ref>Johnson (1987), pp. 259–60.</ref> the [[Pogrom]]s backed by the Russian [[List of Russian rulers|Tsars]];<ref name="Johnson 1987, pp. 364–365">Johnson (1987), pp. 364–65.</ref> as well as expulsions from Spain, Portugal, England, France, Germany, and other countries in which the Jews had settled.<ref name="Johnson213plus">Johnson (1987), pp. 213, 229–31.</ref> According to a 2008 study published in the ''[[American Journal of Human Genetics]]'', 19.8 percent of the modern [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberian]] population has Sephardic Jewish ancestry,<ref name="Adams2008">{{cite journal|last=Adams|first=Susan M.|year=2008|title=The Genetic Legacy of Religious Diversity and Intolerance: Paternal Lineages of Christians, Jews, and Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula|journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=83|issue=6|pages=725–36|issn=0002-9297|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.11.007|pmid=19061982|pmc=2668061}}</ref> indicating that the number of [[converso]]s may have been much higher than originally thought.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/04/world/europe/04iht-gene.4.18411385.html|title=DNA study shows 20 percent of Iberian population has Jewish ancestry|newspaper=The New York Times}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adams |first1=Susan M. |last2=Bosch |first2=Elena |last3=Balaresque |first3=Patricia L. |last4=Ballereau |first4=Stéphane J. |last5=Lee |first5=Andrew C. |last6=Arroyo |first6=Eduardo |last7=López-Parra |first7=Ana M. |last8=Aler |first8=Mercedes |last9=Grifo |first9=Marina S. Gisbert |last10=Brion |first10=Maria |last11=Carracedo |first11=Angel |last12=Lavinha |first12=João |last13=Martínez-Jarreta |first13=Begoña |last14=Quintana-Murci |first14=Lluis |last15=Picornell |first15=Antònia |last16=Ramon |first16=Misericordia |last17=Skorecki |first17=Karl |last18=Behar |first18=Doron M. |last19=Calafell |first19=Francesc |last20=Jobling |first20=Mark A. |title=The Genetic Legacy of Religious Diversity and Intolerance: Paternal Lineages of Christians, Jews, and Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula |journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=83 |issue=6 |pages=725–736 |doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.11.007 |pmid=19061982 |pmc=2668061 }}</ref>

[[File:Bundesarchiv N 1576 Bild-006, Minsk, Juden.jpg|thumb|Jews in [[Minsk]], 1941. Before World War II, some 40 percent of the population was Jewish. By the time the Red Army retook the city on 3 July 1944, there were only a few Jewish survivors.]]
The persecution reached a peak in [[Nazi Germany]]'s [[Final Solution]], which led to [[the Holocaust]] and the slaughter of approximately 6 million Jews.<ref>Johnson (1987), p. 512.</ref> Of the world's 16 million Jews in 1939, almost 40% were murdered in the Holocaust.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The continuing decline of Europe's Jewish population |url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/02/09/europes-jewish-population/ |archive-date=1 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200401012738/http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/02/09/europes-jewish-population/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The Holocaust—the state-led systematic [[persecution]] and [[genocide]] of European Jews (and certain communities of North African Jews in [[History of North Africa#European colonization|European controlled North Africa]]) and other [[minority group]]s of Europe during [[World War II]] by Germany and its [[Collaboration with the Axis Powers during World War II|collaborators]]—remains the most notable modern-day persecution of Jews.<ref>Donald L Niewyk, ''The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust'', [[Columbia University Press]], 2000, p. 45: "The Holocaust is commonly defined as the murder of more than 5,000,000 Jews by the Germans in World War II." However, the Holocaust usually includes all of the different victims who were systematically murdered.</ref> The persecution and [[genocide]] were accomplished in stages. [[Nuremberg Laws|Legislation to remove the Jews from civil society]] was enacted years before the outbreak of [[World War II]].<ref>Johnson (1987), pp. 484–88.</ref> [[Nazi concentration camps|Concentration camps]] were established in which inmates were used as [[Slavery|slave labour]] until they died of exhaustion or disease.<ref>Johnson (1987), pp. 490–92.</ref> Where the [[Nazi Germany|Third Reich]] conquered new territory in [[Eastern Europe]], specialized units called [[Einsatzgruppen]] murdered Jews and political opponents in mass shootings.<ref name="BBC-Grave">{{cite news|title=Ukrainian mass Jewish grave found|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6724481.stm|newspaper=BBC News Online|access-date=10 October 2012}}</ref> Jews and [[Romani people|Roma]] were crammed into [[Ghettos in Nazi-occupied Europe|ghettos]] before being transported hundreds of kilometres by freight train to [[extermination camp]]s where, if they survived the journey, the majority of them were murdered in gas chambers.<ref>Johnson (1987), pp. 493–98.</ref> Virtually every arm of Germany's bureaucracy was involved in the logistics of the mass murder, turning the country into what one Holocaust scholar has called "a genocidal nation."<ref name=Berenbaum103>Berenbaum, Michael. ''The World Must Know," United States Holocaust Museum'', 2006, p. 103.</ref>

==== Migrations ====
{{further|Expulsions of Jews}}
[[File:Expulsion judios-en.svg|thumb|left|Expulsions of Jews in Europe from 1100 to 1600]]
Throughout Jewish history, Jews have repeatedly been directly or indirectly expelled from both their original homeland, the [[Land of Israel]], and many of the areas in which they have settled. This experience as [[Jewish refugees|refugees]] has shaped [[Jewish identity]] and religious practice in many ways, and is thus a major element of Jewish history.<ref>de Lange (2002), pp. 41–43.</ref> The patriarch [[Abraham]] is described as a migrant to the land of [[Canaan]] from [[Ur of the Chaldees|Ur]] of the [[Chaldea|Chaldees]]<ref>Johnson (1987), p. 10.</ref> after an attempt on his life by King [[Nimrod]].<ref>{{cite Jewish Encyclopedia|title=NIMROD|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/11548-nimrod|first1=Emil G.|last1=Hirsch|authorlink1=Emil G. Hirsch|first2=Max|last2=Seligsohn|authorlink2=Max Seligsohn|first3=Wilhelm|last3=Bacher|authorlink3=Wilhelm Bacher}}</ref> His descendants, the [[Children of Israel]], in the Biblical story (whose historicity is uncertain) undertook [[the Exodus]] (meaning "departure" or "exit" in Greek) from [[ancient Egypt]], as recorded in the [[Book of Exodus]].<ref>Johnson (1987), p. 30.</ref>
[[File:Vertreibung der Juden 1614.jpg|thumb|upright|Etching of the [[Frankfurter Judengasse#The Fettmilch Uprising|expulsion of the Jews from Frankfurt]] in [[Timeline of antisemitism|1614]]. The text says: "1380 persons old and young were counted at the exit of the gate".]]
[[File:Jewish refugees Liverpool 1882.jpg|thumb|Jews fleeing pogroms, 1882]]
Centuries later, [[Assyria]]n policy was to deport and displace conquered peoples, and it is estimated some 4,500,000 among captive populations suffered this dislocation over three centuries of Assyrian rule.<ref name="Smith-Christopher" /> With regard to Israel, [[Tiglath-Pileser III]] claims he deported 80% of the population of [[Lower Galilee]], some 13,520 people.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3hc1Yp0VcjoC|title=The Study of the Ancient Near East in the Twenty-first Century|year=1996 |isbn=9780931464966 |last1=Cooper |first1=Jerrold S. |last3=Schwartz |first3=Glenn M. }}</ref> Some 27,000 Israelites, 20 to 25% of the population of the [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Kingdom of Israel]], were described as being deported by [[Sargon II]], and were replaced by other deported populations and sent into permanent exile by Assyria, initially to the Upper Mesopotamian provinces of the Assyrian Empire.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qjkz_8EMoaUC|title=Biblical History and Israel S Past|isbn=9780802862600 |last1=Moore |first1=Megan Bishop |last2=Kelle |first2=Brad E. }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NPoQkBwjnVcC|title=Mixing Metaphors|isbn=9780826469694 |last1=Dille |first1=Sarah J. }}</ref> Between 10,000 and 80,000 people from the [[Kingdom of Judah]] were similarly exiled by [[Babylon]]ia,<ref name="Smith-Christopher">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1YhMAwAAQBAJ|title=The Religion of the Landless|isbn=9781608994786 |last1=Smith-Christopher |first1=Daniel L. }}</ref> but these people were then returned to [[Judea]] by [[Cyrus the Great]] of the Persian [[Achaemenid Empire]].<ref>Johnson (1987), pp. 85–86.</ref>

Many Jews were exiled again by the [[Roman Empire]].<ref>Johnson (1987), p. 147.</ref> The 2,000 year dispersion of the [[Jewish diaspora]] beginning under the [[Roman Empire]],{{citation needed}} as Jews were spread throughout the Roman world and, driven from land to land,{{citation needed}} settled wherever they could live freely enough to practice their religion. Over the course of the diaspora the center of Jewish life moved from [[History of the Jews in Iraq|Babylonia]]<ref>Johnson (1987), p. 163.</ref> to the [[Golden age of Jewish culture in the Iberian Peninsula|Iberian Peninsula]]<ref>Johnson (1987), p. 177.</ref> to [[History of the Jews in Poland|Poland]]<ref>Johnson (1987), p. 231.</ref> to the [[Jewish American|United States]]<ref>Johnson (1987), p. 460.</ref> and, as a result of [[Zionism]], back to [[Israel]].<ref name="Gartner431">Gartner (2001), p. 431.</ref>

There were also many expulsions of Jews during the Middle Ages and Enlightenment in Europe, including: 1290, 16,000 Jews were expelled from England, see the ''([[Statute of Jewry]])''; in 1396, 100,000 from France; in 1421, thousands were expelled from Austria. Many of these Jews settled in [[East-Central Europe]], especially Poland.<ref name="Gartner 11-12">Gartner (2001), pp. 11–12.</ref> Following the [[Spanish Inquisition]] in 1492, the Spanish population of around 200,000 [[Sephardi]]c Jews were expelled by the Spanish crown and [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic church]], followed by expulsions in 1493 in Sicily (37,000 Jews) and Portugal in 1496. The expelled Jews fled mainly to the [[Ottoman Empire]], the Netherlands, and [[North Africa]], others migrating to [[Southern Europe]] and the Middle East.<ref name="Johnson229-231">Johnson (1987), pp. 229–31.</ref>

During the 19th century, France's policies of equal citizenship regardless of religion led to the immigration of Jews (especially from Eastern and Central Europe).<ref name="Johnson 1987, p. 306">Johnson (1987), p. 306.</ref> This contributed to the arrival of millions of Jews in the [[New World]]. Over two million Eastern European Jews arrived in the United States from 1880 to 1925.<ref>Johnson (1987), p. 370.</ref>

In summary, the [[pogrom]]s in Eastern Europe,<ref name="Johnson 1987, pp. 364–365"/> the rise of modern [[antisemitism]],<ref name="Gartner 2001, pp. 213–5">Gartner (2001), pp. 213–15.</ref> the Holocaust,<ref>Gartner (2001), pp. 357–70.</ref> as well as the rise of [[Arab nationalism]],<ref>Johnson (1987), pp. 529–30.</ref> all served to fuel the movements and migrations of huge segments of Jewry from land to land and continent to continent until they arrived back in large numbers at their original historical homeland in Israel.<ref name="Gartner431" />

In the latest phase of migrations, the [[Iranian Revolution|Islamic Revolution of Iran]] caused many [[Iranian Jews]] to flee Iran. Most found refuge in the US (particularly [[Los Angeles, California]], and [[Long Island, New York]]) and Israel. Smaller communities of Persian Jews exist in Canada and Western Europe.<ref>{{cite EJ|last=Netzer|first=Amnon|title=Iran|volume=10|page=13}}</ref> Similarly, when the [[History of the Soviet Union (1985–1991)#Dissolution of the USSR|Soviet Union collapsed]], many of the Jews in the affected territory (who had been [[refusenik]]s) were suddenly allowed to leave. This produced a wave of migration to Israel in the early 1990s.<ref name="Dosick 2007, p. 340" />

==== Growth ====
[[File:Western Wall, Jerusalem, (16037897867).jpg|thumb|Praying at the [[Western Wall]]]]
Israel is the only country with a Jewish population that is consistently growing through [[natural population growth]], although the Jewish populations of other countries, in Europe and North America, have recently increased through immigration. In the Diaspora, in almost every country the Jewish population in general is either declining or steady, but [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] and [[Haredi]] Jewish communities, whose members often shun [[birth control]] for religious reasons, have experienced rapid population growth.<ref>Gartner (2001), pp. 400–01.</ref>

Orthodox and [[Conservative Judaism]] discourage [[proselytism]] to non-Jews, but many Jewish groups have tried to reach out to the assimilated Jewish communities of the Diaspora in order for them to reconnect to their Jewish roots. Additionally, while in principle [[Reform Judaism]] favors seeking new members for the faith, this position has not translated into active proselytism, instead taking the form of an effort to reach out to non-Jewish spouses of intermarried couples.<ref>Kaplan (2003), p. 301.</ref>

There is also a trend of Orthodox movements reaching out to secular Jews in order to give them a stronger [[Jewish identity]] so there is less chance of intermarriage. As a result of the efforts by these and other Jewish groups over the past 25 years, there has been a trend (known as the [[Baal teshuva movement]]) for secular Jews to become more religiously observant, though the demographic implications of the trend are unknown.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1002/9780470758014.ch27 |chapter=The 'Return' to Traditional Judaism at the End of the Twentieth Century: Cross-Cultural Comparisons |title=The Blackwell Companion to Judaism |year=2008 |last1=Danzger |first1=M. Herbert |pages=495–511 |isbn=978-0-470-75801-4 }}</ref> Additionally, there is also a growing rate of conversion to [[Jews by Choice]] of [[gentiles]] who make the decision to head in the direction of becoming Jews.<ref>de Lange (2002), p. 220.</ref>
{{Clear}}

== Contributions ==
Jews have made many contributions in a broad range of fields, including the sciences, arts, politics, and business.<ref>{{cite book|last=Schwartz|first=Richard H.|title=Judaism and Global Survival|year=2001|publisher=Lantern Books|location=New York|isbn=1-930051-87-5|page=153}}</ref> For example, over 20 percent<ref>{{cite book|last=Shalev|first=Baruch|title=100 Years of Nobel Prizes|year=2005|page=57|quote=A striking fact... is the high number of Laureates of the Jewish faith—over 20% of the total Nobel Prizes (138); including: 17% in Chemistry, 26% in Medicine and Physics, 40% in Economics and 11% in Peace and Literature each. These numbers are especially startling in light of the fact that only some 14 million people (0.2% of the world's population) are Jewish.}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/16556/as-the-nobel-prize-marks-centennial-jews-constitute-1-5-of-laureates/|title=As the Nobel Prize marks centennial, Jews constitute 1/5 of laureates|access-date=3 April 2012|last=Dobbs|first=Stephen Mark|newspaper=[[J. The Jewish News of Northern California]]|quote=Throughout the 20th century, Jews, more so than any other minority, ethnic or cultural group, have been recipients of the Nobel Prize—perhaps the most distinguished award for human endeavor in the six fields for which it is given. Remarkably, Jews constitute almost one-fifth of all Nobel laureates. This, in a world in which Jews number just a fraction of 1 percent of the population.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jewishbiography.com/biographies/list-of-jews/jewish-nobel-prize-winners/index.html|title=Jewish Nobel Prize Winners|access-date=25 November 2011|archive-date=19 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019170057/http://www.jewishbiography.com/biographies/list-of-jews/jewish-nobel-prize-winners/index.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Judaism for dummies|chapter=28|year=2001|quote=Similarly, because Jews make up less than a quarter of one percent of the world's population, it's surprising that over 20 percent of Nobel prizes have been awarded to Jews or people of Jewish descent.|author1=Ted Falcon |author2=David Blatner |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Central Liberal Truth: How Politics Can Change a Culture and Save It|author=Lawrence E. Harrison|page=102|year=2008|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|quote=That achievement is symbolized by the fact that 15 to 20 percent of Nobel Prizes have been won by Jews, who represent two tenths of one percent of the world's population.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The History of the Jewish People: Ancient Israel to 1880s America|page=1|year=2006|publisher=Behrman House, Inc.|quote=These accomplishments account for 20 percent of the Nobel Prizes awarded since 1901. What a feat for a people who make up only .2 percent of the world's population!|author1=Jonathan B. Krasner |author2=Jonathan D. Sarna}}</ref> of [[Nobel Prize]] laureates have been of Jewish descent, with [[List of Jewish Nobel laureates|multiple winners in each category]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Jewish Nobel Prize Winners|url=http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html|website=Jinfo.org|access-date=16 March 2016|quote=At least 194 Jews and people of half- or three-quarters-Jewish ancestry have been awarded the Nobel Prize, accounting for 22% of all individual recipients worldwide between 1901 and 2015, and constituting 36% of all US recipients during the same period. In the scientific research fields of Chemistry, Economics, Physics, and Physiology/Medicine, the corresponding world and US percentages are 26% and 38%, respectively. Among women laureates in the four research fields, the Jewish percentages (world and US) are 33% and 50%, respectively. Of organizations awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, 22% were founded principally by Jews or by people of half-Jewish descent. Since the turn of the century (i.e., since the year 2000), Jews have been awarded 25% of all Nobel Prizes and 28% of those in the scientific research fields.}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{portal|Judaism}}
* [[Jewish studies]]
* [[Lists of Jews]]
{{clear}}

== References ==
=== Notes ===
{{Reflist|group=note}}

===Citations===
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="Jews-are-ethnoreligious-group">
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=V4qhTL61nXEC&dq=jew+ethnic+mandla&pg=PA43 Ethnic minorities in English law]. Books.google.co.uk. Retrieved on 23 December 2010.
* {{cite journal|jstor=2573430|title=Jewish Ethno-Religious Involvement and Political Liberalism|author=Edgar Litt|journal=Social Forces|volume=39 |issue=4|year=1961|pages=328–32|doi=10.2307/2573430}}
* {{cite book|author=Craig R. Prentiss|title=Religion and the Creation of Race and Ethnicity: An Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ze30q1hm8uUC&pg=PA85|year=2003|publisher=NYU Press|isbn=978-0-8147-6700-9|pages=85–}}
* {{cite book|author=The Avraham Harman Institute of Contemporary Jewry The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Eli Lederhendler Stephen S. Wise Professor of American Jewish History and Institutions|title=Studies in Contemporary Jewry : Volume XVII: Who Owns Judaism? Public Religion and Private Faith in America and Israel: Volume XVII: Who Owns Judaism? Public Religion and Private Faith in America and Israel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1wvahJv83AgC&pg=PA101|year= 2001|publisher=Oxford University Press, USA|isbn=978-0-19-534896-5|pages=101–}}
* {{cite book|author1=Ernest Krausz|author2=Gitta Tulea|title=Jewish Survival: The Identity Problem at the Close of the Twentieth Century; [... International Workshop at Bar-Ilan University on the 18th and 19th of March, 1997]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dnxv-Mlz0JIC&pg=PA90|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=978-1-4128-2689-1|pages=90–}}
* {{cite book|author=John A. Shoup III|title=Ethnic Groups of Africa and the Middle East: An Encyclopedia: An Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GN5yv3-U6goC&pg=PA133|year=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-363-7|page=133}}
* {{cite book|author=Tet-Lim N. Yee|title=Jews, Gentiles and Ethnic Reconciliation: Paul's Jewish identity and Ephesians|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x4OwXhMOn5cC&pg=PA102|year=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-44411-8|pages=102–}}
</ref>
}}

==Sources==
* {{cite book|last=Dekmejian|first=R. Hrair|title=Patterns of Political Leadership: Egypt, Israel, Lebanon|publisher=State University of New York Press|year=1975|isbn=0-87395-291-X}}
* {{cite book| title = The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts
| last1 = Finkelstein | first1 = Israel
| last2 = Silberman | first2 = Neil Asher
| publisher = Simon and Schuster
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=lu6ywyJr0CMC
| date = 2002
| isbn = 978-0-7432-2338-6
}}
* {{cite book|title=Theodor Herzl: From Assimilation to Zionism|last=Kornberg|first=Jacques|isbn=978-0-253-33203-5|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1993}}
* {{Cite book |title=A History of the Kingdom of Jerusalem and Judah |last=Lipiński |first=Edward |publisher=Peeters |year=2020 |isbn=978-90-429-4212-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qGy6zQEACAAJ |series=Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta |volume=287}}

== Further reading ==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* [[Salo Wittmayer Baron|Baron, Salo Wittmayer]] (1952). ''A Social and Religious History of the Jews'', Volume II, ''Ancient Times'', Part II. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America.
* {{cite book|last=Carr|first=David R.|editor1-last=Neusner|editor1-first=Jacob|editor2-last=Avery-Peck|editor2-first=Alan J.|title=The Blackwell Companion to Judaism|year=2003|orig-year=2000|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|location=Malden, Massachusetts|isbn=1-57718-058-5|chapter=Judaism in Christendom}}
* {{cite book|last=Cowling|first=Geoffrey|title=Introduction to World Religions|publisher=First Fortress Press|location=Singapore|year=2005|isbn=0-8006-3714-3}}
* {{cite book|last=de Lange|first=Nicholas|title=An Introduction to Judaism|year=2002|orig-year=2000|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=0-521-46073-5|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontoju00nich}}
* {{cite book|last=Dosick|first=Wayne|title=Living Judaism|url=https://archive.org/details/livingjudaismcom00dosi|url-access=registration|year=2007|publisher=HarperCollins|location=New York|isbn=978-0-06-062179-7}}
* {{cite book|last=Elazar|first=Daniel J.|editor1-last=Neusner|editor1-first=Jacob|editor1-link=Jacob Neusner|editor2-last=Avery-Peck|editor2-first=Alan J.|title=The Blackwell Companion to Judaism|year=2003|orig-year=2000|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|location=Malden, Massachusetts|isbn=1-57718-058-5|chapter=Judaism as a Theopolitical Phenomenon}}
* {{cite book|last=Feldman|first=Louis H.|title=Judaism and Hellenism Reconsidered|year=2006|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden, The Netherlands|isbn=90-04-14906-6}}
* {{cite book|last=Gartner|first=Lloyd P.|title=History of the Jews in Modern Times|year=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=0-19-289259-2|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewsinm00gart}}
* {{cite book|last=Goldenberg|first=Robert|title=The Origins of Judaism: From Canaan to the Rise of Islam|year=2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-84453-6}}
* {{cite book|last=Goldstein|first=Joseph|title=Jewish History in Modern Times|year=1995|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|isbn=1-898723-06-0}}
* {{cite book|last=Gould|first=Allan|title=What did they think of the Jews?|year=1991|publisher=J. Aronson|isbn=978-0-87668-751-2}}
* {{cite book|last=Johnson|first=Paul|author-link=Paul Johnson (writer)|title=A History of the Jews|year=1987|publisher=HarperCollins|location=New York|isbn=0-06-091533-1|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjews00john}}
* {{cite book|last=Kaplan|first=Dana Evan|editor1-last=Neusner|editor1-first=Jacob|editor2-last=Avery-Peck|editor2-first=Alan J.|title=The Blackwell Companion to Judaism|year=2003|orig-year=2000|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|location=Malden, Massachusetts|isbn=1-57718-058-5|chapter=Reform Judaism}}
* {{cite book|last=Katz|first=Shmuel|title=Battleground: Fact and Fantasy in Palestine|year=1974|publisher=Taylor Productions|isbn=0-929093-13-5|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/battlegroundfact0000katz}}
* [[Bernard Lewis|Lewis, Bernard]] (1984). ''The Jews of Islam''. Princeton: Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|0-691-00807-8}}
* Lewis, Bernard (1999). ''Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice''. W. W. Norton & Co. {{ISBN|0-393-31839-7}}
* {{cite journal|last=Littman|first=David|author-link=David Littman (historian)|year=1979|title=Jews Under Muslim Rule: The Case Of Persia|journal=The Wiener Library Bulletin|volume=XXXII|issue=New series 49/50}}
* {{cite book|last=Neusner|first=Jacob|title=Studying Classical Judaism: A Primer|year=1991|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|isbn=0-664-25136-6|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/studyingclassica0000neus}}
* [[Leon Poliakov|Poliakov, Leon]] (1974). ''The History of Anti-semitism.'' New York: The Vanguard Press.
* Ruderman, David B. ''Early Modern Jewry: A New Cultural History'' (Princeton University Press; 2010) 326 pages. Examines print culture, religion, and other realms in a history emphasizing the links among early modern Jewish communities from Venice and Kraków to Amsterdam and Smyrna.
* {{cite book|last=Sharot|first=Stephen|editor1-last=Endelman|editor1-first=Todd M.|title=Comparing Jewish Societies|year=1997|publisher=University of Michigan Press|location=Ann Arbor, Mich.|isbn=0-472-06592-0|chapter=Religious Syncretism and Religious Distinctiveness: A Comparative Analysis of Pre-Modern Jewish Communities}}
* [[Norman Stillman|Stillman, Norman]] (1979). ''The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book''. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. {{ISBN|0-8276-0198-0}}
* {{cite book|last=Sweeney|first=Marvin A.|editor1-last=Neusner|editor1-first=Jacob|editor2-last=Avery-Peck|editor2-first=Alan J.|title=The Blackwell Companion to Judaism|year=2003|orig-year=2000|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|location=Malden, Massachusetts|isbn=1-57718-058-5|chapter=The Religious World of Ancient Israel to 586 BCE}}
* Vital, David. ''People Apart: The Jews in Europe, 1789–1939'' (1999) 940pp highly detailed
* {{cite journal |last1=Yardumian |first1=Aram |last2=Schurr |first2=Theodore G. |title=The Geography of Jewish Ethnogenesis |journal=Journal of Anthropological Research |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=206–234 |doi=10.1086/702709 |s2cid=167051866 |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/702709 |issn=0091-7710}}

{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links |wikt=Jew |s=Portal:Judaism |v=Portal:Jewish Studies |d=Q7325}}
* {{Curlie|Society/Ethnicity/Jewish}}
* [https://www.jewishdatabank.org/databank Official website] of the [[Berman Jewish DataBank]]
* [http://www.jewishagency.org/ Official website] of the [[Jewish Agency for Israel]]
* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/ Official website] of ''[[The Jewish Encyclopedia]]''
* [https://www.jta.org/ Official website] of the [[Jewish Telegraphic Agency]]
* [http://cw.routledge.com/textbooks/0415236614/resources/indi.asp Maps related to Jewish history] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323194258/http://cw.routledge.com/textbooks/0415236614/resources/indi.asp }}
* [http://www.worldjewishcongress.org/ Official website] of the [[World Jewish Congress]]

{{Jews and Judaism|state=expanded}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Jews| ]]
[[Category:Jews and Judaism| ]]
[[Category:Ancient peoples of the Near East]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in East Africa]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Europe]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in the Middle East]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in North Africa]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in South Asia]]
[[Category:Ethno-cultural designations]]
[[Category:Ethnoreligious groups]]
[[Category:Israelites]]
[[Category:Religious identity]]
[[Category:Semitic-speaking peoples]]